ºn tº
º," ºr

º
Tºlſº
VARTESS
º
º
Lº
%
#
º
.
3.
º
--->
Fº
[E






A
X-
.
/
sº
y-
V
ſ
2.
5.s
*-
x-cº.ºx
L AT IN G. R. A M M A. R.
FOR
THE USE OF SCHOOLS.
º,”
sº* Jeº º
By"I. N. MADWIG,
PROFESSOR OF LATIN LITERATURE, COPENHAGEN.
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN, WITH THE SANC-
TION AND COóPERATION OF THE AUTHOR,
BY THE
REV. GEORGE WOODS, M.A.,
OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Oxford; RECTOR OF SULLY, GLAMoRGANshire.
The First American from the Fifth English Edition, carefully revised and compared
with the German Editions of 1857 and 1867, with retranslations of
portions of the work,
By THOMAS A. THACHER,
PROFESS OR OF LAT IN IN YA LE COLLEGE,
B O ST ON:
Plj BLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS.
1875.

Entered according to Act or congress, in the year 1810, by .
GINN BROTHERS AND ComPANY.,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Conrt of the District of Massachusetts.
CAMBRIDGE :
PRINTED BY JOHN WILSON AND SON.
PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
ſºmºmºmºmº
THE translation of Madvig's “Latin Grammar,” by the
Rev. George, Woods, has been before the public more than
twenty years, and has passed through five editions in Eng-
land. The work has been steadily advancing in, public
favor; and the reputation of Madvig himself, as a learned
and philosophical classical. Scholar, suffers no change, ex-
cept as it is; more and more confirmed and established by
time. - - -
This edition is issued to meet the increasing demand for
the Grammar, which is springing up in all parts of this
country. It is substantially the translation of the Rev.
Mr. Woods; but in the revision of the translation, great
freedom has been used, especially in making such verbal
changes as seemed to promote perspicuity and help the
learner to an instant understanding of the author’s mean-
ing. A translator who is not perfectly familiar with both.
the languages with which he has to do, is in danger of
occasionally transferring a word from his dictionary to his
page, without first submitting it to the scrutiny of his own
thoughts; and where infelicities of expression arise from
such a cause, they are more likely to catch the eye of a
stranger than of the translator himself.
iy PREFACE.
Of the hundreds of changes which have here been made
in the text of the English edition, some are accounted for by
what has just been said; a few by the fact that the phrase-
ology of Tischer's German edition, published under the
direction of Madvig himself, has been preferred to that of
the original work; and others still have been made because
Madvig has used new forms of expression in the edition
issued by himself, to take the place of Tischer's, in the year
1867. - . . . . -
In one particular this edition has ventured to depart both
from the author and the English translator, in that the
name usually given to the subjunctive mood by English
grammarians is here retained. The German grammarians
usually agree with Madvig in calling this the conjunctive.
This difference of usage appears among the old Latin gram-
marians also, while there is nothing in the original signifi-
cation of the words which seems to decide the choice between
them. Isidorus, to be sure, calls the mood conjunctivus
“quia ei conjungitur aliquid, ut locutio plena sit” (I., 8, 4).
But Probus names the moods “pronunciativus, id est, indica-
tivus, imperativus, optativus, adjunctivus, infinitivus ” (I.,
VII., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7); and Asper Junior, under the name
qualitates, calls them finita, imperativa, optativa, adjunctiva,
infinitiva (VII., 1). * r -
Maximus Victorinus says, “Modi autem sunt decem: in-
dicativus, promissivus, imperativus, optativus, conjunctivus,
infinitivus, impersonalis, gerundi, hortandi, modus. Addunt
quidam percunctativum modum” (Ars Grammatica, 20).
Donatus says, there are seven moods, “ut multi eacistimant:
indicativus, qui et pronunciativus dicitur, imperativus, pro-
missivus; sed hunc nos modum non accipimus; optativus,
PREFACE. V.
conjunctivus, infinitivus, impersonalis” (II., XII.,1). Phocas
names the “indicativus,” “imperativus,” “promissivus,”
and “infinitivus.” -
The above references do not yet give us the name subjunc-
tive, but they show that the classification of the forms of
the verb was not a settled thing among the ancient Latin
grammarians, and that they were far from agreement in
respect to the names to be given to the moods.
Charisius, however, whom critics agree in placing high as
an authority among the ancient Latin grammarians, uses
the name subjunctive. Cyminius, the editor of the editio
princeps of his work, which was published in the year 1532,
speaks of him as “Romande lingua accuratissimus observa-
tor,” and as “grammaticorum omnium facile princeps.”
(See Lindemann’s Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum vete-
vum, Tomus IV., Fasciculus I., Praefationes. Lipsiae, 1840.)
In his Institutiones Grammatica, Charisius treats very
fully of the verb ; and his testimony is of especial value on
such a point as the one under consideration, because he
professes to give his son, for whose benefit he wrote and
compiled his work, the teachings of the earlier grammarians,
as well as his own. He gives the names of the moods,
which he calls modi verborum sive qualitates, as follows:
pronunciativus, sew finitivus, imperativus, optativus, subjunc-
tivus seu conjunctivus, infinitivus. This list, to be sure,
leaves us to our choice between the two names in question;
but our author himself uses only the name subjunctive in
the pages of his work which contain the conjugations of
the verbs, as well as in countless other places. (See Linde-
mann ut supra, pp. 97, 98, 99, 100, 135, 186, and else-
where.)
vi PREFACE.
It is not necessary to give further proof of the disagree-
ment among the authorities, both ancient and modern, on
this comparatively unimportant point; nor, in view of this
disagreement, to apologize further for using in this edition
of Madvig's “Grammar” that name for the subjunctive
mood which will be most familiar to the reader.
As this book will rarely be used by beginners, it is not
thought important to indicate the differences between the
German and the English methods of pronouncing Latin.
How the Romans themselves pronounced their language
is not known, nor can it ever be known. Scholars may
not agree in opinion respecting the extent of this igno-
rance; but even if it were in itself very limited, pertain-
ing, for instance, only to the sound of a single letter, it
might with reason be made an objection to any attempt to
imitate the original pronunciation of the language; for the
number of distinct sounds is so small in such a language
as the Latin or our own, that every one of them runs like
a thread through every page, and constitutes an important
element of it. The difficulties which attend this subject,
and are inherent in it, are such, that there is no nation in
Europe the classical scholars of which agree in claiming
that they can reproduce the pronunciation of the Roman
forum, or in attempting to do so. On the other hand, the
scholars of each nation pronounce Latin, in the main,
according to the analogy of their own language. There is
no method which can properly be called “continental.”
If now scholars who speak English are not to enjoy the
same freedom as those who live on the Continent, whom
shall they imitate 2 They do not themselves know enough
PREFACE. vii
about the pronunciation of the ancient Romans to save their
attempts to imitate that from being a caricature in the ears
of a Roman, if a Roman could be summoned to hear them.
It can hardly be urged that they should imitate the Ger-
mans, for they are confessedly in error in their practice,
—and the same is true of the scholars of other nations.
Or if only the continental pronunciation of the vowels is to
be imitated, must it not still be a matter of doubt how the
frequently recurring diphthongs, as and as, are to be pro-
nounced 2
The English method of pronouncing Latin is unquestion-
ably at a wider remove from the ancient and genuine than
the German or the French or the Italian method is. But
the explanation of that fact is to be found in this, that the
pronunciation of the English language itself has taken a
freer and wider range than that of any continental nation.
But to give up a method of pronouncing Latin which is gen-
erally received by two great nations, and is inwrought also
into a large constituent part of their own language, – a
method easily learned and easily retained, - and to adopt
in its stead a method which is full either of obvious or of
probable errors, and which comes into constant conflict
with English words of Latin parts, is, to say the least, of
doubtful expediency. - e
The opinion of Madvig on the question of pronouncing
Latin according to quantity, as the ancients did, is given in
the note on page 467 of the “Grammar;” and the second
observation on page 468 has a bearing on the same subject.
CHAP.
II.
III.
IV.
VII.
VIII. t
. Of some peculiarities in the use of the Numbers of Sub-
stantives, and of some Irregularities in their Inflection ..
. The Inflection of Adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Pronouns, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Inflection of Verbs in general . . . . . . . . . .
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ETY MOL O G Y. *
I. Pronunciation.
. The Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e G
. The Measure of the Syllables and Accentuation (Prosody)
II. The Inflection of Words.
. The Classes of Words. Inflection, Stem, and Ending . .
Of Gender and Inflection by Cases in general . . . . .
First Declension • * : * ~ :- - - - - - - - - - -
Second Declension . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tº Third Declension ſº •. • •. e gº - º - © • • • e
. Peculiarities of the several Cases and of the Greek forms
in the third Declension . . . . . . . . . . .
Fourth Declension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fifth Declension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Verb sum, and examples of the four Conjugations .
, Verbs with a Passive Form and Active Signification.
(Deponent Verbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some peculiarities in the Conjugation of Verbs . . . . .
..Irregular Perfects and Supines. in general, and especially
those of the first Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IPAGE
18
20
25
28
32
46
51
53
54
63
80
89
96
105
108
11:1
X - CONTENTS,
CHAP. PAGE
XVIII. Irregular Perfects and Supines of the second Conjugation 114
XIX. Perfects and Supines of the third Conjugation . . . . 117
XX. Irregular Perfects and Supines of the fourth Conjugation. 129
XXI. Irregular Supines (Participles) of Deponent Verbs, and
some other Irregularities of these Verbs . . . . . 130
XXII. Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
XXIII. Defective Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
XXIV. Impersonal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
XXV. The Adverbs and Prepositions . . . . . . . . . 145
III. Rules for the Formation of Words.
I. Formation of Words in generai. Derivation of Substan-
tives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
II. Derivation of Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . 160
III. Derive”on of Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
TV. Derivation of Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . , 166
W. The Formation of new Words by Composition . . . . 173
. S YN TA X.
Rules for the Construction of Words . . . . . . . . . . . .179
• * * PART FIRST.
Of the Combinations of Words in a Proposition.
I. The Parts of a Proposition. The Agreement of the Sub-
ject and Predicate, the Substantive and Adjective . . . 180
II. The Relations of Substantives in a Proposition, and the
Cases; the Nominative and Accusative. . . . . . . . 191
III. The Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
TV. The Ablative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
V. The Genitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
VI. The Vocative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
VII. The.Use of Adjectives (Adverbs), and particularly of their
Degrees of Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264.
VIII, Peculiarities in the Construction of the Demonstrative and
\ Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
CONTENTS.
PART SECOND.
On the Mode of distinguishing the Character of the Assertion, and the
Time of the Fact asserted.
CHAP,
I. The Kinds of Propositions, and the Moods in general . .
II. The Indicative and its Tenses . . . . . . . . . .
III. The Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. (APPENDIX.) Object-clauses in the Subjunctive, and the
Particles used with them . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. The Tenses of the Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . .
V. The Imperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. The Infinitive and its Tenses . . . . . . . . . .
VII. The Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive . . . . . . . .
VIII. The Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IX. Combination of Coördinate and Subordinate Propositions,
and the use of Conjunctions for this purpose. Inter-
rogative and Negative Particles . . . . . . . . .
PART THIRD.
Order and Position of Words and Propositions.
I. Order of Words in a Proposition . . . . . . . . .
II. Arrangement of Propositions . . . . . . . . . .
FIRST APPENDIx To THE SYNTAx.
Some Special Irregularities in the Construction of Words .
SECOND APPENDIx To THE SYNTAx.
Signification and Use of the Pronouns . . . . . . . .
The most important Rules of Latin Metre (Versification) .
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. The Roman way of expressing the Date . . . . . . .
II. Computation of Roman Money and Fractions . . . . .
III. Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAGE
285
288
300
325
336
343
345
368
378
388
425
435
448
466
479
480
483
485
LATIN GRAMMAR.
§ 1. LATIN GRAMMAR teaches the Form of Latin Words,
and their Combination in sentences. It is divided into
ETYMOLOGY and SYNTAx. Latin METRE, or the rules for the
structure of Latin Verse, will be treated as supplementary
to the Grammar. - -
§ 2. The Latin language was formerly spoken by the Romans,
first in a part of Central Italy, and subsequently in the whole of
Italy, and in other countries which the Romans had subjugated;
at present it is known only from books and other written monu-
ments of this nation.
The oldest Latin writings which have come down to us were
composed about 200 years before the birth of Christ. In the sixth
century of the Christian era the language became entirely extinct,
having been thoroughly corrupted and mixed with their own
tongues by foreign nations which had migrated into the Roman terri-
tories. By these means, various new languages (the Romance
languages, as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese) were gradually
formed. The numerous authors, who have written in Latin in
later times, learned it as a dead language.
During the long period above specified, the language underwent
many changes, not only in the number of words, and in their signi-
fications, forms, and combinations, but partially also in the pro-
nunciation. In this Grammar it is for the most part represented
as it was spoken and written during the most brilliant period of
Roman literature; and, where this is not the case, the usage of the
most approved writers of that age is designated as the best. This
period, extending from about the time of Caesar and Cicero till
2 LATIN GRAMMAR. $2
shortly after the birth of Christ, is commonly termed the golden
age of the language. The next, to about 120 years after the birth
of Christ, is called the silver age.
OBS. The Latin language is originally most nearly related to the
Greek, and from this it also borrowed many terms at a later period,
when the Romans became acquainted with the arts, the sciences, and the
institutions of the Greeks. Both languages, moreover, belong to the
same stem, from which the German and Northern tongues, with many
others, have sprung; as the ancient Sanscrit, now totally extinct, in
India, and the Zend in Persia. All these languages are designated by
the common name of Indo-Germanic, or Japhetic.
E TYM O L O G. Y.
§ 3. Etymology treats 1,–Of the Sounds, of which words
consist, and their pronunciation; 2. Of the Inflection of
words; and 3. Of their Derivation and Composition.
- I. — OF PRONUNCIATION.
\ CHAPTER. I.
\
\
§ 4. The Yatin language is written with twenty-three Letters,
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, (j), k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, (v), x,
y, z (zeta). The consonants which have an affinity with the
vowels i and u, -viz., j (i consonans) and v (u consonans), —
were written by the Romans like those vowels (v for u as well as
for v). These vowels and consonants are now usually distinguished
in writing. The lettersy and z do not belong to the original Roman
characters, and are employed only, in Greek words, which were
adopted by the Latins at a later periºd.
T H E L E T T. E. R. S.
OBS. 1. The Romans made no distinction \between large and small
letters. According to the present usage, large initial letters are usually
employed only at the commencement of a sentence, àNd in proper names,
with the adjectives and adverbs derived from them.
OBS. 2. The Latin characters, as well as the Greek, were borrowed
from the Hebrew and Phoenician. -sº
-º- ºr--º-º-º-º-º:
§ 5 a. The Vowels (litterae vocales) were pronounced some-
times short (with a sharp utterance, broken off by a movement of
the organs of speech), sometimes long (the voice dwelling on the
lengthened sound); but this difference of pronunciation is not dis-
criminated in writing. *
OBS. 1. In elementary books (as, for example, in this Grammar) the
long vowels are sometimes distinguished by T, and the short by ~,
placed over them. The sign = denotes that the vowel over which it is
placed was pronounced sometimes long and sometimes short. In the
earliest period a long vowel was sometimes distinguished by reduplica-

4 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 5
tion. The long i was also expressed by ei (heic for hic, as it was
always pronounced; eidus, arteis). - -
OBS. 2. I is a consonant (j) at the beginning of Latin words before
every other vowel, except in the participle iens. So also in the middle
of words between two vowels (major, Pompejus, but Gai), except in
tenuia, tenuior, assiduior (in the Greek names Achaja, Grajus,
Maja, Ajax, Troja, but Troius). Before a vowel at the beginning of
Greek words, it is a vowel (i-ambus)." -
OBS. 3. U is a consonant (v) at the beginning of words before a
vowel (vado) and in the middle of words between two vowels (avidus),
also after ng, 1, and r, when u does not belong to the inflectional -
ending (angvis, solvo, arvum, but colui), and in some words after
the initial s (svadeo, svavis, svesco, Svetonius). In &ompound
words it follows the same rule as in the simple; e.g. e-ruo. After v it
was the old usage to pronounce and write o in the place of u : e.g.
servos for servus, divom for divum: and in some works o for e, e.g.
voster, vortex, for vester, vertex." y - ."
OBS. 4. For the sake of the verse, the poets sometimes make i and u
consonants after a consonant; e.g. abjes, consiljim, genva, tenvia,
for abies, consilium, genua, tenuia. Conversély, they resolve v into
u, as su-emus instead of svemus, and frequgſntly after 1 (silu-a, dis-
solu-O, dissolu-endus. This is called diaérésis (resolution).” -
OBS. 5. In some cases the pronunſºlation wavered between two cog-
nate vowels, or varied at different periods, which also led to a variation
in the orthography: e.g. ip26íasses and classis (accus. plur.), heri
and here, yesterday; faciſéndus and faciundus. In some few words
and forms, where i was . spoken and written at a later period, the
sound of ii was form;efly predominant (even down to the time of Cicero
and Caesar); e.g. labet for libet, optumus for optimus.
...”. compound vowel sounds (Diphthongs), those commonly
-— ºnejºwith are ae, oe, and au; eu occurs only in a few words (heus,
heu, eheu, ceu, Seu, neu, neuter, neutiqvam); ei only in the
interjection hei; ui in huic and cui, and in the interjection hui.
OBs. 1. Ae originated in ai, as it was also written in the earliest
times, oe in oi. In pronunciation, oe had some resemblance to u
(poena, punire). These Diphthongs correspond to the Greek at and ot
(Hecataeus, Philetaerus, Oeta). -
1 The variation of the sound of these consonants as we utter them does not affect the rule.
Thus j is a consonant in Troja, Achaja, abjes, consiljum, &c., although scholars who
speak English usually give it the ordinary English sound in Troja, and the ordinary German
sound (like y) in the other words. (T.) * - J’
* The word diaeresis is Greek, as well as the names synaloephe, synaeresis, i-
tºesis, ecthlipsis, and syncope, which occur in the ensuing paragraphs.
$

§ 6 OF PRONUNCIATION. 5
OBs. 2. In words adopted by the Latins from the Greek, at is ex-
pressed before consonants by i, before vowels by i or ē (Heraclitus,
Euclides, Aristogiton, Eclipsis; Daréus and Darius, Alexandréa
and Alexandria, Aristotelius and Aristoteléus).
OBs. 3. In some words the pronunciation and orthography waver
between ae and e (saeculum, saepire, taeter, are better than secu-
lum, &c., heres better than haeres); in others between oe and e
(fecundus, femina, fenus, fetus); in others again between ae and oe
(caelum, caeruleus, maereo); in obscoenus, between all three forms.
Au and 5 were also interchanged in some words (plaudo, plodo,
Claudius, Clödius). A preference should be given to such forms as
are most sanctioned by ancient inscriptions.
c. The following remarks apply to the permutation of the vowels
as resulting from the inflection, derivation, and composition of
words.
If the radical vowel be lengthened in the inflection, 3 is gener-
ally changed into 6 (ägo-Égi). If the radical vowel be weakened
by a prefix, ae is often changed into I (laedo, illido), ā into I, if
the syllable be open (i.e. ending in a vowel), and into è, if it be
close (i.e. ending in a consonant); e.g. facio, perfi-cio, perfec-tus:
ö in an open syllable is often changed into I (teneo, contineo, but
conten-tus; nomen, nomi-nis; semen, but seminarium; before r
it remains unchanged, e.g. affero, congero, from fero, gero); con-
versely, I is changed into è in a close syllable, e.g. judex from the
theme judic: Ö in an open syllable often becomes à in a close
one; e.g. in adolesco, adultus; colo, cultus; ebur, eboris; cor-
pus, corporis: ii often takes the place of other vowels before 1
(pello, pepuli; scalpo, exsculpo, familia, famulus).
§ 6. When two consecutive vowels are to be separated and pro-
nounced distinctly, a kind of hesitation (hiatus, gap) is produced
in the utterance, especially if one vowel concludes a word and the
other commences one; e.g. contra audentior. Hence in reading
verse, the former vowel is regularly omitted without regard to the
Quantity, which is termed elisio (striking out), or synaloephe
(blending); e.g. saper' aude for Saperé aude, qvoqv’et for quoqvé
et, Dardanid’ e muris for Dardanidae e muris, ultr' Asiam for
ultrö Asiam, The same takes place if the second word begins
with h, or the first ends in m; e.g. toller' humo for tollere humo,
mult' ille for multum ille. See § 8 and 9. (For the exceptions
6 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 8
compare $502 b.) Without doubt something like this occurred
in ordinary pronunciation. -
OBS. 1. It often happens also, that in the formation and inflection of
words, what were originally two vowels are contracted into a long
vowel or diphthong, especially when a or o is followed by another
vowel, or the same vowel is repeated; e.g. cogo from céâgo, tibicen
from tibiſcen, mensae from mensai. Sometimes only one vowel
was pronounced, though two were written (deest, deerunt). In some
cases, contrary to the prose usage, the poets allow themselves to com-
bine two vowels into one sound (by synaeresis or symizesis, sinking
• - 2-N 2-N 2-> /*S
together), as dein, deinde, proinde, quoad, particularly e withi, a, and o,
in words the nominative of which ends in eus, ea, or eum; e.g. alvei,
,-> /*N ,-N ,-\\
cerea, aureo, as well as anteis, anteit, from the verb anteed. The
old Comic writers (Plautus and Terence) go much further in this
(quia, &c.). - - - -
OBs. 2. In the interrogative enclitic né, the vowel was sometimes left
out in ordinary pronunciation, even before a consonant (e.g. nostin',
qvaeso); in this case, the final s is also omitted in the second person
sing. pres. of some verbs, and in satis (viden' for videsne, audin' for
audisme, satin' for satisne). -
§ 7. Of the Consonants, some are mutes; b, c (k, q), d, f, g, p, t,
which have an abrupt sound: some, liquids; l, m, n, r, which (par-
ticularly 1 and r) may be easily attached to a preceding consonant.
To these may also be added the sibilant s. x is a double letter for
cs, z (Greek) for sd."
Of the mute consonants, c (k, q) and g are palatals, p and b
labials, t and d dentals. Some have a harder and more abrupt
pronunciation (c, p, t, tenues), some a softer and with somewhat
of an aspiration (b, g, d, which are called mediae, as compared
with ch, ph, th, which have the strongest aspiration). f approaches
nearly to the labials, but has at the same time somewhat of a dental
Sound. -
$ 8. With reference to the pronunciation of the particular con-
sonants, it may be observed, that c was always pronounced by the
ancients like k, or with only a slight modification of that sound (in
doces as in doctus, in accipis as in capis). At a very late period,
when the language was on the verge of extinction, that pronun-
ciation came into vogue which is now usual in Germany; viz., of
1. Cf. Corssen, “ uber AusSprache, Vocalismus und Betonung d. Latein. Sprache,” I. 122,
128. (T,) - -
§ 3. of PRONUNCIATION. 7
giving C before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu, the sound of ts (compare ti). A
peculiar variety of the sound c was qu (qu), which is reckoned as
one consonant, as inqvilinus from incolo. The subordinate sound
was occasionally dropped in some words (qvotidie and cotidie, as it
was often pronounced and written coqvus and cocus). Before a
consonant, qv is either changed simply into c, as in relictus, coxi i
(coc-si), from relinqvo, coqvo, or in some cases into cu, as in
secutus from seqvor. If in the inflection of a word u would have
to stand after qV, the Latins pronounced and wrote either cu, or
qvo (according to $ 5, a, Obs. 3), as secuntur or seqvontur; at a
later period, however, they wrote quum, and, according to the pres-
ent usage, seqwuntur, relinqvuntur. (Concutio, from qvatio.)
K was only used in a few words as an initial letter before a,
especially in abbreviations: K =Kaeso (a praenomen), K. or Kal. =
ECalendae. - -
Ti is now pronounced before vowels like tsi," except after s and t
(justior, mixtio, Attius), in the lengthened passive infinitive (pa-
tier), and in Greek words (Isocratius =Isocratéus, Boeotia); but
this pronunciation dates from a very recent period. Thus, in the
later pronunciation, ti before a vowel, and ci, came to have the
same sound, and were occasionally interchanged in writing; e.g. in
the derivative ending cius (patricius, suppositicius).
M as a final consonant, when followed by a vowel, had an obscure
and scarcely audible sound, on which account it is dropped in read-
ing verse (by ecthlipsis, squeezing out), together with the vowel
which precedes it, precisely as if that terminated the word (ventur'
excidio for venturum excidio, necd' etiam for necdum etiam).
See § 6.
M and n are related in such a way (as nasal sounds) that m is
heard before m, b, and p, but n before the remaining consonants
(comburo; but concipio, condo; tum, but tunc). Before the
enclitic particles ne and que, m is retained (deorumne, hominum-
qve). Before c (q) and g, n had the same sound as in the English
word long. -
R now stands in many Latin words where there was formerly an
s, since the Romans, with the exception of a few words (such as
qvaeso, Vasis, &c., from vas, asinus, miser), have changed s be-
- 1 By German scholars; but not by those of the English race, nor even by the Italian de:
scendants of the Romans; (T.) - ... ' ' ' " - - - - - - - 4
.**
8 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 10
tween two vowels into r (Papirius, Weturius, for Papisius, Wetu-
sius; arborem for arbosem; gero for geso, whence gessi; oris for
osis, from os). S, however, always remains unchanged, when an-
other consonant has been dropped before it (divisi for dividsi, from
divido), or when it begins the last part of a compound word (de-
silio).
§ 9. His not a consonant, but the sign of a guttural aspiration
of the vowel, so that two vowels with an h between them are con-
sidered as immediately following each other, and the elision of a
final vowel is not prevented by h (§ 6). Hence some words with
h between two vowels are occasionally contracted (nihil and nil,
prehendo and prendo, vehemens and venens). At the beginning
of some words, h was sometimes prefixed, and at other times omit-
ted (arundo, harundo ; ave, have; hedera, edera; herus, erus).
In the earliest times the consonants were scarcely ever aspirated
(pronounced with h): afterwards this was done in Greek words
(thesaurus, elephantus, delphinus), and in those of barbarous origin
(rheda), but only in very few genuine Latin words; as brachium,
pulcher, triumphus (sepulchrum is incorrect), and in some proper
names, as Cethegus, Gracchus.
§ 10. A regard for Euphony and convenience of pronunciation
has often much influence on the consonants in words, and leads to
alterations in them.
At the end of words (as a final consonant), no consonant is
doubled (we have therefore mel, fel, although the gen, is mellis,
fellis): no consonant is doubled before another in the middle of a
word, except a mute before a liquid (effluo; but falsum from fallo,
cursum from curro). Yet among the words compounded with the
prepositions trans and ex (ecs), we sometimes find transscribo, and
frequently exspecto, exstinguo (ecsspecto), for expecto, extinguo.
A consonant has sometimes been dropped from the end of a word
which has no inflectional ending (sermo, sermonis; cor, cordis;
lac, lactis). -
Changes take place more especially when consonants of a differ-
ent character are brought together, either by the composition of
words, or by the addition of an inflectional ending or of a suffix used
in the formation of derivative words.
Before a liquid, a tenuis (c, p, t) is often changed into the cor-
responding media (b, g, d) (negligens from nec); and a media
before a tenuis or s into the corresponding tenuis, in the pronuncia-
§ 12 OF PRONUNCIATION. 9
tion, though not always in writing. G before t and s always be-
comes c, as actus from ago, unxi (unc-si) from ungo; and b before
t and s generally becomes p, scriptus, scripsi; yet we find both
obtineo and optineo, absens, obsideo, urbs.
Sometimes (by assimilation) a consonant was completely changed
into that which succeeded it, —d, t, and b into s in cessi, fossum,
passus, fassus, jussi, from cedo, fodio, pation, fateor, jubeo, d
into c in quicqvam, qvicqvid, n and r into 1 in corolla, agellus,
from corona, ager, — especially the final consonant of the preposi-
tions (attingo from ad and tango), in which case, however, the
change was often not distinguished in writing (compare $ 173 and
204, Obs. 1). Sometimes one consonant disappeared entirely before
another, particularly d and t before s : e.g. divisi for divid-si, from
divido; mons for monts, nox for nocts (genitive noct-is), flexi
for flectsi, -
§ 11. In order to facilitate the pronunciation, a vowel is some-
times inserted between two consonants (e in ager, gen. agri; u in
Vinculum, which was also pronounced vinclum). On the other
hand, a vowel was sometimes left out in familiar discourse, and here
and there in writing (by syncope, abbreviation); e.g. dextra for dex-
tera, consumpse (instead of consumpssse, § 10) for consumpsisse.
Abbreviations of this kind are frequent in the Comic writers.
