·
FRANCIS W. KELSEY
826 TAPPAN ST.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN
ARTES
1817
SCIENTIA
LIBRARY
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
FLURIDITS UNUM
TUEBOR
SI-QUÆRIS-PENINSULAM-AMŒNAME
CIRCUMSPIGE
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN LIBRARIES
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY;
OR,
THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN ART
IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
BY THE LATE
ADOLPHE NAPOLÉON DIDRON.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY E. J. MILLINGTON, AND COMPLETED
WITH ADDITIONS AND APPENDICES
BY
MARGARET STOKES.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
THE TRINITY: ANGELS: DEVILS: DEATH: THE SOUL: THE CHRISTIAN SCHEME:
C
APPENDICES.
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.
LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET,
COVENT GARDEN.
1886.
N
7832
·D565
U.2
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
03-12 - 8 V.A.
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
PAGE
THE TRINITY
HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY
DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS
1
1
6
MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY
13
·
WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY
28
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
34
ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY
63
ICONOGRAPHY OF ANGELS
85
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEVILS
109
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEATH
153
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL
173
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHEME
188
MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS IN THE SPECULUM HUMANÆ SALVATIONIS 211
INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA ON ICONOGRAPHY
MEDIEVAL ART AND THE ANTIQUE
APPENDIX I.: ADDITIONAL NOTES.
APPENDIX II.: BYZANTINE GUIDE TO PAINTING
APPENDIX III.: TEXT OF THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM
•
DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLS. I. AND II.
INDEX
•
233
244
255
265
403
431
440
·
Archacalost (ved whit,
Elise
3-11-38
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOL. II.
PAGE
AN ANGEL ASSISTING THE CREATOR
THE TRINITY IN COMBAT WITH BEHEMOTH AND LEVIATHAN
THE TRINITY AT THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
THE TRINITY OF EVIL.
THE TRINITY OF ABSOLUTE EVIL
•
FIGURE OF TIME WITH THREE FACES
14
17
19
22
23
25
•
THE TRINITY IN THREE HUMAN PERSONS OF IDENTICAL FIGURE
THE THREE DIVINE PERSONS FUSED ONE INTO THE OTHER
THE TRINITY UNDER THE FORM OF THREE CIRCLES.
42
44
46
THE DIVINE TRIPLICITY, CONTAINED WITHIN THE UNITY .
THE THREE FACES OF THE TRINITY ON ONE SINGLE HEAD AND
ONE SINGLE BODY
51
•
53
THE THREE DIVINE FACES WITH TWO EYES AND ONE SINGLE.
BODY
57
•
THE DIVINE PERSONS DISTINCT
THE HOLY GHOST DESCENDING FROM THE FATHER UPON THE SON
THE HOLY GHOST PROCEEDING FROM THE FATHER AND THE SON,
64
69
•
AND RE-ASCENDING FROM THE SON TO THE FATHER
THE HOLY GHOST, NOT PROCEEDING EITHER FROM THE Father
OR THE SON
THE THREE DIVINE HEADS WITHIN A SINGLE TRIANGLE
THE TRINITY IN ONE GOD SUPPORTING THE WORLD.
THE TRINITY IN ONE SINGLE GOD HOLDING THE BALANCES AND
THE COMPASSES
70
72
73
•
76
78
THE TRINITY IN HUMAN FORM WITH CRUCIFORM NIMBUS AND
AUREOLE OF FLAME
81
SERAPH OF ST. FRANCIS
90
THRONES: FIERY TWO-WINGED WHEELS
91
SCULPTURED ANGEL, CHARTRES, THIRTEENTH CENTURY
92
•
ANGELS (PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA).
93
ANGEL WITHOUT FEET OR LEGS
94
ANGEL OF THE ASCENSION
95
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
SIX-WINGED ANGEL HOLDING LANCE, WINGS CROSSED ON BREAST,
ARRAYED IN ROBE AND MANTLE
ANGELS FROM CATHEDRAL OF CHARTRES .
ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST.
LUCIFER BEFORE THE FALL
FALL OF LUCIFER.
FOUR-HEADED DEMON
PERSONIFICATION OF RIVER
FIRE DEMON.
SATAN IN MISSAL OF POITIERS
DEVIL IN CAMPO SANTO, PISA
PERSIAN DEVIL
EGYPTIAN DEVIL
TURKISH DEVIL
•
SATAN WITH SERPENT HORNS.
THE ABYSS
•
CHRIST TEMPTED
TEMPTATION OF ST. PAPHNUTIUS
ST. JULIANA AND THE DEVIL.
DEMONS ON THE TOMB OF DAGOBERT
CHARTRES: THE DEMON IN MAN
THE DEMON AS SATYR
•
BEAST WITH SEVEN HEADS
THE DEVIL AS SERPENT
THE TEMPTATION OF ADAM AND EVE
VAMPIRE, CAMPO SANTO, PISA
DEMON ON THE CASQUE OF GOLIATH
DIABOLISM, HUMOROUS FIGURES OF.
EXORCISM
SEAL OF LUCIFER
WRITING OF ASMODEUS
•
IMPIETY: AMIENS CATHEDRAL
COVETOUSNESS: AMIENS CATHEDRAL
THANATOS
TRIUMPH OF DEATH
DEATH AS A WOMAN
DEATH AS A DEMON
WICKED SOUL CAST INTO HELL
SATAN OF JOB, CAMPO SANTO, PISA
THE LADDER OF THE SOUL
·
DEATH AS A CROWNED SKELETON ON TOMB
DEATH AS ECCE HOMO .
DEATH AND THE FOOL
•
•
•
•
PAGE
97
100, 101, 102
108
109
111, 112
113
115
•
117
•
119
120
122
123
•
124
•
125
•
127
128
129
•
130
131
133
•
134
137
•
139
140
141
142
•
143, 144
145
147
148
149
•
150
154
156, 160, 161
158, 159
162
164
165
167
169
•
169
•
170
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
vii
THE DANCE OF DEATH.
DEATH AS A SKELETON.
•
PSYCHE IN DESPAIR, SEATED ON A ROCK AND BEWAILING THE
FLIGHT OF CUPID
•
THE BUTTERFLY AND THE SOUL
•
PAGE
171
•
172
174
•
175, 176
MARTYRDOM OF ST. STEPHEN: SCULPTURE ON PORCH OF ST.
TROPHIMUS AT ARLES
SOUL BORNE TO HEAVEN BY ANGELS
•
177
178
WEIGHING OF SOULS IN THE BALANCE
179, 180
HERMES LIFTING THE SOUL FROM THE SHADES
181
HERMES LEADING A SOUL TO CHARON
181
ST. MICHAEL AND THE DRAGON
182, 184, 185
ADORATION OF THE CROSS
DESCENT OF CHRIST INTO HELL
196
198
SAMSON AND THE LION .
198
DAVID SLAYING GOLIATH
198
CHRIST AND THE HUMAN-HEADED SERPENT
201
HERCULES AND THE HUMAN-HEADED HYDRA
202
DANIEL AMONG LIONS; HABBAKKUK AND THE ANGEL
210
THE LEGEND OF THE OSTRICH
215
THE SOULS OF THE MARTYRS DIONYSIUS, RUSTICUS, AND ELEU-
THERIUS APPEAR AS DOVES
239
BAS-RELIEF AT NOTRE DAME, PARIS
241
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
THE TRINITY.
THE three Divine Persons are merged in one single God,
just as the three images representing them combine to form
one single group. The doctrines of our holy faith, and the
works of art Theology and Iconography-walk hand in
hand, the one in describing, the other in pourtraying the
Trinity. The three Persons have hitherto been each con-
sidered separately. It now remains only to exhibit them
grouped together, united between themselves, and represented-
as Trinities.
HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY.
The doctrine of the Trinity, which had been almost
entirely unknown to the Pagans, and but imperfectly revealed
to the Jewish race, was made clearly and completely manifest
from the very earliest origin of Christianity. It unfolded
itself in all its extent, and with all the various and import-
ant results connected with it, during the successive centuries
of the Christian era, and conformably with them. Consider-
able research and enquiry has been made as to the ideas
entertained by Pagans on the subject of the Trinity, and the
amount of knowledge possessed by them of the unity of
the divine essence, and the triplicity of persons, or hypo-
stases. Plato appears to have foreseen the Christian doc-
trine, but only as objects perceived at a distance, which the
eye can scarcely reach, or seizes but imperfectly. The doctrine
attributed to that Greek philosopher, and which seems
rather to be deducible from his general theory, than openly
VOL. IL
B
2
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
avowed by himself, is that the divine triplicity ought to be
called Goodness, Intelligence, and the Soul or cause of
all things.*
The Platonists, and the philosophers of the school of
Alexandria in particular, delighted in scrutinising, eluci-
dating, filling up, and amplifying beyond measure, the idea
of the master. Plotinus and Longinus, who are followed by
Jamblichus and Porphyry, admit one single God in three
persons; but Numerius insists upon three Gods. Numerius
acknowledges the Father, the Creator, and the World.† He
seems to make of each of these three Gods a trinity of
Idealism, Intelligence, and Power. Amelius and Theodore
also discover three Trinities in that of Plato, and pretend
that there are three Goodnesses, three Intelligences, three
Souls. Seneca seems to approximate to the doctrine of
Christianity in a curious passage of his writings, in which he
names, as primal cause of every event, first-God, who can
do all things; next-incorporeal Reason, by which the greatest
works are performed; lastly-the Divine Spirit circulating
throughout everything. To these three moving causes he
adds Fatality or Destiny, that is to say, the reciprocal union
of these causes and their mutual combination.§
Comparing this text with what Greek mythology teaches
in reference to the three great divinities, who, the offspring
of one common Father, are the supreme heads of the world

¿
* “Τὸ εὖ, ὁ νοῦς, οι, ὁ λόγος, ἡ ψυχή.” See the Etudes sur la Théodicée de
Platon et d'Aristote, par M. Jules Simon, pp. 148, 151, 175. In the Greek
paintings of Mount Athos, the philosopher Plato is constantly represented
amongst the number of those Pagans who had a knowledge, although imperfect,
of the truth. He is an old man, with a long beard, and appears to be uttering
the following words, which are painted on a rouleau that he holds in his left
hand : "The old is new and the new old, the Father is in the Son, and the
Son is in the Father. The Unity is divided into three, and the Trinity
re-united in one." The language is not literally that of the Greek philosopher,
but it is attributed to him by Byzantine artists as presenting the result of his
doctrine.
† “ Πατήρ, ποιητής, ποίημα.”
See a thesis in M. Jules Simon, entitled Commentaire du Timée de
Platon, par Proclus, p. 105.
§ "Id actum est, mihi crede, ab illo, quisquis formator universi fuit, sive
ille DEUS est, potens omnium; sive incorporalis RATIO, ingentium operum
artifex; sive divinus SPIRITUS, per omnia maxima, minima et æquali inten-
tione diffusus; sive FATUM et immutabilis causarum inter se cohærentium
series.”—Ap. Senecam, De Consolatione ad Helviam, cap. viii.
HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY.
3
which they share between them, it must be confessed that
the doctrine of the Trinity was at least vaguely known to
the Pagans. In fact, amongst the Hindoos, a divine "Tri-
mourti" directs all the phenomena of the Universe.*
Amongst the Greeks, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto reign
upon the three different stages composing the edifice of the
world.
At the summit, in the highest region of the air, hovers
Jupiter, the king of heaven; in the centre Neptune, com-
manding the sea; at the foot, Pluto governs earth and hell,
which form his covering. They are all three sons of one
single parent, of the old Saturn, himself the son of Colus
and Terra. When any Greek deity associates in himself
universal functions, he generally has three different names.
Thus the feminine power, corresponding with the three male
divinities who have just been named, is called in heaven
Luna, Diana on the earth, Hecate or Proserpine in
hell.
The ancients, those more especially who were scholars of
Pythagoras, and scrutators of celestial arithmetic, delighted
to repeat that God regarded with favour an uneven number,
and more particularly the number three. The number three,
which can be divided only by itself, or by the unit, was the
image of God, who can be compared only with himself, that
is to say with the absolute Unity. The Pagans seem to
have imagined that nothing could be complete unless it were
capable of being divided by three, and thus presenting
itself to the mind under a threefold aspect; beauty was
symbolised by the three Graces; life, by the three Fates;
justice by the three Judges; and vengeance by the three
Eumenides. Any combination whatever, in use among the
Greeks, will be found to be divisible into three members;
thus every column has a basement on which the shaft is
fixed, and the shaft again is surmounted by a capital.
The above ideas concerning numbers, and the mysterious
properties of the number three, prevailed during the entire
*The Hindoo "Trimourti" is composed of Brahma, Siva, and Vishnoo.
Brâhma presides over the earth, and is the creative god; Siva is the destructive
god, and reigns over fire; to Vishnoo, the conservative god, belongs the empire
of the water, upon which he moves.-M. Guignaut, Religions de l'Antiquité,
vol. i., c. 2 and 3.
B 2
4
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
course of the middle ages, and even in the present day they
still engage our attention. Geometricians have observed
that no material object can exist, without possessing the
three dimensions, length, breadth, and height. Physiologists
assert life itself to be composed of three particular lives;
intellectual life, the seat of which is in the brain; digestive
life, of which the centre is the stomach; and locomotive life,
which resides in the muscular power. Certain psychologists,
taking possession of the intellectual and cerebral life, which
is the most elevated of the three material existences, divide
it into intelligence properly so called, love, and volition,
whence severally flow, faculties, feelings, and actions. Many
modern philosophers, admitting that division and termi-
nology, declare man to be in himself a little world; a sort of
finite deity, and that the chief attributes of divinity are
wisdom, goodness, and power.* Christianity is the most
complete development, the highest, and at the same time the
most universal of all truths; by it past truths are revealed,
purified, and filtered, if the expression may be allowed; by
it truths that are yet future are prepared. It was fitting,
therefore, that Christianity should proclaim God to be a
Divine Unity in three persons. "Fides Catholica hæc est;
ut unum Deum in Trinitate, et Trinitatem in unitate vene-
remur." “And the Catholic faith is this, that we worship
* To live, to think, to act, are, according to Hindoo metaphysics, the three
modes of the Divine existence. Cambry (Monuments Celtiques, in 8vo. p. 157,)
considers they should be rather to be, to think, and to speak.
Man," says
M. P. Leroux, in his works, "is in his nature and by essence, sensation,
feeling, and intelligence, indivisibly united." This psychological definition of
man reminds us of the Trinity of the St. Simonians, Industry, Science, and
Religion, which have for their aim or object, the union of the useful, the true,
and the good or beautiful. According to M, de la Mennais (Esquisse d'une phi-
losophie), "Man, regarded in an elevated point of view, exhibits the laws of
intelligence, volition and love, closely connected in his being, with the laws of
organism. Man exerts himself in three spheres of activity, united, because
man is one single being; but distinct, because referring to different aims or
objects: Industry, of which the object is the useful; Art, whose aim is beauty
and Science, which has for its object truth. French eclecticism and the
whole range of German philosophy, that of Hegel in particular, hold nearly the
same language. It would be out of place here to pursue further this inventory
of modern philosophy; what has been already said will suffice to prove the
high estimation in which the number three is held even in our own day. We
lean, far more than we are willing to allow, to the doctrines of Pythagoras and
the learned schoolmen of the middle ages.
HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY.
ст
5
:
one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity.* These words.
Dante translates as follows:
"Quell' uno e due e tre che sempre vive,
E regna sempre in tre e due ed uno,
Non circonscritto e tuto circonscrive,
Tre volte era cantato da ciascuno
Di quelli spirti.*
*
Divina Commedia, Paradiso, c. xiv. 1. 28.†
In Jacobus de Voragine, in the legend of the Apostle
St. Thomas, we find a psychological and material justification
of the triplicity resolving itself into unity. This passage,
dating from the earliest period of Christianity, leads from
the exposition of the dogma of the Trinity to the definition
of the Divine persons, and is therefore here given.
t
St. Thomas, on his arrival in India, began to heal the
sick, and to preach the truths of Christianity. "The
Apostle began by instructing them in the twelve degrees of the
virtues; the first of these degrees was the belief in one God,
single in essence, and triple in person. He gave them three
self-evident or palpable examples of the Trinity of persons
in one single substance. The first, that there is in man one
single wisdom, and that from that unity proceed intelligence,
memory, and genius. For genius," says he, "is the power of
discovering what it has never been taught (the creative
faculty); memory, that of not forgetting what has been
learnt; intelligence, that of understanding what may be
shown or taught. The second example is drawn from the
three parts in the vine: the wood, the leaves, and the fruit;
yet all three make but one and the same vine. His third
51
* See the Creed of St. Athanasius. Lactantius, as has been said, compresses
this dogma into the following laconic words, "Deus trinus unus.' The word
"Trinity," which is even more compact, virtually comprehends the entire creed
of St. Athanasius.
Literally rendered by Chaucer-Troilus and Creseide-fifth book,
last stanza.
"Thou one, two, and three, eterne on live,
That raignest aie in three, two, and one,
*
Uncircumscript and all maist circumscrive."
*
Thrice sang each spirit."
This is to be found in the Apocryphal Book, entitled Historia Cer-
taminis Apostolorum; it is attributed to the first Bishop of Babylon, Abdias,
who was contemporary with the Apostles.
6
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
example is, that the head is the seat of four senses; sight,
taste, hearing and smelling; all these things are more than
one, and yet form one single head * only.”
DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.
It will be necessary here to complete what was said in the
chapter on the Holy Ghost, relating to the properties
peculiar to each of the three persons of the Divine Trinity.
It was there observed, that this question had been
pending throughout the entire course of the middle ages.
Confounding the relations of the Divine persons between
themselves, and with their relations towards men, the qualities
of the Holy Ghost were attributed to the Son, those of the
Father, but more particularly those of the Son, to the Spirit.
With regard to ourselves, heaven has been distinguished
from earth; things existent from all eternity have to us
appeared different, in some respects, from those which have
their origin in time. Theology, as may easily be supposed,
is not always commensurate with history. It has conse-
quently been stated, speaking of the Divine persons in their
relation towards men, that the Father has manifested himself
as the source of omnipotence; the Son, as the God of love;
the Spirit, as the fountain of intelligence. Engravings have
been given, in which each of the Divine persons is thus
characterised. But it should be remembered that these
engravings are exceptions; two examples only, out of several
hundred subjects, have as yet come to our knowledge. Love
This third example refers to plurality in general, not to triplicity. The
following quotation is from the Legenda Aurea (De Sancto Thoma, Apos-
tolo :)" Tunc Apostolus cœpit eos docere et duodecim gradus virtutum
assignare. Primus est ut in Deum crederent, qui est unus in essentia et
trinus in personis. Deditque eis triplex exemplum sensibile, quomodo sint in
una essentia tres personæ. Primum est quia una est in homine sapientia, et
de illa una procedit intellectus, memoria et ingenium. Nam ingenium est,
inquit, ut quod non didicisti invenias; memoria, ut non obliviscaris quod
didiceris; intellectus, ut intelligas quæ ostendi possunt vel doceri. Secundum
est quia in una vinea tria sunt, scilicet; lignum, folia, et fructus; et omnia
tria uuum sunt et una vinea sunt; Tertium est quia caput unum quatuor
sensibus constat. In uno enim capite sunt visus, gustus, auditus, et odoratus,
et hæe plura sunt et unum caput sunt."
DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.
7
is habitually ascribed to the Holy Ghost, and intelligence to
Jesus Christ, who is the "Word" made flesh; the Word of
God incarnate, the λóyos of the Greek Church.
66
Saint Augustine adopts two opinions concerning the
special definition appropriate to each of the three persons.
Man," says he, was made in the image of God; there
must therefore, be a Trinity in man, as there is in God.
Thus in man we find the soul, its consciousness, and self-
love.*
Those three faculties reside also in God, but in
infinite proportion." In the above theory, to which
St. Augustine gives the preference, and which, probably,
originated with him, the spiritual substance in man, his soul,
is the image of the Father; intelligence, or the "Word,
that of the Son; love, that of the Holy Ghost.
"In the
same manner," continues St. Augustine, "in which the
mind and its love for itself, are two different things, so the
mind, and its self-knowledge or consciousness, are also two
distinct things. Therefore, the mind, its love, and its con-
sciousness, form a triad; and that triad is, at the same
time, an unity. When the three are perfect, they are
equal." According to a second opinion of St. Augustine,
memory is the image of the Father; intelligence, of the Son;
volition, of the Holy Ghost. In both theories, the Holy
Ghost is love; and the Son, intelligence. In the first, the
Father is substance; in the second, memory.
The doctrine taught by St. Ambrose is different. The
soul of man (says the Archbishop of Milan) was made in
the image of God; and the entire man is contained in the
soul. Precisely as the Son is begotten by the Father, and
as the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son,
so from the intelligence volition is engendered, and from
those two powers proceeds memory. The soul, without
that triad, is incomplete; one quality cannot be deficient,
without rendering the others imperfect; and in the same
manner, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy
Ghost, are not three Gods, but one single God in three
persons. Thus, too, the intelligence of the soul, its volition,
* "Mentem, notitiam qua se
qua se novit et dilectionem qua se diligit."
St. August. De Trinitate, lib. ix., cap. vi.
+ De Trinitate, lib. ix., cap. iv.
8
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
and its memory, are not three souls in one body, but one
single soul possessed of three faculties.*
Thus, then, according to the theory of St. Ambrose, the
Father is intelligence; the Son, love or volition; the Holy
Ghost, memory.
Love is here transferred from the Holy
Ghost to the Son, and intelligence from the Son to the
Father. The Holy Ghost becomes memory; and no allusion
is made to that spiritual substance of the Divine soul spoken
of by St. Augustine.
f
This formula, according to M. Buchez,† from whom the
above series of facts is borrowed, is very far superior to that
of St. Augustine. In the formula of this great Doctor, it
is shown that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father;
but not that he proceeds also from the Son. Besides, it is
erroneous to confound volition with love; to will is to act,
to choose, but in neither case is it to desire.
Of these three opinions, St. Bernard adopts the second.§
St. Thomas Aquinas does not appear to adopt either,
although, in admitting two-thirds of the first, he acknow-
ledges the Son to be intelligence, and the Holy Ghost love.||
Bossuet takes the two first at the same time. They are
blended in one by M. L'Abbé Frère, and Bossuet and St.
Augustine hesitate between the two.** M. Buchez adheres
to the third opinion, which is the same as that held by
St. Ambrose.tt
The Abbess Herrade adopts the second opinion held by
St. Augustine. She declares that memory belongs specially
* St. Ambrosü Hexameron, lib. vi., cap. vii., s. 43; ap. Opera. tom ii.
Append. p. 612.
+ Traité Complet de Philosophie, vol. iii., Ontologie, Chap. de la Trinité
Humaine, pp. 374–377.
We cannot acquiesce in this opinion, for memory being the offspring of
intelligence and an immediate result of that faculty, it may be objected to the
formula of St. Ambrose, that it attributes intelligence to two of the Divine
persons; and besides, what, according to that theory, becomes of strength or
power, which is, notwithstanding, a principal and important faculty?
§ St. Bernard, Meditat. de Cognit, human, cond. cap. i.
St. Thomæ,Summa, pars. i., quest. 93, art. 8.
¶ Bossuet. Élévations sur les Mystères, 2e semaine, 6º élévat., édit. in 4º,
tom. x., p. 33; 4e semaine, 7º élévat., tom. x., p. 71. Exorde du Sermon sur
le Mystère de la Sainte Trinité.
** L'homme connu par la Révélation, tom. i.
++ Buchez, Traité Complet de Philos., vol. iii., pp. 397–408.
DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.
9
to the Father; intelligence, to the Son; volition or love, to
the Holy Ghost.*
Richard de St. Victor, observing that, in all the above
formularies, omnipotence, (which is, notwithstanding, the
primordial and generative faculty,) had been forgotten, attri-
buted to the Father power, but preserved to the Holy Ghost
love, and to the Son intelligence. In this arrangement,
Richard conformed to the spirit of the times-it may indeed
be said, to the spirit of the middle ages generally-and to
the definition then prevailing,‡ which is almost universally
interpreted by monumental images. In fact, the formularies
suggested by St. Augustine and St. Ambrose, owe their
origin rather to philosophy than to theology; naturally,
therefore, they failed to make any great progress during the
* Hortus Deliciarum.
"Divinitas consistit in Trinitate. Hujus imaginem
tenet anima, quæ habet memoriam, per quam præterita et futura recolit;
habet intellectum, quo presentia et invisibilia intelligit; habet voluntatem, qua
malum respicit et bonum eligit."
Not to dwell longer on these points, the discussion of which is of far
more importance to the future course of Christian Iconography, than to the
Iconography of the middle ages, we shall content ourselves with quoting the
Latin text of Richard. That profound theologian, in the Tractatus Excep-
tionum, lib. ii., cap. ii. (Opp. Richardi S. Vict., in fo., Rouen, 1650), writes
as follows: "Invisibilia Dei a creatura mundi per ea quæ facta sunt intellecta
conspiciuntur. Tria sunt invisibilia Dei: potentia, sapientia, benignitas. Ab
his tribus procedunt omnia, in his tribus consistunt omnia, per hæc tria reguntur
omnia. Potentia creat, sapientia gubernat, benignitas conservat. Quæ tamen
tria sicut in Deo ineffabiliter unum sunt, ita in operatione separari non
possunt. Potentia per benignitatem sapienter creat, sapientia per potentiam
benigne gubernat, benignitas per sapientiam potenter conservat. Potentiam
manifestat creaturarum immensitas, sapientiam decor, bonitatem utilitas."
Afterwards, in a treatise addressed to S. Bernard, and entitled De Tribus
appropriatis personis in Trinitate, lib. vi., p. 270, he considers "Cur
attribuatur potentia Patri, sapientia Filio, bonitas Spiritui Sancto."
Lastly,
in his treatise De Trinitate, lib. vi., p. 264, he inquires, "Quare speciali,
quodam decendi modo potentia attribuitur ingenito, sapientia genito, bonitas
Spiritui Sancto." He concludes thus-" Quoniam ergo in potentia exprimitur
proprietas ingeniti, speciali quodam considerationis modo merito adscribitur illi.
Sed quoniam in sapientia exprimitur proprietas geniti, merito et illa juxta
eundem modum adscribitur ipsi. Item quia in bonitate proprietas Spiritus
Sancti invenitur, merito et ei bonitas specialiter assignatur."
Dante, in the Divina Commedia, Paradiso, canto x., writes thus of the
Trinity-
"Guardando nel suo Figlio con l' Amore
Che l'uno e l'altro eternalmente spira,
Lo primo ed ineffabile Valore,
10
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
mediæval epoch; and men at that period, generally agreed
in recognising omnipotence, as the characteristic of the
Father; supreme wisdom, as that of the Son; and infinite
love in the Holy Ghost. Abelard himself attributed omni-
potence to the Father; to the Son, wisdom; and to the
Holy Ghost, goodness; he merely repeated what nearly every
one said. Abelard erred only in assigning to each Divine
person one single quality, and refusing to acknowledge
their possession of the other two. His doctrines were con-
demned from his having asserted that the Father possessed
omnipotence, but without either wisdom or goodness; and
that the Holy Ghost had wisdom, but not power.*
three persons were, by his theory, completely isolated in
respect of their special attributes; and, with a singular
inconsistency, he afterwards confounded them in a divine
unity, so intimate and compact, that it was impossible to
trace in it the three hypostases. This idea of the inde-
pendence of the three persons on the one hand, combined
on the other with a fusion so complete, led Abelard into a
twofold error; still that celebrated representative of scholastic
philosophy, admitted the speciality of the attributes, quali-
fying and applying them to the Divine persons, as had been
Quanto per mente, o per occhio si gira,
Con tanto ordine fe' ch' esser non puote
Senza gustar di lui, chi ciò rimira."
Looking into his first-born with the love
Which breathes from both eternal, the first Might
Ineffable, wherever eye or mind
Can roam, hath in such order all disposed,
The
As none may see and fail to enjoy.—Cary's Dante., c. x. 1. 1.
*Martenne and Durand, two Benedictine Monks, discovered in the Abbey
des Prémontrés de Vigogne (diocese of Arras), a manuscript containing a
treatise of St. Bernard against Abelard, which had been sent by the Abbot of
Clairvaux to Pope Innocent II. At the conclusion of the manuscript, after
the words "collegi et aliqua transmisi," the following propositions, extracted
by St. Bernard from the writings of Abelard, are inserted:-" Quod Pater sit
plena potentia, Filius quædam potentia, Spiritus Sanctus nulla potentia. Quod
Spiritus Sanctus non sit de substantia Patris aut Filii. Quod Spiritus Sanctus
sit anima mundi. Quod neque Deus est homo, neque hæc persona quæ
Christus est, sit tertia persona in Trinitate. Quod in Christo non fuerit
Spiritus timoris Domini. Quod ad Patrem, qui ab alio non est, proprie vel
specialiter attineat omnipotentia, non etiam sapientia et benignitas. Quod
adventus in fine sæculi possit attribui Patri." See Le Voyage littéraire de
deux Benedictins, 11e partie, p. 213.
DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.
11
done by Richard de St. Victor, and most of the other theo-
logians.
At all events, the reciprocal relation of the Divine persons
was well explained by the above formula, but not their
relation towards man. We have in consequence, been com-
pelled to makethe distinction alluded to in the previous chapter
treating of the Holy Ghost, and to observe that it became
necessary, while assigning omnipotence to the Father, to
attribute love to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost intelligence.
The great Christian geniuses who have been named,
St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and
others, preserved their orthodoxy, even while varying the
terms, which to them appeared to designate the three Divine
persons. We also desire to suggest a different arrangement
of the Divine attributes, without departing from the creed.
Moreover the representations engraved and given in the
previous volume, attribute to the Divine persons precisely the
qualities to which attention has been particularly drawn. In
the present day especially, the formula here adopted is in
favour with everyone, and we may also repeat, that the follow-
ing explanation of the sign of the cross as performed by the
Greeks, was given by Daniel, bishop of Lacedemon, in the
year 1839:
"It is made by opening the three first fingers
of the right hand, the thumb, the forefinger and the middle
finger. The three fingers are here employed in honour of,
and as symbolising, the Trinity. The thumb, being pecu-
liarly active and strong, the only finger capable of offering
resistance to the other four, and the instrument of manual
action; the thumb is the representative of the Father.
The middle finger, which has the pre-eminence over the
others, and which is on the right of the thumb when seen
from the back of the hand, is the Son. The fore-finger,
through which the middle finger is connected with the
thumb, figures the Holy Ghost. The fore-finger (index)
indeed directs the eye and points out the position of objects;
it is the organ of intelligence, and the instrument of expres-
sion." The ingenuity and subtlety of this Byzantine
interpretation is extremely striking.
Such was the general opinion in our own country, in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and the Liturgists,
Durandus and Beleth amongst others, declared that the
12
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
sign of the cross was made with three fingers in honour of
the blessed Trinity. The fundamental idea is the same,
whether it be of Latin or Byzantine origin. Nor is it by
any means certain that the development of the idea does
not belong equally to both churches, or even that it did not
originate altogether in the West. According to the rituals
of the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in per-
forming the marriage ceremony, the nuptial ring was placed
successively on the first three fingers of the right hand of
the husband as well as of the wife. When it was placed on
the thumb, the following words were recited,—“In nomine
Patris;" on the first finger-" et Filii ;" and on the middle
finger-"et Spiritûs Sancti." The fore-finger here is attri-
buted to the Son, and not to the Holy Ghost, but this
peculiarity is perhaps of but little consequence.
To conclude, the Father is supreme power, and should be
characterised by the globe, the universe, which was created
by him: the Son is infinite love, and his symbol is the Cross.
The Spirit is intelligence, and ought to have the book. In
representations of this subject, the Father is usually drawn
with the globe; the Son with the Cross or book, but more
frequently with the globe, and the Holy Ghost without any
attribute whatever. The Son thus absorbs in himself the
three divine faculties, for the medieval artists assigned to
him as personal attributes, the globe, designating power;
the book, symbolic of intelligence or wisdom; and love,
symbolised by the Cross, while the Holy Ghost appears to
be completely disinherited. In treating so grave a subject
nothing should be left to the arbitrary decision of individual
minds. Ideas and terms must be defined, in order that
contemporary artists may not fall into error, but depict the
three Divine persons, and their attributes, in strict confor-
mity with the creed, and the dogmas of theology.
We must request forgiveness for having, in treating of
archæology, thus invaded the province of theology and
philosophy. Still Christian archæology may yet be called
on to render important services to theology and philosophy.
* See in the "Bulletin Archéologique du comité historique des Arts et
Monuments, vol. ii., pp. 498, 499," notices by M. l'Abbe Poquet and Lucien
de Rosny, correspondants historiques, of two rituals formerly belonging to the
Cathedral of Soissons (Aisne), and of the Abbey of Barbeau (Seine-et-Marne).
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
13
Archæology is not a mere science of names, neither is its
nature purely descriptive; it is more properly "history,"
and embraces that part of history which has for its object
the giving an interpretation of facts. Without venturing to
give any positive solution, it must still be acknowledged
that without some reference to theology, Christian archæo-
logy can never be made in any degree useful, nor will it be
possible to comprehend the intention of the various figures,
carved upon Christian monuments. It becomes absolutely
indispensable, when viewing certain monuments, to dwell
upon the principal questions and essential facts of ecclesias-
tical history. Theology is in truth a noble science, and has
been far less deeply studied than it deserves. Long, and
injuriously abandoned to ecclesiastics, as if the clergy
alone were interested in the study, it ought now to be
restored to its place of honour. Everything in the present
day is in progress, and all sciences ought to be profoundly
scrutinised, both in their doctrinal and in their historical
bearing. Happy shall we esteem ourselves if the present
work be in any degree instrumental in reviving a taste for
this noble study, which disturbs, although only in order to
solve them, questions the most difficult and profound.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
The Holy Trinity, that is to say, the union of the three
Divine persons in one, is not once distinctly affirmed in the
Old Testament. Certain texts of Holy Scripture lead us to
infer its existence, but even those texts are in some measure
liable to objections. In the book of Genesis, God speaks thus,
"Let Us make man in our image, after our likeness."
(Gen. i. 26.) He says, again, "Behold the man is become
as one of Us." (Gen. iii. 22.) And a third time he says,
"Let Us go down, and there confound their language.
(Gen. xi. 7.)* Still these expressions do not necessarily
imply the idea of the Trinity. God may have used the
plural in speaking, simply because he was addressing an
angel; or like a sovereign issuing a command, or an artist
inciting himself to proceed with the work in which he is
These two last texts have been before quoted, vol. i., page 441.
""
14
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
engaged. God may thus have used the plural number,
without any reference to the other two Divine persons. The
above objections have been refuted by theologians, but, never-
theless, seem to be of a certain importance. In one work
on theology,* in use in the seminaries of France, it is declared
that God cannot possibly have been addressing the angels,
when he used the words "Let us make man in our image."
But the doubts of modern theology had been anticipated in
the thirteenth century, and an angel was then represented
assisting the Creator to mould the clay of which the first
man was fashioned. The following example, amongst others,
is completely characteristic.

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Fig. 131.-AN ANGEL ASSISTING THE CREAtor.†
Italian Miniature of the XII cent.
God is here assimilated to an eminent artist, himselı
giving the last touch to a work that has been commenced by
an inferior artist. The inferior artist, the practitioner, is
* "Theologia Dogmatica et Moralis," by Louis Bailly, tom ii. Tractatus
de S. Trinitate, pp. 1-17.
dc
+ Psalterium cum figuris in fo., Bibl. Royale.
1
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
15
represented by the angel, who fashions the clay, giving it a
rude outline only, and imparting to the mass the imperfect
form and general lineaments of a man. This man is as yet
merely clay; formless, motionless, senseless, and devoid of life.
God Almighty is there present, the right hand raised in the
attitude of benediction, blessing the statue which is to be
Adam, and breathing into him the breath of life.* Thus
the angel co-operates with God in the formation of Adam;
the angel rudely frames what God completes and perfects.
The "Let Us make," of Genesis, although implying that a
plurality of beings assisted in the formation of Adam, does
not intimate the plurality, much less the triplicity of the
Divine persons.
The manuscript from which the drawing given above is
extracted, is not a solitary instance of the language of the
book of Genesis being thus interpreted. In the north porch
of the Cathedral of Chartres, the exterior cordon of the
voussoir of the central entrance is occupied by a series of
figures representing the Creation. There, also, the Creator
is assisted by an angel, with whom he appears to be in
consultation. A manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royalet
goes still further, and represents the angel as closely united
with the Deity, and making with him one body only, as he
makes but one mind or idea, while creating the earth,
animals, and man. It must, however, be allowed, that this
mode of interpreting the plural verb, employed in the book
of Genesis, is an exception to the general practice; for,
during the entire duration of the medieval era, particularly
in the Gothic period, artists depicted the three persons of
the Trinity, creating and animating Adam: some examples
of this have been already given, and others will presently
follow. We merely desire to show that Socinians might
have discovered in the religious Iconography of the middle
ages, arguments in defence of their heresy, but we readily
admit that Christian artists in general, and doctors of
* "Et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum vitæ, et factus est homo in animam
viventem." "And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became
a living soul." (Gen. ii. 7.)
+ Chronique d'Isidore de Seville, Bibl. Roy., 7135, close of the thirteenth
century, "On voit dans le frontispiece du fo. 1. Dieu figuré avec deux têtes et
des ailes."-Catalogue des MSS. Franç. Par. 1ª, Paris, vol. v., p. 334.
16
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
theology, have agreed in recognising the presence of the
Trinity, in the texts quoted above.
It has been already mentioned, (Fig. 19), that Abraham
prostrated himself before one of the three angels, who met
him in the valley of Mamre, and whom he invited to repose
near his tent, beneath a tree. Abraham saw three angels,
but addressed himself at first to one only amongst them, and
spoke afterwards to all the three together. Commentators
have thence inferred that the Divine Trinity appeared to
the Father of the Patriarchs.* This interpretation of a
dubious text, is rather ingenious than indisputable. However,
the art has constantly ranged itself on the side of the
commentators, and represented the three persons united,
while Abraham falls prostrate before one of the three.
Below the picture the following legend is sometimes placed,
"Tres vidit, unum adoravit."+
In the Psalms of David, the Divine persons are represented
as speaking;—“The Lord hath said unto me,-thou art my
Son; this day have I begotten thee." (Psalm ii. 7.)
"The
Lord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand."
* Genesis xviii. 2—5. In a Latin MS. of Prudentius (Bibl. Roy.
8085), three angels, symbolic according to Prudentius, of the Trinity, appeared
unto Abraham. One only has around his head a circle resembling a nimbus;
the other two are without. [It is worthy of remark, that in most of the
striking texts mentioned by Didron, there should be a great discrepancy
between the versions. I particularly mention the fact that artists may be on
their guard. I will instance that text, in particular, from Isaiah xl. 12, where the
Vulgate has it, "Quis mensus est pugillo aquas, et cælos palmo ponderavit.
Quis appendit tribus digitis molem terræ, et libravit in pondere montes, et colles
in statere." And this term tribus digitis was used expressly by theologians
in support of the argument that the Trinity had been foreshadowed in the
Old Testament. These texts, where we find translations vary so much, must,
therefore, be employed guardedly. Still, the Vulgate version should be always
consulted and preferred when reference is made merely to the mode of repre-
senting the particular subject by the earlier medieval artists, and as a guide we
must constantly employ it in tracing the progress of medieval iconology.-ED.]
See in the Church of St. Etienne-du-mont, in the south aisle, a painted
window, belonging to the sixteenth century, on which the fact, and the legend
explaining it, are represented. In the Bibl. de l'Arsenal a manuscript
(Missale parisienne, Theol. lat. 182,) contains the three angels exactly
resembling one another, and alike adored by Abraham. In Greece, at the foot
of Mount Pentelicus, in a little chapel adjoining the monastery, is a picture
representing Abraham entertaining the three angels at his table. These
angels are completely equal, as in the Hortus deliciarum ; all three wear the
same kind of nimbus, marked with the Divine cross, and with ó v in the cross
branches.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
17
(Psalm cx. 1.) "I begot thee in my bosom before Lucifer."
(Psalm cx. 3.)*
These expressions have, consequently, been supposed to
infer that allusion is here made to the Trinity; but this was
going too far. Two Divine Persons may be there alluded
to, but certainly not three. The very small number of
texts relating to the Trinity, to be found in the Old
Testament, has induced commentators to torture the sense
of the language, and to wrest the meaning of facts. Artists,
prompted by commentators, have introduced images of the
Trinity into scenes in which they are highly inappropriate;
thus in the following drawing they make three angels, figur-

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​Fig. 132.—THE TRINITY, IN COMBAT WITH BEHEMOTH AND LEVIATHAN.
From the same source, and bearing the same date, as Fig. 131.
ing the three Divine persons, in combat with Behemoth and
Leviathan. One of the angels, that without wings, has a
cruciform nimbus, which properly belongs only to Deity;
* Psalm cx. 3.
The verse in our translation is as follows :-" In the
beauties of holiness from the womb of the morning, thou hast the dew of thy
VOL. II.
C
18
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
the nimbus worn by the two others being plain, there is but
little doubt that the artist feared, or perhaps forgot to insert
the cross.
A revelation of the Trinity has in like manner been
discovered in the three companions of Daniel, Ananias,
Misaël, and Azarias, who were thrown by command of
Nebuchadnezzar into the fiery furnace. That in them may
be traced an image, referring more or less obscurely to the
Trinity, is very possible; but it is impossible to receive that
image as a symbol of the doctrine. Besides, in a subject of
such serious importance, a conjecture, a possibility, will not
suffice; realities are needed, texts clear and precise in their
nature.*
The Old Testament offers very few such texts; in that
part of the Holy Scriptures, few real and confessedly indis-
putable manifestations of the Trinity are to be met with.
youth;" but in the version of the Prayer Book, the text is, "the dew of thy
birth is of the womb of the morning." In the version of Tremellius it is "in
decoris locis sanctitatis inde ab utero, ab aurora tibi aderit ros juventæ suæ;
and the Vulgate has "Tecum principium in die virtutis tue [sic] in
splendoribus sanctorum ex utero ante luciferum genui te."-Ed.
* It may, however, be observed, that the angel commissioned by God to
extinguish the flames of the furnace into which Nebuchadnezzar had commanded
the three Hebrews to be thrown, appeared to the King of Babylon in form like
the Son of God. The three Hebrews did, in a measure, symbolise the three
Divine persons, who were united in one single God in a divine and living
unity, in the person of an Angel. The story has been thus understood by
numerous artists and commentators of the middle ages; but it must always be
confessed, that in this biblical history the Trinity is recognised through the
medium of interpretation, and not as a necessary deduction. (See the Prophecy
of Daniel, iii. 23, 24, 25, 26.) St. Cyprian recognised the Trinity, not merely
in the three young Hebrews, but figured even in the distribution of the prayers
which those young men offered up in conjunction with Daniel. (St. Cyprian,
De Oratione Dominica, near the end. See the Institutions Liturgiques par
Dom Gueranger, vol. i., pp. 49, 81.) It may also be remarked, that verse
51 of chap. iii.,* which describes the three children as praising God with one
voice, only, has been claimed as an additional argument in support of the com-
mentators, who, in the whole of that history, discover a representation of
the Trinity. "Tunc hi TRES quasi ex Uno ore laudabant et glorificabant et
benedicebant Deum in fornace."
*M. Didron here refers to v. 28 of the Apocryphal book called the "Song
of the Three Children." In Tremellius, the passage will be found in the
“Adjectiones in Danielem," v. 51, among the Apocryphal books.--Ed.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
19

EP.H⋅DURAND EX LIGN IN LIGN⋅ DEL'
Fig. 133.—THE TRINITY AT THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST.
Italian carving on wood, XIV cent.*
*The carving on wood from which the above engraving is copied, was
c 2
20
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The New Testament is far more precise; it both names
the Trinity and shows it in visible substance.
""
Jesus said to his Apostles, "Go ye therefore and teach all
nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." (Matt. xxviii. 19.) Our
Saviour says to his disciples elsewhere, " And I will pray the
Father and he shall give you another Comforter, that he may
abide with you for ever, even the spirit of truth.' (St.
John xiv. 16, 17.) St. John, in his first Epistle, declares
that there are three who bear record in heaven, "the
Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost; and these three
are one." (1 St. John v., 7.) These texts distinctly
name the three Divine persons, uniting them in the same
phrase; but at the baptism of Jesus Christ the Trinity was
made visibly manifest, and in the same action.
And
Jesus, when he was baptised, went up straightway out of
the water: and lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and
he saw the spirit of God descending like a dove and lighting
upon him and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, This is my
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." (St. Matt. iii.
16, 17.)
:
The doctrine of the Trinity, when its formula had once
been clearly set forth and visibly demonstrated, soon took
possession of men's minds. The Old Testament was perused
and re-perused; men sought to find the truth unveiled in
passages which were obscure or had hitherto been passed
over unremarked. It was then that the plural number
used in the book of Genesis-the threefold acclamations of
the Seraphim-the three fingers of God, on which the world
is suspended the three Angels entertained by Abraham
*
The
brought from Italy by M. Paul Durand, to whom it belongs. It is a work of
the fourteenth century, and yet it will be seen that already, that is, in the
fourteenth century, either from negligence, or perhaps pure forgetfulness,
neither the nimbus of the Father nor that of the Son, is cruciform.
Holy Ghost is surrounded by an aureole, and could not, therefore, have a
nimbus also. This example of the baptism of our Lord is one of the most
perfect that has ever come to my knowledge; it has something of a Byzantine
character and feature.
""
* Isaiah xl. 12 of the Vulgate: "Quis appendet tribus digitis molem
terræ.' In our version it is: "And comprehended the dust of the earth in a
measure." The version of Tremellius and Junius: "Aut complexus est
trientali pulverem terræ ?" In a French version published at Rochelle, 1616:
"Qui est celui qui a compris la poussière de la terre avec une tierce?"—Ed.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
21
-the three children thrown into the furnace—were regarded
as allusions to the Trinity, as symbols or at least as figures
of the three Divine persons.*
After making inquiry into history, men next interrogated
the human soul, and in it they discovered a reflection of the
Trinity. The soul, made in the image of God, was one in
substance and triple in its attributes. The power of the
Father, the goodness of the Son, the wisdom of the Holy
Ghost were repeated in miniature in the will, the love, and
the intelligence of the human soul.
The soul has the power of knowing, desiring, and doing
evil, precisely in the same manner as it possesses that of
learning, willing, and accomplishing good, with the faculties
which it has at its disposal. This is a necessary consequence
of the nature of man, and of the imperfect liberty of his
condition. Complete evil, that is absolute evil in man,
appears under three aspects, corresponding with the attri-
butes of the soul. In the supernatural class-the class
infinite-God is the absolute perfection of good, and Satan
of evil. God is one person in three hypostases; Satan is one
person in three, or rather with three faces. Theologians
and artists of the middle ages thus understood and depicted
the fulness of virtue and of vice. In some representations
(Esaias xl. 12.)
(Esa. vi. 3.) Et
Filii et Spiritus
The following extract from the writings of the liturgist, Gulielmus Durandus,
will illustrate the feeling with which the Trinity was regarded in the middle
ages, and form the complement of the quotations already given: "Dicens
Deum singulariter deorum fugit pluralitatem . 'Audi Israel, Dominus Deus
tuus, unus est.' (Deut. vi. 4.) Et Apostolus,' Unus est Deus, una fides, unum
baptisma.' (Eph. iv. 5.) Dicens vero Patrem incipit personas distinguere, de
quibus Esaias,Quis appendet tribus digitis molem terræ.'
Et alibi, Seraphim clamabant Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus.'
Dominus, Baptisate omnes gentes in nomine Patris et
Sancti.' (Matt. 28, 19.) Et Joannes, Tres sunt qui testimonium dant in
cœlo ; Pater, Verbum et Spiritus Sanctus.' (1 John, v. 7.) * Pater est prima,
non tempore, sed auctoritate, in Trinitate persona. Quod sequitur omni-
potentem, nomen est essentiale, ideoque illud ad substantivum Deum, vel ad
relativum Patrem, non sine ratione referimus, dicentes credo in Deum Patrem
omnipotentem, vel credo in Patrem omnipotentem. Similiter et quod sequitur ;
Creatorem cœli et terræ."-Gulielmus Durandus, Rationale, lib. iv., De
Symbolo.
*This is the verse of the three heavenly witnesses so much contested by
commentators. It is now universally considered to be an interpolation of the
copyist.—ED.
22
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
God is exhibited under the aspect of a man with three faces,
one for each person; and there are others which represent
the Devil as a human being, with three faces on a single
trunk, as in the drawing subjoined.
Let this diabolical Trinity be compared with several of the
divine Trinities already given, or which will hereafter be
Fig. 134.—THE TRINITY OF EVIL.
From a French Miniature of the XIII cent.*
inserted, and it will be seen
that the idea by which
artists were guided in the
execution of these repre-
sentations was in both cases
the same. But evil is in
some sort more wicked, than
goodness is good. In the
following design, the Satanic
Trinity is depicted as exalted
to the highest degree of
power. Three heads in the
lower part of the body-
three or four heads on the
breast-three heads or faces
in the upper part of the
body, fixed on the neck, and
those faces surmounted by
three stags' horns, thorn-
like and sharp-pointed. In
the right hand of this dread
monarch of evil is a sceptre

fleury, with three heads of monsters.
Time, which is the finite image of a boundless eternity,
was regarded during the middle ages under the three
aspects of the past, the present, and the future. The pre-
sent was not recognised, or but imperfectly, by the Pagans.†
But in the eyes of Christians it had more value than the
past, and as much as the future. The Romans represented
*The above drawing is taken from a curious manuscript in the Bibliothèque
Royale, entitled Emblemata Biblica, and belonging to the thirteenth
century. Few manuscripts are equally rich in miniatures; it contains no less
than three hundred.
Delille, the poet, who was semi-pagan both in sentiment and language,
strove to suppress the idea of the present when he wrote the following line:
"Le moment où je parle est déjà loin de moi."
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
23

ne
داراز
川
​Fig. 135.—THE TRINITY OF ABSOLUTE EVIL.
From a French Miniature of the xv cent.*
Janus, the genius or personification of Time, by a figure
* French manuscript in the Bibl. Royale, Histoire du Saint-Graal.
24
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
"
with one head and two faces. Their "Janus Bifrons
viewed the past with the face that looked backwards, and
inspected the future with that placed in front; certain of
the Christian artists, inserted between these two faces that
of the present, as in the engraving subjoined.
*
This little figure with three faces on one single trunk,
eating and drinking to celebrate the commencement of a
new year, is in effect a Janus; it is placed at the head of
the calendar, forming a frontispiece to the month of
January. But it is a Christian Janus or rather a perfected
image of Time. What indeed is life without the present?
The remembrance of the past, and anticipations of the
future, apart from realities of the present, can be nothing
more than vanished dreams, or reveries yet unreal and
No. 6770. This fearful image of Satan, is presiding over an assembly of demons
who deliberate on the birth of Merlin, by whose means they proposed to repair
the injury which the devil had sustained through Christ, by his death and
descent into hell. I am indebted to the friendship of M. Paulin Paris, Member
of the Institute, and Conservateur of the Bibliothèque Royale, for my acquaint-
ance with this remarkable miniature, which was communicated to me by him.
* We say, "certain of the Christian artists," because it must be confessed
that the influence of the two-visaged Janus, the classic "Janus bifrons,"
continued in force during the whole middle ages.
It is with two faces, not
three, that he is constantly figured in various places; particularly in the
western porches of the Cathedrals of Chartres, of Strasbourg, and of Amiens,
and in the Abbey of St. Denis. A man with two heads and one single body
is seen seated at a table covered with food; one face is sad and bearded, the
other gay, beardless, and youthful. The bearded head represents the year
which is about to close, the thirty-first of December; the youthful head is a
personification of the opening year, the first of January. The old head is
placed next the empty side of the table; he has consumed all his provisions :
before the young head, on the contrary, are several loaves, and dishes, and the
servant, a little child, appears to be bringing others. This child is an additional
personification of the coming year; it completes the youthful head of Janus.
In fact, a child accompanies both the bearded and the beardless head; but, on
the side of the old man, it appears to be dead, and the door of a little temple is
being closed upon the body; while that on the side of the young man issues
joyously from a similar temple. The one is dying and retiring from the
world, the other entering it, filled with life and animation. A complete
monography of these Christian types of Janus would be highly interesting.
The elementary principles might be gathered from sculpture, painted windows,
and more especially, the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts. The subject
is extremely curious, and deserves to be recommended to the notice of such
young antiquaries as are about to commence the study of medieval iconography.
The present time, too, is favourable for such researches, as men's minds seem
at length disposed to take some interest in Christian symbolism.
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
25
undeveloped. The present alone wins pardon for the past
and grace for the future.
The present, the offspring of the past, is, according to the
profoundly Christian idea of Leibnitz, big with the future.

31
Fig. 136.—FIGURE OF TIME WITH THREE FACES.
From a French Miniature of the XIV cent.*
Thus then, in this instance, as in others, Christianity sur-
passes the limits of ancient civilisation. Christianity
indeed, revived many antique ideas, but while preserving, it
at the same time made it its glory, to exalt and eurich them
with at least one new element.
The number three became more and more sacred. It was
* This personification of the year with three faces, is to be found in the
Bibliothèque de l'Arsénal, MS. Théol. Lat., 133, Officium Ecclesiasticum.
It is placed at the commencement of the manuscript, below the month of
January; the present is drinking and taking nourishment; the past and the
future are content to meditate; one appears to remember, for the last time;
the other, perhaps, aiready begins to hope.
26
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
proclaimed by Christians to be pre-eminently the sovereign
and truly divine number. Defining and circumscribing
that Pagan axiom which had said, Numero Deus impare
gaudet, it fixed the odd number at three. The doctrine
of the Trinity having once been revealed, violence was often
done to things the most compact, indivisible, and homogeneous
in their nature, in order that they might be divided into
three parts, and again recomposed into unity. An entire
history of men and events, the History of the Celts of
Great Britain, was compressed, either by its own tendency
or by force, into divisions of three compartments each; it
resembles a piece of music, regulated from beginning to end
by the triple-time measure.
These historical measures are
called "triads."*
* It will suffice to give merely the heads of the chapters composing this
extraordinary history, which is constantly falsified by symbolism and the
ternary system.
"Triads of the Island of Britain, which are triads of memorable things, of
recollections and sciences, relating to the famous men, and the deeds done in
Britain, and concerning the circumstances and misfortunes which at several
periods have desolated the nation of the Cambrians. These are the three
names given to the Island of Britain-the three principal divisions of the
Island of Britain-the three pillars of the nation in the Island of Britain-
the three domestic tribes of the Island of Britain-the three refugee tribes—
the three sedentary invaders—the three transitory invaders—the three cheating
invaders the three disappearings of the Island of Britain-the three terrible
events of the Island of Britain-the three combined expeditions which started
from the Island of Britain-the three treacherous rencounters which took
place in the Island of Britain-the three notable traitors of the Island of
Britain the three contemptible traitors who enabled the Saxons to take the
crown of the Island of Britain from the Cambrians-the three bards who
committed the three benevolent assassinations' (assassinats bienfaisants)
of the Island of Britain-the three frivolous causes of the combat in the
Island of Britain-the three discoveries and concealments of the Island of
Britain-the three governing energies of the Island of Britain-the three
vigorous men of the Island of Britain-the three deeds that occasioned the
reduction of Lloegrie, and wrested it from the Cambrians-the first three
extraordinary works of the Island of Britain-the three lovers of the Island of
Britain the three first mistresses of Arthur-the three knights of the court
of Arthur who guarded the Graal-the three men who wore golden shoes in
the Island of Britain-the three royal domains established by Rhadri the Great
in Cambria. "A king of Ireland, named Cormack," adds M. J. Michelet,
"in the year 260, wrote De Triadibus. Certain triads are preserved in
Irish tradition under the title of Fingal. The Irish marched to battle in
threes the Scotch Highlanders are ranged three deep." See Histoire de
France, par M. Michelet, vol. i., pp. 461-71, edit. in 8vo.
39
THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.
27
With the studies of the middle ages, which are resumed
in the present day, their mysticism also has revived. No
longer content to recognise the number three, and the
Trinity itself, in objects in which that symbol is evidently
displayed, it is discovered where probably it has no actual
existence. It has been asserted, for example, that mediæval
artists composed a hymn in honour of the number three;
and that in erecting the porches of the cathedrals which we
are pleased to find consist of three stages in height, and
intersected in breadth by three divisions, they constructed
a geometrical figure of the Trinity. The trefoil again, so
abundant in Gothic decorations, is supposed to have been
adopted solely in honour of the Trinity; but as porches of
four or five stages, and four or five divisions, are as numerous
as floriations of four, five, six, and seven lobes, the idea of
the Trinity can hardly have been so constantly present to
the artist's mind, as in our day is supposed to have been the
case.*
Whenever three objects are seen united, whether plants,
animals, monsters, or men, the idea of the divine Trinity
immediately presents itself to the minds of these mystics.
If three fishes be sculptured on the baptismal font of
Denmark, three hideous apes upon a similar vessel in
France, or three fantastic personages carved in relief on the
tympanum of a church door, those three strange or mon-
strous beings are immediately recognised as symbols of
* The learned and illustrious M. Boisserée, in his folio, Déscription de la
Cathédrale de Cologne, published at Paris in 1825, writes thus-"The
fundamental principles of ancient church architecture are based, firstly, upon
the equilateral triangle originally adopted by the Pythagoreans as an emblem
of Minerva or wisdom, and subsequently employed by our ancestors as the
symbol of the Trinity; secondly, on the dodecagon, a figure resulting from
the application of the triangle to a circle, a combination regarded by the
ancients as well as by our own ancestors, as containing all musical and astrono-
mical proportion." We regret that we cannot admit these theories, all
ingenious as they are. In a work recently published (Manuel de l'Histoire
Générale de l'Architecture, par M. Daniel Ramée, vol. ii., in 12mo, Paris,
1843,) the symbolic theory of numbers, and of the number three in particular,
is again revived; but it is carried in this case to the most absurd lengths.
Such imaginings are, in respect of truth, what dreams are in comparison with
the clear waking thoughts of a man of sound and circumspect judgment.
Architecture, even in its history, will lose more than it gains from dreams of
such a nature. The clear and decisive judgment of French writers is shown by
their treating all similar odd inventions simply as aberrations of the intellect.
28
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost.
To endeavour to extract some new idea from every remark-
able fact, is indeed a highly laudable attempt, but it requires
to be guided and enlightened by reason.*
Objects in which the Trinity may be distinctly recog-
nised both in intention and in reality, are found in sufficient
number to make it unnecessary to seek or create fictitious
resemblances. Many of these will be noticed in treating
of the direct and indirect worship rendered to the dogma of
the Trinity, that is, to God, revealing himself in his three
hypostases.
THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY.
Eight days after the great feast of Pentecost, instituted in
honour of the Holy Ghost, that of the Trinity is celebrated.
Christmas, we are told, is the festival of God the Father,†
Easter that of the Son, and Pentecost of the Holy Ghost;
and eight days after Pentecost these three distinct solemni-
* Frederick Münter, Bishop of Zealand, in Denmark, of whom we have
already spoken, published, in 1825, at Altona, the first and second parts of a
work in 4to., entitled Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellungen der alten Christen
(Symbolic and Figurative Representations of the early Christians). He there
speaks of the three fishes on the baptismal font in the church of Beigetad, in
Denmark, as symbolising the Trinity. All these singular and misty interpre-
tations have their origin in Germany and the North of Europe. In a report
addressed by M. Schmit to the "Comité Historique des Arts et Monuments,"
and which was published in 1842, under the title of Souvenirs d'un Voyage
Archéologique dans l'Ouest, we read, page 33, "On the south side of the
church of Notre-Dame-des-Neiges, at Brelevenez (Brittany), rise three pillars,
the lower parts forming buttresses to the side aisle; they then spring up, alone,
to the height (which however is very trifling,) of the ridge of the roof.
Those on the left and right, which are rather less elevated than that in the
centre, are truncated, with square heads; the third, in the centre, has a sloped
coping. The porch is semicircular, surmounted by a gable forming the summit
of the two eaves; it is placed between the second and third pillars. Local
traditions speak of this arrangement as emblematic of the Trinity, and
adopted by the Knights Templars in the construction of their churches. I
know not whether this fact be decisively proved; but if not, the three pillars
might with equal probability be supposed to refer to Mount Calvary, especially
as they are here erected on a lonely n.ountain, at an elevation of not less
than 100 mètres. It seems more simple, and may possibly be more correct,
to consider these pillars merely as buttresses, raised to the intended
elevation of the building, which is evidently unfinished." Our assent must be
given to the last of these conjectures, as being more simple, more sensible, and
consequently more likely to be correct.
At the close of the middle ages, about the period of the Rénaissance, men
THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY.
29
ties are combined in one. An entire office was composed in
honour of the Trinity, but it seems singular that Christmas,
Easter, and Pentecost, which hold the rank of grand annual
feasts, that is, have the supreme grade in the hierarchy of
festivals, should concentrate themselves in one feast inferior
by three degrees, and descend into a minor solemnity.
Still the Trinity has always received great honours and
worship. At the conclusions of introits, prayers, proses,
hymus, psalms, and responses, the doxology associates each
of the three persons in the glories, and sometimes even
blends them together in one phrase.*
first became anxious to assign to the Father a special festival. To create a
new one would have been more simple, and would have shown a more proper
feeling, but historical difficulties presented themselves. In fact, God the
Father having never visibly manifested Himself, one could not with propriety
consecrate the memory of an event which had never occurred. Liturgists
therefore proposed to set apart Christmas Day to the Father.
Yet to do so,
was evidently violating the actual signification of events. The day on which
Mary gave birth to the Infant Saviour; on which the Word was made flesh,
and born in a stable, ought undoubtedly to belong either to Jesus Christ or
the Virgin Mary the Father here acts only secondarily. Consequently, not-
withstanding the devotional wish of certain theologians, and the efforts of
numerous liturgists (See G. Durandus, Rationale Div. Off.), Christmas was
dedicated as before to Jesus and the Virgin, and the Father had still no
especial festival. A manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royale opens the festival
of Christmas with a representation of the Father, and that of Easter, in like
manner, with a picture of the Son; but usually, it may almost be said always,
we meet with the picture of the Nativity at Christmas, and the name of the
Feast of the Nativity (in French Noël, Latin Natalis) still distinguishes the
day of our Saviour's birth. The seventh volume of the works of St. Tommasi,
edited by Bianchini, contains a note upon a supplication requiring the
institution of a festival in honour of the Father Eternal.
* The "Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto," is attributed to St.
Jerome, who is said to have sent it to Pope Damasus,* who directed it to be
sung at the end of the Psalms. The hymus composed by Saint Ambrose,
and which are sung at the "Hours," either on Sundays, or week-days
terminate in a Gloria addressed to the three Divine persons:-
"Deo Patri sit gloria
Ejusque soli Filio
Cum Spiritu paraclito,
Nunc et per omne seculum.”
Or else:
"Præsta, Pater piissime,
Patrique compar unice,
Cum Spiritu paraclito,
Regnans per omne sæculum."
* Elected Pope of Rome, A. D. 366, died A. D. 385. St. Jerome was his
secretary.
30
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The Trinity, like the Holy Ghost, gave the name to a
religious order called the Trinitarians.*
*
Churches and monasteries were erected throughout
Christendom in honour of the Holy Trinity. The Abbey
of the Holy Trinity at Florence is famous from the fine
paintings it contains, and which were executed, according to
Vasari, by Giovanni Cimabue. Arezzo had, and probably
has still, a convent of nuns of the Holy Ghost (di Santo
Spirito). At Caen, Rouen, Fécamp, Poitiers, Vendôme,
Angers, Lefay (in the diocese of Coutances), and in several
other places, there were celebrated abbeys and churches
dedicated to the Holy Trinity.
The name of Trisay-la-Sainte-Vierge, in the diocese of
Luçon, is probably derived from the acclamation three times.
repeated by the celestial spirits in honour of the Trinity.t
St. Williborde, bishop of Trèves, who died in 739, erected a
monastery in honour of the Holy Trinity, in the basilica of
which he was interred.‡
Not only were churches and convents erected in honour of
the union of the three Divine persons, but the configuration
* The Trinitarians date from the year 1198. The Order was founded by
St. John de Matha and Felix de Valois, for the repurchase or redemption of
captives. The regulations of their order were approved by Pope Innocent III.,
who gave them, in 1199, a white mantle decorated with a red cross with
double branches. This cross also surmounted the Holy Spirit, which was
engraven on their seal.
I am indebted for a copy of this scal to the courtesy
of M. le Baron de Girardot, Conseiller de Préfecture et correspondant du Comité
des Arts. One of the articles of the rules of the Trinitarians runs thus
"Omnes ecclesiæ istius ordinis intitulentur nomine sanctæ Trinitatis et sint
plani operis." This planum opus, imposed as an obligation on the Trini-
tarians, is a point of some importance in the history of architecture.
In Greek, Trisagion, Latinised by Trizaium, Trisagium. The Sanctus,
Sanctus, Sanctus (äyios, äyios, ayios), was inserted by St. Ambrose and St.
Augustine in the Te Deum, which is said to have been composed by them in
common, both words and music. The two great doctors thus caused to be
repeated upon earth the same hymn which St. John heard in heaven, and of
which he speaks in the Apocalypse, iv. 8. In Greece, numerous angels
painted in fresco or in mosaic, bear in their hands a kind of banner, on
which is written, "ayios, ayios, ayios." There was, near Mantes, a convent
ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος.
of the Celestines, named the Trinity (See Catalogue Joursanvault, vol. ii.,
No. 1244); and at Beaulicu, in Touraine, there was also an Abbey of the
Holy Trinity.
The life of St. Williborde was written by Alcuin.
THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY.
31
of those churches and convents, recalled by the number
or form of certain parts, the idea of the Trinity. St. Benoît
d'Aniane, the Carlovingian Apostle of the south of France,
constructed a church which he dedicated, not to any saint,
but to the Holy Trinity. To the high altar he annexed
three subordinate altars, designing that the three persons
should be symbolised by the latter, and the Divine unity by
the former. The high altar, emblem of the two Testa-
ments, was circular without, hollow within, and in the back
a small door was inserted, affording access to shrines and
relics of saints which were there kept on ordinary days.*
One altar in that church was dedicated to St. Michael,
another to the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, a third to
St. Stephen. Another church, dedicated to the Virgin,
contained one altar, consecrated to St. Martin; another to
St. Benedict, and the high altar belonged no doubt to the
Virgin. Lastly, in the cemetery, a third church was erected
and dedicated to St. John the Baptist. Thus in that convent
there were three churches: one dedicated to the Virgin,
with three altars; and another to the Trinity, having also
three altars, but subordinate to the high altar.
At Fleury, now St. Benoît-sur-Loire, there were, not
one, two, or three churches only, dedicated to the Trinity,
* See the original, which is not without value, in the Act. SS. Ord. S.
Bened., IV. Siècle Bénédictin, le partie, de l'an 800 à l'an 855. The life of
St. Benoît d'Aniane was written by Ardon or Smaragdus, his disciple. At
Munich is a church dedicated to the Holy Trinity. In that edifice the number
three is inscribed upon the altars and in the ground-plan, which is a kind of
trefoil. The church is covered with paintings of historical, psychological, and
physical subjects, either natural or symbolical; making allusion to the number
three and its divine properties. God is creating the
God is creating the sun, the moon, and the
earth (three distinct worlds), and is represented with a nimbus of the tri-
angular form. Jesus is transfigured in the presence of Moses and Elias, and
St. Peter requests permission to erect three tents on the mountain. A hand
performs a benediction with three fingers, in the name of the three divine
persons. A large A shines resplendent with the following inscription: Linea
terna est unum alpha. Beneath a hand, holding a candlestick with three
branches, is seen, Tenet una trinum. Below a vessel with three sails is
read, Tribus his pellitur una. An eye is shining in a triangle of flame,
with three circles intertwined. Three mirrors reflect one single ray, emanating
from the sun. Numerous other emblems adorn this curious church, which I
should have described at length, did it not date from 1714, a period of no
value in respect of religious archæology.
32
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
but the entire plan of the monastery bore inscribed upon its
area, the idea of the Trinity. The ground plan was in the
form of a delta, the mysterious triangle of the ancient
alphabet. One point of this triangle turned towards
France; another to Burgundy, while the third was in the
direction of Aquitaine. "Fleury stood on the confines of
three regions, like the present between the past and the
future-like the perfect number between the imperfect and
the pluperfect." *
Lastly, in a third instance, contemporaneous with the
preceding, the emblematic idea of the Trinity will be seen
carried even to a puerile excess, in the plan and arrangement
of an immense monastery, that of Saint Riquier. St.
Angilbert, the son-in-law of Charlemagne, one of the com-
panions and peers of that great Emperor, retired to Centula,
and there re-built the monastery of Saint Riquier. He
erected three churches, one dedicated to St. Riquier, one to
the Virgin, and a third to St. Benedict. They were con-
nected, one with the other, by a triangular cloister. Three
smaller churches, at the entrance of the three gates of the
monastery, were besides dedicated to St. Michael, St. Gabriel,
and St. Raphael. In the church of St. Benedict there were
three altars: there were three altars also in the churches of
the angels, three ciboria, and three lectoria. The monks
were three hundred in number-the children of the choir
one hundred, divided into three sections-thirty-three
children in the two last sections, and thirty-four in the
* The reader will remember what has been already said of the present,
which in the middle ages was esteemed superior both to the past and the
future, while classic antiquity, which appears to suppress it, gave to Janus, the
personification of time, two faces only. The original quotation relating to
Fleury is here transcribed, as it refers both to historical and mystical facts :
"Situs loci Floriacensis monasterii *** instar trigoni visitur sisti, et, ut
expressius dicam, in modum litteræ proprio statu cernitur sidereum cornu
occupare. Nam a septentrione Franciam, ab oriente Burgundiam, ab australi
vero parte Aquitaniam tangit. Sicque in confinio trium regionum, velut
præsens inter præteritum et futurum, naturali ordine obtinet primatum, et sicut
perfectus numerus inter imperfectum et plusquam perfectum. Nam medietate
vicem et locum possidet virtutum."-Act. SS. Ord. S. Bened., IV. Siècle
Bénédictin, "Histoire de l'Illation de St. Benoît," vers l'an 883.
A long extract from this passage has been given verbatim, vol. i.
pp. 61, 62.
A further analysis of the same passage is here given this
repetition was rendered necessary by the subject at present under consideration.
ON THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY.
33
first.*
The whole body was divided into three choirs.
One hundred monks and thirty-four children attended on the
altar and formed the choir of the Holy Saviour: one hundred
monks and thirty-three children belonged to the choir of
St. Riquier, and an equal number to the choir of the Passion.
These three choirs chanted the services in common ; but
afterwards, while two of the three divisions remained in the
church, the third division rested. In this puerile affecta-
tion of repeating the number three, the bias of men's minds
in favour of the Trinity is easily perceptible.
+
The cloister of St. Riquier is no longer in existence, but
at Planés in Roussillon, a little church is still standing,
triangular in form, and surmounted by a cupola. The idea
which prompted the construction of this curious edifice must
have been analogous with that by which Angilbert's designs
were governed. In Rome, as it is said, the chevalier Bernin
has distinguished by the triangular form the church of
St. Sapienza which is dedicated to the Trinity. Wisdom
in point of fact, is to the principal virtues, what God is to
the Divine persons. Wisdom is the moral unity whence
proceed Faith, Hope, and Charity, like daughters of one.
common mother. These three daughters of Wisdom, and
Wisdom herself, the parent of the three, owed their existence
to the lively imagination of the Byzantines. We meet in
legendary history, with the life of Santa Sophia, the mother of
three children of rare virtue and incomparable beauty,
St. Faith, St. Hope, and St. Charity.
The mother and daughters having been converted to
Christianity and baptised, preached the truth, and in their
turn converted a countless number of Pagans, and became
* Thirty-three only would have been required by a strict attention to rule,
in order to perfect the symbolism.
+ Act SS. Ord. S. Bened., 1e partie, du IVe siécle bénéd., from the year
800 to 855. "Life of St. Angilbert." Angilbert, surnamed Homer in the
Palatine Academy, as Charlemagne was there called David, united in his
own mind, in their most brilliant and concentrated expression, the mystical
ideas prevalent during the reign of the Carlovingian race. At that period,
however, numerous discussions arose concerning the Trinity and the procession
of the Holy Ghost.
++
See the Bulletin Archéologique, published by the "Comité Historique
des Arts et Monuments," vol. i., p. 133, for a description of this church,
written by M. Jaubert de Passa, a non-resident member of the committee.
VOL. II.
D
34
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
themselves subjected to persecution. Being led before the
proconsul, they refused to offer sacrifices to false gods, and
were therefore tortured and at length beheaded. The entire
legend of this interesting family from their birth to their
death, is painted on one of the walls of a convent on Mount
Athos.* Among the relics of virgins, in the Cathedral at
Canterbury, are preserved those of St. Sophia, and her
daughters, Faith, Hope, and Charity.†
This personification and genealogy of Virtue, remind us of
the personification and genealogy of Intelligence already
mentioned, and which is figured in a manuscript bible in the
public library at Rheims. Philosophy engenders Physics,
Logic, and Ethics, exactly as St. Sophia gives birth to Faith,
Hope, and Charity.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
A worship so solemn, so highly developed as that rendered
to the Trinity, would naturally occasion numerous represen-
tations of the three Divine persons united in one group,
and this is accordingly found to be the case.
* The great monastery of Chilandari. In the Byzantine manuscript which
has already been quoted, instructions are given for painting St. Sophia and her
three daughters, St. Faith, St. Hope, and St. Charity, who were all beheaded.
"De reliquiis St. Sapientiæ et filiarum ejus, Fidei, Spei, et Charitatis” (Vide
the Monasticon Anglicanum, by Dodsworth and Dugdale, vol i., p. 5). I dis-
cover from this singular fact, that a certain Byzantine influence was formerly in
operation in England. It must be observed also, that the true Greek cross is
not that with four equal limbs, since Procopius, a Greek writer, asserts that
the foot of the cross ought to be longer than the arms or the top. Greek
crosses are with double cross arms, like those engraved above, and which were
brought from Athens and from Mount Athos. Some relics procured from
Greece, and presented by the Kings of France to the Sainte Chapelle at
Paris, were enclosed in cases made in the form of a cross with double arms.
Now, it is precisely on this plan that several of the large English cathedrals are
built, and in this fact also, I discover that England has been subjected to a
Byzantine influence, the traces of which deserve to be studied and investigated.
Nothing analogous is to be found in France; Gothic or Christian art is with
us "autochthone," except in a very few instances.
In the Manuscript of Herrade, "Hortus deliciarum," Philosophy is repre-
sented sitting on a throne, and pouring from her bosom the sources of the
liberal arts. The floriations of her diadem are formed by three human heads,
Ethics, Logic, and Physics, as saith the Legend.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
35
The art eagerly took possession of a motive that addressed
itself to the imagination with such singular force, and which
was capable of being diversified to an almost unlimited extent.
The centuries which elapsed between the first rise of
Christianity and the Rénaissance, and during which Trinities
were constantly designed, may be divided into four periods.
The first division comprehends the eight first centuries; the
second extends from the ninth to the twelfth; the third
reaches to the fifteenth century; the last period comprehends
the Renaissance, that is to say, the fifteenth and more par-
ticularly the sixteenth century. With reference to archi-
tecture, the first period is called the Latin, because at that
time, the basilicas of Constantine predominated; the second
is the Romanesque, because the Latin style then began,
amongst us more particularly, to be combined with indi-
genous elements; the third is the Gothic or ogival; the
fourth, the Rénaissance.
During the eight first centuries Trinities were merely in a
state of experimental preparation; various different modes of
treatment were then attempted, which re-appeared in a more
complete state of development in succeeding centuries. Not
one really perfect group of the Trinity is to be found either
in the catacombs, or upon ancient sarcophagi.
Jesus is frequently seen, but alone, or at most accom-
panied only by the dove, which symbolises the Holy Ghost.
A hand is perceived, which ought to be intended for that
of God the Father, holding a crown above the head of the
Son, but in the absence of the Holy Ghost. The Cross and
the Lamb, symbols of the Son, the hand revealing the pre-
sence of the Father, and Doves, sometimes symbolising the
Holy Ghost,* are frequently seen in the fresco paintings,
or on the sculptured marbles of the catacombs. But these
symbols are almost always isolated; they are very rarely
united in one spot, or upon the same monument, and never
linked together and bound up in one.
Yet after the fourth century, in the time of Paulinus,
bishop of Nola, who was born in 353, and died in 431,
* I say, sometimes, because the dove sculptured or painted in the catacombs
is most generally that bringing back the olive branch to Noah, and not the dove
of the Holy Ghost. See on this subject the "Roma Sotterranea" of Bosio.
D 2
36
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
groups of the Trinity made their appearance. In the apse
of the basilica of St. Felix, erected by St. Paulinus himself
at Nola, is a group of the Trinity executed in mosaic.
St. Paulinus wrote the following lines in explanation of the
subject:
"Pleno coruscat Trinitas mysterio :
Stat Christus agno, vox Patris cælo tonat,
Et per columbam Spiritus-Sanctus fluit,
Crucem corona lucido cingit globo;
Cui coronæ sunt corona apostoli,
Quorum figura est in columbarum choro.
Pia Trinitatis unitas Christo coït."
Thus, in this Trinity, Christ is figured by a lamb, and the
Holy Ghost by a dove. The Father is said to speak, but
the poet does not say in what manner he was depicted.*
In the same letter,—a little afterwards, when describing the
painting which had been executed in the basilica of
St. Felix at Fondi, in the interior of the apse,-St. Paulinus
adds-
"Sub cruce sanguineâ niveo stat Christus in agno,
Agnus ut innocua injusto datus hostia leto.
Alite quem placida sanctus perfundit hiantem
Spiritus, et rutila genitor de nube coronat."
The lamb is here added to the Cross, in order to complete
or to double the symbol of Christ. The Spirit is always in
the form of a dove-it is the Divine bird; but the Father, if
not represented entirely in the human form, must at least
be figured by a hand holding a crown above the Saviour's
head. The above are the earliest known indications of repre-
sentations of the Trinity. It should be observed that these
groups are mosaics, adorning the apses of basilicas. In fact, it
is in mosaics and at the extreme end of Latin basilicas, that
representations of the Trinity, resembling the second of
* See the works of St. Paulinus, Epistola 12a ad Severum. A little
before the text just quoted, Paulinus had said—
Atque ubi Christus ibi Spiritus et Pater est."
But that verse signified only, that in beholding Christ, the Father and the Son
also were consequently seen, and that each of the three persons was represented
under a 'special figure.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
37
those described by Paulinus, are most commonly seen. In
the churches of St. Damien, and St. Cosmo at Rome, in
530; in St. Mark's, in the same city, in 774; in the Cathe-
dral of Padua towards the close of the eighth century; in
St. Prassede, in Rome, in 818, Trinities were executed in
mosaic, which might be taken for copies of those of St.
Paulinus.*
This theme remained in favour at Rome as late as the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Pope Nicholas IV.,
between the years 1288 and 1294, caused the apse of the
Church of St. Giovanni in Laterano, to be decorated, and
a large mosaic there, stands out in most resplendent brilli-
ancy; it contains in the centre a representation of the
Trinity. A Cross, covered with precious stones, is elevated
on the summit of a mountain symbolic of Paradise.
Holy Ghost in the form of a dove, hovers above the Cross
and envelopes it in a flood of radiance. Above all is the
Father, emerging from the clouds, and with the bust and
bare head alone visible; the latter encircled by a double
nimbus, the square and the circular.†
The
Another type of the Trinity constantly to be met with
in works of the fourteenth century, appears to have been in
use, from the earliest Christian epoch.
The following history is given in "Jacobus de Voragine,
at the Festival of the Exaltation of the Cross."
“In the year of our Lord 615, God permitted that his
people should be scourged by the cruelty of the Pagans.
Chosroes, king of the Persians, subjected to his empire all
the kingdoms of the world. He visited Jerusalem, and
quitted in awe the sepulchre of our Saviour; but carried
away with him notwithstanding that portion of the Holy
Cross, which had been deposited there by St. Helena.
Chosroes, wishing to be adored by all mankind as a deity,
commanded the erection of a tower of gold and silver, orna-
mented with glistening gems; there too, he placed images.
of the sun, the moon, and stars. By means of narrow and
*Ciampini, Vetera Monimenta. Engravings of these mosaics, and of many
other like designs, are given in that work. [See Tav., xvi., xlvii., lii., and
liv. The latter is a very fine example.-ED.]
† A description has already been given of this interesting mosaic, of which
M. Tournal favoured me with a design.
38
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
hidden conduits he caused rain to fall as if he had indeed
been God. Horses were placed on the top of the tower,
round which they dragged chariots, thus shaking the build-
ing and producing sounds resembling thunder. Then
relinquishing the kingdom to his son, the profane maniac
retired into that pharos, and having commanded the Cross
of our blessed Saviour to be placed near him, he desired
all men to call him God. According to the account given
in the book 'De Mitrali Officio,'* Chosroes seated on
a throne like that of God the Father, placed the Cross on
his right hand in the place assigned to God the Son,
and a cock on his left, instead of the Holy Ghost; for
himself, he commanded that he should be called God the
Father."
The Emperor Heraclius made war on the son of Chosroes
and defeated him; he entered his capital and penetrated to
the apartment of the old king, who had then become insane.
He found him seated in his tower of gold and silver, as in a sort
of paradise, like the Father Almighty between the other two
Divine persons. Chosroes refusing to become a Christian,
Heraclius cut off his head with one stroke of the sword, in
the presence of his painted angels and the cock.†
* This book, so frequently quoted by liturgists and legendaries, is attributed
to a bishop of Cremona, Richard, who lived in 1195. The Mitrale, vel Summa
de Divinis Officiis is still in manuscript. It is, however, a work well worthy
of publication. Such books as the "Mitrale" would be of the greatest
service to literati engaged in the study of Christian antiquities.
The following is the original of this important passage, which has been
here translated literally “Anno domini 615, permittente Domino flagellari
populum suum per sævitiam paganorum. Cosdroe, rex Persarum, omnia regna
terrarum suo imperio subjugavit. Hierusalem autem veniens, a sepulcro
Domini territus rediit, sed tamen partem S. Crucis quam St. Helena ibidem
reliquerat asportavit. Volens autem ab omnibus coli ut Deus, turrim et auro
et argento et interlucentibus gemmis fecit, et ibidem solis, lunæ et stellarum
imagines collocavit. Per subtiles etiam et occultos ductus, quasi Deus, aquam
desuper infundebat, et in supremo specu equi quadrigas trahentes in circuitu
ibant, ut quasi turrim moverent et tonitrua simularent. Filio igitur regno
suo tradito, in tali phano prophanus residet, et juxta se crucem Domini collocans
appellari ab omnibus se Deum jubet. Et, sicut legitur in libro Mitrali de
Officio' ipso Cosdroe in throno residens, tanquam Pater, lignum Crucis sibi a
dextris posuit loco Filii, et gallum a sinistris loco Spiritus-Sancti;' se vero
jussit Patrem nominari.” The Emperor Heraclius made war on the son of
Chosroes, destroyed his army, and entered his royal city. "Cosdroe autem
ignorabat exitum belli, quia, cum ab omnibus odiretur, sibi a nemine intimatur.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
39
In this description we have the living group of the Christian
Trinity mocked, mimicked, dramatised by an old Pagan who
had lost his senses. In this group the Father is an old man,
the Son is represented by his cross, and the Holy Ghost by
a cock, put in the place of the sacred dove. This motive
resembles that described by S. Paulinus, and exhibited in
the various mosaics that have been mentioned above: still
it differs in certain points.
It is similar in regard to the symbols, showing forth the
Divine persons; but different in the general arrangement of
the group, and the disposition of the symbols of which it
is composed. In the description given by S. Paulinus, and
in the mosaics, the Trinity is vertical; in the Golden Legend
it is horizontal.
S. Paulinus mentions the cross as placed below, and the
Holy Ghost above the cross, and the Father surmounting
the whole. In the legend the Father is in the centre,
having the cross on his right, and the Holy Ghost on the
left. Further, S. Paulinus and the Mosaicists place the
Holy Ghost in the centre, while Chosroes as the Almighty
Father, places himself in the midst, and gives the left to the
cock, his Holy Ghost. As we proceed, the difference
between these two types will be more fully illustrated by
drawings.
During the second period, from the ninth to the twelfth
century, the two anterior types continue in use,* but are
Heraclius autem ad eum pervenit et in throno aureo eum sedere reperiens,
eidem dixit: 'Quia lignum S. Crucis secundum tuum modulum honorasti, si
baptismum et fidem Christi susceperis, adhuc vitam et regnum, paucis a te
acceptis obsidibus, obtinebis. Si autem hoc implere contempseris, gladio meo
te feriam et caput tuum prescidam.' Cum igitur ille acquiescere nollet,
extracto gladio, eum protinus decollavit, et, quia rex fuerat, sepeliri præcepit."
(Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda aurea, de Exaltatione S. Crucis.)
These types continue during the whole of the middle ages, even in France
where men were less faithful to Latin tradition. In the voussure of the central
door in the western porch of the collegiate church of Mantes, is a Trinity, repre-
sented by a cross, not carried merely, but exalted by two angels, by the Father who
is of the same age and has the same features as the Son, and the Holy Ghost in
the form of a dove, descending from heaven. The subjects are placed in vertical
order, at the extremity of the three cordons. The Father is in the centre, the
cross below, and the dove surmounting the whole. This sculpture dates from the
twelfth century, or, perhaps, the close of the eleventh. This is a new and most
interesting arrangement. I cannot speak of the Church of Mantes, without
40
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
enriched with two new motives, one borrowed from the
human figure, the other from geometrical forms.
*
Anthropomorphism, which was so repulsive to the first
Christians, and had appeared to them like a revival of
Paganism, did not meet with the same opposition during
the middle ages, properly so called. Having attained the
ninth century, Christianity had no longer anything to fear
from Pagan ideas; the fall of Paganism had long been
accomplished. The Almighty Father whose hand only had
hitherto been shown or at most, his bust, was now represented
at full length. Still no special form was assigned to him;
he merely borrowed that of the Son, and from that time
forward, it became difficult to distinguish the one from the
other. The Son continued to appear, as he had been seen
on earth, under the figure of a man of lofty stature, beautiful
and solemn, of from thirty to thirty-five years of age. The
dove of the Holy Ghost sometimes also threw off the veil of
the bird-like form and assumed that of a man. Theology
having positively declared that the three persons were not
only similar, but equal amongst themselves, artists extended
that similitude to their representations, and occasionally
represented the three Divine hypostases as equal also.
Saint Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in
908, left behind him a manuscript in which the three persons
are figured under the human form. The Father and the
Son, clad in kingly apparel, with crowns on their heads and
sceptres in their hands, both appear to be about thirty-five
years of age. The Holy Ghost is younger, and scarcely
more than eighteen or twenty-five. A similarity in person
is apparent, but a difference in point of age. That latter
difference finally disappears, and in the manuscript of
Herrade, dating from the year 1180, it is replaced by absolute
identity. The three Divine persons are of the same age, in
the same attitude, and of the same temperament; all wearing
extolling M. de Wavrechin, the curé of that beautifnl and ancient collegiate
church, by whom it has been repaired and fitted up with truly arch≈ological
taste and science.
* By anthropomorphism must be understood, not the heresy to which that
name has been given, but the figuring of Divine persons under the human
form. It is the intention of the present work simply to state facts, not to test
the soundness of doctrine.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
41
also the same costume. Which is intended for the Father,
which for the Son, and which for the Holy Ghost, in this
anthropomorphic Trinity?
By comparison with other monuments, and bearing in
mind the Scriptural texts already quoted, it may be supposed
that the Father is in the centre, the Son on the right hand,
and the Holy Ghost on the left, such being the most
constant custom. But the miniaturist appears in this instance
to have aimed at discomfiting both the antiquary and the
theologian. On the feet of one of the Divine persons he has
traced the stigmata, which, however, are scarcely visible in
the original manuscript.* The stigmata, of course, can
belong only to Christ the Saviour; yet it must be remem-
bered that no similar marks are in the hands, and that even
on the feet they are of singular form, that of a cross,
which could not have been produced by nails. That form,
however, is undoubtedly symbolic, and it must be supposed
that the figure in the centre is that of Christ. Where then
is the Father? It is impossible to determine, because
impossible to decide whether the Holy Ghost is placed on
the left hand or on the right. The identity of persons thus
appears to be almost absolute.
The Trinity, in opposition to an anthropomorphism so pecu-
liarly complete and material as the above, is sometimes figured
under the driest and most abstract form; that of the triangle,
which is borrowed from geometry. It was thence that
the triangular form, in which the convent of Fleury is built,
assumed its mystical signification; thence too, St. Angilbert
erected the church of St. Riquier on a triangular plan, and
in honour of the Trinity. The triangle, comprehending
three angles in one single area, is a correct image of the
three persons, resolving themselves into one single God.
The thirteenth century purchased to itself eternal
glory, not merely by discovering and inventing new
elements, that it threw into the crucible, wherein
Christian and Catholic symbolism which had in former
ages been elaborated, were then undergoing to a certain
* M. Durand, my designer, had not at first remarked them, and I found it
necessary to point out to him this microscopic point, and request him tɔ correct
his drawing. A few errors of this nature have slipped into our engravings,
but whenever it has been impossible to correct them, they have been mentioned.
42
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.

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Fig. 137.—THE TRINITY IN THREE HUMAN PERSONS OF IDENTICAL FIGURE.
From a Manuscript of the XII cent.*
* "Hortus deliciarum."
The above Trinity is introduced in illustration
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CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 43
""
extent, the process of crystallisation, but rather by its having
given full development to elements of which only the germ
had existed in preceding centuries. It is the deathless
glory of that epoch to have brought to maturity and formed
into a flower what preceding periods had been content
merely to sow. The little Latin bell or "sonnette'
(squilla),* as has been elsewhere observed,† became in the
Romanesque period the church bell; but after the thirteenth
century it swelled into the "bourdon." The steeple
became a bell turret, and in the thirteenth century a tower.
The same may be observed with regard to Iconography.
Trinities, which, during the first period were heteromorph,
and the second alike in form, were still figured during the
third; but they were then completed, multiplied, and
brought to perfection. For one Latin Trinity, or two of
the Romanesque period, we meet with perhaps twenty or
thirty Gothic Trinities: they are found in the same relative
proportion, starting even from the close of the twelfth
century.
At that time, as in the earliest period, Trinities are seen,
in which the Father is revealed by a hand only; the Son by
the Cross, the Lamb, or the human form; and the Holy
Ghost by the dove. The symbols of the three persons are
grouped vertically or horizontally, as in the first period:
there are also, as in the second period, geometric and
anthropomorphic Trinities.
But the third period was not content to multiply, or to
reproduce in considerable numbers, groups that had already
been adopted; it modified and perfected them. To the cross.
of the Latin period the Divine figure of the crucified had
of the creation, at the moment when God, before creating man, says, "Faciamus
hominem ad imaginem et similitudinem nostram et præsit cunetis animantibus
terræ.' The same text of Genesis is written on the scroll held by the three
persons.
99
* And note, that there be six kinds of bells which be used in the church:
namely, the "squilla, the cymbalum, the nota, the nohila (or double
campana), the signum, and the campana. The squilla is rung in the
triclinium, that is, in the refectory; the cymbalum in the cloister; the nota
in the choir; the nohila, or double campana, in the clock; the campana in
the campanile, the signum in the tower."-Durandus-first book of the
Rationale, page 93.—Trans.
+ Monographie de Notre Dame de Brou, in the Introduction.
44
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
been attached in the Romanesque epoch; so, too, the
equality of the Divine persons, which owed its origin to the
Romanesque period, was, during the Gothic, most energeti-
cally and distinctly expressed. In the manuscript of

/* ** ****
·P.D.
Fig 138.—THE THREE DIVINE PERSONS FUSED ONE INTO THE OTHER.
From a Spanish Miniature of the XIII cent.*
Herrade, the three persons are depicted under the human
form, and equal as far as was possible. Yet those persons,
* Chronique d'Isidore de Seville, MS. de la Bibl. Roy., 7135. The third
head is not seen, because in plan the three heads would form a trefoil, and the
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 45
although sitting on one same throne-although supporting
one single scroll, and all of the same age, are, nevertheless,
very distinctly three bodies; they are drawn closely together,
but still they are not in contact. Now, after the thirteenth
century, not only do the divine figures touch, but they
actually cohere. The three bodies form now one only,
with three heads, which latter in their turn are completely
welded together.
In anthropomorphic representations, one passes, so to
speak, from similarity to identity. In geometrical figures,
on the contrary, more distinction begins to be made between
the three persons than in the preceding period. *
The
triangle, in fact, gives under a form the most compact, and
with as little distinction as possible, the triplicity resolving
itself into unity. The thirteenth century adds a
adds a new
geometrical type, in which the triplicity is more visible
and the unity less absolute. The circle is considered as
emblematic of God, and three circles figure the three
persons; but in order to mark the indissoluble union in
which those three persons are linked together, the three
circles are intertwined, one within the other, in such a
manner that one could not be severed or removed without
third is consequently concealed by the two which are visible. If the manu-
script from which the above design is taken be Spanish, like the text which it
contains, mediæval art in Spain, it must be confessed, appears widely different
from ours; it is far more original, or perhaps we should rather say abnormal.
In a Spanish manuscript in the Bibliothèque d'Amiens, several singular par-
ticularities unknown amongst ourselves, are also to be found.
* After the eighth century, when it was desired to show the equality of the
Divine persons, examples were taken which proved too much, the effect was a
near approach to absolute identity. St. Odile, Abbess of the Convent of
Hohenburg, in Alsace, which is known in the present day by the name of St.
Odile, planted three linden trees in honour of the Trinity. The relation of
this circumstance is curious enough to be worth transcribing. A man once
came to seek the saint, and presented her with three branches, taken from one
single linden tree; he desired her to plant them, that they might remain there
in memory of her.
"Et tulit (S. Odilia) unam in manu sua, et ait; ‘In
nomine Patris te planto.' Et accipiens alteram, dixit: Et in nomine Filii.'
Et tertiam tulit dicens: Et in nomine Spiritus Sancti ;' mysterium Trinitatis
complens." The three branches took root, and became three large trees
exactly alike, equal, and almost identical, beneath the shade of which the nuns
enjoyed the air in summer.-See, in the Act. SS. Ord. de S. Benedict,
vol. iv., "La Vie de Saint Odile," by an anonymous writer, apparently of
about the eleventh century. Odile died about 720.
46
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
at the same time severing all the three. The word Trinity,
by a singular coincidence, may itself be divided into three
syllables. One of each of these syllables is placed in each
circle, but they have no perfect meaning, and will not form
any word unless united. TRI-NI-TAS. In the space left
vacant in the centre by the intersection of the three circles,
we read the word UNITAS. Thus, then, Unity is the
centre from which radiates the Trinity.

tri
britas
tas
Fig. 139.—THE TRINITY UNDER THE FORM OF THREE CIRCLES.
From a French Miniature of the close of the XIII cent.*
In the same manuscript there are, besides the preceding
three, other groups of three circles. One of these groups
has the following words distributed equally throughout each
of the three circles:-PATER-FILIUS-SPIRITUS—
SANCTUS, all of which resolve themselves in the centre
into VITA DEUS. In the second is VERBUM, LUX,
* Manuscript de la Bibl. Communale de Chartres, No. 1355, end of the
thirteenth century.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
47
VITA, terminating in the centre in DEUS-EST.* In the
third is, TRI-TRI, NI-NI, TAS-TATE; and in the centre,
UNITÁTE UNITAS. The Unity diverges into Trinity,
the Trinity converges into Unity. Lastly, in the gloss we
read, "Verbum, lux, vita Deus est,"-"Verbum, lux, vita
Jesus-Christus est,"-" Verbum, lux, vita Spiritus-Sanctus
est." Invert these three terms and displace the attributes,
and the following dogma will be found to be the result.
"Deus trinus unus. These figures, then, are merely the
interpretation in a geometrical form of the Creed of
St. Athanasius.
It might be expected of the subtle genius of Dante, that
he would readily adopt such a geometrical formula. That
great poet, in fact, closes the "Paradise" with the following
strophes, in which the idea of both the Trinity and Unity
is embodied in magnificent language.

