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880.5
דיD
1927
A MANUAL GRAMMAR OF THE
GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

The
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK · BOSTON • CHICAGO · DALLAS
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
From
•
•
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
of the
GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
BY 2.
H. E. DANA, TÍ.D.
Professor of New Testament Interpretation
in the Southwestern Baptist Theological
Seminary in Fort Worth, Texas
AND
JULIUS R. MANTEY, TH.D., D.D.
Professor of New Testament Interpretation
in the Northern Baptist Theological
Seminary in Chicago, Illinois
:
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1927
All rights reserved
ર
COPYRIGHT, 1927,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,
Set up and electrotyped.
Published, November, 1927.
Printed in the United States of America by
THE FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK.
H 3-26-28 A H
ΤΟ
LEE RUTLAND SCARBOROUGH, D.D.
327
Wat
3
16766
I
"
PREFACE
The need most keenly felt by present-day teachers of the
Greek New Testament is for an accurate and comprehen-
sive compendium of grammar which is adaptable to the
average student. This need we have attempted to supply
in the following pages. The book is not offered as an
exhaustive treatment of the grammatical phenomena of
the Greek New Testament, for its scope and design would
not permit it to be such. It is intended to give to the stu-
dent a comprehensive survey of the chief features of the
grammar of the Greek New Testament in simple outline.
form, as an introduction to a more detailed and inductive
study. Our chief effort has been to bring the best Greek
scholarship within reach of the average student, and pro-
duce a textbook which, while being easy to comprehend,
would adequately meet his needs. To this end we have
made the method of presentation largely deductive, but
the conclusions offered have been based upon more than a
decade of careful inductive effort. In all our work of
preparation we have sought to keep before us the average
Greek student rather than the technical Greek scholar, at
the same time endeavoring to make the book sufficiently
accurate and thorough to stand the most severe tests of
technical scholarship.
The primary consideration which induced the authors to
undertake the production of this manual was their own
experience in seeking to find among the number of great
treatises already in existence on the grammar of the Greek
New Testament a work readily adapted to class-room use.
That we need at this time another exhaustive treatise on
vii
viii
PREFACE
the grammar of the Greek Testament is doubtful; that we
need a practical and adaptable textbook is beyond ques-
tion. Just here is where we have sought to make a worth-
while contribution.
The foundation of scholarship, upon which it has been.
our privilege to build, is immense. The grammatical
phenomena of the Greek New Testament have been attract-
ing scientific attention for nearly, if not quite, three cen-
turies. We have been able to trace the history of definite
effort in this field back as far as 1650, when Caspian Wyss
published the results of his investigations. Antedating his
work was that of Salamanda Glass, but his accomplishments
seem to have been of but slight consequence. The honor of
the first published work to which we could at all accom-
modate the term grammar belongs to George Pasor, whose
work appeared in 1655, though prepared much earlier.
From Pasor we must skip a period of one hundred and sixty
years to 1815, when P. H. Haab published at Tübingen his
Hebrew-Greek Grammar of the New Testament.
The title of the last-mentioned book is indicative of the
type of work which up to this time had been done on the
Greek of the New Testament. It was largely an attempt—
and of course a vain attempt to conform the linguistic
phenomena of the New Testament to the vague principles
of Semitic grammar. The true light, in the full glow of
which we now labor, dawned in 1824. Its earliest gleams
found entrance through the mind and work of Johann
Winer, whose Grammar first appeared in 1824. Winer's
work was epoch-making in the highest degree. A grateful
multitude of New Testament students are ready to join
A. T. Robertson in his admiring declaration that "in a true
sense he was a pathfinder" (Grammar, p. 4). He intro-
duced a revolution into the study of the Greek New Testa-
ment by adopting and substantiating the premise that
PREFACE
ix
Biblical Greek, and particularly that of the New Testa-
ment, was not a special "Holy Ghost" language, nor a
conglomerate of Greek words and Semitic grammar, but the
ordinary colloquial tongue of the day, spoken throughout
the Graeco-Roman world. This idea has remained since
his day an axiom in the study of the Greek New Testament.
As one scans the history of the period he gains the
impression that progress after Winer's day was strangely
slow. Much work was done here and there, the greater
part of it based on Winer's fundamental premise, but none
of it developed into any very definite production. It was
1860 before another conspicuous publication appeared. At
about this date Buttmann's Grammar came from the press.
A short while afterward (1864) there was published a work
which has not received considerable attention, but which
unquestionably has some real merit. It was a brief treat-
ment of the Syntax and Synonyms of the New Testament,
by William Webster, a Cambridge scholar. Further progress
was made by Blass, whose Grammar was published in 1896,
and S. G. Green, whose Handbook to the Grammar of the
Greek Testament has served many classes well as a text-
book, but is rather too elaborate and detailed for the most
effective class-room use. E. D. Burton's New Testament
Moods and Tenses, which first appeared in pamphlet form
in 1888, then in book form in 1893, was a notable con-
tribution to one phase of the study.
The greatest and most fruitful field for investigation
which Greek New Testament scholarship has ever known
is found in the Greek papyri. Chief honor for the effective
exploration of this vast source of information on behalf of
the Greek Testament belongs to Adolf Deissmann and J. H.
Moulton. The earliest work of Moulton was his Introduc-
tion to the Study of New Testament Greek, which was first
published in 1896. His Prolegomena appeared ten years
X
PREFACE
later, and his Grammar (vols. ii and iii, the Prol. being
vol. i) is now in process of publication. It is a posthumous
publication, for Moulton met a tragic and premature death
during the early years of the World War. For the enor-
mous and delicate task of editing Moulton's Grammar from
the notes which he left, the world of New Testament
scholarship owes a great debt of gratitude to W. F. Howard,
M.A., B.D. Deissmann's Bible Studies and Philology of
the Greek Bible are his works of greatest linguistic interest.
A chapter of incalculable import in the history of the
grammar of the Greek New Testament transpired when
Gessner Harrison had in his Greek classes in the University
of Virginia the young ministerial student John A. Broadus.
Harrison was a highly accomplished Greek scholar, and far
advanced beyond his own era in the understanding and
use of the modern linguistic method, as is evidenced by his
great work on Greek Prepositions and Cases. From him
young Broadus acquired an incentive and equipment which
made of him a mighty teacher and peerless scholar in the
Greek New Testament. It was possibly regrettable that he
published no work of his own on the Greek Testament, but
the fruit of his labor has ripened into a most glorious yield
in spite of that fact. The priceless heritage of his vast
scholarship fell into worthy and competent hands in the
person of his student and son-in-law, A. T. Robertson, that
towering genius and masterful scholar who stands today
without a rival at the forefront of the Greek scholarship of
the world. In 1908 he first attracted the attention of New
Testament students with his Short Grammar of the Greek
New Testament, and then in 1914 appeared that stupendous
work, so far superior to every preceding effort in the entire
field, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light
of Historical Research. This book is, and is probably for
a long time to remain, the unrivaled standard in its realm.
PREFACE
xi
To this colossal work the authors of this book are indebted
more than to all their other sources combined. What a
benediction it would be to all the coming generations of
New Testament students if this great scholar could yet find
it possible to give us a translation of the New Testament,
and what a loss it will be if we must be deprived of it!
Among works on elementary Greek devoted to the New
Testament, two of the earliest to hold the field in America
were those by Harper and Weidner, and Huddilston. In
recent years an elementary Greek text and brief work on
syntax have been contributed by H. P. V. Nunn, a Cam-
bridge scholar. The best textbooks on elementary Greek
at present in the field are those by W. H. Davis and J. G.
Machen.
This brief historical review makes it quite obvious that
extensive and highly efficient efforts have already been
bestowed upon the grammar of the Greek New Testament
--and a considerable number of minor works have not been
mentioned. Major works may also have been omitted
through oversight or ignorance. But in all this aggregation
of scholarly treatises there is no work satisfactorily adapted
to class-room use. It is our hope that we offer here a book
which will fill that need. We have sought to select and
present with the greatest possible clearness the matters.
essential to a working knowledge of the language of the
New Testament. The primary principles we have set out
in large type and plain language. Matters of detail and
the comparison of the opinions of leading scholars we have
presented in smaller type, hoping that instructors and
students will not regard the smaller type as a suggestion
to skip anything, or an intimation that the matters so pre-
sented are of minor importance. As a matter of fact, the
material in the small type represents the authors' widest
research and most diligent effort.
xii
PREFACE
#
We have adopted the simplest language possible in an
adequate statement of grammatical principles. As far as
could be done in conformity with our own judgment we
have followed the terminology of Robertson and Moulton,
in the firm belief that they come most nearly offering to
English-speaking students a terminology which can become
standard. Where the two have differed we have usually
given the preference to Robertson, though not invariably.
Of course, we have found instances in which we believed
there were sufficient reasons for differing from them both,
in which cases we have in honesty followed our own best
judgment. We have had a fundamental principle in select-
ing terminology: to use terms which are simple and expres-
sive, and easily apprehended by the average student. It
has been our policy to avoid coining new terms. Those
already familiar in Greek grammatical usage have been
employed as far as possible.
In our discussion on Cases we have taken the advanced
position that the cases should be approached from the view-
point of function rather than of form, and that there were
in reality eight cases in Greek. From the time that we
began with the eight-case hypothesis we have found no evi-
dence in Greek literature to confute it, while we have found
ample evidence to confirm it. A decade of patient and
wide research has established for us a conviction on this
matter which is inescapable. We invite any who think it
gratuitous to treat the cases from this viewpoint to ascer-
tain whether it harmonizes with the original Aryan case.
divisions, and whether it contributes to simplicity and
accuracy. It is our conviction that it does.
J
In the sections on Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Par-
ticles, which deal with the extensive and elusive field of
connectives, several new meanings illustrated by various
and vivid examples are set forth. An inductive study of
PREFACE
xiii
W
these connectives was begun several years ago. An un-
usual use of a connective was carefully noted and its
apparent meaning was written into a notebook or on the
margin of whatever document was being studied. Later on
these connectives were reëxamined, and their meanings were
classified in the light of the inductive evidence thus derived.
The papyri proved to be most helpful in this study. The
discoveries of new meanings for ovv, in particular, are of
exceptional interest and value. It was a coincidence that
in our independent research we arrived at the same conclu-
sions that Professor Moulton did as to av having the force
of ever in most passages.
The illustrations have in the main been taken from the
actual text of the Greek New Testament, but have been in
some cases slightly altered for purposes of brevity and
greater clearness. The discussion throughout has been
based on the WH. text, and kept free from technical prob-
lems of textual criticism, with which the student at the
stage of training contemplated by this book is rarely
acquainted. We have sought to put the material in con-
venient outline form, and if we have made a distinctive.
contribution to this important field of science, it is chiefly
a better organization of the material already produced.
To be used for study supplementary to the textbook, we
have provided at the beginning of each section a list of
references to Robertson's Grammar and Short Grammar,
and Moulton's Prolegomena. The instructor would do well
to assign one reference in each section as required parallel
reading. Every student should be urged to own a copy of
Robertson's Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the
Light of Historical Research.
This book is in an unusual degree a coöperative product.
The names of the two chief contributors appear on the
title page, but many other proficient hands have wrought
xiv
PREFACE
faithfully upon it-too many to mention by name. Never-
theless, for every aid received we record our most hearty
thanks. It is but just that we should acknowledge here
our constant use of the unpublished grammar notes of Pro-
fessor C. B. Williams, Union University, Jackson, Ten-
nessee, who, while in the chair of Greek New Testament in
the Southwestern Seminary, was the honored preceptor of
both authors. The fact that this material was not in
published form has prevented any very definite reference
in the text of the book. At the cost of great labor and
painstaking care, the paradigms of conjugation were pre-
pared by Professor L. R. Elliott, Librarian and Instructor
in Biblical Greek in the Southwestern Seminary. Mr. John
W. Patterson has rendered most valuable aid in the prep-
aration of the vocabulary. To Mr. C. W. Koller, Fellow
in the New Testament department of the Southwestern
Seminary, we are grateful for valuable suggestions and
assistance, while to Messrs. W. L. Moore and J. R. Branton
we record our thanks for careful and effective proof read-
ing. A large part of the typing of the manuscript has been
done by Mr. E. P. Baker, who brought to the task a per-
sonal knowledge of the Greek language which in the nature
of the case was indispensable.
This work is a successor to a former edition, published
as a private enterprise by the authors chiefly for their own
classes, under the title, A Manual for the Study of the
Greek New Testament. Several of our friends, however,
have kindly adopted it and used it as a textbook; and for
words of commendation and suggestion from them we are
deeply grateful.
A task which has been sometimes tedious but ever in-
tensely interesting is at last completed. We would place
the book in the hands of the average student of the Greek
PREFACE
XV
H. E. DANA,
New Testament, with the hope and prayer that it may
secure for him access to the rich treasures of scholarship,
and thereby to the deep mines of religious truth and inspira-
tion which lie imbedded in the original text.
Seminary Hill, Tex.
J. R. MANTEY,
Chicago, Ill.
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
We give here a list of the principal works cited in this
volume. The books here listed would make a fairly com-
plete working library on the grammar of the Greek New
Testament for the average student. For such purpose there
should be added, however, Moulton and Geden's Concord-
ance to the Greek Testament. One who wishes a beginner's
book for elementary Greek may secure Machen: New Tes-
tament Greek for Beginners (Macmillan) or Davis: Begin-
ner's Grammar of the Greek New Testament (Doran). If
an extensive bibliography is desired, Robertson provides in
his Grammar one which will serve all ordinary purposes.
The method of citation in this book is to insert the
adopted abbreviation for the name of the author or for
the title of his book (as indicated below), followed by the
page numbers. The abbreviations used are as follows:
ASV ....American Standard Version.
AV ....Authorized Version.
Bl.....Blass: Grammar of New Testament Greek
(2d ed.).
Br. ....Burton: New Testament Moods and Tenses.
Bt. .Buttmann: Grammar of New Testament
Greek.
D. ....Deissmann: Philology of the Greek Bible (P.
G. B.) and Bible Studies (B. S.).
G. ....Green: Handbook to the Grammar of the
Greek New Testament.
LXX....Septuagint (Greek Old Testament).
xvii
xviii
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
M. ....Moulton: Prolegomena to the Grammar of
New Testament Greek.
M-II. ....Moulton: Grammar of New Testament Greek,
vol. ii.
R.
Robertson: A Grammar of the Greek New
Testament in the Light of Historical Re-
search.
R-S.....Robertson: A Short Grammar of the Greek
New Testament.
RV .... Revised Version.
T.
Thumb: Handbook of the Modern Greek
Vernacular.
W. ....Thayer's translation of Luneman's revision
of Winer: Grammar of the Idiom of the
New Testament (7th ed.).
WH. ....Westcott and Hort: Greek Text of the New
Testament.
Wr.
Wright: Comparative Grammar of the Greek
Language.
•
All cross references in the book are made by paragraph
numbers. For instance, 120, (3), ii would refer to para-
graph 120, subhead (3), the second paragraph in small
type. We have tried so to enumerate the materials in the
book as to make reference easy and accurate.
Preface......
Key to Abbreviations..
Introduction...
CHAPTER
PART I. ACCIDENCE
I. Orthography...
II. Declension...
III. Conjugation...
Introductory....
CONTENTS
PART II. SYNTAX
DIVISION I. THE NOUN.
I. The Cases….......
II. Prepositions...
III. The Adjective..
IV. The Pronoun.
V. The Article....
DIVISION II. THE VERB.
VII. Conjunctions..
VIII. Particles…………………..
I. Voice, Person, and Number.
II.
Mood.....
III.
Tense......
IV.
The Infinitive..
V. The Participle..
VI. The Adverb...
------
De ce se a
--------
-----
10 i de 1 m 10 m m 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - -
PAGE
vii
xvii
1
19
32
41
59
65
96
115
122
135
155
165
176
208
220
234
239
258
xix
XX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
DIVISION III. CLAUSES.
I. The Structural Relation of Clauses...
II.
III.
IV. Comparative Clauses..
V. Local Clauses....
Relative Clauses...
Causal Clauses.....
VI. Temporal Clauses..
VII. Purpose Clauses....
VIII. Result Clauses.....
Conditional Clauses.....
IX.
X. Concessive Clauses....
XI.
Substantival Clauses
XII.
XIII.
————
Indirect Discourse...
Commands and Prohibitions...
English Index...
Greek Index....
APPENDIX
Paradigms......
Exercises for Greek Composition..
English-Greek Vocabulary.
PAGE
269
270
274
275
277
279
282
285
286
291
293
296
299
307
328
334
353
356
A MANUAL GRAMMAR OF THE
GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
A MANUAL GRAMMAR OF THE
GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
INTRODUCTION
References: R. 76–83; R.-S. 3, 4; M. 22–34.*
1. The modern historical method as applied to all phases.
of linguistic science is to investigate a language in the light
of all the periods of its own history, and its relationship
to all kindred languages. This investigation of linguistic
kinship and development is known as the science of com-
parative philology. No really informed student now
attempts the study of any language without the use of this
comparative method. Consequently we should approach
the study of New Testament Greek by considering its rela-
tion to the other representatives of human speech, and the
stages of its own development. It will be of value to the
student to become acquainted especially with the relation
of the Greek to those languages nearest it in kinship, and
in general with the entire scope of linguistic development.
The Indo-European Languages.
2. The languages of mankind may be divided into fami-
lies, the families into branches, and the branches into dia-
lects. However, it will be necessary here to offer complete
analysis only of the family to which the Greek belongs.
And indeed, the family to which the Greek belongs submits
itself most readily to thorough analysis, for it is the most
highly developed, and at the same time the most clearly
defined of all languages. Besides its designation as Indo-
* For key to abbreviations see pp. xvii and xviii.
1
2
INTRODUCTION
..
European, it is sometimes called Indo-Germanic, or Aryan.
Of these three designations the last is the most convenient,
but may be confusing because so often restricted to the
Asiatic dialects of the family; the second is undesirable
because it gives an exaggerated prominence to the German
language; the one here used, though rather clumsy, is by
far the most accurately descriptive.
3. The Indo-European was the original tongue of those
tribes which in prehistoric times are believed to have
inhabited a region somewhere about east-central Asia or
west-central Europe. The earliest historical evidences of
them appear in western Europe, though at some extremely
ancient period a large remnant of the race moved south-
ward and settled in Persia and India-hence the name
Indo-European. There have developed seven branches of
this family, each branch being represented in several dia-
lects. Only the chief dialects will be mentioned here. For
a fuller discussion the student is referred to Whitney's Life
and Growth of Language and Sweet's History of Languages.
4. The oldest representative of the family is the Indian
branch, of which the chief known dialect is the Sanskrit,
which is of special interest to the student of the Greek New
Testament because of its close relation to the Greek, of
which it may be described as an elder sister. The preserva-
tion of Sanskrit was largely due to its use in the Vedic
hymns, the sacred literature of the Hindus. Later remains
of it may be found in laws, epic writings, etc. Its inflec-
tion of the noun is the most highly developed of all the
languages, there being eight inflectional endings, with
occasional traces of a ninth.
A later stage of the Indian branch is represented in the
Prakrit.
5. The second oldest branch of the Indo-European is the
Greek. Its dialects belong to antiquity, the language
INTRODUCTION
3
having become unified and universalized several centuries
before the Christian era. This matter will receive fuller
attention later. Greek is the most literary of all the ancient
languages, having produced a veritable stream of literature,
beginning with Homer about 900 B.C.
6. Next in age to the Greek is the Italic, of which the
Latin was the chief dialect. Other ancient dialects of the
Italic were the Umbrian of northern Italy and the Oscan
of southern Italy. Only scant remains of these dialects
have come down to us. The Latin is witnessed by an
abundance of ancient literature, and survives, though
greatly modified, in the Romanic (or Romance) languages,
which include the Italian, French, Spanish, Portugese, and
Roumanian.
7. From this point on the question of comparative age
must be waived for want of sufficient evidence. If we fol-
low the order of historical prominence we are brought next
to the Teutonic branch, of which our own English is the
most widely distributed dialect. It, with the Dutch and
German, seems to have come to us from a sister dialect of
the ancient Gothic (if the German be not a direct successor
of the Gothic), of which the only surviving literary remains.
are fragments of the Bible translated by Ulfilas, the great
Christian missionary to the Goths. Of ancient origin also
is the Scandinavian, the chief literary remains of which are
the Eddas and Sagas of Iceland, its surviving dialects being
the language of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland.
"The oldest records of this branch are the runic inscrip-
tions, some of which date as far back as the third or fourth
century" (Wr. 2).
8. The Slavic is the branch of the Indo-European tongue
now distributed in eastern and southern Europe. It sur-
vives chiefly in Russia, Poland, and some of the Balkan
states. It is also usually regarded as embracing the Lettic
S
wd
4
INTRODUCTION
languages, unless these last be placed in a separate class as
the Baltic branch (cf. Sweet: op. cit., p. 98). The Bulgarian
has the oldest literature, but the Russian is the most widely
distributed.
9. The Celtic is the ancient language of western Europe,
represented chiefly by the Gauls and Britons. The Irish,
Scotch, and Welch also belong to this branch.
10. The Iranian branch is represented mainly in the
Persian language. It also includes the Zend dialect, pre-
served in the Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrian
religion.
G
The foregoing outline will furnish the student with a fair working
analysis of the family of language to which the Greek belongs.
Beyond this even greater brevity may be adopted, but a compre-
hensive sketch of the entire field of linguistic research is of value
as giving the student a proper appreciation of the modern approach
to the science of language. There is one other family fairly well
defined, but the remaining six are difficult of classification, and
appear to be the result of combining elements of one family or
dialect with those of another.
11. The Semitic family is almost as well defined as the Indo-
European. Its geographical origin was probably southern Asia. To
it belong the Assyrian, the Hebrew, the Phoenician, the Aramaic,
the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Abyssinian. It is the second family
in the degree of its development.
12. After leaving the Indo-European and Semitic families we face
a bewildering conglomerate. We turn from forms of speech which
present orderly and intelligible inflection, and hence are subject to
systematic analysis, and approach a mode of expression which is
monosyllabic, or agglutinative, or both. One is immediately seized
with the impression that they all belong to a single family, but
philologists have been unable to reduce the matter to any such
simple solution. On the contrary, they have discovered sufficient
lines of distinction to divide these mongrel tongues into six different
families.
The Scythian family has dialects in Asia and Europe, being
represented by the Turkish, Finnish, and Hungarian. The Mon-
golian or Monosyllabic family has its home in southeastern Asia
INTRODUCTION
5
with the Himalayan tribes, the Mongols, the Manchus, and the
Chinese. Japanese is also probably a kindred tongue. The Malay-
Polynesian family belongs to the islands of the southern Asiatic
seas. The Caucasian is spoken by the tribes dwelling among the
Caucasus Mountains in south-central Asia. The Hamitic is repre-
sented by the Egyptian, Libyan, and Ethiopian, with possible kin-
ship to the lower African dialects. The languages of the savage
tribes of Africa practically defy classification. The American family
includes the languages of the Indians of our own continent. But
comparative philologists are not entirely agreed that the Indian
languages belong to a single family. In fact, several of the con-
clusions adopted in the foregoing discussion are but tentative. The
science of comparative philology is still in its infancy, and offers a
wide and important field of investigation. Much may be learned
about the antiquity of the race by searching in the origins of
linguistic expression.
13. Robertson (R. 37) classifies language as isolating, agglutina-
tive, and inflectional. The isolating languages are those without
inflection, employing other devices, such as word-order, for variety
in expression. They include Chinese, Burmese, etc. Agglutinative
languages make use of separable prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, such
as may be seen in the Turkish. The inflectional languages vary
expression by means of endings, stems, and prefixes. This type of
language is represented in the Indo-European and Semitic families.
Some languages, e.g., modern English, employ to a greater or
less extent all these methods. Sweet adds one other class to these
three, which he calls the incorporative languages. These gather into
a single word several elements of the sentence, such as subject, verb,
and object (cf. Sweet: op. cit., pp. 65ff.). For a splendid brief dis-
cussion of the Indo-European languages the student may refer to
Wr. 1-4.
The Greek Language
14. The history of the Greek language extends back to
about 1500 B.C. Previous to Homer, however, the history
of the language is wrapped in great obscurity. The de-
velopment of the language may be divided into five periods:
(1) The Formative Period. This period extends from
the prehistoric origin of the race to Homer (c. 900 B.C.).
6
INTRODUCTION
:
The primitive tribes from which the Greek nation arose
were members of the great Aryan family which had its
original home somewhere in west-central Asia. In prehis-
toric times a group of tribes from this original stock.
migrated into the little peninsula of southern Europe now
known as Greece. The topographical character of this
country is exceedingly irregular. Numerous mountain
ranges and the inland penetration of arms of the sea cut
the country up into many divisions. As a result of this
irregular topography the original tribes were practically
barred from intercourse with one another, and hence were
slow in developing unity of life and language. There grew
a number of different dialects, the chief of which were the
Attic, Boeotian, Northwestern, Thessalian, and Arcadian.
These probably developed from three original dialects: the
Doric, Aeolic, and Ionic. The most vigorous and attractive
of these was the Ionic, which, therefore, exerted the greatest
influence upon subsequent linguistic developments among
the Greeks.
(2) The Classical Period. This period embraces the
centuries from Homer to the Alexandrian conquests (c. 330
B.C.). In this period the Attic dialect, based chiefly on the
old Ionic, with the best elements of the Doric and Aeolic,
secured supremacy. The ancient Greek literature which
has come down to us is predominantly Attic. Any general
grammar of classical Greek deals primarily with the Attic
speech, noting the elements from other dialects as irregu-
larities and exceptions. The Attic was the molding force
in all the subsequent developments of the Greek language.
It constituted the chief basis of New Testament Greek.
C
(3) The Koiné Period. This period extends from 330
B.C. to A.D. 330. It is the period of the common or uni-
versal Greek. During this period the Greek language was
freely used and understood throughout the civilized world,
-
INTRODUCTION
7
being spoken as freely on the streets of Rome, Alexandria,
and Jerusalem as in Athens. There were four main causes
bringing about the development of the Koiné Greek.
a. Extensive Colonization. The Greeks were a very ag-
gressive people, and early learned seafaring from the
Phoenicians, and vied with the latter in the extent of mari-
time activities. As a result Greek colonies were planted on
nearly all the shores of the Mediterranean. One of the
strongest of these colonies was on the eastern coast of Italy,
not far from the center of the Latin world.
b. Close Political and Commercial Affiliation of the
Separate Greek Tribes. The broadening of the life of the
people by extensive colonization, and more especially the
common peril of eastern conquerors, brought the several
tribes of Greece into closer touch, and developed a sense
of racial homogeneity. Doubtless no single cause con-
tributed more to this result than the long struggle with the
Persians. The campaign of Cyrus, recounted for us by
Xenophon in his Anabasis and Katabasis, brought together
Greeks of all tribes and dialects into one great army, and
hence did much to develop a common tongue. There are
foretokens of a Koiné language to be found even in so
astutely Attic a document as Xenophon's Anabasis.
c. Religious Interrelations. Though each Greek tribe
had its own tribal god or gods, yet there was a sense of
religious unity in the race. This exhibited itself in the
common reverence of all the tribes for certain preëminent
deities of the pantheon, especially Zeus. These leading
deities which we might speak of as racial gods, served to
promote the unity of the race. This was particularly true
after the establishment of the great national festivities at
such religious centers as Olympia, Delos, and Delphi. In-
scriptions upon the statues and memorials of various kinds
erected at these centers were in all the leading dialects, and
8
INTRODUCTION
led to the acquaintance of one tribe with the language of
another. As the people from all the different localities of
widely distributed Hellas mingled together at these period-
ical celebrations, there arose a natural tendency toward a
common speech. This factor was certainly very potent in
the creation of the Koiné.
d. The Alexandrian Conquests. The climax of this merg-
ing process in the growth of the Greek language was reached
in the Alexandrian conquests (334 to 320 B.C.). The
mingling of representatives from all the Greek tribes in
Alexander's army matured the development of a common
Greek, and the wide introduction of Greek culture under
his direction distributed the common tongue throughout the
Macedonian empire. When Rome conquered this Hellenized
territory, she in turn was Hellenized, and thereby the civi-
lized world adopted the Koiné Greek. Hence Paul could
write his doctrinal masterpiece to the political center of
the Latin world in the Greek language, and Augustus,
emperor of Rome, must needs inscribe his official seal in
Greek (cf. D., B. S. 243).
The remaining two periods of development in the Greek
language will need but bare mention.
(4) The Byzantine Period extends from A.D. 330 to 1453.
It begins with the division of the Roman empire, and its
progress is largely affected by the uncertain fortunes of the
throne at Constantinople.
(5) The Modern Period is from 1453 to the present. We
have in this period the development of the language now
spoken on the streets of Athens. The remarkable fact is
that it bears a closer kinship to the New Testament lan-
guage than do the writings of Euripides and Plato.
15. Robertson discusses the essential and obvious unity of the
Greek language. While it consists of a variety of dialects, and
presents several successive stages of growth, yet all its various mem-
INTRODUCTION
9
bers are so related as to compose a single language. Therefore, no
one phase of the language or its history should be set up as the
final standard (cf. also D., P.G.B.). The classical Attic is in no
sense to be regarded as the standard Greek, any more than we are
to make Homer the criterion. Both are dialectic variations of the
one Greek language. Greek is one whether we consider it at 1000
B.C. or A.D. 1000; whether used by the Attic poet, the Koiné letter-
writer, or the resident of modern Athens. "It is one language
whether we read the Epic Homer, the Doric Pindar, the Ionic
Herodotus, the Attic Xenophon, the Aeolic Sappho, the Atticistic
Plutarch, Paul the exponent of Christ, an inscription in Pergamus,
a papyrus letter in Egypt, Tricouphis or Vlachos in the modern
times” (R. 42). Robertson outlines the history of the Greek lan-
guage as follows: The Mycenaean Age, 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.; the Age
of Dialects, 1000 B.C. to 300 B.C.; the Age of the Koiné, 300 B.c. to
A.D. 330; the Byzantine Greek, A.D. 330 to 1453; the Modern Greek,
1453 to the present. He remarks with great truth, "As a matter of
fact, any division is arbitrary, for the language has had an unbroken
history, though there are three general epochs in that history"
(R. 41-43),
The Greek of the New Testament
16. There was a time when the scholars who dealt with
the original text of the New Testament regarded its Greek
as a special Holy Ghost language, prepared under divine
direction for the Scripture writers. When the fallacy of
this conception began to grow evident, two opposing schools
developed. The Hebraists contended that the Septuagint
and the New Testament were written in a Biblical Greek,
dominated largely by Hebrew or Aramaic modes of expres-
sion; the Purists contended that they represented variations
of the classical Attic. But beginning with Winer in 1825
there came a revolution in the views of New Testament
scholarship relative to this matter. As a result of the
labors of Deissmann in Germany, Moulton in England, and
Robertson in America all question has been removed from
the conclusion that New Testament Greek is simply a
10
INTRODUCTION
sample of the colloquial Greek of the first century; i.e., the
Koiné Greek. The inspired writers of the New Testament
wrote in the ordinary language of the masses, as might
have been expected.
17. Robertson shows that the progress of opinion among New
Testament Greek scholars has been for more than half a century
toward the conclusion now universally accepted that the Greek of
the New Testament is but a specimen of the vernacular Koiné of
the first century. He deals extensively with the witness of the
inscriptions and papyri to this fact. The evidence of inscriptions
was employed as early as 1887. Two pioneers in this new field were
E. L. Hicks and W. M. Ramsay. But the complete establishment
of the new method is an accomplishment of the twentieth century.
Deissmann has doubtless done the most extensive work in this
particular field. The future will countenance no other view of the
Greek New Testament (cf. R. 31-48).
Literary Witnesses to the Koiné
18. Since the Greek of the New Testament is the current
language of the period in which it was written, it is of
interest to the New Testament student to learn what other
literary monuments this language has left to us, from which
he may obtain additional light on the Greek New Testa-
ment. There are six of these sources of light on the Koiné.
(1) Biblical Greek. Not because it is a separate lan-
guage, or even dialect, but because it exhibits certain char-
acteristics and possesses an interest all its own, we may
still speak of the language of the New Testament and
Septuagint as "Biblical Greek." When one has read the
epoch-making works of Deissmann, he is just a little shy
of the term, but still it is true that there is a place in philo-
logical science for the term "Biblical Greek." This would
be true for the one fact alone of the distinctive literature of
transcendant interest which composes it. It is also true
that the New Testament and Septuagint present a distinc-
-
INTRODUCTION
11
tive type of the Koiné. They are superior in literary
quality to the average presented by the papyri, and yet do
not exhibit the classical aim of the Atticistic writers. So
while heeding and properly applying the warning of Deiss-
mann, at the same time we need to preserve a serviceable
distinction.
(2) Literary Koiné. There was formal literary effort of
considerable extent during the Koiné period which much
more readily approaches the classical nature of the Attic.
than does our New Testament. To this class belong the
writings of Plutarch, Polybius, Josephus, Strabo, Philo,
etc. (cf. M. 25–26).
(3) Papyri. This ancient writing material was made
from the papyrus reed, an Egyptian water plant. Its use
dates back to extreme antiquity, and extends down to the
Byzantine period. Papyri are now discovered in Egypt,
where climatic conditions have favored their preservation.
They are especially valuable to the student of the Greek
New Testament, both because of the wide range of their
literary quality and their exhibition of the typical Koiné.
They represent every kind of general literature, from the
casual correspondence of friends to the technicalities of a
legal contract. There is, however, little formal literature-
such as poem or treatise to be found among them. They
consist in the main of private letters, contracts, wills, court
records, government documents, etc. They represent the
ordinary language of the people, and it was in this type of
language that our New Testament was written (cf. D.,
P. G. B. 23-33; M. 27-28; especially Goodspeed in
Mathews-Smith, Dictionary of Religion and Ethics, p. 324).
(4) Inscriptions. These are more widely distributed
than the papyri, being found in abundance on several sites
of important centers of Mediterranean civilization. They
are found "either in their original positions or lying under
12
INTRODUCTION
ruins and mounds of rubbish" (D., P. G. B. 17f.). They
are usually epigraphs or notices, carved upon slabs of stone
for official, civic, and memorial purposes. They are of a
more formally literary character than the papyri. Their
value has been not only literary but historical. The great
works of Sir William Ramsay on the historical criticism.
of the New Testament have secured a rich contribution of
evidence from the inscriptions (cf. D., P. G. B. 17–23; M.
28-29).
(5) Ostraca. The ostraca were potsherds-fragments of
broken jugs or other earthen vessels used by the poorer
classes for memoranda, receipts, and the like. "As lin-
guistic memorials of the lower classes these humble potsherd
texts shed light on many a detail of the linguistic character
of our sacred book-that book which was written, not by
learned men but by simple folk, by men who themselves
confessed that they had their treasure in earthen vessels
(2 Cor. 4:7). And thus the modest ostraca rank as of
equal value with the papyri and inscriptions" (D., P. G. B.
35). It would be well here to add the observation of
Moulton that "it must not be inferred . . . that the New
Testament writers are at all comparable to these scribes in
lack of education" (M. 28; cf. D., P. G. B. 17–23; R. 21).
(6) Modern Greek. The important relation of Modern
Greek to the Koiné is a discovery of the nineteenth century,
dating back only to 1834. The connection is simply that
the Modern Greek is an outgrowth of the Koiné rather
than of the Attic, which, of course, was to be expected.
Vernacular is always the chief factor of change in the
growth of a language. Hence the real basis of the Greek
now spoken in Athens is that represented in our New Tes-
tament, and not the classic tongue of Aeschylus, or even
the Atticistic attempts of Polybius. Moulton quotes Hat-
zidakis, the Modern Greek grammarian, as saying that
INTRODUCTION
13
"the language generally spoken today in the towns differs
less from the common language of Polybius than this last
differs from the language of Homer" (cf. M. 29f.).
19. Deissmann assigns to the inscriptions the chief place as evi-
dence on the Greek of the New Testament. To the papyri he
gives a high but secondary place (B. S. 80f.). Moulton contends
that the private letters discovered among the papyri are the most
important source of light on New Testament Greek (M. 27f.).
Biblical Greek could not be understood until their evidence was
brought to light. Robertson cites one hundred and eighty-six words
formerly supposed to be peculiar to Biblical Greek which the papyri
and inscriptions have shown were in common use (R. 65f.). Deiss-
mann offers a list of seventeen merely as examples (B. S. 83), and
later presents an extended discussion of scores of others which
he has found current in the first-century world (B. S. 86ff.). On
the whole, Moulton is probably correct in maintaining that the
papyri offer the most important source of light on the Greek
of the New Testament.
Types of the Koiné
20. As is true of any language which develops a literature,
Koiné Greek presents characteristic differences between
the spoken and written language. This fact presents the
two types of Koiné.
(1) The literary Koiné is represented by extra-Biblical
literature, by most of the inscriptions, and by a few papyri.
(2) The vernacular Koiné is represented by most of the
papyri and ostraca, and by nearly all Biblical Greek. Luke
and the author of Hebrews approximate the literary type.
Moulton says of the literary Koiné: "The post-classical writers
wrote Attic according to their lights, tempered generally with a
plentiful admixture of grammatical and lexical elements drawn
from the vernacular, for which they had too hearty a contempt even
to give it a name," and he further observes with reference to their
censure of the vernacular as "bad Greek" that they were "thus
incidentally providing us with information concerning a Greek
14
INTRODUCTION
T
which interests us more than the artificial Attic which they prized
so highly" (cf. M. 24-26). Most of the literary Koiné represents
a clumsy and unsuccessful effort to restore the classical type and
idiom of the Attic. Hence it is neither good Attic nor good
Koiné.
Other Elements in New Testament Greek
21. The life out of which the New Testament came was
affected by a variety of historical currents. The one which
most deeply influenced the language was Hellenistic culture.
But this is not the only factor reflected in the language. The
writers of the New Testament were Jews (with the probable
exception of Luke), which would lead us quite naturally to
expect traces of their native tongue. The political regime
under which the New Testament was written was controlled
by Rome, the center of the Latin language. It is, therefore,
quite natural that we find effects of Hebrew and Latin
influence in the Greek of the New Testament.
(1) Hebraisms. There are in the New Testament un-
questionably some traces of Hebrew idiom. They result
chiefly from the influence of the Hebrew Old Testament
and the LXX. Since Aramaic was the native vernacular
of Palestine, it is probable that the New Testament was
affected to some extent by it. It is thought by many that
Luke had literary sources of his gospel which were in
Aramaic. In view of these several means of Hebraic influ-
ence upon the New Testament the amount of Hebraisms
in it has been overestimated. There are really but few.
Examples may be found in Mt. 19:5; Lu. 1:34, 42; 20:12.
GOOG
Moulton finds three results of Semitic influence in the New Testa-
ment: (1) words which reflect Semitic idiom; (2) Semitic influ-
ence upon syntax; (3) Semitisms which result from the translation
of Hebrew or Aramaic into Greek. He discusses at length the
prevalence of Semitic peculiarities in Luke's writings, and accounts
for it in two ways: (1) the use of rough Greek translations from
.
INTRODUCTION
15
Semitic originals; (2) the literary adaptation of the style of the
LXX. He cites the paratactic construction with κaí as a probable
result of Semitic influence, paralleling the waw-consecutive of the
Hebrew. The introduction of a narrative with Kaì è yéveтo is likely
a reflection of "" (M. 10-18). Deissmann regards such Semitisms
in the New Testament as a matter of religious technicality, "like
that of our sermons and Sunday magazines" (cited M. 18). He con-
siders the general Semitic influence upon the New Testament as a
very potent factor, and describes the LXX as "the mother of the
Greek New Testament" (cf. P. G. B. 8-15). As a matter of fact,
however, the LXX is not as intensely Semitic as has formerly been
supposed. Of eighty-one varieties of grammatical usage discussed
by Conybeare and Stock (Selections from the Septuagint), a careful
examination in the light of the present knowledge of the Koiné
reveals that fifty-three of them are typical Greek, and the remain-
ing twenty-eight would likely be considerably reduced by further
knowledge of the Koiné. That is, at least sixty-five per cent of
the Septuagint represents Greek of the age in which it was made.
"We have come to recognize that we had greatly overestimated the
number of Hebraisms and Aramaisms in the Greek Bible” (P. G. B.
52; cf. also R. 88–108).
(2) Latinisms. These are from Roman influence, being
chiefly names of persons, offices, institutions, etc. The
number is small, even in comparison with the Hebraisms.
Moulton thinks that Latin can scarcely be said to have influ-
enced the language of the New Testament. He admits there are
terms derived from Latin, but as to grammar-the really vital
point in language-the Latinisms of the New Testament present a
vanishing quantity. "Apart from lexical matters, we may be con-
tent with a general negative" (M. 21). Robertson presents an
exhaustive list of the Latin terms in the New Testament, the total
number being thirty-two-with one in question. He finds four
Latin phrases (cf. R. 108-111). So while we must follow Moulton
in regarding New Testament grammar as free from Latin influence,
yet it is still true that there are Latinisms, and a thorough review
must in justice recognize them.
PART I
ACCIDENCE
I. ORTHOGRAPHY
References: R. 177-181, 206-208, 221-222, 236-238; R.-S. 11-16;
M. 44-47.
22. Orthography comes from two Greek words, öplos
meaning straight, and ypayev meaning to write. Hence
it means the correct or accepted forms of writing. The
term is employed in grammatical science to embrace all
those matters which have to do with the mechanical struc-
ture of words. In the Greek of the New Testament it
covers a field about which there is much uncertainty. We
will discuss here only the more important matters.
The Alphabet
23. There were twenty-four letters in the Greek alphabet
of the Koiné period. The Greek alphabet was originally
derived from the Phoenecian, several additions and modi-
fications having been made, as for instance the invention
of the vowels. The alphabet underwent several changes
in preclassical times, such as the loss of digamma and the
change of h (derived from the Semitic heth) to n. The
forms of the characters as they became fixed in the Attic
continued in the Koiné. But as to phonetic value, there
were probably numerous changes.
Four different types of letters have developed in the history of
the language. (1) Probably the oldest were the capitals which
appear in the inscriptions, being practically the same as the forms
now used for capitals. (2) The rapid formation of these capitals in
the writing of manuscripts after the use of papyri and vellum were
introduced developed what is known as the uncial type. (3) The
effort to join together in writing these uncial letters resulted in what
we call the cursive (“running”) or minuscule type. (4) When print-
19
20
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
¡
ing was invented, a "printer's type" of small characters was derived
from the minuscules (cf. M-II. 37ff.).
Alphabet
Name
Alpha..
Beta.
Gamma.
Delta.
Epsilon..
Zeta..
Eta..
Theta..
Iota.
Kappa.
Lambda.
•
•
Mu...
Nu..
Xi……
Omicron.
Pi...
Rho..
Sigma..
Tau..
Upsilon.
Phi...
Chi...
Psi..
Omega..
.
•
Capitals
A
BF◄ AN I
Δ
E
Ꮓ
H
Ꮎ
I
KAWNH O =
M
II
P
XOREM
Ψ
Ω
Small Letters
a
β
78 4
Ύ
δ
१
η
0
し
​K
λ
замоксыьа 9 хэз
σς
Uncials
A
BL
୮
A
WNI
H
Ꮎ
ľ
K
入
​Ezmoteut >= × 73
M
N
O
P
с
T
Y
Φ
X
Ψ
ω
24. Language was originally spoken, so that letters are
but arbitrary symbols invented to represent sounds. Vocal
sounds are made by contracting the vocal cords so that they
vibrate as the breath passes through. The varieties of
enunciation are secured by varying the positions of the
•
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
21
organs of the mouth. These variations may be separated
into two principal classes, those made by obstructed breath
and those made by unobstructed breath. Consequently
there are, in the nature of the case, only two classes of
letters. The consonants are those made by obstructed
breath. The vowels are those made by unobstructed breath.
(1) The consonants may be classified as follows:
a. Liquids:
b. Mutes:
Gutturals....
Labials....
Dentals.
c. Sibilants:
λ, μ, ν, ρ.
Smooth
K
π
T
S, &, σ, 4.
Š, §,
Middle Rough
Χ
Φ
Ꮎ
785
β
δ
(2) The vowels are a, e, n, i, o, u, w. The pronunciation
of these vowels in the past history of the Greek language
is a problem practically impossible to solve. The inter-
change in the papyri of vowels for dipthongs and vice versa,
and of vowels for one another shows that there was much
duplication in sound, but just what the sounds were we are
unable to tell. As a matter of fact, we may be sure "that
considerable difference existed between the Greek of Rome
and Asia, Hellas and Egypt" so far as pronunciation was
concerned (cf. M-II 41f.). Adopting for these vowels the
pronunciation of Modern Greek would not "compensate in
accuracy for the inconvenience it would cause" (ibid. 42).
Robertson is undoubtedly correct in his opinion that the
Greek of the New Testament was pronounced much more
like the vernacular Greek of Demosthenes' times than like
the Modern Greek (R-S. 15). The matter must be left an
open question.
25. Sometimes two vowels are united and blended into a
single sound. Such a combination is called a diphthong.
The Greek dipthongs are at, av, el, ol, ov, ev, nv, vɩ. The
22
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
iota subscript with a, n, and w is a sort of diphthong, though
it in no way modifies the sound. Like the vowels, the pro-
nunciation of the diphthongs is a problem for which there.
can be no final solution.
Spelling
26. At no other point of mechanical structure does so
much uncertainty obscure the Koiné as we find here. The
oldest known MSS. of the New Testament were written
more than two and a half centuries after the original auto-
graphs, and so widely do these MSS. differ in spelling that
we may be sure that the copyists were least faithful at this
point. In this matter the papyri offer us but little aid, as
they, too, present a chaos of variations. But these differ-
ences in spelling really have little weight in exegesis. We
may accept without fear of being led astray in interpreta-
tion the spelling of the WH. text.
Especially does difficulty arise from a tendency in transcription
known as itacism. This is the modification of other vowels and
diphthongs in the direction of the short i sound. This feature
appears even as early as the Sinaitic MS. Such confusion in sound
naturally led to a confusion in transcription. Two other tendencies
need mention. One was an inclination to suppress the distinction
between the long and short vowels. Length of vowels was assidu-
ously observed in the classical Attic, but the differentiation began
to disappear in the Koiné, and has continued to fade until Modern
Greek makes no distinction at all (cf. T. 7). In line with the
itacistic tendency we find a disposition to replace diphthongs by
simple sounds (cf. M-II. 42f.). And yet the reverse of this fre-
quently occurs in the papyri, where we find and e replaced by
El and al. In fact, these vowels and diphthongs are used interchange-
ably in the papyri. Such tendencies meant inevitable confusion in
the MSS., for it is obvious that "the scribe is under the constant
temptation to correct the spelling in his document by the spelling
of his day" (R-S. 11).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
23
Elision
27. If a final vowel is short, it may be omitted before a
word beginning with a vowel. The omission is indicated
by an apostrophe. Elision is seen chiefly in prepositions.
and particles, as δι᾿ αὐτοῦ, κατ᾽ οἶκον, οὐδ᾽ ἄν.
Elision is not so extensively used in the New Testament as in
classical Greek. It is comparatively infrequent in modern Greek.
In the New Testament its use "takes place habitually and without
variation before pronouns and particles; also before nouns in com-
binations of frequent occurrence, as ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς κατ' οἶκον, In other
cases there is much diversity and occasional variation" (M-II. 61).
Crasis
28. Crasis is the merging of a word into the one follow-
ing by the omission and contraction of vowels. It affects
the conjunction xaí and the article, and is marked by the
retention of the breathing of the second word, which is
called the coronis; e.g., κἀγώ for καὶ ἐγώ; τοὔνομα for τὸ
ὄνομα.
Crasis is rare in the New Testament. In fact, "except for Toivoμa
in Mt. 27:57, ToŮvavríov ter, and Taůrá in Luke, crasis is confined to
combinations with kai which retains the same tendency in Modern
Greek more conspicuously.
Papyri of culture low enough to
admit phonetic spelling show us that crasis was practiced sometimes
when unaccented words were capable of being fused with the preced-
ing word" (M-II. 63).
Movable Consonants
29. The finals of ourws is used in classical Greek only
before vowels, but in the New Testament it is used prevail-
ingly before consonants as well. WH. admit only ten
exceptions.
30. The omission of s from äxpɩ and µéxpɩ is observed in
the New Testament with but few exceptions, if we accept
the WH. text.
24
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
V
31. Movable is added to the third person singular end-
ing in e, to words ending in σι and to ἐστί; as ἔλαβεν, πᾶσιν,
éσtív. In classical Greek it is used only before words begin-
ning with a vowel, or at the end of a sentence or clause,
but in the New Testament-as also in the papyri-it occurs
frequently before consonants. So we may say that the rule
of the Koiné was to use the v movable irrespective of what
followed.
Breathings
32. Kinds of Breathings. The Koiné Greek like the
classical has two breathings, rough (') and smooth (').
The indication of these breathings is a device of later
Greek. Moulton finds that "literary documents have begun
to insert them at a date not much later than and B"
(M-II, 97ff.).
33. Aspiration. In classical Greek when a preposition
preceded a word with a rough breathing and the final vowel
of the preposition elided, if the consonant thus left final
had an aspirate form, it was aspirated, but in the New
Testament, aspiration sometimes occurs where there is no
rough breathing; as ἀφοράω for ἀπό and ὁράω, but ἀφίδω for
ἀπό and ἴδω.
Contraction
34. When two vowels or a vowel and diphthong come
together in adjoining syllables they usually blend into a
single syllable. Thus γένε-ος becomes γένους; ἐφίλε-ε be-
comes ἐφίλει.
i. Contraction in verbs with vowel stems presents a uniform
system in general, with rarely an exception. In other parts of
speech there are many variations, which must be learned by obser-
vation. The following scheme of vowel contractions will be found
to apply in most cases, especially with verbs.
To locate a contract form in the following table, find the stem
vowel in the first vertical column, and the connecting vowel in the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
25
top line, follow the columns to their intersection and there the reg-
ular contraction will be found.

a
€
0
€
18
EL
ου
η
18
η
3
0
3
ου
ου
W
3
3
3
EL
8.
α
EL
οι
n
ถ
a
n ท
OL
ου
3
Mutes.
Gutturals: before μ become y; before σ become έ;
before 7 become κ; before become X.
Labials: before μ become μ; before σ become ;
before 7 become π; before become .
Dentals: before μ become σ; before σ are dropped;
before 7 become σ; before become σ;
before k are dropped.
ου
ου
OL
3~
οι
οι
ii. The formation of infinitives in contract verbs presents some ex-
ceptions which should be noted. Verbs with a as their stem vowel
have their present infinitive active form in -ãv instead of -ặv, as it
would be with the regular contraction of -άew. The present infini-
tive active of verbs with o stem contract -óeɩ to -ouv instead of -oïv.
The verb Jaw has as its present active infinitive v instead of Jav.
iii. In word formation, stem formation and inflection the combina-
tion of consonants occasions frequent changes and contractions. We
offer the following table as an aid to the student in tracing these
variations.
Liquids.
Submit easily to transposition.
Sometimes is doubled to compensate for the loss of a vowel.
Regularly p is doubled when preceded by a vowel.
As to v: before liquids it becomes the same liquid.
before gutturals it becomes Y (nasal).
before labials it becomes μ.
before dentals it remains unchanged.
before σ it is dropped, and the preceding vowel lengthened.
26
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Sibilants.
is a combination of a dental and σ.
È is a combination of a guttural and σ.
is a combination of a labial and σ.
σ between two consonants or vowels is usually dropped.
σ at the beginning of a word usually appears as a rough breathing.
Accent
35. The matter of accent is regarded with but slight con-
cern by many Greek teachers, but in this neglect such
teachers betray their own lack of appreciation for the
genius and history of the language. If one wishes with
finished accuracy to learn the Greek language, it is im-
portant that he should master the principles and practice
of accenting. We present here a brief statement of the
principles and the resulting methods for the help and guid-
ance of the student. He cannot master Greek accent by
memorizing rules; he should comprehend the principles
and discern the application of these in the methods, and
thus obtain a real working knowledge of the system.
-
36. We begin by summarizing briefly the principles of
accentuation. "The limits of the position of an accent
depend on the 'three syllable law,' by which the rising
inflexion cannot stand further back than on the third
syllable from the end of a word" (M-II. 53). That is,
accent is governed by principles of intonation. These prin-
ciples were very thoroughly developed and rigidly observed
by those who produced the Greek classics. The "acute”
represents the rising inflection of the voice, while the
"grave" represents the falling inflection. Every syllable
has an accent, either grave or acute, though the grave is
not indicated except on the last syllable of a word which
has no acute. A word which in continuous composition has
no acute accent must receive an acute if standing alone (as
in the lexicon) or at a pause (at the end of a clause or
1
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
27
sentence). Thus we say that an acute on the last syllable
changes to a grave in continuous composition. If a single
syllable is treated with both a rising and falling inflection,
it carries a combination of the acute and grave accents,
which we call "circumflex." Thus Baσiλeia Toũ ОEOũ
when the accents are analyzed and all represented would
be written ἣ βασιλείὰ τοῦ θεοῦ.
ĥ
37. The degree of stress is modified by the length of the
syllable. Though the long syllable need not be the accentu-
ated syllable, it greatly affects the accent. Hence a word
with a long ultima cannot have the accent farther back
than the penult.
38. The acute accent will sustain the tone for three
syllables; hence, the antepenult may have an acute if the
ultima is short. The word needs no additional accent before
a monosyllabic enclitic if the acute is on the penult, or
before a dissyllabic enclitic if the acute is on the ultima.
But a dissyllabic enclitic must take its own accent if pre-
ceded by a word with the acute on the penult, or if the
acute is on the antepenult there must be before a dissyllabic
enclitic an additional accent on the ultima. Note that
when this additional accent is placed on the ultima, it and
the two syllables of the enclitic make the three syllables
which it is possible for the acute to carry.
39. The circumflex will sustain the tone for only two
syllables, for the obvious reason that the circumflex repre-
sents the accentual equivalent of two syllables, since it is a
combination of both the rising and falling inflection. For
this reason the circumflex can stand no farther back than
the penult, and cannot furnish the accent for a dissyllabic
enclitic, or for a monosyllabic enclitic if it is on the penult.
40. We will now review the application of these prin-
ciples in more systematic form as classified in a summary
of the methods of accentuation. It is important that the
28
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
student should keep in mind that these are not mere arbi-
trary "rules," but methods which represent the application
of fundamental principles of intonation.
(1) Acute (').
a. May stand on one of the last three syllables; e.g.,
ἄνθρωπος, ἀγάπη, ἀδελφός.
b. Cannot stand farther back than the penult if the
ultima is long; e.g., ἄνθρωπος, but ἀνθρώπου.
c. Cannot stand on the ultima when immediately fol-
lowed by another word; that is, without intervening punc-
tuation marks; e.g., ὁ Χριστὸς ἀγαθός.
(2) Circumflex (˜).
a. May stand on one of the last two syllables; e.g.,
δοῦλος, θεῷ.
b. Must stand on the penult if a long penult is accented
before a short ultima; e.g., d@pov.
c. Cannot stand on the penult if the ultima is long; e.g.,
δῶρον, but δώρου.
d. Cannot stand on a short syllable; e.g., dwpov, but
λόγος.
(3) Grave (').
a. May stand on the last syllable; e.g., ò feòs piλeï.
b. Occurs only when immediately followed by another
word; e.g., ἡ καλὴ γυνή.
(4) Accent in Conjugation.
a. In conjugation accent is recessive; i.e., it stands as far
back as the ultima will allow; e.g., ἀκούω, ἤκουον.
Moulton regards this method of accenting verbs as "a consequence
of their primitive enclitic condition” (M-II. 55).
b. There are several irregularities in the accent of
verbs. In the regular w verbs the aorist active infinitive,
the perfect active infinitive, the perfect middle-passive
participle, and the aorist passive infinitive accent the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
29
penult, while the perfect active and aorist passive participle
accent the ultima. The irregular verbs present still other
irregularities in accent; e.g., ἀκοῦσαι, λελυκέναι, λελυμένος,
λυθήναι, λελυκώς, λυθείς, λαβών.
It will be noticed that the exceptions to the principle of recessive
accent are in every case infinitives and participles. Moulton con-
siders that since these are essentially nouns and adjectives, rather
than properly verbs, they are not really exceptions to the recessive
principle in verbal accent (M-II. 55).
c. In compound verbs (those combined with a prepo-
sition) the accent regularly does not rest on the preposition.
Several exceptions to this rule occur; e.g., ἐξῆλθεν, ἔξεστιν.
d. In contract verbs, if the accent on the uncontracted
form occurs on the first of the two contracted syllables, it
becomes a circumflex; e.g., pλée becomes piλeĩ. If the
accent of the original form is on the second of the two con-
tracted syllables, it remains acute; e.g., piλeéтw, becomes
piλeirw. If the original accent is on neither of the con-
tracted syllables, it is governed by the regular rule of reces-
sive accent; e.g., ἐφίλεε becomes ἐφίλει.
(5) Accent in Declension.
In declension the accent remains as in the nominative
singular, as nearly as the general rules for accent will per-
mit. The accent of the nominative must be learned by
observation. There are in declension, however, three special
rules which we should notice.
a. All nouns and participles of the first declension have
the circumflex on the ultima in the genitive plural; e.g.,
ἡμερῶν, προφητῶν.
b. Any word declined in the first or second declension
which has its accent on the ultima takes the circumflex in
the genitive and dative, singular and plural; e.g., singular:
ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, ἀρχῇ, ἀρχήν; plural, ἀρχαί, ἀρχῶν, ἀρχαῖς
ἀρχάς.
30
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
c. Monosyllabic nouns of the third declension accent
the ultima in the genitive and dative, singular and plural;
e.g., singular: νύξ, νυκτός, νυκτί, νύκτα, plural: νύκτες,
νυκτῶν, νυξί, νύκτας.
,
(6) Proclitics and Enclitics.
a. A proclitic is a word which has no accent, and is pro-
nounced with the word following; as, ek εou. The New
Testament examples are the forms of the article ò, n, oi, ai;
the prepositions, eis, ék, év; the conjunctions ei, ws; and
the negative où.
b. An enclitic is a word which, whenever possible, loses its
accent and is pronounced with the word preceding; as
as ὁ θεός ἐστιν ἀγαθός. The enclities found in the New
Testament are the pronoun forms μοῦ, μοί, μέ, σοῦ, σοί, σέ;
the indefinite pronoun ris; the indefinite adverbs ποú, πOTÉ,
πά, πάs; the particles yé, ré; all the present indicative forms
of εἰμί, except the second person singular εἶ, and φημί, φησί.
It is to be noted that μou and σou "throw an acute upon the preced-
ing word, and receive it from a following enclitic; e.g., σúvdovλós σoú
eiμi (Rev. 19:10”; cf. M-II. 54).
The following methods of accent for enclitics may be
observed.
(a) An acute accent on the ultima is retained before an
enclitic; e.g., ὁ θεός ἐστιν ἀγαθός.
(b) If the word preceding has an acute on the penult or
a circumflex on the ultima, a dissyllabic enclitic retains its
accent, while a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent; e.g.,
ὁ λόγος ἐστὶν ἀληθής, ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστὶν ἀληθής, τήν χώραν
μου εἰσῆλθεν, ὁ θεὸς φιλεῖ με.
(c) An enclitic at the beginning of a sentence retains its
accent; e.g., ἐσμὲν μακάριοι.
(d) If a word preceding an enclitic has an acute on the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
31
antepenult, it takes an additional acute on the ultima; e.g.,
ὁ Χριστὸς ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν, οὗτος ἐγένετο ὁ ἀπόστολός μου.
(e) If a word preceding a dissyllabic enclitic has a cir-
cumflex on the penult, it takes an additional acute on the
ultima; e.g., τὸ δῶρόν ἐστιν ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ.
(f) A monosyllabic enclitic takes its own accent if the
word preceding has a circumflex on the penult; e.g., o oikos
μοῦ.
(g) A dissyllabic enclitic takes its own accent when pre-
ceded by a word with the circumflex on the ultima, e.g.,
τέκνον θεοῦ εἰμί.
(h) A proclitic or an enclitic followed by an enclitic
receives an accent; e.g., ei tis ẻσtiv dikalos.
i. Let it be observed that enclitics which consist of long syllables are,
for purposes of accent, regarded as short syllables when added to a
preceding word; οὗτος ὁ λόγος μου ἦν.
ii. There are three situations in which σri becomes éσTɩ:
(1) At the beginning of a sentence, e.g., čσтɩ åɣalòs ävlρwπOS.
(2) When it signifies existence or possibility, e.g., ò feòs éσTIV.
(3) When it follows οὐκ, εἰ, ὡς, καί, τοῦτο, e.g., οὐκ ἔστιν
καλόν.
(7) Special Rules.
a. On a diphthong the accent and breathing must stand
over the second vowel; e.g., OUTOS.
οὗτος.
b. The diphthongs at and oɩ when final (except in the
optative mood) are regarded as short when accenting; e.g.,
ἄνθρωποι, χῶραι.
We have not sought to relate every method of accent to the gen-
eral principles, but the student can readily discern the connection
in most instances. A few of the methods are simply facts of the
language for which no logical explanation appears. It is well always
to keep in mind the three-syllable law (see $36) and to observe
that: (1) the antepenult may have only the acute; (2) the penult
may have the acute or circumflex; (3) the ultima may have the
32
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
acute, circumflex, or grave. In all these variations the situation of
the accent is to be decided in consideration of the length of the
ultima, with the exception of enclitics and a very few other cases
which can be learned by observation. An excellent discussion of
the principles of accentuation, based upon a wide induction, may be
found in M-II. 51-56. When this is compared with R. 226-236, the
matter has been seen from every important angle.
II. DECLENSION
References: R. 246-254; R-S. 17-31; M. 48–49.
41. Declension is the inflection of a substantive (noun,
adjective, pronoun, or participle) for the purpose of indi-
cating its relation to the rest of the sentence. In the primi-
tive stages of the Indo-European language it is probable
that case was indicated almost exclusively by inflection.
Though "comparative philology has nothing to say as to
the origin of the case suffixes" (R. 250), it seems most.
likely that they originated from pronouns and adverbs
(Wr. 144f.). This question, however, must remain largely
in the realm of subjective speculation, the only point of
objective probability being that inflection was originally
the sole means of expressing case relations. Later the
preposition began to do service in this capacity, and gradu-
ally encroached upon the inflectional endings until in
modern speech declension has almost disappeared.
Relation of Declension and Case
42. Let it be remembered that inflection did not arise as
determining case, but for the purpose of indicating case.
The case was determined by considerations of use. Declen-
sion, then, is a matter of form; case is a matter of function.
Case is determined by the relations of the substantive in
the grammatical structure of the sentence. Declension was
developed as a means of indicating such substantive rela-
tions. Hence it may be seen that, without question, the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
33
case of a noun is to be decided, not by its inflectional form,
but by the grammatical relations which it sustains. The
importance of this fact will appear more clearly when we
come to the study of case in the part on Syntax. Our
interest in the matter here is to note that it is not really
accurate to speak of the various forms in declension as
cases, for their relation to case is not essential but modal.
It tends toward confusion even to speak of them as case
endings, the better plan being to refer to them as inflec-
tional endings.
The above consideration will enable the student to under-
stand why we may speak of more cases than a noun has
inflectional endings.
43. A single inflectional ending may do service for sev-
eral cases. This is already a familiar phenomenon to the
Greek student; as, for instance, the nominative, vocative,
and accusative of neuter nouns, where we have three cases
represented by one inflectional ending. Therefore, it is not
possible to deny that there may be more than one case.
represented by a single inflectional ending in other in-
stances. The new historico-scientific method by which
Greek has been studied in recent years has discovered that
the language has eight cases: nominative, vocative, geni-
tive, ablative, dative, locative, instrumental, and accusa-
tive. Ordinarily we find only four inflectional endings.
The first usually embraces the nominative and vocative;
the second, the genitive and ablative; the third, the dative,
locative, and instrumental; the fourth, the accusative. The
student should be careful to bear in mind that these inflec-
tional endings do not decide the question of case.
Wright believes that "the parent Indogermanic language had
eight cases-probably more if we call the vocative a case" (Wr.
144). Robertson finds eight clearly defined cases in Greek (R.
247-250). Moulton is in general agreement with him (cf. M. 60ff.),
34
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
and Nunn follows their lead-omitting the instrumental (H. P. V.
Nunn, Syntax of N. T. Gr., p. 38). Full discussion of this question
belongs to Syntax.
Number in Substantives
44. In classical Greek we meet with three numbers:
singular, dual, and plural; but in the Koiné the dual has
disappeared. The details of the history of the dual and its
final decadence cannot be recited here, it being necessary
to the present purpose only to call attention to the fact.
The singular and plural are usually employed in the nor-
mal way. The nature of some nouns requires that they be
used in the singular only or the plural only, as the case
may be. The irregularities cannot be reduced to systematic
statement, but are best learned by observation.
Moulton finds that many Greek dialects-"Ionic conspicuously".
had lost the dual before the advent of the Koiné. He thinks it
arose by reason of a limitation in primitive speech and inevitably
decayed after this limitation was removed (M. 57). Robertson
suggests that it might have arisen from a desire to emphasize pairs,
such as hands and eyes (R. 251). A combination of the suggestions
given by Moulton and Robertson would likely come nearest to
the facts.
Gender in Substantives
45. We meet in the Koiné the familiar three genders of
the Attic Greek; masculine, feminine, and neuter. Where
there are no facts of sex to decide the matter, the gender of
a noun must be learned by observation. The distinctions
of gender are strictly adhered to in the Greek New Testa-
ment.
Robertson and Green think that distinctions in gender grew out
of the fact of sex and became applied to inanimate objects by
poetic personification (R. 252; G 17). Sweet, however, dissents
from this opinion (Hist. of Lang., p. 38). Moulton regards it as a
rather remarkable fact that Modern Greek "is nearly as much under
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
35
the domination of this outworn excrescence on language as was its
classical ancestor" (M. 59). But, however we may regard the
importance of gender, as students of the Greek New Testament we
must adapt ourselves to the fact. It is to be carefully observed
that there is not only "sense gender" that which is relative to
actual sex-but "grammatical gender"-that which is determined
purely by grammatical usage.
The Greek Declensions
46. It is best to divide the Greek language into three
declensions, on the basis of the ending of the noun stem.
Nouns which have a as their characteristic stem ending are
assigned to the first declension. Those with o as the charac-
teristic stem ending are in the second declension. The
third declension includes nouns whose stems end in a con-
sonant, or in ɩ, v, or ev. The third declension is to be deter-
mined by observing both the stem ending and the inflec-
tional endings, which are distinctive for this declension.
The variation in the stem ending of third-declension nouns
has occasioned some difference of opinion as to the number
of Greek declensions, but there is general agreement upon
the three we have mentioned.
U
Robertson believes that it is not possible with final precision to
draw fixed limits for the declensions. This may most naturally be
expected when we remember that declensions had no rules by which
to develop, but came with the spontaneous growth of the language.
With this fact in view there is no wonder that there is mixing and
overlapping. In the earliest grammatical effort they tried to make
an exhaustive classification of all variations, which resulted in
division into ten or more declensions. Whitney has divided noun
inflection in the Sanskrit into five declensions, but the difference is
not pronounced. In Modern Greek there has been a blending of
the first and third declensions (cf. R. 246-247).
47. The First Declension. The nouns of this declension
are usually feminine, though a few are masculine. The
stem ends in a, but this a is frequently found in contract or
36
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
modified form. The forms vary with different kinds of
stems. These variations are seen in the singular only, the
plural being the same for all nouns of this declension (see
Paradigm 1).
(1) When the stem ending is preceded by e, i,or p, the a
is retained throughout.
But in the New Testament we sometimes find ns and n following
ɩ and p (cf. M-II. 118).
ถ
(2) When the stem ending is preceded by σ, A, A, or a
double consonant, the vowel is generally short a, which
becomes ʼn in the genitive and dative singular.
η
(3) After other consonants the stem ending is usually ʼn
(see Paradigm 1).
(4) The regular masculine ending for nouns of this de-
clension is ns.
(5) After e, ɩ, or p masculine nouns have -as after the
analogy of feminine nouns.
It should be carefully observed that there are also nouns of the third
declension which end in a, as, and ŋs. The difference of declension
is to be noted in the genitive singular. A few masculine nouns of the
first declension have a in the genitive singular; e.g., Boppãs, -a,
μαμωνᾶς, -α, Κηφᾶς, -α. Some nouns in pa have their genitive and
dative in -ης, -η; e.g., σπεῖρα, -ης, μάχαιρα, –ης.
48. The Second Declension. The nouns in this declen-
sion are masculine and neuter, with a few feminines. There
are two sets of terminations, one for masculine and feminine
and another for neuter. The genitive and dative endings
correspond in both numbers for all three genders (see
Paradigm 2).
In this declension there are a few nouns with nominative in ws and
some in eos and oos which appear in contract forms.
49. The Third Declension. This declension presents the
greatest variety and at the same time the greatest difficulty
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
37
of the three. The important element of variation is the
stem ending. The stem may be found by omitting the
ending of the genitive form. The nouns of the third de-
clension are of all three genders. No classification can be
accomplished which would hold absolutely without varia-
tion, and an exhaustive analysis would require treatment
of greater length than is possible here. The simplest
analysis we can secure which approximates accuracy is to
divide the declension into the following five classes (see
Paradigm 3).
(1) Mute Stems. Here we have masculine and feminine
nouns whose stems end in a mute, mostly the dental mutes
7 and 8, with one in 0. There are several in κ, some in y and
X, four in π, and one in B. Some New Testament nouns of
this class are χάρις, -τος; ἐλπίς, -δος; ὄρνις, -θος; ἄνθραξ, -κος;
φλόξ, -γος.
(2) Liquid Stems. These nouns are chiefly masculine,
though a few are feminine. Some representatives in the
New Testament are ἅλς, ἅλος; αἰών, -ωνος; ἡγεμών, -ovos,
ποιμήν, -ενος; ῥήτωρ, -ορος; μήν, μῆνος.
(3) Syncopated Stems. In this class we have those
nouns of the third declension which lose the vowel from the
final syllable of the stem in the second and third forms
singular and in the third plural; as ȧvýp, stem ȧvep-,
gen. ȧvôpós. They are masculine and feminine in gender,
and are represented in the New Testament by such words as
πατήρ, -τρος; μήτηρ, -τρος; θυγάτηρ, -τρος.
(4) Vowel Stems. These are masculines in eu, feminines
in, and masculines and feminines and one neuter (dákрν)
in v.
The masculines in ev have their genitive ending in
ews. The same is true of the feminine stems in ɩ. The v
stems have os for the genitive. Nouns of this class are
ἁλιεύς, Βασιλεύς, πόλις, στάσις, ἰχθύς, στάχυς.
,
,
38
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(5) Stems in at and eo. These are all neuter nouns. Those
in at are the second largest third-declension group, the larg-
est being the feminines in ɩ. Some of the ar stems form
their nominative by changing the 7 of the stem to s, but
generally the nominative is formed by dropping the 7.
The co nouns lose their distinctive stem ending in the nomi-
native and terminate in os. In inflection the σ of the stem
is dropped and the e contracts with the vowel of the termina-
tion. Some New Testament nouns of this class are képas,
-ατος; σῶμα, -ατος; γένος, γένους (contraction of γένεος from
γένεσος); ἔτος, ἔτους (contraction of ἔτεος from ἔτεσος).
The masculine noun σvyyev's apparently belongs to this
class, since it has its genitive in σvyyevoũs (cf. M-II.138), but
it was originally an adjective declined like ἀληθής.
(6) Besides these nouns which may be classified with
more or less distinctness, there are a good many third-
declension nouns in the New Testament which are so
irregular as to preclude definite classification. For irregular
nouns of all three declensions see Paradigm 4.
i. An exhaustive treatment of the third-declension nouns which
occur in the New Testament may be found in M-II. 128–143.
ii. It will be helpful to the student to observe that there are
certain forms which are common to all three declensions.
(1) Neuters have but three forms for all the cases, one embracing
nominative, vocative, and accusative, another the genitive, and ablative,
and a third the dative, locative, and instrumental. (2) The neuter
plural always has a for its nominative, vocative, and accusative ending.
However, this a sometimes appears in contract form, as yévŋ for yeve-a.
(3) The dative singular always ends in , which becomes subscript
when it follows a long vowel, as in the first and second declensions.
(4) The genitive plural always has -wv for its ending. (5) Masculine
and neuter nouns always have their ending alike in the genitive and
dative (cf. G. 16).
iii. Several New Testament nouns, borrowed from Hebrew, are inde-
clinable; such e.g., ῥαββεί, ‘Ιερουσαλήμ, μάννα, ᾿Αββά. This is
probably the explanation of the phrase in Rev. 1:4, ô bv Kaì ô ñu khi ô
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
39
épxóμevos, which is likely treated as an indeclinable noun for the
Hebrew Yahweh (Jehovah).
iv. There are a few cases in the New Testament of mixed declension.
A word is found sometimes in one declension, and again in another: with
one case expressed by one declension, and another by another. Thus
σάββατον has σαββάτῳ in the singular, but σάββασι in the plural.
A complete review of the matter is offered by Moulton (M-II. 124–128).
The Article
50. The Greek article is, strictly speaking, a pronoun,
but its entirely distinctive function makes it best that it
should receive distinct treatment both in accidence and
syntax. As to inflectional form, it is declined after the
analogy of the first and second declensions. It is to be
observed that the article is an unfailing means for deter-
mining the gender of substantives (see Paradigm 5).
The Adjective
51. Declension of Adjectives. In declension adjectives
follow the analogy of nouns. When the masculine and
feminine differ, they are usually declined in the first and
second declensions, though sometimes in the first and third.
When the masculine and feminine are the same, they are
declined in the second or third declension only (see Para-
digm 6).
M
52. Comparison of Adjectives. In comparison the Koiné
adjective does not differ greatly from the classical method,
the chief difference being that the superlative form rarely
occurs in the Koiné. There are two regular forms of com-
parison, besides a number of irregular forms.
(1) The prevalent method of comparison is the addition
of -τερos and -τατοs to the stem; e. g. πίστος, πιστότερος,
TιOTÓTαTOS. If the penultimate syllable ends in a short
vowel, the connecting -o- is regularly lengthened to -w-;
e. g., σόφος, σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος. Adjectives of the third
40
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
declension whose stems end in eo add the comparative suffixes
to the stem; e.g., ἀληθής, ἀληθέστερος, ἀληθέστατος. Those
in ων add er to the stem ; e.g., σώφρων, σωφρωνέστερος, σωφρω
νέστατος.
(2) There are frequent comparatives in -wv, with a few
superlatives in -ιστος; e.g., καλός, καλλίων, κάλλιστος.
(3) Some adjectives present irregular forms of comparison;
e.g., μικρός, ἐλάσσων, ἐλάχιστος.
i. For declension of comparative and superlative adjectives and a
list of the principal irregular comparisons see Paradigm 6.
ii. Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ws to the stem of
the positive, using the neuter accusative singular for the comparative,
and the neuter accusative plural for the superlative; e.g., kadŵs,
κάλλιον, κάλλιστα.
The Pronoun
53. Since the pronoun was introduced into language as a
helper to the noun, it quite naturally follows the noun in
inflection (see Paradigm 7).
(1) The great majority of the Greek pronouns are found
in the first and second declensions.
(2) The interrogative, indefinite, and indefinite relative
are declined in the third declension.
Participles
54. Participles present five inflectional types. Four of
them are in the first and third declensions, and the other in
the first and second (see Paradigm 8).
(1) Present and future active; λύων, οντος; -ουσα, -ουσης;
-ον, οντος; λύσων in the same way.
(2) Aorist active: λύσας, -σαντος; -σασα, -σάσης; -σαν,
σαντος.
(3) Perfect active: λελυκώς, -κότος; -κυῖα, -κυίας; -κός,
-κότος.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
41
(4) Aorist passive: λυθείς, -θέντος; -θεῖσα, θείσης; θέν,
-θέντος.
(5) The remaining passives and all the middle participles
are declined in the first and second declensions; e.g., Avóμe-
vos, -n, -ov.
Proper Names
55. Proper names in the New Testament derived from
the Hebrew, or the transliteration of Hebrew names, are
usually indeclinable. Some of them have been Hellenized
and inflected like a Greek noun. Greek and Latin names
are regularly declined. Proper names are found in all
three of the declensions. For a detailed treatment of this
matter see M-II. 143ff.
Numerals
56 In the nature of the case the first numeral eis is de-
clined in the singular only, and the others in the plural only.
Many of them are indeclinable. It is not difficult to discern
just which do submit to inflection. Eis is declined after the
analogy of the first and third declensions; dúo, tpeĩs, and
Téσσapes, the third only. The ordinals and the cardinals
in -o are declined in the first and second declension, like
Kaλós (see Paradigm 9).
III. CONJUGATION
References: R. 303–306, 330-343; R-S. 32-47; M. 51–56.
57. In Greek the verb reaches the acme of its develop-
ment in the history of language. In no other branch of
human speech are the structural phenomena of the verb so
extensively elaborated, or organized with such "architec-
tural skill" (R-S. 33). To analyze the Greek verb in all
its varied modifications is an extended and minute process
which can be presented here only in brief outline. A com-
42
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
plete system of verbal inflection is presented in Para-
digm 10.
Moulton observes that the Koiné verb has moved considerably in
the direction of simplification, as compared with the complexity of
the Attic verb. This tendency has continued into Modern Greek,
which lacks the optative and infinitive, and has but few survivals of
the middle voice and -μ forms. "These and other tendencies, the
issue of which is seen in Modern Greek, were all at work early in
Hellenistic; but they have not travelled far enough to relieve the
accidence of much grammatical lumber, once significant but now
outworn" (M-II. 182).
Classes of Greek Verbs
58. The Regular Verbs. These are the verbs whose
present indicative active first person singular ends in w,
which retain the same verb stem throughout, and whose
tense stems occasion no irregularities in inflection. They
may be defined as omega verbs with regular inflection.
They present the typical form of the Greek verb; e.g.,λów,
λύσω, ἔλυσα, λέλυκα, etc.
59. The Irregular Verbs. These are the verbs which
present variations in the structure of the stem.
