!
DA
ARTES
1817
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUEBOR
SI QUERIS PENINSULAM·AMITHAM"
CIRCUMSPICE
半
​ļ
3
THE
ARCHEOLOGY OF
OF ROME,
BY
C.B.
JOHN HENRY PARKER, C. B.
HON. M.A. OxoN., F.S.A. LOND. ;
KEEPER OF THE ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND ARCHEOLOGY, OXFORD;
VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE OXFORD ARCHITECTURAL AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY,
AND OF THE BRITISH AND AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF ROME;
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ARCHEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE,
MEMBRE DE LA SOCIETÉ FRANÇAISE D'ARCHÉOLogie,
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS,
AND OF VARIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN.
PART IX.
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
PART X.
SCULPTURE.
OXFORD:
JAMES PARKER AND CO.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
1877.


TOMBS
IN AND NEAR ROME.
ERS
SCULPTURE AMONG THE GREEKS AND ROMANS,
MYTHOLOGY IN
FUNEREAL SCULPTURE,
AND
EARLY CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE.
BY
JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B.
HON. M. A. Oxon., F.S. A. Lond.;
KEEPER OF THE ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF Oxford, etc.
OXFORD:
JAMES PARKER AND CO.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
1877.
011 034
546
9/5/18 EM
Directions to the Binder.
THE TOMBS, &c.
Title and Contents, and List of Plates
Preface
Text and Appendices
Errata
PAGES
6
•
8
48
2
Description of the Plates-Of Diagrams
4
Of Photo-engravings
20
·
SCULPTURE.
Preface, Contents, and List of Plates
Text
Description of the Plates-Photo-engravings
Catalogue of Historical Photographs
•
•
•
IO
92
19
36
245
THE TOMBS.
་
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
THE number of Roman tombs is so enormous, and their variety
of forms so infinite, that it would be absurd to attempt to give any
general account of them in a single chapter of moderate length;
they would afford ample materials for a volume, or more than one
volume. But by limiting my subject to those in Rome itself or in
the immediate neighbourhood, the task was not so difficult, and it
is useful in more than one respect. The exact localities of the
tombs within the wall of Aurelian (which is also the present wall
of Rome) is important as indicating the boundaries of the ancient
City of the Kings. No tombs have ever been found within the
limits of THE CITY properly so called, that is, the line of Servius
Tullius, which continued to be the boundary of THE CITY down to
the time of Aurelian, A.D. 375, or for nearly a thousand years. It
is, therefore, certain that each gate of the City was within the site
of the nearest tomb. That of Bibulus is at the east end of the
Capitoline Hill, but with a considerable portion of the north-east
corner projecting beyond it, so that a portion of the ancient fortress
was used to protect the approach to the principal northern gate,
and this was the case with the other fortified hills also. It was the
custom of the Etruscans, and of other people of the same period as
the Etruscan cities, to bury their dead, or at least persons of dis-
tinction, on the outer bank of the fortifications, outside of the great
wide and deep trench, or foss, that formed a necessary part of the
early fortifications. The tomb of Bibulus originally stood on such
a bank, and was a detached building, open on all sides, though now
hid by houses except on one side. It now stands on the eastern
side of the Via di Marforio, which is a modern street in this part;
and about a hundred yards to the south of this tomb there is an
evident ridge across the street, which is formed by the agger or
bank and wall of the time of the early kings of Rome. The cellars
of the houses in that part of the street which is outside of this ridge
have such remains in them as clearly shew that they are built in
the great foss, and that the Forum of Trajan extended in that part
right up to the foot of the old wall. This tomb, therefore, clearly
shews the limit of the City in this direction, and indicates the site
of the north-east gate.
iv
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
Other tombs were found by Canina about 1824, in the valley
and trench under the Villa Mattei or Celi-Montana, which prove
that the southern boundary, with the Porta Capena, was farther to
the north than these tombs, and beyond the gorge in the Cœlian
Hill, although the mouth of that gorge is close to the spot where
they were found. Remains of that southern entrance into the City
were also found about a hundred yards to the north of this gorge,
during the excavations of 1870.
Two tombs of the first century of the Christian era, or of about
the time of Nero, are visible at the east end of the City, one on
either side of the great foss or narrow valley that separated the east
end of the Coelian Hill from the Lateran fortress (which was ori-
ginally a detached fortress, probably made on the Celiolum): one
is on the bank of that fortress, and was probably the tomb of the
Lateran family; this is on the eastern side of the trench; the other
is on the western side of it, under an arch in the bank, made in
modern times to carry the road across the great foss, that bank is
now in the garden that belonged to the museum of the Marquis
Campana. These two tombs, therefore, fix the eastern boundary of
THE CITY, which has been much disputed.
Within the present walls some other tombs of considerable in-
terest remain; the whole line of the Via Appia, from its commence-
ment at the Porta Capena, in the wall of the CITY, to the outer
mania, where the Porta Appia was made (a distance of just one
mile), was lined with tombs on both sides; most of them were too
tempting and convenient as building materials, during the Middle
Ages, to be left standing; all that remains are the underground
parts, considered as foundations only, and these were not worth
the expense of digging out as materials. Roman tombs, as is
well known, frequently consisted of three chambers, one over the
other; the upper one was above ground, and was used for the
family festivals and commemorative feasts, and frequently as a sort
of guest-chamber; in the next chamber, just underground, or half-
underground, were the columbaria, or pigeon-holes for the cinerary
urns, of the bodies that had been burnt; under this, and consider-
ably underground, was the chamber for the sarcophagi, or stone
coffins, for bodies that were buried and not burnt; in the walls of
this crypt there are often columbaria also. During the whole of the
first century, and sometimes a little before and after that period,
the two modes of disposing of the bodies went on simultaneously,
some were burnt and others were buried. There are several tombs
now remaining visible at Ostia and at Cento-Celle, as well as in
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
V
Rome itself, where examples of these two modes of interment can
be seen in the same tomb. One of those in Rome is the tomb of
Claudius Vitalis, the architect of the Neronian arcade (as I believe),
built on the side of the bank on which the arcade passes above;
also one of the well-known painted tombs on the Via Latina has
both modes of interment. The tomb of the Scipios was for stone
coffins only; that ancient family prided themselves on their Etruscan
origin, and in keeping up the older Etruscan custom of burying the
bodies of the family, and not burning them. One of the tombs of
the first century, near the Porta Appia, is usually called a colum-
barium, because the walls are all filled with columbaria, or niches.
There are many instances of tombs being connected with catacombs.
There are several catacombs on the Via Appia and Via Latina
under tombs.
The custom of burning the dead bodies only came into fashion
in the latter half of the time of the Republic, and did not continue
altogether more than three or four centuries; it came in gradually,
and went out gradually, perhaps the Christian repugnance to the
practice hastened the abandonment of it.
All people like to give as much publicity as possible to the tombs
of their deceased relatives, as may be seen in any churchyard or
cemetery; and with the Romans this seems to have been remark-
ably the case. The Gates of Rome,-not merely those of THE
CITY, but those in the outer mania, on which the wall of Aurelian
was afterwards built, were therefore favourite places for tombs
of importance. The tomb of Eurysaces the Baker at the Porta
Maggiore is a well-known instance; and in pulling down the Porta
Salaria, during the restoration of the Walls of Rome in 1870, some
interesting tombs were brought to light. One of these closely re-
sembled the tomb of Bibulus, another was the very curious one
of the precocious scholar, Quintus Sulpitius Maximus, at the age
of thirteen the successful prize-man against fifty-two competitors
in Greek and Latin verse, in A.D. 98. The great mausolea of the
Emperors Augustus and Hadrian are tombs, although they are also
more than tombs. That of Alexander Severus, on the Via Latina,
is a regular tumulus, with the chamber of the tomb in it, and a medi-
eval tower built upon it. That of Cæcilia Metella is a landmark
to all that part of the country, with the medieval fortification built
upon it and round it. From the number of tombs found at Cento-
Celle, three miles on the Via Labicana, one of the cemeteries of
Rome must have been there in the first century, when that at the
Esquiline was abandoned. From the third to the sixth century
vi
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
the Catacombs seem to have been the usual cemetery for the middle
and lower classes; the spaces allotted on the sides of the roads
having been previously all sold to the great families.
Some tombs are so closely connected with the Catacombs that
they might belong indifferently to either chapter in this work.
There is a fine tomb of the first century over the Jews' catacomb in
the Via Appia; the internal arrangement of that tomb is peculiar,
or at least very unusual,-there are niches for images, which are not
likely to have been used in the tomb of a Jew. In one of the
chambers of the catacomb nearly under this is a Pagan sarcophagus,
and painted on the wall of the arch over it is the seven-branched
candlestick, the well-known emblem of a Jew. Putting these things
together, may not some wealthy Jewish heiress in the first century
have married a Pagan, and no distinction of religion being made
after death, both were here buried under this tomb?
The catacomb of S. Calixtus is on the opposite side of the road,
not far from this of the Jews; and there also is a fine tomb of
the second or third century, one side of which has been destroyed,
and the interior of the upper chamber has very much the ap-
pearance of one of the Christian chapels usual at the entrance
to the Catacombs; but De Rossi pronounces it a Pagan tomb,
and does not allow that there was any original connection between
this and the catacomb beneath it. Nevertheless, there is a door in
the lower chamber of the right-hand or northern side, which opens
on to the top of a steep flight of steps, descending into one of the
corridors or passages of the great catacomb below in a straight line,
and very steep; the lower part of this has been studiously filled-up,
and another opening made on to the steps sideways, through an
arch or vault cut in the tufa rock, with a very rapid descent into
another corridor in this catacomb, parallel to the first. The present
entrances to these catacombs now in use are both modern, it
seems not improbable that the original entrance was through this
tomb by the side of the road. In the catacomb of S. Agnes
recent excavations, made by the good monks there, have shewn
that no less than five Pagan tombs have openings from them
into it. The upper parts of these tombs have been destroyed, and
the ground above is now occupied by the church and monastery
and the garden of the monks; but the two lower chambers remain
in each case, in the upper of which are columbaria, in the lower one
the place for bodies, and in the ground beneath are the catacombs,
which may have belonged to the same families as the tombs: it
seems probable that after each tomb was full, and the family still
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
vii
went on increasing in numbers, room was wanted for more bodies,
and therefore these openings were made into the catacomb or burial-
place under each of the tombs.
A class of tombs may be mentioned here, as they are numerous,
and are not generally understood. These are built in imitation of
the funeral pyre, to which the Romans attached so much importance.
The mass of fagots used for burning the bodies is represented by
a mass of concrete from ten to twenty feet high, and the great
beams of wood which were placed across the fagots in layers,
with the ends projecting, are represented by pieces of travertine
or of marble, about a foot square, projecting from the concrete
mass two or three feet. In most instances these projecting pieces
have been chopped off, and carried away for building materials;
but portions of them frequently remain, and in some cases they
are nearly perfect, as one near Tivoli, and another, not quite so
perfect, near the tomb of Cecilia Metella.
Another important use of tombs is for the HISTORY OF ARCHITEC-
TURE, the date of a tomb being generally fixed by the inscription
found upon it, and many tombs being important structures, quite
sufficient to shew the architectural character of the period. To this
class belong not only the great mausolea before mentioned, but
many of the tombs by the sides of the roads; such as are of brick
especially shew the character of the brickwork of the period very
distinctly. In our series of photographs there are many fine ex-
amples of the brickwork of the best period, the first century,-
especially the time of Nero. The celebrated tomb called Deo Redi-
culo, in the valley of the Caffarella, is an excellent example of this
construction of the best period. Our Chronological List of Tombs
supplies also an excellent list of examples of the architecture of each
period, from the tombs of the Scipios, B.C. 303, and of Cecilia Metella,
B.C. 50, down to the Middle Ages and to modern times.
The Baker's Tomb at the Porta Maggiore is a very curious.
piece of construction, being built of old stone ovens (?), or an imita-
tion of them (?). The tomb of the Imperial family of the Gordiani
is a good example of the brickwork of the third century, and that of
S. Helena of the fourth, the end of the Imperial period in Rome.
After that time we have generally buildings erected of old materials,
and rapidly degenerating into the barbarism of the tenth century.
Some of our finest SCULPTURES have come from tombs, whether
merely busts of the deceased, or full-length effigies, of which those of
the baker, Eurysaces, and his wife, Aristia, are not bad examples of
their period; (these should be replaced at the end of the tomb from
viii
PREFACE TO THE TOMBS.
which they were taken). The numerous half-recumbent effigies be-
long generally to an earlier period of the semi-Etruscan character.
The figure of the precocious youth, Sulpitius Maximus, at the Porta
Salaria, is a good piece of sculpture of the end of the first century.
A large proportion of the finest panels of sculpture have come from
the sides of tombs or of sarcophagi, whether of Pagan mythology or
of Christian subjects. For these we must refer to the chapter on
Sculpture.
The PAINTED CHAMBERS in the interior of tombs also afford an
excellent series of dated examples of fresco-painting. Some of the
best that have been preserved in our time are those of the tomb in
the garden of the Pamphili Doria; a very remarkable set of the best
period, the latter part of the time of Augustus. The painted tombs
on the Via Latina of the second century, have also become justly
celebrated; there are also some paintings in the sepulchral chamber
inside of the pyramid of Caius Cestius, and there are remains of old
fresco-paintings in very numerous other instances, but they are not
often so well preserved as these. For this subject we must refer to
the chapter on Painting.
CONTENTS.
ROMAN TOMBS IN GENERAL
WITHIN THE WALL OF AURELIAN.
THE NECROPOLIS; Tomb of the Scipios
Bibulus-Titus Claudius Vitalis
Columbaria in the Exquiliæ
Mausoleum of Augustus
The Rogus
Mausoleum of Sylla
Family of Domitia
The Lateran Family
•
Pomponius Hylas
OFFICERS OF CÆSAR'S HOUSEHOLD
OUTSIDE OF THE WALL OF AURELIAN.
SERVANTS OF LIVIA AUGUSTUS
The Empress Priscilla
-Cæcilia Metella
Deo Ridicolo
·
D
M. Aurelius Syntomus
Cento Celle
VIA LABICANA.
The Painted Tombs
Alexander Severus
Caius Cestius
VIA LATINA.
PORTA OSTIENSIS.
VIA FLAMINIA.
Naso Family.
PORTA SALARIA.
Quintus Sulpitius Maximus
APPENDIX.
PORTA MAGGIORE.
The Baker's Tomb-Eurysaces and Atistia
Tombs excavated by the Marquis Campana
Tombs excavated in 1875-76 .
Fresco Paintings in Tombs
b
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4
5
7
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I 2
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13
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14
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16
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21
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25
226
27
29
ib.
31
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33
35
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42
PLATE
LIST OF PLATES.-THE TOMBS.
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
COLUMBARIA.
I. TOMB of the Officers of Cæsar's Household.
II.
III.
Plan and Section.
with Columbaria, Cinerary Urns, and Busts.
Cinerary Urns, and Busts.
IV. Tomb in the Exquiliæ, with Columbaria, excavated in 1871..
I. Tombs of the Scipios.
I. View of the Original Entrance, from a cross-road now subterranean.
2. Plan, with the house above, on the site of an old temple.
II. 1. Tomb of Caius Bibulus, Ædile, B. C. 34, now in the Via di Marforio,
at the foot of the Capitoline Hill.
2. Tomb at the Porta Salaria, of the same period, excavated in 1872.
III. 1. Tomb of Eurysace the Baker and his wife Atistia, B.C. 20 (?). View
taken at the angle, close to the Porta Maggiore.
2. The Effigies of Eurysaces and Atistia, now built into the wall on the
opposite side of the road. This was done in 1833, when the tomb
was excavated. These effigies should have been replaced at the
broken end of the tomb..
IV. Tomb of Eurysaces.
1. Section of the Tomb and of the Gate.
2. Plan of the same.
V. Tomb of Caius Cestius, at the Porta Ostiensis, in the form of an Egyptian
Pyramid.
1. View, with part of the Wall of Aurelian and of the Gate.
2. Plan, shewing the very small aperture in the centre.
VI. Tomb (?) (or Monument?) called Deo Ridicolo, erected to commemorate
the return of the army of Hannibal from that meadow.
1. Eastern side.
2. Western side.
VII. Tomb of Priscilla, A. D. 90.
1. Exterior, with medieval round tower built upon it.
2. Plan, with the niches for statues round it.
VIII. Tomb of Romulus, son of Maxentius, on the Via Appia, near his Circus.
View, Plan, and Section.
IX. 1. Tomb of the Lateran Family of the first century, on the bank of the
garden of their Palace, and on the edge of the great foss between
the Lateran and the Colian Hill.
2. Tomb of Vibius Marianus, commonly miscalled the Tomb of Nero,
on the road to Veii.
xii
CONTENTS.
PLATE
X. Effigy of Quintus Sulpicius Maximus.
XI. Tomb of the Freedmen of Livia Augusta, at the first mile from the Porta
di S. Sebastiano, on the Via Appia.
1. Exterior, shewing the construction of brick similar to the Pantheon.
2. Interior, with the numerous Columbaria.
XII. Two Tombs on the Via Appia, shewing the construction of the concrete
mass representing the fagots, and remains of the piece of marble
that represent the timbers used in the funeral pyre.
XIII. Painted Tombs on the Via Latina, two miles from Rome. Plan and
Section.
XIV.
XV.
one side.
of the Vault.
Diagrams of the Paintings on the Vault, and on
Details of part of one side, and one compartment
Mythological subjects on the Walls. Two Views.
XVI.
XVII. Tomb of Statilius Taurus, B.C. 30.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
Sections, shewing the Position of the Frescoes.
Figure of the Shepherd, and Three Sheep.
Fresco Painting.
TOMBS.
THE variety in the form and in the size of ancient Roman tombs
is endless; beginning with a simple mound of earth or a heap of
stones, they are developed into pyramids, towers, temples, mauso-
leums, columns, and sometimes great palaces, such as the Septi-
zonium of Septimius Severus, intended for the burial-place of himself
and his family. Very magnificent tombs are sometimes found in
solitary places in the heart of the mountains; but they are more
usually placed on the sides of the roads, a strip of ground on each
side being left for that purpose. The space belonging to each
family was enclosed with a wall or railing. Such space was usually
a parallelogram with the narrow end to the road; the part behind
was called in agro or in the field, the part next the road was called
in fronte. There were proper officers, whose duty it was to look
after the tombs, to receive the money for the ground, and see that
it was carefully preserved for the family to whom it belonged.
The custom of the ancient Romans, to make a tomb an exact copy
of the house in which the deceased had lived, is a continuation of
the practice of the ancient Etruscans, whose tombs, though cut out
of the solid rock, are cut in the form of wooden beams and ceilings,
and posts to carry them, as at Veii, and many others. This custom,
as continued by the Romans, makes it often difficult to distinguish
between a tomb and a house; sometimes it would appear that actual
houses were converted into tombs, or that the tombs in the Cam-
pagna were used as country houses, and intended to be so used
when they were decorated and fitted up. Perhaps, however, this
was only for the family to assemble and commemorate the death on
certain anniversaries. The mouths of the wells a frequently bear
marks of being worn away by the cord or chain of the bucket.
Sometimes the actual house was converted into a tomb; this was
an Etruscan custom, followed by the Romans at an early period.
Such a case is mentioned by Isidorus, but these were probably
These wells are said to have been
for the purpose of purification; they are
found also in the Etruscan tombs, and
B
in some instances at the entrance to
a catacomb.
Isidorus, Orig. xv. ii.
2
Tombs.
exceptional cases. Livy says they were usually buried in their fields,
that is, in the ground belonging to their villas or farms, when they
died in the country. None were permitted to be buried within the city,
but the tombs begin very close to the gates.
It was also the custom of the ancient Romans, as is well known,
to hold funeral feasts, and commemorative funeral banquets called
silicernia, in honour of deceased members of the family. Such feasts
were also held annually at the latter end of the month of February,
when a great festival was held called Feralia, corresponding to the
Jour des morts in France and other Roman Catholic countries.
A dining-hall, with its triclinium or apse, was sometimes built ad-
joining to a tomb for this purpose, as at Pompeii, outside of the
gate of Herculaneum, at the tomb of Nævoleia Tyche. The upper
chamber of a tomb, by the side of the road, was frequently fitted up
as a dining-room, and richly decorated with ornaments and fresco
paintings, in which the funeral banquets or silicernia were celebrated.
Under this was another chamber, in which the sarcophagi for the
bodies were placed, and on the walls of which were also the colum-
baria (or pigeon-holes) for the olla or urns for the burnt ashes. This
chamber is sometimes cruciform, with a place for a sarcophagus at
the end of each arm of the cross, and columbaria in the walls of the
passage. This arrangement of the plan generally belongs to the
first or second century of the Christian era, but does not appear to
have any reference to Christianity. This plan is sometimes found
before the Christian era, as in the great mausoleum of the time of
Sylla, between the Thermæ of Caracalla and the Walls of Aurelian.
It seems not improbable that the handsome painted chambers
over the tombs, of the times of the early Empire, were used not
only for the commemorative funeral feasts, but for country houses
in the summer also. The well could hardly be so much worn away
by annual feasts only.
Under the chamber for the sarcophagi there was frequently also
a catacomb, as in some of the tombs now remaining on the Via
Latina and the Via Appia. A certain space of ground having been
sold in perpetuity to a particular family, and the right of property
descending to any depth, they excavated the ground beneath the
tombs when more room for bodies was wanted.
d
Eusebius in his life of Constantine says that he "appears to be still
c Livii Hist., vi. 36.
d "I am indeed amazed when I con-
sider that he who was but lately visible
and present with us in his mortal body,
is still seen after death, when the natu-
ral thought disclaims all superfluous
distinctions as unsuitable, most marvel-
lously endowed with the same imperial
Tombs in Rome.
3
:
amongst us" several years after his death. Constantine was buried
in the church of the Apostles, at Constantinople; whether the inter-
ment of the body took place before this striking passage in Eusebius.
was written, or afterwards, has not been mentioned. It may be that
Constantine was embalmed, clothed in his imperial vestments, and
seated on a throne, as Eusebius had been accustomed to see him.
This was certainly done with the remains of Gallia Placidia at Ra-
venna; her body, clothed in robes of state and seated on a throne,
was placed in a large sarcophagus made for the purpose, and standing
in her tomb, which is a small cruciform chapel, richly decorated with
mosaics, in which other members of her family are also interred.
Her body remained in this state without change until about the year
1800, when it was accidentally burnt by some children, who were
allowed to play there. Charlemagne appears to have been treated
in the same manner at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the church there, mis-
called a cathedral, was in fact "la Chapelle" erected as a tomb for
the great Emperor.
TOMBS WITHIN THE WALL OF AURELIAN.
There are many remains of tombs within the present wall of
Rome, that is, within the outer wall rebuilt by Aurelian, but outside
of the wall of the CITY of the Kings, built by Servius Tullius, which
continued to be the boundary of THE CITY throughout the whole
period of the Republic and the Early Empire. They are for the
most part mere ruins, excepting the subterranean f parts, in some of
dwellings, and honours, and praises as
heretofore. (Eusebius de Vita Con-
stantini,_cap. 2.)
* See Ducange, Constantinopolis Chris-
trana, lib. iv. edit. Lut., Paris, 1623,
fol. p. 108.
f During the excavations made in
1871 on the northern side of the Vimi-
nal Hill, a very early and curious sub-
terranean cave, or tomb, was found.
It appears to be a sepulchre hewn out
of the rock, with the place for more
than one sarcophagus on one side below
the level of the floor, on the other side
niches for images, and at the end three
short marble columns for bases to im-
ages (?). This was at first thought to
be a Mithræum, or cave of Mithras,
and the same that is described by Fla-
minio Vacca as rifled in his time; but
the Cavaliere Visconti, who has given
special attention to the caves and temples
of Mithras, says that they all have
couches against the walls, and sufficient
space for lamps in front of the couches,
all turned towards the idol of Mithras
in the centre. In this cave or sepul-
chre, there are no couches, there is not
space enough for them, and it is of
earlier character than any of the caves
of Mithras; there is no brickwork here,
whereas in the Mithræum found at
S. Clemente in 1870, the walls are lined
with brick of the time of Hadrian. It is
now supposed that this is the sepulchre
of one of the early kings of Rome, be-
fore the time of Servius Tullius, as it is
within the walls of the city made by
him, and no tombs were ever made
within the city. There is Opus Reticula-
tum on the wall at the entrance to this
cave, which would mark the time of
the Empire, but this wall does not
necessarily belong to the original work.
B 2
4
Tombs.
which are the columbaria for the cinerary urns, and sometimes the
sarcophagi, as in the tomb of the Scipios.
The triangular plot of ground at the junction of the Via Appia
and the Via Latina, within the wall of Aurelian, which forms the
base of it, has often been called the Necropolis of Rome in the first
century of the Christian era. Perhaps the tombs were only placed on
the sides of the roads as usual, and where these roads approached
so closely together, nearly the whole ground became filled by tombs.
In addition to the two main lines, there was a cross-street also
from one to the other, and the celebrated tomb of the SCIPIOS was
at the south-west angle of this cross-road, where it left the Via
Appia; but the front of the tomb was towards this, and it still
exists, though now underground, owing to the filling-up of the
trenches in which these streets were made. The Via Appia in
that part remains at the old low level, and is a regular foss-way, as
may be seen by the arch of Drusus standing in it, and the ground
level with the top of the arch on both sides; but the cross-road has
been filled up to the level of the ground in the vineyards, for the
purpose of cultivation. The front is the most perfect part of the
tomb in its present state, and is not devoid of architectural character,
with rude Ionic pilasters, though rough and early, and there is a
moulded cornice, and for effect in a narrow street it is not ill-suited.
The tomb was only discovered in 1780; before that time it had been
supposed to be outside of the Porta di S. Sebastiano, which was con-
fused with the Porta Capena, the real site of which is just a mile to
the north of it. As Livy mentions that the tomb was outside of the
Porta Capena, the actual situation agrees well with his history. The
remains belong to the lower story of the tomb only, which is a sort
of catacomb, though called a hypogeum; there evidently was an upper
story, which had been destroyed long before, probably for the use
of the materials for building purposes, as usual. Livy mentions three
statues, which were no doubt in the upper part. At the time it was
found, the then reigning Pope, Pius VI. (who was in advance of his
age), wished it to be preserved intact; but his ignorant subordinates.
the more ignorant common people, and the jobbing architects of the
day, made it impossible to carry out this plan. In order to preserve
the sarcophagi which were found in the tomb, they were removed to
the Vatican Museum, where, when it is open, they may still be seen.
Under the pretext of preservation and restoration, new walls were
built in all directions, and the original plan destroyed.
Nibby has preserved and published plans both in its original state
before it was restored, and in its present state, and we can thereby
Tombs in Rome.
5
2;
see what the architects of the eighteenth century called restoration,
as usual, it is entirely a new thing called by the old name. Enough
remains to be still interesting, although the original inscriptions have
been carried away to the museums: plaster casts of the most im-
portant of them are left in their original places, and are faithful
reproductions of them. With this help the plan can still be made
out, though with difficulty. The statues mentioned by Livy are
probably now in some of the museums; these were of two of the
Scipio family, and one of the poet Ennius ".
It is well known that the Scipios prided themselves on their early
Etruscan origin, and in keeping up the old customs of their family;
it has been even said that their sarcophagi were studiously made of
the rough peperino instead of the more fashionable travertine or
marble, and that they studiously preserved the antique language in
the inscriptions. It is far more probable that these things really are
ancient, not an imitation of antique. The sarcophagus of Cornelius
Lucius Scipio Barbatus, now in the Vatican Museum, has all the
appearance of genuine antiquity, and the language of the inscription
has also a very genuine appearance. One of these antique inscrip-
tions had been found before on the same site; and when put together,
they go far to give a history of the great Scipio family, and to prove
its antiquity. They are to be found in all the great collections of
inscriptions, and in Nibby's work; this is not the place to copy
them, but one or two may be given for examples, and will be found
in the notes h.
The tomb of Bibulus and that of the family of Claudius, of which
g "Romae extra portam Capenam
in Scipionum monumento tres statuæ
sunt: quarum duæ P. et L. Scipio-
num dicuntur esse, tertia poetæ Q.
Ennii." (Livii Hist., xxxviii. 56.)
h CORNELIVS LVCIVS SCIPIO BARBA-
TVS GNAIVOD PATRE
PROGNATVS. FORTIS VIR SAPIENSQVE.
QVOIVS FORMA VIRTVTEI PARI-
SVMA
FVIT. CONSVL. CENSOR AIDILIS. QVEI
FVIT APVD VOS TAVRASIA
CISAVNA
•
•
SAMNIO CEPIT. SVBIGIT OMNE LOV-
CANA. OPSIDESQVE ABDOVCIT.
It is said that in this sarcophagus
a head was found with a remarkably
long white beard.
*
HONC. OINO. PLOIRVME CONSEN-
TIONT. R...
DVONORO. OPTVMO, FVISE. VIRO
LVCIOM . SCIPIONE FILIOS. BAR-
BATI
CONSOL. CENSOR
CENSOR. AIDILIS. HIC .
•
FVET. A...
HEC. CEPIT. CORSICA. ALERIAQVE.
VRBE
DEDET. TEMPESTATIBVS AIDE
MERITO.
•
The language of this inscription is
half Etruscan, and has all the marks
of genuine antiquity. From this we
see also that the Scipios founded the
temple of Tempestas, which stood either
over this subterranean tomb, or very
near to it.
i The tomb of Caius Publicius Bibu-
lus is said to be of the time of the Re-
public, but not long before the end of
it. The inscription upon it states that
he had eminently distinguished himself
during his ædileship, and received from
the Roman Senate and people a burial-
place at the public expense for himself
and his family. This inscription is visible
on the west side, and part of a duplicate
of it on the south side. It is supposed
to have been repeated on all the four
6
Tombs.
k
the ruins remain nearly opposite to that of Bibulus, are at the foot of
the Capitol in the Via di Marforio, at the beginning of the ancient Via
Flaminia leading to the north. Tombs also begin close to the Porta
Capena on the south. Canina saw some in the valley under the
Villa Mattei; Nibby and Guidi found others behind S. Sisto Vecchio,
both of them were on the line of the old Via Appia. Below S. Sisto
Vecchio, after the junction of the Via Latina, there are ruins of
several tombs on the bank on the west side of the road, and others
a little further on. These were excavated in 1787, and an account
of them was published in Guattani's Archæological Notes'. Inscrip-
tions then found on two of them opposite to the tomb of the Scipios,
shewed them to belong to the families of Furius and Manilius; but
they were all either destroyed or buried again. There is another
tomb of some importance, with columbaria, in the vineyard near the
Porta S. Sebastiano, on the west side.
That of the family of Titus Claudius Vitalis, an architect of the
first century, is situated on the northern side of the great bank
on which the arcade of the aqueduct of Nero is carried, between
the Lateran and the Porta Maggiore. This tomb stands close to
the foot of the arches of Nero (though on a lower level, on the
side of the sloping bank); and from this circumstance it has
been supposed that the architect was employed by Nero to con-
struct the arcade, and was the architect of his aqueduct. It was
only discovered by accident about 1860, in the garden of the Villa
Volkonski, having been buried for centuries by the filling-up of the
foss-way on the side of which it stood. The two lower stories are
perfect; the upper one had a front to the street; the third story,
which had been above-ground, has been destroyed. The pavement
of the street remains in front of it, not at the lowest level. There is
one story under the level of the street, and always entirely under-
ground, called the hypogeum, in which the principal sarcophagus
was placed; but the walls of it are filled with columbaria. The
doorway is on the level of the floor above, the walls of which are
also filled with columbaria, and which appears also to have had
sides, but the others are hid by modern
houses. The lower story is also buried
to the depth of ten feet by the filling up
of the foss-way. Caius Bibulus is men-
tioned by Tacitus (Ann. iii. 52) as
having begun the complaint against the
prevalent extravagances, which was
taken up by the other ædiles in the
time of Tiberius. That of the Gens
Claudia is mentioned by Suetonius as
being under the Capitol. (Suet. in Ti-
berio I.)
k
Some say that this part of the road
was called Via Lata, although it must
always have been extremely narrow,
and that name implies a wide road.
They also contend that the Via Fla-
minia only began at the outer Gate,
called Porta Flaminia, at the west end
of the Pincian Hill, and near the Tiber;
but there is no evidence of this.
1 Notizie sulle Antichità, e belle Arti
di Roma per l'amo, 1787, c. 1788, 4to.,
and Canina, Indicazione, p. 62.
Tombs in Rome.
7
a sarcophagus in it. There is an original staircase on the side
next the street, going both downwards to the hypogeum, and up-
wards into the upper chamber. A second pavement also remains
a few feet above the other, shewing that here, as in many other
parts of Rome, an attempt has been made to render the old foss-
ways more convenient by raising the level of them, before it was
decided to fill them up altogether, and carry the new road by the
side of them.
The bank on which this tomb stands, and on which the arches
of Nero run, is evidently artificial in this part, and from thence to
the east end, where it is cut through by the road made by Sixtus V.,
in the sixteenth century; in that cutting remains of old walls with
Opus Reticulatum can be seen, part of a house of the first century,
built upon this bank, in the same manner as those of the same
period found upon the agger of Servius Tullius at the railway station.
There is another tomb of the first century further on to the west,
also on the northern side of this bank, now in the garden of the
Villa of Prince Massimo (which is probably on the site of that of the
family of the Asinii). The tomb is nearly under the Scala Santa of
the Lateran; it is in a bad state, but the interior wall is faced with
the usual reticulated work. This also stands on the slope of the
bank towards the same foss-way, which ran along at the foot of it,
from the Porta Maggiore to the eastern end of the Cœlian Hill, and
further west under the northern side of the Cœlian. Another
tomb of about the same period is in the garden of the Campana
Museum, on the Coelian; and the great foss at the east end of the
Coelian, between the City and the Lateran, passes between that tomb
and that of the Lateran family against the cliff of their fortress.
Another short bank traverses this great foss to carry the arcade of
the aqueduct, and passes between these two tombs. The Lateran
stands chiefly on a small natural hill (probably the Cœliolum), but
eastward of it the bank on which stands the Villa Volkonski with
its garden, is the work of men's hands.
One of the principal burial-places for Rome in the time of
the Republic was on the eastern side in the ground called the
Exquilia, outside of the wall of Servius Tullius and of the boun-
dary of the City. Many excavations were made in this ground in
1871, and numerous tombs lined with columbaria were found, also
a number of old tombstones, with inscriptions of the time of the
Republic. On a higher level than these were remains of several
aqueducts, with their reservoirs and filtering-places and fountains.
This was evidently the district made into gardens by Mæcenas, in
8
Tombs.
what had been a great burial-ground for plebeians and slaves, and
a place of public execution.
MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUstus.
The miserable remains of this once magnificent structure are stil
of great interest, although at first sight they are very disappointing;
and it seems hardly credible that this is all that is left of the tomb
of the great Augustus, that magnificent work which was the admira-
tion of the world. Enough remains, indeed, to leave no doubt of
the fact that this is the site, and even to enable us to make out the
plan. We are told by Suetonius m that it was between the Via
Flaminia (now the Corso) and the bank of the Tiber (on which the
Via di Ripetta now runs), and we find these ruins precisely in that
situation. The modern prominent boundaries of it are,-the great
church of S. Carlo in the Corso, to the south-west; the church and
lying-in hospital of S. Rocco, or S. Rock, in the Via Ripetta, to the
south-east; and the Via dei Pontifici to the north, the present en-
trance being from that street. All this ground belonged to the
Campus Martius, which was considered the most honourable place
of burial at that period". A considerable part of it must have been
enclosed for this purpose; the great tumulus or mound that covered
the tomb was evidently of large size; it was planted with trees,
and there were public walks upon it, and a wood to the north of it,
which extended into what is now the Piazza del Popolo. Within
this enclosure was also the Rogus, or Bustum, the place for burning
the bodies, which was discovered in 1777, near the church of S. Carlo,
where many remains were found at the depth of nineteen feet;
amongst them the beautiful alabaster vase now in the Vatican
Museum. All this belonged to, or was connected with, the Great
Mausoleum, and it has been remarked that this is the unique tomb in
Rome to which that name is given by ancient authors; it was the
only one that was considered fit to be compared with the tomb
of Mausolus, King of Caria, which was called one of the seven
wonders of the world. The mausoleum was begun in the sixth
consulate of Augustus P (A.U.C. 726, B.C. 28), but it must have been
a long time in hand.
The wood is described as behind this tomb, because the ori-
ginal entrance was towards the city, or on the south side, opposite
to the Pantheon, which faced to the north; and this entrance is near
m Suetonii Octavianus, c. 100.
n Dion Cassius, lib. xvii. c. 48.
• The same name is given by later
writers to the tomb of Hadrian and
others, but not by the early authors.
P Strabo, lib. v. c. 3.
Mausoleum of Augustus.
9
to S. Rocco, the remains of it were excavated in 1869 under my direc-
tion. A passage leads into the large central vaulted chamber of
Augustus, which is now divided into cellars by modern walls. There
was in front of it a vestibule, in which stood two obelisks; these
were found there, and removed at different times.
The principal building was circular, and 225 ft. in external
diameter; the interior is divided into the one great central vault,
which was also circular, and 130 ft. in diameter, for Augustus himself,
and thirteen smaller cells or burial-vaults for other members of the
Imperial family. Each of these cells is 35 ft. by 20. The .great
mass of the building is of concrete, as usual; but the walls are every-
where faced with the reticulated work of the period, to make a
smooth surface, and this frequently served only as the backing for
the marble slabs with the inscriptions, but was also ornamental in
itself, if no marble was required. Upon these vaults was the great
tumulus planted with trees, on the summit the colossal statue of
Augustus in bronze, and round it at a lower level were the statues
of the other Cæsars, each over his respective vault. The outer walls,
as we are told by Strabo, were faced with white marble round
the foot, which formed a basement to the whole structure, on the
summit of which was the colossal statue. On the marble slabs of the
basement were the sepulchral inscriptions, and in the vestibule also
bronze slabs, with the Fasti or Annals of Augustus engraved upon
them, one of which was the celebrated Monumentum Ancyranum,
the most authentic record we have of the works of Augustus º.
Several funeral cippi of the Cæsars and other members of the
Imperial family have been found here at different periods, and most
of them are now preserved in the Museums. One, of alabaster,
was in the rogus (as has been said), and was probably intended to
be carried to the mausoleum, of which indeed the rogus was con-
sidered as a part.
The following is Strabo's description of it :—
"The most remarkable of all the tombs in the Campus is that called the Mauso-
leum, which consists of a huge mound of earth, raised upon a lofty base of white
marble near the river bank, and planted to the summit with evergreen trees.
Upon the top is a bronze statue of Cæsar Augustus, and under the mound are the
burial-places of Augustus and his family and friends, while behind it is a spacious
wood, containing admirably-designed walks. In the middle of the Campus is the
enclosure Augustus made for burning the corpses (кaúστpa), also of white marble,
surrounded by an iron railing, and planted with poplar trees."
Although it seems from this description of Strabo to have been
This was found in the vestibule of the temple of Augustus, at Ancyra, in
Galatia.
Derm
ΙΟ
Tombs.
enclosed by a separate wall faced with marble, and with an iron
railing upon it, so that processions could go round the funeral pyre
without having to go round the whole mausoleum hill, there could
have been little more than a wide passage between them, as the
distance does not admit of more.
Cippi of the following members of the Cæsar family have been
found here at different times', namely of
1. Livilla, the daughter of Germanicus.
2. Tiberius Cæsar, the son of Drusus.
3. This is supposed by Nibby to have been the cippus of the young
Marcellus, the favourite of Augustus, one of the children of Germa-
nicus and Agrippina, who died when a boy, and whose image in the
character of a cupid, Augustus had in his bedroom, and kissed daily.
4. This, Nibby supposes to have been Caius Cæsar, who became
Emperor, and is usually called Caligula.
5. Is damaged, and the name lost; the same author conjectures
it to have been Nero, another of the sons of Germanicus.
6. This is now preserved in the courtyard of the Conservatori in
the Capitol. The inscription shews that it was the cippus or vase
to contain the bones of Agrippina, the wife of Germanicus, and
another of the children whose cippi have also been found there.
We are told by Suetonius that Germanicus married Agrippina,
daughter of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, and had nine children by
her; two died in infancy, one in boyhood, as mentioned. There
remained three daughters, Agrippina, Drusilla, Livilla; and three
sons, Nero, Drusus, and Caius, or Caligula.
7. This is preserved by Panvinius, who states that it was found in
this mausoleum. It is the tombstone of a keeper of it, in the time
of Trajan.
Another inscription is given in the Mirabilia Urbis Romæ :—
HEC. SVNT. OSSA. ET. CINIS. NERVAE. IMPERATORIS.
The following are the inscriptions:
I. LIVILLA
GERMANICI. Caes. F.
HIC. SITA. Est.
2. TI. CAESAR.
DRVSI. CAESARIS. F.
HIC. SITVS. EST.
6.
OSSA.
AGRIPPINAE. F. M. AGRIPPAE.
DIVI. AVG. NEPTIS. VXORIS.
GERMANICI. CAESARIS.
MATRIS. C. CAESARIS. AVG.
GERMANICI. PRINCIPIS.
7.
GERMANICI. CAESARIS. F.
3. C. CAESAR.
HIC. CREMATVS. EST.
4. TI. CAESAR.
5. .
•
GERMANICI. CAESARIS. F.
HIC. CREMATVS. EST.
AR.
•
ANICI
ERMANICI. CAESARIS. F.
HIC. CREMATVS. EST.
M. VLPIVS.
AVG. L. AEGLVS.
PROC. MAVSOLAEI.
IMAGINEM.
CORINTHEAM
TRAIANI. CAESARIS.
COLLEG. FAENARIOR.
• Suetonius, in Caligula, 7.
D. D.
Mausoleum of Augustus.
I I
This is stated to have been found in one of the chambers of the
lower corridor.
The position of the rogus is considered to explain passages in
Seneca, Martial", and Virgil, that were not previously understood.
Dion Cassius' gives an account of the funeral of Augustus, which
agrees perfectly with this locality:-
"Tiberius read a funeral oration to the Senate under the archway of the Porta
Triumphalis. The funeral procession then set forth, consisting of the senators, the
knights with their wives, the Pretorian Guard, and nearly the whole population
then in Rome. After the body was placed on the Rogus, in the Campus Martius,
first all the priests marched round the Rogus, then the magistrates, the knights, as
well the military knights as others, and the legionaries from the barracks in the
city; all went round the Rogus, then all the decorations of victory which they had
received from him in his many glorious victories were cast upon his body. After
this the centurion guards, as they had been ordered by the Senate, surrounded the
Rogus, and the fire was lighted. While the funeral pyre was burning, an eagle was
let loose, which seemed to carry the soul up to heaven. All then departed, except-
ing Livia, who remained, with her principal attendants, for five days, and then
collected the ashes and deposited them in the tomb."
Nerva was the last of the Emperors to be interred in this mauso-
leum, which was then full (A.D. 98). It then remained undisturbed
until (A.D. 409) the time of Alaric, when the Goths ravaged it to
search for the treasures buried with the ashes". The fortifica-
tions were strengthened in 1241, by Cardinal John Colonna against
Pope Gregory IX.; but it was besieged and taken by Matteo
Rosso the Senator. In 1354, the body of Cola di Rienzi (after
having been exposed two days and nights, near the church of
S. Marcellus in the Corso, to all the insults of the aristocratic
party, who were his most bitter enemies) was, by order of Co-
lonna, carried in the most contemptuous manner to this spot,
then called the field of Augusta. A crowd of Jews then assembled
round the body, which they placed in a heap of dry shreds; these
they set on fire, and burnt so effectually that no relics of the body
could be obtained. In 1635, the cinerary urn of Agrippina, the
wife of Germanicus, was found here, with the inscription (No. 6)
upon it. This cippus was converted into a measure for corn, called
t Seneca, Apocol., c. 14.
u
x
Martial, lib. viii. c. 75.
* Virgil., Æneid, lib. vi. v. 872,
&c.
▾ Dio Cass., lib. lvi. c. 42, &c. This
grand mausoleum is also mentioned by
Lucan, Pharsalia, lib. ii. v. 222; Ap-
pianus, lib. i. c. 107; Tacitus, Ann.,
lib. iii. c. 9; and Pausanias, lib. viii.
c. 6.
? There is no further mention of it
until the twelfth century, when the
Colonna family took possession and
made it a castle; it was at that time
called Augusta.
a Giovanni Villani, Hist., lib. v. c. I ;
Richardi di S. Germano Chronicon ;
ap. Ughelli, Italia Sacra, 2nd edit.,
vol. x. col. 238, 239.
b Muratori, Ant. Ital. Med. Ævi,
tom. iii. col. 539.
12
Tombs.
a rubbiatella or rugitella, holding 300 lbs., and another inscription
was found on the side in medieval character-RVGITELLA DE GRANO,
with the arms of the Roman senate between two soldiers. Another
inscription records the period when it was converted to this use ª.
In the early part of the fifteenth century, it is described by Poggio
as a hill planted with vines, and called Augusta. In the beginning
of the sixteenth century, Andrea Fulvio' describes it nearly as we
now see it, and mentions having seen many marble plates taken out
from it, and among them the tombstone of a freedman of Trajan—
D. M.
VLPIO MARTIALI AVGVSTI LIBERTO A MARMORIBUS.
One of the obelisks was removed by Sixtus V. to the front of S.
Maria Maggiore in 1587, the other by Pio VI., in 1790, to the Quirinal.
About the same time, the interior of the tomb was made into a
garden, and in the course of the last century was turned into the
arena of a theatre (called an amphitheatre) by the Marquis Viraldi,
to whose family it still belongs. It is now called Teatro Correa.
The great tomb or mausoleum of Hadrian was outside of the
City; it soon became an important fortress, and is much mixed up
with the medieval history of the city; it is necessarily described in
another portion of this work. That of Sylla is recorded to have been
in the Campus Martius, and was supposed to have been on the site
now occupied by the Monte Citorios. It is known that the raised
ground there is full of ruins of a building of importance, and the
Mausoleum of Sylla is likely to have been on a large scale. There is
another remarkable and important mausoleum of his time behind the
Thermæ of Caracalla, between the piscina of those therma and the
Wall of Aurelian. It is similar in plan to the mausoleum of Augustus,
d
VIRILIS. ANIMI. FOEMINAE
QVAE. VOLVNTARIA. INEDIA
FRVMENTI. VSVM. ET. VITAE. SIBI.
ADEMIT
SEPVLCRALI. HOC. LAPIDE
TRANSLATO. E. MAVSÓLEO. AVGVSTI.
EXCAVATOQVE
DIMENSVS. EST, CCC FRVMENTI.
PONDO RVDI. OLIM. SECVLO
S. P. Q. R.
EVMDEM . ALIA
. ALIA. IAM. AETATE.
LITERIS PERPOLITA
EXPOLIENDVM. ORNANDVMQ.
•
CVRAVIT
OCTAVIO. MVTO
ALEXANDRO. RONDANINO
BRVTO. GOTTIFREDO
LEONE VEROSPIO PRIORE
COSSS
• Poggii Florentini, de Fort. Variet.,
Urbis Romæ, &c., ap. Sallengre, Nov.
Thes. Antiquit. Roman., vol. i. col. 507.
f Andrea Fulvio, Antichità di Roma,
&c., l. v. c. 15, Venetia, 1588, 8vo.,
p. 171.
This has been proved not to have
been the case, by finding a hypocaust
under the pavement of the ancient court
of this building, now turned into the
House of Parliament. Others think
that the mausoleum of Sylla was in
the Piazza del Popolo, at the entrance
to the Corso, where Flaminio Vacca
saw and described a large mausoleum
covered with plates of white marble,
which was destroyed by Paul III.,
and the materials used to build the
two external towers of the Porta del
Popolo. Such a mausoleum is shewn
by Bufalini in his old pictorial map of
Rome in the sixteenth century.
Tombs in Rome.
13
and nearly as large; the upper part is covered with earth, and culti-
vated as part of the garden in which it is placed; the aisle round is
entirely filled up with earth, but was excavated in the last century;
the central part is used as a cellar. The plan is cruciform, with
short arms to the cross, and places for sarcophagi at the end of
each. The entrance is through the long arm or stem of the cross,
and this has columbaria in the walls, the surface of which is faced
with reticulated work of the time of Sylla, or perhaps rather later ¹.
The tomb of the Emperor Nero and of the family of Domitia, of
which he was a member, is usually said to have been on the site
of the church of S. Maria del Popolo by the side of the gate. That
family is believed to have lived on the Pincian, in the great fortified
palace or castle at the north-east corner, intended to protect the gate.
The remains of that castle, of which the celebrated Muro Torto forms
a part, are of the time of Sylla, and it is probable that it was built
by him to defend that entrance into Rome, when he enlarged the
pomerium or boundary of the city.
Another fine tomb was discovered on the Quirinal in making a
new street from the fountain of Trevi to the Pontifical Palace, about
A.D. 1860. It seems to have stood on the bank or agger of the old
fortifications, the pavement of a street was found thirty feet below
the surface in front of the tomb. This must have been near the site
of the Porta Sanguinalis of the old city. The base of the tomb is
preserved within the Palace called di S. Felice; it is of travertine,
and bears the inscription to Quintus Sempronius and his wife Larcia.
The upper part of the tomb was of brick, in the form of a small
chapel.
One of the towers of the Porta Nomentana, of the time of Hono-
rius, was made out of the tomb of Quintus Haterius. The inscrip-
tion was found twenty feet below the level of the ground during
some excavations made by General Zampini in 1827. Quintus
Haterius is known, being mentioned by Tacitus as among the worst
flatterers of Tiberius, and his death is recorded by the same author
in A.U.C. 780, or A.D. 27.
In that part of the Via Prænestina which is within the present
walls, but outside of the boundary of the city, are remains of several
tombs. One of these must have been of some important family, from
its large size and the importance of the structure. It is near the
No inscription has been found and
no name is given to this large and re-
markable tomb.
1 As Suetonius says that the tomb
was visible from the whole plain of the
Campus Martius, it is more probable
that it was on the hill than in the valley,
and the legend of the site being haunted
by the ghost of Nero, until it was
sanctified by the building of the church,
may be only one of the many doubtful
legends of the Roman Church.
14
Tombs.
Trophies of Marius. At first sight, it has more the appearance of
a medieval castle of small size, with four towers, under each of
which is a vaulted chamber as if for a sarcophagus, and a central
space not much larger than the towers. Nothing is known of the
history of this tomb, which is however of the time of the Empire,
though now in a very bad state, and inhabited by a gardener.
The tomb of the family of Lucius Arruntius, which was excavated
in the time of Piranesi, and admirably illustrated by him, still exists,
but in a very mutilated state; it is near the Porta Maggiore, in the
Exquiliæ, now in the same large vineyard as the building called
Minerva Medica, and there are remains of other tombs full of
columbaria. The tomb of Eurysaces the baker is outside that gate,
and has been described in another part of this work.
The tomb of the Lateran family on the bank of their castle or
palace, on the side next the Coelian, usually miscalled the "House
of Verus," is important in several points of view. The great foss
between the Lateran and the Cœlian marks the eastern boundary of
the city. This tomb stands on the opposite bank of that foss, and
the wall is lined with columbaria; it is divided into three parts, with
a round tower in the centre, faced with Opus Reticulatum of the time
of Nero, and two wings to it, the walls of all three parts filled with
columbaria. The bank made across the great foss of the city to
carry the aqueducts, and the road by the side of them are just to the
north of this tomb, and on the other side of that bank again in
the foss is the church of SS. Pietro and Marcellino. Near that,
in the garden of the Campana Museum, are remains of another
tomb of the first century *.
k
The tomb of Tiberius Claudius Vitalis, architect of the time of
Nero, standing on the same bank as his aqueduct, a little to the
east of this, has been already mentioned. (p. 6.)
Other tombs were found just outside of the Porta Lateranensis,
which is in the angle or nook formed by the projection from the
line of the wall of Rome on the north part of the old Lateran
Palace, during the excavations made under my direction in 1869
to shew the lower part of the gate. This proves that the road at
the bottom of the great foss of the city passed through the Lateran
Gate, or was connected with that road which also passed in a
straight line under the altar of S. John Lateran, where the pavement
of it was seen by the Abbot of the Monastery when the present
confessio was made. This was originally the foss-way on the east
k There is also a foolish imitation of
a tomb in the remains of the Campana
Museum, but the one here mentioned
is under the modern road, and is not
an imitation.
Tombs in Rome.
15
side of the Lateran Castle, the foss in which their tomb, before
mentioned, stands was on the west side. The ground, to the east
of this, with the nave of the church upon it, is entirely of made
earth, and full of rubbish, a filling-up of the ancient foss.
There are three tombs full of columbaria, or pigeon-holes for
cinerary urns, between the Via Latina and the Via Appia, near the
Porta Latina and the Porta di S. Sebastiano, within the Wall of
Aurelian. They are better preserved than usual, and have many
of the cinerary urns remaining in their original places in the
niches made for them. One of the fine subterranean tombs in
the Necropolis, within the present walls, near the Via Appia and
the Porta Latina, usually called the columbaria, is named after
Pomponius Hylas and Pomponia Vitalina, from the inscription at
the entrance, executed in mosaic letters, and for that reason per-
haps preserved in its place. This sepulchre has been carefully
cleared out, and is in remarkably good preservation. Several of
the cippi, when it was quite perfect, had inscriptions, which shew
that it belonged to a burial company, and that persons of different
families and of various ranks were buried here on payment for
the space occupied. It was
on the cross-road from the Via
Appia to the Via Latina, and only discovered in 1830, and ex-
cavated by the Marchese Campana, who was very careful about
the preservation of it. The ancient vault, with its arabesque paint-
ings, is also preserved. It is of the time of Augustus and Tiberius,
as is shewn by the tombstones of the ornatrix (lady's maid) of
Octavia, the sister of Augustus, and of a pedisequus (footman)
of Tiberius Cæsar. An addition was made to it in the time of the
Antonines, and there is a sarcophagus of terra-cotta of that period.
The other two are in the Vigna Codini, near the Porta di S. Sebas-
tiano, and one of these latter is that of the servants of Augustus
or of the Cæsars. These tombs themselves are commonly called
columbaria, though this is not strictly correct, as one of them may
contain hundreds of columbaria.
One of the tombs of the first century, between the Via Appia and
the Via Latina, within the present wall of Rome, but outside of the
old wall of the city, was also for the "Servants of Augustus," or
OFFICERS OF CÆSAR'S HOUSEHOLD, as is shewn by the inscriptions
still remaining on the columbaria ; but this is quite distinct from the
tomb of Livia Augusta on the Via Appia, of which an account was
published by Dr. Gori in 1727. The officers of the imperial house-
hold were of every variety of rank, nearly equivalent to our Civil List.
Among these names are several that are the same as those men-
16
Tombs.
tioned by S. Paul among the early Christians at Rome who sent
their greeting to the Philippians and the Corinthians. This was
recently excavated, and the inscriptions are given by Dr. Henzen in
the Annali dell' Instituto Archeologico, 1866. Some of these names
were very common ones at that period, and might amount to nothing
by themselves; but others are not common, and are mentioned to-
gether by S. Paul.
There is a very temperate and well-considered article on the
subject in Professor Lightfoot's Notes on S. Paul's Epistle to the
Philippians, originally published in the "Journal of Philology."
As neither of these works are generally accessible to archæologists,
I venture to extract the most important part of it.
"These columbaria I shall call A, B, C, respectively.
"The character of a columbarium is well known. That which is here styled
A, is a very good type of the class. It is a deep chamber, entered from above
by a steep flight of steps, and measures about 25 ft. in length, and 18 in breadth.
It contains nine tiers of niches or pigeon-holes, with eleven niches in each tier on
the longer, and eight on the shorter sides. The stairs interfere somewhat, but
not to any great extent, with the regularity of the arrangement. The main walls.
are about 20 ft. high, and the old vaulting, which exists no longer, rose higher
still. The roof is now, as it was originally, supported on a central pier, round
which the niches are ranged similarly, though not with the same uniformity, as
on the main walls. There will thus be in all about four hundred niches, and
as each niche contains two olla (the olla is a sort of sunk basin, which is provided
with a lid, and in which the ashes were deposited), we have twice this number of
ollæ. Besides these there is a projecting step or base running round three sides
of the chamber below the lowest tier of niches, and ollæ are sunk into this also.
Thus there will be in all not far from 1,000 ollæ, i.e. room for the remains of
nearly 1,000 bodies in a chamber, roughly speaking, about 20 ft. all ways m.
"The columbarium B is of a superior character to the last-mentioned.
The
niches are larger and not so crowded; nor are they placed uniformly in tiers, as
in the former case. There is also more painting and sculpture.
"Both A and B belong to the period of the early Emperors, and contain mostly
the remains of the slaves and freedmen of members of the Imperial family; nor
are they unfavourably situated for this purpose, being within about half-a-mile of
the Imperial residence on the Palatine. The dates of the inscriptions in both
these sepulchres range from about the time of Augustus to that of Hadrian. Thus
in A we meet with the name C. IVLIVS frequently, and sometimes with the
¹ The following names are found on the
Columbaria Amplias, Ampliatus, Ur-
banus (Gruter, p. 1070, No. 1), Stachys,
Apelles, Triphanes, Triphusa; Rufus,
Hermes, Hermas, Patrugas, Philologus
et Julia, Nereus, Pudens (Gruter, p.
656, No. 1). The officers of the house-
hold of Aristobulus and of Narcissus
formed part of "Caesar's Household,"
with which they were incorporated. See
Dr. Lightfoot's "Commentary on Phi-
lippians." 8vo. Cambridge, 1868, pp.
169, 175.
In
"In the following pages I have in-
cluded, as in columbarium A, some
inscriptions which were found in the
course of the same excavations imme-
diately round it, and are given in the
account of the Marchese Campana.
Tombs on the Via Appia.
17
addition C. L., i.e. Caii Libertus, while the following inscription points to the
age of Hadrian or later, Ælius being the family name of that Emperor
AELIVS. P. L.
HILARVS.
with which compare the following found in the immediate neighbourhood:
D. M.
T. AELIVS. AVGVSTORVM. LIB.
JANVARIVS. ET
•
AELIA. SVCCESSA. CONIVNX
VIVI. FECERVNT. SIBI º.
It is well known to have been the custom of freedmen to assume the nomen, and
most frequently the prænomen also, of their patron; and these, together with
their original servile name, which thus became a cognomen, made up the 'tria
nomina,' considered indispensable for all Romans of any consideration. The
limits of time in B are found to be about the same.
"The most frequent name perhaps in both of these is TI. CLAVDIVS, very often
with the addition of AVG. LIB. This was the name common to both the second
and fourth of the emperors (Tiberius and Claudius), and may refer in different
places to the one or to the other; but there is reason to believe from the frequent
mention of other members of his family, as Octavia his daughter, and Messalina
his wife, that the latter is generally, though not always, meant.
"If we may judge from the inscriptions from the third columbarium given in
Canina, it does not differ materially in this respect from the former two. Thus
we have C. IVLIVS. DIVI. AVG. L., and P. AELIVS. AVG. LIB. pointing to the
earlier and later date respectively; and there is mention, among others, of
Tiberius Cæsar, of Agrippina, and of the Emperor Caius."
TOMBS OUTSIDE OF THE WALL OF AURELIAN.
The tombs by the side of the roads outside of Rome are for the
most part mere ruins also. They are innumerable; but, like other
buildings of the time of the Republic and of the Empire, they have
been used as stone quarries for building the medieval houses and
castles, and often the mere farm walls also. Fortunately those built
of concrete faced with brick would not pay for the cost of destroy-
ing them and carrying them away, and these are left standing. In
other cases, where the concrete mass has been veneered with marble,
the casing has been removed and the concrete only left standing.
The medieval builders paid no more respect to the tombs of the
dead than to any other building that they could use as old materials.
There are so many monograms published upon the tombs of this
or that family, that a mere abstract of them would form a separate
work; we can only notice here some of the more important. Among
them perhaps may fairly be reckoned the work on the tomb of the
freedmen and servants of Livia Augusta and of the Cæsars, which is
"Ibid., p. 402.
n
"Acad. di Archeol., vol. xi. p. 378.
C
18
Tombs.
only another name for "the officers of Cæsar's household."
It was
found in 1726 on the Via Appia, between the first and second mile
from the Porta di S. Sebastiano, and described by Dr. A. F. Gori ",
with the inscriptions in full, and with numerous woodcuts and ten
copper-plates, in a folio volume; he added the notes of A. M. Sal-
vinius, and published it at Florence in 1727. It is also described
in the great work of Piranesi, and by others. This is frequently,
but erroneously, supposed to be the same as the fine one within the
Walls of Rome, near the Porta di S. Sebastiano and the Arch of
Drusus, usually called the columbaria of the servants of Augustus,
of which we have given Dr. Lightfoot's account; we now add his
description of the present one :—
“Besides the three columbaria [within the walls] already mentioned, one much
more extensive was exhumed in the years 1725 and 1726 on the left of the Appian
Way, about the second milestone, and called after the freedmen of Livia
Augusta,' from the circumstance that the sepulchral inscriptions most prominent
bore the name of persons of this rank. This columbarium did in fact, like those
described above, contain the remains chiefly of members of the Imperial house-
hold. The inscriptions are mostly of the date of the earlier Cæsars, bearing the
names of Augustus, of Livia, of Caius Cæsar, and others; but some are later, as
the following:—
D. M.
M. VLPIO. AVG. LIB.
MENOPHILO. &c.
where the name 'Ulpius' bespeaks the Emperor Trajan. A large number of
inscriptions from this columbarium, which has long been in a state of dilapidation,
are preserved by Piranesi in the third volume of his 'Antichità Romane' (plates
xxi. to xxxix.), from which source I have drawn my information ".
"These sepulchral monuments afford important notices as to the names and
offices of members of the Imperial household at the time when St. Paul wrote.
The columbarium A seems to contain the remains of persons of a humbler class :
accordingly we very rarely find any special office designated. Generally nothing
more than the master's name is given, as EROS. TI. CLAVDI. NERONIS, or EX-
VERNAE. CAESARIS: but there are some few exceptions. Thus we
PECTATO
p
P "Monumentum sive Columbarium
libertorum et servorum Liviæ Augustæ
et Cæsarum, Romæ detectum, &c. ab
Ant. Fr. Gorio." Florentiæ, 1727, fol.
min.—It was reprinted in Poleni, Utri-
usque Thesauri Antiq. Romanarum Græ-
carumque nova Supplementa, vol. iii.
col. I-47. See also Canina, Via Appia,
part 4, folio, Rome, 1851.
This is not quite a correct descrip-
tion; it is between the first and second
mile, but very soon after the first, at
the entrance to a large vineyard, and
the gardener's house is made out
of it.
The following names were also
found in these columbaria :
AMPLIAS. AMPLIATVS. VRBANVS.
(Gruter, Inscrip., p. 1070, No. 1.)
STACHYS. APELLES. TRIPHANES .
TRIPHVSA.
RVFVS. HERMES. HERMAS. PATRVCAS.
PHILOLOGVSet IVLIA. NEREVS. PVDENS.
(Gruter, p. 656, No. 1.)
The officers of the household of Aris-
tobulus and of Narcissus formed part of
"Cæsar's Household," with which they
were incorporated. See Dr. Lightfoot's
"Commentary on Philippians," 8vo.,
Cambridge, 1869, pp. 169, 175.
Tombs on the Via Appia.
19
read of one Blastus as AVG. LIB. TABVLARIVS, and of a certain mimic, who seems
to have stood high in the Imperial favour, MVTVS. ARGVTVS. IMITATOR. TI.
CAESARIS. QVI. PRIMVM. INVENIT. CAVSIDICOS. IMITARI., of TI. CLAVDIVS .
CAESARIS . NVMVNCVLATOR. AMARANTHVS., and others. In B and C more
information is vouchsafed, probably because the persons buried here were more
important. Thus in B we have the names of the 'medicus Marcellæ,' 'obstetrix
Marcellæ,' 'topiarius Marcellæ,' 'argentarius Marcellæ,' 'sarcinatrix Antoniæ,'
'musicarius Paridis,' 'symphoniacus Cæsaris,' 'Octaviæ Cæsaris Augusti F. orna-
trix,' 'Octaviæ Cæsaris Augusti F. ab argento,' 'Ti. Cæsaris Aug. ser. unctor,'
while in C are found 'Ti. Cæsaris a veste foren.,' 'Agrippinæ supra veste[m],'
'Julia Drusi Cæsaris supra lecticarios.' The majority, whose office is not men-
tioned, may be supposed to have held a humbler station in the household.
"After saying thus much as to the rank of the occupants of these tombs, it is
time to inquire how far the names found here throw any light on the present
question.
"1. St. Paul, writing to Rome, salutes among others 'Tryphæna and Tryphosa,
who labour in the Lords.' The name Tryphæna occurs in the following inscrip-
tion in columbarium A, to be found in the Marchese Campana's account in the
'Proceedings of the Roman Archeological Society' (vol. xi. p. 375, No. 27) :—
D. M.
TRYPHAENAE
VALERIA. TRYPHAENA
MATRI. B. M. F. ET.
VALERIVS. FVTIANVS.
"The daughter Tryphaena, who together with one Valerius Futianus erects this
monument to her mother's memory, bears the name Valeria. Now Valeria was
the Gentile name of the Empress Messalina; and, as the occupants of these niches
are chiefly members of the Imperial household, we may reasonably infer that this
Tryphæna was attached to the service of that notorious princess, and was manu-
mitted either by her or by some member of her family. The names Valerius and
Valeria are very common in the vault; and in the neighbouring columbarium B,
we find the sepulchres of servants of Messalina, e.g. SABINVS. MESSALINE. INSVL '.
Moreover, we have proof that the Valerius Futianus whose name is here attached
to that of Tryphæna was connected with the household of the Cæsars, in another
inscription hard by in the same vault ", in which we read :—
D. M.
CLAVDIAE. AVG. LIB. NEREIDI
M. VALERIVS FVTIANVS
X
D. M.
M. VALERIO. SYNTROPHO
FVTIANVS
MATRI. CARISSIMAE,
LIB. OPTIMO.
"It may then, I think, be considered highly probable that this Valeria Try-
phæna did belong to the Imperial household.
8
t
"Epist. B. Pauli ad Rom. xvi. 12.
Canina, Via Appia, i. p. 218,
No. 9.
"i.e. Messalinæ insularius, the agent
who looked after the insula or lodging-
houses which were the property of the
Empress. So Narcissus is styled in an
inscription found at Veii (Orelli, No.
2927) "Ti. Claudii Britannici supra in-
sulas."
Muratori, however, explains
Now Claudius succeeded his
the word differently, Nov. Thes. vet. in-
script., tom. ii. p. cmxliii., n. II.
u
"Accad. di Archeol., vol. xi. p. 376,
No. 35
xWritten FVTIANS in Campana ;
but, if this is correctly copied, it must
have been an error of the workman, as
the twin inscription shews. Besides the
name M. VALERIVS. FVTIANVS occurs
elsewhere in this vault.”
C
2
20
Tombs.