"Nella profonda e chiara sussistenza,
Dell' alto lume parvemi tre giri,
Di tre colori e d'una contenenza;
E l' un dall' altro, come Iri da Iri,+
Parea riflesso; e'l terzo parea fuoco,‡
Che quinci e quindi igualmente si spiri.
*
O luce eterna che sola in te sidi,
Sola t'intendi, e da te intelletta
Ed intendente te ami ed arridi !
Quella circulazion che sì concetta
Pareva in te, come lume reflesso,
Dagli occhi miei alquanto circonspetta,
Dentro da se del suo colore istesso
Mi parve pinta della nostra effige; §
Perche il mio viso in lei tutto era messo.
"Verbum occupies the place which in the preceding is
answers to "Lux," and "Spiritus
وو
It
* In this group
filled by the word "Pater;' "Filius" answers to
Sanctus " to "Vita." Can this arrangement have been intentional?
seems scarcely possible to suppose so, for although the Son may be called
Light, and the Holy Ghost Life, still the Father, most certainly, is not
specially the Word. By attributing, on the other hand, the Word to the Son,
Light to the Holy Ghost, and Life to the Father, the definition already given
of the Divine persons is almost strictly adhered to.
The Son by the Father; Lumen de lumine.
The Holy Ghost: Qui ex Patre Filioque procedit.
§ The effigy of Jesus Christ. The Italian Poet has imagined a portrait in
48
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Qual è 'l geometra che tutto s'affige
Per misurar lo cerchio, e non ritruova
Pensando, quel principio ond' egli indige;
Tale era io a quella vista nuova :
Veder voleva come si convenne
L' imago al cerchio, e come vi s' indova;
Ma non eran da ciò le proprie penne:
Se non che la mia mente fu percossa
Da un fulgore in che sua voglia venne.*
Paradiso, Canto xxxiii., 1. 115.
It has been frequently repeated that the genius of Dante
was reproduced in the creations of Michelangelo. The
painting of the Last Judgment, has with justice been
regarded as an interpretation into line and colour of the
gloomy and glorious poem written and sung by Dante. To
us those illustrious Florentines appear like twin brothers
in genius. The traits of similarity which mark them as
belonging to one family have frequently been noticed, but
one circumstance, elevating that similarity to the highest
the space, where the scholastic author of Chartres had written a word. The
idea is analogous, but conveyed in two different languages.
*❝In that abyss
Of radiance, clear and lofty, seem'd, methought,
Three orbs of triple hue, clipt in one bound;
And, from another, one reflected seem'd,
As rainbow is from rainbow; and the third
Seem'd fire, breathed equally from both.
*
*
O eternal light!
*
Sole in thyself thou dwell'st; and of thyself
Sole understood, past, present, or to come;
Thou smiledst, on that circling, which in thee
Seem'd as reflected splendour, while I mused ;
For I therein, methought, in its own hue
Beheld our image painted; stedfastly
As one
I therefore pored upon the view.
Who, versed in geometric lore, would fain
Measure the circle; and, though pondering long
And deeply, that beginning, which he needs,
Finds not; e'en such was I, intent to scan
The novel wonder, and trace out the form,
How to the circle fitted, and therein.
How placed; but the flight was not for my wing;
Had not a flash darted athwart my mind,
And, in the spleen, unfolded what it sought.
Cary's Dante, Paradise, Canto xxxiii., 1. 136.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 49
degree possible, has been completely overlooked, or rather,
the fact has been observed, but not understood. Vasari,
who lived on familiar terms with Michelangelo, was himself
deceived; in fact, in his life of that sublime artist he writes
thus: "Michelangelo, during the greater portion of his
life, made use of a seal, bearing the emblem of three inter-
twined circles. He undoubtedly intended thereby to signify,
that the union between painting, sculpture, and architecture,
was so close and intimate, that the three ought never to be
divided. The academicians,* judging him to have attained
the highest rank in each of the three arts of design, changed
the three circles into three crowns, and added to them the
following legend: "TERGEMINIS TOLLIT HONORIBUS.'”
I cannot subscribe to the opinion expressed by Vasari.
It seems, in the first place, difficult to believe that Michel-
angelo indulged in the childish pride of carrying about with
him a symbol of his excellence in the three arts of design;
and, in the next, by comparing the above extract from
Vasari with the language of Dante and the three circles of
our own sculptor at Chartres, it is at once evident that the
pretended seal, instead of being a monument of pride, was a
symbol of faith. It was a ring, on which the creed of
St. Athanasius had been traced with the compasses; a
geometrical creed, in short. Both Vasari, and the Florentine
academicians may have been alike deceived, but it is certain
that the idea of the taciturn and impenetrable artist sprang
from a source more elevated than, and very different from,
that accorded to it by his countrymen and cotemporaries.
Besides the seal just mentioned, Michelangelo had another;
that famous engraved stone, a precious monument of anti-
quity, on which, in a very narrow field, were graven fifteen
human figures, two animals, and a tree, surrounded by a vine
and a curtain.
The three circles, an extension, and the complement of
the triangle, were invented in the thirteenth century, and con-
tinued down to the sixteenth. During the period which
commenced at the close of the fifteenth century and lasted
* Those of Florence, at the time of the pompous ceremony of Michel-
angelo's funeral.
"Lives of the Painters," translated
+ Vasari, "Life of Michelangelo."
by Mrs. Foster.-Bohn's Standard Library.
VOL. II.
E
50
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY,
till the seventeenth, embracing the whole era of the Rénais-
sance, nearly every type of anterior date was admitted to
equality of rank, and treated with the same respect: it was
an epoch of universal syncretism. Men were Pagans and
Christians in the same degree,-monarchical and republican
with equal intensity. In the plastic art, as well as in
political and religious belief, everything that presented
itself was accepted and received.
The Renaissance added some few novelties to the past,
but its grand feature was, that it granted the rights of
citizenship to everything that had been imagined or per-
formed since the first creation of the world.* We find
consequently in monuments of that period, instances of all
the different types of the Trinity that have been mentioned.
The Latin, Romanesque, and Gothic periods were eager to
offer the types which they had created and modified, and the
Rénaissance accepted all. The symbols invented in the
earliest period, the hand of the Father, the cross of the
Son, and the dove of the Holy Ghost, descended to the
Rénaissance, but with additional details that had developed
themselves between the ninth and twelfth centuries. The
Father displays the head, the bust, or the entire body;
the cross bears the crucified Saviour, and the dove is seen
alighting on the head or hand of the Holy Ghost, whom it
is employed to symbolise. This last addition belongs espe-
cially to the Rénaissance, while the others may be referred
to the two preceding periods. It is, however, very rarely
that the Holy Ghost is represented at the same time under
the human form, and that of a dove; nothing is so unusual
as to see on the same monument the third person of the
Trinity combine in himself the double symbol of man and
*The genius of the Renaissance may be said to have drawn inspiration from
that of the Romans, whose civilisation it sought to revive. The Roman
Emperors, in their universal toleration to all religious sects, granted the rights
of citizenship to deities of every nation, and it is well known that the Emperor
Alexander Severus kept in his Lararium images of Christ, of Apollonius of
Tyana, of Orpheus, and of Abraham, side by side with those of the best
heathen princes, and most celebrated philosophers. To all these personages,
who doubtless marvelled to find themselves thus assembled, Severus paid
religious homage. The Renaissance likewise treated with equal honour ideas
the most discordant, and individuals the most dissimilar, and even the most
at variance.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
51
dove. We are at present aware of three examples only, two
of which have been given in this work.*

M
Fig. 140.—THE DIVINE TRIPLICITY, CONTAINED WITHIN THE UNITY.
From a German Engraving of the XVI cent.t
* Figs. 126 and 150. The third example was mentioned to me by
M. Dusevel d'Amiens. In it the three Divine persons are represented in human
form, each holding on his knees his symbolic attribute. The Father with a
triangle, the Son with a cross, the Holy Ghost with a dove.
This singular
subject is painted in a manuscript of the fifteenth century, now in the possession
of M. Dusevel. I should have made an engraving of this design had I been
earlier aware of its existence.
+ The above design is copied from an engraving belonging to the close of the
E 2
52
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Just as to the dove of the Latin epoch, a man is annexed by
the Romanesque school to complete the figure of the Holy
Ghost; so also, in representing the entire Trinity, the
Romanesque triangle is added to the Gothic circle, of which
we have already spoken. These two geometrical figures are
entwined one within the other, and the most complete
formula imaginable, of the unity of substance circumscribing
the triplicity of persons, is thus obtained. Further still, as
if that figure did not give a sufficiently palpable idea of the
divinity, it is placed in the hand of God himself. That aged
man, measuring with his arms as with the branches of a
compass, the diameter of the eternal circle, the area of that
Divine unity in which the triangle of the three persons is
inscribed, may be regarded in some sort, as the living inter-
pretation of that geometrical abstraction.*
As to those Trinities in which all three of the Divine
persons have the human form, a type which first appeared in
the ninth century, and continued in use down to the close
of the thirteenth, during the Romanesque period; its com-
plete development is more particularly to be remarked in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Several examples have been already given, to which the
reader is referred, and others will yet be added. The
Chronique d' Isidore de Seville," has furnished us with an
anthropomorphic Trinity, representing the heads of the
Divine persons, animating one single body; but those heads
are distinct, although blended together.
In the following example, on the contrary, the heads are in
something more than a mere juxta-position, or even adherent,
or welded together; they are commingled, and so intimately
blended, as to present one single skull only, with three
faces.
sixteenth century, designed and engraved by Matheus Gruter; it belongs to
M. Guénebault, who pressingly invited me to make use of it. (See the
work of Gruter in the Bibl. Roy. in the Cabinet des Estampes.) The reader
will remark the nimbus, its circumference radiating with teeth like those of a
saw, which encircles the head of God, and the similar form of the aureole
surrounding a portion of His body.
* There is more of true dignity in figuring God the Father thus measuring
the world, than as holding in his hand a pair of compasses, as in Fig. 149.
The Renaissance, whatever may be said of it, infused into ideas and the mode
of expressing them, a degree of nobleness rarely seen, especially in France
during the middle ages.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
53
:
Here the representation of the Trinity is as complete
as possible. Besides the triple visage which supplies an

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Fig. 141.-THE THREE FACES OF THE TRINITY, ON ONE SINGLE HEAD, AND
ON ONE SINGLE BODY.
A French Example of the xvi cent.*
explication of the triangle cut off at the corners by the three
circles symbolising the three Divine persons, a legend is
appended, which serves for a gloss, and interprets at the same
*The above representation may be seen in a volume
printed on vellum at Paris, in 1524, by Simon Vostre.
It
of the Hours,
is besides, very
54
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
time, both the difference and the equality of the three hypo-
stases. The difference is read on the sides of the triangle,
and the equality converges towards the centre, and meets in
a circle resembling those in the corners. Upon the sides
is written "The Father is not the Son. The Father is
not the Holy Ghost. The Holy Ghost is not the Son." But
going from the corners towards the centre, we read—“ The
Father is God. The Son is God. The Holy Ghost is God."
This singular subject is transitionary, leading from purely
geometrical images, to those which are human or anthropo-
morphic.
ce
The Romanesque period first conceived this manner of
representing the three persons under the human form, the
Father as well as the Son, the Holy Ghost as well as the
other two.
The manuscript of St. Dunstan has been already quoted,
and one miniature has been given from the manuscript of
Herrade; but we should add that the three persons were
regarded in this light by the philosopher Abelard, who had
all the three sculptured in human form, in the Abbey of the
Paraclete. "It deserves remark," says Father Mabillon,
"that Abelard had the three persons of the Trinity, to
whom the Oratory in that place (the Paraclete) was dedi-
commonly seen after the commencement of the fifteenth century. It may
be found sculptured at Bordeaux, on a house said to have been inhabited
by Montaigne, in the "Rue des Bahutiers." This carving occupies the
exterior tympanum of the entrance door. The triangle and inscription are still
discernible, but the three faces and the four attributes of the Evangelists are no
longer in existence. The drawing given above is the most complete of that
kind. Mr. Albert Way, director of the Antiquarian Society of London and
correspondent of the "Comité des Arts et Monuments," informs me, that in the
counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, Geometrical Trinities resembling that
at Bordeaux, are constantly to be met with. These representations are to be
found on church portals, on funeral slabs, sometimes on painted windows. They
are all the work of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and are traced upon
escutcheons in the manner of armorial bearings. We are assured that they
occur in the eastern part of England alone, and have never been seen either in
the north or the west. This observation may be important, not only in its
bearing on archæology, but with regard also to history. Though frequent
with us,
it is uncommon in England, and found only in the counties nearest
France, and which were the first to be occupied by the Normans. [The same
triangle and cross-legends may be found in the arms of the monastery of the
Holy Trinity, or Christchurch, Aldgate. See Tanner's Notitia Monastica,
p. 46, fig. ci., and also in the centre of the large painted window of the north
transept of Canterbury Cathedral.]—ED.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 55
cated, sculptured on a single stone. They are of human
form and stature, an unusual mode of representation, and
well worthy of a man who was original in everything."*
The Father was in the centre, the Son on the right hand,
the Holy Ghost on the left, holding his hands crossed upon
his breast.
It was daring to represent as a man the Almighty Father,
who had never been seen by man; but there seemed an
excess of audacity in figuring as a man, and a man without
wings, the Holy Ghost, who had never been seen except in
the form of a dove. Consequently in the Gothic period
properly so called, that which lasted from the close of the
twelfth century to the end of the fourteenth, the type invented
by Romanesque artists, was almost entirely abandoned; but
at the time of the Gothic decline, at the dawn and throughout
the entire duration of the Rénaissance, the same method of
treating the hypostases was again resorted to.
With the exception of the miniature borrowed from the
manuscript of Herrade, the drawings already given and
those which we are about to give, are all of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries; and it is a singular circumstance
that even the Trinity sculptured by order of Abelard, as
described by Mabillon, belongs to the sixteenth and not to
the twelfth. It is possible that the group of which Mabillon
speaks, may have been substituted in the place of one more
ancient, and more or less resembling that which the learned
Benedictine may have seen; but the monument he describes
cannot have been contemporary with Abelard. In fact the
Father was in the character of an Emperor, carrying the
globe in one (the left) hand and having on his head a closed
crown. He was clad in an alb, with a stole crossed upon
the breast and confined by a girdle, and with a cope
extending to the other two persons, whom it was intended
to cover, thus typifying the Divine Unity. From the clasp
(agrafe) of the mantle depended a scroll, on which was
* Annales Benedict., vol. vi., p. 85, No. 14. Mabillon is mistaken; this
manner of figuring the Trinity was not unusual, since, from the ninth
century upwards, the divine persons are constantly thus represented on monu-
ments;
and in innumerable monuments of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies, the same type is preserved. We shall return immediately to the writings
of the illustrious Benedictine.
56
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
written "Thou art my Son." The Son was on the right
hand of the Father, and wore a similar alb, but had no
girdle. He held in his hand a cross, which he clasped to
his bosom. On the left hung a scroll with the words
"Thou art my Father." On the left of the Father was
the Holy Ghost, having also a similar alb, his hands crossed.
upon his breast, and holding the following sentence-“ I am
the breath of both." The Son had a crown of thorns; the
Holy Ghost a crown of olive. Both were looking towards
the Father, who alone, of the three, wore shoes. All three
had the same countenance, the same physiognomy, the same
form.* With the exception of the crossed stole, which belongs
to the Son, and not to the Father,† all the characteristics
here given pertain to a monument of the sixteenth century,
and not of the twelfth. The crown of thorns, in repre-
sentations of the Trinity, the cross in the hands of the Son,
the closed crown worn by the Father, the cope covering all
the three persons at once, and the scroll hanging from it,
are none of them earlier than the close of the fifteenth
century. We have figures of the Trinity, cotemporary with
Abelard, and not one among them agrees with the description
* "Videtur hic observare trium sanctissimæ Trinitatis cui dedicatum ejus
loci oratorium est (the Paraclete), personarum extantes figuras ad humanam
staturam, ex uno lapide fabrefactas, quas Abailardus ipse fabricari curavit,
insolito, ut in omnibus insolitus erat, modo. Pater in medio positus est cum
toga talari, stola et collo pendente et ad pectus decussata, atque ad cingulum
adstricta cum corona clausa in capite et globo in sinistra manu; pallio super-
indutus, quod ad duas hinc inde personas extenditur, cujus a fibula pendet
lambus deauratus his verbis adscriptis: Filius meus es tu.
Ad patris
dexteram stat Filius cum simili toga, sed absque cingulo, habens in manibus
crucem pectori appositam, et ad sinistram partem lambum cum his verbis: Pater
meus es tu. Ad sinistram extat Spiritus Sanctus consimili toga indutus
decussatus super pectus habens manus cum
cum hoc dicto: Ego utriusque
spiraculam. Filius coronam spineam, Spiritus Sanctus olearem gerit.
Uterque respicit Patrem, qui calceatus est, non duæ aliæ persona. Eadem in
tribus vultus, species et fornia.”—Annales Bened., vol. vi., p. 85, No. 14.
+ The Son is a priest after the order of Melchisedeck; he is at the same
time pontiff and victim. Hence it comes that he is sometimes represented
performing the office of the Mass, often in bishop's robes, very frequently
wearing above the alb a stole, crossed like that worn by priests under the
chasuble. It is not thus with the Father. It is quite possible that Mabillon
may have assigned to the Father attributes belonging properly to the Son,
since he makes an error of four centuries in the date of the monument of
which he is speaking.
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 57
given by Mabillon: we possess, and have given, copies of
Trinities of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the
characteristics by which they are distinguished range them-
selves amongst the number of those attributed to the Trinity
of Abelard.
The anthropomorphic representation of the Trinity, appears
then to have been in high favour at the Rénaissance, and the

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Fig. 142.—THE THREE DIVINE FACES WITH TWO EYES AND ONE SINGLE BODY.
From a French Miniature of the XVI cent.*
* Manuscript of King Henry II., Bibl. Roy. The Trinity is here represented
engaged in the creation of the world, as related in the Gospel of St. John; the
Eagle of the Evangelist is placed upon a scroll-panel, on which is written, "In
principio creavit cœlum et terram.” The Eagle, as the attribute of an Apostle,
58
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
conclusion of the Gothic period. The type was greatly multi-
plied and as a necessary consequence, subjected to numerous
modifications. To restrict ourselves to those changes affect-
ing the three Divine heads, borne upon one single body, we
may remark, in addition to what has been already said, that
these heads, which at first were distinct and isolated, then
placed in contact, then adhering, and next intimately united,
ended by being confounded in one single skull.
The head then was single, but the three faces were distinct,
because it was at least necessary to mark the triplicity of
the faces. Still, four eyes at first, then three,* then two only
were inserted in the three faces, and an almost absolute Unity
was at length attained, even while the appearance of the
Trinity was still maintained. Three faces, having two eyes
only, one single forehead, and one sole body, give but a very
feeble indication of the Trinity.
Ere long, artists fell into the monstrous. Allegorists,
it is true, enjoy peculiar license, and they, like poets, are
permitted to indulge in daring metaphors; still a metaphor
has no more real authority in painting or sculpture, than a
simple rhetorical figure. Meanwhile audacity knew no limits,
and the more important the subject on which the imagination
has the nimbus; as symbolising an Evangelist, he bears a writing-horn in his
beak. The Eagle is sometimes not content to hold a writing-horn merely,
one of the material instruments employed to fix our thoughts. In ancient
periods he is shown giving direct inspiration; he even dictates the idea, as do
the Angel of St. Matthew, the Lion of St. Mark, and the Ox of St. Luke.
But the manuscript here quoted belongs to the sixteenth century, and at that
period the attributes of the Evangelists had become mere domestic attendants,
and ceased to be regarded as the agents of inspiration.
* It appears that at St. Pol-de-Léon, in Brittany, there was a Trinity
sculptured on the key of the vaulting, consisting of three faces, having only
three eyes between them. It is easily seen that four, or even two, eyes might
be placed naturally enough on three faces closely joined together; one of
which would be seen in full face, while the other two would be in three-
quarters only, or in profile; but it is more difficult to distribute three eyes
between three faces. To do so it would be necessary, instead of exhibiting
those faces vertically, or in their natural elevation, to place them horizontally,
en plan." This is exactly what has been done at St. Pol-de-Léon. It
should be observed that the three eyes, mouths, and noses, sculptured on the
trefoil shaped boss which hangs from the vaulting of the Church of St. Pol,
do indeed designate a triplicity, but the idea of God perhaps has little part in
it. It was probably a mere caprice of the artist's fancy, who wished to unite
three objects of any like kind in one single area.
ог
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.
59
exercised itself, the more serious the consequences which
it involved.
St. Christopher carried the infant Saviour on his shoulder
across a tempestuous arm of the sea, and it was Christ the
second person of the Trinity, and not the Trinity itself,
that the saint bore. But a piece of sculpture, executed
in the fifteenth century, is still to be seen in the church of
Sedgeford, in England, in which a gigantic St. Christopher
is bearing the little Jesus, a child of three years of age,
upon his shoulders: yet this child is not Jesus only; He
is the impersonation of the Trinity, for three heads are
seen on that one little body. Thus we have one instance
of Christ in his own person comprehending the entire
Trinity.*
The same idea has been carried still farther. The second
person of the Trinity, the Son of God, descended alone into
the bosom of Mary; neither the Father, nor the Holy
Ghost, ever became incarnate in the womb of the Virgin.
Yet in a certain manuscript of the end of the fourteenth
century, there is a prayer addressed to the Virgin,
the written character of which appears to belong to the
* I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Wright, an English
antiquarian, who is also a correspondent of the Institute of France, and of the
"Comité des Arts et des Monuments," for the communication of a very
correct drawing of the St. Christopher above described, bearing on his shoulders
the infant Jesus with three heads. One of the heads only has a nimbus ; the
other two are destitute of that distinctive ornament. It must be added, that
these heads, having been covered with whitewash which has recently been
removed, are at present somewhat indistinct. M. le Baron Taylor, to whom
the drawing was communicated, believes, and with reason, that two of the
three heads were probably abortive attempts of the painter. The artist may
have made two or three different attempts to place a head on the body of the
infant he had just drawn, and was not satisfied until the third attempt; hence
the three heads. The above explanation seems plausible, and we willingly
adopt it. Still it must be observed, that the definitive head, that wearing the
nimbus, is even more indistinct than the others; in them the eyes and mouth,
which in the first are not perceptible, are distinctly traced. Besides, the fact
thus presented to us in the painting at Sedgeford, although irregular, is not
unique, and we have a host of examples proving that Christ has been figured,
absorbing in himself the three Divine persons. The most ancient St. Christopher
in my recollection, is on a painted window in the south transept of the
Cathedral of Strasbourg. It is Byzantine in design, and must date from the
eleventh century. However, the little figure of Christ that he bears has but
one single head.
60
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
fifteenth. In that prayer, which is rather remarkable, the
following passage may be found. "Si vous souveigne,
doulce dame, de la doulce annunciacion que le Sauveur de
tout le monde vous envoya quand il se voulut tant humilier
que il voulut en vous descendre et en vos précieulx flans
prendre cher humaine pour nous povres pécheurs rachepter.
Vuelliés ouvrir les oreilles de vostre très-grant doulceur à
escouter les prières de moy povre pécheresse, quant pour les
pécheurs se voust en vous herbergier le Père, le Filz et le
Seint-Esperit. Pour quoy, doulce dame, à vous appartient
estre advocate aux povres pécheurs, et par quoy vous estes la
chambre de toute la Trinité.” *
Thus then, as early as the close of the fourteenth century,
or about the commencement of the fifteenth, the womb of
Mary had been called the chamber of the whole Trinity,
and the Chancellor Gerson, was unable to restrain his
indignation at seeing in the church of the Carmelites, at
Paris, a picture, in which the text of Troyes written
one hundred years later, was pictorially represented. "On
se doit bien garder" cried Gerson, "de paindre faulse-
ment une histoire de la saincte Escripture, tant que bonne-
ment se peut faire. Je le dy partie pour une ymage qui est
aux Carmes et semblables, qui ont dedens leur ventre une
Trinité, aussi comme toutte la Trinité, eust prins char
humaine en la vierge Marie. Et, qui plus merveille est, il
y a enfer dedens peint, et ne voy point pour quelle cause on
œuvre ainsi; car, en mon jugement, il n'y a baulté ne dévocion
en telles paintures; et ce doit estre cause d'erreur et de
indignation ou indévocion."+
* "So remember, sweet lady, the sweet annunciation that the Saviour of
all the world sent you, when he was pleased to humble himself so much as to
descend into you, and in your sacred body to take upon himself human flesh,
to redeem us poor sinners. Deign to open the ears of your great goodness, to
hear the prayers offered by me, a poor sinner, inasmuch as for us sinners, the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost were pleased to take up their abode in you.
Wherefore, sweet Lady, to you it belongs to be the advocate of poor sinners,
and for that purpose you became the chamber of the Holy Trinity." This
manuscript was communicated to M. Leon Aubineau, " Archiviste" at Tours,
and correspondent of the "Comité des Arts," by M. l'Abbé Tridon, Professor
of Archæology in the little seminary at Troyes.
પ
"We must guard as honestly as we can," exclaims Gerson, "against
depicting falsely any story from the Holy Scriptures. I say this on account of
a painting in the Carmelites, and others resembling it, which have within the
CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 61
The cry of alarm, uttered with good reason by Gerson
was echoed at Rome. There was indeed an impropriety, in
exhibiting the Divine persons as enclosed within the womb
of the Virgin, and to place Hell there also, was more unheard
of still. It was a heresy to make the Trinity incarnate ;* it
was audacious to depict the three hypostases fused and
commingled in so, monstrous a manner.~ ~Pope Urban VIII.,
on the 11th of August, 1628, prohibited representations of
the Trinity under the figure of a man with three mouths,
three noses, and four eyes; he proscribed also some other
similar images. Disobedience to this command was threat-
ened with the pope's anathema, and it was commanded that
all Trinities of that description should be burned.†
womb a Trinity, as if the entire Trinity had been clothed with human flesh
in the body of the Virgin Mary. And what is yet more surprising, Hell
itself also is therein painted, and I see no reason why men should thus work ;
for, in my opinion, there is neither beauty nor devotion in such pictures, and
they are likely rather to cause error and indignation, or a lack of devotion."
Bibl. Roy., MS, 7282, fol, 60. I am indebted to M. B. Thomassy for the
above extract, which is curious in several points, and which was found in a
sermon preached on Christmas Day by the Chancellor Gerson. We have
indeed seen pictures representing Jesus in the womb of Mary, and St. John in
that of Elizabeth; we have even given (Fig. 71) the copy of a painted
window in which Jesus is represented naked, erect, and with joined hands, in
the bosom of his mother. But the pictures described by Gerson, and which
seem like reminiscences of the manuscript of Troyes, are at present unknown;
it is probable that they have been destroyed. If found again, it would be
proper to describe and carefully preserve them.
* In the present day men are equally heretical, although perhaps uncon-
sciously and unintentionally so, when they place the triangle, the symbol of
the Trinity, on the back of the modern chasuble, at the intersection of the
arms of the cross; thereby indeed making it appear as if the entire Trinity
had become incarnate and been crucified, when in truth Christ alone became
man, and died upon the cross. Such chasubles, numbers of which may be
seen, ought not to be worn in the sacred services, and yet they are advertised
daily, and drawings of them are given in religious journals, and the clergy,
who ought to be more scrupulous in regard to theological doctrines, daily
purchase and wear them. The Reverend Father Dom Guéranger, who drew
my attention to this involuntary error, deplored, and with just reason, that the
designing of sacerdotal ornaments should be entrusted to ignorant or indifferent
persons, and that the clergy should adopt without consideration whatever is
offered them. It certainly seems an extraordinary thing, for a priest performing
the ceremony of the Mass, to wear upon his back a flagrant heresy.
Lucius Ferraris (Prompta Bibliotheca Canonica, in 4º, Rome, 1787)
says, at the word "Imagines ": " Urbanus VIII. comburi jussit imaginem cum,
tribus buccis, tribus nasis et quatuor oculis, et alias si quæ invenirentur similes.
62
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Benedict XIV., in a letter addressed in 1745 to the
Bishop of Augsburg, repeats and confirms the condemnation
promulgated by his predecessor.*
The
The Greeks, although of lively imagination, and strongly
inclined to the living metaphor and personifications, have
never more than once ventured, to our knowledge, to depict
the Trinity as we have done. They adhered more closely
to the Holy Scriptures, and did not permit themselves to
wander into errors, such as we are sometimes betrayed into,
when our reason is abandoned to the guidance of the imagi-
nation. The Trinity, having three human faces on one
single body, is painted in fresco in the chapel of the cemetery
of St. Gregory, in the convent of Mount Athos.
painting, however, was made in 1736; the three Divine
faces have four eyes, three noses, three mouths, and one
single nimbus: this last is cruciform, and bears engraven
on the branches of the cross, the words "v." One
single example, belonging too to the eighteenth century, is
of little moment. The Byzantine Manuscript so often
quoted, and which is entitled "The Guide for Painting,"
prescribes the proper method both of representing Trinities,
and each of the three Divine persons separately; it makes
no allusion whatever to three heads or three faces upon one
single body, but observes merely that, "Christ is represented
in paintings under the human form, because he appeared
upon earth, and conversed with men, being made in every-
thing a mortal like ourselves, except in respect of sin. So
also God the Father Eternal is figured as an aged man,
because he so appeared to Daniel (Chap. vii.). The Holy
Ghost is depicted as a dove, because he was seen under that
form at the baptism of Christ in the Jordan." It must
be acknowledged that the Greeks have carefully avoided the
boldness and temerity into which the Latins have been
betrayed.
Hæc enim nova inventio (new in Italy, but in France already old) repræsen-
tandi sanctissimam Trinitatem tolerabilis non videtur."
* See the Bull of Benedict XIV. t. i., p. 166, § 28.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
63
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
Some artists when they painted or sculptured the Trinity,
preferred to represent the equality of the persons; and others,
the distinction between them; and we thence obtain two
different series, in groups of that description.
When it was the artist's intention to exhibit the Equality,
or Divine Unity, the three persons were made as little
distinguishable, the one from the other, as possible. These
representations are marked by a total absence of character,
or at least by the small number of attributes. The Trinity
in the manuscript of Henry II., given above, (Fig. 142), is
merely a figure supporting the sky.
If the figures be distinct, as they have been seen in
the manuscript of Herrade (Fig. 137), their equality is
still preserved, and all the three are very frequently covered.
with one single mantle, to figure the unity in which they
are bound one with the other. This plan was that adopted
by Abelard, according to Mabillon; nothing is more com-
mon in the figured monuments, sculpture, paintings, and
miniatures of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.*
A diversity sometimes betrays itself by trifling charac-
teristics, even in groups the intention of which is to throw
out the unity in bold relief; the Holy Ghost is made
younger, the Father more aged, and the Son of middle
age;
a book is given to the Holy Ghost, a cross to the Son, and
a globe to the Father. Either the Papal or Imperial crown
marks the Father, and a crown of thorns the Son, while the
absence of either marks the Holy Ghost.
Between the two extreme points of an almost complete
unity, and a nearly absolute diversity, some Trinities are
seen in which the balance between the equality and individual
distinction of the persons, is very well preserved.
In the following engraving the Father and Son are ex-
tremely alike. The same nimbus, the same tiara, and a similar
style of hair; the same kind of alb, and one single mantle
connecting the two Divine Persons: they are united by one
*Refer to Figs. 123 and 126, pp. 471 and 494, vol. i.
64
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
book, which they mutually support, and also by the Holy
Ghost, linking them one with the other by the tips of his
extended wings.

•DAVL DVRAND-İ
Fig. 143. THE DIVINE PERSONS DISTINCT.
A French Miniature of the XVI cent.*
*The above drawing is taken from the celebrated Cité de Dieu, a mag-
nificent folio manuscript of the sixteenth century, in the Bibliothèque de
Saint Geneviève; it will be found at folio 406. The nimbi are radiating, not
cruciform. It belongs to an epoch when the cross of the divine nimbus and
the nimbus itself had no longer any great value.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
65
But here begins the difference. The Holy Ghost is not
a man, like the other two persons, but a dove. The Father,
too, is more aged than the Son; the beard of the first is
forked, of the second round. The Father, not the Son, bears
the globe of the world; the alb worn by the Father has no
girdle, it is a robe. The Son, who is a priest, has an alb
tightened by a girdle, and confined by a stole, which is
crossed upon his breast.
In those Trinities, in which the distinction between the
persons is made to predominate, distinctive characteristics
abound. The most remarkable diversity possible is given
by those Trinities of the Latin period, in which the Father
is shown only by the hand or the bust, the Son by a cross
or as a lamb, and the Holy Ghost by a dove. But between
these types and others that tend towards the equality of the
Divine persons, there are a thousand varieties, too many to
particularise. It is, in fact, easy to arrive at the same ideas
when the object aimed at, a representation of unity, is the
same; but when distinction is to be marked, as many different
types appear to have been invented as there have been
representations executed.
It would be superfluous at this moment to enumerate the
attributes which distinguish each of the three Divine
persons, as they have been already fully detailed in preceding
chapters devoted to the consideration of each of the Divine
persons. It now therefore only remains to consider the
attributes characterising the three Divine persons grouped,
that is to say, the Unity into which their diversity resolves
itself, or, in other words, the distinction between the
hypostases converging into Divine equality, or substantial
unity. The mode of grouping becomes, therefore, a point.
of some importance to establish, as the tendency which
manifests itself more and more, to unite the three persons
together, is there traceable.
The three persons were at first set apart at certain
distances, isolated, as it were; they occupy the same tableau,
but the group is distributed over the entire vaulting of an
apse. We thus find them in early Latin mosaies, and
ancient frescos.*
* See Ciampini, Vetera Monimenta. That learned antiquary gives several
engravings of these mosaics. See also Bosio, Roma Sotteranea, who has
VOL. II.
F
&
66
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
During this first period, it is not so much the group of
the Trinity that is depicted, as the casual meeting of the
three persons.
The tendency towards a closer approximation is apparent
about the ninth century. In the manuscript of St. Dunstan
the three persons are in proximity. In the manuscript of
Herrade, they are sitting on the same bench; they touch
simultaneously the same scroll, which serves in some degree
to unite them, though they are still at some distance from
each other.
But in the twelfth century, the Father holds the cross to
which the Son is attached, and the Holy Ghost hovers above
them or descends like a breath from the mouth of the
Father, and alights upon the head of the Son. The group
is here perfectly defined. In the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, an aureole frequently enframes the three persons;
thus uniting them more closely still. The aureole follows
the phases indicated in the chapter specially devoted to it,
and which immediately succeeds that relating to the nimbus :
it is either circular, oval, triangular, almond-shaped, in trefoil
or quatrefoil. In that aureole the three persons are united,
but not yet placed in juxta-position.
This juxta-position does not appear until the fourteenth
century. In the celebrated manuscript of the Duke of
Anjou,* the Divine persons are all three represented under
the human form, but one behind the other, and only about
to touch. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they are
actually in contact. The art was advancing by degrees, I do
not say precisely to giving an absolute identity to all the
Divine persons, but towards a similitude closely allied to
identity; an aggregation very much resembling fusion; a
Trinity, tending directly to Unity.t
given engravings of the ancient fresco paintings in the Catacombs. The
mosaic decorating the apse in the Church of San Giovanni in Laterano, although
executed between the years 1288 and 1294, contains a picture of the Trinity,
in which the three symbols are still placed at a distance apart; but this is at
Rome, where Christian Art long remained stationary. Even in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, during the period of the greatest activity in Gothic
art, Roman art always sought for inspiration, in the Catacombs, and the
ancient basilicas of the age of Constantine.
* Bibl. Roy., manuscript already quoted. Lavall, 127.
+ It must then be observed, in completion of the indications and examples
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
67
After the close of the fifteenth century the union became
still more complete. An attempt is made to absolutely iden-
tify in one the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. They are at
first connected only by the feet, so that with three heads
and three bodies, they have two feet only. The connection.
or fusion next rises higher, and the three bodies are consoli-
dated into one. Like a tree with three trunks springing
from the same root, which enlarge day by day, and at last
are united, interpenetrated, and absorbed one into the other,
thus forming but one single stem, so the bodies of the three
Divine Persons are likewise commingled. But the heads,
as has been shown, remain as yet distinct.
A little later than this, in the sixteenth century more
particularly, the heads themselves became blended one with
the other, and the three faces were surmounted by a single
forehead.* Faces, which had at first been seen in full or
The
already given, that in a manuscript of the Legenda Aurea, of the Bibl. Roy.,
No. 6889, fifteenth century, vol. i., fol. 107, there is at the Annunciation a
picture of the Trinity, in which the three persons are all of human form; they
appear to be three men, of from thirty to thirty-five years of age; all the
three are in the Papal costume, and a single cope serves to cover all.
Holy Ghost bears a globe. At the Feast of Pentecost, fol. 158, is another
Trinity, also composed of three men covered with one and the same mantle.
But, besides this, a second Holy Ghost, under the figure of a dove, detaches
itself from the three persons, to descend upon the Apostles. This dove
cannot, therefore, be intended either for that Divine person, nor for his symbol,
but is rather the symbol and soul of the entire Trinity, the Spirit of God,
belonging in common to the three persons. Here too, the Holy Ghost is
holding the globe, an attribute more especially appropriate to the Father. The
Son, in the habit of a priest, has a stole crossed upon his breast. In vol. ii.,
fol. 156, Jesus Christ may be seen as a Pope, wearing a stole, crossed, but
which the Father is without. In the MS. suppl., fol. 631, Jesus is represented
placing a crown on the head of his mother; he is in Papal robes, and holds in
his hand the globe of the world: the drawing belongs to the fourteenth
century. A
A copy of the Legenda Aurea (MS. de la Bibl. Roy., fourteenth
century, No. 6888) represents Jesus Christ as an emperor, crowning his
mother. The Father is simply an old man with a grey beard.
* See a beautiful painted window of the sixteenth century, in the north aisle
of the Church of Notre Dame at Châlons-sur-Marne. M. L'Abbé Jourdain,
vicar of the Cathedral of Amiens, found in the possession of a glazier at Amiens,
and purchased, a plate of glass bearing date 1520, on which was painted a
Trinity of very peculiar character. There are two heads on one single body.
The heads are united one with the other, and have two noses and two eyes
only, and wear one single crown. The third person is a dove, adhering to the
side of the head or face on the right, exactly like an ear. Equality and
F 2
68
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
three-quarters, afterwards became absorbed into the principal
face which fills the centre. The manuscript of Henry II.
has shown us three faces with one forehead, on one single
body, so intimately blended that though there are indeed
two profiles and one face, we can discern, not six nor even
four eyes, but only two.
Each profile, when looked at separately, has its eye, and
the face itself, which is in the centre, has two; but there is
in fact but one head, but one entire face, and with two eyes
only. These three figures, by a freak of pictorial Theology,
(i. e., Theology explained through the medium of design,)
lend each other reciprocally the face and eye. It may be
literally said of them, changing one word of a well-known
text of scripture and inserting three in the place of two,
"Erunt tres in carne unâ.”
Thus the different manner in which the Divine persons
are grouped may furnish good archæological characteristics
for classifying such groups in chronological order. The
relative position occupied by these three persons is also
deserving of observation. According to our creed,
God the Father begot the Son, and the Holy Ghost
proceeded from both: it therefore became necessary, in
accordance with hierarchical law, to represent the Son on
the left hand of the Father, and the Holy Ghost between
the two. This has been done in respect of the Holy Ghost,
who is frequently placed between the other two persons:
but in regard to the Son, the place assigned to him by the
dogma has been altered by the book of Psalms, in which
David says that the Father makes the Son to sit on His
right hand instead of on His left. It is in fact on the right
hand of the Father that the Son, except in cases of error, is
always placed. But the right hand, and the text (¿. e., the
text of the Psalms,) is here precise, is that of the Father,
not of the spectator: it is the left of the person looking at
the picture. The same rule is observed in the treatment
of pictures of the Trinity, as in blazoning, in which the
escutcheon of the husband is placed on the right of that of
distinction appear in this singular example to be blended. The Spirit is
distinct from the other two persons, who are positively equal. I sincerely
regret not having had time to get any engraving from this painted glass, of
which M. Jourdain much wished to favour me with a sketch.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
69
the wife.
The emblazonment is supposed to be facing
the spectator, and preserves its proper right or left, as in the
case with the Trinity: the left and the right emanate from
God, not from the spectator.
Still, whether by mistake, or from having imagined it
correct to take the spectator's right and left, the Father has
occasionally been placed on the right hand of the Son,
instead of on the left. A most remarkable instance of this
anomaly may be seen over the principal entrance of the
Sainte Chapelle at Vincennes. The angelic hierarchy is
ranged, tier above tier, on the voussure, and the Trinity
sculptured at the top. The Father, in Papal robes, and
grasping in his hand the ball of the world, is on the right of

DURAND
Fig. 144.—THE HOLY GHOST, descending FROM THE FATHER UPON THE SON.
From a French Miniature, MS. de duc d'Anjou, of the close of the xi cent.
Bibl. Royale.
the Son, who carries his cross. The Holy Ghost, in the
form of a dove, hovers between them, uniting them one
70
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
with the other, by the extremity of the wings.*
error is found in miniatures of manuscripts.
The same

PAVLIDVRANDE
Fig. 145.—THE HOLY GHOST proceeding FROM THE FATHER AND THE SON, AND
RE-ASCENDING FROM THE SON TO THE FATHER.
From a French Miniature, XII cent.†
* On the porch of a church at Etampes, the elect are seen ranged on the
left of the Saviour, and the damned upon his right, in a scene representing the
Last Judgment. This is contrary to the universal custom, and even to the
authority of Scripture, which places the sheep, or the elect, upon the right
haud, and the goats, or the damned, upon the left. The sculptor of Etampes,
like him of Vincennes, taking the spectator instead of God for his starting
point, fixed the right and left by consideration of the person looking at the
picture, not of Christ the Judge.
This manuscript, now belonging to the municipal library of Troyes, came
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
71
The Father, in virtue of hierarchical law, is frequently
placed in the centre, the Son on his right hand, and the
Holy Ghost on his left. Examples of this arrangement have
been given in the preceding chapters. (See especially Figs.
61, 111, 123, and 126, vol. I.) But when the artist desires
to express the passing of the Holy Ghost from the Father
to the Son, the Holy Spirit is placed in the centre, the Son
on the right hand, and the Father on the left. This
observation applies to Trinities disposed horizontally. In
those which are in tiers or ranged in vertical order, the Son
is below, the Father above, the Holy Spirit in the centre.
The Spirit descends from the mouth of the Father, alights
upon the head of the Son, and proceeds from both as in the
preceding example, Fig. 144.
At other times the Holy Ghost, still occupying the centre
between the Father and the Son, seems, on the contrary, to
ascend from the Son to the Father. Instances of this
peculiar arrangement are very rare, and the design opposite,
Fig. 145, is copied from a Champenois manuscript, of which
it forms the opening illustration.
In other representations the dogma of the Holy Ghost,
proceeding from one to the other person, is less distinctly
marked. The Holy Ghost, as in the following example,
is in the presence of the Father and the Son, but he
no longer unites them, nor does he appear to proceed
from them.
The Father here holds the cross to which Jesus is attached,
as in the two drawings given above; but the position of the
Holy Ghost, who is placed upon, and walking on one of the
arms of the cross, does not appear as if intended to signify
originally from the Abbey of Notre Dame-aux-Nonnains. It dates from the
twelfth century. The design given above was traced in outline from the
miniature itself, by M. Ch. Fichot, an artist of Troyes. The aureole sur-
rounding the Trinity, which is of oval form, and of vegetable nature, deserves
to be noticed. From the four outer ends of the leafy scrolls, issue the attributes
of the Evangelists. M. Vallet de Viriville directs attention particularly to the
manuscript of Notre Dame-aux-Nonnains. Even as late as the year 1840, the
existence of this singular book was scarcely known. It may be remarked, that
Jesus Christ is attached to the cross not by three nails, as was usual from the
thirteenth century, and as is shown in the preceding drawing, but by four;
and it may be likewise worth noting, that the attributes of the Evangelists
have a nimbus like the persons symbolised by them.
72
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
his proceeding from the Father and the Son. The dove is
added there simply to complete the Trinity. In some
other instances a design of not interpreting the doctrine of
P-D.
Fig. 146.—THE HOLY GHOST, not proceeding
EITHER FROM THE FATHER OR THE SON.
From a Woodcut or Engraving of the XII cent.f
Procession is even more
evident, the Holy Ghost
having been suppressed,
as in the instances given
above. (Fig. 63, vol. I.)
In the Greek Church,
which denies the doc-
trine of the Procession,*
the Holy Ghost is never
represented uniting the
Divine persons by the
extremity of his wings,
or descending from the
Father upon the Son,
or ascending from the
Son to the Father. The
Greek Trinities have a
certain resemblance to
our own, as is evident
from that given in the
History of the Nimbus
(Fig.21, vol. I.); indeed,
ingroups representing the
Trinity, the Greeks may,
and in fact do, place the
Holy Ghost between the
Father and the Son, be-

cause, according both to the Greeks and the Latins, the
third person in the Divine Trinity unites the other two; but
he never appears to emanate from either; he never touches
the mouths of the other two persons with his wings.
The nimbus, the aureole, and the glory characterise
*The Greek Church would anathematise any painter who should venture
to design a Trinity resembling those given in Figs. 6 and 11.
The Father is on a throne surmounted by a canopy; he wears the
imperial costume. The design is copied from a wood engraving of the
twelfth century, and various examples of a similar treatment of the subject
are to be seen in books of "Hours" belonging to that period.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
73
grouped Trinities, in the same manner as they distinguish
each of the three persons when represented separated or
isolated. The reader is therefore referred to the preceding
volume, in which those subjects have been fully treated of.
One word only in addition. The triangle being emblematic
of the Trinity, the triangular nimbus seems especially to
belong to the three persons grouped together. That form
of the nimbus, is however very rare, and the following
example is one of the most curious that can be offered.

DVRANO
Fig. 147.—THE THREE DIVINE HEADS WITHIN A SINGLE TRIANGLE.
From an Italian Wood Engraving of the xv cent.*
In this we have one single body with three heads; that in
the centre figures the Father; it is older and larger than
the others—a twofold method of conveying materially the
* The above design, of which mention has been already made, is taken from
a copy of Dante printed at Florence in 1491, and illustrated with engravings.
It is taken from the Paradiso, folio cclxxviii.
74
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
idea of the Divine paternity. The head on the true right
of the large head represents the Son; that on the left, which
is beardless, younger, and smaller than either of the other
two, the Holy Ghost. The three heads are encircled by one
single triangular nimbus. They have but one body, two
hands, and two feet: the left hand holds the globe, the
symbol of power; the right hand is in the act of benediction,
emblematic of grace or favour. This Trinity radiates within
a circular aureole, the circumference of which is occupied by
seraphim. We are in Paradise, and that Divine group, the
centre of uncreated light, is placed upon a rainbow.
The head of the Trinity is adorned with a tiara, an
imperial, or a regal crown, but in many instances also it is
bare. In this peculiarity there are no characteristics,
except those supplied by the form of the head-dress, which
varies according to the age and country. The Italian tiara
differs from the French. To take one example only: Pope
Gregory the Great, a statue of whom adorns the north
porch of the Cathedral of Chartres,* wears as a tiara a
conical cap, ribbed and a tuft at the top.
This was
the French tiara of the thirteenth century.†
In Italy,
in the fourteenth century, great changes had taken place.
The Pope then had a dome-shaped tiara, of elongated
form, oval, and with the lower part ornamented with a crown.‡
The tiara of the present day is almost of the same form, but
it is further encircled with two additional crowns.§ When
*It has been given in the chapter on the Holy Ghost, Vol. I., Fig. 114.
M. le Comte de Montalembert (Du Vandalisme et du Catholicisme
dans l'Art, in 8vo, Paris, 1839, p. 172) inveighs, and with much reason,
against the cap still worn (1840) by the clergy in Paris, and which
unfortunately continues in use in many dioceses; but it had not been
remembered that that pointed cap was nothing more than the tiara of the
thirteenth century, as drawn by the French, and perhaps, also, as it was worn
in Italy by the Popes.
See the Christ of Orcagna, given, Vol. I., Fig. 67.
§ It is said that the tiara with one crown was in use till 1298, that the
tiara with two crowns continued predominant until 1334, and that after
that period it had three crowns. Boniface VIII. added the second crown to
the tiara, and Boniface XII.¹ or Urban V. tripled it. Monuments with figures
This
1 Benedict XII. was Pope in 1334, and Urban V. in 1362; there does not
appear to have been a Boniface after the ninth (1380) of that name.
must therefore be an accidental error. -- EDITOR.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
75
God the Father is in the costume of a Pope, he wears
the pontifical robes and tiara in use at the period of
representation. The most trifling details should be studied
with attention, for in those details the most irrefragable
archæological characteristics are frequently to be found.
The Holy Ghost is usually depicted with the head bare.*
Christ, like the Father, takes indifferently the papal,
imperial, or more especially the regal crown; but to it is
added the crown of thorns. Frequently also his head is
uncovered.
The globe of the world, or the volume of the Holy
Scriptures, are frequently seen in the hands of the Trinity.
God, the Trinity, having created the world, the globe,
surmounted by a cross, is usually placed in his hands.
Numerous instances of this have been given above.† We
have seen the Trinity modelling and animating man.‡
From the manuscript of Henry II. we have produced a
drawing of the Trinity supporting the heavens and the
planets, which have just been created. § The following
design presents the same subject, as treated by Buonamico
Buffamalco.
The beautiful representation annexed, belonging to the
earlier part of the fourteenth century, is unquestionably
superior to that in the manuscript of Henry II. The
Trinity is here concentrated in one single Person, in God,
who holds the circles composing the universe, peopled by
himself with beings of every nature. The exterior circles
are animated by the nine choirs of angels,|| the constella-
tions roll in the intermediate circles, and in the centre is
placed the earth, which was regarded as the heart or kernel
of the world. ¶
are not completely in accordance with historical documents, and the latter, in
general, are less to be relied on than monuments.
*The crown of olive mentioned by Mabillon, in his description of the
Trinity said to have been sculptured by command of Abelard, at the Paraclete,
we positively reject as of doubtful authenticity.
See particularly, Figs. 113, 147.
See Fig. 6.
§ See Fig. 142.
They will be described in detail in the History of Angels.
Instead of sketching out a description, I prefer giving the following
extract from Vasari (Vies des Peintres, "Vie de Buffamalco"); the passage is
76
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
A subject closely resembling this, but treated in a very
inferior manner, is to be seen in an illuminated manu-

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​Fig. 148. THE TRINITY IN ONE GOD, SUPPORTING the world.
Fresco of the Campo Santo of Pisa, XIV cent.
not devoid of interest in itself: "Buonamico Buffamalco painted four frescoes
in the Campo Santo. In these compositions we see represented the creation
of the universe, in which the Father Almighty is depicted as five cubits in
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
77
script. God is the centre of nine concentric circles, seven
of which are of flame: he holds in his right hand the
compasses, with which he measures the extent of the world;
and in his left the balance in which it is weighed. It
answers to the well-known text in the Book of the Wisdom
of Solomon, "Omnia in mensurâ, et numero, et pondere
disposuisti" (chap. xi.).
Number is shown by the nine mystical circles surrounding
God, measure by the compasses, and weight by the balance.
For these reasons the globe is constantly placed in the
hands of the Trinity, and sometimes also beneath their feet,
as in the admirable manuscript of Anne de Bretagne,
preserved in the Bibliothèque Royale. At about two-thirds
from the commencement of this beautiful book, is a picture
of God the Father, in the habiliments of a Pope, with a long
white beard, a disk-like nimbus encircling the head, a snow-
white alb, green stole, and a red cope, adorned with orfray
and historiated decorations with figures in gold, and the
feet covered with golden slippers; the three fingers of the
right hand are extended, in the act of benediction. On the
left is Jesus Christ, in a brown robe, a red mantle, his head
height, raising the grand machine of the sky and the elements. Below this
picture, two angles of which are occupied by St. Augustine and St. Thomas
Aquinas, Buonamico wrote in capital letters (Majuscules) a sonnet explanatory
of the subject, which is here inserted, as it will give some idea of the amount of
scientific knowledge generally possessed at that period." Buffamalco died in
1340, aged 68. The following sonnet is that written below his painting :-
“Voi che avvisate questa dipintura
Di Dio piè, toso sommo creatore
Lo qual fe' tutte cose con amore,
Pesate, numerate ed in misura.
"In nove gradi angelica natura
In ello empirio ciel pien di splendore
Colui che non si muove ed è motore
Ciascuna cosa fece buona e pura.
"Levate gli occhi del vostro intelletto
Considerate quanto è ordinato,
Lo mondo universale; e con affetto
Lodate lui che l' ha si ben creato:
Pensate di passare a tal diletto
Ira gli angeli, dove è ciascun beato.
Per questo mondo si vede la glo:ia,
Lo basso, ed il mezzo, e l'alto in questa storia."
78
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
bare, and crowned with thorns. He holds in his left hand
the Cross of the Resurrection, the triumphal Cross, usually
borne aloft in processions. His beard is red, and the nimbus

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Fig. 149.-TuE TRINITY IN ONE SINGLE GOD, HOLDING THE BALANCES AND
THE COMPASSES.
From an Italian Miniature of the XIII cent.*
* The above drawing is taken from the Psalterium cum Figuris, a manu-
script of the twelfth century, with Italian miniatures of the twelfth and
thirteenth. The miniature from which this drawing is taken appears to be of
the latter period.
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
79
:
resembles a disk: there are no wounds in the hands, and on
the feet are shoes like those worn by the Father. The feet
of both the Father and the Son rest upon a globe, in the
upper part of which shine the sun, the moon, and the stars,
while below undulate the waves of the sea, which is ploughed
by vessels; in the intermediate space, rise towns surrounded
by verdant meadows. Between the heads of the Father and
the Son is the Holy Ghost, as a white dove with a red beak
and outstretched wings he wears a disk-like nimbus.
This Holy Trinity is painted on a gold ground, and is
enframed in an oval aureole completely bordered with
clouds. In the four corners, on the outside of this luminous
aureole, are the four evangelical attributes turning towards
the Trinity, and each holding a scroll, on which is written,
"Mattheus homo, Johannes avis, Marcus leo, Lucas
vitulus." The symbols of the Evangelists are of azure,
slashed with gold: all are winged, but without any nimbus.
The Father and the Son support between them a large open
book, on which is written-
"Ego sum alpha et O. principium et finis." *
""
In fact, next to the globe, the attribute most constantly
seen in the hands of the Trinity, is the book of life, the
Bible. The drawing copied from the "Cité de Dieu
(Fig. 143) has furnished an example of this description.
On that book, in addition to the preceding inscription,
which is that most commonly seen, are others of analogous
signification. Ego sum qui sum,"
"Rex regum,'
(6
* In another manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royale (No. 886) also
cotemporaneous with Anne de Bretagne, there is a Trinity resembling that
described above. It is at about the middle of the manuscript; the Trinity is
in an aureole of gold circumscribed by a circlet of blue clouds. The Father is
represented as a Pope, with white hair and beard, and about sixty or seventy
years of age, the "Ancient of Days." The Son, on his right hand, is in a violet-
coloured robe with a reddish cope, his head uncovered, but crowned with
thorns. Upon his feet are shoes resembling those worn by the Father, red
slippers with golden ligatures; he is about thirty or thirty-five years of age.
Between these two figures, and about on a level with their foreheads, is the
Holy Ghost, in the form of a snow-white dove with wings outspread. The
Father and Son hold between them an open book, on which is written:
"Sancta Trinitas, Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus. Ego sum alpha et O.”
The book has seven golden clasps, symbolising the seven Apocalyptic seals.
80
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The
"Dominus dominantium." The greater number of those
already given, as seen in the Book of Jesus Christ, are
likewise inserted in the Book of the Trinity.*
Byzantine manuscript dedicates to these inscriptions an
article as follows:-
INSCRIPTIONS FOR THE TRINITY.
The Father Eternal-The Ancient of Days.
The Co-eternal Son-The Word of God.
The Holy Ghost-He who proceeds from the Father.
The Holy Trinity-The only God of all things.
"In representing the Father and the Son with Scrolls,
unrolled, write on the scroll of the Father, I begot thee
before Lucifer;' or else, 'Sit thou on my right hand, until
I make thine enemies thy footstool.' On the Gospel, in the
hand of the Son, write, 'Oh Holy Father, I have glorified
thee on the earth, I have declared thy name unto men;' or
else, 'I and my Father are one; I am in the Father, and
the Father in me.'"+
* A Romanesque enamel, of the twelfth century, in the collection of M. Didier
Petit, of Lyons, represents God seated on a rainbow, and surrounded by an
undulating edge of clouds. This figure of God performs, with the right hand,
the gesture of benediction after the Latin manner; in the left he holds a long
book, resembling the "Liber precum" in the Bibliothèque Royale. The book
is open; on the recto and verso of two pages are the following letters, in small
Roman minuscules, slightly uncial: a b c d e f g h i k m n o p.
These
fourteen letters are thus arranged, seven on each page. I know not whether
any signification can be assigned to the number and selection of these letters.
In any case, this alphabet, which is nearly complete, and inscribed on the
divine volume, is undoubtedly intended to signify that all knowledge comes
from God, and that the book in his hand is that of the Holy Scriptures. This
I
-XZZ
A
OF X
MSN
MEM
indication may be found at No. 184 of the Catalogue of
M. Petit. I saw this enamelled plate in 1843, at the time of
the sale, and myself made a copy of the alphabet, if so it may
be called. We find in No. 204 of the same catalogue :
"Enamelled plate, the cover of a manuscript, representing
Christ in the act of benediction, and holding in his left hand
a tablet, on which are graven certain letters, in Roman and
uncial characters." The letters are thus arranged, and placed within a frame.
The A only is uncertain.
+ See the Guide de la Peinture (Epµnvéia Tĥs (wypaḍikîs), nearly at the
conclusion. The Holy Ghost is there said to proceed from the Father, but not
from the Son. The inscription, taken from Psalm cix., is more complete than
with us,
who usually give the commencement only. The Greeks, less
charitable, more harsh, and more Judaising in their ideas of Christianity, add
the words, "until I make thine enemies thy footstool."
THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.
81
The three persons of the Trinity are represented barefoot
in Christian iconography, and the figures of the God in
unity, with those of the Angels, of John the Baptist and of
the Apostles, are also distinguishable from others by their
bare feet. However, examples may be found of Divine
persons having their feet clothed. We have described
two instances of such* and given an illustration of a
third. When the Father or the Son appear in papal
dress, then the footgear of the sovereign pontiff is given
along with the pontifical vestments; but this is quite a
peculiar instance, and even in such a case the feet of the
Divine persons are often left naked.

Po
Fig. 150.-THE TRINITY IN HUMAN FORM, WITH CRUCIFORM NIMBUS AND
AUREOLE OF FLAME.
The form of the nimbus, the crown and the aureole ;
the form of the globe and its divisions, along with the
objects which fill these divisions; the form of the book
and of the letters in the writing contained therein; the
shape, number, nature, and colour of the robes furnish
archæological characteristics by which the date of sculp-
* They occur in the manuscript of Anne of Brittany, and in another
manuscript of the same period also in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.
No. 886.
† Vol. I. page 226, Fig. 63.
VOL. II.
G
82
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
tured, chiselled, and painted effigies of the Trinity may be
determined.
It will be sufficient to give the accompanying illustration
of the Trinity (Fig. 150), a work of the fifteenth century,
which shows the three persons, each one in human form.
Each has the cruciform nimbus, and is enveloped in an
aureole of flame. The Divine Dove is seen seated on the
head of the youth who personates the Holy Spirit. The
Father, as Pope, carries the globe of the Almighty; the
Son, as Christ, bears the Cross of infinite love; the two
persons, Father and Son, are united by the Holy Spirit,
who is the central figure of the group.
Thus ends this portion of my task. I have felt it
necessary in the first instance to give the history of an
important archæological attribute, that is, the nimbus or
glory; then that of the Being who presides over all
images as over all Christian doctrine-the history of God.
To enlarge in like manner on the rest of Christian icono-
graphy would be exaggeration; nor could one life suffice
not only to bring forward, but even to gather the materials
for such a work. However, some very brief and purely
technical information on the Angel, the Devil, on scenes
from the Old Testament, the Gospels and the legendary
or apocryphal writings will doubtless fulfil the object pro-
posed by the Committee of Arts and Monuments.
[D.]
ICONOGRAPHY OF ANGELS.
THE iconography of the Angels or Messengers of God
naturally follows on that of the Deity Himself, since they
—beni Elohim, sons of God—may be described as emana-
tions from God and as powers fulfilling His will. While
uniformly held to have been created beings, yet many and
various have been the theories as to the period of creation
at which they sprang to life. The generally accepted
idea was, that as the incorporeal existed before the material,
so angels were created before the world. Others have
held that it was on the second day, and after the creation
of the firmament, that angels came to life, and this view
seems to have been adopted by the sculptor of the Creation
of Angels in Chartres Cathedral, where their forms are
seen emerging from the heavens. A third view is that
God must have made the angels at the close of the sixth
day, when the creation of all material things had been
accomplished. Thus, according to this last theory, that
principle of progress is maintained which is observable
from the first to the sixth day in creation, rising from
dead substances to living forms till Man is reached, and
after him the still more perfect being, the Angel, is called
into existence.
The creation of angels is a subject very rarely to be met
with in art, still we may indicate three different methods
of treating it. The first is in a manuscript of the close of
the thirteenth century, where the Creator may be seen, in
the form of God the Son, seated on a rainbow. Rays proceed
from His mouth like a divine breath, from which nine
groups of angels are born and over whom His left hand is
raised in benediction. These rays are, as it were, the em·
bodiment of the Word proceeding from God, the special
"fiat" at the utterance of which the angels were brought
86
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
forth. An illustration of this has been already given in
our first volume at page 240, where it will be seen that
there are nine groups of angels, three in each group, but
that all are identical. Thus the painter indicates the nine
divisions of the heavenly host, but without ordering their
ranks.
A second representation is afforded us by a carving in
Chartres Cathedral. Here only two angels are seen instead
of the nine united choirs. More materialistic, if one may
say so, than the miniature painter, the sculptor of Chartres
has endowed his angels with bodies, and bodies clothed in
an upper and an under garment. These two angels open
the first act of their life drama, the one in act of adoration,
the other of service; the one with hands folded in
prayer, the other with hands outspread in ministration.
A third representation, see Fig. 148, supra, p. 76, shows
us the Creation of the Universe as arranged in concentric
circles. The nine choirs of angels occupy nine of these
circles. We may believe that the author of this picture,
Buonamico Buffamalco, who painted it in the fourteenth
century, on the wall of the Campo Santo of Pisa, held that
angels were created after the material world. In fact, the
nine external circles are filled by angels; the innermost
circles, the kernel, by the earth; but between the angels
and the earth, the signs of the zodiac, the constellations, the
sun and moon, may be seen. Now, the stars having been
created after the earth, from their intermediate position
between the terrestrial globe at the centre, and the angelic
circles which form the circumference, we must conclude
that the order of creation indicated by this painting was
from the centre to the circumference; that, according to
Buffamalco, creation was perfected spiritually and enlarged
materially from the little round point which is our globe,
to the immense outer circle filled by the most sublime of
celestial beings—the Seraphim.
Thus, without straining the interpretation of these
three figures too far, we may see in the first-the minia-
ture belonging to the close of the thirteenth century—the
creation of angels before the creation of the world; in
the second, which is a sculpture of the first half of the
thirteenth century, the creation of angels on the second
day, with the firmament; in the third, which is a mural
[D.]
87
CREATION OF ANGELS.
painting of the first half of the fourteenth century, the
creation of angels after that of the world.
It will be well to reflect on these three assumed epochs
of the birth of angels. Nothing is unimportant in these
Middle Age designs, which are often rigorous representa-
tions of theological doctrine.
St. John Damascene, in his treatise upon angels, thus
expresses himself: "Some assert that angels were made
before all other created substances; witness the words of
Gregory the Theologian, who holds that intelligent nature
was created first and that of sense followed, and that thus
man, who is composed of both, was finally created.”* At
first God conceived the idea of angelic and heavenly
virtues, and then the idea was translated into being.
Others admit, in preference, that angels were created after
the first heaven. But all agree that they were made
before man.
St. Jerome shared this opinion; but he placed the
creation of angels at an epoch infinitely long before that
of the world of sense. He carried it back to several
thousands of centuries before the age of the world.
Dante, on the contrary, thought that this creation of the
angels had scarcely preceded that of the world, and
perhaps even had followed it. Indeed, he says that
angels are the motors of the sensible universe; but the
motor may very well come after the substance that he
sets in motion. The passage from Dante, which forms,
as it were, a summary of our chapter, may be quoted
here: t-
Not for increase to himself
Of good, which may not be increased, but forth
To manifest his glory by its beams;
Inhabiting his own eternity,
Beyond time's limit or what bound soe'er
To circumscribe his being; as he willed,
Into new natures, like unto himself,
Eternal love unfolded: nor before,
As if in dull inaction, torpid, lay,
For, not in process of before or aft,
Upon these waters moved the spirit of God.
Simple and mix'd, both form and substance, forth
* St. Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio Secunda.
† Dante, Paradiso, translated by Cary, cant. xxix.
88
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
To perfect being started, like three darts
Shot from a bow three-corded. And as ray
In crystal, glass and amber, shines entire,
E'en at the moment of its issuing; thus
Did, from the eternal Sov'ran, beam entire
His threefold operation, at one act
Produced coeval. Yet, in order, each
Created his due station new; those highest,
Who pure intelligence were made; mere power,
The lowest; in the midst, bound with strict league,
Intelligence and power, unsevered bond.
Long tract of ages by the angels past,
E'er the creating of another world,
Described on Jerome's pages, thou hast seen.
But that what I disclose to thee is true,
Those penmen, whom the Holy Spirit moved,
In many a passage of their sacred book,
Attest; as thou by diligent search shalt find:
And reason, in some sort, discerns the same,
Who scarce would grant the heavenly ministers,
Of their perfection void, so long a space.
Thus, when and where these spirits of love were made,
Thou know'st, and how: and knowing, hast allay'd
Thy thirst, which from the triple question rose.
The angel is conceived as a being at once intelligent,
immortal and incorporeal, therefore practically invisible
to mortal eyes. However, in poetry and art the angel, as
the Deity Himself, has been endowed of necessity with
form and body. Words can present images less formally
than line and colour, and they have resources which allow
the poet to rest in an abstraction forbidden to the designer
or the painter. So, in poetry, the angel's body is more
ethereal, more immaterial than in pictures. Ezekiel
presents his angels, not only by comparing them to
brilliant stones, to crystal, molten brass, burning coal,
flame, sparks, rainbows, clouds, lightning, breaths, glim-
merings, but also to apparitions and even to visions of
apparitions of these images. It is impossible to attenuate
or to spiritualise a substance farther. There is nothing
perceptible to eye or ear beyond such visions of light and
air. Light, that swiftest, least weighty, least material of
all bodies, is the substance to which angels have been
likened. They are said to be made of light-or, as by
St. John of Damascus, held to have been a reverberation of
uncreated light, a reflection of the Divinity. An angel,
[D.]
89
ANGELS OF DANTE.
with Christian and Middle Age artists, is a multiform
focus of light, the varieties of which we shall have to
mention hereafter.
In Ezekiel, this angel form is that of a circle or of a
winged wheel covered with eyes. The wheel and wings
to express the constant mobility with which angels are
endowed; the eyes to symbolise the wakefulness of their
intelligence. "Angelus itaque est substantia intelligens,
perpetuo motu, nec non arbitrii libertate prædita, corporis
"* &c.
expers,
These wheels are united, in the prophet's vision, with
the body of a living being having hands, feet, with the
face of a man or a lion, an ox or an eagle, but all with
two or three pairs of wings, which are indeed the princi-
pal feature in these descriptions, being instruments of
locomotion and symbols of swiftness. From the time of
Ezekiel we find that the winged human form, resplendent
in light and colour, is the most usual representation of the
angel offered to us by poetry and art. Dante, having in
the 31st canto of Paradise shown us the luminous home
in which these multitudes of celestial beings shine and
shimmer, thus goes on to describe them (Purg. c. ii.,
translated by H. F. Cary) :-
"A light, so swiftly coming through the sea,
No winged course might equal its career.
From which when for a space I had withdrawn
Mine eyes, to make inquiry of my guide,
Again I looked, and saw it grown in size
And brightness: then on either side appear'd
Something, but what I knew not, of bright hue,
Then by degrees from underneath it came
Another. My preceptor silent yet
Stood, while the brightness, that we first discerned,
Open'd the form of wings: Then when he knew
The pilot, cried aloud, 'Down, down; bend low
Thy knees; behold God's angel; fold thy hands:
Now shalt thou see true ministers indeed.
Lo! how all human means he sets at nought;
So that nor oar he needs, nor other sail
Except his wings, between such distant shores.
Lo! how straight up to heaven he holds them rear'd,
Winnowing the air with those eternal plumes,
That not like mortal hairs fall off or change,
* Opp. S. Joh. Damasceni, tom. i. de Angelis, cap. iii.; Ezekiel i. 15–21 ;
x. 9-14.
90
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
As more and more toward us came, more bright
Appear'd the bird of God, nor could the eye
Endure his splendour near: I mine bent down."
In canto xii. of Purgatory, Dante adds some details to
his picture :
66 Behold,
That way an angel hasting towards us.
The goodly shape approach'd us, snowy white
In vesture, and with visage casting streams
Of tremulous lustre like the matin star.
His arms he opened, then his wings; and spake."
Whoever has seen the mural paintings of Italy, the
mosaics of Greece, the Byzantine enamels scattered through-
out Europe, will recognize that the angels of Giotto and

•P.O
Fig. 151.-SERAPH OF ST. FRANCIS.
of Orcagna, of Fra Angelico and of Perugino, the angels
of St. Luke in Livadia, and Santa Sophia of Salonica, as
well as the angels on that priceless work,* the Byzantine
This reliquary, made to enshrine a portion of the true cross, is of
considerable value and unparalleled beauty. It is held to date from the
tenth century, and originally belonged to the Cathedral of Trèves.
THRONES.
91
reliquary of Limbourg, are only another expression in art
of such angels as Dante has described. The same forms,
the same wings, the same light; poetry and painting have
translated an absolutely identical thought into two
languages, the one through words, the other through line
and colour. Unfortunately we can only place our poor
engravings by the side of the splendid text of Ezekiel and
of Dante; but they suffice, however, to fill the eye with
the principal lineaments of these celestial forms.
In light and colour, this seraph, taken from a miniature
of St. Francis receiving the Stigmata (Fig. 151) forcibly
recalls the imagery of Dante. Wings, head, and body are
one starlike flame, appearing like a meteor in the deepest
blue of an Italian sky. St. Francis kneels in ecstasy upon
the ground below, while five rays dart from the seraphic
symbol and pierce his hands and feet and side as he listens
to its salutation:
"Salve! sancte Pater patrie lux forma."*]
The following (Fig. 152) is the most complete illustra-
tion that we are acquainted with of the winged and fiery

Fig. 152.—THRONES.—FIERY TWO-WINGED WHEELS.
* These words are written in the fly-leaf opposite. This illustration, which
is taken from the illuminated Hours of Anne of France, daughter of Louis
XI., was executed by Loys de Laval de Chastillon, and afterwards belonging
to Henri IV. Bibl. Nat. No. 920 (formerly 4299), fol. 284a.
92
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
wheels spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel, "full of eyes
round about." * It comes from a little church at Athens,
now probably destroyed, but which, at the date of our
journey in Greece in 1839, possessed very remarkable mural
paintings of the thirteenth century.
In a representation on the imperial dalmatic now pre-
served in the treasury of St. Peter at Rome, the feet of
Jesus Christ rest on two wheels which exactly resemble
these. This magnificent vestment is of Byzantine origin,
and indeed throughout all the ancient empire of Byzan-
tium, angels are found of this wheel form, intended to
bear the figure of God the Father or of Jesus Christ.†
These wheels, specially assigned to the order of Thrones
by the Byzantines, but attributed by Ezekiel to all angels
in general, are of various forms. At Chartres, they have
neither flames, nor wings, nor eyes; they rather affect
the more material form of a chariot wheel. This is less
symbolic, less poetic, and more commonplace. True, this
wheel is only the footstool, as it were, of the angel with
the six wings and eyes of the wheel in Greece.
Fig. 153.-SCULPTURED
ANGEL, CHARTRES, XIII.
CENT.
On an ivory in the museum of the
Barberini Palace, engraved by Gori,
we find, not a wheel, but a circle with-
out eyes and stripped of flames and
wings. In the place of wings, an inter-
laced ribbon passes into the circle and
forms a kind of quatrefoil. This is far
—very far indeed—from the mysterious
poetry of Ezekiel.

As
The Latins, more rational than the
Easterns, have preferred representing
angels under the human form.
regards the ideal, Latin nations are
divisible into two classes: ultramon-
tane or Italian, and western. Italians,
nearest to that Greece who planted
her foot among them at Venice, at
Ravenna, and throughout all Sicily,
Et rotas illas
* "Et omne corpus earum (rotarum), et colla, et manus, et pennae, et
circuli plena erant oculis, in circuitu quatuor rotarum.
vocavit volubiles." Prophetia Ezechielis, cap. x., v. 12 et 13.
† Ann. Archéol. vol. i. p. 152.
ICONOGRAPHY OF
ANGELS, DEVILS, DEATH, THE SOUL,
AND THE
CHRISTIAN SCHEME OF SALVATION.
CONCLUDED AND EDITED BY
MARGARET STOKES.
G 2
EDITOR'S NOTE.
I HAVE been requested by the publishers of the English translation of
this work by the late M. Didron to continue and complete it. No
reason has been alleged to explain why the original scheme, as laid
down in the Introduction to our first volume, was never carried out,
but it is more than probable that its very magnitude prevented its
completion, and that the labours undertaken by the author in the
editorship of the ‘Annales Archéologiques,' commenced in 1844, and
only closing with his death in 1867, interfered with the completion of
this special work. However, the history of the Iconography of Angels
and Devils was in course of preparation at this period, and the 70
wood engravings from drawings by M. Durand executed to illustrate
these subjects have ever since remained unpublished. Portions of the
letterpress intended for this work appeared from time to time in the
pages of the ‘Révue Française' vol. x., and Annales Archéologiques,'
vols. i., xi., and xviii. The numerous engravings accompanying these
papers will now be reproduced here along with those hitherto un-
published.
I have been obliged reluctantly to curtail these contributions of
M. Didron to the periodical literature of his day, in order to avoid
printing much that, although new when it first appeared, is now
familiar to English readers. I have also occasionally been compelled
to introduce passages explanatory of some of the illustrations prepared
by the author for the continuation of this work, but for which no
descriptive text could be found and the very provenance of which I
had to discover. It only remains to explain that the portions of the
work translated from M. Didron's text may be recognised by the
insertion of the initial D. at the top of every page, and by brackets at
the beginning and end of every interpolated paragraph.
I have to own myself responsible for all the text following on
rage 145, although the matter is mainly founded on the writings of
M. Didron, in whose footsteps, as a conscientious investigator of the
iconographical systems of the great French cathedrals, I have humbly
endeavoured to follow.
CARRIG BRAEC, HOWTH,
March, 1885.
M. S.
[D.]
93
ANGELS IN WESTERN ART.
love to spiritualise the angels. They often leave them
nothing more of the human form than the head, that is,
the seat of intelligence. Nothing is more common, even in
the paintings of Perugino, at the dawn of the materialist

་་
Fig. 154.-ANGELS. (Piero della Francesca.)
Renaissance, than to see angels figured by infant heads,
surrounded by six wings. Sometimes Italian artists like
to furnish these angels with a body, and in doing so they
cut off the body below the bust.* The lower portion of the
trunk being intended for locomotion, they replace it by
* Annales Archéologiques, vol. i. 157.
;
94
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
a pair of wings. These wings fulfil the function of the
limbs.
The number of monuments is very great in which
angels are thus represented without bodies or limbs, and
we refer our readers to those portions of our first volume

جانس
Fig. 155.-ANGEL WITHOUT FEET OR LEGS.
Italian painting, XIV. cent.
in which they are illustrated. Thus, at page 452, one of
these angels, "disembodied souls," may be seen. The seal
of the university of Avignon, a thoroughly Italian uni-
versity, founded in 1303, shows an infant head surrounded
by six wings. Indeed this is the form allotted to
Cherubim, of whom intelligence, that legitimate aim of all
universities, is the especial attribute as compared with
other orders of angels.
In the West, where symbolism has least taken root, and
where the ideal always gives way to the real, the angel is
no longer a mere child such as the Italians give us, but
a full grown, almost aged man, such as may be seen
in many German, French and English manuscripts.
This (Fig. 156) is one drawn from a miniature probably
executed by a French hand, which dates from the twelfth
[D.]
95
ANGELS IN WESTERN ART.
century. It has wings and nimbus, it is true, but is
upwards of forty or fifty years of age, with robe, mantle,
and a sceptre that rather resembles an alpenstock than a
symbol of power or authority; with feet shod as if those

Fig. 156. ANGEL from MS.
of an angel accustomed to fly with strong wings, and
therefore protected from sharp stones of earth.*
Of all the angels we have ever noted, this is the most
material, the most human, the least celestial spirit. We
shall perceive, in the course of our study, that the Western
* This figure represents the angel announcing the Ascension of Christ
to the Women at His tomb. It is drawn from a MS. in the Bibl. Nat.
Paris, the number of which had escaped M. Didron's memory.—[ED.]
96
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
•
nations have an invincible tendency to humanise, and to
give an ordinary, every-day character to their angelic beings.
In Ezekiel the angel is particularly described as covered,
and, as it were, clothed, by feathers. And their wings
were stretched upward; two wings of every one were
joined one to another, and two covered their bodies.
Every one had two which covered on this side, and every
one had two which covered on that side, their bodies."
Ezek. i. 11, 23. A scarf is knotted round the neck, like
that borne by the angel of Chartres; see Fig. 153. This
scarf we find adopted by six of the nine choirs of angels
painted on the glass windows of the chapel of New College,
Oxford. But these Oxford angels have also a girdle bound
round their loins.
Generally, where angels are given three pairs of wings,
the addition of a scarf for the neck is sometimes thought
sufficient, and more rarely still the waist scarf is introduced,
but it is superfluous to endow them with robe and mantle
besides. Two wings, crossed on the breast, two wings
enclosing the body and limbs, is certainly sufficient.
Nevertheless, the Middle-Age miniaturists, painters and
sculptors, have arrayed their angels, already clothed with
six wings, in robe and mantle. Such is the following
angel taken from a manuscript Bible of the tenth century,
or perhaps the ninth, with miniatures, which, though very
ugly in execution, are most curious as drawings.*
Finally, to complete the costume or signs of the angels,
it must be remarked, that, after the fifth century, all
without exception bear a circular nimbus on the head, but
before that date they are without this adornment. After
God the angel is the most sublime of beings; if apostles and
saints of every order are adorned with the nimbus how much
rather should the angel carry this sign. And further:
the angel by ordination of God sometimes represents the
Divinity himself. Thus one of the three angels or three
persons whom the patriarch Abraham adored in the valley
of Mamre bears a cruciform nimbus, and this is the one who
* Bibliothèque Nationale, 'Biblia Sacra,' Lat. 6, fol. 7a. This Bible,
with its outline drawings, appears to have been executed in the north
of Spain. In the 12th century it belonged to the Abbey of St. Pierre de
Rosas in Catalonia. It afterwards formed part of the library of the
Maréchal de Noailles.
[D.]
97
ANGELS IN BYZANTINE ART.
directly represents the unity of God. Thus in the combat
of the three angels with the demon, he who attacked
Behemoth and who, being alone, would seem to require
exceeding strength and almost divine power, if he is to
prove victorious, bears a cruciform nimbus, while the two
antagonists of Leviathan have only a plain nimbus (see
Fig. 132, supra, p. 17).
We see almost always among
the Byzantines, and occasionally
with the Italians also, a small
horn upon the angel's brow, or
an elongated triangle or some-
times a cross, besides the often
richly decorated nimbus which
surrounds the head. Is this
simply a head ornament, a jewel,
and as it were part of the dress,
or rather a symbolic attribute ?
It may be both. We see, if we
look back to Vol. I. p. 282, the
archangels Raphael, Michael, and
Gabriel wearing this little tri-
angle on the forehead, or a re-
versed crescent such
as that
which forms the diadem of one
of the enamelled Byzantine
angels on the so-called cross of
Namur.

دا
هاا
की
Fig. 157.-SIX-WINGED
ANGEL
HOLDING LANCE, WINGS CROSSED
ON BREAST, ARRAYED IN ROBE AND
MANTLE.
Perhaps this reversed crescent,
this little horn, as St. Veronica
calls it, is the sign of flame or
star-like fire, placed by pagans on the brow of their
Genius to express that sublimity of mind which burns as
light and comes from heaven. This Italian St. Veronica,
who died in 1497, often saw angels who came to visit
and converse with her. She gives a description of one of
them in the following passage "She saw that the angel
bore a little horn on the middle of his forehead, that a
stole hung from his neck, and that he had wings, like as
Christian painters habitually represent the angels."*
This little horn is the jewel or the flame we have just
* Annales Archéol. vol. xi. p. 361.
VOL. II.
H
98
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
mentioned; the stole is probably the scarf of the neck to
which we referred in a previous passage. As to our
French angels, they wear the nimbus on the head and that
is all; no jewel, no flame, no star and no cross.
Van
Eyck and Hemling, Master Stephan and Albert Dürer,
afford examples of the cross borne on the angel's brow,
examples which also occur in the miniatures of such
manuscripts of the sixteenth century as are executed
under an Italian or German influence.
In order to complete the subject of the signs of angels
we should enumerate and describe the attributes which
characterise them, and the objects or divers instruments
which they bear in their hands. But these attributes
and instruments are given them according to the func-
tions they fulfil as laid down by Dionysius the Areopagite,*
who, following the passages in St. Paul's epistles to the
Ephesians (ch. i. 20) and Colossians (ch. i. 16), made the
following classification of the angelic hierarchy and their
symbols:-
Seraphim.
Counsellors Cherubim.
Thrones
Dominations
Governors Virtues
Powers
Ministers
•
Six wings and flabellum; head and two
wings; fiery wheels; eyed wings.
Wear long albs, golden girdles; and green
stoles. A golden staff in right hand,
the seal of God in the left.
Principalities. In soldier's garb, golden belts; holding
lance-headed javelins; and hatchets in
their hands.
Archangels
Angels
The saint then proceeds to enumerate other attributes
with which they are endowed. They wear rings as
symbols of royal authority and of the rectitude with which
they work; their lances and hatchets express the faculty
they possess of discerning right from wrong, and the
sagacity, vivacity, and power of this discernment. Their
instruments of geometry and different arts shew that they
know how to lay the foundation, to build up, and to finish
their work, and that they pcssess all the powers of that
secondary providence whic£ guides inferior natures and
conducts them to their goal. Sometimes also those
emblematic objects carried by these holy intelligences
* See Œuvres de St. Denys l'Aréopagite, traduites du grec par M. l'Abbé
Darboy. Paris, 1845, in-8vo. ch. i. de la Hiérarchie Céleste, p. 242.
[D.]
99
HIERARCHY OF ANGELS AT CHARTRES.
announce God's judgments upon man, the severity of His
chastisements, the vengeance of His judgments. It may
be also deliverance from peril, the fulfilment of the
chastisement, the restoration of the lost treasure, and the
increase of corporeal and spiritual graces.
In the ordinary preface of the mass, which is very
ancient, the Angels, Archangels, Thrones, Dominations,
Powers, Virtues, Seraphim, are mentioned. Neither the
Cherubim nor Principalities are present, and the hier-
archical order is not well observed. In the "Te Deum
the Cherubim are named with Seraphim, the Powers, the
Angels, and the Heavens (Thrones), but neither the
Dominations, Virtues, Principalities nor Archangels figure.
there. Thus out of nine, four and perhaps five classes are
absent. Therefore it is to St. Dionysius that not only the
complete nomenclature of the nine choirs of celestial
spirits belongs, but also their systematic hierarchy.
St. Dionysius was a Greek, consequently it is in the Greek
and in the Byzantine church that we should meet with
the most frequent and most complete representation in
art of the nine choirs of angels. In the Latin church it
is a little more rare, as we shall see, to find a hierarchy,
painted or carved.
The Cathedral of Chartres offers one example sculptured
on the southern porch, and another painted on glass in
the south transept. The hierarchy occupies the cordon of
the voussoir of the port of the Sainte-Chapelle of Vin-
cennes, which gives two examples drawn from each of
the nine groups, so that the whole of the order is clearly
characterised. In a south chapel of the cathedral at
Cahors, the whole celestial army is sculptured in detail.
That of Chartres belongs to the thirteenth century,
Vincennes to the fourteenth, and Cahors to the fifteenth.
In Fig. 158 we show one of four seraphim which stand in
the bay of the south porch of Chartres, in the first row of
the hierarchy of angels in the Last Judgment. This
form is six-winged, holding flames, while the next, Fig. 159,
holds globes upon which the monogram of Christ is
inscribed. This last is one of four cherubim on the left
side of the row on the same porch. Figs. 160 and 161 are
two angels enthroned, one holding a sword, the other with
crown and sceptre. There are three of these throned
H 2
100
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
figures, sceptred, crowned, and with feet shod. Fig. 162
is an Angel of Judgment sounding the trumpet. There are
four of these, two to the right and two to the left. Fig.
163 is an angel wearing a dalmatic and holding a book of
the Gospel, "Liber scriptus proferetur." There are nine
of these in a line to the left of the spectator. *
Greece, the country of St. Dionysius, is richer than


Fig. 158.
Fig. 159.
France in such complete representations of the hierarchy
* M. Didron adds in a note to the Guide to Painting, p. 77: "De
l'Iconographie Chrétienne, Histoire de l'Ange, nous décrirons en détail les
différents chœurs des anges sculptés et peints à la Sainte-Chapelle de Vin-
cennes, à la cathédrale de Chartres, à celle de Cahors, à celles d'Albi et de
Reims." We shall give a definition of their names and functions with
respect to God and man. Hitherto we have only given the generic, not the
individual nomenclature. See Annales Archéologiques, tom. xviii. p. 72.
[D.]
101
ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN.
of angels.
One of the finest examples we can bring
forward is to be seen in the great convent of Ivirôn on
Mount Athos, in the cupola of a church dedicated to the
archangels. The Pantocrator presides in the centre of
the cupola; the nine choirs of angels are arranged around
him in nine ranks. An inscription runs under each
telling the name and function of each order. The Creator


Fig. 160.
Fig. 161.
faces the west, to his right are the three orders of
Counsellors, to the left, of Governors, and above his head
the Ministers. Each choir is represented by a vast mul-
titude of angels receding and ascending, step by step, till
they are finally lost in the blue of heaven. Commencing
with (I.) COUNSELLORS, we see first a little figure holding
a scroll on which we read EPAIM (seraphim), and
102
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
this being is further described in the Greek inscription
which occupies the entire length of the compartment,
πύρινοι ὄντες οἱ σεραφὶμ τὸ εἶδος
πυροῦσι βροτοὺς πρὸς ἀγάπησιν θεῖαν.
"The seraphim being fiery in appearance, inflame mortals towards divine
love."
They are altogether red like flame. Their bodies and
their three pairs of wings all red; a red and flaming sword


Fig. 162.
Fig. 163.
in the right hand. Their feet are bare. Thus, according
to the etymology of their names, they are living flames
that burn with and enkindle Divine love.
II.-CHERUBIM.
The little angel who introduces them bears on its
scroll: XEP.
[D.]
103.
ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN.
The inscription on the compartment runs thus:-
χύσιν σοφίας χερυβὶμ κεκτημένοι
χύδην κινοῦσι τε ἡμῖν ἐκεῖθεν.
"The cherubim, possessors of the pouring forth of wisdom, pour it forth
in floods from that source into us."
A single pair of wings, variegated, but whose general
aspect is blue. A robe surmounted by a mantle, and
below the mantle, a short tunic descending to the knees,
slightly resembling that worn by our bishops.
Feet
shod. The robe, the mantle, the tunic, and the foot-gear
all very rich.
III.-THRONES.
Upon the scroll held by the little angel we read: OPOÑ
The inscription in the compartment reads:-
ὑπερίδρυνται ἐσχατίας ἁπάσης
οἱ ἀμφὶ τὸν ὕψιστον ὑψηλοὶ θρόνοι.
"Above all limit are set the high thrones around the Most High."
Two fiery wheels, winged with four wings filled with
eyes. An angel's head with aureole appears below each
of these wheels and rises towards the centre. The Virgin
appears below near these thrones, in that choir of which
she forms a part, according to Byzantine theology. She
is praying, her hands raised towards heaven. Near her
this inscription may be read :-
ἐξαίρει θρονοὺς τοῦ θεοῦ ὄντως θρόνος θεοῦ.
"True Throne of God, she exalts the thrones of God."
IV.-DOMINATIONS.
On the scroll of the little angel here: KYP.
Inscription on the compartment:—
πρὸς τὴν ὄντως φέρουσι κυριαρχίαν
αὐτοκρατόρου κυριότητες νεύσιν.*
"The dominations direct their will in accordance with the truly
supreme power of the absolute Master."
* It would appear that this motto has been incorrectly copied from the
fresco painting.
104
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Angels with two wings, robe, mantle and clothing for
the feet. In the right hand, the seal of God, a disc
marked by the Greek monogram of Jesus Christ TC XC.
In the left hand, a long staff surmounted by a cross.
The
Holy Virgin belongs to the Thrones; St. John the Baptist
is among the Dominations. This is a human domination,
a dignity due to him, according to Byzantine theology,
because of his virtue and his title as Harbinger of Jesus
Christ. St. John is winged, exactly because he was the
angel and the messenger of God. His robe is of skin, and
mantle of stuff. He has naked feet, like an apostle and
Jesus Christ himself, although the dominations, to whom
he is allied, have feet shod.
V.-POWERS.
Upon the scroll of this little angel: AYN.
The inscription on the compartment :-
ἀκατάσειστον ἀνδρεῖαν αἱ δυνάμεις
φέρουσι τὰς σφαίρας τε πόλου κινοῦσι.
"The Powers possess invincible courage and put the spheres of heaven
in motion."
Angels with two wings, robe, and mantle, above which is
a short tunic descending to the knees. Embroidered border
at the bottom of robe and tunic and round the collar of
the mantle. The feet are bare. In the right hand, the
seal of God, or the globe, marked by the monogram of
Jesus Christ; in the left hand a long staff terminated by
a cross.
VI.-AUTHORITIES.
On the scroll of the little angel: EOYE.
The inscription on this compartment:-
ἡ ἐξουσιῶν ἔξοχος ἐξουσία
ὅλη νένευκε τῇ ἐξουσιαρχίᾳ.
"The authority that excels authorities has wholly bowed to the arch-
authority."
Angel with two wings, a robe and mantle, but without
ornaments, and with bare feet. In the right hand, the
2
[D.]
105
ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN.
seal of God stamped with the monogram of Jesus Christ;
in the left hand, a long staff ending in a cross.
(C
VII.
PRINCIPALITIES.
On the scroll of the little angel: APXĀI.
Inscription:-
τὸ θεοειδὲς ἀρχικὸν ἐκτυποῦσι
πλεῖστα θαύματ' αἱ ἀρχαὶ ἐνεργοῦσαι.
Principalities, many wonder working, figure the essence of Divine
rule."
Angels with two wings, robe, mantle covered by a tunic
descending to the knees. Feet shod. Great richness of
dress. In the right hand the seal of God engraved with
the monogram of Christ; in the left, a lily branch, instead
of the baton expanded into a cross.
VIII. ARCHANGELS.
On the scroll of this little angel: APXAF.
Inscription:-
ἀρχαγγελικὴ ἀρχαγγέλων τάξις
μέση ταῖς ἀρχαῖς κοινωνεῖ καὶ ἀγγέλοις.
"The archangelic order of archangels combines with the principalities
and the angels, being between them."
Soldiers winged with two wings: no helmet, but a
breastplate and buskins. In the left hand a globe marked
by the monogram of Jesus Christ. In the right hand a naked
sword, point upwards. This is the type so constantly
presented in the archangel Michael.
IX.—ANGELS.
On the scroll of the little angel: AггĒ.
Inscription:-
τὸ λειτουργικὸν ὄντως ἀγγέλοις πρέπει
ἄνω κάτω τρέχουσιν ἕνεκ᾽ ἀνθρώπων.
"The work of ministry is the true office of angels who ascend and de-
scend in the service of men.'
""
A multitude of two-winged angels richly clothed.
Dressed like deacons in alb and dalmatic. In the right
106
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
hand, the Divine seal marked by the monogram of Jesus
Christ. In the left hand, a long staff terminating in a
little cross.
Feet richly shod, like those of angels on the
reliquary of Limbourg.
The following inscription runs all round this cupola,
from base to frontal. It is, in a manner, a résumé of that
which has been already given in detail:-
οἱ ἀμφὶ τὸν πρώτιστον νοῦν τὴν τριάδα νόες δεύτεροι
τριαδικῶς τελοῦντες ἐκ τριῶν πάτων τὸ τριμερές
νόος μου λῦσαι ὡς θέμις τοῖς λειτουργοῖς τριῖδος.
"May the secondary spirits which surround the primary Spirit, the
Trinity, working in a threefold manner, deliver the triple part of my
spirit from the three passions, as is right for those who adore the
Trinity."
At the same Monastery of Ivirôn, in the church of the
Пavaуía ПopтaíTiσa, that is to say, of the Virgin Portress,
or virgin guardian of the door, the angels who surround
this Virgin are, on the one hand, Seraphim with six wings,
named Εξαπτέρες, but without feet; on the other Πολυόμματα,
Thrones, circles of five with four wings filled with eyes.
In the great church of the same Convent of Ivirôn,
named Пlavayías Koiunois, “Death of the Virgin," the porch,
which is entirely painted over, shows in the vault the
nine choirs of angels surrounding Jesus Christ, whose
golden and cruciform nimbus is marked with O QN.
Their names not being inscribed and their attributes
being almost the same in all, it is not possible to define
them. There are only two choirs more clearly defined
than in the Church of the Archangels, the one being
that of the Thrones, the other that of the Angels, properly
so called. The Thrones are crowned as kings; they are
clothed in long robe and mantle. They hold in the left
hand a long sceptre or baton, with floriate termination ;
in the right hand a staff, with a cartel, banner, square, and
flat, on which may be read: "Holy, holy, holy, Lord
God of Sabaoth; heaven and earth are full of Thy glory."
As to the angelic choir, it is represented by a crowd of
two-winged angels, in soldiers' dress, with casque, cuirass,
and shod in buskins, holding a floriate sceptre, and in the
left, a staff with square banner on which we may read:
"Holy, holy, holy!
We seem now to have said enough upon all these Greek
t
[D.]
JOHN THE MESSENGER.
107
angels, still so imperfectly defined, notwithstanding the
laws laid down by St. Dionysius the Areopagite; endowed
with attributes too similar to allow of our distinguishing
one from another without risk of error; baptised by names
which have synonymous names, and which are borne by
diverse choirs. In addition we still have to treat of the
hierarchy of Latin angels and enlarge on this subject, but
before doing so we must pass in review those angels exe-
cuted in Latin churches under evidently Byzantine in-
fluence, and our remarks on this Romano-Byzantine
hierarchy will serve to clear up what is still obscure about
the nine choirs of the Greeks.*
["In his character of Messenger," writes Mrs. Jameson,
"the Greeks represented John with large wings,_of
which there are many examples in Byzantine art. For
instance, in a Greek ivory diptych, in which he stands
thus winged, with his head in a dish (charger) at
his feet. In another instance, a picture half-length, he
has large wings, and holds his own head in his hand."
A somewhat similar representation of this figure is given
at page 70, Vol. I. of this work, from a fresco painting in
the Convent of Kaisariani on Mount Hymettus. The
Greek Church translates literally the words of St. Mark:
"Behold I send my angel before thy face (i. 2). In the
West, where the spirit is more regarded than the letter,
St. John has a nimbus, but the wings are dispensed with.
In this illustration the angel-saint holds his cross and
scroll in the left hand while giving benediction with the
right, and on the scroll is written:
ποιήσατε κάρπους ἀξίους μετανοίας.
"Bring forth fruits worthy of repentance."
The place of John in the hierarchy of angels is
among the Dominations, as has been indicated in the
extract from St. Dionysius given above (see p. 104) in the
description of the Hierarchy in the church of Ivirốn.
Wingless angels with feet firmly planted on the ground
are seen occasionally in Western art. Thus in a manu-
* M. Didron did not live to carry out this portion of his work, and
the following account of the Iconography of Angels is extracted and con-
densed from his essays on the subject in the Annales Archéologiques, vol.
xi. pp. 346, 362; xii. p. 168; xviii. p. 72.
108
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
script of the eleventh century, in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, M. C. Bayet* has found an illustration of the
Repose of Christ, where the Saviour is represented re-
clining on a couch, with fifty-seven angels and seraphs

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​Fig. 164.
standing in serried ranks behind, none of whom have wings.
Piero della Francesca also, in his Presepio, in the National
Gallery of London, paints the noble forms of five wingless
angels, who have walked across the hills to sing their
simple hymn in the stable at Bethlehem (see Fig. 154).†]
* See L'Art Byzantin. C. Bayet, p. 163.
† N.B. The portions of this work enclosed in brackets are by the Editor.
1
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEVILS.
109
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEVILS.
The Iconography of Lucifer and the rebellious angels
should follow that of the Hierarchy of Heaven. The
origin of these images is traceable to the Hebrew Scrip-
tures. Thus in Isaiah we read, "How art thou fallen from
heaven, O Lucifer, son of the Morning! how art thou
cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations!
For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into
heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God: I
will sit upon the Mount of the Congregation" (xiv. 12, 13).
The following illustration," says M. de Challemel, "shows

Fig. 165.-Lucifer befoRE THE FALL.
Lucifer before his fall.* It is drawn from the MS. entitled
'Hortus deliciarum,' formerly in the library of Stras-
burg, which was written and painted for the Convent of
* See La France Littéraire, vols. ii., iii. “Hist. du Diable."
110
[M. S.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
St. Odilius in Alsace. Strength and pride are the charac-
teristics of this figure, standing with globe and sceptre, as
one who would make himself equal to God. In another
manuscript,* Bible historiée of the 13th century,' Lucifer
is represented as irreverently seated in the presence of
God, in illustration of the words 'I will sit also upon the
Mount of the Congregation.' These are the only instances
we have met with as yet of Lucifer before the fall."
There is a manuscript in the Bibliothèque de l'Arse-
nal, in Paris, No. 1186, called the Breviary of St. Louis,
on the fly-leaf of which is inscribed, "C'est le psautier
Monseigneur Saint Loys... lequel fu à sa mêre."
The following illustration of the fall of Lucifer is taken
from this breviary, and it adds no little to the interest
of this miniature that it is found in a prayer-book of the
celebrated Queen Blanche of Castille (A.D. 1220 to 1252),
and was possibly given by her to St. Louis of France,
when a youth under her careful guardianship. The
painter of this miniature appears to have closely followed
the instructions of the Byzantine painter's guide:-
"Heaven. Christ seated as King on a throne, holding
the Gospel open at the words: 'I have seen Satan like
lightning fall from heaven.' A multitude of angels stand
around in great fear. Michael is in the midst; on his
scroll is written, 'Let us stand in awe and here adore the
King our God.' Mountains are beneath, and a great gulf
in which is written: TARTARUS. Lucifer and all his army
fall from heaven. Above the forms [of his angels] are
very beautiful; at a lower point they change to angels
of darkness; lower still they are darker and blacker;
below that again they are half demons, half angels; and
finally they are all black and hideous demons. At the
bottom, and under all the others, in the midst of the abyss
-Lucifer, blackest and most terrible of all, lies prostrate
on the ground, looking upwards."
Thus in this illustration the forms of Lucifer's army,
just falling out of heaven where the Lord is seated amidst
His adoring host, are angelic still. They have the nimbus,
wings and robes of prismatic colours, red, blue, green,
etc., on a golden ground. But the features are already
* See History of Our Lord in Art, Introd. vol. i. p. 56, where Lady
Eastlake gives engraved facsimile of this figure.
[M. S.]
111
FALL OF LUCIFER.
undergoing a transformation, the mouth changing to an

Миний
Fig. 166.
PD
open throat, the nose to a beak. When they enter the
gulf they have neither nimbus nor robe; a tail projects.
112
[M. S.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
behind, feet and hands are changed to paws, nails become
as claws, and all the skin resembles that of a monkey;
the face is no longer human, but bestial and monstrous.
In the Italian Speculum Humanae Salvationis (Bibl.
de l'Arsenal, No. 593), the illustrations in which are held
to belong to the school of Giotto, we have the following
representation of the Fall of the Angels: The Almighty,
partially seen through the clouds, drives them downward
with a motion of His hand.

Fig. 167.-FALL OF LUCIFER.
Lucifer, emperor of demons, as he is called in a MS. pre-
served in the Bibliothèque Nat. Paris, is represented under
the most hideous aspects. He has frequently three heads,
each one of which devours a soul of the damned. Even before
the time of Dante, these three-headed demons have been
painted in France, and before the birth of the artist who
has depicted them upon the walls of the Campo Santo of
Pisa. This is one proof amongst many that Dante visited
France, and having seen Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell
sculptured in the voussoirs and painted on the glass of our
[M: S.]
113
LUCIFER.
great cathedrals, he loves to describe them in poetry.* Fig.
168 represents a four-headed Satan, engraved by Didron, the
provenance of which we have not been able to ascertain.

D
Fig. 168.
Yet in the abyss,
Lightly he placed us.
The emperor who sways
That Lucifer with Judas low engulphs,
The realm of sorrow, at mid-breast from the ice
Stood forth; and I in stature am more like
A giant than the giant are his arms.
Mark now how great that whole must be which suits
With such a part. If he were beautiful
As he is hideous now, and yet did dare
To scowl upon his Maker, well from him
May all our misery flow. Oh, what a sight!
How passing strange it seemed when I did spy
Upon his head three faces: one in front
Of hue vermilion, the other two with this
Midway each shoulder joined and at the crest;
The right twixt wan and yellow seemed; the left
To look on, such as come from whence old Nile
Stoops to the lowlands. Under each shot forth
Two mighty wings, enormous as became
A bird so vast. No plumes had they,
VOL. II.
I
114
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
We have also seen a three-headed devil, devouring three
figures, at St. Basile d'Étampes.]
Satan is alive wherever evil and suffering exist, so that
to write a complete history of the Devil we should deal
with a great part of the history of the universe; therefore
we must confine ourselves to a certain limited treatment
of the subject. It is with archæology, positive, experi-
mental, anatomical, if we may so say, that we are here con-
cerned-not with philosophy; our business is to record and
describe, but not to seek to interpret.
Evil is either physical or moral; it gnaws and consumes
the body or the soul of man, it demands his life or his
virtue. The personification that has been made of evil,
through help of metaphor, concentrates these two kinds of
evil in itself. Among the ancients, as among Christians
at a later age, physical evils are personified in natural phe-
nomena, such as convulsions of nature, precipices, gulfs—
ever open to devour mankind. Thus, in the gulf between
Messina and Reggio there was a horrible monster; the
Greeks represented it as a beast with six long necks, six
enormous heads, twelve claws to grasp its prey, and
six throats ready to devour it. A host of dogs barked
in its belly, and issuing forth from its body, though tied to
its waist, by their continual yelling terrified all that
passed by. When the monster, who had been, before its
fall, a lovely nymph, a kind of pagan angel, beheld its
metamorphosis, it was so terrified that it threw itself into
the sea, in the
in the very strait that bears its name and which
it still inhabits. If Etna almost perpetually growls, and
But were in texture like a bat, and these
He flapped in the air, that from him issued still
Three winds wherewith Cocytus to its depth
Was frozen. At six eyes he wept the tears
Adown three chains distilled with bloody foam.
At every mouth his teeth a sinner champed,
Bruised as with ponderous engine; so that three
Were in this guise tormented.
In the systems of infernal government constructed by later writers,
Lucifer was either placed at the head of all the devils, or reckoned as one
of the seven chief infernal potentates under the supremacy of Belial. In
Marlowe's Faustus (sc. iii.) he is "Arch-regent and commander of all
spirits," ""Chief Lord and regent of perpetual night!... Prince of the East"
(sc. v. 104). He reigns in the Orient, while Beelzebub rules in the South.
[D.]
115
RIVER DEMONS.
shakes from base to summit, if it vomits masses of rock and
floods of burning lava, it is a giant thunderstruck by
Jupiter and chained within its caverns, if it quakes it is
the giant within who strikes the mountains, if it groans
he howls in echo. The mournful and angry sigh of
Enceladus tears the rocks, and tosses them to the sky
with flaming breath, as if to attack triumphant Jupiter
again.
Among the Scandinavians these earthquakes were in
like manner personified as gods: such as the evil god, or
demon, named Loki. After having scattered sin through-
out all Scandinavia, as a sower sows his grain, Loki was
at last chained to pointed rocks. When he turns himself,

I
Fig. 169. PERSONIFICATION OF RIVER.*
like a sick man upon the sharp stones, the earth trembles,
when he foams at mouth and drops his poisonous spittle on
the ground, his nerves are convulsed, and the earth quakes.
Among Christians, the ardent southern imagination of
France personifies the inundations and caverns of the
Rhone in the monster of the Tarasque.† So when Chris-
tianity expelled Vulcan, the Cyclops, and the Giants from
Etna and the Lipari islands, it was only to make room for
*It is to be regretted that the provenance of this illustration has not
been ascertained. [ED.]
On the River Symbols of Antiquity, see Annales Archéol. tom. ix.
pp. 107-8.
I 2
116
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
((
demons in their stead. Indeed, Odilon, abbot of Cluny,
instituted the Fête des Morts in order to release a multi-
tude of suffering souls from purgatory, and to place them in
paradise. He freed these souls, purified by the prayers of
the living, from the demons who tormented them, to give
them to the care of angels. Then," as a holy hermit
relates, "frightful sounds were heard in Etna, and deafen-
ing explosions in the neighbouring isles." This uproar was
caused by Satan and all his court, Satan and all his demo-
niacal retinue, who howled in despair, and with loud cries
demanded back the souls lost to them since the day of this
new Festival.
The history of these imaginary monsters is much the same
in the end, although they are called by different names;
thus, the Serpent is called Graouilli at Metz; Gargouille at
Rouen ;* Clair Sallé at Troyes; Grand Gueule at Poitiers;
Tarasque at Arles.† "In France," says M. Alfred de Maury,
"these legends do not date very far back, and the oldest,
that of the Tarasque of Arles, is first mentioned by Gervais
of Tilbury, an English writer, marshal of the kingdom
of Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th century.‡
I now have to treat of the authors of conflagrations
(incendiaries) in the history of the Devil.
"One day," writes Frodoard, an historian, born at
Epernay in 894, and who wrote the history of the Church
of Rheims-" one day St. Remi, Archbishop of Rheims,
was absorbed in prayer inside a little church in his beloved
town. He thanked God for having been able to save from
the snares of the demon all the most beautiful souls in his
diocese, when some one announced to him that the town
was on fire. Then the lamb turned to a lion; anger
inflamed the face of the saint, who stamped on the flag-
stones of the church with terrible energy, and cried out,
Satan, I detect thee. After all I am not yet rid of
thee and thy wickedness.' The footprints where St. Remi
* Gargouille, from Low Latin gargola, which means a shout.
† Tarasque is derived from the name of a French town, Tarascon near
Arles, where it was the custom on holidays to carry round the effigy of a
monster or dragon. Légendes pieuses au Moyen Age, Maury, p. 147, n. 1.
"Les miracles que Frodoard attribue aux premiers archevêques de
Rheims ne sont pas racontés avec le génie d'Homère; cependant ils ont
aussi excité l'enthousiasme populaire, ils ont aussi été admis et transmis
de bouche en bouche avec une foi fervente; et le tableau de St. Remi chas-
[D.]
117
FIRE DEMONS.
furiously stamped on the flagstones at the door are still
shown. Then the saint armed himself with his crosier and
his cope, as a warrior with his sword and his cuirass, and
flew to meet the enemy. He had scarcely advanced a few
steps when he perceived the wreaths of fire and flames
devouring, with irresistible fury, the wooden houses of
which the city was built, and their thatched roofs. At
sight of the saint the fire seemed to lessen and grow pale.
Remi, who knew the enemy with whom he had to do,
made the sign of the cross, and the fire retreated as the
saint advanced. The fire slackened its hold and fled as if
subjugated by the power of the bishop, or like some
intelligent being that understood its own weakness. Some-

ए.ए ए
ए
D
ин
шам
Fig. 170. FIRE DEMON.*
times it bore up again, took courage, and attempted to
encircle the saint in fire, to blind him, and reduce him to
cinders, but with the sign of the cross he parried the attacks
and defeated its purpose. Thus forced back, and retreating
from the houses, one after another, that had been enveloped
in flame, the fire demon sank at the bishop's feet like a con-
quered animal, let itself be taken and led at the will of the
saint, outside the town, into the moat by which Rheims is still
fortified, and Remi opened a door leading to a subterranean
chamber, and there thrust down the flames as a malefactor
might be thrown into a pit; he made fast the door and for-
bade its ever being opened again under pain of anathema,
-of ruin of body and death of the soul. Once an imprudent,
curious, and perhaps sceptical man, wanting to brave this
sant devant lui, de rue en rue, l'incendie qui consumait la ville de Rheims,
n'est dépourvu ni d'énergie ni d'éclat." For legend see Frodoard, Hist. de
l'Eglise de Rheims; Guizot, Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France, p. 35.
*It is to be regretted that the provenance of this illustration has not
been ascertained.-[ED.]
118
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
prohibition, and to force his way into the abyss, was
driven forth by rolling masses of flame, scorched, and
then retreated finally of themselves into the cave where
the deathless will of the saint held them enchained.'
""*
In the Missal of Poitiers we see the Devil as at once the
ruler and the guardian of hell (see Fig. 171).
He is chained to its mouth as a dog to its kennel, and
yet wields his trident sceptre as if monarch of the Hell he
guards. Cerberus and Pluto in one, he is yet a Cerberus
of Christian art, a demon more hideous and more filled
with energy than Pagan art has offered. Mounted above
the monkey demon whom we see here caught in the jaws of
Hell and Death, this image figures the various aspects of
infernal sin by its many faces, having a face on the
breast as well as the head, a face on each shoulder and a
face at each hip. How many more behind? With long
ears like those of a hound, thick short horns of a bull,
his legs and arms are covered with scales, and seem to
issue from the mouths of the faces at his joints. He has a
lion's head with tusks, and hands like the claws of a bear.
His body, open at the waist, reveals a nest of serpents
darting forth and hissing. In this monster we find all the
elements of a dragon, leviathan, lion, fox, viper, bear,
bull, and wild boar. It is a compound of each evil
quality in these animals, embodied in a human form.
One of the most extraordinary conceptions of Satan that
has come down to us from the Middle Ages is that figure
seated in the midst of the Hell which forms one of the four
"Novissima" on the walls of the Campo Santo at Pisa, said
to have been painted by Orcagna in conjunction with his
brother Bernardo.† A vast rib or arch in the walls of pan-
demonium admits one into the gulf of Hell, in which Satan
sits in the midst, in gigantic terror, cased in armour and
crunching sinners. The punishments of the wicked are
* See La France Littéraire, vol. iv. p. 174. (1841.)
† In another of the same series of frescoes in the Campo Santo, on the
wall between the first and second entrance, demons are represented tortur-
ing St. Ranieri, which certainly date from the period when ideas and types
belonging to the East begin to invade the West. These demons all have
human faces, however. These scenes from the life of St. Ranieri, the
patron of Pisa, were formerly held to have been painted by Simon di
Martino of Siena, but this is contradicted by Kugler, who holds them to
be the work of some unknown artist about the date 1360.
SATAN IN MISSAL OF POITIERS.
119

N
II
Fig. 171.-SATAN IN MISSAL OF POITIERS.
120
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
portrayed in numberless circles around him. Although,

O
Fig. 172.-DEVIL IN CAMPO SANTO, PISA.
according to Vasari, Orcagna in this work drew much of
his inspiration from Dante, yet his is not the three-
[D.]
121
SATAN IN BYZANTINE ART.
faced monster of the poet's Inferno, canto xxxiv. [M.
Didron discovers a great resemblance between this Pisan
devil and the great Satan in the Last Judgment
on the west wall of the principal church in the Convent
of St. Gregory at Mount Athos. The latter is naked, and
carries the enormous key of hell hanging to his waist. A
human form, fat and gross, but with a long and powerful
tail. His feet and hands have eagle's claws, an ox head
and horns, and a goat's beard. Flames issue from the
eyes and mouth. He holds a little naked being (one of the
damned) in his left hand, squeezing him against his side
till fire gushes from his mouth; with his right hand he
directs another little devil to carry a basket full of the
scrolls in which the evil deeds of men are chronicled, to
deliver to the angel who weighs men's souls in the
balance. For ears he has dogs' heads; and on each
shoulder a monstrous head stretches open its throat and
vomits flame. At each knee another head also vomits
flame. This Satan of Mount Athos again bears a singular
resemblance to a chief Satan which appears in a fifteenth
century MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. It would
be deeply interesting to establish the Greek origin of the
Satan of the Campo Santo and of that of the illuminator.]
The Oriental Devil is the personification of a rank and
exuberant nature, mother and cruel step-dame, creatrix and
homicide all in one. In the first ages there was understood
to be but one primary Cause of all-this Cause both good
and evil: one sole God himself the author of evil as of good.
Later on the start was made, the Cause bifurcated on one
side was God, the source of all good; on the other the
Devil, who engenders all evil. But God and the Devil
are clothed in monstrous forms-the Devil especially. His
intellectual and varied powers are designated by many
heads on one trunk. The intelligence that can embrace
all things and penetrate everywhere is symbolised by a
number of arms and legs. As the animal life is stronger
than other created life, more intelligent and more formi-
dable, and as each animal is endowed with some particular
quality, this symbol of the evil genius was composed of
all these predominant attributes without any secondary
characteristic, and the Devil became an epitome of all
hideous forms in zoological nature. A Persian Devil
122
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
appears in an engraving in the Didron collection in
the form of a man, clothed and wearing necklets, bracelets,
and anklets, but with claws on his heels and toes, and
horns on his head. He is named Ahriman, Spirit of
Darkness, the Iranian enemy of Ormuzd, second-born of
the Eternal One, like Ormuzd, an emanation from the
Primal Light; equally pure, but
ambitious and full of pride, he had
become jealous of the first-born of
God. He created three series of
evil spirits-male and female (see
Fig. 20).