(1) This variation is sometimes caused by changes made
in the formation of tense stems as ἀγγέλλω, aorist ἤγγειλα.
(2) Many verbs present two or more different verb
stems from entirely different roots. These roots appear to
be the survival of several different original verbs; e.g.,
ἔρχομαι, stem ἐρχ-; ἐλεύσομαι, stem ἐλευ-; ἦλθον, stem ἐλθ-.
60. The Contract Verbs. Here we have verbs whose stems
end in a vowel, which vowel occasions certain changes in
termination or in the formation of tense stems. There
are three classes of these verbs: those ending in a, as ȧyañáw;
those ending in e, as iλéw; those ending in o, as dŋλów.
In the terminations of the present and imperfect the final
vowel combines with the vowel of the ending and gives a
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
43
contract form (for table of contractions, see §34). In the
formation of the stems for the other tenses the final vowel is
lengthened; a and e become n, and o becomes w; e.g., ȧyaжάw
ἀγαπάω
contract form ἀγαπῶ, future ἀγαπήσω; φιλέω, contract form
φιλῶ, future φιλήσω; δηλόω, δηλῶ, δηλώσω.
61. The Mi Verbs. This class is composed of the verbs
which retain the primitive Greek endings. They are the
oldest of the Greek verbs. Quite a number of ut forms are
μι
found in Homer, but they are much fewer in the classical
Greek, and continue to diminish through the Koiné and
Byzantine periods, and disappear entirely from Modern
Greek vernacular-though still surviving to a slight extent
in the more formal or literary use. The verbs in most
constant use appear in this form, which fact gives evidence
of its primitive character; e.g., εἰμί, ἵστημι, τίθημι.
The Structure of the Greek Verb
The typical Greek verb is composed of four parts.
62. The Verb Stem, which is the simple basal form of the
verb, and constitutes the foundation of its inflection. It is
not accurate to call this part of the verb the "root," because
the root may be a still more remote element of the verb stem,
which may be "a derivative stem like rua" (R-S. 33),
of which the root is Tu. As has been shown above, many
verbs have more than one stem. The verb stem may usually
be found by removing the affixes of the aorist, though there
are exceptions; e.g., äyw, aorist йy -ay -ov, stem ay; λeiπw,
aorist ἔ-λιπ ον, stem λιπ; but στέλλω, perfect ἔ -σταλ -κα,
stem σταλ.
•
63. The Tense Stem. This is the form of the verb em-
ployed to distinguish the tense; e.g., ayw, aorist stem ȧyay-;
τίθημι, present stem τιθε-; λείπω, perfect stem λελοιπ-.
64. The Connecting Vowel. This is used in uniting the
terminations with the tense stem, and generally distinguishes
44
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
the mood; e.g., åyάy-n-te, where -n- suggests the subjunc-
tive mood.
65. The Verbal Suffix. This is the termination proper, and
serves to distinguish voice, person, and number. Thus in
λύ-ε-σθε the termination -σθε indicates the middle voice,
second person, plural number.
With these facts in view we may analyze λúowμev thus:
λυ
λυσ-
-W-
-μεν.
Verb stem,
Tense stem,
Connecting vowel,
Verbal suffix,
Tense Stems
66. Considering the verb stem under the figure of the
foundation of the verb system, we may aptly describe the
tense stem as the ground floor. It must always appear as
the basis to which the terminations are affixed.
67. Formation of Tense Stems. In the normal, regular
tense stem the primary distinguishing element is an affixed
consonant which we call a stem ending. The two other
features employed in distinguishing tense functions are.
augment and reduplication.
(1) Stem Endings. The ordinary Greek verb presents
four characteristic stem endings.
a. The future has σ, with the connecting vowels o/e; e.g.,
λύσω, λύσομεν, λύσετε.
b. The aorist active and middle has σ, with the connect-
ing vowel a; e.g., ἔλυσα, ἐλύσαμεν, ἐλύσατε.
c. The passive has 0e, which in actual inflection usually
appears as θη; e.g., ἐλύθην, λυθήσομαι.
d. The perfect active has κa; e.g., λéλuкa.
e. The perfect middle and passive has no distinctive end-
ing, but attaches the verbal suffix (personal ending) directly
to the reduplicated stem; e.g., λέλυμαι, λέλυσαι, λέλυται, etc.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
45
Verb stems which end in a consonant present important changes
in their combination with the stem ending. As an aid to the student
in constructing verb forms we insert here a table of these consonant
changes. Compare with this table the one given under §34, iii.
(1) Future and Aorist Stems. Before σ:
As to liquids.
The future inserts e and elides σ: ἀγγέλλω, ἀγγελέσω,
becomes ἀγγελέω, contracted to ἀγγελῶ (cf. §68, (3), b).
The aorist omits σ and lengthens the stem vowel: μένω, ἔμεινα,
(cf. §68, (1), a, (b)).
As to mutes.
Guturals become ξ: ἄγω, ἄξω, ἦξα.
Labials become ψ: τρίβω, τρίψω, ἔτριψα.
Dentals are dropped: πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are dropped: σώζω, σώσω, ἔσωσα.
(2) Passive Stem. Before θ:
As to liquids.
v is dropped: κρίνω, ἐκρίθην.
λ, ρ are retained: ἀγγέλλω, ἤγγέλθην; αἴρω, ἤρθην.
μ inserts €, lengthened to η: νέμω, ἐνεμήθην. (These are the
only μ stem forms in the New Testament.)
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
K, γ are changed to χ: διώκω, ἐδιώχθην; ἄγω, ἤχθην,
x is retained: διδάσκω (διδαχ-), ἐδιδάχθην.
Labials.
π, β are changed to φ: πέμπω, ἐπέμφθην; τρίβω, ἐτρίφην.
φ elides θ, producing a second aorist: γράφω, ἐγράφην; or
is retained: ἀλείφω, ἠλείφθην.
Dentals are changed to σ: πείθω, ἐπείσθην.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are changed to σ: κτίζω, ἐκτίσθην. (But σώζω be-
comes ἐσώθην.)
46
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(3) Perfect Active Stem. Before K:
As to liquids.
λ, ρ are retained: ἀγγέλλω, ἤγγελκα; αἴρω, ἤρκα.
v is dropped: κρίνω, κέκρικα.
or inserts e lengthened to η: μένω, μεμένηκα.
or forms a second perfect: φαίνω, πέφηνα.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
κ changes to x and elides k of stem ending: διώκω, δεδίωχα.
γ changes to X and elides k of stem ending: ἄγω, ἤχα.
i or is retained and elides k of stem ending: ἀνοίγω, ἀνέῳγα.
χ is retained and elides k of stem ending: τυγχάνω (τυχ-),
τέτυχα.
Labials are changed to φ and elide κ: τρίβω, τέτριφα.
Dentals are dropped: πείθω, πέπεικα.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are dropped: ἁρπάζω, ἥρπακα.
(4) Perfect Middle Stem.
Before μ:
As to liquids.
v is changed to σ: φαίνω, πέφασμαι;
or is dropped: κρίνω, κέκριμαι.
λ, ρ are retained: ἀγγέλλω, ἤγγελμαι; αἴρω, ἤρμαι.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
κ, χ are changed to γ: διώκω, δεδίωγμαι; διδάσκω, δεδίδαγ-
μαι.
γ is retained: ἄγω, ἤγμαι.
Labials are changed to μ: γράφω, γέγραμμαι.
Dentals are changed to σ: πείθω, πέπεισμαι.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are changed to σ: κτίζω, ἔκτισμαι.
Before σ:-
As to liquids.
Liquids remain as before μ: πέφα(σ)σαι, κέκρισαι, ἤγγελσαι,
ἤρσαι.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
47
As to mutes.
Gutturals are changed to ξ: δεδίωξαι, ἤξαι.
Labials are changed to : Yéypayai.
Dentals are elided: πέπεισαι.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants are elided: ἔκτισαι.
Before T:-
As to liquids.
Liquids remain as before μ: πέφασται, ἤγγελται, etc.
As to mutes.
Gutturals.
γ, χ are changed to κ: ἤκται, δεδίδακται.
κ is retained: δεδίωκται.
Labials.
β, φ are changed to π: γέγραπται.
π is retained: πέπεμπται.
Dentals remain as before μ: πέπεισται.
As to sibilants.
Sibilants remain as before μ: ἔκτισται.
The indicative second person plural of the perfect middle elides σ and
combines with the stem according to the praxis indicated under the
passive stem: ἔκριθε, ἤγγελθε, ἤχθε, etc.
The indicative third person plural of the perfect middle is formed by
the perfect middle participle and the third person plural of εἰμί: λείπω,
λελειμμένοι εἰσί; ἄγω, ἠγμένοι εἰσί, πείθω, πεπεισμένοι εἰσί.
With these suggestions the student will be able to work out the other
changes.
(2) Augment. In the indicative the tenses which refer
to past time have an augment, and are called secondary
tenses. There are two kinds of augment.
a. Syllabic augment is the prefixing of e to the verbs
beginning with a consonant: e.g., ëλvov.
b. Temporal augment is used in the case of verbs begin-
ning with a vowel, and is the lengthening of the initial
vowel; e.g., åkovw, ýkovov.
48
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
!
If the initial vowel is €, it is regularly changed to ŋ, but occasionally
to el as exw, imperfect exov. A is changed to ŋ, o to w. Since
and u have no corresponding long vowel, the augment is not indicated
unless marked ī, u. If the initial vowel is already long, it of necessity
remains unchanged. Diphthongs which have as the second vowel
lengthen the first vowel, and the becomes subscript; e.g., ʼn for aɩ
and et; w for oɩ.
In other diphthongs the first vowel is lengthened and the second
remains unchanged; e.g., nu for ev and av.
c. A few verbs appear with both the temporal and
syllabic augments, as μέλλω, ἤμελλον; ἀνοίγω, ἀνέῳξα.
i. When a verb is compounded with a preposition, the augment is
placed between the preposition and the verb stem; e.g., ¿vdúw, évédvoa.
If the preposition has a final vowel, it is elided before the augment;
e.g., διαπορεύομαι, διεπορευόμην. Before the augment ἐκ changes to
ἐξ; e.g., ἐκβάλλω, ἐξέβαλον.
ii. Sometimes traces of a primitive initial consonant appear in the
form of syllabic augment where we should normally expect temporal
augment; e.g., εἶχον for ἐ-εχον, which is from ἔσεχον, the o having
been lost.
(3) Reduplication. This appears in the perfect stem as
a part of its regular formation. As in augment, the method
varies in accordance with the initial letter.
a. When a verb begins with a consonant, the initial con-
sonant is doubled with e inserted to form a syllable: e.g.,
λέλυκα.
If the initial consonant is a rough mute, it is reduplicated with the
corresponding smooth mute; e.g., OavµáČw, Tedavµакα. When a verb
begins with two consonants (unless it be a mute followed by a liquid)
or a double consonant, it follows the analogy of syllabic augment, and
takes only €; e.g., στεφανόω, ἐστεφάνωκα; ξηραίνω, ἐξήραμμαι;
γινώσκω (verb stem γνο-), ἔγνωκα (cf. G. 99).
b. When a verb begins with a vowel, the vowel is length-
ened, as in the case of the temporal augment; e.g., ȧyaπáw,
уάжηкα. In a few instances the entire first syllable is re-
duplicated; e.g., ἀκούω, ἀκήκοα.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
49
c. Sometimes a verb with an initial vowel appears with
both forms of augment for reduplication; e.g., ôpáw, ěwpaka.
68. Classification of Tense Stems. The Greek verb pre-
sents five distinctive tense stems; viz., aorist, present,
future, perfect, and passive. It is well to treat the aorist
first as it is the basic and most prevalent tense.
(1) The Aorist Stem. On this stem are formed the aorist
active and middle. It appears in two varieties, known as
first and second aorist.
a. The first-aorist stem is formed in three ways.
(a) It is usually formed by adding σ (a) to the verb stem;
e.g., λów, verb stem Av-, first-aorist stem Avo(a)-.
(b) Liquid verbs form the aorist by lengthening the stem
vowel; e.g., ἀγγέλλω, stem ἀγγελ-, aorist ἤγγειλα.
(c) A few first aorists are formed by adding κ to the verb
stem; e.g., didwμi, stem do-, aorist ëdwka.
b. The second aorist usually lies closest to the root of
the word, and forms the basal verb stem. It is formed in
three ways.
(a) Some second aorists merely add the endings to the
simple verb stem, prefixing the augment in the indicative
and adding the secondary endings; e.g., λaµßávw, stem
λαβ-, aorist ἔλαβον.
γινώσκω,
(b) A few lengthen the vowel of the verb stem; e.g., ywvwσKW,
stem yvo-, aorist yvwv.
(c) Still fewer reduplicate the verb stem; e.g., äyw, stem
αγ-, aorist ἤγαγον.
(2) The Present Stem. On the present stem are formed
the present and imperfect-active, middle, and passive.
It presents the greatest variation in form and is the most
difficult of classification. These various forms likely had
functional significance in prehistoric times, but the distinc-
tions had largely become obsolete even in the classical
50
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
period (cf. M-II. 183). A simple working analysis of the
structure of the present tense may be made as follows:
a. Simple present stems. Sometimes the simple verb stem
is employed for the present stem; e.g., λów, stem Av-.
b. Lengthened stems. Some verbs form the present stem
by lengthening the stem vowel, usually to a diphthong. Most
of these verbs have stems which end in a mute; e.g., peuyW,
stem φυγ-.
c. Reduplicated stems. Sometimes in the formation of the
present stem reduplication is used, after the analogy of the
perfect; e.g., didwμi, stem do-.
d. Tau stems. Many verbs whose stem ends in a labial
mute add to form the present; e.g., кρúπтw, stem кρuñ-.
e. Iota stems. Some verbs add to the verb stem in form-
ing the present. This unites:
し
​し
​(a) With к, Y, X and forms σo; e.g., qvλáoow, verb stem
φυλακ-, present stem φυλακι-.
(b) With 8 and occasionally y, to form ; e.g., owšw,
stem σωδ-, present stem σωδι-.
(c) With λ to form λλ; e.g., åyyéλλw, stem åyyeλ-, present
stem ἀγγελι-.
(d) With v and p, and is transposed and becomes part of
the stem, usually becoming a diphthong; e.g., aïpw, stem ȧp-,
present stem ȧpi-.
f. Nasal stems. These are of two kinds.
(a) Sometimes a nasal consonant is added to the verb
stem; e.g., πivw, stem π-, present stem Tw-.
(b) A nasal consonant (or consonants) is sometimes in-
serted in the verb stem; e.g., λaußávw, stem λaß-.
g. Inceptive stems. These are present stems in -σkw-
and are called inceptive because verbs of this class usually
denote the initiation of a state or action; e.g., μμvýσкW,
stem μνη-.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
51
In μiμvηoкw, as is frequently the case, we have a combination of
two characteristics of the present stem, reduplication and the addi-
tion of -σκω.
h. Vowel stems. These verbs add a vowel-generally—
to the verb stem to form the present; e.g., dokéw, stem doк-;
γαμέω, stem γαμ-.
i. Irregular stems. Here belong a large number of irregu-
lar verbs whose present stem offers no characteristic for clas-
sification; e.g., vivoμai.
For a more detailed and technical analysis of the present stem
see M-II. 184f.
(3) The Future Stem. This stem has fallen heir to some
primitive uses of the present, and hence usually shares
stem characteristics with the present. However, it pre-
sents distinctive stems with sufficient frequency to justify
separate classification. The future stem exhibits four
methods of formation.
a. Regularly it is formed by adding σ to the simple verb
stem; e.g., Xów, stem Av-, future Xúow.
b. In liquid verbs considerations of euphony prevent
the addition of σ, so the future is formed by affixing e, which
regularly appears in contract form; e.g., èyeipw, stem ¿yep-,
future ἐγερέω, contracted to ἐγερῶ.
c. A few futures are built on the unaltered verb stem; e.g.,
φάγομαι, future of ἐσθίω, the verb stem being φαγ- (aorist
éyayov).
d. Frequently when the vowel of the final stem syllable
is, the σ is displacd by e; e.g., ¿λπiw, regular future èλπiow,
but π is the form actually found, being a contraction
of ἐλπιέω.
(4) The Perfect Stem. On the perfect stem are formed
the perfect and pluperfect, active, and middle, and the
52
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
future perfect passive (with the addition of σ). The per-
fect stem presents three variations.
a. The first perfect is formed by reduplicating the
simple stem and adding κ as a stem ending. On it are
formed the first perfect and pluperfect active; e.g., λéλuka,
(ἐ)λελύκειν.
The formation of the perfect in liquid verbs frequently changes the
stem vowel to a; e.g., σTÉλλW, EOтаλкα. Observe also that in redupli-
cation an initial σ is usually dropped or changed to the rough breathing.
In some verbs a final consonant is dropped before the stem ending; e.g.,
πείθω, πέπεικα.
b. The second-perfect stem is formed by reduplicating
the simple stem, lengthening the stem vowel, and adding a.
On it are formed the second perfect and pluperfect active;
e.g., λείπω, root λιπ-, perfect λέλοιπα, pluperfect (ἐ)λελοίπειν.
c. The perfect-middle stem is formed by reduplicating
the simple stem and adding the verbal suffixes directly to
this reduplicated stem, without any stem ending or con-
necting vowel. On this stem are built the perfect and plu-
perfect middle and passive. In the case of the future-
perfect passive the characteristic σ of the future stem is
added to the reduplicated stem and the connecting vowels
are used; e.g., λέλυμαι. (ἐ)λελύμην, λελύσομαι.
(5) The Passive Stem. On this stem are built the aorist
and future passive. It is formed in two ways.
a. The first-passive stem is formed by adding -0- to
the simple stem, the e usually appearing lengthened to ŋ; e.g.,
ἐλύθην, λυθήσομαι.
b. The second-passive stem is formed by adding €, length-
ened to n, to the verb stem; e.g., ἐλίπην, λιπήσομαι.
Connecting Vowels
69. Between the tense stem and the verbal suffix a
vowel is ordinarily inserted, called a connecting vowel. It
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
53
usually appears in combination with some other vowel,
though in the first and second person plural it is regularly
found unchanged. These connecting vowels vary with the
moods, and hence by some grammarians are called "mood
suffixes." But this designation is not wholly accurate,
because they also vary with different tenses of the same
mood. It is true, however, that each mood has its distinc-
tive set of connecting vowels, and it is by this means that
we differentiate the moods. It seems most nearly accurate
to call them simply connecting vowels (or variable vowels),
and to classify them according to moods.
(1) In the Indicative.
a. The present, imperfect, and future have o before μ and
v, and e elsewhere; e.g., Xú-o-µev, Xú-e-te.
b. The aorist and perfect have a; e.g., ἐλύσ-α-μεν, λελύκ-
Ɑ-TE.
c. The pluperfect has a; e.g., (ẻ)λeλúk-el-µev.
(2) In the Subjunctive.
Here we find w before μ and v, and η elsewhere in all
tenses; e.g., Xú-ŋ-s, Xúo-w-µEV.
(3) In the Optative.
Though but few of these are found in the New Testament,
we must present here the scheme of connecting vowels for
the sake of completeness.
a. The present active and middle, future active and mid-
dle, perfect active, and future-perfect passive have o; e.g.
λύ-οι-μι, λυ-οί-μην, λύσ-οι-μι, λυσ-οί-μην, λελύκ-οι-μι, λυθησ-
οί-μην.
λύσ
b. The aorist active and middle have au; e.g., λúo -ai-μ,
λυσ -αί -μην.
c. The aorist passive and perfect middle have e; e.g., λvo-
λυθ-
εί-ην, λελυμένος εἴ-ην.
54
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
=
(4) In the Imperative.
This follows the analogy of the indicative, except that in
the perfect there is e instead of a; e.g., déduk-e, deλuk-é-tw, etc.
(5) In the Participle.
The middle and passive participle ending uevos takes o as
a connecting vowel, except the perfect; e.g., Av-ó-μevos, but
λελυ-μένος.
The Verbal Suffixes
70. These vary with tense and voice, number and person.
They furnish the chief means for distinguishing voice, num-
ber, and person. The most convenient classification, how-
ever, is to present them according to tense and voice.
(1) The Primary Suffixes.
These are used with unaugmented or primary tenses.
a. In the active voice they are: singular μ, ot, Tɩ; plural
μεν, τε, νσι. These suffer great change when used in actual
inflection; e.g., o-μt becomes w; e-σi becomes eis; E-Tɩ becomes
ει; and ο-νσι becomes ουσι.
b. In the middle and passive they are: singular μal, σai,
ται; plural μεθα, σθε, νται. In actual inflection σa usually
becomes ŋ.
n.
(2) The Secondary Suffixes.
These are used with the augmented tenses of the indicative
and with the optative middle.
a. In the active voice they are v, s, —; μev, te, v or oav.
These are also used in the aorist passive indicative.
b. In the middle and passive they are μην, σο, το; μεθα,
σθε, ντο.
Terminations of Infinitive and Participle
71. It is helpful to the student in grasping in broad per-
spective the inflectional phenomena of the verb to get before
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
55
him in a single view the characteristic endings of the Greek
infinitive and participle.
(1) The Infinitive.
a. The present, future, and second aorist active have -ειν;
e.g., λύειν, λύσειν, λαβεῖν.
b. The first-aorist active has -αι; e.g., λῦσαι.
c. The perfect active and aorist passive have -vaɩ; e.g.,
λελυκέναι, λυθῆναι.
d. The middle and remaining passives have -σθαι; e.g.,
λύεσθαι, λύσεσθαι, λύσασθαι, etc.
(2) The Participle.
a. The present, future, and second aorist active have -wv,
-ουσα, -ον; e.g., λύων, λύσων, λαβῶν.
b. The first-aorist active has -ας, -ασα, -αν; e.g., λύσας.
c. The perfect active has -ως, -υια, -os; e.g., λελυκώς.
d. The aorist passive has -eus, -eloa, -ev; e.g., λυθείς.
e. The middle and remaining passives have -μενος, -η, -ον;
e.g., λυόμενος, λυσόμενος, λυσάμενος, etc.
A splendid aid to the student in constructing various verb forms
is offered in a table in Moulton's Introduction to the Study of New
Testament Greek, p. 98, which we take the liberty of adopting,
with abridgment. The scheme indicates the modifications of the
verb stem in forming tense stems. With this scheme compare §67.
Pres. Act. Fut. Act. 1st-Aor.
Act.
αω
-EW J
-Ow
-βω, πω,
-φω, -πτως
εγω, -κω, -ξω
-σσω, ττω
-δω, -θω, ζω
πανω
-ησω
-ωσω
ψω
-ξω
-σω
νῶ
-ησα
πωσα
-Ya
ξα
-σα
-να
Past-Perf. Perf. Mid. 1st-Aor.
Act.
Pas.
πηκα
σωκα
-φα
-χα
ακα
-γκα
-ημαι
-ωμαι
-μμαι
-γμαι
-σμαι
-μμαι
-ηθην
-ωθην
-φθην
-χθην
-σθην
-νθην
PART II
SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY
References: R. 379-389; R-S. 63, 64.
72. We have been studying accidence; we now turn to
the study of syntax. It is well that we should just here
distinguish between the two. Accidence deals with the
structural form of words. Syntax deals with the gram-
matical relations between words. Accidence deals with the
facts which result from incidental development, while syn-
tax deals with the rational principles of thought expression.
Accidence differs with every different dialect, while syntax
is largely the same for all human speech.
73. Nothing is more important in the study of syntax
than securing an adequate idea of its scope and nature.
This is a point which has been hurtfully neglected. Too
often in the study of the grammar of a language the student
has gone into the field of syntax with no consciousness more
than that he has passed to a new heading of the general
subject under consideration. And as he proceeded he has
known only that he was reviewing an array of facts-or
"rules"-with varying significance. He has not thought
sufficiently about the fundamental reasons for these facts,
and their consequent relations to one another. His task is
too often thought of as memorizing a list or arbitrary
"rules of grammar." This attitude totally misapprehends
the true nature of syntax.
74. The idea that syntax is a formulation of rules for
correct speech is an erroneous notion. Syntax is the process
of analyzing and classifying the modes of expression pre-
sented by a language. It does not govern language; it
deals with the facts of language as they are found. Hence
59
60
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
we are now to study the history and aspects of linguistic
phenomena as they appear in the Greek text of the New
Testament. "The scientific grammar is at bottom a gram-
matical history, and not a linguistic law-book. The seat
of authority in language is therefore not in the books about
language, but the people who use the language” (R. 31).
75. Logically the next question for consideration is:
What is language? It is the means by which thought is
communicated from one mind to another, or, from the con-
verse viewpoint, the means by which one mind is enabled.
to think with another. "Language may be defined as the
expression of thought by means of speech-sounds" (Sweet:
Hist. of Lang., p. 1). The term "speech-sounds" can be
made to include both spoken and written language, for
written language is but a system of symbols which repre-
sent spoken sounds. But there is another type of thought-
expression which we know as sign-language. This is pro-
duced by gesture, and while not nearly so accurate or
convenient as speech-language, it is nevertheless language,
for it expresses thought. Consequently a more adequate
definition is that of Whitney: "Language . . . signifies
certain instrumentalities whereby men consciously
and with intention represent their thought, to the end,
chiefly, of making it known to other men: it is expression
for the sake of communication" (Life and Growth of Lang.,
p. 1). Then, essentially, language is a system of symbols
which represent thought.
76. We have thus far observed that syntax deals with
the facts of language, and that language is a medium for
the conveyance of thought. This brings us to the final and
fundamental fact that syntax deals essentially with the
forms which thought may take in the process of expression.
So we discover that grammar and psychology are twin
sciences. Therefore, for a study of syntax to be adequate,
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
61
"its account of the facts of speech should first of all reflect
the ascertained facts of conceptual thinking," for which
reason the best of modern grammarians "follow the ideas
they work with into their background of psychology and
logic" (Sheffield: Grammar and Thinking, pp. vi, 3). Syn-
tax deals primarily with modes of thought. Thought is the
action of the mind upon the phenomena of environment or
experience. A phenomenon presents itself in consciousness,
perception takes account of its occurrence, and judgment
defines and relates it. For example, I glance across the
landscape from my window, and an object occurs in the
line of my vision. Perception presents it as a fact in con-
sciousness. Judgment, through the faculties of memory,
imagination, and reason, defines it-it belongs to a known
class of things which I have learned under the word tree.
Hence the bare concept occurring in consciousness is tree.
But judgment enlarges the limits of thought beyond that.
It not only discerns that the concept in consciousness
belongs to a known class of things, but it also determines
that there is existing yonder on the landscape the occasion
of that concept—hence, tree is. But judgment also dis-
tinguishes a feature in the character of that concept-tree
is green. Furthermore, this concept appears as a particular
member of its class-the tree is green. Thus through the
activity of perception and judgment there is offered as the
material of thought a complete idea. This complete idea.
is the starting point of syntax.
We have observed that the thought created in conscious-
ness is expressed with a group of words-the tree is green.
This group of words we call a sentence. Notice that this
typical expression of thought contains two elements: the
designation of an object-the tree, and an assertion about
that object is green. The first element we call the subject,
and the second the predicate. But the basis of this com-
62
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
plete expression of thought consisted of only two words-
tree is. Hence the basal element in the subject is the noun,
and the basal element in the predicate is the verb. Thus
we conclude that the sentence lies at the foundation of
syntax, and its essential parts, the noun and the verb, con-
stitute the fundamental elements in syntax. We will build
our study of New Testament syntax around these two
fundamental elements.
We have called our example the tree is green a typical sentence
for the reason that it contains the two normal elements of a com-
plete idea, designation and assertion-subject and predicate. But
there may be sentences which do not present this typical form, and
yet they are truly sentences, for they express a complete idea, as
the exclamation, “What a beautiful rose!" or the reply, "Why, of
course." These, however, are not to be regarded as the typical sen-
tence with which syntax deals. For a thorough scientific discussion
of the nature of the sentence see R. 390-445, or for a brief summary
of the more important points see R-S. 63, 64. A very illuminating
discussion of the sentence from the viewpoint of psychology and
logic may be found in Sheffield: op. cit., pp. 18-29.
I. The Noun
77. A noun is a vocal sound by which one designates a
fact of consciousness. This vocal sound may be mediately
represented by written symbols. As utilized in processes
of thought the noun may be employed and qualified in
various ways. This group of contextual relations gives to
us the subjects to be treated under the syntax of the noun.
(1) As used in the expression of a thought the noun may
bear various relations to the rest of the sentence. It may
be the subject proper, or it may qualify the subject, or it
may function in various ways in the predicate. This variety
in the fundamental relations of the noun we call CASE.
(2) It may be desired to make the functional relation of
the noun to its context more vivid than can be done by
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
63
the devices of inflection. This purpose is served by the
PREPOSITION.
(3) Often one wishes to qualify the noun by some at-
tribute. For this he uses the ADJECTIVE.
(4) The object before consciousness may be referred to
frequently in the same context. To avoid the monotony
of repetition the processes of linguistic development have.
produced the PRONOUN.
(5) If it is desired to represent the thing designated by
the noun as particular or known, we may use the
ARTICLE.
Therefore, the study of the syntax of the noun includes
cases, prepositions, adjectives, pronouns, and the article.
II. The Verb
78. A verb is a vocal sound by which one makes an asser-
tion relative to a fact of consciousness. Like the noun, it
may be represented by written symbols. The relations.
which condition the assertion determine variations in the
function of the verb.
(1) The subject is varied in accordance with its relation
to the speaker, as to whether the speaker indicates himself,
the one addressed, or an object referred to; hence, PERSON.
(2) The subject may include one or many; hence, NUM-
BER.
(3) If the assertion relative to the person is an act, it
may be viewed as either performed or received by the
subject; hence, VOICE.
(4) The assertion must reflect the speaker's attitude of
mind in making it; hence, MOOD.
(5) The assertion represents a certain character of the
fact asserted, and may be related to a certain time; hence,
TENSE.
(6) An assertion may be subjoined as auxiliary to an-
64
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
other, so partaking of the nature of both noun and verb,
for which one may use the INFINITIVE or PARTICIPLE.
(7) If the force of the assertion is to be varied by
certain qualifications, we may use the ADVERB.
(8) In subjoining one assertion to another a connecting
word may be used, which we call a CONJUNCTION.
(9) The speaker's attitude or concern in the assertion is
frequently expressed by a word which we call a PAR-
TICLE.
These variations in verbal function thus include under
the syntax of the verb a consideration of person, number,
voice, mood, tense, infinitive, participle, adverb, conjunc-
tion, and particle. The last three may be used with nouns
or adjectives as well as verbs, though it is doubtless more
logical to treat them in connection with the verb.
i. Robertson regrets that greater advance has not been made in
the scientific study of syntax, especially such as recognizes the
results of comparative philology. The work in this field which has
been done was inadequate because based upon too restricted an
induction from the facts of language. The need is syntax which
is historically and inductively exhaustive. The dawn of a better
day, however, is indicated in the work of Delbrück, who in con-
junction with Brugmann has made encouraging advancement along
this line.
ii. There is difficulty in keeping the province of syntax distinct.
Form and meaning of form are very intimately related. Syntax,
however, has its distinct place. It is indicating and interpreting the
facts with regard to usage in a language. Such a process is essentially
historical and not philosophical. Hence we are not to construct
theories and arbitrary rules which we seek to illustrate by a few
facts selected from the language, but we are to take all the facts
of the language, with the irregularities and personal peculiarities, and
seek the best possible classification and interpretation of these facts
(cf. R. 379-389).
DIVISION I
THE NOUN
I. THE CASES
References: R. 441-456; R-S. 86-90; M. 60–70.
79. There were certainly at least eight cases in the primi-
tive Indo-European tongue-with the associative case in
addition as a sort of auxiliary to the instrumental. In
support of this statement we have, along with many others,
the very pointed and emphatic testimony of Professor
Joseph Wright of Oxford: "The present Indogermanic lan-
guage had at least eight cases-probably more-if we call
the vocative a, case" (Wr. 144).
80. There are two reasons for concluding that we prop-
erly have eight cases in Greek. The first intimation of the
fact was obtained from investigation of the Sanskrit, which
exhibits eight case forms. When the Greek cases were
studied in the light of these eight Sanskrit cases, it was dis-
covered that the same general distinctions prevailed. This
sound method of comparative philology has brought the
twentieth century Greek grammarian to recognize that there
are eight cases in Greek instead of five.
81. In addition to the process of comparative investiga-
tion, this conclusion is also based upon the very obvious
fact that case is a matter of function rather than of form.
The case of the Greek noun is to be determined by its rela-
tion to the rest of the sentence. "Every case, as such,
stands in a necessary connection, according to its nature,
with the structure of the sentence in which it occurs” (W.
181). We have seen above that the fundamental elements
65
66
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
of a sentence are a noun and verb. In the simplest typical
sentence the noun is the subject, and, therefore, in the nomi-
native case. It is absurd to think of turning this statement
around, and saying that the noun is in the nominative case,
and, therefore, the subject. Hence it may easily be seen
that function rather than form determines case, and is con-
sequently the fundamental consideration.
82. Then as we attempt to analyze the cases of the Greek
noun, we must seek to discover the functions which it per-
formed in the structure of a sentence. As a noun is com-
monly employed in Greek it exhibits the following uses:
(1) Its primary and typical use is to designate an object
of consciousness, concerning which the assertion contained
in the predicate is made; i.e., the function of subject. This
function we call the Nominative case. (2) A noun is
sometimes used without specific grammatical relations,
simply as the object of address, which use we call the
Vocative case. (3) One noun may be used to define the
character or relations of another, which function we de-
scribe as the Genitive case. (4) A noun may be used to
denote the point of departure, in a thought of removal or
derivation, for which the Ablative case is used. (5) A
noun may be used to indicate an object of interest or refer-
ence, which function we call the Dative case. (6) A noun
may be used to indicate the position of an object or action,
for which the Locative case is used. (7) Sometimes a noun
denotes the means described in an expression of thought.
Such use we call the Instrumental case. (8) A noun may
be used in some way to limit an assertion, which function
we describe as the Accusative case. These eight functions
define the root idea of the eight cases. For the eight cases
we ordinarily find only four inflectional endings, with occa-
sionally a separate form for the Vocative. The matter may
be graphically presented thus:
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
67

Inflectional Form
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Case
Nominative
Vocative
Genitive
Ablative
Dative
Locative
Instrumental
Accusative
Root Idea
Designation
Address
Definition
Separation
Interest
Position
Means
Limitation
i. Robertson takes a positive stand for eight cases in the Greek
language, and shows the trend of present-day linguistic scholarship
in that direction (R. 247-250; 446-449). Sheffield says, "Indo-
European languages have as oblique cases, the genitive, dative,
accusative, ablative, instrumental and locative. Over against these
cases stand the nominative for noun-function, and the vocative as
a kind of noun-imperative" (op cit., p. 147). This statement reflects
what is now the prevailing judgment of comparative philologists.
Those who do not admit the eight cases as entirely distinct, at
least recognize some distinction by the use of such terms as ablatival
genitive, instrumental dative, and the like. Robertson calls the
coalescing of several cases into one form the "Syncretism of Cases"
(R. 448). This merging in form rarely causes ambiguity, though
Robertson notes a few instances in which the case is difficult to
determine. These exceptions, of course, are not to be regarded as
destroying the fundamental distinctions existing between the cases.
Every case had its original root idea, which has persisted in the
history of the case, and may be discerned by sufficient study
(R. 453-456).
ii. Moulton is not positive in his recognition of the eight cases
in Greek. He characterizes the evidence for the ablative, instru-
mental, and locative as "a few moribund traces" (M. 60). He dis-
cusses at considerable length the decay of cases before the encroach-
ment of prepositions, clearly having in mind inflectional forms rather
68
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
than case function. But he does deny that the "old distinctions of
case meaning have vanished," and in pursuing his discussion of
cases admits the historical distinctions. He takes issue with Winer
in defining the genitive as "unquestionably the whence-case," re-
marking in this connection that "the ablative . . . is responsible
for a part of the uses of the genitive in which it has merged." But
he does injustice to his great scholarship and linguistic insight by
referring to the locative dative and instrumental dative. If locative
or instrumental, then why dative at all? We seriously doubt the
wisdom of thus confusing terms (cf. M. 60-76). Blass falls into the
same inconsistency when he devotes considerable space to discus-
sing the “instrumental dative" (Bl. 116ff.). Winer refers to the
dative's doing service for the ablative (W. 208), wherein he misses
the case function utterly, and falls into a confusion doubtless
induced by inflectional phenomena of the Latin. Buttmann, in his
discussion of cases, follows Winer very closely, adopting, for instance,
his definition of the genitive as the whence-case (Bt. 157). Yet, in
spite of their confusion of terms, Winer, Buttmann, and Blass give
abundant evidence of their recognition of the fundamental distinc-
tions. The dawn of the nineteenth century found so many mis-
apprehensions befogging the atmosphere of the Greek New Testa-
ment that we could not expect of these pioneers that they should
clear up all of the confusions-especially when we recall that com-
parative philology is but an infant science. Especially in the latter
half of the century, progress was steadily being made toward the
light. Gessner Harrison, in a treatise published in 1858, recognizes
that there are more than five cases in Greek (cf. Greek Prepositions
and Cases, pp. 70ff.). His renowned student, John A. Broadus,
blazed a way in the new method for that prince of modern Greek
grammarians, A. T. Robertson (cf. R. viii). The twentieth century
will unquestionably see the full and final victory of this far more
logical and historical interpretation of the cases in Greek, as well
as in other Indo-European languages.
The Nominative Case
References: R. 456-461; R-S. 90-91; M. 69–70.
83. Taking up the treatment of the cases in the familiar
order we approach the nominative first, "though it is not
the first in the order of time" (R-S. 90). The original func-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
69
tion of the nominative was to lend more specific identifica-
tion to the subject of a finite verb. In Greek the verb
expresses its own subject, as Kýpuέe means he preached.
Consequently when we express a noun subject of the verb,
it is in apposition with the subject implied in the verb
itself. Thus ὁ Παῦλος ἐκήρυξεν really means, he preached,
that is, Paul. Therefore, the nominative is more than
the case of the subject: it is the case of specific designation,
and is in appositional relationship.
(1) The Subject Nominative. Though the nominative
cannot be strictly defined as the case of the subject, yet its
chief use is to specify that which produces the action or
presents the state expressed by a finite verb. This is really
the appositional use of the nominative (cf. 2 Cor. 10:1),
and hence includes what is usually termed the nominative
of apposition.
ὁ πατὴρ ἀγαπᾷ τὸν υἱόν.
The Father loves the Son. Jn. 3:35.
(2) The Predicate Nominative. A further example of
the appositional aspect of the nominative is seen in its use
as predicate. Here its significance of designation is
strengthened by making it the thing emphatically defined
by the sentence, as when we say, o kηpúσσwv toтì Пavλos,
the one preaching is Paul.
ὑμεῖς γάρ ἐστε ἡ δόξα ἡμῶν.
For ye are our glory. 1 Ths. 2:20.
See also: Eph. 2:14; 1 Jn. 4:8.
(3) The Nominative of Appellation. Since the nomina-
tive is by nature the naming-case, it is not strange that
there should be a tendency to put proper names in this
case irrespective of contextual relations. So we often find
a proper name in the nominative in such connection as to
70
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
leave an awkward grammatical structure. Such instances
yield to the genius of the case rather than the demands of
the context.
ἤγγισεν πρὸς τὸ ὄρος τὸ καλούμενον Ἐλαιῶν.
He drew near to the mount called Olivet. Lk. 19:29.
See also: Lk. 21:37; Jn. 1:6; 3:1; Ac. 7:40; 2 Cor. 12:18; Rev. 9:11.
This use of the nominative is a possible explanation of the gram-
matical difficulty in Rev. 1:4. It is also frequently seen in the New
Testament with the passive of kaλéw, as in Lk. 2:21 and 19:2.
(4) The Independent Nominative. When an idea is con-
ceived independent of any particular verbal relations, the
expression of it may be left standing alone in the nomi-
native, with some descriptive or explanatory phrase added.
Thus employed the nominative names an idea rather than
an object. This includes what is sometimes called the
parenthetic nominative and nominative absolute.
ταῦτα ἃ θεωρεῖτε, ἐλεύσονται ἡμέραι.
These things which ye see, the days shall come. Lk. 21:6.
See also: Mk. 8:2; Eph. 4:15.
K
The nominative as used in salutations is an example of this use
of the case (cf. 1 Cor. 1:1). We also find the independent nomina-
tive used as a sort of "nominative absolute" in proverbial expres-
sions and quotations (cf. 2 Pt. 2:22; 1 Cor. 3:19).
(5) The Nominative of Exclamation. When it is desired
to stress a thought with great distinctness, the nominative
is used without a verb. The function of designation, serv-
ing ordinarily as a helper to the verb, thus stands alone and
thereby receives greater emphasis. It is as when a child
in joyous surprise points his finger at a friend who ap-
proaches with fruit, and cries, "Apples!" It would quite
obviously weaken the expression to say, "There are apples!"
The nominative is the pointing case, and its pointer capac-
ity is strengthened when unencumbered by a verb.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
71
ཟླ་
ταλαίπωρος ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπος.
Wretched man that I am! Rm. 7:24.
See also: Mk. 3:34; Rm. 11:33.
We have omitted in our analysis that use of the nominative
which the grammarians generally describe as "the nominative used
as vocative" for we agree with Robertson that the true situation
in this use is not one case used for another, but one case ending
serving for two cases. Wherever the idea of address is present, the
case is vocative, regardless of the inflectional form (cf. R. 461). The
remark of Blass that "the nominative has a tendency to usurp the
place of the vocative" is based upon the erroneous idea that the
ending determines the case (cf. Bl. 86). The same confusion as
to the significance of case influenced Moulton when he concluded
that, "The anarthrous nominative should probably be regarded as
a mere substitute for the vocative" (M. 71). Moulton is here, as
in many places, yielding to established modes of expression. He falls
into the same error when in an earlier work he says that in Jn. 17:25
"we find a vocative adjective with a nominative noun" (Introd. to
the Study of N. T. Gr., p. 168). Adjectives must agree with the nouns
they modify in case, but not in inflectional form, as is clear from
such an instance as ἡ ἄδικος γυνή, the unjust woman.
The Vocative Case
References: R. 461-466; R-S. 91-92; M. 71.
84. The vocative has but a single use, and that is as the
case of direct address-if, indeed, the vocative may prop-
erly be called a case (see below). When address is intended
to carry special force, the inflectional particle & is used, as
in Mt. 15:28. Otherwise the simple vocative is used, as in
Ac. 17:22. Where it is desired to ascribe to the object of
address special definiteness, the article is used; and since
it is necessary to use the nominative form of the article—
there being no distinct vocative form-this influences the
use of the nominative ending for the noun, but the vocative
function is there just the same (cf. Lk. 8:54).
72
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
θάρσει, θύγατερ.
Be of good cheer, daughter. Mt. 9:22.
The vocative is hardly to be regarded as a case.
Where it has a
distinctive form it is usually the root of the word, as ixlú, ßaoiλeũ,
daiμov. We may safely follow Robertson in his conclusion that "in
δαῖμον.
reality it is not a case at all. Practically it has to be treated as a case,
though technically it is not (Farrar: Gr. Syntax, p. 69). It is wholly
outside of syntax in that the word is isolated and has no word rela-
tions" (R. 461). The distinctive vocative form is falling into disuse in
the Koiné period, and has entirely disappeared from Modern Greek.
A trace of its classical use may be seen in Lk. 1:3.
The Genitive Case
(The Pure Genitive)
References: R. 491-514; R-S. 98-104; M. 72–74.
85. The genitive is the case of definition or description.
It "is in function adjectival" (R-S. 98), and usually limits
a substantive or substantival construction, though its use
is not infrequent with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Its
adjectival nature is very pronounced and quite obvious.
To say "a flower of beauty" is not very different from
saying "a beautiful flower." So карdía ȧTIOтías, a heart
of unbelief, is practically the same in sense as ἄπιστος καρδία,
an unbelieving heart. But the qualifying force of the
genitive is more emphatic than that of the adjective.
Many examples of nouns in the genitive case functioning as adjec-
tives can be cited. A recognition of this usage is necessary to avoid
translating certain sentences as if they were stilted or clumsy in form.
Thus in Acts 9:15 σκεῦος ἐκλογῆς ἐστίν μοι is rightly translated,
he is a chosen vessel to me. So, ev πupì λoyós (2 Ths. 1:7) reads best,
in a flaming fire. And τñs dóğŋs in Col. 1:27 means glorious-TÒ
πλοῦτος τῆς δόξης τοῦ μυστηρίου τούτου. In I Ths. 1:3 tñs
πίστεως, τῆς ἀγάπης, and τῆς ἐλπίδος may fittingly be translated
as adjectives, respectively, faithful, loving, and hopeful. Our common
versions give a vague and awkward rendering of Heb. 4:2, ỏ λóyos
ὁ
Tñs aкons, by translating it the word of hearing. It is literally the heard
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
73
word; that is, the word of their hearing, or the word which they heard.
So Moffatt, Weymouth, Broadus, et al.
86. There is marked penetration in the statement of
Gessner Harrison that the genitive "is employed to qualify
the meaning of a preceding noun, and to show in what
more definite sense it is to be taken" (op. cit., p. 15). Thus
the basal function of the genitive is to define. In this it
quite clearly carries with it an idea of limitation, and thus
shows kinship with the accusative, which also has the idea
of limitation. But the genitive limits as to kind, while the
accusative limits as to extent. Εἰργάσατο τὴν ἡμέραν means
he worked through a portion of or throughout the day, while
εἰργάσατο τῆς ἡμέρας means he worked in day time, and
not in night time. The genitive reduces the range of refer-
ence possible to an idea, and confines its application within.
specific limits. Thus Baoiλeía denotes an idea of a wide
variety of possible meanings. Kingdoms are of many kinds,
when we consider both the literal and metaphorical use of
the term. But Baoiλeia Oeoũ denotes but a single king-
dom, and a particular kind of kingdom. Thus by the use
of the genitive the implications of an idea are brought
within a definite scope.
87. Then it would appear that the basal function of the
genitive is to set more definitely the limits of an idea as to
its class or kind. "It simply marks attributive nouns,
expressing almost any relation with which they may enter
into complex concepts" (Sheffield: op. cit., p. 152). We
may, however, carry the investigation of its root meaning
a step farther. Upon the basis of what general principle
does the genitive thus define? It by no means sets arbi-
trary limits; nor does it set incidental limits, as does the
accusative. The genitive signifies essential limits, present-
ing that which has "some obvious point of affinity with the
term defined" (Harrison: op. cit., p. 16). Thus Baoiλeia
74
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
requires a certain nature on the part of its limiting genitive:
it must express an idea which may be consistently asso-
ciated with the thought of a realm of organized and regu-
lated activity. Hence it is because of God's essential
sovereignty that we may construct the phrase ǹ Baoiλeía
θεοῦ. The genitive θεοῦ ascribes to βασιλεία a rational
attribute. So the use of the genitive is to ascribe a rational
attribute to the idea defined. To denote by the genitive
that which is not a rational attribute results in an ab-
surdity; as, "the humidity of the desert," "the heat of the
ice," ǹ Baoiλeia doúλov, etc. So the genitive qualifies the
noun by the attribution of some essential relation or char-
acteristic.
C
88. So we may say that the root meaning of the genitive
is attribution. This attribution may be in either of two
ways. It may employ an essential relationship. Thus
ǹ Baoiλeía leoũ is the kingdom which has as its distinguish-
ing attribute its relationship to God. It may employ an
essential quality. Thus κapdia àπiorías is a heart which.
καρδία ἀπιστίας
has as its distinguishing attribute the quality of unbelief.
Therefore, the genitive defines by attributing a quality or
relationship to the noun which it modifies.
89. When the idea of relationship receives a physical
application, it becomes contact. The "roof of the house"
is the roof on the house, and the "grass of the field" is the
grass on the field. This significance is seen in the fact that
verbs which imply the idea of taking hold of or attaining
are regularly used with the genitive. It is even more clearly
seen with prepositions. Thus éπi with the locative signifies
general position, while with the genitive it signifies actual
contact. In Mt. 9:2 the use of eπi Kλivns, upon a bed,
places emphasis upon the fact that the man was actually
confined to his bed, while in Lk. 21:6 Xíðos éπì Xiow, stone
upon stone, contemplates a general situation when the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
75
Temple stones will no longer be in their proper position.
This idea applies with remarkable precision throughout the
prepositions used with the genitive.
Present-day grammarians justly express their respectful disap-
proval of Winer's dictum that "the Genitive is acknowledged to be
the whence-case" (W. 184). In this erroneous definition many later
scholars have followed Winer. He manifests much greater insight
into the basal significance of the genitive when he calls it "the case
of dependence" (W. 190). This may readily be seen to be in
line with its significance of definition or attribution. Webster fol-
lows Winer in confusing the root meaning of the genitive with the
ablative, declaring that "its primary meaning appears to denote an
object from which something proceeds," but he shows progress to-
ward a more accurate view when he says, at the close of the same
paragraph, "Thus the genitive in Greek answers to the Latin genitive
and ablative" (Syntax and Synon. of the Gr. Test., pp. 63, 66).
Robertson shows his characteristic apprehension of the genius of
the language when he defines the genitive as the specifying case,
the case expressive of genus or kind (R. 493). A similar definition is
offered by Dr. C. B. Williams of Union University in his unpublished
grammar notes. He proposes as the root meaning the idea of class-
ification. We may combine these two suggestions and obtain a very
appropriate definition of the genitive as the case which specifies
with reference to class or kind. This is the same as saying that it
specifies by the ascription of a rational attribute.
90. For the use of the genitive in the New Testament we
offer the following analysis, which we have sought to make
accurate and plain, if not exhaustive.
(1) The Genitive of Description. This is clearly the use
of the genitive which lies closest to its root meaning. To
denote a rational attribute is to describe. In fact, this
usage is so very near the root meaning of the case, that we
find difficulty in fixing exact limits. All genitives are more
or less descriptive. Blass correctly observes that this is the
most extensive use of the genitive (Bl. 95). When a
genitive stands out boldly in its typical significance, with-
76
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
out shading off into combination with some contextual idea,
we then classify it as a descriptive genitive. Many exam-
ples may be found which are perfectly distinct.
ἐγένετο Ἰωάνης κηρύσσων βάπτισμα μετανοίας.
John came preaching a baptism of repentance. Mk. 1:4.
See also: Rom. 6:6; Col. 1:22.
The adjective force of the genitive is most clearly seen when the
descriptive genitive is used in the predicate, in identically the same
relation as a predicate adjective, as in Heb. 10:39, ǹµet̃s dè oỷK
Éσµèv vπOσTOλñs, but we are not of a shrinking back (cf. Rom. 9:9).
(2) The Genitive of Possession. Attribution quite easily
blends with the idea of ownership. To denote ownership is
to make one noun the attribute of another in the relation
of privilege of prerogative. To say Bißλos, the book, is
to assign a thing to a class of indefinite limits, but to say
ǹ ßißλos Toũ 'Iwávov, John's book, is to immediately specify
it in a particular way by attributing to it a certain relation-
ship-it is the particular book owned by John. This is one
of the most prevalent uses of the genitive, especially with
personal pronouns.
ἓν τῶν πλοίων, ὃ ἦν Σίμωνος.
One of the boats, which was Simon's. Lk. 5:3.
See also: Mt. 26:51.
(3) The Genitive of Relationship. In this use of the
genitive a person is defined by the attribution of some
genital or marital relationship. It is closely akin to the
previous use, being really "the possessive genitive of a
special application" (R. 501). The usual construction.
simply presents the article in the proper gender with the
genitive of the person related, omitting the noun which
indicates the relationship. It is assumed that the relation-
ship is known or has been made sufficiently clear by the
J
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
77
context. Thus, should we find in the gospels 'Inσous ò
Mapías, we would unhesitatingly supply viós after ¿. Some-
times, however, the relationship is obscure to the modern
reader (cf. 'Ioúdas 'Iaкwßov, Ac. 1:13). This construction
was abundantly used in colloquial Greek of the Koiné
period, as is evidenced by its frequent occurrence in the
papyri.
Δαυεὶδ τὸν τοῦ Ἰεσσαί.
David, the (son) of Jesse. Ac. 13:22.
See also: Mt. 4:21; Jn. 6:71; 21:15.
(4) The Adverbial Genitive. The genitive is sometimes
used to define a verbal idea by attributing local or temporal
relations, or as qualifying an adjective. Here its attribu-
tive function is still clearly present, for it is kind of action
which is being emphasized. Thus action UKтós does not
mean action at night (point of time) or during the night
(limit of time), but action within the night (kind of time),
or, to put it literally, night-time action. The adverbial
force of this construction is obvious, as attributes of time
and place normally modify a verbal idea, and adjectives
are regularly limited by adverbs. This adverbial use
includes:
a. The Genitive of Time. As already indicated, the sig-
nificance here is distinction of time rather than point of
time (locative) or duration of time (accusative). It is
"this rather than some other time" (R-S. 100).
οὗτος ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτός.
This one came to him in the night. Jn. 3:2.
See also: Mt. 25:6; Lk. 18:7; Jn. 19:39.
b. The Genitive of Place. In this use the sense of con-
tact is prominent. But attribution is still the emphatic
point. When ékeivηs is used in Lk. 19:4 it is that way
78
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
a
rather than any other way that Jesus is expected to come.
Homer uses λoveσlαι потаμоło to indicate bathing in a
river rather than anywhere else; i.e., he defines the bathing
by attributing in the genitive the place at which it occurs,
and distinguishes it as river bathing. It is clear that the
idea of bathing has kinship with the thought of a river,
and therefore πотаμоĩο is a rational attribute.
ἵνα βάψῃ τὸ ἄκρον τοῦ δακτύλου αὐτοῦ ὕδατος.
That he might dip the tip of his finger in water. Lk. 16:24.
See also: Lk. 19:4; Ac. 19:26.
c. The Genitive of Reference. The genitive is sometimes
used with adjectives to refer their qualifying force to cer-
tain definite limits. Thus ioxvρòs TiσTews means strong
with reference to the matter of faith, and might be rendered
faithly strong. The adverbial force is obvious.
καρδία πονηρὰ ἀπιστίας.
A heart evil with reference to unbelief. Heb. 3:12.
See also: Heb. 5:13; Jas. 1:13.
(5) The Genitive with Nouns of Action. Sometimes the
noun defined by the genitive signifies action. In this con-
struction the noun in the genitive indicates the thing to
which the action is referred, either as subject or object of
the verbal idea.
a. The Subjective Genitive. We have the subjective
genitive when the noun in the genitive produces the action,
being therefore related as subject to the verbal idea of the
noun modified.
τὸ κήρυγμα Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ.
The preaching of Jesus Christ. Rom. 16:25.
See also: Rom. 8:35; 2 Cor. 5:14.
b. The Objective Genitive. We have this construction
when the noun in the genitive receives the action, being
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
79
thus related as object to the verbal idea contained in the
noun modified.
ἡ δὲ τοῦ πνεύματος βλασφημία οὐκ ἀφεθήσεται.
But the blasphemy of the Spirit shall not be forgiven. Mt. 12:31.
See also: 1 Cor. 1:6; 1 Pt. 3:21.
(6) The Genitive of Apposition. A noun which desig-
nates an object in an individual or particular sense may
be used in the genitive with another noun which designates
the same thing in a general sense. In this construction a
thing denoted as a representative of a class is more spe-
cifically defined by attributing to it in the genitive a par-
ticular designation. Here the genitive stands in exact appo-
sition with the noun it modifies. Thus in ἡ πόλις Ἐφέσου
the noun πόλις denotes a member of a class and Ἐφέσου
specifies this same member in an individual and particular
sense.
ἔλεγεν περὶ τοῦ ναοῦ τοῦ σώματος αὐτοῦ.
He spoke concerning the temple of his body. Jn. 2:21.
See also: Rm. 4:11; 2 Cor. 5:1.
(7) The Partitive Genitive. A noun may be defined by
indicating in the genitive the whole of which it is a part.
The sense of attribution is remote here, but nevertheless
present. If it is said, ὁ Πέτρος ἦν εἷς τῶν ἀποστόλων, Peter
was one of the apostles, Peter is thereby defined by at-
tributing to him a relation to a group. Hence we have in
this construction the typical genitive function.
δώσω σοι ἕως ἡμίσους τῆς βασιλείας μου.
I will give you as much as a half of my kingdom. Mk. 6:23.
See also: Mt. 15:24; Rev. 8:7.
It is altogether possible to interpret this construction as an ablative,
for it is easy to conceive of the whole as the source from which the part
is taken (cf. G. 215). In construing it as an ablative we would be sup-
80
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ported by the fact that the partitive idea is sometimes expressed in the
New Testament by άπó (Mt. 27:21) and ẻк (Mt. 27:48) with the
ablative. This construction is found also in the papyri; e.g., P. Petr.
II, 11:5: άπÒ TOÚтOV тÒ µÈv ημov, the half of this. This view is fur-
ther strengthened by the use in Modern Greek of åπó as the regular par-
titive construction. There is no doubt that these indications forcibly
point toward the partitive as ablative rather than genitive, yet the very
fact that the Koiné writers had ready at hand a construction for the
exact expression of the idea of source would make it all the more prob-
able that they used the genitive to stress character rather than source.
Reference to that from which a thing is taken may be either with a view
to stressing derivation or definition-source or character. To empha-
size the former the ablative with a preposition exactly serves the pur-
pose; to emphasize the latter would require the use of the genitive, since
the ablative has no such significance. Therefore, we had best regard
the partitive construction without the preposition as a genitive.
(8) The Genitive Absolute. A noun and participle in
the genitive case not grammatically connected with the rest
of the sentence are called a genitive absolute. It is pos-
sible to construe this as an ablative absolute, after the
analogy of Latin, but the variety of usage as to case in
this construction exhibited by the Indo-European languages
prevents any positive conclusion. In Sanskrit we have
genitive, locative, and instrumental absolute (Whitney:
Sansk. Gram., pp. 98, 100, 102), while Modern Greek has a
nominative absolute (T. 32). There is no particular reason
against calling the construction here a genitive absolute.
καὶ ἐκβληθέντος τοῦ δαιμονίου ἐλάλησεν ὁ κωφός.
And the demon having been cast out, the dumb man spoke. Mt. 9:33.
See also: Mt. 25:5; Mk. 9:28.
The genitive is used with adjectives and adverbs where the idea
implied needs some specific definition to make complete sense. Thus
κοινωνοί ἐστε would leave the thought in suspense, but κοινωνοί
ÉσTE TWν πаÐημάтwv, ye are partakers of the sufferings (2 Cor. 1:7),
presents the thought complete and definite. The genitive is also fre-
quently found with verbs where the verb "relates itself to the root-idea
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
81
of the genitive” (R. 507). Some of the chief classes of verbs taking
the genitive are those of:
a. Sensation. Lk. 15:25 (cf. English "smell of," "taste of," "hear
of," etc.).
b. Emotion. Ac. 20:33 (cf. English "to be careful of," "forgetful
of," "desirous of,” etc.).
c. Sharing. 1 Cor. 10:21 (cf. English "partake of"). This con-
struction contains the partitive idea.
d. Ruling. Mt. 2:22 (cf. English "to have charge of," "to get pos-
session of," etc.).
The Ablative Case
(The Ablatival Genitive)
References: R. 514-520; R-S. 104, 105; M. 72.
91. This case has seldom occurred in Indo-European
languages with a distinctive ending of its own, but it does
have quite a distinct function. The name suggests the
basal significance of the case: ablativus, that which is
borne away, or separated. Its basal significance is point
of departure. This idea may be elemental in various con-
ceptions. It is involved not only in the literal removal of
one object from the vicinity of another, but in any idea
which implies departure from antecedent relations, such as
derivation, cause, origin, and the like. It contemplates an
alteration in state from the viewpoint of the original situa-
tion, as when we say ἡ σωτηρία τῆς ἁμαρτίας, we are con-
sidering salvation from the standpoint of man's original
condition of bondage in sin. The use of the ablative com-
prehends an original situation from which the idea expressed
is in some way removed. Hence, in simplest terms we may
say that its root idea is separation.
(1) The Ablative of Separation. This use is where the
ablative presents its simple basal significance, unaffected
by any associated idea.
82
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ἀπηλλοτριωμένοι τῆς πολιτείας τοῦ Ἰσραήλ.
Having been alienated from the commonwealth of Israel. Eph. 2:12.
See also: Heb. 13:7; 2 Pt. 1:14; Rev. 21:2.
(2) The Ablative of Source. The idea of separation may
be accompanied by the implication that the original situa-
tion contributed in some way to the present character or
state. That which is named in the noun modified by the
ablative owes its existence in some way to that which is
denoted in the ablative.
διὰ τῆς παρακλήσεως τῶν γραφῶν.
Through the consolation from the Scriptures. Rm .15:4.
See also: Ac. 1:4; 2 Cor. 4:7.
(3) The Ablative of Means. The ablative is not the
regular case used in expressing means, but may be used
when the expression of means is accompanied by an impli-
cation of origin or source.
ἱκανὸς δὲ κλαυθμὸς ἐγένετο πάντων.
There was great lamentation by all. Ac. 20:37.
See also: Lk. 2:18; Ac. 20:3.
It may readily be seen in the example given that the sense would
still be preserved if Távтwv were rendered from all. The means or
agency is at the same time the source. By far the greatest number
of the occurrences of this construction in the New Testament are with
the preposition iπó. The so-called "genitive of material or measure-
ment" belongs in this class (cf. Rom. 15:13; Lk. 2:44).
(4) The Ablative of Comparison. It is immediately evi-
dent that what has usually been defined as a genitive of
comparison is really an ablative. Comparison obviously
implies separation in degree. Thus μείζων τοῦ δεῖνος
means advanced in a position beyond, consequently away
from, some one. The thought of separation is obvious. The
ablative of comparison may also be used with the super-
lative degree (cf. Mk. 12:28).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
83
οὐκ ἔστιν δοῦλος μείζων τοῦ κυρίου αὐτοῦ.
A servant is not greater than his lord. Jn. 13:16.
See also: Mt. 3:11; Mk. 4:31.
i. The ablative is quite frequently used with verbs, though not so
frequently as the genitive, dative, and accusative. Of course, the
ablative with verbs must be distinguished by sense rather than form.
Verbs compounded with άπó, ẻк, and Taρá in the very nature of the
case take the ablative where these prepositions bring to the verb the
idea of separation. Verbs of ceasing, abstaining, missing, lacking,
despairing, or kindred ideas take the ablative. Where a verb contains
a comparative or partitive idea, it naturally takes the ablative. It
may be seen that verbs take the ablative when their sense is akin to
the root idea of the ablative (cf. R. 517-519).
ii. The ablative and genitive have been confused by nearly all
Greek grammarians, both classical and New Testament. A few have
realized the underlying distinction, and given separate treatment to
the "ablatival genitive," but this characterization "is only true as to
form, not as to sense, and causes some confusion" (R. 514). Robertson
takes a positive stand for the ablative as a distinct case. Moulton
recognizes the distinction, but gives little prominence to it. Nunn
acknowledges that the ablative is a distinct case from the genitive, but
does not distinguish its uses, because he wishes "to avoid conflicting
with established usage" (Syntax of N. T. Greek, p. 42). Most other
New Testament grammarians follow Winer in regarding the genitive
as the "whence-case."
The Dative Case
(The Pure Dative)
References: R. 535-543; R-S. 111-114; M. 62-64.
92. The dative, locative, and instrumental cases are all
represented by the same inflectional form, but the distinc-
tion in function is very clear-much more so than the dis-
tinction between the ablative and genitive. Recent gram-
marians nearly all recognize this distinction, and even those
of the previous century have discerned it. Blass observes
that "a distinction must be made between the pure dative,
which expresses the person more remotely concerned, the
84
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
instrumental dative (and dative of accompaniment), and,
thirdly, the local dative" (Bl. 109). Even Gessner Harri-
son, as far back as 1858, observed the distinction of the
instrumental and locative from the dative, though he erro-
neously confounded these cases with the ablative, influ-
enced, of course, by the Latin (op. cit., p. 53). If case is
determined by function, then there can be no question that
the third inflectional form of the Greek noun includes three
cases, the dative, locative, and instrumental.
93. The observation of Blass, quoted above, that the
dative "expresses the person more remotely concerned," is,
without doubt, in line with the root meaning of the case.
The dative deals very largely with the personal idea. "It
is sometimes used of things, but of things personified,"
having “a distinctive personal touch" (R. 576). It is pri-
marily a case of personal relations, and it is with this in
view that we must interpret it when applied to things. We
adopt Robertson's view of the root idea as personal interest.
The idea of interest as applied to things becomes reference.
(1) The Dative of Indirect Object. This use lies nearest
the simple root idea. It indicates the one for whom or in
whose interest an act is performed. Thus it carries the
basal significance of the dative.
πάντα ἀποδώσω σοι.
I will give you all things. Mt. 18:26.
See also: Mt. 13:3; 1 Cor. 5:9.
(2) The Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. Growing
out of the use of the dative of indirect object we have the
dative used in a more specific expression of personal interest.
If I say ἔδωκεν τὸ βιβλίον μοι, it is clear that the giving of
the book was in my interest, and the sense is not materially
changed if it be said that τὸ βιβλίον μοι ἠγοράσθη, the
book was bought for me, only making the idea of personal
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
85
interest more emphatic. The negative aspect of the same
idea is the dative of disadvantage.
ἔκρινα ἐμαυτῷ τοῦτο.
I determined this for myself. 2 Cor. 2:1.
See also: Mt. 23:31; Rev. 21:2.
(3) The Dative of Possession. This is an idiom for which
we have no exact equivalent in English. It is personal inter-
est particularized to the point of ownership. There is in it
manifest kinship with the dative of indirect object. Thus
ἔδωκεν τὸ βιβλίον μοι is obviously closely related in sense
to τὸ βιβλίον ἐστί μοι.
καὶ οὐκ ἦν αὐτοῖς τέκνον.
And they had no child. Lk. 1:7.
See also: Lk. 4:16; Jn. 1:6.
(4) The Dative of Reference. The force of interest in the
dative may be diminished to the idea of mere reference.
Thus in ἔδωκεν τὸ βιβλίον μοι οἰκοδομῇ, for edification,
the idea of interest is quite emphatic in μo but is remote in
oikodoμn, though still present, for the word might with
good sense be rendered, in the interest of edification, which,
however, is a personification of oikodoµñ. This use of the
dative occurs mostly with things, though it may also be used
with persons.
ἀπεθάνομεν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ.
We died with reference to sin. Rm. 6:2.
See also: Rm. 8:12; 2 Cor. 5:13.
i. A special application of the dative of reference is found in its
use with intransitive and impersonal verbs (cf. 1 Cor. 6:12).
ii. On the question of the syncretism of the dative case with the
locative and instrumental, Robertson observes that the distinction
is much more pronounced than that between the genitive and
ablative. He quotes Monro as saying that "distinct forms for
these three cases survived down to a comparatively late period in
86
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Greek itself" (R. 535). Buttmann shares the confusion about the
dative and ablative in Greek, influenced by the analogy of the
Latin (Bt. 171). This shows to what extent grammarians have
allowed themselves to be affected by the matter of form in their
conclusions with reference to syntax. Buttmann inherits his opinion
from Winer (cf. W. 208). There seems to have been a general
tendency of former grammarians to confuse the dative with the
ablative. Moulton correctly defines the distinction in the three
cases of the third inflectional form, but employs the compound
terms locative dative and instrumental dative (M. 75). Let it be
admitted, however, that this procedure is not wholly unjustifiable,
for we cannot ignore form entirely while we are in the realm of
syntax, for it often happens that we would be utterly unable to
determine what the intended function is except for the form. The
matter for caution is not to give form the preeminence in our analysis
of syntax.
iii. The dative is used most frequently with verbs. It occurs
with verbs implying personal interest, help, etc. It is also widely
used with substantives and adjectives. It rarely occurs with adverbs,
and it is very doubtful whether we ever find it used with a prep-
osition (cf. R. 536-538, 541).
The Locative Case
(The Local Dative)
References: R. 520-525; R-S. 105-108.
94. There is no case in Greek more clearly marked in its
use than the locative. Its root idea is quite distinct, and
the application of the root idea in its various uses is readily
discernible. Certainly we could be on no surer ground than
when we are treating the locative as a distinct case. "The
significance of the locative is very simple. In Sanskrit
Whitney calls it the in case, and so it is in Greek. It indi-
cates a point within limits and corresponds in idea with the
English in, on, among, at, by, the resultant conception
varying according to the meaning of the words and the
context. In every instance it is not hard to see the simple
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
87
root idea of the case, a point with limits set by the word
and context" (R-S. 106). So in simplest terms we may
define the locative as the case of position. Its varieties in
use are few and plain.
(1) The Locative of Place. When the limits indicated
by the locative are spatial, we call it the locative of place.
We may regard this use as lying nearest the simple root
idea. It is most frequent in the New Testament with prep-
ositions, but sometimes occurs without.
οἱ μαθηταὶ τῷ πλοιαρίῳ ἦλθον.
The disciples came in the little boat. Jn. 21:8.
See also: Acts 21:21; 1 Ths. 3:1.
(2) The Locative of Time. The limits indicated by the
locative may be temporal, in which case we call it the loca-
tive of time. The idea of position is quite clear in this
use: it signifies the time at which; i.e., point of time.
καὶ τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ ἐγερθήσεται.
And on the third day he will be raised up. Mt. 20:19.
See also: Mk. 14:30; Ac. 21:16.
(3) The Locative of Sphere. We have here a meta-
phorical use of the locative, but still exhibiting the root
idea. The limits suggested are logical rather than spatial
or temporal, confining one idea within the bounds of an-
other, thus indicating the sphere within which the former
idea is to be applied. This use may occur with nouns,
verbs or adjectives.
a. With nouns.
νωθροὶ γεγόνατε ταῖς ἀκοαῖς.
Ye have become babes in hearing. Heb. 5:11.
See also: 1 Cor. 14:20.
-
88
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
b. With verbs.
ἐνεδυναμώθη τῇ πίστει.
He was made strong in faith. Rom. 4:20.
See also: Ac. 18:5; Heb. 3:10.
c. With adjectives.
μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ.
Blessed are the pure in heart. Mt. 5:8.
See also: Mt. 11:29; Heb. 3:5.
i. Sometimes ev with the locative is used with expressions of motion,
where we would expect to find eis with the accusative. This is called
the pregnant use of the locative.
ii. The unqualified statement of Blass that "there is no trace of a
local dative in the New Testament" (Bl. 119) appears very strange
when we examine the convincing examples cited by Robertson (R.
521). We are compelled to accept the latter's conclusion that "it
is overstating it to assert that the locative of place has entirely
disappeared from the New Testament" (ibid.).
iii. The locative is used with quite a number of adjectives and
verbs, and with a few substantives, but the predominant use is
with prepositions.
The Instrumental Case
(The Instrumental Dative)
References: R. 525-535; R-S. 108-111.
95. This case was likely preceded historically by the old
associative case, of which traces remain in the Sanskrit.
The idea of association and instrumentality are really much
more closely related than might appear at first thought.
One is in a sense associated with the means by which he
accomplishes an objective, and in personal association the
second person supplies the means of fellowship. The con-
nection between the two ideas appears in the use of our
word with in the expression, "I walked down the road with
my friend, who was walking with a cane." The simpler
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
89
and cruder idea of the implement used in a task being
associated with the one using it developed into the more
advanced notion of its being the instrument. The function
of the instrumental case is quite distinct. Its root idea is
manifestly means.
i. The significance of the instrumental sometimes approaches, much
more closely than one would think, that of the locative. For instance,
in Jas. 2:25, where it is said that Rahab sent the Israelitish messengers
out ẻrépa odữ, by another way, Robertson concludes that "we probably
have the locative, though the instrumental is possible" (R. 527). But
the emphatic idea is not the place by which they went out, but the
method of their departure. Hence it is most easily explained as an
instrumental of manner. We can generally decide such a question by
looking for the emphatic idea.
ii. A distinct inflectional ending for the instrumental survives in
historical Greek in the Cyprian dialect. It also appears in the
form of several adverbs (cf. R. 525).
(1) The Instrumental of Means. Quite obviously this
is the use lying closest to the root meaning of the case. It
is the most prevalent use of the case in the New Testament.
It is the method for expressing impersonal means, while
personal agent is usually expressed by iró with the ablative.
ἐξέβαλεν τὰ πνεύματα λόγῳ.
He cast out the spirits with a word. Mt. 8:16.
See also: Mk. 5:4; Lk. 6:1.
(2) The Instrumental of Cause. It is an easy transition
from the intermediary means by which a result is produced
to the original factor producing it. Thus when we say, "He
was destroyed by an earthquake," the mode of expression
is but slightly different from saying, "He was destroyed
by an assassin's dagger." In the former construction agency
is referred to the original cause. This is clearly instru-
mental, and could not be elsewhere classified.
90
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
φόβῳ θανάτου ἔνοχοι ἦσαν δουλείας.
Because of fear of death they were subjects of bondage. Heb. 2:15.
See also: Rom. 11:30; 2 Cor. 2:7.
(3) The Instrumental of Manner. This is one of the
most obvious uses of the instrumental. It is expressive of
the method by means of which an act is performed or an
end achieved. It is seen frequently in adverbs of the
instrumental form, such as inμooia, publicly (Ac. 16:37).
"But the usage is abundant outside of adverbs, chiefly with
verbs, but also with adjectives and even with substantives"
(R. 530).
προφητεύουσα ἀκατακαλύπτῳ τῇ κεφαλῇ.
Prophesying with the head unveiled. 1 Cor. 11:5.
See also: Ac. 11:23; 1 Cor. 10:30.
(4) The Instrumental of Measure. The idea of instru-
mentality in measure is not difficult to see. Two points of
time or space are separated by means of an intervening
distance. In the New Testament it is used chiefly with
reference to time. Indeed, Robertson classifies this use as
instrumental of time (R. 527). It may also be used to
express the degree of difference (cf. Heb. 1:4).
ἱκανῷ χρόνῳ ταῖς μαγίαις ἐξεστακέναι αὐτούς.
For a long time he had amazed them by his sorceries. Ac. 8:11.
See also: Lk, 8:27; Rom. 16:25.
(5) The Instrumental of Association. The instrumental
idea contained in association has been discussed above. To
have association, a second party must furnish the means
of that association. However, association is not necessarily
personal, though predominantly so. In Rom. 15:27, tois
πνευματικοῖς ἐκοινώνησαν means literally they had fellow-
ship (with you) by means of your spiritual benefits. This
is clearly an example of association, though the means of
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
91
association is not personal. This use of the instrumental is
quite extensive in the New Testament. Robertson gives
seventy-eight examples.
νεανίσκος τις συνηκολούθει αὐτῷ.
A certain young man followed with him. Mk. 14:51.
See also: Rom. 11:2; 1 Cor. 4:8.
(6) The Instrumental of Agency. Agency is expressed
occasionally in the New Testament by the instrumental
case without the use of any preposition. At such times the
verb is always in the passive or middle voice.
ὅσοι γὰρ πνεύματι θεοῦ ἄγονται, οὗτοι υἱοὶ θεοῦ εἰσίν.
For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are the sons of
God. Rom. 8:14.
See also: Gal. 5:18; Col. 1:16.
The Accusative Case
96. The accusative is probably the oldest, and is cer-
tainly the most widely used of all the Greek cases. Its
function is more general than that of any other case.
Truly it is "the normal oblique case for a noun unless there
is some reason for it to be used in some other case" (R-S.
29). It must originally have had a great variety of uses,
as a result of which its root idea is not easy to discern. It
certainly belongs in a particular way to the verb, even as
the genitive is especially allied with the substantive. It
relates primarily to action, and indicates the direction,
extent, or end of action. "The accusative signifies that the
object referred to is considered as the point toward which
something is proceeding: that it is the end of the action or
motion described, or the space traversed in such motion or
direction" (Webster: Syntax and Synon. of the Greek Tes-
tament, p. 63). So the root meaning of the accusative really
92
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
embraces three ideas: the end, or direction, or extent of
motion or action. But either of these ideas is employed to
indicate the limit of the action, and hence we may define
the root meaning of the accusative as limitation. If one
say, д äveρwπos ETTEμev, the man sent, the act of sending is
¿
left without a boundary, and has no definite meaning; but
to say, ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἔπεμψε τὸν δοῦλον, the man sent the
servant, immediately limits the action by the specification
of its object. Or to say, ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἦλθεν τὴν χώραν, the
man went to the country, limits the motion by specifying its
destination. Likewise, to say, ò ävОрwπоs éπорEveтo μaкàv
odóv, the man traveled a long journey, limits the action by
indicating its extent. So, in either case, limitation appears
as the ultimate function. This basal function is more or
less evident in the various uses of the accusative.
(1) The Accusative of Direct Object. The idea of limi-
tation is most clearly seen when a noun receives the action
expressed by a transitive verb. Blass calls this use the
complement of transitive verbs (Bl. 87). It refers the
action of the verb to some object which is necessary to the
completion of its meaning. Of course, any number of
examples occur in the New Testament.
ἀλήθειαν λέγω.
I speak truth. Jn. 8:46.
See also: Mt. 4:21; Jn. 1:14.
It must be kept in mind in determining the accusative of direct
object in Greek that many verbs which in English are intransitive
are treated as transitive in Greek. Such verbs are those which
mean to speak well or ill of one, to abstain, to have mercy, etc.
Occasionally we find such verbs connecting their object by means
of a preposition, just as in our own idiom (cf. Bt. 146ff.).
(2) The Adverbial Accusative. Sometimes in perform-
ing its limiting function the accusative does not directly
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
93
complement the verb, but qualifies it in an indirect way.
It is an "accusative employed to denote a material object
only in a mediate or remote way" (W. 229). It limits by
indicating a fact indirectly related to the action rather than
an object directly affected by the action. Many words came
to be so frequently employed in this indirect use of the
accusative that they became essentially adverbs, some dis-
appearing entirely from use in the other cases and becom-
ing exclusively adverbs; e.g., πρότερον, πλεῖστον, μᾶλλον,
σxedov. The adverbial accusative may be used in three
σχεδόν.
senses.
a. Of Measure.