OBS. The oldest pronunciation of all nations shows itself inclined to
certain combinations of sound, and averse to others; and particular sounds
are somewhat modified by different nations of kindred origin. Pronuncia-
tion is also subject to very frequent changes, so long as the language
remains unwritten. These are the causes of certain differences of pro-
nunciation between the Greek and Latin languages; e.g. in the sounds
v and f, in final m and n, in the aspirate (which is the first sound of seve-
ral words in Greek which in Latin begin with s. e.g. itég, super; itó,
sub; tºm, silva; is, sus). Hence also arise other differences in several
particular words which were originally identical: e.g. an initial consonant
has been dropped in Latin in uro (tig, comburo) and fallo (6%).0),
and in Greek in zotºo (strido). Such variations in the pronunciation and
form of words show themselves also in the inflection, which has some-
times preserved traces of an older form of the word; e.g. fluxi, struxi,
from fluo, struo.
§ 12. The orthography of the Romans was somewhat un-
settled, even at one and the same given period, since some writers
invariably followed the pronunciation, although even this, in some
10 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 13
words and forms, was not quite definite and distinct (as in the acc.
urbës or urbis); while others, on the contrary, in compound or
derivative words, looked more to their origin (e.g. tamgwam, num-
qvam, although they were pronounced as tanqvam or nunqvam),
or adhered to an orthography which had been once adopted, though
it no longer agreed with the pronunciation then in vogue. Far
greater was the diversity in the orthography of different periods,
inasmuch as the pronunciation also underwent many changes.
On the whole, it is now best and safest to follow the orthography
of the later Roman grammarians, which corresponds to the pronun-
ciation of their times, or to a gradually established usage. In
doubtful cases, we shall often find what is right by considering the
origin of the words, and what may from thence be probably in-
ferred as to their pronunciation (e.g. condicio from condicere).
But in editions of the works of the older writers, e.g. Cicero and
Virgil, the antiquated orthography is retained in many words; e.g.
divom, volt (§ 5, a, Obs. 3).
§ 13. In the manuscripts of the ancients, the words at the end of
the lines were not divided accurately according to the syllables (syl-
labae). A consonant between two vowels belongs to the last vowel,
with which it is also combined in the pronunciation; of two or more
consonants, the last — or, if they can begin a Latin word, the last two
— go with the following vowel, the other or others with the preceding
(pa-tris, fa-scia, effluo, perfec-tus, emp-tus). The double letter
x, which belongs partly to the preceding, partly to the following
vowel, is best connected with the preceding. In words compounded
with prepositions, the final consonant of the preposition is not sepa-
rated from it (ab-eo, ad-eo, praeter-eo, so prod-eo, red-eo).
OBs. 1. Latin words cannot begin with any other combinations of con-
sonants than with a mute followed by 1 or r or s, with a tenuis (sc, sp, st),
or s with a tenuis and r or 1 (splendor, scribo, spretus, stratus). Yet
we find gnarus and (rarely) gnavus, gnatus.
OBs. 2. In many books, however, according to a very prevalent tradi-
tional usage, the words are so divided, that all those consonants likewise,
which can begin a word in Greek, and all mutes with liquids (even if they
cannot begin a Greek word, e.g. gm), and, finally, similar combinations
of two mutes (e.g. g3 and ct), are attached to the syllable following
(i-gnis, o-mnis, ra-ptus, Ca-dmus, i-pse, scri-psi, Le-sbos, a-gmen,
Da-phne, rhy-thmus, smara-gdus).
§ 16 of SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. {1
CHAPTER II.
THE MEASURE OF THE SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION (PROSoDY)."
§ 14. The pronunciation of the syllables varies according to the
duration of the sound (the quantity of the syllables) and the ac-
centuation. In the pronunciation of the Romans themselves, the
distinction of quantity, which also controls the place of the accent
in Latin, was the most marked and perceptible; and euphony de-
pends on this, both in prose and verse. But in the modern pronun-
ciation of Latin (as in our own and in modern languages generally),
the difference of accent only is commonly heard with distinctness,
— and indeed with more stress than was the case with the ancients;
while the difference of quantity is only observable in particular
cases, and not in all the successive syllables which the speaker
titters. - -
§ 15. Some syllables are long, some short; to the first is given
twice the duration (mora) of the last; a very few only are doubt-
ful (ancipites), so that they may be pronounced either way. A
syllable is long either by nature, when its vowel has of itself the
long, continued pronunciation; e.g. sol, trädo (§ 5, a), or by the posi-
tion of its vowel, when the vowel-sound, which is in itself short,
must be sustained for a longer time, on account of two or more con-
sonants following it, as in the first syllable in ossis.
OBs. In the old pronunciation, it was distinctly perceived by the ear
whether a vowel before two or more consonants was long in itself, with-
out any reference to position (as in mons, géntis; pâx, gen. pācis; Ést,
for edit), or whether the vowel itself was short, and the syllable conse-
quently only long by position (as in fåx, gen, facis; est from sum); but
we are often unacquainted with this distinction, since we generally ascertain
the quantity of syllables only from the usage of the poets, where, if a
vowel is long by position, its nature is of no importance.
§ 16, a. All diphthongs are long.
OBs. The diphthong ae in prae is shortened before a vowel in com-
pound words; e.g. praeacutus: but in all other (Greek) words, it is
always long, even before a vowel; e.g. Aeolides, Aeetes.
1 The Greek word Tpocºöta (properly an accompanying song, a tone accompanying
the pronunciation) signifies at first the accentuation; but at a later period it was used also to
denote the quantity (length or shortness) of the syllables, and the rules relating to it.
12 . LATIN GRAMMAR. 3 $16
b. Every vowel before another vowel in the same word (even if
an h be interposed, § 9) is pronounced short (déus, contråho, ad-
vého).
From this rule are excepted, -
1. e before i after a vowel in the genitive and dative of the fifth de-
clension (dièi, but fidèi). - * *
2. a in the resolved genitive in aí in the first declension (mensãì).
3. i in the genitives in ius (alius, &c., for alterius. See § 37,
Obs. 2). - -
4. a and e before i in the vocative of proper names in jus in the sec-
ond declension (Gää, Pompéi). . . - • ,
5. The first vowel in the interjections éheu and 5he (but also Šhe), in
the adjective dius, sometimes in the proper name Diána (more frequently
Dīāna), and in all the forms from fió, except fierem (fieres, &c.) and
fieri. . . . . . . - - - f
6. Greek words in which the vowel retains the quantity which it has in
Greek; aer, éos, heröus, Meneläus. In such words, therefore, e and i
are long before another vowel, when m or et occur in the Greek (Briséïs,
Medea, Aeneas, Alexandréa or Alexandria, Epicuréus, Spondeus;
chorēa alone is sometimes choréa); on the other hand, they are short
when the Greek has s or i (idéa, philosophia). But we find academia
(&x&önuiz). r - - :
OBs. At the end of a word, a long vowel or ae may sometimes be
shortened in verse before a vowel following, instead of being elided.
Compare $502, b. I * . -
§ 17. Vowels formed by contraction and syncope in the middle of
words are long (cógo from cdago, mālo from mägévölo, tibicen
from tibiſcen, jūnior from jūvênior). -
§ 18. The quantity of the radical syllables of words which are not
monosyllables cannot be determined by rules; but the radical sylla-
bles and their vowels retain the same quantity in all inflections of
the word, and in all its derivatives and compounds, even if the vowel
be changed into another cognate vowel ; e.g. mater, māternus;
pâter, pâternus; scribo, scribere, scriba, conscribere; āmo,
âmor, amicus, imicitia, inſmicitiae; cado, incido; caedo, in-
cido. In the same way, the vowel of a particular form of inflec-
tion retains the same quantity in the further modifications of this
form, and in the words derived from it: e.g. docébam, docébamus,
docébamini; amātus, amāturus; monitum, admonitio.
From this rule are excepted,— -
1. INFLECTIONS. a. Perfects in i, formed without reduplication, which
§ 19 OF SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 13
lengthen the first syllable, unless one vowel stands before another (see
§ 103, b); b. Perfects and supines (with the forms derived from them),
in which the last radical consonant of the verb has been dropped before
si, sum, tum (divido, divisi, divisum; video, visum; mêveo, mātum;
cădo, casum); c. Pösui, pósitum, from påno; d. Some monosyllable
nominatives of words of the third declension, in which the vowel is
long, though the radical syllable in the other cases is short (see $ 21,
2, b).
2. DERIVATIVES. a. himanus (hömo); sécius (sécus); rex, régis,
régula (régo); lex, lègis (1égo); tegula (tégo); suspicio (suspicor);
vox, vöcis (vöco); sédes (sédeo); persäna (sôno): b. ambitus,
ambitio (ambitum from ambire); condicio (condico); dioax, and
the words in dicus (maledicus, &c.) from dico; dux, dūcis (düco);
fides, perfidus (fido, fidus, infidus); néta, nétare (notus); pāciscor
(pax, pācis); sópor (göpire); läbo (läbor, läbi); licerna (Iüceo);
mölestus (möles). From stare come both ståturus and stātio, stā-
Toilis.
3. COMPOUNDS. dejéro, pejêro (jūro); cognitus, agnitus (notus);
pronibus, innibus (nūbo). For conniibium, we have also connii-
pium (or connlibjum, according to $ 5, a, Obs. 4).
OBS. If a word with a particular grammatical termination becomes the
first part of a compound, or has an additional syllable appended to it,
the quantity of the termination remains unchanged: e.g. quapropter,
qvātenus (qvā); mécum, mémet (mē); qvilibet (q.vi.); aličqvi
(alić); intröäuco (intrö); agricultura (agri). (Yet we find siqvidem
from si, qvamdöqvidem from qvamdo.)
§ 19. The quantity of those syllables by which derivative words
are formed, and of the penults of inflectional endings, is noticed in
its proper place among the rules for the formation and inflection of
words. We now give the rules by which the quantity of the final
syllable may be determined, both in monosyllables and words of more
than one syllable.
In the termination of words of more than one syllable, which end
in a vowel, - -
1. a, is short in nouns (mensã, nom. and voc., ligná, animalià,
Palladiá), except in the abl. sing. of the first declension (mensã),
and in the voc. of nouns in as (Aenea; Palla, from Pallas, Pal-
lantis); but long in verbs in the imperative (amā); and in inde-
clinable words (intrā, exträ, ergã, anteå, quadragintā), except
ità, quiã, ejã, and putá, signifying for eacample.
2. e is short (patrè, curré, nempé, propé, facilé, legeré, hoscè,
reapsé, suopté) except in the ablative of the fifth declension (spe-
14 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 20
cié), in the imperative of the second conjugation (moné), in the
adverbs in e formed from adjectives in us (docte), together with
feré, fermé, ohé, hodié, and in Greek words in m (crambé, Tempê).
But the adverbs bené, malé, inferné, and superné, have the e
short. -
Ops. The poets use also some dissyllable imperatives of the second
conjugation, the first syllable of which is short, with a short final syllable;
e.g. cavé, häbé, välé, vidé, tácé. The ablative of fames (third de-
clension) has the e long, famé. -
3. i is long (pueri, gen. and nom., patri, fructui, widi, viderſ);
short only in the voc. of Greek words in ig (Parſ), and in misſ,
qvasſ (and cuſ, when considered as a dissyllable); either long or
short in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. From ubi are formed necubi,
sicubſ, ubivis, ubinam, ubiqve, ubicunqve.)
4. 0 is most frequently long in the nominative case of nouns, and
in the first person of verbs, but occasionally short (in the later poets
especially); in Greek words in 60, it is always long (Ið, Echö);
long in case-endings of the second declension ; in ambó, and in
adverbs (e.g. porró, quo, falso, qvamdo, idcircó, vulgö, omninó,
ergö), with the exception of modó (with its compounds, tantum-
modo, dummodo, qvomodo), citó, immö; it is short in duć, octd,
egó, cedd (tell me), endó (for in).
OBS. The poets of the silver age also use the adverbs ergo (there-
fore), qvando, porro, postremo, sero, and the ablative of the gerund
(vigilando) with a short o (always qvamdöqvidem).
5. u is always long (cornli, diii); y, occurring in a very few Greek
words, is short (moly).
$ 20. All final syllables of words of more than one syllable, which
end in any (single) consonant except s, are short (donéc, illiid,
consil, amém, carmén, forsitän, amér, amaretúr, agèr, patér,
capit, amät), except aléc, lién, compounds of pār (dispär), cases
(except the nom. masc.) and adverbs from illic and istic (illóc,
illâc), and except Greek words with a Greek form, which retain
their original quantity (aer, accus. ašra, aether; cratér, accus.
cratēras; Sirén, Aenéân, Calliépên, Epigrammatón). But the
ending og is shortened into Ör (Hector, rhetúr, from "Extog,
ôfrog). -
Of the final syllables in s, –
1. as is long (mensås, aetäs, amās), except in anás (anātis),
$21 OF SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 15
in Greek nominatives in as, gen, ädis (Iliás), and in the Greek
accus. plur. of the third declension (heroās).
2. es is long (cladés, aedes, nom. sing. regés, series, amés,
dicës, qvotiës), except, — a. The nominatives sing of the third
declension, which have in the gen. Čtis, Itis, Idis (segés, milés,
obsés); the following, however, with étis in the gen., have es long:
abiés, ariés, pariés, b. Compounds of és (from sum), adés, abés,
potēs. c. The preposition penés. d. Greek nominatives plur. of
the third declension in ag (cratérés, Arcádés). e. Greek neuters
in eg (Cynosargés, Hippomanés).
3. is is short (ignſs, regis, facilis, dicſs), excepting, a. in the
dat. and abl. plur. (mensis, puerís, nobis, vobis), and in the accus.
plur. of the third declension (omnis for omnēs); b. in gratis (gra-
tiis), foris; c. in the second pers. sing, pres. of the fourth conjugation
(audis), and in the verbs vis, sis (adsis, possis, &c.), fis, velis,
nolis, malis, and often in the second person of the future perfect
and perfect subjunctive (amaveris); d. in the nominatives Qviris,
Samnis, Salamis, Eleusis, Simois.
4. Os is long (honos, multös, illós), except in compês, impôs,
and in the Greek termination of cases in og (Delós, nom. Erinnyös,
gen.).
5. us is short (annis, templís, vetús, fontibús, legimis, tentis,
funditiis) except, a. in the gen. sing. and nom. and acc. plur. of the
fourth declension (senatüs, but in the nom. sing. senatüs); b. in
the nominatives of the third declension, which have long u in the
genitive (virtlis, virtùtis; pallis, pallidis; telliis, telliris); c. in
the Greek gen. ovg in the third declension (Sapphis), and in some
Greek proper names with ovg in the nom. (Panthiis, Melampſis),
but (Oedipús, Oedipi).
6. ys, in Greek words, is short ; e.g. Cotys.
§ 21. 1. All words of one syllable, which end in a vowel, are
long (ä, ö, né, that not; dā); only those particles which are attached
to the end of other words are short (qvé, vä, and the interroga-
tive né).
2. Of words of one syllable which end in a consonant, it is to be
observed, -
a. Those which are declined or conjugated follow the general
rules for final syllables (dās, flés, scis, dāt, stāt, flét, qvis nom.
Is, Id, his, qvis dat. and abl., qvi, qvös, qvās, hôc, hâc); es from
sum is short, from édo long.
16 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 22
b. The nominatives of substantives and adjectives are long (0s,
gen. oris; mös, as, sål, vér, für, plis), even if the radical vowel
in the other cases is short (lär, Säl, pës, mās, bos, väs, gen, vädis,
pār); but wir, cor, fel, lac, mel, Os, gen. Ossis, are short. The pro-
noun hic is either long or short ; hoc is long.
c. Words that do not vary are short (āb, Öb, për, àt, qvöt, née);
but the following are long : én, non, qvin, sin, cräs, clir, and the
adverbs in c (hic, hic, sic). -
d. The imperatives die, dūc, fic, and fêr, retain the quantity of
their verbs.
§ 22. A syllable with a short vowel is long by position, when it
ends either with two consonants or a double consonant (amabünt,
fäx); or when the syllable itself ends in a consonant, while the next,
cither in the same or another word, begins with a consonant
(dāntis, inferrêtgve, passús sum); or when the next syllable of the
same word begins with two consonants which are not a mute and
r or 1, or with j (resto, mājor): j, when standing between two
vowels, is, as it were, doubled in pronunciation. But it does not
constitute position in the compounds of jugum (bjugus, qvadriju-
gus). -
If the next syllable of the same word begins with a mute and
1 or r, only weak position (positio debilis) results, i.e. the syllable
may be used as either long or short; e.g. pātris, teněbrae, medić-
cris, vépres, pöples, Atlas, assécla, as in this verse of Ovid (Met.
XIII. 607) : Et primo similis volieri, mox vera voltigris;
and the following of Virgil (AEn. II. 663): Natum ante ora pā-
tris, pâtrem qui obtruncat ad aras. (We always have Ób-répo,
sib-rigo, &c., when the mute and the liquid belong severally to
their part of the compound. If the vowel be long by nature, the
same quantity, of course, holds, without any reference to the posi-
tion, as in Salibris, from salús, ambulácrum, delūbrum.)
OBS. 1. In certain words, however, every-day use, as well as the prac-
tice of particular poets, has established a certain custom, so that in some
the vowel is almost always lengthened, as in the inflected cases of niger and
piger (nigri, pigri); in others never, as in arbitror. In prose, that sylla-
ble which is only lengthened by positio debilis is always pronounced
short (ténèbrae). ". -
OBS. 2. In Greek words, weak position is also formed by a mute with
m or n (Cycnus, Técnnessa, Dâphne).
OBS. 3. If a word ends with a short vowel, and the following begins
§ 23 of SYLLABLES AND ACCENTUATION. 17
with two consonants or a double consonant, no lengthening by position
takes place (praemia scribae, ilicã glandis, nemorosá Zacynthos).
OBs. 4. The oldest poets (before Virgil and Horace) often allow s as
a final consonant (on account of a certain weakness in the pronunciation)
to form no position with the following initial consonant; e.g. certissi-
miis nuntilis mortis, or certissimu' nuIntiu' mortis.
Ops. 5. Since the lengthening of syllables by position is quite distinct
from the proper length of the vowels, the older Comic poets have often
thought themselves justified in disregarding it.
OBs. 6. The poets allow themselves, in certain defined cases, to supply
the place of a long syllable in a verse with a short one; but this is
founded on the structure of the verse, not on the nature of the syllable.
(See § 502. a.)
§ 23. In every word, the accent falls on a particular syllable, and
is either acute or circumflex, but is not distinguished in writing.
(In books of instruction, the acute accent is designated by ſ, the
circumflex by i).
Monosyllables have the circumflex accent, if the vowel is long by
nature; otherwise, the acute accent. *
In words of more than one syllable, the last (ultima) is never
accentuated. In dissyllables, therefore, the accent falls on the first.
In words of three or more syllables, it falls on the penult, if this be
long; but if this be short, on the antepenult. The accent on the
penult is a circumflex, if the vowel be long by nature (not the syl-
lable only by position) and the last syllable short; otherwise, an
acute; on the antepenult it is never a circumflex (Römä, Rómã,
hómo, lectus; Românus, Românăs, Metéllus, móribus, carmi-
nibus, hēminés).
OBs. 1. In compounds of facio with other words than prepositions.
(palamfacio, calefacio), the accent always remains on facio (cale-
făcit).
OBs. 2. If a new word is formed by the addition of que, the accent fol-
lows the general rule (itaqve, utérqve); but if qve, ne, ve, are attached
to a word as enclitics, the accent is thrown on the last syllable of the word
(itäqve = et ita, Musäqve in the abl., Musäqve in the nom.).
2
18 LATIN GRAMMAR. 2.4
II. — OF THE INFILECTION OF WORDS.
CHAPTER. I.
THE CLASSEs of words. INFLECTION, STEM, AND ENDING.
$ 24. Words (verba or voces) are divided according to their
different uses in speech into certain Classes (partes orationis,
classes of words = parts of speech).
1. The word by which a thing (a conception) is expressed inde-
pendently, is called a NOUN SUBSTANTIVE, nomen substantivum,
(from substantia, eacistence): e.g. vir, the man ; domus, the house;
actio, the action. It either denotes a thing with reference to its
kind and the general idea, which may comprise a number of indi-
vidual objects (an APPELLATIVE or common noun, nomen appella-
tivum), e.g. corpus, owis, flos; or a single defined object without
reference to its kind or the general idea (a PROPER NAME, nomen
proprium), e.g. Lucius, Sempronius, Roma.
2. The word by which a thing is named and defined according
to some quality or attribute appertaining to it, is called a NOUN
ADJECTIVE, nomen adjectivum; e.g. magnus, great. When joined
to the substantive, it forms a descriptive appellation; e.g. vir mag-
nus (the property itself is expressed by magnitudo).
Substantives and Adjectives are comprised in the class of Nouns.
A noun which denotes a number, is called a NUMERAL, nomen
numerale, and is usually an adjective, inasmuch as it serves to
describe a thing by its number; e.g. tres homines. The number,
however, may be conceived and described as a thing by itself, and
the word is then a substantive; e.g. millia, thousands.
Instead of naming an object, we may designate it by pointing to
some relation in which it stands. An indicative word of this kind
is called a PRONoun: e.g. hic, this here ; ille, that there ; ego, I; tu,
thou. A pronoun may either be employed alone, to denote the idea,
and then it stands as a substantive, e.g. ego, tu, hic ; or it may be
combined with a substantive to define it more precisely, and then it
is an adjective, e.g. hic, Vir, illa, domus,
OBS. 1. Numerals and pronouns are not distinct classes of words in
the same sense as the rest, since their use in the sentence is not different
from that of the other nomina; they belong, therefore, to the class of
nouns. In their inflection, they have some peculiarities.
§ 25 OF INFLECTION OF WORDS. 19
OBs. 2. The Latin language does not distinguish, like the English and
many other languages, by the addition of a word (the article), whether
a substantive is intended to denote a definite person or thing, or an
indefinite one amongst several of the same kind: e.g. vir, the man, and
a man; viri, the men, and simply men, – as the context may determine.
3. A verb is that word which expresses the idea of an action,
or condition of a thing, and thus forms an assertion, or proposition:
e.g. vir sedet, the man sits; puer currit, the boy runs. (The action
or condition in itself is called sessio, cursus.)
From the verb are derived certain forms, which are used as nouns,
either to denote the action or condition more independently, e.g.
legendo, by reading; or to specify and describe some object, to
which the action or condition appertains as a quality: e.g. liber lec-
tus, the book read; vir legens, the man reading. The substantive
forms are called the Supine and Gerund; the adjective form is
termed the Participle.
4. An ADVERB is a word which serves only for a stricter defini-
tion of a description (with an adjective), or of an assertion (with
a verb): e.g. vir valde magnus, a very great man ; eqvus celeriter
currit, the horse goes swiftly.
5. Words which only denote a relation to a thing are called PRE-
POSITIONS (from praepomere, to put before): e.g. in, in ; apud, with,
or at the house of; as, in urbe, in the town.
6. Conjunctions mark the combination of individual words or
whole sentences, and their connection in discourse: e.g. et, and ; as,
vir et femina, the man and the woman ; vir sedet et puer currit.
OBS. Prepositions, conjunctions, and the adverbs derived from pro-
nouns, are also called Particles. The same word may at one and the
same time show the connection of two propositions, and by this con-
nection define the assertion more exactly (e.g. tum venit, qvum ego
absum), so that certain adverbs and conjunctions are intimately con-
nected with each other.
7. The INTERJECTIONS are mere sounds, which are called forth
by certain feelings, but represent no idea; as, ah / They are there-
fore only improperly called words.
§ 25. Nouns and verbs are inflected (flectuntur, declinantur);
i.e. altered in their form, in order to denote the various connections
and relations of words in a proposition, and the various kinds of
propositions. The change generally takes place only in the last
part of the word; the remaining part is more rarely varied either.
20 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 27
in the pronunciation (véni from vénio), or by a prefix (tetigi from
tango). * -
Of the adverbs, only a few have a certain inflection (that of com-
parison): the remaining adverbs, with the prepositions, conjunc-
tions, and interjections, are indeclinable.
OBS. Inflection sprung in part from the custom of subjoining certain
words, which in pronunciation gradually became incorporated with those
words to which they were appended, and could no longer be distin-
guished (as e.g. the personal endings of the verbs originated from pro-
nouns), and in part from the pronunciation alone, which varied according
to the way in which an idea was conceived or combined with other ideas:
in this way originated the lengthening of the radical vowel (véni), or the
reduplication (tetigi) in the perfect.
§ 26. That which remains of a word capable of inflection, after
the variable terminations or affixes are removed, is called the STEM,
to which the signification of the word properly belongs: e.g. ama-
tor in amator-i, amator-es; leg in leg-0, leg-is, leg-unt. In
most Latin words, the stem does not appear alone, but only as
united with some termination. The stem and termination are fre-
quently so incorporated that one or both undergo some modification.
OBs. From the stem, we must distinguish the root; i.e. the original,
simple primary word, which has received no accession of any kind. For
many words not only have terminations of inflection, but are previously
formed from other words by derivation and composition.
CHAPTER TI.
OF GENDER AND INFLECTION BY CASEs (declinatio) IN
GENERAL.”
$ 27. The Latin substantives are considered as being either of
the Masculine gender or the Feminine, or neither of the two: the
last class is comprised under the appellation Neuter gender. The
adjectives and participles have generally different forms, according
to the gender of the substantive to which they belong: e.g. masc.
Vir magnus, a great man ; fem, femina magna, a great woman;
1 Declimatio properly signifies any grammatical inflection, but is now more particularly
Wised in this restricted sense. -- -
l
§ 28 OF GENDER AND INFLECTION. 21
neutr. folium magnum, a great leaf. In some words, the gender
may be determined from the signification, but in by far the greater
number it must be inferred from the termination.
Obs. 1. The names of things, which have not, like living creatures, any
actual sex, are often referred to the masculine or feminine gender,
because in certain relations of things the imagination discovered a resem-
blance with male or female qualities. But this comparison was very for-
tuitous, so that no fixed rule can be founded on it; and one often fails to
perceive the ground for the determination, especially as in many in-
stances words have changed their signification. From the termination, on
the other hand, we can draw an inference as to the gender; because
many derivative and some inflectional endings (especially in the nom. and
accus.) have been applied according to the gender of the words.
OBs. 2. The gender of some words may be explained from the consider-
ation, that they are properly adjectives, in which case regard is had to an
omitted substantive; so, for instance, annalis is masc. because liber is
masc. Greek words generally retain the same gender which they have in
Greek.
§ 28, a. The following are Masculine, without reference to the
ending. All general and particular appellations of men and beings
of the male sex (vir, the man ; scriba, the clerk; consul, the con-
sul; poeta, the poet; Deus, God; genius, the genius); the male
of animals (aries, the ram; verres, the boar; taurus, the bull) ;
and the names of rivers and winds (Tiberis, Albis, Sequâna,
Garumna, Creméra, Etesiae). Of rivers, some few in a are ex-
cepted, particularly Allia (Matróna, Albula) and the imaginary
rivers Lethe and Styx in the lower world, which are feminine;
with some of barbarous origin (i.e. neither Latin nor Greek) in r,
(e.g. Elaver), which are neuter. -.
Obs. 1. Words which are only improperly used of a man, and strictly
denote an impersonal object, are regulated by their termination and proper
meaning: as, mancipium, a slave (strictly, property); acroãma, a flute-
player orjester (strictly, entertainment for the ear). So also words which
are used in an improper sense of men taken collectively; e.g. vigiliae,
senfinels; auxilia, awaziliary troops.
OBs. 2. The names of the months are masculine, as adjectives belong-
ing to the word mensis understood, which is masculine; e.g. Aprilis
(frequently mensis Aprilis).
b. The following are Feminine. All appellations of women and
female beings: uxor, the wife; soror, the sister; socrus, the mother-
in-law; Dea, the goddess; nympha, the nymph. The only excep-
22 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 30
tions are the terms of reproach scortum and prostibulum, which
originally did not signify a person. -
OBS. The names of trees and towns with certain endings are also fem-
inine, although these endings do not otherwise imply this gender. (See
$ 39, b and c, and $ 47.)
§ 29. General names of persons, in which the distinction of sex
is not thought of, are masculine; e.g. hostis, enemy; but some
of them may be used as feminines, if a woman be expressly referred
to, and these are therefore called Common; e.g. civis Gaditanus,
civis Gaditana. Such words are adolescens, a young man or
woman ; affinis, a male or female relative : antistes, a priest or
priestess (though the latter is commonly expressed by antistſta);
artifex, artist; civis, citizen : comes, attendant : conjux, husband
or wife (generally the latter); dux, leader (male or female);
heres, heir or heiress ; hostis, enemy; infans, infant; interpres,
&nterpreter; municeps, citizen (of the same municipal town);
obses, hostage; parens, father or mother; patruelis, cousin ;
sacerdos, priest or priestess ; satelles, body-guard; wates, seer.
OBs. 1. The poets use also as common, — auctor, author; augur,
soothsayer; custos, guardian ; hospes, host or guest (the feminine is
better hospita); judex, judge; juvenis, youth ; miles, soldier; par,
comrade; testis, witness.
OBs. 2. Some other words, though used sometimes of persons of the
female sex, and in apposition to feminine substantives, are never them-
selves found as feminine substantives with an adjective; e.g. index, vin-
dex, incola (vox index stultitiae).