की
An Egyptian Devil, engraved
from Montfaucon, see Fig. 174, has
a human head from which pro-
ject the heads of six animals, one
that of an ox, one of a bird, and
four others apparently those of
serpents. Typhoeus, the whirl-
wind, or Typhoon, has a hundred
serpent heads in Greek mythology.
This extravagant and monstrous
image cited by Montfaucon has a
human body with large wings and
four arms.
With one of his hands
he holds an object described by
Montfaucon as the tail of some
animal.*
A hideous representation of
another such monster is to be
found in a Turkish manuscript in
the Bibl. Nationale, Paris, S.C. 242.
This book was obtained by Napo-
leon I. at Cairo, and presented to
the National Library of Paris. On
the fly-leaf we read "Livre qui
contient la figure d'Aftree," and
below the author's name is given,
“Saïaidi Mahammed ebu emer Hassan esseoudi," 990an.
The flesh of this monster is olive, his eyes are green with
red pupils, and his tongue is also red. He wears a green
* See Montfaucon, Antiquité Expliquée, vol. ii. plate facing p. 197, Fig. 6.
Fig. 173. PERSIAN DEVIL.
[D.]
123
EGYPTIAN DEVILS.
scarf round his loins, pale purple trousers lined with blue,
and necklets and armlets of gold. (See Fig. 175.)
The Devil was also endowed with the features of a lion,
of a tiger, an eagle, a man, or a bull, to show that evil
was angry as one, cruel as another, swift as a third,
intelligent as a fourth, strong and indomitable as the
last. Out of this combination and multiplicity of bizarre,
heterogeneous, and impossible forms, a monstrous being
was developed.*
Monstrosity is, in fact, the character of the Genius of
Evil in the East. Therefore it is that in the Apocalypse,
which is a work altogether Eastern both in conception
and in execution, so much

stress is laid upon the
monstrous forms of its
demons. There we find,
Rev. xii. 2, the dragon with
seven heads and ten horns,
and a tail so mighty that
with it he can cast the
stars of heaven to the earth
with one blow. And there
is the beast of the sea, Rev.
xiii. 1, with a body like a
leopard, feet as the feet of
a bear, mouth like the
mouth of a lion.
In Egypt, Typhon, who
is the personification of
brute matter and of purely
Fig. 174.-EGYPTIAN DEVIL.
animal life, is hideous. His head is enormous, like a
flattened ball in front, with gigantic ears; he has a large,
fat, squat body, pendant flabby belly, legs swollen and
formless as those of an elephant. The Behemoth of Job
(Job xl. 15) eats grass like an ox.† He is armed with
a tail long and thick as a cedar tree. Now the book of
Job, like the vision of St. John, is an eminently Oriental
poem. Such infernal genii as are there described may
be seen on the beautiful vases of China and Japan. They
* See Fig. 47, vol. i. p. 162.
1
+ Didron adds, "Il est tout couvert d'écailles," but scales are an attri
bute of Leviathan in chap. xli. 15, not Behemoth, xl. 15.
+
124
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
are hideous fabulous beasts covered with extravagant
excrescences, and formed out of all known proportions.
Such is, then, the physiognomy attributed to the Genius
of Evil in the East. A gigantic, monstrous, composite,
incoherent animal, covered with excrescences.
This is not so in the West. Here we find less extra ·

Fig. 175.-TURKISH DEVIL.
vagance. Men are more self-contained, more reasonable.
Nature is less powerful for good as for evil; it is un-
productive except under the hand of man. The soil must
be broken by the plough or by the spade, must be
moistened by the sweat of the labourer, be pruned and
trimmed every season, that it may bring forth plants,
[D.]
125
DEVILS IN WESTERN ART.
flowers, fruits or grain. It is man, on the contrary, who is
everything. It is he who does well or ill. Satan is
almost completely transformed into man; these monstrous
Eastern forms would have rather excited laughter than
fear in our cold, rational, and mocking regions. Greece,
owing to the proximity of India, still preserved some
hideous forms of the Devil, but she embellishes them with
her passionate genius for beauty. Cerberus has three
heads, but he is in every way a dog. Harpies are unclean
birds, fetid, hideous, but not monstrous. Medusa is
frightful, and yet hers is a woman's head, round which,
instead of hair, serpents grow and hiss. And still this
Medusa becomes singularly more human in her passage
from Greece to Sicily (see the bas-reliefs in Selinonte),
where Pluto, Proserpine, the infernal divinities, and the
pagan divinities, clothed in reasonable human form, take
the place of the monstrous images of the East.
The West is not so imaginative ;
its birds are smaller and less coloured,
its flowers and trees more pale and
feeble, its mammiferæ less developed
and formed in better proportions.
The elephant and camel thrive badly
among us, where the horse and the ox
do well. The Devil of the West was
also smaller, less exaggerated, less
monstrous. The seven-headed devil
is out of place in our churches, where
the devil with one head swarms,
breeds, and thrives wonderfully.

Fig. 176.-SATAN WITH
SERPENT HORNS.*
Before any constant communica-
tion between the East and West took place, and from
primitive times down to the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies, the Christian devil constantly assumed the human
form. These forms varied, but not in any vital point,
and sometimes the devil was only a very ugly man.
Indeed, he presents himself on our most ancient monu-
ments with a physiognomy shrunken, lank, degraded
both morally and physically. There are no devils pro-
perly so called in the catacombs either in frescoes or on
* MS. circ. 13th century. Coll. of Duke of Anjou. Bibl. Nat. Paris.
126
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
sarcophagi; there are no devils in the basilicas, or among
the mosaics and capitals, but the old manuscripts show
them, though rarely.* In the Sacramentaire of Drogon,
Bishop of Metz, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nation-
ale, we see a devil in human form entirely clothed.
He is a beggar, whose unkempt, long, sparse hairs seem
bristling up. Rags and shreds of clothing fall round
his body; this is the devil that tempted Jesus Christ
in the desert.†
During the Roman period the genius of personification
seems to have been more active than in the Gothic, or than
that from the close of the twelfth to the end of the fif-
teenth century. There is a Latin Bible in the Bibliothèque
Nationale held to be of the tenth century.‡ Numerous
rough miniatures accompany the text. When the abyss is
mentioned, a little conical mound is represented divided
by spiral zones, like a winding path. The first zone at
the base is occupied by birds, the next by fish, the higher
by vegetables. Finally, the summit of this cone is
hollowed like a crater, and from this species of volcano
emerges a great bare, savage, human head. This hideous
being, of ferocious aspect, figures the Abyss (see Fig. 177).
Art has translated and, as it were, commented upon the
first words of Genesis; thus God, seated upon Chaos, which
is in the semblance of clouds rolling beneath His uncovered
feet or like diluent mud, undulating in swelling waves
or like heavy clouds. The Almighty crushes this Chaos.
beneath his feet as the enemy of Creation, just as Michael
crushes Satan the enemy of Virtue. God looks forward
and somewhat upward, as if seeing in the future the earth
and heaven He predestinates.
M. Alfred de Maury (p. 136) observes: "The oldest
representation of the Devil in a human form that we
know of is found upon an ivory diptych which covers the
manuscript entitled the Evangélistaire de Charles-le-
Chauve.' Here the Spirit of darkness turns his head and
""
* In the mosaics at Torcello, Hell, at the foot of the picture of the Last
Judgment, is thronged with devils.
On the ancient sarcophagi and the old fresco paintings the Genius of
Evil is only seen under the form of a serpent: this is the serpent who
seduced Eve.
Biblia Sacra, Bibliothèque Nat. Paris, Lat. 6.
[D.]
127
DEVIL AS PROFESSOR.
howls against the God-man. His brow is armed with
horns, a kind of crook may be seen under his arm instead
of a sceptre; with one hand he directs a serpent which is
coiled round his body; with the other he holds a vase
whence issues a poison that blackens the ground.*
It was
only at the close of the thirteenth century that Satan was
endowed with the hideous form which artists have ever
since adhered to. In the first representations given of
him in a man's figure, they confined themselves to im-
pressing a cruel character on his face, and making his
hair to stand on end.†
Lucas van Leyden, in his series of prints from the New
Testament, represents Satan in the guise of a monk or
learned professor in robe and cowl, as he is indeed often

Abissus.
رمات
Po
Fig. 177.-ABYSS.
represented in the art of the sixteenth century, and even
early in the fourteenth. In the following illustration
taken from the Speculum Humanae Salvationis of the
school of Giotto, now preserved in the Bibliothèque de
l'Arsenal, Paris (No. 593, fol. 15), and on the curious tapes-
tries of Chaise Dieu, he is also a doctor clad in the ample
robes of his profession. In the last instance he shows a
countenance wan and wasted by long vigil, study and
books; his forehead large and high, his chin sharp and
* As Tennyson describes the shadow of the fallen queen,
"Broadening from her feet,
And, blackening, swallow all the land."
† See for such representations, Missal of Worms; MSS. of the tenth
century. Bibl. de l'Arsenal, Paris. MSS. in Bibl. Nat. Paris, in 4º, No. 75.
Cf. MSS. Bibl. Nat. 6829, in 4º. MSS. Bibl. de l'Arsenal in fo. 34. p. 40.
128
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
pointed, his eyes black and piercing. [Thus also has the
English poet Giles Fletcher, at the close of the sixteenth
century, conceived the tempter in his poem of Christ's
Victorie on Earth :
“At length an aged Syre far off he sawe
Come slowely footing; everie step he guest
One of his feete he from the grave did drawe
*
*
A good old hermit he might seem to be,
That for devotion had the world forsaken,
And now was travailing some Saint to see."]
The Behemoth of Job, described in the text as a terrible
and monstrous form, is illustrated in Bible Lat. No. 6, in the
Bibliothèque Nationale. In this manuscript, which is an ex-
ample of Western art in the eleventh century, we find this
точи
Fig. 178.-CHRIST TEMPTED.
demon curiously modi-
fied and embellished.
We behold him com-
pletely under the form
of a man, and, what is
more, of an angel. He
even wears a nimbus
as significant of
power, and he has a
bird's wings upon his
shoulders (see Vol. I.
p. 158, Fig. 46).

Here Behemoth is
exactly similar to the
angel, illustrated in the
same Bible, that accompanies Elias when transported to
heaven in his chariot of fire; indeed, they might be taken
for two brothers, and in a scriptural sense they are two
brothers of whom one has fallen, the other risen; how-
ever, the fallen angel is distinguished from the other by
his claws, which project from the fingers and toes of his
hands and feet, but there the difference ends, and the
good angel, who is the living symbol of light, and the evil
angel, who is the symbol of darkness, are painted in the same
colours. The evil angel ought to be black as soot, and to
fly with a bat's wings like a bird of darkness as it is, and
DEVILS IN WESTERN ART.
129
yet it has a bright aspect and eagle's wings, as of one that
loved the sun and the noonday.
[But more striking still is 'Le Diable en femme,' where
the tempter is disguised as a splendidly dressed, grandly
developed woman, from whose seductions the Anchorite of
the Thebaid is turning away. He kneels before a furnace,

-
E.BOESWILLWALD
Fig. 179.-TEMPTATION OF ST. PAPHNUTIUS, CAMPO SANTO, PISA.
holding his hands in the flame, while his face is upturned
in prayer.
The Devil may also assume the disguise of a holy angel,
as we see in the following illustration from the life of
St. Juliana.*
* Julienne (Ste), vierge et martyr à Nicomédée au Ve siècle. Honorée le
16 février à Cume en Campanie. AA. SS. Boll. Feb. ii. p. 875. Représentée
VOL. II.
K
130
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The Devil, willing to tempt St. Juliana, a young
Roman virgin imprisoned by the Prefect because she
would not deny Jesus Christ, transformed himself into
an angel with white clothing and fair young face. Still

Fig. 180.-ST. JULIANA AND THE DEVIL.
Oh,
horns projected from bis forehead, and the nails on his
feet and hands were prolonged into claws. Entering her
prison he said, “Juliana, frightful torments are prepared
for thee sacrifice to idols and thou shalt be saved." "
God of heaven and earth!" cried she, "who art thou that
speaketh thus to me?" She then seized Belial by the
throat and fastened a rope round his neck. "Declare to
me," she said in anger, "who thou art, whence comest
thou, and who hath sent thee." Satan, captured, answered
her: "I am the devil! I have done wickedly in desiring
to tempt you: but free me, I pray you, I will do so no
en prison, visitée par Satan sous la forme d'un ange, qui vient pour ébranler
sa foi et l'engager à apostasier. Quatre pièces signées de Th. de Leu,
Sadeler, Adrien Collaert, et une copie. Folio 89 du IVe volume de la
Collection des Saintes, Cabinet des Estampes de Paris. W. No. 236 et
1024 en rouge, Bibl. Ste Geneviève, Paris, Cabinet des MSS. et des livres à
figures.
DEVILS IN WESTERN ART.
131
66
Lady Juliana! friend of angels, I entreat thee by the
passion of Jesus Christ the Lord, pity my misfortune,
O
more.'
Then Juliana, strong in the Spirit of God,
whipped the demon with a rod till he was heard to cry,

Fig. 181.—DEMONS ON THE TOMB OF DAGOBERT.
K 2
132
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
have pity upon me!" But Juliana only struck him the
more. On this, the prefect sent for the saint, and she ap-
proached, dragging Satan after her; thus she passed into
the public court, displaying the humbled demon to the
people; till, having reached the mouth of a pit, she threw
him in.*
The demons on the tomb of Dagobert have the human
form, but with animals' heads. This monument stands
to the right of the high altar in the Church of St. Denys
near Paris. The subject of the bas-relief illustrates a
legend connected with the death of Dagobert (A.D. 628–
638). "A hermit on an island in the Mediterranean was
warned in a vision to pray for the Frankish King's soul.
He then saw Dagobert in chains, hurried along by a troop
of fiends, who were about to cast him into a volcano.
At last his cries to St. Denys, St. Michael, and St. Martin,
brought to his assistance those three venerable and
glorious persons, who drove off the devils, and with songs
of triumph conveyed the rescued soul to Abraham's
bosom."†
The legend says nothing of the boat, like Charon's,
crossing the river. The beautiful monument on which
this bas-relief appears was erected by St. Louis at
St. Denys.
In the Cathedral of Chartres we have the following
group of devils in human form, only distinguishable from
the men they drag down by their horns, and winged,
cloven feet. (Fig. 182.)
This group is found on the rose window, west transept,
Chartres Cathedral, towards the bottom on the left.]
In general, the Oriental devil is a monstrous and
gigantic animal; the Western devil is human and of
ordinary size; but it is necessary to fix the date of these
two so different types, that we may say how and at what
time they remained intact, independent one of another,
and when and how they were commingled and modified,
the one by the other. Christian architecture through-
out every country and period, may be divided into five
*Life of St. Juliana.
Acta SS. of the Bollandists, vol. ii. February.
Baronius (647. 5). D. Bouquet. Rec. des
Gesta Dagob. (cc. 23, 44).
histoires de France, t. ii. p. 593.
DEVILS IN WESTERN ART.
133
branches, which, while issuing from one common trunk,
present themselves under different aspects. In some
places Byzantine or Oriental styles will be found modified
in Latin or Western architecture. While, in Roman archi-
tecture, which is a combination of both styles, the Western
element predominates, Gothic architecture was a new

шаш
Fig. 182.-CHARTRES. THE DEMON IN MAN.
type developed in their midst, wherein some forms may
be distinguished which, though not distinctly Oriental
in origin, yet betray an Eastern influence. Finally, we
have the architecture of the Renaissance, which honours
first principles, and the forms of paganism as well as
134
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
of Roman Christianity. The devil has his phases
according to the style of the architecture to which
he belongs: he is Byzantine or monstrous at Constanti-
nople and Jerusalem; ugly but human in Rome, among
the Latins; animal, yet his brute form modified by his
human form among the Romans; human, but taking the
forms of the beast among the Goths; and finally, with

Po
Fig. 183.-THE DEMON AS SATYK.
the Renaissance, returning to an ancient Satyr, which
has the feet and horns of a goat, but the body and head
of a man. [“A time came," says M. Reville,* "when the
idea that the devil had a distinct bodily shape became
settled; and this form was that of the ancient fauns and
satyrs, with hoofs, protruding legs, hairy skin, tail, cloven
History of the Devil: M. Reville.
1
[D.]
135
NOMENCLATURE OF THE DEVIL.
foot or horse's hoof." The foregoing illustration is drawn
from a panel of the ivory case of the flabellum or fan
of Tournus, described in the Benedictine Annals (No.
LXIII.).
This case is believed by some antiquaries to have been
originally intended to contain a copy of the works of
Virgil, and to date from the fifth century. It is the
opinion of M. Charles le Normand that in the twelfth
century the monks of Tournus used it as a box for the
flabellum.* The designs carved in the compartments are
apparently illustrations of the Eclogues of Virgil.]
Excepting the miniatures of Byzantine and Latin
manuscripts, we have very few monuments from which to
derive our types. On one side we have the Apoca-
lypse and Apocryphal gospels, on the other the writings
of the fathers of the Latin Church. The latter, St.
Martin especially, scarcely saw the Devil in any form
but that of pagan gods, of Jupiter, Mercury and Venus.
The manuscripts supply us with very curious Roman
devils. The Gothic devils merit a long examination, and
we find the devils of the Renaissance principally in the
works of Michael Angelo and Raphael; thus one may
divine the country and epoch of a monument from the
type of demon without much difficulty, as we tell the age
and country of a building by its architectural forms.
We now pass on to the nomenclature of the Devil. The
genius of evil has a multitude of names. Satan simply
means Adversary. Among the Persians he is called Ahri-
man; Typhon among the Egyptians; Leviathan and
Behemoth in the Bible; Beelzebub, Bébérit, Baal, Bel,
Bélus, Dagon, Dragon, Astaroth, Astarté, Moloch, Militta,
Asmodeus, Salmanasar, Semiramis, in Palestine and Baby-
lonia-the angel or king of the bottomless pit whose
name in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greek
tongue his name is Apollyon.
Flabellum, or fan, is a kind of fly-brush used in the celebration of the
Lord's Supper. The use of this implement is one of the oldest and least
known of ecclesiastical rites. In the East, where food may be covered
with swarms of flies in a moment, it was natural that the bread and wine
should be guarded from them. It continued in use from the first to the
thirteenth century. See Du Sommerard, Les Arts du Moyen Age, text,
vol. ii. p. 195; iii. p. 251; v. p. 231, note.
136
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
In the West, the names given to the Devil are less
monstrous, just as the forms under which he is shown are
less repulsive. The name Dragon is preserved, and to it
have been added those of Satan, Demon, Devil, Serpent,
Asmodeus, Prince of the World, Zabulus or Zabolus; he
has even been endowed with the glorious title Lucifer, or
Lightbearer, just as the Greeks called their furies
Eumenides, or well-doers. The opposite phrase also
applies to Satan, for he is Ahriman, or the god of night.
The name that seems to have prevailed everywhere is
that of Demon, though, like that of tyrant, which at first
simply signified king, it was not meant to express either
good or evil. The evil has triumphed, and demon, which
only means genius, has been used to signify, and still sig-
nifies, a wicked spirit; tyrant also now means nothing
more than a wicked king.
We must make a selection among all these names in
order to avoid confusion. However, as among Christians
the Devil is not a single being, but extraordinarily multi-
form-as multitudinous as the angel-we must try to dis-
tinguish him in the midst of this crowd. In the Gospel
describing the man possessed, Jesus Christ asks his name
while exorcising him. "My name is Legion," he answered.
This response signifies the number to which demons may
attain; for here is one who in himself alone is the
personification and aggregate of a multitude of others.
Mary Magdalene, whom Jesus Christ also exorcised,
possessed seven demons who were driven in succession
from her body.
We have been enabled by the help of St. Denis the
Areopagite to indicate the ranks in the hierarchy of
angels; but such a hierarchy could not exist among
demons, because of the discord and confusion in which
they live, disorder being their sovereign order. Milton
gives us a picture of a revolt of demous, but if the attempt
were now made to introduce order among the diabolic
crowd it would prove labour in vain. As the Apocalypse
bears the same relation to devils that the Divine hierarchy
of the Areopagite holds to angels, it is through its pages
* In Friar Bacon, ix. 144, and xi. 109, the titles of "guider" and "ruler
of the nor.h" are given to Asmenoth.
[D.]
137
DEVILS OF THE APOCALYPSE.
we must seek for any light upon the present question.
When we carefully reperuse the Apostolic vision, this is
the order which we believe may be traced throughout.
First there is a devil called the Old Serpent [Rev. xii.
9], the great Dragon Satan, the Devil properly so-called,
the king of the bottomless pit, the Exterminator. This,
in the Apocalypse, is the great red dragon, having seven

Fig. 184.-BEAST WITH SEVEN HEADS.
Painting on glass, St. Nizier, Troyes.*
heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads,
and a tail which drew the third part of the stars of
heaven. This is the chief devil, the master of all those
we shall see afterwards pass before us in succession.
Satan has two lieutenants, if we may so say: one on the
earth and one on the sea; for, master of the whole world,
his power extends over seas and continents. His repre-
* See Ann. Arch. vol. i. p. 77.
138
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
sentative on the sea has, like himself, seven heads and ten
horns,* but he carries ten crowns, three more than his
master, and upon his heads the name of Blasphemy; and
the beast is like unto a leopard, and his feet were as the
feet of a bear, and his mouth as the mouth of a lion which
vomits blasphemy.
Then coming out of the earth [Rev. xiii. 11], the agent
of Satan is a beast with two horns, which speaks the
language of the dragon. This is the third great symbol
of the Genius of Evil. This dragon holds the whole world,
the sea and the earth in his hands; he gives the leopard
the empire over the floods, and the beast over the earth.
Here we have the Satanic Trinity. It shares the sove-
reignty of evil just as the Divine Trinity shares that
of good.
But the diabolical trinity, as the Divine Trinity, has its
ministers, its inferior agents who execute his orders.
From the mouth of these monsters three impure spirits
not named in the Apocalypse come forth; they have the
form of frogs. They are the ministers of these three great
demons. They are the agents who summon the kings of
the earth to fight against God.
The army that these chiefs command is composed of
grasshoppers who come forth from wells in the bottomless
pit like the smoke which exhales from a great furnace.
The beasts that follow in the Apocalypse resemble horses
ready for the battle. Their face is as the face of a man,
on their heads are crowns as of gold, they have hair as
women, lions' teeth, iron cuirasses, scorpions' tails pointed
like barbed darts, wings that resound like horses and
chariots rushing to the combat. Such is the infantry of
the Devil. As to the riders, they have breastplates of fire,
of jacinth, and of brimstone. Their horses, which vomit
brimstone, fire and smoke, have heads like lions, tails like
serpents, armed at the end by heads which poison
This diabolical company is very monstrous. It is con-
ceived in such proportions as to furnish forms of horror
for all demons engendered from it and represented in
images of plastic art.
On the ancient sarcophagi and in the old frescoes the
* Rev. ii. 3, 4, 9.
[p.]
139
DEVIL AS SERPENT.
Genius of Evil is seen under the form of a serpent; this is
the serpent who seduced Eve, and the being in the Apoca-

₤D
Fig. 185.*
lypse called the Old Serpent, the Great Dragon Satan, the
Devil properly so called, the king of the bottomless pit,
the Exterminator.

י
Fig. 186.-ON SARCOPHAGUS, VATICAN MUSEUM.
In Christian iconography the serpent appears, as might
be expected, most frequently in the temptation of Adam
*This illustration is taken from the Biblia cum Figuris, MS., Bibl. Nat.
Paris, No. 9561, fol. 8a.
140
[D.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
and Eve. We see it represented simply with its mere
zoological character on a sarcophagus of the first Chris-
tian period in the Vatican; and again it is represented
as borrowing the head and arms of a human being, a
treatment which Raphael has not feared to adopt in his
turn from the thirteenth century. The serpent has occa-
sionally two heads, one female with which to address the
man, the other male with which to address the woman.
He also assumes the form of the ancient hydra, which

Fig. 187.
French MS., XIII. cent., Bibl. Nat., Paris.
is only a multiform serpent, and it is converted into the
seven-headed beast of the Apocalypse, transforming the
hydra into the dragon.
Each of the horned heads in this seven-headed beast,
which is represented in the stained-glass window of the
sixteenth century at St. Nizier at Troyes, is surrounded
by an aureole.* In the East, the nimbus is given as a
symbol of power; therefore at Troyes, where certain
* See Vol. I. supra, p. 163.
[D.]
141
NOMENCLATURE OF THE DEVIL.
oriental influences are traceable, the formidable beast of
the Apocalypse is found with this attribute.
Art falls into the grotesque when, endeavouring to
figure the demon, it endows him with a serpent's tail (see
Fig. 70, Vol. I. p. 277), or when it paints serpents proceed-
ing from the head of the Devil, like horns, as is shown
in a MS. of the Duke of Anjou, Bibl. Nat., thirteenth
century.*
In the frescoes of the Campo Santo, the serpent becomes
again the emblem of life, but only of material life. He
becomes the medium through which the demon drinks
the blood, or rather absorbs the soul,
of his victim. That is to say, Life
in the demon's hands is the siphon
with which he sucks out the soul
and substance of those who fall
beneath his sway.
We have dwelt at some length on
all these details; for it is important,
when we study a cathedral door, a
sculptured voussoir, a Last Judgment,
or a Hell, painted on glass, that we
should be able to distinguish Satan
the chief from his two principal
agents, and these again from the
crowd of lesser demons. The de-
tailed description in the Apocalypse
furnishes all the data for this distinc-
tion. We have there a complete, com-
plex, monstrous, multitude of these
demons. A chief named Satan or Dragon; a demon of the
sea named Leopard, a demon of the land called the Beast:
the three composing a trinity. Three principal ministers
of this trinity are frogs and locusts, an army of foot
soldiers composed of monstrous frogs, and a cavalry more
monstrous still.

Fig. 188.-VAMPIRE, CAMPO
SANTO, PISA.
Such are all the horrible forms which characterise the
devils of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as they
appear sculptured and painted in our churches. In the
following pages the term demon or devil will be used in-
↑ See Ann. Arch. i. 75.
142
[M. S.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
differently to designate all evil spirits; it is a generic.
term, that of Satan being reserved for the prince of the
infernal regions.
[In Byzantine art, the demons of the New Testament
who tempt Jesus, who are cast into hell, who are driven
into the herd of swine, and whom we meet with again in
the Last Judgment, are of all varieties of form and colour.
However, as is the case with our Latin demons also,
their usual colour is black and blue, the form mon-

Fig. 189.-DEMON ON THE CASQUE OF GOLIATH.
strous and composite, made up from parts of different
animals; bats' wings attached to the shoulders; a tail
sticking out below the spine; limbs and arms hideously
thin; the trunk fat and flaccid, or dried up like that of
a skeleton; eyes flaming (see Fig. 173); vomiting flames
at every issue; wrinkles and boils on the skin; the face
twisted into grimaces and the limbs contorted.
We
[M. S.]
143
HUMOROUS ASPECT OF DIABOLISM.
would refer back to Fig. 135, ii. p. 23, the Trinity of abso-
lute Evil, as an instance of one of the most curious demons
we have seen. He here presides over an assembly of
demons who deliberate on the birth of Merlin, who is to
assist them to repair the injury sustained by the Devil in
the death of Christ and his descent into Hell.*
Satan is represented as wearing a cap of flame on the
casque of Goliath in Fig. 189, which would appear to be an
initial P taken from some medieval MS. David with his
sling and bag of pebbles confronts the giant, and the

Fig. 190.-AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT.
hand of the Father appears from Heaven to protect the
young warrior.
We have seen that the Gospel, while on the one hand
it seemed to banish the Devil to regions of symbolism, on
the other, by identifying him with the natural man,
showing the heart of man as his seat, brought him into
closer and more intimate relationship with man than
* French MS. in Bibl. Nat. Histoire du Saint-Graal, No. 6770.
144
[M. S.]
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
before. Only in this way can we explain the fact that in
the earliest ages of Christianity his domination was ex-
tended, his interventions in human affairs were multi-
plied. Heathen gods, institutions, empires, all belonged
to his kingdom. The Græco-Roman gods became demons
who had usurped Divine rank. From the close of the
second century, the antagonism of these forces of Satan
and the kingdom of the Messiah was summed up in a
grand drama, whose climax was the Descent into Hell,
the victory of that Power that had been obedient unto
death.
The absorbing nature of the belief in the Devil during
the Middle Ages must be clearly
recognised if we would understand
Mediæval art. It was the one fixed
idea with every one, particularly from
the thirteenth to the fifteenth century.
The sense of humour which is always
allied to powerful character becomes
manifest.* Diabolism had its humorous
side, especially when a prominent part
came to be assigned to Satan in the
Mediæval religious plays; scenes in
which the Devil is cheated, outdone,
and castigated, formed the comic ele-
ment of the Sacred Drama, and the
miniature painters of sacred books are
not wanting here either, as we may
see by looking at Figs. 180, 190, 191,
and 192.

Fig. 191.
In the fifteenth century, Innocent VIII. issued his
famous bull Summis desiderantes, by which he not only
confirmed and enlarged the powers of the Inquisition
* As instances of such humorous subjects, I now recall a picture of a
devil blowing a bellows in the face of a terrified angel in the Book of
Hours belonging to Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI., No. 920, fol.
316a, Bibl. Nat. Paris. In a MS. in the Bibl. de l'Arsenal, the reference
to which I have lost, I saw a miniature illustration of the good Shepherd,
who, having rescued the Lamb, is bearing him on his shoulder into the fold,
here symbolised by a church. A well-shaven and rather repulsive-looking
priest stands at the door with open arms ready to receive the Lamb, who
peers round from the back of Christ's head with a comically doleful ex-
pression, as much as to say he would far rather stay where he was.
[D.]
145
EXORCISM.
PD
against diabolism and witchcraft, but prescribed all
manner of recipes by which the devil might be exorcised,
such as the sign of the cross, holy water, the judicious.
use of salt, the name of the Holy Trinity. In Fig. 192 we
have an example of exorcism by sprinkling with holy
water, the priest who drives the offending demon being
armed with an aspergillum, the brush or twig used for
sprinkling holy water. This implement was occasionally

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Fig. 192.-EXORCISM.
a fox's brush, as is indicated by the modern French
name goupillon, but was anciently made of hyssop, a plant
supposed to possess cleansing virtues (see Psalm li. 7.)
[This illustration is taken from a manuscript in the
Bibliothèque de Chartres, No. 1380.]
In the thirteenth century it was even thought possible
that men might be begotten of the Devil in a literal
sense. Mussato, a Paduan historian and poet, A.D. 1261–
1330, attributes an infernal origin to Ezzelino, adopting
VOL. II.
L
146
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
a tradition of the house of Este, that a devil clothed with
a human body supplied his father's place when he was
begotten.*
The demon is thus described by the unhappy woman in
the play :-
"Haud tauro minor
Hirsuta aduncis cornibus cervix riget,
Setis coronant hispidis illum jubæ,
Sanguinea binis orbibus manat lues,
Ignemque nares flatibus crebris vomunt.
Favilla patulis auribus surgens salit
Ab ore spirans. Os quoque eructat levem
Flammam, perennis lambit et barbam focus."
Lucifer's address to the infernal host in the mystery
play of the Passion of St. Quentin, performed about the
year 1350 in the body of the collegiate church of that
town, is a curious example of diabolic poetry.
Lucifer. Diables courants, diables cornus,
Diables fallans, diables formis,
Diables tondus, diables tondis,
Diables touffus, diables maudis,
Diables farcis, diables senglos,
Diables, diablesses et diablos,
Diaboliques poulleries,
Sallés hors de vos diableries,
Diables, plus tost que vint soulcil.
Sathan. Quels tous diables vous faut-il
Que vous diabliés en ce point?
Dictes quel grant diable vous point
Et quel grant diable vous avés.”†
The Devil is represented in the following figure upon
a seal which we suppose to have been attached to one of
those curious documents used, it may be, in the mystery
plays of the fifteenth and following centuries, such as the
Lawsuits of Paradise; episodes in the history of the
rebel angels, which were given under many various forms
either in recitation or upon the stage. The allegory of
Hist. of the House of Este, Lond. 1681, p. 138. This Ezzelino was
the most cruel tyrant in the Marca Trivigiana, Lord of Padua, Vicenza,
Verona, and Brescia, who died in 1260. Note on translation of Ariosto,
Orl. Fur., by Sir John Harington, 1634, cant. 3, st. 33. Dante,
translated by Cary, Inf., cant. xii. 1. 109, note 3.
† Ann. Archéol. tom. xv. p. 29.
LAWSUIT OF PARADISE.
147
the Lawsuit of Paradise is found among the writings of
Hugo de St. Victor, who died in 1140, and was first
suggested by the 10th verse of the 85th Psalm. "Mercy
and Truth are met together-Justice and Peace have
kissed each other." The subject is entitled, 'The Lawsuit
that Mercy opened against Justice for the Redemption of
Man.' In like manner we have lawsuits of Christ and
Lucifer, and this seal would be affixed to some such
document as the brief of the master of hell in defence of
his claim on the human soul.*
In Fig. 193 we have Lucifer throned as king, and

ERFER
Fig. 193.-SEAL OF LUCIFER.
wielding a prong with which he catches sinners, instead
of a crosier, whilst his hands are clawed like those of a
beast of prey. The inscription running round the figure.
may be deciphered as follows:-
"Seel Lucifer Matre de l'abisme d'Enfer."
* See Les Mystères, Petit de Julleville, tom. ii. p. 359; Histoire du
Théâtre François, Parfait, tom. ii. p 301. Among the different early
translations of the Procès de Miséricorde et Justice, that contained in the
MS. at the Bibl. Nat. Paris (12th cent., 2560) is, at least, mainly attributed
to Guillaume Herman. Finally, another translation, which is in the
Bibl. Nat. (13th cent. in 4º vellum, 172 ff.), is attributed by M. P. Paris
to Robert of Lincoln. M. F. Michel has published the Procès de
Miséricorde at the close of the Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Gallica,
Oxford, 1860, pp. 364, 368.
I 2
148
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The artist who made this drawing has perhaps mistaken
the fifth letter U for D, and omitted to notice the mark of
contraction over the a of Matre-which stands for
Maistre—thus the whole may be translated
"Seal of Lucifer, Master of the abyss of Hell.”
Fig. 194 shows the signature of the demon Asmodeus,
faict 19 may
Asmode

e
Fig. 194.-WRITING OF ASMODEUS.
1624
probably appended to a document of a similar nature,
Asmodeus being a name for the Devil.
This chapter on the iconography of the Devil may fitly
close with two allegorical female figures, one symbolising
Impiety, and the other Covetousness. In Fig. 195 we see
Impiety as spoken of by the prophet Zechariah, ch. v. 7,
seated in an ephah and borne to Shinar by two women
with stork's wings. This image is carved upon a
sculptured medallion in the great porch of Amiens
Cathedral. It forms the last of a series of subjects illus-
trating the prophetical writings and opposed to another
series of Gospel subjects so arranged that this image of
Impiety contrasts with that of Holiness as embodied in
the Virgin's form.*
Our second allegorical figure is an image of Covetous-
ness taken from a MS. copy of Le Romant des trois
* The Virgin with the Holy Child on her lap seated in a font is one
mediæval type of the source of living waters, the Fountain of Life. See
Caractéristiques des Saints, Ch. Cahier, tom. ii. p. 544. Marie.
Zechariah v. 7:
"And behold there was lifted up a talent [or weighty piece] of lead—and
this is a woman that sitteth in the midst of the ephah. And he said, This
is wickedness. And he cast it into the midst of the ephah; and he cast the
weight of the lead upon the mouth thereof. Then lifted I mine eyes, and
looked, and, behold, there came out two women, and the wind was in their
wings; for they had wings like the wings of a stork: and they lifted up the
ephah between the earth and the heaven. Then said I to the angel that
ALLEGORICAL FIGURES.
149
Pélerinages, which dates circ. 1330.* (See Fig. 196.) One
of these pilgrimages is the allegory of the Life of Man-
hood, an old English translation of which may be seen in

Fig. 195.
manuscript in the University Library, Cambridge.† The
original text was composed by Guillaume de Guillauille
(fols. 5, 30), prior of the Cistercian Abbey of Chaulis, in
the diocese of Senlis, founded by St. Louis in the twelfth
talked with me, Whither do these bear the ephah? And he said unto me,
To build it an house in the land of Shinar: and it shall be established and
set there upon her own base."
Explanation of figs. in great door of Amiens Cathedral. See Bulletin
Monum. xi. and xii., by MM. Jourdain and Duval, the medallions ex-
plained by M. de Caumont, ibid. vol. xx.
* This manuscript is preserved in the library of St. Geneviève in Paris,
and the figure of Covetousness occurs on fol. 61, verso.
+ See Roxburgh ed. of The Pilgrimage of the Lyf of the Manhode, ed.
Aldis Wright, pt. iii. cap. i. p. 137.
150
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
century. The pilgrim is met by Covetousness as he
descends a deep valley, and we learn from the description,

}
Fig. 196.-COVETOUSNESS.
which is too long to be given here in full, the meaning
of this image.
The idol worn upon her head is "the peny of gold or
ALLEGORICAL FIGURES.
151
of silver whereon is emprinted the figure of the hye Lord
of the cuntree." The false God that blindeth him that
turneth his eyes towards him and maketh fools to bend
their eyes downwards. This God by whom she hath been
disfigured and defamed is Avarice. The hands behind
like griffin's claws are to symbolise "Rapine, Coutteburse,
and Latrosynie."
In the next pair of hands she holds a bowl for alms, or
for the money she extorts through beggary, and a hook,
with which she enters the house of Christ and seizes his
servants. Taking their croziers and shepherds' crooks, she
furnishes them with this devil's prong instead, fished up
by her out of the darkness of Hell, and this hand is
named Simony. In the next hands she holds a yard-
measure, purse, and scales. With the measure she deals
out false lengths, with the balances she weighs false
measure, and into the purse she puts the ill-won gains
of her treachery, gambling, and dishonesty. Round her
neck hangs a bag, and nothing that is put therein can
ever come out again; all things remain there to rot.
We may here insert the following extract from the old
English translation of the passage in which this apparition
is described:
“... Disgised shrewedliche* she was . . . Boystows she
was and wrong shapen and enbosed and clothed with an
old gret bultel† clouted with cloutes of old cloth and of
lether. A sak she hadde honged at hire nekke. Wel it
seemed that make flight wold she nouht for she putte
ther inere bras and yren and sakked it.
Hire tonge
whiche she hadde‡ ... out halp hire ther to faste. Hire
tunge was mesel and foule defaced. Sixe hondes she
hadde and tweyne stumpes the tweyne hondes hadden
nailes of griffouns, of whiche that oon was bihynde in
strangie manere.
"In oon of that oother handes she heeld a fyle as thouh
she shulde fyle brideles. And a balaunce wherinne she
peisede the zodiac and the sunne in gret entente to putte
hem to sale. A disch in that oother hande she heeld and
a poket with bred. In the fifte she hadde a crochet and
*Rough, churlish.
† A bolting cloth.
Gap in MSS. suppie drawen sa langue que hors traicte auoit.
152
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
upon hire hed a mawmett* shee bar which made hire
eyen biholde downward. The sixte hand she hadde
lenynge upon hire brokene haunche and sum time she
haf it hye to hire tunge and touchede it.
"The hondes of my yivinge ben kilte and doon from
here stumpest Sixe hondes i haue for to gripe with
in sixe maneres for to sakke in my sak to peise me
and charge me with to that ende that if i falle adoun
i mowe no more ryse aygen."
* Mawmet, ie. idol.
†i.e. for giving with were cut.
( 153 )
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEATH.
RELIGIONS do not develop suddenly and fitfully any
more than physical nature in its creations. They are
connected by links and chains so gradually modified that
no one faith can refuse to acknowledge that which it has
inherited from its predecessor. Such links are often most
distinctly perceptible in the iconography of different
religious systems. Thus, when Christianity had recourse
to images to propagate its lessons and to awaken the
popular mind to a faith in its dogmas, it endued Death
with an individual existence, a language, action, form,
special physiognomy. Such a form was not borrowed
from the Jews, but from Græco-Latin polytheism, whose
figures and plastic images it adapted to newly formed
ideas. Neophytes borrowed their images of Death from
Greek and Latin Art, not the grand ideal art inspired by
Poetry and Philosophy, but only the crude and popular
art which was confined to the reproduction of the coarse
ideas of the populace, in whose imaginations all evil things
were identified with spectres, larvæ, lemures, whose figures
they transferred to Death.
Such images form a strong contrast to the winged
Thanatos on the column of the temple of the Ephesian
Artemis, now in the British Museum, which, of all the
figures we have met with, best embodies the classic Greek
conception of Death, and which has been thus described
by Sir Frederic Burton.* A youth faces us with long
drooping wings; his head, with heavy parted hair, inclines.
to his left with a pathetic expression, and his left hand is
raised, as if beckoning. A weighty sheathed sword hangs
* See Saturday Review, No. 897, vol. xxxv. p. 50.
154
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
by his left haunch. . . . The pathetic character [of this nude
winged youthful figure] points to the new Attic school, no
less than the almost feminine softness of the forms.... The
workmanship of this figure is not careful. It is a mag-

Fig. 197.
nificent sketch by a practised and fearless hand; the object
being the expression of the whole rather than any careful
individualizing of parts. . . . This mysterious figure, from
wings and bodily type, has been thought to represent
Erōs; we should venture to call it Thanatos. The attribute
ICONOGRAPHY OF DEATH.
155
held in the now destroyed right hand was probably the
inverted torch.
“But it is the head which most strongly answers to the
character of the genius of Death, as conceived by the
Greek imagination. A dreamy sehnsucht pervades the
almost sexless face; a sadness as if Death himself felt that
he too was but the victim of an inexorable fate, whose
behests he must execute; and the lax, unwavy hair is
drawn back behind the ears as if carelessly confined there.
The ambrosial locks of Eros* are, on the contrary, curly
and rippled, and hang in tresses on the shoulders, or are
knotted in clusters behind the head. We think, however,
that the presence of the sword decides the question, and
we recall the passage in the Alkestis of Euripides, where
Thanatos appears, armed with a sword, ready, as 'Priest
of the Dying,' to sever the lock from the victim sacred to
Persephone":-
Death." This woman will descend to the mansions of Hades; and
I am advancing against her that I may perform the initiatory rites
with my sword; for that man is sacred to the gods beneath the earth,
the hair of whose head this sword may have hallowed."
The Etruscans have their exterminating angel, who has
been designated as the Etruscan Charon. His figure is
constantly shown upon funereal monuments armed with a
hammer. His face is repulsive, his hair and beard jagged,
serpents crown his brow, his ears are pointed like those of
a satyr. He watches at the entrance to Hell, and with
another genius he accompanies Death. On one sarco-
phagus, two genii of the spirit-world assist at the death-
bed of a wife. On one side a winged genius in female form
seeks to draw the dying woman towards her gently while
she addresses her last words to her husband; on the other
side Charon, or rather the evil angel, holding a pincers in
one hand and a torch in the other, prepares to accompany
the dying woman into the dominions of the Shades.†
Christians had to seek in the ancient iconology for a
more fitting representative of the offspring and avenger of
* Two images of Death hardly to be distinguished from Erōs are men-
tioned by Mr. King, one on a Roman gem, the other on a fresco in the
catacomb of Prætextatus. See King's Gnostics and their Remains, p. 155. n. 2.
† See Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli Italiani Atlas, pl. text, vol. iii.
p. 10, lx.
156
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
To
transgression, something that should be ghastly and awe-
inspiring and such a representative they found ready to
hand in the old way of picturing the Larva, or bad man's
ghost. This had always been depicted as a skeleton.*
the Christian, Life, here and hereafter, is the fulfilment of
divine law. Death, here and hereafter, was the conse-
quence of original sin and the infraction, not fulfilment, of
law. Thus such images of horror as they found in these
countries, where Helleno-Latin polytheism flourished, were
adopted by them in place of the gentle and peaceful
Thanatos of Greek allegory, coming like evening of a

T
Fig. 198.†
beautiful day; and, through a series of links in the
development of religion, and of impressions of one
religion upon another, Death has become a living
skeleton among Christians.
Christians. The portraits of Satan in
early Christian legend represent him as a hideous, flesh-
less being, a soot-black skeleton; thus in the apocryphal
book of the martyrdom of the Apostle Bartholomew, the
Death demon whom he overcame is described as like an
Ethiopian, black as soot; his face sharp like a dog's, thin-
cheeked, with hair down to his feet, eyes like fire, sparks
* The Etruscan image passed down into the belief of the mediævalį
Florentines, for Dante, Inferno c. iii. 1. 110, introduces-
"Charon dimonio con occhi di bragia."
66
+ See Symbols and Emblems of Early Christian Art. By Louise Twining
Pl. LXIX.
TRIUMPH OF DEATH.
157
coming out of his mouth; and out of his nostrils came
forth smoke like sulphur, with wings spined like a
porcupine."
Thus we believe we may trace the causes of the trans-
position of the features of the corpse to the genius of evil,
the association of Death, and the skeleton, and the Devil,
in mediæval art,*—Death which had been painted by the
artists of antiquity under forms so different. This icono-
logical revolution was brought about by the effect of the
association of pagan and oriental ideas. But this meta-
morphosis, once accomplished, did not end here; the person
of the demon having drawn to himself the figure of a
skeleton, soon effaced this to make room for a pure abstract
personification from which all thought of Satan had
disappeared, and round which a crowd of ancient traditions
soon gathered."†
Soon Andrea Orcagna had, according to some writers,
completed the great paintings of Paradise and Hell, in the
church of Sta. Maria Novella at Florence; the Pisans com-
menced the decoration of the Campo Santo, the cemetery
of Pisa, the Triumph of Death being included in the
series. As Vasari says, "Andrea left a universal judgment
there." It has been said that he followed his contem-
porary Petrarch in his conception of Death; that he
was inspired by the poet's grand and solemn song, 'Il
Trionfo della Morte," where Death appears in female
form:
"Ed una donna involta in vesta negra,
Con un furor qual io non so se mai
Al tempo de' Giganti fosse a Fegra.”
Fierce, inveterate, deaf and blind, with sword in hand
she slays and stabs and cuts. Greece, Troy, the Roman
empire, barbarian and foreigner, all fall before her. The
plain beneath her is heaped with dead, from India, from
Cathay, Morocco, Spain, lying in numbers inconceivable.
Sovereigns, Pontiffs, Emperors reduced to naked, poor and
miserable corpses. A noble company of prayerful women
next appear who strive by their petitions to stay the hand
* See Mémoire sur l'évangile de Nicodème in the Revue de Philologic,
tom. ii. p. 443. A. de Maury.
+ See Personnage de la Mort (A. de Maury): Revue Archéol. iv. pt. i. pp.
306, 686, 737, 784; v. p. 286.
158
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
of Death, but she shears one golden head of the fairest in
their band as she sweeps along.
"Allor di quella bionda testa svelse
Morte con la sua mano un aureo crine.
Così del mondo il più bel fiore scelse;
Although Orcagna's treatment of this scene in many
points bears a strong resemblance to the poem of Petrarch,
yet in the form of Death herself he seems to have
followed quite another tradition. His Genius of Death
resembles the Parcæ,* the Keres,† black-winged beings with
cloven feet corresponding to the Norns, Valkyrie of the

O
()
O
Fig. 199.
Scandinavians. Fury-like she advances with rapid flight,
* Quoique les Parques commissent les Kêres au soin de frapper les
hommes du coup mortel, elles s'acquittaient parfois elles-mêmes de ce
ministère.... C'est encore par ce motif qu'elles sont les assistantes de Pro-
serpine, qu'elles conduisent des enfers au ciel, et qu'elles apparaissent dans
le sombre séjour près de Pluton et de Charon. Les héritiers des anciens
Grecs continuent à attribuer aux Moîrai ou Mîres ce rôle léthifère :
'Ce sont ces trois femmes, disent les modernes Hellènes, qui produisent
la peste.' Ib. p. 700.
""
The Ke-black-robed—of Homer. The Furies that pursue Orestes
on the painted vases described by Pausanias as well as Aeschylus were old
women brandishing serpents or scythes.-King, Gnostics and their Remains,
p. 162.
DEATH AS A WOMAN.
159
a fearful-looking woman, with wild streaming hair, claws
instead of nails swooping from the sky on large bat's
wings, and swinging a scythe in her hand, prepares to
mow down the happy forms of those who are seen seated
under trees listening to music.* Petrarch's Death is indeed

Fig. 200.-DEATH AS A WOMAN.
also a woman, but a woman who may occasionally soften and
lead the dying, without fear or sorrow, to the grave, while
in the Pisan fresco she flits in the sky above her doomed
victim like some fearful bat that will drop and fix itself in
*In the allegories of the life of the true monk, given in the Manual of
Panselinos, p. 404, Death appears in like manner armed with a scythe
and a dial plate worn on the head, as if Time, her work accomplished, had
yielded up her attribute to form a crown for her Destroyer. The trident
is another attribute of Death in the Greek Manual, reminding us that
we are in the country of Neptune. Death pierces the hypocrite's heart
with a trident, or drives a flaming trident into the body of a sinner.
160
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
hate upon his brow. Petrarch's Death carries a sword,
the painter's wields a scythe. Fig. 200 is one of the Didron
collection of illustrations, the provenance of which we
have not yet ascertained, which gives another female bat-
winged Death, probably taken from a quattrocento manu-
script. Her clawed fingers and pendant breasts add to

D
Fig. 201.-TRIUMPH OF DEATH.
the horror of this image. Death Mors-was amongst the
Latin Christians the queen of Hell, the spouse of Satan.
Thus in the apostolic history of St. Bartholomew, a demon
is made to say: "But He (Jesus) has made prisoner
Death herself, who is our queen, and even our king, the
husband of Death, hath He also bound in chains of fire." *
* Fabricius, Codex pseudepigraphus Novi Testamenti, t. i. pt. ii. pp.
679, 680.
DEATH AS A RIDER.
161
Death, as a rider whose horse leaps forth from the
mouth of Hell, is shown in the two Figs. 201 and 202, also
probably taken from quattrocento MSS., but illustrating
the subject of the Triumph of Death,* one of the finest
representations of which was painted by the first painter

CR
Fig. 202.-TRIUMPH OF DEATH.
of Sicily, Crescenzio, on the wall of the courtyard of the
Hospital at Palermo. Instead of the yawning mouth of
Hell to the left, we have the most beautiful group in the
* The reader who wishes to study the treatment of the Triumph of
Death in Mediæval Art more fully should read a paper in the Cornhill
Magazine, September, 1879, by Miss Clerke, where she alludes to the
following illustrations of the subject:—Titian's Triumph of Death; where
the skeleton victor is seen leaning on his scythe enthroned on a funeral
car drawn by oxen preceded by the Parcæ. A painting in San Giacomo
Maggiore at Bologna. Here a vision of the last judgment represented in
an oval forms part of the composition. Didron, Ann. Arch. tom. xvi.
p. 170, describes the riders in the Apocalypse on the tomb of Jean de
Langheac at Limoges. In the same paper this writer describes the
sculptures on the Hôtel Bourgtheroulde, at Rouen, in which the six
Triumphs of Petrarch are represented. Here Death takes a third place;
it precedes the form of Religion, and the wheels of the Chariot of Death are
crushing the representatives of human power in the persons of kings,
pontiffs, etc.
VOL. II.
M
162
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
whole composition, composed of the figures of those who
have escaped Death. One woman, who weeps as she con-
templates the scene of havoc before her, is said to be
especially fine.
The horse, a skeleton form, bounds through the air,
while his wild rider, also a skeleton, draws his bow and
with his arrows strikes princes, pontiffs, and all the great
ones of the earth, while the wretched and diseased call on
him for deliverance. The bolt will not fall upon them, but
amid a merry group on the left, where some dancing girls
surround a zither player, and who, while yet in the
fulness of life, are smitten by mortal pallor, the precursor

.. 6.
Fig. 203.
of dissolution. Above these again are a company of
youths and maidens seated by a fountain in happy
ignorance of the approaching gloom.
The framework of the Divine Comedy was not without
its parallels in antiquity. Poetry in all time has been
occupied with the immutable destiny of man, and the walls
of the Campo Santo of Pisa, on which the Lorenzetti and
their colleagues painted the soul's drama, resemble those of
the Lesche, painted by Polygnotus, in this, that both are
expressions of the faith of the day in which they were
executed, as regards the condition of the soul after death.
The series, of which the Triumph of Death was only one
chapter, should be considered in the following order:
1. The Crucifixion. 2. The Resurrection. 3. The Ascension.
The Triumph of Death. Judgment. Hell. The Angelic
CAMPO SANTO, PISA.
163
Life. This last scene, the climax of the whole, must be
held in view if one would understand the author's drift
throughout all the previous scenes. The quiet mountain
side, the hermit life of solitude and sanctity, one old man
reading, another resting on his crutches, a third milking
his doe, while squirrels play at his feet, the monastery in
which they pass their ordered life, all rise in contrast
with the life of the world, its vanity and madness and sin.
The following verses are written on a scroll, held by two
angels:*-
"Ischermo di savere e di ricchezza
Di nobilitate ancora e di prodezza
Vale niente ai colpi di costei.
Ed ancor non si truova contra lei,
"O lettore, niuno argomento.
Eh! non avere lo'ntelletto spento
Di stare sempre in apparecchiato
Che non ti giunga in mortale peccato." +
The whole upper half of the fresco on one side is filled
with angels and demons snatching away the souls of the
dead, and bearing them to their destinations. The angels
are graceful and tender in their care of the pure souls
entrusted to them, while the wicked souls are snatched off
by the bat-winged scaly demons who, flying or flitting
through the air, throw them headlong into the mouths
of Hell-the craters of volcanoes belching out flames.
Fig. 204. The fresco is filled with such mottoes as this:-
"Dacche prosperitade ci ha lasciati,
O morte, medicina d'ogni pena,
Deh vieni a darne ormai l'ultima cena.'
""
"Since nought of happiness to us remains,
Come, then, O Death!-the cure for every grief—
Give our last supper, and relief from pain. '‡
* See Vasari, vol. i. p. 207. Ed. Bohn.
+
"Nor wisdom's aid, nor riches may avail,
Nor proud nobility, nor valour's arm,
To make thee shelter from the stroke of death;
Nor shall thine arguments, O reader sage,
Have force to change her purpose: wherefore, turn
Thy wealth of thought to its best use-be thine
The watch unsleeping, ever well prepared
That so she find thee not in mortal sin."
I See Revue Archéol. 1844, p. 461, for ancient figure of Death. See
Catal. de la Bibl. du duc de Luvallière, 1783, tom. ii. p. 285, No. 2736.
M 2
164
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Near the subject of the Triumph of Death, Orcagna has
illustrated an older medieval poem, 'Three Deaths and
Three Lives,'
, * a poem which gave rise to many represen-
tations of which his is the best known.
Le dit des Trois Morts et des Trois Vifs first appears in
the thirteenth century as one of a collection of moralities.
The earliest existing copy, that of Baudouin de Condé, was
written about the beginning of the fourteenth century.
This manuscript is preserved in the Bibl. de l'Arsenal (No.

с
Fig. 204.
175, Fonds Français) and is adorned with a miniature of
that date showing three youths of noble countenance and
great beauty of form, but whose hearts were filled with
pride. God, to abate this pride, sends them a fearful appari-
tion of three corpses, fleshless, worm-eaten, who confront
the three fair youths, and the second speaking, tells them
to behold in him a mirror sent by God of their future
state. “Behold what we are, such will you be.”
This poem has been analysed by M. Paulin Paris, MS. Français, tom.
vii. p. 340. Another MS. copy is preserved in the Bibl. Nat. Fonds, 7292.
THREE DEATHS AND THREE LIVES.
165
• •
Tel serez vous.
Estes, fumes
Vées quel sommes,
Et tel com ore
""
This subject, which is a not uncommon one in mediæval
art, is thus treated on the walls of the Campo Santo.*
Three uncovered tombs in the foreground contain corpses
eaten by enormous worms, before which three knights,

.3
Fig. 205.-FRANCESCO DA VOLTERRA, CAMPO SANTO, PISA.
one carrying a falcon on his wrist, pause in astonishment.
They are accompanied by squires and huntsmen.
On
* See La Danse des Morts dessinée par Hans Holbein, &c. expliquée par
Hippolyte Fortoul, Paris, 1842, p. 33. This "Morality" is represented in
a miniature of the middle of the fourteenth century, the prayer-book of
Margaret of Flanders, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Here the
three knights are on horseback as in the fresco of the Campo Santo. The
subject appears in sculptures on the south door of the church of the Holy
Innocents at Paris, Ann. Archéol. vol. xvi. p. 165. Since the invention of
printing the subject appears constantly as a sequel to the Dance of Death
(Recherches Hist. et Litt. sur la Danse des Morts, Dijon, 1826). Neither
Lasinio nor Giovanni Rosini in his Descrizione delle pitture del Campo
Santo (Pisa, 1837, p. 25) appear to have heard of the Moralite Française,
which may have been carried by Dante from France to Tuscany and after-
wards suggested this scene to the painter.
166
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
1
the second floor a hermit reading the following scroll may
be seen :-
"Se nostra mente fia ben accorta,
Tenendo fisa qui la vista afflitta,
La vana gloria ci sarà sconfitta
E la superbia ci sarà ben morta."
The scene next to this in the series of frescoes is that of
the Anchorites of the Thebaid, and it is possible that
Orcagna introduced the hermit, who does not appear in the
original poem- a transition from one scene to the other,
from the fall of human pride and glory to the poverty of
the Anchorites in the desert.
re-
Il Carro della Morte (the chariot of Death) was a
pageant which would seem to have been the production of
a genius not less gloomy and sublime than that of Dante.
“In the carnival, and in the night of its greatest festivity,
the citizens gazed in silence on this frightful scene
as it passed along the streets. It consisted of a black
funeral car, on which were painted white crosses, and dead
men's bones. It was drawn by four buffaloes, and a
ghastly figure with a scythe sat upon it. This figure
represented Death, and had at its feet graves opening, out
of which skeletons were continually issuing. Many
hundred persons, clothed in black, with masks
sembling deaths' heads, marched before and after it with
lighted torches in their hands. The lights were so well
arranged that they fell exactly on the car and the
procession, so that the whole appeared very natural.
Numbers of other masks, not less frightful, mounted on
the poorest horses that could be found, with black housings
trailing the ground, carried standards of black taffety, em-
broidered with crossed bones and tears. The skeletons, in
trembling and mournful voices, sung penitential psalms,
with the Miserere; and the instrumental music, correspond-
ing to the vocal, added to the melancholy and petrifying
spectacle."*
The Death of man is figured in the allegory of the
Ladder of the Soul's Salvation, and the way of Heaven.
The method in which this subject should be treated is laid
* Vasari, tom. iii. pp. 76, 78; translated by Sir Richard Clayton. Walker,
Drama in Italy, App. p. 25.
LADDER OF THE SOUL.
167
down in the Manual of Panselinos, and the accompanying
illustration has probably been suggested by this Byzan-
tine model. The ladder of salvation rests against the
Arbor peccati, whose branches are haunted by birds, and
in which a crowned and sceptred figure inscribed Vita
mundi sits enthroned. The soul having escaped from the
grave, inscribed Mors humana, climbs the ladder, which is
so firmly planted against the tree of life that the efforts
of the Devil to drag him down are all in vain.

vita mundi
Arbor
peccati
[xnuz? humana
Fig. 206.
The Moral Ladder appeared in miniature in a manu-
script now destroyed, entitled Hortus deliciarum, in the
public library of Strasburg (circ. 1160), accompanied by
an explanatory text of the scenes following.
A great ladder is placed standing on end, and rising
from earth to heaven. On the last and highest round of
the ladder the hand of God issues from the clouds and
holds the crown of life for those who mount without
falling. Below, on the first round, the Devil, under the
form of a dragon, may be seen, holding snares for those
168
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
who wish to scale the ladder. Two demons draw their
bows to shoot those who mount; but two angels, armed
with sword and buckler, ward off their arrows, and
prevent them piercing those who would rise. First in
order comes a soldier accompanied by a woman. The
soldier is overthrown, he falls upon the horses and bucklers
in which his delight has been. The woman of the world
is also overthrown, and falls among the luxuries of the
city towards which her desire has been.
A series of examples of such efforts and failures follows
until we reach the thirteenth round, where Virtue [Virtus
id est Caritas] appears as a young woman with long
fair hair and bare head, who advances to take the crown
that God holds out to her. On one side-post of the ladder
we read: “Hos omnes, periculose ab alto cadentes, potest
Dominus medicina penitentiæ verum ad virtutum culmen
restituere." "These all who fall with danger from on
high, the Lord is able by the salve of penitence to restore
to the true height of virtue."
Christ appears as the Conqueror of Death, in the Missal
of Worms, a MS. of the eleventh century in the Bibl. de
l'Arsenal. Death, the enemy of Christ, is here represented
as a demon in chains.* Christ, a kingly form with nimbed
head, holds His cross in one hand, and in the other the end
of the heavy chain with which His foe is bound.† In the
refectory of the monastery of Vatopedi on Mount Athos,
Death is represented as crushing Intemperance, personified
under the image of a man who has fallen near a tomb.
This Death is horrible; a human form black as night, a
skeleton merely covered by a shrunken skin dried to the
bones. There is a dreadful power in this figure; it holds a
sickle in the right hand, and a sharp scythe in the left
which it brandishes in the air and with which it cuts
short the life of the drunkard; those escaping from him
slay one another. This subject is accompanied by in-
scriptions such as, "Fear the grave; Death approaches;
Behold Charon." The Death is in fact not Christian Death,
which is either a crowned skeleton, or black woman with
her tombstone, or frantic horseman armed with a deadly
* See vol. i. Fig. 77, p. 300.
See Miss L. Twining, Symbols and Emblems in Christian Art, p. xxix.
See La France, Tillenain.
DEATH AND THE FOOL.
169
shaft passing in full gallop on his wild horse; or human
form with bandaged eyes and spear which he blindly casts
at all that cross his path. All these Deaths are drawn
from the Apocalypse or from

the mystic writers of the
middle ages. But at Mount
Athos we are in Greece, and
pagan mythology, which
held undisputed sway
throughout this country,
could not at once be ousted
by Christianity. Charon
therefore holds his place by
right in the refectory of
Vatopedi, as in the works
of Dante and of Michael
Angelo.
The crowned skeleton oc-
curs in the frescoes of Giotto,
at Assisi, where, to the right
of the door, St. Francis,
facing the spectator, points
to such an image. Fig. 207
Fig. 207.-DEATH A CROWNED SKELETON
ON TOMB.
is a fair example of a figure of a dead king rising from his
tomb at the sound of the last trumpet, such as often
occurs in quattro-cento representa-
tions of the Last Judgment.

Fig. 208.-DEATH AS ECCE
HOMO.
The spectacles or performances of
the Dance of Death, so common in
the middle ages, were often relieved
of their gloom by the introduction of
interludes in which the Fool took a
prominent part. Such scenes when
illustrated formed part of the series
of subjects of engravings of the
"Danse Macabre." The Fool is seen
at strife with his adversary Death,
and hitting him with a bladder full
of peas or pebbles.*
We frequently meet with allusions
* See Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist. Painting in Italy, vol. i. p. 249.
170
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
to Death's fool in Shakespeare. Thus in 'Measure for
Measure' the Duke says to Claudio (Act iii. sc. 1):—
Merely, thou art Death's fool;
For him thou labour'st by thy flight to shun,
And yet runn'st toward him still."
And again in 'Pericles,' Act. iii. sc. 2, where Cerimon
upholds the pursuit of philosophy and virtue above that
of rank and wealth, says :-
“. . . . which doth give me
A more content in course of true delight
Than to be thirsty after tottering honour,
Or tie my treasure up in silken bags,
To please the fool and death."
M. Langlois is of opinion that Death and the Fool were
introduced as agents into all the dramatic representations
Fo
Fig. 209.
of France, Italy, and Eng-
land, acting as mutes, and
of whose performance that
of the modern harlequin is
an imperfect reproduction.*
In the mortuary chapel in
the Augustinian church of
Vienna, the figure of Har-
lequin making grimaces

at
""
Death may be seen
in the wall paintings of
the "Danse Macabre.' Is
not this the Fool of the
middle ages reproduced in
the costume of the stage harlequin ? †
* Death and the Fool appear in Holbein's Imagines, Cologne, 1566.
† See H. Green, Emblems, p. 472. Didron's illustration is taken from a
"Danse Macabre " of the fifteenth century. The oldest edition of the "Danse
Macabre" cited by bibliographers is that of Paris, 1484; but more than a
century previous to this date French miniaturists had already figured
Dances of Death in the marginal borders of their MS. Books of Hours in a
similar manner to those of Simon Vostre. A magnificent MS. of the
second half of the fourteenth century affords a remarkable instance. It was
enriched with numerous miniatures, and was presented by Louis XV. to
Dr. Mead, from whose collection it came into that of M. Ambr. Firmin
DANCE OF DEATH.
171
Although the Danse Macabre,* with its long sequence of
scenes in which Death is seen dancing away with his
victims irrespective of age or condition, seems to date from
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, yet occasional
instances occur of similar scenes on ancient gems. M. de
Maury publishes a curious en-
graved stone from the collection
of M. Badeigts de Laborde, which
represents Death as a skeleton
dancing before a shepherd and
laying hold of him as he sits
playing on a double flute. The
shepherd's foot rests upon a ball,
while two butterflies, emblems of
the soul, flutter above his head.
This intaglio is held by Mr. S. S.
Lewis to be about the time of
Hadrian, when such conceits had
supplanted the truth and sim-
plicity of earlier art; the en-

品
​Fig. 210.
graver was doubtless a Greek, who had gone to seek fame
Didot. See Essai sur les Danses des Morts, C. H. Langlois, tom. i. 139, 140,
253-261; Douce's Dance of Death, fig. xliii.; Woltmann's Holbein and his
Times, vol. ii. p. 121.
* As to the Dance of Death or "Danse Macabre," it does not appear
before the end of the fourteenth century. The oldest is believed to have been
executed at Minden in Westphalia in 1383. Fabricius, Biblioth. Med. Ætat.
tom. iv. p. 1. In 1407, Guillebert of Metz indicates the artists of the ceme-
tery of the "Innocents" at Paris as "notable painters of the Dance of Death
and other works." These paintings must have been at that time twenty-
four years in existence. In 1424, the Dance of Death was played in the ceme-
tery of the Innocents. We know how universal this strange subject became
in the fifteenth century, though unfitted to inspire any delicate art. This
particular illustration of Death's Fool has been already published by M.
Challemel (who borrowed the block from Didron) in La France Litté-
raire, iii. p. 182, but he gives no reference further than that it is taken
from a MS. Danse Macabre of the fifteenth century. In Stowe's Survey
of London, 1618, is a contest between Death and the Fool copied into
Knight's Shakespeare, vol. viii. p. 303. The fool was a kind of satiric figure
under whose garb all humanity was occasionally figured. An instance of
this may be seen in the Stultifera Navis of Sebastian Brandt, a gothic
publication of the close of the fifteenth century, containing numerous
engravings on wood, originally printed in Germany; at Basle and Nurem-
berg in 1494.
172
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
and fortune in the Eternal City* like those described by
Juvenal in the early part of his third satire.†
Two similar representations of Death on onyx gems are
engraved in Mr. King's edition of Horace illustrated from
ancient gems, pp. 20 and 253. Cupid, hovering above,
throws the light of his torch into the depths of an
immense Corinthian crater, out of which a skeleton,
terrified at the hateful light, casts himself headlong on
the opposite side. The skeleton can
only represent a ghost; Ovid's "ossea
larva," Seneca's larvarum nudis
ossibus cohærentium figuræ." The
ghosts of the wicked became larvæ,
but those of the good were elevated
into Lares.‡

Fig. 211.
The second, a sardoine gem, executed
with great finish in the Roman manner,
shows a skeleton, emerging from an
urn decorated with cross torches in
* Revue Archéol. vol. v. pt. i. p. 295.
†
Non possum ferre, Quirites,
Græcam urbem, quamvis quota portio fæcis Achææ?
*
*
*
*
Ingenium velox, audacia perdita, sermo
Promptus, et Isæo torrentior: ede, quid illum
Esse putes? quemvis hominem secum attulit ad nos,
Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes,
Augur, schoenobates, medicus, magus; omnia novit:
Græculus esuriens, in cœlum, jusseris, ibit."
•
•
•
"I cannot, Romans, stand a Grecised Rome; and yet, after all, what a
fraction of our canaille are Achaia's sons. Their wits are all alive;
their effrontery desperate; and readiness of speech is theirs a flood of
words that beats Isæus. Say now, what think you, is his line? Why
he puts himself at our service a Jack-of-all-trades-a critic, a rhetorician,
geometer, painter, trainer, prophet, rope-dancer, doctor, sorcerer. The
starveling Greek knows all the sciences." D. J. Juvenalis Satyra iii. v.
60, 61, 73-78. The Thirteen Satires of Juvenal, translated into English by
H. A. Strong and Alex. Leeper, 1882.
This mysterious scene may be supposed to envelope a moral similar
to that conveyed in the concluding verses of this ode:
"Sapias, vina liques et spatio brevi
Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur fugerit invida
Ætas carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero."
"Be wise, strain clear the wine; and since our span is short cut off a
length of hope. While we are speaking, envious Time will have fled:
snatch to-day, and utterly mistrust to-morrow." Hor. Od. i. 11.
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL.
173
allusion to the Eleusinian mysteries, and plucking a brand
from a palm-tree. This remarkable design obviously and
ingeniously expresses the winning of unfading glory after
death, for the arms of the defunct hero are seen piled at
the foot of his urn. *
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL.
THE images of the soul which Art in all ages has be-
queathed to us may be divided into two classes-symbols
and mere emblems.
The nature of the emblems of the soul among the
Egyptians is known from a compilation made about the
beginning of the fifth century by Horapollo, an Egyptian
scribe who endeavoured to collect in a volume the symbols
upon the monuments of his country. "How," he asks,
"do the Egyptians represent a soul passing a long time
here? They paint a phoenix, since of all creatures this
bird has by far the longest life. Again, the soul departing
is represented as a hawk sitting on a mummy. The
hawk is put for the soul from the signification of its
name, for it is called Baieth: Bai, soul, and eth, heart,
the heart being the shrine of the soul.
""
The ancients held that in death the soul was delivered
with the last breath through the mouth; † thus Homer,
* ( . . . diram qui contudit hydram
Notaque fatali portenta labore subegit,
Comperit invidiam supremo fine domari.
Urit enim fulgore suo, qui prægravat artes
Infra se positas: extinctus amabitur idem."
"He who crushed the dreadful hydra and subdued the well-known
monsters by the labours which fate ordained, by experience found that
envy was a monster not to be conquered till the hour of his death. He
who depresses the merits of others who are inferior to himself, blasts
them by his own brilliancy.
When his light is quenched his memory
will be loved."
† In Byzantine art the soul of a hypocrite is figured as a serpent issuing
from his mouth as he lies on his death-bed. See Manual of Panselinos,
or Byzantine Guide to Painting, p. 107. A very common Gnostic emblem of
the soul in death is the butterfly crushed by the winged foot. King's Gnostics
and their Remains, p. 159.
174
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Iliad 9, speaks of the soul after it has passed the barrier
of the teeth, and can never by any means return.
At
what time an image of the soul thus passing forth was
first given we do not know, but the butterfly escaping
from the chrysalis seems to have been the oldest as well
as most common emblem. The iconography of the but-
terfly has been so exhaustively treated by Max Collig-
non in his Essai sur les Monuments Grecs et Romains relatifs
au Mythe de Psyché, that little more need be added here.
At first the fable of Psyche appeared merely as a grace-
ful allegory springing from the Greek poetic imagination.
The name signifies both soul and a night butterfly; thus,
by a natural association, the
one came to stand for the other,
and the allegory was deve-
loped. At a later period philo-
sophy laid hold of it as a
symbol in which ideas of re-
novation and futurity found
expression. But the figure
was in use as a funereal em-
blem before Christianity.
M. Langlois remarks, "Sou-
vent la figure d'un papillon
exprimait la fuite et la légèreté
de cette animula vagula qu'en
l'interpellant en ces termes,
Hadrien mourant interrogeait
en lui. Cette jolie allégorie
se trouve dans la gravure d'uL
monument fort curieux donnee ·
par Spon (Miscellanea Eruditæ
Antiquitatis, pl. vii.); l'on y voit étendu par terre un corps,
de la bouche duquel s'échappe un papillon." We give
an illustration of this curious monument in Fig. 213.

Fig. 212.-PSYCHE IN DESPAIR SEATED
ON A ROCK AND BEWAILING THE
FLIGHT OF CUPID.
On the wall, the wreaths and flowers and vase of oint-
ment, hung there by the mother of the dead, may be seen.
This is taken from a marble sculpture which formed part
of the collection of Petrus Antonius Rascasius de Bagarris,
and a very remarkable funeral inscription found in Spain
seems to illustrate the meaning of the whole, where the
dying man prays for loving service at his grave that so
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL.
175
his liberated soul may linger near: "Also I therefore
command my heirs to entomb my bones so that the
drunken butterfly may flutter upon my ashes." *
According to M. Gerhard, the genius of death may also
be an image of the genius that personifies the divine or
immortal part of the human soul. This close and mystic
alliance of the human soul and divine genius reunited by
a kind of hypostatic union, was allegorically represented
in the tale of Eros and Psyche-Eros being the vital form,

1)
Fig. 213.
the loving and divine principle spread throughout the
universe and animating each being-Eros the mysterious
link between humanity and divinity. The soul is seen
as Psyche led by Hermes, while the genius voûs stays
* Spon. Miscell. Erud. p. 8, Tabula iv.
Credebatur ea
"Cur animam figurâ papilionis fingerent diximus supra.
per os reddi: unde Homerus Iliad. 9, dicit animam postquam efflata est, vel
septum dentium, ut loquitur transivit remeare nequaquam posse. Papilio
igitur hic expressus viri defuncti anima est quæ avolat. Uxor autem aut
mater filium adstantem monere videtur, ut vivat, monstrans ei corollas et
unguenta. Vinum enim, rosæ et unguenta complectebantur omnem vitæ
voluptatem et delicias. Extat talis inscriptio in Hispania quæ habetur
apud Moralem, p. 31.
"Haeredibus meis mando etiam cinere ut meo volitet ebrius papilio ossa
ipsa tegant mea."
176
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
beside the body weeping for the dead, upon a bas-relief of
Prometheus in the Capitol.*
M. Collignon enumerates twelve instances of the figure
of Psyche represented as an emblem of the soul upon
Christian monuments of an early date; eight on sarco-
phagi; one on the bottom of a painted cup found in the
catacomb of Flavia Domitilla; one in a mosaic in Santa
Costanza, near Rome; and two paintings in the catacomb
of Flavia Domitilla. He has failed to notice that remark-
able subject-the infusion of the living soul into the

Fig. 214.
human body, in the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice,
which is illustrated by Lady Eastlake in the History of
our Lord in Art, page 90; where the Creator, or the
Saviour, for he wears the cruciform nimbus, lays the Soul
on Adam's breast, still holding it by one wing.
In Byzantine art the soul has been occasionally repre-
sented in the likeness of a human form, a white child with-
out the Psyche wings, but translucent and surrounded
by a luminous aureole white as snow, or, as it were, a
mass of light solidified, suggesting a material substance
* Essai sur les Danses de Mort, vol. i. p. 66.
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL.
177
transmitted into immaterial. In the subjects of the death
of the Virgin, and of the death of St. Anthony, in the
Greek churches, painted after the directions given in the
Manual of Panselinos, the soul thus appears in size as a little
child, naked, sexless. In the Martyrdom of St. Stephen
sculptured on the porch of St. Trophimus of Arles, the
martyr's soul is seen in human form as it passes from his
dying mouth into the arms of two angels, who bear it up
to God.
In the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence,* as
represented on a small medal or plaque in
the Christian Museum of the Vatican, the
soul of the saint stands with outspread
arms above the body stretched upon red-
hot irons; a hand ready to descend upon
the head of the rising soul appears above,
holding a crown between the signs Alpha
and Omega.
The conception of the soul as an infant
form is of earlier date than the beginning
of the Christian era. Various instances
are recorded in which Mercury and Iris †
—the divine messengers or angels of the
ancients—are seen bearing souls wrapped
in small bands, just as the souls of St.
Amoun or St. Alexander are painted in
the Greek Menologium of the emperor
Basil.

MARTYR-
DOM OF ST. STEPHEN.
SCULPTURE ON PORCH
OF ST. TROPHIMUS AT
ARLES.
Mrs. Jameson illustrates this subject Fig. 215.
by many fine examples in Christian art,
to which we may add that it appears in
a bas-relief on the façade of the church
of St. Trophimus at Arles. And we have
ject in the illuminated Psalter given to St. Louis of
France by his mother, Blanche of Castille.‡
* Dict. Christian Antiq., Money.
seen this sub-
+ Cf. Inghirami, Vasi fittili, tab. lxv.; Stackelberg, die Graeber der
Hellenen, taf. xxi. Cf. sur le génie de la naissance, R. Rochette, Oresteïde,
par. 8, p. 2. Pausan. i. 83. Cf. Ed. Gerhard, Aus. griech. Vasenbilder,
taf. lxxxiii. t. ii. p. 15. Iris était aussi une divinité psychopompe comme
Mercure. Voyez l'Eneide, iv. 693. C'était comme ce dieu un véritable
ange. Cf. Platon, iv. Leg. 717. See Museum Capitolinum, iii. tab. 25.
The struggles of angels and demons for the soul of the departed is a
VOL. II.
N
178
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The weighing of souls in the balance at the Judgment
Day is the office of Michael in Christian, as it was that of
Hermes in Pagan art, when the fortunes of gods and heroes
were at stake.

Fig. 216.—SOUL BORNE TO HEAVEN BY ANGELS.
In a MS. circ. 1300, formerly in the collection of
M. Dupasquier at Lyons, St. Michael is represented as
slaying the Dragon, and, at the same moment, weighing
frequent subject in medieval art and legend. One such tale occurs in
Faits et miracles de Notre Dame, MSS. franç. fonds Lancelot, f. 34, also in
the Life of St. Anthony— Vies des Pères du désert, trad. d'Arnauld d'Andilly.
See also dissertation of M. Labitte, entitled La divine comédie avant Dante,
p. 89 de la traduction de l'épopée de Dante, par M. Brizeux. St. Fursey,
St. Vettin, St. Jean de Pulsani, St. Columba in the island of Iona- all
were witnesses of like struggles till we come down to the scenes in the
Inferno of Dante, c. xxvii. line 120, and Purgat. c. v. line 100, in which
Dante describes St. Francis and a demon contending for the soul of Guido
da Montefeltro, and the demon is victorious. Again, a like contest is
described over the soul of Buonconte da Montefeltro, who says:
"Me God's angel took,
Whilst he of hell exclaimed: O thou of heaven!
Say wherefore hast thou robbed me?"
WEIGHING OF SOULS IN THE BALANCE.
179
the souls of the good and evil man, where a demon catches
hold of the scale in which the soul of the good man is
rising.*
M. de Maury, in his treatise on the origin of the subject
of psychostasis, has shown that St. Michael of Christian
iconography takes the place of Mercury in ancient re-
presentations of the weighing of souls. He endeavours to
show the linking of those beliefs that bound together the

www
N
सोय
·P·D· |
Fig. 217.
doctrines of an attendant genius and an angel shade leader
and weigher of souls. How almost inconceivable at first
sight it appears that the messenger of Olympus should
become chief of the legions of Jehovah: that Mercury,
Hermes, Thoth, of expiring religions, should enter Chris-
tian mythology. With the Mussulmans also the functions
* See D'Agincourt, Hist. de l'Art, pt. i. pp. 94, 196. There is no
allusion to this subject, however, in the Byzantine Manual.
N 2
180
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
༤.
of Michael are said to be fulfilled by Azrael, and with the
Persians by Mordad.
The following figure of the weighing of souls in the
balance is taken from a vase which forms part of the col-
lection of the Duke de Luynes, and is believed to represent
the scene in the twenty-second book of the Iliad, where the
gods deliberate upon the fate of Achilles and Hector.*
The combat of the gods, described towards the end of the
twenty-first book, was painted on the reverse. Here
Hermes, bearded, may be recognised by the caduceus which

Fig. 218.
he raises above his head in his left hand, while he holds
the balances in the right, in which are the tiny figures of
two soldiers wielding lances. These are coloured violet.
The balances are steady and equal, showing that the fate
of the warriors in the scale is as yet undecided. Jupiter,
armed with a thunderbolt and leaning on a knotted staff,
stands on the left; a crown of yew leaves surrounds his
head. A goddess, probably either Athene or Thetis, for
* See Monuments inédits de l'Inst. Arch. t. ii. pl. x. b.; Annales de l'Inst.
Arch. t. vi. p. 296.
ST. MICHAEL.
181
there is no attribute here by which she may be dis-
tinguished, stands on the right side; she lifts her tunic
with the left hand, while she waves the right in sign of
deliverance and victory.
A
A gem engraved by Chifflet shows Mercury seated upon
a rock, as he is constantly represented on ancient engraved
stones. He holds a great caduceus and wears a winged
petasus; before him stands a cock, crow-
ing. The name MICHAEL is engraved
upon this stone.* Two Hebrew letters
traced upon the field form the word Ath,
signifying time. This word appears to
be an allusion to future judgment. The
cock figures as the usual symbol of Mer-
cury; thus Mercury standing for Michael,
the cock is doubtless represented as an
emblem of the Last Judgment, of the
day when the trumpet call shall awaken
man from the tomb as the bird of dawn-
ing recalls him from sleep to activity.

UFTING
Fig. 219.
As Mercury was also shade-leader, so Michael leads
souls into the presence of God. On an agate onyx in the
collection of the Duke of Orleans published by Abbés
Fig. 220.
de la Chaud and le
Blond, vol 1. fig. 23,
Hermes, holding the
caduceus in one hand,
is seen to lift the soul
from the tomb in the
other. Again, on gems
in the Uzielli collection
published by C. W.
King, Hermes leads
souls to Charon, or, by
virtue of his wand,
raises souls from the
Shades.† Figs. 219,

220.
The dedication of rocks and high places to St. Michael
* Tab. xxi. fig. 85, and in Cabinet des Pierres gravées de Gorlée, t. ii.
pl. ccxviii. No. 435; Gori, Inscript. Antiqs. i. p. 1. tab. iii. 1.
† Antique Gems and Rings, C. W. King, vol. ii. p. 53, pl. xxi.
182
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
is a practice we have before alluded to. The Skelig Michel
off the west coast of Ireland, St. Michael's Rock off the shore
of Cornwall, Mont St. Michael off the coast of Brittany, are
instances of this custom, and it is a notable fact, as bearing
upon our subject, that certain temples of Mercury have
been replaced in Gaul by churches under the invocation of

·P.D.
درود
ミミミ
​Fig. 221.
St. Michael. Thus, near Puy en Velay, the church of
St. Michael (built in the year 965, on the top of one of its
sharpest peaks, the Aiguille), has been erected on the ruins
of a temple of Mercury, some remains of which may still
be seen.
ST. MICHAEL.
183
The numerous apparitions and miracles of Michael may
be read in the 'Golden Legend' (De Santo Michaele Arch-
angelo).* He indeed plays a great part in the Christian
drama as in the Hebrew religion. Jacobus de Voragine
has said: "Ipse olim princeps fuit synagogæ, sed nunc
constitutus est a Domino in principem ecclesiæ.” In the
Manual of Panselinos it is Michael who appears to Hagar
in the wilderness and directs her to the well; it is Michael
who stays the hand of Abraham when about to sacrifice
his son; it is Michael who protects the body of Moses
from Satan at his burial; it is Michael who appears to
Gideon and strengthens him against Midian; it is Michael
who appears to Joshua before Jericho, saying, "Loose thy
shoes from off thy foot, for the place whereon thou
standest is holy" (Josh. v. 15); it is Michael who appears
to Manoah and announces the birth of Samson; it is
Michael who, when exterminating the people, stays his
hand because of the sacrifice of David; it is Michael who
descends to the three children in the furnace; Michael
who brings food to Daniel through the mediation of
Habakkuk; Michael who protects Constantinople against
the Persians, and saves the church from inundation, and
Michael who appears with Gabriel in the midst of a boat in
which three monks are seen about to drown a little child,
which he rescues and conveys to the abbot of a monastery
on the neighbouring shore.
In the scene where he appears to Joshua as prince of
the heavenly army he is always attired as a warrior in
armour, with a naked sword, his costume in Greek
paintings being generally that of the Roman emperors.
He is clad in a complete suit of mail in the accompanying
illustration (Fig. 221) from a MS. at Amiens, of the date
1197, and we give another illustration (Fig. 222) from
the Book of Hours of Henry II., A.D. 990. This manu-
script is a Gradual of the Abbey of Prume, and was
executed in the lifetime of Abbot Hilderic, who died in
993, and Abbot Stephen, who died A.D. 1001.† Above
the figure of Michael the following inscription may be
read: "Magnum Te Michiale."
* See La Légende Dorée par Jacques de Voragine, traduite par M. G. B.
Paris, 1843, vol. ii. p. 151.
† See Codex, fol. 48. Bibl. Nat. Paris, Lat. 9448.
184
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAHY.
The book is also entitled, Liber precum cum Notis Canticis
et Figuris.
Mrs. Jameson remarks, in a thoughtful passage on this
Archangel, that the glorification of St. Michael may be
traced back to that primitive Eastern dogma, the per-
petual antagonism between the Spirit of Good and the
Spirit of Evil, mixed up with the Chaldaic belief in

PD
Fig. 222.
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​་་་་་་་་ ་་་་་་་་་་་
""
angels and their influence over the destinies of Man.'
All tales of the wars and wrestlings of divine beings and
heroes, with dragons, lions, and composite animals, may
be held to signify the struggle of mind with brute force,
of good and evil, of life and death, the divine strife, man's
capacity for which and deathless persistence in which
distinguishes him from the animal creation, and is pledge
ST. MICHAEL AND THE DRAGON.
185

Fig. 223.
186
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
of his soul's divinity. The final triumph of Michael and
his angels as related in the book of the Revelation of St.
John, is our next illustration (Fig. 293). "And there was
war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against
the dragon; and the dragon fought, and his angels, and
prevailed not; neither was their place found any more
in heaven. And the great dragon was cast out, that old
serpent, called the Devil and Satan, which deceiveth the
whole world." This monster is the great red dragon
[Rev. xii. 3] having seven heads and ten horns, and
seven crowns upon his heads, another representation of
which is given in our first volume, Fig. 47, page 163.
Both are taken from the same manuscript, Psalterium
cum figuris, No. 8846, Bibl. Nat., Paris. This monster
resembles the Lernean hydra, having one body from
which ten necks project, each terminating in a head. As
to the ten horns, they are generally distributed, two upon
each of the three first heads, and one on each of the
others. The form of the body is that of a dragon with
or without wings, with paws of lion, body of a crocodile,
tail and neck of a serpent. The heads are either those of
a lion or a serpent.
*
One of the grandest conceptions of the struggle of
St. Michael and the Dragon was a scene only known to
us now through an engraving, painted by Spinello at
Arezzo on the façade of the great altar in the church of
St. Agnolo, or the Archangel Michael. The fresco itself
and its fate have been well described by Lord Lindsay.
"The composition, embracing Heaven and Chaos, was
divided into three great masses; God the Father sat
enthroned on the summit, in the centre Michael engaged
in personal conflict with Satan, that old serpent,' the
seven-headed dragon of the Apocalypse, while the angel
host precipitated his demon proselytes over the ramparts
of heaven into the lower world, in which, lowest of all,
Satan was a second time represented in his new shape,
horribly transformed, reclining on a rock, the monarch
of the dreary region. Vasarit has described this altar,
""
* Examples were seen by M. Didron in the Hortus Deliciarum; the west
window of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, the painted glass, and St. Martin-ès-
Vignes, and St. Nizier at Troyes.
† SeeVasari, Lives of the Painters, vol. i. p. 268. Ed. Bohn.
FRESCO BY SPINELLO AT AREZZO:
187
whereon was represented Lucifer fixing his seat in the
North, with the fall of the angels, who are changed into
devils as they descend to the earth.*
In the air appears
St. Michael in combat with the old serpent of seven
heads and ten horns, while beneath and in the centre
of the picture is Lucifer, already changed into a most
hideous beast. And so anxious was the artist to make
him frightful and horrible, that it is said such is
sometimes the power of imagination-that the figure
he had painted appeared to him in his sleep, demand-
ing to know where the painter had seen him looking
so ugly as that, and wherefore he permitted his pencil
to offer him, the sajd Lucifer, so mortifying an affront?
The artist awoke in such extremity of terror, that he
was unable to cry out, but shook and trembled so vio-
lently, that his wife, awakening, hastened to his assist-
ance. But the shock was so great that he was on the
point of expiring suddenly from this accident, and did
not in fact survive it beyond a very short time, during
which he remained in a dispirited condition, with eyes
from which all intelligence had departed. It was thus
that Spinello closed his career, leaving his friends
in heavy sorrow for his death. He died in his ninety-
second year.
"When last at Arezzo," writes Lord
Lindsay, "I made anxious search after this memorable
fresco. The church has long since been desecrated, but
part of it, including the altar-wall, still exists, partitioned
and commuted into a contadina's cottage, and known by
the name of "Casa de' Diavoli." Some remnants of the
fresco are just traceable on the wall of the good woman's
bed-room, and in the dark passage beneath it; in the
former several of the angels, with their fiery swords
striking down the devils, are full of spirit, and even
grace, and Luca Signorelli has evidently remembered
them while painting at Orvieto.
* See Fall of Lucifer, supra, p. 111, where the same metamorphosis is
represented as occurring.
188
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE CHRISTIAN
SCHEME.
Ir was the great merit of Didron when commencing the
history of Christian iconography that he not only worked
with method and system himself, but that he aimed at
discovering and mastering the secrets of the method and
system under which the great artists of the Middle Ages
developed their art. Dying before even the first portion
of his vast scheme, as laid down in the preface to this
work, was accomplished, the task of carrying it on after
the lapse of thirty years seemed at first a bewildering
one; the labours of writers in the same field, the Abbé
Crosnier, Alfred de Maury, Mrs. Jameson, Lady Eastlake,
Miss Twining, instead of exhausting the subject, only
threw the portals wider and revealed an ever-increasing
multitude of images to be surveyed. A clue to the
labyrinth could only be found by closely following
Didron's lead and investigating the system, searching for
the framework by aid of which the fathers of great art
pursued their aim. The Christian Epos was their subject.
This was the theme for many centuries of Poetry, the
Drama and Art, but no epic is perfect without a plot. The
plot is the bone and marrow of the composition, the frame-
work on which the structure may be raised in symmetry
and beauty. In the following pages we hope to show
what was the nature of this framework of the Christian
iconographic system, to trace its origin and development.
Hitherto the reader of this work may have learned some-
thing of the nature of those images in which men clothed
the Deity and his attributes, as of Satan and his diabolic
company, along with the various personifications of Death
and the Soul. However, here the author was but review-
ing singly and in succession the motors and instruments in
the great drama of the Soul's history. We have seen how

men seemed unconscious that the imagery of the prophets
and singers of old, however sublime in words, may pro-
duce a very different effect when literally translated into
form and colour, and they carved in monstrous shapes the
seven-headed, many-tailed creatures of the prophets until
the multitudinous mass of images in Christian mytho-
graphy becomes bewildering to contemplate. The com-
pany seems ever increasing in number and variety from
century to century as apocryphal legends creep in, and
Christian mythology borrows its imagery from various
polytheistic religions. A system, a scheme was required,
and as it now presents itself to us we seem to see that the
history of Christian iconography is a history of the
gradual development and evolution of an art inspired
by a religion and philosophy advancing steadily within
the bounds of order and of system, slowly revealing a
scheme which, though capable of condensation in such a
framework as that of the series of symbols in the paint-
ings of the Sistine ceiling, or the statuary of Chartres
Cathedral, could yet embrace all creation, all natural
and spiritual law.
The conception of this scheme, gradually developed as
Christians laid hold of the mysterious connection between
the facts of the Old and New Testament, was based on
certain passages in the New, where Christ and St. Paul
point to the Old as the foundation of the New dispensa-
tion. The restoration of fallen humanity in the person of
Christ was found to be pre-ordained, to have formed part
of the divine plan as revealed from Genesis, and a neces-
sary result of belief in the overruling providence and
beneficent Will of a Being who conceives and carries
forward a scheme for the perfecting of His work to a result
without flaw or speck.
The treatment of the religious drama founded on this
scheme varied according to time and place. Five different
systems of iconography were developed in illustration of
it, which we propose to consider in the present chapter.
The first, as presented to us in the Byzantine Guide to
Painting, is chronological, the second sacramental, the
other three are typical and philosophic as well as historic.
The date of the original copy of this Byzantine guide
is unknown. That which M. Didron found at Esphig-

nou was held by the monks of Mount Athoso belong to
the tenth or eleventh century, but was probably not older
than the fifteenth or sixteenth. It is a copy of an older
manuscript compiled by the monk Dionysius from the
works of "the celebrated and illustrious master Manuel
Panselinos of Thessalonica, a painter who," says Didron,
was the Giotto of the Byzantine school," and who
flourished in the twelfth century, during the reign of the
emperor Andronicus the First. Frescoes, said to be from
his hand, are still shown in the churches of Kares and
Vatopedi on Mount Athos. One of his pupils, "wishing to
propagate the art of painting which, with much pains, he
had learnt at Thessalonica,* among those who are willing
to devote themselves to it," points out the sequence of
subjects to be chosen from the Old and New Testament so
as to epitomize the Divine Scheme of Salvation, and the
manner in which the historical events, as well as the
miracles of the New Testament and parables of our Lord,
should be represented. He also adds the scrolls and
inscriptions belonging to each prophet in his turn, and
the names and physiognomy of the principal saints, fol-
lowing the order of the calendar as to their martyrdoms
and miracles, and points out how these subjects should be
distributed on the walls and in the cupolas of the Greek
churches.
However, in this iconographical system laid down in
the Manual of Dionysius, little more is attempted than to
present an abstract of the history of the Christian scheme,
by illustrating the successive events which mark the pro-
gress of religion, from Genesis to the death and ascension
of Christ, and the Apocalypse.
In the systems next to be discussed, of Western Art,
history and chronology were subservient to the idea of
the symbolism of certain events recorded; and the cycle
of subjects chosen was very much smaller than the Byzan-
tine. The copy of the Manual of Dionysius first seen by
Didron was in the hands of Joasaph, a monkish painter at
Esphigmenou. The work, the date of which in its original
form is unknown, had been extended and completed in
successive centuries-but the copy in the hands of Joasaph
* i.e. Salonica, formerly a great school of painting at the gate of Mount
Athos.
THE BYZANTINE MANUAL.
191
was not three hundred years old: it had been loaded with
notes written by himself and his master, which notes, in
due course of time, would be incorporated with the book
when recopied, just as those earlier ones found by the
painters of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries on the
margins of their books had been incorporated in the work
by them. And so this book grew from century to century
and year to year. A transcript of this guide is to be found
in every atelier on Mount Athos. Macarios, a monkish
painter, only second to Joasaph, possessed a fine copy of it.
This bible of his art was laid open in his workshop, and
his pupils read from it by turns in a loud voice, as the
others painted in obedience to its directions. This recalls
a similar incident connected with the early history of
church decoration in Western Art, recorded by Gregory
of Tours, who wrote at the close of the sixth century,*
where Namatia, the aged wife of Namatius, bishop of
Auvergne, A D. 423, reads to the painter decorating the
walls of the church she had raised over her husband's
tomb the scenes he is to depict.
"In the suburb of the town the wife of bishop Namatius
built the basilica of St. Stephen.† And, as she would fain
adorn it with pictures, she used to hold a book on her
knees, reading thereout stories of the deeds of the men of
old and pointing out to the painters what they should
set forth on the walls. Now on a certain day it came to
pass that as she sat in the church and read, a poor man
drew nigh to pray. And beholding a woman robed in
black raiment, and already stricken in years, he took her
for one of the needy, and drawing forth a cake of bread,
he placed it in her lap and went away. But she, despising
not the gift of the poor man, who had not recognised her
rank, accepted the bread, and thanked him. And she
placed it before her on her table, and every day she used
it for the prayer of benediction, until no more thereof
remained.”‡
* Hodie ecclesia S. Eutropii Suburbicarii; in ea sepultus fuit S. Namatius.
cum aliis sanctis, ut indicat libellus de Sanctis Claromont. cap. 13. S. Greg.
Turon. Hist. Franc., ii. 17. (Migne's note.)
Sic Regm. Picturas in ecclesiis memorat passim Gregorius ut lib. vii.
cap. 36, lib. x. cap. ult., &c.
The church of St. Stephen, in which the incident related above
192
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.