nephew in 41, and from that time till her death in 48, Messalina was mistress
of the palace. The manumission of this Tryphæna not improbably falls within
these limits. Consequently, as the Epistle to the Romans was written in 58, the
Valeria Tryphæna of the inscription was coeval with the Tryphaena saluted by
St. Paul.
"The result we obtain, then, is this. St. Paul, writing to Rome in 58 A.D.,
salutes a Tryphæna. In writing from Rome to the Philippians some four years
later, he sends a salutation from 'them that are of Caesar's household,' speaking
of these apparently as persons well known to the church he is addressing, and
therefore probably not his recent converts, but those earlier professors of Chris-
tianity such as are saluted in the Roman Epistle. Lastly, we know that there was
a Tryphæna in the Imperial household at this time, and the name does not appear
to have been a common one. May not she have been the very Tryphæna saluted
in the Epistle to the Romans, and form a link of connexion between the saluta-
tions there and the mention of the members of Cæsar's household in the Philippian
letter? There is, so far as I can see, no improbability in this supposition "."
This tomb was almost destroyed immediately after the work of
Dr. Gori was published; all that now remains of it consists of part
of the outer walls with the columbaria in the inner side of them,
but without a roof, and used merely as a yard for the gardener.
Enough remains, however, to identify the place and to shew the
construction; the outer surface of the wall is faced with brick of
the time of Augustus. The situation of it is close to the road on
the eastern side of the Via Appia, just beyond the first mile from
the Porta di S. Sebastiano, in the Vigna Colonna, which name is
over the gate, and the tomb is close to the gate on entering. It is
nearly opposite to the catacomb of S. Calixtus. The inscriptions
were carried to the Capitoline Museum.
Nearly all the tombs on the Via Appia belong to a period before
the Christian era, beginning with mere earthen mounds, each bearing
some historical name; then chambers formed of the solid walls of
large split stones of the time of the Kings; then the concrete masses
of the time of the Republic, many of which are made in imitation
of a funeral pyre, the great heap of fagots represented by a mass
of concrete, and the large beams of wood laid across the fagots with
their ends projecting, represented by pieces of stone or marble cut
into that form, projecting from the concrete mass. These have gene-
rally been mutilated for the sake of the marble to such a degree, that
the design of the tomb is seldom preserved; but some are more per-
"Journal of Philology," vol. iv.
p. 65.
2 The names of the tombs of the
Horatii and Curiatii given to the earthen
mounds or tumuli on the Via Appia,
about three miles from Rome, and some
other tombs there, on which no inscrip-
tions have been found, are of very
doubtful authority.
Tombs on the Via Appia.
2I
fect than others, especially at a distance from the city, and there is
one near Albano quite perfect, a well-known curiosity for visitors,
which affords a key to the rest. After these came the tombs of
the early Empire, faced with the beautiful brickwork of Nero, Tra-
jan, or Hadrian, more or less mixed with the reticulated work of
small diamond-shaped pieces of tufa, characteristic of the first cen-
tury. There are however very few of these tombs on the Via Appia,
that great Necropolis of ancient Rome had been previously occupied ;
the finest brick tombs of the first century are on the Via Latina and
the Via Appia Nova, some of which are preserved nearly intact, with
the painted chambers in the beautiful style of the first century. Very
few tombs of a later period are found by the sides of the roads, be-
cause the ground was already occupied, and what remained for sale
was sold at enormous prices.
સી.
The tomb of Priscilla the empress, wife of Domitian, is described
by Statius as one of great magnificence. He also mentions the
situation of it as on the Via Appia, immediately after passing the
river Almo, one branch of which goes under the road about half
a mile beyond the Porta di S. Sebastiano. It was round, had
a dome to it, and was ornamented with bronze statues in niches,
representing Priscilla in different characters, as Ceres, Venus, &c.
Her body was not burnt, but wrapped in purple silk and en-
closed in a marble sarcophagus. The large round tomb opposite
to the chapel of "Domine quo vadis" is supposed to be the remains
of it, but so effectally stripped that no one would suppose it had
been an imperial tomb. It stands on a square base built of silex
or paving-stone; the marble casing has been carried off. The door-
way is on the side opposite to the road, and there are places for
three sarcophagi, with remains of reticulated work of the time of
the Flavian emperors. In 1773, an inscription was found near to
it of Titus Flavius Epafroditus, freedman of Abascantus, and keeper
of the tomb.
This is the first sepulchre of much interest visible on the cele-
brated Via Appia; those between the site of the Porta Capena and
the Porta di S. Sebastiano are almost entirely destroyed or buried.
The others near the Via Appia and the Via Latina within the walls
can be seen in the vineyards, but are not visible from the roads.
After passing this remarkable tomb, the probable burial-place of
the officers of Cæsar's household, mentioned by S. Paul, we arrive
almost immediately at the catacombs. On the right-hand or
western side of the road are the catacombs of S. Calixtus and
Statii Sylvæ, lib. v. s. 1.
a
22
Tombs.
S. Sebastian, and beyond that are the remains of one of those
of the Jews, nearly opposite to the Circus of Maxentius and his
son Romulus; but this appears to be only a family burial-place,
never of much importance, perhaps a cemetery for the very poor.
It is in a clay soil not well suited for the purpose, and is now in
a very bad state. The Via Ardeatina runs nearly parallel to the
Via Appia for about a mile, from the chapel of "Domine quo vadis”
to the back of S. Sebastian's, between that and S. Paul's, with a cross-
road from one to the other. On this are the large and fine ceme-
teries or catacombs of S. Domitilla and others, supposed by some to
be connected by subterranean roads with that of S. Paul's on the
west, and those of S. Sebastian and S. Calixtus on the east. This
may or not be true, and cannot be ascertained without a good deal
more excavation; but the modern fossores, Valentino and his son,
are of opinion that such subterranean passages exist in all the roads,
and that the catacombs on each road were connected by such sub-
terranean passages.
b
On the left or eastern side of the Via Appia, after leaving the
tombs of the servants of the Cæsars, before mentioned, we soon
arrive at the cross-road that passes by S. Urbano and the head of
the valley of the Caffarella, and goes from the Via Appia Antiqua
to the Via Appia Nova. At the northern angle of this cross-road
is the great catacomb of the Jews, one of the earliest and the best
preserved in Rome, and in the vineyard over this stands a fine
tomb of the first century, with niches for images, built of the beauti-
ful brickwork of that period. Shortly after passing this is the great
circular tomb of Romulus, the son of Maxentius, a large part of which
remains, but concealed by the modern front, now a wine-shop. On
three sides of this are remains of an arcade, the fourth side being open
to the road. Joining on to this arcade on the southern side, are the
remains of a fine piscina, or castellum aquæ, a filtering-place and reser-
voir for the aqueduct that supplied the villa of Maxentius on this
spot, to which both the circus and the tomb were appendages; but
the villa itself has been destroyed for building materials.
Pursuing this great south road out of Rome, we soon arrive at the
great circular tomb or mausoleum of Cæcilia Metella, on the top of
a steep hill. The valley which begins at this point and reaches to
S. Paul's, passing by S. Sebastian's, and in which the circus and villa
were placed, had the name of catacumba, or the low valley that is be-
b At the original entrance to this
stands a ruin of the second or third
century, which may be either a pagan
tomb, or one of the chapels usual at
the entrance to a catacomb.
Tombs on the Via Appia.
23
tween two ridges of hill, and this is believed to have been the origin
of the name of catacomb, applied to all these cemeteries.
The tomb of Cæcilia Metella is the chief landmark on the southern
side of Rome, and at the same time one of the finest and the most
picturesque ruins. This magnificent work still preserves its original
facing of travertine; the mass of the wall, which is of enormous
thickness, is of concrete as usual, and the interior is lined with
brick. The passage through the wall is of the same character, but
in the middle of the wall is a doorway of travertine. The pit in the
centre, where the sarcophagus was placed, is still very deep, though
it is partially filled up with earth. It is not improbable that there
is a catacomb connected with this pit, as this great mausoleum was
evidently intended for a wealthy family burial-place for that part
of the family of Crassus which would be descended from Marcus
Lucinus Crassus and his wife, Cæcilia Metella. The original inscrip-
tion is preserved in the facing:-
CAECILIAE Q. CRETICI
METELLAE CRASSI.
That is to say, Cæcilia Metella, daughter of Quintus Cecilius Metellus
Creticus, and wife of Marcus Lucinus Crassus. Her father, Cæcilius
Metellus, after her birth, had taken the name of Creticus, because he
had conquered the island of Crete as Pro-Consul in the year 686 of
Rome, B.C. 67, for which he received the honours of a triumphal
procession, notwithstanding the opposition of Pompey.
Her husband, Crassus, was killed in the war with the Parthians,
in the year 700 of Rome, B.C. 53. The tomb was probably built
between these two periods. Of Cæcilia Metella herself, nothing
more is recorded, the inscription being the only evidence we have of
her existence. The wealth of the great family of Crassus is noto-
rious, and this grand mausoleum was doubtless intended for the
burial-place of a branch of that family. It was the custom of the
Romans for the wife to retain her own family name jointly with that
of her husband, so that their children would belong to the family of
Crassus-Metellus. This tomb is mentioned by Cicero by the name
of the Metelli, as being the burial-place of that family. The situa-
tion of it at the angle of the ridge of hill, where it is crossed
by the Via Appia, is admirably chosen for display, and commands
the whole country round. This circular tomb stands on a square
basement of 100 ft. on each side, which is also the diameter of the
round mass on the exterior; the inner chamber for the sarcophagus
illos (?)." (Cicero, Tusculan. Disputat.,
lib. i. c. 7.)
с
"An tu, egressus Porta Capena
quum Calatini, Scipionum, Serviliorum,
Metellorum sepulcra vides, miseros putas
24
Tombs.
is only 30 ft. in diameter, which leaves no less than 35 ft. for the
thickness of the mass of concrete, with the facings of travertine on
the outside and brick in the inside. The roof was in a conical
form; the height to the cornice is 42 ft., and the total height is
calculated at 60 ft.
This massive structure, in a commanding situation, could not
escape being turned into a castle in the Middle Ages. It was given
by Boniface VIII. in 1299 to his family, the Gaetani, who made it
the citadel of an extensive fortress, which extended on both sides of
the road, so that for a century afterwards no one could pass in or
out of Rome without going through it, and paying the tribute they
chose to exact. The barons of those days were supported by the
Church, and divided their plunder with the priests. On the oppo-
site side of the road, but within the walls of the castle, are remains
of an elegant Gothic chapel, which partakes a good deal of the
English character of the time of Edward I., in the style called Early
Decorated: the windows are of single lights, lancet shaped, and
trefoil headed. The medieval walls and tower of the castle at the
back of the tomb are extremely picturesque, and a fine example of
the period. The popular name for it is Capo di Bovo, from the
heraldic badge of the family, an ox's head. The history of the
castle belongs to the fortified houses of the Middle Ages, when it
had ceased to be considered as a tomb.
It is now usually considered as the beginning of the celebrated
tombs on the Via Appia, which are a subject for a separate work.
Canina has one in two quarto volumes, to which the reader is re-
ferred. A mere catalogue of the tombs would more than occupy
one of our chapters.
On the left hand or eastern side of the Via Appia is another
ancient cross-road (or diverticulum), which leaves the high road near
the chapel of "Domine quo vadis," about half-a-mile from the Porta
di S. Sebastiano, and runs for about a mile nearly parallel to the
Via Appia, but at a considerably lower level, in the valley of the
Caffarelli, or Caffarella, and near the banks of that branch of the
river Almo which runs through that valley. At about a mile from
the junction is a remarkable building of the first century, of very fine
brickwork of the time of Nero, with a vaulted roof, and remains of
terra-cotta and stucco ornament and niches. This is commonly
called the temple of Deo Ridiculo; but Nibby has stated that this
is a popular error, that it is so called because it stands in the
meadow to which Hannibal came, and from which he returned, and
that the real name is Deo Rediculo, from the word redeo, 'I return,'
Tombs on the Via Labicana.
25
and has nothing whatever to do with ridicule.
It was probably
a small temple or shrine, dedicated to the genius loci, that is, the
river god, Almo. It is mentioned by Festus, and Pliny; the latter
of whom mentions funeral rites performed on a crow, and that the
funeral pyre was prepared here, on the left of the Via Appia at
the second mile, in the meadow called "Of the Return."
It has been the fashion of late years to call this building the tomb
of Herodes Atticus, to whom the property is said to have belonged;
but he flourished in the second century, after the time of Hadrian,
and the construction of the building appears to be before that time.
TOMBS ON THE VIA LABICANA 8.
Among the ruins of a villa or habitation of some importance,
about a mile from Rome on the Via Labicana, now belonging to
the Irish monks of the monastery of S. Clement, is a large round
mausoleum, on the wall of which was found a slab of marble with
this inscription :-
D. M.
M. AVRELIVS SYNTOMVS ET
AVRELIA MARCIANA EDIFICIVM
CVM CENOTAFIO ET MEMORIAM
A SOLO FECERVNT SIBI ET FILIIS
SVIS AVRELIO LEONTIO ET AVRELI
Æ FRVCTVOSÆ ET LIB. LIBER.
POSTERISQVE EORVM.
D. M.
"M. Aurelius Syntomus and Aurelia Marciana made this building with cenotaph
(garden-tcmb) and memorial from the foundation, for themselves and their chil-
dren, Aurelius Leontius and Aurelia Fructuosa, and their freedmen, freedwomen,
and their posterity."
h
This place is considered by Father Mullooly to have been a præ-
dium or farm, or country-house, with all its appurtenances, and the
mausoleum of the family of Aurelius Syntomus and Aurelia Mar-
ciana, and it is a good illustration of what a prædium was. The
d Festus describes it thus :—
"Rediculi fanum extra portam Ca-
penam Cornificius ait fuisse, qui RE-
DICVLVS propterea appellatus, quia ac-
cedens ad urbem Hannibal ex eo loco
REDIERIT.
"Qui constructus dextra Via Appiæ
ad secundum lapidem in campo Redi-
culi appellato, fuit." (Plinii Nat. Hist.,
lib. x. c. 43.)
f The construction of the time of
Hadrian may be seen in his villa near
Tivoli; this building is more of the
character of the arcade of Nero.
8 The Via Prænestina, or Gabina,
which goes out of the same gate, but
deviates immediately towards the north,
also has many remains of tombs upon
it, especially those of the Gordiani, at
their villa called Torre dei Scavi, about
three miles from Rome. The celebrated
tomb of Eurysaces the baker and his
wife Aristia, at the Porta Maggiore, is
described in another part of this work.
↳ Saint Clement, Pope and Martyr,
and his Basilica in Rome, by Rev.
Joseph Mullooly, O.P. Rome, 1869,
8vo., preface, p. iv.
26
Tombs.
site of the mausoleum was called religious ground, such sites were
rigorously protected by the Roman law. It was inalienable, and ex-
clusively belonged to the families of those who were buried in it.
In the time of Hadrian, a great cemetery appears to have been made
at the place called Cento Celle, from the number of cells or tombs
that had been excavated there. These have generally been filled up
again; but one is left open near the medieval tower, called by that
name, and deserves examination. It is cruciform in plan, with the
entrance at the end of the longest arm or stem of the cross. On each
side of this entrance, the walls are pierced with rows of columbaria
for the urns of human ashes; but to the three arms of the cross are
three apses, in each of which is an arched tomb for a sarcophagus,
so that the family to whom this tomb belonged, employed both
modes of interment. It is ornamented with columns, and the vault
with stucco upon it. The date of it is the first century, or not later
than the time of Hadrian, marking that as a period of transition
from urn-burial to burying the whole body *.
k
TOMBS ON THE VIA LATINA.
There are several fine tombs in that part of the Via Latina which
was excavated under Pio IX. in 1858, and several houses mixed
with the tombs in a manner which appears very singular to our
modern ideas, but which was common in the time of the Republic,
and in the first century of the Christian era; most of the tombs
belong to the time of Sylla and Augustus. Some of these retain
very fine paintings and rich stucco ceilings, and there are beautiful
specimens of early brickwork. Several have wells in them, as
before mentioned.
Of these "Tombs on the Via Latina," as they are now usually
called, a good concise account was published at the time in "The
Builder," by Mr. Eastlake, with woodcuts from his drawings and
plans carefully measured; he was then a young man and a student
only, but they are very creditable to his care and industry. Signor
Fortunati, at whose expense these tombs were excavated, afterwards
published a more full account of them, with fine plates, in a folio
volume. They are situated in meadow land called the Prato Corso,
about two miles from the Porta San Giovanni, close to the point
where the old Via Latina crosses the Via Appia Nova obliquely,
i "Religiosum locum unusquisque
sua voluntate facit, dum mortuum infert
in locum suum. "Marcian. Digest. i.
8, 6, § 4.
The same mixture of the two modes
of burial may be seen in great numbers
of the ancient tombs; it occurs in all
those that I have seen excavated in 1865
and 1866, as in that of Claudius Vitalis
in the gardens of the Villa Volkonski,
near the Porta Maggiore, and several
at Ostia.
Tombs on the Via Latina.
27
and runs nearly parallel to it as far as the Torre Fiscale, about half-
a-mile further on, and the piscine of the aqueducts. The remains
of tombs can be traced along both these roads from the gates of
Rome for miles; they happen to be more than usually perfect at
the place indicated. Near this are the foundations of the church
known as S. Stephen's, and close to this are remains of a catacomb
of some extent. Under some of the tombs in this part of the Via
Latina are also small catacombs, which seems to have been usual '.
One of these celebrated painted tombs is dated by a brick stamp,
giving the names of the consuls, Plautius Quintillus and Statius
Priscus, A.D. 159. In these there were some cinerary urns, and
there is no reason to believe that they were Christian; but the
custom of burying the dead had then come in, and sarcophagi were
found in some of them.
The following is Mr. Eastlake's excellent account of them, written
at the time they were found :-
"The first tomb that was discovered is reached by two flights of steps, which
lead down from the Via Latina to a sort of area, lighted from above by a rectan-
gular opening, which must have been originally protected, I think, by a low wall
or railing. In front of these steps, above, still remain the bases of pilasters and
piers, which probably belonged to the portico of some superstructure. On the
level below, and facing each other, are two chambers, both waggon-vaulted. That
one between the two flights of steps is open to the area at one end; the other
chamber is entered by a doorway. The vault of this latter one is beautifully
decorated, in a style of which I believe few examples exist. It is divided into cir-
cular and square panels, placed alternately, the intervals between them being
filled with leaf ornament. In the centre of each panel is a grotesque group of
figures, in the style commonly called arabesque—a nymph riding on the back
of some sea monster, or dancing with a fawn. These figures are executed with
plaster, in low relief, and in some parts with incised lines. The spirit and vigour
of these sketches, if I may use such a word for this kind of work, are truly won-
derful. They seem to have been rapidly executed, but with the greatest decision
and artistic skill. At a little distance they have all the appearance of highly-
finished work, and though really roughly modelled, seem as far superior to the
same style of decoration in the Renaissance period, as the free leafage in the
capitals of our best Pointed architecture is to the insipid neatness of some modern
Gothic execution. Each end of the vault is also decorated with leaf ornament,
in which, though the execution is inferior, there is still great freedom; and lovers
of epilμia would be shocked to find great irregularity in the disposition of the
lines in a design so closely allied to the Classic school.
Sarcophagi were found here, and fragments of a cornice, which, though its
projection is unusually great for internal work, was originally, as is evident, placed
at the springing of the vault."
1 The name of catacomb or cemeterium
is not usually applied to these subter-
ranean chambers under the tombs; they
are sometimes called hypogeum or con-
ditorium, but there is no real distinction
between these and some of the cata-
combs called Christian.
28
Tombs.
The only entrance to another of these tombs or catacombs is
through the atrium of a house, in the floor of which was a square
opening to give air and light. This tomb had been long in use;
the sarcophagi found in it were of very different dates.
"The outer chamber below is lined with blocks of travertine, plastered.
Round three sides of it is constructed a broad shelf, supported on small
semicircular arches of excellent brickwork, and ornamented with a cornice
of terra-cotta or moulded yellow bricks, which measure about 11 in. by 4 in.
by in. The ceiling has formerly been painted, but the subjects are almost
1
obliterated by damp and time. Under the small arches may still be traced paint-
ings of the peacock (? emblem of the Resurrection), of other animals, and fruit,
exhibiting some skill. Several sarcophagi were found here. The most important
one is coarsely carved in bas-relief. Winged children are represented with
baskets, &c. One is putting on the mask of an old man, while another child
turns away in disgust. The two central ones support a medallion, on which is
left unfinished a portrait in relief-probably of the deceased. These figures are
nearly 2 ft. high.
"Another sarcophagus bears the following inscription, a touching record of
marital affection (in bad Latin) :-
C. SERVIENIVS. DEMETRIVS
MAR. F. VIVIAE. SEVERAE.
VXORI. SANTISSIMAE. ET
MIHI. Q. BIXIT. MECVM. AN-
NIS. XXII. MENS. VIII. DIES. V.
IN. QVIBVS . SEMPER. MIHI.
BENEFVIT. CVM. ILLA .
PANCRATI. HIC.
"This sarcophagus also bears a medallion, representing the worthy couple; both
heads are unfinished. The lid is ornamented with a kind of frieze, representing
animals in varied action, executed in very low relief. The style is vigorous, but
very coarse and rude.
"Another sarcophagus, on the ground, is enriched at the angles with carved
representations of a lion tearing a horse. In the centre of the longest side is
carved a small barrel. It is quite possible that this may have been a Christian
sarcophagus, the barrel being one of the symbols used in the early Church.
"The floor of this chamber is paved with plain mosaic.
"Small splayed windows, resembling the Early English 'squint,' occur in the
wall which separates the vault from the staircase.
"Other smaller coffins, arce or loculi, were found here.
"The inner chamber is vaulted, and the ceiling is finely painted with arabesque
figures, in the style of which many examples exist at Pompeii. Some figures,
executed in low relief with plaster, are introduced at the angles and in the midst
of the painted portions. Nearly the whole of this is executed in a most masterly
manner. Four landscapes are still visible, not indeed equal in merit to the rest,
but curious, as shewing the absence of all conventionalism in this branch of art.
While the griffins and other figures are simply decorative and formal in line, these
landscapes, though childish in conception and feebly executed, are, nevertheless,
evident attempts to represent Nature truthfully. The trees, for instance, are by
Tombs on the Via Latina.
29
no means more types of trees; but each branch is made out, and mass of foliage
put on, as if the painter had had a sketch of a real tree beside him m"
The great mausoleums of the emperors are part of the history of
Rome, and cannot be considered as tombs only. Though their pri-
mary object was for burial-places, they were used for other purposes
also; but they are full of interest. Those of Sylla, of Augustus, and
of Hadrian, have been mentioned; that of Alexander Severus being
outside the walls, and nearer to some of the catacombs, may perhaps
be noticed here. It is about two miles from Rome, near the Porta
Furba, and nearly on the line of the Via Latina, and bears the name
of Monte del Grano. In outward appearance,
In outward appearance, it is merely a tumulus
or mound of earth, with trees upon it (as that of Augustus was also).
Within this is a large chamber for the sarcophagus of the Emperor,
with passages and details in brickwork of the third century; it has
been rich, but has been thoroughly stripped, and is now in a very
dilapidated state. The effigies of Alexander Severus himself and
his wife, Mammea, which were found here, are now in the Capitoline
Museum.
The mausoleum of S. Helena, and that of her granddaughter,
Constantia, were made into churches connected with the cata-
combs, and are noticed under that head in another section. The
tombs of the Scipios and of Pomponius Hyla, within the walls, near
the Porta di S. Sebastiano, are also mentioned in their proper places,
as are the tombs of Bibulus, and the very curious tomb of Eurysaces
the Baker, and his wife Aristia.
The tomb of Caius Cestius, in the form of a pyramid, is incorpo-
rated in the wall of Rome near the Porta Ostiensis, or di S. Paolo.
This part of the wall is attributed to Honorius, who is recorded to
have fortified the gates, and this is closely connected with that of
S. Paolo. It is not always easy to distinguish between the walls of
Aurelian at the end of the third century, and the gateway fortifica-
tions of Honorius a century later. In this part there was no outer
defence, or wall of enceinte, to the City of the Kings, and for that
reason there was no pomerium to the Aventine, the pomarium
being the bank on which the wall stood, with the great foss or
trench on each side of it, from which originally the earth had
been thrown to form the bank. In this part, the wall stands in
a great trench very much filled up, but with the earth still visibly
descending to it on both sides, and the pyramid of Caius Cestius
must have stood in the trench, or on the side of it; like the Baker's
tomb it stood between two roads at the entrance into Rome, the
m
Eastlake, in "The Builder," Sept. 4, 1858, p. 604.
30
Tombs.
Via Laurentina, or road to Laurentium, and the Via Ostiensis, or
road to Ostia. These two roads were extant when the wall of Aurelian
was built, as in several other instances where two bridle-roads were
made into one carriage-road, partly to avoid having too many gates.
The pavement of the Via Laurentina was found at the foot of the
pyramid in the excavations of 1663, and is left open. The pyramid
stands on a square base of travertine, 100 ft. wide on each side, and
is 126 ft. high. The mass of the structure is of rubble or rough
stone, as usual, and it is faced with white marble. In the interior
is the chamber for the sarcophagus, lined with good brickwork,
plastered and painted". The paintings remain visible, though faded,
and there are several compartments with elegant candelabra and
figures, with vases, offerings, and Genii; the chamber is 20 ft.
long, 15 ft. wide, and 16 ft. high.
The name of CAIVS CESTIVS, on the exterior, is on the western
side, facing the road to Ostia; and on the eastern side, towards
the Via Laurentina, is another inscription :-
C. CESTIVS . L. F. Pob. EPVLO . PR. TR. PL.
VII. VIR. EPVLONVM .
OPVS. ABSOLVTVM. EX. TESTAMENTO.
DIEBVS. CCCXXX. ARBITRATV
PONTI. P. F. CLA. MELAE. HEREDIS. ET. POTHI. L.
from which we learn that Caius Cestius was the son of Lucius
Cestius, belonging to the family of Poblilia, who had the surname
of Epulo, was pretor and tribune of the people, and the seventh
man of the Epulones. The work was completed in 330 days, ac-
cording to the bequest of Lucius Dionysius, son of Publius, of the
tribe of Claudia, with the surname of Mela, who was the heir, and
Pothus, a freedman of Caius Cestius º.
In a charter of 1145, this tomb is called a Meta, from its form.
Petrarch calls it the sepulchre of Remus, which was the popular
belief of his day. It was restored by Alexander VII., who was
Pope at the time the excavations were made; this is recorded by
an inscription. There were originally bronze statues standing on
bases round the foot of the pyramid; two of these bases were found
in the excavations, and a portion of one of the bronze figures, which
was 18 ft. high. The bases are in the Capitoline Museum; one of
them has a long inscription upon it, recording these facts.
"A description of the pictures is given
in the work of O. Falconieri, a learned
antiquary of the seventeenth century,
written on the occasion of the excava-
tions made in 1663, and published as an
appendix to the Roma Antica of Nardini.
He was a Roman knight, living in
the time of Augustus, when Agrippa
was edile, that is, in the year 719 of
Rome, B.C. 34; he is mentioned by
Cicero in his Oratio pro L. Flacco,
cap. xiii. § 31.
Cestius was a Roman family name,
which occurs frequently in Seneca,
TOMBS ON THE VIA FLAMINIA.
The tomb of the Naso family, on the Via Flaminia P, was long
celebrated as one of the finest and most perfect in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome, and especially for the fine series of fresco.
paintings with which it was decorated, which is probably the most
complete that we possess. A very complete account of this inter-
esting tomb was published in the seventeenth century, with the
pictures carefully drawn and engraved by Santi Bartoli, and ex-
plained by Bellorio and Causseo; it was originally written in Italian,
and published separately in that language, but was translated into
Latin by L. Neocorus, and incorporated by Grævius in the twelfth
volume of his great Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum, published
in 1699.
There are altogether thirty-five subjects, engraved on
fifteen folio plates:-
I. A view of the exterior of the tomb,
which is in the style of the first century
of the Christian era, a square front with
a pediment, and with flat pilasters.
2. The plan, which is nearly square,
with recesses for the sarcophagi.
3 and 4 are elevations of the interior,
shewing the positions of the pictures,
afterwards given in detail.
5. Mercury introducing Ovid to the
Elysian fields.
6. Heroes in those fields.
7. Mutual recognition of souls there.
8. Pluto and Proserpine, with Mer-
cury leading a soul to them.
9. Pegasus, who has brought souls
there.
Io. The story of Alcestis.
11. The Nymph Elysia.
12. The Rape of Proserpine.
13. Hercules and Antæus.
14. Souls transformed to brutes.
15. A Tiger hunt.
16. Hercules drawing Cerberus to the
upper regions.
17. Europa and the Bull.
18. A Sacrifice to the "Diis Mani-
bus," or household gods.
19. Cyclops answering the Sphinx.
20. Pegasus and Aurora, a symbol
of the sun.
21. Paintings on the vault, with
Pegasus in the centre, and Mercury in
the vault of the apse.
22. Spring.
23. Summer.
24. Autumn.
25. Winter.
26-29. Hunting scenes-the Stag,
the Lion, the Leopard, the Wild Boar.
30. A Park or enclosure, with lattice-
work and arbours at the sides, and stags
enclosed in it.
31. A figure-a genius belonging to
Spring.
32. A similar figure, belonging to
Autumn.
33. Two Bacchantes.
34. The Judgment of Paris.
35. A Horse crossing a stream (an
obscure subject).
This may be considered a tolerably complete list of the subjects
usually employed to decorate the tomb of a Roman idolater of rank,
Controv. 7, post init. et prope fin. 8,
post init., &c. Tacitus, Hist., lib. v.
cap. Io, mentions Cestius Gallus, a
Governor of Syria under Vespasian.
P There is another remarkable tomb
on this road at the sixth mile, miscalled
the tomb of Nero, but really that of
P. V. Marianus of the third century.
32
Tombs.
in the first century of the Christian era; and it is remarkable that
some of the same subjects occur in the catacomb of the Hebrews,
and in some of the earliest of those called the Christian Catacombs,
belonging to the second and third centuries. This seems to shew,
either that the distinction of religion was not then kept up after
death, and that these paintings were considered as merely orna-
mental, without attaching any particular meaning to them, or that
idolaters were interred in the same burial-vaults or cemeteries with
the Hebrews and the Christians, if belonging to the same families.
This tomb is now in a very bad state, and the paintings have almost
perished.
In the spring of the year 1871, the Porta Salaria was pulled down
in the course of the restoration of the walls, and in the two flanking
towers of Honorius several tombs were found imbedded. In the
northern tower, on the exterior, are remains of a circular tomb, the
wall faced with Opus Reticulatum of the first century, and within are
remains of another large square tomb. But those in the southern
tower are the most remarkable; on the exterior was one of traver-
tine with flat pilasters, very much of the same character as the tomb
of Bibulus, and evidently of the same period-the end of the Re-
public, or quite the early part of the Empire. Within this tower was
another square tomb of about the same period, and buried in the
mass of the tower was a cippus, in good preservation, with the figure
of a youth attired in the toga, holding in his hand a scroll with
a Greek inscription upon it. On the cippus also, on each side of
the niche in which the figure stood, and under it, are long Latin
inscriptions, recording that he was a very precocious youth, who
made Greek verses, and beat fifty-two competitors, but died in his
twelfth year; his sorrowing parents erected this tomb to his memory,
and inserted upon it his verses, and the statement of his history. He
was called Quintus Sulpitius Maximus, and died A.D. 94, in the
twelfth year of the Emperor Domitian. The cippus was rather more
than a yard high, and two feet wide. With this was found also the
inscription of another tomb of LVCIVS VALERIVS PVDENS, who was
the winner of a prize for Latin verses in A.D. 106, the ninth year of
the Emperor Trajan. This inscription had been published by Gruter
and others r.
See Tomb of Bibulus, p. 5.
* An excellent account of these tombs,
with a fine lithographic plate of the
cippus from one of my photographs,
was published by the Cavaliere C. L.
Visconti, in a thin folio, in 1871, a few
months after it was found.
APPENDIX.
TOMB OF EURYSACES THE BAKER.
OUTSIDE of the Porta Maggiore is the very curious tomb of the
baker EURYSACES, which was concealed by buildings of the fortifi-
cations until 1838, and nothing is known of its history but what is
supplied by the inscriptions upon it.
The walls of the tomb are built of stones made in the form of
the mortars in which bread was kneaded, or some say of the
actual stone mortars. The tomb was much mutilated, and the second
inscription had to be collected from fragments, and amongst them
was a sculpture in bas-relief of the baker EURYSACES and his wife
ATISTIA. These fragments and the figures are built into the wall on
the opposite side of the road, together with part of the buildings
of the time of Honorius, in which, together with the Porta Maggiore
itself, it was concealed, having formed the interior of one of the
round towers of Honorius; the Porta Maggiore having been also
built over, and fortified with two flanking towers, like his other gate-
ways; so that it is at least as early as the third century, and it is
believed to be of the first. On the frieze of the tomb are carvings.
of the grinding of corn into flour, making the flour into paste, baking
it into bread, weighing it, and measuring it. It appears from the
inscription that the baker was also a contractor for the supply of
the meal t.
An excellent account of this tomb was published by Canina at
the time it was excavated, with engravings of the plan, elevations,
and sculptures". A very early date was at first assigned to it, and
Canina is disposed to think it of the time of the Republic, but it
must be near the end of it; the construction is evidently of later
•
EST HOC. MONIMENTVM . MAR-
CEI. VERGILEI, EVRYSACIS, PISTORIS
REDEMPTORIS. APPARET[ORIS].
FVIT. ATISTIA. VXOR. MIHEI. FE-
MINA. OPITVMA. VEIXSIT. QVOIVS.
CORPORIS. RELIQVIAE. QVOD. svpe-
RANT. SVNT. IN. HOC. PANARIO.
This is the interpretation put upon
the words Redemptoris Apparetoris; they
mean only a public contractor, and more
likely to have been for the supply of
bread than of water, as some have sup-
posed. The word Pistoris may very
well be taken in connection with the
other two words, and this would make
D
him the head of the contractors for
bread. See an Article on this inscrip-
tion and the word Apparetor in the
Annali del Instit. Archeol., 1838. The
archaic spelling in this inscription be-
longs to the latter part of the time of
the Republic, or perhaps to that of
Julius Cæsar.
"This appeared in the Annali of the
Institute, 1839, and a few copies were
printed for separate use. Another ac-
count, by Signor Grifi, had previously been
published in the Bulletino, 1838, which
is used and answered in parts by Canina.
34
The Baker's Tomb.
character than some of the aqueducts. The material is travertine and
tufa, the sculpture also is too good for the early part of the Republic.
The very singular plan, wider at one end than the other, is accounted
for by the situation between two roads converging at the double gate,
and these roads are not likely to have been brought so near together
before the gate was made. The chief argument in favour of its being
earlier than the aqueduct is, that no buildings were allowed to be
erected so near the aqueducts; but that order was of subsequent
date to the time of this tomb, and a low ornamental building of
this kind might very well have been made an exception. The outer
end of the tomb has been destroyed, probably because it was in the
way of the builders of the round tower of Honorius; the fragments
were found among the foundations of the tower, and have been pre-
served as mentioned; in the centre of this outer end were the figures
of the baker and his wife, now built up in the wall on the opposite
side of the road.
PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE BAKER'S TOMB,
FROM MR. PARKER'S SERIES.
Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, and his
wife Atistia, B. C. 20(?), close to the
Porta Maggiore.
598
Porta Maggiore, transverse section,
shewing the Baker's Tomb. 1463
Porta Maggiore, Exterior view, and
the Baker's Tomb.
438
Effigies of Eurysaces the Baker and his
wife Atistia.
882
APPENDIX.
TOMBS EXCAVATED BY THE MARQUIS CAMPANA.
Ar the Porta Latina, close to the chapel of S. John in oil, is
that of
LUTATIUS CAtulus,
(not Pomponius Hylas, whose cinerary urn, with mosaic inscription,
is over the stairs).
An inscription on the cippus of Agathopus, a freedman of the
Emperor Hadrian, shews that the tomb was in use at that time.
PAEZVZAE. OCTAVIAE
CAESARIS. AVGVSTVS. F.
ORNATRICI
VIX. ANNIS. XVIII.
That is, Paezuza, the young lady's maid of Octavia, daughter of
the Emperor Claudius-died in her eighteenth year.
The tomb, with columbaria, near the arch of Drusus, belonged
to a burial company in the first century, as is seen by this in-
scription :-
C. CAVSINIVS. SCOLAE. L. SPINTER
IN. HAC. SOCIETATE. PRIMVS. CVRator
FACTVS. EST. ET.
HOC. MONVMENTVM. EDIFICANDVM
EXPOLIEND
CVRAVIT. SOCISQ. PROBAVIT.
The names of Onesimus, 103, and Trophæna, 27, have been
mentioned as among those named by S. Paul in his Epistles.
This tomb was excavated by the Marquis Campana, in 1850;
everything was left in its place as far as possible, and an account
of it published by him, with fine illustrations".
■ De due Sepolcri Romani del Secolo
di Augusto Scoverti tra la Via Latina
e Appia, presso la Tomba degli Scipi
oni, illustrazione per G. P. Campana.
Roma, 1852, 4to. 2 vols.
D*
36
Appendix.
TOMBS EXCAVATED IN 1875-76.
In the summer of 1875, a very interesting tomb was found in the
Esquiliæ, near the Porta Maggiore, in the same large vineyard in
which stands the fine building of the third century called Minerva
Medica, but considerably nearer to the gate. It is the tomb of
Statilius Taurus, who built the first stone amphitheatre, opened
B.C. 30, and is full of columbaria, with a series of small pictures,
beautifully drawn in fresco, on the walls between the pigeon-holes ;
the construction of the walls in the original part is of the character
of the time of Sylla (as in the Muro Torto), the surface ornamented
with opus reticulatum, but wide-jointed, earlier than that in the
Mausoleum of Augustus. The ascertained date is the time of
Statilius Taurus himself, for the earlier part of the tomb; there
are evidently additions above and on one side, and these are both
of the time of Hadrian. The paintings consist of a series of small
figures, on the wall between the columbaria, similar to those in
the tomb in the garden of the Villa Pamphili Doria, which are
usually considered to be of the time of Augustus. The character
of these is rather earlier, but equally fine art and especially as good
drawing, but the lines are thicker, and the style of drawing rather
bolder, than in the other. The subjects are extremely interesting,
being,―The legendary history of Rome, according to the first books
of Livy and Dionysius, and more especially the Æneid of Virgil,
beginning with Æneas and his treaty with King Latinus and the
founding of two cities, — Lavinium, so called after his wife, the
daughter of Æneas; and Alba Longa, built by his father Anchises.
In the first picture is seen the figure of a young woman with
a gold crown on her head, seated and watching the construction of
the walls of a city building of large blocks of stone, such as are
used in the walls of the Kings in Rome; over this picture is the
name Lavinia, a young warrior stands by her. The head of this
figure has been destroyed, and with it the name, except the first
letter, E.. which must be ENÆAS. Another figure is standing.
opposite, with the inscription under it, LATINI IMPLORANT PACEM.
"
b There are considerable remains of
walls of this early character at Lanu-
vium, near Albano; this is supposed
by some to be the same place, and the
difference of the name only a medieval
corruption (?), especially as it is also
called Civita Lavinia. But this site is
thought by others to be too far from
the sea, and that the site of Lavinium
is now called Pratica, near Ardea and
Alatri. (Virgilii Æneidos, xii. 194;
Livii Hist., i. I, 2.)
Tomb of Statilius Taurus.
37
This is said to be King Latinus imploring peace of Æneas.-The
battle between the armies headed by Æneas and Turnus-the defeat
and death of Turnus. In these battles the Trojans are habited in
helmet, cuirass, tunic, and shield, while the Rutuli are almost
naked. This is curious, as shewing the ideas of the Romans in
the first century of the Empire, respecting their predecessors.
A goddess is seated on the ground, supposed to be the river-
goddess Numico, a small stream that passes near Lavinium; she
has her back to Æneas, because in the last battle between the
Etruscans and the Rutuli a small lake, formed by that stream,
was injurious to him .-The twin infants, Romulus and Remus °,
carried in a sort of basket, or wooden cradle, by the servants of
the king of Alba Longa, and placed on the water of a great flood
of the stream that passes near that city, and which falls into the
river Anio, and so eventually into the Tiber-Adjoining to this
is the shepherd Faustulus, with his sheep, a pretty pastoral scene,
beautifully drawn "in the finest style of art, equal to anything that
Raphael ever painted," in the opinion of one of the best amateur
painters of our time. Some say that this figure is intended for
Romulus, when acting as a shepherd, and that the two persons
near to him (which are much decayed) are Faustulus and his wife.
On the vaulted ceiling are deities and genii within ornamented
borders, also birds well drawn, and two figures of Pegasus. The
pictures on the vault are of later character than those on the walls,
but none of them are later than the first century, or the beginning
of the second. The original stone steps to descend into the tomb
remain, and many of the cinerary urns, or cippi, remain in the niches
or pigeon-holes. The whole tomb is commonly called a columba-
rium, but surely it is rather too large for one pigeon-hole? It is
a tomb full of columbaria, and in the belt of small figures forming
a sort of inner frieze ninety-two figures have been counted; many
of them are in such a decayed state that the subjects can only be
guessed at, but there is no doubt that they all belong to the same
general subject, the foundation of Rome according to the ideas
prevalent in the time of Julius Cæsar and Augustus. The paintings
on the vaults are perhaps two centuries later; these are very much
in the style of some of the pictures in the catacombs; they are at-
See Dionysius, Antiq., i. 45, 59;
Virgilii Æneidos, lib. i. 544, vii. 45,
vi. 766.
d Livii Hist., i. 2; Virgilii Æn., xii.
950.
• Livii Hist., i.4; Dionysius, Antiq.,
i. 79; Virgilii Æneidos, i. 292, 296.
f For this tomb, and the remarkable
series of fresco-paintings, see Historical
Photographs, Nos. 3301-3311.
8 For the figure on a larger scale, see
No. 3318.
D* 2
38
Appendix.
tributed by some to the time of the Antonines, or the second cen-
tury, but on doubtful authority: they are more like the style of the
time of Hadrian h.
From the inscriptions found in this painted tomb, it is evi-
dent that it is that of the family of Statilius Taurus, and was
built by the head of that family, who lived in the time of Sylla
the Dictator and Julius Cæsar, and the early days of Augustus.
The tomb was probably prepared for him and his family in his
own lifetime, and painted under his own direction; and there is
nothing improbable in supposing that he was a personal friend of
the poet Virgil, with whom he was contemporary, and that these
exquisite paintings were intended to illustrate the Æneid, then on
the eve of being published, according to the plan of that day, by
having a number of copies made of the manuscript. These draw-
ings may well have been copied on a small scale to illustrate and
explain the poem. The upper part of this remarkable tomb is of
the time of the Emperor Hadrian, the paintings being of quite dif-
ferent character, as has been shewn; and in this upper part there
are loculi, or places for bodies to be interred, as in a grave, built in
the walls. This affords a new link of connection between the tombs
and the catacombs. There is no doubt from numerous other ex-
amples, that in the first century of the Christian era and of the
Roman Empire, the custom of burning the dead was gradually
going out of fashion, (whether this was caused by the silent in-
fluence of Christianity may be an open question). This tomb
affords the earliest instance of the use of the loculus, or place for
a body not cut in the rock, but built in the wall, instead of a grave
dug in the earth, or a stone coffin prepared for placing the bodies
in. A loculus is a place just of the size to contain a body that was
nude, not in a wooden coffin, but perhaps wrapped up in skins or
clothing. Several skeletons were found in these loculi, also a terra-
cotta coffin, standing on the ground, in the adjoining tomb, which
is full of columbaria; all of these were removed to the local mu-
seum, where they could be better seen, but this deprives them
of half their interest.
The plan of these tombs, full of columbaria, or pigeon-holes, ex-
cavated in 1875-6, is exactly the same as some of those in the
Vigna Codini, on the Via Appia, excavated twenty years previously.
These contain an extraordinary number of the places for the cippi
and cinerary urns; a single tomb contains the remains of five hun-
For these later paintings, see the Photographs, Nos. 3312-3316.
Tomb of Statilius Taurus.
39
dred persons. It is customary to call each of the tombs a colum-
barium, as this word admits of the sense of a pigeon-house as well
as of a pigeon-hole; in that sense the name is very appropriate,
but some confusion of ideas is produced by the double meaning
of the word.
At the back of the painted tomb is a bustum, or ustrinum, a place
for separating the human ashes from the wood-ashes of the faggots
with which they had been burned. This is a construction with
a sort of small sieve of marble, and a marble-pipe under it, through
which the ashes were passed into a cinerary urn, or cippus.
There
are two similar tombs close to this, excavated in the winter of
1875-76, which are also full of columbaria, and contain an amazing
number of these pigeon-holes for cinerary urns and cippi.
Twenty-six inscriptions were found in this tomb; they have all
been removed to be placed in a local museum, but they are printed
by Dr. Fabio Gori', and subsequently by the Minister of Public
Instruction in the official publication *. Other inscriptions from
another tomb adjoining, belong to many different families, and are
not all of the same period. From these it appears that some of
these tombs were general burial-places, and not belonging to any
particular family, or office, or company. One inscription is on the
cippus of Onesimus and his wife, possibly the person mentioned
by St. Paul:
VOLVMNIAE
OMPHALE
CONIVGI
C. CESTIVS
ONESIMVS
ET. SIBI
Another inscription is,—
DIIS. MANIBVS
SACRVM
C. TERENTIO. PISTO
MEDICO . OCVLARIO
PATRONO. OPT. BENEMER.
ET. IVLIAE. SECVNDAE. CONIV.
EIVS. C. TERENTIVS. HELIVS
TERENTIA. JANVARIA. LIB.
FECERVNT. ET. SIBI. BOSTERVSQ
EORVM. VIX. ANN. LXXXVII. MEN
V. DIES. XXIII. HORAS II.
Inscriptions of oculists are not very uncommon in Roman tombs ;
there are several in Gruter, Muratori, and other collections, and
Grotefend has collected 113 of them'. In another part of this
tomb, or perhaps another tomb closely adjoining to it, is an
altar of marble, quite plain, and the ustrinum is close to this at
the back.
In the first number of his Archivio
Storico Artistico Archeologia e letterano
delle citte a Provincia di Roma, 1875.
* Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità
comunicate alla R. Accademia dei Lincei
per ordine di S. E. il Ministro della
Pubb. Istruzione. 1876.
1 C. L. Grotefend die Stempel der
römischen Augenärzte, Hanover, 1867.
40
Appendix.
That the tomb which contains this remarkable series of fresco
paintings, illustrating the early history of Rome and the Eneid of
Virgil, is really of the time of the poet, seems to be clearly shewn
by the inscriptions found in it. Virgil lived from B.C. 70 to B.C. 19,
and this tomb is evidently that of Statilius Taurus, who built the
first stone amphitheatre in Rome in the Campus Martius, A.U.C.
725, B.C. 28, as recorded by Dion Cassius m. This is obviously the
date when it was opened to the public, not when it was begun; it
was therefore opened some years before the death of Virgil. It was
the custom of wealthy Romans (and the wealth of Statilius Taurus
is specially mentioned) to build their own tombs, and decorate
them according to their own fancy; it is extremely probable, there-
fore, that this tomb was building during the time that Virgil was
living, perhaps when he was actually writing the Æneid, and there
is a great probability that he was a personal friend of Statilius
Taurus, the head of the family for whom this tomb was built. That
it became a family of some importance we see by these inscriptions,
and the inter-marriages recorded in them, and the names and offices
of the servants or freedmen; these are such as only a wealthy and
important family would have need of. The lector, or reader, im-
plies an auditorium, or hall for recitation, as in the house of Maecenas
at the same period. The vestiarius, or keeper of the wardrobe, the
sarcinatrix, or sempstress, perhaps do not appear so much by
themselves, but still they shew a staff of servants or freedmen be-
longing to this family. The slaves were not buried in the family
tomb, but the freedmen were, as may be seen also in the tombs of
the servants of the Cæsars, or "Officers of Cæsar's household," on
the Via Appia, previously described.
I. GEMELLA. SALVE SALVETE. MEI. PARENTES ET TV SALVE. QVIS.
QVIS. ES
2. MENANDER. L.-OSTIARIVS.-AB. AMPHITHEATR
This inscription, of Parian marble, being of the Augustan age,
applies to a Menander libertus and custode of the vomitoria of the
amphitheatre, built in the Campus Martius by Statilius Taurus ",
the exact site of which has long been disputed.
In several of the following inscriptions other members of the
family of Statilius Taurus are recorded; one of them, Taurus Statilius
Corvinus, was consul in A.D. 45º.
m Dionis. Cass. Hist. Rom., lib. li. c. 23; Suetonii Octavianus, c. 29.
n Sueton. in Aug., c. 29; Dio, lib. li. c. 23.
Borghesi Euvres, l. 5, p. 529.
The Tombs.
4I
3. FAMILIA. T. STATILI. TAVRI-PATRIS. EX. D. D.-ANTONIAE. M. L.
CHRYSE. IN-HONORE. STATILI. STORACIS-OLLAM. DEDERVNT
4. STATILIA. SVRA
5. STATILIA—ATHENAIS—MATER. CAMPANI
6. STATILIA-RVFILLA-T. STATILII-HERACLAE. VIAT—VXOR
7. STATILIA-HELLADIS. L.-EVCVMENE
8.
T. STATILIVS
(sic)
IVCVNVS
DISP
CORVINI
T. L
OPTATVS
A. MANV
V. A. XXXVI
9. T. STATILIVS. TAVRI. L—Spinther . svpra. LECP-T. STATILIVS.
CRESCENS. F
IO. T. STATILI VS-T. L. HILARVS-COR. VEST 9
II. T. STATILIVS-ZABDA-PAEDAG. STATILIAE
12. T. STATILIVS. NICEPOR-FABER. STRVCT. PARIETAR
13. T. STATI LIVS-LVCRIO
14. T. STATILIVS T. STATI-MALCHIO MELI CRH'—AD VESTE
15. D. M-CLAVDIAE — CAENIDI-T. STATILIVS-PHARNACES-CONIVGI—
B. M. P.
16. T. STATI LIVS-FELIX-VIXIT ANNIS XXV-STATILIA NICE-FILIO svo
CARISSIMO-BENE. MERENTI. FECIT
17. PHYLLIS STATILIAE-SARCINATR -SOPHIO. CONIVGI SUAE. MERENTI
18. T. STATILIVS—CELADVS
19. ONESIMVS-POSIDIPPI―T. STATILI. SER-VIXIT. AN. VII
20. T. STATILIVS. TAVRI. L. DAPNIS
21. CLARVS CVBICVLAR-TAVRI ADVLESCENTIS
22. ESYCHVS. TAVRI. SER
·
23. STATILIAE. T. L. HILARAE — AMARANTvs. COLORAT
AMARANTVS . COLORAT — PHILOLOGVS .
ATRIESIS. CONIVGI. POSVER-BENE. ADQVIESCAS. HILARA . SIQVID.
SAPIVNT. INFERI-TV. NOSTRI. MEMENTO. NOS. NVMQVAM. OBLI-
VISCEMVR. TvI
24. STATILIA. T. F.-AGAPHIMA
25. ECHONIS.
. STATILIAE
P Supra lectorem, the freedman em-
ployed as reader.
Corvinus vestiarius, keeper of the
vestments or of the wardrobe.
r
• Possibly CRATAREUS, the freedman
who had charge of the white vestments,
as CORVINUS had of the black.
» Sarcinatrix, the sempstress.
FRESCO PAINTINGS IN TOMBS t.
THE importance of the subject of Græco-Roman, or "classical"
fresco, as bearing on history, is better understood as successive
discoveries are made. These relics illustrate the prevalence, or at
least the leavening, of Greek manners in the Imperial city; and as
we draw nearer the Christian era, they shew how the Greek element
in Roman life,—that is to say, in the life of all the civilized nations
round the Mediterranean,-assisted the teaching of the Faith in
great cities or centres of intercourse. In Rome in particular, as
Dean Milman observes, the Christian Church was a Greek society,
adhering, as far as possible, to the Hebrew side of religious thought
and observance. And as the language of Greece, spoken or written,
was the means by which the Roman world received the Gospel, so
it seems by the traces of art yet discoverable, that the Greek habit
of pictorial illustration was used very early by the Church for pur-
poses of instruction. When we consider, too, the polyglot popu-
lation of the vast city, and that, long after the gift of tongues had
ceased, a Greek preacher or catechist might have to address
Hebrews, Syrians, and speakers of Latin only, at one and the same
time, the use of the earlier Catacomb illustrations of the Lord's
parables becomes apparent. The Good Shepherd and the Vine,
painted on the tufa walls and arches, conveyed the same idea by the
universal language of the eye, as the words, "I am the true Vine,"
or "the Good Shepherd," whether written or spoken. Of equal
convenience for application would be the pictures of Noah, Abra-
ham, Moses, and the typical persons or events of the Old Testa-
ment. That the picture-language of Greece, as well as her pho-
netic system, or letter-language, was freely employed by the Early
Church, is almost beyond a doubt.
Further, it must be remembered that the Etrurian element of
Roman civilization dictated great part of Roman social habits;
and that whatever relation the Etrurian race may have borne to
the Greek, they gave Rome the whole groundwork of her religious
observances. Now the religion of Etruria was ancestral and sepul-
chral: the family worship of the hearth-fire was handed down from
one chief, or patriarch, of the house to another; and each of them,
at his death, was thought to depart to join his own Lares, the
majority of ancestors gone before, of whom death made him one.
From a forthcoming work, entitled "Fine Art of the Decline and Fall," by
Rev. R. St. John Tyrwhitt, Christ Church, Oxford.
Fresco Paintings in Tombs.
43
Hence the domestic worship of the dead was extended to the tombs
of the departed, and became a sepulchral religion. It had its feasts
of memory, which continued long into Christian days, so as to con-
found themselves with the Agapæ, and probably to give reason for
their abandonment. Its object was to continue by symbol and
observance the life of the dweller in the tomb; and that in the
likeness of the life he had led, or ought to have led, in his days on
earth. He was received into the convivia of the gods, and the
gods were imaged as fair young men and women. Or he was
purified by penal suffering, and prepared for another trial on earth,
perhaps in some lower form. All this led to a style of sepulchral
ornamentation, partly domestic, partly religious, which bears such
resemblance to the mixed character of the Christian frescoes, that
we may suppose, either that heathens, or half-converts, were occa-
sionally buried in the great Catacombs, or that heathen artists
were employed in the earliest days by Christian patrons, which is
highly probable; or besides all this, that though the Christians may
have been earnest and faithful men, they never broke through the
inveterate habits of their race, and let their cemeteries be adorned
with paintings as they always had been: yet that they soon began
to take interest in the subjects of those paintings, as a means of
instruction to others in the Faith. As we see in the photographs
from the tomb of Statilius Taurus, the shepherd was a favourite
subject of Græco-Roman decorators; and the presence of this ex-
ample opens a rather curious detail of difference between the Latin
type (if any) of the Christian Shepherd, and the more frequent
Greek model, where the wandering sheep is borne on His shoulders.
To this we must briefly refer in its place.
Christian churches and sepulchres, then, were painted, first, because
the Etrurians were in the habit of painting their tombs; secondly,
because Greeks habitually painted everything; thirdly, because
Christian Greeks early saw the value of pictorial language, or sym-
bolism, as a means of instruction. All this may be allowed. But
we are at once involved in the greatest difficulties when we begin
to classify Christian paintings according to their date. Polemical
issues have rather improperly been made to depend on these dates;
re-touchings and repairings have been numerous and lamentable,
decay never rests; and it is only by the discovery of parallel works
of painting by Gentile hands, that we can obtain any certainty about
our own artistic chronology. On this subject every one will feel
the value of all these works to the critic or historian, as certified
photographs from the originals themselves; and the importance of
44
Appendix.
reproducing Christian documents of the same kind in the same
irrefragable manner.
The earliest decorations of Christian churches were Greek in
style and method, in the same way in which all the decorative arts
of Rome were Greek. It is a curious illustration of the mingled
relations and changing fortunes of Greek and Latin Aryans, that
the words Greek and Roman, and many of their cognates, are quite
equivocal terms. After Mummius, and before Constantine, Greek
art means Attic, or ancient Greek work, more or less applied to
Roman purposes. After him, it begins to mean Byzantine, or
lower-Greek art, in utter decadence, yet with a principle of new
life, to be in time communicated to other races; and to return to
Italy once more in the form of the Schola Græca of Rome in the
seventh and eighth centuries, and in such works as the Gates of
Benevento, or of S. Paul without the Walls of Rome ". Before
Constantine, Roman means of the City of the Tiber; after him,
it means of the City of the Bosphorus; and to this day in Russia
and the East, Rome means Constantinople, and Constantinople is
The City X.
The arts had already been Romanized by Roman imitation, and
Byzantinized by the same means in the Eastern Rome; they were
to be Gothicized, changed, and renewed in new races.
And if, as
is asserted, the eldest of these photographs are from works of the
time of Sylla, or about fifty years later, which would come to
twenty-eight years from his death, they give additional proof of
what was known before,—that Rome imported both her art and her
artists, to the final and absolute loss of that Etrurian, or original
style of her own, which produced the yet remaining group of the
Wolf and Twins, and might have been developed into a great school
of Realist sculpture.
These photographs are numbered from 3304-3306, also 3311,
3313, 3314, 3316: and it will be expedient to compare them, first,
with those from the Columbaria of the Pamphili-Doria Villa; then
with the celebrated subjects from the painted and stuccoed tombs.
on the Latin Way; and finally, with the earliest Christian work, or
with that small quantity of it (chiefly in the Catacombs of S. Do-
mitilla and Prætextatus, and the earlier parts of the Callixtine)
which has clearly been directed by the taste and methodical skill
" This door was destroyed by fire,
but the panels of rude early sculpture,
chiefly incised lines, were preserved by
the monks, and have been replaced in
a new door in 1876: see plates in
D'Agincourt's Histoire
Sculpture.
de l'Art-
* Stamboul's Thy Boλly, in the Tartar-
Greek of her invaders.
Fresco Paintings in Tombs.
45
of Greek or Græco-Roman painters. What strikes one especially
in the first three of these pictures, is the vigorous gesture of the
figures; and the bustle of their action, which pays little regard to
composition or ordered arrangement, but fills the space with
combat and labour, in (generally speaking) correct and even beau-
tiful drawing.
3304. Foundation of the City of Lavinium. Eagerly active
workers, some heaving up well-squared blocks of stone; two en-
gaged in laying them. Effort in lifting is well-studied, apparently
from nature, in all the figures; and their exertion is contrasted
with the repose of the tutelary goddess, who is sitting on the new
wall of the city, as if waiting to take possession. Observe in parti-
cular the figure stooping over the squared stone, and the grandly-
imagined struggle of the gigantic figure on the right with his burden.
His feet appear too small, but this may be from injuries to the
painting.
3305. Much injured-the figure of Æneas appears to have pos-
sessed much dignity, and the idea of submission to have been well
conveyed. The River-God may recall the attitude of the Theseus.
Figure on the spectator's left bearing off some heavy burden in
great haste, and with, I think, incorrectly long strides.
3306. Battle of Trojans and Rutuli-the former well armed, the
latter without defensive armour, except perhaps their shields. This
is undecipherable, except that the sinking figure (on right of spec-
tator), with bowed head, must have been of great merit; the Rutu-
lian in the centre may have been spearing the overthrown warrior
at his feet; but the left foot is rather unfortunately on tiptoe (I
think it may have been re-touched), so that he appears to be kicking
his enemy in the stomach with the keenest enjoyment.
3311. Romulus as Shepherd (or Faustulus ?), with slight traces of
a fine figure of Remus. The Romulus is very beautiful, bearing
two thin rods or javelins, and clad in the tunic and cloak of Virgil's
shepherds, with a hat such as is worn by all classes in Italy to this
day. The usual way of representing the Good Shepherd in Chris-
tian work is quite different from this. In both the Vatican and
Lateran statues, in the majority of Catacomb paintings, and fre-
quently on glasses (as Buonarotti, Vetri, 4 and 5 pl.), He is bearing
the sheep on His shoulders. There can be little doubt that this
type-form is taken from a statue by Calamis, or of his time, called
Hermes Criophorus, or the Ram-bearer. See Raoul Rochette's book y
' Raoul Rochette, Mémoires sur les antiquités chrétiennes des catacombes.
4to., Paris, 1838.
46
Appendix.
on the original sources of the Art of the Catacombs; and for an out-
line of the Statue of Hermes, Seeman's Götter und Heroen, sub
nomine. The youthful head and poise of the throat are still de-
lightful, and the limbs and drapery admirable. All must have been
done from studies skilfully made from nature, and the method seems
to have been that of so many, if not all, other ancient frescoes; which
has, indeed, in principle been followed to the present time. The
forms were drawn in strong lines, and the principal darks added;
then the half-tints were laid all over the figures, and blended into
the darks; and finally the lights put on in thick colour. This system
seems to have been pursued in the Christian paintings also, except
that in many of those in the Callixtine, the original darks of the
drawing are careless or incorrect, so that it is difficult to say from
the photograph whether they may or may not be rude re-touches.
The lines and deep darks were probably put in in warm brown or
red, and have printed very black in the photograph.
3313, 14. Painted round a cupola (3316), where 3313 will be
found. Second-rate drawing, distorted by the lens; but the drapery
and limbs appear inferior to the shepherd or builders. The vaulting
may be compared in its composition both with Pompeian work, and
the cupola ornament of the Catacombs, as preserved by Bosio's
engravings. These figures have quite lost the energetic action and
imaginative power of the earlier ones, which seem to have been
done by some Græco-Roman student, who enjoyed his work, and
used considerable inventive powers under a carefully-taught system
of drawing. They only want the gravity and balance of orderly
composition. The cupola figures are correctly composed, with
rather unmeaning ornament. But they have this great value, that
the cupola vaulting connects them with Catacomb ornament, and
the arrangement of full-length figures standing round the inside of
a dome anticipates the decoration of the Baptisteries of Ravenna
and many similar buildings.
When we come to the Doria-Pamphili columbaria and their deco-
ration, we are struck by the skilful and beautiful use of landscape
and natural subject. There is indeed a Deliverance of Prometheus
by Hercules, whom Athene is encouraging to direct his arrow at
the vulture, with other figures, and apparently a temple, treated as
part of a landscape, with sacrificing figures, and others fishing with
rod and line. These have been already described, and it may be
said that though inferior as subjects to the earlier Statilian pictures,
they are even more skilful in execution, being admirably propor-
2 Seeman (O.) Die Götter und Heroen der Griechen. Leipsic, 8vo., 1868.
Fresco Paintings in Tombs.
47
tioned to their places, and very pleasingly composed, with Pompeian
freedom of arrangement, quite free from the crowding of later days.
The drawing is good first-century. They have relation to the earliest.
works in the Domitilla and Prætextatus cemeteries, but are superior
to them, and few if any Christian works can technically be com-
pared with them at all. The gigantic blackbird, the spoonbill,
attagen, crocodile, and palm, are as well done as they can possibly
be; and the doves in 2704 should be compared with one or two of
those in the Domitilla vaultings-the same hand might have done
them. For the greater number of the catacomb paintings, they are
of an entirely different character, and for the most part (as far as
I can judge from the photographs) of later date and far inferior
work. They may have been in many cases faithfully restored, but
it seems often to have been done most unskilfully. The vaultings
seem generally speaking to contain the oldest or least-destroyed
work, as may be expected. The student will have no difficulty
in distinguishing the unmistakeably ancient work of the two or three
instances here mentioned, by its Greek grace and dubious or veiled
symbolism.
The Via Latina tombs and their beautiful ornaments bring us into
a new combination of colour and bas-relief, or, apparently, of bas-
relief of high merit, enclosed in coloured frames or spaces, on walls
and ceilings. The subjects are describable by the Slade Professor's
expression of "nude prettinesses," sprightly, fanciful, and inoffen-
sive, in the best Pompeian style. The idea of making a tomb like
a habitable and agreeable home is thoroughly carried out here, and
the whole appearance of these works seems to confirm Mr. Parker's
views about the sepulchres being actually in use as habitations. If
this be the case, it will throw an interesting light on the question
of how far the Christian cemeteries were ever made places of tem-
porary habitation. The idea of refuge there would be familiar to
the primitive converts, or at least not so shocking as the "apparent
descent into Hades" seemed to St. Jerome; and Christian faith
would eagerly substitute the hope of Paradise for the heathen in-
vention of a world of the tomb, as like the present one as possible.
I do not remember any Christian stuccoes of this kind except
those given by Bosio, to be found also in Bottari, vol. ii. tav. 93,
and in Aringhi, vol. i., from Bosio's plates. These are from tombs
in the Appian and Ardeatine Way, and contain a Good Shepherd
of the Greek type, and a Vine curved into volute-like festoons of
great beauty, with boy grape-gatherers, like those of Prætextatus.
These are probably of the second century also. Similar volutes are
48
Appendix.
great part of the frame-ornament of the tombs on the Latin Way
(Photographs 2098-2103, particularly the two first). They are
really of more interest than the hippocampi who kick and flounder
on the medallions, or the nymphs who kick and flounder on the hip-
pocampi. When skilled art had come to this, its decadence was
established beyond all cure. The Christian Faith revived art rather
than destroyed it, in restoring what it had so long lacked, a true
meaning and a weighty purpose. In technical skill the Christian
work is always inferior to the heathen, though many examples of
both are of the same school. The crucial distinction is that the
Christian work ceases to be trivial, and assumes didactic or instruc-
tive power at once and for ever: for much good, long unmixed; but
in after time for much evil also.
Ketilby, Oxford.
R. ST. JOHN TYRWHITT.
ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA.
Errata.
THE TOMBS.
Corrigenda.
p. 5, note h. CONSVL.
Ibid. FVISE.
p. 6, note 1. per l'amo.
p. 10, note r. 6, AGRIPPINAE. F. M.
AGRIPPAE. DIVI, &c.
Ibid. 7. CORINTHEAM.
Ibid., line 31. ET. CINIS.
Þ. 17. JANVARIVS.
p. 23. CAECILIAE Q. CRETICI.
p. 24, line 20. Capo di Bovo.
p. 25, line 25. D. M.
Ibid., note g. Torre dei Scavi.
p. 30, line 24. Family of Poblilia.
Ibid., note o. edile.
CONSOL.
FVISSE.
per l'anno.
AGRIPPINAE. M. AGRIPPAE. F.
CORINTHIAM.
ET. CINIS.
IANVARIVS.
CAECILIAE
Q. CRETICI. F
Capo di Bove.
Omit the D. M.
Torre de' Schiavi.
Tribe of Poblilia.
adilis.
THE TOMBS.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE I.
THE tomb of the "Servants of the Cæsars," or the Officers of
Cæsar's Household, is situated in the Vigna Codini (that is, in the
vineyard or garden of Signor Codini), just within the Porta Appia,
now called Porta di S. Sebastiano, on the eastern side of the Via
Appia, in that part which is just to the south of the tomb of the
Scipios. This was within THE CITY of the third century, when the
Wall of Aurelian was built to enclose THE NEW CITY, upon what had
previously been the mania or outer boundary of ROME, though not
of THE CITY. From the time of the Kings to that period the circuit
of THE CITY proper was limited by the aggeres of Servius Tullius, and
the cliffs of the hills which had been the fortifications when each of
them was a separate fortress. In this southern direction the Porta
Capena, in the short agger between the Coelian and the Aventine,
had been the boundary.
This celebrated tomb is full of columbaria (or pigeon-holes) for
the cinerary urns, and it is commonly called a columbarium, but it is
properly a tomb full of columbaria, as the Roman tombs of that
period usually were. It will be observed that the central pier to
carry the vaults, and the sides of the staircase, were filled with colum-
baria, as well as the outer walls; no space was lost in these tombs.