§ 30, a. The names of the different classes and species of ani-
mals have usually a particular gender, either masculine or fem-
inine, which is known by the termination, without reference to
the actual sex of the animal named: e.g. the masculines, cancer,
crab ; corvus, raven ; passer, sparrow ; piscis, fish ; and the
feminines, avis, bird ; anas, duck; aqvila, eagle; feles, cat;
vulpes, foa. These are called epicene (epicoena"). The actual
sex of the particular animal is denoted by the addition of
mas (male), or femina (female): e.g. anas mas, drake (also with
the adjective masculus, anas mascula); vulpes femina, for
bitch.
* 'ETütolva, common to both genders.
§ 32 OF GENDER AND INFLECTION. 23
b. Several names of classes of animals, usually masculine, are also
(as nouns of common gender) used as feminine, if it be intended
specially to designate a female, particularly bos, oa: ; in the fem.
cow; and, occasionally, lepus, mus, elephantus, anser; e.g. mures
praegnantes repertae sunt (Plin. Maj.).
c. The names of some species of animals are used (without refer-
ence to the individual) both in the masculine and the feminine (of
uncertain gender), as angwis, snake ; canis, dog, camélus, camel;
dama, deer; grus (almost always feminine), crane; serpens,
serpent ; Sus (usually feminine), boar, or sow ; talpa (generally
masculine), mole; tigris, tiger. They are always used as femin-
ines when a female is expressly spoken of
OBS. From the name of some species of animals, a proper feminine form
is derived to denote the female: e.g. agnus, lamb, agna; cervus,
stag, cerva, hind ; eqvus, horse, stallion, eqva, mare; gallus, cock;
gallina, hen. On the other hand, from the feminines simia, ape; coli-
bra, snake; lacerta, lizard; luscinia, nightingale, – which are gen-
erally used as epicenes of the whole class, – a masculine form,
simius, coluber, lacertus, luscinius, is sometime given. (Columba
and columbus, dove, as a class; columbus, the male; columba, the
female.)
§ 31. The following are Neuter. All indeclinable substantives:
e.g. fas, right; nefas, wrong ; gummi, gum ; and all words which
are used as substantives, without being actually such ; e.g. scire
tuum, your knowledge ; also every word quoted with a view to its
form merely : e.g. hoc ipsum diu, this very word DIU ; arx est
monosyllabum, ARX is a monosyllable. For this reason, also, the
names of the letters are neuter; though they are sometimes used as
feminine, with a reference to littera understood.
OBs. So likewise the names of ships and dramatic compositions, even
though they be not feminine, take feminine adjectives; navis, the ship;
or fabula, the play, being understood (per synesim, according to the
signification); e.g. Eunuchus acta est (Svet.), the play entitled Eunu-
chus; Centauro invehitur magna (Virg.), the great ship Centaur. (The
same occurs, though more rarely, and only in some particular writers,
with the names of plants, herba being understood.)
§ 32. The Latin language distinguishes between the SINGULAR
and the PLURAL.
In order to express the connection and relations of ideas, nouns
24 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 33
have six forms or CASEs (casus; strictly, falls); casus nominati-
vus (by which the thing is named); accusativus (which denotes
the object of an action; e.g. pater castigat filium, the father chas-
tises his son); vocativus (by which a person is called to); geni-
tivus (which denotes a connection or possession; e.g. domus patris,
the father's house); dativus (which denotes the person to whom
any thing is given; e.g. pater dat filio librum, the father gives his
son a book); ablativus (which denotes means, place, circumstances,
&c.; e.g. hastā, with the spear).
All substantives do not, however, have different forms for all
these cases in both numbers. In the plural, the dative and ablative
are always alike. In all neuter words, the nominative and accusa-
tive are always the same. The vocative is distinguished from
the nominative in only a very few genuine Latin words (in the
second declension), never in the plural, or in words of the neuter
gender.
OBS. The nominative and vocative are termed casus recti, the others
obliqvi; but the accusative, both in its form and application, is more
nearly related to the nominative than to the other cases.
§ 33. The case-endings are not the same in all words.
There are five kinds of inflection or DECLENSIONs, of which the
endings are, —
SDN GULAR.
Decl. 1. II. III. IV. V.
NoM. 3 (e, as, es) us, er s, (or iís ©$
N. Ullººl undetermined). N. u
Voc. 3 (e, a) e — -*. - *
ACC. am (en) um 'em (im) um, ll €Il
N. like the nom.
GEN. ae i is tis ei
DAT. ae O i ui, u ei
ABL, a O e (i) u ©
PLURAL.
NOM. ae i, N. a. es, N. a (ia) tis, N. ua ©S
VOC. ae i, N. a. es, N. a (ia) tis, N. ua eS
ACC. as OS, N. a. — * mºsº
GEN. arum Örum um (ium) TITIII erum
DAT. is is ibus Ibus (ubus) ébus
ABL. is is ibus ibus (ubus) ébug
§ 34 FIRST DECLENSION. ,” 25
OBs. 1. There are properly but two series of endings; but they are
connected in different ways with the stem, and also occasionally inter-
mixed. In the first and second declension, the endings, which were
originally alike, have become united with the last vowel of the stem (in
the first declension a, in the second u, according to the older pronuncia-
tion Ö), or have expelled it. The third and fourth declensions have the
same endings: but in the third declension, the stem ends in a conso-
nant; in the fourth, in u. In the fifth declension, the stem ends in e,
and the endings are partly those of the first and second, partly those of
the third declension.
OBS. 2. It cannot always be known by the nominative alone to which
declension a word belongs, because this case may have the same ending
in different declensions; e.g. us in the second, third, and fourth.
OBs. 3. Of the Greek substantives which have been adopted into the
Latin language, those which were most frequently used, and were intro-
duced at the earliest period, acquired a completely Latin form, occasion-
ally with some change in the stem. From the Greek word tourtiſs
is formed, for example, the Latin poèta; from X60ths (masc.) the Latin
charta (fem.). Other Greek words, on the contrary, retained their
Greek form and ending: e.g. ôvvgorms, dynastes; *AYzions, Anchises.
In some of the cases, these words have partially Greek inflections.
Writers vary from each other in this respect, sometimes keeping nearer to
the Latin, sometimes to the Greek form. Where both are in use, it is
better to adhere to the former in writing Latin.
OBs. 4. For the peculiarities in the declension of the numerals and pro-
nouns, see chapters xi. and xii.
CHAPTER III.
F I R S T D E C L E N S I O N e
§ 34. All originally Latin words of the first declension end in the
nominative in a, and are declined as follows : —
(mensa, table; scriba, clerk.)
SING, PLUR. SING, PLUR,
NOM. mens à IIle11S ale scrib # scrib ae
VOC. mens à Iſle IIS ale scrib # scrib ae
ACC. mens am mens as scrib am scrib as
GEN. mens ae mens arum scrib ae scribàrum
DAT. mens ae mens is scrib ae scrib is
ABL. mens à mens is scrib ai scrib is
26 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 35
In this way are declined also the adjectives and participles in a
(fem.); as, magna, great ; picta, painted ; mensa rotunda, a round
table.
OBS. 1. In the older poets, ae of the gen. sing. is sometimes resolved
into ai; e.g. aulāī, pictāi (Virg.).
OBS. 2. At a very early period, the gen. sometimes ended in as.
Hence the word familia, family, when it is compounded with pater,
mater, filius, filia, has the gen. familias; e.g. paterfamilias, father
of a family (acc. patremfamilias, gen. patrisfamilias, &c.); plur.
patresfamilias, fathers of families; though we find also paterfamiliae,
patresfamiliarum.
OBS. 3. In the gen. plur. of some words, um, archaic (as in the third
declension), is used instead of arum, especially drachmum, amphērum
(with the addition of a numeral; trium amphorum), for drachmarum,
amphorarum; by the poets also in the words in géna and cóla (from
gigno, to beget, to bear; and colo, to till); e.g. terrigena, earthborn ;
coelicola inhabitant of heaven; and in patronymics in des; e.g.
Aeneadum for Aeneadarum; so also in some Greek names of peoples;
e.g. Lapithum for Lapitharum. * -
OBS. 4. Some few words, which have masculines in us corresponding
to them in the second declension, particularly dea, goddess, and filia,
daughter (deus, filius), rarely liberta, freed-woman (libertus), and a
few others, have in the dat. and abl. plur., besides the regular form (is),
another, àbus; e.g. dis deabusqve omnibus (Cic.), cum duabus fili-
abus virginibus (Liv.).
OBS. 5. Concerning the gen. and dat. of una, sola, and some other
adjectives in a, see § 37, Obs. 2.
§ 35. GREEK FoRMs. To the first declension belong some
Greek words and proper names in e, as, and es (m, cºg, mg), which
are somewhat irregular in the singular (see $33, Obs. 3).
(epitóme, abridgment; Aeneas, a proper name; anagnostes, reader.)
NOM. epitóm e Aene as anagnost es
VOC. epitome Aene à anagnost a
ACC. epitom en Aene am anagnost en
- (Aene an) (anagnost am)
GEN. epitomes Aene ae anagnost ae
DAT. epitom ae Aene ae anagnost ae
ABL. epitome Aene à anagnosta (anagnost €).
§ 36 FIRST DECLENSION. 27
OBS. 1. The greater number of common nouns in e, especially the
names of the arts and sciences in ce (e.g. musice, logice), have also (and
this is to be preferred) the purely Latin form, -musica, logica, musi-
cam, &c. Of proper names, some have almost always the Latin form,
e.g. Helèna, Creta; others most frequently the Greek, as Circe; but in
this respect writers differ. -
In answer to the question, where? the names of towns always have the
Latin genitive; as, Sinopae, at Sinope.
OBS. 2. The Greek nominative as was sometimes changed by the older
writers, and in the language of common life to #; e.g. Mena, Appella.
In the accusative, am is most common in prose-writers, an in the
poets.
OBS. 3. Words in es rarely have the Latin form of the nom. in a, either
in proper names (e.g. Aeeta), or in common nouns (e.g. sophista, better
sophistes), except in words which have been completely Latinized, and
never have a Greek form; e.g. poéta. The voc., besides the termination
à (Atridã), has also ê, when this termination occurs in Greek (in patro-
nymics, e.g. Atridé); sometimes à (e.g. Anchisã, Virg.).
OBS. 4. Of the proper names in es, which in Greek belong to the first
declension, some are declined in Latin according to the third (Aeschi-
nes, Apelles, those in des which are not patronymics, e.g. Alcibiades,
Euripides; and barbaric names, as Astyages, Xerxes). In the accus.,
however, they have likewise en; as, in the first declension, Aeschinem.
Some are found declined in both ways; e.g. Orestes (mostly like the
third). The common noun acinäces, a sabre, follows the third declen-
sion; sorites (the name of an argument in logic) is declined in the sing.
according to the third, in the plural according to the first declension.
Satrāpes, a satrap, which follows the first, has, however, also the gen.
satrapis (Third Declension).
§ 36. GENDER. All substantives of the first declension in a are
feminine, if they are not appellations of men (as, scriba, clerk;
nauta, sailor; colléga, colleague : auriga, charioteer; advena,
new-comer); or names of rivers (see § 28, a). Hadria, the Adri-
atic, is also masculine. (With respect to dama, talpa, see $ 30, a.)
Words in e are feminine, those in as and es masculine; e.g.
comètes. All in as are proper names.
28 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 37
CHAPTER IV.
S E C O N D ID E C L E N S I O N.
§ 37. Words of the second declension end mostly in us and
(neut.) um, some in er. They are declined in the following
Im8.11I1€Î* : •—•
SINGULAR. *
NOM. domin us, lord. puer, boy. sign um, sigm.
VOC. domin e puer signi um
ACc. domin um : puer um sign um
GEN. domini pueri sign i
IDAT. domin o puer o sign o
ABL. domin o puer o sign o
JPLURAL.
NOM. domini puer i sign a.
VOC. domini puer i sign a
ACc. domin os puer os sign a.
GEN. domin örum puer örum sign örum
DAT. dominis puer is, sign is
ABL. domin is pueris sign is
In the same way are declined the adjectives in us and er (masc.), and
um (neut.); e.g. bonus, good ; miser, wretched ; bonum, miserum.
Dominus bonus, signum magnum, puer miser.
Like puer is also declined the only word that terminates in ir, — vir,
the mam, virum, viri, viro, — together with its compounds; e.g. trium-
vir, and the national appellation Trevir, as well as the adjective satur,
sated (neut. saturum, saturi, &c.). gr
Most words in er have the e only in the nom. and voc. (where it has
heen inserted to facilitate the pronunciation), but not in the other eases,
where it is dropped before r: e.g. ager, the field, agrum, agri, agro, plur.
agri, &e. ; liber, the book, librum, &c. The e is retained in the sub-
stantives adulter, the adulterer; socer, the father-in-law ; gener, the som-
in-law ; Liber, the god Liber, or Bacchus; liberi, liberorum, childrem ;
puer, a boy ; vesper, evening. In the adjectives asper,' rough ; liber,
.free ; lacer, torn ; miser, wretched ; prosper, prosperous (better pros-
perus) ; tener, tender ; and in those which end in -fer- and -ger (from
fero, to convey, bring, and gero, to carry); mortifer, deadly, mortife-
1 Aspris for asperis is found in Virgil.
§ 37 - SECOND DECLENSION. 29
rum, mortiferi; aliger, winged; armiger, armor-bearer; and in the
national appellations, Iber, Ibérum, Iberi, and Celtiber, Celtibérum,
Celtiberi. Dexter, right, has dexteri, and more frequently dextri;
Mulciber (Mulceber), an epithet of the god Vulcan, Mulcibéri and
Mulcibri.
OBs. 1. Words inius and ium have, according to analogy, ii in the gen.
In the earlier period, however, only one iwas used in the substantives (not
so in the adjectives); e.g. Appi, from Appius; ingéni, consili, instead of
ingenii, consilii, from ingenium, genius, consilium, counsel (but egre-
gii, from egregius, distinguished); and so always in verse in Virgil and
Horace (Capitoli immobile saxum ; elided, Capitol’ imm. Virg.).
Afterwards, this form became obsolete.
OBS. 2. The following adjectives and pronouns, which in the masc.
and neut. follow the second, and in the fem. the first declension : unus,
solus, totus, ullus, nullus, alius, alter, uter, neuter, with the com-
pounds of uter (uterqve, utercunqve, uterlibet, utervis, alteriter),
have in all genders ius in the gen., and i in the dat., -unius, solius
totius, ullius, nullius, alius, alterius, utrius, neutrius, uni, soli, toti,
ulli, nulli, alii, alteri, utri, neutri. (So also in the fem., -una, unam,
unius, uni, abl. unā.) In verse, the i is sometimes made short in the
gen., - most frequently so in alterius (alterius). The regular forms
are very rare: e.g. alii generis, in Varro; aliae pecudis, in Cicero;
nullo usui, in Caesar. g -
OBs. 3. Words in ius (jus) have in the voc. not ie (je), but i: e.g.
Mercuri, Gai (Cai), Pompei (sometimes in verse Pompei, as a dissyl-
lable); Demetri; fili, son ; geni, guardian spirit; Feretri, from the
adj. Feretrius. But most common nouns and adjectives (as, gladius,
the sword; fluvius, the river; egregius) have no vocative. Greek ad-
jectives— e.g. Cynthius, and proper names in ius (also Greek) or
ãus, 8tog, e.g. Arius —have ie. Meus makes mi in the voc. Deus
always has the voc. like the nom. (Compare Syntax, § 299, b,
Obs. 1.)
OBs. 4. The gen. plur. of some substantives is occasionally formed in
um, instead of orum; viz., of the appellations of money, weights, and
measures, – nummum, sestertium, denarium, talentum, modium,
medimnum, from nummus, a piece of money; sestertius, a sesterce (a
certain coin); denarius (also a coin); talentum, a talent (a sum of
money); modinus, medimnus, a bushel (especially after millia; e.g.
duo millia nummum, decem millia talentum, but tantum nummo-
rum); and of the distributive numerals; e.g. senum, denum, from seni,
six apiece; deni, ten apiece; sometimes also that of the cardinal num-
bers in centi (genti); e.g. ducentum pedum; further, liberum, from
liberi, children; deum, from deus, duumvirum, triumvirum (also
liberorum, &c.); and finally of some other words in certain combina-
30 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 38
tions; e.g. praefectus fabrum, préfect of the workmen (in the army),
from faber; in the poets also virum, from vir; and of the names of
nations, as Argivum, Pelasgum, for Argivorum, Pelasgorum. Com-
pare $34, Obs. 3. .
OBs. 5. The word deus has the regular dei, deis, in the nom. and
dat. plural, but more frequently di, dis; also, dii, diis.
§ 38. GREEK FORMS. 1. Greek proper names of towns and
islands, and some few common nouns, are sometimes found with
the Greek termination Ös, Ön, in the nom. and acc. sing.: e.g. Delos,
acc. Delon; scorpios, a scorpion ; Pelion (neut.). In a few soli-
tary instances, we find in names that are very rarely used oe (ot) in
the nom. plur. ; e.g. camephoroe, the basket-bearers; and Ön in the
gen. plur, of adjectives in the titles of books (e.g. libri Georgicon);
and in a few proper names (colonia. Theraeon, Sall.). The proper
name II&v600s, contracted II&v6ove, is called by Virgil Panthiis, voc.
Panthii.
Obs. 1. Greek proper names in gog, preceded by a consonant, generally
have their termination in Latin (in prose always) in er; Alexander,
Antipater, Teucer, Meleáger, gen. Alexandri, &c. (Yet we have
Codrus, and, in the poets, Evandrus, and the like.) So also hexamé-
ter, but diamétrus.
OBS. 2. Greek proper names, which follow the so-called Attic second
declension, either take a purely Latin form (e.g. Tyndarétis, from Tvrö6-
Q800g, or retain some Greek terminations, as in the nom. Athós, Andro-
geos, Ceòs, in the accus. Athón. The name of mount Athos is also
inflected according to the third declension; Atho, Athónem, and so
also Androgeo, Androge6nem. *
OBS. 3. Greek proper names in evg (gen. 800g) are either declined with
a Latin form—thus, nom. Orpheus (as a dissyllable), accus. Orpheum,
gen. Orphei (and Orphei), dat. and abl. Orpheo (without a voc.), — or
with a Greek form (like the third declension); thus, nom. orpheus,
VOC. orpheu, acc. Orphéâ, gen. Orphéðs, dat. Orphéi (Orphei); but
the forms which follow the third declension, with the exception of the
accus., are for the most part found only in the poets. The gen. Achil-
lei and Ulixei ('Azúžeiſs) are also formed in this way; though Achil-
les, Ulixes, otherwise follow the third declension.
The name Perseus (IIeggets) is sometimes declined like Orpheus;
Perseus, acc. Persea, gen. Persei, dat. Perseo and Persi (for Persei),
abl. Perseo; sometimes it has the form of Perses, and follows the first
declension.
§ 39 SECOND DECLENSION. 31
§ 39. GENDER. Words in us (os) and r are masculine, those in
um (on) are neuter.
But of the words in us, the following are feminine : —
a. The words alvus, stomach; carbāsus, linen; colus, distaff (rarely
masc.); humus, ground; vannus, winnowing shovel. -
b. The names of towns and islands, – e.g. Corinthus, Rhodus, -
with the following names of countries: Aegyptus, Chersonesus,
Epirus, Peloponnesus. (These names of places in us are all Greek;
Canópus, however, is masculine.) - * -
c. The names of all trees and of some shrubs: e.g. alnus, alder;
fagus, beech; ficus, fig-tree (also fig); malus, apple-tree; pirus, pear-
tree; pomus, apple-tree; populus, poplar; ulmus, elm, &c.;" buxus,
bow-tree; juniperus, juniper; nardus, nard (an odoriferous bush);
papyrus, papyrus plant (rarely masc.); with some Greek names of
plants, chiefly ending in os (buglossos), and the word balānus, acorn,
or date.
OBS. Other Latin and Latinized names of plants and flowers are mas-
culine; as, acanthus, acanthus; amaranthus, amaranth; asparăgus,
asparagus : bolétus, mushroom; calamus, straw, reed; carduus, this-
tle; dumus, thorn-bush ; fungus, mushroom ; hellebärus, hellebore;
hyacinthus, hyacinth ; pampinus, vine (rarely fem.); rubus, bramble,
&c. g
d. Some words originally Greek, which in Greek are feminine, as
-- *
those compounded with 666s: methődus, method ; periódus, period;
and the words atómus, atom ; antidotus, antidote (also antidótum,
neut.); dialectus, dialect; diamétrus, diameter; diphthongus, diph-
thong; paragráphus, paragraph (which words are originally adjectives,
with a substantive understood); further, the names of most precious
stones, e.g. amethystus.” Lastly arctos (the constellation), the Bear.
Barbitos, lyre, is both masculine and feminine. -
The following in us are neuter: virus, poison ; vulgus, the common
people (rarely masc.); and pelägus, the sea (tò tºgyos).
1 On the other hand, pomum, apple; pirum, pear; malum, apple. (Malus, a ship's
mast, is masc.) Also buxum, boarwood.
* But smaragdus, beryllus, opalus (and the Latin carbunculus), are masculine.
32 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 40
CHAPTER V.
T H I R D D, E C L E N S I O N .
$ 40. Words of the Third Declension have various endings in the
nominative, since they either attach the nominative ending s to the
stem, or remain without any special ending for that case. The
stem, to which the endings are affixed in the other cases, ends with
a consonant, but is often varied in the nom. ; so that, before we can
decline a word, it is necessary to know, not only the nom., but also
the stem, from one of the other cases; but of this we shall speak
afterwards (§ 41). (We find the stem by taking the ending is from
the genitive sing.) *
In consequence of varying of the stem, words which are different
in the other cases may have the same ending in the nom. ; e.g.
caedes, death-blow, gen. caedis; miles, soldier, gen. militis; inter-
pres, interpreter, gen. interprétis.
The rest of the declension may be seen from the following exam-
ples, which show at the same time the different forms of the words,
according as the stem remains unaltered in the nom., or is varied
by taking an ending and by the pronunciation.
1. MASCULINE AND FEMININE GENDER.
a. Words in which the nominative is simply the stem, without
any alteration whatever, so that the other case-endings are merely
affixed to it.
(consul, consul; dolor, pain.)
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR.
N. consul consul es dolor dolor es
V. consul consul es dolor dolor es
A. consiil em. consul es dolòr em. dolor es
G. consul is consiil um dolor is dolor um
D. consuli consul ibus dolor i dolor ibus
A. consul e consul ibus dolore doloribus
OBS. Stems in 1 or r never have a nominative ending.
b. Words in which the nominative ending s is affixed to the stem,
which is otherwise unchanged.
(urbs, city.)
SING. NoM. urbs PLUR. urb es
VOC. urbs urb es
ACC. urb em. urb es
GEN. urb is urb ium
DAT. urb i urb ibus
ABL. urb e urb ibus
OBs. Of the termination ium (urb-ium) in the gen. pl., see $44, 1.
sao
33
THIRD DECLENSION.
c. Words in which the nom. ending s is affixed to the stem with
the vowel i or e (so that is and es are dropped from the nom. before
the other case-endings are added).
(avis, bird; caedes, murder.)
SING. PLUR.
N. avis aV e5
V. avis a V e3
A. av em. aV eş
G. av is avium
D. avi av ibus
A. av e (avi) avibus
SING.
Caedes
caedes
Caed em.
Caed is
caed i
caede
PLUR.
Caed es
caedes
caedes
caedium
caled ibus
caedibus
OBS. 1. These words, the stem of which is found by the rejection of
is and es, are called, to distinguish them from other words of the same
declension in is and es, parisyllables, because they have the same number
of syllables in the nom. as in the other cases singular.
OBS. 2. Of the ending i in the ablative, see $42, 3.
d. Words in which, when the s of the nom. is affixed, the stem is
also changed by the omission of a consonant (d or t), or by the
passing of i into e, or in both ways. -
(aetas, age; judex, judge; miles, soldier.)
miles
miles
milit em.
milit is
militi
milite
milites
milites
milites
milit unn
militibus
militibus
SINGULAR.
NoM. aetas judex
VOC. aetas judex •
ACC. aetät em. judic em.
GEN. aetat is judic is
DAT. aetati judici
ABL. aetate judic e
PLURAL.
NOM. aetates judices
VOC. aetates judices
ACC. aetates judices
GEN. aetat um judic um
DAT. aetatibus judicibus
ABL. aetatibus judicibus
OBS. i is changed into e, because the open syllable becomes a close
one. See § 5, c.
3
34
$40
LATIN GRAMMAR.
e. Words in which the nom., without any termination affixed, devi-
ates from the stem for the sake of the pronunciation.
(sermo, the discourse ; pater, father
NOM.
VOC.
ACC.
GEN.
DAT.
ABL.
NOM.
WOC.
ACC.
GEN.
DAT.
ABL.
Serºl O
. Serial O
sermön em.
sermon is.
sermon i
Sel. In OI! (2
5621 （Il Oil egº
561 （11OIl eş
Selº IIlOIl e5
$621. Iºlo Il UIlºil
sermon ibus
sermonibus
SINGUIAR.
pater
pater
patr ©IOl.
patris
patri
patre
PLURAL.
patres
patres
patr es
patrum
patribus
patribus
mös, custom.)
mög
mös
mör em.
mor is
mor i
more
IIlOI eS
IOClOI eS
In OII e5
morum
moribus
moribus
OBS. In sermo, n has been dropped; in pater, e has been intro-
duced; in mos, s belongs to the stem, and is changed in the gen. into r
(§ 8).
2. NEUTER GENDER.
The words of this gender never.affix s in
the nom., but the stem is sometimes different in the nom. and in
the other cases on account of the pronunciation.
a. Words with the stem unchanged.
SINGULAR.
NoM. animal
VOC. animal
ACC. animal
GEN. animal is
DAT. animali
ABL. animal i
other cases.
(animal, animal.)
PLURAL.
animal ia
animalia
animalia
animal ium
animal ibus
- animal ibus
OBS. On the termination ia in the plural, see $43, 1.
b. Words which have the stem different in the nom. and in the
(nomen, name; corpus, body; lac, milk.)
NOM.
VOC.
ACC.
GEN.
DAT.
ABL.
Il OIOleIl
Il OIn 1611
In OIOleIl
nomin is
nomin i
nomin e
SINGULAR.
corpus
corpus
corpus
corpär is
corpor i
corpore
lac
lac
lac
lact is
lact i ;
lact e
§ 40 THIRD DECLENSION.
35
PLURAL.
NoM. nomin a corpor a
VOC. nomin a Corpor a (not used.)
ACC. nomin a corpor a
GEN. nomin um corpor um
DAT. nominibus corporibug
ABL. nominibus corporibus
OBs. In corpus, s is not a mere termination, but belongs to the stem,
and is changed in the gen. into r (§ 8). In lac, the last consonant of the
stem has been dropped in the nom. (§ 10).
c. Words in e, which e does not belong to the stem, and is
dropped before the other case-endings.
(mare, the sea.)
SINGULAR. ' PIAURAL.
NOM. mare maria
VOC. mare maria
ACC. mare maria
GEN. mar is marium
DAT. mari mar ibus
& ABL. mari mar ibus
Many adjectives also follow the third declension, and are declined
like those substantives, with which they agree in the nominative
and in the form of the stem; e.g. gravis, heavy (masc. and fem.)
like avis (but in the ablative only i, gravi), and grave (neut.),
like mare. Dolor gravis, corpus grave. In the neuter gender
of adjectives, the accusative is always like the nominative, whatever
be the termination of the latter; and the plural, like that of the
neuter substantives, is formed in a (ia).
§ 41. In the third declension, the gender cannot be ascertained
from the nom. alone, but from the stem (as seen in the other cases)
and the nominative together. There are, however, some forms of
the stem and the nom. in which no rule could be given for the gen-
der (especially the masc. and fem.), which would not be liable to
numerous exceptions. Of some forms of the stem, only a few, or
even single, examples occur."
1 From the nominative alone, only so much can be inferred of the gender, that a word
which ends in an s, which does not belong to the stem (and consequently is not found in the
other cases in the form of s or r), is either masculine or feminine ; but that on the other
hand it is neuter, if it neither ends in s, nor belongs to one of those forms which never assume
s for the sake of the pronunciation (as the stems in l, n, r); e.g. rete, caput.
36 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 41
All names of male and female beings follow the natural gender (ac-
cording to § 28 and 29), although the form may otherwise properly
belong to another gender: e.g. uxor, wife, feminine; though words
in or, gen. Öris, are otherwise masculine: Juno, the goddess Juno, fem.
(o, önis, masc.); flamen, priest, masc. (en, inis, neut.). So also the
names of rivers are masculine, without reference to the termination
(§ 28).
To the third declension belong a number of Greek or foreign (bar-
barous) words, which came from the Greeks to the Romans, and which
are declined according to the corresponding third declension in Greek;
these conform in Latin, in respect both of the stem and gender, to the
Greek.