It is probable that the book used on this occasion by
Namation
amata was a manual somewhat like thai of the monk
Dionysius in its original form, and may very possibly
have been of Byzantine origin.* In the early miniature
paintings of France sacred subjects are constantly treated
in accordance with the directions given in this Greek
Manual. This is especially manifest in the Menologium
of Basil II. Even were the miniatures herein contained
occurred, was built by the widow over the tomb of Bishop Namatius
A.D. 423, and he in his day had erected the cathedral of Clermont in which
to enshrine the relics of St. Vitalis and Agricola, which he had conveyed
from Ravenna. It is not improbable that Byzantine art penetrated, even
at this early date, through Ravenna to France; and we read in Didron's
notes on his visit to Athens that he found in the ancient cathedral or
church of the Transfiguration there, many points in common with the
cathedral of Clermont, as well as Sta. Sophia at Constantinople.
773. Cap. xliv. De Agricola et Vitali martyribus. Horum reliquias
Namatius, Arvernorum episcopus, devote expediit, ut scilicet eas in ecclesia
quam ipse construxerat collocaret: derexitque unum illuc presbyterum,
qui, abiens cum Dei gratia, quæ patierat detulit.
69. xvi. Sanctus vero Namatius, post obitum Rustici episcopi, apud
Arvernos in diebus illis octavus erat episcopus. Hic ecclesiam quæ nunc
constat, et senior infra muros civitatis habetur, suo studio fabricavit, haben-
tem in longum pedes centum quinquaginta, in latum pedes sexaginta, in
altum infra capsum usque cameram, pedes quinquaginta: inante absidem
rotundam habens, ab utroque latere ascellas eleganti constructas opere, to-
tumque ædificium in modum crucis habetur expositum. Habet fenestras
quadraginta duas, columnas septuaginta, ostia octo. Terror namque ibidem
Dei, et claritas magna conspicitur; et vere plerumque inibi odor quasi
aromatum suavissimus advenire a religiosis sentitur. Parietis ad altarium,
opere sarsurio, ex multo marmorum genere exornatos habet.
Exacto ergo
in duodecimo anno beatus pontifex ædificio, Bononiam civitatem Italiæ
sacerdotes dirigit, ut ei reliquias SS. Vitalis et Agricolæ exhibeant, quos
pro nomine Christi Dei nostri, manifestissime crucifixos esse cognovimus.
(on which Migne's editor remarks in a note as follows :) "Haec est ecclesia
cathedralis, de qua Savaro multa observat in notis ad cap. i. libri de
ecclesiis Claromontensibus. Unde senior in Mor. s. et Regm. dicitur, pro
qua voce editi habent veterrima. Opus sarsurium idem esse observat
Altaserra ac opus tectorium, quod varium est et multiplex, sic dictum
a verbo sarcire. Parietes autem templorum et publicorum ædificiorum
marmore tegebantur seu incrustabantur, qualiter hic describitur templum
S Namatio constructum. Et quidem reliquias horum martyrum obtinuit,
ut narrat ipse Gregor. lib. i. de Gloria Mart., cap. 44. Eorumdem martyrum
passionem describit S. Ambrosius in lib. de Exhortationé virginit., cap.
1 & 2.
* Hist. Eccles. Francorum. lib. ii. cap. xvii.; Patrologia Lat. t. lxxi.
col. 215, cap. 36.
BYZANTINE MANUAL.
193
only reductions from mural paintings of a much earlier
date, as some have held, still the correspondence of the
subjects with the Manual would go far to showing that
they both belong to an iconographical system that endured
for many centuries.
The scheme in the Byzantine Manual in question com-
mences with the Prologue in Heaven; the Assembly of
the Heavenly Host and Fall of Lucifer.
Scenes 1-14. The Fall of Lucifer
71-75. History of Samuel.
to the Murder of Abel.
76-81.
of David.
""
Scenes 15-20. Life of Noal to
82-84.
of Solomon.
the Sin of Ham.
85-96.
of Elijah.
Scenes 21 to 30. Life of Abraham
97-103.
of Elisha.
""
to the Sacrifice of Isaac.
31-33. History of Jacob.
104-106.
of Isaiah.
"
107-108.
of Jeremiah.
34-43.
of Joseph.
44-59.
of Moses.
109. First Capture of Jerusalem.
119. Life of Daniel.
60-62.
of Joshua.
123.
"3
""
63.
of Gideon.
126.
of Jonas.
of Job.
""
64-70.
of Samson.
Following these scenes are nine subjects illustrating the
Patriarchs, Holy Women, Prophets and Philosophers of
Greece, who were said to have declared the Mystery of
the Incarnation of Christ.
Thus the "Wonders of the Ancient Law" are set forth
in 136 scenes, to be followed by 151 scenes representing
the Wonders of the Gospel; 76 relating the Life and
Miracles of Christ; 35, the Passion of Christ; and 40, the
Parables.
These 208 scenes are followed by three mystic subjects
generally reserved for the cupolas of the Byzantine
churches, those of the Divine Liturgy, the Communion
of Christ's body and blood, the Communion of Spirits.
They are followed by the Apocalypse, and Second Coming
of Christ, and the Final Judgment.
In the 35 following scenes the feasts of the Blessed
Virgin, and figures of the Apostles, Evangelists, Martyrs,
Anchorites, Poets, Myrrhophoræ are given with the
subjects of the Exaltation of the Cross, the Ecumeni-
cal Councils, and Holy Images. In eight scenes more the
Miracles of Michael, of John the Precursor, of Peter,
VOL. II.
0
194
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
Paul, Nicolas, George, Catherine, and Anthony, are added.
These are followed by the Calendar of the Year, and
Allegories of the Life of the Monk, the Ladder of Salva-
tion, the Death of the Hypocrite, the Death of the
Sinner, and the Deceitfulness of Life.
And the work closes with directions as to how these
subjects should be distributed on the walls and in the
cupolas of the Byzantine churches.
In this Manual it is evident, as we have already observed,
that the scenes from Biblical history were merely arranged
in chronological order; that, in their selection, the primary
object was historic and prophetic, and that the key to the
arrangement and choice of subjects is found in the fulfil-
ment of Old Testament prophecy in the historical events
of the New. In the West the Christian painters in the
Catacombs limited themselves to a smaller cycle of sub-
jects, and, setting history and chronology aside, treated
these subjects solely with reference to some hidden, moral,
or devotional truth which they were known to signify.
Thus the events recorded were turned to symbols; a sys-
tem of such symbols was developed, which was expressive
of the salient points in religion. A hieratic cycle of
subjects came into use, not necessarily for doctrinal
purposes, but as expressive of religious faith.
The cardinal points of the religion thus symbolised
were the belief in the Eternity of Life and the miraculous
power represented in the Sacraments which should trans-
mute the Material and the Mortal to the Immaterial and
the Immortal. Added to these were certain ethical
ideas realised in the persons of the Christ as the Good
Shepherd, of Daniel and the Children in the Furnace,
and in the Call of the Magi. By arranging these
symbols in the following order we arrive at the frame-
work of the Christian scheme as first conceived in Western
Christian Art:-
Baptism
Immortality
(Noah in the Ark.
Moses striking rock.
Assembly at table.
Lord's Supper. Miracle of loaves and fishes.
Water changed to wine.
Resurrection
Raising of Lazarus.
•
Deliverance of Jonah.
EARLY SYSTEMS OF ICONOGRAPHY.
195
(Daniel in Lion's den.
Triumph over Suffering Three children in furnace.
Call of the Gentiles
Christ and the Church-
Call of the Magi.
The woman of Samaria.
Good Shepherd.
Orante.*
These subjects may still be seen repeated with little
variety on the walls of the Catacombs of SS. Nereus and
Achilles, St. Calixtus, St. Prætextatus, St. Priscilla, St.
Agnes, St. Petrus, St. Marcellinus; and their symbolic
meaning can be demonstrated by written tradition as
well as supported by the testimony of contemporary
monuments, by comparison of various paintings and
other monuments one with another, as also with the
language of the Hebrew Scripture and the holy Fathers.t
St. Augustine, speaking of the interpretation of Scrip-
tural figures, insists that when we find anything repre-
sented which does not correspond with the truth either of
history or of nature, it must be taken to be a symbol,
intended to suggest some further idea beyond itself.
It is on the walls of these catacombs that we are to seek
the origins of Western Christian Art, and the first image-
writing of our religion. These images are held to date
from, or to have been copied from works of, the second
to the eighth century. They closely resemble antique
painting in form and mode of conception, and follow the
heathen art of Rome gradually, as it degenerates into
stiffness and want of form. The painting on the walls
of Pagan buildings and tombs, as we learn from Maitland,‡
is subservient to decorative purposes, and the whole is
subordinated to a particular colour on the walls. Land-
scapes, for instance, are painted brown on brown, green
* It is probable that the type so common in the Catacombs which has
been named Orante-a figure standing upright with arms outspread-is
of Eastern origin, and this seems borne out by the legend of the figure of
a Madonna Orante sculptured in bas-relief at Santa Maria in Porto,
Ravenna. This figure is said to have been miraculously transpor: ed from
Greece into Italy at an early date, and the characters giving the Virgin's
name as well as the whole style of the work leave no doubt as to the
origin of this sculpture. It must have been carried into Ravenna from
the East at the time of the Crusades.
† Roma Sotteranea, J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, part. ii.
P. 48.
Church in the Catacombs, C. Maitland, M.D., p. 156.
0 2
196
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
on green, and greenish white on a red wall. The olive
alone retains a certain character, and where garlands and
leaf-work appear as part of the decoration, only the most
necessary part of the special form of the leaf is indicated
with bold effect.
It appears desirable to enter into all these details if we
would be in a position to form a fair judgment on the
first images of Christian Art. The scheme to which they
belong was, as it were, the nucleus from which the larger
framework grew of such medieval mystic poems as the
Speculum Humanæ Salvationis and the Biblia Pauperum,
and Speculum Sanctæ Mariæ Virginis, where we find, in
addition to the primitive symbols of faith in the immor-
tality of the soul and triumph over suffering, those of the
worship of Mary, the divine strife with evil, transfigura-
tion, penitence, and the adoration of the Cross.
The earliest image hitherto found of this last subject
occurs upon a gem,* lately brought from Alexandria,
of the purest lapis-lazuli, oval in form, with surface
slightly convex-a woman kneeling in
prayer and with both hands holding
up a Latin cross, at which she gazes
fervently. Behind her is the tree
of life. "Much attention," writes Mr.
King, "has been bestowed upon the
head and features, the part of the com-
position always the first to fail in the
works of the Decline."

VO
Fig. 224.
The Mirror of human salvation is
usually illustrated by one hundred and
eight subjects, arranged in groups of four-three types.
to an antitype-or twenty-seven scenes from the life and
passion of Christ, with eighty-one drawn from the Old
Testament and heathen mythology. A certain chrono-
* See Report Cambridge Antiquarian Society, vol. v. No. 2, p. 75, 1884.
"On two unpublished Christian Gem Types." Rev. C. W. King. The
author of Ecclesiasticus, most probably a resident at Alexandria, speaks of
the seal-cutter's art in the following passage: "Every craftsman and work-
master that labours night and day, he who hath graven seals, and by
his continuous diligence varieth the figure: he shall give his mind to the
resemblance of the picture, and by his watching shall finish the work . . .
Without these a city is not built." Ecclesiasticus xxxviii. 28, 36.
EARLY SYSTEMS OF ICONOGRAPHY.
197
logical sequence is preserved in the events of our Lord's
life, chosen for antitypes, which is quite absent in the
selection of the types, the arrangement of which is
entirely subservient to their moral significance and pro-
phetic character. In the selection of these subjects the
idea of presenting religion as a divine scheme is well
thought out. The types of fallen, suffering, and redeemed
humanity are pictures painted, as it were, on the back-
ground of the life of Christ, and the first scene in the
drama, the type behind all types, is the Fall of Lucifer
and the rebel angels; just as in Milton's poem the origin
of evil is removed into the dim vista of pre-Adamite ages.
The New Testament history supplies the main features of
the plot to which the Old Testament events are merely
subsidiary.
The first six scenes are devoted to the story of the
miraculous conception and birth of Christ and the message
to the Magi, proclaiming the breadth and universality of
the scheme of redemption. Next comes the act in the
Virgin's life that signifies her humility and obedience.
to law. In the scenes selected from the life of Christ after
baptism, we have a sequence of symbolic acts that corre-
spond with the phases through which the Christian soul
passes in the warfare with evil, and the extension of its
power, as one victory after another is gained, till life eternal
is restored. Close following on the dedication of his life to
His Father's cause * comes the divine strife of the moral
and spiritual with the physical man; † and, consequent on
the victory gained, is the power to bid the dead ‡ become a
living soul-the power to transfigure the thought of death
itself to joy.§ Penitence sits in peace at those feet she
has bathed in her tears, and the temple is cleansed. T
These are the five acts into which the mission of Christ is
condensed. Then the narrative is resumed; the passion,
death, and resurrection-the conspiracy, betrayal, distrust,
judgment, profanation, self-offering, sacrifice, and the
* The Baptism of Christ.
The Temptation of Christ.
The Raising of Lazarus.
The Transfiguration.
Mary Magdalene at the feet of Christ.
¶ Christ driving out the money-changers from the temple.
198
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.

Fig. 225.
MIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION.
199
individual death by which is purchased the release of the
human soul from hell and its restoration to eternal life.
The spirit is caught up in the mantle of God, and the
pure woman, into whose own soul also the sword had
entered, is crowned by the Saviour's hand.
We have considered these facts in the life of Christ,
which became the leading subjects in Christian Art, as a
series of symbolic acts, the true intention and meaning of
which is in many instances helped out and explained by
the types chosen as their background—each group thus
arranged in skeleton form, by the author of the text, to
be hereafter thought out and worked out by the painter
who has to handle it. These selected scenes became the
special themes of medieval dramatists and painters, and
in cases where a question may arise at the present day as
to the significance of a particular subject or symbol in
Christian Art, a clue to its solution may often be found
by reference to the types in the Biblia Pauperum, and the
text that accompanies these types. Thus it has been asked
of the crown of thorns, Was it significant of physical
torture, or was it placed in mere mockery upon the sacred
head? Had it been the former, then some instance of
violence would have formed the type for this subject
which is the antitype; but, on the contrary, the types
chosen are cases of mockery and profanity, the sin of
Ham, and the mockery of the prophet Elisha by the
children. It is true that no more forcible types of torture
could be found than that of a father profaned, or the hate
of a child, but it is moral, not physical torture. Again,
in the Descent of Christ into Hell, the moral significance
of the subject is only pointed out by the types. (Fig. 225.)
The spirits that await the Christ are in the jaws of Death.
The Saviour, bearing His bannered cross with one hand,
lifts them upwards with the other. Death is represented
as a monster with a lion's head. The type to the right is
Samson struggling with the Lion, that to the left, David
slaying Goliath-subjects signifying the redemption of
Israel, often used as types of Christ's victory over Satan in
the Temptation, and His final conquest in death. Here, then,
the moral significance of the subject is indicated by the
types chosen, which correspond to those tales of heathen

200
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
mythologies of the wars and wrestlings of man with
animals real or imaginary, signifying the strife of mind
with brute force, of good and evil, of moral life and moral
death-the divine strife, which, once seen in a human face,
once read in a human heart, is the revelation of all that is
deepest in human nature. Here the author points to the
event upon the cross as the climax of this divine strife, the
crucial test, as it is also the pledge of the soul's divinity,
the evidence of divine grace that gives warrant of im-
mortality.*
The coincidence of the types in the background of the
Temptation of Christ and those of the Descent into Hell
is a remarkable feature in these works. In the first, the
types are Daniel and the Dragon, David and Goliath,
Theseus and the Minotaur. In the second, Samson and
the Lion, Banaias and the Lion, David and Goliath. In
this we are reminded of Milton's selection of the Tempta-
tion rather than the Crucifixion as the climax of his
great poem-the event which marked the victory and
death, of which the physical death on the cross was the
final symbol. In the Angels' Anthem at the close of
Milton's poem we find the clue to this poet's Paradise
Lost and Regained.
4
* These mystic and ascetic poems seem to be drawn from the Bible
Historiale and livres de clergie, i.e. science, of the middle ages, which formed
a class of sacred and doctrinal encyclopædias. A few words on the
bibliography of these texts must be added here to show their claim to be
considered as the foundation of the medieval Christian drama. The text
of the Mirror of Human Salvation is a poem of much greater length than
that of the Biblia Pauperum.
Brunet, speaking of the Speculum Hum. Sal., says, "Poème ascétique,
en vers rimés, d'une latinité barbare, sur les sujets bibliques. Plusieurs
MSS. portent la date de 1324, qui est peut-être aussi celle de la composi-
tion de l'ouvrage lequel, dans les manuscrits cités, est divisé en 45 chapitres
et orné de 192 figures. Manuel du Libraire, tom. 5me, 1re partie, Paris,
1863.
Three MSS. of the Speculum are preserved in the library of Vienna,
held by M. Denis to belong to the fourteenth century. See Denis, Codices
Manuscripti Theologici Bibliothecæ Palatinæ Vindobonenses, col. 439, 2218,
2322. Vindobonae, 1793-95. In fol.
The British Museum possesses four MSS. of the Speculum, 1st, Vesp.
E. 1, Cotton; 2nd, Arundel, No. 120; 3rd, Harleian, No. 26; 4th, No.
16,578 Add. MSS.
MIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION.
201
"Now thou hast avenged
Supplanted Adam, and, by vanquishing
Temptation, hast regained lost Paradise,
And frustrated the conquest fraudulent.
He never more henceforth will dare set foot
In Paradise to tempt; his snares are broke.
For, though that seat of earthly bliss be failed,
A fairer Paradise is founded now
For Adam and his chosen sons, whom thou,
A Saviour, art come down to reinstal:
Where they shall dwell secure, when time shall be,
Of tempter and temptation without fear.
*
*
*
Thus they the Son of God, our Saviour meek,
Sung victor, and, from heavenly feast refresh'd,
Brought on his way with joy. He, unobserved,
Home to his mother's house private returned."
The correspondence of these Christian types with
heathen is curiously illustrated by a gem and coin, the one
representing Christ, the other, a tetradrachm, Hercules
struggling with a human-headed serpent (Fig. 227-8). In
the first, Christ, as the Good Shepherd, is about to bruise


Fig. 226.
the serpent's head with a staff, tipped with the sacred mono-
gram. the second, Hercules firmly plants his foot on
the human-headed hydra's tail, just as Christ does on the
serpent's, which curls up into the field behind him and
terminates as a barbed arrow-head.* See Fig. 228.
* See Report of Cambridge Antiquarian Society, vol. v. No. 2, p. 82:
"On two unpublished Christian Gem-types." Rev. C. W. King, M.A.
202
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
The text of the Biblia Pauperum* consists of passages in
prose and verse, with quotations from the prophets and
psalmists relating to the types and antitypes of Holy
Scripture represented in each triptych. A Leonine verse †

EINT
NIAN
N
AAVG
OMOB
Fig. 227-8.
accompanies each picture. The author who conceived
this book and wrote these verses is unknown, although
St. Ansgar, the Apostle of the North, is believed by many
to have originated it. He was a monk in the monastery
* The text of the Biblia Pauperum was copied, and the scenes drawn
therein were represented on the convent windows of Hirschau A.D. 1085,
when the new cloister with its forty windows was erected. In the year
1180, a manuscript of the Biblia Pauperum was extant in the Convent of
Tegernsee illustrated with figures drawn by the hand of some unknown
artist. Another manuscript is referred to by C. B. J. Hugo, the keeper of
the library of Wolfenbüttel :-" Certum hic liber qui dudum ante inven-
tam typographiam in MS. extitit, olim appellabatur Biblia Pauperum ut
constat e codice seculi xii. vel xiii., sed 38 modo figuras continenti, biblio-
thecæ Guelpherbitanæ."
It is certain that this book, which appeared in MS. long before the in-
vention of printing, was formerly called Biblia Pauperum, as it consists of
a codex of the twelfth or thirteenth century, but containing only 38
figures, in the library of Wolfenbüttel.
† A measure much used by writers in the middle ages. It consists of a
Latin hexameter, of which the last foot rhymes with the end of the first
hemistich.
‡ In an old copy of the xylographic Biblia Pauperum at Florence, there
is a Latin entry to the effect that St. Ansgar wrote this book for the con-
version of pagans, and that it was entirely composed of signs. The first
manuscript copy of which there is any authentic description was written
in the old Saxon-Danish tongue. Bircherodius had seen a part of this
MS. and thus describes it: "I was recently told that a certain man living
in the country had a refectory hung with elegantly figured parchments.
I sent thither and obtained the same to the number of eleven and in the
form of full folio. The leaves were adorned on each side with figures
satisfactorily large, and most beautiful Bible stories in all colours in
every page, types from the Old Testament of several subjects, with the
antitypes out of the New, and the prophecies relating to them in this
order, above are seen two, and below also are two prophets of the Old
:
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
203
of Corbey in Germany, born A.D. 801, who, in the reign
of the emperor Louis the Pious was sent on a mission to
the Danes.
The texts referred to accompany the drawings of the
subjects, which are arranged in three compartments on
each page, the pictures being set in an architectural frame-
work. The subject taken from the Life of Christ, i.e. the
antitype, being in the centre, the types from the Old
Testament are placed at each side, with two figures of
prophets and psalmists above and below. The Leonine
verses on scrolls winding through the composition explain
the subjects. The architectural disposition of the triptych
containing these designs suggests the idea that they were
intended for pattern books for the painters of church
windows or decorators of cloistered walls. When Ugolino
da Sienna and Pisano worked in the Duomo d'Orvieto it is
very plain that they followed the general plan laid out for
them in some such works, as well as did the sculptors in
San Miniato in Florence, and Santa Maria, a small and
now disused basilica erected in the sixth century at
Toscanella, N.W. of Rome.
Manuscript copies with original paintings in miniature
of these two works-the Bible of the Poor, and the Mirror
Testament, as it were in converse one with another, painted uncommonly
well, and showing their prophecies one to another.
"At the sides of these are seen pairs of stories of the Old Testament written
beautifully and accurately in the ancient Saxon-Danish tongue, with a
picture of the same portrayed in vivid and pleasing colours, and in the
middle of the page is seen a certain story of the New Testament, or the
antitype of the rest, depicted with no slight skill; e.g. one page has, above,
David and Isaiah, below Job and Anna showing each to the other by turns
their sayings or prophecies concerning the resurrection of the dead; on the
right side is the story of the dead boy raised to life by Elijah, written down
as elegantly as it is painted; on the left the story of the boy restored to life
by Elisha is represented as well by letters (i.e. in writing) as in pleasing
colours. In the middle of the page Christ calling forth Lazarus from the
dead, with a crowd of men and women standing round, is set forth with
like skill. So another page treats of the remission of sins, with the most
beautiful figures of Nathan absolving David from his sin, of Moses absolv-
ing Miriam, and of Christ absolving Mary Magdalene, with written
stories subjoined." De Deperditis Septentrionalium Antiquitatibus et maxime
Gotho-cimbricis. See Westphalen, Monum. inedit. rerum Germanicarum.
Folio. Lipsiæ, 1739, tom. iii. p. 698. See Fiorillo, Geschichte der Zeich-
nenden Künste in Deutschland, Hanover, 1815, 8vo. Meerman, Origines
Typographicæ, Hage Comit. 1765, 4to.
204
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
of Human Salvation—are extremely rare. Of the first, one
beautiful example, with miniatures of the early Dutch
school, is preserved in the British Museum, King's MS. 5.
A. 1, d. 12.
*
Two Italian manuscripts of the Mirror with minia-
ture paintings of the school of Giotto may be seen in
Paris. The first, which dates circ. 1300, is preserved in
Paris in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Suppl. Lat. 9584.
Examples of the miniatures in this MS. have appeared in
the present work. The Christ in an elliptical aureole;
God the Father; † Jesus ‡ showing his wounds to the Father.
The second, equally beautiful if not more so, is also
in Paris in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal (Theol. Lat.
593); it contains 150 miniatures and 590 figures.
illustrations from this work appear in the preceding
pages, one being a portion of the painting of the Fall of
Lucifer, the other a scene in the Temptation of our Lord,
where the Devil appears in the garb of a professor (Fig.
178 supra). This manuscript bears the date 1324, and
the miniatures, two of which appear at the head of each
page, have been attributed to Taddeo Gaddi by some, and
to Giotto by others. We translate the passage at the
opening of this book :--
Two
'Here begins the proem of a certain new compilation
brought out in the year of the Lord 1324, but the author
is in humility silent as to his name. The title or name of
the work is Speculum Humanæ Salvationis." § Then follows
an epitome of the contents, in which we noticed one curious
error. In place of "Jephtha sacrifices his daughter," we
read, "Joseph sacrifices his son," fol. 7 verso. at fol. 8
verso. Type 3 has been erased, and a different subject,
painted in a very inferior manner, inserted. The MS.||
is a small folio, of forty-two folios of two columns in
* Vol. i. p. 24, fig. 2. † Ib. p. 64, fig. 42. ‡ Ib. p. 304, fig. 79.
§ "Incipit phemium cuidam nove 3pilationis edite stanno dñi мcccxxiv.,
nom uő autoris hūilitate siletur. Sz titulus siue nōm opis est Speculm
humane saluationis." Renouvier has copied the first lines of this Italian
manuscript very well. See Hist. de l'origine de la Gravure dans les Pays-
bas et en Allemande, p. 88, n. 2. A second Speculum Humanæ Salvationis
is preserved in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, No. 40, but this is only
copied by hand from a block book.
"Le plus ancien MS. que j'ai vu," says Heineken, "me paroit être du
douzième siècle." This, with two other MSS. of the Speculum, is preserved
MIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION.
205
vellum, two miniatures at the head of each page, so
that, as the volume lies open, four scriptural subjects
are displayed, the first being the antitype, the following
three the types. In Les Arts Somptuaires of Louandre
and Seré, coloured drawings on an enlarged scale are
given from three of these miniatures. The first is one
of the types for the adoration of the three Kings—the
three warriors bringing the water of the cistern to
David.* Here one figure is clothed in complete armour
of wrought iron, while the other two warriors are clothed
in mail covered by a tight jerkin; the water-vases, as well
as the steel helmet with broad leaf, are peculiar to Italy.
The next subject copied by Louandre is the chastisement
of Heliodorus, one of the types of Christ driving out the
money-changers from the temple. Heliodorus, who is
being flogged with a whip of three knotted lashes, lies
prostrate on the ground. The angels sent to execute his
punishment are represented as wingless and in merely
human forms: one wears a Tuscan head-dress. The next
subject is the escape of Lot and his family from Sodom,
one of the three types of the release of the souls from
Hell. The two girls walk with virginal serenity by the
side of their aged father; their character, added to that of
severe majesty in the angel behind, certainly recalls the
mural paintings of Giotto. Everything tends to confirm
the belief that in these miniatures we have examples of
the most beautiful thirteenth or fourteenth century art of
Italy, the same elegance and simplicity of outline, the
same profound yet naïf sentiment, and we may well be
correct in our supposition that these beautiful compositions
are from the hand of Giotto, b. 1276, d. 1337, or Taddeo
Gaddi, b. 1300, d. 1366.
Thus far we have dealt with the authorship of these
texts, it now remains to be seen to what schools the
miniature paintings (varying in number from 100 to 160)
which illustrate them may be attributed; and this
in the Vienna library. See M. Denis, Codices Manuscripti Theologici
Bibliotheca Palatina Vindobonensis, coll. 439, 2218, 2322; Vindobonæ,
1793-95, in fol. Four MSS. of the Speculum are preserved in the British
Museum, one of which, written in 1370 by Conradus de Alzeya, has been
published by M. Berjeau.
1 Chron. xi. 15. This subject has been misnamed Esther Enthroned.
206
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY,
question is of no little weight in the history of Christian
iconography, when we reflect that these books were
followed in the mural paintings, the stained glass
windows, the sculpture and the religious drama of the
Middle Ages. The natural result of adherence to such a
system of illustration as this laid down in the Speculum
was the development of certain established symbols,
sacred types of phases in the history of the moral strife
and victory of humanity, of the mysteries of birth and
death, and of the fall and redemption of man.
For they
offered a series of scenes from the history of the Jews as
a nation, such as should serve as examples to mankind
as individuals; these types all finding their fulfilment
in the person of Christ, all again to be reflected in the
spiritual experiences of each and all of His followers.
Yet, while in these books we have scriptural subjects,
thus selected and grouped according to a certain pre-
conceived plan, yet the treatment of such was left to
the knowledge and individual power of the painter.
There is much evidence of the fact that it was owing to
the number and variety of such books that Italy and
France succeeded in shaking themselves free of the
paralysing traditions of Byzantinism and developing
what of original thought lay in the mind of the artist,
who we may imagine could with comparative freedom
best work out his own conceptions at first in the quiet of
his chamber and at his desk.*
In France, as in Italy, mural painters sought in manu-
script miniatures for their designs.† In Pisa, whence the
a
*The art of miniature painting was practised at a very early period in
Italy, as we know from the beautiful examples of the third and fourth
century in the Vatican Virgil. It was especially encouraged by the
Carlovingian emperors, and also much cultivated in Paris before the
thirteenth century, as we know from Dante, "quell' arte ch' alluminare è
chiamata in Parisi." (Purg. c. xi. 81.) Indeed, the French excel the
Italian miniaturists as colourists.
† Jean Costa in France was favourite painter of King John. He began
to work in 1349. He worked alone, leaving nothing to his pupils. He
sought in manuscript miniatures for models for his mural paintings. Mi-
niatures were too often taken as models by mural painters, hence a dryness
and minute detail in these life-size subjects which should only characterise
miniatures. France was especially the home of miniature painting. Dante
a
• Kugler, Handbook, p. 20, refers to the Bible of St. Paolo fuori le mure, pre-
served in San Calisto in Trastevere See D'Agincourt, Peinture, pp. 40-45.

MINIATURE PAINTING.
66
art spread over Tuscany, were miniature painters, wh
transferring their art from small to large works," like
Franco of Bologna, "betook themselves to painting on walls
and panels" (see Lanzi, Painting in Italy, vol. i. p. 37,
ed. Bohn). This Franco, founder of the Bolognese school,
was himself the pupil of the miniature painter Oderigi of
Gubbio, who worked long at Bologna. He whom Dante.
hails in Purgatory :—
"Art thou not Oderigi? Art not thou
Agobbio's glory, glory of that art
Which they of Paris call the limner's skill?'
"Brother!' said he, with tints, that gayer smile,
Bolognian Franco's pencil lines the leaves.""
Some Italian schools took their origin, without any
Byzantine aid or example, from such miniature painters,
who in the twelfth century formed a very distinct class.
Treviso and other minor cities gave birth to a style which
may be termed national, and which owed much of its
originality to the miniature painters who improved their
talent by drawing from the life and not from any Greek
or Italian master, whether Panselinos or Giotto. To this
class belong M. Paolo,* the earliest painter in this national
manner, circ. 1300: Giottof himself was a miniature painter
makes illumination an entirely Parisian art. However, there is very
noble design in some Italian illuminated books. It is probable that Dante
was familiar with some such text as that of the Biblia Pauperum, since in
the series of sculptures described by him among the bas-relief on the
second cornice of Purgatory were the subjects forming part of that series.
The Annunciation, The Ark drawn to the house of Obed-edom, David
dancing before the Ark, Michal deriding David, which he tells us were
"so exactly wrought
With quaintest sculpture, that not there alone
Had Polycletus, but e'en nature's self
Been shamed.”
A record of this painter exists in a parchment dated 1346, and
examples of his work may be seen on the front of the great altar of
St. Mark's and in the Sacristy of the Padri Conventuali at Vicenza, dated
1333. See Lanzi, vol. ii. p. 77.
† Giotto began by studying the art di minio, i.e. the art of painting
with a peculiar red colour early applied to the ornamenting and illuminat-
ing of MSS., hence the derivation of the word miniature, and one of the
minor peculiarities which differentiates his work from that of the Byzantine
schools is the adoption of this delicate pale red in place of the darker tints
of the former school.

CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
1
ho gave a great impetus to his art as well as Taddeo
Gaddi, after whose death the fraternity of the Camal-
dulites furnished some remarkable miniaturists such as
D. Silvestro. But it was in Mantua* that this method
reached its highest perfection, and in the school of Giulio
Romano where Clovio was trained and whence the art
spread throughout Lombardy.
Among the artists of Italy who imitated or copied the
subjects in the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis are Ugolino
di Prete Ilario, G. Pisano, Orcagna, and Taddeo Gaddi.†
The frescoes of the Capello del Corporale at Orvieto
and some scenes painted on the wall of the tribune in the
same cathedral, the bas-reliefs of Giovanni Pisano,
framed in by Tuscan pillars like those that enclose the
subjects in the Biblia Pauperum, all correspond with these
books of types and antitypes. They were probably begun
in 1290. The story of the Creation, the Fall and Ex-
pulsion, the fratricide of Cain, are ably told and well
contrasted with the scenes of Mercy and of Judgment
in the new. Our Lord is seen attended by two angels
throughout the work of Creation, and their floating
attitudes may have suggested to Ghiberti his exquisite
amplification of this idea on one of the Gates of the
Florence Baptistery.‡
A volume containing a hundred miniatures, examples of
Italian Art in the thirteenth century, was secured some
years ago by the late Sir William Boxall, who presented
it to Lord Coleridge. This is a fragment of an original
copy of the Speculum Sancte Marie Virginis and Speculum
Humane Salvationis, the text of which was written by
Joannes Andreas de Bologna (circ. 1270-1348). The
miniatures appear to belong to the same early date, and
their origin may perhaps be traced to some painter of the
school of Siena.
In Germany the number of artists whose names are
said to be connected with the Speculum and Biblia
* See the Anthem Book preserved at S. Benedetto in Mantua, one of
the most ancient remains of this art existing.
† See in the Sacristy of the Vatican the representation in miniature of
the Acts of St. Peter and St. Paul, with some representations of the lives
of our Saviour and various saints.
Lord Lindsay, vol. ii. p. 121.
MINIATURE PAINTING.
209
Pauperum are very numerous: Van Liesborn, Quentin
Matsys, Lucas van Leyden, Joachim Patenier, Albert
Dürer, Hans Schauffelein, Joh. Memlinc, Martin
Schoen. The Annunciation painted in 1465 for Liesborn,
the former convent near Münster, the Presentation in the
Temple, and the Virgin and Child accompanied by seven
figures of mystic meaning from the Old Testament, may
be seen in an altar-piece painted by Quentin Matsys for
the church of S. Donatus at Bruges; the Crucifixion by
Cornelius Engelbrechtsen of Leyden, flanked by the
Sacrifice of Isaac and the uplifting of the Brazen Serpent;
the Tree of Jesse below. The subject most frequently
copied is that of Christ on the Judgment Day, seated on a
rainbow, His feet resting on the globe, a sword and lily
at either side of His head, and the graves below giving
up their dead. In a triptych of Lucas van Leyden some
of the subjects of the Passion are treated as in the block
book Biblia Pauperum. Albert Dürer in his treatment of
the Ascension, the Entry into Jerusalem, and Apotheosis
of Christ, followed the same work.*
The Duomo of Orvieto, circ. 1300, with its ornamented
gables, windows divided by a single pillar, reminds us of
the framework of the Biblia Pauperum. The Coronation of
the Virgin, the Creation of Eve, &c., seem as if derived
from the same origin as the windows of Hirschau Abbey
in the Black Forest, painted in the year 1085, after the
subjects in the Biblia Pauperum.
Another class of miniature painting besides that on
vellum are such Byzantine miniatures on wood as may be
seen in numbers in the Vatican museum; the subjects
generally resemble those in mosaic and mural painting.
We see there a subject exactly corresponding to the
fresco in the Pisan Campo Santo, illustrating the ascetic
life in the desert, aged men seated in mountain caves,
some reading, some plaiting straw for baskets. At one
side the death of St. Ephraim and his soul borne aloft by
an angel-at the other St. Simeon Stylites. Emmanuel
Tyanfurnari was the author of this painting, and there is
*The Passion of Christ, with types of the successive scenes, is shown in
the painted windows of Bourges Cathedral. Also the Resurrection of our
Lord, with Elisha raising the widow's child, and the Lion-cub legend, which
latter also occurs at Tours as type of the Resurrection.
VOL. II.
P

210
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
a tradition that the work was brought into Italy by
Squarcione, master of Mantegna.
In all such works we still find evidence of the double
current flowing through art, the feeling for the antique
side by side with the ascetic type; and in these manuals and
texts we have been dealing with it is interesting to find
many types of events in the Christian life drawn from
Classic and Pagan mythologies. On this subject we hope
to enlarge in the following chapter.
Fig. 229.-DANIEL AMONG LIONS; HABAKKUK AND THE ANGEL.
MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS.
211
MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS IN THE SPECULUM
HUMANÆ SALVATIONIS.
We find that nine legends from Pagan mythology have
been included in the Mirror of Human Salvation as types
for events in the life of Christ and of the Virgin.
1. The myth of Cyrus and the vision of his grand-
father Astyages before his birth, became a type of the
prediction of the Virgin's birth to Joachim. The king
dreams that he sees a vine rise from his daughter's womb
and grow into a great tree that overshadowed the earth,
and learns from his interpreter that this foreshadows
that the babe to be born of Mandane will reign in his
stead.
2. The legend of the offering of the golden table in the
temple of the sun-god is taken as a type of the Presenta-
tion of the Virgin in the temple. The story is as follows:
Three fishers threw their net into the sea in the hope of
catching fish, but when they drew in the net again they
found, intead of fish, a golden table of wondrous beauty
and splendour. Close by the sea-shore stood a temple
built by the neighbouring people in honour of the sun
whom they worshipped as a god, and the fishermen
brought their table here and offered it to the sun-god,
so that it has since been called of all people the Table
of the kingdom of the sun. The author of the Bible
Historiée adds that this table of the sun-god (on
which the image of the sun-god stood in the temple)
prefigures the Virgin Mary, on whom the God of Paradise
descended: but the golden table was offered in the temple
of a corruptible sun, Mary in an incorruptible; and while
food for man's body was held by the one, so the bread of
life was laid upon the other.
3. Another type of the Virgin and her presentation in
P 2
212
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
6،
the temple is found in the person of Semiramis. In the
myth of this Queen of the East we have many of the same
elements as occur in the story of Cyrus, which we have
had already as a type of the Nativity of Christ, and
which these tales again have in common with the legends
of Romulus, Oidipous, Telephos, and others. Like them,
she is exposed in her infancy, saved by doves, and brought
up by a shepherd. Semiramis is simply," writes Mr.
Cox,*"the Dawn Goddess, the daughter of the Fish-god
Derketo, the lover of Tammuz, the counterpart of Aphro-
ditê with the boy Adonis. Semiramis is sometimes re
placed by Esther in later copies of the Spec. Hum. Sal.
Both were patriot queens-the one built numerous cities
and wonderful temples, such as the great tomb of Ninus,
her husband, and she planned the hanging gardens of her
people's city, on the highest point of which she is often re-
presented as standing, by the oldest miniature painters."†
4. The Sibyl showing Augustus a vision of the Virgin
with infant Christ is the third figure for the Nativity
following on the vision of Pharaoh's cup-bearer and the
blossoming of Aaron's rod. The legend is already so.
familiar to the readers of Mrs. Jameson and Lady East-
lake's History of Our Lord in Art, that it is unnecessary to
repeat it now.
5. The subject of the child Moses breaking Pharaoh's
crown, or, as it has been sometimes called, "Moses'
Choice,"§ forms one of the three figures that accompany
the Sojourn of Christ in Egypt. The legend appears in
Bartolocci, Biblioth. Magna Rabbinica, pt. iv. p. 115, and
is as follows:
“It is related in Medrasc that Moses, whom, when he
was three years old, Bathiah, the daughter of Pharaoh, had
taken from among the rushes, in the presence of Pharaoh
and the Magi, took the crown from Pharaoh's head and
* See Cox, Aryan Myth., i. 223, note, ii. 84; Dictionary of Literature,
Science, and Art, s. v. (Brande and Cox).
† Mr. Sayce observes in a note to the editor, "It is very curious to find
Semiramis representing the Virgin. In the Pseudo-Lucian's treatise De
Dea Syria, Semiramis is given as the name of the Syrian Venus worshipped
in the great temple of Hierapolis (the town which succeeded to Car-
chemish)."
I See Mirabilia Romæ. Scholastic History.
§ Moses' Choice is the subject of a fine painting by Giorgione in the Uffizi.
THE CHOICE OF THE CHILD MOSES.
213
placed it upon his own head, and all wondered, but
Pharaoh feared. Balaam his Councillor gave this counsel
to Pharaoh-that Moses should be slain. And [it is
related] that God sent the angel Gabriel in the likeness
of one of the Magi of Pharaoh, and he gave him the counsel
that two vessels should be brought; in one vessel should
be placed Daisies, and in a second live burning coals, and
both should be shown to the boy; but if the boy should
take from the Daisies, it would be a sign that he had
done this thing with intent and out of malice, and so the
boy should be guilty of death; but if he should stretch
out his hand to the burning coals, it would be a sign that
this thing had been done not with design and with
intent, and so the boy should be free. And so it was
done. However the angel saw them, but they did not
see the angel; and he raised the hand of Moses, and he
took the burning coal, and he put it to his mouth, and the
edge of his lips was burnt, and Moses became stammering
and slow of speech, and he went out free."
We find a slightly different version of this tale in the
Bible Historiée. "The daughter of Pharaoh brought the
child Moses to a feast before her father, who, when he
saw the beauty of the child, placed his crown upon his
head, in which crown was fixed an image of the idol
Haman. And when Moses had the crown upon his head,
he took it and threw it so rudely on the ground, that both
the crown and the idol were broken. Then the high
priest who was present said that it was he by whom the
kingdom of Egypt should be destroyed, and that he must
die. But another answered that he had done it through
childishness, and he brought red charcoal and placed
them before the child, and Moses took one up burning
and put it in his mouth, and it burned him so that he
cried. Therefore he escaped from death. Herein is a
figure of Christ; for as Moses was born for the deliver-
ance of Israel, so Christ was born to deliver us from
Satan; as Moses broke one idol, so Christ broke all idols;
and as Moses escaped while all the other infants of Israel
were destroyed by Pharaoh, so the infant Christ was
saved from Herod."
6. Two of the figures which accompany the subject of
the Flight into Egypt are mythological, but the first is
214
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
chosen from Christian mythology, being the Fall of the
Egyptian Idols before the child Christ; the legend is
given in the apocryphal gospels of the Infancy of Christ.
"And they came into the borders of Hermopolis and
entered into a certain city of Egypt, which is called
Sotinen; and because there was no one known in it from
whom they could have requested hospitality, they went
into a temple which was called the Capitol of Egypt, in
which temple three hundred and fifty-five idols were
placed, to which the honour of Deity was rendered in
sacrilegious rites. Now it came to pass that when the
most blessed Mary, with her little Infant had entered the
temple, all the idols were prostrate on the earth, so that
they all lay upon their faces wholly shattered and
broken, and so they showed evidently that they were
nothing. Then was fulfilled what was spoken by the
prophet Isaiah: Behold the Lord shall come upon a light
cloud, and shall enter Egypt, and all the handiworks of
the Egyptians shall be moved at his presence (Isa. xix. 1).”*
7. The voluntary sacrifice of Codrus, king of Athens,
is one of the three types of the Crucifixion of Christ.
It is a tradition connected with the expedition of the
Peloponnesians against Athens after the conquest of
Peloponnesus by the Dorians. When the good king saw
his city surrounded by the enemy, he took counsel of the
god Apollo as to how his city might be saved, and the
answer given by the oracle was that he, the king, must
die for the city. This he resolved to do, and he rode
forth alone so that the enemy might see him and slay
him. But the Dorians had heard of the oracle, and knew
that if they slew the king, the city would be lost to
them. Therefore they allowed Codrus to pass on and
return through the gates unhurt. Then Codrus divested
himself of his kingly garments, and put on poor and vile
clothing. He then issued forth from the city again, and
his enemies, not recognising the king, thus disguised as a
beggar, attacked and slew him before the city walls.†
* See Gospel of the Infancy, cap. 10; Codex Apocr. N. Test. tom. i. p. 75;
also Apocryphal Gospels, B. H. Cooper, p. 63, 15th ed.
† See Pausanias, vii. 25, English translation, ed. 1794, vol. ii. 366,
chap. lii., vol. iv. 5, chap. lvii. 2; see Lycophr. 1388, and Tzetzes' note;
Herod. v. 76; Leoc. 20, sects. 194, 196; Vell. Pat. i. 2; Justin, lib. ii.
5, &c.; Strab. xiv. p. 633.

LEGEND OF THE OSTRICH.
215
8. One of the types for Christ in Hades is the myth of the
ostrich who delivers her young one imprisoned in a vase.
This is represented in early art by an ostrich which stands
Fig. 230.
with a worm in its mouth by the side of a high glass
vessel, in which the young bird is imprisoned. The legend
is thus given by Petrus Comestor:-
*See Bible Historiée; Petr. Comestor, Hist. Schol. lib. Regum iii. cap. 8;
Baring-Gould, Curious Myths, second series; Cox, Aryan Mythology, vol.
i. p. 216.
216
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
"The Jews said that for the purpose of cutting stones
more quickly, Solomon had the blood of a worm called
tamir, by which marble was easily split by sprinkling,
which he discovered after this manner: Solomon had an
ostrich with a chick, which the King had shut up in a glass
vessel. When the ostrich saw it, but could not get at it,
she brought from the desert a worm, with whose blood she
smeared the vessel, and it broke.”
66
Mr. Cox classes this legend with similar stories of swans
and eagles which carry stones capable of splitting the
hardest substance-all of which he holds to symbolise the
cloud charged with lightning till the moment to use the
mighty weapon comes. Finally," he says, "the stone
becomes a worm, and thus we have the framework of a
large family of stories, which, if they have their origin.
among Aryan tribes, have been extended far beyond the
limits of that race. In all the Hebrew versions of this
legend the cloud is a bird, the lightning either a stone or
a worm. Thus Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, discovers the
wonder-working pebble Schamir, by watching a moor-hen,
which, finding a piece of glass laid over her nest, flies
away, and, fetching a worm, splits the cover; or Solomon
obtains it in the form of a stone from the raven, of which
he has been informed by the demon Sackar.
In similar stories told by Ælian and Pliny of the wood-
pecker or the hoopoe, the instrument by which the bird
gets at her young is a grass; and thus we reach the
family of plants, whose power of splitting rocks has won
for them the name of Saxifrage* or Sassafras. This grass
or plant will either reveal treasures, as they are revealed
by the blinding glare of the electric fluid, or it will restore
life, as lightning in splitting a rock sets free the waters on
a parched-up soil.
Following Baring-Gould, we find this worm in his
chapter on Schamir is a talisman, that in the legends of
some countries is represented as about the size of a barley-
corn; and as entrusted to the keeping of a moor-hen or
a sea-god. The bird may also be a raven, an eagle, a
hoopoe (the woodpecker of the Greeks), a swallow, or an
*Saxifrage: Isaiah vii. 2, 3; ix. 17; x. 17; xxxii. 13. The spell at
sound of which the doors of Alad lin's cave fly open. Sesamum Orientale,
an Eastern plant. Open Sesame."
FOOTPRINTS OF CHRIST.
217
ostrich. But among some nations this talismanic power
is said to lie not in the worm but in a stone. In Nor-
mandy we find a legend of this stone as in the keeping
of a swallow. In Iceland it is a pebble kept by a raven.
In all cases it is a talisman bringing deliverance from
death and imprisonment. Occasionally we meet it as a
red flower, Lactua agrestis, purple stained, and then it is
the blue "Forget-me not."
9. The legend of the vengeance of Queen Tomyris on the
dead body of Cyrus is one of the three types for the subject
of the Virgin Mary when she quells Satan by holding
before him the emblems of the Passion. Judith and Jael
are the other two types. The author of the Speculum has
probably taken the story from Justin, who quotes from
Herodotus. This is one of the subjects wrought on
Dante's pavement in Purgatory.*
"Where is shown the scath and cruel mangling made
By Tomyris on Cyrus, when she cried,
Blood thou didst thirst for: take thy fill of blood.
"""
Herodotus (Book i. cap. 214), Justin (Book i. cap. 8),
and Valerius Maximus (Book ix. cap. 10), said that
Cyrus met his death in a battle against the Massagetæ.
According to Herodotus, Tomyris their queen, having
beheaded him, plunged the head in a skin filled with
blood, saying: "Though living and victorious, thou hast
lost me in destroying my son, who has fallen into thy
snares; but I will satiate thee with blood as I have
threatened thee."t
10. The last purely legendary incident in the subsidiary
pictures of the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis is that of the
footprints of Christ on the Mount of Olives. When Christ
ascended it was held that the prints of His sacred feet
remained upon the rock on which He was last seen to stand.
"A similar form of relic worship," writes Mr. King,
"manifests itself in the very metropolis of Christianity;
for the prints of Christ's feet on a slab of basalt, a paving-
stone of the Via Appia, have been worshipped from time
immemorial in the church of Domine quo vadis, built over
* See Dante, translated by H. T. Cary. Purg. c. xii. l. 51.
+ See Herod., bk. i. Clio. Cox, Myth. Aryan Nations, vol. i. pp. 260,
309; vol. ii. pp. 74, 83.
218
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
the consecrated spot. ""* Moor notices the existence of the
impressions of a pair of feet cut upon a flat stone about many
Hindoo temples, and the tradition that they commemora-
ted Satís, marking the place whence the widow stepped
from earth upon the funeral pile, or into the gate of Heaven.
This custom bears upon the Buddhist veneration for the
print of Adam's foot upon the summit of the peak called
after him in Ceylon, held by the Mahommedans to be the
footprints of Adam. "In the Christian period of Egypt,"
writes Mr. Sayce,† "pilgrims in Upper Egypt used to cut
representations of their feet on stones of the old temples
which had been converted into Christian shrines."
We have already shown that the miniature paintings
illustrating these Italian Mirrors of Salvation and of the
Holy Virgin, are characterised by the same simplicity and
human interest which distinguish the mural painting of
the school of Giotto. Touches of nature appear in these
works, indicating the awakening of human and kindly
sympathies, through the influence of which Western Art
freed itself at last from the trammels of Byzantinism.
The slavish adherence of the later Greek Church painters
to the methods laid down in their Manual, resulted in a
stony stiffening of forms which were only copies from
copies, and faces whose original wistful sadness was re-
placed in the copyist's hands for a vacant stare. The
system of the thirteenth century in Italy led to very
different results, for, while it still prescribed the choice
and grouping of subjects, so as to subserve to a great
religious dramatic scheme, yet it left the artist free to
turn to nature for his models. And, only intent on the
moral significance of the sacred story he was to relate, he
sought for his models and backgrounds amid the daily life
and scenery of his own home, just as he found the inner
realities he was to symbolize by introspection of his own
means, an introspection which it is the peculiarity of the
artistic nature to indulge in, even in moments of all but
the most disturbing passion, and to draw thence materials
for art. So it was the habit with our old English poets
* See King, Gnostics and their Remains, p. 159.
In a letter to the Editor.
These remarks, as I learn from my friend Dr. Waldstein, may also
apply to the days of great art in Greece. There the heroes of Homer are
PAUL VERONESE.
219
also, who were not at pains to associate the scenes and
acts of Christ's life solely with the hills and trees of
Palestine, but sought to bring home His passion, strife,
and victory to the very walls of their old towns, or by
their shores and river-banks, amid the primroses and haw-
thorns of their own island.
Thus in his opening scene of Christ's Temptation, Giles
Fletcher shows us the Prince of Peace when found by the
demon in the wilderness:
Upon a grassie hillock he was laid
With woodie primroses befreckelled."
In the same poem we find it is the hawthorn that is
pulled in honour, and afterwards plaited in dishonour, of
the Sacred Head:
"It was but now they gathered blooming May,
And of his arms disrobed the branching tree,
To strow with boughs and blossoms all thy way;
And now the branchlesse trunck a crosse for thee,
And May, dismaid, thy coronet must be."
With violets and primroses and the song of English
birds he celebrates the resurrection, when:
"Every bush lay deeply purpured
With violets; the wood's late wintry head
Wide flaming primroses set all on fire,
And the bald trees put on their green attire,
Among whose infant leaves the joyous birds conspire."
The true instinct followed by painters and poets in the
Middle Ages in such matters has found a warm defender
in a poet of our own day, who in the following lines
corrects some pedant critic for carping at the method of
Paul Veronese in his treatment of sacred subjects.
They err who say this long-withdrawing line
Of palace-fronts Palladian, this brocade
From looms of Genoa, this gold inlaid
Resplendent plate of Milan, that combine
To spread soft lustre through the grand design,
Show but in fond factitious masquerade
The actual feast by leper Simon made
conceived as being armed and acting like people of the time of Pheidias,
and we find the groups of Lapiths against Centaurs and Amazons as well
as gods against giants represented like Athenians of his own age.
220
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
To that great Guest, of old, in Palestine.
Christ walks amongst us still; at liberal table
Scorns not to sit no sorrowing Magdalene
But of these dear feet kindly gets her kiss
Now, even as then; and thou, be honorable,
Who, by the might of thy majestic scene,
Bringest down that age, and minglest it with this.” *
The great book of Nature once opened, a wider and
still more magnificent Iconographical system of symbols
was developed than those we have dealt with as yet,
which only owe their origin to the Hebrew Scriptures
and a few mythological legends. Christian philosophy
and her handmaidens, Poetry and Art, with their trans-
forming power, naturally grew out of the study of the Bible
as the word of God. The expressions of his thought, found
by the philosopher in words, become images in the artist's
mind. Such images, if bearing a faithful analogy or affinity
to the idea represented, become symbols holding the same
relation to the idea as the bird of dawning does to sunrise.
And such symbols may become parts of the harmonies of
nature with which poetry has to do. So," writes
Ozanam, “it was in the study of Scripture; the events
recorded have both a figurative and a real signification;
the figures moving on this stage have a prophetic and
symbolic, as well as historic part to fill. They are Ideas
incarnate; Contemplation, Action, Hope, Charity, Faith,
Penitence, as well as brute force in man, are embodied in
such forms as those of Rachel, Leah, or Mary and Martha,
of Peter, James, John, of David, the Magdalene, and
Goliath.
(6
As Science and History grew with Philosophy, so the
necessity of arrangement of these branches of human ideas
led to the great encyclopædias of the Middle Ages which
embraced the whole scheme of Nature. The work, com-
pendium, or abstract in which this scheme was epitomized,
was still termed a mirror-in allusion, doubtless, to that
image of St. Paul, when he says, "We now see in a mirror
darkly." Hugo de St. Victor writes on this (A.D. 1150):
"For now we see in a mirror darkly † [in an enigma],
but then face to face. To see in a glass is to see an
* Poems, by Sir Samuel Ferguson, 1880, p. 157.
† We must remember, if we would understand this passage, that the
mirrors of the ancients were of bronze or polished metal.
THE MIRROR OF THE UNIVERSE.
221
image; to see face to face is to see the thing. That which
we see in an image is a sacrament, that which is seen in
the thing is the thing (the reality) of the sacrament.
But what is the enigma in which the image is seen
darkly until the thing itself may be seen? The enigma
is the Sacred Scripture. And the mirror is your heart, if
so be it be pure, and cleansed, and clarified. If the
highest good for a man is the contemplation of his Creator,
that faith by which he begins, in some way, to see Him
who is absent, is rightly spoken of as the initial good, the
beginning of his restoration. Faith is the initial good.
This work of restoration will be continued till we all,
with unveiled face reflecting as a mirror the glory of the
Lord, are transformed into the same image from glory to
glory." We read of the Mirror of Human Salvation, the
Universal Mirror, the Historical Mirror, the Moral Mirror,
the Doctrinal Mirror, and the Mirror of Nature. The first
shows how God's Being is reflected in the whole order of
the Universe, in the wonders of Nature, in the providences
of life, in the written Word, the dispensations of His
grace, in the sacramental system of the Church. Hugo
distinguishes three kinds of works, the work of God, the
work of Nature, the work of the artificer imitating Nature,
"whose business," he adds, "is to unite things which are
separate and to distinguish things that are joined ;" and
this is only done through contemplation. "The statue,"
he says,
comes from the contemplation of a man," and
the contemplation of Nature is the contemplation of that
which is the archetype of all things in the eternal mind.
66
In France Vincent de Beauvais, when in his Speculum
Universale he showed as in a mirror the order of God's
Universe, was followed by the architect and sculptors of
Chartres Cathedral, who, personifying each heading in
his philosophy, theological, doctrinal, historical, or natural,
covered its walls with icons that symbolized this universal
scheme. Eighteen hundred and forty figures in stone,
eight feet eight inches high, compose the icons of Chartres
Cathedral on the outside, while within, the statues and
bas-reliefs comprise not less than two thousand figures.
The order of their arrangement is in obedience to the
scheme of Vincent de Beauvais, an expression in
stone of the Christian philosophy as classified by this
222
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
great writer of the Middle Ages, the friend of St. Louis
and tutor of his children. The Speculum Majus was
divided under three heads: Speculum Naturale, Speculum
Doctrinale, and Speculum Historiale; Mirror of Nature,
Science, and History. The Natural Mirror deals with God
as Creator of the Universe and of Man,* God as reflected
in His works; and the six days of creation are treated in
succession, beginning with that of the pure Spirits or
Angels; of the Heavens and Stars, Meteorology, Geognosy,
Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, as sciences commencing on
each successive day, and closing with the creation of Man,
soul and body. This portion of the work is illustrated in
thirty-six bas-reliefs and seventy-five statues. The series
opens with the form of the Creator as He comes forth
from His eternal rest to create the Heavens and the Earth,
and closes with the awful climax of The Fall of Man.
In the second division of the philosopher's scheme the
labours and arts of man are treated, and Agriculture
here holds a prominent place, as also the Industries of the
Farm, of the Manufacturer, of Commerce and Art.
Chapters are devoted to the nature of seeds, plants,
medicinal herbs, cultivation of trees, and all things are
shown to have their fitting use, either through the good
we extract from them, or the functions they fulfil in
nature. Twelve subjects in bas-relief correspond to the
chapters on the agricultural labours of man, while the
liberal arts are symbolized elsewhere. The labours of the
country form a calendar: thus January is shown by an
interior where a man is seen seated at table laden with
vessels and wine; February, a figure warming himself
before the fire, a large roll on the mantelpiece; March,
digging the vineyard; April, vine-dresser trimming
his vine; May, a youth giving an opening flower to his
betrothed, whose hand he holds in his; June, a horseman
gallops to the chase; July, mowers in the meadow;
August, reapers in the cornfield; September, thrashing
the corn; October, filling measures with new wine;
* "Man," says Vincent, "that epitome of the wonders of creation, that
little world, that universal creature made in the image and likeness of
God, should be himself, in thought and wisdom, the living image of the
universe the universal mirror in which God, the world, and humanity
are reflected."
MIRROR OF DOCTRINE.
223
November, storing faggots for winter use; December,
killing the fattened pig.
The Speculum Doctrinale of the philosopher offers a
mirror of the arts and sciences of human learning:
Grammar, Morals, Jurisprudence, Physics, Literature,
Politics, Mathematics, Medicine. Two hundred and fifty-
one figures symbolise the various subdivisions of these
sections. Thus Grammar is symbolised by an aged woman
wearing a Roman mantle, who holds a round ivory box
divided into compartments like a medicine chest, whence
she draws forth her implements, such as knife, pens, ruler,
mill hammer, and waxen tablets; she holds a file also,
marked by eight golden divisions for the eight portions
of her discourse.
Dialectic is symbolized by a thin spare female figure
holding a serpent as an attribute, or two serpents in one
hand; sometimes her robe is confined at the waist by a
serpent as by a belt or girdle. She presides over a
A monkey,
struggle between a dragon and a serpent.
symbol of malice, is at her side.
Rhetoric: an upright figure holding a small cross on
high with the action of a preacher.
Arithmetic figure of a man counting on his fingers.
Music: figure playing on a harp.
After the chapters on moral philosophy the virtues and
vices of man are discussed in this Mirror of Human
Doctrine, and these sections are symbolized by one
hundred and forty-eight effigies. A few examples will
suffice to show how this portion of the book was carried
out. Faith, a kneeling figure at an altar, is opposed to
Idolatry; Hope, a little girlish figure as if springing
towards Heaven, which she gazes on with love, is opposed
to Despair, a famished woman with dishevelled hair and
bosom bared for the knife with which she is ready to slay
herself. Charity, a woman giving alms, is opposed to
Avarice, who stores her money in a safe. Chastity, a
woman in long flowing robes and mantle, holding a
prayer-book in the left hand, is opposed to Impurity, a
female figure walking lightly through a wood, her clothes
raised so as to lay bare her person. Humility, a wise
virgin, seated, calm and veiled, holding an open book on
her knee, and a phial of sweet perfume in her hand, is
224
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
opposed to Pride, a rider splendidly equipped and mounted,
who encounters a hurricane of wind, rain, and flame,
vomited forth from the throats of three dragons by which
he is driven into Hell among the damned. The Christian
religion, symbolized by a vigorous large-breasted woman,
is opposed to the Jewish, a spare woman blindfold,
having closed her eyes to truth. And Wisdom, a grand
and temperate female form, is opposed to Madness, a
woman in rags, with naked breast, legs and feet.
The public virtues are symbolized by fourteen queenly
figures with crowns and bucklers, which are ranged along
the upper bay of the face of the North Porch. The first,
leaning on a shield and holding what seems to have been
either a cross or a banner, has not been identified; the
second, crowned and nimbed, with standard and shield, is
Liberty; the third, Honour, holds a shield with two
crowns; the fourth, Prayer, holds a cross and shield on
which an angel is seen among clouds; the fifth, Adoration,
holds a shield with an angel swinging a censer; the sixth,
Swiftness, has three arrows on her shield; the seventh,
Fortitude, has a lion rampant on her shield; the eighth,
Concord, shield with turtle-doves; the ninth, Friendship,
shield with a flock of birds on wing; the tenth, Power,
shield with a bird holding a sceptre; the eleventh [subject
unknown], three sceptres on a shield and cross in her hand;
the twelfth, Health, holds standard, and the fish of Tobias *
is represented on her shield; the thirteenth, Security,
holds a standard in her right hand, and a fortalice is
represented on her shield; the fourteenth is a figure not.
identified, who bears a dragon on her shield.
All these virtues are represented as women, sainted and
queenly forms wearing crown and nimbus, but true.
women, fitted for counsel, support, and comfort. All are
standing upright, ready for action at the first sign;
indeed, Swiftness seems by the motion of her head to
have already received her mission. They are young and
in full vigour, for virtue is the youth of the soul, as
youth is the strength of the body. All carry shield and
spear with cross and standard. Robed in long mantles,
their drapery falls around them in grand folds; large-
* The fish drawn from the Euphrates by the young Tobias, whose gall
restored sight to the blind old man.
་
MIRROR OF HISTORY.
225
breasted women in noble attitudes, the expression of each
face proud or sweet according to the character sym-
bolized.
The Historical Mirror of the philosopher, which is
illustrated at Chartres by fourteen hundred and eighty-
eight figures, embraces ancient history, sacred and profane,
and modern history, civil and ecclesiastical. In the first
thirty-one books the history of Man is given in that of
the world, divided into six ages; the first from the
Creation to the Deluge; the second from the Deluge to
Abraham; the third from Abraham to David; the fourth
from David to the capture of Jerusalem; the fifth from
the fall of Jerusalem to the coming of Christ; the sixth
from Christ to the thirteenth century. The north and
south porches of Chartres are encrusted with the images
which translate this history into plastic art.
From the date at which Vincent de Beauvais wrote, i.e.
from about the year 1244, the Historic Mirror becomes
prophetic, and Art brings her thousand symbols to
prophesy the Future, as before she has striven to revivify
the Past. The philosopher foresees the accomplishment of
Time, the end of the Universe, the Last Judgment of
man, and foretells that, through the agency of fire and
water, the world will end its days. The artist finds in
the writings of the Prophets and the Apocalypse all the
symbols he requires for figuring this portion of the
philosopher's work, and these groups, the last of the
series, fill the three recesses of the north porch and all
the great southern porch with its three bays.
Thus Didron * has found the clue to the labyrinthine
scheme of Christian Iconography in the Middle Ages,
though, as he states in the introduction to this work, some
one chapter of this Mirror of the Universe may be more
fully treated than another in certain places The Life of
Christ and scenes from the Apocalypse are more extended
in Rheims Cathedral than in Chartres. The Life of
Christ follows that of His mother. The temptation is
here given as the leading and principal event in a series
which closes with the Crucifixion. In another place, to
* Annales Arch. vol. vi. pp. 35, 39; vol. ix. pp. 41, 99, 175, 232. Rheims,
Ann. Arch. xiii. pp. 289, 299.
VOL. II.
226
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
the right, the scenes after death and the history of the In-
vention of the Cross are given.*
Before passing on to the iconographical systems illus-
trating the Christian scheme followed by the artists
of the culminating period in Christian Art, it will be
well to look back on the ground we have trodden, and
where we have striven to indicate the origins of much
in the highest period of Art, the history of whose de-
velopment we have hitherto neglected. We have found
in the first instance that the scheme of the Byzantine
painter was a chronological abstract of the Hebrew
Scriptures and New Testament; secondly, that the
Catacomb Christian painters' scheme was symbolic and
sacramental; thirdly, that the texts of the Biblia Pau-
perum, and Mirror of Human Salvation, were a complete
series of scenes from the life of Christ, selected for their
symbolic signification, which was explained by types from
antiquity; fourthly, that the artists of the French cathe-
drals enlarged their horizon, and their scheme was, to
present a Mirror of the Universe, of Nature, Science, and
Human History. The final scheme was that attempted in
the Vatican, and most fully worked out on the walls and
in the ceiling of the Sixtine Chapel by Michael Angelo
and his predecessors. On the north and south walls of
this building the wonders of the Old and New Law were to
be displayed in eighteen scenes. Moses being the embodi-
ment of the Old, Jesus Christ of the New. On the ceiling,
the Mirror of Human Salvation was displayed, the scheme
which we may say formed the plot of the Divina Com-
media of Michael Angelo. †
* Daunou (Hist. Litt. de la France, Académie Royale des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres, vol. xviii. pp. 471, 503, where an abstract of the Historic
Mirror is given) states that the portion of this work of Vincent de Beau-
vais called the Historic Mirror has been translated from Latin to French
by Jean de Vignay, head of the hospital of St. Jacques du Haut-Pas, in
the reign of Philip de Valois. This translation was printed in 1495 at
Paris, and a fine example is preserved in the Bibl. de Ste. Geneviève, Paris.
An index to the Speculum was made in the fourteenth century by a priest
named Jean de Hautfumy; it is preserved in the Bibl. Nat. Paris, N. 490-6,
Catal. MSS. t. iv. p. 16.
The artists employed on the scheme of the Old and New Law were
Perugino, Luca Signorelli, Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo Roselli, D. Ghirlandaio,
and Cecchino Salviati.
SISTINE CHAPEL.
227
THE OLD LAW.
Moses found in the bulrushes.*
Circumcision
porah.
Moses and Zip-
Moses overcomes the Egyptians.
Defence of daughters of Jethro.
Call of the Israelites,† after pas-
sage of Red Sea.
Moses on the Mount.‡
The Priesthood (Korah, Dathan,
Abiram).
Moses' last commands to Joshua.
Moses' body upborne by Michael.
THE NEW LAW.
Christ in the Manger.
Baptism of Christ.
1
Temptation, Conquest of Satan
Call of the Apostles.
Christ's Sermon on the Mount.
Sacrament of Holy Orders. Christ
gives keys to Peter.
Christ's Last Supper.
Resurrection of Christ.
With Michael Angelo the Mirror of Human Salvation is
treated as a drama in five acts, the Prologue to which is
THE FALL OF LUCIFER.
ACT I.-CREATION.
Scene I.-Creator rising from Chaos.
II.-Division of Light and Darkness.
III.-Division of Land and Water.
IV.-Creation of Man.
V.-Creation of Woman.
FALL OF MAN AND ITS RESULTS.
VI.-Temptation; Fall, Expulsion from Paradise.
VII.-The Deluge.
VIII. Sacrifice and Covenant of the Rainbow.
IX.-Inebriety of Noah and Sin of Ham.
ACT II.-REDEMPTION.
Scene I.-The Raising of the Serpent in the Wilderness.
II.-Punishment of Haman.
III.-David slaying Goliath.
IV. Judith and Holofernes' Head.
ACT III.-COMING OF CHRIST.
PROPHETESSES OF GENTILes.
PROPHETS OF HEBREWS.
Jeremiah.
Ezek el.
Joel.
Zacharias.
Isaiah.
Daniel.
Persian Sibyl.
Erythrean Sibyl.
Delphic Sibyl.
Cumaan Sibyl.
Libyan Sibyl.
*This subject is in the Byzantine Manual series.
† In the Byzantine Manual series.
In the Byzantine Manual.
Q 2
228
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
ACT IV.-GOD IN MAN.
The Genealogy of Christ.
ACT V.-RESURRECTION.
Jonah raised from the Monster.
THE LAST JUDGMENT.
Assumption of the Virgin.
Coronation of the Virgin.
It is now manifest that each one of the pictures com-
prised in this cycle has its long train of forerunners in
Art. The great painters, like the great architects of old,
rose upon the shoulders of their predecessors, entered
into their labours and carried them on, worked on their
lines, and were the expounders of the same vast scheme,
old as Eternity itself, in which each individual soul was
but an instrument. The crowd of figures outside these
subjects, of recumbent athletes and children, in this great
composition, are all mere accessories subordinate to the
principal themes---statues in the temple where Michael
Angelo enshrined his Mirror of Salvation-yet forms of men
listening and deeply stirred by the message borne on the
wind that fills the temple and swells the folds of their
drapery. They are moved by the sound, though not up-
borne in that passion of rapture or of sorrow which fills
the Prophets and the Sibyls at its voice of thunder. Are
they not types of Humanity first awakening from its long
slumber in the dawn of a new revelation ?
The expectancy of Christ to come is shown in the grand
figures of the Prophets and Sibyls who sit enthroned all
down each side of these paintings. They are eleven
living forms, all animated by the expression of a higher
inspiration, raised by a superhuman power above time
and the world. The human and divine united in a
generation of Titans, who, dwelling in deep caverns of
the past, have been wakened by an angel's voice. All are
represented seated, employed with books or rolled manu-
scripts; mighty souls, pensive, meditative, inquiring, or
looking upwards with inspired countenances.
Their
forms and movements, indicated by the grand lines and
masses of the drapery, are majestic and dignified. We
see in them beings who, while they feel the sorrow of life,
are upborne by the revelation vouchsafed to them, and see
FRESCOES OF RAPHAEL.
229
consolation in the future. In all these figures, in the
absence of any attribute by which to identify them, the
name of each is written on a slab. In the art of former
days their individuality was indicated by texts written
on scrolls held in the hands of the figures. Michael
Angelo discards such aid, and gives in the expression of
each face and figure an abstract of the thought or passion
uttered by the text.
The ancestors of Christ are represented in the lunettes
and in the triangular spaces above the windows. In
Byzantine art they are illustrated in the genealogical tree
of Jesse and in older art generally they are given as a
series of kings or heroes, in costumes appertaining to their
high estate, and in the performance of royal acts or deeds.
But how infinitely greater is Michael Angelo's treatment
of this part of his subject! He simply seeks in Scripture
for what indication he may find there as to the true
condition of those very ancestors of our Lord; and, from
the lowly life of Joseph and of Mary amid their humble
labours, he brings us back to the shepherd kings of old.
Taking for his models such family groups as he might
meet with in the peasant life he saw in his daily walks,
he consecrates their poverty and toil by showing that
such was the lowly birth and ancestry of Christ. He
gives us a long series of pastoral scenes; the poetry of
calm seclusion, of a dignified yet humble domestic life,
pervades them all; and the playful children, the thought-
ful, loving fathers, and the tender mothers we meet with
in these groups, show us how rich in human sympathy
was the great heart of Michael Angelo. The series com-
mences with Joseph, the reputed father of our Lord, and
Jacob, the father of the Virgin Mary, and works back-
ward, showing the royal pedigree of Christ among the
kings of Judah, as given in the Gospel of St. Matthew,
until we reach Aram and Aminadab.
At the same time in which Michael Angelo unveiled
the first half of the vault in the Sistine Chapel, Raphael
finished his great frescoes in the Camera della Segnatura
of the Vatican; Jurisprudence, Philosophy, Poetry and
Theology, scenes in the Tribune, the atrium of the
Temple, on Mount Parnassus, and in the Courts of Heaven.
This last has been named the Dispute of the Sacrament.
230
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
There are two subjects in early Byzantine art from
which this composition of Raphael's seems to have been
evolved. One is named The Mystagogia, the other, the
Spirits' Reunion. It is directed in the Manual of Diony-
sius, that one or other of these subjects is to be allotted to
the cupola of the church. In both paintings the scene
is laid in Heaven. The finest examples of the Mystagogia
are to be found in the Catholicon of Vatopedi, in the
cupola of Chilandari, in the mosaic of St. John Lateran,
and on the front of the Imperial dalmatic preserved in
the Sacristy of St. Peter's in Rome. In the Byzantine
churches the subject is accompanied by the following
inscription: "Oh! bright Heaven! Church open to all
the faithful who have entered into thee, we here
inscribe these words: Oh Lord, confirm Thy house!
دو
The subject is treated as follows: In the centre, above,
God the Father is seen enthroned, and giving the sign of
benediction with His hand, saying, “I engendered thee
in my bosom before Lucifer." The Dove, symbol of the
Holy Ghost, is seen below, and then the Lord's table.
Christ stands at the table as the High Priest, attended by
angels attired as deacons carrying for Him the utensils
for the Mass, and the instruments of His passion. He
takes, as at Vatopedi, the disc from an angel's head,
which will serve Him as a paten, or, as on the dalmatic,
He stands amid the stars and gives the bread and wine to
the reverent crowd around Him.
The second subject is named the Spirit's Reunion, or
the Communion in Heaven. Here Christ is shown seated
among the stars, beneath the sun and moon; the Virgin
Mother to the right, and John the Baptist to the left.
Around stand the nine choirs of Angels, Thrones, Che-
rubim and Seraphim, the four evangelical symbols, and
the twelve signs of the Zodiac, beneath which the
148th Psalm is inscribed. Below appear the company
of Saints, Patriarchs, Prophets, Apostles, Prelates, Ancho-
rites, Kings, holy women; and in the distance, moun-
tains, trees and birds, with animals both wild and
tame.
This subject is found in the cupola of the portico at
Ivirôn on Mount Athos; it is sculptured on a side porch
of Chartres Cathedral, and west porch of Notre Dame,
FRESCOES OF RAPHAEL.
231
Paris; painted and sculptured on the rose window of
Rheims, as also in a triptych illustrated by D'Agincourt,
where it is accompanied by the following inscription:
"Thou art a perfect Saviour, Thou art all we long for,
all our infinite desire; all peerless beauty and goodness-
then let it be Thy will that we be translated unto Thee,
cleansed by Thy loftiness and worthy Thy divine per-
fection.'
It would appear that this is the subject of Raphael's
early fresco at Perugia, and thus a link is given between
Raphael's later work, hitherto known as the Disputà del
S. Sacramento, but which we should simply term the
Communion in Heaven. Instead of representing a congress
on earth before whose astonished eyes the clouds have burst
asunder and the glory of the revealed God is suddenly
perceived, we hold that the whole is a scene in heaven, and
the redeemed are seated in the courts of heaven to whom
Christ has manifested Himself in His eternal manhood.
This is borne out by the scroll held over the picture by
the figure of Theology containing these words "Rerum
divinarum notitia "the knowledge of things divine-as
by the description given by the first engraver of the
work, Giorgio Chisi, in the year 1552. "The principal
men of Holy Church with all the inhabitants of Heaven
praise and adore the Holy Trinity and the Majesty of
of God. Who should not be incited to piety by their
example?" and Vasari, soon afterwards, describes it as
"HEAVEN with Christ and the Holy Virgin, John the
Baptist, the Apostles, Evangelists and Martyrs in the
clouds, with God the Father sending down His Holy
Spirit upon all, and with an endless number of the
Saints." The painter's meaning is also helped out by the
subsidiary paintings in the series to which it belongs.
In the accessory to the scene on the mountain sacred to
the Muses symbolising Poetry, the figures of the poets are
contrasted with that of Marsyas punished. In the picture
which accompanies that of which we treat, redeemed
humanity is contrasted with the fallen Adam.
Fathers Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory, with
St. Dominic, Francis, and Nicholas, Dante, Savonarola,
Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus, and others
having entered into the courts of the heavenly city,
The
232
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
contemplate the Mystery of the Eucharist, before which
they have bowed, and by which they have lived.
We are keenly aware of the fact that in this chapter on
the Iconographical schemes of the Middle Ages, and in
these bald classifications we have been obliged to resort
to, we lay ourselves open to the charge of attempting to
reduce Art and Poetry to a bare skeleton where all is
mapped out with scientific precision; but Art in its wider
sense can bear the test of analysis as surely as any great
epic such as those of Milton or Dante. Now that we
have attempted to reveal the framework of the Christian
Epos in the Middle Ages, we hope to add in our following
chapters some remarks on the vivifying influence of the
Drama, and of Poetry in the opening life of Religious Art.
The result of these Mirrors and Bibles of the Poor was to
offer the painter in a certain sequence a vast gallery of
symbols associated with the primitive emotions of hu-
manity, while the actor, using the same texts, makes these
emotions intelligible through look, gesture, and action.
Thus, in the Mystery Plays and Sacred Drama of the
Middle Age, the early painters may have first conceived
their spellbound Byzantine forms awakening to life and
motion, as they beheld their Nativities or Passion scenes
enacted by groups in their native valleys lit by the
solemn light of sunset.
The Portico of Ivirôn resembles in every way that of St.
Germain l'Auxerrois. The porch is open and the whole
vault is covered by the figures belonging to this subject. In
the centre Jesus Christ is seated, His right hand raised in
benediction, and holding a globe with the left, which also
rests upon His knee. Beneath His feet are fiery-winged
wheels, full of eyes, the thrones of the hierachy of angels.
His golden nimbus is circular, cruciform, and inscribed
with the Alpha and Omega, IC and XC. Eight choirs of
angels surround Him, singing "Holy, holy, holy, Lord God
of Sabaoth!" many of whom carry either a globe or round
shield. The evangelical symbols are placed at the four
corners of this group.
INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA.
233
INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA ON ICONOGRAPHY.
ABOUT the year 1204, St. Francis, as we learn from
Bonaventura, wishing to arouse the public devotion, re-
solved to celebrate the Nativity of Christ with all possible
solemnity in the town of Grecio. Having obtained the
necessary licence from the reigning Pontiff, he had a
crèche prepared and furnished with straw, and an ox and
an ass led in. The fraternity are assembled, the people
crowd in; the forest resounds with canticles, and the
solemn night grows melodious with music and resplendent
with light.
The Man of God stands before the crèche,
devout, in tearful joy. Mass is celebrated, and Francis, as
deacon, chants the holy Gospel. He then preaches to the
assembled multitude, announcing the birth of this King
among the poor, whom, in the tenderness of his heart, he
loved to call the little child of Bethlehem. Now a worthy
knight, Sire Jean de Grecio, who, later on, abandoned the
profession of arms for love of Christ, attests that he saw a
Îittle child of extreme beauty sleeping in the crèche, and
that the blessed Father Francis pressed it in his arms as if
to awaken it.*
That the dramatic representations of the Biblical epos
in the Middle Ages, thus so simply inaugurated, had a
powerful effect in the quickening and development of the
painter's and the sculptor's art, is a point that has not
been sufficiently appreciated by historians.
It is when we find religion neither theoretical, dogmatic,
or theological, but the simple story of man's daily life,
that we can look to find its spirit reflected in his art.
Religious types (stereotyped and lifeless in Byzantine art)
had to be brought before the senses of the people in a
* St. Bonaventure, Legenda S. Francisci, cap. x.
234
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
living and still artistic form. We find this thorough
blending, this active intermingling of art and life in the
Christian drama of the Middle Ages to have its parallel in
Greece, where the artistic was also thus brought face to
face with Nature and with life in the palæstra, and where
the plastic attitudes of actors in the great Greek dramas
must have trained the eyes of the Greek sculptors and
painters. Moreover we have an analogous case in the
development of Greek painting. It was in the second
half of the fifth century B.C. that real illusiveness was
given to painting by the introduction of foreshortening and
perspective, for purposes of scene paintings first developed
by Apollodorus.
The
We have learned from Dr. Waldstein how much Greek
art seems to owe to the athletic games and the scenes in
the palæstra, if not of religious emotion, yet of knowledge.
of the human form in action inspired by a noble intention
and for a lofty purpose. He begins by saying truly, that
so long as the sculptor's art is entirely in the service of
religious worship there is small chance of its freeing itself
from conventional imperfections; the sculptor must be
brought face to face with man, and then he may re-
construct his work out of the ideal combination of the
most perfect forms which he has studied in man, but has
never found together in one man. The first great task
was that of bringing the artist down from conventionality
and abstract symbols of gods, to nature and to man.
next was to lead the artist through nature to the
ideal. In the first and earliest stages of the palæstra, the
athletic games are a class of religious institutions without
human interest. In the highest period this institution
had a real national aim, to provide and encourage perfect
physical education for the youths and men who were to
form the strength of the nation. Here then it would
seem that the institution shook itself free from all religious
associations, if such ever did form any integral portion of
its being. If it did not, we must look beyond the athletic
games for the source of certain attitudes as of certain
expressions of the human countenance in Greek art, which
have a distinctly religious character; the bowed head of
the patient Psyche, the sublime submission of the Cnidian
Demeter.
MYSTERY PLAYS.
235
In the early medieval period, and in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, art may have gained much from the
mysteries and plays of the time, which were pressed into
the service of religion, and have been affected in much the
same manner as Greek art was by the athletic games; but
the action in the Christian drama was concentrated on, and
only bore relation to, the religious idea. And it belonged
to a religion which includes faith in such transfigura-
tion and transmutation, or, at all events, transformation,
of the human and the physical, which is the aim of art
in its highest manifestations. This unity of dramatic
action and art with a religion based on the ideas of self-
offering, transfiguration and renewal, had never before been
seen.
At every turn the same drama was offered to the eye
and ear, whether by carver, sculptor, painter, architect,
musician, actor, or poet. The Mirror of Human Salvation
was the framework of the divine comedy, whatever form
of language men chose to work it out in. It was the
source of the text, or, if we may use the word, the libretto,
for such performances as the dramatic processions of
Bethune, for the shows and passion plays of France, Italy,
and Germany, and we find it to be so still in the Ammergau
mystery play. Thus in the scene of The Last Supper,
this, which forms the central subject of the group in one
page of the Biblia Pauperum, is the scene enacted by the
Bavarian peasants. The two wings of the triptych, or
pictures at each side on the page, are the types from
the Old Testament. At Ammergau these are given as
tableaux-vivants, forming the background, displaying the
Israelites gathering manna in the wilderness, and Melchi-
sedek offering bread and wine, while the explanatory
and illustrative texts on the scrolls in the pictures, are
chanted by the chorus and its leader. 1st chant: "Man
did eat angels' food." 2nd chant:
"Come eat of my
bread, and drink of the wine which I have mingled."
3rd chant: "Thou gavest them bread from Heaven for
their hunger."
The very costumes worn agree in many instances with
the medieval paintings, the man who personates the
Christ appearing exactly as Van Eyck represents Him in
his pictures, with papal tiara, and rich tunic studded with.
236
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
pearls, stole and pastoral staff. The dramatic processions
of Bethune were also this very series of scenes from the
life of Christ, with the difference that both type and anti-
type were enacted and not mere tableaux-vivants. Here
the performers belonged to the various guilds of the city,
by whom scaffolds were erected in lines to right and left
of the street, those on the left to form stages for the types,
those on the right for the antitypes.
Universally as these texts seem to have been used, we do
not mean that they supplied the only framework for
dramatic representation.
The mother standing by the Cross, and the mother weep-
ing over the body of her son, with the archetypal pictures
of parental love and sorrow taken from Genesis in the
background, are subjects descending to us from the earliest
ages of Christian worship. In the East, 'Mary's Lament;
or, the Threnodia,' was represented at Constantinople in
the fourth century. It was one of the earliest and simplest
of the German mystery plays. We find it represented in
a Book of the Gospels of the year 1100, preserved in the
Convent of Vatopedi. It always forms one of the scenes
of the Passion, painted in fresco on the left wall of the
apse, in the churches of Mount Athos; till at length all
the sorrow and the passion of these subjects is taken up
and uttered in the words of the hymn, 'Stabat Mater
dolorosa,' and finally it descends to us in the dramatic
music of Rossini and Dvorjak.
Indeed it would appear that the origin of the sacred
Christian drama may date as far back as to the very dawn
of Christianity, and that the pagan drama, though it had
fallen low, had never quite died out before the Christian
arose. We read that Gregory Nazianzen, archbishop and
poet,* hoping to banish profane plays from the theatre of
* In the following verse translated from a poem of his by Newman,
there is more knowledge of art than in any passage we know of in
Christian literature of this date:
"As when the hand some mimic form would paint
It marks its purpose first in shadows faint,
And next its store of varied hues applies
Till outlines fade and the full limbs arise.”
Mrs. Barrett Browning in her too short sketch of this poet, writes:
"A noble and tender man was this Gregory, and so tender, because so
noble. . . . Half apostolical he was, and half scholastical; and while he
MYSTERY PLAYS.
237
Constantinople, had composed many sacred dramas which
he intended to substitute for them, with hymns taking
the place of the chorus in the Greek dramas. Chrysostom
also wrote the dying Christ in Greek, between the years
347 and 407, which was represented, with the addition of
tableaux-vivants, at Constantinople. Among other Chris-
tian fathers who dramatised sacred subjects was St. Avitus
in the sixth century, who prepared a play on the fall of
Adam, entitled De Origine Mundi, de Originali Peccato et
de Sententiâ Dei. A similar effort was made about the
year 990, when Theophylact, another patriarch, invented
or adapted to the stage certain plays called Fête des Fous,
Fête de l'Ane,* Fête des Innocents, which were acted in
silence, the performers appearing as mutes. This innova-
tion is said to have originated in the desire of weaning
the people from Bacchanalian and calendary rites and
other pagan ceremonies, by the substitution of Christian
spectacles. The mystery plays of France and England
appear to have arisen out of these performances. Frederic
Barbarossa is known to have presided at the performance
of a drama entitled The Arrival and Destruction of Anti-
christ' at Tegernsee, not very far from the present Ammergau.
The Harrowing of Hell' is the first English mystery play
that has come down to us; † and in 1174 William Fitz-
Stephen, Monk of Canterbury, says, "London, for its
theatrical exhibitions has religious plays, either the
mused, on his bishop's throne, upon the mystic tree of twelve fruits, and
the shining of the river of life, he carried, as Milton did, both hands full
of green trailing branches from the banks of the Cephissus, nay, from the
very plane tree which Socrates sat under with Phædius, when they two
talked about beauty to the rising and falling of its leaves." See Greek
Christian Poets, p. 29, Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
*The Prose de l'Ane is preserved with many other remarkable pieces,
in a manuscript at Sens. This work is not of the nature or character
that the antiquaries, following Voltaire, have deemed it. They have either
wilfully or involuntarily mistaken the parody for the original piece
coming from the pen of the author, the learned and pious archbishop of
Sens, Pierre de Corbeil. The writer is dealing with the important place
occupied by this animal in Scripture from the Jewish ass first seen on the
hills of Sichem and beyond Jordan and then at Bethlehem where it is
associated with the Christian beast of burthen, who showed the triumph
of the New Dispensation, bearing his Master in the gates of Jerusalem.
Annales Archéol. vi. p. 304; Fête de l'Ane, ib. vol. vii. p. 26.
† Hallam, Literature of Europe, p. 105.
238
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
representations of miracles wrought by holy confessors or
the sufferings of martyrs ;" and Geoffrey, afterwards Abbot
of St. Albans, while teaching a school at Dunstable caused
the legend of St. Catherine to be acted there, Geoffrey
taking part in the performance. The first dramatic writer
of note in Italy was Albertino Mussato, who was born at
Padua in 1260; but St. Francis, as we have seen, had some
years before initiated the sacred drama at the town of
Grecio.*
A comparison of the dates marking distinct epochs in
the history of the arts of the drama and of painting and
sculpture goes far to prove that their growth was con-
temporaneous; and here we are reminded of Mr. Watkiss
Lloyd's interesting remarks on the relation of the master-
pieces of Greek drama to contemporary graphic and plastic
art. It was the same in Greece as in the Italy of the
Middle Ages, at the period when the drama both assumed
its systematic form and sprung at once to its perfection.
Celebrations, in which the entire State was represented in
procession, and recitations of the Homeric poems and
musical performances, gave moving and audible expression
to the general enthusiasm. Thus, it is characteristic of
certain epochs of development of genius, that the arts are
found to advance concurrently, and the passion grows for
combining them. When, as in the following instances
(Figs. 229 and 230), we see distinct evidence of the illus-
tration of the symbols of one art in those of another,
the interest of such objects is much enhanced by these
considerations.
In a series of lectures delivered in La Sorbonne by
M. Magnin (1834-5), this author referred to various.
illustrations of the drama, both pagan and Christian, to be
found among the sculptured and painted monuments of
mediæval art in the south of France.† At Autun, M.
Didron found a representation of a scene in a tragedy of
Terence on the front porch of a building in that town.
* The tragedy of the Ten Virgins, dramatised by the Dominicans, was
produced at Eisenach in 1332. A high and healthy morality belongs to
this tragedy, and the drama may be taken as a fair index of the moral
and religious conditions of the time in which it arose. See The Ober-
Ammergau Passion Play, M'Coll, p. 22, 1880.
† See Annales Arch. vol. vii. p. 303.
MYSTERY PLAYS.
239
In the following illustration we have a scene from
the mystery play of the "Acts of the Apostles and of
Dionysius the Areopagite," performed in the Roman
amphitheatre formerly standing in Bourges.* This is one
of a series of miniatures illustrating the Life and Passion
of St. Dionysius the Areopagite, which has been proved

2 31.
ICUS
Fig. 231.-MINIATURE XIV. CENT., BIBL. NAT. PARIS, FONDS LATIN NO. 5086.
by M. Didron to correspond in a remarkable manner with
the directions for the mise en scène of the drama itself
given in another ancient MS. found by M. le Baron de
Girardot. It illustrates the following incident in the
drama. Dionysius has suffered martyrdom in company
with his friends Rusticus and Eleutherius, and angels
have borne their souls in a mantle up to Heaven. Regulus,
* The old Roman amphitheatre of Avaricum was standing in the six-
teenth century, but destroyed in the seventeenth. See Ann. Archéol. xiii.
pp. 16, 62, 134, 185; xiv. pp. 14, 73.
† Bibl. Nat. No. 5286, Ancien fonds Latin, folio 51.
xiv. 16.
Ann. Arch.
240
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
辈
​whom Dionysius had consecrated Bishop of Arles, was
saying mass one day, attended by a deacon and sub-deacon.
When he had pronounced the Missa Est, he beheld the
souls of the three martyrs, under the form of three doves,
descend and rest upon the crucifix before which he stood.
This miniature is most curious as an illustration of the
Sacrifice of the Mass and the drama in one. The three
saints, Denis, Eleutherius, and Rusticus, have come down in
the form of birds, and are lighting upon the crucifix. Each
holds a scroll in his beak, on which the name is written
by which the Bishop of Arles mày recognise them. All
the minor details are of interest; the flabellum formed of
peacock's-eyed feathers; the great patina upheld in the
The altar, covered by a large cloth with nothing on
it but the crucifix, the missal, and the chalice covered by
the napkin.*
air.
(
This mystery play of the Acts of the Apostles and
St. Dionysius' should be studied by all who are inter-
ested in Christian iconography. Many of the mosaics at
St. Mark's, in Venice, would seem to be reproductions of
scenes in this drama, such as those in which Gondoforus,
the Indian king, and Abanes, his provost-marshal, take a
part; and the lists of Jews and members of the Syna-
gogue named in the manuscripts of the dramatis personæ
may guide us towards the identification of many hitherto
anonymous figures in our churches.
Another scene, corresponding to one in the drama of the
Acts of the Apostles, is represented in sculpture on the
outer wall of the Cathedral of Paris, between the southern
transept and the apse. The subject is an incident occur-
ring at the funeral of the Virgin, and is explained in a
remarkable manner by the directions for the mise en scène
of this incident in the MS. of M. le Baron de Girardot.
The directions to the stage-manager are as follows :-
"Fault quelque bar pour porter le corps de ladicte dame au monu-
ment.
"Fault le monument.
•
Bellezeray, prince des Juifs, et autres se meetent en chemin pour
* "Miniature extrêmement curieuse sous le rapport symbolique et litur-
gique," writes M. Didron. Note the flabellum made of peacock's feathers,
the patina held by the sub-deacon, the chalice covered with a napkin,
and the scrolls marking the name of each down.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF MYSTERY PLAYS.
241
aller empescher que le corps de lad[icte] dame ne soit mis au monu-
ment. Les Juifs s'efforcent mectre la main au corps de la Vierge
Marie pour l'oster aux apostres, et incontinant les mains leurs demeurent
seiches et sont aveuglez par le feu que leur gectent les anges. Belzeray
meetant les mains a la lectiere ou l'on porte la Vierge Marie et ses
mains demeurent atachées a lad[icte] lectiere, et se geetent sur eulx
force feu en maniere de fouldre, et doivent cheoir à terre les Juifs
aveuglés.
"Les mains de Bellezeray doivent estre detachees et rejoinctes a ses
bras, puis luy est baillée la palme qu'il porte aux autres dont ceux qui
voulurent croire furent illuminez, puis rapporta lad[icte] palme.” *