B
מרנג בננות
COLUMBARIA
Plate T
88
4
OFFICERS OF CAESAR'S HOUSEHOLD >
A
OP
THE TOMBS.
PLATE II.
IN this view one side of the tomb of the Officers of Cæsar's
Household is shewn with the staircase and the columbaria, many
of which are still occupied by the busts of the deceased persons
buried there, and the cippi or the cinerary urns which contained.
their ashes. The staircase is shewn to be original by the arch under
it, and the wall being filled with columbaria like the rest.

COLUMBARIA
0500
Pizte II
TOMB OF THE OFFICERS OF CAESAR'S HOUSEHOLD
THE TOMBS.
PLATE III.
In this view a portion of the tomb is selected in which the cippi
or urns are more perfect than in other parts, and many of the in-
scriptions are legible. These indicate persons belonging to the
household of the Cæsars, or Emperors; this name more especially
belongs to the family of Augustus Cæsar, and the Emperors of the
first century, to which period this tomb belongs, but the name of
Cæsar was long retained as synonymous with Emperor.
It will be observed that the urns are of several different forms,
but the name of cippus is believed to have been given to all of them,
although that name was also given to boundary-stones, which would
seem to imply that the cippus was originally of that shape. The
inscriptions are placed upon the walls under and between the cippi,
as well as on the urns themselves.

ONESIMS ATRY
PORTION
SOCTAVINS OCZAVIN
CASALS OCAVA
EPERKENANCE ZABINNA
COLUMBARIA
Plate III
MANTONYMMAGE
COMEVE SALE
ACURINSALARISTO
1-ASENNIA CLARA
NUTAN BOX
VERMETEN
RENTY SUTELY
UNIVCH SC
MEANTIONTY
NNIO CAESA
CURIONPOVETO
HEMPIRANT
ARING
CCLAVDIV
CASTOR
LAENILIVS AEMILLALL
WECER APOLLONIA
VIXITAMAXI
MATER
THAMYR
NVMPHIDIA
AGATHOCLIA
CONIVGI SVO
CARISSIMOITEM
VICISSIMOBMF
LINHA
AVIAL
SANDVEMALON
EHIT
LA DISTRITA
TOMB OF OFFICERS OF CAESAR'S HOUSEHOLD >
OF
UNIV
THE TOMBS
PLATE IV.
THIS is a small tomb full of columbaria, the roof and vault has
been destroyed. It is situated in the Exquiliæ, which was the great
public burial-ground of Rome in the time of the Republic, and
went out of use in the time of Sylla. The celebrated gardens of
Mæcenas were afterwards made on the same site, over the tombs.
This tomb was excavated in 1871 by a building company, who had
bought the ground for the purpose of building upon, and first ex-
amined the site in search of old foundations.
The construction of the walls shews that sort of rude early reti-
culated work which was in use in the time of Sylla, when that kind
of ornament for the surface of a wall was beginning to come into
fashion.
The six-foot rule placed at the foot of the wall, and painted
alternately black and white, serves as a good scale to it.

COLUMBARIA
Plate IV.
TOMB IN THE EXQUILIIS-1871
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
PLATE I.
THE SCIPIOS.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE I.
TOMB OF THE SCIPIOS.
ORIGINAL entrance, from a cross-road between the Via Appia and
the Via Latina. It is a remarkable example of early Roman archi-
tecture, with the entrance doorway and the cornice over it. The
vault over the road in front of the tomb is of a much later pe-
riod, erected when the original hollow-way or foss-way was filled up
to the level. The construction of the wall is of very early cha-
racter, similar to the Walls of the Kings. The arch does not stand
at its original height, the ground having been much raised, and the
jambs are half buried. This tomb is mentioned by Cicero in his
Tusculan Disputations (1. i. c. 7), as being outside of the Porta
Capena. Livy also mentions that there were three statues upon the
front of it--Publius, Lucius Scipio, and the poet Quintus Ennius
(1. xxxviii. c. 56).
PLAN OF THE SAME. In the plan the original parts are distin-
guished by a darker tint, but it appears to have been very irregular,
and governed by the nature of the ground. There are also great
differences of level, as it is built upon a sloping bank, with the
original entrance at the bottom. The house shewn on the right of
the plan is believed to be on the site of the Temple of Tempestas,
built by the Scipios, and there are still fragments of columns and
bases on the ground near it. The sarcophagus and the inscriptions
have been removed to the Vatican Museum, but the site is still of
historical interest. The general character may be called Etruscan,
and it is known that the family of the Scipios were of Etruscan
origin, and prided themselves upon it.

PE
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
TOMB OF THE SCIPIOS.
OF
1
UNIV
THE TOMBS.
PLATE II.
CAIUS BIBULUS, B.C. 34,
AND TOMB AT THE PORTA SALARIA-OF THE SAME CHARACTER.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE II.
TOMB OF CAIUS BIBULUS, EDILE, B.C. 34.
THIS engraving shews what is visible of it in the Via di Marforio,
at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, on its eastern side; the lower
storey was buried by the filling-up of the foss-way, and is now a
cellar, the upper part is built into a house. The inscription, re-
cording that the tomb was erected at the public expense, which is
partly visible in the photo-engraving, is repeated on the south side,
and is believed to have been on all the four sides. The tomb
originally stood detached, on the outer bank of the Capitoline
fortress.
This outer bank was the usual place of burial for persons of im-
portance in the Etruscan cities,-especially near the gates, and
the north-east gate of the second Wall of Rome must have been
very near this tomb, on its south side. The site of the gate marks
the limit of the city in this direction, until the time of the Empire.
The walls of the barbican (or parallel walls) of this gate were ex-
cavated by the archæologists in 1872 °.
શ
Caius Bibulus is mentioned by Tacitus (Annal., iii. 52) with
praise, as endeavouring to check the extravagance of his time by
sumptuary laws. The following is the inscription :
C. POBLICIO. L. F. BIBVLO AED. PL. HONORIS
VIRTVTISQVE. CAVSSA. SENATVS
CONSVLTO. POPVLIQVE. IVSSV. LOCVS
MONVMENTO. QVO. IPSE. POSTEREIQVE
EIVS. INFERRENTVR. PVBLICE. DATVS. EST
TOMB AT THE PORTA SALARIA. This is so much like the tomb
of Bibulus that it must be of the same period. It was long buried
in one of the towers of Honorius, on the south side of that gate,
which was pulled down in 1872 and rebuilt in 1874. Nothing is
known about the tomb, but its situation, with some other tombs
also found in this tower, proves that the gate stood there long before
the time of Aurelian. This gate is in that part of the fortifications
between the Prætorian Camp and the Pincian Hill, where the outer
mania were left unfinished; but there must have been a bank of
some kind to have had a gate in it. There was probably no stone
wall. This was the weakest point in the defences of Rome, where
it was repeatedly attacked and taken, and it was again near this gate
that the Italian cannon made a breach in 1870.
a These are shewn in Plate III. of Part I,

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
TOMB OF BIBULUS B. C. 80.
TOMB AT THE PORTA SALARIA.
UNI
THE TOMBS.
PLATE III.
EURYSACES THE BAKER AND HIS WIFE ARISTIA.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE III.
TOMB OF EURYSACES AND ARISTIA, WITH THEIR Effigies.
THIS celebrated tomb of the Baker and his wife stands just
outside of the Porta Maggiore of Claudius, the principal eastern
gate of Rome. It was buried in one of the round gateway-towers
of Honorius from the year 403 to 1833, when the tower was de-
stroyed and the old gate made visible, with this curious tomb.
Eurysaces is believed to have been an army contractor for the
supply of bread in the time of Sylla (as some say, or more probably
of Julius Cæsar or the early part of the long reign of Augustus),
and was so proud of his trade that he had his tomb built of old
stone kneading-troughs, or more probably of imitations of them,
and on the cornice had sculptures shewing all the processes of the
art of making bread. The effigies of himself and his wife Aristia
are very fair specimens of the carving of that time. They were
found detached and buried in the earth inside of the tower, which
was only faced with brick, and their effigies are built up in a wall
on the opposite side of the road to preserve them. It would have
been better to have replaced them on the outer side of the tomb,
where they evidently stood on the angle, to be seen to most
advantage.
The following are the inscriptions upon it, which are repeated on
each side; they are not perfect, but have been made out from
the fragments:-
EST HOC. MONIMENTVM. MARCEI VERGILEI EVRYSACIS
•
•
PISTORIS REDEMPTORIS APPARETORVM
•
FVIT.
ARISTIA . VXOR . MIHEI
FEMINA. OPITVMA. VEIXSIT
QVOIVS CORPORIS RELIQVIAE
•
•
QVOD. SVPERANT. SVNT
HOC. PANARIO
IN

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
ESTROC MONIMENTNAMER
TOMB OF EURYSACES AND ARISTIA B. C. 20?
CEMINE
EFFIGIES OF EURYSACES AND ARISTIA.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE IV.
SECTION OF THE PORTA MAGGIORE AND OF
THE TOMB OF THE BAKER.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE IV.
SECTION AND PLAN OF THE PORTA MAGGIORE, AND OF
THE TOMB OF THE BAKER.
THIS shews the remarkable position of the tomb, and explains
its singular shape by the position between the two roads at their
point of meeting.
The Via Labicana is the one now in use, the
other gate on the Via Prenestina has long been closed. But the
meeting of these two important roads at this gate proves that it
was the principal entrance into Rome on the eastern side in the
time of the Republic, before the time of Augustus. Many of the
old gates of Rome were double gates, placed where two roads met.
The aqueducts which pass over this gate are a little later than his
time, but those which pass through the wall, just beyond the tomb,
are earlier. The Marcia, which was one of them, was made in the
year of Rome 441, or 312 before the Christian era.
The Tepula
was added on the same arcade, A.U.C. 627, B.C. 126, and these aque-
ducts were carried on the high bank or agger of the Tarquins for
a mile to the north of this gate along the eastern side of Rome.
The inscriptions on the gate record the distance of the sources of
the aqueducts from Rome to this point, and prove that it was the
entrance into Rome. Frontinus also identifies them in his descrip-
tion, and mentions the high bank on which they were carried. The
gateway is of the time of the Emperor Claudius, and the two specus
or conduits seen upon it are those of the Aqua Claudia and of the
Anio Novus, made, in his time. Just within the gate, on the south
side, are remains of a temple, which was destroyed when the guard-
house for the custom-house officers was built, but the fragments of
it were preserved, and remain between the guard-house and the
wall; they, are of the time of the Republic, or perhaps of Julius
Cæsar. The inscription was carried to the Vatican Museum. It
is generally said to have been a temple of Spes, and this may be
correct, as an altar of Spes was commonly placed in gardens, and
this gate was the entrance to the gardens of the Sessorian Palace
as well as to Rome; but it is singular that the only inscription
found among the ruins was a dedication to Hercules and not to
Spes, and we have no record of a temple being built to Spes on
this spot.
to

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
4
SECTION OF PORTA MAGGIORE AND OF THE TOMB.
4193 980
PRENESTINA
VIA
LABICAN
TOMB OF EVRISACES
PLAN OF PORTA MAGGIORE AND OF THE TOMB.
UNIE
M
OF
THE TOMBS.
PLATE V.
PYRAMID OF CAIUS CESTIUS.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE V.
TOMB OF CAIUS CESTIUS.
THIS tomb, in the form of an Egyptian pyramid, stands in the
Wall of Rome near to the Porta Ostiense, or di S. Paolo; it was
built, agreeably with the instructions of his will, by the heir, C. Mela
and Pothius (Mela is mentioned also in the next inscription), soon
after the conquest of Egypt, when the Egyptian gods were very
much the fashion in Rome, and was probably an imitation of one
of their tombs. It is an enormous mass, and the sepulchral chamber
for the sarcophagus is remarkably small in comparison, as is seen
on the plan. The following inscription was placed on the eastern
and western side of the pyramid :—
C. CESTIVS. L. F. POB. EPVLO. PR, TR. PL.
VII. VIR. EPVLONVM
OPVS. ABSOLVTVM. EX. TESTAMENTO. DIEBVS. CCCXXX.
OPVS. ABSOLVTVM
ARBITRATV
PONTI. P. F. CLA. MELAE. HEREDIS. ET. POTHI
•
L.
b
It was incorporated in the Wall of Aurelian, and the end of the
Via Ostiensis was slightly altered at that time to meet another
road at the double gate adjoining. The tomb was originally
detached, and between two roads, as in other cases. It had been
much damaged, and was repaired in 1663 by order of Pope Alex-
ander VII., as recorded in another inscription, and the work was
carefully done. Two pedestals for statues were found at the inner
angles, (as shewn in the plan). They have another inscription on
them, and are now in the Capitoline Museum. They might be
restored to their original place with advantage.
M. VALERIVS
·
MESSALLA
CORVINVS
P. RVTILIVS. LVPVS. L. IVNIVS. SILANVS
L. PONTIVS . MELA
D. MARIVS
NIGER
•
HEREDES
•
C. CESTI
ET
•
FRATRIS
·
L. CESTIVS QVAE EX. PATRE
EVM
M. AGRIPPAE
VENIT
PRO
•
•
EX
QVAE
EX
SVIS . PARTIBVS
VENDITIONE
AD
•
•
HEREDITAS
EA
•
MVNERE
PECVNIA
•
AEDILIS
ATTALICOR
EIS
PER
IN
EX
SEPVLCRVM
TESTAMENTO
INFERRE
NON
LICVIT
•
PER
QVAM
RECEPER
•
EDICTVM
C. CESTI
EIVS
The "Septem viri Epulonum" were
a college of Priests originally of three,
afterwards of seven persons, who super-
intended the sacrificial banquets to the
gods. (Cic. de Gr. 3. 19; Orell. In-
script., Nos. 590, 2365, &c.)

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
TOMB OF CAJUS CESTIUS.
сл
5
UNIV
OF
MICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE VI.
SHRINE OF DEO REDICOLO.
:
THE TOMBS.
PLATE VI.
TOMB CALLED DEO REDicolo.
THIS is not properly speaking a tomb at all, though commonly
so called, and it is very much like other tombs of the same period
-of the beautiful brickwork of the first century, with moulded
brick capitals, and other details of ornaments of the best brick
or terra cotta.
It was built to commemorate the return of the army of Hannibal
from that spot, which is about two miles outside of the Porta
Appia, on the eastern side of that road, but in the valley of the
Caffarella, below the level of the road, and not visible from it.
The name comes from the word redeo, "I return." It is rather
a shrine than a tomb; it is sometimes called a temple, and is sup-
posed to have been dedicated to the Genius Loci, the river-god
Almo, as it stands on the bank of the small river of that name.
Festus mentions it as rediculi fanum, and says it was called by
that name because Hannibal returned, redievit, from that spot. Pliny
also mentions the spot, and says that in the meadow called Campus
Rediculi (Nat. Hist., x. 60) a funeral pyre was prepared, and funeral
rites were performed on a raven (corvus). He is writing of the
superstition of the Roman people and the honours they paid to
certain birds, and particularly a tame raven, which was hatched
in the time of Tiberius on the Temple of Castor, in the Forum
Romanum, lived at a cobbler's shop opposite, and was worshipped;
and its body was carried on a bed on the shoulders of Ethiopian
slaves to a funeral pyre (rogus) prepared for it in the meadow called
Rediculus, on the left of the Via Appia, at the second mile.

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
6
TOMB CALLED DIO REDICOLO c. A.D. 50.
THE SAME WESTERN SIDE.
UNI
OF
Photogravure Dujardin, Paris
MICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE VII.
PRISCILLA.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE VII.
TOMB OF PRISCILLA, A.D. 90.
THESE are the poor remains of what was one of the richest
tombs in Rome, of which the plan gives some idea, from the
number of niches made for images. The round tower built upon
it is mediæval, and serves as a landmark by which to know it.
The situation is about half-a-mile outside of the Porta Appia, at
the junction of the Via Ardeatina with the Via Appia, and nearly
opposite to the chapel called "Domine quo vadis."
The poet
Statius (Silv., lib. v. ver. 222-241) has given a full description of
this tomb, and mentions that it stood on the bank of the river
Almo, outside of the walls, as it does. Priscilla was apparently (from
the poem) the wife of Abascantus, and was represented in nine
different characters, such as Ceres, Venus, &c., in bronze statues
in the niches. Her body was placed in a rich sarcophagus within the
tomb. An inscription with the name of Alexander was found here.
"Est locus ante urbem, qua primum
nascitur ingens
Appia, quaque Italo gemitus Almone
Cybelle
Ponit, et Idæos jam non reminiscitur
amnes.
Hic te Sidonio velatam molliter ostro
Eximius conjux (nec enim fumantia
busta
Clamoremque rogi potuit perferre)
beato
Composuit, Priscilla, toro. Nil longior
ætas
Carpere, nil ævi poterunt vitiare la
bores
Siccatam membris. Tantas venerabile
marmor
Sepit opes.
Mox in varias mutata
novaris
Effigies: hoc ære Ceres, hoc lucida
Gnossis,
Illo Maja tholo, Venus hoc non im-
proba saxo.
Accipiunt vultus, haud indignata, de-
coros
Numina. Circumstant famuli, consue-
taque turba
Obsequiis: tum rite tori, mensæque
parantur
Assidue domus ista, domus: quis
triste sepulchrum
Dixerit? hac merito visa pietate mariti,
Protinus exclames: Est hic, agnosco,
minister
Illius, æternæ modo qui sacraria genti
Condidit, inque alio posuit sua sidera
cœlo."
"There is a place in front of the
City where the vast Via Appia com-
mences, and where Cybele lays aside
her mournful cries on the Italian Almo,
nor calls again to mind the streams of
Ida. Here, Priscilla, your illustrious
husband has placed you on a sump-
tuous bed, softly veiled by a robe of
Sidonian purple, (for he could not en-
dure your smoking ashes, nor the crack-
ling of your funeral pyre). Prolonged
periods could pluck nothing away, the
endurance of ages could no wise mar
her whose limbs are dried up. Such
wealth does this venerable marble en-
close; in which you presently appear
anew again in varied statue-portraits.
On this bronze, Ceres; on that, the
brilliant goddess of Crete shines in her
splendour; Maia is recognised in this
vault, Venus as distinctly on that rock.
Nor do the deities disdain to see in
these their appropriate images. Around
stand the attendants, a crowd wont
readily to do such obedience; and,
then, the beds and the tables are as-
siduously prepared. Surely this man-
sion is truly a house; why, then, speak
of it as a sad sepulchre? Sooner or
later, you will yourself exclaim, when
you recognise the piety of your hus-
band, 'He it is, I own, who is the
fitting minister of him who has built
temples to the eternal glory of the
family (Gens Flaviana), and who has
exalted his own constellation to another
heaven.'"

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
7
TOMB OF PRISCILLA. A. D. 90.
Photogravure Dujardin Paris
OF
WICH
THE TOMBS,
PLATE VIII.
ROMULUS, SON OF MAXENTIUS.
}
THE TOMBS.
PLATE VIII.
TOMB OF ROMULUS, SON OF MAXENTIUS.
THIS is on the Via Appia, about two miles from Rome, and
close to the Circus also called after him. It is often called a temple,
but was evidently a circular tomb of great magnificence, intended to
have been the Mausoleum of Maxentius, and of an imperial family.
His temple is in the Via Sacra, and is now part of the church of
SS. Cosmas and Damian, as has been demonstrated by De Rossi in
his Bulletino de Archeologia Christiana for 1872. The tomb stands
in the centre of a quadrangular space of considerable extent, which
was surrounded by a colonnade, of which only the back wall re-
mains; the columns have been carried away. In front of the tomb
(or perhaps on the portico of it) a house had been built which was
long a wine-shop, but is now in ruins, and might be removed with
advantage. This tomb is at the foot of the hill, on the top of which
stands the conspicuous tomb of Cecilia Metella. The Circus is the
most perfect one remaining in or near Rome.
by other names, but was identified by an inscription found on the
spot by Canina, during the excavations on the Via Appia. In the
aisle round the central tomb are a number of sepulchral recesses
for sarcophagi. The plan evidently was an imitation of the ear-
lier imperial family Mausoleum; the sarcophagus of the Emperor
himself, as founder of the family, was to be placed in the centre,
and those of other members of the imperial family in these recesses
round it.
It was long called

OF
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
8
TOMB OF ROMULUS, SON OF MAXENTIUS.
SNI
THE TOMBS.
PLATE IX.
THE LATERAN FAMILY, AND P. VIBIUS MARIANUS.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE IX.
TOMB OF THE LATERAN FAMILY OF THE FIRST CENTURY.
SEPULCHRUM FAMILIE LATERANENSIS.
THIS tomb is situated on the bank of the great foss between the
ancient Lateran fortified palace and the Coelian Hill, on the edge.
of the garden of the Lateran. It is commonly miscalled the "House
of Verus," only because Verus is recorded to have been educated
in the house of his family near the Lateran, which probably means
in the Sessorian Palace, on the other side of the Lateran, originally
separated from it by another great foss. This is evidently a tomb
of the first century, consisting at first of a round tower only, faced
with reticulated work, with bands of brick in the style of the latter
half of that century. To these two wings have been added, as more
room was wanted for the columbaria for cinerary urns with which
the walls are lined, both of the central tower and of the wings. It
is of two storeys, and the walls of both are full of columbaria.
It is now a carter's house only, and in that manner has been over-
looked by the antiquaries. We have no history of it, but there are
thousands of tombs of which we have no records, unless the in-
scriptions happen to have been preserved, which is not the case in
this instance. The situation and the construction are sufficient
evidence of what it has been.
TOMB OF P. VIBIUS MARIANUS.
SEPULCHRUM P. VIBII MARIANI.
THIS tomb is a very conspicuous object on the Via Cassia, stand-
ing on a high bank on the side of the road, here a deep cutting, at
about four miles from the Porta del Popolo; it is usually miscalled
by the guides the Tomb of Nero, without any ground whatever for
that name, beyond an ignorant conjecture of some one who had
a reputation for learning two or three centuries since. It is a fine
bold sarcophagus, with a very massive cover. There are inscrip-
tions on both sides, the most important of which is on the side
away from the road.
This tomb is on the way to Veii, and the old road to that city,
now a bridle-road, turns off the high road to the right, nearly oppo-
site to it. About a hundred yards before arriving at it there is an-
other conspicuous object, high up on the bank on the same side,
which is not commonly understood. It is a castellum aquæ and
piscina of an ancient aqueduct, the specus or conduit of which can
be seen in the bank of the road on the right hand, nearly midway
between these two objects. It seems to have been thrown down in
an earthquake, and this makes it difficult to understand without
some study.

SEPULCHRUM FAM. LATERANENSIS
UNIV
OF
SEPULCHRUM P. VIBII MARIANI
WICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE X.
QUINTUS SULPICIUS MAXIMUS.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE X.
EFFIGY OF QUINTUS SULPICIUS Maximus.
THIS tomb was found in 1871, in the interior of one of the towers
of the Porta Salaria, then being rebuilt by Count Vespignani, the
architect of the Pontifical Government. It had formed the core of
the tower to the right hand in leaving Rome, in the same manner
as the tomb of Eurysaces the baker, found in 1833, had formed the
core of the left-hand tower of the Porta Maggiore. The inscription
on the tomb records the history of the youth who was interred in it.
He was only eleven years of age when he died in Rome, and he
had, even at that early age, been the successful competitor against
fifty-two opponents in Greek verse in the third Lustrum, that is,
in open competition, in the twelfth year of the Emperor Domitian
(A.D. 94). The tomb was erected in his honour by his parents,
Q. Sulpicius Engramus and Licinia Januaria, in this most public
situation, which is another proof that there was a gate in the outer
Wall of Rome on that spot in the time of Domitian. Tombs are
found at all these gates. The inscription under his feet recounts
his history, and below that is placed the Greek verse which he had
recited extempore. These lustra are said to have been first esta-
blished by King Servius Tullius, but had fallen into disuse, and
were revived by the Emperor Domitian ª.
An excellent account of this remarkable youth and his tomb was
published in 1871, in folio, by the Cavaliere C. L. Visconti, with
a facsimile of the Greek verses, and a translation in Latin of the
extempore verses, and of the two epigrams engraved on the tomb on
either side of the effigy. The following is the historical inscription;
the verses are too long to be transcribed here, and scholars can
refer to the work of Visconti for them.
DEIS. MANIBVS. SACRVM
Q. SVLPICIO Q. F. CLA. MAXIMO DOMO ROMA VIX. ANN. XI. M. V. D. XII
HIC. TERTIO. CERTAMINIS. LVSTRO. INTER. GRAECOS. POETAS. DVOS. ET. L
PROFESSVS. FAVOREM. QVEM. OB. TENERAM. AETATEM. EXCITAVERAT.
IN. ADMIRATIONEM. INGENIO. SVO. PERDVXIT. ET. CVM. HONORE.
DISCESSIT. VERSVS
EXTEMPORALES. EO SVBJECTI. SVNT. NE PARENT. ADFECTIB. SVIS.
INDVLISSE. VIDEAN'T
Q. Svlpicivs engramvs ET. LICINIA. JANVARIA PARENT. INFELICISSIM .
F. PIISSIM. FEC. ET. SIB. P. S.
d Censorin., De die natali, liber ed.
Teuben, cap. xix. n. 13, p. 39; Sueto-
nius in Domitiano, c. 4; T. Livii
Hist., vii. 3.
"Il sepolcro del fanciullo Q. Sul-
picio Massimo recentemente scoperto
nella struttura della Porta Salaria pel
Cavaliere Carlo Ludovico Visconti,'
Roma, folio, 1871, pp. 28.
""

AMAZDIOTEATOS
TICIZANACIONS
DETONPAVAGADORS
CAL CONT
HASTELOY FOCAL
ONE DIONAREE
MEN
TACTEINO
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JAIDE TOFAUTICALLY
TO
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HISTERTIOCERTAMINIS LVSTROINTERGRALCOSI OSTASIVOS ET L
BROFESSVSTAVOREMOVENOMENES AMNETATENTE XEITAVERAT
IN ADMIRATIONEMINGENIO VODFRI XIETYAAHONOREDDCESSIT VERS
EXTERIORALES SOSVBIECTISVNENEPARENT ADIFCTV SYISINDVISINEVID
OEVENCIVSEVERAMVSETLICINIAIANVARIA FAREN INTELICISSIMELISSIME LISTOP
ETIURAMMATANG
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DATARINGMO NON
BOAGE AN OUTLAMANC
TOLGINEXT DIE
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EFFIGIES SULPICII MAXIMI
UNIV
OF
ICH
THE TOMB S.
PLATE XI.
THE FREEDMEN OF LIVIA AUGUSTA,
OR OFFICERS OF CÆSAR'S HOUSEHOLD.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XI.
TOMB OF THE FREEDMEN AND SERVANTS OF LIVIA AUgusta, or
"OFFICERS OF CÆSAR'S HOUSEHOLD," WITH COLUMBARIA.
SEPULCHRUM LIBERTORUM LIVIÆ AUGUSTÆ
ET COLUMBARIA IN EODEM.
THIS tomb is situated on the Via Appia, a little beyond the first
mile from the Porta di S. Sebastiano, on the left hand or eastern
side of the road. The remains of it are now made into a gardener's
house, just behind an iron gate to a large vineyard, with the name
of the owners, the Colonna family, on the gate-post. It is the tomb
of which a full description was published by Dr. A. F. Gori in 1727,
when it was first excavated. A concise account of it is given at
p. 17 of the Chapter on Tombs in this work. It will be observed
that the brickwork shewn in the upper view is very nearly of the
same character as that of the Pantheon, which is of the time of
Augustus and Livia. It was a very large tomb, and had six cham-
bers, three above (now the house), and three below (now the cellars),
all full of columbaria, as shewn in the lower view. This tomb is
one of peculiar interest, because some of the inscriptions given by
Dr. Gori, and now preserved in the Capitoline Museum, are those
of persons mentioned by St. Paul in his Epistles; and Dr. Lightfoot
has shewn that some of these are not common names, as some of
the others are, but may probably be the identical persons mentioned
by S. Paul among the "Officers of Cæsar's household," a name
which may very well be applied to the freedmen or servants of
Livia, the wife of Augustus, and a lady of high rank and large
fortune in her own right. If this is correct, they serve to shew
that the early Christians did not object to the burning of the body.
There are no sarcophagi or stone coffins for the bodies here. The
ashes of the bodies burnt are all that were interred here.

SEPULCHRUM LIBERTORUM LIVIÆ AUG.
COLUMBARIA IN SEPULCHRO LIBERT. LIV. AUG.
Photogravure Dujardin Paris
UN
OF
1
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XII.
ON THE VIA APPIA.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XII.
Two TOMBS ON THE VIA APPIA.
SEPULCHRA IN VIA APPIA.
BOTH of these tombs are of a class that is common on this road,
which are built in imitation of a funeral pyre (rogus); the mass of
fagots on which the body was laid to be burnt is represented by
a mass of concrete or rubble stone; the beams of wood that were
laid across the fagots at short intervals, with the ends projecting
from the mass, are represented by pieces of marble, originally about
three feet long and a foot square, which have for the most part
been chopped off and carried away, for the value of the material,
but of which enough remains to shew that they have been so
chopped off. Canina considered that the use of these blocks of
marble was to fix the marble plates of the casing, but this is not
the method which was usually employed for that purpose in Rome;
we have many instances to shew that they were fixed by means of
mortar and cement, as in the Therma of Caracalla, the Palaces
of the Cæsars, and the temples everywhere, and in no instance by
the plan of blocks projecting in this manner. There is no reason
why this plan should have been adopted for the Tombs, and nowhere
else. In one of the tombs of this class near Albano, the projecting
pieces of marble are left perfect, but in general the material was
too valuable to be spared: the marble casing has been carried away
in the same manner as the projecting blocks. The first of these
tombs is about a mile from the gate, on the eastern side of the
road, on the left hand on leaving Rome, and has a cottage built
upon it; the other is about three miles on the same side, a little
beyond the great tomb of Cecilia Metella.

SEPULCHRUM IN VIA APPIA
SEPULCHRUM IN VIA APPIA
0903
THE TOMB S.
PLATE XIII.
THE PAINTED TOMBS ON THE VIA LATINA.
PLAN AND SECTION,
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XIII.
PLAN AND SECTION OF ONE OF THE PAINTED TOMBS
ON THE VIA LATINA.
THIS Plan and Section were made by Mr. Eastlake at the time
these tombs were discovered, in 1858, and are almost necessary for
the proper understanding of this celebrated structure. In the plan
we see the place of the great sarcophagus inserted in the centre of
the inner chamber, of which the walls and the vault are covered
with the beautiful stucco ornament, with the original colouring, an
ingenious mixture of real projection with colour, the effect of which
is remarkably good. In the outer chamber the wall is seen, with
places for other sarcophagi round three sides of this chamber, and
the steps descending into it.
In the section above is seen the general position of the pictures,
and the outline of the end of the great sarcophagus, of a form that
was common in Roman tombs of the third and fourth centuries.
The tomb itself is of the second, and the wall has been broken
through to admit this great rude stone coffin or sarcophagus, which
is probably of the fifth. On the walls of the outer chamber is seen
another smaller sarcophagus, of the third century, with a painting
of a peacock under it, and slight outlines of other paintings on
the wall.
There was an upper storey to this tomb, now destroyed, but re-
mains of it were distinctly visible when it was found in 1858, and can
still be traced; they are indicated in this section: the staircase is
also shewn in the plan. There were originally four chambers, two
above and two below. The doorway was ornamented with Doric
columns of good style, of which the capitals and bases were pre-
served; they are now in some museum, and engravings of them can
be seen in the Bulletino di Corrispondenza Archeologia for 1860,
with an account of the tomb by Dr. Henzen, and a more full account
of the subject of the mythological pictures by Dr. Peterson in the
volume for 1861. Near the tomb was found at the same time, by
Signor Fortunatus, remains of an extensive villa of the time of
Domitian, and the tombstone of Anicius Paulinus, and near to it
also are the remains of the church of S. Stephen; of these latter
objects an account was published about the same time, by the Cav.
G. B. De Rossi. It is also described in our Chapter on the Cata-
combs, as there is a catacomb under it.

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
PLAN AND SECTION.
OF
PICH
1
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XIV.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
Diagrams oF THE PAINTINGS.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XIV.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
Diagrams of THE PAINTINGS ON THE VAULT, AND ON ONE SIDE.
THESE diagrams shew the general arrangement of the subjects,
and the slight outlines are sufficient to indicate the various mytho-
logical subjects.

云​8
@@@@
TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA,
DIAGRAM OF VAULT AND ONE SIDE.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XV.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
VIEW OF ONE COMPARTMENT.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XV.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
VIEW OF ONE SIDE, AND ONE COMPARTMENT OF THE VAULT.
SHEWING the mythological subjects more in detail, almost exclu-
sively drawn from the Trojan War. The first being the Judgment
of Paris; Achilles and Thetis; Achilles in the Isle of Scyros;
Jupiter and Juno.

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA,
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS ON THE WALLS.
UNIV
OF
VICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XVI.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
MYTHOLOGICAl Subjects.
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XVI.
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA.
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS ON The Vault.
THETIS drawn by hyppocamps; the same subject is repeated on
a large scale in the lower panel of this Plate; and Castor and Pollux.
THIS plate shews the beautiful drawing of the figures known to be
of the second century. The tomb is dated by the brick-stamps in
the walls'. It will be seen that the figures are not merely painted,
but are raised in stucco; not stamped, but worked by hand, and then
painted. It is one of the most elegant examples of this beautiful
style of decoration that has been found, and comparing these with
the catacomb paintings, makes it impossible to believe that the
latter belong to the same early period. No one can put side by
side the photographs or photo-engravings of them, without seeing
that they belong to a quite different period of the history of art.
Yet they are not highly-finished examples of the early period, they
are rather roughly executed, for effect at a distance, and are not
intended for close examination, but they are sketched in with
wonderful spirit and effect. They remind one of Pompeii, and are
almost equal to anything there.
A brick-stamp (bulla) found in the wall has the names of the consuls, which
give the date of A. D. 159.
PLAVTIVS QVINTILLVS
STATIVS PRISCVS

TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME.
+
PAINTED TOMB ON THE VIA LATINA,
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS ON THE VAULT
Photogravure Dujardin, Paris
UNIV
OF
WICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XVII.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
THE TOMBS.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
THIS Plate gives a view of the exterior; the upper part added
in the time of Hadrian, and an additional wing also of the same
period.
Under this on the Plate is the Bustum, or place for sifting the
ashes, and separating the human ashes from those of the wood with
which the body was burned, with a section of part of the tomb.
At the foot is a plan of these tombs, with the Bustum behind
them.
A-B.
C-D.
Lines of sections on the following Plate XVIII.
a. Original Tomb, upper part.
b. Additions with Columbaria.
c. Another Tomb, separated from the former by a narrow passage.
d. The Bustum (?), or Ustrinum (?).
e. A construction which has the appearance of an altar in the
second tomb.
f. The Steps of the Tomb of Taurus.

TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS B.C. 30
E
MET
MET
A
B
C
A. VIEW B. DETAILS C. PLAN
UNIV
OF
FICH
THE TOMBS.
PLATE XVIII.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
SECTIONS, SHEWING THE POSITION OF THE FREscoes.
THE TOMBS.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
SECTIONS, SHEWING THE POSITION OF THE FRESCOES.
A—B.) Lines of sections, as shewn on the Plan of the preceding
C-D. Plate.
a. Original Tomb.
b. Additional Wing.
c. Reticulated-work of the first century in the second tomb.
de. Stone Construction, resembling an altar, in the second tomb.
g gg. Additional Storey of the time of Hadrian, with painted
vault and walls of that period, and a loculus made in the brick wall,
a very unusual feature, and a step towards a Catacomb.
iiii. Sections of Brick walls, with Columbaria in them.

TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS B.C. 30
00%
SECTIONS SHEWING THE POSITION OF THE FRESCOES
D
B
THE TOMB S.
PLATE XIX.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
Figure of the Shepherd, and Three Sheep.
THE TOMBS.
•
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
FIGURE OF THE SHEPHERD AND THREE SHEEP.
THE drawing of this group is said to be equal to anything that
Raphael ever drew, in fact, as good drawing as can be found any-
where. It shews the state of the fine arts at the time that Virgil
wrote the Æneid, which is more in advance than had commonly
been supposed. The idea usually held is that such good art was
never found before the time of Augustus, and that the fine arts
made great progress during his long and peaceful reign. There is
little doubt that this idea is generally correct, and that the present
excellent drawing is really exceptional at that early period of Roman
art. At the same time, it must be remembered that the drawing in
the tombs of the Etruscans, or of the Italo-Greek period long before
his time, is often very good. Whether this figure is intended to
represent Faustulus the shepherd, who took charge of Romulus
in his infancy, or Romulus himself in the character of a shepherd, is
not very material. All we have to do with, is the history of art
at the period in which it was painted, and of this there can be no
doubt.

TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS B.C. 30
FIGURE OF THE SHEPHERD-TIME OF VIRGIL
THE TOMB S,
PLATE XX.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
FRESCO PAINTING.
THE TOMBS.
TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS, B.C. 30.
FRESCO PAINTING.
REPRESENTING the foundation of the city of Lavinium, named after
Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus, and second wife of Æneas. She
is represented as seated on part of the new wall of the City, with
a crown and veil on her head. The walls are represented as of
the character well known in Rome by the name of "the walls of
the Kings," consisting of large oblong blocks of tufa or other soft
stone. There are walls of this description remaining at a place
called Civita Lavinia, near Albano (Hist. Phot., No. 2386), which
some think the same place. Others think the site must have been
nearer to the sea, and that there is another such place with similar
walls, Pratica near Ardea; there is no doubt that walls of this de-
scription do belong to the time of the early Romans; they remain
in Roma Quadrata, and in the early walls at Tusculum, and at Ceri,
now called Cervetri. In both of these instances, and in many others
on the hills of Italy, there are still earlier works cut out of the rock,
probably the work of the Greek settlers in Magna Græcia, but the
Roman painters of the time of Sylla and of Virgil painted their
walls according to the ideas of their time.
Virgil, Æneid i. 558, xii. 194; Dionys. Halicarn. i. 59; Dio. Cass.
Fragmenta, iii. 5; Livii Hist. xliv. 57.