1. The following summary shows what genitives (and hence, at
the same time, what stems) correspond to the various nominatives,
and also gives the gender for every form of the nom. and of the
Stem.
The stem of a substantive or adjective, the nominative of which is
known, may be often determined from other cognate words, especially
verbs, since in them the letters are found which, in the nominative,
have been dropped or changed: e.g. custos, gen. Custódis, guar-
dian, because we have custodio, to guard; nex, necis, death, on
account of neco, to kill; but grex, gregis, herd, on account of con-
grego, to assemble.
Nom, e, gen, is, Neuter; as, mare, maris, the sea.
The abl. of Praeneste, the name of a town, is sometimes fem. by
synesis; e.g. Praeneste sub ipsa. (Compare $31, Obs.)
Nom. 0, gen. Önis, Masculine; as, sermo, sermönis, discourse.
But words in io, which are derived from verbs or adjectives, are Femi-
nine: e.g. lectio, reading ; oratio, speech; legio, legion (from légo, to
select); regio, district (from rego, to rule); natio, nation (from nas-
cor, to be born); coenatio, dining-room (from coeno, to dine);
seditio, uproar (from eo, to go, and se); communio, community (from
communis, common); consortio, the community (from consors, par-
ticipating). (Other words in io are masculine: e.g. papilio, butterjºy;
septentrio, north ; vespertilio, bat ; scipio, staff; unio, pearl ; senio,
sia: ; ternio, three ; so also pugio, dagger, though from pungo.)
Further, some names of (Spanish) towns are feminine: as, Barcino,
Barcelona; Tarrãco, Tarragona. (Other names of towns are mascu-
line; as, Sulmo, Narbo, Vesontio).
OBs. Some names of nations have the gen. Önis: as, Macêdo, Seno
(Laco, Lacônis; Io, Ionis.)
§ 4l THIRD DECLENSION. - 37
Nom. 0, gen. Inis (in do and go), Feminine: hirundo, hirundinis,
swallow ; imago, imaginis, picture ; Carthago, Carthaginis.
But the following are masculine: ordo, order; cardo, hinge; and
usually margo, edge. (Cupido, as the name of a god, is masculine;
as a common noun, it is masculine in the poets only; in all other cases,
feminine.)
OBs. The following words in do and go have Ónis, and are conse-
quently masculine: praedo, robber; spado, eunuch ; ligo, spade ;
mango, slave-dealer; harpägo, hook. -
Nom: o, gen. Ínis (without a preceding d or g), masculine: turbo,
whirlwind; and besides, only homo, man ; nemo, no one; and the name
Apollo.
The feminine, caro, flesh, gen. Carnis, stands by itself.
Nom, c, Neuter; as, lac, lactis, milk.
(Besides lac, we have only the word alec, alécis, brine, from fish,
which has also the form alex, alécis, fem.)
Nom. al, gen. Ālis, Neuter; as, animal, animälis, the animal.
Sal, salt (which is masculine, rarely neuter in the sing.), has sālis,
So also foreign proper names; as, Hannibal, Hannibális.
The following substantives in l are to be noticed separately: the
neuters, fel, gall; mel, honey; fellis, mellis. The masculine, sol,
sólis, the sun , some masculine names of persons in sul: consul, con-
sul; exsul, eacile; praesul, leader in a dance ; consiilis, &c.; with
pugil, boxer, pugilis ; and vigil, sentinel, vigilis (as an adjective,
watchful)."
Nom. en, gen. Inis, Neuter; as, nomen, nominis, the name.
The following are masculine: pecten, comb; and, from their signifi-
cation, flamen, priest ; cornicen, horn-blower; fidicen, harper; tibi-
cen, flute-player; tubicen, trumpeter.
Nom. en, gen, emis, Masculine; as, ren, rénis, the kidney (com-
monly only in the plur., renes).
Ops. Besides this, only the following are similarly declined: lien,
spleen ; and the Greek words splen, spleen ; lichen, a disease of the
skin; attägen, partridge; Anien, the name of a river (in the nom.
likewise Anio); with the feminines Siren, Siren ; and Troezen, a Greek
town.
1 Mugil, mugilis, a kind of fish; also, nom. mugilis. With the nominative termina-
tion is. - -
38 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41
Nom. ar, gen. aris, Neuter ; as, calcar, calcâris, spur.
The following (also neuter) have the gen. Āris: baccar, a kind of
plant; jubar, radiance; nectar, nectar; and the masculine names Caesar,
Hamilcar, Arar, the Saone ; and lar, läris, howsehold god.
The following, which are neuters, are to be separately noticed: far,
farris, corn ; and the Greek word hepar, hepātis, liver.
Nom, er, gen. Čris, Masculine; as, carcer, carcéris, prison."
But the following are neuter: Cadãver, corpse; tuber, swelling (also
truffle); uber, udder; verber (only in the plur. verbera), blow.
And all botanical names: e.g. acer, maple ; papaver, poppy; piper,
pepper. Tuber, a kind of apple, is masculine. (Mulier, woman,
fem.)
Nom. er, gen. ris, Masculine; as, venter, ventris, belly.
Linter, boat, is feminine (so mater, mother).
In the same way are declined imber, shower, and all ending in ter
(except only later, lateris, masc., brick).
We must notice separately the two neuters, iter, itinëris, journey;
and ver, véris, spring; with the name of the god Jupiter (Jovem),
Jovis, &c. (The nom. is compounded of the old name and the word
pater.) -
Nom. Or, gen. Öris, Masculine; as, dolor, dolóris, pain.
The following are feminine, by reason of their signification: soror,
sister; uxor, wife. T
OBs. The words honor, honor, and lepor, wit, have frequently, in
older writers (Cicero), the nom. honos and lepos; so also occasionally
other words, if they are not derived from verbs; e.g. labor, labor,
labos.
Nom. Or, gen. Öris, Neuter; as, aequor, aequëris, the surface of
the sea.
(So marmor, marble; ador, spelt.) Arbor (arbos), tree, is fem-
1I]]||Ye.
The following is to be separately noticed: cor, cordis, heart, neu-
ter.
Nom. ur, gen, iris, Neuter: as, fulgur, fulgăris, lightning;
Tibur, the city Tibur.
The following are masculine: furfur, bran; turtur, turtle-dove; vul-
tur, vulture; and, from its signification, augur, a soothsayer.
1 Also the two Greek words, aer, aether.
§ 41 THIRD DECLENSION. - 39
Nom, ur, gen. Öris, Neuter; as, robur, robôris, strength.
Of this kind, we have only the following: ebur, ivory; femur, thigh ;
jecur, liver. { - -
Fur, füris, thief, masc. from its signification, is to be separately
noticed. - - - •
Nom, as, gen, atis, Feminine; as, aetas, aetätis, age.
Anas, the duck, has anātis, fem.
The following are to be separately noticed: the masculines, as, assis
an as (a copper coin); mas, māris, male; vas, vädis, surely; and the
neuter, vas, väsis, vessel (in the plur. vasa, vasorum, see § 5, 6).
Nom, es, gen, is, Feminine: as, caedes, caedis, murder.
Palumbes, wood-pigeon, masc. and fem. ; vepres, thorn-bush (not
used in the nom., commonly in the plural), masc. Verres, boar, and
the names of rivers, – e.g. Euphrates, - are masc. from the significa-
tion. -
OBS. Some words in es, gen. is, have also is in the nom., with the
same gender; e.g. aedes, temple; feles, cat ; vulpes, foa: ; and aedis,
felis, vulpis. .
Nom, es, gen. Itis, Masculine; as, miles, militis, soldier.
Ales, bird (properly an adjective, winged), is masculine and femi-
nine; merges, sheaf, feminine."
Nom. es, gen. §tis, Masculine or Feminine: as, paries, pariétis,
wall, masculine; seges, segétis, corn-field, feminine.
Besides the above, the following are masc. from their signification:
aries, ram ; interpres, interpreter. Abies, fir, and teges, mat, are femi-
nine.
The following are to be separately noticed: the masculines, bes,
bessis, two-thirds of an as; pes, pèdis, foot (with its compounds; as,
sesqvipes, a foot and a half); praes, praedis, Surety; obses, hostage;
and praeses, protector; obsidis, praesidis; heres, herédis (common),
heir or heiress: the feminines, merces, mercédis, wages; qvies, qvi-
étis, rest (reqvies, rest, recreation); Ceres, Ceréris, the goddess
Ceres.
OBS. From pes comes the feminine compes (generally compèdes,
plur.), fetters ; the adjective quadrupes is used for any quadruped as a
feminine or neuter substantive. As a feminine, it seems to have refer-
* Like miles are declined the personal names antistes, comes, eqves, hospes,
pedes, satelles, veles; and of other substantives, armes, Cespes, formes, gurges,
limes, merges, palmes, poples, stipes, termes, trames, tudes.
40 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41
ence to bestia; as a neuter, to animal. It is also used as a masculine
substantive when a horse is spoken of
The neuter, aes, aeris, copper, must be separately noticed.
Nom. is, gen. is, Masculine or Feminine: as, piscis, piscis, fish;
avis, avis, bird.
The following are masculine: amnis, river; axis, axle; callis, path
(rarely fem.); canalis, conduit; cassis, a huntsman's net (generally
casses, plur.); caulis, stalk ; collis, hill ; crinis, hair; ensis, sword ;
fascis, fagot ; finis, end, boundary (rarely fem., and that only in the
singular signifying end); follis, bellows; funis, rope; fustis, club;
ignis, fire; mensis, month; orbis, circle; panis, bread; piscis, fish ;
postis, door-post; scrobis, ditch (also scrobs, sometimes fem.); sen-
tis, thorn-bush; torqvis, collar (also torqves, rarely fem.); torris,
firebrand; ungvis, mail; vectis, lever; vermis, worm. Further, some
words originally adjectives, which are used as substantives, and with
which a masculine substantive is understood: annalis, the year-book
(liber); natalis, birthday (dies; also natales, natalium, descent);
molaris, mill-stone (lapis), grinder (dens); pugillares, pugillarium,
writing-tablets (libri). Further, the compounds of as: e.g. decussis,
ten asses; manes, manium, spirits of the dead; Lucretilis, the name
of a mountain. (So also from their signification, hostis, testis, and
the names of rivers; as, Tiberis.). -
The following are more frequently masculine than feminine: angvis,
snake; canis, dog; the following sometimes one, sometimes the other:
corbis, basket; clunis, the hind leg.
The rest are feminine.
OBS. Here, too, may be noticed the Greek words in sis (also femi-
nine) which are derived from verbs: e.g. poésis; the names of towns
ending in polis: as, Neapolis; and some few other words and feminine
proper names.
Nom. is, gen. §ris, Masculine; as, cinis, cinéris, ashes.
OBS. In this way are declined only cucumis, cucumber, more rarely
cucumis, in the gen. ; pulvis, dust; and vomis, ploughshare, which has
more frequently the form vomer."
Nom. is, gen. Idis, Feminine; as, cuspis, cuspſdis, the point of a
spear.
Lapis, stone, is masculine; also, from their signification, the names of
rivers; as, Phasis.
* The s in these words belongs to the stem, and has been changed into r in the genitive.
§ 4L THIRD DECLENSION. 4. 41
OBs. Only a very few Latin words have this termination: e.g. cassis
helmet; but it belongs to various Greek words, which have been
adopted in Latin: e.g. pyramis, pyramid; tyrannis, tyranny ; and
several names of men and women. Ibis, ibidis, ibis, has in the plural
ibes, ibium. Tigris, twger, has in the gen. both tigridis, fem., and
tigris, masc. and fem. ; in the piur. tigres, tigrium. -
The following in is are to be separately noticed: the masculines
sangvis, blood ; pollis, fine flour (not used in the nom.); sangvinis,
pollinis; glis, gliris, dormouse; semis, semissis, half an as : the femi-
nines, lis, litis, lawsuit; vis, force, without a genitive. (See § 55, 2.)
OBS. The Greek names Salamis, Salaminis, feminine, and Simois,
Simoëntis (a river), masculine.
Like lis are declined the proper-name Dis, the adjective dis, and the
national names Qviris and Samnis.
Nom. Os, gen. Öris, Masculine; as, mos, moris, manner.
Os, Öris, the mouth, is neuter.
Nom. os, gen. Ötis; cos, cótis, whetstone, and dos, dowry, are femi-
nine: rhinoceros is masculine. So also, from their signification,
nepos, grandson ; sacerdos, priest.
The following are to be separately noticed: custos, custódis,
watchman, masc. ; bos, běvis, cattle, common; 5s, ossis, bone, neuter.
Nom. us, gen. [itis, Feminine; as, virtus, virtùtis, virtue.
Nom. us, gen. Lidis, Feminine; as, palus, pallidis, marsh.
(Like palus are declined incus, anvil, and the following with a
diphthong: laus, laudis, praise ; fraus, deceit.*) Pecus, a head of cat-
tle, has pectidis. (See also pecus, pecoris, neut., § 56, 7.)
Nom. us, gen. Čris, Neuter; as, genus, genéris, a kind, race.”
Venus (the goddess so called) is feminine.
Nom. us, gen. Öris, Neuter; as, corpus, corpäris, body.
Lepus, hare, is masculine.
Nom. us, gen. Tiris, Neuter; as, jus, jūris, right, law.
Mus, mouse, is masculine; tellus, the earth, feminine. Ligus, a
—s
* Capis, promulsis.
2 Subscus.
* Like genus are declined acus, chaff; foedus, funus, glomus, latus, munus,
Olus, Onus, Opus, pondus, rudus, scelus, Sidus, ulcus, vellus, viscus, vul-
nus. Like corpus are declined decus (dedecus), facinus, fenus, frigus, littus,
nemus, pecus (see us, gen, udis). pectus, penus (see § 56, 7), pignus, stercus,
tempus, tergus (commonly tergum, tergi). From pignus we have also pigneris,
Like jus are declined the monosyllables crus, pus, rus, tus. -
42 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 41
Ligurian, has Ligüris. (Lemires, ghosts, occurs only in the plu-
ral.) -
The following must be separately noticed: sus, sow ; grus, crame ;
suis, gruis, mostly fem., rarely masc."
Nom. ns, gen, ntis, Masculine; as, mons, montis, the mountain ;
dens, dentis, tooth.
OBS. Some words belonging to this class are properly Participles, with
which a masculine substantive is understood: as, oriens, east ; occi-
dens, west, —sol being understood. &
The following are feminine: gens, family or race; lens, lentils;
mens, intellect, mind; frons, forehead; bidens, a sheep of two years
old (bidens, the ace, is masc.). Sèrpens, serpent (properly a parti-
ciple), is usually feminine (bestia), rarely masculine (angvis). Ani-
mans, a living being, is feminine, in the plural also neuter (animantia);
signifying a rational being, it is masculine. Continens, the continent,
is usually feminine (terra), rarely neuter. The rare philosophical
words ens, the being; consequens, the conclusion; accidens, an acci-
dent (in logic), are neuter. -
Nom. ns, gen, ndis, Feminine; as, glans, glandis, acorn.
Thus, juglans, walnut ; frons, foliage; lens, a nit, and masc. libri-
pens. -
Nom. bs, gen. bis, Feminine; as, urbs, urbis, city.
Nom. ps (eps), gen. pis (ſpis) : —
The following are feminine: stirps, stem (in a few cases masculine,
when it denotes the trunk of a tree); and daps, dapis, food: adeps,
fat; forceps, a pair of tongs, are masc. and fem. The rest are mascu-
line. Personal names in ceps: as, princeps, first, chief. Auceps,
the fowler, has auctipis in the genitive.
OBS. Greek words in ps, which have been received into the Latin, are
masculine, and their inflection is regulated according to the Greek: as,
hydrops, hydröpis, dropsy; Pelops, Pelôpis (a proper name); gryps,
gryphis, griffin.
Nom. rs, gen, rtis, Feminine; as, ars, artis, art.
The following feminines in s, with a consonant preceding, must
be separately noticed: hiems, hiêmis, winter; puls, pultis, broth.
1 These two words, with strues, struis, the heap; and lues, luis, a contagious dis-
ease, are the only Latin words of the third declension, the stem of which terminates in a vowel;
viz, u. -
§ 41 • THIRD DECLENSION. . 43
Nom. t. The only example is caput, capitis, head, Neuter,
with its compounds occiput and sinciput.
Nom. ax, gen. Ācis; as, pax, pācis, peace.
The Latin words pax, formax, oven ; fax, gen. facis, torch, are femi-
nine. The Greek are masculine; as, thorax, thorācis, breast-plate,
except the feminine limax, snail,
OBS. Greek proper names have also acis: as, Corax, Corácis; and
those in anax have anactis: as, Astyanax."
Nom. ix, gen. Ícis, Feminine; as, salix, salicis, willow.
The two following are masculine: calix, cup ; fornix, vault; varix,
a varicose vein, is both masculine and feminine.
Nom. ix, gen. Icis, Feminine ; as, radix, radicis, root.”
Phoenix, phoenix (a Greek word), is masculine (also a national
appellation, — a Phoenician).
The following feminines should be separately noticed: nix, nivis, snow;
strix, strigis, a fabulous being, in the form of a bird.
Nom. ox, gen. Öcis, Feminine; as, Vox, vöcis, voice.
The only other word declined in this way is celox, a swift vessel.
The feminine nox, noctis, night, must be separately noticed.
(The national names Cappadox, Allobrox, have Cappadócis, Al-
lobrógis.)
Nom. ux, Feminine; as, crux, cricis, the cross.
The genitive is variously formed with c and g, ii and li: nux, niicis,
nut, nut-tree; lux, licis, light; conjux, conjügis, wife (as of common
gender it denotes also a spouse); frux, frügis, fruit (not used in the
nom.); faux, faucis, throat (not used in the nom.).
The following are masculine: tradux, tradiicis, the layer of a vine;
and dux, diicis, leader (also common); Pollux, Pollicis, proper
Ilā, Iſle. -
Nom. x, with a consonant preceding, gen, cis, Feminine; as,
arx, arcis, citadel.
The words in unx, denoting the twelfth parts of an as, are masculine:
deunx, eleven-twelfths of an as ; quincunx, septunx (rarely calx, heel;
lynx, lyma).
1 In Greek we find also common names in ax, acis, but scarcely any one of these is met
with in Latin. -
2 Like salix are declined besides the words cited above; coxendix, filix (fulix), hys-
trix, matrix, pix, and the national name Cilix, a Cilician. Like radix are declined several
words; viz. cervix, cicatrix, cornix, coturnix, lodix, perdix, vibix, and the fem-
inine appellatives in trix, e.g. victrix. In appendix the quantity is uncertain
44 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 41
OBs. The Greek words Sphinx, the Sphina:; phalanx, a certain order
of battle; syrinx, reed, have gis; e.g. sphingis.
Nom. ex, gen. Icis, Masculine; as, apex, apicis, the eatreme
point.
The following are feminine: ilex, holly; carex, sedge; forfex, a pair
of shears ; vitex, a species of tree; and, from its signification, pellex,
concubine.
The following are masc. and fem. : imbrex, tile; obex, bolt (not
used in the nom. sing.); rumex, sorrel; and in the poets, also: cortex,
bark; silex, flint. (Atriplex, the orache, is neuter.)
The following must be separately noticed: a. The masculines with an
irregular genitive: grex, grègis, herd; with aqvilex, a discoverer of
springs; and the national name Lelex; rex, régis, king; remex, remi-
gis, rower; vervex, vervécis, wether; sénex, senis, old man; foenisex,
foemisècis, haymaker.
b. The feminines with an irregular genitive: nex, nécis, death; prex,
précis, prayer (not used in the nom. sing.); lex, légis, law; supellex,
supellectilis, household goods; faex, faecis, lees.
2. Further, there are found in the foreign words which have
been adopted from the Greek and other languages different forms
of the stem and of the nominative, which do not occur in words
originally Latin. (A more copious notice of the Greek words must
be sought for in the Greek dictionary.) The endings referred to
are, —
Nom. ma, gen, mātis, Neuter; as, poéma, poèmātis, poem.
Nom. i, gen. is, Neuter; as, sinăpi, sinapis, mustard.
OBs. In this way are declined in the sing., without a plural, some
names of foreign products, and those of a few Spanish towns; as,
Illiturgi. Most of them are not used in the gen. ; the other cases
all end in i. Sinapi has also the fem. form sinapis (nom.).
Oxyméli, oxymelitis, a mixture of vinegar and honey, is neuter
(uéât); so also one or two others in meli. -
Nom. y, gen. yis (yos), neuter: as, misy, misyis (contr. misys),
vitriol (?).
There are very few words of this class: misy is also found indeclina-
ble; asty or astu, the city [of Athens], only in the accusative.
Nom. on, gen. Önis, Feminine; as, Alcyon, Alcyºnis, the king-
fisher. - -
(So aedon, nightingale; sindon, muslin, with some names of towns:
e.g. Anthèdon, Anthedónis; Chalcédon.)
Canon, rule, or plummet, is masculine; also, names of men; as,
Ixion, &c.
§ 4l THIRD DECLENSION. 45
NoM. on, On, all, en, in,
gº tº a tº sms & * * sºs & MASCULINE.
GEN. Onis, Ontis, anis, énis, i.}
Greek proper names, of which the names of towns are feminine: as,
Babylon, Babylonis; Ctesiphon, Ctesiphontis; and Eleusin. (Del-
phin, Delphinis, dolphin, also delphinus, delphini.)
(Of the nom. of names in on, see § 45.)
Nom. ter, gen. teris, Masculine; as, crater, cratēris, bowl.
Nom, as, gen, ädis, Feminine; as, lampas, lampádis, torch.
(The national names Nomas and Arcas, employed also as feminine
adjectives.)
Nom. as, gen. antis, Masculine ; as, adamas, adamantis, dia-
nond.
Melas, Melanis, masc., the name of a man, a river, and a disease.
Nom. as, gen. Ātis, Neuter; as, erysipélas, erysipëlatis, the
complaint so called. -
(Very few instances, commonly only in the nom. and acc.)
Nom. es, gen. Étis, Masculine; as, lebes, lebetis, caldron.
(So magnes, magnet; tapes, carpet; Tunes, the city Tunis.)
Nom. §s, Neuter; as, cacoèthes, a malignant tumor.
Nom. Ös, Neuter ; as, epos, an epic poem.
(Both of these occur in but very few words, and only in the nom. and
acc.)
Nom. Ös, gen. Öis, Masculine; as, heros, herois, hero, demi-
god.
Nom. tis, gen, untis, Masculine; as, Pessinus, Pessinuntis (a
town).
(Only geographical names are thus declined. The names of towns
are sometimes used as feminine by synesis; e.g. Amathus in Ovid.)
Nom. İis, gen. Ödis, Masculine; as, tripus, tripödis, tripod.
- (None but compounds of tovg. Oedipus generally, and polypus,
polypus, always follow the second declension.)
Nom. ys, gen, yis, Feminine; as, chelys, chelyis, cithara.
(Mostly proper names. Othrys, the mountain Othrys, is masculine.)
46 LATIN GRAMMAR. $42
Nom. ys, gen. ydis, Feminine; as, chlamys, chlamydis, cloak.
Nom. yx, gen. yeis, yeis, ygis, ysis, yohis, Masculine; as
calyx, calycis, the cup of a flower.
The genitives follow the Greek. In Greek, many words in yx are
feminine; of those which have been received into the Latin, only sandyx,
sandycis, a kind of red color; and occasionally bombyx, bombycis,
the silkworm ; sardonyx, sardonychis, a precious stone.
CHAPTER VI. -
PECULIARITIES OF THE SEVERAL CASES AND OF THE GREEK:
FORMS IN THE THIRD DECLENSION.
§ 42. 1. In some words in is (gen. is), the accusative singular
ends in im instead of em: namely, in amussis, ruler; buris,
plough-tail; cucumis, cucumber; ravis, hoarseness; sitis, thirst;
tussis, cough ; vis, force; and in the names of towns and rivers:
e.g. Hispälis, Tibéris; commonly, too, in febris, fever; pelvis,
basin; puppis, the hinder part of a ship; restis, rope; turris,
tower; sectiris, awe; more rarely in clavis, key; messis, harvest;
navis, ship.
OBs. The accusative also ends in im (or in the Greek form in), in
many Greek words in is. See § 45, 2 b ; and in the names of the rivers
Arar and Tiger.
2. The genitive of Greek and foreign proper names in es (parisyl-
lables; see § 40, c, Obs. 1) often ends in the earlier period (e.g.
in Cicero) in i instead of is; e.g.” Aristoteli, Isocrati, Neocli,
Achilli, Ulixi. (But this never happens in those words of which
the stem has been altered in the nominative; e.g. Laches,
Lachétis.) *
3. The ablative commonly ends in e, but in some words in i; in
some, both in e and i.
The following have i: —
a. Those words which have only im in the accusative; e.g. siti, Tiberi
(poési, see 1, Obs.). --
1 [Regnum Alyattei (Hor. iii. 0d. 16, 14.)]
§ 43 THIRD DECLENSION. - 47
b. All neuter words in e, i, al, ar, gen. aris; as, mari, sinapi, animali,
calcari (but sale, masc., and nectare, farre).
OBs. But the names of towns in e have e in the abl.; e.g. Prae-
neste, Caere; so likewise mostly rete, and mare frequently in the
poets.
c. The adjectives of two and three terminations (is, e, and er, is, e):
as, facilis, abl. facili; acer, abl. acri, with those substantives in is, which
were originally adjectives; e.g. familiari, natali.
OBs. 1. Such substantives, even if they be no longer in use as adjec-
tives, are recognized by their adjective endings (alis, aris, ilis, ensis,
&c.).
OBS. 2. But some such substantives often—(as, aedile, from aedilis)
or, at least, occasionally; proper names of this kind almost always—have
e; as, Juvenale. Adjectives formed from the names of towns (e.g. Ve-
liensis, from Velia) have also sometimes e, other adjectives only in some
particular passages of the poets.
The following have both e and i : —
a. Those words which have both im and em in the accusative; e.g.
puppi and puppe. (But restis always has reste, and securis, se-
curi.)
b. Adjectives and participles of one termination; e.g. prudenti and
prudente, inerti and inerte. I is, however, the prevailing form: e.g.
prudenti, ingenti, felici, vecordi, Arpinati, except in ablatives absolute
(see § 277), when e is always used: e.g. Tarquinio regnante; or, when
adjectives in ens stand for substantives: e.g. a sapiente, in omni ani-
mante.
OBS. The following adjectives, however, have e only : compos, im-
pos, coelebs, deses, pauper, princeps, pubes (pubéris), superstes,
and almost always ales, dives; commonly, too, vetus, uber. Par" and
memor, on the contrary, always have i.
c. The comparatives of adjectives: e.g. majore, majori; e, however,
is the more usual termination.
d. Sometimes, too, the ablative in i is used in other substantives in s.
gen. is (parisyllables), besides those above-named: e.g. igni, avi; like-
wise in some which have another termination; as, imbri (imber), supel-
lectili (supellex), ruri, in the country (rus); and in some names of
towns, to denote the place in which : e.g. Carthagini, in Carthage; Ti-
buri, Anxuri.” - ,"
§ 43. 1. The nominative and accusative plural of neuter words
generally end in a ; but the substantives in e, al, ar (āris), and
1 The substantive par has also pare. (Impåre numero, Virg.)
* In the antiquated style even parti, carni. - -
*~~
48 -- LATIN GRAMMAR. § 44
adjectives and participles in the positive (not in the comparative),
have ia; e.g. animalia, calcaria, elegantia, inertia, animantia.
Vetus only has vetera.
OBs. Several adjectives of one termination, which follow the third
declension, form no neuter in the plural. See § 60, c.
2. Those masculines and feminines, which end in ium in the gen. plur.
(see § 44), had, in the accusative, in the older period, besides es, the ter-
mination is, which was long the usual one; e.g. classis, omnis. (It was
also written classeis, omneis.) But this pronunciation and orthography
were not without exceptions. At a later period, they disappeared; but
the more ancient orthography is still found here and there in the editions
of Latin authors.
§ 44. 1. In some words the gen, plur. is formed by aſfixing ium
to the stem instead of um ; viz.:- --
a. In the parisyllables in es and is (§ 40, 1, c); e.g. aedium, cri-
nium; except ambāges, a circuit (of which the ablative alone is used in
the sing.); strues, heap ; vates, canis, juvenis, which have um (am-
bagum, canum); with volucris, bird (properly an adjective), which
most usually has um; and apis, bee; sedes, seat; mensis, month, which
often have that termination. - -
b. In the several words imber, linter, venter, uter, a leather bottle,
Insuber (a national name), and caro (carnis); e.g. imbrium, car-
nium.
c. In the monosyllables in s or x, preceded by a consonant: e.g.
mons, montium; arx, arcium (except opum, from ops, unused in the
nom.); and in the several monosyllables as, glis, lis, mas, mus, os, gen.
ossis, vis (vires, virium), faux (not used in the nom. sing.), nix (nives,
nivium), nox, and sometimes fraus (also fraudum).
Obs. 1. The Greek words gryps, lynx, sphynx, have um.
