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A.
LATIN GRAMMAR
tº - s , }
- -a-
g
*
FOR }
SCHOOTIS AND COLLEGES.
BY
ALBERT HARKNESS, Ph. D., LL.D.,
PROFESSOR IN BROWN UNIVERSITY.
R E W ISED EDITION
OF
188 1.
NEW YORK :
D. A PPLETON AND U O M P A N Y,
1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
1881.
ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by
D. APPLETON & COMPANY.,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District of New York.
ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
D. APPLETON & COMPANY.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by
D. APPLETON & COMPANY.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,
NOTE TO THE REWISED GRAMMAR.
Future editions of the author's Latin Reader and
other text-books will be published with references to
the new Grammar. With the help of the table on
page 427, however, the corresponding references to
either edition of the Grammar may be found without
inconvenience.
P. R. E. F. A. C. E.
TO T H E R E VIS E D E D IT TO W.
THE last quarter of a century has revealed many im-
portant facts in the development of language. During
this period philological research has thrown new light
upon Latin forms and inflections, upon the laws of pho-
netic change, upon the use of cases, moods, and tenses,
and upon the origin and history of numerous construc-
tions. The student of Latin grammar is now entitled to
the full benefit of the important practical results which
these labors in the field of linguistic study have brought
within the proper sphere of the school. In securing this
advantage, however, care must be taken not to divert the
attention of the learner from the one object before him
—the attainment of a full and accurate knowledge of the
language.
The volume now of...ed to the public has been pre-
pared in view of these facts. It is the result of a thor-
ough and complete revision of the author's Latin Gram-
mar published in 1864. To a large extent, indeed, it is
a new and independent work; yet the paradigms, rules
of construction, and in general all parts intended for
recitation, have been only slightly changed. The aim of
the work in its present ſorin is threefold.
1. It is designed to present a clear, simple, and con-
venient outline of Latin grammar for the beginner. It
iy PREFA CE,
accordingly contains, in large type, a systematic arrange-
ment of the leading facts and laws of the language, ex-
hibiting not only grammatical forms and constructions,
but also those vital principles which underlie, control,
and explain them. The laws of construction are put in
the form of definite rules, and illustrated by carefully
selected examples. To Secure convenience of reference,
and to give completeness and vividness to the general
outline, these rules, after having been separately dis-
cussed, are collected in a body at the close of the Syntax.
Topics which require the fullest illustration are first pre-
sented in their completeness in general outline, before
the separate points are explained in detail. Thus a single
page often foreshadows the leading features of an ex-
tended discussion, imparting, it is believed, a completeness
and vividness to the impression of the learner impossible
under any other treatment.
2. It is intended to be an adequate and trustworthy
grammar for the advanced student. By brevity and con-
ciseness of phraseology, and by compactness in the ar-
rangement of forms and topics, an ample collection of
the most important grammatical facts, intended for refer-
ence, has been compressed within the limits of a con-
venient manual. Care has been taken to explain and
illustrate, with the requisite fullness, all difficult and in-
tricate subjects. The Subjunctive Mood and the Indirect
Discourse have received special attention.
3. In a series of foot-notes it aims to bring within the
reach of the student some of the more important results
of recent linguistic research. Brief explanations are
given of the working of phonetic laws, of the nature of
inflection, of the origin of special idioms, and of various
facts in the growth of language. But the distinguishing
feature of this part of the work consists in the abundant
PREFA CE. V
references which are made to some of the latest and best
authorities upon the numerous linguistic questions natur-
ally suggested by the study of Latin grammar.”
An attempt has been made to indicate, as far as
practicable, the natural quantity of vowels before two
consonants or a double consonant.”
With this brief statement of its design and plan, this
volume is now respectfully committed to the hands of
classical teachers.
In conclusion, the author is happy to express his
grateful acknowledgments to the numerous friends who
have favored him with valuable suggestions.
1 See page xv. It is hardly necessary to add that an acquaintance with the authori-
ties here cited is by no means to be regarded as an indispensable qualification for the
work of classical instruction. The references are intended especially for those who
adopt the historical method in the study of language.
2 See page 4, foot-note 4; also page 9, note 3.
BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R. I.,
July, 1887.
C O N T E N T S .
P A R T F I R S T.
ORTHOGRAPHY, PAGE
Alphabet . © e tº e ſe © * e 1
Roman Method of Pronunciation . e e e e º e 3
English Method . e e o e º º e º e 5
Continental Method e º º g º º º º 8
Quantity . º * © e º ge & & © º ... 8
Accentuation . º tº º $º º º * e º tº 9
Phonetic Changes º º e e º tº © te 10
I. Changes in Vowels . e e e & e º e 11
II. Changes in Consonants . e 9. º º e e . 16
P A R T S E C O N D .
IETYMIOLOGY.
C EI A P T E R I.
NOUNS.
Gender . e e º º e © e e g te e 21
Person, Number, and Case . º e e e e º o . 22
Declension . e O e º e e º e o e 23
First Declension . e e º g º e e e e . 24
Greek Nouns . * º & * e tº º e wº 26
Second Declension . © e © © º ſº º e . 26
Greek Nouns . e • * * o e e © © o 29
Third Declension tº º º e e e º e e . 30
Class I.—Consonant-Stems e e - e º e º 30
Stems in a Labial . º e e º º º e . 30
Stems in a Dental º s e «» © e o e 31
Stems in a Guttural o e o e e wº e . 32
Stems in a Liquid or a Nasal º e e º e e 33
Stems in S & º e e © º g º e . 34
Class II.-I-Stems . e º º e e e e ſº 35
Special Paradigms . º • . e. e & e e . 39
Greek Nouns . º o e º º º º º tº 40
Synopsis of the Third Declension º o º º º . 41
Gender . º o tº e ſº e º tº º tº 43
Fourth Declension . wº e º o e º e e . 48
viii COWTENTS.
PAGE
Fifth Declension . * * * Cº. e * o tº G 50
General Table of Gender . g ſº * & e e {} . 51
Declension of Compound Nouns . & te wº te * e 52
Irregular Nouns & tº © tº º tº e * & . 53
I. Indeclinable . e g © e tº tº • • t;3
II. Defective . © * tº. s e * * e . 53
III. Heteroclites . we g º tº g © & te B5.
IV. Heterogeneous . ſº e & e tº º o . 56
C EI A P T E R II.
ADJECTIVES.
First and Second Declensions e wº ſº tº e de g 57
Third Declension e tº t ë ſº ſº © & tº . 59
Irregular Adjectives . * e e ë tº & & e 62
Comparison . * e © * we tº © & e , 63
I. Terminational Comparison te * tº © * g 63
II. Adverbial Comparison . * * > g º e tº . 65
Numerals . * tº & ę e º 65
C EIA P T E R III.
PRONOUNS.
I. Personal Pronouns . g * dº & {º e tº . '70
II. Possessive Pronouns . * tº • • e & & 71
III. Demonstrative Pronouns . * > & e º ge e . '72
IV. Relative Pronouns . g ſº g * > © te © ſº '74.
W. Interrogative Pronouns . sº © tº ſº ſº g . 75
WI. Indefinite Pronouns e e º sº o º tº ſº 76
Table of Correlatives . & tº º º e g º . 77
C EIA PT E R IV.
WERBS.
Voices, Moods . e e © {. g gº tº & e 78
Tenses . e e tº © tº e © tº * e . 80
Numbers, Persons ſº § e © * e * e te 81
Infinitive, Gerund, Supine 4- º tº e e o * . 81
Participle . we © te e & ſº º e Q tº 82
Conjugation . ſº * • * tº & e tº e . 82
Paradigms of Verbs . e & º & ſº Q tº ë 84.
Comparative View of Conjugations . . . e © & * , 102
Verbs in ió: Conjugation III. . tº * e e ſº tº 106
Verbal Inflections tº * © * g © tº e ... 108
Synopsis of Conjugation e e e e tº * g wº 110
Deponent Verbs & e º © tº g tº ſe * . 114
Periphrastic Conjugation . e º º $º tº º * 114
Peculiarities in Conjugation . g º g c º . . 115
Analysis of Verbal Endings . º º e * tº e * 117
I. Tense-signs tº º º e tº tº g e . 117
II. Mood-signs . º wº wº * e sº te tº 117
III. Personal Endings º & e g * > & {} . 118
CONTENTS.
Formation of Stems . * e o º
I. Present Stem -. e º
If Perfect stems . . . . . . . . . .
III. Supine Stem e •
Classification of Verbs . o º © o &
First Conjugation . e e tº tº
Second Conjugation © º & e
Third Conjugation . º º º e
Fourth Conjugation © e º tº ©
Irregular Verbs o tº º © e º
Defective . e º ſº e tº º e
Impersonal º e o e e Ç ©
C EI A P T E R W .
PARTICLES.
Adverbs - e ſº © e º tº
Table of Correlatives º e º ©
Comparison . e e o • • e
Prepositions . e g © e s º
Conjunctions e e º e e e e
Interjections . tº o e e &
CHAPTER WI.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
I. Roots, Stems, Suffixes . º e e • ‘
Primary Suffixes . e e tº º
II. Derivation of Words . º * º º
Derivative Nouns . & e e Q
Derivative Adjectives e tº © o
Derivative Werbs . º e e º
III. Composition of Words . º g e e
Compound Nouns . º o e º
Compound Adjectives e ſº º º
Compound Verbs . e º e e
P A R T T H | R D .
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
I. Classification of Sentences e tº *
II. Elements of Sentences e
PAGE
119
119
121
122
122
122
124
127
134
135
141
143
144
147
149
149
150
152
152
155
158
158
1.65
169
172
173
174
175
179
182
X CONTENTS.
C H A P T E R II.
SYNTAX OF NOUNS.
I. Agreement of Nouns . . & º º
Predicate Nouns . gº tº e tº
Appositives . e e o tº º
II. General View of Cases . th e e
III. Nominative, Vocative . & e • , a
I. Nominative . º o e © e
II. Vocative . . º º . .
IV Accusative . © * º e o tº
I. Direct Object . º º º º
- Two Accusatives º e e º
II. Accusative in an Adverbial Sense .
Agcusative of Specification . ©
Accusative of Time and Space .
Accusative of Limit . e e e
III. Accusative in Exclamations . º
W. Dative . -- . º
Dative with Verbs—Indirect Object
Dative with Special Verbs e o
Dative with Compounds e e
Dative of Possessor . tº e º
Dative of Apparent Agent . tº
Ethical Dative . e e e
Two Datives. e te c e
Dative with Adjectives e e
Dative with Nouns and Adverbs
WI. Genitive .
Genitive with Nouns e e e
Genitive with Adjectives . . º
Predicate Genitive . e ©
Genitive with Special Verbs ſº º
Accusative and Genitive . º o
VII. Ablative . © © e e e e
I. Ablative Proper e e tº e
Ablative of Place from which . ©
Ablative of Separation, Source, Cause .
Ablative with Comparatives . e
II. Instrumental Ablative . e º
Ablative of Accompaniment . o
Ablative of Means º & &
Ablative in Special Constructions .
Ablative of Price . e º
Ablative of Difference . º e
Ablative of Specification . º
III. Locative Ablative e e tº º
Ablative of Place . © © o
Ablative of Time . º e e
Ablative Absolute - º e
WIII. Cases with Prepositions . e e e o
PAGR,
184
184
185
186
187
187
188
189
189
191
I93
193
194
195
196
196
197
199
201
202
202
203
204.
204
205
206
206
210
212
213
215
217
218
218
218
222
223
223
224
225
226
226
227
227
227
229
231
232
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
Agreement of Adjectives . tº tº e º tº tº
Use of Adjectives . e ſe & º g ſº ſº
CHAPTER IV.
. SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
Agreement of Pronouns ſº e g † {º e ſº
Use of Pronouns º e e wº & * * tº
Personal, Possessive . ſº * tº e tº tº
Reflexive . o g tº e º © e e
Demonstrative ſº e & tº e * e &
Relative . tº g e o ge e &
Interrogative . & tº g & e e
Indefinite . o tº º º e º e ſº
C H A P T E R W .
SYNTAX OF VERBS.
I. Agreement of Verbs—Use of Voice
II. Indicative and its Tenses * & ſe e e
Tenses of Indicative e * e ſº º e
Use of Indicative sº ſº e tº
III. General View of the Subjunctive and its Tenses
IV. Subjunctive in Principal Clauses . ſº e ſº
Subjunctive of Desire . º º tº e
Potential Subjunctive . e tº © º *
W. Imperative and its Tenses . © tº © ſº *
VI. Moods in Subordinate Clauses & dº gº ©
I. Tenses of Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses .
II. Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose & wº
III. Subjunctive in Clauses of Result . e (*
IV. Moods in Conditional Sentences . te e
W. Moods in Concessive Clauses . c © º
VI. Moods in Causal Clauses ſº * o tº
VII. Moods in Temporal Clauses . { } e ©
VIII. Indirect Discourse e ge e ſe tº
Moods and Tenses in Indirect Discourse gº
Persons and Pronouns in Indirect Discourse
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse .
Indirect Clauses & tº tº e *
VII. Infinitive—Substantive Clauses . ſº * * tº
I. Infinitive . * e * e
Infinitive with Verbs g §
Accusative and Infinitive with Verbs
Subject of Infinitive . g tº tº Re
Tenses of Infinitive . © * º e
Infinitive in Special Constructions te e
II. Substantive Clauses . g e tº ©
PAGE
239
241
244
246
246
24/7
248
251
252
252
254
257
257
, 262
264
265
265
266
268
269
269
273
276
280
287
289
291
296
296
299
299
301
306
306
306
308
310
311
313
314
xii CONTENTS.
VIII. Gerunds, Gerundives, Supines, and Participles . tº º
I. Gerunds ſe º e e
II. Gerundives ſº te e e e * * © *
III. Supines e e gº © tº o ſº ſº &
IV. Participles © º ſº º e © wº e
CEIAPTER WI.
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES.
Adverbs . º e e ſº dº e & º e tº
Conjunctions e © tº $ wº o Ǻ ſº tº e
Interjections . e e e * o © e º c ©
CHAPTER VII.
Rules of Syntax . ſº e e © * * tº tº
CHAPTER WITI.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES.
Arrangement of Words . ge o ſº tº © • * e
Arrangement of Clauses e ſº e * tº e & e
P A R T F O U R T H .
PROSODY.
C EIA P T E R I.
QUANTITY.
I. General Rules of Quantity © tº. tº e tº {e {_*
II. Quantity in Final Syllables . te tº tº * * > “º
III. Quantity in Increments . tº * & te o te
Increments of Declension . ſe tº e e © tº
Increments of Conjugation . ſe tº tº tº
IV. Quantity of Derivative Endings † e sº Qº *
W. Quantity of Stem-Syllables * * & © & tº o
CHAPTER II.
W E R S I FIC A.TION. - -,
I. General View of the Subject . g e tº * º e
Feet * e © ©
Verses tº e t e tº * © tº º
Figures of Prosody tº * º tº e tº
e tº tº wº © *
PAGE
314
314
316
317
318
320
321
324
324
333
336
338
339
342
342
344
344
346
349-
350
351
353
CONTENTS, xiii
PAGE
II. Varieties of Verse . e Q tº © º © © g 354
I. Dactylic Hexameter ſº o te tº gº e . 354 -
II. Other Dactylic Verses tº tº * * e ſº 358
III. Trochaic Verse * e © o sº e sº . 359
IV. Iambic Verse . * ge e e tº tº & 360
W. Ionic Verse . * ſº * * o tº º . 361
VI. Logaoedic Verse . g e {e e º tº º 362
III. Versification of the Principal Latin Poets. § º g . 364
Vergil, Juvenal, Ovid, Horace . tº © e e ſº 364
Lyric Metres of Horace . & tº { } e * > . 364
Index to Lyric Metres of Horace . tº {º * > tº 368
Catullus, Martial, Seneca, Plautus, Terence . © e . 368
A P P E N D | X.
I. Figures of Speech . tº º g * gº e tº e 370
II. Latin Language and Literature . g e * & * . 374
III. Roman Calendar & © tº e g e e e 376
IV. Roman Money, Weights, and Measures . e e . . . 378
W. Roman Names & * > t dº ſº © tº {e 380
Abbreviations. © te ſº e º & Q & . 380
VI. Vowels before Two Consonants or a Double Consonant . * 381
Index of Verbs . * > e gº e * tº & & tº 383
General Index . c ge © sº e ſe © © . 390
TITLES OF WORKS CITED
I W T H E Foo T-N 0 TES OF THIS GRAMMA R.
Acta Societatis Philologae Lipsiensis. Lipsiae, 1870–1881.
ALLEN, F. D. Remnants of Early Latin. Boston, 1880.
BoPP, F. Vergleichende Grammatik. Berlin, 3d ed., 1870.
BRAMBACH, W. Hülfsbüchlein für lateinische Rechtschreibung.” Leipzig,
2d ed., 1876.
BücIIELER, F. Grundriss der latečnischen Declination.* Leipzig, 1866.
CHRIST, W. Metrik der Griechen und Römer. Leipzig, 1874.
CoRSSEN, W. AusSprache, Vocalismus, und Betonung der latečnischen
Sprache, Leipzig, 2d ed., 1868.
CoRSSEN, W. Kritische Beiträge. Leipzig, 1863.
CURTIUs, G. Zur Chronologie der indo-germanischen Sprachforschung. Leip-
zig, 2d ed., 1873.
CURTIUs, G. Das Verbum der griechischen Sprache. Leipzig, 1876.
DELBRüCK, B. Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalls. Berlin, 1867.
DELBRüCK, B. Depe Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativ$ im Sanskrit
wnd Griechischè7.4 Halle, 1871.
DRAEGER, A. Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig, 1878.
ELLIS, A. J. Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin. London, 1874.
FoERSTER, W. Bestämmung der latečnischen Quantität aus dem Roman
ischen. Rheinisches Museum, xxxiii., pp. 291–299. Frankfurt am Mair.
HARTUNG, J. A. Ueber die Casus, ihre Bildung wild Bedeutung. Erlanger.
1831.
HoFFMANN, E. Die Construction der Zateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Wien, 1878,
IIoEzwFISSIG, FR. Localistische Casustheorie. Leipzig, 1877.
IIüBscHMANN, H. Zur Casuslehre. München, 1875.
Jolly, J. Geschächte des Infinitivs im Indo-germanischen. München, 1873.
KUHN, A. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung." Berlin, 1851-
1881.
1 The publication of this work in 1833 marked an era in philological studies.
* See also BRAMBACH, W. Die Wewgestaltung der lateinischen Orthographie.
Leipzig, 1868,
* An edition with modifications by J. Windekilde was published at Bonn, 1879.
* Two other valuable works by the same author are :
1. Die Grundlagen der griechischen Syntaa. , Halle, 1810.
2. Einleitung Žáas Sprachstudium. Leipzig, 1880. This last work forms the
fourth volume in the series of Indo-European grammars now in course of
publication.
* This periodical contains the latest views upon numerous questions connected with
comparative philology and linguistic Science.
xvi TITLES OF WORKS CITED.
KüIINER, R. Ausführliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Hanno-
ver, 1879.
LüBBERT, E. Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau, 1870.
MERGUET, H. Lateinische Formenbildung. Berlin, 1870.
MEYER, G. Griechische Grammatik. Leipzig, 1880.
MüLLER, L. Orthographiae et Prosodiae Latinae Summarium. Lipsiae,
1878.
MüLLER, L. De Re Metrica Poetarum. Latinorum libri VII. Lipsiae, 1861.
MüLLER, MAx. The Science of Language. London and New York, 2d ed.,
1868. -
MUNRo, H. A. J. The Pronunciation of Latin. Cambridge, 1874.
NAGELSBACH, C. F. Lateinische Stilistik. Nürnberg, 2d ed., 1852.
PAPILLON, T. L. A Manual of Comparative Philology. Oxford, 2d ed.,
1877. -
PEILE, J. Greek and Latin Etymology. London, 2d ed., 1872.
PENKA, K. Die Wominalflexion der indo-germanischen Sprachen. Wien,
1878.
PRISCLANUs, C. Institutionum Grammaticarum libri XVIII. Lipsiae, 1855.
RAMSAY, W. Latin Prosody. London, 2d ed., 1859.
RITschi, FR. Unsere heutige AusSprache des Latein. Rheinisches Museum,
xxxi., pp. 481–492. -
RoBy, H. J. A. Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Sueto-
nius. London, 1874.
RUMPEL, TH. Die Casuslehre. Halle, 1845. * -
SCIILEICHER, Aug. Compendium der vergleichenden, Grammatāk. Wei-
mar, 1866.
SCHMIDT, J. H. H. Zeitfaden in der Rhythmik und Metrik der classisch-
en Sprachen. Leipzig, 1869. A translation by Professor White has
been published in Boston, 1878.
SCHMITz, W. Beiträge zur lateinischen Sprachkunde. Leipzig, 1877.
SCHöLL., F. Veterum Grammaticorum de Accentu Linguae Latinae Testi-
nonia. Acta Societatis Philologae Tipsiensis, vi., pp. 71-215.
SIEVERs, E. Grundzüge der Lautphysiologie. Leipzig, 1876.
SPENGEL, A. Plautus, Kritik, Prosodie, Metrök. Göttingen, 1865.
Transactions of the American Philological Association. Hartford, 1869–
1881.
VANICEK, A. Griechisch-latečnisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Leipzig,
1877.
WHITNEY, W. D. The Life and Growth of Language. New York, 1875.
WoRDsworth, J. Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin. Oxford,
1874.
* This work of Sievers forms the first volume and that of Meyer the third in the
Series of Indo-European grammars now in course of publication.
LATIN GRAMMAR.
1. LATIN GRAMMAR treats of the principles of the Latin
language. It comprises four parts:
I. ORTHOGRAPHY, which treats of the letters and Sounds
of the language.
II. ETYMoLOGY, which treats of the classification, inflec-
tion, and derivation of words.
III. SYNTAX, which treats of the construction of Sen-
tences.
IV. PROSoDY, which treats of quantity and versification.
PART FIRST.
O ERTEIO G R A PEITY.
ALPHABET.
2. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English with
the omission of w.”
1 The Romans derived their alphabet from the Greek colony at Cumae. In its origi-
nal form it contained twenty-one letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P,
Q, R, S, T, U, X, Z. C. was a modification of the Greek gamma, and F of the digam-
ma. Q was the Greek koppa, which early disappeared from the Greek alphabet. C had
the Sound afterward denoted by g; K, the sound afterward donoted by c. Z early dis-
appeared from the Latin alphabet, but was subsequently restored, though only in foreign
words. Throughout the classical period only capital letters were used. On the Alphabét,
See Whitney, pp. 59–70; Papillon, pp. 28–48; Wordsworth, pp. 5–10; Roby, I., pp. 21–62;
Sievers, pp. 24-108; Corssen, I., pp. 1-346; Kühner, I., pp. 35–49.
1
2 ALPHABET.
1. C in the fourth century B. c. supplied the place both of C and of G.
2. G., introduced in the third century B. C., was formed from C by simply
changing the lower part of that letter.
3. Even in the classical period the original form C was retained in ab-
breviations of proper names beginning with G. Thus C. stands for Găius,
Cn. for Gnaeus. See 649.
4. J, j, modifications of I, i, introduced in the seventeenth century of our
era to distinguish the consonant J, & from the vowel I, i, are rejected by many
recent editors, but retained by others.1
5. The letters u and v, originally designated by the character W.2 are now
used in the best editions, the former as a vowel, the latter as a consonant.
6. In classical Latin, k is seldom used, and y and 2 occur only in foreign
words, chiefly in those derived from the Greek.
3. Letters are divided according to the position of the
vocal organs at the time of utterance into two general
classes, vowels and consonants,” and these classes are again
divided into various subdivisions, as seen in the following
CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.
I. WOWELS.
1. OPEN WOWEL 4 © te º º tº g a
2. MEDIAL vowels e & º & g © O
3. CLOSE WOWELs " . e ſº e o e i y 11
1 Throughout the classical period, I, used both as a vowel and as a consonant, sup-
plied the place of I, Č and J, j. As practical convenience has, however, already sanc-
tioned the use of i, u, and v, characters unknown to the ancient Romans, may it not also
justify the use of J, j in educational works, especially as the Romans themselves at-
tempted to find a suitable modification of I to designate this consonant?
* Originally V, used both as a vowel and as a consonant, supplied the place of U, w
and V, v, but it was subsequently modified to U.
* If the vocal organs are sufficiently open to allow an uninterrupted flow of vocal
sound, a vowel is produced, otherwise a consonant; but the least open vowels are scarcely
distinguishable from the most open consonants. Thus i, sounded fully according to the
ancient pronunciation as ee, is a vowel; but, combined with a vowel in the same syllable,
it becomes a consonant with the sound of y : é'-i (ā’-ee, vowel), 6'-jus (ā'-yus, conso-
nant, almost identical in sound with ā’-ee-us).
* In pronouncing the open vowel a as in father, the vocal organs are fully open. By
gradually contracting them at one point and another we produce in succession the medial
vowels, the close vowels, the semivowels, the nasals, the aspirate, the fricatives, and
finally the mutes, in pronouncing which the closure of the vocal organs becomes complete.
* E is a medial vowel between the open a and the close i, o a medial vowel between
the open a and the close w; i is a palatal vowel, w a labial; y was introduced from the
Greek. The vowel scale, here presented in the form of a triangle, may be represented as
a line, with a in the middle, with 7 at the palatal extreme, and with w at the labial extreme:
l € a, O TUI
ROMAN METHOD OF PROWUVOIATION. 3
II. CONSONANTS.
GUTTURALS. DENTALs. LABIALS.
1. SEMIvo WELS, sonant ë {} . i or j = y E 20
2. NASALS, Sonant . ë ë te n 1 * Il Iºl
3. ASPIRATE, surd g tº * te h
4. FRICATIVES, comprising
1. Liquids, sonant . & Cº. 1, r
2. Spirants, surd e & tº § f
5. MUTES, comprising
1. Somant Mutes . e e g d b
2. Surd Mutes . * * • C, k, q t p
NoTE 1.-Observe that the consonants are divided,
I. According to the ORGANs chiefly employed in their production, into
1. Gutturals—throat letters, also called Palatals; *
2. Dentals—teeth letters, also called Linguals;
3. Labials—lip letters.
II. According to the MANNER in which they are uttered, into
1. Sonants, or voiced letters;
2. Surds, or voiceless letters.2
NoTE 2.-X = Cs,” and 2 = ds, are double consonants, formed by the union
of a mute with the spirants.
4. DIPHTHONGS are formed by the union of two vowels
in one syllable.
NoTE.—The most common diphthongs are ae, oe, au, and eu. Ei, oi,
and wi are rare.”
ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCLATION."
5. Vow ELS.—The vowel sounds are the following:
* With the sound of n in concord, linger. It occurs before gutturals: congrèssus,
meeting.
* The distinction between a sonant and a surd will be appreciated by observing the
difference between the sonant b and its corresponding surd p in such words as bad, pad.
B is vocalized, p is not.
* X often represents the union of g and S, but in such cases g is probably first assimi-
lated to c.; see 30, 33, 1.
* Proper diphthongs were formed originally by the union of an open or medial vowel,
a, e, or o, with a close vowel, i. or w, as ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ow. An improper diphthong
was also formed by the union of the two close vowels, as wi. For the weakening of these
original diphthongs, see 23, note.
* In this country three distinct methods are recognized in the pronunciation of Latin.
They are generally known as the Roman, the English, and the Continental Methods.
The researches of Corssen and others have revealed laws of phonetic change of great
value in tracing the history of Latin words. Accordingly, whatever method of pronun-
ciation may be adopted for actual use in the class-room, the pupil should sooner or
later be made familiar with the leading features of the Roman Method, which is at least
an approximation to the ancient pronunciation of the language.
**
4 ROMAW METHOD OF PROWUWOIATION.
LONG. SHORT.
à like à in father: ā'-ris." a like a in Cuba : * a'-met.
s “ e “prey:” 3'-di. e “ e “ net : re'-get.
i “ . “ machine:” 7'-ri. i “ i “ cigar: vi'-det.
3 * 5 “ old : Ö'-rås. o “ o “obey: mo'-net.
ii “ aſ “ rule:2 iſ'-nó. II “ aſ “ full: Sw'-mws.
1. A short vowel in a long syllable is pronounced short: 8wnt,4 u as in
sum, Sw'-mºus. But see 16, note 2.
2. Y, found only in Greek words, is in sound intermediate between the
Latin 3 and u, similar to the French u and the German in Ny'-8a.
3. I preceded by an accented a, e, o, or y, and followed by another vowel,
is a semivowel with the sound of y in yet (7): A-chá'-ia (Ā-kā-yā).
4. U 5 in qu, and generally in gu and 8w before a vowel, has the sound of
w: qui (kwe), lin'-gua (lin'-gwā), Suá'-sit (swä'-sit).
6. DIPHTHONGS.—In diphthongs each vowel retains its
own sound :
ae (for ai) like the English ay (yes): mán'-Sae.”
all like ow in how : cau'-sa.
oe (for oi) like oi in coin: foe'-dus.
1. Ei as in veil, eu with the sounds of e and u combined, and oi = 0é,
occur in a few words: dein,7 neu'-ter, proën.”
7. CONSONANTS. — Most of the consonants are pro-
nounced nearly as in English, but the following require
special notice :
c like k in king: că'-lès (kay-lace), ci'-vī (ké-w6).
g “ g “get: re-gunt, re-gis, ge'-nus.
1 The Latin vowels marked with the sign T are long in quantity, i. e., in the dura-
tion of the sound (16); those not marked are short in quantity; see 16, note 3.
2 Or & like à in made, 7 like € in me, and iſ like oo in moon. -
3 The short vowels can be only imperfectly represented by English equivalents. In
theory they have the Same sounds as the corresponding long vowels, but occupy Only
half as much time in utterance.
4 Observe the difference between the length or quantity of the vowel and the length
or quantity of the syllable. Here the vowel w is short, but the syllable Sumt is long;
see 16, I. In syllables long irrespective of the length of the vowels contained in them, it
is often difficult and sometimes absolutely impossible to determine the natural quantity
of the vowels; but it is thought advisable to treat vowels as short in all situations where
there are not good reasons for believing them to be long.
* This is sometimes called the parasitic u, as having been developed in many in-
stances by the preceding consonant, and as being dependent upon it. See Papillon, p.
50; Peile, p. 383; Corssen, I., pp. 69, 70, and 85.
* Combining the sounds of a and i.
7 When pronounced as monosyllables in poetry (608, III.); otherwise as dissyllables: .
dé'-in, pro'-in.
EWG LISH METHOD OF PROWUNCIATION. 5
j like y in yet: jù'-stum (yoo-stum), ja'-cet.
s “ s “ son: Sa'-cer, so'-ror, A'-si-a.
t “ t “ time: ti'-mor, to'-tus, &c'-ti-à.
v “ w “ we: va'-dum, vi'-ci, vi'-ti-um."
NoTE.—Before 8 and t, b has the sound of p : urbs, Sub’-ter, pronounced wrp8, 8wpº-
ter. 2 Ch has the sound of k : cho'-rus (ko'-rus).
8. SYLLABLES.—In dividing words into syllables,
1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs: má'-re,
per-suá'-dé, men'-sae.
2. Join to each vowel as many of the consonants which precede it—
one or more—as can be conveniently pronounced at the beginning of a
word or syllable: * pa'-ter, pa'-trés, ge'-ne-ri, do'-mi-nus, nā’-scit, si'-stis,
clau'-stra, men'-sa, bel'-lum, tem'-plum, &mp'-tus. But—
3. Compound words must be separated into their component parts, if
the first of these parts ends in a consonant: ab'-es, ob-7'-re.
ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.4
9. Wow ELS.—Vowels generally have their long or short
English sounds."
10. LoNG Sounds.-Vowels have their long English
sounds—a as in fate, e in mete, i in pine, o in note, u in
tube, y in type—in the following situations:
1. In final syllables ending in a vowel:
Se, si, Ser'-vi, ser'-vo, cor'-nu, m?'-sy.
2. In all syllables, before a vowel or diphthong :
De'-us, de-o'-rum, de'-ae, di-e'-i, ni'-hi-lum."
1 There is some uncertainty in regard to the Sound of v. Corssen gives it at the
beginning of a word the sound of the English v, in all other situations the Sound of w.
* On Assimilation in Sound in this and similar cases, see p. 17, foot-note 1.
* By some grammarians any combination of consonants which can begin either a
Latin or a Greek word is always joined to the following vowel, as o'-mmis, i'-pse. Roby,
on the contrary, thinks that the Romans pronounced with each vowel as many of the fol-
lowing consonants as could be readily combined with it.
4 Scholars in different countries generally pronounce Latin substantially as they pro-
nounce their own languages. Accordingly in England and in this country the English
Method has in general prevailed, though of late the Roman pronunciation has gained
favor in many quarters.
* These sounds in Latin, as in English, are somewhat modified by the consonants
which accompany them. Thus, before r, when fival, or followed by another consonant,
6, i, and w aro scarcely distinguishable, while q, and o are pronounced as in far, for.
Between gº and dr, or rà, a approaches the sound of or guar’tus, as in quarter.
* In these rules no account is taken of the aspirate h : hence the first i in nihilum is
treated as a vowel before another vowel; for the same reason, ch, ph, and th are treated
as single mutes; thus th in Athos and Othrys.
6 EWGLISH METHOD OF PRONUVOIATION.
3. In penultimate' syllables before a single consonant,
or before a mute followed by a liquid :
Pa'-ter, pa'-tres, ho-no'-ris, A'-thos, O'-thrys.
4. In unaccented syllables, not final, before a single con-
Sonant, or before a mute followed by a liquid :
Do-lo'-ris, cor’-po-ri, con'-sw-lis, a-gric'-o-la.
1) A wraccented has the sound of a final in America: men'-sa, a-cu'-tus,
a-ma'-mus.” -
2) I and y unaccented, in any syllable except the first and last, gener-
ally have the short sound: nob'-i-lis (nob'-e-lis), Am'-y-cus (Am'-e-cus).
3) I preceded by an accented a, e, o, or y, and followed by another
vowel, is a semivowel” with the sound of y in yet: A-cha'-ia (A-ka'-ya),
Pom-po'-ius (Pom-pe'-yus), La-to"-ia (La-to'-ya), Harpy'-ia (Har-py'-ya).
4) U has the short sound before bl, and the other vowels before gl
and tº : Pub-lic'-0-la, Ag-la'-O-phon, At'-las.
5) U* in qu, and generally in gu and su before a vowel, has the sound
of w; qui (kwi), qua; lin'-gua (lin'-gwa), lin'-guis ; sua'-de-o (swa'-de-o).
6) COMPOUND WORDS.—When the first part of a compound is entire
and ends in a consonant, any vowel before such consonant has generally
the short sound: a in ab'-es, e in red'-it, i in in'-it, o in ob'-it, prod'-est. But
those final syllables which, as exceptions, have the long sound before a
consonant (11, 1), retain that sound in compounds: post-quam, hos'-ce.
E'-ti-am and quo'-ni-am are generally pronounced as simple words.”
11. SHORT Soun DS.—Vowels have their short English
Sounds—a as in fat, e in met, i in pin, o in not, u in tub,
y in myth—in the following situations:
1. In final syllables ending in a consonant :
A'-mat, a'-met, rea'-it, Sol, con'-Sul, Te'-thys ; except post, es final, and os
jinal in plural cases: res, di'-es, hos, a gros.
2. In all syllables before a, or any two consonants except
a mute followed by a liquid (10, 3 and 4):
Rex'-it, bel'-lum, rez-e'-runt, bel-lo'-rum.
1 Penultimate, the last syllable but one.
* Some give the same sound to a final in monosyllables: da, gwa, while others give
it the long sound according to 10, 1.
* Sometimes written j.
* This is sometimes called the parasitic w, as having been developed in many instances
by the preceding consonant and as being dependent upon it. See Papillon, p. 50; Peile,
p. 383; Corssen, I., pp. 69, 70, and 85.
* Ełiam is compounded of et and jam, quoniam, of gwom = quwm, cum, and jam.
EWG LISH METHOD OF PROWUWOIATION. y
3. In all accented syllables, not penultimate, before one
or more consonants:
JDom'-i-nus, pat'-ri-bus. But—
1) A, e, or o before a single consonant (or a mute and a liquid), fol-
lowed by e, i, or y before another vowel, has the long sound: a-ci-es,
a'-cri-a, me'-re-0, do'-ce-o.
2) U, in any syllable not final, before a single consonant or a mute and
a liquid, except bl, has the long sound: Pu'-ni-cus, Sa-lu'-bri-tas.
3) Compounds; see 10, 6).
12. DIPHTHoNgs—Diphthongs are pronounced as fol-
lows:
Ae like e: Cae-sar, Daed'-a-lus." | Au as in author: au'-rum.
Oe like e : Oe'-ta, Oed'-i-pus.” Eu as in neuter: neu'-ter.
1. E. and of are seldom diphthongs, but when so used they are pro-
nounced as in height, coin : hei, proin, see Synaeresis, 608, III.
2. Už, as a diphthong with the long Sound of i, occurs in cuff, hºw?, hºwic.
13. CONSONANTS.—The consonants are pronounced in
general as in English. Thus—
I. C and G are soft (like s and j) before e, i, y, ae, and oe, and hard in
other situations: ce-do (se'-do), ci'-vis, Cy'-rus, cae'-do, coe'-pi, al-ge (a'-je),
a'-gi, ca'-do (ka'-do), co-go, cum, Ga'-des. But
1. C has the sound of sh—
1) Before i preceded by an accented syllable and followed by a vowel:
So'-ci-us (so'-she-us);
2) Before eu and yo preceded by an accented syllable: ca-du'-ce-us (ca-
du'-she-us), Sic'-y-on (Sish'-y-on).
2. Ch is hard like k : cho'-rus (ko'-rus), Chi'-os (Ki'-os).
3. *G has the soft sound before g soft : ag'-ger.
II. S, T, and X are generally pronounced as in the English words son,
time, expect: Sa'-cer, ti'-mor, rea'-i (rek'-si). But—
1. S, T, and X are aspirated before & preceded by an accented syllable and
followed by a vowel—s and t taking the sound of Sh, and a that of ksh: Al'-
87-um (Al'-She-um), ar'-ti-um (ar'-she-um), ana'-i-us (ank'-she-us). But
1) T loses the aspirate—(1) after S, t, or a: ; Os'-ti-a, At'-ti-us, miaº'-ti-o; (2) in old
infinitives in ièr: Jiec'-ti-er; (3) generally in proper names in tion (tyon): Phi-lis/-
ti-on, Am-nhio'-ty-on.
* The diphthong has the long sound in Caeſ-sar and Oeſ-ta, according to 10, 3, but
the Short Sound in Daed'-a-lus (Ded'-a-lus) and Oed'-i-pus (Ed'-i-pus), according to
11, 8, as 6 Would be thus pronounced in the same situations.
8 CONTINENTAL METHOD OF PROWU WOIATION.
\
2. S is pronounced like 2–
1) At the end of a word, after e, ae, aw, b, m, n, r. spes, praes, laws, wrbs, hi’-ems,
mons, pars;
2) In a few words after the analogy of the corresponding English words: Cae’-sar,
Caesar; caw'-sa, cause; ºnw'-sa, muse; miſ-Sér, miser, miserable, etc.
3. X at the beginning of a word has the sound of 2 : Xan'-thus.
14. SYLLABLES.–In dividing words into syllables—
1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs: mo'-re,
per-swa'-de, men'-Sae.
2. Distribute the consonants so as to give the proper sound to each
vowel and diphthong, as determined by previous rules (10–12): pa'-ter,
pa'-tres, a gro'-rum, au-d'-vi, gen'-e-ri, dom'-i-nus ; bel'-lum, pat'-ri-bus ;
emp'-tus, tem'-plum ; rez'-i, ana'-i-us; post-quam, hos'-ce."
CONTINENTAL METHOD OF PRONUNCLATION.”
15. For the Continental Method, as adopted in this
country, take— -
1. The Roman pronunciation of the vowels and diphthongs; see 5 and 6.
2. The English pronunciation of the consonants;* see 13.
3. The Roman division of words into syllables; see 8.
QUANTITY.
16. Syllables are in quantity or length either long, short,
or common."
I. LONG.-A syllable is long in quantity—
1. If it contains a diphthong or a long vowel ; haec, rés."
1 Observe that compound words are separated into their component parts, if the first
of these parts ends in a consonant (10, 4, 6), as post'-quam; that in other cases, after a
vowel with a long sound, consonants are joined to the following syllable, as in the first
four examples, pa/-ter, etc., and that, after a vowel with a short Sound, a single conso-
nant is joined to such vowel, as in gen/-e-ri and dom/-i-nºts; that two consonants are
separated, as in bel/-/wm, etc.; that of three or four consonants, the last, or, if a mute and
a liquid, the last two, are joined to the following syllable, as in emp'-Üus, etc., but that
the double consonant a is joined to the preceding vowel, as in rea'-i, ana'-i-us.
2 Strictly speaking, there is no Continental Method, as every nation on the Continent
of Europe has its own method.
* Though the pronunciation of the consonants varies somewhat in different insti-
tutions.
4 Common—i.e., Sometimes long and sometimes short. For rules of quantity See
Prosody. Two or three leading facts are here given for the convenience of the learner.
5 See note 3 below.
ACCENTUATION. - 9
2. If its vowel is followed by j, a, or 2, or any two
consonants, except a mute and a liquid : * dua, råa,
Swnt.”
II. SHORT.-A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed
by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the aspirate h :
di'-ès, vi'-ae, ni'-hil. ---
III. COMMON.—A syllable is common, if its vowel, natu-
rally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid: a'-gri.
NOTE. 1.-Vowels are also in quantity either long, short, or common; but
the quantity of the vowel does not always coincide with the quantity of the
syllable.8
NoTE 2.—Vowels are long before nS and n.f, generally also before gn and
j: căn'-Sul, in-fé'-lia, reg'-num, hi'-jus.4 3.
- Sº
NoTE 3.−The signs -, * are used to mark the quantity of vowels, the first
denoting that the vowel over which it is placed is long, the second that it is
common, i.e., sometimes long and sometimes short: a-má'-bó. All vowels
not marked are to be treated as short." -
NOTE 4.—Diphthongs are always long.
ACCENTUATION."
17. Words of two syllables are always accented on the
first : měn'-sa.
Note—Monosyllables are also accented.
18. Words of more than two syllables are accented on
1 That is, in the order here given, with the mute before the liquid; if the liquid pre-
cedes, the syllable is long.
* Observe that the vowel in such syllables may be either long or short. Thus it is
long in réa, but short in dua, and Swnt.
* Thus in long syllables the vowels may be either long or short, as in réa, dwa, 8wnt;
See foot-note 4, p. 4. But in short syllables the vowels are also short.
* See Schmitz, pp. 3–83, also p. 56; Kühner, I., p. 137; also H. A. J. Munro's pam-
phlet on the Pronunciation of Latin, pp. 24–26.
* See p. 4, foot-note 4. In many works short vowels are marked with the sign :
*égés.
* With the ancient Romans accent probably related not to force or stress of voice, as
With us, but to musical pitch. It was also distinguished as acute or circumſtea. Thus
all monosyllables and all words in which the vowel of the penult is long and the final
syllable short were said to have the circumflex accent, while all other accented words
were said to have the acute. The distinction is of no practical value in pronunciation.
On the general subject of Accent, see Ellis, pp. 8-10; Roby, I., pp. 98–100; Kühner, I.,
p. 148; Corssen, II., pp. 806-808.
10 PHONETIC CHANG. E.S.
the Penult,' if that is long in quantity,” otherwise on the
Antepenult: ho-nó'-ris, cön'-Su-lis.
1. Certain words which have lost a syllable retain the accent of the
full form. Thus—
1) Genitives in 7 for ii and vocatives in 7 for ie: in-ge-ni for in-ge-ni-7,
Mer-cu'-ri for Mer-cu'-ri-e.
2) Certain words which have lost a final e : il-lic' for il-li'-ce, il-lāc' for
J-lā'-ce, is-tic' for is-à'-ce, etc.; bo-nān' for bo-nā'-ne, il-lān' for il-lā'-me,
tan-tūn' for tan-to'-ne, au-din' for au-dis'-ne, 3-dûc' for 3-dà'-ce.”
NoTE 1.-Prepositions standing before their cases are treated as Proclitics—i. e., are
so closely united in pronunciation with the following word as to have no accent of their
own : subjū'-di-ce, in-ter réſ-gēs.
NoTE 2.-Penults common in quantity take the accent when used as long.
2. Compounds are accented like simple words; but—
1) The enclitics, que, ve, ne, ce, met, etc., throw back their accents upon
the last syllable of the word to which they are appended: ho'-mi-ne-que,4
mán-sa'-que,” e-go'-met.
2) Fació, compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its own
accent: ca-le-fa'-cit.4 -
3. A secondary or subordinate accent is placed on the second or third
syllable before the primary accent—on the second, if that is the first syllable
of the word, or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third: mo'-nu-e'-runt,
amo'-nu-e-rá'-mºus,” 7m-Staw'-rá-vé'-runţ. -
NoTE.—A few long words admit two secondary or subordinate accents: ho’-nó-rif'-
& cem-tisſ-sà-mus." -
PHONETIC CHANGES.
19. Latin words have undergone important changes in accord-
ance with phonetic laws."
1 The penult is the last syllable but one; the antepenult, the last but two.
2 Thus the quantity of the syllable, not of the vowel, determines the place of the ac-
cent: regen'-tis, accented on the penult, because that syllable is long, though its vowel
is Short; see 16, I., 2.
8 According to Priscian, certain contracted words, as ves-trä8' for ves-trä'-tis, or with
the circumflex accent, ves-tré8 for ves-tró-tis, Sam-n?s for Sam-n?-tis, also retained the
accent of the full form; but it is not deemed advisable to multiply exceptions in a School
grammar. See Priscian, IV., 22.
4. By the English method, hom'-i-ne'-que, cal'-e-fa'-cit.
5 A word acqented upon the penult thus loses its own accent before an enclitic :
on 3n'-80, mēn-Sa'-Que.
* By the English method, mon/-u-é'-runt, mon/-u-e-rá'-mus, hon/-à-rif'-i-cen-tis/-
8i-mus.
7 In the history of the ancient languages of the Indo-European family, to which the
Latin, Greek, and English alike belong, the general direction of phonetic change has been
from the extremes of the alphabetic Scale—i.e., from the open a at one extreme and
PHOWETIC CHANGES. 11
I. C. H. A N G E S IN WOW E L S.
2O. Wowels are often lengthened:
1. In compensation for the dropping of consonants:
Servoms, servös, slaves; regems, régés, kings; posmö, pönö, I place; magi-
or,1 māīor or májor, greater.
2. In the inflection of verbs:
Legó, legi,” I read, I have read; ediff, Čdi, I eat, I have eaten; fugió, fūgi,
I flee, I have fled.
NoTE 1.—Sometimes vowels are changed, as well as lengthened: agö, ä77, I drive,
I have driven; fació, fºci, I make, I have made; see 255, II.
NOTE 2.—Different forms from the Same stem or root sometimes show a variable
vowel: ducis, diſcis, of a leader, you lead; regis, régis, you rule, of a king; tegö, toga,
I cover, a covering, the toga.” See also 22, 1.
21. Vowels are often shortened: 4
1. Regularly in final syllables before m and t:
Erām, eram,” I was; moned/m, moneam, let me advise; audiám, audiam,
let me hear; erät, erał, he was ; amāt, amat, he loves; monet, monet, he
advises; Sīt, sit, may he be; audit, audit, he hears.
2. Often in other final syllables. Thus—
1) Final ā" is shortened (1) in the Plural of Neuter nouns and adjec-
tives,” and (2) in the Nominative and Vocative Singular of Feminine"
nouns and adjectives of the first declension:
from the close mutes at the other—toward the middle of the scale, where the vowels and
consonants meet; see 3. Accordingly, in Latin words we shall not unfrequently find 6
or o, or even i or u, occupying the place of a primitive a , and we shall sometimes find a
liquid or a fricative occupying the place of a primitive mute. See Whitney, p. 68;
Papillon, p. 49; Peile, pp. 199 and 312.
1 O short in servoms is lengthened in servās to compensate for the loss of m, and
a short in magior is lengthened in mäior, mājor, to compensate for the loss of g.
* The short vowel of the present tense is here lengthened in the perfect; see 255, II.
* In ducis, dàcis, and in regis, régis, the variation is simply in the quantity of the
vowel, but in tegö, toga, the vowel itself is changed, appearing as e in tegó and o in toga.
Sometimes a single vowel appears in one form while a diphthong appears in another:
Jides, faith, foedus, treaty.
* See Corssen, II., p. 436 seg.
5 In all these examples, the form with the long vowel in the final syllable is the earlier
form, and, in general, is found only in inscriptions and in the early poets, as Plautus,
Ennius, etc.; while the form with the short vowel belongs to the classical period.
* Corssen regards numerals in -gintà, as tri-gintá, quadrā-gintá, etc., as Plural
Neuters, and ā as the original ending. He recognizes also the Neuter Plural of the pro-
noun with ſi in amţ-eń, post-6ſ, inter-eff, praeter-eč, ante-há-c, praeter-hā-c. See
Corssen, II., p. 455. For a different explanation, see 304, IV., N. 2.
7 In masculine nouns of the first declension a final was short in the Nominative even
in early Latin: scriba, a scribe. But most stems in a weakened a to o, and thus passed
into the Second declension.
12 PHONETIC CHANGES.
Templá, templa, temples; generá, genera, kinds; gravid, gravia, heavy;
näsä, miſsa, muse; bond, bona, good.
2) In ar, Ör, and āl final, à and 6 are regularly shortened:
Regār, regar, let me be ruled; audiár, audiar, let me be heard; audiºr,
audior, I am heard; honºr, honor, honor; Grätär, Grător, orator; monedr,
noneor, I am advised; animále, animál (27), animal, an animal.
3) Final é, í, and 5 are sometimes shortened:
Bené, bene, well; nübé, näbe, with a cloud; nisi, nisi, unless; ibi, ibi,
there; leſ, led, a lion; egó, ego, I.
22. Vowels are often weakened, i. e., are often changed to
weaker vowels.”
The order of the vowels, from the strongest to the weakest, is as follows:
a, O, u, e, i.”
i
e
Thus a is changed to o . . . u . . . e. . .
O to Li . . . e. . . .
ll to e . . .
e to
ii.i.
NOTE.-The change from a through o to u is usually arrested at u, while a
is often changed directly through e to i without passing through o or u.3
1. Vowels are often weakened in consequence of the lengthening of
words by inflection, composition, etc.:
Carmen,” carmenis, carminis, a song, of a song; früctus, früctubus, früc-
tibus, fruit, with fruits; fació, cón-fació, cón-fició, I make, I accomplish;
Jactus, in-factus, in:fectus, made, not made; damnà, con-damnà, condem-
nā, I doom, I condemn; tened, con-teneš, con-timeå, I hold, I contain; cadó,
ca-cad–7, ce-cid-7, I fall, I have fallen; tuba, tuba-cen, tubi-cen, a flute, a flute-
player.
1 See Corssen, II., pp. 1–436. The process by which vowels are shortened (21), weak-
ened, or dropped (??), and by which diphthongs are weakened to single vowels, and con-
sonants assimilated, or otherwise changed, is generally known as PHONETIC DECAY. It
may result from indistinct articulation, or from an effort to secure ease of utterance. For
a difficult Sound, or combination of sounds, it substitutes one which requires less physical
effort.
* But w, e, and i differ so slightly in strength that they appear at times to be simply
interchanged. -
* That is, the open a is changed either to the close w through the medial o, as seen
on the right side of the following vowel-triangle, or to the close à through the medial e,
aS Seen on the left Side:
Open vowel . tº e g º e e Q,
JMedia! vowels g tº º tº º wº 6 O
Close vowels . g * g e ge . i 20
* The syllable men was originally man. The original a has been weakened to e in
Carmén and to £ in carmºn-2s.
PHONETIC CHANGES. 13
2. Vowels are often weakened without any such special cause: 1
Puerom, puerum, a boy; fºlios, filius, son; Sont, 8wnt, they are ; regont,
regunt, they rule; decwmws, decimus, tenth ; máðumus, mācimus, greatest;
legitumus, legitimus, lawful; aestumã, aestimã, I estimate.
23. Two successive vowels are sometimes contracted:
1. Into a DIPHTHONG: mánsá-7, mānsai, mānsae, tables; see 4.
2. More frequently into a LoNG vowel. In this case the second vowel
generally disappears. Thus e and i often disappear after a, e, and o:
Amăveraţ, amaerat, amārat, he had loved; amávisse, amaïssé, amásse, to
have loved; flévèrunt, fleerunt, fièrunt, they have wept ; névésse, noisse, nã886,
to know; servoi, servø, for the slave.
NoTE.—The proper diphthongs of early Latin were changed or weak-
ened as follows:
ai” generally into ae; sometimes into è or i.
oi generally into oe; sometimes into ii or i.
ei generally into i: sometimes unchanged.
au sometimes into 5 or ii; generally unchanged.
eu generally into ii; rarely unchanged.
ou regularly into ii.
Aidilis, aedilis, an aedile; Römai, Römae, at Rome; amatmus, amemus,
let us love; ºn-caedić, ºn-cidit, he cuts into ; mansais, mensis, with tables;
foidus, foedus, treaty; coira, coera, ciºra, care; loidos, loedus, liºdus,” play;
puerois, pueris, for the boys; ceivis, civis, citizen; lautus, Zötus,” elegant;
ex-claudó, ex-cliadó, I shut out; doucit, diſcit, he leads; jous, jūs," right.
24. Vowels are sometimes changed through the influence of the
consonants which follow them. Thus—
1 That is, by the ordinary process of phonetic decay, a process which in many words
has changed an original a of the parent language to e or o in Latin, and in Some words
to i or w. Corssen cites upward of four hundred Latin words in which he supposes a
primitive a to have been weakened to o, e, or i. Even the long vowels are sometimes
weakened. Compare the following forms, in which the Sanskrit retains the vowel of the
parent language. • -
SANSKRIT. TATIN. ENGLISII. SANSKRIT. LATIN. ENGLISH.
Sapta, Septem, 862)672, padas, pedes, Jeet.
nava, novem, anime. navas, novus, 72.6/2.0,
daga, decem, ten. wäk, vöx, voice.
mātā, mäter, another. Vācas, vöcis, of a voice.
Sadas, Sédés, Seat. Văcam, Vöcem, ooice.
* The forms ai, oi, ei, aw, eu, and ow are all found in early Latin, as in inscriptions;
but in the classical period ai had been already changed to ae, oi to oé, and ow to 7.
* Loidos, the earliest form, became loedus by weakening of to oe, and o to w (22, 2);
then loédws became lizdus by weakening oe to i7.
* Lawtw8, the earlier, is also the more approved form.
* As eu and ou were both weakened to il, it is not easy to give trustworthy examples
of the weakening of eu to i.
14 AHOWETIC CHANG. E.S.
1. E is the favorite vowel before r, 2, or two or more consonants:
Cinisis, cinerisi (31), of ashes; jūdiſc, jūdeº, judge; militis, milets, miles,”
of a soldier, a soldier.
NoTE.—E final is also a favorite vowel: servo, serve, O slave; moneris,
monari, monéré,” you are advised; mari, mare, Sea.
2. I is the favorite vowel before n, s, and t:
Hómonis, hominis, of a man; pulver or pulvis, dust; Salātes, salātās, of
safety; vérotás, veritàs, truth; genetor, genitor, father.
3. U is the favorite vowel before l and m, especially when followed by
another consonant:
Epistola, epistula, letter; volt, vult, he wishes; facilitäs, faciltás (27),
facultás, faculty; monementum, monumentum, monument; colomna, colum-
zza, column.
25. AsSIMILATION.—A vowel is often assimilated by a follow-
ing vowel. Thus—
1. A vowel before another vowel is often partially 5 assimilated. I is thus
changed to e before a, o, or u : ia, ea, this; i3, eú, I go; iunt, eunt, they go;
Čadem, eaderm, same; divus, dźus (36, 4), deus, god.
NoTE.—When the first vowel is thus adapted to the second, the assimilation is said to
be regressive, but sometimes the second vowel is adapted to the first, and then the as-
similation is progressive. Thus the ending iá (21, 2), instead of becoming ea as above,
may become ić. Züacuriæ (perhaps for lüwurias), lùaywriés, luxury; materić, materić8,6
material.
2. A vowel may be completely assimilated by the vowel of the following
syllable from which it is separated by a consonant. Thus—
1) E is assimilated to i , mehā, mihā, for me; tebi, tibi, for you; Sebå, Sibi,
for himself; nehil, nihil, nothing.
2) U is assimilated to i : cănsulium, cónsiliuan, counsel; eWSulium, ex-
silium, exile.
3) Other vowels are sometimes assimilated; o to e : bone, bene, bene (21, 2),
well; e to u : tegurium, tugurium, hut ; 3 to 6: Sécors, Söcors, stupid.
26, DISSIMILATION.—A vowel is often changed by dissimilation,
Cinisis, from cinis, becomes cineris by changing s to r between two vowels, mak-
ing ciniris (31, 1), and by then changing i to e before r.
* Observe that the vowel which appears as i in militis before t, takes the form of e
in m?lets before ts, as also in miles for milets.
* Monéris becomes monare by dropping s (36, 5), and changing final i to e.
* Observe that the form in r has e, while that in S has i. :
* That is, it is made like it, adapted to it, but does not become identical with it.
Thus i before a may be changed to e, but not to a.
* Thus from nouns in iá of the first declension were developed nearly all nouns in ièg
of the fifth. -
PHOWETIC CHA WG. E.S. 15
i. e., by being made unlike the following vowel: ii, ei, these ; iis,
eis, for these.”
NoTE.—The combination ii is sometimes avoided by the use of e in place of the sec-
ond i ; pietà8 instead of pittà8, piety; societäs, Society; varietà8, Variety.
27. Vowels are often dropped in the middle or at the end of
words, sometimes even at the beginning :
Tempulum, templum, temple; vinculum, vinclum, band; benigenus, benig-
nus,” benignant; amaā, amó, I love; temploa, templa, temples; animále, ani-
*mal,” an animal; si-ne, Sîn, if not; dice, dic, say; eSum, Sum, I am; estimus,
&umºus, we are.
NoTE.—After a word ending in a vowel or in m, est, he is, often drops the initial e,
and becomes attached to the preceding word: rés optuma est, rés optwmast, the thing
is best; opium um est, optumwmst, it is best; dom? est, domż8t, he is at home. In the
same way es, thou art, is sometimes attached to the preceding word, when that word
ends in a vowel: homö es, homós, you are a man. For the loss of a final 8 from the pre-
ceding word, see 36, 5, 1), note.
II. INTERCHANGE of Vowels AND ConsonANTs.
28. The vowel i and the consonant —also written j—are some-
times interchanged :
Altior,4 higher; magior, máior or májor, greater; ipsius, of himself; eius
or jus, of him.
29. The vowel w and the consonant u–generally written v–are
often interchanged :
Col-wi," I have cultivated; voca-vi, I have called; névita, návta, nauta,
sailor; volvtus, voliºus, rolled; lavtus, lautus or lòtus,” washed; movtus,
7moutus, mātus," moved.
NoTE.—The Liquids and Nasals are sometimes so fully vocalized as to develop vowels
1 The combination ww was also avoided in early Latin either by retaining the Second
vowel in the form of o, instead of weakening it to w, or by changing gºw to c : équoS,
afterward equus, a horse; quom, or cum, afterward, though not properly in classical
times, gwum, when. Observe that when o becomes u, a preceding gu becomes c : quom,
cum ; loquêtês, lociztus, having spoken. See Brainbach, p. 5.
2 See 16, note 2.
8 Observe that after e is dropped, ć, is shortened in the final syllable: animál, ami-
nal; see 21, 2.
* In the comparative ending ior, as seen in altior, i is a vowel, but in the same end-
ing, as seen in mäior, major, it is a consonant, and in this grammar is generally written 7.
I thus becomes j between two vowels; see 2, 4, foot-note. So in the genitive ending
ſius, 7 is Sometimes a vowel and sometimes a consonant.
5 The ending which appears as wº, in col-wi becomes w? in voca-vi. U becomes v
between two vowels.
* If a vowel precedes the v thus changed to ºt, a contraction takes place-a-w becom-
ing aw, rarely 5, o-w becoming 5, and u-u becoming iſ : lavtus, lautus, lotus, washed;
7movtw8, moutus, mātus, moved; juvtus, juutus, jūţus, assisted.
16 PHONETIC CHANGES.
before them.” Thus agr (for agrus) becomes ager,” field; der (for dcris), ācer,” sharp;
regm, regem, king ; 8m (for 68m), 8wºm, I am ; &nt (for eSnt), 8wnt, they are.
III. CHANGES IN CONSONANTS.
30. A Guttural—c, g,” q (qu), or h”—before s generally unites
with it and forms x:
Ducs, dua, leader; påcs, pâc, peace; régs, récs,” réc, king; legs, Zács, lêa,
law; coquši, cocsi,” coacă, I have cooked; trahs, tracsi, traci, I have drawn.
NoTE 1.-V for go in vivá, I live, is treated as a guttural: viv67, vics?, via:7, I have
lived.
NoTE 2.-For the Dropping of the Guttural before s, see 36, 3.
31. S is often changed to r.
1. Generally so when it stands between two vowels: flösés, flörés, flowers;
jūsa, jūra, rights; mensãsum, ménsārum, of tables; agrösum, agrórum, of
fields; esam, eram, I was ; esāmus, eråmus, we were; fuéSwnt, fuerunt, they
have been ; fuesit, fuerit, he will have been ; amóSet, amāret, he would love;
regisis, regeris,” you are ruled.
2. Often at the end of words: honēs, honor, honor; rābos, röbus, röbur,
strength; puésus, puerus, puer,7 boy; regituse, regiture, regitur,7 he is ruled.”
3. Sometimes before m, n, or v. Casmen, carmen, song; vetesnus, veternus, old;
hodiesnus, hodiernus, of this day; Minesva, Minerva, the goddess Minerva.
32. D is sometimes changed to 1:
Dacrima, lacrima, tear; dāngua, lingwa, language; odère, olere, to emit an
odor.
NoTE 1.—D final sometimes stands in the place of an original tº id,9 this; i3tud,
that; illud, that; Quod, quid, what, which?
NotE 2.—Dv at the beginning of a word (1) sometimes becomes b : dwellum, běllum,
war; dois, bis, twice; (2) sometimes drops d ... dwigint, våginți, twenty; and (3) Some-
times drops v.: duis, dis, inseparable particle (308), in two, asunder.
33. PARTIAL ASSIMILATION.—A consonant is often partially"
assimilated by a following consonant. Thus—
1 This occurs between consonants and at the end of words after consonants.
2 The ending us or is is dropped (36, 5, 2), note), and r final vocalized to er; m
becomes em in régém, and wºn in sum ; m becomes un, in Swnt.
* Sometimes gu : eastingusi, eacstincs?, eastinaº, I have extinguished.
* For an original gh. -
* The process seems to be that the guttural before s first becomes c, and then unites
with 8 and forms a thus in coqus?, qu becomes c.
6 Observe that i before S becomes e before r ; see 24.
7 Here s was probably changed to r before the final vowel was dropped.
8 Literally, he rules himself.
9 For it, istut, etc. D stands for t also in the old Ablative in d. praedód for prae-
dāt, afterward praedā, with booty; magistrātūd for magistrātūt, magistrātū, from
the magistracy.
10 That is, it is adapted or accommodated to it, but does not become the same letter.
PHONETIC CHANGES. 17
1. Before the surd s or t, a sonant b or g is generally changed to its
corresponding surd, p" or c :
Scribs', scripsi, I have written; scribtus, Scriptus, written; regs?, récsi, réci
(30), I have ruled; régtus, réctus, ruled. See also 35, 3, note.
NoTE.—Qu, J. for gh, and w for go are also changed to c before 8 and t: coqugit,”
cocsit, coacit, he has cooked; cogutus, coctus, cooked; trahsil,” tracsit,” traacit, he has
drawn; trahtus, tractus, drawn; vövsit,4 vºcsit, via'it, he has lived; vivížrus, victiirus,
about to live. - -
2. Before a sonant l, m, n, or r, a surd c, p, or t is generally changed
to its corresponding Sonant, g, b, or d :
Neclegö, neglegö, I neglect; Sec-mentum, segmentum, a cutting; populicus,"
püplicus, pâblicus,” public; quatra," quadra, a square; quatrăgăntă, quadrä-
gāntá, forty. .
3. Before a Labial p or b, n is generally changed to m:*
Inperä, imperö, I command; inperätor, imperätor, commander; inbéllis,
&mbellis, unwarlike.
NOTE.-Before n, a Labial p or b is changed to m in a few words: Sopnus, som/nus,
sleep; Sabnium, Samnium, the country of the Samnites.
4. IMI is changed to n— -
1) Regularly before a Dental Mute:
Eumdem, eundem, the same ; edrumdem, e3rundem, of the same ; quemdam,
quemdam, a certain one; tamtus, tantus, so great; quantus, quantus, how
great, as great. -
2) Often before a Guttural Mute:
Hum-ce, hunc, this; num-ce, nºunc,” now ; prim-ceps, princeps, first ; nºm-
quam or nünquam,” never; quamgwam or quanquam, although.
1 But b is generally retained (1) before s in nouns in bg : urbs, not wrps, city, and in
abs, from ; and (2) before 8 and £ in ob, on account of, and sub, under, in compounds and
derivatives: ob-servāns, observant; ob-tūsus, obtuse; sub-scribó, I subscribe; sub-ter,
under. In these cases, however, b takes the sound of p, so that assimilation takes place
in pronunciation, though not in writing. It is probable also that in some other conso-
nants assimilation was observed even when omitted in writing: impriſmºs and im-
prºmis, both pronounced imprºmis. See Roby, I., p. lvii.; Munro, p. 10.
* Qu, also written go, is not a syllable; nor is u or v in this combination either a
vowel or a consonant, but simply a parasitic sound developed by q, which is never found
without it.
* For traghsit; his dropped, and g assimilated to c. .
4 For gwigvsit; the first g and the second v are dropped: vägsfä, v2CSłł, v22.Ét.
* From populus, the people.
* P is changed to b, and o is weakened to w; see 22.
7 From Quattuor, four.
* That is, the dental n becomes the labial m.
9 “Or" placed between two forms denotes that both are in good use: nºmquam or
więnguam. In other cases the last is the only approved form: nunc, prºcépè.
18 PHONETIC CHANGES.
NoTE 1.-Before the ending -que, m is generally retained: 1 guicumque, whoever;
gºtemque, every one; namgue, for indeed.
NOTE 2.-Quom-iam or quom-jam becomes quoniam, since.
34. A consonant is often completely assimilated by a following
consonant. Thus—
1. "I' or d is often assimilated before n or s :
Petna, penna, feather; mercédnărăus, mercémnárius, mercenary ; concutsit,
concussit, he has shaken.
NOTE.-M before s is sometimes assimilated, and sometimes develops p :
premSit, pressit, he has pressed; Sām Sit, Sümpsit, he has taken.
2. D, n, or r is often assimilated before 1:
Sedula, Sedla (27), Sella, Seat; in ulus, i.nlus (27), illus, any; puerula,
puerla, puella, girl.
3. B, g, or n is often assimilated before m : * -
Sub-moved or sum-moved, I remove ; supnus, summus, highest; flagma,
Jamma, flame; inſmótus or immötus, unmoved.
NOTE.-For ASSIMILATION in Prepositions in Composition, see 344, 5.
35. DISSIMILATION.—The meeting of consonants too closely re-
lated and the recurrence of the same consonant in successive syllables
are sometimes avoided by changing one of the consonants. Thus—
1. Caeluleus becomes caeruleus, azure; medi-dićs, meridiós, midday.
2. Certain suffixes of derivation have two forms, one with r to be used
after l, and one with l to be used after r; * dris, Čilis; burum, brum,” bu-
lum : * curum, crum, culum :
Populäris, popular; rāgālis,” kingly; dālūbrum, shrine; tribulum, thresh-
ing-sledge; Sepulcrum, sepulchre; periculum, peril.
8. A Dental Mute—d or t—may unite with a following t in two ways:
1) Dt or tt may become st: " *
Edt, est, he eats; rôdtrum, röstrum, a beak; equettris, equestris, equestrian.
2) Dt or tt may become ss or s : *
Fodiºus, fössus, dug; vidtus, visus, seen; plaudius, plausus, praised; met-
tus, messus, reaped ; verttus, versus, turned.
1 But probably with the sound of n : see p. 17, foot-note 1.
* This distinction is, however, not always observed. The form with 7, probably
weakened from that with r, became the favorite form, and was generally used if l did
not precede.
8 From burum are formed (1) brum by dropping u, and (2) bulwm by weakening r
into l. In the same way crum and culum are formed from curum.
* In populäris, Čiris is used because ! precedes; but in régālis, Čilis is used because
* precedes. When neither l nor r precedes, the weakened form ālis is used.
* Here d or t is changed to s by Dissimilation.
° In regard to the exact process by which dt or tº becomes ss or s, there is a diversity
of opinion among philologians. See Papillon, p. 75; Roby, p. 62; Corssen, I., p. 208,
PHONETIC CHAWG. E.S. 19
ſy
NoTE.—Løt may become is; I rqt, rs; llt, ls; 2 and rrt, rs: 2 mulgtus, mulsus,
milked; 8pargöw8, 8parSw8, Scattered; fallºus, falsus, false; verrtus, versus, swept.
36. OMISSION.—Consonants are sometimes dropped. Thus—
1. Some words which originally began with two consonants have dropped
the first :
Clāmentum,3 låmentum, lamentation; gnátus, nātus, born ; gnótus,” nãtus,
known; dwig inti, vigint, twenty; $fallit, fallit, he deceives.
2. A Dental Mute—d or t—before s is generally dropped: *
Lapids, lapis, stone ; aetäts, aetă8, age ; milets, miles, soldier; claudsi,
clausi, I have closed. .
NoTE.—D is occasionally dropped before other consonants: hod-ce, hö63, höc, this ;
quod-circă, quâcircă,” for which reason : ad-gnóScö, ägmäScö, I recognize.
3. A Guttural Mute—c, g, or q (qu)—is generally dropped—
1) Between a Liquid and s :
Mulcsit, mulsit, he has appeased; fulgsić, fulsić, it has lightened.
2) Between a Liquid and t:
Fulctus, fultus, propped ; 8arctus, Sartus, repaired.
3) Between a Liquid and m:
Fulgmen, fulmen, lightning; torqumentum, torméntum, engine for hurling
missiles.
NoTE 1.-A Guttural Mute is occasionally dropped in other situations.7
Thus— -
1. C before m or n : Zücmen, lïmen, light; lićcna, lùna, moon.
2. C between n and d or t : quinctus, guintus, fifth; guincaecim, gwindecim, fif-
teen.
3. G before m or v : 8 eacagmen, eacámen (20, 1), a swarm ; jugmentum, jižmentum,
beast of burden; magvult, māvult, he prefers; bregvis, brevis, short.
NoTE 2.-X is sometimes dropped: 8ea:decim, 8édecim (20, 1), sixteen; Sea:n?, 8én?,
Six each ; teacula, tea-la, téla, a web : aayula, aa-la, āla, wing. --
NOTE 8.—W,° r, and 8 are sometimes dropped: in-gnółws, ºgnótus, unknown; for-
mönsus, formösus, beautiful; quotiëns, 10 quotiës, how often ; deciéns, deciés, 10 ten
* T is changed to 8, and g is dropped.
* T is changed to S, and one l is dropped in llt, and one r in rrh.
* Compare clāmā, I cry out.
* Seen in i-gnótus, ignotus, unknown.
* Probably first assimilated and then dropped: lapids, lapiss, lapis. But the dental
is Sometimes assimilated and retained : céds?, céS3?, I have yielded: concutsit, concus-
sit, he has shaken.
° O lengthened in compensation; see 20, 1.
* Sea-tius becomes Séstius, a proper name; sea cent?, såscent?, six hundred; and
m?&6, 7x70tw8, mixed, by dropping tha muta contained in the double consonant a .
* G has also been dropped in Čič for agið, I say; májor for magior, greater, etc.
* In numerals nt is sometimes dropped: ducentn?, ducănă, two hundred each; vö-
gent-Simus or vicent-simus, vågåsimus or vicăsimus, twentieth.
* So in all numeral adverbs in ičns, iás, The approved ending in most numeral
20 PHONETIC CHANGES.
times; ºnwlier-bris, muliebris, womanly; prorsa, prósa, prose ; isdem, idem, same;
jū8-dea, jūdeº, judge; audisme, awdine, audīn, do you hear? visne, vine, win, do
you wish Ż
4. A Semivowel—j or v, also written i or u—is often dropped:
JBi-jugae, běugae, bigae, chariot with two horses; quadri-jugae, quadrigae,
chariot with four horses; conjunctus, có-junctus, cinctus, the whole; abjició
or abició,' I throw away; divition, diitior, ditior, richer; nevoló, neoló, nālā, I
am unwilling; amäverat, amaerat, amārat, he had loved.”
NoTE.—Separate words are sometimes united after the loss of v : 87 vis, sås, sås, if
you wish ; sū vultis, Siultis, Stiltis, if you wish. s
5. Final consonants are often dropped. Thus—
1) Finals is often dropped: 3
Moneris, monéré (24, 1, note), you are advised; illus, illu, ille, that; istus,
*stu, iste, that of yours; 'psus, ipsu, ipse, self, he , parricidas, parricida, par-
ricide; magis or mage, more ; Sivis, Sive, whether, lit., if you wish.
NOTE.—In the early poets e8, thou art, and est, he is, after having dropped the initial
e, sometimes become attached to the preceding word, which has lost its final 8: veritus
es, veritu's, you feared; tempus est, tempust, it is time; virtùs est, virtùst, it is virtue.
See 27, note. *
2) A final d or t is often dropped:
Cord, cor, heart; praeddd, praedd, with booty; intråd, intró, within ; fa-
cilwºnéd,” facil/?ne, most easily; vénérunt,7 venèru, vånäre, they have come ;
Tézèrunt, révère, they have ruled. .."
NoTE.—Sometimes both a vowel and a consonant disappear at the end of a word:
puérus, puer, boy (51, 2, 4)); deinde or dein, thereupon; nihilum or nihil, nothing.
3) A final n° is generally dropped in the Nominative Singular from
Stems in on:
León, leå, lion; praedon, praedi, robber; homon, homó, man.
adverbs is iés, but in those formed from indefinite numerals, as tot, quot, it is ičns:
totiëns, quotiëns.
* This is the approved form in verbs compounded of jació and monosyllabic preposi-
tions; but abició is pronounced as if written abjició or ab-êició, i.e., i =ji, pronounced
gye by the Roman method. The syllable ab thus remains long.
* Several adverbial forms were produced by the loss of v with the attendant changes:
*evorsus, reorsus, rärsus, back; subsoorsum, susvorsum, 8worswºm, sürsum, from be-
low, on high.
* In early inscriptions proper names in os, afterward us, occur without the 8 as often
as with it: Röscios, Röscio; Gabinios, Gabinio.
* This form actually occurs in early Latin.
* The Ablative singular ended anciently in d, originally t. Many prepositions and
adverbs in Č and 3 are ablatives in origin, and accordingly ended in d.
* Written with one l, afterward with two. -
* Here final t was first dropped, then n, having become final, also disappeared, and at
last final w was weakened to e : see 24, 1, note.
* In early inscriptions final m is often dropped.
ETYMOLOGY. 21
PART SEC 0N D.
IET Y. M. O L O G. Y.
37. ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification, inflection,
and derivation of words.
38. The Parts of Speech are–Wouns, Adjectives, Pro-
nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections.
C H A P T E R I.
NOTUNS.
39. A Noun or Substantive is a name, as of a person,
place, or thing : Ciceró, Cicero ; Röma, Rome; domus,
house.
1. A PROPER Noun is a proper name, as of a person or place: Cicerö;
Röma.
2. A CoMMON Nou N is a name common to all the members of a class
of objects: vir, man ; equus, horse. Common nouns include—
1) Collective Wowns, designating a collection of objects : populus,
people; exercitus, army.
2) Abstract Nouns, designating properties or qualities: virtùs, virtue;
jūstitia, justice.
3) Material Nouns, designating materials as such : aurum, gold;
lignum, wood; aqua, water.
40. Nouns have Gender, Wumber, Person, and Case.
I. GENDER.
41. There are three genders'—Masculine, Feminime, and
Neufer.
NoTE.—In some nouns gender is determined by signification; in others, by endings.
1 III Euglisli, Gondo?” donotes sea". Accordingly, masculine nouns denote males;
feminine nouns, females; and neuter nouns, objects which are neither male nor female.
In Latin, however, this natural distinction of gender is applied only to the names of
males and females; while, in all other nouns, gender depends upon an artificial dis-
tinction according to grammatical rules.
22 PERSON A WD WUMBER, CASE'S.
42. GENERAL RULES FOR GENDER.
I. MASCULINES.
1. Names of Males: Cicerö; vir, man ; réal, king.
2. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months: Rhön us,
Rhine ; Wotus, south wind; Märtius, March.
II. FEMININES.
1. Names of Females: mºulier, woman ; leaena, lioness.
2. Names of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees :
Graecia, Greece; Röma, Rome ; Dálos, Delos ; pirus, pear-
tree.
NoTE.—Indeclinable pouns, 1 infinitives, and all clauses used as nouns are neuter:
alpha, the letter a.” S Je also 532.
43. REMARKS ON GENDER.
1. ExCEPTICNS.—The endings” of nouns sometimes give them a gender
at variance with these rules. Thus, some names of rivers, countries, towns,
islands, trees, and animals take the gender of their endings; see 53, 1.
2. MASCULINE OR FEMININE-A few personal appellatives applicable to
both sexes and a few names of animals are sometimes masculine and some-
times feminine, but when used without distinct reference to sex they are
generally masculine: civis, citizen (man or woman); bos, ox, cow.
3. EPICENE Nou NS apply only to the inferior animals. They are used
for both sexes, but have only one gender, and that is usually determined
by their endings: änser, goose, masculine; aquila, eagle, feminine.
II. PERSON AND NUMBER.
44. The Latin, like the English, has three persons and
two numbers. The first person denotes the speaker ; the
second, the person spoken to ; the third, the person spoken
of. The singular number denotes one, the plural more
than One.
III. CASES.4
45. The Latin has six cases:
* Except names of persons.
2 See 128, 1.
* Gender as determined by the endings of nouns will be noticed in connection with
the Several declensions.
* The case of a noun shows the relation which that noun sustains to other words; as,
John's book. Here the possessive case (John's) shows that John sustains to the book
the relation of possessor,
DECLENSION. 23
NAMES. ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS.
Nominative, Nominative. -
Genitive, Possessive, or Objective with of.
T)ative, Objective with to or for.
Accusative, Objective.
Vocative, Nominative Independent.
Ablative, Objective with from, with, by, in.
1. OBLIQUE CASES.—The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative
are called the Oblique Cases.
2. LOCATIVE.—The Latin has also a few remnants of another case,
called the Locative, denoting the place in which.
D E C L E N S I O N .
46. STEM AND SUFFIXES.—The process by which the
several cases of a word are formed is called Declension. It
consists in the addition of certain suffixes to one common
base called the stem.
1. MEANING.—Accordingly, each case-form contains two distinct cle-
ments—the stem," which gives the general meaning of the word, and the
case-suffix, which shows the relation of that meaning to some other word.
Thus, in rég-is, of a king, the general idea, king, is denoted by the stem
règ the relation of, by the suffix is.
2. CASES ALIKE.—But certain cases are not distinguished in form.
1) The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative in Newters are alike, and
in the plural end in a.
2) The Nominative and Vocative are alike, except in the singular of
nouns in us of the second declension (51).”
3) The Dative and Ablative Plural are alike.
3. CHARACTERISTIC.—The last letter of the stem is called the STEM-
CIIARACTERISTIC, or the STEM-ENDING.
47. FIVE DECLENSIONS.—In Latin there are five de-
clensions, distinguished from cach other by the stem-char-
acteristics or by the endings of the Genitive Singular, as
follows:
* Moreover, in many words the stem itself is derived from a more primitive ſul 11,
called a Root. For the distinction between roots and stems, and for the manner in
which the latter are formed from the former, see 313–318.
*And in some nouns of Greek origin.
24 FIRST’ DECLENSION.
CHARACTERISTICS. GENITIVE ENDINGS,
DEC. I. ă ale
II. O I
III. i or a consonant is
IV. TI is .
W. ë êi
NoTE 1.-The five declensions are only five varieties of one general system of inflec-
tion, as the case-suffixes are nearly identical in all nouns.
NoTE 2.—But these case-suffixes appear distinct and unchanged only in nouns with
consonant-stems, while in all others they are seen only in combination with the charac-
teristic, i. e., with the final vowel of the stem.
NoTE 3.−The ending produced by the union of the case-suffia, with the charac-
teristic vowel may for convenience be calléd a CASE-ENDING.
FIR S T DE C L E N S I O N : A N O U N S.
48. Nouns of the first declension end in
a and é—feminine ; as and és—masculine.”
Nouns in a are declined as follows:
SINGULAR.
ExAMPLE. MEANING. CASE-ENDING.
Nom, ménsa, a table,” a 3
Gen. ménsae, of a table, 8,62
Dat. ménsae, to, for a table, à.62
Acc. mênszººna, a table, 3.Iſl
Voc. mênsa, O table, à.
Abl, mēnsā, from, with, by a table,” Fº
- PLURAL.
Mom. ménsae, tables, àe
Gen. ménsárum, of tables, 3rum
Lat. ménsis, to, for tables, IS
Acc. ménsás, tables, ãS
Voc. ménsae, O tables, a.G
Aöl. mênsis, from, with, by tables.” TS
1 That is, nouns of this declension in a and & are feminine, and those in d8 and és are
masculine.
2 The Nom. mánsa may be translated a table, table, or the table; see 48, 6.
3 These case-endings will serve as a practical guide to the learner in distinguishing
the different cases. The two elements which originally composed them have undergone
various changes, and in certain cases the one or the other has nearly or quite disappeared.
Thus the suffix has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular, and appears
only as e in four other case-forms, while the characteristic a has disappeared in the ending
78, contracted from a-is, in the Dative and Ablative Plural; see 23, 2, note.
* Still other prepositions, as in, on, at, are sometimes used in translating the Ablative.
FIRST’ DECD ENSION. 25
1. STEM.–In nouns of the first declension, the stem ends in Å.
2. In the PARADIGM, observe that the stem is mênsá, and that the sev-
eral cases are distinguished from each other by their case-endings.
3. ExAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.-Like mansa decline:
Ala, wing; aqua, water; causa, cause; fortúna, fortune.
4. LocatIVE.-Names of towns and a very few other words have a
Locative Singular" in ae, denoting the place in which (45, 2), and are
declined in the singular” number as follows:
Mom. Röma, Rome, militia, war,”
Gen. Römae, of Rome, militiae, of war,
JDat. Römae, for Rome,” militiae, for war,
Acc. Römanna, Rome, militiam, war,
Voc. Röma, O Rome, militia, O war,
Abl. Römä, from Rome,” militiã, from war,
Loc. Römae, at Rome. militiae, in war.
5. ExCEPTIONS IN GENDER.—1. A few nouns in a are masculine by
signification: agricola, husbandman ; see 42, I-2. Hadria, Adriatic Sea,
is masculine; sometimes also dàmma, deer, and talpa, mole.
6. ARTICLE.—The Latin has no article: corõna, crown, a crown, the
crown ; &la, wing, a wing, the wing. -
49. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS.–The following occur: 4
1. as in the Genitive of familia, in composition with pater, māter,
filius, and filia: paterfamiliás, father of a family.
2. ai, an old form for the Genitive ending ae, in the poets: "auldi, af-
terward aulae, of a hall.
3. iim " in the Genitive Plural: Dardanidüm for Dardanidarum, of
the descendants of Dardanus.
4. abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural, especially in dea, goddess,
and filia, daughter, to distinguish them from the same cases of deus, god,
and filius, son: dedbus for deis, to goddesses.
* In the Plural of all nouns the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative: Athén?s,
at Athens. Whether, however, the form Athénis is in origin a Locative, an Ablative, or
neither, is a disputed question. See Bopp, I., pp. 484 seq.; Schleicher, pp. 586, 587;
Penka, p. 194; Delbrück, p. 27; Merguet, pp. 116, 117; Wordsworth, p. 59. In most
nouns the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative in both numbers.
* The Plural when used is like the Plural of mémsa. - -
* For the other prepositions which may be used in translating the Dative and the
Ablutive, see 43. Mºlºtu, war, waſ ſalu, Luilitary set vive.
* To these must be added for early Latin & in the Nom. and Voc. Sing. and ād in
the Abl. Sing.; see 21, 2, 1), and 36, 5, 2).
* Also in inscriptions as the ending of the Genitive, Dative, and Locative.
* Contracted from a-wm like the Greek á-ov, Öv.
2
26 SECOND DEOLENSION.
NOTE.-Nouns in ia sometimes have 78 for £78 in the Dative and Ablative Plural:
grátīs for grâtiis, from grátia, favor, kindness.
50. GREEK Nou NS.–Nouns of this declension in é, as,
and és are of Greek origin, and are declined as follows:
Epitomě, epitome. Aenéâs, Aeneas. Pyrités, pyrites.
SINGULAR.
Nom. epitomě Aenéâs pyrités
Gen. epitoměs Aenéale pyritae
Dat. epitomae Aenéae pyritae
Acc. epitoměm Aenéam, àm pyritém
Voc. epitomě Aenéâ. pyrité, a
Abl, epitomě Aenéâ. pyrité, ii.
PLURAL.
Nom. epitomae pyritae
Gen. epitomarus sm - pyritārum
Lat. epitomis pyritis
Acc. epitomâs pyritās
Voc. epitomae pyritae
Abl, epitomis pyritis
NoTE 1.—In the Plural and in the Dative Singular, Greek nouns are declined like
777&n Sa.
NoTE 2.-In nouns in Č and é8, the stem-ending d is changed to 3 in certain cases.
NoTE 3.—Many Greek nouns assume the Latin ending a, and are declined like ménsa.
Many in 3 have also a form in a epitomě, epitoma, epitome.
SECOND DECLENSION : O NOUNS.
51. Nouns of the second declension end in
er, ir, us, and os'—masculine ; um, and on—neuter.
Nouns in er, ir, us, and um are declined as follows:
Servus,” slave. Puer, boy. Ager, field. Templum, temple.
SINGULAR.
Nom. servus * puer ager templuma
Gen. servi pueri agri templi
Dat. servé puerò agró templo
Acc. servairma puerum agruna templum
Voc. Scrye puer ager - templum
Aöl. servº puerö agró templo
1 Sometimes 08.
2 Sometimes written servos, see 52, 1.
* In the Roman and in the Continental pronunciation, quantity furnishes a Safe guide
SECOND DECLENSION.
27
PLURAL.
Mom. Servi pueri agri templa
Gen. Servørumºn pueròrum agrórum. templorum
JDat, servis pueris agris templis
Acc. servøs pueròs agrós templa
Voc. Servi pueri agri templa
Aöl. servis pueris agris templis
1. STEM.–In nouns of the second declension, the stem ends in o.
2. In the PARADIGMS, observe—
1) That the stems are servo, puero, agro, and templo.
2) That the characteristic o becomes u in the endings us and um, and e
in serve,” that it disappears by contraction in the endings a,” 7, and is (for o-a,
0-i, and 0-is),” and is dropped in the forms puer and ager.
3) That the case-endings, including the characteristic o (47, N. 2), are as
follows:
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. NEUT. MASC. NEUT
Mom. us 4 UIIIl Mom. i 8,
Gen. i I Gen. Örum Öruln
Dat. Ó Ö Dat, is IS
Acc. um l]IOl Acc. Ös a
Woo, e 4 III]] Voc. i 8,
Abl. Ó Ö Abl. is IS
4) That puer and ager diſfer in declension from servus in dropping the
endings us and e in the Nominative and Vocative: Nom. puer for puerus,
Voc. puer for puere.
5) That e in ager is developed by the final 7.5
6) That templum, as a neuter noun, has the Nominative, Accusative, and
Vocative alike, cnding in the plural in a y See 46, 2, 1).
3. ExAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.-Like SERVUS : dominus, master.
PUER: gener, Son-in-law.
bellum, war.
Like
Like AGER: magister, master. Like TEMPLUM :
to the Sounds of the vowels; see 5. In the English method, on the contrary, the quan-
tity of the vowels is entirely disregarded, except as it affects the accent of the word.
Thus, a in ager is short in quantity, but long in Sound (10, 3), while 7 in Servis, pºweris,
agris, and templis is long in quantity but short in Sound (11, 1). Accordingly, in this
method, the sounds of the vowels must be determined by the rules given in 9, 10.
and 11. Moreover, the learner must not forget that when the quantity of the vowel is
known, the quantity of the syllable, as used in poetry, is readily determined by article 16
* See 22 and 24, 1, note.
* Shortened from 3; 3cc 21, 2, 1).
* See 23, note, and 27.
* The endings of the Nom. and Voc. Sing. are wanting in nouns in er.
* See 29, note.
28 SECOND DECLEWSIOW.
4. Nouns IN er AND ir.—Most nouns in er are declined like ager, but
the following in er and ir are declined like puer:
1) Nouns in ir: vár, viri, man. -
2) Compounds infer and ger: armiger, armigeri, armor-bearer; signifer,
signiferi, standard-bearer.
3) Adulter, adulterer; Celtiber, Celtiberian ; gener, son-in-law ; Iber,
Spaniard; Liber, Bacchus; liberi, children; Mulciber, Vulcan; presbyter,
elder; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening.
5. Nouns in ius generally contract iſ in the Genitive Singular and ie
in the Vocative Singular into i without change of accent: Claudi for
Claudii, of Claudius, fili for filä, of a son; Mercu'ri for Mercu'rie, Mer-
cury, fili for filie, son.” In the Genitive Singular of nouns in ium the
same contraction takes place: inge'ni for inge'nii, of talent; see 18, 1.
6. DEUs is thus declined: Sing, deus, dei, ded, deum, deus, de6: Plur. N.
and W. dei, dii, di,” G. deGrum, deiſm : D. and A. deis, dis, dis;* Acc. deGs.
7. NEUTERS IN us.-The three neuter nouns in us,” pelagus, Sea, virus, poi-
son, and vulgus, the common people, are declined in the singular as follows:
Aom., Acc., Voc. pelagus Virus vulgus"
Gen. pelagi Viri vulgi
Dat., Abl. pelagö Viró vulgó
NoTE.— Pelagus is a Greek noun (54, N. 2), and in general is used only in the singu-
lar, though pelagé occurs as an Acc. Plur. Virus and vulgus are used only in the
singular. Vulgus has a masculine Acc., vulgum, in addition to the neuter form vulgus.
8. Locative.—Names of towns and a few other words have a Locative
Singular" in i, denoting the place in which (45, 2), and are declined in the
singular" number as follows:
Nom. Ephesus, Ephesus, belluma, war,
Gen. Ephesi, of Ephesus, belli, of war,
Dat. Ephesú, for Ephesus, belló, for war,
Acc. Ephesurm, Ephesus, bellum, war,
Voc. Ephese, O Ephesus, bellum, O war,
Abl. Ephesú, from Ephesus, belló, from, by war,
Loc. Ephesi, at Ephesus. belli, in war.
i Celtiber and Iber have e long in the Gen., and Mulcâber sometimes drops e.
2 Nouns in Čius sometimes contract Čie in the Woc. Sing, into & ; Pompéi or Pom-
pči, Pompey.
8 Dī and dis are the approved forms, but dei, dź and deis, džis also occur.
4 Originally s-stems which by the loss of s in the oblique cases have become o-stems;
see 62, I., 1, foot-note.
* Also written volgus.
° In the Plural the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative: Gabús, at Gabii;
see 48, 4, foot-note.
7 The Plural, when used, is like the Plural of 8ervus, puer, etc.
SECOWD DECAL ENSION. 29
52. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS.—The following occur:*
1. os and om, old endings for us and wºm, sometimes used after v and
w: * servos for servus, servom for servum ; mortuos for mortuus, dead.
2. us for e in the Vocative of deus, god; rare in other words.
3. iim in the Genitive Plural, especially common in a few words de-
noting money, weight, and measure: talentiſm for talentorum, of talents;
also in a few other words: deiſm for dečrum ; liberàm for liberărum ;
Argivām for Argivārum.
NoTE.—The ending im occurs also in the Genitive Plural of many other words,
especially in poetry. -
53. GENDER.—Nouns in er, ir, us, and Os are masculine, those in um
and on are neuter; except—
1. The Feminines *—(1) See 42, II., but observe that many names of
countries, towns, islands, and trees follow the gender of their endings. (2)
Most names of gems and ships are feminine: also alvus, belly; carbasus, sail;
colus, distaff; humºus, ground; vannus, sieve. (3) A few Greek feminines.
2. The Neuters –pelagus, Sea; virus, poison; vulgus, common people.
For declension, see 51, 7.
54. GREEK NOUNS.—Nouns of this declension in os, Ös,
and on are of Greek Origin, and are declined in the singu-
lar as follows: -
Delos, F.,” Delos. Androgeos, Androgeos. Ilion, Ilium.
Mom. Dělos Androge&s Ilion
Gen. Déli Androged, i Tlii
IX&t. Dölö Androged Ilić,
Acc, Déloan Androge&ra, Ö Ilion
Voc. Děle Androgeos Ilion
Aöl. Dölö Androged Ilić,
NOTE. 1.-The Plural of nouns in os and on is generally regular, but certain Greek
endings occur, as oe in the Nominative Plural, and Ön in the Genitive.
NOTE 2.—Most Greek nouns generally assume the Latin forms in us and wºm, and are
declined like servus and templwm. Many in os or on have also a form in us or wºn.
NoTE 3.—For Greek nouns in eu8, see 68 and 68, 1.
NOTE 4.—Panthiis has Woc. Panthº. For pelagus, see 51, 7, note.
* To these must be added for early Latin: 1) &d in Abl. Sing., and ā in Nom., Acc.,
and Voc. of the Neut. Plur.; see 36, 5, 2), and 21, 2, 1); 2) oe in Gen. Sing. ; oé, é, és,
els, and is in NoDa. Plur. : poploe=populi; ploirwºmé-plúrimi; mirés=viri: leibéréis or
leiberis—liberi. * ,
* Some recent editors have adopted vos, wog, vom and wom, for vuò, wus, vum and
tºwn, but the wisdom of such a course is at least questionable. See Brambach, p. 3.
* M. Stands for masculine, F. for feminine, and N. for mewter.
30 THIRD DECLEVSION.
THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT AND I NOUNS.
55. Nouns of the third declension end in
a, e, i, o, y, c, l, n, r, s, t, and x.
56. Nouns of this declension may be divided into two
classes:
I. Nouns whose stem ends in a Consonant.
II. Nouns whose stem ends in I.”
CLASS I.—CONSONANT STEMS.
57. STEMS ENDING IN A LABIAL: B OR P.
** 2 e
Princeps, M.,” a leader, chief.
SINGULAR. CASE-SUFFIXEs
Nom. princeps, a leader, S
Gen. principis, of a leader, is
Dat. principH, to, for a leader, I
Acc. principenna, a leader, CIYl
Voc. princeps, O leader, S
Abl, principe, from, with, by a leader, €
PLURAL.
Nom. principás, leaders, €S
Gen. principuma, of leaders, |UIII).
Dat. principibus, to, for leaders, ibus
Acc. principes, leaders, ëS
Voc. principás, O leaders, ëS
Aöl. principibus, from, with, by leaders. ibus
1. STEM AND CASE-SUFFIXES.—In this Paradigm observe—
1) That the stem is princep, modified before an additional syllable to
princip; see 22, 1, and 57, 2.
2) That the case-suffixes appear distinct and separate from the stem ; 3 see
46, 1, and 47, note 2.
2. WARIABLE Wow EL.-In the final syllable of dissyllabic consonant
stems, short e or i generally takes the form of e in the Nominative and
Vocative Singular and that of i in all the other cases. Thus princeps,
1 For Gender, see 99-115.
* See foot-note 8, p. 29.
8 Thus, princep-s, princip-is, etc. In the first and second declensions, on the con-
trary, the suffix can not be separated from the final vowel of the stem in such forms as
nënsis, puerº, agris, etc.
THIRD DECD ENSION. 31
principis, and jūdex, jūdicis (59), alike have e in the Nominative and
Vocative Singular and i in all the other cases, though in princeps the
original form of the radical vowel is e, and in jūdex, i. For a similar
change in the vowel of the stem, see miles, militis (58), and carmen, car-
minis” (60). See also opus, operis (61).
3. In monosyllables in bs the stem ends in i; see urbs, 64.
4. For the LoCATIVE IN THE THIRD DECLENSION, see 66, 4.
5. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see 87, 89.
58. STEMS ENDING IN A DENTAL : D OR T.
Lapis, M., Stone. Aetās, F., age. Miles, M., Soldier.
SINGULAR.
Nom. lapis aetäs miles
Gen. lapidis aetătis militis
Dat, lapidi aetăti militi
Acc. lapidem aetäte HRE. militerra
Voc. lapis aetäs miles
Abl, lapide aetäte milite
PLURAL.
Nom. lapidès aetätés militès
Gen. lapidum aetät HARMA militum
Dat, lapidibus aetătibus militibus
Acc. lapidés aetătăs militès
Voc. lapidès aetătăs militès
Abl, lapidious aetătibus militious
Nepôs, M., grandson.
Wirtùs, F., virtue.
Caput, N., head.
SINGULAR.
Mom. nepòs virtùs caput
Gen. nepotis virtùtis capitis
Dat. nepúti. virtúti. capiti
Acc. nepòtema virtùtem caput
Voc. nepús virtùs caput
Abl, nepòte virtùte capite
PLURAL.
Wom. nepātās virtùtºs capita.
Gen. nepòtum virtùtumn capitum
Dat. nepútibus virtùtibus capitibus
1 See 22, 1.
* See 22, 1, foot-note.
32 THIRD DECLENSION.
Acc. nepôtés virtùtés capita
Voc. nepôtés virtùtús capita
Abl, nepôtibus virtùtibus capitious
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES.—In these Paradigms observe—
1) That the stems are lapid, aetăţ, milit, népôt, virtùt, and capuž.
2) That miles has the variable vowel, e, i, and caput, u, i, see 5?, 2.
3) That the dental d or t is dropped before s : lapis for lapids, aetàs for
aetáts, miles for milets, virtùs for virtùts; see 36, 2. -
4) That the case-suffixes, except in the neuter, caput (46, 2), are the same
as those given above ; see 57.
5) That the neuter, caput, has no case-suffix in the Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative Singular, a in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative
Plural, and the suffixes of masculine and feminine nouns in the other cases.
2. NEUTER STEMS IN at drop t in the Nominative Singular and end in a .
Nom., poèma, Gen., poèmatis; Stem, poèmat. These nouns sometimes have
is for ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural: poèmatis for poèmatibus.
3. For SYNOPSIs of DECLENSION, see 69, 78–84.
59. STEMS ENDING IN A GUTTURAL : C OR G.
Téx, M., Jüdex, M. & F., Rädix, F., Dux, M. & F.,
king. judge. 7:00ū. leader.
SINGULAR.
Mom. réx jūdex rādīx dux
Gen. régis jūdicis rādīcis ducis
Dat. régi jūdici rådici ducI
Acc. régemma jūdicema rădicelina ducerra
• Voc. réx jūdex rådix dux
Abl, rége jūdice rădice duce
PLURAL.
Nom. régès jūdicës rädicës duces
Gen. réguſſºn jūdicum rādīcuamma ducinnma
Dat. régious jūdicibus rādīcìbums ducibus
Acc. régès jūdicës rädicës duces
Voc. régès jūdicës rādīcés ducăs
Abl. régious jūdicibuns rădicious ducibus
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES.—In the Paradigms observe—
1) That the stems are rég, jūdic, rādīc, and duc, jūdic with the variable
vowel, i, e ; see 57, 2.
2) That the case-suffixes are those given in 57.
3) That s in the Nominative and Vocative Singular unites with c or g of
the stem and forms a, , see 30.
2. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see Nouns IN x, 91-98.
THIRD DECLEWSION.
33
60. STEMS ENDING IN L, M, N, OR. R.
Mom.
Gen.
Lat.
Acc.
|Voc.
Aöl.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat,
Acc.
$2/72,
Söl
sölis
SöII
sólem
sól
söle
sölès 1
sölibus
sólēs
Sölös
sölibus
Pästor, M.,
Shepherd.
pästor
pästöris
pästöri
pästöreran
pästor
pästöre
pästörés
pästörum
pästöribus
pästörös
pästörös
pästöribhis
Cönsul, M.,
consul.
SINGULAR.
cönsul
cönsulis
cönsuli
cönsulem
cönsul
cönsule
PLURAL.
cönsulês
cönsulum.
cönsulibus
cönsulês
cönSulês
cönsulibus
Leó, M.,
lion.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
lečnés
lečnunna
leonibus
leónés
lednēs
leónibus
Passer, M.,
Sparrow.
passer
passeris
passeri
passerem
passer
passere
passerés
passerum.
passeribus
passerés
passerés
passerious
Virgö, F.,
"maiden.
virgö
virginis
virgini
virgineſſm
virgö
virgine .
virginés
virginum
virginibus
virginés
virginés
virginibus
Pater, M.,
Jather.
pater
patris
patri
patrem
pater
patre
patrès
patrum
patribus
patrès
patrès
patribus
Carmen, N.,
80mg.
C3I’Iſleſl
carminis
carmini
C3PI]]{2]].
C8, I’Iſl{2}l
carmine
carmina.
carminum
carminibus
carmina,
carmina,
carminibus
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES.–In the Paradigms observe—
1) That the stems are sāl, consul, passer, patr,” påstår, león, virgon, and
Cú7°7%tº 72.
* Many monosyllables want the Gen. Plur.; see 133, 5.
* That is, the stem is patr when followed by a vowel; but when r becomes final, it
develops 6 before it, and patr becomes pater; see 29, note.
34 THIRD DECLENSION.
2) That virgö (virgon) has the variable vowel, o, i, and Carmen, e, i.
3) That in the Nominative and Vocative Singular s, the usual case-suffix
for masculine and feminine nouns, is omitted, and that in those cases the stem
pästör shortens o, while león and virgon drop n; see 21, 2, 2), and 36, 5, 8).
2. HIEMs, the only stem in m, takes 8 in the Nominative and Vocative
Singular. Also sanguis (for Sanguins), blood, and Salamis (for Salamins),
Salamis, which drop n before 8; see 36, 3, note 3.
3. PAssER, PATER.—Most nouns in er are declined like passer, but those
in ter, and a few others, are declined like pater; see 77, 2.
4. LEö, VIRGö.—Most nouns in o are declined like leff, but those in dö
and gö, with a few others, are declined like virgö; see 72, with exceptions.
5. Four STEMS IN or change o to u ; see 77, 4.
6. For the LooATIVE IN THE THIRD DECLENSION, see 66, 4.
7. For SYNoFSIs of DECLENSION, see 72, 75–77.
61. STEMS ENDING IN S.
Flös, M., Jüs, N., Opus, N., Corpus, N.,
jlower. right. work. body.
SINGULAR.
Nom. flös jūs opus corpus
Gen. flöris jūris operis corporis
Dat, flöri jūrī operi corpori
Acc. flörem jūs opus corpus
Voc. flös jūs Opus corpus
Abl, flöre jüre opere corpore
PLURAL.
JWom. flörés jūra. opera. corpora.
Gen. flórum jūrum operum corporum
JDat. flöribus jüribus operibus corporibus
Acc. flörös jūra, opera, corpora,
Voc, flörös jūra, opera, corpora,
Abl, flöribuls jüribuns operibus corporibus
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES.—In the Paradigms observe—
1) That the stems are flös, jãs, opos, and corpoS.
2) That opus has the variable vowel, e, u, and corpus, o, u.
3) That s of the stem becomes r between two vowels: flös, flóris (for
flösis); see 31, 1.
4) That the Nom. and Voc. Sing. Omit the case-suffix; see 60, 1, 3).
2. For SYNopsis of DECLENSION, see '79, 80, 82–84.
1 Opos occurs in early Latin. In os, from the Primary Suffix as (320), o was weak-
ened to w in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. Sing. of opus and corpus, while in all the other
case-forms it was Weakened to 6 in opus, but retained unchanged in corpus ; see 22.
THIRD DECLENSION. 35
C L A S S II. —I S T E M S.
62. STEMS ENDING IN I.--Wowns ºn is and és, not
increasing in the Genitive.” -
Turris, F., Ignis, M.,
Tussis, F., Hostis, M. & F., Nübès,” F.,
cough. toºper. Jire. énémy. cloud.
SINGULAR.
Nom. tussis turris ignis hostis Intibës
Gen. tussis turris ignis hostis niibis
IDat. tussi turri igni hosti niibi
Acc. tussiºn turrina, em ignem hostern niiberina
Voc. tussis turris ignis hostis niibés
Aöl. tussi turri, e igni, e hoste niibe
PLURAL.
Nom. tussès turrës ignès hostěs niibés
Gen. tussium turriuma ignium hostium nubium
Dat. tussibus turribus ignibus hostibus nubiºus
Acc. tussés, Is turrës, is ignès, is hostěs, is nübès, is
Woc. tussès turrës ignès hostès niibés
Abl, tussibus turribus ignibus hostibus nilbibus
I. PARADIGMS.—Observe— - ::
1. That the stems are tussi, turri, igni, hosti, and niºbi.” - * ,
2. That the case-endings, including the characteristic i, which disappears
in certain cases, are as follows:
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Mom. is, és ëS
Gen. is ium
Dat. I ibus
Acc. im, em ës, is
Voc. is €S
Abl. I, e ibus
1 That is, having as many syllables in the Nom. Sing. as in the Gen. Sing.
* Observe (1) that tussis, turris, ignès, and hostis differ in declension only in the Acc.
and Abl. Sing., tussis showing the final i of the stem in both those cases, turris some-
times in both, ignis sometimes in the Abl., not in the Acc., hostis in neither (2) that mºbés
differs from the other four in taking é8 instead of is in the Nom. and Woc. Sing.
* Nouns in Čs, Gen. is, are best treated as i-stems, although some of them were
originally 8-stems (61). Thus, originally the stem of nibés was itself nºbés, but 8 was
finally treated as the Nom. suffix, and the word was accordingly declined like the large
class of i-nouns mentioned under 62, W. The origin of i-stems is obscure. A few cor-
respond to 2-stems in the cognate tongues, as ignès, ovis, turris; a few are weakened
from a-stems or o-stems, as foris, a door, Gr. 9 ſpa, imber=ſimbris, rain-storm, Gr.
ôpºſłpos; some are formed from S-stems, as nºbés, just mentioned. Upon the general
subject of i-stems, see Roby, pp. 136–149; Schleicher, pp. 884, 432, 453; Corssen, I. 281,
571, 788 seq.; II. 227 ; Merguet, pp. 36–40, 51, 67, 95, etc.
36 THIRD DAECLENSIO W.
II. Like TUSSIS-ACC. im, ABL. i–-are declined—
1. Bâris, plough-tail; rāvīs, hoarseness; sitis, thirst.
2. In the Singular: (1) Names of rivers and places in is not increasing in
the Genitive: Thberis, Hispalès; see 582, (2) Greek nouns in is, Gen. is,
and some others.
III. Like TURRIS-ACC. im, em, ABL. 1, e—are declined—
Clävis, key ; febris, fever; messis, harvest; návis, ship; puppis, stern ;
7'estis, rope; 8ecăris, axe ; Sèmentis, sowing; Strägilis, strigil.
1. Araris, or Arar (for Araris), the Saône, and Liger (for Ligeris), the
Loire, have Acc. im, em, Abl. i. e.
IV. Like IGNIS-ACC. em, ABL. I, e—are declined—
Amnis, river; anguês, serpent ; avis, bird; bilis, bile ; civis, citizen:
classis, fleet; collis, hill; finis, end; orbis, circle; postés, post; unguis, nail,
and a few others.
NOTE 1.-Adjectives in er (for ris) and those in is have the Ablative in I (153,
154). Accordingly, when such adjectives are used substantively, the 7 is generally re-
tained : September, Septembri, September; 2 familiária, familiári, friend. But adjec-
tives used as proper names have e: Juvenális, Juvenále, Juvena].
NotE 2.-Imber (for imbris), storm; vesper (for vesperis), evening, and a few others,
sometimes have the Ablative in I. -
W. Like HoSTIS-ACC. em, ABL. e—are declined all nouns in is, Gen.
is, not provided for under II., III., and IV.”
WI. Like NGBEs are declined all nouns in Čs, Gen. is.”
63. STEMS ENDING IN I.-Neuters in e, al, and ar.
Mare, Sea. Animal, animal. Calcar, spur.
SINGUIAR. - CASE-ENDINGS.
Mom, mare animal calcar e— " .
Gen. maris animälis calcărăs is
IDat. mari animăli calcãri i
Acc. mare animal calcar e—"
Voc. mare animal calcar e— ”
Abl, mari" animăli calcări j
1 The shortening of Araris to Arar and of Ligeris to Liger is similar to the short-
ening of puerus to puer; see 51, 2, 4); 36, 5, 2), note.
* Names of months are adjectives used substantively. Originally ménsis, month, was
understood.
3 Except canis and juvenis, which are consonant-stems, but have assumed i in the
Nom. Sing. In the plural they have wm in the Gen. and és in the Acc. Apis, mēnsis,
and volucris often have wm for Žum in the Gen.
4 Except strués and vátēs, which generally have um in Gen. Pl, and Sédés, which has
wm or Čum. Compés, Gen. edis, has also ium.
5 See 2 below.
* The dash here implies that the case-ending is sometimes wanting.
THIRD DECL ENSION.
3?
Mom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Voc.
Abl.
maria
marium
maribºls
maria,
maria,
maribus
PLURAL,
animália
animălium
animălibus
animália
animália
animálibus
1. PARADIGMS.—Observe—
1) That the stem-ending i is changed to e in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Singular of mare, and dropped in the same cases of animal (for
animále) and calcar (for calcáre); see 24, 1, note; 27; 21, 2, 2).
2) That the case-endings include the characteristic i.
2. The following have e in the Ablative Singular:-(1) Names of towns
in e ; Praeneste.—(2) Generally réte, net, and in poetry sometimes mare.
NoTE.—Neuters in ar, with a short in the Genitive, are consonant-stems: nectar,
72éctaris, nectar; also 8&l, Balt, and fair, corn.
calcária,
calcărium
calcãribus
calcăria,
calcăria.
calcăribugs
ia.
ium
ibus
ia
ia.
ibus
64. STEMS ENDING IN I.--Wowns in s and x generally
preceded by a consonant.
Cliéns, M. & F., Urbs, F.,
client.
cličns
clientis.”
clienti
clientenn
cličns
cliente
clientès
clientium
clientibus
clientès, is
clientès
clientibiºus
city.
SINGUI, AR.
urbs
urbis
urbi
urbemº.
urbs
urbe
PLURAL,
urbës
urbium
urbibuns
urbës, is
urbës
urbibuns
Arx, F.,
citadel.
arx 3
arcis
arCi
3.1°C (EIt ſº.
3.TX
3.1°C&
arcés
arcienna
arcibus
arcés, is
arCés
arcibus
Mús,” M.,
772.07/S63,
miis
müris 4
Imüri
Intire Iº.
müs
mire
mürès
mürishmen
müribus
mürès, is
mürès
mirilours
* Cličns is for cláentis, wrös for wröðs, arac for arcís, and miſs for miſsis; see 36, 5,
2), note. Mús, originally an 8-stem, Greek pås, became an i-stem in Latin by assuming i.
* The vowel e is here short before nt, but long before ms; see 16, note 2. Indeed, it
seems probable that nt and nd shorten a preceding vowel, as ns lengthens it. See Mül-
ker, p. 27 ; Ritschl, Rhein. Museum, xxxi., p. 488.
* Xin aræ=ce, c belonging to the stem, and s being the Nom. suffix.
* Mºris is for mà838; 8 changed to r between two vowels; see 31, 1.
38 THIRD DECLENSION.
1. PARADIGMS.—Observe—
1) That the stems are clienti, urbé, arci, and migri.
2) That these nouns are declined in the singular precisely like consonant-
stems, and in the plural precisely like all other masculine and feminine
Ż-stems.1
2. This class of i-stems includes—
1) Most nouns in ns and r3 : * cliens, clientis, client; cohors, cohortis,
cohort.
2) Monosyllables in 8 and a preceded by a consonant,3 and a few in 8
and a preceded by a vowel: 4 urbs, city; ara, citadel; Zīs, strife; now,
night.
3) Names of nations in d8 and is, or, if plural, in dtes and ites: Arpinäs,
pl. Arpīnátēs, an Arpinatian, the Arpinates; Samnis, pl. Samnités, the
Samnites.
4) Optămăţes, the aristocracy; Penditës, the household gods, and occasion-
ally other nouns in Ös.
NoTE 1.--Caró, flesh, has a form in is, carnis (for carinis), from which are formed
carni, carnium, etc.
NoTE 2.-Pars, part, sometimes has partim in the Accusative.
NoTE 3.-Rü8, country, sors, lot, Supellea, furniture, and a few other words some-
times have the Ablative in 7.
65. SUMMARY OF I-STEMS.—To I-stems belong—
* 1. All nouns in is and ās which do not increase in the Genitive ;
see 62. Here belong also-
1) Names of months in ber (for bris): September, Octáber, etc.; see 62, N. 1.
2) The following nouns in ber and ter (for bris and tris): imber, storm;
linter, boat; iºter, leathern Sack; venter, belly; generally also Insuber, an
Insubrian. t *.
Y 2. Neuters in e, al (for alis) and ar (for aris); see 63; also 63,
2, note.
W 3. Many nouns in s and x—especially (1) nouns in ns and rs,
and (2) monosyllables in s and x preceded by a consonant : See
64, 2.
1 Nouns thus declined are most conveniently treated as Č-nouns, though the stem
appears to end in a consonant in the Sing, and in i in the Plur. In some of these nouns
the stem has lost its final & in the Sing., while in others it ended originally in a con-
sonant, but afterward assumed i in the Plur., at least in certain cases; see 62, I., foot-
In Ote.
* Some of these often have um in poetry and Sometimes even in prose, as paréns,
parent, generally has.
* Except (ops) opis and the Greek nouns, grg/ps, lyma, sphina.
* Namely, fawa, glis, lis, más, nic, now, os (OSSis), vis, generally fraws and miſs.
THIRD DECAL ENSION.
39
66. SPECIAL PARADIGMS.
SüS, M. & F.,
Swine.
Nom, süs
Gen. suis
Lat. sui
Acc. Suem
Voc. sils
Abl, sue
Nom, sués
Gen. Sudam
Suibuas
Lat. }
sulbums
Acc. sués
Voc. sués
Suibus
Abl. }
Subans
Bós, M. & F.,
02, Cow.
bös 1
bovis
bovi
bove ºn
bös
bove
boyès
bovium
| bourna
böbius'
! bûbus'
bovés
bovčs
bölbums
| bülbums
Nix, F.,
$70,070.
SINGULAR.
nix
nivis
nivi
niverm
nix
nive
PLURAL.
nives
nivium
nivibuns
nives
nives
niwiłogºs
Senex, M.,
old man.
SęIlê X.
senis
Seni
Se]] (2 Tºl
SCI16X
SéIłę
Sentºs
Senºirſ ºl
senibus
Sen.&s
Senés
senibus
Wis, F.,
Jorce.
vis
vis”
VI 2
wim
Vis
VI
VIrès
virium
virious
WIrès
VIrès
viribus
1. The STEMs are sw; bow nig (nix=nigs), niv, nivi : *sence, sen; vi.
(sing.), viri (for visi, plur.); * see 31, 1.
2. SUs, and GRÜs, crane, the only u stems in this declension, are de-
clined alike, except in the Dative and Ablative Plural, where grüs is
regular: grwibus.
3. JUPPITER, Jupiter, is thus declined: Jüppiter, Jovis, Jovi, Jovem,
Jüppiter, Jove. STEMs, Jüppiter and Jov.
4. LOCATIVE.-Many names of towns have a Locative Singular in i or e
denoting the place in which (45, 2). Thus:
Wom. Karthågå, Carthage, Tibur, Tibur,
Gen. Karthåginis, of Carthage, Tiburis, of Tibur,
Dat. Karthågini, for Carthage, Tiburi, for Tibur,
4cc. Karthäginema, Carthage, Tibur, Tibur,
Voc. Karthågå, O Carthage, Tibur, O Tibur,
Abl, Karthågine, from Carthage, Tibure, from Tibur,
Loc. Karthågini or e, at Carthage. Tiburi or e, at Tööwr.
* Bö0 = boys, boup; babwo, būbus — bovibms, homhns.
* The Gen. and Dat. Sing.—ois, wº—are rare.
* For nigvi, from which nig is formed by first dropping i and then v. See 27, 36,
3, note 1. -
* V7 is formed from visi by first dropping i and then 8.
40 GREEK MOUNS.
67. CASE-SUFFIXES AND CASE-ENDINGS."
SINGULAR.
CONSONANT STEMS. I-STEMS.
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
Mom, s, 2 — 2 is, és, S e, 4
Gen. is is is is
I)at. I i i i
Acc. em. sº-ºººº- im, em e,
Voc. s pºs is, és, 8 e,
Abl, e € I, e i
PLURAL.
.Mom. Ös 3, ëS ia
Gén, um 1III] ium ium
Daff. ibus ibus ibus ibus
Acc. es 8, ës, is ia
Voc. &S fl. ëS ia
Abl. ibus ibus ibus ibus
NoTE,--The following irregular case-endings occur : 8
1. É, for i, in the Dat. Sing.: 4 aeré for aeri.
2. Eis, for Žs, in the Acc. Plur. : civets for civis, cºvés,
8. For GREEK ENDINGS, see 68.
G R E E R N O U N S.
68. Most Greek nouns of the third declension are en-
tirely regular, but a few retain certain peculiarities of the
Greek. The following are examples:
Lampas, F., Phryx, M. & F., Hérôs, M.,
torch. Phrygian. hero.
SINGULAR,
Nom. lampas Phryx hérôs
Gen. lampadis, os Phrygis, os höröis
Dat, lampadi, i Phrygi, i hérôň, i
Acc. lampadem, a Phrygena, a hérôem, a
Voc. lampas Phryx hérôs
Abl, lampade Phryge hérôe
1 On the distinction between Case-Suffixes and Case-Endings, see 46, 1, and 47, note 3.
* The dash denotes that the case-ending is wanting.
3 To these should be added for early Latin—1) w8 and es in the Gen. Sing. : homżnus
= hominis; 8alātes = Salātīs; 2) id and 3 in the Abl. Sing. : conventiãmid = conven-
tione; patré = patre; 3) is and eis in the Nom. Plur. of i-nouns: fēneis, finis = finés.
On the Case-Endings of the Third Declension in early Latin, see Wordsworth, pp.
63–73; Kühner, I., pp. 173–179.
* This e is generally long.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 41
PLURAL.
Nom, lampadés, es Phrygës, es hérôés, es
Gen. lampadumrºn Phrygºm hérôum
Dat, lampadibus Phrygilbums hérôibus
Acc. lampadès, as Phrygës, as hérôés, as
Voc. lampadès, es Phrygës, es hérôés, es
Abl, lampadibuls Phrygifolius hérôibuns
Periclés, M., Paris, M., Dido, F., Orpheus, M.,
Pericle3. Paris. Dido. Orpheus.
SINGULAR.'
Mom. Periclés Paris Dido Orpheus”
Gen. Periclis, I Paridis, os Dīdās, 5nis Orph-eos, ei, I
Dat. Pericli, i Paridi, i DIdö, Öni, Öni Orph-ei, ei, i, ed
Acc. Periclem, ea, en}. zºº, Didó, Öneraa Orphea, enham
Parim, in
Voc. Periclés, es, & Pari DIdó Orpheu
Abl. Pericle Paride Dido, öne Orpheds
1. Observe that these PARADIGMs fluctuate in certain cases—(1) between
the Latin and the Greek forms: Zampadis, os; lampadem, a , hēröés, as :-(2)
between different declensions: PERICLEs, between Dec. I., Periclén, Pérècle,
Dec. II., Peric/7 (Gen.), and Dec. III., Periclis, etc. : ORPHEUs, between Dec.
II., Orphei, Orphéâ, etc., and Dec. III., Orphé0s, etc.
2. Nou N's IN ?/s have Gen. $/08, Žs, Ace. 3/m, yn & Othrys, Othryos, Othrym,
Othryn.
3. The Vocative SINGULAR drops s—(1) in nouns in eus, ºys, and in proper
names in as, Gen. antis : Atlás, Atlá –(2) generally in nouns in is, and
sometimes in other words: Pârâ.
4. In the GENITIVE PLURAL, the ending Ön occurs in a few titles of books:
MetamorphâSès (title of a poem), MetamorphēSeán. -
5. In the DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL the ending s?, before vowels sin,
occurs in poetry: Troades, Troasin.
6. A few neuters used only in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative
have os in the Singular and 3 in the Plural: melos, melé, song.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
I. Nou NS ENDING IN A WoWEL.
69. Nouns in a 8 Genitive in atis: Stem in at :
poèma, poem, poèmatis, poèmat.
* The Plural is of course generally wanting; see 130, 2.
* Eu is a diphthong in the Nom. and Voc.; ei sometimes a diphthong in the Gen.
and Dat. -
* These are of Greek origin.
42 SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
'70. Nouns in e : Genitive in is : Stem in i:
mare, Sea, maris, mari.
71. Nouns in i:1 Genitive in is: Stem in i:
sinăpi, mustard, sinăpis, sinäpi.
NOTE.-Many mouns in Ž are indeclinable. Compounds of meli, have it is in the Geni-
tive: oacymeli, Oaymelitis, oxymel.
72. Nouns in 5 or ö: Genitive in Önis : Stem in Ön :
leó, lion, leónis, lečn.
ExCEPTIONS.—Genitive in—
1. onis:–most national names: Macedo, Macedonis, Macedonian.
2, inis: *—Apollā; homó, man; némö, nobody; turbà, whirlwind; and
nouns in dö and gö : grandó, grandinis, hail; virgö,
virginis, maiden ; except—harpagö, Önis ; ligö, Önis;
praeda, Gnis, also comedó, ciſdó, mangó, spadó, únedè, iſdö.
3. nis:–cará, carnis (for carinis”), flesh ; see 64, 2, note 1.
4. Énis:–Anió, Aniánis, river Anio; Wäriä, Wäriänis.
5. iis:—a few Greek feminines: Dido, Dīdās; see 68.
73. Nouns in y 8: Gen. in yis (yos, ys): Stem in y:
misy, copperas, misyis (yos, ys), misy.
II. Nouns ENDING IN A MUTE OR LIQUID.
74. Nouns in c : ālāc, Glücis, pickle; lac, lactis,* milk.
75. Nouns in 1: Genitive in lis: Stem in 1:
Söl, Sun, Sólis, Söl.
NoTE.—Fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; 8ál, Salis, salt. On neuters in al, see 63.
76. Nouns in n: Genitive in nis: Stem in n:
paean, paedº, paeñnis, paean. *
flümen, Stream, flüminis, flümen, in.
NoTE 1.-Nouns in en have the variable radical vowel—e, i, see 60, 1, 2).
NoTE 2.—There are a few Greek words in Ön, Gen. in onis, Ontis, St. in on, Önt:
ačdón, ačdonis, nightingale; Xenophān, Xenophôntis, Xenophon.
'77. Nouns in r: Genitive in ris: Stem in r:
carcer, prison, carceris, CarCer.
1. Nouns in ar, ar: (1) ar, G. aris, St. ari: lär, läris, house; (2) pār,
paris, pair; fair, farris, corn; hépar, hêpatis, liver. For ar, G. dris, and ar,
G. aris, see 63.
2. Nouns in ter: Gen. in tris: pater, patris, father; except later, lateris,
tile; iter, itineris, way; Jäppäter, Jovis; and Greek nouns: crátēr, cräteris, bowl.
1 These are of Greek origin.
* Stem in on, in, or oni, Żni, ni ; see 60, 1, 2).
8 Nouns in y are of Greek origin, and aro often indeclinable.
4 Tho only nouns in c.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 43
NoTE.—Imber and names of months in ber have bris in the Genitive; imber, imbris,
shower; September, Septembris, September; see 62, IV, notes 1 and 2.
3. Nouns in or : G. Öris, St. Ör: pāstor, pástóris, shepherd; but a few
have G. oris, St. or: arbor, arboris, tree; aequor, sea; marmor, marble.
But cor, cordis, heart.
4. Four in ur: G. Oris, St. or : ebur, ivory; femur, thigh ; ſecur, liver;
röbur, strength; but femur has also feminis, and ſecur, jecinoris, ſecineris,
and jocineris.
78. Nouns in ut: Genitive in itis: Stem in ut, it:
caput, head, capitis, caput, it.
III. Nou NS ENDING IN S.
79. Nouns in as: Genitive in atis: Stem in at :
aetä8, age, aetătis, aetät.
ExCEPTIONS.–Genitive in
1. aris:—mās, maris, a male;—stem, mas, mari; see 31, 1.
2. asis:—vās, väsis, vessel.”
3. assis:—äs, assis, an as (a coin).
4. antis:—only masculine Greek nouns: adamäs, antis, adamant.
NoTE.—Anas, duck, and neuter Greek nouns in as have atis: amas, anatis. Vas,
surety, Arcas, Arcadian, and feminine Greek nouns in as have adis ; was, wadis,
lampas, lampadis.”
80. Nouns in és : Genitive in is: Stem in i: 8
niibès, cloud, nübis, nübi.
ExCEPTIONS.–Genitive in
1. Čdis:—härås, härödis, heir ; mercés, reward.
2. edis —pés, pedis, foot, and its compounds: compás, edis, a fetter.
3. eris:—Cerás, Cereris.”
4. Étis:–quiàs, rest, with compounds, inquiés, requiés, and a few Greek
words: lebås, tapés.
5. etis:–abiés, fir-tree; ariés, ram; pariés, wall.
NOTE-Bés, běssis, two-thirds; aes, aeris,* copper; praes, praedis, Surety.
81. Nouns in es: Genitive in itis: Stem in et, it:
miles, Soldier, militis, milet, it.
ExCEPTIONS.—Genitive in
1. etis:—interpres, interpreter; Seges, crop; teges, covering.
2. idis :—obses, hostage; praeses, president; see 57, 2.
* Vas is the only stem in 8 which does not change 8 to r between two vowels; see
61, 1, 8).
* Greek nouns sometimes have ados for a dig.
8 But see 64, 1.
4 See 61, 1, 3).
44 SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
82. Nouns in is: Genitive in is : Stem in i:
avis, bird, avis, avi.
ExCEPTIONS.—Genitive in
1. eris:–cinis, cineris," ashes; cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust; vömis,
ploughshare.
2. idis :—capis, cup ; cassis, helmet; cuspis, spear; lapis, stone; prä-
mulsis, antepast, and a few Greek” words: as tyrannis,
idis, tyranny. Sometimes ibis, and tigris.
3. inis:–pollis or pollen, flour; Sanguis, blood.
NoTE.—Glis, gliris, dormouse; lis, litis, strife; 8.3mis, Sémissis, half an as; Dis,
Ditis; Quiris, Quiritis; Samnis, Samnitis.
83. Nouns in Ös: Genitive in Öris : Stem in Ös:
ImöS, custom, möris, InóS.
ExCEPTIONS.–Genitive in
1. Ötis:–cös, cótis, whetstone; dās, dowry; népôs, grandson; sacerdös,
priest; and a few Greek words.
2. Ödis:—cústös, ciſstödis, guardian; see $6, 2.
3. Öis :—a few masculine Greek nouns: hdrós, hero; Minós, Trös,
NotE.—Arbös or arbor, arboris, tree; os, ossis, bone; bās, bovis, ox; see 66.
84. Nouns in tis, Gen. in tiris or ütis: stem in is or it.
1. iiris:—criſs, leg; jūs, right; jūs, soup; mºs, mouse; pās, pus; ris,
country; tās (thàs), incense; telliis, earth.
2. iitis: — juventiis, youth ; salús, safety; Senectiis, old age ; Servitäs,
servitude; virtùs, virtue; see 36, 2.
ExCEPTIONS.—Genitive in
1. tidis —incils, anvil; palās, marsh; Subscús, dovetail.
2. uis:—gräs, grwis, crane; sūs, swine.
3. untis:—a few Greek names of places: Trapezús, untis.
4. Odis —Greek compounds in pås : tripús, tripodis, tripod.
NotE.–Fraws, fraudis, fraud; laws, laudis, praise; see 64, 2, 2), foot-note. For
Greek nouns in 67/s, see 68.
85. Nouns in us: Gen. in eris or oris: stem in Os.
1. eris:—latus, lateris, side: stem, latos.” So also: acus, foodus, fünus,
genus, glomus, minus, olus, onus, opus, pondws, ridus, scelus, Sidus, ulcus,
wellus, Venus, viscus, vulnus.
2. Oris:–corpus, corporis, body: stem, corpoS.” So also decus, dédecus,
* Stem cinis, ciner for cines with variable vowel i, e, see 24, 1; 31, 1 ; and 57, 2.
* Greek nouns sometimes have idos or even ios. for idis ; Salamis has Salaminis;
Simois, Simoentis.
* See G1, 1, foot-note,
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLEWSIOW. 45
facinus, faenus, frigus, lepus, litus, nemus, pectus, pecus, penus, pignus, Ster-
cus, tempus, tergus,
NoTE.—Pecus, pecudés, a head of cattle; Ligus, Liguris, Ligurian; see 31.
86. Nouns in ys: 1 Genitive in yis, yos, ys: Stem in y:
Othrys, Othryos, Othry.
87. Nouns in bs: Genitive in bis: Stem in bi: ”
urbs, city, urbis, urbi.
88. Nouns in ms: Genitive in mis: Stem in m:
hiems, winter, hiemis, hiem.
89. Nouns in eps: Genitive in ipis : Stem in ep, ip.
princeps, prince, principis, princep, ip.
MoTE.—But auceps, aucupis, fowler. Other nouns in ps retain the stem-vowel
unchanged; merops, méropis, bee-eater. Gryps, griffin, has gryphis.
90. Nouns in s after l, n, or r : Gen. in tis: Stem in ti:
puls, broth, pultis, pulti.
mèns, mind, mentis, menti.3
ars, art, artis, arti.
NoTE.—Fröms, frondis, leaf; glāms, glandis, acorn; jūgīāns, jūglandis, walnut;
see 64, 2.
IV. NOUNS ENDING IN X.
91. Nouns in àx: Genitive in acis: Stem in àc :
pāX, pédéé, - pācis, päc.
NotE.—Faa, facis, torch; so also a few Greek nouns. Astyanaa, actis; so a few
Greek names of men.
92. Nouns in ex: Genitive in écis or ēgis: Stem in éc, ég:
1. Écis:–ālūz, pickle; vervāz, wether.
2. čgis —lèz, law; réz, king, and their compounds.
93. Nouns in ex: Genitive in icis: Stem in ic, ec:
jūdex, judge, jūdicis, jūdic, ec.
ExCEPTIONS.—Genitive in
1. ecis:–nex, murder; fanisex, mower; (prez), precis, prayer.
2. egis:–grez, flock; aquilez, water-inspector.
3. igis:–rómez, römigis, rower; see 24, 1.
NoTE.—Faea, faecis, lees; Senea, senis, old man (66); Supelléa’, stºpellectilis,
furniture.
94. Nouns in ix: Genitive in icis: Stem in ic :
rādīx, roof, rfidiois, rifliſ,
* These are of Greek origin; a few of them have yd is: chlamys, chlamydis, cloak.
* Dissyllables have the stem in b.
* Dissyllables in ms have the stem in t,
46 GENDER IN THIRD DECLEWSION.
95. Nouns in ix: Genitive in icis: Stem in ic :
calix, cup, calicis, calic.
NoTE.—Wła, nivis (66), snow; stria, Strigis, screech-owl; a few Gallic names also
have the Genitive in igis : Dumnoria, Orgétoria.
96. Nouns in Öx or ox: vöz, vöcis, voice; noz, noctis, night.
NoTE.—There are also a few national names in ox, Gen. in ocis or ogis : Cappa-
doa, Cappadocis, Allobroa, Allobrogis.
97. Nouns in ux: Genitive in ucis : Stem in uc:
dux, leader, ducis, duc.
NoTE 1.-Zúa, Zücis, light; Pollilac, Pollācis, Pollux; friſa, frügis, fruit.
NoTE 2.-Greek nouns in ja, and yac are variously declined: Erya, Erycis, Eryx;
bombya, bombſ/gis, silkworm ; Stya, Stygis, Styx; coccya, coccygið, cuckoo; onya,
onychis, onyx. -
98. Nouns in x after n or r; Genitive in cis: Stem in ci:
arx, citadel, arcis, arci.
NoTE 1.-Conjuna, or conjua, conjugis, spouse.
NoTE 2.—Most nouns in a preceded by n are of Greek origin : lyna, lyncis, lynx;
Aphalana, phalangis, phalanx.
GENDER IN TEIIRD DECLENSION.
99. Nouns in the third declension ending in
Ö, or, Ös, er, and in és and es increasing in the Genitive,”
are masculine: sermö, discourse; dolor, pain; mäs, custom;
agger, mound; pås, Genitive pedis, foot.
100. Nouns in Ö are masculine, except the Feminines, viz.:
1. Nouns in Ö, Gen. inis, except cardó, Ördó, turbă, masc., cupidó and
margö, masc. or fem.
2. Caró, flesh, and the Greek Argö, ächö, echo.
3. Most abstract and collective nouns in ió: ratiâ, reason; contić, an
assembly.
1O1. Nouns in OR are masculine, except—
1. The Feminine:—arbor, tree.
2. The Neuters —ador, spelt; aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.
1O2. Nouns in ÖS are masculine, except—
1. The Feminines:—arbós, tree; c3s, whetstone; dās, dowry; 30s, dawn.
2. The Neuter:—ös, mouth.
NoTE.—0s, bone, and a few Greek words in 08 are neuter: chaos, chaos.
1 O3. Nouns in ER are masculine, except—
1 That is, having more syllables in the Genitive than in the Nominative.
GENDER IN THIRD DECLEWSIOW. 47
1. The Feminine:—linter, boat (sometimes masc.).
2. The Weuters:—(1) cadāver, corpse; iter, way; tāber, tumor; aber,
udder; ver, spring; verber, scourge;—(2) botanical names in er,
Gen. eris: acer, maple-tree; pāpāver, poppy.
104. Nouns in ES and ES increasing in the Genitive are masculine,
except—
1. The Feminines:—compès, fetter; mercés, reward; merges, sheaf;
quiés, rest (with its compounds); Seges, crop; teges, mat; some-
times àles, bird, and quadrupās, quadruped.
2. The Neuter:—aes, copper.
105. Nouns of the third declension ending in
ãs, as, is, ys, x, in és not increasing in the Genitive, and
º * in s preceded by a consonant,
are feminine: aetäs, age ; névis, ship ; chlamys, cloak ;
pāa, peace ; milbés, cloud; urbs, city.
1O6. Nouns in AS and AS are feminine, except—
1. The Masculines:–ās, an as (a coin), was, surety, and Greek nouns in
as, Gen. antis. -
2. The Neuters —was, vessel, and Greek nouns in as, Gen, atis.
107. Nouns in IS and YS are feminine, except the Masculines, viz.:
1. Nouns in àlis, ollis, cis, mis, nis, guis, quis: ndtålis, birthday;
ignis, fire; sanguis, blood. But a few of these are occasionally
feminine: canis, amnis, cinis, finis, angwis, torquis.
2. Azis, axle ; bºris, plough-tail ; callis, path ; 4 &nsis, Sword; lapis,
stone; mansis, month; orbis, circle; postis, post; pulvis, dust;
sentis, brier; torris, brand; vectis, lever ; and a few others.
3. Names of mountains in ys: Othrys.
108. Nouns in X are feminine, except the Masculines, viz.:
1. Greek masculines: coraz, raven; thorāz, cuirass.
2. Nouns in ex and unx; except the feminines: faea, forfeº, nea, (préa),
Supellez.
3. Calix, cup; fornix, arch ; phoenix, phoenix; träduz, vine-layer, and
a few nouns in yx.
4. Sometimes: cala, heel; calx, lime; lynx, lynx.
109. Nouns in ES not increasing in the Genitive are feminine, except
the Masculines, viz.:
* Nouns whose gender is determined by Signification (42) may be exceptions to
these rules for gender as determined by Endings. Callis is sometimes feminine.
48 FOURTH D FOLEWSIOW.
Acinacés, cimeter; sometimes palumbās, dove; and veprès, thorn-bush.
NoTE-For Greek nouns in es, see 111, note.
11 O. Nouns in S PRECEDED BY A CONSONANT are feminine, except the
.Masculines, viz.:
1. Dºns, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain ; påns, bridge; gener-
ally adeps, fat, and rudëns, cable.
2. Some nouns in ns, originally adjectives or participles with a mascu-
line noun understood: oričns (sūl), east; confluêns (amnis), con-
fluence; tridºns (raster), trident; quadrāns (ās), quarter.
. Chalybs, steel; hydrops, dropsy, and a few other Greek words.
4. Sometimes: forcops, forceps; serpèns, serpent; stirps, stock. Ani-
mâns, animal, is masculine, feminine, or neuter.
3
111. Nouns of the third declension ending in
a, e, i, y, c, l, n, t, ar, ar, ur, iis, and us
are neuter:' poèma, poem ; mare, Sea ; lic, milk; animal,
animal; Carmen, Song ; caput, head ; corpus, body.
NoTE.—A few Greek nouns in es are also neuter: cacočthes, desire, passion.
112. Nouns in L, AR, and AR are neuter, except the Masculines, viz.:
Múgil, mullet; Sāl,' salt; Söl, sun; lar, hearth ; salar, trout.
113. Nouns in N are neuter, except—
1. The Masculines —pecten, comb ; rén, kidney ; lián, spleen ; and
Greek masculines in an, ên, in, Ön : paedin, paean; canón, rule.
2. The Feminines —ačdön, nightingale; alcyon (halcyon), kingfisher;
- icön, image; Sindön, muslin.
114. Nouns in UR are neuter, except the Masculines, viz.:
Pulfur, bran; turtur, turtle-dove; vultur, vulture.
115. Nouns in US and US are neuter, except—
1. The Masculines:—lepus, hare; mils, mouse; and Greek nouns in piis.
2. The Feminines:—telliis, earth; fraus, fraud; laus, praise; and nouns
in is, Gen. iitis or üdis: virtùs, virtue; palus, marsh.
FOURTH IDECLENSION : U NOUNS.
116. Nouns of the fourth declension end in
us—masculine; ii—neuter.
They are declined as follows:
* See foot-note, page 47. Sal is sometimes newter in the singular.
FOURTH DECLEWSION. 49
Früctus, fruit. Cornil, horn.
SINGULAR. CASE-ENDINGS.
JWom. früctus COrnit. UIS ii
Gen. früctiis COrnits tiS iS
Dat. früctuai, ii. " cornii uí, iſ 1 i
Acc. früctum COrnii UIII). ii
Voc. früctus COrnil UIS ii
Abl, früctii COrnit. ii ii
PLURAL.
Nom. früctiis cornua iS Ula,
Gen. früctuum COTIll Jºllº. IIITſ, l l'IUInd UIUITY!
Dat. früctibus cornibus ibus (ubus) ibus (ubus)
Acc. früctiis COI’Illkil: , , iS Ula,
Voc. früctiis COTIllºlº, iS lla,
Aöl. früctibus cornibus ibus (ubus) ibus (ubus)
1. The STEM in nouns of the fourth declension ends in u : früctu, cornu.
2. The CASE-ENDINGs here given contain the characteristic u, weakened
to i in ibus, but retained in ubus ; see 22.
117. The following IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS occur:*
1. Ubus for ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural—
1) Regularly in acus, needle; arcus, bow; and tribus, tribe.
2) Often in artus,” joint ; lacus, lake ; partus, birth ; portus, harbor;
specus, cave; and verić, spit.
3) Occasionally in a few other words, as geni, knee; tonitrus, thunder, etc.
2. Uis, the uncontracted form for as, in the Genitive: fråctuis for
früctiis." -
3. Uos, an old form * of the Genitive ending: senātuos,” of the senate.
118. Nouns in us are masculine, those in ii are neuter, but the fol-
lowing in us are—
* Thus wi is contracted into Z: fråctwi, frictii.
* To these should be added the rare endings iid for ü in the Abl. Sing., wus for üs in
the Gen. Sing, and wiis for üs in the Nom, Acc., and Woc. Pl. See Wordsworth, pp. 60–62.
* Generally plural, limbs,
* It has been already mentioned (47, note 1) that the five declensions are only five
varieties of one general system of inflection. The close relationship between the third
declension and the fourth will be seen by comparing the declension of fråctus, a w-noun
of the fourth, with that of griis (66, 2), a w-noun of the third. In fact, if the old Geni-
fiva finding this had not heen contracted into 78, there would have been no fourth de-
glension whatever. All w-nouns would have belonged to the third declension.
* Compare the Greek Genitive in vos : ix0ös, tx0ſos, fish.
* This was first weakened to semātwis (22), and then contracted to Sénôtiſs (23, 2),
the classical form.
3
50
FIFTH DEVOLEWSION
FEMININE BY ExCEPTION:—(1) acus, needle; colus, distaff; domus, house;
'manus, hand; porticus, portico; tribus, tribe;—(2) Idiºs, Ides;
Quinquátrú8, feast of Minerva; generally penſus, store, when of
this declension; rarely specus, den;–(3) see 42, II.
NoTE.—The only neuter nouns in common use are cornil, genii, and verú.1
119. SECOND AND FourTH DECLENSIONS.
the fourth declension and partly of the second.
Some nouns are partly of
1. Domus, F., house, has a Locative form domi, at home, and is other-
wise declined as follows:*
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Mom. domus domils
Gen. domiis domuum, domórum
Dat. domuſ (domó) domibus
Acc. domum doměs, domiis
Voc. domus domiis
Abl, domě (domu) domibus
2. Certain names of trees in us, as cupressus, fºcus, laurus, pīnus, though
generally of Decl. II., sometimes take those cases of the fourth which end in
{ls, us, and ü. N. laurus, G. lauriis, D. laurö, A. laurum, V. laurus, A. lauri,
etc. So also colus, distaff.
3. A few nouns, especially Senátus, senate, and tumultus, tumult, though
regularly of Decl. IV., sometimes take the Genitive ending 7 of the second ;
Senáč7, tumultà.
4. Quercus, oak, regularly of Decl. IV., has quercórum in the Gen. Plur.
FIFTH DECLENSION : E: NOUNS.
120. Nouns of the fifth declension end in és—feminine,
and are declined as follows:
Diès, day. Rés, thing.
SINGULAR. CASE-ENDINGS,
Nom. diès rès €S
Gen. dièi or dić rèH or rö ëi, &
IDat, dièi or dič rèi or ré ëi, &
Acc. diem TGBHPºl - €IOO.
Voc. diès rès ëS
Abl. diè ré €
i But neuter forms occur in certain cases of other words. Thus, Dat. pecul, Abl.
pectſ, Nom, Acc., and Woc. Pl. pecua, from obsolete ſpecil, cattle; also artwa from
(trºus; ossua from obsolete ossiz, bone; Specua from 8pecus.
* Combining forms of the second declension with those of the fourth.
FIFTH DECLENSION, 51
PLURAL, CASE-ENDINGs.
Nom. diès rès ëS
Gen. dièruama rèruſſºl ërum
Dat, dièbais rètouis êbus
Acc. diès rès €S
Voc. diès - rès - ëS
Aöl. dièbus rèbus êbus
1. The STEM of nouns of the fifth declension ends in é: dić, rà."
2. The CASE-ENDINGs here given contain the characteristic ē, which ap-
pears in all the cases. It is shortened (1) generally in the ending #7, when
preceded by a consonant, and (2) regularly in the ending em.
NoTE.—Traces of a Locative in 3 are preserved in certain phrases found in early
Latin, as dić Septimi, on the seventh day; dić crästini, on the morrow; dić præðmż,
on the next day. Cotidić, hodié, pridié, and the like are doubtless Locatives in origin.
121. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS.–The following occur:
1. I or ēi for Ši in the Gen. and Dat.: acii for acià, of sharpness;
dići for dić; ; ré, for réï pernicii for perniciè7, of destruction.
2. Es in the Gen. in early Latin: dies, of a day; rabies, of madness.
122. DEFECTIVE.—Nouns of this declension want the plural, except*—
1. Diès and rés, complete in all their parts.
2. Acies, sharpness; effigies, image; faciès, face; series, series; Species, ap-
pearance; spés,” hope, used in the Sing., and in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. Plur.
3. Eluviès, used in the Sing. and in the Nom. Plur., and glaciès in the
Sing, and in the Acc. Plur.
123. GENDER.—Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine—
ExCEPT dies, day, and meridies, midday, masculine, though dies is some-
times feminine in the singular, especially when it means time.
124. GENERAL TABLE OF GENDER.
I. Gender independent of ending." Common to all de-
clensions.
1 Originally most e-stems appear to have been either a-stems or S-stems. Thus: 1)
Most stems in ié are modified from iá: máteriö, mäterić, Nom. materić-8, material;
see 25, 1, note, with foot-note 6. In this class of words the Gen. and Dat. Sing. are
formed from the stem in iá, not from that in iès: máteriae, not materići. 2) Płę8,
fidès, plábés, and spés appear to have been s-stems, modified to 6-stems, as many
S-stems in the third declension were modified to i-stems; see 62, I., 1, foot-note.
* A few plural forms in addition to those here given are sometimes cited, but seem
Ilot to occur in writers of the classical period.
* In early Latin spérés occurs in the Nom. and Acc. Plur., formed from Spés treated
as a stem in S. Thus: spés, spésés, spérés (31, 1).
* For exceptions, see 43.
52 COMPOUND WO UAWS.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.
Names of MALES, of Names of FEMALEs, of INDECLINABLE Nouns, IN-
RIVERS, WINDS, and | Countries, Towns, ISL- | FINITIVES, and CLAUSEs
MONTHS. ANDS, and TREES. wsed as Mouns.
II. Gender determined by Nominative ending.”
DECLENSION I.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.
ãs, és. a, 5.
DECLENSION II.
er, ir, us, os, 5s. I | um, on.
DECLENSION III.
à, or, Ös, er, és and ãs, as, is, ys, x, es and a, e, i, y, c, l, n, t, ar.
es increasing in the es not increasing in the ar, ur, tis, us.
Genitive. Genitive, s preceded by
a conSOrlant.
DECLENSION IV.
U18. | | ii.
DECLENSION V.
| ës. |
C OMP O U ND IN O U NS.
125. Compounds present in general no peculiarities of declension.
But—
1. If two nominatives unite, they are both declined: 8 respićblica = rés pizb-
lica, republic, the public thing; jūšjārandum =.jús jūrandum, oath.
2. If a nominative unites with an oblique case, only the nominative is
declined: 8 paterfamiliás = pater familiás (49, 1), or pater familiae, the father
of a family.
126. PARADIGMs.
SINGULAR.
Nom. réspública jūsjūrandum paterfamiliás
Gen. réipúblicae jūrisjūrandi patrisfamiliás
Dat. réipúblicae jūrījūrandó patrifamiliás
Acc. remptiblicam jūsjūrandum patremfamiliás
oc. réspública jūsjūrandum paterfamiliás
Abl, républică jūrejūrandó patrefamiliás
* Except names of persons. .
* For exceptions, see under the several declensions.
* Words thus formed, however, are not compounds in the strict sense of the term,
See 340, I., note.
IRREG ULAR WO U.N.S. 53
PLURAL.
Nom, réspúblicae illrajūranda patrèsfamiliás
Gen. rérumpüblicărum patrumfamiliás
Dat. rébuspiiblicis - patribusfamiliás
Acc. réspúblicăs jūrajūranda patrèsfamiliás
Voc. réspúblicae illrajūranda patrèsfamiliás
Abl, rébuspublicis patribusfamiliás
NoTE 1–The parts which compose these and similar words are often and perhaps
more correctly written separately: rés pūblica; pater familiás or familiae.
NOTE: 2–Paterfamiliás sometimes has familiárum in the plural: patrásfamili-
(!?”?!???,
IR R. E. G. U L A R N O U N S.
127. Irregular nouns may be divided into four classes:
I. INDECLINABLE NOUNS have but one form for all cases.
II. DEFECTIVE Nou NS want certain parts.
III. HETEROGLITES (heteroclita") are partly of one declension and partly
of another.
IV. HETEROGENEOUs Nou NS (heterogenea”) are partly of one gender and
partly of another.
I. INDECLINABLE NOUNS.
128. The Latin has but few indeclinable nouns. The following are
the most important : .
1. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, alpha, beta, etc.
2. Foreign words: Jācāb, Iliberă, though foreign words often are declined.
II. DEFECTIVE, NOUNS.
129. Nouns may be defective in Number, in Case, or in both Number
and Case.
130. PLURAL wanTING.-Many nouns from the nature of their signi-
fication want the plural: Röma, Rome; jūstitia, justice; aurum, gold; fa-
més, hunger; sanguis, blood.
1. The principal nouns of this class are:
1) Most Ilaines of persons and places: Ciceró, Röma.
2) Abstract Nouns: fidès, faith; jūStitia, justice.
3) Names of materials: aurum, gold; ferrum, iron.
4) A few others: meridies, midday; specimen, example; Supellez, furni-
ture; ver, Spring; vespera, evening, etc.
2. Proper names admit the plural to designate families, classes; names of
materials, to designate pieces of the material or articles made of it; and ab-
stract nouns, to designate instances, or kinds, of the quality: Scipiónés, the
Scipios; aera, vessels of copper; avāritiae, instances of avarice; odia, hatreds.
8. In the poets, the plural of abstracts occurs in the sense of the singular.
* From érepos, another, and kxtorts, inflection, i. e., of different declensions.
* From érepos, another, and yévos, gender, i. e., of different genders.
54 IRREG ULAR WO U WS.
131. SINGULAR WANTING.-Many nouns want the singular.
1. The most important of these are:
1) Certain personal appellatives applicable to classes: májörés, forefathers;
ſposteri, descendants; gemini, twins; liberi, children.
2) Many names of cities: Athénae, Athens; Thébae, Thebes; Delphi,
Delphi.
3) Many names of festivals: Bacchānālia, Olympia, Säturnália.
4) Arma, arms; divitiae, riches; eacSequiae, funeral rites; exuviae, spoils;
Idiºs, Ides; indiſtiae, truce; insidiae, ambuscade; manes, shades of the dead;
ninae, threats; moenia, walls; minia, duties; nüptiae, nuptials; réliquiae,
remains.
2. An individual member of a class designated by these plurals may be de-
noted by unus ex with the plural: unus ex liberis, one of the children, or a child.
NoTE.—The plural in names of cities may have reference to the several parts of the
city, especially as ancient cities were often made up of separate villages. So in the names
of festivals, the plural may refer to the various games and exercises which together con-
Stituted the festival.
132. PLURAL witH CHANGE of MEANING.—Some nouns have one sig-
nification in the singular and another in the plural. Thus:
SINGULAR.
Aedes, temple,
Auxilium, help ,
Carcer, prison, barrier ;
Castrum, castle, hut ;
Comitium, name of a part of the
Roman forum ;
Cöpia, plenty, force ;
Facultås, ability;
Finis, end;
Tortúna, fortune;
Grătia, gratitude, favor ;
Hortus, garden ;
Impedimentum, hindrance,
Littera, letter of alphabet ;
Lüdus, play, Sport ;
Mós, custom ;
Nătălis (diès), birth-day;
Opera, work, service;
Pars, part ;
Röstrum, beak of ship ;
Sål, salt ;
PLURAL.
aedès, (1) temples, (2) a house.1
auxilia, ava.iliaries.
carcerés, barriers of a race-course.
castra, camp.
comitia, the assembly held in the comitium.
cöpiae, (1) Stores, (2) troops.
facultâtés, wealth, means.
finés, borders, territory.
fortúnae, possessions, wealth.
grátiae, thanks.
horti, (1) gardens, (2) pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) baggage.
litterae, (1) letters of alphabet, (2) epistle,
writing, letters, literature.
lüdi, (1) plays, (2) public spectacle.
mörés, manners, character.
nătălés, pedigrée, parentage.
operae, workmen.
partés, (1) parts, (2) a party.
röstra, (1) beaks, (2) the rostra or tribune
&n Rome (adorned with beaks).
Salès, witty sayings.
1 Aedes and some other words in this list, it will be observed, have in the plural two
significations, one corresponding to that of the singular, and the other distinct from it.
HETER O CLITES. 55
133. DEFECTIVE IN CASE.-Some nouns are defective in case:
1. In the Nom., Dat., and Voc. Sing. : , opis, –, opém, -, ope,
help ; —, vicis,' , vºcêm, –, vice, change.
2. In the Nom., Gen., and Voc. Sing.: —, preci, precem,-, prece, prayer.
3. In the Nom. and Voc. Sing. : —, dapis, dapi, dapém, -, dape,
food; —, friigis, frigi, frigem, -, früge, fruit.
4. In the Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plur.: Most nouns of the fifth Decl.; see 122.
NoTE.—Many neuters are also defective in the Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plur. : fºr, fel,
mel, pils, rils, tiſs, etc., especially Greek neuters in os, which want these cases also in
the singular : épos, melos ; also a few nouns of Decl. IV. : metus, Słów8, etc.
5. In the Gen. Plur. : many nouns otherwise entire, especially monosylla-
bles: née, pâa, pic; cor, có8, rös , Sāl, Sól, lilac.
134. NUMBER AND CASE,--Some nouns want one entire number and
certain cases of the other. The following forms occur: fors, forte,
chance; lués, luem, lue, pestilence; diciónis, dición”, diciónem, dicióne, sway.