TOMB OF STATILIUS TAURUS.
FRESCO PAINTING ON THE WALL OF THE COLUMBARIA.
SCULPTURE AMONG THE GREEKS
AND ROMANS,
MYTHOLOGY IN FUNEREAL SCULPTURE,
AND
EARLY CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE.
PREFACE TO THE CHAPTER ON SCULPTURE.
No work on the Archæology of Rome would be complete with-
out some account of the Sculpture, of which Rome was the centre at
the best period; the best works of the great sculptors of Greece all
found their way to Rome, and often the sculptors themselves re-
sorted to Rome as their capital. Of these celebrated works there
are still abundant remains, notwithstanding the enormous quantities
that have been exported from Rome, and of which all the principal
museums in Europe are full. In this, as in some other branches
of the subject, I have felt quite conscious of my own want of suffi-
cient information to presume to teach others; but I have the advan-
tage of a very large acquaintance, and of knowing the persons who
are the best masters of each subject. No one who knows Rome
would hesitate to say, that the Cavaliere Charles Visconti is one of
the best-informed persons in Europe on the subject of Greek and
Roman Sculpture. He has kindly written the section on Pagan
Sculpture for me, and it will be found well worthy of his high repu-
tation. It is an admirable summary of the subject, and in this work
a good summary of each branch of the great general subject of the
Archæology of Rome is all that is attempted. Each branch is suffi-
cient for a volume, or sometimes for several volumes, but no one
has time to study in detail all the branches of such a wide subject,
while all are glad to have a good useful summary of each branch.
Sculpture is of no less importance than Painting and Architecture for
the historian, and it is often useful for the explanation of different
passages in the Classics, especially Mythological Sculpture.
Visconti in this essay has wisely confined himself to the Classical
period; but in the latter part of that period, when we come to the
bas-reliefs on the sarcophagi, there is necessarily an overlapping of
those containing Pagan mythology with the Christian sarcophagi
of the third and fourth centuries, and here other friends, equally
well-informed in those branches of the subject, the Rev. C. W.
Jones, of Caius College, Cambridge, and of Pakenham, Suffolk,
and Professor Westwood, of Oxford, have taken them up for me, and
completed them. Visconti has slightly touched upon the allegories
contained in the Pagan Mythology at the end of his essay, but has
left a great deal more to be said in continuation of that branch of
iv
PREFACE TO THE CHAPTER ON SCULPTURE.
the subject which happened to have particular interest for Mr. Jones,
who has accordingly taken it up con amore, and has written a brief
and interesting essay upon it, now incorporated in this chapter.
As a Cambridge man of long experience, he knows better what is
wanted for English students than Visconti could do. They have
seldom had the opportunity of seeing the numerous examples that
are familiar to him. The one has looked at the Mythology only
to shew the subject of the sculpture, and has never intimated that it
has allegorical meanings also, and this allegoric meaning is just the
branch taken up by Mr. Jones. Professor Westwood follows on with
the Christian subjects, which are generally quite distinct, being en-
tirely from the Bible, but occasionally the two are mixed in a curious
manner, as Christ and the Muses, on a sarcophagus of the third
century, in the chapel of the Priorato. The cultivation of the vine
on a sarcophagus, now in the museum on the Palatine, may be
either Pagan or Christian, the subject being the same as on that
of Constantia, who was a Christian, though it is obviously not neces-
sarily Christian. Between these essays, I believe that the reader
has as good a summary of the whole subject of Roman Sculpture
as could be obtained in the same compass, certainly a far better one
than I could have supplied myself; and I am not at all ashamed,-
on the contrary, I am proud, to be able to call in the assistance of
such thoroughly able and competent persons, whom it is an honour
to call my friends.
This subject was intended to complete the work, according to my
original idea of what was wanted for the use of English and American
visitors to Rome, to explain what they had come to see. But the
important discoveries that were made in such interesting parts of
ancient Rome as the Forum Romanum, the Via Sacra, and the
Colosseum, seemed to make it necessary to give some account of
them in the first instance, and the other parts of the work that were
commenced and nearly finished were put aside until this was done. At
that time (1875-76) almost every week some fresh facts were brought
to light, and sometimes of such a nature as to change the ideas previ-
ously entertained on other subjects also. The conclusions arrived at
by the learned men of the sixteenth century, when the revival of the
study of Classical Literature began, on the subject of the Historical
Topography of Rome, are wonderfully good for the time when they
were written. They were giants in learning, and had brought to-
gether all the texts of classical literature that are extant on the sub-
ject, as is shewn by their works collected in the third volume of
the great Thesaurus of Grævius, which is a collection of all the
PREFACE TO THE CHAPTER ON SCULPTURE.
V
works on the Antiquities of Rome then published; among these the
work of Panvinius stands pre-eminent. But the numerous excava-
tions that have been made, especially of late years, and the large
collection of inscriptions found since their time, have made their
works to a great extent obsolete. Yet scholars throughout Europe
are still sometimes misled by these so-called traditions on this sub-
ject, if not by that name, at least by the other name, of the "Re-
ceived Interpretation of the Passage," and as these same interpreters
have had the placing of the stops when these works were first printed
(for the manuscripts have no stops), and these same views have
been incorporated in the Latin Lexicons, originally made at the
same time, it is very difficult now to obtain a hearing for any
other interpretation.
These remarks apply equally to all branches of the subject, and
not only to the history of Sculpture, of which scarcely anything was
known at that period. Mythology was indeed studied, and sculptures
of mythological subjects were used as illustrations, but the collection
of sculpture in museums did not begin until after that time, and
the different character of sculpture at different periods had received
no attention. The great work of Winckelmann was the first to bring
the subject into systematic order, and since his time a good deal
more has been done". No one is better acquainted with all the best
works on the subject, and the best examples found in Rome, where-
ever they may now be dispersed, than the Cavaliere Visconti.
Scholars of all parts of the world may say that there is no use in
telling them about the history of Sculpture, without shewing them the
objects described; but this work is intended to be accompanied by
the photographs that have been taken in connection with it, and one
of the first principles of archæology is that it can only be under-
stood by the eye, words only do not convey a sufficiently definite.
meaning, and no engravings can be depended upon for details; the
minute accuracy of the photograph is absolutely necessary for the
study of art. If this is obviously true of all kinds of art, it is still
more strikingly so of sculpture. I have had the good fortune to
obtain permission to have photographs taken of the Sculptures in all
the principal museums in Rome-the Vatican, the Lateran, the Capi-
toline, and the Villa Albani (collected by Winckelmann); and the
photographer who has taken them is one of the best photographic
operators in Rome, and he has had the use of the best machines and
See the History of Sculpture by
Lübke, translated by Bunnett. Lond.,
1872; also Italian Sculptors and Tus-
can Sculptors, by C. Perkins. London,
1865 and 1868.
vi
!
PREFACE TO THE CHAPTER ON SCULPTURE.
the best materials. The antiquities of Rome, and more especially
the sculpture, can now be brought home to every college and every
school at a comparatively trifling cost. The great work on the His-
tory of Art from the existing remains, by Seroux D'Agincourt, in
the last century, shewed what there was to be done; but the en-
gravings of that period were often bad, and made from incorrect
drawings, and can be little depended on for historical purposes.
In these days when Art forms part of education, the value and im-
portance of these "Historical Photographs" cannot fail to be ap-
preciated.
Oxford students have the advantage of the use of them in the
Bodleian Library, and in the Ashmolean Museum. In London they
can be seen at the South Kensington Museum; in Liverpool in the
Public Library; in the United States in that of Boston. In Germany
they are more highly appreciated than in any other country, and are
gradually coming into use.
English schoolmasters must soon see the importance of them for
the purpose of education. Archæology can only be understood
by the eye, words do not convey a sufficiently definite idea, (as
we have said before, and cannot too often repeat). Technical
terms are necessary, and are often only half understood, while an
accurate representation of the object is understood at once. The
mere outline engravings in our classical dictionaries are not always
sufficient for the purpose, and they are frequently taken from old
and incorrect drawings. The compilers of these dictionaries, not
being archeologists, have often fallen into extraordinary blunders ;
for instance, the portico or porch of the church of S. Giorgio in
Velabro, which is of the thirteenth century, is given as an example
of a classical portico, and there are many similar errors.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PAGAN SCUlpture.
Definition of Sculpture
I
The Greeks claim the honour of
the invention
ib.
ib.
2
Dedalus an allegorical name
Sculpture was at first very rude
Simple columns and shapeless
blocks were used as images
The HERMES-their origin
•
ib.
ib.
•
•
The famous image of Diana of
Ephesus retains peculiarities of
such early sculpture
divided into three
ib.
PAGE
The Parthenon
The Caryatides, the Wounded
Amazon
Polycletus, Praxiteles
•
Lysippus, the Athlete placed in
the therma of Agrippa
The School of Rhodes
STYLE UNDER
THE EARLIER
12
•
13
ib.
•
14
16
CÆSARS
•
17
•
Trajan and Hadrian
Alexander Severus
SARCOPHAGI introduced
ib.
•
18
•
19
That of the Amazons, in the Capi-
tol, one of the finest
Figures upon them evidently por-
ib.
ib.
Sculpture
branches :-
1. Plastic or modelling ;
2. Statuary, cast or carved ;
3. Corentic, or embossing
Statuary the subject of this chapter ib.
Criselephantine statues, composed
traits of the deceased
. ib.
Allegory of Alcestes, Admetus,
and Metilia Acte
20
of gold and ivory
POLYCHROME SCULPTURE
Diana of Herculaneum, and
Augustus in armour, the finest .
used in the Parthenon
revived by Gibson
3
ib.
•
•
Pluto and Proserpine—
Death of a young girl
Niobe-
ib.
•
Death of children
. ib.
ib.
Castor and Pollux-
ib.
Premature death
ib.
•
4
labours of Hercules—
Statues of red and white marble
ib.
•
Triumph of Virtue over the
Terra Cotta used by the Etruscans ib.
CLASSIFICATION-the Hermes
The Bust a Roman invention
Bas-relief, Alto-relief, Mezzo-relief
Bas-reliefs on the columns of Trajan
and Marcus Aurelius
5
Passions
the Muses
•
ib.
ib.
ib.
Many Sarcophagi are made of
6
Greek marble
21
•
7
STATUES, isolated figures of men or
animals
MYTHOLOGY IN FUNEREAL
SCULPTURE.
ib.
Explanation of subjects required
•
22
taste for them due to the Greeks 8
imported by the Romans and
General impression
ib.
•
BACCHANALIAN SCENES
ib.
distributed by them
ib.
had a hidden meaning
23
Single Statue, the Apollo Belvidere ib.
Statues in groups, the Laocoon and
the "Toro Farnese"
9
Various kinds of Statues
ib.
Styles and Epochs of Greek and
Roman Sculpture
10
First epoch of Greek Sculpture,
called Archaic, B. C. 1230 to 440 II
The Sublime style, Pericles, Phi-
dias, Lysippus
the power of wine
The Vine on the Sarcophagus
HUNTING SCENES
Death of Adonis
an allegory of the Solar legend 25
The Calydonian Boar the
story
the lamented Mr. Wildbore
12
(Aper)
•
. ib.
26
ib.
of Constantia
•
•
24
ib.
ib.
•
viii
CONTENTS.
27.
ib.
ib.
•
ib.
28
•
ib.
ib.
•
•
29
ib.
·
32
BATTLE SCENES
Theseus and the Amazons
Theseus the Sun-hero
•
The Centaurs and Lapithæ
The Solar Myth .
THE RAPE OF PROSERPINE
DIANA AND ENDYMION
Explanation of the Myth
CUPID AND PSYCHE
the Story
•
Explanation of the Myth
CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE.
PAGE
26 Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus,
A.D. 359.
portrait-busts in the centre
and Scriptural subjects
PAGE
47
48
The largest Christian Sarcophagus 49
Woodcut of it
50
Story of Jonah, a common subject 51
Subjects on twenty-seven Sarcophagi 52
IVORY CARVINGS
56
Importance of these carvings; they
illustrate Art for 3000 years,
from Egyptian art, B. C. 980, to
the present time
ih.
Christian art at first debased
Cause of this
35
Very rich series from the third
ib.
Bad Sculpture of the time of
Constantine
36
Secular Ivories, Vatican Museum
CHRISTIAN STATUES
ib.
•
The Good Shepherd
and fourth, to the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries.
in the British Museum
in the Liverpool Museum
57
ib.
ib.
ib.
•
37
Statue of S. Hippolytus
Statue of Panthea, in the Cluny
ib.
Figure of S. Peter, in the Vatican
38
Museum, Paris
ib.
CONSULAR AND IMPERIAL ROMAN
SCULPTURES ON SARCOPHAGI
39
DIPTYCHS
58
Pagan Sarcophagi used for the
burial of Christians
ib.
Consular Roman diptychs the best
art of their period
59
•
Pastoral subjects used symbolically ib.
Pagan subjects adopted by Chris-
tian sculptors
Early Sculptures represent the Sa-
contained Fasti Consulares
Twenty-one Consular diptychs
ib.
ib.
40
Diptych of Probianus, A.D. 322,
with Woodcut
60
viour as juvenile and beardless.
41
of Valentinianus, A.D. 505,
and the head not surrounded
with Woodcut
62
by the nimbus
ib.
of Basilius, A.D. 541
64
Sarcophagus of S. Helena
ib.
of Anastasius, A.D. 517
65
of Constantia
42
The Monza diptych
66
at S. Lorenzo f. m., cultiva-
Christian Ivories and Book-covers
ib.
tion of the vine symbolical
ib.
Pyxides in the Vatican Museum
. 67
the Good Shepherd with
Triptychs in the same
ib.
•
43
Pastoral staves
68
44
sheep-Noah, Jonah
Christ and the Apostles
Petronius Probus, A.D. 395 . ib.
Christ with S. Peter and S. Paul 45
Titus Gorgonius, at Ancona ib.
Christ and six Apostles
celebrated one in the Lateran
Museum, Christ and the Apostles 46
Casket in the Library at Brescia ib.
•
Cathedra Apostolica, or Chair of
S. Peter, with Woodcut
of Maximianus, Archbishop
ib.
of Ravenna
•
70-73
•
73
74, 75
Diptych of Rambona, with Wood-
cut
LIST OF PLATES.-SCULPTURE.
PLATE
I. PAGAN Sarcophagi. 1. A Combat of Greeks.
2. The Death of the Niobedes.
II. 1. The Rape of Proserpine.
2. A Combat of Fauns and Centaurs.
III. The Feast of Bacchus.
IV. The Triumph of Bacchus.
V. Hunting of the Calydonian Boar.
VI. Upper Part. Front of a Sarcophagus in the Lateran Pagan Museum.
Lower Part. Venus persuading Adonis.
VII. 1. Castor and Pollux.
2. Mars and Rea Silvia, Diana and Endymion.
VIII. I. The Games in the Circus.
2. Chariot-race with Cupids, the Meta, &c.
IX. A Chariot-race and a Horse-race.
X. I. The Prometheus Sarcophagus.
2. Victory of some Roman General over Barbarians.
XI. Vines and Cupids and Birds.
XII. Two Christian Sarcophagi. S. Helena and S. Constantia.
XIII. A Christian Sarcophagus. Junius Bassus, A.D. 359.
XIV. A Christian Sarcophagus of the Fourth Century.
XV. Two Christian Sarcophagi of the Fourth Century.
XVI. Two Christian Sarcophagi of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries.
XVII. Two Christian Sarcophagi of the Fourth Century.
XVIII. The Two Ends of a Christian Sarcophagus of the Fourth Century.
XIX. S. Peter striking the Rock and the Arrest of S. Peter, from a Christian
Sarcophagus of the Fourth Century.
SCULPTURE AMONG THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
BY CAVALIERE VISCONTI.
THE earliest definition of Sculpture, is that of an art which repre-
sents figures in substances more or less solid, an art, which from the
most remote period has proposed for its principal object the pro-
duction of forms, both nude and draped. Winckelmann was of
opinion that the invention of painting preceded that of sculpture;
Mengs and others held a contrary opinion; however this may be,
historians of the art of sculpture, as if obliged to follow the traces
of some system, assign the honour of its first invention, some to the
Etruscans, some to the Phoenicians, and some to the Jews; and in
favour of the latter may be cited the idols of Laban's house, the
ornaments of the ark, the golden calf, the bronze serpent. Other
authors make mention of very ancient sculptures of the inhabitants
of India, and of other Eastern nations.
The Greeks, desirous of claiming in every art the honour of its
invention, had fabulous traditions that sculpture was first introduced
amongst them by Prometheus and by Vulcan; and, descending to
an epoch less fabulous, they make mention of the famous Dedalus
and Dibutades of Corinth, who, having filled with soft clay the out-
line which his daughter had drawn on the wall of the shadow of
her sleeping lover, was looked upon by his countrymen as the first
artificer in the Plastic art. Dedalus is supposed to have lived about
the time of Theseus, in the Heroic Period, about 1,230 years before
the Christian era, and Dibutades a little later. We should here call
attention to a common opinion, that under the name of Dedalus
a single individual is not designated, but rather a kind of allegory
or personification of the earliest efforts and beginnings of every art ;
and Pausanias informs us, that all the very ancient images were
called "Dedali," and supposes that from these this supposed ancient
artificer derived his name daídaλa; in certain remarkable stones, and
other monuments recorded in Holy Scripture, many authors think,
and perhaps with reason, that we may recognise the earliest attempts
at sculpture. It appears that these stones and other monuments
were intended to represent by rude blocks, and to perpetuate the
b Pausan., ix. 32.
a Plin. Nat. Hist., xxxv. 12. 43.
}
В
2
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
memory of remarkable events, and distinguished mene. While sculp-
ture was in its cradle, without the aid of drawing, and unprovided
with the necessary implements, its first productions were but rude
and imperfect; and upon the authority of early historians, the most
ancient images of gods and men were simple columns, or shapeless
blocks, to which the early artificers used to affix some circular form
at the top, to indicate the head. Of this description, for example,
were the image of Jupiter "Lasius" (?), represented upon a coin of
the Siro-Macedonians, of the time of Trajan; that of "Venus
Paphia," which we find on a Greek coin of the time of Domitian,
and also engraved on a gold ring in the Vatican Museum. From
these rude and shapeless stones it is supposed that the so-called
"Hermes" had their origin; these were squared blocks, the lower
part of which diminished in size, while the top ended in a head of
Hermes or Mercury. We next find rude attempts to represent hands
and legs, until the artists, becoming more expert and less timorous,
began to separate the limbs from other parts of the body, without
giving them any movement or action, but leaving them in a mono-
tonous position; many remains of this character are to be found in
the different collections of antiquities, and we may cite as an example
the famous image of Diana of Ephesus, of which two reproductions
exist in the Museum of the Vatican, one in marble, the other in
mosaic; in this antique image of their goddess, it appears that the
Ephesians, not so much from habit as from a certain religious respect,
still retained the peculiarities of a very rude and primitive sculpture.
The Art of Sculpture consists of three branches: first, the Plastic
Art, or the art of modelling in clay or wax; secondly, the Art of
Statuary, or that of casting statues in various metals, or producing
them in marble by means of the chisel and the hammer; thirdly, the
Corentic (?), or the art of engraving or embossing different metals. In
the present treatise, which is intended to be illustrated by the pho-
tographs of Greek and Roman sculpture in Rome, we shall speak
almost exclusively of the Art of Statuary, as to this branch of the art
may be referred almost all the works of sculpture that the museums
of Rome contain.
Statuary in general was executed in marble or in metals, but in
more ancient times it sometimes had wood for its material; and this
rude manner of sculpture was afterwards brought to more perfection,
by adding to wooden statues the head, hands, or legs in marble, or
in stone; images of this nature were called åkpóλioa, that is to say,
C
Cicognara, Storia della Scult., lib. i. cap. 2.
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
3
"having the extremities of stone;" such, for example, was the
colossal statue of Mars, made in Halicarnassus by Leocares, a con-
temporary and companion of Scopas". These "aerolite" statues are
supposed to have originated the famous sculpture Criselephantina(?),
or "composed of gold and ivory," in which the chef-d'œuvres of
Phidias and Polycletus were executed; since the "aerolite" statues
had the nude parts of marble, and the drapery of wood gilt, so from
these works to the Criselephantine, or composite statues, there was
scarcely any step, beyond the splendour and costliness of the material,
ivory supplying the place of marble, and gold that of wood. The
learned Quatremere de Quincye has devoted a great part of his ex-
cellent work, upon the Jupiter Olympius of Phidias, to the develop-
ment of the history of Criselephantine sculpture.
It is worthy of remark, that whilst in the beginning statues of
wood and marble served as examples for those of gold and ivory,
so in later times statues of marble and wood, or of marble and
bronze, were executed in imitation of those of the more costly
Criselephantine sculpture. Of this latter description was probably
the statue of "Calpurnia," seen by Trebellius Pollio in the Temple
of Venus in Rome. The ancients had an admiration, which at pre-
sent we should consider contrary to good taste, for sculpture of
different materials, and of various colours; from this arose the
so-called "Polychrome" sculpture, that is, "of many colours;" this
was of two sorts, the variety of colour was either produced by
a variety of marbles, or the white marble was slightly painted in
encaustic: this latter system was very common in ancient times, so
that we rarely find an antique statue that does not shew more or less
some traces of painting. The best-preserved example that exists is,
the statue of Diana of Herculaneum, in the museum of Naples.
And among many examples in the galleries of Rome, we may men-
tion the very beautiful statue of Augustus in armour, which stands in
the Braccio Nuova in the Vatican; on the coat of mail are still pre-
served traces of purple colouring, and on the corslet a light blue,
and on the borders of the coat of mail are marks of gilding. What-
ever may be the opinion of our time, we must defer to the judgment
of the ancients, who in the best period of Art, for instance, in the
age of Pericles, in Greece, were constantly in the habit of colouring
their sculptures, as the remains of the Parthenon testify. There are
besides, in the ancient authors, abundant testimony in confirmation
of this fact, and a collection of these proofs may be found in the
d Vitruvius, ii. 8, 11.
e Book iii. and iv.
B 2
4
Sculpture among the Grecks and Romans.
!
above-mentioned admirable work of Quatremere de Quincy upon
the Olympian Jupiter. In our day, the eminent English sculptor
Gibson has with great success endeavoured to revive this classic
system of the ancients. Another kind of "Polychrome" sculpture was
obtained by inserting in a statue of coloured marble-for instance, of
porphyry or rosso antico-a head or extremities of white marble;
and in visiting the galleries of ancient sculpture, we must all re-
member having seen works of this kind. We shall mention only
the sitting statue of Rome, placed near the fountain of the Cam-
pidoglio, with its back to the Palace of the Senators, the architecture.
of Michael Angelo; this antique statue, discovered at Cori, is of
porphyry, except the head, arms and legs, which are of white marble,
and inserted. To the latter description of sculpture, rather than to
the former, belongs the custom much in vogue at the time of the
Roman Empire, of inserting into the heads of statues eyes of dif-
ferent metals, and sometimes of enamel or precious stones; and we
know that the "Faber Ocularius," who is described in some old
authors, was merely an artificer of eyes to place in statues; and the
fine colossal bust of Pallas in the Museo Chiaramonti at the Vatican,
found in the ancient Laurentum, has the eyes of enamel, with eye-
lashes of metal.
Soft clay, without doubt, was an excellent material for modelling
statuary; but the Etruscans made more use of terra cotta than the
Greeks or Romans, although for bas-reliefs in architecture the latter
also availed themselves of this material. One of the largest and best-
executed statues in terra cotta is the Mercury in the Etruscan
Museum at the Vatican, of a size somewhat smaller than life. Soft
clay appears to have been used by ancient sculptors for the purpose
of modelling as it is at present, and the models were afterwards
executed in marble, metals, and other durable materials. We should
also mention that wax was made use of in statuary, and the art was
called Ceroplastica, or the art of modelling figures in wax, a kind
of work much used by the Romans, who decorated the halls of their
houses with figures of their illustrious ancestors, formed of wax and
coloured, and they sometimes carried them in great pomp, in their
solemn funeral processions. The right to possess these figures,
called "Jus Imaginum," belonged only to those whose father or
whose ancestors had filled "Curule" posts in the magistracy.
Having described briefly the principal materials used in sculpture,
let us proceed to the classification of its chief productions. These
↑ Orellii Inscriptiones, 4185.
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
5
may be divided into "Hermes," busts, statues, and bas-reliefs. The
"Hermes," puía, is a simple head, sometimes with a portion of
the throat, placed upon a squared block, which serves as a support
to the head; and at times diminishing in its lower end en gaîne,
assumes a conical form. This very ancient production of sculpture,
being always popular among artists, the "Hermes" were varied in
many ways, sometimes draped, sometimes with arms, and occa-
sionally with two heads, "Herma biceps."
"Herma biceps." There is a dispute
among the ancients as to the origin of the word "Herma." Bottari,
in the first volume of his Museo Capitolino, has collected the various
opinions on the subject, from which it is inferred that such figures
had their origin in some sacred and mysterious deluge. Servius,
following fabulous history only, writes that such figures, without.
arms, were so called after Mercury ('Epuns), whose arms, in Mount
Cyllene, the sons of Corico cut off.
However this may be, it appears to be certain that to the history
of Mercury the origin of these "Hermes" may be ascribed. The
simple squared stones, which from the earliest times served to mark
out the boundaries of land, at later periods, for more respect and
reverence, were adorned with the head of Mercury, the tutelary
deity of boundaries. In time these "Hermes" were used to orna-
ment public and private buildings, theatres, amphitheatres, gymna-
siums, and other places of amusement; and in course of time they
no longer represented Mercury alone, but also other divinities,
heroes, poets, philosophers, monarchs, and illustrious men and
women. A very fine collection of "Hermes" exists in the Hall
of the Muses and in the Gallery of Geographical Maps, both in
the Vatican, and may be seen in our photographs.
The bust appears to have been a Roman invention, as in Greece
busts were not much known till a later period. The bust repre-
sents the human head, sometimes with shoulders and a small part
of the chest, and at times with the entire chest, or half the human
body. The want of a distinguishing word in Greek or Latin to
indicate what we call a bust, inclines us to suppose that it was
not an ancient invention; later busts are designated by the
Greek name #ротоμń (Protome), but this word, indicated by the lexi-
cographers Suidas and Hesychius, is not to be found in the more
ancient authors. According to these two grammarians, the term
Protome signifies an image or bust which includes the entire
throat. Among the Greeks of the time of Alexander, and the
Romans of the time of the Cæsars, busts became more common.
The representation of the human figure in a bust owes its origin
6
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
to two ancient customs; the first, common to the Greeks and to
the Romans, was that of adorning with portraits (clypei votivi), sus-
pended in the temples and in other buildings; the second, peculiar
to the Romans, was the custom we have before mentioned of ex-
hibiting the portraits of ancestors (imagines majorum) in the halls
of their houses; and the figures, at first engraved on the surface
of shields, began in time to be raised from the surface, and to form
a kind of high relief. To this cause may be ascribed the fact that
the lower part of the bust was carved in a circular form, in agree-
ment with the figure of the shield; so, from the fusion of these two
species of portraits, the invention of the bust may be traced, and was
in common use among the Romans at the time of the Empire ;
and as the "Hermes" were generally used to adorn the pathways
in gardens and the walls of libraries, so busts were commonly placed
in temples, in forums, in basilicas, and in the halls and peristyles of
great houses. At the renaissance of the arts and literature many
of these busts and "Hermes" were found in a broken state, and it
often happened that heads which were not their own were adapted
to them, so that to judge of the truth of the portraits much in-
genuity is required; and if the subjects are to be found on any
coins, it is well to compare their features with those on the coins,
and in default of coins, with the description of the features of such
subjects of which Plutarch, Cornelius Nepos, and others have left
very full and exact details. A bust that bears an inscription, in
genuine characters, of the name of its subject, the head of which
has never been detached from the shoulders, will be a most precious
monument of Greek and Roman iconography. The most rich col-
lections of antique busts in Rome are those of the Hall of the
Emperors, and the Hall of the Philosophers in the Capitol, and
those of the three sections of busts in the Gallery of Statues in
the Vatican.
The name "bas-relief" is applied to every kind of sculpture
whose subjects are not isolated but adhering to the surface, either
by being applied or fastened on, or by forming part of the same
material as the surface. Three kinds of reliefs are distinguished:
alto-relief, in which the figures are entire, and, as it were, detached
from the surface; mezzo-relief, when the figures project to the ex-
tent of half their thickness; bas-relief, when the figures have but
a slight projection, and appear to rest upon the surface. Custom
has, nevertheless, given the name of bas-relief to all works in relief,
whether high or low. The term arraglyphum indicated among the
ancients, in a generic and not very accurate manner, this kind of
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
7
sculpture, and when it was executed in metal it was called torcuma;
but the particular word which Pausanias uses is rúros, in Latin
typus.
The ancients employed bas-reliefs to decorate their monuments
of architecture and to adorn their furniture; and all nations known
in the history of art have produced bas-reliefs, the style of which
resembles closely their other works of art. Bas-reliefs, from the
infinite variety of their subjects, are always a most valuable class
of antique monuments, and in the advancement of learning may
even vie with medals and coins; and perhaps there is no series
of ancient works of art from which we can more advantageously learn
the style of every epoch and of the various schools, Egyptian,
Greek, and Italian; nor could any author, or codex of mythology,
borrow the subjects of the mythic cycle from a better source than
that of bas-reliefs, in which we often find certain accessories, certain
contrasts and incidents, which we should seek for in vain in the
Classics, and which serve often to illustrate the Classics themselves.
We may also add, that the figures and other objects not being dis-
joined from the marble, they still preserve those attributes with
which the ancient artist had distinguished them; whilst in statues,
where the head and hands are sometimes missing, we often lose the
true character and meaning of the work. Historical bas-reliefs are
few in proportion to those of mythology, but they are of great in-
terest and value, and it will be sufficient to mention those of the
cocloid columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, and those upon
the Arch of Triumph. But whether historical or mythological, we
also find depicted on bas-reliefs every kind of ancient costume,
sacred, public, domestic, military, comic, tragic, and rustic. Among
the Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans, it was a common custom to
adorn with bas-reliefs their temples and other public buildings; and
it is certain that most of the bas-reliefs we possess once formed por-
tions of the friezes and other ornaments of temples, and public
edifices, and even private houses; many of them also belonged to
the faces of sarcophagi, which the ancients used to decorate with
this kind of sculpture. Sepulchral monuments, cippi, inscriptions,
the supports and bases of statues, vases, peristomi, and even the
antique mouths of wells (puteolia) were adorned in this manner.
Under the name of statue is indicated a work of sculpture repre-
senting the human figure in full relief and isolated; the same term
is certainly applied to the figures of animals executed in the same
manner. Whichever nation it was that first attempted to produce
statues in wood, stone, or other material, it is certain that the art
8
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
1
of executing them with skill, and the taste for possessing them, are
especially due to the Greeks; they began by representing different
deities in the human form, they thus produced statues of the most
renowned heroes of ancient times, and finally they made statues of
men living or recently dead. These statues were exhibited in public
places frequented by the people, to remind them of those men
whose memory was dear to them. The taste for statues of deities
and celebrated men became so general in Greece, that of all the
arts of design, sculpture was that which was cultivated with the
greatest zeal and at the greatest cost, and in course of time
the entire country was covered, so to speak, with statues of gods
and men.
In the earlier Republican times, the Romans possessed also
a small number of statues of deities and of distinguished men.
After their conquest of Greece, when they carried away from thence,
and brought to Rome at different times, a large number of Greek
statues, the taste for these works of art became by degrees so strong
and so extended, that according to the remark of an old author,
at one time you might count in Rome more statues than inhabitants.
And as even private individuals often aspired to the honour of pos-
sessing statues, severe laws were passed to interdict the custom, by
virtue of which nobody was allowed, without leave from the magis-
trates, to erect statues of men or women. The use of statues for
worship, for the adornment of temples and sacred or public places,
and in honour of distinguished men, soon caused all the forums,
roads, tribunals, to be filled with them, as well as all theatres, baths,
villas, porticoes, &c. Since, then, an idea of religion and worship
was attached to statues, they enjoyed, chiefly among the Romans,
the right of inviolability: so that if the men to whom statues had
been erected became objects of contempt or hatred in public opi-
nion, the statues themselves bore the consequences of this public
hatred and ignominy, which in Rome frequently occurred under the
Empire. With the exception of such cases, statues were placed
under public protection, and officers were appointed to take them
in charge, and in Roman records the "Comites" and Curatores
tutelarii statuarium" are well known.
(
Statues may be considered under five different heads, that each
may have its own denomination. Ist. Their simplicity and com-
position; 2nd. their dimensions; 3rd. their destination; 4th. their
costume; and 5th. the attitudes in which they stand. We shall
examine briefly each of these heads. In the first place, statues are
simple, or of one single object, as for instance the Apollo Belvidere ;
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
9
or they are grouped with other statues, or are composed of several
objects, for example the Laocoon, and in this case they are called
"groups" in Greek (symplegmata), a word also of use in Latin.
Simple statues are the most numerous. Groups are less so; the most
marvellous group known is the above-mentioned Laocoon, com-
posed of three human figures, and two enormous serpents; very
famous, too, is the "Toro Farnese," of the Museum of Naples, in
which are grouped an enraged bull, four other animals, and five
human figures. Secondly, as to the size of statues, they are less
than life, the size of life, and larger than life; those less than life
were sometimes of very small size, as, for example, votive offerings of
silver and gold, to which the Romans gave the name sigilla, a dimi-
nutive of signa; those larger than life reached such massive propor-
tions, that to distinguish them from others we call them gigantesque,
and the ancients gave them the name of colossi. As an example of
these, among the Greeks, we may mention the famous Colossus of
Rhodes; among the Romans, the Castor and Pollux of the Piazza
of the Quirinal, the statues of the Nile and the Tiber, and the
“Mastai Hercules" of bronze, in the circular hall of the Vatican.
Thirdly, as to their destination; we may consider statues in a reli-
gious, or in a commemorative point of view, or simply as erected for
decoration. Under the first branch we place those of deities, of
mythical heroes, and Roman Emperors deified, which stood in the
temples and other places dedicated to worship. Commemorative
statues are those of illustrious warriors, of citizens who have
deserved well of their country, which, by public decree, were
erected in the forums, basilicas, on triumphal arches, in public
walks and places of amusement, such as porticoes and gardens.
Statues for decoration are such as were erected to adorn build-
ings, and without attaching any idea of honour to the persons
they represented. Fourthly, in regard to costume, we have a very
numerous class of statues; in the first place, nude statues, also
called à la Grècque, as it was peculiar to Greek art, as Pliny
writes "nihil velare" (to conceal nothing). Nude statues are gene-
rally of heroes, athletes, emperors, or other distinguished person-
ages, who are deified. Draped statues, among the Greeks, may
be divided into those clamidate and palliate, that is, clothed in a
chlamys and in a pallium; among the Romans, into togati, lori-
cati, paludati, and velati, that is, clothed in a toga, a coat of mail,
a cloak, or veiled; the latter term is applied to those statues which
have a "pallium" or a "toga" drawn over the head, as in the act
of sacrificing. The statue of Mars in the Villa Ludovisi, and the
ΙΟ
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
Apoxyomenos" of Lysippus in the Braccio Nuova of the Vatican,
are very fine examples of the statues of heroes and athletes; to
which we may add the statues of Lucius Verus and of Caligula, also
in the Vatican. The Meleager and the Apollo Belvidere, of the
same museum, are clamidati statues. The Zeno of the Capitoline
Museum, and the Euripides of the Braccio Nuova, may be claimed
among the palliati statues. The Titus of the Braccio Nuova and
the Genius of the Roman People, in the Vatican, are remarkable
examples of togati statues. The Augustus of the Braccio Nuova
is an admirable example of the loricati statues, to which we may
also add the statues of Lucius Verus and Clodius Albinus, in the
gallery of statues in the Vatican. Again, the Augustus in the hall
of the Greek Cross, and the Hadrian in the hall of the Biga, both in
the Vatican, represent to us the manner in which the ancients treated
velati statues. There are also veiled figures among the statues of
the deities; for instance, that of Saturn, his head covered by a veil,
represents "Time," who with the veil of antiquity conceals the origin
of all human affairs. Fifthly, in respect of their various attitudes.
Antique statues have different denominations, some are erect and
standing, some sitting; those of deities, of heroes, philosophers,
statesmen, and legislators, are represented sitting, even in antique
art, to indicate their being in a state of repose and peace; also, from
their attitude, we define equestrian and pedestrian statues. We also
meet with cameteri statues, which may be rendered "in a state of
repose,” and which usually represented the figures of rivers; for ex-
ample, the Hermaphrodite of the Villa Borghese, the Arianna and
the Nile of the Vatican. To this class may be referred those statues
of women used to support edifices, which the Greeks called "Carya-
tides." We have fine examples of these in the Caryatides of the
Villa Albani, and in that of the Braccio Nuova, restored by Thor-
waldsen, and supposed to be the work of Diogenes of Athens, men-
tioned by Pliny. We may also mention statues called atlantides or
telemonii, also used as supports in architecture.
We shall now proceed to examine the various styles, and the
various epochs of Greek and Roman sculpture. Greek sculpture
may be defined as an union of the simple with the beautiful and the
great; and what were the causes which combined to produce this
noble reunion in Greece Winckelmann has already narrated in his
Storia dell' Arte, and wishing to repeat them in a few words, we
shall say that they are as follows: a delightful and sunny climate,
the estimation in which the beauty of the human form was held, the
athletic exercises, the gentleness of the disposition of the inhabitants,
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
I I
the protection of government, the honours paid to sculptors and
their works, and the constant motives for erecting statues. The
Greek style has no need of being pointed out in visiting a museum,
it displays itself in the midst of every collection of statues, as the
chief men of a city are distinguished among a crowd. Statuary
could never have acquired such perfection in one generation, nor
from one individual; it was the result of many years, and the work of
many men, gifted with a genius in art almost divine, such as Phi-
dias, Polycletus, Lysippus, and others.
Wishing, then, to divide ancient Greek sculpture into several epochs,
according to Winckelmann and other authors, we shall state that
the first epoch extended, from its origin, about 1230 before our era,
down to the age of Phidias and Pericles, B.C. 440. Many works
of this early epoch are recorded by Pausanias and others, although
few of them still remain. The works of this epoch are said to be
of the Archaic style, the characteristics of which are,—a decided out-
line, a certain affectation in the action, the folds of the drapery drawn
tightly, and composed in a symmetrical manner, especially on the
borders, as if they were fastened together, the hair of male figures
arranged like that of women, and in the bas-reliefs the heads are
always in profile. The most remarkable examples of this Archaic
style, though belonging to a period not very remote from the
Sublime style, are the famous statues that adorned the façade of
the temple of Jupiter Panellenius in Egina, and which are now the
principal treasures of sculpture in the celebrated Glyptothek of
Munich. We should further mention that some of the remaining
sculptures, which present the aforesaid characteristics of the Archaic
style, are only imitations of more ancient copies, and of the early
original works. To this species of sculpture belong the triangular
altar, with figures of the twelve greater gods, and several other
deities, formerly in the Villa Borghese, now in the Museum of the
Louvre; and also the celebrated puteale, or parapet of a well,
in the Museum of the Capitol, around which are sculptured, in an
Archaic manner, the twelve greater gods, whom the Romans called
Dii Consentes. To this style also belong the statue of Hope in the
Villa Albani, and the Apollo Cytheredos in the Gallery of Statues,
in the Vatican.
The expulsion of the Pisistratides commences a new period of
Greek art. After this epoch, and especially after the battles of Salamis
and Platea, the genius of the Athenians, excited by their glorious
Olymp. lxvii. A.C. 510.
12
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
victories, appears to be more inspired, and to devote itself with
more success to the culture of the fine arts, and especially to sculp-
ture which, however, did not arrive at the height of its celebrity
till the days of Pericles, through the works of Phidias ; and to
him may be ascribed the second epoch of Greek sculpture, called
the Sublime style, which goes down to the time of Lysippus, that
is, to the date of Alexander the Great, B.C. 336. Phidias was an
Athenian, the son of Charminus, and the scholar of Agelados, of
Argus, and of Hippias, who are famous only as having instructed
him in the first rudiments of art. The contemporaries of Phidias
were Alcamenes, Critias, Hegeos, and Nestocles, of whom the first
alone is well known. Diodorus Siculus remarks that Phidias lived
at an epoch favourable to the development of his talent, as at that
time the expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks had procured
for them honours and riches. The happy age in which Phidias
lived, saw also the birth of the great philosophers, Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle; the oratorical school of Isocrates, and the renowned
generals Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon.
Phidias at first devoted himself, with great success, to painting,
and later applied himself exclusively to sculpture, and working in
bronze, ivory, and marble. In the works of Phidias and Alcamenes,
and also of Polycletus, not only Jupiter and Minerva, but all the
other deities had a very beautiful and expressive character of face,
in respect of their disposition and attributes, which was afterwards
constantly represented in all their statues; hence it is that we find
them with so much uniformity of feature, that they all appear to be
taken from one single original.
The ornaments of the Parthenon, a considerable part of which,
most fortunately for the fine arts, is preserved in the British Museum,
offer to us some remains of sculpture from the hand and from the
school of Phidias; and of him it is said that he knew how to
combine the "grandiose" and the "diminutive," as Demetrius
Phalerius has written. Pliny has expressed the same idea, in these
words, "illam magnificentiam ac qualem fuisse et in parvis"
Though, with the exception of the marbles of the Parthenon, now
in England, nothing remains which is really the work of Phidias'
own hand, yet there are many reproductions of works attributed to
him and to his school, which give a sufficiently clear idea of the
"Sublime style." This style corrected the errors of the Archaic
style, and approached more nearly to nature, but it still retained
a certain hardness and angularity, and to a certain degree the per-
Olymp. lxxxiii. a.C. 450.
i xxxvi. 5.
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
13
fection of beauty was neglected to obtain greater precision, and to
copy nature more closely; and in the Braccio Nuova of the Vatican,
the Caryatides give an idea of the Sublime style, they are supposed
to be the work of Diogenes of Athens, and to be copied from the
Caryatides of Phidias and Pandrosius of Athens. In the Museum
of the Capitol, the wounded Amazon supporting herself on a spear,
is believed to be a mediocre reproduction of a celebrated work of
Phidias. The most illustrious of his contemporaries, or those who
lived nearly at the same time, were Alcamenes, Ctesilaus, Myro, and
Polycletus, and, next to Phidias, the name of Polycletus is the most
renowned in the history of sculpture: he lived about Olymp. lxxxviii.
B.C. 435; in measuring his talent with that of Phidias, he did not
attempt to compete with the latter in his most sublime charac-
teristics, he chiefly applied himself to the production of statues of
young men; and it was said of him, that under his chisel mortals
gained in beauty, while the gods lost in that respect, but Dionysius
of Halicarnassus says that he succeeded even in his statues of gods,
and that in fact the ideal of Juno is due to his talent; he was the
first sculptor who made figures rest on one leg only, he was also the
first to define the exact proportions of the human form, in a treatise
upon symmetry, and with a statue executed in conformity with his
precepts, which was denominated "the Canon." In consequence of
this work, other artists looked upon him as the lawgiver on the sub-
ject of proportions, and hence it is probably, as Winckelmann ob-
serves, that all Greek statues were executed according to the same
fundamental laws, and proceeded from the same school.
Of the statues of Polycletus, Varro (in Pliny) remarks, that they
had a certain squareness and angularity, and appeared to be copied
from a model; but no work remains which can with certainty be
ascribed to the hand of Polycletus, though there are several which
with much probability are attributed to him, for instance, the so-
called “Discobulus," in the Braccio Nuova, which is thought to be
a badly-restored copy by Doriphorus, in accordance with the
"Canon" of Polycletus. To him also is attributed the very beau-
tiful statue of the Amazon, also in the Braccio Nuova, near the
"Apoxyomenos" of Lysippus.
Before this second period of Greek sculpture ended in the
time of Alexander the Great, Praxiteles flourished about Olymp.
civ. B.C. 364, who was undeniably the introducer of the "Beauti-
ful style," and which we should rather call "Great and Sublime”
than "Beautiful." His style may be distinguished from that of
k Storia dell' Arte, p. 266.
14
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
the preceding epoch by a greater beauty and gentleness in every
expression; and this greater beauty appeared principally in the
gesture and action, and in every motion of the body, as well as in
the disposition of the drapery and the folds of the clothing. There
were other sculptors of the time of Praxiteles, but he has obscured
the fame of all of them, and great is the praise which the entire
ancient world has bestowed upon his works, as well in bronze as in
marble. From the descriptions of them which classical authors,
especially Pliny and Pausanias, have handed down to us, we are
able to recognise some in occasional reproductions, such are the
famous Faun and Apollo "Sauroctonos" (with the lizard) in the
Vatican, also the well-known "Venus coming out of her bath,"
which he executed for the citizens of Cnidus, the type of which is
found engraved on a Greek coin, and a repetition of which we see
in the hall of the Greek Cross, in the Vatican. Praxiteles was the
first sculptor who represented Venus entirely unclothed, and his
archetype was copied by all succeeding artists.
:
The third epoch of Greek sculpture begins with Lysippus at the
time of Alexander the Great, B.C. 362, and ends with the loss of the
Greek national liberty, B.C. 146. Lysippus, with credit to himself,
departed from ancient proportions, and introduced some novelties
into sculpture and the fortunate discovery of an excellent Greek
copy of the "Apoxyomenos” of Lysippus enables us to examine
the characteristics of the style of this great master. The "Apoxyo-
Арохуо-
menos," or athlete, scraping himself with the strigil, was found in
1849, in the Vicolo delle Palme, in the Trastevere, along with the
bronze horse, now in the Capitol, and a variety of antique objects of
the same material. This statue represents an athlete, who with
a strigil (a species of curved knife) cleans his person from the
ointment or oil used by athletes; it is plain that the artist made
choice of the motion, in order to give to the subject the expression
of active movement, in order to display fully the difficulties over-
come by his skill. The athlete has his right arm extended in
a horizontal line, on a level with his shoulder, in order that the
other hand which holds the strigil may have a free action. In
marble, such a position as this is opposed to "sculptural economy,'
in proof of which is the fact that the author of the statue thinks it
necessary to secure its stability by a support, which extends from
the thigh to the fore-arm, a support which was found in pieces, and
which in modern restorations was never replaced. This fact very
clearly informs us that the work we describe was one of bronze
reproduced in marble. Now the "Athlete (Apoxyomenos)" scraping
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
15
himself, was a celebrated work of Lysippus, and this circumstance
alone may give rise to the conjecture that the statue before us was
a copy of the famous "Bronze;" it may also be observed that the
artistic characteristics of the artist are all to be discovered, par ex-
cellence, in this work. We know from Pliny that Lysippus was in
the habit of diminishing the heads of his statues, and of making
more slender the proportions of the human form; this two-fold
peculiarity is most evident in the work we are discussing, which
in reality appears more slender and more graceful than its propor-
tions admit of. Lysippus, besides, used to depart from the antique
manner of treating the hair; as in the time of the "Sublime style"
the hair was generally represented smooth or extended, he began to
arrange it in delicate curls, and rendered it more full and wavy. It
was also said of him that he represented men not as they really
were, but as they appeared, which means that he executed his
statues with a certain pictorial sentiment, and availed himself of
optical illusion, to give more beauty to his works, and to make
them more easily understood. These essential features of the
style and manner of Lysippus are indubitably to be found in the
Apoxyomenos," on merely comparing it with a work of a differ-
ent manner, for instance, with the above-mentioned statue of the
“Discobulus,” in which the "Dorephorus" of Polycletus is generally
recognised, which certainly belongs to a different school, and to
a more ancient epoch. We have expatiated at some length upon
the "Apoxyomenos," because it is one of the very rare antiques of
.the highest class, which may with any certainty be attributed to
a classic master, and one who gives his stamp to a new epoch in
the history of art. Besides, the original bronze statue of Lysippus
was so much liked and admired by the Romans, that Pliny tells us,
"That when it was transported to Rome, and erected in the Baths
of Agrippa, Tiberius was so charmed with it, that he removed it one
day from thence, and had it conveyed to his palace. The Roman
people, however, would not allow this, and with loud cries demanded
its restoration, when the emperor appeared in the theatre. He either
did not wish, or did not dare to retain it, and ordered it to be re-
placed in its former position."
66
Thanks, then, to this work of sculpture, we are able to see the
change that took place in Greek art at the time of Alexander the
Great, and also the transition from the "Sublime style" to the
“Beautiful” and the "Graceful." Greek sculpture, then, having pro-
gressed to the "Sublime" under Phidias and Alcamenes, having
acquired a sanctioned code of laws upon the proportion of the
16
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
human body under Polycletus, and being endowed with elegance.
and beauty by Praxiteles and Lysippus, began to decline contem-
poraneously with the fall of Greek liberty. The wars of the suc-
cessors of Alexander were most injurious to the fine arts, which
then found an asylum in Alexandria, under the earlier Ptolemies; in
Syria, under the Seleucedes; and in Pergamus, under King Attalus
and his son Eumenes. In the year of Rome 608, B.C. 146, the
Romans plundered Corinth; Sylla took possession of the treasures
of Mithridates, while Marcellus seized Syracuse; Verres and other
Proconsuls abused their power, in pillaging the Greek temples, and
embellishing their villas with the spoil. The profound discourage-
ment which inevitably followed this disorder almost annihilated the
fine arts in Greece, and the artists took refuge in Italy and in Rome.
Before we turn our attention to Greco-Roman art, we should
allude to the very celebrated school of art at Rhodes, in which were
produced some of the most marvellous works we possess, for in-
stance, the “Laocoon," and the "Toro Farnese." The writers upon
art subjects inform us that the school of Rhodes began to flourish at
the time of Alexander's successors, about B.C. 318, and fell into
decay at the same period as the other Greek schools, upon the fall
of the liberty of Greece; and it appears that the school of Rhodes
also sent its scholars to work in the new metropolis of the world.
Upon the subject of Greco-Roman sculpture, in accordance with
the famous "Lanzi," we wish to make the following observations.
Under the earlier Cæsars there appears to be a continuation of
the Greek style, which is chiefly shewn in a squareness of form, and
in a certain touch, which is not always elaborated, and sometimes
merely sketched in outline, yet full of spirit, vigour, and truth.
This style exhibits no minuteness in the hair, but arranges it in
artistic masses, and without engraving the pupil of the eyes, it
makes them of a large size, and gives them an imposing aspect; it
does not treat the features minutely, but infuses an expression so
spirited, so life-like and characteristic, as to reveal the nature and
disposition of the subject, as an historian would describe him in
a few words. So in the wonderful head of the "young Augustus”
in the Vatican, a gravity and a seriousness appear amidst the beauty
and freshness of his boyish features, the forehead and eyebrows
reveal that acuteness of intellect which was peculiar to him, with
which, when a mere boy, he imposed upon the Senate, and out-
witted Cicero. So in the bust of Mark Antony, in the Braccio
Nuova, one can read in imagination the splendid qualities and the
defects, the virtues as well as the vices of the man, who, upon the fall
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
17
:
of the Republic, had so great an influence upon the destiny of the
world. In beholding the statue of Caligula, we can readily imagine
him consulting his mirror in order to give himself a more cruel and
menacing aspect. So, too, in the features of Claudius in the Sala
Rotonda, we find stupidity indicated and as sculpture has the
valuable quality of making the inmost character of the subject
appear from its features, it also presents an exquisitely beautiful,
and perfect technicality; this appears in the very fine statue of
Augustus in armour, found at Prima Porta in 1863, which may be
considered the most perfect likeness in existence of this great sove-
reign, and also one of the most remarkable works of antique sculp-
ture, of the species denominated "Iconic," that is to say, portrait
statues. Besides the beauty of the style, we admire in this very rare
statue the fineness of the chiselling, and the minute workmanship
of a perfect master; the various pieces and joinings of the coat of
mail, and the manner in which they are clasped together, are so
well executed, that with the assistance of this model a beautiful
suit of armour might be exactly reproduced in steel, and adapted to
the body of a living person.
This perfection in modelling and executing in marble, had not
diminished under the Flavian emperors and under Trajan. Some
statues, heads of the Flavian family, and the famous bas-reliefs on
the Arch of Titus in the Via Sacra, prove to us that the flourishing
state of sculpture in Rome was still maintained, nay, it had even
made progress under the happy reign of Trajan, when the edifices.
of his Forum were erected, and in the midst of them the admirable
Cocloid column, on which was represented a detailed history of
his exploits during the war with Decebalus.
The reign of Hadrian also forms an epoch in the history of
sculpture, by the introduction of a new style, which is sometimes
called the "Roman." It is more highly finished, laborious and
graceful, than the style of the earlier Cæsars; the hair is more
laboured, as if bored with an augur, and dishevelled; the dresses
of female figures are more gay, the eyebrows more elevated, and
the pupils of the eye marked by a deep streak, a custom somewhat
rare before the time of Hadrian, yet very frequent after that period.
Yet, with the increase of labour, the artists were rarely successful
in the expression of the countenance, the physiognomy is more
marked, but the disposition and character are less evident; it thus
appears that sculpture had lost much of the "sublimity" it had
learned from the Greeks. It is, however, the glory of this age to
have imagined and executed in a wonderful manner the ideal of
C
18
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
Antinous, the beautiful favourite of Hadrian, and the statues and
busts of this young Bithynian will certainly bear comparison with
the most beautiful of Greek works.
About the time of Alexander Severus a new manner in sculpture
displays itself, and one which has a tendency to the "rugged" or
the "
coarse;" its character appears in deep lines on the forehead
and face, the hair and beard marked with long streaks, the eyes
more hollow, and in the general rendering of the outlines, with
little skill; besides, the faces of women and of youths have a certain
dryness and languor, the physiognomy is less decided; and as upon
coins, so also in marbles, one face is often confounded with an-
other, and we are uncertain, for example, whether the face is that
of Trebonianus or of Philip. Two causes united in producing this
decay of art; first, the circumstance that the ancient polytheism of
the Romans was every day losing much of its influence; whilst, on
the other hand, several Eastern forms of religion, as well as Chris-
tianity, were constantly gaining ground, in consequence of which
sculpture was much less employed in representing the images of the
ancient gods, invented by the genius, and executed by the master-
hands, of the Greeks. Secondly, the frequent revolutions in the
state, and the constant change of sovereigns; hardly was an empe-
ror proclaimed, when the Roman world was necessarily filled with
his busts and statues, which were substituted for those of his pre-
decessor, and erected in public places; and we find many statues
with a hollow in the neck, into which the bust or head of the
reigning emperor was inserted; and we cannot expect that works,
executed here and there by different artists, and often in great
haste, could be finished with perfection; nevertheless, likenesses
and busts are the finest works produced by sculpture at this period,
as artists, for a considerable time, continued to execute works of
this description; and Millin, in his Dictionnaire des Beaux Arts, says
that Lysippus himself could not have executed a finer head than
that of the Farnese Caracalla (in the Capitol), though its sculptor
could never have produced a statue like those that came from the
hands of Lysippus. One of the finest works of the decadence of
sculpture is certainly the heroic statue of the Emperor Macrinus,
in the statue gallery of the Vatican; but in order to observe how,
in this kind of work, art in the process of its decadence lost all its
value, even among the first artists of the day, it will be sufficient to
allude to the statue of Constantine in armour, found in his baths
on the Quirinal, and now standing in the portico of St. John Lateran,
and to compare it with the admirable statue of Augustus in armour,
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
19
which we have already described. A most prolific species of
sculpture, belonging for the most part to the epoch of decadence,
are the sarcophagi and their bas-reliefs. The reason of this arises
from the circumstance that, during the first two centuries of our
era, the funeral rite of burning the dead was prevalent among the
Romans, and therefore at this period there was no necessity for
large chests of marble or terra cotta, to contain the entire body;
but small marble vessels, of a square or circular form, were made
use of, and called ossuaria or cineraria, because they contained only
the bones and the ashes of the deceased, whilst the remainder of
the body was consumed on the funeral pile. But from the time
of the Antonines, several Oriental forms of religion having com-
menced to predominate, and especially the worship of Isis and of
Mythras, the funeral rite of burning the dead began also to fall
into disuse, and the custom was introduced of consigning bodies
to the tomb, according to the Eastern rite: and then, instead of
ossuaria and cineraria, the Romans substituted sarcophagi, or a kind
of urns of marble, capable of holding a human body lying at full
length; hence it is that sarcophagi are in the ruder style, because
they belong for the most part to the end of the second century, and
some even to the third and fourth centuries of our era.
There are,
notwithstanding, some sarcophagi of great artistic merit, as, for
instance, that of the Amazons in the Capitol, which is considered
by Winckelmann to be one of the five or six finest sarcophagi in
existence; this, however, may be considered as exceptional. But,
if these works have in general little value in an artistic point of
view, they are still most precious in the bas-reliefs, with which
they are generally adorned, and which hand down to us many
various representations of the "mythic cycle" of the private life of
the people, and of their religious rites and costumes. We shall
briefly mention some of the principal objects represented, and their
relation to the sepulchral purposes of the work.
We shall mention, in accordance with Gerhardt', that the subjects.
represented on sarcophagi were not placed there arbitrarily, but in
allusion to the destination of the monument; which is clearly shewn
by the fact that the features of the leading characters depicted on
the marble, are for the most part not ideal, but evidently portraits,
which may be supposed to be those of the deceased; for example,
in the fine sarcophagus in the Vatican, which represents the myth
of Alcestes, the figure of Alcestes and that of Admetus are evidently.
portraits of Evodius (?) and of Metilia Acte, whose bodies, as the
¹ Beschreiburg Stadt. Rom., i. 319.
C 2
20
Sculpture among the Grecks and Romans.
inscription upon the sarcophagus tells us, were deposited within. So
under the allegory of Alcestes, who offered up her life for Admetus,
it was intended to portray the intense devotion of Metilia Acte
towards her husband.
Many sarcophagi also represent Pluto in the act of carrying away
Proserpine, and conducting her to the infernal regions; and this may
be very well adapted to the death of a young girl in the bloom of
youth, whilst the return of Proserpine to the upper world, according
to the fable, may awaken the idea of a rising again in the minds of
parents who bewail the premature and sudden death of their chil-
dren; and what more beautiful and touching allegory, than the
slaughter of Niobe, which we find, more than once, depicted on
sepulchral urns? so also a premature death may be alluded to, in
the carrying off of the Leucippides (?) by the Dioscuri, Castor and
Pollux. Sometimes, too, the subjects upon sarcophagi were moral
allegories; we find, for instance, the history of the soul, which
Minerva places in the image of a man, modelled by Prometheus,
while the Fates spin the destiny of the new being, and Mercury con-
ducts him into the lower regions. The twelve labours of Hercules,
which we often find upon sarcophagi of the third and fourth cen-
turies, are an ingenious allegory of Virtue, who triumphs over the
passions. The Seasons too, which are so constantly found, even on
the sarcophagi of the early Christians, make allusion to the different
ages of human life.
But more frequently the subjects upon sarco-
phagi belong to the numerous class of Bacchanalian revels. We see
the return of Bacchus victorious from India, and his triumph, or
the joviality and pleasures of a "Bacchanal ;" these scenes may indi-
cate that the deceased had been initiated into the mysteries of
Bacchus, by means of which a more fortunate destiny was expected
for him in a future life. The Nereids and the Tritons, who were
employed to conduct the souls of the valiant to the abode of the
blessed, are also often represented upon sarcophagi, and are alle-
goric of the immortality of the soul, and of a future existence.
Sometimes the subjects depicted have relation to the tastes and
profession of the deceased; such are those in which we see figures of
the Muses, indicating that he who lies in the sarcophagus was
a devoted worshipper of literary pursuits; this is the more certain,
as at times we observe in the midst of the Muses, each one dis-
tinguished from the other by peculiar attributes, the figure of the
deceased, male or female, with a book in his hand, and a bundle
of manuscripts at his feet. We also find upon sarcophagi represen-
tations of different events of the civil life of illustrious personages,
Sculpture among the Greeks and Romans.
2I
their occupations, amusements, and the magisterial posts which they
filled; such, for instance, is the beautiful urn of the Vatican, on
which the victories of a Proconsul are depicted; and also some large
urns, with a representation of a Roman personage, in the costume of
the third century, on his way to the chase, accompanied by an alle-
gorical figure of Valour. The early Christians also adorned their
sarcophagi with sacred subjects, taken for the most part from the
Old and New Testaments. S. Gregory, of Tours, makes mention of
this custom, and in the famous Christian museum of the Lateran
we have many very beautiful examples of this mode of decoration,
which may be seen in our Photographic Collection. Many of these
sarcophagi are of Parian and other Greek marbles, which is a proof
that they were of Greek workmanship, and were afterwards trans-
ported into Italy. And it often occurs that the face of the principal
person on the sarcophagus,-as, for instance, Proserpine, Achilles, or
Protesilaus,—are but roughly sketched, and this was done in order
to give to this figure, after the acquisition of the sarcophagus,
a likeness of the features of the individual who should afterwards
be therein interred.
in
Having, then, made these brief observations with respect to
sarcophagi, which form so considerable a part of antique sculpture,
it would be right for us to say something about the mechanism of
the art; but as we think that this might be of less interest to our
readers, we shall refer those who are desirous of information on the
subject to the excellent treatise which Boettiger has given us in his
"Amalthea." We shall only remark in passing, that the mechanism
in use among ancient sculptures was very similar to that of the pre-
sent day; as Pliny tells us ", that from the time of Pisistratus, B.C.
510, downwards, no statue or bust was executed of which the model
was not first prepared in clay or other soft material: and we know
from several ancient works found in an unfinished state, that they
were taken from a clay model, and by means of points of the com-
pass were transferred to the marble; they still preserve the points
applied in the way that modern sculptors adopt.
m
Sect. i. vol. ii., Leipsic, 1820.
" Nat. Hist., XXXV. 12.
ON MYTHOLOGY IN FUNEREAL SCULPTURE.
BY THE REV. C. W. JONES.
IN the long galleries of ancient sculptures to which the merest
passer-through is introduced in Rome, the persistent recurrence of
the same subjects, and their apparent inappropriateness in many
cases, are apt to leave upon the mind a sense of little more than
of weariness and confusion.
But this very frequency of recurrence, and this pertinacious ap-
propriation of what appear to us as improprieties, shew that the
subjects cannot have been adopted through caprice, but must have
been selected upon principle. Heathen funereal monuments espe-
cially illustrate this statement, being so frequently adorned, as they
are, with sculptures apparently most alien from the resting-places
of the dead.
Bearing in mind, therefore, that we are but touching on the edge
of some very abstruse, difficult, and delicate questions, and not
professing to give an exhaustive reply to them, I would ask what
would be the general impression produced upon an unprejudiced
mind by a review of the long series of sarcophagus sculptures which
pass before the eyes in the galleries great and small; which crop
up unexpectedly in courtyards, or stand by the wayside as drinking-
troughs for cattle? What would be the general effect of the pic-
tures which these objects would paint upon a blank sheet of paper
presented to them?
I believe that it would be that of a set of drinking-parties, of
rabble-routs of Bacchus with his sylvan train, of rollicking sea-
monsters, varied with hunting and battle scenes, with theatrical
masks, with chariot races and circus games.
But the general impression produced by the bulk of these sepul-
chral sculptures being such as I have suggested, one naturally asks,
What is the meaning of them? For some special meaning or
meanings they must evidently have possessed, otherwise why should
they be persistently presented again and again?
Take the BACCHANALIAN Scenes first. What is the thought in-
tended to be conveyed by these representations of drinking-bouts?
of Bacchus with his dreamy face, with nymphs, and fauns, and
satyrs, and old Silenus propped up upon his ass?
Such as Nos. 1038, 1043, 2423, 2489, 2530, 2626, 2886, 2890.
On Mythology in Funcreal Sculpture.
23
""Let us eat and
Do they mean, "Life is short, let it be merry,'
drink, for to-morrow we die?" Do they mean that
"The mourners sought
In these rich images of summer mirth,
These wine-cups and gay wreaths, to lose the thought
Of our last hour on earth."
Probably they do mean that in part. No doubt they did mean that
and no more to many, who used the world as abusing it, as using
it up to the last shred, down to the lowest dregs.
But for all this we may surmise that they had a hidden meaning,
and that to those who could understand, they spoke an articulate
language in a sense widely different from that of the stammering
accents which were all that the uninitiated could catch. What they
shew on the surface is the power of wine. And whence comes this
wonderful product, which, rightly used, gives, as it were, new life to
them that are ready to perish; and which, wrongly used, drives men
from themselves, as by a power not their own, or robs them of their
senses? It springs from the earth. The god, then, who invented
it and shewed it must be an earth-god, who has power even below
the earth, where must be contained a reservoir of life, supplying
its virtues to the grape, and who, rightly reverenced, will give life
even to those who descend into the grave, while he will drive
those who reverence him not, beside themselves, and even to
utter destruction.
If this be the case, then, while the uninitiated saw only scenes of
riot and debauchery in these Bacchanalian subjects, the initiated
could read between the lines that this lifegiving god of the dead
possessed beneath the earth a store of life which he could impart
to those who went to the land of the shades below.
Some such meaning as this, then, probably lay in these representa-
tions, which at the first glance seem utterly unsuitable to the purposes
for which they are used: nor need we, after all, wonder at them so
very much, when we recollect the sacred character which has been
assigned to wine in the most solemn rite of the Christian religion,
a rite in itself liable to abuses; abuses, too, which, in one locality at
any rate, it required all S. Paul's authority to check, and which
actually formed the ground of some of the most fearful and monstrous
charges brought by the Pagans against the earliest followers of Chris-
tianity; and when we recollect, moreover, that the representation of
a feast in which the wine-cup is a prominent object, is one to which
the place of the highest honour is frequently assigned in our churches,
24
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
and especially in Protestant churches. How, too, are the Vine and
its produce interwoven with the imagery of our own Sacred Writings,
and how does our very Founder declare Himself to be The Vine;
whence vintage-scenes appear even on Christian sarcophagi, notably
on the huge porphyry one of S. Constantia (No. 210), now in the
Vatican Museum, which, with the mosaics on the vaulting of the
church from which it came, gave rise to the notion that it had
originally been a temple of Bacchus.
b
Theatrical masks, again, are objects which we constantly see on
funereal monuments, where their presence can be very naturally
explained by the connection of dramatic performances with Bacchic
rites; by the sentiment that—
"All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women only players;"
and by the fact, (rather an anti-climax, perhaps,) that they are of
a very convenient shape for rounding off a corner.
Take another set,-HUNTING-SCENES ©. Some of these, no doubt,
are mere hunting-scenes, with no very deep meaning in them; but
there are two special favourites, representing boar-hunts, which de-
mand more attention. They are those of the death of Adonis, and
of the hunting of the Calydonian boar, the latter of which forms
the subject of a very remarkable drama, "Atalanta in Calydon," by
a modern poet ª.
Let us, however, take the subject of the death of Adonis first.
What is the story of that? Adonis was a beautiful youth, his name
lives still; we all know what "an Adonis" is, a good-looking young
fellow, who is perfectly aware of his personal attractions; a bit of
a fop withal, and devoted to the ladies; but the original Adonis,
beautiful as he was, was one who gave all his care to hunting, and
was remarkably insensible to female charms, so much so that when
Venus herself fell in love with him, and tried all her arts to retain
him by her side, she failed, and, in spite of all her warnings and
entreaties, he left her for the hunting-field. There he met his fate ;
This was originally a Mausoleum
and Baptistery, and has only been
made into a church or chapel in mo-
dern times by putting an altar in the
middle of it. The mosaic pictures of
the cultivation of the vine are on the
vaults of the aisle which surrounds it;
the floor of the central space within
the columns has been originally seve-
ral feet below the level of the floor
of the aisle, with steps down into it
for baptism by immersion, as in the
baptistery of the Lateran. Probably
both of these were used chiefly for the
miracle plays, by which the early Chris-
tian Church taught the ignorant people,
and these baptisteries were used for the
scene of the Baptism of Christ.
© Nos. 894, 1359, 2858, 2888, 2889,
3047.
d Swinburne.
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
25
for the Sun-god, having a quarrel with Venus, changed himself into
the form of a wild boar, and charging him, boar-fashion, rent his
thigh so sorely that he died. But from his blood sprang flowers,
and so grievously did Venus lament him, that she obtained per-
mission for him to spend half his time with her, though the other
half must be spent with the queen of the shades below.
This is the story, which is an allegory, a part of the great solar
legend, which consciously or unconsciously runs through the old
mythologies.
Adonis is the fruit-bearing earth, which the spring would ever
retain in her embrace; but the great Sun-god so gashes and rends him,
that he yields his fruits and flowers, and dies, and sinks to the shades
below. But he does not remain there for ever. When his period
is accomplished, the young Adonis is found again as fair as ever.
And thus the sarcophagus, sculptured with his story, tells not
merely of youth and beauty cut untimely off, but it gives a guess
at, it breathes a hope of, another life beyond this which we live
now.
The other favourite hunting-subject, THE CHASE OF THE Caly-
DONIAN BOAR (Nos. 2888, 2889), is of a more melancholy cast, for
it speaks of the cruelty and inexorability of death.
Its story, briefly told, is as follows.
Althæa, queen of Calydon, had lately borne a son, and as she lay
in her bed one night, she became aware of the presence of three
solemn female forms in her chamber. One held a distaff, the second
was spinning a thread from it, while the third held a pair of shears
ready to cut the thread. They were the three weird sisters, the
Fates, who spin and cut the thread of every human life. They were
speaking of the lot of the new-born babe. "He will only live so
long,” said one, "as that brand now lying on the hearth remains
unconsumed.” With a mother's instinct, and a woman's wit, Althæa
sprang from her couch, plucked the brand from the burning, quenched
it, and stored it safely out of the reach of harm.
So the child lived, and throve, and grew, and became a mighty
warrior and hunter.
But in process of time it fell out that Diana, being offended, sent
a huge wild boar, which ravaged the land, and defied all attempts
to kill him. Then a great hunt was organized, in which Meleager
(that was the name of Althaea's son), and Atalanta, a princess of
Arcadia, and a noted huntress, took part. The boar was slain, and
then, as Atalanta had been the first to wound him, Meleager assigned
the spoils, the hide and tusks, to her.
26
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
His decision was disputed, and a quarrel, which ended in a fight,
arose for the possession of them, when Meleager had the misfortune.
to kill his two uncles, the brothers of his mother.
The news was brought to her, and she, in her grief and rage,
seized the charred brand, which she had so long kept with such
religious care, and plunged it in the flames. It caught fire, it blazed,
it glowed, it sank into white ashes; the fate was fulfilled, and Mele-
ager sickened and died the same hour as the last fragments of the
brand crumbled into the indistinguishable heap upon his mother's
hearth; and she, repenting her folly and rashness when it was too
late, laid violent hands upon herself.
These are the stories of these two famous hunting-scenes, which,
though at the first glance they may look alike, are yet easily dis-
tinguishable; for in the chase of the Calydonian boar you will see
Atalanta prominent in the attack, and, where the story is most fully
told, the scene in Althea's chamber is given, you see her plunging
the brand into the flames, and in another compartment Meleager
sinks in death among his friends.
I
Before leaving these boar-hunting subjects, your attention should
be called to a singular instance in which the Roman treatment
managed to vulgarize the Greek legends which it had adopted ;
refer to the monument erected to the memory of the lamented
Mr. Wildbore, architect and surveyor. It is represented in one
of the photographs, No. 1021, the original of which is in the
Capitoline Museum.
His grieving relations could not resist the temptation to a pun
which his name Aper (wild boar) supplied, but carved a dead boar
at his feet, and wrote him a doggrel epitaph in heroic verse :——
'Here harmless Wildbore lies; neither the wrath
Of maiden huntress, nor the cruel steel
Of Meleager pierced him through and through;
Swift death crept silent up, the building fell,
Which stole his youthful beauty in its prime."
Another class consists of the representations of BATTLE-SCENES.
Some of these are, no doubt, bonâ fide battles; perhaps the deceased
had fought in them, perhaps had been killed there.
One of our photographs (1683) gives such a subject as this.
It is a fight between Romans and barbarians where, by-the-bye, the
fallen figure in the left-hand corner, reminds us of the so-called
Dying Gladiator. The sarcophagus of S. Helena has also a similar
subject.
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
27
Probably the designers of them thought that they were repro-
ducing the idea of the combat of Theseus and the Amazons, repre-
sented in other photographs (Nos. 351, 1050, 2495, 2500).
To them Theseus, with his Athenians, would only be a general,
with so many legions and cohorts, going forth to extend the bounds
of the empire, or repel the inroads of barbarians, sparing the van-
quished and beating down the proud by war.
But the war of Theseus and his Athenians with the Amazons had
a different and a deeper meaning, a meaning especially suited to
a funereal monument. It signifies the old, old struggle of light and
darkness, and the final victory of light.
For Theseus, though not the Sun-god, is the Sun-hero, and his
countrymen, as certain also of their own poets have said, were—
"The Athenians happy ever of old, and the children of the blessed gods,
ever treading delicately through brightest æther,"
while the Amazons, with their lunar shields, dwelt in Scythia, the
land of darkness, of which they are the representatives. The war
between them and the Athenians, therefore, represents the conflict
between light and darkness. First, of course, physically, the day
conquering the night, the suminer conquering the winter; and se-
condarily, we do not go too far if we claim for it the spiritualized
meaning of life conquering death in spite of the grave, of good
vanquishing evil, though after long toil and hard fighting.
Sometimes we have again the closely-allied subject of the battle
between the Centaurs and Lapithed: and the futile attempt of the
monstrous earth-born brood of giants to scale heaven and depose
the gods, is a subject which speaks for itself.
In connection with Theseus the Sun-hero, it is well to call
attention to another subject in which he appears-his desertion of
Ariadne, and her marriage with Bacchus e.
The Solar myth will help us here again, explaining, as in many
other cases, the monstrosities and immoralities which disfigure the
legends of the gods and heroes. Theseus is the sun, who deserts
Ariadne, the earth, but she becomes the bride of Bacchus, the earth-
god. And this too, in its turn, has another inner meaning, for
Theseus deserts Ariadne when she is sunk in sleep, the sunlight
leaves the human being when he sinks in the sleep of death.
there comes an awakening from this sleep, the soul rises to a new
and higher life, and the deserted spouse of the hero becomes the
bride of the god.
d Nos. 1090, 2494, 2568, 2569.
e Nos. 2550, 2626.
But
28
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
A like lesson is taught by another favourite subject-that of the
RAPE OF PROSERPINE (Nos. 1051, 2519). Some have seen in this
no more than a lament over youth and beauty hurried untimely to
the tomb; but the fair maiden who, gathering flowers in the Sicilian
meadows, was herself gathered by gloomy Dis, becomes a queen,
and so here again we are taught that there is a life beyond the grave,
which may be a higher one than this.
But originally, no doubt, this myth, too, is one of the nature cycle.
Proserpine plucked from among the flowers, and carried beneath the
earth, is the seed sown in the ground. Her mother, Ceres, goes
in her dragon car seeking her hither and thither, and the earth is
barren till Proserpine is found again, and even then she must pass
half of her time below.
Two of the photographs (Nos. 838 and 1041) represent the same
sarcophagus, a very notable one in the Capitoline Museum, and,
being taken from different points of view, they enable us to see its
details the better. The lower pair contains the story of DIANA AND
ENDYMION (Nos. 2523, 2639, 2857), which is a charming instance
of how the "nature myths" have got hopelessly entangled with gods
and goddesses, kings, queens and heroes.
The most prominent objects which we see in this sculpture, are
first of all Endymion reclining asleep upon Mount Latmos in the
right-hand corner, Diana gazing upon him from her car, and Mor-
pheus, the god of sleep, above. These occupy the right-hand com-
partment, which is separated from the left by a winged genius.
Then, upon the left of him, we see a shepherd seated upon the
mountain-side among his sheep and goats, while Diana shines full
upon him as she turns her last, longing, lingering gaze upon the
beloved youth whom she is leaving.
The original meaning of this myth is, no doubt, the moonbeams
embracing the summit of Mount Latmos, as if unwilling to leave it;
but when moonshine and mountains became personified and deified,
the story grew of a beautiful youth lapped in perpetual slumber, to
gaze upon whom the maiden moon-goddess lingered in her course,
ere she rose, “refulgent lamp of night," to light the shepherd at his
evening meal.
There is enormous confusion in this myth, as in many others, for
myth-makers need have long memories, as well as inventive minds;
and among the confusions in this particular one, we find that, ac-
cording to another version of it, the moon-goddess and Endymion
were husband and wife, and that she was the mother of fifty daughters.
It is quite possible that the story altered the relations between the
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
29
moon-goddess and the Latmian sleeper from this form to the other,
as it travelled westward from its original seat, according as the moon
set or rose over Mount Latmos.
The cover of this sarcophagus has a series of subjects which might
be made into quite a touching little story. On the right a husband
and wife are seen sitting together, she with her arm affectionately
round his neck, while the faithful dog, emblem of love and fidelity,
sits beside them, looking up into their faces.
At the other extremity the scene is changed, the wife kneels with
outstretched arms, imploring a favour of a female figure, who holds
an open scroll. This we may suppose to contain the decree of Fate
and Fortune concerning the husband; for Fortune stands next with
her horn of gifts, and her scales, wherewith to distribute them by
weight and measure to mankind, while behind her again stand two
Fates (there should properly be three, but sculptors, as well as poets
and painters, take a licence in these details sometimes), and these
two Fates are preparing to cut the yet twirling thread of the hus-
band's life.
The wife's prayers are in vain. Veiled Nemesis stands immove-
able in the next small compartment; Mercury, the soul conductor,
is beckoning in the corresponding one; while in the centre the
Genius brings his little offerings to the king and queen of the shades,
solemnly gazing from their infernal throne.
Another sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum is called the
PROMETHEUS Sarcophagus. The sculptures on this relate to two
myths, the one among the prettiest and latest, the other among the
oldest and grandest that we have; the tale of Cupid and Psyche,
and the story of Prometheus, the former of which Apuleius gives us
in the most delicate, tripping, little Latin, while Eschylus gives us
one form of the other in his stately verse.
The tale of Cupid and Psyche is first to be told, but the Cupid of
this tale is not the fat toddler with fluttering duck's wings, who often
appears as his representative; he is a tall lithe lad (such as the
fragment sometimes called "the Genius of the Vatican"), and is
provided with broad purple pinions, on which he floats through the
air-such as this is the Cupid or "Love" of this tale. Psyche, too,
is possessed of wings-butterfly's wings they are in her case, for the
word Psyche means "butterfly," while it also means Soul, of which
the butterfly, springing bright and joyous from the chrysalis coffin
of the earth-bound caterpillar, is an apt illustration.
The tale, then, of Cupid and Psyche, is the tale of Love and the
Soul, and it is as follows.
30
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
Once upon a time there were a king and queen who had a daughter
so beautiful, that she was too beautiful for any one to aspire to her
hand, and so she remained in her father's house, while her sisters
married.
Her parents admired her so foolishly that they proclaimed her
superior to Venus, who then sent a plague on the land, which an
oracle declared could not be removed till Psyche had been carried
to a certain mountain, and there left to be devoured by a hideous
monster which haunted it.
The oracle was obeyed, and poor little Psyche was left all alone
on a rugged, desolate mountain. But Cupid came sailing by, and
though sent by his mother on quite a different errand, what does he
do but fall in love with his intended victim.
By the aid of Zephyr, the soft but strong west wind, he transports
Psyche to an enchanted palace, where she is sung to, and spoken to
by invisible tongues, and waited on by unseen hands (quite like the
Arabian Nights), and is told that she is to consider herself married,
for that at last a husband worthy of her beauty has been found for
her. And so it turns out, and her husband comes to her again and
again, and she has everything to make her happy, and thus things go
on for some time. But there is one peculiarity about this husband
of hers. Dearly as she loves him, good, and kind, and affectionate,
as he is to her, she has never seen him. He never comes till it is
dark at night, and he is away before the dawn, and he has laid strict
injunctions on her never to attempt to see him, or it will be the ruin
of them both. She thinks it strange, but, like a good wife, she trusts
her own husband.
All goes smoothly until, in an evil day, she asks leave to visit her
sisters.
They worm out from her the secret that she has never seen her
husband, and jealous and envious of the riches which she evidently
enjoys, they persuade her that her pretended husband is in reality.
a huge snake, which will infallibly devour her one night, unless she
cuts his throat the next time he comes.
Psyche, over-persuaded, rises from her couch the next night, leaving
her husband slumbering there unsuspectingly. She procures a lamp
and a knife, and returns to execute her cruel purpose. But what
does she see? No horrid scaly serpent, but the beauteous Cupid.
himself, sleeping calmly, with his purple wings relaxed upon his
couch. She held the lamp nearer to see him better, when, as lamps
will do, it sputtered, and a burning piece of the wick fell on his fair
shoulder. He sprang up, saw her disobedience, divined her purpose,
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
31
and overwhelming her with reproaches, vowing never to see her
more, sprang from the window, and sailed out into the dark and
silent night, Psyche clinging to his heel, and beseeching him to
pardon her, till, from sheer exhaustion, she was obliged to let go her
hold, and fell to earth.
There she went through many adventures and sorrows, and trials,
Venus herself having discovered her, and wishing to wreak her ven-
geance on her.
But Psyche was helped through them all. At last Venus said,
that what with anxiety about her son (he had been quite ill from his
burn), and what with one thing and another, she was losing her good
looks, and Psyche must go to the Infernal Regions and get from
Proserpine the queen a box of beauty for her. Again Psyche found
friends, and was directed how to find her way to and from the court
of Hades, and to obtain the required box of beauty.
She did so, and had returned to the upper air with it, when the
dangerous thought came into her mind, "Ah! if I could but take
a little of the contents of the box myself, I might again become
lovely in the eyes of Cupid, my husband might be restored to
me again."
She opened the box a little, ever so little, and out of it came not
beauty, but a black, deadly, crawling sleep. This sleep diffused itself
over all her limbs, and she sank down in a deathlike stupor. Things
were now at their worst, and now they began to mend. Cupid's
shoulder was getting better, and so, unknown to Venus, he had gone
out for a fly. As he was floating along, whom should he see but
Psyche lying senseless on the ground, the open box by her side.
Instantly he dashed to earth, carefully, carefully he brushed the
sleep off her limbs back into the box, and Psyche was herself again,
and her husband's again too. They were reconciled, and more than
reconciled; Venus was talked over, Jupiter was persuaded, the
marriage was recognised, Psyche was endued with immortality, and
received among the gods; and Cupid and Psyche, Love and the
Soul, the eternal love and the undying soul, were joined together
again, after innumerable trials and troubles, now never more to be
put asunder.
This, then, is the tale of Cupid and Psyche, which, I think, carries
its own signification with it, a signification most appropriate for
a carving upon a funereal monument.
The story of Prometheus is of a different cast, and is told in
various ways.
According to one form of it, Prometheus made
animals, and last of all men, of the dust of the ground, and Minerva
32
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
-the wisdom of God-placed a soul, represented by the butterfly,
within the new-made man. It is said also that, making man last, as
Prometheus did, his clay ran short, and he had to nip a piece off
each of the animals to complete him with, finishing up, for example,
his stomach (the supposed seat of anger) with a piece of lion, which
fully accounts for people being so peppery as they are.
Sometimes Prometheus and Epimetheus, i.e. Forethought and
Afterthought, are brothers, to whom the gods sent a woman, Pan-
dora, the Allgiven, endowed with every good gift which they could
bestow, but bearing with her a huge jar filled with all the evils that
are under the sun.
Prometheus is for sending her back, but Epimetheus takes her
to wife, and ere long curiosity impels her to open the jar, when out
fly Plague, Pestilence, and Famine, Battle, Murder, and Sudden.
Death, Consumption, and Burning Fevers, and all the other evils.
which yet are quartered upon the earth; nor did she succeed in
replacing its cover till all its contents had escaped but Hope,—
a blessing when restrained within due limits, but which, had she
escaped with the rest, would herself have become a curse.
Have we not here a vague, confused, adumbration of the Creation
and the Fall of Man in these two phases of the Prometheus story,
some dim reminiscence all awry of an ancient tradition, or else
what some would call "the natural development of human thought,"
which is a blind man's name for "the education of man by God."
But, in another phase, Prometheus comes before us in a character
more mysterious still. He is the great benefactor of the human
race, who, under the reign of Zeus, had lost the paradisiacal ex-
istence which they had enjoyed in the golden days of Kronos, and
were now leading a miserable, troglodyte sort of existence under
the new gods. They knew not the course of the seasons, nor the
arts of life, not even the use of fire, but wandered purposeless, hope-
less, over the face of the earth.
Then Prometheus, who was attached to the elder dynasty of
kingly gods, and hated these new upstart tyrants, took pity on
mankind, stole fire from heaven, brought down the smouldering
spark in a hollow cane, and provided man with the great gift
of fire.
He taught them to know the season by the rising and setting of
the stars; he taught them the use of numbers, and all the arts
of life.
But all this happiness could not be obtained for man without
a heavy price being paid for it. Zeus was jealous of their pro-
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
33
}
Besides this,
gress, and angry with Prometheus as its author.
Prometheus knew a word of fate which threatened Zeus with ruin,
and which declared how it might be averted, and he would not.
reveal it.
Therefore fell the heavy wrath of Zeus upon him.
Hephæstus,
the Fire-god, with his two attendants, Might and Force (they are
shewn on the end of the sarcophagus), are sent to nail Prometheus
(as shewn at the other end) through the hands and feet upon Mount
Caucasus, where from his torn side a vulture feeds upon him.
There Prometheus is left nailed aloft, in fact with arms out-
stretched as if he had been crucified, but he never regrets the
good which he has done, nor would he shrink from doing it again,
even amid his worst pangs; while there is a great earthquake, and
the rocks are rent asunder, when, as he says himself, "Aye, now
in very deed, no more in threat, the shaken earth reels, and the
mighty roar of thunder bellows at my ear, and the blazing flashes
of lightning curl around me, and the tornadoes raise the dust in
whirlwinds. Such is the weight of wrath that is cast upon me
by Zeus."
In due time Herakles will come, destroy the great serpent that
watches the sufferer, and deliver Prometheus.
But meanwhile, is there not something in this wild mixture of
Creator and created, of rebel and Redeemer, of goodness and suf-
fering, which, with all its confusions and contradictions, reminds.
us of something higher, and explains why Æschylus may have been
accused of revealing the mysteries in his drama.
Account for it how we may, whether by distorted traditions or
dim lights, there is something very wonderful in this story of Pro-
metheus akin to that marvellous description by Plato of the righteous
man who cannot be made perfect till he is crucified.
At any rate, I think it will appear that this subject of Prometheus
is one well suited for a sarcophagus, for that it, with innumerable
others, speaks of hope, a hope which has too sure a foundation
in the heart to be sapped by the solemn sneer of the schools, or
else speaks of righteous retribution and purification.
At the same time, even the Bacchanalian subjects have their
reason and excuse, for they represent a religion manquée, frus-
trated, such a religion as Christianity itself might have become,
(with all reverence be it spoken,) if the Corinthians had got their
way against S. Paul. For if he had not written and spoken as he
f e.g. Hercules, Alcestis, Laodamia, Medea, Odysseus, Tantalus, Orestes,
Achilles.
D
34
On Mythology in Funereal Sculpture.
did, and if others of our fathers in the faith had not taken what
we may now consider too extreme a course, Christianity might have
sunk to a system, the great religious rites of which should be the
Carnival, and Fireworks at Easter, where to the initiated Carnival
would signify the use of such abstinence that the flesh might be
subdued to the spirit, and rockets would represent the flight of the
undying soul to the regions of immortal bliss; though to the un-
initiated they would be mere licence and diversion.
EARLY CHRISTIAN SCULPTURES.
BY PROFESSOR WESTWOOD.
WITHOUT entering into any lengthened historical details, it cannot.
be doubted that several causes, each equally important in itself,
tended to check the earliest aspirations of Christian art, and gave
to its first productions some portion of the debased character, to be
seen clearly in the contemporary works of Pagan art. 1. The rapid.
decline of the Roman Empire in the second and third centuries ;
2. The detestation with which the early Christians were regarded by
their fellow-citizens, and the consequent necessity for their conceal-
ing, as far as possible, all traces of their religious profession; 3. The
transfer of the seat of empire to Byzantium in the first quarter of the
fourth century, and the despoiling of the great Western capital of its
works of art for the decoration of its new rival in the East; and
lastly, 4. the rigorous edicts of the early Eastern Church against
Christian sculpture,-are amply sufficient to account for the compara-
tively rude workmanship of the most ancient of the Christian re-
mains of art which have survived to our days, as well as for the mix-
ing together of Pagan and Christian elements, visible upon many of
such remains, or even the entire adoption of the former, regarded with
a Christian significance by the believers in the new Faith, whilst to
their Pagan brethren their real symbolism would be unrecognised.
"Sculpture," says D'Agincourt, "was grand and noble under
Augustus; licentious and obscene under Tiberius; false under
Caracalla, who caused his own infamous head to be placed on the
fine Greek statues; and extravagant under Nero, who gilded the
famous chef d'œuvre of Lysippus." Under Hadrian, who was him-
self a proficient in sculpture as well as in painting and architecture,
the arts returned somewhat to their ancient perfection. Antoninus
and Marcus Aurelius inherited the taste of Hadrian, and their por-
traits and busts were employed by every loyal citizen for the deco-
ration of his house. With the infamous Commodus, whose reign
extended from A.D. 180 to 192, the rapid decline of art commenced,
and "during half-a-century nearly twenty emperors were barely
brought in contact with the imperial throne; fresh tyrants, con-
stantly springing up, disputed it with them, and scarcely one died.
a natural death."
During such a state of things the social condition of society must
D 2
36
Early Christian Sculptures.
have been lamentable; and sculpture, which of all the arts requires
peace and luxury for its proper development, must necessarily have
deteriorated. Of this we have ample evidence, not only in the im-
perfect bas-reliefs still to be seen on the arch of Constantine and the
statues of this prince, which are scarcely better, but also in the ill-
drawn figures upon the great majority of the sarcophagi of the early
Christian period, in which the short thick figures with large heads
are especially to be observed.
The repeated persecutions to which the Christians were exposed.
in Rome, from the middle of the first to the beginning of the fourth
century, equally tended to prevent the development of Christian
art, or to cause such efforts as might be made in that direction to
be concealed as much as possible from the public gaze, by being
confined to the underground cemeteries, where for many centuries
they remained unheeded and lost. The first great persecution of
the Christians took place in A.D. 64, under the reign of Nero, im-
mediately after the great fire of Rome, which, after burning nine
days, from the 17th to the 25th of July, was attributed to the Chris-
tians; and it is affirmed that not only were SS. Peter and Paul, but
also the philosophers Lucan and Seneca, put to death in the same
year.
In the years A.D. 81, 99, 161, 169, 202, 249, 259, 272, and
303, great persecutions of the Christians took place, notwithstanding
which, however, the numbers of the converts to the new religion.
greatly increased, until Constantine, at the beginning of the fourth
century, publicly sanctioned it by affixing the monogram of the name
of the Saviour upon his standard.
This adoption of Christianity as the religion of the State under
Constantine, and the translation of the seat of the empire to Byzan-
tium, completed the ruin of the old Roman arts, but led to the de-
velopment of another style, which subsequently thence acquired the
name of Byzantine, whilst in Rome barbarism took the place of art.
Moreover, the Council of Illiberis, A.D. 305, absolutely proscribed
the representation of the divine personages in sculpture; nor was it
till the ninth century, under Pope Leo II., that the interdiction
against the representation of sculptured figures of Christ, the Virgin,
and Apostles was removed.
CHRISTIAN STATUES.
Of this long and dreary period, it is not surprising that so few
specimens of sculptured statues of a sacred character have survived
the iconoclastic fury of Pagandom to our days. In the splendid and
Christian Statues.
37
vast collections of art contained in the Vatican, Lateran, and Capito-
line Museums, not more than four or five can be pointed out as
having a Christian origin; and even of these the majority are figures
of the Good Shepherd bearing His lost sheep, with which, as a pas-
toral subject, the eyes of the Pagan Romans had been always
familiar. The best of these (and which, on account of its excellence,
has been regarded by some writers as the production of a better
period) is a small marble standing figure of the Good Shepherd
(Photogr. No. 2901), formerly in the Vatican Library, now transferred
to the Lateran Museum; He holds the sheep on His shoulders with
both His hands, and is clad in a tunic fastened round the waist;
His head is uncovered, and His scrip is suspended from His right
shoulder, and hangs down on His left side; the legs, below the
knees, are clad in cross-banded stockings and boots". A second
ancient statue of the Good Shepherd, of more inferior workmanship,
two feet high, is also now preserved in the Lateran Museum. The
figure is young and beardless, clad in a short tunic, reaching half
down the thighs, and girt round the waist; loose knotted stockings
and short boots; His left hand supports a long pedum, and hold-
ing a sheep on His shoulders His right hand grasps the four feet
of the animal. Both these figures of the Good Shepherd are repre-
sented in situ in Photogr. No. 2903, and in our woodcut given at
p. 50. A third ancient statue of the Good Shepherd, of poor work,
is preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano ©.
1
The only other early Christian marble statue in the Roman col-
lections is the celebrated one of S. Hippolytus, Bishop of Ostia,
removed from the Vatican to the Lateran Museum, where it now
occupies the fine position at the end of the Hall of the Sarcophagi",
as shewn in Phot. No. 2899. This statue was found about A.D.
1551, on the road to Tivoli, and has been much restored, especially
in the upper portions of the figure, which is seated in a dignified
position on an episcopal chair, his right hand raised, and resting
against his breast, and his left hand holding a book, on the top of
which the right elbow gracefully rests. The arms and feet of the
cathedra, or chair, are terminated in lions' heads and claws, and on
its sides are inscribed, in Greek characters, the paschal table and
a list of his writings. These, from their palæographical character,
а
Figured in Perkins's "Tuscan Sculp-
tures," vol. i. p. xliii; Martigny's Dic-
tionnaire des Antiquités Chret., p. 515;
and Appell's "Monuments of Early
Christian Art," p. 4.
b
Figured in Perret's work on the
Catacombs, vol. iv. pl. 4.
© Perkins, vol. i. p. xxxix.
a Photogr., Simelli's Series, No. 60.
38
Early Christian Sculptures.
have been referred to the sixth century, although the saint himself
lived in the first half of the third century. Photographs of the two
inscriptions are given under Nos. 2936 and 2937 º.
The bronze figure of S. Peter, in the nave of S. Peter's at Rome,
must also here be referred to, although there are grave doubts
whether it be really an early work of art, whilst by some writers
it is affirmed to be no other than the statue of Jupiter, with a new
head and hands; others stating that this famous statue was melted
down by order of Pope Leo I. in the middle of the fifth century,
and recast into this figure of S. Peter, holding the keys of heaven
with one hand, whilst the other is raised in the act of benediction in
the Roman manner, with the first and second fingers extended. So
great is the veneration in which this figure is held, that the toes of
the right foot have been nearly worn off with the salutations bestowed
upon it, a graphic account of which is given by Mr. Burgon'.
A small standing bronze figure of S. Peter, holding a cross in the
left hand, the upper part of which is converted into the sacred mono-
gram by the addition of the loop of the P, and the right hand raised
in benediction, was figured by Bartoli. The hair is clustered thickly
across the forehead, quite unlike the large lock in the middle seen
in the former figure of S. Peter.
• A general view of the hall, with
the statue in situ, is given in No. 2899.
A cast is in the Kunst Kammer, Berlin,
and figures of it are given in Fabricius'
edition of the works of the Saint, fol.
Hamb., 1716, tab. ii. 6; Perret's Cata-
combs, vol. v. pl. I; Bunsen, Hippo-
lytus, vol. i.; Munter's Sinnbilder, pl.
13, f. 92 (in which the bald head of the
statue is converted into a tonsure); and
Seroux D'Agincourt, Sculpture, pl. 3,
No. 1 (in which the head is represented
one-fifth too short).
f "Letters from Rome," 8vo., Lond.,
1862, p. 57.
Figured by Romano, Basilica Vati-
cane descr., frontisp.; Valetini in La
Patriarc. Basilica Vaticana, i. pl. 105;
Munter, Sinnbilder, pl. 6, f. 20; Guhl
and Caspar, Denkm. d. Kunst, ii. pl.
36, f. 1; Lubke, Gesch. d. Plastik.,
2nd edit., i. p. 325.
I
Mr. Parker informs me that this cele-
brated figure of S. Peter "is not of
bronze, but is of bell-metal with a
bronze varnish over it. This is clearly
seen in the great toe, where the faithful
have kissed off all the varnish, and
have left the bright bell-metal clearly
visible. Bell-metal was not used until
the twelfth century; the statue is a fine
one of the thirteenth century, when the
church was rebuilt."
Whatever may be the date of the
present statue of S. Peter, it is clear
that there was a celebrated statue of
that saint at Rome in the eighth cen-
tury, which had been threatened to be
destroyed by the Emperor Leo the
Isaurian, who had even ordered the
assassination of Pope Gregory II. for
his zealous attachment to image wor-
ship. Two letters of this Pope to Leo
are still extant (A.D. 726—730), in which
the former says, "You declare, with
foolish arrogance, 'I will dispatch my
orders to Rome; I will break in pieces
the image of S. Peter."" And again,
"the eyes of the nations are fixed on
our humility, and they revere, as a god
upon earth, the Apostle S. Peter whose
image you threaten to destroy." (Gib-
bon, vi. 193, 194.) But this was pro-
bably the fine statue now in the crypt,
the body of which is antique; the head
is of the thirteenth century. See Mr.
Parker's Photographs, No. 2995.
8 Lucerna, iii. tab. 26; Munter,
Sinnbilder, pl. 6, f. 21; Martigny,
Dictionnaire, p. 539.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
39
These are the whole of the Christian statues to be found in Rome,
and notwithstanding all the zeal displayed by Seroux d'Agincourt
in collecting the materials of his great work, during a fifty years' resi
dence in Italy, he was unable to discover any later well-authen-
ticated work of sculpture of the higher character until the twelfth
century; so that for seven or eight hundred years the sculptor's
art, except as seen in smaller bas-reliefs, such as those of the sar-
cophagi and in ivory works, may be said to have been extinct.
THE SCULPTURES OF THE SARCOPHAGI.
A much more interesting series of sculptures than the statues
above described, is to be found in the marble sarcophagi, carved in
low relief with Christian subjects, both historical and symbolical.
Here, upon objects intended to repose in the hidden recesses of
the Catacombs, the art of the Christian sculptor was fearlessly
lavished, although none of these (with a distinctly Christian cha-
racter) can fairly be assigned to a period earlier than the fourth
century. We have, however, abundant evidence not only that
Pagan sarcophagi were used for the burial of Christians, but also
that subjects of a pastoral or Pagan character were adopted upon.
the sarcophagi of the earlier Christians, to which symbolical mean-
ings were attached, whereby, in the minds of the uninitiated, their
Christian destination would never be suspected. With regard to
the first of these statements may be quoted the words of Mabillon,
whose long study of the subject allowed him to speak with pre-
cision, "Sic profanis tumulis Christiani non raro quasi propriis usi
sunt h." A famous instance of this practice occurs in the sarco-
phagus with the rape of Proserpine, used for the partial burial of
Charlemagne, in the cathedral of Aix la Chapelle, now placed in
the upper gallery of that church. Raoul Rochette also mentions
the sarcophagus in the Vatican, figured by Cancellierii, with baccha-
nalian scenes, and a Christian inscription; and another found in
the catacombs of S. Agnes, with figures of Bacchus and naked
amorini, the inscription of which states it to have received the
remains of a Christian virgin, named Agapetilla, "ancilla Dei,"
and various Pagan sarcophagi still used in the churches of Rome
for Christian burial are represented in the series of Photographs of
those objects.
•
As to the Christian significance of many of the subjects found
h Iter. Ital., § 10, p. 81.
De Secret. Basil. Vatican., tab. xiii.
* Boldetti, Osservaz, s. i. sacr. cemet.,
p. 466; many other instances are re-
corded by Raoul Rochette.
40
Early Christian Sculptures.
sculptured on the sarcophagi we must be brief, this not being the
place to enter, at any length of detail, into the question, so elaborately
argued by Raoul Rochette, of the Pagan origin of many of the sub-
jects adopted by the Christian sculptors, and still more frequently
by the Christian painters: such as the figure of Orpheus transformed
into the representation of the Saviour; the Agape, or Love Feast,
transformed into the Last Supper; Pluto and Proserpine becoming
Christ and His mother; the nimbus of the gods painted in Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii transformed into the luminous nimbus round
the head of the Saviour and saints; the Pagan Good Shepherd becom-
ing the image of Christ; the Pagan Vintage becoming an emblem of
the blood of the Saviour; the story of Jonah typified by the myth
of Hercules fully armed swallowed by a marine monster, and cast
up again after three days'; Noah in the Ark referred to Deucalion;
and Moses receiving the Law derived from the famous statue of
Jason. It is not, however, to be denied that, whatever may have
been the original significance of many of these subjects, they became
in the fourth and fifth centuries decided representations of the events
recorded in the Bible, to which many others were added of which
no illustration had ever before been introduced on these sepulchral
monuments. Neither shall I do more than advert to the opinion,
strenuously maintained by Mr. Burgon, that many of the Christian
emblems observed in the Catacombs were directly copied from
Jewish originals m.
The direct symbolism of many of the Christian representations.
met with either in the fresco-paintings of the Catacombs or upon
the sarcophagi, will in like manner find no place in these pages.
With the utmost respect for sacred subjects, I must confess that
the manner in which many of these subjects have been attempted
to be explained is far-fetched in the extreme. Those who would
see the extent to which it has been carried, may consult Bottazzi's
large quarto volume containing the description of a Pagan sarco-
phagus at Tortona, upon which the downfall of Phæton, Leda and
the Swan, Castor and Pollux, two winged boys looking at a cock-
fight, two others playing with dice, two Gorgon heads, the vine, and
a shepherd carrying a ram, are sculptured, all of which have been
forced into Christian emblems". The little "Introduction to Early
Christian Symbolism," by Mr. William Palmer (London, 1859), car-
ries these enquiries to a still further depth of mysticism.
1 See Bottari, iii. p. 42.
m
#1
"Letters from Rome," chap. xix.
Figured by Mabillon, Iler Italicum,
i. pt. 1, p. 223; Bottazzi, Degli Em-
blemi Simboli dell' Antichissimo Sarco-
fago, &c., Tortona, 1824.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
4I
It will be observed that, with scarcely an exception, the repre-
sentations of the Saviour found both in the oldest of the fresco-
paintings of the Catacombs and upon all the sarcophagi, are juvenile,
with pleasing features, destitute of beard. So prevalent, indeed, is
this, that a bearded figure of Christ, such as is seen in Bottari,
pl. 35 and 136, or a bearded shepherd (as in No. 2917, and Simelli's
Series, Nos. 16 and 23), is sufficient to throw a doubt on its anti-
quity. In like manner, the fresco of the bearded and nimbed bust
of Christ, just published at Naples in the first part of Signor Sala-
zaros' Studij Monum. della Italia Meridionali, and assigned to the
sixth century, bears the most evident marks of restoration at a long
subsequent period, although the busts of SS. Paul and Peter on
either side of the chief figure may possibly be of the fifth century,
as stated on the plate.
In like manner, scarcely any instances occur of the head of the
Saviour being surrounded by the nimbus, although it may appa-
rently be seen upon the sarcophagus figured in No. 2924, and also
round the head of the Holy Infant on the sarcophagus of the Exarch
Isaac of Ravenna (this last being, however, of the seventh century °).
It is also seen round the head of Christ on the sarcophagus of Pietro
Onesti, in the church of S. Maria in porto fuori Ravenna P.
I commence the series of descriptions of sarcophagi with one
which is entirely destitute of any Christian feeling; whilst the second,
illustrating the gathering of grapes, may be supposed to possess
a symbolical Christian idea.
Photogr., No. 209. The porphyry sarcophagus of S. Helena, the
mother of Constantine, who died A.D. 328, removed from her mauso-
leum, the Torre Pignattara, beyond the Porta Maggiore, in the twelfth
century, by Pope Anastasius IV., is now in the Vatican Museum,
having been thoroughly repaired "munificentia Pii Sexti, P. M."
It is of very large size, and is highly polished; the body of the sar-
cophagus is ornamented with warriors on horseback, driving cap-
tives before them or triumphing over them, without any repre-
sentation of ground, so that they appear hovering in the air. On
the front and back, at the upper angles, are busts of Helena and
Constantine, and on the cover are lions reposing, wreaths, and
winged genii.
• Ricci's Photogr. of Ravenna, No.
35; Appell, "Mon. Early Chr. Art,"
P. 27.
P Ricci, Photogr. of Ravenna, No.
214; Appell, p. 28.
¶ Figured by Aringhi, vol. ii. p. 41 ;
Ciampini, vol. iii. pl. 28 (figures re-
versed); Bottari, vol. iii. pl. 196; and
Pistolesi, vol. v. pl. 116.
42
Early Christian Sculptures.
No. 210. The large porphyry sarcophagus of S. Constantia, the
daughter of Constantine, who died A.D. 354, brought from the
mausoleum erected to her memory by the Emperor near the church
of S. Agnes f. m., by the like "Munificentia Pii Sexti, P.M.," is
also deposited in the Vatican Museum. The front and sides are
carved with heavy scroll-work, with leaves and bunches of grapes,
which are being gathered or trodden under foot by small winged
genii; at the angles below are peacocks, and on each of the four
sides of the cover is a mask in high relief and festoons. It is, like
the last, highly polished and thoroughly restored. The figures on
both these sarcophagi are in high relief.
No. 56 (Simelli's series) contains portions of a sarcophagus from
the Palazzo Randanini, with winged boys gathering and treading
grapes.
No. 318. The sarcophagus in the porch of San Lorenzo f. m., is
asserted originally to have contained the remains of Pope Zosimus
(A.D. 417), and subsequently those of Pope Damasus II. (A.D. 1048).
It is ornamented with shallow sculpture representing grape-vines
in a naturalistic manner, with small winged, naked genii engaged
in gathering the grapes into baskets; a goat, laden with panniers
filled with the grapes, beneath which a tortoise is crawling; a cock
pecks at a lizard; one of the genii rides on an eagle; peacocks
and other birds, and a leopard and other animals, are also intro-
duced $.
In the last two specimens a symbolical idea may be attached
to the sculptures, if regarded as Christian. The same remark
may also be applied to the sculptures represented in Nos. 2917
and 2918, in which also small winged, naked genii are en-
gaged in picking grapes from vines, and pressing them in a vat;
one, as a goatherd, is milking his goat, whilst another carries its
kid in his arms. In the centre, and at each end of the front, is
a figure of the Good Shepherd, holding a sheep on His shoulders
with one hand, the other supporting a short pedum. The same
subjects are continued on the sides of the sarcophagus, as shewn
in No. 2918. This sarcophagus is of large size, and is considered
as of the third century. It is now in the Lateran Museum, and
is stated to have been found near the gate of S. Sebastian t.
Figured by Aringhi, vol. ii. p. 157;
Ciampini, vol. iii. pl. 31; Bottari, vol.
iii. pl. 132; Visconti, Museo Pio Cle-
mentino, vol. vii. pl. 11, 12, c; Pistolesi,
Vatic. descr., vol. v. pl. 116; D'Agin-
court, Sculpture, pl. 6, f. 2.
8
Figured by Bottari, iii. pl. 19;
D'Agincourt, Sculpture, pl. 6, Ño. 1.
Figured by Bottari, and Garrucci,
Monumenti del Musco Lateranense, pl.
49, fig. I
1—4.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
43
The position of this fine sarcophagus in the hall of the Lateran
Museum, as well as one of its sides, is shewn in the general view in
No. 2899, in which it stands the second on the left-hand side.
Specimens representing pastoral scenes, in which shepherds with
their sheep are introduced, apparently without any intention of
Christian symbolism, may be seen in the following photographs in
Simelli's series, Nos. 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, and 28; No. 20 being
interesting from having a gigantic arm and hand introduced by
the side of the Shepherd with the sheep on his shoulders, in the
middle fragment; whilst on the right-hand fragment we have
a shepherd milking a goat, seated under a sun-shade of wicker-
work, such as may be seen affixed to the village carts coming into
Rome at the present day.
No. 2903. In the upper right-hand figure of this photograph is
seen an interesting series of representations of the Good Shepherd,
and four male figures holding baskets of fruit, flowers, fishes, and
apparently a hare, possibly intended as representatives of the sea-
sons, or as types of abundance. Is this a Christian sculpture ?
The small adjoining slab also represents the Good Shepherd alone.
No. 2938 represents the sarcophagus of "Jvn. Jvliæ Jvlianeti
Conjvgi," in the Lateran Museum, in which the Good Shepherd
occurs in company with Noah in the ark; Jonah cast to the whale ;
a pastoral scene with sheep, (in allusion to the name MEIIIBIVS which
occurs in the inscription), and a female figure with uplifted hands ".
No. 2910 (upper figure). This is a representation of the cover of
a sarcophagus of the fourth century, in the Lateran Museum,
in which a highly-significant but very simple group is introduced.
In the centre is a square space reserved for the name of the de-
ceased, on either side of which stands a small figure, apparently
of Christ, looking towards three sheep which approach Him, follow-
ing each other, and each holding a circular wreath in its mouth,
precisely as is seen in many of the mosaics of Rome and Ravenna.
With this must also be contrasted the remarkable treatment of sheep
in the spandrils of the arches of the tomb of Junius Bassus.
No. 2924. The upper figure represents the front of a sarcophagus
in the Lateran Museum, in which the shepherd-like character of the
" Other representations of the Good
Shepherd will be seen in No. 1810
(Catacomb of S. Calixtus); No. 2926
(Lateran Museum); No. II (Simelli's
series, from the Palazzo Randanini in
the Corso); No. 13 (Simelli's series,
Catacomb of S. Calixtus); No. 31 (Si-
melli's series, Catacomb of S. Calixtus);
No. 16 (Simelli's series, Catacomb of
S. Calixtus); No. 23 (Simelli's series,
Catacomb of S. Calixtus); all of which,
from the other subjects introduced, may
be regarded as Christian monuments,
although in the two last-mentioned in-
stances the Shepherd is aged and
bearded.
44
Early Christian Sculptures.
Saviour is more distinctly illustrated than usual. In the centre
stands the Saviour, clad in a tunic girt round His waist, and with
a short cloak not reaching to the waist, and apparently with a nim-
bus round His head, resting with His left hand on a long pedum,
His right hand extending downwards, and laid upon the head of
a sheep standing at His side. On each side of the Saviour stand
six Apostles, each having a sheep at his feet; the Apostle standing
next to the right hand of Christ has a short beard and hair on the
forehead (probably intended for S. Peter), whilst the Apostle at the
left side of Christ has a bald head, and with equal probability may
be intended for S. Paul. We have, therefore, here the scene of
Christ's command to Peter to feed His sheep. At each end of the
front the figure of Christ is repeated, as a shepherd, tending two
or three sheep.
The last-mentioned photograph brings us to a considerable number
of sarcophagi, in which the principal, or, indeed, the only subject
represented, is the Saviour standing in the midst of His disciples.
A number of these sarcophagi are figured in the great works of
Aringhi and Bottari, but the majority of them being in the vaults
of S. Peter's Basilica, they have not been photographed. Each of
these presents certain peculiarities in the principal figures, to some
of which it will be interesting to allude.
No. 451 B. The front of the sarcophagus of Petronius Probus
(who belonged to the Anicia family), Prætorian Præfect, who died
A.D. 395, in a small chapel at S. Peter's. In the centre, beneath
a rounded arch supported by twisted columns, Christ is represented
standing on a small mound, from which flow the four rivers of
Paradise. He holds a tall gemmed cross in His right hand, the
top of which rises to the height of His head, and in His left hand
a partially-unrolled scroll. At the right hand of Christ stands.
a figure with hand upraised towards Him, evidently intended for
S. Peter; and at His left side is another aged figure, with a bald
head (S. Paul), holding a book in his hand. At each side of the
central arch are two other arches, under each of which stand two
disciples, all destitute of attributes. In the spandrils of the arches.
birds are pecking grapes in baskets. Each end of the sarcophagus
contains three arches, under each of which two disciples are repre-
sented standing; and on the back, which is strigillated at the sides,
Probus and his wife are represented standing hand-in-hand, with
a disciple standing at each end ".
Figured by Bosio, pp. 49, 51, 53;
Aringhi, i. pp. 281, 283, 285; Bottari,
i. pl. 16, 17, 18; D'Agincourt, Sculpture,
pl. 6, fig. 12-15; Appell, p. 12. A me-
moir on this sarcophagus was published
at Rome in 1705, by Battelli,
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
45
In a sarcophagus in the church of San Apollinare in Classe,
Ravenna, Christ is seated on a chair holding an open book in
His left hand, whilst with His right hand He gives a roll to an aged
apostle (S. Paul?), who approaches with covered hands. S. Peter
approaches on the left side of Christ bearing a large cross resting on
his shoulders, and holding a large key. The Saviour is of the very
juvenile type, with a cruciform nimbus encircling His head. Four
other apostles are stationed at the sides, two of whom hold wreaths.
Several of these details appear to me to indicate a date not earlier
than the seventh century.
No. 2677. The sarcophagus of the Prætor Titus Gorgonius, in the
crypt of the cathedral of Ancona. In the centre the Saviour, in
a spirited attitude, and with a short beard and long hair stands on
a small mount, at the sides of which are a small male and female
figure kneeling and embracing His feet. His right hand and arm
are extended towards an aged bald disciple (S. Paul), who holds.
a partially-unrolled scroll in his hand, whilst His left hand holds.
a scroll which He presents to a disciple at His left side, who holds
a gemmed cross (the top injured) on his shoulders; at each side,
under rounded arches, stand four disciples, looking towards the
Saviour. On the cover is the inscription, supported by genii, the
birth of Christ, the visit of the Magi, the baptism, and four other
figures, much mutilated*.
No. 2909. A sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum, on which are
sculptured the Saviour and six Apostles, each with a roll, standing
under arches (alternately rounded and angulated), supported by
twisted columns. Christ holds a roll in His left hand, the right
being raised in benediction; He stands beside a tree, on which
apparently a bird is sitting, which has been assumed to be the
cock of S. Peter.
In the preceding sarcophagi we have seen that the sculpture was
confined to the representation of a single subject, but in the great
majority of these Christian tombs several separate Bible scenes are
represented; indeed, in some of them, a number of Old and New
Testament subjects are miscellaneously grouped together, occa-
sionally in the most "admired disorder."
No. 2927; also Simelli's series, No. 15. One of the most simple
and, at the same time, one of the most excellent of the Christian.
sarcophagi, in point of art workmanship, is one which now stands
at the extremity of the hall of the Lateran Museum, under a marble
canopy, as seen in No. 2899. The front is divided into seven com-
Ricci, Ravenna Photographs, No.
67; Appell, fig. on p. 28.
X
Figured by Corsini, Relazione, &c.
Rome, 1756, plates 4, 5.
46
Early Christian Sculptures.
2
partments by eight beautifully-carved columns, upon which foliage
and flowers are represented. In the centre, the youthful Christ is
represented seated between two disciples, holding a long scroll in His
left hand, the end of which is supported by another disciple with
covered hands, who from his features and hair may be supposed to
be S. Peter rather than S. Paul, who, with bald head, stands with
uplifted hands on the right side of Christ, beneath whose feet is
seen the bust of a youthful figure holding a large veil over his head.
This figure has been regarded as a female (which the photographs
clearly shew it not to be), and as a classical representation of the
earth (Tellus) as the footstool of Christ; whilst by some writers.
it is considered as Uranus, with Christ seated in glory, or, indeed,
as illustrating Christ's ascension to heaven. Four other disciples
stand near; whilst at the left end of the front is represented the
sacrifice of Isaac prevented by the outstretched hand of God: and
the two right-hand spaces are occupied with figures of Christ stand-
ing before Pontius Pilate, who is in the act of washing his hands, on
which an attendant pours water. All these figures are admirably de-
signed, and as excellently sculptured in high relief. The two ends,
however, Nos. 443 and 444, are differently treated, being carved in
very low relief; the backgrounds, enriched with groups of buildings,
including a basilica and detached baptistery, of great architectural
interest, one of which is surmounted with a monogram of Christ
formed of a cross, with the upper limb looped like the top of a P.
At one end is figured Christ predicting Peter's denial, the cock
being mounted on the top of an Ionic column; the other end repre-
sents the woman with the bloody flux touching the hem of Christ's
garment, and Moses striking the rock, one of the Israelites kneeling
to catch the water. There is another figure standing at the end of
this compartment, carved in high relief, who appears quite uncon-
nected with the last-mentioned group, and holds a long conical vessel
like an amphora, and looks towards the front of the sarcophagus, as
if forming part of the Pontius Pilate group. It has been suggested,
from this diversity of treatment, that these two end-pieces are por-
tions of some other sarcophagus, which have been put together as
now seen in the Museum. It will, however, be observed in the
photographs that the same ornamental moulding extends along the
This was indeed an ordinary classi-
cal mode of representing heaven, as seen
for instance on the altar of Augustus in
the Vatican Museum (Raoul Rochette,
Monum. in ed. d'Antiq. Odysséïde, pl.
69). Buonarotti, on the other hand,
admitting the Pagan origin of the figure,
regarded it as allegorically representing
the waters of the firmament, the water-
deities being thus treated by the Pagan
artists (Vet. Antich., p. 7, and Medall.
Antich., p. 27).
7 Raoul Rochette has mistaken the
youthful figure of Christ standing before
Pontius Pilate for a disciple
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
47
bottom of the front and ends. This sarcophagus, of the fourth
century, was discovered in the Campo Santo of the Vatican, and
was then placed in the cloister of S. Andrea delle Valle, whence
it was moved to the Villa Pamfili, and thence to the little church
of S. Agnes in the Piazza Navona, whence it has lately been re-
moved to the Lateran Museum; so that it has been known, in its
present condition, for more than a century.
One of the most celebrated sarcophagi in Rome is that of Junius
Bassus, who was præfect of the city in A.D. 359 (Eusebius and
Upatius being consuls, and who died in the very year of his præfec-
ture "ipsa præfectura urbi, Neofitus iit ad Deum.") It is now in the
crypt of S. Peter's, so that no photograph has been obtained of it.
Its front contains two rows of Christian subjects, in small compart-
ments between classical columns, which in the lower row are united
by alternately rounded and angulated arches, the rounded ones
being surmounted by large birds, which appear to hover over the
respective groups.
In the centre of the upper row is Christ seated between two
Apostles, His feet resting on the large veil supported by the old
and bearded bust of Uranus, as in the last-described example.
The other groups on the front are, 1. The sacrifice of Abraham
prevented by the hand of God seizing the knife; 2. An aged figure
with folded hands standing between two others, one of whom has
taken hold of his arm. This has been regarded as the attendants
expostulating with S. Peter after his denial of Christ, but both the
cock and the female servant are wanting; 3. Christ (of the youthful
type) standing between two attendants, before 4. Pilate, seated on
a curule chair, with an attendant holding an ewer and basin; 5. Job,
seated, his wife standing before him, significantly covering her nose
with her cloak; 6. The Fall, Adam and Eve standing on either side
of the tree, round which is twined the serpent,—a wheat-sheaf is
placed at the side of Adam, and a lamb stands by Eve; 7. Christ
riding into Jerusalem, with Zaccheus up the tree; 8. Daniel and
the two lions (in D'Agincourt's plate the figure of Daniel is wanting;
it has probably been restored since his time); 9. A group, in which
an aged man (S. Peter ?), with his hands bound behind him, is led
away by two attendants.
a The shallow carving of the ends
was perhaps executed afterwards.
b Figured by Bosio, pp. 85, 87;
Aringhi, i. pp. 317, 319; Bottari, i. pl.
33, 34; D'Agincourt's figures, Sculp-
ture, pl. 5, No. 1, 3, are very inaccu-
rate and reversed (he distinctly mis-
represents the figure beneath the feet
of Christ as a female); Raoul Rochette,
Tableau des Catacombes, pl. 7 and 8.
с
Lady Eastlake miscalls this male
figure, Tellus supporting the firmament,
and raises an ingenious argument upon
this misconception ("History of our
Lord," i. p. 14); Mrs. Jameson had
more properly regarded it as Heaven.
48
Early Christian Sculptures.
A very remarkable series of small symbolical figures are sculp-
tured over the columns of the lower series of subjects. In all of
these Christ is represented as a lamb performing various miracles,-
1. Holding a rod, the Lamb touches a small figure in a tomb (the
raising of Lazarus); 2. The Lamb stands before the open book of
Law; 3. The Lamb places one of its fore-feet on the head of a still
smaller lamb, on which rays descend from a dove in the clouds
(baptism); 4. The Lamb holds a rod over three vessels (the miracle
of Cana); 5. The Lamb strikes a rock with a rod, water gushing
forth, which is received by other sheep (the miracle of Moses);
6. A group, nearly defaced. The ends of the sarcophagus are orna-
mented with pastoral scenes, representing, according to D'Agincourt,
the four seasons ".
No. 2900; also Simelli's series, No. 1. This is an example of a
rather extensive series of sarcophagi, on which portrait-busts of the
deceased are introduced in the middle of the front within a scallop-
shell or circle. A cast of this sarcophagus has been presented by
Mr. Parker to the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. It was discovered
in the cemetery of Lucina (Northcote says from San Paolo fuori Muri),
from which it was moved to the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, and
thence to the Lateran Museum. Here two busts of men, past the
middle age of life, are enclosed in the central ornamental shell, the
remainder of the front being occupied with two rows of Scripture
subjects, mingled together without any separation between them.
In the upper row the youthful Christ, standing in front of the open
door of a small temple-like tomb, with spirally twisted columns, directs.
the attention of a female (Mary or Martha) to its empty condition,
indicating that Lazarus was already raised from the dead; 2. Christ
with S. Peter and the cock; 3. Moses receiving the Law from the
hand of God; 4. The sacrifice of Abraham prevented; 5. Pontius
Pilate, seated on the veiled judgment-seat (together with Herod,
who irresolutely turns away his face), about to wash his hands.
(Christ is here not represented). In the lower row is, 6. A group
which has been described as Moses smiting the rock, which is repre-
sented to the left like the twisted stem of a tree,—the figure who
stands pointing to it is not at all like Moses in the upper row,
but is rather intended for S. Peter.
d
Du
Figured by Bosio, p. 45; Aringhi,
i. 277; Bottari, i. pl. 15; D'Agincourt,
Sculpture, pl. 6, Nos. 5—11;
Sommerard, Les Arts du Moyen-age,
Album, Ire ser. pl. 2; Kinkel, Ges-
chichte, p. 163, 195, pl. 7, f. e.; Guhl
His left shoulder is seized by
and Caspar, Denkm. d. Kunst. ii. pl.
36, No. 8; Mrs. Jameson and Lady
Eastlake, "The History of our Lord,'
"Hist. of
i. oppos. p. 13; Lubke,
Art" (Engl. Trans.), i. p. 310; Pisto-
lesi, Vatican, ii. 19.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
49
a soldier in a round flat-topped cap, at the side of whom stands,
7. A third younger figure (like that of Moses, and quite unlike that
of Christ), expostulating with a second soldier. We have here an
evident connexion intended between S. Peter and Moses, to which
attention will be further directed in a subsequent passage. The
group has been variously described as Christ (which the young
figure certainly is not) preaching to the Jews; while Northcote
interprets it as Christ or S. John engaging the attention of the
satellites of Pilate. We have next, 8. Daniel and the lions, with
Habakkuk bringing him food; 9. A group,—an aged man is seated
reading from a scroll, which is held by a figure standing before
him, a third figure, with a round flat-topped cap, stealthily looking
on from behind a tree. This has been called a prophet prophe-
sying, whilst Bosio considered it to be Moses giving the Law to the
people, and the figure behind the tree, whose head appears in the
branches, to be intended for Zaccheuse. Considering that this
group occupies the centre of the lower row of a Christian sar-
cophagus, on which the raising of Lazarus is represented, may we
not rather believe that it is intended to recall the sublime words of
Job (ch. xix. 23-27), the figure standing behind the tree being
intended for Elihu (ch. xxx. 11)? We have, lastly, 10. Christ curing
the blind; and, 11. Blessing the loaves and fishes.
I
Nos. 2902 and 2903. The accompanying woodcut represents the
largest Christian sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum, considered
to be of the fourth century, and placed near the entrance of the hall,
between the two statues of the Good Shepherd, above described.
It was lately discovered at the basilica of S. Paolo f. m., and con-
sists of two rows of subjects of equal size, the centre of the upper
series being occupied by a circular disc, supported by two winged
genii, and enclosing two unfinished busts. In the upper row (com-
mencing on the left hand) is represented an aged male figure, seated
upon a draped chair, with his fore hand raised in benediction.
Behind the chair stands another aged male figure, and a third also
aged, in front, looking towards the seated one. The right hand of
this third figure rests upon the head of a small naked female figure,
standing erect, another naked child-like figure lying on the ground
in front. We have here, therefore, an evident representation of the
Trinity in the act of creating the woman. This is the more inter-
esting, as no painted delineation of the Trinity is known to exist.
e This subject is also seen on the
fragment of a sarcophagus in the Pa-
lazzo Corsetti, Simelli's series, No. 21.
E
f Figured by Bottari, vol. ii. pl. 49;
Burgon, "Letters from Rome," frontis-
piece.
50
Early Christian Sculptures.