Fig. 232-BAS-RELIEF OF THE XIII. CENT. AT NOTRE DAME, PARIS.
In the sculptured panel from Notre Dame (Fig. 230) we
see the figure of the Jewish prince represented, first as
* See Annales Archéol. vol. xiii. p. 135. The costumes were generally
those of the period in which the play was enacted. The Christ was
dressed as a pontiff in papal tiara, wearing a rich tunic studded with
VOL. II
R
242
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
laying hands on the Virgin's coffin; and, again, as maimed
and prostrate, while his hands are seen fastened to the
pall. Such examples of the mutual relations of the drama
and sculpture of the Middle Ages are of extreme interest.
We should study such works as these medieval stage
directions, published by Didron and his friends in the
Annales Archéologiques,* scene by scene, to compare the
details of each furnished by them with the representations
of similar subjects in painting and sculpture, if we would
learn how far the grouping, scenic effect, and dramatic
action of the whole scene may have been influenced by
these performances, which had descended from the Greek
to the medieval stage. Also, when examining as to
what were the influences at work that aroused Italian art,
in the time of Giotto, and his school, from the death sleep
of Byzantine formalism, may we not attribute much of
the inspiration of the thirteenth and following centuries
to the drama. The artists who witnessed at Florence the
performance of the "Electra" of Sophocles by Alessandra.
Scala,† may have felt in this embodiment of noble woman-
hood, much as did the scholars and artists of Ireland in
1835, when the "Antigone" of Sophocles was represented
for them by Helen Faucit. Their scholarship received an
impetus, and their genius was warmed at sight of living
passion infused into forms which before had but faintly
been associated with the idea of life. “With the writings,
they said, "of the Grecian dramatists, it is true, we have
long been familiar; but their power and their beauty
have come down to us through books alone. 'Mute and
motionless' that drama has heretofore stood before us;
you, madam, have given it voice, gesture, life; you have
""
pearls, and with stole and pastoral staff, while in the scenes of the Nativity
the Magi wore the costly dress of the knights and merchants of the time,
rare foreign stuffs and velvet coats trimmed with fur, while the
ordinary wore the costumes of citizens and peasants with pointed shoes
and head-circlets of tinkling bells, all of which details are to be seen
repeated in the miniatures of the early French and Italian MSS.
* Annales Archéol. vol. viii. pp. 272, 274.
+ See Walker, Drama in Italy, p. 49. In the person of Leo Baptista
Alberti we find one who was dramatist, painter, sculptor and architect.
His comedy of "Philodoxeos " appeared in his twentieth year. See Walker,
ib. p. 32.
INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA.
243
realized the genius and embodied the inspirations of the
authors and of the artists of early Greece, and have thus
encouraged and instructed the youth of Ireland in the
study of their immortal works.” *
So, mute and motionless, stood the Christian drama also,
and its long lines of angels, saints and martyrs, had for
centuries looked out with their fixed gaze from the walls
and domes of their solemn basilicas, till a like vivifying
and invigorating influence was brought to bear upon its
art.
* See Essays on the Drama Theodore Martin, p. 26.
R 2
244
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
MEDIEVAL ART AND THE ANTIQUE.
IN the discussions carried on by some writers in the
present day as to the attitude of medieval Christian art
in the presence of the antique, it has been asked whether
the study of nature and of the antique, which were two
factors in the art of the Renaissance, were not opposing
influences in the beginning, however they may have, in the
end, combined to produce great results; whether, at first,
the studies of nature and the antique were not as rival
forces confusing the artist and marring his work. When
we follow the history of the gradual development of art,
the signs of such opposition between the two styles seem
to disappear; and the more we learn of art before Dante,
the less reason we have for believing in the existence of
these hard and fast lines between heathen and Christian
mythography. We have seen in the course of this work
how, in the texts of the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis and
Biblia Pauperum, tales from heathen mythology were
taken as types of Christian virtues contemplation, forti-
tube, moral strife, and self-sacrifice. Christ Himself
borrows the image of the Good Shepherd from a heathen
writer, and St. Paul finds in the Isthmian games an image
of the Christian course. So it was with the iconography
of the first Christian period. In the lives of the four
sculptor-saints, Claude, Castory, Symphorian, Nicostratus,
we find them working at genii, amorini, victories, &c.
In early Christian places of worship, Orpheus, Psyche,
Deucalion, Hermes, Ulysses, are seen side by side with
Christian symbols and figures. In fact, one system of
iconography appeared to dovetail into the other, and the
use of certain heathen images was never wholly abandoned,
even down to the time of Dante.
In the illuminated manuscripts, even of the tenth
MEDIEVAL ART AND THE ANTIQUE,
245
century, classic influences are seen to linger, and the
miniature painter will dwell as fondly as Mantegna
himself, on antique bas-reliefs, sarcophagi, and archi-
tecture, and occasionally caryatide, or figures of naked
warriors; but these are always treated as accessories, and
kept in the background. In an illuminated manuscript of
the eleventh century, "Sermons on the Festivals of the
Virgin," mythological personifications of rivers are cou-
stantly occurring; in fact, such images never disappeared
from Byzantine art.
Lingering traditions of pagan mythology are constantly
appearing on the church walls in the monasteries of
Mount Athos, and elsewhere in Greece, as well as in
Ravenna. Thus, in the refectory of Vatopédi, we see the
name Charon inscribed under the image of Death: the
figure resembles a skeleton, although the bones are
still covered by a shrunken skin. He holds a sickle in
his right hand, and a scythe in the left. We have seen
an illustration of a portion of mosaic, dating, according to
Ciampini, from the year 314, which formed part of the
pavement above referred to, in the Church at Pavia,
dedicated by Constantine to St. Michael in Ticino, and thus
described by Ciampini (Vet. Mon. Tab. 11, fig. 2).
"In this part, then, another tesselated work is seen, and it is seen
in the pavement of the church of St. Michael Ticinus, in Ticino; an
example of it has been made known to us by the most illustrious and
reverend Don Franciscus Bellisomus, which he says he received from
Don Marcellinus, ruler of the church of St. Nicolas, Moneta. To
these men I acknowledge my obligation for their singular desire to
enrich this collection of mine, a desire made known to me by such
proofs. At what time this mosaic was made it is hard to find out.
"Carolus Sigonius, a celebrated writer of the last century, in the third
book of his History of the Western Empire to the Year 314, says that
by popular report the Emperor Constantine the Great, after gaining
a victory over the Franks, built that temple. Accordingly by this
simple disclosure of a report, the time of the building of the temple is
made doubtful. It is certain, however, that there is to be seen there
a tesselated pavement made in a rude fashion, in which we see images
both sacred and profane. In the midst of it are circles of various sizes,
which form the middle part of the labyrinth, in the centre of which
the well-known story of Theseus * slaying the Minotaur is represented,
as the writing itself makes known, which says:-
* See Ciampini, Veter. Mon. tom. ii. pl. ii. See Ann. Archéol. vol. xv.
p. 231; vol. xvii.
vol. xvii. pp. 69–193.
246
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
(1st Inscr.) Theseus entered, and slew the biform monster.'
"(2nd Inscr.) Savage am I, and fain would deal death-wounds
to the brave.'
'(3rd Inscr.) 'The proud one is laid low; the gentle one stands
raised on high.'
M. Durand is of opinion that the church in which this
mosaic was found is of the eleventh century (see Ann.
Archéol. vol. xv. p. 231, note). Another such mosaic
pavement was found in the lower church of St. Savin
at Piacenza,* and another, held by some antiquarians to
date from the fifth century, in the choir of the cathedral
at Aosta.† Another belonged to the cathedral of Acqui, a
portion of which is now in the Museum of Turin.
In the association of this subject with that of Goliath
and David, a parallel is clearly drawn in early Christian
art, between the deeds of the hero of Hebrew Scripture and
that of the Greek mythology; and the study of a pavement
such as this, along with the records we possess of those
of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Vercelli (Lalande, Voyage
en Italie, vol. i., p. 265), of the year 1040, and San
Miniato, A.D. 1207, is interesting as pointing to the
origin of that passage in the "Purgatorio" of Dante,
canto xii., where the poet treads a pavement wrought
with like symbolic forms, both pagan and Christian.
Didron was the first writer we know of who drew atten-
tion to the resemblance between this description of Dante's
and the older portion of the pavement of Siena cathedral. †
The path of Dante leads from the purgatorial gate, up the
Mountain of Healing, on the summit of which is the
celestial Paradise, where he is met by Beatrice; and this
portion of the pavement he describes, is at the turn in the
way leading from the first to the second ledge, or cornice
by which the steps in his ascent are marked. The path
of the mosaic master on the floor of Siena cathedral, leads
up the nave of the building from the porch to the gate of
the sanctuary, where the pilgrim is met by the female form,
* Descrizione dei monumenti e delle pitture di Piacenza, p. 6. Parma, 1828.
+ St. Savin. Sur le pavé, une mosaïque de pierres blanches et noirs offre
les signes du zodiaque avec les inscriptions latines et en caractères romains,
mais que les archéologues et quelques mosaïstes savants attribuent aux
artistes grecs venus à Venise dans vii. siècle. Valéry, Voyages en Italie,
ed. de Bruxelles, vol. i. liv. ii. ch. x. p. 27.
See Vasari, ed. Bohn, i. 241-244; iv. 137, and note.
PAVEMENT OF SIENA CATHEDRAL.
247
symbolising Mercy and Gentleness, inscribed "Mansuetudo-
Misericordia.”
The pavement of the first mountain level of Dante's
vision corresponds to the fourth triforium or bay in the
mosaic floor of the cathedral, the images visible on
both pavements signifying Natural Law and Human
Morality, being drawn from pagan mythology. Here, as in
the cathedral at Ulm, and as in the monastery church of
Ivirôn on Mount Athos, we have the forms of Greek phi-
losophers, side by side with the sages and heroes of the
Hebrew Scriptures: Socrates, Crates, Epictetus, Aristotle,
Seneca, and Euripides, along with the heathen allegory
of the Wheel of Fortune, the four phases of which are
symbolised by the form of a youth on the wheel-aspiring,
throned, dethroned, and fallen.* The sibyls, pagan
prophetesses of Christ, are also here, though whether they
belong to the later portion of this pavement or not, Didron
does not say.
In the cathedral pavement the heathen subjects form
the background to the Hebraic. In that of Dante they
alternate, or the poet may intend that they are placed to
left and right, and so strike his eye as he advances, as it
were, up the imaginary nave, looking to the left and right
aisle :-
Left Aisle.-Heathen.
1. Briareus.
2. Niobe.
3. Arachne.
4. Eriphyle.
5. Tomyris.
6. Troy.
Right Aisle.-Hebraic.
1. Lucifer.
2. Nimrod.
3. Saul.
4. Sennacherib.
5. Judith.
6. Jerusalem sacked.
Here Briareus, who had seated himself next to Jove, is
punished as Lucifer, who would have equalled himself to
God; Niobe, who would have exalted herself above Latona,
* See Annales Arch. vol. xvi. p. 337, engraving of Fortune's Wheel.
The drawings of this pavement by Signor Leopoldo Maccari, Scultore dell'
opera del duomo at Siena, have been acquired by the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge. Mr. Sidney Colvin, following Signor L. Maccari, has given
a history of this pavement in the Fortnightly Review; Mr. J. A. Symonds
(Sketches in Italy and Greece, p. 49) also alludes to it.
218
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
is punished as Nimrod, the ambitious builder of Babel.
Arachne, who in her pride destroys herself, is compared
to Saul, who will die rather than fall into the Philistines'
hands; Eriphyle, slain by her sons for greed and treachery,
to Sennacherib, slain for like reasons by his sons; Tomyris
and Cyrus, Judith and Holofernes.
Such was the pavement, wrought with warnings of
Heaven's judgments on evil, pride, treachery, greed
and cruelty, which the poet bade Dante bend his gaze
upon:-
"To ruminate the bed beneath his feet."
And all these images, he tells us, were with most "curious
skill of portraiture o'erwrought:'
وو
"What master of the pencil or the style
Had traced the shades and lines, that might have made
The subtlest workman wonder? Dead, the dead;
The living seemed alive: with clearer view,
His eye beheld not, who beheld the truth,
Than mine what I did tread on, while I went
Low bending."
It is important just at this time to show that even
before the age of Dante both poets and artists drew their
images from the classic as well as from the Hebrew
writings, since an erroneous opinion appears to be gaining
ground that art had to wait for the great antiquarian
movement of the Renaissance at the close of the fifteenth
century to show any knowledge of or sympathy with the
wisdom and learning of the ancients. Some writers, indeed,
would seem to trace the origin of the system of parallelism
between heathen and Hebraic history to Dante, with
whom it certainly did not originate, however character-
istic of his broad nature his adoption of it may seem.
has been thought that Dante gave the idea to the mosaic
workers of Siena on the one hand, and, on the other, that
he derived it from them; but we have seen that long
before, at Pavia, at Vercelli, and at Florence, the same
system of parallelism was pursued, and in each instance
the moral significance of the images chosen was of the
same lofty nature. And the divine strife with evil is
equally symbolised by Theseus and the Minotaur, and
It
SHIELD OF ACHILLES.
249
David with Goliath; types, of which the Temptation
of Christ in the Wilderness, was the antitype.*
In order that we may possibly follow out this system
of parallelism between heathen and Christian symbols,
Didron, in a remarkable passage on the wheel windows of
the French cathedrals, compares the symbolism in them
with that of Homer in the shield of Achilles, and of Dante
in the vision of the snow-white rose which concludes his
Divina Commedia. "These rose windows of France, at
Rheims, or Paris, Chartres, Laon, Soissons, or Strasbourg,
are compared by him to a luminous star shining in the
vast space of the cathedral, or to a large eye, reflecting
heaven on the face of the sanctuary. Painted in the glass,
and sculptured on the mullions of such windows, may
be found the summing up of all the story, given in
detail, throughout the building; the Communion of
Spirits, the Hierarchy of Heaven, the Assembly of Saints,
the Triumph of Christ, the Courts of Paradise, back
to the wheel of human destiny and the Creation of
Man."†
Thus, he continues, the shield of Achilles, in Homer's
18th book of the Iliad, is but a rose of concentric circles,
filled with subjects forged upon the anvil of a god. The
outer circle is formed by the river of Ocean. Between the
outer and the inner zones there is a space, set, as we may
say, with medallions. In one we have the City of Peace,
with marriage feast and bridal song, music and dancing,
and elders seated in the sacred circle, holding in their
hands staves from the loud-voiced heralds.
In another, the City of War, which is besieged by two
armies, "on the wall there stood, to guard it, the dear
wives and children, and with these the old men, but the
rest went forth, and their leaders were Ares and Pallas
Athene, both wrought in gold, and golden was the vesture
they had on.” They lie in ambush, and presently come
the cattle, and with them two herdsmen, playing on pipes,
that took no thought of guile. The assailants fly to arms.
A battle ensues, and strife. Tumult and fell Death
*The drawings by Signor Leopoldo Maccari, Scultore dell' opera del
duomo at Siena, have been acquired by the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge.
† See Annales Arch. vol. x. pp. 2, 16.
250
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY
appear, and the raiment on her shoulders was red with the
blood of men.
In a third medallion we see, as it were, a vintage where
dark purple grapes hang on silver poles, and maidens and
striplings in childish glee bear the sweet fruit in plaited
baskets. And a dancing place was there like unto that
which once in wide Knosos, Daidalos wrought for Ariadne
of the lovely tresses.
794
If, says Didron, we turn from this passage in Homer to
that of Dante at the close of the Paradiso where the elect
are ranged, circle within circle, we find this poet using the
rose as his symbol. “Then she” (i.e. Beatrice)" showed
me all the sacred host of those whom Christ espoused in
His blood ranged in the form of a snow-white rose. Thus
both poets have framed their symbols in a wheel or circle,
just as the architect of the Middle Ages framed his in the
round window. As the poet's gaze was fixed on the river
of the water of life, and as he bathes his eyes in its
refining wave, he beholds its course turning to a circle,
with which the petals of his rose unfold, which correspond
to the mullions and foliate traceries of the cathedral
window. This river's banks are painted with spring
flowers, which are gradually transformed to angels, ranged
around the courts of heaven, and Beatrice draws him on,
as one who is silent and yet fain would speak, that he may
behold how vast this white-robed company, how great the
circuit of this heavenly city, how filled its seats that few
are left to need them.
We have dwelt thus long on the system of parallel-
isms between the images of medieval and antique
art, because we hold that it was not out of discord and
enmity, but rather in the recognition of such harmonies,
such broad unity of moral significance, that the greatness
of Renaissance Art derived its origin; certainly no sign of
the rivalry, alluded to above, can be found in the writing of
Dante. In the first awakening of the poetic spirit it is
impossible to over-estimate the influence that genius such
as that of Dante must have exercised upon the art of his
own date and the years immediately succeeding him.
* See Dante, Paradiso, canto xxx. 1. 61, 85, 90, 100, 105, 114, 125;
xxxi. 1 1, 45, 95, 125.
INFLUENCE of DANTE UPON ART.
251
We may bring forward an instance in Venice in illustra-
tion of this. A few years after Dante died at Ravenna,
the noble capital symbolising Justice was carved in the
Ducal Palace of Venice. And M. Didron has shown
how closely in this instance the poet was followed by the
sculptor.
In canto x. of Purgatory, Dante, mounting to the second
cornice or story of his ascent, perceives a bas-relief carved
in white marble, representing the incident of Trajan and
the widow. The emperor, riding forth from the city
gates, is stopped by a widow who, seizing his horse by the
bridle, demands justice on the murderers of her son, and
Trajan, yielding to her prayer, stops in the midst of his
royal progress and administers justice forthwith.* Again,
Dante shows Trajan, seated beneath the brows of the
symbolic eagle (image of imperial justice), having won his
seat in Paradise by this act of mercy. Dante has also
named as the great representative of law and justice the
emperor Justinian, chief of that band of spirits whom
Beatrice desired him to "trust as gods. Turning to the
capital of the Ducal Palace, sculptured with the figures
symbolising Justice, we find the inscription Justinia[n]
beneath a figure representing the great Byzantine emperor
as an angel of justice, winged and crowned, seated on
two lions, and among the other figures that surround
the capital we find those of Trajan on horseback, armed
and holding weapons in his right hand, while the widow
is seen on her knees before him, and below is the inscrip-
tion: TRAIANO ĪPERADORE CHE FE JUSTITIA A LA VEDOVA.
art.
But this is not the only instance in which these bassi-
rilievi imagined by the poet on the border of the second
rock in Purgatory were wrought into form by mediæval
The Annunciation, painted by Marcello Venusti from
Michael Angelo's design in the Sacristy of San Giovanni
Laterano, was also a development of the poet's conception.
His genius foresaw that which the genius of two centuries
later was able to fulfil.
We must now draw to a close this imperfect sketch of
the Medieval systems of Image writing, in which we
* See Ann. Archéol. vol. xxii. p. 207. Two pictures of the Veronese
School, illustrating this subject, have been lately added to the National
Gallery of London, Nos. 1135, 1136.
252
CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.
have endeavoured to show that the composer's aim in his
treatment of the Christian epos in Western art was
neither historical, chronological, or dogmatic. His aim
was symbolism, and in the successive schemes we have
indicated as existing from that of the Catacomb paintings
in Rome to the medieval Mirrors of Man's Salvation, and
of Universal Nature down to that of Michael Angelo in
the Sistine Chapel, we find a consecutive series of symbols
resting on the plot of the great story of divine strife in
Man and his redemption.
The system was a fertile and a long enduring one, because
it belonged to a religion not only of ideals and theories
but of facts and deeds. The events, recorded in the Bible
and in the art of this religion, formed a chain of symbols.
corresponding with experiences in the soul's history of
each individual, but they still remained real events and
real experiences in the physical and material history of
humanity, as well as in the moral and spiritual life. The
death upon the Cross was a fact, but one that would have
lost its aim had it not ever since been mirrored in the
inner life of Man.
But when at the present day we approach such subjects
we are met at every turn by the danger of falling into
platitude and cant, and it would seem as if an entirely
novel phraseology must be invented for the religious
poetry and art of the future. Yet the sorrow is the
same, and the hope the same, which medieval art sym-
bolised by the archetypal forms of Genesis as by those
beloved of Christ, and we do but wait for some sincere
religious movement for a noble iconography to be again
evolved, believing that Christianity is a storehouse, in-
exhaustible, of germs which it does but take successive
intellectual atmospheres to develop.
APPENDIX I.
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
APPENDIX I.
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
I.
“ ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY,” p. 69, vol. ii.
THE Trinity painted by Francesco di Pesello or Pesellino is
altogether the most magnificent symbol of this mystery we have
seen. This painting, the masterpiece of a great artist, and perhaps
the finest work of its time, now hangs in room xiii. of the National
Gallery, London-No. 727. The Father, surrounded by cherubim
and flaming seraphim, supports a crucifix above the clouds. A dove
upon His breast seems to hover over the Saviour's head. A
solemn landscape with level bands of dark cloud along the sky
completes the sublime composition. The arrangement of the
figures corresponds with fig. 144, p. 69, supra, taken from a French
miniature in a 13th century MS. in the collection of the Duke of
Anjou, in the National Library, Paris.
FIG. 150. THE TRINITY, THREE PERSONS, EACH IN HUMAN
FORM, p. 81.
Two interesting examples of this treatment of the symbol have
been brought before my notice since this work went to press,
by Sir Frederic Burton, who has kindly given me the following
information as to their origin. They are miniatures, painted by
Jehan Foucquet, from a Prayer-book made for Maître Etienne
Chevalier, Treasurer under Charles VII. and Louis XI., belonging
to Herr Ludwig Brentano, in the Taunus Platz,* Frankfort-on-the-
Maine, and are said to be the finest of his productions. Foucquet
visited Italy, and was in Rome in 1445. But his works show no
* On Jean Foucquet, see Renaissance des Arts à la Cour de France, vol. i.
pp. 155, 691. Paulin Paris, MSS. français de la Bibl. du Roi, vol. ii. p. 260.
256
APPENDIX I.
sign of Italian influence in any respect. He painted Eugenius IV.
in a portrait once in the Minerva at Rome. In the Bibliothèque
Nationale in Paris is a Josephus illuminated by him at least in
part, and in the Royal Library at Munich a Boccaccio, done for the
same Maître Etienne.
II.
WINGLESS ANGELS, p. 93.
Mrs. Jameson (Sac. and Leg. Art, i. p. 58) gives a wingless angel
by Francia, singing the Virgin's praise to a mandola. The angels
who visit Abraham in Raphael's painting of this subject are without
wings.
Mrs. Jameson observes: "Raphael, here as elsewhere a true poet,
has succeeded in conveying, with exquisite felicity, the sentiment
of power, of a heavenly presence, and of a mysterious significance.
The three youths, who stand linked together hand in hand
before the patriarch, with such an air of benign and superior grace,
want no wings to show us that they belong to the courts of heaven,
and have but just descended to earth. Murillo (in his painting in
the Sutherland Gallery) gives us merely three young men travellers,
and has set aside wholly both the angelic and the mystic character
of the visitants."
The angels of Michael Angelo, in the "Last Judgment," are also
without wings.
III.
ANGELS OF BOTTICELLI.
THE ALLEGED HERESY IN THE "ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN."
Since much interest has been expressed about the angels once
condemned as heretical in the painting known as the Palmieri Botti-
celli, now in the National Gallery, London, we venture to offer a
short account of its curious history, as well as of the life of the
learned Florentine for whom the work was executed.
Matteo Palmieri was a distinguished citizen in Florence, holding
a high position there about the year 1470. He was ambassador
from the Florentine Republic to King Alfonzo of Naples, also
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
257
deputy in the name of the Republic to the Fathers of the General
Council held under Eugenius IV. The house of his family stood
near the Spezieria delle Rondini, in Florence; and a shield bearing
his arms-a palm-tree between two lions rampant-was inserted in
the wall. As an author, Palmieri seems to have been much
esteemed. He wrote (1) La Vita di Niccolo Acciajuoli; (2)
Trattato della Vita Civile; (3) De Captivitate Pisarum Historia;
(4) Chronicon seu de Temporibus, Cronica dalla Creazione del
Mondo fin all' anno 1449. In addition to these published works,
Matteo held another in reserve, the story of which recalls that of
the little book bequeathed by our own George Herbert to "his dear
brother Ferrar," with a message telling him that in it he should
find "
a picture of the many spiritual conflicts" that had passed
betwixt God and his soul before he could subject it to his Master's
will, and adding that "if he can think it may turn to the
advantage of any poor dejected soul, let it be made public; if not
let him burn it." Matteo's work was a poem of three cantos
written after the manner of Dante in terza rima, and entitled “La
Città di Vita." It was kept secret while he lived, and laid upon
his bosom in the grave. Another copy had been left by Matteo in
the Medicean Library under the Proconsul's care, with directions
that the codex should not be read by any one during the writer's
lifetime. In it the author relates how a Sibyl appears to him in
middle life, and, winning his soul by speech of all things beautiful,
and showing him a vision of the Elysian Fields, she draws him on
to follow her through Hell to Heaven. She reads for him the book
of Nature and the Past, and declares the order of the stars and
planets, and the way of Life.
"Se è mi vien gratia infusa dal Eterno
Per darmi Lume da la sancta luce
In Ciel mi guidi, et mostrimi lo 'nferno;
La gran Città di Vita che conduce
Ciò che creò quel Padre la governa
Canto col male ben vi si riduce
Et certo facil fiame, se superna
Virtù mi chiama ad sì degno lavoro
Et senza quella in van convien si cerna.
"Come mi fu di cosi fare offerto
VOL. II.
Vidi ad gli stremi d'una selva oscura
Grato splendor da Ciel di nuovo aperto
Levami gli occhi ad quella luce pura.
S
258
APPENDIX I.
Et chiari gli affisai nello splendore
Et più non m' era selva sepultura
Parlando quella con divin fervore
La luce dixe tutti vi conduce
Per la via mena, sempre senza errore.”
The fate of the poem after publication was not so happy as might
have been hoped. Misnamed by some "The Sibyl of Palmieri," by
others a "Treatise on Angels," the author was condemned by one
party for holding the philosophy of Pythagoras, while by others he
was accused of Arianism.
Palmieri died in 1475; and the painter Sandro Botticelli was at
the zenith of his power in the year 1470, about which time it would
appear that he was commissioned by Palmieri to paint the altar-
piece for his family chapel in the church of S. Pietro Maggiore, in
Florence, the subject of which was to be drawn from the "Città di
Vita." Such was the origin of this picture of the Assumption of
the Virgin, in which are shown the three circles composed of divine
forms of prophets, saints, martyrs, angels, and all the heavenly
host, while below, the towns of Florence and Pistoia lie in the calm
sunlight, and Matteo and his wife are seen kneeling in the fore-
ground.
Among other accusations of heresy brought against the poem
which inspired this work, Richa states that Palmieri followed the
condemned opinion of Origen more by poetic licence than from
theological sentiment, feigning that our bodies are animated by the
angels-by those, that is to say, whom he falsely supposes to have
remained neutral when Lucifer fell, and whom the Almighty,
willing to prove them once more, compelled to unite themselves to
human bodies here below. And, further, his accusers suspected
that Palmieri, in displaying, by means of the picture, his
erroneous opinions over the most sacred spot in his chapel, had
desired to give or to usurp—the sanction of the Church to those
opinions; in fact, to palm off upon the devout his heretical views
as consistent with the Canons of the Church. The result was that
for many years this great painting of Sandro Botticelli was
interdicted and kept covered from view.
Both Palmieri and Botticelli doubtless owed much to the in-
spiration of Dante. About the year 1481, Botticelli not only
commented on Dante, but, with Baldini, executed in the then new
art of engraving a series of illustrations of the "Divina Commedia."
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
259
It is impossible to contemplate the painting in question without
recalling Canto xxx. in the "Paradiso," where the Poet enters the
Empyrean, and first beholds the Court of Heaven. In these three
circles, “which seem as if encompassing the light, but are indeed
encompassed by it," those saintly bands are seen "in fashion like a
snow-white rose," while angels mingle with the crowd of saints and
martyrs "whispering the peace and ardour which they won from
that soft winnowing."
Standing before this picture the lines rise to our memory—
"And as a pilgrim when he rests
Within the temple of his vow, looks round
In breathless awe, and hopes some time to tell
Of all its goodly state; e'en so mine eyes
Coursed up and down along the living light-
Now low, and now aloft, and now around,
Visiting every step. Looks I beheld,
Where charity in soft persuasion sat;
Smiles from within and radiance from above,
And in each gesture, grace and honour high."
IV.
DEMONS OF FLOODS, p. 116.
In the old rituals of Provence the dragon, carried in the rogation
processions as a symbol of heresy, bore the name of Gargouille; it
is now applied to chimæras, dragons, and monsters, wrought inte
waterspouts; first appearing in England in the early English
architecture. One of these figures, at Lincoln, is called the "Devil
looking over Lincoln." Alexandre Dumas, in his novel of "Le
Comte de Monte Christo" (vol. ii. p. 47, ed. 1873), alludes to the
procession of Tarasque.
V.
DEVIL AS A LEARNED PROFESSOR, p. 128.
Among the stage directions for the performance of the Mystery
play of the Acts of the Apostles we read: "Fault des lunettes pour
Sathan." "This," writes M. Didron, "is a curious detail of the
* Dante, Paradiso, canto xxxi. 1. 39. (Translated by Cary.)
$ 2
260
APPENDIX I.
costume of Satan as represented in the sixteenth century, when
every old man wore spectacles."
At Bourges in 1536 we read of the performance of the Holy Acts
of the Apostles within the old Roman theatre. The performance
lasted forty days. The amphitheatre was covered in and veiled
over, so as to protect the spectators from weather and sun, and
painted excellently in gold, silver, azure, and other rich colours.
The Chapters of the Cathedral and St. Chapelle have lent from their
stores rich costumes and vestments.
The performance (monstre) commenced with furies, who issued
from the fire like a plague of flies. Then four little demons with
gilded bells and wings always in motion. Following them six
devils clothed in velvet of divers colours, little serpents, lizards,
snakes, and other beasts-"faictes di broderie et bien enrichies ";
others followed with fire issuing from their nostrils and ears.
Then came a great dragon, twelve feet long, ever-moving head,
eyes, and tail, and spurting fire from his mouth.
'
As regards the history of the Devil, nothing can be more
curious than the information to be gained from these texts of the
Mystery of the Acts of the Apostles," including the tenth book,
which contains the history of the martyrdom of St. Dionysius; and
M. Didron stated it to have been his intention to transcribe and
annotate them in his "History of Demons.” In the mystery play
of St. Quentin, enacted in the collegiate church of St. Quentin,
the Hell scenes must have been very striking. The choir of
this church in the north of France, west of Caen, is the only
original portion of the building which still remains; it dates
from the year 1257. The play was enacted there about the year
1350. At the tidings of the birth of Christ, which reach the ear of
the parents of St. Quentin at the moment of his birth, and at the
time when Diocletian, sinking under the weight of authority, calls
on Maximian to share his throne, the depths of Hell are roused;
Lucifer, Satan, Ashtaroth, Leviathan, Beelzebub, Cerberus, and a
less familiar devil, Berith, meet in counsel. They determine to
tempt Maximian, and whisper hatred of Christianity in his ear.
(See "Annales Archéologiques,” vol. xv. p. 29.)
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
261
VI.
THE TEMPTATION OF ST. PAPHNUTIUS, p. 129, vol. ii.
This episode in the scenes of the Hermitage in the Thebaid
has been illustrated by Lasinio, Pitture a Fresco del Campo Santo,
plate c., and explained by Rosini in the text that accompanies
the work.
The painter, he tells us, would shew that the Tempter, whether
disguised as learned professor, or in the form of a woman, may
follow man even into the wilderness, and there, either through
terrors or enticements, seek to divert the best from their sacred
occupations. The figure kneeling to the right, and thrusting his
hands into the flames, is shown to be the blessed Paphnutius, who
adopts this expedient rather than yield to the attractions of
the graceful woman who kneels behind. She, in the second scene,
stricken by the judgment of heaven, falls senseless to the ground;
but (in the third scene) revived through the prayers of the Saint,
she renounces her evil life, and, kneeling, commends herself to God,
that He may pardon her sin and receive her among His followers
consecrated to His service.
VII.
FRESCOES-CAMPO SANTO, p. 165, vol. ii.
In the early part of the fourteenth century, the Lorenzetti
illustrated hermit life on the walls of the Campo Santo. In 1370
the frescoes of the trials of Job were executed by Francesco of
Volterra.
The three upper scenes in the series illustrating the life of St.
Raniero are now found to have been executed by Andrea da Florentia,
and the three lower to have been by Simone of Siena, and continued
by Antonio Veniziano in 1386. In 1391 Spinello Aretino laboured at
the scenes from the lives of SS. Ephesus and Pontus. Buffalmacco,
or, as he is now called, Buonamico Cristofani painted the Passion,
Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Ascension. It is now held that the
figures of Macarius and the hermits, formerly assigned to Orcagna,
are the work of the Lorenzetti. (Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist.
Painting, vol. i., p. 445.)
262
APPENDIX I.
By many authorities the name of Orcagna is now dismissed
from the honours of the Campo Santo, because it is held that the
style of these frescoes evinces a Sienese rather than Florentine
character.
VIII.
"MERCURY AND MICHAEL," p. 181, vol. ii.
Gem. Chalcedony, carved, ring collection of the Grand Duke of
Tuscany. Latin inscription. Michael-i.e., Like unto God. Gori
remarks upon this gem :-
Mercury sitting on a heap of stones with the caduceus, and his
astronomical sign representing the caduceus and two marks. A
cock is standing beside him, the symbol of watchfulness. This
gem was inscribed by the Basilidian heretics, or the followers of
Priscillianus, who added names of holy angels to those of the impure
idols of gods, Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, Serapis, as one may see in
ch. v. of Chifflet, tab. xxi., who has brought forward this one also
among the Abraxa gems, seeing that on this gem Mercury is
represented, not standing upright as is frequently seen on coins,
gems, and old seals, but sitting down on heaped stones. I think it
means Mercury of the roads, or the guardian of the roads, such as
Pausanias has described in bronze. sitting among the Corinthians
on the road leading to Lachæum, with a ram helping him;
because one special office of Mercury was believed to be to guard
and increase the flocks. The ancients used to put on their
roads a Mercury as the god who ruled over commerce, in order
that in business they might obtain prosperous journey and return.
Who also, when they went on a journey, used to heap up stones
and crown the heaps; to which Tibullus has borne witness in these
lines:
"For I adore whether a deserted heap in the fields
Or an old stone on the cross-roads which holds the flower-wreaths.'
Moreover old monuments shew Hercules the companion of Mer-
cury as guide and guardian of journeys." (See Gori, Inscript.
Antiqs. 1, p. 1. tab. iii. 1.)
APPENDIX II.
"BYZANTINE GUIDE TO PAINTING."
TRANSLATED INTO FRENCH FROM A GREEK MANUSCRIPT
BY DR. PAUL DURAND;
AND FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH
BY MARGARET STOKES.
M. Durand's translation of this work from the Greek was enriched
with many interesting notes by M. Didron. They appear here only
in an abridged form, for the editor found that the substance of many
of them was worked into other printed writings of his, which have
been incorporated in this volume, so that to have printed them in
extenso would have been needless repetition.
[ 265 ]
APPENDIX II.
(See pp. 189-191.)
"BYZANTINE GUIDE TO PAINTING."
SECOND PART.*
HOW THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW
ARE REPRESENTED.
ON THE NINE CHOIRS OF ANGELS.
The choirs of holy angels are nine in number, according to St.
Dionysius the Areopagite, and are divided into three orders :-
First Order.-Thrones, Cherubim, Seraphim.
The Thrones are represented as fiery wheels surrounded by wings.
These wings are filled with eyes: the whole figure symbolises a royal
Throne.t
The Cherubim are represented with a head only, and two wings.
The Seraphim with six wings, two of which rise towards the head,
two descend to the feet, two are outspread for flight; they bear the
flabellum (see note, p. 135 supra) in each hand, with this inscription :
'Holy, holy, holy." Thus they appear to the prophet Isaiah.
ઃઃ
How to represent the Tetramorph.—They have six wings, angel's
face and head surrounded by nimbus; in their hands they hold the
Gospels against their breast. There is an eagle between the two
* The first part only refers to the technique of the painter's art, and has
therefore been omitted from this work.-ED.
+ In the convent church of Cesariani on Mount Hymettus the Trinity is
represented in fresco. The Father, an aged man; the Son, a man of
thirty-five years; the Spirit as a dove. The bare feet of the Father and
Son rest on a fiery circle with wings of fire, just as the Greek figure the
choir of angels surnamed Thrones. This winged and flaming wheel is as
it were the throne of the Divine feet. Ezek. x. 12, 13. See pp. 91, 98, supra.
266
APPENDIX II.
wings that rise above their head, and a lion by the right wing, and
an ox by the left. These three symbolic animals look upwards, and
hold the Gospels between their feet. Thus the Tetramorphs appear
to the prophet Ezekiel.
Second Order, surnamed Government.—Dominations, Virtues,
Powers.
They wear albs down to the feet, golden girdles and green stoles.
They wear rings of gold upon the right hand, and hold this seal in
the left:
X
Third Order.-Principalities, Archangels, Angels.
They are represented in soldiers' dress with golden girdles. They
hold javelins with hatchets in their hands. The javelins end in
lance-heads.
Fall of Lucifer.*
Heaven. Christ seated like a king upon His throne, holding the
Gospel open at these words: "I beheld Satan as lightning fall from
heaven." All around are choirs of angels filled with profound
dread. Michael stands in the midst holding a scroll on which is
written, "Let us stand in fear; let us here adore the King our God."
Below are seen mountains, a vast crater beneath which is inscribed
the word "Tartarus." Lucifer and all his army fall from heaven.
The angels above are full of beauty; those below are angels of dark-
ness; lower still they are darker and blacker; still lower, they are
half angels, half demons; finally they are altogether black and
hideous demons. At the bottom and in the midst of the abyss
Lucifer, most fearful and blackest of all, lies forward on the ground,
looking upward.
Creation of Adam.
Adam, young, beardless, naked, upright. The Eternal Father,
surrounded by dazzling light, stands before him, sustaining him by
the left hand. Trees and divers animals around. Above, the sky
with sun and moon.
* Lady Eastlake remarks that the Greek Church, according to the
'Guide,' gives in greater detail the process of "brutification." She quotes
the whole of the scene of the "Fall of Lucifer."
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
267
3,
Adam gives names to the Animals.
Paradise, with various trees and little flowers. Adam seated in
the midst; one hand outstretched the other across his knees. Before
him the cattle and the creatures of the earth, who gaze upon him.
Formation of Eve.
Paradise as above. Adam, naked, asleep, his head resting upon
his hand. Eve comes forth from Adam's side, her arms out-
stretched in the air. Before her, the Eternal Father resplendent in
light; He sustains her with His left hand and blesses her with the
right.
Fall of Adam and Eve.
Paradise as above. Adam and Eve below, and naked. Before
them a great tree like a fig-tree covered with fruit; a serpent
entwined around it, with head turned towards Eve. Eve gathers
the fruit with one hand, and with the other offers it to Adam, who
accepts it.
Adam and Eve cast out.
Paradise as above. Adam and Eve naked; they have twined
the leaves of a fig-tree round their waists. They fly, looking back-
wards. A fiery angel, with six wings and flaming sword, pursues
them.* **
Lamentation of Adam and Eve.
Paradise closed. A fiery sword before the door. Adam and Eve
are seated close by, wailing and tearing their hair.
Adam digs the ground.
Adam, armed by a double-toothed pickaxe, digs the soil; Eve,
seated opposite. holds a distaff and winds thread on her spindle.
Birth of Cain.
A grotto. Eve within, laid upon her mantle. Adam, the first
father, seated; he holds Cain, an infant in swaddling clothes.
Birth of Abel.
A grotto. Eve, laid upon her mantle. Adam washes Abel in a
basin. Cain pours water out of a vase.
* This is a seraph. Sometimes St. Michael himself is represented here;
as guardian of Paradise.
268
APPENDIX II.
Cain ploughs the ground.
Cain, young, beardless, in a field with two oxen under a yoke and
plough. With one hand he holds the plough, and with the other
he goads the oxen. He may also be seen reaping the corn.
Abel with his sheep at pasture.
Abel, young, beardless, carrying a staff; a flock of sheep before
him.
Sacrifice of Cain and Abel.
An altar. Above, a sheep burning; the flame rises to the sky.
The righteous Abel close by, raising his hands and eyes to heaven.
Another altar at the side, on which a sheaf of corn is burning; Cain
before it with his hands covering his face; the altar-flame bends
round towards him like an arch.
Cain killing Abel.
Mountains. Abel, wounded and stretched upon the ground; Cain,
farther on, holds a dagger.
Adam and Eve weep for Abel.
Abel thrown down upon the ground; blood flows from his head.
Adam, with grey hair, and Eve weep for their son. An angel says to
Adam on a scroll: "Weep not; he will revive at the last day."
Noah receives from God the order to build the Ark.
Noah, below, looks upwards. Above, the sky. A ray falls on
Noah ;
in the midst of this ray there are these words: “Build
thee an ark of gopher wood, for I am going to send the deluge.
For, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth."
Noah builds the Ark.
A great ship; Noah, in front, holding a vase, lays a coat of pitch
upon this wooden vessel. His sons calk it, others square it with
the hatchet. The women are in the ark; the men outside: some
eat, drink, and sing with the women, others are mocking at Noah.
Fallow beasts, birds, and all kinds of animals enter the ark.
The Deluge.
A great sheet of water; many drowned men. In the midst of
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
269
the waters the tops of mountains may be seen; the ark rests on one
of them. Noah opens a window, and holds a dove in one hand.
Mountains.
Sacrifice of Noah.
The Ark on a height; fallow beasts, domestic
animals, birds coming out of the ark. Outside is an altar upon
which a sheep, with other unblemished animals, clean beasts and
clean fowl and birds are laid. Noah with his sons and their wives
stand round, their hands raised to Heaven.
Noah plants the Vine
Some men are digging, others turn up the earth with a hoe.
Noah, behind, holds the stock of the vine with one hand while he
plants several with the other.*
The Intoxication of Noah
Houses. Noah, seated, holds a jug and drinks the sweet wine.
Further on, he is again seen asleep and naked. Two of his sons,
Seth (sic: Shem?) and Japhet, bear a garment on their shoulders
and walk towards him backward. Behind, Ham looks at Noah,
and points him out to the two brethren.
Building of the Tower of Babel.
A fortified city and a very lofty tower, on which men are engaged
in building. Some have hammers, others divers utensils; others
carry bricks; others water; others mortar; others burn the bricks.
Many clouds are above the tower. Fiery tongues fall separately
on each of the workmen.
Abraham receives God's command to quit his country.
Abraham, standing below, looks upwards. Above is the sky. A
ray descends towards the patriarch. In the midst of this ray these
words are written: "Get thee out of thy country and from thy
kindred, unto a land that I will shew thee."
Abraham going into Egypt.
Abraham riding, Sarah behind him.
at the gate of which are men watching them.
Before them is a city,
*This is a favourite subject in the vine districts. It appears on the
fine stained glass windows of the sixteenth century, in the church of
Epernay in Champagne.
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APPENDIX 11.
Pharaoh, having taken Sarah, Abraham's wife, is reproached
by God.
The palace. King Pharaoh asleep on a golden bed; above, an
angel, bearing a sword, fills him with terror. Sarah in a corner
praying.
Abraham, leading away his wife, whom Pharaoh has respected,
The palace.
Abraham, holding
turns towards the desert.
Pharaoh seated upon a throne; soldiers around.
Sarah by the hand, stands before him; the king
shows her to him. Farther on, Abraham riding, with Sarah behind
him. Lot and his slaves eating with him. Sheep and other
animals.
Abraham having conquered Chedorlaomer and his companions,
delivers Lot.
Soldiers are seen pursuing other soldiers and a king: they cut them
in pieces. Abraham, armed in the midst of them, holds Lot with
one hand. Behind them horses, sheep, oxen.
Melchisedek comes before Abraham.
The righteous Melchisedek, arrayed in a sacerdotal vestment,
hoids plates containing three loaves and a flask of wine; Abraham,
dressed as a warrior, stands before him, with Lot. Other soldiers,
horses and oxen.
Hospitality of Abraham.
Houses. Three angels * seated at table, having on a plate before
them, an ox's head, loaves, besides meats in other dishes, with
flasks of wine and cups. On their right, Abraham with a covered
dish; on the left Sarah brings another with a dressed fowl.
Burning of Sodom.
Three angels look down on the earth out of the midst of clouds;
flames descend from these clouds. Below are houses, burnt and
in ruins; men's dead bodies seen among them. Upon a mountain
Lot is seen flying with his two daughters. Behind is his wife, white
as salt, turned back.
*See vol. i. of this work, p. 52, and fig. 19, p. 54.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
271
Sacrifice of Abraham.
Abraham, on the summit of a mountain, ties his young son Isaac
on the wood; he holds the sacrificial knife. Above, an angel points
to the lamb caught in the bush by the horns, and says to him:
Abraham, Abraham, lay not thine hand upon thy child!" At the
foot of the mountain two youths hold an ass harnessed.
(C
Isaac blessing Jacob.
Houses. Isaac, very aged, on a bed; near him a table covered
with viands. Jacob, young, on his knees before him. Isaac holds
Jacob by one hand and blesses him with the other. Esau may be
seen in the distance on a mountain, holding his bow and hunting
animals.
Jacob's Ladder.
The patriarch Jacob, asleep. Above him a ladder reaching to
heaven. The angels of the Lord ascend and descend upon this
ladder.
Joseph's Dream.
Joseph, a beardless youth, is sleeping. Above him shine sun and
moon and eleven stars. Before him twelve sheaves; one is upright,
the others make obeisance to it as if in worship.
Joseph sold by his brothers to the Ishmaelites.
A pit; inside of it the beardless Joseph. Two of his brothers
hold him by the arms and lift him up out of the pit. The other
brothers and the sheep stand close by. The Ishmaelites, with the
camels, count out money on a stone, which the others take.
Joseph leaves his garment and flies from sin
A palace. A woman on a couch, seizing Joseph by his garment.
Joseph escapes and leaves his garment in her hands.
Joseph in prison explains the dreams of the Chief Cupbearer and
the Baker.
A prison. In the midst, Joseph; two men, kneeling before him,
seem to address him. The one carries a tray on his head full of
eatables; birds fly above and feed upon them. The second bears
a cup in one hand; in the other he crushes a bunch of grapes.
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APPENDIX II.
Joseph explaining Pharaoh's dreams.
A palace. The king asleep upon a golden bed. Mountains and
river outside the palace. Near the river seven kine, well-favoured
and fat-fleshed, feed in a meadow; seven black and lean kine come
up out of the river. Near that seven ears of corn ripe and good,
and seven others thin and blasted. Further on still the king seated
on his throne and Joseph before him, saying on a scroll: "The seven
well-favoured and fat-fleshed kine are seven fruitful years; the seven
thin kine are years of famine."
Joseph established by Pharaoh as master of the land of Egypt.
Pharaoh seated on a throne surrounded by soldiers; before him,
Joseph seated on a golden chariot drawn by two horses. A man
sounds a trumpet before him; behind him a troop of soldiers bearing
lances, accompanied by a multitudinous crowd.
Joseph adored by his Brethren.
A palace. Joseph the patriarch, seated like a king upon his
throne; his ten brothers kneel before him. Beneath the palace are
beasts of burthen loaded with sacks.
Joseph making himself known to his Brothers.
A palace. Within, Joseph embraces his brethren. Outside is
seen the desolation of Joseph's brethren; beasts of burthen; sacks
overturned on the ground; soldiers seizing them. One of these
soldiers draws a silver cup from Benjamin's sack.
Joseph sets forth to meet his father Jacob and his brethren.
A city. Outside, soldiers, officers, knights; in font a horse, with
gold-embroidered saddle and golden bridle, is led by two soldiers
in raiment of wrought gold; before them Joseph, on foot, embraces
his father Jacob. The brethren are behind Jacob. Beasts of
burthen laden. Chariots with women carrying children.
Jacob blesses the sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasses, and
prefigures the Cross of the Lord.
Jacob seated up in bed. Manasses before him to the right;
Ephraim to the left. Jacob, having his hands upon their heads,
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
273
makes the form of the cross by placing his right hand on Ephraim,
and his left on Manasses.* Joseph, astonished, behind his sons.
Jacob blesses his twelve Sons.
Jacob, seated up in bed, spreads out his hands in blessing; his
children are all on their knees before him.
Moses found by Pharaoh's daughter in an ark of bulrushes.
Mountains and river. In the middle, on the river bank, a little
ark, the king's daughter seated on a throne. On her right and left
two younger girls hold garments; one young maiden opens the ark
before her and draws forth the infant.
Moses feeding his flocks, beholds the burning bush.
Moses untying his sandals. Sheep stand round.
Sheep stand round. Before him a
burning bush, in the middle and on the top of which is the Virgin
holding her Child; close to her an angel looks towards Moses. At
another side of the bush, Moses appears again, one hand outstretched
and holding a rod in the other. See vol. i. p. 172.
Moses announcing their redemption to the Hebrews.
Moses standing upright. Aaron at his side. In front a crowd of
Jews do him homage.
Moses warns Pharaoh to let the Hebrews depart.
A palace. Pharaoh seated on his throne; Moses and Aaron
stand before him; in front, a great serpent who swallows up the
other little serpents. The people stand near; they wear high head-
dresses and great furred hats, and they hold papers. The Hebrews
stand outside the palace, some mix the mortar and some the straw,
while others mould the bricks and others bake them. Others are
being flogged by the Egyptians.
The Ten Plagues of Egypt.
1. Aaron, with his rod, changes the rivers and waters into blood.
Rivers and fountains turned to blood. Moses stands upright,
Aaron before him, stretches his rod towards the river.
* See Lady Eastlake, Hist. of our Lord in Art, vol. i., p. 169.
et Cahier, Vitraux de St. Etienne de Bourges, Atlas, pls. i., iv.
randus, Rationale Divin. Offic., lib. v. cap. ii.
VOL. II.
T
The
Martin
G. Du-
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APPENDIX II.
Egyptians, in consternation and bewildered, cannot slake their
thirst.
2. Aaron and Moses, having stretched out their rod towards the
river, make frogs appear.
3. Aaron and Moses, having struck the earth with their wands,
gnats appear.
4. The Egyptians are devoured by a swarm of rats.
5. Murrain of the beasts of Egypt.
6. Moses and Aaron, having stetched forth their rod in the
presence of Pharoah, bring boils upon the Egyptians.
7. Moses, having stretched forth his hand to heaven, hail and
fire destroy the plants and animals of Egypt.
8. Moses, having stretched his rod towards heaven, draws down
locusts.
9. Moses, raising his hands towards heaven, draws down a fog of
extraordinary thickness.
10. An angel passes over; he strikes the firstborn of Egypt dead,
from man to animals.
Moses eating the Passover with the Hebrews.
Houses. A table, upon which a roast lamb and large loaves
around it. Moses, Aaron, with other Hebrews, eat, standing and
carrying a knapsack and a staff.*
Moses, having led the Hebrews across the Red Sea, submerges the
Egyptians.
The sea.
Women dance upon the shore. A crowd of Hebrews,
men and women, having children in their arm's and on their
shoulders. Moses strikes the sea with his rod. Soldiers are seen
in the midst of the sea, some on horseback, some in chariots,
covered by the water to the middle of the body or to the head.†
Moses with his rod sweetens the bitter waters of Mara.
Mountains. A space filled with water. Moses smites the water
with his rod. Near him Hur and Aaron, with a crowd of Hebrews
behind them and children, who drink the water.
* On many ancient sarcophagi, especially those in the museum at Arles,
the Hebrews who depart from Egypt are represented as carrying children
or clothes on their shoulders, exactly as here indicated.
In certain Greek manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, the
Red Sea is personified by a vigorous man, who, seizing Pharaoh, drags
him, his chariot and all his army down into the abyss.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
275
Moses and the people arrive at Elim, at the twelve fountains and
the seventy palm-trees.
Mountains; twelve wells spring forth, shaded by three-score and
ten palm-trees. Moses and the Hebrews stand in the foreground.
Moses on the mountain; he holds his hands outstretched and
triumphs over Amalek.
Moses upon a mountain; he is seated on a rock. At each
side Hur and Aaron support his hands in the air. At the foot of
the mountain, Joshua, son of Nun, and the Hebrews pursue their
enemies; they cut them to pieces.
Moses receiving the Law.
A high mountain. On the summit Moses, on his knees, holds
the tables of the law. Above, many clouds, fire and lightnings.
Angels blowing the trumpet. Lower down upon the mountain,
Moses is seen breaking the tables of the law. At the foot of
the mountain, the Hebrews feast and dance. In their midst a
lofty column supports the golden calf. Aaron stands apart in
sorrow.
Moses and Aaron celebrating in the Tabernacle of Witness.
Four golden columns support a tent shining with gold angels
with six wings outspread. Below is the Ark of the Covenant, on
which rests a golden vase, a seven-branched candlestick and five
loaves. Above the ark, and just in the middle, the Holy Virgin is
seen with her Child; on one side of the ark we see Moses with his
rod and the tables of the law; on the other Aaron in his sacerdotal
dress and with a tiara on his head. Aaron holds his golden censer
in the one hand and his blossoming rod in the other. Below the
arch, Nadab and Abihu, sons of Aaron, with their sacerdotal vest-
ments and censers, are lying dead upon the ground. Outside the
tabernacle a crowd of people, an altar covered with victims, sheep
and birds, consumed by fire.
Moses, having struck the rock angrily, makes the water gush
forth.
Moses, standing up, strikes the stone with his rod. The water
gushes forth; the children draw it in vases. A crowd of Hebrews
T 2
276
APPENDIX II.
men and women, near Moses. At the top of the rock we read these
words: "The waters of strife.” *
Balaam goes to curse the Hebrews; he is prevented by an angel.
Two vines. Between the hedges of the vine Balaam mounted on
a mule, which he strikes with a staff. The mule kneels and turns
his head towards Balaam. The Archangel Michael stands forward
with an unsheathed sword. The king's officers and knights appear
between the two mountains.
Balaam, called by Balak to curse the Hebrews, blesses them.
Moses, with the Hebrews, fights the Moabites. Upon the
mountain are seven altars, on each of which is a bull and a ram.
King Balak surrounded by his officers. Before him Balaam looks
down on the Hebrews; he blesses them, saying on his scroll:"A star
shall come out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and
shall smite the chiefs of Moab.”
Death of Moses.
Moses lies outstretched in death upon a mountain. The demon
stoops towards his feet, an archangel stands at his head, stretches
his hands out toward the demon, and threatens him with his sword.
Twelve priests bear the ark into the middle of the Jordan, while
Joshua, son of Nun, makes the Hebrews cross the Jordan with
dry feet.
Twelve priests carry the Ark of the Covenant upon their
shoulders; they stop in the middle of the Jordan, which is dried up
behind them. The chariot, drawn by two oxen, is guided by a
driver. A multitude with Joshua, son of Nun, crossing the
Jordan.
Joshua, son of Nun, sees the leader of the heavenly hosts.
The Archangel Michael, clothed in warrior's garb,† holds a naked
sword. Joshua, son of Nun, with grey hair; he is on his knees
before Michael, and unties the strings of his shoes, while gazing at
Michael.
* The water issuing from the rock which Moses struck is an image of
Christ. This subject appears on the painted windows of Bourges, Tours
and Du Mans, where the Passion of Christ is represented as prefigured in
the Old Testament.
†The military costume worn by the archangel Michael and the warrior
saints is always that of the Roman emperors.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
277
The Angel of the Lord appears to Gideon while he gathers in the
harvest, and encourages him to strive against the Midianites.
Fields. Men gathering in the wheat harvest. An altar blazing..
The Archangel Michael holds a rod in his hand, with which he
touches the altar. Gideon, on his knees, stretches out his hand
towards him; a scythe lies on the ground beside him.
Gideon wrings out the fleece, water streams from it and fills a vase.
A mountain. A threshing-floor. Gideon in the midst at prayer.
Before him a lamb's skin with wool; rain falls from the sky upon
the fleece. A second time Gideon, outside the threshing-floor,
wrings out the fleece over a basin.*
An angel announces the birth of Samson to Manoah and his wife.
Manoah, an aged, bald-headed man; near him his wife. They
kneel, their hands and eyes raised to Heaven. Before them an altar
with a kid burning. An archangel surrounded by light appears at
the same moment in the sky.
Samson kills a lion.
Samson, standing up, tramples a lion at his feet. He turns his
head backwards and tears it open.
Samson, having fastened firebrands to the tails of three hundred
foxes, sets fire to his enemies' corn.
Corn in great plenty, vines and olives; fields burnt. In the
midst, foxes with torches tied to the tail. Samson, holding a fox,
fastens a torch to his tail.
Samson, with the jaw-bone of an ass, exterminates ten thousand
enemies.
Samson, with the jaw-bone of an ass, strikes the enemies that are
before him. Behind him a great number of the slain.
Samson, having carried away the gates of the city of Gaza, brings
them up on a mountain.
A city, open and without gates. Samson, bearing the gates upon
his shoulders, scales the mountain.
*This event figures the virginity of Mary. In the narthex of the
great church of the monastery of Chilandari, on Mt. Athos, this event is
represented, and on the fleece may be seen a little image of the Virgin,
white as the fleece itself.
i
278
APPENDIX II.
Samson blinded by his enemies.
Samson bound in chains; before him, his enemies, who put out
his eyes. The woman Delilah stands behind, watching him.*
Samson, having seized two pillars of a house, causes its downfall
and the death of his enemies.
Houses ruined, men dead. In the midst of them, Samson
himself is dead, still holding the two pillars between his arms.
Samuel assisting at the sacrifice in the temple of the Lord.
A temple and an altar. In the front the prophet Samuel, as a
little child, clothed in alb and holding a censer; before him the
prophet Elias, who blesses him. His mother Hannah and father
Elkanah watch him.
God relates to Samuel the death of the priest Eli and his sons.
The temple. The aged Eli, high-priest, in a deep sleep. The
prophet Samuel, a little child, stands near, stretching one hand out
and speaking to him. Farther on, Samuel, seated on a bed and
looking up; an angel blesses him out of heaven.
Death of Eli and of his sons.
A city. The high-priest, Eli, an old man, is stretched upon his
couch with his head broken; a youth stands before him astonished.
Outside, the Hebrews pursued by foreigners. The ark is also borne
away by enemies. Near at hand, Hophni and Phineas, the sons
of Eli, clothed in their sacerdotal robes, lie dead upon the ground.
The enemy tormented in various ways by reason of the Ark of the
Covenant; they send it back to the Hebrews.
Two oxen draw a chariot upon which the ark rests. Behind the
ark the enemy is seen watching it from a distance; in front, fields
and reapers. Priests receive the ark.
*This subject was a common one in the time of the Renaissance, and is
represented frequently on capitals, pilasters, stalls, glass and tapestry.
Adam listening to Eve, Samson sleeping at the knee of Delilah, Aristotle,
as a beast of burthen, carrying the mistress of Alexander, Vergil (a
magician) in a panier, Hercules at the feet of Omphale, Pyramus and Thisbe
dying by their own hand, are all famous historic, legendary, and
mythologic examples of the triumph of love.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
279
The prophet David consecrated king by Samuel.
The child David. The aged Samuel pours oil from a horn on
his forehead. Behind David his father Jesse is seen, an aged man,
with his seven brethren standing in wonder.
David, playing the harp before Saul, drives the demon from
the king.
King Saul, an aged man, seated on a throne, his two hands out-
stretched towards David; soldiers stand near him. The youth
David holds a harp, on which he plays before Saul.
David slays Goliath.
David, beardless, having a sling hung from his belt and a pouch
on his right shoulder. He holds a head in his left hand and a sword
in the right. Before him, the headless body of his enemy Goliath
lies on the ground in armour. Further on, the Hebrews pursuing
their enemies; at a still greater distance, choirs of maidens with harps
and dulcimers.
David and the people bear the Ark into Jerusalem.
Two oxen draw a chariot, on which the Ark, formed like a golden
shrine, is placed; it is surmounted by golden cherubim. Before it,
David, in white vestments, plays the harp; he is accompanied by
priests, some with dulcimers, others with cithara, others with
trumpets. Near the arch, Uzzah lies dead; in the background the
people follow in a crowd.
David repents of his sin after the rebuke of the prophet Nathan.
A palace. A golden throne before which David kneels. The
prophet Nathan stands up before him, and says to him upon
a scroll: "May the Lord pardon thy sin." An angel stands
near him.
David having numbered the people, the Lord, displeased, sends his
angel, who destroys 70,000, and does not rest till they are
exterminated.-1 Chron. xxi. 1–19.
A vast square. An angel in the midst of it stretches out his
sword. In the fields around a great number of dead men are seen.
At one end of this square stands an altar upon which are the remains
of charcoal, corn, and two burnt oxen. David kneels before the
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APPENDIX II.
i
altar, his face turned towards the angel. Two soldiers are on the
other side. The prophet Gad, between the angel and David, turns
toward David and shows him the angel. The city of Jerusalem is
seen a little further on.
Solomon consecrated king,
David seated on a throne; before him, the child Solomon is
consecrated by a priest who pours oil from a horn.* Further on
Solomon is seen mounted on a horse with a golden bridle. Behind
him, priests and people playing on divers instruments.
prophet Nathan stands before Solomon.
Solomon building a temple to God
The
A great temple with cupolas. Builders at work; some carry
lime, others cut wood and stones. Near at hand Solomon with his
soldiers and officers; he holds a closed book.
Solomon having built temples for idols, his wives come to worship
them.
A temple with idols and altars. Women prostrate themselves,
Solomon in the midst of them.
The prophet Elijah fed in a cave by a raven.
A cave.
The prophet Elias seated within, his elbow on his
knees, his chin resting on his hand. Above the cave, a raven
watches the prophet and brings him bread in his beak.
A house.
Elijah blessing the widow's meal and oil.
A woman holds two vases; the prophet Elijah stands
before her and blesses them.
Elijah raises the widow's son.
3
A high house. On the top a bed in which a child is laid. The
prophet Elijah holds the child by its hand and breathes into its
mouth; the mother stands behind him.
*The consecration of Saul, David or Solomon is thus represented in
our Latin monuments also. In the cathedral of Rheims, the above subject
occurs among the remarkable sculptures on the outer cordon of the
archivolt enclosing the western rose window.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
281
King Ahab goes before Elijah.
Mountains. King Ahab, an old man, mounted on a horse in
golden harness; soldiers behind him. In front the prophet Elijah
seems to speak to him.
Elijah, by his prayers, causes fire to descend from heaven and
consume the sacrifice.
The prophet Elijah stands upright, his hands upraised to heaven;
he says on a scroll: "O Lord God, answer me to-day in fire."
Before him is an altar upon which an ox is laid. Fire falls from
heaven and consumes the sacrifice. A crowd of men lie prostrate
on the ground.
Elijah puts the priests to shame and slays them.
A river. On its bank men are seen, bound and led by soldiers
the prophet, armed with a sword, cuts off their heads.*
Elijah asleep under a tree.
An angel awakens him and commands
him to eat.
A great tree. Under it, Elijah sleeping; near his head a cake
An angel comes to touch him by the hand.
and a cruse.
Elijah consecrates Elisha the prophet.
Elisha on his
A field. Men at work with twelve pairs of oxen.
knees holding the mantle of Elijah. Elijah, standing, blesses his
disciple. Further on Elijah is seen again, and several altars are
before him. Upon these altars, fire consumes the oxen and the
broken ploughs.
Elijah draws down fire to destroy two captains.
A high mountain; the prophet Elijah, on the top, looks down
around him. At the foot of the mountain are a multitude of dead
* In the art of the Latin Church, Elias is never represented as himself
beheading the Jewish priests, as here directed. At Mount Athos, in the
convent of St. Laura, Christ, in like manner, is represented in an ancient
mosaic as holding an open book with His left hand, and in His right a naked
sword, point upwards. In France the right hand is raised in blessing, not
in menace. In Italy, the Christ is sometimes armed as in Greece.
Italian MS. in the Bibl. Nationale, 'Psalterium cum Figuris,' shows Christ
holding a bow and arrows in the left hand, and a naked sword in the
right.
An
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APPENDIX II.
soldiers; the fire from Heaven descends upon them. Further on,
other soldiers, prostrated on their knees, implore the prophet's
protection.
Elijah, walking on his mantle, crosses the Jordan.
The prophet Elijah strikes the Jordan with his mantle. Elisha
near him. Fifty sons of the prophets watch them from a distance.
The prophet Elijah taken up in a chariot of fire.
A fiery chariot; Elijah, in the centre of the chariot, taken up into
heaven.* Elisha, below, receives the mantle that Elijah lets fall
towards him; with the other hand he holds a scroll upon which
may be read: "Oh, father, you are the arm that defends Israel!
You are his champion!"†
The prophet Elisha takes the mantle of Elijah; he strikes the
water and crosses with dry feet.
Elisha holds in one hand the folded mantle of Elijah; he strikes
the Jordan. With the other hand he holds a scroll, on which we
read: "Where is the Lord God of Elijah?”
Elisha purifies with salt the poisoned waters.
Elisha throws salt into the middle of the river, and holds a scroll
on which may be read, "This is the word of the Lord: I purify these
waters." Near him a crowd of men; some members of the crowd
drink of the waters.
Elisha curses the children who have insulted him; the bears come
out and devour them.
A forest of great trees. Two bears devour a number of children,
some escape up the trees. The prophet Elisha, below, looks up at
them angrily.
Elisha blesses the widow's oil.
A great number of jars. A woman holds a little pot of oil and
pours it into the jars; Elisha, standing, blesses the oil. Two youths
carry other jars.
* Elijah, borne to heaven on a fiery chariot, is a figure of Christ's
Ascension with a red banner in His hand. It occurs frequently on the
Christian sarcophagi in the museums of Arles, Marseilles and Paris.
†“My father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen
thereof!" (2 Kings ii. 12.)
"I have healed these waters. (2 Kings ii. 21.)
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
283
Elisha raises the Shunammite's child.
A high house; a bed on the top. On the bed, the prophet
Elisha embracing the little child, his mouth upon his mouth, his
eyes upon his eyes, his hands upon his hands; outside, a woman in
great affliction.
Elisha commands Naaman to go and wash. He washes in the
Jordan and is healed.
Naaman, naked, in the midst of the Jordan. On the shore, the
soldiers with horses and chariots. His clothes are on the shore.
Gehazi is covered with leprosy, Elisha having cursed him.
Elisha standing with a wrathful look, says on his scroll: "The
leprosy of Naaman shall cleave unto thee and to thy race." Gehazi
stands before the prophet in consternation.
Sennacherib besieges Jerusalem; the Angel of the Lord descends
and slays one hundred four-score and five thousand men.
A city on a mountain. Below the city walls, a multitude of
soldiers, some of whom are dead, others being dragged off by their
horses; others take flight, looking backwards in terror. Above, an
archangel on the clouds surrounded by a great light; he holds a
fiery sword in his hand.
Vision of the Prophet Isaiah.*
Christ in the midst
Christ blesses with
A cave. Within it clouds and a great light;
seated as a king upon a lofty throne of fire.
the right hand; He holds a scroll in the left, on which may be read:
"Whom shall I send, or who will go forth to these people?"
Around Him a circle of six-winged seraphim crying and saying,
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth! All the earth is full of
His glory." On the right the prophet Isaiah, filled with a great
fear, says upon a scroll, "Woe is me, for I am a man of unclean
lips! I have seen with mine eyes the King and Lord of Sabaoth!"
A seraph before him holds a live coal with tongs; he places the
coal on the prophet's lips.† He holds in his left hand a scroll with
these words: "This hath touched thy lips, and hath purged thy
* Isaiah, vi. 1. See vol. i. p. 178.
This subject is sculptured on the west porch of Amiens Cathedral, at the
base of a colossal statue of Isaiah. Attributes of Seraph, see p. 102 supra.
284
APPENDIX II.
sins." On the left hand, the prophet Isaiah is again seen in front of
Christ; he stands in awe before Him, saying on his scroll: "Here
am I; send me."
Martyrdom of Isaiah.
The prophet Isaiah tied to a tree. Two soldiers saw him asunder
with a wooden saw. Before him, King Manasses on a throne; near
him a crowd of Jews, idols and altars.
The prophet Jeremiah.
A cistern. The Hebrews seizes the prophet Jeremiah by the
feet, and throw him head-foremost into the cistern.
The Prophet Jeremiah drawn forth from the cistern by Abimelech.
A cistern. The prophet Jeremiah being gradually raised; at
the top of the well, men draw him out with ropes. Abimelech
takes Jeremiah by the hand.
Jerusalem taken the second time.
A city burned and in ruins; outside, a crowd of soldiers seize the
Jews and King Zedekias. Near the town, Jeremiah and Baruch
above, in the midst of the desolation.
Daniel and the three children, only living on pulse, appear fairer
and fatter in flesh than they that eat of the king's meat.*
Men eating meat and drinking wine. In the distance Daniel
and the three children eat cakes of the pulse and grain. Farther
back still is a palace, and King Nebuchadnezzar seated on a high
throne. Near him, many satellites; before him, the three children,
the prophet Daniel and the others. An officer points them out to
Nebuchadnezzar.
Daniel defends Susannah.†
The prophet Daniel, a youth, stands upright. Susannah before
him, her hands tied behind her back. Two elders, in ample robes
and with their heads covered, show Susannah to Daniel; near her
stands Joachim her husband. In the distance the two elders are
again seen. The people stone them.
*Daniel i. 15.
+ Susannah vv. 46, 62.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
285
Daniel interprets the first dream of Nebuchadnezzar.*
A palace; the king asleep upon a golden couch. Outside of the
palace, a mountain; at its foot an idol with a golden head, breast
and arms of silver, body and thighs of copper, legs of iron, feet half
iron, half clay. A stone falls from the top of the mountain on the
head of the idol. Further on, the king seated upon his throne;
Daniel before him points out to him the idol.
The three children refuse to worship an idol; they are thrown into
the furnace, where an angel comes to refresh them.
A furnace. Within, the three children, clothed, with hands and
face raised to heaven; the archangel Michael in their midst. Out-
side the furnace the soldiers are devoured by the flames. Close by
there stands a statue of the king.
Daniel interpreting his dream.
A great and lofty tree. Many birds among its branches; animals
feeding at its root. An angel strikes the tree with his hatchet.
The king asleep in his palace, on a bed. Further on, the king
seated on a throne; Daniel, near the king, shows him the vision.
Daniel interpreting the handwriting on the wall of the palace of
King Balthazar.
A palace. A hand, seen as far as the wrist, traces these words
upon
the wall: "Mene, tekel, upharsin." The king standing struck
with terror; before him is Daniel, who shows him this inscription;
near them the Magi and wise men. A table prepared for a feast;
women in the background.
Vision of the prophet Daniel.†
A house. The prophet Daniel asleep upon a bed. Outside of the
house, the sea. The four winds blow from the four parts of the sea,
whence issue four beasts. The first beast is a lion with eagle's
wings; Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, seated above, holding a
sceptre in his hand. The second is a bear armed with three rows of
teeth; above him, Darius, king of Persia. The third, a leopard
with four wings and four heads; above him, Alexander, the king
of Macedon, armed with a javelin. The fourth like a black lion,
*Daniel iv. 20.
+ Daniel vii.
286
APPENDIX II,
with teeth of iron and ten horns upon his head. Three horns are
broken; but in the midst of the others there arose a little horn with
eyes and a mouth as a man. Above, Augustus, king of the Romans,
bearing his sceptre. What remains of the vision is given below at
the Second Coming (i.e. the Last Judgment).
Daniel, having exposed the deceitfulness of the priests, burns the
temple and breaks the statue of Baal.
A temple with a great idol, before which is a table covered with
bread and viands. Outside the temple, the king with his satellites.
Near the door, Daniel holds a sieve and scatters the ashes before the
idol. Further on, Daniel is seen burning the temple and breaking
the idol. Soldiers putting priests, with their wives and children, to
death.
A cave.
Daniel destroys the dragon.
Within, an enormous dragon with gaping mouth;
Daniel stands in front and throws black bread down its throat.
Behind Daniel, the king and a crowd of people.
Daniel in the den of lions; he is fed by Habakkuk, sent by the
angel of the Lord from Jerusalem.
Daniel in the midst of a dark pit, his hands and eyes raised to
Heaven; he is surrounded by seven lions. Above him, the arch-
angel Michael, holding the prophet Habakkuk by the hair. This
prophet carries a basket filled with bread and viands, which he
presents to Daniel.*
The prophet Jonah, flying before the face of the Lord, is thrown into
the sea.
A furious sea; enormous waves. In the midst, a ship and sailors
throwing Jonah head-foremost into the sea. A monstrous fish
receives the prophet in his jaws.
Jonah delivered up by the fish on the bank near Nineveh.
A town; the sea below. A sea-monster casts Jonah on the bank
Jonah holds a scroll on which is written: "I cried out of my
affliction to the Lord."
*Apocrypha: Bel and the Dragon, vv. 31-42.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
287
Jonah preaching to the Ninevites.
A city; a multitude. Jonah holds a scroll with these words:
"Yet three days and Nineveh will be destroyed." Before him are
men, women, and children; some crying, others praying. The king,
prostrate on the ground, covered with ashes and clothed in sack-
cloth, tears his hair; his regal robes and crown are cast upon the
earth. Behind him rises a royal throne.
Jonah afflicted by the sight of a withered gourd.
A stem of gourd withered to the top of its branches. Below,
Jonah in distress, one hand extended towards heaven, and holding
with the other a scroll containing these words: "I shall mourn for
this gourd till death." On high, a ray descends from heaven
towards Jonah. Upon this ray we read: "Thou pitiest this gourd;
and I, should I not be touched with compassion for the great city
of Nineveh ?” Below the head of Jonah the sun shoots rays which
burn him.
Job, bereft of his children and his goods, blesses God.
A palace. Job, seated upon a throne, looks down and rends his
garments; at his side, three men converse with him. Outside of
the palace is a dilapidated house. The sons and daughters of Job
are destroyed. Farther on, fields, sheep, and oxen; robbers arrive
and kill the shepherds. Farther still, horses and camels, whose
conductors have also been killed by robbers.
Job sits among the ashes.
A city. Outside, Job, covered with sores, stretched on a heap of
ashes; at his side stand three kings who speak to him. His wife
says to him: "Curse God and die." Job looks at her with
an angered face, and says to her, "Why hast thou spoken as a
foolish woman? We have received good at the hand of God, why
should we not also receive evil? It is the Lord's will that hath
happened. 'Blessed be the name of the Lord." "
Job, because of his humility, receives twofold for what he had lost.
A temple. An altar upon which an ox and a sheep are burning.
Before the altar, Job is seen in prayer, clothed in regal robes.
his side are his wife, seven sons and three daughters, with garments
At
288
APPENDIX II.
embroidered in gold. Further on, outside, on the mountains and
in the fields, are a great number of oxen, sheep, horses and camels,
with shepherds and servants.
The righteous Judith slays Holofernes.
A lofty city. Below it many tents are visible within which soldiers
are asleep. In the midst is one tent decorated with ornaments
of gold. Within it is a golden bed, on which lies Holofernes,
beheaded, his body enveloped in a gold embroidered quilt. Judith,
clad in sumptuous apparel, stands before him bearing in one hand
a bloody sword, while with the other she places the head of
Holofernes in a wallet which her servant holds for her. The
same city is again seen further on. Men upon its walls hold
banners and carry the head of Holofernes on the end of a pike.
Outside the town, the Jews pursue their enemies.*
The Holy Patriarchs according to the genealogy.
The first father, Adam: an old man, long hair, white beard.
The righteous Abel, son of Adam: young, beardless.
The righteous Seth, son of Adam: an old man, brown beard.
The righteous Enos, son of Seth: an old man, beard bifurcated.
The righteous Cainan, son of Enos: an old man, large beard.
The righteous Mahalaleel, son of Cainan: an old man, bald.
The righteous Jared, son of Mahalaleel: an old man, beard tri-
furcated.
The righteous Enoch, son of Jared: an old man, beard pointed.
The righteous Methuselah, son of Enoch: an old man, bald.
The righteous Lamech, son of Methuselah: an old man, beard
rounded.
The righteous Noah, son of Lamech: an old man, beard pointed,
long hair; he holds the Ark.
The righteous Shem (Gen. xi. 10), son of Noah: an old man, beard
bifurcated.
The righteous Japhet, son of Noah: an old man, crisp curly hair,
beard round.
The righteous Arphaxad, son of Japhet: an old man, beard large.
* Here end the scenes and pictures, properly so-called, from the Old
Testament. Now we shall see single figures at full length. The pictures
occupy the highest portion of the walls; the separate figures are ranged
below immediately above the casement. This arrangement is followed in
the Greek church paintings.
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
289
The righteous Cainan, son of Arphaxad: an old man, great brown
beard.
The righteous Salah, son of Cainan: an old man, five-pointed
beard.
The righteous Eber (from whom the Jews draw their name Ebrews),
son of Sala: an old man, beard pointed.
The righteous Peleg, son of Eber: an old man, bald, beard pointed.
The righteous Reu, son of Peleg: an old man, beard bifurcated.
The righteous Serug, son of Reu: an old man, beard large.
The righteous Nahor, son of Serug: an old man, beard trifurcated.
The righteous Terah, son of Nahor: an old man, beard pointed.
The patriarch Abraham, son of Terah: an old man, long hair, beard
descending to his waist.
The patriarch Isaac, son of Abraham: an old man, pointed beard,
long hair.
The patriarch Jacob, son of Isaac: an old man, long hair, a great
beard bifurcated.
The twelve sons of Jacob.
The patriarch Ruben: old man, bald, beard pointed.
The patriarch Simeon : old man, beard bifurcated.
The patriarch Levi: old man, beard rounded.
The patriarch Judah: old man, beard large.
The patriarch Zabulon: old man, beard long.
The patriarch Issachar : old man, beard jonciform.
The patriarch Dan: old man, beard bristly.
The patriarch Gad: old man, beard and hair curled.
The patriarch Aser: old man, fine pointed beard.
The patriarch Nephtali: old man, beard long and full.
The patriarch Joseph: old man, beard long; he carries a mitre.*
The patriarch Benjamin: old man, beard brown, curly hair.
The righteous Zarah, son of Judah: an old man, beard small.
The righteous Pharez, son of Judah: an old man, beard large.
The righteous Hezron, son of Pharez: old man, bald, beard
round.
The righteous Aram, son of Hezron: old man, beard pointed.
The righteous Aminadab, son of Aram: greyhaired.
The righteous Naashon: old man, beard bifurcated.
The righteous Salmon, son of Naashon: old man, beard large.
The righteous Booz, son of Salmon: old man, beard round.
* The mitre, or tiara, a sign of sovereign power in Egypt.
VOL. II.
U
29C
APPENDIX II.
The righteous Obed, son of Booz and Ruth: old man,
bald.
The righteous Jesse, son of Obed: old man, beard pointed.
The prophet King David, son of Jesse: old man, beard
rounded.
The prophet King Solomon, son of David: young, beardless.
The king Roboam, son of Solomon: beard commencing.
The king Abias, son of Roboam: young, beard rounded.
King Asa, son of Abias: old man, pointed beard.
King Josaphat, son of Asa: old man, rounded beard.
King Joram, son of Josaphat: old man, pointed beard.
King Ozias, son of Joram: grey hair, rounded beard.
King Joatham, son of Ozias: young, beard bifurcated.
King Ahaz, son of Joatham: old man, large beard.
King Hezekias, son of Ahaz: old man, pointed beard.
King Manasses, son of Hezekias: old man, large beard,
bifurcated.
·
King Ammon, son of Manasses: old man, grey hair.
King Josias, son of Ammon: old man, beard fine pointed.
King Jeconiah, son of Josias : young, rounded beard.
The righteous Salathiel, son of Jeconiah: young, beard com-
mencing.
The righteous Zorobabel, son of Salathiel: grey hair.
The righteous Abiud, son of Zorobabel: old man, bald.
The righteous Eliakim, son of Abiud: old man, beard bifur-
cated.
The righteous Azor, son of Eliakim: old man, large beard,
coloured brown.
The righteous Sadoch, son of Azor: grey hair, beard bifur-
cated.
The righteous Achim, son of Sadoch: young, beard com-
mencing.
The righteous Eliud, son of Achim: old man, bald, beard
round.
The righteous Eleazar, son of Eliud: old man, large beard.
The righteous Matthan, son of Eleazar: old man, beard trifur-
cated.
The righteous Jacob, son of Matthan: old man, beard pointed.
The righteous Joseph, son of Jacob: betrothed to Mary, of
whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ. (Matt. i. 16.)
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
291
Other ancestors outside the genealogy.
The righteous Melchisedech: an old man, with large oeard, adorned
in sacerdotal vestments, a mitre on his head; he carries three
loaves on a disk.
The righteous Job: an old man with rounded beard and crown
upon his head; he holds a scroll containing these words: “Blessed
be the name of the Lord, from this time forth for evermore!"
The prophet Moses: grey hair, very little beard; he wears a
sacerdotal dress, a mitre and a veil, and holds the two tables of
the law.
The prophet Aaron: an old man with a large beard; he is clothed
in a sacerdotal garment, and wears the mitre (or tiara); he holds
a golden censer and a blossoming rod.
The prophet Hur: an old man, his beard bifurcated; he wears a
sacerdotal vestment, and holds a scroll unopened.
The righteous Joshua, son of Nun: an old man with a rounded
beard; he wears a crown and a military dress, and holds a
sceptre.
The prophet Samuel: an old man with a great beard; he wears a
sacerdotal vestment and a mitre, he holds a horn of oil and a
censer.
The righteous Tobias: a large beard bifurcated; he says upon his
scroll: "Many nations will come from afar in the name of the
Lord God, bearing presents in their hands."
The righteous Tobias, his son: an old man with curly hair; he
says upon a scroll: "May the God of our fathers be blessed!
May His sacred and glorious name be blessed throughout all
ages!"
The three children, Ananias, Azarias and Misaël: young, beardless.
The righteous Joachim, father of Mary of whom was born Jesus,
who is called Christ: grey hair, round beard.
The righteous Simeon, who received the Lord in his arms: an old
man, great beard.
Holy Women of the Old Testament.
The first mother Eve: old, with white hair.
The righteous Sarah, wife of Abraham: aged.
The righteous Rebecca, wife of Isaac: aged.
The righteous Leah, first wife of Jacob: the same.
The righteous Rachel, second wife of Jacob: young.
U 2
292
APPENDIX II.
The righteous Asenath, wife of Joseph: young.
The righteous Miriam, sister of Moses: aged.
The righteous Deborah, who judged Israel: aged; she wears a
crown.
The righteous Ruth: young.
The prophetess Huldah: aged. (2 Kings xxii. 15.)
The righteous widow of Sarepta to whom Elijah was sent: aged.
The righteous Shunamite, who showed hospitality to Elisha: aged.
The righteous Judith, who cut off the head of Holofernes: young.
The righteous Esther, who saved the people of Israel: young.
The righteous Hannah, mother of the prophet Samuel: aged.
The righteous Susanna: young.
The righteous Anna, mother of Mary: aged.
The Holy Prophets, their characteristics and epigraphs.
The prophet Moses: grey hair, very little beard; he says, “May
the heavens rejoice with Him, and may all the angels adore
Him!"
The prophet King David: an old man, rounded beard; he says,
“O Lord, how great are Thy works; in wisdom hast Thou made
them all."
The prophet King Solomon: young, beardless; he says, "Wisdom
has built itself a dwelling.”
"The
The prophet Elijah: an old man, white beard; he says, "May the
Lord, the Almighty God, the God of Israel, live!'
The prophet Elisha: young, bald, shaggy beard; he says,
Lord liveth; He hath given life to thy soul, and He will not
forsake thee."
The prophet Isaiah: an old man, a great beard; he says, "Listen,
O ye heavens, give ear, O ye earth, for the Lord hath spoken;
the sons
•
The prophet Jeremiah: an old man with short spare beard: "And
it has happened that the word of the Lord hath said unto me,
Before I formed the . . .”
The prophet Baruch: an old man, rounded beard; he says, “Oh
Lord, look down upon Thy holy house, and incline Thine ear
towards ...
""
The prophet Ezekiel : an old man, pointed beard; he says, “The
Lord says: Behold I will Myself search out My sheep
The prophet Daniel: young, beardless; he says, "The God of
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
293
heaven will raise up a kingdom which will remain indestructible
for centuries..."
The prophet Hosea: an old man, round beard; he says, "I will
have mercy and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God is better
than burnt offerings, saith the Lord ...
""
The prophet Joel: a black beard, bifurcate; he says, "And the
Lord will shout from Mount Zion, and He will raise His voice in
the midst of Jerusalem."
The prophet Amos: old man, round beard; he says, "Woe unto
them that desire the day.”
The prophet Abdias: grey hair; he says, "In this day shall I lose
the sages of Idumæa."
The prophet Jonah: a bald old man; he says, "Out of my trouble
have I cried unto the Lord, and He bas heard me."
The prophet Micah: old man, pointed beard;
he says,
"In this
day, saith the Lord, I shall unite that which was broken . . .
The prophet Nahum: an old man, short beard; he says,
can endure the face of His anger, and who can resist His indig-
nation?"
" Who
The prophet Habakkuk : young, beardless; he says, “O Lord, I
have heard Thy voice. Give life to Thy work and ...
The prophet Zephaniah : an old man, white-haired; he says, "The
day of the Lord is near; it is near and rapid."
The prophet Haggai: an old man, round beard; he says, "Behold
what the Almighty Lord sayeth: Place your hearts
The prophet Zacharias: young, beardless; he says, "Such are the
words of the Lord: Behold, I shall save My people out of the
east...
""
The prophet Malachi: grey hair, round beard; he says,
"Thus
hath the Lord spoken: From the rising of the sun to the going
down thereof...
""
The prophet Gideon : old man, bald, round beard; he says, "If the
dew has only fallen on the fleece, and that the dryness. .
The prophet Zechariah, father of the Baptist (the Harbinger): old
man, large beard, sacerdotal dress; says, "Blessed be the Lord
God of Israel, for He hath visited and redeemed His people.”
The prophet Nathan: a bald old man, round beard.
The prophet Achias: old man, long and large beard.
The prophet Sameas: old man, round beard.
The prophet Joad, whom a lion had torn; strong beard.
294
APPENDIX II.
The prophet Azarias, son of Adeo: old man, hair curly.
The prophet Ananias: old man, beard bifurcate.
Other prophecies on the Festivals of the Lord, on the Miracles,
Passion, and Birth of Christ.
The patriarch Jacob: "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah,
nor the government from his descendants, until He who should
be sent (the Messenger) cometh, who is the desire of all nations."
(Gen. xlix. 10.)
David: "He shall descend as rain upon a fleece, and as the dew
which moistens the ground."
Isaiah: "Unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given, and He
shall be called by His name, the Angel of the Mighty Will." *
Habakkuk: "God will come from the south, and the Holy One
from a mountain covered with thick cloud.”
Micah: "And thou, Bethlehem, land of Judah, are not least among
the cities of Judah, for out of thee shall come forth a Governor
that shall rule My people." (Micah v. 2.)
Malachi: "He will arise, for you who fear
Righteousness, with healing in His wings."
Baruch: "He is our God; no other God can stand beside Him."
Afterwards: "He hath appeared upon the earth, and He hath
talked with men."
39
my name, a Son of
(Mal. iv. 2.)
Moses says upon the Circumcision: "And on the eighth day ye
shall circumcise the child." (Lev. xii. 3.)
Moses says on the Presentation: " "Every male coming forth
from his mother's breast (that openeth the womb) shall be
sanctified to the Lord." (Luke ii. 23.) Another prophecy:
"Consecrate unto me every first-born-every first male child."
(Ex. xiii. 2.)
On the flight into Egypt: "Behold, the Lord rideth upon a swift
cloud; He shall come into Egypt, and the idols of Egypt shall be
moved at His presence." (Is. xix. 1.)
Hosea: "I have called My Son out of Egypt." (Hosea xi. 1.)
On the massacre of the Innocents, Jeremiah: "A voice was heard
in Rama, lamentation and bitter weeping." (Jer. xxxi. 15.)
On the baptism of Jesus Christ, David: "The waters saw, O God,
* Further on we shall speak of the Angel of the Mighty Will or Coun-
sellor, a wonderful creation of Greek art almost unknown to us. (Isaiah
x. 6.)
1
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
295
the waters saw, they were afraid; the depths also were troubled."
(Psalm lxxvii. 16.) (See p. 302, note.)
Isaiah: “Wash you, make you clean, put away the evil of your
doings." (Is. i. 16.)
Jeremiah: "Oh, Jerusalem, wash thine heart from wickedness, that
thou mayest be saved." (Jer. iv. 14.)
Ezekiel "Behold, thus saith the Lord: I will sprinkle clean water
upon you, and you shall be clean." (Ezek. xxxvi. 25.)
:
Nahum "Behold, thus saith the Lord, who ruleth the great waters."
(Nahum 1. 4.)
Malachi: " "Behold, I shall send My messenger, and he shall prepare
My way before Me.” (Mal. iii. 1.)
Zechariah: “And it shall be in that day that living waters shall go
out from Jerusalem." (Zech. xiv. 8.)
On the miracles of Christ, Isaiah says, "Surely He hath borne our
griefs and carried our sorrows." (Is. liii. 4.)
On the parables, David saith, "Behold, I will open My mouth in a
parable.” (Ps. lxxxiii. 2.)
On the Transfiguration, David: "Thabor and Hermon shall rejoice
in Thy name." (Ps. lxxviii. 12.)
On the resurrection of Lazarus, Hosea: "I will ransom them from
the power of the grave, I will redeem them from death."
(Hosea xiii. 14.)
On the Festival of (Palm) Branches, David: "Out of the mouth
of babes and sucklings Thou hast perfected praise." (Matt.
xxi. 16.)
Zechariah: "Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion, for behold thy
King cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass, and a colt,
the foal of an ass." (Matt. xxi. 5.)
Jesus driving out the salesmen: "My house, saith the Lord, shall
be called the house of prayer for all people." (Matt. xxi. 13;
Is. lvi. 7.)
Upon the mystic supper, Jeremiah:
Behold, the days come
that I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel."
(Jer. xxxi. 31.)
Upon the covenant of Judas, Zechariah: “So they weighed for My
price thirty pieces of silver." (Zech. xi. 12.)
On the betrayal, David: "He who did eat of My bread hath
practised treason against Me." (Ps. xli. 9.)
Upon the judgment of Annas and Caiaphas, David:
"False
296
APPENDIX II.
witnesses did rise up; they questioned Me on things that they
knew not. (Ps. xxxv. 11.)
On the repentance of Judas, Zechariah: "And they took the thirty
pieces of silver, the price of the honourable." (Zech. xi. 12;
Matt. xxvii. 9.)
Upon the judgment of Pilate, David: "Why do the heathen rage,
and the people imagine a vain thing?” (Ps. ii. 1.)
Upon the flagellation, Isaiah: "I gave My back to the smiters, and
My cheek to blows." (Isa. l. 6.)
Upon the mockery, David: "I am become a mockery for all My
enemies." (Ps. xxii.)
Upon the Bearing of the Cross, Jeremiah: "I was like a lamb that
is brought to the slaughter." (Jer. xi. 19.)
Upon the elevation of the Cross, Isaiah :
: "He is brought as a lamb
to the slaughter; and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so
He openeth not His mouth." (Isa. liii. 7.)
Upon the Crucifixion, Moses: "Look upon your life hung before
your eyes." (This refers to Numb. xxi. 8, 9, and John iii. 14.)
David: "They have pierced My hands and My feet.” (Ps. xxii. 16.)
Isaiah: "He hath poured out His soul unto death; and He was
numbered with the transgressors." (Isa. liii. 12.)
Isaiah: "The righteous have been taken away from the evil.”
Isaiah, lvii. 1.
(Ps. xliv. 23.)
(Cant. v. 2.)
"He stooped down, he couched as a lion and as an old lion; who
shall rouse him up?" (Gen. xlix. 9.) (See vol. i., p. 341.)
David: "Awake! Why sleepest thou?”
Solomon: "I sleep, but my heart waketh."
Isaiah: "Your tomb shall be in peace.”
Isaiah: On the Descent into Hell: "Hell from beneath is moved for
thee to meet thee at thy coming" (Isa. xiv. 9.)
Hosea: "In the third day He will raise us up." (Hos. vi. 2.)
David: "Let God arise; let His enemies be scattered." (Ps. lxviii. 1.)
Zephaniah: "Therefore wait ye upon Me, saith the Lord, until the
day that I rise up." (Zeph. iii. 8.)
Upon the women bearing perfumes, Isaiah: "Women sent of God
shall come here."
Upon the Ascension, David: "God has gone up with a shout, the
Lord with a sound of a trumpet." (Ps. xlvii. 5.)
Zechariah : "And His feet shall stand in that day upon the Mount
of Olives, which is before Jerusalem." (Zech. xiv. 4.)
THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW.
297
Upon the Pentecost, Joel: "And it shall come to pass afterward
that I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and
your daughters shall prophesy." (Joel ii. 28.)
Zechariah: "In that day, saith the Lord, I will pour upon the
house of David and upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the spirit
of grace and of supplication." (Zech. xii. 10.)
Other prophecies at the Festival of the Mother of Christ.
Upon the Nativity of the Mother of Christ, Ezekiel: "This gate shall
be shut, it shall not be opened, and no man shall enter in by it."
(Ezek. xliv. 2.)
Upon the Presentation, David: "The virgins, her companions that
follow her, shall be brought to the King."
Upon the Annunciation, David: “Hearken, O daughter, and con-
sider; incline thine ear and forget also thine own people." (Ps.
xlv. 10.)
Solomon: Many daughters have done virtuously, but thou excellest
them all." (Prov. xxxi. 29.)
Isaiah: "Behold: A virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall
call His name Jesus." (Isa. vii. 14.)
Upon the death of the Virgin: "Arise, O Lord, into Thy rest; Thou,
and the ark of thy strength." (Ps. cxxxii. 8.)
How to represent the Philosophers of Greece who have spoken of the
Incarnation of Christ.
APOLLONIUS.-An old man : large beard, bifurcate, wearing a veil
on his head; he says upon a scroll: "I, even I, announce one God
alone in a Trinity, reigning above all things. His incorruptible
Word will be conceived in the bosom of a young Virgin. Like a
fiery ark He will swiftly shoot through space. He will seize on all
the living universe and bear it as an offering to His Father."
SOLON, the Athenian.-An old man: beard rounded. He says,
"When He overruns this transitory world, He will set there a throne
without blemish. The unwearied object of the Godhead is to
annihilate incurable passions. He will be hated of all faithless men.
He will be hung upon a mountain, and will endure all these things
willingly and with sweetness."
THUCYDIDES.—Grey hair: beard trifurcate. He says, “God is a
visible light, praise be unto Him. All things proceed from His
intelligence, resolve again in His sole unity! There is no other God,
Γ
298
APPENDIX II.
neither Angel, nor Wisdom, nor Spirit, nor Substance; but He is the
only Lord, the Creator of all that exists, the perfect Word, fruitful
above all. Letting Himself fall upon a fertile nature, He has caused
fountains to spring from nothing."
PLUTARCH.-An old man: bald, beard pointed.
He says,
"Nothing can be imagined above Him who surpasses all things: it
is from Him and not another that the Word emanates. It is proved
immutably that Wisdom and the Word of God embrace the ends
of the earth."
"The
PLATO.-An old man: tall, with a large beard. He says,
old is made new and the new is old. The Father is in the Son, and
the Son is in the Father. Unity is divided into three, and trinity is
reunited into unity." (See vol. i. p. 2.)
ARISTOTLE.—An old man: shaggy beard. He says, “The gene-
ration of God is inexhaustible, for the Word itself derives its essence
from Him."
PHILO the Alexandrian.-An old man: bald, large beard, bifurcate.
He says, “Behold Him who walketh upon the heaven, that exceeds
in brightness the imperishable flame. All tremble before Him, both
the heavens, the earth, the sea, the abyss (Chaos), hell and all
demons. He is the Father of fathers, and has no Father. He is
thrice blessed.
SOPHOCLES.-An old man: bald, beard with five points. He says,
“There is but one eternal God-in His nature simple; He hath
created heaven and earth."
THOULIS, King of Egypt.-Old man: large beard. He says,
"The Father is the Son and the Son is the Father; without flesh
and incarnate, God Almighty."
THE DIVINE BALAAM.-Old man: round beard, a veiled head.
He says,
"There shall come a Star out of," etc.
From a
THE WISE SIBYL:-" There will come from heaven an eternal
King, who will judge all flesh and all the universe.
virgin, a spotless bride, the only Son of God should come.
Eternal, unfathomable, the only Word of God. It makes the
heaven shake and the human soul to tremble."
How to represent the tree of Jesse.
The righteous Jesse sleeps. Out of the lower part of his breast
spring three branches; the two smaller ones surround him, the
third and larger one rises erect and entwines round the figures of
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
299
Hebrew kings from David to Christ.
The first is David; he holds
a harp. Then comes Solomon, and after him, the other kings
following in their order and holding sceptres. At the top of the
stem, the birth of Christ. On each side, in the midst of the branches,
are the prophets with their prophetic scrolls; they point out Christ,
and gaze upon Him. Below the prophets, the sages of Greece and
the soothsayer Balaam, each holding their scrolls. They look upwards
and point towards the Nativity of Christ. (See vol. i. p. 475.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE FESTIVALS OF THE LORD, AND THE
OTHER WORKS AND MIRACLES OF CHRIST ACCORDING TO
THE HOLY GOSPEL.
The Annunciation of the Mother of God.
Houses. The Holy Virgin standing before a seat, her head a
little bent. In her left hand she holds a spindle with silk rolled on
it; her right hand is stretched out open towards the Archangel. St.
Michael is before her; he salutes her with the right hand, and holds
a bâton (long as a lance) in his left. The sky above the house.
The Holy Spirit descends from it upon a ray which reaches to the
Virgin's head.
Joseph reproaches Mary.
Houses. The Holy Virgin, pregnant; Elizabeth astonished. In
front stands Joseph, leaning with one hand upon a staff; he extends
the other towards the Virgin, whom he looks at angrily.
The Salutation of the Virgin Mother and Elizabeth.
A house. Inside Mary and Elizabeth embrace. Further on
Joseph and Zachariah converse. Behind them a little child with a
stick upon his shoulder, at the end of which a basket is hanging.
On the other side is a stable. A mule is tied to it and feeds.
The Call of the Magi.
A palace. King Herod seated in a hall, upon his throne. Before
him, the three Magi stretch out their hands to him; behind, Jews,
Scribes, and Pharisees, converse.
The Nativity of Christ.
A grotto.* Within, upon the right, the Virgin kneeling; she lays
* In the East the scene of the Nativity is always laid in a grotto or
cave, whereas, in the West, it is in a poor cabin or stable covered with
thatch.
300
APPENDIX II.
Christ, an infant in swaddling clothes, in a cradle. To the left
Joseph upon his knees, his hands crossed upon his breast. Behind
the cradle, an ox and an ass are watching Christ. Behind Joseph,
Christ and the holy Virgin, the shepherds, each holding his staff,
watch with astonishment. Outside the cave sheep and shepherds;
one of them playing on the flute, the others look upwards in fear.
Above them an angel blessing them. On the other side, the Magi,
on horseback and in regal robes, point to the star. Above the grotto
a multitude of angels in the clouds carrying a roll with these words:
Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, goodwill towards
men!" A great ray of light descends upon Christ's head.
66
Adoration of the Magi.
A house. The holy Virgin seated, holding the infant Christ, who
blesses. Before her, the Magi present their gifts in golden shrines.
One of the kings, an old man with a great beard, and head un-
covered, kneels, and gazes on the Christ; with one hand he proffers
Him his gift, and, with the other holds his crown. The second
king has very little beard, the third none at all.* They look at one
another and point to Christ. Joseph stands in wonder behind the
holy Virgin. Outside the grotto, a youth holds the three horses by
the bridle. In the background, the three Magi are again seen re-
turning to their country; an angel goes before to show the way.
Candlemas.t
A temple and cupola. Underneath the cupola, a table on which a
golden censer is standing. St. Simeon Theotokos ‡ takes the little
infant Christ in his arms and blesses it. On the other side of the
table the holy Virgin stretches out her open arms to the Babe.
Behind her Joseph carrying two doves in his robe. Near her the
prophetess Anna says upon her scroll: "This Child is the Creator
of heaven and of earth.”
The Flight into Egypt.
Mountains. The holy Virgin seated on an ass with the child,
*The aged king was named Gaspar; he of middle age is Melchior;
Balthazar is the young king; he is beardless, and generally represented
like a negro, with thick lips, flat nose and curly hair.
""
†The Purification Festival, Feb. 2, when lights were carried in proces-
sion, in allusion to the words, "a Light to enlighten the Gentiles
custom still practised in London in 1548.
He who has received God.
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
301
looks behind her at Joseph, who carries a staff and his cloak thrown
over his shoulder. A young man leads the ass and carries a rush
basket.* He looks behind him at the Virgin. Before them a city
and idols falling from its walls.
Massacre of the Innocents.
A city. Herod seated on a throne; two soldiers are near him.
In the foreground, many other soldiers with a standard. Other
towns upon the mountains with women in them carrying infants;
others fly hiding them behind them, and striving with their hands
to save them from the soldiers. Other women are seen seated in
lamentation by the dead bodies of their children. In other parts
soldiers tear the children from their mothers' arms, others stab them
with their swords or hew them in pieces, or cut off their heads. A
crowd of children stretched bleeding upon the earth. Some in their
swaddling clothes, others with their dresses. Elizabeth carries the
Harbinger, a little infant, and flies, looking behind her; she is
pursued by a soldier with drawn sword.. A rock, mighty as a moun-
tain, splits open to receive her.‡
Christ, when twelve years old seated, among the doctors.
A temple. Within Christ seated on a throne; with one hand He
holds a roll, and He stretches out the other. The Scribes and
Pharisees seated at each side look at Him in great astonishment.
Behind the throne stand Joseph and the Virgin, pointing Christ out
to him.
Christ comes to the Jordan to be baptised.
Mountains. Below, the river Jordan. Christ advances; the
Harbinger shows Him to the people, and says upon his scroll: §
"Behold the Lamb of God, who taketh away the sins of the world."
Christ is at a distance standing on the banks of the Jordan. The
Harbinger says to Jesus on his scroll! "It is I that should be
baptised of Thee, and comest Thou to me." But Christ, blessing him,
says: "Prophet, suffer it to be so now, for thus it becometh us to
fulfil all righteousness."
*The youth here introduced comes from a now forgotten legend. In
Italy, and sometimes in France, he has been replaced by an angel who
guides the divine exiles.
† Or Precursor: title of John the Baptist
Apocryphal Gospel.
§ See note, vol. i., page 336, of this work.
302
APPENDIX II.
Baptism of Christ.
Christ standing naked in the midst of the Jordan. The Har-
binger, on the river bank to the right of Christ, looks upward; his
right hand rests upon the head of Christ, he raises the left towards
heaven. Above, the sky is seen, whence issues the Holy Spirit,
descending on a ray which rests upon the head of Christ. In the
midst of the ray we read the words: "This is My beloved Son, in
whom I am well pleased." On the left angels stand in reverence
with arms outspread. Clothes lie on the ground. Below the Har-
binger, and across the Jordan, a naked man reclines, who looks
behind him at Christ, as if in terror. He holds a vase whence
he pours water.* Fish surround Christ.
Christ tempted by the Devil.
The desert and trees. Christ standing, and the devil showing
Him some stones, says to Him: "If Thou art the Son of God,
command that these stones be made bread." Christ answers upon
a scroll: "Man shall not live by bread alone." Near at hand the
temple is seen, and on the pinnacle stands Christ, the devil in front
of Him, saying: "If Thou be the Son of God, cast Thyself down
from hence." And Christ answers him upon a scroll: "Thou shalt
not tempt the Lord thy God." Near that, a very high mountain,
Christ upon the summit, and the devil standing before Him, showing
*This naked man, who looks with fear at Christ, is only another Jordan,
a personification of the river, leaning on his urn. It is in accordance with
the prophecy of David, as given above, that Jordan is represented as in fear
(pp. 294, 295). In the West, the Jordan is sometimes personified at the
time of the Baptism. Our thirteenth-century glass windows and minia-
tures of the eleventh and twelfth centuries afford us many examples.
And even more than this: the name Jordan has been divided into two
syllables (Jor-Danus), and the baptism is represented as taking place at
the meeting of two waters, the Jor and the Danus, being shown as two
small human figures, each holding an urn from which they pour water
into one bed. See MS., Bibl. Nat. Suppl. Lat. 641. ninth cent. Two
rivers of Jordan are represented on a glass window in the sanctuary of
Chartres. I have seen, perhaps twenty times in Greece, the baptism in
the Jordan thus represented. Jesus stands naked in the middle of the
river, His feet placed on a squared stone which rises between two
streams; out of the four corners of this stone issue four serpents, who dart
body, neck and tongue, out towards Christ with great, though impotent,
fury. A similar representation occurs in the cupola of the baptistry of
St. Laura at Mount. Athos. Here the sea is also personified, but by a
woman's form.
:
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
303
Him all the kingdoms of the world, and saying: "All these things will
I give, if You fall at my feet and worship me." Christ says to him
upon a scroll, "Get thee behind Me, Satan; for it is written, You
shall worship the Lord your God." At the base of the mountain
may be seen cities and fortresses; kings seated at table, soldiers,
with standards standing round. Further still, Christ and the angels
around Him, some on their knees, others holding fans, and the devil
in flight, looking backwards. (See vol. i. p. 277.)
The Harbinger testifies for Christ before His disciples.
The Harbinger points out the Christ to John and Andrew. Near
at hand are Andrew leading Peter, and Philip leading Nathaniel up
to Christ.
Christ calls His disciples, who give up fishing for fish.
The sea.
Two ships in the midst of it; in the one Christ, Peter
kneeling before Him. Andrew draws the net. In another ship,
John and James, with their father Zebedee, draw the same net,
There are so many fish to be seen in it that the net breaks.
Christ changes water to wine at the marriage at Cana
The chief personage
A table; Scribes and Pharisees seated near.
in the company holds a cup filled with wine, and looks astonished.
The bridegroom with grey hair, and round beard, is in the midst
of the group; the bride stands near him. They wear crowns of
flowers on their heads. Behind them a youth carrying a large vast
and pouring wine into a cup. Under the table six jars, which two
youths fill from leathern bags. Christ, seated at the head of the
table, blesses them. The Holy Virgin and Joseph are near Him,
and the Apostles behind.
Christ seated.
Christ questioned by Nicodemus.
Behind Him the apostles. Nicodemus seated
before Him, questioning Him.
Christ talketh with a woman of Samaria.
Christ seated on a stone, and the apostles behind Him astonished.
A well in the foreground, near which is a woman holding a pitcher
in her left hand, and stretching out her right towards Christ. Christ
blesses her. There is an urn at this woman's side.
304
APPENDIX II.
Christ heals the nobleman's son.
A city. Christ blessing. Behind Him the apostles. In front a
man with fur bonnet and magnificent dress speaks to Him. Behind
this man, three soldiers watch him, and point to a great palace in
the background, in the midst of which is a bed; upon this bed is a
youth holding his belt.
Christ teaching in the Synagogue.
The temple.
Christ, standing up in the midst, holds a book in
two hands, and reads these words: "The spirit of the Lord is upon
Me, therefore I preach the gospel to the poor." Near Him a youth
stretches out his hand eagerly to receive the book. The Scribes
and Pharisees seated round Him point Him out to one another. A
number of people regard him with astonishment.
Christ healing the possessed man.
The temple. Within it Christ and His apostles. Before Him is
a young man laid upon the ground and foaming at mouth. Scribes,
Pharisees, and people stand round in admiration.
Christ cleanses the leper.
A mountain. Christ at the foot of it, with His apostles; before
Him, a naked man, all covered with sores, kneels at His feet. Christ
lays His hand upon the head of the leprous man, from whose mouth
fall scales like the scales of a fish.
Christ heals the centurion's servant.
Christ with His apostles. A man in military costume kneels
before Him. In the distance, a palace and a youth rising from his
bed. Around him stand men and women. A man, near the
centurion, points to the palace.
Christ raises the widow's son.*
A city. Outside the gates, a crowd of men. In the midst, four
of them place a bed upon the ground, on which a young man,
covered with a winding sheet, is laid. He raises himself a little and
looks at Christ. Christ touches the bier with one hand, and with
the other blesses the young man.
Behind Christ are the Apostles.
At His feet, a woman weeps and tears her hair.
*Luke vii. 11-16.
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
305
Christ healeth Simon's wife's mother.*
A house. The mother-in-law of Peter, an old woman, laid upon
a bed. Christ raises her by the hand. The apostles behind.
Christ heals different sicknesses.
Christ standing, blessing. The apostles behind Him. A crowd
of sick people before Him: some laid on their beds, some upon
crutches, some carried on other men's shoulders; the blind, the
lame, the paralysed.
Christ stilling the winds and the sea.†
A furious sea, and a little vessel sailing in the midst. Christ asleep,
at the prow. Peter and John, filled with fear, stretch out their
hands to Him. Andrew holds the helm; Philip and Thomas make
fast the sails. Christ is seen a second time in the midst of the ship
raising His hands before the winds and rebuking them. Clouds
above; winds blowing through the sails.‡
The demoniacs in the country of the Gadarenes; Christ heals them
and drives the demons into the swine.§
A city. Mountains and a great number of tombs around. Two
demoniacs come forth; they lean with one hand upon the ground,
and stretch out the other towards Christ. Christ, surrounded by
His disciples, blesses them. A multitude of demons issue from the
mouths of the demoniacs, and are driven towards a herd of swine
grazing close by. Some ride astride on the backs of the swine,
others run down their throats. The swine throw themselves into
the sea, and the herdsmen fly towards the city, looking backwards.
✓
Christ heals the man sick of the palsy in a house.||
A house. Christ with his disciples. Pharisees seated. Above
* Matt. viii. 14; Mark i. 29; Luke iv.
+ Matt. viii. 23; Mark iv. 35; Luke viii. 22.
The Greeks, powerful in imagination, and ready to embrace the
images of heathen mythology, personify the winds. In the great convent
of Vatopedi, on Mt. Athos, the four cardinal winds are figured on the walls.
of the porch of the principal church. They are represented as heads
without bodies, with inflated cheeks, and two great wings, with mouths
wide open they blow upon the sea. Near their bristled hair may be read
"Zephyrus"-"Boreas "-" Notus." Notus alone is young and beardless;
the others are old and bearded. See Annales Arch., vol. i., pp. 38, 40.
§ Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1; Luke viii. 26.
Matt. ix. 1-8; Mark ii. 1-12; Luke v. 17-26.
VOL. II.
x
306
APPENDIX II.
Christ are two men upon the roof; they hold a bed suspended by
means of cords; before Christ a man, half sitting up, is on the bed.
This man is seen again in the midst of the crowd; he is walking,
and carries his bed on his shoulders.
Christ calling Matthew from the receipt of custom.
Christ standing with His apostles; before Him, Matthew on his
knees. Behind Him, a house with boxes, account-books and
writing materials. Above them a pair of scales.
Christ eating with publicans.
Houses and table. Christ seated. Men, some with fur hats,
others with turbans, others with bare heads. Matthew and two
female attendants serve the food. A youth carries a vase and
serves the wine. The disciples are outside the house. The Pharisees
talk to them and point at Christ.
Christ cures the woman with an issue of blood.*
Christ, standing, turns His face backwards towards His disciples.
A woman on her knees holds the hem of Christ's garment and
raises her eyes towards Him. He blesses her. A crowd of people
stand around.
Christ raises the daughter of Jairus.†
A house. A young girl seated on a gilded bed. Christ standing
before her, takes her by the left hand, while He blesses her with the
right. Behind Christ, Peter, James, and John. On one side of the
bed is a man with a fur robe, and a veiled head; on the other side,
a woman weeping. A great crowd is seen outside the house.
Christ cures two blind men.‡
Christ. The apostles behind Him. Two blind men in front
with their sticks. Christ touches their eyes with His hands.
Christ cures the man possessed by a deaf and dumb spirit.||
Christ with the apostles. Before Him a man, out of `whose
mouth a demon issues. Christ touches the ear of the deaf man
* Matt. ix. 20-22; Mark v. 25-34; Luke viii. 43–48.
+ Matt. ix. 18; Mark v. 22; Luke viii. 41.
|| Matt. ix. 32;
St. Mark vii. 32:
+
Matt. xx. 30.
Luke ii. 14; "a dumb spirit;" deafness not mentioned.
"a deaf and dumb spirit:" devil not mentioned.
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
307
with His right hand. Scribes and Pharisees, and a crowd around
Him.
Christ questioned by the disciples of the Harbinger.*
Christ with ten disciples; He blesses them, and says upon a scroll
which He holds: "Tell to John that which you have heard and
seen." Before Him stand the blind, the lepers, and the demoniacs,
demons issuing from their mouths. Opposite Christ, John and
Andrew, holding a scroll on which we read: "Art thou He that
should come, or do we look for another ?”
Christ crossing the fields at harvest-tide.†
A fortified town. Outside, a field of corn in ear; the disciples
pluck the ears of corn; some rub them in their hands, and others
eat them. At the far end of the field Christ is seen, holding a scroll,
and saying: "Have ye not read what David did when he was an
hungered?" Before the gates of the town the Pharisees stand
watching Him; one of them holds a scroll with these words: "Why
do they on the Sabbath day that which is not lawful?”
Christ cures a man with a withered hand.‡
The temple. Christ in the midst with His apostles; He gives His
benediction. A man before Him holds up his withered hand with
the other, which is healthy, and shows it to Christ. The Jews in
the background.
Christ cures the blind and dumb demoniac.
Christ with His apostles; He gives His blessing. Before Him a
blind man, holding his crutch in one hand, and touching his ear
with the other; a demon issues from his mouth.
Christ sought out by His Mother and His brethren.
A house. Christ in the midst of it with His apostles, and teaching.
Outside the gate, the Holy Virgin, and James Adelphothéos, and
Simeon his brother, with two other men and women.
Christ's side; he points to the Virgin outside.
*Matt. xi. 1.
+ Mark ii. 23.
Matt. xii. 10; Mark iii. 1; Luke vi. 6.
A man at
X 2
308
APPENDIX II.
Christ cures the paralysed in the Piscina probatica.*
The pool. Below, five arches. An angel plunges his hands in
the waters of the pool. To the right, Christ with the apostles; He
gives His benediction. Before Him, a man with a rounded beard,
and dress cut short at the knees and elbows. Near Him are other
sick people stretched on their beds.
Christ blessing the five loaves.†
Mountains. A child carries a basket containing five loaves and
two fish. Christ, standing looking up to heaven, holds the basket
with the left hand and blesses with the right. Near Him, Philip
and Andrew; a multitude seated in five different places. Three
apostles, bending down a little, carry baskets on their shoulders;
three take pieces of bread in the baskets placed before the men who
are sitting down. Others carry the baskets and distribute the
portions among the people.
Christ walking on the sea.
In the milst of it, a
The sea, with frightful and furious waves.
little vessel, in which are the apostles, terrified. Outside the vessel,
Peter has sunk up to his knees in the sea, stretching out his arms.
Christ, walking on the waves, takes him by the hanl.
Christ heals many sick who touch the hem of His garment.
Christ blessing, and surrounded by the apostles. A great number
of persons all around afflicted by divers maladies. They touch the
fringe of the Saviour's garments.
Bethesda : John v. 2. "According to apocryphal legend it was into
this piscina that the colossal beam was thrown of which the Saviour's cross
was made. The story is as follows: It is related in scholastic history
that the Queen of Sheba saw this wood in the temple, and she said to
Solomon, on her return to the palace, that He who would one day hang
upon that tree would by His death bring about the destruction of the
Jewish empire. Solomon therefore caused the tree to be taken and
ordered it to be buried in the bowels of the earth. Thus in the spot
where it was buried the Piscina probatica was hollowed out, and it was not
only because of the descent of the angel, but also because of the virtue of
the wood, that the waters were moved which restored health to the sick.
When the time of the Passion of Christ drew near, this beam arose from
beneath the waters; and the Jews, on beholding it, begged for it, and
fashioned the cross of the Lord therefrom."-See Légende Dorée, vol. ii.,
p. 109.
† Matt. xiv. 15.
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
309
Christ heals the daughter of the woman of Canaan.*
Christ blessing, surrounded by apostles; a woman prostrate at
His feet. A little further on, behind this woman, a young girl laid
upon a bed. A demon issues from her mouth.
Christ healing a stammerer.
The same as the dumb demoniac. (See p. 306.)
Christ blessing the seven loaves.†
Seven loaves and some little fishes in a basket. Christ, looking
up to heaven, blesses them. The apostles, two by two, carry
baskets filled with bread to be divided among the crowd. The
others distribute them.
A town.
Christ curing the blind man at Bethsaida.‡
Christ outside the town. Before Christ a blind man
holding a staff; the Saviour touches his eyes with the right hand.
The apostles stand near.
The Transfiguration.
A mountain with three summits and peaks. Christ stands in
white garments upon the middle one; He blesses. A radiating
light surrounds Him. On the peak to the right, Moses appears,
holding the tables of the Law. The prophet Elias on that to the
left. Both are standing, and gaze supplicatingly at Christ. Below
Christ, Peter, James, and John lie prostrate, with heads upturned ;
they appear lost in ecstasy. Behind, on the mountain side, Christ
is again seen mounting with the three apostles, and showing them
the top of the mountain. On the other side the disciples are seen
descending in fear, and looking behind. Christ, coming after them,
blesses them. (See vol. i. p. 117, fig. 39.)
Christ heals the lunatic child of the archon.§
Christ, standing, with the apostles. Before him, at his feet, a
youth, chained and laid on his back, as if dead. With the foam
proceeding from his mouth, a demon issues also. The father is on
his knees, holding out his hands towards Christ.
* Matt. xv. 22.
Mark viii. 22
Matt. xv. 36.
§ Matt. xvii. 14.
310
APPENDIX II.
Christ, with Peter, paying the didrachma (tribute-money).*
The sea-shore. Peter, with bare feet, and almost without
clothing, is seated on a stone, and holds a fish attached to a sprig of
straw. A little further on, Christ and Peter may be seen giving the
silver to a soldier.
Christ blessing a little child.†
Christ, seated, holds a little child with one hand; He blesses it
with the other, and, showing it to the apostles, He says: "Whoso-
ever shall humble himself as this little child, the same is greatest
in the kingdom of heaven." The apostles look at one another in
astonishment.
Christ questioned by a doctor of law.‡
Christ seated; the disciples stand behind Him. A doctor of law,
an old man with veiled head, holds a closed book in his hand; he
stands before Christ and questions Him.
Christ received into the home of Martha and Mary.
A house. Within it, Christ seated upon a chair; behind Him,
the apostles. Mary, seated at His feet, gazes up to Him and listens
eagerly. Opposite to Him, a table laid. Martha brings a plate to
this table with more viands; she looks at Christ.
Christ, in the synagogue, cures the woman with the spirit of
infirmity.§
The temple. A woman, quite bent down, leans upon a stick.
Christ stands before her; He places His hand upon the head of this
woman; He stretches out the other towards the Pharisees, looking
at them. The chief of the synagogue points out Christ in the
crowd, towards whom He turns His face. The apostles, standing
behind Christ, are in astonishment.
Christ heals the dropsical man.
A house. Within, Christ with the apostles. Before Him, a
dropsical man, naked, only wearing drawers. He is much swollen;
he leans on two crutches and looks at Christ. All around, a crowd
of Jews.
*Matt. xvii. 24.
Luke x. 25-28.
+ Matt. xviii. 4.
§ Luke xiii. 11.
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
311
Christ healing the ten lepers.
The enclosure of a town. Christ with His disciples. Before Him
ten lepers naked, only wearing calicon, their bodies all covered
with wounds. Christ blesses them.
Christ blessing little children.
Christ seated. Women lead little children before Him. The
apostles wish to repulse them, but Christ gives them His bene-
diction,
Christ questioned by the rich youth.*
Houses. Christ seated. Behind Him the apostles; before Him
the rich youth, respectfully questioning Him.
Christ teaching the sons of Zebedee.
Christ standing. Before Him, James and John, their hands
stretched out towards Him; their mother near them, kneeling, her
hands and eyes raised towards Christ. He stretches out one hand,
and holds a scroll in the other: "You know not what you ask."
Behind Him, the other apostles regard James and John with
indignation.
Christ enters into Jericho.
The walls of a city.
Outside the gates, Christ standing; the
apostles behind Him. Before Him, a blind man holding a staff;
Christ blesses him.
JA
Christ calling Zacchæus.†
A city and a numerous company; a sycamore-tree in the midst,
on the top of which is a man of small stature, with grey hair. He
wears a short and narrow dress; his head is covered with a hand-
kerchief, and his eyes are fixed on Christ. Christ and His apostles
look at him from below; He blesses him with one hand; with the
other He holds a scroll, on which is written: "Zacchæus, haste thee
to descend."
Christ leaving Jericho.
The same as above, only that the faces of the blind men should
be different, for the sake of variety.
The temple.
Christ absolves the adulterous woman.
Christ is seated writing on the ground, and says:
"Let him who is without sin among you throw the first stone."
* Mark x. 21.
+ Luke xix. 5.
312
APPENDIX II.
Behind Jesus, the apostles; before Him, a woman, standing, her
hands crossed upon her breast. Scribes and Pharisees fly, looking
behind.
Christ on the point of being stoned by the Jews.
Christ teaching. The apostles hear Him; all round, the Jews
holding stones.
Christ cures the man born blind.
The streets of the city of Jerusalem. A blind youth kneeling
upon a stick with a knapsack slung upon his shoulders; his toes
outside his shoes. He is standing before Christ. Near Him the
blind youth is again seen washing his eyes in the water of a pool.
Christ a second time in danger of being stoned.
The same as before.
The resurrection of Lazarus.
A mountain with two peaks; behind the walls of a city of con-
siderable size. The Hebrews in tears issue from the gates and
advance towards the centre of the mountain in the background.
Before this mountain is a tomb; a man has raised a stone by which
it is covered. Lazarus stands upright in the midst of the tomb;
another man takes off his winding-sheet. Christ blesses him with
one hand; in the other He holds a scroll, and says, “Lazarus come
forth." Behind Him are the apostles. Martha and Mary prostrate
themselves in adoration at the feet of Jesus.
Mary, sister of Lazarus,
A house. Within, a table, before which Christ is seated, with the
apostles, with Lazarus and Simon, his father. Mary, on her knees
before the Saviour, dries His feet with her hair and embraces them;
near her, a glass vase with narrow neck. Opposite, Martha carries
a reed in her hand and looks at Christ with astonishment. Judas
indignant, points out the vase of myrrh to the others.
The Festival of Palms.
The walls of a city. A mountain outside. Christ, seated on an
ass, gives his benediction. Behind Him, the apostles; before Him, a
tree upon a mountain. Children with hatchets cut branches from
THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL.
313
this tree, and strew them on the ground. Another child, having
climbed a tree, looks down at Christ from the branches. Below,
several children near the ass. Some carry branches, others throng
round Him, others spread garments, others throw armfuls of branches
under His feet. Outside the city gate stand Jews, men and women,
carrying children in their arms, upon their shoulders, and holding
branches; others watch Christ from the summits of the walls and
the city gates.
Christ drives the salesmen and the merchants from the Temple.
The temple. Inside, tables and hanging cases, pieces of money
scattered, here and there, upon the ground. Some men dragging
oxen, others sheep, others asses; others carry doves. They wear
fur caps upon their heads or veils or hats. They take flight, look-
ing behind them frightened. Christ, armed with a whip, pursues
them in anger. The apostles follow Him.
Christ heals the blind and the lame in the Temple.
The temple. Christ inside. The apostles are behind Him, the
blind and the lame, before Him. Some lean on crutches, others hold
staff. Christ blesses them.
Christ curses a fig-tree.
A fortified city. Outside are mountains and a fig-tree, barren,
and with withered leaves. Christ, looking at it, stretches His hand
towards it. Behind, the apostles astonished.
Christ questioned by a lawyer.
✔Christ seated with the apostles. Before Him, a crowd of scribes
and pharisees, who converse; one among them turns his face to-
wards Christ and speaks to Him.
Christ commends the widow's pennies.
The temple. A box into which Pharisees and archontes throw
coins, some of gold and some of silver. In the midst of them a
widow throws in two pennies. Christ seated opposite points out the
widow to the disciples, and says on His scroll: "Verily I say
unto you, this woman hath cast in more than they all.
314
APPENDIX II.
Christ in the house of Simon; a woman anoints his head with
myrrh.
A house. Christ seated at the table with Simon and the
apostles. A young servant. Behind Christ a woman carrying a
glass vase, which she breaks above the head of Jesus.
THE HOLY PASSION.
The compact of Judas with the Jews,
A house. Within, Annas and Caiaphas seated on thrones; the
scribes and Pharisees seated around them. In front, a chest, on
which one among them counts out the silver. Judas before the
chest; he extends his hands towards the silver which Annas shows
him.
The holy ablution.
A house. Peter, seated upon a seat, points to his feet with one
hand; he places the other upon his head.* Christ kneeling before
him, His robe raised and fastened with a towel for a girdle; He takes
the foot of Peter with one hand and stretches out the other towards
him. Before the knees of Christ stands a basin of water and a ewer.
The other apostles seated behind talk to each other; many of them
fasten their shoes.
In another place Christ is again seen seated and again dressed.
He extends one hand to His disciples, and with the other He holds a
scroll, on which He says: "Verily I say unto you, one of you shall
betray Me." The apostles, behind Him, look at Him alarmed, and
speak to one another.
The mystic meal.
A house. Inside a table with bread and plates full of viands; a
cup and a large flask of wine. Christ seated at this table with His
apostles. John at His left side leaning on His breast; Judas † to the
right stretches out his hand towards a dish and looks at Christ.
The prayer of Christ.
A garden with trees. In the middle, Christ on His knees, His
hands and eyes raised to heaven; drops of blood fall from His face
*By this action signifying the disciple's words: "Not my feet only, but
also my hands and my head." This treatment of the subject is found
among the sculptures in the cloister of the cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris.
† Judas is represented with a dark nimbus. See vol. i., p. 157.
THE HOLY PASSION.
315
upon the ground. An angel above, surrounded by a great light,
stretches out his hands towards Him. A little behind Christ, Peter,
James, and John asleep. Above, Christ may be seen again taking
Peter by his mantle and holding a scroll with these words:
“Is it thus that you have strength to watch with me?”
The treason of Judas.
A garden. Judas in the midst embracing Christ, who gives him
the kiss of peace. Behind Judas, Peter, and, below him, a young
soldier* on his knees, whose ear he strikes with his sword. Soldiers
stand round Christ, some with naked swords, others with lances,
others with lanterns and torches; others seize Christ and strike Him.
Judgment of Christ.
A palace. An old man with a great beard, in ample robes and
with a large mitre-shaped hat,† stands upon his throne and rends
his garments. Caiaphas, grey-haired and with a long beard, is at
his side, filled with indignation. Before them Christ, bound.
servant strikes Him; other soldiers maltreat Him. Scribes and
Pharisees. Two men, standing up before Christ, point Him out to
Annas.
The third denial of Peter.
A
Below the palace of Annas, where Christ is condemned, Peter is
standing on a slight eminence. Before him, a fire may be seen and
two soldiers warming themselves at it and questioning Peter.
Further on, Peter near the gate of the palace, much terrified and
stretching out his arms; a young girl shows him Christ. Above,
upon a window, a cock crows. Peter is again seen in another place,
weeping.
Christ condemned.
A palace. Pilate, young, with a large beard and splendid
vestments; his head-dress embroidered with gold. He is seated
upon a throne. Before him, Christ bound, led by soldiers. A
crowd of scribes and Pharisees point out Jesus to Pilate.
Judas detests his crime and hangs himself.
The temple. Annas and Caiaphas, scribes and Pharisees seated
before them. A chest. Judas, standing a little bent down, with
* Malchus.
† A kind of mitre with two points; the hat of the high priest.
316
APPENDIX II.
his two hands throws the pieces of silver down upon the chest.
The others with one hand on their breast stretch out the other to
Judas. Outside the temple are mountains, Judas hanging to a
tree so that the branches bend beneath his weight till his toes touch
the ground.
Christ condemned by Herod.
A palace. Herod, an old man with round beard, in regal robes,
is seated upon a throne. Behind him are soldiers; Christ is before
him, and two soldiers clothe him in white. Behind, a crowd of
Jews are seen.
Pilate washes his hands.
A palace. Pilate seated on a throne, his eyes turned towards the
Jews. One man before him, carrying a basin and ewer, pours out
the water and washes his hands. Behind him a youth whispers
in his ear. Near the throne another youth writes these. words on a
scroll: "Lead out this Jesus of Nazareth to the public place of
execution and fasten Him to a cross, between two thieves, for He
hath corrupted the people, insulted Cæsar, and, as witnessed by the
wise men of the people, He hath falsely proclaimed Himself to be
Messiah." The Christ stands before him, soldiers seize upon Him.
Annas, Caiaphas and other Jews lay their hands upon the heads of
a group of children who stand before them, look towards Pilate
and approve his sentence.
The Flagellation.
The Christ, his hands tied behind Him, is fastened to a column;
His body is covered with stripes. Two soldiers flog Him.
Christ mocked.*
Christ stripped, only clothed in the purple chlamys, a crown of
thorns upon His head, and a reed in His right hand.. Soldiers
stand around laughing at Him: some kneel, others strike Him on
the head with a rod.
Christ bearing His Cross.
Mountains. Soldiers, on foot and on horseback, surround Christ;
some among them carry a standard. Christ, exhausted, falls to the
earth and supports Himself with one hand. Standing before Him
Simon the Cyrenian may be seen, grey-haired and with a round
* Matt. xxvii. 25.
THE HOLY PASSION.
317
beard, wearing a short dress. He takes the cross upon His own
shoulders. Behind Him may be seen the Holy Virgin, John
Theologos, and other women weeping. A soldier pushes them back
with his baton.
Christ nailed to the Cross.
A crowd of Jews and soldiers seen upon a mountain. A cross
laid upon the ground in their midst. The body of Christ upon it.
Three soldiers hold it by ropes at the arms and foot. Other soldiers
bring nails and drive them with a hammer through His feet and
hands. In another place Christ is seen standing before the cross.
A soldier holds a cup of wine to His mouth; but Christ turns away
His head and refuses to drink.
The Crucifixion of Christ.
Christ upon the cross on a mountain. At each side of Him the
thieves are to be seen, crucified. The thief to the right, a grey-
haired man with round beard, says to Christ, "Lord, remember me
when thou comest into Thy kingdom." He to the left, young and
beardless, turns back and says to Him: "If thou art the Christ, save
Thyself and us." A tablet may be seen, nailed to the top of the
cross of Christ, on which are these characters, I.N.R.I. Below and
to the right, a soldier on horseback pierces the right side of Christ ;
water and blood flow forth. Behind Him, the mother of Christ
may be seen insensible; other women, carrying myrrh, support her.
Near her John Theologos stands in sorrow, his cheek resting on his
hand.* St. Longinus the centurion looks at Christ; he raises his
hand and blesses God. A soldier on horseback to the left holds
a sponge attached to the end of a rod, which he reaches to
the mouth of Christ. Near at hand are other soldiers, scribes,
pharisees, and a crowd of people. Some speak to each other and
point to Christ; others look at Him terrified; others con-
temptuously; others stretch out their hands to Him, saying, "He
saved others, Himself He cannot save." Three soldiers are seated
and parting His garments among them. The central figure in this
group has his eyes shut, and is stretching out his hands towards
those of the others on the right and left. At the foot of the cross is
*This gesture is very common in the Latin Crucifixions, especially
of the Roman period. See vol. i. supra, fig. 3, p. 29.
318
APPENDIX II.
a little hollow, inside which may be seen the skull of Adam and two
cross-bones stained by the blood that falls from the feet of Christ.*
Joseph demanding the Lord's body.
A palace. Pilate within, seated on a throne. A soldier at his
back holds a sword in its sheath. Joseph, an old man, bent, stands
before Pilate stretching out his hands towards him. The centurion
between Joseph and Pilate speaks to the latter.
The Descent from the Cross.
Mountains. The cross fixed in the ground with a ladder placed
against it. Joseph mounts to the top of the ladder, clasps Christ
round the waist, and lets Him down. Below is the Holy Virgin,
standing. She receives the body in her arms, and kisses the face.
Behind her, women † may be seen carrying perfumes, Mary Mag-
dalene takes the left hand of Christ and kisses it. Behind Joseph
stands John Theologos, and kisses the right hand of Christ. Nicode-
mus is bending down, extracting the nails from the feet of Christ
with the help of pincers; a basket at His side. Below the cross
the head of Adam may be seen, as in the Crucifixion.
The Lamentation at the tomb.‡
A great square tomb. Below it a winding-sheet unfolded, upon
which the body of Christ is laid, naked. The Holy Virgin, kneeling,
bends over Him and kisses His face. Joseph kisses His feet, and
the Theologos,§ His right hand. Behind Joseph, Nicodemus, leaning
upon the ladder, gazes at Christ. Near the Virgin, Mary Magdalene
throwing up her arms to heaven and weeping; the other women,
who carried spices, tear their hair. Behind them the cross with its
inscription may be seen. Above Christ, the basket of Nicodemus,
containing nails, pincers, and hammer; near that a vase in the form
of a small bottle.
*See vol. i., page 271: note on the nails and the chalice in the Cruci-
fixion; also fig. 68, p. 269.
These women are the myrrhophora of whom mention will be made
further on.
We have an echo, as it were, from the funereal rites of antiquity in
this term, "the lamentation."
§ St. John the Evangelist. The Greeks surnamed him the Theologian.
because he spoke more clearly than the other evangelists about God and
the divinity of the Word.
THE HOLY PASSION.
319
Christ laid in the tomb.
A mountain, and a stone tomb on the side. Nicodemus carries
the body of Christ in its shroud. He supports the head. Outside
the tomb the Holy Virgin clasps the body in her arms, and covers
it with kisses. Joseph supports the knees, and John, bending down
a little, holds the feet. The women who carry the myrrh weep.
The cross may be seen behind the mountain.
The soldiers watching the tomb.
A marble tomb, sealed with four seals. The soldiers sleep around:
some lean against their bucklers, others are on their knees, others
on their hands. St. Longinus, the centurion, seated in their midst
in perplexity. Before the tomb the women bearing myrrh, seated
and weeping. One holds a small case in her hands; another, a
small glass vase.
The Descent into Hell.
Hell, like a dark cave, beneath the mountains. Radiant angels
chain Beelzebub, the Prince of Darkness; they strike at other
demons, and pursue others with their lances. Several men, naked
and fettered, look upwards. A large number of broken locks
may be seen. The gates of hell are cast down; Christ tramples
them beneath His feet. The Saviour takes Adam by the right
hand, and Eve by the left. To the left of the Saviour; the Har-
binger points to Him with his forefinger. David is near Him, as well
as other righteous kings, with crowns and aureoles. To the left the
Prophets Jonas, Isaiah, and Jeremiah; the righteous Abel, and
many others with aureoles. A brilliant light and crowd of angels
all around.
The Resurrection of Christ.
The tomb half open; two angels, clothed in white, seated at each
end. Christ tramples on the stone which covered the tomb. He
blesses with the right hand, while He holds the banner with the
golden cross in the left. Some of the soldiers below take flight;
others lie, as if dead, upon the ground. In the distance are the
women carrying myrrh.
An angel appears to the women carrying myrrh, and announces
the Resurrection to them.
The open tomb. Angel clothed in white is seated on the lid; he
holds a lance with one hand, and with the other points to he
320
APPENDIX II.
shroud and winding-sheet in the bottom of the tomb. The women
bearing myrrh; they hold vases in their hands.
Christ appears to the myrrh-bearers, saying "Rejoice ye."
Christ standing, His two hands raised in blessing. The Holy
Virgin on His right; Mary Magdalene on His left. They fall on
their knees and embrace His feet.
Peter and John, arriving at the Tomb, believe in the Resurrection.
The tomb. Peter stoops to look within, and touches the shroud
with his hands. John standing outside, looks on with astonish-
ment. Near him, Mary Magdalene weeping.
Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene.*
The tomb; two angels in white are seated above it. Before the
tomb, Christ, standing, holds His mantle in one hand; in the other
He carries a scroll, on which is written: "Mary, touch Me not!"
Mary, kneeling before Him, prays that she may touch His feet.
Christ, at Emmaus, recognised by Luke and Cleophas in the
breaking of bread.
A house. A table and viands inside. Luke and Cleophas seated
Christ seated between them; He holds the bread and
near.
blesses it.
Christ, appearing to the two Apostles, eats before them.
A house. The apostles inside, and Christ among them. Peter
stands before Him, holding a plate, on which is half a fish and a
honeycomb. Christ with the right hand blesses the plate; He
takes the fish and honey with the left.
The touch of Thomas.
A house; Christ within. Raising His right hand in the air, He
lifts His garment with the left, and reveals the wound in His right
side. Thomas standing near Him in fear puts one hand into the
* This subject has been sculptured, about the end of the thirteenth
century, in the cloister of the choir of Notre Dame de Paris, on the south
side. In the Cathedral of Autun, a "Noli me Tangere " of the Renaissance.
period is one of the most gracious images we know of. The perfection
with which the draperies are executed is especially to be noticed.
THE HOLY PASSION.
321
hollow of the wound, and holds a scroll in the other, whereon he
says: "My Lord and my God!" The other apostles stand round
in wonder.
Christ appearing to the Apostles on the shore of the Lake of
Tiberias.
The lake. In the midst a vessel, on which ten of the apostles
are seen drawing in a net filled with fish. Christ, standing on the
shore of the sea, blesses the apostles. Peter, naked, plunges into
the sea and approaches Him. Behind Christ, fish on a fire of
charcoal.
Christ's threefold question to Peter.
The sea.
A ship drawn up on shore. The apostles have left it
Christ, standing, looks at Peter, and holds a scroll, on which he
says: "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me?" Peter, before him
standing awe-stricken, says upon his scroll: "Lord, Thou knowest
all things: Thou knowest that I love Thee."
Christ appears to the Apostles upon the Mount of Galilee.
A mountain. Christ, standing, blesses with two hands. Before
Him Peter and the other apostles, their hands stretched out towards
Him.
The Ascension of Christ.
A mountain with a grove of olive-trees. Above, the apostles,
astonished, with hands outstretched, gaze up to heaven. The Virgin
Mother in their midst also gazes upwards. Two angels clothed in
white at her side point out the rising Christ to the apostles. The
angels hold scrolls. The angel on the right says: "Ye men of
Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" The other saith:
"This same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven, shall
so come in like manner as ye have seen Him go into heaven."
Above them, the Christ seated upon clouds, arises into heaven; He
is received by a multitude of angels, with trumpets and cymbals
and many instruments of music.
The Descent of the Holy Spirit.
A house.* Twelve apostles seated in a circle. Under them a
little vault, in the midst of which an aged man holds, in both hands
❖ This is the guest-chamber.
VOL II.
Y
322
APPENDIX II.
before him, a sheet containing twelve scrolls rolled up; he wears a
crown upon his head. Above him this inscription: "The World."
Above the house the Holy Spirit is seen in the form of a dove; a
great light all around. Twelve tongues of fire escape from this
dove and rest upon the apostles.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
The Parable of the Seed.†
The subject is painted in this manner: Christ stands teaching;
He holds the gospel. Four orders of men stand before Him. The
first, those who pass along the wayside talking to one another,
regardless of Christ; demons hold them in a leash. The second
order, those on stony ground: men appearing to listen gladly.
Idols are behind them; they turn and worship them. A tyrant
and his soldiers menace them with naked swords. The third order,
those among thorns: men carousing and eating with women;
demons standing near them. The fourth order, those who are on
good ground: monks at prayer in grottoes before images of Christ
and the Virgin, surrounded by lights. Others appear as deacons,
priests, or laity, at prayer in churches or monasteries.
The Parable of the Tares.‡
Christ with the gospel. Before Him a great crowd, some of
whom appear to be patriarchs, some martyrs, and others saints, with
nimbi round their heads. Angels stand near them. Heretics with
* The personification of the World under the figure of an old man,
crowned, is introduced here to indicate that, after the descent of the Holy
Spirit, the apostles will be dispersed throughout all the earth to teach,
convert and baptise all nations. The twelve rolls that the World holds in
his lap, are the Gospels, written in twelve different languages, and each
apostle takes his own. This personification of the World on the day of
Pentecost is quite peculiar to the Byzantines; it does not exist with us. In
the catholicon of Chilandari at Mount Athos, the World is replaced by the
prophet Joel. He is crowned as a king, and he holds twelve rolls upon a
sheet. His name is painted near his head. The reason this prophet is
chosen to fill the office of the World at Pentecost is that he said: "I will
pour out My Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters will
prophecy; your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see
visions, and also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days
will I pour out My Spirit."
+ "A sower went forth to sow his seed." (Mark iv. 2.)
"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a man which sowed good seed."
(Matt. xiii. 24.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
323
demons on their shoulders are in the middle. Hell and paradise
appear at the side. Angels lead the orthodox into paradise; the
demons bind the heretics in chains and drag them into hell.
Parable of the Mustard Seed.*
Description.-Christ in a tomb. A tree issues from His mouth;
the apostles among its branches with open scrolls. Below, men are
looking up to the apostles.
Parable of the Leaven.†
Description.-Christ holds the gospel, and says: "Go teach all
people." Before Him, the apostles baptise; some preach to others.
An innumerable multitude assembled before them.
Parable of the Treasure.‡
Description.-St. Paul saying upon a scroll: "We speak the
hidden wisdom."§ Men and women stand around; precious ob-
jects, books, and silver are scattered on the ground behind. Others
are seen to shatter idols.
The Parable of the Searcher for Goodly Pearls.||
Description.-Christ stands upright in the act of blessing.
Before Him the holy King of India, Josaphat, ¶ clad in ecclesiastical
robes, stands respectfully. Near the king stands St. Barlaam,** who
points with his finger to Christ, saying on his scroll: "Behold the
goodly pearl." Behind him lie a crown, kingly robes, riches and
fragments of shattered idols cast upon the ground. The Greek
sages stand near, holding their scrolls. These words may be read
above the figure of Christ: "Jesus Christ, the pearl of great
price."
* "The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed." (Matt.
riii. 31.)
+ "The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven." (Matt. xiii. 33.)
66
$ The kingdom of heaven is like unto a treasure hid in a field."
(Matt. xiii. 44.)
"Which God ordained before the world unto our glory." (1 Cor. ii. 7.)
Matt. xiii. 45.
See the Légende Dorée : De Sanctis Barlaam et Josaphet.
** This is in allusion to the legend of Barlaam the Saint, who dwelt in
the desert of Sennaar, and who possessed a pearl of such wondrous virtue
that, if a man approached it whose eye was not single or heart pure, he
would become powerless.
Y 2
324
APPENDIX II.
The Parable of the Net.*
Description.-A crowd of people belonging to different nations.
The apostles stand around. To the right, behind the apostles,
paradise may be seen, and Peter in the midst surrounded by a great
crowd. To the left, hell may be seen, and men being chastised by
demons.
The Parable of the Hundred Sheep.†
Description.-The heavens. Nine orders of angels in the highest
heaven, with an empty throne in the centre. Below, the Descent of
Christ into Hell may be seen. (See above, page 98.)
The Parable of the Drachm.‡
Description.-Christ crucified; a great light surrounds Him. A
number of men are breaking their idols; others are being baptised;
others, like the Greek monks, are praying in grottoes. Others, on
their knees, prostrate themselves before the cross. Heaven is seen
above the cross, with the nine orders of angels holding harps and
trumpets. Christ is seen throned in their midst. He holds Adam
with one hand, and a scroll with the other, on which He says:
"Rejoice with Me, for I have found the piece which I had lost."
Parable of the Debtor for ten thousand talents.§
Description.-Christ seated as a king upon His throne, blessing.
He is surrounded by angels. Before Him a man kneels, saying:
"Have patience with me, and I will pay Thee all." Demons are
behind Him, carrying a number of written papers. Further on the
same man may be seen behind Christ, and dragging another man to
prison, saying these words, "Pay me that thou owest." Again, we
see Christ in another place seated; two angels look at Him and
point out this man. The man subsequently appears before Christ
and is dragged away by demons, who bind him in hell.
Parable of the Labourers hired for the day.
(Matt. xiii. 47.)
(Luke xv. 4.)
(Luke xv. 8.)
Description.-Christ standing. The holy patriarchs are seen
* "The kingdom of heaven is like unto a net."
"What man of you having a hundred sheep."
“What woman having ten pieces of silver."
The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a certain king which would
take account of his servants." (Matt. xviii. 23.)
"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is an householder,
which went out early in the morning to hire labourers." (Matt. xx. i.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
325
behind the Saviour, divided into four companies or orders. Enoch
offering sacrifice, Noah carrying an ark, and other aged men at
prayer with him, compose the first order. Above them is written,
"The labourers of the first hour." To the second order belong
Abraham sacrificing Isaac, Isaac blessing Jacob, Jaccb blessing his
twelve sons. Above them is written, "The labourers of the third
hour." To the third order belong Moses holding his tables and
teaching the Hebrews; Aaron and other righteous men stand near
him. Above them is written: "The labourers of the eighth hour."
In the fourth order are the prophets, some stoned, some sawn
asunder, some in chains. Above them is written, "The labourers
of the ninth hour." The apostles and the multitude kneel before
Christ. Above them is written, "The labourers of the eleventh
hour." Christ again appears in another part of the composition, ir
paradise, with a crowd of angels and the orders of the saints. The
apostles are seated near. The righteous Enoch and those belonging
to his order hold crowns in their hands; they say to Christ, pointing
out the apostles to Him: "These last have wrought but one hour,
and Thou hast made them equal unto us, which have borne the
burden and heat of the day." Christ answers gently: "My friend,
I do thee no wrong; didst not thou agree with Me for a penny?
Take that thine is, and go thy way."
The Parable of the Two Sons.'
Description.-Christ standing. At one side of Him are seen the
Jews, scribes and pharisees. The scribes turn from Him, despising
his words. On the other side publicans, fallen women, and heathens
prostrate themselves before Him.
Parable of the wicked Husbandmen.|
Description.-A town. The temple and sanctuary. The doctors
holding papers and teaching; a crowd of Hebrews before them. In
the midst of the sanctuary the Prophet Zecharias may be seen, with
a soldier cutting his throat. Outside the temple, a king strikes the
Prophet Micah in the face. Close by, men stone the Prophet
Zachariah, son of Judas. Outside the town, the Crucifixion of Christ
upon a mountain may be seen.
"A certain man had two sons; and he came to the first, and said,
Son, go work to-day in my vineyard." (Matt. xxi. 28.)
"There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard.'
xxi. 33.)
(Matt.
326
APPENDIX II.
The Parable of the Corner-stone.*
Description. A church. The apostles, patriarchs and saints are
inside, teaching and baptising. Greeks and Hebrews embrace.
Christ is above, blessing them. Close at hand is Jerusalem on fire;
soldiers issuing forth in pursuit of the Jews. The Prophet Isaiah
points to Christ, and says upon his scroll: "Behold I lay in Zion
for a foundation a stone, a tried stone, a precious corner-stone, a sure
foundation he that believeth shall not be deceived.”
Parable of the Marriage Feast of the King's Son.†
Description.-A church. Outside, at one side, Jews are seen
counting money; oxen and other animals before them. Elsewhere,
women amuse themselves with music and dancing. In another part
of the composition Isaiah suffers martyrdom-is being sawn in two.
Again, Jeremiah is seen thrown by the people into a pit full of filth.
At the other side of the church the apostles are represented as
teaching. Before them stand heathen, publicans, fallen women, all
casting themselves at their feet, and breaking their idols. A table
stands in the midst of the church, on which a cup and plate are
placed. The orders of the angels and choir of saints, all clothed in
white and bearing lamps, are ranged in circles round. In the midst
a man in squalid garments may be seen. Demons bind his feet and
hands, and drag him towards hell. Christ, clothed in a regal and
patriarchial costume, standing near him, says upon a scroll:
Friend, how comest thou in hither, not having a wedding
garment?"
(6
Parable of the Great Supper.‡
Description.-Christ standing, in the act of blessing, surrounded
by the apostles. Jews, doctors, and pharisees are to His left. Some
are eating and drinking, others carry on their business. The monks
prostrate themselves at the feet of Christ. On the other side the
apostles are teaching the heathen, who also kneel before Him.
Parable of the Talents.§
Description.-Paradise.—Outside, Christ seated like a king upon
* "The stone which the builders rejected," &c. (Matt. xxi. 42.)
+ "The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a certain king." (Matt. xxii.
i. 14.)
"A certain man made a great supper, and bade many.” (Luke xiv. 16.)
"A man travelling into a far country, called his servants and gave
them his goods." (Matt. xxv. v.14.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
327
a throne; angels placed in a circle around Him. To His right, a
holy high priest, and a holy priest holding the gospels, gaze upon
Christ and draw His attention to a crowd of holy men and women
in the background. Christ blesses them. On the left-hand side,
presents the gospel to him with one hand, and points to it with the
other hand, saying, "Lo there, that is thine." Demons behind force
him down to hell.
Parable of the houses builded on a rock, or on the sand.*
Description.-Christ.
The apostles behind Him; before Him
are two men, one old and the other young, both of whom are
listening eagerly to His words. Further on, the old man is seen
praying in a grotto. Fallen women and demons surround him and
fire darts at him. Other men pull him by his garments. In
another part of the composition the young man is seen eating and
drinking at table with women, while demons watch him-laughing.
Parable of the blind leader.†
Description.-High priests, Pharisees, and doctors are seen teach-
ing. Demons on their shoulders are bandaging their eyes. Jesus
stands before them and appears to listen. Demons cover their eyes
also. Other demons, having cast a cord around them, drag them
into hell. Christ, standing in the distance, points them out to His
disciples, and says to them, on His scroll, "If a blind man lead
another blind man, both shall fall into the ditch.”
The Parable of the Ten Virgins.‡
Description.-Paradise. Christ looks out from the interior. The
five wise virgins carrying lighted lamps are behind Him. The five
foolish virgins are outside, holding their lamps, which have gone
out; they knock at the door of Paradise, saying: "Lord, Lord, open
unto us." But Christ answers, "Verily I say unto you I know
you
* "Every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them."
(Matt. vii. 26.)
"If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch." (Matt.
xv. 14.)
"The kingdom of heaven shall be likened unto ten virgins." (Matt.
XXV. 1.)
328
APPENDIX II.
}
not." Tombs may be seen further on. Above an angel sounds a
trumpet.*
The Parable of the Man who fell among Thieves.†
Description.-Paradise. A fiery sword at the gate: Adam and
Eve outside, naked and weeping. Further on a crowd of men, some
worshipping idols, cats and dogs; others sacrificing oxen; others
sacrificing men to idols; others eating and drinking with women.
Moses on one side, with the Tables of the Law, and Aaron turn to
look at them. The prophet Isaiah also, on the other side, turns back
to look at them. Further on a church may be seen, in which the
apostles are baptising some, teaching others, or administering the
Communion. Christ in front presents the Tables of the Law and the
Book of St. Paul with one hand, and with the other carries His cross
upon His shoulders, and points at the aforesaid persons behind Him.
The parable of the Unjust Judge.‡
Description.-Christ above in heaven. Below Him an ecclesiastic
*This subject is one of the most common in our Gothic and Roman-
esque sculpture. The ten virgins appear as statues larger than life in the
cathedral of Strasburg; as statues, half life-size, in the cathedral of Rheims;
as statuettes in the churches of St. Denis and St. Germain l'Auxerrois.
The same subject occurs three times in the side porches of the cathedral of
Chartres; twice in the cathedral of Paris, and also at Amiens. The wise
virgins, generally dressed as nuns, with long robes and wearing veils,
carry their lamps lighted, and carefully trim them; the foolish, generally
women of the world, with bare heads, or wearing circular fluted hats and
clothes clinging tightly to the figure, hold their lamps upside down, and
without wicks or oil. The calm faces of the wise, and the troubled faces
of the foolish reveal the nature of their souls. A withered olive-tree,
without fruit or leaves, grows at the side of the foolish, and a healthy
olive-tree, laden with ripe fruit and ready with abundance of oil, is beside
the wise, in the cathedral of Amiens. At Strasburg, and on a glass window
in the cathedral of Troyes, Christ leads the wise, and Satan the foolish,
virgins. At St. Germain l'Auxerrois, in the top of a voussoir, Christ
leans out of heaven holding a scroll in each hand; the one for the foolish
is inscribed: "I know you not; " that for the wise: "Watch and pray." In
Freiburg-in-Breisgau, where they are seen as statues at each side within
the porch, a little angel holds a scroll on which we read: "Watch and
pray." At the cathedral of Rheims a temple with closed doors is seen near
the foolish and beside the wise, a church with folding doors thrown open,
which is a figure of Paradise. Occasionally, as in the cathedrals of Rheims
and Laon, the foolish virgins wear the nimbus as well as the wise: we
have pointed out and tried to explain this curious point at p. 136, vol. i.
of this work.
+ Luke x. 30.
"There was in a city a judge who feared not God," &c. (Lukexviii. 1.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
329
is praying, but tormented by heretics, who in their turn are pursued
by an angel armed with a sword. Farther on a young saint may
be seen in the midst of the fire. Water falls from heaven to refresh
her. Two angels stand near her. In another part a saint is
kneeling at prayer. He is surrounded by demons who shoot arrows
at him; the angel of the Lord puts them to flight.
The Parable of the Prodigal Son.*
Description. The temple and the altar. Near the temple the
elder son at prayer. Close at hand the younger son is shown
eating and drinking with low women. This prodigal son is again
seen in the midst of the temple. Christ administers the Communion
to him. The apostles anoint him with myrrh and give him a
Cross. Choirs of angels around the altar sing their joy with harps
and trumpets, and other instruments of music. Outside the temple,
Christ is again seen taking the prodigal son in His arms, and kissing
his face. In another place, again, Christ calls the elder son to
Him, and says upon His scroll: "My son, thou art ever with Me,
and all that I have is thine." The son looks at Him and turns
away.t
Parable of the Rich Man who had great Possessions.‡
Description.-Houses. A man wearing a purple robe and fur
hat looks much embarrassed. Before him lie heaps of corn. Men
overturn his granaries and rebuild others. A little farther on the
same man is seen again, reclining on his couch of gold. Demons,
with three-pronged forks, stand around him, preying on his soul.
Parable of the wicked Rich Man and Lazarus the beggar.§
Description.-A palace. Inside, a table is seen, set out with a
variety of dishes. A man arrayed in rich and splendid dress is
"A certain man had two sons; the younger of them said to his
father .. (Luke xv.)
""
†The parable of the prodigal son is one of the most common subjects
in Gothic art, especially in stained glass. It is found treated with elabo-
rate detail on the windows of the cathedrals of Chartres and Bourges.
But, in Western art, the parable itself is literally represented, not its in-
terpretation, as with the Greeks, and as prescribed in our Guide. [See
Monographie de la Cathédrale de Chartres, publiée par le Ministère de
I'Instruction publique, lière livraison; et Les Vitraux Peints de Bourges,
par MM. Arthur Martin et Charles Cahier, 5ième livraison.]
Luke xii. 16.
§ "There was a certain rich man, which was clothed in fine linen.
(Luke xvi.)
330
APPENDIX II.
seated at this table, holding a cup in his hand. He is served by a
crowd of slaves, who offer him divers dainties. In another place he
is seen again, in bed, demons preying on his soul; women and
children weeping around him. Below the palace gate, a naked man,
full of sores, is laid upon the ground. Dogs lick his sores. David
appears above him with a harp, and the ranks of angels, who receive
his soul with music of divers instruments. Hell is farther on in the
composition. Here the rich man is seen in flames, and saying:
"Father Abraham, have mercy on me." Opposite to him is
Abraham in Paradise, with Lazarus in his bosom. Abraham
answers the rich man: Son, remember that thou in thy lifetime
receivedst thy good things."
66
Parable of the Strong Man.†
Description.-Christ stands in the act of blessing. Matthew, the
publican, the apostle Paul, Mary Magdalene, a fallen woman, and
many other converted sinners throw themselves before His feet. In
another part, angels bind the devil and cast him into hell.
The Parable of the Candle.‡
Description.-The temple. A holy high priest preaching in a
chair; an angel speaks into his ear, and he is surrounded by a
bright light. Men are seen below him, listening eagerly, and with
raised hands. Christ blesses them from above, and says in His
gospel: "Let your light so shine before men that they may see.”
Parable of the Barren Fig-tree.§
Description. The temple. In the midst, a man on a grey horse,
his arms crossed upon his breast. Near him, Death, carrying a
scythe.|| Christ orders the man to be slain. The guardian angel of
this man's life kneels before Christ, praying to Him, and saying,
"Lord, grant him yet a while.”
*This subject is a common one in France. Generally, as at St. Lazare
at Autun, or St. Saturnin at Toulouse, it is found at the church door and
at the side porch through which the poor are admitted, and where the
rich pass by, whose aid they solicit.
"No man can enter into a strong man's house," &c. (Mark iii. 27).
"Neither do men light a candle," &c. (Matt. v. 15.)
"A certain man had a fig-tree planted in his vineyard." (Luke xiii. 6.)
This is an instance of the lingering traditions of pagan mythology
among the Greeks. In the refectory of Vatopédi, Death, a skeleton still
covered by its skin, carries a scythe in his left hand and a sickle in his
right. This image of Death is inscribed "Charon.”
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
331
Parable of him who would build a tower.*
Description.-St. Paul, preaching, and saying upon his scroll:
"I have laid the foundation, which is Jesus Christ." He is sur-
rounded by men, who listen attentively. In another part, men are
seen eating and drinking and working. They are seized by demons,
and above them these words are written: "These are they which
thrive yet cannot accomplish.”
Parable of the Publican and the Pharisee.†
Description.—The temple, with a flight of steps. The Pharisee
in front of the sanctuary; an old man, with a great beard and full
robes, his head veiled, stands gazing up to heaven. He lifts one
hand; with the other he points at the publican. The demon of
pride is seated on his head.‡ The publican opposite to him, with
eyes fixed on the ground, strikes his breast. An angel blesses him
from above.
Parable of the Faithful and Wise Servants.§
Description. The temple. Inside, a venerable old man; the
high priest is preaching. A holy priest holds a cup in his hand.
A holy deacon carries a disc upon his head. Others hold lamps and
censers. Other disciples and a crowd of people at prayer. Christ
blesses them from above.
Parable of the Evil Servants.||
Description.-Houses. Inside of them are Christian men-eccle-
siastics, monks, laity—eating and drinking to the sound of dances
and drums, and some quarrelling. Death is in their midst, mowing
them down with his scythe. Christ is above them; angels, also
holding scythes, ¶ form a circle round Him. The impious and
heretics are devoured by the flames of hell close by the house.
""
* "Which of you, intending to build a tower," &c. (Luke xiv. 28.)
"Two men went up into the temple to pray.' (Luke xviii. 10.)
This method of presenting a visible translation of evil thoughts is
common in the middle ages: it is not unusual to see demons on the head
or at the ear of Herod, ordering the massacre of the Innocents (see the
cloister of the choir of Notre Dame de Paris.) This evil spirit is some-
times represented as a black emaciated bird (see vol. i. of this work, p.
465, fig. 120; p. 466, fig. 121; vol. ii. p. 142, fig. 189: Goliath).
"Who then is the faithful and wise servant ?" (Matt. xxiv. 45.)
"If the evil servant shall say in his heart
(Matt. xxiv. 48.)
¶ In France, as in the Last Judgment of Jean Cousin, these angels hold
sickles.
332
APPENDIX II.
Demons seize upon the men in these houses, in order to drag them
down into hell.
Parable of the Salt of the Earth.*
Description.-The temple. High priests, priests, disciples. Some
are teaching from their chairs, others from their thrones, others
studying their books. St. Paul, holding a scroll, says:
"Let your
speech be always with grace, seasoned with salt."†
The Parable of Light and Darkness.‡
Description.-Christ on one side surrounded by a great light; He
holds the gospel, and says: "I am the light of the world." The
Apostles stand near Him. On the other side, the Prince of Dark-
ness, the devil, surrounded by gloom; § near him the doctors of the
Pharisees, and a crowd of impious persons form a circle around him
turning and moving away from Christ.
The Parable of the Meat.||
Description.-A house. Men eating and drinking inside. The
temple near at hand, in which other persons are seen to partake of
the divine mysteries of the Communion. Others preach, and others
pray. Christ points them out to His disciples, saying on His scroll:
"Labour not for the meat which perisheth, but for that meat which
endureth unto everlasting life."
Parable of the Door and the Sheepfold.¶
Description.-A church. At the gate outside, Christ holds the
open gospel, saying, "I am the Door; he that entereth in through
Me shall be saved." Moses is behind the gate, holding the tables of
"If the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted."
(Matt. v. 13.)
+ Coloss. iv. 6.
"Light is come unto the world, and men love darkness rather than
light." (John iii. 19.)
§ Satan is not only enveloped by darkness himself, but he causes it by
extingnishing the light wherever he passes; he is black, smoky, dark as
thickest night. In the legends of France he is constantly called the sooty
spirit, the Ethiopian, his body covered with black skin and hair. We feel
him to be the parent of Arihman, the god or the spirit of night, as
Ormuzd is the god of day. Satan extinguishes the lamp of the deacon
Paul, the wax light of St. Geneviève. (See vol. i. p. 464.)
T
"Labour not for the meat that perisheth." (John vi. 27.)
"He that entereth by the door into the sheepfold is the shepherd."
(Johu x. 1.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.
333
the Law. Outside the gate the holy prelates stand before Christ,
holding the gospels and teaching. These words are written above
them: "Those who have entered in by the Door" (which is Christ).
Before them a crowd of Christians attentively listening. Behind
the Christians, Arius and other heresiarchs torment them. Above
them is written: "Those who entered not by the Door, but who
have climbed up some other way."
The Parable of the Vine.*
Christ, carrying the gospel upon His breast, and raising both His
hands in blessing, saith: "I am the Vinestock, and ye are the
branches." The apostles are encircled by the branches of the vine,
which spring from His body.†
The Parable of the Hypocrite.
Description.-A man standing up with a little piece of stick in
his eye. Before him stands a Pharisee with a large beam of wood
in his eye; he is saying to him: "My brother, let me pull the straw
out of your eye." Christ is above them, watching the Pharisee
in displeasure. He says upon His scroll: “Thou hypocrite, first
cast out the beam out of thine own eye."
The Parable of the Good and the Corrupt Trees.§
Description. Men standing on one side. From the mouth of
one the Holy Spirit issues, an angel falls from the mouth of
another, a gentle flame from another, a rose and various other
precious things from the mouths of the others. Opposite to them
stand another group of men, from whose mouths fall demons,
serpents, swine, thorns, and other evil things. Christ, pointing them
out from a distance, says upon His scroll: "Every tree shall be
known by its fruits."
* "I am the Vine, ye are the branches." (John xv. 5.)
This subject, as we have already stated, is painted in the little convent
of Cesariani on Mount Hymettus, in the church-porch against the east wall.
To the left of the door we have the material genealogy of Christ, his ancestry
from Jesse to St. Joseph; on the right his spiritual posterity, the apostles.
This subject of Christ as the vine, of which the apostles are branches and
fruit, is painted upon glass in the cathedral of Troyes.
"Why beholdest thou the straw that is in thy brother's eye?"
(Matt. vii. 3.)
§ "A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit." (Matt. vii. 18.)
334
APPENDIX II.
The Parable of the Strait Gate.*
Description. Mountains and caverns. Saints are seen at prayer,
demons tempting them. Farther on, martyrs enduring all manner
of torment at the hands of tyrants. Christ appears above in the
clouds, blessing them. He carries the Gospel open upon His breast,
and says: "Strive to enter in at the strait gate.”
The Divine liturgy.
A cupola. Below, a table on which the holy gospel is laid.
Above, the Holy Spirit. Close by, the Eternal Father seated on a
throne; He raises His sacred hands in blessing, and says upon a
scroll: "I have engendered thee in My bosom before Lucifer."
Christ, in the act of blessing, is at the right side of the table in a
patriarch's robe. Before Him, all the ranks of angels, clad in
sacerdotal robes, and filled with awe, form a circle extending to the
Christ takes a disc from the head of an angel
Four other angels stand near; two swing
incense before Christ, and two carry great candles. Others come
behind, also carrying-one a little spoon, another a lance, another a
sponge, another a cross, and others tapers.†
left side of the table.
in a deacon's dress.
The Apostles receive the Body and Blood of our Lord.
Houses. A table, on which a plate is laid with bread cut up in
pieces. In the middle, behind this table, the form of Christ is half
visible, His hands stretched out. He holds the bread in the right
hand, and the chalice in the left. Before Him the gospel lies open.
On the right page is written: "Take, eat; this is My body." On
the left, "Drink ye all of this, for this is My blood;" at each side the
apostles, bending slightly forward, fix their gaze on Christ. Peter,
foremost of the five apostles to the right, places his hand under the
bread given him by Christ. John, foremost of the five apostles to
* "Enter ye in at the straight gate; for wide is the gate and broad is
the way," &c. (Matt. vii. 13.)
These are both the instruments of the Passion and the articles used in
the service of the Mass. The Greeks have retained the memorials of the
Passion in their Mass, more than we have in the Western Church. Besides
the body and blood of the sacred Victim, they have the lance, with which
they still pierce the Saviour's side as Longinus did on Calvary; the sponge,
the reed, and the cross; and thus the sacred drama is less effaced in the
Greek than in the Western rite.