ἀπεσπάσθη ἀπ' αὐτῶν ὡσεὶ λίθου βολήν.
He was separated from them about a stone's throw. Lk. 22:41.
See also: Mt. 20:6; Jn. 6:19.
To this adverbial accusative of measure belongs the accusative
of the time during which (Mt. 20:6). Sometimes the accusative is
used to indicate point of time, much as the locative (Ac. 20:16), but
with a sense of duration or extension not possible for the locative.
When the accusative is used to indicate a point of time, it is part of
a continuous period implied in the context (cf. Jn. 4:52; Ac. 27:33:
1 Cor. 15:30). This implication is not possible for the locative.
b. Of Manner.
δωρεὰν ἐλάβετε, δωρεὰν δότε.
Freely ye have received, freely give. Mt. 10:8.
See also: I Cor. 14:27; 1 Pt. 3:21.
c. Of Reference.
ἥτις πολλὰ ἐκοπίασεν εἰς ὑμᾶς.
Who labored for you with reference to many things. Rom. 16:6.
See also: I Cor. 9:25; Eph. 4:15.
i. The accusative used with the infinitive is not properly the
"subject" of the infinitive, but is an accusative of reference used
to describe "the person connected with the action" (R-S. 97).
94
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ii. The adverbial accusative is used widely in the papyri (cf.
B. G. U. 22:5).
(3) The Cognate Accusative. When an accusative of
the direct object contains the same idea signified by the
verb, it is called a cognate accusative. Here the limits set
by the accusative are coextensive with the significance.
of the verb, the use being for emphasis.
τὸν καλὸν ἀγῶνα ἠγώνισμαι.
I have fought the good fight. 2 Tim. 4:7.
See also: Mk. 4:41; 1 Pt. 5:2.
(4) The Double Accusative. Some verbs require more
than one object to complete their meaning. Such are those
which take:
a. A personal and impersonal object.
ἐκεῖνος ὑμᾶς διδάξει πάντα.
He will teach you all things. Jn. 14:26.
See also: Mk. 6:34; Heb. 5:12.
b. A direct and predicate object.
οὐκέτι λέγω ὑμᾶς δούλους.
No longer do I call you servants. Jn. 15:15.
See also: Jn. 6:15; Lk. 1:59.
i. We have followed here substantially Blass's outline of the
double accusative (cf. Bl. 91f.). Winer divides it into the "accusa-
tive of the person and thing" (Jn. 19:2), and the "accusative of
subject and predicate" (Jn. 6:15; cf. W. 226-228). It will be noticed
that the basal lines of analysis are the same in both authors.
Webster analyzes the construction in practically the same way (op.
cit., p. 64).
ii. Many verbs which occur with some other construction in Eng-
lish take a double accusative in Greek; e.g., ἐνέδυσαν αὐτὸν τὰ ἱμάτια
aŮTOũ, they clothed him with his own garments (Mk. 15:20). On the
other hand, when we would sometimes expect a second accusative, we
find instead eis with the accusative, a probable Hebraism, influenced
by the Hebrew construction with? (cf. Ac. 7:21 and Gen. 12:2 of the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
95
LXX; cf. Bt. 150). Robertson shows that we may even have three
accusatives with one verb, as in Mk. 10:18 (R. 479). Where the double
accusative occurs with the active of a verb, when changed to the pas-
sive it ordinarily retains the accusative of the thing (Ac. 18:25), though
sometimes, especially with kaλéw, both nouns are changed to the nomi-
native (Luke 2:21; cf. W. 229).
(5) The Accusative Absolute. Sometimes an accusative,
with or without a participle, is set off in a sort of explana-
tory way grammatically independent of the rest of the
sentence. This use is very rare in the New Testament.
Robertson gives Ac. 26:3 as the clearest example. There
are a few other possible instances.
γνώστην ὄντα σε.
Since thou art expert. Ac. 26:3.
See also: 1 Cor. 16:6; Eph. 1:18; Rm. 8:3.
One cannot be positive that any of these constructions is an
accusative absolute. Each of them may be otherwise explained.
Winer regards Ac. 26:3 as an anacoluthon, a construction of fre-
quent occurrence in the New Testament. He expresses doubt about
there being any instance of the accusative absolute in the New
Testament, giving it as his opinion that "on close examination the
grammatical reason for the Accusative can be discovered in the
structure of the sentence" (W. 231). It is used in classical Greek
(Goodwin: Greek Moods and Tenses, p. 338), and in the inscriptions
(Buck: Gr. Dialects, p. 125), but is very doubtful in the papyri
(M. 74). Webster quite pertinently defines this usage as "the
accusative in apposition to the whole sentence" (op. cit., p. 66).
An appositive use of the accusative it undoubtedly is.
(6) The Accusative with Oaths. In the New Testament
¿ρkí¿w, I adjure, is regularly followed by two accusatives.
ὁρκίζω σε τὸν Θεόν, μή με βασανίσῃς.
I adjure thee by God, torment me not. Mk. 5:7.
See also: Ac. 19:13; 1 Ths. 5:27.
This construction is really a double accusative, and is placed by
Robertson in that class (R. 483f.), but the peculiarity of the idiom
justifies distinctive treatment.
96
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
!
II. PREPOSITIONS
References: R. 571-636; R-S. 115-126; M. 98-107.
97. A preposition is a word used as an aid in the expres-
sion of substantive relations. This is its chief function,
though, as explained below, it has other uses as well. It is
called "preposition" because in its use it is regularly placed
before the noun. Beginning merely as an auxiliary to noun
inflection, it has progressively encroached upon the inflec-
tional endings until they have been almost entirely dis-
placed. Modern Greek, like most other modern languages,
uses the preposition as the chief device for representing
case distinctions.
Origin
98. Originally prepositions were adverbs. That is, they
were at first adjuncts to verbs rather than substantives.
They gradually became more closely associated with the
noun, until custom finally fixed their use with particular
cases. "It is not difficult . to infer that the Aryan
prepositions were originally adverbs, which at first were
adjuncts not to the noun but to the accompanying verbs.
By degrees these old adverbs came to be more and
more closely connected in thought with the inflected nouns
they now served to define, till at last the original meanings
of the cases were subordinated to those of the accompany-
ing prepositions and in some cases forgotten" (Sweet: op.
cit., p. 54).
•
99. Most of the prepositions found in Homer are used
also as adverbs. There are instances in the New Testament
of prepositions used as adverbs, which indicate that at one
time they were pure adverbs. Note for example 2 Cor.
11:23, διάκονοι Χριστοῦ εἰσίν; ὑπὲρ ἐγώ. Are they ministers
of Christ? I more. Here iπép functions as a regular ad-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
97
verb; also eis in Lk. 21:4, eßaλov eis τà dwpa, they cast
in their gifts. In Rev. 21:21 ȧvà eis and in Mk. 14:19
Karà els are used distributively: one by one, or each. (Note
that els is in the nominative case.) We also find indications
of how prepositions were formed from adverbs; e.g., ává
from ἄνω, upwards; κατά from κάτω, downwards; εἰς from ἔσω,
within; and ẻk from ë¿w, outside.
100. In addition there are many adverbial prepositions,
which some have unwittingly termed "improper" preposi-
tions, that function in one passage as an adverb and in
another as a preposition. A list of them follows: äua,
together with; ἄντικρυς, ἀπέναντι, κατέναντι, opposite;
ἄνευ, ἄτερ, without; ἄχρι(s), up to; ἔγγυς, near; ἔκτος, ἔξω,
outside; ἔμπροσθεν, ἐνώπιον, before; ἕνεκεν, for the sake
of; ἔνοχος, guilty of; ἔντος, ἔσω, within; ἐπάνω, ὑπεράνω,
above; ἐπέκεινα, ὑπερέκεινα, beyond; ἕως, up to; μέσον,
in the midst of; μeтaží, between; ofé, after; πλýν, besides;
vπоkάτw, under; xwpis, apart from.
,
Function
101. While adverbs qualify the action, motion, or state
of verbs as to manner, place, time, and extent, prepositions
do also; but, in addition to this, they mark the direction
and relative position of the action, motion, or state ex-
pressed by the verb. Prepositions then attend upon verbs.
to help them express more specifically their relation to
substantives. Thus in ἠκούσατε ἀπ' ἀρχῆς, you heard from
the beginning, the hearing is qualified by being localized
in time; in λoev eis tò iepóv, he went into the temple,
the going is limited as to place. It is incorrect in view of
the above to say that prepositions govern cases. Neither
is the opposite true, that cases govern prepositions. But
it is true that as cases limit and define the relations of
verbs to substantives, so also prepositions help to express
98
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
more exactly and effectively the very distinctions for which
cases were created. They are also used to express the case
relations of substantive with substantive, as Eph. 6:23,
ἀγάπη μετὰ πίστεως ἀπὸ θεοῦ, love with faith from God.
Thus from being purely an adjunct of the verb in function,
prepositions were transferred to more intimate association
with the noun, to define more closely its relation to the
rest of the sentence. Some came to have case endings
according to the case with which they were first used. Thus
to understand the full significance of a preposition one
needs to know the function of the case with which it is used
in each instance, the meaning of the preposition absolutely,
and, what is most difficult, learn what it means relatively
in each context.
Significance
102. Nearly every preposition may be prefixed to a word
and thus add a new idea to the word or modify or even
intensify the meaning of that particular word. A very
frequent use of prepositions is in composition with words
for the purpose of expressing emphasis or intensity. Gram-
marians term this the "perfective" use of the preposition.
One can often detect shades of meaning from this usage
that are otherwise impossible to discern. All the prepo-
sitions except ἀμφί, περί,land πρό drop a final vowel before
a word beginning with a vowel.
103. Some prepositions are used with only one case; e.g.,
ἀνά, ἀντί, ἀπό, ἐκ, and εἰς; some with two, and the others
with three cases.
104. A very important fact to remember in studying
prepositions is that each one, unlike the English use, may
be used to express one or several either kindred or diversi-
fied ideas. The best way to determine the meanings of a
preposition is to study it in its various contexts and note its
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
99
various uses. References are given to facilitate this. This
is the inductive method. Each preposition originally had,
very likely, only one meaning. We cannot know definitely
what that was, but we have ventured a guess for each prep-
osition and term it the root meaning. Additional meanings
were accumulated in succeeding years, most of them kindred
to the root meaning, but some not. These we call resultant
meanings. They are by far the more numerous and are
the meanings to which the student should confine himself
in his prose composition. Then there is a special, rare use
of prepositions whose meanings we term remote, because
they are remote from the root idea and because they are
seldom used. A knowledge of them will be of great help
in interpreting difficult passages of Scripture.
'Avá
105. Root meaning: up.
In composition: up, back, again. Rom. 12:2, ȧva-kaivwoei,
new again or renewal.
Resultant meaning: it is rarely used out of composition,
and only with the accusative case. It means to the number
of in Rev. 4:8, ëxwv åvà tтépvyas e§, having wings to the
number of six. See also Jn. 2:6. In Mt. 20:9, åvà dŋvápiov
means at the rate of a denarius. It is most frequently used
in the distributive sense: Lk. 10:1, àvà dúo, by twos; 1 Cor.
14:27, åvà µépos, by turns. See also Mt. 10:9, 10; Rev. 21:21.
The expression ȧvà μéσov in Mt. 13:25, Mk. 7:21 and Rev.
7:17 means in the midst of; but in 1 Cor. 6:5 it means between.
'Αντί
106. Root meaning: face to face.
In composition: face to face. Lk. 24:17, åvтti-ßádλete,
throwing into each other's face, or against; Jn. 19:12, åvтI-
100
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
!
λéyel, speaks against. It is used with the ablative case
only. One of its regular meanings in classical Greek was
in exchange for, and this translation fits Heb. 12:16 perfectly,
who in exchange for (avri) one meal gave away his birth-right.
So Kühner and Winer translate it. In Mt. 5:38 and Rom.
12:17 for is a good translation, eye for an eye, evil for evil. See
also Mt. 17:27; Jn. 6:16. The phrase ȧve' v occurs five
times with the sense of because (cf. Lk. 1:20; 12:3).
107. There is conclusive proof now that the dominant
meaning for åvτí in the first century was instead of. “By
far the commonest meaning of åvrí, is the simple instead of"
(Moulton-Milligan: Voc. of the Gr. N. T.). This statement
refers to the papyri usage. Professor Whitesell (Chicago)
made a study of åvrí in the Septuagint and found thirty-
eight passages where it is rightly translated instead of in the
ᎡᏙ. Since ȧvri is used in two atonement passages in
the New Testament, such a translation needs careful con-
sideration. Notice the following: Gen. 22:13, and offered him
up for a burnt offering instead of (åvrí) his son; Gen. 44:33, Let
thy servant, I pray thee, abide instead of (avri) the lad a bond-
man to my lord; Num. 3:12, I have the Levites from among
the children of Israel instead of (avri) all the first-born. These
three sentences unmistakably deal with substitution. This
translation applies especially to the following: Mt. 2:22,
Archelaus was reigning over Judea instead of (avrí) his
father Herod; Lk. 11:11, and he instead of (åvτí) a fish give
him a serpent; 1 Cor. 11:15, for her hair is given her instead
of (avrí) a covering; Heb. 12:2, Jesus . . . who instead of
(avri) the joy that was set before him endured the cross. But
does it mean instead of in Mt. 20:28 and Mk. 10:45, douvai
τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν ? Either that, or else
it means in exchange for, and each implies substitution.
The obscurity of this passage is not the result of linguistic
ambiguity, but of theological controversy.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
101
᾿Από
108. Root meanings: off, away from.
In composition: off, back. Jn. 18:26, ȧπéкoyev, cut off;
Mt. 16:27, áπоdwoe, give back. This preposition is very
common. It implies separation, and is, therefore, used only
with the ablative case.
Resultant meaning: from. Mt. 3:16, ἀνέβη ἀπὸ τοῦ
idaros, he went up from the water. But Mark is more descrip-
tive and adds further details by using a present participle
and ẻκ, out of: 1:10, åvaßaivwv EK TOυ vdaTos, going up out
of the water.
Remote meanings: (1) by: Jas. 1:13, åπò lɛoũ teiρášoµai,
I am tempted by God (cf. Ac. 15:4; 2 Cor. 7:13; Rev. 12:6).
These all emphasize source. (2) On account of: Heb. 5:7.
εἰσακουσθεὶς ἀπὸ τῆς εὐλαβείας, heard on account of his
devotion; cf. Jn. 21:6; Ac. 28:3. This usage is supported by
the papyri. Fayum CXI: 4, I blame you greatly for having
lost two little pigs ἀπὸ τοῦ σκυλμοῦ τῆς ὁδοῦ, on account of the
fatigue of the journey. 'Aø' ñs or ou means since.
᾿Από
'Aπó may include the idea expressed in ek, but its usual significance is
from the edge of, while ek has the idea from within. IIapá with the
ablative emphasizes source and is used only with persons; as in Jn.
9:16, οὐκ ἔστιν οὗτος παρὰ θεοῦ, this one is not from God.
Διά
109. Root meaning: two; from duo. Jas. 1:8, di-¥uxos,
double-lived.
In composition: two, between, through. It is also frequently
used in the "perfective" sense. Heb. 1:11, où dè diaµéveis,
but thou abidest through, or endlessly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case; through.
Jn. 3:17, ἵνα σωθῇ ὁ κόσμος δι' αὐτοῦ, that the world might be
saved through him. This usage is very common. (2) With
the accusative case: (a) because of. Mt. 6:25, di TOŬTO
102
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
I
λéyw iµïv, because of this I say to you. This usage is also
very common. (b) For the sake of, for. Mk.2:27, Tò σáßßаTOV
διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἐγένετο, the sabbath was made for the
sake of man (cf. Mt. 19:12; Rom. 4:23, 24; 11:28; Rev. 1:9;
2:3).
2 Cor. 1:19,
was preached
(2) By means
Remote meanings: (1) by, through (agency).
Ἰησοῦς ὁ ἐν ὑμῖν δι' ἡμῶν κηρυχθείς, Jesus, who
among you by us (cf. 1 Cor. 11:12; Gal. 1:1).
of. Lk. 8:4, elπev dià πaрaßoλns, he spoke by means of a
parable (cf. Ac. 15:23; 18:9). The phrase dià rí regularly
means why (cf. Mt. 21:25; Mk. 11:31).
•
•
In G. Milligan's Greek Papyri, pp. 39, 40, there are four places
where diά means by. A writer says he is sending two letters, dià
Νηδύμου μίαν, διὰ Κρονίου . uíav, and he states that an inclosed
document is to be signed διὰ Διοδώρου ... ἢ διὰ τῆς γυναικός.
Although dia is occasionally used to express agency, it does not ap-
proximate the full strength of uró. This distinction throws light on
Jesus' relation to the creation, implying that Jesus was not the absolute,
independent creator, but rather the intermediate agent in creation.
See Jn. 1:3, πάντα δι' αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο; Heb. 1:2, δι' οὗ καὶ ἐποίησεν
τοὺς αἰῶνας; Mt. 1:22, ἵνα πληρωθῇ τὸ ῥηθὲν ὑπὸ κυρίου διὰ τοῦ
πроÓητον (cf. Mk. 1:5; Lk, 2:18; Jn.1:10),..
'Ek
110. Root meanings: out of, from within.
In composition: out of, away-emphasis. 2 Cor. 4:8
furnishes a striking example of the perfective use, aтоρоúμevol
ȧλλ' ovк éαπорovμevoi, perplexed, but not completely perplexed.
Resultant meanings: with the ablative case, the only case
it occurs with: out of, from within. Ac. 8:39, ÖTE dè
ἀνέβησαν ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος, and when they came up out of the water.
Remote meanings: (1) on. Mt. 20:21, 23, els èk değɩwv Kai
eis ¿¿ evwvúµwv, one on the right hand, and one on the
left. So also Lk. 20:42. The papyri substantiate such a
translation: οὐλὴ καστροκνημίῳ ἐκ δεξιῶν, a scar on the calf
of the leg on the right (B.G.U. 975:15). But ek is so used
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
103
only when it occurs with the words "right" or "left." (2)
By means of. Rom. 1:17, Tioтews Shoeтαι, saved by means
of faith. In Rom. 3:30 we have who will justify èk πiotewS.
(cf. Jas. 2:18, 22; 1 Jn. 4:6). (3) Because of. Jn. 6:66,
ἐκ τούτου πολλοὶ
ἀπῆλθον, because of this many
went away!'
Eis
111. Root meanings: within, in. It was derived from ¿v
and gradually took over its functions, so much so that in
Modern Greek ev does not occur.
In composition: into, in; as eiσeλleiv, to go into.
Resultant meanings: with the accusative case: into, unto,
to, for. These meanings are very common. Eis is used
more than seventeen hundred times in the New Testament,
and it occurs only with the accusative case. Ac. 11:26,
¿¿ñλ0ev dè eis Tapoóv, but he went forth to Tarsus; 16:19,
εἵλκυσαν εἰς τὴν ἀγοράν, they dragged them into the market-
place; Rom. 1:5, ἀποστολὴν εἰς ὑπακοὴν πίστεως, apostleship
unto the obedience of faith; 1 Cor. 14:22, ai yλwooai eis
onμeïóv elow, tongues are for a sign.
Remote meanings: (1) in. Lk. 8:48, πoрevov eis eipývnv,
go in peace (cf. Jn. 1:18; Ac. 2:27, 31; 19:22). (2) Upon.
Mk. 1:10, καταβαῖνον εἰς αὐτόν, coming down upon him
(cf. Ac. 27:26). This use is common in the papyri. (3)
Against. Lk. 12:10, ὃς ἐρεῖ λόγον εἰς τὸν υἱόν, who will
speak a word against the Son (cf. Lk. 15:18; Ac. 6:11). (4)
Among. Lk. 10:36, ἐμπεσόντος εἰς τοὺς λῃστάς, fell
among thieves (cf. Jn. 21:23; Ac. 4:17). (5) With respect to,
with reference to. Ac. 2:25, Δαυεὶδ γὰρ λέγει εἰς αὐτόν,
for David says with reference to him (cf. Rom. 10:4; 15:2; 16:19).
(6) As, expressing equivalence. Heb. 1:15, èyà éσoμaι avт@
ἐγὼ ἔσομαι αὐτῷ
eis Tarépa, I will be to him as a father (cf. Mk. 10:8; Ac. 7:53;
13:22). (7) Because of. Rom. 4:20, eis dè тην èπayyeλíav
104
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
τοῦ θεοῦ οὐ διεκρίθη τῇ ἀπιστίᾳ, but because of the promise
of God he did not waver in unbelief (cf. Mt. 3:11; Mk. 2:18;
Rom. 11:32; Tit. 3:14). (8) For the purpose of, regularly
when used with the infinitive, but a few times also without.
Mt. 8:34, ἡ πόλις ἐξῆλθεν εἰς ὑπάντησιν τῷ Ἰησοῦ, the city
went out for the purpose of meeting Jesus (cf. Mt. 8:4; 1 Cor.
11:24; 2 Cor. 2:12).
i. The following is a quotation from J. R. Mantey's article in the
Expositor (London), June, 1923, "Unusual Meanings for Preposi-
tions in the Greek New Testament":
When one considers in Ac. 2:38 repentance as self-renunciation
and baptism as a public expression of self-surrender and self-dedi-
cation to Christ, which significance it certainly had in the first
century, the expression εἰς ἄφεσιν τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ὑμῶν may mean
for the purpose of the remission of sins. But if one stresses baptism,
without its early Christian import, as a ceremonial means of sal-
vation, he does violence to Christianity as a whole, for one of its
striking distinctions from Judaism and Paganism is that it is a
religion of salvation by faith while all others teach salvation by
works.
The sentence μετανόησεν εἰς τὸ κήρυγμα Ἰωνᾶ in Mt. 12:41 '
and Lk. 12:32 is forceful evidence for a causal use of this preposi-
tion. What led to their repentance? Of course, it was Jonah's
preaching. Mt. 3:11 furnishes further evidence: ¿yà µèv vµãs
βαπτίζω ἐν ὕδατι εἰς μετανοίαν. Did John baptize that
they might repent, or because of repentance? If the former, we
have no further Scriptural confirmation of it. If the latter, his
practice was confirmed and followed by the apostles, and is in full
harmony with Christ's demand for inward, genuine righteousness.
In connection with this verse we have the testimony of a first-
century writer to the effect that John the Baptist baptized people
only after they had repented. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews,
book 18, chapter 5, section 2: "Who (John) was a good man, and
commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness
towards one another and piety towards God, and so to come to
baptism; for that the washing (with water) would be acceptable
to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away of
some sins, but for the purification of the body; supposing still
that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness."
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
105
ii. Deissmann in Light From the Ancient East gives several convincing
quotations from the papyri to prove that πιστεύειν εἰς αὐτόν meant
surrender or submission to. A slave was sold into the name of the god
of a temple; i.e., to be a temple servant. G. Milligan agrees with
Deissmann that this papyri usage of eis avтóv, is also found regularly
in the New Testament. Thus to believe on or to be baptized into the
name of Jesus means to renounce self and to consider oneself the life-
time servant of Jesus.
'Ev
112. Root meaning: within.
In composition: within, in; as èvepyéw, work in; on; as,
¿vdów, put on.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the locative case; in, on, at,
within, among. Mt. 2:5, èv 'Bη0λeéµ, in Bethlehem; Ac. 1:17,
¿v vµív, among us. With the locative case it is used mostly
with words of place, but it also occurs with words of time
(cf. Ac. 1:15). (2) With the instrumental case: with, by
means of. 1 Cor. 4:21, év páẞow Now πрòs vμas; should
I come to you with a rod? Rev. 6:8, åñoктeivai év poµçaíą
ἀποκτεῖναι ῥομφαίᾳ
καὶ ἐν λιμῷ καὶ ἐν θανάτῳ, to kill by means of sword, famine
and death. See also Lk. 1:51; Rom. 1:18; Heb. 9:25; Rev.
13:10. To introduce temporal clauses év T✨, while, is fre-
quently used, both with infinitives and finite verbs; e.g., Mt.
13:4, év τ σπεipe avтóv, while he was sowing (cf. Lk. 5:34).
Remote meanings: (1) besides, used only once. Lk. 16:26,
καὶ ἐν πᾶσι τούτοις μεταξὺ ἡμῶν καὶ ὑμῶν, and besides all
these things, between us and you, etc. (2) Into. Jn. 3:35, πάVTα
δέδωκεν ἐν τῇ χειρὶ αὐτοῦ, he has given all things into his
hand (cf. Mt. 26:23; Rom. 2:5). (3) Because of. Gal. 1:24,
ἐδόξαζον ἐν ἐμοὶ τὸν θεόν, they were glorifying God because
of me (cf. Rom. 1:24; Col. 1:21; 1 Pt. 2:3.)
i. “Prof. H. A. A. Kennedy has collected a number of instances
of this use of ev—because of, on account of-from the LXX and from
the Pauline Epistles" (cf. M. and M.: op. cit.).
106
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ii. On the expression ev Xplor@, which occurs one hundred and
sixty-four times in Paul's letters, Deissmann says, "There cannot be
any doubt that 'Christ in me' means the exalted Christ living in Paul
and Paul is in Christ. Christ, the exalted Christ, is Spirit. There-
fore, He can live in Paul and Paul in Him." This mystic relation is
likened to the air that is in us and yet we are in it.
iii. 'Ev is used in Heb. 1:1, 2 with about the same force that diά
with the genitive has, ὁ θεός λαλήσας τοῖς πατράσιν ἐν τοῖς
προφήταις ἐπ' ἐσχάτου τῶν ἡμερῶν τούτων ἐλάλησεν ὑμῖν ἐν
vių, God spoke through prophets then, but now through a son (cf. Mt.
12:27, 28).
᾿Επί
113. Root meaning: upon.
In composition: upon, and also for emphasis, as éπiyiwoкw,
know thoroughly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case: upon, on,
at, by, before, emphasizing contact. Lk. 2:14, éπì yñs eipývn,
peace upon earth. (2) With the locative case: upon, on, at,
over, before, emphasizing position. Mt. 18:13, xaipei π'
χαίρει
avr, he rejoices over it. (3) With the accusative case: upon,
on, up to, to, over, emphasizing motion or direction. Mk.
16:2, éρxovтai éπì тò μvημetov, they came to the tomb.
Remote meanings: (1) in. Ex. 2:5, λovσaolai Èπì Tòv
πотаμóν, to bathe in the river; Rom. 1:10; 6:21; Tit. 1:1.
(2) Against. Mk. 14:48, ¿s éπì λnotηv ¿¿ýλ0αte, you came
out as against a thief (cf. Lk. 12:53; Ac. 13:50). (3) For. Mt.
3:7, ἐρχομένους ἐπὶ τὸ βάπτισμα, coming for baptism, Lk.
7:44; 18:4; Ac. 19:10, 34. (4) After. Lk. 1:59, ékáλovv
αὐτὸ ἐπὶ τ᾿ ὀνόματι τοῦ πατρός, they were going to call it
after the name of his father (cf. Lk. 14:34; Rom. 5:14; Rev.
1:7). (5) On account of. Ac. 4:21, ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν ἐπὶ τῷ
YEYOVÓTI, they were glorifying God on account of the event (cf.
Lk. 1:47; Rom. 5:12; 1 Cor. 1:4). The phrase ' & in
Rom. 5:12 and 2 Cor. 5:4 means because. (6) In the time of.
Ac. 11:28, ἥτις ἐγένετο ἐπὶ Κλαυδίου, which really happened
T
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
107
in the time of Claudius (cf. Mt. 1:11; Mk. 2:26; Lk. 3:2). (7)
In addition to. 2 Cor. 7:13, ἐπὶ τῇ παρακλήσει ἡμῶν, in
addition to our comfort. This was a common usage in classi-
cal Greek.
Κατά
114. Root meaning: down.
In composition: down. Rom. 1:18, τηv åλýleιav
Katexóvtwv, holding down (hindering) the truth. At times it
is emphatic; as Mt. 3:12, Tò dè äxvpov katakavoeɩ, and he
will burn completely the chaff.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case: down from.
Mk. 5:13, ὥρμησεν ἡ ἀγέλη κατὰ τοῦ κρημνοῦ, the herd
rushed down from the cliff. (2) With the genitive case:
down upon, down, against, throughout, by. Ac. 9:42, yvwσтòv
yvwoTÒV
δὲ ἐγένετο καθ' ὅλης Ἰόππης, and it became known through-
out all Joppa. (3) With the accusative case: along, at, ac-
cording to. Lk. 10:4, μηδένα κατὰ τὴν ὁδὸν ἀσπάσησθε,
salute no one along the road. Also in the distributive sense:
Ac. 2:46,κατ' οἶκον, from house to house; Lk. 2:41, κατ᾽ ἔτος,
from year to year; 1 Cor. 14:27, кaтà dúo, by twos; see also
Lk. 8:1; 13:32.
Remote meanings: (1) with reference to, with respect to, per-
taining to, etc. Phs. 4:11, οὐχ ὅτι καθ' ὑστέρησιν λέγω,
not that I speak with reference to lack; Rom. 14:22; 2 Cor.7:11;
Eph. 6:21. (2) In. Ac. 11:1, οἱ ὄντες κατὰ τὴν Ἰουδαίαν,
those in Judea (cf. Ac. 13:1; 15:23; 24:12; Heb. 11:13). (3)
Before. Lk. 2:31, катà πрóσwπоν пáνтшν, before the face of all
(cf. Ac. 2:10; Gal. 2:11; 3:1).
Μετά
115. Root meaning; in the midst of. Mt. 1:23, µeľ' ǹµwv
o Ocós, God in the midst of us.
In composition: three clearly defined meanings. (1) With.
Lk. 5:7, μετόχος, from μετά and ἔχω, one who holds with;
•
108
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
hence a partner. (2) After. Ac. 10:5. μетάteµfaι Ziµwva,
send after (summon) Simon. (3) It is frequently used to ex-
press the idea of change or difference; as μetavoéw, think
differently; μetaµopyovσle, transform yourselves; µeтatíðŋµɩ,
translate.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive: with. Mk.
1:13, v μeтà Tv Onpiwv, he was with the wild animals; see
also Mk. 1:20, 29, 36. (2) With the accusative: after. Lk.
5:27, µetà taυтa ¿¿ñλ0ev, after these things he went out;
see also Lk. 9:28; 10:1; 12:4.
Παρά
116. Root meaning: beside.
In composition: beside. Mt. 4:13, Kaçaрvaovµ тǹν таρа-
Oaλaooíav, Capernaum beside the sea. Closely akin to this
are the meanings by and along. It also signifies emphasis
at times. Mt. 8:5, πаρakaλív avтóv, calling earnestly; i.e.,
beseeching him (cf. Ac. 17:16; Heb. 3:16; Gal. 4:10).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case: from.
Jn. 4:9, παρ' ἐμοῦ πεῖν αἰτεῖς, ask a drink (infinitive used
as object) from me. (2) With the locative case: by the side of,
in the presence of, with, before. Lk. 1:30, eupes xáρiv παρà Tậ
χάριν
Dew, you have found favor with God; Rom. 2:13, díkαιoι παρà
Dew, just before God. IIapá is used only with words denoting
person in the ablative and locative cases, but it is just the
reverse with the accusative case, with a few exceptions. (3)
With the accusative case: to the side of, beside, along, beyond.
Mt. 18:35, πаρà tǹv ôdòv étaɩtív, begging beside the road; Lk.
13:4, οφειλέται ἐγένοντο παρὰ πάντας, became debtors beyond
all¸(cf. Rom. 1:25; Heb. 1:9). In comparisons its sense is best
translated by than. Heb. 1:4; 2:7, ἠλάττωσας αὐτὸν . ..
πaр' åɣyéλλous, having made him lower than angels. A few
times it means contrary to. Rom. 1:26, rǹv qvoikǹv Xpñoiv
εἰς τὴν παρὰ φύσιν, the natural use into that contrary to nature
(cf. Ac. 18:13; Rom. 11:24).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
109
Περί
117. Root meaning: around.
In composition: around. Ac. 13:11, TEριάYWV ÉSÝTEL
περιάγων ἐζήτει
Xeɩpaɣwyoús, going around he was seeking guides. It is used
in the perfective sense, implying emphasis, occasionally.
Heb. 10:11, Teριeλet̃v åµaρrías, to take away sins com-
pletely (cf. Ac. 27:20; Mt. 26:38).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the genitive case: about,
concerning. Mt. 16:11, où πepì åρтwv eiπov, I did not speak
concerning loaves (cf. Mt. 17:16; 18:19; 19:17). (2) With the
accusative case: around, about. Mt. 8:18, öxλov Teρì avтóv,
a crowd around him (cf. Mt. 20:3, 5, 6, 9). In the accusative
case Teρí implies position around, whereas in the genitive
case it implies general relationship, as in the statement,
"He was talking about him."
Remote meanings: (1) in behalf of. Mt. 26:28, тò aîµá
μου . . . περὶ πολλῶν, my blood in behalf of many (cf. Mk.
1:44; Jn. 16:26; Heb. 5:3; Ex. 14:14, 25). (2) In Ac. 13:13 it
may best be rendered with; oi Tepi Пavλov, those with Paul.
(3) In Tit. 2:7 Teрì Távта may well be translated in every-
thing.
Πρό
118. Root meaning: before.
In composition: before. Mt. 2:9, ô ảστǹρ
avTOús, the star went before them.
· προῆγεν
Resultant meaning, with the ablative case: before. Jn.
5:7, ἄλλος πρὸ ἐμοῦ καταβαίνει, another goes down before me.
Remote meanings: Tрó deviates only twice in the New
Testament from its regular meaning before. (1) In Jn. 10:8,
πάντες ὅσοι ἦλθον πρὸ ἐμοῦ κλέπται εἰσὶν καὶ λῃσταί,
this preposition is translated before, but the context favors
in the room of, or in the name of, which are recognized transla-
tions for πрó. In Gessner Harrison's Greek Prepositions
110
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
and Cases (p. 408) are quoted examples of such a use. He
there says, "whence comes the idea of occupying the place
of another, or becoming his substitute." (2) The expression
πρò̟ Tάντшv in Jas. 5:12 and 1 Pt. 4:8 means above all.
Πρός
119. Root meaning: near, facing.
In composition: near (Mt. 15:32); toward (Lk. 9:41); for
(Mt. 13:21). Its significance is emphasis occasionally.
Ac. 10:10, πρόσπεινος, very hungry; Ac. 2:42, προσκαρτηρέω,
continue steadfastly.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the locative case: at. Jn.
20:12, ἕνα πρὸς τῇ κεφαλῇ καὶ ἕνα πρὸς τοῖς ποσίν, one
at the head and one at the feet (cf. Lk. 19:37; Jn. 18:16; Rev.
1:13). (2) With the accusative case. (a) To, towards. Mt.
2:12, μὴ ἀνακάμψαι πρὸς Ἡρῴδην, to not return to Herod.
(b) Beside. Mk. 4:1, ὁ ὄχλος πρὸς τὴν θάλασσαν, the
ΜΚ.
crowd beside the sea. (c) Against. Ac. 6:1, πрòs тоùs 'Eẞpai-
πρὸς τοὺς
ovs, against the Hebrews. (d) With. Jn. 1:1, ò λóyos ν πрòs
Tov Ocóν, the word was with God. (e) At. Mk. 7:25, πроσé-
προσέ-
πεσεν πρὸς τοὺς πόδας αὐτοῦ, she fell at his feet.
T
Remote meanings: (1) for. Ac. 27:34 (its only occurrence
with the ablative case); Jn. 5:35; Rom.15: 2; Tit. 1:16; 2 Tim.
3:17, πρὸς πᾶν ἔργον ἀγαθὸν ἐξηρτισμένος, thoroughly pre-
pared for every good work. (2) With reference to, pertaining to.
Heb. 5:1, тà πрòs тòv leóν, things pertaining to God (cf. Lk.
12:47; Rom. 10:21; Heb. 1:7). (3) On. Mk. 5:11, v dè ékeĩ
πρὸς τῷ ὄρει ἀγέλη χοίρων, and there was there on the moun-
tain a herd of swine. (4) On account of. Mk. 10:5, πроs την
σκληροκαρδίαν ὑμῶν, κτλ., on account of your hardheartedness
he wrote you this command (cf. Mt. 19:8). (5) It is used with
the infinitive to express purpose. Mt. 6:1, πрòs тò dealñvai
avtois, in order to be seen by them.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
111
Σύν
120. Root meaning: together with.
In composition: (1) with. Mk. 14:51, veavioкoS TIS σUVηKO-
λevoel avт@, a certain young man followed with him. (2)
Together. 1 Cor. 14:26, öτav σvvépxnole, when you come to-
gether. (3) At times it intensifies the meaning of the word
to which it is joined. Lk. 2:19, ovverńpei, carefully kept
(cf. Lk. 12:2; 13:11; Rom. 11:32).
Resultant meaning, with the instrumental case: together
with, with. Jn. 12:2, ò Aášapos v . . σὺν αὐτῷ, Lazarus
was with him (cf. Lk. 1:56; 5:9; 9:32). It is used almost ex-
clusively with persons, and implies close fellowship or co-
öperation.
Remote meaning: besides. Lk. 24:21, oùv nãσiv toútois,
besides all these things. It may be so translated also in Ac.
17:34.
Ὑπέρ
121. Root meaning: over.
In composition: (1) over. Heb. 9:5, vπepávw, over above.
(2) More than. 1 Ths. 3:10, vπeρекπeρɩoσoũ deóμevoi,
praying more than abundantly (cf. 2 Cor. 12:7; Phs. 4:7).
(3) Beyond. 1 Ths. 4:6, vπeрßaiveɩv, go beyond, defraud.
(4) It is "perfective" or intensive at times. Phs. 2:9,
ò Оeòs aνтòv Vπepúfwσev, God has highly exalted him (cf. 1
Tim. 1:14).
Resultant meanings: (1) with the ablative case. (a) For,
for the sake of, in behalf of. Tit. 2:14, edwкEV EανтÒV VπÈρ
μv, he gave himself in behalf of us (cf. Mk. 4:24; Lk. 22:19,
20; Heb. 2:9). (b) Instead of. Jn. 11:50, "it is expedient
for you that one man should die instead of the people, vπèρ тоυ
λaoũ, and not that the whole nation perish”; Gal. 3:13,
"Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having
become a curse instead of us, vπèρ ηµ☎ν. In both of these
112
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
passages the context clearly indicates that substitution is
meant (cf. 2 Cor. 5:14, 15); Cat. of Gr. Papyri, 94:15. (2)
With the accusative case. (a) Over, above. Mt. 10:24,
οὐκ ἔστιν μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον, a disciple is not
above his teacher. (b) Beyond. Ac. 26:13, vñèρ тην λаµ-
ὑπὲρ τὴν λαμ-
πротηтα тоυ λiov, beyond the brightness of the sun. (c)
More than. Mt. 10:37, ὁ φιλῶν πατέρα ἢ μητέρα ὑπὲρ ἐμέ,
he who loves father or mother more than me.
Remote meanings. (1) Concerning, with reference to. Jn.
1:30, οὗτός ἐστιν ὑπὲρ οὗ ἐγὼ εἶπον, this is he concerning
whom I spoke (cf. 2 Cor. 8:23; 2 Ths. 2:1). (2) After a com-
parative adjective it may be translated than. Heb. 4:12,
тоμάтераs VπÈрp μáxaιpav, sharper than a sword (cf. Lk.
16:8; Jn. 12:43).
Ὑπό
122. Root meaning: under.
In composition: under.
i.e., foot-stool.
Resultant meanings: (1) with the accusative case: under.
Mt. 8:9, ἄνθρωπός εἰμι ὑπὸ ἐξουσίαν, I am a man under
authority. (2) With the ablative case: by (agency). Mt.
1:22, дηlèν Vπò кνрíοv, spoken by the Lord.
Mt. 5:35, Vπоπódiov, under-foot;
ὑποπόδιον,
"Tπó is most frequently used for expressing agency. In fact, agency is
expressed with the aid of Ùπó more frequently than it is by all the other
methods combined. The instrumental case without a preposition is
used frequently. Rom. 8:14, ὅσοι γὰρ πνεύματι θεοῦ ἄγονται,
for as many as are led by the Spirit of God. Four other prepositions are
used rarely for expressing agency: EK (Gal. 4:4), Tapá (Jn. 17:7), àπó
ἀπό
(1 Cor. 3:18), and dɩά (Mt. 1:22). In our discussion of dɩά we have
given examples of its use in expressing intermediate agency.
Prepositional Phrases
123. Prepositions may be used in conjunction with adjec-
tives, nouns, pronouns, and adverbs in forming phrases.
The resultant meaning of such a phrase is idiomatic at times.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
113
πρός
For instance, the following phrases serve as conjunctions:
Lk. 21:24, ǎxpi ov, until; Rev. 16:18, ap' ou, since; Lk. 12:3,
ȧvo' &v, because; Rom. 5:12, p' &, because; Mt. 25:40, 45, ép'
öσov, inasmuch as, but in Mt. 9:15 and 2 Pt. 1:13, as long as;
Heb. 3:3; 9:27, кal' óσov, inasmuch as, since; Mt. 21:25, dɩà
Tí, why; Mt. 14:31, eis ri, why; Lk. 5:34, év &, while.
Diagram of the Directive and Local Functions of Prepositions

eis
διά
ὑπέρ
ἐπί
ὑπό
περι
ává
ἐν
κατά
παρά
ἀπό
Ex
124. The following phrases function chiefly as adverbs:
2 Cor. 1:14, аñò µéρovs, in part; Mt. 4:17, åñò ñóτe, from
that time on; Mt. 23:39, åπ' äρri, henceforth; Mt. 18:10, dià
παντός, always; Heb. 7:25, εἰς τὸ παντελές, completely;
eis tò
2 Cor. 13:13, εἰς τὸ πάλιν, again; Jn. 6:51, εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα,
forever; Ac. 12:7, ἐν τάχει, quickly; Jn. 4:31, ἐν τῷ μεταξύ,
meanwhile; 3 Jn. 1, év åλnocía, sincerely or genuinely; 2 Cor.
9:6, ἐπ᾿ εὐλογίαις, bountifully; Ac. 23:19, κατ' ἰδίαν, pri-
vately; Ac. 3:17, kaт' äyvolav, ignorantly.
,
114
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ἀνά
ἀντί
ἀπό
διά
ἐκ
རྒྱུ། གླུ་
ἐν
εἰς
ἐπί
κατά
μετά
παρά
περί
πρό
πρός
σύν
ὑπέρ
ὑπό
Direc-
tion
up
PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS CLASSIFIED

from
through
out of
into
into,
unto,
to
along,
down,
beyond,
to the
side of,
from
around,
about
up to, to upon, at,
on, in,
by, be-
to, to-
ward
Posi-
tion
in, by
beyond
on
in,
among,
upon
in, on, at, besides
among,
within
fore,
over
accord-
ing to,
upon,
upon,at, with ref-
through- in, by,
out
before
down,
from,
Rela-
tion
in ex-
change
for, in-
stead of,
for
for
before
at, on,
beside
for
under
as, for,
against,
in re-
pect to
against,
after,
in the
1
time of
beside, contrary
before
to
erence
to
after
in behalf
of, con-
cerning,
about
against,
for, per-
taining
to
besides
concern-
over,
above ing, for,
instead
of, on
behalf of
Means
Agency
by
by
in
by
Cause
on ac-
count of
through, because
by means of
of
with,
by means
of
because
of
by means because
of
of
because
of
by means
of
because
of
on
account
of
on ac-
count of
Associa-
tion
with
with
with
with
with
with
Pur-
pose
for the
sake of
for the
purpose
of
for
for
for the
sake of
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
115
125. Occasionally prepositional phrases may be translated
as adjectives. G. Milligan in his Greek Papyri (p. 47)
translates ἐξ ὑγιοῦς καὶ ἐπ᾽ ἀληθείας, sound and true, and
in the Voc. of the Gr. Test. (p. 59), he translates ȧπò dŋµías,
blameless. In 2 Cor. 8:2 the phrase karà ẞálous means
deep. When prepositional phrases occur in the attributive
position, i.e., follow the article, they are adjectival in func-
tion: Ac. 7:13, οἱ ἀπὸ τῆς Θεσσαλονίκης Ἰουδαῖοι, the
oi tñs
from-Thessalonica Jews; Ac. 18:25, édidaσ кev åкρißws тà
πeρì Toũ 'Inσoũ, he was teaching accurately the concerning-
Jesus things; Rom. 4:12, τῆς ἐν ἀκροβυστία πίστεως, the
in-uncircumcision faith.
126. In a similar way a noun in the descriptive genitive
may be translated as an adjective sometimes. In Col. 1:27
and Tit. 2:13 τñs dóέŋs means glorious, and in Lk. 16:8 Tñs
ådɩkías is rightly translated unjust. Notice this in Ac.
9:15, σκεῦος ἐκ λογῆς ἐστίν μοι, he is a chosen vessel to me.
III. THE ADJECTIVE
References: R. 650-675; R-S. 65-66; M. 77.
127. We approach here a neglected point in the treat-
ment of Greek grammar. Since the character of the adjec-
tive is so close to that of the substantive few grammarians
give it separate treatment. Those who do, devote relatively
little space to its discussion. Yet there has never been a
language which, in its use of the adjective, presented greater
wealth or variety than the Greek. Hence it is highly neces-
sary that the student of the Greek New Testament should
be familiar with at least the more characteristic features
of the Greek use of the adjective.
The Origin of the Adjective
128. The adjective is simply a use of the substantive
highly specialized. Of its derivation from the substantive
116
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
there can be no reasonable doubt. Three evidences of this
fact may be mentioned here, and others will appear in the
further development of the subject. There is first the close
kinship between the noun and the adjective in root and
inflection. In the second place, the Sanskrit makes much
less distinction between the noun and adjective than does
the Greek. The third and perhaps the strongest evidence.
is the employment of an appositional substantive in the
exact relation of an adjective, which has persisted even.
down to the present time. Note for instance such expres-
sions as "a city home," "a treasure house," etc. An exam-
ple of this adjective use of the noun in the New Testament
may be seen in Mt. 3:6, ἐν τῷ Ἰορδάνῃ ποταμῷ, in the
Jordan river. These indications point unquestionably to
the origin of the adjective in the substantive. But its
highly developed use in the Greek language justifies sep-
arate treatment.
-
Winer observes that there are "two sorts of nouns, substantive
and adjective," and that, though they are "distinct from each other
in thought, yet the latter (including participles) enters the sphere
of substantives far more abundantly in Greek than, for instance,
in Latin" (W. 234).
The Agreement of the Adjective
129. The close relation of the adjective to the substan-
tive is further exhibited in the fact that the substantive
regularly governs its form. The adjective agrees with the
noun it qualifies in gender, number, and case.
ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ποιμὴν ὁ καλός.
I am the good shepherd. Jn. 10:11.
See also: Mt. 7:24; Heb. 8:2.
A collective noun may take a plural adjective (Ac. 21:36), in
which case the agreement is determined by sense rather than form.
This agreement in sense may apply also to gender (1 Cor. 7:19).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
117
The Function of the Adjective
130. The genius of the adjective is description. It de-
notes some fact which distinguishes or qualifies a noun.
Thus in the expression "beautiful garden" the adjective.
simply points to the fact of beauty as it relates to the
garden. But note that the adjective designates a state of
being, beauty, just as the noun designates an object,
garden. So the fundamental sense of the expression might
be represented "beauty-garden" (a garden of beauty).
Thus, in its function, we see that the adjective is at heart
a substantive, being the outgrowth of a noun used in
qualifying relationship with another noun.
i. While the genius of the adjective is description, it is not the
only idiom in Greek whose distinctive character it is to perform
this function. The same force belongs to the genitive, especially the
genitive of description and apposition. When the article is absent
from the genitive construction, the adjectival relation is strengthened.
It is possible that historically the noun in the descriptive genitive
preceded the adjective, and constituted its immediate origin. There
would be, then, three steps in the development of the adjective:
(1) a beauty garden, (2) a garden of beauty, (3) a beautiful garden.
We also find appositional nouns in the genitive case (cf. § 90 (6)).
ii. All these qualifying devices fill their distinctive purposes. It
is a mistake to say that any one of them is used "for" another.
Robertson justly differs from Winer in the statement that a certain
idiom “should naturally be expressed by an adjective" (R. 651; cf.
W. 236). The writer "should" use the idiom that he does use, for
we must assume that it most accurately represents his thought.
131. The adjective is abundant in the variations of its
use in Greek, but for the practical purposes of the average
student the following analysis will prove sufficient.
(1) The Adjective Used as a Modifier. The primary
and most characteristic use of the adjective is to limit or
describe a noun. In the performance of this function it
118
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
exhibits a twofold relation. It may be either attributive or
predicate.
a. An adjective is in the attributive relation when it
ascribes a quality to the noun which it modifies; e.g.,
ὁ ἄδικος κριτής, the unjust judge.
πρῶτον τὸν καλὸν οἶνον τίθησιν.
He first sets forth the good wine. Jn. 2:10.
b. An adjective is in the predicate relation when it makes
an assertion concerning the noun which it modifies; e.g.,
д KρITηs ädɩkos, the judge is unjust.
ἕστηκεν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ ἑδραῖος.
He stands stedfast in heart. 1 Cor. 7:37.
While attribution is an adjectival function, it may also be true of
other parts of speech, such as nouns, pronouns, participles, infinitives,
adverbs, and clauses. We should be careful to distinguish the
attributive and predicate adjective from the attributive and predi-
cate position of the article. An attributive adjective usually has
the article, but may not (Jn. 1:18). The predicate adjective occurs
invariably without the article. The article, however, does not
determine the relation of the adjective to the noun. This is deter-
mined by the mode of description by which the adjective presents
the noun--whether the adjective is incidental or principal in the
statement. Robertson sums the matter up well by saying that
"the predicate presents an additional statement, is indeed the main
point, while the attributive is an incidental description of the sub-
stantive about which the statement is made" (R. 656).
(2) The Adjective Used as a Noun. Sometimes the
adjective so far recovers its original substantive character
as to perform the full function of a noun. In this use the
three genders present variation.
a. It is so used in the masculine gender when the noun
is concrete.
σὺ εἶ ὁ ἅγιος τοῦ θεοῦ.
Thou are the Holy One of God. Jn. 6:69.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
119
b. The feminine gender is generally in agreement with a
feminine substantive understood.
ἐπορεύθη εἰς τὴν ὀρινήν.
She went into the mountain. Lk. 1:39.
This is, literally rendered, She went into the mountainous, with country,
Xwpav, understood.
c. The neuter singular is ordinarily used as an abstract
noun.
τὸ χρηστὸν τοῦ θεοῦ.
The goodness of God. Rom. 2:4.
Frequently a neuter substantive is implied (Mt. 10:42). Some-
times the adjective in the neuter plural refers to definite classes of
things, and is to that extent concrete, as in Rom. 1:20 (cf. W. 235).
(3) The Adjective Used as an Adverb.
The adverb
bears a very close relation to the adjective, which was
"probably the earliest and simplest adverb" (R-S. 66).
This primitive connection is demonstrated in the use of
the adjective in direct relation to the verbal idea of the
sentence. The case of the adjective in this construction
is usually accusative (of reference), though the other
oblique cases may be used (cf. πоλλ in Rom. 5:9).
τὸ λοιπόν, χαίρετε ἐν κυρίῳ.
Finally, rejoice in the Lord. Phs. 3:1.
See also: Mk. 1:19; Jn. 10:40.
Frequently an adjective is used in its pure adjectival relation when
English idiom would require an adverb (Mk. 4:28; cf. G. 269). Care
should be taken to distinguish these instances from the true adverbial
use of the adjective. The distinction is sometimes obscure between
the predicate adjective and the adverbial adjective. The question is to
be determined by whether the relation of the adjective is more intimate
with the noun or the verb. Thus ὅπου ἦν Ἰωάνης τὸ πρῶτον βαπ-
Tiswv in Jn. 10:40 means, not where John was the first to baptize, but
where John first entered upon the process of baptizing; while in Mk. 4:28
120
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ἡ γῆ καρποφορεῖ πρῶτον χόρτον means the land bears a blade first
and not the first thing the land does is to bear a blade. That is, in the
latter instance πртоν is more closely related to xóρrov than it
is to καρποφορεῖ, while in Jn. 10:40 πρῶτον clearly modifies
Ваπτišшv rather than 'Iwávŋs, and, therefore, functions as an
adverb. In that fact lies the distinction (cf. R. 657). ¡
T
The Comparison of the Adjective
132. The comparison of adjectives in Koiné Greek pre-
sents many distinctive peculiarities. It is imperative that
the English student discard his own idiom in approaching
the study of the Greek usage, if he is really to comprehend
these peculiarities. Several differences from the classical
Greek are to be observed in the New Testament, especially
the infrequency of the superlative, which when it does occur
is usually for emphasis, rarely in its normal function.
(1) The Comparative Degree. This is expressed in the
New Testament in five ways.
a. By the positive adjective with a prepositional phrase.
ἁμαρτωλοὶ παρὰ πάντας τοὺς Γαλιλαίους.
Greater sinners than all the other Galileans. Lk. 13:2.
See also: Rom. 8:18; Heb. 4:12.
b. By the positive adjective followed by .
καλόν σοί ἐστιν ἢ βληθῆναι εἰς τὸ πῦρ.
It is better for thee than to be cast into the fire. Mt. 18:8.
c. By the positive adjective with µãλλov.
καλόν ἐστιν αὐτῷ μᾶλλον εἰ βέβληται εἰς τὴν θάλασσαν.
It were better for him had he been cast into the sea. Mk. 9:42.
d. By the comparative adjective followed by .
μείζων ὁ προφητεύων ἢ ὁ λαλῶν γλώσσαις.
Greater is the one prophesying than the one speaking with tongues.
1 Cor. 14:5.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
121
e. By the comparative adjective followed by the ablative.
τὸ μωρὸν τοῦ θεοῦ σοφώτερον τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἐστίν.
The foolishness of God is wiser than men. 1 Cor. 1:25.
It will be observed that the New Testament presents several devices
for expressing comparison by the use of the positive form of the adjec-
tive with adjuncts. This unquestionably exhibits Hebraistic influence,
being analogous to the use of the positive adjective with P. Occa-
sionally we find a double comparison where μᾶλλον or πολλῷ is used
with the comparative form of the adjective (Mk. 7:36; Lk. 18:39).
Sometimes the comparative is used as a means of emphasis when the
relative object is only implied, sometimes clearly, often very remotely.
(Jn. 13:27).
(2) The Superlative Degree. The superlative idea as
employed in Koiné Greek presents three variations.
a. The comparative form is sometimes used for a super-
lative function.
μείζων δὲ τούτων ἡ ἀγάπη.
But the greatest of these is love. 1 Cor. 13:13.
b. Rarely the regular superlative adjective is used in its
normal function.
ἐγὼ γάρ εἰμι ὁ ἐλάχιστος τῶν ἀποστόλων.
For I am the least of the apostles. 1 Cor. 15:9.
See also: Mk. 5:7; Ac. 17:15.
c. The majority of the superlatives in the New Testa-
ment are used for emphasis, in the sense of very or exceed-
ingly. These are called elative superlatives.
τὰ τίμια καὶ μέγιστα ἡμῖν ἐπαγγέλματα δεδώρηται.
He has given unto us the precious and exceeding great promises.
2 Pt. 1:4.
The use of the comparative for the superlative is one of the distinguish-
ing idioms of the Koiné (cf. R. 667; Bl. 108: M. 78). This tendency
continued until in Modern Greek we have no distinctive superlative
form, the superlative idea being expressed by the use of the article
122
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
with the comparative form: e.g., ò µɩкρóтepos, the smallest (cf. T. 73).
This extension of the comparative to include more than two was prob-
ably influenced by the disuse of the dual. So Moulton says, "Of
course the first step was taken ages ago in the extinction of the dual”
(M. 77). Blass accounts for this change by "the absorption of the
category of duality into that of plurality" (Bl. 33). The use of the
superlative in the Koiné, however, is not fairly represented in the New
Testament, for while the New Testament presents but few occurrences
of the true superlative, "there are scores of them in the papyri” (M.
78).
IV. THE PRONOUN
References: R. 676-753; R-S. 78-85; M. 84-98.
133. The pronoun is a device of language employed to
prevent the monotony which would necessarily result from
the indefinite multiplication of the noun. That is, it is
used "to avoid the repetition of the substantive” (R. 676).
The word is derived from the Latin pro and nomen, mean-
ing "for a noun." The name is appropriate, as it is quite
obviously suggestive of the function. There are nine classes
of pronouns in the New Testament whose grammatical
phenomena require orderly treatment. They are the per-
sonal, relative, demonstrative, intensive, possessive, re-
flexive, reciprocal, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns.
There are three other classes, alternative, distributive, and negative
pronouns, which we do not discuss in this treatment. They hold
no very important grammatical place in the New Testament as
pronouns, their significance being chiefly lexical. The matters of
grammatical interest connected with them may be found fully
discussed in R. 744-753.
Personal Pronoun
134. The personal pronouns are ἐγώ, ἡμεῖς, σύ, ὑμεῖς.
The Attic third-personal pronouns ou and σyes are not
used in the New Testament, the third person being ex-
pressed by the intensive pronoun avrós. We also occasion-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
123
ally find the article used as a third-personal pronoun (cf. Lk.
1:29).
(1) The Personal Pronoun for Emphasis. The pronom-
inal subject of a finite verb is ordinarily not expressed, the
person and number of the subject being indicated by the
verbal ending. When the personal pronoun is used, it is
for emphasis.
τί οὖν βαπτίζεις εἰ σύ οὐκ εἶ ὁ Χριστός;
Why then dost thou baptize, if thou are not the Christ? Jn. 1:25.
See also: Mt. 3:11; Jn. 1:42.
Winer declares that the personal pronoun "nowhere occurs without
emphasis" (W. 153). Robertson, however, thinks that "this is not
quite true of all examples," and cites Gildersleeve in support of
his position (R. 676). Moulton concurs in this opinion (M. 85).
As a matter of fact, there appear varying degrees of emphasis, being
sometimes perfectly obvious, but shading off to where it is very
obscure (cf. Jn. 3:10 and Lk. 19:2). On the whole, Winer is likely
correct, because the simple fact that the personal pronoun is a rep-
etition of the subject expressed in the verb lends at least some
degree of emphasis. The emphasis is generally antithetical (Mt.
5:28), though it may be used merely to give prominence to a thought
(Col. 1:7).
(2) The Objective Uses of the Personal Pronoun. It is
in the oblique cases that we find the abundance of personal
pronouns in the New Testament. As a natural character-
istic of vernacular speech, and probably as influenced to
some extent by Semitic usage, the personal pronouns occur
in the New Testament with marked frequency (cf. R.
682f.). They appear in practically all the various uses
of the oblique cases. Two of the objective uses of the
personal pronoun deserve special attention.
a. It may be used as a possessive. Pronominal posses-
sion is expressed in the New Testament far more often by
124
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
the genitive of the personal pronoun than by the possessive
pronoun.
πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς.
Our Father who art in heaven. Mt. 6:9.
See also: Lk. 21:19; 2 Cor. 4:16.
b. It may be used as a reflexive. There are at least two
clear instances in the New Testament with possibly others
-in which the personal pronoun is used with a reflexive
force.
μὴ θησαυρίζετε ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς.
Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth. Mt. 6:19.
See also Mt. 6:20; Eph. 1:9 (?).
i. Frequently the personal pronoun appears in a context in which
its use makes the impression of unnecessary repetition (cf. Mt. 8:1;
Ac. 7:21; Rev. 3:12). Moulton declares that this "redundancy of
the personal pronoun is just what we should expect in the colloquial
style, to judge from what we have in our own vernacular" (M. 85).
Robertson regards it as "also a Hebrew idiom" (R. 683). It is a
tendency of the vernacular Greek which yields readily to the
influence of a similar Hebrew idiom. Hence both elements are
present in it.
ii. The frequency of personal pronouns in the New Testament is
regarded by Winer as due to Hebraistic influence (W. 143). Blass
also observes that this fact is to be accounted for by "the dependence
of the language on Semitic speech" (Bl. 164). Moulton dissents
from this view upon the evidence of the papyri, and thinks the
cause is to be found in the vernacular character of the New Testa-
ment language rather than Semitic influence (M. 85), but Robertson
thinks that we need not "go as far as Moulton does and deny that
there is any Semitic influence in the New Testament on this point"
(R. 683). The fact is that the vernacular and Hebrew coincided
at many points in the use of the pronouns, and both became factors
to the product in the New Testament.
The Relative Pronoun
135. A relative pronoun is used to connect a substantive
with a clause which in some way qualifies its meaning. For
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
125
example, in the sentence, "The eunuch was converted," we
might qualify the noun "eunuch" by the addition of two
explanatory clauses, thus: "The eunuch, who had been to
Jerusalem to worship, and who was returning in his chariot,
was converted." It will be seen that the connection of
these clauses with the substantive is expressed by the rela-
tive pronoun who. So Robertson declares that the relative
is "the chief bond of connection between clauses" (R. 711).
The principal relative pronouns of the New Testament are
ὅς, ὅστις, οἷος, ὁποῖος and ὅσος (cf. R. 710).
The relative was originally identical with the demonstrative. It
is Whitney's opinion that in Sanskrit the relative yas was originally
a demonstrative, though "from the earliest period of the language,”
as known to grammarians, it "has lost all trace of the demonstrative
meaning" (op. cit., p. 195). The survival of the demonstrative force
has been much more persistent in Greek. As the relative appears in
the earliest literature of the language, its distinction is unsettled.
In Homer ös is used alternately as demonstrative and relative. In
classical Greek the function and form of the relative have become
definite and fixed, though in the best Attic prose it sometimes retains
its demonstrative force. This usage continues into the Koiné, and
is found in the New Testament. The Greek article shares with
the relative its lineage from the demonstrative. They are but
specialized functions of the demonstrative pronoun (cf. R. 695, 711).
(1) Agreement of the Relative Pronoun. The substan-
tive with which the relative pronoun connects the qualifying
clause is called the antecedent. The relative pronoun agrees
with its antecedent in gender and number, but not in case.
Its case is determined by its relation to the clause with
which it occurs.
ἐν αὐτῷ, ὅς ἐστιν ἡ κεφαλή.
In him, who is the head. Col. 2:10.
See also: Mt. 2:9; Rom. 2:6.
The person of the verb in the relative clause is determined by the
antecedent; e.g., ¿yú eiμi ős toũto èπoiŋσa, I am the one who did this.
126
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
The relative may sometimes agree with the predicate of an explanatory
clause in which it is used (Eph. 3:13).
(2) Attraction. The antecedent and the relative quite
naturally react upon one another in the determination of
case. This interchange of case is called attraction. It may
be the relative drawn to the case of the antecedent, or, less
frequently, the antecedent to the case of the relative.
a. When the relative is attracted to the case of the ante-
cedent it is called direct attraction.
ὅς δ᾽ ἄν πίῃ ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος οὗ ἐγὼ δώσω αὐτῷ.
Whosoever shall drink of the water which I shall give him. Jn. 4:14.
See also: Lk. 1:4; Ac. 1:1.
b. When the antecedent is attracted to the case of the
relative it is called indirect attraction.
ὅν ἐγὼ ἀπεκεφάλισα Ἰωάνην οὗτος ἠγέρθη.
This John whom I beheaded is risen. Mk. 6:16.
See also: Ac. 21:16; Rom. 6:17.
Other irregularities occasionally presented in the agreement of
the relative are its assimilation to the gender of a predicate sub-
stantive when the predicate substantive “is viewed as the principal
subject" (W. 166; cf. Mk. 15:16), or to the natural gender of the ante-
cedent (Ac. 15:17), or to the neuter gender under the influence of an
abstract idea implied in the entire statement (Jn. 2:8; cf. R. 712f.).
Frequently the antecedent is incorporated in the relative clause,
both appearing in the same case (Jn. 6:14).
(3) Omission of the Antecedent. When the antecedent
is made clear by the context it may be omitted.
ὅν ἔχεις οὐκ ἔστιν σου ἀνήρ.
(He) whom thou hast is not thy husband. Jn. 4:18.
See also: Lk. 9:36; Heb. 5:8.
Sometimes an antecedent is introduced which from the viewpoint
of the English idiom seems superfluous (Mk. 1:7). It is, however,
perfectly good Greek, as may be seen from the history of the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
127
matter presented by R. 722. While "in ancient Greek it was a very
rare usage" (ibid.), yet it was used there, and all the way down
through all the periods of the Greek language, and has "in modern
Greek become very common" (R. 723). So this pleonastic antece-
dent is perfectly normal Greek, though awkward to English eyes
(cf. further Rev. 7:2).
(4) The Indefinite Relative. In classical Greek ös is used
as the definite relative, and oσris as indefinite, but this
distinction has almost disappeared in the Koiné. However,
it is the distinctive use of oσTIs which is fading out, for os
is still used in accord with Attic practice.
ὅστις δ᾽ ἂν ἀρνήσηταί με.
Whosoever shall deny me. Mt. 10:33.
See also: Jn. 14:13; Col. 3:5.
It should be observed that ös used with av has the indefinite force
and may be rendered "whoever" (cf. Mt. 5:22). The indefinite pro-
noun Tis may be used with äv in the sense of "anything whatever”
(cf. Jn. 16:23). It is usually clear from the context whether a relative
construction is to be regarded as definite or indefinite (cf. Bl. 172; R.
712, 727).
The Demonstrative Pronoun
136. Sometimes it is desired to call attention with special
emphasis to a designated object, whether in the physical
vicinity of the speaker or the literary context of the writer.
For this purpose the demonstrative construction is used. It
may take any one of several forms.
(1) Ordinarily the regular demonstrative pronouns are
used.
a. For that which is relatively near in actuality or
thought the immediate demonstrative is used.
οὗτος γὰρ ὁ Μελχισεδὲκ μένει ἱερεύς.
For this Melchizedek remains a priest. Heb. 7:1.
See also: Mt. 3:3; Rom. 9:9.
128
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
b. For that which is relatively distant in actuality or
thought the remote demonstrative is used.
ἐσώθη ἡ γυνὴ ἀπὸ τῆς ὥρας ἐκείνης.
The woman was saved from that hour. Mt. 9:22.
See also: Jn. 10:1; Ac. 2:16.
(2) The article sometimes retains its original demonstra-
tive force, being used with uév or dé.
οἱ μὲν οὖν συνελθόντες ἠρώτων αὐτόν.
These, therefore, having come, asked him. Ac. 1:6.
See also: Ac. 8:4; Mt. 26:67.
Sometimes ò μév and ỏ dé are set over against each other in contrast
(cf. 1 Cor. 7:7; Ac. 14:4).
(3) Occasionally the relative is restored to its demonstra-
tive force, employing like the article the particles μév and dé.
ὃς μὲν πεινᾷ, ὃς δὲ μεθύει.
One is hungry, and another is drunken. 1 Cor. 11:21.
See also: Mk. 15:23; 2 Tim. 2:20.
(4) Ten times the New Testament uses the pronouns
öde, ñde, tóde.
σήμερον ἤ αὔριον πορευσόμεθα εἰς τήνδε τὴν πόλιν.
Today or tomorrow we will go into this city. Jas. 4:13.
See also: Lk. 10:39; Rev. 2:1.
The use of these pronouns is characteristic of Revelation, where we
find seven of the ten occurrences. The infrequency of them in the New
Testament is typical of the Koiné in general, for they occur but rarely
in the papyri. There are but faint traces of them left in Modern
Greek. The force of öde in Attic Greek as a sort of subsequent demon-
strative (referring to something which follows), Robertson says
"amounts to little in the New Testament, since öde is so rare” (R. 702).
(5) The intensive pronoun is sometimes used with demon-
strative force in Luke's writings.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
129
διδάξει ὑμᾶς ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ.
He will teach you in that hour. Lk. 12:12.
See also: Lk. 10:7, 20:19.
The distinction between the demonstratives which we have denomi-
nated “immediate" and "remote" is not always evident in the New
Testament, though ordinarily it may be discerned. Ovτos may some-
times refer "not to the noun locally nearest, but the one more remote,"
but it will generally be found upon close scrutiny that the antecedent of
οὗτος
OUTOS "was mentally the nearest, the most present to the writer's
thought" (W. 157). Thus it does not necessarily denote that which is
physically adjacent, but that which is immediately present to the think-
ing of the writer. So ekЄīvos need not denote that which is physically
distant, but may be only that which is mentally remote. Hence we have
termed them immediate and remote demonstratives.
The Intensive Pronoun
137. The intensive pronoun is aúrós. It is the most fre-
quently used of all the pronouns in the New Testament,
and is the most varied in use, being employed as personal,
possessive, and demonstrative, as well as intensive pronoun.
It is its distinctive use as intensive pronoun which we con-
sider here.
138. The function of the intensive pronoun is to empha-
size identity. It is the demonstrative force intensified.
There are two uses of the intensive pronoun, distinguished
by the attributive and predicate position.
(1) The Attributive Use. When autós is used in the
attributive position it means the same.
ἔχοντες δὲ τὸ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα τῆς πίστεως.
Having the same spirit of faith. 2 Cor. 4:13.
See also: Mt. 26:44; Rom. 2:1.
(2) The Predicate Use. When aúrós is used in the
predicate position it means self.
130
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
αὐτὸ τὸ πνεῦμα συνμαρτυρεῖ τῷ πνεύματι ἡμῶν.
The Spirit Himself beareth witness with our spirit. Rom. 8:16.
See also: Rom. 8:26; 1 Ths. 4:9.
The use of autós as a demonstrative calls for special attention. That
Luke uses it in this sense is certain, and it is possibly to be so construed
in other authors (cf. Mt. 3:4). Thus in Lk. 13:1 we are forced by the
context to translate ev auT@ T❤ kaip? “in that very season" rather
than “in the season itself." The use is probably to secure an emphatic
demonstrative (that very) without the employment of two pronouns.
It may be readily seen that év ékeivų tų avtų kaip would make a
bunglesome construction (cf. R. 686). This demonstrative use of avTÓS
is characteristic of the Koiné in general. "There is an apparent weaken-
ing of avròs ò in Hellenistic, which tends to blunt the distinction be-
tween this and éket̃vos ò” (M. 91). Abundant evidence of this change
appears in the papyri (cf. Moulton and Milligan: op. cit., p. 94). AUTÓS
is used as a regular demonstrative in Modern Greek, right alongside
of τοῦτος (οὗτος) and ἐκεῖνος, appearing as such in its normal form,
and also in the altered form avтóvos (T. 90).
The Possessive Pronoun
139. The possessive pronouns are ἐμός, σός, ἡμέτερος
and ὑμέτερος. The Koiné Greek offers no possessive
pronoun for the third person, but uses the genitive of aúrós
instead. The article and totos are also used to denote pos-
session. So we find pronominal possession expressed in the
New Testament in four ways.
(1) By the Possessive Pronouns.
ἡ κρίσις ἡ ἐμὴ δικαία ἐστίν.
My judgment is righteous. Jn. 5:30.
See also: Rom. 10:1; Phs. 3:9.
(2) By the Genitive of the Personal Pronoun. This is
decidedly the most prevalent mode employed in Koiné
Greek.
τὸ πάσχα ἡμῶν ἐτύθη Χριστός.
Christ as our passover was sacrificed. 1 Cor. 5:8.
See also: Mt. 7:3; Rom. 1:4.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
131
(3) By the Article. The article is used when the one to
whom possession is referred is made clear by the context.
καὶ ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα ἥψατο αὐτοῦ.
And putting forth his hand he touched him. Mt. 8:3.
See also: Heb. 7:24; 1 Pt. 4:8.
(4) By idios. Where the idea of possession is emphatic
lolos is used.
ἦλθεν εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν πόλιν.
He went into his own city. Mt. 9:1.
See also: Lk. 6:41; Jn. 4:44.
The Reflexive Pronoun
140. When the action expressed by the verb is referred
back to its own subject, the construction is called reflexive.
There are two usual ways of expressing this reflexive idea
in the New Testament.
(1) By the regular reflexive pronouns ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ
ἑαυτοῦ, and ἑαυτῶν. In the New Testament ἑαυτῶν is used
for all three persons in the plural.
μηδὲν πράξῃς σεαυτῷ κακόν.
Do thyself no harm. Ac. 16:28.
See also: Lk. 12:1; 2 Cor. 3:1.
(2) By an oblique case of the personal pronoun, as dis-
cussed above, § 134 (2), b (cf. Mt. 6:19).
The Reciprocal Pronoun
141. When a plural subject is represented as affected by
an interchange of the action signified in the verb, it is
called a reciprocal construction; e.g., ovтo oi ävlрwποι
οὗτοι ἄνθρωποι
ȧdɩкovσι ȧλλýλovs, these men are injuring one another.
The New Testament uses three methods for the expression
of this idiom.
132
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(1) The Regular Reciprocal Pronoun.
ἀγαπητοί, ἀγαπῶμεν ἀλλήλους.
Beloved, let us love one another. 1 Jn. 4:7.
See also: Rom. 12:5; 1 Cor. 16:20.
(2) The Reflexive Pronoun.
κρίματα ἔχετε μεθ' ἑαυτῶν.
Ye have lawsuits with one another. 1 Cor. 6:7.
See also: Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16.
(3) The Middle Voice.
καὶ συνεβουλεύσαντο.
And they took counsel with one another. Mt. 26:4.
See also: Lk. 14:7; Jn. 9:22.
The Interrogative Pronoun
142. The interrogative pronoun is ris. It is used to intro-
duce both dependent and independent questions. As em-
ployed in the New Testament it presents five fairly distinct
uses.
(1) The Interrogative Use. It is the regular pronoun for
introducing questions.
οὐκ οἴδατε τί αἰτεῖσθε.
Ye know not what ye ask. Mt. 20:22.
See also: Mt. 3:7; Lk. 12:14.
(2) The Adverbial Use. When ris is used in the ad-
verbial sense it means why.
τί δὲ βλέπεις τὸ κάρφος;
Why seest thou the mote? Mt. 7:3.
See also: Mt. 6:28; Ac. 5:4.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
133
(3) The Exclamatory Use. The adverbial use of ris
sometimes has the force of exclamation rather than inter-
rogation.
καὶ τί θέλω εἰ ἤδη ἀνήφθη.
And how I wish it were already kindled! Lk. 12:49.
See also: Lk. 22:45.
(4) The Relative Use. Tis sometimes adds to its inter-
rogative function a distinct relative force, the construction.
presenting a shading off of the indirect question toward the
relative clause.
ἀλλ' οὐ τί ἐγὼ θέλω ἀλλὰ τί σύ.
Nevertheless, not what I will, but what thou wilt. Mk. 14:36.
See also: Mt. 10:19; Lk. 17:8.
This construction presents a vernacular tendency of the Koiné
Greek toward "a confusion much further developed in our own
language" (M. 94). The confusion arises from a common ground
lying between the relative clause and the indirect question. Thus,
"I know what you are doing," presents the blending of a relative
sense ("that which you are doing") and an interrogative sense
(“What are you doing?”).
(5) The Alternative Use. Instead of the classical TÓTEρos
which of two, the Koiné Greek uses rís to introduce alter-
native questions.
τί γάρ ἐστιν εὐκοπώτερον;
For which (of the two) is easier? Mt. 9:5.
See also: 1 Cor. 4:21; Phs. 1:22.
-
Moulton regards the disappearance of Tóτeρos from the Koiné as
resulting directly from the decadence of the dual. He finds but a single
occurrence in the papyri. He says, "I have twelve papyrus collec-
tions by me, with one occurrence of TоTEρos in the indices, and that is
nearly illegible and (to me, at least) quite unintelligible" (M. 77).
→
134
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
The Indefinite Pronoun
143. Frequently the occasion arises for the expression of
a substantive idea in a general sense, as representative of a
category. For example, we might wish to mention an act
performed by one who was a disciple of Jesus, without
caring to specify his exact identity. The mode of expres-
sion employed for this purpose would be the indefinite
pronoun (Tis, rì), thus μalnτns Tis, a certain disciple.
Thus the indefinite pronoun provides a means of general
reference. It presents five forms of construction.
(1) The Pronominal Use. Tis may be used independ-
ently when it functions as a pronoun.
μή τινος ὑστερήσατε;
Did ye lack anything? Lk. 22:35.
See also: Ac. 3:5; Phs. 3:15.
(2) The Adjective Use. When associated with a noun,
Tìs functions as an adjective.
ἐγένετο ἱερεύς τις.
There was a certain priest. Lk. 1:5.
See also: Ac. 15:36; Jas. 1:18.
(3) The Emphatic Use. Tis is sometimes used as a reflec-
tion of a sense of distinction or importance (cf. Bt. 114).
λέγων εἶναί τινα ἑαυτόν.
Saying that he was somebody. Ac. 5:36.
See also: 1 Cor. 3:7; Gal. 2:6.
(4) The Numerical Use. Tis may be employed with a
number to convey the idea of approximation.
προσκαλεσάμενος δύο τινὰς τῶν μαθητῶν.
Having called some two of his disciples. Lk. 7:18.
See also: Ac. 15:36.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
135
We sometimes find tives
ÉTEρоs, employed in alternative ex-
(5) The Alternative Use.
τινες, or τίς
pressions.
•
•
ἐλέγοντο ὑπὸ τινῶν ὅτι Ἰωάνης ἠγέρθη ἐκ νεκρῶν, ὑπὸ τινῶν
δὲ ὅτι Ηλείας ἐφάνη.
It was being said by some that John had risen from the dead, but
by others that Elijah had appeared. Lk, 9:7.
See also: Phs. 1:15; 1 Cor. 3:4.
•
i. Regularly pronouns take their grammatical form from a sub-
stantive antecedent expressed or understood. Sometimes, instead
of direct agreement with the grammatical form of an expressed
antecedent, we have logical agreement, in some instances with actual
or assumed sex rather than grammatical gender (Mt. 28:19), in
others with the plural sense of a collective noun rather than its
grammatical number (Eph. 5:12).
ii. The use of the pronoun is becoming more extended in the
Koiné period, and continues to increase down to the modern period.
In the main the pronouns in the New Testament are nearer to Attic
usage than the adjectives. There are many instances "where the
pronouns are used carefully according to classical precedent” (M. 79).