JEHITT.R.{
Christian Sarcophagus of the Fourth Century, in the Lateran Museum.

The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
5 I
previous to the eleventh century. The other subjects are Christ
standing between Adam and Eve, giving a wheat-sheaf to the
former and a lamb to the latter, who stands by the side of the
tree, round which is twisted the serpent with the apple in its
mouth; Christ with His rod, turning the water (in three pots) to
wine; Christ blessing the loaves and fishes; and Christ raising
Lazarus, with Mary at His feet. In the lower row are the three
Magi presenting their gifts to the Holy Child, seated on the lap of
the Virgin, who sits in a wicker chair (without any drapery over it),
at the back of which stands a figure similar to that standing behind
the chair in the upper series, and whom Mr. Northcote regards as the
Holy Ghost, but whom I prefer to consider as Joseph; Christ curing
the blind; Daniel and the two lions, with Habakkuk bringing him.
food (Bel and the Dragon, Apocr., v. 34); Christ with S. Peter and
the cock; Peter seized (Acts iv. 3, or xii. 3), and Moses striking
the rock, with two Israelites catching the water ".
h
The most usual subject, however, met with on the Christian sar-
cophagi is the story of Jonah. See No. 2905; and Simelli's series,
No. 6. Of this there is a very remarkable instance in No. 2905, the
centre of the front of which is occupied by the great sea-monster,
twice repeated; on the left side it is about to swallow Jonah cast
out of the ship; on the right it is casting Jonah out of its mouth on
to the shore, on which a snail, crab, and lizard are crawling; and
lastly, Jonah is seen lying at full length, naked, under the gourd.
At each end, below, are seen fishermen carrying on their occu-
pations, one fishing with a rod; allegorical figures of the sun and
wind are seen above the sail of the ship, and in the vacant spaces
in the upper part of the scene are introduced small groups, of Noah
in his box-like ark, with the dove, Moses striking the rock, the
raising of Lazarus, the capture of Peter, and a Good Shepherd
tending two sheep ¹.
8 These two little figures, one stand-
ing and the other lying on the ground,
are repeated on several of the sarco-
phagi (Photogr. Nos. 2907 and 2912),
in which the head of the lying figure is
touched by the rod held by the juvenile
Saviour, who in No. 2907 is accompa
nied by two aged male figures, whilst
in 2912 one of the two attendants is aged
and the other young. In 2904 Christ
similarly touches the head of a child
lying on the ground, but here is no
standing infant, and we therefore may
here see the miracle of the youth raised
to life. On the other hand, in Phot.
No. 2915, a small child stands at the
side of the youthful Christ, whose right
hand is raised in the act of blessing.
S. Matth. xix. 13-15.
h Described in Ricci's Storia d'Ar-
chitettura in Italia, i. 54; Northcote
and Brownlow, Rom. Sotter., p. 297,
and plate 19; Martigny, Dictionn., p.
597, with small woodcut; Appell.,
"Mon. of Early Christian Art," p. 16
(fig.), and 17.
Figured by Aringhi, i. p. 335;
Bottari, i. pl. 42; D'Agincourt, Sculp-
ture, pl. v. fig. 6 (very incorrect, and
reversed); Appell, p. 19.
E 2
52
Early Christian Sculptures.
It is not to be supposed that the celebrated Labarum of Con-
stantine, with its so-called Chi-rho monogram of the name of
Christ,, would not be met with on those Christian sarcophagi
sculptured after the emblem became an acknowledged mark of
Christianity. We accordingly see it on two sarcophagi (No. 2929
and 2930, the latter also in Simelli's series, No. 10), both in the
Lateran Museum, in each of which it is surrounded by a wreath
of glory, and supported upon a cross, on the arms of which two doves
are seated, and below which the two guards, who were appointed by
Constantine daily to guard the imperial sacred standard, are sta-
tioned. In No. 2930 we have the very rare representation of Christ
crowned with thorns by a soldier in a helmet, by whom He is also
carried before Pontius Pilate, who is preparing to wash his hands ;
and is led off to execution, carrying His cross *.
An interesting list of the sacred subjects represented on fifty-five
sarcophagi, arranged in the Museum of S. John Lateran, has been
drawn up by Mr. Burgon, together with an indication of the number
of times in which each subject is repeated. The second series of
numbers given below represents the number of times in which each
is represented in the engravings of the forty-eight sarcophagi in the
great work of Bosio, as given by Northcote and Brownlow, thirty of
which were found in the crypts of the Vatican :—
1. The history of Jonah, 23, II.
2. Moses (or, as it would occasionally appear, Peter) smiting
the rock, often with the Jews stooping down to drink the water',
21, 16.
3. Christ blessing the loaves and fishes, 20, 14.
4. The apprehension of S. Peter by one or more soldiers, or Jews,
who wear round flat-topped caps (Acts xii. 3). This group is in
many instances placed in immediate connexion with the striking
of the rock by Moses. Mr. Burgon gives this as the apprehension
of Christ, but the aged figure of the captive militates against such
an interpretation. He also says that he was informed that the
peculiar cap of the captors indicated them to be Jews, 20, 14.
More properly chi-rho-iota, since the
lower part of the straight stroke of the
P below the cross of the X represents
the I, being the third letter of the name
of XPICTOC (Christos). Other instances.
of the Christian monogram occur in Bot-
tari, plates 30, 35, 37, and 136, and on
many of the early Christian monuments
at Ravenna.
k Figured by Northcote and Brown-
low, Roma Subterr., p. 307; Appell,
p. 21.
There is a cast of it in the
Christian Museum of Berlin, established
by Dr. Piper.
1 No. 2935, from a fragment in the
Lateran Museum, gives this group in
connexion with No. 4, the apprehen-
sion of S. Peter, in both of which the
chief actor is evidently intended for
the same personage. See also D'Agin-
court, Sculpture, pl. v. fig. 7, in which
the figures are reversed.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
53
5. Christ curing the blind man (who appears as a small figure)
by touching his eyes, 19, 11.
6. The miracle of Cana,-Christ extending a rod over two, three,
four, five, or six waterpots, 16, 8.
7. The raising of Lazarus, who stands as a small mummy-like
figure at the door of a little temple, towards which Christ extends
His hand or His rod, 16, 14.
8. Christ with the cock, foretelling the denial of S. Peter, 14, 8.
9. Daniel standing between two lions; in many cases Habakkuk
approaches with a basket of loaves, 14, 7.
10. The cure of the paralytic, who is generally represented as
a small figure bearing his sofa-like bed on his shoulders, 12, 7.
II. The creation of Eve, by an aged figure of the Creator", 11, 2.
12. The sacrifice of Abraham stopped by the outstretched hand
of God. In several instances, the left arm of Abraham is also held
by an attendant male figure (Phot. Nos. 2913 and 2914), 11, 9.
13. The adoration of the Magi, 11, 8.
14. The temptation of our first Parents, the serpent twined round.
the tree of knowledge; Adam often accompanied by a sheaf of
wheat, and Eve by a lamb, 10, 14.
15. Christ curing the woman with the bloody flux, who kneels
and touches the hem of His garment, 8, 9.
16. The Good Shepherd, 6, 9.
17. Christ riding on the ass into Jerusalem, the people spread-
ing their garments and branches in His way; Zaccheus often
mounted on the tree; the little foal sometimes seen running at
the side of its mother, 6, 8.
18. Noah standing in a little square box-like ark receiving the
dove, 5, 6.
19. Christ before Pilate, who is often represented as washing,
or preparing to wash, his hands, and who is occasionally accom-
panied by a second seated figure, who may be assumed to be
Herod ", 5, 6.
m In some instances more than one
figure appears as in the act of creation,
and in one instance, in which two sup-
plemental figures are introduced, they
have been considered as representations
of the Persons of the Trinity. I am
inclined to consider that occasionally,
at least, they are simply introduced by
the sculptor to fill up the vacant space.
In like manner, in some of the groups
of the Magi, a supplemental figure
is seen, who has been assumed to
be a fourth wise man from the East;
and in many of the sarcophagi, the
head of a spectator is regularly made
to alternate with the heads of the prin-
cipal figures, so as to fill up the vacant
spaces.
"This is especially the case in the
sarcophagus figured by Bottari, i. pl.
22.
54
Early Christian Sculptures.
20. Adam and Eve receiving the wheat-sheaf and the lamb from
the Saviour, 4.
21. Moses receiving the Law from the outstretched hand of
God, 4, 6.
22. The Three Children (wearing Phrygian caps) appear standing
in the attitude of prayer among flames issuing from a low fur-
nace, the fire stirred, in one case by an attendant, and faggots
brought to it on another sarcophagus, both figured by Bottari, pl. 87
and 169, 4, 3.
23. Christ bearing His cross, 3.
24. Moses putting off his shoes (Phot. No. 2920), 2, 2.
25. The translation of Elijah to heaven in a quadriga, his
mantle caught by Elisha and the two little sons of the prophets,
or rather the mocking children with a bear (Phot. No. 2932), 2, 3.
26. The Nativity of Christ, with the ox and ass, 1, 4.
27. Christ crowned with thorns, I, 1.
In addition to the above, there are several subjects of much
interest, which, from their rarity and curiosity, it is desirable to
notice.
The representation of Christ standing on the holy mountain,
from which issue the four rivers of Paradise, in the midst of His
disciples, one of whom often holds a gemmed cross on his shoulder,
whilst another holds a roll, has been above described.
The juvenile Christ, standing, with His feet on the lion and adder,
occurs on a sarcophagus in San Nicolo at Ravenna º.
The Last Supper, under the guise of a Pagan agape, or love-
feast, is seen on a considerable number of sarcophagi, where the
guests are seated at a semi-circular table, the loaves of bread
generally being marked with a cross" (Phot. Nos. 2928, 2930, &c. ;
Simelli's series, Nos. 47, 54).
The vision of Ezekiel is also represented on two or three sar-
cophagi, the Saviour standing in the act of raising several small
dead figures lying on the ground, some of them more or less
shrivelled (Phot. No. 2921).
Daniel feeding the dragon or serpent, as described in the apo-
cryphal story of Bell and the Dragon' (Phot. No. 2920).
• Ricci's Ravenna Series.
P See Nos. 2929, 2930; also Simelli's
Series, Nos. 23, 54, 47.
Bottari, pl. 38, 134 and 195; Arin-
ghi, i. 527; D'Agincourt, Sculpture,
pl. viii. f. 3.
Bottari, i. pl. 19. Bosio, Severa-
nus, and Aringhi, were unable to ex-
plain this curious sculpture, the latter
adding, "ne Apollo quidem ipse nimis
prompte divinaverit" (Rom. Ŝubt., lib.
ii. cap. 10, p. 288). Mattei, however,
gives the true interpretation of it (Ve-
ron. Illustr., pl. 3, cap. 3; and Bottari,
i. p. 69). The apocryphal subjects were
favourite ones with the early sculptors.
The Sculptures of the Sarcophagi.
55
Susanna between the two elders occasionally appears, although
in some instances the figure of a female in the act of prayer, between
two male persons, may more fitly be considered as representing the
female deposited in the sarcophagus. In the Brescia casket, de-
scribed below, the group is, however, clearly identified as Susanna
and the Elders by the adjoining scene, where she is led off to
judgment.
8
Pharaoh and his host perishing in the Red Sea (Phot. No. 2933).
The offerings of Cain and Abel (Phot. Nos. 2908, 2910).
t
Christ and the woman of Samaria at the well".
The Baptism of Christ (affirmed by Messrs. Northcote and
Brownlow never to occur on the sarcophagi), Phot. 2677 and 2919.
Christ raising the dead daughter of Jairus out of a sarcophagus,
(Phot. Nos. 2919 and 2920).
Christ curing the sick man let down on a bed from the roof
by ropes (Phot. No. 2906).
We may lastly mention the interesting sarcophagus from the
catacomb of S. Helena, figured by Fabretti, on which a Christian
sculptor has represented himself in the act of completing a sarco-
phagus, surrounded by his assistants, АГІОС ӨЕОСЕВЕС ЕҮТРОПОС
EN IPHNH, &c., with the dove and olive-branch in the corner.
In the excellent little manual of Dr. Appell above referred to,
will be found a condensed account of many Christian sarcophagi
preserved in the churches and museums of many of the cities of
Italy, France, and other parts of Europe; Ravenna, Arles, and
Marseilles being especially rich in these early specimens of art.
s Bottari, i. pl. 40 and 194. The
same subject also occurs on a fine sar-
cophagus at Spalato, in Dalmatia, en-
graved in the Jahrbuch of the Austrian
Central Commission, pl. 18; and also
on a sarcophagus in the rich museum
at Arles.
* Aringhi, ii. p. 167; D'Agincourt,
Sculpture, pl. viii. f. 5.
u
Bottari, pl. 137; Aringhi, i. 297;
D'Agincourt, Sculpture, pl. viii. f. 9.
▾ Bottari, pl. 193.
* Ibid.
y Bottari, i. pl. 39.
2 Inser. Antiq., p. 587; and D'Agin-
court, Sculpture, tab. viii. fig. 19.
56
Ivory Carvings.
IVORY CARVINGS.
BY PROFESSOR WESTWOOD.
It is only during the last few years that any attention has been
directed in England to the value of ivory carvings, as illustrations
of art, extending in an unbroken series for nearly 3000 years, com-
mencing as it does with specimens dating B.C. 980, the period of the
twenty-first dynasty in Egypt. It does not enter into the object of
the present work to give any detail of the valuable series of As-
syrian ivories, collected by Messrs. Layard and Loftus, now in the
British Museum; nor of those fewer Egyptian specimens which have
survived to our times; but we know from the gorgeous description of
the Temple of Solomon, and of the great throne of ivory overlaid
with gold, and of the employment of this material, intermingled
with gold and silver, in the decoration of couches, chairs, and beds ',
as well as from the Homeric poems, that ivory was greatly prized
and used in the East previous to the Christian era.
None of these larger objects, including the great Chryselephantine
statues, have survived to our days, but numbers of smaller works
have been preserved, owing, as they do, their value, not to the
intrinsic worth of the material itself, like gold or silver objects, but
to the art-workmanship bestowed upon it.
It is to this circumstance especially that we now possess so valu-
able a series of sculptures during the long period between the third
and fourth, and the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the Chris-
tian era; during which, as noticed in our article on the Sarcophagi,
scarcely any stone monuments have been preserved. These ivory
sculptures are moreover of the greater interest, partaking, as it were,
both of the nature of sculpture and painting, owing to their being
generally carved in low relief, and thus as illustrative of the decline
and fall of Western art; as being the principal monuments (except
the miniatures in MSS.) in which the artistic hagiology of the East
is recorded; as presenting the most complete picture of the Car-
lovingian escape from tradition; and as the most copious commen-
tary on the spiritual and romantic life of the Middle Ages, which
the art of the sculptor has bequeathed to us. Collections of carved
ivories are of the highest value.
In the northern room of the long gallery of the Vatican Library,
I Kings ch. x.
b 1 Kings xxii. 29; Amos iii. 15; Psalm xlv. 8.
Ivory Carvings.
57
in the British Museum, the Barberini Palace, and (to a smaller ex-
tent) in the Museums of Naples and Florence, are preserved num-
bers of specimens of Pagan, i.e. Classical Roman Ivories.
The collection of secular ivories in the Vatican Museum is the
most important in existence, consisting of figures of divinities and
other classical personages, some in the highest style of art. One of
these represents Jupiter seated on the back of an eagle, with ex-
tended wings, attended by two genii, one of whom holds a vase to
the eagle; another, a figure of Jupiter, attended by two female figures;
and a splendid head of Jupiter; Venus seated, with an eagle standing
in her lap, and Cupid to the left; a piece about 2 ins. square, with
a remarkably fine eagle; another eagle, with half-expanded wings,
is admirably designed; a very beautiful statuette of Diana holding
a bow, starting with her hound for the chase; Mercury holding
the thyrsus; a grand head cut out of a solid block of ivory (6 ins.
high by 5 ins. broad), with an extremely beautiful profile, the eyes
(originally doubtless of silver) now being empty; a grand bust of
Minerva in scale armour; portions of a remarkable triumphal group,
with a car drawn by four horses, in very high relief, closely resem-
bling the bas-relief of Marcus Aurelius on the stairs of the Capi-
toline Museum; together with numerous groups of satyrs, nymphs,
fauns, and winged genii, some of them entirely in the style of the
sculptures of the sarcophagi.
The collection of Classical ivories in the British Museum also
contains some precious examples, including a statuette of Hercules
taming a horse; beautiful heads of Apollo and Diana, the latter
with the hair tied in a knot behind; a grand head of Bacchus
crowned; a small bust of an emperor; a horse's head, about 2 ins.
long, of great force; two lions biting each other's shoulders, carved
with much spirit, &c.
In the Fejérváry collection of ivories, purchased by Joseph Mayer,
Esq., of Liverpool, and by him presented to the museum of that
city, are preserved various small objects of sculptured ivory of the
Classical period, one of which is a plaque, about 6 ins. high by
4 wide, on which is rudely incised a figure, with large wings, closely
cut hair, and flying drapery, carrying a hare, as the symbol of winter.
The British Museum also possesses a remarkable pierced plaque,
representing Bellerophon on his winged horse, attacking the Chi-
mæra, about 8 ins. high by 4 wide.
The fine mythological statue of Panthea, standing erect amongst
foliage, entirely undercut, is one of the gems of the museum of the
Hotel Cluny, Paris. It is about a foot high, and is carved in very
58
Ivory Carvings.
high relief in the round part of an ivory tusk. The same treatment
is found in the six grand ivory sculptures affixed to the silver pulpit
of Aix-la-Chapelle, four of which represent mythological subjects,
whilst two contain figures of an emperor, standing, armed with shield
and spear in one piece, the other representing him on horseback
spearing a panther.
The most important of the ivory works of Roman art which have
survived to our times are, however, the consular and imperial dip-
tychs, as they have been generally termed. These are oblong
plates of ivory, in pairs, varying from 12 to 15 ins. in height, and
from 4 to 6 ins. wide, sculptured on the outside, and fastened
together with hinges on one of the longer margins, the inner surface
of each being slightly excavated, except along the outer edges,
which form a ridge all round the piece, within which a coating of
wax was laid, upon which the possessors were accustomed to write
with the point of the style, the blunt end of which was employed to
obliterate the writing when no longer required.
Of these Roman diptychs, containing representations of a mytho-
logical character, a few have been preserved, amongst which are
especially to be mentioned the two leaves in the Fejérváry collec-
tion above mentioned, representing Esculapius leaning upon his
club, round which a serpent is entwined, attended by his diminu-
tive genius Telesphorus; and on the other tablet Hygeia, with
a chaplet in her hair, leaning against a tripod, round which coils
a serpent, raising its head to the right hand of the goddess, who
offers it an almond-shaped fruit: at the feet of the goddess stands
Cupid with his quiver and bow, but destitute of wings.
In the fine work of Gorius is represented the Diptychon Melere-
tense, of great beauty, inscribed "Nicomachorum. Symmachorum,"
after the Roman families of those names, in honour, probably, of
a marriage between whom it was carved. Each leaf contains the
elegant figure of a priestess standing before an altar. Of the two
leaves, one, in a very dilapidated state, is now preserved in the
museum of the Hotel Cluny; whilst the other, and far more beauti-
ful leaf, has been obtained by, and now graces the museum of South
Kensington, purchased at the price of £420. The photograph of
• These ivories have been well figured
by Messrs. Cahier and Martin (Melanges
Archæologiques), and by Herr Aus
m' Weerth in his gigantic work on the
Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the Rhine
district.
d Figured by Gorius, Thesaurus Dip-
tychorum, iv. pls. xx and xxi; "Art
Treasures of Manchester Intern. Ex-
hibit.," pl. i. p. I, 2nd leaf; Pulszky,
Descr. of Fejérváry Ivories," frontis-
piece; Labarte, Handb., pp. 36, 425.
• Vol. i. pl. vi.
Ivory Carvings.
59
it, given in Mr. Maskell's Catalogue of that collection, shews how
very incorrect and inadequate are the figures of Gorius.
Other fine mythological diptychs of the Roman period are pre-
served in the Bibliotéca Quiriniana, at Brescia (Hippolytus and
Phædra); the Treasury of the Cathedral at Monza (a Poet and
a Muse); the Library of S. Gall (rude combats of Amazons and
Warriors); the great Library of Paris (the diptych of Sens, with the
triumph of the Juvenile Bacchus and Diana Lunifera, and the
diptych of the six poets inspired by six muses).
In the consular period, it became the custom for the newly-elected
consuls to present these diptychs to senators f, and hence we may
suppose that we have before us, in those which have survived to
our days, examples of the best workmanship of the period; nor can
this be doubted, when some of these (or casts of such of them as
may be obtained in the valuable Series of Casts published by the
Arundel Society) are carefully examined.
The consular diptychs contained the Fasti Consulares, or acts of
the consuls, from L. Junius Brutus down to the donor whose portrait
was represented, or name inscribed, on the outside of the two leaves
of the diptych; on this account they are of the highest importance
in the history of art, being thus dated examples, each bearing the
name of the consul; and the joint names of the two consuls having
been used to designate the year, in preference to reckoning by the
years of Rome. One cannot, therefore, help smiling at Dr. Dibdin's
remark respecting the diptych of Anastasius, in the Paris Biblio-
thèque: "Some of these bindings (among which I include diptychs)
may be as old as the eleventh, and they have been even carried
to the tenth century; but the latter is very problematical 8."
The following is a list of all the diptychs which can be assigned,
either absolutely or with reasonable conjecture, to different consuls.
It is compiled, with further additions, from a memoir which the
writer presented to the Ashmolean Society of Oxford in 1862, and
is more complete than any hitherto published :—
1. M. Julius Philippus Augustus. One leaf in the Fejérváry
Collection at Liverpool", A.D. 288.
2. M. Aurelius Romulus Cæsar. One leaf in the British Museum i,
A.D. 308.
f Thus, upon the diptych of Flavius
Petrus we find an inscription,—
"Munera parva quidem pretio sed ho-
noribus ampla,
Patribus ista meis offero consul ego,"
indicating the donation of the diptych
to the Senatorial fathers.
g
8 Bibl. Jour., ii. p. 146.
Figured by Millin, vol. i. pl. xxiv.
fig. 3; "Art Treasures, Manchester,
Sculpture," pl. i. f. 3.
Figured by Gorius, Thes., i. tab.
60
Ivory Carvings.

VICARIVS VRBIS ROMAE
COREP
WAB SC
Back Leaf of the Diptych of Rufius Probianus, A.D. 322. (Kunst Kammer, Berlin.)
Ivory Carvings.
61
3. Rufius Probianus. Both leaves in the Kunst Kammer, Berlin,
A.D. 322. Each leaf of this very interesting diptych is divided into
two compartments, in the upper of which the Consul is seated, with
a scribe standing on each side of him; on the front leaf he holds
a roll in his left hand, and has the right hand raised as in the act
of benediction. In the back leaf his cloak is fastened with a large
fibula, and in his left hand he holds a long scroll inscribed PROBIANE
FLOREAS, and a style in the right hand. Below are represented on
each leaf two priests standing near a tripod altar. The inscription
extending across the top of both leaves is to be read, RUFius pro-
BIANUS V.C. VICARIUS URBIS ROME. (See the woodcut on the oppo-
site page.)
4. Anicius Probus. Both leaves in the Treasury of the Cathedral
of Aosta, A.D. 406.
5. Flavius Felix.
One leaf in the Bibliothèque, Paris m, A.D. 428.
Both leaves in the Treasury of the Cathe-
6. Valentinian III."
dral of Monza, A.D. 430.
7. Flavius Areobindus. Both leaves in the Trivulci Collection,
Milan, A.D. 434.
8. Flavius Asturius. One leaf in the Royal Library of Darm-
stadt P, A.D. 449.
9. Flavius Ætius. Both leaves in the Treasury of the Cathedral
at Halberstadtª, A.D. 454.
10. Narius Manlius Boethius. Both leaves in the Bibliotéca
Quiriniana, at Brescia, A.D. 487.
II. Theodorus Valentinianus. Both leaves in the Kunst Kammer,
Berlin', A.D. 505. This diptych contains, on each leaf, a bust of
the Consul in rich robes, holding a sceptre of the mappa circensis,
or handkerchief used for giving the signals for the games of the
circus; and scrolls, leaves, and fruit are carved on the open space
of the diptych; at the top are three circular discs, containing busts
of the Emperor and Empress, with that of the Saviour in the middle.
xix.; D'Agincourt, Sculpture, pl. xii.
fig. 12.
k Figured by Westwood, "Proc.
Ashmol. Soc.," June, 1862, pl. oppos.
p. 130.
1 Figured by Aubert, in Rev. Ar-
chaol., N. Ser., vol. v. pl. 3; Gazzera,
Mem. Acad. Turin, 1834.
m
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., i.
tab. ii.: Lenormant, Tresor de Glyptique,
ii. pl. 12.
n So attributed by Count Pulszky, but
Mr. Oldfield suggests that it may be
given to Valentinian II., in which case
the date would be about A.D. 380. The
earlier date is assumed to be supported
by the great beauty and admirable ex-
ecution of the diptych.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
pl. 7; Labarte Arts industr. Album,
pl. 2.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
tab. xviii.
P Ibid., vol. i. pl. 1.
4 Figured in Mittheil's Central-Com-
mission, Vienna, vol. xv. 2 plates;
Kugler, Kl. Schrift, i. 135.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., i.
pl. iv., v.
62
Ivory Carvings.