OBs. 2. Some monosyllables do not occur in the gen, plur., though
the remaining cases of the plural are in use; of these, the following
may be especially noticed: cor, cos, rus, sal, sol, vas, gen. vadis.
d. In words of more than one syllable in ns and rs: e.g. clientium,
cohortium, from cliens, client; cohors, cohort; but sometimes, particu-
larly in the poets, these words have um (parentes, parentum, a form
also common in prose).
e. In neuter words in e, al, ar (gen. aris), and in those adjectives and
participles which have a neuter plural: e.g. marium, animalium, calca-
rium, from mare, animal, Calcar; acrium, facilium, felicium, elegan-
tium, inertium," locupletium, from acer, facilis, felix, elegans, iners,
1 Facilium according to rule a also, elegantium and inertium, according to d.
§ 45 THIRD DECLENSION. 49
locuples, except the adjective vetus (veterum), and qvadrupes, versi-
color (anceps, praeceps), which have um.
From the adjectives in ns, we find, now and then, um, instead of ium:
e.g. sapientum; from those in is, very seldom, and only in the poets:
e.g. caelestum, from caelestis.
OBs. But if the adjectives have no neuter plural (§ 60, c), the geni-
tive ends in um; consequently, we have inopum, divitum, uberum, vigi-
lum, from inops, dives, uber, vigil. Celer, hebes, teres, are not found
in the gen. plur. Celeres, the body-guard of the Roman kings, has in
the gen. celerum.
f. In national names in is and as: e.g. from Qviris, Qviritium; from
Arpinas, Arpinatium; and in the two plural words, penates, the guar-
dian gods; and optimates, the nobles (rarely um). Other words
also in as, atis, sometimes have ium; e.g. civitatium (but civitatum
is better).
2. The names of some Roman festivals, which end in alia, and are used
only in the plural, have, in the genitive, iorum (as in the second declen-
sion) as well as ium; e.g. Bacchanalia, Bacchanaliorum, the feast of
Bacchus. So also the word ancile, a shield, which fell from heaven (an-
ciliorum). -
3. The dative and ablative plural of Greek words in ma generally have
the termination is, for ibus; e.g. poèmatis, from poèma.
4. The word bos, běvis, has, in the gen. plur., boum; in the dat.
and abl., bābus, or bübus; in the nom. and acc., the regular form,
böves. Sus has, in the dat. and abl. plur., suibus, and (contracted)
subus.
§ 45. (Greek forms in Greek words.) 1. Greek proper names in
Coy, gen. Govog (ānis), and ovos (ānis), the Latin form of e.g. Plato,
Zeno, Dio, Laco, Agamemno; but on is retained in some writers (as
Cornelius Nepos): e.g. Dion, Conon; and almost always in geographical
names: e.g. Babylon, Lacedaemon. Those in ov, optos, and Govt.og
(ontis), for the most part, retain the n; Xenophon. (In Plautus
and Terence, however, some names of this kind are altered in the
inflection; e.g. Antipho, Antiphönis, instead of Antiphon, Antiphon-
tis.)
2. a. In the poets, and some prose-writers, the accusative occasionally
ends in a, when the Greek has this termination; but, in prose, this is con-
fined, with a few exceptions, to proper names; e.g. Agamemněna, Baby-
löna, Periclea (Pericles), Troezéna, Pana, and, in the poets, heröa,
thorâca. Only the words ačr and aether have, in prose, too, almost
always aéra, aethéra.
b. Greek words in is, gen. is, have, in the accusative, im (Latin), and
in (Greek); e.g. poésim, poésin, Charybdim, Charybdin. Of the
4
50 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 45.
words in is, idis, those which, in Greek, have ty and tòo, in the accus.,
have, for the most part, im (in), in Latin, rarely idem (Greek ida):
e.g. Paris, Parim, Parin, rarely Paridem; except those in tis, which
have both forms: e.g. Phthiótis, Phthiotim (Phthiotin), and Phthioti-
dem (Phthiotida). -
Those which, in Greek, have only té0 (i.e. all oxytones), have, in
Latin, also idem (ida); e.g. tyrannis, tyrannidem (tyrannida). (So
especially feminine patronymics and national names; e.g. Aeneis,
Aeneidem, and Aeneida.) -
c. Words in ys, gen. yis, have, in the acc., ym (Latin), oryn (Greek);
e.g. Othrym, Othryn.
d. Those proper names in es, gen. is, which in Greek follow the first
declension (§ 35, Obs. 4), have en as well as em: e.g. Aeschinen, Mith-
ridaten; so also sometimes those which, in Greek, follow the third decl.,
but have, in the acc., both 7 (according to the third decl.) and my
(according to the first): e.g. Xenocraten. (Others but rarely; as
Sophoclen, instead of Sophoclem.)
e. Proper names in es, Étis, are like Thales, which has, in the acc.,
besides Thalètem, a shorter form, Thalem, Thalen (abl., Thale; in the
gen. and dat., this shorter form, Thalis, Thali, is unusual). -
3. In the genitive of Greek words, the poets use, not unfrequently,
the form os, but particularly in words in is and as, gen. idos and ados
(especially in proper names): e.g. Thetis, Thetidos; Pallas, Pallados;
in those in ys, gen. yos: e.g. Tethys, Tethyos; and in proper names
in eus, gen, eos: e.g. Peleus, Peléðs (Latin, Peleus, Pelei. See
§ 38, 3.)
The gen. secs, from words in sis, -e.g. poéséos, from poésis, – is
not found in good writers.
Greek names of women, in o, as Io, Sappho, have mostly the Greek
genitive is (ovs). In the acc., dat., and abl., 5 is used; e.g. Sappho
(acc. 2&tºpoj, dat. 2&tºpoi), rarely the Latin form Sapphonem, Sap-
phoni, Sapphone.
4. The Greek words in is, ys, and eus, have the Greek vocative, which
is formed by the rejection of s : e.g. Phylli, Alexi, Coty, Orpheu; but
those in is, idos, have often too (in Latin) the voc. like the nom. : e.g.
Thais. Names of men in as, antis (the voc. in Greek being ºv and &),
have à ; e.g. Calchas, voc. Calchä.
Proper names in es have es and e, e.g. Carneades and Carneade,
Chremes and Chreme (from Chremes, Chremétis).
5. In the nom. plur. of Greek words, the poets often use es (eg)
short, instead of making the final syllable long, as is usual in Latin words
(§ 20, 2). In the name Sardis (gen. Sardium), is stands for the Greek
&lº.
§ 46 FOURTH DECLENSION. 51
6. The accusative plural sometimes ends in as, as in Greek, especially
in the poets; e.g. Aethiópas, Pyramidas. This termination is also
used in some barbarous national names which, in their form, resemble
Greek words; e.g. Allobrögas, Lingönas, from Allobrox, Lingon.
7. The Greek ending of the gen. on is used only in the titles of books:
e.g. Metamorphoseón libri." -
8. The termination of the dative in si (sin) is very rarely used, by a
few poets, from feminine words in as and is; e.g. Troasin, Charisin, from
Troades, Charites. - -
9. From the few Greek neuter words in os and es, there are formed a
* -
nom. and acc. plur. in É (m), without any further inflection; e.g. melos,
mele. (Tempe, $ 51, g.)
CHAPTER VII.
F O U R T H D E C L E N S I O N .
$46. Words of the fourth declension end in us or (neut.) u,
and are declined as follows : —
(fructus, fruit; cornu, the horn.) -
NoM. fructiis fruct is corn u COIIl lial
VOC. fruct is fruct is cornu corn ua
ACC. fruct um fruct is cornu cornua
GEN. fruct is fructuum corn is corn uum
DAT. fructui fructibus. cornu corn ibus
ABL. fruct u fructibus COIII]. Ül corn ibus
OBs. 1. Like cornu are declined only a few words (genu, knee; veru,
spit). Some cases of other words are formed according to this example;
but the word has, at the same time, other forms; as, from pecu, cat-
tle, nom. and acc. plur. pecua, and dat. pecubus; but otherwise, pecus,
pecidis, and pecus, pecóris, after the third declension. (See amongst
the abundantia, § 56, 7.) Gelu, cold, is, in ordinary language, used
only in the ablative. (In other cases, we find the form — not a common
one — gelum, geli. The nom. gelu belongs to the later Latin, and gelus
is obsolete.) - -
1 Maleon, Mažteåv, the Maleans (Curt.).
52 LATIN GRAMMAR. - $47
OBS. 2. The ending us, in the gen. sing., is contracted from uis,
which sometimes occurs in the older language; e.g. anuis, of an old
woman. From some words, – especially senatus, the senate; and tu-
multus, the stir, – some writers (e.g. Sallust) form the gen. in i; e.g.
senati, tumulti."
Obs. 3. In the dative, ui is often contracted into li; e.g. eqvitatu
for eqvitatuí, as in cornu. -
OBs. 4. In the dative and ablative plur., dissyllables, with c before
the ending (acus, needle; arcus, bow; lacus, lake; quercus, oak;
specus, cave, and pecu); with the words artus, joint; partus, birth ;
tribus, tribe; and veru, spit, — have tibus, instead of ibus; e.g. artii-
bus. Portus, haven, has portibus and portubus.
OBS. 5. The names of some trees in us, – especially cupressus,
cypress; ficus, fig-tree; laurus, the laurel; and pinus, the pine, – are
sometimes declined throughout like the second declension; sometimes they
take those cases of the fourth declension which end in us and u; e.g.
gen. laurus, abl. lauru, nom. and acc. plur. laurus. (Qvercus is
declined entirely according to the fourth declension.) So also the word
colus, distaff. - tº
Domus, house, forms some cases exclusively according to the second
declension; while, in others, it has both forms, as follows: — -
SING. - - PLUR.
NoM. dom us dom, tis
VOC. dom us dom. iis
ACC. dom um dom os (rarely dom is)
GEN. dom is dom ulum, dom orum
DAT. dom ui (rarely dom oy dom, ibus
ABL. dom o (rarely dom u) dom, ibus
The genitive form domi is used only in the signification at home. See
§ 296, b.”
§ 47. GENDER. Words of the fourth declension, in us, are mas-
culine, those in u neuter. But of those in us the following are
feminine: the names of trees; as, qvercus: with acus, colus, domus;
manus, hand; penus, a store of provisions (see § 56, 7); porti-
cus, portico ; tribus, tribe: and the plurals idus (iduum), the thir-
teenth or fifteenth day of every month ; and qwinqvatrus, a certain
1 It is not correct to assume that the words in u had u also in the genitive. Only cornu
bubulum, cow's horn, and cornu cervinum, stag's horn, were inflected, in later times,
as if the substantive and adjective made only one word; cornububuli, cornucervini.
2. By some written also domui, on the authority of manuscripts.
§ 49 FIFTH DECLENSION. 53
feast: in the older language also specus (also, from their signifi-
cation, anus, old woman ; nurus, daughter-in-law; SOCrus, mother-
*n-law).
OBS. Colus is also found in the masculine, specus (in the nom. and
acc.) in the neuter, — both but rarely.
CHAPTER VIII.
F. I.F. T. EI D E C L E N S I O N .
$48. This declension comprises only a few words, which all end
in es, and are declined as follows: —
(res, the thing; dies, the day.)
SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR.
NOM. res Iſe 3 die s die s
WOC. res Iſe 3 dies dies
ACC. rem Iſe 5 die m dies
GEN. ré i re rum. die i die rum
DAT. ré i ré bus die i die bus
ABL. re re bus die die bus
OBS. 1. In the gen. and dat. singular, the e in ei is long after a vowel,
short after a consonant. In the earlier period, the contracted termina-
tion è was also used in these cases (e.g. fidé, acié, diè, for fidèi, aciêi,
diëi, in the gen. in Horace, Caesar, Sallust; fidê, in the dat., in Horace)."
In the genitive, there occurred also an old form in i; e.g. pernicii, for
perniciei. * -
OBs. 2. Only res and dies are declined throughout in the plural. The
words acies, facies, effigies, species, and spes (in Virgil, glacies), are
used in the nom. and acc. plur., - not in the other cases. The remain-
ing words have no plural.
OBs. 3. Some words have a double form, according to the fifth declen-
sion, and according to the first with the nom. in a see among the abun-
dantia, § 56, 3.
§ 49. All words of the fifth declension are feminine; except
dies, which is masculine and feminine in the singular, in the plural
1 [Constantis juvenem fide (Hor. Od. iii. 7,4); Libra die somnique pares ubi
fecerit horas (Virg. Georg. i. 208).]
54 LATIN GRAMMAR. $.50
only masculine. In the singular too, with the signification day, it
is usually masculine in good prose-writers; but, with the significa-
tion term, time (longa dies), it is almost always feminine (in prose
always). (Meridies, mid-day, is masculine.)
CHAPTER IX.
of some PECULLARITIES IN THE USE OF THE NUMBERs of
SUBSTANTIVES, AND OF SOME IRREGULARITIES IN THEIR
: INFLECTION. -
§ 50. PECULLARITIES RELATING TO THE NUMBERs. Many words
in Latin (as in our own language) are used only in the singular;
because they are either proper names of definite individual objects
(e.g. Roma; also, tellus, humus, the earth in general,— terrae,
plural, means lands); or because they denote an idea in its general
or abstract sense, and in its absolute meaning, without reference to
the particular objects in which it appears. in the concrete. Such
are the names of the qualities, properties, and condition and cir-
cumstances of a being; as, justitia, justice; senectus, old age ;
fames, hunger; scientia, knowledge; indoles, natural gifts: names
used in a collective sense; as, plebs, Vulgus, the common people;
supellex, household furniture : names of a material; as, aurum,
gold; triticum, wheat; sanguis, blood; virus, venom.
If such words as usually designate a whole alter their significa-
tion, and are used to denote individual objects, they have also the
plural: e.g. aera, instruments of copper, bronze statues ; cerae, waa.
tablets, waa masks; ligna, pieces of wood, billets. -
OBs. 1. Such changes of the signification must be ascertained by atten-
tive reading, and from the dictionary. Thus, mors, death, is used in the
plural, of cases of death, kinds of death; while letum, death, is never so
employed. In this, the poets go further than the prose-writers; e.g. tria
tura, three grains of incense, from tus, incense. Sometimes, the poets
employ names expressive of abstract ideas, and names of classes or mate-
rials, in the plural, without a change in the signification (as of a whole,
consisting of several parts): e.g. silentia, silence; murmura, murmur-
ing; flamina, blowing; hordea, barley; but chiefly only in the nom. and
§ 51 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 55
acc. Thus, the poets sometimes used ora, pectora, corda, of a single
individual.
OBS. 2. The Latin word may sometimes have originally a more ab-
stract signification than the English which most nearly corresponds to it,
and therefore be without a piural; as, specimen, a proof. (Various hor-
ticultural productions, – as fruit and flowers, – as well as the different
species of corn, are, in Latin, named in the singular, when it is intended to
designate the whole kind, or an indefinite quantity; e.g. abstinere faba,
mille modii fabae (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 55), beans in general: but fabae,
beans taken separately; glande vesci (Cic. Or. 9), in rosa jacere. This
applies also sometimes to other kinds of produce.
OBS. 3. The Latins, unlike ourselves, often used the names of abstract
ideas in the plural, when the idea (an activity, property, condition, being)
is to be conceived as applying to several persons or things (several sub-
jects), or when it is intended to denote that the idea is exhibited several
times, and in a variety of forms. So, when the mind or mood of several
persons is spoken of, animi is used (animos militum incendere, animi
hominum terrentur); and we find (in Cicero), adventiis imperatorum,
exitiis bellorum mites, odia hominum, novorum hominum indus-
triae, proceritates arborum, invidiae multitudinis, iracundiae,
timores, tarditates, celeritates, tres constantiae (three kinds of
constantia), omnes avaritiae (all the ways in which avarice displays
itself)." So, of the weather, we find the expressions, nives, snow-storms;
grandines, hail-storms; soles, bursts of Sunshine (in the poets, days);
frigora, cold seasons.” .
OBs. 4. Proper names are used in the plural, not only when borne by
several individuals (e.g. Valerii omnes, duo Scipiones Africani), but
also figuratively of men of a certain kind; e.g. multi Cicerones (many
orators as distinguished as Cicero).
OBs. 5. In some historians and poets, certain words, which denote a
man of a particular class or rank, are sometimes used in the singular of
the whole class: e.g. Romanus, for the Romans; eqves, for the knights;
miles, for the soldiers.
§ 51. Some words are used only in the plural (pluralia tantum),
because they either designate several individual things, which are
so named only in the aggregate, and not when taken separately:
e.g. majores, ancestors; or because they are used of something
which originally suggested the idea of several constituent parts, or
1 Rectiqve cultus pectora roborant (Hor.). Tantaene animis coelestibus
irae P (Virg.) -
2 Siccitates paludum (Caes. B. G. iv. 88).
56 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 51
the idea of repetition, or the like: e.g. arma, gen, armorum, ar-
mor; fides, gen, fidium, the cithara." -
OBs. Of such words, the following are most usual : —
a. Liberi, children; majores, ancestors (properly the comparative of
magnus, great); procères and primores, men of rank; inferi, the in-
habitants of the lower world; superi, the inhabitants of the wpper world;
caelites, the inhabitants of heaven; penates, household gods; manes, the
spirits of the departed; munia (only in the nom. and acc.), employ-
ments; utensilia, utensils, provisions; verbera, stripes (verbere, see
§ 55, 3). •
b. Parts of the Body: artus, the limbs; cani (adj., with which ca-
pilli is to be understood), gray hairs; cervices, the neck (in the later
writers, cervix); exta, intestina, viscera (rarely viscus), the intes-
times; fauces, the throat (fauce, see § 55, 3); praecordia, the dia-
phragm; ilia, the flank; renes, the kidneys.
c. Materials, Compound Objects: altaria, the altar; arma, armor;
armamenta, tackling; balneae, bath-house (balneum, a private, single
bath, plur. balnea); cancelli, lattice; casses, a fowler's met; castra,
camp (castrum, as the name of a place; e.g. Castrum Novum);
clathri, a grating; clitellae, pack-saddle; compedes, fetters (com-
pede, see § 55, 3); cunae, cunabula, incunabula, cradle; exuviae,
an integument stripped off (arms taken in fight); fides, lyre (fidem,
fidis, fide, see § 55, 2); fori, rows of seats; loculi, a repository (with
several compartments); lustra, a lurking-place of wild beasts ; manu-
biae, booty; moenia (moenium), the wall of a town ; obices, a bolt
(obice, see § 55, 3); phalérae, the ornaments of horses; salinae, salt-
works; scalae, stairs; scopae, broom; sentes, thorn-bush; spolia, spoils;
valvae, folding-doors; vepres, brambles (veprem, vepre, see § 55, 2);
virgulta, the thicket: and, generally, bigae, a carriage with two horses;
qvadrigae, a carriage with four horses; and the participles sata, the
cornfields; serta, garlands of flowers.
d. Ambāges, a round about way ($ 55, 3); argutiae, witty, ingeni-
ous discourse; crepundia, playthings; deliciae, delight; dirae, a curse
(from the adj. dirus); divitiae, riches; excubiae, the guard; exse-
qviae, funeral solemnities; epulae, banquet (sing. epulum, generally
a public entertainment); fasti, calendar; grates, thanks (only in the
1 Majores denotes all the individual ancestors, but only as taken together; a single an-
cestor is not called major. The same holds good with liberi. In these cases, therefore, we
think of the individuals which make up the number; and three children is expressed by tres
liberi. Fides, on the other hand, denotes the compound stringed instrument, but not its
several parts (the strings are called nervi); arma is a suit of armor, which consists of sev-
eral pieces. We think, therefore, in these expressions of the compound unity, and trina,
arma (according to § 76, c) signifies three suits of armor. Most of the pluralia tantum
belong to this latter description.
§ 52 - IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. . 57
nom. and acc.); induciae, an armistice; ineptiae, silliness (rarely in
the sing.); inferiae, a sacrifice to the dead; insidiae, ambuscade; in-
imicitiae, enmity (but amicitia); minae, threatening ; nugae, non-
sense; nuptiae, a marriage; praestigiae, a blind, deception; preces,
supplication (prece, see § 55, 3); primitiae, first-fruits; reliqviae,
remains; sordes, dirt (sordem, sorde, see § 55, 2); tenebrae, dark-
mess; vindiciae, a judicial process; so also usually angustiae, a strait
(embarrassment); blanditiae, flattery; illecebrae, enticement.
e. Names of Days and Festivals: Calendae, the first day of the
month; Nonae, the fifth (or seventh); Idiis, thirteenth (or fifteenth);
feriae, holiday; nundinae, market-day; Bacchanalia, the feast of Bac-
chus; Saturnalia, the feast of Saturn; and other names of festivals, in
alia and ilia. . -
f. The names of many towns; e.g. Veji, Athenae, Leuctra, Gades.
Of those in i, some designate both the town and its inhabitants; e.g. Del-
phi, Leontini.
g. The mountain chains Alpes and Acroceraunia, and the valley of
Tempe (§ 45, 9). The poets use some Greek names of mountains as
neuter in the plural, instead of masculine in the singular; as, Taygeta,
for Taygetus.
§ 52. Some words, which in the singular are employed to denote
a single object or idea, are used in the plural to express not only
a number of such objects, but also (as pluralia tantum) a more
complex object which bears some affinity to them, or a collection of
objects: e.g. littera, a letter of the alphabet; litterae, either letters
or an epistle ; auxilium, aid; auxilia, resources or auxiliary troops.
(Binae litterae, two epistles; bina auxilia, two bodies of auxilia-
ries. See § 76, c. We also find litterae sometimes without a nu-
meral to signify epistles; e.g. afferuntur ex Asia quotidie litterae,
Cic. pro. leg. Man. 2.) -
OBS. Further instances of such words are: —
SINGULAR. - PLURAL.
aedes, a temple. aedes, a temple; b. a house.
aqva, water. aqvae, a. waters ; b. a nedicinal
- spring. -
carcer, a prison. carceres, the space partitioned off
- by the barriers (on the race-
course).
codicillus (rare), a small log. codicilli, the writing-tablet, the
--- 720te.
copia, fulness, a store, a number. Copiae, a. stores; b. troops.
58 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 54
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
comitium, a place in the market in comitia, an assembly of the peo-
Rome. - - ple.
fortuna, fortune. fortunae, the goods of fortune.
gratia, thankfulness (in action and gratiae, thanks.
in feeling).
hortus, garden. * horti, a gardens; b. pleasure-
gardens, a country-house.
impedimentum, hindrance. impedimenta, a hindrances; b.
baggage.
ludus, play, a jest. ludi, a public spectacle.
maris, mostril. nares, the nose (rarely in the sing.
in this signification).
natalis (adj. dies), birthday. natales, pedigree.
ops (not used in the nom.), help. opes, power, riches.
pars, part. partes, a. parts ; b. the part (of
an actor in a play), side, party.
rostrum, beak, the beak of a rostra, the platform for the orators
ship. in the market at Rome (adorned
with beaks of ships).
tabula, board, tablet. tabulae, a boards, &c.; b. an
account-book, a document."
§ 53. In some compound words, which consist of two entire un-
altered words in the nominative, and may be again resolved into
their constituent parts (spurious compounds), both parts of the
compound are declined: e.g. respublica, the state, acc. rempubli-
cam, gen. reipublicae, &c. (according to the fifth, and first decl.);
jusjurandum, the oath, gen, jurisjurandi, &c. (according to the
third and second). -
§ 54. Some few substantives are indeclinable: namely, the Latin
and Greek names of the letters (a, alpha, &c.); the words fas,
right; nefas, wrong; instar, equality (in size and signification);
mane, the early morning ; Caepe, onion ; gummi, gum ; but
these words, with the exception of the letters, are used only as
nominatives and accusatives. Mane, however, is also used as an
ablative (summo mane, at the earliest dawn).
Obs. 1. The names of the letters are also used as genitives, datives,
or ablatives, when the addition of an adjective (e.g. y Graecae), or the
connection, clearly shows the case.
* Animi, spirit (haughtiness), and spiritus, haughtiness, pride; used also of a single
individual. &T
§ 55 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 59
OBS. 2. For gummi, writers also use gummis, gen. gummis, ſem., and
gumen, neuter: for Caepe, often Caepa, gen. Caepae.
OBS. 3. Pondo is also indeclinable, being used sometimes as an abl.
sing., signifying in weight: e.g. coronam auream, libram pondo (a
pound in weight; weighing a pound); sometimes as a plural noun in the
nom., acc., and gen.: e.g. qvingvagena pondo data consulibus; tor-
qves aureus, duo pondo (by apposition); corona aurea pondo du-
centum (ducentorum).
OBS. 4. Barbarous names — the Hebrew, for instance (in Christian
authors)—often receive a Latin termination, in order to make declension
practicable, either in the nom. —e.g. Abrahamus—or in the other
cases only, the foreign form being used for the nom. ; e.g. David, gen.
Davidis. The name Jesus has, in the acc., Jesum; in the other cases,
Jesu.
§ 55. Some words have an inflection of the cases, but not through-
out (defectiva casibus, deficient in their cases).
OBS. According to the number of the cases in use, such words are called
monoptöta, diptota, triptota, or tetraptota, words with one, two,
three, or four cases." The cause of this incompleteness is found in the
meaning or the use of the word, which made only certain cases neces-
sary, or retained no others in use.
1. The following words want the nom. ; (daps, obsolete), dapis,
food; (dicio), dicionis, dominion ; (frux), frugis, fruit; (inter-
necio), internecionis, destruction ; (pollis), pollinis, fine flour.
2. The following words are used in the sing. only in certain
CàSéS : –
fors, accident, in the nom. and abl. (forte, usually as an adverb, acci-
dentally), without a plural.
(fides, or fidis, unused, lyre), in the acc., gen., and abl., fidem,
fidis, fide. Used only by the poets; commonly fides, fidium, as a plur.
tantum.
(impes, unused, violence), in the gen, and abl. impétis, impete.
(Without plural. Usually impetus, after the fourth declension.)
lues, an epidemical disease, in the nom., acc., and abl., luem, lue. (No
plural.)
(ops, unused, help), in the acc., gen., and abl., open, opis, ope. In
the plural,—opes, opum, power, riches, –it is declined throughout. See
§ 52.
(sordes, unused, dirt), in the acc. and abl., sordem, sorde; both rare.
Usually, sordes, sordium, as plur. tantum.
*—
1. From TT&otſ, case, with the Greek numerals.
60 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 55
(vepres, unused, bramble), in the acc. and abl., veprem, vepre;
both rare. Commonly plur. tant, vepres, veprium.
(vicis, or vix, unused, change), in the acc., gen., and abl., vicem,
vicis, vice. In the plural, vices, vicibus; the gen. is wanting.
vis, force, in the nom., acc., and abl., vim, vi. In the plural, vires,
virium, the powers, complete."
3. The following when used in the singular are used in the abla-
tive only ; ambāge, compède, fauce, obice, prece, verbere, and all,
if we except prece and (rarely) verbere, only by the poets; other-
wise they are pluralia tantum, ambāges, &c. ($ 51, Obs.)”
4. Sponte, an impulse (fem.), is used in the abl. sing. only (with-
out a plural) with a possessive pronoun: e.g. sua sponte, of his own
accord, nostra sponte ; so likewise several verbal substantives in
u from Supines, which are constructed only with a genitive or a pos-
sessive pronoun: e.g. jussu populi, by order of the people; man-
datu Caesaris, by a commission from Caesar; rogatu meo, at my
request; together with natu, in respect of age (birth): e.g. grandis
natu, advanced in age. (In promptu, in procinctu.)
5. The following substantives are only used in one particular case, and
in certain combinations: dicis (dicis causa, for form's sake), nauci (non
nauci, as gen. of the price, not worth a farthing; non mauci facio, non
nauci est), derisui (esse, to be a laughing-stock, according to § 249),
and so also, despicatui and ostentui (esse), infitias (ire, to deny),
suppetias (ferre, to bring assistance), venum (ire, to be sold; dare, to
sell).”
Secus, sex, with the adjective virile or muliebre, is used without
alteration in the acc. in apposition to all cases, signifying of the male or
female sex; e.g. Liberorum capitum, virile secus, ad decem millia
capta (Liv. XXVI. 47). (Otherwise, sexus, after the fourth declen-
sion.) Repetundarum and (de) repetundis (pecuniarum, pecuniis)
are found only in these cases, when reference is made to judicial proceed-
ings on account of money raised illegally.
6. The gen. plur. is wanting in some monosyllables of the third de-
clension (see § 44, c, Obs. 2).
7. The plural grates, some plurals used only by the poets (see $50,
Obs. 1), and the plurals of some monosyllables of the neuter gender (aera,
jura, rura, farra), are found only in the nom. and acc.; so, likewise, some
1. Acc. plur. Vis, in Lucretius
2 (Ambages, nom. sing., in Tacitus?); preci, dat., in Terence; verberis, gen., in Ovid.
* Astu, craftily, as an adverb: in later writers, also, astus, craft, nom. ; and astüs,
_lom. and acc. plur.