Fås, right, and nefas, wrong, are used in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. Sing. ;
instar, likeness, nihil, nothing, and opus, need, in the Nom. and Acc.;
Secus, Sex, in the Acc. only. Many verbal nouns in iſ and a few other
words have only the Ablative Singular: jussi, by order; mandālū, by com-
mand; rogātū, by request; sponte, by choice, etc.
III. HETEROCLITES.
135. Of DECLENSIONS II. and IV. are a few nouns in us ; see 119.
136. Of DECLENSIONS II. and III. are— w
1. Jägerum, an acre; generally of the second Decl. in the Sing., and of
the third in the Plur. : jägerum, jäger; ; plural, jägera, jägerum, jūgeribus.
2. Väs, a vessel; of the third Decl. in the Sing. and of the second in the
Plur. : vás, väsis ; plural, våsa, väsórum.
3. Plural names of festivals in dilia. Bacchānālia, Säturnălia, which are
regularly of the third Decl., but sometimes form the Gen. Plur. in Örum of
the second. Ancile, a shield, and a few other words have the same peculiarity.
137. Of DECLENSIONS III. and W. are— -
1. Requiés, rest; which is regularly of the third Decl., but also takes the
forms requiem and requié of the fifth.
2. Famés, hunger; regularly of the third Decl., except in the Ablative,
famé, of the fifth (not fame, of the third).
138. FoEMS IN ia AND iès.-Many words of four syllables have one
form in ia of Decl. I., and one in iès of Decl. W.; luxuria, luxuries, lux-
ury; materia, mäteriès, material.
139, FoRMS IN us AND um.—Many nouns derived from verbs have one
form in us of Decl. IV., and one in um of Decl. II. : cănătus, cónátum,
attempt ; &ventus, æventum, event.
* Defective also in the Gen. Plur.
56 . A.D.JECTIVES.
140. Many words which have but one approved form in prose, admit
another in poetry: juventùs (útis), youth; poetic, juventa (ae): Senectiis
(iitis), old age; poetic, Senecta (ae): paupertās (ātis), poverty; poetic,
pauperiés (éi).
- IV. HETEROGENEOUS NOUNS.
141. MASCULINE AND NEUTER.—Some masculines take in the plural an
additional form of the neuter gender:
Jocus, m., jest; plural, foci, m., ſoca, n.
Locus, m., place; plural, loci, m., topics, loca, n., places.
142. FEMININE AND NEUTER.—Some feminines take in the plural an
additional form of the neuter gender:
Carbagus, f., linen; plural, carbaşi, f., carbasa, n.
Margarita, f., pearl; plural, margarāae, f., margarīta, n.
Ostrea, f., oyster; plural, ostreae, f., ostrea, n.
143. NEUTER AND MASCULINE OR FEMININE.—Some neuters take in the
plural a different gender. Thus:
1. Some neuters become masculine in the plural:
Caelum, n., heaven; plural, Caeli, m.
2. Some neuters generally become masculine in the plural, but sometimes
remain neuter:
JFrènum, n., bridle; plural, fren?, m., frena, n.
IſāStrºm, n., rake; plural, rästrº, m., rästra, n.
3. Some neuters become feminine in the plural:
Epulum, n., feast; plural, épulaé, f.
144. ForMS IN us AND um.—Some nouns of the second declension
have one form in us masculine, and one in um neuter: clipeus, clipeum,
shield; commentārius, commentārium, commentary.
145, HETEROGENEOUS HETEROCLITES.—Some heteroclites are also hete-
rogeneous: cănătus (ús), cónáium (i), effort; menda (ae), mendum (i), fault.
O H.A. PTER II.
A D J E C T I V E S.
146. THE adjective is the part of speech which is used
to qualify nouns: bonus, good; magnus, great.
NoTE.—The form of the adjective in Latin depends in part upon the gender of the
noun which it qualifies: bonus puer, a good boy; bona puella, a good girl; bonum tem-
plum, a good temple. Thus, in the Nom. Sing, bonus is the form of the adjective when
used with masculine nouns, bona with feminine, and bonum with neuter.
A.D.JECTIVES.
5?
147. Some adjectives are partly of the first declension
and partly of the Second, while all the rest are entirely of
the third declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS : A AND O STEMS.
148. Bonus, good.”
Mom.
Gen.
JDat.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Woc.
Aöl.
MASC.
bonus
boni
bond,
bonulrºn.
bone
bond
. boni
bond run ºn
bonis
bonds
boni
bonis;
- º 2
Liber, free.
MASO.
... liber
liberi
liberê
liberumma
liber
liberê
liberI
liberêruana
liberIs
liberês
liberi
liberis
SINGULAR,
FEM.
bona,
bonae
bonae
bonama
bona,
bonā
PLURAL,
bonae
bonārū’īrn
bonis
bonās
bonae
bonis
SINGUI, AR.
FEM.
libera,
liberae
liberae
liberarm
libera,
liberă,
PLURAL.
liberae
liberărguſſºn
liberis
liberăs
liberae
liberis
NEUT.
bonurma
boni
bond,
bonurma
bonusm.
bond
bona -
bondhruama
bonis
bona,
bona,
bonis .
NEUT.
liberuana
liberI
liberê
liberum
liberum.
liberê
libera.
liberărum
liberis
libera.
libera.
liberis
* BoMUſ, in declincú in Lle Mase, like servus uſ Deul. II. (51), in the FeIII, like mºllstº
of Decl. I. (48), and in the Neut, like templum of Decl. II. (51). The stems are bono
in the Masc. and Neut, and bonā in the Fem.
* LIBER is declined in the Masc. like puer (51), and in the Fem. and Neut, like bonus.
58 A.D.JECTIVES.
150. Aeger, sick.”
SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Nom. aeger aegra, aegrum
Gen. aegri aegrae aegri
Dat. aegró aegrae aegró
Acc. aegrum aegram aegrum
Voc. aeger aegral aegrum.
Aöl. aegrü aegrã. aegró
PLURAL.
Mom. aegri aegrae aegra,
Gen. aegrürum aegrãrairm aegrórum.
Lat. aegris aegris aegris
Acc. aegrós aegräs aegral
Voc. aegri aegrae aegra,
Aöl. aegris aegris aegris
NotE.—Most adjectives in er are declined like aeger, but the following in
er and ur are declined like liber :
1) Asper, rough ; lacer, torn ; miser, Wretched; präsper, prosperous; tener,
tender; but asper sometimes drops the e, and deacter, right, sometimes retains
it : deſcter, dextera, or deſcára.
2) Satur, sated ; Satur, Satura, Saturum.
3) Compounds infer and ger: mortifer, deadly; áliger, winged.
151. IRREGULARITIES. —Nine adjectives have in the
singular ius * in the Genitive and i in the Dative, and are
declined as follows: *
Alius, another. Sölus, alone.
SINGUI, A.R.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Mom, alius 3 alia aliud a sólus Sóla sölum
Gen. alius alius alius 4 Sólius sólius sólius
JDat. alii alii alii sóli sóli sóli
Acc. alium aliam aliud sölum sólam sölum
Voc. Sôle Sóla. Sölum
Abl. alić aliá alić sölö sölä sölö
1 AEGER is declined in the masculine like ager (51), and in the feminine and neuter
like bomw8.
* I in ius is often shortened by the poets; regularly so in alterius in dactylic verse
(609).
* Rarely alis and alid. The same stem appears in ali-guis (190, 2), some one;
ałi-ter, otherwise.
* For aliius by contraction. Alterius often supplies the place of alius.
A.D.JECTIVES. 59
PLURAL.
Mom, alii aliae alia Sóli sólae sóla.
Gen. alièrum aliárum aliorum sölörum sölärum Sölörum
JDat. aliis aliis aliis Sölls sólis Sölls
Acc. alić's aliás alia Sölös Söläs Sóla.
Voc. söli sólae Sóla.
Abl, aliis aliis aliis Sölls Sölls Sölls
1. These nine adjectives are: alius, a, ud, another; nüllus, a, um, no one;
Sölus, alone; tāţus, whole ; ill/us, any ; inus, one; alter, -tera, -terum,” the
other 3; uter, -tra, -trum,” which (of two); neuter, -tra, -trum," neither.
NoTE 1.—The regular forms occasionally occur in the Gen. and Dat. of some of these
adjectives.
NoTE 2.-Like uter are declined its compounds: uterque, utervis, uterlibet, uter-
cumque. In alteruter sometimes both parts are declined, as alterius utrius; and
Sometimes only the latter, as alterwtrºus.
THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT AND I STEMS.
152. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided
into three classes:
I. Those which have in the Nominative Singular three
different forms—one for each gender.
II. Those which have two forms—the masculine and
feminine being the same.
III. Those which have but one form—the same for all
genders.
153. ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS in this declension
have the stem in i, and are declined as follows:
Acer, sharp."
SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Mom. icer 8 ăcris ãCre
Gen. acris ãcris ăcris
Dat, acri ãCri ăcri
Ace, acrem. ăCre] ſºl ãCre
Voc. acer ăcris ãCre
Abl. acri àCri ãCri
* See declension, 175.
* Gen. alterius, Dat. alteri ; otherwise declined like liber (149).
* Or one of two, the one.
* Gen. utrius, Dat. utrº; otherwise like aeger (150). Wºuter like uter.
* ACER Is declined like ignis in the Masc. and Fem, and like mare (63) in the Neut,
except in the Nom. and Woc. Sing., Masc., and in the Abl. Sing.
° These forms in er are like those in er of Decl. II. in dropping the ending in the
Nom. and Voc. Sing. and in developing final r into er: ácer for acris, stem, dori.
º gº º •:
e c
C.
ºf e &
& e Q ©
º Q
;
*
* &
& © • * º
60
A.D.JECTIVES,
JWom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Voc.
Abl.
MASC.
ãCrès
âcrium
àcribus
ãcrês, is
ăCrês
âcribius
PLURAL.
FEM.
ãCrès
ãcrium
àcribus
àcrés, is
ãCrès
âcribus
NEUT.
ãcria,
ăcrium
ãcribuns
ăcria,
àcria,
ăcribus
NoTE 1.-Like ÅCER are declined:
1) Alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; celer, I swift; equester, eques-
trian; pallister, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, putrīd; salúber, healthful; sil-
vester, woody; terrester, terrestrial ; volucer, winged.
2) Adjectives in er designating the months: October, bris.”
NOTE 2.-In the poets and in early Latin the form in er, as ācer, is sometimes femi-
nine, and the form in is, as ācris, is sometimes masculine. -
154. ADJECTIVES OF Two ENDINGS are declined as
follows:
Tristis, sad.* Tristior, sadder.”
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. INFUT.
Mom. tristis triste tristior tristius
Gen. tristis tristis tristióris tristióris
Lat. tristi tristi tristióri tristióri
Acc. tristem triSte tristiórema tristius
|Voc, tristis triste tristior tristius
Abl, tristi trfSti tristióre (i)* tristióre (I)
- PLURAL.
Nom, tristès tristia tristiórès tristióra.
Gen. tristium tristium tristióruma tristióruma
IDat. tristibus tristibus tristióribuls tristióribuns
Acc. tristès, is tristia. tristiórès (is) tristióra.
Woc. tristès tristia, tristiórès tristióra.
Aöl. tristibus tristibus tristióribus tristióribus
NoTE 1.-Like tristior, comparatives, as consonant stems, generally have the Abl.
Sing. in e, sometimes in Ž, the Nom. Plur. Neut. in a, and the Gen. Plur. in um. But
compliſrés, several, has Gen. Plur. compliſräum; Nom., Acc., and Woc. Plur. Neut.
compliºra or complitria; see Plüs, 165.
NoTE 2.—In poetry, adjectives in is, e, sometimes have the Abl. Sing. in e : cognó- .
mine from cognómints, of the same name.
* This retains e in declension : celer, celeris, celere; and has wºn in the Gen. Plur.
* See also '77, 2, note.
8 Tristis and triste are declined like àcris and ācre; the stem is trästä.
* Tristior is the comparative (160) of tristis; the stem was originally tristićs, but
it has been modified to tristius (61, 1) and tristiór (31).
* Enclosed endings are rare.
:
:
:
:
:
;
ſº
g ©
& º
A. D.J.ECTIVES.
61
155. ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING generally end in 8 or
a, but sometimes in l or r.
156. Audāx, audacious."
Félix, happy.”
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F, NEUT,
'Mom. audāx audāx félix félix
Gen. audācis audācis félicis félicis
Dat, audāci audācā fêlicI fèlici
Acc. audācema audāx fêlicema félix
Woc. audāx audāx felix félix
Abl, audāci (e) audāci (e) fölici (e) fèlici (e)
PLURAT,.
JWom. audācés audācia. félſcès félicia,
Gen. audācinama audācium félicium fèlicium
IDat, audācibuls audācibus félicibus félicibus
Acc. audācés (is) audācia félices (is) félicia,
Voc. audācés audācia, fêlicés fêlícia,
Aöl. audācibus audācibuls félicibuns félicibus
157. Amāns, loving. Prüdéns, prudent.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. JNEUT.
Mom. amāns amān S prüdâns prüdéns
Gen. amantis amantis.” prüdentis prüdentis "
Dat. amanti amanti prüdenti prüdenti
Acc. amantenna amān S prüdenterm prüdéns
Voc. amāns amān S prüdéns prüdâns
Abl, amante (i) amante (i) prüdenti (e) prüdenti (e)
PLURAL.
Mom. amantès amantia. prüdentés prüdentia
Gen. amantiumn amantitann prüdentium prüdentium
Lat. amantibus amantibuls prüdentibus prüdentibus
Acc. amantès (is) amantia prüdentés (is) prüdentia
Voc. amantès amantial prüdentós prüdentia.
Abl, amantibus amantibus prüdentibus prüdentibus
NOTE.-The participle amāns differs in declension from the adjective prºdéns only
in the Abl, Sing, where the participle usually has the ending e, and the adjective, i.
* Observe that 7 in the Abl. Sing, and ia, ium, and 78 in the Plur., are the regular
ense-endings for i-stems; sea 62 and 63
* According to Ritschl, Schmitz, and others, the e which is long in priidén's before ms
is short in all other forms of the word, i.e., before mt. In the same manner the a which
is long in amāns, is according to Ritschl short in amantis, amanti, etc.; see p. 87, foot-
note 2. See also Schmitz, pp. 3–26; Ritschl, Rhein, Museum, xxxi., p. 488; Müller, p. 27.
62 A DJECTIVES.
Participles used adjectively may of course take i. A few adjectives have only e in gen-
eral use:—(1) pauper, paupere, poor; pºibes, pèlbere, mature;—(2) those in es, G.
itis or idis ; diles, déses, dives, Sö8pé8, 8wperStés; (3) caelebs, compos, impos, princeps.
158. Vetus, old. Memor, mindful.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
Nom. vetus Vetus In CITIOl' IOCITY OF
Gen. veteris veteris memoris memoris
Dat. veteri Veteri memori memori
Acc. veterem Vetus IſleIO OPCI Pºl IſleITOI’
Voc. vetus vetus IO GIO, OI’ IſleIT] OI’
Abl, vetere (i) vetere (i) ImClim Orji Imemori
PLURAL.
Mom. veterés Vetera, memorès
Gen. veterham Veterlin Hall Iſle Oſ). OPT LIFT.
Dat. veteribuas veteribus memoribuns
Acc. veterés (is) vetera memorès (is)
Voc. veterês Vetera, memorès
Aöl. veterious veteribuns memoribus
1. NEUTER PLURAL.—Many adjectives like memor, from the nature of
their signification, want the Neuter Plural; all others have the ending ia,
as felicia, prüdentia, except åber, àbera, fertile, and vetus, vetera.
2. GENITIVE PLURAL.—Most adjectives have ium, but the following
have um :
1) Adjectives of one ending with only e in the Ablative Singular (157,
note): pauper, pauperum.
2) Those with the Genitive in eris, oris, uris: vetus, veterum, old;
memor, memorum, mindful; cicur, cicurum, tame. -
3) Those in ceps: anceps, ancipitum, doubtful.
4) Those compounded with substantives which have um: inops (ops,
opum), inopum, helpless.
IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
159. Irregular adjectives may be—
I. INDECLINABLE : frigi, frugal, good; nequam, worthless; mille, thou-
sand; see 176.
II. DEFECTIVE: (céterus) catera, céterum, the other, the rest; (lüdicer)
lúdicra, lùdicrum, sportive; (süns) Sontis, guilty; (sêminex) seminecis, half
dead; pauci, ae, a, few, used only in the Plural; see also 158, 1.
III. HETERoCLITES.—Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in
ws, a, um, of the first and second declensions, and one in is and e of the
third : hilarus and hilaris, joyful; examimus and exonimis, lifeless.
COMPARISON. 63
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
160. Adjectives have three forms, called the Positive
degree, the Comparative, and the Superlative: altus, al-
tior, altissimus, high, higher, highest. These forms denote
different degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective.
l61. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of com-
parison:
I. TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON.—by endings.
II. ADVERBIAL COMPARISON.—by adverbs.
I. TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON.
162. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding to the
stem of the positive the endings:
COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
ior ior ius issimus issima issimum 4 ...—
altus, altior, altissimus, high, higher, highest,
levis, levior, levissimus, light, lighter, lightest.
NOTE.-Wow EL STEMS lose their final vowel: alto, altior, altissimus.
163. IRREGULAR SUPERLATIVES.—Many adjectives with regu-
lar comparatives have irregular Superlatives. Thus:
1. Those in er add rimus to this ending: ' &cer, àcrior, dcerrimus, sharp.
NoTE.— Vetus has veterrimus; mátārus, both mátārrimus and mātūrissimus;
déacter, deactimus.
2. Six in ilis add limus to the stem:"
facilis, difficilis, easy, difficult,
similis, dissimilis, like, ſunlike,
gracilis, humilis, slender, low :
facilis, facilior, facillimus. Imbécillis has imbécillimus.
3. Four in rus have two irregular superlatives:
exterus, exterior, extrêmus and extimus, outward,
inferus, inferior, Infimus and Imus, lower,
Superus, Superior, Suprêmus and Summus, ºppéſ",
posterus, posterior, postrèmus and postumus, 7teacă.
1 Tho superlative ending is-Rimaſs is probably compounded of is, from ió8, the original
comparative ending (154, foot-note 4), and simus for timus; ió8-timºus = ió8-Šimus =
is-Simus. After 7 and r, the first element is omitted, and 8 assimilated: facilis, facil-
simus, facil-limus; &cer, àcer-simus, dicer-rimus; but those in ilis drop the final
vowel of the stem. See Bopp, $$ 291—307; Schleicher, pp. 488–494; Roby, p. lxvi.
64
COMPARISON.
164. Egénus, providus, and compounds in dicus, ficus, and
volus, are compared with the endings entior and entissimus, as if
from forms in Čns:
egénus,
providéns,
maledicus,
münificus,
benevolus,
egentior,
providentior,
maledicentior,
münificentior,
benevolentior,
egentissimus,
providentissimus,
maledicentissimus,
münificentissimus,
benevolentissimus,
Tweedy,
prudent,
slanderous,
liberal,
benevolent.
NoTE.—Mirificissimus occurs as the superlative of miriftcus, wonderful.
165. SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES OF COMPARISON.
bonus,
malus,
pmāgrius,
parvus,
multus,
melior,
pèjor,
mājor,
minor,
plüs,
Optimus,
pessimus,
mäximus,
minimus,
plürimus,
good,
bad,
great,
Small,
amºuch.
NoTE 1.-Plüs is neuter, and has in the singular only Nom. and Acc. plºts, and Gen.
plitris. In the plural it has Nom. and Acc. plivrés (m. and f.), plura (n.), Gen. plºri-
wºm, Dat, and Abl, pluribus.
NoTE 2.—Dives, friigi, and néquam are thus compared:
dives, { divitior, e divitissimus, } *ich,
ditior, ditissimus,
frügſ, frügălior, frügălissimus, jºugal,
Inêquam, néquior, nčquissimus, (worthleSS,
166. POSITIVE WANTING.
citerior, citimus, nearer, prior, primus, former,
déterior, déterrimus, worse, propior, proximus, nearer,
interior, intimus, £nner, tilterior, ultimus, farther.
Öcior, Öcissimus, Swifter,
167. CoMPARATIVE WANTING.
1. In a few participles used adjectively: meritus, meritàssimus, deserving.
2. In these adjectives:
diversus, diversissimus, different, novus, novissimus, new,
falsus, falsissimus, false, Sacer, Sagerrimus, Sacred,
inclutus, inclutissimus, renowned, vetus, veterrimus, old.
invitus, invitissimus, ºwnwilling,
NoTE.—Many participles used adjectively are compared in full: amāns, amantior,
amantissiºn w8, loving; dāctus, döction, döctissimus, instructed, learned.
168. SUPERLATIVE WANTING. *
1. In most verbals in ilis and bilis: docilis, docilior, docile.
2. In many adjectives in àlis and ilis: capitälis, capitälior, capital.
3. In alacer, alacrior, active; caecus, blind; diſturmus, lasting; longin-
quus, distant; opimus, rich ; proclivis, steep; propinquus, near ; salātāris,
Salutary, and a few others. -
4. Three adjectives supply the superlative thus:
NUMERAL AIDJECTIVES. * 65
adoléscèns, adoléscentior, minimus mātū,” $/owng,
juvenis, júnior, minimus nätti, 3/07/?g,
Senex, Senior, mäximus nãtü, old.
169. WITHOUT TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON.
1. Many adjectives, from the nature of their signification, CSpecially such
as denote material, possession, or the relations of place and time : aureus,
golden; paternus, paternal; Jömānus, Roman; aestivus, of Summer.
2. Most adjectives in us preceded by a vowel. idóneus, suitable.
3. Many derivatives in d'ês, dris, ilis, ulus, icus, inus, Örus: mortális
(mors), mortal.
4. Albus, white; claudus, lame; ſerus, wild; laššus, weary; mirus, won-
derful, and a few others.
II. ADVERBIAL COMPARISON.
17O. Adjectives which want the terminational comparison, form the
comparative and superlative, when their signification requires it, by pre-
fixing the adverbs magis, more, and mãzime, most, to the positive: arduus,
magis arduus, mārime arduºus, arduous.
1. Other adverbs are sometimes used with the positive to denote different
degrees of the quality: admodum, valdé, oppédó, very ; imprºmis, apprämö, in
the highest degree. Per and prae in composition with adjectives have the
force of very : perdifficilis, very difficult; praeclárus, very illustrious.
2. Strengthening particles are also sometimes used—(1) With the com-
parative: etiam, even, multö, longé, much, far: etiam diligentior, even more
diligent; multà diligentior, much more diligent—(2) With the superlative :
7multö, longé, much, by far; quam, as possible: multö or longé diligentissi-
7mus, by far the most diligent; quam diligentissimus, as diligent as possible. .
NU ME R A L S.
171. Numerals comprise numeral adjectives and numeral
adverbs.”
172. Numeral adjectives comprise three principal classes:
1. CARDINAL NUMBERS: ſimus, one ; duo, two.
2. ORDINAL NUMBERS: primus, first; secundus, second.
3. DISTRIBUTIVES : singuli, one by one ; bini, two by
two, two each, two apiece.
173. To these may be added—
* Smallest or youngest ill age. Wütü is soueliuleş Uruitted.
* The first ten cardinal numbers, mille, primus, secundus, and Sémé! (once), four-
teen words in all, furnish the basis of the Latin numeral system. All other numerals are
formed from these either by derivation or by composition.
sº
66
NUMERAL A.D.JECTIVES.
1. MULTIPLICATIVES, adjectives in plex, Gen. plicis, denoting so many
fold: simplex, single; duplex, double; triplex, threefold.
2. PROPORTIONALs, declined like bonus, and denoting so many times as
great: duplus, twice as great; triplus, three times as great.
174. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES:
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
CARDINALS.
linus, iina, linum
duo, duae, duo
trés, tria
quattuor
Quinque
SeX
Septem
Oct0
I\OWelſºn.
decem
indecim
duodecim
tredecim 1
quattuordecim
Quindecim
sédecim or sexdecim 1
septendecim i
duodèviginti 2
undéviginti &
20. viginti
21.
- 22.
30.
40.
50.
60.
70.
80.
vigintſ inus
unus et viginti 9
Viginti duo
duo et viginti
trigintā
quadrāgintã.
quinquâgirità
Sexägintã.
Septuagintã.
Oct0gintā
ORDINALS.
primus, first
secundus,” Second
tertius, third
quartus, fourth
quintus, fifth
Sextus
Septimus
OctäVuS
IlönüS
decimus
indecimus
duodecimus
tertius decimus 5
quartus decimus
quintus decimus
sextus decimus
septimus decimus
duodëvicësimus 6
indévicësimus 6
vicësimus 7
vicësimus primus
iinus et vicësimus 3
vicësimus secundus
alter et vicësimus
tricësimus?
quadrāgésimus,
quinquàgésimus
sexàgésimus
septuagésimus
octogésimus
DISTRIBUTIVES.
singuli, one by one
bini, two by two
terni (trini)
quaterni
quini
Sëni
Septéni
Oct0111
InOVéni
děni
indéni
duodëni
torní déni
quaterni déni
quini déni
sèni déni
Septéni déni
duodèvicëni
indévicëni
VICéni
vicëni singuli
singuli et vicëni
Vicéni bini
bini et vicëni
tricëni
quadrāgènf
quinquàgéni
sexàgéni
septuagéni
Oct0gèni
1 Sometimes with the parts separated: decem et très; décem et Sea, etc.
2 Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction; but these numbers
may be expressed by addition: decem et octo, decem et movem; so 28, 29; 88, 89, etc.,
either by subtraction from trigintá, etc., or by addition to vigint.
* If the tens precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. So in
English cardinals, twenty-one, one and twenty.
4 Alter is often used for 8ecºnduş.
5 Decimus, with or without et, may precede : decimus et tertius or decimus tertiw8.
6 Sometimes expressed by addition: octavus decimus and nönus decimus.
7 Sometimes written with g : vigésimus; trigésimw8.
NUMERAI, ADJECTIVES. 67
CARDINALS. ORDINALS. DISTRIBUTIVES.
90. nonägintā nónāgésimus nönāgéni
100. centum centésimus Centeni
101
łº inllS
centum et ÜnuS 1
centësimus primus
centësimus et primus
centóni singuli
centóni et singull
200. ducenti, ae, a ducentësimus ducéni
300. trecenti, trecentësimus treCéni
400. quadringenti quadringentësimus quadringéni
500. quingenti quingentësimus quingéni
600. SèScenti 2 Sèscentésimus 2 SéScēni 2
700, septingenti Septingentësimus septingéni
800, octingenti Octingentësimus octingéni
900. nongenti nöngentësimus nóngéni
1,000. mille millésimus singula milia 8
2,000. duo milia 3 bis millésimus bina milia
100,000. centum milia
1,000,000. deciès centéna
milia, 4
centiès millèsimus
deciès centiès millèsi-
IIll]S
centéna milia
deciés centëna mi-
lia
1. ORDINALs with pars, part, expressed or understood, may be used to
express fractions: tertia pars, a third part, a third ; quarta pars, a fourth;
duae tertiae, two thirds. -
NoTE.—Cardinal numbers with partās are used in fractions when the denominator is
larger than the numerator by one: duae partãs, two thirds, trés partés, three fourths, etc.
2. DISTRIBUTIVEs are used—
1) To show the number of objects taken at a time, often best rendered
by adding to the cardinal each or apiece : ternos dénários accépèrunt, they
received each three denarii, or three apiece. Hence—
2) To express Multiplication : decies centâna milia, ten times a hundred
thousand, a million.
3) Instead of Cardinals, with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense:
bina castra, two camps. Here for Singuli and termä, änä and trânî, are used:
ânae littérae, one letter; trinae litterae, three letters.
4) Sometimes of objects spoken of in pairs: bīnī scyphi, a pair of goblets;
and in the poets with the force of cardinals: bina hastilia, two spears.
3. Poets use numeral adverbs (181) very freely in compounding numbers:
bis Sea, for duodecim ; bis Septem, for quattuordecân.
4. Sescent and mille are sometimes used indefinitely for any large num-
ber, as one thousand is used in English.
* In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds, etc.,
as in English; but the connective et is either omitted, or used only between the two
highest denominations: mille centum vigint, or mille et centum vigin?, 1120.
* Often incorrectly written sea-cent?, sea-centësimus, and seascènſ.
* Often written millia. For duo milia, bāva milia or his milla is 50metimes Tised
* Literally “ten times a hundred thousand”; the table might be carried up to any
desired number by using the proper numeral adverb with centéna milia centić8 cert-
t&nd milia, 10,000,000; sometimes in such combinations cemtéma milia is understood,
and the adverb only is expressed, and sometimes centum milia is used.
68 I) ECLENSION OF WUMERAI, ADJECTIVES.
DECLENSION OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
175. Unus, Duo, and Três are declined as follows:
Tnus, one.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom, linus tina, tinum - iini iinae iina,
Gen. Únius inſuS injuS inórum inărum inórum.
Dat. iini iini tini injS tiniS iinis
Acc. iimum iinam tinum ūnūS iina S tina,
Voc. tine iina. tinum iini iinae iina,
Abl. iind ină linó iinis liniS iinis
Duo, two. - Trés, three.
Mom. duo duae duo' trós, m. and f. tria, n.
Gen. duðrum duārum duðrum * trium trium
Dat, dućbus duābus dućbus tribus tribus
Acc. duðs, duo duās duo trés, tris tria
|Voc. duo duae duo tréS tria
Abl, dućbus duābus duðbus tribus tribus
NOTE 1.-The plural of Únus in the sense of alone may be used with any noun: tin;
Ubii, the Ubii alone; but in the sense of one, it is used only with nouns plural in form,
, but singular in sense: Ina castra, one camp; Wmae littérae, one letter.
NOTE: 2.—Like duo is declined ambo, both. _-
NOTE 3.-Multi, many, and plºrimi, very many, are indefinite numerals, and as
such generally want the singular. But in the poets the singular occurs in the Sense of
many a multa hostia, many a victim.
176. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable.
177. Hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus: ducenti, ae, a.
178, Mille as an adjective is indeclinable; as a substantive it is used
in the singular in the Nominative and Accusative,” but in the plural it is
declined like the plural of mare (63): milia,” milium, milibus.
NotE.—With the substantive mille, milia, the name of the objects enumerated is
generally in the Genitive: mille hominum, a thousand men (of men); but if a declined
numeral intervenes it takes the case of that numeral: tria milia trecenti milités, three
thousand three hundred soldiers. -
179. Ordinals are declined like bonus, and distributives like the plural
of bonus, but the latter often have ilm instead of Örum in the Genitive:
bānūm for bºnārūm.
1 In the ending oin duo and ambo (175, note 2), we have a remnant of the dual num-
ber which has otherwise disappeared from the Latin, though preserved in Greek and San-
skrit. Compare the Sanskrit doa, the Greek 8 ſo, the Latin duo, and the English two.
* Instead of dwórum and dwórum, duiſm is sometimes used. *
* Rarely in other cases in connection with milium or milibw8.
* Generally written with one l ; milia, but sometimes with two: millia.
NUMERAL AD VERBS. 69
18O. NUMERAL SYMBOLS:
ARABIC. RoMAN. | ARABIC, ROMAN. ARABIC. ROMAN.
1. I. 12. XII. 50. L.
2. II. 13. XIII. 60. LX.
3. III. 14. XIV. 70. LXX.
4. IV. 15. XV. 80. LXXX.
5. V. 16. XVI. 90. XC.
6. VI. 17. XVII. 100. C.
7. VII. 18. XVIII. 200. CC.
8. VIII. 19. XIX. 500. IO, or D.
9. IX. 20. XX. 600. DC.
(10. X. 30. XXX. 1,000. CIO, or M.1
11. XI. 40. XL. 10,000. CCIOO.
1. LATIN NUMERAL SYMBOLs are combinations of: I = 1; W = 5; X = 10;
L = 50; C = 100; IO or D = 500; CIO or M = 1,000.2
2. IN THE COMBINATION OF THESE SYMBOLs, except IO, observe—
1) That the repetition of a symbol doubles the value: II = 2; XX = 20.
2) That any symbol standing before one of greater value, subtracts its
own value, but that after one of greater value, it adds its own value: W = 5;
IV = 5 –1 = 4; VI = 5 + 1 = 6.
3. IN THE COMBINATION OF IO observe—
1) That each O (inverted C) after IO increases the value tenfold: IO = 500;
IOO = 500 x 10 = 5,000; IOOO = 5,000 x 10 = 50,000. t
2) That these numbers are doubled by placing C the same number of
times before I as O stands after it: IO = 500; CIO = 500 x 2 = 1,000; IOO =
5,000; CCIOO = 5,000 × 2 = 10,000.
3) That smaller symbols standing after these add their value: IO = 500;
IOC = 600; IOCC = 700.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
181. To numerals belong also numeral adverbs:
1. Semel, once 5. quinquiès 3 9. noviès
2. bis, twice 6. Sexiès 10. deciés
3. ter, three times 7. septiès 11. iindeciés
4. Quater 8. Octiès 12. duodeciés
* Thousands are sometimes denoted by a line over the symbol: II = 2,000; W = 5,000,
* The origin of these symbols is uncertain. According to Mommsen, I is the out-
stretched finger; V, the open hand; X, the two hands crossed; L, the open hand like V,
but in a different position; CIO is supposed to be a modification of the Greek P, not other-
wise used by the Romans, afterward changed to M, IO, afterward changed to D, is a
part of Ǻ ; C is also supposed to be a modification of ille Greek 9, but it may both9
initial letter of centum, as Mmay be that of mille.
* In adverbs formed from cardinal numbers, iès is the approved ending, though ičns
often occurs. In adverbs from indefinite numeral adjectives iáns is the approved ending
totiëns (from tot), so often; quotiëns (from quot), how often. See Brambach, p. 14.
70 PROMO U W.S.
18 #. 20. viciès 200. ducentiès
' ' tredeciés 21. Semel et viciés 300. trecentiès
14 }. is 22. bis et viciès 400. quadringentiès
't quattuordeciés 30, triciès 500, quingentiès
15 * 40. quadrāgiès 600. Sèscentiès
louindeciés 50. quinquāgiès 700, septingentiès
16 gº 60. Sexägiés 800. Octingentiès
lisédeciés 70. Septuagiès 9 º
17. septièsdeciés 80. octogiès lnöngentiès
{. 90. nonägiés 1,000. milliès 1
loctièsdeciès 100. centiès 2,000. bis milliés
9 {. 101. centiès semel 100,000. centiès milliés
"lnovièsdeciés 102. centiès bis 1,000,000. milliès milliés
NoTE 1.-In compounds of units and tens, the unit with et generally precedes, as in
the table: bis et viciès; the tens, however, with or without et, may precede.
NOTE 2.—Another class of numeral adverbs in wºm, or ö is formed from the ordinals:
primum, primó, for the first time, in the first place; tertium, tertià, for the third time.
C EIA P T E R III
PRONOTUNS.
182. IN construction, Pronouns” are used either as Sub-
stantives: ego, I, til, thou; or as Adjectives: meus, my,
tww8, your.
183. Pronouns are divided into six classes :
1. Personal Pronouns: tú, thou.
2. Possessive Pronouns: meus, my.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns: hic, this.
4. Relative Pronouns: qui, who.
5. Interrogative Pronouns: quis, who P
6. Indefinite Pronouns: aliquis, some one.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
184. Personal Pronouns,” so called because they desig-
nate the person of the noun which they represent, are :
* Milliès is often used indefinitely like the Églish a thousand times.
* But in their signification and use, Pronouns differ widely from ordinary substantives
and adjectives, as they never name any object, action, or quality, but simply point out
its relation to the speaker, or to some other jerson or thing; see 314, II., with foot-note.
* Also called Substantive Pronouns, because they are always used substantively.
*
PRO WO UVS. 71
Ego, I. Tū, thou. Sui, of himself, etc.”
SINGULAR.
Mom. ego” tü
Gen. meſ tui suit
Dat, mihi or mi tibi sibi -
Acc. mé té Së
TVoc. tú
Abl, mé të Sé
PLURAL,
Nom. nds WöS
Gen. jº £º- vestrüm º Sui
noStri VeStri
Dat, nobis Vöbis sibi
Acc. nds VöS Sé
Voc. VöS
Aöl. nobis Wöbis Sé
1. The CASE-ENDINGs of Pronouns differ considerably from those of Nouns.
2. SUI, of himself, etc., is often called the Réflexive pronoun.
3. EMPHATIC FoRMS in met occur, except in the Gen. Plur. : egomet, I my-
self; tāmet, etc. But the Nom. Wü has tilte and tâțemet, not tºmet.
4. REDUPLICATED FORMS.—Sésé, tete, memé, for Sé, te, me.
5. ANCIENT AND RARE FORMS.–Mö8 for mei, #7s for twi, mād and mepte
for mé; tād for té; Sād, Sépse, for Sé.
6. CUM, when used with the ablative of a Personal Pronoun, is appended
to it: měcum, tecum.
II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. -
185. From Personal pronouns are formed the Possessives:
meus, a, um, my , noster, tra, trum, our ;
tuus, a, um, thy, your ; Vester, tra, trum, your ;
Suus, a, um, his, hers, its ; Suus, a, um, their.
* Of himself, herself, itself. The Nominative is not used.
* Ego has no connection in form with me?, mihi, etc., but it corresponds to the
Greek éyòv, éyò. The oblique cases of ego and tº in the singular are derived from the
Indo-European roots ma and twa. Compare the Accusative Singular of each in-
SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH.
mä-m or mà, £6, mö, Iſle,
tvā-m or twä, Té or oré, té, thee.
Sui, Sibi, 8é, in both numbers are formed from the root sva. The origin of the plural
forms of ego and tº is obscure. See Papillon, pp. 142-149; Kühner, I., pp. 378–882.
* Veström and vestri are also writtº a voström and vostri, though less correctly.
M67, tw?, Suff, nostri, and vestri, are in form strictly Possessives in the Gen. Sing, but by
use they have become Personal. Wostri and vestrº have also become Plural. Thus, memor
westri, ‘mindful of you,” means literally minº ful of yours, i. e., of your welfare, interest.
Noström and vestrºm, for noströrum and veströrwm, are also Possessives; see 185.
72 PRO WO U.N.S.
NoTE 1.-Possessives are declined as adjectives of the first and second declensions;
but mêus has in the Vocative Singular Masculine generally mi, sometimes meus, and in
the Genitive Plural sometimes me?/m instead of meðrum.1
NOTE 2.—Emphatic forms in pie and met occur: Swapte, 8wa/met.
NOTE 3.-Other possessives are: (1) cijus, a, wºm,” “whose, and cūjus, a, wºm,3
‘whose?” declined like bonus, and (2) the Patrials, nostrås, Genitive àtis, ‘of our coun-
try, vestrås, Genitive àtis, ‘of your country,” and cūjās, Genitive àtis, ‘of whose coun-
try,” declined as adjectives of Declension III.
III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
186. Demonstrative Pronouns, so called because they spe-
cify the objects to which they refer, are declined as follows:
I. Hic, this.”
SINGUL.A.R. PLURAL.
MASC, FEM. NEUT. MASC, FEM. NEUT.
Nom, hic haec höc hi hae" haec
Gen. hiljus hiijus hūjust hörum hārum hörum
JDat. huic huic huic his his his
Acc. hunc hanc höe 6 hös hās haec
Abl, höc häc höc his his his
II. Iste, that, that of yours; * see 450. *
SINGULAR. - PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. INEUT.
Mom. iste ista istud isti istae ista
Gen. istius istius istius istörum istărum istörum
IDat. istſ isti isti istis istis istis
Acc. istum istam istud 6 istös istās ista
Abl. istö istă istö istis istis istis
* In early Latin twus is, sometimes written towos, and swus, Savos.
* From the relative qui, cijus (187), also written guðius.
* From the interrogative guis, cliffus (188), also written guðius,
* The stem of hic is ho, ha, which by the addition of i, another pronominal stem,
seen in i-s, “he.” becomes in certain cases hi (for ho-i), hae (for ha-i), as in hi-c, hae-c.
The forms ho, ha, appear in hå-c, ha-nc. Ancient and rare forms of this pronoun are
hèc (for hic), hôius (for hiſ jus), hoic, hoice (for huic), honc (for hunc), heis, heisce, his,
hisce (for hice, hā), hibus (for his). *
5 The Genitive suffix is w8, appended to the stem after the addition of i (foot-note 4);
ho-i-us, hiljus (i changed to j between two vowels, 28); isto-i-ws, istius (i retained after
a consonant). The suffix us, originally as, is in origin the same as the suffix is in the
third declension. In one the original vowel a is weakened to u, and in the other to i.
See Wordsworth, p. 95; Corssen, I., p. 307.
* The Vocative is wanting in Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite
Pronouns.
7 Here the form with c, haec, is sometimes used.
8 The stem of iste (for istus) is isto in the Masc. and Neut., and ista in the Fem. O
is Weakened to 6 in iste (24, 1, note) and to u in isèu-d. Ancient and rare forms of islé
PRONOUNS. 73
III. Ille, that," that one, he, is declined like iste ; see II. on the
preceding page.
IV. Is, he, this, that.”
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Nom. is €a, id ei, iſ €8,6 €3,
Gen. Čjus éjus éjus eórum eårum eórum.
I)at. §I Ši ëi 3 eis, iſs eſs, iſs eſs, iſs
Acc. eum €a.IOl id 4 eóS eåS €3,
Abl, eú eå eó eſs, iſs eis, iis els, is
W. Ipse, Self, he."
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Mom. ipse ipsa. ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa.
Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius ipsûrum ipsārum ipsûrum
Dat, ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis
Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsûs ipsäs ipsa.
Abl. ipsû ipsä ipso ipsis ipsis ipsis
WI. Idem, the same."
are istus (for iste), forms in Ž, ae, 7 (for ius) in the Genitive, and in Ö, ae, 6 (for 7) in the
Dat.: isti (for istius), istó (for ist?), istae (for istius or is!?).
* The stem of ille (for illus) is illo, illa. Ancient and rare forms are (1) illus (for
tlle), forms in 7, ae, 7 (for ius) in the Genitive Singular, and in Ö, ae, 6 (for 7) in the
Dative Singular: illî (for illius), etc.; (2) forms from ollus or olle (for those from ille):
ollºws, olle, olla, etc.
* The stem of is is i, strengthened in most of its case-forms to eo, ea. Ancient or
rare forms of is are, eis (for is); €-i-ei, ei-ei, i-ei, eae (for Dative Singular éï); im, em.
(for ew.m.); e-eis, i-eis, eis (for Nominative Plural e?); 6-i-eis, ei-eis, e-eis, ibus, e&bus .
(for 678). To these may be added a few rare forms from a root of kindred meaning, so,
Sa: Stºm, 82m-eum, eam ; só8, 8ā8=eós, eds. This root appears in Žp-sus, ip-8a, ip-
sum. Sº, if, and si-c, thus, are probably Locatives from this root or from Sva, the root
of su? (184). *
* Sometimes a diphthong in poetry. In the same way the plural forms ei, iž, 67s, iž8,
are Sometimes monosyllables. Instead of $7 and Čis, 7 and Žs are sometimes written.
* See page 72, foot-note 6. -
* Ipse (for ipsus = ?-pe-sus) is compounded of is or its stem i, the intensive particle
ſpé, “even,” “indeed,” and the pronominal root so, sa, mentioned in foot-note 2 above.
The stem is ipso, ipsa, but forms occur with the first part declined and pse unchanged:
eum-pse, eam-pse, etc.; sometimes combined with re; reapse= re-edyse=ré ipsa, ‘in
réality.” Ipsus (for pse) is not uncommon.
* In Żdem, compounded of is and dem, only the first part is declined. 180.61m is
shortened to idém, iddem to idem, and m is changed to n before dem (33, 4). In
early Latin eisdem and isdem occur for Ždem ; eidem and Ždem for £dém. ; 678.267m,
and isdem in the Nominative Plural for €dem.
4
74 - PRO WO UNS.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
* * * eidem *
Nom. Idem eaderm idem } * = eaedem eaderm
iidem
Gen. Čjusdem éjusdem éjusdem eūrundem earundem edrundem
Sº- $2- * eisdem eisdem eisdem”
Dat. Šidem êidem êidem 1 }. * = **
iisdem iisdem iisdem
Acc. eundem eandem idem ečsdem eåsdem eaderm
* * g= eſsdem eisdem eisdem *
Aöl. eddem eådem ečdem }. * =s * =
iisdem iſsdem iisdem
1. Hic (for hi-ce) is compounded with the demonstrative particle ce,
meaning here. The forms in c have dropped e, while the other forms have
dropped the particle entirely. But ce is often retained for emphasis; hice,
hiſjusce, hāsce, hôrunce (m changed to n), hórunc (e dropped). Ce, changed
to ci, is generally retained before the interrogative ne: hicine, hóscine.
2. ILLic AND Isric,” also compounded with the particle ce, are declined
alike, as follows:
SINGUL.A.R. PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Nom. illic illaec illuc (illöc) illic illacc illaec
Gen. illiusce illiusce illiusce 4
Dał. illic illic illic illisce illisce illisce
Acc. illuno illanc illuc (illöc) illösce illāsce illaec
Aöl, illöc illāc illóc illisce illisce illisce
3. SYNCOPATED FORMS, compounded of ecce or ān, ‘lo,” “see,” and some
cases of demonstratives, especially the Accusative of ille and is, occur: ección
for ecce eum ; ecc3s for ecce eds, ellum for an illum ; ellam for an illam.
4. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES: tálós, e, such ; tāntus, a, um, so great; tot,
So many; totus, a, um, so great. Toff is indeclinable; the rest regular.
NotE.—For tālis, the Genitive of a demonstrative with modž (Genitive of modus,
measure, kind) is often used: hºusmodž, đusmod?, of this kind, Such.
IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
187. The Relative qui, ‘who,” so called because it re-
lates to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood,
called its antecedent, is declined as follows: " .
1 Sometimes a dissyllable.
* Eidem and eisdem are the approved forms. Instead of iègem and iisdem, dis-
syllables in poetry, Ždem and Žsdem are often written.
* Illic and istic are formed from the stems of ille and iste in the same manner as hic
is formed from its stem; see page 72, foot-note 4.
* Observe that ce is retained in full after S, but shortened to c in all other situations.
* The 8tem of gºt? is quo, qua, which becomes co, cu in cºjus and cui. Quº and
PRO WO U W.S. 75
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Nom. qui Quae quod qui quae Quae
Gen. clijus cüjus cüjus quorum quàrum quðrum
IDat, cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Acc. quem " Quam quod quðs QuâS quae
Abl, quč Quà Quð quibus quibus quibus
1. Qui 2 = quâ, quâ, “with which,’ ‘wherewith,” is a Locative or Ablative
of the relative qui.
2. Cum, when used with the Ablative of the relative, is generally appended
to it: quibuscum.
3. Quicumque and Quisquis, “whoever,’ are called from their signification
général relatives.” Quicumque (quicunque) is declined like qui. Quisquis is
rare except in the forms, Quisqués, quédquéd (quicquid), guðſºuð.
NOTE.-The parts of Quicumque are sometimes separated by one or more words:
guà ré cumque. w
4. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES: quális, e, such as; quantus, a, un, so great;
quot, as many as ; quotus, a, um, of which number; and the double and
compound forms: Quâlisqualis, quâliscumque, etc.
NoTE.—For Quâlis the Genitive of the relative with modž is often used : căjusmodi,
of what kind, such as; cliffuscumquemod?, cuicuimodž (for cijuscújustmod?), of what-
ever kind.
W. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
188. The Interrogative Pronouns quis and qui, with
their compounds," are used in asking questions. They are
declined as follows:
quae are formed from quo and qua like hi and hae in hi-c and hae-c from ho and ha; see
186, I., foot-note 4. Ancient or rare forms are quel, quis (for quº), Nom. Sing.; Quàius
(i = 7); Quoi, cui (for cliffus, as in cuimodž = cºusmod?), guozei, Qwoź (for cuč); Qués
(for qui), Nom. Plur.; quai (for quae), Fem. and Neut, Plur.; Queis, guì8 (for guibus).
* An Accusative quom, also written quºum and cwm, formed directly from the stem
Quo, became the conjunction quom, gwum, cum, “when, lit. during which, i.e., during
which time. Indeed, several conjunctions are in their origin Accusatives of pronouns:
guam, ‘in what way,” “how,' is the Accusative of guì; quamguam, “however much,'
the Accusative of guis-quis (187, 3); tum, “then,' and tam, “so, Accusatives of the
pronominal stem to, ta, seen in is-tus, is-te, is-ta (186, II., foot-note 8).
* This is an element in Qwin = Qui-me, ‘by which not,” “that not,’ and in Quºppé =
guì-pe, ‘indeed.”
* Relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs may be made general in signification by
taking cumque, like qu'î-cumque, or by being doubled like guig guig. Quáč8-currºgue,
Qußlis-guālā8, of whatever kind; wbi-cumque, wbi-wbi, wheresoever.
* The relative qui, the interrogatives quis, qui, and the indefinites gºtis, Quº, are
all formed from the stem quo, qua. The ancient and rare forms are nearly the same in
all; See page 74, foot-note 5.
76 PRONOUVS.
I. Quis, who, which, what ?
SINGULAR. IPLURAL.
MASC. IFEM. NEUT. MASO. JFEM. MEUT.
IVom. quis quae quid qui quae quae
Gen. cüjus cüjus cüjus quörum quärum quörum
IDat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Ace. quem quam quid quös quäs quae
Abl. quö quâ quò quibus quibus quibus
II. Qui, which, what ? is declined like the relative quì.
1. QUIS is generally used substantively, and QUI, adjectively. The forms
qwis and qúém are sometimes feminine.
2. Quî, how ? in what way? is a Locative or Ablative of the interrogative
quîs ; see 187, 1.
8. CoMPOUNDS of quìs and quî are declined like the simple pronouns: quîs-
nam, quînam, ecquis, etc. But eequis has sometimes eequa for eequae.
4. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES : quälis, e, what? quantu8, a, um, hOW
great? quot, how many 3 quotus, a, um, of what number ? wter, utra, utrum,
which (of two)? see 151.
VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
189. Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to any definite
persons Or things. The most important are quis and quî,
With their compounds.
190. Quis, * any one,* and quî, * any one,* * any,' are
the same in form and declension as the interrogatives qαίs
and qαι7. But—
1. After sì, nisi, nè, and num, the Fem. Sing. and Neut. Plur. have quae
Or qua: SI quae, SI qua.
2. From quis and quî are formed—
1) The Jmdéfinîtes :
aliquis, aliqua, aliquid or aliquod,* 80me, 80me one.
quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam or quodpiam,? 80me, 80me one.
quIdam, quaedam, quiddam or quoddam,8 certaìn, certa ín one.
quisquam, quaequam, quicquam or quidquam,4 an®/ one.
* Aliqwis is compounded of alí, seen in ali-us ; qvisqvam, of qwis and quam ; quis-
que, of qwás and que (from qwì); qwìvìs, of quò and the verb väs (293), *you wish'—
hence qwì-vìs, * any you wish'; qwìlìbet, of qwì amd the impersonal libet, *it pleases.'
* Also written qvîppîam, qvoppíam.
3° Quôdam changes m to m before d : quendam for quemdam.
* Quisquam generally wants the Fcm. and the Plur.
PROWO U WS.
77
2) The General Indefinites:
quisque, Quaeque, quidque or quodgue, every, every one.
quivis, quaevis, Quidvis or quodvis, any one you please.
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet or quodlibet, any one you please.
NoTE 1.—These compounds are generally declined like guis and gwi, but they have
in the Neut. Sing. Quod used adjectively, and guid Substantively.
NoTE 2.-Aligwis has aligua instead of aligwae in the Fem. Sing, and Neut. Plur.
Aligui for aligwis occurs,
191. The correspondence which exists between Demonstratives, Rela-
tives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites, is seen in the following
TABLE OF CoRRELATIVES.
INTERROGATIVE. INDEFINITE. DEMONSTRATIVE. RELATIVE.
quis, qui,” any one, hºc, this one, this;4
77/78, guì, any; al?quis,” Some iste, that one, that; 7.3 wh
who what?? one, some ; quidam, ille, that one, that; quº," Wno.
certain one, certain; is, he, that:
ſuter, which uter or alteruter, ei- *
of two 3 ther of two; wterque, each, both; 5 qu?, who.
Quàlis, of quálislibet,” of any • ‘Tº º * * * *
what kind? kind: tālis, such ; quális,” as.
º 2
quantus, how
a!? (??/antus, Some—
what great ; quan-
tanțus, so great;
quantus,” as,
great 3 tuSväs, as great as as great.
you please;
quot, how & º Quot, as, as
many ? aliquot, some; toč, so many; many.
NoTE,-Nesció guis, ‘I know not who, has become in effect an indefinite pronoun
= guidam, “some one.” So also nesciń qui, ‘I know not which " or ‘what' = “some’;
7.68ció Quot = aliquot, “ some,” “a certain number.”
* In &nus-guisque both parts are regularly declined.
* Observe that the question quis or quº, who or what? may be answered indéſ:-
nitely by Quis, guì, aligwis, etc., or definitely by a demonstrative, either alone or with
a relative, as by hic, this one, or hic guì, this one who; is, he, or is qui, he who, etc.
* In form observe that the indefinite is either the same as the interrogative or is a
compound of it: guis, ali-gwis, guì, guì-dam, and that the relative is usually the Same
as the interrogative.
* On hic, iste, ille, and is, see 450; 451, 1.
* Or one of the demonstratives, Ric, iste, etc.
78 TVERBS.
C H A PT E R IV.
"VIEEES.
192. VERBS in Latin, as in English, express existence,
condition, or action: est, he is; dormit, he is sleeping;
legit, he reads. -
193. Verbs comprise two principal classes:
I. TRANSITIVE VERBS admit a direct object of the action:
servum verberał, he beats the slave.”
II. INTRANSITIVE VERBS do not admit such an object:
puer currit, the boy runs."
194. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Wumber, and Person.
- I. V. O I C E S.
195. There are two voices:
I. The ACTIVE VOICE * represents the subject as ACTING
or EXISTING: pater filium amat, the father loves his son;
est, he is. -
II. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as ACTED
UPON by some other person or thing: filius à paire amó-
fur, the son is loved by his father.
1. INTRANSITIVE VERBs generally have only the active voice, but are some-
times used impersonally in the passive; see 301, 1.
2. DEPONENT VERBs3 are Passive in form, but not in sense: Zoquor, to
speak. But see 231.
II. M. O O D S.
196. There are three moods:*
1 Here servum, “the slave,” is the object of the action: beats (what?) the slave. The
object thus completes the meaning of the verb. He beats is incomplete in sense, but the
boy runs is complete, and accordingly does not admit an object.
2 Voice shows whether the subject acts (Active Voice), or is acted upon (Passive
Voice). Thus, with the Active Voice, ‘the father loves his Son,” the subject, father, is
the one who performs the action, loves, while with the Passive Voice, ‘the son is loved
by the father,’ the subject, Son, merely receives the action, is acted upon, is loved.
* So called from dépônā, to lay aside, as they dispense, in general, with the active
form and the passive meaning. For deponent verbs with the sense of the Greek Middle,
see 465.
* Mood, or Mode, means manner, and relates to the manner in which the meaning
of the verb is expressed, as will be seen by observing the force of the several Moods.
TVERBS, 79
I. The INDICATIVE MOOD either asserts something as a
fact or inquires after the fact:
Legit, HE IS READING. Legitne, Is HE READING 2 Servius régnăviț, Ser-
vius REIGNED. Quis ego Sum, who AM. If *
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses not an actual fact,
but a possibility or conception. It is best translated’—
1. Sometimes by the English auxiliaries,” let, may, might, should,
would :
Amémºus patriam, LET Us LovE our country. Sint beati, MAY THEY BE
happy. Quaerat quispiam, some one MAY INQUIRE. Höc némo diverit, no one
woulD SAY this. Ego cenSeam, I SHOULD THINK, or I AM INCLINED TO THINK.
Enititur ut wincat, he strives that HE MAY conquER.? Domum ubi habitäret,
légit, he selected a house where HE MIGHT Dwell.
2. Sometimes by the English Indicative, especially by the Future
forms with shall and will:
Huie cºdāmus, SHALL we YIELD to this one? Quid diès ferat incertum est,
what a day wrDL BRING FORTH is ºncertain. Dubitó num débeam, I doubt
whether I oughT. Quaesivit Silicąret, he inquired whether IT was LAwFUL.
3. Sometimes by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions:
Scribere né pigrére, Do not NEGLECT to write. Né trónsierås Ibèrum, Do
fºot CRoss the Ebro.
4. Sometimes by the English Infinitive: *
Contendit ut wincat, he strives To conquER.5 Missi sunt qui consulerent
Apollinem, they were sent To CONSULT Apollo.
III. The IMPERATIVE MOOD expresses a command or an
entreaty:
Jüstitiam cole, PRACTISE justice. Tú né cede malis, Do not YIELD to mis-
fortunes.
* The use and proper translation of the Subjunctive must be learned from the Syn-
tax. A few illustrations are here given to aid the learner in understanding the Para-
digms of the Werbs; see 477-530.
* This is generally the proper translation in simple sentences and in principal clauses
(483), and sometimes even in subordinate clauses (490).
* Or, he strives To conquer; see 4 below, with foot-note 4.
* The English has a few remnants of the Subjunctive Mood, which may also be used
in translating the Latin Subjunctive: Utinam possem, would that I wºrm ABLE.
* Observe, however, that the Infinitive here is not the translation of the Subjunc-
tive alone, but of the Subjunctive with its subject and connective: ut vincat, to con-
gºdër (lit., that he may conquer); quicónsulerent, to consult (lit., who should or would
Consult).
80 TVERBS,
III. T E N S E S.
197. There are six tenses:
I. THREE TENSES FOR INCOMPLETE ACTION:
1. Present: amū, I love, I am loving."
2. Imperfect: amábam, I was loving, I loved.
3. Future: amābā, I shall love, I will love.
II. THREE TENSES FOR COMPLETED ACTION:
1. Perfect: amóvã, I have loved, I loved.
2. Pluperfect: amáveram, I had loved.
3. Future Perfect: amäverö, I shall have lowed.
NoTE 1.-The Latin Perfect sometimes corresponds to our Perfect with
have (have loved), and is called the Present Perfect or Perfect Définite ; and
sometimes to our Imperfect or Past (loved), and is called the Historical Per-
fect or Perfect Indefinite.8
NoTE 2.-The Indicative Mood has all the six tenses; the Subjunctive has
the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect; the Imperative, the Present
and Future only.*
198. PRINCIPAL AND HISTORICAL.— Tenses are also distin-
guished as—
I. PRINCIPAL or PRIMARY TENSES:
. Present: amó, I love.
. Present Perfect: amávi, I have loved.”
. Future: amābā, I shall love.
. Future Perfect: amáveró, I shall have loved.
:
II. HISTORICAL or SECONDARY TENSES:
1. Imperfect: amábam, I was loving.
2. Historical Perfect: amāvī, I loved.”
3. Pluperfect: amäveram, I had loved.
1 Or, I do love. The English did may also be used in translating the Imperfect and
Perfect: I did love.
2 Or, I will have loved.
3 Thus the Latin Perfeót combines within itself the force and use of two distinct
tenses—the Perfect proper, seen in the Greek Perfect, and the Aorist, seen in the Greek
Aorist: amāvī as treqíAmka, I have loved; amāvī = €qi Amara, I loved. The Historical
Perfect and the Imperfect both represent the action as past, but the former regards
it simply as a historical fact—I loved; while the latter regards it as in progress—I
Qwas loving. . . . , tº
4 The nice distinctions of tense have been fully developed only in the Indicative. In
the Subjunctive and Imperative, the time of the action is less prominent and is less defi-
nitely marked.
w VERBS. 81
199. NUMBERS AND PERSONs.—There are two numbers,
SINGULAR and PLURAL," and three persons, FIRST, SEC-
OND, and THIRD."
NoTE.—The various verbal forms which have voice, mood, tense, number,
and person, make up the finite verb.
200. Among verbal forms are included the following
verbal nouns and adjectives:
I. The INFINITIVE is a verbal noun.” It is sometimes best trans-
lated by the English Infinitive, sometimes by the verbal noun in ING,
and sometimes by the Indicative:
Faire ex urbe volò, I wish. To go out of the city. Gestić scire omnia, I long
To KNow all things. Haec scire juvat, To KNow these things affords pleasure.
Peccare licet němini, To SIN is lawful for no one. Vincere 3 scis, you know
how TO CONQUER, Ör you understand CONQUERING.8 Tě dicunt esse 4 sapien-
tem, they say that you, ARE4 wise. Sentimus calère 4 ignem, we perceive that
jire Is HOT.4 See also Syntax, 532–539. -
II. The GERUND gives the meaning of the verb in the form of
a verbal noun of the second declension, used only in the genitive,
dative, accusative, and ablative singular. It corresponds to the Eng-
lish verbal noun in ING: .
Amandi, of Loving. Amandi causā, for the sake of Loving. Ars wiven-
dź, the art of LIVING. Cupidus té audžendź, des?rous OF HEARING gow. Utilis
bibendö, w8éful For DRINKING. Ad discendum propénsus, inclined To LEARN,5
or To LEARNING. Méns discendô alitur, the mind is nowrished BY LEARNING.
See also Syntax, 541–544.
III. The SUPINE gives the meaning of the verb in the form of a
verbal noun of the fourth declension. It has a form in um and a
form in i:
Amātum, To LovE, FOR LOVING. Amātū, To BE LOVED, FOR LOVING, IN
* As in Nouns; see 44.
* The Infinitive has the characteristics both of verbs and of nouns. As a verb, it gov-
erns oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers; as a noun, it is itself governed. In
origin it is a verbal noun in the Dative or Locative. See Jolly, pp. 179–200.
* Observe that the infinitive vincere may be translated by the English infinitive, to
conguer, or by the verbal noun, conquering.
4 Observe that the infinitives esse and calère are translated by the indicative dré and
Žs (is hot); and that the Acc. ta, the subject of esse, is translated by the Nom. 90%, the
subject of are; and that the Acc. ignem, the subject of calère, is translated by the Nom.
Jère, the subject of is.
* Occasionally the Gerund, especially with a preposition, may be thus translated by
the English infinitive.
82 VERBS,
Loving. Auxilium postulatum vénit, he came To ASK aid. Difficile dicti, est,
it is difficult To TELL. See Syntax, 545–547.
NoTE.—The Supine in um is an Accusative in form, while the Supine in
& may be either a Dative or an Ablative; see 116.
IV. The PARTICIPLE in Latin, as in English, gives the meaning
of the verb in the form of an adjective." It is sometimes best
translated by the English Participle or Infinitive, and sometimes
by a Clause:
Amāns, Loving. Amāţărus, ABOUT TO LOVE. Amdºus, LoVED. Aman-
dus, DESERVING TO BE LovED. Plato scribéns mortuus est, Plato died WHILE
writing, or wFIILE HE was writing. Sól oričné diem conficit, the Sun RISING,
or when IT RISEs,” causes the day. Rediit belli cásum tentāţūrus, he returned
To TRY (lit., about to try) the fortune of war. In amicis eligendis,” in SELECT-
ING friends. See Syntax, 548–550.
NoTE.—A Latin verb may have four participles: two in the Active, the
Present and the Future, amāns, amātūrus ; and two in the Passive, the Per-
fect and the Gerundive,” amátus, amandus.
C O N J U G A TI O N .
201. Tegular verbs are inflected, or conjugated, in four
different ways, and are accordingly divided into Four Con-
jugations," distinguished from each other by the stem char-
acteristics or by the endings of the Infinitive, as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS. INFINITIVE ENDINGS.
CONJ. I. ai à-re
II. ë ë-re
III. © €-Iſe
IV. I i-re
202. PRINCIPAL PARTS.—The Present Indicative, Pres-
ent Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and Supine are called
from their importance the Principal Parts of the verb.
1 Participles are verbs in force, but adjectives in form and inflection. As verbs, they
govern oblique cases; as adjectives, they agree with nouns.
2 Or by its rising.
8 Sometimes called the Future Passive Participle. In agreement with a noun, it
is often best translated like a gerund governing that noun; see 544.
4 The Four Conjugations are only varieties of one general system of inflection, as the
differences between them have been produced in the main by the union of different final
letters in the various stems with one general system of suffixes; see Comparative View
of Conjugations, 213–216.
VERBS. 83
NoTE 1.-In the inflection of verbs it is found convenient to recognize four
StemS :
1) The Verb-Stem, which is the basis of the entire conjugation. This is
often called simply the Stem.
2) Three Special Stems, the Present Stem, the Perfect Stem, and the Su-
pine Stem.
NoTE 2.—The Special Stems are formed from the Verb-Stem, unless they
are identical with it.1
2O3. The ENTIRE CONJUGATION of any regular verb
may be readily formed from the Principal Parts by means
of the proper endings.”
1. SUM, I am, is used as an auxiliary in the passive voice of regular
verbs. Accordingly, its conjugation, though quite irregular, must be given
at the outset. The Principal Parts are—
PRES.. INDIC. PRES, INFIN. PERF, INDIC.
Sum, I am, esse, to be, ful, I have been.
NoTE 1.-Sum has no Supine.
NoTE 2.—Two independent stems or roots 3 are used in the conjugation of
this verb, viz.: (1) es, seen in 8-um (for es-um) and in es-se, and (2) fu, seen
in fu-7.
1 For the treatment of Stems, see 249–256. In many verbs the stem is itself de-
rived from a more primitive form called a Root. For the distinction between roots and
Stem.8, and for the manner in which the latter are formed from the former, see 313–318.
* In the Paradigms of regular verbs, the endings which distinguish the various forms
are separately indicated, and should be carefully noticed. In the parts derived from the
present stem (222, I.) each ending contains the characteristic vowel.
* The forms of irregular verbs are often derived from different roots. Thus in Eng-
lish, am, was, been ; go, went, gone. Indeed, the identical roots used in the conjuga-
tion of sum are in constant use in our ordinary speech. The root es, Greek és, originally
as, is seen in am (for as-mi), art (for as-t), are (for as-e); the root fu, Greek pu, origi-
nally bhºw, is seen in be (for bhe), been. The close relationship existing between the
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and English is seen in the following comparative forms; £a ori is
IHomeric, and é-vri Doric:
SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH.
aS-mi et-Mí §-ll ſol #1-IOl
as-i éa-art €S ar—t
aS-ti &o-Ti, es-t is
S-ImāS éa-uév for éar-Alés S-ll InllS 8T-6
8-tha éar-ré eS-tis fºr-6
S-anti é-vri for éar-vri S-unt 9I’-e
Every verbal form is thus made by appending to the stem, or root, a pronominal ending
meaning I, thow, he, etc. Thus mi, seen in the English me, means I. It is retained in
a8-mi and ei-wi, but shortened to m in S-u-m and a-m. Ti, meaning he, is preserved
in as-ti and éo-ri, but shortened to t in es-t and lost in is. The stem also undergoes
various changes: in Sanskrit it is as, sometimes shortened to s, in Greek és, sometimes
shortened to é; in Latin es, sometimes shortened to s, as in Sanskrit; in English a, ar,
OF '98.
84
WERBS,
204. Sum, I am.—STEMS, es, fu.
PRES, IND.
Summ,
Sum,”
est,
cram,
erås,
erat,
erö,4
eris,
erit,
fui,
fulisti,
fuit,
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fuerann, I had been,
fuerås, thou hadst been,
fuerat,
fuerò,
fuerís,
fuerit,
PRES.. INF. PERF, IND, SUPINE...I
esse, fui, gº
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL,
I am, Sumus, we are,
thou art,3 estis, $you are,
he is ; Sumt, they are.
IMPERFECT.
I was, & eramus, we were,
thou wast,” eratis, gyou were,
he was ; era Rat, they were.
|FUTURE.
I shall be,” erimus, we shall be,
thou wilt be, eritis, Ayou will be,
he will be . erunt, they will be.
PERFECT.
I have been,” fuimus, we have been,
thou hast been, fuistis, 3you have been,
fuèrunt
he has been , }
fučre, } they have been.
PLUPERFECT.
fueråmaus, we had been,
fuerätis, you had been,
he had been ; fuerarat, they had been.
I shall have been,
thou wilt have been,
he will have been ;
FUTURE PERFECT.
fuerimus, we shall have been,
gou will have been,
they will have been.
fueritis,
fuerint,
1 The Supine is wanting.
* Sum is for eswm, eram for eSam. Whenever 8 of the stem es comes between two
vowels, e is dropped, as in sum, Swnt, or S is changed to r, as in eram, erö; see 31, 1.
The pupil will observe that the endings which are added to the roots es and fu are dis-
tinguished by the type.
* Or you are, and in the Imperfect, you were; thou is confined mostly to solemn
discourse.
* In verbs, final o, marked š, is generally long.
* Or, Future, I will be ; Perfect, I was ; see 197, note 1.
TVERBS. 85
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PRESENT. PLURAL.
simi, "may I be," simus, let us be,
Sis, maySt thou be,” Sitis, be ye, may you be,
sit, let him be, may he be , sint, let them be.
IMPERFECT.
essem, I should be," essèmaus, we should be,
esses, thou wouldst be, essétis, Ayou would be,
esset, he would be; essent, they would be.
PERFECT.
fuerim, I may have been," fuerímus, we may have been,
fueris, thow maySt have been, fueritis, you may have been,
fuerit, he may have been ; fuerint, they may have been.
PLUPERFECT.
fuissem, I should have been, fuissèmus, we should have been,
fuissés, thou wouldst have been, fuissétis, you would have been,
fuisset, he would have been , fuissent, they would have been.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, es, be thou, | este, be ye.
Fut, estā, thou shalt be,” estàte, Aye shall be,
està, he shall be > * Sumtö, they shall be.
TNFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. esse, to be.
Perf. fuisse, to have been.
Fut, futilirus esse,” to be about
to be. Put. futilirus,” about to be.
1. In the Paradigm all the forms beginning with é or 8 are from the stem
es; all others from the stem fu.5 -
2. RARE FoRMs:—forem, fores, foret, forent, fore, for essem, esses, esset,
€88ent, futºrus esse ; Siem, siès, Siet, Siônt, or fuam, fuá8, fuat, fuant, for sim,
sis, Sit, Sint.
* On the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II., and remember that it is often
best rendered by the Indicative. Thus, Sám may often be rendered I am, and fuerim, I
have been. º
* Or be thou, or may you be.
* The Fut. may also be rendered like the Pres., or with let: be thou; let him be.
* Futºrºws is declincá like bonwg. So in the Infinitivo : fºrw8, a, atºm esse.
* E8 and fu are roots as well as stems. As the basis of this paradigm they are prop-
erly Stems, but as they are not derived from more primitive forms, they are in them-
Selves roots.
86
FIRST CONJUGATION.
* |FIRST CONJUGATION : A VERBS.
205. ACTIVE VOICE.-Amö, I love.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, amä."
PRINCIPAL PARTs.
PRES.. IND. PRES, INF. PERF. IND. SUPINI2.
amó, amāre, amāvī, amātūIm.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
RESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PRES T - PLURAL.
amó," I love,” amāmus, we love,
amås, 3you love,” amātis, 3/ow love,
amat, he loves; amamat, they love.
IMPERFECT.
amābana, I was loving, amābāmus, we were loving,
amābās, $/ow were loving, amābātis, $/ow were loving,
amābat, he was loving ; amābant, they were loving.
& FUTURE. -
amābū, I shall love," amäbimus, we shall love,
amäbis, gow will love, amābitis, $you will love,
amābit, he will love ; amāburnt, they will love.
PERFECT.
amāvī, I have loved," amăvimus, we have loved,
amăvisti, you have loved, amăvistis, $you have loved,
amāvit, he has loved; amăvărunţ, ºre, they have loved.
º PLUPERFECT.
amăveram, I had loved, amăveriimus, we had loved,
amāveriis, you had loved, amăveritis, you had loved,
amăverat, he had loved; amăverant, they had loved.
FUTURE PERFECT.
amăveriff, I shall have loved,” amăverinaus, we shall have loved,
amăveris, you will have loved, amăveritis, you will have loved,
amāveriff, he will have loved; I amăverint, they will have loved.
1 The final ā of the stem disappears in amá for ama-ā, amem, amés, etc., for ama-
im, ama-is, etc. Also in the Pass, in amor for ama-or, amer, etc., for ama-ir, etc.;
see 23; 27. Final o, marked 5, is generally long.
? Or I am loving, I do love,
So in the Imperfect, I loved, I was loving, I did Yove.
& Or thou lovest. So in the other tenses, thou wast loving, thou wilt love, etc.
4 Or I will love.
5 Or I loved; see 197, note 1.
So in the Future Perfect, I shall have lowed or I will have loved.
ACTIVE VOICE.
8?
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PRESENT. PLURAL.
amem, may I love," amémus, let us love,
amés, nay you love, amétis, nay you love,
amet, let him love ; ament, let them love.
IMPERFECT.
amārem, I should love, amārēmus, . we should love,
amārēs, gow would love, amārétis, you would love,
amāret, s he would love ; amärent, they would love.
PERFECT.
amăverim, I may have loved.” amăverinaus, we may have loved,
amăveris, you may have loved, amăveritis, you may have loved,
amăverit, he may have loved; amăverint, they may have loved.
IPLUPERFECT. *
amāvissem, I should have loved, amävissèmus, weshould have loved,
amăvissés, you would have loved, amăvissétis, you would have loved,
amăvisset, he would have loved; lamävissent, they would have lowed.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amä, love thou, | amäte, love ye.
Put. amātā, thow shalt love, amättöte, ge shall love,
amātū, he shall love ; amantö, they shall love.
INFINITIVE. sº PARTICIPLE.
Pres, amāre, to love. Pres, amāns,” loving.
Perf. amävisse, to have loved.
Fut, amātūrus * esse, to be about Fut, amātiirus,” about to love.
to love.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. amandi, of loving,
Dat, amandić, for loving,
Acc. amaludum, loving, Acc. amāturma, to love,
Abl, amandö, by loving. Aöl. amātū, to love, be loved.
* Oil the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II.
* Often best rendered I have loved. So in
* Decline like bonus, 148.
* For declension, see 157.
the Pluperfect, I had loved; See
196, II,
88 FIRST CONJUGATION.
FIRST CONJUGATION: A WERBS.
206. PASSIVE VOICE.-Amor, I am lowed.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, amá.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF. IND.
amor, amāri, amātūs sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. I am loved. PLURAL.
ałłłOI" 8.Iſlzº, Tºllſ tº
amâris, or re amāmini
amātūr amalaţūr
IM P E R FEC T.
I was loved.
amäbar amābāmur
amābāris, or re amābāmini
amābāţur amābalūţur
FUTURE.
I shall or will be loved
amābor - amäbimur
amäberis, or re amäbiminal
amäbitur amābuntur
PERFECT.
I have been loved or I was loved.
amātus sum * amāti SIRImalls
amātūs es - amāti estis
amātūs est amāti Stirlf
PLUPERFECT. -
I had been loved.
amātus eram" amāti erailmalls;
amātus erai's amāti eraitis
amātus eraſt amāti era.Int
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been loved.
amātus erú 4 - amāti erimus
amātus eris amāti eritis
amātus erit amāti erunt
* Fuji, ſuisti, etc., are sometimes used for 8wm, es, etc.: amátus fuž for amátus
sum. So fueram, fuerås, etc., for eram, etc.; also fuerò, etc., for erú, etc.
PASSIVE VOICE. 89
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be loved, let him be loved."
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
a melº améImaller
améris, or re améminai
améthur ameRºilar
IMPERFECT. Af
*
I should be loved, he would be loved."
amärer amārēImalar
amārēris, or re amārēmirai
amārēţūr amārelatur
PERFECT.
I may have been loved, or I have been loved."
amātus sim” amāti Siranuis
amātuals sis amāti sītis
amātus sit - amāti sirat
IPLUPERFECT.
I should have been loved, he would have been loved.”
amātus essem” amāti esséImaulis
amātūHis essès amāti essétis
amātūs esset amāti essent,
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, amäre, be thou loved; | amämini, be ye loved.
Fut, amätor, thou shalt be loved,
amätor, he shall be loved ; amarator, they shall be loved.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, amārī, to be loved.
Perf amātus esse,” to have been | Perf. amātus, having been loved.
loved.
Fut, amātum iri, to be about to Ger.” amandus, to be loved, de-
be loved. serving to be loved.
' But Olu Ilie irullslation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II.
* Fuerim, fueris, etc., are sometimes used for Sim, Sis, etc.—So also ſuissem, ſuissés,
etc.; for 6886m, essés, etc. : rarely fuisse for esse.
* Ger. = Gerundive; see 200, IV., note.
90 SECOWD COWJUGATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION : E WERBS.
2O7, ACTIVE VOICE.-Moneš, I advise.
VERB STEM, mon, moni, PRESENT STEM, moné.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF. IND. SUPINE.
moneč, monére, monui, monitum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. I advise. PLURAL.
moneč monéImus
monés monétis
monet monent
IMPERFECT.
I was advising, or I advised.
monébam. monébâmnus
monébās moné baitis
moné bat moné parat
|FUTURE.
I shall or will advise.
monébó moné bimus
monébis moné biºtis
monébit moné burnt
PERFECT.
I have advised, or I advised.
In Onui monuimus
Imonulisti monuistis
monuit monuèruant, or ëre
PLUPERFECT. -
I had advised.
II) Onll(PEI”:R.I.T.T. ImOnueráHºlūs
monuerás monuerátis
monueraí monuerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have advised.
monueró monuerimus
monueris monueritis
monuerit monuerint
ACTIVE VOICE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I advise, let him advise."
§INGULAR. PLURAL.
IQOI) (Pºll monežāRºlls
monežis monefitis
monealt monea Hat: "
IMPERFECT.
I should advise, he would advise.
montëIrelſºn. monerërmaus's
monérès monérètis
monéret $ monéreºni,
PERFECT.
I may have advised, or I have advised."
monuerim monuerímus
monuerís monueritis
monuerit monuerint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have advised, he would have advised.”
monuissema - monuissèrmaths
monuissès monuissétis
monuisset monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, moné, advise thou º | monéte, advise ye.
Fut. monété, thou shalt advise, monétète, ye shall advise,
monétá, he shall advise ; ; monerató, they shall advise.
TNFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monére, to advise. Pres. monéns, advising.
Perf. monuisse, to have advised.
J'ut. monitiirus esse, to be about Fut. monitàruns, about to advise.
to advise.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. monemili, of advising,
Dat, monendö, for advising,
Acc. moneradium, advising, Acc. monitum, to advise,
Abl, monendö, by advising. Abl, monitii, to advise, he advised.
==-|--> --
i But on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II.
2 The Pluperfect, like the Perfect, is often rendered by the Indicative : I had ad-
cised, you had advised, etc.
92
&ECOWD CONJUGATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION : E VERBS.
208. PASSIVE VOICE.-Moneor, I am advised.
VERB STEM, mon, moni, PRESENT STEM, mona.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES, INF. PERF. IND.
moneor, monéri, monitºus surma.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
I am advised.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
In One º ImOneImalLI”
monéris, or re monémaini
mon&#8AR’ moneFutuhr
IMPERFECT.
I was advised.
monéloar monébâmur
monébâris, or re monéârâmairai
moné bitur moné balutur
FUTURE.
I shall or will be advised.
moné bor monébimanur
moné beris, or re moné'bimimi
moné bitur - moné buntur
g PERFECT.
I have been cdvised, I was advised.
monitus sum * moniti surnalis
monitºus es moniti estis
monituds est monitſ surati,
PLUPERFECT.
I had been advised.
monitºns eram * moniti eramus
monitus erzis moniti eritis
monitus era t moniti crant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been advised.
monitus eró | moniti erimus
monitus eris moniti eritis
monitºus erit moniti erumat
1 See 206, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOICE. 93
Pres.
J'ut.
Pres.
Perf.
Jºſhut.
monétor, thow shalt be ad-
monéri, to be advised.
monitus esse,' to have been | Perf. monitus, advised.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be advised, let him be advised.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
In 10h (2:25- monealmuir
monežáris, or re moneſſimini
monežātūII* monearltºur
IMPERFECT.
I should be advised, he would be advised.
mon&Irer" monérèrmur"
monérèris, or re montërëmini
monérêtur monºreIAtlur
PERFECT.
I may have been advised, or I have been advised.
monitus sim! moniti simus
monitus sis moniti sītis
monitus sit moniti sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been advised, he would have been advised.”
monitus essem " moniti essèmus
monitus essés moniti essetis
monitus esset moniti essent.
IMPERATIVE.
monére, be thou advised; monéminai, be ye advised.
vised,
monétor, he shall be advised; monentor, they shall be advised.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
advised.
monitum iri, to be about to Ger, monendus, to be advised, de-
bo advisod. Scrying to bo advigod.
1 See 206, foot-notes.
* Or Z had been advised, you had been advised, etc.
94 THIRD CONJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION : CONSONANT WIFRBS.
209. ACTIVE VOICE.-Regö, I rule.
VERB STEM, reg; PRESENT STEM, rege.”
IPRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF, PERF. IND. SUPINE.
regö, regere, réxi,” réctum.”
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
I rule.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regö regimus
regis regitis
regit. regurat
IMPERFECT.
I was ruling, or I ruled.
regébama * regébâmus
regåbäs regébâtis
regåbat . regébant
FUTURE.
I shall or will rule. .
regam regömus
regés regétis
reget regent
* PERFECT.
I have ruled, or I ruled.
röxi réximaus
röxisti réxistis
réxit rèxiērunt, or ëre
PLUPERFECT.
I had ruled.
réxeR`alſº rêxeråImalls
réxerås réxerățis
réxerađ réxera Rat
..”
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have ruled.
gº *. & * | ,
rexeliº réxerimyls
réxerís réxeritis
réxerit réxeriHat gr
& The characteristic is a variablo vowel—ö, u, e, i : regà, regunt, regere, regis; Cur-
ºf calls it the thematic vowel; see Curtius, I., p. 199, but on Ö, see also Meyer, 441. , 4
* See 254; 30; 33, 1.


ACTIVE VOICE. 95
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I rule, let him rule."
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regama regåmus
regås regåtis
regat regarat
IMPERFECT.
I should rule, he would rule.
regerem regerðmus
regerés regerétis
regeret regerent
PERFECT.
Amay have ruled, or I have ruled.
wºrk."
réxerimus
réxeris réxerítis . . j\
rêxerit rexerºlº vſ Nº.
PLUPERFECT.
I should have ruled, he would have ruled.
réxissem réxissèmus
réxissès röxissètis
rčxisset réxissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, rege, rule thou ; | regite, rule ye.
Fut. regitā, thou shalt rule, regitóte, ye shall rule,
Pres.
Perf.
Fut,
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
regitā, he shall rule ;
INFINITIVE.
regere, to rule.
réxisse, to have ruled.
réctiirus esse, to be about
}
to rule.
GERUND.
regendi,
regendö,
of ruling,
for ruling,
... regendum, ruling,
regendö, by ruling.
regurató, they shall rule.
Pres.
Fuł.
Acc.
Aöl.
PARTICIPLE.
regiºns, ruling.
réctiºus, about to rule.
- *
SUPINE.
râcturm, fo rule,
réctii, to rule, be ruled.
* But on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II.
§§ THIRD CO WJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION: CONSONANT WERBS.
210. PASSIVE VOICE.-Regor, I am ruled.
VERB STEM, reg, PRESENT STEM, rege."
PRINCIPAL PARTS. {
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF. IND.
regor, regi, réctus' sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
I am ruled.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regor regimur
regeris, or re regimini
regitur regulatur
IMPERFECT.
I was ruled.
regåbar regébâmur
regåbäris, or re regébâmini
regelbätur regébaratur
FUTURE.
I shall or will be ruled.
regar regåmur
regéris, or re regemini
regàtur regentur
PERFECT.
I have been ruled, or I was ruled.
réctus sum * récti SMIrma IIIs
récturis es rècti estis
réctuals eşţ récti SEAraţ
PLUPERFECT.
I had been ruled.
réctuas eram. ” récti erailrºasis;
réct HAs erzi's rècti erzitis
réctuals eraſ, rècti era Rat
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been ruled.
réctus eró” récti erimaus
réctuas eris rècti eritis
réctuals erit röcti erºus Ratſ,
1 See 209, foot-notes. 2 See 206, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOICE 9?
Pres.
Fui.
Pres.
Perſ.
Put.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
* May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
* SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regar regåmur
regåris, or re regåmini
regàtur regaratur
IMPERFECT.
I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerer § regerémur
regeréris, or re * regerömini
regerötur regerentur
PERFECT.
I may have been ruled, or I have been ruled.
réctus sirm * récti SIIMAUIs
röctus sis réctI sittis
röctus sit récti sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
réctuis essés récti essétis e
réctus essem récti essèmalls;
réctus esset récti essent,
- IMPERATIVE.
regere, be thow ruled; | regimini, be ye ruled.
regitor, thou shalt be ruled,
regitor, he shall be ruled;
reguntor, they shall be ruled.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
regi, to be ruled.
réctus esse,' to have been | Perf. réctus, ruled.
*uled.
réctum iri, to be about to be Ger. regendus, to be ruled, de-
ruled. serving to be ruled.
1 See 206, foot-notes.
98 FOURTH CONJUGATION.
FOURTH CONJUGATION : I WERBS.
211. ACTIVE VOICE.-Audié, I hear.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, audi.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF. IND, SUPINE.
audič, audire, audiwi, auditum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
I hear.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audič audimus
audis auditis
audit audiunt
IMPERFECT.
I was hearing, or I heard.
audièbama audièbämus
audièbās audièbâtis
audièbat audièbamat
FUTURE. .
I shall or will hear.
audiam audièmus
audiès audiètis
audiet audient
PERFECT.
I have heard, or I heard.
audiwi audiwimus
audivisti audiwistis.
audivit audiverunt, or ere
PLUPERFECT.
I had heard.
audiwerama audiver:imus
audiverås audiver:itis
audiwerat audiwerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have heard.
audiveró audiverímus
audiwerís audiveritis
audiverit audiverint
ACTIVE VOICE. 99
Pres,
Fiti.
Pres.
Perf.
Fut.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I hear, let him hear."
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audiana audiámus
audiás audiátis
audiat audiant
IMPERFECT.
I should hear, he would hear.
audirem audirèmus
audirºs audirètis
audiret audirent
PERFECT.
I may have heard, or I have heard. * *
audiverina audiverímnis
audiveris audiveritis
audiverit audiwerint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have heard, he would have heard.
audivissem audiwissèmus
audiwissès audiwissètis
audiwisset audiwissent
IMPERATIVE.
audi, hear thou ;
audità, thou shalt hear,
auditë, he shall hear ;
INFINITIVE.
audire, to hear.
audiwisse, to have heard.
auditiirus esse, to be about
to hear.
GERUND.
. audiendi, of hearing,
audiendö, for hoaring,
. audiendum, hearing,
. audiendö, by hearing.
| audite, hear ye.
auditäte, ye shall hear,
audiumtö, they shall hear.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres, audièms, hearing.
Fut, auditiirus, about to hear.
SUPINE.
Acc. auditum, to hear,
Abl, auditii, to hear, be heard.
* ~
* But on the translation of the subſºn&iw:33:19āj}.
º
& © •e * e
100 FOURTH CONJUGATION.
FOURTH CONJUGATION: I VERBS.
212. PASSIVE VOICE.-Audior, I am heard.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, audi.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF, IND.
audior, audiri, auditus summa.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. I am heard. PLURAL.
audior audimuhr
audiris, or re audirmairai
auditur audiumatur
IMPERFECT. ---
I was heard.
audièbar audièbännaur
audièbāris, or re audièbämini
audièbāţūr audièbantur
- FUTURE.
I shall or will be heard.
audiar audièrmur
audièris, or re audièmini
audiètur audientºur
. PERFECT. w
I have been heard, or I was heard.
auditus sum * auditi surmus
auditus es auditi estis
auditus est auditi suant
PLUPERFECT.
I had been heard.
auditus eram 1 - auditi eraimus
auditus erais auditi eraitis
auditus erat auditi erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been heard.
auditus eró 1 auditi erimus
auditus eris auditi eritis
auditus erit auditi erumt
*:: . *. :* See 206, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOICE. 101
Pres,
Fººt.
Pres.
Perf.
J7%ut,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be heard, let him be heard.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audiar audiámur
audiáris, or re audiármini
audiáttar audiant'Eur
IMPERFECT.
I should be heard, he would be heard.
audireR- audirèmur
audirèris, or re audirèmaini
audirètur audirematur
PERFECT.
I may have been heard, or I have been heard.
auditus sim! auditi simus
auditus sis auditi sītis
auditus sit auditi sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been heard, he would have been heard.
auditi essèmuus
auditi essétis
auditi essent
auditus essem'.
auditus essès
auditus esset
IMPERATIVE.
audire, be thow heard; | audiminai, be ye heard.
auditor, thou shalt be heard, |
auditor, he shall be heard; audiuntor, they shall be heard.
INFINITIVE. E’ARTICIPLE.
audiri, to be heard.
auditus esse,' to have been | Perf. auditus, heard.
heard.
auditum iri, to be about to Ger. audiendums, to be heard, de-
be heard. serving to be heard.
I See 206, foot-notes.
102
TVERBS.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
213. ACTIVE VOICE.
P F. E S E N T S Y S T E M . 1
§II] -O
mon -eč,
reg -č
aud -ić,
3.IIl -ābam,
mon -ébam,
reg -ébam,
aud -ičbam,
am -ābā,
mon -ébö,
reg -am,
aud -iam,
3.IT). -em,
mon -eam,
reg -am,
aud -iam,
3.In -ārem,
mon -èrem,
reg -erem,
aud -Irem,
SINGULAR.
3.00. ” -ā,
Iſholl -č,
reg -e,
aud -I,
-āS,
-ès,
-1s,
-1S,
-ābās,
-čbās,
-ébās,
-ičbās,
-ābis,
-ébis,
-ès,
-iés,
-ārēs,
-érès,
-erés,
-Irès,
PRESENT.
PLURAL.
-āte;
-ête ;
-ite;
-ite;
PRES.. INFINITIVE.
a ſū
Iſlo Il
reg
aud
-āre;
-ére;
-ere;
-Ire;
PRESENT.
-at ; -āmus, -ātis, -ant.
-et; -êmus, -étis, -ent.
-it; -imus, -itis, —unt.
-it; -Imus, -Itis, -junt.
IMPERFECT.
-ābat; -ābāmus, -ābātis, -ăbant.
-êbat; -ébâmus, -ébâtis, -ébant.
-ébat; -ébâmus, -ébâtis, -ébant.
-iébat ; -iébâmus, -ièbātis, -ièbant.
FUTURE.
-ābit ; -ābimus, -ābitis, -ābunt.
-êbit; -ébimus, -čbitis, -ébunt.
-et; -êmus, -étis, -ent.
-iet; -iémus, -iétis, -ient.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
-et ; -êmus, -étis, -ent.
-eat; -eåmus, -eåtis, -eant.
-at ; -āmus, -ātis, -ant.
-iat; -iāmus, -iātis, -iant.
IMPERFECT.
-āret; -ārēmus, -ārétis, -ārent.
-éret; -érémus, -érétis, -èrent.
-eret: -erémus, -erétis, -erent.
-Iret; -Irèmus, -Irétis, -Irent.
IMPERATIVE. FUTURE.
SINGUI.A.R. PLURAL.
-ātā, -ātā; -ātöte, -antã.
-ētā, -êtó; -êtóte, -entā.
-ità, -itó; -itóte, -untó.
-ītā, -Itö; -ſtöte, -iuntó.
PRES. PARTICIPLE. GERUND.
-āns; -andí.
-ēns; *, -endi.
-ēns; -endi.
-iêns; -iendſ.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
NoTE-Verbs in ió of Conj. III. have certain endings of Conj. IV.; see 217.
1 For the Present System, see 222, I.
WERBS, 103
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
214. PASSIVE VOICE.
P F. E S E N T S Y S T E M .
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT,
am -or, -āris or āre,' -ătur; -āmur, -ămini, -antur.
mon -eor, -ëris or ēre, -êtur; -êmur, -êmini, -entur.
reg -Or, -eris or ere, -itur ; -imur, -imini, —untur.
aud -ior, -iris or Ire, -Itur ; -Imur, -Imini, -iuntur.
IMPERFECT.
am -ābar, -ābāris or ābāre, -ābātur; -ābāmur, -ābāmini, -ăbantur.
mon -ëbar, -ébāris or ëbäre, -ébâtur; -ébâmur, -ébâmini, -ébantur.
reg -ëbar, -ébāris or ébäre, -ébâtur; -ébâmur, -ébâmini, -ëbantur.
aud -ičbar, -ièbāris or iébäre, -ičbätur ; -iébâmur, -ièbämini, -ičbantur.
FUTURE.
am -ābor, -ăberis or ābere, -ăbitur; -ābimur, -ābimini, -ābuntur.
mon -ébor, -éberis or ébere, -ëbitur; -ébimur, -ébimini, -ébuntur.
reg -ar, -ēris or ēre, -étur ; -êmur, -êmini, -entur.
aud -iar, -ièris or ière, -ičtur; -ièmur, -ièmini, -ientur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
am -er, -ēris or ēre, -êtur; -êmur, -êmini, -entur.
mon -ear, -eńris or eare, -eåtur; -eńmur, -eåmini, -eantur
reg -ar, -āris or āre, -ätur ; -āmur, -āmini, -antur.
aud -iar, -iāris or iáre, -iātur; -iāmur, -iāmini, -iantur.
IMPERFECT.
am -ārer, -ārēris or ārēre, -ărétur ; -ārēmur, -ārēminſ, -ãrentur.
mon -èrer, -ërëris or érère, -ërëtur; -érémur, -érémini, -ērentur.
reg -erer, -eréris or erére, -erétur ; -erémur, -erémini, -erentur.
aud -īrer, -īrāris or Irère, Irètur; -Irèmur, -irémini, -īrentur.
ERATIVE. -
PRESENT. IMP FUTURE.
8INGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
am -āre, -ămini ; -ātor, -ător; -antor.
mon -ère, -émini; -ētor, -ētor; — -entor.
reg -ere, -imini; -itor, -itor; — -untor.
aud -īre, -īmini; -itor, -ſtor; — -iuntor.
PRES.. INFINITIVE. GERUNDIVE.
8.In -ārī; -andus.
IDOD. -éri; -endus.
reg -I; -endus.
aud -Iri; ięndus.
1 In these and the following endings re takes the place of ris: āris or &ré, &bārēs or
dbāre. Re is formed from ris by dropping final s and then changing final 3 to 6; See
36, 5; 24, 1, note; also 237.
104 TVERBS.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
215. ACTIVE VOICE.
P E F. F. E. C T S Y S T E M. 1
INDICATIVE MOOD.
amäV Pºrter.
IłłOIlll - * . . s. e g * I tº 4- **
TÉX l, -istſ, -it; -Imus, -İstis, -èrunt, Öre.”
audiw
amäV PLUPERFECT.
Iſløn Ul tº- * * 3 º'
réx -eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eråtis, -erant.
audiw
TURE PERFECT.
amäV FUTUR C
II].ODUI $2 $2 e & $2, a *
Téx -ero, -erls, -erit; -erlmus, -eritis, -erint.
audiw J -
SUBJUNCTIVE.
tº ECT.
8.TIla,V PERFECT
º -erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
audiw
amäV PLUPERFECT.
monu -issem, -issés, -isset; -issèmus, -issétis, -issent.
TeX
audiw
$º PERFECT INFINITIVE.
3.In 3, W
nonu -isse.
TeX
audiw
S U P I N E S Y S T E M. 1
FUT, INFINITIVE. FUT. PARTICIPLE. SUPINE.
amät
monit -üruS eSSe. -ürüS. -um, -ü.
rèct
audit
* For the Perfect System, see 222, II.; for the Supine System, 222, III.
* From the comparative view presented in 213–216, it will be seen that the four
conjugations differ from each other only in the formation of the Principal Parts and in
the endings of the Present System. See also 201, foot-note.
VERBS. - 105
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
216. PASSIVE VOICE.
s UPIN E syst E M.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
réct
audit
- PERFECT.
amät PERFECT
monit tº 5 1 • -- * * *
réct -uS Sum, -us eS, -us est; - * Sumus, -í estis, -i Sunt.
audit
amät PLUPERFECT.
monit s * - - - 7 Arizº 4.3 c. 7
réct -us eram, -us eras, -us erat; -I eramus, -i eratis, -i erant.
audit
amät FUTURE PERFECT.
* -us erö, -us eris, -us erit; -I erimus, -i eritis, -i erunt.
audit -
SUBJUNCTIVE.
- PERFECT.
amät ERFECT
* -us sim, -us Sis, -us sit; -I simus, -i Sitis, -i Sint.
audit
- LUPERFECT.
amät PLUPERFECT
monit - - as - - - - - - , º . *
réct -us essem, -us essés, -us esset; -I essémus, -í essétis, -i essent.
audit
INFINITIVE.
amät Y PERFECT. FUTURE.
monit -
-US CSSC, -um Irſ.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
amät
monit =U18.
réct
audit J
* In the plural, -w8 becomes -7: amāt-? Swmw8, etc.
106 THIRD CONJUGATION.
217. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Present
Indicative in ió, ior, like verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. They
are inflected with the endings of the Fourth wherever those end-
ings have two successive vowels. These verbs are—
1. Capiá, to take; cupið, to desire; facià, to make : fodić, to dig; fugið,
to flee; jació, to throw ; parió, to bear; quatiá, to shake; rapić, to seize;
sapió, to be wise, with their compounds.
2. The compounds of the obsolete verbs, lacià, to entice, and speció, to
* - ºr s e : *
3. The Deponent Verbs: gradior, to go; morior, to die; pation, to suffer;
See 231.
218. ACTIVE VOICE.-Capiá, I take.
WERB STEM, cap ; PRESENT STEM, cape.”
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PREs, INF. PERF. IND. SUPINE.
capió, capere, cépi, Captum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
capić, capis, capit; | capimus, capitis, capiunt.
IMPERFECT.
capiébam, -ičbás, -ièbat; | capiébâmus, -ičbâtis, -ičbant.
FUTURE.
capiam, -iès, -iet; | capiémus, -ićtis, -ient.
PERFECT. -
cépì, -istſ, -it; | cépimus, -ístis, -érunt, or ēre.
PLUPERFECT.
cêperam, -eras, -erat; | céperåmus, -eratis, -erant.
FUTURE PERFECT. -
céperö, -eris, -erit; | céperimus, -eritis, -erint.
SUBJUNCTIVE. -
PRESENT.
capiam, -iās, -iat; | capiāmus, -iātis, -iant.
IMPERFECT.
caperem, -erés, -eret ; | caperémus, -erétis, -erent.
PERFECT.
céperim, -eris, -erit; | céperimus, -eritis, -erint.
PLUPERFECT.
cépissem, -issés, -isset; | cépissèmus, -issétis, -issent.
1 Speció occurs, but is exceedingly rare.
* With variable vowel—e, i : cape, capi.
VERBS IN IO. 107
IMPERATIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Pres, cape; | capite.
Fut, capitá, capitóte,
capitä; capiuntó.
TNFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capere. Pres, capičns.
Perf. cépisse.
Put, captărus esse. Fut. captirus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. Capiendſ,
Dat. capiendö,
Acc. capiendum, Acc. captum,
Aöl. capiendö. Abl. capti.
219. PASSIVE VOICE.-Capior, I am taken.
IPRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES.. IND. PRES.. INF. PERF. IND
capior, Capi, captuS Sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
capior, caperis, capitur; | capimur, capimini, capiuntur.
IMPERFECT.
capiébar, -ičbāris, -ičbâtur; | capiébâmur, -ičbämini, -ičbantur.
FUTURE.
capiar, -ièris, -ičtur; | capiémur, -ičmini, -ientur.
PERFECT.
captus sum, es, est; | capti Sumus, estis, Sunt.
PLUPERFECT.
captus eram, erås, orat; | capti erallius, erālis, eralit.
|FUTURE PERFECT.
captus erö, eris, erit; | capti erimus, eritis, erunt.
108 VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PRESENT. PLURAL,
capiar, -iāris, -iātur; | capiāmur, -iāmini, -iantur.
IMPERFECT.
caperer, -eréris, -erétur ; | caperémur, -erömini, -erentur.
PERFECT.
captus sim, Sís, sit; | capti Simus, Sitis, sint.
PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, essés, esset; | capti essémus, essétis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, capere; | capimini.
Put, capitor,
capitor; capiuntor.
INFINITIVE. BARTICIPLE.
Pres, capi.
Perf. captus esse. Perf. captus.
Fut, captum III. Fut. capiendus.
VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
22O. The PRINCIPAL PARTs are formed in the four conjuga-
tions with the following endings, including the characteristic vow-
els, a, 5, e, i :
CoNJ. I. ë, are, ãvi, âtum,
amó, amäre, amāvī, amātum, to love.
CoNJ. II. In a few verbs: eó, ēre, évi, etum,
dèleå, délère, délévi, dēlētum, to destroy.
In most verbs : eå, ëre, ui, itum,
moneó, monére, monui, monitum, to advise.
CONJ. III. In consonant stems: ere, SI tum
y y
, carpere, carpsi, carptum, to pluck.
3.
Carp
In vowel stems:
ö,
ere, i, tum,
acuč, acuere, acui, acutum, to sharpen.
CONJ. I.W. ič, ire, Ivi, Itum,
audió, audire, audiwi, auditum, to hear.
221. CoMPOUNDs of verbs with dissyllabic Supines generally
change the stem-vowel in forming the principal parts:
I. When the Present of the compound has i for e of the simple verb:
VERBAL INFLECTIONS. 109
1. ‘The Perfect and Supine generally resume the e: 1
regö, regere, réxi, rèctum, to rule.
di-rigö, dirigere, diréxi, diréctum, to direct,
2. But sometimes only the Supine resumes the e: *
teneš, tenère, tenui, tentum, to hold.
dè-tineč, détinëre, dětinui, détentum, to detain.
II. When the Present of the compound has i for a of the simple verb:
1. The Perfect generally resumes the vowel of the simple perfect, and
the Supine takes e,” Sometimes a:
capiá, capere, Göpi, captum, to take.
ac-cipió, accipere, accépi, acceptum, to accept.
2. But sometimes the Perfect retains i and the Supine takes e : *
rapić, rapere, rapui, raptum, to Seize.
di-ripió, diripere, diripui, direptum, to tear asunder.
NoTE.—For Reduplication in compounds, see 255, I., 4; other peculiarities of
compounds will be noticed under the separate conjugations.
222. All the forms of any regular verb arrange themselves in
three distinct groups or systems :
I. The PRESENT SYSTEM, with the Present Infinitive as its basis,
comprises— -
1. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative—Active and Passive.
2. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive—Active and Passive.
3. The Imperative—Active and Passive.
4. The Present Infinitive—Active and Passive.
5. The Present Active Participle.
6. The Gerund and the Gerundive.
NOTE:-These parts are all formed from the Present Stem, found in the
Present Infinitive Active by dropping the ending re: amāre, present stem
AMA; monére, MONE; regere, REGE ; audīre, AUDI.
II. The PERFECT SystEM, with the Perfect Indicative Active as
its basis, comprises in the Active Voice—
1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative.
2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
3. The Perfect Infinitive.
NoTE.—These parts are all formed from the Perfect Stem, found in the
Perfect Indicative Active, by dropping i : amávi, perfect stem AMAv;
monui, Monu.
III. The SUPINE SYSTEM, with the Supine as its basis, comprises—
* The favorite vowel before a, or two or more consonants; see 24, 1.
110 SYWOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
1. The Supines in um and ü, the former of which with iri forms the
Future Infinitive Passive.
2. The Future Active and Perfect Passive Participles, the former of
which with esse forms the Future Active Infinitive, and the latter of which
with the proper parts of the auxiliary sum forms in the Passive those
tenses which in the Active belong to the Perfect System.
NoTE.—These parts are all formed from the Supine Stem, found in the
Supine by dropping um: amātum, Supine stem AMAT; monitum, MONIT.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION
FIRST CONJUGATION.
223. ACTIVE VOICE.-Amö, I love.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
amö, amāre, amāvī, amātum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, amä.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNOTIVE. IMPER, INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, amä a DO €Iſl amä armāre amâns
Imp. amäbam amārem -
Fut, amābā amātā
Germind, amandi, dö, etc.
3. PERFECT SysTEM ; STEM, amdv.
Perſi amāvī amāvisse
Plup. amäveram
J. P. amäveró
amăverim
amāvissem
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, amát.
Fuž. | | | amātūrus esse amātūrus
Supine, amātum, amātū.
224. PASSIVE VOICE.-Amor, I am loved.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS. -
amor, amārī, amātus Sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, amū.
Pres, amor a DO €I’ amāre amārī
Imp. amäbar amärer
JFut. amābor amätor
Gerundive, amandus.
SYWOPSIS OF COWJUGATION. 111
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, amāt.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPER, INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE,
Perf. amātus sum amātus sim amātus eSSe amātuS
Plup, amātus eram amātus essem
F. P. amātus eró
J'ut. amātum Iri
SECOND CONJUGATION.
225. ACTIVE VOICE.-Moneó, I advise.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTs,
moneó, monére, monuſ, monitum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, moné.
Pres, moneš In Orlea.In InOné mon&re ImOnčnS
Imp. monébam ImOnérem Sº
Fut, monébó monétó
Gerund, monendi, dö, etc.
3. PERFECT SYSTEM ; STEM, monu.
Perf. monui monuerim monuisse
Plup. monueram monuissem
JF. P. monuerö
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, monit.
Jºut. | ſ | monitiirus esse | monitàrus
Suping, monitum, monitii.
226. PASSIVE VOICE.-Moneor, I am advised.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
moneor, monéri, monitus Sum.
2. PRESENT SystEM ; STEM, moné.
Pres. moneor IO.O.D.628.I.' monére monéri
Imp. monébar monérer
Fut. monébor monétor
Gerundive, monendus.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, monit.
Perf. monitus sum | monitus sim monitus esse IIIonilus
Plup. monitus eram | monitus essem
F. P. monitus eró
JFuž. monitum III
112 SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
227. ACTIVE VOICE.-Regö, I rule.
sº
rego,
INDICATIVE.
Pres, regó
Imp. regébam
Fut, regam
Perf. réxi
Plup. réxeram
IF. P. réxerö
Jºzt.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
regere, réxi, réctum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, rege.
SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE,
regam rege regere regéns
regerem
• , ºf
regitó
Gerund, regendſ, dö, etc.
3. PERFECT SYSTEM ; STEM, réz.
réxerim
réxisse
réxissem
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, réct.
| | réctürus esse | réctürus
Supine, réctum, réctü.
228. PASSIVE VOICE.-Regor, I am ruled.
regor,
Pres, regor
Imp. regébar
Fut. regar
Perf. réctus sum
Plup. réctus eram
F. P. réctus eró
Fuž.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
*
regi, réctus Sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, rege.
regar regere regi
regerer
regitor
Gerundive, regendus.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, ràct.
réctus sim réctuS eSSe réctus
rèctuS eSSem
réctum Iri
SYNOPSIS OF COWJUGATION. 113
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
229. ACTIVE VOICE.-Audió, I hear.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
audió, audire, audiwi, auditum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, audi.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNOTIVE. IMPER. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, audič audiam audi audire audièns
Imp. audiébam audirem
Fut, audiam audità
Gerund, audiendſ, dö, etc.
3. PERFECT SystEM ; STEM, audiv.
Perf. audiwi
Plup. audiveram
J. P. audiverö
audiwerim
audiwissem
audiwisse
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, audit.
Jººzå. | | | auditirus esse | auditiirus
Supine, auditum, audītū.
23O. PASSIVE VOICE.-Audior, I am heard.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS
audior, audiri, auditus sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, audi.
Pres, audior audiar audire audiri
Imp. audièbar audirer
Fut, audiar auditor
Gerundive, audiendus.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, audit.
Perf. auditus sum | auditus sim auditus esse audituS
Plup, auditus eram | auditus essem
I'. P. auditus eró
Iſhtt. auditum Iri
114 DEPOWEWT VERBS.
DEPONENT WIER BS.
231. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the Passive
Voice with the signification of the Active. But—
1. They have also in the Active, the future infinitive, the participles,
gerund, and Supine.
2. The gerundive generally has the passive signification; sometimes
also the perfect participle: hortandus, to be exhorted; expertus, tried.
3. The Future Infinitive of the Passive form is rare, as the Active form
is generally used. -
NoTE.—The synopsis of a single example will sufficiently illustrate the peculiarities
of Deponent Werbs.
232. Hortor, I exhort.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
hortor, hortări, hortătus Sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, hortà.
INDICATIVE, SUBJUNOTIVE. IMPER, INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, hortor 1 horter hortăre hortäri hortäns
Imp. hortābar hortärer
Iſut, hortābor hortätor
Gerund, hortandi. Gerundive, hortandus.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, hortät.
Perf. hortätus sum hortätus sim hortätus esse hortätus
Plup. hortätus eram hortätus essem
F. P. hortätus eró
Iſhit. hortätürus essel hortätürus
Supine, hortätum, hortätü.
NoTE.—For the Principal Parts of Deponent Werbs in the other conjugations, See
268, 283, and 288. From these Principal Parts the pupil, by the aid of the paradigms
already learned, will be able to inflect any Deponent Verb.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
233. The ACTIVE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION, formed
by combining the Future Active Participle with sum, de-
notes an intended or future action: .
1 The tenses are inflected regularly through the persons and numbers: hortor, hor-
tiris, hortätur, hortãmºur, hortămânî, hortantwr. All the forms in this synopsis have
the active meaning, I eachort, I was eachorting, etc., except the Gerundive, which has
the passive force, deserving to be ea:horted, to be eachorted. The Gerundźve, as it is
passive in meaning, cannot be used in intransitive Deponent Verbs, except in an imper-
Sonal Sense; see 301, 1.
PEOULIA RITIES IN CONJUGATION. 115
Amātūrus sum, I am about to love.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INFINITIVE,
Pres, amātūrus sum *. amātūrus sim amātūrūS eSSe
Imp. amātūrus eram amātūruS eSSem
Put. amātūrus eró
Perf. amātūrus ful amātūrus fuerim amātūrus fuisse
Plup. amātūrus fueram amātūrus fuissem
P. P. amātūrus fueró 1
234. The PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC Conjug ATION, formed
by combining the Gerundive with sum, denotes necessity or
duty.
Amandus sum, I must be loved.”
J’res. amandus sum amandus sim amandus esse
Imp. amandus eram amandus essem *
Fut, amandus eró
Perf. amandus ful amandus fuerim amandus fuisse
Plup. amandus fueram amandus fuissem
JF. P. amandus fueró
NotE.—The Periphrastic Conjugation, in the widest sense of the term, includes all
forms compounded of participles with sum ; but as the Pres. Part, with sum is equiva-
lent to the Pres. Ind. (amáns est = amat), and is accordingly seldom used, and as the
Perf. Part. with 8wm is, in the strictest sense, an integral part of the regular conjugation,
the term Periphrastic is generally limited to the two conjugations above given.
PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION.
235. Perfects in avi, Švi, Ivi, and the tenses derived
from them, sometimes drop v and suffer contraction before
S and r, and sometimes before t. Thus—
Å with the following vowel becomes à: amavisti (amaisti), amästä;
amäveram (amaeram), amáram, amávisse (amaisse), amasse; amóvit (ama-
it), amát. *
E with the following vowel becomes é: névi (to spin), navisti (neisti),
nësti : névêrunt (neérunt), närunt.
I-I and 1-i become I: audivisti (audiisti), audisti ; audivissem (audiis-
Sem), audissem, audiwit (audiit), audit. -
1. Perfects in ivi sometimes drop v in any of their forms, but generally
without contraction, except before s : audīvī, audī, audīt, audièram, audi-
vić, a wºº or awaiotă.
* The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly through the persons and numbers:
&mdžūrw8 Sum, eS, est. The Fut. Perf. is exceedingly rare.
2 Or, I deserve (ought) to be loved.
116 PEOULIA RITIES IN CONJUGATION.
2. Perfects in Övi.—The perfects of nôscó, to know, and moveč, to move,
sometimes drop v and suffer contraction before r and sº nãvisti, nosti.
3. Perfects in 87 and 27 sometimes drop is, is, or Sis: scripsisti, scripsti ;
diæisse, diſce ; accessistis, accestºs.
236. The ending ére for €runt in the Perfect is com-
mon in Livy and the poets, but rare in Cicero and Caesar.
NoTE.—The form in Čre does not drop v. In poetry erunt occurs.
237. Re for ris in the ending of the second Person of the Passive is
rare in the Present Indicative, but common in the other tenses.
238. Dic, dūc, fac, and fer, for dice, dice, face, and fere, are the
Imperatives of dicó, diſcó, fació, and ferö, to say, lead, make, and bear.
NoTE 1.-Džce, dūce, and face occur in poetry.
NoTE 2.—Compounds follow the simple verbs, except those of facià, which change a
into i : cănfice. *
239. Undus and undi for endus and endi occur as the endings of the
Gerundive and Gerund of Conj. III. and IV., especially after i : faciundus,
from fació, to make; dicundus, from dicó, to say.
240. ANCIENT AND RARE FoRMS.—Various other forms, belonging in
the main to the earlier Latin, occur in the poets, even of the classical
period, and occasionally also in prose, to impart to the style an air of an-
tiquity or Solemnity. Thus forms in— -
1. ibam for idbam, in the Imperfect Ind. of Conj. IV. : scibam for
Sciébam. See Imperfect of ed, to go, 295.
2. ibo, Ibor, for iam, iar, in the Future of Conj. IV. : serviöö for ser-
viam, opperiöor for opperiar. See Future of ed, 295.
3. im for am or em, in the Pres. Subj. : edim, edis, etc., for edam, edis,
etc.; duim (from duá, for do), for dem.–In sim, velim, ndlim, malim (204
and 293), im is the common ending.
4. assé, éssà, and sô, in the Future Perfect, and āssim, essim, and
sim, in the Perfect Subjunctive of Conj. I., II., III. : fazö (facsó) for
fêceró" (from facià); faſcim for fêcerim's ausim for ausus sim (for ause-
rim, from auded). Rare examples are: levåssó for levåveró; prohibássó for
prohibueró; jūssó for jūsserö; capsû for cépcrö; azā for &gerö; occisit for
occiderit; taxis for tetigeris.
B. tº and miné for tor, the former in both numbers, the latter in the
singular, of the Future Imperative, Passive and Deponent: arbiträtä, arðī-
träminö for arbiträtor ; iſtuntô for ütuntor.
6. ier for 7 in the Present Passive Infinitive : amärier for amārī, vidé-
rter-for vidari.
* Remember that r in eró and erim was originally s, see 31, 1; 204, foot-note 2, .
A WA I, YSIS OF VERBAL ENDINGS. 117
ANALYSIS OF VERBAL ENDINGS.
N
241. The endings which are appended to the stems in the for-
mation of the various parts of the finite verb contain three distinct
elements: -
1. The TENSE-SIGN: ba in amā-ba-in, regé-bā-s.
2. The MooD-Wow EL: ã in mone-à-S, reg-à-S.
3. The PERSONAL ENDING: s in mone-à-8, reg-à-s.
I. TENSE-SIGNS.
242. The Present is without any tense-sign: amá-8. So also
the Future" in Conjugations III. and IV.
243. In the other tense-forms of all regular verbs, the tense-sign
is found in the auxiliary with which these forms are all compounded:
Amà-Öam,” amāv-eram, amá-bó, amáv-eró; moné-bam, monu-eram.
II. MooD-SIGNs.
244. The Indicative has no special sign to mark the Mood.
245. The Subjunctive has a long vowel—ä, ä,” or iº-before
the Personal Endings:
Mone-à-mus, mone-à-lis, am-3-mus, am-è-tis, S-7-mus, S-7-tis.
NoTE.—This vowel is shortened before final m and t, and generally in the Perfect
before 8, mus, and tis. moneam, amet, Sit, fuerís, amāverimus, amáveritis.
1 This Future is in form a Present Subjunctive, though it has assumed in full the
force of the Future Indicative; see foot-note 4 below.
* Bam and eram are both auxiliary verbs in the Imperfect, the former from the stem
bhu, the old form of fu in fu-7, and the latter from the stem es; the former added to the
Present stem forms the Imperfect, the latter added to the Perfect stem forms the Pluper-
fect. Bö and eró are Future forms, the former from bhu, the latter from es; the former
added to the Present stem forms the Future in Conjugations I. and II., the latter added
to the Perfect stem forms the Future Perfect. In the Subjunctive the tense-forms, except
the Present, are compounded with Subjunctive tense-forms from es; thus, erem in reg-
érém is for esem, the old form of essem ; erim in réaº-erim is for esām = sām, and issem.
in réal-issem is for essem; thus the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive of Swm added to
the Perfect stem form the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
* This é comes from a-7, of which the 7 alone is the true Mood-Sign.
* The Latin Subjunctive contains the forms of two distinct Moods—the Subjunctive
With the sign d, and the Optative with the sign 7, sometimes contained in a for a-i.
Thus: Subjunctive, mone-à-mus, audā-ā-tis; Optative, S-7-mus, rewer-i-tis, a???-6-????ts
for ama-7-mus, reger-à-s for regera-7-8. The Subjunctive and Optative forms, originally
distinct, have in the Latin been blended into one Mood, called the Subjunctive, and are
used without any difference of meaning. Thus the Mood in mone-à-mus, a Subjunctive
form, has precisely the same force as in am-à-mus, an Optative form. The First Person
Singular of Futures in am—regam, audiam, etc.—is in form a Subjunctive, while the
other Persons, régés, et, etc., audiés, et, etc., are in form Optatives. -
118 PERSONAL ENDINGS,
246. The Imperative is distinguished by its Personal Endings;
see 247, 3.
III. PERSONAL ENDINGS.
247. The Personal Endings are formed from ancient pronom-
inal stems, and have, accordingly, the force of pronouns in Eng-
lish. They are as follows: -
PERSON. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. MEANING.
Singular." First Iſl r I
Second S ris thou, you,
Thºrdſ t tur he, she, it
Plural.” First Tºll IS IOUIT" 206
Second tis mini 3 3/07/
Third nt ntur they
EXAMPLES.
amāba—m amāba-r regó rego-r
amābā-S amābā-ris regi-S rege-ris
amāba—t amābā-tur regi-t regi-tur
amābā-mus amābā-mur regi-mus regi-mur
amābā-tis amābā-mini regi-tis regi-mini
amāba—nt amāba—ntur regu-nt - regu-ntur
1. OMITTED.—In the Present,4 Perfect, and Future Perfect Ind. of all
the conjugations, and in the Future Ind. of Conjugations I. and II., the
ending m does not appear. In these forms the First Person ends in 5: *
amó, amābā, amäverö; except in the Perfect, where it ends in 7 : " amóvã.
2. The endings of the Perfect Active are peculiar. They are the same
as in fuž.
1 In the Singular these Personal Endings contain each—(1) in the Active Voice one
pronominal stem, m, I; 8, thou, you; t, he; and (2) in the Passive two such stems, one
denoting the Person, and the other the Passive Voice: thus, in the ending tur, t (tā)
denotes the person, and r, the voice. Ie of the first person stands for on-r.
2 In the Plural the Endings contain each—(1) in the Active two pronominal stems:
amºu-S = m (mu) and s, I and you, i.e., we; tis = t (the original form for s, thou, as seen
in til, thou) and S, - 8 and S, thou and thou, i.e., you; nt – ºn and t, he and he, i.e., they;
and (2) in the Passive three such stems, the third denoting the Passive Woice: thus in
mtur, nt (ntu) denotes the person and number, and r, the voice.
3 Mini was not originally a Personal Ending, but the Plural of a Passive Participle,
not otherwise used in Latin, but seen in the Greek (wevou). Amāmāmā, originally amāmi-
mī estis, means you are loved, as amátº estis means you have been loved.
* Except in Sum, I am, and inguam, I Say.
* The origin of this final č is uncertain. Curtius regards it as simply the thematic
vowel, but Meyer recognizes in it a suffiac combined with the thematic vowel; see Cur-
tius, Werbum, I., pp. 199, 200; Meyer, p. 849.
* Probably a part of the stem; but see Curtius, Werbum, II., p. 173; Papillon, pp. 194–
196; also two papers by the author, on the Formation of the Tenses for Completed Action
in the Latin Finite Werb; Transactions of the Am. Phil. Assoc., 1874 and 1875.
FORMATION OF STEMS. 119
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Jºsł Pºrs, fu-il fu-i-mus
Second fu-is-ti fu-is-tis
Thºrd fu-i-t fu-èru-nt or ēre
3. The Imperative Mood has the following Personal Endings:
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Jºres. Second Pers. —2 te Ire mini
Puč, Second tö tôte tor
* Thºrd, tö ntö tor ntor
248. Infinitives, Participles, Gerunds, and Supines are formed
with the following endings:
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
Infinitive Present re (ere) ri (eri), I
Perfect isse tlS eSSe
Iſuture lirus eSSe lum Iri
Participle Present IlS
Puture iirus
Perfect llS
Gerundºve ndus
Gerund ndi
Supine um, ii
FORMATION OF STEMS.
249. The three Special Stems are all formed from the Werb Stem.
I. PRESENT STEM.
250. The Present Stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active
by dropping re, is generally the same as the Werb Stem in the First
and in the Fourth Conjugations, and sometimes in the Second.
Thus, amá, délé, and audi " are both Present Stems and Werb Stems.
* Aſ is omitted in the first person, and tâ, an ancient form of 87, s, is used in the sec-
ond. Otherwise the endings themselves are regular, but in the second person ti and tis
are preceded by is, and grunt in fu-ārunt is for esunt, the full form for sunt. Thus
Jºu-Érwmt is a compound of fu and eSunt for sunt. Fu-āstis, in like manner, may be a
compound of fu and istis for estis, and fu-āstā, of fu and ist? for esti for es.
* In the Present the ending is dropped in the Sing. Act., and the endings te and re
are Shortened from tis and ris of the Indicative by dropping s and changing final i into
e; see 24, 1, note. In the Future, ti) of the second person corresponds to ti of the Per-
fect Ind.; tā and mtö of the third person to t and nt. Tor and ntor add r to tô and ntó.
Tôté doubles the pronominal stem.
*The final vowels are generally explained as derived from affa, which became, in
Conj. I., affo, shortened to Ö in am-ā, and to & in the other forms, as am-à-mus; in
f20 FORMATION OF STEMS.
251. The Present Stem, when not the same as the Werb Stem,
is formed from it by one of the following methods:
1. By adding a short vowel, called the Thematic vowel: *
regó; Stem, reg; Present Stem, rege; to rule.
Canó , “ can ; {{ Cane : to 8&ng.
2. By adding a Thematic vowel preceded by n, sc, or tº:
sinö; . Stem, si; Present Stem, sine ; to permit.
Spernò; “ sper, spré ; { { Sperne ; to Spurn.
temno ; , “ tem; { % temne ; to #º.
veteråscó; “ veterå; {{ veteråsce; to grow old:
crêscó; “ cre ; t{ Crèsce; to ºncrease.
plectè ; “ plec; {{ plecte; to braid.
3. By adding a Thematic vowel preceded by i or j :
capiš; Stem, cap ; Present Stem, cap-je, cape;3 to take.
pelló ; “ pel; { % pel-je, pelle;2 to drive.
currö; “ cur; { % cur-je, curre; 2 to run.
4. By adding a Thematic vowel and inserting n—changed to m before
a labial, b or p ; see 33, 3:
frangó; Stém, frag; Present Stem, frange ; to break.
fundó; “ fud; { { e ; to poºl?'.
rumpô ; “ rup; { % rumpe ; to burst.
5. By adding a, e, or i :
juvö;. Stem, juv ; Present Stem, juvā; to assist.
videó; “ vid; {{ vidē ; to See.
haurió; “ haur for haus; { % hauri ; to draw.
6. By reduplicating the stem :
sistä; Stem, sta; Present Stem, sista,” siste; to place.
serö ; “ sa; { % sisa, Sise, sere ; 4 to Sow.
NoTE.—Sometimes two of these methods are united in the same stem :
gigné; Stem, gen; Present Stem, gigene, gigne;" to beget.
nanciscor; “ nac ; { nancisce ; * to obtain.
Conj. II, ejo, shortened to e5 in dél-eô, and to è in dél-ć-mus; and in Conj. IV., iſo,
shortened to ió in aud-iö, to iu in aud-iv-nt, and to 7 in aud-7-mus; see 335, foot-note.
* This Thematic vowel, originally a, is generally weakened to e or i : reg-e-re, reg-i-
mus; but sometimes it appears to take the form of 5 or u : reg-ă, reg-u-nt. There is,
however, some difference of opinion in regard to the origin of Ö in such cases; see
247, 1, foot-note 5.
2. With variable Thematic vowel; see foot-note 1, above. J, pronounced y, assimi-
lated to l and r in ſpelle and curre, as in the Greek BáAAø, from BáAjo. See Curtius,
Werbum, I., p. 300.
3 For Stista for Stasta. The e in 8iste takes the several forms of the Thematic vowel.
4 S changed to r between two vowels; see 31, 1. The vowel a of the stem is
weakened to i before S, but to e before r ; see 24, 1 and 2.
* Reduplication with Thematic vowel. -
° N inserted and i-sc-6 added.
FORMATION OF STEMS. 121
II. PERFECT STEMs.
252. Vowel Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding v.
amó (a-Ö), amāvī; Stem, amā; Perfect Stem, amāv; to love.
déleč, délévi ; “ dèle ; { % délév ; to destroy.
audió, audiwi: “ audi; {{ audiw ; to hear.
1. In verbs in uà, the Perfect Stem is the same as the Verb Stem :
acuč, acui ; Stem, acu ; Perfect Stem, acu ; to sharpen.
253. Many Liquid Stems, and a few others, form the Perfect
Stem by adding u: •
aló, . alui; Stem, al.; Perfect Stem, alu; to mourish.
fremº, fremui; “ frem ; {{ fremu ; to 7'age.
tened, tenui; “ ten ; ( & tenu ; to hold.
doceó, docui ; “ doc; {{ docu ; to teach.
254. Most Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding s :
y
regà, réxi; Stem, reg; Perfect Stem, réx = regs; to rule.
scribó, scripsi; “ scrib; {{ scrips = scribs; to write.
carpó, carpsi; “ carp ; { % carps ; to pluck.
255. A few Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem without
any suffix whatever. But of these—
I. Some reduplicate the stem : *
canã, cecini; Stem, can ; Perfect Stem, cecin; to sing.
1. The REDUPLICATION consists of the initial consonant (or consonants)
of the stem with the following vowel, or with e—generally with the follow-
ing vowel, if that vowel is e, i, o, or w, otherwise with e, see examples under
271, 1, and 272, 1.
2. The STEM-Wow EL a is generally weakened to i, sometimes to e : cadó,
Cécidi (for cecadī), to fall.
3. In VERBS BEGINNING witH Sp OR St, the reduplication retains both con-
Sonants, but the stem drops the s : sponded, Spopondź (for spospondi), to prom-
ise ; Stö, Steff (for Stestā), to stand.
4. In CoMPOUNDs the reduplication is generally dropped, but it is retained
in the compounds of dà, to give ; Stö, to stand; discó, to learn; poscó, to
demand; and sometimes in the compounds of curró, to run; re-sponded, re-
spondi, to answer; circum-dà, circum-ded; ; circum-Stä, circum-Steti, to en-
circle. The compounds of d6 which are of the third conjugation change e
of the reduplication into ; ; ad-dā, ad-dādī (for ad-dedi), to add; see 259, 1.
II. Some lengthen the Stem-Vowel:”
emã, emi; Stem, em ; Perfect Stem, em; to buy.
agö, . ...; {{ ; { { ; to drive.
ab-igö, ab-êgi; “ abig; 4 tº abūg; to drévo away.
NoTE.—The stem-vowels a and (in compounds) i generally become ē, as in agö and
ab-igö.
* See lists, 371, 1, and 272, 1. 2 See lists, 271, 2; 272, 2.
6
122 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
III. Some retain the stem unchanged:"
Icó, icſ ; Stem, ic ; Perfect Stem, ic ; to strike.
visó, visi; “ vis; § { vis; to visit.
NoTE.—Of the few verbs belonging to this class, nearly all have the stem-syllable long.
III. SUPINE STEM.
256. The Supine Stem adds t to the Verb Stem :
amû,” amātum; Stem, amā; Supine Stem, amāt; to love.
dicó, dictum; “ die; { { dict: to say..
moneó, monitum : “ moni; 8 & 4 monit; to advise.
dèleå, délètum ; “ délé; & & délèt; to destroy.
audié, auditum ; “ audi; { { audit; to hear.
carpó, Carptum ; “ carp ; & C. carpt; to pluck.
- 1. Stems in d and t, most stems in 1 and r, and a few others, change
t into s :
laed., laesum ; Stem, laed ; Supine Stem, laes;4 to hurt.
vertó, versum ; “ vert; {{ vers; 4 to turn.
verró, versum ; “ verr; { % vers; to brush.
falló, falsum ; “ fall; { { fals; to déceive.
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. *
FIRST CONJUGATION.
CLASS I.-STEM IN a PERFECT IN vi OR ui.
257. Principal Parts in—o, äre, avi, atum."
These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The follow-
ing are examples:
dónö dönäre dônāvī dönātum, to bestow.
hondrö honērāre honērāvī honērātum, to honor.
liberö liberăre liberăvi liberătum, to free.
nóminö nóminäre nümināvī nóminătum, to name.
pügnó pügnäre pügnāvī pügnâtum, to fight.
spérô spéráre spérávi Spērātum, to hope.
NoTE 1.-Pötö, äre, divi, Čitum, to drink, has also a supine, pötum.
NoTE 2.—Cénátus, from cémö, ‘to dine, and jūrātus, from jūrö, “to swear,’ are active
in meaning, having dimed, etc. Pötus, from påtå, is also sometimes active in meaning.
1 See list, 272, 3. 2 For amač. S See 20?.
4 Laes is for laedt, platts for plaudt, vis for vidt, vers for vertt, fals for fallt, vers
for verrt; see 35, 3, 2), note.
5 The Perfect Formation is selected as the special basis of this classification, because
the irregularities of the other principal parts are less important and can be readily as-
Sociated with this formation. In this classification the regular or usual formation is first
given with a few examples, then complete lists (1) of all the simple verbs which deviate
from this formation, and (2) of such compounds as deviate in any important particular
from their simple verbs.
* It is deemed unnecessary longer to retain the double mark six over final o in verbs.
The pupil has now learned that this vowel may be short, though it is generally long in
the Augustan poets,
FIRST CO WJUGATION. 123
258. Principal Parts in—o, äre, ui, itum.”
crepò crepāre crepui crepitum,” to creak.
cubó cubăre cubuſ cubitum,” to recline.
domó domâre domuſ domitum, to ta??ve.
êneCô ênecare êneCui ěnectum,” to kill.
** r * ; c. 75 * = frictum,
fricó fricare fricuſ | fricatum, } to rub.
micó micăre \ micuſ — ” to glitter.
* * e plicãvi plicãtum,
plicó plicãre l plicul plicitum,” } to fold.
Sec6 Secăre Secul sectum," to cut.
SOnö SOn?ire SOnui sonitum," to sound.
tonó tonáre tonuſ to thunder.
Vetó Vetäre Vetui vetitum, to forbid.
CLASS II.-PERFECT IN I.
259. Principal Parts in—o, äre, i, tum.
1. WITH REDUPLICATION.8
dö dare dedi datum, to give.
Stö Stăre Stetſ Stätum, to stand.
2. WITH LENGTHENED STEM-WoWEL.8
juvö juväre jūvi jūtum," to assist.
lavătum,”
lavö lavăre lāvī lautum, | to wash.
lötum,
NOTE 1.-In dö the characteristic a is short by exception: 10 dabam, dabò, darem,
etc. Four compounds of d6—circumdö, pessumdö, Satisdó, and vénumdö–are conju-
gated like the simple verb; the rest are of the Third Conjugation (271). The basis of
Several of these compounds is d6, ‘to place,” originally distinct from d6, ‘to give.”
NOTE 2.-Compounds of Stö generally want the Supine. In the Perfect they have
Steti, if the first part is a dissyllable, otherwise stit?: adsto, adstäre, adstiti. Disto and
easto want Perfect and Supine. -
* Note deviations in the Supine.
* Increpò, dire, wi (āvī), it wºm (ätum); discrepā, dire, wi (āvī), —.
* Compounds which insert m, as accumbö, etc., are of Conj. III.; see 273.
* The simple neco is regular, and even in the compound the forms in divi and dºwm.
OCCUlr.
* Dimico, äre, divi (už), ātum ; Śmico, äre, wi, Čtum.
* Duplico, multiplico, replico, and supplico, are regular: áre, divi, Čtum.
7 Seco has participle secătărus; sono, Sonátürus; juvö, juvātūrus, in compounds
also jūtūrus. Resono has Perfect reson&v7. Most compounds of sono want the Supine.
8 Sea 255, I. and II.
° In poetry, lavö is sometimes of Conj. III. : lavö, lavere, lávi, etc.
10 This short vowel is explained by the fact that dò is a root-verb formed directly from
the root da without the suffix from which the Ó is derived in other verbs in this conju-
gation; see 250, foot-note.
124 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
26O. DEPONENT VERBS.
In this conjugation deponent verbs are entirely regular.
Cönor Cônārī cönātus sum, to endeavor.
hortor hortäri hortätus sum, to exhort.
mIrOr Inirārī mirātus Sum, to admire.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
CLASS I.-STEM IN 5: PERFECT IN vi or ui.
261. Principal Parts in—eo, äre, evi, Štum.
These endings belong to the following verbs:
dèleó délère délévi délétum, to destroy.
compleč complère complévi complètum,” to fill.
fled flère flévi flétum, to weep.
Ineč Inêre InêVI nétum,” to Spin.
262. Principal Parts in—ed, ére, ui, itum.
These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The
following are examples:
débed dëbère débui débitum, to owe.
habeó habère habul habitum, to have.
moneó ImOnére monuſ monitum, to advise.
In OCeO In OCére InOCui nocitum, to hurt.
pāreó pārēre pārui pāritum, to obey.
placed placére placuſ placitum, to please.
tace{} ta. Cére taCul tacitum, to be silent.
NoTE 1.-Many verbs with the Perfect in ui want the Supine. The fol-
lowing are the most important:
canded, to Shine. madeč, to be wet. sorbed, to swallow.
egeó, to want. nited, to shºne. splended, to Shine.
êmined, to stand forth. oleó, to smell. studed, to study.
flöred, to bloom. palled, to be pale. stuped, to be amazed.
fronde0, to bear leaves. pated, to be open. timeó, to fear.
horreó, to shudder. rubed, to be red. torped, to be torpid.
lated, to be hid. sileó, to be silent. vireo, to be green.
NotE:2.-Some verbs, derived mostly from adjectives, want both Perfect
and Supine. The following are the most important:
albed, to be white. hebed, to be blunt. maered, to be sad.
calved, to be bald. timeó, to be moist. polled, to be powerful.
Qāned, to be gray. immineč, to threaten. renideo, to Shine.
flâveó, to be yellow. lacted, to suck. squaled, to be filthy.
* So other compounds of the obsolete pled : eapled, impled, etc.
2 To these may be added aboled, abolére, abolévi, abolitum, “to destroy,” with Supine
in it wºm. See also aboléScö, 277.
&ECOWD CONJUGATION. 125
CLASS II.-STEM IN c, n, r, or s. PERFECT IN ui.’
263. Principal Parts in—ed, ére, ui, tum or sum.”
These endings belong to the following verbs:
cönSeò CénSère CènSui cènsum,” to think.
doceó docère docuſ döctum, to teach.
--> * . . ~~ Q mIStum -
- In ISCéI’e miscul - y to mºa.
In ISCéO CUll } mixtum, }
teneč tenère tenui tentum,” to hold.
torreó torrère torruï tostum, to roast.
CLASS III.-STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN si OR I.
264, Principal Parts in—ed, ére, si, tum.
auged augère auxi auctum, to increase.
indulgeå indulgére indulsi indultum, to indulge.
torqueó torquêre torSI tortum, to twist.
265. Principal Parts in—eo, öre, si, sum.”
algeó algère alsi sº-ºe to be cold.
àrdeó ârdère ărST ârsum, to burn.
- - - ºr - - - Cönivi -
COI).IVéO convere } Cönix.I } to wink at.
frigeč frigère frixi (rare) smºm-mºnº to be cold.
fulged fulgére fulsi —" to shine.
haered haerére haesſ haesum," to Stick.
jubeó juběre jūssi jūssum, to order.
lüceó lücére lüxi *-*. to shine.
lüged lügère lüxi º-s, to mourn.
maneG manère ImānSI mânsum, to remain.
mulgeå mulgère mulsi mulsum, to milk.
mulced mulcére mulsi mulsum," to soothe.
rideó ridére rTSI risum, to laugh.
Suāded Suādère SuâSI Suāsum, to advise.
terged tergère terSI tersum, to wipe.
turged turgère tursi (rare) *-*s to swell.
urged (urgued) urgère urSI -sº to press.
NoTE.—Cied, cière, civi, citum, to arouse, has a kindred form, ció, c'ère, civi, citum,
from which it seems to have obtained its Perfect. In compounds the forms of the Fourth
Conj. prevail, especially in the sense of to call, call forth.
* For convenience of reference, a General List of all verbs involving irregularities
will be found on page 383.
* The Present Stem adds 3, see 251, 5. For phonetic changes, see 33–36.
* Participle cénsus and cánsitus.-Percénsed wants Supine: recém.8e0 has récènsum
and recénsitwm.
* In most compounds the Supine is rare.
* Poetic, fulgo, fulgere, etc.
* The stem of haered is haes. The Present adds & and changes 8 to r between two
Vowels. In haesi and haesum, s standing for ss or St is not changed.
* In compounds sometimes mulctum.
126
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
266. Principal Parts in—ed, ere, i, tum.
WITH LENGTHENED STEM-Wow.EL.
caveó
faveó
foveo
ImOveó
paved
WOWeó
CaVēre
favére
fovére
ImOVère
pavére
VOVére
CâVI Cautum,
fāvī fautum,
föVi fötum,
Imövī mótum,
pāvī tºº
WöWi vötum,
267. Principal Parts in—ed, ere, i, sum.
mordeó
pended
sponded
tonded
seded
videó
Cönived
ferved
langued
liqueó
pranded
strideó
mordère
pendère
spondére
tondére
1. WITH REDUPLICATION."
momordi morsum,
pependi pênsum,
Spopondſ spönsum,
totondi tönsum,
2. WITH LENGTHENED STEM-Wow.E.L.
sedere
vidēre
Cönivere
fervēre
languère
liquère
prandére
stridère
Sédi
vidi
séssum,”
visum,
3. WITH UNCHANGED STEM.
cönivī, cónixi
fervi, ferbui
langui
liqui, licuſ *======ººms
prandi pränsum,”
Stridi *=ºmºsº
268. DEPONENT VERBS.
lice.or
Imereoſ'
polliceor
tueOr
Vere'Or
fateor
medeor
misereor
Peop
I. Regular.
licãri licitus sum,
Imereri meritus sum,
pollicéri pollicitus sum,
tuéri tuitus sum,
tütus sum,
Verèri veritus sum,
2. Irregular.
fatéri fassus sum,"
Imedéri *==s===
* . . * *s miseritus sum
In 18621°01’l gº }
misertus sum,
Töri ratus sum,
to beware.
to favor.
to cherish.
to move.
to fear.
to vow.
to bite.
to hang.
to promise.
to shear.
to sit.
to See.
to wink at.
to boil.
to be languid.
to be liquid.
to dine.
to creak.
to bid.
to deserve.
to promise.
to protect.
to fear.
to confess.
to Cuºre.
to pity.
to think.
1 For reduplication in compounds, see 255, I., 4.
* So circumseded and superseded. Other compounds thus: assided, &re, assédź,
assèssum ; but dissided, praeside0, and resideð, want Supine.
* Observe that the supine stem is wanting in most of these verbs.
* Participle, prānsus, in an active sense, having dined.
* Cônfiteor, Örö, cónfessus: so profiteor.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 127
3. Semi-Deponent—Deponent in the Perfect.
auded audère ausus Sum, to dare.
gauded gaudère gāvīsus sum, to rejoice.
soleó solére Solitus Sum, to be accustomed.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
NoTE.—This conjugation contains the primitive verbs of the language; see 335.
CLASS I.-STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN si OR i.
269. Principal Parts in—6 (or io), ere, si, tum.
These are the regular endings in verbs whose stems end in a
consonant. The following are examples: *
carpū carpere carpsi carptum,” to pluck.
cingö cingere cinxi (987) cinctum, to gird.
dicó dicere dixi dictum, to Say.
dücö dicere duxi ductum, to lead.
exstinguó exstinguere exstinxi exstinctum,” to extinguish.
gerö gerere geSSI gestum, to carry.
niibó nübere nilpsi nilptum, to marry.
regö regere röXI réctum,” to rule.
Súmò Sümere sūmpsi Sümptum, to take.
trahö trahere traxi tractum, to draw.
iró tirere iSSI iistum, to burn.
vehö vehere Véxi vêctum, to carry.
VIVö WIWere Vixi victum, to live.
270. Principal Parts in—6 (or io), ere, si, sum."
cèdó cêdere CéSSI céssum, to yield.
claudó claudere clausi clausum,” to close.
dividó dividere divisi divisum, to divide.
ëvādó évādere ëVäSI êvãsum,” to evade.
figö figere fixi fixum, to fasten.
flecto flectere flèxi fléxum, to bend.
- frésum
frendö frendere } frèssu m, } to gnash.
laedd laedere laesſ laesum,” to hurt.
lüdó lüdere lüsſ lüsum, to play.
mittö mittere misi missum, to send.
mergö mergere merSl mersum, to dip.
nectO nectere } º 6 néxum, to bind.
pecto pectere péxi péxum, to comb.
* For Phonetic Changes, see 30–36.
* The stem-vowel is often changed in compounds: carpo, dē-cerpo; regö, di-rigð;
for this change, see 344, 4; also 221.
* So other compounds of st!nyud (raie): digènguë, otc.
* Compounds of clawdo have à for au, con-clido; those of laedd, 7 for ae, il-lido;
those of plaudö generally Ó for aw, eac-plodo; those of quatio, cu for qua, con-cutio.
* So other compounds of vädo.
6 Compounds take this form in the Perfect.
128 OLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
A-
plecto plectere pléxi pléxum, to platt.
plaudó plaudere plausi plausum,” to applaud.
premö premere pressiº pressum, to press.
quatio Quatere quassi" quassum," to shake.
Spargö spargere sparsi Sparsum, to Scatter.
rådó rådere TäSi rāSum, to shave.
rödö rödere röSI rösum, to gnaw.
tergö tergere terSI tersum,” to wipe off.
trüdó trüdere trüSI trüsum, to thrust.
271. Principal Parts in—6 (or io), ere, i, tum.
1. WITH REDUPLICATION.
abdó abdere abdidi abditum,” to hide.
Canó Canere cecini cantum," to sing.
crèdó crèdere crédidi créditum," to believe.
discó discere didici *=tº- to learn.
pangö pangere pepigſ päctum, 7 ) to bargain.
- panxi panctum," l e
pango pangere } pégi päctum, } y to fix in.
parió parere peperſ partum,” to bring forth.
sistó sistere Stiti statum,” #9 place.
tangó tangere tetigi täctum, 10 to touch.
tendö tendere tetendi } tentum,” } to stretch
tënsum, •
tolló tollere sustuli sublatum,” to raise.
véndó véndere vēndidi věnditum," to sell.
pungö pungere pupugi punctum,” to prick.
* 2. WITH LENGTHENED STEM-WoWEL.
agö agere égi âctum, 18 to drive.
capið capere cépi captum,” to take.
emö enhere êmi émptum,” to buy.
1 See page 127, foot-note 4.
* See 34, 1, note; 35, 3, 2).
* Also tergeó, tergère, etc.; compounds take this form ; see 265.
* So all compounds of dā except those of Conjugation I.; see 259, note 1.
* Concino, ere, concinui, ; so occino and praecin.0; other compounds want
Perfect and Supine.
• Explained as a compound of dā; see abd0.
* Compingö, ere, compég?, compactum; so also impingö, Děpangó wants Perfect;
zepango, Perfect and Supine.
8 Participle, paritúrus: compounds are of Conjugation IV.
9 Compounds thus: cănsistö, ere, cönstitā, cónstitum ; but circumstet? also occurs.
10 Compounds drop the reduplication.
11 Attolló and eactolló want Perfect and Supine.
12 Compounds thus: compungö, ere, compuna:7, compunctum.
18 So circvmagö and peragö, Satago wants Perfect and Supine. Other compounds
change a into i in the Present: abigo, ere, abégi, abáctum; but coigö becomes cégo,
6ré, cočg?, coãctum, and deigo, dégó, ere, dég?, without Supine. Prödigö wants Supine,
and ambigo, Perfect and Supine.
** So antecapió; other compounds thus: accipið, ere, accēpi, acceptum.
* So coemo, other compounds thus: adimo, ere, adémi, adémptum.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 129
fació facere fêci factum," to make.
fugió fugere fügi fugitum, to flee.
jació jacere jéci jactum,” to throw.
frangó frangere frégi frâctum,” to break.
legö legere légi lèctum,” to read.
linquč linquere liqui —" to leave.
Scabó Scabere Scâbi to scratch.
vincö vincere VICI victum, to conquer.
rumpô rumpere rüpi ruptum, to burst.
272. Principal Parts in—d (or io), ere, i, sum."
1. WITH REDUPLICATION.
cadó cadere Cecidi căsum," to fall.
caedo Caedere cecidi caesum,” to cut.
Curró CULI'I'el'e CuCurri cursum,” to run.
falló fallere fefelli falsum,” to deceive.
parcó parcere peperci (parsi) parsum,” to spare.
pelló pellere pepuli pulsum,” to drive.
pendó pendere pependi pênsum,” to weigh.
poscó poscere poposci — ” to demand.
- - tünsum,”
tundé tundere tutudi } tüsum, to beat.
2. WITH LENGTHENED STEM-WoWEL.
edó edere édi ësum, to eat.
fodió fodere födi fossum, to dig.
fundó fundere füdi füsum, to pour.
3. WITH UNCHANGED STEM.
accendó accendere accendi accēnsum,” to kindle.
Cüdó cüdere Cüdi cüsum, to forge.
defendö défendere défendi défènsum,” to defend.
* Passive irregular: fió, fieri, factus sum; see 294. So Satisfacio and compounds
of facio with verbs; but compounds with prepositions thus: cănjicio, cónficere, cónféci,
cónfectum; with regular Passive, cómficior, cónfict, cónfectus Sum.
* Superjació has factum or jectum in Supine: compounds with monosyllabic prepo-
sitions thus: abicio, abicere, abjáci, abjectum; see page 20, foot-note 1.
* Compounds thus: cănfringö, ere, cónfrégi, cónfrăctum.
* So compounds, except (1) colligo, ere, collégi, collectum; so déligö, eligö, Săligă—(2)
diligö, ere, džléac', d'iléctum ; so intellego, néglegö, though néglégi occurs in the Perfect.
* Compounds with Supine : relinquo, ere, religwi, relictum.
* For Phonetic Changes, see 30–36.
7 Incidd, ere, incidi, incásum ; so occidó and recidó; other compounds want Supine.
* Compounds thus: concido, ere, concidž, concłsun.
* Eaccurrö and praecurro generally retain the reduplication: eaccucurri, praecucur-
rī; other compounds generally drop it.
* Refello, ere, refelli, without Supine.
* Comparen, ere, comparsi, comparsum, also with e for a compérco, ere, etc.
Imparcó and reparco want Perfect and Supine.
* Compounds drop reduplication, 255, I., 4.
* Compounds retain reduplication, 255, I., 4.
** So other compounds of the obsolete candi, and fendö.
130
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
findó
icó
mandö
pandó
pinsö (pisó)
prehendö
scandó
scindö
solvö
velló
Verrö
Vertö
WISö
volvö
angö, ere, anxi,
annuð, ere, i,
batu,0, ere, i,
bibó, ere, i,
congruć, ere, i,
ingruč, ere, i,
lambó, ere, i,
clangö,
claudó,
fatiscò,
findere fidi (findi) fissum, to part.
ICere ICI Ictum, to strike.
mandere mandi mânsum, to chew.
* 3.SSUII.D.
nder andí pa 3. to Open.
pandere p } panSum, } Yp
tº ºr Insitu
InSere pinsl º m, to pound
p pinsul pl } Ap &
pInSum,
prehendere, prehendi prehénsum," to grasp.
Scandere scandi Scânsum, to climb.
scindere scidi scissum, to rend.
solvere solvi solütum,” to loose.
vellere velli (vulsi) vulsum, to pluck.
Verrere Verri versum, to brush.
Vertere Verti versum,” to twº'n.
WISere VISI visum, to visit.
volvere volvi volutum, to roll.
NoTE 1.-Some verbs with the Perfect in 87 or 7 want the Supine:
to 89 weeze. metuđ, ere, i, to fear.
to assent. pluđ, ere, i, or plâvi, to rain.
to beat. psalló, ere, i, to play the harp.
to drink. sidó, ere, i, 4 to Słł down.
to agree. ningö, ere, ninxi, to Snow.
to assail. stridó, ere, i, to creak.
to lick. Sternud, ere, i, to Sné626.
NoTE 2.—Some verbs want both Perfect and Supine :
to clang. hiscó, to gape.
to be lame. vādó, to go.5
to gape. temnē, to despise.”
to grow. Vergó, to incline.
gliscò,
CLASS II.-STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN ui.
273. Principal Parts in—o (or io), ere, ui, itum.
accumbó
alò
depSö
élició
fremd
gemö
gignó
molò
accumbere accubuſ
alere alui
depsere depsuſ
ëlicere ëlicuſ
fremere fremui
gemere gemui
gignere genui
molere moluſ
accubitum,"
alitum,
altum, }
depsitum,
depStum, :
élicitum,”
fremitum,
gemitum,
genitum,
molitum,
to recline.
to mourish.
to knead.
to elicit.
to rage.
to groan.
to beget.
to grind.
1 Often written prêndö, prendere, etc.
* V is here changed to its corresponding vowel w : Solūtum for solvtum.
* Compounds of dé, prae, re, are generally deponent in the Present, Imperfect, and
Future.
* Perfect and Supine generally supplied from seded; hence Sédź, såssum. So in com-
pounds.
5 See &vāda, 270.
* But contemno, ere, contemps?, contemptum.
7 So other compounds of cwmbo, cubó; see cubo, 258.
* Other compounds of lacid thus: allicio, allicere, allêaft, allectum.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 131
pInsitum,
pinsö pinsere. } rº pistum, to crush.
pInSum,
pūnó pónere posui positum, to place.
strepô strepere strepuſ strepitum, to make a noise.
WOmö WOImere VOmuſ vomitum, to vomit.
NoTE.—Compèscó, “to restrain"; eaccello, “to excel’; furo, “to rage"; sterto, “to
snore"; and tremö, ‘to tremble,” have the Perfect in wā, but want the Supine.
274. Principal Parts in—6 (or io), ere, ui, tum.
colò colere colui cultum, to cultivate,
cönsuld cónsulere cönsului consultum, to consult.
occulö occulere occului occultum, to hide.
rapió rapere rapuí raptum,” to snatch.
Seró Serere Seruſ Sertum, to cozz726cć.
texö texere texui textum, to weave.
275. Principal Parts in—d, ere, sui, sum.
metó Imetere messuſ * messum, to reap.
s | nexí e
Il IlêCteſ’ sº Ilex UITſ). to bind.
ecto ectere \ nexuſ | exum, d
CLASS III. —STEM IN A WOWEL : PERFECT IN vi OR i.
276. The following verbs have the Perfect in avi from a stem in à:
pâscó 4 pâscere pāvī pāStum, to feed.
Sternó Sternere SträVi stråtum, to Strew.
VeteråSCô VoteråSCere veteråvi — to grow old.
277. The following verbs have the Perfect in évi from a stem in 5:
aboléscó aboléscere abolévi abolitum,” to disappear.
Cernő Cerneſe Crévi crêtum, to decide.
GrêSQū CrêScere Grévi crétum,” to grow.
quiescó quiescere quiévi Quiétum, to rest.
spernó Spernere sprévi sprètum, to spurn.
SučSCO SučSCere SuðVI suëtum, to become accustomed.
NOTE.-Serö, Serere, sévi, Satum,7 to sow.
278. The following verbs have the Perfect in ivi from a stem in i:
arcêSSö arCéSSere arcéssivi arcéssitum, to call for.
capessó capessere capessivi capessitum, to lay hold of.
cupið cupere cupivi Cupitum, to desire.
º eSSIVI -
facessó facessere facess faceSSItum, to make.
faces.SI y
* Other compounds of cello want the Perfect and Supine, except percello, percelléré,
267°Cºlº, perculswºm.
* Compounds thus: corripio, corripere, corripwi, correptum.
* The Perfect in 8wi seems to be a double formation, 87 enlarged to Swi.
* The stem of pâscă is pà, pās; the Present Stem adds sce; see 251, 2.
* So inolésco; but adolesco has Supine adultum ; etcolºsco, eacoğtwm obdolā800,
oöSolétum.
* Incrésco and succrésco want the Supine.
º Compounds thus: cănserö, cónserere, cómsévi, cónsitwm.