Winer observes that in the use of the pronoun, the New Testament
differs from Attic Greek at two main points: "First, it multiplies
the personal and demonstrative pronouns for the sake of greater
perspicuity.
Secondly, it neglects .
many forms which
ranked rather among luxuries of the language" (W. 140).
•
V. THE ARTICLE
References: R. 754-796; R-S. 68-77; M. 81–84.
144. Nothing is more indigenous to the Greek language
than its use of the article. Moulton finds that in the New
Testament "its use is in agreement with Attic," a feature
in which the New Testament is more literary than the
papyri (M. 80f.). We are, therefore, upon a broad his-
torical basis when we are studying this important element
136
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
of the Greek language. It is also true that we are entering
one of the most fascinating fields of linguistic research,
for, without doubt, "the development of the Greek article
is one of the most interesting things in human speech" (R.
754). Scholars have not accorded it sufficient attention,
nor sought with proper diligence to apprehend the real
genius underlying its various uses. We do not claim that
the discussion here offered is conclusive, but hope that it
may prove suggestive of the directions in which an adequate
comprehension of the article lies. An exhaustive treatment
of the question would require more space than is covered
by this entire volume. One who wishes to pursue the study
further could not do better than consult the discussions by
Gildersleeve (Syntax, pp. 215-332) and Robertson (R. 754–
796).
The Origin of the Article
145. The article was originally derived from the demon-
strative pronoun ỏ, ǹ, tó, and is clearly akin to the relative
pronoun ös, , ö. It always retained some of the demon-
strative force. This fact is evidenced by its frequent use
in the papyri purely as a demonstrative pronoun (e.g.,
P. Elph. 1:15). Robertson says, "Hence ò is originally a
demonstrative that was gradually weakened to the article
or heightened to the relative" (R-S. 68).
τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν.
For, indeed, of him are we the offering. Ac. 17:28.
See also: Rm. 8:24; Gal. 4:25.
Like the pronoun, the article ordinarily agrees with its noun
in gender, number, and case, though it sometimes agrees with an
implied gender (cf. Rev. 3:14; ò åµýv, where ò is governed by the
reference to Jesus. The Greek had no indefinite article, though
Tìs and els sometimes approximated this idiom (cf. Lk. 10:25; Mt.
8:19).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
137
The Function of the Article
146. The function of the article is to point out an object
or to draw attention to it. Its use with a word makes the
word stand out distinctly. "Whenever the article occurs.
the object is certainly definite. When it is not used the
object may or may not be" (R. 756). The use of prepo-
sitions, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, and the
genitive case also tends to make a word definite. At such
times, even if the article is not used, the object is already
distinctly indicated.
i. The basal function of the Greek article is to point out individ-
ual identity. It does more than mark "the object as one definitely
conceived" (W. 105), for a substantive in Greek is definite without
the article. In this respect the Greek substantive shares character
with the Latin. "The function of the article, which was originally
a demonstrative, and always has more or less demonstrative force,
is to fix a floating adjective or substantive" (Gildersleeve; op. cit.,
§ 514). Gildersleeve goes on to show that the Greek noun has an
intrinsic definiteness, an "implicit article." Therefore, the explicit
article does more than merely ascribe definiteness. Green is touch-
ing its genius when he says that it is used "to mark a specific object
of thought" (G. 170). It should be kept in mind that the Greek
article retained much of its original demonstrative significance.
"The vital thing is to see the matter from the Greek point of view
and find the reason for the use of the article" (R. 756).
'ii. A suggestion of the essential function of the article is to be seen
in the fact that it is used regularly with the pronouns oυtos and ékeīvos,
"inasmuch as they distinguish some individual from the mass" (W.
110). The stress on individual identity is here perfectly evident. It
may be further observed that in Homer "the article marks contrast
and not mere definiteness” (R. 755).
iii. The genius of the article is nowhere more clearly revealed than
in its use with infinitives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or even whole sen-
tences (cf. Gal. 5:14). We have an advantage here in the fact that
we are not bothered with having to divest ourselves of any confusing
associations arising from our English idiom. There
There is no English usage
even remotely akin to this, for in English we never use an article with
anything other than a substantive, and then to mark definiteness:
138
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
When we begin to find the article used with phrases, clauses, and entire
sentences, we are, so to speak, "swamped in Greek." The use of the
article with the phrase, clause, or sentence specifies in a particular way
the fact expressed: marks it out as a single identity. So in Mt. 13:4,
καὶ ἐν τῷ σπείρειν αὐτόν, and as he sowed, points to the fact of that
particular sowing, while in Mt. 12:10, τοῖς σάββασιν θεραπεύειν,
to heal on the Sabbath, emphasizes the character of the deed (a Sabbath
healing). Note that the former infinitive has the article, while the
latter has not. The articular infinitive singles out the act as a particu-
lar occurrence, while the anarthrous infinitive employs the act as
descriptive.
iv. In Mt. 2:3 we have ò ẞaoiλeus 'Hpwdns because the emphasis is
upon the fact of Herod's being king (Herod and no other), while in Lk.
1:5 ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ‘Ηρῴδου βασιλέως, in the days of king Herod, de-
fines a certain period of time (Herod-days), and βασιλεῦ ᾿Αγρίππα
in Ac. 25:26 defines the rank of Agrippa (Agrippa, a king). In the first
example the purpose is identification, in the other two it is definition.
When identity is prominent, we find the article; and when quality or
character is stressed, the construction is anarthrous. Note that in all
three of the cases just given the noun is definite. In Ac. 7:30 Toũ őρovs
Ziva means the wilderness of Mt. Sinai as distinguished from any other
wilderness, while in Gal. 4:24 öpovs Zɩvá means the Mt. Sinai sort of
covenant. In Rev. 14:1 Tò öpos Ziwv points out the distinct position
of the Lamb, while in Heb. 12:22 Ziv öpet argues that the Christian
is not, like the Israelite of old, approaching a destiny like unto Mt.
Sinai, but is approaching a Mt. Zion destiny. We may read the passage,
"But ye have not come to a Mt. Sinai, but to a Mt. Zion" (cf. R. 760).
In Rom. 9:28 TOιýσEɩ KúpιOS Éπì τñs Yñs, the Lord will work upon the
earth, identifies the field of divine operation, while Heb. 6:7 yn yápň
Toloũσa Tòv vetóv, the earth which drinketh in the rain, characterizes
the ground which is made fruitful by the refreshing showers. Observe
that in both cases the noun is equally definite, and normally takes the
article in English (cf. ASV). In Mt. 14:3 Tv Yuvaīka Þiλiππоν
τὴν γυναῖκα Φιλίππου
particularizes Herodias as the wife of Philip, while évòs åvôpòs yuvʼn
in 1 Tim. 5:9 means a one-husband sort of wife. Ordinarily English
renders the first the wife of Philip, and the second the wife of one hus-
band, treating the noun as definite in both instances. The difference is
particular specification in the first example and a required qualification
in the second. Examples might be multiplied ad infinitum.
v. In determining the function of the Greek article, an exceedingly
important consideration is its demonstrative origin. The danger is
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
139
that we will approach the matter from the wrong side; that we will
view it from the standpoint of the force of our modern English article
rather than consider it in the light of its own origin and history. We
must take our stand at Homer and look down toward the New Testa-
ment, and must not, from our present English idiom, look back toward
the New Testament. "In Homer ỏ, ǹ, Tó is the commonest of the
demonstrative pronouns" (Milden: The Predicative Position in Greek,
p. 7), and constantly oscillates between pronoun and article. Thus in
Iliad 1:11, 12,
...τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίμησ᾽ ἀρητῆρα
᾿Ατρείδης ὁ γὰρ ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν.
Atreides dishonored the priest Chryses, for he came to the swift ships of the
Achaeans, Tóv is used in the first clause as an article and ò in the second
as a personal pronoun. In Iliad 1:125,
ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν
πολίων ἐξεπράθομεν, τὰ δέδασται,
but the spoil which we took from the cities, that has been divided, tá in
the first clause is used as a relative pronoun and in the second clause as a
demonstrative pronoun. "In the Iliad ỏ, ǹ, tó occurs as a pronoun
3000 times and as an article 218 times, or in a ratio of 14 to 1; in the
Odyssey it is used as a pronoun 2178 times and as an article 171 times,
or in a ratio of 13 to 1" (Milden: op. cit., p. 8). The prevalence of the
pronominal use ỏ, ǹ, Tó persists in the inscriptions, especially as a de-
monstrative. The relative use occurs frequently in the Lesbian, Thes-
salian, Arcado-Cyprian, and the older Boeotian inscriptions (cf. Buck:
Greek Dialects, pp. 92f.). Frequency as an article increases during
the classical period and, at the zenith of the Attic dominance, ô, ǹ, TÓ
is typically article and exceptionally pronoun. At this point the New
Testament is more classical than the papyri, which incline more to-
ward the Homeric use (M. 81). Occasionally we find in the papyri,
the old Homeric forms roi, raí (cf. P. El. 1:15), which is a result of
Western Greek influence (cf. Buck: op. cit., p. 92). Thus we see that
the article in the New Testament carries with it a pronounced heri-
tage from its demonstrative origin, and one would make a serious
blunder to ignore this fact.
vi. The use of the articular and anarthrous constructions of eós is
highly instructive. A study of the uses of the term as given in Moulton
and Geden's Concordance convinces one that without the article cós
signifies divine essence, while with the article divine personality is
140
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
chiefly in view. There is keen discernment in Webster's statement,
published as far back as 1864:
Ocós occurs without the article (1) where the Deity is contrasted
with what is human, or with the universe as distinct from its Crea-
tor, or with the nature and acts of evil spirits, (2) when the essen-
tial attributes of Deity are spoken of, (3) when operations proceed-
ing from God are appropriated to one of the three Divine Persons,
(4) when the Deity is spoken of as heathens would speak, or a Jew
who denied the existence of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. But
the article seems to be used (1) when the Deity is spoken of in the
Christian point of view, (2) when the First Person of the blessed
Trinity is specially designated, unless its insertion is unnecessary
by the addition of waτýр, or some distinctive epithet (op. cit.,
p. 29).
This analysis is doubtless more exact and detailed than the facts will
support, but it certainly shows admirable discrimination. Surely when
Robertson says that Oeós, as to the article, "is treated like a proper
name and may have it or not have it" (R. 761), he does not mean to
intimate that the presence or absence of the article with Ocós has no
special significance. We construe him to mean that there is no definite
rule governing the use of the article with Ocós, so that sometimes the
writer's viewpoint is difficult to detect, which is entirely true. But in
the great majority of instances the reason for the distinction is clear.
The use of eos in Jn. 1:1 is a good example. IIpòs тòv leóv points to
Christ's fellowship with the person of the Father; eòs ñv ô λóyos em-
phasizes Christ's participation in the essence of the divine nature.
The former clearly applies to personality, while the latter applies to
character. This distinction is in line with the general force of the arti-
ele. It may be seen even in the papyri, as ὁ φῶς ἐκ φωτός, θεὸς
åλnivós, O Light of light, true God, where the emphasis is clearly on
God's character rather than His personality (Milligan: op. cit., p. 134).
vii. The articular construction emphasizes identity; the anarthrous
construction emphasizes character. If the student will turn to Rom.
8:1ff. and apply this principle, he will find how illuminating it becomes
in actual interpretation. It is certain that one engaged in exegesis
cannot afford to disregard the article. The New Testament justifies
the observation of Buttmann that "the use of the article has everywhere
its positive reason” (Bt. 88).
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
141
The Regular Uses of the Article
147. In harmony with its basal significance there are
certain constructions in which the article is normally used.
We employ the term "regular" here in the sense of ordinary,
and not as implying use in keeping with any fixed rules.
There are no "rules" for the use of the article in Greek, but
there is a fundamental principle underlying its significance
as we have seen in the foregoing section-and this gives
rise to a normal usage. Deviation from this normal usage
may occur at the will of the writer.
(1) To Denote Individuals. Nearest to the real genius.
of its function is the use of the article to point out a par-
ticular object.
ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν.
The kingdom of Heaven. Mt. 3:3.
(2) To Denote Previous Reference. The article may be
used to point out an object the identity of which is defined
by some previous reference made to it in the context.
πόθεν οὖν ἔχεις τὸ ὕδωρ τὸ ζῶν;
Whence hast thou the living water? Jn. 4:11.
That is, "the living water" to which Christ had just made reference.
See also: Mt. 2:1, 7; Rev. 15:1, 6.
(3) With Abstract Nouns. Abstract nouns are ordi-
narily general in their character and application, and there-
fore indefinite. But in Greek, when it is desired to apply
the sense of an abstract noun in some special and distinct
way the article accompanies it. Thus åλýleia, truth, means
anything in general which presents a character of reality
and genuineness, but aλnoeia as used in the New Testa-
ment means that which may be relied upon as really in
accord with God's revelation in Christ. The general sense
of the abstract noun is restricted, and given a particular
142
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
I
•
application: the particular truth which is revealed in
Christ.
τῇ γὰρ χάριτί ἐστε σεσωσμένοι.
For by grace are ye saved. Eph. 2:8.
That is, grace in its particular application in securing man's sal-
vation. It is not grace as an abstract attitude, nor yet the gracious
attitude of God in general; but "the grace" of God which operated
through the atonement in providing human redemption. Grace is
a quality which may characterize various objects; but here it is
particularized as an attribute of God, exercised in a particular realm.
See also: 1 Cor. 13:4; 15:21.
(4) With Proper Names. Frequently the article is used
with the name of some person whose identity is made clear
by the context, or assumed as well known by the reader.
Thus in the New Testament, which was written for those
already acquainted with the historical facts of the Christian
religion, when we find ò 'Inσous, we know immediately that
it is the particular Jesus who was the Messiah and Savior. In
Col. 4:11, when Paul refers to a member of the Colossian
congregation who bears the name of Jesus, he significantly
omits the article with 'Inoous and adds the explanatory
phrase ὁ λεγόμενος Ἰοῦστος. The entire phrase means,
"a man named Jesus, but who is distinguished by being
called Justus." It is a general custom with New Testament
writers to leave off the article when an explanatory phrase
is added to the name; as, Σαῦλος δέ, ὁ καὶ Παῦλος (Ac.
13:9); Σίμων ὁ λεγόμενος Πέτρος (Mt. 10:2). In such a
construction the emphasis is upon the name as a designation
rather than the identity of the individual indicated by the
name.
ὁρκίζω ὑμᾶς τὸν Ἰησοῦν ὃν Παῦλος κηρύσσει.
I adjure you by Jesus whom Paul preaches. Ac. 19:13.
i. That is, "by the particular Jesus whom one by the name of Paul
preaches." The thought of definite identity belongs to 'Inuous, but
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
143
not to Пavλos. This is to put special stress upon the designation of
Jesus. See also: Ac. 15:19; 19:1.
ii. Gildersleeve says that proper names, "being in their nature par-
ticular do not require the explicit article, and when the article is used
with them, it retains much of its original demonstrative force" (op.
cit., 215). It is the particularizing force of the article which is em-
ployed in this idiom. 'Iwávns as a proper name may denote any
number of individuals, but ò 'Iwávŋs is a particular individual bearing
this name. Hence, when ò 'Iwávŋs is used, it means a particular John
assumed as known by the reader. This distinction seems in general to
lie at the basis of the idiom, though it is not invariably observed in
actual use.
In fact, it is difficult to find a principle which will apply
with uniformity to this use of the article. Winer is undoubtedly cor-
rect in his opinion that "the use of the article with names of persons..
can hardly be reduced to rule" (W. 112). Moulton concurs by saying
that "scholarship has not yet solved completely the problem of the
article with proper names" (M. 83). Thus far we are compelled to
yield to Robertson's conclusion that "no satisfactory principle can be
laid down for the use or non-use of the article with proper names"
(R. 761). This is not to assume that the writer had no reason for
using the article with a proper name, or not using it, but that frequently
we are unable to discover his reason. It is precarious to suppose in any
instance that a writer is employing an idiom at random, though in rare
cases this is possibly true.
iii. It is instructive in dealing with this problem to observe the use of
the article with 'Inoous. The word occurs nine hundred and nine
times in the New Testament (according to Moulton and Geden: op. cit.).
It is used three hundred and fifty-nine times without the article (WH).
In one hundred and seventy-five of these instances the emphasis is on
the Messianic significance of the name, which means "a deliverer";
forty-one times the emphasis is upon the name as a designation rather
than upon the identification of the person-approximating the force
of our expression "a man named"; ten times it is used in the vocative
without the article. In several instances these anarthrous uses are in
salutations, where the absence of the article is doubtless due to the
general custom in the New Testament and the papyri of not using
the article in salutations. But there are one hundred and thirty-three
times that 'Inσous occurs without the article, for which we can find no
evident reason. Though this is but fifteen per cent of the occurrences
of the word and thirty-four per cent of the anarthrous constructions,
yet it is sufficient to prove that we are as yet unable to lay down any
144
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
""
rigid principle according to which we can explain the use of the article
with proper names. The anarthrous constructions of 'Inσous prevail
in John, Hebrews, and Revelation. In John they are mostly in the
phrases "Jesus said" or "Jesus answered.' Most of the anarthrous
constructions in Luke are in the expression "Jesus said." This is
probably in line with the custom of not using the article in stereotyped
or technicalized expressions.
(5) The Generic Use. This is the use of the article with
a noun which is to be regarded as representing a class or
group. Gildersleeve says, "The principle of the generic
article is the selection of a representative or normal indi-
vidual" (op. cit., 255). It comprehends a class as a single
whole and sets it off in distinction from all other classes. It
individualizes a group rather than a single object, and points
out that group as identified by certain characteristics.
αἱ ἀλώπεκες φωλεοὺς ἔχουσιν.
Foxes have dens. Mt. 8:20.
The thought of the entire passage here is that a thing even as
lowly and insignificant as the fox has shelter of a kind, but the
Son of man is humbled even beneath that lowly estate. The mean-
ing is, "The foxes, mere little beasts though they are, have dens."
Thus the noun is used to represent a class rather than a group
of individuals. See also: Lk. 10:7; 1 Tim. 3:2.
(6) With Pronouns. Since a pronoun ordinarily conveys
the force of identification, it is quite naturally associated
with the article. Thus the article regularly occurs when
the pronouns ovтos and ẻkeĭvos are used with a noun (Lk.
14:30). It is used with possessive pronouns except when
they are predicate (Mt. 7:22; Jn. 17:10). It is ordinarily
used with the genitive of the personal pronoun (Mt. 26:25;
cf. Mt. 27:46). Its use with autós has been discussed
sufficiently under pronouns. The use of the article with
Tãs presents important variations. In the singular, anar-
throus πãs means every (Rom. 3:19). 'O πãs means the
whole (Gal. 5:14) and πas o means all with a substantive
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
145
(Ac. 10:2), though it is ordinarily to be rendered every with
a participle (Mt. 5:28). The plural távτes is rare without the
article, though it is found occasionally meaning all (Eph.
3:8). Οἱ πάντες likewise means all, as does πάντες οἱ, but in
the former the collective idea is stronger (Mt. 1:17). These
are the ordinary changes in the meaning of ãs as affected
by the article, though variations from the common practice
are often indicated by the context (cf. R. 771ff.).
(7) With Other Parts of Speech. In keeping with the
genius of the article, whenever a sense of individuality is
sought in any form of expression, the article is used. In such
a construction, the article functions as a sort of bracket, to
gather the expression into a single whole and point it out in
a particular way. Thus in Lk 5:10, ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν signifies
more than would be expressed by from the present. It means
from the present as distinguished within itself-as defined by
a new set of circumstances: the entrance of Jesus into the ex-
perience of those addressed. It is not just from now, but
from the now defined and particularized by a new relation
to Jesus. In Lk. 19:48 καὶ οὐχ ηὕρισκον τὸ τί ποιήσωσιν,
they could not find what they might do, means, freely rendered,
they could not find the effective course which they might take.
(The chief priests and scribes were seeking to destroy Jesus,
and found it difficult because of his popularity.) It is not
that they could not find anything to do, but they could not
find the particular thing which would accomplish their
purpose. This principle may apply to adjectives, adverbs,
participles, infinitives, prepositional phrases, clauses, and
even entire sentences.
ע
τὸ εἰ δύνῃ, πάντα δυνατὰ τῷ πιστεύοντι.
“If thou canst!” All things are possible to him who believes. Mk. 9:23
i. Freely rendered rò ei dúvŋ means beware of the lack of faith implied
in that remark, “If thou canst." See also Mt. 5:3, 4; Ac. 15:11; Rom.
13:10; Gal. 5:14; Heb. 13:24.
146
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ii. Gildersleeve undoubtedly misses the point here when he speaks of
the article as "substantivizing these various parts of speech; that is,
altering their nature in the direction of the noun (op. cit., 262f).
He is here influenced by the almost inseparable association of the
article with the noun in English idiom. But such is not true of the
Greek article. It is of a nature which enables it to lend itself naturally
to the essential force of these various parts of speech. In Mk. 1:24,
ỏ ayios is not a substantive construction by reason of the article: the
nature of the adjective itself makes it such (cf. § 131,(2), a). We have
already seen the reason for the article in TOũ vũv (Lk. 5:10); it does
not change the adverb into a noun, but defines more particularly its
reference. Since participles and infinitives are of their own nature
verbal nouns, the article in no way affects their substantive character.
In such phrases as oi μeт' avтou, those with him, the article, instead of
modifying the prepositional phrase in the direction of a substantive, is
itself returning to its original demonstrative force.
In Lk. 11:3,
δίδου ἡμῖν τὸ καθ' ἡμέραν is more difficult for English eyes to per-
ceive. In this case Tó is an adverbial accusative of reference. Give us our
Éπɩovσɩov bread with reference to that which comes in the regular order
of the day; i.e., our need of physical sustenance. So it is again the demon-
strative force of the article blending with the unaltered significance of
the prepositional phrase. In clauses and sentences it is the particu-
larizing function of the article which is employed. In Rom. 8:26 we
have a clear example: τὸ γὰρ τί προσευξώμεθα καθὸ δεῖ οὐκ οἴδαμεν,
we know not what we should pray for as we ought. Paul's point here is:
"that problem of praying as we ought we do not know about." The
article converges the clause into a single point and presents the problem
as a particular issue, more rigidly defined than any device of English can
render it. This is what we might call "the bracket force" of the article.
The fact that we find difficulty in translating these constructions with-
out using substantival expressions in English is due to the character of
the English idiom and not of the Greek. It is vitally important in
exegesis.to see the matter from the Greek point of view. Compare
further Rom. 1.26; 4:16.
The Special Uses of the Article
148. Some phenomena presented by the article are but
remotely related to its basal function, and consequently
may be treated as special uses.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
147
(1) With Nouns Connected by Kai. The following rule
by Granville Sharp of a century back still proves to be
true: "When the copulative kaí connects two nouns of the
same case, if the article ò or any of its cases precedes the
first of the said nouns or participles, and is not repeated
before the second noun or participle, the latter always
relates to the same person that is expressed or described by
the first noun or participle; i.e., it denotes a farther de-
scription of the first-named person.
""
τοῦ κυρίου καὶ σωτῆρος Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ.
Of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. 2 Pt. 2:20.
The article here indicates that Jesus is both Lord and Savior. So in
2 Pt. 1:1 τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν καὶ σωτῆρος Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ means that
Jesus is our God and Savior. After the same manner Tit. 2:13, TOŨ
μεγάλου θεοῦ καί σωτῆρος Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, asserts that Jesus is the
great God and Savior.
A
(2) As a Pronoun. The original pronominal nature of
the article survives in many of its uses. In such a con-
struction it is not strictly speaking an article, but is re-
stored to its use as a pronoun. This is a standard Attic
characteristic. Gildersleeve, under what he terms the "Sub-
stantive Use" of the article, gives a multitude of examples
from a number of classical authors (op. cit., 216ff.).
a. The article may sometimes have the full force of a
demonstrative pronoun.
οἱ τοῦ Χριστοῦ.
Those who belong to Christ. Gal. 5:24.
See also: Mt. 13:29; Heb. 13:24.
b. The article may be used with μév and dé as an alter-
native pronoun.
οἱ μὲν ἐχλεύαζον, οἱ δὲ εἶπον, ἀκουσόμεθά σου.
Some began mocking, but others said, "We will hear thee." Ac. 17:32.
See also: Mt. 21:35; Ac. 14:4.
148
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
▾
c. The article is frequently used practically as a posses-
sive pronoun.
ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα ἥψατο αὐτοῦ.
Stretching forth his hand he touched him. Mt. 8:3.
See also: Ac. 5:19; 2 Cor. 8:18.
πα
This use of the article is abundant in the papyri, as P. Oxy. 294:31:
Awρiwvα TÒν Taтéρa, Dorion our father, and P. Oxy. 292:6: 'Epuiav
Tòv ådeλøóv, Hermias my brother.
ἀδελφόν,
It is not, however, distinctively
Koiné, but is a typical classical Greek usage; e.g., Thuc. 1:69. OỦ TĨ
δυνάμει ἀλλὰ τῇ μελλήσει ἀμυνόμενοι, defending yourselves, not
by your power, but by your threatening aspect.
d. The repetition of the article with some word or phrase
which modifies the noun is a device employed for emphasis,
in which the article functions with more than its ordinary
force, and appears as a mild relative pronoun.
ὁ λόγος ὁ τοῦ σταυροῦ.
The word which is of the cross. 1 Cor. 1:18.
See also: Mt. 26:28; 1 Tim. 3:13.
This use of the article is to lend greater emphasis and prominence
to a clause which in some particular way defines. It is a prevalent
construction in Attic Greek. The emphasis is really a matter of con-
trast. This contrast may be specific, as in Rom. 2:14, 0vη Tà µǹ
νόμον ἔχοντα, where Gentiles who have no law are contrasted with
Jews who do have law; or it may be general, as in Ac. 20:21, πίOTI
τὴν εἰς τὸν κύριον ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν (TR), where faith which
is in our Lord Jesus Christ is contrasted with any other sort of faith.
When the article is not used, no contrast is intended (cf. 2 Ths. 3:14).
(3) With the Subject in a Copulative Sentence. The article
sometimes distinguishes the subject from the predicate in a
copulative sentence. In Xenophon's Anabasis, 1:4:6,
ἐμπόριον δ᾽ ἦν τὸ χωρίον, and the place was a market, we
have a parallel case to what we have in John 1:1, kai leòs
ñv ỏ Xóyos, and the word was deity. The article points out
the subject in these examples. Neither was the place the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
149
only market, nor was the word all of God, as it would mean if
the article were also used with 0eós. As it stands, the other
persons of the Trinity may be implied in Ocós.
μάρτυς γάρ μού ἐστιν ὁ θεός.
God is my witness. Rom. 1:9.
See also: Mk. 6:35; 1 Jn. 4:8.
In a convertible proposition, where the subject and predicate are
regarded as interchangeable, both have the article (cf. 1 Cor. 15:56).
If the subject is a proper name, or a personal or demonstrative pro-
noun, it may be anarthrous while the predicate has the article
(cf. Jn. 6:51; Ac. 4:11; 1 Jn. 4:15).
The Absence of the Article
149. Sometimes with a noun which the context proves to
be definite the article is not used. This places stress upon
the qualitative aspect of the noun rather than its mere
identity. An object of thought may be conceived of from
two points of view: as to identity or quality. To convey
the first point of view the Greek uses the article; for the
second the anarthrous construction is used. Also in expres-
sions which have become technicalized or stereotyped, and
in salutations, the article is not used. This is due to the
tendency toward abbreviation of frequent or customary
phraseology, such as our expressions "at home," "down
town," etc.
τοῦτο γὰρ ὑμῖν λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου.
For this we say to you by the word of the Lord. 1 Ths. 4:15.
i. That is, by a word of that character which comes from one
who is a Lord. It is the divine authority of the teaching which is
being stressed. See also: Jn. 4:27; 1 Ths. 5:5; Heb. 6:7.
ii. We adopt Robertson's conclusion that it is more accurate to
speak of the "absence" of the article than the "omission" of the
article. When we use "omission," we imply "that the article ought
to be present" (R. 790), while as a matter of fact it ought not to
150
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
be, because the writer was seeking to convey an idea which the
use of the article would not have properly represented. To say
"omitted" is too much like measuring Greek idiom with an Eng-
lish yardstick. Winer (W. 119) discusses the "omission of the
article," and falls into the common error of supposing that where
the article is not used it is merely because the substantive is suffi-
ciently definite without it. Rigid caution should be exercised in
viewing the article from its Greek character and history and not
from English usage. Buttmann is making for the point when he
says that "the omission of the article is very common in cases where
we employ it," but utterly ruins matters by adding, "and where in
strictness it ought to stand in Greek also" (Bt. 88). By what stand-
ard of judgment are we to conclude that "it ought to stand in
Greek?" The ancient Greek writer is arraigned at the bar of mod-
ern German and English idiom!
iii. It is instructive to observe that the anarthrous noun occurs in
many prepositional phrases. This is no mere accident, for there are no
accidents in the growth of a language: each idiom has its reason. Nor
is it because the noun is sufficiently definite without the article, which
is true, as Greek nouns have an intrinsic definiteness. But that is
not the reason for not using the article. A prepositional phrase usually
implies some idea of quality or kind. 'Ev ȧpx in Jn. 1:1 characterizes
Christ as preëxistent, thus defining the nature of his person. When,
in Col. 2:20, Paul says, "If ye died with Christ from the rudiments of
the world, why, as if living ev kóσμw, in the world, do ye subject your-
selves to decrees?" it is clear that ev kóσµw defines a kind of life:
an "in-the-world life." So we might present innumerable instances in
proof of the fact that in a prepositional phrase it is the qualitative
aspect of the noun which is prominent, rather than its identity (cf.
ἐν νόμῳ, Rom. 2:23; πρός ἐντροπήν, 1 Cor. 15:34; κατὰ θεόν, Εph.
4:24). Anarthrous nouns without a preposition present the same
stress upon character or quality (cf. TÉKVα YWTÓs, Eph. 5:9).
iv. Robertson gives but slight attention to this phase of the
question, though he does say that qualitative force "is best brought
out in anarthrous nouns" (R. 794). Moulton recognizes the im-
portance of this point in saying that "for exegesis, there are few
of the finer points of Greek which need more constant attention
than this omission of the article when the writer would lay stress
on the quality or character of the object" (M. 83).
v. It is important to bear in mind that we cannot determine the
English translation by the presence or absence of the article in
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
151
Greek. Sometimes we should use the article in the English trans-
lation when it is not used in the Greek, and sometimes the idiomatic
force of the Greek article may best be rendered by an anarthrous
noun in English. The best guide in this matter is well-informed
common sense, exercised in keeping with the principle of exegesis
proposed long ago by William Webster: "The reason then for the
insertion or omission of the article will not be evident, unless we
can look at the matter from the same point of view as that in which
the writer regarded it” (op. cit., p. 27).
The Position of the Article
150. The use of the article with the adjective, participle,
and demonstrative pronoun calls for special attention.
(1) When the article precedes the adjective it is said to
be in the attributive position.
ὅταν τὸ ἀκάθαρτον πνεῦμα ἐξέλθῃ.
When the unclean spirit came forth. Mt. 12:43.
See also: Mk. 12:37; Jn. 10:11.
The attributive relation is not essentially affected by the article,
but arises from other considerations which were discussed under
adjectives (§ 131, (1)). But when the article is used with an
adjective in the attributive relation it does occupy regularly the
attributive position. Sometimes the attributive relation must be
discovered from the context, there being no article to indicate it
(Eph. 2:10). We must remember that the use or absence of the
article in an attributive construction "depends on the point of
view of the speaker or writer" (R. 787), but also that the author
had a reason for the form used, hence it is not to be regarded as
a matter of accident. Entire phrases or clauses are sometimes found
in the attributive position (1 Pt. 1:11).
(2) When the article does not precede the adjective it is
called the predicate position.
οὐ καλὸν τὸ καύχημα ὑμῶν.
Your glorying is not good. 1 Cor. 5:6.
See also: Heb. 7:24; 1 Pt. 4:8.
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A MANUAL GRAMMAR
1
i. A noun in the predicate relation never takes an article unless there
is some very special reason for it. It is obvious that a predicate noun
ordinarily emphasizes quality, and should, therefore, naturally be
anarthrous. In the above example кaλóv manifestly describes the
kind of boasting. When the article is used with the predicate, it marks
its essential identity with the subject. Thus ἡ ἁμαρτία ἐστὶν ἡ
ávouía (1 Jn. 3:4) makes sin identical with lawlessness. The use of
the article with the noun but not with the adjective determines the
adjective as predicate, though the idiom may seem awkward in English
(cf. 1 Cor. 11:5).
ii. Care should be taken to distinguish between the attributive
and predicate relation, which has to do with the essential connection
of the adjective with its context, and the attributive and predicate
position, which has to do with the use of the article with the
adjective.
(3) When the article is repeated with an adjective which
follows the noun, it distributes the emphasis equally be-
tween the adjective and noun, and causes the adjective to
function as an appositive. Here the particularizing force
of the article is operative.
ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ποιμὴν ὁ καλός.
¿
I am the good shepherd. Jn. 10:11.
i. The real idiomatic force of this construction is, I am the
shepherd-or, more particularly defined-the good one. See also:
Mt. 17:5; Heb. 13:20.
ii. Robertson explains the significance of the attributive's being
placed before or after the noun. Before the noun the attributive
receives primary emphasis, while following the noun the emphasis
is more equally distributed, the adjective being "added as a sort
of climax in apposition with a separate article" (R. 776). Sometimes
when the noun is indefinite and the attributive defines it in some
particular relation, the noun is anarthrous while the attribute has
an article. Frequently other attributes besides the adjective fol-
low the noun with the article repeated (cf. 1 Cor. 1:18; Mk. 4:31),
though such attributes may follow the noun without the article.
The article may occur in the attributive position when it is trans-
lated by a relative pronoun in English (Rom. 8:39).
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153
iii. When several adjectives modify one noun, if differentiation
is emphasized, the article is repeated with each adjective (Rev.
1:17); but if simple qualification is intended, only one article is
used (Rev. 3:17). When the article is repeated in the enumeration
of a series of items, it blends them into a single object of considera-
tion (Eph. 2:20). In this matter, however, we need to note the
observation of Gildersleeve: "Theoretically the repetition compels
a separate consideration while the omission suggests unity. Prac-
tically the Greeks were almost as loose as we are prone to be, and
a sharp difference cannot be made" (op. cit., 277).
iv. The repetition of the article with a modifying phrase or
clause for emphasis, with the approximate force of a relative pro-
noun, has been mentioned above. It is closely akin to the usage
under consideration here.
(4) When a participle has the article, it is thereby at-
tached to the noun as a qualifying phrase, as a sort of
attribute; without the article the participle functions as a
predicate. Thus ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὁ ἐλθὼν εἰς τὴν πόλιν means
the man who came into the city, but ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἐλθὼν εἰς
Tην Tóλɩ means the man having come into the city. The
attributive participle may come between the article and
noun, just as the attributive adjective. The demonstrative
force of the article lends itself naturally to the participle,
and hence we find the article with the participle more often
than with ordinary adjectives.
ἀλλὰ λαλοῦμεν θεοῦ σοφίαν τὴν ἀποκεκρυμμένην.
But we speak a wisdom of God which is hidden. 1 Cor. 2:7.
See also: Ac. 9:39; 1 Ths. 2:15.
(5) Demonstrative pronouns are regularly placed in the
predicate position.
οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἤρξατο οἰκοδομεῖν.
This man began to build. Lk. 14:30.
See also: Jn. 4:53; 2 Cor. 7:8.
DIVISION II
THE VERB
151. The verb is that part of the sentence which affirms
action or state of being. The nature of the verb presents
two varieties. The action described in the verb may require
an object to complete its meaning. Thus merely to say,
"He built," creates a sense of suspense: we instinctively
wait to learn what he built. When we say, "He built a
house," the sense is complete. Such a verb is called a
transitive verb. Other verbs do not require an object to
complete their meaning. Thus, "he ran" makes complete
sense. These are called intransitive verbs.
Robertson raises timely warning against confusing the nature of a
verb with its voice. Transitiveness or intransitiveness belongs to the
very character of the verbal idea, while voice is determined by relations
to the context, especially the subject. Transitiveness is discerned by
the relation of the verb to an object, but is determined by the nature of
the verbal idea. "Transitive verbs belong to any voice, and in-
transitive verbs to any voice" (R. 330). "That point concerns the
verb itself, not the voice” (R. 797). Cf. ¿yeípw in Mt. 10:8 and 26:46.
This is not to be construed, however, as meaning that the verb is fixed
as transitive or intransitive by its root meaning. Transitiveness con-
sists in the application of the root meaning, its use in a particular ex-
pression. Thus βλέπω in Jn. 9:25 is intransitive, τυφλὸς ὢν ἄρτι
Вλéπw, though having been blind, now I see; but in Mk. 8:24 it is transi-
tive, βλέπω τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, I see men. Even the character of the
verbal idea may be affected by the context, and the change of voice.
The distinction to be noted is that transitiveness lies essentially in
the character of the verbal idea in a given sense, while voice is deter-
mined entirely by the context. Hence transitiveness may change with
change of voice, but not necessarily so. Verbs which are transitive in
the active voice may be also transitive in the middle, or they may
become intransitive. Only transitive verbs are normally used in
154
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
155
the passive, though in some instances we find intransitive verbs in the
passive (cf. Mk. 10:45; Heb. 11:2). Normally the passive voice makes
a verb intransitive, but a verb which takes two objects may retain one
of them when used in the passive (cf. Ac. 18:25; Gal. 2:7). Verbs
which are ordinarily transitive may sometimes be used intransitively
without any change in voice; as äyw, I lead; present imperative, aye,
go. This is especially true of exw (I have), in certain idiomatic expres-
sions with adverbs; as Mt. 4:24, TOÙS KAKŵs Exovtas, those who are
ill (literally, those having badly).
I. VOICE, PERSON, AND NUMBER
References: R. 797-820; R-S. 133-135; M. 152–163.
152. Voice is that property of the verbal idea which indi-
cates how the subject is related to the action. We have
already seen that it is to be distinguished from the matter
of transitiveness, which is discerned by the relation of the
verbal idea to the object. A comparison of "he killed"
with "he was killed" fixes attention upon a variation with
reference to the subject, while "he ran" compared with "he
ran a race" fixes attention upon the object. So we see that
voice is concerned with the relation of the action to the
subject (cf. R. 798).
The variations in use of a particular voice must usually be discerned
by examination of the entire context. Thus we find the need of trans-
lating σvvetélewтo in Jn. 9:22, they had agreed among themselves
(reciprocal middle), by inferring from a wide study of the context that
the Jews were holding recurrent conferences in their effort to suppress
the work of Jesus. It is important for the student to keep in mind that
voice is determined, and its varying shades of meaning discerned, by
contextual relations. The usage in respect to voice is practically the
same in Koiné Greek that it was in the classical Attic.
The Active Voice
153. The active voice describes the subject as producing
the action or representing the state expressed by the verbal
idea. It represents the simplest verb use. The thought of
156
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
a verb as expressing something acting is obviously the
verbal significance which lies at the surface. This does
not necessarily mean, however, that the active was the
original voice. There are reasons which lead some gram-
marians to regard the middle as the oldest voice. But as
a matter of fact, there is no way of knowing with final
certainty.
(1) The Simple Active. The ordinary significance of
the active voice is to describe the subject as directly per-
forming the act affirmed.
ὁ δὲ θεὸς γινώσκει τὰς καρδίας ὑμῶν.
But God knows your hearts. Lk. 16:15.
See also: Lk. 22:54; 1 Cor. 3:6.
Some variations of the simple active are the active with reflexives
(Mk. 15:30) and the impersonal active (1 Pt. 2:6).
(2) The Causative Active. The subject is sometimes
represented as related to the action through intermediary
means.
τὸν ἥλιον αὐτοῦ ἀνατέλλει.
He causes his sun to shine. Mt. 5:45.
See also: 1 Cor. 3:6; 8:13.
This idiom is a necessary device of intelligent expression, and is,
therefore, in some form common to all languages. In Hebrew we
have approximately the same idiom represented in the Hiphil stem.
We have it in English in such expressions as "to blow a horn," "to
shine a light," "to run a horse," etc. It generally arises from the
use of an intransitive verb in a transitive sense.
The Middle Voice
154. Here we approach one of the most distinctive and
peculiar phenomena of the Greek language. It is impos-
sible to describe it, adequately or accurately, in terms of
English idiom, for English knows no approximate parallel.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
157
It is imperative that the student abandon, as far as pos-
sible, the English point of view and comprehend that of
the Greek. We can never hope to express exactly the Greek
middle voice by an English translation, but must seek to
acclimate ourselves to its mental atmosphere, and feel its
force, though we cannot express it precisely.
155. The middle voice is that use of the verb which de-
scribes the subject as participating in the results of the
action. Thus Bovλeuw means I counsel, but ẞovλevoμai
means I take counsel: the subject acting with a view to
participation in the outcome. While the active voice.
emphasizes the action, the middle stresses the agent. It,
in some way, relates the action more intimately to the
subject. Just how the action is thus related is not indi-
cated by the middle voice, but must be detected from the
context or the character of the verbal idea (cf. R. 804).
i. So "the middle is, strictly speaking, never used without some
sort of reference to the subject" (Bt. 193). It "refers back the
action to the acting subject" (W. 252), or "calls special attention
to the subject" (R. 804). "The essence of the middle therefore
lies in its calling attention to the agent as in some way clearly
concerned with the action" (M. 153). All these opinions represent
from various angles the fundamental significance of the middle
voice. It is scarcely possible to formulate a single definition of
its basal function which could be applied to all its actual occur-
rences. No single principle can be found to cover all the cases,
for "the sphere of the middle was .. not at all sharply delimited"
(M. 158). It is an appropriate warning that Robertson gives in
saying that "we must not fall into the error of explaining the
force of the middle by the English translation" (R. 804). The
importance of the matter in interpretation may be seen by the
statement of Blass that "on the whole the conclusion arrived at
must be that the New Testament writers were perfectly capable
of preserving the distinction between active and middle" (Bl. 186).
ii. "The parent Indogermanic language had two voices-the active
and the middle" (Wr. 250). The endings of the middle would
suggest that it was the original verb form. Moulton says, "But
•
158
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
nothing is more certain than that the parent language of our family
possessed no Passive, but only Active and Middle, the latter
originally equal with the former in prominence, though unrepre-
sented now in any language, save by forms which have lost all
distinction of meaning" (M. 152). The Sanskrit had only active
and middle forms, save in the present, where there was a distinctive
passive conjugation. The active is termed by Hindu grammarians
parasmai padan, "word for another"; the middle, atmane padan,
"word for one's self." This terminology is vividly suggestive of the
basal distinction between the two voices.
156. Any analysis of the uses of the middle is of neces-
sity more or less arbitrary. No rigid lines of distinction
can in reality be drawn. Distinctions there are, however,
and the following analysis is proposed as indicating the
main lines of difference. But the student should seek to
master the fundamental significance of the middle voice,
then interpret each use in the light of its own context and
the meaning of the verb.
(1) The Direct Middle. The typical use of the middle
voice is to refer the results of the action directly to the
agent, with a reflexive force.
καὶ ἀπελθὼν ἀπήγξατο.
And having gone forth, he hanged himself. Mt. 27:5.
See also: Mk. 7:4; 1 Cor. 16:16.
"The reflexive sense of the middle is comparatively rare; reflexive
pronouns being usually employed with the active" (G. 292). This
results from what is termed in comparative philology the "analytic
tendency" in language. It has not, however, resulted in obliterating
this use of the middle voice, for it still persists in Modern Greek,
though sometimes in combination with a reflexive pronoun or its
equivalent (T. 114).
(2) The Indirect Middle. Sometimes the middle lays
stress upon the agent as producing the action rather than
participating in its results. This use signifies that the
action is closely related to the subject, or is related to the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
159
subject in some special and distinctive sense which the
writer wishes to emphasize. The reason for the emphasis.
is to be inferred from the context.
αἰωνίαν λύτρωσιν εὕρατο.
He himself secured eternal redemption. Heb. 9:12.
See also: 1 Cor. 13:8; 2 Tim. 4:15.
i. This usage is sometimes called the intensive middle, which
is suggestive but hardly adequate. It roughly corresponds to the
Piel stem in Hebrew, but is more varied and extended in its use.
Moulton calls it the "dynamic" middle, and reckons that it "em-
phasized the part taken by the subject in the action of the verb”.
a very pertinent suggestion. He recognizes that the variations of
this use are not easy to define, but is surely overestimating the
difficulties when he says that "the category will include a number
of verbs in which it is useless to exercise our ingenuity on inter-
preting the middle, for the development never progressed beyond
the rudimentary stage" (M. 158). The student should employ all
the knowledge he has and all the linguistic sense at his command
in seeking an intelligent explanation of any and every occurrence
of the middle. It must be admitted, however, that the use of the
middle here under consideration is widely varied, and does not
submit to definition by fixed and rigid lines of distinction.
ii. The intensive significance of the middle may be seen in 2 Tim. 4:15,
öv kai σù øvλáoσov, of whom do thou also beware. Here Paul is warning
Timothy against Alexander the coppersmith, who had done the Apostle
serious damage. The sense of the passage is about this: "Since he has
treated me so despitefully, you had better take heed for yourself.”
The Greeks employed the middle where we must resort to italics. A
striking and instructive example appears in Ac. 20:24, åλλ' ovdevòs
λόγου ποιοῦμαι τὴν ψυχὴν τιμίαν ἐμαυτῷ, but I do not make my
life of any account as dear to myself. Here the significance of the middle
πоlovμaι seems to be, "I do not make, as far as I am personally con-
cerned, my life dear unto myself." Paul does not at all mean to say
that he has no interest in living, but means that he considers his divinely
appointed ministry as overshadowing any selfish interest which it would
be possible for him to have in life. The middle indicates that, however
others may regard the matter, this is his conclusion. Here the middle
is not only intensive, but antithetical in force (cf. αἰτεῖσθαι - αἰτεῖτε -
aireiσle in Jas. 4:2, 3).
160
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
iii. This use of the middle may give to a verb an individualistic or
specific application. Thus σтpaтeveɩ means to conduct a military
campaign, while σтраτEveσ0αɩ means to be a soldier (2 Tim. 2:4);
πολιτεύειν means to live in a free state, while πολιτεύεσθαι means
to take active part in the affairs of a state—to be a citizen (Phs. 1:27).
iv. This is the most extensive use of the middle, and a use
which requires and rewards the closest study. Robertson dis-
tinguishes between the indirect middle and the intensive use, of
which examples were given above, and employs with Moulton the
term “dynamic" for designating a separate variation. This un-
doubtedly conduces to greater analytic accuracy, but introduces a
distinction of which the line of demarcation is vague and confusing
to the average student. Since the intensive use unquestionably
shares in the basal function of the indirect middle, we conclude that
it is best to take care of it by an extension in the definition of
the indirect middle, for the "dynamic" middle is admitted to be
merely a "drip-pan middle," which is "put at the bottom to catch
the drippings of the other uses" (Gildersleeve: cit. R. 811). Our
policy here is to abandon the drip-pan, and employ the indirect
middle to catch the drippings, since we find it so clearly adapted
to that purpose.
(3) The Permissive Middle. The middle may represent.
the agent as voluntarily yielding himself to the results of
the action, or seeking to secure the results of the action in
his own interest.
διὰ τί οὐχὶ μᾶλλον ἀδικεῖσθε;
Why not rather let yourselves be wronged? 1 Cor. 6:7.
See also: Lk. 2:4, 5; 1 Cor. 11:6; Ac. 15:1.
This idiom appears as far back as Homer; e.g., Avoóμevos Ouyaтра,
to get his daughter set free. An example from the papyri may be seen in
Tb. P. 35, čavtòv airiáσeraι, he will get himself accused.
(4) The Reciprocal Middle. A middle verb with a
plural subject may represent an interchange of effort be-
tween the acting agents.
συνετέθειντο οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι.
The Jews had agreed with one another. Jn. 9:22.
See also: Mt. 26:4; Lk. 14:7.
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161
i. Occasionally we find the middle accompanied by a pronoun
(Ac. 7:58). Robertson calls this the redundant middle. "Gilder-
sleeve sees in this idiom the effort to bring out more clearly the
reflexive force of the middle" (R. 811). Since the reflexive came in
to aid in the very function performed by the middle, this idiom is
not unnatural. The reflexive pronoun and passive voice have
gradually encroached upon the middle-the reflexive upon its func-
tions and the passive its forms. But, though the middle in Modern
Greek has no distinctive conjugation, yet its functions survive and
are expressed in forms identical with the passive. In this way it
serves in Modern Greek in deponents, as reflexive, reciprocal, and
causative (T. 113–115).
ii. Since the middle and passive have in several tenses forms
alike, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. The
matter must be determined by the context and the meaning of the
verbal idea (cf. Mt. 11:5).
The Passive Voice
157. The passive voice is that use of the verb which
denotes the subject as receiving the action. Its variations
in use are determined by the medium through which the
subject receives the action. Upon this basis we may con-
struct the following analysis.
(1) The Passive With Direct Agent. When the original
agent which produces the action signified in the passive
verb is expressed, the regular construction is vπó with the
ablative.
κατηγορεῖται ὑπὸ τῶν Ἰουδαίων.
He was accused by the Jews. Ac. 22:30.
See also: Mt. 10:22; Rom. 3:21.
Personal agent may also, though rarely, be expressed by the instru-
mental case (cf. Lk. 23:15). "Yet this use in Greek is by no means
so general that we can assume that it can be substituted indifferently in
any case and every case for vπó with the Genitive" (Bt. 187). It is
only where the personal idea is remote and instrumentality is promi-
nent; as above (Lk. 23:15), it is an act of guilt which is contemplated
rather than a personal achievement. For use in his Greek composi-
162
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
tion the student had best adopt the regular construction, ¿πó with the
ablative.
(2) The Passive With Intermediate Agent. When the
agent is the medium through which the original cause has
effected the action expressed by the passive verb, the regu-
lar construction is diά with the genitive.
πάντα δι' αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο.
All things were made through him. Jn. 1:3.
Here God the Father is thought of as the original cause of crea-
tion, and the λóyos as the intermediate agent. See also: Mt. 1:22;
Gal. 3:18.
(3) The Passive With Impersonal Agent. If the agent
through which the action of the passive verb is performed.
is impersonal, it is ordinarily expressed by the instrumental
case, independently or with év.
χάριτί ἐστε σεσωσμένοι.
By grace ye are saved. Eph. 2:8.
See also: Mt. 3:12; Ac. 12:2.
i. Agency is also sometimes expressed by åπó (2 Cor. 3:18); ék
(Gal. 4:4); and πapá (Jn. 17:7).
ii. The passive arose out of the middle, and the line of demarcation
between them was never absolutely fixed. There was a slight margin
in which they overlapped and presented a common ground. Thus in
Ac. 22:16, ẞаπтioαι is middle and means, get yourself baptized. But
as to practical significance, how much difference is there between that
rendering and be baptized, the way it is usually rendered? We must
beware not to seek a hard and fast English equivalent to be employed
persistently in the translation of either of these voices (cf. M. 162). As
the passive pressed the middle off the field there remained a common
ground of interchanging functions between them. In fact, as we have
observed above, the functions of the middle voice still flourish in the
Greek language.
iii. When verbs which take two accusatives are put in the passive,
and the accusative of the person becomes the subject, the accusa-
tive of the thing is ordinarily retained (2 Ths. 2:15). Where the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
163
active has a direct object in the accusative and an indirect object
in the dative, the dative usually becomes the subject and the
direct object is retained as an accusative of reference (Rom. 3:2).
Irregularities in Voice
158. There are two principal ways in which many Greek
verbs depart from normal usage in the matter of voice.
(1) Defective verbs are those not used in all three voices,
or not in every tense of one or more voices. This arose in
the natural processes of linguistic development, for the
root meaning of a verb would yield itself more readily to
usage in one voice than in another, which would cause the
less natural forms to become obsolete, and be replaced by
another verb root better adapted to use in that voice and
tense. Thus eрxoμaι must have had a primitive active
form eρxoμ, but for some reason the Greek mind found
more satisfactory expression in the middle form, so the
active was lost. But when they used the aorist, a synonym
of epxoμɩ yielded itself better to the desired mode of ex-
pression, the verb out, aorist Nov. Thus the present
ἔλθομι, ἦλθον.
form of this verb became obsolete. By some such process
as this the defective verbs probably originated. To this
class belong the great majority of what we call the irregular
verbs.
(2) Deponent verbs are those with middle or passive
form, but active meaning. It is obvious that the same
verb may be both defective and deponent. The distinctive.
fact about the deponent verb is that its voice form is dif-
ferent from its voice function. Thus déxoμal means I
receive, and not I receive myself or I am received.
i. It will be found that some grammarians speak of deponents as
passive in form, while others call them middle. As a matter of fact,
they may be found in either. The difference is to be detected in the
aorist. The majority of the deponents have their aorist in the middle;
164
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
as ἀσπάζομαι, aorist, ήσπασάμην; though quite a number have the
aorist passive; as, βούλομαι, aorist, ἐβουλήθην. In a few we find the
use of both forms; as θεάομαι, aorist, ἐθεασάμην or ἐθεάθην.
ii. Robertson and Moulton both assail the term "deponent" on
the ground that it should include both actives without middle form
and middles without active form, "if retained for either" (M. 153).
Robertson uses the term "dynamic" for this class of verbs, admit-
ting that it is not "much better" (R. 812). The only justification
we have to offer for retaining the term here is that there is a
phenomenon of the language for which we need a distinct term, and
this is the most familiar. While it is truly inappropriate to say
that a verb has "lost" (deponere, "to lay aside") its active meaning
(and indeed, likely contrary to the history of the verb), yet "de-
ponent" has become so thoroughly fixed in grammatical terminol-
ogy that its inappropriateness is hardly serious enough to require
that we seek to displace it—at least, until an obviously better term
is found. Perphaps "defective" would cover the whole case, but
there should be a distinction between the lack of a voice and the
use of one voice with the significance of another. It is, however,
likely confusing to go as far as Winer and say, "From middle verbs.
are to be carefully distinguished Deponent" (W. 258). Deponent
is not a voice, but an anomalous variation of voice.
Person and Number
159. In Greek, as in all other languages, person and
number are determined by the relation of the speaker or
writer to the assertion contained in the verb. If the asser-
tion contains a fact relative to the one asserting, the verb
is in the first person. If it presents a fact relative to the
one addressed, the verb is in the second person. If it pre-
sents a fact relative to someone other than either the one
asserting or the one addressed, the verb is in the third
person. If the assertion is made concerning more than
one, the verb is in the plural (in the Koiné Greek-older
Greek had the dual for two). This essential fact of lan-
guage has given rise to the "rule of concord" that the verb
agrees with its subject in person and number.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
165
i. A seeming exception to the above principle of syntax is the fact
that a neuter plural subject regularly takes a singular verb (Jn. 9:3).
This is doubtless because a neuter plural usually refers to inanimate
objects, which are viewed in mass rather than as distinct individuals.
Evidence for this explanation is seen in the fact that the verb is gener-
ally plural if the neuter plural subject refers to persons (Mt. 12:21), or if
it is desired to emphasize the plurality of things (Lk. 24:11). In Jn.
10:27, τὰ πρόβατα τὰ ἐμὰ τῆς φονῆς μου ἀκούουσιν, my sheep
hear my voice, Jesus means that each of his disciples individually re-
sponds to his command; and further, Tрóẞara is a figure of speech
referring to persons.
Both considerations combine to form a plural
verb here.
ii. When two or more subjects are joined together by a conjunc-
tion, the verb is regularly plural (Ac. 15:35), though it may agree
with the nearest subject (1 Cor. 13:13). When a collective subject
is taken in mass, the verb is singular (Mk 5:24), but if the com-
ponent parts are viewed individually the verb is plural (Mk. 3:7).
II. MOOD
References: R. 911-1049; R-S. 128–132; M. 164–201.
160. In the expression of the verbal idea it is necessary
to define its relation to reality: that which has, will, or
does now exist. For instance, it is impossible to present
the thought of a child running without affirming either the
fact of his running-in present, past, or future, or the possi-
bility of his running. To say, "The child runs," places the
statement in the first category; to say, "If the child runs,"
presents the second. This affirmation of relation to reality
is mood. Whether the verbal idea is objectively a fact or
not is not the point: mood represents the way in which the
matter is conceived. It represents "an attitude of mind
on the part of the speaker" (M. 164). Robertson has
aptly defined mood as "the manner of the affirmation"
(R. 912).
161. In the strictest analysis of the verb function in
language there are but two essential moods. Mood being
166
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
the way in which an action is conceived with reference to
reality, it presents two viewpoints: that which is actual
and that which is possible. The presence of a negative,
affirming that a thing is not actual or not possible, does not
modify the essential category of thought; it merely nega-
tives these fundamental ideas. The indicative is the mood
which denotes the verbal idea as actual. Possible action
may employ, in Greek, either of three moods. If it is
viewed as contingent upon certain existing and known con-
ditions-being objectively possible-the subjunctive is used.
If the action is conceived of as possible without reference
to existing conditions-being subjectively possible-the
optative is used. Where the mind purposes the realization
of a possible action through the exercise of the will upon
an intermediate agent and conditioned upon the agent's
response-being volitionally possible the imperative is
used. So the two essential moods in language are the real—
represented in Greek by the indicative; and the potential-
embracing the subjunctive, optative, and imperative (cf.
W. 281). But for simplicity of grammatical analysis it is
best that we should present our treatment of moods under
the four separate heads, indicative, subjunctive, optative,
and imperative.
i. Sheffield's definition of mood as the "speaker's concern with
what is said" (Grammar and Thinking, p. 120) is pertinent but not
adequate, as he himself later concludes (ibid., p. 127). It repre-
sents an element in mood but not its totality. One's concern in
the assertion of the verb may influence his attitude of mind, but
with it there may be associated many other factors, or, on the other
hand, the matter of personal interest may be entirely absent from
the attitude expressed in the verb. The essence of mood is the
way in which the assertion is related to reality.
ii. There has been disagreement among grammarians as to the
number of the moods in Greek. Some regard only the subjunctive
and optative as being in the strictest sense moods, since they ex-
hibit in the most pronounced manner the attitude of mind ex-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
167
pressed in the affirmation; others would include also the imperative,
the mood of purpose and, therefore, of mental attitude; but the
majority would accept four, because, while it is true that the indica-
tive is the mood of simple assertion of fact, it nevertheless reflects
very definitely a mental attitude. The infinitive and participle
are not regarded by any as truly moods. Robertson groups infini-
tives and participles under the general head of "verbal nouns," an
entirely justifiable procedure. They cannot appropriately be called
moods. We adopt here the prevalent view, which regards as moods
the indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative.
iii. Some grammarians find evidence for a primitive injunctive
mood. Robertson decides that because of its close relation to the
imperative “it has to be considered in an historical review” (R. 321).
Moulton finds in it the origin of the imperative. He thinks that
"it represented the bare combination of verbal idea with the ending
which supplies the subject." It "was simply an imperfect or aorist
indicative without the augment" (M. 165). It is found in actual
use in the Sanskrit, where it expresses prohibition.
iv. There is but one mood which has essential temporal relations;
viz., the indicative. This is to be normally expected in the indica-
tive, since it asserts actuality, and that which actually occurs or
exists is inevitably defined by relations of time. But that which
is potential has no definite time relations, its temporal connections
being only relative. Hence the time element is entirely absent
from the potential moods.
v. The New Testament is fairly accurate in observing the cus-
tomary distinctions between the Greek moods. "Only it is notice-
able that the Optative, as in the later Greek authors who do not aim
at classical refinement, is partially set aside . . . and in certain
constructions is superseded by the Subjunctive" (W. 282; cf. Bt.
207). The use of the optative after secondary tenses is also dis-
continued in the Koiné.
vi. "The mode is far and away the most difficult theme in Greek
syntax” (R. 912). The greatest difficulty is presented in the over-
lapping of functions. That is, the same function may be per-
formed by more than one mood. For instance, the subjunctive
and imperative are both used in prohibitions. The indicative and
imperative are both used for commands, and the indicative and
optative for wishes. "The development of the modes was gradual
and the differentiation was never absolutely distinct" (R. 924). But
•
168
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
the lines of distinction are sufficiently clear to admit of a thorough
working analysis.
The Indicative Mood
162. The indicative is the declarative mood, denoting a
simple assertion or interrogation. It is the mood of cer-
tainty. It is significant of a simple fact, stated or inquired
about. The thing which distinguishes the indicative is its
independence of qualification or condition. It represents
the verbal idea from the viewpoint of reality. This is the
attitude of mind expressed, whether the assumed reality is
an objective fact or not. "The indicative does state a
thing as true, but does not guarantee the reality of the
thing. In the nature of the case only the statement is
under discussion" (R. 915). It is "primarily the mood of
unqualified assertion or simple question of fact" (Br. 73),
and hence is by far the most frequently used.
(1) The Declarative Indicative. Its basal significance.
is most clearly seen when the indicative is used in the state-
ment of a simple fact.
ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος.
In the beginning was the word. Jn. 1:1.
See also: Eph. 4:1; 1 Ths. 2:7.
(2) The Interrogative Indicative. The viewpoint of
reality is implied in a fact inquired about when the indi-
cative is used in asking a simple question.
τί ζητεῖτε;
What do ye seek? Jn. 1:38.
See also: Mt. 16:13; Mk. 1:24.
The interrogative indicative assumes that there is an actual fact
which may be stated in answer to the question. Though this
essential force of the construction may vary in strength and clear-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
169
ness, it undoubtedly lies at the basis of the usage. Robertson
asserts with good reason that there is really no difference between
declaration and question, so far as the essential use of the mood
is concerned (R. 915). We present them as two distinct uses as a
policy of simplification rather than strict scientific analysis. For
the negative particles in interrogations, see the section on particles,
and for the interrogative pronouns, the section on pronouns.
(3) The Cohortative Indicative. The future indicative
is sometimes used to express a command.
ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου ὡς σεαυτόν.
Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Jas. 2:8.
See also: Mt. 27:24; Lk. 1:13.
(4) The Potential Indicative. Sometimes the idea of
contingency accompanies the indicative, being supplied by
the use of av, the nature of the verbal idea, or the context.
It may be thus used in association with three ideas.
a. The indicative may be used in a claim of obligation.
οὓς ἔδει ἐπὶ σοῦ παρεῖναι.
Who ought to be here before thee. Ac. 24:19.
See also: Mt. 25:27; 1 Cor. 4:8.
b. The indicative may be used to express an impulse.
ηὐχόμην γὰρ ἀνάθεμα εἶναι.
For I could wish to be accursed. Rom. 9:3.
See also: Ac. 25:22; Gal. 4:20.
c. The indicative is used in certain forms of condition.
εἰ ἧς ὧδε οὐκ ἂν ἀπέθανεν.
If thou hadst been here, he would not have died. Jn. 11:21.
See also: Mk. 14:5; Ac. 26:32.
For the indicative in a conditional sentence without av see Gal. 4:15.
Let it be kept in mind that the potential use of the indicative is not
really an exception to its essential force as the mood of certainty,
for the contingent element resides in av, or the context, or the char-
acter of the verbal idea.
170
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
The Subjunctive Mood
163. The subjunctive is the mood of mild contingency;
the mood of probability. While the indicative assumes
reality, the subjunctive assumes unreality. It is the first
step away from that which is actual in the direction of
that which is only conceivable, and, therefore, properly
leads the list of the potential moods. As the sense departs
farther from reality than the subjunctive, it shades off into
the optative. When the element of intention or purpose
is involved, the potential idea is regularly conveyed by the
imperative. These three moods are akin to each other by
being related to a common idea, that of potentiality.
i. The close relation of the subjunctive to the imperative is to be
seen in the hortatory subjunctive and the subjunctive of prohibi-
tion. Its kinship to the optative has been demonstrated by the
fact of its having taken over the functions of the optative. It does
the full service of the optative in Latin, and is found usurping its
functions in the Koiné period of the Greek, pushing it entirely off
the field by the time of Modern Greek (T. 115). We might almost
say that the subjunctive is the typical potential mood, and that
the optative and imperative are but variations of it. The con-
tingent idea is dominant in the optative, and is not at all remote
in the imperative. As a matter of fact, action is either real or con-
tingent, and even the slightest variation from the real produces
the contingent. Hence the potential moods express varying degrees
of contingency.
ii. There is likely close relationship between the subjunctive and
the future indicative. "It is quite probable that the future indica-
tive is just a variation of the aorist subjunctive" (R. 924). In the
earliest Greek which we have the subjunctive and future indicative
are used interchangeably. In the classical literature the distinction
is quite rigidly observed, "but in later writers vacillation in the
employment of them is again discernible” (Bt. 211). The idea of
futurity is almost invariably connected with the subjunctive, but
while inevitable in the very nature of the case (for contingency
naturally involves relative futurity), it is not the primary and
fundamental idea. It is the variation from the real (assumed in
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
171
thought) which gave rise to the subjunctive and which must remain
as its basal idea.
(1) The Hortatory Subjunctive. When one exhorts
others to participate with him in any act or condition, the
subjunctive is used in the first person plural.
κρατῶμεν τῆς ὁμολογίας.
Let us hold fast our confession. Heb. 4:15.
See also: Heb. 12:1; 1 Jn. 4:7.
The first person singular of the subjunctive is sometimes used
in a request for permission to do a thing (cf. Mt. 7:4; Lk. 6:42).
(2) The Subjunctive of Prohibition. In the expression
of a prohibition or a negative entreaty the second person
of the aorist subjunctive may be used.
μὴ εἰσενέγκης ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν.
Lead us not into temptation. Mt. 6:13.
See also: Mt. 6:34; Heb. 3:8.
The subjunctive of prohibition may also occur in the third per-
son, especially in dependent clauses of fear or warning, though it
may also occur in an independent clause of direct prohibition
(1 Cor. 16:11).
(3) The Deliberative Subjunctive. When interrogation
does not assume an answer in actual fact, but represents
deliberation or is employed as a mere rhetorical device, the
subjunctive is used.
τί εἴπω ὑμῖν;
What shall I say to you? 1 Cor. 11:22.
See also: Mk. 12:14; Lk. 3:10.
The subjunctive also occurs in indirect deliberative questions (Mt.
6:25). Questions may be classed as real and rhetorical. Real ques-
tions are those intended as actual requests for information (Mt.
16:13). Rhetorical questions represent an attitude of mind or an
assumption of fact in the form of a question (Rom. 10:14).
172
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(4) The Subjunctive of Emphatic Negation. When spe-
cial stress is placed upon a negative proposition, the sub-
junctive is used with οὐ μή.
καὶ οὐ μὴ ἐκφύγωσιν.
And they shall not possibly escape. 1 Ths. 5:3.
See also: Mt. 5:20; Lk. 6:37.
(5) The Potential Subjunctive. The preceding uses of
the subjunctive are confined largely to independent clauses,
but it is also widely used in subordinate clauses. These
commonly imply future reference, and are qualified by an
element of contingency. All uses of the subjunctive in
object or conditional clauses are included in this class.
διαμαρτύρομαι ἴνα ταῦτα φυλάξῃς.
I charge thee that thou guard these things. 1 Tim. 5:21.
See also: Mt. 17:20; Lk. 6:34.
The Optative Mood
164. The optative is the mood of strong contingency; the
mood of possibility. It contains no definite anticipation of
realization, but merely presents the action as conceivable.
Hence it is one step farther removed from reality than the
subjunctive. In fact, it never attained to very pronounced
distinction, and was never more than "a sort of weaker
subjunctive" (R. 936).
i. Some grammarians describe the optative as expressing "past
contingency." This view is determined by the classical use of the
mood after secondary tenses-a rather narrow basis of definition. A
better definition would be emphatic contingency, for this implies
the essential force of the mood, and includes independent as well
as dependent clauses. The kinship of the optative to the subjunc-
tive is manifest in both history and function. The probability is
that it arose in order to enable the subjunctive to occupy more
definite limits of meaning. Its use with secondary tenses was
probably one of its earliest functions, since it developed secondary
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
173
endings in conjugation. Since the optative came in as a helper
to the subjunctive, it is not likely that wishing was its original
significance, though it was from this idea that it derived its name.
But "the name does not signify anything. It 'was invented by
grammarians long after the usages of the language were settled'"
(R. 936).
ii. In the New Testament the optative is little used in dependent
clauses. "The Optative as a dependent mood appears most fre-
quently in the writings of Luke; its use even here, however, is
unmistakably on the decrease” (Bt. 215).
iii. In Sanskrit the optative practically displaced the subjunctive,
and became the chief potential mood. Whitney tells us that
"instead of their being (as in Greek) both maintained in use, and
endowed with nicer and more distinctive values, the subjunctive
gradually disappears, and the optative assumes alone the office
formerly shared by both” (Sansk. Gr., p. 261). In Greek the history
of the matter has been exactly opposite. In early and classic Greek
the optative is used alongside the subjunctive with about the same
frequency. It is rapidly disappearing in the Koiné period, even in
the literary language. It was extremely rare in the vernacular,
being used only sixty-seven times in the New Testament, and
seldom in the papyri and inscriptions. Robertson thinks that "it
is doubtful if the optative was ever used much in conversation even
in Athens" (R. 325). Indeed, it "was never common in the lan-
guage of the people, as is shown by its rarity in the Attic inscrip-
tions” (R. 326). Winer appends a very suggestive note on the
optative, saying that "it is still a question how far it was used in
the popular speech of the ancient Greeks. It is often the case that
certain forms and constructions embodying refinements of the liter-
ary diction are persistently shunned by the people" (W. 282). The
optative is "a literary mood that faded before the march of the
subjunctive" (R. 936). In Modern Greek the optative has entirely
disappeared (T. 115).
(1) The Voluntative Optative. The optative is the ordi-
nary form of the verb used in the expression of a wish.
This is its most extensive use in the New Testament.
ὁ δὲ κύριος κατευθύναι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας.
May the Lord guide your hearts. 2 Ths. 3:5.
See also: Ac. 8:20; 1 Pt. 1:2.
174
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
"The phrase un YévoɩTO is an optative of wishing which strongly
“The μή γένοιτο
deprecates something suggested by a previous question or assertion.
Fourteen of the fifteen New Testament instances are in Paul's writings,
and in twelve of these it expresses the apostle's abhorrence of an in-
ference which he fears may be (falsely) drawn from his argument"
(Br. 79.).
(2) The Potential Optative. In several instances in the
New Testament the optative serves in a clause which implies
a condition. This use is distinguished by the particle äv.
τί ἂν θέλοι λέγειν;
What would he wish to say? Ac. 17:18.
See also: Lk. 1:62; Ac. 8:31.
Expressed fully the example would read, What would he wish to
say, if he could say anything? These optatives occur as the ful-
fillment of a condition which is implied, and in the great majority
of instances we can supply from the context the implied condition.
(3) The Deliberative Optative. A few times in the New
Testament indirect rhetorical questions are expressed by the
optative. In this construction an unusually doubtful atti-
tude of mind is implied.
διελογίζετο ποταπὸς εἴη ὁ ἀσποσμὸς οὗτος.
å
She was pondering what manner of salutation this might be. Lk. 1:29.
See also: Lk. 22:23; Ac. 17:11.
The Imperative Mood
165. The imperative is the mood of command or entreaty
-the mood of volition. It is the genius of the imperative
to express the appeal of will to will. In ordinary linguistic
communication the primary appeal is from intellect to
intellect, but in the imperative one will addresses another.
It expresses neither probability nor possibility, but only
intention, and is, therefore, the furthest removed from
reality.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
175
i. There is good reason to suppose that the imperative, which is
likely the youngest of the moods, arose in the use of the verb stem as a
sort of interjection, for we find it to be the "simplest possible form of
the verb" (M. 171). Compare the use of deupo, meaning hither, and note
that it "only needs the exclamation mark to make it mean come here"
(M. 172).
ii. The imperative has never been able to secure a field all to
itself, as the indicative and subjunctive and even the infinitive and
participle (also the optative in Attic Greek) do service in the
expression of commands. It has had difficulty in maintaining itself,
having survived in Modern Greek only in a bare residuum. However,
whatever weakening it may have suffered in the rest of the Koiné
does not appear in the New Testament. "The use of the imperative
mood in the New Testament preserves all the refinements of the
classical language" (Simcox: Lang. of the N. T., p. 114).
(1) The Imperative of Command. Where one will makes.
a direct, positive appeal to another the imperative finds its
most characteristic use. The degree of authority involved
in the command, and the degree of probability that the one
addressed will respond are matters but incidental to the
use of the mood. The imperative itself denotes only the
appeal of the will.
ἀγαπᾶτε τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ὑμῶν.
Love your enemies. Mt. 5:44.
See also: Mt. 6:6; 1 Ths. 5:16.
(2) The Imperative of Prohibition. The imperative is
frequently used to express a negative command.
ἐγώ εἰμι, μὴ φοβεῖσθε.
It is I, be not afraid. Jn. 6:20.
See also: 1 Cor. 6:9; Lk. 7:14.
For the distinctions in tense, and difference in the force of
subjunctive and imperative in commands and prohibitions, see
§§288f.
176
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
;
(3) The Imperative of Entreaty. Often the imperative
does not convey the finality of command, but has the force
of urgency or request.
πρόσθες ἡμῖν πίστιν.
Increase our faith. Lk. 17:5.
See also: Mk. 9:22; Jn. 17:11.
(4) The Imperative of Permission. The command signi-
fied by the imperative may be in compliance with an ex-
pressed desire or a manifest inclination on the part of the
one who is the object of the command, thus involving con-
sent as well as command.
εἰ δὲ ὁ ἄπιστος χωρίζεται, χωριζέσθω.
But if the unbeliever depart, let him depart. 1 Cor. 7:15.
See also: Mt. 8:32; 26:45.
Normally the imperative carried with it a very forcible tone of
command. This was its characteristic force, though it might shade
off into mere permission. The ancient Greeks so regarded it, and
hence never employed the imperative in communication with su-
periors. This fact makes it significant that the imperative is so
abundant in the New Testament. The apostles and their associates
did not regard it as appropriate to address their readers "with care-
fully softened commands; and in the imperial edicts of Him who
'taught with authority,' and the ethical exhortations of men who
spoke in His name, we find naturally a large proportion of im-
peratives" (M. 173).
III. TENSE
References: R. 821-910; R-S. 136-146; M. 108-151.
166. No element of the Greek language is of more im-
portance to the student of the New Testament than the
matter of tense. A variation in meaning exhibited by the
use of a particular tense will often dissolve what appears
to be an embarrassing difficulty, or reveal a gleam of truth
which will thrill the heart with delight and inspiration.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
177
Though it is an intricate and difficult subject, no phase of
Greek grammar offers a fuller reward. The benefits are to
be reaped only when one has invested sufficient time and
diligence to obtain an insight into the idiomatic use of
tense in the Greek language and an appreciation of the
finer distinctions in force.
The development of tense has reached its highest in Greek, and
presents its greatest wealth of meaning. "Among all known ancient
languages none distinguishes the manifold temporal (and modal)
relations of the verb so accurately as the Greek” (Bt. 194). And
"in the use of tenses the New Testament writers are by no means
deficient in the requisite skill" (Bt. 195). These considerations
should impress the importance of mastering the use of the Greek
tenses, yet "probably nothing connected with syntax is so imper-
fectly understood by the average student as tense" (R. 821). In
fact, that the Greeks themselves always observed with conscious
accuracy their tense distinctions, Robertson hesitates to conclude
(R. 829). It is certainly unsafe, however, to proceed upon any
supposition other than that the New Testament writer used the
tense which would convey just the idea he wished to express. This
is the rule, and all seeming exceptions are to be regarded with
doubt.
167. The distinctive function of the verb is to express
action. Action as presented in the expression of a verbal
idea involves two elements, time of action and kind of
action. That is, the action may be described as occurring
at a certain time, and must be described, if intelligible, as
performed in a certain manner. Tense deals with these two
aspects of verbal expression, kind of action being the chief
idea involved, for time is but a minor consideration in the
Greek tenses.
+
168. In its temporal relations action may be defined as
either past, present, or future. In Greek these distinctions.
are involved only in the indicative mood, the potential
moods being without temporal significance except that as
a rule they are relatively futuristic. Past time is indicated
178
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
by augment, which is the only purely temporal element in
the formation of the Greek verb. The distinctive verbal
suffixes of the indicative carry temporal implications, but
associated with other ideas.
169. The important element of tense in Greek is kind of
action. This is its fundamental significance. "The chief
function of a Greek tense is thus not to denote time, but
progress" (Br. 6). For this element of tense recent gram-
marians have adopted the German term aktionsart, "kind
of action." The character of an action may be defined
from either of three points of view; it may be continuous,
it may be complete, or it may be regarded simply as occur-
ring, without reference to the question of progress. There
are, therefore, three fundamental tenses in Greek: the
present, representing continuous action; the perfect, repre-
senting completed action; and the aorist (aópioтos, without
limits, undefined), representing indefinite action. "These
three tenses were first developed irrespective of time" (R.
824).
(1) Action as Continuous. Here the principal tense is
the present, which in the indicative is used primarily of
present time. Continuous action in past time is denoted
by the imperfect tense. For continuous action in future.
time the regular future is ordinarily used, though the idea
is best expressed by the periphrastic future.
(2) Action as Complete. Here the principal tense is the
perfect, and in the indicative is contemplated from the
viewpoint of present time. Complete action viewed from
a point in past time is expressed by the pluperfect. Com-
plete action viewed from a point in future time is the future.
perfect.
(3) Action as Occurring. The tense here is the aorist.
It has time relations only in the indicative, where it is past
and hence augmented. It has no distinctive form for
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
179
present and future time, though the present and future
tenses may denote an aoristic force. Modern Greek has
developed a separate form for the aoristic future (T. 125).
The characteristic significance of the aorist is best seen in
the potential moods.
These distinctions are especially vivid in the comparative meanings
of the present, perfect, and aorist infinitives; e.g., toet̃v, to be doing;
TETOLηKÉvaι, to have done; Toiño al, to do (cf. Hadley-Allen: Gr. Gram-
mar, p. 204).