§ 56 IRREGULARITIES OF DECLENSION. 61
plural words of the fifth declension (§ 48, Obs. 2), and of the fourth; im-
petus, spiritus.
$ 56. Some words are declined in two or more ways (abundan-
tia), and of these some vary in gender as well as in the termination
of the nominative case. In some instances, however, one form is
used more frequently than the other.
OBs. Words with various inflections are termed heteroclita; those
with various genders, heterogenea."
Particular examples of this have been already mentioned: as, laurus,
lauri and lauriis, domus, &c. (§ 46, Obs. 5); as also the variation
between Greek and Latin forms: e.g. logice and logica (§ 35,
Obs. 1). .
To this class belong also the following: —
1. In the second declension, some words end both in us (masc.) and in
um (neut.): as, callus and callum, callosity; commentarius and com-
mentarium, memoir; jugulus and jugulum, throat; some names of
plants: as, lupinus, lupinum, lupine; porrus, porrum, leek; cubitus,
elbow; also, cubitum (particularly cubita, ells); balteus, belt; bacu-
lum, stick; clipeus, shield, - more rarely balteum, baculus, cli-
peum.
2. Menda and mendum, fault, varies between the first and second
declension. Vespera, evening, has also vesper, and acc. vesperum,
after the second declension; and, in the ablative, usually vespere, ves-
peri, after the third. (Vesper, vesperi (2d), the evening-star.) Aranea
and araneus, spider; columbus and columba, dove; and some other
names of animals. See § 30, Obs.
3. Some words in ia and ies vary between the first and fifth declen-
sion; e.g. barbaria and barbaries, mollitia, mollities, luxuria, luxu-
ries. (In the gen., dat., and abl., these words more rarely follow the
fifth decl.) (The form materies is generally used to denote wood for
building, — materia, for matter.)
4. Some substantives of the fourth declension, derived from verbs, have
an additional form in um, i, e.g. eventus, eventum, event. So also
angiportus (4th) and angiportum (2d), a marrow street; suggestus
(4th) and suggestum (2d), platform ; tonitrus (4th) and tonitruum
(2d), thunder. -
5. The following are to be separately noticed: —
plebs, plebis (3d), and plebes, plebei (5th), the common people. (Tri-
buni plebis and plebei, also plebi. See § 48, Obs. 1.)
1 From Štěpog, another, and K%ialſ, inflection, Yévoſ, gender.
62 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 56
reqvies, reqviétis, rest; in the acc. and abl., also, reqviem, re-
qvie (5th). -
gausãpe, gausapis, and gausapum (2d), neut., a kind of woollen
stuff; also gausapa (1st), fem. ; and gausapes, gausapis, masc.
praesepe, praesepis, neut., manger; also, praesepes, praesepis, .
fem. and praesepium (2d). - -
- tapes, tapétis, masc., carpet; also, tapete, tapetis, neut., and tape-
tum, tapeti.
ilia, flanks (plur. tant), gen. ilium (3d) and iliorum, dat. and abl.
ilibus.
6. Jugerum, jugeri, acre, is declined, in the singular, after the second
declension; in the plural, after the third : jugera, jugerum, jugeribus
(rarely jugeris).
Vas, vasis, vessel (3d), follows the second declension in the plural;
vasa, vasorum, vaS15.
7. In some words, not only the case-endings, but even the stem
itself varies; so that they are, properly, distinct words, not merely differ-
ent declensions of the same. Of this class are to be noticed, -
femur, thigh, feméris and feminis (from the unused nom. femen);
and so the remaining cases.
jecur, jectºris, liver; in the gen., also, jocinóris, jecinóris, joci-
nëris; and so the remaining cases. -
juventus, juventutis, youth ; in the poets, juventa (1st), and Juven-
tas, Juventatis, the goddess of youth.
Senectus, old age; in the poets, senecta (1st).
Peous, pectidis, fem., a head of (small) cattle (the nom. rare);
pecus, pecóris (generally collectively, cattle); also, pecua (plur. tan-
tum), pecubus, -
penus, penčris, plur. penöra, a store of provisions; also, penus,
penus, fem., and penum, peni,-the last two forms without a plu-
ral. -
So, also, colluvio (3d) and colluvies (5th), filth washed together, a
confused mixture; contagio (3d) and contagium (2d, in the poets and
later writers), contact, contagion; scorpio (3d) and scorpius (2d), the
scorpion; with some others.
OBs. Some Greek words are partly adopted in their Greek form, partly
employed in a Latin form, somewhat modified; e.g. crater (3d, masc.)
and cratéra' (fem.), elephas (elephantis, 3d) and elephantus (2d),
tiāras (1st, masc.) and tiãra (fem.). See § 33, Obs. 3. Of the words
chaos, chaos; cetos, whale; melos, song (3d, neut.), we find (but
rarely) the Latin forms chaus (abl. chao), cetus, melus (masc.). The
city of Argos is also named, in Latin, Argi, Argorum ($ 51, f).
* [Hor. Od. iii. 18, 7.]
§ 58 TNFLECTION | OF ADJECTIVES. 63
§ 57. Some few words change wholly or partially in the plural
th: gender which they have in the singular; as : —
focus, jest; plur., joci and joca. -
locus, place; plur., loca, places, in a material signification; loci,
passages in books, subjects. (Some authors, however, use loci in the sense
of loca.)
carbasus, linen (fem.); plur., carbasa (sails).
coelum, heaven ; plur., coeli.
frenum, bit; plur., freni and frena.
rastrum, mattock; plur., rastri and rastra.
ostrea, oyster; plur., ostreae, and ostrea, Ostreorum.
siblius, hissing ; plur., sibili, -poet., sibila.
Tartarus, hell; plur., Tartara. (A Greek word, used only in the
poets.)
OBS. Of balneae and epulae (balneum, epulum), see § 51,
Obs. c, d.
CHAPTER X.
‘ſ H E 1 NFL E CT I o N OF A D J E C T IV Es.
$ 58. Adjectives, and likewise participles, are declined by cases;
but they are at the same time subject to some variation in form to
correspond with the gender of the substantive to which they belong.
Thus those adjectives which in the masculine gender follow the
second declension, in the feminine add a to the stem throughout,
and are declined according to the first declension. But those, on
the other hand, which follow the third declension (of which the
stem ends in a consonant), are varied only in the formation of the
nominative and accusative. They thus become adjectives of three,
of two, or of one termination in the nominative. They are then
declined like substantives with a similar stem and of the same gen-
der, as it has been said already, under the declension of substan-
tives. (No adjectives belong to the fourth or fifth declension.)
1. ADJEctives of THE FIRST AND SEcond DECLENsion, AND
THREE TERMINATIONs. Those adjectives which in the masculine
and neuter gender follow the second declension, end either in us, in
the neuter in um, and in the feminine in a . e.g. probus, proba,
probum, honest; or in er, érum (rum), šra (ra): e.g. liber,
64 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 59
libera, liberum, free ; niger, migra, nigrum, black; one ends
in ur: satur, satira, satirum, sated."
Those adjectives in er, which retain e before r in the gen. sing.
(and have already been enumerated in § 37), retain it also in the
fem. and neut. : e.g. liber, gen. liberi, libera, liberum; the others
omit it: e.g. niger, gen, migri, migra, nigrum,
OBs. 1. In this way, are also varied the participles in us: as, amatus,
amata, amatum, loved ; amaturus, amatura, amaturum, that will love;
and amandus, amanda, amandum, that is to be loved, lovable.
OBs. 2. Of the irregular gen. and dat. of some adjectives in us,
we have already spoken, in treating of the second declension ($ 37,
Obs. 2). -
OBs. 3. The distinction between the two classes of adjectives consists
only in this, that those in er have not assumed the ending us in the nomin-
ative (as properus, praeposterus, and triqvetius have done, as well as
all those with a long e, as severus), and that in some of them an e has
been inserted in the nominative. Of cetera, ceterum (acc. ceterum,
ceteram, ceterum, and so on in all genders), and Iudicra, Iudicrum
(acc. ludicrum, Iudicram, ludicrum, &c.), the nom. masc. sing. is not
in use; that of posterus rarely occurs. -
$ 59. 2. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION, AND Two or
THREE TERMINATIONs. Of the adjectives of the third declension
some end in is in the nominative of the masculine and feminine
(with the connecting vowel i inserted between the stem and s, see
$ 40, 1, c), in the nominative of the neuter in e (with e as an affix,
see $40, 2, c); e.g. levis, leve, light (abl. levi, neut. plur. levia,
gen. plur. levium. See § 42–44). The distinction between the
neuter and the other genders is only marked in the nom. and acc.
sing, and plur. (levis, leve; levem, leve; leves, levia).
Thirteen adjectives, the stem of which ends in r, and which are, in all
other respects, declined like those adduced ending in is, e, have, in the
nom. sing. masc. gender, er for ris, and therefore in this case three ter-
minations; e.g. masc. acer, fem. acris, neut. acre (gen. acris, &c.).
These adjectives are: acer, keen ; alăcer, alert; campester, belonging
to the field, flat; celèber, much frequented, famous; celer, swift; eqves-
ter, belonging to the cavalry or to knighthood; paluster, marshy; pe-
dester, belonging to the infantry; puter, putrid ; salúber, wholesome ;
silvester, belonging to a wood, wooded; terrester, belonging to the earth
* It is usual to name the genders in this order, though the masculine and neuter are most
nearly related in respect of form.
§ 60 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 65
or continent; voliicer, winged; celer alone retains the e in the inflec-
tion, — fem. celéris, neut. celere, gen. celeris. -
OBS. 1. Sometimes these adjectives end in ris in the masc. also, so that
they in no respect differ from the others in is: e.g. annus salubris (Cic.);
collis silvestris (Caes.). But this occurs but rarely in most words of
this class, and chiefly in the poets. -
OBS. 2. To the same form as these adjectives belong the names of the
months, September, October, November, December, which, in the
nom. sing., occur only in the masc. (mensis), but are found in the femi-
nine in such phrases as Kalendae Septembres, &c. (libertate Decem-
bri, the freedom of December, Hor.).
OBS. 3. Some few adjectives have both the form in us (a, um) and that
in is (e); viz. hilarus, hilaris, merry, and various adjectives formed by
composition from substantives of the first and second decl. : imbecillus
(imbecillis, rare), weak ; imberbus, imberbis, without a beard; iner-
mus, inermis, unarmed; semiermis, semiermus, half-armed; exami-
mus, exanimis, deprived of life; semianimus, semianimis, half
deprived of life; unanimus, unanimis, wrºanimous ; bijugus, qvadri-
jugus, multijugus, and bijugis, &c., with two, four, or many horses;
infrenus, infrenis, unbridled. So of acclivis, rising (in the form of
a hill); declivis, inclined downwards ; proclivis, inclined downwards
(also inclined to any thing, and easy); there is found a rare form, ac-
clivus, &c.
§ 60. 3. ADJECTIVEs of THE THIRD DECLENSION, AND ONE
TERMINATION. a. The remaining adjectives of the third declension
have only one termination in the nominative: e.g. sapiens, wise ;
felix, happy; gen. sapientis, felicis; so also the participles in ns:
as, amans, loving ; legens, reading. But the neuter gender is distin-
guished in the singular by having the acc. the same as the nom.
(masc. and fem. sapientem, felicem, neut. sapiens, felix), and in
the nom. and acc. plural by the termination ia (masc. and fem. Sapi-
entes, felices, neut. sapientia, felicia). (Only vetus has vetera,
see $43, 1. Ablative sapienti and sapiente, see § 42; genitive
plural sapientium, see § 44.) -
b. Adjectives of one termination are found in many of the forms
of the stem and nominative given under the substantives (§ 41, a).
Those which occur most frequently are: nom. as, gen, atis: e.g.
Arpinas, Arpinătis, belonging to the city of Arpinum; ns, ntis:
e.g. sapiens, sapientis, wise ; ax, acis: e.g. ferax, ferācis, fruitful.
The remaining forms are er, gen. §ris (viz. degener, pauper, uber);
es, gen. itis (viz. ales, ooeles, dives, Bospes, superstes); es, Štis
5
66 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 60
(hebes, indiges, praepes, teres: the following should be noticed par-
ticularly: deses and reses, desidis and residis; locuples, locuplétis;
pubes, pubëris, and implibes, impubéris, which is also declined impli-
bis, impubis); ex, icis (e.g. supplex);ix, icis (felix, pernix); ox, Öcis
(atrox, ferox, velox; but praecox, praecocis); the several words
caelebs, caelibis; cicur, ciciiris; compos and impos, compétis and
impôtis; dis, ditis; memor, memoris; Oscen, Oscínis; par, pāris
(dispar, impar); trux, triícis; vetus, vetéris; vigil, vigilis; with some
which are formed from substantives of the third declension, and have the
stem of these substantives: as, concors, concordis, with others from
cor; biceps, bicipitis, with others (anceps, praeceps, triceps) from
caput; intercus, intercütis, from ciitis; iners, inertis, from ars; dis-
color, discolóris, from color; qvadrupes, qvadrupédis, with others
from pes, &c. (Exsangvis, however, has exsangvis in the genitive.)
c. The neuter plural is only formed from those adjectives of one
termination, which end in ans and ens, in as (rarely), rs, ax, ix,
and ox, and from the numeral adjectives in plex; as:
elegantia, sapientia, Larinatia, sollertia, concordia, tenacia, feli-
cia, atrocia, simplicia, duplicia (from elegans, elegant; sapiens, wise;
Larinas, belonging to the city of Larinum; sollers, prudent, ingenious ;
concors, agreed; tenax, tenacious, persevering ; felix, happy; atrox,
horrible); and from the following, to be separately noticed: anceps,
two-sided; praeceps, steep ; locuples, rich; par, equal; vetus, old;
in later writers also from hebes, blunt ; teres, round; quadrupes, four- .
footed ; versicolor, of various colors. (Consequently, not, for exam-
ple, from memor, pauper, supplex, trux, compos, uber, &c.)
Some adjectives, which otherwise have no neuter in the plural, never-
theless occur with neuter substantives in the dat. and abl. : e.g. suppli-
cibus verbis, with suppliant words (Cic.); discoloribus signis, with
signs of various colors (id.); puberibus foliis, with sprouting leaves
(from pubes, Virg.). -
OBs. 1. Some few adjectives vary between one and more endings: as,
opulens, rich, and opulentus, a, um; violens, violent, and, more fre-
quently, violentus. Dives, rich, changes with dis (gen. ditis), neut.
dite; the neuter plural is ditia, the comp. and superl. both divitior, di-
vitissimus, and dition, ditissimus. -
OBs. 2. The substantives derived from verbs (personal names) in tor,
which form feminines in trix (see $177, 2), are sometimes connected as
adjectives with other substantives, especially victor, the conqueror, as
an adj., victorious, fem. victrix; and ultor, the revenger, as an adj.,
avenging, fem. ultrix; e.g. victor exercitus, ultrices deae. From these
two, the poets form a neuter plural, victricia (e.g. arma) and ultricia
§ 62 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 67.
(e.g. tela); and in the same way from the substantive hospes, stranger,
guest, the neuter plural hospita (e.g. aeqvora). . . . .
OBs. 3. Some other appellations of persons are also used by the
poets and later writers as adjectives (by apposition): e.g. artifex, artist
(artifex motus, motion guided by art, Quinct.); incóla, inhabitant
(turba incola, crowd of inhabitants, Ovid); but very rarely with a
neuter substantive (ruricola aratrum, the field-tilling plough, Ovid)."
OBs. 4. Juvenis and senex are poetically used as adjectives (juvenes
anni, youthful years, Ovid). Princeps is an adjective (princeps locus,
principes viri), but most frequently as belonging to a verb; as,
Gorgias princeps ausus est, Gorgias first ventured. (See Syntax,
§ 300, a.) * - -3
OBs. 5. Words are formed in Greek from the names of countries, towns,
and nations, ending in as (ados) and in is (idos), which are feminine
national names, and feminine adjectives. These the Latin poets also use
as feminine adjectives, and form others on the same principle: e.g. Pe-
lias hasta, the Pelian spear (from Mount Pelion); Ausénis ora, the
Ausonian coast (Ausones); Hesperides aqvae, the Hesperian (Italian)
waters. & -
... § 61. Certain forms of some adjectives are not in use, as the nomina-
tives primor, eminent; seminex, half-dead; sons, guilty (caeterus, ludi-
crus, $ 58, Obs. 3). Exlex, without law; and exspes, without hope, –
are found only in the nom. and acc.; pernox, through the night, in the
nom. and abl.; trilicem, of three threads, only in the acc. Pauci, few;
and generally pleriqve, most (many), — are used in the plural only, the
last without a genitive. We find, however, pleraqve nobilitas, juven-
tus, the greater part of the mobility, of the youth ; plerumqve exercitum
(acc.), and sometimes plerumqve (neut)., signifying the greater part.
Frugi, good; and neqvam, good for nothing, — are indeclinable in all.
cases. (Homo frugi, hominem frugi, hominis frugi, &c.; homines
frugi, &c.) - -
OBS. The words opus and necesse (also undeclined) are only used in
connection with the verb sum : opus est, sunt, it is necessary; ne-
cesse est, impers., it is necessary.
§ 62. Besides the form which is used when a property is simply
attributed to an object (gradus positivus), adjectives have two
forms of comparison (gradus comparationis). One is used when,
in a comparison of two objects, a quality is attributed to one in a
higher degree than to the other (or than to the same at another
time), and is called the Comparative degree; e.g. vir probior, a
more upright man. The other form is employed when a quality is
* [populum late regem (Virg.), regina pecunia (Hor.).]
68 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 64
attributed to an object in the highest degree, and is named Superla-
tive degree; e.g. vir probissimus, the most upright man. The
changing of the adjective from the positive to the other forms is
called its Comparison.
The participles in ns (present participle active), and the passive
participle (perf. part.) in us, are also compared, when they take the
complete signification of adjectives; i.e. when they signify a prop-
erty without reference to time.
OBS. The participle in urus (future participle active) and the ger-
undive (in ndus) are never compared.
§ 63. The comparative is formed by adding to the stem (as it is
seen in the positive, when the case-ending is removed) the endings
ior (masc. and fem.) and ius (neut.); as:
probus (prob-us), compar. probior, probius; liber (acc. liber-um),
liberior, liberius; niger (acc. nigr-um), nigrior, nigrius; lévis (lev-
is), levior, levius; sapiens (acc. sapient-em), sapientior, sapientius;
felix (acc. felic-em), felicior, felicius. (Acc. probiorem, probius,
gen. probioris, &c., according to the third declension, abl. probiore, —
Ihore rarely probiori; plur., probiores, probiora, gen. probiorum.)
OBs. From the comparative of some adjectives, there is formed a di-
minutive in culus (see $182, c, Obs.): e.g. duriusculus (-a, -um);
grandiusculus, longiusculus, majusculus (from major), plusculus,
sometimes to show a slight preponderance: e.g. Thais qvam ego sum
grandiuscula est, a little older; sometimes to diminish the force of the
positive: e.g. duriusculum est, it is somewhat hard.
§ 64. The superlative generally ends in issſmus (a, um), which
is added to the stem in the same way as the ending of the compara-
tive; e.g. probissimus, levissimus, sapientissimus, felicissimus.
In adjectives that end in er in the nom. masc. (both of the second and
third declension), the r of the nom. is doubled, and the ending imus
affixed: e.g. liber, liberrimus; niger, nigerrimus; acer, acerrimus;
celer, celerrimus. On the same principle, are formed veterrimus from
vetus (gen. veter-is), and prosperrimus from prosperus. Maturus,
ripe, has maturissimus and maturrimus (especially the adverb matur-
rime).
The adjectives facilis, easy; difficilis, difficult; gracilis, slender,
thin ; humilis, low ; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike, - form the super-
lative, after removing the ending, by doubling the 1, and adding imus;
facillimus, difficillimus, gracillimus, &c. (From imbecillis, weak, is
formed imbecillimus, but from imbecillus, imbecillissimus. (See
above, § 59, Obs. 3.)
§ 66 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. , 69
OBS. 1. The remaining adjectives in ilis have the usual form; e.g.
utilis, utilissimus; but many want the superlative. (See below.)
OBS. 2. We may remark the antiquated orthography probissumus,
nigerrumus, &c., for probissimus, nigerrimus. (See § 5, a, Obs. 5.)
§ 65. Some adjectives vary from the regular comparison.
1. Adjectives in diſcus, fiſcus, völus, derived from the verbs dico,
facio, volo: e.g. maledicus, slanderous; munificus, liberal; ben-
evolus, well-wishing, — form the comparative in entior, the superla-
tive in entissimus (as if from participles in ens); maledicentior,
munificentior, benevolentior, maledicentissimus, munificentissi-
mus, benevolentissimus.” -
OBs. Egénus, needy; and providus, provident, — take, for their
degrees of comparison, those of the participles egens and providens;
as, egentior, egentissimus.
2. The following adjectives form their degrees of comparison
either with some change of the stem, as it exists in the positive,
or from an entirely different stem; sometimes, too, with variations
in the ending.
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
bonus, good. melior, melius optimus
malus, bad. pejor, pejus pessimus
magnus, great. * major, majus maximus
multus, much. plus * (neut.) plurimus
parvus, little. minor, minus minimus
neqvam,” good for nothing. neqvior neqvissimus
frugi,” frugal. frugalior frugalissimus
From senex, juvenis, are formed the comparatives senior, junior,
without a superlative.
OBs. Multus, in prose, signifies much ; as, multus sudor, multa
cura. In the poets, it denotes, in the sing., many a ; e.g. multa ta-
bella, multa victima. Pluris is used only as a genitive of the price
(Syntax, § 294). Pluria for plura is rare and archaic. From plures
come complures, complura (rarely compluria), gen. complurium.
. . $ 66. a. Some adjectives which denote the relation of time or
place which one object bears to another, are commonly used only
1 Mirificissimus from mirificus, in Terence.
2 In the singular only the neut. plus, more; nom. and acc., with the genitive pluris, in the
plur.; plures, plura, several; plurium, pluribus.
8 Indeclinable in the positive.
70 LATIN GRAMMAR. $66
in the comparative and superlative. The positive is either not used
at all (but only a corresponding preposition or adverb), or only in
certain particular combinations, or with a peculiar meaning. The
superlative in these adjectives has an irregular, and in some a dou-
ble form.
(citra, prep.) citerior, on this side. citimus, hithermost.'.
(extéri, in the plur. exterior, outer. extrêmus, the utmost
only; extra, prep.) . . . . (rarely extimus).
OBS. Extéri, strangers, foreigners; also, exterae nationes, extera
regna, &c. . -
(inférum, plur. inferi; inferior, lower. infimus or imus, lowest,
prep. infra.) - undermost.
OBs. Inferum is commonly used only in the combination mare in
ferum, the sea below Italy, southward of Italy; inferi, the inhabitants of
the infernal regions ; infera flumina, inferae partes, the rivers of the
lower world, the subterraneous parts of the world.
(intra, prep.) interior, inner. intimus, most inward.
(prope, prep.) propior, nearer. proximus, nearest. .
Obs. Propinqvus is used for the positive. Its comparative, propin-
qvior, is rare. . - - - . .
(postérus, prep. post.) posterior, later, hinder, postremus, the last.
OBs. Posterus (not used in the nom. masc.) signifies the following, the
next (in order of time); e.g. posterum diem, postera nocte, in the
poets postera aetas, and so on. Posteri, posterity. The superlative
form postumus is found, in good writers, only in the signification last-
born, born after (after the father's death), filius postumus. (Anterior
from ante, is found only in later writers.)
(superum, plur. superi; superior, upper. supremus, the extreme,
prep. supra) -
- last (in point of time).
. . summus, the highest.
OBS. Superum is usually found only in the expression mare superum,
the sea north of Italy (the Adriatic); superi, the gods above; supera, the
upper parts of the world. (Rarely as an adjective, res superae, belong-
ing to the upper world, limen superum.) t . . .
(ultra, prep.) ulterior, on the other ultimus, the last.
- - - side, further. . . . . . .
prior, the first, former. primus, first. (See
- § 74.)
+
§ 67 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. - 71
b. The following comparatives and superlatives also want the
positive: — §
deterior, worse. deterrimus
ocior, swifter. ocissimus.
potior, preferable. potissimus
OBs. 1. satius, better, more advisable (from adverb satis), is only used
in the neuter with est (impersonally). -
OBS. 2. (Séqvior) seqvius, of less account, less good, is rare as an
adjective; adverb, sécius.
§ 67. Many adjectives have no forms for the comparative and
superlative, because they only show that an object does or does not
belong to a strictly limited class, so that it is impossible or difficult
to conceive a difference of degree: e.g. aureus, golden; and all
those which designate a material: Graecus, Greek; pedester, belong-
£ng to the infantry; aestivus, belonging to the summer; hesternus,
of yesterday; and others which denote a certain period of time:
vivus, living ; sospes, uninjured; merus, mere, pure; memor, re-
membering. Other adjectives have no comparative or superlative,
because, from the form of the adjective, these would want euphony.
On account of one or other of these impediments, the following
adjectives have commonly no forms of comparison.
a. Those which have the termination us preceded by a vowel: e.g.
idoneus, convenient ; dubius, doubtful (but tenuis, thin, tenuior, tenu-
issimus). --.
OBs. Those in uus, however, are sometimes used in the superlative:
assiduissimus, strenuissimus (from assiduus, persevering ; strenuus,
vigorous), more rarely in the comparative, as assiduior. Of those in
ius, there occur the comparative egregior, from egregius, distinguished,
with some others; and the superlatives egregiissimus and piissimus, from
pius, pious, but not in the better writers. .
b. Most of those which are compounded of verbs or substantives: e.g.
those in fer and ger, from fero, gero; ignivāmus, vomiting fire (vomo);
degener, degenerate (genus); discolor, of various colors (color);
inops, poor (ops); magnanimus, noble-minded (animus). We must,
however, except those in dicus, ficus, volus, from dico, facio, volo, of
which several (not all) are compared (see § 65, 1), and those from ars,
mens, cor: as, iners, sollers, demens, concors, discors, vecors (rarely
misericors).
c. Most of those which are manifestly derivatives (from Latin words
in use) with the terminations icus, alis or āris, Îlis, tilus, timus, inus,
ivus, Örus (e.g. civicus, naturalis, hostilis, qverülüs, legitimus, pere-
72 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 68
grinus, furtivus, decărus), with those derived from substantives with
the terminations àtus and itus (e.g. barbatus, bearded).
OBS. Some exceptions, however, occur, partly in the comparative and
superlative: e.g. hospitalis, hospitable ; liberalis, liberal ; divinus,
godlike, divine (liberalior, liberalissimus, &c.), partly in the compara-
tive alone: as, rusticus, rural, rustic; aeqvalis, equal, uniform ; capi-
talis, fatal, capital; popularis, favorable to the people; regalis, royal ;
salutaris, wholesome; civilis, civil; tempestivus, seasonable (aeqvalior,
&c.).
d. To these are to be added some particular words, which cannot be
referred to any general rule: e.g. ferus, wild; gnarus, knowing; mirus,
wonderful; navus, active; rudis, raw, unpolished; trux, harsh (while
verus, clarus, dirus, with the same form, have the degrees of compari-
son; serus, late, on the other hand, rarely.) -
OBs. 1. Of adjectives with certain terminations, especially idus, many
remain without comparison (e.g. trepidus, apprehensive), while others
are compared (e.g. callidus, sly; candidus, white, &c.). In some adjec-
tives, it may be simply accident that the forms of comparison occur in no
old writer. - -
OBs. 2. The words dexter, right ; and sinister, left, express already
in the positive a relation to some other object; and the comparative is
consequently superfluous. Yet some writers have used dexterior and
sinisterior in the signification of the positive, and even the superlative
dextimus (Sall.).
§ 68. a. The following adjectives have no comparative in use,
while the superlative occurs: falsus, false; inclitus, renowned;
novus, new (novissimus, the last); sacer, holy; vetus, old (veter-
rimus; on the other hand vetustus, vetustior, vetustissimus).
OBs. Several participles are also used in the superlative without a com-
parative; e.g. meritus, and, compounded with in, invictus, uncon-
quered, invincible. (But doctus, learned, doction, doctissimus;
indoctus, indoction, indoctissimus, &c.) e
b. Many adjectives in Ilis (bilis), which are derived from verbs,
have the comparative, but not the superlative: e.g. agilis, active :
docilis, teachable ; credibilis, credible; probabilis, allowable, proba-
ble ; also the following: ater, black; coecus, blind; jejunus, fasting;
longinqvus, distant; proclivis, leaning downwards; propinqvus,
near (see under propior, $ 66, a); surdus, deaf; teres, round;
and some others. (Adolescentior from adolescens, young ; com-
monly a substantive, the youth.)
§ 70 THE NUMERALS. 73
OBs. Others in ilis (bilis) are compared throughout; e.g. ama-
bilis, fragilis, fertilis (fero), nobilis (nosco), ignobilis, mobilis,
utilis. (Subtilis and vilis are not derived from verbs.)
c. When a comparison is required, and the forms of the compara-
tive and superlative are not in use, magis, more, and maxime,
most, are prefixed to the adjective; e.g. magis mirus, maxime
(summe, in the highest degree) mirus. Otherwise, this circumlocu-
tion is generally used only by the poets.