132
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
incéssö
lacessó
linó
nGSCö
petó
quaeró
rudë
sapið
sinö
teró
incéssere
lacessere
linere
nGSCere
petere
Quaerere
rudere
Sapere
sinere
terere
incéssi
} incéssivi }
lacessivi
livi, lèvi
In OVI
petivi
quaesivi
rudivi
Sapivi, Sapul
SIVI
trivi
lacessitum,
litum,
nótum,"
petitum,
* 2
quaesitum,
ruditum,
situm,
tritum,
279. Principal Parts in—o, ere, i, tum.
These are the regular endings in verbs with u-stems.
are examples:
a. CU16 3.CUleſe a Cui
arguó arguere argui
imbuč imbuere imbui
minuð minuere minui
ruð TUI ere rui
Statuć Statuere Statuſ
tribuð tribuere tribui
NOTE.-F/w0 and Słrºtö have the Perfect in xi.
fluò fluere flüxi 3
Struć Struere Strüxi 8
INCEPTIVES.
aclitum,
argiitum,
imbútum,
minūtum,
rutum,
Statütum,
tributum,
flüxum,
Strüctum,
to attack.
to provoke.
to Smear.
to know.
to ask.
to seek.
to bray.
to taste.
to permit.
to rub.
The following
to sharpen.
to convict.
to imbue.
to diminish.
to fall.
to place.
to impart.
to flow.
to build.
28O. Inceptives end in scó, and denote the beginning of
an action.
NoTE.—When formed from verbs, they are called Verbal Inceptives, and
when formed from nouns or adjectives, Denominative Inceptives.
281. Most VERBAL INCEPTIVEs want the Supine, but take the Perfect
of their primitives:
to become sour.
to become dry.
to become warm.
to begin to bloom.
to become warm.
to become green.
to desire.
to grow Strong.
to bºt?"n.
to grow old.
to fall asleep.
to revive.
to enact.
a CéSCô (aced) aCéSCere a Cui *º-º-º-º:
âréSCô (āreó ārēSCere ârui *mºss
calèscó (ca leó calèscere calui *º
flöréscö (flöred) flöréscere flörui sºmºmºmº
tepēscó (teped) tepēscere tepui *
virèscó (vired) virèscere Virui *E*
NoTE.—The following take the Perfect and Supine of their primitives:
concupiscú (con, cupið) ere concupivi concupitum,
Convalëscó (con, valeó) ere convalui convalitum,
exãrdöscö (ea, ārdeó) ere exãrsi exărSum,
inveteråscö (invetero) ere inveterāvī inveteråtum,
Obdormiscó % dormió) ere obdormivi obdormitum,
revivisco ne, pivo) ere revixi revictum,
SCIScö (Sció) ere Scívi Scitum,
* So ignäsco; dignóscó and cógmöscö have it wºm, in Supine, dignitum ; dignäscö and
&nternóScö want Supine.
* Compounds thus: acquirò, ere, acquisivā, acquisitwan.
* For fºug-sī, Strug-sī, formed not from u-stems, but from consonant-stems.
THIRD COWJUGATION. 133
282. Most DENOMINATIVE INCEPTIVEs want both Perfect and Supine:
ditëscö (dives), to grow rich.
dulcesco (dulcis), to become sweet.
grandescó (grandês), to grow large.
miteseó (mitis), to grow mild.
mollesco (mollis), to grow soft,
puerasco (puer), to become a boy.
NoTE.—The following have the Perfect in ui:
crèbrescó (créber) ere crébruſ, to become frequent.
duréScó (dürus) ere dirui, to become hard.
innötöScö (in, mātus) ere innötul, to become known.
macréScó (macer) ere macrui, to become lean.
ImātūreSCô (mātūrus) ©re mātūrui, to ripen.
obmütescó ob, mºſtw8) ©re obmütuí, to grow dwmö.
recruidescó re, crüdw8) €rø recrādui, to bleed afresh.
vilescó (vilis) €1'0 viluſ, to become worthle&s.
283. DEPONENT VERBS,
amplector i amplexus sum, to embrace.
apiscor i aptus Sum,” to obtain.
comminiscor T commentus sum,” to devise.
expergiscor I experréctus sum, to awake.
fatiscor I 3 to gape,
gº- früctus sum, ë
fruor I } fruitus sum, | to enjoy.
fungor I functus sum, to perform.
gradior i gréssus Sum,” to walk.
irãSCOr I tºmºsºmsºme to be angry.
labor I lāpsus sum, to fall.
liquor I *E======s* to melt.
loquor I locütus sum, to speak.
morior I (Iri, rare) mortuus sum,” to die.
nanciscor I. nactus (nanctus) sum, to obtain.
InāSCOr I nātus Sum,” to be born.
nitor T } nisus sum, } to strive.
nixus Sum,
obliviscor I oblitus sum, to forget.
paciscor I pactus sum, to bargain.
pation I passus sum, to suffer.
proficiscor I profectus sum, to Set out.
Queror I questus sum, to complain.
reminiscor i *==== to remember.
ringor I rictus sum, to growl.
Sequor i sectitus sum, to follow.
ulciscor I ultus sum, to avenge.
titor i iisus sum, to MSé.
VēSCOr I Hºmº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: to eat.
Semi-Deponent—Deponent in the Perfect.
fido fidere fisus sum, to trust.
* Adipiscor, 7, adeptus Sum; so indipiscor.
* Com-miniscor is compounded of con, and the obsolete miniscor; re-miniscor
Wàills Llue Terſect.
* Défetiscor, ?, dēºfessus sum.
* Compounds thus: aggredior, i, aggréssus swam.
* Morior has future participle moritirus; náscor, näscitàrus.
134 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
CLASS I.-STEM IN I: PERFECT IN vi.
284. Principal Parts in—io, ire, Ivi, Itum.
The following are examples:
finiö finire finivi finitum, to finish.
lèniö lènire lènivi lénitum, to alleviate.
münió münire milmīvī mūnītum, to fortify.
püniö pümire pünivi pünitum, to punish.
sció SCire SCIVI Scitum, to know.
sepeliö sepelire sepelivi sepultum," to bury.
sitid sitire sitivi to thirst.
vägió vāgire vågivi - to cry.
NoTE 1.- V is often dropped in the Perfect: audii for audīvī, see 235, 1.
NoTE 2.-Desideratives (338, III.)—except esurió, ire, —, itum ; nüp-
turió, ire, Žvi, and parturió, úre, iv.–want both Perfect and Supine. Also a
few others:
bālbütič, to Stamºmer. ferúció, to be fierce. sågið, to be wise.
caeciitič, to be blind. gannió, to bark. superbiö, to be proud.
feriö, to 8trike. ineptió, to trifle. tuSSiô, to cough.
CLASS II.-STEM IN c, 1, OR r : PERFECT IN ui.
285. Principal Parts in—io, ire, ui, tum.
amició amicire amicuſ (xi) amictum, to clothe.
aperió aperire aperuſ apertum, to open.
operió operire operuſ opertum, to cover.
salić Salire salui (ii) (saltum),” to leap.
CLASS III.-STEM IN A CoNSONANT: PERFECT IN si or i.
286. Principal Parts in—io, ire, si, tum.
* ~ am - fartum.”
farció farcire farsi } farctum, } to stuff.
fulció fulcIre fulsi fultum, to prop.
haurió 4 hauríre hausi haustum, hausum, to draw.
Saepió Saepire Saepsi Saeptum, to hedge in.
* * *- - San Cîtum g
S&D CIO SallC1re S8. It XI } Så Il crum, } to ratify.
sarció SarCIre SarSI Sartum, to patch.
Vinció Vincire vinxi vinctum, to bind.
1 Supine irregular.
* Compounds thus: désilić, ire, wi (ii), (dèsultwm).
* Compounds thus: cănfercio, ire, cónfers?, cónfertum.
* The stem of haurið is haws. The Present adds 7 and changes 8 to r between two
vowels. In haw87 and hawswºm, S standing for SS or St is not changed.
IRREGULAR VIERBS. 135
287. Principal Parts in—io, ire, si, sum.
raució TallCire rauSI rausum, to be hoarse.
Sentić, Sentire Sënsi Sènsum, to feel.
NoTE.—The following verbs have the Perfect in 7 :
comperić comperire comperi compertum, to learn.
reperiö reperire reperi repertum, to find.
venió Venire Vēnll Ventum, to CO7mé.
288. DEPONENT VERBS.
1. Regular.
blandior Iri blanditus sum, to flatter.
largior Iri largıtus sum, to bestow.
mentior iri mentitus sum, to lie.
mölior Iri mölitus sum, to Strive.
partior Tri partitus sum, to divide.
potior.” Iri potitus sum, to obtain.
sortior Iri sortitus sum, to draw lots.
2. Irregular.
assentior 3 Íri assénsus sum, to asserºë.
experior iri expertus sum, to try.
mětior Iri mênsus sum, to measure.
e * = oppertus sum, º
opperior III } §º, Sum, } to await.
ordior Iri orsus Sum, to begin.
orior Iri ortus sum,” to rise.
IRREGULAR WERBS.
289. A few verbs which have special irregularities are
called by Way of prečminence Irregular or Anomalous
Verbs. They are sum, edd, ferö, voló, fió, eú, queó, and
their compounds.
290. Sum, “I am,’ and its compounds.
I. The conjugation of sum has been already given (204); its numerous
compounds—absum," adsum, dēsum, praesum,” etc.—except possum and prä-
sum, are conjugated in the same way.
* With lengthened stem-vowel.
* In the Present Indicative and Subjunctive, forms of Conjugation III. occur.
* Compounded of ad and sentia; see 287.
* Participle, orifºrms —Present Tndicative, Conjugation III., oréris, oritur. Imper-
fect Subjunctive, orirer or orerer.—So compounds, but adorior follows Conjugation IV.
* Absum and praesum, like possum, have Present Participles, abséns and praes&ms,
wsed as adjectives, absent, present,
136 IRREG ULAR VERBS.
II. Possum, pösse, potui, to be able.
SINGULAR. INDICATIVE. PLURAL.
Pres. possum, potes, potest ; poSSumus, potestis, possunt.
Imp. poteram;" poteråmus.
Fut. poteró; poterimus.
Perf. potuſ; potuimus.
Plup. potueram; potueråmus. .
F. P. potueró; potuerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres, possim, possis, possit;
Imp. possem; *
Perf. potuerim.;
I’lup. potuissem;
INFINITIVE.
possimus, possitis, possint.
pöSSémus.
potuerimus.
potuissémus.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres, pösse. Pres, potèns (as an adjective).
Perf. potuisse.
NOTE 1.-Possum is compounded of potis, ‘able, and sum, ‘to be." The parts are
sometimes separated, and then potis is indeclinable: potis sum, potis Sumus, etc.
NoTE 2.—In posswºm observe—
1) That potis drops is, and that t is assimilated before s : posswºm for ſpotswºm.
2) That f of the simple is dropped after tº potwº for poſſfuž.
8) That the Infinitive pâsse and Subjunctive pössem are shortened forms for potesse
and potes&em.
NoTE 3.-For OLD AND RARE FoEMs, see 204, 2.
III. Prósum, “I profit,” is compounded of prá, prād, ‘for,” and sum, “to
be.’ It retains d when the simple verb begins with e. prosum, prādes,
prädest, etc. Otherwise it is conjugated like sum.
291. Edo,
This verb is sometimes regular, and sometimes takes forms similar,
edere, édi, ésum, to eat.
except in quantity,” to those of sum which begin in es. Thus—
INDICATIVE.
Jºh’es } edó, edis, edit; edimus, editis, edunt.
~. es,” ëst; ëstis.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
I. } ederem, ederès, ederet; ederémus, ederétis, ederent.
mp. * * iº &= º * sº * tº <sº
essem, esses, ësset; essemus, ēssétis, êSSent.
* Inflected regularly through the different persons: poteram, poterås, poteral, etc.
So also in the other tenses: potati, potwistă, cte.
* These forms have à long before 8, while the corresponding forms of sum have e short.
f
IRREG ULAR VERBS. 137
IMPERATIVE.
Pres } ede; edite.
( Ös; 1 €Ste.
Jºut } edito; editóte, eduntö.
( Östö; €Stöte.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. edere. ëSSe.
NOTE 1.-In the PASSIVE, estur for editur and éssätur for ederātur also occur.
NOTE 2.-FORMS IN IM for am occur in the Present Subjunctive: edim, edis, edit,
etc., for €dam, eddis, edat, etc.
NOTE 3.−COMPOUNDS are conjugated like the simple verb, but comedo has in the Su-
pine comésum or coméstum.
292. Fero, ferre, tuli, lātum, to bear.
A CT I W E W OIC E.
SINGULAR. INDICATIVE. PLURAL.
Pres. ferö, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis,” ferunt.
Imp. ferébam;” ferébâmus.
Put. feram; ferémus.
Perf. tuli; tulimus.
Plup. tuleram; tuleråmus.
J. P. tulerö; - tulerimus. *
Pres, feram; . SUBJUNCTIVE. feråmus.
Imp. ferrem ; ferrémus.*
Perf. tulerim; . tulerímus.
Plup, tulissem; tulissèmus.
Pres, fer; 5 IMPERATIVE. ferte.
Fut, fertö, fertöte,
fertö; feruntó.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, ferre.* JPres. feréns.
Perf. tulisse.
J'ut, látürus esse. Fut. latürus.
* See page 136, foot-note 2.
* Fer-8, fer-t, fer-tis, like es-t, es-às, dispense with the usual thematic vowel i.
With such vowel the forms would be ferts, ſerlt, ſerićis.
* Inflect the several tenses in full: feráðam, ferébâ8, etc.
* Ferrem, etc., for fererem, etc.; ferre for ferere (e dropped).
* Fer for fere; ferto, ferte, fertöte, ferris, fertur, without thematic vowel.
138 IRREGULAR VERBS,
SUPINE.
Acc. latum,
lātū.
2 to be borne.
PLURAL.
ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
feróbāmur.
GERUND.
Gen. ferendi,
Dat. ferendó,
Acc. ferendum,
Abl, ferendö. Abl.
PASSIVE VOICE.
feror, ferri, lātus sum
INDICATIVE.
SINGULAR.
Pres, feror, ferris, fertur;'
Imp. ferébar;
Put. ferar;
Perf. latus sum;
Plup. latus eram;
F. P. latus eró;
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. ferar; -
Imp. ferrer;" |
Perf. lätus sim;
Plup. latus essem;
ferèmur.
lāti Sumus.
lāti eramus.
lāti erimus.
feråmur.
ferrêmur.
lātī simus.
lātī essèmus.
Pres, ferre; 1 IMPERATIVE. ferimini.
Fut. fertor,'
fertor; feruntor.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres, ferri."
Perf. lätus esse. Perf. latus.
JFut, látum iri. Ger. ferendus.
1. Feró has two principal irregularities:
1) Its forms are derived from three independent stems, seen in ferð, tuli,
lăţum.
2) It dispenses with the thematic vowel, e or
3, before r, s, and t.
2. CoMPOUNDs of ferð are conjugated like the simple verb, but in a few of
them the preposition suffers a euphonic change:
ab- auferö auferre abstuli ablåtum
ad- adferó adferre attuli allătum
CO70s cönferó cönferre contuli collātum
dis- differö differre distuli dilătum
60°- efferö efferre extuli ēlātum
ºn- inferó inferre intuli illātum
ob- offeró Offerre obtuli oblåtum
sub- Sufferö sufferre sustuli sublátum
* Without thematic Vowel.
IRREGULAR VERBS. 139'
NoTE.—Sustuli and 8wölätum are not often used in the sense of sufferó, to bear, but
they supply the Perfect and Supine of tollo, to raise; see 271.
293. Woló, velle, volui, to be willing.
Nólo, nólle, nölui, to be unwilling.
Mâlo, mälle, mălui, to préfer.
INDICATIVE.
Pres, voló, nëlö, mâlû,
vis, nön vis, mävis,
vult; nón vult; mävult;
volumus, nölumus, mälumus,
vultis, nón vultis, mävultis,
volunt. nölunt. mâlunt.
Imp. volébam. nölébam. målébam.
Fut, volam. nölam. målam.
Perf. volui. nölui. mâluſ.
Plup. volueram. nólueram. mälueram.
F. P. voluerö. nólueró. målueró.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. Velim.” nölim. mälim.
Imp. vellem.” nöllem. mållem.
Perf. voluerim. nöluerim. mäluerim.
Plup. voluissem. nöluissem. måluissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, nāli, nālīte.
Fut. nolitó, nālītūte,
nëlító; nôluntó.
INFINITIVE.
Pres, velle. nólle. mälle.
Perf. voluisse. nóluisse. måluisse.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. Volèns. | nólēns. |
NoTE 1.-The stem of volà is vol, with variable stem-vowel, o, e, u.
NoTE 2.—NOLö is compounded of né or nôn and volö; MÄLö, of magis
and voló.
NoTE 3.—RARE ForMs.—(1) Of volö: volt, voltis, for vult, vultis ; sis,
sūltis, for si vis, si vultis ; vin' for visne.—(2) Of NöLö: névis, névult (névolt),
* Wellm, ls luſle.cled like sim, allil vellent like esāem.
* Wellem and velle are syncopated forms for celerem, velere; e is dropped and r
assimilated: velerem, welrem, vellem ; velere, welre, velle. So nôllém and möllé, for
*6!erem and nölere; mállem and mālle, for màlerém and mālere.
140 IRREGULAR VERBS.
nëvelle, for nôn (n2) vis, non (né) vult, molle.—(3) Of MALö: mávolò, mavelim,
mävellem, for mâlo, malim, māllem.
295. Eo, ire, Ivi,
294. Fio, fieri, factus Sum, to become, be made.”
SINGULAR. INDICATIVE. PLURAL.
Pres, fió, fis, fit; fimus, fitis, flunt.
Imp. fiébam; fiébâmus.
Fut, fiam; - fiémus.
Perf. factus sum; factſ sumus.
Plup. factus eram; } factſ eramus.
J. P. factus eró; factſ erimus.
Pres. fiam ; SUBJUNCTIVE. fiāmus.
Imp. fierem ; fierémus.
Perf. factus sim;
Plup. factus essem ;
factſ simus.
facti essémüs.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres, fi; fite.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. fieri.
Perf. factus esse.
Iſhtt. factum Iri.
* = -- * INDICATIVE.
Pres. e5, Is, it ;
itum,
Perf. factus.
Ger. faciendus.
to go.
Imus, Itis, eunt.
Imp. Ibam; ibämus.
Put, ibó; Ibimus.
Perf. Ivi; Ivimus.
Plup. Iveram; IVerãmuS.
F. P. Iverö; iverimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. eam; €2. IſillS.
Imp. Irem ; Trémus.
Perf. Iverim; Iverimus.
Plup. Ivissem; Ivissèmus.
- IMPERATIVE.
Pres. I; Ite.
Put. Itô, Itöte,
Itö; €untó.
* Compounds of fio are conjugated like the simple verb, but cânſit, défit, and inft:
are defective; see 297, III., 2.
v
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 141
INFINITIVE. E’ARTICIPLE.
Pres. Ire. Pres, iëns, Gem. euntis.
Perf. Ivisse.
Put. itärus esse. Fut. ittirus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. eundi, a
Jº-r- _2^ *
Dat. eundó, ***.,----
Acc. eundum, Acc. itum,
Aöl. eundú. Aöl, itä.
1. Eò is a verb of the Fourth Conjugation, but it forms the Supine with a short vowel
(itum), and is irregular in several parts of the Present System. It admits contraction
according to 235: istis for ivistis, etc.
2. Eö, as an intransitive verb, wants the Passive, except when used impersonally in
the third singular, itur, ibätur, etc. (301, 1), but iri, the Passive Infinitive, occurs as an
auxiliary in the Future Infinitive Passive of the regular conjugations: amátwm iri, etc.
3. CoMPounds of ed generally shorten ivi into i7. Veneo (vénum ed) has sometimes
váničbam for vénibam. Many compounds want the Supine, and a few admit in the
Future a rare form in eam, iés, iet.
NoTE 1.-Transitive compounds have the Passive: aded, to approach; adeor, etc.
NoTE 2.-Ambiö is regular, like audió, though ambibam for ambiébam occurs.
296. Queó, quire, quivi, quitum, to be able, and nequed, nequire, megwiwi
(ii), nequitum, to be unable, are conjugated like ed, but they want the Im-
perative and Gerund, and are rare except in the Present tense."
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
297. Defective Verbs want certain parts. The following are
the most important:*
I. PRESENT SYSTEM WANTING.
Coepf, I have begun. Memini, I remember. Odi, I hate.
INDICATIVE.
Perf. coopi. memini. Ödi.
Pºup, coeperam. memineram. Öderam.
F. P. coeperö. meminerö. Öderö.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Peºf. coeperim. | meminerim. Öderim.
Pºup. coepissem. meminissem. Ödissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing. mement.0.
Plur. mementóte.
1 A Passive form, quitur, nequitur, etc., occurs before a Passive Infinitive.
2 For many verbs which want the Perfect or Supine, or both, see 368-384.
142 DEFECTIVE VERBS,
INFINITIVE.
Perf. coepisse. meminisse. Ödisse.
Fut. coeptürus esse. | ÖSül'us CSSé.
BARTICIPLE.
Perf. coeptus. ÖSuS.1
Puč, coeptürus. ÖSūruS.
1. With PASSIVE INFINITIVES, coepi generally takes the Passive form: coeptus sum,
eram, etc. Coeptus is Passive in sense.
2. Memânî and Ödö are Present in sense; hence in the Pluperfect and Future Perfect
they have the sense of the Imperfect and Future. Wövī, ‘I know,' Perfect of nôsco, “to
learn,” and cónsuévi, “I am wont, Perfect of consuésco, “to accustom one's self,” are also
Present in Sense.
II. PARTS OF EACH SYSTEM WANTING.
1. Aio, I say, say yes.”
Indic. Prés. āió, ais,” ait; ăiunt.
Imp. aiébam, -ébās, -ébat; -ébâmus, -ébâtis, -ébant.*
Perf. ait;
Subj. Pres. ăiás, aiat; *-*-* — aiant.
Imper. Pres. ai (rare).
Jart. Pres. āiêns.
2. Inquam, I Say.
Indic. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt.
Imp. inquiébat;4
Put. — inquiès, inquiet; — *-*-*
Perf. inquisti, inquit; *-*-* -*-*-* *-m-tºm-
Imper. Pres, inque. Fut. inquito.
3. Färi, to speak."
Indic. Pres. - fätur ; - -*-*-*
Put, fabor, -º- fäbitur;
Perf. fatus sum, es, est; fāti Sumus, estis, Sunt.
Plup. fitus eram, erås, erat; fāti crämus, erätis, erant.
Subj. Perf. fitus sim, sis, sit; fāti Simus, Sitis, sint.
P'up. fatus essem, essés, esset; fātī essèmus, essétis, essent.
Imper. Pres. fire.
Infin. Pres, firi.
Part. Pres. (fāns) fantis.
- Ger. fandus.
Gerund, Gen. and Abl, fandi, dö.
Perf. fatus.
Supine, Abl, fitü.
* Ösus is Active in sense, hating, but is rare except in compounds: eacăsus, perö8w8.
* In this verb a and i do not form a diphthong; before a vowel the i has the sound
of y : ā-yö, ä-yunt; see 10, 4, 8).
* The interrogative form aisne is often shortened into ain'.
* Aibam, aftbās, etc., occur; also inquibat for inquiébat.
* Fări is used chiefly in poetry. Compounds have some forms not found in the
simple: adfömur, adfömânî, adf&bar; ºffiberis,
IMPERSONAL VERBS. 143
III. IMPERATIVES AND ISOLATED FORMS.
1. IMPERATIVES.
havé, havéte; havétö; Inf, havére,” hail.
salvé, salvéte, salvétó; * Salvère, hail.
ced}, cette, tell me, give me.
apage, - begone.
2. Isolated FoEMs.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. FUTURE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. INFINITIVE.
cönfit; — confiat ; confieret ; cönfieri, to be done.
défit, défiunt; défiet; défiat ; — défieri, to be wanting.
infit, influnt, - -*- *se to begin.
Sub. Imp. forem, forés, foret, — — forent. Inf fore.”
Ind. Pres. ovat, he réjoices. Part. ovāns.
Ind. Pres, quaeso, quaesumus,” I pray.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
298. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English Impersonal
with it: licet, it is lawful; oportet, it behooves." They are conju-
gated like other verbs, but are used only in the third person singu-
lar of the Indicative and Subjunctive, and in the Present and Per-
fect Infinitive.
299. The most important Impersonal Werbs are—
decet, decuit, it becomes.6 piget, piguit, }i grieves.
libet } libuit, } it pleases.” e- pigitum est, ) .
} Hºm est, © paenitet, Paºlº, Žt Cá'uses 7'é-
licet, } iſiºn CŞt } Žt is lawful." pué
liquet, ‘iºuſ." " ' it is evident." | Pºet, | puditum est, }i Shames.
miseret, miseritum est, it excites pity.7 taeduit - 2.
oportet, oportuit, 7 it behooves. taedet, | tºº, ºf 20 ea.ºes.8
1. PARTICIPLES are generally wanting, but a few occur, though with a somewhat
modified sense: (1) from LIBET: libéns, willing; (2) from LICET: licens, free ; licitus,
allowed; (3) from PAENITET: paeniténs, penitent; paenitendus, to be repented of; (4)
from PUDET: puděns, modest ; pudendus, shameful.
2. GERUNDS are generally wanting, but occur in rare instances: paenitendum, Zoºt-
dendö.
* Also written avé, avče, etc.
* The Future salvööis is also used for the Imperative.
* Forem = essem; fore = futilºrum esse; see 204, 2.
* Old forms for quaeró and quaerim w8.
* The subject is generally an infinitive or clause, but may be a noun or pronoun de-
noting a thing, but not a person : hic fieri oportet, that this should be done is necessary.
* These four occur in the third person plural, but without a personal subject.
7 Mé miséret, I pity; mé paenitet, I repent.
* Also the compound, pertaedet, pertaeSum est, it greatly wearies. *
144 PARTICLES.
300. Generally Impersonal are several verbs which designate
the changes of the weather, or the operations of nature :
Pulminat, it lightens; grandinat, it hails; lilcáscit, it grows light; pluit,
it rains; rôrat, dew falls; tonat, it thunders.
301. Many other verbs are often used impersonally :
Accidit, it happens; appåret, it appears; constat, it is evident; contingit,
it happens; delectat, it delights; dolet, it grieves; interest, it concerns; juvat,
it delights; patet, it is plain; placet, it pleases; praestat, it is better; réfert,
it concerns.
1. In the PASSIVE VoICE intransitive verbs can be used only impersonally. The par-
ticiple is then neuter:
Mihi créditur, it is credited to me, I am believed; tibi créditur, you are believed;
créditum est, it was believed; certätur, it is contended; curritur, there is running, peo-
ple run; pºignatur, it is fought, they, we, etc., fight; vivitur, we, you, they live.
2. The PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC CoNJUGATION (234) is often used impersonally. The
participle is then neuter: . -
Mihi scribendum est, I must write; tibi scribendum est, you must write; illi scri-
bendwm eSt, he must write.
CEIAPTER V.
P A R T I C L E S.
3O2. THE Latin has four parts of speech sometimes called
Particles: the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the In-
terjection.
A D V E R B S.
3O3. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used to qual-
ify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs: celeriter currere, to run
swiftly; tam celer, so swift; tam celeriter, so swiftly.
3O4. In their origin, Adverbs are mainly the oblique cases” of
nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns.
I. ACCUSATIVES.—Many Adverbs were originally Accusatives:
1. AcousATIVES OF Nouns: partim, partly ; forás, 1 out of doors; dāi (for
dium ?), for a long time. Here belong numerous adverbs in tim and Sim,
chiefly from verbal nouns 3 no longer in use: ; contemptim, contemptuously;
* Some, indeed, are the oblique cases of words not otherwise used in Latin, and some
are formed by means of case-endings no longer used in the regular declensions.
* Accusative of dius = diés.
* Some adverbs in tim and sim are from adjectives: singulátim, one by one. In
time doubtless tim, àtim, sim, and im came to be regarded simply as adverbial suffixes,
and were so used in forming new adverbs.
ADVERBs. 145
Sensém, perceptibly, slowly; raptim, hastily; Statim, steadily; füröm, by
stealth.
2. AccusATIVEs of Nouns witH PREPOSITIONs: ad-modum, very, to the full
measure; in-vicem, in turn; £n-cassum, in vain; ob-iter, on the road, in pass-
-
ing; ob-viam, in the way, against; post-modum, after a short time; inter-
dii. 1 and inter-dius, during the day; inter-dum, during the time, in the
mean time.
3. AccusATIVES OF ADJECTIVES:
1) NEUTERs in um, a, e, us, is: Sölum, only ; multum, multa, much; nim-
dum, too much; parum, little; secundum, secondly; ceterum,” celera, as to the
rest; verum,” truly; abunde,” abundantly; facile, easily; Saepe,4 often ; pliºs,
more; minus, less; Saepius, more frequently; magis, more, rather."
2) FEMININEs in am, à8 : bīfāriam,” in two parts; multifariam, in many
parts; clam = calam, Secretly ; palam, openly ; perperam, wrongly; aliás,
otherwise. -
4. ACCUSATIVES OF PRONoUNs: quam,7 how much; tam,7 so much; tum,
then ; tun-c, at that time ; nun-c, now.
II. ABLATIVES.—Many Adverbs were originally Ablatives:
1. ABLATIVES OF Nouns in Ö, e, is ; ergö, accordingly; 8 numeró, exactly;
Jorte, by chance; jüre, rightly; Sponte, willingly; grátīs, or grátēs, gratui-
tously.; forås, out of doors.
NOTE.-The ablative is sometimes accompanied by a preposition or by an adjective:
ea:-templá, immediately—lit., from the moment; ilico for in loco, on the spot; quot-
annis, yearly; multi-modžs, in many ways; ho-dié (höc-dié), to-day; qué-ré, where-
fore, by which thing.
2. ABLATIVES OF ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLEs in d, FEMININE, Ö, 3,” and 7,
NEUTER : dexträ 10 = dexterā, on the right; extrá,” on the outside; infră,” on
the under side; intrá, on the inside;—intró, within; i.ltró, beyond; perpetuá,
continually; rāró, rarely; Subitó, suddenly ; auspicătă, after taking the aus-
* Džū and dum are explained as forms of dium = diem, and dius as for diēs; see
Corssen, I., pp. 232–236; II., 458.
* Often becoming conjunctions—céterwm, but. Wön, from ne-ànum, also belongs
here.
* From obsolete abundis.
* Here may be added Semel, “once,” and 8imul, “at the same time,” both for simile.
* Secus, ‘otherwise"; tenus, ‘as far as”; prätinus, ‘straightforward"; and versus,
‘toward, doubtless belong here.
* Originally partem or viam may have been used.
* Quam, from stem qua, in quâ, quae; tam, tum, from stem ta, to, in the final Syl-
lable of iSte, for is-tu-s, is-ta; twn-c = tum-ce, nun-c = num-ce, in which num is from
the stem no, seen also in nwm, “whether,” and also in its original form, na, in nam, ‘for.”
° Literally, by the deed. Compare Greek épyov, ºpy‘p.
* That jig hore an ablativo onding is provad hy the fact flaf, if appears in early Latin
in the form of €d, an undoubted ablative ending.
1° With these feminines, parte or vić may have been originally used.
* Often becoming prepositions. In fact, all prepositions in d are derived from adverbs
which were originally ablatives in did, afterward à.
7
146 A D VERBS.
pices; consultö, after deliberating ; sortità, by lot, i. e., after casting lots;–
döctà, learnedly ; liberê, freely ; certé, Surely ; réctá, rightly ; vere, truly;-
dóctissima, most skillfully; mixime,” especially ;-brevi, briefly.
3. ABLATIVES OF PRONOUNs: ed, there, in that way ; hde, here, in this way;
qud, where, in which way; eddem, by the same road, in the same way.
NoTE.—Several pronominal adverbs denote direction toward a point: ed, to that
place: höc, hiſc, to this place; * illó, illö-c, illā-c, to that place; istö, istó-c, isłil-c, to
the place where you are; quâ, to which place.
III. Locatives.—Some Adverbs were originally Locatives:
1. Locatives oF Nouns AND ADJECTIVES in 7 or é º heri, yesterday ; tem-
peri, in time ; vesperi, in the evening ; peregri, or peregré, in a foreign land.
2. LocatIVEs of PRONoUNs: hic,4 here; illic,4 there; istic, there where you
are ; sic, in this way, thus; uti, ut, in which way; ib?," there ; ubå, where.
NoTE.—Locative forms in im, also occur: Ölim, formerly ; utrim-que, on
both sides; illim, illán-c, from that place; hin-c, from this place ; often with
dé: utrān-de, from both sides; in-de, from that point, thence.
IV. ADVERBS IN tus AND ter.—Adverbs are also formed by means of
the endings tus" and ter: "
Pundi-tus, from the foundation; rādīcì-tus, from the roots, utterly; divini-
tus, by divine appointment, divinely ; forti-ter, bravely ; dori-ter, sharply;
dārī-ter, harshly ; elegan-ter, elegantly ; aman-ter, lovingly ; priſden-ter, pru-
dently.
NoTE 1.—The stem-vowel before tus becomes i, and consonant stems as-
sume i : fundi-tus,8 rādīc-i-tus. The stem-vowel before ter also becomes
d : dārī-ter.8 Consonant stems, however, do not assume i, but drop final t .
amant-ter, aman-ter.
NoTE 2.-Many adverbs are simply adverbial phrases or clauses whose
parts have become united in writing. In these compound forms prepositions
1 As š is an ablative ending, certö and certé are only different forms of the same
word; so also récto and réct3, värö and véré, though the two forms do not always have
precisely the same meaning: vérô, in truth; véré, truly.
* This is the regular ending in superlatives.
* These are sometimes explained as Datives, but they are probably Ablatives; illó,
lit., by that way or road, finally came to mean to that place, i. e., to the place to which
the road leads.
4 Here the Locative ending is 7: hi, illi, isti, sī; c for ce is a demonstrative ending,
meaning here. Săc is the Locative of Sa; see 313, foot-note.
5 Uti contains two stems—w or cu (seen in cui), and ta or to (seen in te in is-te).
* In ibi and ubå the ending is bi, i in ibi is the stem of is, he; w in ubi is the same
as in wº.
7 Seen also in in-ter, in the midst; in-tus, within; sub-ter and sub-tus, below.
These suffixes are of uncertain origin; the former appears to be a case-suffix with abla-
tive meaning, no longer used in declension; the latter, like ter in al-ter, mos-ter, and déº-
ter, has lost its case-suffix, and may therefore represent either teró with an ablative suffix,
or terum with an accusative suffix. See Corssen, II., p. 299; Kühner, I., p. 679.
* The stem-vowel o is changed to i.
AD VERBS. 147
are especially common, and sometimes seem to be used with cases with which
they do not otherwise occur: ant-ed, before, before that; inter-ed, in the
mean time ; post-ed, after; ante-hăc, before this ; quem-ad-modum, in what
manner; parum-per, for a while ; nü-per = novum-per, lately ; tanț78-per, for
so long a time ; vidèlicet = vidéré licet, clearly—lit., “it is permitted to see';
Scilicet = Scire liceſ, certainly ; foršćan = fors sit an, perhaps.
305. Many Pronominal Adverbs, like the pronouns from which
they are formed (191), are correlatives of each other, as will be seen
in the following
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES.
INTERROGATIVE. INDEFINITE. DEMONSTRATIVE. RELATIVE.
cº
*
I. PLACE IN WHICH.
alicubº, somewhere ;
^18p?am, usquam, any-
where; ubévis, where
you please.
hºc, here ; 8 istic,
there ; illic, there; ubå, where.
{b}, there.
wbà, where??
II. PLACE TO which.
hiºc, to this place; 3
ŽStüc, to that place ;
illic, to that place;
eó, to that place ;
eódem, to the same
place.
aliguà, to some place;
quà, whither? quàlibet, quêvãs, whith-
er you please.
quê, whither.
quársum,4 to guórsum, to
what place 3 which place or
to what end ? some place. place. end.
aliq uð-worsum,4 to hörsum,4 to this
III. PLACE FROM which.
hinc, from this place;
alicunde, from some isłżno, from that
wnde, whence? | place; undelibet, from place; illine, from unde, whence.
any place. that place ; £nde, º
from that place.
* Some scholars, regarding ed., and haic in these and similar cases as ablatives, think
that all such compounds had their origin at a time when ante, post, inter, etc., admitted
that case; but Corssen treats ed and hāc in all such cases as newters in the accusative
plural. See Corssen, II., p. 455; Bücheler, p. 32.
* Observe that the question wbī, ‘where?' may be answered indefinitely by alicºt-
bi, w8piam, etc., or definitely by a demonstrative either alone or with a relative: hºc,
“here'; hic, ubi, ‘horo, whoro.” * * *
* Hic, “here,” “near me"; isłic, “there,” “near you"; illic, “there,” “near him"; £bă,
‘there, a weak demonstrative and the most common correlative of ubi, ‘where.’ See
distinction in pronouns (191). A similar distinction exists in hile, istüc, illºc, and 60.
* For quâ-vorsum = quº-versum, “whither turned'; aliquë-worsum, hºle-vorsum.
148 A D VERBS,
TABLE of CORRELATIVES.—(Continued.)
INTERROGATIVE. INDEFINITE. DEMONSTRATIVE. RELATIVE.
IV. TIME.
nºwn c, now ; tum,
then ; tune, at that
very time; ibà, then.
quotiëns, how || aliquotiëns, somewhat * → quotiëns, as, as
often ? often. totiëns, so often. often.
quando, alº quan dö,
wngwam, at any time.
quom, cum ,
... ºf 2. 2
quandº, when? quum, when.
W. WAY, MANNER, DEGREE.
hdc, by this way;
distăc, by that way;
Žllác, by that way; quâ, by which
ed., by that way; ed- way. '
dem, by the same
Way.
aliquâ, by or in some
way: quávis, by any
way.
qud, by or in
what way?
wt, ut?, in
alt, uti, how 3 ||aliguà, in some way,
which way, as.
etc. àta, sic, so, thus.
quam, how
much 3 aliquam, somewhat. tam, so much. Quam, aS.
Note 1–From Relative Adverbs are formed General or Indefinite Relatives by
appending -cumque or by reduplicating the form: ubicumque, wbiwbi, wheresoever;
guðcumgwe, guðgwó, whithersoever.
NoTE 2.-Other examples are—
1) PLACE:-alibi, elsewhere; ibidem, in the same place; necwbi, lest anywhere,
that nowhere ; Sicubi, if anywhere; alià, to another place ; citrö, to this side; tiltrö
citrögue, to and fro; wtröque, to both places ; aliunde, from another place; indidem,
from the same place; utrimque, from or on both sides; undique, from all sides.
2) TIME:—hodié, to-day ; her?, yesterday; crås, to-morrow; pridić, the day be-
fore; postridié, the day after; jam, already; jam tum, even then; jamdžū, jamdždum,
jam pridem, long ago; quondam, at a certain time; 6/im, formerly, hereafter ; interim,
intered, meanwhile; anted, prius, before ; post, posted, afterward; unquam, ever;
nºnquam, never; &emper, at all times.
3) WAY, MANNER, DEGREE:-adeś, so ; aliter, otherwise; magis, more; paene, al-
most; palam, openly; prärsus, wholly; rite, rightly; valdé, greatly; via, scarcely.
4) CAUSE:-căr, why; eff, for this reason; ided, idcircó, proptered, on this account;
ergö, ägitur, itagwe, therefore, accordingly.
NoTE 8.—Wesció, with an interrogative adverb, is often equivalent to an indefinite
adverb: neSció quomodo, I know not in what way = quêdammodo, in some way;
mesció wbi = alicubi, in some place; nesciównde=alicunde, from some place; see also
191, note.
NoTE 4.—Adverbial phrases are formed by combining mirum or nimium with quan-
tum: mírum quantum, it is wonderful how much = wonderfully much, wonderfully;
mimium quantum, exceedingly. Mārum quam, Sână quam, and valdé Quam have a
similar force: how wonderfully, how very, how greatly = eacceedingly, wonderfully.
NoTE 5.—For INTERRogATIVE PARTICLES, see 311, 8.
NoTE 6.—For NEGATIVE PARTICLEs, see 552.
PREPOSITIONS. 149
306. CoMPARISON.—Most adverbs are derived from adjectives,
and are dependent upon them for their comparison. The com-
parative is the accusative neuter singular of the adjective, and the
Superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into è : *
altus, altior, altissimus, lofty.
alté, altius, altissimé, loftily.
prüdéns, prüdentior, prüdentissimus, prudent.
prüdenter, prüdentius, prüdentissimé, prudently.
1. When the adjective is compared with magis and māzīmā, the adverb
is compared in the same way:
égregius, magis egregius, mäximé egregius, eaccellent.
égregić, magis égregić, mäximé egregié, excellently.
2. When the adjective is irregular, the adverb has the same irregularity:
bonus, melior, optimus, good.
bene, melius, optimé, well.
male, péjus, pessimé, badly.
3. When the adjective is defective, the adverb is generally defective:
déterior, déterrimus, 2007°S62.
déterius, déterrimé, QUO7°S6.
novus, *=====g novissimus, 72,620.
nové, *== novissimé, newly.
4. A few not derived from adjectives are compared:
dilī, dilitius, dilītissimé, for a long time.
Saepe, Saepius, Saepissimé, often.
Satis, Satius, *==mºmº - sufficiently.
niiper, † = sºmº nilperrimé, necently.
5. Most adverbs not derived from adjectives, as also those from ad-
jectives incapable of comparison (169), are not compared: hic, here; nunc,
now ; vulgăriter, commonly.
6. Superlatives in 6 or um are used in a few adverbs: primă, primum,
potissimum. -
PREPOSITIONS.
307. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the
relations of objects to each other:
In Italia esse, to be IN Italy; ante mé, BEFORE me.
NoTE 1.—Prepositions were originally adverbs, and, like other adverbs (304), are in
origin petrified case-forms.”
1 See 304, II., 2.
* Thus prepositions in & are in origin ablatives: circă, citrä, contrá, ergū, eatră,
Žnfră, etc; while those in m are accusatives: circum, córam, cum, etc. These case-
forms passed into adverbs denoting direction, situation, etc.; but they finally became
associated with nouns in the accusative or ablative as auxiliary to the case-ending: locá
150 CONJUNOTIONS.
NotE 2.—For the USE of Prepositions, see 432–43?.
NoTE 3.—For the ForM and MEANING of Prepositions in Composition, see 344, 5.
3O8. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.* — Ambi, amb, “around,”
‘about '; dis, dž, “asunder”; in, ‘not,” “un-”; por, ‘toward,”
“forth’; re, red, “back’; sé, Sãd, “aside,” “apart'; and vé, “not,’
are called Inseparable Prepositions, because they are used only in
composition.
NoTE.—For the FoRM and MEANING of the Inseparable Prepositions in Composition,
see 344, 6.
CONJUNCTIONS.
309. Conjunctions are mere connectives. They are either Co-
ordinate or Subordinate.
1. CoöRDINATE CoNJUNCTIONS connect similar constructions:
Labor voluptăsquE,” labor AND pleasure. Karthåginem cépit Ao 2 diruit, he
took AND destroyed Carthage.
2. SUBORDINATE Conjunctions connect subordinate with principal con-
structions: -
Haec DUM2 colligunt, effugit, whilE they collect these things, he escapes.
31O. CoöRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS comprise—
1. CoPULATIVE CoNJUNCTIONS, denoting UNION:
Et, que, atque,” dic, and ; etiam, quogue, also ; neque, nec, and not; négºué
—neque, nec–nec, neque—nec, neither—nor.
2. DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting SEPARATION:
Aut,4 vel, we, Sive (seu), or ; aut—aut, vel—vel, either—or; sive—870e, eith-
€I’—OI’.
NoTE.—Here belong interrogative particles in double or disjunctive questions: utrum,
ww.m., or ne—an, whether—or; an, or; annón, necne, or not; see 353.
3. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting OPPOSITION:
= FROM a place; ea loco = ouT of a place; aliquid loco movére, to move anything FROM
a place; aliquid ea; locł movére, to move anything ouT of a place. An adverb thus
separated from the verb and brought into connection with a noun ceased to be an adverb
and became a preposition. -
1. Like other prepositions, these were doubtless originally case-forms.
2 Thus que connects, two nominatives, āc two indicatives which are entirely coördi-
nate, took AND destroyed, but dum, connects the subordinate clause, haec-colligunt,
with the principal clause, effugit—he escapes while they collect these things.
* Copulative conjunctions are et = Greek érv, gwe = kai, and their compounds—et-iam
or et jam, at-que, guo-que, ne-que. Ac is a shortened form of at-que; nec, of ne-qué.
* Disjunctives are aut, vel, we, with their compounds: vel = velis, “should you wish.’
offering a choice, we = vis, “you wish, as in guì-vis, ‘any you please'; sive = 87078, “if
you wish.’
CONJUNCTIONS. 151
Sed,* autem, vèrum, vërö, but; at, but, om the contrary ; atqwì, rather;
cëterum, but still, moreover;* tamen, yet. -
4. ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting INFERENCE :
Ergò, ìgìtur, înde, proinde, îtaqwe, hence, therefore ; see also 554, IV., 2.
5. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONs, denoting CAUSE : •
JWam, namque, enim, etenám, for.3
311. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS comprise—
1. TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting TIME:
Quandó, quom,4 cum, or quum, when ; ut, ubî, as, whem; cum (quom or
qwwm) prìmùm, vt prìmùm, vbì prìmum, &imvl, 86 movύάe, &mvè àe, &έπωύ-
atque, 8imul atque, as soom as; dum, dònec, quoad, quandãù,5 while, until, as
long as ; antequam, próusqααm, before; posteáquam, after.
2. CoMPARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting COMPARISON:
Ut, utì, 8ìcut, sìcutì, as, so as; velut, just as; praeut, prout, according as,
in comparison With ; qααm, as ; tanquam, qαα8â, vt 8), â6 87, velwt 8ì, as if.
3. CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CONDITION :
87,8 if; 8î nôn, nisi, nò, if not; sìn, but if; 8ì quìdem, if indeed; 8ì modo,
dum modo, dummodo, if only, provided.
4. CONCESSIvE CoNJUNCTIONS, denoting coNCESSION:
Quamquam, 7icet,7 eum, (quom,4 or quum), although ; etsì, tametsî, etiam87,
even if; quamvìs,7 quantumvîs, quantumlibet,7 however much, although ; vt,
grant that; nè, grant that, not.
5. FINAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting PURPosE or END :
Ut, utì, that, im order that ; nà, nève (new), that not; quó, that ; quömänu8,8
that not.
6. CONSECUTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting coNSEQUENCE or RESULT:
Uê, so that; vt nón, quîn,8 so that not.
* Conjunctions, like adverbs, consist largely of case-forms, chiefly from pronominal
8temS. Thus, sed, vërö, ergò, etc., are explained as ablatives (sed from 8wî); autem,
vërum, céterum, quam, quod, quom, or cum, etc., as accusatives; que, wö, ută, ut, etc.,
as locatives.
° Lit., a8 to the re$t. a
° But most Causal Conjunctions are subordinate; see 311, 7.
* Qvom, the original form out of which cum and quum were developed (22; 26,
foot-note), occurs in early Latin, as in Plautus. Cum is the approved form in classical
Latin.
5 See 304, I., 1 and 2, foot-notes.
° Probably locative, possibly instrumental; see page 78, foot-note 2.
7 Lìcet is strictly a verb, meaning it is permitted ; vîs, in quá/n-v?8 aiiül guwvtwn-
vis, is also a verb: quam-vìs, * as much as yóu wish*; as is also ûûet, *it pleases,' in
quantum-libet, * as much as is pleasing.”
° Quômânu8 = quò minus, * by which less'; quìn, = quò nè, * by which not.'
152 FORMATION OF WORDS.
7. CAUSAL Conjunctions, denoting CAUSE:
Quča, quod, quoniam,' quandé, because, inasmuch as; cum (quom, quºm),
since; quandóguidem, Siquidem,” utpote, since indeed.
8. INTERRoGATIVE CoNJUNCTIONS, denoting INQUIRY:*
Me, nänne, num, utrum, an, whether; an rzón, necne, or not.
INTERJECTIONS.
312. Interjections are certain particles used as expressions of
feeling or as mere marks of address." They may express—
1. Astonishment: á, hem, ekem, atat, bubae, väh, æn, ecce.
2. Joy: £3, evoe, euge, &ja, Ö, papae.
3. Sorrow : vae, ei, hew, &hew, Öhé, dh, au, prā.
4. Disgust: aha, phy, apage.
5. Calling: heus, Ö, eho, ehodum.
6. Praise: eu, euge, Aja, hāja.
C EIA PTER WI.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
SECTION I.
FOOTS.–STEMS.–SUFFIXES.
313, Words are formed from stems (46, 1), and stems from
roots or from other stems.
NoTE 1.-Thus status, ‘position,” is formed from the stem stata by adding the nom-
inative suffix s,” but the stem statu is itself formed from the root sta by appending the
derivative Suffix tw.
* Compounded of Quom-ſam, when now.
* Lit., if indeed. -
* These are sometimes classed as Adverbs. In some of their uses they are plainly
Conjunctions, while in other cases they approach closely to the nature of Adverbs. As
a matter of convenience they may be called Interrogative Particles; see 351, 1.
* Some interjections seem to be the simple and natural utterance of feeling, and
accordingly do not appear to have been built up, like other words, from roots and stems,
but to be themselves specimens of the unorganized elements of human speech. Others,
however, are either inflected forms, as age, ‘come,” apage = &m aye, ‘begone,” or muti-
lated sentences or clauses: meherculés, mehercule, etc., = mé Herculás juvet, ‘may
Hercules protect me"; mécastór, ‘may Castor protect me'; médius fidius, “may the
true God help me"; ācastör = €n Castór, “lo Castor.”
* This 8 is doubtless a remnant of an old demonstrative, 8a, meaning that, &e, she.
ROOTS.—STEMS. 153
NoTE 2. —Words are either simple or compound:
1. Simple, when formed from single roots with or without suffixes.
2. Compound, when formed by the union of two or more roots or stems; see
340, III.
314. Roots.-Roots are the primitive elements out of which
all words in our family of languages have been formed.” They are
of two kinds:
I. PREDICATIVE Roots, also called VERBAL Roots.” These designate or
name objects, actions, or qualities: es in es-á, he is ; & in 7-re, to go; duc in
duc-S = duº, leader; doc in doc-ālis, docile.
II. DEMONSTRATIVE Roots, 3 also called PRONOMINAL Roots. These do not
name objects or actions, but simply point out the relation of such objects or
actions to the speaker: me in me?, of me; tu in tuft, of you; $ in is, that, that
one, he.
315. The STEMs of simple words may be divided into three
classes: Root Stems, Primary Stems, and Secondary Stems.
316. Root STEMs are either identical with roots, or are formed
from them without the aid of suffixes:
Duc-is, ‘of a leader,’ root-stem duc ; 5 es-tis, ‘you are,' root-stem es; rég-ès,
* kings,’ root-stem rég ; vöc-is, “ of the voice,’ root-stem vöc ; murmur-is, ‘of
a murmur,’ root-stem murmur.
317. PRIMARY STEMs are formed from roots by means of Suf-
fixes: * -
* These roots were probably all monosyllabic, and were once used separately as words,
but not as parts of speech. Thus e8, the root of sum, esse, ‘to be,” and i, the root of ej,
ire, ‘to go,' were doubtless used in their original form, as significant words, long before
the verbs themselves had an existence.
* Observe that from this class of roots, whether called Predicative or Verbal, may
be formed the stems, not only of verbs, but also of nouns, adjectives, and, in fact, of all
the parts of speech except pronouns.
* The learner should note the difference in signification between Predicative and
JDemonstrative Roots. Thus dua, has a definite meaning, and must always designate
one who leads; while the pronoun ego is not the name of any person or thing, but may.
be used by any and every person in speaking of himself.
* The learner has already become familiar with the use of stems in the inflection of
nouns, adjectives, etc.; but stems, like roots, were probably once used as words.
* The basis of every inflected word is a stem. Duc is therefore the stem of duc-is,
but as it can not be derived from a more primitive form, it is also a root. According to
some authorities, rég, the stem of rég-és, and vôc, the stem of vöc-és, are not roots, but
derived from more primitive forms—reg in reg-0, and voc in voc-5; according to other
authoritios, however, rag and rāg are nnly two forms of the same root; So also voc and
vöc, duc and diſc. The stem murmur is not a root, but formed from the root mºur
by reduplication. See Curtius, Chron., p. 25; Schleicher, pp. 341–350; Meyer, pp. 8,
371-376. -
* Any suffix used to form a Primary Stem is called a Primary Suffia: ; see 320.
154 &TEMS.
ROOT. SUFFIX. STEM. WORD.
ar, vo, ar-vo, ar-vu-m,1 field.
fac, to, fac-to, fac-tu-s,”, nade.
sta, tu, sta-tu, sta-tu-s, position.
NoTE.—All stems formed from verb-stems are also generally classed as Primary
Stems: 2 cirã-tor, “guardian,’ ‘curator, from cºrd, ‘to care for, from cira, ‘care.”
318. SECONDARY STEMS are formed from other stems" by means
of Suffixes: *
STEM. SUFFIx. SECONDARY STEM. WORD.
civi,5 co; civi-co, civicus, civic.
victor,5 iā; victor-iā, victória, oictory.
victor, Ic ; victór-ic, victrix,9. wictress.
319. The STEMS OF COMPOUND Words are formed by the union
of two or more stems, or of a stem with a root :
fu-era,7 fu-era-s, 3/ow had been.
grand-aevo,8 grand-aevu-s, of great age.
igni-colòr,” igni-color, Jire-colored.
māgn-animo, 10 māgn-animu-s, great—Souled.
NoTE 1.-Words are formed from Stems by means of the Suffixes of Inflection; see
46 and 202, note 1.
NoTE 2.—A single root often gives rise to a large class of forms. Thus, from the root
6ta, “to stand,’ are derived—
1. The numerous forms which make up the conjugation of the verb Stö, Stäre, Stetſ,
státum, to stand. .
2. All the forms of the verb sistö, sistere, stiți, 8tatum, “to place.”
3. Numerous other forms. Thus (1), sta-bilis, ‘stable,” “firm,” from which are de-
rived stabilić, “to make firm "; stabilitäs, “firmness,” and stabiliter, ‘firmly”; (2) Stabu-
lum, “a standing place,’ ‘stable, from which are derived stabulo, and stabulor, ‘to have
a standing place'; (3) Stömen, “something standing,” “warp in an upright loom”; (4)
statin, “in standing,” “at once”; (5) statič, ‘standing”; (6) Stativus, ‘stationary”; (7)
stator, “a stayer'; and (8) status, ‘position,” from which is derived statuº, “to place,’
which in turn becomes the basis of Statua, “a statue,” and Statüra, ‘stature."
1 Ar-vo-'m weakened to a rowm, fac-to-8 to factus; see 22, 2.
2 This is a matter of convenience, as new stems, or words, are formed from verb-stems
in the same manner as from roots; see Schleicher, p. 847.
* Except verb-stems. Remember that stems formed from verb-stems are treated as
Primary; see 317, note.
4 Any suffix used to form a Secondary stem is called a Secondary suffix, but many
suffixes may be either primary or secondary. Thus co in civicus is Secondary, as it
is added to a stem; but in locus, ‘place,” it is Primary, as it is added to a root.
5 Civi is the stem of civis, citizen ; victór of victor, conqueror.
* For victória, by contraction.
7 Compounded of root fu with stem eró from the root es; see 203, note 2, and 243.
* For grandã-aevo.
* Compounded of igni, the stem of ignis, “fire,” and of colòr, the stem of color, ‘color."
10 Compounded of măgno, the stem of măgnus, “great,” and of animo, the stem of
animºus, “soul"; mágno-animo becoming mågnanimo.
SUFFIXES. 155
32O. SUFFIXEs.—Most suffixes" appear to have been formed
from a comparatively small number of primitive elements called
PRIMARY SUFFIXEs,
I. II.2 ExAMPLEs.
a, ă,” o, ö, e, i, ã and o in nouns and adjectives, § in nouns,
ë, u, and e, i, Ö, and u in verbs: scrib-a, writer;
Jug-a, flight; jug-o, Nom. jug-u-m,4 yoke;
jid-6, Nom. fid-à-s, faith; reg-e," rule thou;
*ég-i-8, you rule; reg-à, I rule; reg-u-nt, they
rule.
i, i, in a few nouns: av-i, Nom. av-i-8, bird; arc-i,
Nom. arc-i-8, arc-s,” aræ, citadel.
u, u, in nouns: 7 ac-w, Nom. ac-u-s, needle.
an, on, Ön, en, denoting either the ACT or the AGENT; asperg-
in, on, N om. aspergº (G. inis), sprinkling ; ger-
ôn, gerö8 (G. Önis), a carrier; pect-en (G. inis),
a comb.
ant,” ent, unt, in present participles: 10 audient–s,” audiens,
hearing ; ab-ê8-ent-8, ab-Séns, absent; amā-
ent-S, amāns, loving. -
* Most suffixes appear to be of pronominal origin, i. e., from pronominal stems or
roots, but, according to Bopp, Corssen, and others, a few may be of verbal origin. Thus
in several suffixes beginning with b-seen in ber, bilis, bulum, etc.—Corssen recognizes
the root bhar = fer in fer-G, ‘to bear'; in some beginning with t—seen in ter, tor, türus,
etc.—the root tar, “to accomplish'; in some beginning with c-seen in cer, culum, crum,
etc.—the root kar = cer, cre in cre-O, “to make.' For a discussion of the subject, see
Bopp, III., pp. 186–201; Corssen, I., p. 567; II., pp. 40, 68; Schleicher, p. 443.
* Column I. shows the suffix in its supposed original form, while column II. Shows
the various forms which the suffix has assumed in Latin.
8 Originally long in Latin in feminine forms; see 21, 2, 1).
4 Observe that these suffixes form Stems, not cases. Sometimes the Nominative Sing-
ular is in form identical with the stem ; but in most cases, the Nominative is formed
from the stem by adding the Nominative suffix, as 8 in Jidé-8, m in jugu-m for jugo-m.
(o weakened to w, 22, 2).
- * Observe that the Present stem takes the several forms, reg-e, reg-i, reg-0, reg-w;
but see page 118, foot-note 5.
° Often thus dropped; sometimes changed to e, 3: mari, mare, sea; caedi, caede,
caédé-8, Slaughter. -
7 Also in adjectives, in union with i making wi: ten-wi-S, thin.
8 N dropped; see 36, 5, 8).
° This is the base of several compound suffixes: ent-o, ent-iā, ent-to-Nom, ent-
wm, ent-ia, and ent-ium ; flu-ent-um, stream; Sapi-ent-ia, wisdom; 8?!-ênt-tum, silence.
10 Also in a few adjectives and nouns: frequ-ent-s, frequénē, frequent; part-ent-&
2arëns. Here 8 is the Nominative ending.
156 PRIMA R Y SUFFLYES,
PRIMARY SUFFIXES.–(Continued.)
I. II. EXAMPLES.
as, os, us, es, gen-os, gen-us,” birth; corp-us,” body; nüb-ês,
ës, Ör, ur, cloud; rôb-ur,” strength; Sop-or (21, 2), sleep.
iê, ià and io in adjectives; ié in nouns: ex-im-iā,
eac-im-io, Nom. ex:-im-fu-s, ex-im-ia, eac-ºn-
Żu-m, select; fac-à, Nom. fac-à-S, appear-
8]]C6.
ja” = ya, e, i, ië, iu, in verbs: cap-e, take thou; cap-e-re, to take;
cap-i-S, you take ; cap-i-mus, we take; cap-
30, I take; cap-àu-nt, they take.
jans" = | ids, iór, ius, in comparatives: mag-iös, mag-iör, mājör, Nom.
3/ans, jör, Ör, 2nd-ſor (21, 2), greater; min-Ör, min-Or (21,
2), smaller; see 162, 165.
ka, că, co, rare: * paw-că, paw-co, paw-cus, a, um, Small;
Jo-co, locus, place.
la, lä, lo, li, see ra.
ma,” mã, mo, for-ma, form; pri-mo, pri-mas, first; Sup-mo, .
Sum-mo (34, 3), šum-mus, highest ; al-mo,
al-mas, cherishing.
* This strffix seems to be used in forming the Latin Infinitive, in origin the Dative of
a verbal mourſ : reg-es-e, reg-ere (31, 1), ‘to rule"—lit., for ruling; e is the Dative end-
ing (67, note); see Schleicher, p. 472. See also page 81, foot-note 2.
* With variable vowel (57, 2); in early Latin o, in classical Latin w in Nominative
Singular, e in other cases. We thus have in early Latin os in gen-os, and in classical
Latin us in gen-us, and es changed to er (31, 1) in gen-er-is, gen-er-i, etc. Words of
this class take no Nominative ending.
* With variable vowel—o, w. We thus have corp-us, corp-or-is, with 8 changed to
r (31, 1). S final is also changed to r in röbur; see 31, 2.
* Doubtless a pronominal stem. It is common as a secondary suffix (page 154, foot-
note 4): pater-io, patr-do, Nom. patr-ius, paternal; victór-ia, victory; lilacwr-ia, lùa:-
wr-iés, luxury; see 325.
* Originally long in Latin, see 21, 2, 1).
* Probably the verbal root ja, identical with i in ire, to go. So explained by Curtius,
Werbum, I., pp. 290–295. Ja was also used as a 'secondary suffix, appended to the stems
of nouns and adjectives, in forming denominative verbs; see 335, foot-note.
7 This suffix is generally secondary: alt-ior, alt-ius, higher; sapient-ior, wiser;
See 162.
* It seems to appear without its final vowel in some nouns in ac: ape-c-8, oper, point,
top. It is common as a secondary suffix: civi-co, civi-cus, civic (330); and is also
used in compound suffixes, as cw-lo, ci-no, ti-co: Jås-cu-lus, a small flower; väti-ci-nus,
prophetic. See Schleicher, p. 478; Corssen, II., pp. 205, 806, 307.
* This is also an element in ti-mă, ti-mo, sî-mă, si-mo, is-si-mă, is-si-mo: op-ti-
ºntº, a, win, best; alt-is-si-mus, highest.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES. 157
PRIMARY SUFFIxEs.—(Continued.)
I. II. ExAMPLES.
man," men,” min,” denoting the MEANs of the action, sometimes
mön, the ACT itself, or its RESULT: tegº-men, or tég-
men,” a covering; nü-men,” name; certà-men,
contest; ser-món, ser-mâ,4 discourse.
na," nā, no, 1. in adjectives with the force of perfect parti-
ciples: 5 plená, ple-no, ple-nus, a, win, filled,
full; rég-no, reg-num, kingdom, that which
is ruled.
2. in nouns and adjectives with various mean-
ings: " Sop-no, Som-no (33, 3, note), Som-nus,
sleep.
ni, | ni," | $g-ni, ig-nis, fire; pá-ni, pá-nās, bread.
nu, nu, | very rare: ma-nu, ma-nus, hand.
ra,” la, rá, ro, lä, ag-ro (agrus), ager, field; Sac-ro (Sac-rus), Sacer,
lo, li, sac-ra, Sac-run, sacred; Sed-lä, sel-la (34, 2),
seat; candé-la, a light; tā-lo, tà-lum, weapon ;
doci-li, doci-lis, docile. -
ta,” tà, to, sā, 1. in perfect participles: 10 amá-tó, amá-tus, a,
So, 'um, loved; plaud-to, plau-80 (35, 3), plau-
sus, applauded; cönă-tus, having tried; prān-
Sus, having taken lunch.
2. in a few adjectives: Sea:-to, Sea:-tus, sixth.
1 This is an element in men-to, mān-iā, and mön-io: nitri-men-tum, nutriment;
gueri-mön-ia, complaint; testi-mön-ium (secondary suffix), testimony.
* With variable vowel (5'7, 2). The suffix man is weakened to men in the Nomina-
tive Singular, and to min in the other cases.
* For gnä-men, “name,” the means by which one is known.
4 W is dropped; see 36, 5, 3).
* Nearly equivalent to ta. In some languages it forms passive participles like ta.
° Often secondary: pater-no, pater-nus, paternal; sometimes preceded by ä, ö, or é:
Jont-à-nus, of a fountain; can-i-nus, canine; al?-à-nus, belonging to another; see 327,
329, and 330.
7 As ta and na are closely related in meaning and use, so are ti and ni. They are
sometimes united in the same suffix: tá-5-ni (326). *
8 Ra and la are only different forms of the same suffix. In Latin and Greek this
suffix often forms verbal adjectives which sometimes pass into nouns: gnd-rus, ‘know-
ing,’ from gnd in nô-scó, “to know"; 30-pov, “gift,” “something given,' from 80 in 8tóout,
‘to give.”
° In the form of ti it is the first element in ti-mus, a, wºm, : op-ti-mºts, best; and the
second element in is-sà-mus, a, wºm: alt-is-sà-mws, highest. In the form of td, it is the
first element in tä-ti, shortened to td:: căvă-täs = civi-tät-S, state.
*" Often becoming adjectives or nouns: al-to, al-tus, high ná-tus, son.
158 JDERIVATION OF WORDS.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES.—(Continued.)
I. II. ExAMPLES.
tar, ter, túr, see tra.
ti, ti,” si, in verbal nouns: ves-tº, väs-às, garment; met-ti,
met-tºs, messis (35, 3), reaping, harvest.
tu, tú,” in verbal nouns, including Supines: Sta-tu, sta-
łus, standing; ?-tu, i-tus, going; dic-tū (su-
pine), in telling, to tell.
tar,” tra,” |ter, tér, tro, ter" and târ denoting AGENOY; tro, MEANs:
pa-ter, father; ma-ter, mother; vic-tor, con-
queror; audi-tor, hearer; arā-trum, plough.
vä, vo, uo, in nouns and adjectives: ar-vo, ar-vum, ploughed
field; vac-uo, vac-uºus, empty.
SECTION II.
DEFIVATION OF VVORDS.
FORMATION OF N O U NS BY SUFFIXES.
I. FROM THE STEMS OF OTHER NOUNS.
321. DIMINUTIVEs generally end in—
lus, la, lum; ulus, ula, ulum; culus, cula, culum:"
1 Ti is the first element in ti-á, ti-o, ti-6, ti-à-ni, ti-Ön (i dropped): jùsti-tia, jus-
tice; servi-tio, servi-tiwm, service; dārī-tié, dūrī-tiés, hardness; Sta-tiân, 8ta-tiâ (n
dropped), station. *
2 I often disappears: men-ti, men-tis, men-ts, mēns (36, 2), mind.
8 Tu is the first element in the suffixes, tu-á, tu-o, tú-ti, tilt, and tâ-don: Sta-tua,
statue; mor-twus, dead; servi-tūti, servi-tūt (Servi-tūts), servi-tūs, servitude; turpi-
tädon, turpi-tiidé (n dropped), turpitude. -
4 Perhaps of verbal origin (320, foot-note 1). This suffix seems to be the basis of
several compound suffixes: tór-iā, tàr-io, túrá, tiro, tric for tor-i-c, etc.; see examples,
324, 326, 330.
5 Ter is used in names denoting family relationship, originally AGENCY : pa-ter,
lit., protector, from the root pa, to protect.
6 For the convenience of the learner the suffixes are given in the Nominative form,
i. e., with the Nominative ending and the modified stem-vowel. Observe that the stem
suffix in lu-8 and lºw-m is lo. The endings, ulus, ula, ulum, were developed irregularly
after the analogy of u-lus, u-la, u-lum in such words as hortu-lus, virgu-lus, oppidu-
lum, where the w is the modified stem-vowel. Thus the w in rég-u-lus and capit-u-lum.
is an irregularity introduced from the Diminutives of a and o stems. Lus, la, lum are
formed from the suffix la or ra, often used in forming Primary Stems (320). Culus,
cula, culum are compound suffixes in which the first part, cu, is formed from the suffix,
originally ka, modified in Latin to co, cu, seen in lo-co-s, locus, place; see 320, ka, foot-note.
NO UNS. 159
filio-lus, a little son, from filius, SO72.
filio-la, a little daughter, {{ filia, daughter.
atrio-lum, a small hall, {{ atrium, hall.
alveo-lus, a small cavity, ( ( alveus, cavity.
hortu-lus, a small garden, {{ hortus, garden.
virgu-la, a small branch, {{ virga, branch.
oppidu-lum, a small town, { { oppidum, town.
rég-ulus, a petty king, & C réx, king.
capit-ulum, a small head, {{ Caput, head.
flös-culus, a small flower, {{ flös, flower.
parti-cula, a small part, & 4 pars, part.
münus-culum, a small present, {{ münus, present.
1. Lus, la, lum, are appended to a and o stems; ulus, ula, ulum, to
Dental and Guttural stems; culus, cula, culum, to e, i, and u stems, and
to Liquid and s stems; see examples.
2. Before lus, la, lum, the stem-vowels á and o take the form of o
after e or i, and the form of u in other situations: filio-lus, filio-la for
filiá-la, hortu-lus for horto-lus.
3. Before culus, cula, culum, stems in u change u into i, and stems
in on change o into u : versi-culus, ‘a little verse,' from versus ; homun-
culus, ‘a small man,’ from homó. Like nouns in on, a few other words
form diminutives in un-culus, un-cula : av-unculus, “maternal uncle,” from
avus, ‘grandfather.’’
4. El-lus, el-la, el-lum, il-lus, il-la, il-lum,” are used when the stem
of the primitive ends in Å or o, preceded by l, n, or r; ocel-lus,” “small
eye,” from oculus ; fabel-la, ‘short fable,” from fabula ; vil-lum,” “a small
wine,” from vinum.
NorB.—The endings leus and ció occur: ecu-leus,” “a small horse,” from egutts;
homun-ció, ‘a small man,” from homā.
322. PATRONYMICs, or names of DESCENT, generally end in—
dés, stem-suffix da, masculine ; s for ds, stem-suffix d, feminine.
Tantali-dés, daughter of Tantalus.*
Thési-dés, Théséi-s, daughter of Theseus.
Thestia-dés, Thestiã-s, daughter of Thestivs.
NoTE.—The suffix né, preceded by 7 or ö, is sometimes used in forming feminine Pat-
ronymics: Neptiºn?-nē, daughter of Neptune; Acrisió-mé, daughter of Acrisius.
son of Tantalus ;
son of Theseus ;
son of TheStius ;
Tantali-s,
1 Wübé-cula, plábé-cula, and vulpê-cula are formed as if from e-stems.
2 The syllables el and il do not belong to the ending, but are produced by a slight change
in the stem. The quantity of the vowel e or i is therefore determined by the primitive:
thus, oculus, oculu-lus = ocul-lus = ocel-lus; vinum, vinw-lwm = win-lwm = vil-lwm.
* Also written equwleus, but eculeus is the approved form.
4 The vowel preceding the suffix is usually i, as in Tantali-dés, Tantali-8, modified
from the stem-vowel o. Primitives in eus generally change eu to 7 or él, as in Thé87-
dās, Théséï-8; and primitives in £ws change stem-vowel o to a, as in Thesúa-dés.
Other nouns sometimes form Patronymics after the analogy of nouns in Żus: Läértiadé8,
son of Laertes. Aeméâs has Aenéadés, masculine, and Aenéis, feminine.
160 D ERIVATION OF WORDS.
323. DESIGNATIONS OF PLACE are often formed with the endings—
ārium, êtum, tum, ile.1
columb-ārium, a dovecot, from columba, dove.
querc-Étum, a forest of oaks, {{ quercus, oak.
Salic-tum, a thicket of willows, {{ Salix, willow.
ov-Ile, a sheepfold, {{ ovis, Sheep.
1. Arium designates the PLACE where anything is kept, a receptacle:
aerdrivm, ‘treasury,’ from aes, money.
2. Eitum, tum, used with names of trees and plants, designate the PLACE
where they flourish: olivátum, “an olive-grove,’ from oliva, “olive-tree.”
3. Ile, used with names of animals, designates their STALL or FOLD:
bovile, “stall for cattle,’ from běs, stem bow.
4. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Aestu-ārium, “tidal bay,’ from aestus, “tide’; avā-ārium, ‘aviary,’ from avis,
‘bird’; dān-ārium, ‘place for offerings,’ from d6num, “gift”; pām-ārium,
* orchard,” from påmum, “fruit'; aescul-ćtum, ‘forest of oaks,’ from aesculus,
‘oak’; pin-ètum, ‘pine-forest,’ from pinus, ‘pine’; ros-àtum, ‘rose-bed,’
from rosa, “rose’; win-ætum, “vineyard,' from vinum, “vine'; virgul-tum,
“a thicket,” from virgula, ‘bush’; capr—ile, ‘goat-stall,” from caper, 'goat.'
324, DERIVATIVEs are also formed with several other endings,
especially with—
ărius, ió, ium, itium, ina, imónium, itãs, tüs, atus.”
statu-ārius, a statuary, from Statua, Stative.
mül-iö, muleteer, {{ mülus, nule.
sacerdöt-ium, priesthood, {{ Sacerdös, priest.
serv-itium, servitude, {{ servus, slave.
rég-Ina, queen, {{ rêx, king.
patr-imónium, patrimony, {{ pater, father.
civ-itãs, citizenship, {{ civis, citizen.
vir-tūs, virtue, {{ vir, 7?? (???.
cönsul-ātus, consulship, {{ cönsul, consul.
1. Arius and ič generally designate PERSONs by their occupations.
2. Ium and itium denote OFFICE, CONDITION, or coLLECTION: servitium,
servitude, sometimes a collection of servants.
1 Arium and ile are the endings of neuter adjectives used substantively (330). The
vowels á and 7 were probably developed out of the stem-vowel of the primitive, but they
were afterward treated as a part of the suffix. For an explanation of such vowels, see 330,
foot-note. Many derivative endings were thus formed originally by the union of certain
suffixes with the stem-vowel of the primitive; accordingly, when added to vowel stems,
they generally take the place of the stem-vowel: columb-ā, columb-àrium; querc-o,
guerc-Étum.
* Arius is identical in origin with the adjective ending drivs (330), and ātus with
&tus in participles. In each the initial & was originally the stem-vowel of the primitive.
Ina is the same formation as the adjective ending inus (330). On i-tium, i-mónium,
i-tás, and tâs, see ti, ta, tu, man, män, with foot-notes, 320; remember that the initial
t was developed from the stem-vowel of the primitive.
NO UAWS. 161
3. Ina and imónium are used with some variety of signification; see
examples under 7 below.
4. Itās and tiis designate some CHARACTERISTIC or CONDITION: hārēd-i-
tãs, “heirship,’ from Järås, “heir '; virtùs, “manliness,’ ‘virtue,” from vir.
b. Atus denotes RANK, of FICE, CoLIECTION: consulātus, ‘consulship,”
from consul, senātus, ‘senate,’ ‘collection of old men,” from senez.
6. For PATRIAL or GENTILE Nouns, see 331, note 1.
NoTE.—The endings àgö, ägö, and iſgöl also occur: wir-àgö, “heroic maiden, from
vir, “hero”; ferr-àgú, “iron-rust, from ferrum, “iron.”
7. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Libr-àrius, ‘transcriber of books,’ from liber, “book”; lign-ārius, “joiner,’
from lignum, “wood”; quadrig-àrius, “driver of a four-horse chariot,” from
quadriga, ‘four-horse chariot’; arbitr—ium, ‘decision,’ from arbiter, “arbiter’;
conjug-ium, ‘wedlock,' from conjuna, ‘spouse’; magis-ter-ium, ‘presidency,’
from magis-ter, ‘president’; 68-tium, “door,’ from Ös, “mouth’; gall-āna,
“hen,' from gallus, “cock’; dāctr-ina, for doctor-ina, ‘doctrine,” from dàctor,
“learned man,’ ‘doctor’; matr-imónium, ‘matrimony,’ from mater, ‘moth-
er’; aedil—itäs, ‘office of edile,” from aedilis, ‘edile’; auctär-itãs, ‘authority,”
from auctor, ‘founder,’ ‘author’; Senec-tūs, “old age,’ from senex, ‘old man’;
tribün-ātus,” “office of tribune,' from tribinus, ‘tribune.”
II. Nou NS FROM ADJECTIVES.
325. From Adjectives are formed various ABSTRACT NOUNS
with the endings—
ia, itia, ta, tàs, itãs, tüs, édé, itādā, imónia.”
diligent-ia, diligence, from diligēns, diligent.
Superb-ia, haughtiness, {{ superbus, havghty.
amic-itia, friendship, {{ amicus, friendly.
juven-ta, Ayouth, {{ juvenis, 3young.
liber-täs, freedom, {{ liber, ſº
bon-itãs, goodness, {{ bonus, good.
pi-etäs,” piety, , “ pius, pious.
juven-tūs, $/outh, {{ juvenis, 3/07/ng.
dulc-edè, sweetness, ( & dulcis, Sweet.
söl-itädó, solitude, {{ Sölus, alone.
ăcr-imónia, sharpness, {{ ãcer, sharp.
1 These endings were formed, according to Corssen, by appending the suffix an to
ag, the root of agö, to put in motion, make, do; see Corssen, I., p. 577.
2 Asif formed from a verb, tribànà, Öre, like equit-ātus, ‘cavalry,’ from equito, dré,
“to ride,' from eques, ‘a horseman.”
8 When appended to vowel stems, these endings take the place of the final vowel.
Originally the initial i in i-tia, i-täs, i-tūdā, and i-mânia formed no part of the suffix,
but represented the stem-vowel of the primitive. On ia, tia, and ta, see ja, º, and ta,
320; on i-tūs and tâs, see page 160, foot-note 2; on i-tūdā and i-mönia, see tº and
man, 320. The origin of é-dà, 3-din is obscure.
* For pi-itä8 by dissimilation (26).
162 D ERITVATION OF WORDS.
NoTE 1.-Instead of ia and itia, iés and itiés occur: pauper, pauper-its, poverty;
dilrus, dūr-itia or dùr-itiés, hardness.
NoTE 2.—Before tas the stem of the adjective is sometimes slightly changed: facilis,
jacultás, faculty; difficilis, difficultās, difficulty; potēns, potestás, power.
NoTE 3.—A few adjectives form abstracts with both itās and itādā: firmus, firm-
Čtäs, firmitādā, firmness. Polysyllabic adjectives in tus often suffer contraction before
these endings: honestàs for homest-itãs, ‘honesty,’ from homestus; Söllicitädó, for Söl-
licit-itādā, ‘solicitude, from Söllicitus.
1. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Audāc-ia, ‘boldness,’ from audāa, ‘bold’; jūst-itia, ‘justice,” from jãstus,
‘just’; saev-itia, ‘cruelty,’ from saevus, ‘cruel’; Senec–ta, “old age,’ from
Senea, “old”; aequal-ātās, ‘equality,’ from aequalis, ‘equal’; cár-itãs, “dear-
ness,’ from cirus, “dear”; ana'i-etás, “anxiety,’ from anºus, ‘anxious’; alt-
Čtüdâ, “height,’ from altus, ‘high’; fort-ītūdā, ‘bravery,’ from fortis, “brave’;
amāgn-itädó, “greatness,’ from magnus, ‘great.”
III. Nou NS FROM WERBS AND FROM ROOTS.
326. From the Stems of Verbs and from Roots are formed nu-
merous nouns with the suffixes—"
ter, tor,” trix, trum, türa, tus, tiš, ič.”
pa-ter, father, from the root pa, to protect.
frā-ter, brother, {{ bhra, fra, to support.
amā-tor, lover, {{ amā-re, to love.
audi-tor, hearer, {{ audi-re, to hear.
défén-sor, defender, {{ défend-ere, to defend.
vênā-tor, hunter, {{ vénā-ri, to hunt.
véná-trix, huntress, ( { {{ ( (.
gubernă-trix, directress, {{ gubernã-re, to direct.
arā-trum, plough, {{ arā-re, to plough.
rös-trum,” beak, ( & röd-ere, to gnaw.
pic-tor, painter, {{ ping-ere, to paint.
pic-tūra, painting, {{ ( (. {{
ii-sāra,” wsing, {{ tit-I, to use.
audi-tus, hearing, {{ audi-re, to hear.
vi-sus," sight, {{ vid-Ére, to See.
audi-tič, hearing, {{ audi-re, to hear.
moni-tić,” advising, {{ moné-re, to advise.
vi-sió," Seeing, {{ vid-Ére, to See.
leg-iö, a selecting, {{ leg-ere, to select.
occid-iö, a slaying, {{ occid-ere, to slay.
1 These endings appear to be true suffixes, as they do not contain the stem-vowel of
the primitive.
2 For the phonetic change by which t in tor, türa, etc., unites with a preceding d or
t and produces SS or s, as in défend-tor, défènsor, see 35, 8, 2).
* On ter, tor, tria, and târa, see tar, tra; on tus and tâ, see tu and tâ; and on £5,
gee ja, 320.
4 For röd-trum ; see 35, 3, 1).
5 For ºt-tūra, vid-tus, vid-tiâ; see 35, 3, 2).
* From stem anoni, seen in moni-tum.
NO UNS. 163
1. Ter, tor, and trix designate the AGENT or DOER; trum, the MEANs
of the action; and târa, tus, tič, and ió, the ACT itself; see examples.
But nouns in tus and ió sometimes become concrete, and denote the RESULT
of the action: quaes-tus, ‘gain,’ from quaes-ere, ‘to gain”; leg-iö, ‘a select-
ing’ and then ‘a legion’ (the men selected), from leg-ere, ‘to select”; ex-
erci-tus, ‘exercise,’ ‘drill,’ and then ‘an army” (a collection of trained
men), from exercé-re, “to exercise.”
2. Us, a, Š " Sometimes designate the AGENT of the action: coqu-us =
coquus, cook, from coqu-ere, to cook; Scrib-a, writer, from scrib-ere; err-ā,
wanderer, from err-àre.
NoTE 1.--Tor, tria, fºra, and tws are sometimes added to noun stems with or with-
out change: vià-tor, ‘traveler,' from via, ‘way"; send-tor, “senator, from semea (Geni-
tive senis, stem Sén), “old man’; jāni-tor, ‘janitor,” and järvi-tria’, ‘janitrix," from jºin-
wa, ‘gate”; litterå-tūra, “writing, from lºttera, “letter'; cónsul-à-tus, ‘consulship,”
from consul, ‘consul.”
NoTE 2.—For nouns in ič from the stems of other nouns, see 324, with 1.
3. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
AccüSã-tor, ‘accuser,” from acci sã-re, “to accuse”; ciºră-tor, ‘keeper,”
from cirã-re, ‘to take care of"; da-tor, ‘giver,’ from da—re, ‘to give'; vic-
tor, ‘victor,’ from vinc-ere,” “to conquer’; inven-tria, ‘a female discoverer,'
from inven-ire, ‘to discover’; monstrum = mon-es-trum,” “prodigy,’ from
"non-ère, “to admonish'; rās-trum, ‘rake,” from rād-ere, “to rake,” “scrape”;
armă-tūra, ‘arming,’ ‘equipment,’ from armá-re, “to arm’; ná-tūra, ‘birth,’
“nature,” from ná-sci,4 ‘to be born'; scrip-tära, for scrib-tizra,” “writing,”
from scrib-ere, “to write”; &c-tus, for ag-tus,” “driving,” “act,' from ag-ere, “to
drive,’ ‘act”; ác-tiâ, for ag-tiâ, “action,” from ag-ere, “to act”; moni-tiâ, “act
of admonishing,’ from moné-re, “to admonish’; mon-itus, ‘admonition,” from
mone—re, “to admonish'; opîn-áð, ‘opinion,” from opin-ārī, ‘to think”; opt-
Żó, “choice,” from opt-àre, ‘to choose.”
327. From the Stems of Verbs and from Roots are formed
nouns with the suffixes—
or, us, es, iës, ium, en, men, mentum, monia, monium, bulum,
culum, brum," crum, num.”
* 0 and ā, the stems of us and a, are only different forms of the suffix a ; and Ön, the
stem of Š, Čnis, is from the suffix an ; see 320.
2 Root vic.
* With the compound suffix es-trum, from as-tra; see as and tra, 320.
4 Root 'nd.
* See 33, 1.
* Observe change in quantity: ag-ere, &c-tus; see Gellius, IX, 6.
* On the forms bulum, brum, culum, crum, see 35, 2, foot-note 3.
° On or (for os), w8, and és, see as; on iés and ium, see ja; on en, See an ; on men,
ºnentum, monia, and mönium, see man; on num, see na—all in 320; on bulum, brum,
culum, crum, See Corssen, II., p. 40.
164 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
am-or, love, from am-āre, to love,
tim-or, fear, 66 tim-ère, to fear.
gen-us, birth, {{ gen in gign-ere, to bear.
frigus, cold, {{ frig-ere," to be cold.
séd-ös, seat, {{ sed-öre,” to sit.
fac-iès, wnake, face, {{ fac-ere, to make.
g * {{ - & g
gaud-ium, j93/, gaud-öre, to rejoice.
stud-ium, zeal, study, { { stud-ere, to be zealous.
pect-en, a comb, {{ pect-ere, to comb.
sº &
flû-men, a stream, ( flu-ere, to flow.
Örnä-mentum, ornament, - ( & Örnā-re, to adorn.
queri-mönia, complaint, { { queri, to complain.
ali-mönium, nourishment, {{ ale-re, to nourish.
voca-bulum, appellation, {{ voca-re, to call.
vehi-culum, vehicle, {{ vehe-re, to carry.
délà-brum, shrine, { { délu-ere, to cleanse.
simulá-crum, 27mage, {{ simulá-re, to represent.
rég-num, reign, {{ reg-ere, to rule.
1. Or, us, és, iès, and ium generally designate the ACTION or STATE
denoted by the verb, but €s, iës, and ium sometimes designate the RESULT
of the action: aedificium, ‘edifice,” from aedific-àre, ‘to build.”
2. Men, mentum, monia, monium, and num generally designate the
MEANS of the action, or its involuntary SUBJECT, sometimes the ACT itself,
or its RESULT: flû-men, “a stream,” “something which flows,’ from flu-ere;
ag-men, “an army in motion,’ from ag-ere. -
NoTE.—The stem or root is sometimes shortened or changed: má-mentum, ‘moving
force,' from mov-Čre.
3. Bulum, culum, brum, and crum designate the INSTRUMENT or the
PLACE of the action: vehi-culum, “vehicle” (instrument of the action),
from vehe-re; sta-bulum, “stall' (place of the action), from sta-re.
NoTE.—The vowel of the stem is sometimes changed: 8epul-crum, “sepulchre," from
sepel-ire, ‘to bury'; see 24, 3.
4. In culum, c is dropped after c and g : vinc-ulum, “a bond,” from
vinc-ire, reg-ula, ‘rule,” from reg-ere.
NoTE.—Dö, la, āgö, Ögö,8 and a few other endings also occur: torpé-dà, “numbness,'
from torpé-re, ‘to be numb”; cupi-dò, “desire,” from cupe-re, ‘to desire"; candé-la,
“candle,' from candé-re, ‘to shine'; vor-āgö, “whirlpool,' from wor-āre, “to swallow up";
vert-īgö, ‘a turn,' from vert-ere, ‘to turn.”
5. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Splend-or, “brightness,’ from splend-ere, ‘to be bright”; op-us, ‘work,”
from the root op for ap, “work'; dec-us, “ ornament,” from root dec, in dec-et,
1 In several of these examples the noun is not strictly derived from the verb, but
both noun and verb are formed from one common root, as frig-us and frig-ere from the
root fråg.
* Sed-Ére and Séd-às show a variable root-vowel—e, č, see 20, note 2.
* See Corssen, I., p. 577; II., pp. 802, 303.
A.D.JECTIVES. 165
"it is becoming’; nāb-es, ‘cloud,” from the root nib in nüb-ere, ‘to veil’;
spec-des, ‘look,' from spec-ere, “to look’; effug-ium, “escape,' from effug-ere,
“to escape”; imper-jum, ‘command,’ from imper-āre, ‘to command’; certà-
men, ‘contest,’ from certā-re, ‘to contend”; docu-mentum,” “lesson,’ ‘docu-
ment,’ from doce-re, ‘to teach'; nütri-mentum, “nourishment,’ from nitri-re,
‘to nourish'; pá-bulum, ‘fodder,’ from the root på in pá-scere, ‘to feed’;
spectá-culum, “sight,’ from spectá-re, ‘to behold”; lil-crum, ‘gain,’ from
lu-ere, “to pay'; dā-num,” “gift,” from the root da in da—re, ‘to give.”
EORMATION OF ADJECTIVES BY SUFFIXES.
I. ADJECTIVES FROM Nouns.
328. FULLNESS.—Adjectives denoting fullness, abundance, Sup-
ply, generally end in— -
ôsus, cósus, lêns, lentus, tus.”
anim-Ösus, full of courage, from animus, spirit, courage.
früctu-ösus, fruitful, {{ früctus, fruit.
belli-cosus, warlike, {{ bellum, 2007”.
pesti-léns, pestålential, {{ pestis, pest.
pesti-lentus, {{ {{ {{ ({
Vino-lentus, full of wine, ({ vinum, wine.
fraudu-lentus, fraudulent, {{ fraus, fraud.
ălă-tus, winged, {{ āla, wing.
turri-tus, turreted, & 4 turris, tw?"ret.
cornti-tus, horned, {{ cornli, horn.
jūs-tus, . just, {{ jūs, right.
NOTE.-Before Ösus the stem-vowel is generally dropped, but u is retained: animo-
ô8w8, anim-àsus, but fråctu-Ösw8.
1. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Ann-Ösus, ‘full of years,’ from annus, ‘year”; lilacuri-Ösus, “luxurious,’
from lilacuria, “luxury'; pericul-āsus, ‘dangerous,’ from periculum, ‘danger’;
tenebr–68w8 and tenebri-cósus, ‘gloomy,' from tenebrae, ‘gloom'; turbu-lentus,
‘riotous,’ from turba, ‘riot’; barbă-tus, ‘bearded,” from barba, ‘beard’;
auri-tus, ‘long eared,’ from auris, ‘ear”; onus-tus, “burdened,’ from onus,
* burden.” -
329. MATERIAL.-Adjectives designating the material of which
anything is made generally end in—
* With modified stem or root: docă, docu; da, dö. º
* On Ösus, see Schleicher, p. 403; Corssen, I., p. 62; II., p. 688, Cösus is from co
and Ösus; thus from bellum, ‘war,’ is formed belli-cus, ‘belonging to war”; and from
belli-cus is formed bellico-àsus, belli-cosus, ‘warlike." On léns, lentus, see ra, la, 320.
The vowel before láns, lentus—generally u, sometimes o or i—was originally the stem-
vowel of the primitive, as in vino-Zentus, pesti-lèns, pesti-lentus, but it was sometimes
treated as a part of the suffix: vá-olentus, ‘violent, from vis, “force.” Thus is identical
with tus in the passive participle, and when added to vowel-stems is preceded by ä, ö,
or & : ālā-tus, turri-tus, cornº-tus, like amä-tus, audi-tus, acil-tus (‘sharpened, from
acu-o, “to sharpen'). It may, however, be added to consonant-stems: jù8-čus.
166 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
eus, nus, neus, aceus, icius.”
aur-eus, golden, from aurum, gold.
argent-eus, of silver, {{ argentum, silver.
fäg-eus, of beech, fagus, C. beech.
5 re; º
fägi-nus,
fägi-neus,” {{ {{ {{ {{
pópul-nus,” of poplar, {{ pöpulus, a poplar.
pópul-neus,” {{ {{ {{ {{
papyr-āceus, of papyrus, & 4 papyrus, papyrus.
later-icius, of brick, & 4 later, brick.
NoTE.—These endings sometimes denote characteristic or possession : virgineus,
“belonging to a maiden.”
330. CHARACTERISTIC.—Adjectives signifying belonging to, de-
fived from, generally end in—
cus, -icus, alis, ilis, anus, inus, aris, arius, ius, énsis.”
civi-cus, relating to a citizen, from civis, citizen.
patr-icus, paternal, {{ pater, father.
nātūr-ālis, natural, {{ nātūra, 7tatuº'e.
mort-ālis, mortal, {{ mors, death.
host-Ilis, hostile, {{ hostis, enemy.
civ-Ilis, relating to a citizen, ( { cIvis, citizen.
Oppid-ānus, of the town, {{ Oppidum, town.
urb-ănus, of the city, (6 urbs, city.
mar-Inus, rmarine, & 4 mare, S60%.
equ-Inus, of, pertaining to a horse, {{ equus, horse.
lün-āris, lunar, {{ lüna, ???OO72.
salút-āris, salutary, {{ Saliis, Safety.
auxili-ārius, auziliary, {{ auxilium, aid.
rég-ius, ºroyal, {{ réx, king.
Örātūr-ius, of an orator, {{ Örător," Orato!".
for-Énsis, forensic, & 6 forum, forum.
1 On eus, stem eo, see Corssen, II., pp. 842–346; Bopp, III., p. 429; on mºus, see
wa, 320. Wews adds eus to no, seen in mus; āceus adds eus to dic, seen in day (333,
foot-note 2); and ic-ius adds ius to ic or ico; see ja, 320, and icus, 330.
* Stem-vowel changed to i before nw8 and news.
8 Stem-vowel dropped before nus and news.
* On cus, see ka, 320. In 3-cus, i was originally the stem-vowel of the primitive, but
was finally treated as a part of the suffix, as in patr-icus. In the same way the vowels
à and 7 in dilis, ilis, dris, drivs, dimus, and inus were developed from the stem-vowels
of the primitives; thus in such words as doc-à-lès, “docile, from doc-à-re, the suffix
seems to have been originally lis, but at length the preceding i was treated as a part of
the suffix, making ilis. If now ilis be added to hosti, the stem of hostis, we shall have
hosti-ilis = host-ilīs; or, with Corssen, we may suppose that from hostis was formed
the verb host?-re, and that the ending lis was added directly to host?, making hosti-lis.
The long initial vowel in other endings is supposed to have had a similar origin. Allis,
Žlis, and āris are virtually the same suffix, as l and r are interchangeable; see ra, la,
foot-note, 320. Arius = &ri-ius. On &nus, inus, and ius, see ja and na, 320; on
ënsis, see Corssen, I., pp. 62,254; II., pp. 688, 719.
* But Örö-tor is formed from Örā-re by adding tor to the stem; see 326.
A D.J.ECTIVES. 167
1. Ester or estris,' timus, itimus, ticus,” cinus, and a few other end-
ings occur: terr-ester or terr-estris, “terrestrial,’ from terra, ‘earth’; mari-
timus, ‘maritime,” from mare, ‘Sea’; leg-itimus, “lawful,’ from lea, legis,
‘law'; rās-ticus, “rustic,” from riſs, ‘country’; väti-cinus, ‘prophetic,”
from vätés, ‘prophet.’
2. OTHER ExAMPLES are—
Domini-cus, ‘of a master,’ from dominus, “master’; serv-ālis, “slavish,”
from servus, “slave’; vir-ilis, “manly,’ from vir, “man’; capit-ālis, ‘of the
head,” “capital,’ from caput, “head”; rég-ālis, “Ringly,” from rew, “king’;
cönsul-āris, ‘consular,’ from consul, ‘consul’; milit-āris, “military,’ from
miles, “soldier”; agr-ārius, ‘of or relating to land,” from ager, ‘field’; ar-
gent-àrius, ‘of silver,’ from argentum, ‘silver’; can—inus, ‘of a dog,' from
canis, ‘dog’; lup-inus, ‘of a wolf,’ from lupus, “wolf”; mont-ànus, ‘of a
mountain,” from máns, ‘mountain’; moa;-fus, ‘injurious,’ from noza, ‘in-
jury'; patr—ius, ‘of a father,’ from pater, ‘father’; imperátór-ius, ‘of a com-
mander,’ from imperátor, ‘commander.”
331. Adjectives from proper nouns generally end in-
ănus, iánus, inus; ius, iacus, icus; ensis, iënsis; as, aeus, éus.”
Sull-ānus, of Sulla, from Sulla, Sulla.
Röm-ănus, JRoman, {{ Röma, JRome.
Mari-ănus, of Marius, {{ Marius, Marius.
Cicerön-iānus, Ciceronian, {{ Ciceró, Cicero.
Lat-inus,” Latin, {{ Latium, Latium.
Plaut-Inus, of Plautus, {{ Plautus, Plautus.
Corinth-ius, Corinthian, {{ Corinthus, Corinth.
Corinth-iacus, {{ {{ {{ {{
Britann-icus, British, {{ Britannus, a Briton.
Cann-ènsis, of Cannae, {{ Cannae, Cannae.
Athén-iênsis, Athenian, {{ Athénae, Athens.
Fidén-ās, of Fidenae, {{ Fidénae, JFidenae.
Smyrn-aeus, Smyrnean, {{ Smyrna, Smyrna.
Pythagor-Gus, Pythagorean, {{ Pythagorås, Pythagoras.
1. Anus and iánus are the endings generally used in derivatives from
Names of Persons ; but others also occur.
NoTE 1.—Many of these adjectives from names of places are also used substantively
as Patrial or Gentile Wowns to designate the citizens of the place: Corinthià, the Co-
rinthians; Athénièmsés, the Athenians.
NOTE 2.—The Roman Gentés or clans were all designated by adjectives in tw8, as
géns Cornélia, gèng Jülia.
* The ending ester or estris may be formed by adding ter or tris to e8 from the suffix
a8 (320); but see Corssen, II., p. 549.
* On tº-mus, i-ti-mus, and ti-cus, see ta, ma, ca, 320.
* When appended to vowel stems, these endings take the place of the stem-vowel:
Sull-ānus. In fact, &mus is formed by the union of the stem-vowel with the suffix. So
in Mari-ánus, but in examples like this the 3 before &nus was finally treated as a part
of the suffix, making iánus, as seen in Cicerön-dànus. Inſus in Lat-??vus contains io,
from Lat-io, the stem of Latium.
168 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
NoTE 8.—An adjective in ius, used substantively, formed a part of the name of every
distinguished Roman, and designated the géns to which he belonged; see Roman Names,
649 II. ADJECTIVES FROM ADJECTIVES.
332. DIMINUTIVEs from other adjectives generally end like
diminutive nouns (321) in-
lus, ulus, culus."
ébrio-lus, somewhat drunken, from êbrius, drunken.
aureo-lus, golden, {{ aureus, golden.
long-ulus, father long, {{ longus, long.
pauper-culus, rather poor, & C pauper, poor.
NOTE: 1.-The endings ellus and illus also occur as in nouns (321, 4): now-ellus,
*new,” from novus, “new.”
NoTE 2.-Culus is sometimes added to comparatives’: dàrius-culus, ‘somewhat
hard, from dºrior, dūrius, ‘harder.”
III. ADJECTIVES FROM VERBS AND FROM Roots.
333. Verbal adjectives generally end in-
bundus, cundus, dus; bilis, tilis, silis, lis; ax.”
mīrā-bundus, wondering, from mirã-ri, to wonder.
mori-bundus, dying, {{ morſ, to die.
veré-cundus, diffident, {{ veré-ri, to fear.
cali-dus, warm, {{ calé-re, to be warm.
pavi-dus, fearful, {{ pavé-re, to fear.
amā-bilis, worthy of love, {{ amā-re, to love.
dic-tilis, ductile, {{ dic-ere, to lead.
#13 c 3
#º } flexible, {{ flect-ere, to turn.
doci-lis, docile, ( & docê-re, to teach.
pügn-āx, pugnacious, {{ pügnä-re, to fight.
aud-āx, daring, {{ audé-re, to dare.

1. Bundus and cundus have nearly the force of the present participle;
but bundus is somewhat more expressive than the participle: laetà-bundus,
rejoicing greatly; and cundus generally denotes some characteristic rather
than a single act or feeling: veré-cundus, diffident.
2. Dus retains the simple meaning of the verb.
3. Bilis, tilis, silis, and lis denote CAPABILITY, generally in a passive
sense: amäbilis, capable or worthy of being loved; sometimes in an active
sense: terribilis, terrible, capable of producing terror.
1 See p. 158, foot-note 6.
* Bundus is explained by Corssen and others as formed by appending undus, endus,
the Gerundive suffix, to bu = fu, as seen in fuž; cundus, by adding the same suffix to
co (ka, 320); see Corssen, II, pp. 310-312. On dus, see Corssen, II., pp. 302, 308; on
lis, see ra, la, 320; and on bilis, 320, foot-note 1; also Corssen, I., pp. 166–169; on tilis
and Silis, Corssen, II., pp. 41, 826. The ending da; = &-c-8 is for d-co-s, in which & was
originally the stem-vowel of an ā-verb: thus plign-à-co-8 becomes pilgné-cs, pºignäa.
* Flec-silis = flect-tilis; see 35, 3, 2).
VERBS. - 169
4. Ax denotes INCLINATION, generally a faulty one: loquàz, loquacious.
5. Cus, icus, iicus, vus, ulus, ivus, tivus, ticius, ius, and ulus" also
OCCUII .
Medi-cus, ‘healing,’ ‘medical,’ from meda-ri, “to heal’; am-icus, “friend-
ly,’ from am-āre, “to love’; cad-àcus, “falling,” “inclined to fall,’ from cad-
ere, ‘to fall'; sal-vus, ‘safe,” from root sal, ‘whole,” “sound”; noc-uus and
moc—ious, ‘hurtful,” from noc-Ére, ‘to hurt’; cap-tivus, ‘captive,” from cap-ere,
‘to take ’; ficticius, for fig-ticius, ‘feigned,’ from fig, the root offing-ere, ‘to
form,’ ‘fashion,’ ‘feign”; eacłm-ius, ‘select,” “choice,” from exºn-ere, ‘to
select out”; crèd-ulus, ‘credulous,’ from créd-ere, ‘to believe.”
6. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Lúdi-bundus, ‘sportive,’ ‘playful,” from lilde-re, ‘to play”; ridi-bundus,
‘laughing,’ from ride-re, “to laugh’; fi-cundus, ‘eloquent,’ from fă-ri, “to
speak”; jū-cundus, for juv-cundus, ‘pleasant,’ from juv-àré, “to aid,” “de-
light”; avi-dus, ‘greedy,’ from avé-re, “to long for’; cupi-dus, ‘ desirous,’
from cupe-re, ‘to desire’; timi-dus, ‘timid,” from timé-re, ‘to fear’; faci-lès,
“easy,’ ‘capable of being done,’ from face-re, ‘to do”; nübi-lis, “marriage-
able,” from niºbe-re, “to marry’; ité-lis, “useful,” from ità, “to use”; crédi-
bilis, ‘credible,” from crède-re, ‘to believe’; terri-bilis, “terrible,” from terré-
ze, “to terrify”; laudā-bilis, “praiseworthy,' from laudā-re, “to praise'; fer-
tilis, “fertile,” from fer-re, ‘to bear”; cap-àc, ‘capacious,’ from cap-ere, ‘to
take’; ten-āa, “tenacious,’ from ten-ère, ‘to hold.”
IV. ADJECTIVES FROM ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
334. A few adjectives are formed from adverbs and preposi-
tions : *
crås-tinus, of to-morrow, from crås, to-77.07%"O70.
contrā-rius contra?" {{ COntrå against.
* j º º/, & * > y 9 g g
inter-nus, internal, { inter, among, within.
super-bus, haughty, {{ Super, above.
Super-nus, ºpper, {{ {{ {{
E OR MIATION OF W E R B S BY SU FIFIXES.
I. VERBS FROM Nouns AND ADJECTIVES.
335. Verbs formed from nouns and adjectives are called DE-
NOMINATIVES. They end in—
CoNJ. I. CONJ. II. CONJ. III. CoNJ. IV.
Ö, a-re, eó, é-re, uð, ue-re,” io, i-re.*
* Vus, wus, and 7-vus are only different forms of the same suffix; wus was formed by
vocalizing v in ous; 7-vus, by adding vus to the stem-vowel 7; noc-à-vus, as if from a
verb, noc-ire = 'noc-Ére. The other endings are composed of elements already explained.
2. But adverbs and prepositions are in origin case-forms; see 304; 307, note 1.
S Conjugation III. contains primitive verbs with a few derivatives.
4. According to Curtius and others, the suffix which was added to the stems of nouns
and adjectives to form verbs was originally ja, pronounced ya, probably identical with ,
8
170 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
cür-ö, à-re, to care for, from cir-a, CQ.3°6.
fug-Ö, à-re, to put to flight, {{ fug-a, flight.
pügn-Ö, 3-re, to fight, {{ pügn-a, battle.
bell-ć, ã-re, to carry on war, {{ bell-um, 2007".
dön-Ö, à-re, to give, {{ dön-um, gift.
firm-Ö, à-re, to make firm, {{ firm-us, firm.
labór-6, a-re, to labor, * { labor, labor.
liber-Ü, à-re, to liberate, {{ liber, free.
nömin-Ö, a-re, to name, {{ nómen, 726.7726.
alb-eô, ë-re, to be white, {{ alb-us, white.
clár-Ö, ā-re, to make bright, {{ clár-us, bright.
clár-eč, ć-re, to be bright, {{ {{ {{
flör-eó, ē-re, to bloom, {{ flös, flower.
lüc-eô, ē-re, to Shine, {{ lüx=lüc-s, light.
met-uð, ue-re, to fear, {{ met-us, fear.
Stat-uð, ue-re, to place, {{ Stat-us, position.
fin-iö, I-re, to finish, & 4 fin-is, end.
moll-iö, I-re, to soften, {{ moll-is, Soft.
věst-iö, I-re, to clothe, - {{ věst-is, garment.
serv-iö, i-re, to serve, {{ Serv-us, Servant.
cüstöd-iö, I-re, to guard, {{ cústös, guardian.
NOTE 1.-Denominatives of the second conjugation are intransitive, but most of the
others are transitive. -
NoTE 2.-Derivatives, like other verbs, may of course be deponent: dominor, dri, “to
domineer,” from dominus, “master”; miror, diri, “to wonder at, from mirus, “wonder-
ful"; partior, iri, “to part,” “divide,' from pars, partis, “part.”
1. OTHER ExAMPLEs are—
Culp-àre, ‘to find fault,' from culp-a, ‘fault’; glóri-ārī, ‘to boast,’ ‘glory,’
from glóri-a, “glory’; now-àre, “to make new,” from novus, ‘new’; régn-áre,
‘to reign,” from regnum, “royal power’; lev-āre, “to lighten,' from levis,
“light”; honor-àre, ‘to honor,” from honor, ‘honor'; laud-āre, “to praise,’
from laus = laud-8, ‘praise ’; Saev-ire, ‘to be fierce,” from saevus, “fierce.”
the root of 7-re, “to go.” This suffix added to a, the original stem-vowel of most nouns
and adjectives, formed a-ja, still preserved in the ending affä-mi in a large class of San-
skrit verbs. From this compound suffix affa are derived in Latin, in the first conjuga-
tion, (1) ad, contracted to 0: căr-ö = cir-ajö for cir-a0 for cººr-affa; (2) & cūr-à-s,
shortened to a in cir-a-t for cir-à-t;—in the second conjugation, (1) ed: Züc-ed for lüc-
ejö for lüc-affa ; (2) é: Züc-à-8, shortened to e in Züc-e-t for lüc-É-t; and in the fourth
conjugation, (1) iO and iw: Serv-io for serv-jö for serv-aja, serv-iu-nt for Serv-iju-nt
for Serv-aju-nt; and (2) 7: serv-7-s, shortened to £ in Serv-i-t for Serv-à-t; see Bopp, I.,
pp. 207–229; Curtius, Verbum, I., pp. 292, 826–348; Schleicher, pp. 358–861. For an ob-
jection to this explanation of the a-verbs, see Corssen, II., pp. 733–736.-On final Ó of the
first person, see 247, 1, foot-note 5.-The suffix ffa, added to original i-8tems, formed ija
and gave rise to i-verbs: finio = fin-i-jo = fin-ija; and added to u-stems, it formed
wºja and gave rise to w-verbs: met-w6 = met-wºffo = met-uja.-In general, a stems give
rise to a-verbs: căr-a, cir-à-re; o-Stems, sometimes to a-verbs, sometimes to e-verbs,
and sometimes to i-verbs: firmus, stem firmo, firm-à-re; albus, stem alb-o, alb-ê-re;
8ervus, stem serv-o, serv-7-re; consonant stems, to a verbs, e-verbs, or i-verbs, after the
analogy of vowel stems: labor for Zabór, labór-à-re; flès, flöp-à-re for flös-à-re (31, 1);
Custós, stem custód, custód-î-re.
VERBS, 171
II. VERBS FROM VERBS.”
336. FREQUENTATIVEs or INTENSIVES denote repeated, CO%)-
tinued, or intense action. They are generally of the first conjuga-
tion, and are formed—
I. From the stem of the participle” in tus or sus:
cant-ö, äre, to sing, from cantus from canó, to sing.”
capt-0, are, to snatch, “ captus “ capið, to take.
dat-ö, äre, to give often, “ datus “ do, to give.
habit-ö, äre, to inhabit, “. . . habitus “ habeó, to have.
quass-Ö, äre, to shake violently, “ quassus “ quatiá, to shake.
territ-ö, äre, to frighten often, “ territus “ terred, to frighten.
II. From the present stem, by adding to and changing the preceding
vowel to i, if not already in that form : *
agi-tó, are, to shake, from agö, to move, lead.
clámi-tó, are, to shout often, {{ clámö, to shout.
rogi-tö, äre, to ask eagerly, Cé rogö, to ask.
voci-tö, äre, to call often, {{ vocò, to call.
voli-tó, are, to flit about, ( & voló, to fly.
NoTE 1.—Frequentatives are sometimes formed from other frequentatives: * cantito,
‘to sing often,” from cantò from cand; dictito, “to say often,' from dictſ, from dico.
NoTE 2.—A few derivatives in essú and is80 also occur. They are intensive in force,
denoting earnest rather than repeated action, and are of the third conjugation: faciò,
JaceS80, “to do earnestly"; incipio, incipissú, “to begin eagerly.”
1. OTHER ExAMPLEs are— &
Dictó, “to say often,” from dicò, “to say’; specto, “to behold,” from speció,
“to look at'; factitó, ‘to do often,” from fació, “to do,” “make'; imperità,
‘to command often,” from impérô, ‘to command”; raptó, “to snatch,” from
7-apio, “to seize.”
337. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES denote the beginning of the
action. They are of the third conjugation, and end in sco :
* Either directly or through the medium of nouns, adjectives, or participles.
* They are thus strictly denominatives (335). Intransitive verbs, though without
the participle in tus or sus, may form frequentatives after the analogy of transitive
verbs: curso, äre, “to run about,' formed as if from cursus from currö, “to run"; ven-
titó, dre, ‘to come often,' formed as if from ventus, from venid, ‘to come.”
* Remember that the stem of the participle ends in of thus cantus = canto-8. Ob-
serve, therefore, that the verb canto, ‘I sing,” is in form like the stem of the participle,
Cantù was, however, originally produced by adding ja to camta, the original stem of
camţus, making canta-ja, cantajö, cantao, cantö, See also 335, foot-note.
* The formation from the participle was doubtless the original method, but at length
to was regarded as the suffix, and was accordingly added to present stems, and as in many
cases i. preceded, the stom vowel finally tuuk this ſorul before the suffix tê; see Corssen,
II., p. 297. -
* Sometimes from frequentatives no longer in use: âctito, “to act often, as if from
dicto, not in use, from ago; Scriptito, “to write often,' as if from Scripto, not in use,
from Scribd.
172 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
gel-ā-Scö, to begin to freeze, from gel-6, ā-re, to freeze.
cal-e-Scö, to become warm, {{ cal-eô, ë-re, to be warm.
rub-ê-scó, to grow red, {{ rub-ed, ē-re, to be red.
vir-e-scö, to grow green, “. . vir-ed, ë-re, to be green.
trem-i-Scó, to begin to tremble, {{ trem-Ö, e-re, to tremble.
obdorm-i-Scó, to fall asleep, {{ obdorm-iö, I-re, to sleep.
338. DESIDERATIVES denote a desire to perform the action.
They are of the fourth conjugation, and end in turio or surio:
par-turió, Ire, to strive to bring forth, from parió, to bring forth.
é-surió, Ire, to desire to cat, ( * edó, to eat.”
339. DIMINUTIVEs denote a feeble action.” They are of the first
conjugation, and end in illö:
cant-illó, to sing feebly, from cantó, to sing.
cönscrib-illö, to scribble, {{ cönscribö, to write.
NoTE.—For the DERIVATION of ADVEEBs, see 304.
SECTION III.
COMPOSITION OF VVORDS.
340. New words may be formed—
I. By the union of two or more words under one principal accent,
without change of meaning: -
Jºës pūblica, respitblica, republic ; agri cultúra, agricultúra, agriculture ;
jūris consultus, jūriscón Sultus, lawyer, one skilled in the law ; quem ad mo–
dum, quemadmodum, in what way—lit., to what measure.
NotE.—These are compounds only in form. The separate words retain in a great
measure their identity both in form and in meaning, and may in fact be written separately.
I?és pūblica is the approved form. Other examples of this class are: légis-lātor, law-
giver; pater-familiás, father of a family: semātūs-consultwm, decree of the senate; hd.c-
tenus, thus far; saepe-numeró, often in number; bene-faciò, to do well, benefit; male-
dico, to revile; satis-facià, to satisfy, do enough for; animwm-ad-vertö, anim-ad-verto,
to notice, turn the mind to.
II. By prefixing an indeclinable particle to an inflected word,
generally with some change of meaning:
Ad-sum, to be present ; dé-până, to lay down ; re-pónó, to replace ; 3-discò,
to learn by heart; im–memor, unmindful ; per-facilis, very easy ; prä-cönsul,
1 These are the only desideratives in common use, but a few others occur: cénd-turió,
‘to desire to dine, from cémö, ‘to dine"; ámp-turið, ‘to desire to purchase, from emo,
‘to purchase”; nüp-turid, “to desire to marry,' from nºbo, “to marry.' They were prob-
ably formed originally through the medium of a verbal noun in tor or sor (326, foot-note
2): thus, cºnö, cèná-tor, “one who dines’; cénd-for-i-re = cană-tur-i-re (o changed to
w), ‘to desire to dine"; emo, &mp-tor, ‘a purchaser'; Émp-tor-ire = €mp-twr-?-?"e, “to
desire to purchase.”
* Probably denominatives formed from verb-stems through diminutive verbal nouns.
NO UNS. 173
proconsul, one acting for a consul; inter-régnum, interregnum, an interval
between two reigns.
III. By uniting two or more simple stems or roots, and adding
appropriate inflectional suffixes when needed:*
Igni-color," fire-colored; grandi-aeco-s, grand-aevus, a, um, of great age;
omni-potent-s, omnipotens, omnipotent; magno-animo-s, magnanimus, a, um,
great-souled; tub?-cen, trumpeter; arti-fec-s, artifex, artificer; alio-quº, ali-
quis,” any one.
1. In the first element of the compound observe—
1) That the stem-vowel generally takes the form of ; ; capro-corno-s,
capri-cornus ; tuba-cen, tubi-cen.
2) That consonant stems sometimes assume i : honár-à-ftco-s, honērāficus,
a, Atºm, honorable.
3) That the stem-vowel disappears before another vowel: mágno-animºus,
7mágnanºmºus.
2. The stem-ending and the inflectional ending of the second element
generally remain unchanged in the compound; see examples above. But
Observe—
1) That they are sometimes slightly changed: aequo-nocti, aequi-noctio—m,3
aequºnoctivm, equinox; multa-forma, multi-formis, with many forms.
2) That a verbal root or stem may be the second element in a compound
noun or adjective : tubi-cen (cen = can, the root of canã, to sing), trumpeter;
lèti-fer (fer, root of ferð, to bear), death-bearing.
NoTE.—The words classed under II. and III. are regarded as real compounds, but
those under III. best illustrate the distinctive characteristics of genuine compounds, as .
they are formed from compound stems and have a meaning which could not be expressed
by the separate words. Thus, māgnus animws means a great soul, but magnanimus
means having a great Soul.4
341. In CoMPOUND Nou Ns, the first part is generally the stem
of a noun or adjective, sometimes an adverb or preposition; and
the Second part is the stem of a noun, or a stem from a verbal root:
arti-fex, artist, from arti-fac in ars and fació.
capri-cornus, capricorn, {{ capro-cornu “ caper “ cornu.
aequi-noctium, equinox, “ aequo-nocti “ aequus “ nox.
në-mö, nobody, “ ne-homon “ ně “ homó.
prê-nómen, pronown, “ pro-nómen “ pro “ nomen.
* Thus igni-color is formed by the union of two stems without inflectional suffix;
but in grand-aevu-s, the suffix s is added to the stem grandaevă, compounded of grand?
and aevij.
* Literally, any other one.
* Ti, the stem-ending of noa, becomes tiã, to which is added the nominative-ending m.
* Class II. occupies a position intermediate between I. and III. Some compounds
of particles with verbs, for example, have developed a meaning quite distinct from that
denoted by the separate parts, while others have simply retained the ordinary meaning
of those parts.
174. composſTION OF WORDS.
1. CoMPOUNDs in ex, dex, fex, cen, cida, and cola deserve special
notice:
J'émo-ex, rémec,” oarsman ; jūs-deſc, jūdea, judge ; art?:few, artist ; tābia-
cen, tibi-cen,” flute-player; homon-cida, homi-cida,” manslayer; agri-cola,”
husbandman, one who tills the soil.
NotE.—Eac (for ag-s) is from the root ag in ago, to drive, impel; dea, (for dic-8),
from dic in dicò, to make known; fear (for fac-s), from fac in fació, to make; cen, from
can in cano, to sing; cida (for caed-a), from caed in caedo, to cut, Slay; cola (for col-a),
from col in colò, to cultivate.
º'
342. In CoMPOUND ADJECTIVEs, the first part is generally the
stem of a noun or adjective, sometimes an adverb or preposition;
and the second is the stem of a noun or adjective, or a stem from
a verbal root:
léti-fer, death-bearing, from léti-fer in létum and ferö.
māgn-animus, magnanimous, “ mágno-animo “ māgnus “ animus.
per-facilis, very easy, “ per-facili “ per “ facilis.
1. Compounds in ceps, fer, ger, dicus, ficus, and volus deserve
notice:
Parti-ceps, taking part; auri-fer, gold-bearing ; armi-ger, carrying arms;
fiti-dicus, predicting fate; mir?-ficus, causing wonder; bene-volus, well-
wishing.
NoTE.—Ceps (for cap-s) is from the root cap in capio, to take; fer, from fer in ferð,
to bear; ger, from ger in gerð, to carry; dicus (for dic-o-8), from dic in dico, to make
known; ſicus (for fac-o-s), from fac in faciò, to make; volus (for vol-o-8), from vol in
oolö, to wish. -
343. CoMPOUND Nou NS and ADJECTIVEs are divided according
to signification into three classes:
I. DETERMINATIVE CoMPounds, in which the second part is qualified by
the first :
Inter-rée, interrex ; meri-dies, midday ; bene-volus, well-wishing; per-
mágnus, very great ; in-digmºus, unworthy. -
II. OBJECTIVE CoMPounds, in which the second part is limited by the
first as object:
Prin-ceps, taking the first place ; belli-ger, waging war; jū-dea, judge,
one who dispenses (makes known) justice ; hom?-cida, one who slays a man;
agri-cola, one who tills the field. See other examples in 342, 1.
III. PossESSIVE CoMPounDs, in origin mostly adjectives. They desig-
1 O is dropped in rêmea, and 8 in jūdea: ; see 27; 36, 3, note 3.
* A, weakened to i, unites with the preceding i, forming 7.
S W dropped, and o weakened to i ; see 36, 3, note 3.
4 The stem-vowel o of agro is weakened to i : agri; see 22.
5 From medius and diēs.
TVERBS. 175
nate qualities or attributes as possessed by some person or thing, and are
often best rendered by supplying having or possessing:
Aemi-pês, having bronze feet; 1 celeri-pes, swift-footed; ſili-pes, wing-foot-
ed, having wings for feet ; mágn-animºus, having a great Soul; in-animus,
having one mind; long-aevus, of great age, having a long life.
344. CoMPOUND VERBs.-Verbs in general are compounded
only with prepositions, originally adverbs:*
Ab-eô, to go away; ea:-eô, to go out; präd-eô, to go forth; con-voco, to call
together; dé-cidó, to fall off; prae-dācā, to foretell; re-dûcó, to lead back;
ve-fició, to repair, to make anew.”
1. Fació and fió may also unite with verbal stems in e :
Cale-fació, to make warm ; cale-fió, to be made warm, become warm ;
läbe-fació, to cause to totter; pate-fació, to open, cause to be open.
2. Verbs are often united with other words in writing without strictly
forming compounds: -
Mani, mittö or manić-mittö, to emancipate, let go from the hand; satis
fació or satis-fació, to satisfy, do enough for ; animum ad-vertö or anim-ad-
verto, to notice, turn the mind to.
3. Verbs in fico and facto, like the following, are best explained not
as compounds but as denominatives: *
Aedifico, to build, from aedifex, º amplifică,4 to enlarge ; cale:factâ, to
make warm, from cale-factus.
4. Werbs compounded with prepositions often undergo certain vowel-
changes:
1) Short a and e generally become i : habed, ad-hibed; tened, con-tineø. But a
sometimes becomes e or w; carpo, dē-cerp0; calcó, con-culco.
2) Ae becomes 7 : caedo, in-cidó.
3) Aw generally becomes 6 or à: plaudö, eac-plodó, clawdd, in-clizdó.
5. FoEM AND MEANING OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.—The following
facts are added for reference: -
A, ab, abs.-1. ForM : á before m and v, and sometimes before f ; abs
before c, q, t, and, with the loss of b, also before p 5; aw in au-feró and aw–
fugid, ab before the other consonants, and before vowels.-2. MEANING:
(1) “away,” “off”; d-mitto, to send away; abs-condó, to hide away; as-portó,
* Observe the force of the compound. Aenus pés means a brazen foot, but aeni-pé8
means having brazen feet; see also 340, III., note.
* The words thus formed are strictly compounds of verbs with adverbs, as the origi-
nal type of these compounds was formed before the adverb became a preposition.
* Observe in these examples the strict adverbial use of the particles ab, 6a, etc., away,
out, etc. Prepositions, on the other hand, always denote relations, and are awaziliary
to the case-endings; see 307, foot-note.
* In some of these the primitive is not found in actual use.
* As ab&-pelló, as-pelló, to drive away.
176 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.
to carry off; au-fugið, to flee away; ab–sum, to be away; ab-ê0, to go away;
abºjició or ab-êció, to throw away; (2) in adjectives, generally negative :
d-mêns, without mind, frantic; ab–Similis, unlike.
Ad.—1. FoEM : ad before vowels, and before b, d, f, h, j, m, n, q, and v,
sometimes before g, Z, r, and s, rarely before p and #; d. assimilated before
c, generally before p and t, and sometimes before g, \, q, r, and 8, gener-
ally dropped before gn, sc, sp, and st.”—2. MEANING: ‘to,’ ‘toward,” “to
one's self”; “on,’ ‘at,” “near,” “by”; “besides’: ad-dûcö, to lead to; ac-cidó,
to fall to, happen; ad-moved, to move toward; ac-cipið, to receive, take to
one's self; ac-cingö, to gird on ; ad-latrö or al-latrö, to bark at ; ad-sum,
to be present or near ; ad-Stö or a-stö, to stand near, to stand by ; ad-discó,
to learn besides.
Ante.—1. FoEM : unchanged except in anti-cipó, ‘to take beforehand,’
and in composition with Stö ante-Stö or anti-Stö, to stand before.—2. MEAN-
ING: ‘before,’ ‘beforehand’: ante-currö, to run before; ante-habed, to prefer
—lit., to have or hold before.
Circum.—1. FoEM : generally unchanged, but m is sometimes dropped
in compounds of e5, to go : circum-eô or circu-eô, to go around. —2. MEAN-
ING: “around,’ ‘about ': circum-mättö, to send around.
Com.9—1. ForM: com before b, m, p ; co before vowels,” h, and gn ; 5 con
or col before l; cor before r ; con before the other consonants.-2. MEAN-
ING: (1) “together,” “with,” in various senses: com-bibó, to drink together;
com-mittö, to let go together; co-ed, to go together; col-loquor, to talk with:
cön-fligö, to contend with ; (2) “completely," “thoroughly’ : căn-ficio, to com-
plete, make completely; con-citó, to rouse thoroughly ; cffn-Sümö, to con-
sume, take wholly; con-densus, very dense.
E, ex.-1. ForM: ez before vowels and before c, h, p, q, s, t, and with
assimilation before f ; 8 & before the other consonants.”—2. MEANING: (1)
“out,’ ‘forth,’ ‘without,' implying ‘freedom from?: ex-ed, to go out, go forth;
ex-cidó, to fall out; 3-do, to put forth ; ex-Sanguis, without blood, bloodless;
er-onero, to unload, disburden; (2) “thoroughly,’ ‘completely,’ ‘successful-
ly’: eac-àrà, to burn up ; 3-discö, to learn by heart; effició, to effect, do Sue-
cessfully; 3-dārus, very hard.
In.—1. FoEM : n sometimes assimilated before l, often before m 10 and r,
1 See foot-note 1, p. 20.
3 Sometimes retained : ad-gnöscó or ā-gnóscó, ad-stö or a-Stö.
3 An earlier form for Cu/m.
4. A contraction often takes place: co-agö, có-gö. Com is sometimes retained before
'e or i, and co or con is used before i = ji: com-edo, com-itor, co-ició or con-icio=
con-fició or con-ffició; see foot-note 1, p. 20.
5 C5 also appears in có-necto, có-nāved, có-nitor, and có-nābium.
& But 3-pâto and 3-pôtus; eac-scendo or é-scendo. -
7 Sis sometimes dropped after a ea’specto or ea-pecto.
8 Obefore f is not recommended; efferø is better than ecºferö.
9 But eac-Zéac. -
10 Im is the approved form before b, p, and m, especially in im-perätor, im-pérô, and
&m-periwin. - -
PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 177
often changed to m before b and p, in other situations unchanged.—2. MEAN-
ING : “in,’ ‘into,” “on,’ ‘at,’ ‘against ': čn-colo, to dwell in ; in-eč, to go
into ; im–migró, to move into ; in-nitor, to lean on ; in-tweor, to look at ;
3r-rided, to laugh at ; im-pâgnó, to fight against.
Inter.—1. FoRM : unchanged, except in intel-legö, to understand.—2.
MEANING: ‘between,” sometimes involving interruption,” “together’: inter-
venió, to come between, intervene ; inter-dico, to forbid, interdict; inter-
7vecto, to tie together.
Ob.—1. FoEM : 5 assimilated before c, f, g, and p; dropped in o—mittö,
to omit, and in opérô, to cover; in other situations generally unchanged.”—
2. MEANING: (1) “before,” “in the way,’ ‘toward,” “against,” especially of an
obstruction or opposition : offerö, to bring before; ob-stö, to stand in the way;
oc-curró, to run toward, run to meet; op-piègnó, to attack, fight against; (2)
‘down,’ ‘completely': oc-cido, to cut down, kill; op—primo, to press down,
to overwhelm.
Per.—1. ForM: generally unchanged, but r is sometimes assimilated be-
fore 7,8 and is dropped before j in compounds of jūró, as pè-jerö,4 to swear
falsely.—2. MEANING: ‘through,’ ‘thoroughly,” sometimes in a bad sense with
the idea of breaking through, disregarding : per-legö, to read through; per-
discó, to learn thoroughly ; per-fidus, perfidious, breaking faith.
Post.—1. ForM : unchanged, except in pá-mérium, the open space on
either side of the city-wall, and pås-meridiánus,” of the afternoon.—2. MEAN-
ING: “after,’ ‘behind”: post-habed, to place after, have after, esteem less.
Prö, prüd.—1. Formſ: prá is the usual form, both before vowels and
before consonants; präd, the original form, is retained in a few words before
vowels.”—2. MEANING: ‘forth,’ ‘forward,’ ‘before,” “for”: präd-ed, to go
forth or forward; prä-curró, to run forward; prä-pigmö, to fight in front of,
fight for; pro-hibed, to hold aloof, i. e., out of one's reach, hence to prohibit;
prô-mättö, to send forth, to hold out as a promise, to promise.
Sub.-1. FoEM ; b assimilated before c, f, g, and p, and often before m
and r, dropped before sp; in other situations unchanged. The form Subs,
shortened to sus, occurs in a few words: Sus-cipio, sus-pendö.—2. MEANING:
‘under,’ ‘down,’ ‘from under,’ ‘up’; ‘in place of,’ ‘secretly'; ‘somewhat,’
“slightly ’: 7 Sub-ed, to go under; sub-lābor, to slip down; sub-di.c5, to draw
from under, withdraw ; sus-cipio, to undertake; Sus-citó, to lift up, arouse ;
* It is used in several compounds referring to death: inter-ed, to die; inter-ficio,
to kill.
* Obs seems to occur in a few words: obs-olésco, os-tendo for obs-tendo (b dropped),
though these words are sometimes otherwise explained; thus ob-solésco, as a compound
of SoléScó from Soled, -
* As per-legö, pel-legö; per-licio, pel-licão, but per is preferable.
* For per-jūro.
* Post-meridiánus is also used; på-meridžānus is not approved, though it occurs.
* As in prād-ed, prād-igö, prād-igus, and before e in the compound of sum : ſpräd-
€s, prād-est, etc. -
* Mostly in adjectives: sub-absurdus, somewhat absurd ; sub-dolus, somewhat crafty;
sub-impuděns, somewhat impudent; sub-invīsus, somewhat odious.
178 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.
sub-stitud, to put in place of, to substitute; sub-ripid, to take away secretly;
Sub-rided, to smile, laugh slightly; sub-difficilis, somewhat difficult.
Träns.—1. FoEM : it generally drops 8 before s, and it often drops ns
before d, j, l, m, n, it is otherwise unchanged.—2. MEANING: ‘across,”
‘through,’ ‘completely': tróns-currö, to run across; trä-dûcó, to lead across;
trán-silio, to leap across; tróns-igö, to transact; to finish, do completely or
thoroughly—lit., to drive through.
6. ForM AND MEANING OF THE INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.—The follow.
ing facts are added for reference:
Ambi, amb.”—1. FoEM : amb before vowels; ambi, am, or an, 3 before
consonants.-2. MEANING: “around,’ ‘ on both sides,” “in two directions”:
amb-iö,4 to go round; amb-igö, to act in two ways, move in different direc-
tions, to hesitate ; am-puto, to cut around or off; an-quiró, to search round.
Dis, di.—1. FoEM : dis beforec, p, q, t, before s followed by a vowel, and,
with assimilation, before,f, but dir for dis before a vowel or h; d. in most
other situations; but both dis and di occur before j.5–2. MEANING: “apart,”
‘asunder,’ & ‘between,” sometimes negative 7 and sometimes intensive : dis-
timed, to hold apart; di-dûcó, to lead apart, divide ; diffugio, to flee asunder,
or in different directions; dir-imó, to take in pieces, destroy; dis-sentio, to
think differently, dissent; di-jūdicó, to judge between; dis-plice0, to dis-
please, not to please; difficilis, difficult, not easy; di-lawdd, to praise highly.
In.-1. ForM : n dropped before gn ; otherwise like the preposition in.
—2. MEANING: ‘not,” “un’: 7-gnóscó, not to know, not to recollect, to par-
don; im–memor, unmindful ; in-imicus, unfriendly.
Por, for port.8–1. FoEM : r assimilated before l and s, in other situa-
tions, por.—2. MEANING: ‘forth,’ ‘forward,” “near’: pol-liceor, to hold forth,
offer, promise; pos-sided, to possess; ” por-rigð, to hold out or forth, to offer.
Red, re.—1. FoEM : red before vowels, before h, and in red-do; re in
other situations.—2. MEANING: * back,” “again,” “in return”: it red-ed, to go
back; re-fició, to repair, make again ; red-amū, to love in return.
Sèd, 11 se.—1. FoEM : Séd before vowels; Sé before consonants.-2. MEAN-
ING: “apart,” “aside’: 8é-Cèdó, to go apart, secede; Sé-pömö, to put aside or apart.
NoTE.—For the Composition of Adverbs, see 304, I., 2; 304, II., 1, note;
364, IV., note 2.
1 Or before i = j or ji; see foot-note 1, p. 20.
* Compare ambó, both, and &pſpí, around, on both sides.
* An before c, g, f, and #.
4 For a mºb-eô.
* Dis-jung6, di-jūdicò.
* Both literally ‘apart” in respect to place or position, and figuratively ‘apart” in
sentiment or opinion. *
7 Especially in adjectives: dis-par, unequal; dis-Similis, unlike.
* Greek tropri, trport, trpós, to, toward; see Curtius, 381.
* To sit near and so to control.
1% Sometimes negative, not, wrº-: re-sign0, to unseal; re-clido, to open.
* Probably an old ablative of sui and identical with sed, but,
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 179
PART THIRD,
S Y IN T A DK .
C EIA PT E R I.
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
I. C. L. A. S S I FI CAT I O N OF SE IN T E N C E S.
345. SYNTAx treats of the construction of sentences.
346. A sentence is a combination of words expressing either a
single thought or two or more thoughts.
347. A SIMPLE SENTENCE expresses a single thought:
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God made (built) the world. Cic.
348. A COMPLEx SENTENCE expresses one leading thought with
one or more dependent thoughts:
Dönec eris félix, multös numeräbis amicós, so long as you shall be prosper-
ow8, ſow will number many friends. Ovid.
NOTE 1.-In this example two simple sentences—(1) “you will be prosperous, and
(2) “vow will number many friends"—are so united that the first only specifies the time
of the Second: You will number many friends (when Ž), so long as you shall be pros-
perous. The parts thus united are called Clauses or Members.
NOTE: 2–The part of the complex sentence which makes complete sense of itself—
7multö8 numerábis amicós—is called the Principal or Independent Clause; and the
part which is dependent upon it—donec eris félia:—is called the Subordinate or De-
2967vdent Clause.
349. A CoMPOUND SENTENCE expresses two or more independ-
ent thoughts:
Söl ruit et montës umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting and the moun-
tains are shaded. Verg.
350. A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE has the form of an assertion:
Miltiadès accusátus est, Miltiades was accused. Nep.
351. An INTERRoGATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a ques-
tion:
Quis loguitur, who speaks & Ter. Quis non paupertätem extiméscit,
who does not fear poverty? Cic. Quid ais, what do you say? Ter. Ec-
180 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
quid animadvertis silentium, do you not notice the silence? Cic. Quâlis est
Orätiö, what kind of an oration is it? Cic. Quot sunt, how many are there?
Plaut. Ubi sunt, where are they & Cie. Ubinam gentium sumus, where in
the world are we? Cic. Visne fortúnam experiri mean, do you wish to try
my fortune 3 Cic. Nönne nobilitäri volunt, do they not wish to be renowned 3
Cic. Num igitur peccamus, are we then at fault 2 Cic.
1. INTERROGATIVE WoRDs.—Interrogative sentences generally contain some
interrogative word—either an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or
one of the interrogative particles: 2 -ne, nänne, num; see examples above.
NotE 1.—Questions with -me ask for information: Scribitne, ‘is he writing?” Ne
is sometimes appended to utrum, num, or an, without affecting their meaning, and some-
times inserted in the clause after attrºm
Numne ferre arma débuðrunt, ought they to have borne arms ? Cic. Utrum tace-
amne, an praedicem, shall I be silent, or shall I speak: ; Ter.
NotE 2.—Questions with mónne expect the answer yes: Nönne scribit, “is he not
writing?”
NOTE 8.—Questions with num expect the answer mo: Wum scribit, “is he writing?”
NOTE 4.—For questions with am, see 353, note 4.
2. The particle -né is always appended to some other word, generally to
the emphatic word of the sentence, i. e., to the word upon which the ques-
tion especially turns; appended to món, it forms nônne :
Visne experiri, do you wish to try # Cic. Túne id veritus es, did YoU fear this 2
Cic. Omnisne pectinia Solūta est, has ALL the money been paid 2 Cic. Höcinest
(= hècine est8) officium patris, is THIS the duty of a father f Ter. Unquamme widisti,
have you EveR seen f Cic. Wönne volunt, do they Not wish f Cic.
3. Sometimes no interrogative word is used, especially in impassioned
discourse :
Créditis, do you believe # Werg. Ego nãn poteró, shall I not be able # Cic.
4. An emphatic tandem, meaning indeed, pray, then, often occurs in inter-
rogative sentences:
Quod genus tandem est istud glóriae, what kind of glory is that, pray ? Cic.
NOTE 1.-Nam, appended to an interrogative, also adds emphasis:
Numnam haec audiwit, did he hear this, pray ? Ter.
NoTE 2.—For Two Interrogatives in the same clause, and for an Interrogative with
tantus, see 454, 3 and 4.
352. ANSWERS.—Instead of replying to a question of fact with
a simple particle meaning yes or no, the Latin usually repeats the
verb or some emphatic word, often with prärsus, vérô, and the like,
or if negative, with nån .
Dixitne causam, did he state the cause & Dixit, he stated it. Cic. Pos-
sumusne tüti esse, can we be safe? Nön possumus, we can not. Cic.
* Ecquid, though the neuter accusative of an interrogative pronoun, has become in
effect a mere particle with the force of nônne.
* See 311, 8, foot-note.
8 See 27, note.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 181
NoTE 1.—Sometimes the simple particle is used—affirmatively, 83 m3, etiam, ita, vårö,
certé, etc.; negatively, män, minimé, etc.
Wönitne, has he come f Nön, no. Plaut.
NoTE 2.—Sometimes, without an actual repetition of the emphatic word, some equi-
valent expression is used :
Tuam véstem détraxit tibi, did he strip off your coat f Factum, he did—lit., done,
for it was done. Ter.
353. DoubDE or DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS offer a choice or alter-
native, and generally take one of the following forms :
1. The first clause has utrum or -né, and the second an :
Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that your fault or ours ? Cic.
Römamne venió an hic maned, do I go to Rome, or do I remain here? Cic.
2. The first clause omits the particle, and the second has an, or anne :
floquaran sileam, shall I utter it, or keep silence? Verg. Gabinio dicam
anne Pompéić, to Gabčnius, shall I say, or to Pompey & Cic.
NOTE. 1.-Other forms are rare.1 -
NoTE 2.—Utrum sometimes stands before a disjunctive question with -ne in the first
clause and an in the Second:
Utrum, taceamne, an praedicem, which, shall I be silent, or shall I speak # Ter.
NoTE 3.−When the second clause is negative, the particle generally unites with the
negative, giving annön or necné:
Sunt haec tua verba necne, are these your words or not ? Cic.
NoTE 4.—By the omission of the first clause, the second often stands alone with an.
in the sense of or, implying a negative answer:
An höc timémus, or do we fear this # Liv.
NoTE 5.—Disjunctive questions sometimes have three or more members: *
Gabinió anne Pompéić an utrique, to Gabºnius, or Pompey, or both # Cic.
NotE 6.—Disjunctive questions inquire which alternative is true. These must be
distinguished—
1) From such single questions as inquire whether either alternative is true:
Sölem dicam aut lünam deum, Shall I call the sum or the moon a god? & Cic.
2) From two separate questions, introduced respectively by num, implying a negative
answer, and by am, implying an affirmative answer:
Num furis? an Itidis mé? are you mad # or do you not rather mock me & Hor.
354. An IMPERATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a command,
exhortation, or entreaty:
Jüstitiam cole, cultivate justice. Cic.
355. An ExCLAMATORY SENTENCE has the form of an exclama-
tion:
Reliquit quês virós, what men he has left / Cic.
* Thus, in Vergil, -ne occurs in both clauses, also -ne in the first with Seu in the sec-
Ond. In Horace, -ne occurs in the second clause with no particle in the first.
* Cicero, in his oration Pró Domū, xxii., 57, has a question of this kind extended to
eight clauses, the first introduced by utrum and each of the others by am.
* Observe that in this sense aut, not am, is used.
182 SYNTALY OF SENTENCES,
NoTE 1.—Many sentences introduced by interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or ad-
verbs may be so spoken as to become exclamatory:
Quibus gaudiis exsultäbis, in what joys will you easult / Cic.
NotE 2.—Some declarative and imperative sentences readily become exclamatory.
NoTE 3.—Exclamatory sentences are often elliptical.
II. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
356. The SIMPLE SENTENCE in its MosT SIMPLE FORM consists
of two distinct parts, expressed or implied:
1. The SUBJECT, or that of which it speaks;
2. The PREDICATE, or that which is said of the subject:
Cluílius moritur, Cluilius dies. Liv.
357. The SIMPLE SENTENCE in its MOST ExPANDED FORM con-
sists only of these same parts with their various modifiers:
In his castris Cluilius, Albānus réx, moritur, Cluilius, the Alban king,
dies in this camp.” Liv. -
1. The subject and predicate of a sentence are called the Principal or
Essential elements; their modifiers, the Subordinate elements.
2. The elements, whether principal or subordinate, may be either simple
or complex:
1) Simple, when not modified by other words; see 358.
2) Complex, when thus modified ; see 359.
358. The SIMPLE SUBJECT of a sentence must be a noun, a pro-
noun, or some word or words used as a noun: *
Rec décrévit, the king decreed. Nep. Ego scribo, I write. Cic. Ibam,
I was walking. Hor. Vicimus, we have conquered. Cic. Vided idem valet,
the word video has the same meaning. Quint.
359. The CoMPLEx SUBJECT consists of the simple subject with
its modifiers:
Populus Römänºus décrévit, the Roman people decreed. Cic. Clujlius réa.
moritur, Cluºlius THE KING dies. Liv. Rêx Rutulòrum, the king of THE
RUTULI. Liv. Liber dé officiis, the book on DUTIES. Cic.
NoTE 1.-The subject is thus modified—
1) By an ADJECTIVE: Populus Römânus.
2) By a Noun IN APPosLTION: Cluílius réa,
3) By a GENITIVE: Réx Rutulòrum.
4) By a Noun witH A PREPoSITION: Liber dé officiè8.
1 Here Clwālius is the subject, and moritur the predicate.
* Here Clwālius, Albánus réa, is the subject in its enlarged or modified form, and in
his castris moritur is the predicate in its enlarged or modified form. .
* A pronominal subject is always contained or implied in the personal ending. Thus
7m in Žba-m is a pronominal stem = ego, and is the true original subject of the verb. See
also 247; 368, 2, foot-notc.
FLEMENT'S OF SEWTENCES. 183
NoTE 2.—A noun or pronoun used to ea plain or identify another noun or pro-
noun denoting the same person or thing, is called an Appositive; as Clužlius réa’, ‘Clui-
lius the king.”
NoTE 3.--Any noun may be modified like the subject.
NOTE 4.—Sometimes adverbs occur as modifiers of nouns :
Nön ignārī sumus ante malórum, we are not ignorant of PAST misfortune8.
Werg.
36O. The SIMPLE PREDICATE must be either a verb, or the
copula sum with a noun or adjective:
Miltiadès est acciis&tus, Miltiades was ACCUSED. Nep. Tú es testis, you. ARE A
witnESS. Cic. Fortúna caeca est, fortune Is BLIND. Cic.
NotE 1.-Like sum, several other verbs sometimes unite with a noun or an adjective
to form the predicate; see 362, 2. A noun or an adjoctive thus used is called a Predi-
cate Wown or Predicate Adjective.
NoTE 2.—Sum with an adverb sometimes forms the predicate:
Omnia récte Sunt, all things are RIGHT. Cic.
361. The CoMPLEx PREDICATE consists of the simple predicate
with its modifiers:
Miltiadès Athénds liberăvit, Mſiltiades liberated ATHENs. Nep. Labòrì
student, they devote themselves To LABOR. Caes. Mé rogăvit sententiam, he
asked ME MY op1NION. Cic. Pöns iter hostibus dedit, the bridge furnished
A PASSAGE TO THE ENEMY. Liv. Bella féliciter gessit, he waged wars suc-
CESSFULLY. Cic. In his castris moritur, he dies (where?) IN THIS CAMP. Liv.
Vère convénère, they assembled (when ?) IN THE SPRING. Liv.
1. The Predicate, when a verb, is thus modified—
1) By an AccusATIVE: Athènás liberăvit.
2) By a DATIVE: Labòrì student.
3) By two ACCUSATIVES: Mé rogăvit sententiam.
4) By an ACCUSATIVE and a DATIVE: ſter hostibus dedit.
5) By an ADVERB : Feliciter gessit.
6) By an ADVERBIAL PHRASE: In his castris moritur.
NOTE: 1.-Still other modifiers occur with special predicates; see 406, 409, 410,
422.
NOTE 2.—No one predicate admits all the modifiers here given. Thus only transi-
tive verbs admit an Accusative (371); only intransitive verbs, a Dative alone (384, I.);
and only special verbs, two Accusatives (374).
2. A PREDICATE Noun is modified like the subject:
Haec virtùs omnium est régina virtùtum, this virtue is the queen OF ALL
VIRTUES. Cic. See also 359, notes 1 and 3.
3. A PREDICATE ADJECTIVE is modified—
1) By an ADVERB : Satis humilis est, he is suPFICIENTLY humble, Liv.
2) By an OBLIQUE CASE: Avidi laudis fuérunt, they were desirous of PRAISE.
Cic. Omni aetátī mors est communis, death is common. To EVERY AGE. Cie.
Digitſ sunt amºcutºff, they are worthy of FRIENDSHIP. Cic.
NOTE.-Any adjective may be modified like the predicate adjective:
Eques Römānus satis litterātus, a Roman knight sufficiently literary. Cic.
184 SYNTAX OF WO UVS.
CHAPTER II.
SY INTAX OF IN OTU IN S.
SECTION I.
A. G. R. E E M E N T O F N O U N S .
RULE I.-Predicate Nouns.
362. A noun predicated of another noun denoting the
same person or thing agrees with it in CASE:*
Brütus custós 3 libertătis fuit, Brutus was the GUARDIAN of liberty. Liv.
Servius rea, est déclirātus, Servius was declared KING. Liv. Orestem sé esse
dixit, he said that he was ORESTEs. Cic. See 360, note 1.
NOTE.-This rule applies also to nouns predicated of pronouns: 4
Ego Sum mºntius, I am a messenger. Liv.
1. A Predicate Noun with different forms for different genders must
agree in GENDER as well as in CASE:
Usus magister est, experience is AN INSTRUCTOR. Cic. Historia est ma-
gistra" (not magister), history is AN INSTRUCTRESS. Cic.
2. PREDICATE Nouns are most frequent with the following verbs:
1) With sum and a few intransitive verbs—avāda, exsisto, appared, and
the like:
Româ magnus Čvāserat, he had become (turned out) A GREAT MAN. Cic.
Exstitit vindex, libertătis, he became (stood forth) THE DEFENDER of liberty.
Cic. See also examples under the rule.
2) With Passive Verbs of appointing, making, naming, regarding, es-
teeming, and the like:
Servius réc est déclarātus, Servius was declared KING. Liv. Mundus civi-
tãs existimátur, the world is regarded as A STATE. Cic.
NOTE 1.—In the poets, Predicate Nouns are used with great freedom after verbs of a
great variety of significations. Thus with audžij = appellor:
Réa, audisti, you have been called KING; i.e., have heard yourself so called. IIor.
Ego divām incödö régina, I walk. As QUEEN of the gods. Werg.
* For convenience of reference, the Rules will be presented in a body on page 324.
* For Predicate Genitive, see 401.
* In these examples custós, réa, and Orestem are all predicate nouns, and agree in
case respectively with Brütws, Servius, and Sé (536).
* As all substantive pronouns have the construction of nouns; see 182.
* Observe that in 7sus magister est, the masculine form, magister, is used to agree
in gender with ºſsus; while in historia est magistra, the feminine form, magistra, is
used to agree in gender with historia.
A PPOSITIVES. 185
NOTE 2.-For Predicate Accusative, see 373, 1.
NoTE 3.−The Dative of the object for which (390), prā with the Ablative, and loco
or numerö (or in numeró) with the Genitive, are often kindred in force to Predicate
Nouns: hosti, prā hoste, loco hostis, numeró (or in numeró) hostium, “for an enemy,”
or ‘as an enemy”:
Fuit omnibus bonā, it was A BENEFIT (lit., FoR A BENEFIT) to all. Cic. Sicilia
nābis prā aerûriö fuit, Sicily was A TREASURY (FoR A TREASURY) for us. Cic. Quaes-
türi parentis locã fuit, he was A PARENT (lit., IN THE PLACE OF A PARENT) to the guestor.
Cic. Is tibi parentis numeró fuit, he was A PARENT to you. Cic. See also Predi-
cate Genitive, 401.
3. PREDICATE Nouns, are used not only with finite verbs, but also with
INFINITIVES and PARTICIPLES, and sometimes without verb or participle:
Déclarātus réa, Numa, Wºma having been declared KING. Liv. CanIniö
cºnsule, Canônius BEING CONSUL. Cic. See 431, also Orestem under the rule.
NoTE 1.-For a PREDICATE NoMINATIVE after the INFINITIVE esse, see 536, 2, 1).
NoTE 2.—For an INFINITIVE or a CLAUSE instead of a Predicate Noun; see 539; 501.
RULE II.-Appositives.
363. An Appositive agrees in CASE with the noun or
pronoun which it qualifies:
Cluílius réz moritur, Cluilius THE KING dies. Liv. Urbès Karthagó
atque Numantia, the cities CARTHAGE and NUMANTIA. Cic. Saguntum,
foederātam civitätem, explignâvit, he took Saguntum, an allied TOWN. Liv.
See 359, note 2.
1. An Appositive with different forms for different genders must agree
in GENDER as well as in CASE:
Cluilius réz,1 Cluilius THE KING. Liv. Venus régina, Venus THE QUEEN.
Hor.
2. An Appositive often agrees with the pronoun implied in the ending
of the verb:
Hostis a hostem occidere volui, I, AN ENEMY, wished to stay an enemy. Liv.
3. Appositives are kindred in force—
1) Generally to RELATIVE clauses:
Clujlius réx, Cluilius (who was) THE RING. Liv. •.
2) Sometimes to other SUBORDINATE clauses,” as TEMPORAL, CoNCESSIVE, etc.:
Túrius puer didicit, Furius learned when HE was A Box or AS A Box. Cic.
Június aedem dictator dedicavit, Junius dedicated the temple WHEN DICTATOR.
Liv.
4. By SYNESIS 4—a CoNSTRUCTION According TO SENSE:
1 See 362, 1, foot-note.
* Iſostis agrees with ego, implied in voluž, ‘I wished'; see 358, foot-note.
* This construction is sometimes called Adverbial Apposition.
* See Figures of Speech, 636, IV., 4.
186 GENERAL VIEW OF CASES
1) Possessives admit a Genitive in apposition with the Genitive of the pro-
noun implied in them :
Tua ipsius I amicitia, your own friendship. Cic. Meum Sólius peccatum,
my fault ALONE. Cic. Nômen meum absentis, my name IN MY ABSENCE. Cic.
2) Locatives admit as an Appositive a Locative Ablative (411, 425), with
or without a preposition:
Albae constitérunt in urbe opportúná,” they halted at Alba, A CONVENIENT
CITY. Cic. Corinthi, Achäiae urbe, at Corinth, A CITY of Achaia. Tac.
5. CLAUSES.—A noun or pronoun may be in apposition with a clause,
or a clause in apposition with a noun or pronoun:
Nös, id 3 quod débet, patria délectat, our country delights us, as it ought.
Cic. Omnés interfici jüssit, mānīmentum 3 ad praesens, he ordered them all
to be put to death, A MEANs of PROTECTION for the present. Tac. For clauses
in apposition with nouns or pronouns, see 499, 3; 501, III.
364. PARTITIVE APPOSITION.—The parts may be in apposition
with the whole, or the whole in apposition with the parts:
Duo regés, ille belló, hic pâce, civitätem auxérunt, two kings advanced the
state, THE FORMER by war, the LATTER by peace. Liv. Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra,
régès 4 Aegypti, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, RULERs of Egypt. Liv.
SECTION II.
GENERAL VIEVV OF CASES.
365, Cases, in accordance with their general force, may be ar-
ranged and characterized as follows:
I. Nominative, Case of the Subject.
II. Vocative, Case of Address.
III. Accusative, Case of Direct Object.
IV. Dative, Case of Indirect Object.
W. Genitive, Case of Adjective Relations.
VI. Ablative, Case of Adverbial Relations.”
1 Ipsius agrees with tuft (of you) involved in tua, Sólius and absentis, with me?
involved in mewm. The Genitive of ipse, Sölus, ilnus, and omnis is often thus used.
2. As a Locative Ablative is a genuine Locative in sense, there is no special irregu-
larity here, and in urbe opportúná may be explained as a separate modifier of the verb:
“They halted at Alba, at a convenient city.' Thus explained, it is not an appositive at all.
3 Id quod débet, lit., THAT which it owes. Id. and mūnâmentum are in apposition
respectively with nás délectat and omnés interfici, and are best explained as Accusatives.
A Nominative apparently in apposition with a clause is generally best explained either as
an appositive to some Wominative, or as the subject of a separate clause.
• In the first example, ille and hic, the parts, are in apposition with régés, the whole;
but in the second example, régé8, the whole, is in apposition with the parts, Ptolemaeus
and Cleopatra.
* This arrangement is adopted in the discussion of the cases, because, it is thought,
it will best present the force of the several cases and their relation to each other.
NOMINATIVE - VOCATIVE. 187
366. The Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Vocative
have probably retained with very slight modifications their original
force as developed in the mother tongue from which the Latin was
derived.”
367. The Ablative combines within itself the separate offices
of three cases which were originally distinct:*
1. The Ablative proper, denoting the relation FROM-the place
FROM which.
2. The Locative, denoting the relation IN, AT—the place IN or AT
which.
3. The Instrumental, denoting the relation WITH, BY—the instru-
ment or means WITH or BY which.
SECTION III.
NOMINATIVE.—VOCATIVE.
I. NOMINATIVE.
RULE III.-Subject Nominative.
368. The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nomina-
tive: *
Servius régnävit, SERVIUs reigned. Liv. Patent portae, THE GATEs are
open. Cic. Ré2 vicit, THE KING conquered. Liv. Ego régés ejécſ, vös
tyrannàs intrödlicitis, I have banished kings, YoU introduce tyrants. Cic.
1. The subject is always a substantive, a pronoun, or some word or
clause used substantively; * see examples under the rule.