170. There are really two fundamental ways of viewing
action. It may be contemplated in single perspective, as a
point, which we may call punctiliar action (R. 823); or it
may be regarded as in progress, as a line, and this we may
call linear action (M. 109). The perfect tense is a combi-
nation of these two ideas: it looks in perspective at the
action, and regards the results of the action as continuing
to exist; that is, in progress at a given point. Hence the
perfect has both elements, linear and punctiliar. The
aorist may be represented by a dot (•), the present by a
line (-
), and the perfect by the combination of the
two (
i. The evidence is that there "were originally two verb types, the one
denoting durative or linear action, the other momentary or punctiliar
action. Hence some verbs have two roots, one linear (durative), like
❤épw (fero), the other punctiliar (momentary), like ηveykov (tuli). . . .
With other verbs the distinction was not drawn sharply, the root could
be used either way (ef. φη-μί, ἔ-φη-ν; λέγ-ω, ἔ-λεγ-ον). All this
was before there was any idea of later tense. So e-pay-ov is punctiliar,
while oliw is linear or durative" (R. 823). "It is seen that the
Aorist has a 'punctiliar' action; that is it regards action as a point. . .
The Present has generally a durative action-linear, we may call it. . . .
The Perfect action is a variety by itself, denoting what began in the
past and still continues" (M. 109). Thus we see that the present and
aorist are the basic tenses in Greek. It is important to keep this fact
in mind in all our consideration of the matter of tense, and along with
it the fact that neither contains any essential notion of time.
180
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ii. Moulton insists that tense is "a subject on which many of the
most crucial questions of exegesis depend," and that "the notion of
(present or past) time is not by any means the first thing we must
think of in dealing with tenses. For our problem of aktionsart, it
is a mere accident that φεύγω is (generally) present and ἔφευγον,
¿quyov, and quywv past: the main point we must settle is the
distinction between yeʊy and quy which is common to all their
moods" (M. 119).
171. In the analysis of the tenses which we offer here we
have not sought to be exhaustive, but rather suggestive.
To present the Greek tenses in all their variations and dis-
tinctions would result in bewildering the student and im-
pairing his appreciation of this important subject. Sim-
plicity and comprehensiveness have been chiefly in view in
preparing the following analysis of tense functions. It is
hoped and assumed that the student will pursue further a
study of the best grammars and an inductive observation
of the tenses in their various ramifications of meaning.
We can do no more here than introduce and inspire such a
line of investigation.
It would doubtless be more strictly scientific to follow Robertson
in analyzing our treatment of tense on the basis of the three prin-
cipal kinds of action, which he denominates punctiliar, durative,
and perfected. But it lends to simplicity to take up the tenses in
the usual order of their occurrence in the conjugation of the verb,
the order with which the average student is most familiar. Since
we have primarily in view the average student rather than the
scientific scholar, we shall follow that policy. It is true that the
imperfect and pluperfect occur only in the indicative, and the future
has its chief significance there, but, in view of the great abundance
of the indicative in the text of the New Testament, it is well to
give it prominence in the treatment of tenses. It is a working
knowledge of the Greek verb in the New Testament we seek, and
the simplest method of treatment will be most conducive to that
end. It is necessary, though, that we give but little place to the
time element, even in the indicative,
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181
The Present Tense
172. The fundamental significance of the present tense is
the idea of progress. It is the linear tense. This is not,
however, its exclusive significance. It is a mistake to sup-
pose "that the durative meaning monopolises the present
stem" (M. 119). Since there is no aorist tense for present
time, the present tense, as used in the indicative, must do
service for both linear and punctiliar action. But it is to
be borne in mind that the idea of present time is secondary
in the force of the tense. The time element belongs to the
indicative, where the present tense is really the "imperfect
of present time," while what we know as the imperfect tense
is the "imperfect of past time." The progressive force of
the present tense should always be considered as primary,
especially with reference to the potential moods, which in
the nature of the case do not need any "present punctiliar"
tense. In them the aorist serves the purpose for the punċ-
tiliar tense under all circumstances, since they have no
temporal significance. In the indicative the linear sig-
nificance of the present may sometimes be found more or
less remote, being modified by other influences. The other
elements entering into the resultant import of the present
tense are the meaning of the verb itself and the general
significance of the context. That is, in dealing with the
present tense we must consider not only the fundamental
force of the tense, but also the meaning of the verb root,
and the significance of the context. As affected by these
three factors the present tense exhibits several variations
in use.
-
These same three factors are to be considered in dealing with
all the other tenses. Sometimes one, sometimes two, or all three,
exert an influence.
182
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
I
Regular Uses of the Present
173. There are three varieties of the present tense in
which its fundamental idea of progress is especially patent.
To facilitate study we will group these together in a single
class as "regular uses.”
(1) The Progressive Present. This use is manifestly
nearest the root idea of the tense. It signifies action in
progress, or state in persistence, and may be represented
by the graph (——— -). In the indicative it is related
to present time, and because of possible varieties in this
relation to present time it may denote three points of view.
a. The present tense may be used in a sense of descrip-
tion, to indicate that which is now going on. This use
might almost be called the "pictorial present," since its
distinctive force is to present to the mind a picture of the
events as in process of occurrence.
αἱ λαμπάδες ἡμῶν σβέννυνται.
Our lamps are going out. Mt. 25:8.
See also: Mt. 8:25; Jn. 5:7.
b. The present approaches its kindred tense, the perfect,
when used to denote the continuation of existing results.
Here it refers to a fact which has come to be in the past,
but is emphasized as a present reality, as we say, "I learn
that you have moved" (that is, information has come to
me in the past which I now possess).
ἀκούω σχίσματα ἐν ὑμῖν ὑπάρχειν.
I hear that there are divisions among you. 1 Cor. 11:18.
See also: Lk. 15:27; Gal. 1:6.
To say that this use is "present for perfect" (Gildersleeve: Syntax,
p. 87) is not accurately representing the case. It does approach quite
closely the significance of the perfect, but stresses the continuance of
results through present time in a way which the perfect would not do,
for the perfect stresses existence of results but not their continuance.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
183
Το say μανθάνω αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν, I learn that he has gone, has a force
which is approximated only by μεμάθηκα αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν, I have
learned that he has gone.
c. Sometimes the progressive present is retroactive in its
application, denoting that which has begun in the past and
continues into the present. For the want of a better name,
we may call it the present of duration. This use is gener-
ally associated with an adverb of time, and may best be
rendered by the English perfect.
ἀπ' ἀρχῆς μετ' ἐμοῦ ἐστέ.
Ye have been with me from the beginning. Jn. 15:27.
See also: Lk. 13:7; 2 Cor. 12:9.
Gildersleeve appropriately calls this idiom the "present of unity
of time" (op. cit., p. 86), and, like most of the grammarians, gives
it separate classification. But it conduces to a more accurate com-
prehension of the construction to treat it as a special application of
the progressive present. Here the present tense "gathers up past
and present time into one phrase" (M. 119); or in other words,
joins them into a single line, in harmony with the essential force
of the present. Robertson confines the term "progressive" to this
particular idiom, but resorts to this designation as "a poor name
in lieu of a better one" (R. 879). The construction is hard to name,
as we have confessed above, but "progressive" is too good a name
to be hazarded in a doubtful situation, especially when it fits so
well as a general designation for this entire class of uses, which
lie nearest the "progressive" base of the tense function.
(2) The Customary Present. The present tense may be
used to denote that which habitually occurs, or may be
reasonably expected to occur. In this use the temporal
element is remote, even in the indicative, since the act or
state is assumed to be true in the past or future, as well
as the present.
πᾶς γὰρ οἶκος κατασκευάζεται ὑπό τινος.
For every house is built by some one. Heb. 3:4.
See also: Mt. 7:17; 2 Cor. 9:7.
}
]
I
184
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(3) The Iterative Present. The present tense may be
used to describe that which recurs at successive intervals,
or is conceived of in successive periods. It is sometimes
called the present of repeated action.
καθ' ἡμέραν ἀποθνήσκω.
I die daily. 1 Cor. 15:31.
See also: Rom. 8:36; 1 Cor. 11:21.
The difference between the customary and iterative present is not
very pronounced. Both can be represented in the graph (…………..).
Robertson treats them under one head as a single usage (R. 880). But
a distinction there is, though not always clear. In I Cor. 11:21,
ἕκαστος γὰρ τὸ ἴδιον δεῖπνον προλαμβάνει ἐν τῷ φαγεῖν, for each
takes his own supper before the other, when you eat, the reference is not to
a fixed custom, or that which is true in the nature of the case, but to an
evil practice which is persistently recurring in the observance of the
Lord's Supper by the Corinthian church. It is the recurrent fact which
Paul wishes to represent, certainly in the hope that it may not become
a general custom, or fixed habit. We believe there is here a distinction
which deserves notice.
Special Uses of the Present
174. There are several uses of the present tense in which
the root idea is not so evidently patent and which are not
of so frequent occurrence as the regular uses.
(1) The Aoristic Present. Since the indicative has no
distinctive tense for expressing the idea of a present fact
without reference to progress, that is, punctiliar action in
present time, the present tense must be used to perform this
function. The aorist indicative is used to convey this idea.
with reference to past time. The aoristic present sets forth
an event as now occurring.
Αἰνέα, ἰᾶταί σε Ἰησοῦς Χριστός.
Aeneas, Jesus Christ heals thee. Ac. 9:34.
See also: Ac. 16:18; Gal. 1:11.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
185
"This use is a distinct departure from the prevailing use of the
present tense to denote action in progress.
There being in
the indicative no tense which represents an event as a single fact
without at the same time assigning it either to the past or the
future, the present is used for those instances (rare as compared
with the cases of the Progressive Present) in which an action of
present time is conceived of without reference to its progress"
(Br. 9). The student would do well to note in this observation of
Burton's a vivid fore-gleam of the basal significance of the aorist
tense.
(2) The Futuristic Present. This use of the present
tense denotes an event which has not yet occurred, but
which is regarded as so certain that in thought it may be
contemplated as already coming to pass.
ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου παραδίδοται εἰς τὸ σταυρωθῆναι.
The Son of man is delivered to be crucified. Mt. 26:2.
See also: Lk. 3:9; Jn. 14:3.
While the present is thus used "in appearance for the future," it in
reality retains its own temporal and essential force, being employed
to denote a future action "either because it is already firmly
resolved upon or because it follows because of some unalterable law”
(W. 265).
(3) The Historical Present. The present tense is thus
employed when a past event is viewed with the vividness
of a present occurrence.
καὶ ὀψίας γενομένης ἔρχεται μετὰ τῶν δώδεκα.
And when it was evening he comes with the twelve. Mk. 14:17.
See also: Mt. 3:1; Jn. 1:29.
This idiom is possibly a residue from the primitive syntax of the
Indo-European language, when, like the Semitic verb, time rela-
tions were indicated by the context rather than the inflectional
forms. Gildersleeve thinks that it "belongs to the original stock
of our family of languages" and "antedates the differentiation into
imperfect and aorist” (op. cit., p. 86).
186
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(4) The Tendential Present. The present tense may be
used of action which is purposed or attempted, though it is
not actually taking place. It represents the idea of that
which is intended or inclined to occur that which tends
toward realization.
διὰ ποῖον αὐτῶν ἔργον ἐμὲ λιθάζετε;
For which of these works do ye stone me? Jn. 10:32.
See also: Mt. 2:4; Gal. 5:4.
(5) The Static Present. The present tense may be used
to represent a condition which is assumed as perpetually
existing, or to be ever taken for granted as a fact.
πάντα οὕτως διαμένει ἀπ' ἀρχῆς κτίσεως.
All things remain as they were from the beginning of creation.
2 Pt. 3:4.
See also: Jn. 15:27; 1 Jn. 3:8.
While this use is rare, it is nevertheless fully significant of the
genius of the tense. The idea of progress in a verb of action finds
its natural counterpart in an idea of perpetual state in a verb
of being. This use is practically the present of duration applied to
a verb of being.
The Imperfect Tense
175. The imperfect may be regarded as a sort of auxiliary
to the present tense, functioning for it in the indicative to
refer its significance of continuous action to past time.
This fact is exhibited even in the form of the imperfect,
for it is built on the present stem. The imperfect is "a
sort of moving panorama, a 'moving picture show.'
The aorist tells the simple story. The imperfect draws the
picture. It helps you to see the course of the act. It passes
before the eye the flowing stream of history" (R. 883).
That is, "it dwells on the course of an event instead of
merely stating its occurrence" (Goodwin: Greek Moods
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
187
and Tenses, p. 12). The time element is more prominent
in the imperfect than in the present, owing to the fact that
it is exclusively an indicative tense. Since its essential
force is identical with that of the present, it follows that
its uses should be practically parallel.
Webster quotes from Donaldson the following definition of the
imperfect: "The imperfect denotes an incomplete action, one that
is in its course, and is not yet brought to its intended accomplish-
ment. It implies that a certain thing was going on at a specified
time, but excludes the assertion that the end of the action was
attained" (Syntax and Synon. of the Gr. Test., p. 87).
Regular Uses of the Imperfect
176. The regular uses of the imperfect lack but little of
being identical with those of the present.
(1) The Progressive Imperfect. The imperfect is used
to denote action in progress in past time. This is mani-
festly the most characteristic use of the tense. The thought
of process involved in the imperfect may be regarded from
two points of view.
a. The process may be vividly represented as actually
going on in past time. This use we may define as the pro-
gressive imperfect of description.
καὶ πολλοὶ πλούσιοι ἔβαλλον πολλά.
And many rich people were casting in much. Mk. 12:41.
See also: Mt. 3:6; Lk. 15:16.
b. The imperfect may contemplate the process as having
gone on in past time up to the time denoted by the context,
but without any necessary inference as to whether or not
the process has been completed. If the writer wished to
imply that the process had been completed at a given point
in the past, he would normally use the pluperfect. This
we may call the imperfect of duration. It may sometimes
188
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
be associated in thought with a concurrent period of time,
expressed or implied, or with a parallel event. When thus
used, it might be defined as a "simultaneous imperfect."
This use of the imperfect may be rendered in English in
some instances by the continuous past, in others by the
perfect, and in still others by the past perfect. The use of
the tense cannot be determined by the English rendering:
that matter is to be discerned by a close scrutiny of the
context and a discriminating apprehension of the essential
force of the tense.
ἐν τῷ μεταξὺ ἠρώτων αὐτὸν οἱ μαθηταί.
In the meantime his disciples had asked him. Jn. 4:31.
See also: Lk. 2:49; 1 Cor. 3:6.
We have been unable to find in the New Testament any example of
the imperfect which we could adjudge as really corresponding to the
present of existing state. A few instances could possibly be placed in
that class, but we consider them as belonging really to the progressive
imperfect of duration. The imperfect épíλet in Jn. 11:36 approaches
more nearly the idea of existing results than any other example we have
found, but even this instance may be interpreted as an imperfect of
duration. That the student who desires may go further with the inves-
tigation we will list a few additional examples of the imperfects which
we regard as belonging to this class: Mt. 14:4; Lk. 23:8; Ac. 9:31; Rom.
15:22; 1 Jn. 2:7.
(2) The Customary Imperfect. The imperfect may be
used to denote that which has regularly or ordinarily oc-
curred in past time. Here our English expression "used to"
is generally a good rendering.
καὶ ἐπηρώτων αὐτὸν οἱ ὄχλοι.
And the multitudes used to ask him questions. Lk. 3:10.
See also: Mk. 15:6; 1 Cor. 10:4.
(3) The Iterative Imperfect. The imperfect may be
used to describe action as recurring at successive intervals
in past time. The vernacular English "kept on" represents
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
189
quite well the sense. It may be graphically described by a
broken line (----------------) .
τὰς πρωτοκλισίας ἐξελέγοντο.
They kept on choosing out the first seats. Lk. 14:7.
See also: Jn. 19:3; Ac. 3:2.
As we observed relative to the present, the customary and iterative
uses are very close together, but there is a distinction which needs.
to be observed in order to the most accurate interpretation.
Special Uses of the Imperfect
177. As the imperfect differs from the aorist in repre-
senting a process rather than a simple event, it also differs
from the perfect in representing a process and carrying no
sense of completion. Hence as a sort of negative function
the imperfect fails to imply the attainment of the end
toward which progress is made. That is, the imperfect
represents process without attainment. Out of this negative
aspect of the tense are derived three uses which are very
similar, but have a difference in viewpoint which makes it
best to distinguish them.
(1) The Tendential Imperfect. The lack of a sense of
attainment in the imperfect may be emphasized to the
point of a positive implication that the end was not at-
tained, but was only attempted, or that action tended
toward realization. There are quite a number of these
imperfects in the New Testament, and they are one of the
most commonly misinterpreted features of the tenses. The
student should be carefully on the alert to note any occur-
rence of this use of the imperfect.
καὶ ἐκάλουν αὐτὸ Ζαχαρίαν.
And they were going to call him Zachariah. Lk. 1:59.
See also: Mt. 3:14; Ac. 7:26.
190
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(2) The Voluntative Imperfect. The want of attain-
ment in the imperfect prepares it to submit quite easily to
the expression of a desire or disposition, since the state-
ment of a wish itself implies the lack of realization. There
are but a few instances of this usage in the New Testa-
ment, but adequate grammatical treatment requires that
they be recognized as a distinct class.
ἐβουλόμην καὶ αὐτὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἀκοῦσαι.
Indeed, I myself have been rather wanting to hear the man.
Ac. 25:22.
See also: Rom. 9:3; Gal. 4:20; Phlm. 13.
(3) The Inceptive Imperfect. The force of the imper-
fect may revert to the opposite of realization, and signify
the initiation of a process. That is, it may denote the be-
ginning of an action, or that which is upon the point of
occurring. This is well represented in our colloquial idiom
when we say "one went to doing a thing."
καθίσας ἐδίδασκεν τοὺς ὄχλους.
Having sat down he went to teaching the multitudes. Lk. 5:3.
See also: Mk. 5:32; Ac. 3:8; Heb. 11:17.
i. There is no tense in the New Testament which requires and
repays more care in interpretation than the imperfect. The student
should get fixed in mind in the very beginning that it is not identical
with our continuous past, by quite a wide margin. It is also im-
portant to distinguish the imperfect from the other past tenses of
the Greek indicative.
ii. A splendid example of the distinction between the imperfect and
aorist may be found in 1 Cor. 10:4, καὶ πάντες τὸ αὐτὸ πνευματικὸν
ἔπιον πόμα, ἔπινον γὰρ ἐκ πνευματικῆς ἀκολουθούσης πέτρας,
and all drank the same spiritual drink, for they were accustomed to drink
of the spiritual rock which followed them. Here the aorist (ÉπIOV)
states the fact in the history of Israel, while the imperfect (πTIVOV)
describes a continuous custom.
iii. It differs from the perfect in that the perfect views a process as
complete, with the results remaining, while the imperfect views the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
191
process as going on, without implying anything as to its completion.
Thus in Mt. 4:10 YέYраπтαɩ, it is written, refers to the results of a
process of divine inspiration whereby the Old Testament Scriptures are
in existence, while in the following verse dɩŋkóvovv, began ministering,
is the inceptive imperfect and refers to the initiation of a process wherein
the angels were comforting Jesus after his temptation. The same dis-
tinction obtains between the imperfect and pluperfect.
The Future Tense
178. The future is primarily an indicative tense, and
hence the element of time is very pronounced. It does,
however, signify to a large degree the character of the
verbal idea, but instead of presenting progress as the lead-
ing idea as do the present and imperfect-the general
significance is indefinite (aoristic or punctiliar). "This is
due partly to the nature of the case, since all future events
are more or less uncertain" (R-S. 142). The future and
aorist are similar, and quite likely kindred, in form. There
is evidence in the history of the Greek language that the
future arose from the aorist subjunctive. Hence it is but
natural that the punctiliar force of the aorist should sur-
vive in the future (M. 149). As the aorist indicative nar-
rates an event in past time, so the future indicative ex-
presses anticipation of an event in future time. It is this
foretold occurrence of a future event which is its basal
significance, and any qualifying idea is derived from the
context or the nature of the verbal idea.
i. The periphrastic form of the future consisting of μew with
the infinitive, which we quite often meet in the New Testament,
is different in significance from the regular future. It is more
emphatic in force, and contemplates the action as more imminent.
Robertson calls it "a sort of half-way station between the futuristic
present and the punctiliar future" (R. 870).
ii. Outside the indicative the future is but rarely used in the
New Testament. The future optative does not occur at all-in
fact, it has disappeared entirely from the Koiné Greek. The fu-
192
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ture infinitive is rare; the future participle more frequent, but not
abundant (cf. M. 151).
(1) The Predictive Future. The simple, ordinary sig-
nificance of the future tense is to predict an event which is
expected to occur in future time. It is in this use that its
aoristic or punctiliar force is most pronounced.
ἐκεῖνος ὑμᾶς διδάξει πάντα.
He will teach you all things. Jn. 14:26.
See also: Rom. 6:14; Phs. 3:21.
(2) The Progressive Future. Sometimes the context or
nature of the verbal idea requires that the use of the future
tense be construed as denoting the idea of progress in future
time.
ἐν τούτῳ χαίρω · ἀλλὰ καὶ χαρήσομαι.
In this I rejoice, yea, and will continue to rejoice. Phs. 1:18.
See also: Rom. 6:2; 2 Ths. 3:4.
(3) The Imperative Future. The future is sometimes
used in the expression of a command. Since a command
necessarily involves futurity, this is a very natural idiom.
καὶ καλέσεις τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰωάνην.
And thou shalt call his name John. Lk. 1:13.
See also: Mt. 1:21; Jas. 2:8.
"This idiom as it occurs in the New Testament shows clearly the in-
fluence of the Septuagint. It occurs most frequently in prohibitions,
its negative being, as also commonly in classical Greek, not un, but ov”
(Br. 35). But we should be careful not to take this idiom as a Hebraism,
for it is of frequent occurrence in Attic Greek; e.g., Euripides: Medea,
1320,
λέγ' εἴ τι βούλει · χειρὶ δ᾽ οὐ ψαύσεις ποτέ.
Say whatever you wish; you shall by no means touch my hand. Examples
are plentiful (cf. Goodwin: op. cit., p. 19). It is just another case
where parallel idioms appear, in both languages, it being, therefore, the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
193
frequency and not the fact of the idiom in the New Testament which
shows Septuagint influence.
(4) The Deliberative Future. Questions of uncertainty
are occasionally expressed by the future indicative. "Such
questions may be real questions asking for information, or
rhetorical questions taking the place of a direct assertion"
(Br. 36).
κύριε, πρὸς τίνα ἀπελευσόμεθα;
Lord, to whom shall we go? Jn. 6:68.
See also: Rom. 3:6; 10:14.
(5) The Gnomic Future. The statement of a fact or
performance which may be rightfully expected under nor-
mal conditions is expressed by the future tense.
ἕκαστος γὰρ τὸ ἴδιον φορτίον βαστάσει.
For each shall bear his own burden. Gal. 6:5.
See also: Rom. 5:7; Eph. 5:31.
The Aorist Tense
179. We approach now the most prevalent and most
important of the Greek tenses. It is also the most peculiar
to Greek idiom. The fundamental significance of the
aorist is to denote action simply as occurring, without
reference to its progress. It is the indefinite tense (aópioтos,
unlimited). It has no essential temporal significance, its
time relations being found only in the indicative, where it is
used as past and hence augmented. Its true function is best
seen in the potential moods, and should be carefully con-
sidered in interpretation. The aorist signifies nothing as to
completeness, but simply presents the action as attained. It
states the fact of the action or event without regard to its
duration. Thus étoieɩ TOтo means he was doing or used to
do this; πεποίηκε τοῦτο, he has done this; ἐπεποιήκει τοῦτο,
194
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
he had (at some given point in past time) done this; but
¿πoiŋσe toũto means simply he did this, without implying
that the action was either durative or perfective. It presents
the action or event as a "point," and hence is called "punc-
tiliar."
i. The root idea of the aorist has been variously defined by Greek
grammarians. Burton says that "it represents the action denoted
by it indefinitely; i.e., simply as an event" (Br. 16). Quite similar
to this, but not so appropriate, is the definition of Gildersleeve:
"The Aorist states a past action without reference to its duration
simply as a thing attained" (op. cit., p. 103). This definition pre-
sents a defect in the emphasis it gives to the time element. Much
more discriminating and accurate is the observation of Goodwin:
"The aorist indicative expresses the simple occurrence of an action
in past time." He refers the aorist to past time specifically in the
indicative, and then declares concerning the potential moods: "This
fundamental idea of simple occurrence remains the essential charac-
teristic of the aorist through all the dependent moods, however in-
definite they may be with regard to time" (op. cit., p. 19). Moulton
presents a happy expression of the root idea as denoting "an event
as a single whole, without regarding the time taken in its accom-
plishment" (Introd. to Study of N. T. Gr., p. 190). Robertson's
definition is quite similar. He regards the aorist as treating "the
act as a single whole irrespective of the parts of time involved"
(R. 832). Green's definition of the aorist as denoting indefinite
action is to the point (G. 296). Webster, likewise, defines the
aorist as indefinite, stating that it represents the action "as simply
acted, without any distinct statement of progress or completion"
(op. cit., p. 80). The observation of Winer that it signifies "occur-
rence at some former time" (W. 264) applies only to the indicative.
It is strange that Blass should speak of the aorist as the tense
"which denotes completion" (Bl. 193). This definition falls into the
error of making an occasional derived significance fundamental. The
aorist denotes an action simply as an event, without in any sense
defining the manner of its occurrence.
ii. The Aorist and Present Tense Compared. A Greek writer in-
stinctively knew what tense to use in expressing an idea accurately.
The more one studies Greek the more this conviction grows upon him.
At times the same verb is repeated in succeeding clauses, but the tense
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
195
is changed, because the writer was acutely conscious of the distinctive
force of each tense in expressing the state of an action. The play is
entirely upon whether the action is punctiliar-viewed as a single
whole or whether it is the opposite, continuous or repeated. A very
clear and forceful example of this striking play and interplay between
the aorist and present tenses is found in Jn. 10:38: iva yvwte kai
γινώσκητε ὅτι ἐν ἐμοὶ ὁ πατὴρ κἀγὼ ἐν τῷ πατρί, that you may
come to know (ingressive aorist) and continue knowing (progressive pres-
ent) that the Father is in me and I in the Father. Both tenses are again
used in this kind of contrast in Heb. 6:10, "For God is not unrighteous
to forget your work and the love which you showed toward his name;
namely, that you ministered (dɩakovýσ avтes) to the saints and con-
tinue ministering (diakovovvtes)." On the question of the believer's
relation to sin, it is exceedingly important to observe John's use of the
present and aorist tenses in his First Epistle. In 1 Jn. 2:1, he uses the
aorist tense twice with the verb åµaptáveɩv, to sin, “My little children,
I write these things to you ἵνα μὴ ἁμάρτητε, in order that you won't
even commit an act of sin. And ẻáv тis åµáρтη, if anyone does commit a
sin, we have an advocate with the Father." In 3:9 he uses the present
tense with the same verb: "Everyone born of God oỷ πoɩet̃, does not prac-
tice, or continue in sin; because his seed µével, is abiding in him, and he
is not able to ἁμαρτάνειν, continue in sin, because he γεγένηται,
has been born of God." Thus the use of tense may often, when clearly
understood, illuminate passages which in the translations seem difficult.
Regular Uses of the Aorist
180. While the aorist views an action as a single whole, it
may contemplate it from different angles. It may regard
the action in its entirety, which we call the constative aorist;
e.g., enoev, he lived. We might represent the constative
ëšnoev,
aorist in a graph thus: <•>. The action may be regarded
from the viewpoint of its initiation, which we call the in-
gressive aorist; e.g., åπélavεv, he died. The ingressive
aorist might be graphically represented thus: >
When the action is viewed in its results, we call it the cul-
minative aorist; e.g., åπékteɩvev, he killed. It may be indi-
cated in the graph: — <•. The same verb may, in dif-
ferent contexts, present all three views; e.g., Badeĩv may mean
WOR
196
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
throw (constative), or let fly (ingressive), or hit (culminative).
However, the verbal idea as well as the context usually
affects very decidedly the significance of the aorist (cf. M.
130). These modifications of the fundamental idea present
the regular uses. They appear in all four moods, and also
the infinitive and participle.
(1) The Constative Aorist. This use of the aorist con-
templates the action in its entirety. It takes an occur-
rence and, regardless of its extent of duration, gathers it
into a single whole. We have here the basal, unmodified
force of the aorist tense.
τεσσεράκοντα καὶ ἓξ ἔτεσιν οἰκοδομήθη ὁ ναὸς οὗτος.
This temple was built in forty-six years. Jn. 2:20.
See also: Mt. 8:3; Heb. 11:13.
Because of the fact that the constative aorist indicates nothing
relative to duration, this matter may be implied or expressed from
various viewpoints in the context. We may have a constative aorist
referring to a momentary action (Ac. 5:5), a fact or action extended
over a period of time (Eph. 2:4), or a succession of acts or events
(2 Cor. 11:25) (cf. Br. 19f.).
(2) The Ingressive Aorist. The action signified by the
aorist may be contemplated in its beginning. This use is
commonly employed with verbs which signify a state or
condition, and denote entrance into that state or condition.
δι' ὑμᾶς ἐπτώχευσεν.
For your sakes he became poor. 2 Cor. 8:9.
See also: Ac. 15:12, 13; 19:26.
(3) The Culminative Aorist. The aorist is employed in
this meaning when it is wished to view an event in its en-
tirety, but to regard it from the viewpoint of its existing
results. Here we usually find verbs which signify effort
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
197
or process, the aorist denoting the attainment of the end of
such effort or process.
ἐγὼ γὰρ ἔμαθον αὐτάρκης εἶναι.
For I have learned to be content. Phs. 4:11.
See also: Lk. 1:1; Ac. 5:4.
This idiom may be best translated by the English perfect when
it affects a situation present to the writer, and by the pluperfect
when relatively past. "Sometimes the use of an adverb or participle
helps the English" (R. 844). As in the case of the ingressive aorist,
Robertson thinks that the distinctive idea in this construction belongs
to the verb. He calls it the effective aorist, but does not regard
this name as "particularly good" (R. 834). Blass thinks that in
this use the aorist "has extended its province at the expense of
the perfect" (Bl. 199), but in this observation he has in mind the
perfect of his own language rather than of the Greek.
Special Uses of the Aorist
181. In addition to the three uses above, which are
directly related to the root idea of the tense, there are three
other uses in which the force of the aorist is rhetorically
applied.
(1) The Gnomic Aorist. A generally accepted fact or
truth may be regarded as so fixed in its certainty or
axiomatic in its character that it is described by the aorist,
just as though it were an actual occurrence. For this idiom
we commonly employ the general present in English.
ἐν τούτῳ ἐδοξάσθη ὁ πατήρ μου.
In this is my Father glorified. Jn. 15:8.
See also: Lk. 7:35; 1 Pt. 1:24.
i. Sometimes the gnomic aorist is difficult to distinguish from the
culminative aorist. For instance, the distinction is rather obscure in
Rom. 3:23. It is very plausible to take μapтov as a gnomic aorist,
and construe the passage as meaning, "As a general rule all sin and so
fall short of the glory of God." This fits exactly into the present of
Vσтeρойvται. But when we consider the larger context, we find that
ὑστεροῦνται.
198
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Paul has been discussing the fact of sin as universal in the human race,
and would here stress the fact that past experience stands as evidence
that all are condemned under the law, and that all, therefore, fall short
of the glory of God. This idea emphasizes the reality of a fact which
has taken place, hence should be construed as a culminative aorist and
best rendered, all have sinned.
ii. A clear case of the gnomic aorist appears in Gal. 5:24, oi dè toũ
Χριστοῦ τὴν σάρκα ἐσταύρωσαν, which may be rendered, it is the
normal disposition of those who are Christ's to crucify the flesh. There is
difference of opinion among grammarians as to whether the strict
gnomic aorist occurs in the New Testament, but there are unques-
tionably many instances which must be classified under this head
(cf. R. 836f.).
(2) The Epistolary Aorist. A Greek writer would some-
times place himself at the viewpoint of his reader or
readers, and use an aorist indicative in stating an act or
event which was present or future to him.
σπουδαιοτέρως οὖν ἔπεμψα αὐτόν.
The more quickly, therefore, I am sending him. Phs. 2:28.
See also: Ac. 23:30; Col. 4:8.
"This idiom is merely a matter of standpoint. The writer looks
at his letter as the recipient will" (R. 845). It is a case where the
writer "puts himself in the place of his reader and describes as past
that which is to himself present, but which will be past to his reader"
(Br. 21). The epistolary aorist occurs in Latin, and is of very
frequent occurrence in the papyri. "There is therefore no adequate
reason for denying its presence in the New Testament" (R. 846).
(3) The Dramatic Aorist. The aorist may be used for
stating a present reality with the certitude of a past event.
This idiom is a device for emphasis. It is commonly used
of a state which has just been realized, or a result which
has just been accomplished, or is on the point of being
accomplished.
νῦν ἐδοξάσθη ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου.
Now is the Son of man glorified. Jn. 13:31.
See also: Mt. 3:17; 1 Cor. 4:18.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
199
i. Moulton thinks that "we have probably to do here with one of
the most ancient uses of the aorist” (M. 135), and Robertson agrees,
describing this idiom as "possibly the oldest use of the tense"
(R. 841).
ii. Robertson is undoubtedly correct in his contention that the
aorist can never be properly said to be "used for" other tenses.
In fact, this whole practice of saying that one idiom of a language
is used for another results from the projection of one's own idiom
into another language. For instance, a Greek might say that our
simple past is equivalent to the aorist, but that the best English
writers frequently use the present-perfect for the simple past, because
our present-perfect approximates the Greek aorist in certain con-
structions. Yet, as a matter of fact, no English writer ever uses the
present-perfect for anything other than its own function. The same
is true of those who used the Greek tenses. Where two or more
tenses are grouped together in the same context it but proves
"how keen the distinction was felt to be" (R. 838). We sometimes
find the aorist and imperfect side by side, but we are not to conclude
for that reason that either is used for the other. Each performs its
own distinctive function. In such "juxtaposition the aorist lifts the
curtain and the imperfect continues the play". (ibid.; cf. Mk.
12:41-44). Burton sums the matter up correctly when he observes
that the possibility of confusion as to the relation of the aorist to
the perfect results "from the difference between the English and
Greek idiom" (Br. 24).
iii. It is well to notice particularly the difference between the aorist
and present infinitive. The aorist infinitive denotes that which is
eventual or particular, while the present infinitive indicates a condi-
tion or process. Thus TIOTEũoal is to exercise faith on a given occa-
sion, while TɩOTEVEL is to be a believer; dovλevoal is to render a
service, while douλeveɩv is to be a slave; åµapтetv is to commit a sin,
while ȧµaptável is to be a sinner. These distinctions are typical
and basal, though plastic in actual usage.
iv. Robertson calls attention to the difficulty of obtaining an
accurate translation of the aorist. To attempt to translate it
invariably by the simple past of the English would, in the majority
of cases, do violence to the real shade of meaning intended to be
conveyed. We should take into consideration the significance of the
tense, find its relation to the context, consider the nature of the
verbal idea, decide upon the resultant meaning, and select the
200
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
English idiom which will most nearly represent that meaning. Prob-
ably in no point have translators made more blunders than they have
in rendering the aorist. Moulton regards the matter as "so import-
ant that no apology is needed for an extended enquiry." He proves
his sincerity in this statement by devoting six pages to a discussion
of the question (M. 135–140). He gives chief attention to the
relation of the aorist to the English simple past and perfect. There
are also instances in which the English past-perfect best represents
the aorist (cf. Mt. 22:34). No better equipment for interpretation
can be secured than an adequate understanding of this tense.
The Perfect Tense
182. The perfect is the tense of complete action. Its
basal significance is the progress of an act or state to a
point of culmination and the existence of its finished results.
That is, it views action as a finished product. Gildersleeve
significantly remarks that it "looks at both ends of the
action" (op. cit., p. 99). It implies a process, but views
that process as having reached its consummation and exist-
ing in a finished state. The point of completion is always
antecedent to the time implied or stated in connection with
the use of the perfect. It might be graphically represented
thus:
183. In the indicative the perfect signifies action as com-
plete from the point of view of present time. Its exact
meaning is often difficult to render, because of a blending
of the sense with the English simple past. This makes the
impression upon the English student that the line of dis-
tinction between aorist and perfect in Greek is not clearly
marked, but the confusion arises from the effort to explain
the Greek in the terms of our own idiom. It is best to
assume that there is a reason for the perfect wherever it
occurs.
i. It is easy, under the influence of our English idiom, to confuse the
Greek aorist and perfect. But, though it is true that "the line between
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
201
very
the aorist and perfect is not always easy to draw" (M. 141), yet it is
necessary that we always assume that the line is there, and do our best
to find it. The fact is that the two tenses come very close to each other
in actual usage, and in Modern Greek have practically blended, yet
to suppose "that the old distinction of aorist and perfect was already
obsolete" is "entirely unwarrantable" (ibid). The fundamental dif-
ference between the perfect and aorist is vividly illustrated in Col. 1:16.
We have first the statement, ἐν αὐτῷ ἐκτίσθη τὰ πάντα, all
things were created by him, which simply notes the fact that Christ was
the active agent in creation, while the last clause, τὰ πάντα δι' αὐτοῦ
καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται, all things through him and unto him have
been created, views the universe as a result of Christ's creative activity—
it is a "Christ-created universe."
ii. We should certainly in fairness take it for granted that the
New Testament writer intended the differentiation of meaning which
is represented in this distinction, whether we are able to understand
fully his reason or not. One who says that "on the whole, then, it
seems necessary to admit that the distinction between aorist and
perfect is beginning to be obliterated in the New Testament"
(Simcox: op. cit., p. 106), is too much influenced by English idiom.
It is much more in keeping with a sound linguistic sense when
the same writer insists that one "ought, in every case, to look
for a reason for one tense being used rather than the other”
(ibid.).
iii. The reason for the confusion of the Greek perfect and aorist
by the English student is that these tenses in Greek are not
coextensive in their use with the corresponding English tenses.
The Greek aorist is much wider in range than the English simple
past, while the Greek perfect is more restricted in use than the
parallel English tense. An extensive and excellently discriminating
discussion of this point may be found in Br. 23–30.
184. The significance of the perfect tense in presenting
action as having reached its termination and existing in its
finished results lies at the basis of its uses. Emphasis, as
indicated by the context or the meaning of the verb root,
may be on either the completion of the action or on its
finished results. This possible difference in emphasis lies
at the basis of the variation in the uses of the perfect tense.
202
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(1) The Intensive Perfect. It is most in keeping with
the basal significance of the tense to place emphasis upon
the existing results, for it is distinctively the tense of the
"finished product." When special attention is thus directed
to the results of the action, stress upon the existing fact is
intensified. This is the emphatic method in Greek of pre-
senting a fact or condition. It is the strong way of saying
that a thing is. There is no exact equivalent of this idiom
in English, consequently there is no way to give it an
exact translation. Usually its closest approximation is the
English present, but it is important to bear in mind that
it is not a mere duplicate of the Greek present. It pre-
sents an existing fact more forcibly than either the Greek
or English present could possibly do.
ὁ δὲ διακρινόμενος ἐὰν φάγῃ κατακέκριται.
But he who doubts is condemned if he eat. Rom. 14:23.
i. When fully rendered into English the meaning of this passage
is, but he who doubts has already been condemned, and is then in
a state of condemnation if he eat. And even this circumlocution fails
adequately to render the Greek, for it loses the conciseness and
pointed emphasis of the original-it spreads the emphasis out, so
to speak (see also: Lk. 24:46; Jas. 1:6).
ii. Burton calls this use the "Perfect of Existing State," and says
that to it "are to be assigned those instances in which the past is
practically dropped from thought, and the attention turned wholly
to the existing state" (Br. 38). Burton then employs the term
"intensive perfect" in listing a few special verbs the meaning of which
yields naturally to this use, but he makes the separate classification
with expressed hesitation, and we share in his doubt of its propriety.
(2) The Consummative Perfect. The other element in
the dual significance of the perfect tense is completed
action. In the use of the perfect this is sometimes the
phase which is emphasized. Here it is not an existing state,
but a consummated process which is presented. However,
we are not to suppose that the existing result is entirely
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
203
out of sight, for "the writer had in mind both the past act
and the present result" (Br. 38). Otherwise he would have
used the aorist, which in the culminative sense denotes
completed action without reference to existing results. In
the consummative perfect it is not merely the process which
is denoted, but a consummated process, and consummation
implies result.
πεπληρώκατε τὴν Ιερουσαλὴμ τῆς διδαχῆς ὑμῶν.
Ye have filled Jerusalem with your teachings. Ac. 5:28.
See also: Rom. 5:5; 2 Tim. 4:7.
Whatever difference there is between the consummative perfect
and the culminative aorist consists in the reference of the former
to the results of the action. The culminative aorist sees the fact
that the act has been consummated; the perfect sees the existence
of the consummated act. We might make a graphical distinction
thus: culminative aorist, presenting the fact that the process has
been completed,
consummative perfect, presenting the
completed process,
intensive perfect, presenting
the results of the completed process,
These dis-
tinctions are of course theoretical, but they constitute the basis of
practice as we find it in the actual text of the Greek. The English
student finds difficulty here because all three of these points of
view are included in the present-perfect in English.
(3) The Iterative Perfect. The process of which the
completion is represented in the perfect may have been one
of recurrent intervals rather than of continuous progress.
This idiom is a perfect of repeated action, but is a true
perfect, for it is the fact that the recurrent instances have
established a certain result which is denoted by this use
of the tense. Its stress is upon completed action, but the
character of the action is iterative. It is infrequent in the
New Testament.
θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν πώποτε.
No one has seen God at any time. Jn. 1:18.
See also: Jn. 5:37; 2 Cor. 12:17.
204
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(4) The Dramatic Perfect. We have here what in former
classifications of tense usage we have called a special use,
but this single indirect application of the root idea of the
tense would hardly justify separate classification. It is a
rhetorical application of the perfect tense. Since the per-
fect represents an existing state, it may be used for the
purpose of describing a fact in an unusually vivid and
realistic way. The historical present and dramatic aorist
are also used in a sense similar to this, but for this purpose
the perfect is the most forcible of the three. It is like our
vernacular expression when we wish to describe vividly the
expedition and ease with which one does a thing, "The first
thing you know, he has done it." The Greek would just
say, TеTоiηKе TOUTO. Like the intensive perfect, the dra-
matic perfect emphasizes the results of action. In fact, it
is a sort of special rhetorical use of the intensive perfect,
for its emphasis is upon the existing state. The New Tes-
tament writers used this construction quite frequently.
ἀπελθὼν πέπρακεν πάντα ὅσα εἶχεν.
Having gone out he sold all that he had. Mt. 13:46.
i. This passage is found in the parable of the Pearl of Great
Price, and the dramatic perfect as used here stresses the haste and
eagerness with which the man sought to secure for himself the rich
treasure he had found. In colloquial English we would say, "He
goes out, and the first thing you know he's sold everything he has!"
See also: Jn. 1:15; Rev. 5:7.
ii. It is probable that the majority of the so-called "aoristic
perfects" in the New Testament may be included under this head-
if not all of them. Aoristic perfects there may be, for it appears
that the idiom is not unknown in earlier Greek, but the scholars
are not able to agree on the matter as it affects the New Testament.
It is with evident doubt that Moulton admits a bare residuum of
"those which have a fair claim to be thus regarded" (M. 145), and
even some of these are offered as but "tentative," and "propounded
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
205
with great hesitation" (M. 238). Burton, though positively main-
taining that "the perfect tense was in the New Testament some-
times an aorist in force," yet considers that the usage was "confined
within narrow limits," and is found in but "a few forms” (Br. 44).
Robertson admits one case (2 Cor. 2:13) as "possible but not
quite certain," and concludes that "the New Testament writers
may be guilty of this idiom, but they have not as yet been proven
to be” (R. 901, 902). If there are instances of the aoristic perfect
in the New Testament, and possibly there are, the idiom is to be
counted as emphasis upon the punctiliar element in the perfect,
rather than a use of the perfect "for the aorist." It is quite con-
ceivable that the use of the perfect might stress the performance of
an act or the initiation of a state to the extent of a preterite force,
but we should regard the idea of finished result as still present, even
though we are unable to translate it into English. Since the matter
is involved in doubt, we do not give the aoristic perfect as a
separate classification. In fact, it is our definite opinion that
those so regarded in the New Testament are in reality dramatic
perfects.
The Pluperfect Tense
185. Since the pluperfect is but the perfect indicative of
past time, the significance and principal uses are the same.
It represents action as complete and the results of the
action in existence at some point in past time, the point
of time being indicated by the context. The temporal force
of the pluperfect is incidental, arising from its use in the
indicative, but since it is used only in the indicative it
never occurs without time significance. That is to say, the
essential and invariable temporal reference of the pluper-
fect indicative arises ultimately from the mood rather than
the tense.
(1) The Intensive Pluperfect. In the use of the pluper-
fect, as we saw in the perfect, the emphasis may be upon
the existing results. Here stress is laid upon the reality of
the fact, which enables it to be presented with more force
206
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
¡
than could be done with the aorist, but the only device for
construing it in English is the simple past.
ἄνδρες δύο παριστήκεισαν αὐτοῖς.
Two men stood by them. Ac. 1:10.
See also: Lk. 4:41; Jn. 18:16.
(2) The Consummative Pluperfect. The pluperfect may
represent action as a process completed in past time at
some point indicated by the context.
ἤδη γὰρ συνετέθειντο οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι.
For the Jews had already agreed. Jn. 9:22.
See also: Lk. 8:2; Ac. 9:21.
i. There is but one construction in the New Testament which we
can positively conclude is an iterative pluperfect (Lk. 8:29), and
this one occurrence does not justify separate treatment. The dra-
matic pluperfect does not occur at all, since it is the character of
action which is the special point in this construction, and for this
the perfect entirely serves the purpose.
ii. The future-perfect is rare in the New Testament, and its few
occurrences may be interpreted in the light of the basal distinc-
tions which exist in the perfect and pluperfect (cf. R. 906).
The Interpretation of Tense
186. Throughout the foregoing discussion we have per-
sistently reiterated our insistence upon the student's inves-
tigating three matters in forming his conclusion as to the
significance of a particular use of a tense; viz., the basal
function of the tense, the relation to the context, and the
significance of the verbal idea. It is not well to leave the
consideration of tense without making this matter explicit,
for upon the proper apprehension of this process is con-
ditioned the accurate and effective use of whatever knowl-
-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
207
edge of tense the student may have acquired. As an exam-
ple observe Rom. 6:12, μὴ οὖν βασιλευέτω ἡ ἁμαρτία,
therefore, let not sin reign. Here βασιλευέτω is the
present active imperative, third person, singular, from
Baoiλeuw. (1) Note first the tense function. The present
βασιλεύω.
signifies continuous action. (2) As to the contextual rela-
tion, Paul is here discussing the obligation of the believer
to practice pure conduct as the only life commensurate with
the significance of his spiritual experience in salvation,
wherein he was ushered into a new spiritual state. Hence
the prohibition is against the constant domination of sin.
(3) This harmonizes exactly with the significance of the
verbal idea, for Baoiλever means primarily to be engaged
in a process of ruling, though in the aorist it may mean to
become king. The present tense here certainly preserves
its root idea. Hence in the light of the three cardinal con-
siderations in the exegesis of a verb we may render this
passage, "Let not sin go on reigning in your mortal body."
i. If Paul had wanted to say here, "Do not let sin ever reign in your
mortal body," he would normally have used the aorist subjunctive of
prohibition, un Baoiλevon. We would, of course, avoid agitating the
theological problem which smolders just under the surface here, it
being our purpose only to call attention to the linguistic phenomenon.
There can be no doubt that the point Paul intended to emphasize here
was restraint from the constant practice of sin.
ii. The judgment of tense is one of the realms in which the
gravest errors have occurred in the translation and interpretation
of the New Testament. Winer is unquestionably just in bringing
charge that at this point "New Testament grammarians and exposi-
tors have been guilty of the greatest mistakes" (W. 264). This
statement, made a hundred years ago, would perhaps need some
modification now, in view of the encouraging progress made in the
understanding of the Greek tenses since Winer's day, so that "a
multitude of absurdities have been removed" (Bt. 195), but cer-
tainly it is not yet wholly inapplicable.
208
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
iii. Perhaps nothing has been better preserved in Greek than the
idiomatic force of the tenses. While it is going too far to say
that they "are employed in the New Testament in exactly the
same manner as in the Greek authors" (W. 264), yet the wealth
of variety in the Greek tenses was by no means an unconscious
possession of the New Testament writers. Slight changes of mean-
ing and delicate variations are flashed back and forth in many
passages (cf. Mt. 4:11; Rom. 3:23). We have no right whatever
to assume that these writers were using such varieties of tense in
reckless carelessness. A sufficiently close examination, with the
genius of the tense in mind, will generally reveal a significant reason
for each variation. Therefore, "whenever our mode of conception
departs from the tense employed, it is our business to transfer
ourselves to the position of the writer, and take pains in every case
to apprehend the temporal relation which corresponds to the tense
he used, and, if possible, to reproduce it" (Bt. 195). It should be
added to Buttmann's statement that the "temporal relation" is an
entirely subordinate matter, for the aktionsart of the tense is the
preeminent consideration, and the point which the student should
diligently seek to understand.
IV. THE INFINITIVE
References: R. 1051-95; R-S. 187-192; M. 202–218.
187. Intelligent expression inevitably occasions at times
the naming of an action with substantival relations in a
sentence. Here we have noun and verb occupying common
ground. This may be sometimes expressed by an ordinary
noun of action, but is more forcefully expressed by a verbal
substantive. For this function the chief device of language
is the infinitive, which doubtless reached its highest known.
stage of development and variety of usage in the Greek
language.
The Origin and Nature of the Greek Infinitive
188. The infinitive is strictly a verbal noun and not a
mood. Its significance in Greek can never be appreciated.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
209
until this fact is recognized. No idiom is more decidedly
peculiar to the language than this substantive character of
the infinitive. Frequently it occurs in constructions where
its idiomatic nature is so fully demonstrated that even the
novice cannot fail to discern it. A splendid example may
be seen in Heb. 2:15: "Who, because of the fear of death,
were subjects of bondage διὰ παντὸς τοῦ ζῇν, through all
their lives." Here the infinitive (v is accompanied by a
preposition, modified by an adjective, defined by the arti-
cle, and used in the genitive case: distinctive and essential
characteristics of a pure noun. Though this particular ex-
ample is the most elaborate infinitive construction in the
New Testament, yet it is without any doubt typical Greek
usage. Plato has διὰ παντὸς τοῦ εἶναι, a striking parallel
to the example just cited from Hebrews. In the papyri
we find aμa Tý λaßeiv, immediately upon receipt, where
the noun characteristics are not so many as above, but quite
as pronounced (P. Tebt., 421). The exact translation of
such a construction into English is not possible, so the
student must learn to sense the force of the Greek idiom.
་
189. The history of the Greek infinitive shows that it
was a noun in its origin. Its earliest appearance in Sans-
krit is as a derivative abstract noun, usually in the dative
case (Whitney: Sansk. Gram., p. 203). Robertson's thor-
ough review of the matter brings him to the conclusion: "It
is then as a substantive that the infinitive makes its start"
(R. 1052). Goodwin likewise assumes "that the Greek
infinitive was originally developed . . chiefly from the
dative of a primitive verbal noun" (op. cit., p. 297). The
very form of the infinitive manifests its substantival nature,
for it is a relic of declension rather than of conjugation,
representing two primitive noun inflections-the dative and
locative. But while these case forms are conclusively evi-
•
210
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
dent, they are not observed in the actual relations of the
infinitive, for we find that a form which is clearly dative
is used in a nominative or accusative relation (cf. R. 1057).
It may be that its assumption of verbal characteristics and
functions caused the Greek infinitive to lose its substantive
inflection. But this obscuration of its formal significance
had no effect upon its essential noun force.
190. The beginning of voice and tense in the infinitive
must be consigned to the prehistoric period of the Greek
language. Voice of the infinitive is not found in Sanskrit
and is found in Homer; consequently it must have been
after the origin of the Greek as a distinct language that the
infinitive assumed voice distinctions. It is certain that
voice and tense are a secondary development, and that sub-
stantive form and function are original (cf. R. 1079).
i. Robertson says of the history of the infinitive: "The story is
one of the most interesting in the history of language” (R. 1056).
The primitive Greek infinitive was nothing more than a noun in the
dative or locative case, without tense or voice. Other functions
later accrued to its use, but the noun force it never lost. In the
Homeric infinitive the case significance has become very much ob-
scured, and strict verbal elements have appeared, both as to form
and function; yet it still retains some of its original case distinc-
tion, and the article is not yet used with it. In the Attic the infini-
tive reaches the zenith of its development. It has lost entirely
the significance of its dative and locative case forms, but retains
in full its noun force and assumes all the case functions (except
vocative, if that may be called a case). In this stage we find the
article with the infinitive, helping to preserve its substantive char-
acter. The Koine infinitive maintains all its classical force and
varieties of use, but evidences of decay appear as the period ad-
vances. In Modern Greek only fragments of the infinitive remain
(cf. T. 116). “Outside the Pontic dialect the infinitive is dead, both
anarthrous and articular, save with the auxiliary verbs” (R. 1056).
ii. Proper understanding of the Greek infinitive is conditioned
upon an adequate apprehension of its dual character. As an aid
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
211
to that end we will present in parallel columns a list of its noun
and verb characteristics.
As a noun:
It has case relations.
It is accompanied by a preposi-
tion.
It is used as a subject.
It is used as an object.
It modifies other words.
As a verb:
It has voice.
It has tense.
It takes an object.
It is qualified by adverbs.
It takes the article.
It is qualified by adjectives.
Note that the noun characteristics are in the ascendancy.
The Articular Infinitive
191. Nothing distinguishes the noun force of the infinitive
more than its use with the article. Gildersleeve says: "By
the substantial loss of its dative force the infinitive became
verbalized; by the assumption of the article it was sub-
stantivized again with a decided increment of its power"
(Am. Jour. of Phil. III, p. 195). The articular infinitive
was a distinctively Attic idiom, though not exclusively so,
for it occurs a few times in other Greek dialects. It ap-
pears with relative frequency in the New Testament, and
is there true to Attic usage (cf. M. 214). This item is one
of the proofs of the general good quality of New Testa-
ment Greek, as is clear by comparison with the papyri.
192. The presence of the article with the infinitive has
no fixed effect upon its varieties in use. That is, a par-
ticular use may occur with or without the article, at the
option of the writer, in accordance with his desire to make
the expression specific or general (see $146, iii). As to
the New Testament, an apparent exception to the above
statement is the infinitive with a preposition, which is
always articular; but the anarthrous infinitive with a
212
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
preposition occurs elsewhere in Biblical Greek, and also in
the literary Koiné (cf. Votaw: Inf. in Bib. Gr., p. 5; Allen:
Inf. in Polybius, etc., p. 49), hence the absence of this con-
struction from the New Testament must be regarded as
incidental. A thorough canvass of the evidence leads to
the conclusion that the article made no radical change in
the function of the infinitive. It cannot be said, however,
that it was without effect. The article influenced the
infinitive at two points.
(1) Historical Significance. The article "did serve to
restore the balance between the substantive and verbal
aspects of the infinitive" (R. 1054). We have observed
that the infinitive originated as a noun with dative-locative
ending. In Homer the significance of this case form has
faded to a bare trace, and verbal characteristics are gain-
ing in prominence. The decided direction of development
here is toward the loss of the substantive nature. But
another line of development in Greek comes in just here to
save the noun force of the infinitive. The article is arising
from a primitive demonstrative pronoun, and assuming its
function of particular designation, and its intimate connec-
tion with the substantive. But the fact that in Greek it
was not confined in use exclusively to the substantive per-
mitted it to be employed with the infinitive-along with
other parts of speech. Henceforth the increase in use of
the articular infinitive keeps pace with the growth of the
article. There can be no reasonable doubt that this asso-
ciation of the infinitive with the article helped to sustain
the substantive force of the infinitive.
(2) Grammatical Significance. In some constructions
the infinitive appears more natural with the article as an
indication of its distinctive case; as, for instance, when it
is the object of a verb which takes the genitive (2 Cor.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
213
1:8), or when it is used with a preposition (cf. Mk. 4:6
and Gal. 3:23).
a. The article unquestionably makes the infinitive more
adaptable to use with prepositions. This, in fact, is the most
prevalent use of the articular infinitive in the New Testa-
ment, there being some two hundred occurrences of it, as
compared with the entire absence of such a use of the anar-
throus infinitive and thirty-three telic uses of the articular
infinitive-the next use in order of frequency (cf. Votaw:
op. cit., pp. 46, 47). When employed with prepositions, the
articular infinitive conforms with regular case usage. For
instance, diά with Tou means through (Heb. 2:15), while
with ró it means because (Jas. 4:2).
b. Without the preposition we commonly find the articular
infinitive in the appropriate case.
The infinitive with Tó is
generally in harmony with the case significance of the
article, occurring in nominative and accusative constructions.
The infinitive with Toũ is frequently found modifying a noun
in the normal way (Heb. 5:12), or as object of a verb which
regularly takes the genitive (Lk. 1:9), or ablative (Rom.
15:22). It is also employed widely in expressions of purpose,
occasionally for result, and for various other constructions.
It is quite a frequent construction. We find re used with
the infinitive without the preposition but once in the entire
New Testament, and there it is the instrumental of cause
(2 Cor. 2:13). The infinitive with r is almost invariably
accompanied by the preposition év.
c. It is to be observed, however, that the conformity of
the case of the article with the case relation of the infini-
tive is not a fixed rule. We may find, for instance, a subject
infinitive accompanied by roũ (Ac. 27:1).
i. The parallel uses of the anarthrous and articular infinitive may
be best exhibited by presenting a brief tabular view of their com-
214
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
parative number of occurrences in a few of the principal infinitive
constructions. We get these figures from Votaw (op. cit., pp. 46,
47):-
Subject Object
1104
29
Anarth. Inf……….. 289
Artic. Inf...
27
Preposi-
Apposi- tional
tion Object Purpose Result
13
82
261
33
5
4
200
ii. Prof. Votaw's work, which was prepared with extreme care by
a scholar of extraordinary ability, discloses to us that the infinitive
is used 2276 times in the New Testament, of which 1957 occurrences
are anarthrous, and 319 articular.
The Uses of the Infinitive
193. There is no other part of speech more widely used
in the New Testament than the infinitive. Its dual nature
enables it to perform a large number and variety of func-
tions. These functions may be classified under the two
phases of its character, verbal and substantival. The two
phases are both present in all its uses, but one is naturally
more prominent than the other. It is by this comparative
prominence that we determine the classification.
Verbal Uses of the Infinitive
194. Here we place those uses in which the relation of
the infinitive to its context is defined chiefly by its char-
acter as a verb. That is, it functions just as would a
finite verb of the appropriate mood in a dependent, or (in
one use) in an independent clause.
(1) Purpose. The infinitive may be used to express the
aim of the action denoted by the finite verb. This is a
very common New Testament method for expressing pur-
pose.
καὶ ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ.
And we have come to worship him. Mt. 2:2.
See also: Mt. 5:17; Lk. 1:77.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
215
Purpose may be expressed by the simple infinitive, the infinitive with
Toũ (Ac. 9:15), the infinitive with a preposition (eis, 1 Ths. 3:5; πρós,
πρός,
Mt. 6:1), or with wσTE (Lk. 4:29) or ws (Lk. 9:52).
(2) Result. There are a few instances in the New Tes-
tament (eighty-six according to Votaw, op. cit., pp. 46, 47)
where the infinitive is clearly used to signify result. The
distinction between purpose and result is far from exact,
and in many constructions there is a blending of the two
in which it is difficult to decide which should be regarded
as the more prominent, but in quite a number of instances
the significance of result is perfectly clear.
εὐοδωθήσομαι ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ὑμᾶς.
I shall be prospered to come to you. Rom. 1:10.
See also: Ac. 5:3; Rom. 7:3.
i. Result may be expressed by the simple infinitive (Col. 4:3), the
infinitive with тoũ (Ac. 18:10), and the infinitive with eis (Ac. 7:19).
Most frequently the infinitive of result is used with wσre (Lk. 12:1).
ii. There are three points of view from which result may be
expressed by the infinitive. It may represent actual result (Mk.
9:26); it may represent conceived result, that which follows in the
nature of the case, or is assumed as a consequence (1 Cor. 13:2); it
may represent intended result, when the result is indicated as ful-
filling a deliberate aim (Lk. 20:20). The last-mentioned construc-
tion is a blending of purpose and result.
(3) Time. The infinitive may be used as the equivalent
of a temporal clause. But "temporal relations are only
vaguely expressed by the infinitive" (R. 1091). It does
not have within itself any significance of time, but may
derive a temporal meaning from the context and its use
with a preposition or particle. Three viewpoints of time
are presented by this usage in the New Testament.
a. The infinitive with πρίν or πρὶν ἤ is used to express
antecedent time.
πρὶν ἢ δὶς ἀλέκτορα φωνῆσαι.
ĥ
Before the cock crow twice. Mk. 14:30.
See also: Jn. 4:49; Ac. 2:20.
216
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
b. In the locative construction with év T the infinitive
denotes contemporaneous time.
καὶ ἐν τῷ σπείρειν αὐτόν.
As he was sowing. Mt. 13:4.
See also: Lk. 1:21; Ac. 9:3.
c. The infinitive with μerà Tó is used to express subse-
quent time.
μετὰ τὸ ἐγερθῆναί με.
After I have risen. Mt. 26:32
See also: Lk. 12:5; Ac. 1:3.
(4) Cause. The accusative infinitive with diά is a very
natural construction for the expression of cause.
εὐθέως ἐξανέτειλεν διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν βάθος γῆς.
Immediately it sprang up because it had no depth of earth. Mt. 13:5.
See also: Mk. 5:4; Jas. 4:2.
There is but one instance of the articular infinitive without a
preposition being used in the New Testament to express cause
(2 Cor. 2:13). In this construction the infinitive is generally accom-
panied by dia Tó, though once we find Evekev Toυ (2 Cor. 7:12).
(5) Command. This is commonly called "the imperative
infinitive." It is the only independent use of the Greek
infinitive, and is not of very frequent occurrence. "It is of
ancient origin, being especially frequent in Homer" (Br.
146). The construction suggests a close kinship between
the infinitive and imperative. In fact, "the probability is
that imperative forms like dei au
are infinitive in
origin" (R. 943). Though this idiom is rare in the New
Testament, it is a current Koiné usage, for the papyri con-
tain many occurrences of it. Moulton thinks that its
rarity in the New Testament is a "matter for surprise"
(M. 180).
εἰς ὃ ἐφθάσαμεν, τῷ αὐτῷ στοιχεῖν.
Whereunto we have attained, by this walk. Phs. 3:16.
See also: Rom. 12:15; Tit. 2:2.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
217
i. An example of the imperative infinitive in patristic Greek may
be found in the Didaché, 14:3: προσφέρειν μοι θυσίαν καθαράν,
offer to me a pure sacrifice.
ii. The infinitive in indirect discourse is the practical equivalent
of a clause, and may be expressed with a finite verb, for which
reason it might be justly included under the present classification.
But it is also to be regarded as the object of a verb of saying. It
is classified by Votaw as a variety of the infinitive used as a verbal
object (op. cit., pp. 8f.). Hence verb force and noun force are quite
evenly balanced in this construction. This use of the infinitive will
come in for more prominent notice at $285.
Substantival Uses of the Infinitive
195. In some constructions the relation of the infinitive
to its context exhibits more clearly its character as a noun.
It performs the typical noun functions of subject, object,
indirect object, instrument, apposition, and substantive
modifier.
(1) Subject. The infinitive may function in exactly the
same way that a noun would as the subject of a finite verb.
We have the same usage in English; for instance, "To pre-
vent the deed was his purpose.'
""
τὸ γὰρ θέλειν παράκειταί μοι.
For to will is present with me. Rom. 7:18.
See also: Mt. 3:15; Eph. 5:12.
(2) Object. The substantive character of the infinitive
enables it quite readily to serve as the object of a finite
verb.
καὶ ἐζήτουν αὐτὸν κρατῆσαι.
And they sought to lay hold on him. Mk. 12:12.
See also: 2 Cor. 8:11; Phs. 2:6.
This use is generally with verbs the meaning of which adapts
itself naturally to an infinitive complement. This is in line with
the fundamental relationship of the object to its verb, for a sub-
stantive object is essentially the complement of the verbal idea.
218
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
We would, therefore, include under this head most of the cases of
the so-called "complementary infinitive." The complementary in-
finitive used with nouns or adjectives is really an infinitive modifier,
and close scrutiny will always disclose the case relation.
(3) Indirect Object. An infinitive may function as the
secondary object of a verb, just as would a noun in the
dative case. This use of the infinitive conveys a mild telic
force, being used to express "that for which or with refer-
ence to which the action or state of the governing verb is
performed or exists" (Votaw: op. cit., p. 11; cf. Br. 147).
ἡ ἀδελφή μου μόνην με κατέλειπεν διακονεῖν.
My sister has been leaving me to serve alone. Lk. 10:40.
See also: Lk. 7:40; Ac. 7:42.
(4) Instrument. The infinitive sometimes functions as
a noun in the instrumental case, "to define more closely the
content of the action denoted by a previous verb or noun"
(Br. 150). Burton classifies this use as a species of the
infinitive of conceived result, but its essential function is
that of a noun in the instrumental case.
ὁ Χριστὸς οὐχ ἑαυτὸν ἐδόξασεν γενηθῆναι ἀρχιερέα.
Christ glorified not himself by becoming a high priest. Heb. 5:5.
We have here a sort of instrumental of material, used metaphori-
cally to describe more fully the content of the verbal idea. In Ac.
15:10, "Why tempt ye God by putting (éπɩßeĩvaɩ) a yoke upon the
neck of the disciples," the infinitive phrase explains more fully what
is meant by tempting God. The instrumental of cause is clear in the
use of the infinitive in 2 Cor. 2:13, "I had no relief for my spirit
because of not finding (tó̟ µǹ evpeĭv) Titus my brother.”
(5) Apposition. The infinitive is found in apposition
with a substantive.
ὁ ἁγιασμὸς ὑμῶν ἀπέχεσθαι ἀπὸ τῆς πορνείας.
Your sanctification is to abstain from fornication. 1 Ths. 4:3.
See also: Ac. 15:28; Jas. 1:27.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
219
(6) Modifier. Just as substantives may modify one an-
other in various case relations, so an infinitive may modify
a substantive. Many nouns and adjectives have a meaning
which is specially adapted to an infinitive construction,
such as authority, need, ability, fitness, etc.
a. The infinitive may modify a noun in a typical sub-
stantive relation.
ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ἐξουσίαν τέκνα θεοῦ γενέσθαι.
He gave them the right to become children of God. Jn. 1:12.
See also: Mt. 3:14; Rev. 11:18.
b. The infinitive may modify an adjective with a regular
substantive function.
ovk eiµì ikavòs Xũoal.
I am not worthy to loose. Mk. 1:7.
See also: 1 Cor. 7:39; 1 Pt. 1:5.
i. The substantive force of the infinitive modifier may be seen
by substituting in its place a noun in the same case relation. So
in Jn. 1:12 we might read, "He gave them the right of a condition
as children of God"; while Mk. 1:7 may be changed to, "I am
not worthy of the most humble service."
ii. A typical illustration of the idiomatic force of the Greek infinitive
may be seen in Heb. 5:11, where it is used in exactly the relation of an
adverbial accusative of reference: περὶ οὗ πολὺς ὑμῖν ὁ λόγος καὶ
δυσερμήνευτος λέγειν, concerning whom we have much to say and hard
to be explained, which, literally rendered, would read, concerning whom
we have an important discourse, and one hard of interpretation with reference
to its statement (cf. Gal. 5:3). A descriptive genitive may be found in
Rom. 13:11: ὥρα ἤδη ὑμᾶς ἐξ ὕπνου ἐγερθῆναι, it is high time already
for you to be awakened out of sleep; i.e., it is already the hour of your
awaking out of sleep. An equivalent of the genitive of apposition
occurs in Lk. 2:1: ἐξῆλθεν δόγμα ἀπογράφεσθαι πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκου-
µévŋv, there went out a decree that all the world should be enrolled; i.e.,
a decree of enrollment for the whole world; likewise in Rom. 1:28: eis
ἀδόκιμον νοῦν, ποεῖν τὰ μὴ καθήκοντα, to a reprobate mind, to do
those things which are not becoming; i.e., to a mind of unbecoming deeds.
The infinitive thus used with the force of a substantive modifier is
220
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
frequent in the New Testament. It is hardly possible to emphasize
too much the importance of keeping in mind the substantive char-
acter of the Greek infinitive.
V. THE PARTICIPLE
References: R. 1095–1141; R-S. 193–198; M. 220–232.
196. There are few languages which have equalled the
Greek in the abundance and variety of its use of the par-
ticiple, and certainly none has surpassed it. The Greek
participle is found in all three of the principal tenses, and
the future in addition, and in all three voices. There is a
wide range in the variation of its "logical force or modal
function" (Br. 163); that is, the different modes of expres-
sion in which it is employed. This wealth of significance
which belonged to the Greek participle at the zenith of its
development lies undiminished before the student of the
New Testament, and becomes a valuable asset in interpre-
tation when adequately comprehended. The comparatively
generous use of the participle in English greatly facilitates
the matter of translation. "The English participle is much
like the Greek in its freedom and adaptability" (R-S. 193).
The Origin and Nature of the Participle
197. The participle, like the infinitive, is not a mood but
a verbal substantive. But while the infinitive maintained
itself as a noun, the participle became an adjective. It,
therefore, developed inflectionally much more than the in-
finitive, and came to be declined as an ordinary adjective
with variations in form for gender, number, and case. It
took on the distinctions of voice and tense very early in its
history, exhibiting these characteristics even in the Sanskrit.
i. The participle became an adjective at a very primitive stage
of its development, and did not, as the infinitive, lose the significance
of its inflectional form. It continued to be in form, as well as func-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
221
tion, an adjective. The verbal characteristics of voice and tense
and contextual relations, such as subject, object, etc., did not dis-
place the adjectival elements, but were simply added to them. In
Sanskrit the participle was superior to the infinitive in develop-
ment. Whitney tells us that participles are found representing both
voices and all the tense stems except the periphrastic future and
aorist (op. cit., p. 220). The earlier language had the aorist parti-
ciple, but it has disappeared from the later Sanskrit. In Homer
"the participle occurs as a fully developed part of speech" (R.
1098). It flourishes abundantly in the classical Greek, and is found
on the increase in the literary Koiné, but was not popular in
vernacular usage, as is witnessed by the papyri. Here again the
New Testament as a whole inclines toward literary usage, for in
it the participle is extensively used, though not so much as in
the strictly literary Koiné. In Modern Greek the participial con-
struction is fading, but still survives and is represented in active,
middle, and passive voices (T. 168).
ii. The extent of participial usage in the New Testament varies
with different authors, in accordance with their literary training
and taste. Luke shows the greatest fondness for the participle,
particularly in the book of Acts. Especially noticeable is the fre-
quency in the New Testament of the aorist participle. This is
typical Greek usage, for though the aorist participle was lost from
the Sanskrit and fails to appear in the Latin, yet it is very abundant
in Greek, doubtless due to the fact that Greek is an "aorist-loving
language" (Broadus).
The Participle Compared With the Infinitive
198. Because of their intimate relations in nature and
function it is not amiss for us to get a comprehensive view
of the infinitive and participle compared. There are cer-
tain points of similarity, and just as decided points of dif-
ference. It will be noticed that the differences exceed con-
siderably the similarities.
-
(1) Similarities. In their general character both belong
to the class of verbal substantives, and may be used with
or without the article. Both are indefinite in their bearing
222
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
upon the limits of action; that is, they are infinitival in
nature.
(2) Differences. The infinitive is an indeclinable noun,
which originally had a fixed dative-locative ending, but in
historical Greek is used in all the cases, though only in the
singular number. On the other hand, the participle has a
pronounced adjective function, following the adjective rule
of agreement with the noun, and declined in both numbers
and in all the genders and cases. The substantive form of
the infinitive has lost its significance, while the adjective.
form of the participle is fully recognized. The infinitive
is ordinarily connected closely with the verb, while the
participle is more intimately related to the subject or object.
The participle generally contemplates action as real, while
the infinitive implies the potential. For instance, in Lk.
16:3, "to beg I am ashamed," the infinitive éπauтev con-
templates an undesirable possibility; while to make the
statement represent an actual fact in process of occurrence,
the participle would be more adaptable; e.g., παιтv
ἐπαιτῶν
aioxúvoμai, I am ashamed because I am begging. There
is, however, a margin in which they come very near each
other in function; as, for instance, in indirect discourse.
But their significance in indirect discourse is not to be
regarded as identical (cf. R. 1103).
An interesting point of differentiation between the infinitive and
participle may be cited from a work belonging to the middle of the
nineteenth century:
The use of the infinitive in dependent clauses may be thus dis-
tinguished from the use of the participle. The infinitive is used
when the real object of the governing verb is an act or state, yvw-
σουσι τρέφειν τὴν γλώσσαν ἡσυχώτεραν. The participle is
used when the real object of the governing verb is a person or thing
whose act or state is described by the participle, дρã ävlρwπоV
ἀποθνήσκοντα. The infinitive is a substantive expressing an act
or state; the participle is an adjective expressing an act or state; if,
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
223
then, the object of a verb is an act or state, the verb is followed
by an infinitive, used like a common noun. But when the object
of a verb is a person or thing, the participle agrees with the
object, and expresses its act or state. (Jacob: Greek Grammar,
$135.)
To this we may add some observations of Webster, from whose
work the above quotation is adopted:
The infinitive is most frequently used as a supplement of other
ideas, and especially of verbal ideas. If the idea expressed
by a verb is complete, the verb denotes an independent event,
or an action finished in itself. If the idea is incomplete, the
verb requires a more accurate definition by way of supplement
to convey the idea with perfect clearness.
Verbs which
denote the operation of sensation require only the supplement
of the object to which the feeling is directed, and by which
it is excited. This is expressed by the participle. Other verbs
which express an incomplete idea are supplemented by the
epexegetical infinitive, expressive of object, design, purpose
(op. cit., p. 108).
The Classification of the Participle
199. This matter has occasioned great diversity of opinion.
among Greek grammarians. In observation of this fact
reference may be had to such standard treatises as Hadley
and Allen, Goodwin, Burton, Robertson, etc. Hadley and
Allen divide participles into two classes, attributive
and predicate, and subdivide the latter into circumstantial
and supplementary (op. cit., p. 302). Goodwin offers a
threefold classification, attributive, circumstantial, and
supplementary, but admits that the "distinction between the
second and third of these classes is less clearly marked than
that between the first and the two others" (op. cit., p. 329).
Burton divides them into three classes, adjective, adverbial,
and substantive (Br. 163); and Robertson into two, adjec-
tival and verbal (R. 1103f.). We propose here the two-
fold classification of adjectival and adverbial participles,
224
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
agreeing with Robertson that "the only way to get sym-
metry in the treatment of the participle is to follow the
line of its double nature (adjectival and verbal) and discuss
the adjectival functions and verbal functions separately"
(R. 1104). We have tried to offer some improvement in the
direction of simplification.
The Adjectival Participle
200. In keeping with its essential character, the parti-
ciple may be used directly to limit or qualify a noun.
This qualification may be only a general ascription of that
which characterizes, or a clearly marked restriction to cer-
tain facts which define. We have, therefore, two uses of
the adjectival participle.
(1) The Ascriptive Use. In this function the participle
ascribes some fact, quality, or characteristic directly to the
substantive, or denotes the substantive as belonging to a
general class. This is its most typical use as an adjective.
It appears in the regular adjective capacities of attributive,
predicate, and substantive.
a. The participle, like the adjective, may modify the
noun in the attributive relation. This construction may
occur without the article.
ἠκρίβωσεν τὸν χρόνον τοῦ φαινομένου ἀστέρος.
He ascertained the time of the appearing star. Mt. 2:7.
See also: Lk. 1:17; Ac. 10:1.
b. The participle may be used like an adjective in the
predicate, after a verb of being.
ἤμην δὲ ἀγνοούμενος τῷ προσώπῳ ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις.
But I was unknown by face to the churches. Gal. 1:22.
See also: Lk. 1:10; Ac. 5:25.
It is important to note a distinction observed by Burton between
three possible uses of the predicate participle. It may be a sub-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
225
stantive participle which happens to stand in the predicate (Mk.
10:22); or it may be joined in sense to the copula in a periphrastic
verb form (Lk. 5:17); or it may function as a pure predicate
adjective, just as in the above example (see Br. 168).
c. When the participle is not accompanied by a noun it
may function as a substantive. This construction may be
found with or without the article. It may be used as sub-
ject, object, or modifier.
ὁ φοβούμενος αὐτὸν δεκτὸς αὐτῷ ἐστίν.
The one fearing him is acceptable to him. Ac. 10:35.
See also: Jn. 7:32; Heb. 2:9.
Here we have a construction analogous to the substantive adjec-
tive. The actor is identified in the action, rather than by a specific
term of designation. This idiom also approaches the function of
the infinitive.
(2) The Restrictive Use. The participle may denote an
affirmation that distinguishes the noun which it qualifies as
in some way specially defined, or marked out in its par-
ticular identity. This use approximates the function of a
restrictive relative clause, and may usually be so trans-
lated in English. It is to be differentiated from the ascrip-
tive use in that, while the ascriptive participle only assigns
a quality or characteristic, the restrictive participle denotes
distinctiveness.
οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ ἄρτος ὁ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καταβαίνων.
This is the bread which cometh down from heaven. Jn. 6:50.
See also: Mt. 10:4; Ac. 4:36.
The restrictive participle is not, strictly speaking, a different use
from the ascriptive participle, but an extension in use. It is the
ascriptive participle used to define in its distinctive identity the
word which it modifies. Its force is discerned in the general sense
and the context. If the restrictive participle denotes a fact assumed
as obvious or already known, it becomes explanatory in function (2
Cor. 2:17). A substantive participle may be used in the restrictive
sense (Mt. 10:37; Ac. 10:35).