THE SPIRITS' REUNION.
33
the left, with one hand on his breast, stretches out the other; his
month approaches the edge of the chalice. Judas is behind them,
and turns away; a demon enters his mouth.
The Spirits' reunion
Heaven, with sun, moon and stars. Christ in the midst, seated,
holding a scroll, on which is written: "The Lord hath established
me as the beginning of His ways; He hath founded me before the
centuries." The four evangelists appear at the corners in the forms
of a man, an ox, a lion, and an eagle. The Holy Virgin and the
Harbinger stand at each side of Christ, saluting Him with reverence.
A circle formed of the nine choirs of angels surrounds Him; thrones,
cherubim, seraphim, saying: “Holy, holy, holy." The other orders
carry scrolls with inscriptions. Thus the Dominations speak of
Glory to dominions, beauty uncreate!"-Virtues: "Glory ex-
ceeding, of virtues all-powerful"-the Powers of "Glory unattain-
able; light of dazzling power!"-Principalities, "Glory; shining
light of wonderful principalities! Glory! the ineffable Light of
archangels!"—Angels, "Glory, divine beauty of angels!" Heaven
is encircled by the mottoes, "May every spirit praise the Lord!
"May the Lord of heaven be praised!" "Praise ye the Lord of
heaven! " "Praise Him in the highest heaven!" "To you, O
Lord, be all praise given ! ”*
دو
Underneath, the orders of the saints are seen seated on the clouds
and holding scrolls. The holy patriarchs are before them. Adam
says, “Glory of the patriarchs; transport and joy." Moses, fore-
most of the prophets, says, "Glory of the prophets, perfected of
law." Peter, foremost of the apostles, says, “Glory of the apostles ;
infinite praise." Chrysostom, foremost of the prelates, "Glory of
the holy chieftains; beauty and sublimity." George, foremost of
the martyrs, "Glory of the persecuted! strength and power."
Anthony, foremost of the solitaries: "Glory of the holy hermits
and ascetics; praise ineffable!" Constantine, foremost of the
kingly strength."
"Glory of virgins;
righteous kings: "Glory of the orthodox;
Catherine, foremost of the martyred women:
heavenly spouse." Euphraxia, foremost of the heavenly saints:
"Glory be to Thee, eternal joy of all the lonely!"
Under the saints, mountains may be seen with trees, laden with
*A Te Deum sung in Paradise to Christ, by all nature, saints and
angels.