2. A pronominal subject is always expressed or implied in the ending
of the Verb: 5
* That is, in the primitive Indo-European tongue, from which have been derived,
either directly or indirectly, not only the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, but also the English,
French, German, and indeed nearly all the languages of modern Europe. Upon the gen-
eral subject of Cases, their original formation and meaning, see Bopp, I., pp. 242–519;
Merguet, pp. 17–117; Penka, Hübschmann, Holzweissig, Delbrück, and, among the earlier
writers, Hartung, “Ueber die Casus,' etc., and Rumpel, “Casuslehre.”
* See Delbrück, ‘Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalis.”
* For the Subject of the Infinitive, see 536. For the Agreement of the verb with
its subject, see 460.
* For clauses used substantively, see 540.
fi Seo ſº 17. Thus invnev ineaus I (not you, he, or we, but 1) ºnstruct. Indeed,
every verb contains a pronominal subject in itself, and in general it is necessary to add
a separate subject only when it would otherwise be doubtful to whom the implied pro-
noun refers. Thus régnâvit, “he reigned, is complete of itself, if the context shows to
188 WOCATIVE.
Discipulàs moneč i ut studia ament, I instruct pupils to love (that THEY
may love) their studies. Quint. Nón scholae, sed vitae discimus, WE learn
not for the school, but for life. Sen.
NOTE.-A separate pronominal subject may, however, be added for the sake of clear-
ness, emphasis, or contrast, as in the fourth example under the rule.
3. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it can be readily supplied, es-
pecially if it is est or sunt:
Ecce tuae litterae, lo your letter (comes). Cic. Tot sententiae, there are
(sunt) so many opinions. Ter. Cónsul profectus (est), the consul set out. Liv.
NoTE 1.-The verb faciò is often omitted in short sentences and clauses:
Melius hi, quam vös, these have done better than you. Cic. Röctè ille, he does
rightly. Cic. Cotta finem, Cotta closed, lit., made an end. Cic. So also in Livy
after nihil aliva (amplius, minus, etc.) quam, “nothing other (more, less, etc.) than' =
‘merely”; nihil praeterquam, “nothing except’ = * merely': Nihil aliud quam stet&-
runt, they merely stood (did nothing other than). Liv.
NotE 2.—Certain forms of expression often dispense with the verb:
Quid, what? guid enim, what indeed? guid ergö, what then 2 guid quod, what of
the fact that? quid plura, why more, or why shall I say more? né plºra, not to say
more; né multa, not to say much; guid hic ad mé, what is this to me? nihil ad rem,
nothing to the subject.
NOTE 3.—For the Predicate Wominative, see 362.
NoTE 4.—For the Nominative as an Appositive, see 363.
NoTE 5.—For the Wominative in Ea:clamations, see 381, note 3.
II. WOCATIVE.
RULE IV.-Case of Address.
369. The name of the person or thing addressed is put
in the Vocative :
Perge, Laeli, proceed, LAELIUS. Cic. Quid est, Catilina, why is it, CATI-
LINE 2 Cic. Tuum est, Servi, régnum, the kingdom is yours, SERVIUS. Liv.
O dić immortalès, O immortal GoDs. Cic.
1. An Interjection may or may not accompany the Vocative.
2. In poetry, and sometimes in prose, the Nominative in apposition with
the subject occurs where we should expect the Vocative:
Audi til, populus Albănus, hear ye, Alban PEOPLE. Liv.
3. Conversely, the Vocative by attraction sometimes occurs in poetry where
we should expect the Nominative:
Quibus, Hector, ab Öris eacspectáte venis, from what shores, Hector, do you, ANX-
IousLY AwartED come f Verg. Macie nová virtùte, puer, a blessing on your méo
oalor, boy (lit., be ENLARGED by; Supply esto). Verg. -
whom the pronoun he refers; if not, the noun must be added: Servius régnăvit, lit., he,
Servius, reigned, or Servius, he reigned. In the fourth example under the rule, ego and
vös, though already implied in the form of the verb, are expressed for emphasis. In
impersonal verbs the subject ‘it,” in English, is implied in the personal ending t.
1 See preceding foot-note.
A COUSA TIVE. 189
S E C T I O N T W .
ACCUSATIVE.
370. The Accusative is used’—
I. As the Direct Object of an Action;
II. In an Adverbial Sense—with or without Prepositions;
III. In Exclamations—with or without Interjections.
NoTE I.-For the Predicate Accusative, see 362 and 373, 1.
NOTE 2.—For the Accusative in Apposition, see 363.
NoTE 3.-For the Accusative with Prepositions, see 433.
NoTE 4.—For the Accusative as the Subject of an Infinitive, see 536.
I. ACCUSATIVE As DIRECT OBJECT.
RULE V.—Direct Object.
371. The Direct Object of an action is put in the
Accusative:
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God made (built) THE world. Cic. Liberă
rem påblicam, free THE REPUBLIC. Cic. Populi Römānī Salātem défendite,
defend THE SAFETY of the Roman people. Cic.
I. The DIRECT OBJECT may be—
1. An External Object, the person or thing on which the action of the
verb is directly exerted, as Salātem above.
2. An Internal Object ; i. e., one already contained or implied in the
action itself. This embraces two varieties:
1) In a STRICT SENSE, the Cognate Accusative, an object having a mean-
ing cognate or kindred to that of the verb: -
Servitätem servire,” to serve in bondage (lit., to serve A SERVITUDE). Ter.
2) In a FREER SENSE, the Accusative of Effect, the object produced by
the action:
Librum scribere, to write A Book. Cic. -
NoTE.—Participles in dus, verbal adjectives in bundus, and in Plautus a
few verbal nouns, occur with the accusative:
Vitābundus castra, avoiding the camp. Liv. Quid tibi hanc cirätiöst
(curätiö est) 3 rem = curhanc rem curås, what care have you of this 2 Plaut.
* The Accusative is probably the oldest of all the oblique cases known to our family
of languages, and was therefore originally the sole modifier of the verb, expressing in a
vague and general way several relations now recognized as distinct. This theory ac-
counts for the great variety of constructions in which the Accusative is used in Latin.
See Curtius, * Zur Chronologie,” pp. 71–74; Holzweissig, pp. 34–38.
2 The pupil will observe that the idea of servätäten, “servitude,' ‘Service,' is con-
tained in the verb servire, “to serve,” “to be a slave or servant.”
8 See 27, note.
190 A CIOUSA TIVE.
II. The CoGNATE ACCUSATIVE is generally—(1) a noun with an adjective
or other modifier, or (2) a neuter pronoun or adjective. It is used quite
freely both with transitive and with intransitive verbs, and sometimes even
with verbs in the passive voice:
Eam vitam Vivere, to live that LIFE. Cic. Mirum somniare somnium, to
dream a wonderful DREAM. Plaut. Eadem peccat, he makes THE SAME MIS-
TAKES.1 Cic. Hoc studet iºnwm, he studies this ONE THING (this one study).
Hor. Perſidum ridéns Venus, Venus Smiling A PERFIDIOUs SMILE. Hor. Id
assentior, I assent to THIS (I give THIS assent). Cic. Idem, glóriári, to make
THE SAME BOAST. Cic. Quid possunt, How powerful are they, or WHAT power
have they & Caes. Ea monémur, we are admonished OF THESE THINGs.” Cic.
Mºhil móti sunt, they were NOT AT ALL moved. Liv.
NoTE.—Here may be mentioned the following kindred constructions:
Wöx hominem somat, the voice sounds IIUMAN. Verg. Saltăre Cyclopa, to dance
THE CYCLOPS. Hor. Longam viam Ire, to go A long wax. Werg. Bellum pāgnäre, to
fight A BATTLE. Werg. &
III. SPECIAL VERBS.–Many verbs of FEELING or EMOTION, of TASTE and
SMELL, admit the Accusative: -
JHonórés déspérat, he despairs of HONORs. Cic. Haec geměbant, they were
sighing over THESE THINGs. Cic. Detrimenta ridet, he laughs at LossEs. Hor.
Olet unguenta, he has the odor of PERFUMEs. Ter. Orätiöredolet antiquitätem,
the oration Smacks of ANTIQUITY. Cic.
NoTE 1.-Such verbs are: déspérô, to despair of; doled, to grieve for; gemö, to sigh
over; horred, to shudder at; lacrimö, to weep over; maered, to mourn over; miror,
to wonder at; rideð, to laugh at; sitio, to thirst for, etc.; oled, to have the odor of;
sapið, to savor of, whether used literally or figuratively.”
NoTE 2.—Many verbs in Latin, as in English, are sometimes transitive and some-
times intransitive; see auge0, diſrö, incipið, laa:0, rud, suppedito, turbó, etc., in the
Dictionary.
NoTE 3.—Many verbs which are usually rendered by transitive verbs in English
are intransitive in Latin, and thus admit only an indirect object or some special con-
struction; see 385.
NoTE 4.—The object of a transitive verb is often omitted, when it can be easily Sup-
plied: moved = moved mé, ‘I move (myself)”; vertit = vertit Sé, “he turns (himself)”:
Castris nãn movit, he did not move from his camp. Liv. Jam verterat fortúna.
fortune had already changed. Liv. -
NoTE 5.—For the Passive Construction, see 464.
IV. An INFINITIVE or a CLAUSE may be used as Direct Object:
Imperáre cupiunt, they desire To RULE. Just. Opto ut id audiátis, I desire
THAT You MAY HEAR THIS. Cic.
* Peccat, “he makes a mistake '; idem peccat, “he makes the same mistake, where
idém represents idém peccatum.
* Literally, we are admonished THESE THINGS, i. e., these admonitions.
* Observe that with the Accusative dāspérd means not ‘to despair, but ‘to despair
of.” and is accordingly transitive; doleſ, not ‘to grieve, but ‘to grieve for,” etc. With
Some of the verbs here given the object is properly a Cognate Accusative.
A CCUSA TIVE. 191
372. Many CoMPOUNDs of intransitive verbs with prepositions,
especially compounds of verbs of motion with circum, per, praeter,
tráns, and Super, take the Accusative:
Murmur contijnem pervāsit, a murmur went through THE AssEMBLY. Liv.
Jºhénum trănsièrunt, they crossed (went across) THE RHINE. Caes. Circum-
stant Senátum, they stand around THE SENATE. Cic. Héréditätem obire, to
enter upon THE INHERITANCE. Cic. Eäs nãtičnés adire, to go to those NATIONs.
Caes. Undam innätäre, to float upon THE wave. Verg. Tela exire, to avoid
THE WEAPONs. Verg. Gallós praecedunt, they surpass THE GAULs. Caes.
RULE VI.-Two Accusatives—Same Person.
373. Verbs of MAKING, CHOOSING, CALLING, REGARDING,
sHow ING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same
person or thing:
Hamilcarem imperátórem fécèrunt, they made Hamilcar CoMMANDER.
Nep. Ancum régem populus creavit, the people elected Ancus KING. Liv.
Summum consilium appellärunt Senátum, they called their highest council
SENATE. Cic. Sé praestitit propägnātūrem libertătis, he showed himself
THE CHAMPION of liberty. Cic. Flaccum habuit collègam, he had Flaccus As
coLLEAGUE. Nep. Sócratēs totius mundi sã civem arbiträbätur, Socrates
considered himself A CITIZEN of the whole world. Cic.
1. PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE.—One of the two Accusatives is the Direct Object,
and the other an essential part of the Predicate. The latter may be called a
Predicate Accusative , see 362.
NoTE 1.—Habed, ‘to have,’ admits two Accusatives, but when it means ‘to regard,'
it usually takes, instead of the Predicate Accusative, the Dative of the object for which
(384), the Ablative with in or prá, or the Genitive with loco, numeró or in numerö.
lüdâbrið habère, “to regard as an object of ridicule'; prä hoste habère, in hostibus
habère, locá hostium habère, numerö or in numero hostium habéré, “to regard as an
enemy.” These constructions also occur with other verbs meaning to regard:
Ea honērā habent, they regard these things As AN HoNor. Sall. Illum prä hoste
habère, to regard him. As AN ENEMY. Caes. Jam prä factâ habëre, to regard it AS
already DoNE. Cic. In hostium numero habuit, he regarded them. As ENEMIES (lit., in
the number of, etc.). Caes. Mé prá déridiculā putat, he regards me AS AN OBJECT OF
RIDICULE. Ter.
NoTE 2.—The Predicate Accusative is sometimes an adjective:
Hominés caecós reddit avāritia, avarice renders men BLIND. Cic. Templa deúrum
Sancta habëbat, he regarded the temples of the gods AS SACRED. Nep.
2. In the PAssive these verbs take two Nominatives—a Subject and a Predi-
cate—corresponding to the two Accusatives of the Active:
Servius réas est déclarātus, Servius was declared KING. Liv. See also 362, 2.
1 Observe that an intransitive verb may become transitive by being compounded
with a preposition which does not take the Accusative.
192 A CCUSA TIVE.
RULE VII.-Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.
374. Some verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, TEACHING, and
CoNCEALING, admit two Accusatives—one of the person
and the other of the thing:
Mé sententiam rogăvit, he asked me MY opinion. Cic. Philosophia nÓs
rås omnés docuit, philosophy has taught us all THINGS. Cic. Auxilia regem
Örābant, they asked AUXILIARIES from the king. Liv. Pacem te poscimus,
we demand PEACE of you. Verg. Nön te célävi sermönem, I did not conceal
from you THE CONVERSATION. Cic.
1. In the PAssIVE the PERSON becomes the subject, and the Accusative of
the thing is retained:
Mé sententiam rogăvit, he asked me MY op1NION. Cic. Ego Sententiam ro-
gātus sum, I was asked My op1NION. Cic. Artes édóctus fuerat, he had been
taught THE ARTS. Liv.
2. Two AccusATIVEs are generally used with celó, doced, adoced ; often with
rogö, poscó, reposco; sometimes with dédoced, exposcó, flagito, Örö, etc., cón-
sulo, interrogo, percontor; rarely with moned, admoned, and postulo.
NotE 1.-Célà, ‘to conceal, takes—(1) in the Active generally two Accusatives, as
under the rule, but sometimes the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the
thing with dé; (2) in the Passive, the Accusative of a neuter promown or the Ablative
with dé:
Mē dà hoc librö célàvit, he kept me ignorant of this Book. Cic. Id cūlāri, to b4
Žept ignorant of THIS. Nep. Célārī dé consilió, to be kept ignorant OF THE PLAN.
Cic.
NotE 2.-DoceO and édoced generally follow the rule, 1 but sometimes they take the
Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing with or without dé,” and some-
times the Accusative of the person with the Infinitive:
Dè suā ré mé docet, he informs me IN REGARD To his CASE. Cic. Litteris Graecis
döctus, instructed. IN Greek LITERATURE. Sall. Söcratem fidibus 3 docuit, he taught
Socrates (with) THE LYRE. Cic. Tú Sapere docet, he teaches you To BE WISE. Cic.
NoTE 3.—Most verbs of asking and demanding sometimes take two Accusatives,
but verbs of asking, questioning, generally take the Accusative of the person * and
the Ablative of the thing 4 with dé, and verbs of imploring, demanding, generally the
Accusative of the thing 4 and the Ablative of the person 4 with & or ab :
Té his dé rébus interrogö, I ask you. IN REGARD To these THINGs. Cic. Victóriam
ab diis exposcere, to implore victory FROM THE GoDs. Caes. Id ab eó flagitäre, to de-
mand this FROM IIIM. Caes.
1 Other verbs of teaching—érudio, institud, införmö, instruo, etc.—generally take
the Ablative of the thing with or without a preposition, as in or dé; see Dictionary.
2 Doce0, in the sense of inform, takes dé with the Ablative.
* Supply camere.
4 The Accusative or Ablative of the person is often omitted, and a clause often takes
the place of the Accusative or Ablative of the thing. For examples and for special con-
structions, see, in the Dictionary, cónsuld, interrogö, rogö; also ſtagito, örð, posé0, €2-
poscó, and reposcà.
A COUSA TIVE. 193
NotE 4.—Peto and postulo generally take the Accusative of the thing 1 and the
Ablative of the person with d or ab; quaero, the Accusative of the thing 1 and the
Ablative of the person with 3 or ea', d, ab, or dé:
Päcem ab Römanis petièrunt, they asked peace FROM THE ROMANs. Caes. Aliquid
ab amic is postulāre, to demand something FROM FRIENDS. Cic. Quaerit ea sūló ea, etc.,
he asks of HIM IN PRIVATE (from him alone) those guestions, etc. Caes.
375. A NEUTER PRONou N or ADJECTIVE as a Cognate * Accusative oc-
curs in connection with a Direct Object with many verbs which do not
otherwise take two Accusatives:
Płóc té hortor, I exhort you to THIS, I give you THIS exhortation. Cic. Eas
monémur, we are admonished of THESE THINGs. Cic. So with velle, Caes., B.
G. I., 34. s g
376. A few CoMPOUNDs of träns, circum, and ad admit two Accusa-
tives, dependent the one upon the verb, the other upon the preposition:
Ibérum copiás träjécit, he led his forces across THE EBRO. Liv. Animum
adverti columellam, I noticed (turned my mind to) A SMALL COLUMN. Cic.
NoTE.—In the Passive these compounds and Some others admit an Accusative de-
pending upon the preposition:
Praetervehor Östia Pantagiae, I am carried by THE MoUTH of the Pantagias. Werg.
Locwm sum praetervectus, I have been carried by THE PLACE. Cic.
377. In PoETRY, rarely in prose, verbs of clothing, unclothing—indwa,
exud, cingö, accingö, indiſco, etc.—are sometimes used réflexively in the Pas-
sive, like the Greek Middle, and thus admit an Accusative:
Galeam induitur, he puts on HIs HELMET, Verg. Inutile ferrum cingitur,
he girds on HIs useless sworD. Verg. Virginés longam indútae våstem, maid-
ens attired in long ROBEs. Liv.
NoTE.—A few other verbs sometimes admit a similar construction in the poets:
Antiquum saturâta dolôrem, having satisfied her old RESENTMENT. Verg. Suspénsi
loculīs lacertö, with SATCHELS hºwng upon the arm (having hung, etc.). Hor. Pascuntur
silvás, they browse on TIIE For ESTs. Werg.
II. ACCUSATIVE IN AN ADVERBIAL SENSE.
RULE VIII.-Accusative of Specification.
378. A verb or an adjective may take an Accusative
to define its application: “
* The Ablative of the person is often omitted, and, instead of the Accusative of the
thing, a clause is often used. With postulò and quaero the Ablative with dé occurs.
For examples and for other special constructions, see Dictionary.
2 See 371, II.
* As a rare exception, moned admits a moun, as the Accusative of the thing; see
Plaut., Stich., 1, 2, 1.
* The Accusative of Specification is closely related to the Cognate Accusative and to
the Poetic Accusative after Passive verbs used reflexively, both of which readily pass
into an adverbial construction. Thus capita in capita vélàmur and galédºn in galeam
9
194 ACCUSA TIVÆ
Capita vêlámur, we have oUR HEADS veiled (are veiled as to oUR HEADs, or
have veiled oUR HEADs). Verg. Nübe humerös amictus, with HIS SHOULDERS
enveloped in a cloud. Hor. Miles fräctus membra labóre, the soldier with
LIMBS shattered with labor (broken as to his limbs). Hor. Aenëäs ös deö
similis, Aeneas like a god in APPEARANCE. Verg.
1. In a strict sense, the Accu8atíve qf Specification generally specifies the
part to which the action or quality particularly belongs. In this sense, it is
mostly poetie, but occurs also in prose. See Ablative qf Specífication, 424.
2. In a freer sense, this Accusative includes the adverbial use of partem,
vìcem, nihil, of ád and genus in id temporìs, ìd aetätis (at this time, age), id
genus,* omne genus, quod genus (for éjus generìs, etc.), etc. ; also of secus, rës,
and of many neuter pronouns and adjectives—höc, illud, ìd, quòd (454, 2),
^multum, summum, cétera, réliqua, etc. In this sense, it is common in prose:
Máximam partem, lacte vivunt, they live mostly (as to the largest PART)
wpon, mólk. Caes. Loeus ád temporis vacuus erat, the place ova8 AT THIS time
vaeant. Cic. Aliquid id genus i scribere, to write 8ometháng oF this KIND.
Cic. Aliäs rës est improbus, IN other THINGS (as to the rest) he is unprinci-
pled. Plaut. Quaerit, quôd possint, he inquires How powerful they are. Caes.
Quid vênisti, wHy have gyou come ? Plaut.
RULE IX.—Accusative of Time and Space.
379. DURATION OF TIME and ExTENT OF SPACE are ex-
pressed by the Accusative:
Römulus septem et trigintà régnâvit annös, Romulus reigned thárty-sever.
YEARS. Liv. Cyrus quadrägintä annós nätus régnâre coepit, Cyrus ύegan
to reign (when) forty YEARs old (having been born forty YEARs). Cic. Quin-
que mìlia passuum ambuläre, to walk five MILES. Cic. Pedés octögintä
distáre, to be eighty FEET distant. Caes. Nix quattuor pedes alta, snow four
FEET deep. Liv. But—
1. DURATION OF TIME is sometimes expressed by the Ablative, or by the
Accusative with a preposition:
Pügnätum est hörìs quinque, the battle ovas fought five HoURs. Caes. Per
annós viginti certätum est, the war was waged FOR twenty YEARS. Liv.
2. DISTANCE is sometimes expressed by the Ablative:
JMílíbus passuum sex à Caesaris castris cönsédit, he en camped AT THE DIS-
TANCE OF 8iae MILES from, Caesar's cainp. Caes.
NoTE.—Ab used adverbially, meaming off, sometimes accompanies the Ablative:
Aò milibus passuum duóbus castra posuérunt, they pitched their camp two miles
OFF. Caes. -.
Ânduátur are similar constructions, while qvid in quaerit quid possínt may be explained
either as a Cogmate Accusative (371, I., 2) or as an Adverbial Accusative.
* Some grammarians treat gemus in all such cases as an Appo&itive: aliqvid, ìd
génus, something, this kind ; see Draeger, I., p. 2.
A CCUSA TIVE. 195
RULE X.—Accusative of Limit.
380. The PLACE To which is designated by the Accusa-
tive: *
I. Generally with a preposition—ad or in :
Legiónés ad urbem addûcit, he is leading the legions To or TowARD THE
CITY. Cic. Ad ma scribunt, they are writing To M.E. Cic. In Asiam redit,
he returns INTO ASIA. Nep. Cönfºgit in dram, he fled To THE ALTAR. Nep.
II. In names of towns without a preposition :
Nüntius Römam redit, the messenger returns To Rome. Liv. Platö Ta-
rentum vénit, Plato came To TARENTUM, Cic. Fūgit Tarquiniós, he fled To
TARQUINII. Cic. But—
NotE.—Werbs meaning to collect, to come together, etc.—convenió, cógö, convocê,
etc.—are usually treated as verbs of motion, and thus take the Accusative, generally with
a preposition; but verbs meaning to place—loco, colloc'), pömö, etc.—are usually treated
as verbs of rest, and thus take the Ablative (425), generally with a preposition:
Unum in locum convenire, to meet IN one PLACE. Caes. Cöpiãs in linum locum
cögere, to collect forces IN one PLACE. Caes. In alterius mani. vitam pånere, to
place one's life IN THE HAND of another. Cic.
1. In the NAMEs of Towns the Accusative with ad occurs—(1) to denote
to, toward, in the direction of, into the vicinity of, and (2) in contrast with
& or ab:
Très sunt viae ad Mutinam, there are three roads To MUTINA. Cic. Ad
Zamam pervénit, he came to THE VICINITY OF ZAMA. Sall. A Diäniö ad
Sinópén, from Dianium. To SINoPE. Cic.
2. Like NAMES OF Towns are used—
1) The Accusatives domum, doměs, ris:
Scipió domum reductus est, Scipio was conducted HoME. Cic. Domós ab-
ducti, led To THEIR HOMEs. Liv. Rüs evolāre, to hasten INTO THE country.
Cic. Domum reditič, a return Home. Caes.
2) Sometimes the Accusative of names of islands and peninsulas:
Lātóna confügit Delum, Latona fled To DELos. Cic. Pervénit Chersona-
8tſm, he went TO THE CHERsonEsus. Nep.
3) Rarely a few other Accusatives, as exsequids, infttias, etc.:*
Ille înſitäs ibit, he will deny (will proceed. To A DENIAL). Ter.
3. The preposition is sometimes omitted before names of countries,
and, in the poets, before names of nations and even before common nouns:
* Originally the place to which was uniformly designated by the Accusative without
a preposition. Names of towns have retained the original construction, While most other
names of places have assumed a preposition.
* See also the Supine in um, 546.
*
wº
196 DATIVE.
Aegyptum profugit, he fled To EGYPT. Cic. Italiam vénit, he came To
ITALY. Verg. Ibimus Afrós, we shall go TO THE AFRICANs. Verg. Lāvinia
vênit litora, he came to the Lavinian SHOREs. Verg.
4. A PoETICAL DATIVE occurs for the Accusative, with or without a
preposition:
It clámor caeló (for ad caelum), the shout ascends To HEAVEN. Verg. Faci-
lis déscènsus Avernò, easy is the descent To HADES. Werg. See 385, 4.
III. ACCUSATIVE IN ExCLAMATIONS.
RULE XI.-Accusative in Exclamations.
381. The Accusative, either with or without an inter-
jection, may be used in exclamations:
Hew mé miserum, AH ME unhappy / Cic. Mé miserum, ME miserable /*
Cic. Ó falläcem spem, O deceptive HOPE I Cic. Mé caecum, blind that
I am / Cic. Prö deorum fidem, IN THE NAME of the gods / Cic. Hanc-
cine audāciam, this AUDACITY 2° Cic. But—
NoTE 1.-An adjective or Genitive generally accompanies this Accusative, as in the
examples. -
NoTE 2–0, €heu, and hew are the interjections most frequently used with the Ac-
cusative, though others occur.
NoTE 3.—Other cases also occur in exclamations:
1) The Vocative—when an address as well as an exclamation is intended:
Prò sancte Júppiter, O holy JUPITER. Cic. Infélix Didó, unhappy DIDO. Werg.
2) The Wominative—when the exclamation approaches the form of a statement:
En dea:tra, Lo THE RIGHT HAND (there is, or that is the right hand)! Werg. Ecce
tuae litterae, Lo your LETTER (comes) Cic.
3) The Dative—to designate the person after ei, vae, and sometimes after ecce, &n,
heºn. 3
El mihš, wor: To M.E. Werg. Vae tibi, wor: To YoU. Ter. Ecce tibi, Lo To YoU
(lo here is to you = observe). Cic. En tibi, THIS FOR You (lo I do this for you). Liv.
SECTION W.
DATIVE.
382. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and
designates the PERSON TO or FOR WHOM,” or the THING TO
or FOR WHICH, anything is or is done."
1 See Milton, ‘Paradise Lost,' IV., 73.
* The exclamation may of course be interrogative in character.
* This is an Ethical Dative; see 389.
* The Indirect Object is generally a person, or something personified. Unlike the
Direct Object, it is never contained in the action or produced by it, but is in most in-
stances the interested recipient of it.
* Whether this was the original meaning of the Dative is not known. Delbrück
I) A TIVE. 197
383. The Dative is used—
I. With a large class of Verbs and Adjectives;
II. With a few special Nouns and Adverbs.
RULE XII.-Dative with verbs.
384. The INDIRECT OBJECT of an action is put in the
Dative. It is used—
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE Verbs:
Tibi serviö, I am devoted To YoU. Plaut. Serviunt populd, they are de-
voted TO THE PEOPLE. Cic. Imperić pārébant, they were obedient To (obeyed)
AUTHORITY. Caes. Tempori cédit, he yields to the time. Cic. Labūri stu-
dent, they devote themselves to labor. Caes. Mundus ded påret, the world
obeys God." Cic. Caesari supplicăbö, I will supplicate Caesar." Cic. Nöbis
vita data est, life has been granted to us. Cic. Numitóri déditur, he is
delivered to Wumitor. Liv.
II. With TRANSITIVE Verbs, in connection with the
DIRECT OBJECT:
Agrös plebi dedit, he gave lands To THE common PEoPLE. Cic. Tibä grâ-
tiãs agö, I give thanks To You. Cic. Nātūra hominem conciliat homini,
Nature reconciles man. To MAN. Cic. Pöns iter hostibus dedit, the bridge
gave a passage to the enemy. Liv. Légés civitătibus suis scripsèrunt, they
prepared laws for their states. Cic.
1. The INDIRECT OBJECT may be—
1) The DATIVE of INFLUENCE,” designating the person. To whom some-
thing is or is done:
Serviunt populà, they are devoted To THE PEOPLE. Cic. Agrös plebi dedit,
he gave lands To THE COMMON PEOPLE. Cic.
2) The DATIVE OF INTEREST,” designating the person For whom something
is or is done:
Sibi Megarénsès vicit, he conquered the Megarians For HIMSELF. Just.
3) The DATIVE of PURPOSE or END,” designating the object or end FOR
which something is or is done:
Receptui cecinit, he gave the signal For A RETREAT. Liv.
thinks that this case originally designated the place or object toward which the action
tended. See Kuhn's ‘Zeitschrift,' vol. xviii., p. 81.
* {& 8tºbject to God; wiłł make supplication to Côte&r.
* Observe that the Dative of Influence is very closely connected with the verb, and
is, in fact, essential to the completeness of the sentence; while the Dative of Intéré8t and
the Dative of Purpose are merely added to sentences which would be complete without
them. Thus Megarénsés vicit is complete in itself.
198 DATIVE.
2. Doublr, CoNSTRUCTION.—A few verbs admit—(1) the Dative of the
person and the Accusative of the thing, or (2) the Accusative of the per-
son and the Ablative of the thing: alicut rem donàre, “to present a thing
to any one,' or aliquem ré donàre, “to present any one with a thing’: ‘
Praedam militibus donat, he gives the booty To THE soldıBRs. Caes. Athé-
niënsés frümentó donàvit, he presented the Athenians witH GRAIN. Nep. -
NoTE.—This construction may also be used of objects which are in a measure per-
sonified, or which involve persons:
Mürum wrbº circumdedit, he built a wall around THE CITY. Nep. Deus animum
circumdedit corpore, God has encompassed the soul witH A BoDY. Cic.
3. To and for are not always signs of the Dative. Thus—
1) To, denoting mere motion or direction, is generally expressed by the
Accusative with or without a preposition (380):
Vēni ad urbem, I came To THE CITY. Cic. Delum vénimus, we came To
DELos. Cic. f -
NoTE 1.-But the Dative occurs in the poets; see 380, 4, and 385, 4.
NoTE 2.—Mitto, “to send, and scribò, “to write, take the Dative, or the Accusative
with ad, to denote the person to whom :
Scribit Labéénô, he writes To LABIENUs. Caes. Scribés ad mé, you will write To
ME. Cic.
2) For, in defence of, in behalf of, is expressed by the Ablative with
prä; for the sake of, for the purpose of, sometimes by the Accusative
with in :
Prö patrid mori, to die For ONE's country. Hor. Dimicăre pro libertăte,
to fight FOR LIBERTY. Cic. Satis in iſsum, enough For USE. Liv.
4. The Dative sometimes depends, not upon the verb alone, but upon
the Predicate as a whole: .*
Tegimenta galeis” milités facere jubet, he orders the soldiers to make cov-
erings FoR THEIR HELMETs. Caes. Liberis divités esse volumus, we wish
to be rich For THE SAKE OF OUR CHILDREN. Cic. Quis huic réi testis est,
who testifies To THIS (lit., is a witness For this THING). Cic.
NoTE 1.-The Dative is used with verbs modified by Satis, bene, and male, whether
written as compounds or not :
Illis satis facere (also written satisfacere), to satisfy THEM.3 Caes. Cui bene dixit
unquam, FoR whom has he ever spoken a good word f Cic. Optimú viró maledicere,
to revile a most eaccellent MAN. Cic.
NotE 2.—A Dative is sometimes thus added to the predicate when the English idiom
would lead us to expect a Genitive depending upon a noun: -
In conspectum vénerat hostibus,” he had come in sight of THE ENEMY (lit., To THE
* This double construction occurs chiefly with aspergo, circumdo, circumfundo,
dömö, eacuſ), impertio, induć, inspergö, interclido.
2 Galeãs is best explained as depending upon tegimenta facere, rather than upon
jacere alone; liberis, as depending upon divités esse volumus, and réï upon testis est.
S Literally, to do enough For THEM.
4 Hostibus does not depend at all upon cónspectum, but upon the entire predicate,
in cónspectum vénérat.
I) A TTVE. 199
ENEMY). Cic. Caesari ad pedes prūicere, to cast at the feet of CAESAR (lit., To CAESAR, ,
at the feet). Caes. Mihi horror membra quatit, a shudder Shakes my limbs. Verg.
Urbi fundāmenta jacere, to lay the foundations of (for) the city. Liv.
NoTE 3.—The Dative is sometimes very loosely connected with the predicate, merely
designating the person with reference to whom the statement is true:
Tú illi pater es, you are a father To HIM. Tac. Tridul iter ea peditis erat, it was
a journey of three days For LIGHT-ARMED SOLDIERs. Liv. Est urbe €grössis tumu-
lus, there is a mound as you go out of the city." Werg.
5. WITH IMPERSONAL PASSIVE.-Verbs which admit only an Indirect
Object in the Active are Impersonal in the Passive, but they may retain
the Dative :
Bostibus resistunt, they resist THE ENEMY. Caes. His sententiis resisti-
tur, resistance is offered To these op1NIONs. Caes. Ně mihă noceant, that they
may not injure ME. Cic. Mihă nihil nocéri potest, no injury can be done To
ME (lit., injury can be done TO ME not at all). Cic.
385. WITH SPECIAL VERBS.—The Dative of the In-
direct Object is used with many verbs which require special
mention. Thus—
I. With verbs signifying to benefit or injure, please or displease,
command or obey, Serve or resist, and the like :
Sibi prüsunt, they benefit THEMSELVES. Cic. Nocère alteri, to injure
ANOTHER. Cic. Zénôni placuit, it pleased ZENo. Cic. Displicet Tulló, it
displeases TULLUs. Liv. Cupiditätibus imperáre, to command desires. Cic.
Deû pārēre, to obey God. Cic. Régi servire, to serve the king. Cic. Hosti-
bus resistere, to resist the enemy. Caes.
II. With verbs signifying to indulge, spare, pardon, threaten,
believe, persuade, and the like : r
Sibi indulgére, to indulge oNE's SELF. Cic. Vitae parcere, to spare LIFE.
Nep. Mihi Ignúscere, to pardon ME. Cic. Minitāns patriae, threatening
his country. Liv. Irāsci amicis, to be angry with friends. Cic. Mihi crède,
believe me. Cic. Iis persuádëre, to persuade them. Caes.
NoTE. 1.-Some verbs of this class take the Accusative: délecto, juvö, laedo, offendo,
etc.: .
Marium jūvit, he helped Marius. Nep. Nön må fåma délectat, fame does not
delight me. Cic.
NoTE 2.-For fidd and confido with the Ablative, see 425, 1, 1), note.
NoTE 3.-The force of the Dative is often found only by attending to the strict mean-
1. Other examples are: Å Pyliseunti loco altö siti sunt, they are situated in an ele-
wated place as you come (lit., to one coming) from Pylae. Liv. Déscendentibus
inter duðs licös, as you descend (lit., to those descending) between the two groves.
Liv. Exscendentibus ad templum maceria erat, there was an enclosure as you as-
cended to the temple. Liv. In universum aestimanti plüs penes peditem ròboris est,
to make a general estimate (lit., to one making, etc.), there is more Strength in the
infantry. Tac.
200 DATIVE.
ing of the verb: nibo, “to marry" (strictly, to veil one's self, as the bride for the bride-
groom); medeor, “to cure” (to administer a remedy to); Satisfaciò, “to satisfy" (to do
enough for), etc.
1. Some verbs admit either the Accusative or the Dative, but with a
difference of meaning:
Cavére aliquem, to ward off Some one ; cavére alicui, to care For some one.
Cönsulere aliquem, to consult, etc.; alicui, to consult For, etc.
Metuere, timére aliquem, to fear; alicui, to fear For.
Próspicere, providére aliquid, to foresee, alicui, to provide For.
Temperäre, moderārī aliquid, to govern, direct ; alicui (of things), to re-
strain, put a check UPON ; temperáre alicui (of persons), to spare : 1 -
Bung til cavétö, be on your guard against THIs on E (lit., ward HIM off).
Hor. E. cavére voló, I wish to care For HIM (i.e., to protect him). Cic. Per-
Jidºam timémus, we fear PERFIDY. Cic. Sibá timuerant, they had feared For
THEMSELVES. Caes.
NOTE. – Dare litterås ad aliquem means to address a letter To geME on E ; but dare
littérá8 alicut generally means to deliver a letter To ONE As A CARRIER or MESSENGER:
Litterae mihi ad Catilinam datae sunt, a letter addressed To CATILINE was deliv-
ered To M.E. Cic.
2. A DATIVE rendered from occurs with a few verbs of differing, dis-
senting, repelling, taking away, etc.:
Differre cuivis, to differ FROM ANY on E. Nep. Sibi dissentire, to dissent
FROM HIMSELF. Cic. Somnum mihi adimere, to take sleep FROM ME. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Poetical Dative, see 4, below; and for the Ablative with verbs of
Separation or Difference, see 413.
3. A DATIVE rendered with occurs with misced, admisced, etc., and
sometimes with fació:
Severitàtem miscère comitātā, to unite severity witH AFFABILITY. Liv. Quid
huic homini faciás, what are you to do witH (To) this MAN 3. Cic. See 4 below.
4. DATIVE IN PoETRY.-In the poets and in late prose-writers, the Dative
is used much more freely than in classical prose. Thus it occurs with
more or less frequency with the following classes of verbs:
1) With verbs denoting Motion or Direction—for the Accusative with ad
or in .
Multös démittimus Orcó (for ad or in Orcum), we send many down. To ORCUs.
Verg. Caeló (for ad caelum) palmäs tetendit, he eastended his hands TowARD HEAVEN.
Verg. It clāmor caelö, the shout goes to heaven. Werg. See also 392, I.
2) With verbs denoting Separation or Difference 2—instead of the Ablative
with ab or dé, or the Accusative with inter:
Sólstitium pecori (for a pecore) défendite, keep off the heat FROM THE FLoCK. Verg.
Scurrae distâbit amicus, a friend will differ FROM A JESTER. Hor. Serta capiti dé-
lāpsa, garlands fallen from his head. Werg.
* Many other verbs take different constructions with different meanings; see cédo,
convento, cupið, déficio, doleo, mane0, parco, peto, solvo, and volö in the Dictionary.
* Thus with arceo, absum, differö, dissentio, dissio.e0, dźsto, etc.; see Dictionary.
DATIVE. 201
3) With verbs denoting Union, Comparison, Contention, and the like 1–
instead of the Ablative with cum, or the Accusative with inter:
Miscet 2 viris, he mingles witH THE MEN. Verg. Concurrere hosti (for cum hoste), to
meet THE ENEMY. Ov. Sölus tibi certat, he alone contends with you. Werg. Placitóne
pūgnäbis amóri, will you contend with acceptable love # Werg,
4) In still other instances, especially in expressions of Place:
Haeret lateri (for in latere) arundó, the arrow Sticks IN HER SIDE. Werg. Årdet
apex capiti, the helmet gleams UPON HIS HEAD. Verg.
386. DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS.—The Dative is used
with many verbs compounded with—
ad, ante, con, dé, in, inter,
ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super:
Adsum amicis, I am present witH MY FRIENDS. Cic. Omnibus antestäre,
to surpass ALL. Cic. Terris cohaeret, it cleaves To THE EARTH. Sen. Höc
Caesari défuit, this failed (was wanting To) CAESAR. Caes. Voluptăti in-
haerére, to be connected with pleasure. Cic. Interfuit púgnae, he partici-
pated in the battle. Nep. Cönsiliis obstäre, to oppose plans. Nep. Liber-
tāti opčs postferre, to sacrifice wealth to liberty. Liv. Populà praesunt,
they rule the people. Cic. Tibi prosunt, they are profitable to you. Cic.
Succumbere dolöribus, to yield to sorrows. Cic. Superfuit patri, he sur-
vived his father. Liv.
1. TRANSITIVE VERBs thus compounded admit both the Accusative and
*c Dative :
Sé opposuit hostibus, he opposed HIMSELF To THE ENEMY. Cic. Capiti subduxerat
ënsem, she had removed my sword from my head. Werg. See also Libertăţă opés
Apostferre, above. *
2. CoMPounds of OTHER PREPOSITIONs, especially of ab, eac, and circum,
sometimes admit the Dative; while several of the compounds specified under
the rule admit the Ablative with or without a preposition: 3
Sibi libertătem abjūdicat, he deprives IIIMSELF (sentences himself to the loss) of lib-
erty, Cic. Mihº timórem éripe, free ME from fear (lit., snatch away fear For ME).
Cic. Pügnā assuéscere, to be accustomed to (trained in) battle. Liv. Dicta cum factis
compõnere, to compare words with deeds. Sall.
3. MoTION OR DIRECTION.—Compounds expressing mere motion or direc-
tion generally take the Accusative with or without a preposition: 4
* Thus, with côpulo, jungö, misced, admisced, permisced, necto, socio, etc.; certo,
contendö, luctor, pilgno, etc.
* Misced, as a transitive verb, occurs with the Accusative and Dative even in classical
prose; see 385, 8; also 371, III., note 2.
* See a synté8cú, 600& fació, úvy wièscú, cvey, cohueré0, colludó, communicó, com-
púmò, concordø, cónferö, cónfligo, congruo, conjungo, consentić, cónstö, insistö, in-
side), insum, and interdico, in the Dictionary. See also Draeger, I., pp. 406-426
* See accēdà, accido, addo, adfero, adhaerésco, adhibed, adjungö, admitor, ad-
scribó, adsum, illèdó, incido, incumbo, incurro, infero, offero, oppånö, in the Dictionary.
202 DATIVE.
Adire àrås, to approach TTIE ALTARs. Cic. Ad consulés adire, to go To THE CON-
SULS. Cic. In bellum insistit, he devotes him8elf to the war. Caes. Ad omne pericu-
lum oppūnitur, he is eaſposed to every peril. Cic.
4. Several compounds admit either the Accusative or the Dative without
any special difference of meaning:1
Mūnātānibus adjacent, they are near THE FORTIFICATIONS. Tac. Mare illud ad-
jacent, they are near that SEA. Nep. Quibus timor incésserat, whom fear had seized.
Sall. Timor patrès incéssit, fear seized the fathers. Liv.
5. Many compounds which usually take the Accusative or the Ablative
with a preposition in classical prose, admit a Dative in poetry:
Quid contendat hirundô cycnis (for cum cycnis), why should the swallow contend
witH Swans? Lucr. Contendis Homārū, you contend witH HoMER. Prop. Animis
illābi nostris (for in animós moströs), to sink into our minds. Verg.
NotE.—Instead of the compounds of ad, anté, etc., the poets sometimes use in the
same sense the simple verbs” with the Dative:
Qui haeserat (= adhaeserat) Evandró, who had joined himself To Evan DER. Verg.
Pónis (= appānis) mihi porcum, you offer ME (place BEFORE ME) 8winé's flesh. Mar-
tial.
387. The DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR is used with the
verb sum :
Mihă est noverca, I have (there is To ME) a stepmother.” Werg. Font?
nomen Arethūsa est, THE FOUNTAIN has (there is To THE FOUNTAIN) the name
Arethusa. Cic. But—
NoTE 1.—The DATIVE of TmI: NAME as well as of the possessor is common in expres-
sions of naming : nāmen est, nºmen datur, etc. : . -
Scipión? Africónó cognómen fuit, SciPro had the surname AFRICANUs. Sall. Here
Africónó, instead of being in apposition with cögmömen, is put by attraction in appo-
sition with Scipiðni. &
NoTE 2.-The GENITIVE OF THE NAME dependent upon mêmen occurs:
Nômen Mercuri est mihi, I have the name of MERCURY. Plaut.
NotE 3.—By a GREEk IDIOM, voléns, cupičns, or invitus sometimes accompanies the
Dative of the possessor:
Quibus bellum volentibus erat, who liked the war (lit., to whom wisiiING the war
was). Tac.
388. The DATIVE OF THE APPARENT AGENT is used
with the Gerundive, and with the Passive Periphrastic
Conjugation : -
I Such are adjaced, adillor, antecôdo, anteed, cſinitor, déspérô (also with dé), illā-
do, incèdó, insultö, invado, praecurro, praesto, praestolor.
* Thus ferð for adfero, prāferó; haered for adhaered; pånö for appämö, dépômö,
impônó, etc.
* The Dative with est usually expresses simple possession or ownership, like the
English have. Habed is sometimes used in the same sense, but it more commonly ex-
presses some of the shades of meaning denoted by hold, keep, regard, and the like:
arcem habère, ‘to hold the citadel’; aliquem in obsidióme habère, ‘to hold or keep
one in siege'; pro hoste habère, “to regard as an enemy.”
DATIVE 203
Proelia conjugibus loguenda, battles For women to talk about." Hor.
Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est, EVERY one has his own trouble to
bear, or must bear his own trouble. Cic.
NotE.-Instead of the Dative of the Apparent Agent, the Ablative with ā or ab is
Sometimes used :
Quibus est à vöö78° cónsulendum, for whom measures must be taken. By You. Cic.
1. The DATIVE OF THE APPARENT AGENT is sometimes used with the com-
pound tenses of passive verbs:
Māhā consilium captum jam did est, I have a plan long since formed.1 Cic.
NoTE.—HABEö with the Perfect Participle has the same force as EST MIHiſ with the
Participle:
Bellum habuit indictum, he had a war (already) declared. Cic.
2. The REAL AGENT, with Passive verbs, is in classical prose denoted by
the Ablative with ā or ab; 3 see 415, I.
3. The DATIVE is used with the tenses for incomplete action, to designate
the person who is at once Agent and Indirect Object, the person Bx whom and
For (TO) whom the action is performed:
Honesta bonis viris quaeruntur, honorable things are sought BY good MEN
(i. e., for themselves). Cic.
4. In the PoETs, the Dative is often used for the Ablative with ā or ab, to
designate simply the agent of the action: -
Nön intellegor illli, I am not understood BY ANY ONE. Ovid. Régnáta arva
Saturnö, lands ruled BY SATURN. Verg.
389. The ETHICAL DATIVE, denoting the person to
whom the thought is of special interest, is often introduced
into the Latin sentence: “
At tibi venit ad mé, but Lo, he comes to me. Cic. Adilla mihā intendat
animum, let him, I PRAY, direct his attention to those things. Liv. Quč mihš
abis, whither are you going, PRAY 2 Verg. Quid mihš Celsus agit, what is
MY Celsus doing 3 Hor.
1 The Dative with the Gerun dive, whether alone or in the Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion, designates the person who has the work to do; while with the compound tenses
of passive verbs it designates the person who has the work: already done.
* Here à vöbis is necessary, to distinguish the Agent from the Indirect Object, qui-
bus ; but the Ablative with ā or ab is sometimes used when this necessity does not
exist.
3 The Dative with the Gerundive is best explained as the Dative of Possessor or
of Indirect Object. Thus, swum cuique incommodum est means “every one has his
trouble' (cuique, Dative of Possessor); and swum cuique incommodºm Jeréndum est,
“every one has his trouble to bear.’ So too, mihi consiliuot est, “I have a plan"; mihš
cömsilium captum est, “I have a plan (already) formed.'
* Compare the following from Shakespeare: ‘He plucked me ope his doublet and
offered them his throat to cut.” Julius Caesar, Act I., Scene II. “It ascends me into
the brain.' Henry IV., Part II., Act IV., Scene III. ‘He presently steps me a ſittle
higher.” Henry IV., Part I., Act IV., Scene III.
204 DATIVE.
Nore 1.-The Ethical DATIVE is always a personal pronoun.
Note 2. —The Ethical DATIve occurs with vol.5 and with INTER.jections:
Quid vôbis vultis, what do you wish, intend, mean? Liv. Avāritia quid sibſ vult,
what does a varice mean? or what object can it have? Cic. Ei mihi, ah ME! Verg.
vae tibi, woe to You. Ter. See 381, note 3, 3).
RULE XIII--Two Datives—To which and For which,
390. Two Datives—the object to which and the ob-
ºot or END For which—occur with a few verbs:
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs:
Malj est hominibus avaritia, avarice is AN Evil. To MEN (lit., is to MEN
ºr AN Evil). Cic. Est mihi cºrae, it is A. cARE To M.E. Cic. Domus
decori doming fit, the house becomes A Disgrace to its owner. Cic.
vºnit Atticis auxilio, he came to the assistance of the Athenians. Nep.
Höc illi tribuébâtur Ignaviae, this was imputed to him as cowardice (for
-cardice). Cic. Eis subsidió missus est, he was sent to them as aid. Nep.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs in connection with the AC-
-USATIVE-:
Quinque cohortés castris praesidia reliquit, he left five cohorts For THE
ºf ENCE or THE CAMP (lit., to THE CAMP for A DEFENCE). Caes. Periclés
ºrds suds donà réſ publicae dedit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic
- a present (lit., for a present). Just.
Note 1.-The verbs which take two Datives are—
1) Intransitive verbs signifying to be, become, go, and the like: sum, fºo, etc.
2) Transitive verbs signifying to give, send, leave, impute, regard, choose, and the
-e: dº, dono, diſco, habeo, mitto, relinquo, tribuo, verto, etc. These take in the
ºtive two Datives with an Accusative; but in the Passive two Datives only, as the
direct object of the Active becomes the subject of the Passive; see 464.
Note 2-One of the Dativesis often omitted, or its place supplied by a predicate noun:
Ea sunt tisui, these things are of use (for use). Caes. Tū illi pateres, you are
- FATHER to HIM. Tac. See 362, 2, note 3.
NotE 3–With audiens two Datives sometimes occur, dictº dependent upon au-
ºns, and a personal Dative dependent upon dictº audiens, and sometimes dicta oboe-
-ºns is used like dictº audiens:
Dictó sum audiens, I am listening to the word. Plaut. Nobis dictó audiens est,
- is obedient to us. Cic. Magiströ dictó oboediens, obedient to his master. Plaut.
RULE XIV.-Dative with Adjectives.
391. With adjectives the object to which the quality
is directed is put in the Dative:
Patriae solum omnibus cærum est, the soil of their country is dear to ALL.
- --
ºn tº º 'º -º-º-º-º- ºn
nº-º-º-º-º-º-ºo-ºº age. Canissiºns upº


DATIVE. 205
est, a dog is similar to a wolf. Cic. Nātūrae accommodatum, adapted tº
nature. Cic. Graeciae utile, useful to Greece. Nep. -
I. ADJECTIVEs which take the DATIVE are chiefly those signifying—
Agreeable, easy, friendly, like, near, necessary, suitable, subject, useful, tº
gether with others of a similar or opposite meaning, and verbals in bilis.
II. OTHER Constructions sometimes occur where the learner would ex
pect the Dative:
1. The Accusative with a Preposition : (1) in, ergã, adversus, with al-
jectives signifying friendly, hostile, etc., and (2) ad, to denote the object ºr
end for which, with adjectives signifying useful, suitable, inclined, etc.:
Perindulgens in patrem, very kind to His FATHER. Cic. Multās ad rº
perútilis, very useful For many THINGs. Cic. Prónus ad lüctum, inclined tº
mourning. Cic.
2. The Accusative without a Prºposition with propior, prºcimus:
Propior montem, nearer. The MoUNTAIN. Sall. Próximus mare, nearest tº
the sea. Caes. See 433 and 437.
3. The Ablative with or without a Preposition:
Alienum d wità meå, foreign to my LIFE. Ter. Homine alienissimum.
most foreign to or From MAN. Cic. Ei cum Röscio communis, common tº
him and Roscius (with Roscius). Cic.
4. The Genitive: (1) with adjectives used substantively; (2) with adjeº-
tives meaning like, unlike,” near, belonging to, and a few others:
Amicissimus hominum, the best friend of THE MEN (i. e., the most friendly
to them). Cic. Alexandri similis, like ALExANDER (i.e., in character). Cic.
Dispar sui, unlike itself. Cic. Cújus pares, like whom. Cic. Populi R-
mâniest propria libertãs, liberty is characteristic of the Roman people. Cic.
Note 1.-Idem occurs with the Dative, especially in the poets:
Idem facit occidenti, he does the same as to KILL, or as HE wiro KILLs. Hor.
Nore 2. —For the Genitive and Dative with an adjective, see 399, I., note 1.
RULE XV.-Dative with Nouns and Adverbs.
392. The Dative is used with a few special nouns and
adverbs:
I. With a few nouns from verbs which take the Dative:
Jüstitia est obtemperatić legibus, justice is obedience to Laws. Ciº-
1 Such are accommodatus, aequalis, alienus, amicus, inimicus ºp”, cºrº
facilis, difficitis, fidelis, infidelis, finitimus, gratus, ingrätus, ºdoneus, Jºcundu-
injūcundus, molestus, necessarius, natus, ignºtus, norius, ºr, dispar, permºcºst-
propinquus, proprius, saliſtóris, similis, dissimilis, d Foersus, vicinus, etc.
* The Genitive is used especially of likeness and unlikeness IN CHARActºr.
* As ºmitte discºnstie assº cºncºs ºr dºnºr ºf ºf fººm”
ºw-ºoºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º:
ºn tº wºn t-i-º-
206 G ENITIVE.
Sibi responsió, a reply To HIMSELF. Cic. Opulentó homini servitus dira
est, serving (servitude to) a rich man is hard. Plaut. Facilis déscènsus’
Avernò, easy is the descent to Avernus. Verg.
II. With a few adverbs from adjectives which take the
T)ative :
Congruenter” natürae vivere, to live in accordance witH NATURE. Cic.
Sibi convenienter dicere, to speak consistently WITH HIMSELF. Cic. Próxi-
mè hostium castris, next to the camp of the enemy. Caes. -
NoTE 1.-In rare instances the Dative occurs with a few nouns and adverbs not in-
cluded in the rule :
Tribunicia potestās, mùnimentum libertăţi, tribunician power, a défence FoR LIB-
ERTY. Liv. Huic (ină = una cum hāc, with this one. Werg. - *
NOTE: 2. —For the Dative of Gerum dives with official names, see 544, note 3.
NoTE 8.—For the Dative with interjections, see 381, note 8; 389, note 2.
SECTION WI.
GEINITIVE.
393. The Genitive in its ordinary use corresponds to the
English possessive, or the objective with of, and expresses
various adjective relations.”
NoTE.—But the Genitive, especially when objective (396, III.), is sometimes best
rendered to, for, from, in, on account of, etc.:
JBeneficii grätia, gratitude FoR A FAvor. Cic. Labórum fuga, escape FROM LABORS.
Cic. Ereptae virginis ira, anger on account of the rescue of the maiden. Werg.
394. The Genitive is used chiefly to qualify or limit nouns
and adjectives," though it also occurs with verbs and adverbs.
IRULE XVI.-Genitive with Nouns.
395. Any noun, not an appositive, qualifying the
meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive:
Catónis Grätiönés, CATO's orations. Cic. Castra hostium, the camp of
THE ENEMY. Liv. Mors Hamilcaris, the death of HAMILCAR. Liv. Deûm.
metus, the fear of the gods. Liv. Vir consiliſ māgni, a man of great pru-
dence. Caes, Pars populi, a part of the people. Cic.
* From déScéndo, which admits the Dative in poetry; see 385, 4, 1).
* From congrwéns, which takes the Dative.
* The Genitive has nearly the force of an adjective, and means simply of or belonging
to. Thus, régis, equivalent to régius, means of or belonging to a king. On the origin
and use of the Genitive, see Hübschmann, p. 106; Merguet, p. 69; Holzweissig, pp. 26
and 78; Draeger, I., pp. 447–493; Roby, II., pp. 116–137.
* Doubtless originally it limited only nouns and adjectives,
GENITIVE 20%
NoTE 1.-For the Appositive, see 363.
NoTE 2.-An ADJECTIVE is sometimes used for the Genitive :
Bellica glória = belli glória, the glory of war. Cic. Conjunx Hectorea = conjunx
Hectoris, the wife of Hector. Werg. Pügna Marathónia, the battle of Marathon. Cic.
JDīāna Ephesia, Diana of Ephesus. Cic. See 393, foot-note.
NoTE 3.—For the Predicate Genitive, see 401.
NoTE 4.—For special uses of the Dative, see 384, 4, note 2.
396. The qualifying Genitive may be—
I. A PossESSIVE GENITIVE, designating the author and the possessor:
Xenophēntis libri, the books of Xenophon. Cic. Fănum Neptăni, the
temple of Neptune. Nep.
II. A SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE, designating the subject or agent of the ac-
tion, feeling, etc.:
Serpentis morsus, the bite of the serpent. Cic. Pavor Numidārum, the fear
of the Mumédians. Liv.
NoTE.—The PossESSIVE PRONou N is regularly used for the Subjective Genitive of
Personal pronouns:
Mea domus, my house. Cic. Fāma tua, your fame. Cic.
III. An OBJECTIVE GENITIVE, designating the object toward which the
action or feeling is directed:
Amor glóriae, the love of glory. Cic. Memoria malórum, the recollection
of sufferings. Cic. Deûm metus, the fear of the gods. Liv.
NOTE: 1–For the OBJECTIVE GENITIVE, the Accusative with in, êrgă, or adver-
sus is Sometimes used :
Odium in hominum genus, hatred of or toward the race of men. Cic. Ergä vös
amor, love toward you. Cic.
NoTE 2.—The PossESSIVE occurs, though rarely, for the Objective Genitive of Per-
Sonal pronouns:
Tua fiducia, reliance on you. Cic.
IV. A PARTITIVE GENITIVE, designating the whole of which a part is
taken :
Quis vestrüm, which of you ? Cic. Vitae pars, a part of life. Cic.
Omnium sapientissimus, the wisest of all men. Cic.
W. A DESCRIPTIVE GENITIVE, also called a GENITIVE of CHARACTERISTIC,
designating character or quality, including value, price, size, weight, age, etc.
Vir mâximi consilii, a man of very great prudence. Nep. Mitis ingenii
juvenis, a youth of mild disposition. Liv. Vēstis mágni pretii, a garment of
great value. Cic. Exsilium decem annórum, an exile of ten years. Nep.
Coróna parvi ponderis, a crown of Small weight. Liv. See 404.
1. It will be found convenient thus to characterize the different uses of the Genitive
by the relation actually existing between the words united by it, though that special re-
lation is not expressed by the case itself, but merely suggested by the meaning of the
words thus united. w -
208 G EAWITIVE.
NoTE. 1.-The Descriptive Genitive must be accompanied by an adjective or some
other modifier, unless it be a compound containing a modifier; as hiſjuSmod? = hiſju6
modž; tridwi, from trés diēs; bidwi, from duo (bis) diēs.
NotE 2. — For id genus = Éjus generis, omne (7énus = omnis generis, see 378, 2.
NoTE 3.-For the Descriptive Ablative, see 419, II., with note.
WI. An APPOSITIONAL GENITIVE, having the general force of an Apposi-
tive (363):
Virtùs continentiae, the virtue of self-control. Cic. Oppidum Antiochiae,
the city of Antioch. Cic. Tellus Ausoniae, the land of Ausonia. Verg.
397. The PARTITIVE GENITIVE designates the whole of which
a part is taken. It is used—
1. With pars, némó, nihil, with nouns of quantity, number, weight,
cto., as modius, legið, talentum ; and with any nouns used partitively:
Equorum pars, a part of THE HORSEs. Liv. Nihil movă (441, 2), nothing
NEw (of NEw). Cic. Nihil réliqui (441, 2), nothing left (lit., OF THE rest).
Sall. Medimnum tritici, a bushel of wheat. Cic. Pecuniae talentum, a talent
of money. Nep. Quorum Gäius, Qf whom Gaius. Cic.
2. With Numerals used substantively: 1
Quðrum quattuor, four of whom. Liv. Equitum centum, a hundred of
the cavalry. Curt. Sapientum octavus, the eighth of the wise men. Hor.
Unus pontium, one of the bridges. Caes.
NoTE.—In good prose the Genitive is not used when the two words refer to the same
number of objects, even though of be used in English:
Qui (not guðrum) duo supersunt, of whom two survive. Cic. Omnés hominés, all
men. Cic. But see p. 209, note 4, with foot-note.
3. With Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, especially with
comparatives, superlatives, and neuters:”
Quis vestrüm, which of you ? Cic. Num quidnam novi, is there anything
^ew (of NEw)? Cic. Cónsulum alter, one of the consuls. Liv. Prior hörum,
the former of these. Nep. Gallórum fortissimi, the bravest of the Gauls. Caes.
Id temporis, that (of) time. Cic. Multum operae, much (of) Service. Cic.
NOTE 1.-Pronouns and adjectives, except neuters, when used with the Partitive
Genitive, take the gender of the Genitive, unless they agree directly with some other
word; see cănsulum alter, above.
NOTE 2.- Utergwe, ‘each, ‘both,” is generally used as an adjective; but when it is
combined in the singular number with another pronoun, it usually takes that pronoun in
the Genitive:
Utergue exercitus, each army. Caes. Quae utraque, both of which. Sall. Utrique
noström 8 grätum, acceptable to each of us. Cic.
* Numerals used adjectively agree with their nouns: mille hominés, ‘a thousand
men"; mille homintm, “a thousand of men’; multi hominés, “many men"; multi
hominum, ‘many of the men.”
2 As håc, £d, illud, quéd; multum, pliſs, plurimwºm, minus, minimum, tantum,
gºtamtwºn, etc.
* A Partitive Gemitive, because a promown. "
G ENITIVE. - 209
NoTE 3.-For the Partitive Genitive, the Accusative with inter or ante, or the
Ablative with ex, dé, or in, is sometimes used:
Inter régès opulentissimus, the most wealthy of (among) Kings. Sen. Unus ex viris,
one of the heroes. Cic. Unus 1 délégåtis, one of the lieutenants. Cic.
NoTE 4.—Poets and late prose writers make a very free use of the Partitive Genitive
after adjectives:
Sancta dearum, holy goddess. Enn. Sancte deorum, O holy god. Werg. Festūs
dièrum, festal days. Hor. Levös cohjrtium, the light-armed cohorts. Tac. Inclutus
philosophörum, the renowned philosopher. Just. Réliquum dići, the rest of the day.
Liv. Multum diči, 2nuch of the day. Liv. Réliquum noctis, the rest of the might. Tac.
Strâta viárum = Strätae viae, paved Streets. Werg. Wāna rörum = vänae rés, vain.
things. Hor. Hominum cinctſ, all of the men.” Ovid. Cúncta terrãrum, all lands.
Hor. See also 438, 5. - - -
NoTE 5.—The Wewter of pronouns and adjectives with the Partitive Genitive is some-
times used of persons:
Quid höc est hominis, what KIND OF A MAN is this f Plaut. Qwidguiderat pa-
trum reds dicerós, you would have said that ALL THE SENATORs (lit., whATEVER there
was of FATHERS) were accused. Liv. Quid hic tantum hominum incédunt, why are
so MANY MEN (So MUCH OF MEN) coming hither ? Plaut.
4. The Partitive Genitive also occurs with a few adverbs used sub-
stantively: *
Armörum adfatim, abundance of arms. Liv. Lúcis nimis, too much (of) light.
Ovid. Sapientiae parum, little (of) wisdom. Sall. Partim copiārum, a portion
of the forces. Liv. Quod ejus facere potest, as far as (what of it) he is able to
do. Cic. Nüsquam gentium, nowhere in the world. Cic. Hüc arrogantiae,
to this degree of insolence. Tac. Máximé omnium, most of all. Cic.
398. GENITIVE IN SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS.—Note the fol-
lowing:
1. The Governing Word is often omitted. Thus—
Aedas, templum, discipulus, homó, juvenis, puer, etc.; causa, grátia, and
indeed any word when it can be readily supplied:
Ad Jovis (se, aedem), near the temple of Jupiter. Liv. Hannibal annó-
rum novem (Sc. puer), Hannibal, a boy nine years of age. Liv. Aberant
bidui (sc. viam or spatium), they were two days’ journey distant. Cie. Cön-
ferre vitam Treboni cum Dolabellae (sc. vitā), to compare the life of Trebonius
with that of Dolabella. Cic.
NoTE 1.-The governing word is generally omitted when it has been expressed before
another Genitive, as in the last example; and then the second Genitive is sometimes
attracted into the case of the governing word:
1 Ünus is generally followed by the Ablative with ea, or dé, but sometimes by the
Genitive. y -
2 Observe that in this case the partitive idea has entirely disappeared, and that the
construction is partitive in for???, but not in sensé.
* As with adverbs of QUANTITY-abunde, adfation, mimis, partum, partim, quwwu,
satis, etc.; of PLACE—hic, hic, misquam, ubi, etc.; of ExTENT, DEGREE, etc.—éſ, hite,
qwā; and with superlatives. As adverbs are substantives or adjectives in origin, it is
not strange that they are thus used with the Genitive.
210 . G ENITIVE.
Nātūra hominis bêluis (for bâludrum nátīrae) antecôdit, the nature of man sur-
passes (that of) the brutes. Cic.
NoTE 2.—In many cases where we supply son, daughter, husband, wife, the ellipsis
is only apparent, the Genitive depending directly on the proper noun expressed:
Hasdrubal Giscónis, Gisco's Hasdrubal, or Hasdrubal the son of Gisco. Liv. Hec-
toris Andromaché, Hector's Andromache, or Andromache the wife of Hector. Verg.
2. Two GENITIVEs are sometimes used with the same noun. One is
generally subjective, the other either objective or descriptive:
Memmi odium potentiae, Memmius's hatred of power. Sall. Helvétićrum
injūriae populi Römäni, the wrongs done by the Helvetii to the Roman people.
Caes. Superiorum dièrum Sabini cunctatič, the delay of Sabinus during (lit.,
of) the preceding days. Caes.
3. A GENITIVE sometimes accompanies a PossESSIVE, especially the
Genitive of ipse, Sölus, inus, or omnis:
Tua ipsius amicitia, your own friendship. Cic. Meum sölſus peccatum,
ſmy fault alone. Cic. Nômen meum absentis, my name in my absence. Cic.
4. The Genitive is used with instar, “likeness,’ ‘image,’ in the sense of
as large as, of the size of, equal to:
Instar montis equus, a horse of the size of a mountain. Verg.
5. The Genitive is used with pridić, postridia, ergö, and tenus:”
Pridié ejus diēſ, on the day before that day. Caes. Postridié ejus diēſ, on
the day after that day. Caes. Virtutis ergö, on account of virtue. Cic. Lum-
bórum tenus, as far as the loins. Cic. For tenus with the Ablative, see 434.
RULE XVII.-Genitive with Adjectives.
399. Many adjectives take a Genitive to complete
their meaning:
Avidus laudis, desirous of PRAISE. Cic. Otú cupidus, desirous of LEIS-
URE. Liv. Cönscius conjūrātičnis, cognizant of the conspiracy. Sall.
Amāns sui virtùs, virtue fond of itself. Cic. Efficièns voluptătis, produc-
tive of pleasure. Cic. Glóriae memor, mindful of glory. Liv.
NoTE.—This Genitive corresponds to the Objective Genitive with nouns:
Amor glöriae, the love of glory. Cic. Appetëns glóriae, desirous of (eager for)
glory. Cic.
I. The Genitive is used with adjectives denoting—
1. DESIRE or AVERSION:*
1 Ipsius may be explained as agreeing with tui (of you), involved in tua, and Söläus
and absentis as agreeing with me? (of me), involved in meum. -
* These words are strictly nouns, and, as such, govern the Genitive. Pridié and
postridié are Locatives; ergö is an Ablative, and tenus, an Accusative; see 304; 307,
note 1.
* Such are—(1) avidus, cupidus, studiósus; fastidiósus, etc.; (2) gnärus, ignärus,
cömsultws, cón&cius, £nscius, nescints, certw8, incertus; providus, prüdéns, impril-
G. E.WITIVE. 211
Contentionis cupidus, desirous of contention. Cic. Sapientiac studiosus, stu-
dious of (student of) wisdom. Cic. Terrae fastidiósus, weary of the land. Hor.
2. KNowLEDGE, SKILL, RECOLLECTION, with their contraries: "
Réignärus, acquainted with the thing. Cic. Prúdéns réi militäris, skilled
&n military science. Nep. Peritus belli, skilled in war. Nep. Insuëtus
laboris, unaccustomed to labor. Caes. Glóriae memor, mindful of glory.
Liv. ' Immemor beneficii, forgetful of kindness. Cic.
3. PARTICIPATION, GUILT, FULNESS, MASTERY, with their contraries: 1
Adfinis culpae, sharing the fault. Cic. Rationis particeps, endowed with
(sharing) reason. Cic. Rationis expers, destitute of reason. Cic. Manifestus
rèrum capitälium, convicted of capital crimes. Sall. Vita metús plena, a life
..full of fear. Cic. Mei potèns sum, I am master of myself. Liv. Virtùtis
compos, capable of virtue. Cic.
NOTE 1.-The Genitive and Dative sometimes occur with the same adjective:
Mēns Sibi conscia récti, a mind conscious to itself of rectitude. Verg. Sibi cánscii
culpae, conscious to themselves of fault. Cic.
NOTE 2.-For the Genitive with adjectives used substantively, and with adjectives
Ineaning like, unlike, near, belonging to, etc., see 391, II, 4. -
NoTE 3.—For the Genitive with dignus and indignus, see 421, note 3.
II. The Genitive is used with VERBALs in ax, and with PRESENT PAR-
TICIPLES used adjectively:
Virtútum feräx, productive of virtues. Liv. Tenāx propositi, tenacious
(steadfast) of purpose. Hor. Amāns patriae, fond of his country.” Cic.
Fugièns labóris, shunning labor. Caes.
III. In the poets and in late prose writers, especially in Tacitus, the Gen-
itive is used—
1. With adjectives of almost every variety of signification, simply to
define their application : *
Aevi matürus, mature in age. Verg. Ingéns virium, mighty in strength.
Sall. Séri studiórum, late in studies. Hor. Integer aevi, unimpaired in age
(i.e., in the bloom of youth). Verg. Aeger animi,4 afflicted in Spirit. Liv. Anx-
ius animi,” anacious in mind. Sall. Fidèns animi, confident in spirit. Verg.
2. With a few adjectives, to denote cause:
Laetus labórum, pleased with the labors. Verg. Nötus animi paterni, dis-
tinguished for paternal affection. Hor.
déns; peritus, imperitus, rudis, insuétus; memor, immemor, etc.; (3) adfinis, cón-
sors, eacsors, ea pers, particeps, manifestus, now.ius; plenus, fertilis, refertus, egénus,
inops, vacuus; potēns, impotēns, compos, etc.
* See foot-note 3, page 210.
* Amāns patriae, ‘fond of his country,” represents the affection as permanent and
constant; whereas the participial construction, amáns patriam, “loving his country,’
designates a particular instance or act.
* Like the Ablative of Specification; see 424. For vöti reus, ‘bound to fulfil a
wow," see 410, III., note 2. ... *
* Probably a Locative in origin, as animis is used in similar instances in the plural.
212 G ENITIVE.
400. Adjectives which usually take the Genitive, sometimes
admit other constructions:
1. The DATIVE:
Manús subitis avidae, hands ready for sudden events. Tac. Insuetus mori-
bus Römänis, unaccustomed to Roman manners. Liv. Facinori měns conscia,
a mind conscious of crime. Cic. See 391.
2. The ACCUSATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION:
Insuetus ad pugnam, unaccustomed to battle. Liv. Fertilis ad omnia, pro-
ductive for all things. Plin. Avidus in noväs rés, eager for new things. Liv.
3. The ABLATIVE WITH or witHouT A PREPOSITION:
Prúdèns in jūre civili, learned in civil law. Cic. His dé rebus conscius,
aware of these things. Cic. Vacuus de défènsöribus, destitute of defenders.
Caes. Cúris vacuus, free from cares. Cic. Refertus bonis, replete with bless-
ings. Cic. See 414, III.
RULE XVIII.—Predicate Genitive.
401. A noun predicated of another noun denoting a
different person or thing is put in the Genitive:
Omnia hostium erant, all things belonged. To THE ENEMY." Liv. Senátus
Hannibalis erat, the senate was HANNIBAL's (i. e., in his interest). Liv.
Jüdicis est vérum sequÍ, to follow the truth is the duty of A JUDGE.” Cic.
Parvi pretii est, it is of small value. Cic. Tyrus mare suae diciónis & fecit,
Tyre brought the sea under (lit., made the sea of) her sway. Curt.
NoTE 1.-For a noun predicated of another noun denoting the same person or thing,
see 362; 373, 1. -
NoTE 2.-A PREDICATE GENITIVE is often nearly or quite equivalent to a Predicate
adjective (360, note 1): hominis est = hºmânwm est, “it is the mark of a man,’ ‘is
human"; stulti est = Stultum est, “it is foolish.” The Genitive is the regular construc-
tion in adjectives of one ending: Sapiénțis est (for Sapëns est), “it is the part of a wise
man,’ ‘is wise."
NoTE 3.—Possessive pronouns in agreement with the subject supply the place of the
Predicate Genitive 4 of personal pronouns:
Est tuum (not twº) videre, it is your duty to see. Cic.
NoTE 4.—Aequi, boni, and réliqui occur as Predicate Genitives in such expressions
as aequº facere, aequº bonºgue facere, boni consulere, ‘to take in good part,” and
zéliqui facere, “to leave':
Aequi bonique fació, I take it in good part. Ter. Milités nihil réliqui victis fécère,
the soldiers left nothing to the vanquished. Sall. .
1 Literally, acere of THE ENEMY, or were THE ENEMY's.
* Literally, is of A JUDGE.
* Here dición is, denoting a different thing from mare, of which it is predicated, is
put in the Genitive.
* This is another illustration of the close relationship between a Predicate Genitive
and a Predicate Adjective; see also note 2.
G ENITIVE. 213
4O2. The PREDICATE GENITIVE is generally Possessive or De-
scriptive, rarely Partitive:
JHaec hostium erant, these things were of (belonged to) THE ENEMY. Liv.
Est imperätóris superäre, it is the duty of A COMMANDER to conquer. Caes.
Summae facultätis est, he is (a man) of the highest ability. Cic. Opera
māgni fuit, the assistance was of great value. Nep. Fiès nobilium fontium,'
gyou will become one of the noble fountains. Hor.
4O3. The PREDICATE GENITIVE occurs most frequently with
sum and facio, but sometimes also with verbs of Seeming, regard-
Žng, etc.:
Öram Römānae diciónis fécit, he brought the coast under (made the coast
of) Roman rule. Liv. Hominis vidétur, it seems to be the mark of a man.
Cic. See also examples under 401.
NoTE.—Transitive verbs of this class admit in the active an Accusative with the
Genitive, as in the first example.
4O4. The PREDICATE GENITIVE of PRICE or VALUE is used with
sum and with verbs of valuing :
Māgni sunt tuae litterae, your letters are of GREAT VALUE. Cic. Plüris
esse, to be of GREATER v ALUE. Cic. Parvi pendere, to think lightly of Sall.
Auctoritätem tuam mágni aestimó, I prize your authority highly. Cic.
NotE 1.-With these verbs the Genitive of price or value is generally an adjective,”
as in the examples, but pretiº is sometimes used:
Parvi pretii est, it is of little value. Cic.
NoTE 2.-Wihili and, in familiar discourse, a few other Genitives 3 occur:
Nihili facere, to take no account of Cic. Nön flocci pendere, not to care a Straw
(lock of wool) for. Plaut.
405. Tanti, quanti, pluris, and minóris are also used as GENI-
TIVES OF PRICE with verbs of buying and selling : *
Emit hortös tanti, he purchased the gardens AT so GREAT A PRICE. Cic.
Véndô frümentum pliºris, I sell grain ATA HIGHER PRICE. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Ablative of price, see 422.
RULE XIX.-Genitive with Special Verbs.
406. The Genitive is used—
I. With misereor and miseréscö:
Miserére laborum, pity the labors. Verg. Miseréscite régis, pity the
king. Verg. -
1 Facultätis and mögmö are Descriptive, but fontium is Partitive.
* The following adjectives are so used: mágni, parvi, tanti, quant? plºris, mi-
móris ; plićrimi, and acimi, and minim?.
* As dissés, flocci, naucz, and pâlî.
* Observe that verbs of buying and selling admit the Genitive of price only when
one of these adjectives is used. In other cases they take the Ablative of price.
214 G ENITIVE.
II. With recordor, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor:”
Meminit praeteritórum, he remembers the past. Cic. Oblitus sum meſ,
I have forgotten myself. Ter. Flägitiúrum recordārī, to recollect base deeds.
Cie. Reminisci virtùtis, to remember virtue. Caes.
III. With réfert and interest:
Illārum réfert, it concerns them. Sall. Interest omnium, it is the inter-
est of all. Cic.
NoTE.—The expression, Venit in mentem, ‘it occurs to mind," is sometimes con-
strued with the Genitive and sometimes with the Nominative:
Wenit mihi Platónis in mentem,” the recollection of Plato comes to my mind, or 1
Tecollect Plato. Cic. Nön venit in mentem pågna, does not the battle occur to your
mind f Liv. -
407. Verbs of REMEMBERING and FORGETTING often take the
Accusative instead of the Genitive:
Memineram Paullum, I remembered Paullus. Cic. Triumphās recordâri,
to recall triumphs. Cic. Ea reminiscere, remember those things. Cic.
NoTE 1.-The Accusative is the common construction (1) with recordor and (2)
with the other verbs, if it is a neuter pronoun or adjective, or designates an object re-
membered by a contemporary or an eye-witness.
NOTE 2.-The Ablative with dē is rare :
Recordåre décèteris, bethink yourself of the others. Cic.
408. The CoNSTRUCTION with réfert and interest is as follows:
I. The PERSON interested is denoted—
1. By the Genitive, as under the rule. -
2. By the Ablative Feminine of the Possessive.8 This takes the place of the
Genitive of personal pronouns:
Meä réfert, it concerns me. Ter. Interest meå, it interests me. Cic.
3. By the Dative, or Accusative with or without Ad; but rarely, and
chiefly with réfert, which moreover often omits the person:
Quid réfert viventi, what does it concern one living 3 Hor. Ad mé réfert,
$t concerns me. Plaut.
II. The SUBJECT of IMPORTANCE, or that which involves the interest, is
expressed by an Infinitive or Clause, or by a Neuter Pronoun:
1 The Genitive with verbs of pitying, remembering, and forgetting probably de-
pends upon the substantive idea contained in the verbs themselves; see Internal Object,
371, I., 2. Thus, memini with the Accusative means I remember distinctly and fully,
generally used of an eye-witness or of a contemporary; but with a Genitive, it means to
have some recollection of. With réſert the Genitive depends upon ré, the Ablative of
rés, contained in the verb, and with interest it may be a Predicate Genitive, or may sim-
ply follow the analogy of réfert. X- *
* With vendt in mentem, the Genitive Platānis supplies the place of subject. It
probably limits the pronominal subject already contained in venit, as in every Latin verb,
Žt or that of Plato, the recollection of Plato.
* 3ce foot-note 1, above. .
G ENITIVE. 215
Interest omnium récte facere, to do right is the interest of all. Cic. Vestră
höc interest, this interests you. Cic.
III. The DEGREE OF INTEREST is expressed by an Adverb, by a Neuter
used adverbially, or by a Genitive of Value (404): -
Westrå mäximè interest, it especially interests you. Cic. Quid nostră ré-
fert, what does it concern us? Cic. Māgni interest meå, it greatly interests
me. Cic.
IV. The OBJECT or END for which it is important is expressed by the
Accusative with ad, rarely by the Dative: -
Ad honorem nostrum interest, it is important for our honor. Cic.
RULE XX. —Accusative and Genitives
409. The ACCUSATIVE of the PERSON and the GENI-
TIVE of the THING are used with a few transitive verbs:
I. With verbs of reminding, admonishing : *
Tě amicitiae commonefacit, he reminds you of FRIENDSHIP. Cic. Milités
necessitätis monet, he reminds the soldiers of the necessity. Ter.
II. With verbs of accusing, convicting, acquitting: '
Virós sceleris arguis, you accuse men of CRIME. Cic. Levitätis eum con-
vincere, to convict him of levity. Cic. Absolvere injüriae eum, to acquit
him of injustice. Cic. 4
III. With miseret, paenitet, pudet, taedel, and piget : *
Eörum nós miseret, we pity THEM (it moves our pity of THEM). Cic.
Cönsiliſ mé paenitet, I repent of my purpose. Cic. Mé stultitiae meae
pudet, I am ashamed of my folly. Cic.
NoTE 1.-The Genitive of the Thing designates, with verbs of reminding, etc., that
to which the attention is called; with verbs of accusing, etc., the crime, charge; and
with miseret, paenitet, etc., the object which produces the feeling; see examples.
NoTE 2.-The personal verbs included under this rule retain the Genitive in the
Passive: -
Accüsätus est proditionis, he was accused of TREASON. Nep.
1 The Genitive with verbs of reminding and admonishing may be explained like
that with verbs of pitying, remembering, and forgetting; see foot-note 1, page 214.
With verbs of accusing, etc., the Genitive may also be explained in the same way, or
may depend upon mêmine, crimine, or jūdició, understood. Sometimes one of these
nouns is expressed; see 410, II., 1.
2 The Genitive with paenitet, pudet, etc., like that with venit in memtém (see 406,
note, with foot-note), depends upon the impersonal subject contained in the verb. Thns,
té haćg pudent moana those tºwys showme you, and mé Stultitiae meae pudet, literally
rendered, means of my folly (i.e., the thought of it, or something about it), Shames me.
The Genitive with miseret may be explained either in the same way, or like that with
mºiséreor; see foot-note 1, page 214,
216 G ENITIVE.
NoTE 3.-In judicial language a few verbs not otherwise so used are treated as
verbs of accusing. Thus condicò occurs with the Genitive in Livy, I., 32.
41O. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS.—The following deserve notice:
I. Verbs of REMINDING and ADMONISHING sometimes take, instead of
the Genitive—
1. The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely of a substan-
tive, thus admitting two accusatives:
Illud mé admonés, you admonish me OF THAT. Cic.
2. The Ablative with dé—moneó and its compounds generally so:
JDé proeliö vös admonul, I have reminded you of THE BATTLE. Cic.
II. Werbs of AccusING, CoNVICTING, sometimes take, instead of the
Genitive of the crime, cte.—
1. The Genitive with námine, crimine, jūdició, or some similar word:
Nömine conjūrātionis damnāti sunt, they were condemned on the charge of
conspiracy. Cic. Innocentem jūdició capitis arcessere, to arraign an inno-
cent man on a capital charge. Cic.
2. The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely:
Id mé accusás, you accuse me of that. Plaut.
3. The Ablative alone or with a preposition, generally dé:
Dè pectiniis repetundis damnātus est, he was convicted of extortion. Cic.
III. With verbs of CoNDEMNING, the Penalty is generally expressed by
the Ablative,” or by the Accusative with a preposition, usually ad:
Tertià parte damnări, to be condemned to forfeit a third of one's land. Liv.
Capite damnăre, to condemn to death. Cic. Morte multäre, to punish with
death. Cic. Ad bestiãs condemnăre, to condemn to the wild beasts. Suet.
NotE 1.-In the poets the penalty is sometimes expressed by the Dative:
Morti damnātus, condemned to death. Lucr.
NoTE 2.—The Genitive occurs in such special expressions as capitis condemnăre,
‘to condemn to death"; vöti damnări, “to be condemned to fulfil a vow' = ‘to obtain
a wish"; dammārž longi labóris, “to be condemned to long labor”; vöö rew8* = vöt?
damnătus, ‘condemned to fulfil a vow':
Aliquem capitis condemnăre, to condemn one to death. Cic. Tammātus longi labóris,
condemned to long labor. Hor. -
IV. With MISERET, PAENITET, PUDET, TAEDET, and PIGET, an Infinitive
or Clause is sometimes used, rarely a neuter pronoun or nihil :
Mé paenitet vixisse, I repent having lived. Cic. Tê haec pudent, these
things shame you. Ter.
NoTE 1.-Like miseret are sometimes used miseréscit, commiseréscit, misérétwr,
commiserétwr. Like taedet are used pertaedet, pertaeswºm est.
NoTE 2.-Pudet sometimes takes the Genitive of the person before whom one is
ashamed : -
Mö tui pudet, I am ashamed in your presence. Ter. Pudet hominum, it is a
Shame in the sight of mem. Liv.
* Regularly so when the penalty is a definite sum of money.
* Best explained as a substantive.
A BLATIVE. 217
NotE 8.—Pertaegus admits the Accusative of the object:
Pertaesus ignâviam Suam, disgusted with his own inaction. Suet.
W. Many other verbs sometimes take the Genitive.” Thus—
1. Some verbs of plenty and want, as compled, impled, eged, £ndégéð, like
adjectives of the same meaning (399, I., 3):
Virtus exercitätiönis indiget, virtue requires exercise. Cic. Auxilii egére,
to need aid. Caes. Multitudinem réligiönis implévit,” he inspired (filled) the
multitude with religion. Liv. Rérum Satagere, to be occupied with (to do
enough of) business. Ter. -
2. Some verbs of desire, emotion, or feeling, like adjectives of the same
meaning (399, I., 1):
Cupiunt tui, they desire you. Plaut. Tui testimónii veritus, fearing your
testimony. Cic. Animi 3 pended, I am uncertain in mind. Cic. Discrucior
animi, I am troubled in spirit. Plaut. Tê angis animi, you make yourself
anacious in mind. Plaut. Désipere mentis, to be foolish in mind, or mistaken
£n opinion. Plaut.
3. A few verbs denoting mastery or participation, like adjectives of the
same meaning (399, I., 3), potior,” adipiscor, régnó :
Siciliae potitus est, he became master of Sicily. Nep. Rérum adeptus est, he
obtained the power. Tac. Régnävit populorum, he was king of the peoples. Hor.
4. In the poets, a few verbs 5 take the Genitive, instead of the Ablative of
Separation or Cause (413):
Abstinëre irãrum, to abstain from anger. Hor. Labórum décipitur, he is
beguiled of his labors. Hor. Désine querélärum, cease from complaints. Hor.
Désistere pugnae, to desist from the battle. Verg. Eum culpae liberăre, to
.ſree him from blame (i. e., to acquit him). Liv. Mirãri laborum, to admire
because of toils. Verg. Damni Infecti promittere, to give Surety in view of
expected damage. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Genitive of Gerunds and Gerundives, see 542, I.; 544.
SECTION VII.
S. ABLATIVE.
411. The LATIN ABLATIVE performs the duties of three
cases originally distinct :"
I. The ABLATIVE PROPER, denoting the relation FROM :
Expulsus est patriá, he was banished FROM HIs countRY. Cic.
* Transitives of this class of course admit the Accusative with the Genitive.
* See 421, II.
* Anim? in such instances is probably a Locative in origin, as animis is used in the
same way in the plural. See foot-note on animi, 399, III., 1.
* Potior takes llle Geriltive regularly when it means to reduce to subjection.
* As abstine0, décipio, dēsino, désistö, levo, libero, etc.; miror, etc.
* These three cases, still recognized in the Sanskrit, originally had distinct forms;
but in the Latin, under the influence of phonetic change and decay, these forms have
10
218 A BLA 7 IVE.
II. The INSTRUMENTAL, denoting the relation witH, By :
Söl omnia lúce collustrat, the Sun illumines all things witH ITs LIGHT. Cic.
III. The LOCATIVE, denoting the relation IN, AT:
Sé oppida tenet, he keeps himself IN THE Town. Cic.
I. ABLATIVE PROPER.
RULE XXI.-Place from which,
412. The PLACE FROM which is denoted by the Ablative:
I. Generally with a preposition—a, ab, dē, or ex:
Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out FROM THE CITY. Caes. De ford, from
the forum. Cic. Ex Africa, from (out of) Africa. Liv.
II. In NAMES OF Towns without a preposition : * *.
Platönem Athénis arcessivit, he summoned Plato FROM ATHENs. Nep.
Fügit Corinthö, he fled from Corinth. Cic.
1. Many names of islands, and the Ablatives doma and riºre, are used
like names of towns:
Domó profugit, he fled FROM HOME. Cic. Délà proficiscitur, he proceeds
FROM DELos. Cic.
2. The Ablative of places not towns is sometimes used without a prepo-
sition, especially in poetry:
Cadere nābābus, to fall FROM THE CLouds. Verg. Läbi equê, to fall FROM A
HoRSE. Hor.
3. The preposition is sometimes used with names of towns, especially
for emphasis or contrast:
Ab Arded Römam vénérunt, they came FROM ARDEA to Rome. Liv.
NOTE.-The preposition is generally used when the vicinity, rather than the town
itself, is meant:
Discéssit ā Brundisió, he departed from Brundisiwm (i. e., from the port). Caes.
RULE XXII.-Separation, Source, Cause.
413. Separation, Source, and Cause are denoted by the
Ablative with or without a preposition :
SEPARATION.—Caedem à vöös dépelló, I ward off slaughter FROM YoU.
Cic. IIunc à twis dris arcébis, you will keep this one FROM You R ALTARS.
become identical, and their uses have been blended in a single case called the Ablative.
On the general subject of the Ablative and its use, see Merguet, pp. 109–117; Delbrück;
Hübschmann, pp. 82–106; Holzweissig, pp. 28 and 75; Draeger, I., pp. 494-571; Roby,
II., pp. 68-115.
* This was the original construction for all places alike.
A BLATIVE. 219
Cic. Expulsus est patriá, he was banished from his country. Cic. Urbem
commeåtú privăvit, he deprived the city of supplies. Nep. Cônātū desti-
térunt, they desisted from the attempt. Caes. Vågină ăripe ferrum, draw
your sword from its scabbard. Verg. •
Source.—Höc audiwi de parente með, I heard this FROM MY FATHER. Cic.
Oriundi ab Sabinis, descended FROM THE SABINEs. Liv. Statua ex aere
facta, a statue made of bronze. Cic. Abiete puppis, the stern made of fir.
Verg. Jove nātus, son of Jupiter. Cic.
CAUSE.-Ars àtilitäte laudātur, an art is praised BECAUSE OF ITS USEFUL-
NESS. Cic. Lacrimö gaudio, I weep FoR (on account of) Joy. Ter. Westră
hóc causā volébam, I desired this on your account. Cic. Rogātū véneram, I
had come by request. Cic. Ex vulnere aeger, ill in consequence of his wound.
Cic. Aeger erat vulneribus, he was ill in consequence of his wounds. Nep.
Note 1.-Transitive Verbs admit an Accusative with the Ablative; see examples.
NotE 2.—The prepositions most frequently used with the Ablative of Separation
and Source are à, ab, dé, é, ea, and with the Ablative of Cause, dé, é, eac.
Note: 3.—With the Ablative of Separation the preposition is more freely used when
the separation is local and literal than when it is figurative: dé foró, “from the forum”;
ea. Asia, “out of Asia'; but leváre onetú, “to relieve from fear"; cônātū désistere, “to
desist from the undertaking.”
NotE 4.—For the Genitive instead of the Ablative of Separation, see 410, W., 4;
and for the Dative similarly used, see 385, 2.
414. The ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION designates that from which
anything is separated, or of which it is deprived, and is generally
used without a preposition in the following situations:
I. With verbs meaning to relieve, deprive, need, be without : *
Levå mä hoc onere, relieve me of THIs BURDEN. Cic. Vinclis exsolvere, to
release FROM CHAINs. Plaut. Molestiã expedire, to relieve of trouble. Cic.
Militen praeda fraudāre, to defraud the soldiery of booty. Liv. Nôn egeó
medicini, I do not need a remedy. Cic. Vacăre culpá, to be free from fault.
Cic. See also examples under 413.
II. With moved in special expressions:*
Signum movére loco, to move the standard FROM THE PLACE. Cic.
III. With adjectives meaning free from, destitute of: *
Animus liber cirá, a mind free FROM CARE. Cic. Expers metà, free FROM
FEAR. Cic. Urbs nuda praesidió, a city destitute of defence. Cic.
NoTE.—For a similar use of the Genitive,4 see 399, I., 3.
IV. With opus and tisus, meaning necd:
* As ea pedio, eaconero, levo, relevö, libero, relaa:0, solvo, absolvö, ea:Solvö; eacwó,
fraudo, nºido, orbó, spolio, privo, etc. -
* As in movére loco, movére senåtå, movére tribiſ, movére vestigiö.
3 A or ab is generally used with names of persons and sometimes with other words.
4 Egúnus, indigus, Sterilis, and some others are freely used with the Genitive; Seo
399, I., 3. -
220 A BLATIVE.
Auctārāţăte tuá nobis opus est, we need (there is to us a need of) You R
AUTHORITY. Cic. Usus est tuā mihi operd, I need your AID. Plaut.
NotE 1.-In most other instances a preposition accompanies the Ablative of Separa-
tion, though often omitted in poetry and in late prose. -
NotE 2.-Opus est and iſsus est admit the Dative of the person with the Ablative of
the thing; see examples.
NotE 3.−With opus and iſsus, the Ablative is sometimes a perfect participle, or,
with opus, a noun and a participle:
Cönsultö opus est, there is need of deliberation. Sall. Opus fuit Hirtić conventó,
there was need of meeting Hirtius. Cic.
NoTE 4.—With opus est, rarely with usus est, the thing needed may be denoted—
1) By the Nominative, rarely by the Genitive or Accusative:
Dux nobis opus est, we need a leader, or a leader is necessary (a necessity) for us.
Cic. Temporis opus est, there is need of time. Liv. Opus est cibum, there is need of
jood. Plaut.
2) By an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Supine:
Opus est té valère, it is necessary that you be well. Cic. Opus est ut lavem, it is
mecessary for one to bathe (that I bathe). Plaut. Dictii est opus, it is necessary to be
told. Ter.
415. The ABLATIVE OF Source more commonly takes a prepo-
sition ; see examples under 413. It includes agency, parentage,
7material, etc.
I. The agent or author of an action is designated by the Ablative with
ã or ab:
Occisus est à Thébānis, he was slain by the Thebans. Nep. Occidit à forti
Achille, he was slain (lit., fell) by brave Achilles. Ov.
1. The Ablative without a preposition may be used of a person, regarded
not as the author of the action, but as the means by which it is effected:
Cornua Numidis 1 firmat, he strengthens the wings with NUMIDIANs. Liv.
NoTE 1.-The Accusative with per may be used of the person through whose agency
the action is effected :
Ab Oppianic5 per Fabriciós 1 factum est, it was accomplished by Oppianicus
THROUGH THE AGENCY OF THE FABRICII. Cic.
NotE 2.—For the Dative of Agent, see 388.
2. When anything is personified as agent, the Ablative with ā or ab may
|be used as in the names of persons:
Vinci ä voluptăte, to be conquered by pleasure. Cic. A fortúná datam oc-
căsiónem, an opportunity furnished by fortune. Nep.
II. PERFECT PARTICIPLES denoting parentage or birth—genitus, nātus,
ortus, etc.—generally take the Ablative without a preposition:
Jove nātus, son of Jupiter. Cic. Tantaló prognatus, descended from Tan-
talus. Cic. Parentibus nãti humilibus, born of humble parents. Cic.
* Here note the distinction between the Ablative with ab (ab Oppianicó), denoting
the author of the action, the Accusative with per (per Fabriciós), the person through
whose agency the action was performed, and the Ablative alone (Numidis), the means
of the action.
A BLATIVE. 221
NoTE.—In designating REMOTE ANCESTRY, & or ab is generally used; but after mátus
and ortus, the Ablatives familiá, genere, loco, and stirpe, when Imodified by an adjec-
tive, omit the preposition :
Oriundi ab Sabinis, descended from the Sabines. Liv. Orti ab Germänis, sprung
jrom the Germans. Caes. Nöbili genere nātus, born of a noble family. Sall.
III. With the ABLATIVE OF MATERIAL, 3 or ex is generally used, though
often omitted, especially in poetry:
Statua ex aere facta, a statue made of bronze. Cic. Pöcula ex aurö, cups
of gold. Cic. Aere cavo clipeus, a shield of concave bronze. Verg. Abiete
puppis, the Stern made of fir. Verg.
NoTE. 1.-A special use of the Ablative, kindred to the above, is seen with fació, fið,
and swim in such expressions as the following:
Quid höc homine faciás, what are you to do with this man f Cic. Quid illó fiet,
what will become of him # Cic. Quid tâ futiirum est, what will become of you ? Cic.
NotE 2.-The Dative or the Ablative with dé occurs in nearly the same sense:
Quid huic homini faciàs, what are you to do with (or to) this man f Cic. Quid dé
tú futurum est, what will become of you ? Cic.
416. The ABLATIVE OF CAUSE is generally used without a prepo-
sition.” It designates that by reason of which, because of which, in
accordance with which anything is or is done, and is used both with
werbs and with adjectives; * see examples under 413.
I. CAUSE is sometimes denoted—
1) By the Ablative with ā, ab, dé, é, ex, prae:
Ab eådem superbiá3 non venire, not to come because of the same haught?-
mess. Liv. Ex yulnere 3 aeger, ill in consequence of his wound. Cic. Ex
invidiá laborãre, to suffer from unpopularity. Cic. Nôn prae lacrimis scri-
bere, not to write in consequence of tears. Cic.
2) By the Accusative with ob, per, propter:
Per aetätem inutilès, useless because of (lit., through) their age. Caes. In
oppidum propter timórem sésé recipiunt, they betake themselves into the city
on account of their fear. Caes.
NoTE 1.-With transitive verbs the motive which prompts the action is often ex-
pressed by the Ablative with a perfect passive participle:
Régni cupiditäte 4 inductus conjūrātičnem föcit, influenced by the desire of ruling,
he formed a conspiracy. Caes.
NotE 2.—That in accordance with which anything is done is often denoted by the
Ablative with é or eac: -
1 The Ablative of Cawse is very far removed from the original meaning of the Abla-
tive, and indeed in some of its uses was probably derived from the Instrumental Abla-
tive; see 418. -
* This includes such Ablatives as með jūdācā, in accordance with my opinion; med
sententia, jūssiſ, impulsi, monità, etc.; causii, grâtiá; also the Ablative With de-
Sipið, doled, eacsilio, easu/to, gauded, labörð, lacrimö, laetor, triumphô, etc.
* See note 2, foot-note.
* Here cupiditäte must be construed with inductus, yet it really expresses the cause
of the action, fecit.
222 A BLATIVE.
Rés ea foedere repetuntur, restitution is demanded IN AccordANCE witH THE
TREATY. Liv. Diès ea praeceptis twis àctus, a day passed IN AccordANCE WITII YouIt
PRECEPTS. Cie. Ex véritäte aestimãre, to estimate in accordance with the truth. Cic.
Ex auctoritäte 1 Senátās confirmāre, to ratify on the authority of the semate. Liv.
RULE XXIII.-Ablative with Comparatives. "
417. Comparatives without QUAM are followed by the
Ablative : *
Nihil est amäbilius virtùte,” nothing is more lovely TIIAN VIRTUE. Cic.
Quid est melius bonitàte,” what is better THAN GooDNEss? Cic. Scimus så-
lem majörem esse terrà,” we know that the sun is larger than the earth. Cic.
Amicitia, quâ nihil melius habèmus, friendship, than which we have nothing
better. Cic. Lacrimâ nihil citius ārēscit, nothing dries sooner than a tear.
Cic. Potičrem Irā salútem habet, he regards safety as better than anger. Liv.
1. CoMPARATIVEs witH QUAM are followed by the Nominative, or by the
case of the corresponding noun before them:
Hibernia minor quam Britannia existimãtur, Ireland is considered smaller
than BRITAIN. Caes. Agris quam urbă terribilior, more terrible to the country
than To THE CITY. Liv.
NotE 1.-The construction with gwam is the full form for which the Ablative is an
abbreviation. The Ablative is freely used for quam, with a Subject Nominative or Sub-
ject Accusative—regularly so for quam with the Nominative or Accusative of a rela-
tive pronown, as in the fourth example under the rule. In other cases quam is retained
in the best prose, though sometimes omitted in poetry.
NoTE 2.-After plus, mºnus, amplius, or longius, in expressions of number and
quantity, quam is often omitted without influence upon the construction; * sometimes
also after major, minor, etc. :
Técum plus annum vixit, he lived with you more than a year. Cic. Minus duo
milia, less than two thousand. Liv.
NOTE 3,-Instead of the Ablative after a comparative, a preposition with its case, as
ante, prae, praeter, or suprā, is sometimes used :
Ante aliès immānior, more monstrows than (before) the others. Verg.
NOTE 4.—ALIUS, involving a comparison, other than, is sometimes used with the
Ablative :
1 These and similar Ablatives with prepositions show the transition from source to
cause, and illustrate the manner in which the latter was developed from the former. The
Ablative with the preposition seems in general to retain something of the idea of source.
* This Ablative furnishes the standard of comparison—that from which one starts.
Thus, if virtue is taken as the standard of what is lovely, nothing is more so. This Abla-
tive is sometimes explained as instrumental (418), but that view is controverted by a
similar use of the Greek Genitive, which does not contain the instrumental Ablative, and
of the Sanskrit Ablative, which is often distinct from the instrumental.
* Virtute = quam virtùs; bomitáté = quann bonitās ; terrá = quam terram (Sc.
éSSé).
* So in expressions of age: mátus plºy trigintá annós, ‘having been born more than
thirty years.” The same meaning is also expressed by major trigintá ammós nātus,
amójor trigintá annis, andjor Quam trăgăntă ammórzºm, or màjor trigintá annórum.
A BLATIVE. 223
Quaerit alia his, he seeks other things than these. Plaut. Alius Sapiente, other than
a wise man. Hor. .
NoTE 5.—Quam, prā denotes disproportion, and many Ablatives—opúviðme, spé,
aeguó, jūstā, solità, etc.—are often best rendered by clauses:
Minor caedes quam prü victoria, less slaughter than was proportionate to the vic-
tory. Liv." Sérius spé vénit, he came later than was hoped (than hope). Liv. Plüs
aequð, more than is fair. Cic.
2. With Comparatives, the MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE, the amount by
which one thing surpasses another, is denoted by the Ablative:
Hibernia dimidió minor quam Britannia, Ireland Smaller BY on E HALF than
JBritain. Caes.
II. INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.
418. The Instrumental Ablative denotes both Accom-
paniment and Means.” -
RULE XXIV.-Ablative of Accompaniment.
419. The Ablative is used—
I. To denote ACCOMPANIMENT. It then takes the prepo-
sition cum: R
Wivit cum Balbo, he lives witH BALBUs. Cic. Cum gladiis stant, they
stand with swords (i. e., armed witH swords). Cic.
II. To denote CHARACTERISTIC or QUALITY. It is then
modified by an adjective or by a Genitive:
Summa virtùte adulêscèns, a youth of THE HIGHEST VIRTUE. Caes. Qui-
dam magnú capite, ore rubicundo, magnis pedibus, a certain one with a
large head, with a red face, and with large feet. Plaut. Catilina ingenió
malö fuit, Catiline was a man of a bad spirit. Sall. Uri sunt specié tauri,
the urus is (lit., the uri are) of the appearance of a bull. Caes.
NotE.—The Ablative, when used to denote characteristic or quality, may be called
either the Descriptive Ablative or the Ablative of Characteristic.
III. To denote MANNER. It then takes the preposition
cum, or is modified by an adjective or by a Genitive :
1 See 423.
* The idea of means was probably developed from that of accompaniment, as seen
in such expressions as cum omnibus copäis sequitur, “he pursues with all his forces'—
accompaniment, which readily suggests means, as he employs his forces as means;
eqwis ivérunt, “they went with horses”—accompaniment and means. Some Scholars
have conjectured that originally accompaniment and means were expressed by Separate
case-forms, but of this there seems to be little proof.
3 Note the close connection between these three uses of the Ablative—the first desig-
nating an attendant person or thing—with Balbºts, with swords; the Second, an at-
tendant quality—a youth with (attended by) the highest virtue; the third, an attend-
224 A BLATIVE.
Cum virtùte vixit, he lived VIRTUoUSLY. Cic. Summâ vī proelium com:
misèrunt, they joined battle witH THE GREATEST VIoIENCE. Nep. Duðbus
modis fit, it is done in two ways. Cic.
NoTE 1.-The Ablative of mammer sometimes takes cum even when modified by an
adjective: *
Māgnâ cum cºirá Scripsit, he wrote witH GREAT oar E. Cic.
NotE 2.-But the Ablative of a few words is sometimes used without cum, even
when unattended by an adjective, as jūre, ‘rightly”; injūrīā, “unjustly”; ordine, ‘in
an orderly manner"; ratiâne, “systematically’; silentić, “in silence,' etc.1
NoTE 8.—Per, with the Accusative, sometimes denotes MANNER: per vion, ‘violent-
ly’; per Züdwm, “sportively.”
1. On the ABLATIVE OF ACCOMPANIMENT, observe—
1) That cum is often omitted—(1) especially when the Ablative is qualified
by an adjective, and (2) after jungö, misced, and their compounds:
Ingenti exercità profectus est, he set out with a large army. Liv. Im-
probitās scelere juncta, depravity joined with crime. Cic.
2) That the Ablative with cum is often used of hostile encounters :
Cum Gallis certäre, to fight with the Gauls. Sall. Nöbiscum hostěs con-
tendêrunt, the enemy contended with us. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Dative with verbs denoting union or contention, see 385, 4, 3).
2. On the DESCRIPTIVE ABLATIVE, as compared with the DESCRIPTIVE
GENITIVE, observe—
1) That in descriptions involving size and number, the Genitive is used;
see examples under 396, W.
2) That in most descriptions involving external characteristics, parts of the
body, and the like, the Ablative is used, as in the second and fourth examples
under 419, II.
3) That in other instances either case may be used.
4) That the Ablative, like the Genitive, may be used either with nouns,
as in the first and second examples under 419, II., or with verbs in the predi-
cate, as in the other examples.
RULE XXV.-Ablative of Means.
420. INSTRUMENT and MEANs are denoted by the Abla-
tive:
Cornibus tauri sã titantur, bulls defend themselves witH THEIR HoRNs.
Cic. Glóriá dācitur, he is led BY GLORY. Cic. Söl omnia lúce collustrat,
the sun illumines all things with its light. Cic. Lacte vivunt, they live upon
milk. Caes. Tellūs saucia womeribus, the earth turned (wounded) with the
ploughshare. Ovid.
ant circumstance—to live with virtue, virtuously. Compare cum Balbö vivere and
Cwm virtùte wivere.
1 But perhaps most Ablatives which never take cum are best explained as the Abla-
tive of cause—as lége, “according to law"; conswātūdine, ‘according to custom"; con-
silić, “on purpose,' etc.
A BLATIVE. 225
NoTE.—This Ablative is of frequent occurrence, and is used both with verbs and with
adjectives.
1. The following expressions deserve notice:
1) Quadrăgintā hostiis sacrificăre, to sacrifice with forty victims. Liv.
Facere vitula, to make a sacrifice of (lit., witH) a female calf. Verg.
2) Fidibus cantäre, to play upon a stringed instrument. Cic. Pilä lödere,
to play at ball (lit., witH THE BALL). Hor.
3) Auréliã vià proficisci, to set out by the Aurelian way. Cic. Eödem
itinere ire, to go by the same road. Liv. Esquiliná portà ingredi, to enter by
the Esquiline gate. Liv.
4) Virtute praeditus, possessed of virtue. Cic. Legiónés pulchris armis
praeditãs, legions furnished with beautiful arms. Plaut.
2. Adficio with the Ablative forms a very common circumlocution: honēre
adficere = honórāre, to honor; admirátione adficere = admirãri, to admire; poe-
^d adficere = punire, to punish, etc.:
Omnés laetitiã adficit, he gladdens all. Cic.
RULE XXVI.-Ablative in Special Constructions."
421. The Ablative is used—
I. With titor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds:
Plürimis rébus fruimur et àtimur, we enjoy and use VERY MANY THINGs.
Cic. Magná est praeda potitus, he obtained GREAT Booty. Nep. Lacte et
carne vescèbantur, they lived upon milk and flesh. Sall.
II. With VERBs and ADJECTIVES OF PLENTY: -
Villa abundat lacte, cóised, melle; the villa abounds IN MILK, CIIEESE, and
HONEY. Cic. Urbs referta copiis, a city filled witH suPPLIES. Cic. Virtùte
praeditus, endowed with virtue. Cic. Deus bonis explevit mundum, God
has filled the world with blessings. Cic.
III. With dignus, indignus,” and contentus:
Digni sunt amicitia, they are worthy of FRIENDSHIP. Cic. Vir patre
dignus, a man worthy of HIS FATHER. Cic. Honóre indignissimus, most un-
worthy of honor. Cic. Nātūra parvo contenta, nature content with little. Cic.
Note 1.—Transitive verbs of Plenty 8 take the Accusative and Ablative:
Armis nāvés onerat, he loads the ships with arms. Sall. See also the last
example under 421, II.
NoTE 2.—Dignor, as a Passive verb meaning ‘to be deemed worthy,”
* This Ablative is readily explained as the Ablative of oneans: thus, iitor, “I use, ‘I
serve myself by means of"; fruor, ‘I enjoy,' ‘I delight myself with'; vescor, “I feed
upon,' ‘I feed myself with," etc.
* The nature of the Ablative with dignus and indignus is somewhat uncertain. On
etymological grounds it is explained as instrumental; see Delbrück, p. 12; Uorssen,
“Krit. Beitr., p. 47.
* Transitive verbs of plenty mean ‘to fill,’ ‘to furnish with,' etc., as cumulo, com.
plé0, impled, imbuð, instruo, onero, örnö, etc.
226 A BLATIVE.
takes the Ablative; but as a Deponent verb meaning ‘to decm worthy,' used
only in poetry and late prose, it takes the Accusative and Ablative :
Honore dignáti sunt, they have been deemed worthy of honor. Cic. Mé
dignor honore, I deem myself worthy of honor. Verg.
NoTE 3.-Dignus and indigmus occur with the Genitive:
Dignus salútis, worthy of safety. Plaut. Indignus avörum, wwworthy of their an-
ceStors. Werg.
NoTE 4.—Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, originally transitive, are occa-
sionally so used in classic authors. Their participle in dus is passive in sense. Utor
admits two Ablatives of the same person or thing :
Mū ūtétur patre, he will find (use) me a father. Ter.
TNOTE 5.—For the Genitive with potior, see 410, W., 3. For the Genitive with verbs
and adjectives of plenty, and for the Accusative and Genitive with transitive verbs
of plenty, see 410, W., 1, with foot-note, and 399, I., 3.
RULE XXVII.-Ablative of Price.
422. PRICE is generally denoted by the Ablative:
Vēndidit aurö patriam, he sold his country FOR GOLD. Werg. Condixit mag-
mö domum, he hired a house AT A HIGH PRICE. Cic. Multösanguine Poenis
victória stetit, the victory cost the Carthaginians (stood to the Carthaginians
at) much blood. Liv. Quinquàgintā talentis aestimãrt, to be valued at fifty
talents. Nep. Wile est viginti minis, it is cheap at twenty minae. Plaut.
Nore 1.—The ABLATIve of PRICE is used (1) with verbs of buying, selling, hiring,
letting ; (2) of coSting, Qf being cheap or dear; 1 (3) of valuing; (4) with adjectives of
value. 1
NoTE 2.—With verbs of Exchanging—mit5, commit5, etc.—(1) the thing received
is generally treated as the price, as with verbs of selling, but (2) sometimes the thing
given is treated as the price, as with verbs of buying, or is put in the Ablative with cwm. :
Pâce bellum miltävit, he ea-changed war For PEACE. Sall. Exsilium patriá mütā-
wit, he eacchanged IIIs countRY for eacile. Curt. Cum patriae caritäte glöriam commii-
tăvit, he earchanged love of country for glory. Cic.
NoTE 3.—For the GENITIVE of PRICE, see 405.
RULE XXVIII.—Ablative of Difference.
423. The MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE is denoted by the
Ablative:
Ünd did longiörem mênsem faciunt, they make the month onE DAY longer
(longer BY ONE DAY). Cic. Biduć mé antecôssit, he preceded me BY Two
DAYs. Cic. Söl multis partibus mājor est quam terra, the sun is very much
(lit., BY MANY PARTs) larger than the earth. Cic.
`Note 1–The Ablative is thus used with all words involving a comparison, but ad-
verbs often supply its place: mºultºn rööwstior, ‘much more robust.”
NOTE 2.—The Ablative of difference includes the Ablative of distance (379, 2), and
the Ablative with ante, post, and abhinc in expressions of time (430).
* As Stö, cómstö, lice0, 8wm, etc.; cd/rus, vēnēlēs, etc.
A BLATIVE. 227
RULE XXIX.-Specification.
424. A noun, adjective, or verb may take an Ablative
to define its application:
Agésiläus nômine, nãn potestäte fuit réx, Agesilaus was king IN NAME,
not IN Power. Nep. Claudus alteró pede, lame IN ONE Foot. Nep. Möri-
bus similés, similar in character. Cic. Reliqués Gallós virtùte praecădunt,
they surpass the other Gauls in courage. Caes.
NoTE 1.-This ABLATIVE shows in what respect or particular anything is true:
thus, king (in what respect?) in name.
NoTE 2.—For the ACCUSATIVE of SPECIFICATION, see 378.
III. LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.
RULE XXX.—Place in which,
425. The PLACE IN which is denoted—
I. Generally by the Locative Ablative' with the preposi-
łł07 in :
Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was IN ITALY. Nep. In nostris castris,
in our camp. Caes. In Appia vià, on the Appian way. Cic.
II. In NAMES OF Towns by the Locative,” if such a
form exists, otherwise by the Locative Ablative:
Römde fuit, he was AT RoME. Cic. Corinthi puerós docébat, he taught
boys AT CoRINTH. Cic. Athénis fuit, he was AT ATHENs. Cic. Höc facis
Argis, you do this at Argos. Hor. Karthågine régés creabantur, kings
were elected (created) at Carthage. Nep. Gādibus vixit, he lived at Gades.
Cic. a
NoTE.—For the construction with verbs meaning to collect, to come together, and
with those meaning to place, see 380, note.
1. In the names of places which are not towns, the LoCATIVE ABLATIVE
is often used without a preposition:
1) When the idea of means, manner, or cause is combined with that of
place: 3
Castris Sé tenuit, he kept himself IN CAMP. Caes. Aliquem tectā recipere,
to receive any one IN on E’s own House. Cic. Proeliö cadere, to fall IN BATTLE.
Caes. Adulēscentibus delectäri, to take pleasure in the young. Cic. Suá
* The learner will remember that the Locative Ablative does not differ in form from
any other Ablative; see 411.
* See 48, 4; b 1, 8; 6.6, 4. 'I'he Locative was the original construction in all names
of places. - -
* In Some cases place and means are so combined that it is difficult to determine
which is the original conception.
228 A BLATTVE.
victoria glóriantur, they glory in their victory. Caes. Nülló offició assuéfacti,
trained ºn no duty. Caes.
NoTE.—The Ablative is generally used with fido, cónfido, mitor, innitor, and frétus:
Němč fortúnae stabilitäte cănfidit, no one trusts (confides in) the stability of for-
tune. Cic. Sallis véritäte nititur, safety rests upon truth. Cic. Frétus amicis, relying
wpon his friends. Liv.
2) When the idea of place is figurative rather than literal:
Nova pectore versat consilia, she devises (turns over) new plans IN HER
BREAST. Verg. Ståre jūdiciis, to abide BY (stand IN) THE DECISIONs. Cic.
Prömissis manère, to remain true to promises (lit., remain IN). Verg. Pen-
dère animis, to be perplexed in mind. Cic. Intimis sènsibus angi, to be
troubled in one's in most feelings. Cic. Feróx belló, valiant in war. Hor.
Jüre peritus, skilled in law. Cic.
2. The Ablatives loco, locis, parte, partibus, dextra, laevå, sinistrā, terrà,
and mari, especially when qualified by an adjective, and other Ablatives
when qualified by totus, are generally used without the preposition:
Aliquid loco pönere, to put anything IN ITS PLACE. Cic. Terrà marique, on
band and sea. Liv. Tötä Graecią, in all Greece. Nep.
NoTE 1.-The Ablative librö, “book,” generally takes the preposition when used of a
portion of a work, but omits it when used of an entire treatise:
In ed libró, in this book (referring to a portion of the work). Cic. Alić libró, in an-
other work. Cic. -
NoTE 2.—Other Ablatives sometimes occur without the preposition, especially when
qualified by omnis, mediats, or limiversus:
Omnibus oppidis, in all the towns. Caes.
NotE 3.—In poetry the Locative Ablative is often used without the preposition :
Lúcis opăcis, in shady groves. Werg. Silvis agrisque, in the forests and fields. Ov.
Theâtris, in the theatres. Hor. Ferre umeró, to bear upon the Shoulder. Verg.
3. ABLATIVE For THE LOCATIVE.-Instead of the Locative in names of
towns the Ablative is used, with or without a preposition—
1) When the proper name is qualified by an adjective or adjective pronoun:
In ipsā, Alexandrià,” in Alexandria itself. Cic. Longă Albă, at Alba
Longa. Verg.
2) Sometimes when not thus modified:
In monte Albānū Lāvinióque, on the Alban mount and at Lavčnium. Liv.
In Alexandrià,” at Alexandria. Liv.
NoTE.—The following Special constructions deserve notice:
In oppido Citič,” in the town Citium. Nep. Albae,” in urbe opportünă, at Alba, a
convenient city. Cie. , • *
1 In the singular anim? is generally used, a Locative probably both in form and in
signification; see p. 211, foot-note 4.
2 At Alea’andria would regularly be expressed by the Locative, Alearandriae.
8 Here Citić is in apposition with oppidó, the usual construction in such cases, though
a Genitive limiting oppido occurs: In oppidó Antiochiae, in the city of Antioch. Cic.
4 A. Locative may thus be followed by in urbe, or in oppido, modified by an adjec-
tive; but see 363, 4, 2). The preposition in is sometimes omitted.
ABLATIVE. 229
426. ſIKE NAMES OF Towns are used—
1. Many NAMEs of Islands: -
Lesbi vixit, he lived in Lesbos. Nep. Conón Cyprivixit, Conon lived in
Cyprus. Nep. g
2. The LOCATIVEs domi, riri, humi, militiae, and belli:
Domi militiaeque, at home and in the field. Cic. Rüri agere vitam, to
spend life in the country. Liv.
NoTE.—A few other Locatives also occur:
Römae Numidiaeque, at Rome and in Numidia. Sall. Domum Chersongsi habuit,
he had a house in the CherSonesus. Nep. Truncum reliquit arênae, he left the body
&n the sand. Verg.
427. SUMMARY. —The NAMEs of PLACES NOT Towns are gen-
erally put— .
I. In the Accusative with ad or in, to denote the PLACE To which :
In Asiam redit, he returns to (into) Asia. Nep.
II. In the Ablative with ab, dé, or ex, to denote the PLACE FROM which :
Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city. Caes.
III. In the Locative Ablative with in, to denote the PLACE AT or IN which :
Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy. Nep.
NoTE.—For qualifications and eacceptions, see 380, 3 and 4; 412, 2; 425, 1 and 2.
428. SUMMARY. —The NAMEs of Towns are put –
I. In the Accusative, to denote the PLACE To which :
Nüntius Römam redit, the messenger returns to Rome. Liv.
II. In the Ablative, to denote the PLACE FROM which :
Fugit Corinthö, he fled from Corinth. Cic.
III. In the Locative, or in the Locative Ablative,” to denote the PLACE AT
Or IN WHICH !
Corinthi puerós docébat, he taught boys at Corinth. Cic. Gādibus vixit,
he lived at Gades. Cic.
NOTE.-For qualifications and eacceptions, see 380, 1; 412, 3; 425, 8.
RULE XXXI.-Time. -
429. The TIME of an Action is denoted by the Ablative:
Octàgésimö annó est mortuus, he died IN HIS EIGHTIETH YEAR. Cic. Våre
convénére, they assembled IN THE SPRING. Liv. Nātāli dič suð, on his birth-
* So also terrae and viciniae.
* This, the original construction for all names of places, has been retained unchanged
Only in the names of towns and in a few other words. Most names of places have as-
sumed a preposition with the Accusative and Ablative, and have substituted the Loca-
tive Ablative with a preposition in place of the Locative; see 411, III.
* That is, the Locative is used if any such form exists; if not, the Locative Ablative
supplies its place.
230 A BLATIVE.
day. Nep. Hieme et aestäte, in winter and summer. Cic. Sólis occasii, at
sunset. Caes. Adventù Caesaris, on the arrival of Caesar. Caes. Lüdis,
at the time of the games. Cic. Wix decem annis, scarcely in ten years. Nep.
His viginti annis, within these twenty years. Cic.
1. Certain relations of TIME are denoted by the Ablative with in or dé:
In täli tempore, at such a time (i. e., under such circumstances). Liv. In
dièbus proximis decem, in the next ten days. Sall. Dé media nocte, in (lit.,
from, out of) the middle of the night. Caes.
2. Certain relations of TIME are denoted by the Accusative with ad, in,
inter, intrā, sub, etc.:
Ad constitütam diem, at the appointed day. Cic. Ad cénam invităre in
posterum diem, to invite to dinner for the next day. Cic. Intrà viginti diès,
within twenty days. Plaut. Inter tot annós, within So many years. Cic.
Sub noctem, toward might. Caes.
43O. The INTERVAL between two events may be denoted by
the Accusative or Ablative with ante or post : *
Aliquot post mênsés 3 occisus est, he was put to death. Some months after.
Cic. Post diès paucós vénit, he came after a few days. Liv. Paucis ante
dièbus,” a few days before. Cic. Homérus annis multis fuit ante Römulum,
JHomer lived many years before Romulus. Cic. Paucis dièbus post éjus mor-
tem, a few days after his death. Cic. Annis quingentis post, five hundred
gyears after. Cic. Quartum post annum quam redierat, four years after he
had returned. Nep. Nönö annó postguam, nºne years after. Nep. Sexto
annû quam erat expulsus, Sia, ſyears after he had been banished. Nep.
NOTE. 1.-In these examples observe—
1) That the numeral may be either cardinal, as in the sixth example, or ordinal, as in
the last three.4
2) That with the Accusative ante and post either precede the numeral and the noun,
or stand between them; but that with the Ablative they either follow both, or stand
between them.5
3) That guan may follow ante and post, as in the seventh example; may be united
with them, as in the eighth, or may be used for postguam, as in the ninth.
NoTE 2.—The ABLATIVE of THE RELATIVE may be used for postgwam:
Quatriduč, qué occisus est, four days after he was killed. Cic.
1 The Ablative with in is used to denote (1) the circumstances of the time, and (2)
the time in or within which. In the second sense it is used especially after numeral
adverbs and in designating the periods of life: bis in dić, “twice in the day'; in pueri-
tiá, ‘in boyhood,” etc.
2 In two instances the Ablative with abhimc is used like the Ablative with ante :
Abhinc trigintà dièbus, thirty days before. Cic.
3 The Accusative after ante and post depends upon the preposition, but the Ablative
is explained as the measure of difference (423).
4 Thus, ‘five years after' = Qwºngue annis post, or Quintô anmö post; or post quin-
gue anmôs, or post qu'întum amºnvm ; or with post between the numeral and the noun,
gwºngue post annis, etc.
* Any other arrangement is rare.
A BLATIVE. 231
NoTE 3.−The time since an event may be denoted by the Accusative with abhinc or
ante, or by the Ablative with ante : 1
Abhinc annós trecentós fuit, he lºwed three hundred years ago. Cic. Paucis ante
dièbus Ürüpit ex urbe, he broke out of the city a few days ago. Cic.
RULE XXXII.-Ablative Absolute.2
431. A noun and a participle may be put in the Abla-
tive to add to the predicate an attendant circumstance:
Serviö régnante viguèrunt, they flourished in the reign of Servius (Ser-
vius reigning).” Cic. Régibus exãctis, cónsulés creati Sunt, after the ban-
ishment of the kings,” consuls were appointed. Liv. Equitātū praemissö,
subsequébâtur, having sent forward his cavalry, he followed. Caes. Rég-
num haud satis prūsperum negléctā réligiöne, a reign not sufficiently pros-
perous because religion was neglected. Liv. Perditis rébus omnibus tamen
virtùs sé sustentáre potest, though all things are lost, still virtue is able to
sustain itself. Cic. Obsidibus imperätis, hūs Aeduis trädit,” having de-
manded hostages, he delivers them to the Aedui. Caes.
1. The Ablative Absolute, much more common than the English Nomina-
tive Absolute, generally expresses the time, cause, or some attendant circum-
8tance of an action.
2. This Ablative is generally best rendered—(1) by a noun with a prepo-
sition—in, during, qfter, by, with, through, etc.; (2) by an active participle
with its object ; or (3) by a clause with when, while, because, if, though, etc.;"
see examples above.
3. A connective sometimes accompanies the Ablative:
Nisi múnitis castris, unless the camp should be fortified. Caes.
4. A noun and an adjective, or even two nouns, may be in the Ablative
Absolute : 7
* The Accusative is explained as duration of time (379), the Ablative as measure
of difference (423). - º
2 This Ablative is called absolute, because it is not directly dependent for its con-
struction upon any other word in the sentence. Originally Locative, it was first used to
denote situation or time, a meaning from which its later uses may be readily derived.
Thus, while the force of a Locative Ablative is apparent in Serviö régmante and in régi-
bus eacáctis, it is recognized without difficulty in negléctá ràligiöne as indicating the
situation or state of things in which the reign was not prosperous. In some instances,
however, the Ablative Absolute may be instrumental or causal.
* Or, while Servius was reigning or was king.
* Or, after the Kings were banished.
* In this example obsidibus and hôs refer to the same persons. This is unusual, as
in this construction the Ablative generally refers to some person or thing not otherwise
mentioned in the clause to which it belongs.
* The first method of translation comes nearer the original Latin conceptión, but the
other methods generally accord better with the English idiom.
7 This construction is peculiar to the Latin. In the corresponding constructions in
Sanskrit, Greek, and English, the present participle of the verb ‘to be’ is used.
232 . CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
Serénê caeló, when the Sky is clear. Sen. CanIniö consule, in the consul-
ship of Caninius. Cic.
NoTE 1.-An infinitive or clause may be in the Ablative Absolute with a neuter
participle or adjective: g
Auditë Dārium movisse, pergit, having heard that Darius had withdrawn (that
Darius had, etc., having been heard), he advanced. Curt. Multi, incertö quid witärent,
interièrunt, many, wr.certain what they show!d avoid (what they, etc., being uncertain),
perished. Liv. .
NoTE 2.-A participle or adjective may stand alone in the Ablative Absolute:
Multum certätö, pervicit, he conquered after a hard struggle." Tac.
NoTE 3.—Quisque or ipse in the Nominative may accompany the Ablative Absolute:
Multis sibi quisque petentibus, while many sought, each for himself. Sall. Causã
ipse pro sé dictā damnătur, having himself advocated his own cause, he is con-
demned. Liv.
NoTE 4.—For the use of absente and praesente in the Ablative Absolute with a
plural noun or pronoun, see 438, 6, note.
SECTION VIII.
CASES VVITH PFEPOSITIONS.
EULE XXXIII.-Cases with Prepositions.
432. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with
prepositions: *
Adamicum scripsi, I have written to a friend. Cic. In cliriam, into the
senate-house. Liv. In Italiá, in Italy. Nep. Prö castris, before the camp.
433. The ACCUSATIVE is used with—
Ad, adversus (adversum), ante, apud, circă, circum, circiter, cis, citrä,
contrá, érgā, exträ, Infră, inter, intrā, juxtà, ob, penes, per, pöne, post,
praeter, prope, propter, Secundum, Suprā, trans, illträ, versus:
Ad urbem, to the city. Cic. Adversus deos, toward the gods. Cic. Ante
licem, before light. Cic. Apud concilium, in the presence of the council. Cic.
Circă forum, around the forum. Cic. Citrä flümen, on this side of the river.
Cic. Contrå nātūram, contrary to mature. Cic. Intră muros, within the
walls. Cic. Post castra, behind the camp. Caes. Secundum nātūram, ac-
cording to nature. Cic. Trāns Alpês, across the Alps. Cic.
NoTE [..—Eacadversus (wm) also occurs with the Accusative:
Exadversus eum locum, over against that place. Cic. See also 437.
NotE 2.- Versus (wm) and usque, as adverbs, often accompany prepositions, es-
pecially ad and in :
Ad Öceanum versus, toward the ocean. Caes. Ad meridiem versus, toward the
8outh. Liv. Usque ad castra hostium, even to the camp of the enemy. Caes.
* Literally, it having been much contested. The participle is used impersonally.
* On the general subject of Prepositions and their Use, see Roby, II, pp. 351–456;
Draeger, I., pp. 574–665; Kühner, II., pp. 355-432.
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 233
NoTE 8.—For propius, præimé, propčor, and præimus, with the Accusative, see
Prope, note 2, under I., below.
NotE 4.—For compounds of prepositions, see 372 and 376.
I. The following uses of prepositions with the Accusative deserve notice:*
Ad, To, the opposite of ab, FROM-(1) To, TowARD, TILL ; (2) NEAR, AT, ON:
ad me, “to me,” “near me,’ ‘at my house”; ad urbem, ‘to the city,” “near the
city’; ad deactram, “on the right'; ad multam noctem, “till late in the night”;
ad licem, “till daybreak”; ad höc, ‘besides this,” “moreover’; ad verbum,
‘word for word’; ad hunc modum, “after this manner’; ad altimum, “at
last’; ad inum omnés, “all to a man,’ ‘all without exception.”
Apud, NEAR, AT, BEFORE, IN THE PRESENCE OF: apud oppidum, “near or
|before the town’; apud me, “at my house'; sum apud me, ‘I am at home’
or ‘I am in my right mind”; apud Platānem, ‘in the works of Plato.”
Ante, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF, ABOVE, IN PREFERENCE TO : ante Suðs annós,
‘before his time,” “too early’; ante tempus, ‘before the proper time’; ante
annum, ‘a year before '; ante urbem conditam, ‘before the founding of the
city’; ante alić's pulcherrimus omnés, “the most beautiful above all others.”
Circum, circă, circiter,” Round, AROUND, ABouT : circum forum,
“around the forum’; circă Sé, “around or with himself”; circă eandem hāram,
“about the same hour'; circiter meridiem, ‘about midday.”
NoTE.—Circum, the oldest of these forms, is used only of place; circá, both of
70/ace and of time ; circiter, rare as a preposition, chiefly of time. They are all freely
used as adverbs: circum convenire, ‘to gather around”; circá esse, “to be around";
circíter pars quarta, ‘about the fourth part.”
Cis, citrä,3 on THIS SIDE—cis opposed to träns, ACROSS, ON THE OTHER
SIDE; citrä opposed to illträ, BEYOND: cis flûmen, “on this side of the stream”;
cis paucós dies, “within a few days’; citrä veritàtem, “short of the truth’;
citrä auctàritätem, “without authority.” -
Contrá,8 oppositE To, ovKR AGAINST, AGAINST, CoNTRARY TO : contră eds
ºregiónés, “opposite to those regions’; contrá populum, ‘against the people’;
contrá nátāram, “contrary to nature.” -
Ergä,” TowARD, To, AGAINST : érgă parentès, ‘toward parents”; odium.
ergă Römánós, ‘hatred to the Romans’; &rgá ràgem, ‘against the king.”
Exträ, ouTSIDE, witHouT, FREE FROM, ExCEPT : exträ portam, “outside
the gate”; extrá culpam, “without fault,’ ‘free from fault’; exträ ducem,
“except the leader,’ ‘besides the leader.” -
Infră," BELow, UNDER, BENEATH, LESS THAN, AFTER, LATER THAN, opposed
to suprä, ABOVE: infră länam, ‘beneath the moon'; infră me, ‘below me’;
infră très pedes, “less than three feet”; infră Lycięrgum, “after Lycurgus.’
* For the form and meaning of prepositions in composition, see 344, 5.
* These three forms are all derived from circus, ‘a circle” (i. e., from its stem); Bee
304; 30.7, note 1.
* These are often adverbs.
* According to Vanicek, from 3 and the root reg in rego; “in the direction of" (lit.,
from the direction of). In Tacitus, sometimes IN RELATION To : érgú dom'wm Swam,
“in relation to his own household.”
* Infră = inferá parte, ‘in the lower part:
234 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
Inter, BETweBN, AMONG, IN THE MIDST of: inter urbem et Tiberim, ‘be-
tween the city and the Tiber’; inter bonds, “among the good'; &nter manils,
“in the hands,” “within reach,’ ‘tangible '; inter más, ‘between us,’ ‘in con-
fidence'; inter Sé amäre, “to love one another’; inter Sé differre, ‘to differ
from one another’; inter paucós, inter pauca, ‘especially,” “preéminently’;
Žnter pawcôs désertus, ‘prečminently eloquent’; inter purpuram atque awrun,
“in the midst of purple and gold.”
Intrå, witHIN, LEss THAN, BELow, opposed to extra, on THE outside,
witHouT: intrá castra, “within the camp”; intrú mà, “within me”;2 intrá
8é, “in his mind” or ‘in their minds”; 8 intră centum, “less than one hundred’;
intră modum, “within the limit”; intrå fåmam, ‘below his reputation.”
Ob, BEFORE, IN VIEW of, IN REGARD TO, ON Account of : ob oculīs, ‘before
one's eyes’: ob Stultitiam tuam, ‘in view of your folly,” or “in regard to your
folly’; ob hand rem, ‘in view of this thing,’ ‘for this reason,’ ‘on this ac-
count’; quam ob rem, ‘in view of which thing,” “wherefore.”
Per,4 THROUGH, BY THE AID of : perforum, ‘through the forum’; per aliás,
‘through others,’ ‘by the aid of others’; per Sé, “by his own efforts,” also
“in himself,’ ‘in itself”; per metum, ‘through fear”; per aetăţem, ‘in conse-
quence of age”; per lüdum, ‘sportively”; per vim, “violently ’; per mé licet,
“it is allowable as far as I am concerned ’ (i. e., I make no opposition).
Post, BEHIND, AFTER, SINCE: post montem, ‘behind the mountain’; post
dédicăţiónem templi, “after the dedication of the temple’; post hominum,
memoriam, ‘since the memory of man.”
Praeter,” BEFORE, ALONG, PAST, BY, BEYOND, BESIDEs, ExCEPT, CoNTRARY
To: praeter oculos, ‘before their eyes’; praeter oram, “along the coast’;
practer Cétérôs, ‘beyond others,” “more than others’; praeter haec = praeter-ed,
“besides these things,’ ‘moreover’; praeter mé, ‘except me '; praeter Spem,
‘contrary to expectation.”
Prope, propter, NEAR, NEAR BY. Prope, NEAR ; propter= prope-
ter, a strengthened form of prope,” VERY NEAR, ALONGSIDE OF, also IN VIEW OF,
ON ACCOUNT OF : prope hostés, “near the enemy’; prope metum, “near to fear,’
“almost fearful’; propter mare, “near the sea’; propter timórem, “on account
of fear”; propter Sé, “on his own account,” “on their own account.”
NOTE 1.-Prope, as an adverb, is sometimes combined with ā, ab, or ad : prope
& Siciliá, “near Sicily, “not far from Sicily'; prope ad portás, “near to the gates."
NOTE 2.—Like prope, the derivatives propius and präaximé, and sometimes even
gropioſ” and präa.imus, admit the Accusative: 7
Propius periculum, nearer to danger. Liv. Pröximó deos, very near to the gods.
1 Formed from in by the ending ter, like prae-ter from prae (434, I.), prop-ter
from prope (433, I.), and sub-ter from sub (435, I.).
° Often equivalent to in með animó, “in my mind.”
* Sometimes, in his country, or in their country.
* In origin kindred to the Greek trapá. -
* Formed from prae (434, I.), like in-ter from in ; see inter, with foot-note.
* See inter, with foot-note.
7 Perhaps by a construction according to sense, following the analogy of prope, though
in most cases a preposition may readily be supplied.
CASE'S WITH PREPOSITIONS. 235
Cic. Propior montem, nearer to the amountain. Sall. Próximus mare, nearest to the
Sea. Caes.
Secundum, FOLLOWING, NEXT AFTER, NExT BEBIND, ALONGSIDE OF, CON-
FORMING TO, ACCORDING To, IN FAvor of : Secundum dram, ‘behind the altar’;
Secundum deds, “next after the gods”; Secundum lizdós, “after the games’;
Secundum fliºmen, “along the river’; Secundum, nātūram, “according to na-
ture,’ ‘following nature’; secundum causam nostram, ‘in favor of our cause.”
Suprā,” ON THE TOP, ABOVE, BEFORE, Too HIGH For ; opposed to infră,
BELOW : Suprá liºnam, ‘above the moon’; Suprā hang memoriam, ‘before
our time’; 4 Suprá homżnem, ‘too high for a man.”
Träns, ACROSS, ON THE OTHER SIDE, opposed to cis, ON THIS SIDE: träns
Ičhánum, ‘across the Rhine’; trans Alpês, “on the other side of the Alps.”
Ultrã, BEYOND, ACRoss, ON THE OTHER SIDE, MoRE THAN, LONGER THAN,
AFTER, opposed to citrä, ON THIS SIDE: āltrá eum locum, ‘beyond that place”;
altrà eum, ‘beyond him”; iiltrá pignus, more than a pledge”; illträſidem,
‘beyond belief,” “incredible”; iiltrá pueriles annós, “after (beyond) the years
of boyhood.”
434. The ABLATIVE is used with—
Å or ab (abs), absolue, cöram, Cum, dé,
é or ex, prae, prü, sine, tenuS.
Ab urbe, from the city. Caes. Côram conventù, in the presence of the
assembly. Nep. Cum Antiochö, with Antiochus. Cic. Dé foró, from the
forum. Cic. Ex Asia, out of Asia. Nep. Sine corde, without a heart. Cic.
NoTE 1.-Many verbs compounded with ab, dé, ea, or super admit the Ablative
dependent upon the preposition, but the preposition is often repeated,” or some other
preposition of kindred meaning is used:
Abire magistrātū, to retire from office. Tac. Púgnâ excédunt, they retire from the
battle. Caes. Dé vità décèdere, to depart from life. Cic. Décèdere ex Asia, to depart
out of Asia. Cic.
NOTE 2–A and é are used only before consonants, ab and ea before either vowels or
consonants. Abs is antiquated, except before £3.
NoTE 3.−For cwm appended to the Ablative of a personal pronoun or of a relative,
see 184, 6, and 187, 2.
NOTE 4.—Tenus follows its case. In its origin it is the Accusative of a noun,” and
as Such it often takes the Genitive :
Colló tenus, up to the neck. Ov. Lumbörum tenus, as far as the loins. Cic.
* Properly the neuter of Secundus, ‘following,' ' second"; but secundus is a gerund-
ive from Sequor, formed like dicundus from dico (239). For the change of gw to c
before w in Sec-wndus for sequ-undus, see 26, foot-note.
* Like the adjective Secundus in ventus secundus, “a favoring wind”—one that follows
us on our course; ſºmine Secundo, “with a favoring current” (i.e., down the stream).
* Suprā = superä parte, ‘on the top."
* Though in such cases the first element of the compound is not strictly a preposi-
tion, but an adverb (344, with foot-note). Thus, in dá vità décèdere, dé in the verb
retains its adverbial force, so that, strictly speaking, the preposition is used only once.
* From the root tan, ten, seen in ten-do, ten-eô, and in the Greek retv-0.
236 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
NoTE 5.—For the Ablative with or without dé, as used with fació, fið, and sum, see
415, III., note.
I. The following uses of prepositions with the Ablative deserve notice:
A, ab, abs, FROM, BY, IN, ON, on THE SIDE OF. 1. Of Place; FROM, ON,
ON THE SIDE of : á Galliá, ‘from Gaul’; ab ortú, ‘from the east”; á fronte,
‘in front” (lit., from the front); á tergö, ‘in the rear”; ab Séquanis, “on the
side toward the Sequani.” 2. Of Time ; FROM, AFTER: ab hêrá tertià, 'frcm
the third hour’; d. puerò, ‘from boyhood”; ab cohortätiöne, “after exhort-
ing.’ 3. In other relations; FROM, BY, IN, AGAINST: ā poend liber, ‘free from
punishment’; missus ab Syrācāsīs, ‘sent by the Syracusans’; ab equitāti,
Jirmus, ‘strong in (lit., from) cavalry’; ab animó aeger, “diseased in mind’;
ab eis défendere, ‘to defend against (from) them”; esse ab aliquð, ‘to be on
one's side’; á nábis, ‘in our interest'; servus à pedibus, ‘a footman.”
NoTE.—Absque, rare in classical prose, is found chiefly in Plautus and Terence.
Cum,” WITH, in most of its English meanings: cum patre habitäre, ‘to
live with one’s father’; Caesar cum quinque legiónibus, “Caesar with five
legions’; consul cum Summö imperić, “the consul with supreme command’;
servus cum telä, “a slave with a weapon,’ ‘an armed slave’; cum primá lice,
‘with the early dawn,” “at the early dawn’; consentire cum aliqué, “to agree
with any one’; cum Caesare agere, ‘to treat with Caesar’; cum aliguó dimi-
căre, ‘to contend with any one’; multis cum lacrimis, “with many tears’;
cum virtùte, ‘virtuously’; cum e5 ut, or cum ed quod, “with this condition
that,’ ‘on condition that.” See also 419, III.
Dē, Down FROM, FROM, or. 1. Of Place ; Down FROM, FROM: de caelä,
‘down from heaven’; de foró, ‘from the forum ”; de mâjöribus audire, ‘to
hear from one's elders.” 2. Of Time ; FROM, ouT OF, DURING, IN, AT, AFTER :
de prandió, ‘from breakfast”; dà die, ‘by day,” “in the course of the day'; dé
tertià vigiliá, “during the third watch”; de medid nocte, “at about midnight.”
3. In other relations; FROM, OF, FOR, ON, CONCERNING, ACCORDING TO : dé
summö genere, ‘of the highest rank’; factum de marmore signum, “a bust
made of marble’; homó de plebe, ‘a man of plebeian rank,’ ‘a plebeian’;
triumphus de Galliá, “a triumph over (concerning) Gaul’; gravă de causá,
“for a grave reason’: de mâre vetustó, “according to ancient custom’; de în-
dustrid, ‘on purpose”; dé integró, ‘anew.’ See also 415, III., note 2.
E, ex,3 out of, FROM. 1. Of Place ; ouT of, FROM, IN, on : ea urbe, ‘from .
the city,” “out of the city’; eac equê pāgnäre, ‘to fight on horseback’; ea win-
culis, ‘in chains’ (lit., out of or from chains); ex; itinere, on the march.”
2. Of Time ; FROM, DIRECTLY AFTER, SINCE: ea. e5 tempore, ‘from that time ’;
eſc tempore dicere, ‘to speak extemporaneously’; diem ea; die, ‘from day to
day.' 3. In other relations; FROM, out of, or, According to, ON Account of,
THROUGH : ex vulneribus perire, “to perish of (because of) wounds”; inus 3
Jºiliis, “one of the sons’; ea; commitätiöne, “on account of the change’; ea:
cónsuetildine, “according to custom'; a vestigiö, “on the spot”; ea; parte
māgná, ‘in great part”; ea: impróvã85, “unexpectedly.”
* Greek áiró. * Compare Greek Šáv, orºv, with. 3 Compare Greek éé, out of
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 237
Prae, BEFoRE, IN comparison witH, IN CONSEQUENCE OF, BECAUSE OF: 1
prae mani, esse, “to be at hand”; prae mani, habère, ‘to have at hand'; prae
sé ferre, ‘to show, display, exhibit’; prae nābās beſitus, ‘happy in comparison
with us”; nån prae lacrimiš i pâsse, “not to be able because of tears.”
Pro, BEFoRE; IN BEHALF OF, IN DEFENCE OF, FoR ; INSTEAD OF, As ; IN
RETURN FoR, FoR: ACCORDING To, IN PROPORTION To: prá castris, ‘before the
camp’; prá libertăte, “in defence of liberty’; pro patriá, “for the country’;
prä cónsule = procónsul, ‘a proconsul’ (one acting for a consul); prá certó
Jabere, “to regard as certain’; prá e5, quod, “for the reason that,’ ‘because”;
prā tuá prüdentiá, ‘in accordance with your prudence’; prá imperić, “im-
periously’; prá Sé guìsque, “each according to his ability.’
435. The ACCUSATIVE or ABLATIVE is used with—
- In, Sub, subter, super:
In Asiam profugit, he fled into Asia. Cic. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Han-
nibal was in Italy. Nep. Sub montem, toward the mountain. Caes. Sub
monte, at the foot of the mountain. Liv. Subter togam, under the toga. Liv.
Subter testūdine, under a tortoise or shed. Verg. Super Numidiam, beyond
Numidia. Sall. Häc super ré scribam, Z shall write on this subject. Cic.
NoTE 1.-In and sub take the Accusative after verbs implying motion, the Ablative
after those implying rest; see examples.
NotE 2.-Subter and super generally take the Accusative; but Super, when it means
concerning, of, on (of a subject of discourse), takes the Ablative; see examples.
I. The following uses of in, sub, subter, and super deserve notice:
In, with the Accusative, INTo, To, TowARD, TILL. 1. Of Place, INTO, To,
TowARD, AGAINST, IN: ire in urbem, “to go into the city’; in Persäs, ‘into
the country of the Persians’; in dram, “to the altar’; i.num in locum con-
wenire, “to meet in one place” (380, with note). 2. Of Time ; INTO, To, FOR,
TILL : in noctem, ‘into the night”; in multam, noctem, ‘until late at night';
&n diem, ‘into the day,” also “for the day”; in dies, ‘from day to day,” “daily’;
invităre in posterum diem, “to invite for the following day.’ 3. In other rela-
tions; INTo, AGAINST, TowARD, on, FoR, As, IN: divisa in partès très, “divided
into three parts”; in hostem, ‘against the enemy’; in id certãmen, “for this
contest”; in memoriam patris, ‘in memory of his father’; in Spem påcis, ‘in
the hope of peace”; in rem esse, “to be useful,” “to be to the purpose.”
In, with the Ablative, IN, ON, AT. 1. Of Place ; IN, AT, witHIN, AMONG,
UPON: in urbe, ‘in the city’; in Persis, “among the Persians’; sapientis-
simus in Septem, ‘the wisest among or of the seven.” 2. Of Tºmé, IN, AT,
DURING, IN THE course of: in täli tempore, “at such a time’; in tempore, * in
time.’ 3. In other relations; IN, ON, UPON, IN THE CASE of : esse in armis, “to
be in arms’; in summâ timóre, ‘in the greatest fear”; in hóc homżne, ‘in the
case of this man.”
Sub, with the Accusative, TNDER, BºnRATH, tow APT), Up to, ARort, nſPECT-
1 This causal meaning is developed from the local. The noun in the Ablative is
thought of as an obstacle or hindrance: mán prae lacrimis pâsse, “not to be able 06-
jore, in the presence of, because of such a hindrance as tears.'
238 OASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
LY AFTER : subjugum mittere, “to send under the yoke'; sub nostram aciem,
‘toward our line'; sub astra, “up to the stars’; sub vesperum, ‘toward even-
ing’; sub edis litterås, “directly after that letter’; sub imperium reddictus,
‘brought under one's sway.”
Sub, with the Ablative, UNDER, AT, AT THE FOOT OF, IN, ABOUT: sub terrà,
‘under the earth’; sub pellibus, ‘in tents’; 1 sub brămă, “at the time of the
winter solstice ’; Sub Züce, “at dawn’; sub hêc verbó, “under this word”; sub
füdice, ‘in the hands of the judge' (i. e., not yet decided).
NotE.-Subter, a strengthened form * of 8wb, meaning UNDER, generally takes the
Accusative, though it admits the Ablative in poetry: Subter mare, “under the sea";
subter togam, “under the toga"; Subter déns㺠testidine, “under a compact testudo.”
Super, with the Accusative, over, UPON, ABOVE : Sédéns super arma, “sit-
ting upon the arms’; super Numidiam, ‘beyond Numidia’; super secăgăntă
'milia, ‘upward of sixty thousand”; Super nåtåram, “Supernatural’; Super
omn’ ‘, ‘above all.”
; per, with the Ablative, UPON, AT, DURING, CONCERNING, OF, ON: Strătă
su, JStrö, “upon purple couches’ (lit., upon the spread purple); nocte super
medid, “at midnight”; hée Super ré scribere, “to write upon this subject’;
7multa Super Priamó rogitāns, “asking many questions about Priam.”
NoTE.—The Ablative is rare with Super, except when it means concerning, about, on
(of the Subject of discourse). It is then the regular construction.
436. Prepositions were originally adverbs (307, note 1), and many of
the words generally classed as prepositions are often used as adverbs “ in
classical authors: -
Ad milibus quattuor, about four thousand. Caes. Omnia contrā circăque,
all things opposite and around. Liv. Prope à Siciliá, not far from Sicily.
Cic. Juxtà positus, placed near by. Nep. Suprā, infră esse, to be above, be-
low. Cic. Nec citrä nec ulträ, neither on this side nor on that side. Ov.
437. Conversely, several words generally classed as adverbs are some-
times used as prepositions. Such are—
1. With the ACCUSATIVE, propius, præimé, oridić, poströdié, usque, dé-
Super : -
Propius periculum, nearer to danger. Liv. Pridiè Idus, the day before
the Ides. Cic. Usque pedes, even to the feet. Curt.
2. With the ABLATIVE, intus, palam, procul, Simul (poetic):
Tāli intus templo, within such a temple. Verg. Palam populo, in the
presence of the people. Liv. Procul castris, at a distance from the camp. Tac.
Simul his, with these. Hor.
3. With the ACCUSATIVE or ABLATIVE, clam, insuper :
Clam patrem, without the father’s knowledge. Plaut. Clam vöbis, without
$/our knowledge. Caes. -
1 That is, in camp (lit., under skins).
* Formed from sub, like in-ter from in ; see 433, I., inter, foot-note.
* They are, in fact, sometimes adverbs and sometimes prepositions.
A GREEMENT OF A DJECTIVES. 239
C H A PTE R III.
SYNTAX OF ADJIHECTIVES.
RULE XXXIV.-Agreement of Adjectives.
438. An adjective agrees with its noun in GENDER,
NUMBER, and CASE:
Fortúna caeca est, fortune is blind. Cic. Wérae amicitiae, true friend-
ships. Cic. Magister optimus, the best teacher. Cic. Quă in ré privătăs
injüriàs ultus est, in which thing he avenged private wrongs. Caes. Söl
oričns diem conficit, the sun rising makes the day. Cic. , **s
1. Adjective Pronouns and Participles are ADIECTIVEs in constructiºns&and
accordingly conform to this rule, as in quá čn rê, Sól oričns. Y “S&
2. When an adjective unites with the verb (generally sum) to forms the
predicate, as in caeca est, “is blind,” it is called a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE (360,
note 1); but when it simply qualifies a noun, as in verae amicitiae, ‘true
friendships,’ it is called an ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE. :
3. AGREEMENT WITH CLAUSE, ETC.—An adjective may agree with any word
or words used substantively, as a pronoun, clause, infinitive, etc.:
Quis clárior, who is more illustrious & Cic. Certum est liberös amārī, it
is certain that children are loved. Quint. See 42, note.
NoTE.—An adjective agreeing with a clause is sometimes plural, as in Greek:
Ut Aenéâs jactèturnöta tibi, how Aeneas is tossed about is known to you. Verg.
4. A NEUTER ADJECTIVE used as a substantive sometimes supplies the place
of a Predicate Adjective : 1
Mors est extrêmum, death is the last thing. Cic. Triste lupus stabulis,
a wolf is a sad thing for the flocks. Verg.
5. A NEUTER ADJECTIVE witH A GENITIVE is often used instead of an ad-
jective with its noun, especially in the Nominative and Accusative:
Multum operae, much service.” Cic. Id temporis, that time.” Cic. Wāna
rèrum, vain things.” Hor. Opâca viárum, dark Streets. Verg. Strâta viárum,
gaved streets. Verg. See also 397, 3, note 4.
6. SYNESIS.*—Sometimes the adjective or participle conforms to the real
7mean?ng of its noun, without regard to grammatical gender or number:
Pars certăre parāti,' a part (some), prepared to contend. Verg. Inspé-
ranti 4 nôbis, to us (me) not expecting it. Catul. Démosthenès cum céteris
erant expulsi,4 Demosthenes with the others had been banished. Nep.
* As in Greek: oik &ya.66w troAvkovpavim, the rule of the many is not a good thing.
* Multº oporº) – www.lw opera or multam operam; id temporis = id tempus;
vāna réz'wm = wande rés or vdinºs rés.
* A construction according to sense; see 636, IV., 4.
* Parātā is plural, to conform to the meaning of pars, “part,” “some, plural in sense;
240 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES:
NoTE.—In the Ablative Absolute (431) absente and praesente occur in early Latin
with a plural noun or pronoun: 1
Praesente ibus (eis),” in their presence (lit., they being present). Plaut. Prae-
sente testibus, in the presence of witnesses. Plaut.
7. AGREEMENT WITH on E Noun FoR ANOTHER.—When a noun governs an–
other in the Genitive, an adjective belonging in sense to one of the two nouns,
sometimes agrees with the other:
Mājöra (for májörum) rérum initia, the beginnings of greater things. Liv.
Cursus jūsti (jūstus) amnis, the regular course of the river. Liv.
NoTE 1.-In the passive forms of verbs the participle sometimes agrees with a
predicate nown or with an appositive; see 462.
NoTE 2.--An adjective or participle predicated of an Accusative is sometimes attracted
into the Nominative to agree with the subject: -
Ostendit Sé dextra (for dea:tram), she shows herself favorable. Verg.
439. An adjective or participle, belonging to Two OR MORE
Nouns, may agree with them all conjointly, or may agree with one
and be understood with the others: - -
Castor et Pollux visi sunt, Castor and Polluz were seen. Cic. Dubitäre
visusest Sulpicius et Cotta, Sulpicius and Cotta seemed to doubt. Cic. Temeri-
tãs ignorátièque vitičsa est, rashness and ignorance are bad. Cic.
1. The ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE generally agrees with the nearest noun:
Agri omnés et maria, all lands and Seas. Cic. Cüncta maria terraeque,
all seas and lands. Sall. .