FLMARPETR THEODOR-VALENT.
RVST-RORAID-CERITI IVST
0000000OLOGDI
WAKS¢
Front Leaf of the Diptych of Theodorus Valentinianus, A.D. 505. (Kunst Kammer, Berlin.)
Ivory Carvings.
63
At the bottom of each leaf two youths are engaged in emptying
money-bags, other prizes of the games lying on the ground. (See
the woodcut on the opposite page.)
12. Flavius Dagalaiphius Areobindus. Two leaves of one diptych
at Lucca. Two leaves of a second diptych in the Museum at
Zurich, and one leaf of a third in a private collection at Dijon ".
A single leaf of a fourth diptych of Areobindus was also contributed
to the Leeds Exhibition in 1868, by A. Joseph, Esq., hitherto un-
published and unfigured, the lower part representing the arena of
the circus, with men in baskets attacked by bears, A.D. 506.
13. Flavius Taurus Clementinus. Both leaves in the Fejérváry
Collection, Liverpool Museum, A.D. 513.
14. Flavius Petrus Justinianus. One leaf, Bibliothèque, Paris;
two leaves of a second diptych in the Trivulci Collection, Milan ²,
A.D. 516.
15. Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Pompeius. One leaf at
Berlin, the other leaf in the South Kensington Museum. Both
leaves of a second diptych in the Bibliothèque, Paris, and one leaf
of a third diptych at Verona, A.D. 517.
16. Flavius Paulus Probus Magnus. Two leaves of different
diptychs in the Bibliothèque, Parise; another leaf, so attributed, in
the Fejérváry Collection, Liverpool Museum, A.D. 518.
17. Flavius Anicius Justinus Augustus. One leaf in the Royal
Museum, Vienna, A.D. 519.
18. Flavius Theodorus Philogenus. Both leaves in the Biblio-
thèque, Paris"; one leaf, of doubtful authenticity, in the Fejérváry
Collection ¹, A.D. 525.
19. Flavius Anicius Justinianus Augustus. Possibly the other
leaf of No. 17 k, A.D. 528.
20. Rufinus Orestes. Both leaves in the South Kensington Mu-
seum', A.D. 530.
6
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt.,
pl. viii.
i.
t Ibid., i. pl. vii.; and Vogelin in
Mitth. Antiq. ges. Zurich, vol. ix.
u
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt.,
i. tab. I bis; D'Agincourt, Sculpture,
pl. xii. fig. 11.
Σ
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., i.
pl. ix. bis and x. bis; "Art Treasures,
Manchester, Sculpture," pl. i. f. 1 and 2.
y Figured by Millin, vol. i. pl. xix.
fig. 2.
2
Unfigured.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt.,
pl. xi.
b Ibid., 1. c.
i.
c Ibid., i. pl. xii.; Lenormant, i. pl.
xvii.
◄ Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
tab. xiii.
e
Ibid., ii. pl. 14, and ii. pl. 2; Le-
normant, Tresor de Glypt., ii. pl. 54.
f Unfigured.
8 Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
pl. viii. D'Agincourt, Sculpture, pl.
12, f. 5.
h Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
tab. xv.; Lenormant, Tresor, ii. pl. 53.
i Unfigured.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
pl. xi.
1 Ibid., ii. pl. 17.
64
Ivory Carvings.
21. Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius, consul of Constantinople.
One leaf in the Uffizi, Florence. Portion of the other leaf in
Brera, Milan ™, A.D. 541.
It is remarkable that we have in the last diptych a memorial of
the last of the long and illustrious line of Eastern consuls. After
Basilius, the emperors of the East took the title of Consul, until at
last it fell into oblivion. (The last consul of Rome was Decimus
Theodorus Paulinus, A.D. 536.) It is also remarkable that not one of
the consular diptychs is preserved in the Vatican Museum. The
Barberini Palace, however, possesses a beautiful specimen of ivory
Roman carving, composed of several pieces, united so as apparently
to form a book-cover. In the centre is represented an emperor,
conjectured to be intended for Constantius, riding on a splendid
horse gaily caparisoned, his right foot supported by a seated female,
with fruit in her lap, and the spear in his right hand, by an atten-
dant; a winged figure of Victory occupies the upper angle of the
piece, and a smaller figure of Victory is also held by another atten-
dant at the left side of the piece; across the top, within a circular
tablet, supported by two winged genii, is a bust of the Saviour,
young and beardless, destitute of a nimbus, in the act of benedic-
tion in the Byzantine manner (with the first, second, and fourth
fingers extended), holding a sceptre, surmounted by a ball and
cross; a crown is placed near His right shoulder, and figures of the
sun and moon over His left. Across the lower part of the piece
a group of tributary figures bring ivory tusks and other treasures,
which are offered to the emperor by a winged genius. The execu-
tion of this piece is quite masterly, and no hesitation has been felt
in referring it to the fourth century.
There is, of course, very considerable difference in the execution
of these works of art, some of the later of which are comparatively
rude, the figures being very stiff, and their proportions very short
and thick. Some of the earlier ones are, on the contrary, of most
excellent design. Sir Digby Wyatt has pointed out another dis-
tinction which appears to prevail between the diptychs of the West
and East; thus, in the former, "the consul is generally seen standing,
whilst in the Eastern, he is comfortably seated in the sella curulis,
or chair of state. It may further be remarked, that in point of
artistic merit, the Eastern are generally superior to the Western ;
yet in the former we may already trace the antique element dying
out, and being gradually replaced by those features of conven-
tionality which we shall subsequently meet with, asserting an in-
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii. pl. xx and xxi.
m
Ivory Carvings.
65
"In
dependent style of their own." Thus, on the diptych of Anastasius
(consul of the East, A.D. 517), the consul is seated between allego-
rical figures of Rome and Byzantium, with the amphitheatre below,
in which men are thrown in baskets to be attacked by bears.
the rigidity of the principal figure, that of the consul, and its un-
meaning head, may be traced the loss of antique skill in depicting
human life, while in the elaborate seat, and rich embroideries of
the consular robes, the footstool, and the chair-cushion, may
already be recognised that tendency to florid ornamentation, which
formed the basis of the style subsequently famous as Byzantine".
As representations of costume, as well as of the manners of the
period, these ivories are of inestimable value. One of these is the
uninscribed leaf of a diptych, which has caused much discussion
amongst antiquaries, it having been assigned to the third as well as
to the sixth century; but which the writer is rather disposed to place
at the end of the fourth century, and to regard as a memorial of
the re-erection of the Egyptian Obelisk, placed by Constantine in
the centre of the Hippodrome of Constantinople, afterwards thrown
down by an earthquake, and re-erected by Theodosius in the place
where it still stands. Across the upper part of the leaf is the muti-
lated inscription (LA)MPADIORVM, beneath which three personages
are seated in a latticed gallery, surveying a race between four
quadriga around an area, in the centre of which is erected an
Egyptian obelisk. Hence Pulzsky considered it as a memorial of the
secular games established in A.D. 248, agreeing also in the general
arrangement of the piece with the also uninscribed diptych of Philip
the Arab, than which, however, it is infinitely inferior in point of
workmanship; whilst others assigned it to the Consul Lampadius,
A.D. 530, a date which is negatived by the entire character of the
piece, as well as by the fact that in the four sides of the base of
the Egyptian column in the Hippodrome, the Emperor Theodosius,
A.D. 380, is seated, surrounded by attendants distributing rewards,
standing behind a latticed gallery, the ornaments of which exactly
correspond with those of the lattice-work of this diptych.
A certain number of diptychs, or leaves of diptychs, remain
unnoticed, which are destitute of inscriptions, described in the works
of Gorius, Pulzsky, &c. Amongst the consular diptychs has also
been placed the second diptych of the Treasury of the Cathedral
of Monza, which on one of its leaves represents a figure standing,
■ "Lecture on Sculpture in Ivory,"
n
p. 7. (Arundel Society.)
• Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii.
tab. xvi.; Seroux d'Agincourt, Sculp-
ture, pl. xii. f. 9.
F
66
Ivory Carvings.
wearing the consular lorum, and holding the mappa circensis in his
upraised right hand, whilst his left hand holds a sceptre, surmounted
with a ball and cross; on two tablets resting on the capitals of the
lateral columns is inscribed scs. GREGORIVS, and on a label above
his head is also inscribed-
+ GREGORIUS PRESUL MERITIS ET NOMINE DIGNUS
UNDE GENUS DUCIT SUMMUM CONSCENDIT HONOREM.
The other leaf is similar in general arrangement, but the figure is
here seated on a beautiful sella curulis, holding the mappa circensis,
and a sceptre with a foliated top. The two tablets here bear the
inscription DAVID REX P. By Gorius and others it has been assumed
that these figures represented consuls, and that the inscriptions have
been recut to fit them for an ecclesiastical purpose. Not only, how-
ever, are the figures entirely unlike those of any known consular
diptych, but their details are of a later character, and from a careful
examination of the original ivories, the writer is able to affirm that
the inscriptions have not been recut.
This Monza diptych brings us to the Christian series of ivory
carvings, although it is to be observed that upon several of the
consular pieces the great emblem of Christianity, the cross, was
exhibited; whilst in the Aosta diptych the consul is represented as
holding the labarum of Constantine, with the Chi-rho-monogram of
Christ; and on the Berlin diptych of Theodorus, the bust of Christ
is introduced above the head of the consul.
There is an interesting series of Christian ivories in the room at
the southern extremity of the long gallery of the Vatican Library.
It is, however, much to be regretted that some of the most imposing
of these productions are modern antiques; an opinion which the
writer formed from a careful inspection of them, and from a series.
of photographs of most of them obtained from Sign. Simelli; and
which he is not surprised to find has been confirmed by the ob-
servations of Monsignor X. Barbier de Montault, in his Catalogue
of the Simelli series of photographs.
These objects were more especially used as ornaments of the
covers of the books of the Gospels, or of especial works of de-
votion. One of the noblest of these beautiful works of art in the
Vatican, is the great book-cover, with the figure of the youthful
Christ treading on the lion and adder ª. In the minor groups there
is a complete identity with the workmanship and designs of the best
of the Christian sarcophagi. Another book-cover, by the same artist,
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., ii. pl. vi.
4 Ibid., iii. pl. iv.
Ivory Carvings.
67
has been recently obtained by the South Kensington Museum, at
a cost of £588. Here the Virgin and Child are seated beneath a rich
canopy, above which two angels support a circular medallion with
the bust of Christ, and at the bottom is represented the scene of the
birth of Christ г.
Other very fine book-covers, of the early Christian period, exist in
the public Library of Ravenna". Also in the Treasury of the Cathe-
dral of Milan, and one in the great Bibliothèque, Paris, very
coarsely but very characteristically executed".
The Vatican Christian Museum also possesses a specimen of
a very rare and early series of religious objects (Pyxides), which
were used in the early ages of the Church for holding the conse-
crated host. These were cylindrical boxes, with moveable tops, the
outsides of which were sculptured with Christian subjects, although
several specimens were thus employed on which Classical and
Mythological designs occur, these having doubtless been previously
used for other purposes, and then applied to the object in question.
The Vatican Pyx is 3 inches high, and 4 inches in diameter. It
is carved on the outside with the miracles of Christ raising Lazarus,
healing the blind man, and also the paralytic, who is carrying his
bed on his back. These groups are treated precisely as in the
sarcophagi*.
Another of the most important of the Vatican Christian ivories,
belongs to a series of a different character, namely, devotional
pieces, having a wing on either side moving upon hinges, and
shutting upon the central piece. These are called triptychs. The
central part of this magnificent object is 10 inches high by 6 inches
wide, and is divided into two compartments by a bar, within which
are five circles, each inclosing the bust of a saint. In the upper por-
tion is represented the Saviour, seated on a grand quadrangular chair,
with the right hand raised in benediction and the left holding
a book; in the lower portion are full-length figures of SS. Peter,
Paul, John, James, and Andrew. Each of the wings is carved with
busts of saints. The back of the central piece is ornamented with
a splendid gemmed cross, with arabesques of foliage and flowers,
r
Photogr. in Maskell's Catal., oppos.
P. 53.
• Ricci's Ravenna Photographs, and
Gorius, Thes. Dipt., vol. iii. pl. 8.
Figured by Bugati, Memor. storiche
con append. sopra un dittico, 4to., 1782;
Oldfield, "Notices of Sculpt. in Ivory"
(Arundel Soc., frontispiece); Labarte,
Hist. arts industr. album, Sculpt., pl. 6.
u Lenormant, Tresor de Glyptique,
vol. ii. pl. 9, 10, II.
X
* Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., iv.
pl. 24; and D'Agincourt, Sculpture,
pl. xii. fig. 4. It has also been photo-
graphed by Simelli.
F 2
68
Ivory Carvings.
and the wings with figures of saints. The whole forms an admirable
example of Byzantine workmanship of the tenth century.
Ivory was also occasionally employed in the manufacture of the
pastoral-staves of bishops or abbots, several of which are represented
in the fine Mémoire on the 'Baton pastoral' of Messieurs Barrault
and Martin. Another has been slightly noticed above by Mon-
signor De Montault, as existing in the sacristy of the church
of S. Gregory, on the Coelian Hill, where it occupies the central
place in the collection of relics at the back of the high altar, being
regarded as the pastoral-staff of S. Gregory himself. The plain
volute terminates in the widely-open mouth of a dragon; the centre
of the volute, enclosing a ram (as the leader of the flock), holding
a rod surmounted by a Maltese cross, on which a bird is seated,
with outspread wings (one of which is broken off). From com-
parison with other staves of a similar character, a date earlier than
the tenth century can scarcely be assigned to this relic".
Another class of objects in which ivory was much used, com-
prised caskets of various forms, one of the most valuable of which
(if, indeed, it be not the most important Christian ivory in existence)
is preserved in the Bibliotéca Quiriniana at Brescia. In its various
scenes, and in their admirable design and most careful execution,
they recall to mind the finest of the Christian sarcophagi, with
which, in many respects, they entirely agree. The following are
the subjects sculptured on the front:-1. Jonah thrown to the
whale, and, 2. Cast up again by the monster; 3. Christ and the
woman with the bloody flux; 4. Christ holding a long scroll in
the midst of His disciples; 5. Christ as the Good Shepherd standing
at the door of the sheepfold, which is attacked by a wolf, the hire-
ling running away; 6. Susanna in the attitude of an orante, standing
between two trees, with the two elders; 7. Susanna brought before
the governor; 8. Daniel and the two lions; 9. Portrait busts of
Christ and four disciples; 10. The mystical fish; and 11. The cock
on the top of a pillar.
On the back are-1. The Transfiguration. This is clearly shewn by
Christ, Moses, and Elias standing on a cloud, and by the hand of
God extended from above. (Messrs. Northcote and Brownlow affirm
that this subject does not occur on Christian sculpture.) 2. The
story of Ananias and Sapphira, treated in a masterly manner;
y Photographed in Simelli's Series;
figured by Gorius, vol. iii. pl. 24, 25.
• Mélanges Archæol., tom. iv.
D
Figured by Didron, Ann. Archæol.,
vol. xxvi. p. 223.
See their abridgment of De Rossi
on the Catacombs, 8vo., 1869.
Ivory Carvings.
69
3. A female in the attitude of prayer; 4. Jonah lying under the
gourd; 5. Daniel feeding the serpent; 6. Moses discovered by
Pharaoh's daughter; 7. Moses killing the Egyptian; 8. An agape,
in the classical manner, the loaves of bread marked with a cross,
a dish with a bird on it; 9. Four busts of saints; 10. A tall tower;
II. Judas hanging himself.
The centre of one end is carved with-1. The miracle of Christ
raising the daughter of Jairus, the grief of the female attendants is
admirably expressed; 2. The story of the old prophet, with his ass
and the lion; 3. The sacrifice of Elisha; 4. The priests of Baal
dancing; 5. A second agape, with a large fish on the dish; 6. Three
busts of saints; 7. A tall, plain, and slender cross; 8. A tall tripod,
of purely Classical form, supporting a lamp.
The centre of the other end is occupied with-1. The miracle of
the raising of Lazarus, and 2. That of curing the blind; 3. Moses
taking off his shoes; 4. The three children in the fiery furnace;
5. Moses receiving the Law from God, whose head appears in the
clouds; 6. The meeting of Jacob and Rachel, with her sheep at the
well, (evidently treated as a type of Christ and the woman of
Samaria at the well); 7. Jacob wrestling with the angel, and climb-
ing the ladder; 8. Three busts of saints; 9. An olive-tree; 10. A
pillar, above which hangs a pair of scales.
On the lid of the casket are represented-1. Christ in the garden
of Olives; 2. Christ confronting the soldiers led by Judas, in the
garden; 3. S. Peter with the cock, expostulated with by the female
servant; 4. Christ before Pontius Pilate and Herod; and 5. Christ
before Pontius Pilate, who is engaged in washing his hands.
The most celebrated ivory-work in Rome is, however, the famous.
CATHEDRA APOSTOLICA, or CHAIR OF S. PETER, preserved with so
much religious veneration within the magnificent gilt-bronze chair
at the west end of the church of S. Peter, forming what is called
the tribune, and which is supported by four gigantic statues of the
great doctors of the Church, SS. Ambrose, Augustine, Athanasius,
and Chrysostom. The total height of this gilt chair from the floor is
100 ft., and the space between the legs is enclosed with plates of
glass, so as to form a sort of chamber for the reception of the vener-
able chair itself, at a height of 30 ft. from the floor. It would appear,
however, that it has long been kept in a sort of closet in the wall of
the apse of S. Peter's, placed over the altar in one of the chapels
of that church. On the occasion of the centenary of the martyrdom
of S. Peter in 1866, it was brought out from its repository and ex-
Gen. xxix. 9.
70
Ivory Carvings.

ווור
Mi
17-1
May
CHAIR OF S. PETER (?),
In the Church of S. Peter in the Vatican.
அ
JEWITT.CO.SC.
Ivory Carvings.
71
posed to the gaze of the faithful, during which time a careful
examination of it was made by the Cavaliere G. B. de Rossi and
the Padre R. Garrucci, whose accounts-(that by the former published
in the Bulletino di Archeologia Cristiana for May and June, 1867;
and that of the latter in a letter to W. M. Wylie, Esq., in answer to
enquiries made by the present writer)-have enabled archeologists
to form a satisfactory opinion as to its art-character, assisted by
photographs of the chair made at the time, and by a woodcut from
one of these photographs, published in the work of Messrs. Northcote
and Brownlow above referred to.
A drawing of the chair, with a detailed description of it, had
been made in A.D. 1705 by the Chev. Carlo Fontana, by direction
of Pope Clement XI., and which are now in the royal library at
Windsor; and have recently been published in the Monumenta Ve-
tusta by the Society of Antiquaries, by A. Ashpitel and A. Nesbitt,
Esqs., with additional descriptions and figures. Another figure of
the chair, of large size, was also made by Signor S. A. Scardovelli
in 1784, and is now preserved in the sacristy of S. Peter's. It has
been copied, and also published in the Vetusta Monumenta, with the
before-mentioned illustrations.
The two dates given in the preceding paragraph sufficiently refute
the popular story that Pope Clement VIII., in 1592, at the sug-
gestion of Cardinal Baronius, rejected this ivory chair, in conse-
quence of the Pagan character of the sculptures, in favour of a
second chair of wood, selected from the depository of relics, and
which, as the real chair, served for sixty years as an object of vene-
ration. But when Pope Alexander VII., in 1655, proposed to have
the gilt tribune prepared for it, it was found to be in the Gothic
style, and consequently bore its own refutation of the pious fraud.
Again, we are told, the repository of relics was resorted to, and a
chair selected which had been brought from the East by the Cru-
saders, which was placed, in 1666, in its shrine, where it continued
until the beginning of the present century, when, according to the
Baron Denon and Lady Morgan, it was examined by the French
during their occupation of Rome, and found to be of Eastern work-
manship, and to bear an inscription in Arabic, "There is only one
God, and Mahomet is His prophet." A pamphlet in refutation of
this story was published by Cardinal Wiseman, and is reprinted
in the third volume of his Collected Essays ", in which he suggests
that the origin of the story is the fact, that in the church of S. Pietro
d
Svo., London, 1853.
72
Ivory Carvings.
in Castello, at Venice, is a marble cathedra, on the back of which
the Mahometan formula of belief is really sculptured.
The chair itself is of an oblong form, measuring in height to the
top of the triangular pediment of the upright back 4 ft. 8 ins. ;
in width across the front, 2 ft. 10 ins.; in depth from front to
back, 2 ft. 2 ins.; and in height from the ground to the top of the
cross-bar which supported the front of the flat seat itself, 2 ft. 1 ins.
The internal portions of the chair are described as of the blackish
wood of an acacia, whilst the outer parts are of oak, now much
worm-eaten, decayed, and damaged by the cutting off of fragments to
serve as relics. It is to these oaken outer portions that are at-
tached four large rings, through which, by the help of poles, the
chair could be raised and carried aloft. It is also on these portions
that the ivory bands have been inserted, plates or tablets of the
Of
same material being also affixed to the front below the seat.
these plates there are eighteen, small in size and square in form,
each surrounded by a plainly-ornamented border, twelve of which
represent the labours of Hercules, and six figures of constellations.
We borrow the description of these tablets from the description of
Mr. Nesbitt's third appendix:-
"As these tablets are now placed, they represent, in the first row,-1. The defeat
of the Hydra; 2. The taking of the Arcadian Stag; 3. The carrying off of the
Erymanthean Boar; 4. The catching of the Cretan Bull; 5. The strangling of
the Nemean Lion. In the second row,-I. The cleansing of the Augean Stables;
2. The seizure of the Mares of Diomedes; 3. The dragging away of Cerberus
from Hades; 4. The killing of Hippolyte, the Queen of the Amazons; 5. The
taking of the Golden Apples of the Hesperides; 6. The fight with Antæus ; and on
the fifth tablet of the third row, the killing of the Stymphalean Birds. The sixth
tablet of the first row contains a figure which, according to Padre Garrucci, exhibits
the head of a woman and the tail of a serpent; the drawing seems to shew a sea-
monster (Hydrus ?). In the third row, the first tablet represents a grotesque animal,
with the head of an elephant and a twisted tail (Piscis Australis, or Delphinus ?) ;
the second, a scorpion (Scorpio); the third, an animal with the head and fore-legs of
a hare (Lepus); the fourth, a triton, issuing from a huge turbinated shell, and
holding a fish in each hand (Eridanus?); and the sixth, a fantastic animal, having,
according to Padre Garrucci, the head of a bird with a long beak, and ending in
a long tail" (Cetus?).
Mr. Nesbitt, whose knowledge of early and mediæval ivories is
unrivalled, has satisfactorily shewn that these ivory carvings are most
probably the work of Byzantine artists, and that, as suggested by
Padre Garrucci, an earlier date than the eleventh century cannot be
assigned to them. They agree, in fact, both in the subjects and in
the style of their execution, with the carvings of various ivory caskets,
Ivory Carvings.
73
of which casts have been procured, and of which copies are con-
tained in the Museum of South Kensington. Of these, one at Volterra,
with the labours of Hercules, and another at Pisa, may especially
be mentioned. Besides these eighteen plaques, and their slightly-
ornamented borders, the various ivory bands with which the upright
pieces of the sides and back are ornamented, as well as the trans-
verse bars of the front and on the anterior part of the upright back,
are of a very different character, being composed of rich and elegant
scrolls of foliage, inclosing in their folds figures of men fighting, or
mounted on horses or sea-monsters; of centaurs, birds, &c., with the
exception of a portion of the band placed horizontally below the
pediment, which consists of foliage only, and is supposed to be
a restoration. The most remarkable of these bands, is that which
forms the centre of the horizontal line at the base of the pediment
of the back of the chair. Here is a half-length figure of a king,
wearing an open crown, holding a globe and a sceptre, with
moustaches on the upper lip, closely resembling the portrait of the
Emperor Charles the Bald, in the great Bible of that monarch, now
in the monastery of San Paolo fuori Muri. On either side of the
monarch are two winged figures offering to him crowns and palm-
branches, and beyond these are a pair of combatants. Unfortunately,
the photograph which has been published of the chair conveys no
idea of this important sculpture, "difficulties of manipulation, arising
from the situation in which the chair was placed, have prevented the
details from being rendered with the clearness and distinctness.
which is to be desired, and in some cases these details have been
subsequently clumsily and incorrectly supplied in the woodcut pub-
lished from them."
From a careful review of all the records bearing on the subject,
and of the details of the workmanship of the chair itself, Mr. Nesbitt
has arrived at the conclusion, that there is no real proof of the ex-
istence of a material chair, ascribed as that of S. Peter, earlier than
the sixth century; that the chair in question is not an episcopal but
rather an imperial chair; that it does not date earlier than the
ninth century; and that it is of Byzantine origin, having been, as
has been affirmed by Phæbeus, brought from Antioch.
Another ivory chair, of still higher importance in an artistic point
of view, is that of Maximianus, Archbishop of Ravenna, A.D. 549,
still preserved in the sacristy of the cathedral of that city. The
chief ivory decorations (which are evidently contemporary works of
art) are fixed on the front of the chair and below the seat, and consist
of five figures, of S. John the Baptist and the four Evangelists, ad-
74
Ivory Carvings.

ECOSVMIHSNASARENS
REXIVDEORVM
LVMA
MVLIEREN
DISSIPVLEECCE
ROMVLYSETREMVLVSALV PANVTRITI
ម
WA Bonett/
Front Leaf of the Diptych of Rambona, Tenth Century. (Christian Museum of the Vatican.)
Ivory Carvings.
75
mirably designed and executed; arabesque borders of foliage, birds,
and animals, and Scriptural groups of equally-good workmanship,
form the other ornaments of the chair. Photographs of various
portions of this chair are contained in Ricci's Ravenna Series.
It would occupy far too great a space to give any account of the
many ivories executed either in Italy, or which shew the influence
of Italian art, during the Middle Ages; there are, however, two
which are so especially connected with Rome, that they must not
be omitted.
The first of these is a panel, 51 ins. high, by 4 ins. wide, now pre-
served in the South Kensington Museum, which bears at the top
the inscription поλIс РWмн: above is an angel with outstretched
wings; beneath are seated, on curule chairs, SS. Peter and Paul,
the former with the right hand raised in benediction, the latter
engaged in writing in a large book. The workmanship is very care-
ful, and may be referred to the ninth or tenth century.
The other is the diptych of Rambona, preserved in the Christian
Museum of the Vatican. On one leaf (see the woodcut on the
preceding page) is represented the Crucifixion, S. John and the
Virgin standing at the sides of the Cross, with Sol and Luna above
the arms.
At the foot of the Cross is a representation of
ROMVLVS ET REMVLVS A LVPA NVTRITI."
The other leaf represents, at the top, the Virgin and Child, seated
between two cherubims standing on wheels; in the centre, three
saints standing; and below is a female figure, or the Angel of Vic-
tory, floating in the air, holding a palm-branch. The workmanship
is very rude, and may be referred to the tenth century. The figures
on the lower part of the two leaves have been supposed to typify
the victory of the Cross over the Paganism of Rome.
Figured by Gorius, Thes. Dipt., iii.
pl. 22, and by the present writer in the
"Proceedings of the Arch. Soc. of
Oxford," Dec., 1862.
ANTIQUE SCULPTURE RECENTLY
FOUND IN ROME.
Nor the least interesting among circumstances connected with
the history of art are those referring to the progress of the dis-
coveries which have made known to us the long-lost treasures of
antiquity, those productions of genius which, after ages of ob-
livion, have been finally restored to the knowledge and apprecia-
tion of the moderns, shedding an influence on tastes and intellects,
giving new tendencies to the schools, and correcting the principles
or methods of later arts. We may date from the opening of the
sixteenth century that recovery of the antique in classical sculpture,
a chief centre of which has been Rome; and that city, illustrious by
so many titles, has won fresh renown through the research for the
buried treasures of the past, the works of art long lost and hidden
among her ancient monuments, and the judicious collection of such
recovered stores for Museums and Galleries, where their public
display secures pleasure-we may say also, benefit-to multitudes.
Never has the wonderful fertility of her soil in such produce been
more strikingly evinced than in recent years.
But let us first consider what the sixteenth century witnessed in
Rome. The Laocoon group, the Apollo, the Mercury, and the
torso of Hercules (all designated alike, from their original locations
in the Pontifical Palace, as "Belvedere" sculptures), the recumbent
statues of the Tiber and of the Nile, with his sixteen attendant
children, the sleeping Ariadne (pronounced to be the finest draped
statue known to modern times), all were discovered while Julius II.
and Leo X. occupied the papal throne. The admirable statues
(seated portraits, life-size) of Alexander and Posidippus, were first
acquired soon after this discovery, by Cardinal Montalto, who
became Pope, as Sixtus V. The noble group of Niobe with her
ill-fated children, the Wrestlers (now, as well as the former (Niobe)
at Florence"), the Hermaphrodite (at the Borghese villa), and a great
number of the busts of philosophers and emperors, now in the Capi-
toline Museum, were exhumed during the same century. Among
the antiques in the palace of the Conservators on the Capitol, the
beautiful bronzes of the Camillus (a youthful minister at sacrificial
a Both Wrestlers and Niobe are in the Uffigii.
F*
78
Appendix.
rites), and the Boy extracting a thorn from his foot, also the mystical.
and highly curious bronze statuettes of Diana Triformis, may have
certainly been in those Capitoline halls since a date within the six-
teenth century, those bronzes never, probably, having been lost
or buried, like so many others, underground. The sculptures, now
in the Vatican, are well known, the discovery of which excited
general interest during the earlier years of the pontificate of Pius IX.,
-the Apoxyomenos, or Athlete with the strigil, found in the Tras-
tevere region in 1849, and supposed to be an antique copy from
the famous bronze original by Lysippus, which stood in the Therma
of Agrippa; the colossal bronze Hercules, found below the Pio
Righetti Palace, and therefore to be classed among sculptures which
adorned the splendid buildings of Pompey the Great, above whose
now totally lost or buried ruins that modern residence stands; the
noble statue of Augustus Loricatus, dug up among the remains of
the villa of Livia at the village of Prima Porta. The recumbent
statue of Atys, surrounded by a profusion of symbols (now in the
Lateran Museum), was found at Ostia; and the semi-colossal Faus-
tina, with the attributes of Fortune, was unearthed near the railway
station. The latter statue is now in the Capitoline Gallery, and both
are among the antiques discovered during the earlier years of Pope
Pius. This wealth of statuary and busts discovered at Ostia, since
the work of disinterring what remains of the long-buried sea-port was
commenced in 1854, presents illustrations of antiquity. We cannot.
class many of them among masterpieces (the more precious treasures
of the Ostian region having been found and brought to Rome in pre-
vious years). Characteristics of high art may be recognised in some-
though not very many-of the numerous statues and busts discovered
on the Palatine, through the works undertaken by order of Napo-
leon III.; but the more valuable of these sculptures are now at
Paris, the casts only being left in the museum of local antiquities
on the Palatine Hill. Among sculptures of special value discovered.
on this site, and now on view (either the originals or casts) at that
museum, I may specify the fine replica (one of many before us in
Rome) of the Faun of Praxiteles,-this Palatine sculpture being,
unfortunately, little more than a torso; also, a headless statue of
the winged Eros, no doubt from some favourite original, probably
of Greek date; and a draped Venus, probably copied from the
famous original by Praxiteles in the island of Cos. Among busts
in the Palatine collection (the originals still left in the above-men-
tioned museum), I may notice those of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero;
also one of Seneca, a remarkably characteristic head crowned with
Antique Sculpture.
79
ivy-leaves, in his capacity as a dramatic poet. The semi-colossal
statue of a seated Matron, finely draped, and of majestic character,
(though unfortunately headless,) is one of the Palatine sculptures
still left in the open air, near the spot where it was found. This,
I believe, may be considered as a Cybele, and the mass of ruins
near which it is placed may be that temple in which the goddess
was worshipped, under the form of the mysterious stone (probably
an aerolite) brought from Galatia, B.C. 203 b.
Since the great event of September, 1870, which transferred
Rome from the Pontific sceptre to that of the constitutional king
of the now united Italy, the wealth in art-works disinterred, mainly
in the course of labours for the building or laying out of new streets
and squares, and making the drains for them at a considerable
depth, has been indeed extraordinary, abundant beyond expecta-
tion, and in many instances of high intrinsic value. First in the
order of date to which these discoveries must severally be referred,
appeared the interesting monument, a cippus, with a relief-statuette,
indeed a most precious one, of Sulpicius Maximus, the young poet,
who died in his twelfth year, yet had already obtained, in the year
98 of our era, the prize for Greek poetry, said to have been im-
provised (see his long epitaph) at the Agones Capitolini, the literary
contests instituted by Domitian, A.D. 86, held on the Capitoline Hill
every fifth year, and always in presence of the reigning Emperor,
who himself crowned the successful aspirant with laurels. The
whole of the Greek poem so victoriously successful by this young
prodigy (as we may consider him) is inscribed on the memorial-
stone beside his effigy, which is clad in the toga prætexta of a pa-
trician youth. This memorial came to light, together with several
other less-important tombs, in the course of the destruction of the
Salarian gate. A ponderous brick tower, which flanked it, had com-
pletely concealed the cippus in question; the demolishing of that
gateway having been ordered soon after the siege of Sept. 20, 1870.
Next, in 1872, were discovered, buried under the Ager Veranus
(site of the public cemetery near the basilica of S. Lorenzo), two very
interesting statues; one on a small scale, a Cybele, with both veils
and crown of ears of corn on her matronly head, holding a patera
and sceptre, and enthroned in a species of adicula (perfectly pre-
served), on the cornice of which is the dedication in the name of
Hortensius, to the Dea Pia conservatrici meæ, as he designates
b Signor Rosa, director of the excava-
tions on the Palatine, designates that
now shapeless mound of ruins as the
(c
Auguratorium," or college and sacred
centre of the Augurs in imperial Rome.
F* 2
80
Appendix.
this goddess. The other statue from the same site is "Amor
as Hercules," or the child Cupid, with the lion's hide thrown over
his pretty head, and other attributes proper to the god of Strength;
a graceful and pleasing figure, the sunny smile which lights up the
countenance exquisitely beautiful, and full of bright vivacity.
Memorable among antiques of another class (discovered soon
after the above-named) are the two large marble panels with reliefs
on both sides, found under the ruins of a medieval castle near the
north-eastern angle of the Forum, and supposed to have adorned
the passage by which the voters passed into the Comitium for
the consular elections: The style of these fine reliefs indicates
a period not earlier (as critics infer) than that of Trajan. On one
front of each are represented, with much truthfulness, the three
animals, a bull, a ram, and a boar, their bodies garlanded and
wreathed with fillets, which were offered up at the Suovetaurilia
sacrifice, on occasion of the lustral rites for the census, sometimes
on other solemn occasions also. Such a sacrifice is represented in
one of the reliefs from the despoiled arch of Trajan, transferred, by
a barbarous expedient of the fourth century, to that of Constantine.
The subjects on the other sides of these two panels have been
differently explained, but I believe the best interpretation is that
which assumes them to represent acts of beneficence recorded of
Trajan, also imitated by Hadrian and the Antonines. We see (as
I conclude the subject to be) in one group, Trajan presiding over
the burning of the tablets, on which were registered the debts to
the treasury, which up to the then current year were cancelled by
his act of clemency. Of the Emperor's figure, seated on the rostrum,
remains but a small fragment. Most intelligible, notwithstanding
the mutilated state of the other figures (almost all headless), is the
action of those engaged in heaping up the tablets in a pile, to which
one, with uplifted arm, seems to be applying a torch, though that
object is no longer seen. The other relief represents, as I believe,
the beneficence of the same emperor, in assigning a grant from the
treasury for the maintenance (alimenta publica, or orphanage) of the
children of necessitous parents, not only in Rome, but in all Italian
• This inscription styles her "Mater
Terræ," the worship of the "Gæa" of
the Greeks, and the "Tellus" of the
Romans, the "Rhea" also of earlier
antiquity, having apparently become
merged into the later Latinised form of
the worship of Cybele. The attributes
of the last, the goddess who bestowed
corn on the fertile earth, are at once re-
cognisable in the statuettes before us.
This sculpture was found among the
ruins of a building, supposed to be
the oratory, or place of assemblage, of
one of those sodalities so numerous in
ancient Rome. These two small figures
are engraved in the Bulletino del Mu-
nicipio, for 1875.
Antique Sculpture.
SI
municipia. On the left of the spectators is a person (Trajan him-
self?) standing on the rostrum, while he promulgates an edict to an
applauding assemblage of citizens: on the right, the emperor seated
on an elevated throne, while a woman with a child in her arms, and
another apparently (though but a remnant of this figure is left) led
by her hand, seems to be returning thanks, in the name (we may
suppose) of all the mothers so benefited, for this imperial bounty.
These sculptures are sadly mutilated, yet still marked by charac-
teristics of the best known art. The backgrounds of both those
historical groups seem to illustrate the topography of the Forum,
evidently the scene intended; two temples (those of Saturn and
Vespasian ?) are introduced, also a long extent of arcades, probably
the southern front of the Tabularium, and the now-vanished tri-
umphal arch of Tiberius. At one extremity is seen in each of those
above-named reliefs, a statue represented as placed on a basement
under a fig-tree, and probably intended (through the head being lost
characters cannot be distinctly recognised in this instance) for the
image of Marsyas, which is known to have stood in the Forum
Romanum, there erected, as such statues were in the fora of other
cities also, in warning against arrogant presumption, and as a threat
of the severity of the law against audacious offenders, exemplified
in the fate of the satyr who vied with Apollo ª.
But the principal theatres of recent discoveries, and those the most
precious among all which have happened at Rome during late years,
has been the plateau where the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal hills
converge at the southern and eastern extremities of the city,—that
highest ground within the walls on which the works for new streets
and squares have been most rapidly progressing since the change of
government, with promises of a new Rome to spring up before many
more years shall have passed. Here, since those labours were com-
menced early in the year 1871, the abundant treasures of anti-
quity have been obtained, as it were, through accident, not as the
result of any systematically ordered undertaking for archæological
or artistic interests. Nor is it surprising that such wealth of rich
relics from the past should be yielded by that soil, when we remem-
ber that on the Esquiline and the adjacent territory were especially
centred the abodes of aristocracy, the no-doubt luxurious villas,
imperial and patrician, of ancient Rome; the Horti Liciniani, an
estate of the family so named, to which belonged the Emperor Gal-
lienus, who made this his favourite abode; the gardens and resi-
d These two marble walls, with the
fine panels of sculpture, are shown in
our chapter on the Forum Romanum,
Plates XIV., XV., XVI.
82
Appendix.
f
dence of Mæcenas, which became an imperial estate, where Caius
Caligula sometimes resided (see the account of his reception of the
Hebrew envoys in his palace here, by Philo Judæus ). On this
ground also was the villa, with gardens, and a sepulchre for inter-
ment, of the Statilius Taurus gens (or family), conspicuous in the
first century of the Empire, and ultimately deprived of this their
Esquiline estate by Agrippina, the mother of Nero, who coveted it.
A complete necropolis of sepulchral chambers has been laid open
on this plateau of the Esquiline, near the Porta Maggiore, and the
numerous epitaphs found in this territory (now collected in a museum
near this site) supply the names of former owners.
An Archæological Commission for the superintendence and con-
servation of antique sculptures and other precious relics recently
found, and hereafter to be found in the soil of Rome, was appointed
by the Municipality in the May of 1872. On the suggestion of the
"Sindaco," Signor Venturi, it was judiciously determined that all
such treasure-trove should be collected in a new museum on the
Capitol; that locality, on which the magistracy went to the expense
of 70,000 lire (francs), was prepared partly by building, partly by
appropriating chambers and corridors already built in the Palazzo
de Conservatori; and this museum was opened with inaugural cere-
mony, and the reading of a long report by the Secretary of the
Committee, Signor Lanciani, on the 25th of February, 1876, an
interesting occasion, when a multitude of guests, admitted by tickets,
were assembled. In that new museum the marble sculptures, with-
out reckoning the bronzes, number 133 pieces; and besides these,
an immense collection of fragments pertaining to sculptures, which it
has not yet been possible to restore, but may be restored after the
other portions have been dug up, still remains in the warehouses on
the Capitoline premises. The recently-arranged terra-cottas, also
the additions made to the bronzes, comprise much that is interest-
ing, and the cabinet of coins in this Capitoline Museum is most
precious.
The 24th of December, 1874, will be remembered in the annals
of art-discovery at Rome, for on that day were exhumed, near the
remains of a splendid porticus, with pavement of oriental alabaster
(supposed to pertain to the Lamian villa), seven sculptures, all dis-
tinguished by superiority of style, and all probably of the period
when fine-art was most intelligently cultivated in this city under the
• A translation of this is reprinted in
the Supplement to vol. i. of the present
work on the "Archeology of Rome."
f This remarkable tomb is shewn in
the chapter on Tombs in this work.
Antique Sculpture.
83
All
Emperors, if indeed some of the finest among these works may not
be referred to earlier antiquity, and to the schools of Greece.
these sculptures must certainly rank henceforth among the treasures
of that art in Rome. Let us first consider the statue, one of those
seven, which, if not of highest intrinsic excellence, has had the
largest share of attention and eulogium,-the so-called "Esquiline
Venus," conjectured by some critics to be an original Greek work,
by others (see a learned article by the Cavaliere Visconti in the
Bulletino del Municipio) believed to be a copy from a famous statue,
the work of Scopas; whether or not intended for the goddess of
Beauty, it is a lovely and graceful figure in Parian marble, somewhat
below the ordinary life-size, and entirely nude, except for the sandals
on the feet,—the execution, though elaborate, is unequal, for in
some parts the finish, as well as style, are inferior to what we observe
in the rest. Both arms are wanting, but it is apparent that the ac-
tion is that of binding a fillet round the braided hair; some fingers of
the left hand still remain on the knot into which the hair is gathered
at the back of the head. Though the figure (as I have observed)
is nude, a heap of drapery is laid beside it on a vase, the front of
which vessel displays a low relief of a serpent (?), and this vase rests
on a basement adorned with flowers in similar relief. In none of
these details do we perceive attributes of the Aphrodite usually
given to her in art. The flowers are not those appropriated to her,
nor is the serpent ever seen in connection with this goddess, that
reptile being an emblem of Hygeia, and also given to the mightier
Isis, who, with other powers, united those of a wealth-bestowing
deity, according to the mythology which assigned to her so high
an ascendancy. In the curiously vivid description of the oriental
Isiac worship, given by Apuleius (see his "Golden Ass"), we read
of the priests with closely-shaven heads, and priestesses with long
braided hair, anointed and perfumed for the rites. May not the
fair nymph represented in this sculpture be one of those Isiac
priestesses, enrolled for ministry in some Greek, if not Roman,
temple, and perhaps in the act of binding up her long tresses after
ablutions, prescribed before the solemnities in which she has to
take part? Or may we not suppose this statue-which seems to me
absolutely destitute of the characteristic of the Aphrodite, less.
majestic and also less mature than such a goddess in the fulness of
her charms should be represented-may we not suppose it to be the
portrait of some lovely girl in the character of a Naiad, presiding
over her sacred fountain, in whose waters she has been bathing?
However to be designated, the beauty and delicacy of this Esquiline
84
Appendix.
statue must entitle it to a high rank among antique sculpture in
Roman collections. Two half-length statues of Tritons (among the
seven found on the same spot) are fine examples of the treatment
of such subjects, a certain wild grandeur distinguishing their heads.
Indications are given of the marine nature of these beings, myste-
rious creatures, and powers of the lonely deep; scales are represented
on their broadly-developed chests, and their heavily curling, wetted
hair, seems damp with the sea-waters, this serving to enhance the
effect of the strange and weird-looking, yet finely-expressive counte-
nances. Vestiges of gilding are seen in the hair of both the heads.
I may notice others especially entitled to regard. Among these,
almost all discovered in the course of the works for new streets,
&c., a half-length statue of Bacchus (heroic size) is fine in motive.
and character, though the head is inferior to the figure; one arm
only, the right, being preserved, with hand resting on the ivy-
wreathed brows; this embodies, notwithstanding some defects, the
more poetic ideal of this god. It appears that the marble has not
been mutilated, excepting that part, the left arm, which is lost; and
the lower limbs must have been wrought in separate blocks, pro-
bably with drapery. Several other sculptures of the "Dionysiac”
class are now in the same museum on the Capitol. From the Horti
Liciniani, the remnants of a large marble fountain, with the low
relief figure of one of those Menades, in frenzied dance and Bacchic
ecstasy, yet still graceful in her wild movements, holding the knife
with which she has cut open a kid-an example of the so-called
xuaιpopóvos (i.e. goat-slaying Bacchante), and probably (as critics.
assume) from a famous relief figure, or group of Menades, by Scopas.
A large vase, surrounded with Bacchic figures in relief, appropri-
ately placed over a fountain in the centre of the principal hall of
this museum, displays in a group, treated with much vigour and
grace, a scene of Bacchanalian orgies, the whole composition be-
traying at the same time, by the indelicacy of some figures, that alarm-
ing licentiousness of Dionysiac worship, which induced the Roman
senate to interfere, and (anno 185 B.C.) to decree the suppression
of the rites, and demolition of a temple of a religion yet foreign
to the Republican state. A marble Rhyton (a fountain in the form
of a drinking-horn) from the Esquiline villa of Mecenas, presents
a beautiful example of Bacchanalian subjects, introduced as acces-
sorial ornaments; ecstatic Menades (in low relief) surround the
upper part; below, supporting the narrow basement, is a boldly-
sculptured Chimæra, the fantastic creature admitted among the
many symbols of the Dionysiac myth, and supposed to be itself
Antique Sculpture.
85
an emblem of the conflict of the elements in the phenomenon of
Nature; this antique fountain preserves to us the name of an other-
wise unknown Athenian artist, Pontios, inscribed in Greek letters
on the pedestal. Two busts of Ariadne, whom, remembering her
mythologic alliance with the god, we may associate with the Bacchic
class in art, have fine characteristics, especially one, colossal in
scale, much damaged, but still marked by a certain grandeur of
style. Singularly noble is the group, unfortunately but a remnant,
of Hercules subduing the horses of the ferocious Thracian king,
Diomedes, who used to feed them with human flesh. This was
found broken into more than two hundred fragments, which have
been most skilfully pieced together, though it has not been possible
to restore more than one of the horses. The head of the Hercules
has the true antique, heroic type, and the violent action of turning
the steeds is most strikingly brought out. We see here an ap-
proach (if not in the very highest style) to the ideal of the Greek
Heracles," as not merely the embodiment of physical force, but
the glorified representation of Heroism.
Among statuettes distinguished by grace and superior charac-
teristics, one may notice, as entitled to praise, a Venus Anadyomene,
in the act of binding up her hair after the bath, or after the goddess
has risen from her native sea; also a Minerva, with helmet and
ægis, assumed to be a reduced copy from a work by Diogenes, the
Athenian sculptor, who executed statues and reliefs for the Pan-
theon in the time of Augustus. The evidence on the historic page
as to the vast number of Greek sculptures in marble and bronze,
brought to Rome by the conquerors of Republican and Imperial
times, may be cited against the (I believe) too broadly-admitted
inference that, among all the contents of Roman museums at this
day, scarcely any, or at most a very small minority, can be ascribed
to Hellenic masters. Why should not those precious stores have
been spared amidst the wrecks of Empire, as well as the others
gradually recovered from their burial-places in this city?
Among works of another class in the new museum, and also from
the Esquiline region, most precious of all here before us is that
(found among the seven antiques in the Lamian gardens) which
might be described as mediate between the bust and full-length
portrait, namely, the half-length statue of Commodus, with both
arms introduced, and the attributes of Hercules given to him, ac-
cording to the vain disguises in which that Emperor delighted to
exhibit himself (see the account of his follies and ferocities in
Herodianus). This life-size marble portrait, on an elaborately-sculp-
86
Appendix.
tured basement, has the lion's hide drawn like a hood over the
head, and gathered in a massive knot over the chest; one hand
holds the Herculean club, the other the golden apples of the Hes-
perides. The countenance resembles, though with somewhat more
of refinement, (perhaps due to flattery,) the other well-known busts
of Commodus, not a little reminding us of Marcus Aurelius, the
noble father of this most unworthy son, though in this Commodus
head we perceive a haughty and voluptuous air, utterly absent from
the features of the former emperor as so often represented in con-
temporary statues and busts of him. Nothing could exceed the
elaborate finish of this half-length statue; the smoothly-polished
surface seems like that of a work fresh from the studio, and in
the closely-curling hair and beard that minuteness of elaboration.
is carried to an extreme absolutely finicking. The details of the
basement are fantastic, but curiously significant; the figure rests.
immediately on a shield, distinguished as that of Pallas by the
Medusa head upon it, this being set upright, between two amply-
filled cornucopias, emblems of the prosperity of the empire under
Commodus; a celestial globe supports these several objects, the
zodiacal signs being represented on a band encircling that sphere;
and besides these accessories, there are (or rather have been) intro-
duced two kneeling statuettes of Amazons, armed with the two-
edged axe (bipennis); one, as far as possible, restored with the
antique fragments, the other only just indicated by a few remnants
of the lower part.
These female warriors are here intended to
indicate one of the names assumed by Commodus, who not only
affected to style himself "Hercules," from the god he pretended
to imitate, but also "Amazonus," in the desire, apparently, of thus
gratifying a whim of one of his numerous lady-loves, Marcia, who
herself affected the heroic in manners, and perhaps in costume also.
Such anomalous bust-figures continued nearly down to the waist,
and with both arms introduced, appear first in the phase of incipient
decline, never, at the best period of Roman art; becoming gradually
in favour, more and more common, in the time of the later Anto-
nines and of Septimius Severus. Certainly this portrait of Com-
modus is a most striking record of the political and social, as well
as artistic decline of imperial Rome; it accords with the known
qualities of the tyrant,—a blending of effeminacy with ferocity, the
superstitious with the impious, the savage with the sensual in nature;
while it exhibits the last degradation and infamy of the imperial
throne, still surrounded with all the pomp and prestige of illusive
prosperity, of corrupt civilization.
Antique Sculpture.
87
Most admirable among portrait-busts,—not, like the above-named,
exceptional, but of normal character-in this recently-formed mu-
seum, is the colossal head of Mæcenas, not from any Roman trea-
sure-trove, but from Aretium (Arezzo), where it probably pertained
to a statue erected in some public place as a token of gratitude for
benefits conferred on that municipium by this eminent man, the
friend and counsellor of Augustus, the gratefully-revered patron of
Horace and Virgil. The finely-expansive beard, strongly-marked
features, large solemn eyes, and firmly-chiselled lips, announce a
moral individuality of exalted type. It is the image of a mind, not
merely the portraiture of a set of features, which this valuable work
displays to us.-Among other historic busts to be regarded with
interest in this collection are two, semi-colossal, of the Empresses
Plotina and Faustina, the consorts of Trajan and Antoninus Pius;
also those whose rarity may be accounted for, seeing how brief
was the historic appearance of the individuals represented, of Didius
Julianus, who purchased from the Prætorian guards the degraded
empire;-of his wife, Manlia Scantilla, and his daughter Didia Clara,
also the younger Gordianus. The excellence of Roman art in bust-
portraiture is exemplified in these no less than in many other speci-
mens, and this, I should say, was the special vocation of sculpture
under the Empire; political circumstances, hero-worship, exalted
patriotism, even the superstitious deification of the Cæsars, com-
bining to confirm a preference for, and lead to success in the treat-
ment of, such historic (or quasi-historic) subjects. There are, how-
ever, some examples of the ideal among the recently-discovered
busts with claims to our notice, and with more or less of superiority,
—a beautiful head of Juno, presenting the more benign aspect of
that goddess; a lovely Venus, and a Diana, recognisable by her
head-dress. The bust of an Amazon, of the heroic and also truly
beautiful type, from the gardens of Mæcenas, is believed to be
a replica from some celebrated original by Phidias.
From the precious store found in the Lamian gardens, and among
the most interesting recently discovered, are two draped female
statues, much mutilated, supposed to be Polyhymnia and Terpsi-
chore. Attributes are almost entirely wanting, but the sweetly-
serious aspect, the dignified bearing, and long-flowing vestments
of the former accord with the ideal of the Muse Polyhymnia. As
to the latter, her almost severe expression of thoughtfulness and
intellectual abstraction seems more suited to the Muse of Tragedy
☛ The published catalogue, a single
sheet, reports of it as found at Otricoli
(the ancient Ericulum), which, I be-
lieve, is erroneous.
88
Appendix.
than to any other among the inspiring sisters; and the remnant of
a lion's hide hanging from one shoulder, also indicates the Melpo-
mene; that attribute of Hercules, the great type of such heroism as
Tragedy, prepared for her serious themes, being usually given to
the same Muse in antique art. The naturalism in which Roman
sculpture excelled, and which was indeed within the compass proper
to the Roman genius, is well exemplified in two statuettes, admirable
in their way; a little boy carrying a hydria (water-jug) on his
shoulders,―probably intended to preside over a fountain, and an
old peasant woman carrying a lamb under her withered arm, this
last such a figure of a rustic crone as, with some difference of cos-
tume, we might meet at this day among the Alban or Sabine
mountains.
Three life-size statues of Athletes, placed in the same museum,
were found at the twenty-fifth mile on the Appian Way, near Velletri.
They are distinguished by a certain nobleness, which could hardly
belong to the hireling performers on a public arena; and may they
not possibly be portraits of young patricians, who had won victories
in the trials of strength or skill in the palæstra of the Roman Forum?
Athletes who had been victorious in public games, or at the period-
ically-recurring festivals of Greece, used to be honoured by the
erection of their effigies in the interior or on the pronaos of temples,
but the statues of such persons were merely conventional, save in
the case of those who had thrice vanquished in the gymnastic con-
tests, to whom, and to such alone, were erected veritable ikones
(portrait-statues) usually on sacred premises, where effigies of that
class were seen by Pausanias, as described in his Hellenic tour.
These last were among the earliest examples of portraiture intro-
duced in art, at least in that of European nations; though much
earlier, no doubt, was portrait-sculpture attempted in the East.
The several monuments of the Mithraic worship, mostly in the
form of very rudely-executed low relief, exhumed during late years
in Rome, add to the many proofs already at hand of the prevalence
of that oriental religion in the Western Empire, especially in the
period of declining art, and of the final, or almost final, struggle
between Heathenism and Christianity. On one of these Mithraic
reliefs, we see a few small accessorial figures, besides the traditional
subject of Mithras, in oriental costume, slaying with a dagger the
symbolic bull; and these subordinate groups may be supposed to
represent the acts of initiation, or reception of neophytes, before
their admission as privileged worshippers, "soldiers of Mithras,"
in his temples, long and severe ordeals having to be passed through
Antique Sculpture.
89
in the initiatory probation. The acceptance of another oriental
worship at Rome during the period of the later emperors, is at-
tested by some other curious monuments lately found; small reliefs
of a god, dressed in Roman military costume, with a thunderbolt and
a bipennis in his hands, standing on the back of a bull; this being
recognised as the "Jupiter Dolichenus," so named from Dolichene,
a city of the people called Commagenes, in Syria. In some eastern
religions the bull was a symbol of the watery elements, and the
god here represented was neither the Hellenic Zeus, nor the
Roman Jove, but, in fact, the sun-god; his consort, associated
with him in other monuments lately found, being the "Luna,” or
oriental Diana, though mocked by the Romans as "Juno Regina,”
her emblems, a stag's head, with the lunar disc between its horns,
an eagle, and (in some instances) a hind, on whose back she stands,
as her consort stands on the bull. This Jupiter of Syrian worship
may be regarded, in this symbolic association with the bull, as
personifying the triumph of Summer (i.e. of the Sun) over Winter,
or, with higher significance, of Light over Darkness; and in Roman
representation, where he appears with the military accoutrements of
that people, his figure implies the final subjection of Syria, her
religion and nationality, to the all-conquering Empire. A sacrarium
of this foreign worship has been discovered on the Esquiline Hill,
and adjacent to it, the station of the second Cohort of Vigiles,
both in the Horti Liciniani of Gallienus, not far from that highly
picturesque decagonal edifice, with now ruined dome, which is mis-
called the "Temple of Minerva Medica," but (more probably)
a nymphæum of the imperial gardens. Those curious monuments,
as well of the Mithraic and the Syrian worships alluded to, afford
proof of the propensity for oriental mythologies and rites prevalent
in the period of declining empire, whilst they confirm the testimony
of Tacitus and Suetonius as to the wide-spread expectation of the
coming of some great conqueror, or beneficent potentate, from
oriental regions; an idea prevailing, however, at an earlier period,
even in the time of the first Emperors, and which had its poetic
expression in the fourth Eclogue of Virgil, and may be considered
as divine presentiments, as it were a heathen dream, of Chris-
tianity.
CHARLES ISIDORE HEMANS.
APPENDIX TO THE CHAPTER ON SCULPTURE.
THE wealth of Rome in Sculpture is the more remarkable, when
we consider that all the great European museums owe most of their
attractions to marbles drawn from Rome. Ex. gr.-
The British Museum (with the exception of the matchless Elgin
collection, and the recent additions from Phigaleia, Lycia, Halicar-
nassus, Assyria, and Ephesus) is entirely composed of treasures
derived from Rome. The Townley collection gave it the Dione,
the Cupid, the Discobolus, and the Clytia. The Payne Knight, the
Blacas, the Pourtales, and many others, have rendered it, even in late.
Roman sculpture, one of the richest; and all these statues, bassi-
relievi, and busts came from Rome. The Marbury, Petsworth, Nice,
Blundel, and Landsdown marbles come from the same source.
The Louvre Museum (with the exception of the Venus of Milo
and the few statues purchased by Primaticcio for Francis I. in 1520)
is entirely composed of the old Borghese collection, purchased by
Napoleon I. from his brother-in-law. That collection was composed
of marbles found in Rome and its environs.
The Naples Museum (with the exception of the statues from Pom-
peii and Herculaneum) is entirely composed of the Farnese collec-
tion from Rome. Its finest specimens, the Flora, the Hercules, the
Dirce, and the Callipyge, having been found in the baths of
Caracalla.
The Munich Glyptothec (with the exception of the Ægina marbles)
consists entirely of the 293 statues plundered by the French from
the Villa Albani, and sold in 1816 to the late King Louis of Ba-
varia. These were all collected by Winckelmann in the neighbour-
hood of Rome.
The Madrid Gallery owes its two fine statues of Antinous and his
genius, and the Faun and Goat, to the collection of Queen Christina
of Sweden, formed in Rome.
The Dresden Sculpture Gallery is composed of Roman purchases
of Augustus the Strong; the Tegel Collection, near Berlin, came also
from Rome and its environs. The Hermitage, at St. Petersburg, may
thank the Campana collection and recent Roman purchases for its
most valued prizes; the Florence Gallery owes its treasures to the
Medici collections formed in Rome, temp. Leo X.
And yet, after the loss of all these treasures, which have left Rome
for ever (and most, if not all of them, within the last hundred years),
Appendix to the Chapter on Sculpture.
91
she still possesses four galleries (the Vatican, the Capitoline, the
Lateran, and the Ludovisi) which, in Roman sculpture and statues
executed in Rome during the first two centuries, exceed anything
the other museums put together can offer in rivalry. I say advisedly
Roman sculpture, as with the solitary exception of the Lynceus of
the Villa Albani, and perhaps the Torso of the Belvedere, Rome has
not a single specimen which can be attributed to the Phidian or
best school of sculpture. Most of the fine statues are copies in
marble from the bronze originals of the great artists who created
them. They were copies executed by inferior artists; in many
of them the spirit of their antetypes has disappeared, and in
many the difficulties of marble as compared to bronze have neces-
sitated alterations; but with all these defects, the Roman sculpture
galleries still remain the most attractive in the world.
We learn the attribution of many of the finest statues from the
reverses of coins. Ex gr. :—
The Olympian Jove of Phidias appears on the tetradrachms of
Alexander the Great and the Seleucidæ.
The Argive Juno, on the money of Argos; the Ludovisi Juno, on
the money of Croton.
The Neptune of Naples and the Lateran, upon a bronze medallion
of Marcus Aurelius.
The Apollo Sauroctonos, upon an aureus of Antoninus Pius.
The Diane Chasseresse, upon large bronze of same.
The Ugron Aphrodite of Praxiteles, upon coins of Cnidos and
Argos.
The Venus of Milo, on bronze of the younger Faustina.
The Apollo Smintheus, upon coins of Alexandria Troas.
The Torso of Belvedere, upon medallion of Antoninus Pius.
The Farnese Hercules, upon coins of Corinth and Crotona.
The Venus Genetrix, upon large bronze of the Empress Sabina.
The Bronze Hercules Mastai, upon bronze medallion of Com-
modus.
The Toro Farnese, upon bronze of Thyatira.
Crouching Venus Anadyomene, upon bronze of Julia Domna.
And countless portraits of Sappho, Homer, Lais, Herodotus,
Anacreon, and Alcæus, to say nothing of the busts of Roman
Emperors and Empresses, which have been all verified by coins:-
Quos nunc perscribere longum est.
ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA.
Errata.
SCULPTURE.
Corrigenda.
Preface, p. 1, line 31, W. C. Jones, of C. W. Jones, of Caius.
Trinity.
p. 1, line 17, Dedalus and Dibutades.
Ibid., lines 21, 24, Dedalus.
Ibid., line 28, "Dedali."
p. 2, line 9, Siro-Macedonians. 】
Ibid., line 30, Corentic (?).
p. 3, line 2, Leocares.
Ibid., lines 3, 6, "aerolite."
Ibid., line 4, sculpture Criselephan-
tina (?), or
Ibid., line 32, Braccio Nuova.
p. 5, lines 1, 6, 17, 21, 26, Hermes.
Ibid., line 2, èpµía.
Ibid., line 15, of Corico.
p. 6, line 41, arraglyphum.
p. 7, line 25, cocloid.
Ibid., line 37, (puteolia).
p. 8, line 36, statuarium.
Ibid., last line, Belvidere.
Dædalus and Butades.
Dædalus.
"Dædala."
Syro-Macedonians.
Torentica.
Laochares.
"acrolith."
Chryselephantina sculpture.
Braccio Nuovo.
Hermæ.
Ἑρμῆς.
of Corycus.
anaglyphon.
cochlear.
(putealia).
statuarum.
of Belvedere.
p. 9, line 38, togati, loricati, paludati, togata, loricata, paludata, and velatæ.
and velati.
p. 10, line 24, cameteri.
p. 11, line 24, Panellenius in Egina.
Ibid., line 36, Cytheredos.
p. 12, line 8, son of Charminus, and
the scholar of Agelados.
Ibid., line 11, Hegeos.
p. 13, line 9, Myro.
Ibid., line 33, Doriphorus.
p. 15, line 22,
the "
Discobulus," in which
Dorephorus.
""
p. 16, line 6, Seleucedes.
Ibid., lines 14, 23, Greco-Roman.
p. 17, line 27, Cocloid.
p. 28, line 17, lower pair.
Ibid., line 31, the summit.
p. 29, line 4, of this sarcophagus has.
p. 78, col. 2, line 21, Colonna Rostrale.
p. 79, col. I, line 36, Gimnasiargus.
p. 83, col. 2, line 37, A Quadrigus.
p. 85, line 33, Lysippus.
Ibid., line 34, Rhea Sylvia.
camateræ.
Panhellenius in Ægina.
Citharædus.
son of Charmides, and the scholar of
Ageladas.
Hegias.
Myron.
Doryphorus.
"Discobolus," in which the "Dory-
phorus."
Seleucides.
Græco-Roman.
Cochlea.
lower part.
the yet sun-gilded summit.
of the first sarcophagus referred to
(Nos. 838 and 1041) has.
Colonna Rostrata.
Gymnasiarchus.
A Quadriga,
Leucippus.
Rea Silvia.
SCULPTURE,
PLATE I.
SCULPTURE ON PAGAN SARCOPHAGI.
I. A COMBAT of GREEKS.
2. THE DEATH OF THE NIOBIDES.
K
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.
SCULPTURE ON PAGAN SARCOPHAGI.
1. A COMBAT OF GREEKS (probably Theseus and the Athenians)
with the Amazons, from a sarcophagus of the second century.
(Vatican Museum, No. 69. See p. 27.)
2. THE DEATH OF THE NIOBIDES, slain by Diana and Apollo to
punish the presumption of their mother Niobe. Greek art of the
first or second century, now in the Vatican Museum, No. 204.
(See p. 20.)
On the extreme right appears Apollo, drawing his bow; on the
extreme left Artemis (whom the Romans identified with Diana),
having just discharged an arrow. In the intermediate space we see
Niobe stooping down to support the head of a dying son, the aged
Taidaуwyós (or attendant upon the children) clasping a boy with his
right arm, as if to protect him, while his left hand is raised, either
in supplication to Apollo, or else with the view of restraining one
of the yet unwounded sons from retaliating upon the deity by hurl-
ing a dart at him. The remaining children of Niobe appear in
various attitudes of despair and death.
The story is told by different writers with varying details, but its
substance is the same in all, and unamiable as is the vindictive
character of the deities implicated in it, yet the lesson apparently
intended to be conveyed is the very valuable one-that pride goes
before a fall; while at the same time the subject is allusive to the
death of the young.

UNIV
OF
A COMBAT OF GREEKS AND AMAZONS
204
THE DEATH OF THE NIOBIDES
2
MICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE II.
1. THE RAPE OF PROSERPINE.
2. A COMBAT OF FAUNS AND CENTAURS.
K 2
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.
1. The Rape of PROSERPINE. From the front of a sarcophagus
of the second century. (Vatican Museum, No. 252. See p. 28.)
The incident in the story here represented appears to be that
related by Ovid (Met. v. 409 seqq.), of the plunge of Hades with
his bride beneath the earth. He had seized her at Enna, in the
centre of Sicily, and was carrying her off in his car. The nymph
Cyane, guardian of the stream of that name near Syracuse, recog-
nised the pair, and, rising from the water, reproached the god for
his violence, and bade him woo and win his bride, instead of carry-
ing her off by main force. So saying she stretched out her arms to
stop the horses. Hades, irritated, flung his sceptre into the midst
of the waves, the earth opened beneath them down to Tartarus,
and the car with, its occupants plunged headlong into the abyss.
Cyane, brokenhearted at the insult offered to herself, and at the
loss of her friend, melted away in tears, and she, who had lately
been the divine protectress of her waters, was now mingled with
them.
2. A COMBAT OF FAUNS AND CENTAURS. From a sarcophagus
of the second century. (Vatican Museum, No. 502.)

דר דיו
OF
THE RAPE OF PROSERPINE
A COMBAT OF FAUNS WITH CENTAURS
UNIV
SCULPTURE.
PLATE III.
THE FEAST OF BACCHU S.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.
THE FEAST OF BACCHUS. From a large sarcophagus of the
second or third century, found in 1777, in making the foundations
of the sacristy of S. Peter's in the Vatican Palace, and now pre-
served in the Vatican Museum, No. 28. (See p. 23.)

UNIV
OF
Photogravure Digardin, Paris
THE FEAST OF BACCHUS
ICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE IV.
THE TRIUMPH OF BACCHUS.
SCULPTURE,
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.
THE TRIUMPH OF BACCHUS. The god is seated on an elephant,
which is led in a procession, with a centaur, musicians, and dancing.
(See p. 23.) This sarcophagus was found on the Via Latina, and
is preserved in the Lateran Pagan Museum.
1

SCULPTURE - TRIUMPH OF BACCHUS.
UNIV
OF
FICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE V.
HUNTING OF THE CALYDONIAN BOAR.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.
HUNTING OF THE CALYDONIAN Boar. From a fine sarco-
phagus found at Vico-Varo in 1872, on the bank of the river
Anio, between the road to Subiaco and the river, now preserved
in the Capitoline Museum. (See p. 25.)
In the centre is Meleager giving the boar its death-wound, on
his left hand is Atalanta, with her bow and arrows. She had been
the first to draw blood from the savage beast, and this was made
by Meleager the reason for assigning the hide and tusks to her,
a preference which caused the quarrel between himself and his
mother's brothers, resulting in the death of all three.
The figures on horseback are probably Castor and Pollux. Ovid
(Met. viii. 372 seqq.) mentions them alone as being mounted.
Their distinguishing mark (the cap in the shape of a half egg-shell)
is not easily recognisable in the engraving, but it may perhaps.be
traced upon the head of the one next to Atalanta.

UNIV
OF
HUNTING OF THE CALEDONIAN BOAR
WICH
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.
UPPER PART.
FRONT OF A SARCOPHAGUS IN THE LATERAN PAGAN MUSEUM.
The upper part is sculptured with scenes from the story of Edipus,
the lower part with the fate of Adonis. (See p. 25.)
Taking the story of Edipus first, we see on the left hand his
father Laius, king of Thebes, receiving the oracle from Apollo, that
he should be killed by his son. In order to frustrate this oracle, he
hands the infant to a slave to be killed. The slave pierces the
child's feet, ties them together with a thong, and exposes him on
Mount Citharon. Probably the single figure seated in a meditative
attitude between two trees, represents the slave considering how he
is to carry out the king's command. In the next compartment the
shepherd of Polybus, king of Corinth, finds the exposed child. He
takes him to Polybus, who brings him up as his own son, giving
him the name of Edipus (swell foot), from the swelled state in
which his feet were when he was found. Edipus, when grown up,
is taunted by the other youths with not being the son of the king.
He consults the Delphic oracle, and is told that he is fated to
murder his father, and commit incest with his mother. Knowing
no other relations than those who had brought him up, he deter-
mines to return home no more, but sets out to seek his fortune else-
where. The fourth compartment, counting from the left hand, will
therefore probably represent him setting forth on his wanderings,
either to or from Delphi.
SCULPTURE.-PLATE VI.
We now have to begin again on the left-hand side. Edipus, in
the course of his travels, comes into the neighbourhood of Thebes.
There in a narrow road he meets a chariot containing two persons.
The charioteer insolently tries to turn him out of the road, where-
upon he kills both him and the other traveller, who is his own
father, Laius. Thus the first part of the oracle is fulfilled.
Boeotia is now in great distress; its king is dead, and it is being
ravaged by the Sphinx, which meets travellers on the road, proposes
a riddle to them, and kills them if they cannot answer it. The
riddle is one which holds its place to the present day, "What animal
is it, which in the morning goes on four legs, at noon on two, and
in the evening on four ?" So grievously does the land suffer from
the monster, that a proclamation has been made that whoever
answers its riddle shall be king, and shall have the queen, Jocasta,
to wife.
Edipus meets the Sphinx, as shewn in the next compartment,
and solves its riddle, saying that the animal is man, who, as an
infant crawls on all fours, when grown up walks on two legs, and
in the evening of life supports himself on a stick. The Sphinx
dashes its brains out, Edipus is made king, and marries Jocasta,
his own mother.
The unwitting parricide and incest are punished by a plague in
the land, the cause of which Edipus does his utmost to discover,
and learns at last the horrible truth from the blind soothsayer,
Teiresias, whom we see leaning upon his staff, and addressing the
king.
The sculpture tells no more of the story; but the end of it, as
told by Sophocles, was, that Jocasta hung herself, and Œdipus put
out his own eyes; after which, accompanied by his faithful daughter,
Antigone, he wandered to Athens, where he was purified, and was
protected by Theseus. Possibly, therefore, the last compartment
may represent his interview with Theseus, and not with Teiresias;
for the ragged staff, the short tunic, and the crouching attitude are
perhaps better suited to the suppliant exile than to the venerated
soothsayer.
LOWER PART.
The lower part tells its own story. On the left-hand side Venus
tries to persuade Adonis not to go hunting, on the right-hand she
comes floating up to him as he is struck down by the boar, and in
the centre she sits by him, while an attendant tries to staunch the
flow of blood from the wound which the boar has made in his thigh.