OBs. With a view to heighten the signification, per is prefixed to many
adjectives, and by all writers; e.g. percommodus, very convenient.
Those with prae—e.g. praegelidus, very cold—are found more in the
poets and later prose. Adjectives, which have their signification enhanced
in this way, are not compared. Only praeclarus, illustrious, is com-
pared as a simple word, and used by all writers.
CHAPTER XI.
T H E N U M E R A L S .
$ 69. Those numerals which are used only to count and to ex-
press a given number are called Cardinal numbers: those derived
from them, which express the number of an object and its place in
the series, – e.g. tertius, the third, – are called Ordinals. Besides
these two kinds, there are in Latin numbers expressing division or
repetition (Distributives) which express a number as thought of
several times (one for each object or case); e.g. seni, sia: each,
sia at a time. º
§ 70. The names of the cardinal numbers are as follows: with
them are given the Latin numerical signs.
I unus, una, unum. X decem.
II duo, duae, duo. - XI undecim.
III tres, tria. XII duodecim.
IV qvattuor. XIII tredecim or decem et tres
V qving ve. - (tres et decim).
VT sex. XIV qvattuordecim
VII septem. XV quindecim.
VIII octo. XVI sedecim (sexdecim, decem
VIIII or DX movem. et sex).
74.
§ 7o
ILATIN GRAMMA R.
XVII decem et septem or sep-
temdecim (septem et decem).
XVIII duodeviginti (properly 2
from 20, or 20 minus 2) or (more
rarely) decem et octo.
XIX undevigintior (morerarely)
decem et novem.
XX viginti.
XXI unus (a, unì) et viginti or
viginti unus (a, um).
XXII duo (duae) et viginti or
viginti duo (duae), and so on ;
e.g. :
XXV qvinqve et viginti or vi-
ginti qvinqve.
XXVIII duodetriginta or (more
rarely) octo et vigintior viginti
Octo.
XXIX undetriginta or (more
rarely) novem et viginti or
viginti novem.
XXX triginta, and so om, as with
viginti; e.g. : •
XXXIX undeqvadraginta or
(more rarely) novem et tri-
ginta or triginta novem.
XL quadraginta.
IL qvinqvaginta-
LX sexaginta.
LXX septuaginta.
LXXX octoginta.
XC nonaginta.
XCVIII nonaginta octo, octo et
nonaginta. •
XCIX or IC nonaginta novem
novem et nonaginta, undecen-
tum.
C centum.
CI centum et unus, or centum
TllIillS.
CII centum et duo, centum duo,
&c. ; e.g.:
CXXIV centum et viginti qvat-
tuor, centum viginti qvattuor.
CC ducenti, ae, a.
CCC trecenti, ae, a.
CCCC qvadringenti, ae, a.
IO or D qvingenti, ae, a.
DC sexcenti, ae, a.°
DCC septingenti, ae, a.
IDCCC octingenti, ae, a.
DCCCC nongenti, ae, a.
CIO or M mille.
CIOCIO or MM duo millia, &c.
IOO qvinqve millia.
IOOCIOCIO or IOMM septem
millia.
CCIOO decem millia.
IOOO qvinqvaginta millia.
CCCIOOO centum millia.
OBS. 1. The pronominal words (see § 93) tot, so many ; qvot, hono
many? and totidem, just 8o many, — have a significatiom corresponding
with these numbers.
(The numeral adjectives muIti, pauci, omnes,
nulli, nonnulli, pleriqve, are also allied to them in signification.)
OBs. 2. The Latin numeral signs, with the exception of M (an abbre-
viation of mille), were originally not letters, but arbitrary signs, which
subsequently received the form of letters. A stroke (1) with a 0 (in-
vcrted) is 500; and every additional O corresponds to a eipher in our fig-
ures; therefore, IOO = 5,000, IOOO = 50,000. The number is doubled
when as many C's are put before the stroke as there stand O's after it;
* Sexcentiis used of am indefinite large number; as, a humdred, a thousand, in English.
[So trecenti in Horace: Amatorem trecentae Pirithoum cohibeut; catenae
(Od. iii. 4, 79.)]
§ 72 THE NUMERALS. 75
therefore, CIO = 1,000, CCIOO = 10,000, CCCIOOO = 100,000. In
more modern Latin books, our (Arabic) numerals are sometimes made
use of.
§ 71. The numerals under mille are adjectives: the three first
are declined; the numbers from quattuor to decem, those which
end in decim, and the tens (viginti, triginta, &c.) with centum,
are undeclined: so also undeviginti, duodeviginti, and the others,
which are formed in the same way (by subtraction). Ducenti and
the following hundreds are declined like the plural of adjectives
in us.
Unus, una, unum, has, in the gen., in all genders, unius; in the dat.,
uni (see § 37, Obs. 2); but is otherwise regularly declined after the
second and first declension. It has also a plural, -uni, unae, una,
—in the signification alone, of one kind, with plural substantives. Uni
Svevi, the Suevi alone; unis moribus vivere (Cic. pro Flacc. 26),
to live with manners unchanged. Uni, alteri, the one party, the other.
Of unae litterae, see $76, c, Obs.)
Duo is thus declined: —
IMASC. AND NEUT. FEM.
NOM. duo duae
ACC. duo (masc. also duos) duas
GEN. duorum duarum
DAT. duobus duahus
ABL. duðbus dual)us
In the same way is declined the word ambo, ambae, ambo, both
(e.g. acc. masc., ambo or ambos). The gen. of duo has also the
form duum, especially duum millium. (See § 34, Obs. 3; $ 37,
Obs. 4.)
Tres is declined according to the third declension, thus : —
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
NOM. tres tres tria
ACC. tres tres tria
GEN. trium trium
DAT. tribus tribus
ABL. tribus tribus
§ 72. a. Mille is usually an indeclinable adjective; e.g. mille
homines, mille hominum, mille hominibus. Sometimes, however,
it is used as a substantive in the sing, and is followed by the name
of the objects enumerated in the gen. ; e.g. ea civitas mille misit
militum (Corn. Milt. 5), but then usually only in the nom, or acc.
76 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 73
OBs. 1. When mille stands as a nom. in the way last mentioned, i.e. as
a substantive with the gen. following, it is, notwithstanding, usually fol-
lowed by a verb in the plural: mille passuum erant inter urbem cas-
traqve (Liv. XXIII. 44). Such a phrase as ibi mille hominum
occiditur is antiquated.
Obs. 2. Mille seldom occurs as a substantive in any other ease
than the nom. and acc., and then only in connection with millia in
the same case : cum octo millibus peditum, mille eqvitum (Liv.
XXI. 61).
b. From mille comes the plural millia (milia), thousands, a
substantive (gen. millium, dat. abl. millibus), to which the smaller
numerals are prefixed; tria, sex, viginti, centum millia, with the
gen. of the objects enumerated (see § 285, a); e.g. sex millia
peditum, duo millia, eqvitum,
OBs. 1. When smaller (adjective) numerals follow millia, the name
of the objects enumerated, provided it comes afterwards, is put in the
same case as millia (not in the genitive): e.g. Caesi sunt tria millia
trecenti milites; Caesar cepit duo millia trecentos sex Gallos.
But if the name of the objects enumerated comes first, it is usually put
in the genitive governed by millia; e.g. Caesar Gallorum duo millia
qvingentos sex cepit. Sometimes, however: Gallos cepit duo mil-
lia qvingentos sex. (Omnes eqvites, XV millia numero, conve-
nire jubet, in apposition. Cæs. B. G. VII. 64.)
OBs. 2. Bis .mille, ter mille, instead of duo millia, tria millia, is
poetical.
§ 73. From the examples in § 70, it is seen that, in compounding the
numbers that fall between the tens from 20 up to 100, either the ten with-
out et, or the smaller number with et, is placed first (viginti unus, unus
et viginti; viginti et unus is rare). For 28, 29, 38, 39, &c., the
expressions formed by subtraction are the most usual (duodetriginta,
undetriginta). The hundreds (in prose) are always placed before the
tens, with or without et, and then the tens before the units ; e.g. cen-
tum et sexaginta sex or centum sexaginta sex. (Deviations from
this are rare.)
A million is denoted, in Latin, by the expression 10 times 100,000;
decies centum millia or (with the distributive numeral, see § 76, b)
decies centena millia, and so on, above a million; undecies, duode-
cies centum orcentena millia (1,100,000, 1,200,000), vicies, tricies
centum millia (2,000,000, 3,000,000), vicies qvinqvies centena mil-
lia (2,500,000). To these, the single thousands are added, in the follow-
ingway: decies centena millia triginta sex millia centum nonaginta
sex (1,036, 196).
§ 74
THE NUMERALS. 77
^-.
§ 74. The Ordinals are all adjectives in us, a, um, and are regu-
larly declined.
1 primus, first (of two, prior,
which is a comparative. See
§ 66, a).
2 secundus or alter.
3 tertius.
4 qvartus.
5 qvintus.
6 sextus.
7 septimus.
8 octavus.
9 nonus.
10 decimus.
11 undecimus.
12 duodecimus.
13 tertius decimus (rarely, deci-
mus et tertius, &c.).
14 qvartus decimus.
15 qvintus decimus.
16 sextus decimus.
17 septimus decimus.
18 duodevicesimus (more rarely,
octavus decimus).
19 undevicesimus (more rarely,
nonus decimus).
20 vicesimus (vigesimus).
21 unusetvicesimus (unaetvi-
cesima, unumetvicesi-
mum), more rarely, primus
et vicesimus, vicesimus
primus.
22 alter (rarely, secundus) et
vicesimus, vicesimus al-
ter, Or . duoetvicesimus
(duoetvicesima, duoetvi-
cesimum). .
23 tertius et vicesimus, vicesi-
mus tertius.
24 qvartus et vicesimus, vicesi-
mus qvartus, and so on.
Their names are : —
28 duodetricesimus, more rare-
ly, octavus et vicesimus,
vicesimus Octavus.
29 undetricesimus, more rarely,
nonus et vicesimus, vi-
cesimus nonus.
30 tricesimus (trigesimus).
31 primus et tricesimus, tri-
cesimus primus, or unus-
ettricesimus, &c., as in 21.
38 duodeqvadragesimus, more
rarely octavus et tricesi-
mus, tricesimus octavus.
39 undeqvadragesimus, more
rarely, nonus et tricesi-
mus, tricesimus nonus.
40 qvadragesimus.
50 qvinqvagesimus,
60 sexagesimus.
70 septuagesimus.
80 octogesimus.
90 nonagesimus.
100 centesimus.' *
101 centesimus primus.
110 centesimus decimus.
124 centesimusvicesimus qvar-
tus, etc.
200 ducentesimus.
300 trecentesimus.
400 qvadringentesimus.
500 qvingentesimus.
600 sexcentesimus.
700 septingentesimus.
800 octingentesimus.
900 nongentesimu8.
1,000 millesimus.
2,000 bis millesimus, and so on
with adverbs; e.g. :
10,000 decies millesimus.
OBs. 1. Deviations in the composition of the intermediate numbers
from 20 to 100 (e.g. primuä vicesimus Without et, or vicesimus et
78 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 75
primus with et) are unfrequent. Unus in unusetvicesimus, &c., is
declinable; but we find also, in the feminine, the abbreviated form
unetvicesima, with un invariable. Duo in duoetvicesimus, &c., is
undeclined.
OBs. 2. To these numbers belongs the interrogative qvotus," which in
the series? Every third, every fourth, &c., are expressed by tertius quis-
qve, qvartus qvisqve, &c., with the pronoun qvisqve ; but every other
(every second) is usually expressed by the adjective alternus, with the
substantive in the plural; e.g. (abl.) alternis diebus, every other day.
Qvotus quisqve hoc facit properly signifies, which in the series every
time does this? (e.g. is it every seventh person, every eighth 3 &c.). It
also signifies, how many do it, pray? (always in a disparaging sense).
OBS. 3. The number of years is expressed, in Latin, by annus, with
an ordinal number: annus millesimus octingentesimus qvadragesi-
Imus OCtavus.
§ 75. The distributive (repetitive) numerals are adjectives of
three terminations, following the first and second declension in the
plural. (In the gen. they often have um instead of orum. See
§ 37, Obs. 4.) They are as follows:–
1 singuli, ae, a, one each, one 22 viceni bini, &c.
each time. 30 triceni.
2 bini, ae, a. 40 quadrageni.
8 terni (trini). 50 quinqvageni.
• 4 quaterni. 60 sexageni.
5 quini. 70 septuageni.
6 seni. 80 octogeni.
7 septèni. 90 nonageni.
8 octoni. 100 centeni.
9 noveni. 200 duceni.
10 deni. 300 treceni.
11 undeni. 400 quadringeni.
12 duodeni. 500 qvingeni.
13 terni deni. - 600 sexceni.
14 quaterni deni, and so on. 700 septingeni.
18 octoni deni or duodevi- 800 octingeni.
ceni. * 900 nongeni.
19 noveni deni or undevi- 1,000 singula millia (or only
ceni. - millia).
20 vicëni. 2,000 bina millia.
21 vicemi singuli. 10,000 dena millia.
* [Qvotus annus (Hor.).]
§ 77 THE NUMERALS. - 79
OBs. To these numerals corresponds the interrogative quoteni, how
many for each 2 how many each time? -
$ 76. The distributives are employed, –
a. When it is denoted that a certain number (or something in a cer-
tain number) is repeated for each of the persons or things mentioned or
thought of: e.g. Caesar et Ariovistus denos comites ad colloqvium
adduxerunt, brought each ten attendants ; agri septena jugera plebi
divisa sunt, seven acres to each citizen ; pueri senum septenumve de-
num annorum, of sixteen or seventeen years (each of that age); turres
in centenos vicenos pedes attollebantur; ambulare bina millia
passuum (every day, or each time). Tritici modius erat (was worth,
stood at) sestertiis ternis (Cic. Wer. III. 81). Singuli homines,
singuli cives, each several man (the men each for himself), each single
citizen.
OBS. If, in expressing a distribution, singuli, each, be added, the
number may be either a distributive or a cardinal; e.g. pro tritici mo-
diis singulis ternos denarios exegit (Cic.); singulis denarii tre-
centi imperabantur (Id.). Instead of singula millia, the word millia
is sometimes used alone; so also asses for singuli asses (an as
each); and some other words, which denote a specific measure,
weight, &c. -
b. When a multiplication is to be expressed; e.g. bis bina, twice
two, ter novenae virgines, decies centena millia. (But also decies
centum millia, and particularly in the poets bis quinqve viri, ter cen-
tum, &c.)
c. With those plural substantives (substantiva pluralia tantum)
which denote a whole, which can be repeated and counted as such : e.g.
castra, a camp ; bina Castra, two camps; litterae, a letter; quinae lit-
terae, five letters. (On the contrary, tres liberi, three children, because
they are counted as individuals.) -
OBS. In such instances, uni is employed, not singuli (§ 7l): e.g.
unae litterae, one letter; una castra, one camp. We also usually meet
with the form trini, for termi, 3.
d. Sometimes with reference to objects, which are reckoned in pairs:
e.g. bini scyphi, a pair of goblets (belonging together, Cic.); and not
very rarely in the poets, with precisely the same meaning as the cardi-
nals: e.g. bina hastilia, two spear-shafts (Virg.). - *.
OBS. The poets sometimes use the singular of the distributives to
express a complex object: as, bimum corpus, a double body (Lucr.);
septeno gurgite, with seven-fold flood (Lucan), of the Nile.
§ 77. From some numbers are formed adjectives of one termination
in plex (from plicare, to fold), to denote the multiplication defined by
the numeral: viz., simplex, simple ; duplex, double; triplex, triple;
80 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 79
qvadruplex, qvincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. They
are called adjectiva multiplicativa, and regularly declined.
OBs. 1. Some words in plus (simplus, duplus, triplus, qvadruplus
[septuplus], octuplus), are commonly used only in the neuter, to de-
note a magnitude, so many times greater than another magnitude. (Du-
plum, the double of something else; duplex, twice as great as something
else, or twice as great as itself doubled.)
OBs. 2. On the numeral adverbs, see the rules for the formation of
words, $199. w
s - CHAPTER, XII.
T H E P R O N O U N S.
§ 78. The Latin pronouns (properly so called) are distributed,
according to the manner in which they denote an object, into six
classes; viz., the personal, the demonstrative, the reflective, the
relative, the interrogative, the indefinite. To these may be added
some adjectives derived from pronouns, and termed pronominal
adjectives.
Most pronouns have different terminations for the genders of the ob-
jects signified, and may be combined with them like adjectives (hic vir,
haec femina, hoc signum).
§ 79. The Personal pronouns denote the speaker himself (in the
plural the speaker and those in whose name he speaks), and the
person or persons spoken to. They have no distinction of gender,
and are not combined with a substantive, inasmuch as they contain
in themselves all the definition required. They are declined in the
following manner: —
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.
SINGULAR.
NoM. ego, I tu, thou (so also Voc.)
ACC. me, me te, thee
DAT. mihi, to me tibi, to thee
ABL. me te
- PLURAL.
NoM. ACC. nos, we, us vos, you (so also Woc.)
GEN. (occasionally) nostrum Vestrum.
DAT. ABL. nobis vobis
§ 81. THE PRONOIJNS. 81
OBs. 1. Instead of the genitive of these pronouns, the derivative ad-
jectives (possessive pronouns) meus and tuus, noster and vester (see
§ 92), are sometimes made use of, sometimes the genitive neuter of these
adjectives, mei (of my being), tui, nostri, vestri; nostrum and ves-
trum are only used in certain combinations: on this, see $297.
OBS. 2. To all cases of these pronouns, except tu, nostrum, and ves-
trum, may be affixed the syllable met, which gives prominence to that
person in comparison with others (I myself); frequently, ipse is also
added; e.g. temetipsum. From tu, are formed tuté and tutemet, with
the same signification.
OBs. 3. For mihi, the poets often use mi (contracted); tete is some-
times found for te, in the most ancient style. Tu and vos are the only
vocatives of pronouns. -
$ 80. The Demonstrative pronouns point to some definite object
(or give it prominence). They are hic, this here, this; iste, that
there (with you); ille, yon, that there; is, that (which has been
already mentioned, or is now defined by the addition of which), he
(she, it); idem, the same ; ipse, self; to which may be also added,
alius, another; and alter, the other (when two are spoken of).
OBs. Hic, iste, ille, may be called direct demonstratives; is, an indi-
rect demonstrative; idem and ipse, emphatic demonstratives. Alius
and alter denote the opposite of something defined; but alter has also
an indefinite signification, the one (of two). *
§ 81. The demonstratives are declined as follows:–
1. Hic.
SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
NoM. hic haec hoc
ACC. hunc' hanc hoc
GEN. hujus in all genders.
DAT. huic in all genders (monosyllable).
ABL. hoc hac hoc
PLURAL.
NOM. hi hae haec
ACC. hos has haec
GEN. horum harum horum
DAT. ABL. his in all genders.
OBS. Ce is sometimes appended to the cases in m and s, particu-
larly the last: e.g. hujusce, hosoe, horunce; and this form is more
‘. . . - " 6 * - *
82 • LATIN GRAMMAR. § 83
emphatic. In those cases which end in c, an e was sometimes heard
after the c in the older pronunciation ; as, hunce, hice, huice. From
this with the interrogative particle ne originated hicine, hocine (less
correctly hiccine), &c. (In the cases in c, the demonstrative particle ce
coalesces with the stem of the pronoun. Hice, haece, for hi, hae,
was antiquated.) Huic, pronounced as a dissyllable, belongs to a later
period.
§ 82. 2. Iste.
SINGULAR.
MASC. IFEMI. NEUT.
NOM. iste ista istud
ACC. istum istam istud
GEN. istius in all genders.
DAT. isti 9 9 9 » $ »
ABL. isto ista isto
The plural (isti, istae, ista) is declined regularly after the second and
first declension.
3. In the same way is declined ille, illa, illud, ¢ë
OBs. 1. From an old form ollus for ille, we find in Virg. a dat. sing.
and nom. plur. olli. The gen. illi, illae, for illius, and the dat. illae
(fem.) for illi, are obsolete. (Instead of istius and illius we also find in
verse istius and illíus: comp. § 37, Obs. 2.) For ellum, see under is.
OBs. 2. For iste and ille we find also istic, fem. istaec, neut. istoc
or istuc, and illic, illaec, illoc or illuc, which in the nom., acc., and
abl., are declined like hic. Sometimes in the antiquated style, ce is
appended to other cases of iste and ille; e.g. illasce.
4. Like iste is declined ipse, ipsa, ipsum, only with m (not d)
in the meuter. e*
OBs. Ipse (sometimes in the comic poets ipsus) is formed from is
and the termination pse, as idem is formed from is amd dem. The old
forms ea-pse, eam-pse, and eo-pse, for ipsa, ipsam, and ipso, are found
in Plautus, and eapse in the word reapse, which was in use also at a
later period (=re ipsa, in fact).
§ 83. 5. Is.
SINGULA R.
MASC. IFEMI. NEUT.
NOM. is €£l. id
ACC. eum eam id
GEN. ejus in all genders.
DAT. ei 9 9 9 » 9 9
ABL. eo eä eo
$ 85 THE PRONOUNS. 83
PLURAL.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
NOM. ii (ei) Gale ea.
ACC. €O5 ©als ea
GEN. €OIllinºl ©ail: Ullººl €OILLIOl
DAT. ABL. iis (eis) in all genders.
In the same way is declined idem (for is-dem), compounded of is and
the syllable dem; viz., idem, eadem, idem, dem being added to the
cases of is. (Acc. eundem, eandem, gen. plur. eorundem.)
OBS. 1. The orthography ei in the plural is rare (eidem scarcely
ever used), eis less common than iis. Ii and iis were probably pro-
nounced as monosyllables, and in the poets iidem and iisdem are always
dissyllables (idem, isdem).
OBS. 2. From the particles ecce and en (see there !), and the acc.
masc. and fem. of is and ille, there originated in familiar language the
forms eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas, which
occur in Plautus and Terence. (In eccillum, eccistam, there is only
an elision of e.)
• $84. 6. Alius.
* SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
NOM. alius alia aliud
ACC. alium - aliam aliud
GEN. alius in all genders.
DAT. alii , , , , 2 3
ABL. alio alia alio
The plural is declined regularly after the second and first declension.
Altera, altera, alterum, gen. alterius (see $47, Obs. 2), dat. alteri,
otherwise regular.
OBS. Alteri in the plural signifies one (of two plurals), one (of two
parties, &c.), and in the same way (viz. for one of two plural parties)
the plural of the other pronouns in ter is employed; namely, utri, neu-
tri, and the compounds of uter.
$ 85. The Reflective pronoun se (himself, herself, itself, them-
selves) refers back to the person or thing which is the subject of the
proposition, without being itself united to a substantive. It has in
the acc. and abl. of both numbers se or sese, in the dat. sibi. The
nom. is wanting, as also the gen. ; and in place of the gen. is used
the derivative suus, or its neut. gen. Sui, as meus and mei in ego
(§ 79, Obs. 1). g
QBS. Met is affixed to se and sibi, as to ego (§ 79, Obs. 2).
84 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 87
$ 86. The Relative pronoun qui (who, which) refers to some-
thing in another proposition, which the relative clause serves to
define or describe (Cato, qvi; is, qvi). It is declined as fol-
lows: —
SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
NOM. qvi qvae qvod
ACC. qvem qvam qvod
GEN. cujus in all genders.
,-\
DAT. cui 9 3 2 9 33
ABL. qvo qvā qvo
PLURAL.
NOM. qvi qvae qvae
ACC. qvos qvas qvae
GEN. qvorum qvarum qvorum
DAT. ABL. qvibus (qvis) in all genders.
OBS. 1. The more ancient way of writing the genitive and dative was
qvojus and qvoi. Cúi, as a dissyllable, is found only in the later
poets. .*
OBs. 2. The ablative qvis (qveis is only another way of writing it)
is antiquated, but sometimes readopted by later writers. An old form
qvi occurs as an abl. sing., but is only used by good writers in combina-
tion with the preposition cum (qvicum = qvocum, masc. and neut.,
in the more antiquated style also = qvacum, fem.), and with verbs in
some few expressions as a neuter after an indefinite pronoun understood;
habeo, qvi utar, I have (something) to use ; vix reliqvit, qvi efferre-
tur, enough to bury him ; compare $88, Obs. 2.
$ 87. The Indefinite Relative pronouns qvicumqve, qvisqvis
(every one who, whoever), uter, utercumqve (whichever of two),
show that the assertion of the proposition in which they occur
comprises several individuals, and that it is indifferent which is
thought of.
Qvicunqve, qvaecunqve, qvodcunqve, is declined like qvi (the
affix cunqve remains unaltered); uter, utra, utrum (usually an
interrogative pronoun) is regularly declined (except in the gen, and
dat. sing, utrius, utri; see § 37, Obs. 2), and so also utercumqve.
Qvisqvis is usually found only in the nom. masc., and the nom.
and acc. neut. (qvidqvid or quicqvid, subst.), also in the abl. masc.
and neut. (qvoqvo): we rarely meet with qyemqvem, qvibusqvi-
§ 88 PRONOUNS. 85
bus, and not till a late period with the abl. fem, qvaqva. From the
unused gen. has originated by an abbreviated pronunciation the ex-
pression cuicuimodi, of whatever kind.
OBs. 1. It is rarely (in the best writers only in the expression
qvacunqve ratione, in any way, qvocunqve modo, Sall.) that
qvicunqve occurs simply as an indefinite pronoun, with the notion of
universality (every one), without a relative signification. So also qvis-
qvis in the expression qvoqvo modo, in any way.”
OBs. 2. Qvicunqve is sometimes resolved, and its parts separated
by the interposition of an unaccented word; e.g. qvare cunqve pos-
sum (even by two pronouns: qvo ea me cunqve ducet, Cic.). The
same division (tmesis) occurs in qvaliscumqve (§ 93); e.g. necesse
est, aliqvid sit melius, qvale id cunqve est. It occurs less fre-
quently in quantuscunqve and qwilibet (cujus rei libet simulator,
Sall.). *
$ 88. The Interrogative pronoun, which requires that an object
in question should be specified, is quis or qui, fem. qvae, neut.
qvid or qvod, who 2 which 3 with the more emphatic form qvisnam,
qvinam, qvaenam, qvidnam, qvodnam, who then 3 which then 3
and uter, utra, utrum, which of two 2 (see $87). Qvis and qwis-
nam, with the exception of the double nom. masc., and the nom. and
acc. neut., are declined exactly like the relative pronoun qui. In
the neuter qVid and qvidnam are substantives, qvod and qvodnam.
adjectives (qvid feciº quod facinus commisit? qvodnam consilium
cepit 7). In the masculine, qvis is both a substantive and adjective,
qvi for the most part an adjective (qvi cantus?).
OBs. 1. Qvis (with the nominative ending s) occurs as an ad-
jective in the older writers (Cic.) chiefly with substantives which
denote a person (qvis senator? qvis rex 2 but qvi vir 2 in the signi-
fication, what man = what sort of man 3) but often, too, with others
(qvis locus 2 qvis casus 2). Qvi (qvinam), on the other hand, is rare
as a substantive, and is found almost exclusively in dependent inter-
rogative clauses; as, non id solum spectatur, qvi debeat, sed etiam
qvi possit ulcisci (Cic. Divin. in Caec. 16). In independent inter-
rogative sentences (e.g. qvi primus Ameriam nuntiat?), it is almost
unused.
OBs. 2. The ablative form qui (see § 86, Obs. 2) is used only in the
signification how? (qvi fit 2 qui convenit? how is it suitable?)
1. Qvidqvid for q.vidqve (§ 89) in certain combinations, as ut qvidqvid for uß
qvidqve (Cic.), is rare and antiquated.
86 DATIN GRAMMAR. § 91
$ 89. The Indefinite pronouns are quis, one, any one; aliqvis,
qvispiam, one, any one ; quisqvam, any one whatever; ullus, any;
qvidam, some one, a certain one ; alteruter, one or the other (of
two); with those which have a distributive signification; quisqve,
each severally; unusqvisqve, each individual; uterqve, properly,
each of two separately; then, both (uterqve frater, both brothers;
uterqve eorum, both of them ; utriqve, both parties); and those
which denote a universality without distinction (which may be
named indefinita universalia); qvivis, qvilibet, any one you like
(whoever it may be); utervis, uterlibet, any one you like (of two);
to which may also be added the negative words nemo, no one
(subst.); nihil, nothing (subst.); nullus, no, none; neuter, neither.
$90. 1. Qvis, qvi, fem.; qvae and qvā, neut: ; qvid and qvod,
— is declined (except in the nom.) like the felative pronoun, with the
exception, that the nom. and acc. neut. plural, as well as the nom.
sing: fem., have both forms quae and qwā, Qvid is used as a
substantive, qvod as an adjective; quis as both, and in all combina-
tions (dicat qvis, si qvis, si qvis dux), qvi only after the conjunc-
tions si, nisi, ne, num, both as a substantive and an adjective, but
chiefly as an adjective (ne quis and me qui, si quis dux and si
qvi dux). Qva is more common in the neut. plural than qvae."