226
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
The Adverbial Participle
201. This is the use in which the participle is involved.
in the relation of the noun which it modifies to the action
or state expressed in the main verb, and exhibits predomi-
nant verbal characteristics. Robertson treats these uses
under the head of "Verbal Aspects of the Participle" (R.
1110ff.). We have adopted Burton's terminology for this
class (Br. 169ff.). Though in these uses the sense of the
participle may be rendered with a clause, we cannot cor-
rectly assume that it is the syntactical equivalent of a
clause, for its adjective force is retained and relates it inti-
mately with the noun as well as the verb. It is simply an
adjective used to modify a verb, and hence may be appro-
priately called adverbial. The varieties in adverbial use
come, not from alterations in the essential function of the
participle, but from variations in the relation of its noun
to the main verb and the context. To indicate clearly the
significance of the different uses, we translate them below
with adverbial clauses, but let the student bear in mind
that most frequently that does not preserve the exact sig-
nificance. Most often the English participle will best
render the Greek, for Greek and English are very similar
in their use of this idiom.
(1) The Telic Participle. Purpose may be denoted by
the participle; ordinarily, though not invariably, future. In
Ac. 15:27 we find a present participle used to express pur-
pose. This, however, is rare. In fact, the purpose par-
ticiple is not a frequent occurrence in any form.
ἴδωμεν εἰ ἔρχεται Ἠλείας σώσων αὐτόν.
Let us see if Elijah comes to save him. Mt. 27:49.
See also: Ac. 3:26; Rom. 15:25.
(2) The Temporal Participle. The participle is used in
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
227
the sense of a temporal clause, where it may be translated
in English by when, after, or while.
ἰδόντες δὲ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐχάρησαν.
And when they saw the star they rejoiced. Mt. 2:10.
See also: Rom. 4:10; 2 Cor. 2:13.
(3) The Causal Participle. The participle may denote
that which is the ground of action in the main verb. Here
it functions in the same general relation as a causal clause
introduced by because or since.
ἐδέξαντο αὐτὸν πάντα ἑωρακότες ὅσα ἐποίησεν.
They received him because they had seen all that he did. Jn. 4:45.
See also: Mt. 3:6; 1 Tim. 4:8.
"Os prefixed to a Participle of Cause implies that the action
denoted by the participle is supposed, asserted, or professed by
someone, usually the subject of the principal verb, to be the cause
of the action of the principal verb. The speaker does not say
whether the supposed or alleged cause actually exists" (Br. 170).
(4) The Conditional Participle. The participle may
function as the protasis of a conditional sentence.
ἐξ ὧν διατηροῦντες ἑαυτοὺς εὖ πράξετε.
From which, if ye keep yourselves, ye will do well. Ac. 15:29.
See also: Lk. 3:11; Heb. 2:3.
(5) The Concessive Participle. The participle may de-
note a sense of concession, being used either with or with-
out the concessive particle.
εἰ γάρ ἐχθροὶ ὄντες κατηλλάγημεν τῷ θεῷ.
For if, though we were enemies, we were reconciled to God.
Rom. 5:10.
See also: Heb. 5:12; 1 Pt. 1:6.
228
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
•
(6) The Instrumental Participle. The participle may
indicate the means by which the action of the main verb is
accomplished.
ἐργασίαν πολλὴν παρεῖχεν μαντευομένη.
She brought much gain by soothsaying. Ac. 16:16.
See also: Mt. 6:27; 1 Tim. 1:12.
(7) The Modal Participle. The participle may signify the
manner in which the action of the main verb is accomplished.
This use of the participle may be accompanied by ws.
παραγίνεται Ἰωάνης ὁ βαπτιστὴς κηρύσσων.
John the Baptist appeared preaching. Mt. 3:1.
See also: Mt. 19:22; Lk. 1:64.
(8) The Complementary Participle. The participle may
be used to complete the idea of action expressed in the
main yerb. When so used, it may modify either the sub-
ject or object of the verb and agree with it in case.
οὐ παύομαι εὐχαριστῶν ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν.
I cease not giving thanks for you. Eph. 1:16.
See also Mt. 6:16; Heb. 5:12.
In this construction the participle approaches very near the
sphere of the infinitive. The participle used in indirect discourse
is a variety of the complementary participle (cf. Ac. 8:23).
(9) The Circumstantial Participle. A participle may not
present in a distinct way any of the above functions, but
may merely express an attendant circumstance-an addi-
tional fact or thought which is best rendered in English by
the conjunction "and" with a finite construction. Here
the English participle fails to extend its use sufficiently to
take care of the entire force of the Greek participle, and at
the same time it is doubtful if a separate clause is an exact.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
229
translation. It is one of those idioms which have no exact
parallel in English.
ἐκεῖνοι δὲ ἐξελθόντες ἐκήρυξαν πανταχοῦ.
They went forth and preached everywhere. Mk. 16:20.
See also: Lk. 4:15; 2 Tim. 4:11.
(10) The Participle Used as the Imperative. Here we
have a peculiarity of Koiné Greek, found in the New Tes-
tament and the papyri. Only a few examples of it, how-
ever, occur in the New Testament. Some have regarded it
as a Hebraism, but its use in the papyri contradicts this
view (M. 180, 222).
γυναῖκες ὑποτασσόμεναι τοῖς ἰδίοις ἀνδράσιν.
Let wives be in subjection to their own husbands. 1 Pt. 3:1.
See also: Mk. 5:23; Rom. 12:9; 1 Pt. 2:18.
i. Adjectives are also sometimes used in what appears to be
an imperative construction, but doubtless in these cases the im-
perative of the verb to be is understood. In this construction it
is important that the student bear in mind that the participle "is
not technically either indicative, subjunctive, optative or imperative.
The context must decide. In itself the participle is non-finite
(non-modal) like the infinitive, though it was sometimes drawn
out into the modal sphere" (R. 946).
ii. The different uses of the participle are sometimes difficult to
distinguish, as, for instance, the attributive and substantive uses,
or those of time, cause, and manner. The distinctions may at first
seem to the student to be arbitrary in some instances, but a close
examination will reveal that the differences, even when remote,
are real.
The Tense of the Participle
202. Though the tense of the participle never conveys an
independent expression of time, yet its relation to its con-
text usually involves a temporal significance. That is, the
230
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
time relations of the participle do not belong to its tense,
but to the sense of the context. "Time with the participle
is purely relative" (R-S. 197). But as a particular tense
may fit better into certain time relations of the context, we
ordinarily find that tense used in such a connection in
preference to other tenses (cf. Heb. 6:10). It is not to be
thought that there are any regulative rules in this matter,
but observation of actual practice discloses that the use of
tenses in the participle took certain usual directions as to
time relations. The significance of tense in the participle,
as to kind of action, is the same as in the finite moods.
Time relations of the context with the participle naturally
take the following three variations.
(1) Antecedent action relative to the main verb is ordi-
narily expressed by the aorist or perfect. Nevertheless, the
aorist frequently expresses contemporaneous (Mt. 22:1) or
subsequent action (Heb. 9:12).
τοῦ δὲ πλήθους τῶν πιστευσάντων ἦν καρδία μία.
There was unity in the multitude of those who had believed. Ac. 4:32.
See also: Ac. 1:1; Mt. 28:5.
(2) Simultaneous action relative to the main verb is
ordinarily expressed by the present.
εὐσέβεια ὠφέλιμός ἐστιν, ἐπαγγελίαν ἔχουσα ζωῆς.
Godliness is profitable, having promise of life. 1 Tim. 4:8.
See also: Jn. 11:49; Rom. 12:3.
(3) Subsequent action relative to the main verb is regu-
larly expressed by the future.
Μωυσῆς μὲν πιστὸς εἰς μαρτύριον τῶν λαληθησομένων.
Moses was faithful for a testimony of the things which were to be
spoken. Heb. 3:5.
See also: Jn. 6:64; 1 Cor. 15:37.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
231:
The Periphrastic Use of the Participle
203. The participle is frequently used with a finite verb
to constitute a compound tense-form. This mode of expres-
sion, common to all languages, is extensively employed in
Greek. It occurs in all the voices and tenses, though rare
in the aorist. According to Robertson only one periphrastic
aorist appears in the New Testament; viz., ñv ßλŋleis in
Lk. 23:19 (R. 375). Certain tense forms in Greek were ex-
pressed exclusively by the periphrastic construction; namely,
the perfect middle-passive subjunctive and optative. As
the finite verb, eiui is generally used, though also vivoμai
and iráρxw, and possibly exw in the perfect (cf. Lk. 14:18;
19:20) and pluperfect (Lk. 13:6). The periphrastic im-
perfect is the form most common in the New Testament.
G
This matter can, with perfect propriety, be treated under acci-
dence, but since it is a distinct grammatical use of the participle
we prefer to present it here.
(1) The Periphrastic Present. This form consists of the
present of eiui with the present participle. In the present
tense the periphrastic construction marks more clearly the
durative force, and in view of the fact that the present has
no distinctive aoristic (punctiliar) form it offers a very
convenient device, which fact makes it a little strange that
it is infrequent in the New Testament.
καθὼς καὶ ἐν παντὶ τῷ κόσμῳ ἐστὶν καρποφορούμενον.
Even as also in all the world it is bearing fruit. Col. 1:6.
See also: Mt. 27:33; 2 Cor. 2:17.
(2) The Periphrastic Imperfect. Here we have the pres-
ent participle and the imperfect of eiµí. This construc-
tion is decidedly durative in significance, but was not needed
to convey this sense, since the regular imperfect was pri-
marily durative in force, and had the aorist to take care of
punctiliar action in past time. Nevertheless the periphrastic
232
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
imperfect is widely used in the New Testament, doubtless
due to Aramaic influence.
καὶ ἦν διδάσκων τὸ καθ' ἡμέραν ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ.
And he was teaching daily in the Temple. Lk. 19:47.
See also: Mk. 10:32; Gal. 1:22.
(3) The Periphrastic Future. This is formed by using
the present participle with the future of eiμí. Since the
regular future was chiefly aoristic in significance, the peri-
phrastic form was readily adaptable for expressing durative
action in future time.
ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν ἀνθρώπους ἔσῃ ζωγρῶν.
From henceforth thou shalt be catching men. Lk. 5:10.
See also: Mk. 13:25; Lk. 21:17, 24.
We sometimes find μéλλw with the infinitive in what might be
termed a periphrastic future (Rom. 8:18). The infinitive with éλw
occasionally approaches the force of a "volitive future" (R. 878), but
the sense of determination is likely preeminent in all the occurrences
of θέλω.
(4) The Periphrastic Perfect. The perfect participle and
the present tense of eiµi are used in this construction. In
function the periphrastic perfect is usually intensive, but
there are several clear instances of a consummative force
(cf. Br. 40).
εἰ δὲ καὶ ἔστιν κεκαλυμμένον τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἡμῶν.
But even if our gospel is vailed. 2 Cor. 4:3.
See also: Lk. 20:6; Heb. 4:2.
(5) The Periphrastic Pluperfect. This is formed by the
imperfect of eiui and the perfect participle. As in the case
of the perfect, it is generally intensive in force, though quite
a number of occurrences are consummative.
καὶ ἦν αὐτῷ κεχρηματισμένον ὑπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου.
And it had been revealed to him by the Holy Spirit. Lk. 2:26.
See also: Mt. 26:43; Ac. 21:29.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
233
(6) The Periphrastic Future Perfect. This form is made.
up of the future eiui and the perfect participle. It is the
regular construction for the future perfect in the New Tes-
tament. Exceptions are rare and doubtful.
ἐγὼ ἔσομαι πεποιθὼς ἐπ' αὐτῷ.
I shall have believed on him. Heb. 2:13.
See also: Mt. 18:18; Lk. 12:52.
i. Grammarians see Aramaic influence in the extensive use of the
periphrastic construction in the New Testament. It is noteworthy
that we find so many examples of it in Luke, and especially in
just those passages which were most probably based upon Aramaic
sources. But
But it is also true that periphrastic verb forms are thor-
oughly Greek, for they are widely used in classical literature and
in the extra-Biblical Koiné. "It is only that where Aramaic sources
underlie the Greek, there is inordinate frequency of a use which
Hellenistic has not conspicuously developed” (M. 226).
ii. The Participle in Absolute Constructions. This matter has
already been treated under other heads. It is the association of a
participle with a noun in the genitive and accusative cases to form
clauses which are not grammatically related to the rest of the
sentence (cf. §§90 (8), 96 (5)).
iii. The Verbal Nouns. There are in the Greek language some verbal
substantives which cannot be classed as participles "inasmuch as they
have no tense or voice" (R. 1095). They are the verbals in -70s
and -Teos. “In the broader sense, however, these verbals are partici-
ples, since they partake of both verb and adjective. . . . The verbal
in -TOS goes back to the original Indo-Germanic time and had a sort of
perfect passive idea" (ibid). But Robertson goes on to show that
these verbals are not to be regarded as really having voice. Perhaps
they supplied a primitive function which came to be the province of the
passive voice. The passive participle in Latin seems to point to some
such use.
But "even in Latin a word like tacitus illustrates the absence
of both tense and voice from the adjective in its primary use” (M. 221).
If there was a primitive passive use of this form it was largely condi-
tioned on the root meaning of the word, and disappeared from histori-
cal Greek. Thus äyvwσтos means not to be known, while äπLOTOS
means not to believe: the former passive, the latter active.
234
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
VI. THE ADVERB
References: R. 544-552; R-S. 67; G. 136–139.
204. The consideration of the adverb is chiefly a lexical
and etymological matter, but its exceedingly important
place in the structure of the sentence in general, and in the
interpretation of the New Testament in particular, claims
for it definite notice in a complete survey of New Testa-
ment syntax. The treatment of it, however, may be brief,
and will of necessity include etymological as well as syn-
tactical phenomena.
The Nature of the Adverb
205. Adverbs are of great value for defining and stating
a matter with exactness, as well as for stimulating the
imagination by suggesting graphic, extravagantly painted
pictures. Both in form and in function adverbs are closely
related to adjectives. For example, kaλws is different from
the adjective kaλós only in the matter of the vowel of the
final syllable. And like adjectives, adverbs qualify the
meaning of words. But adverbs regularly modify the
meanings of verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and in rare in-
stances substantives, while adjectives are used almost
exclusively with substantives. Adverbs are used to express
relationships of time, place, manner, and degree. Thus, they
are used for answering such natural questions as when, where,
how, how much, and sometimes to what extent; e. g., võv, now;
ἐκεῖ, there; καλῶς, well; πόσον, how much; τῶν ὑπερλίαν
ȧπоσтóλwv, apostles exceedingly or prominent apostles.
The Scope of the Adverb
206. The term adverb is so general in its scope that it in-
cludes a wide range in grammatical usage. In a broad, non-
technical sense, all prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
235
interjections are adverbs. Giles has well stated, "Between
adverbs and prepositions no distinct line can be drawn,
and, "The preposition therefore is only an adverb specialized
to define the case usage." We have already called attention
to this close grammatical relationship in our discussion of
prepositions. The conjunctions express adverbial ideas
in relation to clauses, whereas adverbs in the narrower
sense express such ideas only in relation to words. Thus
ÖTE, when, is used to introduce a clause; but TÓTE, then,
at that time, is used to specify a time relationship per-
taining to a word. For example, Tóre λéye avтois, then
he says to them; or, oi Tóтe äveрwто, the at that time men.
In the first example the speaking, while in the other the men,
are localized in time. The particles are adverbial in their
origin as well as in their usage in the main. They function,
however, in a definite field of Greek usage, and so need a
separate name. We shall discuss them separately in another
chapter. The interjections are frequently just adverbs used
in exclamation. Robertson gives the following as "adverbs
used in exclamation,” ἄγε, δεῦρο, δεῦτε, ἔα, ἴδε, ἴδου, οἴα, ὦ,
and mentions others as possibly having similar significance.
piλos, lovely; gen. pl., piλwv; adverb, piλws.
καλός, noble; gen. pl., καλῶν; adverb, καλῶς.
πᾶς, all; gen. pl., πάντων; adverb, πάντως.
Taxús, swift; gen. pl., raxéwv; adverb, taxéws.
""
The Formation of Adverbs
207. The most common and the simplest way to form an
adverb is to take an adjective in the positive degree and in
the genitive plural, and substitute s for v of the ending. The
accent remains the same. For example:-
Adverbs as to form are derived from several parts of
speech. Most of them, however, are derived from the fixed
case forms of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.
236
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(1) Adverbs derived from fixed case-forms.
a. The accusative. In the New Testament the accusative
case is still used in expressing adverbial relationships. For
examples turn to our discussion on the adverbial accusative.
But certain words which were frequently so used came
to be classed as adverbs; e.g., Téρav, beyond; dwpéav, freely;
Xápiv, for the sake of. Adverbs were formed freely by using
the neuter accusative, both singular and plural, in the posi-
tive, comparative, and even the superlative degrees; e.g.,
πολύ, much; πλησίον, near; μᾶλλον, more; ὕστερον, after-
wards; πрwтоv, first; páλiora, especially. A few times the
article is combined with a neuter adjective and used as an
adverb; e.g., Tò πротероν, formerly; Tò λoróv, finally; rà
Tоλλá, for the most part.
b. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns.
(a) The ablative. Robertson has registered it as his opin-
ion that all adverbs in -ws were originally ablatives. He
thinks kaλws is from an original kaλwd and that the s was
substituted for the d.
ܕ
(b) The genitive. Some of the adverbs with such endings
are: αὐτοῦ, there; ὁμοῦ, together; ὅπου, ποῦ, where; τοῦ λοιποῦ
(Gal. 6:17), finally.
cur.
(c) The locative. Not many adverbs with such endings oc-
In classical Greek Toĩ is frequent, but it does not occur
in the New Testament. But we do find éket, there; KUKλw,
kúkλw,
around; and πρwi, early.
(d) The instrumental. Since this case primarily functions
in specifying manner and means, it would naturally contribute
to the formation of adverbs. The iota subscript had dis-
appeared early in Greek usage, with a few exceptions. We
find the following: aua, together; avw, up; eiкn, vainly;
ew, without; крvýñ, secretly; πεŠñ, by land.
(e) The dative. Grammarians are disagreed as to tracing
any adverbs back to this case. Some, however, cite the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
237
following as having had such origin: πáλaɩ, of old; oπovdã,
zealously; and xáμai, on the ground.
(2) Adverbs formed by adding suffixes. With a few
exceptions these suffixes have significance as follows:-
a. -ɩ, -σɩ, -ov denote place where; e.g., éket, there; πépvσi, last
year; oπoν, where.
ὅπου,
b. -Oev denotes place whence; e.g., évтeũßev, from this
place; ävw0ev, from above.
c. -Se, -σe, denote direction whither; e.g., évláde, hither;
ékelσe, thither.
d. Te denotes time; e.g., öre, when; TÓTE, at some time;
TÓTE, then.
e. -ws denotes manner; e.g., dɩkaiws, justly; Taxéws, quickly.
f. -is, -kis, denote number; e.g., dís, twice; rpís, thrice;
TOλλákɩs, many times.
g. The meaning of other suffixes is no longer clear; e.g.,
-dŋv, -dov, -ka, -KAS, -TI, -O76.
(3) Adverbs formed from verbs. There are only a few
adverbs with such derivation, and all of them were originally
imperatives; e.g., aye and devтe, come; ide and idou, behold;
öçeλov, would that.
(4) Adverbs used as prefixes.
a. 'A- and åv- (from ävev, without), like our English un,
mean not or without; e.g., ä-yaµos, un-married; ä-yvwσtos,
un-known; άv-ážios, un-worthy; av-vôpos, without water.
b. Aus- expresses difficulty or trouble; e.g., dvo-ẞáσTAKOS,
hard to be borne; dvo-vóntos, hard to understand.
c. Ev- means well or good; e.g., ev-yevýs, well born; ev-dokía,
good thinking hence good will; ev-λoyía, good speech hence
praise.
The Comparison of Adverbs
208. The comparison of adverbs in Greek follows quite
closely the methods employed in the comparison of ad-
jectives. The matter may be presented under three heads.
238
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
;
Time
Place
Demonstrative
πότε, then
vvv, now
αὐτοῦ, here
ὧδε, here
Relative
ἐκεῖ,
ÉKET, thither
ἐνθάδε, hither
ὅτε, when
ἡνίκα, when
où, where
ἐντεῦθεν,hence ὅθεν, whence
ἐκεῖθεν, thence
Manner ourws, thus, so is, as, about
Indefinite
Relative
ὅταν, when-
ever
ὅπου, where
ὅπως, how
Indefinite
ποτέ,
TOTÉ, at some
time
Interrogative
πότε; when?
πού, somewhere ποῦ; where?
πόθεν; whence?
πw(s), somehow πῶς; how?
TABLE OF CORRELATIVE ADVERBS

THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
239
(1) Most of the adverbs which have the endings -ws in
the positive have the same endings as adjectives in the
comparative and superlative degrees. That is, they have
-τερον and -τατα, the neuter accusative adjective endings for
the singular and plural, for the comparative and superlative.
Superlative
ἀσφαλέστατα
Positive
ἀσφαλῶς, safely
δικαίως, justly
ἰσχυρῶς, strongly
φοβερῶς,fearfully
(2) Another group of adverbs have -τερω in the com-
parative and -7a7w in the superlative. This is true especially
of adverbs with the ending of -w in the positive.
-τατω
Positive
ἄνω, κρ
κάτω, down
πόρρω, far
Comparative
ἀσφαλέστερον
Positive
ταχέως, quickly
ἡδέως, sweetly
ἐγγύς, near
μάλα, very
δικαιότερον
δικαιότατα
ἰσχυρότατα
ἰσχυρότερον
φοβερώτερον φοβερώτατα
Comparative
ἀνωτέρω
κατωτέρω
πορρωτέρω
(3) The other adverbs are irregular in their comparison.
Many, however, end in -ov in the comparative.
Comparative
τάχειον
ἥδιον
Superlative
ἀνωτάτω
κατωτάτω
πορρωτάτω
ἐγγύτερον
μᾶλλον, more
M
Superlative
τάχιστα
ἥδιστα
ἔγγιστα
μάλιστα, most
VII. CONJUNCTIONS
209. A conjunction is a word that connects sentences,
clauses, phrases, and words. It may be a mere colorless
copulative giving no additional meaning to the words preced-
ing or following, as is true of Té and is usually the case with
καί, or it may introduce a new meaning in addition to being a
connective, as is true of ἵνα and ὥστε. A correct under-
·
240
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
standing of the uses and meanings of Greek conjunctions
is of fundamental importance for New Testament interpre-
tation. The turning point or direction of a thought is
usually indicated by a conjunction. The meaning of a
sentence following a conjunction, and oftentimes of a whole
paragraph, is suggested or colored by the connective. Then
also, because in Greek, as in Hebrew and Latin, but unlike
the English use, a conjunction may have several meanings,
each requiring separate and careful study.
210. Only the conjunctions that are the most difficult to un-
derstand are discussed in this chapter. These are purposely
treated in aphabetic order instead of being classified into
groups, because of their overlapping meanings. The others
are sufficiently treated in lexicons for practical purposes.
᾿Αλλά
211. This is a strong adversative conjunction. It usually
has the meaning but, as in Mt. 5:17, oùк ñλlov KaTadvσaι
áλλà πλпрwσai, I came not to destroy but to fulfill (cf. Mk. 5:39;
9:22, 37). It may fittingly be translated except in Mk.
4:22, οὐ γάρ ἐστιν κρυπτὸν ἐὰν͵ μὴ ἵνα φανερωθῆ, οὐδὲ ἐγένετο
ἀπόκρυφον, ἀλλ' ἵνα ἔλθῃ εἰς φανερόν, for there is nothing
hid except that it should be made manifest, nor does it become
hidden except that it should come into manifestation. Notice
that in the above sentence ảλλá is translated as equivalent
to éàv μn. "Then there are instances of åλλá = except" (M.
& M.: Voc. Gr. Test.; cf. Mt. 20:23). In Lk. 12:51 and 2
Cor. 1:13 åλλà = except. But aλλá is also clearly emphatic
in several passages. Although it is translated yea, this trans-
lation is not necessarily the best, even when åλλá is con-
firmatory or emphatic.
And it should be translated as emphatic several times
where it is rendered as adversative in the RV. In 1
Cor. 4:15 certainly fits the context very well: "For
though ye have ten thousand tutors in Christ, ye cer-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
241
tainly do not have many fathers." It has the same sig-
nificance in 1 Cor. 9:2, "If I am not an apostle to others,
I most certainly am to you." Its emphatic force may be
brought out by the words in fact in Ac. 19:2, "And they
said to him, In fact we have not even heard whether
there is a Holy Spirit"; likewise in Eph. 5:24, "In fact,
as the church is subject to Christ, so also let wives be to
their husbands"; also in 1 Cor. 3:3, "In fact not even
now are ye able, for ye are still carnal" (J. R. Mantey:
Expositor (London), vol. xxiii, p. 376; cf. Jn. 4:23; 7:27;
8:26; 1 Cor. 4:3; 2 Cor. 1:13; 3:15; Phs. 3:8).
"Apa
212. This conjunction is a postpositive. It is inferential
or illative in function most of the time; i.e., it introduces a
conclusive statement. But it seems to be more subjective
and indirect than οὖν or διό. In such usages it may be
translated therefore, then, so: Gal. 3:7, ywvwoкETE äρa öтɩ oi
ἐκ πίστεως, οὗτοι υἱοί εἰσιν ᾿Αβραάμ, know therefore
that they that are of faith, these are sons of Abraham (cf. Rom.
7:21; 8:1; 10:17). It is uniformly translated as inferential
in the RV except in a few instances when it is translated
haply, perchance, or perhaps. The latter translation is really
emphatic, for it emphasizes the uncertainty of the statement.
But there is abundant evidence in the New Testament
and other Greek literature to establish the fact that
this conjunction often has the function of an emphatic
particle. And I do not believe there is any real neces-
sity for having the circumflex accent on the word when
it begins a question. For, when we give it an emphatic
translation in such cases, it throws increased light on
that particular sentence and fits the context exactly.
Cf. Ac. 8:30, ἀρά γε γινώσκεις ἃ ἀναγινώσκεις; do
you really understand what you are reading? Herodotus
素​一
​242
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
used it as emphatic, as the following sentence proves:
ὡς δὲ οὐκ ἔπειθεν ἄρα τὸν ἄνδρα, δεύτερα λέγει ἡ
yvvǹ Táde, but since she did not really persuade her hus-
band, the woman spoke a second time as follows. J. Bond
and A. S. Walpole translate it really in their Lucian Selec-
tions. And examples from the papyri in which it is
emphatic are quoted in the Vocabulary of the Greek
Testament by Moulton and Milligan. In one of these
they translate it indeed. Besides the examples they
give, there is another in Papyri Oxyrhynchus, I, 113:28.
In Ac. 12:18, where äpa is not translated at all in the
RV, it certainly is not inferential, but is effective and
helpful at once when considered as intensive or empha-
tic: "What really became of Peter?" There are three
words which express fairly well its emphatic uses. They
are indeed, certainly, and really, but the last is perhaps
the best. In Mt. 18:1 we can see the value of such a
translation: "Who is really greatest in the kingdom of
Heaven?" Likewise in Lk. 12:42, "And the Lord said,
Who is really the faithful and wise steward?" Notice
particularly 1 Cor. 15:15, εἴπερ ἄρα νεκροὶ οὐκ ἐγείρονται,
if the dead are not really raised. Other places
where it may be emphatic are: Mt. 7:20; Ac. 8:22;
11:18; 2 Cor. 1:17; Heb. 12:8 (J. R. Mantey: op. cit.
(London), vol. xxiii, pp. 377-378).
-
Γὰρ
213. Kühner has summarized the meanings of this con-
junction in the following words: "Táp may express: (a)
a ground or reason, (b) an explanation, (c) a confirmation
or assurance; and hence it may be translated by (a) for, (b)
that is, for example, (c) indeed, certainly" (Gram. of the Gr.
Lang., p. 1186). It is a postpositive and a compound of yé
and ἄρα.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
243
(1) It is most frequently used in the illative sense introduc-
ing a reason. At such times it means for. But this transla-
tion has been greatly overworked. The lexicons are mis-
leading, and in the RV it is regularly translated for with only
two exceptions, Ac. 16:36 and Rom. 15:27, where it is
properly translated as emphatic. In Rom. 8:18 and in
several succeeding verses it introduces reasons; cf. Mt. 1:21,
"Thou shalt call his name Jesus for he shall save his people
(αὐτὸς γὰρ σώσει τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ).” A close parallel to the
above is its function in some sentences where it may properly
be translated by the interjectional why; Mt. 27:23, ò dè éøn
Ti yàp kakòv ẻπoinσev, and he said, Why, what evil thing has
he done? Jn. 9:30, ἐν τούτῳ γὰρ τὸ θαυμαστόν ἐστιν,
Why, in this is the marvel (cf. Jn. 7:41).
(2) In the following passages the contexts imply that yάp
is explanatory; Mt. 9:5, "Why do you think evil in your
hearts? For instance (yáp), which is easier, to say, Thy sins
are forgiven, etc."; Lk. 14:27, 28, "Whosoever doth not
bear his own cross and come after me cannot be my disciple.
For instance (yáp), which of you desiring to build a tower,
etc." Our word now represents its meaning in most pas-
sages under this category better than for instance; cf. 1 Cor.
11:6, 7, "But if it is a shame to a woman to be shorn, let her
be veiled. Now (yάp) a man ought not to have his head
veiled, since he is the image and glory of God"; 1 Cor. 10:1,
"Now I would not, brethren, have you ignorant." So also
in Jn. 4:8, 44; Ac. 13:36; 18:3; 19:37; 20:16; 1 Cor. 11:19;
2 Cor. 1:12.
(3) Then there are also unmistakable uses of yap as an
emphatic particle. Liddell and Scott so translate it in a
question: ¿λλà váp, but really, certainly. Blass gives "yes,
in truth," "indeed" as suggestive equivalents. The RV
does not attempt to translate it in Ac. 8:31, where an empha-
tic word used with the optative mood expresses the utter
244
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
-
hopelessness the eunuch felt with reference to understanding
that passage of scripture. In answer to the question whether
he understood what he was reading, he responds, "How
indeed (yáp) can I except someone should guide me?" Note
Ac. 16:37, "They have beaten us publicly, uncondemned,
men that are Romans, and have cast us into prison; and do
they now cast us out privily? No indeed! (où yáp)." Ac.
4:16, "What shall we do to these men? That a very notable
miracle indeed (ὅτι μὲν γὰρ γνωστὸν σημεῖον) hath been
wrought through them is manifest to all." Ac. 19:35,
"Men of Ephesus, who in fact is there who does not know?”
(cf. Ac. 4:34; 1 Cor. 5:3; 11:22; 2 Tim. 2:7).
Δέ
214. This is a postpositive conjunction. (1) It is com-
monly used as an adversative particle, when it is translatable
but, however, yet, on the other hand, etc. Mt. 6:14, ἐὰν δὲ μὴ
ἀφῆτε, but if you do not forgive; Mt. 5:22, ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν,
but I say to you (cf. also Mt. 6:6, 20, 23). (2) It is also com-
mon as a transitional or continuative particle, when it may be
translated and, moreover, then, now, etc. It is used in this
sense thirty-eight times in Matthew's genealogy (cf. Jn.
7:2, “Now (dé) the feast of the Jews was near"; also Lk. 4:1;
Rom. 3:2). (3) Closely akin to this is its explanatory usage.
Jn. 3:19, "Now (dé) this is the judgment; namely, that light
hath come into the world"; 1 Cor. 1:12, "Now (dè) I say this
because each one of you says, etc." (cf. Jn. 6:6; 1 Cor. 14:6;
Eph. 2:4;5:32). (4) But this particle has still another use
which but very few Greek scholars have expressed; i.e., it is
emphatic or intensive at times, and means the equivalent of
indeed, really, in fact. The RV translates it yea in 2 Cor.
10:2. Notice its effectiveness as emphatic in Ac. 3:24,
καὶ πάντες δὲ οἱ προφῆται κατήγγειλαν τὰς ἡμέρας ταύτας,
and in fact all the prophets . . . spoke of these days (cf.
Mt. 23:4; Jn. 8:16; Ac. 13:34; 1 Jn. 2:2).
K
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
245
Διό
215. This is the strongest inferential conjunction. It
was formed by uniting a preposition with the neuter relative
pronoun dı' ö, on which account, wherefore. Mt. 27:8, diò
διὸ
ἐκλήθη ὁ ἀγρὸς ἐκεῖνος ᾿Αγρὸς Αἵματος, wherefore, that field
was called Field of Blood (cf. Lk. 1:35; 7:7; Rom. 1:24). It
is translated therefore, by Moulton and Milligan (op. cit.)
in a papyrus quotation (A. D. 108), diò Étiteλelte is
KałηKEι, execute the deed therefore, as is fitting. The transla-
tion therefore seems to fit into the meaning of some pas-
sages better than wherefore, but one would be a stickler for
grammatical nicety to insist on one to the exclusion of the
other (cf. 2 Cor. 4:13, πiorevσ a diò éλáλŋoa, I believed,
therefore I have spoken). A synonym often used is dɩà touto
(cf. Rom. 1:26; 4:16). AtóжTep is twice used (1 Cor. 8:13;
10:14) and it seems slightly stronger than dɩó, having the
significance of for which very reason. Another combination
is diór with the meanings because and for (cf. Lk. 1:13;
2:7; Rom. 1:19, 21). It has stronger causal force than örɩ.
'Eáv
216. This is a combination of ei plus av. When one
knows the function of av (see Particles), which is to indicate
uncertainty or indefiniteness, he readily understands why
¿áv is used with the mood for uncertainty-the subjunctive.
It introduces a hypothetical condition. Consequently, a
statement introduced by éáv was not regarded with such
certitude as one introduced by ei. "The difference between
éáv and ei is considerably lessened in Hellenistic Greek,
with the result that éáv is found fairly frequently with the
indicative as in Lk. 19:40; Ac. 8:31; 1 Ths. 3:8; 1 Jn.
5:15" (M. & M.: op. cit.). The combination ei av is
frequently spelled äv and means if just the same as when
spelled éáv. On the other hand, éáv is often used as av,
246
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
meaning ever. It is found frequently with relative pronouns
and adverbs, and it indicates indefiniteness or generality;
e.g., Mk. 13:11, whatever. See further our discussion of av,
äv,
under Particles. Ἐὰν μή like εἰ μή may be translated
unless (cf. 1 Cor. 14:6; Rev. 2:22). This idea of uncer-
tainty which éáv implies was at times applied to time as
well as to fact, and in such instances it is translatable when-
ever (ef. 1 Jn. 3:2, οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἐὰν φανερωθῆ ὅμοιοι αὐτῷ
¿σóµela, we know that whenever he is manifested we shall be
like him; Jn. 8:16, καὶ ἐὰν κρίνω δὲ ἐγώ, ἡ κρίσις ἡ ἐμὴ
åλŋlivý kotɩv, and whenever I do judge, my judgment is
true; 2 Cor. 13:3, πроλéуW . . ὅτι ἐὰν ἔλθω εἰς τὸ
πάλιν οὐ φείσομαι, I declare in advance that whenever I come
again I will not spare).
C
Ei
217. Its regular meanings are if (when it introduces condi-
tions) and whether (when it introduces indirect questions).
It is found, with only a few exceptions, with the indicative,
and implies that there is likelihood that the assumption will
be fulfilled, or that there is no hope of fulfillment, as in con-
trary to fact conditions. When ei introduces direct ques-
tions it should not be translated (so also with örɩ when it
introduces direct discourse; cf. Lk. 22:49, κύριε, εἰ πατάξομεν
Ev μaxaíon; Lord, shall we smite with a sword? See also
Mt. 12:10; Lk. 13:23; Ac. 1:6; 19:2). After words denoting
wonder it is best translated that; as in Mk. 15:44, "Pilate
marvelled that he was already dead" (cf. also 1 Jn. 3:13; Lk.
12:49). A strange and rare usage is that in which ei=un
(un is substituted for ei in Heb. 3:18). This exceptional
use of ei is due to the fact that the Hebrew conditional
particle was also used as a negative occasionally (cf. Mk.
8:12,
ἀμὴν, λέγω εἰ δοθήσεται τῇ γενεᾷ ταύτῃ σημεῖον,
verily I say, a sign shall not be given to this generation). Sep-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
247
tuagint examples occur in Gen. 14:23; Num. 14:28 (cf. also
Heb. 3:11; 4:3).
This particle is also used in a wide range of combinations.
For instance, eneр (1 Cor. 8:5) and ei kai (Col. 2:5) mean
although. But eiπeρ in 1 Cor. 15:15 has a different mean-
ing: ὃν οὐκ ἤγειρεν εἴπερ ἄρα νεκροὶ οὐκ ἐγείρονται,
whom he did not raise, if indeed the dead are not really raised.
And ei kai may also be translated if even or if also. When
these words are reversed in order, they mean even if. The
expression el un has such meanings as if not, unless, except
(Mk. 9:29; 1 Cor. 8:4), but in Gal. 1:7 and Rev. 21:27 it
means only. The similar expression el dè μn (Mk. 2:21,
22) means otherwise. In Ac. 27:12 and Rom. 1:10 the words
Єi πws seem to mean if at all possible. But a special use of
el with indefinite pronouns, which is not recognized in
translations of the New Testament or in lexicons (Robertson
discusses it on page 956), needs explanation. Ei Tɩ or ei Tis
is equivalent to o Tɩ or os Tis (cf. Xenophon's Anabasis,
I, 5:1; I, 6:1). Notice the improvement in the translation
of Phs. 4:8, "Whatsoever things are of good report; whatever
is excellent and whatever is praiseworthy, think on these
things." Paul first particularizes and then generalizes. And
Zacchaeus' statement in Lk. 19:8 should read, "Whatever
I have wrongfully exacted from anyone I will repay four-fold”
(cf. also Mt. 18:28; Mk. 4:23; 8:34; Rom. 13:9; 2 Cor. 2:10;
7:14).
᾿Επεί
218. This conjunction is used most frequently in a causal
Sense with the meanings since and because (cf. Heb. 5:2,
"Since he also is compassed with infirmity"; Mt. 18:32,
"Thou wicked servant, I forgave you all that debt because
you besought me"; see also Mt. 21:46; 27:6). In a few
sentences it has the significance of else or otherwise; as in
Heb. 9:26, "Else must he have often suffered" (cf. also Rom.
248
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
11:6, 22). In a question in Rom. 3:6 it is suitably translated
then, ἐπεὶ πῶς κρινεῖ ὁ θεὸς τὸν κόσμον, how then will
God judge the world?
”H . . . . †
219. These are called correlatives, and are translated
either
or (Mt. 12:33). Sometimes only one is
used (Lk. 20:4). Closely akin to these are cite
εἴτε
(1 Cor.
Cor. 3:22), and ẻάv Te . ἐάν τε (Rom. 14:8),
whether ... or. The negative correlatives neither
occur as follows: ok
οὐδέ (Ac. 8:21); οὐδέ
(Rev. 9:4); οὐδέ
οὔτε (Gal. 1:12); οὔτε
(Ac. 24:12); μή
μηδέ (Jn. 4:15); μηδέ
μήτε (2 Ths. 2:2); μήτε
(Mt. 10:10); μηδέ .
(Mt. 5:35).
·
•
་
•
•
•
·
•
•
•
•
nor
"ovdé
οὔτε
μηδέ
μήτε
"Iva
220. Its most common occurrence is in purpose or final
clauses, and it occurs regularly with the subjunctive mood,
there being but few exceptions and those with the optative.
Its full translation when final is in order that, but what we
usually find is simply that. The negative uʼn may be used
with iva in stating a purpose negatively; as in Mt. 7:1,
iva µǹ kρioñte, in order that you be not judged; or the simple
μή without ἵνα may be used, as in Mk. 13:36, μὴ εὕρῃ
¿µãs кAÐEÚDOVтas, in order that he may not find you asleep.
Then iva is also used frequently in a non-final sense in object-
clauses in the New Testament. It is simply the equivalent
of ÖT scores of times. At such times the translation that
suggests its force. It is found after verbs of caring, striving,
wishing, saying, asking, etc. (cf. Mk. 7:26, kai ηρwтa avтòv
ἵνα τὸ δαιμόνιον ἐκβάλη ἐκ τῆς θυγατρὸς αὐτῆς, and she
asked him that he cast the demon out of her daughter). Or the
iva clause can be translated in many cases just as well
by an infinitive clause; e.g., "to cast the demon out"
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
249
(cf. Jn. 4:47). Occasionally iva introduces clauses in appo
sition; as in 1 Jn. 5:3, αὕτη γάρ ἐστιν ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ
ἵνα τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ τηρῶμεν, for this is the love of God,
(namely) that we continue keeping his commandments; Jn.
13:34, ἐντολὴν καινὴν δίδωμι ὑμῖν ἵνα ἀγαπᾶτε ἀλλήλους,
a new commandment I give to you (namely) that you love
one another. Again we find iva used in result clauses, when it
is translatable so that, but this usage is rare and it is a late
Koiné development (cf. Jn. 9:2, "Rabbi, who sinned, this
man or his parents, so that he was born blind?" Rev.
3:9, “Behold I will make them ἵνα ἥξουσιν καὶ προσκυνήσουσιν
ἐνώπιον τῶν ποδῶν σου, so that they will come and
worship before thy feet (see also Gal. 5:17; 1 Jn. 1:9; Rev.
9:20). We agree with Abbott-Smith's statement in his
Lexicon: "In late writers, ecbatic, denoting result=&σTE,
that, so that: Rom. 11:11; 1 Cor. 7:29; 1 Ths. 5:4; al.; so
with the formula referring to the fulfillment of prophecy,
iva πλnрwon; Mt. 1:22; 2:14; 4:14; Jn. 13:8; al." Again, it
is used in a strange manner in Mk. 5:23 and 2 Cor. 8:7, where
it approaches being inferential in function and may be
appropriately translated so. And it may even be translated
when in Jn. 16:32! After a special study of the idiom va
Tí in the LXX (cf. Ex. 2:20; 5:4, 15, 22; Ps. 10:1; Isa. 55:2)
we are convinced that it simply means why, and it should be
so translated in Mt. 9:4; Lk. 13:7; 1 Cor. 10:29, and wherever
found (cf. Ps. 2:1, iva ri èøpúaşav ë0vn, why do the heathen
rage?).
Καί
221. This conjunction is by far the most common in the
New Testament. Five pages selected at random from the
WH text give us an average use of fourteen times to the page.
It should be observed, however, that this average is raised
especially by the fact that one of the pages was taken from
Mark, where κaí is uncommonly frequent, occurring on
250
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
an average of more than once to the line. The casual Greek
student has difficulty in understanding kai because it has
so many diversified uses. For it is often used as a mere
mechanical connective (a copulative), and it is left for the
reader to determine which possible translation best suits
the context. The ordinary Hellenist, as the papyrus
records reveal, had but few conjunctions in his vocabulary,
and kai was the main one; but he, like the average Ameri-
can, knew how to make those few serve him in numerous
ways.
(1) Three generally accepted classifications and meanings
for kai are: as transitional or continuative—and; as adjunc-
tive-also; and as ascensive-even. Since these transla-
tions are unquestioned we shall not stop to cite examples
and references. But in our opinion these translations do not
cover all its uses in the New Testament. There ought to be
two other classifications; namely, adversative and emphatic.
(2) For its use as adversative we need but call attention
to some passages where it is already translated as such in
the RV by the words and yet (see Jn. 7:19; 16:32; 20:29).
The words however and but are just as good if not better in
several passages. Take for instance Ac. 7:5, "And he
gave him no inheritance in it; no, not so much as to set his
foot on; but (kai) he promised that he would give it to him
in possession." See also Mk. 4:16, 17, "Who, when they
have heard the word, straightway receive it with joy; but
(Kai) they have no root in themselves" (cf. Mt. 7:23; Lk.
10:24; 13:17).
(3) The emphatic use of kai is unquestionable and
frequent. In proof of this contention we offer a quotation
from J. R. Mantey (op. cit. (London), vol. xxiii, p. 381):
Now, with reference to kai as emphatic. What
grammarians call the ascensive use should, in my opin-
ion, be widened in scope and called intensive or empha-
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
251
tic, and should be translated by several emphatic words
such as indeed, verily, really, in fact, yea, certainly, etc.,
instead of by the one word even. The word even will
not suit every context which is ascensive or emphatic.
Why limit the translation to but one stereotyped word?
Because the translators were averse to giving any other
translation to Kai than those current, they did not at-
tempt to translate it a part of the time in the RV. (Nei-
ther have Grenfell and Hunt always translated it in
their volumes of papyri.) For instance, in Jn. 20:30,
Lk. 3:18, and Phs. 3:8, where it is used with emphatic
words, it is not translated (cf. also Ac. 22:28; 27:9; 1
Cor. 12:13). But in 2 Cor. 11:1 and Phs. 4:10, in
spite of that aversion, we have indeed, and in Mt. 10:30
we have very. The translators made a good beginning
in these places that needs to be carried out to wider
applications. In 1 Cor. 14:19 the thought is clearer when
this word is considered emphatic: "Howbeit in the
church I had rather speak five words with my under-
standing, that I might really (kai) instruct others,
than ten thousand words in a tongue." Col. 4:4,
"To speak the mystery of Christ for which in fact (kai)
I am in bonds" (cf. 1 Ths. 2:13, 19; Phs. 4:15; Col. 3:8;
Ac. 22:28), in which κat seems to have the effect of
intensifying the personal pronoun (cf. also Lk. 3:9, 18;
10:29; 11:18; 2 Cor. 4:3, 10, 11).
The combination of kai yap has long been considered
as emphatic in some of its occurrences in classical Greek
as well as in the New Testament. And in M. & M.,
op. cit., this example and translation occur: kai yàp ẻyw
ὅλος διαπονοῦμαι εἰ Ἓλενος χαλκοὺς ἀπόλεσεν,
I
am quite upset at Helenos' loss of the money. And in the
RV these conjunctions are translated either for indeed or
for verily in Ac. 19:40; 2 Cor. 3:10; 5:2, 4; 1 Ths. 3:4;
252
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
=
4:10. But the words in fact seem to suit most contexts
even better (cf. also Lk. 22:37; 1 Cor. 12:13; 14:8;
2 Cor. 7:5).
῞Οτι
222. This conjunction in form is simply the neuter indefin-
ite relative pronoun ☀ Tɩ. (1) It is very common as a
causal particle meaning because or for. In this sense it
occurs in each one of the beatitudes (cf. Jn. 1:30,
"After
me comes a man who existed before me, ὅτι πρῶτός μου ἦν, be-
cause he was before me”; Lk. 6:20; Ac. 1:5). (2) Again, ötɩ is
very common as a conjunction introducing an objective.
clause after verbs of knowing, saying, seeing, feeling, etc.
(cf. Mk. 3:28, "Verily I say to you that (ört) all things
shall be forgiven, etc." (cf. Mt. 3:9; 6:32; 11:25; Lk. 2:49).
(3) Then with direct discourse, just as ei with direct ques-
tions, orɩ does not need translation, for it is practically
equivalent to our quotation marks. Mt. 7:23, Kai TÓTE
τότε
ὁμολογήσω αὐτοῖς ὅτι οὐδέποτε ἔγνων ὑμᾶς, and then I
will profess unto them, I never knew you (see also Mk. 2:16;
Lk. 1:61; Jn. 1:20). (4) Professor Milligan (op. cit.) calls
attention to two unusual uses of ört: "In Mk. 9:11, 28 the
AV rightly makes ori-Ti, why; for this use of or in indirect
interrogation see the examples in Field Notes, p. 33
In 2 Cor. 5:19, al., is örɩ is taken by Blass, Grammar,
p. 321f., as equal to Attic os c. genitive absolute (Vg. quasi),
but in papyri of late date us or often means merely that."
Οὖν
223. Because this conjunction is treated as having only
inferential meanings by the Greek New Testament lexicog-
raphers, by most Greek grammarians (Robertson excepted),
and by practically all commentators, and in as much as J. R.
Mantey wrote his doctor's thesis on The Meaning of Ouv
in John's Writings, and published the results of his findings
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
253
in the Expositor (London) under the title "Newly Discovered
Meanings for Ovv,” we are giving an extended discussion of
this word, setting forth these newly established meanings.
(1) This word occurs four hundred and ninety-six times
in the WH text. It should be translated as inferential only
about two hundred times, by such words as therefore, so,
consequently, then (cf. Jn. 3:23; 4:5, 12, 33, 40). When
ouv is inferential, that inference is expressed by the main
verb in the sentence and not by a verb in a subordinate
clause nor by an infinitive nor a participle. It is woefully mis-
translated scores of times both in the AV and the RV be-
cause it was rendered only as inferential (cf. Jn. 18:24; 20:30;
Lk. 14:34; Ac. 8:25).
(2) Ovv should be translated as then and now about one
hundred and seventy times. This usage is variously termed
as transitional, or continuative, or resumptive. It predomi-
nates in John's Gospel. The word then indicates a succes-
sion of either time or events under this classification, but
it may also be used in stating a conclusion, so it properly
belongs also under the classification termed inferential.
The word now indicates the continuation of a subject from
one thought to another, the introduction of a new phase of
thought, or of an explanation. Under this classification ouv
is a synonym for such words as γάρ, δέ, καί, and even τότε.
Following are two extracts from the papyri: (a) B. G. U. iv,
1079:6 (41 a. d.), "I sent you two letters, one by Nedymus
and one by Cronius, the swordbearer. Then (ovv) at
last I received the letter from the Arab and I read it and was
grieved." (b) B. G. U. ii, 423:11 (2c. A. D.), kaλās μoi ẻσtiv
ἐρωτῶ σε οὖν, κύριέ μου πατήρ, γράψον μοι ἐπιστόλιον,
I am well. Now I beg you, my lord father, write me a little
letter. Some other references illustrating this usage in the
papyri are B. G. U. i, 48:4; 73:10; 322:9; iv, 1024:7; 1078:6;
1097:8. Plato used ovv in this sense frequently; e.g., Phaedo,
>
254
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
“After waiting so long time he came and ordered us to go in.
Now when we went in we found Socrates already bathed."
In spite of their training and prejudice against this sort
of translation the revisers translated ovv now in Ac. 1:18;
1 Cor. 9:25; Heb. 7:11; 8:4; 9:1. The following quotations
illustrate the advantage and fitness of such a translation:
Jn. 3:24, "For John had not yet been cast into prison. Now
there was a controversy among the disciples of John with a
Jew"; Jn. 4:6, "And the well of Jacob was there. Now
Jesus having been wearied by the journey, etc."; Jn. 4:27,
28, "Yet no man said, What seekest thou? or, Why speakest
thou with her? Then the woman left her waterpot";
Jn. 18:23, 24, "If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the
evil; but if well, why do ye strike me? Then Annas sent him
bound to Caiaphas, the high priest (cf. also Jn. 9:17, 20, 21,
32, 38, 56; 12:1, 2, 3, 9, 17, 21, 29; Ac. 8:25; 9:19, 31; 10:29, 32).
(3) Hartung in his Lehre von den Partikeln der Griechischen
Sprache has a classification for ovv in some of its uses that he
terms responsive, and he cites several examples from classical
Greek to prove such a usage. In Ex. 8:10 we have a good
example of this: ὁ δὲ εἶπεν, Εἰς αὔριον. εἶπεν οὖν, Ὡς εἴρηκας
iva idņs ötɩ ovк, And he said, Tomorrow. In reply he said,
As you have spoken, that you may know that there is not
another except the Lord. In the New Testament ouv should
be translated as responsive about thirty times, and all
these occurrences are in John's Gospel. When it is respon-
sive, it may fittingly be translated in reply, in response, or in
turn (cf. Jn. 4:8, 9, "Jesus said to her, Give me a
drink
In response the Samaritan woman said, etc.";
Jn. 4:47, 48, "He asked that he come down and heal his
In response Jesus said to him, etc."; Jn. 6:52,
53, "How is this one able to give us his flesh to eat? In
response Jesus said to them, etc." (cf. also Jn. 7:6, 16, 28,
47; 8:13, 19, 25, 57; 9:10, 16, 20, 25, 26).
son.
•
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
255
(4) There is extensive and convincing evidence in the
papyri and much in the New Testament that our was
frequently used also as an emphatic or intensive particle.
This discovery came as the result of studying our first in
postscripts. Observe P. Fay. 110:34 (A. D. 94), µǹ ovv
μὴ
ἄλλως ποιήσῃς; B.G.U. iii, 824:17 (A.D. 56), μὴ οὖν ἄλλως
Tons; both of which may be translated, Be sure that you do
not do otherwise. An unmistakable example of this usage is
found in Brit. M. P. i. 28 (B. c. 162), "Apollonius to Sarapion
his brother: greeting. καλῶς οὖν ποίσῃς φρότισαί μοι
σiτápiov, please be sure to look after the grain for me" (cf.
also P. Tebt. i, 33; P. Oxy. ii, 281:9; 282:6; 294:14, 25; x,
12,937; xii, 1493:9). There are some unusually peculiar
uses of ovv in the papyri in which it occurs in the body
of a sentence in a relative clause, and its function seems to
be to intensify the indefiniteness of the pronoun, very much
as av does. The following examples illustrate this usage:
ὃν δή ποτε οὖν τρόπον (P. Amh. ii, 86:9); ἢ ὅστις οὖν
(Brit. M. P. iii, 1171:8); öσa Tотè oυν (P. Ryl. iii, 243:9);
ὅστις ποτ' οὖν (P. Par. 574:1240).
In Phs. 3:8 we have aλλà μèv ouv ye kai and in 1 Cor. 6:7,
ἤδη μὲν οὖν ὅλως. The presence of so many particles in
these places is clearly for the purpose of emphasis. There
are at least three words in each example that are emphatic.
What depth of feeling is here expressed! Paul's inmost
soul cries out through these expressive particles. The
revisers did not attempt to translate ovv in either place. The
context in each case should suggest what emphatic English
word or phrase is most suitable. Some suggestive trans-
lations are be sure, to be sure, surely, by all means, indeed,
very, really, above all, certainly, in fact. It seems to be
emphatic in the following passages: Jn. 20:30, "To be sure
Jesus also performed many other signs"; Lk. 14:34, "Salt
to be sure is good, etc."; Rev. 3:3, "By all means remember
256
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
how thou hast received and didst hear"; Mt. 10:32; 12:12;
Lk. 14:33; 21:7; Ac. 2:33; 10:33; 25:11; Rom. 4:10; 5:9,
al. The following is a quotation from Professor Milligan
(op. cit.): "Ov is also used with an intensive force in exhor-
tations, etc.
In drawing attention to this usage,
Mantey (Exp. VII, xxii, p. 210f.) thinks that this em-
phatic sense might be given ov in about 65 places
in the NT: e.g., Mt. 3:8, 10, ‘By all means produce fruit
worthy of acceptance.
Every tree, rest assured, that
does not produce good fruits. .
•
"""
G
(5) That our may also be translated as an adversative,
we were led to conclude from a study chiefly of the follow-
ing two extracts from the papyri: P. Oxy. 1609:12 (98-138
A. D.), “And it seems to appear there. For it is not seen
on that mirror, but the reflection to the one seeing. How-
ever (ovv), concerning these things mention has been made
in the discussion on Timaeus." P. Tebt. ii, 315:16 (2c.
A. D.), "Know that an inspector of finance in the temples
has arrived and intends also to go into your district. But
do not be at all disturbed, for I will deliver you. However
(ovv), if you really have time write up your books and come
up to me." Hartung classified ov as an adversative particle
and likened it to duas in meaning at times. We quote Pro-
fessor Milligan again (op. cit.): "From this is developed a
slightly adversative sense in such passages as P. Tebt.
37:15 (B. c. 73), ἐγὼ οὖν περισπώμενος περὶ ἀναγκαίων
yéypayá σoɩ iva ikavòs yévŋ, howbeit as I am occupied with
urgent affairs, I have written to you, in order that you may
undertake the matter (cf. Ac. 25:4; 28:5, and Mantey op. cit.,
p. 207f.)." It should be translated however in the following
passages: Ac. 25:22, "For this cause the Jews seized me in
the Temple and tried to kill me. However (ovv), having
obtained help from God, I stand even to this day witnessing
to small and great"; 1 Cor. 11:20, “However, when ye as-
ἀλλά
ἄρα
ἄχρι(s)
γάρ
δέ
διό
SOME CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED WITH SOME OF THE MEANINGS INDICATED
Con-
di-
tional

διότι
ἐάν
εἰ
ἐπεί
ἐπειδή
iva
καί
μέντοι
"
οπως
ὅτε
ὅτι
οὖν
πλήν
πρίν
ΤΕ
τοίνυν.
ὡς
ὥστε
Tem-
poral
until
Causal
when
for
when since
before
be-
cause
when since
be-
cause
when, since
as
Pur-
pose
SO
in or-
der that that
in or-
der that
Re- Infer-
sult ential
in or-
der that
there-
fore
where-
fore
there-
fore
there-
fore
So there-
that fore
if
if
other-
wise
Con- Ad Ex- Em-
tinua- versa- plana- phat-
tive tive tory ic
and,
now
that
and
that
then,
now
and
how-
ever
but
how-
ever
how-
ever
but now indeed
never-
the-
now
less
cer-
tainly
really
GİRİ
ever
even
indeed
now really
257
258
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
"
semble together, it is not possible to eat the Lord's Supper,
for each one in his eating takes in advance his own supper";
Jn. 8:38, "What I have seen with the Father I speak.
However, do you also do what you have heard from the
Father?" (cf. also Mt. 10:26; Lk. 21:14; Jn. 2:22; 4:45;
6:19; 9:18; 11:6; 12:29; 18:11, 27; Rom. 2:21; 10:14; 11:1,
al.) In all there are about thirty such usages in the New
Testament.
VIII. PARTICLES
224. The term particle has undefined limits among Greek
grammarians. To some it includes nearly all parts of
speech except verbs, nouns, and pronouns; namely, adverbs,
conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. The word
particle is derived from a Latin word which means a small
part. It is a suitable word to head a classification which
deals with the "odds and ends" in Greek grammar. We
have chosen to limit it chiefly to those words which do not
properly belong to the regular classifications, such as con-
junctions, adverbs, prepositions, etc. The abundant and
diversified uses of particles by the Greeks is one of the
most unique and distinctive characteristics of their un-
paralleled language. However, in contrast with classical
Greek we find comparatively few particles in the papyri
and the New Testament.
225. The fact that they are seldom used makes their use
all the more significant, for it is evident that each occur-
rence of a particle was necessary to help express the writer's
ideas. In them lurk hidden meanings and delicate shades
of thought that intensify and clarify the thought of the
sentence. Unless one learns to understand and appreciate
their significance, he will miss getting the author's full
thought and fail to realize the benefit of the niceties of
Greek.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
259
The Emphatic or Intensive Particles
References: R. 1144-1154; M. 165–169, 200f.
226. The emphatic particles are inserted in the sentence
either to emphasize some word in it or the thought of the
sentence as a whole. And it is not always easy to decide
by which word, if by any, the force of the particle should
be expressed in translation. The same particle may be
translated by different emphatic words in different contexts.
As in the case with prepositions and conjunctions, so with
particles-the context is the final court of appeal in deter-
mining the most suitable translation.
'Αμήν
227. This particle is a transliteration of the Hebrew verbal
adjective 18, to be firm, which is rendered aλnovós (Isa.
65:16) and åλnows (Jer. 35:28) in the LXX. It is used in
the Gospels for introducing solemnly significant statements
of our Lord in the sense of truly, verily (cf. Jn. 3:3, åµǹu
ἀμὴν λέγω σοι, ἐὰν μή τις γεννηθῇ ἄνωθεν, verily, verily I
say unto you, if one is not born again, etc.) Then it is also
used to express assent to prayers or praise (cf. 1 Cor. 14:16,
πῶς ἐρεῖ τὸ ἀμὴν ἐπὶ τῇ σῇ εὐχαριστίᾳ, how will he say So be
it to your giving of thanks? Rom. 15:33, & dè Оeòs τns eiρηvns
μετὰ πάντων ὑμῶν· ἀμήν, and the God of peace be with you.
So be it (amen).
"Av
228. “We have no English word which corresponds to
åv. The most that can be said is that it implies vagueness
or uncertainty in the sentences where it occurs" (Nunn:
Syn. of N. T. Gr., p. 128). And éáv occurs more frequently
that av, but functions as the particle av as well as a condi-
tional conjunction. It is merely a matter of spelling.
"Two originally connected uses are now sharply distin-
260
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
guished. In one, av stands with the optative or indicative,
and imparts to the verb a contingent meaning, depending
on an if clause, expressed or understood, in the context.
In the other the äv (in the NT period more often written
éáv) has formed a close contact with a conjunction or a
relative, to which it generally imparts the meaning -soever:
of course this exaggerates the differentia in most cases
(M. 166). At any rate we term it an emphatic particle.
""
(1) In most of its occurrences our word ever suggests the
force of ἄν.. For instance, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, whenever; ὅπου
ἐάν, wherever; ὃς ἄν, whoever. Αc. 8:19, ἵνα ᾧ ἐὰν ἐπιθῶ
ös
iva į
Tàs xeipas, that upon whomever I place my hands. It is of
interest that the indefinite relative clause in the New Testa-
ment is introduced but rarely by oσris (which in some
contexts functions as an emphatic relative), but very often
by os av or ös éáv (Mt. 11:6; Mk. 10:43). In Mt. 12:50 and
Gal. 5:10 av is used with oors to intensify, apparently, the
generalization.
(2) Since av implies vagueness and uncertainty it is very
fitting that it should be used with the subjunctive and
optative moods, which affirm things with varying degrees of
uncertainty; and its use is also significant with the indicative
in contrary to fact conditions, because they deal with
obvious unrealities.
Té
,
229. It emphasizes usually the word with which it is used
and may be translated at least, indeed, even, in fact (cf. Rom.
8:32, ὅς γε τοῦ ἰδίου οὐκ ἐφείσατο, who in fact did not
spare his own son). It is found most frequently with other
emphatic particles, such as åλλá, äpa, dé. A good example is
found in Mt. 7:20, ἄρα γε ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν αὐτῶν ἐπιγνώσεσθε
avTOús, you shall really know them by their fruits. When
it is used with ảλλá, it expresses strong emphasis: yea even.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
261
Δή
230. Robertson says aptly concerning this particle: "It is
climacteric and indicates that the point is now at last clear
and may be assumed as true" (R. 1149). It is used only
seven times in the New Testament. In Lk. 2:15; Ac. 6:3;
13:2; 15:36; and 1 Cor. 6:20 the emphatic phrase by all
means suggests its force. In Mt. 13:23 and Heb. 2:16 it
means really (cf. Mt. 13:23, Who really bears fruit; i.e., is a
genuine Christian).
Εἰ μήν
231. This expression is very rare in the New Testament.
In Heb. 6:14 its emphatic meaning stands out clearly,
"Assuredly (or Above all) blessing I will bless thee."
•
Μέν
I
232. Its most common usage is to help differentiate the
word or clause with which it occurs from that which follows
(cf. Mt. 3:11, ἐγὼ μέν . . ὁ δέ, Ι in fact . . . but he;
Lk. 3:16, ös µév ὃς δέ, one . another). When
it is used with the article, the expression may be translated
as a pronoun; (cf. Jn. 7:12, oi uèv eλeyov, some were saying-
just as ỏ dé may be translated he). At other times it is
purely emphatic, but is usually associated with other empha-
tic particles when it is (cf. Ac. 4:16, öтɩ μèv Yàρ YνWσтÒV
onμetov, that a really notable miracle; see also Ac. 9:31; Rom.
1:8; 3:2; Phs. 3:8). At such times the translation in fact is
about as good as any. In Lk. 11:28, where it is used with
ovv, the expression contains both contrast and emphasis,
with the significance of in fact, rather. Mévтol, as often in
Μέντοι,
the papyri, is emphatic in Jas. 2:8 and Jude 8, òuoiws μévTOL
Kai Ovтoι, likewise these also in fact; but it seems adversa-
tive in the other passages.
262
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Νή, ναί
233. The former is used only in 1 Cor. 15:31 in its charac-
teristic and exclusive use, which is only in oaths, vǹ Tǹv
VμÉTEρаν KаÚжnow, I affirm by your boasting. The fol-
lowing extracts from the papyri illustrate its use effectively:
P. Par. 49:30 (164–158 B. c.) ἐγὼ γὰρ μὴ τοὺς θεοὺς ἀγωνιῶ,
μήποτε ἀρρωστεῖ τὸ παιδάριον, for I swear by the gods
that I am worrying lest the lad is not well; P. Oxy. vi, 939:20
(4e. A. D.), νὴ γὰρ τὴν σὴν σωτηρίαν, κύριέ μου, ἧς μάλιστά
μoι μéλel, for I swear by your salvation, my lord, which is
of special care to me.
234. Naí is a strong emphatic particle, confirmatory of a
preceding statement, with the significance of our yes or
yea (cf. Mt. 13:51, Néyovov air, vai, they say to him,
Yes; Jn. 11:27, λέγει αὐτῷ, ναὶ κύριε, he says to him, Yes,
Lord; see also 2 Cor. 1:17, 18, 19, 20).
Πέρ
235. According to the WH text, this particle does not
occur except as a part of another word. It emphasizes the
meaning of the word to which it is affixed, and has such
meanings as indeed, really, completely, etc. (cf. Rom. 8:17,
Єiπeρ σνντáσxоμev, if we really suffer together; see also Heb.
3:14; 5:4, 8).
'T
Ποτέ
236. This is an enclitic particle which occurs frequently.
(1) In several passages our word ever suggests its force better
than any other word (cf. Heb. 1:5, τίνι γὰρ εἶπέν ποτε τῶν
åyyéλwv, for to whom of the angels did he ever say, etc.?
Eph. 5:29, οὐδεὶς γάρ ποτε τὴν ἑαυτοῦ σάρκα ἐμίσησεν,
for no one ever hated his own flesh; see also 2 Pt. 1:10, 21).
(2) It is often used with temporal significance and may be
translated at that time (notice the relationship to the interog-
gative particle Tóτe, at what time?), at length, once, formerly
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
263
(cf. Eph. 2:2, ἐν αἷς ποτε περιεπατήσατε, in which you at
that time walked; Phs. 4:10, ὅτι ἤδη ποτὲ ἀνεθάλετε τὸ ὑπὲρ
éμov povεiv, that now at length you have revived your thinking
about me; see also Eph. 2:3, 11, 13; Lk. 22:32).
Πού, πώς
237. These are also enclitic, emphatic particles, but are
rarely used in the New Testament. The former may be
translated somehow and about in Ac. 27:29 and Rom. 4:19. It
seems to mean at all in Heb. 2:16. Пws is translatable by any
means in Rom. 11:14. It is so translated in Xenophon's
Anabasis by Goodwin and White (ii, 5:2).
Τοί
238. This particle does not occur except as affixed to
another word and is clearly emphatic in function, but
it is rather difficult to translate that emphasis (cf. Jas. 2:8).
The Negative Particles
References: R. 1155-1175; M. 169–171, 187–194.
239. There are two chief negative particles in Greek, où
and un. The distinction between them is real and clear,
but it has not always been observed. Modifications in use.
came with the advancing history of the language. Very
much modified in form and function, and reinforced by the
addition of dé (v), these negatives persist in Modern Greek
(T. 199f.). It is not to be questioned, however, that they
had in the Koiné period a pronounced distinction, and
that the New Testament writers were aware of this dis-
tinction.
Οὐ
240. This negative particle is spelled où before words
beginning with consonants, ok before words beginning
264
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
with vowels which have a smooth breathing, oux before
words beginning with vowels which have a rough breathing.
(1) Où is the particle used in summary negation. It is
the stronger of the two negatives, and "the proper negative
for the statement of a downright fact" (M. 232). “Oỷ
denies the reality of an alleged fact. It is the clear-cut,
point-blank negative, objective, final" (R. 1156). When
John the Baptist was asked if he was "the prophet" he sim-
ply replied, οὔ (see Jn. 1:21, ὁ προφήτης εἶ σύ; καὶ ἀπεκρίθη
ov). Since où is the stronger negative we would naturally
expect to find it used most frequently with the indicative
mood, which is the mood for stating facts positively and
forcefully. And this is the case. But Blass has overstated
the facts in attempting to bring the differences between où
and µʼn under a single rule. "All instances," he states, "may
practically be brought under the single rule, that où negatives
the indicative, un, the other modes, including the infinitive.
and participle" (B. 253). That is true of the majority of
uses, but there are numerous exceptions. Whenever a Greek
wanted to make a denial or state a prohibition emphatically,
he was not fenced in by grammatical conventions from using
où with any of the moods. He simply used whatever mood
best expressed the idea he had in mind and accompanied
it with the proper negative. Où is found with the subjunc-
tive (1 Pt. 3:3), the infinitive (Heb. 7:11), and with the
participle (Jn. 10:12), but its predominant use is with the
indicative. "In addition to its regular use with the indica-
tive où is frequently found in the papyri with the participle,
apparently for the reason that it is the proper negative for a
statement of fact" (Milligan in Voc. Gr. Test.; cf. P. Oxy.
iv, 726:10 (A. D. 135): οὐ δυνάμενος δι' ἀσθενείαν πλεῦσαι,
since he is unable on account of sickness to make the voyage).
(2) When où (or ovxí) is used in a question its use always
implies that the expected answer is "yes." In this regard
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
265
it is the equivalent of the Latin nonne (cf. Mt. 13:55, oux
οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ τοῦ τέκτονος υἱός; οὐχ ἡ μήτηρ αὐτοῦ
λéyetaɩ Mapiaµ, this is the carpenter's son, is it not? His
mother is called Mary, is she not?
Μή
241. This is the weaker, milder negative, denying sub-
jectively and with hesitancy. "In a word, un is just the
negative to use when one does not wish to be too positive.
Mý leaves the question open for further remarks or entreaty.
Où closes the door abruptly" (R. 1156).
(1) Then μn is the particle of qualified negation. Since
the subjunctive and optative moods imply uncertainty, it
is but natural that un, which denies hypothetically and
with reserve, should predominate with these moods. It
also predominates with imperatives, infinitives, and partici-
ples, but it is used sparingly with the indicative. The
student should remember that this is true not because of
any fixed rule, but due to the fact of the inherent meaning
of the moods and the negatives.
Professor Milligan (op. cit.) summarizes the occurrences of un with
the indicative in the papyri thus: "(a) in relative clauses . (b) in
cautious assertions (as in Lk. 11:35; Gal. 4:11; Col. 2:18)."
•
(2) In questions μn (or μnтi) implies that the expected
answer is "no." Notice how Judas asked the memorable
question, μntɩ ¿yw eiµɩ; It is not I, is it? (Mt. 26:25). The
difference in meaning in questions between the two negatives
is clearly apparent in Lk. 6:39, μήτι δύναται τυφλὸς
τυφλὸν ὁδηγεῖν; οὐχὶ ἀμφότερος εἰς βόθυνον ἐμπεσοῦνται;
a blind man is not able to guide a blind man, is he? They will
both fall into a ditch, will they not? (cf. Mk. 4:21; Jn. 4:29.)
The differences between these negatives in other sentences besides the
interrogative may be summarized as follows: "The general distinction
between ov and µn is that où is objective, dealing only with facts, while un
is subjective, involving will and thought.
In the NT où is
266
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
almost entirely confined to the indicative, while un monopolises the
other moods" (Voc. Gr. Test.) Or, according to Dr. C. B. Williams
(Union University, Jackson, Tenn.), "Ou expresses a definite, emphatic
negation; un an indefinite, doubtful negation. If a negation was to be
asserted unequivocally, où was always used; if hypothetically, un was
invariably used" (unpublished Grammar Notes). An illuminating
comment may be quoted from Webster: "Ov conveys a direct and
absolute denial; µn conveys a subjective and conditional denial. In a
conditional proposition, μn belongs to the protasis, où to the apodosis.
Mý negatives a supposition; it prohibits, or forbids. Ou negatives an
affirmation, affirming that it is not so. Où is used when an object is
regarded independently in itself; un when it is regarded as depending on
some thought, wish, purpose. Ou negat rem ipsam; un, cogitationem
rei. Où implies non-existence simply; but un implies non-existence,
when existence was probable or possible. Ou is negative; µn is priva-
tive" (op. cit., p. 138). The relative difference between these negatives
is evident in 1 Pt. 1:8, öv ovk idóvtes åɣatãte, eis öv äρti µǹ òpív-
τες πιστεύοντες δὲ ἀγαλλιᾶτε χαρᾷ ἀνεκλαλήτῳ, whom having
never seen you continue loving; upon whom, though not looking you con-
tinue trusting, and you are rejoicing with unspeakable joy. In the
above sentence oỦк, used with the aorist participle, states positively
that they had not seen Jesus, while μn in a milder way, with the present
participle, states that they are not now seeing him. Dr. A. T. Robert-
son has the happy way of illustrating to his students the difference in
meaning between these negatives by picturing graphically a young man
proposing to his lady friend. If she answers him, un, it may only mean
that she wants to be coaxed a little longer, or that she is still in a state of
uncertainty; but if she responds, où, he may as well get his hat and
leave at once.
Οὐ μή
242. In the WH. text the combination où μn occurs ninety-
six times. With the light that the papyri have thrown upon
this doubling of the negatives we can now say unreservedly
that the negatives were doubled for the purpose of stating
denials or prohibitions emphatically. "Où un is rare, and
very emphatic in the non-literary papyri" (M. 188). The
following papyrus quotation from a boy's letter to his father
illustrates the papyri occurrences very effectively: P. Oxy.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
267
i, 119:5, 14f. (2c.-3c. A. D.), ἢ οὐ θέλις ἀπενέκκειν μετ’
ἐσοῦ εἰς ᾿Αλεξανδρίαν, οὐ μὴ γράψω σε ἐπιστολήν
ἂμ (=ἐάν) μὴ πέμψῃς, οὐ μὴ φάγω, οὐ μὴ πείνω, if you
refuse to take me along with you to Alexandria, I positively will
not write you a letter.
If you do not send (for me) I
will not eat; I will not drink. The above illustrates how peo-
ple used the doubling of the negatives for making categorical
and emphatic denials (ef. Mt. 5:20, οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθητε εἰς τὴν
βασιλείαν τῶν οὐρανῶν, ye shall by no means enter into
the kingdom of heaven; 1 Cor. 8:13, où µǹ øáyw kρéa eis tòv
aiŵva, I will never at all eat meat again (cf. also Lk. 22:16, 18,
67, 68).
Où is found in composition frequently in the following combinations:
ovdaµãs, by no means; ovdé, not even, neither; ovdeis, ovleis, no one;
ovdéπOTE, never (not even ever); ovdéπw, not yet; ovKÉTɩ, no longer, no
more; ovπw, not yet; ovтe, neither. When a less positive denial was
desired, the same suffixes were attached to μn. The suffixes -Xɩ on oỷ,
and -σɩ on µŋ have the force of strengthening and intensifying these
negatives (Mt. 13:27; 26:25; Lk. 1:60),
DIVISION III
CLAUSES
243. Regardless of what kind of comparisons are made
in the study of languages, the Greek language, with scarcely
an exception, proves to be the most accurate, euphonious,
and expressive. And it keeps up its high average in the
realm of clauses. There is an ample number of different
types of clauses, and each type is exquisitely developed, so
as to be the most suitable vehicle for expressing with ease
and grace any elusive thought.
244. Not many grammars have a separate treatment of
clauses. This is no doubt due to the fact that the clause
does not represent a separate part of speech. It is essen-
tially interwoven with other parts of speech which call for
specific treatment in a descriptive grammar. Consequently,
whenever all the parts of speech have been discussed, the
clauses have already been considered. To devote to them
a separate discussion might, therefore, seem to necessitate
either the omission of important matters pertaining to the
parts of speech involved in clauses, or useless duplication
in treating each clause a second time. That there is some
truth in this objection cannot be denied, but the objection
is offset by the fact that the clause is a unique element of
syntactical structure and cannot be adequately compre-
hended until all its phenomena are presented in a single
systematic view. There will also appear duplication be-
tween different groups of clauses. This is especially true
of the relative clauses, which occur under various classi-
fications. But in such repetition we venture to sacrifice
rhetorical propriety to pedagogical efficiency.
268
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
269
245. As to their general character, clauses gather about
the two pivotal points of syntax, the noun and the verb.
They present a triple character-substantival, adjectival,
and adverbial (cf. R. 952). To treat them in three groups
under this classification according to character would con-
duce to scientific accuracy, but would sacrifice simplicity
and clearness. We employ in our grouping here the more
obvious basis of their sense in relation to the context. For
a fuller analysis of clauses on the basis of their character
see Br. 82.
246. As to the use of moods in subordinate clauses, this
general rule applies; viz., that the moods used in coördi-
nate clauses have exactly the same force in subordinate
clauses. "There is no essential difference in meaning of
the modes in subordinate clauses from their significance in
independent sentences" (R. 950).
I. THE STRUCTURAL RELATION OF CLAUSES
247. When two or more clauses are connected in a coördi-
nate relation, they constitute what is known as a compound
sentence. The distinctive feature of the compound sentence
is that in its structure no clause is subordinate to another, but
all are in coördinate or paratactic relation (Taратaктós:
arranged alongside). When one clause is subordinate to
another, the relation is called hypotactic (VTOTаKTÓS: ar-
ranged under), and the technical name for the sentence is
complex. The common practice of the Greek language was
that each clause be connected with the preceding by some
connective word. The term for the lack of such a connective
is asyndeton (ȧoúvderos: not bound together). Many exam-
ples of asyndeton are found in the New Testament. It
occurs most frequently in John's Gospel and First Epistle.
248. A clause is simply the employment of a circumlocu-
tion by which we convey a meaning that we cannot readily
270
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
express with a single word or phrase. Thus to say, "I saw
the man going home," is modified and expanded in meaning
by saying, "I saw the man who was going home." In this
modifying function the clause presents a threefold relation
to the principal sentence of (cf. §245).
(1) A clause may sustain the relation of a substantive,
and be used as subject or object of a verb.
οὐκ ἔχω ὃ παραθήσω αὐτῷ.