UNIV
OF
Photogravure Dujardin, Paris
THE HUNTING OF THE CALEDONIAN BOAR
WICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE VII.
1. CASTOR AND POLLUX.
2. MARS AND REA SILVIA, DIANA AND ENDYMION.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII.
1. CASTOR AND POLLUX CARRYING OFF THE DAUGHTERS OF
LEUCIPPUS. (See p. 20.) From the Vatican Museum, No. 269.
This subject is very seldom met with.
In the centre, Castor and Pollux (distinguished by the peculiar cap
referred to in the description of Plate V.) are seen carrying off from
among a group of females the daughters of Leucippus, who were
betrothed to Lynceus and Idas. On the left hand we have the
single combat between Castor and Lynceus, fought to decide the
possession of the damsels.
Castor being mortal and Pollux immortal, the latter, on the death
of the former, asked and obtained that his brother might share his
immortality, he giving up half of his own rights, so that the two
should spend alternate days with the gods above, and the shades
below. This subject might be considered appropriate for a sar-
cophagus provided by one brother for another.
2. MARS AND REA SILVIA, DIANA AND ENDYMION. From a sar-
cophagus in the Lateran Pagan Museum. (See p. 28.)
On the right hand we have Diana stepping from her chariot to
visit the sleeping Endymion; on the left hand Mars is approaching
the sleeping Vestal Silvia; the love of a goddess for a mortal is
balanced by a god's love for a mortal. The reclining figure in the
lower left-hand corner is probably the Anio, into whose waters
Silvia was thrown, and where she exchanged her mortal condition
for that of a goddess. Above him are Hercules and Hebe, a mortal
received among the gods and married to a goddess. The same
notions, therefore, of intercourse between mortals and immortals,
and of the possibility of obtaining immortality, runs through all the
subjects here represented.

UNIV
OF
CASTOR AND POLLUX THE DAUGHTERS OF LYSIPPUS
269
MARS AND RHEA SYLVIA, DIANA AND ENDYMION
WICH
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII.—1.
THE GAMES IN THE CIRCUS. From a sarcophagus in the Vatican
Museum, Sala della Biga.
It will be observed that each of the chariots (or bigas) have four
horses abreast, and that behind the last chariot is the body of a man,
as if run over in the race.
The comparison of life to a race is so familiar, as readily to
account for the appearance of chariot-races in funereal sculpture,
and accordingly we find them not to be uncommon. The acces-
sories, however, in this subject point rather to Achilles dragging the
body of Hector to the camp, than to an ordinary chariot-race.
The mourning figures on the left-hand side may very well represent
Andromache and the Trojan women, who
"Sigh back her sighs, and answer tear with tear ;"
while the figure above, reclining by a tree, may be Scamander, and
the wild fig-tree mentioned by Homer; and the faces at the right-
hand corner may quite as well be the Trojans looking over the city
wall, as spectators at the games in the circus. Our engraving hardly
shews the expression of the face of the prostrate figure, but, as
a matter of fact, it is more the face of a dead man, than of a dying
one just fallen from his chariot.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII.-2.
CHARIOT-RACE WITH CUPIDS, THE META, &c. From a sarcophagus
in the Vatican Museum.
This is evidently allegorical; the second chariot is upset, with
the horses and the drivers tumbling over one another, and a Cupid
on horseback in the background in the attitude of triumph. The
Metæ, with the eggs and dolphins upon them, indicating the num-
ber of laps made, are well shewn. There is a body lying prostrate
under the third chariot, and a vase under the fourth.
Here we have an indubitable chariot-race run by winged genii,
while others on horseback are either watching, or controlling the
racers. One chariot has come to grief, representing the death com-
memorated in the sculpture, besides which the artist has supplied
us with the body of a dead child lying under the feet of the third
pair of horses. It is commonly supposed that these subjects were
especially selected as allusive to the death of children whose race
had been rapidly run.
In this case a winged Victory hovers between two Metæ, if we
may so call them, holding out a crown as a prize to the conqueror.
On the Meta to the right are placed a row of objects, which from
their shape were called eggs, and were supposed to have some refer-
ence to Castor and Pollux, and the egg from which they were
hatched. The number of these eggs indicated how many "laps"
the racers had made. The curved objects on the other Meta are
dolphins, sacred to Neptune. It has been disputed whether these
were fixed there as simple ornaments, or whether their number
was changed at each "lap," like that of the eggs. This sculpture
makes strongly for the latter view, for against the Meta on which
they are placed there stands a ladder, the purpose of which it is
difficult to define, unless it was for the convenience of placing or
displacing the dolphins during the race.

UNIV
ル
​OF
CH
SCULPTURE-THE GAMES IN THE CIRCUS.
Heliog. Dujardin, Paris.
CHARIOT -RACE WITH CUPIDS THE META ETC.
SCULPTURE.
PLATE IX.
A CHARIOT-RACE AND A HORSE-RACE.
L
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.
A CHARIOT-RACE AND A HORSE-RACE. From a sarcophagus of
the second century in the Vatican Museum.
The chariot-race is on the side of the sarcophagus, and the horse-
race on the lid. The drivers are Cupids in both, and in both we
see the death indicated by the fallen horses. The cypress-shaped
terminal Metæ are distinctly shewn in both subjects, and in the
lower one we see the row of eggs on one of the inferior Metæ above
the head of the third charioteer. In the upper one the place for
them appears behind the last rider, but they themselves are not
to be distinguished.

SAIR
OR
07
SCULPTURE - CHARIOT-RACE AND HORSE RACE
609
FROM A SARCOPHAGUS OF THE SECOND CENTURY
FICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE X.
1. THE PROMETHEUS SARCOPHAGUS.
2. VICTORY OF SOME ROMAN GENERAL
OVER BARBARIANS.
L 2
SCULPTURE.
:
:
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X.
1. THE PROMETHEUS
Museum, No. 88.
SARCOPHAGUS. From the Capitoline
.
The man made by Prometheus endowed with life and faculties
by the gods. It represents the complete story of the Soul, ac-
cording to Neo-Platonic theories-the creation of the mortal tene-
ment by Prometheus; the infusion of life in the form of a butterfly,
by Minerva; death at the inevitable hour decreed by the Parcæ;
the emancipated spirit first as a butterfly, then embodied in the
figure of Psyche, and on its journey to the invisible world under
the guidance of Mercury. (See pp. 29-33.)
•
2. VICTORY OF SOME ROMAN GENERAL OVER BARBARIANS.
From a large sarcophagus in the Vatican Museum, No. 39. The
barbarian chieftain is kneeling and doing homage to the Roman
general, who is seated with his left hand on the hilt of his sword,
and surrounded by his guards; the wife and child of the chief are
in the background, and another barbarian officer is held by the
guards.
:

THE PROMETHEUS SARCOPHAGUS
UNI
OF
VICTORY OF SOME ROMAN GENERAL OVER BARBARIANS
ICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XI.
VINES AND CUPIDS, AND BIRDS.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.
VINES AND CUPIDS, AND BIRDS. From a sarcophagus of the
third or fourth century, in shallow sculpture, preserved in the porch
of S. Lorenzo outside the walls. The sculpture seems to be of
about the same period as the mosaic picture on the walls in the
mausoleum of Constantia, and has possibly a Christian allegorical
signification.

UNIV
OF
VINES AND CUPIDS AND BIRDS
ICH
:
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XII.
TWO CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI.
S. HELENA and of CONSTANTIA.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII."
1. SARCOPHAGUS OF S. HELENA, of red porphyry, from her mau-
soleum on the Via Labicana, commonly called Tor Pignatara,
because the roof was made of earthenware pots. This sarcoph-
agus is now preserved in the Vatican Museum. The sculpture
on the side probably represents the triumphal entry of her son
Constantine into Rome, after the victory over Maxentius.
2. SARCOPHAGUS OF CONSTANTIA, the daughter of Constantine,
from her mausoleum in the garden of the monastery of S. Agnes,
which was then a public cemetery. This is also preserved in the
Vatican Museum, to which it was removed by Pius VI., about 1790,
and a painting of it placed on the wall where it had stood; this is
also of red porphyry, which is bad for photography. The subject
of the sculpture is the cultivation of the vine and the making of
wine, as in the mosaic pictures in her mausoleum.
• See pages 41 and 42, and Photographs Nos. 209 and 210.

SARCOPHAGUS OF S. HELENA. A.D 330
SARCOPHAGUS OF S.CONSTANTIA A.D. 350
WHIC
r
OF
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XIII.
A CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS.
JUNIUS BASSUS, A.D. 359.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII.
SARCOPHAGUS OF JUNIUS BASSUS, Prefect of Rome, A.D. 359, and
five times Consul, in the crypt of S. Peter's in the Vatican.
This is probably on its original site, as the pavement of the old
church, with the tombs upon it, was preserved when the present
church was built. This is considered as the finest of all the
Christian sarcophagi.
The subjects represented in
the upper part are :—
1. The Sacrifice of Abraham.
2. The Capture of S. Peter.
3. Christ seated between Peter
and Paul.
4. The Capture of Christ.
5. Pilate washing his hands.
In the lower part are :-
1. Job on his mat, insulted by
his Wife and his Friends.
2. Temptation of Adam and Eve.
3. Entrance of Christ into Jeru-
salem.
4. Daniel in the lions' den.
5. Capture of S. Paul.
b This is entirely subterranean, or rather under the great church, and there-
fore quite dark; the engraving is from a photograph taken with the light of
magnesium.

GGYUJISATIONISYAL PROPER
OF
Photogravure Dujardin, Paris
SARCOPHAGUS OF JUNIUS BASSUS
UNIV
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XIV.
A CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS
OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV.
SARCOPHAGUS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY, from the Lateran Chris-
tian Museum, for two persons, of whom the Busts are sculptured in
the shell in the centre.
It represents various subjects in the life of Christ. In the upper
series are represented Christ at the open tomb of Lazarus, St. Peter
and the Cock, Moses receiving the Law, Abraham's Sacrifice, and
Herod and Pontius Pilate seated in the Judgment Hall. Under
it Daniel in the lions' den; the prophets prophesying; Christ and
the Apostles preaching to the Jews.
This sarcophagus is one of the finest works of Christian art.
See p. 48, and Photograph No. 2900.

THE JUDGMENT OF PILATE. ABRAHAM. ISAAC, MOSES DANIEL. PROPHETS. CHRIST AND THE APOSTLES
OF
UNIV
ICH
:
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XV.
TWO CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI
OF THE FOURth Century.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XV.
TWO SARCOPHAGI OF THE FOURTH CENTURY, one from the
Lateran Christian Museum, representing several subjects of the
Old and New Testaments mixed together.
Adam and Eve with God, represented as man, pushing them out
of the garden; Christ healing the blind and the deaf, represented as
children; S. Peter with the Cock; Abraham and Isaac; Moses
striking the rock, &c.
The second is also from the Lateran Christian Musuem, repre-
senting the symbolical monogram, and the mysteries of the Passion.
(See p. 52.)

UNIV
OF
ADAM AND EVE, S.PETER ABRAHAM AND ISAAC,&c.
魚​雞​組
​THE MYSTERIES OF THE PASSION
VICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XVI.
TWO CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI
OF THE FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES.
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVI.a
1. SARCOPHAGUS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY, from the Lateran
Christian Museum, representing several miraculous events in the
life of Christ, and His triumphal entrance into Jerusalem.
2. SARCOPHAGUS OF GOOD STYLE OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, in
shallow Sculpture, representing the history of Jonah, the Fishing,
the Shepherd, the Resurrection of Lazarus, Moses striking the
rock and taken prisoner, and Noah in the Ark.
See p. 51, and Photographs Nos. 2905 and 2906.

MIRACLES OF CHRIST, AND HIS ENTRANCE INTO JERUSALEM
UNIV
OF
HISTORY OF JONAH, FISHING, SHEPHERD, RESURRECTION OF LAZARUS ETC
MICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XVII.
TWO CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI
OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
M
SCULPTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII.
TWO CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI OF THE FOURTH CENTURY,
the Lateran Christian Museum.
from
1. Scriptural subjects,-Abraham, Isaac, and the Ram; Christ
and His disciples, and Pontius Pilate washing his hands. (See
p. 46.)
2. The Vine, the Good Shepherd, &c. (See p. 42.)

OF
UNIV
N° 1
Nº 2
SCULPTURE_CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS CENT. IV.
1. SCRIPTURAL SUBJECTS-2. THE VINE GOOD SHEPHERD ETC.

ICH
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XVIII.
THE TWO ENDS OF A CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS
OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
SCULPTURE
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVIII.
THE TWO ENDS OF A SARCOPHAGUS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY,
in the Lateran Christian Museum.
These are in shallow sculpture, such as is usually of the eighth
century, and very different from the bold sculpture of the Apostles
on the front. The subjects are,—
1. Christ after the Resurrection issuing from the sepulchre, with
Mary at His feet; or Christ with the woman with the bloody flux,
and Moses striking the rock.
2. Christ and S. Peter with the Cock.
The buildings in the background are supposed to be the same
as those represented in the mosaic picture in S. Pudentiana.
• See p. 46, and Photographs Nos. 443 and 444.

SCULPTURE-ENDS OF SARCOPHAGUS CENT. IV
THE FIG TREE-LAZARVS TOMBS.
CHRIST AND S. PETER WITH THE COCK
UNIV
OF
WICH
$
SCULPTURE.
PLATE XIX.
S. PETER STRIKING THE ROCK.
FROM A CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
SCULPTURE.
V
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX.
FROM A CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS, OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
S. PETER striking the rock, and bringing out the Stream of Life,
at which the faithful Jews are drinking. The arrest of S. Peter.
(See p. 52, note 1.)