2. A plural adjective or participle, agreeing with two or more Nou NS OF
DIFFERENT GENDERs, is generally masculine when the nouns denote persons
or sentient beings, and in other cases generally neuter:
Pater et mater mortui sunt, father and mother are dead. Ter. Honórés,
victoriae fortuita Sunt, honors and victories are accidental things. Cic. Labor
voluptăsque inter sé sunt juncta, labor and pleasure are joined together. Liv.
NoTE.—When nouns denoting sentient beings are combined with those denoting
things, the plural adjective or participle in agreement with them sometimes takes the
gender of the former and sometimes of the latter, and sometimes is neuter irrespective
of the gender of the nouns: +
Réx régiaque clássis profecti sunt, the king and the royal fleet set out. Liv. Régem
régnumque sua futura sciunt, they know that the king and the kingdom will be theirs.
Liv. Inimicas inter sé sunt libera civitās et réx, a free state and a king are hostile to
each other. Liv.
3. With nouns denoting inanimate objects, the adjective or participle is
often neuter, irrespective of the gender of the nouns:
Labor et dolor sunt finitima, labor and pain are kindred (things). Cic.
inspérantã is singular, because nābās is here applied to one person, the 8peaker (446,
note 2); eacpwls? is plural, because Démosthenés cum céteris means Demosthéné8 AND
the others. º
1 In this construction absente and praesente appear to be treated as adverbs.
* See p. 78, foot-note 2.
* Perhaps best explained substantively—things hostile; see 438, 4.
USE OF A DJECTIVES. 241
Nox atque praeda hostis remoráta Sunt, night and plunder detained the enemy.
Sall.
4. Two or MORE ADJECTIVES in the singular may belong to a plural noun:
Prima et vicësima legiónés, the first and the twentieth legions. Tac.
NoTE.—In the same way two or more praenomina 1 in the singular may be com-
bined with a family name in the plural:
Gnaeus et Públius Scipiónés, Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. Cic. Públius et Servius
Sullae, Publius and Servius Sulla. Sall.
|USE OF ADJECTIVES.
440. The adjective in Latin corresponds in its general use to
the adjective in English.
1. In Latin, as in English, an adjective may qualify the complex idea
formed by a noun and another adjective:
Duae potentissimae gentès, two very powerful races. Liv. Māgnum aes
aliënum, a large debt. Cic. Nävés longās trigintā veterés, thirty old vessels
of war. Liv.”
NoTE.—In general no connective is used when adjectives are combined, as in duae
potentissimae gentās, etc.; but if the first adjective is multi or plºrimi, the connective
is usually inserted:
Multae et magnae cogitätiönés, many great thoughts. Cic. Multa et praeclára fa-
cinora, many illustrious deeds. Sall.
2. PROLEPSIs or ANTICIPATION.—An adjective is sometimes applied to a
noun to denote the result of the action expressed by the verb:
Submersäs 8 obrue puppés, overwhelm and sink the ships (lit., overwhelm
the Sunken ships). Verg. Scuta latentia 3 condunt, they conceal their hidden
shields. Verg.
NoTE 1.-Certain adjectives often designate a PARTICULAR PART of an object: prima
noa, the first part of the night; medić aestäte, in the middle of summer; summus müns,
the top (highest part) of the mountain.
NoTE 2.-The adjectives thus used are primus, medius, tiltimats, eactrémus, postré-
mus, intimus, summus, infimus, imus, suprémus, réliquus, cétera, etc. .
NOTE 3.−In the poets, in Livy, and in late prose writers, the neuter of these adjec-
tives with a Genitive sometimes occurs:
Libyae extrêma, the frontiers of Libya. Werg. Ad tiltimum inopiae (for ad liltimam
inopiam), to eatreme destitution. Liv.
NOTE 4.—Adjectives are often combined with REs: rés adversae, adversity; rés Se-
cunda6, prosperity; rés movae, revolution; rés pāblica, republic.
* For Roman names, see 649.
* Here duae qualifies not simply gentés, but potentissimae gentés; magnum quali-
fles aes aliën/wm, ‘debt" (lit., money belonging to another); veterés qualifies nãvés
Wongā8, “vessels of war' (lit., “long vessels'), while trigintá qualifies the still more com-
plex expression, naves longas veterés.
* Observe that submersäs gives the result of the action denoted by obrue, and is not
applicable to puppé8 until that action is performed; latentia likewise gives the result
of condwnt. -
11
242 USE OF A DJECTIVES.
441. Adjectives and participles are often used substanTrveLy:
JBoni, the good; mortálés, mortals; dācti, the learned ; Sapientès, the wise;
3multi, many persons; multa, many things; pračfectus, a prefect;” nátus, a son.”
1. In the plural, masculine adjectives and participles often designate PERSONs, and
neuter adjectives THINGS: fortés, the brave; divités, the rich; pauperés, the poor;
multi, many; pauci, few ; omnés, all; me?, my friends; discentés, learners; spectantés,
spectators; futura, future events; tıtilia, useful things; mea, nostra, my things, our
things; ornnia, all things; haec, illa, these things, those things.
2. In the singular, adjectives and participles are occasionally used substanTIVELY,
especially in the Genitive, or in the Accusative or Ablative with a preposition: dàctus,
a learned man; adulēscéns, a young man; véºum, a true thing, the truth; falsum, a
falsehood; nihil sincéri, nothing of sincerity, nothing sincere; nihil humdºn?, nothing
human; nihil réliqui, nothing left; 3 aliquid movi, something new; á primö, from the
beginning; ad eactrémum, to the end; ad summºwm, to the highest point; dé integró,
afresh; dé impróvisó, unexpectedly; ea. aequê, in like manner; in praesenti, at pres-
ent; in futièrum, for the future; prä certö, as certain.”
NoTE 1.-For the newter participle with opus and iſsus, see 414, IV., note 3.
NoTE 2.-For the use of adjectives instead of nouns in the Genitive, see 395, note 2.
3. A few substantives are sometimes used as adjectives, especially verbal nouns in
tor and tria: ; 5 victor eacercitus, a victorious army; homā gladiátor, a gladiator, a gladi-
atorial man; victricës Athénae, victorious (conquering) Athens; populus lăté réa, a
people of extensive sway.”
442. EQUIVALENT TO A CLAUSE.—Adjectives, like nouns in ap-
position, are sometimes equivalent to clauses:
Němč saltat sobrius, no one dances when he is sober, or when Sober. Cic.
Hortensium vivum amāvī, I loved Hortensius, while he was alive. Cic. Homö
nunquam söbrius, a man who is never Sober. Cic.
NoTE.—Prior, primus, tiltimºus, postrémus, are often bestrendered by a relative clause:
Primus mêrem solvit, he was the first who broke the custom.” Liv.
443. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.–Adjectives are sometimes
used where our idiom employs adverbs:
Sócratês venênum laetus hausit, Socrates CHEERFULLY drank the poison.
Sen. Senátus frequêns convênit, the Senate assembled IN GREAT NUMBERs. Cic.
Röscius erat Römae frequëns, Roscius was frequently at Rome. Cic.
1 That is, words which were originally adjectives or participles sometimes become
substantives; indeed, many substantives were originally adjectives; see 323, foot-note;
324, foot-note.
2 Praefectus, from praeficio (lit., one appointed over); nátus, from náscor (lit.,
one born).
3 See 397, 1. For nihil réliqui facere, see 401, note 4.
4. Numerous adverbial expressions are thus formed by combining the neuter of adjec-
tives with prepositions. -
* That is, these words are generally substantives, but sometimes adjectives.
* See Werg., Aen., I., 21.
7 With the adverb primum the thought would be, he first broke the custom (i.e.,
before doing anything else). Compare the corresponding distinction between the Greek
adjective trpáros and the adverb irpºrav.
USE OF A DJECTIVES. 243
NotE 1.-The adjectives chiefly thus used are—(1) Those expressive of joy, knowl-
edge, and their opposites: Zaetus, libéns, invitus, tristis, Scièms, in Sciéms, prºdéns, im-
prüdéns, etc. (2) Nüllus, Sölus, totus, &nus; prior, primus, propior, prāaximus, etc.
NOTE 2.-In the poets a few adjectives of time and place are used in the same manner:
Domesticus àtior, I idle about home. Hor. Vespertinus pete tüctum, at evening
seek gyour abode. Hor.
NOTE 3.−In rare instances adverbs seem to supply the place of adjectives:
Omnia récté Sunt, all things are RIGIIT. Cic. Nön ignäri sumus ante malörum,” we
are not ignorant of PAST misfortunes. Werg. Nunc hominum múrés, the character
of men of THE PRESENT DAY. Plaut.
NotE 4.—Numeral adverbs often occur with titles of office: 2
Fläminius, cónsul iterum, Flaminius, when consul for the 8econd time. Cic.
444. A COMPARISON between two objects requires the com-
parative degree ; between more than two, the superlative:
Prior hòrum, the former of these (two). Nep. Gallórum fortissimi, the
bravest of the Gauls. Caes.
1. The comparative sometimes has the force of Too, UNUSUALLY, SOME-
whAT, and the superlative, the force of very: dàction, too learned, or some-
what learned; dāctissimus, very learned.
NoTE.—Certain superlatives are common as titles of honor: clārissimus, mäbilissi-
mus, and summus—especially applicable to men of consular or senatorial rank; fortissi-
mus, homestissimus, illustrissimus, and splendidissimus—especially applicable to those
of the equestrian order.
2. CoMPARATIVE AFTER QUAM.—When an object is said to possess one
quality in a higher degree than another, the two adjectives thus used either
may be connected by magis quam 3 or may both be put in the comparative: 4
Disertus magis quam sapiéns, more fluent than wise.8 Cic. Praeclárum magis
quam difficile, more noble than difficult, or noble rather than difficult. Cic. Ditiérés
quam fortićrés, more wealthy than brave.* Liv. Clärior quam gråtior, more illustri-
ows than pleasing. Liv.
NOTE. 1.-In a similar manner two adverbs may be connected by magis guam, or
may both be put in the comparative :
Magis audācter quam parāté, with more audacity than preparation. Cic. Bellum
fortius quam félicius gerere, to wage war with more valor than success. Liv.
NOTE 2.-The form with magis, both in adjectives and in adverbs, may sometimes
be best rendered rather than :
Ars magis Imāgna quam difficilis, an art eatensive rather than difficult. Cic. See
also the second example under 2, above.
NOTE: 3.—In the later Latin the positive sometimes follows quam, even when the
regular comparative precedes, and sometimes two positives are used:
Wehementius quam cauté appetere, to seek more eagerly than cautiously. Tac.
Cläris quam vetustis, illustrious rather than ancient. Tac.
NOTE 4.—For the use of comparatives before guan prä, see 417, 1, note 5.
* Like the Greek tēv Trpiv kaków and rôv vöv &v6pétrov.
* The want of a present participlo in the voll, swu, Uriugs illese adverbs into close
connection with nouns.
* As in English, more fluent than wise. This is the usual method in Cicero.
* As in Greek, TXetoves à Bext{oves, more numerous than good. This method, com-
Imon in Livy, is rare in the earlier writers.
244 A G REEMENT OF PRO VOUVS.
3. STRENGTIIENING WORDS. — Comparatives and superlatives are often
strengthened by a preposition with its case, as by ante, prae, praeter, $uprà
(417, 1, note 3). Comparatives are also oftem strengthened by etiam, even,
still; multó, much ; and superlatives by longè, multò, by far, much ; vel, evem ;
άnus, únus omníum, alone, alone of all, without exeeption, far, by far; quam,
quam, or quantu8 with the verb po88um, as possible ; tam, quam, quî, ut quî,
as possible (lit., aS he who):
Mäjörës etiam varietätës, ever, qreater varìetìes. Cic. Multö etiam gravius queri-
tur, he complains evem, much, more bitterly. Caes. Multö mäxima pars, by Jfar the
largest part. Cic. Quam saepissimê, as qften, a8 po88ible. Cic. Ünus omnium döctis-
simus, withovt eæception, the qnost learmed qf mem. Cic. Rês üna omnium difficillima,
a thimg by far the most dìffìcult qf all. Cic. Quam mäximae cöpiae, force8 a8 large
as possible. Sall. Quantam mäximam potest vastitátem ostendit, he eœháôát8 the great-
e$t pos8ible desolation (lit., a8 great a8 the greate8t, he can). Liv.
C EI A P TE R IV.
SYNTAX OIF PERIOINTOTUINTS.
IRULE XXXV.—Agreement of Pronouns.
445. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in GENDER,
NUMBER, and PERSON:
Animal quod sanguinem habet, an animal WEICH has blood. Cic. Ego,
quî të cönfirmö, I wHo encourage you. Cic. Vis est in virtütibus, eàs
excitâ, there ìs strength in virtues, arouse THEM. Cic.
INoTE.—The antecedemt is the word or words to which the pronoum refers, and whose
place it supplies. Thus, in the examples under the rule, animal is the antecedent of
quod ; ego, of qvâ ; and virtútáb?/S, of eâ8.
1. This rule applies to all pronouns when used as nouns. Pronouns used
as adjectives conform to the rule for adjectives; see 438.
2. When the antecedent, is a demonstrative in agreement with a personal
pronoum, the relative agrees with the latter:
Tü es is quî mé örnästi, 3yow are the one WHO commended me. Cic.
3. When a relative, or other pronoum, refers to Two OR MORE ANTECEDENTs,
it generally agrees with them conjointly, but it sometimes agrees with the
nea rest, :
IPietäs, virtüs, fidës, quárum, 1 Römae templa sunt, piety, vìrtue, and faith,
WHOSE temples are at Rome. Cic. Peccátum äc culpa, quae,1 error and fault,
WHICH. Cic.
* Quárum, agrees with pietá8, virtùs, amd fidés conjointly, and is accordingly in thc
plural; but quae agrees simply with culpa.
A GREEMENT OF PROWOUNS. 245
NOTE 1.—With antecedents of different genders, the pronoun conforms in gender to
the rule for adjectives (439, 2 and 3):
Pueri mulierésque gui,' boys and women wiro. Caes. Incönstantia et temeritàs,
Quae + digna nón Sunt ded, inconstancy and rash/mess which are not worthy of a
god. Cic.
NoTE 2–With antecedents of different persons, the pronoun prefers the first person
to the Second, and the second to the third, conforming to the rule for verbs (463, 1):
Ego àc tú inter nôs" loquimur, you and I converse together. Tac. Et til et collégae
tui, qui º Spērāstis, both you and your colleagues, who hoped. Cic.
4. By ATTRACTION, a pronoun sometimes agrees with a PREDICATE Noun
or an APPOSITIVE instead of the antecedent :
Animal quem (for quod) vocamus hominem, the animal which we call
wnan.” Cic. Thébae, quod (quae) caput est, Thebes, which is the capital. Liv.
J’a (id) erat confessié, THAT (i. e., the action referred to) was a confession.
Liv. Flümen Rhénus, qui, the river Rhine, which. Caes.
5. By SYNESIS, the pronoun is sometimes construed according to the real
7meaning of the antecedent, without regard to grammatical form; and some-
times it refers to the class of objects to which the antecedent belongs:
Quia fessum militem haběbat, his quićtem dedit, as he had an exhausted
Soldiery, he gave THEM (THESE) a rest. Liv. Equitätus, qui vidérunt, the cav-
alry WHO saw. Caes. Dè alià ré, quod ad mé attinet, in regard to another
thing WHICH pertains to me. Plaut. Eärum rérum utrumque, EACH of these
things. Cic. Démocritum omittämus; apud istós ; let us omit Democritus;
with SUCH (i. e., as he). Cic.
6. ANTECEDENT OMITTED.—The antecedent of the relative is often omitted
when it is indefinite, is a demonstrative pronoun, or is implied in a posses-
sive pronoun, or in an adjective:
Sunt qui cénseant, there are some who think. Cic. Terra reddit quod ac-
cêpit, the earth returns what it has received. Cic. Vesträ, qui cum integri-
täte vixistis, hēc interest, this interests you who have lived with integrity. . Cic.
Servilis tumultus quês, the revolt of the slaves whom. Caes.
7. CLAUSE As ANTEGEDENT.—When the antecedent is a sentence or clause,
the pronoun, unless attracted (445, 4), is in the Neuter Singular, but the
relative generally adds id as an appositive to such antecedent:
Nös, id quod débet, patria délectat, our country delights us, as it ought
(lit., that which it owes). Cic. Régem, quod nunquam anteå acciderat, necă-
vérunt, they put their king to death, which had never before happened. Cic.
8. RELATIVE ATTRACTED.—The relative is sometimes attracted into the
case of the antecedent, and sometimes agrees with the antecedent repeated:
Jüdice quð (for quem) nosti, the judge whom you know. Hor. Diès Instat,
* Qui agrees with pueri and mulierås conjointly, and is in the masculine, according
to 439, 2; but quae is in the newter, according to 439, 3. -
* Wös, referring to ego àc tà, is in the first person; while qui, referring to tº et col-
légae, is in the second person, as is shown by the verb spérástis.
* In these examples, the pronouns quem, quod, and ea are attracted, to agree with
their predicate nouns, hominem, caput, and confessić; but qui agrees with the apposi-
tive, Rhênus,
246 USE OF PRONO UNS.
quð dić, the day is at hand, on which day. Caes. Cúmae, quam urbem tené-
bant, Cumae, which city they held. Liv.
9. ANTECEDENT ATTRACTED.—In poetry, rarely in prose, the antecedent is
sometimes attracted into the case of the relative ; and sometimes incorporated
in the relative clause with the relative in agreement with it:
Urbem, quam statuć, vestra est, the city which I am building is yours.
Verg. Malārum, quâs amor curäs habet, oblivisci (for malārum citrărum
quês), to forget the wretched cares which love has. Hor. Quðs vös implérare
débétis, ut, quam urbem pulcherrimam esse voluérunt, hanc” défendant, these
(lit., whom) you ought to implore to defend this city, which they wished to be
7most beautiful. Cic.
USE OF PRONOUNS.
446. PERSONAL PRONoUNs.—The Nominative of Personal Pro-
nouns is used only for emphasis or contrast : *
Significămus quid sentiámus, we show what we think. Cic. Ego régés
ějéci, vös tyrannós intródùcitis, I have banished Kings, You introduce tyrants.
Cic.
NOTE 1.-With guidem the pronoun is usually expressed, but not with eguidem :
Facis amicë tii quidem, you act indeed in a friendly manner. Cic. Nön dubitā-
bam equidem, I did not doubt indeed. Cic.
NoTE 2.—A writer sometimes speaks of himself in the plural, using mås for ego, mos-
ter for meus, and the plural verb for the singular:
Vidés nãs (for mé) multa cânări, you see that wr (for I) are attempting many
things. Cic. Sermö explicãbit mostram (for mean) sententiam, the conversation will
wnfold our (MY) opinion. Cic. Diximus (for diaci) multa, I have said many things.
Cic.4
NotE 3.-Nostri and vestri are generally used in an objective sense; noström and
vestriºm in a partitive sense:
Habétis ducem memorem vestri, you have a leader mindful of Your INTERESTs (or
You). Cic. Minus habed virium quam vestrºm utervis, I have less strength than either
of You. Cic. Quis noström, who of Us? Cic.
NOTE 4.—With ab, ad, or apwd, a personal pronoun may designate the residence or
abode of a person:
A nôbis égreditur, he is coming FROM our House. Ter. Wéni ad mé, I came To My
HOUSE. Cic. Eämus ad mé, let us go to my house. Ter. Apud tâ est, he is at your
house. Cic. Rūri apud Sé est, he is at his residence in the country. Cic. See also
433, I., ad, apud, etc.
447. POSSESSIVE PRONoUNs, when not emphatic, are seldom
expressed, if they can be supplied from the context:
Manús lavă, wash your hands. Cie. Mihi mea vita câra est, my life is
dear to me.5 Plaut.
1 For other examples, see Verg., Aen., W., 28–30; Hor., Sat., I., 10, 16.
* Quam wrbeam, hanc = hanc wrbem, Quam.
* The learner will remember that a pronominal subject is actually contained in the
ending of the verb; see 368, 2, foot-note. -
* For other examples, see Hor., Sat., I., 9, 7, and Car., I., 82.
* In this example mea is expressed for emphasis,
USE OF PROWOUNS. 24?
NoTE 1.-Possessive Pronouns sometimes mean favorable, propitious, as aliénus
often means unfavorable:
Wädimus haud nümine noströ, we advance whaler a divinity not propitious. Verg.
Tempore tué pugnâsti, you fought at a favorable time. Liv. Ferunt sua flâmina clas-
sem, favorable winds bear the fleet. Verg. Aliénô locó proelium committunt, they en-
gage in battle in an unfavorable place. Caes.
NoTE 2.-For the Possessive Pronoun in combination with a Genitive, see 398, 3.
448. REFLExIVE USE OF PRONOUNS.—Su? and sºlus have a re-
flexive sense ; * sometimes also the other personal and possessive
pronouns:
Miles së ipsum interfécit, the soldier killed himself. Tac. Teló sé dé-
fendit, he defends himself with a weapon. Cic. Suá vi movétur, he is moved
by his own power. Cic. Mé consólor, I console myself. Cic. Vös vestra têcta
défendite, defend your houses. Cic.
NotE.—Inter nô8, inter vös, inter Sé, have a reciprocal force, each other, one an-
other, together; but instead of inter sé, the noun may be repeated in an oblique case:
Colloquimur inter nôs, we converse together. Cic. Amant inter sé, they love one
another. Cic. Hominés hominibus ſtilés Sunt, men are w86ful to men (i. e., to each
other). Cic.
449. Sui and suus generally refer to the Subject of the clause
in which they stand :
Së diligit, he loves himself. Cic. Jústitia propter sésé colenda est, justice
should be cultivated for its own sake. Cic. Annulum suum dedit, he gave his
zing. Nep. Per sé sibi quisque cărus est, every one is in his very nature
(through or in himself) dear to himself. Cic.
1. In SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs expressing the sentiment of the principal
subject, suft and suus generally refer to that subject:
Sentit animus së vi suá movéri; the mind perceives that it is moved by its own
power. Cic. A mé petivitut sécum essem, he asked (from) me to be with him (that I
would be). Cic. Pervestigat quid sui civös cogitent, he tries to ascertain what his
Jellow-citizens think. Cic.
1) As swi and swus thus refer to subjects, the demonstratives, is, ille, etc., generally
refer either to other words, or to subjects which do not admit swi and swus:
Deum agnúscis ex éjus operibus, you recognize a god by (from) his works. Cic.
Obligat civitätem nihil eds mütätärös, he binds the state not to change anything (that
they will). Just.
2) In some subordinate clauses the writer may at pleasure use either the reflexive or
the demonstrative, according as he wishes to present the thought as that of the principal
Subject, or as his own:
Persuádent Tulingis uti cum is 2 proficiscantur, they persuade the Tulingi to de-
part with them. Caes.
8) Sometimes reflexives and demonstratives are used without any apparent distinction:
* Swi, of himself; sibi, for himself; sé, himself.
* Here cum is is the proper language for the writer without reference to the senti-
ment of the principal subject; sécum, which would be equally proper, would present the
thought as the sentiment of that subject.
248 USE OF PRONO UNS.
Caesar Fabium cum legióne suāl remittit, Caesar sends back Fabius and (with]
his legion. Caes. Omittà Isocratem discipulàsque éjus,” I omit Isocrates and his dis-
ciples. Cic.
2. SUUs, in the sense of HIS own, FITTING, etc., may refer to subject or
object:
Jüstitia suum cuique tribuit, justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cic.
3. SYNESIS.—When the subject of the verb is not the real agent of the
action, Swi and swus refer to the agent:
Å Caesare invitor sibiut sim légātus, I am invited by Caesar (real agent) to be his
Wieutenant. Cic.
4. THE PLURAL of SUUs, meaning HIS FRIENDS, THEIR FRIENDS, THEIR
PoSSESSIONS, etc., is used with great freedom, often referring to oblique
Ca,SeS :
Fuit höc luctuêsum suis, this was afflicting to his friends.” Cic.
B. Sui and Suus sometimes refer to an omitted subject:
Déforme est dê só praedicare, to boast of one's self is disgusting. Cic.
6. Two REFLEXIVES.–Sometimes a clause has one reflexive referring to
the principal subject, and another referring to the subordinate subject:
Respondit něminem sécum sine suá pernicié contendisse, he replied that no one had
contended with him without (his) destruction.” Caes.
450. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONoUNs.—Hic, iste, ille, are often
called respectively demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third
Persons, as hic designates that which is near the speaker ; iste, that
which is near the person addressed; and ille, that which is remote
from both :
Custós hijus urbis, the guardian of this city (i.e., of our city). Cic. Mūtā
istam mentem, change that purpose of yours. Cic. Ista quae Sunt à tê dicta,
those things which were spoken by you. Cic. Si illós, quês vidére non pos-
Sumus, neglegis, if you disregard those (far away, yonder) whom we can not
See. Cic.
1. Häc designates an object conceived as near, and ille as remote, whether
in space, time, or thought :
Nön antiquð illó more, sed höc noströ fuit Gruditus, he was educated, not in that
ancient, but in this our modern way. Cic. Höc illud fuit, was it (that) this f Werg.
NoTE.—The idea of contempt often implied in clauses with iste is not strictly con-
tained in the pronoun itself, but derived from the context: 4
Animi est ista mollitiés, nān virtùs, THAT is an effeminate spirit, not valor. Caes.
1 Observe that the refleasive is used in the first example, and the demonstrative in
the second, though the cases are entirely alike.
* Here Swis refers to an oblique case in the preceding sentence.
* Here Sé refers to the subject of respondit, and Suá to méminem, the subject of the
subordinate clause.
* The idea of contempt is readily explained by the fact that iste is often applied to
the views of an opponent, to a defendant before a court of justice, and the like.
USE OF PRO WO UNS. 249
2. FoRMER AND LATTER.—In reference to two objects previously mentioned,
(1) hîc generally follows ille and refers to the latter object, while ìlle refers
to the former ; but (2) λῖe may precede and may refer to the former, and âlle
refer to the latter :
Inimíci, amici; illi, hi, ememies, frìends ; the former, the latter. Cic. Certa päx,
spëräta victöria; haec (páæ) in tuâ, illa in deörum potestáte est, 8^tre peace, hoped;for
victory ; the former ä8 ìn gyowr power, the latter în the power qf the gods. Liv.
NoTE.—Hîc refers to the former object, when that object is conceived of as mearer
ἀm thought, either because of its importance, or because of its close connection with the
subject under discussion.i
3. Hîc and ille are oftem used of what immediately follows in discourse:
HIs verbis epistulam misit, he sent a letter in, these words (i. e., in the following
words). Nep. Illud intellegö, omnium öra in mê conversa esse, this I understand, that
the eye8 qf all are turmed wpon, me. Sall.
4. Ille is oftem used of what is WELL KNOWN, FAMOUS:
Médéa illa, that well-Äcmowm, Medea. Cic. Ego, ille feröx, tacui, I, that haughty ome,
Qvas 8ilemt. Ovid.
INoTE 1.—Hic is sometimes equivalent to meu8 or noster, rarely to ego, and hîc
homö to ego:
Suprà hanc memoriam, before our time (lit., before thás memory). Cic. His meis
litteris, with this letter qf omine (from me). Cic. Hic homóst omnium hominum, etc.,
qf all mem, I am, etc. (lit., thi8 mam, âs). Plaut.
NOTE 2.—Hîc, ille, and i8 are sometimes redundant, especially with quidem :
Scipiö nön multum ille dicèbat, Scipio did mot indeed 8ay much. Cic. Graeci vo-
lunt illi quidem, the Greeks indeed, desêre it. Cic. Ista tranquillitäs ea ipsa est beáta
vita, that tranquil/ity ês êtselfa, happy 7ífe.3 Cic.
NoTE 8.—A demonstrative or relative is sometimes equivalent to a Genitive, or to a
preposition with its case: hîc amor = amor hùjus rê, *the love of this'; haec cìra =
cùra dê hôc, * care concerning this.'
NoTE 4.—Adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns share the distinctive mean-
ings of the pronouns themselves:
Hic plüs mali est, quam illic boni, there is more qf evil here, tham, qf good there. Ter.
See also 304; 305.
451. IS and idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the antece-
dents of relatives:
IDionysius aufügit, is est in prövinciä, Dionysius λαs fed, he is in the
provînce. Cic. Is qui satis habet, he who ha8 enough. Cic. Eadem audire
mälunt, they prefer to hear the Same thángs. Liv.
1. The promoum is, the weakest of the demonstratives, is often understood, especially
before a relative or a Genitive:
Elëbat pater dé filii morte, dé patris filius, the father wept over the deat/ qf?/e Som,
the 8ov over (that) qf the father. Cic. See also 445, 6.
1 Thus, in the last example, haec refers to certa påæ as the more prominent object
in the mind of tlue speaker, as he is setting forth the advantage8 of a 8vre peace over a
hoped-for victory. a*
3 For other examples, see Verg., Aen., I., 8; III., 490; and XI., 809. For the use of
personal pronouns with quidem, see 446, note 1.
250 USE OF PRO VOUVS.
2. I8, ωίt], a comjwnctiom, is often used for emphasis, like the English, and that too,
amd that ímdeed :
Ünam rem explicäbö, eamque máximam, one thing I will eæplain, and that too a
most împortant one. Cic. Audire Cratippum, idque Athénis, to hear Cratippu8, amd.
that too at Athe^s.1 Cic.
8. Idem is sometimes best rendered also, at the same time, at omce, both, yet :
INihil ütile, quod non idem honestum, nothing v8eful, φλέc/. i8 not also honorable.
Cic. Cum dicat, negat idem, though, he as8erts, he yet denie8 (the same denies). Cic.
Féx Anius, rêx idem hominum Phoebique sacerdös, King Amius, both cing qf men, amó,
priest qf Apollo. Verg.
4. I8—qvô means he—^0ho, swch—a8, 8uch-that:
Ii sumus, qui esse débémus, we are 8uch. a8 we ought to be. Cic. Ea est gêns quae
nesciat, the race is 8uch that it k movcs mot. Liv.
5. Idem—qvô means the same—ooho, the 8ame—as; ìdem—àe (atque, et, que), ìdem
—wt, ìdem.—6^/^m with the Ablative, the 8a me—a8 :
Eidem mörës, qui, the 8a me ^manmers which, or as. Cic. Est idem äc fuit, 7ie is the
&ame a8 he wa8. Ter. Eödem mëcum patre genitus, the son, q^ the same fatJier as I
(with me). Tac. -
6. For the DISTINCTION BETWEEN IS and sUf in subordinate clauses, see 449, 1, 2).
452. Ip8e adds emphasis, generally rendered 8e|f:
Ipse Pater fulmina molitur, the Father hêmself (Jupiter) hurls the thumder-
bolts. Verg. Ipse * dixit, he hêmse!f 8aìd ìt. Cic. Ipse Caesar, Caesar hóm-
8e!f. Cic. Fac ut tè ipsum custódiás, See that you guard 3yourself. Cic.
1. Ipse belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or object, but with a prefer-
ence for the subject:
Mé ipse cönsölor, I my8e7f (not another) com8ole myself. Cic. Ipse 85 quisque dili-
git, every one (himself) loves himself. Cic. Sé ipsum interfêcit, he killed himself. Tac.
NOTE.—Ipse is sometimes accompanied by 8ècwm, * with himself,'' alone,' or by per
8é, * by himself,' * unaided,' * in and of himself,' etc.:
Aliud genitor sëcum ipse volütat, the father (Jupiter) himself alone ponder8 am-
other plan. Verg. Quod est rëctum ipsumque per sê laudábile, which is réght, amd án.
amó, qf itself praiseworthgy. Cic.
2. Ip8e is often best rendered by very :
Ipse ille Gorgiâs, that very Gorgias. Cic.
8. With numerals, ipse means ju8t so many, just; so also in mwnc ipsatm, *just at
this time'; tum ipsum, *just at that time*:
Trigintâ diés ipsi, juSt thárty days. Cic. Nunc ipsum sine tê esse nön possum, ju8t
at thá8 time I cammot be without you. Cic.
4. Ip8e in the Genitive with possessives has the force of ovcm, ome's own :
Nostra ipsörum amicitia, owr owm, friemdship. Cic. See 398, 3.
5. Ipse in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the principal subject, like an em-
phatic suâ or 8wus : -
Lögätös misit qui ipsi vitam peterent, 7ie semt me$$e mgers to ask 7ífe for himself. Sall.
6. Et ipse and ip8e quoqwe may often be rendered also, likewise, even, he : *
Alius Achillës nätus et ipse deâ, another Achilles likewise (lit., himself also) born
Qf a goddess. Verg.
i Id, thus used, often refers to a clause, or to the general thought, as in this example.
* Applied to Pythagoras by his disciples. Ipse is oftem thus used of a &wperior, aF
of a ma&ter, zeacher, etc.
° Compare the Greek καί αύr6s.
USE OF PRONO UNS. 251
7. For the use of the Nominative ipse in connection with the Ablative Absolute, see
431, note 3.
453. RELATIVE PRONoUNs.—The relative is often used where
the English idiom requires a demonstrative or personal pronoun;
Sometimes even at the beginning of a sentence : !
Rés loquitur ipsa, quae semper valet, the fact itself speaks, and this
(which) ever has weight. Cic. Qui proelium committunt, they engage in bat-
tle. Caes. Quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. Cic.
1. RELATIVES and DEMONSTRATIVEs are often correlatives to each other:
hic—qui, iste—qui, etc. These combinations generally retain the ordinary
force of the separate words, but see is—qui, idem—qui, 451, 4 and 5.
NoTE.—The neuter quidguid," accompanied by an adjective, a participle, or a Geni-
tive, may be used of persons:
Mätrös et quidquid tâcum invalidum est délige, select the mothers and whatever
feeble persons there are with yow (lit., whatever there is with you feeble). Verg.
Quidguiderat patrum, whatever fathers there were. Liv. See also 397, 8, note 5.
2. In Two SUCCESSIVE CLAUSEs, the relative may be—(1) expressed in
both, (2) expressed in the first and omitted in the second, (3) expressed in
the first and followed by a demonstrative in the second:
Nós qui sermöni non interfuissémus et quibus Cotta sententiás trädidisset, we who
had not been present at the conversation, and to whom Cotta had reported the opin-
doms. Cic. Dumnorix qui principátum obtinëbat àc plébi acceptus erat, Dumnoria', who
held the chief authority, and who was acceptable to the common people. Caes. Quae
nec habérémus nec his literêmur, which we show.ld neither have nor vse. Cic.
NOTE 1.-Several relatives may appear in successive clauses:
Omnés quí věstitum, qui täcta, qui cultum vitae, qui praesidia contră ferås invéné-
runt, all who introduced (invented) clothing, houses, the refinements of life, protec-
tion against wild beasts. Cic.
NOTE 2. —A relative clause with is is often equivalent to a substantive : 37 quº aw-
dºwnt = auditórés, “hearers.”
3. Two RELATIVEs sometimes occur in the same clause:
Artés quâs qui tenent, arts, whose possessors (which who possess). Cic.
4. A RELATIVE CLAUSE is sometimes equivalent to the Ablative with prä:
Spörö, quae tua prüdentia est, té valère, I hope you are well, such is your prudence
(which is, etc.). Cic.
NOTE.-Quae tua prüdentia est = qua es prüdentiã = pré tuà prüdentiã, means such
is your prudence, or you are of such prudence, or in accordance with your pru-
dence, etc.
5. RELATIVE WITH ADJECTIVE.—Adjectives belonging in sense to the ante-
cedent, especially comparatives, superlatives, and numerals, sometimes stand
in the relative clause in agreement with the relative:
Våsa, quae pulcherrima viderat, the most beautiful vessels which he had 8één (ves-
sels, which the most beautiful he had seen). Cic. DG servis suis, quem habuit fidèlissi-
mum, misit, he sent the most faithful of the slaves that he had. Nep.
6. The neuter, Quod, used as an adverbial Accusative, often stands at the beginning
1 Of the general or indefinite relative Quisqués.
252 USE OF PRONOUVS.
of a sentence or clause, especially before 87, mò, misi, etsì, and sometimes before quia,
quoniam, utinam, etc., to indicate a close commection with what precedes. In trans-
lating it is sometimes best omitted, and sometimes best rendered by now, âm, fact, but,
amó, :
Quod si ceciderint, but áf they should fall.1 Cic. Quod si ego rescivissem id prius,
mow êf I had learned thi8 8oomer.1 Ter.
7. Qwì dìcitur, quò vocátur, or the corresponding active, quem dúcunt, qvem vocant,
are often used in the sense of 8o-called, the so-called, what they or yow, call, etc.:
Vestra quae dicitur vita, mors est, yowr 8o-called, life (lit., yowr, which is called,
lífe) is death. Cic. Léx ista quam vocäs nön est léx, that law, a8 @yow call, ît, îs mot a
Ja^p. Cic.
454. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.—The Interrogative quis is
used substantively ; quî, adjectively :
Quis ego sum, who am I? Cic. Quid faciet, what wöll, he do ? Cic Qui
vir fuit, what kind qf a man was he ? Cic.
1. Occasionally quis is used adjectively and quî substantively :
Quis rëx unquam fuit, what kámg wa8 there ever ? Cic. Qui sis, cönsiderâ, con8ider
acho yov, are. Cic.
NoTE.—The meuter, quid, is sometimes used of persons; see 397, 8, note 5.
2. QUID, why, hovo is it that, etc., is often used adverbially (378, 2), or stands ap-
parently unconnected: 3 quid, * why?* * what?* quid enim, * why then?" * what then?'
* what indeed?* quid ita, * why so? ' qwid quod, * what of the fact that?' qwid, 87,
* What if? * :
Quid vênisti, why have yow come ? Plaut. Quid enim? metusne conturbet, what
them ? qwould fear disturò us ? Cic. Quid quod délectantur, aofiat qf the fact that they
are delighted ? Cic.
8. Two INTERROGATIVES sometimes occur in the same clause :
Quis quem fraudävit, avho defrauded, and whom did, he defraud, (lit., ^who de-
frauded, vohom)? Cic.
4. Tantus sometimes accompanies the interrogative pronoum:
Quae fuit unquam in üllö homine tanta cönstantia, acas there ever 80 great comstancy
ἀm amy mam ? Cic.
455. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.*—Aliquis, quis, quî, and quispiam,
are all indefinite—80me one, amy ome :
Est aliquis, there ìs Some o^e. Liv. Sénsus aliquis esse potest, there may
be Some 8en8ation. Cie. Dixit quis, 8ome one Said. Cic. Si quis réx, %f any
λέng. Cic. Alia rês quaepiam, any other thêmg. Cic.
1. Qwis and qwì are used chiefly after 87, misi, mê, and mwm. Aliquis and qwis are
generally used substantively, alìquì and quz adjectively. Aliquis and aliquà after 87,
7visâ, etc., are emphatic:
Si est aliqui sénsus in morte, ifthere is amy sensation whatever in, deat]. Cic.
2. We8ciö quis and nesció quó often supply the place of indefinite pronouns:
1 Here quod refers to something that precedes, and means in reference to which, in.
reference to this, in this connectíon, etc. For other examples, see Caesar, B. G., I., 14,
and VII., 88. ... - -
* In some instances quid is readily explained by the ellipsis of some form of dìcö
oT of S^vm.
* For a full illustration of the use of indefinite pronouns, see Draeger, I., pp. 87-108.
USE OF PRO WO UNS. 253
Nesció quis loquitur, some one speaks (lit., I know not who speaks, or one speaks,
I Know not who). Plaut. Nesció quid mihi animus praesāgit mali, my mind forebodes
some evil (191, note). Ter.
456. Quidam, “a certain one,” is less indefinite than aliquis:
Quidam rhétor antiquus, a certain ancient rhetorician. Cic. Accurrit qui-
dam, a certain one runs up. Hor.
1. Quidam with an adjective is sometimes used to qualify or soften the statement:
Jüstitia mirifica quaedam vidétur, justice seems Somewhat wonderful. Cic.
2. Quidam with quasi, and sometimes without it, has the force of a certain, a kind
of, as it were:
Quasi alumna quaedam, a certain foster-child, as it were. Cic.
457. Quisquam and illus are used chiefly in negative and con-
ditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences implying a nega-
tive :
Neque mé quisquam agnúvit, nor did any one recognize me. Cic. Si quis-
quam, if any one. Cic. Num cénsés ullum animal esse, do you think there is
any animal? Cic. -
1. Wémö is the negative of quisquam, and like quisquam is generally used substan-
tively, rarely adjectively : *
Něminem laesit, he harmed no one. Cic. Němč poéta, no poet. Cic.
2. Wüllus is the negative of illus, and is generally used adjectively, but it sometimes
supplies the Genitive and Ablative of némö, which generally wants those cases:
Nüllum animal, mo animal. Cic. Nüllius aurës, the ears of no one. Cic.
3. Wüllus and nihil are sometimes used for an emphatic nãm :
Nüllus vónit, he did not come. Cic. Mortui nulli Sunt, the dead are not. Cic.
458. Quivis, quilibet, “any one whatever,” and quisque, “every
one,” “each one,’ are general indefinites (190):
Quaelibet rés, anything. Cic. Tuorum quisque necessäriórum, each one
of your friends. Cic.
1. Quisque with superlatives and ordinals is generally best rendered by all, or by
ever, always; with primus by very, possible:
Epiciirčás doctissimus quisque contemnit, all the most learned despise the Epicu-
feams, or the most learned ever despise, etc. Cic. Primö quðque dić, the earliest day
possible, the very first. Cic.
2. Ut quisque—ita with the Superlative in both clauses is often best rendered, the
2more—the more :
Ut quisque sibi plurimum confidit, ita mäximé excellit, the more one conſides in
On 6's Self, the more one eaccels. Cic.
459. Alius means ‘another, other’; alter, ‘the one,” “the other’
(of two), ‘the second,” “a second.” They are often repeated : alius
—alius, one—another ; ală—alii, some—others; alter—alter, the
one—the other ; alter?—alter, the one party—the other :
Légātós alium ab alić aggreditur, he tampers with the ambassadors one after
another. Sall. Alii, glóriae serviunt, alii pecuniae, some are slaves to glory,
others to money. Cic. Quidguid negat alter, et alter, whatever one denies, the
254 A G. REEMENT OF VERBS.
other denies. Hor. Alter erit Tiphys, there will be a second Tiphys. Verg.
Tú nunc eris alter ab illó, you will now be next after him. Verg. Alterſ
dimicant, alteri timent, one party contends, the other fears. Cic.
1. Alius or alter repeated in different cases, or combined with aliás or aliter, often
involves an ellipsis :
Alius alià vià civitätem auxérunt, they advanced the state, one in one way, another
in another. Liv. Aliter alii vivunt, some live in one way, others in another. Cic.
2. After aliw8, aliter, and the like, atgue, àc, and et often mean than :
Nön alius essem atque sum, I would not be other than I am. Cic.
3. When alter—alter refer to objects previously mentioned, the first alter usually
refers to the latter object, but may refer to either:
Inimicus, competitor, cum alteró—cum alteró, an enemy, a rival, with the latter—
with the former. Cic.
4. Utergue means both, each of two. In the plural it generally meang both, each of
two parties, but sometimes both, each of two persons or things; regularly so with nouns
which are plural in form but singular in sense:
Utrique victóriam cridéliter exercébant, both parties made a cruel use of victory.
Sall. Palmās uträsque tetendit, he eactended both his hands. Werg. §
C H A PT E R. W.
SYNTAX OIF VIEEES.
SECTION I.
AGREEMENT OF VERBS.–USE OF VOICEs.
RULE XXXVI.-Agreement of Verb with Subject.
460. A finite verb agrees with its subject in NUMBER
and PERSON :
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God made (built) the world. Cic. Ego régès
éjéci, vös tyrannús intrödlicitis, I have banished kings, you introduce ty-
rants. Cic.
1. PARTICIPLES IN CoMPOUND TENSEs agree with the subject according
to 438. See also 301, 1 and 2:
Thébâni accüsāti sunt, the Thebans were accused. Cic.
NoTE 1.-In the compound forms of the Infinitive, the participle in wºm, sometimes
occurs without any reference to the gender or number of the subject:
Diffidentiá futurum quae imperávisset, from doubt that those things which he had
commanded would take place. Sall. •º
NOTE 2.—A General or Indefinite subject is often denoted—
1) By the First or Third Person Plural, and in the Subjunctive by the Second Person
A GREEMENT OF VERBS. 255
Singular: dàcimus, “we (people) say'; dicunt, “they say'; dică8, ‘you (any one) may
say':
Sibeåtſ esse volumus, if we wish to be happy. Cic. Agere quod agás cönsiderātā
decet, you (one) should do considerately whatever you do (one does). Cic.
2) By an Impersonal Passive:
Ad fanum concurritur, they rush to the temple. Cic. Nisi cum virtùte vivātur, un-
less they live (unless one lives) virtuously. Cic.
NoTE 3.−For the Pronominal Subject contained in the verb, see 368, 2.
NoTE 4.—For the OMISSION of THE WERB, see 368, 3.
461. SYNESIS.—Sometimes the predicate is construed accord-
ing to the real meaning of the subject without regard to grammat-
ical gender or number. Thus—
1. With collective nouns, pars, multitädó, and the like:
Multitudö abeunt, the multitude depart. Liv. Pars per agrós dilăpsi, a
part (some) dispersed through the fields. Liv.
NotE 1.-Here multitádà and pars, though singular and feminine in form, are plu-
ral and masculine in sense; see also 438, 6. Conversely, the Imperative singular may be
used in addressing a multitude individually: -
Adde défectionem Siciliae, add (to this, soldiers) the revolt of Sicily. Liv.
NoTE 2.-Of two verbs with the same collective noun, the former is often Singular,
and the latter plural:
Juventùs ruit certantgue, the youth rush forth and contend. Werg.
2. With milia, often masculine in sense :
Caesi sunt tria milia, three thousand men were slain. Liv.
3. With quisque, wierque, alius—alium, alter—alterum, and the like:
Utergue éducunt, they each lead out. Caes. Alter alterum vidémus, we
see cach other. Cie.
4. With singular subjects accompanied by an Ablative with cum:
Dux cum principibus capiuntur, the leader with his chiefs is taken. Liv.
Quid hic tantum hominum (= tot homines) incédunt, why are so many men
coming hither & Plaut. See also 438, 6.
5. With partim—partim in the sense of pars—pars:
Bonorum partim necessäria, partim nón necessäria sunt, of good things
Some are necessary, others are not necessary. Cic.
462. Sometimes the verb agrees, not with its subject, but with
an APPOSITIVE or with a PREDICATE Nou N:
Volsinii, oppidum Tuscórum, concremātum est, Volsinº, a town of the
Tuscans, was burned. Plin. Nön omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every
error should be called folly. Cic. Pueri Tröjänum dicitur agnmen, the boys are
called the Trojan band. Verg.
NoTE 1.-The verb regularly agrees with the appositive when that is wrbs, oppidum,
or civitàs, in apposition with plural names of places, as in the first example.
NoTE 2.-The verb agrees with the predicate noun when that is nearer or more em-
phatic than the subject, as in the second example.
256 A GREEMEWT OF VERBS,
NoTE 3.−The verb sometimes agrees with a noun in a subordinate clause after guam,
Avišč, etc. : -
Nihil aliud nisi pāx quaesita est, nothing but peace was sought. Cic.
463. With Two OR MORE SUBJECTs the verb agrees—
I. With one subject, and is understood with the others:
Aut morès spectāri aut fortúna solet, either character or fortune is wont to
be regarded. Cic. Homérus fuit et Hésiodus ante Römam conditam, Homer
and Hesiod lived (were) before the founding of Rome. Cic.
II. With all the subjects conjointly, and is accordingly in the plural
number : -
Lentulus, Scipið perièrunt, Lentulus and Scipio perished. Cic. Ego et
Ciceró valémus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Tú et Tullia Valétis, you and
Tullia are well. Cic. -
1. With subjecTs DIFFERING IN PERSON, the verb takes the first person
rather than the second, and the second rather than the third; see examples.
2. For PARTICIPLES IN COMPOUND TENSEs, see 439.
3. Two SUBJECTs As A UNIT.-Two singular subjects forming in sense a
unit or whole, admit a singular verb :
Senátus populusque intellegit, the Senate and people (i. e., the state as a
unit) understand. Cic. Tempus necessitàsque postulat, time and necessity
(i. e., the crisis) demand. Cic.
4. WITH AUT or NEC.—When the subjects connected by aut, vel, nec,
neque or sew, differ in person, the verb is usually in the plural; but when they
are of the same person, the verb usually agrees with the nearest subject:
Haec neque ego neque tú fécimus, neither you nor I have done these things.
Ter. Aut Brûtus aut Cassius jūdicăvit, either Brutus or Cassius judged. Cic.
464. VoICEs.—With transitive verbs, a thought may at the pleas-
ure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively. But—
I. That which in the active construction would be the object must be
the subject in the passive; and—
II. That which in the active would be the subject must be put in the Abla.
tive with ā or ab for persons, and in the Ablative alone for things (415, I.; 420):
Deus omnia constituit, God ordained all things. A Deo omnia constituta
sunt, all things were ordained by God. Cic. Dei providentia mundum ad-
ministrat, the providence of God rules the world. Dei providentiá mundus
administrätur, the world is ruled by the providence of God. Cic.
465. The PASSIVE VoICE, like the Greek Middle," is sometimes
equivalent to the Active with a reflexive pronoun:
Lavantur in flûminibus, they bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers. Caes.
1 Most Passive forms once had both a Middle and a Passive meaning, as in Greek:
but in Latin the Middle or Refeative meaning has nearly disappeared, though retained
to a certain extent in special verbs.
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. & 25%
Nön hic victoria vertitur, not upon this point (here) does victory turn (turn
itself). Verg.
1. INTRANSITIVE VERBs (193) have regularly only the active voice, but
they are sometimes used impersonally in the passive:
Curritur ad praetórium, they run to the praetorium (it is run to). Cic.
Mihi cum iis vivendum est, I must live with them. Cic.
NoTE.—Werbs which are usually intransitive are occasionally used transitively, es-
pecially in poetry:
Ego clir invideor, why am I envied ? Hor.
2. DEPONENT VERBs, though passive in form, are in signification transitive
or intransitive :
Illud mirābar, I admired that. Cic. Ab urbe proficisel, to set out from
the city. Caes. \
NoTE 1.--Originally many deponent verbs seem to have had the force of the Greek
Middle voice: glórior, “I boast myself,” “I boast”; vescor, “I feed myself.”
NoTE 2.-SEMI-DEPONENTs have some of the active forms and some of the passive,
without change of meaning; see 268, 3. -
SECTION II.
THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES.
I. PRESENT INDICATIVE.
466. The Present Indicative represents the action of the verb
as taking place at the present time:
Ego et Cicerö valémus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Höc té rogö, I ask you
for this. Cie.
NoTE.—The Present of the Active Periphrastic Conjugation denotes an intended or
juture action; that of the Passive, a present necessity or duty :
Bellum scripturus sum, I intend to write the history of the war. Sall. Legendus
est hic Úrător, this orator ought to be read. Cic.
467. Hence the Present Tense is used—
I. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at the present
time, as in the above examples.
II. Of actions and events which, as belonging to all time, belong of
course to the present, as general truths and customs:
Nihil est amäbilius virtùte, nothing is more lovely than virtue. Cic.
Fortés fortúna adjuvat, fortune helps the brave. Ter.
... III. Of past actions and events which the writer wishes, for effect, to
{picture before the reader as present. The Present, when so used, is called
the Historical Present : -
1 Scriptiirus sum may be variously rendered, I intend to write, am about to write,
am to write, am destined to write, etc.; legendws est means he ought to be read, de-
&erves to be read, must be read, etc.
258 TENSES OF INDICATIVE.
Jugurtha walló moemia circumdat, Jugurtha surrounded the city with a
rampart. Sall.
1. The HISTORICAL PRESENT is used much more freely in Latin than in
English. It is therefore generally best rendered by a past tense.
2. The Present is often used of a present action which has been going on
for some time, especially after jamdīā, jamdždum, etc.:
Jamdiu ignúró quid agás, I have not known for a long time what you have
been doing. Cic.
3. The Present in Latin, as in English, may be used of authors whose
Works are extant:
Xenophon facit Söcratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates dis-
cussing. Cic.
4. With dum, “while,” the Present is generally used, whether the action
is present, past, or future:
Dum ea parant, Saguntum oppūgnābātur, while they were (are) making
these preparations, Saguntum, was attacked. Liv. Dum haec geruntur, Cae-
sari nintiátum est, while these things were taking place, it was announced to
Caesar. Caes.
NoTE.—But with dum, meaning as long as, the Present can be used only of present
tione.
5. The Present is sometimes used of an action really future, especially in
animated discourse and in conditions:
Quam prendimus arcem, what stronghold do we seize, or are we to seize? Verg.
Si vincimus, omnia täta erunt, if we conquer, all things will be safe. Sall.
6. The Present is sometimes used of an attempted or intended action:
Virtùtem accendit, he tries to kindle their valor. Verg. Quid me terrës,
why do you try to terrify me? Verg.
II. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
468. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as taking
place in past time:
Stâbant nóbilissimijuvenès, there stood (were standing) most noble youths.
Liv. Collès Oppidum cingébant, hills encompassed the town. Caes. Möturus
exercitum erat, he was intending to move his army. Liv.
NoTE-For the Imperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugations in conditional sentences,
see 511, 2
469. Hence the Imperfect is used especially—
I. In lively description, whether of scenes or events:
Ante oppidum planitiés patóbat, before the town extended a plain. Caes.
Fulgentës gladiós vidébant, they saw (were seeing) the gleaming swords. Cic.
II. Of customary or repeated actions and events, often rendered was
wont, etc.:
* Here the time denoted by parant is present relatively to oppūgnäbätur, and there-
fore really past.
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. 259
Dausaniãs epulābātur more Persărum, Pausanias was wont to banquet in
the Persian style. Nep.
1. The Imperfect is sometimes used of an attempted or intended action: 1
Sèdābant tumultús, they attempted to quell the Seditions. Liv.
2. The Imperfect is often used of a past action which had been going on
for some time, especially with jamdžić, jamdiºdum, etc.:1
Domicilium Römae multös jam annós habébat, he had already for many
gears had his residence at Rome. Cic. .
3. The Latin sometimes uses the Imperfect where the English requires the
Present : 2
Påstum animantibus nãtüra eum qui cuique aptus erat, comparãvit, nature
has prepared for animals that food which is adapted to each. Cic.
NoTE 1.-For the Imperfect in LETTERs, see 472, 1.
NotE 2.—For the Descriptive Imperfect in NARRATION, see 471, 6.
NotE 3.—For the Historical Tenses in expressions of DUTY, PROPRIETY, NECESSITY,
etc., see 476, 4.
III. FUTURE INDICATIVE.
47O. The Future Indicative represents the action as one which
will take place in future time :
Scribam ad te, I shall write to you. Cic. Nūnquam aberrábimus, we shall
never go astray. Cic. -
1. In Latin, as in English, the Future Indicative sometimes has the force o
an Imperative:
Cúräbis et scribés, you will take care and write. Cic.
2. Actions which really belong to future time are almost invariably ex-
pressed by the Future tense, though sometimes put in the Present in English:
Nātūram si sequêmur, nunquam aberrábimus, if we follow nature, we shall
never go astray. Cic.
IV. PERFECT INDICATIVE.
471. The Perfect Indicative has two distinct uses:
I. As the PRESENT PERFECT or PERFECT DEFINITE, it represents
the action as at present completed, and is rendered by our Perfect
with have :
Dè genere belli dixi, I have spoken of the character of the war. Cic.
II. As the HISTORICAL PERFECT or PERFECT INDEFINITE, it rep-
resents the action simply as an historical fact:
i Observe that the peculiarities of the Present reappear in the Imperfect. This arises
from the fact that these two tenses are precisely alike in representing the action in its
progress, and that they differ only in time. The one views the action in the present, the
other transfers it to the past.
* This occurs occasionally in the statement of general truths and in the description
of natural scenes, but in such cases the truth or the scene is viewed not from the present
but from the past.
260 TENSES OF INDICATIVE.
Miltiadès est accusátus, Miltiades was accused. Nep. Quid factúri fuistis,
what did you intend to do, or what would you have done? Cic.
NoTE.—For the Perfect of the Periphrastic Conjugations in conditional sentences, see
476, 1.
1. The Perfect is sometimes used—
1) Instead of the Present to denote the suddenness of the action:
Terra tremit, mortalia corda străvit pavor, the earth trembles, fear over-
whelms (has overwhelmed) the hearts of mortals. Verg.
2) To contrast the past with the present, implying that what was true then
is not true now : -
Habuit, non habet, he had, but has not. Cic. Fuit Ilium, Ilium was, Verg.
2. The Perfect Indicative with paene, prope, may often be rendered by
might, would, or by the Pluperſect Indicative:
Brütum nón minus amó, paene dici, quam tă, I love Brutus not less, I
7might almost say, or I had almost said, than I love you. Cic.
3. The Latin sometimes employs the Perfect and Pluperfect where the
English uses the Present and Imperfect, especially in repeated actions, and
in verbs which want the Present (297):
Meminit praeteritórum, he remembers 1 the past. Cic. Cum ad villam véni,
höc mé délectat, when I come (have come) to a villa, this pleases me. Cic.
Memineram Paullum, I remembered Paullus. Cic.
4. Conjunctions meaning as soon as” are usually followed by the Perfect;
sometimes by the Imperfect or Historical Present. But the Pluperfect is
sometimes used, especially to denote the result of a completed action:
Postguam cecidit Ilium, qfter (as soon as) Ilium fell, or had fallen. Verg.
His ubi natum prosequiturº dictis, when he had addressed his son with these
words. Verg. Posteåquam consul fuerat, after he had been consul.4 Cic.
Anno tertio postguam profugerat, in the third year after he had fled. Nep.
5. In SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs after cwm. (quum), si, etc., the Perfect is some-
times used of REPEATED ACTIONS, GENERAL TRUTHS, and CUSTOMs: 5
Cum ad villam véni, hēc mé délectat, whenever I come (have come) to a
villa, this delights me. Cic.
NotE.-In such cases the principal clause generally retains the Present, as in the
example just given, but in poetry and in late prose it sometimes admits the Perfect:
Tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci, he wins (has won) favor who combines (has
combined) the useful with the agreeable. Hor.
6. In ANIMATED NARRATIVE, the Perfect usually narrates the leading events,
and the Imperfect describes the attendant circumstances:
Cultum mutavit, veste Médică îtébâtur, epulābātur more Persărum, he
changed his mode of life, used the Median dress, feasted in the Persian style.
1 Literally, has recalled, and so remembers, as the result of the act. The Latin pre-
sents the completed act, the English the result,
* As postguan, wbi, wbī prºmum, ut, wit primum, simul atque (äc), etc.
* Historical present; lit., when he attends.
4 And so was then a man of consular rank.
* This use of the Latin Perfect corresponds to the Gnomic Aorist in Greek.
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. 261
Nep. Sé in oppida recépèrunt mirisque sé tenèbant, they betook themselves
&nto their towns and kept themselves within their walls. Liv.
NotE 1–The Compound Tenses in the Passive often denote the result of the action.
Thus, döctus est may mean either he has been instructed, or he is a learned man (lit.,
an instructed man): -
Fuit dòctus ex disciplinä Stöicörum, he was instructed in (lit., out of) the learning
of the Stoics. Cic. Nävis parāta fuit, the vessel was ready (lit., was prepared). Liv.
NoTE 2. —For the Perfect in LETTERs, see 472, 1.
NoTE 3.−For the Historical Tenses in expressions of DUTY, PROPRIETY, NECESSITY,
etc., see 476, 4.
W. PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.
472. The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action as com-
pleted at some past time :
Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apolló versus facere désierat, in the times of Pyr-
rhus Apollo had already ceased to make verses. Cic. Copiás quâs pro castris
collocaverat, reduxit, he led back the forces which he had stationed before the
camp. Caes. Cum esset Démosthenés, multi Örātārēs clári fuérunt et anteå
fuerant, when Demosthenes lived there were many illustrious orators, and there
had been before. Cic.
1. In LETTERs, the writer often adapts the tense to the time of the reader,
using the Imperfect or Perfect of present actions and events, and the Pluper-
fect of those which are past: 2
Nihil habébam quod scriberem ; ad tuās omnés epistulás rescripseram
pridié,” I have (had) nothing to write ; I replied to all your letters yesterday.
Cie. Pridié Idâs haec scripsi; eo diè8 apud Pomponium eram cénatürus,
I write this on the day before the Ides ; I am going to dine to-day with Pom-
ponius. Cic. -
2. The PLUPERFECT after cum, si, etc., is often used of REPEATED ACTIONs,
GENERAL TRUTHs, and CUSTOMs: 5 - -
Si hostés déterrére néquiverant circumveniébant, if they were (had been)
atnable" to deter the enemy, they surrounded them. Sall. -
NOTE 1.-For the Pluperfect in the sense of the English Imperfect, see 471, 3.
NOTE 2.-For the Historical Tenses in expressions of DUTY, PRoPRIETY, NECESSITY,
etc., see 476, 4. -
* Observe that désierat represents the action as already completed at the time desig-
nated.
* This change is by no means uniformly made, but is subject to the pleasure of the
Writer. It is most common near the beginning and the end of letters.
* Observe that the adverbs and the adverbial expressions are also adapted to the time
of the reader. Heri, ‘yesterday,” becomes to the reader prºdié, ‘the day before –i.e.,
the day before the writing of the letter. In the same way hodă, ‘to-day,’ ‘THIS day, be-
comes to the reader ed dić, ‘THAT day.”
- * The Imperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugation is sometimes thus used of future
events which are expected to happen before the receipt of the letter. Events which will
be future to the reader as well as to the writer must be expressed by the Future.
* See the similar use of the Perfect, 471, 5.
* That is, whenever they were whable.
262 QUSE OF INDICATIVE.
WI. FuTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE.
473. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the action as
one which will be completed at some future time:
Römam cum venerö, scribam ad tâ, when I shall have reached Rome, I will
write to you. Cic. Dum til haec legés, ego illum fortasse convênerö, when
gyou read this, I shall perhaps have already met him. Cic.
1. The FUTURE PERFECT is sometimes used to denote the complete accom-
plishment of the work:
Ego meum officium praestiteró, I shall discharge my duty. Caes.
2. The FUTURE PERFECT is sometimes found in conditional clauses where
we use the Present:
Si interpretari potuerò, his verbis utitur, if I can (shall have been able
to) understand him, he uses these words. Cic.
VII. USE OF THE INDICATIVE.
R U L E XXXVII. —Indica,tive.
474. The Indicative is used in treating of facts:
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God made (built) the world. Cic. Nönne
expulsus est patria, was he not banished from his country? Cic. Höc féci
dum licuit, I did this as long as it was permitted. Cic.
475. The Indicative is thus used in treating of facts—
I. In Principal Clauses," whether Declarative as in the first example
or Interrogative as in the second.
II. In Subordinate Clauses. Thus—
1. In Relative Clauses:
Dixit id quod dignissimum ré publică fuit, he stated that which was most
worthy of the republic. Cic. Quicquam bonum est, quod nön eum qui id
possidet meliörem facit, is anything good which does not make him better who
possesses it? Cic.
NOTE.-For the Subjunctive in Relative Clauses, see 497; 500; 503; 507, 2, etc.
2. In Conditional Clauses:
Si haec civitās est, civis sum ego, if this is a State, I am a citizen. Cic.
NoTE. 1.-For the special uses of the Indicative in Conditional Sentences, see 508.
NoTE 2.-For the Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences, see 509; 510.
3. In Concessive Clauses:
Quamguam intellegunt, tamen nünquam dicunt, although they understand,
they never speak. Cic.
NOTE.-For the Subjunctive in Concessive Clauses, see 515.
* Including, of course, all simple sentences.
USE OF INDICATIVE. 263
4. In Causal Clauses:
Quoniam supplicatió décréta est, since a thanksgiving has been decreed. Cic.
Quia honore digni habentur, because they are deemed worthy of honor. Curt.
NoTE.—For the Subjunctive in Causal Clauses, see 516; 517.
b. In Temporal Clauses :
Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are silent they approve. Cic. Prius-
quam licet, adsunt, they are present before it is light. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Subjunctive in Temporal Clauses, see 519; 520; 521.
476. SPECIAL USEs.—The Indicative is sometimes used where
our idiom would suggest the Subjunctive:
1. The Indicative of the Periphrastic Conjugations is often so used in
the historical tenses, especially in conditional sentences (511, 2):
Haec condiciónón accipienda fuit, this condition should not have been ac-
cepted. Cic. -
2. The Historical Tenses of the Indicative, particularly the Pluperfect,
are sometimes used for effect, to represent as an actual fact something
which is shown by the context never to have become fully so:
Viceråmus, nisi recépisset Antönium, we should have (lit., had) conquered,
had he not received Antony. Cic. See 511, 1.
3. Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, made general by being doubled or by
assuming the suffix cumque (187, 3), take the Indicative:
Quisquis est, is est sapiéns, whoever he is, he is wise. Cic. Höc ultimum,
utcurique initum est, proelium fuit, this, however it was commenced, was the
last battle. Liv. Quidguid oritur, quâlecumque est, causam habet, whatever
comes into being, of whatever character it may be (lit., is), it has a cause. Cic.
4. In expressions of Duty, Propriety, Necessity, Ability, and the like,
the Latin often uses the Indicative, chiefly in the historical tenses, in a
manner somewhat at variance with the English idiom:
Nón suscipi bellum oportuit, the war should not have been undertaken.
Liv. Eum contuméliis onerästi, quem colere débébās, you have loaded with
£nsults one whom you should have (ought to have) revered. Cic. Multös pos-
sum bonds virós nomináre, I might name (lit., I am able to name) many good
men. Cic. Hanc mécum poterås requiescere noctem, you might rest (might
have rested) with me this night. Verg.
5. The Indicative of the verb sum is often used with longum, aequum,
acquius, difficile, jūstum, melius, pār, iſtilius, etc., in such expressions as
longum est, “it would be tedious,” melius erat, “it would have been better':
Longum est persequi útilitätés, it would be tedious (is a long task) to re-
count the uses. Cic. Melius fuerat, promissum nón esse servätum, it would
have been better that the promise should not have been kept. Cic.
1 Literally, it was fitting or proper that the war should not be undertaken.
264 SUBJUNOTIVE.
SECTION III.
GENEFAL VIEVV OF THE SU BJ UNCTIVE
AND ITS TENSES.
477. The Latin Subjunctive has two principal uses—
I. It may represent an action as WILLED or DESIRED :
Amémus patriam, LET US LOVE our country. Cic.
II. It may represent an action as PROBABLE or POSSIBLE:
Quaerat quispiam, some one MAY INQUIRE. Cic.
478. TENSES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE do not designate the time of
the action so definitely as in the Indicative.
479. The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses” embraces
in a vague and general manner both present and future time: *
Amémus patrian, let us love our country (now and ever). Cio. Quaerat
quispiam, Some one Anay (or will) inquire (at any time). Cic.
480. The IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses relates
Sometimes to the past and sometimes to the present:
Créderès victos, vanquished you would have thought them. Liv. Utinam
pössem, would that I were able (now). Cic.
481. The PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses relates
sometimes to the past, but more frequently to the present or fu-
fºre :
1 The Latin Subjunctive, it will be remembered (p. 117, foot-note 4), contains the
forms and the meaning of two kindred moods, the Subjunctive proper, and the Optative.
In Latin, the forms characteristic of these two moods, used without any difference of mean-
ing, are made to supplement each other. Thus, in the Present, the Subjunctive forms
are found in the First Conjugation, and the Optative forms in the Second, Third, and
Fourth. In their origin they are only special developments of certain forms of the Pres-
ent Indicative, denoting continued and attempted action. From this idea of attempted
action was readily developed on the one hand desire, will, as we attempt only what we
desire, and on the other hand probability, possibility, as we shall very likely accomplish
what we are already attempting. These two meanings, united in one word, lie at the
basis of all Subjunctive constructions in Latin. On the origin, history, and use of the
Subjunctive, see Delbrück, “Conjunctiv und Optativ”; Curtius, “Werbum,' II., pp. 55–95;
Draeger, II., pp. 439–743; Roby, II., pp. 202–348; also a paper by the author on ‘The
Development of the Latin Subjunctive in Principal Clauses,” Transactions Am. Phil.
Assoc., 1879.
* For the tenses of the Subjunctive in Subordinate clauses, see 490.
* The Present Subjunctive in its origin is closely related both in form and in meaning
to the Future Indicative. Thus, in the Third and Fourth Conjugations, no future forms
for the Indicative have been developed, but Subjunctive and Optative forms supply their
place, as regam, audiam (Subjunctive), and regés, reget, etc., and audiés, audieſ, etc.
(Optative).
SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE]. 265
Fuerit malus clvis, he may have been (admit that he was) a bad citizen. Cic.
Né transierisi Ibérum, do not cross the Ebro (now or at any time). Liv.
482. The PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses re-
lates to the past:
Utinam potuissem, would that I had been able. Cic.
SECTION IV.
SUBJ UNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES.
RULE XXXVIII.-Subjunctive of Desire, Command.
483. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action
NOT As REAL, but AS DESIRED :
Valeant civés, MAY the citizens BE WELL. Cic. Amémus patriam, LET Us
LovE our country. Cic. A nobis diligătur, LET HIM BE LOVED by us. Cic.
Scribere né pigrére, Do not NEGLECT to write. Cic.
1. The Subjunctive of Desire is often accompanied by utinam, and some-
times, especially in the poets, by ut, 87, Ó 87:
Utinam conăta efficere possim, may I be able to accomplish my endeavors.
Cic. Utillum dI perdant, would that the gods would destroy him. Ter.
2. ForoE OF TENSEs.-The Present and Perfect imply that the wish may
be fulfilled; the Imperfect and Pluperfect, that it can not be fulfilled:
Sint beåti, may they be happy. Cic. Ně tränsieris Ibèrum, do not cross the
Ebro. Liv. Utinam possem, utinam potuissem, would that I were able, would
that I had been able. Cic.
NoTE.—The Imperfect and Pluperfect may often be best rendered should, should
have, ought to have: -
Höc diceret, he should have said this. Cic. Mortem oppetiissés, you should have
qmet death. Cic.
3. NEGATIVES.—With the Subjunctive of Desire, the negative is nã, rarely
hön, with a connective, néve, new, rarely neque:
Né audeant, let them not dare. Cic. Nön recédāmus, let us not recede. Cic.
Amès dici pater, meu sinás, etc., may you love to be called father, and may you
^ot permit, etc. Hor. Něve minor neu sit production, let it be neither shorter
nor longer. Hor.
NoTE.—Nedum, “not to say, ‘much less,' is used with the Subjunctive:
Wix in téctis frigus vitätur, nédum in mari sit facile abesse ab injürià, the cold is
avoided with difficulty in our houses, much less is it easy to escape (to be absent from)
injury on the Sea. Cic. *
4. The first person of the Subjunctive is often found in earnest or solemn
AFFIRMATIONS:
i Observe that the Perfect thus used does not at all differ in time from the Present,
but that it calls attention to the completion of the action.
12
266 POTENTIAL SUBJUNOTIVE.
Moriar, si putó, may I die, if I think. Cic. Né sim salvus, SI scribó, may I
not be safe, if I write. Cic. Sollicitat, ita vivam, as I live, it troubles me." Cic.
5. The Subjunctive of Desire is sometimes used in RELATIVE CLAUSEs:
Quod faustum sit, regem create, elect a king, and may it be an auspicious
event (may which be auspicious). Liv. Senectiis, ad quam utinam perveniã-
tis, old age, to which may you attain. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Subjunctive of Desire in Subordinate Clauses, see 486, III., note,
with foot-note.
6. Modo, modo né, may accompany the Subjunctive of Desire :
Modo Jüppiter adsit, only let Jupiter be present. Verg. Modo né laudent,
only let them not praise. Cic. -
484. The Subjunctive of Desire may be in meaning—
I. OPTATIVE, as in prayers and wishes:
Sint befiti, may they be happy. Cic. Di bene vertant, may the gods cause
it to turn out well. Plaut.
II. HoRTATIVE, as in exhortations and entreaties:
Cönsulámus bonis, let us consult for the good. Cic.
III. CoNCESSIVE, as in admissions and concessions:
Fuerint pertimãcés, grant (or admit) that they were obstinate. Cic.
TV. IMPERATIVE, as in mild commands, admonitions, warnings, etc., used
chiefly in prohibitions: *
Illum jocum né SIs āspermátus, do not despise that jest. Cic. Scribere né
pigrére, do not neglect to write. Cic.
NoTE 1.-In prohibitions, the Perfect tense is generally used:
Né tränsieris Ibérum, do not cross the Ebro. Liv. •- *****... . . .”
NOTE 2.—Except in prohibitions, the Second Person Singular in the best prose is
used almost exclusively of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one:
Istó boné útäre, you should use (ire., one should use) that advantage. Cic.
W. DELIBERATIVE, as in deliberative questions, to ask what should be:
Huic cédāmus, hijus condiciónés audiámus, shall we yield” to him, shall
we listen to his terms ? Cic. Quid facerem, what was I to do? 9 Verg.
RULE XXXIX.-Potential Subjunctive.
485. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action
NOT AS REAL, but AS POSSIBLE:
Hic quaerat quispiam, here some one MAY INQUIRE. Cic. Ita laudem in-
venids, thus you will (or MAY) obTAIN praise. Ter. Ita amicós parés, thus
YoU will, MAKE friends. Ter. Wix dicere ausin, I SHOULD scarcely DARE to
* Here ita vivam means, may I So live (i.e., may I live only in case this is true).
* Or, ought we to yield, is it your wish that we shawld yield f
* Or, what should I have done f
POTENTIAL SUBJUNOTIVE. 267
say. Liv. Créderès victós, vanquished you would have thought them. Liv.
Forsitan quaeratis,” perhaps you may inquire. Cic. Höc némö dixerit, no
one would say this. Cic. Quis dubitet (= némö dubitat), who would doubt
(or who doubts = no one doubts) Cic. Höc quis ferre possit, who would
be able to endure this 3 Cic.
NoTE 1.-In the Potential Subjunctive, the Perfect often has nearly the same force as
the Present, and the Imperfect is often used where we should expect the Pluperfect:
dicerés, “you would have said"; créderés, putärés, “you would have thought”; vidérés,
cernerës, “you would have seen':
Tū Platonem laudāveris, you would PRAISE Plato. Cic. Maesti, crédérés victós,
redeunt in castra, Sad, vanquished YOU would HAVE THOUGHT them, they returned to
the camp. Liv.
NoTE 2.—On Tenses, see also 478–482.
NoTE 8.—The Second Person Singular, especially of the Imperfect, is often used of an
indefinite you, meaning one, any one: Crédérés, “you would have thought,” “any one
would have thought.”
486. In the Potential sense, the Subjunctive is used—
I. In Declarative Sentences, to express an affirmation modestly, doubtfully,
or conditionally ; see examples.
NotE 1.—Thus, in the language of politeness and modesty, the Potential Subjunctive
is often used in verbs of wishing and thinking: welim, ‘I should wish,” for voló, “I
wish'; nolim, ‘I should be unwilling’; malim, ‘I should prefer':
Ego cénseam, I should think, or I am inclined to think. Liv. Mihi dari velim, I
8hould like to have it given to me. Cic. - - -
NoTE 2.—The Potential Subjunctive is used in the conclusion of conditional sen-
tences; see 507, 1, with foot-note.
II. In Interrogative Sentences, to ask not what is, but what is likely to
be, what may be or would be, generally implying a negative answer, as in
the last two examples under the rule.
NoTE.—The Subjunctive with ut, with or without the interrogative me, occurs in ques-
tions expressive of impatience or surprise: 2
Tö ut lilla rés frangat, how should anything subdue you ? Cic. Egone ut mentiar,
that I should speak falsely 3 Plaut.
* **
III. In Subordinate Clauses, whatever the connective, to represent, the
action as possible rather than real:
Quamguarn epulis careat senectiis, though old age may be without its feasts.
Cic. Quoniam non possent, since they would not be able. Caes. Ubirés pos-
ceret, whenever the case might demand. Liv. -
NoTE.—From the Subjunctive of Desire and the Potential Subjunctive in principal
clauses have been developed the various uses of the Subjunctive in subordinate clauses.”
* After forgitan – fors sit am, “the chance may be whether,’ “perhaps, the Sub-
junctive was originally in an indirect question (529), but it may be best treated as Poten-
tial. So also with forsan, and fortasse. -
* Some grammarians assume an ellipsis of a predicate, as crédibile est, Jöeri potest, etc.
* Thus, the Subjunctive of Desire is used in final, conditional, and concessive
clauses; the Potential Subjunctive in clauses of result, and in various others denoting
268 IMPERATIVE.
SECTION W.
THE IMPERATIVE AND ITS TENSES.
RULE XL.—Imperative.
487. The Imperative is used in COMMANDs, EXHORTA-
TIONS, and ENTREATIES :
Jüstitiam cole, practice justice. Cic. Tú né cede malis, do not yield to
misfortunes. Verg. SI quid in té peccavi, ignúsce, if I have sinned against
you, pardon me. Cic.
1. The PRESENT IMPERATIVE corresponds to the Imperative in English:
Jústitiam cole, practice justice. Cic. Perge, Catilina, go, Catiline. Cic.
2. The FUTURE IMPERATIVE corresponds to the imperative use of the Eng-
lish Future with shall, or to the Imperative let, and is used—
1) In commANDs involving future rather than present action:
Rem penditóte, you shall consider the subject. Cic. Crās petitó, dabitur,
ask to-morrow, it shall be granted. Plaut.
2) In LAws, ordERs, PRECEPTs, etc., especially in PROHIBITIONs:
Cönsulês n&mini pārentó, the consuls shall be subject to no one. Cic. Salās
populi supréma léx esto, the safety of the people shall be the Supreme law. Cic.
NoTE.—The general distinction between the Present Imperative and the Future is
often disregarded, especially in poetry: 1 s
Ubi aciem wideris, tum ordinés dissipā, when you shall see the line of battle, then
scatter the ranks. Liv. Quoniam supplicãtið décréta est, celebrātūte illös diēs, since a
thanksgiving has been decreed, celebrate those days. Cic.
3. An Imperative clause may be used instead of a Conditional clause:
Lacesse, jam vidébis furentem, provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him),
gyou will at once see him frantic. Cic.
4. The place of the Imperative may be supplied by the Subjunctive of De-
sire (483), or by the Future Indicative:
Né audeant, let them not dare. Cic. Quod optimum vidébitur, faciès, you
will do what shall seem best. Cic.
488. In prohibitions or negative commands, the negative mé, rarely
món, accompanies the Imperative, and if a connective is required, névé or
new is generally used, rarely neque:
Tú mà côde malis, do not yield to misfortunes. Verg. Hominem mortuum
in urbe né sepelító, néve uritó, thou shalt not bury nor burn a dead body in the
city. Cic. 2.
what is likely to be. Moreover, from these two leading uses was developed the idea of a
conceived or assumed action, which probably lies at the foundation of all the other uses
of this mood, as in causal and temporal clauses, in indirect questions, and in the
Subordinate clauses of the indirect discourse.
1 Thus the Future is especially common in certain verbs; and, indeed, in some verbs,
as Scià, memini, etc., it is the only form in common use.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 269
489. Instead of né with the Present Imperative, the best prose writers
generally use—
1) Wölä and mölite with the Infinitive:
Nölite putäre, do not think (be unwilling to think). Cic.
2) Fac né or cavé, with the Subjunctive:
Fac né quid aliud cūrès hoc tempore, do not attend to anything else at this
time. Cic. Cavé faciás, beware of doing it, or see that you do not do it. Cic.
3) Wé with the Perfect Subjunctive, rarely with the Present; see 484,
IV., note 1.
S E C T I O N W I.
MOO DS v IIN SUBOR DINATE CLAUSES.
I. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs.
490. In subordinate clauses the tenses of the Subjunctive con-
form to the following rule :
RULE XII.-Sequence of Tenses.
491. Principal tenses depend upon principal tenses;
historical upon historical: º
Nititur ut wincat, he strives to conquer." Cic. Nömö erit qui cénseat,
there will be no one who will think." Cic. Quaesierås nonne putärem, you
had asked whether I did not think. Cic. Ut honore dignus essem labūrāvī,
I strove to be worthy of honor. Cic.
492. In accordance with this rule, the Subjunctive dependent upon
a principal tense,” present, future, future perfect, is put—
1. In the PRESENT, to denote incomplete action:
Quaeritur cur dissentiant, the question is asked why they disagree. Cic.
Němč erit qui censeat, there will be no one who will think. Cic.
NoTE.—Observe that in these examples the action denoted by the Subjunctive belongs
either to the present time or to the future.
2. In the PERFECT, to denote completed,action:
Quaeramus quae vitia fuerint, let us inquire what faults there were. Cic.
Rogitābit mé ubi fuerim, he will ask me where I have been. Ter.
NOTE 1.-In the sequence of tenses, the Perfect is occasionally treated as a prin-
cipal tense: * -
Oblitus es quid dixerim, you have forgotten what I said. Cic.
NOTE 2.-For further illustrations of the sequence of tenses, see 493, 2, note 2.
* The Present Subjunctive generally denotes present time in relation to the principal
verb. Accordingly, vincat depending upon the present, mititur, denotes present time,
While cénééat depending upon the future, erit, denotes future time.
* For the treatment of the Perfect in the sequence of tenses, see 495.
270 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
493. The Subjunctive dependent upon an historical tense, imperfect,
historical perfect, pluperfect, is put—
1. In the IMPERFECT, to denote incomplete action:
Timébam né evenirent ea, I was fearing that those things would take place
(i.e., at some future time). Cic. Quaesierås mênne putärem, you had in-
quired whether I did not think (i. e., at that time). Cic.
NoTE.—Observe that in these examples the time of the action denoted by the Sub-
junctive is either the same as that of the principal verb or subsequent to it.
2. In the PLUPERFECT, to denote completed action:
Themistoclés, cum Graeciam liberăsset, expulsus est, Themistocles was
banished, though he had liberated Greece. Cic.
NotE 1.—The Płuperfect after an historical tense, like the Perfect after a principal
tense, may represent the action as completed in future time; see 496, II.
NoTE 2.—The sequence of tenses may be further illustrated as follows: 1
Nescit quid faciàs, He knows not what you are doing.
Nesciet quid faciàs, He will not know what you will do.”
Nesciverit quid faciás, Be will not have known what you will do.
Nescit quid fecerís, Iſe knows not what you have done, or what you did.3
Nesciet quid fecerís, Be will not know what you will have done.4
Nesciverit quid fecerís, He will not have known what you will have done.
Nesciêbat quid facerés, Iſe did not know what you were doing.5
Nescivit quid faeerés, He did not know what you were doing.5
Nesciverat quid facerés, He had not known what you were doing.
Nesciébat quid fecissés, He did not know what you had done.
Nescivit quid fecissés, IIe did not know what you had done.
Nesciverat quid fecissés, Ble had not known what you had done.
494. The periphrastic forms in rus and dus conform to the general
rule for the sequence of tenses: ... '
Incertum est quam longa vita futura sit, it is uncertain, how long life will
continue. Cic. Incertum erat quo missuri classem forent, it was uncertain
whither they would send the fleet. Liv.
495. PECULIARITIES IN SEQUENCE.-The following peculiarities
in the sequence of tenses deserve notice :
I. In the sequence of tenses the Latin Perfect is generally treated as
an historical tense, even when rendered with have, and thus admits the
Imperfect or Pluperfect:
Quoniam quae subsidia habërës exposui," nunc dicam, since I have shown
1 It is not intended to give all the possible meanings of the Subjunctive clauses here
used, but simply to illustrate the sequence of tenses.
? Or, he will not know what you are doing. Thus, quid faciàs may represent the
direct question, quid faciés, “what shall you do?’ or guid facis, “what are you doing?”
* Or, what you were doing.
* Or, what you have done, or what you did.
* Or, what you would do. Wescăvăţ may sometimes be rendered, he has not known.
* Exposui, though best rendered by our Perfect Definite with have, is in the Latin
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 271
what aids you have, I will now speak. Cic. Haec non ut vös excitãrem locú-
tus sum, I have not spoken this to arouse (that I might arouse) you. Cic.
NoTE.—For the Perfect as a principal tense, see 492, 2, note 1.
II. The Historical Present (467, III.) is generally treated as an historical
tense, but sometimes as a principal tense:
Persuádet Casticó ut régnum occuparet, he persuaded Casticus to seize the
government. Caes. Ubii Örant ut sibi parcat, the Ubii implore him to spare
them. Caes. . -
NoTE.—The Historical Present includes the Present used of authors (467, 8), the
Present with dwm (467, 4), the Historical Infinitive (536, 1), etc.:
Chrysippus disputat Aethera esseeum quem hominés Jovem appellärent, Chrysippus
contends that he whom men call Jupiter is Aether. Cic.
III. The Imperfect Subjunctive, even when it refers to present time, as
in conditional sentences, is generally treated as an historical tense, though
sometimes as a principal tense:
Nisi ineptum putärem, jūrārem mé ea sentire quae dicerem, if I did not
think it improper, I would take an oath that I believe those things which I say.
Cic. Memorare possem quibus in locis hostěs populus Römānus füderit, I
znight state in what places the Roman people routed the enemy. Sall.
IV. The Perfect Infinitive is generally treated as an historical tense, but
the Present and the Future Infinitive, the Present and the Future Participle,
as also Gerunds and Supines, share the tense of the verb on which they
depend, as they express only relative time (537, 550):
Satis videor docuisse, hominis nātūra quantö anteiret animantès, I think I
have sufficiently shown how much the nature of man surpasses that of the other
animals (lit., surpassed animals). Cic. Spérô fore 1 ut contingat, I hope it will
Jappen. Cic. Nón spéraverat fore ut ad sé déficerent, he had not hoped that
they would revolt to him. Liv. Misèrunt Delphôs consultum quidnam face-
rent, they sent to Delphi to ask what they should do. Nep.
W. Clauses containing a general truth usually conform to the law for
the sequence of tenses, at variance with the English idiom:
Quanta conscientiae vis esset, ostendit, he showed how great is the power of
conscience. Cic.
VI. Clauses denoting consequence or result generally express absolute
time, and are thus independent of the law of sequence.” They thus admit
the Present or Perfect after historical tenses:
Epaminöndas fidê šic iſsus est, ut possit jūdicari,” Epaminondas used such
treated as the Historical Perfect. The thought is as follows: Since in the preceding
topico I 00fforth the aids anhich ſoil, hame, I will now speak, etc.
* Literally, I hope it will be that it may happen. Herefore shares the tense of
8pérô, and is accordingly followed by the Present, contingat; but below it shares the
tense of spéráverat, and is accordingly followed by the Imperfect, déficerent.
* This peculiarity arises from the fact that the result of a past action may itself be
272 SEQUENCE OF TENSES
Jidelity that it may be judged. Nep. Aded excellèbat Aristidés abstinentia,
ut Jüstus sit appellātus, Aristides so excelled in self-control, that he has been
called the Just. Nep.
VII. For the sequence of tenses in the indirect discourse, see 525.
496. FUTURE TIME IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE.-When the Future is used in
the principal clause, the Future and Future Perfect tenses, wanting in the
Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in the subordinate clauses as follows:
I. The Future is supplied—(1) after a principal tense by the PRESENT,
and (2) after an historical tense by the IMPERFECT:
Omnia Sic agentur ut bellum sédétur, all things shall be so managed that
the war will be brought to a close. Cic. Loquëbantur, etiam cum vellet 1 Caesar,
Sésé non esse pugnâtürös, they were saying that they would not fight even when
Caesar should wish it. Caes.
II. The Future Perfect is supplied—(1) after a principal tense by the
PERFECT, and (2) after an historical tense by the PLUPERFECT:
Respondet Si id sit factum, sé nocitàrum némini, he replies that if this
should be done (shall have been done) he will harm no one. Caes. Appārēbat
régnātūrum, qui vicisset, it was evident that he would be king who should con-
quer. Liv. .
NoTE 1.-The Future and the Future Perfect tenses are often supplied in the same
way, even when the Future does not occur in the principal clause, provided the idea of
future time can be easily inferred from the context:
Wereor né labórem augeam, I fear that I shall increase the labor. Cic. Quid diēs
ferat incertum est, what a day will bring forth £8 uncertain. Cic. Quid hostěs con-
silii caperent, exspectābant, they waited to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
Caes. Dēlitui, dum véla dedissent, I hid myself writil they should have set sail. Verg.
NoTE 2.—When the idea of future time must be especially emphasized in the sub-
ordinate clause, the periphrastic forms in rus are used: ”
Incertum est quam longa vita futura sit, it is uncertain how long life will continue.
Cic. Incertum erat quë missiiri classem forent, it was uncertain whither they would
Send the fleet. Liv.
NoTE 8.—The Future Perfect is sometimes supplied in the Passive by futilnus sim
and futilzus essem with the Perfect Participle: 2
Nön dubitó quin cónfecta jam rés futura sit, I do not dowbt that the thing will have
been already accomplished. Cic.
present, and may thus be expressed by a principal tense. When the result belongs to
the present time, the Present is used: possit jūdicără, ‘may be judged now"; when it
is represented as completed, the Perfect is used: sit appellætus, ‘has been called" (i.e.,
even to the present day); but when it is represented as simultaneous with the action
on which it depends, the Imperfect is used in accordance with the general rule (491).
1 Sédétur, referring to the same time as agentur, and vellet, referring to the same
time as esse pºignatiºnäs, both denote future time. - .
* Other traditional periphrastic forms, rarely used in either voiee, are—for the FU-
TURE, futilºum sit wt with the Present Subjunctive, and futurwan esset ut with the Im-
perfect; and for the FUTURE PERFECT, futinum sit wit with the Perfect, and futirum
esset ut with the Pluperfect. .
SUBJUNOTIVE OF PURPOSE. 273
II. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF PURPOSE.
RULE XLII.-Purpose.
497. The Subjunctive is used to denote PURPOSE:
I. With the relative qui, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, etc.:
Missi sunt qui (=ut ii) cónsulerent Apollinem, they were sent To CONSULT
Apollo (who should, or that they should). Nep. Missi sunt délecti qui
Thermopyläs occupérent, picked men were sent To TAKE POSSESSION OF Ther-
mopylae. Nep. Domum, ubi habitäret, lègit, he selected a house where he
might dwell (that he might dwell in it). Cic. Locum petit, unde (= wi
inde) hostem invādat, he seeks a position from which he may (that from it
he may) attack the enemy. Liv.
II. With ut, né, quâ, quêminus:
Enſtitur ut wincat, he strives that HE MAY conquER. Cic. Pünit ně peccatur,
he punishes that crime MAY not BE committed. Sen. Légum idcirco servi
Sumus, ut liberi esse possimus, we are servants of the law for this reason,
that we may be free. Cic. Medicò dare quo sit studiósior, to give to the phy-
sician, that (by this means) he may be more attentive. Cic. Nön recúsàvit
quêminus poenam subiret, he did not refuse to submit to punishment. Nep.
1. Ut or uti and nå are the usual conjunctions in clauses denoting purpose.
A correlative, ided, idcircó, e3, etc., sometimes precedes, as in the third ex-
ample under II.
NoTE.—With a connective nå becomes mêve, new, rarely meque; see 483, 3:
Légem tulit né quis accüsārétur méve multārētur, he proposed a law that no one
show.ld be accused or punished. Nep.
2. Quă, ‘by which,’ ‘that,” is sometimes used in clauses denoting purpose,
especially with comparatives, as in the fourth example under II. Qučminus,
‘by which the less,’ ‘that thus the less,’ ‘that not,’ is simply quâ with the
comparative minus. It is sometimes used after verbs of hindering, opposing,
and the like, as in the last example under II.
NoTE.—Quà Sétius also occurs in the sense of guóminus; see Cic. Inv., II., 45.
498. CLAUSEs of PURPOSE readily pass into Object Clauses,”
* The Subjunctive of Purpose is doubtless in origin a Subjunctive of Desire, express-
ing the d68?re or command implied in the action of the principal verb: Tê rogö ut eum
juvés, I ask you to aid him (I ask you, so aid him). Here the second clause, originally
independent, contains the desire, wish, involved in rogö. Wereor né labórem augeam,
I./ear that I shall increase, the labor (I fear, let me not increase the labor). Praestö
erit pontifex, qui comitia habeat, the pontiff will be present to hold the comitia (the
pontiff will be present, let him hold the comitia). Liv. See Delbrück, “Conjunctiv und
Optativ, pp. 59–62. -
* An Object Clause is one which has become virtually the object of a verb. Thus, in
‘optó ºtt id audžážis,” the clause wt £d audžātis has become the object of optºſ, “I desire.”
274. SUBJUNOTIVE OF PURPOSE.
but they still retain the Subjunctive. Thus the Subjunctive is
used—
I. With verbs signifying DESIRE and its ExPRESSION ; hence decision,
decree, etc.:* .*
Opto utid audiátis, I desire (pray) that you may hear this. Cic. Ut mihi
aedes aliquàs conducás voló, I wish that you would hire a house for me. Plaut.
Senátus cénsuerat, uti Aedués défenderet, the Senate had decreed that he should
defend the Aedui. Caes. Servis imperat ut filiam défendant, he commands
his servants to defend his daughter. Cic. Tê hortor ut legås, I exhort you to
read. Cic. Tê rogo ut eum juvès, I ask you to aid him. Cic. A rége peti-
vérunt né inimicissimum suum sécum habéret, they asked from the king that
he would not keep his worst enemy with him. Nep.
NoTE.—Werbs of DETERMINING, DECIDING—statuo, cènstitud, décern.0, etc.—generally
take the Subjunctive when a new subject is introduced, otherwise the Infinitive (533,
I., 1):
3. Cönstituerat, ut tribinus quererêtur, he had arranged that the tribune should enter
the complaint. Sall. Senátus décrévit, darent operam cºnsulés, the Senate decreed that
the consuls should attend to it. Sall. Manère décrévit, he decided to remain. Nep.
II. With verbs and expressions denoting EFFORT (striving for a pur-
pose, attaining a purpose) or IMPULSE (urging to effort):”
Contendit ut vincat, he strives to conquer. Cic. Cúrāvī ut bene Viverem,
I took care to lead a good life. Sen. Effecit ut imperator mitterêtur, he caused
a commander to be sent (attained his purpose). Nep. Movémur ut boni
Simus, we are influenced to be good. Cic.
NoTE 1.-Some verbs of ENDEAvoring, STRIVING, as cânor, contendö, nitor, stude6,
and tento, generally take the Infinitive when no new subject is introduced; see 533:
Locum oppūgnäre contendit, he proceeds to storm the city. Caes. Tentābā dò hôc
dicere, I will attempt to speak of this. Quint.
NoTE 2.—Ut with the Subjunctive sometimes forms with faciò or ago, rarely with est,
a circumlocution for the Indicative: facid ut dicam = dicó; fació wi scribam = scribó:
Invitus fació ut recorder, I unwillingly recall. Cic.
III. With verbs and expressions denoting FEAR, ANxIETY, DANGER: *
Timeó, ut laborés sustineas, I fear that you will not endure the labors.4
Cic. Timébam né úvenirent ea, I feared that those things would happen. Cic.
Vereorné laborem augeam, Ifear that I shall increase the labor.4 Cic. Pericu-
lum est né ille té verbis obruat, there is danger that he will overwhelm you
with words. Cic.
NoTE 1.-By a difference of idiom, wt must here be rendered by that not, and nö by
that or lest. The Latin treats the clause as a wish or purpose.* * *
* As opto, postulo; cénseo, décernò, statuo, cónstitud, etc.; volö, mālū; admoned,
moned, hortor; 3rd, rogö; imperū, praecipio, etc.
* As &nitor, contendö, studed; citrö, id agö, operam do, etc.; faciò, effició, im-
petrö, cónsequor, etc.; cogö, impello, moved, etc.
* As metwo, timed, wereor; periculum est, cira est, etc.
* The eSubjunctive of Desire is manifest if we make the subordinate clause inde-
SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE. 275
NoTE 2.-After verbs of FEARING, né nán is sometimes used for ut—regularly So after
negative clauses:
Wereor ng nán possit, I fear that he will not be able. Cic.
NoTE 3.-Verbs of FEARING admit the Infinitive in the same sense as in English:
Wereor laudāre, I fear (hesitate) to praise.” Cic.
499. PEGULIARITIES.—Expressions of Purpose present the fol-
lowing peculiarities : gº
1. Ut ně, rarely ut nón, is sometimes used for né:
Praedixit, ut ně légātós dimitterent, he charged them not to (that they
should not) release the delegates. Nep. Ut plura non dicam, not to say more
(i.e., that I may not). Cic.
2. Ut is sometimes omitted, especially after volā, nôlö, mālā, fació, and
after verbs of DIRECTING, URGING, etc. Ně is often omitted after cavé:
Tū velim sis, I desire that you may be. Cic. Făc habeas, see (make) that
gyou have. Cic. Senátus décrévit darent operam consulés, the Senate decreed
that the consuls should see to it. Sall. Cavé faciás, beware of doing it, or see
that you do not do it. Cic.
NotE.—Clauses with ut or mé are sometimes inserted parenthetically in sentences:
Amicós, optimam vitae, utita dicam,” suppellectilem, friends, the best treasure (furni-
tºre), 80 to speak, of life. Cic.
3. Clauses of Purpose sometimes pass into Substantive Clauses, which,
like indeclinable nouns, are used in a variety of constructions:
Per eum stetit quêminus dimicărètur;3 it was owing to him (stood through
him) that the battle was not fought. Caes. Voló ut mihi respondeås,” I wish
that you would answer me. Cic. Fécit pâcem his condiciónibus, né qui ad-
ficerentur exsilić,” he made peace on these terms, that mone should be punished
with easile. Nep.
NoTE 1.-For the Different Forms of Substantive Clauses, see 540.
NoTE 2.—Clauses with guóminus sometimes lose the original idea of Purpose and
denote Result: 4
Nön déterret sapientem mors quêminus réi públicae consulat, death does not deter
a wise man from deliberating for the republic. Cic.
pendent, as it was originally: Ifear, so may you endure the labors, an affirmative wish;
A fear, may I not increase the labor, a negative wish; hence né.
1 Compare wereor lawdāre, ‘I fear To PRAISE, with wereor né laudem, ‘I fear THAT
I SHALL PRAISE."
* The Subjunctive in this and similar clauses may be explained either as a Subjunc-
tive of Purpose dependent upon a verb understood, or as a Subjunctive of Dé8tre; seo
483.
* In the first example, the clause quominºus diſmicărétur has become apparently the
subject of Stetit; in the second, ut mihi respondeds, the object of volā; and in the third,
né guì adficerentur eacsilää, an appositive to condiciónibus.
4 Such a transition from Purpose, denoting an Intended Result, to a Simple Result
is easy and natural. ©
276 SUBJUNOTIVE OF RESULT.
III. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF RESULT.
RULE XLIII.-Result.
500. The Subjunctive is used to denote RESULT –
I. With the relative qui, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, cir,
etc. :
Nön is sum qui (= ut ego) his iºtar, I am not such a one as To USE these
things. Cic. Innocentia est adfectištális animi, quae (= ut ea) nocéat němini,
£nnocence is such a state of mind as iNJUREs no one, or as TO INJURE no one. Cic.
Neque quisquam fuit ubi nostrum jūs obtinérémus, nor was there any one
with whom (where) we could obtain our right. Cic. Est vérô cūr quis Jūnū-
nem laedere nolit, there is indeed a reason why (so that) one would be unwill-
&ng to offend Juno. Ovid.
II. With ut, ut nón, quin :
Ita vixit ut Athéniènsibus esset cârissimus, he so lived that HE WAS very
dear to the Athenians. Nep. Ita laudó, ut nón pertimãScam, I So praise as not
To FEAR. Cie. Ego in publicis causis ita sum versătus ut défenderim multös,
I have been so occupied in public suits that I have défended many. Cic. Nihil
est tam difficile quim (ut nón) investigari possit, nothing is so difficult that it
may not be investigated. Ter. - Ç,
NoTE 1.-Quº is often preceded by is, tális, tantus, or some similar word; and ut,
by ita, 87c, tam, adeå, tantopere, or some similar particle; see examples.
NoTE 2.—In Plautus and Terence wi sometimes accompanies gui.
Ita ut qui neget, so that he refuses. Ter.
NoTE 8.—For the Subjunctive denoting a result after gwóminus, see 499, 3, note 2.
5O1. CLAUSEs of RESULT readily pass into Substantive Clauses,
but they still retain the Subjunctive. Thus the Subjunctive is used—
I. In SUBJECT CLAUSEs. Thus—
1. With impersonal verbs signifying it happens, remains, follows, is law-
ful, is allowed, is distant, is, etc.:*
Fit ut quisque délectètur, it happens that every one is delighted. Cic.
Sequitur ut falsum sit, it follows that it is false. Cic. Restatut doceam, it
pemains that I should show. Cic. Ex quč efficitur ut voluptăs non sit sum-
mum bonum, from which it follows that pleasure is not the highest good. Cic.
2. With predicate nouns and adjectives:
Mös est ut nólint, it is their custom not to be willing (that they are un-
willing). Cic. Próximum est, ut doceam, the next point is, that I show. Cic.
Nôn est dubium quin beneficium sit, that it is a benefit, is not doubtful. Sen.
1 The Subjunctive of Result is doubtless in origin a Potential Subjunctive: Wön is
sum gwi his litar, “I am not one who would usé (or is likely to use) these things.”
Hence this Subjunctive takes the negative nān (wt mên) like the Potentic? Subjunctive,
while the Subjunctive of Purpose takes the negative né like the Subjunctive of Desire.
* As accidit, conting it, evenit, fit, restat, sequitur, licet, abest, est, etc.
3UBJUNCTIVÆ OF RÆSULT. 27?
NoTE.—For the Subjunctive with vt, with or without me, in questions expressive of
impatience or 8urprise, see 486, II., note.
II. In OBJECT CLAUSES. Thus—
1. In clauses introduced by ut after fació, efficiö, of the action of irra-
tional forces:
Söl efficit, ut omnia flöreant, the swn, cause8 all thángs to bloom, (i. e., pro-
duces that result). Cic. Splendor vester facit, ut peccáre sine perieulö nön
possitis, 3your con8picuou8 position, causeS this re8ult, that 3yow can, mot err with-
out peri?. Cic. See 498, II.
2. In clauses introduced by quin after verbs of Doubtìng :
Nön dubitábis quin sint beáti, 3yow ovíl , ^ot doubt that they are happy. Cic.
III. In CLAUSES IN APPOSITION with nouns or pronouns:
Habet höc virtüs ut, dëlectet, vìrtue has this advamtage, that it delights.
Cic. Est höc vitium, ut invidia glöriae comes sit, there is this fawlt, that envy
ἀs the compa^ion, qf glory. Nep.
NoTE.—For the different forms of substantive clauses, see 540.
502. PECULIARITIES.—Expressions of Result present the fol-
Iowing peculiarities:
• I. Ut is sometimes omitted—regularly with oportet, generally with opus
est and ^ecesse est :
Tè oportet virtùs trahat, it is mecessary that virtue should attract 3/ou. Cic.
Causam habeat, necesse est, ât îs neces8ary that åt should have a cause. Cie.
2. The Subjunctive occurs with quam—with or without, ut:
Liberälius quam ut pösset, too.freely to be able (more freely than so as to
be able). Nep. Impönëbat, amplius quam ferre pössent, he impo8ed more
tha^, they (vere able to bear.
8. After tantum abest aut, denoting result, a second ut of result some-
times occurs :
IPhilosophia, tantum abest ut laudétur, ut etiam vituperëtur, so far ìs ét
from the truth, (so much is wanting) that phìlosophy is praîsed, that ît î8 even,
censured. Cic.
503. In RELATIVE CLAUSEs, the Subjunctive of RESULT
shows the following SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS :
I. The Subjunctive is used in relative clauses to characterize an
Indefinite or General Anteeedent : * -
Quid est quod të dëlectáre possit, what ås there which, ca^ deláght 3/ot/ ?
Cie. Nunc dicis aliquid quod ad rem pertineat, now yow state $omethông which
belong8 to the 8ubject. Cic. Sunt, qui putent, there are 8ome who thôn k. Cie.
Nëmö est qui nöm cupiat, there is no one who doe8 not desire. Cic.
——^
1 IIore tam, túlis, or some such word, is often understood.
278 SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT.
NoTE 1.—Restrictive clauses with quod, as quod 8ciam, * as far as I know,' quod,
meminerìm, * as far as I remember,* etc., take the Subjunctive:
Nön ego të, quod 8ciam, unquam ante hunc diem vidi, AS FAR A8 I KNow, I have
never seem, yow, before thá8 day. Plaut.
NOTE 2.—Quod, or a relative particle, vbi, unde, quò, cùr, etc., with the Subjunctive,
is used after est, “thereis reason '; nöm est, mihil est, *there is no reason '; quid est, * what
reason is there ? * món, habeo, nihil habeo, * I have no reason * :
Est quod gaudeäs, there is reason, φυλ@y @yov &hould rejoice, or so that yow, may.
Plaut. Nön est quod crédâs, there i& mo reason, why 3yov, &hontld believe. Sen. Nihil
habeö, quod incüsem senectútem, I have mo rea8on, why I &hould accu8e old age. Cic.
Quid est cür virtüs ipsa nön efficiat beätös, what reason, is there why virtue itse'f
&hould mot make mem, happy ? Cic.
NoTE 8.—The Indicative is freely used in relative clauses after indefinite antecedents:
1) In poetry i and late prose:
Sunt quöB juvat, there are 8ome whom át delights. Hor.
2) Even in the best prose, whem the fact itselfis to be made prominent:
Sunt qui nön audent dìcere, there are 8ome acho do mot dare to speak. Cic. Multa
sunt, quae dici possunt, there are many things which, magy be &aid. Cic.
II. The Subjunctive is used in relative clauses—
1. After ùnu8, 8ólu8, and the like :
Sapientia est üna, quae maestitiam pellat, wisdom is the only tÃîng which
dispels &adneS8 (which would dispel). Cic. SölI centum erant qui creâri pös-
sent, there were only one hundred, who could be appointed (such that they could
be). Liv.
2. After dìgnus, ìndìgnìt8, idóneu8, and aptu8 :
Fäbulae dignae sunt, quae legantur, the fables are worthy to be read (that
they should be read). Cic. Rüfum Caesar idóneum jüdicâverat quem mit-
teret, Caesar had judged Rigfus a 8wìtable per8on, to 8end, (whom he might
send). Caes.
8. After comparatives with quam, :
Damma mäjöra sunt, quam quae (= vt ea) aestimäri possint, the lo88e8 are
too great to be estô mated (greater than so that they eam be). Liv.
504. Quìn,* * who not,* * that not,* etc., is often used
to introduce a result after negatives and interrogatives
implying a negative.* Thus—
i Especially in early poetry, as in Plautus and Terence.
3 Quón, is a compound of the relative qvì and mê, and appears to be used both as an
indeclinable relative pronoum, ^pho not, and as a relative particle, bgy which, mot, hovo mot,
etc. Some clauses with qu?n, may perhaps be best explained as indirect questiom8
(529, I.). Qw7n, meaning why not ? often used in independent clauses, is a compound
of the interrogative quis or quî, and nè : Quùm tù höe faeis, * why do you mot do it?' Liv.
8 As mëmö, mòllus, nihil, quis ? nón dubitö, nön dubium e$t; món multum abest,
paulum abest, nihil abest, quòd abe8t ? ^ön, viae, aegrè ab&tineo; mihî món, temperò;
nòn retineor; món, nihil praetermittó ; facere món, po8sum, ferè nón, potest; nùn-
quam with a large class of verbs.
SUBJUNOTIVE OF RESULT. 279
1. Quin is often used in the sense of qui mán, quae män, etc., as
after némó, nällus, nihil, quis?
Adest němö, quin videat, there is no one present who does not see. Cic.
Němč est quin audierit, there is no one who has not heard. Cic. Quis est
quin cernat, who is there who does not perceive # Cic. Núlla fuit civitās quin
mitteret, there was no state which did not send. Caes. Núlla pictura fuit
quin (=quam nón) Inspexerit, there was no painting which he did not inspect.
Cic. Nullum intermisi diem, quin (= quo nán or ut ed nån) aliquid darem,
I allowed no day to pass without giving something (on which I would not give
something). Cic.
Nore.—Quin can often be best rendered by but or by without or from with a parti-
cipial noun in -ING: see the last example under 1; also the last under 2,
2. Quin is often used in the ordinary sense of ut nón :
Němč est tam fortis quin perturbētur, no one is 80 brave as not to be dis-
turbed. Caes. Nihil est tam difficile quin investigari possit, nothing is so
difficult that it may not be investigated. Ter. Retinëri non poterant quin
têla côicerent, they could not be restrained from hurling their weapons. Caes.
Norf.-I3 or £d is sometimes expressed after quin -
Nihil est quin id intereat, there is nothing which does not perish. Cic.
3. Quân is used in the sense of ut nån or of ut in subject and
object clauses (501):
1) With facere non possum, fieri nán potest, etc., in the sense of ut nón.
Facere non possum quin litterås mittam, I can not but send a letter. Cic.
Effici non potest quin eos ūderim, it can not be (be effected) that I should not
hate them. Cic. -
2) With negative expressions implying doubt and uncertainty, in the
sense of ut:
Agamemnon non dubitat quin Tröja sit peritúra, Agamemnon does not
doubt that Troy wiłł fall (perish). Cic. Nön dubitāri débet quin fuerint
poétae, it ought not to be doubted that there were poets. Cic. Quis ignorat
quin tria genera sint, who is ignorant that there are three races à Cic.
4. Quân is sometimes used in the sense of quêminus : *
Quin loquar haec, nunquam mé potes déterrére, you can never deter me
Jrom saying this. Plaut. Nön déterret sapientem mors quominus réi públi-
cae consulat, death does not deter a wise man from deliberating for the repub-
lic. Cic. Nön recisãvit, quominus poenam subiret, he did not refuse to sub-
mit to punishment. Nep. Neque recusáre quin armis contendant, and that
they do not refuse to contend in arms. Caes.
NoTE.—For màn Quân in Causal Clauses, see 516, 2.
* Pronounced as if wiſtleli vijlcerent; see 36, 4, with foot-note 1.
* As after verbs of hindering, refusing, and the like. Observe that in the examples
déterred and reciºso are used both with quin and with quºminus. They also admit the
Subjunctive with mé or the Infinitive; see 505, II.
280 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
505. ConstrucTION OF SPECIAL VERBs.--Some verbs admit
two or more different constructions. Thus—
I. Dubitó admits—
1. Quin, witH THE SUBJUNCTIVE, if it stands in a negative sentence;
see 504, 8, 2).
2. An INDIRECT QUESTION (529, I.):
Nón dubitó quid putés, I do not doubt what you think. Cic. Dubitó an
púnam, I doubt whether I should not place. Nep.
3. The ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE:
Quis dubitat patére Európam, who doubts that Europe is exposed 2 Curt.
4. The simple INFINITIVE, when it means to hesitate:
Nön dubitem dicere, I should not hesitate to say. Cic. Dubitämus virtùtem
extendere factis, do we hesitate to extend our glory (valor) by our deeds & Verg.
II. Verbs of hindering, opposing, refusing, and the like, admit—
1. The SUBJUNCTIVE witH né, quin, or quêminus:”
Impedior né plūra dicam, I am prevented from saying (that I may not say)
more. Cic. Sententiam né diceret recúsàvit, he refused to give an opinion.
Cic. Neque recusáre quin armis contendant, and that they do not refuse to
contend in arms. Caes. Interclüdor dolôre quêminus plura scribam, I am
prevented by sorrow from writing more. Cic. -
2. The AccusATIVE witH THE INFINITIVE, or the simple INFINITIVE:
Num ignobilitās sapientem beatum esse prohibëbit, will obscurity prevent
a wise man from being happy & Cic. Quae facere rectisem, which I should
refuse to do. Hor.
IV. MOODS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
506. Every conditional sentence consists of two distinct parts,
expressed or understood—the Condition and the Conclusion :
Si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should speak falsely.9 Cic.
RULE XIIV.—Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin.
507. Conditional sentences with si, nisi, ni, Sin, take—
I. The INDICATIVE in both clauses to assume the sup-
posed case:
1 That is, I am, inclined to think that I should place. Observe that datbito an
means ‘I doubt whether not "=" I am inclined to think,’ and dubitſ, nºwm, “I doubt
whether’: Dubitſ, mum débeam, “I doubt whether I ought.” Plin.
* For the use of gwin, see 504. Wé and qwāminus may follow either affirmatives
or negatives.
* Here 87 megem is the condition, and menţiar, the conclusion.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 281
SI spiritum diicit, vivit, if he breathes, he is alive. Cic. SI tot exempla
virtùtis nãn movent, nihil unquam movébit, if so many examples of valor
do not move (you), nothing will ever move (you). Liv.
II. The PRESENT or PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both
clauses to represent the supposed case as possible:
Diés deficiat, si velim causam défendere, the day would fail me, if I
should wish to defend the cause. Cic. Improbé fěceris, nisi monueris, you
would do wrong, if you should not give warning. Cic.
III. The IMPERFECT or PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in
both clauses to represent the supposed case as contrary to
fact:
Plüribus verbis ad tâ scriberem, sirès verba désiderāret, I should write
to you more fully (with more words), if the case required words. Cic. Si
voluisset, dimicăsset, if he had wished, he would have fought. Nep.
1. Two clauses without any conjunction sometimes have the force of a
conditional sentence:
Negat quis, negö, does any one deny, I deny. Ter. Rogés mé, nihil re-
spondeam, ask me, I shall make no reply. Cic. Tú màgnam partem, sineret
dolor, habërës, you would have had a large share, had grief permitted. Verg.
Lacesse; jam vidébis furentem, provoke him (i.e., if you provoke him), you
will at once see him frantic. Cic.”
2. A condition is sometimes introduced by the relative qui, quae, etc.
= sā is, si quis, si qui, etc. :
Qui sécum loqui poterit, sermönem alterius non requiret, if any one (lit.,
he who) shall be able to converse with himself, he will not need the conversation
1 See 510, note 2.
* From these examples it is manifest that a conditional particle is not an essential part
of a conditional sentence. Originally the two clauses, the condition and the conclusion,
were independent, and the mood in each was determined by the ordinary principles
which regulate the use of moods in principal clauses; see 483; 485. Hence the Indica-
tive was used in treating of facts, and the Subjunctive or Imperative in all other cases.
Si, probably the Locative case of a pronoun, meaning (1) at that time or in that manner,
and (2) at any time or in any manmer, has nothing whatever to do with the mood, but
merely denotes that the conclusion is connected with the condition. Thus: negat, negö,
“he denies (i. e., assume that he denies), I deny"; si negat, negö, “he denies at some
time, then I deny'; diēs déficiat, si velim, etc., “let me wish (Subjunctive of Desire) at
any time, etc., then the day would fail me.” The Subjunctive in conditions is a Subjunc-
tive of Desire with nearly the force of the Imperative, which may indeed be used for it
when S7 is omitted, as lacesse, ‘provoke him (i.e., if you provoke him)." In conclusions
the Subjunctive is generally potential, as diēs déficiat, “the day would fail,” but some-
times it is the Subjunctive of Desire, for which the Imperative may be substituted; as,
peream, 87 poterunt, ‘may I perish if they shall be able'; si pecca/v7, 7gmösce, “if I have
erred, pardon me.’ See Delbrück, “Conjunctiv und Optativ, pp. 70–74; 171-182.
282 CONDITIONAL SENTENCIES.
qf another. Cic. Errat longè, qui erédat, etc., he greatly errs who supposes,
etc. (i. e., if any one supposes, he greatly errs). Ter. Haec qui videat,
nömne cögätur cönfitéri, etc., éf any one should See the8e tháng8, would he not
be compelled to admit, etc. ? Cie.
3. A condition is sometimes introduced by cum:
Ea cum dixissent, quid respondërës, %f (when) they had Said, that, what
&hould 3you reply ? Cic. A'
INoTE 1.—The condition is sometimes ironical, especially with nisi vërö, misi forte,
with the Indicative, and with quasi, quasi vërö, with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:
Nisi forte insánit, vnle88 perhaps he is insane. Cic. Quasi vërö necesse sit, a8 â^
indeed it were mecessary. Caes.
NoTE 2.—Ita—87, * so—if,' means only—ìf. Si quidem, * if indeed,' sometimes has
nearly the force of 8êmce :
Hóc ita jüstum est, si est voluntärium, this is just om?y ìf (on condition that) it i8
φο?wmtary. Cic. Antiquissimum est genus poëtárum, si quidem Homêrus fuit ante
Römam conditam, the class qf poet8 i8 very amciemt, &ince Homer lived öéfore the
fownding qf Rome. Cic.
• NoTE 3.— Wisi or mi, *if not,' is sometimes best rendered but or eæcept:
Nesciö, nisi höc videó, I Jcmovo mot, but (except that) I observe this. Cic.
NoTE 4.— Nisi sì means eæcept áf, wnle88 perhap8, wmless :
Nisi si qui scripsit, a/mles8 8ome ome has writtem. Cic.
NoTE 5.—For sì to be rendered to see áf, to 8ee vohether, etc., see 529, 1, note 1.
NoTE 6.—For quod 8ì, quod mì, quod misí, see 453, 6.
NoTE 7.—The condition may be variously supplied, as by a participle, by the ablative
absolute, or by the oblique case of a noum :
Nön potestis, voluptáte omnia dirigentés (= 8? d7rígitis), retinêre virtütem, yov,
cam mot retaim yowr manhood, €f you arrange all thimg8 with referemce to plea8^tre.
Cic. Réctê factö (= sì rëctë factum erât), laus pröpönitur, éf it i8 (shall be) well done,
prai&e is offered. Cic. Nëmö sine spé (= nìsì 8pem habéret) së offerret ad mortem,
qmo ome without a hope (if he had not a hope) vcovtld eæpose himselfto death. Cic.
NoTE 8.—For Comditional Semtemces in the INDIRECT DIscoURSE, see 527.
508. FIRST FORM.—Conditional sentences with the In-
dicative in both clauses, assuming the supposed case as real,
may base upon it any statement which would be admissible
if the supposed case were a known fact :
Si haec civitäs est, civis sum ego, ôf this is a state, Iam a citôzen. Cic. SI
nön licèbat, nön necesse erat, £f it was not lauful, át wa8 not nece$$ary. Cic.
SI vis, dabó tibi testês, %f 3you wish, I will furnis/. 3yow witnesses. Cie. Plüra
scribam, si plüs ötii habuerò, I will avrite more íf I shal' have (shall have
Had) more leisure. Cie. Dolórem si nön poterò frangere, occultäbö, éf I 8hal/
^ot be able to overcome 8orrow, I shall conceal öt. Cic. Parvi sunt foris arma,
nisi est cönsilium domi, arms are qf little value abroad, unless there is wisdom,
at home. Cic. Si domi sum, ete.; sin * foris sum, etc., ïf I am, at hòme, etc.;
but %f I am abroad, etc. Plaut. Ni putö, éf I do not think. Cic.
i Sîm from si mè, *if not,' *if on the contrary,' * but if,' properly introduces a condi-
tion in contrast with another condition expressed or implied. Thus, sìm, forìs is in con-
trast with sì domi, and means bwt %f abroad.
COWDITIONAL SEW TENCES. 283
1. The CoNDITION is generally introduced, when affirmative, by si, with or without
other particles, as guidem, modo, etc., and when negative, by sº món, nisi, ni.
2. The TIME may be present, past, or future, but it need not be the same in both
elauses. Thus the Present or the Future Perfect in the condition is often followed by
the Future, as in the third and fourth examples."
3. Si møn and misi are often used without any perceptible difference of meaning; but
strictly si mãn introduces the negative condition on which the conclusion depends, while
misè introduces a qualification or an ea:ception. Thus, in the Second example above, the
meaning is, if it was not lawſul, it follows that it was not necessary; while in the fourth
the meaning is, arms are of little value abroad, eaccept when there is wisdom at home.
4. The ConcLUSION irrespective of the condition may assume a considerable variety
of form. Thus: - -
Redargue mé si mentior, refute me if I speak falsely. Cic. Moriar, ni putó, may
I die, if I do not think. Cic. Quid timean, si beatus futurus sum, why should I fear
if I am going to be happy? Cic. Si quid habès certius, velim * scire, if you have any
ſinformation (anything more certain), I should like to know it. Cic.
5. GENERAL TRUTHS may be expressed conditionally—
1) By the Indicative in both clauses, as in the sixth example under 508.
2) By the Second Person of the Subjunctive used of an indefinite you (= any one) in
the condition, with the Indicative in the conclusion :
Memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceås, the memory is impaired, if you do not (one
does not) eacercise it. Cic. Nülla est exclisätiö peccati, sī amici causā peccaveris, it is
mo eaccuse for a fault, that you have committed it for the sake of a friend. Cic.
509. SECOND FORM.–Conditional sentences with the
Present or Perfect Subjunctive in both clauses represent
the condition as possible:
Haec sitécum patria loquâtur, nonne impetrăre débeat, if your country
should speak thus with you, ought she not to obtain her request ? Cic. Improbě
fêceris, nisi monuerís, you would do wrong, if you should not give warning.
Cic. See also 507, II.
NoTE 1.-The TIME denoted by these tenses, the Present and the Perfect, is generally
either present or future, and the difference between the two is that the former regards
the action in its progress, the latter in its completion. Thus, loquàtur, “should speak”
(now or at any future time); so of débeat; but feceris, though referring to the same
time as logwātur, regards the action as completed.”
NotE 2.—The Present Swbjunctive is occasionally used in conditional sentences, even
when the condition is in itself contrary to fact:
1 A conditional sentence with the Future Perfect in the condition and the Future in
the conclusion, as plºra scribam, 87 plus àtil habuerò, corresponds to the Greek with
&áv or āv with the Aorist Subjunctive in the condition, and the Future Indicative in the
conclusion; as, véos &v trovſjarms, yºpas Ščevs stºa Aés, if you will labor while young, you
will have a prosperous old age.
* Observe that in each of these examples the mood in the conclusion is entirely in-
dependent of the condition. Thus, redargue is a command; moriar, a prayer, Subjunc-
tive of Desire; guid tâmean, a deliberative question (484, W.); and velºm, a Potential
Subjunctive (486, note 1).
* As the ‘Present Subjunctive in point of time is very closely related to the Future
Indicative in conditional sentences, so the Perfect Subjunctive is very closely related to
the Future Perfect Indicative, though it may refer to past time.
284 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
Tū si hic sis, aliter sentiás, if you were I (if you were in my place), you would think
differently. Ter. -
NOTE 3.—When dependent upon an historical tense, the Present and Perfect are of
course generally changed to the Imperféct and Pluperfect, by the law for Sequence of
Tenses (490):
Metuit né, Siiret, retraherétur, he feared lest, if he show.ld go, he would be brought
back. Liv.
510. THIRD FORM.–Conditional sentences with the Im-
perfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses represent
the supposed case as contrary to fact, and simply state
what would have been the result if the condition had been
fulfilled :
Sapientia nón expeterêtur, si nihil efficeret, wisdom would not be sought (as
it is), if it accomplished nothing. Cic. Si optima tenére possèmus, haud
sâne consilić egérémus, if we were able to secure the highest good, we should
not indeed need counsel. Cic. Si voluisset, dimicăsset, if he had wished, he
would have fought. Nep. Nūnquam abisset, nisi sibi viam munivisset, he
would never have gone, if he had not prepared for himself a way. Cic. See
also 507, III.
Nore 1.—Here the Imperfect generally relates to present 1 time, as in the first and
second examples; the Pluperfect to past time, as in the third and fourth examples.
NoTE 2.—The Imperfect sometimes relates to past time, especially when it expresses
a continued action, or is accompanied by any word denoting past time:
Nec, si cuperés, tibiid facere licuisset, nor would you have been permitted to do it,
if you had desired. Cic. Num Opimium, si tum essés, temerārium civem putārēs,
would you have thought Opimius an awdacious citizen if you had lived at that time *
Cic. -
511. A CoNCLUSION of the FIRST FORM is sometimes combined
with a CONDITION of the SECOND or THIRD FORM. Thus—
1. The Indicative is often thus used in the conclusion (1) to denote a
general truth, and (2) to emphasize a fact, especially with a condition in-
troduced by nisi or ni :” -
Turpis excusatiè est, si quis fateåtur, etc., it is a base excuse, if one admits,
etc. Cic. Intrăre, si possim, castra hostium voló, I wish to enter the camp of
the enemy, if I am able. Liv. Certāmen aderat, ni Fabius rem expedisset, a
contest was at hand, but Fabius (lit., if Fabius had not) adjusted the affair.”
Liv. Nec veni, nisi fata locum dedissent, nor should I have come, had not
the fates assigned the placgº Verg.
1 This use of the Imperfect to denote present time was developed from the ordinary
force of the Subjunctive tenses. Thus the Present denotes that which is likely to be,
the Imperfect that which was likely to be, and so by implication that which is not.
Compare fuit in the sense of was, but is not, 471, 1, 2). -
2 Here the condition merely introduces a qualification or an eacception; see 508, 8.
* The force of the Indicative can not be easily shown in a translation, but the Latin
conception is, I have not come without the divine guidance (expressed in the condition).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 285
NoTE 1,–The Future Indicative is sometimes used in the conclusion because of its
near relationship in force to the Present Subjunctive: 1
Si mittat, quid respondébis, if he should send, what answer shall you give # Lucr.
Nec si cupiās, licąbit, nor, if you should desire it, will it be allowed. Cic.
NoTE 2.-In a negative conclusion with a negative condition, the verb possum is
generally in the Indicative : *
Neque amicitiam tuéri possumus, nisi amicós diligămus, nor should we be able to
preserve friendship, if we Show!d not love our friends. Cic.
NoTE 3.—The Historical Tenses of verbs denoting Duty, Propriety, Necessity,
Ability, and the like, in the conclusion of conditional Sentences, are generally in the In-
dicative :
Quem, si ülla in té pietàs esset, colere débébās, whom you ought to have honored
(and would have honored), if there were any filial affection in you. Cic. Wix castra,
si oppūgnārūtur, tütāri poterat, he was hardly able to defend the camp, if he should
be attacked. Liv. Déléri exercitus potuit, si persectiti victorós essent, the army might
have been destroyed (and would have been), if the victors had pursued. Liv.
NoTE 4.—The Historical Tenses of the Indicative of still other verbs are sometimes
similarly used when accompanied by paene or prope :
Pöns iter paene hostibus dedit, ni únus vir fuisset, the bridge almost furnished a
passage to the enemy (and would have furnished it), had there not been one man. Liv.
_2. The Periphrastic Forms in rus and dus in the conclusion of condi-
tional sentences are generally in the Indicative: *
Quid SI hostés veniant, facturi estis, what shall you do if the enemy should
come * Liv. Si quaeratur, indicandum est, if inquiry should be made, in-
formation must be given. Cic. Relicturi agrós erant, nisi litterås misisset,
they would have left 4 their lands, had he not sent a letter. Cic. Quid futurum
fuit, SI plebs agitāri coepta esset, what would have been the result, if the ple-
beians had begun to be agitated 2 Liv. Sivérum respondëre wellès, haec erat
dicenda, if you wished to answer truly, this should have been said. Cic. Si
morāti essétis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed, you must all
have perished. Liv.
NoTE.—When the Perfect Indicative in the conclusion with the Subjunctive in the
condition is brought into a construction which requires the Subjunctive, the tense remains
unchanged, irrespective of the tense of the principal verb:
Aded est inopiā coãctus ut, nisi timuisset, Galliam repetitiirus fuerit," he was so
* See 479, with foot-note 3. A conditional sentence with the Present Subjunctive
in the condition, and the Future Indicative in the conclusion, corresponds to the Greek
éav with the Present Subjunctive in the condition, and the Future Indicative in the con-
clusion: row to eav orkomºre, evpija'ere, if you eacamine this, you will find.
* Here, too, the use of the Indicative grows out of the relationship between the mean-
ing of posswºm, denoting ability, and that of the Potential Subjwnctive denoting pos-
Sibility. &
* The Indicative is here explained by the close relationship between the ordinary
meaning of the Subjunctive, and that of the forms in rus and dus denoting that Something
dig about to §6 dome or ought to he dome
* Lit., were about to leave, and so would have left, had he not, etc.
* Here repetitiirus fuerit is in the Subjunctive, not because it is in a conditional sen-
tence, but because it is the Subjunctive of Result with ut; but it is in the Perfect, be-
eause, if it were not dependent, the Perfect Indicative would have been used.
286 CONDITIONAL SEWTENCES.
pressed by want that, if he had not feared, he would have returned to Gaul. Liv.
Haud dubium fuit, quin nisi firmāta extröma agminis fuissent, ingéns accipienda cládés
fuerit, there was mo doubt that, had not the rear of the line been made strong, a great
disaster must have been sustained. Liv. Quaeris quid potuerit amplius assequí, sí
Scipiðnis fuisset filius, you ask what more he could have attained, if he had been the
son of Scipio. Cic.
512. A CoNCLUSION of the THIRD FORM (510) is sometimes combined
with a CoNDITION of the SECOND FoRM (509):
Sitécum loquantur, quid respondérés, if they should speak with you, what
answer would you give # Cic.
RULE XLV.-Conditional Clauses with dum, modo, äc si,
- ut si, etc.
513. Conditional clauses take the Subjunctive—
I. With dum, modo, dummodo, “if only,’ ‘provided that’; dum
në, modo né, dummodo né, “if only not,’ ‘provided that not ':”
Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, mental powers remain, if only
industry remains. Cic. Dum rés maneant, verba fingant, let them make
words, if only the facts remain. Cic. Dummodo repellat periculum, provided
he may avert danger. Cic. Dum né tibi videar, non labórð, provided I do not
seem so to you, I do not care. Cic.
II. With ac Si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanquam si, velut,
velut si, ‘as if,’ ‘than if,’ involving an ellipsis of the real conclusion:
Perinde haběbö, äc si scripsissés, I shall regard it just as if (i. e., as I
should if) you had written. Cic. Jacent, tanquam omninó sine animó sint,
they lie as if (i.e., as they would lie if) they were entirely without mind. Cic.
Quam si vixerit tëcum, as if he had lived with you. Cic. Miserior es, quam
Si oculês nôn habërës, you are more unhappy than (you would be) if you had
not eyes. Cic. Crüdélitätem, velut si adesset, horrébant, they shuddered at
his cruelty as (they would) if he were present. Caes. Ut si in suam rem
aliéna convertant, as if they should appropriate others' possessions to their own
wise. Cic. Tanquam audiant, as if they may hear. Sen.
NoTE 1.-In this form of conditional sentences, the Present 3 or Imperfect is used of
present time, and the Perfect 8 or Pluperfect of past time; see examples above. '
1 When not used in conditions, these conjunctions often admit the Indicative: Dum
légès vigébant, while the laws were in force. Cic. -
2 This Subjunctive is best explained as the Subjunctive of Desire, as indicated by the
negative né (483, 8). Thus, modo permaneat industria, “only let industry remain";
dum né tibi videar, “let me not meanwhile seem so to you.” After dum and dummodo
the Subjunctive may perhaps be explained as Potential, but the negative mé renders such
an explanation very doubtful.
* The English idiom would lead us to expect only the Imperfect and Pluperfect, as
under 510; but the Latin often regards the condition as possible, and thus uses the
Present and Perfect, as under 509.
CONCESSIVE OLA USES. 287
NoTE 2.-Cew and sicwti are sometimes used like dic Si, ut 87, etc.:
Ceu bella forent, as if there were wars. Werg. Sicuti audiri pâssent, as if they could
be heard. Sall.
W. MooDS IN CONCESSIVE CLAUSEs.
514. A concessive clause is one which concedes or admits some-
thing, generally introduced in English by though or although: *
Quamguam itinere fessi erant, tamen procédunt, although they were weary
with the journey, they still (yet) advanced. Sall.
NOTE.—The concessive particle is sometimes omitted :
Sed habeat, tamen, etc., but grant that he has it, yet, etc. Cic.
RULE XLVI.—Moods in Concessive Clauses.
515. Concessive clauses take—
I. Generally the Indicative in the best prose, when
introduced by quamgwam:,
Quamguam intellegunt, tamen nünquam dicunt, though they understand,
they never speak. Cic. Quamguam festinäs, nān est mora longa, though
Ayou are in haste, the delay is not long. Hor.
II. The Indicative or Subjunctive, when introduced
by ets?, etiamsä, tametsi, or sº, like conditional clauses
with S. Thus—
1. The Indicative is used to represent the supposed case as a fact:
Gauded, etsi nihil sció quod gaudeam, I rejoice, though I know no reason
why I should rejoice. Plaut.
2. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive, to represent the supposed case
as possible:
, Etsi nihil habeat in sé glória, tamen virtùtem sequitur, though glory
may not possess anything in itself, yet it follows virtue. Cic.
3. The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive, to represent the supposed
case as contrary to fact: a
Etiamsi mors oppetenda esset, domi mãllem, even if death ought to be
met, I should prefer to meet it at home. Cic.
III. The Subjunctive, when introduced by licet,” quam-
vis, ut, né, cum, or the relative quº:
1 Concessive clauses bear a close resemblance to conditional clauses both in form
audiu use. S. optimwm est, “if it is best,' is a condition; effs; optimum est, “even if (or
though) it is best,' is a concession; the one assumes a supposed case, the other admits
it. The Subjunctive in concessive clauses is in general best explained in the same way
as in conditional clauses; see 507, 1, foot-note 2.
* In origin licet is simply the impersonal verb of the same form, and the Subjunctive
288 CONCESSIVE OLA USES.
Licet irrideat, plus tamen ratiš valébit, though he may deride, reason
will yet avail more. Cic. Nön til possis, quamvis excellās, you would not
be able, although you excel. Cic. Ut dêsint virés, tamen est laudanda
voluntás, though the strength fails, still the will should be approved. Ovid.
Né sit summum malum dolor, malum certé est, though pain may not be the
greatest evil, it is certainly an evil. Cic. Cum domi divitiae adfluerent,
fuére tamen civés, etc., though wealth abounded at home, there were yet
citizens, etc. Sall. Absolvite Werrem, qui (cum is) sé fateåtur pectiniãs
cépisse, acquit Verres, though he confesses (who may confess) that he has
accepted money. Cic.
NotE 1.-Quamgwam takes the Subjunctive—
1) When the thought, irrespective of the concessive character of the clause, requires
that mood :
Quamguam epulis careat senectiis, though old age may be without its feasts. Cic.
2) Sometimes, even in the best prose, apparently without any special reason :
Quamguam né id quidem suspiciónem habuerit, though not even that gave rise to
any suspicion. Cic.
3) In poetry and in late prose, the Subjunctive with guangwam is not uncommon.
In Tacitus it is the prevailing construction:
Quamguam invicti essent, although they were invincible. Verg. Quamguam plerſ-
que ad senectam pervenirent, although very many reached old age. Tac.
NoTE 2.—Quamguam and ets? Sometimes have the force of yet, but yet, and yet:
Quamguam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak f Cic. Etsi tibi assentior, and yet
I assent to you. Cic.
NoTE 8.—Quamvis in the best prose takes the Subjunctive almost without exception,
generally also in Livy and Nepos; but in poetry and in late prose it often admits the
Indicative : -
Erat dignitäte régiã, quamvis carébat nómine, he was of royal dignity, though he
was without the name. Nep.
NoTE 4.—Qui and cum, used concessively, generally take the Indicative in Plautus
and Terence, and sometimes even in classical prose :
Audés praedicare id, domité esse nunc qui hic ades, do you dare to assert this, that
Q/ow are now at home, although you are here present? Plaut. Cum tabulás emunt,
tamen nequeunt, though they purchase paintings, they are yet unable. Sall. Cum
Sicilia vexãta est, tamen, though Sicily was disturbed, yet. Cic.
NoTE 5.—Ut—sic, or ut—ita, “though—yet” (lit., “as—so'), involving comparison.
rather than concession, does not require the Subjunctive :
Ut à proeliſs quiétem habuerant, ita nën céssàverant ab opere, though (lit., as) they
had had rest from battles, yet (lit., so) they had not ceased from work. Liv.
NoTE 6.—Quamvis and quantum vis, meaning “as much as you please,” “however
much,” may accompany licet with the Subjunctive:
Nön possis tii, quantumvis licet excellās, you would not be able, however much yott
amay eacceſ. Cic.
clause which follows, developed from Result (501, I.), is its subject. Thus, in lice?
irrideat (lit., ‘that he may deride is allowed"), irrideat is according to the Latin con-
ception the subject of licet. Quam-vis, compounded of quam, “as, and vis, ‘you wish,”
means as you wish; thus, quamvis eaccellā8 means literally ea:cel as you wish (i.e., as
much as you please). The Subjunctive with quamvis, ut, né, and qui, is the Subjunc-
tive of Desire; that with cum was developed from the temporal clause; sce 521.
CA USA.L CIA USE'S. 289
WI. MooDS IN CAUSAL CLAUSES.
FULE XLVII.-Moods with quod, quia, quoniam, quandú-1
516. Causal clauses with quod, quia, quonian,
quandú, generally take—
I. The INDICATIVE to assign a reason positively, on one's
own authority:
Quoniam supplicatió décréta est, celebråtóte illös diēs, since a thanks-
giving has been decreed, celebrate those days. Cic. Gaudé quod spectant té,
rejoice that (because) they behold you. Hor.
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE to assign a reason doubtfully, or
on another's authority: *
Sócrates accusatus est, quod corrumperet juventùtem, Socrates was ac-
cused, because (on the alleged ground that) he corrupted the youth. Quint.
Aristidés nãnne expulsus est patriá, quod jüstus esset, was not Aristides
banished because (on the alleged ground that) he was just? Cic.
1. By a special construction, the verb introducing a reason on another's
authority is sometimes put in the Infinitive, depending upon a verb of Saying
or thinking in the Subjunctive:
Quod sé bellum gestürös dicerent (= quod bellum gestūrī essent, ut dicë-
bant), because they were about, as they said, to wage war. Caes.
NoTE.—In the same way the Subjunctive of a verb of saying or thinking may be
used in a relative clause to introduce the sentiment of another person: -
Ementiendö quae Sé audisse dicerent, by reporting falsely what they had heard
(what they said they had heard). Sall.
2. NöN QUó ETG.-Mön quâ, nån quod, nān Quân, rarely nôn quia, also
quam quod, etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote an alleged reason in
distinction from the true reason:
Nön quð habèrem quod scriberem, not because (that) I had anything to
write. Cic. Nön quod doleant, not because they are pained. Cic. Quia ne—
* Quod and quia are in origin relative pronouns in the neuter. Thus: gaudé guod
8pectant té, “rejoice that (as to that) they behold you.’ Quoniam = quom-jam, “when
now,” and quandú = quam-dò (dö = diè), “on which day,” “when." Dö is probably from
the same root as dum; see p. 145, foot-note 1.
* Observe that causal clauses with the Indicative state a fact, and at the same time
present that fact as a reason or cause, as in the first example, but that causal clauses
with the Subjunctive simply assign a reason without asserting any fact. Thus, in the
examples under II., quod corrwmperet 7uventutem does not state that SUC/’ates cor-
"upted the youth, but simply indicates the charge made against him; nor does quod
jūstus esset state that Aristides was just, but simply indicates the alleged grownd of
his banishment. For the development of the Subjunctive in causal clauses, see p. 267,
foot-note 8.
13
290 CA USAI, CLA USE'S.
quiverat quam quod ignārāret, because he had been unable, rather than because
he did not know. Liv.
NoTE.—Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the begin'ing of sentences to an-
nounce the subject of remark:
Quod mé Agamemnonem aemulari putäs, falleris, in thinking (as to the fact that
you think) that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken, Nep.
RULE XLVIII.-Causal Clauses with cum and qui.
517. Causal clauses with cum and quº generally take
the Subjunctive, in writers of the best period:
Necesse est, cum sint dii, animantés esse, since there are gods, it is neces-
sury that there should be living beings. Cic. Cum vita metús plena sit,
since life is full of fear. Cic. Quae cum ita sint, perge, since these things
are so, proceed. Cie. Ó vis véritätis, quae (cum ea) sé défendat, O the
force of truth, since it defends itself. Cic. O fortúnāte aduléscèns, qui
(cum til) tuae virtùtis Homérum praeconem invéneris, O fortunate youth,
since you (lit., who) have obtained Homer as the herald of your valor. Cic.
1. In early Latin, especially in Plautus and Terence, the Indicative is the
prevailing mood in causal clauses with cum and qui, though the Subjunctive
is not uncommon with Quă. 1
Quom * facere officium scis tuum, since you know how to do your duty.
Plaut. Quom hác non possum, since I have not this power. Ter. Qui ad-
vénisti, Since you have come. Plaut. Tuás qui virtùtés sciam, Since I know
gour virtues. Plaut. Quinéminem videam, since I see no one. Ter.
2. Clauses with either cum or qui admit the Indicative in all writers,
when the statement is viewed as a fact :
Habed senectiiti grâtiam, quae mihi sermönis aviditätem auxit, 1 cherish
gratitude to old age, which has increased my love of conversation. Cic. Grätu-
1 Clauses with cwm, whether causal or temporal, illustrate the gradual extension of
the use of the Subjunctive in subordinate clauses. Originally they took the Indicative,
unless the thought irrespective of the causal or temporal character of the clause required
the Subjunctive. Thus the Ciceronian sentence, Necesse est, cum Sint dii, animantés
esse, “since there are gods, it is necessary that there should be living beings,” would in
early Latin have been, Wecesse est, cum Swnt dii, animantés esse, and would have con-
tained two distinct statements, viz., there are gods, and it is necessary that there should
be living beings. But in time the causal clause lost so much of its original force as a
separate statement, and became so entirely dependent upon the principal clause, as to be
little more than an adverbial modifier of the latter, like the Ablative of Cause (413) in a
simple sentence. The causal clause then took the Subjunctive, and the sentence as a
whole made but one distinct statement, which may be approximately rendered, in view
ef (because of) the easistence of the gods, it is necessary that there should be living
beings. In the same way, temporal clauses with cwm sometimes became little more
than adverbial modifiers of the principal verb; see 521, II, 1, with foot-note, and 521,
II., 2, with foot-note. For a special treatment of these clauses, see Hoffmann, “Die Con-
struction der lateinischen Zeitpartikeln, and Lübbert, “Die Syntax von Quom.”
* See 311, 1, with foot-note 4.
TEMPORAI, CLA USE'S. 291
lor tibi, cum tantum valès, I congratulate you that (in view of the fact that)
gyou have so great influence. Cic. -
3. When a conjunction accompanies the relative, the mood varies with the
conjunction. Thus—
1) The Subjunctive is generally used with cum, quippe, ut, utpote:
Quae cum ita sint, 82nce these things are 80. Cic. Quippe qui blandiátur,
since he flatters (as one who flatters). Cic. Ut qui colôni essent, since they
were colonists. Cic. -
NotE.—But the Indicative is sometimes used to give prominence to the fact. In
Sallust the Indicative is the regular construction after guippe:
Quippe qui régnum invāserat, as he had laid hold of the kingdom. Sall.
2) The Indicative is generally used with quia, quoniam :
Quae quia certa esse non possunt, since these things can not be sure. Cic.
Qui quoniam intellegi moluit, since he did not wish to be understood. Cic.
WII. MooDS IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES.”
RULE XLIX.—Temporal Clauses with postguam, etc.
518. In temporal clauses with postguam, postedgwam,”
wbi, wt, simul atque, etc., “after,” “when,’ ‘as soon as,’
the Indicative is used: *
Postguam widit, etc., castra posuit, he pitched his camp, after he saw,
etc. Caes. Ubi certičrés facti sunt, when they were informed. Caes. Id
ut audiwit, as he heard this. Nep. PostGuam vident, after they saw.” Sall.
Postguam nox aderat, when night was at hand. Sall. ~
NotE 1.-The tense in these clauses is generally the Perfect or the Historical Pres-
ent, but Sometimes the Descriptive Imperfect; 4 see examples above; also 471, 4.
NoTE 2.—The Pluperfect Indicative is sometimes used— -
1) Especially to denote the result of a completed action:
Posteåquam consul fuerat, after he had been consul." Cic. Annó tertià postguam
profugerat, in the third year after he had fled. Nep.
2) To denote repeated action : * *
Ut, quisque venerat, solébat, etc., as each one came (lit., had come), he was wont,
etc. Cic.
NoTE 3.—Postridić guam is used like postguam :
Postridió quam tiles profectus, on the day after you started. Cic.
1. In Livy and the late historians, the Pluperfect or Imperfect Subjunctive
is often used to denote repeated action: *
1 On Temporal Clauses, see Hoffmann, “Die Construction der lateinischen Zeitparti-
keln, and Lübbert, “Die Syntax von Quom.”
* Or post quam and posted guam.
8 See 467, III., with 1.
4 See 469, I.
* And was accordingly at the time a man of consular rank.
* In this case the Imperfect Indicative is generally used in the principal clause, as in
the example here given.
292 TEMPORAL CLA USE'S.
Id ubi dixisset, hastam mittébat, whenever he had said that, he hurled (was
wont to hurl) a spear. Liv.
NotE.-As a rare eacception, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive occur after
postguan or postedgwam: 1
Posteåquam aedificăsset classés, after he had built fleets. Cic.
2. When the verb is in the second person singular to denote an indefinite
subject, you = any one, one, the Subjunctive is generally used in temporal
clauses:
Nölunt ubivelis, ubinólis cupiunt, they are unwilling when you wish it (when
one wishes it), when you are unwilling they desire it. Ter. Priusquam in-
cipiás, consultö opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation. Sall.
RULE L.-Temporal clauses with dum, etc."
519. I. Temporal clauses with dum, dönec, and quoad,
in the sense of WHILE, AS LONG AS, take the Indicative:
Haec feci, dum licuit, I did this while it was allowed. Cic. Quoad vixit,
as long as he lived. Nep. Dum légès vigébant, as long as the laws were in
force. Cic. Dönec eris félix, as long as you shall be prosperous. Ov.
Quamdili in provincià fuêrunt, as long as they were in the province. Cic:
II. Temporal clauses with dum, dönec, and quoad, in
the sense of UNTIL, take— & ^er
1. The Indicative, when the action is viewed as an-
ACTUAL FACT : -
Déliberă höc, dum ego reded, consider this until I return. Ter. Dönec
rediit, until he returned. Liv. Quoad renuntiãtum est, until it was (actual-
ly) announced. Nep.
2. The Subjunctive, when the action is viewed as some-
thing DESIRED, PROPOSED, or CONCEIVED:
Differant, dum défervēscat Ira, let them defer it till their anger cools
(i.e., that it may cool). Cic. Exspectás dum dicat, you are waiting till he
speaks (i. e., that he may speak). Cic. Ea continëbis quoad tâ videam,
gyou will keep them till I see you. Cic.
NoTE 1.-In Livy and the late historians, dum is sometimes used with the Imperfect
Subjunctive, and dönee with the Imperfect and Pluperfect, like cum in narration: 3
Dum ea gererentur, bellum concitur, while these things were in progress (were
done), a war was commenced. Liv. Nihil trepidăbant dònec ponte agerentur, they did
not fear at all while they were driven on the bridge. Liv. Dönec missi essent, writil
they had been 8ent. Liv.
NoTE 2.-Dônec, in Tacitus, generally takes the Subjunctive:
1. But the text in these cases is Somewhat uncertain.
2 See p. 291, foot-note 1. * See p. 295, foot-note 1.
TEMPO RAI, CLA USES. 293
Rhénus servat violentiam cursiis, dónac Oceano miscoitur, the Rhine preserves the
+apidity of its current till it mingles with the ocean. Tac.
RULE LI.-Temporal Clauses with antequam and prius-
qualm,
520. In temporal clauses with antequam and privs-
Quam —
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect
is put— -
1. In the Indicative, when the action is viewed as an
ACTUAL FACT :
Priusquam licet, adsunt, they are present before it is light. Cic. Ante-
quam in Siciliam véni, before I came into Sicily. Cic. Antequam cognú-
verö,” before I shall have ascertained. Cic. Nec prius respéxi quam véni-
mus, nor did I look back until we arrived. Werg.
2. In the Subjunctive,” when the action is viewed as
SOMETHING DESIRED, PROPOSED, or CONCEIVED : -
Antequam dé ré publică dicam, expónam consilium, I will set forth my
plan before I (can) speak of the republic (i. e., preparatory to speaking of
the republic).” Cic. Nön prius ducés dimittunt, quam sit concéssum, they
did not dismiss the leaders till it was granted. Caes. Priusquam incipiás,
cónsultö opus est, before you begin there is need of deliberation (i.e., as
preparatory to beginning)." Sall. Tempestās minătur, antequam surgat,
the tempest threatens, before it rises. Sen. Collem, priusquam sentiátur,
communit, he fortified the hill before it was (could be) perceived.” Caes.
II. The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are put in the
Subjunctive: " -
* Often written ante quam and privas quam, sometimes with intervening words
between ante or privs and quam. See also p. 291, foot-note 1.
* The Future is used only in early Latin, as in Plautus and Cato.
* Remember that the Future is supplied in the Subjunctive by the Present; see 496.
* Here the temporal clause involves purpose as well as time. Antequam dicam is
nearly equivalent to ut posted dicam : ‘I will set forth my views, that I may after-
ward speak of the republic.”
* Remember also that in temporal clauses the second person singular with an indefi-
nite subject, you = any one, one, is generally in the Subjunctive; see 518, 2.
* Potential Subjunctive; see 486, III.
* The Subjunctive in the Iuperſect and Pluperfect tenses is not always to be refer-
red to the same principle. Sometimes, like the Subjunctive after dum, it is best ex-
plained as the Subjunctive of Purpose, as in the first example, and sometimes like the
Subjunctive of the historical tenses after cum ; see p. 295, foot-note 1.
294 TEMPORAL CLA USES.
Nön prius égressus est quam réx eum in fidem reciperet, he did not
withdraw until the king took him under his protection. Nep. Priusquam
peteret cônsulatum, insänit, he was insane before he sought the consulship.
Liv. Prius visus est Caesar, quam făma perferrêtur, Caesar appeared
before any tidings were brought. Caes. Antequam urbem caperent, before
they took the city. Liv. Priusquam dé með adventù audire potuissent, in
Macedoniam perréxi, before they were able to hear of my approach, I went
into Macedonia. Cic. Paucis ante dièbus, quam Syrācāsae caperentur, a
few days before Syracuse was taken. Liv.
NotE 1.--When the principal clause is negative and contains an historical tense, the
temporal clause generally takes the Perfect Indicative, as in the last example under I., 1;
but it sometimes takes the Subjunctive, as in the first example under II.
NotE 2. — Prºdič quwm, takes the Gamo moods as prºvºsquid/m :
Pridió quam scripsi, the day before I wrote. Cic. Pridió quam periret, somniãvit,
he had a dream on the day before he died. Suet.
NoTE 3.−For the Subjunctive of the second person with an indefinite subject, See
518, 2.
RULE LII.-Temporal Clauses with cum.
521. In temporal clauses with cum —
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect
is put in the Indicative:
Cum verba faciunt, mājörés Suðs extollunt, when they speak, they extol
their ancestors. Sall." Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are silent they
approve. Cic. Librós, cum est Ötium, legere soled, when there is leisure,
I am wont to read books. Cic. Ad tâ scribam, cum plus otii nactus eró, I
shall write to you when I shall have obtained more leisure. Cic. Omnia sunt
incerta cum a jüre discèssum est, all things are uncertain when one has de-
parted from the right.” Cic.
II. The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are put—
1. In the Indicative, when the temporal clause ASSERTS
AN HISTORICAL FACT: …
Päruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary.” Cic. Nön-
dum profectus erat, cum haec gerébantur, he had not yet started when these
things took place. Liv. Tum cum rés māgnäs permulti ämiserant, Römae
fidès concidit, then, when many had lost great fortunes, credit fell at Rome.
Cic. Cum quaepiam cohors impetum fěcerat, hostés refugiébant, whenever
any cohort made (had made) an attack, the enemy retreated. Caes.
1 See p. 290, foot-note 1, with the works of Hoffmann and Lübbert there mentioned.
* DiscéSSwm est is an Impersonal Passive, a departure has been made ; see 301, 1.
8 Here the temporal clause not only defines the time of pāruit, but also makes a
distinct and separate statement, viz., it was necessary; see p. 295, foot-note 1; also,
p. 290, foot-note 1. -
TEMPORAL CLA USES. 295
2. In the Subjunctive, when the temporal clause sim-
ply DEFINES THE TIME of the principal action:"
Cum epistulam complicãrem, tabellārii vânărunt, while I was folding the
letter (i.e., during the act), the postmen came." Cic. Cum ex Aegyptó rever-
terêtur, décèssit, he died while he was returning (during his return) from
Egypt. Nep. Cum dimicăret, occIsus est, when he engaged in battle, he was
slain. Nep. Zénônem, cum Athénis essem, audiébam frequenter, I often
heard Zeno when I was at Athens. Cic. Cum tridul viam perfecisset, nun-
tiãtum est, etc., when he had accomplished a journey of three days, it was an-
mounced, etc. Caes. Caesarſ cum id nüntiãtum esset, matürat ab urbe
proficiscſ, when this was (had been) announced to Caesar, he hastened to set
out from the city. Caes.
1) Cum with the force of a relative after tempus, aetäs, and the like, takes—
(1) Sometimes the Indicative, to state a fact: t -
Fuit tempus, cum hominés vagābantur, there was a time when men led a
wandering life. Cic.
NOTE.-Cum is sometimes thus used without tempus, etc.: -
Fuit cum hôc dici poterat, there was a time when this could be said. Liv.
(2) Generally the Subjunctive, to characterize the period:* -
Id saeculum cum plena Graecia poétārum esset, that age when (such that)
Greece was full of poets. Cic. Erit tempus, cum désideres, the time will come,
when you will desire. Cic.
NoTE 1.-Cwm is sometimes thus used without tempus, etc. :
Fuit cum arbiträrer, there was a time when I thought. Cic.