36
APPENDIX II.
fruit and flowers, and at their base all the animals of earth, wild
and tame.*
HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE.
"I was in the isle that is called Patmos, for the word of God, and I heard
behind me a great voice as of a trumpet, saying, I am Alpha and Omega ;
what thou seest write in a book." (Rev. i. 9.)
The picture. A grotto; St. John Theologos seated within, look-
ing behind him; he is wrapped in ecstasy. He sees Christ seated on
the clouds, clothed with a white garment, and girt with a golden
girdle; He has in His right hand seven stars, and out of His mouth
comes a sharp two-edged sword. Seven golden lamps surround
Him, and a great radiance issues from His person.†
"After this I looked, and, behold, a door was opened in heaven and a
a voice said, Come up hither, and I will shew thee things which must be
hereafter. And immediately I was in the spirit; and, behold, a throne was
set in heaven, and round about the throne were four-and-twenty seats:..
And I saw in the right hand of Him that sat upon the throne a book
sealed with seven seals." (Rev. iv. 1.)
Picture [of the vision: ch. iv. 1].-Clouds. Above them the
Eternal Father, seated, holding a closed book, sealed with seven
seals, in His right hand. A lamb having seven horns and seven eyes
sustains, by two pedestals, the book held by the Eternal Father.
Seven lighted candlesticks are before the throne, the sea [of
glass like unto crystal] and the tetramorphs [evangelical symbols]
*The most complete painting of this magnificent subject is that which
decorates the external porch of the great church of Ivirôn on Mount Athos.
See p. 230, supra.
+ Scenes from the Apocalypse are very common in Western art. In the
cathedral of Rheims, the right door of the great porch is filled with
statues representing the figures in the Apocalypse. Of the three hundred
and forty-six figures that ornament this door within and without, two
nundred and sixty-five are consecrated to this mysterious subject. The
tomb of Jean de Langheac, bishop of Limoges, who died in 1541, is sculp-
tured with bas-reliefs representing scenes in the Apocalypse. The crypt
of the cathedral of Auxerre was painted in fresco with scenes drawn from
the Apocalypse, two of which only now remain. They belong to the end
of the thirteenth century, and have been engraved for this work (see
vol. i. p. 108, fig. 36; p. 309, fig. 81). Glass-painters love the Apocalypse.
The western rose-window of the Ste. Chapelle of Paris is filled with this
subject-it is also given in a great window in the southern transept of St.
Martin-ès-Vignes at Troyes.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE.
337
standing round. Four-and-twenty elders,* on either side, seated on
their golden thrones, clothed in white raiment, and having crowns of
gold upon their heads. They hold golden vials full of odours in
the right hand, and harps in the left. A winged angel, with hands
outstretched on either side, stands below the Eternal Father, open-
armed and ready to receive the prayers of the holy.
"And I saw when the Lamb opened one of the seals, and I heard one of
the four beasts saying with a voice as it were of thunder, Come and see.
And I saw, and behold a white horse: he that sat on him had a bow-and a
crown was given unto him." (Chapter vi. 1, 2.)
Picture.-Mountains.
Men lying prone on the ground, some
dead, others, living, filled with terror. Above them a rider on a
white horse: he wears a crown. He holds a bow and shoots his
arrows among men. Behind him a rider on another horse that is
red. He holds a great sword. Behind him is a third rider, he is
on a black horse ;† he carries a pair of balances in his hand. Behind
him is Death again, mounted on a pale horse, and carrying a great
scythe. (See page 160, supra.)
"And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw, under the altar, the
souls of them that were slain for the Word of God." (Chapter vi. 9.)
Picture. An altar. Beneath it the souls of the holy martyrs
clothed in white with uplifted hands and eyes. Angels at each side
in converse with them.
"And when he had opened the sixth seal, lo! there was a great earth-
quake the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, the moon became as
blood, and the stars of heaven fell into the earth, and the heavens departed
as a scroll when it is rolled together." (Chapter vi. 12, 14.)
Picture.-Gloomy mountains. A great multitude, some royal,
others noble, others commoners, hide themselves in dens and rocks
in the mountains. The sky above them like a closed parchment
roll; the sun black and the moon blood-red; the stars falling on
the ground.
"After these things, I saw four angels standing on the four corners of
the earth, holding the four winds of the earth, that they should not blow
* The four-and-twenty elders are thus sculptured on the southern porch
of Chartres cathedral, on the west door of the church of St. Denis and
the cathedral of Rheims, and on a glass window in St. Stéphen du Mont.
These figures have in their hands either a violin or some other stringed
instrument, such as a harp.
The words in italics were introduced by the copyist of the manuscript.
VOL. II.
Z
i
338
APPENDIX II.
on the earth nor on the sea, nor on any tree. And I saw another angel
ascending from the east, having the seal of the living God." (Chapter vii. 1.)
In the
Picture. The earth and the sea. The winds at the four corners
of the earth. Four angels, armed with swords, menace the four
winds that they should not blow: one angel subdues Boreas,
another Notus, another Zephyrus, another Sanir.*
east an angel rises on the clouds; he holds the seal
living God in one hand, and stretches out the other
four angels. Below him another angel anoints the foreheads of a
great multitude.
X
of the
to the
"After this I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude, which no man could
number, of all nations and people, and tongues, stood before the throne.”
(Chapter vii. 9.)
Picture.-Masses of clouds. The Eternal Father seated upon a
throne in the midst; the four evangelical tetramorphs at the four
corners of the throne. The orders of angels form circles round.
The Lamb opens the gospel held by the Father on His knee. Before
the throne a great multitude clothed in white, and holding palms in
their hands; the twenty-four elders beside the throne. St. John
near them, to whom one in the crowd shows the men clothed in
white robes. (See vol. i. pp. 318–337.)
"And when he had opened the seventh seal, there was silence in heaven
about the space of half an hour. And I saw the seven angels which stood
before God; and to them were given seven trumpets. Another angel
came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer. Another angel
sounded the trumpet." (Chapter viii. 1.)
Picture. Heaven. Above, the Eternal Father clothed in white,
seated on a throne. Around are seven angels with trumpets, who
prostrate themselves in adoration before Him. Before Him, another
angel holding a golden censer, whence a smoke issues. Clouds are
at His feet. Four angels look down out of them and sound their
trumpets. Below, another angel may be seen with one hand
stretched out; he holds a scroll in the other, on which is written :
“Woe, woe, woe to the inhabiters of the earth by reason of the
other voices of the trumpets of the three angels which are yet to
sound." On one side the blackened sun appears, on the other the
moon, a third of which has turned to blood. A multitude of stars
the third of which are black, also appear. Under them a sea of
glass mingled with fire. A mountain devoured by flames is in the
* See Annales Archéologiques, vol. i. pt. ii. : Personifications of Air.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE.
339
midst of the sea. Ships and wrecks blown down and engulfed.
Beyond the sea a multitude of trees and plants consumed by fire; a
river beyond, in the midst of which a large radiant star is seen to
shine. Men drink on the bank of this river, others lie prostrate in
death upon the ground.
"The fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fall from heaven unto the
earth, and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit. And he opened
the bottomless pit, and there arose a smoke out of the pit, as the smoke
of a great furnace. And there came out of the smoke locusts upon the
earth." (Chapter ix.)
Picture.-Clouds. An angel is above them, looking downward
and sounding a trumpet; he holds a key in his hand. Below him
a vast pit is seen; a thick smoke issues from this, which obscures
the sky and sun. In the midst of this smoke an awful star shines
forth. Locusts come forth out of this smoke, with faces of men, and
hair of women, and teeth as the teeth of lions; on their heads they
have crowns of gold, and breastplates of iron on their breasts; they
have tails like scorpions, and stings in their tails, and their wings
resemble bucklers. At each side of the pit men hide themselves
amongst the mountains.
“And the sixth angel sounded the trumpet; and I heard a voice from
the four horns of the golden altar, which is before God, saying to the
angel which had the trumpet, Loose the four angels which are bound."
(Chapter ix. 13.)
Picture. Heaven. Above, the Eternal Father, seated on a throne,
and clothed in white raiment; a golden altar before Him. An
angel on His right sounds a trumpet and looks down. Below, moun-
tains are seen, and four angels hewing men in pieces. In the midst
of these angels, a crowd of soldiers wearing iron breastplates, red,
clear, flame-like; they have iron helmets; they ride upon horses
with lions' heads and scorpions' tails; and stings are in their tails,,
and out of their mouths issue fire and smoke and brimstone.
Under their feet, and before them, are a crowd of men, slain; and
others take flight, looking backwards in terror.
"And I saw another mighty angel come down from heaven, clothed with
a cloud; and a rainbow was upon his head, and his face was as it were the
sun, and his feet as pillars of fire. He set his right foot upon the sea,
and his left foot upon the earth; and he had in his hand a little book."
(Chapter x. 12.)
Picture.—The sky, the sea and the earth below. An angel,
clothed like a cloud, with face resplendent as the sun in all its
z 2
340
APPENDIX II.
t
brightness. His feet as fire, the right foot resting on the sea, and
the left on land. A little book is in his hand, which he stretches
out towards heaven. St. John kneels at his side, ready to receive
the little book from his hand.
"And there was given me a reed like unto a rod ;* and it was said unto
me, Measure the temple of God, and the altar, and them that worship
therein, but the court which is without the temple leave out, and measure
it not, for it is given unto the Gentiles, and the holy city shall they tread
under foot for forty and two months." (Chapter xi.)
Picture.—The temple. An altar within. John measures it with
a reed. Below, a savage winged beast, carrying a crown upon his
head. Enoch and Elias are seen rising in the sky on clouds. Near
the temple are houses falling into ruins. Dead men. Others raise
their hands and eyes towards heaven.
"And the seventh angel sounded; and there were great voices in
heaven, saying, The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of
the Lord, and of His Christ; and he shall reign for ever and ever. Amen."
(Chapter xi. 15.)
Picture. Our Lord Jesus Christ above the clouds, seated on a
high throne. The orders of the angels form a circle round Him.
The twenty-four elders bend their knees before Him, and adore.
Him. A temple stands at His right hand, in the midst of which is
a golden ark. A multitude of people are below it. Lightnings and
great hailstones fall from heaven.
"And there appeared a great wonder in heaven: a woman clothed with
the sun, and the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve
stars." (Chapter xii. 1.)
Picture. The Holy Virgin upon clouds, with a purple robe and
angel's wings. Twelve stars around her crown. Rays like the sun's
The moon under her
rays surround her from her head to her feet.
feet. A red dragon, with seven heads and ten horns, is before her ;†
the dragon casts out of his mouth water as of a flood. The earth
opens and swallows up the flood. Behind the dragon is a multitude
of stars. The Holy Virgin is seen below, borne by two angels on a
veil. Christ in her lap; clouds innumerable surround her.
* This rod or measure is the geometrical rod or baton which in the
middle ages was put in the hands of architects. It may be seen thus in
a sculpture in Rheims Cathedral. Ann. Archéol. vol. i. p. 82.
+ See vol. i. p. 162, fig. 47; fig. 184, p. 137, supra; fig. 223, p. 185,
supra.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE.
341
"And I saw a beast that was like unto a leopard: his feet were as the
feet of a bear; his mouth as the mouth of a lion. It had seven heads
and ten horns.' (Chapter xiii. 2.)
Picture. The earth and sea. The beast with seven heads coming
out of the sea. It is worshipped by men of power. Another
smaller beast, with two horns, like a lamb. Fire and hail fall from
heaven.
"And I looked, and, lo! a Lamb stood on Mount Zion, and with Him a
hundred and forty and four thousand, having His Father's name written
in their foreheads. These are they which were not defiled with women;
for they are virgins, and follow the Lamb whithersoever He goeth."
(Chapter xiv. 1.)
Picture. A high mountain, the Lamb standing on the summit;
He wears a crown upon His head, a sceptre in one of His paws—that
is to say, a small red flag with a cross at the end.* The evangelical
tetramorphs stand at the four corners of the throne. The twenty-
four elders, and a number of angels holding harps, are to the right
and left. Close by, a crowd of virgins clad in white, their hands and
eyes turned towards the Lamb. Numbers of clouds below, from
the tops of which four angels are looking down. One of them
carries the gospel open, saying: "Fear God and give glory to Him,
for the hour of His judgment is come." On His right, another
angel points to the ground with one hand, and holds a scroll in the
other, on which is written: "Babylon is fallen-is fallen, that great
city." Another angel to her left, with hand stretched out, and
another holding a scroll, with these words: "If any man worship
the beast, and receive his mark in his forehead, or in his hand, he
shall drink of the wine of the wrath of God." Under them, the city
of Babylon in ruins.
"And I looked, and behold a white cloud, and upon the cloud one sat
like unto the Son of Man, having on His head a golden crown, and in His
hand a sharp scythe." (Chapter xiv. 14.)
Picture.-Clouds. Christ above, crowned and holding a scythe,
with which He reaps as He passes over the earth. Another angel
also holds a sickle, and cuts the grapes, which are afterwards
crushed in a wine-press; blood flows from it instead of wine (v. 20).
Above the heaven is a temple, in which an altar stands. An angel
comes forth from the gate of the temple; looking at Christ, he
stretches out one hand towards Him, and carries a scroll in the
* See vol. i. p. 43, fig. 13; p. 67, fig. 23.
342
APPENDIX II.
other, on which is written: "Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and gather
the clusters of the vine of the earth, for the time is come for thee to
reap.” Another angel comes forth from the sanctuary. He looks
at the angel who gathers in the grapes, and points him out with one
hand, while holding a scroll in the other, on which he says, " Thrust
in thy sharp sickle, and gather the clusters of the vine of the
earth."
"And I saw another sign in heaven, great and marvellous: seven angels
having the seven plagues, for in them is filled up the wrath of God."
(Chapter xv. 1.)
Picture.—Mountains. A multitude of men: some prostrate on
the ground. Others, faces upwards, insensible and covered with
sores. Christ seated upon a throne in their midst. A beast winged
and crowned, and a seven-headed dragon. Three unclean spirits
come out of the dragon's mouths, resembling frogs. A city close by
is in ruins. The sea and waves are as blood. Euphrates, the great
river, is dried up. The sun in the midst of the sky above strikes
its great rays across the heavens. Hail falls from the sky. The
tabernacle of witness is at the top of the sky. Seven angels come
forth from it clothed in white and wearing golden girdles. The
first angel pours forth his vial upon the earth and upon the sky.
The second pours forth his vial on the sea. The third pours forth
his vial upon the rivers. The fourth pours forth his vial on the
sun. The fifth pours forth his vial on the throne of Antichrist.
The sixth pours forth his vial on the Euphrates. The seventh
pours forth his vial on the air.
"And I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet coloured beast, full of names of
blasphemy, having seven heads and ten oorns." (Chapter xvii. 3, 9, 12.) ;
Picture. Seven tops of mountains. Above, a beast with seven
heads and ten horns. A woman is seated on it wearing a triple
crown and apparel gleaming with gold. She holds a golden cup in
her right hand, which she offers to the kings. Ten kings in front
of the beast turn to gaze upon her. Behind the beast are a multi-
tude of people and chieftains and nobles. Above the woman is
written: " Babylon the great, the mother of the abominations of
the earth."*
* This personification of Babylon is very often represented in Greece.
The monks of Mount Athos have childishly destroyed the images of this
woman which was painted on the wall of the porch of the great church of
the convent of Coutloumousi, near Kares. A fine example was to be
HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE.
343
"And after that I saw another angel come down from heaven, having
great power; and the earth was lightened with his glory, and he cried
mightily with a strong voice." (Chapter xviii.)
Description.—The earth, mountains, sea and a city; all en-
veloped in fire and flame rising in the air. Kings stand far off, and
merchants wail and lament: some tear their hair, others strike their
breasts. Others raise their hands and eyes to heaven. A crowd of
other personages. The sky above. An angel descends, surrounded
by a dazzling aureole. With the right hand he points out the city,
while in the left he holds a scroll: "Babylon the great is fallen,
is fallen!" Another angel near, upon the clouds, casts a stone like a
great millstone into the sea, holding a scroll and saying: "Thus
with violence shall that great city Babylon be thrown down, and
shall be found no more at all." Above the angels other dark
clouds, vomiting hail and fire on the sea and earth. Above the sky
the Eternal Father seated on a throne. Near the throne two angels
holding scrolls. The angel to the right says, "Praise our God, all
ye His servants." He to the left continues, "All ye that fear Him.
both small and great." The evangelic tetramorphs and the orders
of the angels form a circle round the throne. A great multitude
clothed in white sing, "Alleluia! Salvation and glory and honour
and power unto the Lord our God, for He hath judged her who did
corrupt the earth, and He hath avenged the blood of His servants at
her hand." The twenty-four elders worship Him, saying, "Amen!
Alleluia!"
"And I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse; and he that sat
upon him was called Faithful and True, and his name is called the Word
of God." (Chapter xix. 11, 13, 18.)
Painting. The heavens are opened.
Christ issues forth on
clouds; He rides upon a white horse. He is clothed in a crimson
vesture and wears a crown upon His head, and out of His mouth
issues a sharp sword. Above Him these words are inscribed:
"Jesus Christ, the Word of God, King of kings, Lord of lords.”
He is followed by armies of men, all riding upon white horses,
clothed in white linen. Their helmets and their girdles are of gold.
seen in the MS. destroyed in the burning of Strasburg Library, the Hortus
Deliciarum. Fortunately M. le Comte Auguste de Bastard has published
a reproduction of this Babylon in his great work: Peintures et Ôrnéments
des Manuscrits.
344
APPENDIX II.
They are armed with sharp swords. Kings and men of might, and
soldiers riding on high horses go before. They carry swords like
heralds of a victory; they fly looking backwards. Others are
stretched dead upon the earth; others have been crushed beneath
their horses, and birds of prey devour their flesh.
An angel
watching these birds stands beneath the sun, and says upon a
scroll: "Gather yourselves together here, that ye may eat the flesh
of kings, the flesh of captains, the flesh of mighty men." Near the
vanquished is hell and a river of fire. Two angels, holding the
beast with seven heads and Antichrist; whom they cast alive into
the river of fire.*
"And I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the
bottomless pit and a great chain." (Chapter xx. 1.)
Painting.-Heaven. An angel holding a key in one hand, and
a demon chained in the other. The angel casts the demon into
devouring flames.
"And I saw a great white throne, and Him that sat on it, from whose
face the earth and the heaven fled away, and there was no place found
for them. And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before God; and
the books were opened." (Chapter xx. 11.)
Painting.-Christ seated upon a white throne; the orders of
angels encircle Him, and the rest of the picture is as that of the
Second Coming (p. 345, infra).
"And I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down from God
out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband, and I heard a
great voice out of heaven, saying, Behold the tabernacle of God is with
men, and He will dwell with them, and they shall be His people, and God
Himself shall be with them, and be their God." (Chapter xxi. 2.)
Painting.—The city of Jerusalem, adorned with gold and precious
stones. It has twelve gates: on the east three gates, on the
north three gates, on the south three gates, and on the west three
gates. An angel stands at each gate holding a golden ring in
the right hand and the seal of the living God X in the left. St.
John stands upon a high mountain and con- templates the
city. Heaven is opened above, and Christ is revealed seated on a
throne, whose wonderful radiance is shed abroad over the city. All
the orders of the saints and angels, with the twenty-four elders,
form a circle round the throne of Christ. One angel in the height
* See vol, i. fig. 81, p. 308.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE SECOND COMING.
345
of heaven points the city out to St. John, saying to him on the
scroll: "Behold the tabernacle of God!" Another angel, holding
a reed, measures the city of Jerusalem.*
How to represent the Second Coming of the Lord.
Christ, clothed in white, seated on cherubim and flaming angels.
He flings abroad His thunderbolts on sun, and moon, and stars.
Before Him appears the symbol of His manifestation: that is to say,
the cross.
On His left is she, the queen-like Mother, who gave
Him birth, a Virgin evermore. Christ advances on the clouds of
heaven, to the sound of psalms, and hymns, and innumerable instru-
ments by which the heavenly hosts celebrate His glory. He raises
His Almighty hands in blessing; He holds the gospel open, on which
these words may be read: "Come unto Me, ye blessed of My
Father; inherit the kingdom that I have prepared for you!" And
also He saith: "Depart from Me, ye cursed."
Above Him are these words: "Jesus Christ, the joy and the
glory of the righteous." All the saints prepare to meet Him accor-
ding to the order in which, through help of divine grace, they have
arisen from earth to heaven; they are all seated upon clouds.
First come the choir of apostles. 2nd, the choir of our first parents.
3rd, the choir of patriarchs. 4th, the choir of prophets. 5th, the
choir of bishops. 6th, the choir of martyrs. 7th, the choir of
saints. 8th, the choir of righteous kings. 9th, the choir of martyred
or solitary women. All carry branches in their hands to signify
their virtues. An angel flies in the air and sounds the last trumpet.
The earth is below with its cities and wealth; then the sea, with its
ships and its boats, gives up the dead it has destroyed. † The dead
* In the great convent of Xeropotamou on Mount Athos the Apocalypse
is painted in much detail. It occupies the entire of the external porch of
the great church, and concludes with the Last Judgment. Here we feel
we are in the region of Greek mythology: the dragons that have sat for the
painter here belong to the land of the hydra, and tradition has transmitted
them from mythology to Christianity. So is it also with the Babylon;
she is a sort of female Bacchus. This grand symbolic woman is clothed
in very rich vestments; her breast is covered with gold pieces, one of
which adorns her brow like the young brides in Greece at the present day.
Corn-blades are woven through her hair, she holds a cup in her right hand.
She advances seated on a beast, which, were it not for the seven heads
springing from its neck, would be a tiger.
·
† The Greeks in their representations of the Second Coming personify
the earth and the sea. In the convent of Vatopédi on Mount Athos, the
Last Judgment is painted in fresco on the western wall of the church on
346
APPENDIX II.
awaken either in their tombs or in the sea; they are filled with
fear, and their expressions vary strongly. All are upborne on
clouds; but some come before Christ, while sinners are dragged to
the place of vengeance.
Farther on stand the prophets, holding
scrolls with inscriptions as follows :—
Isaiah: "The Lord will come to judge.”
Joel: "All nations shall awaken and will come down" (iii. 2).
Daniel: "And many that sleep in the dust shall awaken" (xii. 2).
The righteous and universal Judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ.*
Christ on high, seated on a fiery throne. Clothed in white, He
casts His thunderbolts upon the sun. All the mighty angels, struck
with terror, tremble at His presence. With His right hand raised
He blesses the saints, with the left He shows the place of lamen-
tation and woe. He is encircled by a great light, and above Him is
written: "Jesus Christ, the righteous Judge." At either side stand
the Holy Virgin and the Harbinger bending in reverence before Him;
and the twelve apostles are seated on twelve thrones around. The
saints are also present; they stand to the right and hold palm-
branches, signs of their power, in their hands. They are divided
into three orders: in the first are the choir of the first parents,
patriarchs and prophets; in the second the choir of bishops, martyrs
and solitaires; in the third, the choir of righteous kings, holy
women or martyrs. On the left hand of Christ are all sinners cast
out of His presence, and condemned, along with the traitor Judas and
all demons, tyrant kings, idolators, antichrists, heretics, murderers,
traitors, thieves, robbers, those who refuse to give alms, usurers,
misers, liars, sorcerers, drunkards, the self-indulgent and impure, and
the outside of the porch, where the same subject is seen in sculpture or
the French cathedrals. Earth is a vigorous woman richly clothed; she is
crowned with flowers, and she holds a bunch of branches laden with fruit
in her right hand; in her left a serpent, whose body she squeezes. She is
seated on two lions, and borne aloft by two eagles. This is evidently a
personification of strength, and the allegory is a curious reminiscence of
the antique Cybele. The Sea is a less robust and more agile figure; she
floats along between two marine monsters who serve as her chariot, and
to whom two great wheels, like those of antique chariots, are attached. In
the convent of St. Gregory on Mount Athos this figure forms part of the
Last Judgment painted on the western wall of the principal church.
*For illustrations of this subject see vol. i. of this work, p. 256. (Ann.
Arch. i. 165, pl. 12.). Mortuary chapel, St. Gregory, on Mount Athos:
mosaic in church of Torcello, Murano, near Venice. See also p. 121, supra.
THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
347
the ungrateful Jews, scribes and Pharisees. All utter great cries
and wailings. Some tear their beards, others rend their garments.
They look towards Jesus, and the saints and the prophet Moses, who
points to Christ and says upon his scroll: "The Lord will raise up
a Prophet from among their brethren like unto me; unto Him ye
shall hearken."* The symbol of the cross is before the throne with
the ark of the testament of the Lord, with the witnesses of the law
and the prophets, and with the gospel open between two scrolls.
Upon the scroll to the right is written: "And the dead were judged
every man according to their works." On that to the left is written:
"And whosoever was not found written in the book of life was cast
into the lake of fire." A river of fire flows beneath Christ's feet,
demons cast the wicked and uncharitable into it, and torture them
horribly with divers instruments of torture, with harpoons and
lances. Others drive them into the flames with pikes, others
encircle their bodies like fiery serpents, and drag them into caverns
and outer darkness, where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth,
and the worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched. Hell is seen
through rents in the rocks, where men are chained with iron in the
darkness, gnashing their teeth and consumed by the fire that cannot
be quenched, and the worm that dieth not. The rich man, who has
been uncharitable, looks out into the faces of those who in Abraham's
bosom rest in paradise among the blessed saints. Paradise is sur-
rounded by a wall of crystal and pure gold, adorned with trees filled
with bright birds. To right and left stand the prophets holding
scrolls thus inscribed :—
Daniel: "I beheld till the thrones were cast down, and the
Ancient of Days did sit." (vii. 9.)
Malachi: "And the day that cometh shall burn them up." (iv. 1).
The righteous Judith: "The Lord Almighty will take ven-
geance" (xvi. 17).
THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
The Conception.†
Houses and gardens planted with various trees. St. Anna in the
garden at prayer. Above her is an angel blessing her. A mountain
* Deut. xviii. 15.
+ Called Annunciation to St. Anna in "Legends of the Madonna," pp. 137,
143-4. Mrs. Jameson enumerates the following illustrations of this subject:
Annunciation to St. Anna, Luini, in the Brera, Milan; Vision of the Virgin
by St. Anna, Cesi, Bologna.
348
APPENDIX II.
is seen outside the garden, where Joachim is seen at prayer. An
angel blessing him also.
The Nativity of the Divine Mother.*
Houses. St. Anna lying on a bed under a coverlet, her head rest-
ing on a pillow. Two attendants support her from behind, another
stirs the air with a fan. Other women, carrying dishes, pass out by
the door. Under them are others, seated, who wash the infant in a
basin. Another, again, rocks the infant in the cradle.†
The Divine Mother blessed by the priests.
Houses. A table furnished with food. Joachim at the table
holding the little infant, the Holy Virgin, in his arms. St. Anna
behind him. Three priests, seated at the table, look at the Holy
Virgin and bless her.
Presentation of the Divine Mother in the temple.
The temple. A staircase leading up to the porch. The prophet
Zacharias stands at the gate, clothed in pontifical robes. He throws
his arms open. The Holy Virgin, three years old, mounts the steps
before him. She holds out one hand and carries a taper in the
other; Joachim and Anna, behind, point her out to a crowd of
virgins carrying tapers, who stand near.§
The temple is crowned by a magnificent cupola. The Virgin is
seated beneath the centre of the dome; she takes the bread offered
to her with a benediction by the archangel Gabriel.||
Joseph leading the Divine Mother into the Holy of Holies.
Within the temple. The prophet Zacharias pronounces the
benediction. Behind, other priests point out the Holy Virgin one
to another. In front, Joseph takes the Holy Virgin by the hand.
Other persons stand behind.¶
* Birth of Virgin, D'Agincourt, Greco-Italian; Birth of Virgin, Fresco,
Tadeo Gaddi, Baroncelli Chapel, Florence.
Two scenes or acts are comprised under this heading, the washing and
the rocking to sleep.
"Now there were around the temple, according to the fifteen psalms
of degrees, fifteen steps to go up. Apoc. Gosp. Nat. of Mary.
99
-
§ Bas-relief, Orcagna, San Michele, Florence. Fresco, Taddeo Gaddi,
Baroncelli Chapel, Florence. Painting, Carpaccio, Accademia, Venice.
Gabriel thus ministering to the child Mary is carved on the stalls of
Amiens Cathedral. The Virgin spinning with an angel at her side, is re-
presented in Office of the Virgin: Bodleian, 1408, Oxford.
Virgin and Joseph, Luini, the Brera, Milan. The Marriage of the
Virgin is omitted in the Greek manual.
THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
349
Death of the Virgin.*
A house. The Holy Virgin within lies dead upon a couch, her
arms crossed upon her breast, torches and lighted tapers at each
side of the bed. Beside the bed stands an angel with a naked sword,
and a Hebrew, whose hands are cut off and fastened to the bed. St.
Peter incenses the feet of the Holy Virgin with a censer. At her
head stand St. Paul and St. John Theologos, who kisses her. Other
apostles and bishops stand round. Dionysius the Areopagite, Hiero-
theus and Timotheus holding the gospels. Women in tears. Christ
is above, holding in His arms the soul of the Blessed Virgin, clad
in white. She is surrounded by a great light and a crowd of angels.
The twelve apostles advance on clouds in the air. On the top of
the house to the right John of Damascus holds a scroll with these
words: "You indeed, O heavenly Virgin, merit that you should be
received still living into heaven, tabernacle of the divine." St. Cosmas,
the poet, on the left, holding a scroll with these words: "You appear
to be a mortal woman, but your apostles see you truly, O immaculate
Divine Mother."
The Divine Mother laid in the Tomb.t
A tomb. Within it the apostle Peter supports the head of the
Holy Virgin; outside Paul supports her feet; John Theologos
embraces her. The other apostles stand round, holding wax tapers
and uttering lamentations.
The Assumption of the Divine Mother.‡
An open and empty tomb. The apostles astonished. Thomas,
in their midst, shows them the Virgin's girdle which he holds.
Above them in the air the Holy Virgin ascends to heaven on clouds.
Thomas is again seen upon the clouds at the side of the Holy
Virgin, and receives the girdle from her hands.§
* Mrs. Jameson remarks that this scene, in those examples derived
from the Greek school, is always represented with a mystical and solemn
simplicity, adhering closely to the formula laid down in the Greek
manuals. See sculpture of Death of the Virgin in the abbey church of
Solernes.
† Mrs. Jameson mentions painting of this scene by Angelico, engraved
in "Etruria Pittrice" (see "Leg. of Madonna," p. 317). Taddeo Bartoli
(Siena, Pal. Publico), Parmigiano, and Fra Angelico, treated this subject.
‡ A. Orcagna, sculpture in San Michele. See Mrs. Jameson, "Leg.
Madonna," pl. xxvii. Agnolo Gaddi, fresco in Chapel della Sacratissima
Cintola, Prato. Taddeo Bartoli, Palazzo Publico, Siena.
§ Two scenes under this heading.
350
APPENDIX II.
Fountain of Life.
"" '
A golden fountain. The Divine Mother in the midst with hands
upraised. Christ in front of her (see vol. i. p. 486), blessing to right
and left, the gospel open on His breast at these words: "I am the
living Water." Two angels hold, each with one hand, a crown above
the Holy Virgin's head, while carrying scrolls in the other, on which
is written: "Hail, fountain of life and purity! Hail, pure source
of the Divinity!" Under the fountain is a large basin with water.
At each side patriarchs, kings, queens, princes, princesses bathe in
and drink of the water from cups and vases. A crowd of sick and
paralysed come there also; and a priest holding a cross blesses
them. A man possessed by a devil. The baptism of a Thessalian
by a captain of a vessel, who pours water over him, is also represented
here.*
The prophets on high.†
The Holy Virgin seated on a throne, holding the infant Christ.
Underneath her pedestal are these words: "Prophets have pro-
claimed your name from on high." The prophets stand round as
follows:-
The patriarch Jacob, holding a ladder. He says upon his scroll:
"I beheld you in a dream as a ladder planted upon earth, and
reaching to the heights of heaven."
Moses holding a bush, says upon a scroll: "I have called you a
tree, O Divine Virgin Mother; for in a bush have I beheld a great
mystery!"‡
Aaron, holding a blossoming rod, says upon his scroll: “This rod
has foreshown to me, O spotless Virgin, that you have given birth
to the Creator, even as a plant to a flower!"
Gideon holding a fleece says upon his scroll: “O pure Virgin,
this fleece has foreshown you to me; for by this fleece I have seen
the miracle of your deliverance!"
David, holding an ark, says upon his scroll: " Gazing on the
*The origin and history of this incident of the Thessalian is forgotten
even by the painters of Mount Athos.
The Virgin enthroned and honoured by prophets and patriarchs is
illustrated at Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, Laon, and Mans Cathedrals, and
also in mosaic, cath., Capua. Virgin enthroned with Isaiah and Jeremiah,
Ste. Maria della Navicella, Rome.
Moses was said to have seen a vision of the Virgin and Child in the
the burning bush. See p. 273, supra.
THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
351
beauty of the temple, O young Virgin, I have forenamed you,
O Virgin, the holy ark."
Solomon holding a bed, says upon his scroll: "I have named you
the royal couch, predicting your prodigious wonders.”
Isaiah, holding a ladle, says upon his scroll: "O spotless Virgin,
I have foreshown you, in this lamp of burning charcoal, the name
of the kingly throne."
Jeremiah, pointing to the Divine Mother, says upon a scroll: " I
have seen you, O Maiden, Virgin of Israel, led forth to tribulation."
Ezekiel (xliv. 2), holding a gate, says upon a scroll: "I have
beheld you, closed gate of God! by which the sole God of the
universe hath gone forth."
Daniel (ii. 34), holding a mountain, says upon a scroll: “I have
forenamed thee as a spiritual mountain, whence a stone was cut
out,* O spotless Virgin Mother!'
Habakkuk, holding a shady mountain, says upon a scroll: "Being
in the spirit and filled with prophetic joy, I have beheld you as a
mountain covered in impenetrable shade.”
Zachariah (iv. 2), holding a seven-branched candlestick, says
upon his scroll: "I have looked, and behold a candlestick of gold, and
his seven lamps thereon, O Spiritual Light, to enlighten the world."
The Salutations.
Heaven with sun and moon. The Holy Virgin above seated on a
throne with the Infant Christ. The following inscription surrounds
her: "Rejoice, Queen of Angels, O full of grace!" Above her a
multitude of holy angels to right and left. Four of them hold
scrolls; on the first is written: "Rejoice, Glory of Angels, protectress
of men." On the second: "Rejoice, Temple Divine, Throne of the
Lord." On the third to the left: "Rejoice, Paradise of Delight!
rejoice, Tree of Life!" On the fourth: "Rejoice, Palace and Throne
of the great King!" Beneath the angels come all the orders of the
saints upon clouds, each band preceded by a leader holding a scroll
containing his verse of the litany :—
John, first of prophets, saith: "Rejoice, you that fulfilled the
expectation of the prophets!"
* Dan. ii. 34: "A stone was cut out without hands, which smote the
image upon his feet, that were of iron and clay, and brake them in pieces
and the stone that smote the image became a great mountain and
filled the whole earth."
•
352
APPENDIX II.
•
Peter, first of the apostles, saith: "Rejoice, O laudable eloquence
of apostles!"
Chrysostom, first of the bishops, saith: "Rejoice, glory of all
priests, reward of bishops!"
George, first of martyrs, saith: "Rejoice, glory of martyrs, strength
of warlike men!"
Anthony, first of solitaries, saith: "Rejoice, famous among
solitaries, glory of monks; religious!'
Constantine, first of righteous kings, saith: "Rejoice, O Virgin,
strength and diadem of kings!"
Catherine, first of female martyrs, saith: "Rejoice, glory of
virgins: their fortress and their citadel!"
Euphraxia, first of female solitaries, saith: “Rejoice, consolation
sweet of women who live in solitude!"
The Paradise of Eden is seen above these figures, adorned by
birds of various plumage and animals, by flowers and varied shrubs
and magnificent trees, and surrounded by a wall built of stones
precious as pure gold. The patriarch Abraham stands in the midst.
Around him a number of little innocent children. All the patriarchs,
righteous men, with women and children, in contemplation and
transport of joy. The saints and the penitent thief, bearing the cross
on his shoulders, are also with them.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE TWENTY-FOUR STATIONS OF THE DIVINE
MOTHER.
The Angel appears for the first time. .
Houses. The Holy Virgin, sitting on a throne and spinning red
silk. Above, the sky. An angel descends upon clouds; he blesses
the Virgin with the right hand, and holds in the left a blossoming
rod.t
The Holy Virgin looking.
.‡
Houses. The holy Virgin astonished. She holds a scroll and
saith: "How shall this be, seeing I know not a man?" The
*This title and those which follow are the opening words of a series of
prayers in constant use among the Greeks.
None of the examples quoted by Mrs. Jameson in the "Legends of the
Madonna" quite correspond with this subject.
Cimabue. The mystery of the Annunciation and Incarnation-or
Conception-is represented in four different scenes in the Greek manual.
THE STATIONS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
353
archangel Gabriel, standing before her, blesses her with the right
hand; in the left he holds a scroll and saith: "Rejoice, thou much
graced; the Lord is with you!”
Third Station.
Houses. The archangel, standing reverentially, points with the
right hand to heaven; in the left he holds a scroll and says:
"Behold the handmaid of the Lord: be it unto me according to thy
word."
The Power from on high.
The Holy Virgin seated on a throne. An angel at each side lifts
a great veil behind her, which stretches from the head to the feet.
Above her the Holy Spirit appears, surrounded by clouds and a
great light.
She who possesses God.
Houses. Within the holy Virgin and Elizabeth, embracing. At
a little distance Joseph and Zacharias speak together. Behind
them a little child in short dress holds a stick upon his shoulder,
from which a basket hangs.* Below the house, a stable: a mule
tied to it eats from a manger.
Having a storm within.
Houses. The Holy Virgin in ecstasy. Joseph before her,
supported by his staff, extends his right hand towards the Holy
Virgin, and looks at her with a troubled countenance.†
The shepherds have heard.
The arrangement is identical with that of the Nativity of Christ;
only here the Magi are not represented. (See above.)
The star, the road of God.
The sky. A brilliant star comes forth in the midst of a ray.
Beneath are mountains. The Magi, on horseback, point out this
star to one another.
*"The old Italians," says Mrs. Jameson, "seldom omit this attendant.
Michael Angelo, in the picture in the possession of Mr. Bromley, substitutes
a maiden for the boy."
+ See Mrs. Jameson, "Legends of the Madonna," p. 194, on this trouble
and the repentance of Joseph.
VOL. II.
2 A
354
APPENDIX II.
The children of the Chaldæans have seen. .
Houses. The Holy Virgin, seated on a throne, and holding the
little Infant Christ in her arms. The Magi, kneeling before her,
offer gifts. Joseph stands behind her. Above, a star. Outside
the house, a youth holding the horses of the Magi by a bridle.
The heralds of God.
•
A city. Before the city gates, the watchman, looking outwards.
At the extreme end of the city are mountains, and the Magi on
horseback. An angel guides the Magi.
His splendour in Egypt.
See above: The Flight into Egypt.
The expectation of Simeon.
The arrangement here quite the same as that for Candlemas.
(See above.)
He has revealed a new creation.
Christ upon a cloud, blessing with both hands. The four corners
of the cloud, the four evangelical tetramorphs. Above, and at each
side of them are the apostles, the martyrs, the bishops, and the
other orders of all the saints.
They behold a wonderful birth. ...
The sky. The Holy Virgin and Child throned on high. Below,
the multitude of saints, their eyes raised to heaven.
He took heed of the things here below.
The sky. Christ on high, surrounded by a circle of infinite light
and the orders of angels. Above, heaven; Christ is seen blessing
with both hands. Apostles and a great multitude on either side.
All the angelic host.
Christ seated on a throne, blessing. Above, heaven and the
orders of the angels in wonder. They ascend and descend towards
Jesus.
The rhetors in various tongues.
•
The Holy Virgin and Child enthroned. To her right and left are
young men and aged, wearing hats of fur or veils upon their heads.
THE STATIONS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.
355
They are all astonished. Books, both open and closed, lie upon the
ground at their feet.*
Christ has willed the salvation of the world.
The sky, with sun, moon, and stars. Two angels descend from
heaven. Below, mountains covered and beautified by trees, flowers,
and houses. Christ walking on foot; the apostles following Him
reverently.
The protection of virgins.
Houses. The Holy Virgin standing in the midst, holding the
Lord, a little infant, in her arms. A crowd of virgins surround her.
A universal hymn.
The sky. Christ throned and blessing. A multitude of angels
surround Him; bishops and saints stand below Him, holding open
books.
Shining lamp.
The Holy Virgin standing on a cloud; she carries the Lord, a
little infant, in her arms. She is surrounded by a great light, whose
rays strike downwards. A dark grotto below, in which men,
kneeling, raise their eyes towards the Holy Virgin.
Christ willing to grant grace.
Houses. Christ standing inside. He bears papers in His hands,
covered with Hebrew characters. At the close of these papers are
the words: "The Chirograph of Adam." Youths and old men
kneel at each side of Christ.
Chorus of praise to the Son.
Houses. The Holy Virgin on a throne; she holds the Lord, an
infant, in her arms. Bishops and priests are before the houses; one
carries the gospel, the other a censer. Behind them, musicians
singing; some wear hats, others great white bonnets. Deacons in
their midst, with open rolls, lead the singing.†
O Mother, famed throughout the universe! ..
The Holy Virgin seated on a high throne, a footboard beneath her
* These books are meant to figure human knowledge, which, when
matured, does homage to divine wisdom symbolised in a child.
At the present day, in Mount Athos, the deacons give the note and
direct the singing.
2A 2
356
APPENDIX II.
1
feet with three steps. Kings, priests, bishops, and solitaries pray
before it, some standing, others kneeling. They hold scrolls with
inscriptions.
The character of the faces of the twelve holy apostles.
St. Peter: an old man with a round beard; he holds an epistle, on
which is written: "Peter, apostle of Jesus Christ."
St. Paul: bald, beard grey and stubbly; he holds his twelve epistles
tied together in a,roll.
St. John Theologos: an old man bald; large, not very thick, beard;
he holds the Gospel.*
St. Luke, Evangelist: young, curled hair, small beard; he is
painting the Divine Mother.
St. Mark, Evangelist: grey hair, round beard; he holds the Gospel.
St. Andrew: an old man, frizzled hair, double-pointed beard; hẹ
holds a cross and closed scroll.
St. Simon Zelotes: an old man, bald, round beard.
St. James: young, beard beginning.
St. Bartholomew; young, beard beginning.
St. Thomas: young, beardless.
St. Philip: young, beardless.
All these personages hold closed scrolls.
The four evangelists seated at their desks, writing.
St Matthew, Evangelist, writing: "The book of the generation of
Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of," &c.
St. Mark, Evangelist, writing: "The beginning of the gospel of
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, as it is written," &c.
St. Luke, Evangelist, writing: "Forasmuch as many have taken in
hand," &c.
St. John Theologos, Evangelist, seated in a grotto, in ecstasy. He
turns his head backwards towards heaven; his right hand rests
* In Western art, St. John has been, from the earliest times, represented
without a beard; in the East, on the contrary, he is bearded. The Latin
Church represents him young, as he was at the time of the Last Supper,
when he leaned on the breast of Christ; the Greek Church paints him at
the time when he wrote the Apocalypse, in the island of Patmos-that is
to say at a very advanced age, sixty-three years after the death of Christ,
and in the year of the assassination of Domitian. St. John is represented
thus in a MS. of the eleventh century in the Bibl. Nat. Paris (see vol. i.
p. 269, fig. 68), in the gospel of Charles the Bald (Bibl. Nat. No. 323,
and in another MS. (Suppl. Lat. No. 641). In such instances we may trace
a Byzantine origin.
THE EXALTATION OF THE CROSS.
357
upon his knee, the left is extended towards St. Prochoros.*
Prochoros is seated before St. John, who writes these words:
"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God...
""
Before the evangelists, the tetramorph, winged beasts, each
carrying the gospel. They turn their gaze towards the four
evangelists in the following order: a man at the side of St Matthew,
a lion at the side of St. Mark, an ox at the side of St. Luke, an
eagle at the side of St. John. Interpretation: That with the
semblance of a man signifies the Incarnation; † that with the
semblance of a lion signifies strength, royalty; ‡ that with the
semblance of an ox indicates the priesthood and sacrifices; that
with the semblance of an eagle indicates the inspiration of the
Holy Ghost. It must be remembered that St. Matthew, St. Mark,
and St. Luke are represented in houses when writing, whereas
St. John is represented in a grotto with Prochoros.
Here we omit the long catalogue of mere names which occupies
seventy-five pages of the translation of the Byzantine Guide, as likely to
be of little use to English readers: Apostles, Bishops, Deacons, Martyrs,
Solitaries, Stylites, or saints who lived on columns (Simon Stilites, Simeon
the wonderful orator, Daniel Stylites, Alypius Stylites and Luke Neo-
stylites); the Poets; the Righteous; the Myrrhophora or women carrying
myrrh, Mary Magdalen, Salome, Joanna, Mary, Martha, Mary sister of
Cleophas, Sosane; Female Martyrs; Female Solitaries; Righteous Women.
The exaltation of the holy and life-giving cross.
A temple. Within, St. Macarius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, upon
an ambo, holding the revered cross of Christ. The empress St.
* Mrs. Jameson does not mention Prochoros the deacon, who in Greek
art always accompanies John, and often is represented as writing under
his dictation. This deacon is scarcely known in the Latin Church.
† Because he begins his gospel with the human generations of Christ.
Because he has set forth the royal dignity of Christ. The Latin
Church attributes the same symbols to the evangelists, and interprets
them in like manner. A gospel in folio, coming from the Sainte-Chapelle
in Paris, to which church it had been given in 1379 by Charles V., con-
tains these lines, summing up all the explanations given at different times
in the Middle Ages for these mysterious attributes :-
"Quatuor haec Dominum signant animalia Christum;
Est homo nascendo, vitulusque sacer moriendo,
Et leo surgendo, cœlos aquilaque petendo.
Nec minus hos scribas animalia et ipsa figurant."
f
358
APPENDIX II.
Helena standing below the ambo; with her a number of princes, and
a multitude of people gazing upwards with raised hands.*
THE SEVEN HOLY SYNODS.
The first Ecumenical Holy Synod at Nicæa, under Constantine the
Great, in the year 325, against Arius (318 holy fathers of the
Church).
Houses. The Holy Spirit above. St. Constantine throned in the
midst. The following holy bishops are seated in pontifical dress,
to the right and left: Silvester of Rome, Alexander of Alexandria,
Eustathius of Jerusalem, St. Paphnutius the Confessor, St. James of
Nisibia, St. Paul of Neocesarea; other bishops and fathers are
seated around in three ranks. A philosopher in their midst,
astonished. St. Spiridon, standing before him, stretches out one
hand towards him, and clasps a brick, whence fire and water issues.
The fire escapes and rises, the water flows between his fingers to the
ground. Arius standing, also in pontifical robes. St. Nicholas
stretches out his hand to blow upon it.† Heretics of the Arian sect
are seated together below. St. Athanasius, a young beardless
deacon, is seated, and writes: "I believe in one God," down to
"and I believe in the Holy Ghost."
The second Holy Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, under
Theodosius the Great, in the year 381, against Macedonius ‡
(with 150 fathers of the Church).
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The great Theodosius throned
in the midst. The following saints are to be seen seated at each
side: St. Timotheus of Alexandria, Meletius of Antioch, Cyril of
Jerusalem. Gregory Theologos, Patriarch of Constantinople, writes
This subject, which is one of the most imposing in Greek painting, is
not sufficiently dealt with here. It is described more fully in the first
volume of this work, at pages 414-417.
† St. Nicholas, an ardent defender of the Trinity, is particularly
venerated by the Russians, who represent him as holding three perfectly
equal balls in his hands. To cause water and fire to issue from baked
clay is the figure of the Trinity which includes a God in three persons, as
the brick contains three elements in one substance. The creed of Athana-
sius proclaimed at this Council is devoted to the development of the dogma
of the Trinity.
Macedonius disputed the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
THE SEVEN HOLY SYNODS.
359
the portion of the Creed from the words, " And in the Holy Ghost,"
to the end. Near them are seated other bishops and priests
conversing.
The third Holy Ecumenical Synod, at Ephesus, under Theodosius
the Younger, in the year 431, against Nestorius (200 fathers
of the Church).
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Theodosius the Younger
in the midst. He is seated on a throne, young, and with beard
commencing. Seated at each side of him are St. Cyril of Alex-
andria, Juvenal of Jerusalem, and other fathers and archbishops.
Before them, Nestorius, an old man in archbishop's robes; he
disputes with them. Near him are heretical sectarians, with
demons on their shoulders.
The fourth Ecumenical Synod at Chalcedon, under King Marcian,
in the year 451 (630 fathers of the Church), against Eutyches
and Dioscuros.*
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Marcian, an aged man,
seated upon a throne. Near him, princes with fur head-dresses and
crimson hats, embroidered with gold. Seated on either side are St.
Anatolius of Constantinople, Maximus of Antioch, Juvenal of Jeru-
salem, and the bishops Paschasinus and Lucensius, representatives
of Leo, Pope of Rome, with other bishops and priests. Dioscuros
in front, in pontifical robes, and Eutyches near him; they converse
together. Devils are on the shoulders of the heretics, whom they
bind in chains. (See vol. i. pp. 465, 466.)
The fifth Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, under Justinian
the Great, in the year 553 (151 fathers of the Church), against
Origen.
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The king enthroned; seated
to his right and left are Vigilus, Pope of Rome, Eutychius of
Constantinople, and other priests and archbishops. In front,
Origen, an old man, addresses them. A demon, seated on his
shoulder, holds his eyes shut.
* Eutyches and Dioscuros maintained that there was only one nature
in Christ.
360
APPENDIX II.
The sixth Holy Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, under Cons
stantine Pogonatus,* in the year 680 (160 fathers of the
Church), against Honorius, Sergius and Pyrrhus.†
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The king, a grey-haired man
with forked beard, is seated on a throne. Behind him, the dory-
phoroi (lance-bearers), and the saints seated on each side.' St.
George of Constantinople, Theodore and George, representatives of
the Pope at Rome, with other priests and bishops. The heretics
speak to one another.
The seventh Ecumenical Synod at Nicca, under Constantine and
Irene, in the year 787 (350 fathers of the Church), against the
Iconoclasts.
Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Constantine, a little
child, and his mother Irene, seated upon thrones. Constantine
holds the image of Christ in his hands, and Irene the image of the
Virgin. At their sides are St. Tarasius of Constantinople, the two
bishops, Peter, representative of the Pope, and other pontiffs and
priests, all seated and holding images. A bishop writes in the
midst of them: "He that revereth not these holy images and the
venerated cross, let him be anathema."
The exaltation of holy images.
A temple. St. Methodius, patriarch, is outside in archbishop's
robes, and holding a cross. Behind him, other archbishops bearing.
images. Before them, deacons hold the image of Christ; two
others carry the image of the Holy Virgin, called the Conductress,
whose feet are shod with gold. Behind the patriarch, queen
Theodore, and king Michael his son, still a child, also carry images.
Behind them, priests with censers and lamps. The ascetic saints,
John, Arsakios, and Isaiah, and a crowd of hermits. Near them
Saint Cassia, and with her a crowd of female religious solitaries.
A vast number of others of the laity-men, women, and children—
bearing crosses and tapers.
*The bearded.
These are the Monothelites, who only admit a single will in Jesus
Christ.
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
361
HOW TO REPRESENT THE MIRACLES OF THE
PRINCIPAL SAINTS.
MIRACLES OF THE ARCHANGEL MICHAEL.
Michael showing water to Hagar.
A house. Abraham at the door; Hagar before him holding the
child Ishmael by the hand. She carries a leathern bottle of water,
and a basket of bread upon her shoulder. Farther on, a mountain.
Ishmael laid upon his back under a tree. Hagar near at hand, as
well as the archangel, who points to water upon the ground.
Michael prevents Abraham sacrificing Isaac. (See p. 271, supra.)
Michael forbids the demon to enter the body of Moses. (See p. 276.)
Michael appears to Joshua, son of Nun, and orders him to
unfasten his shoes. (See p. 276.)
Michael appears to Gideon, and strengthens him against Midian.
(See p. 277.)
Michael appears to Manoah, and annoucnes the birth of Samuel.
(See p. 277.)
Michael appears to David, and ceases to exterminate the people
because of his sacrifice. (See p. 279.)
Michael descends to the Three Children. (See p. 285.)
Michael, owing to the mediation of Habakkuk, brings nourishment
(See p. 286.)
to Daniel.
Michael preserves the city of Constantinople, and prevents its being
taken by the Persians.
A fortified town, spacious and beautiful. Below, tents. A
crowd of soldiers, on foot and on horseback, speak together; others
place ladders against the walls. Michael is above upon the clouds.
A great light surrounds him, and he holds a fiery sword.
Michael prevents his church from being destroyed in an inundation.
A church. Inside, Saint Archippos, an old man with a pointed
beard, is at prayer. Michael standing before him; he strikes the
362
APPENDIX II.
foundations of the church with a lance, and splits a stone. In the
distance, two torrents, descending from the mountains, unite before
the church, and pass through the broken stone. Above, upon the
mountains, are men armed with pickaxes and other tools, who turn
the course of the torrents.
The archangels Michael and Gabriel save a child from being
engulfed in the sea.
The sea. In the midst, three monks in a caïque with sails. One
of them holds the rudder, the two others have fastened a stone
round a child's neck, and throw it head-foremost into the sea.
Winged archangels take up the child at either side. On the sea-
shore a monastery and church, in the midst of which the same
child is seen asleep, with the stone round its neck. The higoumenos
of the monastery, standing before him, touches him with a ring.
Behind the higoumenos, a crowd of monks are to be seen in admira-
tion and astonishment.
THE MIRACLES OF THE HARBINGER.
The prophet Zacharias warned by the archangel of the conception
of the Precursor.
The temple and altar. Zacharias, standing before the altar, holds
a censer in his right hand; he raises his eyes to heaven, and
stretches out his left hand. Above the altar, Gabriel says to him:
"Fear not, Zacharias, for your prayer is granted." Outside the
temple a multitude of Jews, both men and women, at prayer.
4
The nativity of the Harbinger.
Houses. Elizabeth laid upon a mattress in the bed. A servant
stands before her, fanning her; other servants, coming into the
house, carry food to Saint Elizabeth, and offer it to her. Other
servants, at the bedside, wash the infant in a basin. Zacharias,
seated, writes upon a scroll: His name will be John."
Elizabeth takes John, and flies into the desert.
Mountains. Elizabeth carrying the infant John in her arms;
she flies, looking behind her. There is a great rock before her, split
The higoumenos is the abbot, the director of the Greek monasteries.
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
363
from top to bottom, in which she is already partly hidden; a
soldier, armed with a sword, pursues her from behind.*
The Harbinger preaches the baptism of repentance, on the shore of
the Jordan.
A multitude of men and women carrying little infants on their
shoulders, and in their arms. The Harbinger, standing in their
midst, says upon a scroll: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at
hand."
The Harbinger teaches the Jews and Pharisees on the banks of
the Jordan.
Near them,
A multitude of people; doctors and Pharisees.
great trees, and an axe buried in the root of the tree. The Har-
binger, showing the hatchet with one hand, and holding a scroll in
the other, saying: "O generation of vipers, who hath warned
you?" Near the tree where the axe is laid, the words, "But now
the axe is laid," &c.†
The Harbinger baptising the people.
A crowd of men, women, and children. Some are undressing;
others step into the water. The Harbinger baptises a man, and
says upon his scroll: "I indeed baptise you with water; but there
cometh " &c.
The Harbinger points out Christ.
[This picture is omitted in the manuscript; but it is known to
every one. John points out Jesus, passing in the distance, to the
astonished crowd. John points with the forefinger of his right
hand, saying, "Behold the Lamb of God!" John is frequently
represented among us using this gesture.-Didron.]
The Harbinger reproves Herod because of Herodias, his brother
Philip's wife.
A palace. Within, King Herod, an old man, seated upon a
throne; Herodias near him, also seated upon a throne. A circle of
*This rather a common subject in France. It may be seen carved in
ivory on the magnificent triptych of Poissy, now in the museum of the
Louvre. This work, of Italian origin, belongs to the close of the thirteenth
century.
+ This subject is carved in the cathedral of Rheims, on the western
wall, inside.
364
APPENDIX II.
soldiers surround them. The Harbinger, standing before Herod.
shows him Herodias, saying, "It is not lawful for thee to have this
woman." Two soldiers seize John.
The Harbinger imprisoned.
A dark prison. A soldier in front holds by one hand the
Harbinger bound. With the other hand he opens a door with a
key. Behind the Harbinger stand other soldiers, who hold him by
force.
The Harbinger beheaded. (Four scenes.)
A palace. Within, a table at which Herod, with his princes
and nobles, is seated. Two servants take plates from the hands
of another, visible outside the window as far as his shoulders
and arms.
In front of the table a young girl, richly attired,
dances.
Near the table is a room at one side, in which Herodias in royal
robes is seated; before her, a young girl holds the Harbinger's
head in a charger.
In the distance, some way from the palace, the prison, with an
iron-barred window, is visible. The Harbinger, beheaded, lies
stretched upon the ground outside. The executioner, holding the
head in his hands, places it upon the charger held by the young
maiden.
At a little distance the apostles Andrew and John carry the
body to the tomb.*
The first invention† of the venerated head of the Harbinger.
A house with a door. Outside the door, a little staircase; at the
foot of the stair, an open tomb, in which the head of the Harbinger
is laid. A hermit with a pickaxe removes the stone that covers
the tomb; another, in front of him, holds a box.
Farther on the two hermits appear again; one carries his clothes
in a roll hung at the end of a crook; the second, in front of him,
gives another man the Harbinger's head in the box. A town
*This subject of the entombment of John the Baptist by St. Andrew
and his brother arises from a tradition peculiar to the East, and rarely
represented by the Latins.
† Invention, meaning discovery; Latin inveniens, to come upon or light
on anything; hence to find, to discover.
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
365
stands before them, bearing this inscription: "The potter receives
the head of the Harbinger from the hands of two hermits.'
The second invention.
A grotto.
A terra-cotta urn is seen within, containing the
Harbinger's head. Rays of light fall from the roof of the grotto
upon the head. A priest, carrying lamp and censer, incenses the
head. A monk, slightly bent, holds a taper with one hand in front
of him; with the other he points out the head. There is a little
house behind the grotto.
Behind the grotto there is a small house. A hermit, an aged man
with long beard, is escaping, and looks behind him. Two of the
laity pursue him and beat him with sticks. This inscription is
over their heads: "Eustace the Arian pursued by the orthodox
because he denies the truth of the miracles wrought by means of
the sacred head of the Harbinger."
The third invention of the venerated head of the Harbinger.
A church. The venerated head, in a golden shrine, stands in the
midst. A chandelier and lighted lamps before it. On each side of
the shrine two deacons hold candelabra and tapers; a bishop
incenses it with a censer. At his side a king, with an incipient
beard, remains standing respectfully.† Behind the king his governor
and other nobles. On the other side are priests and two musicians
playing the harp. A deacon, standing in the midst, conducts the
music. Another singer at the king's side. A crowd of people
form a circle round. This inscription is above: "The venerated
head of the Harbinger revered by the king and his people."‡
* This potter was from Emessa, in Syria. The story is as follows: "As
the two monks were returning from the palace of Herod, where they had
found the head of St. John the Baptist, they were joined on the road by a
native of Emessa, who had left that city because of his great poverty. He
carried their packages as well as the saint's head. At night, St. John
having appeared to him and having directed him, he left the monks and
carried off the head to Emessa. Then, having hidden it in a cavern, and
always treating it with the greatest veneration, he prospered greatly.
There it lay concealed for many generations, till a star guided Marcellus
to the place where it lay." (See Legende Dorée, vol. i. p. 283.)
This monarch is the Emperor Theodosius the Great, who brought the
head of St. John the Baptist from Chalcedon to Constantinople. In the
reign of Pepin this head is said to have passed from Constantinople to
Poitiers, where numerous miracles were wrought by it.
The whole legend of the beheading of John the Baptist is given in
bas-relief in the cloister of the choir of Amiens cathedral, southern side.
366
APPENDIX II.
THE MIRACLES OF THE APOSTLE PETER.
Peter cures the man lame from his birth.
The temple with steps. A man seated, his head covered with
a veil, on the highest step at the temple gate; a wallet is hung
from his shoulders. His hands and eyes are raised towards Peter.
At his side two crutches hang against the temple wall. Peter,
standing before him, blesses him with one hand; he holds a closed
scroll in the other. John Theologos is behind him, young,
beardless.
Peter destroys Ananias and Sapphira.
Houses. Peter, standing in front, one hand outstretched ;
Sapphira stretched dead at his feet. At a little distance two
men carry away the body of Ananias, her husband. The apostles
and a great crowd stand behind Peter.
Peter restores Tabitha to life.
A high house. A woman laid upon a bed at the top of the
house. Peter, taking her by the left hand, blesses her with the
right. Women, widowed and infirm, are showing him the garments
and tunics she had given them.
Peter baptises the centurion Cornelius and them that are with him.”
The water. In the midst of this water stands Cornelius, quite
naked, grey-haired and with a long beard.
Five other persons.
Peter, his right hand upon the head of Cornelius. Outside the
water a crowd of men and women.
Peter withdrawn by an angel from the house of Herod.†
A prison. In the midst of it Peter seated between two soldiers
who sleep; he has shoes upon his feet, and two chains are lying
near him upon the ground. An angel with outstretched hand
stands before him.
* In the church of St. Bartholomew, at Liège, baptismal fonts of copper
may be seen, executed in the twelfth century by Lambart Patras (a
celebrated jeweller of Dinant). It is a choice example of the precious
works in metal so renowned in the middle ages. These fonts were exe-
cuted for the church of Notre Dame des Fonts, now quite destroyed. They
are shaped like a vat, or the brazen sea executed by Solomon, which was
supported by twelve oxen. Scenes of baptism are represented on the side
of the vessel, such as that of Jesus by John the baptist, of the philosopher
Crato by St. John the Evangelist, and of Cornelius by St. Peter.
†This subject is generally called St. Peter in chains.
ZACLES OF THE SAINTS.
Peter destroys Simon the magician.
367
Houses; the temple. Two winged demons in the air. Simon
the magician stretched upon the ground, his skull broken. Peter
stretches out his hand and threatens the demons. A crowd of men
surround him.
The apostle Peter crucified head downwards and put to death.
A cross planted in the earth. St. Peter crucified upside down,
his head down, his feet upwards. A crowd of soldiers encircle
him; some nail his hands, others his feet.*
THE MIRACLES OF THE APOSTLE PAUL.
Paul called by the Lord on the road to Damascus.
St. Paul prostrate on his face upon the ground; his hands are
over his eyes. Heaven above; Christ
Heaven above; Christ is therein. A vivid light,
composed of several rays, issues from heaven, and rests upon St.
Paul's head. In the midst of these rays, we read: "Saul! Saul!
why persecutest thou Me?" Near him are four men with fur
hats and turbans; they stand upright and are dumb with
amazement.
Paul baptised by Ananias.
Paul, naked, standing in the midst of the water. Ananias lays
his hand upon his head; scales, like fish-scales, fall from the eyes of
Paul.
Paul blinding the magician Bar-Jesus.†
An archon seated upon a throne. A diadem upon his head.
Before him, the magician, covering his eyes with his hands. Paul,
in front of him, stretches out his hand towards the eyes of the
magician. Barnabas is behind Paul. A crowd of men and women
stand round, astonished.
Paul shaking off the viper into the fire that had bitten his hand.
A fire of faggots and brushwood. Paul standing, holding his
* Although upside down, St. Peter was crucified vertically, like Jesus
Christ. St. Andrew was crucified horizontally. It was not till the
fifteenth century that St. Andrew was represented fastened vertically to
a cross saltire.
Before that he is shown on an ordinary cross, the cross
of Jesus-but fixed sideways-on the cross-bar-horizontally.
† Acts xiii. 6.
368
"APPENDIX II.
hands open over the fire. A viper bi.es his finger in the middle
and hangs to it. St. Luke is near him; other soldiers and men
seated in a circle, warming themselves.
St. Paul beheaded.
St. Paul kneeling, his eyes covered with a veil. The executioner
raises his sword above the head of St. Paul. Other soldiers stand
round. A little further on a woman, blind of one eye, looks at St.
Paul.*
THE MIRACLES OF ST. NICHOLAS.
St. Nicholas throwing money into a house.
A high house. Inside, a man asleep; his three daughters at a
little distance. St. Nicholas, young, standing under the house,
holds a handkerchief full of money; he throws it through a window
into the house.†
St. Nicholas ordained deacon.
A church; the sanctuary and the table. The saint, young, with
round beard, bends a little forward before the holy table. An
archbishop-an old man with a large beard-lays his hand upon
the saint's head, his hypogonation and the end of his homophore.§
The Holy Spirit is above, surrounded by rays. Two deacons, at
each side, carrying three-branched candlesticks. Torches and
lamps, illuminated, are outside the temple. A crowd of people.
St. Nicholas ordained priest.
The same composition.
St. Nicholas, in a ship, restores a dead sailor to life.
The sea.
A vessel, in the midst of which the saint is seen at
prayer. A dead sailor lies stretched before him. Other sailors
stand round astonished.
* This woman is Plantilla, Platilla or Lemohia, for she is known by all
three names, disciple of St. Paul. She gave the veil to St. Paul, with
which he covers his eyes before the execution. See Légende Dorée, vol. i.
p. 307.
† See Mrs. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, vol. ii. p. 452.
i.e., the altar, which in the Greek church is a table, and in the Latin
a tomb.
§ The hypogonation is a little lozenge-shaped ornament, falling above
the knee of the bishop and originally intended to hold his handkerchief.
The homophore corresponds to our stole.
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
369
St. Nicholas consecrated bishop.
The same as above, only there are three bishops.
St. Nicholas in prison; he receives the gospel from Christ, and a
stole from the Mother of God.
A prison. The saint inside. To his right, Christ holding the
gospel; to his left, the Mother of God carrying a stole: they present
these things to him.
St. Nicholas delivers the innocent men from death.
A city. Mountains outside, and three men condemned to death,
kneeling, their eyes covered with a veil, and their hands tied behind
their backs. The executioner behind them, holding a naked sword;
the saint, behind him, snatches it angrily from him. Three men are
near the saint with furred hats and pelisses. Prince Eustatius
humbles himself to the earth before the saint, and repents. Behind
him a horse with gilded harness.
St Nicholas appears in a dream to the Emperor Constantine and to
Eularius; he delivers the soldiers.
Palace. Constantine the Great, asleep upon a golden bed. He is
covered to his breast with coverlets shining with gold. The saint
appears to him at his head, and fills him with terror.
At a little distance is another palace, and the saint in like
manner frightening the sleeping Eularius.
The death of St. Nicholas.
The saint laid dead upon his bed, in pontifical robes. Bishops.
holding open gospels stand around him; one of them embraces the
saint. Deacons with censers, torches, and open books. A crowd
of people, monks and laity. A monk, clothed in a mantle, strikes
a simander,* and makes it resound.
THE MIRACLES OF ST. GEORGE.
St. George speaks boldly to Diocletian.
A palace. The emperor Diocletian seated on a throne. Near
him his epitrope (vice-emperor), Magnentius, seated upon a lower
throne. Behind the emperor two soldiers with lances. Near the
* A kind of wooden instrument like a gong.
VOL. II.
2 B
370
APPENDIX II.
other archons and soldiers. The saint, standing before the emperor,
extends his right hand towards him. Two soldiers pierce him with
two javelins.
The saint thrown into prison.
A prison. In the midst, the saint laid upon his back, his feet
fastened in a wooden instrument. A soldier closes this instrument
with a key; two other soldiers lay a great stone upon the saint's
breast.
The saint placed upon a wheel.
A square beam, covered with iron spikes, and surmounted by a
wheel. The saint fastened by his feet and hands to this wheel.
Two executioners, holding cords, turn the wheel. The emperor is
seated opposite upon a throne. Magnentius, before him, points out
the saint. Above the wheel, an angel sits on the cloud near the
saint, whom he comes to unbind. Outside the town, two archons
and a great number of soldiers are beheaded by executioners.
The saint with his feet tied up in shoes of red-hot iron.
The saint seated, his hands tied. A soldier fastens his feet in a
red-hot iron shoe. Behind them, a coal fire, upon which is another
shoe.
The saint drinks a mortal poison.
The emperor seated on a throne, as well as Magnentius. Both
raise their hands towards the saint. He, standing before them,
drinks the poison from a narrow-necked terra-cotta vase. The
magician Athanasius is standing in front of him; he holds a similar
vase in his left hand, while with the finger of his right hand he
points out the saint to the emperor. Near at hand, a great crowd of
soldiers.
The saint restores the dead to life.
The emperor and Magnentius seated upon thrones. The magician
Athanasius is near them, astonished. In front and at a little
distance, the saint prays before an open tomb, in which the dead
rises, standing upright and full of life. Near that, a crowd in
admiration.
Further on, the magician Athanasius and the restored one,
beheaded by an executioner.
The saint restores a peasant's ox to life.
The saint, seated in a prison and blessing. Before him, outside
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
371
the prison, and near his master, is the revived ox.
The peasant, on
his knees, turns his hands and eyes towards the saint.
The beheading of St. George.
The saint kneeling. Before him, the executioner, with a sword.
At a little distance, Queen Alexandrina, seated on a stone; she
breathes a last sigh, and an angel receives her soul,
THE MIRACLES OF ST. CATHERINE.
The saint learning from her confessor.
A grotto. Inside, a hermit confessor, seated on a stool; he lays
his hands upon the saint. She is before him, fixed in astonishment.
Her mother is near her.
Christ averts His face from St. Catherine because she is not
baptised.
A grotto. The saint bears herself humbly before the Mother of
God, who is holding the Christ in her arms as a little infant is held.
He turns His face away so that St. Catherine may not see Him.-
The saint baptised by her confessor.
A grotto. Within, the same hermit as above; he baptises the
saint. Near her, her mother holds a lighted taper.
The saint receives a token of betrothal from Christ.
A grotto. The saint standing within, her right hand extended
open. Before her, the Holy Virgin, holding Christ, as a little child,
by one hand, taking the saint's right hand with the other. The
Lord puts a ring upon the little finger of her right hand; He holds
a scroll in the other hand, with these words: “Behold, I take thee
to-day for mine inviolable spouse.”
The saint speaking boldly to the king.
A temple. Within are idols; before these idols is an altar with
animals burning thereon. Men: some strangle oxen and sheep with
cords; others carry birds; others sacrifice. The king enthroned,
surrounded by his guards. The saint stands forward and addresses
them.
*The four first subjects in St. Catherine's life are not often seen in
Western art. In France her life commences at the Mystic Marriage.
2 B 2
VOL. II.
372
APPENDIX II.
The saint disputes with fifty philosophers.
A palace. The king within, seated on a throne. Fifty philo-
sophers seated at once, some on one side and some the other. Their
heads are veiled.* The oldest of these philosophers, standing near
the king's throne, disputes with the saint, pointing out the other
philosophers to her. All are astonished. Some hold their beards
in their hands; some talk to one another, and point out the saint.
The saint fastened to wheels.
Four wheels, armed with iron blades, crossed by a single axle.
The saint below, stretched upon the earth, her hands tied. An
angel, standing near, loosens her cords. Several soldiers near the
wheels are dead or cut to pieces; the king on his throne is opposite.
The queen, coming out of the door of a house, reproaches him. A
great crowd of men stand round.
A little farther on, the queen is again seen, beheaded by an
executioner. A number of other soldiers beheaded by executioners
because they believed in Jesus Christ.
The beheading of St. Catherine.
The saint kneeling; the executioner lifts a sword over her. A
multitude of men and women shed tears. †
THE MIRACLES OF ST. ANTHONY.
The saint beaten by demons.
A tomb. The saint is laid in it at the bottom. Demons surround
him, and strike him with a stick. Other demons drag off the cover
of the tomb.
The saint, taking refuge in the desert, finds a disc of silver and of
gold upon the road.
Mountains and highway. In the midst of the highway, a great
* The veil is always part of the philosopher's costume in Byzantine
art. The philosopher is likened to a priest, and even at the present day
the monks of Mount Athos wear a black veil-the veil being a sacerdotal
head-dress.
† At Athens, in a half-ruined church near the temple of Jupiter, the
legend of St. Catherine is painted in six pictures. The saint is a grand
form, standing, nimbed, covered with long black hair in which pearls are
shining. She wears a radiated crown adorned with pearls. A cross in
her right hand and wheel to the left The legend of St. Eustace may also
be seen at Athens in the church of the Great Virgin.
THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS.
373
disc of silver falls to the ground; a little further on, a great lump of
gold. The saint carries staff and knapsack upon his shoulders; he
quits the highway on seeing these objects.
St. Anthony tills the ground.
A little vegetable garden; a grotto at the end. The saint, armed
with a pickaxe, is busy weeding his vegetables.
The saint confounds the philosophers, and cures those who are
possessed by demons.
The saint, standing. Three of the possessed lie on their backs
before him; demons issue from their mouths. At the side are
three philosophers, wearing veils on their heads; they appear
astonished and embarrassed.
The saint led by a lion into the grotto of St. Paul.
The desert. The saint walks behind a lion. At a distance
before them the grotto of St. Paul appears across the trees and
mountains.
St. Anthony, having found St. Paul, embraces him.
A grotto. Outside, St. Paul the Theban, wearing a hair mat
which covers him from his shoulders to his knees. He and St.
Anthony embrace. A raven perched on the top of a tree holds
bread in his beak.†
St. Anthony burying the body of St. Paul.
St. Paul stretched dead upon the ground; St. Anthony covering
him with a winding-sheet. Close by, two lions tear up the earth
with their fore-paws.
Death of St. Anthony.
A pit dug. Two brethren carry the saint enveloped in a shroud;
one has gone down into the pit, the other is outside. Near them, an
axe and a shovel thrown on the ground. Above the saint, a crowd
*He knew the devil could transform himself into silver and gold. (See
the life of St. Anthony, written by St. Athanasius.)
This subject of the meeting of Paul and Anthony is sculptured on the
Ruthwell cross. See Stephens' Runic Monuments, vol. ii. pt. 1.
374
APPENDIX II.
of angels having tapers and censers, carrying his soul, clothed in
white, and raising him to heaven.*
HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS OF THE YEAR.
Month of September.
1. The holy brothers Evodos, Callixtus, and Hermogenes, be-
headed.
Description.-St. Evodos and St. Hermogenes extended on the
ground and beheaded; the one young, the other old. Their sister
Callixta near them; at her side the executioner with a sword.
2. St. Mamas perishing, his entrails torn out.
Description. Mountains, with a grotto. St. Mamas, young,
beardless, laid upon his back. Above him, a soldier armed with a
three-pronged fork, which he buries in the saint's body.
3. The holy martyr of Anthymos, decapitated.
Description. A city. Outside the city is the saint with an
incipient beard, young, clad in pontifical robes, kneeling, with his
head cut off. Above him is the executioner, holding a bloody
sword. Before him, another executioner holds the head that has
been cut off.
4. St. Babylas, with three children, beheaded.
Description.-St. Babylas, in episcopal dress, an old man with
large beard, his head cut off. Near him are three children, lowering
their heads. Above them, the executioner, with a sword.
5. The prophet Zacharias, father of the Harbinger, slain between
the temple and the sanctuary.
Description. The temple. Inside, a cupola, beneath which is a
table. The saint is in front of it, an old man with a large beard,
dressed as a Jewish high-priest, his hands and eyes raised to heaven.
A soldier seizes his head by the hair, and buries his sword in his
throat.
6. SS. Eudoxia, Zeno, Romulus, and Macarius, beheaded.
Description.-St. Eudoxia and St. Zeno, young, incipient beard,
kneeling, their hands raised to heaven and their heads lying on the
ground in front of them. Above them an executioner, putting his
sword in his sheath. At his side, St. Romulus, an old man, beheaded
* See chapter on Iconography of the Soul, p. 177, supra.
HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS.
375
by another executioner. St. Macarius, a youth, kneeling; an
executioner plunges his sword in his throat.
7. St. Soson, beaten by a club.
Description. The saint stretched on the earth; two soldiers
strike him with stakes of wood.
8. St. Severianus hung at a wall, a stone attached to his feet.
Description.—A city. Two soldiers upon walls, where the saint
is hung. A great stone fastened to his feet.
9. St. Menodora, St. Metrodora, and St. Nymphodora perish.
under the rock.
Description. The saints stretched upon the ground, naked to the
middle of their bodies; veils cover their heads. Three soldiers strike
them with sticks.
10. SS. Diodorus, Diomed, and Didymus, beaten to death.
Description.-St. Diodorus, an old man, St. Diomed and St.
Didymus, young, with incipient beards, laid on the ground, their
bodies covered with wounds; three soldiers flog them.
11. St. Autonomous, flogged and stoned, perishes.
Description. The saint, young, with round beard, is kneeling,
his hands raised to heaven; above him are four soldiers, some with
stones, others with sticks, beating the body.
12. SS. Cronides, Macrobius, Leontius, Serapion, cast into the
sea, perish.
Description. The sea; in the midst a small ship, in which are
soldiers, who cast the saints into the sea. St. Macrobius, an old
man, is half in the boat and half outside. St. Cronides, a youthful
deacon; the others are grey-headed.
13. St. Nicetas perishes in the fire.
Description-A great fire, in which is the saint, young, with an
incipient beard, eyes and hands raised to heaven. Two soldiers fan
the flames.
14. St. Euphemia, delivered up a prey to bears and lions, remains
unharmed and renders up his soul to God.
Description.-Lions and bears; in their midst the saint upon his
knees, his hands and eyes raised to heaven.
376
APPENDIX II.
15. St. Sophia beheaded with her three daughters, Faith, Hope,
and Charity.
Description. Mountains and houses; the saints are near them.
Both stretched upon the ground with their heads cut off, the two
others, kneeling, bow their heads. The executioner raises his sword
over them.*
•
16. SS. Trophimus and Dorymedon beheaded, St. Sabbaticus
flogged to death.
Description.-St. Trophimus, with incipient beard, is stretched
upon the earth beheaded. St. Dorymedon, beardless, kneels, his
hands tied behind his back; the executioner cuts his throat with a
sword. St. Sabbaticus, stretched on his back, is covered with wounds.
Two soldiers with sticks are above him; one strikes, the other
brandishes his stick in the air.
20. St. Eustatius and his family are thrown into a red-hot brazen
bull.
Description.—A brazen bull; with the saint, grey-haired, a round
beard, with his son and his wife. Under the bull, two soldiers keep
up a great fire.
21. St. Codrates dies by the sword.
Description.-St. Codrates, an old man, beard stubbly, kneeling,
stretching out his hands towards the sky. The executioner, who
is over him, strikes him with a sword.
22. St. Phocas, beheaded.
Description. The saint, an old man, with pontifical robes,
stretched on the ground, his head cut; fire behind his feet. The
executioner looks backwards.
24. St. Thecla enters a rock, which lacerates her, and perishes.
Description.—Mountains and a grotto; a little before the grotto
is a great stone split open. The saint is hidden in it, and half
* The whole legend of the Holy Wisdom, or Sophia and her three
daughters, is painted on the walls of Chilandari on Mount Athos. In the
cathedral of Canterbury the relics of the holy Wisdom and her daughters
are to be found. (See Monasticon Anglicanum, Dodsworth and Dugdale,
vol. i. p. 5.) This personification and genealogy recalls the genealogy and
personification of Intelligence figured in a MS. Bible in the public library
of Rheims, where the daughters of Philosophy are Physics, Logic, and
Ethics. (See p. 34, supra.)
HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS.
377
appears again. Christ upon a cloud above; He blesses the saint with
His right hand, and with the left he shows the stone.
In front St. Paul, an
25. St. Paul; his mother and children die in tortures.
Description.-Houses and mountains.
elderly man, and his mother, very aged. The family: Savinien,
young, beard round; Maximian, incipient beard; Rufus, young,
beardless; Eugenius, a child. All are naked, covered with wounds,
and dying. Two soldiers hold the little child, one by the head, the
other by the feet, and they torture it.
26. St. John Theologos dies at Ephesus, where he is buried by his
disciples.
Description.—The ground and a pit. Before the pit seven of the
saint's disciples. Some hold pickaxes, others hatchets and shovels.
The saint is buried in a ditch, and two other disciples cover his
eyes with a veil.*
27. St. Callistratus and his companions, beheaded.
Description.--A vessel; inside hang broken idols. The saints,
old and young, some beheaded, others kneeling, ready for the
executioner's sword. St. Callistratus is near them; he is an old
man, kneeling, his hands tied behind his back. Close to him, the
executioner with his sword.
28. St. Mark, Alexander, Zosimus and Alpheus die, crushed upon
a stone.
Description.—Mountains; the saints above. St. Alexander, grey-
haired; St. Zosimus and Alpheus,† with incipient beards. They
are crushed on stones, and dead. St. Mark, whose white hair
descends almost to his feet, is also crushed upon a stone. He still
breathes. Above him the executioner with a sword.
29. St. Gobdeleas, fastened by his feet to a horse; St. Dadas, cut
in pieces; St. Casdoa, in a king's gardens, renders up her spirit in
peace to the Lord.
Description.—Mountains; at the top, St. Gobdeleas, young,
beardless, tied by the feet with cords to a horse, who drags him over
the rocks; St. Dadas, an old man with a large beard and very richly
dressed; he is stretched upon the earth, beheaded. Soldiers with
* This is represented on a glass window in the south side aisle of
Chartres cathedral.
Strange to give to a saint the name of a river.
378
APPENDIX II.
their swords stand round him. St. Casdoa receives toe sacrament
in a garden; a priest and an angel are near her.
30. St. Mardonius dies, his body covered with burning charcoal.
Description.-Houses; the saint, grey-haired, with stubbly
beard, is stretched upon his back on the ground in one of them. A
soldier takes charcoal with a spade, and lays it on the saint's
breast.
So far we have expounded the martyrs belonging to one month;
the remaining martyrs throughout the year are represented in like
manner as described in their lives and legends. Seek in the tables
(of the martyrology) for the character of face belonging to the
saints individually, as also the sayings on their scrolls.
[Here follows the martyrology for the months of the year following,
but, as it is nothing more than a list of names, we have thought it better
to omit this portion of the work, which occupies sixteen pages. M. Didron
in a note observes, "I do not know why our Greek manuscript commences
at the month of September, and why it does not in preference describe the
saints of January, which begins the civil year, or still more December or
April, the leading months of the religious year." The outer porch of
Chilandari, on Mount Athos, is painted with the martyrdoms of the
principal saints.]
ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES."
How to represent the life of the true monk.
Draw a monk† embracing a cross, wearing his priestly robe,
on his head a calimafki;‡ he should be barefoot, and his feet
should rest upon the footboard of the cross, his eyes being cast
down and his mouth closed. The following epigraph on the top of
the cross near his head: "Lord, Son of God, set a seal upon my
mouth, and a door upon my lips." He holds lighted wax-lights in
his hands; this epigraph is close to the wax-lights: "Let your light
so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify
your Father which is in heaven." He has a lozenge-shaped scroll
upon his breast, with these words: "Give me a pure heart, O God,
and renew a right spirit within me." Upon his waist another scroll
like a standard, with these words: "O monk, be not deceived by
the appetites of the body." Below that again another scroll says:
* This title, added here by M. Didron, does not appear in the original MS.
+ In French caloyer, meaning a Greek monk, of the order of St. Basil.
A head-dress like an advocate's cap, worn by monks.
#
ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES.
379
"Mortify your members here upon earth." And lower still another
scroll saying: "Make ready your feet for the way of the gospel of
peace." Above, on the highest portion of the cross, nail a title with
the words: "Glory not because of me, if it be not in the cross of my
Lord." Put seals at the other three ends of the cross. On that to
the right inscribe: "He who endures to the end shall be saved."
To the left: "He that renounces not all that he hath, cannot be a
disciple of Christ." Upon the seal which is below the footboard
write: "Narrow is the way, and filled with affliction, that leadeth
unto life." On the right side of the cross, represent a dark cave
with a dragon hidden in its midst, and write: "All-devouring hell."
Above the dragon's mouth, a naked youth with his eyes bandaged,
and holding a bow, fires an arrow at the monk. A scroll is tied to
this arrow with these words: "Be sinful." Above that again:
"The passion of love." Draw a crowd of serpents above the cave,
and write: "Remorse." Close to hell make a demon dragging the
cross with a cord, and saying: "The flesh is weak, and cannot
withstand." At the right hand of the footboard make a lance, with
a cross and standard, and write above it: "I can do all things
through Christ who strengtheneth me." To the left of the cross,
make a tower with a gate; issuing from it a man mounted on a
white horse. This personage wears a furred hat, and garments
glistening with gold and trimmed with fur. He holds a vase of
wine in his right hand, and in his left a lance, to the end of which a
sponge is attached.
A scroll is attached to this lance saying:
“Partake of all the world's delights." Write this inscription over
the man:
"The mad world." Place Death below him as if proceed-
ing from him; he carries a large scythe upon his shoulders, and a
dial on his head; he looks at the monk. Above him the inscrip-
tion: "Death and the tomb." Below, at each side of the hands of
the monk, make two angels holding scrolls. On that to the right is
written: "The Lord hath sent me to your assistance." On that
to the left: "Do well, and fear naught." Above the cross, paint
heaven, with Christ holding the gospel open on His breast at these
words: "He that will be My disciple must renounce himself, take
up his cross and follow Me." He holds a royal crown in His right
hand and a crown of flowers in the left; an angel at each side below
looks at the monk and points to Christ; they hold between them
both a great scroll with the words: "Labour for the crown of
righteousness, and the Lord will give unto you a crown of precious
380
APPENDIX II.
stones." Then write this inscription: "The life of the true
monk."*
The ladder of salvation and the heavenward way.
A monastery. A crowd of young and old monks outside the
gate. In front a very great and high ladder, reaching to the sky.
Monks are upon it, some starting to climb, others grasping the foot
of the ladder, in order to rise higher. Above, winged angels appear
to assist them. Higher still, in heaven, the Christ. An aged monk
is before Him, upon the last step of the ladder; he stretches out his
hands and looks towards heaven like a priest. The Lord takes him
by one hand; with the other He lays a crown of flowers on his
head, saying to him: "Come unto Me, all ye that labour and are
heavy laden, and I will refresh you." Underneath the ladder a
great crowd of winged demons seize the monks by their dress;
they pull at some, but cannot cause them to fall. With others they
have succeeded in drawing them a little way from the ladder, some
with only one hand, others with two. Finally other monks are
quite withdrawn from the ladder, and demons seize them by the
waist and drag them away. The all-devouring hell is beneath
them, under the form of an enormous and terrible dragon ; a monk,
whose feet only are now visible, has fallen backwards into his jaw.
Write this sentence: "Behold the ladder that leans upon heaven,
and reflect well upon the foundations of virtue. With what speed
this fragile life is borne away! Approach the ladder and mount
with courage. You have the choirs of angels as your defenders;
you will surmount the snares of evil demons. Reaching the gates
of heaven, you will receive the crown from the hand of the Lord."†
How to represent the death of a hypocrite.
A monk wrapped in bedclothes; a great serpent issues from his
mouth. A demon over him buries a trident in his heart.
How to represent the death of the righteous.
A man with an incipient beard, laid in a decent and modest
manner upon an humble bed, his eyes closed and hands crossed
* There is a fine example of this subject in a fresco painting in the
porch of the principal church of the convent of Philotheou at Mount
Athos.
† See Fig. 206, page 167, supra.
ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES.
381
upon his breast. An angel above lcoks at him with joy, and
receives his soul in veneration and respect
The death of the sinner.
An aged man, naked, laid upon a bed, half concealed by a
magnificent covering, turns away his eyes in horror, moving his
feet and throwing his arms from one side to another. A demon,
above him, buries a trident in his heart; he torments him with all
manner of atrocities and tears away his soul by force.
How to represent the illusive seasons of this life.
Describe a little circle; within it put an aged man, with rounded
beard, in regal robes, and wearing a crown, seated on a throne, his
hands stretched out at either side, and holding the same object as
is held by the World,* who is figured above the apostles in Pente-
cost. Around the circle, write: "The mad, deceitful, and seductive
world."
Outside the first circle make another still larger. Between these
two circles, inscribe four semicircles, placed crosswise; in the
midst of them represent the four seasons of the year: spring,
summer, autumn and winter. At the top, spring, like this: a man
seated in the midst of flowers and verdant fields; he carries a crown
of flowers upon his head, and strikes a harp that he holds in his
hand. To the right, represent summer in this way: a man, with a
hat, holds a sickle, and reaps a field. At the bottom, represent
autumn thus: a man beats a tree and shakes down its flowers and
fruits. To the left, represent winter thus: a man seated, wearing a
pelisse and cowl, warms himself before a blazing fire. (See p. 222,
supra.)
Outside this second circle, describe another still larger; divide it
into twelve compartments, and put the twelve signs of the twelve
months inside. Take care to place each sign near the season that
corresponds with it. Thus, near spring, put the ram, the bull and
the twins; near summer, put cancer, the lion, the virgin; near
autumn, the balance, the scorpion, the archer; near winter, capri-
corn, aquarius, and the fish. Then arrange these signs according
to their order, and be careful to write its name above each, as well
* The World is personified in the form of an aged man, crowned, holding
twelve rolls in his lap (p. 322).
† In Western art, musical instruments are very rarely given to the
Seasons.
382
APPENDIX II.
as the names of the months, in the following manner. Above the
ram, write March; above the bull, April; above the twins, May;
above cancer, June; above the lion, July; above the virgin,
August; above the scales, September; above the scorpion, October;
above sagittarius, November; above capricorn, December; above
aquarius, January; above pisces, February.
Outside the third and largest circle, make the seven ages of man
in the following manner. Below, upon the right side, place a little
child climbing; write before him on the circle, " child of seven years."
Above this make another child more grown, and write, "child of
fourteen years." Higher still, draw a youth with hair upon his face,
and write, "youth of twenty-one." Above, on the top of the wheel.
put another man, with incipient beard, seated on a throne, his feet
upon a cushion, his hand stretched out on either side, holding a
sceptre in his right hand, and a purse full of money in his left; he
is clad in regal robes, and wears a crown upon his head. Under
him, upon the wheel, write: "youth of twenty-eight years." Under
him to the left, make another man, with pointed beard, with head
bent down, but looking up; man of forty-eight years." Under him
another man with grey hair, laid upon his back, and write: "mature
man of fifty-six years." Under him, place a bald man, with
white beard, bowed head, and arms hanging down, and write:
aged man of seventy-five years." Then under him place a tomb, in
which is a great dragon, holding in his jaws a man upon his back,
the half of whose body only is visible. In the tomb close by is
Death, armed with a great scythe, which he buries in the throat of
the old man, and mows him down.
Outside the circle write the following inscriptions, near the
mouths of each individual :-
Near the little child: "When then, having climbed, shall I
arrive on high ?”
Near the child: "O Time, turn quickly, that I may reach the
heights."
Near the youth: "Behold, I approach the point when I may be
seated on my throne."
Near the young man: "Who is a king like unto me? Who is
above me?"
Near the mature man, write: "Unhappy that I am. O Time,
how thou has deceived me!"
Near the aged man: “Alas! alas ! O Death, who can escape thee ?
""
DISTRIBUTION OF PAINTINGS IN CHURCHES.
383
Near the tomb, these words: "Death and all-consuming hell."
Near the man devoured by the dragon: “Alas! who will save
me from the all-devouring hell?
((
Then to the right and left of the wheel put two angels under each
half of the seasons, and turning the wheel with cords. Above the
angel to the right, inscribe: Day;" above that to the left:
'Night." Above the wheel write this epigraph: "The senseless
life of the deceitful world.”*
66
THIRD PART.
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
How to paint the different elevations of the walls of a church.
[Here the Guide distributes the pictures according to the order in
which the artist ought to execute them from top to bottom in
succession. He begins at the cupola, then proceeds to the
sanctuary, and works down from the highest point of the summit
of the apse, from the fifth zone, to the ground-floor. The paintings
on the walls of a moderately high church are arranged in five
bands, dividing them into five storeys, reaching from the ground-
floor to the vault. The cupola forms a sixth storey. A special
series of paintings is attached to each of these elevations, and each
band is, besides, divided into three or four sections, each containing
its particular subject.]
When you desire to paint the walls of a church, first draw, near
the summit of the cupola, a circle of different colours, like a rainbow
seen on clouds in rainy weather. In the centre represent Christ,
blessing; He bears the Gospel on His breast. Paint this inscription:
"Jesus Christ, the Almighty." (See vol. i. p. 174.)
* In the church of Sophades, a village in Thessaly on the Peneus, this
subject is painted in fresco on the western wall. The wheel is set in a
great square, in the four corners of which we have the sun, the moon, day
and night. This painting has supplied the key to the figures on the great
rose window of the cathedral of St. Stephen of Beauvais, now proved to be
the wheel of fortune. The same subject may be seen on the walls of the
Refectory at Ivirôn on Mount Athos. It is on the southern rose window
of Rheims, on the rose of the south porch of Amiens. The allegory is
given in another form on a painted window in the church of St. Nizier at
Troyes; and again, in the cathedral of Canterbury, on a painted window in
the nave, the ages of human life are given.
384
APPENDIX II.
Around the circle place a multitude of cherubim and thrones,
and write this inscription: "See now that I, even I, am He, and
there is no God with Me. I have made the earth and created man
upon it. I have stretched out the heavens." (Deut. xxxii. 39;
Isaiah xlv. 12.)
Above the Almighty draw the orders of angels around, and in the
midst of the eastern side place the holy Virgin, her hands stretched
out right and left. Above the Virgin write this inscription: "The
mother of God and queen of angels."
Opposite to her and at the western aide of the cupola draw the
Harbinger, and underneath these figures put the prophets. Beneath
the prophets inscribe this verse in a circle round the cupola :
"Establish Thy church, O Lord, formed by the reunion of those
who hope in Thee, and whose foundations are laid in Thy holy
blood." Lower down in the pendentives of the vaults, represent the
four evangelists. Between these evangelists, and at the summit of
the archivaults of these vaults, draw the holy Veil to the east;
opposite to it the holy Cup; Jesus Christ on the right hand holding
the Gospel and saying: "I am the Vine and ye are the branches;"
Emmanuel, on the left hand, holding a scroll with these words:
"The spirit of the Lord is upon Me, therefore He hath anointed Me."
Make the stems of the vine go forth from these four subjects,*
dividing at the bottom where the evangelists are placed, and rising to
the angles of the pendentives, entwining their branches around the
apostles. Within the vault of the cupola, and at the top of each
of the arcades in the vault, put three prophets with scrolls contain-
ing the prophecies relating to the festivals represented below the
prophets; each prophet points out with his finger to the festival he
has foretold. (See above.)†
Beginning of the first and highest storey in the sanctuary.—
[This topmost zone or band of paintings goes all round the church,
starting from and ending with the form of the Virgin. Commencing
at the north, which is always at the left hand looking towards the
sanctuary, we come round to the right, thus having included all that
portion of the building allotted to the paintings of the principal
gospel events.]
* Emmanuel; Jesus the Vine; the Cup; and the Veil. These four
subjects belong to the later period of fresco-painting in Greece
In the cupola of the great church of the convent of St. Luke in
Livadia, A.D. 920, the subjects of the mosaics are, with a few exceptions,
arranged in accordance with the directions of the Guide.
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
385
Inside the sanctuary, at the centre of the eastern end of the vault,
below the prophets, which are at the summit, draw the Virgin
seated on a throne, and holding Christ as a little child. Place
this inscription above her: "The Mother of God, the Queen of
Heaven."
At each side put the archangels Michael and Gabriel bending
reverently. Then to the left hand commence the representation of
the twelve principal festivals, the Holy Passion, and the miracles
following on the Resurrection; represent them below the prophets,
this band going all round the church and returning to the right (or
southern side) of the summit. Thus the first band of pictures
should be placed.
Beginning of the second storey.
Under this topmost band, represent the divine liturgy or Mys-
tagogia. (See pp. 334, 335, supra.) Finally, and commencing at
the left (the north side), represent the divine works and miracles
of Christ, in succession, round the church up to the right (south)
side of the liturgy. Thus the second band of subjects should
terminate.
In the two small hemispherical cupolas of the sanctuary, on the
side of the offerings, represent Christ in episcopal robes, seated
on a cloud and giving His benediction. He holds the Gospel open
and says:
"I am the good shepherd." Above Him is this inscrip-
tion: "Jesus Christ, the great patriarch."
In a circle round Him, represent the Cherubim and Thrones, and,
underneath, a line of bishops to be selected according to your own
judgment. Lower down represent the sacrifice of Cain and Abel
(see p. 268); the sacrifice of Manoah (see p. 277). Upon the vault
of the offerings, the descent from the cross.
In the cupola at the opposite side represent the Holy Virgin, with
the child Jesus in the midst of a circular aureole, with arms out-
stretched on both sides. Write this inscription: "The Mother of
God, the greatest in heaven."
Underneath, a circular band of bishops, selected at will. Under
them Moses looking at the burning bush (see p. 273); the three
children in the furnace (see p. 285); Daniel in the den of lions
(see p. 286); the hospitality of Abraham, (see p. 270).
Beyond the sanctuary, in the highest part of the first of the four
*Services for the administration of the Eucharist were specifically called
liturgies. (See p. 230, supra.)
VOL. II.
2 c
386
APPENDIX II.
niches or little apses,* above the deacons' seats, represent the Angel of
the great Will. He is on a cloud supported by four angels; He
holds a scroll and says: "I Myself, I come from God and I
return to Him, for I am not come of Myself, it is He that sent Me."
Write this inscription: "Jesus Christ the Angel of the great Will.”
In the second vault represent Emmanuel upon a cloud, saying on a
scroll: "The Spirit of God is upon Me; because He hath anointed
Me, etc." ... At the four ends of the cloud, represent the
tetramorphs of the evangelists. In the third vault show the arch-
angel Michael, holding a sword in his right nand, and a scroll in his
left on which is written: "They who enter the holy and divine
house of God with impure hearts, shall I strike with mine inexor-
able sword." In the fourth vault represent the Harbinger; let
him be seated on a cloud, giving his benediction with his right hand
and holding a cross and scroll in his left, with these words written
thereon: "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.”
In the lower part of the first niche (under the Angel of the Will),
represent Moses holding the tables of the law, and Aaron holding a
golden vase and flowering rod. Both are clothed in archiepiscopal
robes, and they each carry a mitre. Then draw Noah, holding the
ark in his hand, and Daniel holding a scroll.
In the second niche (beneath the form of Emmanuel) paint the
prophet Samuel, holding a horn of oil and a censer; Melchisedek,
holding three loaves upon a disc (plate); the prophet Zachariah,
father of the Harbinger, with a censer. They also wear sacerdotal
vestments. Add the righteous Job, wearing a crown upon his head,
and holding a scroll with these words: "May the name of the Lord
be blessed now and evermore."
In the third and fourth niches (under Michael and the Harbinger)
represent the twelve apostles as they are described above.
2. On the eastern side, above the two columns, represent the
annunciation of the angel to the Mother of God. Behind the
Virgin, the prophet-king David, holding a scroll with these words:
"Hearken, O daughter, and attend with thine ear!" Behind the
*These niches in the wall of the apse are divided into two parts-the
vault, and the sides reaching to the floor. The deacons gain admission
by the southern apse. In the church of the convent of Daphne, on the
sacred way from Athens to Eleusis, inscriptions placed at the entrance of
two small side apses indicate that the northern apse is destined for the
sacred vessels—the south for the utensils and robes of the officiating
ministers. (See vol. i. p. 293, note.)
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
387
angel, Isaiah points with his finger to the Holy Virgin; he says
upon a scroll: "Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and
they shall call His name Emmanuel."
On the four capitals of the columns* (supporting the central
cupola) inscribe :-
On the first: "This house is the house that the Father hath built."
On the second: "This house is that which the Son hath founded.”
On the third: "This house is that which the Holy Spirit hath
renewed."
On the fourth: "Holy Trinity, glory be unto Thee!"
Beginning of the third band.-Within the sanctuary, underneath
the divine liturgy (the Mystagogia) represent the distribution of
the Lord's body and blood to the apostles (see p. 334). To the
right of this communion, turning towards the church (i.e. to the
north of the church), represent the following subjects:
The Presentation of the Holy Virgin (see p. 348).
Moses and Aaron celebrating the sacrifice in the tabernacle
(see p. 275).
At the left side of the communion, also turning towards the
church (on the south side), represent :—
The ladder of Jacob (see p. 271).
The ark borne into Jerusalem (see p. 279).
Outside the sanctuary, all round the temple, on the right and left
sides represent a selection of parables (see pp. 322 et seq.); and also
the exaltation of the cross and the triumph of images. At the
west end, above the church door, represent the death of the Mother
of God and her other festivals. Thus the third band of paintings
concludes.†
Beginning of the fourth band.-Underneath the third order, and
round the church and sanctuary, represent the saints in medallions
and circles. Put the bishops inside the sanctuary, and the martyrs
outside, and choose certain ecclesiastics and poets to place at the
west end.
Beginning of the fifth band.-Under the fourth order, the sainted
* The inscriptions defining the offices of the Trinity call to mind this
inscription on a window in the church of St. Andrew at Rheims, "Pater
plantavit, Filius rigavit, sed Spiritus Sanctus fructum dedit," where the
Father is seen planting a tree, the apostles watering, and the Holy Ghost
causing it to bear fruit.
In the east end Mary is alive and holding Christ. In the west she
dies; living in the sunrise, she dies at sunset.
2 c 2
388
APPENDIX II.
bishops seated round the holy table: to the right, the great St.
Basil; to the left, St. Chrysostom, along with the rest of the most
renowned bishops, with their scrolls and their inscriptions. Near
the apse of offering, represent St. Peter of Alexandria, holding a
scroll with these words: "Oh Saviour, who is it that thus hath
rent Thy garments?" Before him, represent Christ as a little
child, standing upon the holy table, and clothed in a torn tunic; He
blesses the saint with His right hand, and holds a scroll in the left
containing these words: "Peter, it is Arius the hateful one, the
madman!" [who hath done this].* Beneath the vaults, put the
holy deacons. Outside, towards the singers' choir, represent the
principal martyrs (p. 374): St. George on the right; St. Demetrius
on the left, and the rest in order (see above). Then represent the
holy Anargyres (Ascetics); then St. Constantine, and St. Helen,
holding up the venerated cross of the Lord.
To the west, place St. Anthony on the right, and St. Euthymius
on the left; and the other holy men and poets with their scrolls
and inscriptions (see the different pages in which they are described).
Inside the temple door, place the archangel Michael to the right;
he holds a sword and a scroll with these words: "I am the soldier
of God, and am armed with a sword. I defend, I preserve, I
protect, I watch over all who enter into this place with awe; but
those who come with impure heart, I pitilessly smite with this
sword."
On the left side, Gabriel holds a scroll, and traces these words in
it with a reed: "With this reed I write the inmost thoughts of
those who enter here; I take care of the good, but I quickly
destroy the wicked." Above the door represent Christ, under the
form of a little child of three years, asleep, and lying on a carpet,
with His head resting upon His hand. The Holy Virgin stands
respectfully in front of Him. Angels, holding fans, stand round in
a circle; they refresh the infant Jesus by the motion of their fans.
Under Him, write a title with this inscription: "The present and
most holy church of the divine and sacred monastery of . . . .
* In the great church of the Meteores, a monastery in Thessaly, this
subject is painted.
This subject of the sleep of Jesus has been already described as repre-
sented in the convent of Philotheou on Mount Athos. (See vol. i. p. 342.)
A lion sleeps at the child's feet, and there is an inscription taken from
Gen. xlix. 9: "From the prey, my son, thou art gone up; he stooped down,
he couched as a lion."
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
339
has been painted with the concurrence, and at the expense of . ..
in the year
• •
""
How the narthex should be painted.*
In such a case as that in which the narthex, you desire to decorate
with painting, is capped by two cupolas, represent the Reunion of
Spirits in one of them, after the following manner: Describe a circle,
and place Christ in the middle, with the orders of the angels; and a
little lower down, upon three zones, the orders of the saints (see
preceding pages). In the other cupola, put the prophets at the top.
Describe a circle for heaven. Draw the Holy Virgin with the
infant Jesus in the middle. She is upborne by angels, and the
prophets are a little below her, all around (see above).
Below, in the pendentives, are the poets, seated writing. At the
right, where the Reunion of all the spirits is represented :—
He who is engen-
St. John Damascene, writing these words:
dered by His Father before all ages, the God-Word made flesh in the
bosom of the Virgin Mary.”
St. Cosmas writing: "Matchless image of Him that is the
seal immovable, unchangeable; Son and Word of God; the arm,
the right hand, the strength of the Most High. We glorify Thee,
with Thy Father and Thy Holy Spirit."
St. Anatolius, writing: "Rejoice, ye heavens! Ring, ye founda-
tions of the earth! Ye mountains, resound with joy; for behold
Emmanuel!"
St. Cyprian, writing: "How wonderful art Thou, O our God!
How marvellous are Thy works, and Thy ways past finding out; for
Thou art the wisdom of God, the perfect hypostasis, the power co-
infinite and co-eternal."
On the left hand, where the prophets are represented on high,
paint the following personages:—
St. Metrophanius writing: "The prophets have foretold, O im-
maculate Virgin, thine ineffable and inexplicable child-bearing,
learned by us as the mystery of a triune Godhead!"
St. Joseph writing: "He who hath unfolded the heavens by His
will alone, hath formed of you another earthly heaven, O im-
maculate Mother of God, and hath manifested Himself through
being born of you!"
* The porch-one, and constantly two, sometimes even three of which
precede the church properly so-called.
390
APPENDIX II.
St. Theophanius writing: "Informed by the words of the divine
orators, O thou spotless one, we know thy divine child-bearing,
for thou hast engendered a God made flesh!”
St. Andrew writing: "O inexplicable birth of an immaculate
conception!"
Lower upon the vaults of the lesser apses, represent a certain
number of the martyrs of the year; as many as the space admits
(see p. 374). Represent the twenty-four stations of the Mother of
God in symmetrical arrangement (see p. 352). Lower down
towards the east, and above the door (leading from the narthex into
the church), represent Christ throned, with the gospel open at these
words: "I am the Door, by Me if any man enter in, he shall be
saved." At each side show the Holy Virgin and the Harbinger,
bending forward in reverence.
To the west place the saints of the [seven] Ecumenical Councils
(see p. 358). Give the tree of Jesse (p. 208), the sin and banish-
ment of Adam (p. 267), and other subjects from the Old Testament
near the right hand side of the choir, and, near the left, represent
the parables and the celestial ladder. Lower down give examples
of poets and holy men according to your own judgment.
How the Fountain should be painted.*
In the cupola above, paint the sky, with sun, moon and stars.
Outside of the circle where the sun is, make a glory with a multi-
tude of angels. Underneath the angels, and in a circle, represent on
the first line, the incident of the Harbinger in the Jordan. On the
eastern side, give the baptism of Christ, and (see p. 301) the Holy
Spirit descending out of heaven at the end of a ray. These words
run down the middle of the ray, from top to bottom: "This is My
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." Below this, make a
second band, showing those miracles in the Old Testament which
prefigure the divine baptism :-
Moses saved by the waters (see p. 273).
The Egyptians swallowed up in the
xiv. 27.)
(Ex. ii. 3.)
sea (see p. 274). (Ex.
Moses sweetening the bitter waters (see p. 274). (Ex. xv. 23.)
The twelve wells of water, &c. (see p. 275). (Ex. xv. 27.)
* The fountain is a building of diminutive size, opposite to the entrance,
but distinct from the church: a marble basin supplied by a natural
spring, in which the people washed hands and faces before entering the
church. It was also used for baptism; hence the origin of the baptistry.
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
391
The water of strife (see p. 276). (Ex. xvii. 7; 1 Cor. x.)
The ark of the covenant crossing the Jordan (see p. 276).
(Josh. iii. 15.)
The dew on Gideon's fleece (see p. 277).
The sacrifice of Elijah (see p. 281). (1
Elijah crossing the Jordan (see p. 282).
Elisha purifying the waters (see p. 282).
(Judg. vi. 37.)
Kings xviii.)
(2 Kings ii. 8.)
(2 Kings ii. 20, 21.)
Naaman washed in the Jordan (see p. 283). (2 Kings v.)
The fountain of life (see p. 350).
Represent the prophets upon the capitals, and all that they have
prophesied concerning baptism.*
How to paint the refectory.
When you desire to adorn a refectory with paintings, first put in
the vault over the table of the higoumenos (the abbot) the Mystic
Supper. On the side walls, beyond the vault, put the Annunciation
of the Mother of God, and, all around, the following acts of Jesus
Christ:-
Christ eating with the publicans (see p. 306).
The apostles rubbing the corn in their hands (see p. 307).
Christ blessing the five loaves (see p. 308).
The hospitality of Martha (see p. 310).
Christ at Emmaus, and the breaking of bread (see p. 320).
Christ upon the Lake of Tiberias (see p. 321).
Christ eating the broiled fish and the honey (see p. 320).
Also represent a selection of such of the parables as bear upon the
subject; and paint the miracles of the patron saint of the monastery
and the Fall of Lucifer.†
Commencement of the second band.-Place, underneath the
*The most beautiful examples of such fountains are to be found on
Mount Athos, in the convents of St. Laura and of Vatopédi. There is
another at Chilandari. The fountains at Xerapotamou and St. Laura have
two zones of paintings running round the cupola; the pendentives are also
painted in fresco; and at the time of M. Didron's visit to Greece, the
painter Joasaph at Esphigmenou was preparing to paint the fountain, then
in process of erection, exactly in accordance with the instructions handed
down from the time of Panselinos, the twelfth-century painter at Mount
Athos, in this Byzantine Guide to Painting.
+ In the refectory of Vatopédi, the Gospel King may be seen casting
into hell the unbidden guest. In the Fall of Lucifer those vices that follow
on gluttony are shown forth, such as luxury, idleness, and gluttony itself.
392
APPENDIX II.
subject of the mystic supper, the chief bishops in their pontifical
vestments and with their appropriate legends.
St. Basil, to the right, saying upon his scroll: "The beauty of the
soul should be preserved with great care; God will seek for it in
our sobriety."
St. Gregory, the theologian, saying: "Let the wise shepherd of a
flock be simple, humble, merciful and sweet; since by this means
you will grow in the Lord.”
St. Nicholas, saying: "There is but one sole God, the Father of
the Word and the beginning of wisdom."
To the left, St. Chrysostom saying: "Let each man that would
be saved, sincerely promise to forsake those sins that have already
soiled him."
St. Athanasius saying: "We worship one God in trinity, and
trinity in unity."
St. Cyril saying: "Those who refuse the armour of abstinence,
fall into the offence of gluttony, and perish in the madness of
excess."
Outside the vault, place St. Anthony to the right, turning to the
table and saying on a scroll: "Oh! monk; may you never be
seduced by fleshly appetites; obedience and abstinence overcome
demons!"
St. Ephraim on the left, turning towards the table, and saying:
"A silent and well-ordered table, giving glory to God, wins praise
from the angels; but a fastidious table, with frivolous talk, is
vilified by demons."
Choose a number of holy men with inscriptions to place round
the table. At the end of the refectory represent the anchorite life *
(see above), and the mad life of the world † (see p. 378–380).
If the refectory be an apartment of considerable size, and in the
form of a cross, then add the Apocalypse of St. John Theologos,
and choose some other subject. Outside the refectory, above the
door, represent the patron of the monastery.‡
*This subject may be seen in the refectory of St. Laura on Mount
Athos.
This subject is painted in the great convent of Ivirôn on Mount Athos.
The refectory is the most richly adorned portion of the monastery
next to the church, the western door of which it faces. The church is
entered from the west, the refectory from the east. It is a rectangular
building terminating with an apse, and crossed by transepts. The nave,
choir, transepts and apse are furnished with marble tables. The apse is the
DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.
393
How a cruciform church with four vaults should be decorated.
When you wish to paint a cruciform church, put the Pantocrator*
in the centre; surrounding Him, the orders of angels, the four
evangelists in the pendentives. Place, over the arches below, such of
the patriarchs and prophets as you think fit to select. But if the
church be a large building with five cupolas, then place the form of
the Pantocrator in the great central cupola, as described above.
For the remaining four, place in one, the angel of the Great Will;
in another, Emmanuel; in the third, the Holy Virgin with the
Child; in the fourth, the Harbinger. Upon the arches underneath,
put the evangelists, prophets, and patriarchs. Represent the
principal festivals symmetrically upon the walls, the Holy Passion,
the miracles of the patron of the monastery, and the other subjects
treated of above.
How to paint a church roofed with a barrel vault.†
It may happen that you have to decorate a church with a barrel
vault. Place the figure of the Pantocrator, surrounded by a circle,
above in the middle of the vault. Then the Holy Virgin at the
eastern summit of the temple; the Harbinger being at the western.
From the Holy Virgin to Christ, and from Christ to the Har-
binger, put heaven and a multitude of angels therein. To the
north and south, at each side of heaven, put the prophets and
patriarchs. Under them, put the first line of the principal festivals;
the holy Baptism, and the miracles following on the Resurrection.
Represent the Queen of Heaven in the roof of the sanctuary.
Underneath this first line of paintings, place the second as indicated
above. Outside the sanctuary the evangelists and the miracles of
the patron of the monastery. For the remainder follow the direc-
tions already given.
place of honour for the abbot and his vicars, and from it the fountain is
visible which stands between the refectory and the church. The refectory
is intended to be the terrestrial reflection of a celestial ideal, which is the
church, in which the bread and wine of heaven are given. Its paintings
are all on a golden background.
* The Almighty.
†There are two types of churches in Greece. The first is cruciform,
with branches of equal length, roofed with cupolas, five in all, like St. Mark s
in Venice. The second type is long, like a basilica, without cupola or
cross, like that of St. Demetrius of Salonica, and most of the basilicas of
Constantine at Rome.
APPENDIX II.
394
APPENDIX.
The method by which we have learned to paint the holy images.
We have learned not only from the holy fathers, but even from
the apostles, and, I might venture to say, from Christ Himself, as has
been shown at the beginning of this book, how holy images should
be represented. Christ is painted in the human form because He
has appeared on earth conversing with men, and He has made
Himself a mortal man, like unto us, yet without sin (Baruch iv.).
In the same way we represent the Eternal Father as an aged man,
because it is thus that Daniel hath seen Him (ch. vii.). We
represent the Holy Spirit as a dove, because it is thus He hath been
seen in the Jordan. We also represent the features of the Virgin
and of the saints, and, though we reverently honour them, we do not
adore them. Thus we do not affirm such or such a representation in
painting to be veritably the Christ, or Holy Virgin or saint; but
when we bow before an image, we mean to tender such homage to
the prototype represented in this image. When, for example, the
image we salute and embrace represents Christ, that respect we pay
the figure is connected with Christ Himself, the Son of God made
man for us. We do not adore the colours and the art, but the type
of Christ—the real person of Christ-who is in the heavens; for, saith
St. Basil, the homage rendered to an image belongs to the model of
that image. In like manner, when we regard the image of the
Holy Virgin respectfully, or that of any other saint, it is the proto-
type we honour. If we represent them, it is to remind us of their
virtues, their labours, and to raise our souls to their level. We do
wisely therefore in representing and in honouring holy images.
Anathema on all blasphemers and calumniators.*
On the character of the face and body of our Lord, as we have
learned it from those who have seen Him with their eyes.
The body, at once human and divine, of our Saviour, is three
cubits in height. The head slightly bent. Sweetness is the
characteristic expression of the face. Fine eyebrows, meeting;
beautiful eyes and finely formed nose. Complexion the colour of
wheat. Hair curled and inclining to golden; a dark beard. The
* We need hardly observe that this anathema and these reflections on
the worship of images may well come from the Greek painters, who had
suffered so much from iconoclasts. On the Trinity, see p. 62, supra.
INSCRIPTIONS FOR THE TRINITY.
395
fingers of His pure hands, are very long and finely proportioned.
His character is simple, like that of His mother, from whom He hath
received life and the human form.*
On the character of the physiognomy of the Mother of God.
The most Holy Virgin is in her middle age. Many have asserted
that her height also was three cubits; her complexion the colour of
wheat; her hair and eyes are brown. Grand eyebrows and beauti-
ful eyes; a middle-sized nose and long fingers. Clad in beautiful
clothing-humble, beautiful and faultless; liking her garments to be
(undyed) of their native colour, as is seen in her homophore (stole)
preserved in the temple dedicated to her.
How to represent the hand in blessing.†
When you represent the hand in blessing do not join the three
fingers together; but cross the thumb by the fourth finger, so that
the second, named the index, remaining upright, and the third being
slightly bent, they may both form the name of Jesus (IHCOYC)
IC. Indeed, the second, remaining open, indicates an 1 (otu), and
the third, when curved, forms a C (sigma). The thumb is placed
across the fourth finger; the fifth is also a little bent, so as to indicate
the word (XPICTOC), XC; for the junction of the thumb and the
fourth finger forms a X (chi), and the little finger by its curvatures
forms a C (sigma). These two letters are the abridgment of
Christos. So, by the divine providence of the Creator, the fingers
of a man's hand, whether they be long or short, are so placed that it
is possible for them to figure the name of Christ.
Inscriptions for the Holy Trinity.
The Eternal Father—Ancient of days.
(Dan. vii. 9.)
The Co-eternal Son-The Word of God. (John i. 1.)
The Holy Spirit-He which proceedeth from the Father. (John
xv. 26.)
The Holy Trinity-Sole God of all things.
Within the cross marked upon the crowns (nimbi) of these three
persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, write these letters, OWN (He
* See vol. i. of this work, pp. 242, 278.
+ In the Cathedral of Puy, M. Aug. Aymard, Correspondant de Comite
Historique des Arts et Monuments, has found, in an ancient wall-painting,
the divine hand represented in this Greek form of benediction. This cathedral
is vaulted, with cupolas like a Byzantine church. (See vol. i. p. 407.)
396
APPENDIX II.
who is); for thus it is that God spoke to Moses when He appeared
to him in the burning bush ("I am that I am "). Arrange the
letters thus: let the omicron (O) be on the right side of the nimbus
the omega (W) on the top, the nu (N) upon the left side (of the
divine head).*
Inscriptions for the Holy Trinity where the Father and the Son are;
represented with the scrolls unfolded.
On the scroll of the Futher.—“ I have engendered Thee before
Lucifer": Psa. cx. 3. (See p. 17, supra.)
Or this." Sit Thou at My right hand, until I make Thine enemies
Thy footstool": Psa. cx. 1 ("Sede a dextris meis: donec ponam
inimicos Tuos," &c.).
On the Gospel of the Son.-John xvii. 6: "O holy Father, I
have glorified Thee on the earth, and I have manifested Thy name
unto the men which Thou gavest Me.”
Or this."I and My Father are one; I am in the Father. and
the Father in Me": John x. 30. (See p. 80, supra.)
The epithets that should be inscribed upon the images of Christ.
IC. XC (Jesus Christ).-The Pantocrator.-The Giver of Life
-The Saviour of the World.-The Merciful.-The Angel of the
Great Will.-The Emmanuel.
When you represent the Second Coming or Last Judgment.-The
righteous Judge.
When you represent Christ as bishop.-The King of Kings, the
great Patriarch.
When you represent the Crucifixion.-The King of Glory.
Jesus bearing His cross.-The Lamb of God, that taketh away
the sins of the world.
The Holy Veil.
The Holy Cup.
Epithets inscribed upon images of the Mother of God.
MHP.OY (Mother of God) -The Merciful.-The Guide.f--The
* Here the right and left refer to the divine Person bearing the nimbus,
and not to the spectator. For all relating to the nimbus see vol. i. of this
work, pp. 148, 163; also fig. 15, p. 46.
t Or Conductress. This inscription ddŋynτpia may be seen on a Byzantine
painting on wood of the Madonna in the treasury of St. Paul of Liège.
INSCRIPTIONS ON THE GOSPEL.
397
Virgin, 'H Topyourýxoos.*—The Queen of Angels.-The Queen of
Γοργοϋπήχους.
Creation. The Spotless Mistress.-Highest in the Heavens.-Foun-
tain of Life.-Sweet Friend.-Nursing Mother.-Dread Protectress.f
-Sinner's Salvation.-Consolation of the Afflicted.-Joy of All.—
Guardian of the Gate of Ivirôn.-Virgin of the Grotto.-Virgin of
the Third Hand of John Damascene.‡
Inscriptions on the Gospel of Christ, according to the different
places where it is represented.
When held by the Pantocrator.-"I am the Light of the World;
he that followeth Me shall not walk in darkness, but shall have the
light of life." (John viii. 12.)
By the Saviour of the World." Learn of Me, for I am meek and
lowly of heart; and you shall find rest unto your souls." (Matt.
xi. 29.)
By the Giver of Life.-"I am the living bread which came down
from heaven; if any man eat of this bread he shall live for ever."
(John vi. 21.)
By the angel of the Great Will.—“I am come from God, and I
return to Him; for I am not come of Myself, but He
By Emmanuel.-" The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me; because He
hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor." (Luke iv. 18;
Isaiah lxi. 1.)
When you represent Christ as bishop.-"I am the Good Shepherd.
The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep; but he that is an
hireling and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not .
(John x. 11.)
""
When you represent Christ with the angels.—“I beheld Satan as
lightning fall from heaven." (Luke x. 18.)
When you represent Christ with the prophets.—“ He that receiveth
* M. Durand found this word untranslateable, but suggests that it may
mean the "very obedient.
† Or the Formidable, as in the legend of the miracle of Theophilus, when
she forces the devil to resign his contract.
This title refers to a legend of St. John Damascene, the great defender
of images, whose hand was cut off by the iconoclasts, and who, approaching
a picture of the Virgin, pressed the maimed stump to her lips, and his
hand sprang up like a plant. The picture by which this miracle was
worked was preserved at Mount Athos in the convent of Chilandari in
1839. It had been brought from Jerusalem to Servia, and thence carried
to Chilandari, which is filled with Servian monks.
398
APPENDIX II.
a prophet in My name [? in the name of a prophet] shall receive a
prophet's reward." (Matt. x. 41.)
""
When you represent Him with the apostles." Behold I give unto
you power to tread on serpents and scorpions ... (Luke x. 19.)
When you represent Him with the bishops.-" Ye are the light of
the world; a city that is set on a hill cannot be hid." (Matt.
v. 14.)
When you represent Him with the martyrs.—"Whosoever there-
fore shall confess Me before men, him will I confess also before My
Father which is in heaven.” (Matt. x. 32.)
When you represent Him with the solitaries.-"Come unto Me,
all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.
Take My yoke upon you, and learn of Me, for I am meek and
lowly of heart; and ye shall find rest unto your souls."
When you represent Him with the anargyres." Heal the sick,
cleanse the lepers, [raise the dead,] cast out devils; freely ye have
received, freely give." (Matt. x. 8.)
if
When you represent Him over a door." I am the Door; by Me
any man enter in, he shall be saved.” (John x. 9.)
When you represent Him in a cemetery.—" He that believeth in
me, though he were dead yet shall he live." (John xi. 25.)
When you represent Him as the great pontiff." Lord, Lord,
look down from heaven, and behold and visit this vine and the
vineyard which Thy right hand hath planted." (Ps. lxxx. 14.)
Inscriptions for the scrolls carried by angels, in the picture of the
Nativity called The Rose.
"
On the scroll of St. Michael : “Bright star! Hail, peerless woman ! ”
On the scroll of Gabriel: "Hail, mother of the Divine!"
On the scroll which they hold together: "O pure rose-peerless
flower!"
Inscriptions held by the Harbinger and the Mother of God when
you represent the Trinity.
On the scroll of the Holy Virgin: "Eternal Son! word of the
living God, born of the Father, yet not divided from Him, always
inited to Him; you who in the fulness of time art incarnate in my
bosom, spiritual seed fallen from above, judge not the sinful, but
hearken to Thy mother's supplication.'
""
On the scroll of the Harbinger: "And I, even I, join Thy mother's
INSCRIPTIONS FOR FESTIVALS.
399
supplication, oh, my Master! with that voice that was blest in
proclaiming Thy coming. Oh, Word of God! Those Thou hast
redeemed in Thy precious blood, the unrighteous who hung Thee
on the Cross and slew Thee, grant them grace to become reconciled
anew! Oh, merciful Word, Thou who lovest all men!"
On the special scroll of the Harbinger :
kingdom of heaven is at hand."
66
On the gospels held by archbishops and bishops:
not the sheepfold by the gate
""
Repent ye, for the
"He who entereth
or rather: "Let your light so
shine before men that they may see your good works, and glorify
your Father which is in heaven."
Inscriptions for the festivals of the Church.
The Annunciation of the Mother of God.-The nativity of Christ.
Candlemas. — Baptism of Christ.-
Baptism of Christ.- The Transfiguration.- The
Resurrection of Lazarus.-The Palm-branches.-The Crucifixion of
Christ. The Descent from the Cross.-The Tears upon the Tomb.-
The Resurrection of Christ.-The Incredulity of Thomas.-The
Ascension.-The Descent of the Holy Spirit.-The Death of the
Holy Virgin.
Always be careful to place the Crucifixion in the centre of the
festivals represented in the tops of the churches. If the edifice be
one of considerable size, and you wish to introduce other subjects,
select them from among the miracles and sufferings of Christ, as
well as His acts after His Resurrection. You will find in them all
that you can desire.
Inscriptions for the other feasts and holy images.
The conception of the Mother of God.-The nativity of the
Mother of God.-The presentation of the Mother of God.-The nine
orders of angels.-The reunion of all spirits.-All Saints' Day.
APPENDIX III.
TEXT OF THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN.
See pages 196, 199, 202.
VOL. II.
2 D
APPENDIX III.
TEXT OF THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN.
The Annunciation.
Vs. 1.-The serpent loses his power: for the Virgin bears a son.
Vs. 2.-The fleece is wet with dew: the earth remaineth dry.
Vs. 3.-The Virgin is saluted: though unwedded she conceives.
Gen. iii. 14, 15.-It may be read in the third chapter of Genesis
that the Lord said uuto the serpent: "Prone upon the ground thou
shalt go." And after, in the same place, it is said of the serpent and
the woman:" She shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt ensnare her
heel." Now this is fulfilled in the annunciation of the glorious
Virgin, the Blessed Mary.
Isa. vii. 14.—“Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear a Son."
Ezek. xliv. 2.-"This gate shall be shut, and it shall not be
opened."
Judg. vi. 36.-It may be read in the sixth chapter of Judges
that Gideon prayed for a sign of victory through the fleece being
wet with dew; which figured the glorious Virgin Mary without
sin, impregnate with the infusion of the Holy Spirit.
David: Psa. cxxxiii. 3.-"The Lord shall descend like dew
the fleece."
upon
Jer. xxxi. 22.-"The Lord hath created a new thing in the earth :
a woman shall compass a man."
Central subject: the Annunciation. On the right: the serpent,
Eve, and God the Father. On the left: Gideon and his fleece
Above: Isaiah and David. Below: Ezekiel and Jeremiah.
2D 2
404
APPENDIX III.
The Nativity.
Vs. 1.—It glows and kindles: but the bush is not consumed
by fire.
Vs. 2.—This is contrary to nature: a rod bears a flower.
Vs. 3.-Without pain thou bearest a son, O Virgin Mary!
Ex. iii. 2.—It may be read in Exodus (chap. iii.) that Moses saw
the bush burning with fire, and the bush was not consumed, and
heard the Lord speaking thus from the bush. This bush that
burned, and which yet did not consume, figures the blessed Virgin
Mary, who, bearing a Son without touching the purity of her body,
because a virgin, gave birth and remained uncorrupted.
Dan. ii. 34, 35.-" A stone, rugged, was cut out, without hands,
from the mountain."
Hab. iii. 2.—“O Lord, I have heard Thy speech, and was afraid."
Num. xvii. 8.—It may be read, in the book of Numbers, that in
one night the rod of Aaron brought forth buds and blossoms,
whereby is figured the Virgin Mary, who miraculously brought
forth the ever-blessed Jesus Christ.
Isa. ix. 6.-"Unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given."
Micah v. 2.—“Thou, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, shalt not
he least among the princes of Judah.”
Adoration of the Magi.
Vs. 1.—The multitude here typify the nations longing to be
joined to Christ.
Vs. 2.-This typifies the Gentiles, to whom the coming of Christ
was known.
Vs. 3.—Christ is adored; gold, frankincense, and myrrh are laid
before Him.
2 Sam. iii. 10.-It may be read in the second book of Kings
(chap iii.) that Abner, chief captain of the armies of Saul, came to
David in Jerusalem, offering to subdue all the people of Israel to
him which then followed the house of Saul. Which thing pre-
figures the coming of the Magi to Christ, who adored, offering mystic
gifts.
David: Ps. lxxii. 10.-" The kings of Tharsis and the isles
bringing gifts."
Isa. ii. 2.-" And all nations shall flow unto Him, and many people
shall go up unto the Lord's house."
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405
1 Kings x. 1.-It may be read in the first book of Kings
that the Queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon, and came
into Jerusalem with great gifts, in adoration for him; which queen
was a Gentile; which will typify the Gentiles who came from afar
to worship with gifts.
"*
Isa. lx. 14.—“ And they shall worship Thy footsteps.'
Num. xxiv. 17—" There shali come a star out of Jacob, and a rod
shall arise out of the root of Israel."
The Purification
Vs. 1.—Here the first-born is presented, that he may be redeemed.
Vs. 2.-Samuel prefigures Thee, O Christ, when Thou wast
presented.
Vs. 3.-The Virgin receives back Christ from Simeon.
Lev. xii. 6.—It may be read in the twelfth chapter of Leviticus
that every woman, when the days of her purifying are fulfilled,
shall present (after the birth of her first-born) a lamb; and if she be
not able (in her poverty) to bring a lamb, then she shall bring two
turtle-doves or two young pigeons, and this for her sin-offering; and
she shall be clean: which the glorious Virgin fulfilled, although not
requiring to be cleansed.
David xi. 4.—“The Lord is in His holy temple."
Zech. ii. 10.—“Lo, I come, and I will dwell in the midst of thee,
saith the Lord.”
1 Sam. i.-We read in the first book of Samuel (chap. i.) that
Hannah, the mother of Samuel, offered him to the priest Eli in the
temple: which offering prefigures the offering of the Lord made to
Simeon in the temple.
Mal. iii. 1.—" And the Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come to
His holy temple."
Zeph. iii. 15.-"The King of Israel, the Lord, is in the midst
of thee."
The flight into Egypt.
Vs. 1.-Jacob fled from his father's roof through fear of his
brother.
Vs. 2.—Daniel escaped from the snares of Saul by Michal's aid.
Vs. 3.-The child Christ fled from the cruel wrath of Herod.
* "They shall bow themselves down at the soles of Thy feet." (Authorised
Version.)
406
APPENDIX III.
Gen. xxvii. 42, 43.-It may be read in Genesis (chap. xxvii.) that
when Rebecca, mother of Esau and Jacob, heard what would in
time come to pass, and that Jacob would be killed, she herself sent
her son Jacob from his own land. Which thing prefigures well the
flight of Christ into Egypt, whom Herod sought to destroy after His
birth.
Isa. xix. 1.—“Behold, the Lord shall come into Egypt, and the
idols of Egypt shall be moved at His presence."
Jer. xii. 7.-"I have forsaken mine house, and I have left mine
heritage."
1 Sam. xix. 12.-We read in the first book of Samuel that when
king Saul sent messengers to seek David and to kill him, that the
wife of David, by name Michal, let him down through a window
with a rope, and he thus escaped from his pursuers. In this view
the same king Saul prefigures Herod, who sought Christ to destroy
him, when Joseph led him with Mary into Egypt, and so they
escaped from the hands of the pursuers.
Ps. lv. 7.-Lo! then would I wander afar off; I would lodge in
the wilderness.
Hosea v. 6.-" They shall go to seek the Lord, and shall not find
Him."
The Holy Family in Egypt.
Vs. 1.-By Moses the sacred image of the calf was destroyed.
Vs. 2.—The ark is made the cause of the sudden ruin of Dagon.
Vs. 3.—The idols fell swiftly when Christ was present.
We read in the thirty-first and thirty-third chapters of Exodus
that when Moses had come to the foot of Mount Sinai, he alone
ascended the mountain to receive the law; and when he had done
this, and was descending, he saw the molten calf which Aaron had
made of gold. Moses himself, having thrown away the tables,
destroyed the calf, and broke it up: which well figured the idols
falling in a heap when Christ entered Egypt.
Hosea x. 2.-" He shall break down [their altars].”
Zech. xiii. 2.-"I will cut off the names of the idols out of the
earth."
We read in the first book of Samuel (chap. v.) that the Philistines
had placed the ark of the Lord, that they had taken in war, near
Dagon, their god. Those who entered the temple in the morning
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
407
found Dagon lying on the ground, and both his hands broken off:
which figure was truly fulfilled when the Blessed Virgin came with
Christ, her child, into Egypt; then the idols of Egypt fell in a
heap; and it figures the Virgin, who, with Christ, enters the state of
trial, into which infidels, through error, have collapsed.
Nahum i. 14.—"Out of the house of thy gods will I cut off the
graven image and the molten image.”
Zeph. ii. 11.-"The Lord will famish all the gods of the earth."
Murder of the Innocents.
Vs. 1.-Saul for David: so the anointed of the Lord were over-
thrown and slain.
Vs. 2.-Our child being taken off by stealth, the royal seed was
given.
Vs. 3.-These children, instead of Christ, are taken away from
the world.
We read in the first book of Samuel (chap. xxii.) that King Saul
caused all the priests of the Lord in Nob to be slain, because they
had received the fugitive David, and had given him the holy bread.
Saul figures Herod, for David typifies Christ, and the priests the
children whom Herod, in their innocence, caused to be slain on
account of Christ.
David: Psa. lxx. 10.-"Avenge, O Lord, the blood of Thy
priests!"
Jer. xxxi. 15.-"A voice is heard in Rama-lamentation."
2 Kings xi. 1.—We read in the second book of Kings (chap. iv.)
that Athaliah the queen, seeing her son dead, caused to be slain all
the sons of the king, lest they should reign instead of her offspring;
but from her the sister of the king withdrew his younger son, who
afterwards was made king. The cruel queen figures Herod, who
ordered the children to be slain on account of Christ, whereas the
child, withdrawn from death, figures Christ furtively taken away
from the massacre of King Herod.
Prov. xxviii. 15.—"As a roaring lion and a hungry bear, so is
the wicked ruler over the poor people."
Hosea viii. 4.—“Kings have reigned, and not by me.'
* In the Biblia Pauperum this verse is rendered "Cristi regnaverunt et
non ex me."
408
APPENDIX III.
Return from Egypt.
Vs. 1.-When Saul was dead, David returned to his country.
Vs. 2.-Jacob fears his brother, [but] longs to see his father.
Vs. 3.-Jesus, who had withdrawn to Egypt, returns to the holy
places.
We read in the second book of Samuel (chap. ii.) that on the
death of king Saul, David consulted the Lord, who answered him
that he should return to the land of Judah. Now David signifies
Christ, who on the death of Herod returned to the land of Judah,
for thus the Gospel testifies, saying, "The angel of the Lord said:
Arise, and take the young Child and His mother," &c.
David: Psa. cvi. 4.-" O visit me with Thy salvation."
Hosea xi. 1; Matt. ii. 15.-"Out of Egypt have I called my
Son."
•
We read in Gen. xxxi. 17—that Jacob, returning into his own
country, from which he had fled on account of the fury of his
brother Esau, sent before him his sheep and his oxen, his camels
and his asses, and he himself followed, with his wives and children.
Jacob, who had fled from his brother, signifies Christ, who fled from
King Herod, whom Esau signifies; but, on Herod's death, Christ
returned from the land of Judah.
Hosea.-"Egypt, weep not, for the Lord hath grieved for thee!”*
Zech. i. 16.-"I am returned to Jerusalem with mercies."
John baptising Christ.
Vs. 1.-Their foes are drowned; they walk through the path of
the sea.
Vs. 2.-The river is crossed, and the land of honey reached.
Vs. 3.-While he is baptising, Christ sanctifies baptism.
We read in the fourteenth chapter of Exodus (v. 23), that
Pharaoh, when he was pursuing the children of Israel with chariots
and horsemen, entered the Red Sea after the children of Israel, and
the Lord closed the waters upon them, and thus liberated his people
from the hand of those who were following. Likewise, through
the water of baptism, sanctified by Christ, He has freed Christian
men from sin.
Isa. xii. 3.-" Therefore with joy shall ye draw water out of the
wells of salvation."
*This verse has not been identified with any passage in Hosea.
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409
Ezek. xxxvi. 25.-"Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you."
We read in the thirteenth chapter of the book of Numbers that
the messengers who were sent to explore the Land of Promise, when
they returned, brought a cluster of grapes on a staff; and when
they had crossed the Jordan, they brought it as a proof of the
fruitfulness of the land: which signifies that, if we wish to enter
the heavenly kingdom, we must first pass through the waters of
baptism.
´~Ps. lxviii. 26.—"Bless ye God in the congregations, even the
Lord from the fountain of Israel."
Zech. xiii. 1.—"In that day there shall be a fountain opened to
the house of David."
Temptation of Christ.
Vs. 1.-In his desire for lentils, he shamefully loses his honour
(birthright).
Vs. 2.—The serpent conquered Adam so that he should eat of the
forbidden fruit.
Vs. 3.-Satan tempted Christ that he might overcome Him.
Gen. xxv. 29-34.—We read in the twenty-fifth chapter of
Genesis that Esau, after he had sold his birthright for the pottage
which Jacob had sod—that is, he lost the honour due to the first-
born, and the blessing of the father: so the devil deceived our first
parents by gluttony and pride, saying, "Ye shall be as gods,
knowing good from evil.”
Ps. xxxv. 16.—“They mocked me, and gnashed upon me with
their teeth."
2 Sam. vii. 9.—"I have cut off all thine enemies out of thy sight."
Gen. iii.—We read in the third chapter of Genesis that Adam and
Eve were deceived by the serpent, who tempted them through
their appetites, because the devil, like an instrument, seduces
by deceiving: which well figured the temptation which the devil
laid before Christ when he tempted Christ, saying, "If Thou be the
Son of God, command these stones that they be made bread," which
temptation involved appetite.
Isa. xxix. 16.-"Surely your turning things upside down shall
be esteemed as the potter's clay ?" *
*Perverse thoughts, like clay against a brick. This cogitation of
yours is perverse, as if the clay should contrive against the brick.
410
APPENDIX III.
Job xvi. 9, 10.-"They have gathered themselves together
Mine enemy hath beheld me with terrifying eyes."
against me.
The raising of Lazarus.
Vs. 1.-The widow's son was restored to life by Elijah.
Vs. 2.-By Thy gifts, O God, Elisha gave him life.
Vs. 3.-By Thee, O Christ, Lazarus became restored to life.
We read in the third [first] book of Kings (chap. xvii.) that the
prophet Elias bore the dead child up to the top of a mountain,
praying, and saying, "I beseech that the soul of the child may
return ;" and so it was done, and he restored the child alive to his
mother: which well figured the raising of Lazarus, whom the Lord
raised from the dead and restored to his sisters, Mary Magdalene
and Martha.
Deut. xxxii. 39.-"I will kill and make alive; I will smite and
will heal."
Job xiv. 14.—"If a man dies, shall he live again?"
We read in the third book of Kings (chap xvii.) that the prophet
Elisha saw the child of the widow with whom he used to lodge,
dead, and prostrated himself upon the child, and the flesh of the
child became warm, and the child revived. Elisha figures Christ,
but the child who rose from the dead represents Lazarus, whom He
restored to life in the face of the Jews.
Ps. xxxiii. 19.-"Lord, Thou hast delivered my soul from death."
1 Samuel ii. 6.-" The Lord killeth and maketh alive."
The Transfiguration.
Vs. 1.-Abraham contemplates three, but only worships one.
Vs. 2.—In that sight the glory of Christ is revealed to the
Gentiles.
Vs. 3.—Lo, the three disciples behold the Son of God glorified!"
We read in the eighteenth of Genesis that Abraham saw three
youths, or angels, who had come to his dwelling. He saw three, and
he worships one; the three angels signified the Trinity of persons-
i.e. as regards the man who adored one whom he understands to
signify the unity of the essence. Thus Christ, in His transfiguration,
reveals Himself the true God, one in essence, triple in person.
David (Ps. xlv. 2).—“ Beautiful in form beyond the sons of men."
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411
Mal. iv. 2.—“ But unto you that fear My name shall the Sun of
righteousness arise."
In the third chapter of Daniel, we read that Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon, sent three youths into a fiery furnace; and
when he came to the furnace that he might look at them in the
fire, he saw with them a fourth, like the Son of God: the three
youths signify the Trinity of persons; the fourth reveals the
unity of essence of Christ in His transfiguration, and reveals Him
truly one in essence, triple in person.
Isaiah lx. 1.—" Jerusalem! Thy light is come, and the glory of
the Lord is risen upon thee."
Habakkuk iii. 4.-" And His brightness shall be as the light; He
shall have horns coming out of His hands, or bright beams out of
His side."
Mary Magdalene at the feet of Christ.
Vs. 1.-Nathan, by his word moving the heart of the king,
corrects his wicked deeds.
Vs. 2.-She (Miriam), made leprous, by penance is made clean
again.
Vs. 3.-So, the fount of goodness absolves this woman from her
sins!
2 Sam. xii.-We read in the second book of Kings [Samuel]
(chap. xii.) that Nathan the prophet had been sent to David to
reprove him; but David himself, the king, led by penitence,
obtained mercy from God. David, in his penitence, typified Mary
Magdalene in her penitence, who won the pardon of all her sins.
Ezek. xviii. 22.—" All his transgressions that he hath committed,
they shall not be mentioned unto him."
Zech. i. 3.—“Turn thee unto Me (saith the Lord of Hosts), and
I will turn unto you."
We read in Numbers xii. that Miriam, the sister of Moses and
Aaron, became leprous for her sin, and was healed from her
uncleanness by Moses. Moses is a type of Christ, who cleansed
Mary Magdalene from all the uncleanness of her sins, as Himself
testifies in St. Luke, saying, "Thy sins are forgiven thee."
Ps. li. 17.—“ A broken and a contrite heart, O Lord, Thou wilt
not despise."
2 Sam. vii. 22.—"For there is none like Thee, neither is there
any God besides Thee."
412
APPENDIX III.
Christ's entry into Jerusalem.
Vs. 1.—As David, who overthrew his foes, is praised in song.
Vs. 2.-The glory of Elisha typifies Thy glory, Thou Son
of God.
Vs. 3.-The song of the good Hebrews is raised in Thy praise,
O Christ!
1 Sam. xvii. 51, xviii. 6.-We read in the first book of Kings
[Samuel] that when David smote Goliath, he cut off his head and
brought it in his own hand. When coming from the Philistines,
the women came rejoicing, and received him into Jerusalem with
great glory. David thus typifies Christ, whom the children of the
Hebrews received into Jerusalem, shouting with loud voice, and
uttering blessings on Him who came in the name of the Lord.
Ps. cxlix. 2.—“Let the children of Zion rejoice in their King."
Zech. ix. 9.—“Behold, thy King cometh unto thee, meek, just,
and having salvation."
We read in the second book of Kings (i. 15) that when Elisha
would return into his city, there met him sons of the prophets,
receiving him with great glory and honour, and praising him.
Elisha signifies Christ, who, coming into Jerusalem, the sons of the
Hebrews received with great glory and honour.
Cant. iii. 11.—"Go forth, O ye daughters of Zion, and behold
your King!"
Zech. ix. 9.-" He Himself, meek, and riding on an ass, and a colt,
the foal of an ass.
""
Christ driving the money-changers out of the Temple.
Vs. 1.—He (Daniel) orders the temple to be cleansed and a feast
proclaimed.
Vs. 2.-Maccabæus sets himself to purify Thy sacred places,
O God!
Vs. 3.-Christ drives out those who bought and sold in the
temple.
Esdras iv. 17.-The king Darius gave orders to Esdras, the
scribe, to go to Jerusalem and himself to cleanse the temple. King
Darius signifies Christ, who drove out from the temple buyers and
sellers. Thus he cleansed the temple of the Lord from unlawful
practices, giving by this to understand that the temple of the Lord
is a house of prayer, and not a place of merchandise.
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413
Hosea ix. 15.—"I will cast all out of My house."
Amos v. 10.-"They held in hatred Him who hastened in at
the gate."
1 Macc. iv. 41-57.-We read in the fourth chapter of the first book
of Maccabees that Judas Maccabæus ordered the Jews to cleanse
and sanctify the temple because it had been polluted against the
law. Maccabæus himself signifies Christ, who, having made a
scourge of small cords, cast out . . . and forced them out, saying,
“Make not the house of My Father a house of merchandise.”
Psalm lxix. 9.-" The zeal of Thine house hath eaten me up."
Zechariah xiv. 21.-"There was no longer any merchant in the
house of the Lord."
Judas Iscariot betrays Christ.
Vs. 1.—The band of brothers wickedly conspire against the boy
Joseph.
Vs. 2.—The accursed son (Absalom) conspires against his father's
fortune.
Vs. 3.-So these men plotted together the death of Christ
We read in the thirty-seventh chapter of Genesis that the
brothers of Joseph said to their father Jacob that a very evil beast
had devoured his son. This they did, fraudulently conspiring
towards the death of their brother. Joseph fraudulently sold by his
brother signifies Christ, without fault, fraudulently sold by Judas
into death.
Gen. xlix. 6.—"O my soul, come not thou into their secret!”
Prov. xxi. 30.-"There is no wisdom nor understanding nor
counsel against the Lord."
We read in the Second Book of Kings (ch. xv.) that Absalom, the
son of David, stood at the entry of the gate of the city of Jerusa-
lem, and spoke to the people coming in, saying, "Who will make me
judge?" and the hearts of the men who were conspiring with him
against his father inclined to constitute him king instead of David,
and afterwards they pursued his father, whom he intended to
kill. This Absalom signifies Judas the traitor, who conspired with
the Jews towards the death of Christ.
Ps. xxxi. 13.—“They took counsel together against me to take
away my life."
Jer. xi. 19.-" They devised devices against me."
414
APPENDIX III.
Judas receiving the thirty pieces of silver.
Vs. 1.-That boy (Joseph) who was sold typifies Thee, O Christ.
Vs. 2.-Whatever is done against Joseph applies to Christ.
Vs. 3.—Judas, thou who sellest Christ, wendest thy way to hell.
We read in the thirty-seventh chapter of Genesis that the
brothers of Joseph sold him to the Ishmaelites for thirty pieces of
silver. This Joseph, a just man, was sold by his brothers, though
innocent, and is a type of Christ, who, though innocent, was sold by
Judas (who sold Christ Himself to the Jews) for thirty pieces of
silver; and these are the thirty pence for which Joseph was sold,
one of which is worth ten ordinary pence.
David: Ps. cix. 8.—“Let his days be few, and let another take
his bishopric."
Hag. i. 6.-" He that earneth wages, earneth wages to put it into
a bag with holes."
+
We read in the thirty-ninth chapter of Genesis that when the
Ishmaelites who had bought Joseph came into their own country
with Joseph, they sold him in Egypt to the captain of the king's
guard, whose name was Potiphar: this boy Joseph is a type of
Christ, who was sold by the impious Judas.
Prov. xvi. 30.-" He shutteth his eyes to devise froward things."
Zech. xi. 12.-"So they weighed for My price thirty pieces of
silver."
The Last Supper.
Vs. 1.-They mark the sacred things of Christ which Melchi-
zedek gave to them.
Vs. 2.-He holds himself in His hands; the food partakes of
itself.
Vs. 3.-The King sits at supper, surrounded by a company of
twelve.
We read in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis that when Abraham
returned from the slaughter of his enemies, bringing with him
much spoil which he had wrested from his enemies, then Melchi-
zedek, the high priest of God, brought him bread and wine.
Melchizedek is a type of Christ, who at supper gave to His disciples
bread and wine—that is, His body and blood—to eat and drink.
Ps. lxxviii. 25.—"Man did eat angels' food.”
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Isa. lv. 2.-" Hearken, ye that hear me, and eat ye that which is
good."
We read in the sixteenth chapter of Exodus that the Lord
commanded Moses to tell the people each of them to gather of the
manna from heaven enough for himself for the day. Now this
manna from heaven which the Lord gave the Israelites is a type of
the holy bread, to wit, of His most sacred body, which He Himself
gave to His disciples when He said, "Take of this, all
" &c.
Prov. ix. 5.-" Come, eat of my bread, and drink of the wine
which I have mingled."
Wisdom vi. 20.-"Thou didst send them from heaven bread pre-
pared without their labour."
Christ leaving His disciples in Gethsemane.
Vs. 1.-They leave Michaiah, the prophet, who do not believe
him.
Vs. 2.-They do not believe Elisha when he prophesies to the
people.
Vs. 3.-Jesus passes through Gethsemane, and then says farewell
to His disciples.
We read in the first book of Kings and twenty-second chapter that
the king of Samaria and king Jehoshaphat, being prepared for war,
consulted four hundred false prophets, and that a lying spirit spake
in the mouth of all those prophets speaking peace:
"Go in peace."
Micaiah, a true prophet of the Lord, prophesied that the king
should not return in peace, which came to pass. So the king
commanded that there should be given him the bread of affliction.
This Michaiah is a type of Christ, who for His truth was given the
bread of affliction-to wit, His suffering even to death.
Micah ii. 10.—“ Arise ye, and depart, for this is not your rest.”
Jonah iv. 3.-"It is better for me to die than to live.”
We read in the sixth chapter of the second book of Kings that,
so great was the famine in Samaria, that a woman boiled her son
and ate him; the king wished to kill Elisha, the prophet of the
Lord; but Elisha said, "To-morrow a measure of fine flour shall be
sold for a shekel." The king would not believe as the prophet had
spoken; wherefore Elisha said, "Thou shall see it, but shall not eat
thereof." On the day after the king was trodden to death in the
gate of Samaria by those who brought the fine flour.
This Elisha
416
APPENDIX III.
is a type of Christ, who spake truth to the Jews which they
believed not; and they killed the good and innocent Jesus.
Baruch iv. 25.—“Oh, children, suffer patiently the wrath that is
come upon you from God!"
Tobias xii. 20.-"For I go up to Him that sent me.”
Christ in the Garden of Olives.
Vs. 1.-The hope given to the wise is taken away from the
foolish virgins.
Vs. 2.-The old serpent fell, driven backward from his throne.
Vs. 3.-Thus they who would seize Christ fell back to the
ground.
Matt. xxv. 2, 3.-We read in the twenty-fifth chapter of St.
Matthew that those foolish virgins who had no oil with their
lamps found the door-to wit, the gate of eternal salvation-shut
upon them. These virgins mean the Jews, who fell back when
asked by the Lord on the Mount of Olives, "Whom seek ye?”
That is, they fell back into foolishness and hardness of heart, and
are therefore already in hell for that they believed not.
Lamentations ii. 16.—" So we have found it; this is the day that
we looked for."
Jer. xiv. 3.-"They returned with their vessels empty."
We read in the Apocalypse (twelfth chapter) and in Isaiah
(fourteenth chapter) that Lucifer fell by his pride from heaven, with
all his angels. These proud devils signify the Jews, who feared to
lose their habitation and their land, and therefore killed the lowly
good Jesus, and crucified Him, and themselves fell into the pit
which they had made-to wit, into a living hell, as it is written in
the psalm.
Isa. liii. 2, 3.-"There is no beauty that we should desire Him."
"He is despised and rejected of men.”
Baruch vi. 27.-" For if they fall to the ground at any time, they
cannot rise up again of themselves."
Judas betraying Christ with a kiss.
Vs. 1.—Joab speaks kindly to him [Abner], but kills him basely.
Vs. 2.-Tryphon prepares treacherous arms underneath his
smooth words.
Vs. 3.-Through peace, O Christ, that traitor betrays Thee to
these men!
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417
We read in the second book of Samuel, and third chapter, that
Joab, the captain of King David's guard, came in guile to Abner to
talk with him, and, while speaking to him with crafty sweetness,
pierced him with a sword. Joab, who spoke deceitfully to Abner,
is a type of Judas, who with guilt kissed Christ, and gave Him
over to the impious Jews to be crucified.
Ps. xli. 9.-" Yea, mine own familiar friend in whom I trusted."
Isa. iii. 11.-"Woe to the wicked man: an evil retribution shall
be given unto his hand."
We read in the first book of the Maccabees, and twelfth chapter,
that Tryphon came to the men of Judah and Israel to speak with
them craftily and capture them. This Tryphon is a type of Judas
the traitor, who came with guile to Christ and kissed Him deceit-
fully, and so gave Him over to the impious Jews to be killed.
- Prov. xvii. 20.-"He that hath a perverse tongue falleth into
mischief."
Jer. ix. 8.—“ With his mouth he speaketh peace to his friend."
Pilate washing his hands.
Vs. 1.-So the fierce multitude dared to condemn Jesus without
cause.
Vs. 2.—The fierce woman would fain slay the prophet, so the
wicked condemn Christ.
Vs. 3.-This cruel race would do Daniel to death.
We read in the nineteenth chapter of the first book of Kings
that Queen Jezebel, when she had slain the prophets of the Lord,
would then have slain the prophet Elijah. This wicked queen is a
type of the Jews, who meant cruelly to slay the true Elijah—that
is Christ-through envy, because by His preaching He showed them
their wickedness.
Isa. v. 20.-"Woe unto them that call evil good and good evil.”
Job xxxvi. 17.-" Thou hast fulfilled the judgment of the wicked."
We read in Daniel (sixth chapter) that the wicked people of
Babylon came to king Nebuchadnezzar and said, "Deliver unto us
Daniel," who was innocent. This people is a type of the Jews,
who cried out eagerly again and again to Pilate: "Crucify Him,
crucify Him;" and again: "If thou let Him go thou art not Cæsar's
friend." And that king signifies Pilate, who, fearing the Jews,
handed over to them the innocent Christ.
VOL. II.
2 E
418
APPENDIX III.
Ps. i. 5.—“ It is not good to take part in the counsel of the un-
godly.”*
Amos v. 7.—“ Who turn judgment to wormwood, and (leave off)
justice."
Christ crowned with thorns.
Vs. 1.-As Ham profaned his father when he saw his nakedness.
Vs. 2.-They who mocked Elisha were smitten by the wrath of
God.
Vs. 3.-So for us, Christ, Thou Holy One, dost suffer grievous
wrong.
We read in the ninth chapter of Genesis that Noah was sleeping
within his tent, lying naked upon the ground; when his son Ham
saw him he laughed him to scorn, but his other sons would not
behold him, but covered their eyes. Noah is a type of Christ,
when the Jews laughed Him to scorn, and crowned Him and
stripped Him; thus those faithless sons mocked him as though he
were a fool.
David (Ps. xxii. 7).—“ All they that see Me laugh Me to scorn.
Lamentations iii. 14.—“I was a derision to all My people."
We read in the second book of Kings, and the second chapter,
that when the prophet Elisha was going up into Mount Bethel
there met him some children who cried out and mocked him, and
laughed him to scorn saying, " Go up, thou bald-head; go up, thou
bald-head!" Elisha is a type of Christ, whom His children-that
is, the Jews—mocked in His crowning and passion.
Prov. xix. 29.—" Judgments are prepared for scorners, and stripes
for the back of fools."
Isa. i.
-"They have blasphemed the Holy One of Israel.”
Christ bearing His cross.
Vs. 1.-That boy, bearing the wood, foreshadows Thee, O Christ!
Vs. 2.-The widow's crossed pieces of wood are mystic signs.
Vs. 3.-Christ bears the tree of the cross, thinking it a worthy
burden for Himself.
We read in Gen. xxii. 6, that when Abraham and Isaac set out
together, Abraham carried the sword and the fire, but Isaac carrieu
* The reference given to this verse in the Biblia Pauperum is Ps. xviii.
This is evidently a mistake.
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
419
the wood by which he was himself to be sacrificed; this Isaac who
carried the wood is a type of Christ, who carried on His own body
the wood of the cross on which He meant to be sacrificed for us.
Isa. liii. 7.—“ He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter."
Psalms." Run, hasten to save the victim."
We read in 1 Kings xvii. 10, that Elijah cried out to a woman
who was going into the field to collect wood, and make food for
herself, and she, answering him, said: "Lo, I gather two sticks, and
with them will I dress food for me and my son." The two sticks
which the woman gathered were types of the wood of the cross
which Christ took to carry on His own body.
Jer. xi. 19.-" Come, let us destroy the stalk with his bread.”
Jer. xi. 19.-"I was like a lamb or an ox that is brought to the
slaughter."
Christ on the Cross.
Vs. 1.-The father sacrifices his son, who typifies Christ.
Vs. 2.-The wounded are healed when they behold the serpent
raised.
Vs. 3.-The Passion of Christ snatches us from the gloomy
abyss.
Gen. xxii. 10.-We read in Gen. xxii. that when Abraham had
stretched forth his hand to slay his son, the angel of the Lord from
heaven prevented him, saying, "Stretch not forth thine hand
against the child." Abraham signifies the Heavenly Father, who
sacrificed His Son, to wit, Christ, for us all, on the Cross, that thus
He might show us a sign of His fatherly love.
Ps. xxii. 16.—“They pierced My hands and My feet."
Job xli. 1.-"Canst thou draw out Leviathan with a hook."
Num. xxi. 9.-We read in Numbers xxi. 9, that when the Lord
willed to save the people from the serpents which had bitten them,
He commanded Moses to make a brazen serpent and to hang it
from a tree, so that whosoever looked upon it should be saved from
the serpents. The serpent which was hung up and beheld by the
people signifies Christ on the cross, whom all should behold whe
would be saved from the serpent, that is, the devil.
Isa. liii. 7.—" He was oppressed and He was afflicted; and the
Lord hath laid on Him the iniquity of us all."
Hab. iii. 4.—“ He had horns coming out of his hand, and there
was the hiding of his power."
2 E 2
420
APPENDIX III.
The Crucifixion and the soldier with a spear.
Vs. 1.-As the first woman proceeded from the side of the man:
Vs. 2.-As water from the rock struck by Moses signifies Christ:
Vs. 3.-So hence water came forth with blood from the side of
Christ.
Gen. ii. 21.-We read in Gen. ii. 21, that while Adam was
asleep the Lord took a rib from out of his side and with it made a
woman; Adam, asleep, is a type of Christ already dead upon the
cross, from whose side flowed for us the sacraments when the soldier,
with a lance, pierced the side of Christ.
David (Ps. lxix. 26).—“ And they talk to the grief of those whom
Thou hast wounded."
Lam. i. 12.—“O you who pass by, behold and see if there be
any sorrow like unto My sorrow."
We read in Exodus xvii. 6, that when Moses led the people
through the desert and they were thirsy from the lack of water,
Moses with the rod which he held in his hand smote a rock;
and there gushed water in great abundance as if from an abyss.
This unavenged rock or stone signifies Christ, who for us poured
forth healing waters-to wit, the sacraments-from His side when
on the cross He suffered it to be pierced by the soldier's lance.
Zech. xiii. 6.—“What are these wounds in Thy hands?”
Amos viii. 9.-"In that day I will cause the sun to go down at
noon; I will darken the earth in the clear day.”
Entombment of Christ.
Vs. 1.-He is thrust into that ancient tomb.
Vs. 2.—Jonah is swallowed, yet found again unhurt.
Vs. 3.—Myrrh is brought: and Christ is buried by these.
We read in Gen. xxxvii. 24, that when the brothers of Joseph
wished to sell him to the Ishmaelites, they stripped him of his coat,
and threw him into an old pit. This Joseph is a type of Christ, who
was thrown into a pit—that is, the tomb-when His friends took
Him from the cross and laid Him in it.
David (Ps. Ixxviii. 65).—"The Lord awaketh as one out of
sleep, and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine."
Isa. xi. 10." And His rest shall be glorious."
We read in the book of Jonah, chapter ii., that when Jonah
himself took ship to go to a place called Tharys, a great storm arose
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
421
on the sea, and those who were in the ship cast lots among them-
selves; and the lot fell upon Jonah, whom they seized and threw
into the sea; and a mighty fish straightway swallowed him, in
whose belly he was three days and three nights. Jonah typifies
Christ, who was three days and three nights in the belly of the
earth.
Song of Solomon v. 2.-" I sleep, but my heart waketh.”
Gen. xlix. 9.—“He stooped down, he couched as a lion.”
The descent into Hell.
Vs. 1.-Typifying Thee, O Christ, he (David) subdued Goliath.
Vs. 2.-And as Samson's strength that destroyed the lion's
mouth:
Vs. 3.-So the death of Christ destroyed the gates of Hell.
We read in the first book of Samuel, chapter xvii., that David
smote the giant Goliath with his own sword and slew him, and cut
off his head; so Christ, who rose from the dead, freed men from hell,
and saved them from the power of the devil, and weakened the
devil himself in his power.
Psa. cvii. 16.—“For He hath broken the gates of brass, and cut
the bars of iron in sunder.”
Zech. ix. 11.-"By the blood of Thy covenant I have sent forth
Thy prisoners out of the pit where there is no water."
We read in the first book of Judges, chapter xiv., concerning
Samson, that when a lion roared against him, he seized the lion and
slew him; Samson is a type of Christ, who slew the lion, that is tho
devil, when He freed men from his power.
Hosea xiii. 14.—“ O Death, I will be thy plagues; O grave, I will
be thy destruction."
Gen. xlix. 9.—“From the prey, my son, thou art gone up."
The Resurrection.
Vs. 1.-Samson carried off the gates of the city.
Vs. 2.-The man (Jonah) rising up, denotes Thee, O Christ.
Vs. 3.-Christ comes forth, bursting the tomb covered by a stone.
We read in the 16th chapter of the book of Judges, concerning
Samson, that in the middle of the night he arose, and of his own
might cast down both the brazen gates of the city, and, going out
from the city, carried them with him. Samson is a type of Christ,
422
APPENDIX III.
who, rising from the grave in the middle of the night, cast down the
gates of the tomb and left it in freedom and power.
David lxxviii. 65.-" Then the Lord awaked as one out of sleep."
Hosea vi. 2, 3.—" In the third day He will raise us up, and we
shall know and follow Him.”
We read, in the second chapter of the book of the prophet Jonah,
that when Jonah himself had been in the belly of the whale three
days and three nights, afterwards the fish vomited out Jonah on
dry land. Jonah, who after three days came out from the fish, is a
type of Christ, who after three days came out, or arose, from the
grave.
Gen. xlix. 9.-" Judah, my son, is a lion's whelp."
Zeph. iii. 8.-"[Wait] until the day of My resurrection. I will
gather the nations.”
The three Maries and the Angel at the tomb.
Vs. 1.-As Reuben fears that the lost boy is killed.
Vs. 2.-As she (the daughter of Zion) with holy zeal seeketh her
lost spouse.
Vs. 3.—So they, seeking Thee, O Christ, learnt from the angel
that Thou livest.
We read, in the 37th chapter of Genesis, that Reuben came and
sought his brother Joseph in the well; and when he found it he was
greatly troubled, and said to his brethren, “ The child is not there;
and I, whither shall I go?" This Reuben signifies Mary Magdalene,
who with sorrow and devotion sought for Christ in the tomb, and
received from the angel the answer that He had risen from the dead;
she herself was afterwards found worthy to see Him.
Isa. lv. 6.—“ Seek ye the Lord while He may be found: call ye
upon Him while He is near."
Micah vii. 7.-"Therefore I will look unto the Lord; I will wait
for the God of my salvation."
We read in Solomon's Song, third chapter, concerning that bride
who, while seeking for her beloved spouse, saith, "I have sought
him whom my soul loveth, and I have not found him.” This
bride is a type of Mary Magdalene, who sought her Beloved in the
tomb, and afterwards, when He had risen, found Him.
David cv. 3—“Let the heart of them rejoice that seek the Lord.”
Gen. xlix. 18.-"I have waited for Thy salvation."
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
423
Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene in the Garden.
Vs. 1.-The king rejoices when he sees (Daniel) alive.
Vs. 2.-The loved bride now rejoices over her spouse whom she
sought.
Vs. 3.-Showing Thyself, O Christ, Thou comfortest the holy
Mary.
·
We read in Daniel vi. that when the prophet Daniel was cast
into the lions' den, that the lions might slay him, in the morning
the king came to the lions' den, and to Daniel to see if he still lived,
and when he saw him alive he rejoiced greatly. Now this king
signifies Mary Magdalene, when she came to the tomb after seeing
her Lord, and rejoiced greatly because He had risen from the dead.
David ix. 10.-" Thou, Lord, hast not forsaken them that seek
Thee."
Isa. lxi. 10.—“ I will greatly rejoice in the Lord; my soul shall be
joyful in my God."
We read in the Song of Solomon, chap. iii., that when the bride
had found her beloved she said, "I have found him whom my soul
loveth, and I will again hold him and will not let him go." This
bride is a type of Mary Magdalene, who, seeing her spouse, that is
Christ, would fain have held Him; but He answered thus: "Touch
me not, for I have not yet ascended to my Father."
1 Sam. ii. 1; Cant. iii. 4.-" My heart rejoiceth in the Lord."
"I held him; I would not let him go."
Hosea ii. 14.-"I will bring her into the wilderness, and there
speak unto her heart."
Christ appearing to His disciples.
Vs. 1.-He (Joseph) who formerly vexed his brethren, now
embraces them.
Vs. 2. The father in tears embraces his son, now recovered.
Vs. 3.-Jesus appears to these (disciples); His risen glory is
revealed.
We read in Genesis xlv. that Joseph saw his brethren smitten
with fear and afraid of the multitude, and knowing not that it was
Joseph; and he said to them: "I am your brother Joseph: touch
me not," and thus he consoled them. Joseph signifies Christ, who
after His resurrection appeared to His disciples who were in the
flesh, and spake to them and comforted them, saying, "Fear not, I
am.
•
"
424
APPENDIX III.
David (Ps. xvi. 11).-"In Thy presence is fulness of joy."
Isaiah li. 1.—“Look unto the Rock whence ye are hewn."
We read in the 15th chapter of the gospel of St. Luke that the
son of a certain rich man said unto his father, "Give me my portion
of the inheritance;" and when he had given it unto him he departed
into a far country and squandered all his substance, and then
returned to his father, who received him kindly and comforted him.
Now this good father signifies that Heavenly Father who, coming to
His disciples after His death, comforted them and showed them His
resurrection.
Wisd. i. 2.-" He sheweth Himself unto such as do not distrust
Him."
Ezek. xxxiv. 11.-" Behold I, even I, will both search My sheep
and seek them out."
The incredulity of Thomas.
Vs. 1.-The Angel exhorts Gideon not to fear.
Vs. 2.-Jacob, when he wrestled, was named Israel and blessed.
Vs. 3.-Thou dost suffer Thyself to be touched, that he may
give in.
Judges vi. 12.-We read in the sixth chapter of Judges that the
angel of the Lord came to Gideon and said unto him, "The Lord
is with thee, thou mighty man of valour, wherefore thou thyself
shalt deliver the people,”—which came to pass. Now Gideon sig-
nifies Thomas, to whom there came an angel, a wonderful Coun-
sellor, to wit, Christ, to strengthen him in his faith, saying unto
him, “Thrust thine hand into My side, and behold the marks of
the nails; and be not faithless, but believing."
Isa. lvii. 18.-"I have sent him away and I have brought him
back. I have seen him and will heal him. I will lead him also
and restore comforts unto him and to his mourners." *
David.-" Make glad, O Lord, the heart of Thy servant."
Gen. xxxii.-We read in the thirty-second chapter of Genesis
that when an angel of the Lord came to Jacob, he seized the angel
and wrestled with him, and did not let him go until he blessed
him. Jacob signifies Thomas the apostle, who by touching an
angel, to wit, Christ, was deemed worthy to get a blessing—that is
an assurance of Christ's resurrection.
* In the Vulgate: "Vias ejus vidi, et sanavi eum, et redux; eum et
reddidi consolationis ipsi, et lugentibus ejus."
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
425
Jer. xxxi. 18.-"Turn Thou me and I shall be turned, for Thou
art the Lord my God."
Zeph. iii. 7.-"Surely thou wilt fear Me; thou wilt receive in-
struction."
The Ascension.
Vs. 1.-Enoch, translated, is joined to the company of heaven.
Vs. 2.-Elias was translated into heaven, carried through the air.
Vs. 3.-Saint of saints: Christ seeks the stars of heaven.
Gen. v. 24.-We read in the fifth chapter of Genesis that Enoch
pleased God, and was translated into Paradise; Enoch, who pleased
God, is a type of Christ, who pleased the Father on high, and
was therefore thought worthy to ascend to the heavenly Paradise
—that is, heaven-tor, in the day of His ascension, He exalted Him
above all the choirs of angels.
David (Ps. xlvii. 5).—“ God is gone up with a shout: the Lord
with the sound of a trumpet."
Deut. xxxii. 11.-"As an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth
over her young."
te
2 Kings ii. 9.—We read in the second book of Kings, second
chapter, that when Elijah the prophet was raised into heaven in a
fiery chariot, Elisha cried out, “ My father, my father, the chariot of
Israel and the horsemen thereof." Elijah is a type of Christ, whom
His apostles, typified by Elisha, saw ascending into heaven, and
wondered when Christ said unto them, "I go unto My Father.”
Isa. lxiii. 1.—“Who is this that cometh from Edom, with dyed
garments from Bozrah ?”
Micah ii. 13.—“The Breaker is come up before them.”
Descent of the Holy Ghost.
Vs. 1.-The Divine Law was given to Moses from the top of
Sinai.
Vs. 2.-The celestial flame comes to soften the hearts of men.
Vs. 3.-The gentle Spirit fills the hearts of the faithful.
Exod. xxiv. 12; xxxi. 18.-We read in the twenty-fourth chapter
of Exodus that the Lord said to Moses: "Come up to Me into the
mountain, and I will give thee the two tables of the covenant."
* "Spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings:
so the Lord alone did lead him "[Israel].-The Song of Moses.
426
APPENDIX III.
Just as the law was given to Moses and was written on tables of
stone, so, on the day of Pentecost, a new law was written in the
hearts of the faithful collected together when the fire appeared
above them.
David (Ps. civ. 30).—“Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit; they
are created."
Ezek. xxxvi. 27.-" I will put My Spirit within you.”
1 Kings xviii. 38.-We read in the eighteenth chapter of the
first book of Kings that when Elijah the prophet had placed the
holocaust, that is, one bull, upon the wood, and in the presence of
the people called upon the Lord; the fire coming down from heaven
devoured everything: and so the people believed in the Lord. This
fire from heaven signifies that Divine fire which, on the day of
Pentecost, came upon the disciples, and cleansed them and devoured
all their sin and wickedness.
Wisd. i. 7.—" For the Spirit of the Lord filleth the world."
Joel ii. 29.-—“ Upon the handmaids and upon the servants will I
pour out My Spirit."
Coronation of the Virgin.
Vs. 1.-His mother cometh in: Solomon placeth her next
himself.
Vs. 2.-Like as Esther cometh in and doeth honour to
Ahasuerus.
Vs. 3.-By taking to thyself the holy Mary, do honour unto her.
1 Kings ii. 19.—We read in the first book of Kings (chap. ii.)
that when Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, had entered in unto
him, into his palace, king Solomon commanded a throne to be
placed for his mother next to his own throne. Bathsheba signifies
the glorious Virgin, whose throne is placed next the throne of the
true Solomon, that is-Jesus Christ.
David.—“ All the rich among the people will pray not to see
Thy face."
Isa. xxxv. 2.—"The glory of Lebanon is given to her, the
excellency of Carmel and Sharon.”
Esther ii. 17.—We read in the book of Esther (chap. ii.) that
when queen Esther had come to king Ahasuerus into his palace,
king Ahasuerus himself, to do her honour, placed her next himself;
queen Esther signifies the Virgin Mary whom Ahasuerus-that is
1
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
427
Christ-in the day of the assumption, placed in heavenly glory next
Himself.
Solomon's Song viii. 5.-" Who is this that cometh up from the
wilderness?"
Wisd.-"O how fair is a chaste generation with love!"
The Last Judgment.
Vs. 1.-Solomon decrees that the child is justly to be given to
its mother.
Vs. 2.-David thus judgeth him because of the Lord Christ.
Vs. 3.-I judge worthy of condemnation the wicked and the
impious together.
1 Kings iii. 16-28.-We read in the third chapter of the first
book of Kings that there came to Solomon the two mothers who
were harlots, and pleaded before him as judge about the overlaid
child and the living one, and when he could not judge otherwise, he
said: “
Bring me a sword and divide the living child;" and the
bowels of the living child's mother went out unto him, and she
said: "Give her the living child;" and she ceased from the trial.
In the wise Solomon we see Christ, who judged the just and the
unjust by the true judgment.
Eccles. iii. 17.-"God shall judge the righteous and the wicked."
Isa. ii. 4.-"He shall judge among the nations, and shall rebuke
many people.”
2 Sam. i. 15, 16.-We read in the second book of Samuel that
King David, after the death of Saul, remained in Ziklag; and one
coming from the land of the Amalekites boasted that he had slain
the Lord's Anointed, to wit, king Saul; and sentence of death was
passed upon him by king David because his mouth had spoken
against him; and he said to his armour-bearer, "Fall upon him and
slay him." David is a type of Christ, who will reward all nations
with equity to each according to his sins, just as David is about to
judge the Amalekite.
1 Sam. ii. 10.-"The Lord shall judge the ends of the earth.”
Ezek. vii. 3.—"I will judge thee according to thy ways."
Hell.
Vs. 1.-These are given unto the earth because they serve not
Christ.
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APPENDIX III.
Vs. 2.-For the sins of their lives thus are the men of Sodom
given to destruction.
Vs. 3. Thus are they afflicted and punished who follow
wickedness.
Deut. xi. 6.—We read in the eleventh chapter of Deuteronomy
that Dathan and Abiram, who lived in the middle of Israel, were
swallowed up by the earth, with their houses and tents, because
they kept not the commandments of God. By Dathan and
Abiram are meant those sinners who, caring not for the Catholic
Law nor the Law of the Decalogue, go down into hell, which is the
place of sinners, full of guile and of fire, which will devour them;
and with the devil they shall be punished.
Wisd. xviii. 11.-"And like as the king so suffered the
common person."
Jer. xxv. 10.-" Moreover, I will take from them the voice of
gladness."
Gen. xix. 24.-We read in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis
that for the sins of the men of Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord sent
fire from heaven upon those cities; and they were both overturned.
By Sodom and Gomorrah are meant those sinners living upon
earth according to the lusts of the flesh, which blind their eyes; and
when the morning shall rise there will appear all the sinners on
earth; and alive they will be doomed to hell and damned.
David (Ps. lxxv. 8).—" His dregs are not drained; all the sinners
of the world shall drain them."
Job.-"Satiati sunt poenis meis." ("They are fulfilled with my
pains.")
Christ with the souls of the blessed in His mantle.
Vs. 1.-The sons of Job rejoice because they are thus happily
daring.
Vs. 2.-The angel appears; Jacob thereat rejoiceth greatly.
Vs. 3.-0 Father in heaven, Thou wouldst lead me in green
pastures!
Job. i. 4.-We read in the first chapter of the book of Job that
his sons held feasts in their houses, each in his own house, and
they sent for their sisters to eat and drink with them. The sons of
Job are those righteous men who keep daily feasts, sending for
BIBLIA PAUPERUM.
429
those who shall be saved to come to the eternal happiness, and for
ever to enjoy God. Amen.
David xxxiii. 1.-"Rejoice in the Lord, all ye just, and be
proud, all ye that are true of heart."
Josh. i. 3.—“Every place that the sole of your foot shall tread
upon [I have given you, as I said unto Moses]."
Gen. xxviii. 10-13.-We read in the twenty-eighth chapter of
Genesis that when Jacob saw the sun setting, he found a stone,
which he placed under his head; and in his dream he saw a ladder
stretching from the earth to the heaven, and angels descending, and
the Lord standing above it, saying to him, "The earth on which
thou sleepest will I give unto thee and to thy seed for ever." By
Jacob understand the faithful soul, which, when it sleeps upon a
stone—that is, Christ—will gain the land flowing with milk and
honey—that is, the kingdom of heaven.
Tobias xi. 9.—“ Et flere ceperunt præ gaudio." ("And they begin
to weep for joy.")
Isa. lxvi. 10.—“ Rejoice ye with Jerusalem, and be glad with her,
all ye that love her."
The reward of the righteous.
Vs. 1.—The praise of a true soul I have thought to rejoice in for
my spouse.
Vs. 2.—The bridegroom loves his spouse; so doth Christ greatly
love His fair bride.
Vs. 3.-Then souls rejoice in spirit when all good is given
to them.
Solomon's Song iv. 7.-We read in the fourth chapter of
Solomon's Song that the bridegroom addresses his spouse, taking
her and saying, "Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in
thee; come, my love, and thou shalt be crowned." That true
Bridegroom is Christ, who, taking that bride, which is the soul,
without spot of any sin, brings her to eternal rest, and crowns her
with a crown of immortality.
David (Ps.xix. 5).—"Like a bridegroom coming from his chamber."
Ezek. xxiv. 17.-"Bind thy crown upon thine head, and put thy
shoes upon thy feet."
Revelation.-We read in the Apocalypse (chap. xxi.) that the
angel of God caught John the Evangelist when he was in the
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APPENDIX III.
spirit, and, wishing to show him the secret things of God, said to
him, "Come, I will show unto thee the bride, the Lamb's wife."
The angel speaks to all in general to come in the spirit, and witness
Christ, the innocent Lamb, crowning the innocent soul.
Isa. Ixi. 10.-"He hath clothed me with the garments of
salvation: as bridegroom, He hath crowned me with a crown.”
Hosea ii. 19.-"I will betroth thee to Me for ever."
THE END.
DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
VOL. I.