I do not have that which I may place before him. Lk. 11:6.
See also: Jn. 12:10; 1 Cor. 4:2.
(2) A clause may have the function of an adjective, and
be used to modify a noun.
τῷ σπέρματί σου, ὅς ἐστιν Χριστός.
To thy seed, who is Christ. Gal. 3:16.
See also: Jn. 4:34; 15:12.
(3) A clause may serve as an adverb.
ἀκολουθήσω σοι ὅπου ἐὰν ἀπέρχῃ.
I will follow you wherever you go. Lk. 9:57.
See also: Jn. 3:16; 1 Cor. 14:12.
i. The student will find interesting variation and unmeasured
possibilities of expression in the Greek use of clauses.
ii. In the treatment of clauses it is easiest on the whole to denomi-
nate them according to the connectives that introduce them, having
first classified the clauses according to the ideas they are used to ex-
press. However, with a few exceptions, as far as clarity is con-
cerned, only the subordinate clauses need separate discussion.
II. RELATIVE CLAUSES
References: R. 953–962; R-S. 168–170.
249. The relative is used to indicate clauses of various
types. This variety in the nature of relative clauses does
not, of course, arise from the character of the relative itself,
but is determined by the nature and relations of the clause.
For instance, a relative pronoun has the same essential
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
271
character in a causal clause that it does in a purpose clause.
But while the character of the relative is not the determin-
ing factor, it does affect the clause in the matter of definite-
ness or indefiniteness.
Nature of the Relative
250. A relative is a word by means of which the complete
expression of one idea is connected in sense with the com-
plete expression of another. Thus, "The man lives" is a
complete thought, and "The pastures are green" is a com-
plete thought. These two sentences may become principal
and subordinate clauses in a single sentence by the inser-
tion of the relative adverb where: "The man lives where
the pastures are green." In this construction the first sen-
tence becomes the principal clause and the second the
subordinate clause. Relatives may be pronouns; e.g., ös
and oσris; or adverbs, e.g., ews and us.
Uses of the Relative
251. The relative pronoun has no invariable effect as to
mood. That is determined by the general relation of the
clause to its context. So we need not be surprised to find
relative clauses embracing two moods, indicative and sub-
junctive. It is true, however, that the definite relative
accords more naturally with the indicative, while the in-
definite relative suits the subjunctive better. This fact is
in line with the fundamental character of the two moods.
The indicative assumes the actual existence of the event or
thing denoted by the relative, while the subjunctive con-
templates it as hypothetical.
The Indicative with Relative Clauses
252. In by far the greater number of relative clauses,
both as to frequency of occurrence and variety in use,
272
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
we find the indicative used. It appears in five types of
clauses.
(1) Adjectival Clauses. Sometimes a relative clause is
used to directly limit or define a substantive, performing a
pure adjective function.
μνημονεύετε τοῦ λόγου οὗ ἐγὼ εἶπον ὑμῖν.
Remember the word which I spoke to you. Jn. 15:20.
See also: Jn. 6:37; Gal. 3:16.
(2) Causal Clauses. The relative clause may denote the
grounds for the assertion in the main clause.
οἵτινες ἀπεθάνομεν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ πῶς ἔτι ζήσομεν ἐν αὐτῇ;
We who died to sin, how shall we longer live therein? Rom. 6:2.
See also: Ac. 10:41; Gal. 5:4.
(3) Concessive Clauses. A relative clause may imply the
idea of concession.
οἱ λέγοντες αὔριον κερδήσομεν,
οἵτινες οὐκ ἐπίστασθε τῆς αὔριον.
Some say, "Tomorrow we will get gain," who know nothing about
tomorrow. Jas. 4:13, 14.
(4) Simple Condition. The relative clause may supply
the protasis of a simple condition.
ὅσοι γὰρ ἀνόμως ἥμαρτον, ἀνόμως καὶ ἀπολοῦνται.
For as many as sin without law also perish without law. Rom. 2:12.
See also: Mk. 10:43; 2 Cor. 2:10.
(5) Purpose Clauses. The relative clause may express
purpose.
τὸν ἀμπελῶνα ἐκδώσεται ἄλλοις γεωργοῖς, οἵτινες ἀποδώσουσιν
αὐτῷ τοὺς καρπούς.
He will let the vineyard to other husbandmen, who will render to
him the fruits. Mt. 21:41.
See also: Mk. 1:2; 1 Cor. 4:17.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
273
The Subjunctive With Relative Clauses
253. Where the contingent or indefinite idea is supplied
by the context, or the context and the nature of the relative,
the subjunctive is used.
(1) More Probable Condition. The protasis of a more.
probable future condition may be expressed by the use of a
relative pronoun with äv.
ὃς δ᾿ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ, οὗτος μέγας κληθήσεται.
Whosoever shall do and teach them, he shall be called great. Mt. 5:19.
See also: Mk. 10:43; Jas. 2:10.
This construction is sometimes found in the future indicative without
åv (cf. Mt. 10:32). In the New Testament we sometimes find ẻáv
instead of av. This was current Koiné usage, as is abundantly evi-
denced by the papyri.
(2) Voluntative Result Clauses. A relative clause may
express a result which the context shows was intended or
contemplated.
ὅθεν ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν τι καὶ τοῦτον ὃ προσενέγκῃ.
Wherefore, this one must have something which he may offer.
Heb. 8:3.
See also: Mk. 14:14; Lk. 7:4.
i. We have in this construction a blending of purpose and result,
and it is often difficult to determine which is the more prominent.
Where the voluntative force is but slightly felt the future indicative
is used, instead of the subjunctive as in the above case (Phs. 2:20).
ii. Some Correlative and Interrogative Pronouns Illustrated. We find
ooos, as much as, used frequently with TOσOUTOS, so much as; e.g.,
Heb. 1:4, τοσούτῳ . ŏow, by so much as. Similarly olos, what
kind of, occurs in connection with TOLOŪTOS, such kind of; e.g., 1 Cor.
15:48, οἷος ὁ χοϊκός, τοιοῦτοι, as is the earthy, such also are those who
are earthy. There is no difference in meaning between Tolos, of what
sort, and oπolos, of what sort. The former is an interrogative pronoun,
so the difference is one of function (cf. Lk. 24:19; 1 Cor. 3:13). The use
of πóσos, how great, how much (Mt. 6:23), is closely akin to that of
ηλikos, how great, how large (Jas. 3:5). The latter seems to have refer-
ence more to size, while the former deals rather with quantity or number.
274
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
III. CAUSAL CLAUSES
References: R. 962-966; Nunn 115.
254. A causal clause is one which states the ground or
reason for the assertion contained in another.
Coördinate Causal Clauses
255. The inferential particle yap is the regular connective
for two coördinate clauses which bear to each other some
relation of cause and effect, or reason and conclusion. These
coördinate sentences joined by yap do not in the strictest
sense belong to clauses.
μάρτυς γάρ μού ἐστιν ὁ θεός.
For God is my witness. Rom. 1:9.
i. In the preceding statement Paul has expressed his profound
interest in the Roman church and his appreciation of it, and here
he adds an evidence in proof of his claim (see also: 1 Cor. 8:5; Gal.
4:15; et innum.).
ii. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a clause is coördinate
or subordinate. When the particle is yap, that usually fixes it as
coördinate. If it it örɩ, the clause is regularly subordinate, although
there are a few apparent exceptions (cf. 1 Cor. 1:25; 10:17).
Subordinate Causal Clauses
256. Four chief methods of expression are exhibited in
the construction of subordinate causal clauses.
(1) By a Subordinating Conjunction. The particles used
are, ὅτι, διότι, καθότι, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅθεν; also the phrases,
ἐφ᾽ ᾧ, ἐφ' ὅσον, ἀνθ' ὧν, οὗ χάριν.
ὅτι ἐγὼ ζῶ καὶ ὑμεῖς ζήσετε.
Because I live, you also shall live. Jn. 14:19.
ἐφ' ὅσον ἐποιήσατε ἑνὶ τούτων.
Since you did it to one of these. Mt. 25:40.
See also: Rom. 1:21; 1 Cor. 1:22; Heb. 3:1.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
275
(2) By diά with the Articular Infinitive.
4
διὰ τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸν ἐξ οἴκου Δαυείδ.
Because he was of the house of David. Lk. 2:4.
See also: Lk. 8:9; Jn. 2:24.
(3) By the Participle. The participle may express cause
either when it is in agreement with some word in the prin-
cipal clause, or in the genitive absolute.
μὴ θέλων αὐτὴν δειγματίσαι.
Because he did not wish to make her a public example. Mt. 1:19.
μὴ ἔχοντος δὲ αὐτοῦ ἀποδοῦναι.
And since he did not have anything to pay. Mt. 18:25.
See also: Lk. 16:1; Ac. 12:3.
The use of ws with a causal participle implies that the action
denoted by the participle is the supposed or alleged cause of the
action of the principal verb.
(4) By the Relative Pronoun.
προσέχετε ἀπὸ τῶν ψευδοπροφητῶν, οἵτινες ἔρχονται πρὸς
ὑμᾶς ἐν ἐνδύμασιν προβάτων.
Beware of false prophets who come to you in sheep's clothing.
Mt. 7:15.
See also: Rom. 6:2; Heb. 12:6.
IV. COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
References: R. 966-968; R-S. 175-176.
257. A comparative clause introduces an analogous
thought for the purpose of elucidating or emphasizing the
thought expressed in the principal clause. To say, "The
believer is baptized as the Savior was," is to describe the
believer's baptism; while to say, "The believer shall be
raised even as Christ was raised," is to emphasize the cer-
tainty of the resurrection. Description or emphasis will be
found to be the function of nearly all comparative clauses,
which are of frequent occurrence in the New Testament.
276
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
The Particles Used
258. It is well that the student should become easily
familiar with the various connective particles which are
used to introduce comparative clauses.
(1) Those used most are ὡς and καθώς.
οὕτως ἡμᾶς λογιζέσθω ἄνθρωπος ὡς ὑπηρέτας Χριστοῦ.
In this way let a man think of us, as servants of Christ. 1 Cor. 4:1.
ἵνα πάντες τιμῶσι τὸν υἱὸν καθῶς τιμῶσι τὸν πατέρα.
In order that all will honor the Son as they honor the Father.
Jn. 5:23.
(2) Compounds of κατά; viz., καθό (Rom. 8:26), καθότι
(Ac. 2:45), καθώσπερ (Heb. 5:4), καθάπερ (Rom. 3:4).
ἐσμὲν εὐηγγελισμένοι καθάπερ κἀκεῖνοι.
We have been evangelized even as also they. Heb. 4:2.
(3) Compounds of ὡς; viz., ὡσεί (Mt. 9:36), ὥσπερ
(Mt. 6:2), ώσπερεί (1 Cor. 15:8), ὡσαύτως (Mt. 20:5).
καταβαῖνον ὡσεὶ περιστεράν.
Descending as a dove. Mt. 3:16.
(4) The correlative pronoun ὅσος. In the comparative
sense it is found only four times, each of which is in
Hebrews.
ὅσῳ διαφορώτερον παρ' αὐτοὺς κεκληρονόμηκεν ὄνομα.
By how much he has inherited a more excellent name than they.
Heb. 1:4.
(5) The comparative particle ή, than. It occurs most
frequently with single words, but now and then also with a
clause.
εὐκοπώτερόν ἐστιν κάμηλον διὰ τρήματος ῥαφίδος εἰσελθεῖν
ἢ πλούσιον εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ.
It is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich
man to enter into the kingdom of God. Mt. 19:24.
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277
(6) The use of the phrase öv трóπov, as, just as. It is fre-
quent in 2 Clement with this meaning (cf. 8, 9, 12).
ποσάκις ἠθέλησα ἐπισυναγαγεῖν τὰ τέκνα σου, ὃν τρόπον
ὄρνις ἐπισυνάγει τὰ νοσσία αὐτῆς.
How often would I have gathered together thy children just as
a hen gathers together her little ones! Mt. 23:37
See also: Lk. 13:34; Ac. 1:11.
The Moods Used
259. It is not the meaning of the particles or the sig-
nificance of the comparison per se which causes the varia-
tion in mood, but the implications of the context. The
fundamental ideas of actuality and potentiality determine
the matter, as is always the case with mood.
(1) Regularly we find the indicative.
ἔσεσθε ὑμεῖς τέλειοι ὡς ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν τέλειός ἐστιν.
Ye shall be perfect as your Father is perfect. Mt. 5:48.
See also: Rom. 3:4; 8:26.
(2) Where the element of contingency is introduced, the
subjunctive is used.
ὡς καιρὸν ἔχωμεν, ἐργαζώμεθα τὸν ἀγαθόν.
As we have opportunity, let us do good. Gal 6:10.
See also: Mk. 4:26; 2 Cor. 8:12.
V. LOCAL CLAUSES
References: R. 969-970; Nunn 114.
260. A local clause is one which is introduced by a rela-
tive adverb of place.
The Particles Used
261. These clauses are introduced in the New Testament
by three local adverbs.
278
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(1) By ὅπου.
καὶ ἄλλο ἔπεσεν ἐπὶ τὸ πετρῶδες ὅπου οὐκ εἶχεν γῆν πολλήν.
And other fell upon stony soil where it had not much ground.
Mk. 4:5.
(2) By oũ.
ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον εὗρεν τὸν τόπον οὗ ἦν γεγραμμένον.
Having opened the book he found the place where it was written.
Lk. 4:17.
(3) By ὅθεν.
εἰς τὸν οἶκόν μου ἐπιστρέψω ὅθεν ἐξῆλθον.
I will return to my house whence I came out. Mt. 12:44.
The Moods Used
262. The same general principles operate here which
affect moods elsewhere.
(1) The indicative only is used when the local clause is.
definite.
θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅπου σὴς καὶ βρῶσις ἀφανίζει.
Treasures upon earth, where moth and rust consume. Mt. 6:19.
See also: Mt. 2:9; Mk. 2:4.
(2) The indicative is used in indefinite local clauses when the
action took place prior to the writing, but the subjunctive
occurs when the action is expected to take place in the future.
In such constructions av or éáv occurs with the local adverb.
ὅπου ἂν εἰσπορεύετο εἰς κώμας.
Wherever he entered into villages. Mk. 6:56.
ἀκολουθήσω σοι ὅπου ἐὰν ἀπέρχῃ.
I will follow thee wherever thou goest. Lk. 9:57.
See also: Mt. 24:28; Mk. 6:10.
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279
VI. TEMPORAL CLAUSES
References: R. 970-979; R-S. 171–174.
263. There are in the Greek language several particles,
derived from relative adverbs, which are used to introduce
clauses that define a thought by means of its temporal rela-
tions. Some temporal particles are also used as prepo-
sitions, introducing a phrase rather than a clause (cf. Mt.
24:38; Lk. 16:16; Heb. 12:4).
The Character of Temporal Clauses
264. The function of a temporal clause is to limit the
action of the verb in the principal clause by the introduc-
tion of a relation of time. The quality of such a clause
may be defined from two points of view.
The Relation of the Time Limit
(1) Antecedent Time. The time limit may be described
as prior to the action of the principal verb, in which case the
clause is generally introduced by πρív, before.
(2) Contemporaneous Time. The time limit may be the
continuance of an action which is described as parallel with
the action of the principal verb, the clause being introduced
by ews, while, or öre, ws, when.
(3) Subsequent Time. The time limit may be described
as the terminus of the action of the principal verb, the
clause being introduced by ews, until.
The Nature of the Temporal Idea
(1) Definite. The time limit may be indicated as a spe-
cific point or period, corresponding in meaning to "when,"
by the use of the indicative mood.
(2) Indefinite. The time limit may be stated as a con-
280
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
tingency, carrying a conditional element, and corresponding
in meaning to "whenever." The indicative with äv is gen-
erally used in such clauses for past time, and the subjunc-
tive with av for future time.
The prevalence of relative adverbs among the temporal particles
quite naturally makes the grammarians disposed to class them with
relative clauses. So Burton gives as his classification of this group,
"Relative Clauses Introduced by Words Meaning Until, While and
Before" (Br. 128). Blass describes them as "only a special class
of relative sentences," which "exhibit the same constructions" (Bl.
218). But Robertson takes issue with this opinion, and contends
for the temporal clause as a distinct construction. He does admit,
however, their kinship to relative clauses, as exhibited in their char-
acter as definite or indefinite. Indefiniteness is based upon "futurity,
frequency and duration.” He calls attention to one place in the
New Testament where the optative occurs in a temporal clause
(Ac. 25:16), but is "due to indirect discourse." The presence or
absence of av in temporal clauses varies in accordance with the con-
junction and context (cf. R. 970).
The Constructions in Temporal Clauses
265. We may distinguish five constructions in the use of
the temporal clause in the New Testament.
(1) With the Indicative. Where the temporal limitation
is stated as definite, or assumed as real, the indicative is
regularly used.
a. Introduced by ὅτε, ἐπειδή, ὁπότε, ὡς, meaning when.
ὅτε ἐτέλεσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τοὺς λόγους τούτους, μετῆρεν.
When Jesus had finished these words, he departed. Mt. 19:1,
See also: Mt. 7:28; 21:1; Lk. 7:1; 11:1.
b. Introduced by öτav, meaning whenever.
ὅταν στήκετε προσευχόμενοι, ἀφίετε.
Whenever ye stand praying, forgive. Mk. 11:25.
See also: Mk. 3:11; Rev. 4:9.
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281
c. Introduced by ἕως, ἕως οὗ, ἕως ὅτου, ἄχρι οὗ, ἐφ' ὅσον,
meaning while.
ἠνάγκασεν τοὺς μαθητὰς ἐμβῆναι, ἕως ἀπολύει τὸν ὄχλον.
He constrained the disciples to embark, while he dismissed the
multitude. Mk. 6:45.
See also: Jn. 9:4; 1 Tim. 4:13; Heb. 3:13; Lk. 12:58.
d. Introduced by éws, äxpɩ, äxpɩ ov, meaning until.
ὁ ἀστὴρ προῆγεν αὐτοὺς, ἕως ἐστάθη ἐπάνω οὗ ἦν τὸ παιδίον.
The star went before them until it stood over where the child was.
Mt. 2:9.
See also: Ac. 7:18; Rev. 17:17.
e. Introduced by us, ap' ou, meaning since.
πόσος χρόνος ἐστὶν ὡς τοῦτο γέγονεν αὐτῷ;
How long is it since this happened to him? Mk. 9:21.
See also: Lk. 13:7.
(2) With the Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used
where the temporal clause is conceived as an indefinite pos-
sibility, and its use implies uncertainty as to realization.
a. Introduced by ὅταν, ἐπάν, ἡνίκα, meaning whenever.
ὅταν δὲ εἰσφέρωσιν ὑμᾶς ἐπὶ τὰς συναγωγὰς, μὴ μεριμνήσετε τί
εἴπητε.
And whenever they bring you into synagogues, be not anxious what
ye may say. Lk. 12:11.
See also: Mt. 24:33; Mk. 13:11; Lk. 11:34; 2 Cor. 3:15.
b. Introduced by ἕως, ἄχρι, ἄχρι οὗ, μέχρι, μέχρι οὗ,
meaning until.
ἐκεῖ μένετε ἕως ἂν ἐξέλθητε ἐκεῖθεν.
There abide until ye depart thence. Mk. 6:10.
See also: Lk. 21:24; Rev. 15:8; Eph. 4:13; Mk. 13:30.
When the temporal clause has an actual future reference, av is
often used (Lk. 15:4). When the principal clause is past, and the
temporal clause presents a future reference relative to the principal
clause, av is omitted (Mk. 18:30).
282
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(3) With the Infinitive. For antecedent time the regular
construction is the infinitive with πρίν or πρὶν ἤ, meaning
before.
εἴρηκα ὑμῖν πρὶν γενέσθαι.
I have told you before it comes to pass. Jn. 14:29.
See also: Mt. 1:18; 26:34.
i. The infinitive is also used with πрò тоυ to mean before”(Gal. 2:12),
with ev T to mean while (Mt. 13:25) or when (Ac. 8:6), and with
μEтà TÓ to mean after (Ac. 1:3; cf. (3) above).
ii. Where the principal clause is negative, πpiv n is followed by the
indicative (cf. Lk. 2:26).
(4) With a Relative Phrase. A relative pronoun with a
preposition may express a temporal idea.
ἐν ᾧ ὁ νυμφίος μετ' αὐτῶν ἐστίν.
While the bridegroom is with them. Mk. 2:19.
See also: Mt. 9:15; 13:25.
(5) With the Participle. One of the regular uses of the
participle is as the equivalent of a temporal clause.
καὶ ἐξελθὼν εἶδεν πολὺν ὄχλον.
And when he came forth, he saw a great multitude. Mt. 14:14.
See also: Mt. 14:32; Heb. 11:21.
VII. PURPOSE CLAUSES
References: R. 981-991; R-S. 152–154.
266. The variety and distinctiveness of the constructions
for expressing purpose in Greek make it important that
close attention be given to the matter. The student will
do well to tarry with this section until he has mastered it.
The Character of Purpose Clauses
267. The function of a purpose clause is to express the
aim of the action denoted by the main verb. This aim may
be of the nature of a deliberate design, it may be a matter
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283
of general direction, or merely of contemplated results.
Thus to say, "Paul went to Berea to preach the gospel,"
could mean that Paul went in accordance with an actual
plan, or that he went so that he could preach. So purpose
clauses may exhibit various shades of meaning, ranging
from deliberate design to mere tendency or result. They
may be divided into two classes.
(1) Pure Final Clauses are those which express a distinct
purpose conceived as the aim of the action indicated in the
principal verb.
(2) Semi-Final Clauses are those which denote a direc-
tion of the action in the main verb toward a given result,
which result is sought or anticipated.
The Constructions in Purpose Clauses
268. Purpose may be expressed in six ways according to
New Testament usage.
(1) By iva and oπws, meaning that, in order that; or, a
negative purpose, by iva μn and μn, that not, lest. The
subjunctive occurs regularly, and the future indicative occa-
sionally.
ἦλθεν ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός.
He came that he might bear witness concerning the light. Jn. 1:7.
δέδωκεν ἡμῖν διάνοιαν ἵνα γινώσκομεν τὸν ἀληθινόν.
He has given us a mind that we know the truth. 1 Jn. 5:20.
μὴ κρίνετε ἵνα μὴ κριθῆτε.
Judge not that you be not judged. Mt. 7:1.
μὴ τίς με δόξῃ ἄφρονα εἶναι.
Lest anyone think me a fool. 2 Cor. 11:16.
ὅπως φανῶσιν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις.
That they may be seen by men. Mt. 6:5.
See also: Lk. 20:10; 22:11.
284
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(2) By the simple infinitive.
μὴ νομίσητε ὅτι ἦλθον καταλῦσαι τὸν νόμον.
Think not that I came to destroy the law. Mt. 5:17.
See also: Mt. 11:8; 22:3.
(3) By the infinitive with τοῦ.
μέλλει γὰρ Ἡρῴδης ζητεῖν τὸ παιδίον τοῦ ἀπολέσαι αὐτό.
For Herod will seek the child to destroy him. Mt. 2:13.
See also: Ac. 26:18; Phs. 3:10.
:
(4) By the accusative of the articular infinitive with eis
and πρός; and very rarely also by ὡς and ὥστε without the
article.
εἰς τὸ στηριχθῆναι ὑμᾶς.
Το the end that ye may be established. Rom. 1:11.
πᾶς ὁ βλέπων γυναῖκα πρὸς τὸ ἐπιθυμῆσαι.
Every one that looks on a woman for the purpose of lust. Mt. 5:28.
συμβούλιον ἔλαβον ὥστε θανατῶσαι αὐτόν.
They took counsel in order to put him to death. Mt. 27:1.
εἰσῆλθον εἰς κώμην Σαμαρειτῶν, ὡς ἑτοιμάσαι αὐτῷ.
They entered a village of the Samaritans to make ready for him.
Lk. 9:52.
See also: Mt. 6:1; Lk. 4:29; Heb. 7:9.
(5) By the relative with the future indicative or the
subjunctive.
ὃς κατασκευάσει τὴν ὁδόν.
That he may prepare thy way. Mk. 1:2.
ἀναγκαῖον ἔχειν τι καὶ τοῦτον ὃ προσενέγκῃ.
It is necessary that this one really have something to offer. Heb. 8:3.
See also: Ac. 6:3; 21:16.
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285
(6) By the future and, rarely, the present participle.
ἀπέστειλεν αὐτὸν εὐλογοῦντα ὑμᾶς.
He sent him to bless you. Ac. 3:26.
ἐληλύθει προσκυνήσων εἰς Ἱερουσαλήμ.
He had come to Jerusalem to worship. Ac. 8:27.
See also: Mk. 3:31; Mt. 27:49.
VIII. RESULT CLAUSES
References: R. 997-1003; R-S. 155–156.
Definition
269. A result clause states that which is consequent upon
or issues from the action of the main verb. As indicated
under Purpose Clauses (§267) it is often difficult to deter-
mine whether a clause should be translated as denoting
result or purpose.
The Constructions in Result Clauses
270. Result may be introduced in the following ways:
(1) By far the most common way of expressing result is
the use of wore followed by the infinitive.
κἂν ἔχω πᾶσαν τὴν πίστιν ὥστε ὄρη μεθιστάνειν.
And if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains. 1 Cor. 13:2.
See also: Mk. 1:27; 2:12.
(2) By the simple infinitive.
τὰ δὲ ἔθνη ὑπὲρ ἐλέους δοξάσαι τὸν θεόν.
So that the Gentiles might glorify God for His mercy. Rom. 15:9.
See also: Lk. 1:54; Ac. 5:3.
(3) Rarely by the infinitive with Toũ.
ἐλευθέρα ἐστὶν ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου, τοῦ μὴ εἶναι αὐτὴν μοιχαλίδα.
She is free from the law, so that she is not an adulteress. Rom. 7:3.
See also: Ac. 18:10; 20:3; 27:1.
286
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
(4) By the infinitive with eis Tó, which is also rare.
εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτοὺς ἀναπολογήτους.
So that they are without excuse. Rom. 1:20.
See also: Phs. 1:10; Heb. 11:3; Jas. 1:19.
(5) By the indicative with örɩ and wσte, also rare.
ποῦ οὗτος μέλλει πορεύεσθαι ὅτι οὐχ εὑρήσομεν αὐτόν;
Where is this man about to go so that we shall not find him?
Jn. 7:35.
ὥστε τὸν υἱὸν τὸν μονογενῆ ἔδωκεν.
So that he gave his only begotten son. Jn. 3:16.
See also: Mk. 4:41; Gal. 3:13; Heb. 2:6.
With the infinitive σTE expresses conceived or intended result,
but with the indicative (only two occurrences in the New Testament)
it expresses actual result. But actual result may also be expressed by
the infinitive with wσTE (Mt. 8:24; 12:22; Lk. 5:7).
(6) By the subjunctive with iva. Grammarians have been
reluctant to admit this use for iva. But J. H. Moulton and A.
T. Robertson, who at first stood against admitting the con-
secutive force of iva, came to do so later (R. 997). See our
discussion of iva in the section on conjunctions (§220).
λέγω οὖν, ἔπταισαν ἵνα πέσωσιν;
I say then, did they stumble so that they fell? Rom. 11:11.
See also: Gal. 5:17; Lk. 1:43; Jn. 6:7.
IX. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
References: R. 1004-1129; R-S. 161–167.
The Character of Conditional Clauses
271. A conditional clause is the statement of a suppo-
sition, the fulfillment of which is assumed to secure the
realization of a potential fact expressed in a companion
clause. The clause containing the supposition is called the
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
287
protasis. The clause containing the statement based on
the supposition is called the apodosis. Conditional clauses
may be classified on the basis of the attitude they express
with reference to reality.
(1) Supposition from the Viewpoint of Reality. The
protasis of a condition may present one fact as conditioning
another. In one form of condition there is nothing implied
as to whether or not this fact actually exists. This we call
the simple condition. In another form of condition it is
implied that this fact has not been realized, and therefore
does not exist. This we call the contrary to fact condition.
(2) Supposition from the Viewpoint of Probability. The
protasis may imply that the fact suggested as a condition
is a probability. Sometimes it is implied that there is con-
siderable probability of its fulfillment. This we call the
more probable future condition. Again, the protasis may
not contain any special implication of the fulfillment of the
condition, viewing it merely as a possibility. This we call
the less probable future condition. Thus we find that there
are four classes of conditional sentences.
272. The primary thing in understanding conditional
sentences is to keep in mind what kind of affirmation each
mood expresses. As has already been stated in the chapter
on mood, the indicative states a thing as a fact, the sub-
junctive with a degree of uncertainty, and the optative with
a greater degree of uncertainty. Hence, on the basis of
mood, the four kinds of conditional sentences can be con-
veniently grouped into two types. First, there are the two
that have the indicative mood, which assume that the
premise is either true or untrue. The speaker takes for
granted that what he assumes is true, as in the simple con-
dition; or that it is known not to be true, as is the case in
the contrary to fact condition. The indicative, being the
mood for reality, is regularly used in this type of sentence.
288
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
It would be contrary to the genius of the Greek moods if it
were otherwise. Second, the other two conditional sentences
composing the second type do not have the indicative mood,
but rather the subjunctive and optative, which are used to
express varying degrees of uncertainty or doubt. Inasmuch
as the optative has vanished almost entirely from the New
Testament, we see in it but traces of the fourth class of
conditional sentences. But the subjunctive in conditions is
very common.
273. Another thing that lends light toward a thorough
understanding of conditional sentences is the particle äv that
is used in all but the first-class condition. The third-class
condition begins with ei+av or éáv, or sometimes äv. In the
apodosis of sentences in the second and fourth classes äv
occurs most of the time, but it is not necessary according to
Koiné usage. As we have pointed out in our discussion of
åv in the section on particles, it implies doubt or indefinite-
ness. Its very presence in a sentence indicates lack of
certainty on the part of the one using it. It warns us not to
take at full face value what the other words may imply. If
we but remember that this word which implies uncertainty
is used with the moods for uncertainty, we are far advanced
in a proper understanding of it.
274. If the indicative is used in a conditional clause, natur-
ally the negative is où. Whenever any other mood is used,
the regular negative is un. In a few cases this rule is not
followed absolutely, the contrary to fact condition being a
notable exception, where μn, the weaker negative and the
one for expressing doubt, is used regularly with but two
exceptions in the New Testament.
Robertson has termed these four kinds of conditional sentences as
follows: (1) reality; (2) unreality; (3) probability; (4) possibility.
And he makes a very pertinent statement, the substance of which
needs to be remembered: "The point about all the four classes to
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
289
note is that the form of the condition has to do only with the
statement, not with the absolute truth or certainty of the matter.
We must distinguish always therefore between the fact and
the statement of the fact. The conditional sentence deals only with
the statement” (R. 1005).
The Constructions in Conditional Sentences
275. We have developed in the above discussion that
there are two general types of conditional sentences, of
two varieties each, thus requiring four different construc-
tions for expression.
(1) The Simple Condition. This condition was used
when one wished to assume or to seem to assume the reality
of his premise. El occurs regularly in the protasis, with
any tense of the indicative. There is no fixed form for the
apodosis—any mood or tense may occur.
εἰ δὲ πνεύματι ἄγεσθε, οὐκ ἐστὲ ὑπὸ νόμον.
But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law. Gal. 5:18.
See also: Mk. 4:23; Rev. 20:15.
(2) The Contrary to Fact Condition. The premise is
assumed to be contrary to fact in this class, and only the
past tenses of the indicative are used. As suggested above,
this condition states a thing as if it were untrue or unreal,
although in actual fact it may be true, as the first example
below shows. The protasis is introduced by ei, and äv
usually occurs in the apodosis. Exceptions are found in
Mt. 26:24; Ac. 26:32; 2 Cor. 2:2.
a. A contrary to fact condition dealing with present time
has the imperfect tense in both protasis and apodosis.
οὗτος εἰ ἦν προφήτης ἐγίνωσκεν ἂν τίς καὶ ποταπὴ ἡ γυνή.
If this man were a prophet, he would know who and what sort of
woman this is. Lk. 7:39.
See also: Jn. 15:19, 22; Gal, 1:10.
290
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
b. A contrary to fact condition dealing with past time
has the aorist or pluperfect tense in both protasis and
apodosis.
ei ñs ☎de ovk äv åπéðavev ó ådeλøós.
If you had been here, my brother would not have died. Jn. 11:32.
See also: Mt. 11:21; Mk. 13:20.
(3) The More Probable Future Condition. Because the
subjunctive is used in the protasis, uncertainty is implied.
The protasis is introduced by éáv, and almost any form of
the verb may occur in the apodosis, but the thought always
has to do with the future.
καὶ τοῦτο ποιήσομεν ἐὰν ἐπιτρέπη ὁ θεός.
And this we will do, if God permit. Heb. 6:3.
See also: Mt. 9:21; Rom. 7:2.
(4) The Less Probable Future Condition. This condition
is expressed by ei with the optative in the protasis and äv
with the optative in the apodosis.
ἀλλ᾽ εἰ καὶ πάσχοιτε διὰ δικαιοσύνην, μακάριοι.
But even if ye should suffer for righteousness sake, happy are ye.
1 Pt. 3:14.
See also: 1 Cor. 14:10; 15:37.
i. No example of this condition complete in both protasis and
apodosis is to be found in the New Testament. Indeed, Robertson
denies that a complete example occurs in the LXX or papyri "so
far as examined." . . "It is an ornament of the cultured class
and was little used by the masses save in a few set phrases" (R.
1020).
ii. Of these four forms of condition, the New Testament uses the
first two with great frequency, the third occurs quite often, but the
fourth is used but rarely and never in full form. The contrary to
fact condition could not occur in anything but its full form, for
the simple reason that "an alteration of it would have caused ambi-
guity, and have disturbed at once the character of the hypothetical
statement" (Bt. 224).
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291
Irregular Forms of Condition
276. It was inevitable that in actual practice speakers
and writers would not confine themselves to fixed forms of
hypothetical expression. Variations are found which can-
not be reduced to logical analysis, but can be grouped only
according to their distinctive aspect of irregularity. (1)
There occur a good many mixed conditions; that is, con-
ditions one member of which belongs to one class, while
the other belongs to a different class (Lk. 17:6). (2) There
are also implied conditions, in which the apodosis is ex-
pressed and the protasis implied in a participle (1 Tim.
4:4), imperative (Mk. 1:17), or question (Mt. 26:15).
(3) An elliptical condition is one from which one member
has been entirely omitted, and must be supplied from the
context (Lk. 13:9).
X. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
References: R. 1026-1027; R-S. 166-167.
Character
277. Concessive clauses are in their essential nature con-
ditional clauses, but differ from the latter in that with the
condition the apodosis attains reality by reason of the
protasis, while in the concessive clause realization is secured
in spite of the protasis.
There is manifest reason for Robertson's contention that con-
cessive clauses are at bottom a type of conditional sentence. For
this reason he treats them as a subhead under conditional sentences
(cf. R. 1026). In this position he is in agreement with Blass, who
declares that "there is no real distinction between them and condi-
tional sentences" (Bl. 215). We can but feel, though, that the dis-
tinctive phenomena are sufficient to call for a separate treatment of
concessive clauses, though we would not be so positive as Burton in
holding that "the force of a concessive sentence is thus very dif-
292
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
ferent from that of a conditional sentence" (Br. 112). They are in
the last analysis really not "very different" from conditional sen-
tences.
Classification
278. It is difficult to maintain with final consistency any
analysis of concessive clauses in the New Testament, but
it is not wholly arbitrary to divide them into three classes.
(1) Logical Concession. This is where the concession is
assumed to be a fact. The clause is introduced by ei kai
followed by the indicative.
εἰ καὶ ἐλύπησα ὑμᾶς ἐν τῇ ἐπιστολῇ, οὐ μεταμέλομαι.
Though I grieved you by my letter, I do not regret it. 2 Cor. 7:8.
See also: Lk. 11:8; Phs. 2:17.
(2) Doubtful Concession. We find this type proposing
the concession as a possibility. It is introduced by éàv kai
followed by the subjunctive.
ἐὰν καὶ προλημφθῇ ἄνθρωπος ἔν τινι παραπτώματι, καταρ-
τίζετε τὸν τοιοῦτον.
Even though a man be overtaken in a fault, restore such a one.
Gal. 6:1.
(3) Emphatic Concession. This type of clause expresses
concession with the added thought that the supposed as-
sumption has no likelihood of fulfillment. Such a clause is
introduced by kal éáv with the subjunctive or kai ei with
the indicative.
καὶ ἐὰν κρίνω δὲ ἐγώ, ἡ κρίσις ἡ ἐμὴ ἀληθινή ἐστιν.
But if I should judge, my judgment is true. Jn. 8:16.
καὶ εἰ θέλετε δέξασθαι, αὐτός ἐστιν Ἠλείας.
And if you will receive it, this is Elijah. Mt. 11:14.
See also: Lk. 6:32; Gal. 1:8.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
293
279. Concession may also be expressed by the use of the
participle. Five times κaiπep is used with the participle
expressing concession, but the participle by itself is often
so used.
καίπερ ὢν υἱός, ἔμαθεν ὑπακοήν.
Although he was a son, he learned obedience. Heb. 5:8.
εἰ γὰρ ἐχθροὶ ὄντες κατηλλάγημεν τῷ θεῷ.
For even though we were enemies we were reconciled to God.
Rom. 5:10.
See also: Heb. 5:12; 11:4.
XI. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES
Definition
280. A substantival clause (often called noun clause) is
one that is so related to the main verb in the sentence that
it functions in the capacity of a noun. Such clauses are
abundant in the New Testament, and they exhibit the
characteristics of a noun as subjective, as objective, and as
appositive.
Constructions
281. There are three general divisions under which these
clauses naturally fall. It is of interest to note also that there
were three optional ways open to a Greek to make a
statement regardless of whether the clause was subjective,
objective, or appositive. He could use the infinitive, or he
could introduce the clause with iva, or örɩ.
(1) Subjective Clauses.
a. With the infinitive.
τὰ αὐτὰ γράφειν ὑμῖν ἐμοὶ μὲν οὐκ ὀκνηρόν.
To write the same things to you is not irksome to me. Phs. 3:1.
See also: Heb. 4:6; 9:27.
294
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
b. With ὅτι.
οὐ μέλει σοι ὅτι ἀπολλύμεθα;
Is it not of care to thee that we are perishing? Mk. 4:38.
See also: 1 Jn. 5:9.
c. With ἵνα.
ἐμὸν βρῶμά ἐστιν ἵνα ποιήσω τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πέμψαντός με.
My meat is to do the will of him that sent me. Jn. 4:34.
See also: Mt. 18:14; 1 Cor. 4:3.
(2) Objective Clauses.
a. With the infinitive.
βούλομαι οὖν προσεύχεσθαι τοὺς ἄνδρας.
I desire, therefore, that men pray. 1 Tim. 2:8.
See also: Phs. 2:6; 4:11.
b. With ὅτι.
ἰδὼν αὐτὸν ὅτι νουνεχῶς ἀπεκρίθη.
Seeing that he answered wisely. Mk. 12:34.
See also: Jn. 10:36; 11:27.
c. With ἵνα and ὅπως after verbs of saying, asking, ex-
horting, wishing, caring, striving, etc.
ἠρώτα ἵνα καταβῇ καὶ ἰάσηται αὐτοῦ τὸν υἱόν.
He asked that he come down and heal his son. Jn. 4:47.
δεήθητε οὖν τοῦ κυρίου τοῦ θερισμοῦ ὅπως ἐκβάλῃ ἐργάτας.
Pray ye, therefore, the Lord of the harvest that he send forth
laborers. Mt. 9:38.
See also: Mt. 4:3; Lk. 4:2; 7:3.
d. With un after verbs of fearing, warning, caution, etc.
βλέπετε μή τις ὑμᾶς πλανήσῃ.
Beware lest anyone lead you astray. Mt. 24:4.
See also: Mk. 13:5; Col. 2:8.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
295
e. Without a conjunction (asyndeton).
λέγει αὐτῷ, ὅρα μηδενὶ μηδὲν εἴπῃς.
He says to him, See that you tell nobody anything. Mk. 1:44.
See also: Mt. 9:30; Mk. 12:34.
(3) Appositive Clauses.
a. With the infinitive.
θρησκεία καθαρὰ αὕτη ἐστίν, ἐπισκέπτεσθαι ὀρφανοὺς
καὶ χήρας.
Pure religion is this, to visit orphans and widows. Jas. 1:27.
See also: Eph. 3:6, 8; 4:17.
b. With ÖTɩ.
αὕτη δέ ἐστιν ἡ κρίσις, ὅτι τὸ φῶς ἐλήλυθεν εἰς τὸν κόσμον.
And this is the judgment, that light has come into the world.
Jn. 3:19.
See also: 2 Cor. 1:18, 23; 11:10.
c. With iva.
τίς οὖν μού ἐστιν ὁ μισθός; ἵνα εὐαγγελιζόμενος ἀδάπανον
θήσω τὸ εὐαγγέλιον.
What then is my reward? That I while preaching will give them
the gospel without cost. 1 Cor. 9:18.
See also: Lk. 1:43; Jn. 15:8, 12.
The Moods Used
282. The indicative is always found with ört; the sub-
junctive is predominant with iva at a ratio of thirty-two to
one: there being twenty-six occurrences with the indicative,
seventeen of which occur in the Johannine writings; the
subjunctive is dominant with oπws and un, there being only
one occurrence of oπws with the indicative (Lk. 24:20), and
only four of un (as conjunction) with the indicative.
296
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
XII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE
References: R. 1027-1043; R-S. 181–186.
283. There is not a great deal of indirect discourse in the
New Testament. This is true also of other Koiné writings.
Direct quotations are characteristic of vernacular speech.
Such language is simpler and more picturesque. The indi-
rect discourse found in the New Testament is in full accord
with the general Greek rules and may be readily analyzed.
Verb Forms in Indirect Discourse
284. Striking differences from the English idiom make
this a matter which requires close attention from the
student.
(1) Tense. It was a regular thing that the same tense used
by the original speaker was also used by the one quoting the
statement indirectly. This is an important fact for the
student to grasp. For instance, if Jesus said, ẞλéπw, I see,
Luke in putting the statement into indirect discourse would
say, Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν ὅτι βλέπει (or βλέπειν ). Although
the statement was made in the past, the present tense is
used in recording it, because the original statement occurred
in the present tense. There are, however, a few examples
where the imperfect in indirect discourse seems to represent
a present tense in the original statement (cf. Jn. 2:25). If
the original writer or speaker used an aorist or future tense,
the same tense was observed in indirect discourse. Our
English idiom differs widely here from Greek usage. While
we would say, "He said he was going home," changing the
tense from present to past, in Greek it would be elπeV ÖTL
πορεύεται εἰς τὸν οἶκον, preserving the present tense (cf.
Lk. 24:23; Jn. 9:9).
(2) Mood. The mood like the tense, barring a few ex-
ceptions, is preserved regularly when the statement is put
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
297
into indirect discourse. In classical Greek the indicative
and subjunctive were often changed to the optative in indi-
rect discourse. Only Luke of the New Testament writers
ever does this, and he only a few times (cf. Lk. 3:15; 22:23;
Ac. 25:16). When we find the subjunctive or indicative in
indirect discourse, we are to infer that the original speaker
used that particular mood in making his statement. The
infinitive is often used in indirect discourse to represent the
indicative in the direct, but it is, strictly speaking, not a
mood but a verbal noun.
(3) Person. The person of the verb in indirect discourse
is determined by the relation of the speaker to the quoted
statement. If the speaker is quoting his own statement, the
person remains unchanged; if he is quoting the statement of
another, the third person is used; if he is quoting it to the one
who made the original statement, it is in the second person.
This is practically the same as English usage. For example,
note Mk. 9:6, où yàp ndeι Tí άπокрion, for he knew not what
he might answer, where the original statement was, τί
ἀποκριθῶ.
We are not to suppose that indirect discourse can be introduced
only by verbs of saying or thinking: a wide variety of verbs may
take this construction (cf. R. 1035). Any verb which introduces a
definite idea that would of itself permit independent expression may
take a clause of indirect discourse.
Types of Indirect Discourse
285. There are three types of indirect discourse: indirect
declarations, indirect questions, and indirect commands.
These each take their own distinct constructions, and there-
fore must be treated separately.
(1) Indirect Declarations. These are expressed in three
ways.
298
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
a. By or with the indicative.
ἐγὼ πεπίστευκα ὅτι σὺ εἶ ὁ Χριστός.
I believe that thou art the Christ. Jn. 11:27.
See also: Ac. 10:34; Gal. 2:14.
b. By the infinitive.
οἳ λέγουσιν αὐτὸν ζῆν.
Who say that he lives. Lk, 24:23.
See also: Rom. 2:19; Phs. 2:13.
c. By the participle.
ἀκούομεν γάρ τινας περιπατοῦντας ἐν ὑμῖν ἀτάκτως.
For we hear that some among you walk disorderly. 2 Ths. 3:11.
See also: Ac. 7:12; 8:22.
(2) Indirect Questions. These are regularly introduced
by ris or ri, though a relative pronoun or adverb may be
used. In Ac. 9:6 we find örɩ in an indirect question. The
original mood is generally retained, though Luke sometimes
uses the optative (cf. Lk. 18:36).
καὶ ἦλθον ἰδεῖν τί ἐστιν τὸ γεγονός.
And they came to see what had happened. Mk. 5:14.
See also: Mk. 15:44.
(3) Indirect Commands. Indirect commands present
three modes of expression.
a. By the infinitive.
οἵτινες τῷ Παύλῳ ἔλεγον μὴ ἐπιβαίνειν εἰς Ιεροσόλυμα.
Who were telling Paul to not go to Jerusalem. Ac. 21:4.
See also: Ac. 21:21; 26:20.
b. By iva and oπws with the subjunctive.
παρήγγειλεν αὐτοῖς ἵνα μηδὲν αἴρωσιν εἰς ὁδόν.
He commanded them to take nothing for the journey.
See also: Ac. 25:3.
Mk. 6:8.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
299
c. An indirect deliberative question may imply an origi-
nal command.
ὑποδείξω δὲ ὑμῖν τίνα φοβηθῆτε.
But I will warn you whom ye should fear. Lk. 12:5.
XIII. COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS
References: R. 851, 855, 890, 908, 942-950; M. 122–126.
286. It is very uncommon to find this class of sentences
treated separately in Greek grammars. But the average
student never fully appreciates the important distinctions
involved for the simple reason that he never sees them in a
single comprehensive view. Therefore, the purpose of this
book requires that we treat commands and prohibitions in
a separate group. It is most practical to classify them
under the three tenses used.
In the Future Tense
287. Occasionally the future indicative is used in the
sense of a command. This usage occurs frequently in the
LXX, each of the ten commandments being given this way.
ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου καὶ μισήσεις τὸν ἐχθρόν σου.
Thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thy enemy. Mt. 5:43.
See also: Mt. 6:5; 27:4; Lk. 13:9.
In the Aorist Tense
288. The essential force of the aorist tense is very clearly
exhibited in commands and prohibitions.
(1) Prohibitions with the Aorist Subjunctive. The main
idea of the aorist tense, as has been indicated, is to express
punctiliar action. When a prohibition, which is a negative
command, is expressed in the aorist it means to forbid in
advance whatever may be contemplated. The only way a
prohibition in the second person and in the aorist tense is
300
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
expressed in the New Testament is by the use of the sub-
junctive mood. But in the third person either the subjunc-
tive or imperative is used.
καὶ μηδένα κατὰ τὴν ὁδόν ἀσπάσησθε.
And salute nobody along the way. Lk. 10:4.
See also: Mt. 10:9; Ac. 7:60.
(2) The Aorist Imperative in Commands. When the
aorist imperative is used it denotes summary action—“an
action that is either transient or instantaneous,
to be undertaken at once" (W. 313).
or
ἀράτω τοὺ σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀκολουθείτω μοι.
Let him take up his cross (at once, aor.) and follow me (continually,
pres.). Mt. 16:24.
See also: Jn. 5:8; Mk. 2:11.
The aorist imperative predominates in the New Testament, which
fact “is characteristic of the Kový generally" (R. 855). The distinction
between the present and aorist imperative sometimes seems to be
ignored. But we are safest when we assume that the author had a
reason in his mind for using one rather than the other. Indeed,
Winer says that "in many cases it depends on the writer whether
or not he will represent the action as occurring, in a point of time
and momentary, or as only commencing, or likewise continuing" (W.
314). Why does it not in every case depend upon the writer? As a
matter of fact, it does.
In the Present Tense
289. In the present tense the imperative is used for both
commands and prohibitions.
(1) The Present Imperative in Commands. When the
present imperative is used, it denotes continuous or repeated
action. Every time Jesus asked a person to follow him he
used the verb ȧkoλovéw in the present imperative.
καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ, ἀκολούθει μοι.
And he says to him, Follow me. Mt. 9:9.
That is, begin now to follow me, and continue doing so.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
301
As a climax to Jesus' parable about the man who persisted in asking
for three loaves until he got them, we find, aitet̃te . ζητεῖτε
KρOVETE, keep on asking; keep on seeking; keep on knocking
κρούετε,
(Lk. 11:9). And Luke reports that Jesus answered the man who asked
help to get part of an inheritance, ὁρᾶτε καὶ φυλάσσεσθε ἀπὸ
πάσης πλεονεξίας, be constantly alert in guarding yourselves from
every form of greed (Lk. 12:15).
•
•
(2) The Present Imperative in Prohibitions. The pres-
ent tense is properly used for expressing continued action.
A prohibition in the present imperative demands that action
then in progress be stopped.
μὴ κρίνετε, ἵνα μὴ κριθῆτε.
Stop judging, lest ye be judged. Mt. 7:1.
ἐγὼ ἔκλαιον . . . λέγει μοι, Μὴ κλαῖε.
I was weeping; he says to me, Stop weeping. Rev. 5:4, 5.
See also: Lk. 10:7; Jas. 3:1.
The Aorist Subjunctive and Present Imperative in
Prohibitions Contrasted
290. The purpose of a prohibition, when expressed by
the aorist subjunctive, is to forbid a thing before it has
begun; i.e., it commands to never do a thing. But a pro-
hibition in the present imperative means to forbid the
continuance of an act; it commands to quit doing a thing.
There should be nothing confusing about understanding
the force of these negative commands as they occur in
these tenses. As we learned in the study of tense, the pres-
ent tense in any of its moods means linear or durative
action, whereas the aorist tense in any of its moods means
the converse of linear or durative action, it means punc-
tiliar or summary action.
(1) Thus a prohibition expressed with the present tense
302
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
demands the cessation of some act that is already in
progress.
μὴ κλαίετε ἐπ' ἐμέ.
Do not continue (i.e., stop) weeping for me. Lk. 23:28.
See also: Jn. 2:16; 20:17.
Moulton tells how his friend Davidson learned the difference in
meaning between the present and aorist in prohibition by hearing a
Greek command his dog to stop barking by using un with the
present imperative. With that as a clue he found the distinction
carefully observed throughout the history of the Greek language,
from the classical Attic literature to the Greek which is spoken
today (M. 122).
(2) A prohibition expressed in the aorist tense is a warn-
ing or exhortation against doing a thing not yet begun.
μὴ εἰσενέγκης ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν.
Do not (ever) lead us into temptation. Lk. 11:4.
See also: Lk. 14:8; Jn. 19:24.
i. There are a few occurrences in the New Testament of prohibitions
in the aorist tense in which the general rule is disregarded. In Jn.
3:7 we find un lavµáons addressed to Nicodemus who was already
marveling, and in Mt. 1:20 μὴ φοβηθῇς παραλαβεῖν Μαριάν is
addressed to Joseph who is then planning to break his engagement
with Mary. “But, as a rule, it is the ingressive aorist subjunctive
used in prohibitions to forbid a thing not yet done, or the durative
present imperative to forbid the continuance of an act" (R. 852).
ii. The subjunctive with iva may be used in passionate exhortation
or entreaty with the approximate force of a command. Thus in Mk.
5:23 the petition of Jairus to Jesus, ἵνα ἐλθὼν ἐπιθῇς τὰς χείρας αυτῇ,
might be rendered, Oh, that thou wouldst come and lay thy hands on her!
iii. Buttmann's description of the aorist subjunctive in prohibition
as a "substitute" for the imperative is scarcely accurate (Bt. 211).
While it is true that the subjunctive fills the office of the aorist impera-
tive, yet the genius of the subjunctive is present. Thus µn Toleɩ TIvà
means quit doing a thing, while µǹ πoɩńσņs Tɩvà carries both authority
and expediency and is more nearly equivalent to our, you had better not
do it. It is hardly to be taken for granted that any mood loses its own
significance when filling an office ordinarily supplied by another.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
303
iv. Moulton finds in the New Testament one hundred and thirty-
four examples of the present imperative in prohibitions, while there
are only eighty-four of the aorist subjunctive. This probably
arises from the immediate ethical application involved in the view-
point of the New Testament writers. It is to be noticed in this
connection that aorist prohibitions are expressed in the New Testa-
ment almost exclusively by the subjunctive, the aorist imperative
occurring only a few times in the second person. This arises from
the sense of ethical restraint in the aorist subjunctive. The em-
phatic sense of the aorist subjunctive is evident from the fact that
it is the construction most used with the double negative, only the
future indicative dividing the usage with it, and that in a ratio of
eighty-six to fourteen (cf. R. 854).
APPENDIX
PARADIGM 1
N...
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.).
Ac...
V....
Ν. (V.).....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
Ν. (V.).....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)...
Ac....
PARADIGMS
1818 8181
TERMINATIONS
Singular
Feminine
ă
Ν. (V.)...
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).
Ac...
ἡμέρα: day
ἡμέρα
ἡμέρας
ἡμέρᾳ
ἡμέραν
ης
ἡμέραι
ἡμερῶν
ἡμέραις
ἡμέρας
ท
αν
α
FEMININE NOUNS
Plural
η ท
ης
ท
ην
η
δόξα: glory
Singular
δόξα
δόξης
δόξῃ
δόξαν
Plural
FIRST DECLENSION
δόξαι
δοξῶν
δόξαις
δόξας
Masculine
ās
ου
α
ης
ου
η
ην
α
. αι
.ων
als
as
21
α
ἀρχή:beginning
ἀρχή
ἀρχῆς
ἀρχῇ
ἀρχήν
ἀρχαί
ἀρχῶν
ἀρχαῖς
ἀρχάς
307
308
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
N....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).....
Ac..
V……….
N. (V.).....
G. (Ab.) . . .
D. (L. I.).....
Ac..
PARADIGM 2
N....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.).....
Ac..
V...
•
N.....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.).....
Ac...
V. . .
προφήτης: prophet
Singular
MASCULINE NOUNS
OS
€
προφήτης
προφήτου
προφήτῃ
προφήτην
προφῆτα
Mas. Fem.
προφῆται
προφητῶν
προφήταις
προφήτας
TERMINATIONS
Singular
Plural
ου
3
ΟΙ
ον
λόγος
λόγου
λόγῳ
λόγον
λόγε
νεανίας: young man
Singular
SECOND DECLENSION
Neut. Mas. Fem.
ον
οι
ους
Masculine (and Feminine)
λόγος: word
νεανίας
νεανίου
νεανίᾳ
νεανίαν
νεανία
οι
νεανίας
νεανιῶν
νεανίαις
νεανίας
Plural
ων
οις
ἔργον
ἔργου
Neut.
a
Neuter
ἔργον: work
ἔργῳ
ἔργον
ἔργον
a
a
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
309
Plural
N. (V.)...
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)....
Ac....
PARADIGM 3
N...
G. (Ab.).
D. (L. I.)....
Ac..
V.
Ν.....
G. (Ab.).....
D. (L. I.).....
Ac..
V....
Mas. Fem.
S
Ν. (V.).....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)....
Ac...
λόγοι
λόγων
λόγοις
λόγους
v or a
TERMINATIONS
Singular
OS
χάρις
χάριτος
χάριτι
χάριν
χάρις
χάριτες
χαρίτων
χάρισι
χάριτας
age
Singular
αἰών
Neut. Mas. Fem.
αἰῶνος
αἰῶνι
αἰῶνα
αἰῶν
Plural
αἰῶνες
αἰώνων
αἰῶσι
αἰῶνας
ἔργα
ἔργων
ἔργοις
ἔργα
THIRD DECLENSION
ES
MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS
χάρις, ἡ: αἰών, ὁ: ἄρχων, ὁ: ἀνήρ, δ:
grace
ruler
as
ες
Plural
ων
σι
Neut.
α
α
a
man
ἄρχων ἀνήρ
ἄρχοντος ἀνδρός
ἄρχοντι ἀνδρί
ἄνδρα
ἄρχοντα
ἄρχον ἄνερ
ἄρχοντες ἄνδρες
ἀρχόντων ἀνδρῶν
ἄρχουσι ἀνδράσι
ἄρχοντας ἄνδρας
510
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
N.....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.).. .
Ac..
V...
Ν. (V.).....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).. .
Ac....
Ν. (V.)....
G. (Ab.).
D. (L. I.)...
Ac...
•
N. (V.).....
G. (Ab.).....
D. (L. I.).....
Ac...
PARADIGM 4
N.....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L.I.) ..
Acc..
V....
γονεύς, ὁ:
parent
γονεύς
γονέως
γονεῖ
γονέα
γονεῦ
γονεῖς
γονέων
γονεῦσι
γονεῖς
Singular
πόλις, ἡ:
βοῦν
βοῦ
πόλεις
πόλεων
πόλεσι
πόλεις
NEUTER NOUNS
Plural
σῶμα: body
πόλις
πόλεως
πόλει
πόλιν
πόλι
Singular
βοῦς
βοός
Bot
σῶμα
σώματος
σώματι
σῶμα
Singular
Plural
σώματα
σωμάτων
σώμασι
σώματα
βοῦς, ὁ: οχ
Plural
city
ἰχθύς, ὁ:
ἰχθύς
ἰχθύος
ἰχθύι
ἰχθύν
ἰχθύ
βόες
βοῶν
βουσί νῷ
βοῦς(βόας) νοῦν
βόες
τοῦ
γένος: race
γένος
γένους
γένει
γένος
ἰχθύες
ἰχθύων
ἰχθύσι
ἰχθύας (ἰχθῦς)
fish
γένη
γενῶν
γένεσι
γένη
IRREGULAR NOUNS
νοῦς, ὁ (νόος): mind
Singular
νοῦς
νοῦ
Plural
νοῖ
νῶν
νοῖς
νοῦς
νοῖ
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
311
Like vous are declined several contracted nouns of the
second declension, such as διπλοῦς, ὀστοῦν, χρυσοῦς. Other
irregular forms of declension deserving of special notice are:
αἰδώς (f.), gen. αἰδοῦς (from αἰδόσος), dat. αἰδοῖ, acc. αἰδῶ.
ἅλων (f.), gen. ἅλω, dat. ἅλῳ, acc. ἅλων.
βορρᾶς (m.), gen. βορρᾶ.
γάλα (n.), gen. γάλακτος, etc.
γῆρας (n.), gen. γήρως (from γήραος), dat. γήρει.
γόνυ (n.), gen. γόνατος, ete.
γυνή (f.), gen. γυναικός, dat. γυναικί, acc. γυναῖκα, voc.
γύναι.
ἔρις (f.), gen. ἔριδος, acc. ἔριν; nom. pl. ἔρεις or ἔριδες.
Ζεύς (m.), gen. Διός, dat. Διί, acc. Δία, voc. Ζεῦ.
ἥμισυ (n.), gen. ἡμίσους, dat. ἡμίσει; nom. and acc. pl.
ἡμίσια.
θρίξ (f.), gen. τριχός, ete.; dat. pl. θριξί.
Ἰησοῦς (m.), gen. Ἰησοῦ, dat. Ἰησοῦ, acc. Ἰησοῦν, voc.
Ἰησοῦ.
ἱμάς (m.), gen. ἱμάντος, etc.; dat. pl. ἱμᾶσι.
κλείς (f.), gen. κλειδός, dat. κλειδί, acc. κλεῖν and κλεῖδα;
acc. pl. κλεῖς and κλεῖδας.
Κλήμης (m.), gen. Κλήμεντος, etc.
κρέας (n.), gen. κρέατος, etc.; acc. pl. κρέα.
κύων (m.), gen. κυνός, etc.; dat. pl. κυσί.
μάρτυς (m.), gen. μάρτυρος, etc.; dat. pl. μάρτυσι.
ναῦς (f.), sing. νεώς, νηί, ναῦν; pl. νῆες, νεῶν, ναυσί, ναῦς.
ὀδούς (m.), gen. ὀδόντος, etc.
οὖς, (n.), gen. ὠτός, etc.; dat. pl. ὠσί.
πούς (m.), gen. ποδός, etc.; dat. pl. ποσί.
πῦρ (n.), gen. πυρός, etc.
ὕδωρ (n.), gen. ὕδατος, etc.
χείρ (f.), gen. χειρός, etc.; dat. pl. χερσί.
ὠδίν (f.), gen. ὠδῖνος, etc.
312
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
PARADIGM 5
N....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)....
Acc..
•
PARADIGM 6
Mas.
N... . καλός
G. (Ab.). . καλοῦ
D. (L. I.).καλῷ
Acc......καλόν
V... . καλέ
•
Ν. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).
Acc..
•
N. (V.)..
N. (V.)..
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)..
Acc..
•
•
Mas.
ὁ
Singular
τοῦ
τῷ
τόν
Fem. Neut.
τό
ἡ
τῆς
τῇ
τήν
Singular
καλός : beautiful
τοῦ
τῷ
τό
Mas.
ἑκών: willing
Singular
ἑκών
ἑκόντος
ἑκόντι
ἑκόντα
Plural
Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut.
καλή καλόν
καλαί καλά
καλοί
καλῶν
καλῶν καλῶν
καλῆς καλοῦ
καλῇ
καλῷ
καλοῖς
καλαῖς
καλοῖς
καλήν καλόν
καλούς
καλούς
καλάς
καλά
καλή
καλόν
καλοί καλαί καλά
Mas.
ἑκόντες
ἑκόντων
ἑκοῦσι
ἑκόντας
THE ARTICLE
Plural
Mas. Fem. Neut.
οἱ
αἱ τά
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
Plural
τῶν
τοῖς
τούς
τῶν τῶν
ταῖς
ταῖς τοῖς
τάς τά
Fem.
ἑκοῦσα
ἑκούσης
ἑκούσῃ
ἑκοῦσαν
Fem.
ἑκοῦσαι
ἑκουσῶν
ἑκούσαις
ἑκούσας
Neut.
ἑκόν
ἑκόντος
ἑκόντι
ἑκόν
Neut.
ἑκόντα
ἑκόντων
ἑκοῦσι
ἑκόντα
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
313
•
Ν.....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)...
Acc....
V....
N....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)...
Ac...
V....
N....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)
Ac..
V....
•
.
ἄδικος: unjust
Singular
Mas. Fem.
ἄδικος
ἀδίκου
ἀδίκῳ
ἄδικον
ἄδικε
Neut.
ἄδικον
ἀδίκου
ἀδίκῳ
ἄδικον
ἄδικον
ἀληθής: true
Singular
Mas. Fem. Neut.
ἀληθής
ἀληθές
ἀληθοῦς ἀληθοῦς
ἀληθεῖ
ἀληθῆ
ἀληθές
Mas. Fem.
Neut.
Ν....
σώφρων σῶφρον
G. (Ab.).... σώφρονος
σώφρονος
D. (L. I.)... σώφρονι σώφρονι
Ac..
σώφρονα
σώφρον
V...
σῶφρον
σῶφρον
ἀληθεῖ
ἀληθές
ἀληθές
σώφρων: sane
Singular
ταχύς: swift
Singular
Mas.
ταχύς
ταχέος
ταχεῖ
ταχύν
ταχύ
Plural
Mas. Fem.
ἄδικοι
ἀδίκων
ἀδίκοις
ἀδίκους
ἄδικοι
Neut.
ἄδικα
ἀδίκων
ἀδίκοις
ἄδικα
ἄδικα
Plural
Mas. Fem. Neut.
ἀληθῆ
ἀληθῶν
ἀληθέσι
Fem.
ταχεῖα
ταχείας
ταχείᾳ
ταχεῖαν
ταχεῖα
ἀληθείς
ἀληθῶν
ἀληθέσι
ἀληθεῖς
ἀληθῆ
ἀληθεῖς ἀληθῆ
Plural
Mas. Fem. Neut.
σώφρονες σώφρονα
σωφρόνων σωφρόνων
σώφροσι σώφροσι
σώφρονας σώφρονα
σώφρονες σώφρονα
Neut.
ταχύ
ταχέος
ταχεῖ
ταχύ
ταχύ
314
A MANUAL GRAM MAR
Ν....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)..
Ac..
V....
N. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)...
Ac....
Ν. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).....
Ac..
Ν. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)..
Ac....
Plural
Mas.
ταχεῖς
ταχέων
ταχέσι
ταχεῖς
ταχεῖς
πᾶς: all
Singular
Mas.
πᾶς
παντός
παντί
πάντα
Plural
Mas.
πάντες
πάντων
πᾶσι
πάντας
Mas.
Fem.
ταχεῖαι
ταχειῶν
ταχείαις
ταχείας
ταχεῖαι
μέγας
μεγάλου
μεγάλῳ
μέγαν
μέγας: great
Singular
Fem.
πᾶσα
πάσης
πάσῃ
πᾶσαν
Fem.
πᾶσαι
πασῶν
πάσαις
πάσας
Fem.
μεγάλη
μεγάλης
μεγάλῃ
μεγάλην
Neut.
ταχέα
ταχέων
ταχέσι
ταχέα
ταχέα
Neut.
πᾶν
παντός
παντί
πᾶν
Neut.
πάντα
πάντων
πᾶσι
πάντα
Neut.
μέγα
μεγάλου
μεγάλῳ
μέγα
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
315
Ν. (V.).....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
N. (V.)....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.) .
Ac..
Ν. (V.). ...
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
•
Plural
Mas.
μεγάλοι
μεγάλων
μεγάλοις
μεγάλους
Mas.
πολύς: much
Singular
πολύς
πολλοῦ
πολλῷ
πολύν
Plural
Masc.
πολλοί
πολλῶν
πολλοῖς
πολλούς
Fem.
μεγάλαι
μεγαλῶν
βελτίων
κρείσσων
κακίων
χείρων
ἐλάσσων
μεγάλαις
μεγάλας
Fem.
πολλή
πολλῆς
πολλῇ
πολλήν
ἥσσων
πλείων or πλέων
Fem.
πολλαί
πολλῶν
πολλαῖς
πολλάς
Neut.
μεγάλα
μεγάλων
μεγάλοις
μεγάλα
πολύ
πολλοῦ
πολλῷ
πολύ
Declension of the forms of comparison: - τερος, - τατος,
and -ιστοs are declined like καλός; -ιων is declined like σώφρων.
The following are a few of the principal irregular com-
paratives and superlatives.
ἀγαθός
κακός
μικρός
πολύς
These are the comparative and superlative forms of primi-
tive roots whose positive form had become obsolete.
ἥκιστος
πλείστος
Neut.
βέλτιστος
κράτιστος
κάκιστος
πολλά
πολλῶν
πολλοῖς
πολλά
χείριστος
ἐλάχιστος
Neut.
316
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
PARADIGM 7
ἐγώ: Ι ἡμεῖς: we
N....
ἐγώ
G. (Ab.). . . . . . ἐμοῦ, μου
D. (L. I.).. . . .ἐμοί, μοι
Ac....
.ἐμέ, με
N....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)..
Ac....
•
N....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.).
Ac...
Ν....
G. (Ab.)... . αὐτοῦ
D. (L. I.). . . αὐτῷ
Ac... . αὐτόν
•
•
•
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut.
αὐτός αὐτή
αὐτοί αὐταί
αὐτά
αὐτῆς
αὐτό
αὐτοῦ
αὐτῶν αὐτῶν
αὐτῶν
αὐτῷ
αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς
αὐτοῖς
αὐτό αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά
αὐτός: he (she, it)
αὐτῇ
αὐτήν
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS
σύ: thou
Mas.
οὗτος
τούτου
τούτῳ
τοῦτον
ἡμεῖς
ἡμῶν
ἡμῖν
ἡμᾶς
οὗτος: this
Singular
Mas.
Plural
οὗτοι
τούτων
τούτοις
τούτους
ὑμεῖς: ye
σύ
σοῦ
σοί
σέ
Fem.
αὕτη
ταύτης
ταύτῃ
ταύτην
Fem.
ὑμεῖς
ὑμῶν
ὑμῖν
ὑμᾶς
αὗται
τούτων
ταύταις
ταύτας
Neut.
τοῦτο
τούτου
τούτῳ
τοῦτο
Neut.
ταῦτα
τούτων
τοῦτοις
ταῦτα
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
317
Ν....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
N....
G. (Ab.).
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
Ν....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)....
Ac......
ἐκεῖνος: that
Singular
Ν....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.).....
Ac...
Mas.
ἐκεῖνος
ἐκείνου
ἐκείνῳ
ἐκεῖνον
Mas.
ἐκεῖνοι
ἐκείνων
ἐκείνοις
ἐκείνους
Fem.
ἐκείνη
ἐκείνης
Singular
Mas. Fem.
τίς
τίνος
τίνι
τίνα.
ἐκείνῃ
ἐκείνην
ὅς: who
Fem.
ἐκεῖναι
ἐκείνων
ἐκείναις
ἐκείνας
τίς: who? (what?)
Singular
Plural
Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut.
ὅς
ὅ
οὗ ἧς οὗ
Ch
ᾧ
ὅν ἥν
Neut.
ἐκεῖνο
ἐκείνου
ἐκείνῳ
ἐκεῖνο
Neut. Mas. Fem.
τί
τίνος
τίνι
τί
τίνες
τίνων
τίσι
τίνας
Neut.
Οἵ
αἵ
ὧν
ὧν
ὧν
οἷς αἷς οἷς
οὕς
as
ἐκεῖνα
ἐκείνων
ἐκείνοις
ἐκεῖνα
Plural
Neut.
τίνα
τίνων
τίσι
τίνα
The indefinite pronoun τίς, τί, is declined like the above,
except for accent, being an enclitic.
318
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Plural
Fem. Neut.
ἐμόν
ἐμαί ἐμά
ἐμοῦ
ἐμῶν ἐμῶν
ἐμῇ
ἐμῷ
ἐμαῖς
ἐμαῖς
ἐμοῖς
ἐμήν ἐμόν
ἐμάς ἐμά
Like the above are declined σός, thy; ἡμέτερος, our; ὑμέτερος,
your.
Ν....
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)....
Ac..
Ν....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)..
Ac..
Ν....
G. (Ab.). . .
D. (L. I.). . . .ἐμῷ
Ac...
.ἐμόν
N……….
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)..
Ac..
.ἐμός
. .ἐμοῦ
Singular
Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas.
ἐμός: my
ἐμή
ἐμῆς
Singular
Mas.
λύων
λύοντος
λύοντι
λύοντα
Plural
Mas.
λύοντες
λυόντων
λύουσι
λύοντας
Singular
Mas.
λύσας
λύσαντος
λύσαντι
λύσαντα
ἐμοί
ἐμῶν
ἐμοῖς
ἐμούς
Fem.
λύουσα
λυούσης
λυούσῃ
λύουσαν
Fem.
λύουσαι
λυουσῶν
λυούσαις
λυούσας
Fenn.
λύσασα
λυσάσης
λυσάσῃ
λύσασαν
Neut.
λῦον
λύοντος
λύοντι
λῦον
Neut.
λύοντα
λυόντων
λύουσι
λύοντα
Neut.
λῦσαν
λύσαντος
λύσαντι
λῦσαν
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
319
N...
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)....
Ac..
N……..
G. (Ab.)..
D. (L. I.)..
Ac..
•
N....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)...
Ac....
N....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)...
Ac..
N....
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)....
Ac...
Plural
Mas.
λύσαντες
λυσάντων
λύσασι
λύσαντος
Singular
Mas.
λελυκώς
λελυκότος
λελυκότι
λελυκότα
Plural
Mas.
λελυκότες
λελυκότων
λελυκόσι
λελυκότας
Singular
Mas.
λυθείς
λυθέντος
λυθέντι
λυθέντα
Plural
Mas.
λυθέντες
λυθέντων
λυθεῖσι
λυθέντας
Fem.
λύσασαι
λυσασῶν
λυσάσαις
λυσάσας
Fem.
λέλυκυῖα
λελυκυίας
λελυκυίᾳ
λελυκυῖαν
Fem.
λελυκυῖαι
λελυκυιῶν
λελυκυίαις
λελυκυίας
Fem.
λυθεῖσα
λυθείσης
λυθείσῃ
λυθεῖσαν
Neut.
λύσαντα
λυσάντων
λύσασι
λύσαντα
Neut.
λελυκός
λελυκότος
λελυκότι
λελυκός
Neut.
λελυκότα
λελυκότων
λελυκόσι
λελυκότα
Neut.
λυθέν
λυθέντος
λυθέντι
λυθέν
Fem.
λυθεῖσαι
λυθεισῶν
λυθείσαις
λυθεῖσι
λυθείσας λυθέντα
Neut.
λυθέντα
λυθέντων
320
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Ν....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)....
Ac..
N....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I.)..
Ac...
PARADIGM 9
N....
G. (Ab.)....
D. (L. I. . .
Ac...
εἷς
N....
G. (Ab.).... ἑνός
D. (L. I.)... ¿ví
Ac...
ἕνα
Ν......
G. (Ab.)...
D. (L. I.)...
Ac......
Mas.
Singular
Mas.
λυόμενος
λυομένου
λυομένῳ
λυόμενον
Plural
Mas.
Fem.
λυόμενοι
λυόμεναι
λυομένων
λυομένων
λυομέναις
λυομένοις
λυομένους λυομένας
μία
ἕν
μιᾶς
ἑνός
μιᾷ
ἑνί
μίαν ἕν
Mas.
χίλιοι
χιλίων
χιλίοις
χιλίους
Fem.
λυομένη
λυομένης
λυομένῃ λυομένῳ
λυομένην λυόμενον
Mas. Fem.
τέσσαρες
τεσσάρων
τέσσαρσι
τέσσαρας
DECLENSION OF NUMERALS
CARDINALS
Fem. Neut. M. F. Mas. Neut.]
& N.
Neut.
λυόμενον
λυομένου
δύο
δύο
δυσί
δύο
Neut.
λυόμενα
λυομένων
λυομένοις
λυόμενα
Fem.
χίλιαι
χιλιῶν
χιλίαις
χιλίας
Fem.
τρεῖς τρία
τριῶν τριῶν
τρισί τρισί
τρεῖς τρία
Neut.
τέσσαρα
τεσσάρων
τέσσαρσι
τέσσαρα
Neut.
χίλια
χιλίων
χιλίοις
χίλια
Ind.
Mood
Sub.
Mood
Opt.
Mood
Imp'v.
Mood
Parti-
ciple
Ind.
THE GREEK VERB SYSTEM
(Prepared by L. R. Elliott, Th. D.)
Sub.
Imp'v.
Inf.
Part.
Ind.
Inf.Mood λύ ειν
λύ ων
λύ ουσα
λῦ ον
Sub.
Imp'v.
Inf.
Part.