NoTE-2.-Memână cum, “I remember when, generally takes the Indicative, but aw-
dió cum, videº cwm, and animadvertö cwm, generally the Subjunctive :
Memini cum mihi désipere vidébâre, I remember when you seemed to me to be un-
wise. Cic. Audivi cum diceret, I heard him say (lit., when he said). Cic.
2) Cum, meaning from the time when, since, takes the Indicative:
Centum anni sunt, cum dictator fuit, it is one hundred years since he was
dictator. Cic.
NOTE 1.-Cum . . . tum, in the sense of ‘not only . . . but also,” “both . . . and,”
generally takes the Indicative in both clauses, but in the sense of ‘though . . . yet, the
Indicative in the first clause and the Subjunctive in the second:
Cum anteå distinëbar, tum hôc tempore distineor, not only was I occupied before,
* In the Imperfect and Pluperfect tenses the choice of mood often depends not so
much upon the nature of the thought, as upon the intention and feeling of the writer at
the moment. If he wishes to assert that the action of the temporal clause is an histori-
cal fact, he uses the Indicative; but if he introduces it for the sole purpose of defining
the time of the principal action, he uses the Subjunctive. Thus, cum epistularm com-
Anſieffrºm dood not &638) & Llial, I folded the letter, but, assuming that as admitted, it
makes use of it in defining the time of vénérunt. See also foot-note under 1 above; also
p. 290, foot-note 1. -
* Like the Subjunctive in relative clauses after indefinite antecedents; see 503, I.
296 INDIRECT DISCO URSE.
but I am also occupied now. Cic. Quae cum sint gravia, turn illud acerbissimiſm es;
though these things are severe, that is the most grievous. Cic.
Nore. 2.-For cum in Causal clauses, see 517.
NoTE 3.—For cum in Concessive clauses, see 515, III.
VIII. INDIRECT Discourse—Orătiš Obliqua.
Moods and Tenses in Indirect Discourse.
522. When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts, whether his
own or those of another, in any other form than in the original
words of the author, he is said to use the Indirect Discourse—Orā-
tiš Obliqua;
Platonem ferunt in ftaliam věnisse, they say that Plato came into Italy.
Cic. Responded tâ dolôrem ferre moderāté, I reply that you bear the affliction,
with moderation. Cic. Utilem arbitror esse scientiam, I think that knowledge
is useful. Cic.
1. In distinction from the INDIRECT Discourse—Orätiö Obliqua, the original
words of the author are said to be in the DIRECT Discourse—Orätiö Recta.
2. Words quoted without change belong to the DIRECT DISCOURSE:
Rex ‘duumvirós' inquit ‘secundum legem facio, the king said, ‘I appoint
duumvirs according to law.” Liv.
RULE LIII.-Moods in Principal Clauses.
528. The principal clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE
on becoming INDIRECT take the Infinitive or Subjunctive
as follows:
I. When Declarative, they take the Infinitive with a
Subject Accusative. *
Dicébat animós esse divinós, he was wont to say that souls are divine.
Cic. Platonem Tarentum vénisse reperić, I find that Plato came to Taren-
tum. Cic: Cató mirãri sé àiébat, Cato was wont to say that he wondered.
Cic. Hippiãs glóriátus est, annulum sé suā mani confécisse,” Hippias
boasted that he had made the ring with his own hand. Cic.
NotE.-The verb on which the Infinitive depends is often omitted, or only implied in
some preceding verb or expression; especially after the Subjunctive of Purpose:
1 Thus, in the first example, Platönem in Raiiam vénisse is in the indirect dis-
course; in the direct, i.e., in the original words of those who made the statement, it
would be: Platj in Italiam vénit.
2 In the direct discourse these examples would read—(1) animi sunt diviſm?, (2)
Platá Tarentum vénit, (3) miror, and (4) annulum með mani, cónfécă. Observe that
the pronominal subjects implied in miror and conféci are expressed with the Infinitive,
as mārārī 8é, 88 cónfécisse. But the subject is sometimes omitted when it can be read:
ily supplied; see second example under II., 2, below.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 297
Pythia praecöpit ut Miltiadem imperåtñrem stimerent; incepta prêspera futiira,
Pythia commanded that they should take Miltiades as their commander, (telling
them) that their efforts would be 8wccessful, Nep.
II. When INTERROGATIVE, they take—
1. Generally the Subjunctive:
Ad postulata Caesaris respondit, quid sibi vellet, cir veniret," to the
demands of Caesar he replied, what did he wish, why did he come 3 Caes.
NoTE.—Deliberative questions retain the Subjunctive from the direct discourse:
In spem vénerat Sé pâsse, etc.; cūr fortúnam periclitärätur," he hoped (had come
into hope) that he was able, etc.; why show.ld he try fortune # Caes.
2. Sometimes the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative,
as in rhetorical questions:” -
Docébant rem esse testimónió, etc.; quid esse levius, etc., they showed
that the fact was a proof (for a proof), etc.; what was more inconsiderate,
etc.? Caes. Respondit, num memoriam dépônere pâsse,” he replied, could
he lay aside the recollection & Caes.
III. When IMPERATIVE, they take the Subjunctive:
Scribit Labiénô cum legióne veniat, he writes to Labienus to come (that
he should come) with a legion. Caes. Redditur responsum, castris Sé
tenérent, the reply was returned that they should keep themselves in camp.
Liv. Milités certiores facit, sé reficerent, he directed the soldiers to refresh
themselves. Caes. Orăbant ut sibí auxilium ferret, they prayed that he
would bring them help. Caes. Nüntius vénit, né dubitäret, a message came
that he should not hesitate. Nep. Cohortätus est, né pertürbärentur," he
exhorted them not to be alarmed. Caes.
NoTE.—An affirmative command takes the Subjunctive without wit, except after verbs
of wishing and asking, but a negative command takes the Subjunctive with né; see ex-
amples.
1 In the direct discourse these examples would read—(1) guid £5% väs? cºr ven’s f
and (2) cir pericliter?
* A question used for rhetorical effect in place of an assertion is called a Rhetorical
Question, as mum potest, “can he 7” = män, poteSt, * he can not"; guid est turpius, ‘what
is baser?' – nihil est turpius, “nothing is baser.” Here belong many questions which in
the direct form have the verb in the first or in the third person. As such questions are
equivalent to declarative sentences, they take the same construction, the Infinitive with
its subject.
* Direct discourse—(1) guid est levius = nihil est levius, and (2) num memoriam
dépôméré posswºm = memoriam dépômere nån possum.
* Imperative sentences include those sentences which take the Subjunctive of De-
sire; see 484.
* In the direct discourse these examples would read—(1) cum legión.6 ven?, (2) cas-
tris vö8 tenéte, (3) vös reficite, (4) nobis awa-ilīum fer, (5) né! dubitäre, and (6) né
pertürbātā Sūtis.
298 INDIRECT DISCOURSE
RULE LIV.—Moods in Subordinate Clauses.
524. The subordinate clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE
on becoming INDIRECT take the Subjunctive:
Respondit sé id quod in Nerviis fécisset factúrum," he replied that he
would do what he had done in the case of the Wervii. Caes. Hippiãs glöria-
tus est, annulum quem habëret sé suă mani confécisse,” Hippias boasted
that he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore. Cic.
1. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is sometimes used. Thus—
1) In clauses introduced by the relative pronoun, or by relative adverbs,
wbá, unde, quáré, etc., when they have the force of principal clauses (453):
Ad eum défertur, esse civem Römänum qui quererêtur, quem (= et eum)
asservätum esse, it was reported to him, thuſ there was a Roman citizen who
7made a complaint, and that he had been placed under guard. Cic. Tè suspi-
cor elsdem, quibus mê ipsum, commovéri, I suspect that you are moved by the
same things as I. Cic.
2) In clauses introduced by cum, quam, quamgwam, quia, and some other
conjunctions, especially in Livy and Tacitus:
Num putätis, dixisse Antônium minăcius quam facturum fuisse, do you
think Antony spoke more threateningly than he would have acted & Cic. Di-
cit, Sé moenibus inclusös tenère eós, quia per agrós wagâri, he says that he
keeps them shut up within the walls, because (otherwise) they would wander
through the fields. Liv. See also 535, I., 5 and 6.
2. The Indicative is used—
1) In parenthetical and explanatory clauses introduced into the Indirect
Discourse without strictly forming a part of it:
Referunt silvam esse, quae appellātur Bacénis,” they report that there is a
forest which is called Bacenis. Caes. Audió Gellium philosophēs qui tune
erant 3 convocasse, I hear that Gellius called together the philosophers of that
day (lit., who then were). Cic.
2) Sometimes in clauses not parenthetical, to give prominence to the fact
stated, especially in relative and temporal clauses:
Certior factus est ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concésserat, omnés discès-
sisse, he was informed that all. had withdrawn from that part of the village
which he had assigned to the Gauls. Caes. Dicunt illum diem clarissimum
fuisse cum domum reductus est à patribus, they say that the day when he was
conducted home by the fathers was the most illustrious. Cic.
525. TENSES IN THE INDIRECT DISCOURSE generally conform
to the ordinary rules for the use of tenses in the Subjunctive and
Infinitive; * but notice the following special points:
1 Direct, faciam, id Quod in Werviñs féci.
* Direct, ammulum quem habé0 meå manºſ cómféc?.
* These clauses, quae appellāţwr Bacénis and qui tune erant, are not strictly parts
of the general report, but ea planations added by the narrator. -
4 See 490–496 and 537.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 299
1. The Present and Perfect may be used even after an historical tense,
to impart a more lively effect to the narrative:
Caesar respondit, si obsidês sibi dentur, sésé pâcem esse facturum, Caésar
replied, that if hostages should be given him, he would make peace. Caes. Ex-
itus fuit Örátionis, neque tillós vacăre agrós, qui dari possint, the close of the
oration was, that there were (are) not any lands unoccupied which could (can)
be given. Caes.
2. The Future Perfect in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse
is changed in the indirect into the Perfect Subjunctive after a principal
tense, and into the Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense:
Agunt ut dimicent; ibi imperium fore, unde victória fuerit, they arrange
that they shall fight, that the Sovereignty shall be on the side which shall win
the victory (whence the victory may have been). Liv. Appārēbat régnātūrum
qui vicisset,” it was evident that he would be king who should conquer. Liv.
NoTE.—For Tenses in Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse, see 527.
Pronouns and Persons in Indirect Discourse.
526. In passing from the DIRECT DISCOURSE to the INDIRECT,
pronouns of the first and second persons are generally changed to
pronouns of the third person,” and the first and second persons of
verbs are generally changed to the third person :
Glóriátus est, annulum sé suá manu confécisse,” he boasted that he had made
the ring with his own hand. Cic. Redditur responsum, castris Sé tenêrent,”
the reply was returned that they should keep themselves in camp. Liv. Re-
spondit, si obsidès ab iis sibi dentur, sésé cum iis pâcem esse factúrum," he
replied that if hostages should be given to him by them, he would make peace
with them. Caes.
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse.
527. Conditional sentences, in passing from the DIRECT DIS-
CourSE to the INDIRECT, undergo the following changes:
1 In the direct discourse—(1) ibi imperium erit, unde victoria fuerit, and (2) rég-
mábit gº vicerit.
* Thus—(1) ego is changed to swi, Sibi, etc., or to ipse; mews and noster to swus; (2)
tú to is or ille, sometimes to suft, etc.; twws and wester to Suws or to the Genitive of £8;
and (3) hic and iste to ille. But the pronoun of the first person may of course be used
in the indirect discourse in reference to the reporter or author, and the pronoun of the
second person in reference to the person, addressed: Adfirmāvī quidvis mé perpessil-
rum, I asserted that I would endure anything. Cic. Responded tâ dolôrem ferre mode-
râté, I reply that YoU bear the affliction with moderation. Cic.
* Direct, annulum ego med, manº conféci. Ego becomes Sé, and med, Suá.
* Direct, castris vſ's temāfe Wäg bocomod 85, aud tervète, tenčrent. 2
* Direct, sº obsidés à vöbis mihš dabuntur, wäbiscum påcem faciam. A vöbis
becomes ab iis; mihš becomes sibi; vöbiscum, cum iis; and the implied subject of
faciam becomes Sésé, the subject of esse factúrum.
300 INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
I. In the FIRST ForM, the Indicative is changed to the Subjunctive in the
condition and to the Infinitive in the conclusion:
Respondit, si quid Caesar sé velit, illum'ad sé venire oportère, he replied,
£f Caesar wished anything of him, he ought to come to him. Caes.
NoTE.-Ha all forms of conditional sentences the conclusion, when imperative, and
generally when interrogative, takes the Subjunctive according to 523:
Respondérunt, Simón aequum existimãret, etc., cir postularet,” etc., they replied, if
he did not think it fair, etc., why did he demand, etc. Caes. Eum certiorem fécö-
runt, si suās rés manère vellet, Alcibiadem persequerétur,3 they informed him that if
he wished his institutions to be permanent, he should take measures against Alci-
biades. Nep. Dic quidnam factiirus fuerís, si cénsor fuissés,” say what you would
have done, if you had been censor. Liv.
II. In the SECOND ForM, the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the con-
dition remains unchanged after a principal tense, but may be changed" to
the Imperfect or Pluperfect after an historical tense, and in the conclu-
sion it is changed to the Future Infinitive:
Respondit, si stipendiurn remittätur, libenter sésé recusatirum populi
Römāni amicitiam,” he replied that if the tribute should be remitted, he would
gladly renounce the friendship of the Roman people. Caes. "
*
NOTE.-See note under I. *
III. In the THIRD FoRM, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive remains
unchanged in the condition, regardless of the tense of the principal verb,
but in the conclusion it is changed to the Periphrastic Infinitive in -rus
fuisse, rarely to that in -rus esse:
Respondit, si quid ipsi à Caesare opus esset, sésé ad eum ventùrum fuisse,”
he replied that if he wanted anything of Caesar, he would have come to him.
Caes. Clämitābat, si ille adesset, ventùrós esse,” he cried out that they would
come if he were present. Caes.
NoTE 1.—In the conclusion, the periphrastic form futilrum fºisse wt with the Sub-
functive is used in the Passive voice, and sometimes in the Active:
Nisi nintii essent allāti, existimãbant futurum fuisse utoppidum amitterêtur,” they
thought that the town would have been lost, if tidings had not been brought. Caes.
NoTE 2.—In conditional sentences with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in
the condition, and with an historical tense of the Indicative in the conclusion—
i Direct, 87 guid Caesar mé vult, illum ad mé venire oportet. For change of pro-
avown.8 see 526, and for the tense of velit see 525, 1.
* Direct, 87 non aequum eacăstimás, cºir postulò8 f
* Direct, 87 twä8 rés manère vis, Alcibiadem perseguere. Notice change in the
pronoun and in the person of the verb; see 526.
4 Direct, Quidnam fécissés (or factiirus fuž8t?), 87 cénsor fuissés.
5 But is often retained unchanged according to 525, 1. -
* Direct, 87 stipendium remittàtur, libenter recisem poptºlà Römānā amžcitiam,
or 87 stipendium remittätur, libenter recisãbo populz Römāni amīcitiam. Observe
that these two forms become identical in the indirect discourse.
7 Direct—(1) si quid mihă ă Caesare opus esset, ad eum vénissem; (2) sº illé
adé88ét, venirent; and (3) nisi nºntà essent allātī, oppidum &misswºm esset.
INDIRECT CLA USES. 301
1) The Indicative is generally changed to the Perfect Infinitive:
Mementó istam dignitätem tă non potuisse cânsequí, nisi meſs consiliis pāruissés, 1
remember that you would not have been able to attain that dignity, if you had not
Jollowed my counsels. Cic.
2) The Indicative is changed to the Perfect Subjunctive if the context requires that
mood:
Quis dubitat quín Si Saguntinís tulissèmus operam, àversiiri bellum fuerímus, i who
doubts that we should have averted the war, if we had carried aid to the Sagun-
times 3 Liv. Scimus quid, si vixisset, factúrus fuerit," we know what he would have
done, if he had lived. Liv.
Indirect Clauses.
528. The indirect discourse in its widest application includes—
1. Subordinate clauses containing statements made on the authority of
any other person than the writer; see 516:
Omnés librös quês fråter suus reliquisset mihi donàvit, he gave to me all
the books which his brother had left.” Cie.
2. Indirect questions; see 529, I.
NoTE.—A clause which involves a question without directly asking it is called an In-
direct or Dependent Question:
Quaesivit salvusne esset clipeus, he asked whether his shield was safe.8 Cic.
3. Many subordinate clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a
Subjunctive; see 529, II.
RULE LV.-Moods in Indirect Clauses.
529. The Subjunctive is used—
I. In indirect questions:
Quaeritur, cir déctissimi hominés dissentiant, it is a question, why the
most learned men disagree. Cic. Quaesierås, nänne putărem, you had asked
whether I did not think. Cic. Quâlis sit animus, animus nescit, the soul
knows not what the soul is. Cic. Quid diēs ferat incertum est, what a day
will bring forth is uncertain. Cic. Quaeritur quid futurum sit, what will
be, is the question. Cic. Quaerit quinam éventus, SI foret bellātum, futurus
fuerit, he asks what would have been the result if war had been waged. Liv.
Dubitó num débeam, I doubt whether I ought. Plin. Incerta feror SI Jüp-
piter velit, I am rendered uncertain whether Jupiter wishes. Verg. Utté
oblectes Scire cupið, I wish to know how you amuse yourself. Cic. Difficile
* Direct—(1) istam dignitàtem consequ'à nºn potwisti, nisi meis consiliis pāruis-
8é8; (2) 87 Saguntinis tulissèmws operam, bellum diversiiri fuimws; (8) guid, s?
via'isset, factiirus fuit * -
* That is, which, he said hip honožňon ºad, Jºſé.
* Here no question is directly asked. We have simply the statement, “he asked
whether his shield was safe,' but this statement involves the question, salvusne est.
elipeus, ‘is my shield safe?”
302 INDIRECT CLA USES.
dictii est utrum timuerint an diléxerint, it is difficult to say whether they
feared or loved. Cic. W
II. Often in clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or
upon another Subjunctive:
Nihil indignius est quam eum qui culpâ careat supplició non carére,
nothing is more shameful than that he who Is FREE from fault should not be
exempt from punishment. Cic. Utrum difficilius esset negåre tibi an ef-
ficere id quod rogārēs dili dubitävi, whether it would be more difficult to re-
fuse your request or to do that which YoU ASK, I have long doubted. Cic.
Recordätiöne nostrae amicitiae sic fruor ut beaté vixisse videar quia cum
Scipiùne vizerim, I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to
have lived happily because I HAVE LIVED with Scipio. Cic. Naevium rogat
ut ciret quod dizisset, he asked Naevius to attend to that which HE HAD MEN-
TIONED. Cic. Wereor né, dum minuere velim labórem, augeam, I fear that,
while I wish to diminish the labor, I shall increase it. Cic.
NotE 1.-In clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a Subjunctive, observe—
1) That the Subjunctive is used when the clauses are essential to the general
thought of the sentence, as in the examples just given.
2) That the Indicative is used when the clauses are in a measure parenthetical, and
when they give special prominence to the fact stated:
Milités misit, ut eds qui fügerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to pursue those
who had fied (i.e., the fugitives). Caes. Tanta vis probitätis est, ut eam, vel in iis quðs
nunquam widimus, diligămus, such is the force of integrity that we love it even in those
whom we have never seen. Cic.
NoTE 2.-In clauses introduced by dum, the Indicative is very common, especially in
the poets and historians:
I'uère qui, dum dubitat Scaevinus, hortărentur Pisónem, there were those who ea:-
horted Piso, while Scaevinus hesitated. Tac. See also 467, 4.
1. Indirect or dependent questions, like those not dependent (351, 1), are
introduced by interrogative pronouns or other interrogative words, as quis,
quº, quâlis, etc.; guid, ciºr, né, nänne, num; rarely by 87, “whether,’ and ut,
‘how’; see examples above.
NoTE 1.—Sã is sometimes best rendered to 8ee whether, to see if, to try if, etc..
Té adeunt, si quid velis, they come to you to see whether you wish anything. Cic.
NotE 2.—In the poets s? is sometimes similarly used with the Indicative:
Inspice si possum donàta repônere, eacamine me to see whether I am able to restore
gyour gifts. Hor.
NoTE 3.—In indirect questions mum does not necessarily imply negation
NoTE 4.—An indirect guestion may readily be changed to a direct or independ-
ent question.”
2. An Accusative, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the
question, is sometimes, especially in poetry, inserted after the principal verb:
1 Thus the direct question involved in the first example is, cºr dāctissimº hominés
dissentiunt, “why do the most learned men disagree?” In the second, nänne putä8,
“do you not think?" -
IVDIRECT QUESTIONS. - 303
Ego illum nesció qui fuerit, I do not know (him) who he was. Ter. Dic
hominem quisit, tell who the man is. Plaut.
3. Indirect double questions are generally introduced by the same inter-
rogative particles as those which are direct (353). Thus—
1) They generally take utrum or -ne in the first member and an in the .
second :
Quaeritur virtùs suamne propter dignitätem an propter früctüs aliquos ex-
petätur, it is asked whether virtue is sought for its own worth, or for certain ad-
vantages. Cic. i -
2) But they sometimes omit the particle in the first member, and take in
the second an or -ne in the sense of or, and necne or an nôn in the sense of
Or 700t."
Quaeritur nåtårā an döctrină possit effici virtùs, it is asked whether virtue
can be secured by nature, or by education. Cic. Sapientia beatós efficiat necne
quaestió est, whether or not wisdom makes men happy is a question. Cic.
NOTE. 1.--Other forms, as -me . . . -me, an . . . am, are rare or poetic:
Qui teneant, hominésne feraene, quaerere, to ascertain who inhabit them, whether
men or beasts. Werg.
NOTE 2.-Am, in the sense of whether not, implying an affirmative, is used after verbs
and expressions of doubt and uncertainty: dubito an, neSció an, haud sció an, “I doubt
whether not,’ ‘I know not whether not' = “I am inclined to think”; dubium estan, in-
certum estan, “it is uncertain whether not "= “it is probable”:
Dubitó an Thrasybulum primum omnium pånam, I doubt whether I should not
Place Thrasybulus first of all (i. e., I am inclined to think I should). Nep.
NOTE 3.—An sometimes seems to have the force of aut:
Cum Simónidés, an quis alius,1 pollicërëtur, when Simonides or some other one
promised. Cic. -
4. The Subjunctive is put in the periphrastic form in the indirect ques-
tion (1) when it represents a periphrastic form in the direct question, and
(2) generally, not always, when it represents a Future Indicative; see the
fifth and sixth examples under 529, I.
5. INDIRECT QUESTIONs must be carefully distinguished—
1) From clauses introduced by relative pronouns or relative adverbs.
These always have an antecedent or correlative expressed or understood, and
are never, as a whole, the subject or object of a verb, while indirect ques-
tions are generally so used:
Dicam quod sentio (relative clause), I will tell that which (id quod) I think.”
Cic. Dicam quid intellegam (indirect question), I will tell what I know. Cic.
Quaeramus ubi maleficium est, let us seek there (ibi) where the crème is. Cic.
2) From direct questions and exclamations:
* Some critics treat am Qvis alivs as a direct question inserted parenthetically : or
ºwa8 it some other one #
* In the first and third examples, quod sentio and ubi . . . est are not questions, but
relative clauses; id is understood as the antecedent of quod, and ib% as the antecedent
or correlative of ubi; but in the second example, quid intellegam is an indirect ques-
tion and the object of dicam : I will tell (what?) what I know (i. e., will answer that
question).
304
IVDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Quid agendum est? nesciö, what å& to be done ? I know not.1 Cic.
Vidê !
quam conversa rës est, 8ee / how changed is the ca8e. Cic.
8) From clauses introduced by nesció quis = quódam,* * some one,' nesció
qαómodo = quödammodo, * in some way,' mórum, quantum, * Wonderfully
much,? * wonderfully,? etc.
These take the Indicative :
Nesciö quid animus praesàgit,8 the m'ind forebodes, I know not what. Ter.
Id mirum quantum prófuit, this prqfited, ìt ìs wonder fuî fiouj mueh (i. e., it
wonderfully profited). Liv.
6. PERSONAL CONSTRUCTION.—Instead of an impersonal verb with an indirect
questiom as subject, the personal construction is sometimes used, as follows:
Perspiciuntur quam sint levés,4 ît î8 Seen, hoω έncon8tant they are / Cic.
7. The INDICATIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS is sometimes used in early
Latin and in the poets, especially in Plautus and Terence :
Si memoráre velim, quam fidell animo fui, possum, £f I 87 vulú wis/, to
mention, how much fidelity I 8howed, I am, able. Ter.
530. The directions already given for converting the DIRECT DIs-
coURSE, Örätiö Rècta, into the INDIRECT, Örätiö Obliqua, are further illus-
trated in the following passage from Caesar :
IDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Caesarem obsecräre coepit: “ Né
quid gravius in frätrem Statuerìs ; 8cóö
illa esse vëra, nec quisquam, ex eö
plüs quam ego dolóris capit, proptereà
quod cum ipse grätiä plürimum domi
atque in réliquâ Galliâ, ille minimum
propter adulëscentiam poterat, per mè
crévit ; quibus opibus äc nervis nön
sölum ad minuendam grátiam, sed
paene ad perniciem meam ἀtítur ;
ego tamem et amöre fräternö et exis-
timätiöne vulgi commoveor. Quod si
quid ëi à tè gravius acciderit, cum
ipse hunc locum amicitiae apud tè
teneam, nêmô existêmábit, nön meâ
voluntáte factum; quâ ex ré tötius
Galliae animi à mé ävertentur.?
INDIRECT IDISCOURSE.
Caesarem obsecräre coepit, nè quid
gravius in frätrem 8tatueret ; scìre sè
illa esse véra, nec quemquam ex eö
plüs quam 8é dolóris capere, proptereà
quod cum ipse grätiä plürimum domi
atque in réliquâ Galliâ, ille minimum
propter adulëscentiam pö88et, per 8è
crévisset ; quibus opibus äc nervis
nön sölum ad minuendam grätiam,
sed paene ad perniciem 8uam, ìteré-
tur ; 8èSé tamen et amóre fräternö et
existimätiöne vulgi commovêrì. Quod
si quid ëî â Cae8are gravius accidi88et,
cum ipse eum, locum amicitiae apud
eum, tenêret, mèminem, eæistímátúrum,
nön 8uâ voluntäte factum ; quâ ex rë
.futúrum, uti tötius Galliae animi à 8è
ôverterentur. Caes., B. G., I., 20.
1 Quid agendum 8it nesció, * I know not what is to be done,' would be an indirect
question.
2 See 191, note.
8 Prae8ógit does mot depend upon ^e8eíó, but is entirely independent. Vesció quód
αηέmat 8 prae8άgiat would be an indirect question, and would meam, I know mot what
the mimd forebode8.
* Lit., they are seen. Observe that this personal construction corresponds to the
Active, per8piciwnt eÖ8 quam &ìnt levés, “they perceive (them) how inconstant they are.'
See also ego illwm ne$ciö quï fuerit, 529, 2.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
305
NoTE.—In this illustration observe the following points:
1) That the Indicative in the principal clauses of the direct discourse is changed to
the corresponding tense of the Infinitive in the indirect,” and that the Subjunctive, 8ta-
tweris, denoting incomplete action, is changed to the Imperfect Subjunctive after the
historical tense, coepit.
2) That in the subordinate clauses the verbs denoting incomplete action are changed
to the Imperfect Subjunctive, while those denoting completed action are changed to the
Pluperfect Subjunctive.”
8) That sció becomes scºre sé (i. e., that the subject of the Infinitive is generally ex-
pressed).
4) That the pronouns of the first person are changed to reflexives ; and that those of
the Second person are changed to £8.8
531. The process by which the INDIRECT DISCOURSE, Orătă Obliqua,
is changed to the DIRECT, Orătia Recta, is illustrated in the following pas-
sages from Caesar:
INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Respondit, trón Sisse Rhénum Sésé
nón Suá sponte, sed rogātum et arces-
situm a Gallis. Sé prius in Galliam
vénisse quam populum Römänum.
Quid sibà vellet? Cúr in Suás posses—
siónés veniret à Caes., B. G., I., 44.
Ita respondit, eú Sibä minus dubi-
tätiönis dari quod eas rés quâs légāti
Helvétii com/memoróssent memoria, te—
7teret. Quod si veteris contuméliae ob-
livisci vellet, num etiam recentium in-
jūriàrum memoriam dépônere pâsse à
Cum ea ita sint, tamen, Si obsidès ab
Žis sibi dentur, Sésé cum is pâcem esse
Jactiſpum. Caes., B. G., I., 14.
DIRECT DISCOURSE.
Respondit: ‘Tránsáž Rhénum nón
'med sponte, sed rogātus et arcéSS7tus
ă Gallis. Ego prius in Galliam ven?
quam populus Römānus. Quid tâbâ
wis & Cur in meds possessionés ve-
7.75 & 7
Ita respondit : “Eó mihš minus
dubitätiönis datur quod eas rês quâs
oôs, légāti Helvétii, commemorávistis,
memoria tened. Quod si veteris con-
tuméliae oblivisci voló, num etiam re-
centium injūriàrum memoriam dé-
pónere possum 3 Cum haec ita Sint,
tamen, si obsidés à vöbis mihš dabun-
tur, vobiscum pacem faciam.”
NoTE.—In these illustrations observe the following points:
1) That in the principal clauses (1) the Infinitives with sé or 8ésé, expressed or un-
derstood, are changed to the first person of the Indicative; 4 (2) other Infinitives are
also changed to the Indicative, but the person is determined by the context; * and (8)
1 Thus sció becomes scire; capit, capere; commoveor, commovéri, eacistimábit,
easistimátārum (esse); and Övertentur, futirum uti àverterentur. This last form,
futiirum uti àverterentwr, is the Periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive; see 537, 3.
* Thus poterat becomes pâsset; tıtitur, literétur; teneam, tenéret; but crévit be-
comes crèvisset; acciderit, accidisset.
* Thus (1) ego is changed to Sé; mé to 83; mean to Swam; meå to Suá; and (2)
té to eum ; hunc to eum.
4 Thus trämsässe Sésé is changed to trón siz; Sé vänisse to ego vén?; Sésé esse fac-
türwm to faciam pösse, with 8é understood, to possum.
* Thus minus ºwry becomes mºnus datur; but if the subject of the Infinitive is of
the second person, the Indicative will also be of that person. Respondé0 té dolôrem,
Jerre moderātā thus becomes respondeo, “dolôrem moderātā fers;" see p. 299, foot-
Tote 2.
306 INFINITIVE.
Subjunctives are changed to the Indicative after interrogative words, 1 and to the Im-
perative in other situations.”
2) That in the subordinate clauses the Subjunctive, unless required by the thought
irrespective of the indirect discourse, is changed to the Indicative.3
3) That the reflexive pronouns swi, Sibi, etc., and swus are changed (1) generally to
pronouns of the first person, but (2) Sometimes to those of the second person, 4
4) That is and ille are (1) generally changed to tú or hic, but (2) sometimes retained.5
5) That a noun referring to the person or persons addressed may be put in the
Vocative preceded by tº or vös.6
SECTION VII.
IINFINITIVE. –SU BSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
1. INFINITIVE.
532. The Infinitive is a verbal noun with special character-
istics. Like verbs, it has voice and tense, takes adverbial modi-
fiers, and governs oblique cases."
RULE LVI.-Infinitive.
533. Many verbs admit an Infinitive to complete or
qualify their meaning:
Auded dicere, I dare say (I venture to say). Cic. Haec vităre cupimus,
we desire to avoid these things. Cic. Cônstituit nån progredi, he decided
1 Thus guid vellet is changed to guid vis # cºir veniret to ciºr venis # Vellet and
wen?ret are in the Imperfect simply because dependent upon an historical tense, and are
therefore changed to the Present in the direct discourse. In deliberative questions
(484, W.) the Subjunctive is retained in the direct discourse.
2 Thus cum legióme veniat, under 523, III., becomes cum legióne ven?. The Sub-
junctive may of course be retained in the direct discourse whenever the thought requires
that mood.
3 Thus commemorássent, pluperfect after an historical tense, is changed to com-
memorávistis; tenéret to teneo; vellet to volā; dentur to dabuntur. Sint is retained
unchanged because required in a causal clause with cum ; see 517.
4 Thus (1) transīsse Sésé is changed to transii, with subject implied in the ending;
suá to meå; sé vénisse to ego véni, with emphatic subject; Suás to meås; Sibi to mihš;
Sésé esse factârum to faciam ; (2) Sibi to tibi, in quid Sibi vellet. As the subject of an
Infinitive (536), Sé or Sésé often corresponds to the pronominal subject implied in the
ending of a finite verb; see p. 187, foot-note 5. -
5 Thus (1) ab iis is changed to & vöö78; cum i78 to vöbiscum ; ea ita Sint to haec
Žta sint; (2) edis rés is retained.
6 Thus légātā Helvétii, the subject of commemorássent, is changed to vös, légéïti.
Jºſelvéâ7.
7 Originally the Latin Infinitive appears to have been the Dative case of an abstract
verbal noun, and to have been used to denote the purpose or end (384, 1, 3) for which
anything is or is done. Being thus only loosely connected with the verb of the sentence,
it readily lost its special force as a case and soon began to be employed with considerable
freedom in a variety of constructions. In this respect the history of the Infinitive resem-
IWFIWYTIVE. 30?
not to advance. Caes. Créduli esse coeperunt, they began to be credulous.
Cic. Vincere scis, you know how to conquer (you know to conquer). Liv.
Victóriá úti nescis, you do not know how to use victory. Liv. Latiné loqui
didicerat, he had learned to speak Latin. Sall. Débés hôc rescribere, you
ought to write this in reply. Hor. Némé mortem effugere potest, no one is
able to escape death. Cic. Solent cogitäre, they are accustomed to think. Cic.
I. The Infinitive is thus used—
1. With TRANSITIVE VERBs meaning to dare, desire, determine ; to begin,
continue, end, to know, learn, to owe, etc.; see examples above.
NoTE 1.—For the Subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 498, I., note.
NotE 2.—See also 498, II., note 1.
2. With INTRANSITIVE VERBs meaning to be able ; to be wont, be accustomed,
etc.; see examples above.
II. In special constructions the Infinitive has nearly the force of a
DATIVE of PURPOSE OR END–4
1. With INTRANSITIVE VERBs:
Nön populäre penatés vénimus, we have not come to lay waste §your homes.
Verg. Conjūrāvére patriam incendere, they conspired to destroy their country
with fire. Sall.
2. With TRANSITIVE VERBS in connection with the Accusative :
Pecus égit altös visere montés, he drove his herd to visit the lofty moun-
£ains. Hor. Quid habès dicere, what have you to Say? Cic. Dederat comam
diffundere ventis, she had given her hair to the winds to scatter. Verg.”
3. With ADJECTIVES : *\,
Est parātus audire, he is prepared to hear (for hearing). Cic. Avidi com-
mittere pugnam, eager to engage (for engaging) in battle. Ovid. Fons rivă
dare nomen idoneus, a fountain fit to give a name to the river. Hor.
NoTE 1.-This use of the Infinitive is mostly poetical.
NoTE 2.—With adjectives and with participles used as adjectives the Infinitive is
rare in prose, but is freely used in poetry in a variety of constructions:
Cantãre peritus, skilled in singing. Werg. Pélidès cédere nescius, Pelides not
Knowing how to yield. Hor. Certa mori, determined to die. Werg. Dignus describi,
worthy to be described. Hor. Vitulus niveus vidéri,” a calf snow-white to view. Hor.
bles that of adverbs from the oblique cases of nouns. As such adverbs are often used
with greater freedom than the cases which they represent, so the Latin Infinitive often
appears in connections where, as a Dative, it would not have been at all admissible.
Upon the Origin and History of the Indo-European Infinitive, see Jolly, “Geschichte
des Infinitivs.”
1 In these constructions the Infinitive retains its original force and use; see 532,
foot-note.
* In these exampleſ, with liausitive verbs observe that the Accusative and Infini-
tive correspond to the Accusative and Dative under 384, II., and that the Accusative,
Dative, and Infinitive correspond to the Accusative and two Datives under 390, II,
* Wivews vidéri, like the Greek Aevkos téléarðaw.
308 INFINITIVE.
Piger scribendi ferre labūrem, reluctant to bear the labor of writing. Hor. Suum of.
ficium facere immemor est, he forgets (is forgetful) to do his duty. Plaut.
NoTE 3.—The Infinitive also occurs, especially in poetry, with verbal nouns and with
such expressions as tempus est, cópia est, etc.:
Cupidó Stygiós innäre lacús, a desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes. Werg. Qui-
bus molliter vivere copia erat, who had the means for living at ease. Sall. Tempus est
dicere, it is time to speak. Cic.
NotE 4.—The Infinitive is sometimes used with prepositions:
Multum interest inter dare et accipere, there is a great difference between giving
and receiving. Sen.
RULE LVII.-Accusative and Infinitive.
534. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative
and an Infinitive :
Té sapere docet, he teaches you to be wise. Cic. Eös suum adventum
exspectäre jūssit, he ordered them to await his approach. Caes. Pontem
jubet rescindi, he orders the bridge to be broken down. Caes. Tê tuâ frui
virtùte cupimus, we wish you to enjoy your virtue. Cic. Sentimus calère
ignem, we perceive that fire is hot (we perceive fire to be hot). Cic. Régem
trädunt sé abdidisse, they relate that the king concealed himself." Liv.
NotE.—In the compound forms of the Infinitive, esse is often omitted:
Audivi solitum Fabricium, I have heard that Fabricius was wont. Cic. Spērāmus
vöbis prūfuturūs, we hope to benefit you. Cic. %
1. The corresponding Pºssive is sometimes personal and sometimes
impersonal: ”
PERSONAL.—Aristidés jūstissimus fuisse träditur, Aristides is Said (is re-
ported by tradition) to have been most just. Cic. Sölem é mundú tollere vi-
dentur, they seem to remove the Swn from the world. Cic. Platónem audivisse
dicitur, he is said to have heard Plato. Cic. Dii beati esse Intelleguntur,
the gods are understood to be happy. Cic.
IMPERSONAL.—Traditum est Homérum caecum fuisse, it has been reported
1 Observe that in the first three examples the Accusatives té, eús, and pontem, are
the direct objects of the finite verbs, while in the other examples the Accusatives té, ég-
mem, and régem, may be explained either as the direct objects of the finite verbs, or as
the subjects of the Infinitives. The former was doubtless the original construction, but
in time the object of the principal verb came to be regarded in many cases as the subject
of the Infinitive depending upon it. Thus was developed the Subject Accusative of the
Infinitive.
2 These two constructions correspond to the two interpretations of the Active men-
tioned in foot-note 1 above. Thus, in the sentence, Aristidem jūstissimum fuisse trä-
dunt, if Aristidem is regarded as the object of trädºwnt, according to the original concep-
tion, the corresponding Passive will be personal : Aristidés jūstissimus ſuisse tródźtitr;
but if Aristidem is regarded as the subject of fuisse, and the clause Aristidem jū8tèss?-
mum ſuisse as the object of tródunt, then the same clause will become the subject of the
Passive, and the construction will be impersonal: Aristidem jūStissimum fuissé tradi-
tur, “it is reported by tradition that Aristides was most just.”
IV FINITIVE. 309
by tradition that Homer was blind. Cic. Unam partem Gallós obtinëre dic-
tum est, it has been stated that the Gauls occupy one part. Caes. Nūntiãtur
esse nåvés in portú, it is announced that the vessels are in port. Cic.
NotE 1.-The Personal Construction is used—(1) regularly in jubeor, vetor, and
wideor; (2) generally in the simple tenses 1 of most verbs of SAYING, THINKING, and the
like, as dicor, trador, feror, nižntior, crédor, eacă8timor, putor, perhibear, etc.; (3)
sometimes in other verbs; see examples above.
NotE 2.-The Impersonal Construction is especially common in the compound
tenses,” though also used in the simple tenses; see examples above.
535. The ACCUSATIVE AND AN INFINITIVE are used with a great
variety of verbs. Thus— ,”
I. With verbs of PERCEIVING and DECLARING:
Sentimus calère ignpm, we perceive that fire is hot. Cic. Mihi nárrăvit të
sollicitum esse, he told me that you were troubled. Cic. Scripsèrunt Themis-
toclem in Asiam trănsisse, they wrote that Themistocles had gone over to
Asia. Nep.
1. VERBs of PERCEIVING include those which involve (1) the exercise of
the senses: audio, videó, Sentio, etc., and (2) the exercise of the mind—THINK-
ING, BELIEVING, KNowING: cógità, putó, existimo, crèdó, Spérô—intellegö, sció, etc.
2. VERBs of DECLARING are such as state or communicate facts or thoughts:
dico, närró, näntä0, doced, ostendö, promºtto, etc.
3. Expressions equivalent to verbs of perceiving and of declaring, as fäma
fert, “report says,’ testis sum, “I am a witness’ =“I testify,” cónscius mihá
sum, “I am conscious,” “I know,” also admit an Accusative with an Infinitive:
Núllam mihi relátam esse grâtiam, tú es testis, you are a witness (can
testify) that no grateful return has been made to me. Cic.
4. PARTICIPLE FoR INFINITIVE.—Verbs of perceiving take the Accusative
with the present participle, when the object is to be represented as actually
seen, heard, etc., while engaged in a given action:
Catónem widi in bibliothècă sedentem, I saw Cato sitting in the library.
Cic.
5. SUBJECTS COMPARED.—When two subjects with the same predicate are
compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the first clause,
the Infinitive may be understood in the second :
Platonem ferunt idem sénsisse quod Pythagoram, they say that Plato held
the same opinion as Pythagoras. Cic.
6. PREDICATEs CoMPARED.—When two predicates with the same subject
are compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the first
clause, the Accusative may be understood in the second:
Num putätis, dixisse Antônium minăcius quam factúrum fuisse, do you
think Antony spoke more threateningly than he would have acted & Cic.
NOTE.—But the second clause may take the Subjunctive, with or without wº:
* The learner will remember that the simple tenses are formed simply by inflexional
endings, as d?citur, dicébâtur, but that the compound tenses are formed by the union
of the perfect participle with the verb sum, as dictum est, dictum erat, etc.
310 INFINITI VE.
Auded dicere ipsû's potius cultöres agrörum fore quam ut coli prohibeant, I dare say
that they will themselves become tillers of the fields rather than prevent them from
being tilled. Liv.
II. With verbs of WISHING, DESIRING, CoMMANDING, and their op-
posites:" -
Té tuá frui virtùte cupimus, we desire that you should enjoy your virtue.
Cic. Pontem jubet rescindi, he orders the bridge to be broken down (that the
bridge should be broken down). Caes. Léx eum mecări vetuit, the law for-
bade that he should be put to death. Liv.
NOTE.-Several verbs involving a wish or command admit the Subjunctive, generally
with ut or né; see 498, 1 :
Optó ut id audiátis, I desire that you may hear this. Cic. Woló ut respondeås, I
wish you would reply. Cic. Mālū té hostis metuat, I préfer that the enemy should
jear you. Cic. Concédé ut haec apta sint, I admit that these things are suitable. Cic.
III. With verbs of EMOTION and FEELING : *
Gauded tâ mihi Suádère, I rejoice that you advise me. Cic. Mirãmur tº
laetári, we wonder that you réjoice. Cic. te
NoTE.—Werbs of emotion and feeling often take clauses with Quod (540, IV.) to
give prominence to the fact stated, or to emphasize the ground or reason for the feeling :
Gauded quod tâ interpellāvī, I rejoice that (or because) I have interrupted you. Cic.
Dolébam quod Socium amiseram, I was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic.
IV. Sometimes, especially in PoETRY and in LATE PROSE, with verbs
which usually take the Subjunctive: *
Gentem hortor amāre focós, I exhort the race to love their homes. Verg.
Cüncti suāsērunt Italiam petere, all advised to seek Italy. Verg. Soror monet
succèdere Lausú Turnum, the Sister warns Turnus to take the place of Lausus.
Verg.
RULE LVIII.-Subject of Infinitive.
536. The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as
its subject: ‘
Sentimus calère ignem, we perceive that fire is hot. Cic. Platómem
Tarentum vénisse reperiö, I find that Plato came to Tarentum. Cic.
* As cupið, opto, volò, molò, mālū, etc.; pation, sinö; impero, jubed ; prohibed,
weto, etc.
* As gauded, doled, miror, gueror, etc.; also aegré fero, graviter fero, etc.
* Many verbs in Latin thus admit two or more different constructions; see in the
dictionary adigo, cènseó, concédo, cógö, cónstitud, contendö, cupið, ciled, décernò,
dico, doced, élabórð, Čnitor, faciò, impedio, imperū, jubed, labórð, malo, mandö, mo-
lior, moned, mālū, opto, örð, pation, permittö, perswäded, postulò, praecipio, prae-
dźcö, prohibed, sinò, statud, studed, Swäded, veto, vided. See also Draeger, II., pp.
230-416. -
* Remember that the Infinitive, as a verbal noun, originally had no subject, but that
subsequently in special constructions a subject Accusative was developed out of the ob-
ject of the principal verb; see 534, foot-note 1. In classical Latin many Infinitives have
no subjects, either expressed or understood.
INFINITIVE. 311
1. HISTORICAL INFINITIVE.—In lively descriptions the Present Infinitive is
sometimes used for the Imperfect or the Perfect Indicative. It is then called
the Historical Infinitive, and, like a finite verb, has its subject in the Nomina-
tive :
Catilina in primâ acié versâri, omnia providere, multum ipse plignäre,
saepe hostem ferire, Catilène was busy in the front line; he attended to every-
thing, fought much in person, and often Smote down the enemy. Sall.
. NoTE.—The Historical Infinitive sometimes denotes customary or repeated action :
Omnia in péjus ruere äc retró referri, all things change rapidly for the worse and
are borne backward. Werg.
2. A PREDICATE Noun or a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE after an Infinitive agrees
with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, according to the general
rule (362). It is thus—
1) In the Wominative, when predicated of the principal subject:
Nölö esse laudātor, I am unwilling to be a eulogist. Cic. Beàtus esse sine
virtùte némö potest, no one can be happy without virtue. Cic. Paréns dici
potest, he can be called a parent. Cic.
NoTE.—Participles in the compound tenses agree like predicate adjectives:
Pollicitus esse dicitur, he is said to have promised. Cic.
2) In the Accusative, when predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Accusa-
tive : -
Ego mé Phidiam esse mállem, I should préfer to be Phidias. Cic. Trädi-
tum est, Homérum caecum fuisse,” it has been handed down by tradition that
Płomer was blind. Cic.
3) In the Dative, when predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Dative:
Patrició tribund plebis fieri non licebat, it was not lawful for a patrician
to be made tribune of the people. Cic. Mihi neglegenti esse non licuit,3 it was
7vot permitted me to be negligent. Cic.
NoTE.—A noun or adjective predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Dative is some-
times put in the Accusative:
El cónsulem fieri licet, it is lawful for him to be made consul. Caes.
537. The TENSEs of THE INFINITIVE–Present, Perfect, and
Future—denote only relative time. They accordingly represent the
time respectively as present, past, or future, relatively to that of
the principal verb :
PRESENT.-Cupið mé esse clémentem, I desire to be mild. Cic. Măluit sé
diligi quam metul, he preferred to be loved rather than feared. Nep.
PERFECT.-Platonem ferunt in Italiam vénisse, they say that Plato came
Žnto Italy. Cic. Cônscius mihi eram, nihila mé commissum esse, I was con-
scious to myself that no offence had been committed by me. Cic.
FUTURE.-Brütum visum iri à mé putó, I think Brutus will be seen by me.
* Historical Infinitives are generally used in groups, seldom singly.
* Here Phèdèam is predicated of mé (lit., me to be Phidias), and caecum of Ho-
772.67°20')??.
* Tribànà is predicated of patrició, and neglegenti of mihi.
312 IWFIWITIVE.
Cic. Oriculum datum erat victricës Athénas fore, an oracle had been given,
that Athens would be victorious. Cic.
NoTE.—In general, the Present Infinitive represents the action as taking place at the
time denoted by the principal verb, the Perfect as then completed or past, and the Fu-
ture as then about to take place; but tense is so imperfectly developed in the Infinitive
that even relative time is not marked with much exactness. Hence—
1) The Present is sometimes used of future actions, and sometimes with little or no
reference to time:
Crās argentum dare dixit, he said that he would give the silver to-morrow. Ter.
2) The Perfect is sometimes used of present actions, though chiefly in the poets:
Tetigisse timent poétam, they fear to touch (to have touched) the poet. Hor.
1. After the past tenses of débé0, oportet, possum, and the like, the PRES-
ENT INFINITIVE is used where our idiom would lead us to expect the Perfect;
sometimes also after memºni, and the like ; regularly in recalling what we
have ourselves experienced:
Débuit officiósior esse, he ought to have been more attentive. Cic. Id potuit
facere, he might have done this. Cic. Mé Athénis audire memini, I remember
to have heard (hearing) in Athens. Cig.
2. The Perfect Passive Infinitive sometimes denotes the result of the ac-
tion. Thus, döctus esse may mean either to have been instructed or to be a
learned man (lit., an instructed man). If the result thus denoted belongs to
past time, ſuisse must take the place of esse :
Populum alloquitur, Sôpitum fuisse régem Ictii, she addresses the people,
Saying that the king was Stunned by the blow. Liv. See also 471, 6, note 1.
3. Instead of the regular Future Infinitive, the PERIPHRASTIC ForM, futi.-
'rum esse ut, or fore ut, with the Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, is fre-
quently used : -
Spérô fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope this will fall to our lot (I hope it
will come to pass that this may happen to us). Cic. Nón spéráverat Hanni-
bal, fore ut ad sé déficerent, Hannibal had not hoped that they would revolt
to him. Liv.
NoTE 1.-This circumlocution is common in the Passive, and is moreover necessary
in both voices in all verbs which want the Supine and the participle in rus.
NoTE 2.—Sometimes fore ut with the Subjunctive, Perfect or Pluperfect, is used with
the force of a Future Perfect; and in passive and deponent verbs, fore with the perfect
participle may be used with the same force:
Dicö mé satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have obtained enough. Cic.
538. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, is often used as
the subject of a verb:"
WITH SUBJECT.—Caesari nuntiãtum est equités accèdere, it was announced
to Caesar that the cavalry was approaching. Caes. Facinus est vinciri civem
Römānum, that a Roman citizen should be bound is a crime. Cic. Certum
1 This use of the Infinitive as subject was readily developed out of its use as object;
See 534, 1, foot-note. Thus the Infinitive, with or without a subject, finally came to be
regarded as an indeclinable mown, and was accordingly used not only as 8wöffect and
object, but also as predicate and appositive (539, I. and II.), and sometimes even in
the Ablative Absolute (539, IV.), and in dependence upon prepositions (533, 8, note 4).
JÄVFIVITIVÆ 313
e$t liberös amäri, it is certain, that children, are loved. Quint. Légem brevem
esse oportet, át és nece$$ary that a law be bráéf. Sem. *
WITHOUT SUBJECT.—Décrétum est nön dare signum, it was decided not t
gêve the sìgnal. Liv. Ars est difficilis rem pùblieam regere, to rule a State ìs
a dífficult art. Cic. Cärum esse jücundum est, ît îs plea8ant to be held dear.
Cie. Haec scire juvat, to know the$e things affords pleasure. Sem. Peccáre
licet némini, to 8ên ês laúful for mo one. Cic.
1. When the subject is am Infinitive, the predicate is either (1) a noun or
adjective with sum, or (2) a verb used impersonally ; see the examples above.
2. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, may be the subject of another
Infinitive : «
Intellegi necesse est esse deòs,* it must be understood that there are gods.
Cic.
3. The Infinitive sometimes takes a demonstrative as an attributive in
agreement, with it:
Quibusdam höc displicet philosophäri, this philosophizing (this to philos-
ophize) displea8e8 8ome per8on8. Cic. VIvere ipsum turpe est nöbis, to lève
¢s ìtself ìgnobìe for </8. Cic.
539. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS.—The Infinitive with a subject *
is sometimes used—
I. As a PREDICATE ; see §62:
Exitus fuit örätiönis sibi nüllam cum his amicitiam esse,3 the close qf his
oration wa8 that he had no frìendship with these. Caes.
NoTE.—An Infinitive without a subject may be used as a Eredicate Nominative:
Vivere est cögitäre, to Jive is to thêm}e. Cic.
II. As an APPOSITIVE ; see 363:
Öráculum datum erat victrIeës Athënäs fore, an oracle had been given,
that Athen8 would be vîctorious. Cic. Illud soleó mirări, nön mê accipere
tuäs litteräs,8 I am, accu$tomed fo wonder at thês, that I do not receíve 3your
letter. Cic.
III. In ExcLAMATIoNs; see 381 :
Tè SIc vexäri, that yow should be thus troubled / Cic. Même inceptö dë-
sistere victam, that I, va^ qwáshed, should aba^don, my w^dertakáng / * Verg.
IV. In the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE ; see 431, note 1:
Auditò Darium mövisse pergit, haváng heard that Darius had withdrawn
(that Darius had withdrawm having beem heard), he advaneed. Curt.
1 Es8e deös is the subject of intellegì, and intellegâ esse deös of est.
3 Including the modifiers of each. Thus in the example the whole clause, 8ibi nùl-
Jam cum hì8 amicitiam e88e, is used as a Predicate Nominative in agreement with the
subject eacìtu8 ; see 362.
s 1n the examples, the clause vìctrîcës Athônês fore is in apposition with öräculwm,
and the ciause möm, mé accipere tuâ8 Jìtteräs, in apposition with illud.
4 This u8e of the Infinitive conforms, it will be observed, to the use of the Accusative
and Nominative in exclamations (381, with note 8).
14
314 GER UNIDS.
II. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
540. In Latin, clauses which are used as substantives take one of
four forms. They may be—
- I. INDIRECT QUESTIONS:
Quaeritur, cur dissentiant, it is asked why they disagree. Cic. Quid agen-
dum sit, nesció, I do not know what ought to be done. Cic.
NotE.-For the use of Indirect Questions, see 529, I.
II. INFINITIVE CLAUSES :
Antecellere contigit, it was his good fortune to excel (to excel happened).
Cic. Magna negotia voluit agere, he wished to achieve great undertakings. Cic.
NotE.-For the use of Infinitive Clauses, see 534; 535.
III. SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSEs, generally introduced by ut, né, etc.:
Contigit ut patriam vindicaret, it was his good fortune to save his country.
Nep. Volò ut mihi respondeas, I wish you would answer me. Cic.
NotE.—For the use of such Subjunctive Claw868, see 498; 499, 8; 501.
IV. CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY quod:
Beneficium est quod necesse est mori, it is a blessing that it is necessary to
die. Sen. Gauded quod tâ interpellávi, I rejoice that (because) I have inter-
*upted you. Cic.
NoTE.—Quod-clauses, used substantively, either give prominence to the fact stated,
or present it as a ground or reason. They are used as the subject of impersonal verbs,
and as the object of many transitive verbs, especially of such as denote emotion or feel-
&ng : 1 s
Hüc accédébat quod exercitum luxuriósé habuerat, to this was added the fact that
he had kept the army in lua wry. Sall. Adde quod ingenuās didicisse artés émollit
mörös, add the fact that to learn liberal arts refines manners. Ovid. Bene facis quod
mö adjuvâs, you do well that you assist me. Cic. Dolébam quod socium amiseram, I
was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic. See also 535, III., note.
SECTION VIII.
GERUNDS, GERUN DIVES,2 SUPINES, AND PARTICIPLES.
I. GERUNDs.
541. The GERUND is a verbal noun which shares so largely the
character of a verb that it governs oblique cases, and takes ad-
verbial modifiers:
1 Quod-clauses occur—(1) as the subject of accédit, accidit, appåret, Événit, fit,
mocet, obest, occurrit, prādest, etc.; also of est with a noun or adjective, as causa est,
vitium est, etc., grâtum est, indigmum est, mºrum est, etc.; and (2) as dependent upon
accºſsó, addo, adiced (p. 20, foot-note 1), admºror, animadvertö, angor, bene faciò,
délector, doleo, eacăsă, facio, gauded, glórior, laetor, miror, mittö, omitto, praetereo,
gueror, etc.
2 The Gerund and the Gerundive were originally identical. The former is the neu-
GER UN DS. 315
Jús vocandil senātum, the right of summoning the Senate. Liv. Beaté
wivendil cupiditãs, the desire of living happily. Cic.
NoTE.—In a few instances the Gerund has apparently a passive meaning: -
Neque habent propriam percipiendſ notam, nor have they any proper mark of dis-
tinction (i.e., to distinguish them). Cic.
542. The GERUND has four cases—the Genitive, Dative, Accusa-
tive, and Ablative—used in general like the same cases of nouns.
Thus—
I. The GENITIVE of THE GERUND is used with nouns and adjectives:”
Ars vivendi, the art of living. Cic. Studiósus erat audiendi, he was de-
sirous of hearing. Nep. Cupidus té audiendi, desirous of hearing you. Cic.
Artem véra àc falsa dijūdicandi, the art of distinguishing true things from
Jalse. Cic.
NotE 1.—The Gerund usually governs the same case as the verb, but sometimes, by
virtue of its substantive nature, it governs the Genitive, especially the Genitive of per-
sonal pronouns—me?, mostri, tuft, vestri, 8w?:
Cöpia plācandi tui (of a woman), an opportunity of appeasing you. Ov. Sui cán-
servandi causã, for the purpose of preserving themselves. Cic. Westri adhortandi
causā, for the purpose of eashorting you. Liv. Reiciendi “jūdicum potestās, the power
of challenging (of) the judges. Cic. Lúcis tuendi copia, the privilege of beholding the
light. Plaut.
NoTE 2.-The Genitive of the Gerund is sometimes used to denote purpose or tem-
dency:
Légès pellendi clárös virós, laws for (lit., of) driving away illustrious men, Tac.
II. The DATIVE of THE GERUND is used with a few verbs and adjectives
which regularly govern the Dative: *
Cum solvendô non essent, since they were not able to pay. Cic. Aqua
utilis est bibendö, water is useful for drinking. Plin.
NoTE.—The Dative of the Gerund is rare; 4 with an object it occurs only in Plautus.
III. The AccusATIVE of THE GERUND is used after a few prepositions:*
Ad discendum propénsi Sumus, we are inclined to learn (to learning). Cic.
Inter lüdendum, in or during play. Quint.
ter of a participle used substantively, while the latter is that same participle used adjec-
tively. Moreover, from this participle the Gerund developed an active meaning and the
Gerundive a passive. On the Origin and Use of Gerunds and Gerundives, see Jolly,
‘Geschichte des Infinitivs, pp. 198–200; Draeger, II., pp. 789–823.
* Vocandž as a Genitive is governed by jūs, and yet it governs the Accusative send-
tum ; vivendi is governed by cupiditãs, and yet it takes the adverbial modifier bedté.
* The adjectives which take the Genitive of the Gerund are chiefly those denoting
DESIRE, KNow LEDGE, SKILL, REcoLLECTION, and their opposites: avidw8, cºpidus, stu-
diósus; conscius, gnärus, ignärus; peritus, imperitus, insuétus, etc.
* Pronouncod ad if writtel, ejietendi; see p. 20, foot-note 1.
* According to Jolly, “Geschichte des Infinitivs, p. 200, the Gerund originally had
only one case, the Dative, and was virtually an Infinitive.
5 Most frequently after ad; sometimes after inter and ob; very rarely after ante,
circă, and in.
316 G ER UNIDIVES.
NoTE 1.-The Accusative of the Gerund with a direct object is rare:
Ad placandum deús pertinet, it tends to appease the gods. Cic.
NotE 2. —The Gerund with ad often denotes purpose:
Ad imitandum mihi propositum est exemplar illud, that model has been set before
me for imitation. Cic.
IV. The ABLATIVE OF THE GERUND is used (1) as Ablative of Means,
and (2) with prepositions:
Mēns discendö alitur, the mind is nourished by learning. Cic. Salātem
hominibus dandó, by giving safety to men. Cic. Virtùtés cernuntur in
agendö, virtues are seen in action. Cic. Déterrère à scribendó, to deter from
writing. Cic. -->
NotE 1.-After prepositions, the Ablative of the Gerund with a direct object is ex-
ceedingly rare :
In tribuendô suum cuique, in giving every one his own. Cic.
NotE 2.-Without a preposition, the Ablative of the Gerund denotes in a few in-
stances some other relation than that of means, as time, separation, etc. :
Incipiendö refugi, I drew back in the very beginning. Cic.
II. GERUNDIVES.
543. The GERUNDIVE, like other participles, agrees with nouns
and pronouns:
Inita sunt consilia urbis délendae, plans have been formed for destroying the
city (of the city to be destroyed). Cic. Numa sacerdötibus creandis animum
adjècit, Numa gave his attention to the appointment of priests. Liv.
NoTE.—A noun (or pronoun) and a Gerundive in agreement with it form the Ge-
7"wºndºve Construction.
544. The GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION may be used—
1. In place of a Gerund with a direct object. It then takes the case
of the Gerund whose place it supplies:
Libidó ejus videndi (= libidū eum videndi), the desire of seeing him (lit.,
of him to be seen). Cic. Platonis audiendi (= Platonem audiendi) studiosus,
fond of hearing Plato. Cic. Legendis Orătóribus (= legendó Orătórés), by
reading the orators. Cic.
NotE.—The Gerundive Construction should not be used for the Gerund with a neu-
ter pronoun or adjective as object, as it could not distinguish the gender:
Artem véra àc falsa dijūdicandi, the art of distinguishing true things from false.
Cic. - gº
2. In the Dative and in the Ablative with a preposition:
Locum oppido condendô cépèrunt, they selected a place for founding a city.
Liv. Tempora démetendis früctibus accommodata, seasons suitable for gath-
ering fruits. Cic. Brutus in liberandā patriá est interfectus, Brutus was slain
in liberating his country. Cic.
1 The Ablative of the Gerund is used most frequently after ā (ab), dé, ea (3), in ;
rarely after cum, prā, and Super.
SUPINES. 317
NoTE 1.--The learner will remember that in the Dative (542, II., note) and in the
Ablative with a preposition (542, IV., note 1) the Gerund with a direct object is ex-
ceedingly rare. The Gerundive Construction supplies its place.
NOTE: 2. —The Gerundive Construction sometimes denotes purpose or tendency, es-
pecially in the Accusative after verbs of giving, permitting, taking, etc.:
Attribuit Italiam vastandam (for ad vastandum) Catilinae, he assigned Italy to Cat-
he withdrew into Campania to confirm his health. Tac. Haec tradendae Hannibali
victóriae sunt, these things are for the purpose of giving victory to Hannibal. Liv.
Proficiscitur cognóscendae antiquitätis, he sets out for the purpose of studying antig-
wity. Tac.
NOTE 3.—The Gerundive Construction in the Dative occurs after certain official
names, as decemviri, triwmviri, comitia : 1
Decemvirós legibus scribendis creavimus, we have appointed a committee of ten to
prepare laws. Liv.
NoTE 4.—The Gerundive Construction in the Ablative occurs after comparatives:
Nüllum officium referendā grätiã magis necessarium est, no duty is more necessary
than that of returning a favor. Cic. -
NoTE 5.—The Gerundive Construction is in general admissible only in transitive
verbs, but it occurs in Žtor, fruor, fungor, potior, etc., originally transitive :
Ad mūnus fungendum, for discharging the duty. Cic. Spēs potiundórum caströ-
rum, the hope of getting possession of the camp. Caes.
III. SUPINES.
545. The SUPINE, like the Gerund, is a verbal noun. It has a
form in um and a form in ti.
NOTE: 1.-The Supine in wºm is an Accusative; that in iſ is generally an Ablative,
though sometimes perhaps a Dative.” *
NOTE 2.-The Supine in wºn governs the same case as the verb:
Légātös mittunt rogātum auxilium, they send ambassadors to ask aid. Caes.
RULE LIX. —Supine in Um. . . .
546. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion
to express PURPOSE:
Légāti vénérunt rés repetitum, deputies came to demand restitution. Liv.
Ad Caesarem congrätulātum convénérunt, they came to Caesar to congrat-
wlate him. Caes.
1. The Supine in whº occurs in a few instances after verbs which do not directly ex-
press motion: -
Filiam Agrippae nüptum dedit, he gave his daughter in marriage to Agrippa.
Suet.
2. The Supine in um with the verb eo is equivalent to the forms of the first Periphras-
tic Conjugation, and may often be rendered literally:
Bonds omnés perditum eunt, they are going to destroy all the good. Sall.
* But in most instances the Dative may be explained as dependent either upon the
verb or upon the predicate as a whole; see 384, 4.
* See Hübschmann, p. 223; Draeger, II., p. 833; Jolly, p. 201.
A
3.18 PARTICIPLE'S.
NoTE.—But in subordinate clauses the Supine in um with the verb e6 is often used
for the simple verb:
Lltum ire (= ulciscſ) injüriás festinat, he hastens to avenge the injuries. Sall.
8. The Supine in wºm with Žri, the Infinitive Passive of eo, forms, it will be remem-
bered (222, III., 1), the Future Passive Infinitive:
Brútum visum iri à mé putó, I think Brutus will be seen by me. Cic.
4. The Supine in wºm, is not very common; 1 but purpose may be denoted by other
constructions:
1) By ut or qui, with the Subjunctive; see 497.
2) By Gerunds or Gerundives; see 542, I., note 2, and III., note 2; 544, 2, note 2,
3) By Participles; see 549, 3.
RULE LX.-Supine in i.
547. The Supine in ſº is generally used as an Ablative
of Specification (424):
Quidest tam jücundum auditti, what is so agreeable to hear (in hearing)?
Cic. Difficile dictii est, it is difficult to tell. Cic. Dé genere mortis difficile
dictii est, it is difficult to speak of the kind of death. Cic. Civitãs incrédi-
bile memoratü est quantum créverit, it is incredible to relate how much the
state increased. Sall.
NoTE.—The Supine in iſ never governs an oblique case, but it may take an Ablative
with a preposition, as in the third example above.
1. The Supine in tº is used chiefly with jūcwndus, optimus; facilis, procłżvis, diſ.
Jicilis; incrédibilis, memorábilis; homestus, turpis ; dignus, indignw8; fºs, néfas,
opus, and Scelus.
2. The Supine in iſ is very rare. The most common examples are awdātū, dictić,
Jactiſ, nātū, visiſ ; less common, cógnità, intelléctº, inventù, memoráčić, relátī,
Scătă, tractatü, victii.”
IV. PARTICIPLES.
548. The PARTICIPLE is a verbal adjective which governs the
Same cases as the verb :
Animus sé non vidéns alia cernit, the mind, though it does not see itself
(lit., not seeing itself), discerns other things. Cic.
NoTE 1.-For Participles used substantively, see 441.
NoTE 2.—Participles used substantively sometimes retain the adverbial modifiers
which belonged to them as participles, and sometimes take adjective modifiers:
Nön tam praemia sequi récté factúrum quam ipsa récté facta, not to 8eek the rewards
of good deeds (things rightly done) so much as good deeds themselves. Cic. Praeclá-
rum atque divinum factum, an eaccellent and divine deed. Cic.
549. PARTICIPLEs are often used—
1. To denote TIME, CAUSE, MANNER, MEANS:
* According to Draeger, II., p. 829, the Supine in um is found in only two hundred
and thirty-six verbs, mostly of the First and Third Conjugations.
* According to Draeger, II., p. 833, the Supine in iſ is found in one hundred and nine
YerbS.
PARTICIPLES. 319
Platö scribéns mortuus est, Plato died while writing. Cic. Ituri in proe-
lium canunt, they sing when about to go into battle. Tac. Sól Oriëns diem
conficit, the sun by its rising causes the day. Cic. Milités renuntiant, Sé per-
fidiam veritós revertisse, the soldiers report that they returned because they
Jeared perfidy (having feared). Caes.
2. To denote CoNDITION or CoNCESSION:
Mendáci homini ne vérum quidem dicenti crèdere non solemus, we are
mot wont to believe a liar, even if he speaks the truth. Cic. Reluctante nātūrā,
irritus labor est, if nature opposes, effort is vain. Sen. Scripta tua jam diſſi
exspectāns, non auded tamen flāgitäre, though I have been long expecting your
work, yet I do not dare to ask for it. Cic.
3. To denote PURPOSE :
Perseus rediit, belli cásum tentātūrus, Perseus returned to try (about to
try) the fortune of war. Liv. Attribuit něs trucidandos Cethégö, he assigned
ots to Cethegus to slaughter. Cic.
4. To supply the place of RELATIVE CLAUSES :
Omnés aliud agentès, aliud simulantès, improbi Sunt, all who do one thing
and pretend another are dishonest. Cic.
5. To supply the place of PRINCIPAL CLAUSES:
Clàssem dévictam cépit, he conquered and took the fleet (took the fleet con-
quered). Nep. Ré consentientès, vocabulis differebant, they agreed in fact,
but differed &n words. Cic.
NotE 1.-A participle with a negative is often best rendered by a participial noun
and the preposition without:
Miserum est, nihil proficientem angi, it is sad to be troubled without accomplish-
&ng anything. Cic. Nön érubéscèns, without blushing. Cic.
NoTE 2.—The perfect participle is often best rendered by a participial or
verbal noun with of :
Homerus fuit ante Römam conditam, Homer lived (was) before the found-
Žng of Rome (before Rome founded). Cic.
550. The TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE–Present, Perfect, and
Future—denote only relative time. They accordingly represent
the time respectively as present, past, and future relatively to that
of the principal verb:
Oculus sé non vidéns alia cernit, the eye, though it does not see itself (not
seeing itself), discerns other things. Cic. Plató scribéns mortuus est, Plato
died while writing. Cić. Uva matürāta dulcescit, the grape, when it has
ripened (having ripened), becomes sweet. Cic. Sapièns bona semper placitura
laudat, the wise man praises blessings which will always please (being about to
please). Sen.
NoTE 1.-The perfect participle, both in deponent and in passive verbs, is sometimes
used of present time, and sometimes in passive verbs it loses in a great degree its force
as a tense, and is best rendered by a verbal noun:
320 PARTICLES.
Eisdem ducibus iſsus Numidās mittit, employing the same persons as guides, he
sent the Wumidians. Caes. Incénsås perfert nåvés, he reports the burning of the
Ships (the ships set on fire). Werg. See also 544.
NoTE 2.—In the compound tenses the perfect participle often becomes virtually a
predicate adjective expressing the result of the action :
Causae sunt côgnitae, the causes are known. Caes. See also 471, 6, note 1.
NotE 3.−For the Perfect Participle with habeo, see 388, 1, note.
NoTE 4.—The want of a perfect active participle is sometimes supplied by a tempora!
clause, and sometimes by a perfect passive participle in the Ablative Absolute :
Caesar, postguam vénit, Rhênum trănsire constituit, Caesar, having arrived, de-
cided to cross the Rhine. Caes. Equitātū praemissô subsequébâtur, having 86mſ for-
ward his cavalry, he followed. Caes. See also 431; 519.
NoTE 5.—The want of a present passive participle is generally supplied by a tem-
poral clawse :
Cum a Catóne laudābar, reprehendi mé à côteris patiébar, being praised by Cato, I
allowed myself to be censured by the others. Cic.
C H A P T E R W I.
SYNTAx OF PARTICLES.
RULE LXI.-Use of Adverbs.
551. Adverbs qualify vKRBs, ADJECTIVES, and other
ADVERBS :
Sapientés föliciter vivunt, the wise live happily. Cic. Facile döctissimus,
wnquestionably the most learned. Cic. Haud aliter, not otherwise. Verg.
NoTE 1.-For predicate adverbs with 8wm, see 360, note 2; for adverbs with
nouns used adjectively, see 441, 3; for adverbs in place of adjectives, see 443, notes
3 and 4; for adverbs with participles used substantively, see 548, note 2.
NoTE 2.-Sãc and ita mean ‘so,” “thus.’ Ita has also a limiting sense, ‘in so far,” as
in ita—s? (507, 3, note 2). Aded means ‘to such a degree or result”; tam, tantopere,
“so much'—tam used mostly with adjectives and adverbs, and tantopere with verbs.
552. The common negative particles are nån, né, haud.
1. Wön is the usual negative; né is used in prohibitions, wishes, and purposes (483,
8; 488; 497), and haud, in haud sció an, and with adjectives and adverbs: haud mi-
arábile, not wonderful; haud aliter, not otherwise. Wł for né is rare. Wé nám after
widé is often best rendered whether.
2. In nôn modo nãºn and in nôm sölum nón the second nºn is generally omitted be-
fore sed or vérum, followed by né—g widem or via (rarely etiam), when the verb of the
Second clause belongs also to the first:
Assentātiánón modo amicó, sed né liberö quidem digna est, flattery is not only not
worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man. Cic.
3. Minus often has nearly the force of nôm ; 87 minus = 87 nºn. Sººn aliter has
nearly the same force as 87 minus. Minimé often means ‘not at all,” “by no means.”
CO WJUNCTIONS. 321
J353. Two NEGATIVEs are generally equivalent to an affirma-
tive, as in English:
Nihil non arroget, let him claim everything. Hor. Neque hôc Zēnē non
vidit, nor did Zeno overlook this. Cic.
1. Wön before a general negative gives it the force of an indefinite affirmative, but
after such negative the force of a general affirmative:
Nönnömö, some one; nönnihil, something; nönninguam, sometimes;
Němč nôn, every one; nihil non, everything; nunquam nón, always.
2. After a general negative, né—guidem gives emphasis to the negation, and negue
—negue, néve—néve, and the like, repeat the negation distributively:
Nön praetereundum est né id quidem, we must not pass by even this. Cic. Němč
unquam neque poèta neque Örätor fuit, no one was ever either a poet or an orator. Cic.
NOTE.-For the Use of Prepositions, see 432–435.
554, CoöRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS unite similar constructions
(309, 1). They comprise five classes.
I. CoPULATIVE Conjunctions denote UNION:
Castor et Pollux, Castor and Pollua'. Cic. Senátus populusque, the Senate
and people. Cic. Necerat difficile, nor was it difficult. Liv.
1. For list, see 310, 1.
2. Et simply connects; gue implies a more intimate relationship ; atque and āc gen-
erally give prominence to what follows. Neque and mec have the force of et nón. Et
and etia/m. Sometimes mean even. -
NOTE. – Atque and āc generally mean as, than, after adjectives and adverbs of like-
ness and unlikeness: tális &c, “such as”; aegue àc, ‘equally as”; alăter atgwe, ‘other-
wise than.’ See also 451, 5.
3. Que is an enclitic, and āc in the best prose is used only before consonants.
4. Ełiam, quogue, ade6, and the like, are sometimes associated with et, atgue, dc,
and gue, and sometimes even supply their place. Quoque follows the word which it
connects: is guogue, “he also. Etiam, ‘also,” “further,” “even, often adds a new cir-
ClimStance.
5. Sometimes two copulatives are used : et—et, Que–gue,” et—Qué, Que—et, gue—
atgtte,” tum—twm, cum—twm, ‘both—and”; but cum—twm gives prominence to the sec-
ond word or clause; non Sölum (nún modo, or nôn tantum)—sed etiam (vérum etiam),
‘not only—but also "; megue (nec)—negue (nec), “neither—nor'; negwe (nec)—et (que),
‘not—but (and)”; et—negue (nec), ‘and not.” •
6. Between two words connected copulatively the conjunction is generally expressed,
though sometimes omitted, especially between the names of two colleagues. Between
several words it is in the best prose generally repeated or omitted altogether, though
gue may be used with the last even when the conjunction is omitted between the others:
pāa et tranquillitās et concordža, or pâa, tranquillitäs, concordia, or pâa, trangwil-
litäs, concordiaque. -
NOTE. 1.-Et is often omitted between conditional clauses, except before nān.
NOTE: 2.-A series may begin with primum or prämö, may be continued by deinde
followed by twm, posted, praetered, or some similar word, and may close with dénique
* Qué—que is rare, except in poetry; gue—atgue, rare even in poetry; see Verg.,
Aen., I., 18; Geor., I., 182.
322 CONJUNOTIONS.
or poströmö.1 Deinde may be repeated several times between primum and dénique or
poströmö.” -
II. DISJUNCTIVE Conjunctions denote SEPARATION:
Aut vestra aut sua culpa, either your fault or his own. Liv. Duābus tri-
busve hôris, in two or three hours. Cic.
1. For list, see 310, 2.
2. Awi denotes a stronger antithesis than wel, and must be used if the one supposition
excludes the other: awt vérwm aut falsum, ‘either true or false.” Vel implies a differ-
ence in the expression rather than in the thing. It is generally corrective, and is often
followed by potius, etiam, or dicam : lawdāţur, vel etiam amótur, “he is praised, or
even (rather) loved.” It sometimes means even, and sometimes for eacample. Velut
often means for eacample. We for vel is appended as an enclitic.
NoTE.-In negative clauses aut and ve often continue the negation : nãn honor awł
wärtiis, “neither (not) honor nor virtue.”
3. Sève (s?—ve) does not imply any real difference or opposition; it often connects
different names of the same object: Pallas Sīve Minerva, “Pallas or Minerva” (another
name of the same goddess).
NOTE.—Disjunctive conjunctions are often combined as correlatives: aut—awt, vel
—vel, etc., ‘either—or.”
III. ADVERSATIVE Conjunctions denote opposition or CONTRAST:
Cupið mé esse clémentem, sed mê inertiae condemnà, I wish to be mild,
but I condemn myself for inaction. Cic. Magnès ferrum ad sé trahit, ratio-
nem autem adferre non possumus, the magnet attracts iron, but we can not
assign a reason. Cic.
1. For list, see 310, 3.
2. Sed and vérum mark a direct opposition; autém and vérô only a transition; at
emphasizes the opposition; atqui often introduces an objection; céterwm, means “but
still,’ ‘as to the rest"; tamen, “yet.”
NOTE.-Sed, and vérum are sometimes resumptive; see IV., 3, below:
Sed age, respondé, but come, reply. Plaut.
3. Attamen, sedtamen, väruntamen, “but yet, are compounds of tamen.
4. Autem, and vérô are postpositive, i.e., they are placed after one or more words
in their clauses.
IV. ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote INFERENCE:
In umbrăigitur pügnäbimus, we shall therefore fight in the shade. Cic.
1. For list, see 310, 4.
2. Certain other words, sometimes classed with adverbs and sometimes with conjunc-
tions, are also illatives, as e0, ided, idcircó, proptered, quamobrem, guāpropter, quâré,
gwöcircă.
8. Igitur generally follows the word which it connects: hic igitur, “this one there-
fore." After a digression, igitur, Sed, sed tamen, vérwm, vérwm tamen, etc., are often
used to resume an interrupted thought or construction. They may often be rendered “I
Say': Sed 87 guès, “if any one, I say.”
1 For examples, see Cic., Fam., XV., 14; Div., II., 56.
* Cicero, Inv., II., 49, has a series of ten members in which prºmwm introduces the
first member, postrémö the last, and deinde each of the other eight.
CONJUNCTIO VS. 323
V. CAUSAL CoNJUNCTIONS denote CAUSE :
Difficile est cönsilium, sum enim sölus, counse] is dífficult, for I am alone.
Cie. Etenim jüs amant, for they love the réght. Cic.
1. For list, see 310, 5.
2. Etem âm, and mamque denote a closer connection tham enim and mam.
8. Enim is po8tpo8étâve ; see 554, III., 4,
555. SUBORDINATE CoNJUNCTIONS connect subordinate with
principal constructions (309, 2). They comprise eight classes.
I. TEMPORAL CoNJUNCTIoNs denote TIME:
IPáruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when, it was necessary. Cic. Dum ego
in Siciliâ sum, while /am ån Sócóly. Cie. See also 811, 1; 518-521.
1. Dum added to a negative means ®yet; nómdwm, * not yet*; vêœdwm, * scarcely yet.'
II. CoMPARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote coMPARIsoN :
Ut optâsti, ita est, át és a8 3/ow desêred. Cic. Velut si adesset, as íf he were
pre8ent. Caes. See also 311, 2; 513, II.
1. CORRELATIVES are oftem used: Tam—quam, * as,' * so—as,' * as much—as*; tam—
quam quod máæâmé, * as much as possible '; nóm mânus—qvam, * not less than'; nön,
magi8—gwam, * not more than.'
Tam—quam, and ^ut-—ita with a superlative are sometimes best rendered by the with
the comparative : ut máæêmê—áta máøîmè, *the more—the more.'
III. CoNDITIONAL CoNJUNCTIONS denote coNDITION :
SI peceávi, ignósce, %f I have erred, pardon me. Cic. Nisi est cönsilium
domi, wnle88 there ìs «vi8dom, at home. Cic. See also 311, 3; 506—513.
1. Wisâ, *if not,' in negative sentences oftem means *except'; and nisi quod, * except
that,' may be used even in affirmative sentences. Visę may meam * than." Wihil alîud misè
= * nothing further' (more, except); nihil aliud quam = * nothing el8e' (other than).
IV. CoNCESSIvE CoNJUNCTIoNs denote coNCESSION :
Quamquam intellegunt, though they anderstand. Cic. Etsi nihil habeat,
although, he has notháng. Cic. See also 311, 4; 514; 515.
V. FINAL CoNJUNCTIONS denote PURPosE :
Ësse oportet, ut viväs, ét ís necessary to eat, tha* gow mag/ Jóve. Cic. See
also 311, 5; 497-499.
VI. CoNSECUTIvE CoNJUNCTIONS denote CoNSEQUENCE or RESULT:
Atticus ita vixit, ut Athéniénsibus esset, cärissimus, Atticvs so /3o/ed that
he wa8 very dear to the Athenians. Nep. See also 311, 6; 500—504.
VII. CAUSAL CoNJUNCTIONS denote CAUSE :
Quae cum ita sint, sânce these thángs are so. Cie. See also 311, 7; 516; 517.
VIII. lNTERROGATIVE CoNJUNCTIONS or Particles denote 1N qUIRY or QUEs-
TION :
Quaesieräs, nónne putärem, gyoυ λαd asked ov/Aether V dêd not ἐλέηλ. Cic.
See also 311, 8; 351—353 ; 529.
324 RULES OF SYNTAX.
556. INTERJECTIONs are sometimes used entirely alone, as āhew,
‘alas ! ” and sometimes with certain cases of nouns; see 381, with
note 3.
557. Various parts of speech, and even oaths and imprecations,
sometimes have the force of interjections:
Päx (peace), be still / miserum, miseråbile, sad, lamentable / Grö, pray /
age, agite, come, well / meherculés, by Hercules / per delim fidem, in the
name of the gods / sâdés = si audès (for audiès), if you will hear /
C H A P T E R V | 1.
EUILES OF STYNTAX.
558, For convenience of reference, the principal Rules of Syn-
tax are here introduced in a body.
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS.
I. A noun predicated of another noun denoting the same person
or thing agrees with it in CASE (362): ſº
Brütus custos libertătis fuit, Brutus was the guardian of liberty.
II. An Appositive agrees in CASE with the noun or pronoun
which it qualifies (363):
Cluílius réx moritur, Clužlius the king dies.
NOMINATIVE.-WOCATIVE.
III. The Subject of a Finite verb is put in the Nominative (368):
Servius régnâvit, Servius reigned.
IV. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put in the
Vocative (369):
Perge, Laeli, proceed, Laelius.
ACCUSATIVE.
W. The DIRECT OBJECT of an action is put in the Accusative
(371):
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God made (built) the world.
VI. Verbs of MAKING, CHOOSING, CALLING, REGARDING, SHOW-
ING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same person or
thing (373):
Hamilcarem imperätórem fécèrunt, they made Hamilcar commander.
RULES OF Sy NTAX. 325
VII. Some verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, TEACHING, and CON-
cEALING admit two Accusatives—one of the person and the other
of the thing (374):
Mé sententiam rogăvit, he asked me my opinion.
VIII. A verb or an adjective may take an Accusative to define
its application (378):
Capita vélāmur, we have our heads veiled.
IX. DURATION OF TIME and ExTENT OF SPACE are expressed by
the Accusative (379):
Septem et trigintā régnävit annós, he reigned thirty-seven years. Quinque
milia passuum anbulāre, to walk five miles.
X. The PLACE To which is designated by the Accusative (380):
I. Generally with a preposition—ad or in :
Legiónés ad urbem addûcit, he is leading the legions to or toward the city.
II. In names of towns without a preposition:
Nūntius Römam redit, the messenger returns to Rome.
XI. The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may
be used in Exclamations (381):
Heu mé miserum, ah me unhappy /
DATIVE.
XII. The INDIRECT OBJECT of an action is put in the Dative.
It is used (384)—
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs:
Tibi servió, I am devoted to you.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs, in connection with the DIRECT OBJECT:
Agrós plebi dedit, he gave lands to the common people.
XIII. Two Datives—the OBJECT TO WHICH and the OBJECT or
END FOR WHICH-occur with a few verbs (390):
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs:
Maló est hominibus avāritia, avarice is an evil to men.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs in connection with the ACCUSATIVE:
Quinque cohortés castris praesidió reliquit, he left five cohorts for the dé-
fence of the camp.
XIV. With adjectives, the objFCT To which the quality is di-
rected is put in the Dative (391):
Omnibus cârum est, it is dear to all.
326 RULES OF SYNTAX.
XV. The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs
(392):
I. With a few nouns from verbs which take the Dative:
Jústitia est obtemperätiö légibus, justice is obedience to law8. e
II. With a few adverbs from adjectives which take the Dative:
Congruenter nåturae vivere, to live in accordance with nature.
GENITIVE.
XVI. Any noun, not an Appositive, qualifying the meaning of
another noun, is put in the Genitive (395):
Catánis Arāfi'īnās, Cato's orations.
XVII. Many adjectives take a Genitive to complete their mean-
ing (399): -
Avidus laudis, desirous of praise.
XVIII. A noun predicated of another noun denoting a different
person or thing is put in the Genitive (401):
Omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy.
XIX. The Genitive is used (406)—
I. With misereor and miserésco :
Miserére labórum, pity the labors.
II. With recordor, memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor:
Meminit praeteritórum, he remembers the past.
III. With réfert and interest :
Interest omnium, it is the interest of all.
XX. The ACCUSATIVE of the PERSON and the GENITIVE of the
THING are used with a few transitive verbs (409):
I. With verbs of reminding, admonishing:
Tè amicitiae commonefacit, he remºnds you of friendship.
II. With verbs of accusing, convicting, acquitting:
Virós sceleris arguis, you accuse men of crime.
III. With miseret, paenitel, pudet, taedet, and piget:
Eórum nós miseret, we pity them.
ABLATIVE PROPER.
XXI. The PLACE FROM WITICH is denoted by the Ablative (112):
I. Generally with a preposition—a, ab, dé, or ex:
Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city.
RULES OF SVNTAX. 32?
II. In NAMEs of Towns without a preposition:
Platonem Athénis arcessivit, he summoned Plato from Athens.
XXII. Separation, Source, and Cause are denoted by the Abla-
tive with or without a preposition (413):
Caedem ä vöbis dépelló, I ward off slaughter from you. Höc audiwi dé
parente með, I heard this from my father. Ars utilitäte laudātur, an art is
praised because of its usefulness.
XXIII. Comparatives without QUAM are followed by the Abla-
tive (4.17):
Nihil estamābilius virtùte, nothing is more lovely than virtue.
INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.
XXIV. The Ablative is used (419)—
I. To denote ACCOMPANIMENT. It then takes the preposition cum :
Vivit cum Balbö, he lives with Balbus.
II. To denote CHARACTERISTIC or QUALITY. It is then modified by an
Adjective or by a Genitive:
Summâ virtùte adulêscèns, a youth of the highest virtue.
III. To denote MANNER. It then takes the preposition cum, or is mod-
ified by an Adjective or by a Genitive:
Cum virtùte vixit, he lived virtuously.
XXV. INSTRUMENT and MEANs are denoted by the Ablative (420):
Cornibus tauri sã tutantur, bulls defend themselves with their horns.
XXVI. The Ablative is used (421)—
I. With titor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds:
Plürimis rébus fruimur et àtimur, we enjoy and use very many things.
II. With VERBs and ADJECTIVES OF PLENTY :
Villa abundat lacte, caseč, melle, the villa abounds in milk, cheese, and honey.
III. With dignus, indignus, and contentus:
Digni Sunt amicitiã, they are worthy of friendship.
XXVII. PRICE is generally denoted by the Ablative (122):
Vēndidit aurö patriam, he sold his country for gold.
XXVIII. The MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE is denoted by the Ab-
lative (423):
Uno diè longiðrem mênsem faciunt, they make the month one day longer.
XXIX. A noun, adjective, or verb may take an Ablative to de-
fine its application (424):
Nômine, non potestäte, fuit rex, he was king in name, not in power.
328 RULES OF SVNTAX.
LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.
XXX. The PLACE IN WHICH is denoted (425)—
I. Generally by the Locative Ablative with the preposition in :
Hannibal in ſtalia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy.
II. In NAMES OF Towns by the Locative, if such a form exists, other-
wise by the Locative Ablative:
Römae fuit, he was at Rome.
XXXI. The TIME of an action is denoted by the Ablative
(129): º
Octogësimó annó est mortuus, he died in his eightieth year.
XXXII. A noun and a participle may be put in the Ablative to
add to the predicate an attendant circumstance (431):
Servió régnante viguèrunt, they flourished in the reign of Servius.
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
XXXIII. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with prepo-
sitions (432):
Ad amicum, to a friend. In Italia, in Italy.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, AND VERBs.
XXXIV. An adjective agrees with its noun in GENDER, NUM-
BER, and CASE (438):
Fortúna caeca est, fortune is blind.
XXXV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in GENDER, NUM-
BER, and PERSON (445):
Animal, quod sanguinem habet, an animal which has blood.
XXXVI. A finite verb agrees with its subject in NUMBER and
PERSON (460):
Ego régès ejécI, I have banished kings.
USE OF THE INDICATIVE.
XXXVII. The Indicative is used in treating of facts (474):
Deus mundum aedificăvit, God Anade (built) the world.
MOODS AND TENSES IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSEs.
XXXVIII. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action NOT
AS REAL, but As DESIRED (483):
Valeant civés, may the citizens be well.
R UL ES OF SYNTAX. 329
XXXIX. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action NOT As
REAL, but As PossIBLE (485):
Hic quaerat quispiam, here 8ome one may înquîre.
XL. The Imperative is used in COMMANDS, EXHORTATIONS, and
ENTREATIES (487):
Jüstitiam cole, practice justóce.
MooDs AND TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs.
XLI. Principal tenses depend upon principal tenses ; historical
upon historical (491):
Enititur ut vincat, he Stríves to conquer.
XLII. The Subjunctive is used to denote PURPOSE (497)—
I. With the relative qui, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, etc.:
Missi sunt qui (= ut î) cönsulerent Apollinem, they were sent to consul;
Apollo.
II. With ut, në, quö, quóminus:
Ënititur ut vineat, he strìves that he may conquer.
XLIII. The Subjunctive is used to denote RESULT (500)—
I. With the relative qui, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, cür,
etc. :
Nön is sum qui (= ut ego) his ütar, I am, not 8uch, a one a8 to v8e the8e
things.
II. With ut, ut nön, quin :
Ita vixit ut Athéniénsibus esset cärissimus, he 8o lived that he wa8 very
dear to the Athenians.
XLIV. Conditional sentences with si, nisi, ni, $in, take (507)—
I. The INDICATIVE in both clauses to assume the supposed case:
SI spiritum dücit, vivit, £f he breathes, he is alive.
II. The PRESENT or PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses to represent
the supposed case as possible :
Diès déficiat, SI velim causam défendere, the day would faïï me, éf I 8hould
wish to defend the cause.
III. The IMPERFECT or PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses to rep-
resent the supposed case as contrary to fact:
Plùribus verbis ad tè scriberem, si rés verba dêsîderâret, I 8hould write to
3/ou more,fully (with more words), óf the ease required words.
XLV. Conditional clauses take the Subjunctive (513)—
330 R UILES OF SYNTAX.
I. With dum, modo, dummodo, * if only,' * provided that '; dum në,
modo në, dummodo në, * if only not,' * provided that not ':
Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, mental power8 rem aën, £f only
ἀndustry remains.
iI. With ào si, It si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanquam si, velut,
velut si, * as if,' ' tham if,' involving an ellipsis of the real conclusion:
IPerinde habêbô, àe si scripsissës, I Shall regard öt ju$t a8 %7* (i. e., as I
- should if)gyou had written.
XLVI. Concessive clauses take (515)—
I. Generally the INDICATIVE in the best prose, when introduced by
qvamq^ιαη :
Quamquam intellegunt, though they wnder8tand.
II. The INDICATIVE or SUBJUNCTIVE when introduced by ets?, etiamsì,
tametsì, or 87, like conditional clauses with sì :
Etsi nihil sciö quod gaudeam, though I know no reason, why I should rejoice.
III. The SUBJUNCTIVE When introduced by licet, quamvìs, ut, nê, eum, or
the relative quî :
ILicet irrideat, though, he may deríde.
XLVII. Causal clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quandö, gen-
erally take (516)—
I. The INDICATIVE to assign a reason positively on one's own authority:
Quoniam supplicätiö dëcréta est, 8înee a thanksgáváng ha8 been deereed.
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's au-
thority: -
Sócratês accüsätus est, quod corrumperet juventútem, Socrate8 vas accu$ed,
becau8e he corrupted the 3youth.
XLVIII. Causal clauses with eum and quî generally take the
Subjunctive in writers of the best period (517):
Cum vita metüs plêna sit, 8înce ?ífe ó8 full qffear.
XLIX. In temporal clauses with po8tquam, po8teáquam, ubi, ut,
8imul atque, etc., * after,' * when,' * as soon as,' the Indicative is
used (518):
Postquam vidit, etc., castra posuit, he pótched his camp, qfter he saw, etc.
L. I. Temporal clauses with dum, dönee, and quoad, in the sense
of WHILE, As LONG As, take the INDICATIVE (519):
Haec féci, dum licuit, I did this while it was allowed.
II. Temporal clauses with dum, dönee, and quoad, in the sense
Of UNTIL, take—
RULES OF SIZNTAX. 331
1. The INDICATIVE, when the action is viewed as an ACTUAL FACT:
Déliberă höc, dum ego redeó, consider this until I return.
2. The SUBJUNCTIVE, when the action is viewed as something DESIRED,
PROPOSED, or CONCEIVED:
Differant, dum défervēscat Ira, let them defer it tºll their anger cools.
LI. In temporal clauses with antequam and privsquam (520)—
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and Pluperfect is put—
1. In the INDICATIVE, when the action is viewed as an ACTUAL FACT :
Priusquam lucet, adsunt, they are present before it is light.
2. In the SUBJUNCTIVE, when the action is viewed as some THING DL-
SIRED, PROPOSED, or conceived :
Antequam dé ré publică dicam, before I (can) speak of the republic.
II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the SUBJUNCTIVE:
Antequam urbem caperent, before they took the city.
LII. In temporal clauses with cum (521)—
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect is put in the
INDICATIVE:
Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are silent, they approve.
II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put—
1. In the INDICATIVE, when the temporal clause ASSERTS AN HISTORICAL
FACT :
Pāruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary.
2. In the SUBJUNCTIVE, when the temporal clause simply DEFINES THE
TIME of the principal action:
Cum epistulam complicãrem, while I was folding the letter.
LIII. The principal clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE on becom-
ing INDIRECT take the INFINITIVE or SUBJUNCTIVE as follows (523):
I. When Declarative, they take the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative:
DIcébat animós esse divinës, he was wont to say that souls are divine.
II. When INTERRoGATIVE, they take—
1. Generally the Subjunctive:
Ad postulata Caesaris respondit, quid sibi vellet, cur veniret, to the dé-
mands of Caesar he replied, what did he wish, why did he come?
2. Sometimes the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative, as in rhetorical
questions:
Docébant rem esse testimonio, etc.; quid esse levius, they showed that the
Jact was a proof, etc.; what was more inconsiderate 3
332; RULES OF SYNTAX.
III. When IMPERATIVE, they take the Subjunctive:
Scribit Labiénô cum legióne veniat, he writes to Labienus to come (that he
should come) with a legion.
LIV. The subordinate clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE, on be-
coming INDIRECT, take the Subjunctive (524):
Respondit sé id quod in Nervijs fecisset facturum, he replied that he would
do what he had done in the case of the Mervii.
LV. The Subjunctive is used (529)—
I. In indirect questions:
Quaeritur, clir déctissimi hominés dissentiant, it is a question, why the
most learned men disagree.
II. Often in clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon another Sub-
junctive:
Nihil indignius est quam eum qui culpá careat supplició non carére, noth-
&ng is more shameful than that he who is free from fault should not be eſc-
empt from punishment.
INFINITIVE.
LVI. Many verbs admit an Infinitive to complete or qualify their
moaning (#33).
Haec witäre cupimus, we desire to avoid these things.
LVII. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative and an
Infinitive (534):
Té Sapere docet, he teaches you to be wise.
LVIII. The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as its sub-
ject (536):
Platonem Tarentum vénisse reperio, I find that Plato came to Tarentum.
SUPINE.
LIX. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express
PURPOSE (546):
Légāti vénérunt rés repetitum, deputies came to demand restitution.
LX. The Supine in iſ is generally used as an Ablative of Speci-
fication (547):
Quid est tam jūcundum auditti, what is so agreeable to hear (in hearing)?
ADVERBs.
LXI. Adverbs qualify VERBs, ADJECTIVES, and other ADVERBS
(551) :
Sapientès féliciter vivunt, the wise live happily.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 333
CHAPTER VIII.
A R. R. A. N. G. E M E N T OF WO R. D S A. IN ID
C I. A U S IF. S. *
559. The Latin admits of great variety in the arrangement of
the different parts of the sentence, thus affording peculiar facilities
both for securing proper emphasis, and for imparting to its periods
that harmonious flow which characterizes the Latin classics. But
with all this freedom and variety, there are certain general laws of
arrangement which it will be useful to notice.
I. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDs.
General Rules.
56O. The Subject followed by its modifiers occupies the first
place in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded by its modifiers
the last place :
Söl oriëns diem conficit, the sun rising makes the day. Cic. Animus aeger
semper errat, a diseased mind always errs. Cic. Miltiadès Athènás liberăvit,
Miltiades liberated Athens. Nep.
561. EMPHASIs and EUPHONY affect the arrangement of words.
I. Any word, except the subject, may be made emphatic by being placed
at the BEGINNING of the sentence:
Silent leges inter arma, laws ARE SILENT in war. Cic. Wumitóri Remus
déditur, Remus is delivered To NUMITOR. Liv.
II. Any word, except the predicate, may be made emphatic by being
placed at the END of the sentence:
Nóbis non satisfacit ipse Demosthenās, even DEMOSTHENEs does not satisfy
ws. Cic. Cönsulātum petivit nånguam, he NEVER Sought the consulship. Cic.
III. Two words naturally connected, as a noun and its adjective, or a
noun and its Genitive, are sometimes made emphatic by SEPARATION:
Objurgåtñónès nônnünquam incidunt necessäriae, Sometimes necessary RE-
PRoofs occur. Cic. Jüstitiae fungätur officiis, let him discharge the duties of
justice. Cic.
NoTE.—A word may be made emphatic by being placed between the parts of a com-
pound tense: &
Māgna adhibita cüra est, great care has been taken. Cic.
562. CHIASMUs.”—When two groups of words are contrasted,
the Order of the first is often reversed in the second :
1 So called from the Greek letter X.
334 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet, the imperishable Soul moves the
perishable body. Cic.
563, KINDRED WoRDs.—Different forms of the same word, or
different words of the same derivation, are generally placed near
each other:
Ad Senem senex dé senectiite scripsi, I, an old man, wrote to an old man
on the subject of old age. Cic. Inter sé aliis alii proSunt, they benefit each
other. Cic.
564. A word which has a COMMON RELATION to two other words
connected by conjunctions, is placed—
I. Generally before or after both :
Pācis et artés et glória, both the arts and the glory of peace. Liv. Belli
pācisque artés, the arts of war and of peace. Liv.
NoTE.—A Genitive or an adjective following two nouns may qualify both, but it
more frequently qualifies only the latter:
Haec percünctätiö ac dénêntiátíð belli, this inquiry and this declaration of war. Liv.
II. Sometimes directly after the first before the conjunction:
Honóris certämen et glóriae, a struggle for honor and glory. Cic. Agri
omnés et maria, all lands and seas. Cic.
Special Rules.
565. The MoDIFIERs of A Noun generally follow it. They
may be either adjectives or nouns:
Populus Römānus décrévit, the Roman people decreed. Cic. Hérodotus,
pater historiae, Herodotus, the father of history. Cic. Liber dé officiis, the
book on duties. Cic.
1. Modifiers, when emphatic, are placed before their nouns:
Tuscus ager Römånö adjacet, the TUSCAN territory borders on the Roman. Liv.
2. When a noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Genitive, the usual order
is, Adjective—Genitive—noun: *-
Māgna civium péniria, a great scarcity of citizens. Cic.
3. An adjective is often separated from its noun by a monosyllabic preposition:
Māgnö cum periculê essé, to be attended with great peril. Cic.
4. In the poets an adjective is often separated from its noun by the modifier of another
In OUIIA -
Inspéráta tuae veniet pluma Superbiae, the unea pected down shall come upon your
Zyride. Hor.
566. The MoDIFIERS OF AN ADJECTIVE generally precede it,
but, if not adverbs, they may follow it:
Facile döctissimus, unquestionably the most learned. Cic. Omni aetăti
communis, common to every age. Cic. Avidus laudis, desirous of praise.
Cic.
567. The MoDIFIERs of A VERB generally precede it:
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 335
Glória virtùtem sequitur, glory follows virtue. Cic. Mundus deú påret,
the world is subject to God. Cic. Vehementer dixit, he spoke vehemently. Cic.
1. When the verb is placed at the beginning of the sentence, the modifiers, of course,
follow; see the first example under 561, I.
22. An emphatic modifier may of course stand at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence (561):
Facillimë cágnóscuntur adulēscentós, most easily are the young men recognized. Cic.
3. Of two or more modifiers belonging to the same verb, that which in thought is
most intimately connected with the verb stands next to it, while the others are arranged
as emphasis and euphony may require: *
Mors propter brevitätem vitae nānquam longū abest, death is never far distant, in
consequence of the shortness of life. Cic.
568. The MoDIFIERs of AN ADVERB generally precede it, but
a Dative often follows it:
Valdé vehementer dixit, he spoke very vehemently. Cic. Congruenter
nātūrae vivit, he lives agreeably to nature. Cic.
569. SPECIAL WoRDs.—Some words have a favorite place in
the sentence, which they seldom leave. Thus—
I. The Demonstrative generally precedes its noun:
Custós hiljus urbis, the guardian of this city. Cic.
1. Ille in the sense of well-known (450, 4) generally follows its noun, if not accom-
panied by an adjective:
Médéa illa, that well-known Medea. Cic.
2. Pronouns are often brought together, especially Quisque with swus or swi:
Jüstitia suum cuique tribuit, justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cic. Qui
Sésé Student praestäre, etc., who are eager to eaccel, etc. Sall.
II. Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but tenus
and versus follow their cases:
In Asiam profugit, he fled into Asia. Cic. Collo tenus, up to the neck. Ov.
1. The preposition frequently follows the relative, sometimes other pronouns, and
sometimes even nouns, especially in poetry:
Rés quâ dé agitur, the subject of which we are treating. Cic. Italiam contrā, over
against Italy. Verg. Corpus in Aeacidae, into the body of Aeacides. Werg.
2. For cum appended to an Ablative, see 184, 6; 18?, 2.
3. Genitives, adverbs, and a few other words sometimes stand between the preposi-
tion and its case. In adjurations per is usually separated from its case by the Accusa-
tive of the object adjured, or by some other word; and sometimes the verb Örö is omitted:
Post Alexandri mágni mortem, after the death of Aleaxander the Great. Cic. Ad
bene wivendum, for living well. Cic. Per ego has lacrimås té Örö, I implore you by
these tears. Werg. Per ego vös deos (= per dečs ego vös 6rö), I pray you in the name
of the gods. Curt.
III. Conjunctions and Relatives, when they introduce clauses, generally
stand at the beginning of such clauses; but autem, enim, guidem, quoque,
vérô, and generally igitur, follow some other word:
Si peccavi, Ignúsce, if I have erred, pardon me. Cic. Il qui superiorés
336 ARRANGEMENT OF CLA USE'S.
sunt, those who are superior. Cic. Ipse autem omnia vidébat, but he himself
saw all things. Cic.
1. A conjunction may follow a relative or an emphatic word, and a relative may follow
an emphatic word:
Id ut audiwit, as he heard this. Nep. Quae cum ita sint, since these things are so.
Cic. Tröjae qui primus ab Öris vénit, who came first from the shores of Troy. Werg.
NOTE.-Certain conjunctions, as et, mec, Sed, and even awt and vel, are more frequently
removed from the beginning of the clause in poetry than in prose :
Compressus et omnis impetus, and all violence was checked. Werg.
2. Né—guidem takes the emphatic word or words between the two parts:
Né in oppidis quidem, not even in the towns. Cic.
8. Quidom often follows pronouns, superlatives, and ordinals:
Ex mè quidem nihil audiet, from me indeed he will hear nothing. Cic.
4. Qwe, ve, me, introducing a clause or phrase, are generally appended to the first
word; but if that word is a preposition, they are often appended to the next word:
In foróque, and in the forum. Cic. Inter nôsque, and among us. Cic.
IV. Non, when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before that
word; but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire clause,
it sometimes stands at the beginning of the clause, and sometimes before
the finite verb or before the auxiliary of a compound tense:
Hāc villa carëre non possunt, they are not able to do without this villa. Cic.
Nön fuit Jüppiter metuendus, Jupiter was not to be feared. Cic. Fās non
putant, they do not think it right. Cic. Pecunia Solūta nón est, the money
has not been paid. Cic.
1. In general, in negative clauses the negative word, whether particle, verb, or noun,
is made prominent:
Negat quemguam pâsse, he denies that any one is able. Cic. Nihil est melius,
'nothing is better. Cic.
W. Inquam, sometimes àió, introducing a quotation, follows one or more
of the words quoted. The subject, if expressed, generally follows its verb:
Nihil, inquit Brutus, quod dicam, nothing which I shall State, said Brutus.
Cic.
WI. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It
usually follows an emphatic word:
Perge, Laeli, proceed, Laelius. Cic.
II. ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
57O. Clauses connected by coördinate conjunctions (554) fol-
low each other in the natural order of the thought, as in English:
Sól ruit et montës umbrantur, the Sun hastens to its setting, and the moun-
tains are shaded. Verg. Gygés à nülló vidébâtur, ipse autem omnia vidébat,
Gyges was seen by no one, but he himself saw all things. Cic.
571. A clause used as the SUBJECT of a complex sentence (348)
generally stands at the beginning of the sentence, and a clause used
as the PREDICATE at the end :
ARRANGEMENT OF CIA USES, 337
Quid diès ferat incertum est, what a day may bring forth is uncertain. Cic.
Exitus fuit Örātionis, sibi nullam cum his amicitiam esse, the close of the ora-
£ion was, that he had no friendship with these men. Caes.
1. This arrangement is the same as that of the simple sentence; see 560.
2. Emphasis and euphony often have the same effect upon the arrangement of clauses
as upon the arrangement of words; see 561.
572. Clauses used as the SUBORDINATE ELEMENTs of complex
sentences admit three different arrangements:
I. They are generally inserted within the principal clause, like the sub-
ordinate elements of a simple sentence:
Hostés, ubi primum noströs equités conspèxèrunt, celeriter noströs per-
turbävèrunt, the enemy, as Soon as they saw our cavalry, quickly put our men
to rout. Caes. Sententia, quae tütissima vidébâtur, vicit, the opinion which
seemed the Safest prevailed. Liv.
II. They are often placed before the principal clause:
Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are quiet, they approve. Cic. Qualis
sit animus, animus nescit, the Soul knows not what the Soul is. Cic.
NOTE.-This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause either refers
back to the preceding sentence, or is preparatory to the thought of the principal clause.
Hence temporal, conditional, and concessive clauses often precede the principal clause.
Hence also, in sentences composed of correlative clauses with is—qui, talis—qualis,
tamtus—quantus, tum—cum, ita—wt, etc., the relative member, i. e., the clause with
gwi, guðs, quantus, cum, wit, etc., generally precedes.
III. They sometimes follow the principal clause:
Enititur ut wincat, he strives that he may conquer. Cic. Sól efficit ut omnia
flóreant, the Sun causes all things to bloom. Cic.
NoTE.—This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause is either
intimately connected in thought with the following sentence, or explanatory of the prim-
cipal clause. Hence, clauses of Purpose and Result generally follow the principal clause,
as in the examples.
573. LATIN PERIODs.—A complex sentence in which two or
more subordinate clauses are inserted within the principal clause is
called a PERIOD in the strict sense of the term.
NoTE 1.-The examples given under 572, I., are short and simple examples of Latin
Periods.
NotE 2.—Many Latin periods consist of several carefully constructed clauses so united
as to form one complete harmonious whole. For examples, see Cicero's Third Oration
against Catiline, XII., “Sed quoniam . . . providére"; also Livy, I., 6, ‘Numitor, inter
primum . . . ostendit.”
NotE 3.-In a freer sense the term Period is sometimes applied to all complex sen-
tences which end with principal clauses. In this sense the examples given uuder 572,
II., are Periods. Many carefully elaborated Latin sentences are constructed in this way;
see Cicero's Oration for the Poet Archias, I., ‘Quod si haec . . . débémus’; also the First
Oration against Catiline, XIII., ‘Ut saepe hominés . . . ingravescet.”
15
338 RULES OF QUAWTITY.
PART FOURTH.
P R O S O T) Y .
574. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification.
C H A P T E R I.
QUANTITY.
575. The time occupied in pronouncing a syllable in poetry
is called its quantity.” Syllables are accordingly characterized as
long, short, or common.”
I. GENERAL RULES OF QUANTITY.
576. A syllable is LONG IN QUANTITY-
I. If it contains a DIPHTHONG, or is the result of CON-
TRACTION :
haec, foedus, aura; cogó (for coigö), occido (for occaedo), nil (for nihil).
1. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel: praeacidus.
II. If its vowel is followed by J, X, or Z, or any Two
CONSONANTS except a mute and a liquid : *
mājor, dux, Servus, Sunt, regunt, régnum, agmen.
1. But one or both of the consonants must belong to the same word as the
vowel: at 4 Séde, per 4 saca.
NoTE 1.-H has no tendency in combination with any consonant to lengthen a pre-
ceding syllable. Hence in such words as Achaeus, Athénae, the first syllable is short.
NotE 2.-In the early poets a short final syllable ending in 8 remained short before
a word beginning with a consonant; sometimes also short final syllables ending in other
consonants: imäginis formam, enim vérô, erał dictó.5
1 In many cases the quantity of syllables may be best learned from the Dictionary,
but in others the student may be greatly aided by certain general statements or rules.
* That is, sometimes long and sometimes short.
* Here the syllable is long by nature iſ the vowel is long, but long only by position
if the vowel is short. For the quantity of vowels before two consonants or a double con-
Sonant, see 651.
* Here ab becomes long before 8 in Sédé, and per before 8 in Saaja.
* Here the syllables is, im, and at remain short.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 339
NoTE 3.−In the early poets many syllables long by position in the Augustan poets
are sometimes short, as the first syllable of ecce, ergö, ille, inter, omnis, unde, wator.
NOTE 4.—A final syllable ending in a vowel is occasionally, though rarely, lengthened
by consonants at the beginning of the following word.
NOTE 5.—In Greek words a syllable with a vowel before a mute and a nasal is some-
times short: cycnus, Tecmessa.
2. In the compounds of jugum, the syllable before j is short: bījugus.
577. A syllable is SHORT IN QUANTITY if its vowel is
followed in the same word by another Vow EL, by a DIPH-
THONG, or by the aspirate H :
diès, doceó, viae, nihil.
I. The following vowels, with the syllables which contain them, are
long by ExcEPTION:
1. A–(1) in the Genitive ending 37 of Dec. I. : aulāī (2) in proper
names in divis: Gäius (Gäjus); (3) before ia, ie, io, iv, in the verb dió.
2. E—(1) in the ending 37 of Dec. V. when preceded by a vowel: digi,
and sometimes when preceded by a consonant: fidéï, rā, often in the Da-
tive Singular of the pronoun is: â, (2) in proper names in Čius: Pom-
pêius ; (3) in Öhew, and in Rhéa."
3. I—(1) in the verb fió, when not followed by er: fiam, fiébam, but
jieri ; * (2) in divis, a, wºn (for divus, a, wrm); (3) generally in the Genitive
ending ius: alius, illius ; (4) sometimes in Dâma.
4. O—sometimes in Öhé.
5. In Greek words vowels are often long before a vowel, because long
in the original: āār, Aemääs, Briséïs, Meneldus, Tröes.
NoTE.—This often occurs in proper names in Ča, ia, Čus, iw8, dön, ión, äis, Öis,
Öius: Médéa, Aleaxandria, Pénéus, Dāržw8, Oričn. -
578. A syllable is CoMMON IN QUANTITY if its vowel,
naturally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid :
ager, agri; pater, patris; duplex, triplex.
NOTE 1.-A syllable ending in a mute in the first part of a compound before a liquid
at the beginning of the second part is long : ab-rumpô, ob-rogö.
NOTE 2.-In Plautus and Terence a syllable with a short vowel before a mute and a
liquid is short.
II. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES.
579. Monosyllables are long :
ă, dà, té, sé, dé, si, qui, dö, pro, tú, dös, pès, SIs, běs, süs, pār, Söl.
* The name of the daughter of Numitor, and of a priestess in Wergil. In Rhéâ, anoth-
er name for Cybelč, the e is short. -
* Sometimes fieri in Plautus and Terence,
340 RULES OF QUAWTITY.
I. The following are short by Exception:
1. Enclitics: que, we, ne, ce, te, pse, ple.
2. Monosyllables in b, d, l, m, t: ab, ad, fel, sum, et; except sal, sol.
3. An, bis, cis, cor, es, fac, fer, in, is, nec, os (ossis), per, ter, qua (indef-
inite), quis, vir, was (vadis), and sometimes hie and höe in the Nominative
and Accusative.
58O. In words of more than one syllable—
I. The final vowels i, o, and u are long; a, e, and y,
short : *
mari, audi, servé, omninó, früctü, corni; via, maria, mare, misy.
II. Final syllables in c are long; in d, l, m, n, r, t, short :
ăléc, illic ; illud, cónsul, amem, Carmen, amor, caput.
NotE 1.-Dômec and ličn are exceptions.
NoTE 2.—Final syllables in n and r are long in many Greek words which end long in
the original: as Titán, Anchisén, Hymén, Delphim, àér, aethér, crátēr.
III. The final syllables as, es, and os are long ; is, us,
ys, short :
amås, mēnsås, monés, nuběs, servös; avis, urbis, bonus, chlamys.
NoTE 1.-The learner will remember that short final syllables like is, us, etc., may be
lengthened by being placed before a word beginning with a consonant; see 576, II.
NotE 2.—Plautus retains the original quantity of many final syllables usually short in
the Augustan age. Thus the endings à, é, d!, dr, Ör, is, iſs, àt, €t, it, often stand in place
of the later endings a, e, al, ar, or, is, us, at, et, it (21). Some of these early forms
are retained by Terence, and some of them occasionally occur in the Augustan poets.
NoTE 3.—Plautus and Terence, in consequence of the colloquial character of comedy,
often shorten whaccented final syllables after an accented short syllable : ama, abi,
dedi, domi, domo, viro, pedes.
NotE 4.—In Plautus and Terence the doubling of a letter does not usually affect the
quantity of the syllable : ll in ille, mºm in immö, pp in opportúné.
581. Numerous exceptions to the general rule for the
quantity of final syllables occur even in classical Latin:
I. I final, usually LONG, is sometimes SHORT or CoMMON.—
1. SHORT in misi, quasi, cui (when a dissyllable), and in the Greek ending
86 of the Dative and Ablative Plural.
2. CoMMON in mihš, tibi, Sibä, äbä, ubå, and in the Dative and Vocative
Singular of some Greek words.
II. O final, usually LoNG, is SHORT- a
1. In duo, ego, octo, eho, in the adverbs cito, ilico, modo, and its compounds,
dummodo, guðmodo, etc., in cedo, and in the old form endo.
* U is short in indu and ménw. Contracted syllables are long, according to 576, I.
RULES OF QUAWTITY. 341
2. Sometimes (1) in nouns of Dec. III. and (2) in verbs, though very
rarely in the best poets.
III. A final, usually SHORT, is LONG—
1. In the Ablative : mænsă, bond, Żllà.
2. In the Vocative of Greek nouns in as: Aenéā, Palló.1
3. In Verbs and Particles: amá, ciºră, circă, juactâ, anted, frustrå. Ex-
cept ita, quia, Čja, hāja, and puta used adverbially.
IV. E. final, usually SHORT, is LONG—
1. In Dec. I. and V.,2 and in Greek plurals of Dec. III. : epitomě ; ré, die;
tempe, melé.
2. Generally in the Dative ending & of Dec. III. : aerû = aeri.
3. In the Singular Imperative Active of Conj. II. : moné, docé. But e is
sometimes short in cavč, vidé, etc.”
4. In fera, fermé, Öhé, and in adverbs from adjectives of Dec. II. : docte,
*ēcta. Except bene, male, inferne, interne, Superne.
V. As final, usually LONG, is SHORT-
1. In anas and in a few Greek nouns in as: Arcas, lampas.
2. In Greek Aécusatives of Dec. III. : Arcadas, heróas.
VI. Es final, usually LONG, is SHORT-
1. In Nominatives Singular of Dec. III. with short increment (582) in
the Genitive: miles (itis), obses (idis), interpres (etis). Except abiès, ariés,
pariés, Cerós, and compounds of pés, as bipes, tripës, etc.
2. In penes and the compounds of es, as ades, potes.
3. In Greek words—(1) in the plural of those which increase in the Geni-
tive : Arcades, Trôades ; (2) in a few neuters in es: Hºppomenes ; (3) in a
few Vocatives Singular: Démosthenes.
VII. Os final, usually LoNG, is SHORT-
1. In compos, impos, eacos.
2. In Greek words with the ending short in the Greek: Delos, melos.
VIII. Is final, usually SHORT, is LoNG—
1. In plural cases: měnsis, Servis, vöbös. Hence foris, grátīs, ingrátīs.
2. In Nominatives of Dec. III. increasing long in the Genitive: Quiris
(itis), Salamis (inis). &
3. In the Singular Present Indic. Act. of Conj. IV. : audis.
NoTE.-Mävis, gwivās, wiervis, follow the quantity of vºs.
4. In the Singular Present Subj. Act. : possis, velis, nālis, mālīs.
* Sometimes in the Vocative of Greek nouns in as and és.
* Hence, in the compounds, hodić, pridić, postridić, guáré.
* In the comic poets many dissyllabic Imperatives with a short penult shorten the
ultimate: as habe, jube, mane, move, face, tene, etc.
342 RULES OF QUANTITY.
5. Sometimes in the Singular of the Future Perfect and of the Perfect
Subjunctive: amáverås, docuérås.
IX, Us final, usually SHORT, is LoNG—
1. In Nominatives of Dec. III. increasing long in the Genitive: virtùs
(útis), tellis (úris).
NoTE.—But palus (u short) occurs in Horace, Ars Poètica, 65.
2. In Dec. IV., in the Genitive Singular, and in the Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative Plural: frictis.
3. In Greek words ending long in the original: Panthiès, Sapphis, tripús.
NoTE.—But we have Oedipus and pâlypus.
III. QUANTITY IN INCREMENTS.
582. A word is said to increase in declension, when it has in
any case more syllables than in the Nominative Singular, and to
have as many increments of declension as it has additional syllables:
sermö, Sermönis, Sermönibus.”
583. A verb is said to increase in conjugation, when it has in
any part more syllables than in the second person singular of the
Present Indicative Active, and to have as many increments of conju-
gation as it has additional syllables: amás, amátis, amābātis.”
584. If there is but one increment, it is uniformly the penult;
if there are more than one, they are the penult with the requisite
number of syllables before it. The increment nearest the begin-
ning of the word is called the first increment, and those following
this are called successively the Second, third, and fourth increments.”
Increments of Declension.
585. In the Increments of Declension, a and o are long ;
e, i, u, and y, short : “
aetäs, aetătis, aetătibus; sermö, sermönis; puer, pueri, pueròrum ; fulgur,
fulguris; chlamys, chlamydis ; bonus, bonārum, bonorum; ille, illārum, il-
lórum ; miser, miseri; Supplex, Supplicis; Satur, Saturi.
I. A, usually LONG in the increments of declension, is SHORT in the first
increment—"
1 Sermönis, having one syllable more than sermö, has one increment, while sermöni-
buS has two increments.
* Amātis has one increment, amdībāţis two.
} 2 I 2 3
* In ser-mân-i-bus, the first increment is mān, the second i ; and in mon-w-e-rá-mws,
the first is w, the second e, the third rá.
* Y occurs only in Greek words, and is long in the increments of nouns in yn and of
a few others.
* Observe that the exceptions belong to the first increment.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 343
1. Of masculines in al and ar: Hannibal, Hannibalis; Caesar, Caesaris.
2. Of nouns in 8 preceded by a consonant: daps, dapis ; Arabs, Arabás;
hiems, hiemis.
3. Of Greek nouns in a and as : poèma, poèmatis ; Pallas, Palladis.
4. Of (1) baccar, hêpar, jubar, Šár, nectar, pār, and its compounds; (2)
anas, mās, was (vadis); (3) Sāl, fax, and a few rare Greek words in aa.
II. O, usually LONG in the increments of declension, is SHORT in the first
increment—"
1. Of Neuters in Declension III. : aequor, aequorºs; tempus, temports.
Except ås (Öris), ador (adóris), and comparatives.
2. Of words in 8 preceded by a consonant: inops, inopis. Except Cyclõps
and hydröps.
3. Of arbor, bās, lepus; compos, impos, memor, immemor ; Allobrox, Cap-
padoa, praecoa.
4. Of most Patrials: Maced}, Macedonis.
5. Of many Greek nouns—(1) those in Ör: rhátór, Hector; (2) many in 5
and Ön increasing short in Greek: ačdón, ačdonis; (3) in Greek compounds
in pils or pus : tripús (odis), Oedipus.
III. E., usually SHORT in the increments of declension, is LoNG in the
first increment—
1. Of Declension W. : dić, dièrum, diábus, rebus. But in the Genitive and
Dative Singular sometimes short after a consonant: fidè7, Spää.
2. Of nouns in en, mostly Greek: lien, Žičnis; Sirén, Sirènis. So Anió,
Anièmès.
3. Of Celtiber, Jöer, vär, hêres, locuples, mercás, quiés, inquiès, requiés, plebs,
Zéc, réa, d'éc, d'éx, vervåc.
4. Of a few Greek words in as and ºr ; lebes, lebetis ; crátēr, crátēris. Ex-
cept åér and aether.
IV. I, usually SHORT in the increments of declension, is LoNG in the
first increment—
1. Of most words in ic : rādīa, rādīcis ; felia, felicis.”
2. Of dās, glis, lïs, vis, Quiris, Samnis.
3. Of delphin, and a few rare Greek words.
NoTE.–For quantity of i in the ending £us, see 577, 8.
V. U, usually SHORT in the increments of declension, is LoNG in the
first increment—
1. Of nouns in its with the Genitive in iris, itãs, i.dis ; füs, jūrīs; Salis,
saliſtis, paliſs, palādīs,8
2. Offir, fria:, lila, plus, Pollºw.
* See p. 342, foot-note 5.
* But short in appendia, calia, Cilia, filia, fornia, niac, pia, Salia, stria, and a
few others, chiefly proper names.
* But short in intercus, Ligus, pecus.
344 RULES OF QUAWTITY.
Increments of Conjugation.
586. In the Increments of Conjugation (583), a, e, and
o are long; i and u short :
amāmus, amèmus, amátóte ; regimus, sumus.
NoTE 1.-In ascertaining the increments of the irregular verbs, ferð, volò, and their
compounds, the full form of the Second person, feris, volis, etc., must be used. Thus
in ferébam and volébam, the increments are ré and lé.
NoTE 2.—In ascertaining the increments of reduplicated forms (255, I.), the re-
duplication is not counted. Thus dedimus has but one increment, di.
I. A, usually LONG in the increments of conjugation, is SHORT in the
first increment of dā: dare, dabam, circumdabam.
II. E, usually LONG in the increments of conjugation, is SHORT before r—
1. In the tenses in ram, rim, rö: amáveram, amāverim, amáveró; récerat,
récerit.
2. In the first increment of the Present and Imperfect of Conjugation III. :
*egere, regeris, regerem, regerer.
3. In the Future ending beris, bere: amáberis or -ere, moneberis.
4. Rarely in the Perfect ending erunt : Steterunt for Stetërunt, see 236,
note; also Systole, 608, WI.
III. I, usually SHORT in the increments of conjugation, is LoNG, except
before a vowel—
1. In the first increment of Conjugation IV., except imus of the Perfect:
audire, audīvī, auditum ; Sentire, sentimus; Sènsimus (Perfect).
2. In Conjugation III., in the first increment of Perfects and Supines in
iwi and itum (278), and of the parts derived from them (except imus of
the Perfect: trivineus): cupivi, cupiverat, cupitus ; petivi, Žetitus; capessivi,
capessitiºrus. Gāvīsus from gauded follows the same analogy.
3. In the endings im/us and its of the Present Subjunctive: simus, Sitis ;
velimus, večātis (240, 3).
4. In nôſite, mālātū, nālāte, and in the different persons of ibam, ibó, from
e5 (295).
5. Sometimes in the endings rimus and rátis of the Future Perfect and
Perfect Subjunctive: amāverimus, amáveritis.
IV. U, usually SHORT in the increments of conjugation, is Long in the
Supine and the parts formed from it: volātum, volūtūrots, amálūraſs.
IV. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVE ENDINGs.
587. The most important derivative endings may be classified
according to quantity as follows:
I. Derivative endings with a LoNG PENULT:
1. abrum, àcrum, àtrum:
flābrum, simulācrum, arātrum.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 345
2. Šdö, idó, údā; agö, igö, ügö:
dulcédé, cupidó, solitudé; voragö, origă, aerûgö.
3. ais, éis, Öis, Ötis, iné, Öné—in patronymics: 1
Ptolemäis, Chryséis, Minjis, Icariótis, Nérinë, Acrisióné.
4. Śla, ile; alis, élis, tilis:
queréla, ovīle; mortális, fidèlis, curúlis.
5. anus, énus, Önus, inus; ana, Gna, Öna, ina:
urbānus, egénus, patrönus, tribinus; membräna, haběna, annóna, la-
Cüna.
6. aris, arus; Örus, 5sus; āvus, ivus:
Salātāris, avărus; canórus, animóSus; octavus, aestivus.
7. atus, étus, itus, Ötus, iitus; atim, itim, iitim; etum, àta:”
ălătus, facétus, turritus, aegrötus, cornitus; singulátim, virítim, tribà-
tim ; quercêtum, monéta.
8. Éni, ini, Öni—in distributives:
Septénſ, quini, octüni.
II. Derivative endings with a SHORT PENULT—
1. adès, iadès, idés—in patronymics: 8
Aenéadés, Läertiadès, Tantalidès.
2. iacus, icus, idus: 4
Corinthiacus, modicus, cupidus.
3. Olus, ola, olum; ulus, ula, ulum; culus, cula, culum—in diminu-
tives:
filiolus, filiola, atriolum; hortulus, virgula, oppidulum; flösculus, par-
ticula, mùnusculum.
4. etās, itās—in nouns; iter, itus—in adverbs:
pietàs, véritās; fortiter, divinitus.
5, atilis, ilis, bilis—in verbals, inus—in adjectives denoting material
or time : *
versâtilis, docilis, amäbilis; adamantinus, cedrinus, crästinus, dilītinus.
NOTE: 1.-Ilis in adjectives from nouns usually has the penult long : civilis, hostilis,
puerilis, virilis.
NoTE 2.-Inus denoting characteristic (330) usually has the penult long : can’īnus,
eqwān w8, mar??vvs.
* Except Danais, Phöcais, Thébaïs, Néréis.
* Except (1) anhélitus, fortuitus, grätwitus, hâlitus, hospitus, Spiritus; (2) adfa-
tim, statiºn, and adverbs in itus, as divānātus; and (3) participles provided for by 586.
* Except (1) those in Ždés from nonna in eats and és : as, Pélidés (Péleus), Woo-
g!?dés (Neoclés); and (2) Amphiaráždés, Amyclidès, Bélèdès, Corónidés, Lycirgidés.
* Except amicus, anticus, apricus, mendźcus, posticvs, pudźcus.
* Except métiſtinus, repentinus, vespertinus.
346 RULES OF QUANTITY.
III. Derivative endings with a LoNG ANTEPENULT:
1. aceus, iceus, aneus, arius, arium, Örius:
rosäceus, panniceus, Subitāneus, cibārius, columbārium, cènsörius.
2. abundus, acundus; abilis, atilis, aticus: *
mirãbundus, irãcundus; amäbilis, versâtilis, aquàticus.
3. agintã, iginti, Ésimus—in numerals:
nónägintā, Vigintſ, centesimus.
4. imónia, imónium; tārius, sårius; toria, torium:
querimönia, alimónium ; amätórius, cènsörius; victória, auditórium.
1W. Derivative endings with a SHORT ANTEPENULT :
1. ibilis, itādā, olentus, ulentus:
crédibilis, solitiidó, vinolentus, opulentus.
2. urió—in desideratives :
ësurió, empturió, parturió.
W. QUANTITY OF STEM-SYLLABLEs.
588. All simple verbs in ió of the Third Conjugation (217)
have the stem-syllable * short:
capið, cupið, fació, fodió, fugió.
589. Most verbs which form the Perfect in uſ have the stem-
syllable short: --
domó, Seco, habeó, moneó, aló, colò.
NoTE.—Pömö, débeó, flöreč, Zoëreó, and several inceptive verbs, are exceptions.
590. Dissyllabic Perfects and Supines have the first syllable
long, unless short by position:
juvø, jūvi, jūtum; foveo, fovi, fotum.
1. Eight Perfects and ten Supines have the first syllable short:
bibi, dedi, fidi, liqui,” Scidi, Steti, Stiff, tuli, citum, datum, it wºm, litum,
quitum, ratum, rutum, Satum, situm, Statum.”
591. Trisyllabic Reduplicated Perfects have the first two syl-
lables short :
cadó, cecidi; canó, cecini; discó, didici.
NOTE 1.-Caedo has cecidž in distinction from Cecidi, from cadó.
NoTE 2.-The second syllable may be made long by position : cucurri, momordà.
592. In general, inflected forms retain the quantity of stem-syl-
lables unchanged: *
* That is, the syllable preceding the characteristic.
* Liqui from liqueó; Zingvö has liqui. Statum from sistö, Stö has stätum.
* But see Dis3yllabic Perfects and Supines, 590.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 347
avis, averm; nübès, nubium; levis, levior, levissimus; moneč, monébam,
HıOnuI.
NOTE. 1.-Position may, however, affect the quantity: ager, agrä; possum, potw?;
solvö, Solūţum; volvö, voliitum.1
MOTE 2.-Gégnä gives genwë, genitum, and până, postwi, posttum.
593. Derivatives generally retain the quantity of the stem-syl-
lables of their primitives:
bonus, bonitās; timeo, timor; animus, animosus; civis, civicus; cura, curó.
1. Words formed from the same root sometimes show a variation in the
quantity of stem-syllables:
dicò, dicò, personó, persöna,
dux, ducis, ducö, regö, réx, regis, régula,
fidès, fidê, Secus, sècius,
hom 5, humänus, seded, sèdès, Sédulus,
lateč, lāterna, serö, Sémen,
legö, lèx, légis, Sopor, Söpið, ...,
macer, mågerö, SuspicOr, suspició,
moved, móbilis, tegö, têgula,
nota, nôtum, Vadum, vādó,
odium, Ödi, Você, vöx, vöcis.
NoTE 1.—This change of quantity in some instances is the result of contraction, as
movibilis, moibilis, mābilis, and in others it serves to distinguish words of the same
orthography, as the verbs legis, legés, regis, regés, Sédés, from the nouns légis, légés,
arégis, régés, sédés, or the verbs dºcis, dūcés, fidès, from the nouns ducis, ducés, Jidés.
NotE 2.-A few derivatives shorten the long vowel of the primitive: âcer, acerbus;
Çüceó, lucerna; mélés, molesłus.
594. Compounds generally retain the quantity of their elements:
ante-ferö, dē-ferö, dē-dûcö, in-aequalis, pro-dûcö.
1. The change of a vowel or diphthong does not affect the quantity:
dé-ligó (legö), oc-cidó (cado), oc-CIdó (caedd).
2. The Inseparable Prepositions di, Sé, and vô are long, re short ; ne some-
times long and sometimes short: 4.
didlicó, Séducó, věcors, reducó ; nédum, nefis:
NoTE 1.-Di is short in dirimö and disertus.
NOTE 2.-Né is long in nédum, némö, négwam, néquáguam, néquiquam, néqwātia,
and névé. In other words it is short.
NoTE 3–Ré is sometimes lengthened in a few words: réligiö, réliquiae, rêperit,
répulit, rêtulit, etc. -
3. In a few words the quantity of the second element is changed. Thus—
Jüro gives jero, nātus, -nitus ; nübö, -nuba , dē-jeró, cóg-nitus, pro-nuba.
4. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel: praeacitus, prae-
#&#7/8.
5. Prö is short in the following words:
* Here the first syllable is short in ager, but common in agri (578); long in pos-
sum, 8olvö, volvö (576, II.), but short in potuń, solātum, and volāţum.
348 RULES OF QUAWTITY.
procella, procul, profinus, profiri, profectá, profestus, proftciscor, profiteor,
profugió, profugus, profundus, pronepôs, proneptis, protervus, and in most
Greek words, as propheta ; generally also in préfundo, prāpāgö, prāpāgö,
prôpinó, rarely in prücüró, prépelló.
6. At the end of a verbal stem compounded with fació or fio, e is gener-
ally short : *
calefació, calefió, läbefació, patefació.
7. I is usually long in the first part of the compounds of diós :
meridiés, pridié, postridié, cotidié, triduum.
8. O is long in contrö-, intrö-, retrö-, and quandú- in composition:
contrôversia, intródùcö, retrövertö, quandoque, but quandjquidem.
9. The quantity of the final & in ibá, ubi, and uti is often changed in corn-
position:
Žbidem, ibique ; ubique, ubinam, ubčvis, ubicunque, mecubč, Sicubi, utinam,
wfique, Sicut.
10. Hodić, quasi, quoque, and Siquidem have the first syllable short.
595. The Quantity of Stem-Syllables in cases not provided for
by any rules now given will be best learned from the Dictionary.
By far the larger number of such syllables will be found to be
short. For convenience of reference, a list of the most important
primitives with long stem-syllables is added : *
àCer célà dèled fortúna Iénis
adulor Céra, dicò (ere) frètus létum
â€r cicada dirus fümus liber (era, erum)
àla civis dives fúnis libó
àlea clámö divus fünus lilium
altăre clárus dônec furor (ārī) limen
andārūS clávus dönum gléba limes
ancile elémèns dicó glória linum
anhélus clivus dudum grämen liveč
antiquus códex dilrus rātus lörum
āra, cómis extrêmuS âmuS lüdó
ãrea Cömö făgus hérès Hüged
ăreč Côn Or fāma hèrös lümen
âter CônuS fānum hóra lüna
àVěna, cöpia färi iGö mäló
bilis Cörant fécundus imägå Imāne
|brüma COröna, félix inānis ImānéS
bûbó Crâtér fémina Ira, Imānó
caçümen CrâtéS fêtus iānua mäter
căligă crêber fido jucundus ImātūruS
Caminus crèdó figö tiró mêta
CânuS crinis filius łºr (i) mětior
căper crüdus filum lāmentum miles
Carina Cüra finis lāna pniror
CâTuS cüria flāvus lātus (a, um) mitis
cèdó (ere) débed flümen lègö (äre) mölès
* Including a few derivatives and compounds.
VERSIFICATION. 349
IIlúgéð Öliulu püber sèdó tötus
munió päguS pünió Serénus trúdo
Imlin US pālor púrus Sérus liber
ImūruS pānis qualis Sidó tidus
ImüSa pāreó rådix sincérus timeó
nlütó penätés rådó Sólor linus
militus peritus TāInuğ Bölus Tiró
Ināris pilum TālūS Söpið ūtor
năvis pinus rèmuş spica il Wa,
nidus planus rideó Spina tividus
nitor (i) plénus ripa. spiró vādó
nódus plūma ritus Spüma Vănus
InónllS poèta rivuS squaleó VâtéS
nubés pômum röbur stipó Vēlöx
nubó pône rödö străgès Vēlum
nudus pönö rūga StrénuuS Věna,
nºtö póté rüm Or strideó Venénund
Ölim prätum rūpès sūdó Vēn Or
ÖInên. prăvus SānlūS tābès VēruS
Opäcus primus scălae tälis vilis
oplmus privus scribó tëlum Vinum
Öra, promē SCútum têmö VIVö
Örö prora sèdès tibia
C H A P T E R II.
V EIR, SIFIC A.TION.
SEC TI O N I.
GENERAL VIEVV OF THE SUBJECT.
596. Latin Versification is based upon QUANTITY. Syllables
are combined into certain metrical groups called Feet, and feet,
singly or in pairs, are combined into Verses.”
1. In quantity or time the unit of measure is the short syllable, indicated
either by a curve C or by an eighth note in music, .N. A long syllable
* Modern versification is based upon ACCENT. An English verse is a regular com-
bination of accented and wnaccented syllables, but a Latin verse is a similar combina-
tion of long and short syllables. The rhythmic accent or ictus (599) in Latin depends
entirely upon quantity. Compare the following lines:
Tell' me not', in mourn’-ful num’-bers,
Life' is but’ an emp'-ty dream'.
Trú'-di- tur’ di- ës' di- | ê'.
At fi- dés' et in’-ge- ni’.
Observe that in the English lines the accent or ictus falls upon the same syllables as in
prose, while in the Latin it falls uniformly upon long syllables. On Latin Versification,
see Ramsay’s “Latin Prosody’; Schmidt's ‘Rhythmik und Metrik,' translated by Pro-
fessor White; Christ's ‘Metrik."
350 METRICA I, FEET.
has in general twice the value of a short syllable," and is indicated either
by the sign —, or by a quarter note in music, . . This unit of measure is
also called a time or mora.
NoTE 1.-A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have the value
(1) of three short syllables, indicated by the sign L, or • ... ; or (2) of four
short syllables, indicated by L, or 2.
NoTE 2.—A long syllable is sometimes shortened so as to have the value
of a short syllable, indicated by the sign -, or eN. A syllable thus used
is said to have irrational time.
597. The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin
poets are—
I. FEET of Four TIMEs or Four MoRAE.
Dactyl, one long and two short, * v-, v_e • * * Carmina.
Spondee, two long syllables, $º º • s légès.
II. FEET of THREE TIMEs or THREE MoRAE.
Trochee,” one long and one short, - Jº . ." légis.
Iambus, one short and one long, v_e = -*. parèns.
Tribrach, three short syllables, • * ~ *.N.N. dominus.
NoTE 1.—To these may be added the following:
Pyrrhic, sº v pater. Ditrochee, — Q — v. Civitătis.
Anapaest, S-2 \ z – bonitãs. Dispondee, — — — — praeceptóré8.
Bacchius, L – — dolórés. Greater Ionic, - – - C sententia.
Cretic, -- *-* — milités. Lesser Ionic, ºr S-2 — — adoléscèns.
Diiambus, v — sº — amoenitãs. Choriambus, – º – — impatièns.”
NoTE 2.—A Dipody is a group of two feet; a Tripody, of three; a Tetrapody, of
four, etc. A Trihemimeris is a group of three half feet, i.e., a foot and a half; a Pen-
them.imeris, of two and a half; a Hephthemimérès, of three and a half, etc.
598. METRICAL EQUIVALENTS.–A long syllable may be re-
solved into two short syllables, as equivalent to it in quantity, or
two short syllables may be contracted into a long syllable. The
forms thus produced are metrical equivalents of the original feet.
NoTE.—Thus the Dactyl becomes a Spondee by contracting the two short syllables
into one long syllable; the Spondee becomes a Dactyl by resolving the second syllable,
or an Anapaest by resolving the first. Accordingly, the Dactyl, the Spondee, and the
Anapaest are metrical equivalents. In like manner the Iambus, the Trochee, and the
Tribrach are metrical equivalents.
* See foot-note 1, p. 349.
* Sometimes called Choree.
* The feet here mentioned as having four syllables are only compounds of dissyllabic
feet. Thus the Dižambus is a double Iambus; the Ditrochee, a double Trochee; the
Dispondee, a double Spondee; the Greater Ionic, a Spondee and a Pyrrhic; the Lé88ér
Ionic, a Pyrrhic and a Spondee; the Choriambus, a Trochee (Choree) and an Iambus.
IOTUS.—ARSIS AWD THESIS.— VERSE'S. 351
1. In certain kinds of verse admitting irrational time (596, 1, note 2),
Spondees, Dactyls, and Anapaests are shortened to the time of a Trochee or
of an Iambus, and thus become metrical equivalents of each of these feet.
1) A Spondee used for a Trochee is called an IRRATIONAL TROCIIEE, and is
marked — ».
2) A Spondee used for an Iambus is called an IRRATIONAL IAMBUS, and is
marked - –.
3) A Dactyl used for a Trochee is called a CYCLIC DACTYL, and is marked
T-2 \-Z,
4) An Anapaest used for an Iambus is called a CYCLIC ANAPAEST, and is
marked ~ \--.
599. ICTUS OR RHYTHMIC ACCENT.-As in the pronunciation of
a word one or more syllables receive a special stress of voice called
accent, so in the pronunciation of a metrical foot one or more syl-
lables receive a special stress of voice called Rhythmic Accent or
Ictus.
1. Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have the ictus uniform-
ly on the long syllables, unless used as equivalents for other feet,
NotE.—Thus the Dactyl and the Trochee have the ictus on the first syllable; the
Anapaest and the Iambus on the last.
2. EquivaLENTs take the ictus of the feet for which they are used.
NotE 1.-Thus the Spondee, when used for the Dactyl, takes the ictus of the Dactyl
—i.e., on the first syllable; but when used for the Anapaest, it takes the ictus of the
Anapaest—i.e., on the last syllable. -
NoTE 2.-Feet consisting entirely of long or entirely of short syllables are generally
used as equivalents, and are accented accordingly.
NotE 3.—When two short syllables of an equivalent take the place of an accented
long syllable of the original foot, the ictus properly belongs to both of these syllables, but
is marked upon the first. Thus a Tribrach used for an Iambus is marked ~ \! \->.
6OO. ARSIS AND THESIS.—The accented part of each foot is
called the Arsis (raising), and the unaccented part, the Thesis
(lowering)."
6O1. WERSES.–A verse is a line of poetry (596). It has one
characteristic or fundamental foot, which determines the ictus for
the whole verse.
NotE 1.-Thus every dactylic verse has the ictus on the first syllable of each foot,
because the Dactyl has the ictus on that syllable.
* Greek writers on versification originally used the terms &ports and 6éorts of raising
and putting down the foot in marching or in beating time. Thus the Thesis was the
accented part of the foot, and the Arsis the unaccented part. The Romans, however, ap-
plied the terms to raising and lowering the voice in reading. Thus Arsis came to
mean the accented part of the foot, and Thesis the unaccented part. The terms have
now been so long and so generally used in this sense that it is not deemed advisable to
attempt to restore them to their original signification,
352 NAMES OF VERSES.
NoTE 2.—Two verses sometimes unite and form a compound verse; see 628, X.
NoTE 3.—Metre means measure, and is variously used, sometimes designating the
measure or quantity of syllables, and sometimes the foot or measure 1 of a verse,
6O2. CAESURA OR CAESURAL PAUSE. – Most Latin verses are
divided metrically into two nearly equal parts, each of which
forms a rhythmic series. The pause, however slight, which nat-
urally separates these parts is called—
1. A Caesura,” or a Caesural Pause, when it occurs within a foot;
See 611.
2. A Diaeresis, when it occurs at the end of a foot; see 611, 2
and 3.
NoTE.—Some verses consist of three parts thus separated by caesura or diaeresis,
while some consist of a single rhythmic series.”
603. The full metrical name of a verse consists of three parts.
The first designates the characteristic foot, the second gives the
number of feet or measures, and the third shows whether the verse
is complete or incomplete. Thus—
1. A Dactylic Herameter Acatalectic is a dactylic verse of six feet (Hexa-
meter), all of which are complete (Acatalectic).
2. A Trochaic Dömeter Catalectic is a trochaic verse of two measures
(Dimeter), the last of which is incomplete (Catalectic).
NoTE 1.-A verse with a Dactyl as its characteristic foot is called Dactylic ; with a
Trochee, Trochaic; with an Iambus, Iambic, etc.
NOTE 2.-A verse consisting of one measure is called Monometer; of two, Dimeter;
of three, Trimeter; of four, Tetrameter; of five, Pentameter; of six, Hea'ameter.
NoTE 3.—A verse which closes with a complete measure is called Acatalectic; 4 with
an incomplete measure, Catalectic; 4 with an excess of syllables, Hypermetrical.4
NoTE 4.—The term Acatalectic is often omitted, as a verse may be assumed to be
complete unless the opposite is stated.
NoTE 5.—A Catalectic verse is said to be catalectic in syllabam, in disyllabum, or
in trisyllabum, according as the incomplete foot has one, two, or three syllables.
NoTE 6.—Verses are sometimes briefly designated by the number of feet or measures
which they contain. Thus Hearameter (six measures) sometimes designates the Dactylic
Hearameter Acatalectic, and Senarius (six feet), the Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic.
604. Verses are often designated by names derived from cele-
brated poets.
NoTE 1.-Thus Alcaic is derived from Alcaeus; Archilochian, from Archilochus;
Sapphic, from Sapphô; Glyconic, from Glycón, etc.
1 In dactylic verses a measure is a single foot, but in trochaic and iambic verses it
is á dipody or a pair of feet.
* Caesüra (from caedo, to cut) means a cutting; it cuts or divides the foot and the
verse into parts.
* A verse consisting of a single series is called Monocolon; of two, Dicolon , of
three, Tricolon.
* From the Greek &karáAmkros, kara Amkrikós, and Ötrépperpos.
FIG URES OF PROSODY. 353
NoTE 2.-Werses sometimes receive a name from the kind of subjects to which they
were applied: as Heroic, applied to heroic subjects; Paroemiac, to proverbs, etc.
605. The FINAL SYLLABLE of a verse may generally be either
long or short at the pleasure of the poet.
6O6. A STANZA is a combination of two or more verses of dif-
ferent metres into one metrical whole ; see 631.
NotE.—A stanza of two lines or verses is called a Distich ; of three, a Tristich ; of
four, a Tetrastich.
6O7. RHYTHMICAL READING.—In reading Latin verse care must
be taken to preserve the words unbroken, to show the quantity of
the syllables, and to mark the poetical ictus.
NoTE.—Scanning consists in separating a poem or verse into the feet of which it is
composed.”
608. FIGUREs of PRosody.—The ancient poets sometimes al-
lowed themselves, in the use of letters and syllables, certain liber-
ties generally termed Figures of Prosody.
I, ELISION.—A final vowel, a final diphthong, or a final m with the pre-
ceding vowel, is generally elided” before a word beginning with a vowel
or with h :
Mönstrum horrendum informe ingéns, for Mönstrum horrendum informe
ingens. Verg.
NoTE 1.-For Eacceptions, see Hiatus, II., below.
NotE 2.—Final e in the interrogative me is sometimes dropped before a consonant :
Pyrrhin' connübia servās? for Pyrrhine connübia servās? Verg.
NoTE 3.—In the early poets final s is often dropped before consonants:
Ex omnibu’ rêbus, for ex omnibus rêbus. Lucr.
NoTE 4.—The elision of a final m with the preceding vowel is sometimes called
Ecthlipsis.”
NoTE 5.—The elision of a final vowel or diphthong, or of a final m with the preceding
vowel, is sometimes called Symaloepha,” or, if at the end of a line, Synapheia.”
II. HIATUS.—A final vowel or diphthong is sometimes retained before
a word beginning with a vowel. Thus—
1. The interjections 6, hew, and prá are not elided; see Verg., Aen., X.,
18; Geor., II., 486.
2. Long vowels and diphthongs are sometimes retained, especially in the
arsis of a foot; see Verg., Ec., III., 6; VII., 52.
1 In school this is sometimes done in a purely mechanical way, sacrificing words to
feet; but even this mechanical process is often useful to the beginner, as it makes him
ſalutilial witli the poetical ictug.
* That is, partially suppressed. In reading, it should be lightly and indistinctly
sounded, and blended with the following syllable, as in English poetry: -
“The eternal years of God are hers.”
* From the Greek ék6Avibus, orvya Novºpij, and orvyāqeva.
354. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
NoTE 1.-This is most common in proper names.
NoTE 2.—Wergil employs this form of hiatus more freely than the other Latin poets,
and yet the entire Aeneid furnishes only a short list of examples.
NoTE 3.—In the thesis a final long vowel or diphthong is sometimes shortened before
a short vowel instead of being elided; see Verg., Aen., III., 211; WI., 507.
NOTE 4.—Hiatus with a short final vowel is rare, but occurs even in Vergil; see Aen,
I., 405; Ec., II, 53.
III. SYNAERESIS.—Two syllables are sometimes contracted into one :
auréâ, dēInde, dēInceps, IIdem, IIsdem, eaedem, prohibeat (pronounced
proibeat).
TNotR 1,–In the different parts of désum, ee is generally pronounced as one syllable:
déésse, dēēst, déérat, déérit, etc.; so ei in the verb anteeó: amtéïre, antòirem, antéïs,
amitčić.
NOTE 2.-I and u before vowels are sometimes used as ‘consonants with the sound of
gy and w. Thus abiete and ariete become abyete and aryete; genua and tenués be-
come genwa and tem/wés.
NoTE 3.-In Plautus and Terence, Symaeresis is used with great freedom.
NoTE 4.—The contraction of two syllables into one is sometimes called Synizesis.
IV. DIAERESIS.–In poetry, two syllables usually contracted into one
are sometimes retained distinct :
aurái for aurae, Orpheils for Orphétis, soluendus for solvendus, silua for
silva.
NoTE.—Džaeresis properly means the resolution of one syllable into two, but the
Latin poets seldom, if ever, actually make two syllables out of one. The examples gen-
erally explained by diaerests are only ancient forms, used for effect or convenience.
W. DIASTOLE.-A syllable usually short is sometimes long, especially
in the arsis of a foot :
Priamidès for Priamidés.
NotE 1.-This poetic license occurs chiefly in proper names and in final syllables.
NoTE 2.—Wergil uses this license quite freely. IIe lengthens que in sixteen instances.
VI. SYSTOLE.-A syllable usually long is sometimes short:
tulerunt for tulêrunt, steterunt for stetërunt (236, note), vide’n for
vidēsne.
NoTE.—This poetic license occurs most frequently in final vowels and diphthongs.
VII. SYNCOPE.—An entire foot is sometimes occupied by a single long
syllable; see 614.
SECTION II.
V A. R. I. ET I E S OF V E R S E .
I. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
609. All Dactylic Verses consist of Dactyls and their metrical
equivalents, Spondées. The ictus is on the first syllable of every
foot.
DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 355
610. The Dactylic Hexameter" consists of six feet. The first
four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl, and the
sixth a Spondee (605).” The scale is,”
Quadrupe- | dante pu- trem soni- tú quatit ungula | campum. Verg.
Arma vi- rumque ca- nô Trö- |jae qui primus ab | Gris. Verg.
Infan- | dum ré- |gina ju- bês reno- väre do- lörem. Verg.
Illi" in- | ter sé- || Sé mag- || nã vi bracchia tollunt. Verg.”
1. The scale of dactylic hexameters admits sixteen varieties, produced by
varying the relative number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spondees. Thus
a verse may contain—
1) Five Dactyls and one Spondee, as in the first example above.
2) Four Dactyls and two Spondees, admitting four different arrangements.
3) Three lactyls and three Spondees, admitting six different arrangements.
4) Two Dactyls and four Spondees, admitting four different arrangements.
5) One Dactyl and five Spondees, as in the fourth example.
2. EFFECT of DACTYLS.–Dactyls produce a rapid movement, and are
adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement, and are
adapted to grave subjects. But generally the best effect is produced in suc-
cessive lines by variety in the number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spon-
dees.
3. SPONDAIC LINE.—The Hexameter sometimes takes a Spondee in the
* This is at once the most important and the most ancient of all the Greek and Ro-
man metres. In Greece it attained its perfection in the poems of Homer. It was intro-
duced into Italy in a somewhat imperfect form by the poet Ennius about the middle of
the second century before Christ; but it was improved by Lucretius, Catullus, and oth-
ers, until it attained great excellence in the works of the Augustan poets. The most
beautiful and finished Latin Hexameters are found in the works of Ovid and Wergil.
* The Dactylic Hexameter in Latin is here treated as Acatalectic, as the Latin poets
Seem to have regarded the last foot as a genuine Spondee, thus making the measure
complete. See Christ, “Metrik der Griechen und Römer, pp. 110, 164.
* In this scale the sign marks the ictus (599), and — CRE denotes that the original
Dactyl, marked – S- V, may become by contraction a Spondee, marked — —, i. e., that a
Spondee may be used for a Dactyl (598).
* Expressed in musical characters, this scale is as follows:
--- ---|--|--|--
The notation • Jº means that, instead of the original measure - J- , the equiv-
| H
---
alent • - may be used.
* The final 7 of illi is elided; see 608, I.
* With these lines of Wergil compare the following Hexameters from the Evangeline
of Longfellow : *
“This is the forest primeval; but where are the hearts that beneath it.
Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman 7"
356 D.A CTYLIC HEXAMETER.
fifth place. It is then called Spondaic, and generally has a Dactyl as its
fourth foot :
Cära de- um sobo- lès māg- |num Jovis incrè- mentum. Verg.
NoTE.–In Vergil, spondaic lines are used much more sparingly than in the earlier
poets, and generally end in words of three or four syllables, as in incrémentum above.”
611. CAESURA, OR CAESURAL PAUSE.-The favorite caesural
pause of the Hexameter is after the arsis, or in the thesis, of the
third foot : *
Armā- ti ten- dunt; II it clāmor et agmine factâ. Verg.
Infan- dum, ré- |gina, Il ju- bes reno- våre do- lörem. Verg.
NotE.—In the first line, the caesural pause, marked ||, is after tem.dºwnt, after the
arsis of the third foot; and in the second line after régina, in the thesis (ma ju) of the
third foot. The former is called the Masculine Caesura, the latter the Féminine Cae-
Sura.4
1. The CAESURAL PAUSE is sometimes in the fourth foot, and then an ad-
ditional pause is often introduced in the second:
Crédide- | rim; Il vör illude- | rat, Il vör mágnus a- gébat. Verg.
2. Bucolio DIAERESIS.—A pause called the Bucolic Diaeresis,” because
originally used in the pastoral poetry of the Greeks, sometimes occurs at the
end of the fourth foot :
Ingen- | tem cae- lö Soni- tum dedit; Il inde se– cūtus. Verg.
NoTE.—The Bucolic Diaeresis was avoided by the best Latin poets, even in treating
pastoral subjects. Vergil, even in his Bucolics, uses it very sparingly.
3. A DIAERESIS at the end of the third foot without any proper caesural
pause is regarded as a blemish in the verse:
Pulveru- |lentus e- quis furit; I omnés arma re- quirunt. Verg.
* A single poem of Catullus, about half as long as a book of the Aeneid, contains more
spondaic lines than all the works of Vergil.
2. But Wergil has two spondaic lines ending et mégmis d78; see Aen., III., 12, and
VIII., 679. * º
3 That is, the first rhythmic series ends at this point. This pause is always at the
end of a word, and may be so very slight as in most cases not to interfere with the sense,
even if no mark of punctuation is required; but the best verses are so constructed that
the caesural pause coincides with a pause in the sense; see Christ, “Metrik, p. 184. Ac-
cording to some writers, the Dactylic Hexameter had its origin in the union of two ear-
lier dactylic verses, and the caesural pause now marks the point of union; see Christ,
p. 173. -
4 The Masculine Caesura is also called the Strong, or the Syllabic, Caesura, the Fem-
inine the Weak, or the Throchaic, Caesura. Caesuras are often named from the place
which they occupy in the line. Thus a caesura after the arsis of the second foot is called
Trihemimeral; after the arsis of the third, Penthem.imeral; after the arsis of the
fourth, Hephthemimeral.
5 Also called the Bucolic Caesura, as the term caesura is often made to include
diaeresis.
DA CTYLIC HEXAMETER. 357
4. The ending of a word within a foot always produces a caesura. A line
may therefore have several caesuras, but generally only one of these is marked
by any perceptible pause:
Arma vi- rumque ca- nô, Il Trô- jae qui primus ab Öris. Verg.
NoTE.—Here there is a caesura in every foot except the last, but only one of these,
that after canó, in the third foot, has the caesural pause.1
5. The caesura, with or without the pause, is an important feature in every
hexameter. A line without it is prosaic in the extreme:
Römae moenia | terruit impiger | Hannibal armis. Enn.
NoTE 1.-The Penthem.imeral * caesura has great power to impart melody to the
verse, but the best effect is produced when it is aided by other caesuras, as above.
NOTE 2.—A happy effect is often produced—
1) By combining the feminine caesura in the third foot with the hephthemimeral
and the trºhemimera!:
Dönec e- | ris fé- lix, Il mul- tús nume- räbis a- micós. Verg.
2) By combining the hephthem?meral with the trihemimeral:
Inde to- rô pater | Aené- às Sic | Orsus ab | altö. Verg.
NOTE 3.—The union of the feminine caesura with the trihemimeral, common in
Greek, is somewhat rare in Latin, but it sometimes produces an harmonious verse:
Praecipi- | tat, Sua- dentque ca- || dentia | Sidera | Somnós. Verg.
NOTE 4.—In the last two feet of the verse there should in general be no caesura what-
ever, unless it falls in the thesis of the fifth foot; but when that foot contains two entire
words, a caesura is admissible after the arsis.
612. The ictus often falls upon unaccented syllables. Thus—
1. In the first, second, and fourth feet of the verse it falls some-
times upon accented and sometimes upon unaccented syllables; see
cxamples under 610. *,
2. In the third foot it generally falls upon an unaccented sylla-
ble ; see examples under 610.
3. In the fifth and sixth feet it generally falls upon accented syl-
lables ; see examples under 610.
613. The LAST WoRD OF THE HEXAMETER is generally either
a dissyllable or a trisyllable ; see examples under 610 and 611.”
* The caesura with the pause is variously called the chief caesura, the caesura of
the verse, the caeswra of the rhythm, etc. In distinction from this any other caesura
may be called a caesura, a caesura of the foot, or a minor caesura.
* See p. 356, foot-note 4.
* The learner should be informed that the niceties of structure which belong to fin-
ished Latin hexameters must be sought only in the poems of Vergil and Ovid. The hap-
piest disposition of caesuras, the best adjustment of the poetical ictus to the prose accent,
and the most approved structure in the closing moasured of the worse, can not be expected
in the rude numbers of Ennius, in the scientific discussions of Lucretius, or even in the
familiar Satires of Horace. Those interested in the peculiarities of Latin hexameters in
different writers will find a discussion of the subject in Lucian Müller's work, ‘Dé ré
metrică počtārum Latinârum praeter Plautum et Terentium libri Septem.”
358 D.A CTYLIC VERSE.
NoTE 1.-Spondaic lines are exceptions; see 610, 3, note.
NoTE 2.—Two monosyllables at the end of a line are not particularly objectionable,
and sometimes even produce a happy effect:
Praecipi- tant cil- rae, I tur- bâtaque fünere mëns est. Verg.
NotE 3.—Est, even when not preceded by another monosyllable, may stand at the
end of a line.
NOTE 4.—A single monosyllable, except est, is not often used at the end of the line,
except for the purpose of emphasis or humor:
Parturi- unt mon- tés, Il näs- I cétur ridicu- lus müs. Hor.
NoTE 5.—In Wergil, twenty-one lines, apparently hypermetrical (603, note 3), are
supposed to elide a final vowel or a final em or wm before the initial vowel of the next
line; see Aen., I., 332; Geor., I., 295. See also 608, I., note 5.
II. OTHER PACTYLIC WERSEs.
614. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER."—The Dactylic Pentameter con-
sists of two parts separated by a diaeresis. Each part consists of
two Dactyls and a long syllable. The Spondee may take the place
of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the second :
- E | + s^+ | -- W || -- ~ O || -- C - | * W , or
- Sº I - E | {-|| 4 C.J. -- ~ O | < 7, ”
Admoni– tú coe- pI || fortior esse tu- || 5. Ovid.
615. ELEGIAC DISTICH.-The Elegiac Distich consists of the
Hexameter followed by the Pentameter: •
Sémise pulta vi- rum || cur- | vis feri- | untur a- rātris
Ossa, ru- ind- | Sás || occulit herba do- mils. Ovid.
NoTE 1.-In reading the Elegiac Distich, the Pentameter, including pauses, should
of course occupy the same time as the Hexameter.
NoTE 2.-Elegaic composition should be characterized by grace and elegance. Both
members of the distich should be constructed in accordance with the most rigid rules of
metre. The sense should be complete at the end of the couplet. Ovid furnishes us the
best specimens of this style of composition.
616. The DACTYLIC TETRAMETER is identical with the last four
feet of the Hexameter:
Ibimus || 0 soci- || I, comi– têsque. Hor.
1 The name Pentameter is founded on the ancient division of the line into five feet;
the first and second being Dactyls or Spondees, the third a Spondee, the fourth and fifth
Anapaests.
2 In musical characters:
--- Jº- |-r J.J. |--> |-r, Or
--> |-Jº 2. |--> J.-- |--
Thus, in reading Pentameters, a pause may be introduced after the long syllable in the
third foot, or that foot may be lengthened so as to fill the measure.
TROCHAIC VERSE. 359
NOTE.-In compound verses, as in the Greater Architochian, the tetrameter in
composition with other metres has a Dactyl in the fourth place; see 628, X.
617. The DACTYLIC TRIMETER CATALECTIC is identical with
the second half of the Dactylic Pentameter:
Arburl- busque CU– IIIae. Höy.
NoTE,--The Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic is also known as the LeSSer Archilochian.
III. TROCHAIC VERSE.
618. The TRoCHAIC DIPODY, the measure in Trochaic verse,”
consists of two Trochees, the second of which is sometimes irra-
tional (598, 1, 1))—i.e., it has the form of a Spondee with the time
of a Trochee : * -- * or J.N.J."
NoTE 1.-By the ordinary law of equivalents (598), a Tribrach Z ~ * may take the
place of the Trochee – “…, and an apparent Anapaest ºr L = the place of the Irrational
Trochee + -.” In proper names a cyclic Dactyl-4--, -, (598, 1, 3)) may occur in either
foot.
NoTE 2.—In the Trochaic Dipody, the first foot has a heavier ictus than the second.
NoTE 3.—A syllable is sometimes prefixed to a Trochaic verse. A syllable thus used
is called Anacrusis (upward beat), and is separated from the following measure by the
mark : .
619. The TROCHAIC HDIMETER CATALECTIC consists of two Tro-
chaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits
no equivalents, and has the following scale :
+ J – < | –4- J -
Aula divi- tem manet. Hor.
NotE.—A Trochaic Tripody occurs in the Greater Archilochian ; see 628, X.
1. The Alcaic Enneasyllabic verse which forms the third line in the Al-
caic stanza is a Trochaic Timeter with Anacrusis: -
* -: -4. J – t | --
Pu- : er quis ex au- lä capillis. Hor.
62O. The TROCHAIC TETRAMETER CATALECTIC consists of four
Trochaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. There is a diae-
resis (602, 2) at the end of the fourth foot, and the incomplete dipody
admits no equivalents:
+ J – | + C – º || -- C – + C - A.”
Primus ad ci- |bum vocatur, Il primó pulmen- tum datur. Plaut.
—- J - Nº
1 Sea 601, nota 8, with foot-note.
* Thus in the second foot of a Trochaic Dipody the poet may use a Trochee, a Tribrach,
a Spondee, or an Anapaest; but the Spondee and the Anapaest are pronounced in the
same time as the Trochee or the Tribrach—i.e., they have irrational time.
* Only the leading ictus of each dipody is here marked.
360 IAM BIO VERSE.
NotE 1.-This is simply the union of two Trochaic Dimeters, the first acatalectic
and the second catalectic, separated by diaeresis.”
NoTE 2.—In Latin this verse is used chiefly in comedy, and accordingly admits great
licence in the use of feet. The Irrational Trochee (598, 1, 1)) and its equivalents may
occur in any foot except in the last dipody.
NoTE 3.—The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic also occurs in the earlier poets:
Ipse summis saxis fixus || asperis é- viscerätus. Enn.
IV. IAMBIC VERSE.
621. The IAMBIC DIPODY, the measure of Iambic verse, consists
of two Iambi, the first of which is sometimes irrational (598, 1, 2))
—i.e., it has the form of a Spondee with the time of an Iambus:
* - J -º- or *J J.J.
NoTE 1.-The Tribrach for the Iambus, and the Dactyl 2 or Anapaest” for the Irra-
tional Iambus, are rare, except in comedy. *-
NOTE 2.—In the Ionic Dipody, the first foot has a heavier ictus than the Second.
622. The IAMBIC TRIMETER, also called Senarius, consists of
three Iambic Dipodies. The Caesura is usually in the third foot,
but may be in the fourth :
* - C – | * - C – |&t + C -4°
Quid obserā- tIs || auribus | fundis preces? Hor.
Neptunus al- to || tundit hi- || bernus saló. Hor.
Häs inter epu- | las || ut juvat pāstās ovés. Hor.4
1. In PROPER NAMEs, a Cyclic Anapaest is admissible in any foot except
the last, but must be in a single word.
2. In HoRACE the only feet freely admitted are the Iambus and the Spon-
dee; their equivalents, the Tribrach, the Dactyl, and the Anapaest, are used
véry sparingly. The Tribrach never occurs in the fifth foot and only once
in the first. The Anapaest occurs only twice in all.
3. In CoMEDY great liberty is taken, and the Spondee and its equivalents
are freely admitted in any foot except the last.
1 Compare the corresponding English measure, in which the two parts appear as
separate lines: “Lives' of great men all' remind us
We' can make our | lives' sublime,
And', departing, leave’ behind us
Foot'prints on the sands' of time.”
* The Dactyl thus used has the time of an Iambus and is marked - J. J.; the Ana-
paest is cyclic (598, 1, 4), marked J J-4-.
* This same scale, divided thus, * : * ~ – - C – º || -- C – A, repre-
sents Trochaic Trimeter Catalectic with Anacrusis, Thus all Iambic verses may be
treated as Trochaic verses with Anacrusis.
* Compare the English Alexandrine, the last line of the Spenserian stanza:
When Phoe'bus lifts his head' out of the win/ter's wave.
IONIC VERSE. 36 i
4. The CHOLIAMBUs is a variety of Iambic Trimeter with a Trochee in the
sixth foot: i.
Miser Catul- le désinäs ineptire. Catul.
623. The IAMBIC TRIMETER CATALECTIC occurs in Horace with
the following scale :
* - C – | *, + J – || C. --Sº
Vocatus at- | que nôn voca- tus audit. Hor.
NoTE.—The Dactyl and the Anapaest are not admissible; the Tribrach occurs only in
the second foot.
624. The IAMBIC DIMETER consists of two Iambic Dipodies:
* + J – |* -- J -:
Queruntur in silvis avés. Hor.
Imbrés nivôs- que comparat. Hor.
Ast ego vicis- sim riserú. Hor.
NoTE 1.-Horace admits the Dactyl only in the first foot, the Tribrach only in the
second, the Anapaest not at all.
NoTE 2.-ſambic Dimeter is sometimes catalectic.
625. The IAMBIC TETRAMETER consists of four Iambic Dipo-
dies. It belongs chiefly to comedy:
Quantum intellèx- | I modo senis || sententiam | dé nüptiis. Ter.
NoTE.—Iambic Tetrameter is sometimes catalectic:
Quot commodás | rés attuli ? || quot autem adé mi curås. Ter.
W. IoMIC VERSE.
626. The Ionic Verse in Horace consists entirely of Lesser
Ionics. It may be either Trimeter or Dimeter:
A
J J - - - || J J -- –
Neque plignú neque Ségni | pede victus;
Catus idem per apertum. Hor.
NoTE 1–In this verse the last syllable is not common, but is often long only by
position (p. 888, foot-note 3). Thus us in victus is long before c in catus.
NoTE 2.-The Ionic Tetrameter Catalectic, also called Sotadéan Verse, occurs
chiefly in comedy. It consists in general of Greater Ionics, but in Martial it has a Ditro-
chee as the third foot :
2
+ – J J - – J C -->4 Sº C. - = 7
Hās cum gemi- nã compede dédicat ca- | tenas. Mart.
1 Choliambus, or Scaeon, means lame or limping Iambus, and is so called from
its limping movement. It is explained as a Trochaic Trimeter Acatalectic with Anacru-
sis, and with syncope (608, VII.) in the fifth foot. The example here given may be rep-
resented thus : J . + J – J + - – - || L:- — $7.
16
362 I, O GA O EDFC VERSE.
WI. Lo G A O E D I C W E R S E.
627. Logaoedic' Verse is a special variety of Trochaic Verse.
The Irrational Trochee z >, the Cyclic Dactyl -- ~, and the Syn-
copated Trochee L (608, VII.) are freely admitted. It has an ap-
parently light ictus.”
NotE.-Logaoedic verses show great variety of form, but a few general types will in-
dicate the character of the whole.
628. The following Logaoedic verses appear in Horace:
I. The ADONIC :
- ---, -, + V or Jºã.N.J."
Montis i- mågå. Hor.
II. The FIRST PHERECRATIC * or the ARISTOPHANIC :
-º-, - || + J | + V or anº Jºlº ºld."
Cür neque | mili- tāris. Hor.
NoTE.—Pherecratic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoedic Tripody.
It is called the First or Second Pherecratic according as its Dactyl occupies the first or
the second place in the verse. In each form it may be acañalectic or catalectic:
1) --~ J | + J | + S- or catalectic: -º- J | + J | * a
2) -2. P. | ---, -, | -*- C or catalectic : -4-> | --> < | sº. A
In Logaoedic verse the term basis or base, marked x, is sometimes applied to the foot or
feet which precede the Cyclic Dactyl. Thus, in the Second Pherecratic, the first foot >
is the base.
III. The SECOND GLYCONIC * CATALECTIC :
-* > || --, -, -º- J | * /\ or Jº Jºãº J. J."
Dönec grātus e- ram ti- bí. Hor.
NoTE. 1.-Glyconic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoedic Tetrapody.
It is called the First, Second, or Third Glyconic according as its Dactyl occupies the first,
second, or third place in the verse. In each form it may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
NoTE 2.—The Second Glyconic sometimes has a Syncope (608, WII.) in the third foot.
IV. The LESSER ASCLEPIADEAN “ consists of two Catalectic Phe-
necratics, a Second and a First :
Maece- näs ata | vis || edite | régi- bus. Hor.
1 From Aévos, prose, and dow87, Song, applied to verses which resemble prose.
* The free use of long syllables in the thesis causes the poetical ictus on the arsis to
appear less prominent. +.
3 Pherecratic, Glyconic, and Asclepiadèan verses may be explained as Choriambic :
Pherecratic, -º- J J – | J -4- | SC A
First Glyconic. - J J - || C 4 || J sº
Asclepiadèan, 4 - || 4 - J - || 4 C J 4 J sº
LOGAOEDIC VERSE. 363
V. The GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN consists of three catalectic
verses, a Second Pherecratic, an Adonic, and a First Pherecratic:
Seu plū- || rés hie- més, seu tribu- it !! Jüppiter | tilti- mam. Hor.
v VI. The Lesser SAPPHIC consists of a Trochaic Dipody and a
* First Pherecratic:
+ J | + X- | --, -, } + v | + S-
Namgue mé sil- vá lupus in Sa- || biná. Hor.
VII. The GREATER SAPPHIC consists of two Catalectic Glyconics,
a Third and a First with Syncope:
Inter aequa- lès equi- tat, Il Gallica | nec lu- på- | tis. Hor.
VIII. The LESSER ALCAIC consists of two Cyclic Dactyls and
two Trochees:
-º-, -, -º- J + J } + S-
Purpure- || 0 vari- us co- löre. Hor.
IX. The GREATER ALCAIC consists of a Trochaic Dipody with
Anacrusis and a Catalectic First Pherecratic:
Wi- : dés ut altä stet mive candi- dum, Hor.
X. The GREATER ARCHILoCHIAN consists of a Dactylic Tetra-
meter (616) followed by a Trochaic Tripody. The first three feet
are either Dactyls or Spondees; the fourth, a Dactyl ; and the last
three, Trochees:
Vitae summa bre- vis spem nôsvetat, [] incho- ãre longam. Hor.
NoTE.—This verse may be explained either as Logaoedic or as Compound. With the
first explanation, the Dactyls are cyclic and the Spondees have irrational time; with the
Second explanation, the first member of the verse has the Dactyl as its characteristic foot
and the second member the Trochee; see 601, note 2.
629. The following Logaoedic verses not used in Horace de-
serve mention :
I. The PHALAECIAN is a Logaoedic Pentapody: *
* * | -- J - J } + J } + S-
Nöu est | wiveſe, sed va- lère vita. Mart.
* For the Lesser Archèlochian, see 61?, note.
* This verse differs from the Lesser Sapphic in having the Dactyl in the second foot,
while the latter has the Dactyl in the third.
364 LYRIC METRES OF HORACE
II. The SECOND PRI.APEAN consists of two Catalectic Second
Glyconics with Syncope:
* < || -- J | + C | L || -- * | *- C | L | * /\
Quercus arida rusti- |ca || confor- māta se | cu- | ri. Catul.
SEC TI O N III.
THE VEFSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL LATIN POETS.
63O. Wergil and Juvenal use the Dactylic Hexameter; Ovid,
the Hexameter in his Metamorphoses and the Elegiac Distich in his
Epistles and other works; Horace, the Hexameter in his Epistles
and Satires, and a variety of metres in his Odes and Epodes.
LYRIC METRES OF HORACE.
631. For convenience of reference, an outline of the lyric
metres of Horace is here inserted.
Stanzas of Four Verses or Lines.
I. ALCAIC STANZA.—First and second lines, Greater Alcaics (628, IX.);
third, Trochaic Dimeter with Anacrusis (619, 1); fourth, Lesser Alcaic
(628, VIII): 1
...} e : - - -e, ---|--|-A
3. * : – J – J | – C – Sº
4. – J } – J | – C | – S-
In thirty-seven Odes: I., 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; II., 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; III., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; IV.,
4, 9, 14, 15.
II. SAPPHIC STANZA.—The first three lines, Lesser Sapphics (628, WI.);
the fourth, Adonic (628, I.):
1.
: — — . — » | – J | – C | – S-
3.
In twenty-six Odes: I., 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; II., 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 16; III., 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; IV., 2, 6, 11; and Secular Hymn.
III. GREATER SAPPHIC STANZA.—First and third lines, First Glyconics
Catalectic with Syncope in the third foot (608, VII.); second and fourth
lines, Greater Sapphics:
1. ) \-º
I, YRIO METRES OF HORACE. 365
2. ^_^
4 | – J | – P | – C | L || – C | – C | L |* A
In Ode I., 8.
IV. FIRST ASCLEPIADEAN GLYCONIC STANZA. — The first three lines,
Lesser Asclepiadéans (628, IV.); the fourth, Second Glyconic Catalectic
(628, III.):
1.
3.
4. — » – J | – C | < /\
In nine Odes: I, 6, 15, 24, 33; II., 12; III., 10, 16; IV., 5, 12.
V. SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN GLYconic STANZA.—The first two lines, Lesser
Asclepiadéans (628, IV.); the third, Second Glyconic Catalectic with Syn-
cope in the third foot (628, III., note 2); the fourth, Second Glyconic
Catalectic (628, III.):
1.
4. — » | – C | – C | < /\
In seven Odes: I., 5, 14, 21, 23; III., 7, 13; IV., 13.
VI. GLYconic AscLEPIADEAN STANZA.—First and third lines, Second
Glyconics Catalectic (628, III.); second and fourth, Lesser Asclepiadéans
(628, IV.):
1.
: -> -- ~ |--|- A
In twelve Odes: I., 3, 13, 19, 36; III., 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; IV., 1, 3.
VII. LESSER ASCLEPIADEAN STANZA.—Four Lesser Asclepiadéans:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In three Odes: I., 1; III., 30; IV., 8.
VIII. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN STANZA.-Four Greater Asclepiadéans
(628, W.):
:
4.
In three Odes: I., 11, 18; IV., 10.
366 LYRIC METRES OF HORACE.
IX. Double. ALCMANIAN STANZA.—First and third lines, Dactylic Hexa-
meters (610); second and fourth, Dactylic Tetrameters (616):
...} UNC | – UNC I – SUN-2 l — SLND | – – S-4
3. | — Sº — Sº I — Sº | – J C |
* ! — ee S=2
; : ---|--|-- ~
In two Odes: I., 7, 28.
Note.—This stanza is formed by the union of two Alcmanian stanzas; see XIX. below.
X. TRoCHAIC STANZA.—First and third lines, Trochaic Dimeter Catalec-
tic (619); second and fourth, Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (623):
...} | *—2
- J - J - J -
3.
4.
In Ode II., 18.
XI. DACTYLIC ARCHILoCHIAN STANZA.—First and third lines, Dactylic
Hexameters; second and fourth, Catalectic Dactylic Trimeters (617, note):
1. *=g ºsmºs mºmºmº ºssºmºs S=2.
...} -el-el-el-el-ov
*} *= tº- S-2
4. | – C J
In Ode IV., 7. *
XII. GREATER ARCHILoCHIAN STANZA.—First and third lines, Greater Ar-
chilochians (628, X.); second and fourth, Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (623):
...} — Sº — Sº — Sº | – C. C ll — C, – J | — Sº
4.
In Ode I., 4.
NoTE.—The second and fourth lines are sometimes read with syncope, as follows:
* : — C — t | – J – J | L | < A
XIII. Ionic STANZA.—First and second lines, Ionic Dimeters (626);
third and fourth, Ionic Trimeters (626):
1.
: *-* *-* | - -
3.
...} *-* \-f | > - | > →
In Ode III., 12.
NoTE.—This ode is variously arranged in different editions, sometimes in stanzas of
three lines and sometimes of four.
LYRIO METRES OF HORA CE. 367
Stanzas of Three Lines.
XIV. FIRST ARCHILoCHIAN STANZA.—First line, Hexameter; Second,
Iambic Dimeter; third, Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic :
1. – S-7 | – Sº — Sº — Sº — J. J. – “.
2. 3 – J – | * – C. §4
In Epode 13.
NoTE.—In some editions, the second and third lines are united.
XV. SECOND ARCHILoch IAN STANZA.—First line, Iambic Trimeter; Sec-
ond, Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic; third, Iambic Dimeter:
1. * – C – | * – C – | < – J &
2. – C. C. – J C | * /\
3. * – C – | < — J. S.
In Epode 11.
NoTE.—In some editions, the second and third lines are united.
Stanzas of Two Lines.
XVI. IAMBIG STANZA.—First line, Iambic Trimeter; second, Iambic
Bimeter: 1. * – C – | * – C – | < – J =
2. – J – | < — J. H.
In the first ten Epodes.
XVII. FIRST PyTHIAMBIG STANZA.—First line, Dactylic Hexameter;
second, Iambic Dimeter (624):
1. — Sº — Sº — Sº – º – J J | – H.
2. — J – | * – C =
In Epodes 14 and 15.
XVIII. SEcond PYTHIAMBIG STANZA.—First line, Dactylic Hexameter;
second, Iambic Trimeter:
1. – Sº | – Vºz — Sº I — Sº I — J C | – sº
2. & — J – | * – C. — | * – C =
In Epode 16.
XIX. ALCMANIAN STANZA.—First line, Dactylic Hexameter; second,
Dactylic Tetrameter:
1. – E | — Sº | – Sº | – sº | – J J | – “.
2. – E | – F | – C. J. — 4
In Epode 12.
Not growpod into Stanzas.
XX. IAMBIC TRIMETER :
* – C – | * – J – – C sº
In Epode 17.
368
MAETRES OF CA TULLÜS.
632. INDEX TO THE LYRIC METRES OF HORACE.
The Roman numerals refer to articles in the preceding oustline, 631.
EoOK I.
OIO ES, £Ì8yRES,
1 . . . -. • • • • • VII.
2 . . . . . . . . . . II.
8 ... -- ---. - VI.
4 . . -. . . -- -- XII.
5 ... -- --.. - V.
6 · · · · · · · · · · IV.
' ..-.. . . . -- IX.
8 . ey* • • * • III.
9 . . --. . . . . . I.
10 . . -.-.-.-- II.
11 · · · · · · · · · · VIII.
12 .. - • • • • • • - II.
18 ...... VI.
14 . . . -. . . . -- V.
15 .. --- ---. . IV.
16 . ... e• ω* •* I.
17 ..... -..-- I.
H8 . . --..--.. VIII.
19 .. ... , ... - VI.
20 . . . -. .-. . . II.
21 . -. ---- --- V.
22 . . . . . . . . . . II.
28 . . . -. . . -. - V.
24 -. ... -- --- JV.
25 ----- - - --- II.
26 . . . -. . . • • • I.
27 . . . -. . -.-- I.
28 ---.. . ---- IX.
29 ... - - -. . - . Í.
30 · · · · · · · · · · II.
81 . . . . . . . . . . I.
82 . . . . . . . • • • II.
88 - -. -- -• • - • IV.
84 . . . . --. • • • I.
35 , &> I.
36 - .-.. • • • • • VI.
37 · · · · · · · · · · I.
38 . . . . . -. . . . II
IBOOK II
1 · · · · · · · · · · I.
2 . . . -. • • • • • II.
8 . . . .. · · · · · I.
4 ¢* * * y» e* II.
5 . . . . . . . . . . I.
6 · · · · · · · · · · II.
7 . -...-.. -- I.
8 ----- - , - II.
9 . . . . . . . . . . I.
10 · · · · · · · · · · IHI
11 -..-.--.. - I.
12 ---...-. -. IV.
18 · · · · · · · · · · I.
14 · · · · · · · · · · I.
15 .. ----..-. I.
f6 ........-- HI.
17 ... --.... - I.
Ì8 ....--.... X.
19 . -. . . ... -. I.
20 . . . . . ..... I.
EoOK III.
1 • -..--.--- I.
2 . . --- -- --- I.
8 - --- --- --- I.
4 • • -.--..-- I.
5 ---------- I.
6 • -. . . . . . . « ò I.
7 ... -. -..-. V.
8 . . ¢ II.
9 ........ - - VI.
10 .......... IV.
11 · · · · · · · · · · II.
12 . . . . . . . . . . XFII.
18 · · · · · · · · · · V.
14 .... II.
15 . . -..-... - VI.
16 .. . . . . . .. - IV.
17 ........ . . I.
18 ... -.-... . II.
19 ... ....... VI.
20 . . . . . .... - II.
21 • • • • • • •.. • I.
22 - ... · · · · · ά II.
23 · · · · · · · · · · I.
24 · · · · · · · · · · VI.
25 . . . . . . . . . . VI.
METRES,
26 . . -.. . . -. - I.
27 . . ... -. . . . II.
28 · · · · · · · · · · VI.
29 --. -. . -.. - I.
80 - ... -. . . . . VII.
a* EOOK IV.
1 . . . . . . . . . VI.
2 . . . . -. -. . . II.
8 · · · · · · · · · VI.
4 .. -..--- I.
5 . q> er «* IV.
6 . . -..-. . . - II.
7 . -..-...-- XI.
8 · · · · · · · · · · VII.
9 · · · · · · · · · · I.
10 · · · · · · · · · · VIII.
11 -. -.--..-- II.
12 --..-...-. IV.
13 . s • s * e» ę. V.
14 . . -...--.. Î.
15 --- ---... - I.
IEPODES
I* POE»g'S I\ 'ETRTCS,
1 . . . -. • • • • • XVI.
2 . -...-..-- XVI.
3 . . . . -..--- XVI.
4 . . . . . -. . . . XVI.
5 -------- - - XVI.
6 . . . . . . • --- XVI.
7 - ... -. ... - XVI.
8 · · · · · · · · · · XVI.
9 ----. -. . . . XVI.
10 . . -...--. - XVI.
11 . . . . . . . -. . XV.
12 . . . . . . . . . . XIX.
18 · · · · · · · · · · XIV.
14 · · · · · · · · · · XVII.
15 · · · · · · · · · · XVII.
16 . . . ... - ... XVIII.
17 · · · · · · · · · · XX.
SECUEAR HYMN, II.
633. The metres of the following poets must be briefty men-
tioned:
I. CATULLUs uses chiefty (1) the Elegiae Distich (615); (2) Phalaeciam
METRES OF MARTIAL, PLAUTUS, ETC. 369
verse (629, I); (3) Choliambus or Scazon (622, 4); (4) Iambic Trimeter
(622); (5) Priapean (629, II.).
II. MARTIAL uses largely the Choliambus or Scazon and the Phalaecian
VerSe.
NoTE 1.-Martial also uses fambic and Dactylic measures.
NoTE 2.-Seneca in his choral odes imitates the lyric metres of Horace. He uses
Sapphics very freely, and often combines them into systems closing with the Adonic.
NoTE 3.—Seneca also uses Anapaestic * verse with Spondees and Dactyls as equiv-
alents. This consists of one or more dipodies:
Wenient annis | Saecula séris.
III. Plautus and Terence use chiefly various Iambic and Trochaic me-
tres, but they also use—
1. BACCHIAG | METREs, generally Tetrameter or Dimeter:
Multās' rés simi'tū in með' cor- de vor'só. Plaut.
At ta'men ubi | fidès'? SI rogës', nil | pendent' hic. Ter.
NoTE.—The Molossus, – — —, may take the place of the Bacchius, as in multās rés,
and the long syllables may be resolved, as in at tamen wbi.
2. CRETIC METREs, generally Tetrameter or Dimeter:
Nam' doli non' doli sunt', nisi as- tú' colás. Plaut.
Ut' malis gau/deant at'que ex in- |com'modis. Ter.
NoTE 1.-Plautus also uses Anapaestic metres, especially Dimeters :
. Quod agö’ subit, ad- secué' sequitur. Plaut.
This measure admits Dactyls and Spondees, rarely Proceleusmatics, C, C, C, ºr
NotE 2.- For Trochaic and Iambic Metres in Comedy, see 620, note 2; 622, 8.
NotE 8.—For Special Peculiarities in the prosody of Plautus and Terence, see
B76, notes 2 and 3; 578, note 2; 580, notes 2, 3, and 4.”
NotE 4.—On the free use of Synaeresis in Comedy, see 608, III., note 8.
1 See 603, note 1; 597, note 1.
2 For a full account of the metres of Plautus and Terence, See editions of those poets;
as the edition of Plautus by Ritschl, of a part of Plautus by Harrington, the edition of
Terence by Wagner, and the edition by Crowell; also Spengel, “Plautus: Kritik, Pro-
sodie, Metrik.”
370 APPENDIX.
A. P. P E N ID I X .
I. FIGURES OF SPEECH.
634. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, construction, or
signification of words.
NoTE.—Deviations from the ordinary forms are called Figures of Etymology; from
the ordinary constructions, Figures of Syntaa!; and from the ordinary significations,
Figures of Rhetoric.
635. The principal FIGUREs of ETYMOLOGY are—
1. APHAEREsis, the taking of one or more letters from the beginning of a word: '86
for eSt.
2. SYNCOPE, the taking of one or more letters from the middle of a word: diale for
dźacisse.
3. ApocoPE, the taking of one or more letters from the end of a word: tûn' for túme.
4. EPENTHESIs, the insertion of one or more letters in a word: Alcºwména for Alc-
aména, ālāţww.m. for dilitum.
5. METATHESIs, the transposition of letters: pistris for pristis.
6. See also FIGURES OF PROSODY, 608.
636. The principal FIGUREs of SYNTAx are—
I. ELLIPSIs, the omission of one or more words of a sentence:
Habitàbat ad Jovis (8c, templum), he dwelt near the temple of Jupiter. Liv.
Hic illius arma (fuerunt), hic currus fuit, here were her arms, here her chariot.
Verg.
1. As YNDETON is an ellipsis of a conjunction: 1
Wéni, widi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered. Suet. See also 554, I., 6, with note 1.
2. For the ELLIPsis of fació, dicó, Örö, see 368, 8, note 1; 523, I., note; 569, II,3,
3. For APOSIOPESIS or RETICENTIA, see 637, XI., 3.
II. BRACHYLoGY, a concise and abridged form of expression:
Nostri Graece mesciunt nec Graeci Latinë,” our people do not know Greek
and the Greeks (do) not (know) Latin. Cic. Nātūra hominis beluis antece-
dit,” the nature of man surpasses (that of) the brutes. Cic.
1. Zeugma employs a word in two or more connections, though strictly
applicable only in one :
Pâcem an bellum geréns,” whether at peace or waging war. Sall. Ducés
pictàsque extire carinăs, slay the leaders and burn the painted ships. Verg.
1 Asyndeton is sometimes distinguished according to its use, as Adversative, Ea:-
plicative, Enwmerative, etc.; see Nägelsbach, “Stilistik, $200.
* Here nesci wrºt suggests scăunt, and bé/wis in the second example is equivalent to
bélwārum nóttirae. -
* Gerčns, applicable only to bellum, is here used also of pâcem.
FIG URES OF SO’NTAX. 371
2. Syllepsis is the use of an adjective with two or more nouns, or of a verb
with two or more subjects:
. Pater et mater mortui sunt, father and mother are dead (439). Ter. Tú
et Tullia valétis, you and Tullia are well. Cic.
III. PLEONASM is a full, redundant, or emphatic form of expression:"
Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent, there were two ways by
which ways they might depart. Caes. Eurusque Notusque ruunt, both Eurus
and Motus rush forth. Verg.
1. Polysyn DETON is a pleonasm in the use of conjunctions, as in the last example.
2. HENDIADYS is the use of two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a noun with an
adjective or genitive:
Armis virisque for virls armătis, with armed men. Tac.
8. ANAPHORA is the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses:
Mé clincta Italia, mé üniversa civitās consulem déclarăvit, me all Italy, me the
whole state declared consul. Cic.
4. EPIPHORA is the repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses:
Laelius nävus erat, döctus erat, Laelius was d?!?gent, was learned. Cic.
5. EPIZEUxis is the emphatic repetition of a word:
Fuit, fuit quondam in håc ré publică virtùs, there was, there was formerly virtue
Čn this republic. Cic.
6. Monosyllabic prepositions are often repeated before successive nouns, regularly so
with et—et:
Et in bellicis et in civilibus officiis, both in anizitary and in civil offices. Cic.
NoTE.—Other prepositions are sometimes repeated.
7. A demonstrative pronoun or adverb–id, hôc, illud, sic, ita—is often used some-
what redundantly to represent a subsequent clause. So also guid, in Quid cán Sé8 with
a clause:
Illud tâ Grö ut diligēns Sis, I ask you (that thing) to be (that you be) diligent. Cic.
8. Pronouns are often redundant with Qwidem : see 450, 4, note 2.
9. Pleonasm often occurs with licet : -
Ut liceat permittitur = licet, it is lawſul (is permitted that it is, etc.). Cic.
10. Circumlocutions with rés, genus, modus, and ratić are common.
IV. ENALLAGE is the substitution of one part of speech for another, or
of one grammatical form for another:
Populus lăté réx (for régnäns), a people of extensive sway (ruling extensive-
ly). Verg. Sérus (Sérô) in caelum redeås, may you return late to heaven. Hor.
Vina cadis (vinis cados) onerăre, to fill the flasks with wine. Verg. Cursus
jūsti (jūstus) amnis, the regular course of the river. Liv.
1. ANTIMERIA is the use of one part of speech for another, as in the first two examples.
2. HYPALLAGE is the use of one case for another, as in the last two examples.
8. PROLEPSIS or ANTICIPATION is the application of an epithet in anticipation of the
action of the verb :
Scuta latentia condunt, they conceal their hidden Shields. Werg. See also 440, 2.
4. SYNESIS is a construction according to sense, withouf regard to grammatical forms.
For examples, see 438, 6; 445, 5; 461.
* Pleonasm, a full or emphatic expression, differs widely from Tawtology, which is
a needless repetition of the same meaning in different words.
372 APPENDIX.
5. ATTRACTION finites in construction words not united in sense:
Animal quem (for quod) vocamus hominem, the animal which we call man. Cic,
8ee also 445, 4, 8, and 9.
6. ANACOLUTHON is a want of harmony in the construction of the different parts of a
Sentence :
Si, ut dicunt, omnés Gräiós esse (Gráž 8wnt), if, as they say, all are Greeks. Cic.
W. HYPERBATON is a transposition of words or clauses:
Praeter arma nihil erat Super (supererat), nothing remained, except their
arms. Nep. Valet atque vivit (vivit atque valet), he is alive and well. Ter.
Subeunt lücó, fluviumque relinquunt, they enter the grove and leave the river.
Verg.
1. ANASTROPHE is the transposition of words only, as in the first example.
2. HYSTERON PROTERON is a transposition of clauses, as in the last example.
3. TMESIs is the separation of the parts of a compound word:
Nec prius respéxi quam vénimus, nor did I look back before (sooner than) we ar-
fived. Werg.
4. CHIASMUS is an inverted arrangement of words in contrasted groups; see 562.
637. FIGUREs of RHETORIC comprise several varieties. The following
are the most important: *
I. A SIMILE is a direct comparison:
Manús effugit imăgă pâr levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno, the
image, like the swift winds, and very like a fleeting dream, escaped my hands.
Verg.
II. METAPHOR is an implied comparison, and assigns to one object the
appropriate name, epithet, or action of another: sº
RéI publicae vulnus (for damnum), the wound of the republic. Cic. Nau-
fragium fortúnae, the wreck of fortune. Cic. Aurès véritāti clausae sunt, his
ears are closed against the truth. Cic.
1. Allegory is an extended metaphor, or a series of metaphors. For an
example, see Horace, I., Ode 14: O nãvis . . . occupi portum, etc.”
III. METONYMY is the use of one name for another naturally suggested
by it:
Aequð Märte (for proelio) pigmātum est, they fought in an equal contest.
Liv. Furit Vulcănas (ignis), the fire rages. Verg. Proximus àrdet Ucalegón
(domus Ucalegontis), Ucalegon burns next. Verg.
NoTE.—By this figure the cause is often put for the effect, and the effect for the cause *
the property for the possessor, the place or age for the people, the sign for the thing sig-
nified, the material for the manufactured article, etc.: Märs for bellum, Vulcănus for
ignès, Bacchus for vinwm, näbilitäs for nôbilés, Graecia for Graeci, laurea for vic-
túria, argentum for väsa argentea, etc.
* On Figurative Language, see the eighth and ninth books of Quintilian, “Dö Insti-
tätiöne Orātūrīā,” and the fourth book of “Auctor ad Herennium” in Cicero's works.
* In this beautiful allegory the poet represents the vessel of state as having been
well-nigh wrecked in the storms of the civil war, but as now approaching the haven of
peace,
FIG URES OF RHETORIO. 373
1. Autonomasia designates a person by some title or office, as ºver'80”
Karthåginis for Scipić, Românae eloquentiae princeps for Ciceró.
IV. SynECD0CHE is the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for
a part; of the special for the general, or of the general for the special:
Statić male fida carinis (návibus), a station unsafe for ships. Verg.
W. IRONY is the use of a word for its opposite:
Legatos bonus (for malus) imperator vester non admisit, your good com-
mander did not admit the ambassadors. Liv. See also 507, 3, note 1.
Nore.—Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony are often called Tropé8.
VI. CLIMAx (ladder) is a steady ascent or advance in interest:
Africanã industria virtùtem, virtùs glóriam, glória aemulas comparãvit,
industry procured virtue for Africanus, virtue glory, glory rivals. Cic.
VII. HYPERBOLE is an exaggeration:
Ventis et fulminis Ocior alis, swifter than the winds and the wings of the
lightning. Verg.
VIII. LITOTES denies something instead of affirming the opposite:
Nön opus est-perniciósum est, it is not necessary. Cic.
N IX. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPEIA represents inanimate objects as
living beings:
Cújus latus ille micró petébatº whose side did that weapon seek 2 Cic."
X, APOSTROPHE is an address to inanimate objects or to absent persons:
Vös, Albăni tumuli, vös implórð, I implore you, ye Alban hills. Cic.
XI. The following figures deserve brief mention:
1. ALLITERATION, a repetition of the same letter at the beginning of
successive words:
Vi victa vis est, force was conquered by force. Cic. Fortissimi viri virtùs,
the virtue of a most brave man. Cic. -
2. APOPHASIS or PARALEIPSIS, a pretended omission: ”
Nön dicö té pecunias accēpisse; rapinas tuās omnés omittà, I do not state
that you accepted money; I omit all your acts of rapine. Cic.
3. AposioPESIS or RETICENTIA, an ellipsis which for rhetorical effect
leaves the sentence unfinished:
Quès ego—sed motös praestat componere flüctüs, whom P-but it is better
to calm the troubled waves. Verg.
4. EUPHEMISM, the use of mild or agreeable language on unpleasant
subjects:
Si quid mihi humänitus accidisset, if anything common to the lot of man
should be/w83 use—i.e., iſ 1 sluould die. Clc.
* See also First Oration against Catiline, WII. : Quae tecum . . . tacita loquitur, etc.
* Sometimes called occupatiã.
374 APPENDIX.
5. ONOMATOPOEIA, the use of a word in imitation of a special sound:
Bovés migiunt, the cattle low. Liv. Murmurat unda, the wave murmurs,
Verg.
6. OxyMöRoN, an apparent contradiction:
Absentés adsunt et egentès abundant, the absent are present and the needy
have an abundance. Cic.
7. PARONOMASIA or AGNOMINATION, a play upon words:
Hunc avium dulcédé dùcit ad avium, the attraction of birds leads him to
the pathless wood. Cic.
II. LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
638. The Latin derives its name from the Latini or Latins, the ancient
inhabitants of Latium in Italy. It belongs to the Indo-European or Aryan
family, which embraces seven groups of tongues known as the Indian or
Sanskrit, the Persian or Zend, the Greek, the Italian, the Celtic, the Slavonic,
and the Teutonic or Germanic. The Latin is the leading member of the
Italian group, which also embraces the Unbrian and the Oscan. All these lan-
guages have one common system of inflection, and in various respects strik-
ingly resemble each other. They are the descendants of one common speech
spoken by a single race of men untold centuries before the dawn of history.
NotE 1.-In illustration of the relationship between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and
English, compare the following paradigms of declension : *
SINGULAR.
SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH.
Stem. pad, Troö, ped, foot.
Mom., - d & - f t
Voc.” pad, Trous, pes, OOU,
Gen. padas, Troöds, pedis, of a foot.
Dat, pade, Troöä, pedi, to a foot.
Acc, pādam, Tróða,” pedem, foot.
Abl, padas, pede,4 from a foot.
Jns. padā, with a foot.
Loc, padi, in a foot.
- PLURAL
%. pādas, trööes, pedes, feet.
Gen. padām, Troööv, pedum, of feet.
Dat, padbhyas, troo'í, pedibus, to feet.
Acc, padas, tróðas, pedes, feet.
Abl. padbhyas, pedibus, from feet.
Ins. padbhis, with feet.
Loc. patsu, in feet.
1 The pun, lost in English, is in the use of divium, a remote or pathless place, with
a/vium, of birds. -
* See also p. 71, foot-note 2; p. 83, foot-note 8.
* The Ablative, the Instrumental, and the Locative are lost in Greek, but their
places are supplied by the Genitive and the Dative.
* The final consonant, probably t, of the original Ablative ending is changed to 8 in
padas and dropped in pede. The Instrumental and the Locative are lost in Latin,
but their places are supplied by the Ablative.
LATIN LANGUAGE. 375
NoTE 2.—In these paradigms observe that the initial p in pad, tro8, ped, becomes f
h foot, and that the final d becomes t. This change is in accordance with Grimm's
\ Law of the Rotation of Mutes in the Germanic languages. This law is as follows:
The Primitive Mutes, which generally remain unchanged in Sanskrit, Greek, and
Latin, are changed in passing into the Germanic languages, to which the English belongs.
Thus the SONANTS, d, g, in passing into English, become SURDs, t, k, the SUEDs, c, k,
p, t, become ASPIRATES, h, wh, f (for ph), th; the ASPIRATES, bh, dh,i gh, become
SoNANTS, b, d, g.” - -
NoTE 3.−The relationship between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and English may be
abundantly illustrated by comparing the forms of familiar words in these different lan-
guages.”
639. The earliest specimens of Latin whose date can be determined are
found in ancient inscriptions, and belong to the latter part of the fourth cen-
tury before Christ or to the beginning of the third. Fragments, however,
of laws, hymns, and sacred formulas, doubtless of an earlier though uncer-
tain date, have been preserved in Cato, Livy, Cicero, and other Latin writers.4
* Bh generally is represented in Latin by b or f; dh by d or f. and gh, by g, h, or f:
see Schleicher, pp. 244-251.
* For an account of Grimm's Law, with its applications, see Max Müller, “Science
of Language,” Second Series, Lecture W.; Papillon, pp. 85–91.
* Compare the following:
SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH.
dvau, 61ſo, duo, two.
trayas, Tpets, trés, three.
flat, éč, SeX, six.
Sapta, étr+d, septem, Seven.
daça, Séka, decem, ten.
dvis, 8ts, bis, twice.
tris, Tpis, ter, thrice.
mātā, uitmp, mäter, mother.
pitä, tratip, pater, father.
naus, vaos, nāvis, navy.
vāk, ôi), vöx, voice.
* Such are the ancient forms of prayer found in Cato and other writers, the fragments
of Salian hymns, of the formulas of the Fetial priests, and of ancient laws, especially of
the laws of the Twelve Tables. The following inscription on the tomb of the Scipios
shows some of the peculiarities of early Latin:
HONO OINO . PLOIRVME . CONSENTIONT . R.
DVONORO . OPTVMO . FWISE - VIRO
LVCIOM . SCIPIONE . FILIOS . BARBATI
CONSOL . CENSOR - AIDILIS . HIC . FVET . A
HEC , CEPIT . OORSICA . ALERIAQWE . WRBE
DEDET . TEMPESTATEBUS , AIDE . MERETO
In ordinary Latin:
Hunc tinum plurimſ consentiunt Römää
bonārum optimum fuisse virum viròrum,
Lúcium Scipiónem. Filius Barbăti
cönsul, cènsor, aedilis hic fuit apud vô8.
Hic cépit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem pågnandó,
dedit tempestätibus aedem meritó vöta.m.
See Wordsworth, ‘Early Latin,' Part II.; F. D. Allen, ‘Early Latin"; Roby, I., p. 418.
376 APPENDIX.
64O. The history of Roman literature begins with Livius Andronicus,
a writer of plays, and the earliest Roman author known to us. It em-
braces about eight centuries, from 250 B. C. to 550 A.D., and has been
divided by Dr. Freund into three principal periods. These periods, with
their principal authors, are as follows:
I. The ANTE-CLASSICAL PERIOD, from 250 to 81 B. C. :
Ennius, Plautus, Terence, Lucretius.
II. The CLASSICAL PERIOD, embracing—
1. The Golden Age, from 81 B. C. to 14 A. D. :
Cicero, Nepos, Horace, Tibullus,
Caesar, Livy, Ovid Propertius.
Sallust, Vergil, Catullus,
2. The Silver Age, from 14 to 180 A.D.:
Phaedrus, The Plinies, Quintilian, Persius,
Wellêius, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lucan,
The Senecas, Curtius, Juvenal, Martial.
III. The Post-CLASSICAL PERIOD, embracing—
1. The Brazen Age, from 180 to 476 A. D. :
Justin, Eutropius, Lactantius, Claudian,
Victor, Macrobius, Ausonius, Terentian.
2. The Iron Age, from 476 to 550 A.D.:
Boëthius, Cassiodórus, Justinian, Priscian.
III. THE ROMAN CALENDAR.
641. The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis of our own, and
is identical with it in the number of months in the year and in the num-
ber of days in the months.
642. PECULIARITIES.—The Roman calendar has the following pecu-
liarities:
I. The days were not numbered from the beginning of the month, as with
us, but from three different points in the month:
1. The Calends, the first of each month.
2. The Nones, the fifth-but the seventh in March, May, July, and
October. -
3. The Ides, the thirteenth—but the fifteenth in March, May, July, and
October. ‘.
II. From these three points the days were numbered, not forward, but
backward. -
NOTE.—Hence, after the Ides of each month, the days were numberia from the
Calends of the following month.
III. In numbering backward from each of these points, the day before
RoMAN CALEND.A.R. 377
each was denoted by pridie Kalendás, Mônās, etc.; the second before each by
due tertà (not secundo) ante Kalendás, etc.; the third, by die quartô, etc.; and
so on through the month.
1. This peculiarity in the use of the numerals, designating the second day before the
Calends, etc., as the third, and the third as the fourth, etc., arises from the fact that the
Calends, etc., were themselves counted as the first. Thus pridié Kalendás becomes
the second before the Calends, dić tertià ante Kalendás, the third, etc.
2. In dates the name of the month is added in the form of an adjective in agreement
with Kalemdā8, Nönäs, etc., as, dić quartô ante Nônās Jānwārīās, often shortened to
Quartô ante Nônās Jān, or IV. ante Wömä8 Jäm., or without ante, as, IV. Wönäs Jān,
the second of January.
8. Ante diem is common, instead of dić—ante, as, ante diem quartwm Nömäs Jān.
for dić quartô ante Wömä8 Jäm.
4. The expressions ante diem Kal., etc., prædić Kal., etc., are often used as inde-
clinable nouns with a preposition, as, eac ante diem V. Idä8 Oct., from the 11th of Oct.
Liv, Ad pridié Nônā8 Māīās, till the 6th of May. Cic.
643. CALENDAR FOR THE YEAR.
Days of March, May, July, January. A e
y > ry, August, April, June,
* October. .." sº November. February.
onth.
I FCALENDIs. 1 KALENDIs. ECALENDIs. KALENDIS.
2 VI. NönāS.1 IV. Nönäs. IV. Nônās. IV. Nönäs.
3 W. { { III. {{ III. $$. III. {{.
4 IV. {{ Pridió Nónás. Pridió Nóná8. Pridié Nönäs.
5 III. {{ NöNIs. NöNIs. NöNIs.
6 Pridió NónáS. VIII. Idús. VIII. Idlis. VIII. Idlis.
7 NöNIs. VII, {{ VII. {{ VII. §§
8 VIII. Idlis. WI. {{ WI. {{ WI. {{
9 VII. $% V. {{ W. {{ V. {{
10 WI. {{ IV. {{ IV. 6& IV. {{
11 W. {{ III, {{ III. _ “ III. _ “
12 IV. { { Pridié Idús. Pridié Idâs. Pridié Idiis.
13 III. _ “ IDIBUS. IDIBUS. IDIBUS.
14 Pridió Idâs. XIX. Kalend.2 | XVIII. Kalend.2 | XVI. Kalend.”
15 IDIBUS. XVIII. “ XVII. {{ XV. 66
16 XVII. Kalend.2 | XVII. {{ XVI. $6. XIV. &ć
17 XVI. {{ XVI. {{ XV. {{ XIII. $6
18 XV. {{ XV. {{ XIV. {{ XII. $%
19 XIV. {{ XIV. {{ XIII. $6 XI. £6
20. XIII. Gé XIII. $$. XII. {{. X. {{
21 XII. {{ XII. {{ XI. $0. IX. ${
22- XI. {{ XI. {{. X. $6 VIII. {{
23. X. 44 X. {{ IX. $$. VII. $6
24. IX. 6% IX. {{ VIII. $$. WI. . {{
25, VIII. $6 VIII. {{ VII. 6% V. (VI) 3 “
26. VII. £6 VII. $6 WI. {{ IV. {{} {{
2% WI. $6 WI. {{ W. £6 III. (IV.). “
28. V. 6% W. {{. IV. {{ Prid. Kal.(III.Kal.)
29. IV. $t IV. {{ III. {{ (Prid. Kal.)
30, III. {{ III. {{ Pridié Kalend.
81. Pridió Kalend. Pridié Kalend.
* To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month must of course be added. De-
fore Nônās, Idlis, etc., ante is sometimes used and sometimes omitted (642, III., 2).
* The Calends of the following month are of course meant; the 16th of March, for
instance, is XVII. Kalendás Aprilés.
* The inclosed forms apply to leap-year.
378 APPENDIX.
644. ENGLISH AND LATIN DATES.—The table (643) will furnish the
learner with the English expression for any Latin date, or the Latin ex-
pression for any English date; but it may be convenient also to have the
following rule:
I. If the day is numbered from the Nones or Ides, subtract the number
diminished by one from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides
fall :
VIII. ante Idus Jān. = 13–(8–1) = 13–7 = 6th of January.
II. If the day is numbered from the Calends of the following month, sub-
tract the number diminished by two from the number of days in the current
month :
XVIII. ante Kal. Feb. = 31 — (18–2) = 31 – 16 = 15th of January.
NoTE.—In leap-year the 24th and the 25th February are both called the sixth before
the Calends of March, VI. Kal. Mart. The days before the 24th are numbered as if
the month contained only 28 days, but the days after the 25th are numbered regularly
for a month of 29 days: V., IV., III. Kal. Mart., and pridić Kal. Mart.
645. The Roman day, from sunrise to sunset, and the night, from
sunset to sunrise, were each divided at all seasons of the year into twelve
hours.
1. The night was also divided into four watches of three Roman hours
each.
2. The hour, being uniformly /12 of the day or of the night, of course varied
in length with the length of the day or night at different seasons of the year.
IV. RoMAN MoMEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUREs.
646. The principal Roman coins were the Ös, of copper; the sestertius,
quindrius, dendrius, of silver; and the aureus, of gold. Their value in the
classical period may be approximately given as follows:
As. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 to 2 cents.
Sestertius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 {{
Quinarius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 & 4
Denarius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 {{
Aureus = 25 dénării. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.00
1. The ās, the unit of the Roman currency, contained originally a pound
of copper, but it was diminished from time to time till at last it contained
only */24 of a pound.
NoTE.—An Óis, whatever its weight, was divided into twelve unciae.
2. The sestertius contained originally 2% dissés, the quinárius 5, and the
dānārius 10; but as the dis depreciated in value, the number of dissés in these
coins was increased.
3. The ās is also used as a general unit of measure. Thus—
z 1) In Weight, the ās is a pound, and the uncia an ounce.
2) In Measure, the dis is a foot or a jūgerum (648, IV. and V.), and the
wncia is 1/12 of a foot or of a jūgerum.
3) In Interest, the dis is the unit of interest—i.e., 1 per cent. a month.
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 379
or 12 per cent. a year; the uncia is /12 per cent, a month, or 1 per cent, a
year; and the Sémis is 9/12 per cent. a month, or 6 per cent. a year, etc.
4) In Inheritance, the dis is the whole estate, and the uncia /12 of it; hérès
ex: âsse, heir of the whole estate ; hérès ea dodrante, heir of 9/12.
647. CoMPUTATION of Money.—In all sums of money the common unit
of computation was the Sestertius, also called nămmus ; but four special
points deserve notice:
I. In all sums of money, the units, tens, and hundreds are denoted by
sestertà with the proper cardinals:
Quinque sestertii, 5 Sesterces; viginti Sestertii, 20 Sesterces; ducenti Ses-
tertii, 200 sesterces.
II. One thousand sesterces are denoted by mille Sestertà, or mille Sester-
tääm. -
III. In sums less than 1,000,000 sesterces, the thousands are denoted either
(1) by milia Sestertàm (gen. plur.), or (2) by Sestertia :
Duo milia sestertium, or duo sestertia, 2,000 Sesterces; quinque milia ses-
tertium, or quinque sestertia, 5,000 Sesterces.
NoTE.—With sestertia the distributives are generally used, as, bina 868tertia.
IV. In sums containing one or more millions of sesterces, sestertium with
the value of 100,000 sesterces is used with the proper numeral adverb, deciés,
viciés, etc. Thus—
Deciés sestertium, 1,000,000 (10 x 100,000) sesterces; viciès sestertium,
2,000,000 (20 x 100,000) sesterces.
1. SESTERTIUM.–In the examples under IV., &estertium is treated as a neuter noun
in the singular, though originally it was probably the genitive plural of 8estertius, and the
full expression for 1,000,000 sesterces was Deciés centéma milia gestertiàm. Centāna
milia was afterward generally omitted, and finally sestertiàm lost its force as a genitive
plural, and became a neuter noun in the singular, capable of declension.
2. Sometimes Sestertium is omitted, leaving only the numeral adverb: as, deciés,
1,000,000 sesterces.
3. The sign HS is often used for Sestertà, and sometimes for 8estertia, or gestertium :
Decem HS = 10 sesterces (HS = sestertii). Déna HS = 10,000 sesterces (HS = ses-
tertia). Deciés HS = 1,000,000 sesterces (HS = sestertium).
648. WEIGHTS AND MEASUREs.-The following weights and measures
deserve mention :
I. The Libra, also called As or Pondó, equal to about 11% ounces avoir-
dupois, is the basis of Roman weights.
1. The Libra, like the dis in money, is divided into 12 parts.
II. The Modius, equal to about a peck, is the basis of dry measure.
III. The Amphora, containing a Roman cubic foot, equivalent to about
seven gallons, is a convenient basis of liquid measure.
IV. The Roman Pés or Foot, equivalent to about 11.6 inches, is the basis
of long measure.
NOTE.-Cubitus is equivalent to 1% Roman feet, passus to 5, and Stadium to 625.
380 APPENDIX.
v. The Jägerum, containing 28,800 Roman square feet, equivalent to
about six tenths of an acre, is the basis of Square measure.
W. ROMAN NAMES.
649. A Roman citizen usually had three names. The first, or prae-
mömen, designated the individual ; the second, or nômen, the géns or tribe ;
and the third, or cognómen, the family. Thus, Públius Cornélius Scipió
was Públius of the Scipið family of the Cornelian géns, and Găius Július
Caesar was Gāius of the Caesar family of the Julian géns.
1. The praenomen was often abbreviated:
A. = Aulus. M. = Mārcus. S. (Sex.) = Sextus.
Ap. = Appius. M’. = Mânius. Ser. = Servius.
C. = Gäius. Mam. = Māmercus. Sp. = Spurius.
T. = Titus.
Ti. (Tib.) = Tiberius.
N. = Numerius.
P. = Públius.
Q. (Qu.) = Quintus.
2. Sometimes an āgnómen or surname was added. Thus Scipió received
the surname Africanus from his victories in Africa: Públius Cornélous Scipið
Africónw8.
3. An adopted son took (1) the full name of his adoptive father, and (2)
an dignómen in dinus formed from the name of his own géns. Thus Octávius
when adopted by Caesar became Gääus Július Caesar Octávidnus. After-
ward the title of Augustus was conferred upon him, making his full name
Gääus Július Caesar Octávidinus Augustus.
4. Women were generally known by the name of their gèns. Thus the
daughter of Jülius Caesar was simply Júlia ; of Tullius Ciceró, Tullia ; of
Cornélius Scipió, Cornélia. Three daughters in any family of the Cornelian
gèns would be known as Cornélia, Cornélia Secunda or Minor, and Cornélia
Cn. = Gnaeus.
D. = Decimus.
L. = Lúcius.
Tertia.
650. Various abbreviations occur in classical authors:
A. D. = ante diem.
Aed. = aedilis.
A. U. C. = annó urbis
conditae.
Cos. = cónsul.
Coss. = cónsulês.
D. = divus.
D. D. = donó dedit.
Des. = désignātus.
D. M. = diis mānibus.
D. S. = dé suð.
D. S. P. P. = dé Suá
pecunia posuit.
Eq. Rom. = eques Rö-
InānuS.
F. = filius.
F. C. = faciendum cli-
răvit.
Id. = Idâs.
Imp. = imperätor.
K. (Kal.) = Kalendae.
Leg. = legātus.
Non. = Nönae.
O. M. = optimus māx-
1IOlùS.
P. C. = patrès conscrip-
ti.
Pont. Max. = pontifex
mäximus.
P. R. = populus Rö-
ImānlūS.
Pr. = praetor.
Praef. = praefectus.
Proc. = procónsul.
Q. B. F. F. Q. S. = quod
bonum, felix, fauş-
tumdue sit.
Quir. = Quirités.
Resp. = rés publica.
S. = Senátus.
S. C. = Senátüs consul-
tum.
S. D. P. = salútem dicit
plürimam.
S. P. Q. R. = senātus
populusque Römānus.
Tr. Pl. = tribunus plé-
bis.
APPENDIX. 381
VI. WOWELS BEFORE Two ConsonANTS OR A Dou BLE ConsonANT.
651. On the natural quantity' of vowels before two consonants, a
double consonant, or the letter j, observe—
I. That vowels are long before ns and nf; generally also before gn
and j:
cönscius, cónsènsus, cónstāns, cónstrud, cónsul, insānus, inscribó, inse-
quor, instāns, insula, amāns, monéns, regéns, audièns; conferó, cónfició, cón-
fluê, infämia, Infélix, infénsus, Inferö, infrequëns; abiègnus, benignus, mäg-
nus, malignus, régnum, Signum, Stågnum; clijus, ejus, hujus, mājor, pējor.
II. That all vowels which represent diphthongs, or are the result of
contraction, are long:
existimó, amâsse, audissem, intrörsum,” intrörsus, prorsus, quorsum, rur-
sum, sürsum, mälle, mällem, nälle, nollem, nullus, ullus,” Märs,” Märtis.
III. That the long vowels of Primitives are retained in Derivatives—
1. In ascó, escó, and iscó in Inceptives from verbs of the first, sec-
ond, or fourth conjugation:
geläscó, labāscó, acéscö, äréscó, flöréscó, latéscó, patéscö, silëscó, virèscó,
ëdormiscó, obdormiscó, Sciscú, cónscisco.
2. In large classes of words of which the following are examples:
crås-tinus, dūc-tilis, fas-tus, ne-fas-tus, flös-culus, jūs-tus, in-jūs-tus, jūs-
tissimus, jūs-titia, mātr-imónium, Ös-culum, Ös-culor, Ös-tium, palūs-ter, räs-
trum, rös-trum, rus-ticus, Salic-tum.
IV. That vowels are long in the ending of the Nominative Singular of
nouns and adjectives with long increments in the Genitive:
früx, léx, lùx, pâx, plebs, réx, thorâx, vöx.
W. That in the second person of the Perfect Active i is long in the
penult:
amāvisti, amávistis, monuisti, monuistis, réxisti, réxistis, audiwisti, audi-
vistis.
* It is often difficult, and sometimes absolutely impossible, to determine the natural
quantity of vowels before two consonants, but the subject has of late been somewhat
carefully investigated by Ritschl, Schmitz, and others. An attempt has been made in this
article to collect the most important results of these labors. The chief sources of in-
formation upon this subject are (1) ancient inscriptions, (2) Greek transcriptions of
Latin words, (3) the testimony of ancient grammarians, (4) the comic poets, and (5)
etymology. See Schmitz, Beiträge"; Ritschl, “Rheinisches Museum, vol. xxxi., pp.
481–492; Schöll, “Acta Societätis Philologae Lipsiénsis,” vol. vi., pp. 71—215; Müller,
* Orthographiae et Prosódiae Latinae Summārium ”; Foerster, “Rheinisches Museum,
xxxiii., pp. 291–299. -
* Intrörswm from intröversum ; tillus from timulus; Märs from Mavors.
382 APPENDIX.
NoTE.—According to Priscian, e is long before aci, aristi, etc., in the Perfect Active:
réa:7, réa.it, téa:érunt, illéaximus.
WI. That long vowels occur in the following words and in their deriva-
tives:
âctič mäximus rèctus
âctitó mille Sällustius
âctOr nārró SèScentl
âctuS Nörba Sèstius
ãxilla nintius StrüctOr
clássis Ördó Strüctiira,
crispus Örnămentum StrüctuS
dāmma Örnö täxillus
êmptus pästor tossillae
fêstus ăxillus tristis
Fèstus Öllić unctič
Jüppiter Popillius tinctitó
lèctitó priscus tinctOr
lèctor propinquus iinctiira,
lèctus proximus tinctus
lictor querélla Vēstinus
littera quinque vèstis
luélla quintus véxillum
Mărcus rèctič villa
mäxilla rèctOr Vipsánius
VII. That vowels are probably short before nt and nd : *
amant, amantis, monent, monentis, prüdentis, prüdentia, amandus, mon-
endus, regendus.
VIII. That the short vowels of Primitives are retained in Derivatives:
inter-nus, juven-tus, liber-täs, mùnus-culum, patr-imónium, pauper-culus,
super-bus, vir-tūs.
IX. That vowels are generally short in the ending of the Nominative
Singular of nouns and adjectives with short increments in the Genitive:
adeps, calix, dux, grex, hiems, jūdex, nex, nux.
/
NoTE.—Wowels before final ns are of course excepted.
X. That the first vowel in the following endings is short:
1. ernus, ernius, erminus; urnus, urnius, urninus:
mäternus, paternus, Liternius, Literninus, taciturnus, Sâturnius, Sâturni-
Ill IS.
2. ustus, estus, ester, estis, esticus, estinus, estris:
robustus, venustus, vetustus, honestus, modestus, campester, silvester,
agrestis, caelestis, domesticus, clandestinus, terrestris.
XI. That all vowels are to be treated as short unless there are good
reasons for believing them to be long.
1 See Book IX., 28.
* See p. 37, foot-note 2; p. 61, foot-note 2.
INDEA OF VERBS.
383
IIN DE X O F W E R BS.
THIS Index contains an alphabetical list, not only of all the simple
verbs in common use which involve any important irregularities, but also
of such compounds as seem to require special mention.
In regard to
compounds of prepositions (344) observe—
1. That the elements—preposition and verb–often appear in the com-
pound in a changed form; see 344, 4–6.
2. That the stem-vowel is often changed in the Perfect and Supine ;
See 221.
A
Ab-dò, ere, didi, ditum, 271.
Ab-ició ; see jació, 271, 2.
Ab-igö ; see agö, 271, 2.
Aboleó, ére, évi, itum, p. 124, foot-
note 2.
Abolèscó, ere, olévi, olitum, 277.
Ab-ripió; see rapió, 274.
Abs-condó ; see aido, 271.
Ab-sum, 290, I.
Ac-cendö, ere, i, cènsum, 272, 3.
Ac-cidó ; see cado, 272; 301.
Ac-cinó ; see canó, 271.
Ac-cipið ; see capið, 271, 2.
Ac-colò ; see colô, 274.
Ac-cumbó, ere, cubuſ, cubitum, 273.
Acèscó, ere, acui, -, 281.
Ac-quiró; see quaeró, 278.
Acuð, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Ad-dó ; see abdó, 271 ; 255, I., 4.
Ad-fari, p. 142, foot-note 5.
Ad-feró, 292, 2.
Ad-imó; see emö, 271, 2.
Ad-ipiscor, I, adeptus sum, 283, foot-
note 1.
Ad-oléscó ; see aboléscó, 277.
Ad-orior; see orior, 288, 2.
Ad-spició; see aspició, 217, 2.
Ad-stö, 259, N. 2.
Ad-sum, 290, I.
Ag-gredior; see gradior, 283.
A-gnóscó; see nåscö, 278.
Agö, ere, egi, actum, 271, 2.
Aiº, def., 297, II.
Albeó, Ére, —, 262, N. 2.
Algeå, ere, alsi, -, 265.
Al-lició, ere, lèxi, lèctum, 217, 2; p.
130, foot-note 8.
Aló, ere, alui, alitum, altum, 273.
Amb-igö ; see agö, 271, 2.
Amb-iö, 295, N. 2.
Amició, ire, ul (xi), tum, 285.
Amö, 205.
Amplector, I, ampléxus sum, 283.
Angå, ere, anxi, -, 272, N. 1.
An-nué, ere, I, -, 272, N. i.
Ante-capið, p. 128, foot-note 14.
Apage, déf., 297, III.
Aperiö, ire, ui, tum, 285.
Apiscor, i, aptus sum, 283.
Ap-pared ; see pared, 262; 301.
Ap-petó ; see petó, 278.
Ap-plicö; see plicã, 258.
Ap-pônó ; see pond, 273.
Arcessó, ere, Ivi, itum, 278.
Ardeó, ere, arsi, arsum, 265.
Arèscö, ere, arui, -, 281.
Arguó, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Ar-ripió; see rapió, 274.
A-scendö ; see Scandó, 272, 3.
A-spergö; see Spargö, 270.
A-spició, ere, spéxi, spéctum, 217, 2.
As-sentior, iri, sénsus sum, 288, 2.
As-sideð; see seded, 267, 2.
At-texö; see teacó, 274.
At-timeó; see tened, 263.
Atº: see tangó, 271.
At-tolſö; see tolló, 271.
Auded, ére, ausus sum, 268, 3.
Audió, 211.
Au-ſerú, 292, 2.
Augeo, Ére, auxi, auctum,_264.
Avá, daj...'see have, 297, iii.
* Final 6 in verbs is sometimes shortened, though rarely in the best writers.
384
INDEY OF VERBS,
B
Bălbütić, Ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Batuð, ere, I, -, 272, N. 1.
Bibó, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Blandior, iri, Itus sum, 288.
C
Cadó, ere, cecidi, casum, 272.
Caecutić, ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Caedo, ere, decidi, caesum, 272.
Caléscó, ere, calul, -, 281.
Calveč, ćre, —, 262, N. 3.
Canded, ére, ui, 262, N. 1.
Candó, p. 129, foot-hoteia.
Câneó, úre, —, 262, N. 2.
Canó, ere, cecini, cantum, 271.
Capessó, ere, Ivi, Itum, 278.
Capið, ere, cépi, captum, 217; 218;
271, 2.
Carpó, ere, SI, tum, 269.
Caveó, úre: căvi, cautum, 266.
Cédé, ere, cèssi, cèssum, 270.
Cedo, def., 297, III.
Celló, obs. ; see excelló, 273, N.
Cénô, 257, N. 2.
Cènseó, ére, ui, cènsum, 263.
Cernò, ere, crèvi, crètum, 277.
Cied, ére, civi, citum, 265, N.
Cingö, ere, cinxi, cinctum, 269.
Ció, 265, N. .
Circum-agö, p. 128, foot-note 13.
Circum-dò, 255, I., 4; 259, N. 1.
Circum-sistó; see sistö, 271.
Circum-stö, 255, I., 4.
Clangö, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Claudó, ere, clausi, clausum, 270.
Claudě, ere, — (to be lame), 272, N. 2.
Co-arguó ; see arguó, 279.
Co-emó, p. 128, foot-note 15.
Coepi, ãº, 297.
Có-gnóscó; see nóscó, 278.
Cögö, ere, coègi, coãctum; see agö,
* * *
Col-lido ; see laedd, 270.
Col-ligö; see legó, 271, 2.
Col-luceó; see liceó, 265.
Coló, ere, ui, cultum, 274.
Com-edo, 291, N. 3.
Com-miniscor, i, commentussum, 283.
Com-moved ; see moved, 266.
Com-parcó (percó); see parcó, 272.
Comperio, ire, peri, pertum, 287, N.
Compèscó, ere, pèscui, -, 273, N.
Com-pingö ; see pangó, 271.
Com-plector, i, plexus sum.
Com-pled, ére, évi, etum, 261.
Com-primö; see premö, 270.
Com-pungö, ere, punxi, punctum ;
See pungó, 271.
Con-cidó; see cadó, 272.
Con-cidó; see caédé, 272.
Con-cinó ; see Canó, 271.
Con-cludó; see claudó, 270.
Con-cupiscó, ere, cupivi, cupitum,
3 * * *
Con-cutić ; see quatiá, 270.
Con-dò ; see abdó, 271.
Cön-ferció ; see farció, 286.
Cön-ferö, 292, 2. &
Cön-fició; see fació, 271, 2.
Cön-fit, def., 297, III.
Cön-fiteor; see fateor, 268, 2.
Cön-fringö ; see frangó, 271, 2.
Con-gruð, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Cöniveó, €re, nivi, nix], -, 265;
3 * *
Cônor, 260.
Cön-serö ; see serö, 277, N.
Cön-sistö ; see Sistö, 271.
Cön-spició, ere, spéxi, spéctum,217, 2.
Cön-stitué ; see statuć, 279.
Cön-stö, 301; see Stö, 259.
Cönsulö, ere, ui, tum, 274.
Con-temně ; see temnà, 272, N. 2.
Con-texö ; see tea:ó, 274.
Con-tingö; see tangó, 271; 301.
Convalèscó, ere, valui, valitum,281, N.
Coquð, ere, coxi, coctum.
Cor-ripió; see rapić, 274.
Cor-rud ; see ruð, 279.
Crèbresco, ere, crèbrui, -, 282, N.
Crèdó, ere, crédidi, créditum, 271.
Crepô, are, ui, itum, 258
Crèscó, ere, crèvi, crètum, 277.
Cubö, äre, ui, itum, 258. . . .
Cúdó, ere, cudi, cilsum, 272, 3.
Cumbö; see accumbó, 273.
Cupið, ere, Ivi, Itum, 217, 1 ; 278.
Currö, ere, cucurri, cursum, 272.
Débed, 262.
Dē-cerpó, ere, si, tum, p. 127, foot-
note 2.
Decet, impers., 299.
Dé-dò; see abdó, 271.
Dé-fendö, ere, i, fensum, 272, 3.
Dē-fetiscor; see fatiscor, 283.
Dé-fit, def., 297, III.
Dégó, ere, dégi; see agö, 271, 2.
Délecto, impers., 301.
Déleó, úre, évi, etum, 261.
Dé-ligó ; see legö, 271, 2.
Dé-micó ; see micó, 258.
Dēmē, ere, dēmpsi, dēmptum.
Dē-pangó , see pangó, 271.
Dé-primo; see premö, 270.
Depsö, ere, ui, itum, tum, 273.
Dé-scendô; see scandó, %2, 3.
AND EY OF VERBS.
385
Dē-siliū; see Salò, 285.
Dé-sipió; see Sapið, 278.
Dé-sum, 290, I.
Dē-tendô ; see tendö, 271.
Dē-timeó; see tened, 263.
Dé-vertor; see vertö, 272, 3.
Dicó, ere, dixi, dictum, 238.
Dif-ferö, 292, 2.
Di-gnóscó; see nåscó, 278.
Di-ligö ; see legö, 271, 2.
Di-micö; see micó, 258.
Di-rigö, ere, réxi, réctum, p. 127,
foot-note 2. *
Discó, ere, didici, -, 271.
T)is-crepò ; see crepô, 258.
Dis-curnbö; see accumbó, 273.
Dis-pertior; see partior, 288.
Dis-pliceo ; see place0, 262.
Dis-sided ; see seded, 267, 2.
Di-stinguó ; see erstånguó, 269.
Di-stö, 259, N. 2.
Ditescó, ere, —, 282.
Dividó, ere, visi, visum, 270.
T)ö, dare, dedi, datum, 259.
Doceó, ere, ui, döctum, 263.
Dolet, impers., 301.
Domū, are, ui, itum, 258.
Dònô, 259.
Dúcö, ere, duxi, ctum, 269; 238.
Dulcescó, ere, —, 282.
Duplico, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Dürescó, ere, dūrui, -, 282, N.
E
Edó, ere, édi, Čsum, 272, 2; 291.
Ef-färi, p. 142, foot-hote 5.
Eged, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
E-lició, ere, ui, itum, 273.
E-ligó ... see legö, 271, 2.
E-micó; see micó, 258. . .
Emineč, ćre, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Emö, ere, émi, Čmptum, 271, 2.
E-necö, äre, ui, tum, 258.
Eö, ire, Ivi, itum, 295.
Esurió, ire, —, itum, 284, N. 2.
E-vado, ere, väsi, väsum, 270.
Ex-ārdèscó, ere, arsi, arsum, 281, N.
Excelló, ere, ui (rare), —, 273, N.
Ex-clüdó ; see claudó, 270.
Ex-currö; see curró, 272.
Ex-oléscö; see aboléscó, 277.
Expergiscor, i, experréctus sum, 283.
Ex-perior, iri, pertus sum, 288, 2.
Ex-pleå; see compleå, 261.
PR plioú ; Dee piſtº, 250.
Ex-plodó ; see plaudó, 270. -
Ex-stinguó, ere, stinxi, stinctum, 269.
Ex-stö, 259, N. 2.
Ex-tendô ; see tendö, 271.
Ex-tolló ; see tolló, 271.
F
Facessó, ere, Ivi, i, Itum, 278.
Fació, ere, féci, factum, 217, 1 ; 238;
271. 2.
Falló, ere, fefelli, falsum, 272.
Farció, ire, farsi, fartum, farctum, 286.
Fāri, déf., 297, II.
Fateor, éri, fassus sum, 268, 2.
Fatiscó, ere, —, 272, N. 2
Fatiscor, I, -, 283.
Faveó, ére, fivi, fautum, 266.
Fendó, obs. ; see défendö, 272, 3.
Feriö, Ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Feró, ferre, tuli, látum, 292.
Feróció, ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Ferved, ćre, fervi, ferbul, -, 267, 3.
Fido, ere, fisus sum, 283.
Figö, ere, fixi, fixum, 270.
Findó, ere, fidi, fissum, 272, 3.
Fingö, ere, finxi, fictum.
Finió, 284. -
Fió, fieri, factus sum, 294.
Fláved, ére, —, 262, N. 2.
Flecto, ere, fléxi, flèxum, 270.
Fleó, úre, évi, etum, 261.
Flóred, ére, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Flóréscó, ere, flórui, --, 281.
Fluſ), ere, flüxi, flüxum, 279, N.
Födió, ere, fodi, fossum,217, 1; 272, 2.
Forem, def., 204, 2; 297, iii. 2.
Foved, ére, fūvi, fotum, 266.
Frangó, ere, frégi, fractum, 271, 2.
Fremö, ere, ui, itum, 273.
Frendö, ere, —, frèssum, frésum, 270.
Fricó, are, ui, atum, tum, 258.
Friged, ére, frixi (rare), —, 265.
Fronde0, €re, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Fruor, i, früctus, fruitus sum, 283.
Fugið, ere, fūgi, fugitum, 217, 1 ;
271
2 < *
Fulció, ire, fulsi, fultum, 286.
Fulgeå, ere, fulsi, -, 265.
Fulgó, 265, foot-note 5.
Fulminat, impers., 300.
Fundo, ere, fūdī, fūsum, 272, 2.
Fungor, i, functus sum, 283.
Furö, ere, ui, -, 273, N
G.
Ganniö, Ire, —, 284, N. 2. -
Gauded, ére, gāvīsus sum, 268, 3.
Gemó, ere, ui, itum, 27
Geró, ere, gessi, gestum, 269.
Giguè), ele, geiſui, genlüutil, 2’, 3.
Glisco, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Gradior, I, gressus sum, 217, 8; 283,
Grandescó, ere, —, 282.
Grandinat, impers., 300.
Gravescó, ere, —.
17
386
VER BS.
IND EY OF
II
Habed, 262.
Haered, ére, haesi, haesum, 265.
Haurió, ire, hausi, haustum, haustü-
rus, hausurus, 286.
Havé, def., 297, III. .
Hebed, ére, —, 262, N. 2.
Hisco, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Honoró, 257.
Horreó, úre, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Hortor, 232; 260.
Húmed, ere, —, 262, N. 2.
I
Icö, ere, ici, ictum, 272, 3.
I-gnóscó ; see nåscó, 278.
Il-lició, ere, lèxi, lectum, 217, 2.
Il-lidó ; see laedo, 270.
Imbud, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Immined, ére, —, 262, N. 2.
IIIl-parcö ; see parcó, 272.
Im-pertior; see partior, 288.
Im-pingö ; see pangó, 271.
Im-pleå, p. 124, foot-note 1.
In-cendô ; see accendö, 272, 3.
Incessó, ere, Ivi, I, -, 278.
In-cidó; see cado, 272.
In-cidó ; see caedo, 272.
In-crepô ; see crepô, 258.
In-crèscö; see crêscó, 277.
In-cumbó; see accumbó, 273.
In-cutić ; see quatiá, 270.
Ind-igeó, ere, ui, -; see egeó, 262, N. 1.
Ind-ipiscor; see apiscor, 283.
In-do; see abdú, 271.
Indulged, ere, dulsi, dultum, 264.
Ineptió, ire, —, 284, N. 2.
In-ferö, 292, 2. '
Infit, def., 297, III.
Ingruð, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
In-nótescó, ere, notui, 282, N.
In-olèscö; see aboláscó, 277.
Inquam, deft, 297, II.
In-sideð ; see Sedeó, 267, 2.
In-spició, ere, Spéxi, Spéctum.
In-stö ; see Stö, 259.
Intel-legö ; see legö, 271, 2.
Interest, impers., 301.
Inter-nóscó; see nåscó, 278.
In-veteråscö, ere, rāvī, rätum, 281, N.
Irascor, I, -, 283
Ir-ruč ; see ruč, 279.
J
Jaciò, ere, jêci, jactum, 217, 1 ; 271, 2.
Jubeó, ére, jūssi, jūssum, 265.
Júró, 257, N. 2.
Juvenescó, ere, —.
Juvé, are, jūvi, jūtum, 259, 2; 301.
L
Lábor, i, lápsus sum, 283.
Lacessó, ere, iv.1, itum, 278.
Lació, obs. ; see allició, p. 130, foot-
note 8; 217, 2.
Lacted, ére, —, 262, N. 1.
Laedó, ere, laesſ, laesum, 270.
Lambó, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Ilangued, ére, I, -, 267, 3.
Targior, iri, itus Sum, 288.
Lateo, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Lavó, are, lävi, lautum, lotum, lavā-
tum, 259, 2.
Legö, ere, iégi, lèctum, 271, 2.
Lênió, 284.
Liberö, 257.
Libet, impers., 299.
Liceor, eri, itus sum, 268.
Licet, &mpers., 299.
Linó, ere, livi, lèvi, litum, 278.
Linquê, ere, liqui, -, 271, 2,
Liqueð, ere, liqui (licul), 267.
Liquet, impers., 299.
Liquor, i, --, 283.
Loquor, I, locutus sum, 283.
Lüced, ére, lùxī, —, 265.
Lücéscit, impers., 300.
Lüdó, ere, lùsi, lùsum, 270.
Lügeó, úre, lùxī, —, 265.
Luô, ere, lui, -.
M
Macrescö, ere, macrui, -, 282, N.
Madeč, ćre, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Madèscó, ere, madur, –.
Maered, ére, —, 262, N. 2.
Mäló, mälle, mālui, -, 293.
Mando, ere, I, mánsum, 272, 3.
Maneč, ćre, māmsi, mänsum, 265.
Mātūrésco, ere, mātūruſ, -, 282, N.
Medeor, éri, -, 268, 2.
Memini, déf., 297, I.
Mentior, iri, itus sum, 288.
Mereor, Čri, itus sum, 268.
Mergö, ere, mersi, mersum, 270.
Mêtior, iri, mēnsus sum, 288, 2.
Metó, ere, messui, messum, 275.
Metuá, ere, ui, -, 272,
Micó, are, ui, -, 258.
Miniscor, obs. ; see comminiscor, 283.
Minuð, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Miror, 260.
Misceó, ere, miscui, mistum, mixtum,
263.
Misereor, eri, itus or tus sum, 268, 2.
Miseret, impers., 299.
Mitescó, ere, —, 282.
Mittö, ere, misi, missum, 270.
Mölior, iri, Itus sum, 288.
INDEX OF VERBS.
387
Mollescó, ere, —, 282.
Moló, ere, ui, itum, 273.
Moneó, úre, ui, itum, 207; 262.
Mordeó, Ére, momordi, morsum, 267.
Morior, i (iri), mortuus sum, 217, 3;
283.
Moved, Öre, movi, motum, 266.
Mulced, ére, mulsi, mulsum, 265.
Mulged, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 265.
Multiplică, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Mūniš, 284.
N
Nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus) sum,
283.
Näscor, I, nātus sum, 283.
Necó, p. 123, foot-note 4.
Necto, ere, néxi, néxui, néxum, 270;
Hy
75.
N º ere, léxi, lèctum; see legö,
271, 2
Neó, úre, névi, nétum, 261.
Ne-qued, Ire, ivi, itum, 296.
Nigrescó, ere, nigrui, -.
Ningö, ere, ninxi, -, 272, N. 1.
Nited, ére, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Nitor, i, nisus, mixus sum, 283.
Noced, 262.
Nölö, nålle, nålui, -, 293.
Nöminö, 257.
Nöscö, ere, novi, notum, 278.
Núbó, ere, nãpsi, nuptum, 269.
Núpturió, Ire, Ivi, -, 284, N. 2.
O
Ob-dò ; see abdó, 271.
Ob-dormiscó, ere, dormivi, dormitum,
281, N.
Qbliviscor, i, oblitus sum, 283.
Qb-mütesćö, ere, mùtuj, , 282, N.
Ob-sideó; see seded, 267, 2.
Qb-Soléscó; see aboláscó, 277.
Qb-stö ; see Stö, 259.
Qb-surdescó, ere, surdui, -.
Qb-tined ; see tened, 263.
Qc-cido ; see cadó, 272.
Qc-cidó ; see caedo, 272.
Oc-cinó ; see cano, 271.
Qc-cipió; see capió, 271, 2.
QQculö, ere, ui, tum, 274.
Qdi, déſ, 297, I.
Qf-fendó, see défendó, 272, 3.
Of-feró, 292, 2.
Qleó, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Oléscó, oisolate ; see abolescó, 277.
2perió, ire, ui, tum, 285.
Uportet, impers., 299.
Op-perior, iri, pertus, peritus sum,
Ordior, iri, orsus sum, 288, 2.
Orior, Iri, ortus sum, 288, 2.
QS-tendó, see tendó, 271.
Ovat, def., 297, III.
P
Paciscor, i, pactus sum, 283.
Paenitet, impers., 299.
Palled, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Pando, ere, i, pånsum, passum, 272, 3.
Pangö, ere, pepigi, pâctum, 271.
Pangó, ere, panxi, pègi, panctum,
pâctum, 271.
Fº ere, peperci (parsi), parsum,
2.
Pāreč, ćre, ui, itum, 262.
Parió, ere, peperi, partum, 217, 1 ;
271.
Partior, iri, Itus sum, 288.
Parturió, ire, Ivi, -, 284, N. 2.
Pâscó, ere, pāvī, påstum, 276.
Pated, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Pation, I, passus sum, 217, 3 ; 283.
Paveó, úre, pāvī, -, 266.
Pectº, ere, pèxi, pèxum, 270.
Pel-lició, ere, lèxi, léctum, 217, 2.
Pelló, ere, pepuli, pulsum, 272.
Pended, ére, pependi, pènsum, 267.
Pendö, ere, pependi, pënsum, 272.
Per-agö, p. 128, foot-note 13.
Per-celló ; see eccelló, 273, N.
Per-Cènseó; see censéð, 263.
Per-dò, ere, didi, ditum ; see abdó,
271
Pergö (for per-rigó), ere, perréxi,
perréctum ; see regó, 269.
Per-petior; see pation, 283.
Per-stó ; see Stö, 259.
fer-taedet, p. 143, foot-note 8.
Per-timeó ; see temeå, 263.
Pessum-dò, 259, N. 1.
Pető, ere, Ivi, Itum, 278.
Piget, impers., 299.
Pingö, ere, pinxi, pictum.
Pinso (pisó), ere, i, ui, pinsitum,
pistum, pinsum, 272, 3; 273.
Place0, 262; 301.
Plaudě, ere, si, sum, 270.
Plectá, ere, plexi, plexum, 270.
Plector; see amplector, 283.
Pleo, obsolete ; see compleó, 261.
Plico, äre, avi, ui, atum, itum, 258.
Pluſ), ere, I or pluvi, -, 272, N. 1;
300.
Polled, ere, — 262, N. 2.
Polliceor, éri, itus sum, 268.
Pömö, Ore, popul, posituu, 273.
Poscó, ere, poposci, -, 272.
Pos-sideð; see seded, 267, 2.
Possum, pósse, potui, -, 290, II.
Potior, iri, itus sum, 288.
388
JWD EY OF VER BS.
Pötö, äre, fivi, atum, um, 257, N. 1.
Prae-cino ; see canó, 271.
Prae-currö; see curró, 272.
Prae-sideø; see seded, 267, 2.
Prae-stö ; see Stö, 259; 301.
Prae-sum, 290, I.
Prae-vertor; see vertö, 272, 3.
Pranded, ére, i, prānsum, 267, 3.
Prehendö, ere, i, hēnsum, 272, 3.
Premö, ere, pressi, pressum, 270.
Prèndö, p. 130, foot-note 1.
Prod-igö; see agó, 271.
I’rö-dò; see abdó, 271.
Proficiscor, i, profectus sum, 283.
Pro-fiteor; see fateor, 268, 2.
Prömö, ere, prompsi, promptum.
Pºum, prodesse, profuſ, -, 290,
Pró-tendô ; see tendö, 271.
Psalló, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1
Pudet, impers., 299.
I’uerascó, ere, —, 282.
Pūgnö, 257.
Pungº, ere, pupugi, punctum, 271.
Púnió, 284.
Q
Quaeró, ere, quaesiyi, quaesitum, 278.
Quaesö, déf., 297, III.
Quatio, ere, quassi, quassum, 217, 1 ;
270.
Queo, Ire, Ivi, itum, 296.
Queror, i, questus sum, 283.
Quiescö, ere, quiévi, quiétum, 277.
R
Rádà, ere, rāsī, rāsum, 270.
Rapić, ere, rapui, raptum, 217, 1 ; 274.
Raució, ire, rausi, räusum, 287.
Re-cénseó; see cémseó, 263.
Re-cidó ; see cadó, 272.
Re-cido ; see caeda, 272.
Re-crüdescó, ere, crüdui, 282, N.
Red-arguó ; see arguó, 279.
Red-do; see abdó, 271.
Re-felló ; see falló, 272.
Re-feró; see feró, 292.
Réfert, impers., 301.
Regö, ere, réxi, rêctum, 209; 269.
Re-linquð; see linquð, 271, 2.
Re-miniscor, i, -, 283.
Renideð, ere, —, 262, N. 2.
Reor, réri, ratus sum, 268, 2.
Re-pangó ; see pangó, 271.
Re-pared ; see parcó, 272.
Re-periö, Ire, peri, pertum, 287, N.
Re-plică, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Re-sided ; see Sedeó, 267, 2.
Re-siped ; see Sapić, 278.
Re-sono ; see Sond, 258.
Re-spergö; see spargö, 270.
Re-sponde0, 255, I., 4.
Re-tendô ; see tendö, 271.
Re-timeó ; see temeå, 263.
Re-vertor; see vertö, 272, 3.
Re-vivisco, ere, vixi, victum, 281, N.
Rideo, ere, risi, risum, 265.
Ringor, i, rictus sum, 283.
Rödö, ere, rösi, rösum, 270.
Rórat, impers., 300.
Rubeó, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Rudó, ere, ivi, itum, 278.
Rumpô, ere, rupi, ruptum, 271, 2.
Ruð, ere, rui, rutum, ruiturus, 279.
S
Saepió, Ire, psi, ptum, 286.
Sägiö, Ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Salič, ire, ui (ii), tum, 285.
Salvé, def., 297, III.
Sanció, ire, Sanxi, Sancitum, sanctum,
286.
Sapið, ere, Ivi, ui, -, 217, 1 ; 278.
Sarció, ire, Sarsi, Sartum, 286.
Sat-agö ; see agö, 271, 2.
Satis-dó, 259, N. 1.
Satis-fació, p. 129, foot-note 1.
Scabó, ere, scăbi, -, 271, 2.
Scandó, ere, di, Scânsum, 272, 3.
Scindö, ere, scidi, scissum, 272, 3.
Sció, 284.
Sciscó, ere, scivi, Scitum, 281, N.
Secă, ire, ul, tum, 258.
Sedeó, ére, sédi, Sessum, 267.
Sé-ligo ; see legó, 271, 2.
Sentić, ire, sensi, sénsum, 287.
Sepeliö, Ire, iv.i, sepultum, 284.
Sequor, j, secutus sum, 283.
Serö, ere, sévi, Satum, 277, N.
Serò, ere, serui, sertum, 274.
Sidó, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Sileó, ere, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Sinú, ere, sivi, situm, 278.
Sistö, ere, stiti, statum, 271.
Siti), ire, Ivi, -, 284.
Soleó, ére, solitus sum, 268, 3.
Solvö, ere, solvi, solutum, 272, 3.
Sono, äre, ui, itum, 258.
Sorbed, ére, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Sortior, iri, Itus sum, 288.
Spargö, ere, sparsi, sparsum, 270.
Speció, obs., 217, 2.
Spernó, ere, sprévi, sprétum, 277.
Spérô, 257.
Splended, ére, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
sº ère, Spopondi, spónsum,
26
squaled, ere, —, 262, N. 2.
INDEX OF VERBS.
389
Statuč, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Sternò, ere, străvi, Strätum, 276.
Sternuð, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Stertö, ere, ui, -, 273, N.
Stinguó, ere, —, p. 127, foot-note 3.
Stö, äre, steti, Stätum, 259.
Strepô, ere, ui, itum, 273.
Strideð, Ére, stridi, -, 267, 3.
Stridó, ere, i, -, 272, N. 1.
Strud, ere, strüxi, Strüctum, 279, N.
Studed, ére, ui, -, 262, N. 1
Stupeč, ćre, ul, -, 266.
Suádeč, ćre, SI, sum, 265.
sº ere, didi, ditum ; see abdó,
271.
Sub-igö; see agö, 271, 2.
Sub-silić ; see salić, 285.
Suc-cèdó ; see cédó, 270.
Suc-cendô ; see accendó, 272, 3.
Suc-cènseó ; see censed, 263.
Suc-cido ; see cadº, 272.
Suc-cidó ; see caedº, 272.
Suc-crèscö; see crescó, 277.
Suèscó, ere, suévi, Suétum, 277.
Suf-ferö, 292, 2.
Suf-fició; see fació, 271, 2.
Suf-fodió ; see fodió, 272, 2.
Sug-gerö; see gerð, 269.
Sum, esse, ful, -, 203, 1 ; 204.
Sümü, ere, psi, ptum, 269.
Superbiö, ire, —, 284, N. 2.
Super-jació, p. 129, foot-note 2.
Supplico, 258, foot-note.
Sup-pônó; see pånö, 273.
Surgó (for Sur-rigó), ere, Surréxi,
Surréctum ; see regó,
•
Taced, 262.
Taedet, impers, 299.
Tangö, ere, tetigi, tàctum, 271.
Temně, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Tºº, ere, tetendi, tentum, ténsum,
271.
Teneč, ćre, ui, tum, 263.
Tepescó, ere, tepui, -, 281.
Terged, ére, tersI, tersum, 265; p.
128, foot-note 3.
Tergö, ere, terSI, tersum, 270.
Terö, ere, trivi, tritum, 278.
Texö, ere, ui, tum, 274.
Timeó, ére, ui, --, 262, N. 1.
Tolló, ere, sustull, Sublåtum, 271.
Tonded, ere, totondſ, tonsum, 267.
Toné, are, ui (itum), 258; 300.
Torpéð, Čre, ui, -, 262, N. 1.
Torqueó, úre, torsi, tortum, 264.
Torreó, úre, torrui, tostum, 263.
Trā-dó; see abdó,271. º
Trahö, ere, traxi, tractum, 269.
Tremö, ere, ui, -, 273, N.
Tribuð, ere, ui, litum, 279.
Trüdâ, ere, trüsi, trüsum, 270.
Tueor, eri, tuitus, tütus sum, 268.
Tundo, ere, tutudi, tünsum, tüsum,
272.
Turged, ére, tursſ_(rare), —, 265.
Tussić, Ire, 284, N. 2.
U
Ulciscor, I, ultus sum, 283.
Urged, ére, ursi, -, 265.
Urö, ere, tissi, Čistum, 269.
Utor, i, usus sum, 283.
V
Vădă, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Vågiö, Ire, Ivi, -, 284.
Vehö, ere, véxi, véctum, 269.
Velló, ere, velli (vulsi), vulsum, 272, 3,
Vēndó, ere, didi, ditum, 271.
Vēn-eô, 295, 3.
Venió, ire, véni, ventum, 287, N.
Vénum-dò, 259, N. 1.
Vereor, éri, veritus sum, 268.
Vergö, ere, —, 272, N. 2.
Verró, ere, verri, versum, 272, 3.
Vertö, ere, ti, sum, 272, 3.
Vertor; see vertö, 272, 3.
Vescor, I, -, 283.
Veteråscó, ere, rāvī, -, 276.
Vetó, are, ui, itum, 258
Video, Čre, widi, visum, 267, 2.
Wilescó, ere, Viluſ, –, 282, N.
Vinció, Ire, vinxi, vinctum, 286.
Vincó, ere, vici, victum, 271, 2.
Wire0, €re, ui, -, 262, |N
Viréscó, ere, virui, -, 281.
VISö, ere, i, um, 3% 2, 3.
VIvö, ere, vixi, victum, 269.
Vocò, 257.
Voló, velle, volul, --, 293.
Volvö, ere, volvi, volūtum, 272, 3.
Womé, ere, ui, itum, 273.
Voveč, ćre, vövi, vötum, 266.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
IND EX O El
NotE.—The numbers refer to articles, not to pages.
SUBJECTS.
Acc, or accus. = accusative:
adjS. = adjectives; comp. = composition; compas. = compounds; conj. = conjugation;
conjunc. = conjunctions; constr. = construction; f. = and the following; gen, or genit.
= genitive; gend. = gender; ger. = gerund; loc, or locat. = locative; preps. = prepo-
sitions; w. = with.
It has not been thought advisable to overload this index with such separate words as
may be readily referred to classes, or to general rules, or even with such exceptions as
may be readily found under their respective heads.
Accordingly, the numerous excep-
tions in Dec, III. are not inserted, as they may be best found under the respective end-
ings, 69–115.
A
A, 3, sound, 5; 10 fſ. A final short-
ened, 21, 2. — A in nom., accus., and
voc. pl., 46, 2, 1). A-nouns, ject.
I., 48; a-verbs, 205. Nouns in -a,
Decl. III., 69 ; quant. of increm.,
585, I., 3; gender, 111. -A, adverbs
in, 304, I., 3. -A, prepositions in, p.
145, foot-note 11, p. 149, foot-note
2; adverbs in, 304, Il., 2. - A, -á,
suffix, 320. -A, derivatives in, 326,
2. A, changed in compas., 344, 4,
N. 1. A or ā, final, 580, i.; 580,
III., N. 2; 581, III. ; in increm. of
_decl., 585; 585, I. ; conj., 586; 586, I.
A, ab, abs, in compás., 344, 5; in
compas., w. dat., 386, 2; W. abl.,
A34, N.”1. Ab, as adverb, 379, 3.
N. A., ab, abs, with abl., 434; 434,
I. ; of agent, 388, 2; 415, I. A., aff,
abs, 434, N. 2. A, ab, abs, desig-
nating abode, 446, in 4. A, ab, w.
ger., p. 316, foot-note 1.
Abbreviations, 649, 1; 650.
Abhinc, denoting interval, p. 230,
foot-note 2; 430, N. 3.
Abiés, as in, 581, WI., 1.
-ābiiis, i'im, 587, iii. 2.
ABLATIVE, sing., original ending of,
. 20, footnºte 5. Abi. sing. in
ecl. III., 62, II. ff.: 63, 2; 64, N.
3 ; in adjs., 154, notes 1 and 2; 157,
. . Abl. plur., Decl. I., 49, 4 ;
Decl. III., 68, 5; Decl. IV., 117.
ABLATIVE, translation of, 48, W. foot-
note 4. Relations denoted, 367.
Syntax, 411 ff. Abl, w. locat., 363,
4, 2); W. adjS., 391, II., 3; 400, 3;
w. réfert, 408, I., 2; w. verbs of
accusing, etc., 410, II., 3; w. verbs
of condemning, 410, iii. Abi of
place, 412; 425 fſ, ; , separation,
source, cause, 413 ff. Abl, w, com-
º 417. Instrumental abl., 418
Abi 'of accompaniment, 419 ;
means, 420. Abl. in special con-
structions, 421. Abl. of price, 422;
difference, 423; º 424.
Locative abl., 425 ft. Abl. of time,
429. Abl. abs., 431. Abl. W. prepS.,
432; 434; 435; w. compas., 434,
N. 1; w. adverbs, 437. "Infin. in
abl. abs., 439, IV.
Ablative sing. in d, 581, III., 1.
-ābrum, à in, 587, l., 1.
Abs, in compas., 344, 5. Abs w. abl.,
434; 434, N. 2. g
Absente, constr., 438, 6, N.
Absolute Abl., 431.
Absolvö, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Absque, w. abl., 434.
Abstºneó, constr., p. 211, foot-note 5.
Abstract nouns, 39, 2, 2); plur., 130,
2 and 3. Abstract nouns from adjS.,
325.
Absum, w. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Abest, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Abunde, w. gen., p. 209, foot-note 3.
-ābundus, d in, 587, iii. 2.
-ābus for -78, Decl. I., 49, 4.
Ac, 310, 1 ; 554, I. ; meaning as, 451,
5; than, 459, 2; 554, I., 2, N. A&
si, 311, 2; w. subj, in conditions,
513, II.
Acatalectic, 603, N. 3.
Accent, rhythmic, 599.
Accentuation, 17 ff.
IWD EY OF SUBJECTS.
391
Accidit, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Accingó, constr., 377.
Accommodatus w. dat., p. 205, foot-
note 1.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 418 ft.
ACCUSATIVE, formation of, Decl. II.,
51, 2, 6); Decl. III., 58, 1, 5); 62,
II. ff.: 63, 1; 64, N. 2; 67, N. 2;
68, 2 and 6; in adjs., 154, N. 1;
158, 1.
AccusATIVE, syntax of 370 ft. Direct
object, 371 ff.: cognate, 371, I. and
II. : acc. of effect, 371, I., 2, 2); W.
verbaijadis, and nouns, 371, I., N. ;
w. compas., 372. Two accs., 373
ff. Predicate acc., 373, 1. Poetic
acc., 377. Adverbial acc., 378 ft.
Acc. of specification, 378 ; of time
and space, 379; of limit, 380; i.
ical dat. for, 380, 4. Acc. in exclam.,
381. Acc. for gen., 407. Acc. W.
7'éfert and interest, 408, I., 3 ; w.
preps., 432; 433; 435; W. adverbs,
437; as object, w. infin., 534. . Acc.
as subj. of infin., 536. Acc. of ger.,
542, III.
Accusative, Greek, in -as, 581, V., 2.
Acc. plur. in -às, 581, ix. e
Accusing, constr. W. verbs of, 409,
_II. ; 410, II.
Acer, decl., 153.
-āceus, adjs. in, 329; d. in, 587, III.,1.
Aciés, decl., 122, 2.
Acquitting, constr. W. verbs of, 409, II.
-ācrum, d in, 587, I.,
Action, repeated, in temp. clauses,
518, N. 2, 2); 518, 1.
Active voice, 195. Active and passive
constr., 464.
-ācundus, d in, 587, III., 2.
Acus, decl., 117, 1 ; gend., 118.
Ad in compas., 344, 5; in compoſs.
W. , two accs., 376; w. dat., 386.
Ad W. acc., 433; 433, I. ; after
adjS., 391, Il., 1 ; w. réfert and Žn-
téréSt, 408, I., 3. Ad designating
abode, 446, N. 4. Tid w. ger., p.
315, foot-note 5; denoting purpose,
542, III., N. 2.
Adé0, 551, N. 2; 554, I., 4.
-adès, a in, 587, II., 1.
Adfatºm w. gen., p. 209, foot-note 3;
º of pen., p. 345, foot-note 2.
Adfició w abl., 420, 2.
Adfinis w, gen., p. 205, foot-note 3;
p. 210, foot noto 3. -
Adipiscór w. gen., 410, V., 3.
Adjaced W. acc. or dat., p. 202, foot-
note 1.
ADJECTIVE, 146; decl, of, 147 ff.: ir-
regular, 151; 159. . Compar., 160
ff. Numerals, 172 ft. ; decl. of, 175
ff. Demon., 186, 4, Rel., 187, 4.
Inter., 188, 4. ferivation, 328 ft.
Composition, 342. W. dat., 391 ;
400, 1 ; w. gen., 397, 3; 399; of
ſerund, p. 315, foot-note, 2. Adj.
or gen., 395, N. 2. Adj. W. abl.,
400, 3; 414, III, ; 416 ; 420; 421.
Agreement, 438, ff. Usé, 440. W.
force of substantives, 441; of clauses,
442 ; of adverbs, 443. Compar.,
use, 444. Adj. separated , from
noun, 565, 3 and 4. Position of
modifiers of adj., 566; of adj. W.
en., 565, 2.
Admisceſſ w. dat., 385, 3; p. 201,
foot-note 1.
Admodum, 304, I., 2.
Adanoneó, constr., 374, 2; p. 274, foot-
note 1.
Admonishing, constr. W. verbs of,
409, I. ; 410, I.
Adolescèns, compar., 168, 4.
Adonic verse, 628, I.
Adopted son, how named, 649, 3.
Ador, quant. of increm., 585, II., 1.
Adillor w. acc. or dat., p. 202, foot-
notC 1.
Adulter, decl., 51, 4, 3).
Adverbial acc., 378. Adverbial com-
parison, 170.
Adverbs, 303 ff. Numeral adverbs,
181. Čompar., 306. Adverbs w.
nouns, 359, N. 4; 443, N. 4; w.
dat., 392; w.gen., 397, 4. Adverbs
as prepS., 437. Adverbs for adjS.,
3, N. 3. Use of adverbs, 551 ff.
Position of modifiers of adverb, 568.
Adverb bgtween prep. and case, 569,
II., 3. -É, in adverbs, 581, IV., 4.
Adverb redundant, 636, III., 7.
Adversative conjuncs., 310, 3 2 554,
III. Advers. asyndeton, p. 370,
foot-note 1.
Adversum, adversus, w. acc., 433.
Ae, º 6; 12; changed to i, 344,
2
4. N. 2.
A eds, sing. and plur., 132.
Aeger, decl., 150.
Aegréferö, constr., p. 310, foot-note 2.
Aenéās, decl., 50.
Aemilis W. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Aequº facere, 401, N. 4.
Aer, quant. of increm., 585, III., 4.
Aëtis, decl., 50.
Aether, quant, of increm., 585, III., 4.
—aeus, adjS. in., 331.
Age, expression of, p. 222, foot-note 4.
Ages of Lat. literature, 640.
392 IND EX OF
SUBJECTS.
Age, interj., p. 152, foot-note 4.
Agent, abl. of, with ā or ab, 388, 2;
415, I. Dat. of, 388.
Agér, decl., 51.
-āgintã, quant. of antepen., 587,
* • ? - - *--
Agnómen, 649, 2 and 3.
Agnomination, 637, XI., 7.
Agó ut,498, II., N. 2; id agó w subj.,
p. 374, foot-note 2.
-āgó, nouns in, 324, N.; 327, 4, N.;
d in, 587, I., 2.
Agºle, dat. W. adjS. signifying,
391, I.
AGREEMENT, of Nouns, 362 f. Pred.
noun, 362; in gend., 362, 1. *
positive, 363; in gend., 363, 1. Of
adject., 438 ft. ; W. clause, 438, 3;
synesis, 438, 6; W. one noun for
another, 438, 7; W. two or more
nouns, 439; W. part. gen., 397, 8,
N. 1. Of pronouns, 445; w. two
or more antecedents, 445, 3; attrac-
tion, 445, 4 ; Synesis, 445, 5; w.
clause, 445, 7. Of verbs, 460 f.;
synesis, 461 ; W. appos., or pred.
noun, 462; w. compa. Subject, 463.
Aſh, ahá, 312.
-āi for -ae, 49, 2; d. in, 577, I., I, (1).
Aid for agið, p. 19, foot-note 8; posi-
tion, 56%, v
** prop. names, ā im, 577, 5, N.;
587, I., 3.
-āl final'shortened, 21, 2, 2). Nouns
in -al, 63; 65, 2; quant. of increm.,
585, i. i. ºil in Piautus for —al,
536, iii., N. 2.
Alacer, decl., 153, N. 1 ; superlat.
Wanting, 168, 3.
Albus, without compar., 169, 4.
Alcaic verse, 604, N. 1; 628, VIII.
and IX. ; 619, 1. Alcaic Stanza,
631, I.
Alcmanian stanza, 631, XIX. ; 631,
X.
Alèc, d.laz, quant, of increm., 585, III.,
3
-ālia, names of festivals in, 136, 3.
Alicubſ, alicunde, 305.
Aliénus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1 ;
w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Aliquà, aliquam, aléquando, 305.
Aliquantus, 191.
Aliqui, use, 455, 1.
Alžºuis, 190, 2; 191; use of 455.
Aliguà, 305, II.
Aliquot, 191.
Aliquotiëns, aliguàvorsum, 805.
-ālis, adjs. in, 830; compar., 168, 2;
169, 3. A in -ālis, 587, I., 4.
Aliud, nihil aliud misł, nikºſ aſiud
wam, 555, III., 1.
Aſſus, deci., isi, w. abl., 417, 1, N.
4. tise of alºws, 459. Alºus—alºumº
w. pl. verb, 461, 3.
Allegory, 637, II., 1.
Alliteration, 637, XI., 1.
Allobroc, quant, of increm., 585, II., 3.
Alphabet, 2 ft. Letters of, indecl.,
128. 1
Alier, decl., 151. Alter for secundus,
p. 66, foot-note 4. Use of alter, 459.
Alter—alterum, w. pl. verb, 461, 3.
Alteruter, decl., 151, N. 2.
Alvus, gend., 53, 1.
—am in adverbs, 304, I., 3, 2).
Amáns, decl., 157.
Ambó, amb, insep. prep., 308; in
compols., 344, 6.
Ambo, decl., 175, N. 2.
Amicus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
A in amicus, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Amnés, decl., 62, IV.
Amphiaráides, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Amphora, 648, III.
Amplius, without quam, 417, 1, N. 2.
Aznyclidès, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
An, 310, 2, N.; 311, 8; 353. An =
‘whether not,’ 529, II., 3, N. 2;
=ani, 329, ii., 3, N. 3." A in an,
579, 3.
—an, suffix, 320, I.
-āna, à in, 587, I., 5.
Anacoluthon, 636 iv., 6.
Anacrusis, 618, Nº.3.
Analysis of verbal endings, 241 ff.
Anapaest, 597, N. 1 ; cyclic, 598, 1,4)-
Anaphora, 636, III., 3.
Anas, as in, 581, W., 1 ; quant. of in-
crem., 585, I., 4, (2).
Anastrophe, 636, V., 1.
Ancient forms of pronouns, 184, 5; of
verbs, 249.
Ancide, decl., 136, 3.
Androgeós, decl., 54.
-ăneus, d in, 587, III., 1.
Anguis, decl., 62, IV.
Anhélitus, 2 in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Animal, ãcci, 63.
Animi, constr.,399, III., 1 ; 410, V., 2.
Anâ, quant. of increm., 585 ifi, 2.
Annón, 3io, 2, N.; 353, 3, N. 3.
Answers, 352.
-ant, suffix, 320, I.
Ante in compas., 344, 5; in compõls.
W. dat., 386. Ante w. acc., 433;
433, I. ; denoting interval, 430,
Ante W. º p. 315, foot-note 5.
V. N. 2
Anteå, 304, e
N.; omitted, 445, 6,
Antecedent, 445,
INDEY OF SUBJECTS.
393
Clause as anteced., 445, 7. Ante-
ced. attracted. 445, 9.
Antecedd W. acc. or dat., p. 202, foot-
note 1.
Ante-classical period, 640, I.
Ančeed in synaeresis, 608, III., N. 1;
W. acc. or dat., p. 202, footnote 1.
Antehåc, 304, iv.; N. 2.
Antequam, 311, 1 ; in temp. clauses,
520.
Anticipation, prolepsis, 440, 2; 636,
IV., 3.
Antiºus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Antimeria, 636, IV., 1.
-*. adis. in, 330; 331; d. in, 587,
5
• ? - -
Anxiety, constr. w. verbs of, 498, III.
-āon in prop. names, d in, 577, 5,
Apage, interj., 312, 4.
Aphaeresis, 635, 1.
Apis, genit. plur., p. 36, foot-note 3.
Apocope, 635, 3.
Apophasis, 637, XI., 2.
Aposiopesis, 686; P: 3; 637, XI., 3.
Apostrophe, 637, X.
Apparent agent, 388. -
Appendia, with short increm., p. 343,
foot-note 2.
Appendix, 634ff.
Apposition, partitive, 364.
in apposition, 501, fii.
Appositional genitive, 396, WI.
Appositive, 359, N. 2; agreement of,
353; in gend. 363, f; force of, 363,
3. Infin, as appoS., 539, II.
Apricus, 7 in, p, 345, foot-note 4.
Aplus W. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Aptus quº. W. subj., 503, II., 2.
Apud w.acc., 433; 433, I. ; designat-
ing abode, 446, N.Z.
-ār final shortened, 21, 2, 2). Nouns
in ar, 63; 65, 2; quant. of increm.,
585, i. 1. Gend. of nouns in ar,
dr, 111 ; 112. – Ar in Plautus for
-ar, 580, III., N. 2.
Arar, Araris, decl., 62, III., 1.
Arbor, quant. of increm., 585, II., 3.
Arcéð. W. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Archilochian verse, 604, N. 1; 628,
X. ; 616, N.;_617, N.; 619, N. ;
stanza, 631, XI. and ¥ii. ; 631,
XIV, and XV.
Arcus, decl., 117, 1.
Arénae, locat., 426, 2, N.
Aries, is in, 531, V1.1.
-āris, adjS. in, 830 ; compar., 160, 3.
A in -āris, 587, I., 6.
Aristophanic verse, 628, II.
-ārium, nouns in, 323; & in, 587,
• ?
Clauses
-ārius, nouns in, 324; adjS. in, 330;
d in, 587, III., I.
A R R A N G E M E N T of WoRDS AND
CLAUSEs, 559 ft. ; words, 560 ft. ;
gen. rules, 560 ft. ; effect of empha-
sis and euphony, 561 ; chiasmus,
562; kindred words, 563; words w.
com...relation, 564; special rules,
565 fſ. ; modifiers of nouns, 565;
adjs., 566; verbs, 567; adverbs, 568;
special words, 569; demon., 569
I. ; prepS., 569, II. ; conjuncs. and
relat., 569, III. ; mán, 569, IV. ;
£ngwam, à ºð, 569, V. ; voc.; 569,
VI. ; clauses, 570 ft. ; as subi. Or
pred., 571 ; subord. elements, 572;
periods, 573.
Arsis. 600.
Article, 48, 6.
Artus,"decl., 117, 1, 2); p. 50, foot-
note 1.
-ārus, d in, 587, I., 6.
Aræ, decl., 64.
Aryan languages, 638.
-ās in genit., Decl. I., 49, 1. Nouns
in -ás, ijeć. I., 50 ; Decl. III., 64,
2, 3); decl., 79. Gender of nouns
in -as, -ás, 105, 106. —As in ad-
verbs, 304, I., 3, 2). -As, suffix,
320, I. -As, adjS. in, 331. Quant.
of -ás, -as, 580, III. ; 581, W.; d. in
voc. of nouns in, 581, III., 2. Quant.
of increm. of nouns in -as, 585, I., 3.
As, 646; 648, I. -
Asclepiadèan verse, 628, IV, and V. ;
631, IV.-VIII.
Asking, construction w. verbs of 374.
Asper, decl., 150, N. *
Aspergö, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1.
Aspirate, 3, 11., 3.
-àssim in perf. Subj., 240, 4.
Assimilation of vowels, 25; of con-
Sonants, 33: 34.
Assimilis w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Assis, constr., p. 213, foot-note 3.
-āssó in fut. perf., 240, 4.
Asyndeton, 636, I., 1.
A. gio. 3, 554, iii. 2. tº
—at, neut. Stems in, 58, 2. —At in
Plautus for -at, 580, fii., N. 2.
Atat, interj., 312, 1.
-āticus, d in, 587, III., 2.
-ātilis, quant. of pen., 587, II., 5 ;
antepen., 587, III., 2.
-ātim, à in, 587, I., 7.
4tytºc, 910, 1 ; 554, I., 111eaultig as,
451, 5; than, 459, 2; 554, I., 2, N.
gº dºue, #5, i. 5. Tº
Atqui, 310, 3; 554, III., 2.
-ātrum, à in, 587, I., 1.
394 INDEX OF
SUBJECTS.
Attamen, 554, III., 3.
Attraction, 636, fy. 5; of pron., 445,
4 and 8; of anteced., 445, 9.
Attributive adj., 438, 2.
-ātus, nouns in, 324; d. in, 587, I., 7.
Aw, interj., 312, 3.
Au, Sound, 6: 12; changed in compds.,
344, 4, N. 3.
Audda', decl., 156.
Audiens w. two dats., 390, N. 3.
Audio w. pred. noun, 362, 2, N. 1;
W. infin., 535, I., 1.
Aureus, 646.
Ausim for auserám, 240, 4.
Aut, 310, 2; 554, II., 2. Aut—aut,
554, II., N. Position of aut in
poetry, 569, III., N.
Autem, 310, 3; 554, III., 2 and 4;
position, 569, III.
Authors, iatin, 640.
Autonomasia, 637, III., 1.
Awazilium, aua'ilia, 132.
Aversion, gen. W. adjS. of 399, I., 1.
Avidus W. gen., p. 210, foot-hotº 3;
p. 315, foot-mote 2; other constrs.,
400.
Avis, decl., 62, IV.
-āvus, d in, 587. I., 6.
-āx, gen. of nouns in, 91 ; verbals in,
333; W. ger., 399, II. Quant of
increm. of words in -aw, 585, I., 4,
(8).
Aa:0 for egerö, 240, 4.
IB
B, Sound, 7, N.; changed to p, 33, 1 ;
to m, 33, 3, N.; 34, 3. &: Of
monosyl. in, 579, 2.
Baccar, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4,
1
(1).
Bacchius, 597, N. 1.
Becoming, two dats, w, verbs of 390,
N. 1, 1 -
Beginning, constr. W. verbs of 533, I.,
1. #ginning of sentence emphatic,
561. I.
Being, two dats, w, verbs of 390, N.
1, 1). Being able, wont, accus-
tomed, constr. W. verbs of, 533, I., 2.
Bélèdès, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Believing, verbs of, w. dat., 385, II.
Infin. W. verbs of, 535, I., 1, (2).
JBellum, decl., 51, 8. Belli, locat., 51,
8; 426, 2.
Belonging to, gen. W. adjS. signifying,
91. 4.
}
JBene, compar., 306, 2; compds, w.
dat, 384, 4, in. i.” fº final in bérve,
581, IV., 4.
Bencfiting, verbs of, w. dat., 385, I.
-ber, #. 155, foot-note 1; names of
months in, 65, 1, 1).
J3;bà, in, 590, 1.
Bilić, deci., 63, iv.
-bilis, p. 155, foot-note 1; verbals in,
333; W. dat., 391, I. ; compar., 168, 1.
Quant. of pen. of -bills, 587, II., 5.
JBis, & in, 579, 3.
Bonifacere, cónsulere, 401, N. 4.
Bonus, decl., 148, compar., 165.
Bós, decl., 66; quant. of increm., 581,
• 3 - -
Brachylogy, 636, II.
Brazen age,'640, ſif, 1.
-brum, nouns in, 327.
—bs, decl. of nouns in, 86.
Bubae, interj., 312, 1.
Bucolic diaeresis, 611, 2; bucol. caesu-
ra, p. 356, foot-note 5.
-bulum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1 ;
nouns in, 327.
—bundus, verbals in, 333.
JBüris, deci., 62, II
Buying, gon. W. Verbs of, 405.
C
C in place of G, 2, 1 and 3. Sound of
c, 7 ; 13. C changed to g, 33, 2;
dropped, 36, 3. Nouns in c, 74.
Gend., 111. Quant. of final syllables
in c, 580, II., W. N. 1.
-ci, suffix, 320, II.
Caecus, superl. wanting, 168, 3.
Caelum, plur., 143, 1.
Caesura, caesural pause, 602.
Calcar, decl., 63.
Calendar, Roman, 641 ff.
Calends, 642, I., 1.
Calic, w. Short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
Calling, verbs of, w, two accs., 373.
Campester, decl., 153, N. 1.
Can?s, decl., p. 36, foot-note 3.
Capitãs w. verbs, 410, III., N. 2.
Cappadow, quant. of increm., 585, II.,
3
Capsó for cºperó, 240, 4.
Caput, decl., 58.
Carbasus, gend., 53, 1 ; plur., 142.
Carcer, carceres, 132.
Cardinals, 172; 174; decl., 175 ft.
Carmen, decl., 60.
Caró, decl., 64, N. 1.
Córus W. dań. p. 205, foot-note 1; W.
abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
CASEs, ETYMOLOGY OF, 45 ft. Cascs
alike, 46, 2. Case suffixes, 46, 1 ;
in Decl. III., 57; 67. Case end-
IND EY OF'
SUBJECTS. 395
ings, 47, N. 3; in Decl. I., 48; Decl.
II., 51, 2, 3); Decl. III., 67; for i-
stems, 62, I., 2 ; Decl. IV., 116 ;
Decl. V., 120; pronouns, 184, 1.
Irregular case endings, Decl. I.,49;
iſſecſ. II., 52; Decl. III., 67, N.;
Decl. IV., 117; Decl. V., 121.
CASEs, SYNTAx or, 362 ff. General
view, 365. Nominat., 368. Vocat.,
369. Accusat., 370 ft. Dat., 382 ft.
Gen., 393 ff. Abl., 411 ff. Cases
W. preps., 432 ft.
Castrum, castra, 132.
Catalectic, 603, notes 3 and 5.
CauSá, p. 221, foot-note 2.
Causal adverbs, 305, N. 2, 4); con-
junctions, 310, 5 ; 311, 7 ; 554, W.;
555, VII. Causal clauses, 516; 517;
yºgued, etc., 516; W. cum and gºzī,
51
Cause, gen. of 399, III.
416. Cause expressed
549, 1.
Caveó, constr., 385, 1. Cavé w. subj.
for imperat., 489, 2); W. né omitted,
499, 2. E in cajá, 581, IV., 3.
-ce, appended, 186, 1 and 2.
Cecidi, quant. of pen., 591, 1.
Cedo, o in, 581, II., 1.
Celeber, cºlºr, deci. 153, N. 1.
Cºló, constr., 374, 2.
Celtiber, decl., 51, 4, 3); quant. of
increm., 585, III., 3. -
–cen, compas. in, 341, 1.
Cènseó, constr., § 274, foot-note 1.
–ceps, genit. plur. of adjS. in, 158, 2,
3); compds, in; 342, 1.
—cer, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1.
Cerés, as in, 581, V.I., 1.
Certo w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Certus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Céter, cétérus, defective, 159, II. ;
meaning, 440, N. 2.
Cétérum, 310, 3; 554, III., 2.
Ch, Sound, 7, N. ; 13, I., 2...
Changes in consonants, 30 ft.
Characteristic, stem-characteristic,
nouns, 46, 3; verbs, 201. Gen. of
characteristic, 396, W.; abl., 419, II. ;
419, 2.
Chiasmus, 562; 636, W., 4.
Chief caesura, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Choliambus, 622, 4.
Choosing, verbs of, 'w. two accs., 873;
w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Choree, p 350, foot noto 2.
Choriambus, 597, N. 1.
-cida, compds, in, 341, 1.
Ciliw, w, short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
2; abl., 413 ;
by particip.,
-cino, Suffix,
Cingö, constr., 377.
ſº p. 156, foot-note 8.
-cigus, adjS. in, 330, 1.
-ció, nouns in, 321, N.
Cărcă, p. 149, foot-note 2; W. acc.,
433; 433, I. ; of ger., p. 315, foot-
note 5.
Cărcăter w. acc., 433; 433, I.
Circu m, p. 149, foot-note 2; in
compas., 344, 5; compas. W. acc.,
372; w. two accs., 376; w. dat.,
386, 2. Circum w. acc., 433;
433, I.
Circumdö, circumfundo, constr., p.
198, foot-note 1.
Circumlocutions w. rés, genus, modus,
*atiá, 636, III., 10.
Cºs w. acc., 433; 433, I. ; 2 in, 579, 3.
Citerior, compar., 166.
Cities, plur. in names of, 131, N.
Cºto, o in, 581, II., 1.
Citrá, p. 149, foot-note 2; W. acc.,
433; 433, I. -
Citum, 7 in, 590, 1.
Civis, decl., 62, IV.
Clam w. acc. or abl., 437, 3.
Cº. Roman, how designated, 331,
. 2.
Classical period, 640, II.
Classification of letters, 3; verbs,
257 ff.
Clássis, decl., 62, IV.
Claudus, not compared, 169, 4.
CLAUSEs, 348, N. 1; as nouns, gend.,
42, N. Prin. and sub. clauses, 348,
N. 2. Clause as object, 371, IV. ; as
abl., abs., 431, N. 1 ; as anteced.,
445, 7. Object clauses of purp.,
498. Subst. clauses of purp., 499,
3; of result, 501. Restrictive clauses
w. Quod, 503, I., N. 1. Conditional
clauses, 513; concess., 514ff.; temp.,
518 ft. ; principal, in indir... disc.,
523; subord., 524. Indirect clauses,
528 ft. Substantive clauses, 532 ft. ;
540. Relat. clauses su plied by
particip., 549, 4. Prin. clauses Sup-
plied by º 549, 5. Arrang.
of clauses, 570 ft.
Clávis, decl., 62, III.
Cliéns, decl., 64.
Climax, 637, VI.
Close vowels, 3, I., 3.
Clothing, constr., w, verbs of, 377.
—co, suffix, 320, II, -
Cognate acc., 371, I. aud II.
Cognomen, 649. -
Cógó, constr., 380, N.; p. 274, foot-
note 2.
Coins, Roman, 646.
396
SUBJECTS.
IVDEX OF
-cola, compas. in, 341, 1.
Collecting, constr. w. verbs of, 380, N.
Collective nouns, 39, 2, 1); W. plur.
verb, 461, 1.
Collis, decl., 62, IV.
Colloco, constr., 380, N.
Colus, gend., 53, 1 ; 118; decl., 119, 2.
Com in compas., 344, 5; W. dat., 386.
Coming together, constr. W. verbs of,
§.
Comitčwm, comitia, 132.
Command, dat. W. verbs signifying to,
385, I. ; infin. after, 535, II. Subj.
of command, 483 ff.
Commiseréscit, commiserétur, constr.,
410, IV., N. 1.
Common nouns, 39, 2. Common quan-
tity, 16, III. ; 575.
Commiſnæs w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Commitó, constr.,422, N. 2.
CoMPARATIVE conjuncs., 311, 2; 555,
II. Comparat. degree, 160; decl.,
154; wanting, 167; formed ty 772.0-
gis, 170. Comparat. W. gen, 397,
3: W. abl., 417; W. quam, 417, 1.
Use, 444. Comparat. W. Quam and
subj., 503, II., 3... O in increm. Of
comparat., 585, II., 1.
Comparative view of conjugations,
213 ff.
CoMPARISON of adjs., 160 ft. ; modes
of 161; terminational, 162; irreg.,
163; defect., 166; adverbial, 170;
of adverbs, 306. Use of compar.,
444. Dat. W. verbs of comparison,
385, 4, 3).
Compes, decl., p. 36, foot-note 4.
Compleó, constr., 410, W., 1; p. 225,
foot-note 3.
Complex sentences, 348 ; elements,
357, 2; Subject, 359; pºlitate. 361.
Compliºres, decl., 154, N. 1.
Compos w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
-oš in, 581, VII., 1 ; quant. of in-
crem.; 585, II., 8.
Composition of words, 340 ft.
CoMFound WoRDs, 313, N. 2; pro-
nunciation, 8, 3; p. 8, foot-note 1;
18, 2. Compd. nouns, decl., 125 fſ.
Compd. interrog., 188, 3; nouns,
341; 343; adjs., 342: 343; verbs,
221 ; 344. Compá. sentences, 349.
Compás. of preps. W. acc., 372; W.
two accs., 376; w. dat.,386. Quant.
§ compds., 594. Compd. verse, 601,
2
Computation of money, 647.
Concealing, verbs of, w. two accs., 374.
Concession, expressed by particip.,
549, 2.
CoNCESSIVE conjunctions, 311, 4; 555,
W.; concess, subj. of desire, 484,
III. Concess. clauses, 514 ft. ; posi-
tion of 572, II., N
cºming, constr. W. verbs of, 410,
Condicò w. gen., 409, N. 3.
Condition expressed by imperat., 487,
3; by particip., 549, 2.
CONDITIONAL conjuncs., 311, 3; 555,
III. Cond. sentences, 506 ft. ; first
form, 508; sec. form, 509; third
form, 516; combined forms, 511;
512. Condit. clauses w. dum, etc.,
513. Condit. sentences in indir.
disc., 527. Position of condit.
clauses, 572, II., N.
Cônfidów, abl., 425, 1, 1), N.
Cônitor, constr., p. 292, foot-note 1.
CoNJUGATION, 201 ff. ; of gum, 204.
First conj., 205 ft. ; 223 ff. ; 257 ff.:
second, 207 ff.: 225 ff. ; 261 ff.:
à, in imperat., 581, IV., 3 ; third, 209
# , ºff.: 339 ſº., fºurth, gift.”
229 f.; 284 ft. ; is in pres. indic.,
581, VIII., 3; verbs in ió of Conj.
III., 217. Periphrastic, 233 ff.
Peculiarities, 235 ft. Comparative
view, 213. Irreg. verbs, 289 ft. ;
defect., 297 ff.; impers., 298 ft. In-
crem. of conj., 583; 584; quant., 586.
Conjunctions, 309; coörd., 554; sub-
ord. 555. "Conj omitted, 554, i. 6.
Place of conj. in sentence, 569, III.
Cºnor, constr., 498, II, N, 1
Cönscius w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2; other constrs.,
400. Cônscius mih'ī sum w. infin.,
535, I., 3.
Consecutive conjs., 311, 6; 555, VI.
Côn Sequor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
Cöns' milis w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Consonant nouns, 55 ft. Consonant
stems, 57 ff. Consonant verbs, 209.
Consonants, 3, II. ; double, 3, N. 2;
sounds of, 7 ; 13; 15, 2; phonetić
changes in, 30 ft. ; interchanged W.
vowels, 28; 29; assimilated, 33; 34;
dissimilated, 35; omitted, 36.
Cönsors w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Cônstituá, constr., 498, I., N. ; p. 274,
foot-note 1.
Cönstów, abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
Cönsul, decl., 60.
Côn Sulā, constr., 374, 2; 385, 1.
Cönsultus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Contendô w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1;
W. infin., 498, II., N. 1; W. Subj.,
p. 274, foot-note 2.
Contention, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 4, 3).
INDEX OF
SUBJECTS. 397
Contentus w. abl., 420, 1,4); 421, III.
Continental pronunciation of fatin,
Contingit, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Continuing, constr. W. verbs of, 533,
• 2 + °
Contrá, p. 149, foot-note 2; w. acc.,
433; 433, I. --
Contraction of vowels, 23; in conju-
gation, 235. Quant, of syllables in
contract., 576, I.
Contrárius w.gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Contrö- in compds., 594, 8.
Convenió, constr., 380, N.
Convicting, constr. W. verbs of, 409,
II. ; 410, II.
Convoco, constr., 380, N.
Coördinate conjs., 309, 1; 554.
Côpia, cópiae, 132. Copia eSt W. in-
n., 533, 3, N. 3.
Copulative conjs., 310, 1; 554, I.
Côpulà w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Cor, defective, 133, 5; o in, 579, 3.
Cöram, p. 149, foot-note 2; W. abl.,
434.
Cornić, decl., 116.
Corónides, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Corpus, decl., 61.
Correlative pronouns, 191; adverbs,
305. Correlat, compar. conjuncs.,
555, II., 1. Position of correlat.
clauses, 572, II., N.
Cô8, defective, 133, 5.
–c5sus, adjs. in, 328.
Coţădie, locat., 120, N.
Countries, names of, gend., 42, II., 2 ;
constr., 380, 3.
Crédor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2):
Cºmène, constr., 410, II., 1.
-crum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1;
nouns in, 327. r
Cubitus, 648, IV., N.
Cuicuimodi, 187, 4.
Cújãs, cilius, 185, N. 3.
cºmed, cijuscumquemodi, 187, 4,
-cula, nouns in, 321 ; win, 587, II., 3.
-culo, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 8.
-culum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1;
nounsin, 821; 327; cuin, 587, II, 3.
-culus, nouns in, 321; adjs. in, 332;
win pen., 587, ii. 3.
Cum, prep., p. 149, foot-note 2; ap-
pended, 184, 6; 187, 2; com in
compds, 344, 5. Cum w. abl.,
434; 434, I. ; of accompaniment,
419, Uſ imariner, 419, Ill. ; after
Ždem, 451, 5; w. pl. verb, 461, 4.
Cum W. ger., p. 216, foot-note 1.
Cum, quºum, p. 75, foot-note 1 ; 305,
IV. ; 311, 1 and 4; p. 151, foot-
notes 1 and 4; 311, 73 W. perf in-
die., 471; 5; w plup...indigº2,472, 2;
introducing a condition, 507, 8; a
concession, 515, III. ; 515, N. 4; a
causal clause, 517; a temp, clause,
52i. Cºmº. infinit., 5%, i. 2).
Cum—twm, 554, I., 5.
-eungue, p. 75, foot-note 3; 305,
. 1.
Cumulá, constr., p. 225, foot-note 3.
Cùncti w part, gen, 397, 3, N. 4.
-cundus, verbals in, 333.
Cupidus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2.
ogº w. dat. of possessor, 387,
. 3.
Cupið, constr., p. 310, foot-note 1.
Cüra est w. subj., p. 274, foot-note 3.
Cúró, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
-cus, adjs. in, 330; 333, 5.
Cyclic dactyl, 598, 1, 3); anapaest,
598, 1, 4).
Cyclõps, quant. of increm., 585, II., 2.
D
D for t, 32, N. 1. D changed to l, 32;
assimilated to m or 8, 34, 1; to i.34
2; dropped before 8, 36, 2. D final
dropped, 36, 5, 2). Quant. of final
syllables in d, 579, 2; 580, II.
–d, -dà, nouns in, 322.
Dactyl, 597, I. ; cyclic, 598, 1, 3).
Effect of dactyls, 610, 2. g
Dactylic verse, 603, N. 1; 614 f.;
hexameter, 609 ft.
Dâmma, gend., 48, 5.
Danais, quant. of pen., p. 345, foot-
note 1.
Pººr, constr. W. expressions of, 498,
Daps, dapis, defective, 133, 3.
Dare litterås, 385, 1, N. Dare ope-
7°0.7% W. subj, p. 274, foot-note 2.
Fin dedi, a in datum, 590, 1.
Daring, constr. W. verbs of, 533, I., 1.
Dates, Eng. and Lat., 644.
DATIVE, Decl. I., 49, 4; Decl. III.,
58, 2: 66, 2; 67, N. 1; 68, 5; Decl.
IV., 117, 1 ; Decl. W., 121, 1.
DATIVE, syntax of, 382 ft. Dat, for
acc., 380, 4. IXat. in exclamations,
381, N. 3, 3); w, verbs, 384 ft. ; w.
compds., 386; of possessor, 387; of
agent, 388, Efhigal daf , 389 Two
dats., 390. Dat. W. adjs., 391; 399
., 3, N. 1; 400, 1; w. nouns and
adverbs, 392; w. réfert and interest,
408, I., 3. Dat. of penalty, 410, III.,
398
IND EY OF SUBJECTS.
N. 1. Dat. of ger., 542, II. ; ge-
rundive, 544, 2. &
Dative sing. in 7, 581, I., 2. B' in
dat., Decl. III., 581, IV., 2.
“Daughter,’ apparent ellipsis of 398,
I., N. 2. Names of daughters, 649, 4.
Day, Rom. division of, 645.
JDé in compds. W. dat., 386; W. abl.,
434, N. 1. . Dé W. abl., 434; 434,
I. : for genit., 397, N. 3. Dé w.
ger., p. 316, foot-note 1.
Dea, deci., 49, 4.
Débeów. pres. infin., 537, 1.
Decay, phonetic, p. 12, foot-note 1.
Décernò, constr., 498, I., N.; p. 274,
foot-note 1.
Décipió, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
Declarative sentence, 350; in indir.
disc., 523, I.
Declaring, constr. W. verbs of, 535, I.
DECLENSION, 46; first, 48 ; Sec., 51 ;
third, 55 ; fourth, 116 ; sec. and
fourth, 119 ; fifth, 120; tºº.
125. –0 in Decl. III., 581, II., 2.
–E in Decl. I. and V., 581, IV., 1.
Increm. of decl., 582; 584; quant.,
585.
Dědoceó, constr., 374, 2.
Defective nouns, 122; 127, II. ; 129 ft.;
adjs., 159, II. Def, compar., 166 ft.
Def. verbs, 297.
Degree, adverbs of 305, N. 2, 8).
Degrees of comparison, 160.
Dečnde, in series, 554, I., N. 2.
Délectä, constr., 385, iſ. N. 1.
Deliberative subj., 484, V. Delib.
uestions, 523, II., 1, in.
Delos, decl., 54.
Tºwn, quant. of increm., 585, IV., 3.
Demanding, constr. W. verbs of, 374.
DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 186; use
of, 450 ft. ; 449, 1., Demon. roots,
314, II. Demon. adverbs, 450, N, 4.
Demon. W. infin., 538, 3. Position
of demon., 569, I. Demon. redun-
dant, 636, III., 7.
Denarius, 646.
Dénºgue, in series, 554, I., N. 2.
Denominatives. 335.
Tental stems, feel. III., 58.
fentals, 3. ii.; 3. N. i. i. 2.
Dependent clauses, 348, N. 2. De-
pend. questions, 528, 2, N.
Deponent verbs, 195, 2; 231-; 465, 2.
Depriving, constr. W. vérbs of, 414, I.
Derivation, 321 ff.; of nouns, 321 ff.:
adjs., 328 ft. ; verbs, 335 ft.
Derivatives, quant. in, 593.
-dès, nouns in, 322.
Descent, names of 322.
abl., 419,
Descriptive genit., 396, W.;
I. - in temp.
º Descrip. imperf
clauses, 518, N. 1.
Desideratives, 284, 2; 338.
Désànó, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
Desire, subj. #. 483 ff.: for imperat.,
487, 4
Desiring, gen. W. adjs. of 399, I., 1 ;
: 315, foot-note 2; w. verbs of, 410,
.., 2. Subj. after verbs of, 498, I. ;
infinit., 533, I., 1 ; 535, II.
Désistó, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
Despérô w. acc., 371, iii. N. 1 ; w.
at. Or acc., p. 202, foot-note 1.
Destitute of, constr. w. adjs. signify-
ing, 414, III.
Dásum, synaeresis in, 608, III., N. 1.
Désuper w. acc., 437, 1
Déterior, comparison, 166.
Deterius, comparison, 306, 3.
Determinative compds., 343, I.
Determining, constr. W. verbs of, 533,
I., 1.
Dâterreó, constr., p. 279, foot-note 2.
Deus, decl., 51, 6:
—dex, compas. in, 341, 1.
Dexter, decl., 150, N.
constr., 425, 2.
Di, dis, insep. prep., 308; in compds.,
44, 6 ; 7 in dà, 594, 2.
Diaeresis, 602, 2; 608, IV.
Diána, 7 in, 577, I., 3, (4).
Diastole, 608, V.
Die for dice, 238.
Dică, defective, 134.
Dicolon, p. 352, foot-note 3.
Dicor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Dict) audiens, 390, Nº. 3.
-dicus, compds. in, 342, 1 ; compar.,
Didó, decl., 68.
Diés, decl., 120; 122, 1 ; gend., 123;
7 in compds., 594, 7.
Difference, abl. of, 417, 2; 423.
Differing, dat. W. verbs of, 385, 2;
385, 4, 2).
Differów. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Difficilis, compar., 163, 2; W. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1; w; supine, 547, I.
Dignor, constr., 421, N. 2.
Dignus, constr., 421, III. : 421, N. 3.
ignºus qu’à w. Subj., 503, II., 2.
Dignus W. supine, 547, 1.
Diiambus, 597, N. 1.
Dimeter, 603, W. 2.
Diminutive nouns, 321 ; adjs., 332;
verbs, 339.
Diphthongs, 4; Sounds of, 6; 12; 15,
1 ; weakening of, , 23, N. ; quant.
of syllab. W. diphth. 576, i.; final
1); dextrá,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 399

diphth. elided, 608, I. ; shortened
in hiatus, 60s, II., N.3,
Dipody, 597, N. 2.
DIRECT object, 370 ff. Direct disc.,
522, 1; changed to indir., 530; in-
dir. to direct, 531.
Directing, constr. W. verbs of, 499, 2.
Direction, how expressed, 384, 3, 1);
385, 4, 1); 386, 3.
JDārāmā, dź in, 594, 2, N. 1.
Dis, quant. of increm., 585, IV., 2.
Dis, dź, insep. prep., 308; in compols.,
5 * *
Disertus, dź in, 594, 2, N. 1.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 310, 2; 554,
II. Disjunct. questions, 353.
JDispar, constr., p. 205, foot-notes 1
and 3.
Displeasing, verbs of, W. dat., 385, I.
Dispondee, 597, N. 1.
Dissenting, verbs of, w, dat., 385, 2.
JDissentić, dissideð W. dat., p. 200,
foot-note 2.
Dissimilation of vowels, 26; conso-
nants, 35.
Dissimilis, compar., 163, 2; constr.,
. 205, foot-notes 1, 2, and 3.
Dissyllabic perfects and supines,
quant. of pen., 590.
Distance, abi of 376, 2; 423, N. 2.
Distich, 606, N.; elegiac, 615.
Distö w. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Distributives, 172, 3; 174; decl., 179.
Ditrochee, 597, N. 1.
Löß, 304, I., 1 ; compar., 306, 4.
Džus, 7 in, 577, I., 3, (2).
Džūturnºus, superl. wanting, 168, 3.
JDžversus, compar., 167, 2; W. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1.
Dives, compar., 165, N. 2.
-dò, nouns in, 327, 4, N. ; decl., 60, 4.
Dö w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2). Šee
also dare. Quant. of increm. of d6,
586, I.
Doced, constr., 374, 2.
JDoleów. acc., 371, III., N. 1; w. abl.,
p. 221, foot-note 2; W. infin., p. 310,
foot-note 2.
JDomus, gend., 118; decl., 119, 1 ;
constr., 380, 2, 1); 412, II., 1 ; 425, 2.
Dônec, 311, 1 ; in temp. clauses, 519.
Dònô, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1; w.
two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Double consonants, 3, N. 2. Double
constr. W. verbs, 384, 2. Double
questiolis, 353.
Pºpping of vowels, 27; consonants,
6
Dry measure, Rom., 648, II.
Dt changed to St, ss, or s, 35, 3.
Dual number, p. 68, foot-note 1.
Dubčtó, constr., 505, I.
Dúc for dùce, 238.
Dúcö w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2.
Dućm for dem, 240, 3.
Dum, p. 145, foot-note 1: 311, 1 and 3;
555, I., 1 ; w. d; indic., 467, 4;
w. Šubj. in conditions, 513, I. Diſm
in temp. clauses, 519; in indir.
clauses, 529, II., N. 3.
Dummodo, 311, 3; w. Subj. in con-
ditions, 513, I.
Duo, decil, 175; o in, 581, II., 1.
Duration of time, 379.
—dus, adjs, in, 333.
Dv changed to b, v, or d, 32, N. 2.
E
E, e, sound, 5; 10 fſ. E final short-
ened, 21, 2, 3). Nouns in 3, Decl.
I., 50 ; in e, Decl. III., 63 : 65,2; 70.
E, gend. of nouns in, Decl. III.,
111. – E in abl., 62. Tº in plur. of
Greek neuters, 68, 6. E-nouns,
120. E-verbs, 207. E-stems, 120,
1. – E, -é, in adverbs, 304, I., 3;
304, II., 2; 304, III., 1. -E, -é,
suffix, 320, II. E. changed to i, 344,
4, N. 1. Eora in Č7, 120, 2; 577, I.,
2, (1); 585, III., 1, E or ē, final,
580. T.; 580, iii., N. 2; 58i, iv.;
in increm. of accl., 585; 585, III. ;
conj., 586; 586, II. E elided be-
_fore consonant, 608, I., N. 2.
E' or eac, see eſc.
Eä, 304, II., 3; 305, V.
-ča in prop, names, ein, #77, I., 5, N.
Eäbus for éis = #is, p. 73, foot-note 2.
Eädem, 304, II., 3; 305, V.
Jºasy, dat. W. adjs. signifying, 391, I.
Ecastór, interj., p. 152, foot-note 4.
Fece, 312, 1; with ãemonstratives,
186, 3; with dat. in exclamations,
381, N. 3, 3).
Ecquis, 188, 3.
note 1.
Ecthlipsis, 604, I., N. 4.
Bdim for edam, 240, 3.
-èdó, nouns in, 325; e in, 587, I., 2.
Edoceó, constr., 374, 2.
Ee in synaeresis, 608, III., N. 1.
Effect, acc. of, 371, I., 2, 2).
Effició, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2;
501, II., 1.
Effigies, decl., 122, 2.
Effort, subj. w. verbs of, 498, II.
Egénus, compared, 164, 1 ; W. gen.,
p. 210, foot-note 3; p. 219, foot-
note 4.
Jºcquid, p. 180, foot-
400 IWDEX OF
SUBJECTS.
£ged, constr., 410, W., 1... .
Ego, decl., 184. Z in mihā, 581, I., 2.
O in ego, 581, T.I., 1.
Ehem, interj., 312, 1.
Eheu, interj., 312, 3; W. acc., 381, N.
2; & in, 577, I., 2, (3).
Eha, ehodum, 312, 5; o in, 581, II., 1.
Eł, interj., 312, 3; W. dat., 381, N. 3,
3
Ei, pronunciation as diphthong, 6, 1 ;
12, 1; 3 or e in à, 120, 2; 577, I.,
2, (1); 585, III., 1. Ei in Synae-
résis, 608, III., N. 1.
-éis, é in, 587, I., 3.
-čius, in, 577, i. 2, (2).
Eja, 312, 2 and 6; a in, 581, III., 3.
%modi, 186, 4, N.
—ela, e in, 587, I., 4.
Elegiac Distich, 615.
Llements of sentences, 356 ft.
—elis, é in, 587, I., 4.
Fläsion, 608, I.
—ella, nouns in, 321, 4.
Ellam for en llam, 186, 3.
Ellipsis, 636, I.
—ellum, nouns in, 321, 4.
Ellum for en illum, 186, 3.
—ellus in nouns, 321, 4; adjS., 332,
_N. 1.
Eluviès, defective, 122, 3.
—em in acc., 62.
Emotion, constr. W. verbs of 371, III. :
410, W., 2; 535, III.
Emphasis in arrang. of words, 561.
Lmphatic forms of pronouns, 184, 3;
185, N. 2. Emphatic adverbial
phrases, 305, N. 4.
En, 312, 1; w. demonstratives, 186,
3; in exclamations, 381, N. 3, 3).
—en, suffix, 320, II. : nouns in, 327.
Quant. of increm of nouns in -ên,
585, III., 2.
-čna, 3 in, 587, I., 5.
Enallage, 636, f
Enclitics, accent, 18, 2, 1); quant.,
579, I., 1.
End, dat. of 384, 1, 3). End of sen-
tenCC emphatic, 561, II.
Endeavoring, constr. W. verbs of, 498,
Ending, constr. we verbs of, 533, I., 1.
Endings of genitive, 47 ; of cases,
Decl. I., 48; 49: Decl. II., 51, 2,
3); #2; "Dec. iii., §3, i. 2; 37;
Íñéci.iv., iić; iii; Deci’v., 1%;
121; in compar., 162; conj., 213–
216
Endº, o in, 581, II, 1
English pronunciation of Latin, 9 ft.
-čni, & in, 587, I., 8.
Enám, 310, 5; 554, W., 3; position,
_569, III.
Enător, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
Enneasyllabic verse, 619, 1.
-ènsis, adjS. in, 330; 331.
-ent, suffix, 320, II. -
-entia, -entio, suffixes, p. 155, foot-
note 9.
-entior, -entissimus, in compar.,
164
-ento, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 9.
Enumerative asyndeton, p. 370, foot-
note 1.
-énus, æ in, 587, I., 5.
Eö, äre, w. Sup, in -um, 546, 2; irº W.
do.,346, 3. ‘fin iam, ibó, etc., 586,
III., 4. I in tum, 590, 1.
Eä, ääverb, 304, ii. 3, N.; 305, II.;
554, IV., 1; w. gen., p. 209, foot-
note 3.
Eödem, 305, II.
£º: 635, 4.
#. decl., 51, 8.
picene nouns, 43, 3.
#;" 636, III., 4.
%itomě, decl., 50.
Epizeuxis, 636, III., 5.
-eps, decl. of nouns in, 88.
#. épulae, 143, 3.
quester, decl., 153, in 1.
Bquivalents, metrical, 598.
-er, nouns in, gend., 53; 99; 103;
decl., 51, 4; 60, 3; adjS. in, decl.,
&, iv. N. i ; 150, N.; ifiš. N. 3:
compar., 163, 1. Quant. of increm.
of nouns in -er, 585, III., 4.
-Ére for 3runt, 236.
Jºrgá, p. 149, foot-note 2; W, acc.,
433; 433, I.; after adjS., 391, II., 1 ;
for gen., 396, III., N. 1.
Ergö, 310, 4; p. 151, foot-note 1; w.
gen., 398, 5. .
-erunt for -èrunt, 236, N.; 586, II., 4.
Es attached to preceding word, 27, N. ;
e in, 579, 3; in compds, 581, WI., 2.
—es, -és, suffixes, 320, II. Nouns in
-és, 327; decl., 65, 1; 80; 120;
quant. of increm., 585, iii., 4;
gend., 99; 104; 105; 109; 120.
Decl. of nouns in -es, 81; gend.,
99; 104. Es or -ès final, 580, III. ;
581, VI. A in voc. of Greek nouns
in -às, p. 341, foot-note 1.
-êsimus, æ in, 587, III., 3.
Esse omitted, 534, N.
Essential elements of sentences, 357, 1.
-èssö, -ēssim, in fut. perf. and
perf. Subj., 240, 4. -
—esso, verbs in, 336, N. 2.
Est drops initial, 27, N. Est ut, 498,

IND EY OF SUBJECTS.
401
II., N. 2. Est, impers., constr., p.
276, foot-note 2. Est at end of line,
613, N. 3.
-ester, -estris, adjS. in, 330, 1.
E. 310, 1: 354, i.; meaning as, 451,
5; than, 459, 2. Et—et, et—que,
we—et, neque (nec)—et, et—neque
(º), 554, I., 5. Et in poetry,
position, 569, III., N. Preps. re-
peated w. et—et, 636, III., 6.
–ét in Plautus for -et, 580, III., N. 2.
–éta, 3 in, 587, I., 7.
-etas, dih, 58%, fr. 4.
Etenim, 310, 5; 554, W., 2.