TITLE.
Charlemagne
Christ
St. John Evan.
•
God the Father.
St. Gregory IV.
Three Persons
Christ, head of .
Christ
Apollo with rays
Abraxas: Panthaic
divinity.
Trinity: three crucif.
nimbi.
Hindoo Maya
:
Lamb cruc. nimbus
Christ in oval nimbus
Christ, Alpha and
Omega.
Christ's Ascension
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
Glass painting, Strasbourg
Spec. Bibl. Nat., Lat. 9584, Paris
Glass, St. Rèmi, Rheims
Fresco, Mt. Athos, Greece
Mosaic. Roman
•
Bibl. Sacra, 6829, Bibl. Roy., Paris
Bibl. Nat. 920, Paris
Bibl. Nat., Paris
Antiq. Ex. Montfaucon.*
Roman
•
Antiq. Ex. Montfaucon.† Gnostic gem.
Heures du Duc d'Anjou, Bibl. Nat.
Paris.
Religions de l'Antiquité.
Hindostan.
Bosio, Rom. Sott.§ Roman Catacombs
Fresco, Montorio ch., near Vendôme.||
Fresco, Meteora, Thessaly .
DATE.
PAGE
circ. 1100
23
circ. 1300 24
•
circ. 1100
29
circ. 1600
30
A.D. 828
31
circ. 1250
32
circ. 1500
33
circ. 850
34
35
36
1250
39
41
43
44
circ. 1300
46
Wood-carving, Italy (M. Durand's
coll.).
circ. 1300
48
Christ, beardless
Fresco. Roman Catacombs
Christ and the Earth Sculpture sarcophagus, Vatican, Rome
Abraham and Angels | Bible, MS., No. 6, Bibl. Nat., Paris
Divine Hand
God the Father
Trinity
Lamb, A and 2.
John Baptist winged
Emp. Henry II.
Pope Paschal
*Tom. i. p. 118, pl. 54.
◊ Ed. Rome, 1636. p. 627.
•
Liber Precum, Bibl. Nat., Paris
Fresco, Mt. Athos, Greece
Spec. Hum. Sal., Bibl. Nat., Paris, Lat.
9584.
Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican, Rome
Fresco, Kaiçariani, Mount Hymettus
Painted glass, Strasbourg cathedral
Mosaic, church of St. Cecilia, Rome
+ Tom. iv. p. 363.
‡ Atlas, pl. 19, No. 103.
See Musée Egyptien, Louvre; The Zodiac of Denderah; Atlas des Religions de l'Antiquité;
Peintures et Ornements des Manuscrits, being one among a collection of treatises (MS. de la
Bibliothèque Royale fonds de St. Germain).
1st Xtian
51
period.
1st Xtian
53
period.
circ. 900
•
54
circ. 800
55
60
circ. 1300
64
1st Xtian
period.
67
•
70
•
12th or
75
14th cent.
circ. 800
77
432
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. I.

TITLE.
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
DATE.
PAGE
Bishop nimbed, with
chalice.
Pont. MS. Latin, Bibl. de la Minerva,
Rome.
c. 800
80
82
St. Peter and Pope Mosaic. Triclinium, S. Giov. Laterano;
Leo III.
Liberty
•
Diana with nimbus.
Sun
•
now in Vatican Triclinium.
Sculptured figure, Chartres cathedral*
Sculpture, Rom. Montfaucon, Antiq.
Ex., tom. ii. 414.
Sculpture, Etruscan
God with Adam and Sculpture sarcophagus. Catacombs,
Eve.
Christ with flat nim-
bus.
Christ with nimbus
Nimbus, a thread of
light.
God in aureole .
The Lord in aureole
of cloud,
God in aureole
Transfiguration.
Christ in aureole
Mary in oval
Rome; Bosio, Rom. Sott. p. 295.
Wood-carving, Stalls, Amiens.
MS. 920, Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Raphael, Disputá, Rome
Fresco, Auxerre cathedral, crypt
MS. de St. Sever., Bibl. Nat., Paris
•
Fresco, Salamis convent
Soul of St. Martin
Mary and Infant
Mercury nimbed
•
Persian king, nimbed
Satan torments Job
Beast with seven
heads.
Christ as Creator
Painted glass, Chartres cathedral.
Psalter St. Louis, Bibl. de l'Arsénal,
1186.
Liber Precum, Bibl. Nat., Paris
Painted glass, Cathedral, Chartres
MS., Bibl. de Ste. Geneviève, Paris
Roman sculpture, Antiq. Exq. Mont-
faucon, tom. ii. pl. 223, p. 414.
Persian MS., Bibl. Nat., Paris †
MS. Bible, No. 6, Bibl. Nat., Paris.
1250
87
85
86
≈ 188 5
∞
1st Xtian
98
period.
circ. 1500
102
circ. 1500
104
105
1150
to
108
1200
111
circ. 1700
114
12th cent.
117
1200 to
120
1250
circ. 900
122
13th cent.
124
16th cent.
128
132
133
circ. 950
158
Psalterium cum figuris, No. 8846,
12th cent.
163
Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Fresco and ivory, Gori, Thesaurus Vet.
12th cent.
173
dipt. ii. p. 160
Christ the Almighty
Fresco, Salamis.
18th cent.
176
Christ as St. Sophia
Jehovah of battles.
Miniature, Lyons
12th cent.
179
MS. Psalter, Bibl. Nat. Suppl. fr.
1132, bis.
12th cent.
186
Isaiah, Night & Day
Psalterium cum figuris, Bibl. Nat.,
Paris. Greek, No. 139.
10th cent.
202
(classic.)
Baptism of Christ
Liber Precum, Bibl. Nat., Paris. Suppl.
9th cent.
204
lat. 641.
Divine hand
* Nicolo Alemanni, De Lateranensibus Parietinis, Rome, 1625, p. 12.
Peintures et Ornements des MSS. Engravings from Kares, Mt. Athos. Greek Iconography,
note: Didron, vol. i. p. 59.
+ See Persian MS. Bibl. St. Geneviève ent. Medgialis; and Livre des Augures, a Turkish
MS., Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Sculptured, Ferrara cathedral porch. 12th cent.
205
M. de Bastard.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. I.
433

TITLE.
Divine hand and
crown.
Hand holding Souls
Face of Christ as God
God, beardless
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
•
•
•
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
•
MS. treatise St. Augustine, Beauvais
Psalter M.S, Bibl. de Chartres
Heures du Duc d'Anjou, Bib. Nat., Paris
Roman des trois Pèlerinages, Bibl. St.
Geneviève, 226 fol.
DATE.
PAGE
Mosaic, Santa Maria Nova, Rome, Vet.
Monimenta, 2nd pt., fig. 53.
A.D. 848 206
Fresco, Salamis
1100 or
210
1735
Heures du Duc de Berri, fol. 65., Bibl.
Nat. Paris
14th cent.
211
11th cent.
212
circ. 1200
214
circ. 1250
215
1350
217
Painted glass, St. Madeleine de Troyes.
Painted glass, St. Martin ès Vignes,
Troyes.
16th cent.
218
16th cent.
226
17th cent.
231
1250
240
4th cent.
250
Creator as Pope
God as Pope, five
crowns.
Jehovah.
Creation of Angels .
Christ as Apollo
throned above
world (personified)
Christ the Judge
Christ crucified.
Christ triumphant .
Temptation of Christ
The Mother & Jesus
Jesus and archangels
Mother and Jesus
Mary glorified.
Word of God (Mis-
sion of).
Christ subdues ser-
pent, basilisk and
lion and dragon.
Christ chains devil .
Christ a pilgrim
Jesus shows the Fa-
ther His wounds.
Christ as Archbishop
in heaven.
Triumph of Christ.
Wood-carving, Hautvilliers, Rheims
Psalterium cum figuris, Bibl. Nat.
Suppl. fr. 1132.
Sculpture, tomb of Junius Bassus.
Roman.
Orcagna, Campo Santo, Pisa*
Psalterium cum figuris, MS. Bibl. Nat.,
Paris.
14th cent.
263
Ivory, Latin, but semi-Byzantine, Bib.
Nat., Paris.
12th cent.
269
Ivory, lower side, ibid.
Ibid.
272
12th cent.
277
16th cent.
281
15th cent.
282
•
284
14th cent.
286
A.D. 1358
296
10th cent.
298
Painted glass, Jouy, near Rheims
Greek painting.
•
Seal of Mt. Athos, Convent of St. Laura
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa .
Miniature in Romant des trois Pèlerin-
ages, Bibl. St. Geneviève, Paris.
Ivory, Vatican Museum
Missal of Worms, Bibl. de l'Arsénal,
Theol. Lat., No. 192, in fol.
9th or
300
10th cent.
Rom. trois Pèlerinages, Bibl. St. Gene-
viève.
A.D. 1358
301
Spec. Hum. Salvationis, Bibl. Nat.
Suppl. Lat. 9584.
circ. 1350
304
306
309
Fresco, cupola of Greek church †
Fresco on vault, cathedral, Auxerre,
east crypt.
* Buffalmacco paints Christ as Creator at Pisa, p. 240.
Similar subject at Rheims (Divine Liturgy), also in MS. du Duc d'Anjou, Lavall, 127 in
Bibl. Nat. Origin of Raphael's Disputa. See p. 231, supra.
2 F
VOL. II.
434
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. I.
TITLE.
Lamb of God
John Baptist carries
Lamb.
John Baptist carries
Lamb.
Ram with Cross.
Apostles as lambs
The Lamb, use of
•
Seven-eyed & seven-
horned Lamb.
The Good Shepherd
Tomb of oil-vendor
Tomb of architect
Tomb of sailor
Tombs, various at-
tributes on.
Vine-dresser's grave
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
Copper-plate book-binding, Musée de
Cluny, Paris.
| Sculpture, cathedral, Chartres
Painting, fol. 187, Rom. des trois Pèle-
rinages, St. Geneviève, Paris.
Sculpture, Troyes cathedral
•
Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican, Roma
Sott., p. 63.
Sculpture, Latin, Tomb of Junius
Bassus, Musée Chrétienne, Rome.
Miniature, Theol. Lat. Apocalypse, Bibl.
de l'Arsénal.
Fresco, Catacombs, Rome, Bosio, 351.
Sculpture, Latin, Roma Sott., Bosio, p.
302.
Sculpture, Latin, Roma Sott., p. 505.
Sculpture, Salviati Coll., Rome
Sculpture and painting, Catacombs
Sculpture, Catacombs, Bosio, Rom.
Sott.., p. 505.
Drawing by Bishop Arculfe, France, on
waxen tablet.
Plan of Greek cross
church.
Greek cross,
two-
Sculpture, Athenian
armed.
Descent into Hades.
Cross of Lorraine
Greek
cross, two
arms.
Cross quartered.
Greek crosses
Cross, six-branched.
Cross, six-branched.
Miniature, MS. Bibl. Nat., Paris
Sculpture, Mount Athos, St. Laura
Convent.
Sculpture, Athens
Fresco, Catacombs
•
Sculpture, Sarcophagi .
Sculpture on capital, Ch. of Demetrius,
Salonica.
Sculpture, Salonica.
Crosses, Greek and
Catacombs
Latin.
Monogram and cross
Sculpture, Catacombs
Mystic cross
Engraved stone.
Starry cross.
Mosaic, Ravenna, Ciampini, Vet. Mon.
pt. i., pl. 24.
DATE.
PAGE
1000
320
13th cent.
322
A.D. 1358 323
13th cent.
325
1st Xtian
327
period.
4th cent.
331
13th cent.
334
1st Xtian
339
period.
5th cent.
355
1st Xtian
356
period.
1st Xtian
357
period.
1st Xtian
359
period.
1st Xtian
365
period.
7th cent.
378
11th cent.
383
13th cent.
385
1st Xtian
387
period.
11th cent.
389
1st Xtian
391
period.
1st Xtian
392
period.
4th cent.
393
4th cent.
393
1st Xtian
394
pericd.
1st Xtian
395
period.
396
6th cent.
397
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. I.
435
TITLE.
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
Crosses, Greek and Sculpture, Rheims; Laon, Berne
Latin.
Dante's cross
David and Intelli-
gence.
Holy Ghost, Intelli-
gence.
DATE.
PAGE

399
•
Florentine engraving, Paradiso, canto
xiv. 1. 94.
A.D. 1491
400
Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,
10th cent.
432
Greek MS., No. 139.
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., fonds Lavall
14th cent.
435
Holy Ghost, Dove .
as
and
•
on
•
·
Coronation of Virgin,
Holy Ghost
Man.
St. Gregory
Holy Ghost.
Standard, Holy Ghost
Six-winged Angel
Tetramorph
wheels.
Youth (Spirit of).
Church (the), as a
dove.
Demon as bird
Demon as black
insect.
Spirit as child on
waters.
Spirit as child of
eight years.
Virgin, Child, and
doves.
Virgin, Child, six
doves.
Coronation of Virgin
Dove with cruciform
nimbus.
Dove radiating
Dove at creation
Miniature, Rom. des trois Pèlerinages.
Bibl. de St. Geneviève, Paris.
Miniature, service book, Suppl. i., 638.
Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Miniature, Heures, Lat., Bibl. St.
Geneviève, 464.
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Biblia Sacra,
6829.
Miniature, Book of Hours, Bibl. de l'Ar-
senal, Theol. Fr. viii., fol. 3, verso.
Wood-carving, stalls, Amiens
15th cent.
442
16th cent.
445
Sculpture, Chartres, Notre Dame de
13th cent.
448
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Paris; Heures du
Duc de Berri.
15th cent.
450
Painting by Perugino, church of St.
Gervais, Paris.
15th cent.
452
Mosaic, Vatopédi, Mount Athos
453
14th cent.
454
Miniature, Hortus Deliciarum
Herrade, Strasbourg.*
of
11th cent,
456
Miniature, Herrade, Hortus Deliciarum,
Strasbourg.
11th cent.
465
Miniature, Cité de Dieu, Bibl. St.
Geneviève, fol. 21.
16th cent.
466
15th cent.
470
16th cent.
471
14th cent. 476
Painted window, Chartres, west porch,
right side.
13th cent.
486
Sculpture, church of Verrières, dept.
l'Aube.
16th cent.
494
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., MS. Latin, fonds
Lavalle.
14th cent.
497
Miniature, Heures, Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Painted window, Auxerre cathedral,
sanctuary.
15th cent.
498
13th cent.
500
Trinity
•
15th cent.
505
Painting, church of St. Riquier
* Dante and Herrade, note p. 458. Guizot's translation of Hist. Eccl. Franc., vol. ii. p. 136.
Taylor (Abaron) Voyage Pittoresque dans l'Ancienne France. Missal of Poitiers, Bibl.
Nat. 833.
2 F 2
436
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
VOL. II.
Min. MS., Bibl. Chartres
Bibl. Nat.
TITLE.
God and angel
angel
creating man.
Trinity, Behemoth.
Baptism, Trinity
Trinity of Evil.
Trinity of Evil.
Time, three-faced
personification.
Trinity at Creation.
Three faces in one
head.
Trinity as three
circles.
Triplicity in Unity.
Three faces, one head
Three faces, one head
Three divine Persons
Trinity, Holy Ghost
proceeding.
Trinity, Holy Ghost
proceeding.
Trinity
Three faces, one head
•
God and Universe
•
God holding scales
and compasses.
Trinity,
forms.
human
Seraph of St. Fran-
Bibl. Nat.
Miniature, Psalterium
Psalterium cum figuris, 13th cent.
Bibl. Nat.
Wood-carving, Italian, Durant Col.
Min., Bibl. Nat., French, Emblema.
Biblica.
Printed on vellum, Hours, Simon
Vostre, Paris.
Min., French, MS. Henry II., Bibl. Nat.
Min., French, Cité de Dieu, MS. Bibl.
St. Geneviève.
Min., French, MS. Bibl. Troyes, from
Abb. Notre Dame aux Nonnains.
Wood engraving
Wood engraving, Italian, Dante,
printed, Par., fol. cclxxviii.
Buffalmacco, fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa.
Miniature, Psalterium
Min., Bibl. Nat., Hours of Anne of
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
DATE.
PAGE
Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,
13th cent.
14
17
14th cent.
19
13th cent.
22
Min., France, Hist. St. Graal, Bibl.
Nat., 6770.
15th cent.
23
Miniature, Bibl. de l'Arsénal, MS.
Theol. Lat. 133c., Officium Eccle-
siastic.
14th cent.
25
Miniature, Hortus Deliciarum, Stras-
burg.
12th cent.
42
Min., Spanish, Chron. d'Isidore de
Seville, MS. Bibl. Nat. 7135.
13th cent.
44
13th cent.
46
Engraving, German, Gruter, Cab. des
Estampes, Bibl. Nat.
16th cent.
51
1524
53
16th cent.
16th cent.
$$
57
64
Min., French, MS. Duc d'Anjou, Bibl.
Nat.
13th cent.
69
12th cent.
70
12th cent.
A.D. 1491
14th cent.
Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,
13th cent.
22 22
72
73
76
78
15th cent.
81
90
cis.
Thrones
Angel
France.
Fresco, Athens
13th cent.
91
•
*
•
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
92
Wingless angels.
Painting, Nat. Gall., London, Piero della
Francesca.
14th cent.
93
Angel without legs
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa.
14th cent.
94
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.—VOL. II.
437

TITLE.
Angel of Ascension .
Six-winged Angel
Angel holds flames
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
DATE.
PAGE
Manuscript, Bibl. Nat., Paris
95
•
Manuscript, Bibl. Nat., Biblia Sacra.
12th cent.
97
Lat. 6. i.
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
100
Angel holds globes .
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
100
Angel with sword
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
101
Angel with sceptre.
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent. 101
Angel with trumpet
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
102
Angel with book
John Baptist, winged
Lucifer before Fall .
Fall of Lucifer
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
102
Sculpture, Chartres
13th cent.
108
MS., Hortus Deliciarum, Strasburg
12th cent.
109
A.D. 1220
111
Fall of Lucifer
•
Miniature, Breviary of St. Louis and
Blanche of Castille, Bibl. de l'Ar-
sénal, Paris.
Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal., Bibl. de
l'Arsénal, Paris, No. 593.
A.D. 1340
112
Unknown
·
Unknown
•
Unknown
•
Four-faced demon
River personified
Fire demon
•
Satan and Hell
Satan
Persian devil
Egyptian devil
Turkish devil
•
•
•
Satan, serpent-
horned.
The Abyss
Devil as Professor
Temptation of St.
Paphnutius
Juliana and Devil
Demons on tomb of
Dagobert.
Devils as men
Devil as Satyr
Apocalyptic dragon
Temptation, serpent
Two-headed serpent
Temptation of Eve
and Adam.
Devil, vampire.
Devil on helmet of
Goliath.
Devil
Drinking devil.
Miniature, Missal of Poitiers
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Paris, Turkish
MS.
Engraving, Montfaucon, Antiq. Ex.
Engraving, Montfaucon, Antiq. Ex.
MS. Bibl. Nat., Paris,
d'Anjou.
MS. Bibl. Nat., Paris. Lat. 6
Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal., Bibl. de
l'Arsénal, Paris, No. 593.
Painted glass, Chartres
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Bible Historiée,
Paris, No. 9561, fol. 8ª.
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Bible Historiée,
Paris, No. 9561, fol. 8.
Sculpture, Amiens
Sculpture, Amiens
·
•
113
115
117
119
•
120
122
123
124
•
Coll. Duc
circ. 1200
125
127
1340
128
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa
129
Miniature, unknown
1340
130
Sculpture, church of St. Denis, Paris.
A.D. 1220
131
133
Ivory carving, Tournus
Painted glass, St. Nizier, Troyes.
Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican
134
137
139
139
1340
140
Fresco, Caiapo Santo, Pisa.
Miniature, Initial P.
1340
141
142
143
1340
144
438
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. II.

TITLE.
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
DATE.
PAGE
Exorcism of devil
•
Miniature, MS., Bibl. de Chartres,
1380.
1340
145
Lucifer on seal.
Miniature, MS., Bib. de Chartres, 1380
1340
147
Lucifer's hand-
writing.
Miniature, MS., Bibl. de Chartres,
1380.
1340
148
Impiety.
Covetousness
Death, Thanatos
Death-bed scene
Death as woman
Death as woman
Sculpture, Amiens cathedral
1340
149
Miniature, Rom. des trois Pèlerinages,
circ. 1330
150
Bibl. St. Geneviève, Paris.
Sculpture, temple of Diana of Ephesus
B.C.
154
Miniature, Miss Twining
B.C.
156
•
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa
circ. 1330
158
•
159
•
Death as rider
160
Death as rider
161
Death demon
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa.
circ. 1330
162
Death and soul.
•
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa.
circ. 1330
164
Satan of Job
Fresco, Francis da Volterra, Campo circ. 1330
Santo, Pisa.
165
Ladder of soul
167
Death as king
169
Death as Ecce Homo
169
Death and fool
Death and shepherd
Death as a skeleton
170
•
Gem, Coll., M. Badeigts de la Borde.
Onyx gem, King's Horace
171
•
172
The soul, Psyche
Soul as butterfly
The soul, Psyche
Gem.
174
•
Sculpt. (ancient), collection, P. Ras-
175
casius di Bigarris.
Mosaic, St. Mark's, Venice.
Soul of St. Stephen | Sculpture, ch. of St. Trophimus, Arles.
Soul borne by angels
Souls weighed by
Michael.
Souls weighed by
Hermes.
Hermes lifts soul
from grave.
Hermes leads soul
to Charon.
Michael slays dragon
Michael slays dragon
Michael and seven-
headed dragon.
Adoration of Cross
•
Descent into Hell
Christ overcomes hu-
man-headed serpent
Miniature, Greek Menologium of Basil.
Miniature, MS., M. Dupasquier, col.,
Lyons.
Vase painting, Duc de Luynes.
Onyx gem, coll., Duke of Orleans
Gem, Uzielli collection
Miniature, Abbey of Prume
Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,
Bibl. Nat., Paris.
Ancient gem, lapis lazuli, Alexandria.
Miniature, Bibl. Pauperum
Ancient gem, C. W. King, Report Cam-
bridge Autiq. Soc. v. 82
6th cent.
176
177
178
A.D. 1300
179
180
181
181
Miniature, Amiens
A.D. 1197
182
circ. 993,
184
1001
185
1st. Xtian
196
age.
Mediæval 198
201
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.-VOL. II.
439

TITLE.
Hercules overcomes
the human-headed
hydra.
Daniel among lions
Ostrich delivers its
young.
Mass of Regulus,
Bishop of Arles.
Burial of Virgin
Mary.
NATURE AND ORIGIN.
Ancient coin, C. W. King, Report
Cambridge Ant. Soc. v. 82.
DATE.
PAGE
202
Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal., Library of
Lord Coleridge.
A.D. 1350
210
Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal., Library of
A.D. 1350
215
Lord Coleridge.
Miniature, Bibl. Nat., Paris, Lat.
5086.
14th cent.
239
Sculpture, Notre Dame, Paris .
13th cent.
241
INDEX.
r
ABATEMENTS of honour, i. 78 n.
Abelard, i. 427; his denial of the
spirit of fear in Christ, i. 487;
on the relations of the Divine
Persons of the Trinity, ii. 10
Abgarus, king of Edessa, and the
traditional portrait of Christ, i.
245
Achilles, the shield of, and the
snow-white rose of the 'Divina
Commedia,' ii. 249
Ahriman, contest between Ormuzd
and, i. 464; the Persian spirit of
darkness, ii. 122
Allegorical beings, nimbus of, i. 83,
154; figures, Impiety, ii. 149;
Covetousness, 150
Allegories and myths, difference
between, i. 343
Amiens, cathedral of, early Chris-
tian art in the, i. 90, 101, 104,
130 n., 144, 149, 445, ii. 143, 283 n.,
328 n., 383 n., 445; library of, i.
501
Angels, nimbus of, i. 66, ii. 96; as-
sisting God the Father at the crea-
tion, ii. 14; iconography of, ii. 85;
creation of, ii. 85; method of
treatment in art, ii. 85; St. John
Damascene's opinion of the period
of their creation, ii. 87; St.
Jerome's, ii. 87; Dante's, ii. 87; in-
corporeal nature of, ii. 88; angels
in Ezekiel, ii. 89, 91, 96; Dante's
description of, ii. 89; angels of
Giotto and other painters, ii. 90;
representation of, by Italians, ii.
92; by artists in the West, ii. 94;
costume of, ii. 96; small horn or
cross on the brow of, ii. 97; St.
Dionysius' classification of the
angelic hierarchy and their sym-
bols, ii. 98, 265; hierarchy of
angels at Chartres, ii. 99; in the
convent of Ivirôn, ii. 101; wing-
less, ii. 93, 154, 256; of Botticelli,
ii. 256
Apocalypse, the seven gifts of the
Spirit in the, i. 481; the dragon
of the, ii. 123; order amongst
the devils of the, ii. 137; how to
represent the, ii. 336
Apostles, nimbus of the, i. 72;
figured under the form of lambs,
i. 327
Arezzo, fresco at, ii. 186
Arles, ch. of St. Trophimus at, i.
502. ii. 177
Art, influence of social life and
ideas on works of, i. 228
Athos, Mt,i. 76n.; government of, i.
285n.; the Satan of, ii. 121; early
Christian art in convents, &c., of,
i. 30, 36 n., 58 n., 60 n., 284, 388,
453, ii. 106, 121, 245, 281 n., 305 n.,
322 n., 330, 342 n., 345 n., 376 n.,
383 n., 391 n., 392 n.
Aureole: restriction of the term,
i. 25; derivation of the word, i.
107; nature, i. 107; other names,
i. 108; form of the aureole, i.
110, 115, 137; its field, i. 111,
115; the, characteristic of the
Deity, i. 111, 121; use of the
stool supporting the feet of God
i. 113; variations in form, i. 118;
application of, i. 121; of the Virgin
Mary, i. 121; degradation of the,
i. 123; history of, i. 126; colour of,
i. 163; not always symbolic, i. 165
INDEX.
441
Auvergne, churches of, decorated
in fifth century, ii. 191
Auxerre, cathedral of, fresco-paint-
ing of the triumph of Christ in
the, i. 308; early Christian art
in the, i. 109, 335 n., 462, 500 n., ii.
336 n.
BEAUCE, cathedral of, i. 18
Beauvais, i. 71 n., 212, ii. 383
Behemoth, the, of Job, ii. 123, 128
Benediction, forms of, i. 406; the
Greek, i. 407; the Latin, i. 408
Bible Historiale,' i. 7, 9
'Biblia Pauperum,' the, ii. 202;
St. Ansgar its supposed author,
ii. 202; its plan, ii. 203; rarity
of MS. copies of, ii. 203; transla-
tion of the, ii. 403; the annuncia-
tion, ii. 103 the nativity, ii.
404; adoration of the Magi, 1i.
404; the purification, ii. 405;
the flight into Egypt, ii. 405;
the Holy Family in Egypt, ii. 406;
murder of the Innocents, ii. 407;
return from Egypt, ii. 408; John
baptizing Christ, ii. 408; temp-
tation of Christ, ii. 409; the
raising of Lazarus, ii. 410; the
transfiguration, ii. 410; Mary
Magdalene at the feet of Christ,
ii. 411; Christ's entry into Jeru-
salem, ii. 412; Christ driving
the money-changers out of the
temple, ii. 412; Judas Iscariot
betrays Christ, ii. 413; Judas
receiving the thirty pieces of
silver, ii. 414; the Last Supper,
ii. 414; Christ leaving his disci-
ples in Gethsemane, ii. 415;
Christ in the garden of Olives, ii.
416; Judas betraying Christ
with a kiss, ii. 416; Pilate wash-
ing his hands, ii. 417; Christ
crowned with thorns, ii. 418;
bearing his cross, ii. 418; on
the cross, ii. 419; the crucifixion
and the soldier with a spear, ii.
420; entombment of Christ, ii.
420; the descent into hell, ii.
421; the resurrection, ii. 412;
the three Maries and the angel
at the tomb. ii. 422; Christ ap-
pearing to Mary Magdalene in
the garden, ii. 423; to his disci
ples, ii. 423; the incredulity of
Thomas, ii. 424; the ascension,
ii. 425; descent of the Holy
Ghost, ii. 425; coronation of the
Virgin, ii. 426; the last judg-
ment, ii. 427; hell, ii. 426;
Christ with the souls of the
blessed in his mantle, ii. 428;
the reward of the righteous, ii.
429
Blessing, how to represent the hand
in, ii. 395
Bossuet, ii. 8
Botticelli, Sandro, his painting of
angels, ii. 256
Bourges, cathedral of, early Chris-
tian art in the, i. 69, 319 n., 370,
ii. 209 n.
Brou, Notre Dame de, stained win-
dow, representing the triumph of
Christ in the, i. 310. 417; early
Christian art in, i. 95 n., 102,
318 n., 323, 417
Browning, Mrs. Barrett, on Gregory
Nazianzen, ii. 236 n.
Buffamalco, ii. 86
Burton, Sir F., description of the
winged Thanatos in the British
Museum, ii. 153, 255
Byzantine 'Guide to Painting,' ii.
189; its date, ii. 189; compiled
by Dionysius, ii. 190; copies of
the, and its growth, ii. 190; the
scheme of the, ii. 193; the scenes
in chronological order, ii. 194;
translation of second part of the,
ii. 263; the nine choirs of angels,
ii. 265; fall of Lucifer, ii. 266;
how to represent scenes in the
lives of Adam and Eve, ii. 266;
of Cain and Abel, ii. 267; of
Noah, ii. 268; of Abraham, ii.
269; of Jacob, ii. 271; of Joseph,
ii 271; of Moses and Aaron, ii.
273; of Joshua, ii. 276; of
Gideon, ii. 277; of Samson, ii.
277; of Samuel, ii. 278; of
David, ii. 279; of Solomon, ii.
442
INDEX.
1
280; of Elijah, ii. 280; of Elisha,
ii. 282; of Isaiah, ii. 283; of
Jeremiah, ii. 284; of Daniel, ii.
284; of Jonah, ii. 286; of Job,
ii. 287; the Patriarchs, ii. 288;
the sons of Jacob, ii. 289; other
ancestors outside the genealogy,
ii. 291; holy women of the Old
Testament, ii. 291; the holy
Prophets, ii. 292; other prophe-
cies, ii. 294; the philosophers of
Greece who have spoken of the
incarnation of Christ, ii. 297;
the tree of Jesse, ii. 298; the
festivals of the Lord and other
works and miracles of Christ
according to the Holy Gospel, ii.
299; the Holy Passion, ii. 314;
the parables. ii. 322; the Apo-
calypse, ii. 336; the second coming
of our Lord, ii. 345; the feasts of
the Divine Mother, ii. 347; the
twenty-four stations of the Divine
Mother, ii. 352; the faces of the
twelve holy Apostles, ii. 356;
the four evangelists, ii. 356; the
exaltation of the cross, ii. 357;
the seven holy synods, ii. 358;
the miracles of the principal
saints, ii. 361; of the archangel
Michael, ii. 361; of the Har-
binger, ii. 362; of St. Peter, ii.
366; of St. Paul, ii. 367; of St.
Nicholas, ii. 368; of St. George,
ii. 369; of St. Catherine, ii. 371;
of St. Anthony, ii. 372; how to
represent the seven martyrs of the
year, ii. 374; allegories and
moralities, ii. 378; how to paint
the walls of a church, ii. 383;
the narthex, ii. 389; the fountain,
ii. 390; the refectory, ii. 391; a
cruciform church with four vaults,
ii. 393; a church roofed with a
barrel vault, ii. 393; the method
by which we have to paint the
holy images, ii. 394; the face
and body of our Lord, ii. 394;
of the mother of God, ii. 395;
how to represent the hand in
blessing, ii. 395; inscriptions for
Holy Trinity, ii. 395
|
|
CHARON, the Etruscan, ii. 155
Chartres, cathedral of, arrangement
of statues on the outside of, i. 14;
hierarchy of angels in, ii. 99;
figures of, arranged in the order
of the Speculum Universale,?
ii. 221; the Mirror of Nature,' ii:
222; the 'Mirror of Doctrine,' ii.
223; the 'Historical Mirror,' ii.
225; early Christian art in, i. 16,
17, 18, 55 n., 56n., 69, 71, 84, 88n.,
91, 100, 109, 112, 117, 123, 125,
154 n., 175, 177, 181, 195, 227,
319n., 322, 371 n., 380 n., 406, 448,
485, 487, 488, 502, ii. 15, 74, 85,
86, 92, 99, 132, 221, 230, 337 n.,
377 n.
Chosroes, king of the Persians,
visit to Jerusalem, ii. 37; his
mimicry of the Trinity, ii. 38;
death, ii. 38
Christ: as the conqueror of death,
ii. 168; legend of footprints of,
on the Mount of Olives, ii. 217.
See also: God the Son.
Christian Scheme, iconography of
the, ii. 188; the Byzantine Guide
to Painting,' ii. 189, 226; its
scheme, ii. 193; early systems of
iconography, ii. 194, 226; the
'Mirror of Human Salvation,' ii.
196, 226; its scheme, ii. 197; the
'Biblia Pauperum,' ii. 202, 206;
St. Ansgar its supposed author,
ii. 202; its plan, ii. 203
Christianity and imitative art, i. 1
Church, the, likened to a dove, i. 455
Churches, form of eastern, i. 377;
of western, i. 378; plan of, re-
vealed in visions, &c., i. 381; how
to paint the walls, &c., of, ii. 383
Circle, emblematic of God, ii. 45;
use of by Dante and Homer, ib.
249, 250
Circles, three intersecting, used as
a type of the Trinity, ii. 45
Classification, passion for, of know-
ledge in the middle ages, i. 8, 9
Codrus, king of Athens, voluntary
sacrifice of, ii. 214
Coleridge, Lord, manuscript in
library of, 206, 210, 215
1

INDEX.
443
sta, Jean, ii. 206 n.
vetousness, female figure symbo-
ising, ii. 148, 150
eation, angels assisting God the
Father at the, ii. 14
escent, adoption of the, by the
Turks, i. 159 n.
escenzio's triumph of death, ii.
161
oss: use of the, in the nimbus of
Christ, i. 40; form of the arms of,
i. 45; inscription of the letters
ówv, i. 45; the, confined to the
nimbus of the Deity, i. 47; the
cross a symbol of Christ, i. 367;
history of the, i. 366; virtue of
the, i. 370; enthusiasm for the,
and its form, i. 372; dedication
of churches to the, i. 373;
varieties of the cross, i. 374; 1.
the 'tau,' i. 374; 2. the cross
with a top and one transverse
bar, i. 374; its different forms, i.
375; the Greek cross, i. 375; the
Roman, i. 376; both types com-
mon to both churches, i. 376;
form of eastern churches, i. 377;
of western churches, i. 378; 3.
the cross with double branches, i.
380, 387; English churches in
this form, i. 380; 4. the cross
with three transverse bars, i. 382;
free crosses, i. 384; the cross of
the Passion, i. 384; the Resurrec-
tion cross, i. 385; varieties of
heraldic crosses, i. 386; forms of
intertwined crosses, i. 387; ani-
mals represented at the foot of
crosses in Greek churches, i. 390;
crosses formed by the monogram
of Christ, i. 392; other forms, i.
393; allegorical ornaments on
crosses, i. 395; inscriptions on, i.
396; inhabited cross described
by Dante, i. 399; the sign of the
cross, i. 405, 414; instructions
from early Fathers, i. 405; form
of benediction, i. 406; the Greek
benediction, i. 407; the Latin, i.
408; forms of signing the cross,
i. 409, ii. 11; the colour of the
cross, i. 412; of the historical
cross, i. 412; of the ideal cross,
i. 413; the triumph of the cross,
i. 414; adoration of the cross, ii.
196
Cupola, adoption of the, by the
Turks, i. 159
Cyrus, vision of Astyages before
the birth of, legend of, ii. 211
DAGOBERT, legend of the death of,
ii. 132
Daniel, bishop of Lacedæmon, ii. 11
Dante, description of the triumph
of Christ, i. 317; on the creation
of angels, ii. 87; description of
angels, ii. 89; of Lucifer, ii. 113;
influence of, upon medieval art,
ii. 250, 258; quoted, i. 137, 138,
139, 144, 145, 166, 224, 233, 237 n.,
401, 457, 467, ii. 5, 9 n., 47, 217,
248, 259
&
Death, iconography of, ii. 153;
Christian images of, borrowed
from the Græco-Latin polytheism,
ii. 153; statue of Thanatos, ii.
153; figure of the Etruscan
Charon, ii. 155; Death depicted
by Christians as a skeleton, ii.
156; Orcagna's treatment of
Death, ii. 157; Death as
woman, Petrarch's, ii. 159;Death
as a rider, ii. 161; Crescenzio's
triumph of Death, ii. 161;
Orcagna's illustrations of the
'Three Deaths and the Three
Lives,' ii. 164; the chariot of,
ii. 166; death of man figured
in the Ladder of the Soul's
Salvation,' ii. 166; the Moral
Ladder, ii. 167; Christ as the
conqueror of, ii. 168; Death as a
crowned skeleton, ii. 169; Death
and the Fool, ii. 169; the Dance
of Death, ii. 171
Devils, iconography of, ii. 109;
Lucifer before his fall, ii. 109;
the fall of Lucifer, ii. 110, 265;
Dante's description of Lucifer, ii.
113; personification of physical
evils by the ancients, ii. 114; of
earthquakes by the Scandina-
vians, ii. 115; the monster of the

444
INDEX.
Tarasque, ii. 116; the fire-demon; |
ii. 116; legend of St. Remi and
the fire at Rheims, ii. 116; the
Devil in Missal of Poitiers ii. 118;
painting of the Devil in the
Campo Santo, Pisa, ii. 118; in
the convent of St. Gregory, Mt.
Athos, ii. 121; Ahriman, ii. 122;
Egyptian devils, ii. 122, 123; the
dragon of the Apocalypse, ii.
123; the Behemoth of Job, ii.
123, 128; the genius of evil in
the west, ii. 124: represented as
a beggar, ii. 126; as a monk or
doctor, ii, 127, 259; as a splen-
didly dressed woman, ii. 129,
261; as a holy angel, ii. 129; in
human form, ii. 132; the type of
the demon indicative of the
country and epoch, ii. 132;
nomenclature of the devil, ii. 135;
in the east, ii. 135; in the west,
ii. 136; order amongst the devils
of the Apocalypse, ii. 137; the
serpent in the temptation of
Adam and Eve, ii. 139; the
demons of the New Testament,
ii. 142; belief in the devil during
the Middle Ages, ii. 144; humor-
ous conceptions of, ii. 144; bull
of Innocent VIII., ii. 144; exor-
cism, ii. 145; men begotten of the
Devil, ii. 145; seal of Lucifer, ii.
146; figures symbolising impiety
and covetousness, ii. 148; demons
of floods, ii. 259
Didron, M., referred to, ii. 84, 100,
107, 188; 189, 225, 239, 249
Dove, the, representing, the Holy
Spirit, i. 451, 459; the Church,
i. 455
Drama, object of the religious, i. 6;
influence of the, on iconography,
ii. 233, 242; St. Francis' cele-
bration of the nativity of Christ,
ii. 233; influence of games and
dramas on Greek art, ii. 234
Durandus, G., i. 274, 329, 336, 371,
375, 384, 408, 436, ii. 29
EASTLAKE, Lady, ii. 188, 176
Editor's note, ii 84
|
Egyptian idols, legend of the f
of, before the child Christ,
214, 301
Encyclopædias, passion for makin
in the middle ages, i. 8, ii. 22
superiority of Vincent de Bed
vais', i. 17
Epigonation, the, i. 60, 61
Evangelists, nimbi of the eva
gelical symbols, i. 87; symbo
of the, i. 318, ii. 267
Eve, creation of, i. 218
Evil, trinity of, ii. 22
Exorcism, ii. 145
FERGUSON, Sir Samuel, sonnet o
Paul Veronese, ii. 219
Ferrara, cathedral, i. 205
Festivals of the church, inscrip
tions for the, ii. 399
Figures and symbols, differenc
between, i. 342, 351
Fish, the, a figure of Jesus Christ
i. 344, 351
Fletcher, Giles, description of th
Tempter, ii. 128; his opening
scene of Christ's temptation, ii
219
Footprints of bull indicating ground
plan of churches, i. 382
Footprints of Christ, legend of, or
the mount of Olive's, ii. 217
Freiburg in Breisgau, i. 75, 429,
491, 492; ii. 328
GLORY, restriction of the term, i.
25; origin of the word, i. 129;
application of the term, i. 130;
nature of the glory, i. 131; light
embodied in painting or sculp-
ture, i. 131; illustrations from
the Hindoos, i. 132; from the
Greeks, i. 132; from the modern
Persians, i. 133; from Virgil, i.
134; from the Christian shrines
i. 134; from the Apocalypse, i.
136; from Dante's Paradiso,' i.
137, 144; from the New Testa-
ment, i. 139; representations in
rose-windows, i. 143; its origin
and native country, i. 146; use
amongst the Hindoos, i. 146;


INDEX.
440
amongst the Egyptians, i. 146;
amongst the Greeks and Romans,
i. 147; origin in the east, i. 149,
151; borrowed by the Christian
religion, i. 150; at first not given
to holy persons, i. 151; character
of the glory, i. 153
nosticism, influence of, on Chris-
tian arts, i. 191, 197
hostics, hatred borne by the, to
Jehovah, i. 187, 243; earliest
portraits of Christ made by, i.
243; gem, i. 36
od, nimbus of; see Nimbus.
od the Father, i. 167; most
frequently manifested in the Old
Testament, i. 167; represented
by a small part of his person, i.
170, 179; but generally by entire
portraits of Christ, i. 170; the
rank assigned to him frequently
inferior to that of the Son, i. 180,
183; causes of this treatment, i.
187; the hatred borne by the
Gnostics to Jehovah, i. 187; the
dread then prevalent of making
an idol, i. 192; the supposed
identity between Father and Son,
i. 194; the incarnation of the
Son, i. 195; the difficulty in
representing God the Father, i.
197; the absence of any visible
manifestation of, i. 198; portraits
of, i. 201; represented at first by
a hand alone, i. 201; then by a
face issuing from a cloud i. 211;
with features slightly differing
from the Son, i. 215; lastly, by a
face and figure with distinctive
features, i. 216; characteristic
attributes of, i. 221; a hand ex-
tended from clouds, i. 221; a
globe of the world, i. 222; trian-
gular or lozenge-shaped nimbus,
i. 222, 232; age, i. 223; as pope,
emperor, or king, i. 223; ideal
treatmeant by Italian artists, i.
229; his name inscribed in a
triangle, i. 231; no special festival
in honour of, ii. 29
God the Son; most frequently
manifested in the New Testa-
ment, i. 167; represented instead
of God the Father, as creator, i.
171; as all-wise, i. 178; fre-
quently more honoured in early
monuments than God the Father,
i. 180, 183; causes of this treat-
ment, i. 187; portraits of, i. 204,
212, 214, 215, 217, 219, 239;
honoured above the other persons
of the Trinity, i. 234; in the
'Gloria,' i. 235; with the title
of 'Our Lord,' i. 238; history of
the portraits of, i. 242; causes of
their number, i. 242; earliest
portraits made by Gnostics, i.
243; miraculous images, i. 245,
description of his appearance by
Lentulus, i. 246; by St. John
Damascene, i. 247; by St.
Anschaire, i. 248; evidence from
monuments, i. 248; growing age
of the figure of, with the progress
of Christianity, i. 249; successive
divestment of drapery from the
figure of the crucified, i. 260;
Michelangelo's Christ in the last
judgment, i. 261; portraits from
the period of the Renaissance to
the present day, i. 263; reaction
against the materiality of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
i. 263; the beauty or ugliness of
Christ, i. 264; view of the African
church, i. 264; of the Latin
church, i. 265; of Christian art-
ists, i. 266; portraits, neither
beautiful nor ugly, i. 266; de-
scription of Christ by Tertullian,
i. 268; by St. Cyril of Alexandria,
i. 268; presence or absence of
the beard in figures of Christ, i.
268; archæological signs charac-
teristic of our Saviour, i. 278;
bare feet, i. 279; triangular
aureole, i. 283; cruciform nimbus
and monograms, i. 287; inscrip-
tion of his sayings, i. 289; pre-
sence of seven doves symbolical
of the spirits of God, i. 291; of
actions in the life of Christ, i.
291; the triumph of Christ, i.
292; as treated in Greece, i. 293;


446
INDEX.
in the west, i. 294; the pilgrim-
age of Christ in the Romant
des trois Pèlerinages,' i. 294;
Greek representations of Christ
after his return to heaven, i. 305;
fresco-painting in the cathedral
of Auxerre, i. 308; stained win-
dow in the Notre-Dame de Brou,
i. 310; Dante's description in the
'Purgatorio,' i. 317; Jesus Christ
as a lamb, i. 318; St. John the
Baptist carrying the Lamb of
God, i. 321; the Lamb of God
depicted as a ram in the cathe-
dral at Troyes, i. 325; decree of
Justinian II. prohibiting the use
of the lamb as a symbol of Christ,
i. 332; effect of the decree, i.
333; the Lamb of God in the
Apocalypse, i. 333; representa-
tion of Christ and the symbolic
lamb on the same cross, i. 336;
Jesus as the good shepherd, i. 337
treatment of the subject, i. 338;
its popularity, i. 341; Jesus Christ
as lion, i. 341; Jesus figured by
the fish, i. 344, 351; evidence
from monuments, i. 345; testi-
mony of authors, i. 347; anagram
from the word IXOrz, i. 317;
the fish not always a figure of
Christ, i. 352; often a sign of
trade when carved on monuments,
i. 353; the natural explanation
in such cases to be the first
adopted, i. 361; epithets for God
the Son, ii. 396
Gospel of Christ, inscriptions on
the, ii. 397
Graal, history of the, i. 270
Gregory Nazianzen, îi. 236
Gregory of Tours, i. 425, 459, ii. 191
Gregory the Great, pope. inspired
by the Holy Spirit, i. 447
Greek art, influence of games and
dramas on, ii. 234
HERRADE, i. 50, 207, 430, 455, 457,
465, 469, ii. 8, 34, 63, 167
Hercules and human-headed serpent
ii. 201
Holy Ghost; portraits of the, i.
216, 219, 220; history of the
417; definition of the, i. 41
Jehovah the God of strength
418; Jesus the God of love,
419; the Holy Ghost the G
of intelligence, i. 420; Char
magne's hymn to the, i. 42
the, also possessing the attribut
of the other persons of t
Trinity, i. 422; the office of th
i. 424; evidence from Scriptur
i. 424; testimony from legend
i. 426; from history, i. 427; fro
art, 428; represented as the cr
ator of sciences, i. 429; worsh
of the, i. 437; churches an
monasteries dedicated to the,
437; manifestations of the,
440; scriptural, i. 440; legendary
i. 443; at the coronation of th
Virgin Mary, i. 444; legend &
St. Joseph, i. 446; the, inspirin
Gregory the Great, i. 447; St
Jerome, i. 448; St. Theresa, i
449; directing the actions of
kings, i. 449; as a dove em-
broidered on a standard, i. 450
the Holy Spirit as a dove, i. 60,
120, 204, 451; a bird used to
express rapidity, i. 451; there-
fore mind or spirit, i. 451; the
dove selected as the image of
the, i, 459; in Scripture, i.
459;
in legends, i. 459; the
colour of the Holy Ghost repre-
sented as a dove, i. 461; as seen
in the vision of Theutram, i. 463;
the Holy Ghost as man, i. 467;
late introduction and short dura-
tion of the type, i. 467; papal
bull prohibiting its use, i. 468;
varying age of the human form
of the figure, i. 469; neglect of
the use of the figure, i. 473;
qualities peculiar to the Holy
Ghost, i. 471; the seven spirits in
Isaiah, i. 474; their order, i. 476;
testimony of their order on mon-
uments to the social condition of
the period and country, i. 477;
wisdom the highest gift, i. 479;
Rhaban Maur's arrangement of
INDEX.
447
Į
the seven gifts, i, 480; the seven
gifts in the Apocalypse, i. 481;
arrangement in manuscripts, i.
482; omission of one or more, i.
485; Abelard's omission of the
spirit of fear in Christ, i. 487;
colour and size of the seven doves,
i. 490; chronological iconography
of the Holy Ghost, i. 493; the
attributes of the Holy Ghost, i.
496; character of the nimbus, i.
496; its frequent absence, i. 497;
heresies against the Holy Ghost,
i. 499; honour paid to the, i.
499; omission of the, in pictures
of Pentecost, i. 501; in represen-
tations of the Trinity, i. 502;
denial of the divinity of the, i.
506
Holy Ghost, order of the, i. 427
'Hortus Deliciarum,' the, i. 50 n.,
72 n., 207, 430, 456 n., ii. 9, 34 n.,
42, 109
Hugo de St. Victor, ii. 220
Hymettus, church on, i. 70, ii. 107
IMAGES, the number of, in French
churches, i. 1; images and
figures in churches nearly all
religious, i, 2; defence of, by the
cure of St. Nizier, i. 2; by Pope
Sixtus, i. 3; by St. Benedict |
Biscop, i. 3; by St. John Da-
mascene, i. 3, ii. 397; by the
Synod of Arras, i. 4; by Bishop
Geoffrey, i. 4; by St. Paulinus,
i. 4; Byzantine Guide on the
worship of, ii. 394
Impiety, female figure symbolising,
ii. 148
Innocents, murder of the, ii. 407
Ivirôn, angelic hierarchy at, ii.
101-106; the portico, ii. 232
JAMESON, Mrs., quoted, ii. 107, 177,
184, 188
Janus, representations of, ii. 23
Joan of Arc, i. 461
Judas Iscariot, nimbus of, i. 156,
164; betrayal of Christ, ii. 413,
416
Judgment, Last, representations of
the, i. 253, 254, 256, 257, ii. 70,
126, 228
Justinian II., decree of, prohibiting
the use of the lamb as a symbol
of Christ, i. 332; representative
of Justice, ii. 251; Dante on, ii.
251; on capital in ducal palace,
Venice, ii. 251
KING, C. W. on gems and coins, ii.
155, 171, 172, 174, 181, 196, 201,
202
Kings, the Holy Ghost directing
the actions of, i. 449
LAMB, the, the symbol of Christ,
sometimes encircled with a cru-
ciform nimbus, i. 56; symbolic of
Christ, i. 318; of prophets and
apostles, i. 326; of the faithful,
i. 328; of the actors in various
biblical scenes, i. 330
Laon, cathedral of, i. 18, 155 n., ii.
328 n.
Lazarus, raising of, ii. 410
'Legenda Aurea,' the, referred to,
i. 2, 8, 9. 68, 367, 370, 382, 397,
444, ii. 6, 183, 308, 365, 368 n.
Lentulus, description of the appear-
ance of Christ, i. 246
Liberius, pope, nimbus of, i. 77
Limoges, ii. 336
Lion, the, the symbol of Christ,
sometimes encircled with a cru-
ciform nimbus, i. 56; the symbol
of St. Mark, i. 341; of Christ,
i. 341
Liturgy, Greek, i. 307, ii. 230
Living persons, nimbus of, i. 76
Loki, the Scandinavian god of evil,
ii. 115
London, National Gallery, ii. 93,
108, 256, 258
MARCELLINA, i. 244
Martyrs of the year, how to repre-
sent the, ii. 374
Mary Magdalene, at the feet of
Christ, ii. 411; with Christ in the
garden, ii. 423
Mary, Virgin, nimbus of the, i. 71;
aureole of the, i. 121; coronation
448
INDEX.
of the. i. 444, ii. 426; endowed
with the seven gifts of the Holy
Spirit, i. 491; the Trinity repre-
sented in the womb of the, ii. 59;
how to represent the feasts of the,
ii. 347; the twenty-four stations
of the, ii. 352; physiognomy of
the, ii. 395; epithets for the, ii.
396, 398; the annunciation, ii.
403; the purification, ii. 405;
Mirror of, 208
Maya, nimbus of, i. 40
Medieval art and the antique, ii.
244; continued use of heathen
images in Christian art, ii. 244;
in illuminated manuscripts, ii.
245; in the monasteries of Mount
Athos, &c., ii. 245; in the church
of St. Michael, Ticino, ii. 245;
in the pavement of Siena
cathedral, ii. 246
Melchizedeck, nimbus of, i. 69, ii.
270, 414
Mercury and St. Michael, corres-
pondence between, in Pagan and
Christain religions, ii. 179, 180,
181, 262
Michael, dedication of rocks to, ii.
181; miracles of, 361
Michelangelo, portrait of Christ in
the Last Judgment,' i. 261; use
of the emblem of three intersecting
circles as a seal, ii. 49; inspired
by Dante, ii. 251; his 'Mirror of
Human Salvation' in the Sistine
Chapel, ii. 226
Miniature painting, early practice
of, ii. 206; the origin of some
Italian schools of artists, ii. 207;
Byzantine miniatures on wood,
ii. 209
Miracles, how to represent the, of
Christ, ii. 303; of the principal
saints, ii. 361
'Mirror of Human Salvation,' the,
ii. 196; its scheme, ii. 197;
correspondence with Milton's
'Paradise Regained,' ii. 200;
correspondence of Christian with
heathen types, ii. 201;
copies, ii. 204; mythological
legends in the, ii. 211; legends
MS.
from Pagan mythology used as
types of Christ and the Virgin,
ii. 211; vision of Astyages before
the birth of Cyrus, ii. 211;
offering of the golden table in
the temple of the sun-god, ii.
211; Semiramis, ii. 212; the
choice of Moses, ii. 212; fall of
the Egyptian idols before the
child Christ, ii. 214; voluntary
sacrifice of Codrus, king of
Athens, ii. 214; myth of the
ostrich delivering her young one
from a vase, ii. 215; similar
legends, ii. 216; the vengeance
of queen Tomyris on the dead
body of Cyrus, ii. 217; foot-prints
of Christ on the mount of Olives,
ii. 217; Universal Mirror,' i. 8,
ii. 221
Monk, how to represent the life of
the true, ii. 378
Monuments, figures on early Chris-
tian, denoting trades, i. 352
Moon, nimbus of the, i. 86
Moses, choice of the child, legends
of the, ii. 212
Mystery plays, ii. 233; St. Francis'
celebration of the nativity of
Christ, ii. 233; at Ammergau,
ii. 235; Mary's Lament,' ii.
236; St. Avitus' play on the fall
of Adam, ii. 237; other plays, ii.
237; the Acts of the Apostles
and St. Dionysius the Areo-
pagite,' ii. 239; representation in
a miniature from this play, ii.
239; mediæval stage directions,
ii. 240
Myths and allegories, difference
between, i. 343
NAMATIUS, bishop, tomb of, ii. 191
Nimbus, the, used to denote a holy
person, i. 22; its importance in
Christian art, i. 22; restriction of
the term to that encircling the
head, i. 24; definition of the, i.
25; etymology and meaning of
the word, i. 25; form of the,
28; difference in form in Christian
and Pagan iconography, i. 34;
INDEX.
4.49
application of the, i. 37; ordi-
narily the attribute of divinity, i.
37; exceptions, i. 37; nimbus of
God, i. 38; distinguished by
intersecting bars, i. 38; that of
Christ sometimes by a cross, i. 40;
at first simple and undecorated,
i. 50; the hand of God the
Father sometimes encircled by a
cruciform nimbus, i. 55; gener-
ally round, i. 57; sometimes
triangular or square, i. 58; the
triangular form retained as an
emblem of the Trinity, i. 58;
sometimes bi-triangular, i. 59;
the triangular form confined to
the Deity, chiefly to God the
Father, i. 59; variations of form
in different countries, i. 62; the
square form generally given to
living persons, i. 63; but some-
times worn by God the Father, i.
63; explanation, i. 63; orna-
mentation of the field, i. 65;
nimbus of angels and saints, i. 66,
ii. 96; ornamentation, i. 66;
nimbus of the patriarchs, i. 68;
of Melchizedeck, i. 69; of pro-
phets, i. 69, 154; of kings, i. 69;
of St. John the Baptist, i. 70; of
St. Joseph, i. 71; of the Virgin
Mary, i. 71; of the Apostles, i.
72; decoration and material of
the nimbus, i. 73; custom of
writing the name or monogram
of a saint on the edge, i. 74;
nimbus of persons living, i. 76;
inferiority of the square form, i.
77; the square forin peculiar to
Italy, i. 79; varieties in form, i.
79; hexagonal form, i. 81; nimbus
of allegorical beings, i. 83, 154;
of the virtues, i. 83; of the moon,
i. 86; of the sun, i. 87; of the
attributes of the four evangelists,
i. 87; of Satan black, i. 88, 157,
164; signification of the nimbus, i.
89; in the east, power, i. 89, 153;
in the west, holiness, i. 90, 161;
inference from presence or absence
of, i. 90; history of the nimbus, i.
92; preference of the head over
|
the body, i. 92; the heads of
chiefs and nobles adorned with
crowns of different degrees, i. 94 ;
the heads of saints and martyrs
with nimbi of various forms, i..
96; sometimes employed by
pagans, i. 96; phases in the
history, i. 97; nimbus of Judas
Iscariot black, i. 156, 161; of the
dragon of the Apocalypse, i. 159;
colour of the, i. 163; not always
symbolic, i. 165
ORANTE, origin of the type, ii. 195
Orcagna, portrait of Christ in the
'Last Judgment,' i. 261; his treat-
ment of death, ii. 157; his illus-
trations of the Three Deaths
and Three Lives,' ii. 164
Ormuzd and Ahriman, contest
between, i. 464
PALMIERI, Matteo, ii. 256
Parables, how to represent the, ii.
322
Paris, Notre Dame de, early Chris-
tian art in the, i. 71, 122, 183,
207, ii. 230, 241, 320, 328, 331;
St. Denis, ii. 131, 337; St. Gene-
viève, i. 128, 217, 296, 301, 323,
454; St. Gervais, Perugino, 452
Patriarchs, nimbus of the, i. 68
Pesello, Francesco di, his painting
of the Trinity, ii. 255
Petrarch's Triumph of Death, ii.
157, 259
Philosophers of Greece, how to
represent the, who have spoken
of the incarnation of Christ, ii. 297
Pisa, Campo Santo at, i. 262, 287,
ii. 76, 94, 118, 120, 129, 141, 158,
159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 209
Plato, his doctrine of the Trinity,
ii. 1
Poitiers, missal of, the devil as
ruler of hell in the, ii. 118.
Pope, the, represented by Dante in
the form of a bird, i. 457
Procession of the Holy Ghost, doc-
trine of the, denied by the Greek
church, ii. 72
Psyche, fable of, ii. 174
2 G
450
INDEX.
C
RAPHAEL, his Disputà,' referred | St. Dionysius the Areopagite, defi-
to, i. 64, 74, 104, 230; frescoes of,
in the Vatican, ii. 229; subject
of Byzantine origin, the Mys-
tagogia,' ii. 230; the 'Commu-
nion in Heaven,' ii. 230
Ravenna, i. 340 n., ii. 195
Ravenna, mosaic, i. 396
Renaissance, the, ii. 50, 244
Rhaban Maur, arrangement of the
seven gifts of the Spirit, i. 480
Rheims cathedral, scenes from the
life of Christ and the Apocalypse
in, ii. 225; early Christian art
in, i. 17, 29, 72, 156, 174, 177,
231, 279, 307, 323, 354, 371, 475,
ii. 225, 280, 328, 336, 337, 340,
383; Jouy, near, 281
Richard de St. Victor, definition
of Persons of Trinity, ii. 9
Romant des trois Pèlerinages,'
the, i. 294
Rome, ancient basilica of St. Peter
at, i. 77; church of St. Cæcilia
at, i. 76; San Giovanni in Lat-
erano, i. 64, 65, 82; Sta. Maria
Nova, mosaic, i. 206
Rose-window, i. 109, 143, ii. 249,383
ST. AMBROSE, definition of the
Persons of the Trinity, ii. 7
St. Angilbert, design of monastery
of St. Riquier, ii. 32
St. Ansgar, description of the ap-
pearance of Christ, i. 248; the
supposed author of the Biblia
Pauperum,' ii. 202
6
St. Anthony, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 372
St. Augustine, definition of the
Persons of the Trinity, ii. 7
St. Avitus, mystery play on the
fall of Adam, ii. 237
St. Benedict Biscop, defence of
images, i. 3, 17
St. Catherine of Alexandria, i. 428
St. Catherine, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 371
as
St. Christopher, represented
carrying the Trinity, ii. 59
St. Cyril of Alexandria, descrip-
tion of Christ, i. 268
nition of fire, i. 140; classifica-
tion of the angelic hierarchy and
symbols, ii. 98; quoted, i. 140
St. Dunstan, i. 426, 468, ii. 40
St. Francis, celebration of the
nativity of Christ, ii. 233
St. George, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 369
St. Jerome, inspired by the Holy
Spirit, i. 448; on the period of
the creation of angels, ii. 87
St. John Damascene, defence of
images, i. 3, ii. 397; on repre-
sentations of the Deity, i. 198,
242, 256; description of the ap-
pearance of Christ, i. 247; on
the period of the creation of
angels, ii. 87
St. John the Baptist, nimbus of, i.
70; depicted as carrying the
Lamb of God, i. 321; his place in
the hierarchy of angels, ii. 104,
107; how to represent the mira-
cles of, ii. 362; inscriptions for,
ii. 398; baptizing Christ, ii. 408
St. Joseph, nimbus of, i. 71; the
Holy Ghost as a white dove
escaping from the flowering staff
of, i. 446
St. Juliana, temptation of, by the
devil disguised as an angel, ii. 130
St. Michael, order of, i. 427; his
office at the judgment day, ii.
178; dedication of rocks and
high places to, ii. 181; his part
in the Hebrew religion and
Christian drama, ii. 183; struggle
of, and the dragon, ii. 185
St. Nicholas, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 368
Paphnutius, the temptation
of, ii. 129, 261
St.
St.
|
Paul, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 367
St. Paulinus, defence of images, i.
4; description of a group of the
Trinity, ii. 35, 39
St. Peter, how to represent the
miracles of, ii. 366
St. Remi, i. 135, 150, 459; legend
of, and the fire at Rheims, ii. 116
INDEX.
451
St. Riquier, monastery of, ii. 32
St. Sophia, legend of, and Faith,
Hope, and Charity, ii. 33
St. Theresa, inspired by the Holy
Spirit, i. 449
St. Thomas, legend of, ii. 5; illus-
trations of the doctrine of the
Trinity, ii. 5
St. Thomas Aquinas, ii. 8
St. Veronica, description of angels,
ii. 97
Salamis, church at, i. 114, 210
Salonica, i. 190, 393
Satan, nimbus of, i. 88, 157
Sayce, Mr., quoted, ii. 212, 219
Sedgeford church, ii. 59 n.
Semiramis, a type of the Virgin, ii.
211
Shakespeare, allusions to death and
the fool in, ii. 170
Siena cathedral, pavement of, ii.
216
Sign of the cross: see Cross.
Sistine chapel, the scheme of the
Old and New Law in the, ii. 226;
Michelangelo's ' Mirror of Human
Salvation in the, ii. 226
Soul, iconography of the, ii. 173;
Egyptian emblems of the, ii.
173; the, according to the
ancients, delivered with the last
breath through the mouth, ii.
173; the fable of Psyche, ii. 174;
the, figured as little child, ii.
176; the weighing of souls in
the balance at the Judgment Day
the office at St. Michael, ii. 178;
of Mercury in Pagan art, ii. 179
'Speculum Humanæ Salvationis':
see' Mirror of Human Salvation.'
'Speculum Universale,' i. 9, 10;
excellence of its arrangement, i.
10; outline of, i. 11 the order
of, followed by the sculptors of
Chartres cathedral, ii. 221; the
'Mirror of Nature,' ii. 222; the
'Mirror of Doctrine,' ii. 223; the
"Historical Mirror,' ii. 225; date
of the, ii. 225
•
Spinello, painting of Struggle of
St. Michael and the dragon, ii.
186
|
Spirits, colours of good and evil, i.
465
Square form of nimbus, inferiority
of, i. 77
Strasburg, cathedral of, i. 23, 74,
463, ii. 328 n.
Study of statues and effigies, i. 18
'Summa Theologiæ,' St. Thomas's,
i. 9
Sun, nimbus of the, i. 87
Symbols and figures, difference
between, i. 342, 351
Synods, the seven holy, how to
represent the, ii. 358
TARASQUE, the monster of the, ii.
115, 259
Tau, the, a sign, i. 370
Temptation of Christ, representa-
tion of the, i. 276
Tertullian, description of Christ, i.
268
Thanatos, statue of, ii. 153
Thessaly, i. 46
Theutram, the vision of, i. 463
Three, the number, mystical pro-
perties of, ii. 3; sacredness of,
ii. 26
Time, figures of, with three faces.
ii. 24
Tomyris, queen, legend of the
vengeance of, on the dead body
of Cyrus, ii. 217
Toulouse, i. 370n
Trades, figures denoting, on early
Christian monuments, i. 352
Triads of Britain, ii. 26
Triangle, symbolic properties of the,
i. 59, 61; the, used as an image
of the Trinity, ii. 41
Trinitarians, order of the, ii. 30
Trinity; history of the doctrine of
the, ii. 1; vaguely known to the
Pagans, ii. 1; Plato's doctrine, ii.
1; Seneca's, ii. 2; ideas of the
Greeks, ii. 3; mystical properties
of the number three, ii. 3; legend
of St. Thomas, ii. 5; his illustra-
tions of the doctrine of the
Trinity, ii. 5; definition of the
Divine Persons of the, ii. 6; St.
Augustine's opinions, ii. 7; doc-
452
INDEX.
trine of St. Ambrose, ii. 7; of
St. Thomas Aquinas, ii. 8; of
Richard de St. Victor, ii. 9; of
Abelard, ii. 10; the sign of the
cross and the doctrine of the, ii.
11; mutual relations of the
Divine Persons, ii. 12; mani-
festations of the, ii. 13; unsatis-
factory evidence from the Old
Testament, ii. 13; at the crea-
tion, ii. 13; at the visit of the
three angels to Abraham, ii. 16;
in the Psalms, ii. 16; Ananias,
Misaël and Azarias typical of the
Trinity, ii. 18; doctrine of the,
in the New Testament, ii. 20;
trinity of the human soul, ii. 21;
trinity of evil, ii. 22; Janus, ii.
23; figures of time with three
faces, ii. 24; sacredness of the
number three, ii. 26; the worship
of the, ii. 28; festival of the, ii.
28; order of the Trinitarians,
ii. 28; churches and monasteries
erected in honour of the Trinity,
ii. 30; monastery of St. Riquier,
ii. 32; chronological iconography
of the, ii. 34; four periods, ii. 35;
first period, of preparation, ii.
35; description by St. Paulinus
of a group of the Trinity, ii. 36;
the, dramatised by Chosroes, ii.
37; disposition of the symbols,
ii. 39 second period, ii. 39;
human figures of the three
Persons, ii. 40; the triangle
used as an image of the, ii. 41;
third period, ii. 43; the, repre-
sented by three heads on one
body, ii. 44; three intersecting
circles a type of the, ii. 45;
Dante's adoption of it, ii. 47;
its use as a seal by Michelangelo,
ii. 49; fourth period, ii. 49;
extended use of previous figures,
ii. 50; St. Christopher repre-
sented as carrying the, ii. 59;
the, represented in the womb of WALDSTEIN, Dr., quoted, ii. 218, 234
the Virgin, ii. 59; papal decree
on representations of the, ii. 61;
attributes of the, ii. 63, 255;
differences in the figures, ii. 63;
the three Persons at first isolated,
ii. 65, 255; in contact, ii. 66
fusion into one body with three
heads, ii. 67; fusion of the three
heads into one with three faces,
ii. 67; the Father sometimes
placed on the right of the Son,
ii. 68; the Holy Spirit in the
centre, ii. 71; triangular nimhus
round a grouped Trinity, ii. 73;
head-dress of the, ii. 74; use of
the globe in representations of
the, ii. 77; inscriptions for the,
ii. 80, 395; the three Persons
represented with bare feet, ii.
81; exceptions, ii. 81, 255
Triumph of Christ: see God the Son.
Troyes, cathedral of St. Nizier de,
early Christian art in, i. 154, 163,
225, 325, 326, 502, ii. 70, 137,
328 n., 336 n.
Twining, Miss L., quoted, ii. 156,
168
Typhon, ii. 122, 123
VATICAN, frescoes of Raphael in
the, ii. 229; the Mystagogia,'
ii. 230; the Communion in
Heaven,' ii. 230; early Christian
art in the, i. 41, 53, 67, 86, 98,
172, 349, ii. 139
Vendôme, Montorio church, i. 44
Venice, St. Mark's at, ii.; Ducal
Palace at, 251; St. Mark's, 176,
210
Verrières sur l'Aube, church of,
494
Vincent de Beauvais, i. 9, 10, ii.
221, 225
Virtues, nimbus of the, i. 83
Voragine, Jacques de, i. 8, 9, 68
ii. 5, 37, 38.
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SCARLET LETTER.
HOUSE WITH THE SEVEN GABLES.
TRANSFORMATION; or the Marble Fawn. Two Parts.
HAZLITT (W.).—
TABLE-TALK: Essays on Men and Manners. Three Parts.
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LECTURES ON THE ENGLISH COMIC WRITERS.
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LECTURES ON THE CHARACTERS OF SHAKE-
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LIFE OF MOHAMMED.
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LIFE OF GOLDSMITH.
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TALES OF A TRAVELLER.
TOUR ON THE PRAIRIES.
CONQUESTS OF GRANADA AND SPAIN. Two Parts.
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COMPANIONS OF COLUMBUS: Their Voyages and Dis-
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KNICKERBOCKER'S HISTORY OF NEW YORK, from the
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TALES OF THE ALHAMBRA.
CONQUEST OF FLORIDA UNDER HERNANDO DE
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ABBOTSFORD AND NEWSTEAD ABBEY.
SALMAGUNDI; or, The Whim - Whams and Opinions of
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BRACEBRIDGE HALL; or, The Humourists.
ASTORIA; or, Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond the Rocky
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WOLFERT'S ROOST, and Other Tales.
LAMB (CHARLES).—
ESSAYS OF ELIA. With a Portrait.
LAST ESSAYS OF ELIA.
ELIANA. With Biographical Sketch.
MARRYAT (CAPTAIN).
PIRATE AND THE THREE CUTTERS. With a Memoir of
the Author,

( 23 )
The only authorised Edition; no others published in England contain
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WEBSTER'S
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Thoroughly revised and improved by CHAUNCEY A. GOODRICH, D.D., LL.D.,
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Price is. in paper covers, and 1s. 6d. in cloth.
1. BACON'S ESSAYS. With Introduction and Notes.
2. LESSING'S LAOKOON. Beasley's Translation, revised, with Intro-
duction, Notes, &c., by Edward Bell, M.A.
3. DANTE'S INFERNO. Translated, with Notes, by Rev. H. F. Cary.
4. GOETHE'S FAUST. Part I. Translated, with Introduction, by
Anna Swanwick.
5. GOETHE'S BOYHOOD. Being Part I. of the Autobiography.
Translated by J. Oxenford.
6. SCHILLER'S MARY STUART and THE MAID OF ORLEANS. Trans-
lated by J. Mellish and Anna Swanwick.
7. THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. By the late Dean Alford.
8. LIFE AND LABOURS OF THE LATE THOMAS BRASSEY.
A. Helps, K.C.B.
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9. PLATO'S DIALOGUE'S: The Apology—Crito-Phaedo-Protagoras.
With Introductions.
10. MOLIÈRE'S PLAYS: The Miser-Tartuffe-The Shopkeeper turned
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II. GOETHE'S REINEKE Fox, in English Hexameters. By A. Rogers.
12. OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S PLAYS.
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16. DEMOSTHENES-ON THE CROWN.
Kennedy.
17. THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.
Translated by C. Rann
18. OLIVER CROMWELL. By Dr. Reinhold Pauli.
19. THE PERFECT LIFE. By Dr. Channing. Edited by his nephew,
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23. HORACE'S ODES, by various hands.
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Short Memoir.
25. HAUFF'S CARAVAN.
26. SHERIDAN'S PLAYS.
27. DANTE'S PURGATORIO. Translated by Cary.
To be followed by
HARVEY'S TREATISE ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.
CICERO'S FRIENDSHIP AND OLD AGE.
LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS.
London: Printed by STRANGEWAYS & SONS, Tower Street, Cainbridge Circus, W.C.

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