λύω
λύ εις
λύει
λύ ο μεν
λύετε
λύ ουσι
λύω
λύ ης
λύ ῃ
λύ ω μεν
λύ η τε
λύ ωσι
λύ οι μι
λύ οις
λύ οι
λύ οι μεν
λύ οι τε
λύ οι εν
λύ ε
λυ έτω
λύ ε
λυ
τιμα
13 διο
ω μεν
ά τε
ῶσι
13 13-18-13 18 13
TE
όντων
έτωσαν
ώ μεν
ά τε
ῶσι
a
ά τω
ᾶ τε
ζώντων
ά τωσαν
ἄν
ῶν
ῶσα
ῶν
i
ἵ στη μι
ἵ στη s
ἵ στη σι
ἵ στα μεν
ΐ στα τε
ἱ στᾶ σι
ἑστῶ
ἱστῇς
ἱ στῇ
ἱ στῶ μεν
ἱστῆ τε
ἱ στῶ σι
ΐ στη
ἱ στά τω
ἵ στα τε
ἱ στά
ζντων
Present
ἱ στά ναι
ἱ στά s
ἱ στᾶ σα
ἱ στά ν
Contract
φιλ-
ώ
132535335
εῖς
εἶ
οὗ μεν
εί τε
ούσι
13 11813 1813
ώ
μεν
ή τε
ώσι
ει
εί τω
εἶ τε
ιού ντων
τωσαν
-------
εί τωσαν
εἶν
ῶν
οὖσα
οὖν
δῆλ-
@
ois
οἶ
οὗ μεν
ούτε
ούσι
13
ois
οἶ
ῷ μεν
ώ
ώτε
ώσι
ου
ού τω
ούτε
ζού ντων
ού τωσαν
οὖν
ῶν
οὖσα
οὖν
PRESENT
τί θη μι
τί θη s
τί θη σι
τί θε μεν
τί θε τε
τι θέ ασι
τι θῶ
τι θῇς
τι θῇ
τι θῶ μεν
τι θῆ τε
τι θῶ σι
τί θει
τι θέ τω
τί θε τε
τι θέ
ντων
τωσαν
τι θέ ναι
τι θείς
τι θεῖ σα
τι θέ ν
ἔλυον
ἔλυες
ἔλυε
ἐλύ ο μεν
ἐλύετε
ἔλυον
ἐτιμ
ων
as
Imperfect
α
ῶ μεν
άτε
ων
Contract
ἐφιλ-
ου ν
EL S
€ἰ
οὗ μεν
εί τε
ου ν
δί δω μι
δί δω
δί δω σι
δί δο μεν
δί δο τε
δι δό ασι
διδῶ
δι δ ως
διδῷ
δι δ ~ μεν
διδῶ τε
διδῶσι
δί δου
δι δ ό τω
δί δοτε
δι δ ό
Ιντων
τωσαν
δι δ ό ναι
διδούς
δι δ οὗ σα
διδόν
ἐδηλ-
ACTIVE
ου ν
ου S
ου
οὗ μεν
ούτε
ουν
ACTIVE VOICE
Future
λύσω
λύσεις
λύσει
λύ σ ο μεν
λύσετε
λύσου σι
λύσοι μι
λύσοις
λύσοι
λύ σ οι μεν
λύσοι τε
λύ σ οι εν
λύσειν
λύσων
λύ σουσα
λύσον
Liquid
φαν ῶ
φαν εῖς
φαν εῖ
φαν οὗ μεν
ἵ στην
ΐ στη S
ΐ στη
ἵ στα μεν
ϊ στα τε
ΐ στα σαν
φαν εἴ τε
φαν οὗ σι
φαν εῖν
φαν ῶν
φαν οὖσα
φαν οὖν
apagha ole muda da PM On A
ἔλυσα
ἔλυσα
ἔλυσε
ἐ λύσα μεν
ἐλύσατε
ἔλυσαι
λύσω
λύσῃς
λύσῃ
λύσω λεν
1 Agist
λύση
λύσω πι
λύ σ αι κι
λύσαις
λύσαι
λύ σ αι μεν
λύ σ αι τε
λύ σ αι ν
λύσον
λυσά τω
λύσατ
λυ
λύσαι
λύσας
λύ σ ασι
λύ σ αν
σά των
σά ωσαν
ἔ φην α
ἔφην ας
ἔ φην ε
ἐφήνα μν
ἐ φήν α τε
ἔφην αν
Liquid
φήν ω
φήν της
φήν η
φήν ω μεν
φήν η τε
φήν ωσι
φην
φῆν ον
φην άτω
φήν α τε
{
άντων
ἐ τί θη ν
ἐ τί θει s
έ τί θει
έ τί θε μεν
ἐ τί θε τε
ἐ τί θε σαν
φῆν αι
φήν ας
φήν ασο
φῆν αν
ά τωσαν
IMPERFECT
ἔ λιπον
ἔ λιπες
ἔ λιπε
ἐ λίπ ο μεν
ἐ λίπετε
ἔ λιπον
ἐδίδουν
ἐδίδου s
ἐδίδου
2 Aorist
λίπω
λίπ ης
λίπη
λίπω μεν
λίπ
η τε
λίπωσι
λίπ οι με
λίπ οι S
λίπ οι
λίπ οι μεν
λίπ οι τε
λίπ οι εν
λίπε
λιπ έτω
λίπετε
λεπό
ἐδί δ ο μεν
ἐ δί δοτε
ἐδίδοσαν
(ό ντων
έτωσαν
λιπ είν
λιπ ών
λιπ οὖσα
λιπ όν
VOICE
λέ λυκα
λέ λυ κ ας
λέ λυκε
λε λύ κ.α μεν
λε λύ κατε
λελύ {κασι
λε λύκω
λε λύ κ ης
λε λύ κ η
λε λύ κ ω μεν
λε λύ κ η τε
λε λύκωσι
1 Perfect
λε λύ κ οι με
λε λύ κ οι
λε λύκοι
λε λύ κ οι μεν
λε λύ κ οι τε
λε λύκοι εν
λε λυ κ έναι
λε λυκ ώς
λε λυ κ υΐα
λε λυκ ός
Me pak
A valves an even be able
ἔ στη ν
ἔ στη s
ע
ἔ στη
ἔ στη μεν
ἔ στη τε
ἔ στη σαν
στῶ
στῇς
στῇ
στῶ μεν
στῇ τε
στῶ σι
στῆ θι
στή τω
στῆ τε
στ
άντων
ήτωσαν
στῆ ναι
στάς
στᾶ σα
στά ν
da me te maak van damaran ke
d
A de a da A KATA.
2 Perfect
CAM -
λέ λοιπ α
λέ λοιπ ας
λέ λοιπε
λε λοίπ α μεν
λε λοίπ α τε
λε λοίπ α σι
λε λοίπω
λε λοίπ ης
λε λοίπ η
λε λοίπω μεν
λε λοίπ η τε
λε λοίπω σι
λε λοίπ οι μι
λε λοίπ οι S
λε λοίπ οι
λε λοίπ οι μεν
λε λοίπ οι τε
λε λοίπ οι εν
λε λοιπ ώς
λε λοιπ υῖα
λε λοιπ ός
2 AORIST
ἔθη κα
ἔ θη κας
ἔ θη κε
ἐθή κα μεν
ἐθή κα τε
ἔ θη κα ν
θώ
θῇς
θῇ
θώ μεν
θῆ τε
θώσι
θές
θέ τω
θέ τε
Ιντων
θέ
τωσαν
θεῖ ναι
θεί
θεῖ σα
θέ ν
1 Pluperfect
ἐ λε λύ κ ειν
έ λε λύ κ εις
έ λε λύ κ ει
έ λε λύ κ ει μεν
έ λε λύ κ ει τε
έ λε λύ κ ει σαν
ma de Made vedere 1 M, Malaga sa v m
εδω κα
ἔ δω κας
ἔ δω κε
ἐ δώ κα μεν
ἐ δώ κα τε
ἔ δω καν
δώ
δῷ
δῷ
δῶ μεν
δώ τε
δώσι
THE OMEGA CONJUGATION
δό s
δό τω
δό τε
δό
ντων
τωσαν
δοῦ ναι
δούς
δού σα
δό ν
λύ ο
λύ η
λύε
ται
λυ ό μεθα
λύ ε σθε
λύ ο
λύ
λύ η
λύ η ται
λυ ώ μεθα
λύ
σθε
η
λύ ω νται
λυ οἱ μην
οί
νται
ω μαι
λύ οι ο
λύ οι το
λυ οἱ μεθα
λύ οι σθε
λύ οι ντο
λύ ε
λυ έ
μαι
λύ ου
λυ έ σθω
13 18-18 -3 18 13
λύ ε σθαι
λυ ό
λυ ο μένη
λυ ό μένον
13 18-18-3 113 13
σθε
Ισθων
σθωσαν
τιμε
ώ μαι
ται
ώ μεθα
13
μενος
ά σθε
νται
ώ μαι
ται
ώ μεθα
ασθε
άσθω
PRESENT
νται
ᾶσ θε
άσθων
άσθωσαν
ά σθαι
ώ μενος
ω μένη
ώ μενον
Contract
ΐ στα μαι
ἵ στα σαι
φιλ-
ού μαι
ที
εῖ ται
ού μεθα
εί σθε
ούνται
ού
είσθω
εῖσθε
είσθων
είσθωσαν
εῖ σθαι
ἵ στα ται
ἱ στά μεθα
ἵ στα σθε
ἵ στα νται
ἱ στῆ σθε
ἱ στῶ νται
ώ μαι
ท
ΐ στα σο
ί στά σθω
ἵ στα σθε
ἱστά
η ται
ώ μεθα
σθε
ῶνται
ού μενος
ου μένη
οὐ μενον
ἱ στῶ μαι
ἱστῇ
ἱ στῆ ται
ἱ στώ μεθα
σθων
σθωσαν
δηλ-
ού μαι
οί
οὗται
ού κελα
ούσθε
ούνται
ἵ στα σθαι
ἱ στά μενος
ἱ στα μένη
ἱ στά μενον
ώ μαι
οί
J
ώ ται
ώ μεθα
ωθε
ῶ νται
ού
ού σθω
οὖσθε
ούσθων
ούσθωσαν
ού σθαι
ού
οὗ μενος
ου μένη
οὗ μενον
PRESENT
THE MI CONJUGATION
τί θε μαι
τί θε σαι
τί θε ται
τι θέ μεθα
τί θε σθε
τί θε νται
τι θῶ μαι
θώ
τι θῇ
τι θῆ ται
τι θώ μεθα
τι θῆ σθε
τι θῶνται
τί θε σο
τι θέ σθω
τί θε σθε
τι θέ
σθων
σθωσαν
ἐ λυ ό μην
ἐ λύ ου
τί θε σθαι
τι θέ μενος
τι θε μένη
τι θέ μενον
έλύετο
ἐ λυ ό μεθα
έ λύ εσθε
ἐλύ ο ντο
έ τιμα
ώ μην
ώ
ά το
ώ μεθα
ᾶ σθε
ῶντο
Imperfect
Contract
ἐ φιλ-
ού
οὗ μην
οὔ
εῖ το
ού μεθα
εί σθε
ού ντο
δί δο μαι
δί δο σαι
δί δο ται
δι δό μεθα
δί δο σθε
δί δο νται
δι δῶ μαι
δι δῷ
δι δῶ ται
δι δώ μεθα
δι δῶ σθε
δι δῶ νται
δί δο σο
δι δό σθω
δί δο σθε
δι δό
ίσθων
σθωσαν
δί δο σθαι
δι δό μενος
δι δο μένη
δι δό μενον
ἐ δηλ-
ού
ού
οὐ μην
ού το
ού μεθα
ού σθε
οὗ ντο
ἱ στά μην
ΐ στα σο
MIDDLE VOICE
ΐ στα το
ἱ στά μεθα
ἵ στα σθε
ΐ στα ντο
Future
λύσο μαι
λύση
λύσεται
λυσό μεθα
λύ σε σθε
λύσονται
οί
λυ σ οἱ μην
λύσοι ο
λύσοι το
λυσοί μεθα
λύσοι σθε
λύσοι ντο
λύ σε σθαι
λυ σ ό μενος
λυσ ο μένη
λυ σ ό μενον
Liquid
φαν οὗ μαι
φαν ῇ
φαν εῖ ται
φαν οὗ μεθα
φαν εῖ σθε
φαν οὗ νται
φαν εῖ σθαι
φαν ού μενος
φαν ου μένη
φαν ού μενον
1 Aorist
ἐ λυ σά μην
ἐλύσω
έ λύ σα το
ἐλυ σά μεθα
ἐ λύ σα σθε
ἐ λύ σα ντό
ἐ τι θέ μην
ἐ τί θε σο
έ τί θε το
ἐ τι θέ μεθα
έ τί θε σθε
ἐ τί θε ντο
λύ σω μαι
λύ σῃ
λύ ση ται
λυ σώ μεθα
λύ ση σθε
λύ σω νται
λυ σαί μην
λύ σαι ο
λύ σαι το
λυ σαί μεθα
λύ σαι σθε
λύ σαι ντο
λύ σαι
λυ σά σθω
λύ σα σθε
ίσθων
λυσά
ίσθωσαν
λύ σα σθαι
λυ σά μενος
λυ σα μένη
λυ σά μενον
Liquid
ἐ φην ά μην
ἐφήν ω
ἐ φήνα το
ἐφην ά μεθα
ἐ φήν α σθε
ἐφήν α ντο
φήν ω μαι
φήνῃ
φήν η ται
φην ώ μεθα
φήν η σθε
φήν ω νται
φῆν αι
φην ά σθω
φήν α σθε
φην σθων
MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE
IMPERFECT
ά σθωσαν
φήν α σθαι
φην ά μενος
φην α μένη
φην ά μενον
ἐ δι δό μην
ἐ δί δο σο
ἐ δί δο το
ἐ δι δό μεθα
έ δί δο σθε
ἐ δί δο ντο
2 Aorist
ἐ λιπ ό μην
ἐ λίπου
ἐ λίπε το
ἐ λιπ ό μεθα
έ λίπε σθε
ἐ λίπο ντο
λίπ ω μαι
λίπη
λίπ η ται
λιπ ώ μεθα
λίπ σθε
ๆ
λίπ ω νται
λιπ οἱ μην
λίπ οι ο
λίπ οι το
λιπ οἱ μεθα
λίπ οι σθε
λίπ οι ντο
λιπ οὗ
λιπ έ σθω
For sake of completeness, many forms are given which do not occur in the New Testament.
PASSIVE VOICE


λίπεσθε
λιπ έξο
των
ίσθωσαν
λιπ έ σθαι
λιπ ό μενος
λιπ ο μένη
λιπ ό μενον
Perfect
λέ λυ μαι
λέ λυ σαι
λέ λυ ται
λε λί μεθα
λέ λυ σθε
λέ ο νται
λε λυ μένος ᾖς
ὦμεν
λε λυ μένοι αἦτε
ώσι
εἴην
λε λυ μένος καὶ εἴης
εἴη
εἴ ημεν
λε λυ μένοι εἴ η τε
εί
εἴ ησαν
λε ύ σθαι
λε ν μένος
λε υ μένη
λε υ μένον
ἐ θέ μην
ἔ θου
ἔθε το
ἐ θέμεθα
ἔ θε σθε
ἔ θε ντο
2 AORIST
θώ μαι
θῇ
θῇ ται
θώ μεθα
θῆ σθε
θῶ νται
θ ού
θέ σθω
θέ σθε
θέ
Ισθων
σθωσαν
θέ σθαι
Pluperfect
θέ μενος
θε μένη
θέ μενον
ἐ λε λύ μην
ἐ λέ λυ σο
ἐ λέ λυ το
ἐ λε λύ μεθα
ἐ λέ λυ σθε
ἐ λέ λυ ντο
ἐ δό μην
ἔ δου
ἔ δο το
ἐ δό μεθα
ἔδο σθε
ἔ δο ντο
λυθήσομαι
λυθή σῃ
λυθήσεται
λυ θη σ ό μεθα
λυθή σε σθε
λυθή σ ο νται
λυ θη σ οἱ μην
λυθή σοι ο
λυθή σ οι το
λυθη σ οἱ μεθα'
λυθή σ οι σθε
λυθή σ οι ντο
λυθή σε σθαι
λυ θη σό μενος
πυθη ου μένη
λυ θη σό μενον
δώ μαι
δῷ
δώ ται
δώ μεθα
δώ σθε
δῶ νται
Future
φαν ή σο μαι
φαν ή σῃ
φαν ή σε ται
φαν η σό μεθα
φαν ή σε σθε
φαη ή σο νται
φαν ή σε σθαι
φαν η σό μενος
φαν η σο μένη
φαν η σό μενον
δοῦ
δό σθω
δό σθε
Ισθων
δό
Liquid
2 Future
δό σθαι
δό μενος
δο μένη
δό μενον
σθωσαν
Fut. Perf.
λε λύ σ ο μαι
ἐ λύθην
λε λύ σῃ
ἐ λύ θης
λε λύ σε ται
ἐλύ θη
λε λυσό μεθα
λε λύ σε σθε
λε λύ σονται
λε λυ σ οί μην
λε λύσοι ο
λε λύσοι το
λε λυσοί μεθα
λε λύσοι σθε
λε λύ σ οι ντο
λε λύ σε σθαι
λε λυ σό μενος
λε λυ σο μένη
λε λυ σό μενον
ἐ στά θη ν
ἐ στά θη s
ἐ στά θη
ἐ στά θη μεν
ἐ στά θη τε
ἐ στά θη σαν
στα θῶ
σταθῇς
στα θῇ
θώ
στα θῶ μεν
στα θῆ τε
στα θῶ σι
στά θη τι
σταθή τω
στα
στά θη τε
(έντων
Ꮎ
ήτωσαν
σταθῆ ναι
στα θείς
στα θεῖσα
στα θέν
1 Aorist
ἐ λύ θη μεν
ἐ λύ θη τε
ἐ λύ θη σαν
λυθῶ
λυθῇς
λυθῆ
λυθῶ μεν
λυ θῆ τε
λυθώ σε
λυ θεί ην
λυ θεί ης
λυ θεί η
ΤΕ
λυ θεί η μεν
λυ θεί η τε
λυ θεί η σαν
λύ θη τι
λυθή τω
AORIST PASSIVE
θ
λύ θη τε
λυ
[θέντων
θή τωσαν
λυθῆ ναι
λυθείς
λυ θεῖσα
λυ θέν
ἐ τέ θη ν
ἐ τέ θη s
ἐ τέ θη
ἐ τέ θη μεν
ἐ τέ θη τε
ἐ τέ θη σαν
τεθώ
τεθῇς
τε θῇ
τε θῶ μεν
τεθῆ τε
τεθώ σι
τέθη τι
τεθή τω
τέθη τε
ζέντων
ήτωναν
τέ θῆ ναι
τεθείς
τε θεῖσα
τε θέμ
2 Aorist
ἐ λίπην
ἐ λίπης
ἐλίπη
έ λίπ η μεν
ἐ λίπη τε
ἐ λίπη σαν
λιπώ
λιπ ῇς
λιπ ῇ
λιπ ὦ μεν
λιπ ἥ τε
λιπ ώσι
λίπ η θι
λιπ ή τω
λίπ η τε
έντων
λιπ
ή τωσαν
λιπ ῆ ναι
λιπ είς
λιπ εῖσα
λιπ έν



Liquid
ἐφάνην
ἐφάνης
ἐ φάνη
ἐ φάν η μεν
ἐ φάν η τε
ἐ φάν η σαν
φαν ω
φαν ῇς
φαν ῇ
φαν ῶ μεν
φαν ήτ
φαν ῶ σι
φάνη
θι
φαν ή τω
φάν η τε
φαν
έντων
τωσαν
φαν ῆ ναι
φαν εἰς
φαη εῖσα
φαν έν





ἐδό θην
ἐ δό θη s
ἐ δό θη
ἐ δό θη μεν
ἐ δό θη τε
ἐ δό θη σαν
δο θῶ
δο θῇ s
δο θῇ
δο θώ μεν
δο θῆ τε
δοθώσι
δό θη τι
δο θή τω
δό θη τε
δοθέντων
ζήτωσαν
δο θῆ ναι
δο θείς
δο θεῖσα
δο θέν
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
321
Singular: Mas. τρίτος, fem. τρίτη, neut. τρίτον, etc.
Plural: Mas. τρίτοι, fem. τρίται, neut. τρίτα, etc.
Throughout like καλός.
PARADIGM 10
THE VERB
The accompanying folder contains a scheme of the
entire verb system, presented in a single view, and designed
to enable the student to secure a more comprehensive knowl-
edge of the Greek verb. For this valuable contribution the
authors are indebted to Mr. L. R. Elliott, Th.D., Librarian
of the Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, and
Instructor in Biblical Greek. The student will find this
paradigm a valuable aid in mastering the Greek verb sys-
tem, and a source of ready reference in composition work.
εἰμί
εἶ
ἐστί
ORDINALS
CONJUGATION OF SOME IRREGULAR VERBS
The verbs εἰμί, be; εἶμι, go; ἀφίημι (ἀπό + ἵημι), send away;
κεῖμαι, lie; and κάθημαι, sit, are inflected as follows:
Present Indicative
ἀφίημι
ἀφεῖς
ἀφίησι
ἐσμέν
ἐστέ
εἰσί
ἤμην
ἦς, ἦσθα
ἦν
ἦμεν
ἦτε
ἦσαν
εἴμι
εἶ
εἶσι
ἴμεν
ἴτε
ἴασι
ᾔειν
ᾔεις
ᾔει
ᾖμεν
ἦτε
ἦσαν
ἀφίεμεν
ἀφίετε
ἀφίουσι
κείμαι
κεῖσαι
κεῖται
κείμεθα
κεῖσθε
κεῖνται
Imperfect
ἠφίην ἐκείμην
ἤφιες
ἔκεισο
ἤφιε
ἔκειτο
κάθημαι
κάθῃ
κάθηται
καθήμεθα
κάθησθε
κάθηνται
ἐκαθήμην
ἐκάθησο
ἐκάθητο
ἠφίεμεν ἐκείμεθα
ἐκαθήμεθα
ἐκάθησθε
ἠφίετε ἔκεισθε
ἠφίεσαν ἔκειντο ἐκάθηντο
322
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
+
τοξοτη
1.
ὦμεν
ἦτε
ὦσι
σθι
ἔστω
ἔστε
ἔστωσαν
ὄντων
εἶναι
င်း
ἰῇς
ໄ
Present Subjunctive
ἀφιῶ
ἀφιῇς
ἀφιῇ
ἰῶμεν
ἰῆτε
ἰῶσι
ἴθι
ἴτω
ἴτε
ἴτωσαν
ἰέναι
ὤν, οὖσαἰών, ἰοῦσα
ὄν
ἰόν
ἔσομα
ἔσῃ
ἔσται
ἀφήσω
ἀφήσεις
ἀφήσει
κέωμαι
κέῃ
κέηται
Present Imperative
ἀφίει
ἀφέτω
ἀφιῶμεν κεώμεθα
καθῶμεθα
ἀφιῆτε
κέησθε καθῆσθε
ἀφιῶσι κέωνται καθῶνται
κεῖσο
κείσθω
Present Infinitive
ἀφιέναι
ἄφετε κεῖσθε κάθησθε
ἀφιέτωσαν κείσθωσαν καθήσθωσαν
κεῖσθαι
,
The Future of εἰμί
The Future of ἀφίημι
καθῶμαι
καθῇ
καθῆται
Present Participle
ἀφιείς, ἀφιεῖσα κείμενος, καθήμενος,
ἀφιέν
-n, -ov
πη, τον
ἐσόμεθα
ἔσεσθε
ἔσονται
κάθου
καθήσθω
ἀφήσομεν
ἀφήσετε
ἀφήσουσι
καθῆσθαι
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
323
Following are other forms found in the New Testament.
Future pass. 3 p. sing. ἀφεθήσεται.
Pres. ind. middle 3 p. sing. ἀφίεται, pl. ἀφίενται and
ἀφίουσιν.
Aor. pass. ind. 3 p. pl. ἀφέθησαν; subj. 3 p. sing. ἀφεθῇ.
The aor. active ind. ἀφῆκα is conjugated like ἔθηκα, and
the aor. subj. ἀφῶ is conjugated like λύω.
Aor. imper. active 2 p. sing. ἄφες, pl. ἄφετε.
Aor. active inf. ἀφεῖναι.
Aor. active part. ἀφείς, - εῖσα, -έν.
-
Pf. middle ind. 3 p. pl. ἀφέωνται.
Oida, know, which is second perfect in form, is conjugated
as follows:
Indicative
οἶδα
οἶδας, οἶσθα
οἶδε
ἴσμεν
στε
ἴσασι
ᾔδειν
ᾔδεις
ᾔδει
ᾔδειμεν
ᾔδειτε
ᾔδεισαν
Subjunctive
εἰδῶ
εἰδῇς
εἰδῇ
Second Pluperfect
Second Perfect
εἰδῶμεν
εἰδῆτε
εἰδῶσι
Infinitive
εἰδέναι
Optative
εἰδείην
εἰδείης
εἰδείη
εἰδείημεν
εἰδείητε
εἰδείησαν
εἴσομαι
εἴσῃ
εἴσεται
εἰσόμεθα
εἴσεσθε
εἴσονται
ἴσθι
ἴστω
Participle
εἰδώς, εἰδυῖα, εἰδός
Imperative
ἴστε
ἴστωσαν
Future
or εἰδήσω
εἰδήσεις
εἰδήσει
εἰδήσομεν
εἰδήσετε
εἰδήσουσι
1
324
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Indic.
ἔγνων
ἔγνως
ἔγνω
ἔγνωμεν
ἔγνωτε
ἔγνωσαν
Indic
ἔβην
ἔβης
ἔβη
ἔβημεν
ἔβητε
ἔβησαν
The Second Aorist of γινώσκω, know
Impv.
βαλῶ
βαλεῖς
βαλεῖ
γνώθι
γνώτω
γνώτε
γνώτωσαν
βῆθι
βήτω
The Second Aorist of βαίνω, go
Imp.
βῆτε
βάντων
Subj. yvw, inflected like dã
γνῶναι
Inf.
Part. γνούς, γνοῦσα, γνόν
In forming the future one X is
dropped and € is substituted
for it. We have as a result the
following contract forms:
βαλῶμεν
βαλεῖτε
βαλῶσι
Subj. βῶ, inflected like δῶ
Inf. βῆναι
Part. βάς, βᾶσα, βάν
Future and Aorist of βάλλω, throw
In forming the aorist the
stem is shortened by drop-
ping one λ, thereby leaving
the simple verb stem.
ἔβαλον
ἔβαλες
ἔβαλε
ἐβάλομεν
ἐβάλετε
ἔβαλον
Other forms are the pf. ind. active and middle βέβληκα,
βέβλημαι; 1 aor. ind. pass. ἐβλήθην. These are conjugated like
the corresponding forms of λύω.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
325
ἀγγέλλω
ἄγω
αἱρέω
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS
To give an exhaustive list of the irregular verbs would carry us far
beyond the prescribed limits of this volume. We present here some
of the most difficult and most frequently used, with the recommenda-
tion that they be thoroughly mastered by the student. A more
extended list may be found in R-S. 48–56, 241–244, or M-II. 224–266.
Perfect Per. Mid. Aor. Pas.
Present
Future
Aorist
Act.
αἴρω
ἀκούω
ἁμαρτάνω
ἀνοίγω
ἄρχω
ἀφίημι
βαίνω
βάλλω
γαμέω
ἀποκτείνω -κτενῶ
ἀπόλλυμι
ἀρέσκω
ἀρνέομαι
γίνομαι
γινώσκω
γράφω
δείκνυμι
δέχομαι
ἀγγελῶ ἤγγειλα
ἤγαγον
ἄξω
αἱρήσομαι εἷλον
ἀρῶ
ἀκούσω
ἦρα
ἤκουσα
ἁμαρτήσω ἥμαρτον
ἁμάρτησα
ἀνοίξω
ἀπολέσω
ἀρέσω ἤρεσα
ἀρνήσομαι ἠρνησάμην
ἄρξομαι ἠρξάμην
-ήσω
ἠνέῳξα ἀνέῳγα
ἀνέῳξα
ἤνοιξα
-ἔκτεινα
ἀπώλεσα ἀπώλωλα
-ῆκα
βήσομαι ἔβην
βαλῶ
ἔβαλον
γαμήσω ἔγημα
γενήσομαι ἐγενόμην
γνώσομαι ἔγνων
γράψω
δείξω
δέξομαι
ἦρκα
ἀκήκοα
ἡμάρτηκα
ἔγραψα
ἔδειξα
ἐδεξάμην
γέγονα
ἔγνωκα
γέγραφα
ἤγγελμαι ἠγγέλην
ἤγμαι ἤχθην
ᾕρημαι
ᾐρέθην
ἦρμαι
ἤρθην
ἠκούσθην
ἠνέωγμαι ἠνεῴχθην
ἀνέῳγμαι ἀνεῴχθην
ἤνοιγμαι ἠνοίχθην
-ἐκτάνθην
ἤρνημαι ἠρνήθην
-εῖκα
-έωμαι -έθην
βέβηκα
βέβληκα βέβλημαι ἐβλήθην
γεγάμηκα
ἐγαμήθην
γεγένημαι ἐγενήθην
ἔγνωσμαι ἐγνώσθην
γέγραμμαι ἐγράφην
δέδειγμαι ἐδείχθην
δέδεγμαι ἐδέχθην
-
326
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Present
διδάσκω
δίδωμι
διώκω
δύναμαι
ἐγγίζω
εἰμί
ἐλπίζω
ἐργάζομαι
ἔρχομαι
ἐσθίω
εὐαγγελίζω
εὑρίσκω
εὔχομαι
ἔχω
θέλω
θνήσκω
ἵστημι
καίω
καλέω
κλίνω
κρίνω
λαμβάνω
λείπω
μανθάνω
μέλλω
μένω
μιμνήσκω
Future
Aorist
διδάξω
δώσω
ἐδίδαξα
ἔδωκα
διώξω ἐδίωξα
δυνήσομαι ἐδυνάμην
ἠδυνάμην
Perfect Per. Mid. Aor. Pas.
Act.
ἐγγίσω ἤγγισα ἤγγικα
ἐγγιῶ
ἔσομαι
ἐλπιῶ
μενῶ
μνήσω
δέδωκα
ἤμην (impf.)
ἤλπισα ἤλπικα,
ἠργασάμην
ἐλεύσομαι ἦλθον ἐλήλυθα
φάγομαι ἔφαγον
εὗρον
εὐξάμην
ἔσχον
ἠθέλησα
ἔθανον
ἔστησα
ἔκαυσα
εὐηγγέλισα
εὐηγγελισάμην
εὕρηκα
ἔσχηκα
τέθνηκα
ἕστηκα
μεμένηκα
ἐδιδάχθην
δέδομαι ἐδόθην
δεδίωγμαι ἐδιώχθην
ἠδυνήθην
ἠδυνάσθην
εἴργασμαι εἰργάσθην
εὐηγγελίσμαι
εὑρήσω
εὔξομαι
Έξω
θελήσω
θανοῦμαι
στήσω
ἐστάθην
καύσω
ἐκαύθην
καλέσω
ἐκάλεσα κέκληκα
ἐκλήθην
κλινώ
ἔκλινα
κέκλικα
ἐκλίθην
κρινῶ ἔκρινα
κέκρικα
κέκριμαι
ἐκρίθην
λήψομαι ἔλαβον εἴληφα εἴλημμαι ἐλήφθην
λείψω ἔλιπον
λέλειμμαι ἐλείφην
λέλοιπα
μεμάθηκα
ἔμαθον
μελλήσω ἤμελλον
ἔμελλον
ἔμεινα
ἔμνησα
κέκαυμαι
κέκλημαι
εὐηγγελίσθηι
εὑρέθην
μέμνημαι ἐμνήσθην
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
327
Present
ὁράω
πάσχω
πείθω
πίνω
πίπτω
στέλλω
στρέφω
σώζω
τελέω
τίθημι
τρέχω
φαίνω
φέρω
φεύγω
φθείρω
Future
ὄψομαι
Aorist
εἶδον
ἔπαθον
πείσω
ἔπεισα
πίομαι ἔπιον
πεσοῦμαι ἔπεσον
στελῶ
ἔστειλα
στρέψω
ἔστρεψα
σώσω
ἔσωσα
τελῶ
ἐτέλεσα
θήσω
ἔθηκα
ἔδραμον
φανοῦμαι ἔφανα
οἴσω
ἤνεγκα
φεύξομαι ἔφυγον
φθερῶ
ἔφθειρα
Perfect
Act.
ἑόρακα
ἑώρακα
πέπονθα
πέποιθα
πέπωκα
πέπτωκα
ἔσταλκα
σέσωκα
τετέλεκα
τέθεικα
Per. Mid. Aor. Pas.
ἐνήνοχα
πέφευγα
ὤφθην
πέπεισμαι ἐπείσθην
ἐπόθην
ἔσταλμαι ἐστάλην
ἔστραμμαι ἐστράφην
σέσωσμαι ἐσώθην
τετέλεσμαι ἐτελέσθην
τέθειμαι ἐτέθην
ἐφάνην
ἠνέχθην
ἔφθαρμαι ἐφθάρην
Note:-A few forms not occurring in the New Testament have
been given in order that the student may become familiar with the
variations in verb stems.
EXERCISES FOR COMPOSITION IN GREEK
NEW TESTAMENT
Orthography
1. Paul saluted the church at Gaius' house. 2. On ac-
count of him some blasphemed the name of God. 3. Thus
he shall do for all. 4. He brought the fruit of the Olive.
5. God is righteous and I am evil. 6. They crucified my
Savior, and he died for you and me. 7. Christ is the Lord
of my life.
Declension
8. The man sent his brother to the master. 9. The gifts
of the servants are pleasing to the kings. 10. The priests
will bring the coats for the children. 11. The man wrote
the epistle to his brother. 12. The shepherds came in the
night. 13. The children of the king are running through
the temple.
Conjugation
14. The lambs are playing in the fields. 15. The birds
were eating the wheat. 16. The teacher will call his dis-
ciples. 17. The angels sang, praising God. 18. The ene-
mies have crucified the Redeemer. 19. Many had deter-
mined not to believe the word of Jesus.
Nominative and Vocative Cases
20. Thanksgiving ascended to the throne of God. 21.
The gospel is the hope of all men. 22. Oh, vain works of
sinful flesh! 23. O God, hear the prayer of thy people.
328
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
329
Genitive and Ablative Cases
24. The message of life came from Heaven. 25. The
journey of Paul was the salvation of the people. 26. Three
of the disciples heard the message. 27. Jesus having been
crucified, the soldiers parted his garments. 28. The mes-
sage of the woman was worthy of praise. 29. John gave
the people the revelation from Christ.
Dative, Locative, and Instrumental Cases
30. The Jews made trouble for them. 31. Those who
trust the Savior are pleasing to Him. 32. It seemed best
to them to go away. 33. The fishermen left in the boats.
34. On that same night Judas betrayed him. 35. The be-
liever should be a child in spirit. 36. He calmed the sea
with a word. 37. The believer enjoys fellowship with his
brethren. 38. They proclaimed the gospel with zeal. 39. He
came earlier by five days.
Accusative Case
40. Paul remained in Ephesus three years. 41. They
served in the same way. 42. He was mighty in the minis-
try of the word. 43. Barnabas lived a good life. 44. The
publicans asked him many questions.
Prepositions
45. The teacher went through the cities and up to the
sea. 46. Jesus came from the Father and died for sinners.
47. Paul suffered on account of his love for the cross. 48.
John went out of the city and into the country and preached
in the wilderness. 49. He went down to the river with the
disciples. 50. The women remained by the altar and prayed
for their sons. 51. The multitudes journeyed before Christ
to the city. 52. The Savior died under the curse for sin.
330
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Adjectives
53. He spoke a good word to the idle boy. 54. The heart
of the saint was pure. 55. The evil one is not able to do
good. 56. He first gave commandment to the twelve. 57.
Christ was greater than the law.
Pronouns
58. I am not the Christ, but thou art the Christ. 59. He
is grieved on account of my sin. 60. Stephen, who was
stoned for the faith, died without fear. 61. This boy is the
son of that woman. 62. The jailer himself was baptized on
the same night. 63. Certain said unto him, Who is this who
forgives sins?
Article
64. Atonement is the work of Christ; grace belongs to
God. 65. James was killed by Herod; but the church
prayed for Peter. 66. Nations are in the bondage of sin.
67. This Jesus is not only man; he is God.
Voice and Mood
68. They took counsel to slay him. 69. The uproar was
silenced by the officers with a word. 70. What was the
Master teaching? 71. Thou shalt hear the words of truth.
72. Let us ask the Master what we shall teach. 73. Do not
disobey God. 74. Let us love God. 75. Shall sin conquer
us? May it never be! 76. Yield yourself to the entreaties
of the Spirit.
Tense
77. Their enemies are making war upon the city. 78.
Saints submit to the providence of God. 79. The priest was
praying in the Temple. 80. They were waiting to slay him,
and began crying out for his blood. 81. The redeemed in
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
331
heaven shall rejoice. 82. The multitude cried out against
Jesus. 83. Peter became penitent. 84. The prophets wrote
concerning the Messiah. 85. We have believed their mes-
sage. 86. The council had condemned the Lord of glory.
Infinitive
87. Paul went to Macedonia to preach the gospel. 88.
The women prayed while they worked. 89. The Pharisees
ceased persecuting because they feared the people. 90. To
work righteousness is becoming to the people. 91. Herod
feared to keep his oath. 92. To win souls to Christ is the
believer's joy. 93. They were not worthy to receive the
gospel.
Participle
94. The saints were waiting for the coming kingdom.
95. The one keeping his commandments loves him. 96. The
people having assembled, the disciples proclaimed the mes-
sage. 97. The priests were afraid because they had cruci-
fied Jesus. 98. By sitting in the boat he was able to teach
the multitude. 99. When the Sabbath came the scribes
ceased working.
Adverbs
100. Finally, they were there. 101. They ran thither
quickly. 102. He spoke more friendly and came nearer.
103. He ran farthest and quickest. 104. God loves most
and always.
Conjunctions and Particles
105. In fact, he loved his father, but he was covetous.
106. They lived, for they obeyed the vision. 107. Whenever
we preach the gospel somebody will believe. 108. Where-
fore, we must give glory to God. 109. Now, the believer
332
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
prays in order that he may receive a blessing. 110. The
Passover was indeed a great feast. 111. Yea, our flesh is
weak through sin. 112. One is under the law, while another
is under grace. 113. How shall we return his love, if indeed
he died for us? 114. Above all, do good.
Relative and Causal Clauses
115. John baptized those who repented of their sins.
116. God, who loves us, will not forget His children. 117. He
who lives in sin does not have true faith. 118. We trust our
souls to Christ, who will save them. 119. Paul rebuked
Peter because Peter was wrong (write in four ways).
Comparative, Local, and Temporal Clauses
120. We will suffer for our Lord as he suffered for us.
121. The believer prays as the Spirit guides him. 122.
Whenever a man sins and wherever he sins, he grieves the
Holy Spirit. 123. Let us work until Jesus comes. 124. Paul
was to wait at Troas until Titus came. 125. Paul waited
at Philippi until Titus came. 126. Before the leper departed
he asked to be healed. 127. While we wait, we must not
be idle.
Purpose, Result, and Substantival Clauses
128. John was preaching near the Jordan in order that
he might baptize the people. 129. Paul went with Luke
to preach the gospel in Philippi. 130. The Greeks came to
inquire concerning Christ. 131. The way is so plain that
the poor may understand it. 132. He left by night so that
his enemies did not see him. 133. That he may please his
Master is the Christian's desire. 134. There came no one
who really cared for him. 135. It seemed best to him to
go to the feast. 136. They feared to seize him.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
333
Conditional and Concessive Clauses
137. If Paul preached the gospel in Bithynia, men be-
lieved. 138. If Paul had preached the gospel in Bithynia,
men would have believed. 139. If Paul preaches the gospel
in Bithynia, men will believe. 140. If Paul should preach
the gospel in Bithynia, men would believe. 141. Even
though Christ died on the cross, he was not a sinner. 142.
Though the heavens should fall, the word of God will not
fail.
Indirect Discourse, Commands, and Prohibitions
143. Jesus said that John was least in the kingdom of
heaven. 144. The Spirit informed Paul what he would
encounter at Jerusalem. 145. Paul instructed Titus to
ordain bishops in every city. 146. Receive the message of
truth and preach it to the world. 147. Do not cease keeping
the commandment of the Lord. 148. Stop sinning. 149. Do
not sin.
1
ENGLISH-GREEK VOCABULARY
(This vocabulary is designed especially for the aid of students in
preparing English-Greek composition. Instructors will find it ade-
quate for a large variety of exercises. The exercises offered above
may be used, or the teacher may give exercises of his own. For
the preparation of this vocabulary we are principally indebted to
Mr. John W. Patterson.)
Key to Abbreviations
1 a.: first aorist; abl.: ablative; acc.: accusative; act.:
active; adj.: adjective; adv.: adverb; ai.: from the bottom;
a. ps.: aorist passive; Aram.: Aramaic; AS: Abbott-
Smith's Manual Greek Lexicon; Att.: Attic Greek; cf.:
compare; cl. and cl. Gr.: classical Greek; conj.: conjunc-
tion; cons.: consonant; contra.: contraction; D.: Davis'
Beginner's Grammar of the Greek New Testament; decl.:
declension; dubl.: double; emph.: emphatic; f.: future;
fem.: feminine; fm.: from; ftn.: footnote; G.: Green's:
Handbook and Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament;
Ger.: German; impf.: imperfect; imv.: imperative; inc.:
including; indel.: indeclinable; indef.: indefinite; inf.:
infinitive; instru.: instrumental; inter.: interrogative; Lat.:
Latin; 1. i. d.: locative, instrumental, dative; lit.: literally;
LS.: Liddell and Scott; Man.: Manual Grammar of the
Greek New Testament, Dana and Mantey; mid.: middle;
MM.: Moulton and Milligan's Vocabulary of the Greek
Testament; mngs.: meanings; N.: Nestle's Greek New Tes-
tament; nom.: nominative; obj.: object; obs.: obsolete;
opp.: opposite; pl.: plural; poss.: possessive; pred.: predi-
cate; ps.: passive; ptc.: participle; sts.: sometimes; subst.:
334
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
335
substantive; t.: times; T.: Tischendorf's Greek Text; Th.:
Thayer's New Testament Greek Lexicon; T.R.: Text Re-
ceived; Tr.: Tregelles' Greek Text; WH.: Westcott and
Hort's Greek Text; Vulg.: Vulgate.
A, an, expressed by the absence of the definite article. The
absence of the article also denotes quality.
able, to be, dúvaμai.
above all, ovv, ei µýv (Man.).
according to, kaтά with acc. (Man.).
afraid, be, yoẞéομaι (тρéµw, tremble, be afraid).
against, eis, acc. only (into); кaтά (down), w. gen.; πрós
(toward), w. acc. (Man.).
all, πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν.
altar, θυσιαστήριον, -ου, τό (βωμός, -οῦ, ὁ, elevated place
altar; Ac. 17:23).
always, πάντοτε.
am, eiμí (be).
and, kai (also); dé, in the next place, and, but, on the other
hand.
angel, ayyeλos, -ov, ò (messenger).
appoint, καθίστημι, a. subj. καταστήσω, pres. inf. καθιστάναι·
arrive, καταπλέω, 1 a. κατέπλευσα (παραβάλλω, place
beside; mid. arrive).
as, ws; κalws (according as, even as).
ascend, ȧvaẞaivw (come up, go up).
ask, airéw (ask for something); épwráw (ask a question).
assemble, ovvéрxoμaι (convene, come together, go with), 2
a. -ñλoov, 2 pf. -eλýλv0a, 2 pf. ptc. -eλnλvós; 2 a. act. ptc.
-ελowv; σvvкaλéw, convoke, call together, assemble; 1 a.
ovvekáλeoa; ovváyw, gather together, collect; 1 a.
ovvñķa, 2 a. ovvýyayov, pf. ovvñxa, or ovvayáyoxa,
1 a. ptc. ovvážas (LS.), pf. ptc. mid. σvvnyμévos.
at, év (in, loc.,); èπí, upon (loc. or gen.).
atonement, kaтаλλαуń, ñs, (reconciliation).
336
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
baptize, βαπτίζω, f. βαπτίσω, 1 a. ἐβάπτισα, pf. ptc. βεβαπ-
τισμένος.
Barnabas, Βαρνάβας, -α, ὁ.
be, εἰμί (exist); γίνομαι (begin to be, become); 2 a. ἐγενόμην.
because, ὅτι; διά, because, or prep. with acc.
become, γίνομαι, begin to be, come into being; 2 a. ἐγενόμην.
becoming, εὐσχήμων, -ον (well-shaped, 1 Cor. 8:35); ἄξιος, -α,
-ov, worthy, becoming.
before, πρό (prep. w. abl.); ἔμπροσθεν, in front of, w. abl.
(L. ante); both are used in cl. Gr. of time and place;
but in NT, chiefly time; ἔμπροσθεν, place only; πρίν,
before (formerly, L. prius).
begin, ἄρχομαι, 1 a. ἠρξάμην.
believe, πιστεύω, f. πιστεύσω.
believers, οἱ πιστοί (the trusty, the faithful); believer, ὁ
πιστεύων.
belong, εἰμί with the dative case (cf. Man. under dat. case).
best, κρείττων, -ονος (κρείσσων, -ovos); πρῶτος, -η, -ον.
betray, παραδίδωμι, impf. ind. 3 sg. παρεδίδου, f. παραδώσω, 1
a. παρέδωκα.
bird, πετεινόν, -ου, τό (flying or winged animals, fm. πετεινός,
-ή, -όν, flying).
bishop, ἐπίσκοπος, -ου, ὁ.
Bithynia, βιθυνία, -ας, ἡ.
blaspheme, βλασφημέω.
blessing, εὐλογία, -ας, ἡ.
blood, αἷμα, αἵματος, τό.
both
and, τέ
· τέ; καί .
καί.
bondage, δουλεύω, to be a slave, to be in bondage; (κατα)
-δουλόω, to enslave.
boy, παῖς, παιδός, ὁ (ἡ, girl); παιδίσκος, -ου, ὁ, young boy.
bring, ἄγω; φέρω, bear, carry.
brother, ἀδελφός, -οῦ, ὁ.
but, ἀλλά; δέ (cf. Man.).
·
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
337
by, vπó (abl. of agent, w. pass); πaρá, beside (w. loc. abl.
acc.; cf. Man.).
call, καλέω, f. καλέσω, 1 a. ἐκάλεσα (καλέω denotes to cry
out for a purpose (for help). Boάw (Lat. boo), to cry out
as a manifestation of feeling, sensibility; кpάjw, croak,
out harshly, instinctively; кpavyά(w, shout coarsely.
calm, to, καTαoréλλw (to quiet); øpáσow, fence up, stop.
calm, to be, novxášw, be or keep quiet, silent; oiyáw,
keep silent (mental); σwráw (physical).
cry
care, n.; ¿πɩµéλela, -as, ǹ, attention; σπoudý, -ŋs, ǹ, diligence;
µépiµva, −ns, ǹ, anxiety, distraction.
cease, παύομαι (fm. παύω, stop), f. παύσομαι, 1 2. ἐπαυσάμην,
pf. πέπαυμαι.
certain (one), rìs, тì (any one, anything).
child, τέκνον, -ου, τό; βρέφος, -ους, τό, infant; παῖς, -δός, ὁ, ἡ
(boy or girl).
Christ, Xplorós, -oũ, ò (the annointed one, fm. xploтós, -n,
-ov, verbal adj. of xpíw, annoint).
Christian, Xportarós, -oũ, % (a follower of Christ).
church, ἐκκλησία, -ας, ἡ.
city, πόλις, -εως, ἡ.
coat, χιτών, -ῶνος, ὁ (tunic).
come, ἔρχομαι, 2 a. ἦλθον, come, go; -βαίνω, 2 a. -έβην, go,
come (in NT only in comp).
commandment, ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ.
concerning, Tepi with gen. or acc.; eis, kaтά with acc.;
Uπéρ W. abl.
ὑπέρ
condemn, κατακρίνω.
conscience, συνείδησις, -εως, ἡ.
conquer, νικάω, f. νικήσω, 1 a. ἐνίκησα, pf. νενίκηκα.
council, ovvédptov, -ov, тó (Sanhedrin).
counsel (noun), βουλή, -ῆς, ἡ; συμβούλιον, -ου, τό; (vb.)
συμβουλεύω, to give counsel, συμβουλεύομαι, to take
338
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
counsel (together); Bovλevoμai (to give one's self coun-
sel), to take counsel.
country, xúpa, -as, ǹ (place, region, field); åypós, -oũ, ¿,
field (cf. L. ager, G. Acker, Eng. acre), farm (cf. MM);
πаτрis, -idos, n, fatherland.
πατρίς, ίδος, ή,
covetous, πλeovÉKTηs, -ov, å, a covetous person (πλéov, more+
exw, have), greedy (Th.); avaricious (G.); çıλápyvpos,
-OV.
cross, σταυρός, -οῦ, ὁ.
crucify, σταυρόω, f. σταυρώσω, 1 w. ἐσταύρωσα, pf. ἐσταύ-
pwμat (on improper reduplication, i.e., "like the aug-
ment"; cf. Man.).
cry out, κράζω, f. κράξω, 1 a. ἔκραξα, 2 2, ἔκραγον, pf. κέκραγα;
kpavɣášw, cry coarsely, in contempt; intensive (see
sub. call).
curse (n.), katápa, -as, ǹ (judicial sentence, ¡???); aváleµa,
-TOS, Tó, set up, laid by (Th.); vb. åvaleµarijw, to curse.
day, nμépa, as, ǹ.
depart, ἀφίστημι, 1 a. ἀπέστησα, 2a. ἀπέστην; ἀπέρχομαι,
2 a. ἀπῆλθον, go away.
desire, èπɩOvµía, -as, ǹ, active or evil desire; πáðos, -ous, tó,
passionate or ungovernable desire (passive side of vice
in NT; in cl. Gr., good or evil).
determine, κρίνω, f. κρινῶ, 1 a. ἔκρινα; pf. κέκρικα; ὁρίζω,
determine, appoint, designate, settle, 1 a.
pioa.
die, ἀποθνήσκω, f. ἀποθανοῦμαι, 2 a. ἀπέθανον.
disciple, m., μałητýs, -oũ, ỏ (used also for fem. exc. Ac. 9:36,
μαθήτρια, -ας, ἡ).
disobey, ἀπειθέω.
do, toɩéw, make, cause to be; πрάσσw (root, πрaɣ-), carry
out, practice.
early (adv.), πρωί.
early (adj.), πρώιος, -η, -ον.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
339
eat, ἐσθίω, impf. ἤσθιον, f. φάγομαι, 2 2. ἔφαγον.
encounter, συμβάλλω, 2 2. συνέβαλον.
enemy, exĺpós, -oũ, ỏ (subst. fm. ¿x◊pós, -ά, -óv, hated).
enjoy, ἔχω ἀπόλαυσιν with gen., ἔχω εἰς ἀπόλαυσιν with acc.
entreaty, πаρákλnois, -ews, ǹ (exhortation, consolation);
αἴτημα, -ατος, τό (request).
Ephesus, "Exeσos, -ov, ǹ.
epistle, ἐπιστολή, -ῆς, ἡ.
even, kai, and, also (copulative coördinating conj.).
even though, kai ei.
every, πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν.
evil, κακός, -ή, -όν (bad); πονηρός, -ά, -όν (πονηρός, -οῦ, ὁ, the
evil one).
fail, ékλeπw (leave out; eclipse, LS.).
faith, πiotis, -ews, ǹ (fidelity, loyalty, Gal. 5:22; Titus 2:10).
fall, πίπτω.
farthest, see Man. on Adverbs.
father, πατήρ, πατρός, ὁ.
8.
fear, póßos, -ov, ò; evλáßeia, -as, ǹ, reverence, pious fear.
feast, deĭπvov, -ov, tó supper, doxʼn, -ñs, ǹ banquet.
μετοχή,
fellowship, μETOXʼn, -ñs, ǹ (sharing, Vulg. participatio);
koɩvwvia, -as, ǹ, communion, partnership.
field, ἀγρός, -οῦ, ὁ (χωρίον of papyri, MM).
finally, τὸ λοιπόν.
==
first, πρῶτος, -η, -ον; adv. πρώτον, πρώτως; τὸ πρῶτον = at
first.
fisherman, åλeeús, -ews, ô (T. WH. N.) =ảλieús, ews, d,
(T. R. cl.).
five, tévte, oi, ai, tá (indeclinable).
for, yáp (causal conjunction).
for (prep), diá w. acc., for the sake of; iπép w. abl., for the
sake of; "for" is a meaning of the dat. without any
prep.; ȧvri w. abl. in the sense of "instead of"; eis, into,
may acquire the resultant mng. "for" after vbs. of
340
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
'ethical direction (one's advantage or disadvantage)'
or “of purpose” (Th.).
""
""
forget, to, ἐπιλανθάνομαι, 2 2. ἐπελαθόμην.
forgive, to, ἀφίημι, f. ἀφήσω, 1 a. ἀφῆκα, pf. ἀφεῖκα, a. ps.
ἀφέθην.
forsake, καταλείπω, f. καταλείψω, 2 a. κατέλιπον, 1 a.
κατέλειψα.
friendly, see Man. on Adverbs.
from, ἀπό, off, away from (L. a, ab, abs; Ger. von., ab, weg); ἐκ
(ἐξ) out of (abl.) (L. e, ex); παρά, from beside (Man., Th.)
fruit, καρπός, -οῦ, ὁ.
Gaius, Γάϊος, -ου, ὁ (so Nestle uniformly; WH in 3 Jn. 1,
but elsewhere Γαῖος).
garment, ἱμάτιον, -ου, τό, cloak, mantle; χιτών, -ῶνος, ὁ,
tunic, (under) garment, coat.
gift, δῶρον, -ου, τό, present; δωρεά, -ᾶς, ἡ (free) gift.
give, δίδωμι, f. δώσω, 1 a. ἔδωκα, pf. δέδωκα, 1 a. ps. ἐδόθην.
glory, δόξα, -ης, ἡ.
go, πορεύομαι, proceed, advance; ἔρχομαι, go, come; ἄγομαι,
lead one's self, proceed; -βαίνω, go, walk.
go away, ἀπέρχομαι.
go down, καταβαίνω.
God, θεός, -οῦ, ὁ
good, ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν (in inner nature); καλός, beautiful (out-
wardly); δίκαιος, -α, -ον, right.
gospel, εὐαγγέλιον, -ου, τό (good news).
grace, χάρις, χάριτος, ἡ; εὐπρέπεια, -ας, ή, beauty, comeliness.
great, μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα.
Greek, n., Ελλην, -ηνος, δ; adj. ‘Ελληνικός, -ή, -όν, Grecian.
grieve, to, λυπέω.
guide, ὁδηγέω.
have, ἔχω, impf. εἶχον; durative. f. ἕξω; punctiliar f. σχήσω;
2 a. ἔσχον; pf. ἔσχηκα.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
341
he, expressed by vb. endings; emph. "he," autós, ń, óv.
heal, ἰάομαι, f. ἰάσομαι, 1 aἰασάμην; pf. ἴαμαι, 1 a. ps.
ἰάθην; θεραπεύω, cure.
hear, ἀκούω.
heart, kapdía, -as, ǹ.
heaven, oúpavós, -oũ, ò (never used in pl. in cl. Gr. (LS)).
Herod, 'Hpwons, -ov, d.
himself, αὐτός, -ή, ό.
his, avtoũ; ídios, -a, ov, his own.
αὐτοῦ; ἴδιος,
holy, ayios, -a, -ov; iepós, -á, -óv, sacred; öocos, -a, -ov, pious.
hope, ἐλπίς, ίδος, ή.
house, oikia, -as, ǹ (the dwelling); oikos, -ov, ò, house(hold),
οἰκητήριον, -ου, τό, habitation.
how? πws (interrogative adv.); öπws (adv. of manner).
I, indicated by vb. end'g; emphatic I, éyw.
idle, ȧpyós, -ń, óv (inactive) ẞpadús, -eĩa, -ú, slack, slow;
vwlpós, -á, -óv, slothful, sluggish.
idle, to be, ȧpyéw.
if, ei (also "whether," usually w. ind.); éáv (w. subj. or
fut. ind.).
in, ¿v w. loc. only; eis w. acc., into.
in fact, καὶ γάρ (etenim, namque, for truly), καί, γάρ, δέ, ἀλλά
(Man)
in order that, iva.
indeed, µév, dé, ovv, yáp, all postpositive particles (Man.).
inform, katŋxéw, instruct; èµßavičw, manifest, exhibit.
inquire, πvv¤ávoµai; (ŋréw, seek (for); épwráw, ask (for).
instruct, κατηχέω, 1 a. κατηχήσα; παιδεύω, teach, correct.
into, eis, always w. acc.
is, be, am, eiµí, vivoµai (yiyvoμaι, Att.), begin to be.
jailer (jailor), deoµoyúλağ, -akos, ¿.
James, 'Iáκwẞos, -ov, ò; cf. 'Iakß, ò (indeclinable), Jacob,
Isaac's son.
342
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Jerusalem, Ἱεροσόλυμα, -ων, τά (N., Th., G.); Ἱερουσαλήμ
(Th., N., G.), n
Jesus, 'Inσous, -oũ, ò.
ὁ
Jew, 'Iovdatos, -ov, ò (subst. of 'Iovdaños, -a, -ov, Jewish).
John, 'Iwávns, -ov, ò.
Jordan, 'Iopdávns, -ov, d.
journey (n.), òdós, -oũ, ǹ, way, road; journeying, ¿doɩπopía, -as,
Ĥ.
journey, to, odeúw, travel; πopevομaι, go, pass; ¿doɩπopéw, go
on a journey.
joy, xapá, -ãs, ǹ.
Judas, 'Ioúdas, gen. abl. -a, l. i. d. -a, acc. -av, ò.
keep, Tηpéw (referring to the result); quλáoow, guard
(refers to the means).
kill, ἀποκτείνω.
king, βασιλεύς, -έως, ὁ
kingdom, Baoiλeia, -as, ǹ (cf. Baoiλeia, n, queen (LS), royal
palace (LXX)).
lamb, duvs, -o, ô (used 4 t. of Christ); apviov, -OU, TỎI
(little) lamb (used only in Jn. 21:15 and Rev.).
Law, νόμος, -ου, ὁ.
least, éλáxiσTOS, -n, -ov (smallest: superlative fr. λaxús).
leave, λείπω.
leper, λεπρός, -οῦ, ὁ.
let, éáw (allow, permit); àpinu, omit, let go, let be.
life, Śwń, -ñs, ǹ; ßíos, -ov, ô; ßios is naturally (classically)
used of men, but NT usage exalts the feminine word
Swn, and so tends to debase the masculine word Bios
(G.). "Jwn is the nobler word" (Trench. NT Syn. 90).
live, Jaw (really live, from Swn above); ẞiów, exist (“live . .
in flesh," 1 Pt. 4:2).
lodge, pass the night (in open), avλiçoμai; entertain
strangers, ξενίζω.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
343
lord, sir, kúpɩos, -ov, 8.
love (noun), åyɣáπη, -îs, ǹ, esteem plus the expression of it.
love, åyañáw (voluntary, rational); piλéw (emotional).
Luke, Aovκãs, Aovкã, ò (declined like ẞoppãs, -ã, -ó).
Macedonia, Maкedovia, -as, ǹ.
make, create, cause to be, do, rotéw; make war, πоλeμéw.
man (male or female, L. homo, human being), ävlρwños, ov,
¿. ȧvýp, ȧvôpós, ò, man (in the sense of male, husband,
gentleman, L. vir, hero).
many, use the plural of πολύς, πολλή, πολύ.
master, ἐπιστάτης, -ου, ¿ (superintendent, overseer);
δεσπότης, -ου, ὁ, lord.
may, as Engl. auxiliary, Gr. subj. or ind.; ioxów, be strong;
eğeσTɩ, is permitted.
message, åɣyeλía, -as, ǹ; ẻπayyeλía, -as, ǹ, promise, an-
nouncement.
ὁ
Messiah, Meorías, -ov, ò (only in Jn: 1:41 and 4:25).
mighty, κραταιός, -ά, -όν; δυνατός, -ή, -όν, powerful; ἰσχυρός,
-á, -óv, strong.
ministry, diakovía, −as, ǹ; λeɩtovpyia, -as, ǹ, public religious
and social service.
most, see Man. on Adverbs.
multitude, πλñlos, -ovs, tó; öxλos, -ov, å, crowd, throng,
mixed multitude, common people.
must (it is necessary), de, is meet morally; xp, meet cir-
cumstantially (both are impersonal vbs. followed by inf).
my (adj.), ¿µós, -ʼn, -óv (my own, mine); ẻµoũ (emphatic);
μoũ (unemph.), my, mine.
name, ὄνομα, ὀνόματος, τό.
nation, ἔθνος, ἔθνους, τό; γένος, γένους, τό, race.
near, ἐγγύς.
near (at), by, πpós w. loc. (w. acc., toward, to; w. abl. for).
344
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
necessary, is (Gr. idiom for Eng. "must"), de indicates
divine obligation; and xon indicates circumstantial
necessity (followed by inf.).
never, οὐδέποτε, μηδέποτε (οὐ μὴ πώποτε, Jn. 6:35; οὐ μὴ
εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα, Jn. 10:28).
night, vúč, vUktós, ǹ (Ger. Nacht, L. nox, noctis, fem.).
no one, none, οὐδείς, μηδείς.
not, oẻ (with ind. only, denies positively; negates a single
word). Written où before consonants; ok before a
smooth breathing; oux before rough breathing; written
ou only when final (end of clauses) or emphatic. un (w.
subj., opt., inf., impv., ptc. and sts. ind. conditions and
when denial is a matter of thought, not fact; G. §401).
Indicates a hesitating denial, or "according to the
judgment, opinion, will, purpose, preference, of some
one," in distinction from où; which "denies the thing
itself (simply, absolutely, directly, categorically, objec-
tively)."
O (as sign of Voc.), &, 2 Cor. 12:21, Rom. 11:33.
oath, pledge, öρкos, -ov, å (òρkwμоσía, -as, ǹ, taking an oath).
obey, ὑπακούω; πειθαρχέω, obey God (rulers), 1 a. πειθήρ-
χησα.
of, denoted in Gr. by gen.; when denoting source or separa-
tion by ek (e) w. abl.
officer, Synag. or Sanh., attendant, væηPÉTNS, -OV, 8; TPÁкTwp,
-opos, ¿, court officer.
olive (tree and fruit), ¿λaía, -as, ǹ.
on, upon, ẻπi, w. gen., loc., and acc. in sense of onto (on,
i.e., in, év w. loc).
on account of, dɩá, w. acc.
one, eis, µía, ev; one
ὅς μὲν .
ὅς δέ; μόνος, μόνη, μόνον, alone.
ordain, διατάσσω, ὁρίζω.
our, ἡμέτερος, -α, -ον; ἡμῶν.
,
•
another, ὁ μὲν . . . ὁ δέ,
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
345
out of, ἐκ (ἐξ), w. abl. only, from within, out of; ἀπό, w. abl.,
away from (exterior).
part (vb.), διαμερίζω, 1 a. διεμέρισα.
Passover, πάσχα (indecl.), τό.
Paul, Παῦλος, -ου, ὁ.
people, λαός, -οῦ, ὁ.
persecute, διώκω.
Peter, Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ.
Pharisee, Φαρισαῖος, -ου, ὁ.
Philippi, Φίλιπποι, -ων, οἱ.
oi.
plain, δῆλος, -η, -ον, evident; φανερός, -ά, -όν, visible.
play, παίζω (1 Cor. 10:7, quoted from the Septuagint).
please, ἀρέσκω, f. ἀρέσω, 1 a. ἤρεσα; used w. dat.
plot against, ἐπιβουλεύω.
poor, πτωχός, -ή, -όν (beggar); πένης, -ητος, ὁ (penniless
worker, 2 Cor. 9:9).
praise (noun), ἔπαινος, -ου, ὁ; (vb.), αἰνέω (w. dat. and acc. of
person).
pray, προσεύχομαι, 1 a. προσηυξάμην.
prayer, προσευχῆ, -ῆς, ἡ.
preach, proclaim, κηρύσσω, 1 2. ἐκήρυξα, pf. κεκήρυχα.
preach the gospel, εὐαγγελίζομαι, 1 2., εὐηγγελισάμην.
preaching, κήρυγμα, -τος, τό (proclamation, MM. announce-
ment).
present, to (vb.), παρίστημι, -ιστάνω.
priest, ἱερεύς, -έως, ὁ.
prophet, προφήτης, -ου, ὁ.
providence, πρόνοια, -ας, ἡ.
publican, τελώνης, -ου, ὁ (tax collector).
pure, καθαρός, -ά, -όν (clean, free); ἁγνός, -ή, -όν (holy).
question, ζήτημα, -ατος, τό (inquiry); ζήτησις, -εως, ἡ
(questioning).
quickly, ταχέως, ταχύ. (See Man. on Adv. for superlative.)
346
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
really, övтws (actually); yáp (for); dʼn (indeed); -πeρ (indeed);
äpa (then, therefore).
rebuke, éπITIμáw (award a penalty).
receive, δέχομαι; ἀποδέχομαι, accept; παραλαμβάνω, or
λaµßávw, take, receive.
redeem, λυτρόω.
redeemer, λυτρωτής, -οῦ, ὁ.
rejoice, χαίρω, f. χαρήσομαι (punct. stem for earlier χαι-
pnow) w. instr.
ρήσω)
remain, (έπι) μένω, abide (stay), f. (ἐπι) μενῶ;1 a. (ἐπ) έμεινα.
repent, μetavoéw (change of mind, purpose, life); µetaµéλoµaι
(change of feeling).
return, πоσтρέow (turn back); άπodídwμ (give back, re-
turn, render).
revelation, ἀποκάλυψις, -εως, ἡ.
righteous, just, evdikos, -ov; diкalos, -a, -ov, just.
righteousness, δικαιοσύνη, -ης, ἡ.
river, ποταμός, -οῦ, ὁ.
run, Tρéxw (cf. Engl. trek), 2 a. ëdpaµov (fr. obs. Spáµw).
sabbath, σάββατα, -ων, τά; σάββατον, -ου, τό.
saint, ayos, -ov, ò (subts. fr. ayios, -a, -ov, holy).
salute, to, άσπάçoμaι (greet, bid farewell), 1 a. ňoπaσáµŋv.
salvation, σωτηρία, -ας, ἡ; σωτήριον, -ου, τό.
same, (adj.), very, self, he, she, it, avтós, -ý, -ó.
Savior, σωτήρ, σωτῆρος, ὁ.
save, σώζω.
say, onui (declare); Aéyw, say, speak, tell; λaλéw, speak
out (in cl. Gr., chat, babble, prattle).
scribe, γραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ.
!
sea, θάλασσα, -ης, ή; πέλαγος, -ους, τό, high sea, deep.
see, to, ὁράω, f. ὄψομαι, 2 a. εἶδον, Alexandrian 2 a. εἶδα (fr.
obs. pres. elow); Bλéπw, physically look, behold.
seem, seem best (lit. seem good), dokéw; commonly used in
impersonal construction.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
347
seize, ἐπιλαμβάνομαι, 2 a. ἐπελαβόμην; κατέχω, hold back,
possess.
send, πέμπω; ἀποστέλλω.
servant, diákovos, -ov, ô, ǹ, minister; douλos, slave.
serve, δουλεύω.
service, diakovia, -as, n, ministry; Meɩroupyia, -as, n, social
or religious service.
shepherd, ποιμήν, -ένος, ὁ.
should (it is necessary), de w. inf.
silence, to, φιμόω.
sin (noun), åµapría, -as, ǹ; to sin (vb.), åµaprávw, f. åµap-
τήσω, 2 a. ἥμαρτον.
sinful, sinner, åµаρтwλós, -óv.
sing, adw; 1 a. ñoa; þáλλw, sing to a harp, sing psalms;
vuvéw, sing a hymn.
sit, kálnμaι (G. §367 ); (πapa)κałięw, make to sit down, set,
sit.
slay, σφάζω (Attic σφάττω), slaughter; ἀποκτείνω, f. -ενῶ, 1
a. ἀπέκτεινα, 1 a. ps. ἀπεκτάνθην.
so, yé; so that, wore, consequence, result; w. inf. and in NT
twice with the ind.
soldier, στρατιώτης, -ου, ὁ.
some (one), rìs, rì (note grave accent, indicating enclitic
and distinguishing this word, an indefinite pronoun,[fr.
the interrog. TIS, Tí).
ἄλλοι.
some, others, äλλol
son, viós, -oũ, ò.
soul, ψυχή, -ῆς, ἡ.
·
speak, λaλéw, speak out, talk, chat, babble, prattle; Aéyw,
consecutive expression.
spirit, πveũμa, -TOS, TÓ (wind, Jn. 3:8; breath, 2 Th. 2:8,
Rev. 11:1).
Stephen, Στέφανος, -ου, ὁ.
stone, to, λιθάζω.
348
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
- H
stop, opȧoow (fence in); πaúw (in mid., cease).
submit, ὑπείκω (yield); ὑποτάσσω (subject); ὑποτίθημι, lay
down; submit.
suffer, πάσχω, f. πείσομαι, 2 a. ἔπαθον.
take, λaµßávw; aipéw, grasp, choose (in NT only mid.,
αἱρέομαι).
take counsel, συμβουλεύομαι.
teach, didáσkw (Taideów, correct, teach; karηxéw, instruct.)
teacher, διδάσκαλος, -ου, ὁ.
temple, ἱερόν, -οῦ, τό; ναός, -οῦ, ὁ, sanctuary.
teaching, διδαχή, -ῆς, ἡ.
thanksgiving, evxapɩoría, -as, ǹ.
that, ékeivos, -n, -o, that one (demonstr.); ös, i, o, who, which
(rel.); iva, conj. followed by subj. of purpose; ÖTL
(expletive.)
the, ὁ, ἡ, τό.
therefore, äpa, accordingly; differs from ovv, then, in “denot-
ing subjective impression, rather than a positive con-
clusion"; äpa ovv, so then; Toɩyapov, wherefore then;
Toívov, accordingly.
this (one), οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο.
thither, ἐκεῖσε.
thou, σú.
though, Kaiπep; èàv кal, if even (see "even though").
three, τρεῖς, τρία.
throne, Opóvos, -ov, ò ("official seat, chair of state"-MM).
through, diá, w. gen. (mediate agent).
thus, ovтws (186 times, WH), oùтw (10, WH, all before con-
sonants).
thine, σός, σή, σόν.
Titus, Τίτος, -ου, ὁ.
**
to, dat. without prep., acc. w. πρós, toward; eis, into (acc.
only), Tapá w. acc.
together, åμa.
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
349
Troas, Tpwás, -ádos, ǹ.
trouble, τάραχος, -ου, ὁ.
true, åλŋ¤ýs, -és (truthful, L. verax); åλnlɩvós, -ʼn, -óv, real,
genuine (Eng. adjective "very").
trust, miσrew, have faith in, believe, entrust; w. dat.
truth, ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ.
twelve, dwdeka, oi, ai, rá (indecl. numeral).
under, vπó w. acc.
understand, συνίημι, f. συνήσω, 1 a. συνῆκα.
until, till, ëws.
unto, until, ews (prep. w. gen, R. 643), as far as (place and
time); πpós, to, toward.
upon, ẻπi, w. gen., loc., and acc.
uproar, θόρυβος, -ου, ὁ.
-ov,
vain, μάταιος, -α, -ον; κενός, -ή, όν, empty.
vision, öpaµa, -тOS, тó, sight, оπтаσía, -as, ǹ, act of exhibit-
ing; opaσis, -ews, ǹ, seeing.
wait, ἐκδέχομαι; περιμένω, wait for, await.
want, voreρéw (be in want, lack); 0λw, wish, will.
war, πόλεμος, -ου, ὁ.
way, road, òdós, -oũ, ò, journey; πápodos, -ov, ǹ; πopeía, -as,
ǹ, journey, going.
we, ἡμεῖς.
weak, åσlevýs, -és, infirm, feeble; ádúvaros, -ov, impossible.
what? ris; ri (simple interrogative pron.), preserves its
acute unchanged to distinguish it from indefinite pron.,
rìs, rì, any one, an enclitic.
what? of what kind? πot̃os, πoía, πoĩov (inter. pron. of qual-
ity; L. qualis).
what kind of? ôπоτοs, оπτоĩα, дπоtov (indefinite rel. pron.; L.
qualis, what sort of).
wheat, σīros, -ov, ò.
350
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
whenever, öтav (öтe + äv) (Ger. dann wann, wann irgend);
víka av, whensoever.
wherefore, dió.
while, until, ews.
who, which, ös, †, ö.
who? Tis; which? what? Tí; (inter. pron.).
wilderness, desert, epnuos, -ov, ǹ.
wilderness, waste place, épnuía, -as, ǹ.
win, gain, kepdaivw.
with, instr. case without prep. or associational instr. w. σúv.
without, avev (opp. to σúv) w. abl.; ärep, without, apart
from; xwpis, apart from.
woman, γυνή, γυναικός, ἡ (wife).
word, λóyos, -ov, ò (word, reason, sermo, ratio) ¿ñµa, ¡ýµaтos,
Tó, word, speech.
work, épyov, -ov, Tó. ¿pyaσía, -as, ǹ, work, working, busi-
ness.
work, to, ἐργάζομαι.
world, κόσμος, -ου, ὁ; οἰκουμένη, -ης, ή, inhabited land.
worthy, ἄξιος, ἀξία, ἄξιον.
write, γράφω.
wrong, to, to do wrong, ådɩkéw.
yea, vai.
year, ἔτος, ἔτους, τό.
yield, ὑπείκω.
you, sg. σũ, thou; pl. vµes, ye; or second per. pl. vb. endings.
zeal, ζῆλος, -ου, ὁ.
INDEX
Topic
Ablative case.
Accent..
acute.
circumflex.
importance of.
length of syllable in.
methods of..
principles of...
Accusative case.
Active voice.
Adjective..
agreement of.
declension of.
•
forms of comparison.
function of..
comparison of.
formation of..
nature of...
scope of..
Alphabet.
Aorist tense.
Article...
origin of………..
syntax of comparison.
Adverb...
absence of...
declension of.
function of.
•
•
•
origin of..
position of..
regular uses of.
special uses of.
Articular infinitive.
Aspiration...
•
·
•
ENGLISH INDEX
Section Topic
91
.35-40
38
39
35
37
40
36
96
153
127-132
129
51
52
130
128
132
• •
• •
•
•
•
•
204-208
208
207
205
206
23
179-181
144-150
•
149
50
146
145
150
147
148
191,192
33
Breathings...
353
Cases..
analysis of..
relation to
forms...
Causal clauses.
coördinate...
subordinate.
•
general character of.
moods in...
inflectional
Celtic branch of language....
Classification of languages...
Clauses..
Section
32
•
•
..79-96
79-82
43
254-256
255
256
structural relation of...247-248
Commands and Prohibitions
•
constructions in..
irregular forms of……….
in the aorist tense...
in the future tense..
in the present tense..
Comparative clauses.....257-259
moods used in.
9
2
243-290
245
246
particles used in.
Comparative philology...
Concession, participle used to
express.
Concessive clauses..
character of…….
classification of...
Conditional clauses...
character of..
286-290
288
287
289
259
258
1
279
277-279
277
278
.271-276
271
275
276
354
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Topic
Conjugation.
high development of, in
Contract verbs..
Contraction...
Crasis....
Greek....
Conjunctions.
Connecting vowels..
Consonants and vowels, dis-
tinction between.
Dative case..
Declension...
definition of.
divisions of...
First...
relation to case.
Second...
Third..
Elision..
· •
•
•
•
•
• · • •
Demonstrative pronouns.
Diphthongs.....
•
D
Section
57-71
57
.209-223
.64,69
•
Future tense..
Gender in substantives....
Genitive case.
+
•
•
•
..92,93
41-56
•
•
24
60
34
28
•
41
46
47
42
48
49
136
25
27
178
significance of.
uses of....
Greek branch of language, the
Greek language, history of....
modern, relation to New
Testament....
of the New Testament....16,17
unity of...
45
..85-90
.85-89
90
5
14
18
15
History of the grammar of
the Greek N. T... ... Preface
Imperfect tense.
..175-177
Topic
Imperative mood...
Indefinite pronouns.
Indian branch of language,
the....
Indicative mood.
Indirect discourse.
types of...
verb forms in.
•
articular..
history of.
origin of...
•
• • •
•
Indo-European languages...
Infinitive..
•
substantive uses of...
terminations of...
uses of...
•
Locative case.
•
·
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
verbal uses of...
Inscriptions.
Instrumental case
Intensive pronoun.
Interrogative pronoun..
Iranian branch of language,
+
Section
165
143
.283-285
• • ·
•
•
the..
Irregular verbs.
Italic branch of language, the
.187-195
191,192
189-190
•
Language, definition of......
Robertson's classification of
Language study, modern
method of..
Languages, classification of..
Local clauses.
moods used in.
particles used in...
•
4
162
193-195
194
18(4)
95
137
142
Koiné, literary witnesses to 18,19
types of..
20
285
284
3
188
195
71
10
59
6
75
13
1
2
.260-262
262
261
94
Middle voice.
154
Monosyllabic languages..... 12
THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
355
Topic
Mood.....
Movable consonants.
New Testament Greek, ele-
ments in...
Nominative case.
Number in substantives..
Optative mood...
Orthography..
Papyri..
Participle.
· •
verbs...
Numerals, declension of.....
adjectival. . .
adverbial.
classification of.
· •
compared with inf..
declension of………
•
origin and nature of..
periphrastic use of...
tense of.....
terminations of.
Passive voice..
Perfect tense.
Personal pronouns.
Person in verbs.
•
•
•
•
significance of.
Present tense..
Pluperfect tense..
Possessive pronouns.
Prepositional phrases.
Prepositions
function of.
origin of....
• •
►
•
• •
Section
160-165
.29-31
Particles...
.224-242
emphatic or intensive..... 226
negative....
239
157
•
•
·
•
•
..18(3)
.196-203
•
164
22-40
·
•
•
•
21
83
44
159
56
•
•
182-184
200
201
199
198
54
197
203
202
71
•
134
159
185
139
123
..97-126
101
.98-100
102-104
172-174
Topic
Prohibition, aorist subjunc-
tive and present im-
perative in, compared .. 290
Pronouns..
.133-143
declension of...
Reciprocal pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns.
Regular verbs...
Relative, nature of.
uses of ...
Relative clauses.
indicative in.
subjunctive in.
Relative pronouns.
Result clauses..
53
Proper names, declension of.. 55
Purpose clauses.
.266-268
character of.
constructions in.
constructions in.
definition of.
•
·
5818-2
the noun in.
the verb in..
• •
·
•
Semitic family of language,
the.....
Slavic branch of language, the
Spelling.
Subjunctive mood..
Substantival clauses.
constructions in.
definition of.
moods in..
•
Section
•
·
•
141
140
58
250
251
249-253
252
253
135
•
267
268
.269-270
270
. 267
Syntax, definition of...
distinguished from acci-
dence...
fundamental elements of...
importance of a proper ap-
prehension of..
11
8
26
163
.280-282
281
280
282
74
72
76
73
77
78
•
356
A MANUAL GRAMMAR
Topic
Temporal clauses.
character of .
constructions in
Tense..
analysis of..
elements in.
Tense stem...
interpretation of.
ἀλλά..
ἀμήν.
äv.
ává.
ἀντί.
ἀπό
classification of…….
formation of....
•
ἄρα..
γάρ.
γέ...
δέ.
δή..
διά.
dió..
ἐάν.
ei.
εἰ μήν...
εἰς ...
ἐκ ..
•
•
ἐν..
ἐπεί.
ἐπί...
• •
•
ň...n.
ἵνα,..
肇
​Section
263-266
•
•
·
•
•
166-186
•
•
264
265
167-170
186
63, 66
68
67
•
171
•
Topic
Section
Transitiveness in verbs..………. 151
Teutonic branch of language,
the..
GREEK INDEX
Section
211
227
228
105
106
108
212
213
229
214
230
109
παρά..
215
πέρ.
216
περί..
217 ποτέ.
231
πού..
111 πρό.
110
112
218
113
219 ὑπέρ.
220
Verbs of -μl conjugation.....
Verb stem..
Verbal suffixes.
Vocative case.
Voice...
irregularities in.
καί .
κατά
μέν.
μετά.
μή.
ναί...
•
•
νή
ὅτι.
οὐ..
οὐ μή.
οὖν..
•
•
•
πρός ..
πώς.
σύν..
TOL..
ὑπό....
•
•
•
•
·
7
61
62
65, 70
84
.152-158
158
Section
224
111
232
115
241
234
233
222
240
242
223
116
235
117
236
237
118
119
237
120
238
121
122

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