Ethical dat., 389.
Ełżam, 310, 1; 554, I., 2, 4, and 5.
Ełiamsi, etsi, 311, 4; in concessions,
515, ii. Tºº “yet,” etc., 515, N. 2.
-ētum, nouns in, 323; & in, 587, I., 7.
–étus, 8 in, 587, I., 7.
Etymology, 37–344.
mol., 634, N.; 635.
Eu, Sound, 6, 1 ; 12.
#. interj., 312, 2 and 6.
Jºuhoe, interj., 312, 2.
Euphemism, 637, XI., 4. -
Euphony in arrang. of words, 561.
-eus, adjS. in, 329; -éus, 331. -Eus
_ in prop. nouns, 3 in, 577, 5, N.
Jºvenſit, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Jºvoe, interj., 312, 2.
Jºc, č, in compas., 344, 5 ; W. dat.,
386, 2; w. abl., 434, N. 1. Ec w.
abl. for part. gen., 397, N. 3. Eac,
3, W. abl., 434; 434, I. E., e.g., 434,
Nº. 3. }s, 8, W. ger., p. 316, foot-
note 1.
-ex, -ēx, decl. of nouns in, 92; 93.
Compas. in -éc, 341, 1.
Ecadversum, eacadversus, W. acc., 433.
Jºcanºmºus, eacanãmis, 159, III.
Bºging constr. w. verbs of, 422,
2
Figures of ety-
Exclamatory sentences, 355; acc. in,
381 ; voc., nom., dat. in, 381, N. 3;
infin. in, #39, iii.
Existimó, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Jºconerö, constr., § 219, foot-note 1.
Jºcos, -os in, 581, VII., 1.
Expedió, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Jººpers W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Explicative asyndeton, p. 370, foot-
note 1.
Erposcó w. two accs., 374, 2.
Ecsequiás, acc. of limit, 380, 2, 3).
EcSolvö, constr., p. 219, foot-noté 1.
Jºa:Sors W. gen., H. 210, foot-note 3.
Extemplº, 304, II., 'N
Rxtent of space, acc. of 379.
External object, 371, I., 1.
Eacterus, compar., 163, 3.
Bactrá, p. 149, foot-note 2; W. acc.,
433; 433, I.
Extrêmus, meaning, 440, N. 2.
Ecud, constr., 377; p. 198, foot-note
1; p. 219, foot-note 1.
F
Fac for face, 238. Fac né w. subj., in
prohibitions, 489, 2). A in fac,
3
579, 3.
Paciés, decl., 122, 2.
Pacilis, compar., 163, 2; w. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1 ; w. Supine, 547, 1.
Pació, accent of compds., 18, 2, 2).
Fació omitted, 368, 3, N. 1. Fació
W. dat., 385, 3; W. pred. gen., 403;
w. abi. Hiš, iii. N. i. ºut.
498, II., N. 2. Fació w. Subj., p.
274, foot-note 2: 499, 2; 501, II., 1.
E" before f in compas., 594, 6.
—facto, verbs in, 344, 3.
Facultás, facultâtés, 132.
JFalsus, compar., 167, 2.
Fāma fert w; infin., 535, I., 3.
Jºamés, abl. famé, 137, 2.
Familia, genitive, 49, 1.
constr., 415, II., N.
Fär, decl., 63, 2, N. ; 133, N.
Fās, defect., 134; w. Supine, 547, 1.
Fastidiósus w. gen., p. 210, foot-
note 3. -
Pauw, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4.
Favorite vowel, 24.
Faw, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4, (3).
Faa:6, faxim, for feceró, fecerim, 240,4
Fearing, constr. we verbs of, 498, iii.
Febrås, dccl., 62, III.
Feeling, constr. w. verbs of 371, III. ;
Aio, W. 2. 335. Ii.
Feet in versification, 597.
Fel, defective, 133, 4, N.
Félia, decl., 156.
Feminine,42,II. Fem. caesura,611, N.
Fer forfere, 238; e in, 579, 3.
—fer, compas. in, 342, 1; decl., 51, 4,
2); adjs. in, 150, 3), N.
Fere, fermé, éin, 581, IV., 4.
JFeró and compas., increm. of 586, 1.
Jeror, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Fertilis W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Ferus, not compared, 169, 4.
Festivals, plur. in names of, explained,
131, N.; plur. in -ālia, decl., 136, 3.
—few, compas. in, 341, 1.
—ficö, verbs in, 344, 3. --
—ficus, adjS. in, 342, 1 ; compar., 164.
Fédélis w, dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Fidi, i in, 590, i.
JFamiliá,
402 INDEX OF
SUBJECTS.
Fădă wabl., 425, 1, 1), N.
Fifth decij}off; a finálin, 581, Iv., 1.
FIGUREs of prosody, 608. Fig. of
speech, 634ff.; of etymology, 634
N. : 635; of syntax, 634, N.; 636
Of rhetoric, 634, N.; 637.
Filia, decl., 49, 4.
Fºlia, w, short increm., p. 243, foot-
note 2.
Filling, constr. w. verbs of, p. 225,
foot-note 3.
FINAL conjunctions, 311, 5; 555, V.
Final vowels and syllables, quant.
of 580; 581. Fin. syl. of verse, 605.
Fin. Syl. elided, 608, I. Fin. long
vowel or diº shortened in
• ?
5
2
hiatus, 608, N. 3.
"inſis, deci, 62, IV. ; singular and
plur., 132.
Finite verb, 199, N.
Fănițimus, constr., p. 205, foot-notes
1 and 3.
Jºão w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 1); w.
abl., 415, III., 'N. i. _ Fit, constr.,
p. 276, foot-note, 2. / or ? in fió,
577, I., 3, (1). Ebefore fin compas.,
94. 6
3. * *
First decl., 48 ft. ; a final in, 581, IV., 1.
First conjugat., 205 ft.; 223 ff.; 257 ff.
J'agità witwo accs., 374, 2.
Flocci, constr., p. 213, foot-note 3.
Flös, deci. 61.
Following, constr. w. verbs of, 501,
• ? ~ *
Foot, caesura of, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Roman foot, 648, IV.
* For,’ how translated, 384, 3.
Forås, 304, I., 1.
Jºore ºut, 537, 3. .
Foreign words indecl., 128, 2.
Forgetting, constr. w. verbs of, 407.
Forås, 7 in, 581, VIII., 1.
Formation of stems of verbs, 249 ft. ;
of words, 313 ff. ; of nouns, 321 ff.
Pornia, w. Short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2. -
Jºors, defective, 134.
Forsåtan, 304, iv. N. 2; W. Subj., p.
267, foot-note 1.
Fortułtus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Fortúna, fortúnae, 132.
Fourth decl., 116 # fourth conjugat.,
211 ff.: 229 f.; 284 ft.
Fractions, 174, 1.
Fraudó, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Araus, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4.
Free from, constr. W. adjs, signify-
ing, 414, III.
Jºënum, pl. frèni, fråna, 143, 2.
Frequentatives, 336.
Frétus w. abl.,425, 1, 1), N.
Fricatives, 3, II., 4.
Friendly, constr. W. adjS. signifying,
391, I. and II.
Frûctus, decl., 116.
Frûgi, indeclin., 159, I. ; compar.,
165, N. 2
Pruor, constr., 421, I. ; 421, N. 4;
gerundive of 544, 2, Nº. 5.
Frida, defective, 133, 3 ; quant. of
increm., 535, V., 2.
Fuam for sām, 204, 2.
Fulness, adjS. of w. gen., 399, I., 3.
Fungor, constr., 421, I. ; 421, N. 4 :
gerundive of 544, 2, N. 5.
Făr, quant. of incrém., 585, V., 2.
Furnishing, constr. W. verbs of, p.
225, foot-note 3.
FUTURE, 197; 222. Fut. indic., 470;
for imperat., 487, 4. Fut. in condit.,
N. 1; in temp. clauses, p.
293, foot-note 2. Fut. in subj.,
479; 481; 496. Fut. imperat., 487,
2. Fut, infin., 537; periphrast.,
537, 3. Fut. particip., 550.
FUTURE PERFECT, 197, II. ; 222, II. ;
473; in subj, 496; in indir. discº,
525, 2; in infinit., 537, 3, N. 2. -/s
in fut.'poºf. Esi, viii., §.
Putirum esse ut, 537, 3. Futili'um
Sit, esset, ut, p. 272, foot-note 2.
G.
G formed from C, 2, 2; sound, 7; 13;
changed to c, 33, 1; assimilatéd to
n, 34, 3; dropped, 36, 3.
Gauded, constr., p. 221, foot-note 2 ;
p. 310, foot-note 2.
Gāvīsus, 7 in, 586, III., 2.
Gemów. acc., 371, III., N.
Gems, gend... of names of 53, 1.
Gender, 41 ff. ; Decl. I., 48; Decl. II.,
53; foci. III., 99–115; Decl. IV.,
118. Decl. W., 123; general table,
124.
Gener, decl., 51, 4, 3).
General relatives, p. 75, foot-note 3.
Gen. rel. adverbs, 305, N. 1. Gen.
subject, 460, 1, N. 2. Gen. truths,
467, II. ; in conditions, 508, 5; 511,
1. Gen. negat., 553, 1 and 2.
Gemere, constr., 415, II., N.
GENITIVE, endings of, 47 ; Decl. I., ás
for ae, Wm for drum, 49; Decl. II.,
à for £7, 51, 5; ilm for Örum, 52, 3 ;
ân for Örum, 54, N. 1; Decl. III.
ſum or ?um, p. 36, foot-notes 3 and
4; p. 38, foot-note 2; p. 40, foot-
note 3; 3/08, #8, 68, 2; &n, 68, 4;
IND EY OF
SUBJECTS. 403
Decl. IV., wis, u0s, for üs, 117;
Decl. V., i, º, es, for £7, 121. Gen.
in adjS., 158, 2. - US in gen., 581,
IX., 2.
GENITIVE, syntax, 393 ff. ; how ren-
dered, 393, N. Gen. W. possessives,
363, 4, 1); W. nouns, 395; varie-
ties, 396 ; in special constructions,
398; 406 f.; w. adjs., 391, II., 4 ;
399; w. verbs, 401 ff. Pred. gen.,
401 ff. ; of price, 404; 405. Acc.
and gen., 409. , Gen. w. adverbs,
397, 4. Čen of ger., 542, I. Posi-
tion of gen. W. adj., 565, 2; between
prep. and case, 569, II., 3.
Genitus w. abl., 415, IL.
“gº Roman, how designated, 331,
... 2
Gentile nouns, 331, N. 1.
Genus, circumlocutions w., 636, III.,
10
-ger, compds. in, 342, 1; decl., 51,
4, 2); adjS., 150, N.
GERUND, 200, ii. ; endings, 248. Ger-
und in sequence of tenses, 495, IV.
Syntax of gerund; 541 ; 542. Ger.
W. pass. meaning, 541, N. Cases
of ger., 542. Ger. W. gen., me?,
etc., 542, I., N. 1; denotingNº.
pose, 542, I., N. 2; 542, III., N. 2.
GERUNDIVE, 200, IV. . Syntax, 543.
Gerund. constr., 543, N.; 544; de-
noting purpose, 544, 2, N. 2; W.
official names, 544, 2, N. 3; after
comparat., 544, 2, N. 4.
Gigno w. genui, genitum, 592, 2.
Giving, verbs of w. two dats., 390,
. 1, 2).
Glacies, decl., 122, 3.
Glis, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4; quant.
of increm., 585, IV., 2.
Glyconic verse, 604, N. 1; 628, III.
and VII. ; 631, IV.-VI.
Gn lengthens preceding vowel, 16, N. 2.
Gnôrus w. gem., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2.
Gngmic perfect, 471, 5.
-gū, decl. of nouns in, 60, 4.
oing, verbs of, w, two dats., 390, N.
1, 1).
Golden age, 640, II., 1.
Gracilis, compar., 163, 2.
Grătia, grâţae, 132.
Grátīs, i in, 581, VIII., 1.
Grăţuitus, & in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Gºčáč8 W. dat., p. 205, foot note 1.
Graviter ferö, constr., p. 310, foot-
note 2.
Greater Ionic, 597, N. 1; Archilo-
chian, 628, X. ; 616, N.; 619, N.;
Asclepiadèan, 628, W.; Sapphic,
628, Wii.; Alcaid, 828, Iz.
GREEk Nouns, Decl. I., 50 ; Decl. II.,
54; Decl. III., 68. fong vowels in
Greek nouns, 577, 5. I, i, in dat.
and voc., 581, 1., 2. “A in VOC.,
581, III., 2. – E in plur., 581, IV.,
1. –As in acc., 581, W., 2. -Es in
Greek words, 581, WI., 3; -os, 581,
II., 2; -às, 581, IX., 3. A in
increm. of nouns in a and as, 585,
I., 3. 0 in increm., 585, II., 5; 8
in words in -an, 585, III., 2; in -68
and ar, 585, III., 4. Quant. of in-
crem. of words in -aw, 585, I., 4, (3).
I in increm., 585, IV., 3.
Grimm's law, 638, S. 2.
Grüs, decl., 66, 2.
Griſps, decl., p. 38, foot-note 3.
Guilt, adjS. of, w. genit., 399, I., 3.
Gutturals, 3, ii.; efore s, 30. Gut-
tural stems, 59. -
II
H changed to c, 33, 1, N. 1; following
other consonants, does not lengthen
§ syllable, 576, 1, R. i.
yllable before h short, 577.
Habed, meaning, p. 202, foot-note 3;
w. two accs., 373, 1, N. 1; w. perf.
Fº 388, 1, N.; W. two dats., 390,
. 1. 2
3 *y •
Bác, 304, II., 3; 305, V.
Pładria, gend., 48, 5.
JHaec for hae, p. 72, foot-note 7.
Płólitus, i in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Happening, constr. W. verbs of, 501,
• * * *
Haud, use, 552.
JHāja, interj., 312, 6; a in, 581, III., 3.
em, interj., 312, 1; W. dat., 381, N. 3, 3.
Hendiadys, 636, Íñ. 2.
Bépar, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4, 1.
Hephthémimeral caesura, p. 356, foot-
note 4.
Hephthemimeris, 597, N. 2.
Hérès, quant. of increm., 585, III., 3.
Heroic verse, 604, N. 2.
Hérôs, decl., 68.
Hºosite. 127 ; 135 ft. ; adjs., 159,
Heterogeneous nouns, 127; 141 ff.
Pſeu, interj., 312, 3 ; W. acc., 381, N. 2.
Hew in hiatus, 608, II., 1.
JActs, interj., 312, 5.
Hexameter, 603, notes 2 and 6 ; 609 ft.
Hiatus, 608, II.
Hiber, decl., 51, 4, 8) ; quant. of in
crem., 585, iii., 3.
404 IND EY OF
SUBJECTS.
Hic, 186; 191; use,450; ; in, 579, 3. Ö
in höc, 579, 3. Hóa, redundant, 636,
II., 7.
Hic, 304, III., 2; 305, I. : W. gen., p.
209, foot-note 3.
JHilarus, hilaris, 159, III.
Aſinc, 305, III.
Hindering, constr. w. verbs of, 505, II.
Historical tonses, 198; hist. present,
467, III. ; in temp. clauses, 518, N.
i; his perfect, ºffs, i ij}, N, i.
471, II. Hist, tenses in sequence,
491 ff. Hist. infin., 536, 1
Höc, 304, II., 3, N.
folia, 120, ‘N’; 304, II., 1 ; & in, p.
341, foot-note 2; o in, 594, 10.
IHonestus w. Supine, 547, 1.
Horace, logaoedic verses in, 628; ver-
sification, 630 ft. ; lyric metres, 631 ;
index, 632.
Horreów. acc., 371, III., N.
Hörsum, 305 {I.
Hortative subj. 484, II.
JHortor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1.
Bortus, horti, 132.
Hospitus, & in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Hostile, constr. W. adjS. signifying,
35i, ii., i.
Hostis, decl., 62.
Hours, Roman, 645; 645, 2.
H_S, signification, 647, 3.
Żme, 35, i. 3, N.; $65, II.; w. gon.,
p. 209, foot-note 3.
Hüjusmodi, 186, 4, N.
Humilis, compar., 163, 2.
Bumus, gend., 53, 1 ; humi, locat.,
26. 2.
º apparent ellipsis of, 398,
1, N. 2.
Pſydróps, quant. of increm., 585, II., 2.
Hypallage, 636, IV., 2.
Hyperbaton, 636, W.
#yperbole, 837, vi.
Hypermetrical, 603, N. 3.
Hypothetical, see Čonditional.
Hysteron proteron, 636, W., 2.
I
I for J, p.2, foot-note 1. I, z, sound,
5 ; 10 ft. I final shortened, 21, 2,
3). I interchanged with j, , 28;
dropped, 36, 4. T for ii and ie,
51, 5. 1-nouns, 55 ; i–verbs, 211.
Stems in 7, 62_ff. ; origin of, p. 35,
foot-note 3. Nouns in 7, 71; gend.,
111. , -Y in abl., 62; for śī, 121, 1 ;
in adverbs, 304, IL., 2; 304, III., 1.
I, i, or à final, 580, I. ; 581, I. ; in
increments of decl., 585; 585, IV. ;
conj., 586 ; 586 iii. 1 as conso!
pant, 608, III., S. 2.
-iā, suffix, 320, II.
325; -ia and iès, 138.
—ia, in prop. names, 7 in, 577, 5, N.
-iacus, adjS. in, 331; a in, 587, II., 2.
—iadès, a in, 587, II., 1.
Iambic verse, 603, N. 1; 621 ff.: stan-
2a, §3i, xvi.
Iambus, 597, II. ; irrational, 598, 1, 2).
-iānus, adjS. in, 331.
—ibam for -ièbam, 240, 1.
Iber, decl., 51, 4, 3); quant. of increm.,
585, III. 3. -, * *
Ibi, 304, IPſ., 23/305, I. and IV. ; # in,
581, I.,2; quant. of ult. in compás.,
594. 9. -
-ibiiis, quant. of antepen., 587, IV., 1.
-]bö, -ibor, for -iam, -iar, 240, 2.
Ibus, for eis–às, p. 73, foot-note 2.
-icius, adjS. in, 329.
Ictus, 599; place in hexam., 612.
-icus, adiš. in, 330; .331; compar.,
169, 3. ... I in icus, 587, II., 2.
-icus, adjS. in, 335, 5.
Id agö w. Subj., p. 274, foot-note 2.
ld redundant, 636, III., 7.
Idcircó, 554, iv., 2.
Idem, decl., 186, VI. : W. dat., 391,
N. 1. Use of idem, 451.
Ideo, 554, TV., 2.
-idés or -idiès, in patronymics, 587,
II., 1.
Ides, 642, I., 3.
-i d 5, 7 in, 587, I., 2.
Idóneus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
ldônews qui w. Subj., 503, II., 2.
Idils, gend., 118.
—idus, 3 in, 587, II., 2.
-ie, suffix, 330, ii.
—iênsis, adjs. in, 331.
-ier for i in infinit., 240, 6.
-iès, nouns in, 325, N. 1; 327; -às
and ia, 138.
-iginti, quant. of antepen., 587, III.,
Nouns in -ia,
Igitur, 310, 4; 554, IV., 3; position,
569, III.
Ignárus W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2.
Agnès, decl., 62. -
Ignáfus w. ãat. p. 205
—igö, nouns in, 324,
7 in, 587, I., 2.
—ile, nouns in, 323; 7 in, 587, I., 4.
Alico, 804, II., i, N.; o im, 581, Il., 1.
Ilion, decl., 54.
—ilis, compar, of adjs, in, 163, 2; 168,
1. I in -ālis, 587 II., 5.
foot-note 1.
in. , 337, 4, N.;
INDEY OF
SUBJECTS. 405
-ālis, adjs. in, 330; compar., 169, 3.
º;i. Nº. }
-illa, nouns in, 321, 4.
Illác, 305, V.
Illative conjs., 310, 4: 554, IV.
Ille, 186: 1913, use, 450; position,
#. I., 1. Illud, redundant, 636,
I
Illic, decl., 186, 2.
Žilić, 303, iii. 2; 305, I.
Tºne, 305, iii.
-illö, verbs in, 339.
Illó, illóc, illā6, 804, II., 3, N.; illāe,
305, II.
Illizdó, constr., p. 202, foot-note 1.
-illus, -illum, nouns in, 321, 4;
adjS., 332, N. 1.
—im in acc., 62; for -am or -em, in
pres. Subj., 240, 3. Adverbs in -im,
p. 144, foot—note 3.
Imbécillès, compar., 163, 2.
Imber, decl., 62, N. 2; 65, 1, 2).
Imbuð, constr., p. 225, foot-note 3.
Immemor w. gen., p. 210, foot-note
3; quant. of increm., 585, II., 3.
-imânia, nouns in, 325; 6 in, 587,
III., 4
-iñºnium, nouns in, 324; 6 in, 587,
... 4.
Impedimentum, impedimenta, 132.
Impelló, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
IMPERATIVE, 196, III. Syntax, 487 ff.
Imperat. in prohibitions, 488 ft. ; in
i. disc., 523, III. Imperat. sen-
tences, 354. Imperat. Subj., 484,
IV. E. in Imperat., Conj. II., 581,
3
• ? - -
IMPERFECT, TENSE, 197, I. ; 222, I.
Imperf indic., 468 ft. ; subj., 480;
in subj. of desire, 483, 2; in potent.
subj., 485, N. 1; in seq. of tenses,
493, '495, iii.; for future time, 396.
I. : in condit., 507, III. ; 510 ; 513,
N. 1; in concess., 515, II., 3; in
temp. clauses, 518, N. 1; 518, 1 ;
519, 2, N. 1; 520, II. ; 521, II.
Imperitus W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2.
Impérô, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1 ;
p. 310, foot-note 1.
Impersonal verbs, 298 ft. ; impers.
pass., 195, II., 1 ; 534, 1. Clauses
of º as subjects of impers. verbs,
501, I., 1.
Impertà, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1.
Jºã, Comptr., p. 274, foot moto 2.
Implé0, constr., 410, V. 1 ; p. 225,
OOt-hoto 3.
hºgºng, constr. W. verbs of 374, 2,
Impos, os in, 581, VII., 1; quant. of
increm., 585, if, 3. .*
Impotens w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Imprüdens w. gen., p. 210, foot-note
3; w. force of adverb, 443, N. 1.
Impulse, subj. w, verbs of, 498, Il.
Imputing, two datives w. verbs of,
390, N. 1, 2).
Imus, meaning, 440, N. 2.
-in, suffix, 320, II.
In, 308; in compas., 344, 5 and 6: W.
ãat, 386. In w. acc. or abl., 435:
435, N. 1; 435, I. ; w. acc. after
adjS., 391, II., 1 ; for genit., 396,
III., N. 1. Žh W. abſ."for genit.,
397, 3, N. 3. In w. ger., p. 315
foot-note 5; p. 316, foot-note 1. f
in Żn, 579, 3. -
–ina, nouns in, 324.
Incassum, 304, i. 2.
Incédè, constr., p. 202, foot-note 1.
Inceptives, 280 ; 337.
Incertus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Inchoatives, 337.
Inclination, constr. W. adjS. of 391,
II., 1, (2).
Inclutus, compar., 167, 2.
Ancrédébélès w. Supine, 547, 1.
Increments, quant. in, 582 ft. ; decl.,
585 ; conj., 586.
Inde, 304, III., N.; 305, III. ; 310, 4.
Indeclinable nouns, 127, I. ; 128;
gend., 42, N. indeci. adjS., 159, I.
Indefinite pronouns, 189; 455 ft. In-
def. relat. adverbs, 305, N. 1. In-
def. Subject, 460, 1, N. 2.; 518, 2.
Independent clauses, 348, N. 2.
Index of verbs, p. 383; lyric metres
of Horace, 632.
Indicative, 196, I. ; use, 474 ft.
dic. for sub]. in condit., 511.
Indige6, constr., 410, V., 1. .
Indignus, constr., 421, iſi.; 421, N.
3. Indignus quº w. Subj., 503, II.,
2. Indignus w. Supine, 547, 1.
Indigus, constr., p. 219, foot-note 4.
INDIRECT DIscourse, 522; moods in
prin. clauses, 523; in Sub. clauses,
524; tenses, 525; persons and pro-
nouns, 526 : condit. sentences, 527.
Direct changed to indir., 530; indir.
to direct, 531. Indirect clauses, 528
ff. ; questions, 529; subj. in, 529,
I. : indic., 529, 7.
INDIRECT OBJECT, 382 ft. ; w. direct
objøct, 384, II.
Indo-European languages, 638.
Indu, u in, p. 340, foot-note 1.
Indizcó, constr., 377. -
Indulging, dat. W. verbs of, 385, II.
In-
406 IND EY OF
SUBJECTS.
Induá, constr., 377; p. 198, foot-note 1.
-ine, nounsin, 322, N.; ?in, 587, I., 3.
Inferne, e final in, 581, IV., 4.
Inferus, compar., 163, 3.
Infidèlis w, dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Infimus, meaning, 440, N. 2.
INFINITIVE, 200, I. ; origin, p. 156,
foot-note 1 ; gend., 42, N.; end-
ings, 248. Infin. in sequence of
tenses, 495, 4. Infin. in relat.
clauses, 524, 1, 1); after conjS., 524,
1, *} Construction of infin., 532
ff. Infin. W. verbs, 533. Infin. of
purpose, 533, II. Infin. W. adjS.,
533, II., 3; W. verb. nouns, etc.,
533, 3, N. 3.; W. prepS., 533, 3, N.
4; w. verbs w. acc., 534; 535. Sub-
ject of infin, 536. Histor. infin.,
536, 1. Pred. after infin., 536, 2.
Tenses of infin., 537. Infin. as sub-
ject, 538. Infin. in º constr.,
539; as pred., 539, I. ; as appos.,
539, II. ; in exclamations, 539, III. ;
_ in abl. abs., 539, IV.
Infitü's, constr., 380, 2, 3).
Influence, dat. of, 384, 1, 1).
Infră, p. 149, foot-note 2; W. acc.,
433; 433, I.
Ingrátis, is in, 581, VIII., 1.
Ingrátus widat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Inheritance, divisions of 646, 3, 4).
—ini, quant. of pen., 587, I., 8.
Inimicus, injúcundus, W. dat., p. 205,
foot-note 1.
Injuring, dat. W. verbs of, 385, I.
Jºnitor w. abl., 425, 1, 1), N.
Inops w. gen, p. 210, foot-note 3.
Inguam, position, 569, V.
Inquiès, quant. of increm, 585, III., 3.
Insciênsw. force of adverb, 443, N. 1.
Inscius w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Inseparable preps., 308; in compas.,
344, 6 ; quant., 594, 2.
Inspergó, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1.
Instar, defectivº, 134; gen. W., 398, 4.
INSTRUMENTAL CASE, 367, 3; 411, II.
Instr. abl., 418 ft. Abl. of instru-
ment, 420.
Instruč, constr., p. 225, foot-note 3.
Ansuber, decl., 65, 1, 2).
Insuetus w.gen., p. 205, foot-note 8; p.
210, foot-note 3; p. 315, foot-note 2.
Insuper w, acc. or abl., 437, 3.
Integer W. gem., 399, iii. 1.
Intensives, 336.
Inter in compds., 344, 5; W. dat., 386.
Inter W. acc., 433; 433, I. ; for gen.,
397, 3, N. 3; w. reciprocal force,
448, N. Inter w. ger., p. 315, foot-
note 5.
Interchange of vowels and consonants,
28 : 29.
Interoido, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1.
Intercus w. Short increm., p. 343, foot-
In Ote 3.
Interdà, interdius, interdum, 304, I.,
2
Intered, 304, IV., N. 2.
Interest, dat. of, 384, 1, 2). Rom.
- computation of interest, 646, 3, 3).
Interest, constr., 406, III. ; 408.
Interior, compar., 166.
Interjections, 312; 556; 557; w. voc.,
369, 1 ; W. acc., 381, N. 2; W. dat.,
381, N. 3, 3); 389, N. 2.
INTERNAL Öpfict, 371, I., 2.
Interne, e final in, 581, iv., 4.
INTERROGATIVE pronouns, 188; 454.
Inter. conjs., 311, 8; 555, VIII.
Inter. sentences, 351. Inter. words,
351, 1. Double questions, 353.
Inter. Sentences W. potent. Subj.,
486, II. ; in indir. disc., 523, II. In-
direct questions, 528, 2; 529, I.
Interrogöw, two accs., 374, 2.
Interval, abl. of, 430.
Intimºus, meaning, 440, N. 2.
Intrá w. acc., 433; 433, I.
Intransitive verbs, 193, II. ; 195, II.,
1; 372, III., N. 3; impers. passive,
465, 1.
Intrö– in compds., 594, 8.
Intus W. abl., 437, 2.
—inus, adjS. in, 330, 331; compar., 169,
3. – Inſus or -īnus in adjs., 587, II.,
5, w. N. 2.
Invādó, constr., p. 202, foot-note 1.
In vicem, 304, I., 2.
Invitus, compar., 167, 2; special use
of dat., 387, N. 3. Invitus w. force
of adverb, 443, N. 1.
Jó, interj., 312, 2.
-iö, verbs of Conj. III. in, 217 ff. ;
quant. of stem-syllable, 588. -Jo,
-ā, suffixes, 320, II. ; nouns in, 324;
326.
-iön in prop. names, 7 in, 577, 5, N.
Ionic feet, 597, N. 1; verse, 626; stan-
za, 33i. xiii. wº
—ior in ºperative, 162. –Iſr, suf-
fix, 320, II.
-iös, suffix, 320, II.
Ipse, decl., 186 V. ;
abs., 433, 4, N. 3.
possessive, 398, 3.
Ipsus for ipse, p. 73, foot-note 5.
-ir, decl. of nouns in, 51, 4.
Iron age, 640, III., 2.
Ironical condition, 507, 3, N. 1.
Irony, 637, W.
use, 452; w. abl.
Gen. of ipse W.
I.YTD EY OF;"
SUBJECTS. 407
IRRATIONAL time, 596, 1, N. 2. Irrat.
trochee, 598, 1, 1). Irrat, iambus,
598, 1, 2).
IRREGULAR nouns, 127 ff.: adjs., 159.
Irreg. comparison, 163 ff. irreg,
verbs, 289 ft. -
Js, decl., 186; correlat., 191 ; use, 450,
4, N. 2; 451. Is—qui, 451, 4, E in
ëi, 577, I., 2, (1). I in is, 579, 3.
—is, decl. of adjs, in, 62, IV., N. 1;
of nouns in, 65, 1 ; 82. Gend. of
nouns in, 105; 107. –Is in adverbs,
304, I., 3, 1). -ſs in acc, pl., 62;
64; 67; in adverbs, 304, II., 1. –Is
or -78 final, 580, ifſ, w. N. 2; 581,
VIII
Islands, gend. of names of, 42, II., 2;
constº. 330, 2, 3); Žiž,ii. 1; 42%, i.
-issimã, -issimo, suffixes, p. 156,
foot-note 9.
—issimus, a, um, in superlat., 162;
p. J57, foot-note 9.
—issú, verbs in, 336, N. 2.
Istác, 305, V.
Ište, decl., 186, II.; correlat., 191 ; use,
450.
Istic, decl., 186, 2.
Žstic, 364, iſi. 2; 305, I.
Žstine, 305, ſii.
Istó, istöc, 304, II., 3.
1stic, 304, II., 3; 305, II.
—it in Plautus for -it, 580, III., N. 2.
Ita, 305, V. ; ita—si, 507, 3, N. 2.
Meaning of ita, 551, N. 2. Ut—ita,
W. Superlat., 555, ii. 1. A in ita,
#. º 3. Ita redundant, 636,
• 2 - -
Jºaqué, 310, 4. * -
-itãs, nouns in, 324; 325; in, 587,
• ? --
-iter, i in, 587, II., 4.
—itia, nouns in, 325.
—ities, nouns in, 325, N. 1.
-ičim in 587, i. i.
—itimus, adjs. in, 330, 1.
—itium, nouns in, 324.
—itó, frequentatives in, 336, II.
-itädd, nounsin, 325; ?in, 587, IV., 1.
—itus in adverbs, Ž in,_p. 345, foot-
º 2; 587, II., 4. Tin -itus, 587,
-iù. suffix, 320, II.
—ium, decl. of nouns in, 51, 5. -Zum.
in gen, pl., 62; 63; 64; 66; 67.
Nouns in -ium, 324; 327.
-Huss, Suſſlx, 320, IT. Tecl. of nouns
in -ius, 51, 5... Adjs. in -ius, 830;
331; 333, 5... I or i in Żus in gen.,
577, I., 3, (3). I in ius in prop.
names, 577, 5, N.
-īvus, adjs. in, 333, 5; 7 in, 587, I., 6.
-ix, decl. of nouns in, 95. -ſe, decl.
of nouns in, 95; quant. of increm.,
585, IV., 1.
J
J, j, modifications of I, i, 2, 4: Sound,
7; effect on ſº of preceding
syllable, 16, I., 2; 576, II. : 576, 2;
interchanged with i, 28; dropped,
36, 4.
-ja, suffix, 320, I.
Jació, spelling and pronunciation of
COmpds., 36, 4.
Jam, compds. of, w. present, 467, 2;
W. imperf., 469, 2.
-jams, suffix, 320, I.
Jécur, decl., 77, 4.
Jogus, plur. jocł, ſoca, 141.
-jör, suffix, 320, II.
J º force of adjS. expressing, 443,
1
Jubar, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4, (1).
Jubed, constr., º foot-note 1 ; in
paSS., 534, 1, N. 1.
Jügunſhºw. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1 ;
W. Supine, 547, 1.
Júdez, decl., 59.
Júdició, constr., 410, II., 1.
Jägerum, decl., 136, 1. Jägerum as
unit of measure, 648, V.
Jugum, quant. of syllable before j in
Compas., 576, 2.
Julian calendar, 641. -
Jungó widat., p. 201, foot-note 1 ; w.
abl., 419, 1,1).
Jäppäter, deci., 66, 3.
Jārātus w. active meaning, 257, N. 2.
Jús, decl., 61. -
Jijimandum, decl., 126.
JúSSö for jūSSérô, 240, 4.
Juvenal, versification, 630.
Juvenis, decl., p. 36, foot-note 3; com-
par., 168, 4.
Juvöw, accus., 385, II., N. 1.
Juatá W. accus., 433.
R.
K seldom used, 2, 6.
-ka, suffix, 320, I.
fºr hāgā, deci. 66, 4.
Kindred words near each other, 563,
Rinowing, constr. W. verbs of, 533, I
1 : 535, I., 1, (2).
Rnowledge, adjs. of w. gen., 399, I.
2; p. 315, foot-note 2; w. force of
adverbs, 443, N. 1.
• ?
408 IND EX OF
SUBJECTS.
L
L, stems in, decl., 60; nouns in, decl.,
75; gend., 111; 112. Quant, of
final syllables in l, 579, 2; 580, II.
-1a, lä, suffixes, 320. Nouns in -la,
321.
Labials, 3, II. ; 3, N. 1, I., 3. Labial
stems, 57.
Lacer, decl., 150, N., 1).
Lacrāmā w, accus., 371, III., N. 1.
Lacus, decl., 117, 1, 2).
Laedo w. accus., 385, II., N. 1.
Laetus w. force of adverb, 443, N. 1.
Laévé, constr., 425, 2.
Dampas, decl., 68.
Language, Latin, 638.
Lapès, decl., 58.
Lār, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4, (1).
Lassus, not compared, 169, 4.
LATIN period, 573. Lat., lang. and
literature, 638. Early Latin, 639.
Lat. authors, 640.
Learning, constr. W. verbs of, 533,
Leaving, verbs of w. two dats., 390,
• + 3 − y •
Lengthening of vowels, 20.
-lèns, -lentus, adjs. in, 328.
Leó, decl., 60.
Lepus, quant. of increm., 585, II., 3.
Lesser Ionic, 597, N. ; Archilochian,
617, N.; Asclepiadèan, 628, IV. ;
Sºhiº, 628, VI. ; Alcaic, 628,
VIII.
Letters, classification, 3 ; sounds, 5 ft.
Names of letters indecl., 128, 1.
Tenses in letters, 472, 1.
-leus, nouns in, 321, N.
Lévô, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5; p.
219, foot-note 1.
Lêw, quant. of increm., 585, III., 3.
—li, suffix, 320, II.
£answ.'forcé of adverb,443, N. 1.
Liber, Bacchus, liberi, decl., 51, 4.
Liber, era, erum, 149.
Liberă, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5; p.
219, foot-note 1.
Libra, 648, I. ; divisions, 648, I., 1.
Lörö, constr., 425, 2, N. 1.
Liceów. abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
Licet, 311, 4; w. Subj., 515, III. Ple-
Onasm w. licet, 636, III., 9.
Liger, decl., 66, III., 1.
Ligus, w. Short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 3.
Likeness, dat. W. adjS. of, 391, I. ;
391, II., 4.
Limit, accus. of 380.
Linter, decl., 65, 1, 2).
. Lyric metres of
Aliqui, i in, 590, 1.
figuiã measure, Rom., 648, III.
Liquids, 3, II., 4; developing vowels,
29, N. ifiquid stems, 60. -
L7s, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4 ; quant.
of increm., 585, IV., 2
—lis, adjS. in, 333.
Literature, Lat., 638.
iitotes, 637, viii.
Lºttera, litterae, 132.
385, 1, N.
Litum, i in, 590, 1.
-lo, suffix, 320, iſ.
LOCATIVE, 45, 2; 48, 4; 51, 8; 66, 4;
120, N. Locatives as adverbs, 304,
III. Abl, w, locat., 363, 4, 2). Syn-
tax of locat., 367, 2; 411, III. ; 425,
II. ; 426, 2. Locat. abl., 425, ff.
Loco, constr., 380, N.
* quant. of increm., 585,
III., 3.
Litterås dare,
*
Locus, plur., 141. Locó, constr., 415,
II., N. Loco, locºs, constr., 425, 2.
Logaoedic verse, 627 ff.
Long measure, fºom., 648, IV.
Long syllables, 575. Long stem-syl-
lables in primitives, 595. Final
long vowel shortened in hiatus, 608,
Longingwus, superlat. Wanting, 168, 3.
Longºus without quam, 417, 1,
-1s, decl. of nouns in, 90.
Luctor W. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Lüdâcer, defect., 159, II.
Lüdus, lºdī, 182.
Lués, defective, 134.
-lus, -lum, nouns in, 321 ; adjS., 332.
Lila, without gen. º; 133, 5; quant.
of increm., 585, V., 2.
Lyciºrgidès, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Lyna, decl., p. 38, foot-note 3.
Horace, 631; index,
632.
M
M changed to n, 33, 4; assimilated to
8, 34, 1, N.; developing p, 34, 1, N.
Stems in m, 60. Prepositions in m
p. 149, foot-note 2. Quant. of fina
flyiiabies in ºn, 579, 3, 536, fi.
final elided, 608, I.
-ma, -mă, suffixes, 320.
Maered, constr., 371, III., N. 1.
Maffis, in comparison, 170; 444, 2,
notes 1 and 2. Mön magis—quam,
555, II., 1.
Māgnus compared, 165.
constr., p. 213, foot-note 2.
Mäjor, in expressions of age, p. 222,
foot-note 4.
Māgn?,
AND EX OF
4.09
SUBJECTS,
Making, verbs of, w, two accs., 373.
Male compared, 306, 2. Dat. W.
compas. of male, 384, 4, N. 1. AE in
ſmale, 581, IV., 4.
Målø, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1 ; 499,
2; p. 310, foot-note 1. As in mdvis,
581, VIII., 3, N.
Malus, compar., 165.
-man, suffix, 320, I.
Marlºſestus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Manner, adverbs of,305, N. 2, 3). Abl.
of manner, 419, III. Manner ex-
pressed by particip., 549, 1.
Manus, gend., 118.
Mare, ădºi. 63; 63, 2.
425, 2.
Margarita, plur., 142.
Martial, metres, 633, II.
Mās, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4; quant.
of increm., 585, I., 4, º
Masculine caesura, 611, N.
Mastery, adjs. of, W. gen., 399, I., 3;
verbs of w. gen., 410 V. g
Material expressed by abl., 415. Ma-
terial nouns, 39, 2, 3); plur., 130, 2.
Mātūrus, compar., 163, 1
Mātūtīnus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 5.
Măcimé in adverbial comparison, 170.
Mùa;&m2, constr., p. 213, foot-note 2.
Means, abl. of, 418 ; 420. Means ex-
pressed by particip., 549, 1.
Measure of difference, abl. of, 417, 2.
Roman measures, 646; 648.
Mécastör, interj., p. 152, foot-note 4.
Méd for me, 184, 5.
Medeor w. dat., 385, II., N. 3.
Medial vowels, 3, I., 2.
Medius designating part, 440, N. 2.
Médius fidèus, mºrgule, mehercules,
interj., p. 152, foot-note 4.
Me!, defect., 133, 4, N.
Melius w. indicat., 475, 5.
Melos, decl., 68, 6.
Mººrs of complex sentences, 348,
. 1.
Mémé, for mé, 184, 4.
Memºn? W. gen, 406, II. ; w. acc.,
407; W. pres. infin., 537, 1.
Memor, decl., 158. iſºmor w. gen.,
p. 210, foot-note 3. Quant. of in-
crem. of memor, 585, II., 3.
Memorábilis w. Süp., 547, 1.
-men, suffix, 320, II. ; nouns in, 397.
Mendicus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Mensa, decl., 48.
Åſensis, dogl., p. 36, foul-uole 3.
-mento, suffix, p. 157, foot-note 1.
–mentum, nouns in, 327.
Mºpte for me, 184, 5.
Mercés, quant. of increm., 585, III., 3.
Mari, constr.,
Meridiás, gend., 123; defect., 130, 1,4).
Messis, dedi, 62, III., 1.
—met, forms in, 184, 3; 185, N. 2.
Metaphor, 637, ii.
Metathesis, 635, 5.
Metonymy, 637, III.
Metre, 601, N. 3.
Metrical equivalents, 598. Metr, name
of verse, 603.
Metuá, constr., 385, 1; p. 274, foot-
rhote 3.
Mews, decl., 185, N. 1.
Mi for mihš, 184.
Middle voice, 46°.
Miles, decl., 5 °, ,
Miſſºa, decy tº 48,4; constr., 426, 2.
Mille, deciſi 15% I. ; use, 174,4; 17s.
iññā, m*', by synesis, 461,2.
Million scs. Crces, how denoted, 647,
IV

-min, suffiłº 33% II.
—minias pe. ...ºnd, p. 118, foot-note 3.
Minimi, Čon sº, p. 213, foot-note 2.
—mind in im"Pºrat. 240, 5.
Minor caesurº P.357, foot-note 1.
Minor, minº, Without quam, 417, N.
2. Mīnār; *. Constr., 405; p. 213,
foot-note 2. - g
MŽnus, min.” as negatives, 552, 3.
AVön minus’ gº, * II., 1.
Mirificus, coºpa; *# º
Minºr w acº, #71, III., N. 1; w.
gen., p. 217, foot-note 5; p. 310,
foot-note 2. º
Mirwºn w. ſº 305, N. 4.
Mºrus, not coºpiºd, 169, 4.
Mîs for mez, *, 9-
Žiscº, w, dat: 385, 33 p. 201, foot-
note 1; w. a.º.ºnd, lat., p. 291, ..
foot-note 2; w. ºbl., 419, 1, 1), (2)."
Miser, decl., 150, N. " " . Ar’
Misereor, miserascó, w. gen., a Jö. Žſis-
gº misérètur, constr., 410, IV.,
Miseret, constr., 409, III.
Möttö w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
-mo, suffix, 320, II.
Moderor, constr., 385, 1.
Modifiers, 357 ff. Position of modi-
fiers, of nouns, .565; adjS., 566;
verbs, 567; adverbs, 568.
Modius, 648, II.
Modo, 311, 3., Modo, modo né, w.
subj. of desire, 483, _6. Modo w.
subi. in condit., 513, T. Wön ºodo
—sed etiam (Vérum etiam), 554, I.,
5. Ofinal in modo and compas., 581,
... 1.
Modi's, circumlocutions W., 636, III.,
18
410
SUBJECTS.
INDEY OF
Molesłus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Molossus, 633, #. 1, N.
-mön, suffix, 320, II.
Moned, constr., 374, 2; p. 193, foot-
note 3 ; 410, i., 2; p. 274, foot-note 1.
Money, Roman, 646 ft.
—möniä, -mânio, suffixes, p. 157,
foot-note 1 ; monia, nouns in, 327.
-mönium, nouns in, 327
Monocolon, p. 352, foot-note 3. .
Monolameter, 603, N. 2.
Mºvº P*Pos. repeated, 636,
Monosyllables, uanº. 579. Mono-
syllables at end of line, 613, N. 2.
Months, Roman, 64; $543, "Iti. 2;
names of, originally a dis. 2 - ?
foot-note 2; gender, 7
names of, in-ber, decl.,?
MooDs, 196. Mood signs. º
dic., 466 ff. Subj., 47 * ff. : 490 ff.
Imperat., 487 ff. Mooğsin'subord.
clauses, 490ff, ; in Condit. sentences
506 f. : in concess: glaſſ ses. Biºff.
in causal clauses, 516; fl. in temp.
clauses, 518 ft. 3 in indir, dise.
523 ff.: in indir. Clauses. 539. 2
finit., 532 ft. 7
Morae or times, 597.
Mós, º *
Motion to, how express&Cl, 384, 3, 1):
385, 4, 1); 386, 3. , 384, 3, 1);
Moveš we abl., 414, II. w. Subj., p.
274, foot-note 2. .
-ms, decl. of nouns in 88.
Muleiber, decl., 51, 43.3).
Multi, indef num, 17 8, N. 3.
†iºn, 30, fi, i.
Multiplication, how exºressed, 174, 2,
... 2).
* - 4. . . . . . . ~.--- ~~
Mºltiplier ves º3. 1.
Mulvetw.J. W. plur. verb, 461, 1.
Multus, compar., 165; plur., 175, N. 3.
Mús, decl., 64; p. 38, foot-note 4.
Mutes, 3, fr., 5.
Mutó, constr., 422, N. 2.
N
N assimilated to 1, 34, 2; to m, 34,
3; dropped, 36, 3, N. 3; 36, 5, 3).
Stems in n. 60. Decl. of nouns in
m, 76 : gend, 113. Quant. of final
syllables in n, 580, II., W. notes 1
and 2.J
—na, -nā, Suffixes, 320.
Mam, 310, 5; w.emphasis, 351, 4, N. 1.
Name, dat. of, 387, N. 1; gen. Of, 387,
N. 2. Name of verse, 603.
NAMEs, Roman, 331, N. 3; 439, 4, N.;
649. Names of towns, constr., 380,
II. ; 412, II. ; 425, II, ; 428.
Mamgue, 310, 5; 554, W., 2.
Nasals, 3, II., 2; developing vowels,
2 -- " -
Mătălis, nābālās, 132.
Nātus w. abl., 415, II.
Mauci, constr., p. 213, foot-note 3.
Mävis, decl., 62, III.
Nd shortens preceding vowel, p. 37,
foot-note 2.
-Me, interrog. particle, 310, 2, N.; 311,
8; in questions, 351, 1 and 2; in
double questions, 353, 1 ; in indir.
questions, 529, 1 and 3. ... Position of
-ne, 569, III., 4, E elided before
consonant, 608, I., N. 2.
Mé, 311, 4 and 5; 552; w. Subj. of
desire, 483, 3 ; 489, 3; W. imperat.,
488; W. subj. of Pº 497, II.;
498, III., notes 1 and 2; omitted,
499, 2. We in concessions, 515, III.
Mé mān, 552, 1. Wé—quidem, 553,
2; 569, III., 2. Mé or ne as prefix,
594, 2.
-nē, nouns in, 322, N.
Nearness, dat. W. adjS. of 391, I. ;
gen., 391, 4.
Nee, 310, 1; 554, I., 2. Wec-nec (ne-
que), ſiec–et (que), et—nee, 554, I-95.
Position of mec in poetry, 569, ifi.
. E' in nec, 579, 3.
Mecessàrºus w. dat, p. 205, foot-note 1.
Necessary, dat. W. adjS. signifying,
«»
Aecesse est, constr., 502, 1.
Meene, 310, 2, N.; 311, 8; 353, 2, N.
3; 529, 3, 2).
Nectar, quant. of increm., 585, I., 4,
1
Nºw. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Wig. w. Subj., 483, 3, N.; 3 in, 594,
2 2
Needing, constr. w. verbs of, 414, I.
Węſas, defect., 184; w. Sup., 54ſ, 1.
Negatives, 552; w. subj. of desire,
483, 3. Two neg., 553. Gen. neg.,
553, 1 and 2. Position of neg., 569,
IV., 1. .
Němč, use, 457, 1; followed by quin,
D. § 8, foot-note 3. E' in nēmö, 594,
2 2
Niñº, 'w in, p. 340, foot-note 1.
Mépôs, decl., 58.
Náquam, indecl., 159, I. ;
165, N. 2; & in, 594, 2, N.
Méquàquam, & in, 594, 2, N.
Megue, 310, i ; 554, I., 2. Megue—ne-
gue, 553, 2; 554, I., 5. eque—ét,
et—neque, 554, I., 5.
compar.,
2.
2
%



IND EX OF
ASUBJECTS. 411
Nº-guidem, 558, 2; 569, III., 2.
AVéquiquam, néquitia, 8 in, 594, 2, N.
2
Mºréis, éin, p. 345, foot-note 1.
Wescă quºis, guì, 191, N, ; 455, 2. Me-
sciów. interrog. adv.,305, N. 3., Me-
Scià quês, quomodo, W. indic., 529, 5,
3). TAVesció an, 529, 3, N. 2.
Mesciºus W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
JVeu, see névé.
-neus, adjs. in, 329.
Meuter, decl., 151, 1.
NEUTER nom., acc., and voc. pl., 46.2,
1). Neuter by signification, 42, N.;
by ending, Decl. II., 53 ; Decl.III.,
ií1: Dedi. IV., 118. Neuter pron.
or adj., as cognate acc., 371, II. ; 375;
W. part. gen, 397,3; in pred., 438,
4. 0 in increm, of neut., 585, II, 1.
Méve, new, 311, 5; w. Subj. of desire,
483, 3; W. imperat., 488; w. Subj. of
purpose, 497, 1, N. Wéve—neve,
552, 2. E in neve, 594, 2, N. 2.
Wea, defect., 133, 5.
N. lengthens preceding vowel, 16, N.
Nà, 311, 3; in condit., 507 ff. W. =
‘but,” “except,’ 507, 3, N. 3. Wi
for mé, 552, 1.
-ni, Suffix, 320.
N # t, Rom. division of, 645; 645, 1.
Mºhºl, defect., 134; for nôn, 457, 3.
Mºhil aliud misł, nihil aliud quam,
555, III., 1.
Mºhili, constr., 404, N. 2.
MŽmis w. genit., p. 209, foot-note 3.
Nºmium guantum, 305, N. 4.
Misi, 311, 8; in condit., 507 ff. Wisł
= ‘but,’ ‘except,’ 50% 3, N. 3; =
“except,” “than,’ 555 iſi. 1. Miss
si, 50%. 3, N. . . Wisłºod, nãº
alºud'hiº, 555, III., i. ºf final in
7.28%, 581, I., 1.
Wºº constr., 425, 1, 1), N.; 498, II.,
1
Nºw, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4; 66; w.
short increm., p. 343, foot-note 2.
—no, suffix, 320, II.
Mölö, constr., 499, 2; p. 310, foot-note
1. Mölz, nālīte, in prohibitions, 489,
1). I in nôlité, etc., 586, III., 4.
Momen w. dat., 387, N. 1; w. gen.,
387, N. 2. Wömºne w. gen. of crime,
410, II, 1. Wömen, in name of a
Rom. citizen, 649.
NoMINATIVE, ment, pl. in adjs., 158, 1.
Syntax of nom., 368; two nom., 373,
2. Nom, for voc., 369, 2. Nom. in
exclamations, 381, N. 8, 2). -E's in
nom. Sing., 581, WI., 1; -is, 581,
VIII., 2; -às, 581, IX., 1 ; in plur.,
55. ix. 9." “”
Mön, p. 145, foot-note 2; 552. Mön
7modo nãn, mān Sölum nón, 552, 2.
Mön Sölum (non modo or nôn tan-
tum)—sed etiam (vérum etiam), 554,
I., 5. Nºn minus—quam, nān ma-
gès—quam, 555, II., 1. , Mon quº,
% quºn, quia, w. Subj., 516, 2.
Øn W. gen. negat., 553, 1. Posi-
tion of nôn, 569, IV. -
Møndum, 555, I., 1.
Nones, 642, I., 2. -
Mônne, 311, 8; 351, 1 and 2.
Mös for ego, noster for meus, 446, N. 2.
Mostrás, decl., 185, N. 3.
Mostri, noström, 446, N. 3.
Mötus W. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Nouns, etymol., 39 # gend., 40 ft. ;
pers. and num., 44; cases, 45; decl.,
46 ft.; defect., 122; 129 ft. ; indecl.,
128; heteroclites, 135 ft. ; hetero-
geneous, 141 ff. Syntax, 362 ft. ;
agreement, 362 ft. ; general view of
cases, 365 ft. ; nom., 368; vocj, 369;
acc., 370 ft. ; dat., 382 ft. ; gen., 393
ff. ; abl., 367 ; 411 ff.: w. preps.,
432 ft. Nouns as adjs., 441, 3. Po-
sition of modifiers of nouns, 565.
Movus, compar., 167, 2.
Moſc, deci, p. 38, foot-note 4.
Now?us w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1 ;
W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
—ns, decl. of nouns in, 65, 3; 90. Ms
ºghens preceding vowel, 16,
2
Nt dropped, p. 19, foot-note 9; short-
ens preceding vowel, p. 37, foot-
note 2.
-nu, suffix, 320.
Mübécula, P. 159, foot-note 1.
Mābās, decl., 62.
Mübów. dat., 385, N. 3.
Mizdó, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Müllus, decl., 151, 1; for Eng. adverb,
443, N. 1 ; use, 45%, 2; for nôn, 457,
3. Müllus followed by quºn, p. 278,
foot-note 3.
Mºm, 310, 2, N.; 311, 8; 351, 1 ; in
indir. quest., 529, II, 1, N. 3.
-num, nouns in, 327.
Number, 44; in verbs, 199. Gen. in
descriptions of number, 419, 2, 1).
NUMERALs, 171 ff.: adjs., 172 ft. ; decl.,
175 ff.: symbols, 180; adverbs, 181;
In compounding numbers, ihá, 3.
Numerals w. gen., 397, 2. Numer-
als in dates, 642, fii. I.
Mümmus, 647.
Munc, 304, I., 4; 305, IV.
412
INDEX OF SUBJECTS,
Mânțior, constr., 534, N. 1, (2).
Müper, 304, IV., 'N, 2 ; Compar., 306, 4.
-nus, adjS. in, 329.
IVüSquam W. gen., 397, 4.
O
O, Ö, sound, 5; 10; 11. Ofinal short-
ened, 21, 2, 3). O-nouns, 51. Decl.
of nouns in Ö, 3, 60, 4; 72; quant.
of increm.;_585, II., 5, (2); gend.,
gº; ióo. Num, adverºsiº’-5, isi.
N. 2. Origin of 6 final in verbs, p.
118, foot-note 5. Adverbs in -o,
304, II., 1 and 2. Superlat. adverbs
in -ó, 306, 6. , O or o, final, 580, I. ;
581; II. ; in increm. of decl., 585;
585, II. : conj., 586. O, interj., 312,
1, 2, and 5; w; acc., 381, N. 2. - O
Sì w. Subj. of desire, 483, 1. O in
hiatus, 608, II., 1.
-o, -ó, suffixes, 320, II. Nouns in -ó,
326, 2.
Oö in compas., 344, 5; in compds.
W. dat., 386. Ob w. acc., 433;
483, I. : W. ger., p. 315, foot-note 5.
Obeying, dat. w. verbs of, 385, I.
Obiter, 304, I., 2.
OBJECT, direct, 371; external, 371, I.,
1 ; , internal, 371, I., 2. Object
omitted, 371, III., N. 4. Infin. or
clause as object, 371, IV. ; 540, N.
Indir. object, 382 ft. Object clauses
of purpose, 498; of result, 501, II.
Objećtive compás., 343, fi: object.
gen., 396, III,
Oblique cases, 45, 1 ; use of, 370 ft.
olºr W. gen., 406, II. : W. acc.,
407.
Oboediºns w. two dats., 390, N. 3.
Obviam, 304, I., 2.
occiºğor occiderit, 240, 4.
Qccupatio, p. 373, foot-note 2.
Ocior, compar., 166.
Octo, o final in, 581, IV., 2.
Oe, sound, 6; 12.
Oedipus, it in, 581, IX., 3, N.
º constr., 385, ii., 'N 1.
hé, º 312, 8; 5 in, 577, I., 4; 3
in 5gi, iv. 4.
oil sound, 5, i. 12, 1.
-čis, 6 in, 587, I., 3; 577, 5, N.
-ºps in prop. names, Ó in, 577, 5,
-ola, o in, 587, II., 3.
-ālentus, 6 in, 587, IV., 1.
Oled W. acc., 371, III., N. 1.
oilus, oils, for ille, p. 73, foot-note 1,
2
-olum, -olus, oin, 587, II., 8.
Ömission of consonants, 36; of oró in
adjurations, 569, II., 3
Omnis, gen. of, w. possessives, 398, 3.
-on, -ón, suffixes, 320, II. ; –ón in
Greek gen. plur., 68, 4. Quant. Of
* of nouns in -ón, 585, II., 5,
-Öna, 6 in, 587, I., 5.
-önè in patronymics, 322, N.; 0 in,
587, I., 3.
Onerö, constr., # 225, foot-note 3.
–5ni, 6 in, 587, I., 8.
Önomatopoeia, 637, XI., 5.
-ānus, gin, 587, f, 5.
Open vowel, 3, I., 1.
Opera, operae, 132.
subj., p. 274, foot-note 2.
Op?mus, superial. wanting, 168, 3.
Oportet, constr., 502, 1; 537, 1.
Öpposing, constr. W. vérbs of, 505, II.
Ops, dedi. p. 38, foot-note 3; 133, 1.
Optative in fut., and in pres, subj., p.
117, foot-note 4. Optat. Subj., 484, I.
º decl., 64, 2, 4).
ºptimus W. Supine, 547, 1.
Optó, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1.
Opus, ‘work,” decl., 61. Opus, ‘need,’
defect., 134; constr., 414, iv. W.
Sup., 547, 1. Opus est W. subj.,
502. 1.
Operam, dö w.
-ör, -ór, suffixes, 320, II. Nouns in
–or, 327. O shortened in -ór, 21, 2,
2). Gen. of nouns in -or, 99, 101.
-Or in Plautus for -or, 580, iii. N.
2. Quant. of increm. Of nouns in
_ –ór, 585, II., 5, (1).
ORATIO Ögiious, see Indirect Dis—
course. Orätiö récta, 522, 1.
Orbis, decl., 62, IV.
Orbó, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Order of vowels in strength, 22.
Ordinal numbers, 172; 174; decl., 179.
–5rius, Ö in, 587, III., 1.
Ornö, constr., p. 225, foot-note 3.
Orów. two accs., 374, 2; W. Subj., p.
274, foot-note 1. Orö omitted in
adjurations, 569, II., 3.
Orpheus, decl., 68.
Orthography, 1, I. ; 2 ft.
Ortus w. Tabl., 415, II.
-örus, compar. of adjS. in, 169, 3.
O in -órus, 587, I., 6.
O8, quant. oft increm., 585, II., 1.
Os, ossis, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4; o
in, 579, 3.
-os, suffix, 320, II. Sound of -ós,
11, 1. Greek neuters in -os, 68, 6.
Decl. of nouns in -às, -os, 83; 133,
4, N. ; gend., 99; 102. Os or 08
final, 580, III. ; 581, VII.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
413
Ossua, p. 50, foot-note 1.
Ostrea, plur., 142.
-čsus, adjS. in, 328; 6 in, 587, I., 6.
–5tis, 0 in, 587, I., 3
-Ötus, 6 in, 587, I., 7.
Ovid, versification, 630.
Owing, constr. W. verbs of, 533, I., 1.
-ox, -óx, decl. of nouns in, 9
Oxymoron, 637, XI., 5.
P
P changed to b, 33, 2; to m, 33, 3, N.;
developed by m,34, 1, N.
Paene w. perf. ind., 471, 2; W. hist.
tenses of indic., 511, 1, N. 4.
Pianº, constr.,’409, Iñ., 4to, IV.
Palam w. abl., 437, 2.
Palatals, 3, II., N. 1, I., 1.
Palus for pallis, 581, IX. 1, N.
Paläster, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
Panthils, voc., 54, in 4.
Papae, interj., 312, 2.
Pär, constr., p. 205, foot-notes 1 and
3; quant. of increm., 585, I., 4, (1).
Paraleipsis, 637, XI., 2.
Parasitic u, 5, 4.
Pardoning, dat. W. verbs of, 385, II.
Paréns, gen. plur., p. 38, foot-note 2.
Parentage expressed by abl., 415.
£arenthetical clauses in indir. disc.,
524, 2, 1); in indir, clauses, 529, II.,
N. 1, 2).
Pariés, as in, 581, WI., 1.
Paris, decl., 68.
Paroemiac verse, 604, N. 2.
Paronomasia, 637, XI., 7.
JPurs, acc., 64, N. 2. %rs, partés, 132.
Pars in fractions, 174, 1. arte,
partibus, constr., 425, 2. Pars w.
plur. verb, 461, 1.
Particeps w.gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Participation, gen. W. adjS. of 399, I.,
3; W. verbs of, 410, V., 3.
PARTICIPLEs, 200, iv.; endings, 248.
Particip. in seq. of tenses, 495, TV.
Agreement of partici § 1, 460,
1. Particip. for infin. 5, I., 4.
Use of particip., 548 #: 'denoting
time, cause, männer, means, 549, 1;
condit., goffeeSS., 549,22; purpose,
549, 3; for relat. clause, 549, 4; for
prin. clause, 549, 5; W. negāt., 549,
N. 1. Particip. rendered by noun,
549, N. 2. F. - º
PARTICLEs, 302 ft. ;' adverbs, 303 ff.;
preps., 307; 308; conjs., 309 ft.;
interjections, 312. Syntax of parti-
cles, 551 ff.; adverbs, 551 ff. In-
terrog. particles, p. 152, foot-note 3;
351, I; 555, 8. -A in particles, 581,
Partim, 804, I., 1; w. gen, p. 209,
foot-hote 3. Partim—partim for
pars—pars, 461, 5.
Partitive apposition, 364. Part, gen.,
396, IV. ; 397
Parts of speech, 38.
Partus, decl., 117, 1, 2).
Parum w. gen., p. 209, foot-note 3.
Parvus, compar., 165. Parva, constr.,
p. 213, foot-note 2.
Passer, deci., 60.
PASSIVE VoICE, 195, II. ; impers., 195,
II., 1. Passive constr., 464; 534,
1. Passive like middle, 465.
Passus, 648, IV., N.
Pästor, pater, decl., 60.
Paterfamiliás, decl., 126.
Pation, constr., p. 310, N. 1.
Patrials, 331, N. l ; quant. of increm.,
535, ii., 5.
Patronymics, 322.
Pauci, defect., 159, II.
Pause, caesural, 602.
Päc, defect, 133, 5.
Pecë, decl., p. 50, foot-note 1.
PECULLARITIES, in conjugat., 235 ºff. ;
in seq. of tenses, 495; in expressions
of purpose, 499; of result, 502. Pe-
culiarities in Rom. calendar, 642.
Pecus W. short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 3.
Pedester, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
Pelagus, decl., 51, # ; gend., 53, 2.
Penalty, how expressed, 410, iſi.
Pervâtés, decl., 64, 2, 4).
Penés w; acc., 433; es in, 581, WI., 2.
Peninsulas, constr. of names of, 380,

II., 2, 2).
Pentameter, 603, N. 2; dactylic, 614.
Penthemimeral caesura, p. 356, foot-
note 4.
Penthemimeris, 597, N. 2.
Penus, gend., 118, (2).
Per in compas., 170, 1; 344, 5; w.
acc., 372. Per W. acc., 433; 433, I. ;
denoting agency, 415, I., 1, N. 1 ;
manner, 419, #. N. 3. They 88, 452,
1, N. 'Position of per in adjura-
tions, 569, II., 3. in per, 579, 3.
Perceiving, constr. W. verbs of, 535, I.
Percontor w. two accs., 874, 2.
PERFECT TENSE, 197; 198. Perf. sys-
fem, 222, II. Perfect stems, 252 ft.
Perf. wanting, 262, N. 2; 272, N. 2;
233: 234, N. 2." Perf. Twº prof.
meaning, 297, I., 2. Syntax of pers.
indic., 471; subj., 481 ; in subj. of
414
IWD EY OF SUBJECTS.
desire, 483, 2; in potent, subj.,485,
N. 1; in prohibitions, 489, 3). Perf.
in seq., of tenses, 492; 493; 495;
496, II. Perf. in condition, 507,
II. ; 509 ; 511, 1 ; 511, 2, N.; 513,
N. 1. ; in concess., 515, II., 2 ; in
temp, clauses, 518, N. 1; 520, N. 1;
in indir. disc., 525, 1 ; 527, II. : 527,
III., N. 2. Perf. infin., 537. Perf.
particip., 550; rendered by verbal
noun, 549, 3, N. 2. —Is in perf. Subj.,
581, Wiii. 5. , Quant. of pen. of
dissyllabic perfects, 590. Quant. of
first two syllables of trisyllabic re-
duplicated perfects, 591.
Perhºbéor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Pericles, decl., 68.
Periculum est w. Subj., p. 274, foot-
note 3.
Period, Lat., 573. Periods of Lat.
literature, 640.
Periphrastic conjugat., 233; 234; use,
466, N.; p. 261, foot-note 4; 476, 1 ;
in condit. sentences, 511, 2. Peri-
phrast, fut. infin., 537, 3.
Peritus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
of ger., p. 315, foot-note 3.
Permisced w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Perniciósus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Person of nouns, 44; verbs, 199; in
indir. disc., 526. -
PERSONAL pron., 183, 1; 184; use, 446;
reflexive use, 448; 449. Pers. end-
ings of verbs, 247. Pers, constr. in
indir. questions, 529, 6; in pass.
voice, 534, 1.
Personification, 637, IX.
Persuading, dat. W. verbs of, 385, II.
JPerłaedet, pertaeSum éSt, constr., 410,
IV., notes 1 and 3.
Pés, Čs in compds., 581, WI., 1. Pés
as unit of measure, 648, IV.
Petó, constr., 374, 2, N. 4.
Phalaecian verse, 629, I.
Pherecratic verse, 628, II. and IV.-VI.
Phôcais, a in, p. 345, foot-note 1.
PHONETIC CHANGEs, 19 ft. Phonet.
decay, p. 12, foot-note 1.
Phrya, decl., 68.
Phy, 312, 4. -
Piget, constr., 409, III. : 410, IV.
Pāli, constr., p. 213, foot-note 3.
Pła, wants gén. plur., 133, 5; W. short
increm., p. 343, foot-note 2.
PLACE, adverbs of 305, I., II., and
III. : 305, N. 2, 1). Endings of
designations of place, 323. Constr.
W. verbs meaning to place, 380, N.
Place whither, 380; where, dat.
385, 4, 4); abi., 4%; locat, 425.
II. ; 426; whence, 412. Ajº. Of
place for Eng. adverbs, 443, N. 2.
Plautus, quantity of syllables in, 578,
N. 2; 580, III., notes 2–4; metres,
633, III.
}; dat. W. verbs of, 385, I.
Plébécula, formation, p. 159, foot-
note 1.
Plébs, quant. of increm., 585, III., 3.
Plenty, constr. W. verbs of, 410, W.;
421, II. ; 421, N. 1; W. adjS. of,
421, II.
Plénus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Pleonasm, 636, III.
PLUPERFECT, 197; 222, II. Plup.
indic.; 472; 476, 2; in seq. of tenses,
493; in temp, clauses, 518, N. 2;
521, II., 1. Plup. Subj., 482; in
subj. of desire, 483, 2; in seq., of
tenses, 493; 495, I. ; 496, II., (2);
in condit., 507, III. ; 509, N. 3;
510; 513, N. 1; in concess., 515, II.,
33 in temp., clauses, 518, 1 ; 519.2,
N. i. 5%, ii. 5; ii. 3; in indir.
§º,2; *. ii. and iii.; 537,
2
PLURAL, 44; wanting, 130. Plur.
for sing., 130, 3; 446, N. 2. Plur.
w. change of meaning, 132. — A' in
Greek plur., 581, III., 1. -/s in
fur. 55i. VIII.i.
Pºiſºmº, indef. num., 175, N. 3; gen.
of price, p. 213, foot-note 2.
Plüs, 165, N. 1; without quam, 417,
1, N. 2. Plüris, constr., p. 213,
foot-note 2; 405. Quant. of increm.
of plus, 585, V., 2.
: Poetical dat., 380,4; 385, 4; 388, 4.
Pollilac, quant. of increm, 585, V., 2
Pólypus, ºu in, 581, TX., 3, N.
Polysyndeton, 636, III., 1.
Pondó, 648, I.
Pöne w. acc.; 433.
Pömö, constr., 380,
positum, 592, 2.
Por, insep. prep., 308.
344, 6
Porºus end., 118, (1).
Portus, §§. iii. i. §
Posców. two accs., 374, 2.
Position, syllables when long by, p.
338, foot-note 3.
Positive, 160; wanting, 166. Pos. for
compar., 444, 2, N. 3.
PoSSESSIVE pronouns, 185; W. gen.,
363, 4, 1): 398, 3; for gen. , 396, II.,
N. : 401, N. 3; w.réfert and interest,
408, I., 2. Use of poss, pron., 447;
reflex,448;449. Possessive compds.,
343, iii. Fossessive gen. , 396, I.
N. O in posuº,
Por for port,
IND EY OF SUBJECTS. 415
Possessor, dat. of 387.
JPossum, in conclus., 511, 1, N. 2; w.
pres. infin., 537, 1. '
Jost in compás., 344, 5; w; dat., 386.
Post, denoting interval of time, 430.
Post W. acc., 433; 433, I.
Post-classical period, 640, III.
Posted, 304, IV., N. 2; in series, 554,
I., N. 4.
Hºn. 811, 1 ; in temp. clauses,
518.
Jºosterus, compar., 163, 3.
Post2018, 2 in, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Postis, deci, 62, IV.
Postmodum, 304, I., 2.
Postpositive, 554, III., 4: 554, W., 3.
Postguam in temp. &lauses, 518; w.
perf indic., p. 260, foot-note 2.
Poströmö in séries, 554, I., N. 2.
PoStrémus, force of 440, N. 2: 442, N.
PoStridić w.gen., 398, 5; w. acc., 437,
1. Post/?dić quam in temp. clauses,
518, N. 3. % in poströdöé, p. 341,
foot-note 2.
Postulò, constr., 374, 2; p. 274, foot-
notC 1.
Potens W. gen, p. 210, foot-note 3.
Potential subj., 485; 486; in declar.
Sentences, 486, I.; in interrog. sen-
tences, 486, II. ; in subord. clauses,
2 ------
Potºor w. gen., 410, W., 3; W. abl.,
421, I: ; w. acc., 421, N. 4; in
gerund. constr., 544, N. 5.
Połus W. act. meaning, 257, N. 2.
Prae in compás., 170, 1; w. dat., 386.
Prae W. abl., 434; 434, I. Quant.
of prae in compds., 576, I., 1; 594, 4.
Praecipió, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1.
Praecox, quant. of increm., 585, II., 3.
Aºraécºrró, constr., p. 202, foot-noté 1.
Praeditus, constr., 4:20, N. 1; 4).
Praenºmen, 649; abbreviated, 649, 1.
Praesente w, plur., 438, 6, N.
Praestà, praestolor, cónstr., p. 202,
foot-note 1.
Praeter in compds. w. acc., 372. Prae-
ter. W. age., 433; 433, I.
Praetered in series, 554, I., N. 2.
Praeut, 311, 2.
PREDICATE, 356, 2; simple, 360; com-
plex, 361; modified, 361, 1. Pred.
nouns, 360, N. 1; 362; for dat.,
390, N. 2. Pred. adjs., 360, N. 1;
438, 2. Pred. acc., 373, 1. Pred.
gºn, 401 ff.; variatios, 402; Werbs
with, 403 ff.; pred. gen. of price,
404; 405. , Pred. abl., 421, N.
4. Pred after infin. 533, 2, infin.
as pred., 539, I. Predicates com—
pºd, 535, I., 6. Position of pred.,
Predicative roots, 314, I.
PREPOSITIONs, 307; insep., 308; in
compds., 344, 5 and 6. Compás.
W. acc., 372; w. two accs., 376; w.
dat., 386. Preps. in expressions of
time, 379, 1; 429, 1 and 2; 430;
Of place, 380; 412; 425; of motion
or direction, 384, 3, 1); denoting
Jºor, 384, 3, 3); of agency, 388, 2.
Preps. after adjs., 391, II., 1 and 3.
Prep, with obj, for obj. gen., 396,
III., N. 1 ; for part. gen., 397, 3, N.
3; for gen. W. adjS., 400, 2 and 3;
for gen, after verbs, 407, N. 2; 410,
I., 2; 410, II., 3; after º and ºn-
terest, 408, I., 3; 408, IV. ; express-
ing penalty, 410, III. ; Separation,
Source, cause, 413 ; 414, N. 1. ; 415;
416, I. ; after compar., 417, notes 3
and 5; denoting accompaniment,
419, I. ; manner, 419, III. Cases
W. prepS., 432 ft. ; acc., 433; abl.,
434; acc. or abl., 435. Special uses
of prepS., 433, I.; 434, I. : 435,
I. Prêps. originally adverbs, 436.
Adverbs as props., 437. Preps w.
infin., 533, 3, N. 4; W. ger., 542,
fii. 542, iv., (2)”; w.”gerund.
constr., 544, 2. Prep. between adj.
and noun, 565, 3. Position of
prepS., 569, II. Quant. Of insep.
prepS., 594, 2. Monosyllabic preps.
repeated, 636, III., 6; other prepS.,
§. iii. 8. §
Presbyter, aël. B1, 4, 3).
PRESENT, 197; 198, I., 1; 222, I.
Pres, stem, 250; 251. Pres. indic.
466; 467; of gen, truths, customs,
467, II. Hist. pres., 467, III. ; in
temp. clauses, 518, N. 1. Pres.
subj., 479 ; in condit., 507, II. ;
509', '513, N. i ; in concess. 515,
II., 2; in indir. disc., 525, 1 ; 527,
II. Pres. imperat., 487, 1. Pres.
infin., 537. Tºres, particip., 550.
Pres. perf., 197, N. 1; 198, I., 2 ;
471, I. Pres. System, 222, I. ºf;
in pres. Subj., 581, viii. 4.
Priapeian verse, 629, II.
Price, gen. of, 404; 405; abl., 422.
Pridie, locat., 120, N.; W. gen., 398,
5; w. acc., 437, 1. Prºdă quam.
in temp. clauses, 520, N. 2. E' in
pričić, p. 241, ſoul-Lule 2.
Primary stems, 315; 317. Prim.
suffixes, p. 153, foot-note 6; 320.
Primum, primó, in series, 554, I., N. 2.
Princeps, decl., 57.
416 IVDEX OF
SUBJECTS.
PRINCIPAL parts of verbs, 202; 220;
257–288. Prin, clauses, 348, N.
2; in indir. disc., 523 ; supplied
by particip., 549, 5. Prin. tenses,
198, I. ; in seq., 491 ff. Prin. ele-
ments of sentence, 357, 1.
Prior, primus, 166; rendered by relat.
clause, 442, N.; by adverb, 443, N.
9
1, (2).
Pºusºuam, 311, 1 ; in temp. clauses,
20
Privă, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Pró, 312, 3; in hiatus, 608, II., 1.
Pró, prād, in compas., 344, 5 ; prá in,
594, 5. Compds. W. dat., 386.
Prö we abl., 434; 434, I. ; expressing
in defence of, in behalf of, 384, 3, 2).
Prów. ger., p. 816, foot-hote 1.
Proceleusmatics, 633, III., 2, N. 1.
Proclitics, 18, 1, N. 1.
Pºliº without Superlat., 168, 3 ;
w. Supine, 547, 1.
Proqui w abi., 437, 2.
Pröd in compis. 344, 5.
Prohibed, constr., p. 310, foot-note 1.
Prohibássó for prohibuerò, 240, 4.
Prohibitions, subj. in, 484, IV., w.
N. 1; imperat., 487, 2, 2).
Proënde, 310, 4.
Prolepsis, 440, 2; 636, IV., 3.
Pronominal roots, 314, II.
PRONouns, 182 f.; pers., 183, 1; 184;
substant., p. 70, foot-note 3; case-
endings, 184, 1 ; possess., 185; de-
mon., 186; relat., 187 ; interrog.,
188; indef., 189; 190 ; correlat.,
191. Prons. as adjs., 438, 1. Agree-
ment of pron., 445. Use of pers.
pron., 446; possess., 447 ff.: reflex.,
448; 449; demon., 450 ft.; relat.,
453; interrog., 454; indef, 455 ft.
Pron. in indir. disc., 526. Prons.
brought together, 569, I., 2. Pron.
redundant, 636, III., 7.
Pronunciation of Latin, Roman, 5 ft. ;
Eng., 9 ft. ; Continental, 15.
Prope w. acc., 433; 433, 7. w. perf.
indic., 471, 2; w. hist. tenses of in-
die., 511, 1, N. 4.
Proper nouns, 39, 1 ; plur. of, 130, 2.
Propinquus without superlat., 168, 3;
constr., p. 205, foot-notes 1 and 3.
Propior, proximus, 166; w. acc., 391,
2; 433, I., N. 2; W. force of Eng.
adverb, 443, N. 1.
Propius w. acc., 437, 1; 433, I., N. 2.
Proportionals, 173, 2.
Proprius, constr., p. 205, foot-notes 1
and 3
Propter w. acc., 433 ; 433, I.
Proptered, 554, IV., 2.
PRosopy, 574 ft. ; quant., 575 ff.:
versification, 596 ft.; figures of pros.,
608.
Prosopopeia, 637, IX.
Prósper, decl., 150, N., 1).
Próspició, constr., 385, 1.
Prółżnus, p. 145, foot-note 5.
Prout, 311, 2.
Próvideó, constr., 385, I.
Jºrovidus, compar., 164; W. gon., p.
210, foot-note 3.
Próximé W. acc., 433, I., N. 2; 437, 1.
Próximus, see propior.
Priºdëns, decl., 157; w. gen., p. 210,
foot-note 3; w. force of Eng. ad-
verb, 443, N. 1, (1).
–pte, pronouns in, 185, N. 2.
udet, constr., 409, III. ; 410, IV.
Pudicus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Puer, decl., 51.
Pugmö W. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Puppis, decl., 62, III.
PURPOSE, dat. of, 384, 1, 3); subj. of,
497 ff.: object clauses, 498; peculi-
arities, 499. Infin. of purpose, 533,
II. : gerund, 542, I., N. 2; 542,
III., N. 2; gerundive, 544, 2, N.
2; supine, 546; particip., 549, 3.
Position of clauses of purpose, 572,
III., N.
Pās, defect, 138, N.
—pus, compás. in, quant. Of increm.,
585, II., 5, (3).
Puta, a in, 581, III., 3.
Putor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Pyrités, decl., 50.
Pyrrhic, 597, N. 1.
Pythiambic stanza, 631, XVII. and
XVIII.
Q
Q, qu, dropped, 36, 3.
o c, 33, 1, N.
Quà, 304, II., 3; 305, V.
Quaeró, constr., p. 193, foot-note 1.
Quălis, quáliseum?ue, 187, 4. Căjus-
nodi, etc., for quâlis, 187, 4, N.
Quălis, interrog., 188, 4.
Quâlîslibet, 191.
Quălisquélès, 187, 4. -
Quality, abl. of 419, IF., w. N.
Quam, p. 75, foot-note 1 ; 304, I., 4:
305, W.; p. 151, foot-note 1 ; 311,
2; W. Comparat., 417 ; 444, 2; W.
Superlat., 170, 2, (2); w. infin. 524,
1, 2). Quam for postguam, 430, N.
1, 3). Quam pré, 417, , 1, N. 5.
Quam, quam ut, W. Subj., 502, 2.
Quam ºwl, W. Subj., 503, II., 8.
Qw changed

INDEX OF
AC UBJECTS. ) 41?
Quam 87, 513, II. Tam—quam,
^ön mänu8 — quam, nón magis—
quam, 555, II., 1. Vìhìl aliud
quam, 555, III., 1.
Quamdiù, 311, 1.
Quamobrem, 554, IV., 2.
Quamquam, p. 75, foot-note 1; 311,
4; in concess., 515, I. ; 515, notes 1
and 2; W. infin., 524, 1, 2).
Quamvìs, 811, 4; in concess., 515, III.;
515, N. 3.
Quandò, interrog., 305, IV. ; relat.,
311, 1 and 7; in causal clauses,
516. _ Quandó in compds., 594, 8.
Quandöquidem, 311, 7 ; ö in, 594, 8.
QUANTITY, 16; 575 ff. ; signs of, 16,
N. 3; gen. I rules, 576 Quant.
in final syllables, 579 ff. ; incre-
ments, 582 ff. ; deriv. endings, 587;
stem -syllables, 588 ff. ; syllables
before two consonants or a double
consonant, 651.
Quantumlibet, quantumvìs, 811, 4.
Quantumvìs iri concess., 515, iN'. 6.
Quantu8, relat., 187, 4; interrog., 188,
4; correlat., 191. Quantò, constr.,
p. 213, foot-note 2; 405.
Quantusvìs, indef., 191.
Quâpropter, 554, iV, 2.
Quáré, 804, II., 1, N. ; 554, IV., 2; è
in, p. 341, foot-note 2.
Quasi, 311, 2; W. quìdam, 456, 2; in
ôôáiíTÉÍ3, ff. *7ifi jùaî, §§1, f.,
1 ; α in, 594, 10.
Quâvîs, indef., 805, V.
Que, 810, 1; p. 151, foot-note 1 ; 554,
I. Idem—que, 451, 5. Que—que,
et—que, que—et, que—atque, neque
(nec)—qùe, 554, II, 5. Position of
que, 569, III., 4. Que lengthened
in Vergil, 608, V., N. 2.
Quercu8,Tdecl., 119, 4.
Queror W. infin., p. 310, foot-note 2.
Qgjgning, constr. W. verbs of, 874,
3 -
QUESTIONS, 351; double, 353; delibe-
rat. in indir. dise., 523, II., 1, N. ;
rhetor., p. 297, foöt-note 2; indir.,
528, 2 ; 529, I.
Quę, relat. pron., 187; 453; interrog.,
188; 454; indef., 189; 190; 455;
correlat., 191. Qu® W. subj. öf pur-
pose, 497, I. ; of result, 500, I. ; 503.
Quî in condit., 507, 2; concess., 515,
III. ; 515, N. 4; causâ] clauses, 517.
@τιί dicitatae, φρόδέαρ, 458, 7. Quvw
as adverb. acc., 353, 6. ' Quod in
restrict. clauses, 503, N. 1. 7 in
ouę, 581, I., 1.
Quî, adverb, 187, 1; 188, 2.
(^
Quia, 311, 7; in causal clauses, 516;
y. relat., 517, 8, 2); W. infin., 524,
1, 2). A in quia, 581, III., 8.
Quîcumque, geh. Féìáí, 187, 3.
Quîdam, indef., 190, 2, 1); 191; use,
456.
Quódem, W. pron., 446, N. 1 ;
535, iii.';*ÉÉÉÍíí'8.
Quóès, quant. of imcrém., 585, III., 8,
Quìlìbet, gen. indef., 190, 2, 2); use,
458
position,
Quón, p. 75, foot-note 2; 811, 6; W.
subj., 500, II. ; 501, II., 2; 504.
Quînam, 188, 3.
Quinarius, 646.
Quìnquátrù8, gend., 118, (2).
Quìppe, p. 75, foot-note 2; W. relat.,
5 • 5 •
Quìrìs, quant. ofincrem., 585, IV., 2.
Quãs, interrog., 188; use, 454; indef.,
189; 190; üse, 455; correlat., 191.
I in quìs, 579, 3. A in qua, in-
j£ ? 9, 8. Quôd redundant, 636,
II
• * • •
Quìs for quíbus, p. 74, foot-note 5.
Quęsnam, 188, 3.
Quíspiam, indef., 190, 2, }; use, 455.
Quisquamn, indef., 190, 2, 1); use, 457.
Quisque, gen. indef., 190, 2, 2); use,
458; W. abl. abs., 431 Í 8; W.
plur. verb, 461, 8. Èiáóèd hexi,
suu8 or 8wì, 569, I., 2.
Quisquis, gen, rélat., 187, 8. Quôd-
quôd used of persons, 453, 1, N.
Quótum, â in, 590, 1.
QuZvìs, gen. indef., 190, 2, 2); use,
458; 7$ in, 581, VIII., 3, N.
Qú, 307, ff.,3, N. § 3ö5, jf. § 811, 5;
vv. part. gén., p. 209, [foot-note 8;
w. Subj. 6f purpose, 497, II.
Quoad, 311, 1 ; W. part. gen., p. 209,
foot-note 3; in temp. clauses, 519.
Quóeíreà, 554, IV., 2.
Quócumque, 805, N. 1.
Quod, p. 151, foot-note 1; 311, 7; in
causal clauses, 5f6.-
Quod-clauses, 540, IV., W. N. Wísâ
quod, 555, III., 1. See also qτιά.
Qùoè för cui, quóìu8 for cûjus, p. 74,
foot-note 5.
Quólibet, 805, II.
Quom, 305, IV. ; p. 151, foot-notes 1
and 4; 311, 1, 4, and 7.
Quömänus, 311, 5; W. subj., 497, II. ;
499, 8, N. 2.
{9uUn'}u), eompOSltlOn, p. 6, foot-note
5; 811, 7; in causalTclauses, 516;
W. relat., 517, 8, 2).
Quoqve, 810, 1 ; 554, I., 4; position,
569, ?Ti. ; o in, 594, 10.


4.18
IWD EX OF SUBJECTS.

Quâquð, 305, N. 1.
Quorsum, 305, II.
Quot, relat., 187, 4; interrog., 188, 4;
correlat., 191.
Quotannis, 304, II., 1, N.
Quotiëns, 305, IV.
Quotus, relat., 187,4; interrog., 188, 4.
Quăvăs, 305, II.
Quum, 305, IV. ; see cum.
R
R assimilated to l, 34, 2; dropped, 36,
3, N. 3. Noun-stems in r, 60; verb-
stems in supine, 256, 1. Decl. of
nouns in r, 77. Quant. of final syl-
lables in r, 580, II., w. N. 2.
—ra, -rá, suffixes, 320.
Jºãdiæ, decl., 59.
Jāstrum, plur., 143, 2.
Ičačić, circumlocutions w. , 636, III.,
10.
Iſatum, a in, 590, 1.
Jºãºis, decl., 62, iſ. 1.
Jée, insep. prep., 308; in compds.,
344,6; e in, 594, 2. Ré for re, 594,
3. N. 3.
—re for ris, 237.
Reading, rhythmical, 607.
Jºeāpse, p. 73, foot-note 5.
Reason, clauses expressing, 516.
Recollection, adjs. of, w. gen., 399, I.,
2; gen. Of ger., p. 315, foot-note 2.
Jºecordor w. gen., 406, II. ; w. acc.,
º N. 1, (1); W. abl. W. dé, 407,
... 2
Recisi, constr., p. 279, foot-note 2.
Ited, insep. prep., 308; in compõls.,
344, 6
} Y -
Reduplicated pronouns, 184, 4; per-
fects, 255, I. Quant. of first two
syllables of trisyllabic reduplicated
perfects, 591. Increm. of redupli-
cated forms of verbs, 586, 2.
Teduplication in pres., 251, 6; perf.,
255, I. ; compds., 255, I., 4.
Jºſert, constr., 406, III. ; 408.
Jºëfertus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Réflexive pron., 184, 2. Reflex. use
of pron., 448; 449.
Refusing, constr. W. verbs of, 505, II.
Regarding, verbs of w. two accs., 373;
W. two dats, 390, N. 1, 2); W. gen.,
403.
Regnów. gen., 410, W., 3.
RELATIVE PRONoUN, 187 ; correlat.,
191; use, 453. Abl. of relat, for
postguam, 430, N. 2. Relat. at-
tracted, 445, 8. Relat. clause w.
subj. of desire, 483, 5; purpose, 497,
I. : result, 500, I. : 503; to charac-
terize indef, or gen. anteced., 503,
I. ; after &nus, Sölus, etc., 503, II.,
1; after diffnus, indignus, idºneus,
aptus, 503, II., 2; after comparat.
W. Quam, 503, II., 3. Relat. clause
in condit., 507, 2; concess., 515,
III., W. N. 4; causal clause, 517.
Relat, clause w. infinit., 524, 1, 1);
supplied by particip., 549, 4. Posil
tion of relat., 569, #. ; before prep.,
569, II., 1. Position of relat. clauses,
572, II., N.
Jºelaſcó, relevó, w. abl., p. 219, foot-
note 1.
Relieving, constr. W. verbs of, 414, 1.
Jºelinquðw. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Réligiºus, meaning, 440, |N. 2. Tº-
quifacéré, 401, N. 3.
Remaining, constr. W. verbs of, 501,
I... 1.
Remembering, constr. W. verbs of, 407.
Reminding, constr. W. verbs of, 409,
i. ſſio, i.
Reminiscor w. gen., 406, II.
Repeated action denoted by imperf.
indic., 469, II. ; plup. indic. , 518,
N. 2, 2); imperf or plup, subj.,
518, 1.
Repelling, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 2.
Jºepentinus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 5.
Reposcow, two accs., 374, 2.
Fequiés, decl., 137, 1; quant. of ill-
Grem, 585, iii., 3.
Jºes, decl., 120; w. adjs., 440, N. 4.
Circumlocutions w. rés, 636, III., 10.
Resisting, dat. W. verbs of, 385, I.
JæSpüblica, decl., 126.
JRestat w. subj., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Restis, decl., 62, III.
Restrictive clauses w. quod, 503, N. 1.
RESULT, subj. of, 500 ft. ; substant.
clausés of 501; peculiarities, 502;
in relat., clauses, 503; W. Quºn, 504;
w. special verbs, 505. Position of
clauses of result, 572, III., N.
Réte, decl., 63, 2, (2).
Retićentia, 636, I., 3; 637, XI., 3.
Rég, decl., 59; quant. of increm., 585,
Rhia, ein, 577, I., 2, (3).
Rhetoric, figures of, 634, N. ; 637.
Rhetorical questions, 523, II., 2.
Rhythm, caesura of, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Rhythmic accent, 599. -
Rhythmical reading, 607.
Rideð w acc., 371, III., N. 1.
Rivers, gend. of names of, 42, I., 2 :
43, 1.
—ro, suffix, 320, II.
IND EY OF
SUBJECTS. 419
Rogó w. two accs., 374, 2; w. Subj.,
p. 274, foot-note 1.
Röma, decl., 48, 4.
Roman pronunciation of Lat., 5 ft.
Roman authors, 640. Roman calen-
dar, 641 ff. ; money, weights, and
measures, 646 ft. ; names, 649.
Roots, 314. Root-stems, 315.
Jöös without gen. plur., 183, 5.
Röstrum, röstra, 132.
—rs, décl. of nouns in, 65, 3, (1); 90.
fºw. gen., p. 210, foot- note 3.
Rules of syntax, 558.
Jºãs, decl., 64, N. 3 ; 133, N. ; constr.,
380, 2, 1). Rüre, 412, 1. Rūrī,
426, 2.
—rus, compar. of adjS. in, 163, 3.
Jęutum, quant. of pen., 590, 1.
• S
S, Sound, 7 ; 13, II. ; changed to r,
31 ; dropped, 36, 3, N. 3; 36, 5, 1).
Stems in s, 61. Decl. of nouns in s,
64; 65, 3; 79 ft. ; quant. of increm.,
585, I., 2; 585, II., 2. Final sylla-
biešin's short befºre following con-
sonant, 576, 1, N. 2. Finals dropped
in poetry, 608, I., N. 3.
—s, patronymics in, 322.
-så, suffix, 320, II.
Sacer, compar., 167, 2; W. gen., p.
205, foot-note 3.
Saépé, compar., 306, 4, sº
Sāl, decl., 133, 5. Sál, Sălăs, 132. A
in Sãº, 579, 2; quant. Of increm.,
585, I., 4, (3).
Salia, w, short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2. -
Saliber, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
Salātāris without superlat., 168, 3;
w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Samnis, quant. of increm., 585, IV., 2.
sº guam as adverb. phrase, 305,
Sapið w. acc., 371, III., N. 1.
Sapphic verse, 604, N. 1; 628, VI.
and VII. Sapphic stanza, 631, II.
and III.
Satis, compar., 306, 4; w. part. gen.,
p. 209, foot-note 3; &ºi. W. dat.,
384, 4, N. 1.
Satum, a in, 590, 1.
Satur, decl., 150, N., 2).
sº constr. W. verbs of, 534, 1, N.
7 2. He
Scanning, 607, N.
Scazon, p. 361, foot-note 1.
Scélus w; supine, 547, 1.
Scidi, i in, 590, 1.
Sočgns w. force of Eng. adverb, 443,
1. (1
N. 1, (1).
Scălăceş, 304, IV., N. 2.
-scă, inceptives in, 337.
Sé, insep. prep., 308; in compds., 344,
6 : é in e
Second dedi..'51 ff. Sec. conj., 207;
208; 225; 261 ff.; 3 in imperat., 581,
IV., 3. Sec. pers. sing. Of indef.
$you, 484, IV., R. 2.
Secondary tensés, 198, II. Secondary
stems, 315; 318. Śecond. suffixes,
p. 154, foot-note 4.
Secundum w. acc., 433; 433, I.
Secăris, decl., 62, III.
Secus, “sex,” defect., 134. Secus,
$otherwise,’ p. 145, foot-note 5.
Sed for Sé, 184, 5. Sad, insep. prep.;
308; in compds, 344, 6.
Sed, 310, 3; 554, III., 2. Wön Sölum.
(nún modo or nôn tantum)—sed
étéam, 554, I., 5. Sed, Sed tamen,
resumptive, 554, IV., 3. Position
of Sed in poetry, 569, iii., N. -
Sédés, gen, plur., p. 36, foot-note 4.
Sedtamen, 554, i’ſ .., 8.
Seeming, pred. gen, w. verbs of, 403.
Selling, gen. w. verbs of, 405.
Semel, p. 145, foot-note 4.
Sémentºs, decl., 62, III.
sºponents, 268, 3; 283 ; 465,
2
Sămăneſc, defect., 159, II.
Semi-vowels, 3, ii. 1.
Senarius, 603, N. 6; 622.
Senátus, decl., 119, 3.
Sending, two dats. W. verbs of 390,
• *-* - / .
Seneca, metres, 633, II., notes 2 and 3.
Senea, decl., 66; compar., 168, 4.
SENTENCEs, º 345 ft. ; classifica-
tion, 345 ft. ; simple, -847; 357 ;
complex, 348; 359; compound, 349;
declarat., 350; in indir, disc., 523,
I. ; imperat., 354. See also Exclama-
tory, Interrogative, Conditional.
SEPARATION, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 4,
2). Abl. of separat., 413 ; 414.
Separat. producing emphasis, 561,
II
Sépse for Sé, 184, 5.
SEQUENCE OF Tesses, 491 ff. ; pecu-
liarities, 495.
Sequitur w. Subj., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Series, how begun and continued, 554,
... N. 2.
Series, defect., 122, 2.
Serving, dat. w. verbs of, 385, I.
Servus, decl., 51.
Sascenti used indefinitely, 174, 4.
420
IWD EX OF SUBJECTS,
Såså for Sé, 184, 4.
Sesterces, 647.
stºrium, sestertium, 647, III. and
Sestertius, 646; 64.
sº quë Sétius for quominus, 497,
2
7 - " -
Sew, 310, 2.
Ships, gend, of names of, 53, i, (2).
Short syllables, 575,
Shortening of vowels, 21.
Showing, two accs. w. verbs of, 373.
Sī, derivat. and meaning, p. 73, foot-
note 2; 311, 8; p. 281, foot-note 2;
in condit., 507 ff. ; w. perf indic.,
471, 5; w. plup, indic., 472, 2; w.
subj. of desire, 483, 1. Sì in con-
cess., 515, II. Sī = to see whether,
529, 1, N. 1. Si quidem, 507, 3, N. 2.
-si, suffix, 320, II. -Si in Greek dats.,
68, 5 ; £ in, 581, I., 1.
Sic, p. 73, foot-note 2; 304, III., 2;
305, W.; , 551, N. 2; redundant,
636, III., 7.
Sicut, sicuti, 311, 2.
Siem for Sim, 204, 2.
-silis, adjs. in, 333.
Silver age, 640, II., 2.
Silvester, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
-sim in perf. Subj., 240, 4 ; in ad-
verbs, 804, I., 1.
—simä, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 9.
Simile, 637, I.
Similis, compar., 163, 2; W. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1: W. gen., p. 205,
foot-note 3.
—simo, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 9.
Simple sentence, 347; 357. Simp. ele-
ments, 357, 2; subject, 358; pred.,
360. simple words, 313, N. 2.
Simul, p. 145, foot-note 4; 311, 1 ; W.
abl., 437, 2. Simul atque, àe, in
temp. clauses, 518; W. perf indic.,
471. 4.
Simulic, simulatgue, 311, 1 ; in temp.
clauses, 518; w. perf indic., 471, 4.
Sîn, 311, 3; in condit., 507 ff.: p.
282, foot-note 1. Sin aliter, 552, 8.
—sin in Greek dat. plur., 68, 5.
Sine w. abl., 434.
Singular, 44; wanting, 131.
Sinistrā, constr., 425, 2. -
Simó, constr., p. 310, foot-note 1. I in
Situm, 590, 1.
Siquidem, 311, 7 ; 507, 3, N. 2; quant.
of first syllab., 594, 10.
Sãow acº. 37.i, iſſ., N. 1.
Sītis, deci., §2, ii., i.
Sive, 310,3; #54, ii., 3.
Size, gen, of 419, 2, 1).
Skill, gen. W. adjs, of 399, I., 2; gen.
of ger., p. 315, foot-note 2.
Smell, acc. W. verbs of, 371, IFI.
—so, suffix, 320, II. Sö in fut. perf.,
240. 4
2 --
Socer, decl., 51, 4, 3).
Socłów, dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Sól, decl., 60 ; 133, 5; 6 in, 579, 2.
Sölum, mān Sölum—sed etiam (vérum
etiam), 554, I., 5.
Sölus, decl., 151; for Eng. adverb,
443, N. 1, 2. Gen. of sālus W. pos-
sess., 398, 3. Sölus qu’i W. Subj.,
503, II., 1.
Solvö, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
‘Son,” apparent ellipsis of 398, 1, N.
2. Name of adopted son, 649, 3.
Sonants, 3, II., 5, 1; 3, N. 1; II., 1.
Söns, defect., 159, II.
-sórius, 5 in, 587, III., 4. '
Sors, abl., 64, N. 3.
Sotadean verse, 626, N. 2.
Source, abl. of 413 ; 415.
Space, acc. of 379.
Sparing, dat. W. verbs of, 385, II.
Special constr. W. infin., 539. Gen.
in spec. constr., 398.
Speciés, decl., 122, 2.
Specification, acc. of 378; abl., 424.
Specimen without plur., 130, 1, 4).
Specus, decl., 117, 1, 2); p. 50, foot-
note 1; gend., 118, (2).
Speech, parts of, 38.
speech, 634 ft.
Spés, decl., 122, 2.
Sphina, decl., p. 38, foot-note 3.
Spirants, 3, ii. 4, 2.
Spolić, constf., p. 219, foot-note I.
Spondaic line, 610, 3.
Spondee, 597, I.
Square measure, Rom., 648, W.
Stadium, 648, IV., N
Stanza, 606. Stanzas of Horace, 631.
Statuo, constr., 498, I., N. ; p. 274,
foot-note 1.
STEM in decl., 46. Stem-characteris-
tic, stem-ending, 46, 3. Stem in
Decl. I., 48, 1 ; Dech. II., 51, 1 ;
icci. ſſi., 5}, i'; 55, is 53, iſ: 60
i; 6i, i.”62,1;'64, i, i.); 6%, iſ and
3: 69–93; i3eci.iv., ii.6, ſº Dec.
V., 120, 1. Stems of verbs, 202,
notes 1 and 2; 203, N. 2; formation
of, 249 f. , Stems of words, 315 ff.
Stem-syllables, quant., 588 ft. ; va-
riation in, 593, 1. Primitives w.
long stem’syfiables, 595.
Steriſis w. gen., p. 219, foot-note 4.
Stºrpe, constr., 415, II., N. . .
Stiff, i in, 590, 1.
Figures of
INDEX OF
SUBJECTS. 421
Stö w. abl., p. 226, foot-note 1, E in
Steff, a in statum, 590, 1.
Strigălis, decl., 62, III.
Striving, constr. W. verbs of 498, II.
Strža, w, short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
Strong caesura, p. 356, foot-note 4.
Strućs, decl., p. 36, foot-note 4.
Studed, constr., 498, II., N. 1 ; p. 274,
foot-note 2.
Studiósus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
w. gen. of #. p. 315, foot-note 2.
Sub in compas., 344, 5; W. dat., 386.
Sub w. acc. or abl., 435; 435, N. 1;
435, I.
SUBJECT, 356, 1; simple, 358; com-
plex, 359; modified, 359, N. 1. Subj.
nom., 368. Subj. indef, 518, 2.
Subj. acc., 536. Infin. as subj.,
538. Subject clauses, 501, I. Sub-
jects compared, 535, 5. Dat. W.
adjs. signifying subject, 391, I. Posi-
tion of subj., 560.
Subjective gén., 396, II.
SUBJUNCTIVE, 196, II. Syntax of subj.,
477 ff.: tenses, 478, ff.: sequence,
490 ft. Subj. in prin. clauses, 483
ff.; in subord. clauses, 490 ft. Šubj.
of desire, 483; 484;. potent., 485;
486; of purpose, 497 ff.; of result,
500 ft. ; in condit., 507 ff.: in con-
cess., 515; in causal clauses, 516;
517; in temp. clauses, 519 #. in
indir. disc., 523 ff.: in indir. clauses,
529 ft. ; in indir. questions, 529, I.
Subic in questions of surprise, 486,
II., N. Šubj. of desire for imperat.,
487, 4. Siſsin subj., 581, VIII., 4;
-às, 581, VIII., 5.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSEs, 348, N. 2; 490
ff. ;, in indir. disc., 524. Subord.
conjs., 311 ; 555; elements, 357, 1 ;
osition, 572.
Substantive pron., p. 70, foot-note 3.
Substant. clauses, 532 ft. ; 540 ; of
purpose, 499, 3; of result, 501. Sub-
stantives, see Wowns. ---.
Subter w. acc. or abl., 435.
Suffixes, 46; case-suffix, 46, 1. Suf-
fixes in format. of words, 313 ff.
Primary suffixes, 320.
Sui, decl., 184; use, 448; 449; placed
next quisqué, 569, I., 2. Y in Söbá,
581, I., 2.
Suitableness, constr. W. adjs. of 391,
I. ; 391, II., 1, 2).
Sum w.dat, 387: two dats, 390, N.
1, 1); pred. gen., 403; 404; abl.,
415, III., N. 1; p. 226, foot-note 1.
Summus, meaning, 440, 'N, 2.
Supellew, decl., 64, N. 3; 130, 1, 4).
Sºſper in compas. W. acc., 372; dat.,
386; abl., 434, N. 1. Super w, acc.
or abſ., 435,735, N. 2; 435, i.
SUPERLATIVE, 160; irreg., 163; Want-
ing, 168; 169; formed by maa'imé,
170. Superlat. W. part. gen., 397,
3; i. 209, foot-note 3. Use of su-
perlat., 444.
Superne, e final in, 581, IV., 4.
Supérus, compar., 163, 3.
SUPINE, 200, III. ; endings, 248. Su-
pine system, 222, III. Supine stem,
256. Supine wanting, 262, notes 1
and 2; 265; 266; 267, 3; 271, 1 and
2; 272, 1 ; 272, notes 1 and 2; 276;
278; 281; 282; 284; 284, N. 2. Su-
pine in seq. of tenses, 495, IV. Use
of Sup., 545 ft. ; sup. in wºm, 545;
546; w.ed, 546, 2; w, iri, 546, 3;
Sup, in it, 545; 547. Quant. of pen.
Of dissyfiabic supines, 590.
Suprā w. acc., 433; 433, I.
Suprêmºus, meaning, 440, N. 2. -
Surds, 3, ii. 5, 2; 8, N. 1; II., 2.
—surió, desideratives in, 338.
Surname in names of Roman citizens,
649. 2.
Süs, deci., 66.
Suus, 185; .448; 449; placed near
wisque, 569, I, 2.
Syllabic caesura, p. 356, foot-note 4.
Syllables, 8; 14; 15, 3; quant., 575
ff. Final syl. of verse either long
or short, 605.
Syllepsis, 636, II., 2.
Symbols, num., 180.
Synaeresis, 608, III.
Synaloepha, synapheia, 608, I., N. 5.
Syncopated pron., 186, 3.
syncope, 605, vii.; 685. 2.
Synecdoche, 637, IV.
Synesis, 636, IV., 4; 363, 4; 438, 6;
445, 5; 449, 3; 461.
Synizesis, 608, III., N. 3.
Synopsis of Dęci.iii., 85–98. Syn. of
conj., 223–230.
* * SYNTAx, 345 ff.: sentences, 345 f.;
nouns, 362 ft. ; adjs., 438 ft. ; prons.,
445 ft.; verbs, 460 ft. ; particles, 551
ff. Rules of syntax, 558. Arrang.
of words and clauses, 559 ft. Figures
of syntax, 634, N.; 636.
Systole, 608, VI.
T
T, sound, 7; 13, II. T changed to
d, 33, 2; assimilated to 77 or 8, 34,
1; dropped before s, 36, 2; when
422
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
final, 36, 5, 2). Stems in #, 58.
Gend, of nouns in #, 111. T
changed to S in Supine, 256, 1.
Quant. of final syllables in t, 579,
2; 580, II. ; 580, III., N. 2, 1).
-ta, -tá, suffixes, 320. Nouns in -ta,
Ç
Taedet, constr., 409, III. ; 410, IV.
Taking away, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 2.
Tālis, 186, 4; correlat., 191.
Talpa, gend., 48, 5.
Tam, p. 75, foot-note 1; 304, I., 4;
305, W.; meaning and use, 551, N.
2. Tam—gwam, 555, II., 1.
Tamen, 310, 3; 554, III., 2; compds.,
554, III., 3.
Tametsi, 311, 4 ; in concess., 515, II.
Tandem in questions, 351, 4.
Tanquam, 311, 2. Tanquam, tan-
quam Si, in condit., 513, II.
Tantisper, 304, V., N. 2.
Tantopere, meaning and use, 551, N. 2.
Zantum abest ut, 502, 3. Non tan-
in-la etiam (vérum etiam), 554,
Tantus, demonstr., 186, 4; correlat.,
191 ; w. interrog., 454, 4. Tanff,
constr., p. 215, foot-note 2; 405.
Tantum abest ut, 502, 3.
-tar, suffix, 320, I.
—tās, nouns in, 325.
Taste, acc. w. verbs of 371, III.
-tät, suffix, p. 157, foot-note 9.
Tautology discriminated from pleo-
nasm, p. 371, foot-note 1.
Taſcis for tetigerås, 240, 4.
Teaching, two accs. W. verbs of 374.
Ted for té, 184, 5.
Tempero, constr., 385, 1.
Templum, decl., 51.
Temporal conjS., 311, 1 ;
º clauses, 518 ft. ;
572, II., N.
Tempus est w. infin., 533, N. 3.
Tener, decl., 150, N., łł
TENSEs, 197; prin. and histor., 198.
Tensé-signs, 242; 243. Tenses of
indic., 466 ft. ; subj., 478 ft. ; im-
º 487 ff. Seq. of tenses, 490
I. enses in temp. clauses, 518,
notes 1 and 2; in indir. disc., 525.
Tenses of infin., 537; particip., 550.
Tentā, constr., 498, II., N. 1.
Tenus, p. 145, foot-note 5; W. gen.,
. 398, 5; w. abl., 434; after its case,
434, N. 4; 569, II.
Ter, e in, 579, 3.
-ter, suffix, 320, II. ; p. 155, foot-note
1. Adverbs in -ter,304, IV. Nouns
in -ter, 326; decl., 60, 3.
555, I.
position,
Terence, peculiarities in versification,
#73, N.; 530, iii., notes 3 and 4:
metres, 633 iii.
Terminational compar., 161 ff.
Terrã, constr., 425, 2. Terrae, locat.,
p. 229, foot-note 1.
Terrester, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
Testis Sum, constr., 535, I., 3.
Tété for te, 184, 4.
Tetrameter, 603, N. 2; dactylic, 616.
Tetrapody, 597, N. 4.
Tetrastich, 606, N.
Thébaïs, a in, p. 345, foot-note 1.
Thematic vowel, p. 94, foot-note 1 ;
251.
Thesis, 600.
Thinking, constr. W. verbs of, 534, 1,
N. 1, (2) ; 535, I., 1.
Third decl., 55 ff.; adjs., 152 f.; -o
in, 5&i, ii. 2. Third conj., 209;
210; 227 ; 228; 269 ft.
Threatening, dat. W. verbs of, 385, II.
-ti, suffix, 320 ; p. 157, foot-notes 7
agd 9.
—tiã, suffix, p. 158, foot-note 1.
Tibur, decl., 66, 4.
-ticius, adjS. in, 333, 5.
-tico, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 8.
—ticus, adjS. in, 330, 1.
-tié, suffix, p. 158, foot-note 1.
-tilis, adjs. in, 333.
-tim, adverbs in, 304, I., 1.
-tim # , suffix, p. 156, foot-note 9 ;
-áēma, p. 157, foot-note 9.
TIME, adverbs of, 305, N. 2, 2). . Acc.
of time, 379 ; abl., 429 ; 379, 1.
Time denoted by prepS. W. acc.,
379, 1 ; 429, 2; w. abl., 429, 1. Time
Since, 430, S.'3". Adj. of time, 443,
N. 2. Time denoted by particip.,
549, 1. See also temporal clauses.
Times or morae, 597.
Timeſ, constr., 385, 1; p. 274, foot-
note 3.
-timo, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 9.
–timus, a, um, suffix, p. 157, foot-
note 9. Adjs, in -tºmºus, 330, 1.
–tio, -tion, -tiâni, suffixes, p. 158,
foot-note 1. Nouns in -à, 326.
Tis for twº, 184, 5.
Titles, superlat, as, 444, 1, N.
-tivus, adjs, in, 333, 5.
Trnesis, 636, W., 3.
“To, how translated, 384, 3.
-to, suffix, 320, II.
—tó for tor in imperat., 240, 5.
Topîtrus, decl., 117, 1, 3).
—tór, suffix, 320, II.
—tor, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1.
Nouns in -tor, 326; as adjs., 441, 3.
IVDEA OF
SUBJECTS. 423
-tóriá, -tūrio, suffixes, p. 158, foot-
note 4. O in täria, 587, III., 4.
—türium, -têrius, 0 in, 587, III., 4.
Tot, demon., 186, 4; correlat., 191.
Zočāns, 305, IV.
Totus, demon. 186, 4.
Tööus, decl., 151, 1; W. loc. abl., 425,
2. Tööus for ‘Eng. adverb, 443, N.
1, (2).
Towns, gend. of names of, 42, II., 2;
constr., 428 ; whither, 380, II. ;
whence, 412, II. ; where, 425, II.
—tra, suffix, 320, I.
Trádor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Zºdins in compas., 344, 5; W. acc.,
372; w. two accs., 376. Tráns w.
acc., 433; 433, I.
Transitive verbs, 193, I. -
Translation of subjunctive, 196, II. ;
infin., 200, I.
Trees, gend, of names of, 42, II., 2;
names of, in -us, decl., 119, 2.
Trés, decl., 175.
Tribrach, 597, II.
Tribuá w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Thºbu's, decl., 117, 1, 1); gend., 118,
1).
-tric, suffix, p. 158, foot-note 4.
Tricolon, p. 352, foot-note 3.
Trihemimeral caesura, p. 356, foot-
note 4.
Trihemimeris, 597, N. 4.
Trimeter, 603, N. 2.
Tripody, 597, N. 4.
Tristich, 606, N.
Tristior, tristis, decl., 154. Tristis
W. force of Eng. adverb, 443, N. 1,
1).
Tºuws reduplicated perfects,
quant. of first two syllables, 591.
—trix, nouns in, 326; as adjs., 441, 3.
—tro, suffix, 320, II.
Trochaic verse, 603, N. 1; 618 ff.;
Stanza, 631, X. ; caesura, p. 356,
foot-note 4.
Trochee, 597, II.; irrational, 598, 1, 1).
Tropes, 637, W., N.
-trum, nouns in, 326.
Truths, gen., expressed by pres. in-
flºº, II. ; in condit., 508, 5;
1, 1.
-Tt sº to St, SS, or 8, 35, 3.
Tiz, decl., 184. I in tibi, 581, I., 2.
-fu, stü, suffixes, 820.
-tu ä, , -tūdon, suffixes, p. 158, foot-
note 3.
Tuli, win, 590, 1.
Tum, p. 75, foot-note 1 ; 304, I., 4;
305, iv.; in series, 534, I., N. 2.
Tum—tum, cum—tum, 554, I., 5.
-tum, nouns in, 323.
Tumultus, decl., 119, 3.
Tune, 804, I., 4; 305, IV.
-tuo, 㺠158, foot-hote 1.
-tiârâ, suffix, p. 158, foot-note 4.
Nouns in -tūra, 326.
-turió, desideratives in, 338.
—türo, suffix, p. 158, foot-note 4.
Turpis w. Supine, 547, N., 1
Turris, decl., 62.
-tūrus suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1.
Tüs, defect. 133, N.
-tus, adverbs in, 304, IV. ; nouns in,
326; adjs. in, 328.
-tūs, nouns in, 324; 325.
Tussis, decl., 62. -
-tūt, -tūti, suffixes, p. 158, foot-note
3
Tuus, possess., 185. -
Two accs., 373; 374. Two dats., 390.
Two negatives, 553. Two copula-
tives, 554, I., 5.
U
U, ii, sound, 5; 10; 11.
of w, 5, 4 ; 10, 4, 5).
p., 4, foot-note 5 ; , interchange
with v, 29; dropped, 36, 4. . . U-
nouns, 116. Nouns in il, defect.,
134. Sup., in İZ, 545; 547. U or u,
final, 580, I.; in increments of decl.,
585; 585, V. ; conj., 586 ; 586, IV. .
{W as consonant, 608, III., N. 2
—u, suffix, 320.
U her, neut. plur., 158, 1.
U.5%, 304, IIſ., 2; 305, I. ; p. 151, foot-
note 1: 311, 1 ; W. part. gen., p.
209, foot-note 3; in temp, clauses,
518; 471, 4, I in ubå, 581, I., 2;
uant. of ult. in compás, 594, 9.
Uöäcumque, ubåubá, p. 75, foot-note 3;
305, N. 1.
Ubávis, 305, I.
—ubus for -ºbus, 117, 1.
-uceus,” in, 587, iii., 1.
-ücus, adjS. in, 338, 5.
-ādū, iſ in, 587, I., 2. *
-āgö, nouns in, 324, N.; it in, 587,
U w. sound
OW ;
I., 2.
Ui, sound, 12, 2.
—uis for -ü8, 117, 2.
—ula, nouns in, 321 ; u in, 587, II., 3.
—ulentus, u in, 587, IV., 1.
-ālis, i. in, 587, I., 4.
!Illus, decl., 191, 1 ; use, 457.
Ulterior, iltämus, 166. Ultimºus,
_force of 440, N. 2; 442, N.
Ultrà w. acc., 433; 433, I. *
—ulum, -ulus, in nouns, 321 ; in
424.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS,
adjs., 332; 333, 5; compar., 169, 3.
U in -ulum, -ulus, 587, II., 3.
—um in gen. plur. of nouns, 57; p.
36, foot-notes 3 and 4; p. 38, foot-
note 2; 67 ; adjs., 158, 2. Nouns
in -us and -um, heteroclites 139;
heterogeneous, 144. Adverbs in
-um, 304, I., 3, 1); num., 181, N.
2; superlat., 306, 6. Supine in
-wm, 545; 546; w. e5, 546, 2; W.
Żri, 546, 3.
-üm for drum, 49, 3; Grum, 52, 3.
-iina, iſ in, 587, I., 5.
Uncia, 646, 1, N.; 646, 3, 1)—4).
Unclothing, acc. w. verbs of, 377.
—uncula, -unculus, diminutives
in, 321, 3.
Unde, widelibet 305, III.
-undus, -undi, for -endus, -end?,
239
ſinguis, decl., 62, IV.
Union, dat. W. verbs denoting, 385, 4,
3
Unlike, gen, w, adjS. meaning, 391,
II., 4, §:
Unquam, 305, IV.
—unt, suffix, 320, II.
Unus, decl., 151, 1; 175; followed by
abl. W. prep., p. 209, foot-note 1:
gen. of, w, possess., 398, 3. Unus
w. force of Eng. adverb, 443, N. 1,
_(2). Unus qui w subj., 503, II., 1.
-linus, i. in, 587, I., 5.
Unusqu’àsque, deci. p. 77, foot-note 1.
—uo, suffix, 320, iſ denom."verbs
in -º/ö, 335.
-ur, suffix, 320, II. ; decl. of adjs. in,
150, N.; gend. of nouns in, 111;
114.
Urbs, decl., 64.
Urging, constr., w, verbs of, 499, 2.
—urió, u in, 587, IV., 2.
—us, suffix, 320, II. ; adverbs in, 304,
I., 3, 1); nouns in, 326, 2; 327.
§ fºr é'in voc., 52, 2. Decl. of
nouns in us, 51 ; 85; 116 ; in is, 84;
quant. of increm., 585, W., 1. feel.
of names of trees in us, 119, 2.
Neuters in us, Decl. if., 51, 7.
Gend. of nouns in us, is, Decl. iii.
111; 115. Nouns in us and um,
heteroclites, 139 ; heterogeneous,
144; 145. Compar. of adjS. in us
preceded by vowel, 169, 2. US or
is final, 580, III., w. N. 2; 581, IX.
Useful, dat. wi adjs. signifying, 391,
I. : ad, 391, II., 1, (2).
ź. w8quam, 305, I.
Sque w. preps., 433, N. 2. Usque w.
acc., 437, 1.
Usus w, abl., 414, IV.
Ut, uti, 304, III., 2; 305, W.; 311: p.
151, foot-note 1. Ut, ut prºmum,
‘as Soon as,’ 471, 4. Ut w. Subj.
of desire, 483, 1; w. Subj. in ques-
tions, 486, II., N. ; w. Subj. of pur-
pose,497, II, ; after verbs of fear-
ing, 498, iii. N. 1. Ut né, ut nón,
for né, 499, 1. Ut omitted, 499, 2;
502, 1. Ut wi subj. of result, 500,
II. Už 87 W. Subj. in condit., 513,
1I. Ut in concess., 515, III. Ut—sic,
Żë—ita, involving concess., 515, N.
... Ut—ita W. Superlat., 555, II., 1.
Už w. relat., 517, 3, 1). Ut in temp.
clauses, 518. , Ut quisque—ºta, 458,
2. Quant. of ult, of uti in compas.,
594, 9.
—ut, decl. of nouns in, 78.
Uter, decl., 65, 1, 2).
Uter, decl., 151, 1 ; correlat., 191.
Utercungue, uterlibet, uterque, utervis,
decl., 151, N. 2. Užerque, constr.,
397, N. 2; meaning and use, 459,
4; w. plur. verb, 461, 3. Is in
wtervis, 581, VIII., 3, N
Uti, see alt.
-ütim, it in, 587, I., 7.
Utánam W. subj. of desire, 483, 1.
Utor, constr., 421, I. ; 421, N. 4; ge–
rundive, 544, 2, N. 5.
Užpote, 311, 7 ; w. relat., 517, 3, 1).
ūrinje, 304, iſi. N.
Utrum, 310, 2, N. ; 311, 8; 353.
-ātus, it in, 587, i., 7.
Uu avoided, p. 15, foot-note 1.
-uus, adjS. in, 333, 5.
* decl. of nouns in, 97; -wa, 97,
. 1.
V
V originally not distinguished from
w, 2, 5. Sound of v, 7. V inter-
changed w. u, 29 ; treated as guttu-
ral, 30, N. 1 ; changed to c, 33, 1,
N. ; dropped, 36, 4.
-vä, suffix, 320, I.
Vacuus W. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Vae, 312, 3; W. dat., 381, N. 3, 3).
Váh, interj., 312, 1.
ń. quam. In adverb. phrase, 305,
. 4.
Value, gen, of, 404. Gen. w. verbs of .
valuing, 404.
Van'nus, gend., 53, 1, (2).
Variable rad. vowel, 20, N. 2; 57, 2;
58, 1, 2); 60, 1, 2); 61, 1, 2).
Variation in quant. of stem-syllables,
593. 1.
Varieties of verse, 609.
IWD.E.Y OF SUBJECTS.
425
Pās, decl., 136, 2. ***
Vas, a in, 579, 3; quant. of increm.,
585, I., 4, (2).
Vâtés, décl., p. 36, foot-note 4.
Vé, insep. prep., 308; 3 in, 594, 2.
jº, ºió, 3, 554, ii., 2. ºvel,
554, ii. N. Position of wel in po-
#. 569, III., N.; in prose, 569,
4
Velut, 3il, 2; 554, II, 2.
Mut şi, in condit., 513, II. &
Wendlis w. abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
Venit in mentem w. gen., 406, N.
Venter, decl., 65, 1, 2).
Vér without plur., 130, 1, 4); quant.
of increm., 585, iIſ...}.
Verb stems, format. off, 249 ft.
Verbal endings, analysis of 241 ff.
Verbal roots, 314, I. Verbal nouns
in iſ defect., 134. Verbal nouns w.
infin., 533, 3, N. 3.
VERBs, ‘Erysiology of, 192 ff.; classes,
193; voice, mood, tense, numb.,
pers., 194 ft. ; infin., ger., Sup., par-
ticip., 200; conj., 201 ff.; prin.
parts, 202; paradigms, 204 ft. ; com-
parat. view, 213 ff.; verbal inflec-
tions, 220 ft. ; systems, 222; synop-
sis, 223 ff.; dep. verbs, 231 ff.:
periphrast, conj., 233 ff. ; peculiari-
ties in conj., 235 ft. ; analysis of
verbal endings, 241 ff.: tense-signs,
242 ft. ; mood-signs, 244 ft.; pers.
endings, 247 ff.: format. of stems,
249 ft. ; pres, stem, 250 ; 251 ; perf.
stem, 252 ft. ; sup. stem, 256; clas-
sification, 257 ff.: Conj.I., 257 ff. ;
Conj. II., 261 ff.: Conj. III., 269 ft. ;
Conj. IV., 284 ft.; irreg. vérbs, 289
ff.; defect., 297 ff.: º 298 ft. ;
derivation, 335 ºff. ; denom., 335 ;
frequent., 336; incept., 337; desid—
erat., 338; dimin., 339; compds.,
344.
VERBs, SYNTAx of, 460 ft. ; agree-
ment, 460 ft. Verb omitted, 368,
3; 523, I., N. Voices, 464; 465.
Indic, and tenses, 466 ft. Subj. and
tenses, 477 ff. ; subj. in prin. clauses,
483 ff. Imperat. and tenses, 487 ff.
Subord. clauses, 490 ft. ; seq. of
tenses, 490 ft. furpose, 497 ff.; re-
sult, 500 ft.; condit. sentences, 506
ff. : concess. clauses, 515; causal
clauses, 516; 517; temp., clauses,
518 if ; indir, disc, b23 ff.; indir.
clauses, 528 ft. Infin., 532 ft. Sub-
stant. clauses, 540. Ger., 541 : 542.
Gerundive, 543; 544. Supines, 545
ft. Particip., 548 ff. Position of
Velut, ve-
*
*!--
modifiers of verb, 567. -0, o, in
verbs, 581, II., 2; -á, 581, iſi. 3.
Véré, 304, II., 2.
Wereor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 3.
Vergil, versification, 630.
Vérô, p. 146, foot-note 1; 310, 3 ;
#. III., 2 and 4; position, 569,
Verse, caesura of, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Verses, 601 ; name, 603; varieties, 609.
VERSIFICATION, 596 #. Feet, 597.
Verses, 601 ; names of, 603;, 604.
Figures of pros., 608. Varieties of
verse, 609.
Versus, p. 145, foot-note 5; w. acc.,
433 #. adverb, 433, N. 2; position,
5 -----
Vertów. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Veriz, decl., 117, 1, 2).
Vērum, 310, 3; 554, III., 2 ; nán
Sölum (nán modo or nôm tantum)—
wórum etiam, 554, I., 5. Verum,
oërum tamen, resumptive, 554, IV., 3.
Verumtamen, 554, III., 3.
Vervée, quant. of increm., 585, III., 3.
Vescor, constr., 421, I. : 421, N.A.
Vesper, decl., 51, 4, Vesper (for ves-
peris), decl., 62, N. 2.
Vespera without plur., 130, 1, 4).
Vespertinºus, 7 in, p. 345, foot-note 5.
Vestrås, decl., 185, N. 3.
Vestri, vestričm, 446, N. 3.
Veto, constr., p. 310, foot-note 1;
wetor, 534, 1, N. 1.
Vetus, decl., 158; compar., 163, 1, N.;
167,.2.
Viciniae, locat., p. 229, foot-note 1.
Vicinus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Văcăs, defect., 133, 1.
ñā, śîn. 581, iv. 3.
ññālice, 304, IV. N. 2. . .
Videor, Constr., 534, 1, N. 1: (1).
Vir, décl., 51, 4, 1); % in, 579, 3.
Virgö, decl., 60.
Virtàs, decl., 58.
Virus, decl., 51, 7 ; gend., 53, 2.
Wis, aeci. '66; p. 38, footnote 4;
quant. of increm., 585, IV., 2.
Viacdum, 555, I., 1.
-vo, suffix, 320, II.
VocatIVE, irreg., 52, 2; 68, 3. Syn-
tax, 369. Voc. in exclamat., 381,
N. 3, 1). Position of voc., 569, VI.
I in Greek voc. sing., 581, I., 2; -á
in Băi, iii. 2; Tºſih, 531. vi. 3.
-às in plur., 58i, IX., 2.
Voices, 195; 464; 465.
Volów. eth. dat., 389, N. 2; w. Subj.,
# 274, foot-note 1; 499, 2; w. in-
n., p. 310, foot-note 1. Wolensw.
426
IWD EY OF SUBJECTS.
dat. of possess., 387, N. 3. Increm.
of volà and compas., 586, 1.
Volucer, decl., 153, N. 1, 1).
Volucris, p. 36, foot-note 3.
-volus, dompès. in, 342, 1; compar.,
164.
Vöff, constr., 410, III., N. 2.
Vowels, 3, i. sounds, 5; 9 ft. ; 15,
1. "Čiassification of vowels, 3, I.
Phonet. changes, 20 ft. Vowels
lengthened, 20 ; shortened, 21 ;
weakened, 22; contracted, 23 ;
changed, 24; assimilated, 25; dis-
similated, 26; dropped, 27; inter-
changed with consonants, 28; 29.
Variable vowel, 20, N. 2; 57, 2;
58, 1, 2); 60, 1, 2); 61, 1, 2).
Eavorite vowels, 24. Vowels de-
veloped by liquids or nasals, 29, N.
Order of vowels in strength, 22.
Themat. vowel, p. 94, foot-note_1;
251. Vowel-stems, compar. of adjs.
in, 162, N. Final, vowel elided,
608, I. ; shortened in hiatus, 608,
II., N. 3.
sonants or a double cons., 651.
Vulgus, decl., 51, 7 ; gend., 53, 2.
Vulpecula, p. 159, foot-note 1.
-vus, adjS. in, 333, 5.
W
Want, gen, w. verbs of, 410, W., 1.
Watches of night, 645, 1.
Way, adverbs of 305, N. 2, 3).
Weak caesura, p. 356, foot-note 4.
Quant. before two con- ||
Wººing of vowels, 22; diphthongs,
23. N.
Weights, Roman, 646; 648.
‘Yº apparent ellipsis of, 398, 1,
2
Winds, gend. of names of, 42, I., 2.
Wishing, constr. w. verbs of, 535, II.
Without, constr. w. verbs of being
without, 414, I.
Women, names of, 649, 4.
Words, formation of, 313 ff.: deriva-
tion, 321 ff. ; arrang., 559 ft.
X
X, Sound, 13, II. ; dropped, 36, 3, N.
2. Decl. of nouns in as, 64; 65, 3;
giff.: gend. i05; ios.” x length!
ens preceding syllable, 576, II.
Y
Y only in foreign words, 2, 6; sound,
5, 2; 10 ft. Decl. of nouns in 3/5
73; gend., 111. Y or 7, final, 580,
I. : in increments, 585.
-ys, decl. of nouns in, 68, 2; 86;
gend., 107. , Ys final, 580, III.
-yx, -yx, decl. of nouns in, 97, N. 2.
Z
Z only in foreign words, 2,6; length-
ens precedi Hºllable 576, II.
Zeugma, 636, II., 1.
TABLE OF OLD AND NEW ARTICLES. 427
T A B L E
SHOWING THE CORRESPONDING ARTICLES IN THE
7WO EDITIONS.
(D.I.D NEW OLT) NEW OLD NEW
1-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4 || 198, 1... . . . . . . 197, N. 1 || 258, II., 4............ 29
5, 6... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 | 198; 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 || 259. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
• e º e º ºs e º 'º e º is a º º s e s is 10 | 198, 3... . . . ...197, N. 2 | 260................ .258
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 | 199. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 || 260, 1 and 2.257, notes
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 - 1 and 2
10–12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 201. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 | 261. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259, 1
13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 1 | 202. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 || 261, 1 and 2... 259, notes
14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 2 | 203. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203, 1 1 and 2
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 204–212. . . . . . . . . 204–212 262. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259, 2
16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 213. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 214. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 264. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
18. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .8 ſ 215. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 265. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 216, 217, I. . . . . . . . . . 223 ſ 266. . . . . . . . . . . 262, N. 1
20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 267 . . . . . . . . . . . 262, N. 2
21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, I. 218, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, II. 218, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 269, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
23. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, III. 219, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 269, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264.
24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 | 219, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 270. I. . . . . . . . . . . . 267, 1
26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 220, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 270, II., 1. . . . . . . . . . .
26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 220, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 270, II., 2........ 267, 2
27. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 221. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 270, III. . . . . . . . . . 267, 3
28. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 222. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 271... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
28, 2, 2). . . . . . . . . . 25, 1 228. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 || 272, I. . . . . . . . . . . 269
&4 ºf s = e o 'º e º te e s ºr e º e e º ºs & 224. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . – 272, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
80. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 225. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 || 273, I., 1. . . . . . . . . 271, 1
31. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 226. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 273, I., 2......... 272, 1
32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 227—230. . . . . . . . . . . . . . T | 3+3. ii., i........ 271, 2
T • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 26, 28 || 231. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 || 273, II., 2........ 272, 2
33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 232. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 || 373; if.......... 272, 3
84. . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 5, 1) || 233. . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, N. 274, 275, I. . . . . . 273,274
85. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 || 234. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 3 *-* - - - - - - - - - - - - -
T • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 32, 35 | 235. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 276. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
86. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 2 | 286. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 276. 1. . . . . . . . . . . 277, N
37–120. . . . . . . . . . 37–120 237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 277–279. . . . . . . . . 277–279
120, 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 238. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 280. . . . . . . . . . . 272, N. 1
120, 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 239. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 281. . . . . . . . . . . 272, N. 2
121. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2 - - - - - - - - - - - 213, 214 || 282. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
122. . . . . . . . . . . 47, note 1 || 240, II. and III. .215, 216 || 282, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
128. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 241–256. . . . . . . . . 241–256 282, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
124-189. . . . . . . . . 124–189 257. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256. 1 || 283–285. . . . . . . . . 283–285
190. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0, 1 || 258, I., 1...80; 36, 8, 1) 286, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
191. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190, 2 || 258, I.: 2.... . . . . . . 2 | 286, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Te - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 191 258, I., 3. . . . . . . . . .33, 1 || 287. . . . . . . . . . . . . 287, N
192–195. . . . . . . ... 192–195 || 258, I., 4....... 34, i, N. 388-363......... 288–303
196, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 || 258, I., 5.... .36, 3, N. 3 || 304. . . . . . . . . . . 305, N. 2
196, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 258, II., 1 and 2.... 33, 1 || 305. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
© tº e º º e º 'º e º e º e º is ºn tº 197 258, II., 3........ 34, N. 306. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
428 TABLE OF OI, D A. VI) VE'}V A R TICILES,
OIUTO, INEW. OILTO, NEW. OILIO. NEW.
807. ................ 808 | 364, 365............ 865 || 419, II........ 425, 1, N.
808, 809............ 309 l 866. ................. — | 419, III.. 421, II. ; 414,
310—312......... 310-312 | —............. 366, 867 I. and III.
818, I.............. 313 || 367, 368. ........... 368 | 419, IV.. 421, III. ; 425,
818, II.............. 340 || 869—871......... 369—371 , N.
818, 1......... 818, N. 2 || 871, 4.............. 372 || 419, V......... 414, IV.
T • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 314-320 || 871, 5......... 871, IV. | 419, 2.. 421, notes 1 and 2
814, 315............ 321 || 871, 6........... ... 464 | 419, 3.....414, notes 2—4
816. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 || 871, 7....... 371, I., N. | 419, 4, 1)...... 421, N. 4
817................. 823 1 872.................. — | 419, 4, 8)...... 421, N. 3
818. ................ 324 | 873, 374........ 878, 874 | 420...... ...... 367 ; 411
819. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 || 874, 4.............. 534 ] 421.. 425, I. and II. ; 412
320. 321. . . . . . . . 826, 327 | 874, 5.............. 375 | 422......... 425, 1 and 2
822, 823. ........... 28 || 874, 6.............. 876 || 422, 2............ 412, 2
824. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 829 || 874, 7.............. 877 | 423. ............. 425, 3
825. ................ 880 || 875. ................ 536 | 423, 1............ 412, 3
826. ................ 831 | 376.................. — I 424.. ............... 426
827................. 332 i 877............. 870, II. | — ............. 427, 428
828. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 | 878................. 379 | 425............. 413—415
829. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 834 | 879................. 880 I 426. ................ 429
880, 331............ 335 l 880. ................ 878 | 427........ * • • • • • • • • • 430
882, I.............. 336 | 381................. 381 | 428.....419, II. ; 419, 2
882. II.............. 337 | 882, 888........ 382, 883 | 429.................
882, III............. 338 || 384—396. ... ..... 384—396 | 430, 481. ........... 431
882, IV............. 839 | 396, III............. 397 | 432—440. ........ 432—440
333—337........ 804, 805 | 397................. 398 | 441, 1 and 2......... 441
888, I.—III., 1....... 340 | 398, 1...... 396, V., N. 3 | 441, 4......... 440, N. 4
888, 2............ 844, 5 || 898, 2......... 395, N. 2 || 441, 5......... 395, N. 2
888, 8............ 844, 6 | 398, 3.. 396, II., N.; 396, | 441, 6. ....440 notes 1—3
839. ................ 341 ifí'N 3 | 443' î63. III.I. 442—463
839, 1........... §âÄîî. | 898, 4.. 896, IIiTN. i? || 437. IIT. 195
839, 2............ 341, 1 897, N. 3 | 465—465, II.......... 464
840. ................ 342 | 398, 5....... 884, 4, N. 2 || 465, 1-8............ 465
841. . . . . . . . . . . . 844, 1—4 | 399, 1-4............ 399 | 466—474......... 466—474
842. ........... 804, 305 | 399, 5.............. 400 | —........... .• • • • • • • 475
843. ................ 345 || 400.................. — | 475. ................ 476
844. ................ 346 || 401, 402. ....... 401, 402 | 476................. 478
845, I.............. 847 || 402, 1 and 2. ... 404, 405 || 477............ 479, 480
845. II.............. 848 | 402, 3......... 401, N. 4 | 478. ........... 481, 482
845, III............. 849 | 403................. 408 | 479................. 496
846. I.............. 850 || 404, 1. ........ 401, N. 3 | 480............ 490, 491
846, II. , 1........... 351 l 405.................. — | 481, I.............. 492
846, II., 2........... 353 | 406—408......... 406—408 | 481, II.............. 493
846, II., 8........... 352 || 409. ............ 410, V. | 481, III............. 494.
846, III............. 854. | 410-410, 2. . . . . . . . . . 409 | 481, III., 1 and 2....496
846, IV............. 855 || 410, 3—7............ 410 || 481, IV......... 495, II
847. ................ 856 || 411, 1............ 397, 4 | 481, V......... 495, III.
848. ................ 857 || 411, 2............ 398, 5 || 481, VI........ 495, IV.
849. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857, 1 || 412, 413....... 867 ; 411 | 482..495, I.,VI., and VII.
850. .............. 357, 2 || 414—414, 2.....413; 416 | 488, 484. ........... 477
851. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 | 414, 3.......... 419, III. | 485, 486. ....... 485, 486
852. ................ 859 | 414, 4. ........ 418; 420 | 486, 4 and 6.. 485, mìotes
858................. 860 || 414, 5 and 6...... 415, I. | 486, 5............ 518, 1
854. ............. 361, 1 | 414,7.. 418; 419, I.; 419,1 | 487, 488........ 483, 484
855.............. 861, 2 || 415.................. — | 488, 1-5. ....... 483, 1—5
856. ............. 861, 8 | 416. ................ 422 || 489. ........... 497 ; 500
857-361.............. — | 417................. 417 l 490......... 497, 1; 500
362, 363........ 862, 868 | 418. ................ 423 | 491. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE OF OLD A VD WE W ARTICLES. 429
OLI). NEW. OILIO. INEWr. OILIO, NEW.
498, 4........ 488, 8, N. | 552, 3 and 4.....583, II. | 607................. 574
494. ................ 500 | 558, I.—IV.......... 539 | 608. ................ 575
495. ................ 501 || 553, V.......... 533, II. | 609..... 575, foot-note 1
495, 2, 2)....486, II., N. | 554................. 540 i 610. ............. 576, I.
s * ® * & e s • • s e s • • • • & 555.............. 540, I. | 611............. 576, II.
497. ............. 497, 2 | 556, I... 538, 1; 540, N. | 611, 2.............. 578
498. ................ 504 | 556, I., 1 and 2. .501, 1., 2 | 612. ................ 577
499.............. 497, 2 | 556, II. and III..501, I., 1 | 613................. 579
500............ 497 ; 500 | 557.............. 540, I. | 614.............. 580. I
500, 8......... 503, N. 3 | 558, I., 1........ 585, I. | 615............ 581, III
01. ................ 503 | 558, I., 2......... 498, I. | 616............ 581, IV
TT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Éó | ÉÉÉ ÍÍ., i.I533, i',i | öïíIT 580, I
502. ................ 555, ff , £j$, i., N. | §i§.III. 581, I
503, I. and II....... 513 | 558, III......... 498 619. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580, I
08, 111. ............ 558, IV....... 501, II., 1 | 620. ............ 581, II
504. ........*... 509, 510 | 558, V......... 535, iif. | §£iIII. 580, II
505. ............. 513, I. | 558, VI.......... 498, I. | 622............ 580, III
06. ............ 513, II. | 558,VI., 2 and 8. .535, II. | 623............. 581. V
507—510. ........ 507—510 | 559................. 41 | 624............ 581. VI
510, 2............ 511, 2 | 560, 561............ 542 | 625. .......... 581. VII
511-511, 2: ......... 511 l 562. .......... 543, 544 || 626. ......... 581, VIII
511, 8. ............. 512 | 563. ...... 542, I. ; 544, 1 | 627............ 581, IX.
512. ................ 511 , 564......542, II. ; 544, 2 | 628. ... 580, III. ; 576, I.
513. ............. ÉóíT3 | 535. .5jff.; 5£4,33ie$ | $. II. II. '.''.. 582
514. ................ 514 2 and 5 || 680................. 583
515, 516. ........... 515 | 566..... 542, IV. ; 544, 2 | 631................. 584.
517, I.............. 517 | 567, 568. ........... 545 | 632................. 585
517. II.............. 516 | 569................. 546 || 633. ............. 585, I
518, I.....517; 515, III. | 570................. 547 | 684............. 585. II
» —-• • • • • • • • • • • • • • 521 I 571—574. ............ 550 l 635. ........... 585. III
19. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 517 | 575. ................ 548 | 636. ........... 585, IV
520. ................ 516 | 576-578............. 549 | 637............. 585, V
521, I............ 519, 2 | 579.............. 549, 5 || 688................. 585
521, II.............. 0 | 580........... 5áôÝ. § | j IIII. 586
522. ................ 519 | 581. ... . . . . , , . 549, N. 1 || 640.............. 586. I
523. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 520 | 582, 583.. .......... 551 || 641. ............ 533, ff
24. .......... 528, 2, N. | 584................. 552 | 642................. 586
525, 526. ........... 585. ................ 553 | 648............ 586, III
527........ 528; 529, II. | 586............. 558, N. || 644. ........... 586, IV
528. ................ 522 | 587................. 554 I 645.............. 587, I
529, 580............ 523 I 588................. 555 I 646............. 587, II.
581, 582. ...... , 524, 525 | 589. ................ 556 || 647............ 587, III.
532, 2 and 3......... 527 | 590................. 557 || 648............ 587, IV.
532, 4............ 525, 2 | 591................. 558 | —............. 588, 589
588............ 526; 580 | 592................. 559 | 649................. 9
584—587........ 487 ; 489 | 593................. 560 | 650. ................ 592
588, 1.............. 488 | 594. ................ 561 | 651................. 590
588, 2........... 489, 1) | 595................. 562 | 652................. 591
T • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 1 596. ................ 568 | 658................. 593
589.................. — | 597................. 564 I 654................. 594.
540—544............. 587 | 598................. 565 l 655................. 596
545-547............. 536 | 599................. 566 | 656. ................ 597
548. ................ 582 | 600................. 567 || 657, 658............ 598
549—549, 3.......... 538 | 601................. 568 i 659................. 599
549, 4;. . ...... , 584, 1 | 602. ................ 509 l 060. ................ t5UU
550. ............ 583-585 f 603. ................ 571 || 661................. 601
551. ................ 585 1 604................. 572 | 662................. 602
552. 1........... 588, I. | 605. ................ 578 | 668................. 603
552, 2. ............. 534 | 606. ................ 570 I 664................. 604
430 TABLE OF O LD AND WEW ARTICLE'S.
OLD NEW OLD. NEW OLD NEW.
665. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 | 681. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 708. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
666. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 | 682. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 | 704. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
667. . . . . . . . . . . 601, N. 3 | 683. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 || 705. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
668. . . . . . . . . . . . . 607, N. | 684. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . 638, 639
669. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08 | 685. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 | 706. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
670. . . . . . . e is sº e o e e º 'º e 609 | 686. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 | 707. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
671. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 | 687. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 708. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
672. . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 1–3 | 688, 689. . . . .628, II.-W. 709................. 643
678. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 || 690...628, WI. and VII. 710................. 644
674. . . . . . ...611, 4 and 5 | 691. . . . . . . . . . . . 627, 628 || 711................. 645
T • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 612 | 691, W. . . . . . . . . . . 629. I. 712. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
675. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 | 692. . . . . . . . . . . . 623, ix. #13............. 647
676. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 693. . . . . . . . . . . 681, XV. 714. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, I.
676, 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 694. . . . . . . . . . 631, XIV. 715............. 648, II.
677, I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 695... . . . . . . . . . . 629, II. 716. . . . . . . . . . . . 648, III.
677, II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 | 696–699. . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 | 717. . . . . . . . . . . . 648. IV.
677, III. . . . . . . . . . 628, I. 700. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 718. . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, W.
678. . . . . . 633, II., note 3 || 701. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 719. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 1
679. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 –. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 | 720... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
680. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 702. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
T H E E N ID,
T). A PPLETON & C O.” S
LEADING TEXT-BOOKS.
IRE AIDERS.
APPLETONs' School, READERs consist of Five Books, by William T.
Harris, LL.D., Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Andrew J.
Rickoff, A. M., Superintendent of Instruction, Cleveland, O.; and Mark
Bailey, A. M., Instructor in Elocution, Yale College.
Appletons' First Reader. Appletons' Fourth Reader.
Appletons' Second Reader. Appletons' Fifth Reader.
Appletons' Third Reader. Appletons' Primary Reading Charts.
STANDARD SUPPLEMENTARY REAIDERS.
I, Easy Steps for Little Feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 0 30
II. Golden Book of Choice Reading... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
III. Book of Tales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
IV. Readings in Nature's Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 80
W. Seven American Classics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
VI. Seven British Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
GEOGRAPHY.
Appletons' New Elementary Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Appletons' Higher Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Cornell's Primary Geography....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Cornell's Intermediate Geography... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 20
Cornell's Physical Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Cornell's Grammar-School Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 40
Cornell's First Steps in Geography..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Cornell's High-School Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Cornell's High-School Atlas...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 60
Cornell's Outline Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . per set, 13 Maps, 13 25
ſ'ornell's Map-Drawing Cards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . per Set, 45
Patton's Natural Resources of the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
D. A PPLETON & 9 CO.’S LEA DIAWG TE_YT-BOOKS.
MIATHEMATHCS.
Appletons' Primary Arithmetic... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appletons' Elementary Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º e s & * e º e s a e
Appletons' Mental Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Appletons' Practical Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appletons' Higher Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Colin's Metric System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gillespie's Land Surveying.. . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * e º e e º ºs e º e º e º º
Gillespie's Leveling and Higher Surveying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inventional Geometry (Spencer's)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, with applica-
GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, and LITERATURE.
Bain's Composition and Rhetoric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ballard's Words, and how to put them together... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ballard's Word-writer... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ballard's Pieces to Speak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . per part,
Covell's Digest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * † tº º
Gilmore's English Language and Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature Primers (English Grammar—English Literature—Phil-
ology—Classical Geography—Shakespeare—Studies in Bry-
ant—Greek Literature—English Grammar Exercises—Ho-
mer—English Composition).........................each,
Morris's Historical English Grammar. . . . . . .
Northend's Memory Gems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Northend's Choice Thoughts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Northend's Gems of Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quackenbos's Primary Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quackenbos's English Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in our Language. . . . . . . . . .
Quackenbos's First Lessons in Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quackenbos's Composition and Rhetoric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spalding's English Literature....................... . . . . . . . . .
Stickney's Child’s Book of Language. Four Numbers. . . . . each,
Teacher's edition of Same. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stickney's Letters and Lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . each,
:*
1 50
40
10
20
80
60
45
20
30
75
40
72
50
80
10
35
20
AE). A PPLAETOAV & CO.'S MAZAD/AWG TE.YT-BOOKS.
LATIN.
Arnold's First and Second Latin Book... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1 10
Arnold's Latin Prose Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © e e e s e a e e s e 1 10
Arnold's Cornelius Nepos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Butler's Sallust's Jugurtha and Catiline... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Cicero de Officiis. . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e e º e º e º e 1 10
Crosby's Quintus Curtius Rufus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Crosby's Sophocles's GEdipus Tyrannus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Frieze's Quintilian... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Frieze's Virgil's 42neid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7()
Frieze's Six Books of Virgil, with Vocabulary. . . . . . . . * * * * * - e º 'º
Harkness's Arnold's First Latin Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Harkness's Second Latin Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Harkness's Introductory Latin Bcok. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Harkness's Latin Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Harkness's Elements of Latin Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Harkness's Latin Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Harkness's New Latin Reader... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Harkness's Latin Reader, with Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 30
Harkness's Latin Prose Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Harkness's Caesar, with Dictionary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Harkness's Cicero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Harkness's Cicero, with Dictionary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * 1 50
Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Dictionary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15
Harkness's Course in Caesar, Sallust, and Cicero, with Dictionary. 1 75
Johnson's Cicero's Select Orations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 30
Lincoln's Horace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 50
Lincoln's Livy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Sewall's Latin Speaker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * e º e º e º e º 'º e º e º e º 'º, e - e. e. e. I 00
Tyler's Tacitus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Tyler's Germania and Agricola....................... tº º e º 'º e e 1 10
GREEK.
Arnold's First Greek Book...... . . . . . . . . . © e s a c e s tº e º 'º e º º . . . . . 1 10
Arnold's Greek Prose Composition... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1 30
Arnold's Second Greek Prose Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Arnold's Greek Reading Rook... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Boise's Three Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon... . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Boise's Five Books of the Anabasis, with Lexicon.... . . . . . . . . ... 1 70
J). A PPLAZTOM & CO.’S ZEA DIAWG 7TEX 7-BOOKS.
GREEK.—(Continued.)
Boise's Greek Prose Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1 30
Boise's Anabasis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 70
Coy's Mayor's Greek for Beginners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 25
Hadley's Greek Grammar... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º is $ tº º ºs º º ſº tº e º 3 tº dº 1 TO
Hadley's Elements of Greek Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Hadley's Greek Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Harkness's First Greek Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Johnson's Three Books of the Iliad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g tº e º º 1 25
Johnson's Herodotus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º O & I 30
Kendrick’s Greek Ollendorff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº e º & º & 1 50
Kühner's Greek Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e s tº º is . . . . . . . . . . 1 70
Owen's Xenophon's Anabasis... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1 70
Owen's Homer's Iliad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YO
Owen's Greek Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I '70
Owen's Acts of the Apostles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Owen's Homer's Odyssey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 70
Owen's Thucydides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 20
Owen's Xenophon's Cyropædia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 20
Robbins's Xenophon's Memorabilia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 70
Silber's Progressive Lessons in Greek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Smead's Antigone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
Smead's Philippics of Demosthenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Tyler's Plato's Apology and Crito. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e º 'º e º ºs º e º & 1 30
Tyler's Plutarch... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Whiton's First Lessons in Greek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
GERMAN.
Adler's Progressive German Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Adler's Hand-book of German Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Adler's German Dictionary, 8vo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 50
{{ {{ {{ 12mo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 25
Ahn's German Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * e º is e º e g º º 85
Kroeh's First German Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Oehlschlaeger's Pronouncing German Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Ollendorff's New Method of Learning German. . . . . . . . . . . © e º sº e tº 1 10
Prendergast's Mastery Series—German. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº C & © g º ſº 45
Roemer's Polyglot Reader—German... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Schulte's Elementary German Course... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * @ 9 tº e º 'º 85
£). A PPLETON & CO.'S LAEA DIAWG TEXT-BOOKS.
GERMAN.—(Continued.)
Wrage's Practical German Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1 30
Wrage's German Primer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº 35
Wrage's First German Reader... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
FRIENCH.
Ahn's French Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e s e º a tº e e º e s e 65
Badois's Grammaire Anglaise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Barbauld's Lessons for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
De Fivas's Elementary French Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
De Fivas's Classic French Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
De Fivas's New Grammar of French Grammars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
De Peyrac's French Children at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
De Peyrac's Comment on Parle à Paris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 30
Havet's French Manual... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Jewett's Spiers's French Dictionary, 8vo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e e e e e 2 60
{ { {{ {{ {{ School edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 70
Marcel's Rational Method. French. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Ollendorff's New Method of Learning French. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10
Ollendorff's First Lessons in French... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Roemer's French Readers... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H 30
Rowan's Modern French Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 30
Simonné's Treatise on French Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Spiers and Surenne's French Dictionary, 8vo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 50
{{ {{ {{ {{ 12mo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 25
SPANHSH.
Ahn's Spanish Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
De Tornos's Spanish Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 25
Ollendorff’s Spanish Grammar... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00
Prendergast's Mastery Series. Spanish... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Schele de Vere's Spanish Grammar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00
Velázquez's New Spanish Reader......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 25
Velázquez's Pronouncing Spanish Dictionary, 8vo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 OO
{ % {{ & 4 {{ 12mo . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50
I). APPLETON & CO., Publishers,
1, 3, & 5 Bond Street, New York.
D. APPLETON & Co.'S PUBLICATIONS
Arnold's Latin Course :
I. FIRST AND SECOND LATIN BOOK AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR, Ré.
vised and Carefully Corrected, by J. A. SPENCER, D. D. 12mo, 850 pages.
II. PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION, Re-
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III. CORNELIUS NEPOS. With Questions and Answers, and an Imitative Exercise
on each Chapter. With Notes by E. A. Johnson, Professor of Latin, in Uni-
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Arnold's Classical Series has attained a circulation almost unparalleled, having been
tntroduced into nearly all the leading educational institutions in the United States.
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imitation and repetition, the means which Nature herself points out to the child learn-
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elegant writers and speakers of antiquity.
The First and Second Latin Book should be put into the hands of the beginners, who
will soon acquire from its pages a better idea of the language than could be gained by
months of study according to the old system. The reason of this is, that every thing
has a practical bearing, and a principle is no sooner learned than it is applied. The pupil
is at once set to work on exercises.
The Prose Composition forms an excellent sequel to the above work, or may be
used with any other course. It teaches the art of writing Latin more correctly and
thoroughly, more easily and pleasantly, than any other work. In its pages Latin Syno-
nymes are carefully illustrated, differences of idioms noted, cautions as to common errors
impressed on the mind, and every help afforded toward attaining a pure and flowing
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From N. WHEELER, Principal of Worcester County High School.
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cºnfident a much more ample return for the time and labor bestowed by our youth upon
jatin must be secured. The time certainly has come when an advance must be made
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From C. M. BLAKE, Classical Teacher, Philadelphia.
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finished the First and Second Book. They had studied Latin for a long time be
but never whderstood it, they say, as they do now.”
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