SCULPTURE_CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS CENT. IV.
UNIV
OF
S. PETER STRIKING THE ROCK-THE STREAM OF LIFE
ICH
IIISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE TOM BS.
[The numbers refer to Mr. Parker's Catalogue.]
Those marked with * are from drawings, valuable for historical purposes,
but not as photographs.
IN ROME.
IN ROME, continued.
Entrance to the Tomb of the Scipios,
B. C. 303. From a Drawing.
356*
Sarcophagus of Lucius Scipio Bar-
batus.
336
Tomb of Bibulus, B. C. 34, in the Via
Flaminia, at the foot of the Capitol.
1239
Remains of the Tomb of the Gens
Claudii, or Family of Claudius,
c. A.D. 50, at the foot of the Capitol,
opposite that of Bibulus.
1180
Tomb of the Family of the Architect
T. Claudius Vitalis, by the side of
the Aqueduct of Nero, near the
Lateran.
353*
Plans of the two Stories.
355*
Section of the same. Elevation, with
two of the Arches of Nero.
354*
Tomb with Columbaria, the wall faced
with Opus Reticulatum, in the Ex-
quiliæ, near the Porta Maggiore. 2261
Another Tomb in the Exquiliæ with a
series of Columbaria, and some In-
scriptions.
The other side of the same Tomb and
2262
square
Tomb of the Lateran Family (?) — A
Circular Tomb, with two
wings, on the bank of the foss be-
tween the Lateran and the Cælian,
miscalled the House of Verus.
175
Imitation of a Tomb, with Niches or
Columbaria, in the Museum of Cam-
pana.
1945
Remains of a Tomb of the first cen-
tury, near the Porta Latina, within
the Gate.
1179
Columbaria of a Burial-club, near the
Porta di S. Sebastiano, A.D. 50, in
the Vigna Codini.
1462
Another View, with the original Stair-
case, Busts, and Cinerary Urns re-
maining in their places.
1178
General View of the Columbaria near
the Porta Latina, in the Vigna Co-
dini.
1769
Tomb, with Columbaria of the Servants
of Augustus, and other Cæsars, A.D.
20, on the Via Appia, in the Vigna
Codini.
1177
Plan of Columbaria for the Servants of
Columbaria, to shew the original
Staircase and Door.
2263
the Cæsars.
Section of the same.
Mausoleum of Augustus.
988
VIA APPIA.
1085
1298*
1297*
Mausoleum of Hadrian. View.
Plans of the ground and three stories.
ISS*
Tomb on the Via Ardeatina, between
the Bastion of Sangallo and the
Thermæ of Caracalla, of the time of
Sylla. Interior.
1181
T
Tomb of the second century, on the
Via Appia.
876
Tomb of the first century of fine brick-
work (Opus Lateritium), on the Via
Appia Nova, five miles from Rome,
near the Villa de' Quintili.
1624
36
Photographs of Tombs.
VIA APPIA, Continued.
Tomb of the First Century, on the Via
Appia Nova, near the great Piscina,
six miles from Rome.
1037
Tomb on the Via Appia, near Albano,
a very large mass of concrete, to re-
present the fagots, and projecting
pieces of marble broken off, repre-
senting the timbers of a funeral
pyre.
1629
Another similar Tomb, with a Medi-
eval Tower built upon it.
1628
Tomb or Chapel (?) of the third cen-
tury on the Via Appia, at the original
entrance to the Catacomb of S. Ca-
lixtus.
1750
Tomb of the first century, built of fine
Brickwork, over the Catacomb of the
Jews.
1755
Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, B.C. 103, with
the Fortifications and Castle of the
Gaetani, c. A. D. 1310.
Doorway of Travertine in the middle
of the massive concrete wall faced
with brick.
361
VIA LABICANA, continued.
Exterior of the Tomb of the Gordiani
in their Thermæ, A. D. 240.
Interior of the same.
VIA LATINA.
925
898
Fine Tomb of the first century, of re-
markably good brickwork, on the
Via Latina.
1430
Another fine brick Tomb on the Via
Latina.
705*
706*
708*
Plan and Section of the same.
General outlines of the patterns on the
Vault and on the Walls.
[For the beautiful decorations of this
Tomb, see Fresco Paintings and
Stucco Ornaments, of which there
are a complete Series of Photo-
graphs from 2091—2103.]
Mausoleum or Tomb of S. Helena,
A. D. 330. View of the Exterior. 207
View of the Interior.
208
Plan of the Mausoleum.
206*
1360
Tomb of Herodes Atticus (?),
called
Pyramid of Caius Cestius, near the
Porta S. Paolo, c. A. D. 10.
652
Deo Redicolo (c. A. D. 140),
side.
south
907
North side of the same.
VIA FLAMINIA.
909
Construction of brick Ornaments, c.
A.D. 140.
Construction of Niches, &c.
908
910
VIA LABICANA.
Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, and
his wife Aristia, B.C. 20 (?), close
to the Porta Maggiore.
598
Effigies of Eurysaces and his wife
Aristia.
882
Tomb, with Columbaria of the time
of Sylla, in the Thermæ of the Gor-
diani, B. C. 60.
932
Details of the same.
933
The same, with the Well.
934
Tomb of the Naso Family, five miles
on the Via Flaminia, called Tor di
Quinto.
1635
Tomb on the Via Claudia, with an In-
scription to P. VIBIVS MARIANVS of
the time of Severus, miscalled the
Tomb of Nero.
1634
Remains of the Porta Salaria in March,
1871, and of a Tomb, closely re-
sembling that of Bibulus (?). 2069
Cippus of Quintus Sulpitius Maximus
(found buried in the southern tower of
the Porta Salaria).
Remains of a Circular Tomb of the first
2070
century in the northern tower. 2071
37
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE
TOMBS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
Tomb of the Scipios, B. C. 303.
356*
of Cæcilia Metella, B. C. 60.
361, 1360
and Columbaria, of the time of
Sylla, B. C. 60, on the Via Prænestina.
on the Via Ardeatina.
on the Via Appia.
932, 933, 934
1181
1628, 1629
of Bibulus, B.C. 34.
1239
of Eurysaces the Baker, B. C. 20.
598, 882, 1463*
or Pyramid of Caius Cestius,
A. D. 10.
652
in the garden of the Villa Pam-
phili-Doria, on the Janiculum, of the
time of Augustus, with Columbaria,
and a curious and remarkable series
of fresco drawings in good preserva-
tion.
2695 to 2708
at the Porta Salaria, B. C. 30 (?),
or A. D. 22 (?).
2069, 2071
of Sulpicius Maximus, at the Porta
Salaria, A. D. 90, with the Greek and
Latin verses.
2070
with Columbaria of the Servants
of the Cæsars.
Section of the same.
Plan of the same.
1177
1297*
*
1298*
Columbaria of a Burial Club, A. D. 50.
1462, 1178, 1766, 1767, 1768, 1769,
1770, 1771, 2261, 2262, 2263
Tomb of the Lateran Family (?). 175
in the form of a Temple, in the
porch of S. Lorenzo.
320
of the Cavia Family (first cen-
1748
tury).
of the first century. 1037, 1179,
1430, 1431, 1624, 1639, 1755
of the Gens Claudii or family of
Claudius, A. D. 50.
IISO
Tomb of the family of the Architect,
T. Claudius Vitalis, c. A. D. 50. Plans
and Sections. 353*, 354*, 355*
of the Naso family.
on the Via Latina, A. D. 60.
1635
705*, 706*, 708*
of the Aterii, A. D. 50. 1500, 1501
of Titus Flavius Verus.
of Agrippina.
in the Villa Campana, A.D. 100.
85
91
1942
of the second century on the Via
Appia.
of Hadrian, A.D. 130.
of Hadrian, Plan.
876
1085
188*
called Dio Ridicolo, c. A.D. 60,
miscalled of Herodes Atticus, A. D.
907, 908, 909, 910
of Statilius Aper, c. A.D. 150.
140.
1021
painted, on the Via Latina, second
century. 2091, 2095, 2098 to 2104
on the Via Appia, second century.
876
of the Gordiani, A. D. 240. 923, 925
on the Via Claudia, miscalled the
Tomb of Nero.
1634
Heroum of a deified Emperor, in
the Thermæ of the Gordiani.
of S. Helena, A.D. 330.
Plan.
898
207, 208
206*
of the third century on the Via
Appia.
1750
Columbaria in the Villa Campana
(an imitation).
TOMBS IN CHURCHES.
1945
Tomb of Cardinal Alfanus, A. D. 1150.
312
38
Photographs.
Tomb of Cardinal Fieschi, A. D. 200,
A. D. 1256.
597
of Cardinal William de Bray, A.D.
1280.
1701
of third century, afterwards of
Monsignor Spinelli.
315
of Friar Museio da Ramora, A. D.
1300.
1645
of Pandulphus Savelli, A. D. 1306.
2268
of Cardinal Adams of Hertford,
A. D. 1398.
1702
of Cardinal D'Alençon, A. D. 1403.
1911
of Cardinal Terrici, A. D. 1428. 651
of Nicolas da Forca Palena,
A. D. 1449.
1398
of Brother Bartholomeus Caraffa,
A. D. 1450.
316
of Cardinal Astorgius, A. D. 1451.
650
of Cardinal Fortiguerra, A. D. 1473.
1703
of Cardinal d'Ansio, A. D. 1483.
1646
Brother, A. D. 1498,
of Antonius Pullarius and his
1929
Tomb of the Archbishop of Ragusa,
A. D. 1505.
A. D. 1505.
1392
of Cardinal Ascanius Sforza,
2280
of Cardinal J. B. Savelli,
2267
A. D. 1520.
of Cardinal A. J. Venerius,
A. D. 1579.
2073
of a Bishop, in the Church of
S. Prassede, A. D. 1350.
1484
Tombstones in the Cloister of S. Croce
in Gerusalemme.
401, 402, 403
1183, 1222,
Loculi in Catacombs.
1223, 1283, 1611, 1621
Tombstones from Catacombs. 1257,
1259, 1384, 1594, 1595, 1596, 1906,
1907, 1908, 1909, 1910.
Tomb at Pompeii, B. C. 100 (?).
of the Ghirlande, Pompeii.
Views of, at Pompeii.
on the Via Romana, Ostia.
2161
2156
2160
1826, 1827
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE ART OF SCULPTURE.
[The numbers refer to Mr. Parker's Catalogue.]
OUR collection of photographs illustrating the History of Sculpture
is so large that it is difficult to arrange it in such a manner as to be
clear and easy for reference. In the Numerical Catalogue (which
is made chiefly for the use of the photographers, and to serve for
lettering-pieces to each photograph), they are arranged in the order
in which they were taken, or nearly as they stand in the different
museums in Rome, the Vatican, the Lateran, the Capitoline, and
the Villa Albani. This is the most convenient arrangement for
persons on the spot, or for those who are well acquainted with these
great Museums, and the numbers of each Museum are also retained.
It is also convenient for public libraries, for comparison with the
outline engravings in the great folio works on the subject, entitled
"IL VATICANO," and "IL CAMPIDOGLIO." WINCKELMANN formed
and illustrated the collection now in the "Villa Albani," and he
would gladly have availed himself of photography to illustrate his
history of sculpture, if it had then been invented. Our photographs
are intended to be supplementary to these great works as more con-
venient for reference, and for the use of those who have not access
to them. It seems, however, useless to repeat the catalogue in
this form, as it is to be had, and the numbers make reference to
it very easy; but an indication of the various subjects illustrated,
with references to the numbers, was required, and is here given,
arranged as nearly as possible in the same order as in our chapter
on the subject, and adding the numbers.
78
Photographs of Sculpture.
VIEWS IN THE MUSEUMS.
VATICAN MUSEUM.
Views in different compartments and galleries, or corridors, and halls.
2417, 2446, 2447, 2514, 2515, 2537, 2607, 2612
VILLA ALBANI, NOW TORlonia.
General View of the Palace.
View of the Gardens.
View of one of the side Entrances.
2749
2750
2751
VIEW ON THE CAPITOL, shewing the situation of the Museum, with one of the
Trophies of Marius and the Statues of Castor and Marcus Aurelius, and of
Pollux.
1649, 1650
Another view with Pallas, called Roma Trionfante, and the Statues of the
Tiber and the Nile, at the Fountain.
CAPITOLINE MUSEUMS.
PORTRAIT BUSTS OF THE EMPERORS.
A Series of eighty-three Busts of the
Emperors and Empresses, from Julius
Cæsar, B.C. 49, to Julian the Apos-
tate, A. D. 360, arranged in chrono-
logical order, taken in a set of eight
photographs.
1660 to 1667
This series is very useful for shew-
ing the succession of costume or
the mode of wearing the hair and the
beard at each period, and they also
are authentic portraits for comparison.
In front of No. 1667 is a statue of
Agrippina seated.
FIRST CENtury.
Trajan (colossal).
Plotina, the wife of Trajan.
1651
2488, 2795
2608
CENTURIES II. and III.
Hadrian, on the Basis Capitolina. 1694
Colossal.
Marcus Antoninus.
Marcus Aurelius.
Lucius Verus.
Commodus.
Pertinax.
2593
2471
2772
2770
2479
2606
2452
Didius Julianus (?).
Julia Domna, second wife of Septimius
Severus.
HISTORICAL BUSTS-ROMAN.
2604
Numa, dressed as a priest.
The young Augustus.
Augustus, a colossal head.
2432
Pompey the Great.
331
Brutus.
Claudius, crowned with oak-leaves.
Caius Marius (?).
2601
M. E. Lepidus.
Nero, a colossal head, with the Agonistic
Quintus Hortensius.
2776
337
1682
2436
2472
2822
crown.
2534
Titus (colossal).
2794
Domitian (colossal).
87
The celebrated Colonna Rostrale of
Caius Duillius, now in the Palazzo
de' Conservatori on the Capitol. 1657
Photographs of Sculpture.
79
PORTRAIT Statues oF THE
EMPERORS, &c.
Menelaus.
2535
Homer.
Sappho, the Poetess.
Julius Cæsar (the only genuine statue
Demosthenes.
of him).
1655
Augustus.
Epimenides.
2807
2847
2433
2582
1089, 1656, 2769
The Genius of Augustus.
(He is said to have slept for forty
2605
Tiberius.
Livia Drusilla, fourth wife of Augustus.
Marcellus (?), nephew of Augustus. 2635
2436, 2764, 2874
years continually.)
Zeno, the Epicurean.
2583
2540
Periander.
2581, 2587
Æsop, a fragment (the only portrait of
Caligula.
him known).
2824
2527
Claudius.
2412, 2600
Bias, the Sage.
2579, 2587
Themistocles.
Titus.
2580
2456
Julia, daughter of Titus.
Socrates.
2849
2474
Pericles.
Domitian.
2483
2585
Alcibiades.
Nerva.
2454, 2598
2434
Trajan.
2766
Aspasia, of Miletus.
2586
Hadrian.
2768
Isocrates, the orator.
2820
Sabina, wife of Hadrian.
2438
Corinna (?).
2778
Aristotle.
Antoninus Pius.
2441
2767
Lucius Verus.
2480, 2552, 2765
Theophrastus.
2848
Commodus.
Epicurus.
2578
2449, 2509
Claudius Albinus.
2516
Euripides.
2584
Geta, son of Septimius Severus.
A Philosopher (?).
2774
2790
Opimius Macrinus.
2543
M. Junius Brutus.
2763
Marcus Marcellus.
1007
PORTRAIT STATUES-GREEK.
STATUES
OF GODS AND GODDESSES.
Jupiter, or Jove. 2538, 2844, 2793
APOLLO.
1677, 2503, 2528, 2560,
2571, 2777, 2796, 2816, 2821
Lycurgus.
2587
Sappho, the Poetess.
2810
Mars.
Neptune.
2870
2878
Sophocles.
2876
Oceanus, or Marforio.
1668
Demosthenes.
2464
The Nile.
2473
Menander, seated.
2541
Silenus.
2437, 2566
King Pyrrhus, or Mars Cyprius, with
Silenus and Bacchus.
245I
rich armour.
851
BACCHUS.
Posidippus, seated.
2533
2524, 2620, 2779, 2811
A Faun, with the Infant Bacchus.
Pancratiastes, or Gimnasiargus.
843
2622, 2755
PORTRAIT HERMES
Torso of Bacchus.
MERCURY. 2443, 2484, 2496, 2553, 2623
2551
AND BUSTS
GREEK.
Cupid.
1674, 2435, 2518
Cupid on a Dolphin.
2884
Cupid and Psyche.
2743
Harpocrates.
1185
Æsculapius and Hygeia.
2544
Æsculapius.
338, 2453, 2867
Priapus.
3498
1328
Somnus, or Sleep.
2621
(N.B. Hermes is a technical name
for a head, or a head and bust, on the
top of a short square column, much
used in gardens; there are frequently
two faces or masks, then called also
Janus.)
80
Photographs of Sculpture.
of Caracalla.
2735, 2736, 2737
Juno, 2771; Juno Regina, 2596; Juno
Ceres.
2476, 2819, 2826, 2840
2467, 2592, 2639, 2752
Tellus, or The Earth.
Diana of Ephesus.
DIANA.
Diana the Huntress.
Diana Lucifera.
Diana Triformis.
2966
2616, 2802
2420, 2463, 2633
1168, 2797
2440, 2557
2424
VENUS.
2744, 2745, 2760, 2808
Venus after the Bath.
2555, 2556
STATUES OF FAUNS, MUSES,
HEROES, &c.
HERCULES as a child.
1232, 2965
with his club.
1154, 2818
colossal figure in bronze.
2594
FAUNS.
in Greek marble.
2809
of Praxiteles.
the Belvidere Torso.
2485
Torso of Hercules, in the Thermæ
Sospita, 2602
Pallas, or Minerva.
1679, 1680, 2817, 2823
2478, 2871
· playing on a pipe, 2460; dancing,
2875; drunken, 2531; reclining, 2459
a Satyr extracting a thorn. 2615
A Satyr and Child.
playing a pipe.
2873
2834
A Bacchante dancing. 2521, 2554, 2773
A Triton.
A Nymph.
on a sea monster.
2520
2490, 2805
2780, 2783
A Triton carrying off a Nymph. 2512
A Hippocampus, or Marine Horse, with
a Nereid on his back, 2457, 2458
A Centaur.
1044, 1236
STATUES OF THE MUSES, &c.
Venus Anadyome.
2428, 2469
Calliope.
2571
Venus Genetrix.
2754
Clio, Urania, and Thalia.
2576
The Venus of Guido.
2609
Clio, or History.
2419
Erato dancing.
Isis.
2570
2753
Terpsichore.
Flora.
2571, 2699
2433
Fortune.
2468
Euterpe.
2572
Urania, or Astronomy.
Innocence.
2748
2575
Modesty.
Winter.
City of Antioch.
2063, 2455
Polyhymnia, or Memory, &c.
2577
Melpomene, or Tragedy.
2418
2573
Thalia, or Comedy.
2699
2574, 2761
Tuccia Vestalis.
338
BUSTS OF THE GODS AND
The Vestal Virgin Luccia,
2445
Goddesses.
A Canephora, with her basket (?) on
Saturn.
Jupiter.
Serapis.
Ammon.
2536, 2629
her head.
2756, 2759
1501, 2590
2599, 2803
BUSTS OF THE MUSES.
2539
Muse of Comedy.
Vulcan.
2433
Muse of Tragedy.
2589
2588
Oceanus.
Neptune.
A Marine God.
2427
2444
STATUES OF HEROES, &c.
2597
Dionysius, or The Bearded Bacchus.
Perseus.
2491
1395, 2421
Theseus and the Minotaur.
2786
Juno Regina.
Pallas.
Venus.
Isis.
2475
Meleager.
2487
2425
Paris.
2522
2436
Ganymede.
2599
2439 Ganymede and the Eagle.
2656
Medusa.
Ceres.
2470
Antinous.
1676
1501
(colossal).
2591, 2868
Cybele.
1501 Marysas, punished by Apollo.
2799
Photographs of Sculpture.
81
Ariadne abandoned by Theseus.
1090
Dido meditating.
2542
Marzio Pastore (?).
Penelope.
2526
Leda and the Swan.
2785
One of the Danaids.
2545
One of the daughters of Niobe.
2422
THE CELEBRATED LAOCOON.
2501
The Mithraic Sacrifice.
2507, 2657
Victory sacrificing a Bull.
2657
STATUES ETRUSCAN.
1681
A youth drawing a thorn from his
foot.
An Etruscan Soldier, or Pioneer.
2721, 2722
(The front and back of the same
figure; he carries a hand-barrow on
his shoulders, which stands up over
his head:)
An Hermaphrodite.
2791
ANIMALS.
Gladiators.
The dying Gladiator.
2492, 2493
1678
The celebrated Etruscan bronze Wolf,
Athletes.
Amazons.
2465, 2762
1675, 2461, 2466, 2529
The Discobulus.
A Spartan Virgin.
2481, 2611
2636
Barbarian Prisoners.
93, 2429, 2892
Comic Statue of a Shepherd.
An Actor in a Mask.
A Præfica in tears.
Female Statues, time of the Flavian
Emperors.
An old Fisherman.
A Hunter.
A Warrior.
2800
B.C. 296, with Romulus and Remus
added,
A colossal Bronze Horse.
A Biga with two Horses.
A Monkey with a Cocoa-nut. 2511
A Stag, with a Hound on his back.
2504, 2510
2637 Two Greyhounds, one licking the ear
of the other.
A Priest, 2829; and a Priestess (Ar-
chaic style), 2831.
A Priest of Mithra.
2558
Caryatides.
2448, 2462, 2757, 2798
An unknown Person, nude.
2789
A Child playing with a Goose.
1262
2630, 2631
Statues of Children. 2430, 2613, 2639
A Child with a Swan.
BUSTS OF HEROES, &c.
Heads of Animals, Camels (?), &c.,
from the Temple of Trajan.
The Colossal Horses, with the Statues
of Castor and Pollux, the work of
Phidias and Praxiteles, (now in the
Piazza di Monte Cavallo).
Colossal Hand.
Foot.
Arm.
1087
86
89
92
Foot, called Piè di Marmo. 1332
Fragments of Colossal Statues.
1653, 1654
MISCELLANEOUS FRAGMENTS.
Fragments of a Statue in the Therma
of Caracalla.
1659
1699
293
2442
A Lion upon a Horse.
2499
2627
1185
2638
2506
90
814
•
COLOSSI AND FRAGMENTS.
Antinous (colossal).
2595
1071
The Minotaur (colossal).
2513
Arianna (crowned with ivy).
Dacian Prisoners, or Slaves.
1685
Fragment of a Statue in drapery (ad-
mired by Raphael).
2486
2450, 2477, 2482
Busts of Females.
2434, 2436
A Janus, or head with two faces. 1328
STATUES-Egyptian.
An Egyptian Statue, with a figure of
Isis, front.
1789
back, with a long Inscription.
1788
G
Fragments of Sculpture, and View of
the Exedra of a Palace.
2239
Fragments found on the Palatine, now
2732
in the Museum there. 2292, 2293
Fragments of Sculpture found in the
Forum.
Fragments of ancient Sculpture, with
the arms of the Colonna family,
A. D. 1500.
1249
Inscriptions and Fragments of Sculp-
ture, from the Tomb of Hylas. 2654
82
Photographs of Sculpture.
SCULPTURE IN PANELS
in Bas-relief.
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Orestes and Pylades recognised by the
Priestess Iphigenia.
2787
Philocletes wounded in the Isle of
NEPTUNE.
Neptune in the Archaic style.
2564
BACCHUS.
Leucothea and Bacchus.
2828
Lemnos.
The Cyclop Polyphemus seated, while
a Cupid at the back induces him to
sing.
2782
Æsculapius and Hygeia with the two
Dioscuri. Greek art.
1491
2525
a child.
A female figure in a chair with Antiope with Zethus and Amphion.
Birth of Bacchus. (Greek Style.)
2846
NYMPHS.
(Cent. I.)
2567
Infancy of Bacchus of the first century,
a Nymph gives him drink. 1492
A Feast of Bacchus. (Cent. II.) 2547
Bacchus and Hercules seated in the
same car. (Cent. II.)
Bacchus, the Conqueror of the Indies,
addressed by a Female figure repre-
senting the East.
A Donation to the Nymphs, with an
Archaic Inscription of the Family
of Alcibiades. (Cent. II.)
Two Nymphs dancing.
2565
2825
2563
SACRIFICES, &c.
2784
A Bacchante, in Greek marble
2835
HERCULES.
Contest of Apollo with Hercules for
the Tripod of Delphi.
2827
(Under it an Etruscan Cinerary Urn
of Alabaster, with a Figure reclining
on the cover.)
The Labours of Hercules.
2885
Hercules in the Gardens of the Hes-
perides.
2836
Tripod representing the Combat of
Hercules with the sons of Hippo-
dorus.
VARIOUS SUBJECTS.
A Mithraic Sacrifice; under it a Nymph
on a Sea-monster.
2780
A Sacrifice.
2842, 2546, 2838
Altar, representing the Statue of Cy-
bele in a Boat, drawn by the Vestal
Virgin Salvia, with Inscription. 1027
Two celebrated Bas-reliefs.
840
One representing an Archigalles,
or chief-priest of Cybele, with all the
attributes and symbols of this god-
dess, discovered at Civita Lavinia.
The other a Palmyran monument,
dedicated to Aglibolus and Malach-
beles, gods of Palmyra, by Marcus
Aurelius Eliodorus, with a Greek
and Palmyran inscription, with a
Latin translation.
295
Cybele and Atys.
2788
Theseus and Ariadne.
2626
A Priestess before a Divinity.
A Procession in honour of Isis.
2832
2497
Death of the Sons of Niobe.
Perseus delivering Andromeda from
the Sea-monster.
Ariadne abandoned by Theseus, on one
side Bacchus, and a Bacchante on
the other.
2812
Two Female Figures going to fulfil
a religious ceremony.
2845
2746
2550
Ganymede and the Eagle.
2839
Dædalus making the wings for Icarus.
2837
A Greek Funeral, representing a leave-
Endymion with his Dog.
2747
LEAVE-TAKING BEFORE Death.
A scene of leave-taking before death.
(Cent. I.) Greek.
(The serpent round the tree is a
symbol of the deceased.)
taking between a soldier and his wife.
2532
Mars and Rea Silvia.
2562
2853
Photographs of Sculpture.
83
HISTORICAL SUBJECTS.
Diogenes in his Tub conversing with
Alexander the Great; under it a
Nymph on a Sea-monster. 2783
Pollux dismounted from his Horse to
fight with Lynceus.
2830
The Wolf, with the infants Romulus.
and Remus, in the cave of the Pala-
tine, called the Lupercal.
Temple of Romulus.
2561
2283
(On the frontal the story of the
birth of Romulus and Remus is re-
presented. It is considered an im-
portant piece of sculpture, and is
engraved in Canina's work. The re-
presentation agrees with a coin of
the Temple of Venus and Roma.)
The celebrated Bas-relief of Metius
Curtius, found under the Church of
S. Maria Liberatrice, near the Forum
Romanum.
1658
(Metius Curtius is represented
plunging himself and his horse into
the gulf that opened between the
Palatine and the Capitol.)
Trajan, followed by the Lictors, with
book in his hand.
FROM THE ARCH OF MARCUS
AURELIUS.
1496
The Apotheosis of Faustina, the wife
of Marcus Aurelius.
Marcus Aurelius in the Triumphal
Quadriga.
1686
1687
Rome consigning the empire
of the
world to Marcus Aurelius.
Marcus Aurelius sacrificing.
1688
1689
Marcus Aurelius granting peace to the
Germans.
1690
The Emperor Septimius Severus and
his wife, Julia Pia, with a Sacrifice,
and the instruments of sacrifice, from
the smaller Arch of Septimius Seve-
rus, built by the Silversmiths.
772
Column of Antoninus Pius, A.D. 160,
Base, with Sculpture of a Military
Funeral Procession.
327, 328
Column of Antoninus Pius, A. D. 160,
Base, representing the Apotheosis of
Antoninus and Faustina.
329
Details of Sculpture from Trajan's
Column.
811, 812
Capaneus, on the base of the Caryatid ;
he is believed by Winckelmann to
have been one of the seven heroes of
the expedition against Thebes. 2758
The celebrated Antinous crowned with
Lotus flowers.
2833 A & B
(This bas-relief is considered the
finest sculpture of the Albani col-
lection.)
Antinous represented as one of the
Castors.
2841
Cosmo I., Duke of Tuscany, in the act
of improving the City of Pisa by
driving away the Vices and intro-
ducing the Virtues and Sciences; said
to be by Michael Angelo. 2517
MASKS.
A Comic Actor near a Table, to whom
a Youth is presenting a Mask. 2815
A Shop for Masks.
2877
CHARIOT-Race.
M. Aurelius, Faustina and Roma. 2843
Rome seated on the spoils of the con-
quered nations.
5755
(This bas-relief is attributed to the
time of the Flavian Emperors. The
Temple in the background is modern.)
Sculptures from the Marble Walls of
the COMITIUM, found in the Forum
Romanum in 1872. 2960, 2961, 2962
A Chariot-race with the Meta, the
Carceres, and the Obelisk. 2856
A Quadrigus on the Arch of Constan-
tine, of the time of Trajan.
823
VARIOUS SUBjects.
Boxers, in high-relief, called Dares and
Entellus.
2854
A Gallic or German prisoner (the head
and the shoulders restored). 2610
The Personification of a Mountain. 2813
Fragment, ornamented with Sculptures
and Bas-reliefs.
2792
G 2
84
Photographs of Sculpture.
A Sculptor taking the Portrait of a
Woman. (Cent. II.)
2624
Base, with a Foot, said to belong to
a Statue of Venus found near S.
Cesareo, with very fine Bas-reliefs
representing marine subjects. 2742
Apollo, on a panel in basso relievo
(first century), standing on a fine
antique base in the Thermæ of Titus.
1867
Ceres (first century), standing on a fine
antique base.
1868
A Priest (first century), standing on a
fine antique base.
1869
Military Figure by the side of a horse.
2781
(Peculiar from its having a wood
represented in the background.)
Fragment of a Greek Bas-relief of very
good style, similar to that of the
Frieze of the Parthenon in Athens.
2430
It was formerly in the Palazzo
Giustiniani, and is no doubt from
Greece.
Door of a Temple, with Genii.
1672
A Genius of Death in front of a Tomb.
Busts of the Cavia Family. 1748
Tomb of Statilius Aper, Measurer of
Buildings, with his Portrait and a
wild Boar (aper) to shew the origin
of his name.
Funeral Cippus (Inferior Style) repre-
senting a soldier, of the third century.
102 I
2409
(The stick he holds in his left hand
shews that he was a Centurion.)
Left-hand side of the Tomb of L. Cor-
nelius Atimetus and L. Cornelius
Epaphras, Cutlers, representing a
shop-front. (Cent. I.)
2406
A cippus with the figure of a youth
called SULPICIUS MAXIMUS attired in
toga, with two long inscriptions, one
on either side of the niche, consisting
of a prize poem in forty-three hexa-
meter verses, which he had improvised
at eleven years of age, in the Capito-
line competition, in the time of Do-
mitian. Beneath is his epitaph in
Latin, and two Greek epigrams com-
posed in his honour.
2070
2814
BAS-RELIEFS FROM TOMBS.
THE TOMB OF THE ATERII, first cen-
tury. A temple, or a tomb, and
a machine for raising stones and a
ladder, by means of a treadmill,
mentioned by Vitruvius.
1500
(It seems probable that this was the
tomb of an architect, (see the "An-
nali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica, 1849," and the "Build-
ing News," London, 1872.)
The Arcus in Sacra Via Sum-
ma, Arcus ad Isis, and the Temple
of Jupiter Stator(?).
1501
The defunct in his bed sur-
rounded by torches; in the lower
one, other funeral ceremonies. 2883
MISCELLANEOUS.
Curious Medieval Sculpture in bas-
relief of the Porta Asinaria and the
ancient Lateran.
1726
Consular Fasces in the Capitoline
Museum.
1040
Roman Eagle, found in the Forum of
Cæsar.
1652
Arms of the Roman Senate, from the
Tomb of Agrippina.
91
An Argolic Buckler, with a border of
flowers on the sides; above is a hunt,
with animals in a garden, with its
enclosure.
337
Altar of the second century, on a
Terrace of the Capitoline Hill, above
the Tarpeian Rock.
Bas-relief with beautiful Ornaments;
588
1491
under it Cybele and Atys.
Bas-relief with Foliage and two Genii,
partly restored.
2801
2788
Tomb, with busts of the deceased of the
time of Augustus.
Photographs of Sculpture.
85
1944
Fragments of Bas-reliefs built into the
wall of the Villa Campana.
Bas-relief of a Lion upon a Bull at the
corner of the Piazza dell' Orso. 1391
Mascherone (?), a Mask or Head, with
bands, in the Vicolo dè Vecchiarelli.
1457
Lion's Head, of the third century, built
into a house, at the corner of the
Vicolo del Falcone.
1446
A modern basso-relievo on the Pincian,
by Ciccarini, in the time of Pius VII.
2061
Victory in the act of crowning the
genii of terrestrial and of naval war,
in imitation of the antique.
ALTARS.
Altar, with a Bas-relief of the Sacrifice
of Mithra, found, and preserved in
the lower Church or Crypt of S.
Clement.
1426
Vases, Candelabri, &c.
ORNAMENTED WITH BAS-Reliefs.
A Vase in the Garden of the Villa
Campana, ornamented with Bas-re-
liefs.
2065
1943
Basin of a fountain.
2617, 2618
Vase, ornamented with Bas-reliefs. 1943
Antique Vase (dolium) placed upon a
Base, in which antique basso-relievi
are inserted.
Marble Vase with Bas-reliefs represent-
ing Lycurgus, king of Thrace, in the
act of violating the sacred feasts of
Bacchus.
Antique Vase, representing a Feast of
Bacchus. (Cent. I.)
2628
Vase, with Bas-reliefs, representing the
Genii of Bacchus.
2640
Vase, with Bas-reliefs, representing Nep-
tune between two Sea-monsters. 2632
One of the very fine Candelabra called
the "Candelabri Barberini.
">
2614
2548, 2549, 2625, 2881
2502
Cinerary Urn of Europus.
Cinerary Urn of the Liberta Plutia
Hygia.
2502
Etruscan Cinerary Urn in Alabaster.
2827
Cinerary Urn, with inscription. 2659
Stone Coffer, or Ossuarium, made as
a Model of a small Temple, c. A.D.
350.
296
SCULPTURE ON PAGAN
SARCOPHAGI.
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
BACCHUS and Bacchanalian Scenes.
1038, 1043, 2423, 2489, 2530, 2828,
2886, 2890
Bacchus and Ariadne.
HUNTING-SCENES.
2550
The Caledonian Boar, Venus and Adonis.
894, 1359, 2858, 2888, 2889, 3047,
3048
BATTLE-SCENES, &c.
Romans and Barbarians. 1683, 2494
Theseus and Athenians and Amazons.
351, 1050, 2495, 2500
Centaurs and Lapithæ.
2568
Centaurs and Fauns.
Giants and Gods
Fable of Laodamia and Protesilaus.
2569
1090, 2494
2619
Death of the Niobides.
2634
1051, 2519
Rape of Proserpine.
Castor and Pollux carrying off the
daughters of Lysippus.
Rhea Sylvia.
Diana and Endymion.
2638
2857
838, 1041, 2523, 2639, 2857
CIRCENSIAN GAMES-CHARIOT RACES,
&c. 290, 291, 292, 339, 2658, 2856
Athletes.
2869
Sarcophagus, with figures of Actors
and Masks.
2980
NYMPHS.
Cinerary Urn of Luccia Telesina, richly Tritons and Nymphs.
ornamented.
2264
85, 2415, 2502, 2894
86
Photographs of Sculpture.
597
VARIOUS SUBJECTS.
A Nuptial Ceremony.
A Seaport-Carthage (?).
335
A Ship drawn by horses along a canal.
An early Chariot, with men, horses,
and dogs.
330
A Miller and a horse-mill.
294
2112
SARCOPHAGI OF KNOWN PERSONS.
P. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, B.C. 298.
336
T. Paconius Calendus and his wife Oc-
tavia Salvia. (Cent. II.)
2404
Publius Nonius Zethus, a miller at
Ostia, c. A.D. 200.
338
(This sculpture stands between the
figures of Esculapius and Tuccia Ves-
talis, shewn in the photograph.)
Alexander Severus and his mother
Mammea (?).
1673
(This is very doubtful; the figures
on the top do not agree with the
statues of these persons.)
P. Cæcilius Vallianus.
2891
(The defunct is represented in his
bed, surrounded by his servants.)
Sextus Varius Marcellus.
2490
(He was the father of the Emperor
Heliogabalus there is an inscription
on the tomb, in Greek and Latin.)
SARCOPHAGI, WITH PORTRAITS OF
THE DECEASED.
THIRD CENTURY.
A Youth surrounded by Genii. Behind
this Sarcophagus is the statue of a
Child in the act of playing.
The deceased amidst the four Seasons.
(Cent. III.)
2499
Over it is a female statue of the
time of the Flavian Emperors; this
cover belonged formerly to another
Sarcophagus.
Portrait of the defunct, with a roll of
parchment at his feet, and another
in his hand, which seems to shew he
was an orator. Around him are two
female and three male figures, per-
haps members of his family. 2855
Portrait of the deceased surrounded by
Minerva and the Muses.
315
(Now the Tomb of Monsignor Spi-
nelli in the Church of the Priorato
on the Aventine.)
Large Sarcophagus found at Roma
Vecchia.
2408
In the centre is the door of the
Tomb, with the figures of a husband
and wife. (Cent. II.)
Genii of Death, and the Portraits of
the deceased in the Niches, c. A.D.
200.
332
Portraits of the deceased, and two
Muses, c. A.D. 250.
333
Five Figures in niches. (Cent. III.) 211I
The figures represent the family
interred, the father and mother seated
at the two extremities, and the chil-
dren between them.
Half-Front of a Sarcophagus.
2872
On the right, the defunct asleep;
on the left, the same in the act of
sacrificing. On the frieze, children
playing with two cocks and flowers.
Portraits of the Family, in Niches
formed of Columns and Entablatures,
c. A.D. 300.
334
OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.
Sarcophagus with Sculpture unfinished,
with fragments of the marble orna-
ments of a Temple, &c.
1228
Now a Fountain, near the Church
of S. Maria del Popolo.
Church of S. Clement-Crypt.
1363
1280
The Sarcophagus in the crypt of
the church of S. Clement appears
to be of the fourth century, with
uncommon carving; a head in the
centre, and on either side festoons.
Photographs of Sculpture.
87
PAINTED TOMBS ON THE VIA LATINA
-Sarcophagus of the fourth century,
on a Brick Arch of the second, taken
with magnesian light.
2096, 2097
In the centre of the sarcophagus,
on a shield, are half-figures of the
husband and wife interred in it.
Around this sepulchral chamber is
a podium, with small arched recesses,
for the cinerary urns or vases (?)
[For the Paintings on these Tombs,
see Catalogue of Fresco Paintings.]
Sarcophagus, now in the Colonna
Garden.
2114
The small figure in the centre re-
presents the defunct; the group at
the end is a subject from the amphi-
theatre; a lion, stimulated by the
bestiarius or keeper, devours a wild
boar.
CHRISTIAN, OR MIXED SARCOPHAGI.
S. Helena, of red Porphyry, A.D. 330.
209
S. Constantia, of red Porphyry, A.D.
350, now in the Vatican Museum. 210
Shallow Sculpture of Vines and Cupids
and Birds, now in the Porch of the
Church of S. Lorenzo, f.m.
318
The Vintage.
Allegorical subjects of the Vintage and
Pasturage. (Cent. III.)
CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI.
SARCOPHAGI WITH THE CREATION
And Other SCRIPTURAL Subjects.
Lateran Museum-Sculpture-Sarco-
phagus of the fourth or fifth century,
in the centre of which are the Busts
of the two defuncts.
2902
In the upper part, on the left
hand, is the Creation, and the re-
presentation of the Holy Trinity is
very remarkable; the Father behind
the chair of the Son, and the Holy
Ghost who, by laying on the hands,
sanctifies the creatures,-Adam and
Eve. On the right, the water turned
to wine, the raising of Lazarus.
the lower part, the adoration of the
Magi, Christ giving sight to the blind,
Daniel in the lions' den, S. Peter and
the sick, and other incidents.
In
View of the same (with two small Sta-
tues of the Good Shepherd, and frag-
ments over them).
2903
Julia Juliana. The defunct is repre-
sented in the ark of Noah. 2938
Cover of the fourth century, represent-
ing two of the Apostles, and Lambs
holding crowns in their mouths.
2910
2887
2917
Left side of the same.
2918
Lateran View of the Christian Museum.
2899
Under it a sarcophagus represent-
ing the punishment of man, and some
of the miracles of Christ.
CHRIST ordering the Apostles to feed
His Lambs.
2924
CHRIST and ten Apostles, with two small
figures of the donors kneeling at the
feet of Christ, in the Crypt of Ancona
Cathedral. (Cent. IV.) 2677
Genii, and over it a Cinerary Urn, with
the Inscription, DIS MANIBUS. LU-
2254
Head of the defunct, and Jonah under
the gourd, and at the angles Cupids
and Psyches, or Genii. (Cent. IV.)
CENA . T. L. STAPHYIA.
1327
Figures in high-relief under arches,
alternately round and triangular, in
which Christ is represented in the
centre, prophesying Peter's denial of
Him before the Apostles. (Cent. IV.)
2909
88
Photographs of Sculpture.
The
CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI.
CHRIST AND THE APOstles.
Figures, beautifully carved in high
relief, and placed under colonnades,
with beautiful capitals, and the co-
lumns are enriched with spiral foliage.
It is the finest panel of Christian
sculpture that is known of that pe-
riod. In this sarcophagus is repre-
sented the Ascension of Christ to
Heaven. He gives a scroll to S.
Peter, supposed to be conferring on
him the legislative power. 2927
The Saviour and S. Peter with the
Cock; Miracles of the Saviour, and
Buildings.
443, 444
The two sides of the above sarco-
phagus. These are of quite a differ-
ent style, in the shallow sculpture,
usually some centuries later than this
front, and were probably carved
afterwards.
Two persons, of whom the Busts are
sculptured in the central shell. 2900
It represents various subjects in
the life of Christ. The judgment of
Pilate (the figure of Christ is omitted).
Abraham sacrificing Isaac, and Moses
receiving the Law. Under it Daniel
in the lions' den; the Prophets pro-
phesying; Christ and the Apostles
preaching to the Jews. This sarco-
phagus is one of the finest works of
Christian art.
VARIOUS SCRIPTURAL SUBJECTS.
(CENT. IV.)
Busts of the two defuncts.
2902
In the upper part, on the left hand,
is the Creation, and the representa-
tion of the Holy Trinity is very re-
markable; the Father behind the
chair of the Son, and the Holy Ghost
who, by laying on the hands, sancti-
fies the creatures, -Adam and Eve.
On the right, the water turned to
wine, the raising of Lazarus. In the
lower part, the adoration of the Magi,
Christ giving sight to the blind,
Daniel in the lions' den, S. Peter
and the sick, and other incidents.
History of Jonah, the Fishing, the
Shepherd, the Resurrection of Laza-
rus, S. Peter striking the rock and
taken prisoner, and Noah in the
Ark. (Cent. V.)
2905
Subjects of the Old and New Testa-
ments mixed together.
2907
Adam and Eve, S. Peter with the
Cock, Abraham and Isaac, &c.
Sacrifice of Abraham-Adam and Eve
-and some miracles of Christ. 2912
On the cover below it, Daniel-the
Nativity-the adoration of the Magi
-the multiplication of the Loaves—
the preaching and imprisonment of
S. Peter-a female figure reading the
Gospel-and a slab with the name of
CRISPINA.
Some of the Miracles of Christ, and an
Orante.
2904
This was found in the Catacomb
of SS. Nereus and Achilleus.
Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, the
punishment of Man, and some of
Christ's miracles.
2915
On the cover under it, the Nati-
vity, and the adoration of the Magi.
Monogram of Constantine- the im-
prisonment of S. Paul-Job-and the
vocation of the people. Over it a
Sculpture of the fourth century, re-
presenting a Supper, or Agape. 2929
Monogram, and the mysteries of the
Passion. A small Sarcophagus, on
which is represented the Codex of
the Old and New Testaments, and
a Supper.
2930
Fragment, representing S. Peter as
Moses striking the rock, with two
persons drinking at the stream (em-
blematic of his preaching); and the
imprisonment of S. Peter.
2935
Miracles of Christ, the preaching and
imprisonment of S. Peter.
2913
On the cover below it, Jonah,
Abraham, and Daniel.
Busts of the defuncts in the centre. 2914
It represents Abraham symbolising
the sacrifice of Christ; while Peter,
holding him by the arm, symbolises
the Priesthood and the Sacrifice of
the new law. In other parts, various
miracles of Christ, and Moses re-
ceiving the Law. In the lower di-
vision, Peter and the Church, Daniel,
the Marriage of Cana, &c.
Photographs of Sculpture.
89
A Cover, with some Miracles of Christ,
and Daniel killing the Serpent. 2920
Under it a Sarcophagus with the
busts of the defunct, and Bible sub-
jects, among which the calling of
Moses is very peculiar.
Several Bible subjects—the resurrection
of the Widow's son is represented in
a peculiar manner. On the cover the
history of Jonah-a youth in the Ark
instead of Noah-the offering of the
Magi-Moses receiving the Law-
Adam and Eve.
2923
This cover, prepared for a Female, has
afterwards been used for SABINVS,
who lived forty-four years.
2925
The sarcophagus represents the
usual Bible subjects; in the centre is
an Orante between two Apostles.
Three fragments of Sarcophagi. 2926
On a fragment of a cover, the offering
of the Magi; a side of a Sarcophagus
with the departure of Elijah. 2932
Under it a funeral inscription, with
the resurrection of Lazarus.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, on
the left of which is the preaching
and imprisonment of S. Peter; on
the right, some miracles of Christ,—
His entrance into Jerusalem. 2921
Sarcophagus for a youth, on which
are represented the entrance of Christ
into Jerusalem, the death of Pharaoh
in the Red Sea, and other Scriptural
subjects.
Over this is another Sarcophagus Sacrifice of Abraham, and some miracles
with the genii of the seasons and
tragic masks. Also a fragment of
another representing a pastoral scene.
Sarcophagus with Christ before Caia-
2933
phas, the denial of S. Peter, the
Nativity, the baptism of Christ, and
the resurrection of Lazarus. On the
cover below, the three Jews in the
burning fiery furnace, and a young
man in the Ark instead of Noah. 2919
Miraculous events in the life of Christ,
and His triumphal entrance into Je-
rusalem.
Two Portraits of the defunct.
2906
2911
The other subjects represented are
all of the New Testament, excepting
Daniel, Moses, Abraham, and Adam
and Eve.
Christ prophesying Peter's denial of
Him, and other subjects of the Bible;
the figures under small arches, round
and triangular alternately, with fluted
colonettes.
2916
some of the miracles of Christ, among
which the Woman of Cana is pecu-
liar;
; the preaching and imprison-
ment of S. Peter. Below it are other
fragments.
2922
The Sarcophagus under them is
ancient, but found recently, and
badly restored.
Miracles of Christ, and three scenes in
the life of S. Peter.
of Christ.
2931
2934
CRYPT UNDER THE CHURCH OF
S. PETER'S IN THE VATICAN. 231
The celebrated Sarcophagus of Junius
Bassus, prefect of Rome, five times.
Consul, who died in the year 359;
taken with magnesian light. 2997
The subjects represented in the
upper part are :-
1. The Sacrifice of Abraham.
2. The Capture of S. Peter.
3. Christ seated between Peter and
Paul.
4.
The Capture of Christ.
5. Pilate washing his hands.
In the lower part are :—
1. Job on his mat, insulted by his
Wife and his Friends.
2. Temptation of Adam and Eve.
3. Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem.
4. Daniel in the lions' den.
5. Capture of S. Paul.
Antique Sarcophagus used for the body
of Pope Hadrian IV., A. D. 1159, the
only English Pope (Breakspear);
tahen with magnesian light.
2992
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.
[The numbers refer to Mr. Parker's Catalogue.]
CAPITALS.
IONIC, first century, a very fine one
from the Lateran Museum, with
Cornice.
1502, 2863
Part of a Cornice, A.D. 75-100, in the
Therma of Titus.
1497
Ionic Capitals from the Villa of Lucius
Verus, c. A. D. 150.
1493
CORINTHIAN, from the Villa of Lucius
Verus, c. A. D. 150.
Corinthian, from the Crypt of the
Church of S. Cæcilia in Trastevere.
1864, 1865
COMPOSITE Capitals, with foliage of the
Greek Acanthus, from the Lateran
Museum, c. A. D. 120. 2859, 2861
Composite Capitals, from the Villa of
Lucius Verus, c. A. D. 150. 1498, 1499
Composite Capital of Roman style,
2865
Rich Composite Capital with figures,
in the House of the Domitii, now
the Villa Esmeade, c. A. D. 200. 2064
c. A. D. 200.
BASES AND BASEMENT MOULDINGS.
Basement and Mouldings of the Temple
of Hercules, c. B. C. 10 (?)
1343
Base of a Column of the time of Augus-
tus, A. D. 10, on the Palatine.
Base and Fragment of a Column of the
Basilica Ulpia.
1347
739
Base, on the Palatine.
1348
Base of a Column in the Circus Alex-
andrinus.
Base of the fourth century.
94
2291
1881
Cornice of the Temple of Vespasian.
1670
Cornice of the Temple of Trajan. 815
Cornice of the Temple of Castor and
Pollux in the Forum Romanum. 1684
Cornice, with foliage of the second
century.
1503
Fragments of the Cornice of the Temple
of the Sun (?), A.D. 274.
Fragment of a Cornice of the Temple
of Mars (?), third century.
Cornice of the Arch of Constantine,
A. D. 320.
202
872
1344
Capitals and Cornice of the Baptistery
of S. John in fonte at the Lateran,
C. A. D. 450.
387
CORNICE And Frieze.
Cornice and Frieze of the Basilica
Ulpia, c. A.D. 100, in the Forum of
Trajan.
1494, 1495
Frieze of the Temple of Antoninus and
Faustina, A.D. 138.
824
A Frieze of Sculptured foliage from
the Basilica Ulpia, now in the Late-
ran Museum.
1493
Cornice and Capitals of the Temple of
Castor and Pollux (?), in the Forum
Romanum.
911
Cornice and Capitals of the Temple of
Pallas, or Minerva, in the Forum
Transitorium.
271
CORNICES.
Remains of Cornices of the Temples in
the Forum Olitorium, of Spes and
Juno Sospita.
1114, 1115
Cornice Mouldings of the lower story
of the Colosseum, A.D. 80. 1346
COLUMNS.
Columns of the Temple of Castor and
Pollux in the Forum Romanum. 912
Antique Columns in the North Aisle
of the Choir of the Church of S.
Lorenzo.
594
Photographs of Construction-Architectural Details. 91
Columns enriched with Shallow Sculp-
ture of Ivy (Cent. IV.) (now in the
Vatican Museum).
297
Columns of Peperino, of the Portico of
the Temple of Hercules, the guardian
of the Circus Flaminius, in the court
of the Monastery of S. Nicola à Ce-
sarini.
1642
Column of one of the three Temples,
now in the Church of S. Nicolas in
Carcere.
Panels in the Thermæ of Titus, with
elegant figures in bas-relief, first cen-
tury, standing on fine antique bases.
1867, 1868, 1869
III2
Door-post, with Shallow Carving of
foliage and figures, second century,
in the Lateran Museum.
2882
Cornice and Window in brickwork in
part of the Pantheum of Agrippa,
B.C. 26.
1237
Dio Cassius, 1. liii. c. 27.
FRAGMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL
DETAILS.
Temples-Fragments of the ancient
Temples in the Forum Olitorium.
1117
Fragments of Friezes, Capitals, &c.
2860, 2862, 2864, 2866, 2879, 2880
Fragments of the marble Ornaments of
the Temple of the Arvales, c. A.D.
250.
1227
Fragments of Cornices in the Basilica
Ulpia, in the Piazza di Colonna
Trajana.
736
Broken Capital of the third century,
found with the Marble Plan in 1867,
at SS. Cosmas and Damian.
Capital of a Column of the Basilica
795
Ulpia in the Piazza di Colonna
Trajana.
740
Capitals of two Columns of the Portico
of Octavia, near the Church of S.
Angelo in Pescheria.
741
Capital from the Temple of Trajan. 813
Fragments of Cornice, &c., on the Plat-
form now occupied by the Monastery
of S. Francesca Romana.
825
798
Cornice and Tiles of the third century,
found with the fragments of the
Marble Plan in 1867, at SS. Cosmas
and Damian.
Therma of Caracalla. Corinthian
Capital and Column, found in 1868.
1069
Thermæ of Caracalla. Corinthian
Capital, found in 1868.
1070
Gigantic Cornice, found at the Macao,
near the Prætorian Camp. 2967
Base of a large Column of the third
century.
2971
Found in the Forum Romanum,
and now placed at the entrance to
the Palaces of the Caesars, with sculp-
tures representing the three animals
for sacrifice, the same as on the wall
of the Comitium.
Fragments of Cornices and Bases of
the second century, found in the
Palazzo Fiano, in 1872, and now in
the courtyard of the same palace.
2976, 2977, 2978, 2979
Cornices, &c., of the Temples of Spes,
B.C. 261, and Pietas, B. C. 180, in the
Forum Olitorium, now on the roof of
the Church of S. Nicolas in Carcere.
From a Drawing.
663, 666
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.
BRONZE DOORS.
Temples-Bronze Doors of the Pan-
theon.
771
Church of the Lateran-Ancient Bronze
Door of the principal entrance. 937
Church of SS. Cosmas and Damian-
Details of Doorway and Bronze Door
of the Temple of Romulus, A. D. 320.
419
Lateran-Bronze Door, time of Celes-
tin III., A. D. 1196, in the Baptistery
of S. John in Fonte.
1713
Church of S. Antony the Abbot-Door-
way, with Circular Head and Gothic
Mouldings, c. A.D. 1200.
IOSS
Church of S. Alessio-Doorway orna-
mented with Ribbon Mosaics. 1916
Thirteenth Century-Church of S. John
at Porta Latina Square-headed
Doorway with Mosaic ribbon of
Cosmati work.
1176
92 Photographs of Construction—Architectural Details.
S
1333
892
600
Medieval-Doorway of the House of
Stefano Porcaro in the Vicolo delle
Ceste, No. 25 (A. D. 1316).
Medieval-Gate of the old Hospital of
the Lateran, A. D. 1446.
Medieval, Palazzo di Venezia--Door-
way, A.D. 1480.
Sixteenth Century Doorway in the
Court of the Palazzo Gabrielli, c. A. D.
1500.
1402
Sixteenth Century Doorway of the
house called del Governo Vecchio,
of the sixteenth century, with view
into the court and arcade.
1401
Doorway of the sixteenth century in
the Via del Gesù, No. 85, with good
sculpture on the lintel.
1331
Sixteenth Century Doorway of a
House of the sixteenth century, in
the Via dei Coronari, No. 45. 1396
Sixteenth Century-Door of the Astro-
logist, c. A.D. 1520 (?), near the
Church of S. Eusebio.
WINDOWS.
961
Perforated Marble Window of the se-
cond century, now in the Crypt of
the Church of Santi Quattro Coro-
nati, on the Cœlian.
2090
Lateran, Cloister-Curious Window of
pierced Marble (transenna) of the
third century (?), with geometrical
forms, and figure of S. John Evan-
gelist.
1723
A Window or Loop-hole of the third
century, in a Tomb near the Villa or
Thermæ of the Gordiani.
877
Construction of a Window or Loop-hole
of the third century, in the Thermæ
of the Gordiani.
878
Construction of a Circular Window of
the third century, in the Thermæ of
the Gordiani, interior.
exterior.
879
880
Medieval Architecture-Window in the
Belfry of S. Prassede, A. D. 820. 1504
A very curious early example of
window-tracery, cut out of stucco.
Church of Ara Cœli Window of
Pierced Marble. Cent. XIV. 2275
Medieval House in the Ghetto-Ancient
Window, c. A. D. 1400.
Medieval Iron Grille of Window, c. A. D.
1450, in a House in the Piazza di
S. Egidio in Trastevere.
Medieval, Palazzo di Venezia-Win-
dow, A.D. 1480.
437
429
601
CHIMNEYS.
Chimney in the Monastery of S. Cle-
ment, twelfth century (?).
Modern Italian Chimneys.
891
846
CORNICES.
Cornice and curious Stucco Ornament
of the ninth century (?), on the vault
of the Crypt of S. Prassede. 1732
Sixteenth Century-Carved Cornice of
a House in the Via dell' Anima,
c. A.D. 1500.
1405
Churches Prætorium of S. Stefano
Rotondo. Details. The Ionic Capi-
tals, A.D. 467; the Corinthian, A.D.
632 (?), when it was made into a
Church.
214
Capitals, two Antique, one Medieval
imitation, in the Church of S. Maria
in Cosmedin.
637
Basilica of Constantine -
Details of
Terra Cotta Vault, A. D. 330. 205
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE IN CHURCHES.
[The numbers refer to Mr. Parker's Catalogue.]
STATUES.
OF THE PROPHETS.
Lateran Museum-Statue of the fourth
century, smaller than life, represent-
ing the Good Shepherd, with a Lamb
on His shoulder. Cent. IV. 2901
The celebrated Moses of Michael An-
gelo in the Church of S. Pietro in
Vincoli. Cent. XVII.
1932
Statue of the Prophet Elias, by Loren-
zetti, in the Church of S. Maria del
Popolo. Cent. XVII.
2282
Statue of Jonah, from a drawing of
Raphael, in the Church of S. Maria
del Popolo. Cent. XVII.
2281
Some say that it was also carved
by Raphael.
OF THE SAINTS, &c.
W
Bronze Figure of S. John Baptist, by
G. B. della Porta, in the Baptistery
of S. John in Fonte, near the La-
teran. Cent. XVII.
1712
Crypt of S. Peter The celebrated
Statue of S. Peter, formerly under
the portico of the old Basilica. Cent.
II. and XVI. Taken with magnesian
light.
2995
The Apostle is represented seated,
holding the keys. The figure, which
recalls the statues of the Consuls, is
antique; the head is of the sixteenth
century, and the hands are modern.
Bronze Figures of S. Lucius, Pope,
S. Urban, Pope, and S. Maximus,
Martyr, A.D. 1600, in the Church of
S. Cecilia in Trastevere.
1708
Bronze Figures of three Saints, S. Vale-
rian, S. Cecilia, and S. Tiburtius, in
the Church of S. Cecilia in Traste-
vere, A. D. 1600.
1707
The celebrated Figure of S. Cecilia by
Stefano Maderno, from the Church
in the Trastevere dedicated in her
name. Cent. XVII.
1705
The body of the Saint is repre-
sented by the sculptor as it was found
when her tomb was opened.
OUT OF ROME.
Ancona Cathedral - Curious small
figure of a Bishop standing with his
crozier and mitre, in the crypt. Cent.
XIII.
2674
Loreto-Bronze Statue of Sixtus V.,
seated. Cent. XVI.
BAS-RELIEFS,
VARIOUS SUBJECTS.
2682
FROM THE CRYPT OF S. PETER'S.
Taken with magnesian light.
Bas-relief from the Ciborium of Pius II.,
A. D. 1460. Two angels holding the
head of S. Andrew.
2996
Sculpture from the Tomb of Cardinal
Berardus Herulus, of Narni, A.D.
1479.
2990
It represents the Almighty in the
act of blessing, holding a book, and
surrounded by Angels with eight
wings.
Ciborium of the Holy Lance (time of
Innocent VIII., A.D. 1490), two An-
gels adoring the Holy Relic. 2989
94
Photographs of Christian Sculpture in Churches.
Sculpture in white marble representing
S. John the Evangelist.
2991
This sculpture was ordered by In-
nocent VIII., A.D. 1490, to decorate
the Ciborium of the Holy Lance,
with the other three Evangelists.
A Bas-relief made at the end of the
sixteenth century, under Pope Six-
tus V.
2993
This splendid bas-relief was made
to decorate the front of the Altar of
the Pope. It represents the Judg-
ment of the Apostles by Nero.
(For two Sarcophagi in the Crypt
of S. Peter, see Sarcophagi.)
1723
FROM THE LATERAN, &c.
Lateran, Cloister-Figure of S. John
Evangelist.
Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli--Bas-
relief representing S. Peter with the
Keys and Chains, A. D. 1465. 1930
On his right hand the Cardinal
donor kneeling, on his left an Angel
holding the chain.
Lateran Museum-Sculpture-Bas-re-
lief, representing the three Jews in
the burning fiery furnace, and Noah
in the Ark. Cent. IV. (?) 2908
Under it several fragments.
Church of S. Pudentiana-Doorway as
restored in 1872. Cent. VIII. (?)
3060
The columns and the shallow
sculpture of the heads are ancient,
representing the family of Pudens.
The same, before the restoration.
279
Sculpture, in the Gaetani Chapel,
behind the altar.
3061
The offering of the Magi in fine
alto-relievo, c. A. D. 1600.
OUT OF ROME.
SUBIACO.
Curious Medieval Bas-relief, and In-
scription of the Dedication of the
Church of S. Scholastica. Cent. X. (?)
1567
DEDICATA EST AN AB INCARNA-
TIONE DOMINI CCCCCCCCCLXXXI M.
DECB DIIII INDICTIONE VIII.
A wolf and a stag are represented
drinking out of the same cup or
calyx.
LUCCA.
Bas-relief with Inscription, under the
Portico of the Duomo. Cent. XII.
Representing the legend of S. Martin,
with allegorical figures of six of the
months under arches in panels. 3068
Bas-relief with Inscription, over the
principal Door of the Duomo. Cent.
XII.
3069
It represents S. Maria and the
twelve Apostles, with their names
under each, in sculpture of the thir-
teenth century. In the tympanum
above is the ascension of Christ in an
aureole, supported by two angels.
Church called the "Oratory," curious
Bas-relief over the Door. 3080
This is a very curious and early
piece of sculpture of about the middle
of the twelfth century, apparently
representing the legend of S. John
Evangelist. In the centre is the saint in
the cauldron of boiling oil; on either
side is a small temple, with a domical
vault, and shafts having twisted flut-
ing round them. It may probably
be the work of the same sculptor as
the celebrated font in S. Frediano,
who has there inscribed his name
and date, Robertus, 1151.
Church of S. John. Principal Door,
with fine Sculpture. Cent. XII. 3075
ANCONA.
Cathedral-Panel of Sculpture of the
thirteenth century, in the crypt. 2675
Christ and two of the emblems of
the evangelist with vines. Under it
is the inscription
MAGISTER. FILIP. ME FECIT.
Panel of Sculpture of the Ma-
donna, with the infant Christ and
two saints, in the Crypt. Cent. XIV. (?)
2678
Photographs of Christian Sculpture in Churches.
Benevento-Church of S. Sofia-West
Door, with a group of Sculpture
in the Tympanum. Cent. XIII. 2687
HOUSE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN
AT LORETO.
The figures of Prophets, A. D. 1520.
1107
The Annunciation, A. D. 1520. 1105
The Nativity over a Doorway, with the
Arms of the Medici, Leo X., A.D.
1520.
1103
The Presentation in the Temple, A. D.
1520.
1104
95
Church of S. Maria in Trastevere-
Doorway, with fine Sculpture, built
by Cardinal Marcus Syticus, A.D.
1625.
1905, 1906
DOORWAYS, OUT OF ROME.
Lucca - Church of S. Christopher.
Principal Door, with fine mouldings
and capitals. Cent. XII.
3073
Church of S. Giusto. Cent. XII.
Front view, shewing Sculptured
Doorway.
3077
Subiaco-Gothic Archway in the Clois-
ter of S. Scholastica, A. D. 1235, with
figure of the Madonna.
1566
The Santissima Casa carried by Angels, Naples-Door and Sculptured Door-
A. D. 1520.
1106, 2680
the Altar. Cent. XIII. (?)
Cathedral at Arezzo-Sculpture behind
521
BAS-RELIEFS ON BRONZE AND WOODEN
DOORS, IN CHURCHES.
Bas-relief of the seventeenth century,
carved on the wooden door of the
Church of S. Sabina.
1647
Representing several subjects from
the Bible.
Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli-Bronze
Door, by Vignola, with panel of
bas-relief. Cent. XVII. (?)
OUT OF ROME.
1933
501
PISA-Details of Bronze Doors of the
Cathedral. Cent. XII. (?)
Benevento-Cathedral-Rich Bronze
Doors at the west end, (Cent. XII.),
said to have been made at Constan-
tinople.
2684
DOORWAYS, &c., WITH SCULpture,
IN CHURCHES.
Crypt of S. Peter- A fine Door-post
of Marble, used in the Chapel of
John VII., A.D. 706, with animals,
birds, foliage, and figures. Taken
with magnesian light.2985, 2986, 2987
Sculptured Doorway of the Church of
S. Stephen in the Leonine City, or
Borgo (S. Stefano dei Mori), c. A.D.
1200.
269
way of the Church of S. Gennaro.
Cent. XV.
2134
Vico-Varo-View of the Church called
the "Tempietto," shewing the Sculp-
tured Doorway. Cent. XVI. (?) 3046
Pisa-Door of Baptistery, with Sculp-
tures. Cent. XIII. (?)
504
Various ObjeCTS FROM CHUrches,
WITH SHALLOW SCULPTURE.
Marble Seat of S. Gregory in the
Church of S. Stefano Rotondo, c. A. D.
590.
359
Marble Table at which S. Gregory fed
the poor, c. A.D. 590.
217
Well in Marble in the garden, near the
Church of S. John at the Porta La-
tina, c. A.D. 750.
263, 569
Cloister of the Lateran, c. A.D. 1300.
Well with Shallow Sculpture, c. A. D.
850.
1077
Church of S. M. de Priorato, on the
Aventine Marble Coffer, or Reli-
quary, c. A. D. 750 (?).
314
Church of S. Maria in Trastevere-
Portions of a Screen with Shallow
Sculpture, c. A. D. 800, built into the
wall of the Porch in the time of
Clement XI., A. D. 1700-1721.
1907, 1908, 1909
Paschal Candlestick in the Church of
S. Paul f.m. Cent. XIII. (?) 2018
Lions at the Door of the Church of
S. Lorenzo, f. m. c. A.D. 1220. 317
96
Photographs of Christian Sculpture in Churches.
Lateran, Cloister-Lions at the door,
&c. Cent. XIII. (?)
1720
The "Bocca de la Verita" in the Porch
of the Church of S. Maria in Cos-
medin. Cent. III. (?)
IVORY CARVINGS.
636
Ivory Pixis of the eighth century (?), (now
in the possession of Alexander Nisbet,
Esq.) It was found in Rome, and
probably came from the Church of
S. Mennas, which was near S. Paul's
f. m., representing the Legend of
S. Mennas, an Egyptian Martyr,
A. D. 304, (vide Surius).
1780, 1781, 1782, 1783
CURIOUS INCISED SLABS.
ANCONA-Figures of Saints on early
incised slabs, in the crypt of the
Cathedral. Cent. XIV. (?) 2672, 2676
Catacombs-S. Nereo. Figure of the
Good Shepherd, and a dove with the
olive-branch, the emblem of peace,
incised on a tombstone, c. A.D. 320.
Taken with magnesian light. 1617
For other incised figures and em-
blems, see Inscriptions in the Late-
ran, &c.
For additional Christian Sculptures
see Medieval Tombs, &c., in the
Churches, Nos. 316, 320, 650, 651,
1392, 1398, 1484, 1646, 1701, 1702,
1703, 1721, 1724, 1910, 1911, 1929,
2073, 2267, 2268, 2269, 2278, 2280,
2673.
See also Monsignor de Montault's
Photographs of Christian Sarcophagi,
&c., in the Ashmolean Museum.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES AT
ROME AND THE NEIGHBOURHOOD,
By C. B. SIMELLI,
COLLECTED CHIEFLY UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
MONSIGNOR X. BARBIER DE MONTAULT,
CANON OF ANAGNI, AND CHAMBERLAIN TO HIS HOLINESS PIUS IX.
Translated, with some Corrections, by Professor Westwood, for the Ashmolean
Museum, Oxfordª.
A. CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI OF THE
EARLY AGES.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
S. Maria Maggiore.
I (64)
In the centre, above-Busts of the
two deceased male personages.
In the upper row of figures-The
raising of Lazarus, Christ with S.
Peter and the cock, Moses receiving
the tables of the Law from the hand
of God, the sacrifice of Isaac inter-
rupted, Pilate washing his hands.
In the lower row-Moses striking
the rock, Daniel and the lions, Job (?)
and one of his friends, the paralytic
bearing his bed, the curing of the
blind, and the multiplication of
the loaves.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
the Lateran Museum, from the Basi-
lica of S. Paul beyond the walls.
2 (90)
In the centre, above-Two busts
(apparently unfinished) of a male and
female deceased.
In the upper row of figures-The
creation of man and woman, temp-
tation of Adam and Eve, the miracle
at the marriage of Cana, the multi-
plication of the loaves and fishes, and
the resurrection of Lazarus.
In the lower row-The adoration
of the Magi, the blind restored to
sight, Daniel with the lions, S. Peter's
denial foretold, S. Peter (?), and Mo-
ses striking the rock.
Sarcophagus of the fifth century, in
the Lateran Museum.
3 (94)
In the middle-Busts of two de-
ceased married personages.
In the upper row-The raising of
Lazarus, Peter's denial foretold, the
blind restored to sight, Moses re-
ceiving the tables of the Law, the
sacrifice of Isaac prevented, the
widow's son restored to life, Christ
in the midst of the Jews.
In the lower row-Moses striking
the rock, S. Peter or Moses arrested,
the miracle at Cana, the woman with
the bloody flux, Daniel and the lions,
the miracle of the loaves and fishes,
and the healing of the paralytic.
On the cover-The temptation of
Adam and Eve, Moses receiving the
tables of the Law, the adoration of
the Magi, two angels holding the
(uninscribed) tablet for the names of
the deceased, Noah in the ark, the
history of Jonah, and Moses striking
the rock.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
the Lateran Museum.
4 (97)
The sacrifice of Isaac prevented,
the curing of the blind, the paralytic
carrying his bed, the multiplication
of the loaves and fishes, the healing
of the woman with a bloody flux,
a This collection can be seen in that Museum. The second numbers refer to
M. Simelli's negatives of the Photographs.
H
98
Photographs of
the temptation of Adam and Eve,
the raising of the widow's son.
Sarcophagus of the fifth century, in the
Lateran Museum.
5 (95)
In the upper row of figures—A
tablet (uninscribed) for the name of
the deceased female, represented
standing in the middle of the lower
row, six sheep holding wreaths in
their mouths representing Apostles.
In the lower row--The offerings of
Cain and Abel, labour imposed on
man, the temptation of Eve, the
paralytic cured and carrying his bed,
the blind restored to sight, the mi-
racle at the marriage of Cana, the
resurrection of Lazarus.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
the Lateran Museum.
6 (89)
In the upper row of figures-The
raising of Lazarus, Moses striking the
rock, S. Peter (?) seized.
Below-The story of Jonah, thrown
into the sea, disgorged by the whale,
and asleep under the gourd; and
Noah in the ark, figures on the shore.
On the cover-Marine monsters,
tablet with the epitaph of Primitiva,
the wife of Manlius Vitellianus.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
the Lateran Museum.
7 (119)
Scenes of the vintage (an early
Christian emblem), the Good Shep-
herd (thrice repeated).
On the cover-The three children
in the fiery furnace, Noah in the ark,
tablet for inscription supported by
two angels, and bust of the deceased,
with angels supporting canopy.
Sarcophagus of the fifth century, in the
Catacomb of S. Calixtus. 8 (113)
Daniel and the lions, Christ and
the elders (?), the miracle of Cana,
the raising of Lazarus.
On the lid Noah in the ark, two
angels supporting tablet (not in-
scribed), figure holding a scroll,
masks at the angles.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, in
the Lateran Museum.
9 (69)
Moses striking the rock, S. Peter (?)
seized by two men, Christ with S.
Peter and the cock, the paralytic
bearing his bed, Christ and the
elders, the blind restored to sight,
the miracle of Cana, and the multi-
plication of the loaves.
Sarcophagus of the fifth century, against
the wall of the Lateran Museum.
10 (93)
The bearing of the Cross, Christ
crowned with thorns, the Labarum
with two doves guarded by two
soldiers, Christ before Pilate, wash-
ing of the hands of Pilate. Bas-relief
inserted in the wall above, repre-
senting reading and praying figures,
and an Agape or sacred feast.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, at
the Randanini Palace in the Corso.
II (70)
A female praying, an aged man
reading to a female, and the Good
Shepherd, separated by the strigil
ornament.
Pagan Sarcophagus of the fourth cen-
tury, in the Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
12 (85)
A lion hunt.
Sarcophagus of the fourth century, with
Strigils, in the Catacomb of S. Ca-
lixtus.
13 (81)
The Good Shepherd and a praying
female.
Pagan Sarcophagus of the second cen-
tury, in the Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
14 (87)
Two winged genii holding the bust
of the deceased, and two others hold-
ing reversed torches, two tigers, with
cornucopiæ below.
On the lid-Marine monsters (and
uninscribed tablet).
Sarcophagus of the fifth century, in the
Lateran Museum.
15 (92)
The sacrifice of Isaac; Christ
Christian Antiquities at Rome.
99
seated, His feet resting on the world
(personified), giving the law to His
disciples; Christ before Pilate, who
is washing his hands.
Strigillated Sarcophagus of the fourth
century, in the Catacomb of S. Ca-
lixtus.
16 (117)
Christ teaching, and the Good
Shepherd (twice repeated).
Lid of a Sarcophagus of the fourth cen-
tury, in the Vicolo di Gesu e Maria.
17 (118)
Jonah cast to the whale, and asleep
on the shore.
Lid of Sarcophagus of the fourth cen-
tury, in the Palazzo Corsetti. 18 (121)
Bust of the deceased, genii hold-
ing drapery, tablet with inscription,
and shepherds with dog and sheep.
The Inscription and the Shepherds of
the last photograph enlarged.
19 (121*)
Fragments of Sarcophagus of the fourth
century, in the Palazzo Corsetti.
20 (122*)
The Good Shepherd (twice re-
peated), one with the hand of God
at the side; shepherd seated under
a screen of straw, with two sheep.
Fragments of Sarcophagus of the fourth
century, in the Palazzo Corsetti.
21 (122)
Shepherds with sheep; in the
centre, Job (?) and his friends.
Lid of Sarcophagus of the fourth cen-
tury, in the Palazzo Corsetti. 22 (120)
Jonah asleep on the shore under
the gourd; an Agape, or sacred
feast; the loaves marked with the
Cross. (See No. 54.)
Fragment of Sarcophagus of the fourth
century, in the Catacomb of S. Ca.
lixtus.
23 (116)
Shepherds and sheep, the deceased
female in the attitude of prayer.
End of Sarcophagus of the fourth cen-
tury, in the Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
24 (115)
The Good Shepherd represented
as the juvenile type of Christ.
Fragments of Sarcophagi in the Cata-
comb of S. Calixtus, fourth century.
25 (114)
The radiated head of the sun, por-
tion of a figure with uplifted hand,
shepherd and sheep.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, in the Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
26 (112)
Cupid and Psyche; a barrel, in-
dicating a wine-seller (in the midst
of strigils); genius of one of the sea-
sons (?).
Portion of the support of a Sarcophagus,
fourth century, in the Catacomb of
S. Calixtus.
27 (111)
Shepherd and sheep, a mask at
the base.
Another portion of the support of the
same Sarcophagus as No. 27, with
similar subject.
28 (110)
Fragments of Sarcophagus and of in-
scribed stones used for closing Lo-
culi, in Catacomb of S. Calixtus,
fourth century.
29 (109)
Gathering grapes, the Good Shep-
herd, Noah with the dove holding
the olive-branch, a female in the at-
titude of prayer, with two sheep.
Fragments of the lid of a Sarcophagus,
Catacomb of S. Calixtus, fourth cen-
tury.
30 (108)
Jonah cast to the whale; one of
the three children in the fiery fur-
nace; at the angles are heads of
SS. Peter and Paul.
Fragment of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus. 31 (84)
Bust of the deceased supported by
two angels, Cupid and Psyche em-
bracing; the Good Shepherd.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
32 (107)
An Agape, the raising of Lazarus,
the Good Shepherd, Hebrews catch-
ing the water from the rock struck
by Moses.
100
Photographs of
Fragments of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
33 (106)
Genii playing with balls. On the
lid-Genii with torches.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
34 (105)
Daniel with the lions, the Good
Shepherd, Christ with outstretched
hand raising Lazarus, winged genius
supporting bust of deceased, mono-
gram.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
35 (104)
The Good Shepherd, story of
Jonah, a praying female.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, S. Calixtus.
Pastoral subjects.
36 (103)
Fragments of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, S. Calixtus.
37 (102)
Sacrifice of Isaac.
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, S. Calixtus.
38 (101)
Inscription supported by Genii,
Genii playing with circular discs.
Lids of Sarcophagi, with inscriptions,
fourth century, S. Calixtus. 39 (100)
Fragments of Sarcophagi, fourth cen-
tury, S. Calixtus.
40 (99
Greek inscription, with dolphins ;
an Agape, or love-feast.
Fragments, fourth century, S. Calixtus.
41 (98)
Noah in the ark receiving the
dove, the story of Jonah, Abraham
with the knife.
Broken Sarcophagus, fourth century,
S. Calixtus.
42 (96)
Christ foretelling the denial of S.
Peter, a female praying between SS.
Peter and Paul, curing of the man
born blind, the miracle of the loaves,
raising of Lazarus.
Strigillated Sarcophagus in the Lateran
Museum, fourth century. 43 (91)
Busts of the deceased, male and
female; pastoral scene; on the lid,
inscription, with dolphins; on the
wall above are affixed a number of
inscriptions, with dates.
Fragment of a strigillated Sarcophagus,
fourth century.
44 (174)
A female praying figure, from the
diggings at Porto.
Fragment of a strigillated Sarcophagus,
fourth century.
45 (176)
A female praying figure, Jonah
under the gourd, pastoral group,
from the diggings at Porto.
Fragment of a Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, in the Palazzo Randanini.
46 (65)
Jonah cast into the sea.
Fragment of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, in the Villa Borghesi. 47 (68)
An Agape. Monsignor Barbier de
Montault suggests that this may be
pagan, but the loaves are marked
with a cross, just like our common
"Hot cross buns."
Fragment of Sarcophagus, third cen-
tury, Catacomb of S. Calixtus.
48 (71)
Genii holding a medallion and gar-
lands.
Ends of Sarcophagi, third century,
S. Calixtus.
49 (82*)
Military trophies.
Two Fragments of Covers of Sarco-
phagi, S. Calixtus.
50 (83)
Dolphins and marine monsters.
Sarcophagus, third century, S. Calixtus.
51 (72)
Genii holding torches and a me-
dallion, two tigers with cornucopiæ.
(Comp. No. 14.)
Fragment of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, S. Calixtus.
52 (88)
Ulysses tied to the mast of a ship
to prevent him succumbing to the
seductions of the Sirens.
Epitaph, Lateran Museum, fifth cen-
tury.
53 (86)
The raising of Lazarus; Elijah as-
cending to heaven, and casting his
mantle to Elisha; the adoration of
the Magi.
Christian Antiquities at Rome.
ΙΟΙ
Fragment of Cover of a Sarcophagus,
fourth century, Palazzo Corsetti.
54 (120*)
An Agape. (Comp. No. 22, re-
presenting the whole of the same
fragment.)
Strigillated Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, excavations of Porto. 55 (175)
Medallion, with portrait of de-
ceased.
Fragment of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury, Palazzo Randanini. 56 (67)
Genii gathering grapes.
Fragment of Sarcophagus, fourth cen-
tury.
57 (66)
History of Jonah.
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS.
GLASS WARE IN THE CHRISTIAN MU-
SEUM OF THE VATICAN.
Small Glass Jug (Burette), and Cup on
a Pedestal, from the Catacombs.
MOSAICS.
The Head of the Virgin, from Ravenna,
purchased at Rome in 1862 for the
Museum of Moscow, seventh century.
63 (63)
Head of Christ, the work of an im-
postor in the sixteenth century; pre-
tended to have been found in the
Catacombs; Christian Museum of
the Vatican.
64 (59)
OBJECTS IN THE BYZANTINE STYLE.
Bronze Pectoral Cross for holding relics ;
Vatican Museum. 65 (46 and 46*)
On the front face, Christ on the
Cross, with the Virgin and S. John;
on the reverse, the Virgin, and busts
of the four Evangelists.
Iron Cross, the middle of the stem and
arms, with an open-work Inscription
in Greek letters; Vatican Museum.
66 (45)
Triptych of Gold, containing a frag-
ment of the true Cross, with inscrip-
tions in Greek, and the figure of the
donor in the lower corner, supported
by angels in the clouds; Treasury of
the Basilica of S. Peter.
59 (25)
58 (24)
Vase, termed Gabathum, with loops.
for suspension; and Cup, from the
Catacombs.
SCULPTURE IN MARBLE.
The Statue, called that of S. Hippo-
lytus, with a paschal cycle inscribed
on the side of the chair, in the Late-
ran Museum.
60 (28)
On the wall, portion of a sarco-
phagus, with Moses striking the rock,
and S. Peter (?) seized.
SCULPTURE IN WOOD.
The Episcopal Chair of the thirteenth
century, in the Cathedral of Anagni.
61 (147)
seum.
A Carved Wooden Triptych, German
work, fifteenth century, Vatican Mu-
62 (23)
The Annunciation and Crucifixion,
with fourteen Saints in niches.
67 (57)
Reverse of the same Triptych, with
embossed ornamental designs. (See
Nos. 122 and 138.)
68 (56)
Ivory of twelfth century (described in
69
the Section of Carved Ivories).
The Crucifixion of S. Peter, enamelled
on copper, seventeenth century, Vati-
can Museum.
70 (39)
Decapitation of S. Paul, enamelled on
copper, seventeenth century, com-
panion of No. 70; Vatican Museum.
71 (40)
Carved Ivory Box (described in the
Section of Carved Ivories). 72 & 73
Two Crosses of sandal-wood, elabo-
rately sculptured with scenes of the
Passion and Crucifixion, from Mount
Athos, used by the Priest in the act
of benediction; modern; Vatican
Museum.
74 (54)
102
Photographs of
Reverse of the two wooden Crosses in
No. 74, sculptured with the Baptism
of Christ and various Saints. (See
also Nos. 187 and 188.)
75 (55)
ARTICLES IN Bronze, Iron,
AND LEAD.
Three Lamps of Bronze, with their
chains for suspension, from the Cata-
combs; in the Christian Museum of
the Vatican.
76 (35)
Each bears the emblem of the
Cross on the handle, the largest spe-
cimen having it transformed into the
conventional monogram of the name
of Christ, with the cross-bar hori-
zontal, not X shaped. One also
has the dove on the handle, as seen
also in the following example.
Bronze Lamp, with monogram of Christ
and the dove, Vatican Museum, fifth
century.
77 (36)
Bronze Lamp, with monogram of Christ,
and the Alpha and Omega in open-
work surrounded by a wreath, fourth
century, Vatican Museum. 78 (60)
Two Lamps (represented separately in
Nos. 77 and 78) and a Liturgical
Instrument of beaten iron-work, used
for tinkling at the elevation of the
host, fifteenth century (?), Vatican
Museum.
79 (32)
The Liturgical Instrument represented
in the preceding plate, fifteenth cen-
tury (?), Vatican Museum.
80 (37)
Four Leaden Ampullæ, named as those
of S. Gregory the Great, formerly
used for containing the oil burnt
before the tombs of the martyrs,
with Greek inscriptions; Treasury
of Monza.
81 (77)
Reverses of the four preceding Am-
pullæ.
82 (78)
Four other Ampullæ of the same kind,
from the Treasury of Monza. 83 (79)
Reverses of the four last Ampullæ.
84 (80)
The Ascension of our Lord, the
elevation of the rood, and the Virgin
and Child, are represented on them.
A plaque of lead, with figure of Bishop
Blasius formed of raised lines, from
the roof of the ancient basilica of
S. Peter, fifteenth century, Vatican
Museum.
85 (38)
GOLDSMITH'S WORK.
Silver-gilt Cross, with jewels, given by
the Emperor Justinus to the Basilica
of S. Peter, sixth century, inscribed-
Ligno quo Christus humanum sub-
didit hostem
66
Dat Romæ Justinus opem et socia
decorem."
86 (41)
Reverse of the Cross of Justinus, with
Medallions of the Emperor and his
Empress Sophia, and the Paschal
Lamb.
87 (42)
Two Phials of embossed silver (seventh
century), used for holding the oil
burnt before the Altars of the Apo-
stles, in the Vatican Museum. 88 (26)
On one, the head of Christ; on
the other, the head of S. Peter.
Reverse of the two Phials in the pre-
ceding plate, with the heads of
Christ and S. Paul; cruet of em-
bossed silver, fifth century. 89 (27)
Various metal objects in the Christian
Museum of the Vatican-a Crucifix
of the eleventh century, the head
crowned, and the feet apart, each
separately nailed; four Spoons; two
glass Medallions; six Rings, and
a Seal of the early Christian period.
90 (18)
A Bronze Reliquary Crucifix, twelfth
century, S. Charles at Catinari.
91 (53)
Reverse of the same Crucifix, with in-
scription enumerating the relics con-
tained in its interior.
92 (53*)
Three Censers, of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, and of the Re-
naissance period; Vatican Museum.
93
Processional Crucifix of Silver, with
Christian Antiquities at Rome.
103
trefoil ends, thirteenth century, at
Anagni.
94 (124)
Christ with the four Evangelical
symbols, and sun and moon.
Reverse of the same Crucifix, with the
Agnus Dei.
95 (125)
Processional Crucifix, fourteenth cen-
tury, at Anticoli Corrado. 96 (177)
Christ crucified between the Virgin
and S. John, two Angels; above, is
the Agnus Dei, and below, the figure
of Adam (?).
Reverse of the same Crucifix. 97 (178)
Christ seated, with four small at-
tendant Angels, and the four Evan-
gelical symbols within trefoils.
Processional Crucifix, fourteenth cen-
tury, in the Vatican Museum. 98 (50)
Crucifixion between the Virgin and
S. John, an Angel above and Adam
below within trefoils.
Reverse of the same Crucifix. 99 (51)
Christ seated, with the four Evan-
gelical symbols.
Monstrance of Copper-gilt, fourteenth
century, Vatican Museum. 100 (180)
Censer of Silver, given by Boniface
VIII. to the Basilica of Anagni, end
of thirteenth century. IOI (146)
Crucifix of Copper, in the Museum of
the Collegio Romano, fourteenth cen-
tury.
102 (43)
Crucifixion between the Virgin and
S. John, and two Angels.
Reverse of the same Crucifix. 103 (44)
Christ seated, with the Evangelical
symbols as human figures, each with
its proper symbolical head.
Processional Crucifix, fourteenth cen-
tury, Vatican Museum.
104 (52)
Crucifixion between the Virgin and
S. John, with an Angel above and
Adam at the foot, and four enamelled
Medallions.
Foot of a Chalice, employed as a Mon-
Enamelled Ciborium, fourteenth cen-
tury; Monstrance and Chalice, four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries; Vati-
can Museum.
106 (33)
Altar Crucifix of Copper-gilt, with Me-
dallions in translucent enamel, given
by Charles le Temeraire, Duke of
Burgundy, to Cardinal Capranica,
fifteenth century, Basilica of S. Croce
in Gerusalemme.
107 (61)
Foot of the same Cross, with Coats of
Arms.
108 (62)
Pyramidal Censer in the Renaissance
style (also represented in No. 93),
Vatican Museum.
109 (181)
Three Reliquaries of the fifteenth cen-
tury, in the Cathedral of Anagni.
IIO (149)
Reliquary in the Renaissance style,
Vatican Museum.
III (179)
Reliquary in the Renaissance style,
containing one of the pieces of silver
of Judas, given by Cardinal Carvajal
to the Basilica of S. Croce in Geru-
salemme.
112 (31)
Silver Medallion, attributed to Benve-
nuto Cellini, sixteenth century, Apo-
theosis of Charles V., Library of the
Vatican.
113 (58)
ENAMEL WORK.
Crucifix of thirteenth century, in the
Vatican Museum.
114 (17)
Above, is the hand of God in the
act of benediction; below, Adam
rising from the tomb.
Enamelled Casket, thirteenth century,
from the Basilica of Anagni.
115 (151)
Martyrdom and burial of Thomas
à Becket.
The same Casket, of reduced size, with
the two ends.
116, 117, and 117* (150, 150*)
strance, with enamelled Medallions,
fourteenth century, at the Basilica of The back view of the same Casket.
S. Croce in Gerusalemme. 105 (30)
118 (152)
104
Photographs of
Metal Cross of thirteenth century, in
the Vatican Museum.
119 (49)
In the centre, Christ in the act
of blessing; at the four ends, the
Evangelical symbols, winged.
Head of Pastoral-staff of thirteenth cen-
tury, in the Vatican Museum, with
the scene of the Annunciation in the
volute.
120 (34)
Head of Pastoral-staff, with the volute
terminating in the head of a dragon,
thirteenth century, in the Treasury
of the Basilica of Anagni. 121 (148)
IVORIES.
Head of a Pastoral-staff, with the volute
terminating in the head of a dragon,
twelfth century, Treasury of the Ba-
silica of Anagni.
122 (148)
Leaf of a Diptych, reduced in size; in
the British Museum.
123 (5)
Angel holding a sceptre and the
globe of the world.
Four plaques of Ivory of the fifth
(seventh ?) century, in the British
Museum.
124 (20)
1. Christ bearing the Cross, with
Pilate washing his hands; 2. The
Crucifixion, and Judas hanging him-
self; 3. The Holy Sepulchre, with
the women and soldiers; 4. The in-
credulity of S. Thomas.
Scenes of the Creation, Temptation, and
Expulsion from Paradise, eleventh
century (?), Museum of Berlin.
125 (6)
Devotional Tablet, eleventh (?) cen-
tury, in the Museum of the Vatican.
126 (19)
Scenes of the Nativity and of the
women worshipping the risen Sa-
viour, with an Angel seated; on the
side-pieces (evidently spurious) SS.
Peter and Philip.
Front of Ivory Book - cover, in the
Vatican Museum (of very doubtful
authenticity).
127 (7)
The Crucifixion, with the Virgin
and S. John, surrounded by busts of
Saints, sun and moon, and the four
Evangelical symbols in the angles.
The reverse of the same Book-cover.
128 (8)
With the Virgin and Child seated
between Cherubims; God the Father,
with outstretched arms, in the clouds,
surrounded by busts of Saints.
Front of Ivory Book-cover, in the Vati-
can Museum (of very doubtful authen-
ticity).
129 (9)
The Holy Lamb in the centre,
with the Evangelical symbols at the
corners, and busts of Saints.
The other side of the same Book-cover.
130 (10)
An Angel in the centre, surrounded
by busts of Saints.
Devotional Tablet, in the Vatican Mu-
seum (doubtful).
131 (21)
Christ seated within the Vesica
Piscis, supported by the Cherubim
and Seraphim,
Triptych of the end of thirteenth cen-
tury, in the Museum of the Vatican.
132 (16)
Coronation of the Virgin.
Scenes of the life of the Virgin, in eight
compartments, on four leaves, French
work of fourteenth century, in the
Vatican Museum.
133 (22)
Diptych, fourteenth century, in the
Vatican Museum.
134 (3)
With twelve scenes, from the An-
nunciation to the final glorification
of the Saviour in heaven.
Diptych, fourteenth century, in the
Vatican Museum.
The Birth of Christ, adoration of
the Magi, Crucifixion, and corona-
tion of the Virgin.
135 (2)
Three plaques, representing the Corona-
tion of the Virgin, thirteenth, four-
teenth, and fifteenth centuries, in the
Vatican Museum.
136 (13)
Leaf of a Diptych, fourteenth century;
the Annunciation, the Angel appear-
Christian Antiquities at Rome.
105
ing to the Shepherds, and the Adora-
tion of the Magi; two plaques, with
our Lady of Grief, and the Cruci-
fixion, fifteenth (?) century, in the
Vatican Museum,
137 (11)
Triptych, with the Crucifixion of Christ
and the two Thieves in the centre;
on the wings, the Resurrection, and
the Virgin shewing the Holy Child
to the eleven Apostles, fifteenth cen-
tury: Byzantine plaque of Christ
standing between the Virgin and
S. John, twelfth century: Leaf of
a Diptych (of French work), with
the adoration of the Magi, the Pre-
sentation in the Temple, Christ
rising from the tomb, and the "Noli
me tangere," fourteenth century: two
small plaques, with the Ascension,
the descent of the Holy Ghost, the
death and coronation of the Virgin,
fifteenth century; the name ACERII,
in open-work of the third or fourth
century. All in the Vatican Museum.
138 (1)
Ivory plaque of open-work (Spanish?),
fifteenth century, in the Vatican Mu-
139 (12)
With scenes of the Passion, Re-
surrection, and descent into Hades.
Christ seated between two Saints, Mu-
seum of Moscow, of doubtful authen-
ticity.
140 (15)
Leaves of a Tabernacle, in the Vatican
Museum, sixteenth century. 141 (14)
seum.
Scenes of the lives of S. Anne and
the Virgin, in sixteen compartments.
Byzantine Ivory of the twelfth century,
in the Vatican Museum. 69 (4)
The Birth of Christ and adoration
of the Shepherds, with the Infant
washed by SS. Anastasia and Sa-
lome.
A Russian Panagia, or saucer-shaped
Box, for holding the consecrated
bread, seventeenth century, in the
Museum of the Vatican. 72 (18)
With the Crucifixion and full-
length figures and busts of Saints.
I
A similar Box, in the Museum of the
Vatican.
73 (17)
The Holy Trinity, under the sem-
blance of the three Angels visiting
Abraham, with ten scenes of the life
and death of Christ; the other side,
with the Virgin and Child surrounded
by busts of Saints.
EMBROIDERY WORK.
The whole of the following objects, ex-
ecuted in Embroidery, are preserved
in the treasury of the Cathedral of
Anagni, and have been carefully de-
scribed by Monsignor Barbier de
Montault, Canon of Anagni, in his
t
Monographie" of this Basilica
(Paris, 1858), and have been photo-
graphed from the originals.
Mitre of the thirteenth century, with
figures of SS. Thomas of Canterbury
and Nicholas; Mitre of white woollen
material, with embroidered orfrey,
Byzantine work of the twelfth or
thirteenth century.
Antependium of Altar.
142 (123)
143 (126)
Thus described in the Inventory of
Boniface VIII., thirteenth century:
'Unum dossale pro altari, laboratum
cum acu ad aurum battutum cum
ymaginibus Crucifixi et beate Vir-
ginis et plurium aliorum sanctorum
et in circuitu cum rotis ad grifos et
pappagallos."
Portion of the same.
144 (127)
With full-length figures of SS. Bar-
tholomew, John the Evangelist, and
Paul.
Other portion of the same. 145 (128)
The Virgin and Child, with two
angels holding censers without chains
in their hands.
Other portion of the same. 146 (129)
With full-length figures of SS.
Peter, James the Great, and another
Apostle.
Other portion of the same. 147 (130)
The baptism and stoning of S. Paul.
106
Photographs of
Other portion of the same.
Decollation of S. Paul
fixion of our Lord.
Other portion of the same.
148 (131)
and Cruci-
149 (132)
The crucifixion of S. Peter, and
his meeting with Christ the
Appian Way.
Other portion of the same.
on
150 (133)
The Meeting of Jesus and Peter on
the Appian Way, Healing of the Sick-
Man at the Gate of the Temple.
Hanging of Altar with the Tree of Life.
151 (134)
Thus described in the Inventory
of Boniface VIII.: "Unum dossale
ad aurum cum arbore vite cum mon-
tili de opere theotonico."
Portion of the same.
152 (135)
Prophets announcing the Death of
Christ, and symbolical foliage, with
inscription.
Another portion of the same. 153 (137)
The symbolical foliage on the right
side of the same.
Another portion of the same. 154 (136)
Christ on the Cross, inscribed,
"Hec est arbor vite;" with the peli-
"Similis factus sum pelicano
can,
solitudinis.
Back of the Chasuble of Boniface VIII. :
on the orfrey are busts of seven Apo-
stles.
155 (145)
Thus described in his Inventory :
"Una planeta de samito laborato de
auro cum acu, ad leones, pappagal-
los, grifos et aquilas cum geminis
capitibus et aurifrisio de sancto, la-
borato de auro ad ymagines genea-
logie Salvatoris cum pernis et lapi-
dibus pretiosis."
Front of the same Chasuble, with busts
of the ancestors of Christ on the
orfrey.
156 (143)
Upper part of the orfrey of the front
of the same Chasuble, with bust of
Christ.
157 (144)
Back of a Chasuble of Boniface VIII.,
thirteenth century, cut out of a Dal-
matic.
158 (140)
Thus described in the Inventory of
this Pope: "Una dalmatica contexta
de auro, argento et serica cum octua-
ginta duobus plactis de auro et pernis
ad ystoriam beati Nicolaj."
Front of the same Chasuble, with con-
tinuation of the same history.
159 (138)
Portion of the same Chasuble. 160 (139)
Offering of a vase of gold to S.
Nicholas, and the healing of a man
possessed with a devil.
Another portion of the same. 161 (142)
Obsequies of S. Nicholas.
Another portion of the same. 162 (141)
S. Nicholas invested with the mitre
and pastoral-staff.
Dalmatic of the thirteenth century, con-
taining representations of the Passions
of different Saints; the sleeves with
scenes of the Life of S. Nicholas.
163 (153)
Thus described in the Inventory of
Boniface VIII.: "Una dalmatica cum
diversis passionibus sanctorum, ad
ymagines Salvatoris et Virginis in
pectorali, et foderata sennato viridi."
Portion of the same.
164 (154)
An Angel playing on the psal-
terion, the martyrdom of S. Catherine
of Alexandria, S. Margaret beating
the Devil, an Angel holding a crown.
The front of the same Dalmatic, with
similar subjects.
165 (155)
Another Dalmatic, of the same date,
with similar subjects.
166 (158)
The back of the same Dalmatic.
Portion of the same.
167 (156)
168 (157)
An Angel blowing a trumpet, the
martyrdom of S. Agatha, the Holy
Trinity.
Chasuble of Boniface VIII. formed
into a Cope.
169 (162)
Thus described in his Inventory :
"Una planeta contexta ad aurum et
de serico, de ystoria Salvatoris; Ab
Christian Antiquities at Rome.
107
annuntiatione beate Virginis et nati-
vitate Christi usque ad Resurrectio-
nem et de assumptione beate Vir-
ginis. Et foderata sennato rubro
cum aurifrisio ex parte ante cum
pernis."
Portion of the same.
The Crucifixion.
Portion of the same.
The deposition from the Cross.
Portion of the same.
179 (165 c)
180 (171 B)
181 (173)
Jesus laid in the Tomb.
Portion of the same.
182 (169 c)
170 (163)
The "Noli me tangere."
Portion of the same.
183 (172)
Scenes of the Lives of the Saviour
and the Virgin.
Portion of the same.
The Annunciation, the Visitation,
the Nativity, and the appearance of
the Angel to the Shepherds.
Portion of the same.
171 (164)
The Magi on horseback and before
Herod.
Portion of the same.
172 (165 c)
Adoration of the Magi.
Portion of the same.
173 (171 B)
Angel appearing to the Magi.
Portion of the same.
174 (173 c)
Murder of the Innocents.
Portion of the same.
175 (169)
Presentation in the Temple.
Portion of the same.
176 (170)
Jesus found in the Temple by His
Mother, Flight into Egypt, Parable
of the Sower.
Portion of the same.
The descent into Hades, the Women
at the Sepulchre, the Ascension.
Portion of the same.
The death of the Virgin.
Portion of the same.
184 (169 B)
185 (168)
The assumption and coronation of
the Virgin.
Portion of the same, two Angels with
censers; the triangle at the top with
figure of the Virgin and Child, shews
the aperture for the head. 186 (165 B)
Portion of a Byzantine orfrey. 187 (159)
SS. Basil, Nicholas, and Gregory
Nazianzen.
Portion of the same orfrey.
188 (166)
S. John Baptist, Christ, and the
Virgin.
Portion of an Alb.
177 (167)
Judas receiving the reward of his
treachery, the Betrayal, Pilate wash-
ing his hands, the flagellation.
Portion of the same.
178 (166)
Christ beaten, and bearing His
Cross.
189 (161)
Thus described in the Inventory
of Boniface VIII. : Alba cum pec-
torali ad aurum, cum imagine beate
Virginis fugientis in Egyptum."
The flight into Egypt.
THE
ARCHEOLOGY OF
OF ROME,
BY
JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B.
HON. M. A. OXON., F.S. A. Lond. ;
KEEPER OF THE ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF Oxford,
In separate Volumes, each complete in itself.
PART I.
THE PRIMITIVE FORTIFICATIONS,
AND BUILDINGS OF THE TIME of the Kings, with Plates in Photo-
engraving, Plans-and Diagrams.
Second Edition, nearly ready.
This includes diagrams of the First Wall of Ronie on the Palatine Hill, called
ROMA QUADRATA—of the Second Wall of Rome, which enclosed the two hills
(Palatine and Capitoline) in one city-and of the Third Wall of Rome, that of
Servius Tullius, which enclosed the Seven Hills (each previously fortified sepa-
rately) in one city, with sections of important points.
2.
THE WALLS AND GATES OF ROME,
Of the time of the Empire and the Popes, with Twenty Plates
in Photo-engraving, Plans, and Diagrams.
Second Edition, nearly ready.
These diagrams give plans of the older earthworks on which the Wall of Aurelian
was built,—and small views of the most perfect parts of the wall with its bastions
and gates. This volume also contains the two parts of a CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
of Buildings in ROME-I. from the earliest period to the time of Constantine,
A.D. 340.—2. from that time to the year 1600.
3. THE HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS,
With Plates in Photo-engraving, Plans, and Diagrams, Second
Edition, in the Press.
This shews the different modes of construction according to Vitruvius, that is,
the visible construction on the surface of the wall, and how to distinguish the
three periods of the Walls of the Kings, and the centuries in the time of the
Empire, on the principle of comparison with historical types.
These three Parts were issued as Vol. I., with the Plates separate, in order to
avoid mere pamphlets, and to be more convenient for use.
2
Archaeology of Rome.
+
4.
THE EGYPTIAN OBELISKS,
AND SUPPLEMENT to the first edition of Parts I. and II.,
with Twenty-eight Plates. Medium 8vo., cloth, 10s. 6d.
The part on the Obelisks gives English translations of the hieroglyphics, which
contain the history of each obelisk in Egypt, and of the Latin inscriptions which
record their removal to Rome.
Part II. The Supplement contains also an additional account of the first three
Walls of Rome, and chietly objects found in the excavations made after the work
was published, many of them now destroyed or buried again.
5.
6.
THE FORUM ROMANUM, AND
THE VIA SACRA,
With Forty-six Plates and Two Plans. The Two Parts in one
Volume. 8vo., cloth, 15s. These two Parts were issued as Vol. II.
“.... Mr. Parker's work, though by no means faultless, is not the less of
very great value in the interpretation of these grand scenes, and as such we com-
mend it to our readers.”—The Times, October 21, 1876.
"It treats only of the two contiguous areas of the Forum Romanum and the
Via Sacra; but these are exhaustively treated, and the volume is full of new and
striking matter. No future student of Roman topography will be able to dispense
with it. Mr. Parker has deserved the gratitude both of historians and antiqua-
rians for what he has already done, and he has our best wishes that life and
strength may be given him to finish his great task successfully."—The Guardian,
June 13, 1877.
'Although a newspaper is not perhaps the best medium for a notice of such
a work as this, yet its importance is such that it is of interest for the whole civil-
ized world. After Mr. Parker had devoted the greater part of his career to the
revival of Christian and medieval art with the most successful results, he has
since taken up his winter residence in Rome, and thrown himself with zeal upon
the exploration of the monuments of the former masters of the world which had
been preserved, and with equal success he has opened out quite a new track.".
Dr. Reichensperger in the Deutschen Reichts-Zeitung, June 7, 1877.
7.
THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME
Compared with other Amphitheatres; with Thirty-six Plates.
Medium 8vo., cloth, 10s. 6d.
The photo-engravings in this volume give-first the colossal building above
ground, then the substructures 21 ft. below the level of the arena, brought to
light by the great excavations in 1875, with views and plans of the amphitheatres
at Capua, Pozzuoli, and Pompeii; also the graffiti of the second century.
“The task undertaken by the venerable author, who holds the position of
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum of History and Antiquities in the University
of Oxford, was far from easy. That he has, however, accomplished it in a man-
ner most creditable to himself, and demonstrative of sustained energy and patient
industry, are plainly evident. The Colosseum at Rome has always proved
a unique object of interest. This vast edifice-the majestic ruins of which adorn
the Italian capital—was not, as tradition asserts, raised in ten years, during the
time of the Flavian dynasty. On the contrary, it took more than a century to
erect; the ponderous work, on the testimony of Pliny, having been commenced by
Scaurus, the step-son of Sylla the Dictator. . . . . Mr. Parker is entitled to much
praise for the marked ability and erudition he has displayed in this his latest
literary production.”—The Echo, October 25, 1876.
Archæology of Rome.
3
8.
THE AQUEDUCTS OF ROME,
Traced from their Sources to their Mouths, with Thirty-six Plates,
Maps, and Plans. Medium 8vo., cloth, 15s.
In this volume each stream is traced back to its sources in the hills and down
again to its mouth, with views and plans and details along the line at the most
important points. No city was ever so well supplied with water as ancient Rome,
the manner in which this was done is here fully explained. Each of the four-
teen different streams of water was conveyed to Rome, and through Rome to the
Tiber, in a separate channel or conduit, technically called a specus, because it was
at first a tunnel only, and it always continued to be a tunnel through the hills, but
across the valleys it was carried on arches. The latest and highest of the great
aqueducts was made by Frontinus, who was appointed by Caligula, A. D. 40, and
was the head of them for many years; he has left an admirable account of
them. This great aqueduct was of the time of Nero, and so contrived that the
water from it would supply any of the others in case of need; this water was
conveyed into all the fourteen Regiones of Rome, and it could never fail, being
in fact a branch of the river Anio.
X9.
THE TOMBS IN AND NEAR ROME,
With the Columbaria and the Painted Tombs on the Via Latina,
with Twenty-four Plates in Photo-engraving.
10. Mythology in Funereal Sculpture, and Early Christian Sculpture,
with Sixteen Plates. These two Parts in one Volume.
II.
Medium 8vo., cloth, 15s.-Now ready.
CHURCH AND ALTAR DECORATIONS IN ROME,
Including Mosaic Pictures and Cosmati Work, with Twenty Plates
and numerous Diagrams. Medium 8vo., cloth, 10s. 6d.
This gives a Chronological series of the Mosaic Pictures in the Churches, and
the ornamentation of the altars in the thirteenth century.
12.
THE CATACOMBS,
OR ANCIENT CEMETERIES OF ROME, with Twenty-four Plates and
Plans. Medium 8vo., cloth, 15s.-Now ready.
Shewing their construction, and the Fresco Paintings from photographs taken
with the light of Magnesium, the only authentic representations of them.
Also the Gilt Glass Vases.
13.
EARLY AND MEDIEVAL CASTLES,
OR PALACES AND GARDENS, with Sixteen Plates and Plans.
Also a complete account of the Excavations in Rome from 1860
to the present time. In the Press.
"Each new work he issues adds materially to the stock of our knowledge of
what ancient Rome must have been really like, and tends to clear away many
of the errors into which scholars as well as the public have been led by too ready
a reliance on the dicta of the many distinguished men who have devoted their
abilities to the study of Roman topography."—Athenæum,
OXFORD: JAMES PARKER and Co. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY.
A SELECTION OF
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS,
FROM MR. PARKER'S SERIES:
In Quarto Volumes, neatly bound in Cloth, with gilt edges, for presents,
at prices varying from £1 10s. to £3, according to the number of
Photographs in each Volume.
The Photographs are also sold separately, at 1s. each, unmounted.
These can be obtained by ordering the Numbers of Mr. STANFORD,
usually in a week.
THE WALLS OF THE KINGS ON THE HILLS OF ROME,
AND SIMILAR WALLS IN OTHER ANCIENT CITIES OF ITALY
FOR COMPARISON.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
THE WALLS AND GATES OF ROME, OF THE TIME OF
THE EMPIRE AND OF THE POPES.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
THE HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTION OF Walls,
FROM THE TIME OF THE KINGS OF ROME TO THE MIDDLE AGES,
SHEWING HISTORICAL TYPES OF EACH PERIOD.
Thirty-two Photographs, £2. 25.
THE AQUEDUCTS, FROM THEIR SOURCES TO THEIR MOUTHS.
Forty Photographs, £2. 10s.
THE CATACOMBS, OR CEMETERIES OF ROME,
THEIR CONSTRUCTION, AND THE FRESCO PAINTINGS IN THEM,
TAKEN WITH THE LIGHT OF MAGNESIUM.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
FORUM ROMANUM.
Twenty Photographs, £1. 10s,
THE COLOSSEUM.
Twenty Photographs, £1. 10s.
OR A MORE COMPLETE SET.
Forty-four Photographs, £2. 145.
THE PALATINE HILL.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
Historical Photographs.
5
SCULPTURE STATUES.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
SCULPTURE-BAS-RELIEFS.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
PAGAN SARCOPHAGI.
Thirty Photographs, £2.
CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI.
Twenty Photographs, £1. 10s.
MOSAIC PICTURES UP TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
AND FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Forty Photographs, £2. 10s.
FRESCO PAINTINGS.
Forty-one Photographs, £2. 1OS.
CHURCH AND ALTAR DECORATIONS-COSMATI WORK.
Twenty Photographs, £1. 10s.
REMAINS OF THE CITY OF PCMPEII.
Twenty Photographs, £1. 10s.
Also in Quarto, price Five Guineas, in Cloth,
ONE HUNDRED OF THE ABOVE,
SELECTED AS THE BEST AND MOST INTERESTING PHOTOGRAPHS,
by W. S. W. Vaux, Esq., M.A., Balliol College.
ALBUMS for mounting these Photographs, to hold One Hundred, 5s.;
to hold Fifty, 45.
These volumes of Selections are admirably suited for Wedding Presents, espe-
cially to give ladies who have been in Rome; such a present would be a delicate
compliment, by assuming at the same time that she can appreciate its value.
THE BIBLE OF THE MONASTERY OF ST. PAUL,
NEAR ROME,
Described and Compared with other Carlovingian Manuscripts:
a contribution to the Art Literature of the Middle Ages.
By J. O. WESTWOOD, M.A., F.L.S., &c. With Thirty-five
Photographs. £2. IOS.
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
"For the present state of monuments and examples, Mr. J. H. Parker's col-
lection of Roman and other Photographs stands by itself, as a unique and in-
valuable addition to modern means of accurate knowledge."-Rev. R. St. John
Tyrwhitty in Englace to "The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church."
LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, CHARING-CROSS.
Nearly ready,
A PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME,
In Chromo-Lithography, in order to distinguish the different
subjects by different colours.
I.
THE PLAN OF ROME, engraved by W. HARWOOD.
This is taken as
the ground-work; it is a reduction of the large Plan of Nolli of
Rome in 1740, with the additions to 1860, and is generally ac-
knowledged to be the best Plan that has hitherto been published.
It has also the advantage of a copious index on the Plate.
Upon this will be printed in different colours the following
subjects.
II.
Neutral tint, to shew the valleys and the fossa-leaving the hills
light.
III.
Red. THE WALLS OF TUFA OF THE TIME OF THE KINGS, including
the Primitive Fortifications on the seven hills as separate for-
tresses, and the first three Walls of Rome.
1. ROMA QUADRATA, according to Livy [i. 7]; Dionysius [ii.
37]; and Tacitus [Ann. xii. 24].
2. THE SECOND WALL OF ROME, INCLOSING THE TWO HILLS
PALATINE AND CAPITOLINE, according to Livy [i. 38]; and Dio-
nysius [ii. 50].
This, which was the PRIMITIVE CITY OF ROME, has the whole
surface coloured red.
3. THE SEVEN HILLS COMBINED IN ONE CITY, by Servius
Tullius, according to Livy [i. 36, 44]; and Pliny [Nat. Hist.,
xxxvi. 24. 3].
THE WALL OF ENCEINTE, added by Tarquinius Superbus on
the eastern side of Rome, and left unfinished [Dionysius, iv. 81, 7].
The Aqueducts were carried upon this bank for more than a mile,
and the Wall of Aurelian was afterwards built upon it.
The additions of San-Gallo for the Popes are also shewn.
7
IV.
Green. THE AQUEDUCTS, according to Frontinus-and the other
streams of water, some of which now run in the drains or cloacæ,
but were originally open.
V.
Yellow. THE LINES OF THE STREETS, drawn from the Milliarium
Aureum, according to Pliny [Nat. Hist., iii. 9], passing through
the twelve gates in the inner wall of THE CITY, "only to be
counted once," to the eighteen gates in the outer wall of enceinte,
and seven on the hills in the ancient fortresses, not in use in the
time of Pliny. These make the thirty-seven gates of Rome, men-
tioned also in the Regionary Catalogue of the fourth century.
VI.
Sepia. THE TOMBS-the remains of ancient pavements in the streets,
and the cippi of the pomerium, in the places where they still re-
main, or are known to have been found.
If this meets with approbation and encouragement, it is proposed
to follow it with Plans of the Fourteen Regiones, on a larger scale,
and to shew the actual or probable site of each of the objects men-
tioned in the Regionary Catalogues of the fourth century, called
Curiosum Urbis and Notitia de Regionibus. These are in fact one
catalogue, with slight variations, one being about fifty years earlier
than the other.
Such fragments of the great Marble Plan of Rome, of the second
century, as can be placed with any certainty, will be inserted in
their places. This Plan was not a pavement, as was formerly sup-
posed, but was made to hang upon a lofty wall under the portico
of the Templum Urbis Roma, which faced the Forum Pacis, the
largest market-place in Rome, and was made on three different
scales, according to the distance from the eye. This makes it very
difficult to fit the pieces together. Canina had not observed this,
but treated it as a pavement, and all on one scale; and this led him
into errors in several places, especially in the Forum Romanum,
where he has put together two fragments which are on different
scales.
Mediæval Architecture and Archæology.
A CONCISE GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN
GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN, AND
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
By JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B., M.A., F.S.A.
A New Edition, revised. Fcap. 8vo., with nearly 500 Illustrations,
In ornamental cloth, 7s. 6d.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GOTHIC
ARCHITECTURE.
BY JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B., M.A., F.S.A.
Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with 189 Illustrations,
A Topographical and a Glossarial Index. Fcap. 8vo.
In ornamental cloth, 5s.
A Fifth Edition is nearly ready.
SOME ACCOUNT OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
IN ENGLAND.
Vol. I., from the Conquest to the end of the Thirteenth Century.
By T. HUDSON TURNER. 8vo., cl., 21s. Second Edition.
Vol. II. FROM EDWARD I. TO RICHARD II. (the Edwardian
Period, or the Decorated Style). 8vo., cloth, 215.
Vol. III. FROM RICHARD II. TO HENRY VIII. (or the
Perpendicular Style). In 2 Parts, Svo., 17. Ios.
With numerous Illustrations of Existing Remains from Original
Drawings.
By the EDITOR OF "THE GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURE.”
AN ATTEMPT TO DISCRIMINATE THE STYLES OF
ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND, FROM THE CONQUEST TO
THE REFORMATION: with a Sketch of the Grecian and Roman
Orders. By the late THOMAS RICKMAN, F.S.A. Sixth Edition,
with considerable Additions, chiefly Historical,
By JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B., M.A., F.S.A.
And numerous Illustrations.
Medium 8vo. Nearly ready.
ENGLISH COUNTIES; OR,
THE ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF EVERY CHURCH IN
Bedfordshire, 2s. 6d.
BERKSHIRE, 2s. 6d.
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 2s. 6d.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE, 45.
HUNTINGDONShire, 2s. 6d.
Oxfordshire, 2s. 6d.
SUFFOLK, with Engravings, 7s. 6d.
The DIOCESE Of Oxford, in one volume. Svo., 7s. 6d.
Oxford and LONDON: JAMES PARKER ANd Co.
BOUND
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
CCT 1932
MICH.
UNIV.
LIBRARY
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