The following are formed from quis, and declined like it: ecqvis,
ecclvi, ecdva, ecqvae, ecqvid, ecqvod, does any one? and the stronger
form ecqvisnam (also numqvisnam).
2. Like quis is declined aliqvis, except that it has only aliqva
in the fem. sing, and neut. plur. Aliqvid is used as a substantive,
aliqvod as an adjective; aliqvis as both, aliqvi as an adjective.
3. Qvisqvam, neut. qvidqvam (qvicqvam) without a fem., and
without a plur., is declined like quis (without qvi or quod).
OBs. Qvisqvam is used as a substantive, and also as an adjective
with the appellations of persons (scriptor quisqvam, qvisqvam
Gallus); the corresponding ullus as an adjective, but sometimes (in the
best writers only ullius and ullo, in some also the dat. ulli) it is used
as a substantive.
§ 91. 4. QVidam, qvispiam, qvivis, qvilibet, and qvisqve, 3.T6
declined like the relative pronoun, except that as substantives they
have in the neuter the form qvid (qviddam, &c.), as adjectives
z--— ---s
* And, to judge by the poets, in the fem. sing, also.
§ 92 PRONOUNS. 87
qvod (qvoddam, &c.)." In unusqvisqve both words are declined
(unaqvaeqve, unumqvidqve and unumqvodqve, unumqvemqve,
&c.).
In utervis (uträvis, utrumvis), uterlibet (utralibet, utrumlibet),
uterqve (utrāqve, utrumqve), uter is declined (utriusqve, &c., see
$ 87). In alteruter sometimes both words are declined (alterautra,
alterumutrum, gen. alteriusutrius, &c.), sometimes only the last
(alterutra, alterutrum). The adjectives ullus (a, um), nullus, non-
nullus, neuter (neutra, neutrum), are regularly declined, except in
the gen. (ullius, &c., neutrius) and in the dative (ulli, &c., neutri).
Nemo is a substantive of the masculine gender, and follows the
third declension (see § 41 under the termination o, Inis). The
genitive is not used in common language, nor the ablative in the
best writers; in their stead nullius and nullo are used.”
Obs. Nemo is also used as an adjective with the names of persons;
e.g. memo scriptor, nemo Gallus. (Also scriptor nullus, but with
national names always memo.)
Nihil is nominative and accusative without any other cases.
(The form nihilum with the genitive nihili and the ablative ni-
hilo is used in some few combinations. See § 494, b, Obs. 3.)
§ 92. From the personal and reflective pronouns are derived
adjectives, which denote that an object belongs to the speaker, or
the person addressed, or the subject previously named ; meus, tuus,
suus, noster (nostra, nostrum), vester (vestra, vestrum), my, thy,
his (reflect.), their, our, your. They are called Possessive pro-
nouns, and are regularly declined after the second and first declen-
sion, except that meus has mi in the voc. masc.
OBs. 1. Pte is sometimes affixed to the abl. sing. of these adjectives
(most frequently to that of suus), in order to express more emphati-
cally that a thing belongs to a person, as contrasted with what is not his
own; as, meopte ingenio, suopte pondere. Met is also attached to
suus (as to ego, se), most frequently when followed by ipse; e.g.
suamet ipse fraude, by his own deceit. This appendage is but rarely
found with mea (meanet facta, Sall. ; meåmet culpa, Plaut.).
OBs. 2. A possessive pronoun is also formed from the relative and
interrogative pronoun, cujus, cuja, cujum, whose? (he) whose: e.g.
cujum pecus 2 is, cuja res est; but it is only used in the antiquated
1 Instead of quid piam, quidque ; also, quippian quicque.
* Neminis occurs in Plautus, nemine in Tacitus, Svetonius, &c. The dat. nulli is
rarely used as a substantive.
88 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 93
and legal style, and there, besides the nom, and acc. sing., only in the
abl. fem. sing. (cujā causa), and the nom. and acc. plur. fem.
OBs. 3. From noster, vester, and cujus (interrogative) come the
adjectives of one termination, nostras, vestras, cujas (acc. nostratem,
&c.), of our nation (belonging to our town, our nation), of your nation,
of which nation 3 corresponding to the adjectives in as derived from the
names of towns.
§ 93. Besides the possessive pronouns, the Latins have other
adjectives, which denote a person or thing pronominally (i.e. by
referring to it) in respect to its quality, size, or number; as, talis,
such. The adjectives, which, while they express one and the same
idea, are variously formed to correspond with the different kinds of
pronouns, are called correlative adjectives.
These adjectives are, —
DEMONST. RELAT. AND INTERROG.. INDEF. REL. INDEFINITE.
(Indefin. and indef, univers.)
talis, e, of such qualis, e (of such a qvaliscun- qvalislibet, of
a quality. quality) as (rel.); qve, any quality
of what quality? of what you please.
(interrog.). quality So-
€256.7°.
tantus (a, qvantus (so great) qvantuscun- aliqvantus, of
um), so as (rel.) ; how qve, how a certain, con-
great. great? (interrog.). great so- siderable size.
Cl)6]".
qvantuslibet,
of any size you
please.
qvantusvis.
tot (undecl.), qvot (so many) as qvotcunqve, aliqvot, some.
so many. (rel.); how many? qvotgvot,
totidem (un- (interrog.). how many
decl.), just SO62)6.7°.
So many.
qvotus, which in the
series?
OBs. 1. Qvaliscunqve and qvantuscunqve are also used as simply
indefinite (not relative) pronouns. Aliqvantus is commonly used only
in the neuter gender (aliqvantum, aliqvanto), and as a substantive or
adverb. From tantus, &c., are formed the diminutives tantulus, of
such (small, insignificant) size, qvantulus, qvantuluscunqve, ali-
§ 96 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 89
qvantulum (a little). From tantum is formed tantundem (nom. acc.
neut.), just so much, gen. tantidem.
OBs. 2. For the pronominal adverbs, see the Rules for the Formation
of Words, $ 201.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE INFLECTION OF THE VERBS IN GENERAL.
§ 94. A Verb expresses the condition or agency of a person or
thing (the subject); e.g. caleo, I am warm ; curro, amo, frango,
I run, I love, I break.
The agency denoted by the verb either passes immediately to an
object which is operated upon, and the name of which is added (in
the accusative), and then the verb is called Transitive (properly,
passing over, from transeo): e.g. amo Deum, frango ramum, I love
God, I break a branch ; or it is complete in the subject alone, with-
out passing immediately to an object, and then the verb is termed
Intransitive (not passing over) or neuter: e.g. curro, I run.
OBS. A verb which is usually transitive may also be sometimes used
in such a sense, that no object is to be considered as acted on : e.g.
amo, I am in love; bibo vinum, I drink wine (trans.); bibo, I drink
(without specifying more particularly, intrans.). In the same way an
intransitive verb may assume a signification in which it becomes transi-
tive: e.g. excedo, I go out ; excedo modum, I exceed bounds.
§ 95. From transitive verbs a new form is deduced, by which it
is expressed of a thing, that it suffers the action, or is the object of
it: e.g. amor, I am loved; ramus frangitur, a branch is broken.
This form is called the Passive (the suffering form; also, genus
verbi passivum), in contradistinction to the original form, which is
called the Active (form of activity; genus activum).
OBS. Intransitive verbs may be used in the third person of the pas-
sive form without a definite subject (impersonally): e.g. curritur, it is
run (they run). See the Syntax, $ 218, c.
§ 96. MoDI, MooDs, WAYs. The Latin verbs have four moods,
or forms, to distinguish the way in which a thing is stated. These
are, —
90 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 98
a. The Indicative mood, the declarative way, by which a thing is
declared as actually taking place or existing; e.g. vir scribit, the man
ts writing.
b. The Subjunctive mood, the suppositive way, by which a thing is
simply declared as supposed: e.g. scribat aliqvis, some one may write;
ut scribat, that he may write ; scribat, may he write 1 (denoting a wish).
c. The Imperative mood, the commanding way, by which a thing is
commanded or desired; e.g. scribe, write /
d. The Infinitive mood, the indefinite way, by which the action or
condition is denoted in a general and indefinite manner; e.g. scribere,
to write. -
§ 97. In the different moods, the verbs have, also, distinct forms
to express the time to which the act may belong. These forms are
found most complete in the indicative active; namely:-
1. For the present time, the present tense; e.g. scribo, I write.
2. For the past time, three forms of a praeterite tense: —
a. The perfect, t. praet. perfectum (of a thing which is simply and
absolutely declared as past); e.g. scripsi, I wrote, I have written.
b. The imperfect, t. praet. imperfectum (of a thing, which was
present at a certain given time); e.g. scribebam, I was (then) writing.
c. The pluperfect, t. praet. plusqvamperfectum (of a thing which
had already taken place at a certain time); e.g. scripseram, I had
written.
3. For the future time, the future tense, two forms: —
a. The simple future, t. fut, simplex, or t. futurum (of a thing
which is denoted as simply and absolutely future); e.g. scribam, I shall
write.
b. The future perfect, t, fut. exactum (of a thing which will be
already past at a certain future time); e.g. scripsero, I shall (then)
have written. -
The Present, the Perfect, and the simple Future are the three
leading tenses.
The Subjunctive has the same tenses as the Indicative, except
the future passive, which has no form to express it.
The Imperative has two tenses, the present and future.
The Infinitive has the three leading tenses.
$98. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. Verbs have distinct termina-
tions in the Indicative and Subjunctive, according as their subject
is the speaker himself (first person), or the person addressed (sec-
ond person), or is different from both (third person); they also
§ 99 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 91
receive different endings, according as the subject is in the sin-
gular or the plural; e.g. scribo, I write; scribis, thou writest
(you write); scribit, he (she, it) writes; scribimus, we write; scri-
bitis, ye write ; scribunt, they write.
OBS. In the active, the termination of the first person singular is o, i,
or m, of the second s (sti), of the third t , in the plural, that of the first
mus, of the second tis, of the third nt. In the passive the terminations
are, in the singular, 1, r, 2, ris and re; 3, tur; in the plural, 1, mur;
2, mini; 3, ntur.
The imperative has only the second and third person, not the first,
since it always expresses an exhortation or command addressed to others.
§ 99. Noun ForMs. Besides the forms already given, verbs
have a substantive form in um and u (accusative and ablative),
which are called the first and second Supines; and, like the infinitive,
denote the action in general, but are used only in certain special
combinations: e.g. scriptum, in order to write ; scriptu, to be writ-
ten (as, facilis scriptu, easy to be written).” * >
Further, there are three Participles (participium, from parti-
ceps, sharing), or adjective forms, to denote that the action is
thought of as a property belonging to a person or thing. Two of
these participles are active, the third passive.
a. The present active participle ; e.g. scribens, writing.
b. The future active participle; e.g. scripturus (a, um), one who
will write, is on the point of writing.
c. The perfect passive participle; e.g. scriptus (a, um), written
(from transitive verbs). *:
There is, moreover, a form in the neuter, which follows the
second declension, but without a nominative, which is called the
Gerund,” and is used to denote an action in general (like the infini-
tive), but only in some of the cases; e.g. scribendo, by writing;
ad scribendum, to writing.
From the gerund there is formed in transitive verbs (by the ter-
minations us, a, um) a participle or participial adjective in the
passive, which is called the Gerundive, and denotes that the action
is happening, or must happen, with reference to a person or thing:
e.g. in epistola scribenda, in writing the letter; epistola scri-
benda est, the letter is to be written, must be written.”
1 The name Supine is borrowed from the adjective supinus, bent backward.
* From gero, I perform.
8. It is less correctly named the future participle passive.
92 . LATIN GRAMMAR. $100
From intransitive verbs the perfect participle and the gerundive are
formed only in the neuter, and not used as adjectives, but only in com-
bination with the verb esse, to be, to form an impersonal sentence: as,
Cursum est, it has been run (they have run); currendum est, it must
be run (they must run).
OBS. Of the declension and comparison of participles we have already
treated under the adjectives, Chap. X.
§ 100. Conjug ATIONS. The way in which the endings, which
express moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, are combined with
the stem of the verb, differs; and sometimes these endings them-
selves differ more or less according to the last letter (the charac-
teristic letter) of the stem, and hence arise four kinds of inflection,
called conjugations," to one of which every verb belongs.
a. To the first conjugation belong those verbs the stem of which
ends in a. This vowel is united, by contraction, with 0 in the first
person of the present indicative active: e.g. amo, I love ; but is
séen in the second person amas, and in the other forms: e.g. in the
present infinitive active in fire; as, amare, to love.
OBs. The a may be preceded by another vowel: e.g. creo, I create,
infinitive creare; crucio, I torture, cruciare; sinuo, I bend, sinuare.
b. To the second conjugation belong the verbs with the charac-
teristic letter e, which in the present infinitive active end in ére:
e.g. moneo (mone-o), I advise, remind, infinitive monére.
c. To the third conjugation belong those verbs of which the
characteristic letter is a consonant or the vowel u ; in the present
infinitive they have àre: e.g. scribo, I write, scribére; minuo, I
lessen, minuère.
OBS. To the third conjugation belong some verbs in which an i has
been inserted in the present indicative active after the proper character-
istic letter; e.g. capio (cap-i-o), I take, infinitive capére.
d. To the fourth conjugation belong the verbs with the charac-
teristic letter i: in the present infinitive they have ire: e.g. audio,
I hear, audire.
OBs. Since the present indicative may have the same ending in verbs
of different conjugations, the conjugation to which the verb belongs is
best indicated by the present infinitive active.
1 Conjugatio properly signifies a combination in one class, and denotes only the verbs
which belong to the same class. But it is now used of the inflections itself, and we say, to con-
jugate a verb, an expression not used by the Romans, who employed the term declinare.
§ 103 - INFLECTION OF VERBS. 93
$ 101. The first and second conjugation, having the vowels a and e
for their characteristic letters, and thus being pure verbs, resemble each
other (as the first and second declension). The consonants of the
endings are appended to the vowel of the stem; e.g. ama-s, mone-s,
ama-nt, mone-nt. In the third conjugation (which corresponds to the
third declension, and in which the verbs are impure) a connecting vowel
is inserted between the consonants of the stem and of the ending; e.g.
leg-i-s, leg-u-nt. The verbs of the second conjugation (with some few
exceptions, $ 122) reject the e in the perfect and supine, and are here
inflected like impure verbs. The fourth conjugation is partly similar to
the two first conjugations: e.g. in audi-s, audi-re, audi-vi; partly
to the third: e.g. in audi-unt, audi-ebam, audi-am (in the future).
§ 102. DERIVATION OF THE PARTICULAR FORMS IN ALL TENSES
AND MOODs. If the present indicative be known, the stem is found
by taking away 0, the ending of the first person (and in the first con-
jugation adding at the same time the a, which has been amalga-
mated with this ending; see $100, a); as, ama (first person amo),
mone (moneo), scrib (scribo), audi (audio). From this stem is
formed the present of the other moods, the imperfect of all the
moods, the future indicative and imperative, the participle present
and the gerundive, by adding the particular ending of each form,
as is shown by the examples of all four conjugations given below
($ 109).
OBs. 1. The characteristics a, e, i, are always long when they end a
syllable, and are not followed by a vowel.
OBs. 2. Of those verbs of the third conjugation in which an i is
inserted after the characteristic letter ($ 100, c, Obs.), it is to be ob-
served, that this i is everywhere dropped before another i, and before à
when followed by r (therefore capis, Capere, but capiet), and also in
the formation of the perfect and Supine, and those forms which are
regulated by them (§ 103–106).
§ 103. The formation of the perfect indicative active is particu-
larly to be noticed. .
a. In the first and fourth conjugation it is formed by adding vi to the
stem : amāvi, audivi; in the second conjugation the characteristic e is.
rejected and ui affixed: monui (mon-ui)."
OBs. The deviations from this rule are noticed below, Chap. XVII. seq.
b. In the third conjugation, the perfect in some verbs ends only in i,
ſy
1 Ui and vi are originally the same termination.
94. LATIN GRAMMAR. § 105
in others in si, in others in ui. The most simple form is found in
verbs with the characteristic letter u, where i is affixed to the stem:
e.g. minuo, I diminish (minu), perf minui; and in many with the
characteristic letters b, p, c (q.v., h), g (gv), and d, where si is
affixed, d being omitted before this ending (bsi is changed to psi, gāi
and csi to xi.; see § 10): e.g. repsi, from repo, I creep (rep); scripsi,
from scribo, I write ; dixi, from dico, I say; laesi, from laedo, I hurt.
What ending is used with each of the other verbs will be shown below
(Chap. XIX.).
Those verbs which form their perfect with i only, and have a consonant
for their characteristic, lengthen the vowel in the syllable which precedes
the ending when it is short, and is not lengthened by position; e.g. légi,
from lego, to choose, read (collégi, from colligo). Some verbs with the
perfect in i have the reduplication, i.e., the first consonant with its fol-
lowing vowel, if this be o or u (Ö, ii), but otherwise, with ē, is prefixed to
the stem: e.g. curro, I run, perf. cicurri; in this case, the vowel of the
radical syllable is not lengthened, but occasionally modified (weakened,
§ 5, c): e.g. cado, I fall, perf. Cecidi. In compound words, the redu-
plication is dropped: e.g. incidi, from incido (compounded of in and
cado); except in some particular verbs (which are given below, in the
list of the perfects and supines). -
OBs. The lengthening of the radical vowel takes place also in
verbs of the other conjugations, which (varying from the general rule)
have i only in the perfect. The following only have a short syllable
before i : bibi, fidi, scidi, túli, from bibo, findo, scindo, fero. In some
verbs the reduplication is irregular: e.g. steti, from sto (1st conj.);
stiti, from sisto; spöpondi, from spondeo (2d conj.).
§ 104. By the perfect indicative active is regulated the perfect
of the other moods (the subjunctive and infinitive), together with
the pluperfect and the future perfect (indicative and subjunctive)
in the active, so that the particular endings of these tenses are
added to the form of the perfect indicative, after the ending of the
first person, i, has been removed; e.g. amaveram (pluperf indic.
act.) from amav-i. º
§ 105. The supines in the first, third, and fourth conjugations,
are formed by adding to the stem the endings tum (1st sup.) and tu
(2d sup.), before which b is changed by the pronunciation to p, g
(qv, h, gv) to c (§ 10); amātum, scriptum (minitum), auditum,
amatu, scriptu (minutu), auditu. In the third conjugation the
verbs with the characteristic d have the endings sum, su, before
which d is dropped; e.g. laesum, laesu, from laedo, I hurt.
§ 107 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 95
In the second conjugation, the e of the stem is rejected, and ſtum, itu,
are affixed; as, monitum, monitu. (I is a connecting vowel, inserted
for the sake of the pronunciation.)
OBS. 1. With respect to the irregularities which are produced by
the addition of sum instead of tum in other verbs (besides those
already mentioned), and by changes in the stem, see Chap. XVII.
Séq.
OBS. 2. The termination ſtum is everywhere the regular one, where
the perfect has ui (also in the third conjugation, and those verbs of the
first which vary from the general rule); e.g. gemo, I groan, perf. gemui,
sup. gemitum, except where u is the characteristic letter of the stem;
e.g. minuo, miniitum.
OBS. 3. I is always long in the supine, when the perſect has vi, except
in it um, citum, litum, qvitum, situm, from the verbs eo, cieo, lino,
qveo, sino, with an irregular formation. The following only have a
short a datum, ratum, satum, from do, reor, sero, also formed irregu-
larly. Rutum, from ruo, is the only instance with a short u.
§ 106. The participle perfect of the passive, and the participle
future of the active, are formed, like the supine, by substituting
their endings us, a, um, and ürus, ura, urum, in the place of
um; amātus, monitus, scriptus, laesus, auditus, amaturus, moni-
turus, Scripturus, laesurus, auditurus. It is therefore only neces-
sary to name the first supine, to show the form of both supines as
well as these participles.
OBS. 1. If the supine be not regularly formed from the present, these
participles vary in the same way.
OBS. 2. In some few of those verbs, of which the supine and participle
perfect vary from the regular formation, the participle future is, never-
theless, formed from the present, turus or iturus being added to the
stem ; juvaturus, secaturus, sonaturus, pariturus, ruiturus, moritu-
rus, nasciturus, oriturus; see, under the irregular verbs, juvo, seco,
sono, of the 1st conj. ; pario and ruo, of the 3d; and, under the
deponents, morior, nascor (3d), and orior (4th).
§ 107. For some tenses no simple form is deduced from the verb,
but they are expressed periphrastically by the combination of a
participle with a tense of the (auxiliary) verb sum, I am. In the
active voice this occurs in the future subjunctive and infinitive,
with the help of the future participle; and in the passive, with the
help of the perfect participle, it occurs in the perfect tense and in
all those tenses which in the active voice derive their form from
the perfect.
96 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § lo8
CHAPTER. XIV.
TEIE VERB SUM, AND EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
§ 108. The verb sum, I am, is inflected quite differently from
the other verbs, in the following manner:—
INDICATIVE. SUIBJUNCTIVIE.
*~. I am. PRESENT. I may be.'
sum, I am. sümus, we are. sim simug
ès, thow, art. estis, you are. sis sitis
est, he (she, it) is. sunt, they are. sit sint;
I was. IMPERFECT. I might be.'
èram erämus e$$e1 Ìl essémus
(Eralß erätis (e$$e$ essétis
erat; erant esset; essent;
I have been. PERFECT. . I may have been.'
fui fuîmus fuérim fuerîmus
fuisti fuistis fueris fueritis
fuit; fuérunt; fuerit; fuerint
I had been. E'LUPERFECT. I might have been.
fuêram fuerämus fuissem fuissémus
fueras fuerätis fuisses fuissétis
fuerat fuerant fuisset fuissent
PUTURE (SIMPLE), I shall be.
erO erimus futurus sim futuri simus
eris erîtis futurus sis futuri sitis
erit; erunt - futurus sit futuri sint
EUTURE PERFECT, I shall have been.
fuëro fuerimus fuerim fuerímus
fueris fuerîtis fueris fueritis
fuerit; - fuerint; fuerit; fuerint
1 This is only one of several forms by which the subjunctive mood may be represented in
English. It may be translated with equal correctness into the indicative mood, or the impera-
tive or infinitive, according to the nature of the sentence in which it occurs. This is true of
the subjunctive of all verbs. (T.)
§ 103 THE VERB SUM, AND ITS CONJUGATIONS. 97
IMPERATIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
PREs. 2. es, be thou ! este, be ye!
FUT. 2. esto, thou shalt be.” ‘estote, you shall be.
FUT. 3. esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. esse, to be. PERFECT. fuisse, to have been.
FUTURE. futurus (a, um) esse, or (in the accus.) futu-
rum (am) esse; plur., futuri (ae, a), futu-
ros (as, a) esse, to be about to be.
PARTICIPLE.
FUTURE. futurus (a, um), that will be, future.
OBs. 1. The supine and gerund are wanting. The participle present
is not used as a verb; as a substantive, it is found (rarely) in philosophi-
cal language, – ens, the being. -
OBs. 2. Like sum are declined its compounds: absum, I am absent
(abfui or afui); adsum, I am present (or assum, perf. affui or adfui,
see § 173); desum, I am wanting (deest, deeram, &c., were pro-
nounced dést, dēram); insum, I am in ; intersum, I am present;
obsum, I am in the way; praesum, I am at the head; prosum, I profit;
subsum, I am amongst, supersum, I am remaining, of which absum
and praesum alone form the participle present; absens, absent ; prae-
sens, present. Prosum inserts a d before the e of the verb; e.g.
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt.
OBs. 3. For futurus esse (the fut. inf.) there is another form, före;
and for essem (imperf. Subj.) a form, forem, fores, foret, forent
(affäre, affärem, profore, proforem, &c.), on the use of which see
§ 377, Obs. 2, and $ 410. (In combination with a participle, fore must
always be used; e.g. laudandum fore, not laudandum futurum esse.)
OBS. 4. The forms siem, sies, siet, sient, in the pres. subj., are
antiquated, and still more fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant; the forms escit,
escunt (esit, esunt), in the fut. indic., are quite obsolete. When est
came after a vowel or m, the e was omitted in the earlier period, both in
speaking and writing (nata st, natum st, oratio st); in the comic
writers the termination us also coalesces with est (factust, opust, for
factus est, opus est); and occasionally with es (Qvid meritu's 2
Ter. Andr. III. 5, 15).
1 In English the forms be thou, be ye, let him be, let them be, are also used for the future;
that is, in commands which are to be obeyed either immediately, or at any future time. (T.)
7
98 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 109
OBs. 5. The forms of the verb sum are properly derived from two
roots es (whence esum, afterwards sum, and all the forms beginning
with e) and fu (fuo), (in Greek, eiut and pio).
§ 109. The whole formation of the tenses, and the inflection
according to persons and numbers in each tense in the four conju-
gations, may be seen from the following verbs, which are given
entire as examples; amo (stem, ama) of the first, moneo of the
second, scribo of the third, audio of the fourth conjugation. Under
the third conjugation are given at the same time tenses of minuo,
as an example of a verb with the characteristic letter u, and of
capio, as an example of a verb with an i inserted after the charac-
teristic letter.
I. ACTIVE.
A. Indicative.
I. CONJ, II. CONJ. III, CONJ. IV. CONJ.
PRESENT.
amo, (I) love. moneo, (I) advise. scribo, (I) write. audio, (I) hear.
amas, (thou) lovest. IClOIO.08 scribis - audis
amat, (he, she, it) loves. Imonet Scribit, audit
amāmus, (we) love. monémus scribinus audimus
amātis, (you) love. monétis scribitis auditis
amant, (they) love. Imonerit; scribunt:1 audiunt
IMPERFECT.
(Ending, in the First and Second Conj., bam; in the Third and Fourth, ebam.)
amābam, I loved or monébam. scribébam. audièbam
was loving.
amabas monebas scribebas audiebas
amabat monebat scribebat audiebat
amabānuS monebåmus scribebämus audiebämus
amabātis monebätis scribebâtis audiebätis
amabant monebant scribebant audiebant
minuebarn
capiebam.
PERFECT
(Ending, in the First and Fourth Conj., vi; in the Second, ui (with the omission of the ey;
the Third, i, si, or ui. See § 103.)
amăvi, I loved or have monui scripsi audiwi
loved. - -
amavisti - rmonuisti scripsisti audivisti
amavit - monuit scripsit, audivit
amavimus monuinus scripsimus audivinus
amavistis monuistis scripsistis audivistis
amavérunt monuèrunt Scripsérunt; audiverunt
(or amavére) (monuère) (scripsère) (audivere)
minui
1 In the same way also minuo, I lessen; capio, I take, capis, capit, capimus,
tapitis, capiunt.
§ 109 EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. -
º,
U. Jºs’ . . .
PLUPERFECT.
(Ending, ğram, affixed to the perfect, after rejecting the i.)
amavěram, I had monuéram scripsèram audivéram
loved. - -
3rdia, Vera,S 100101 lllèI’a,S ' scripseras audiveras
amaverat monuerat, scripserat audiverat
amaveramus monuerámus ScripSeråmus audiveråmus
amaveratis monuerátis scripserätis audiverātis
amaverant monuerant scripserant audiverant
- minueram
FUTURE (SIMPLE).
(Ending, in the First and Second Conj, bo; in the Third and Fourth, am.)
amābo, I shall love. monébo Scribarn audiam
amabis rmonebis Scribes audies
amabit Imonebit scribet audiet,
amabimus monebimus scribénus. audièrmuS
amabitis momebítis scribétis audiétis
amabunt, monebunt Scribent audient,
- - minuam
Capiam,
Capies
FUTURE PERFECT.
(Ending, ero, which is affixed to the perfect, after rejecting the i.)
amavero, I shall have monuèro scripsèro audivéro
loved. -
amaveris Inonueris scripseris audiveris
amaverit monuerit scripserit audiverit
amaverinus monuerimus scripserimus audiverimus
amaveritisl Imonueritis scripseritis audiveritis
amaverint monuerint scripserint audiverint
Iminuero
B. Subjunctive.
PRESENT.
(Ending, am, which in the First Conj. coalesces with the a of the stem into em.)
amem, I may love IClOOleº). scribam. audiam.
3,118.8 In Orlea,S scribas audiaS
amet, moneat, scribat; audiat
amërmus moneåmus scribàmus audiánus
amétis moneåtis scribàtis audiátis
ament Imomeant; scribant, audiant,
- minuam.
capiam
1 The usual pronunciation in prose is amaverſmus, amaveritis, &c.

100 ... . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 109
IMPERFECT.
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. rem; in the Third, érem.)
amārem, I might love. monérem Scribérem audirem
# Iſlalºes In OneI'êS scriberes audires
amaret Imoneret scriberet audiret;
amarèmus monerëmus scriberêmus. audirémus
amarétis . Imonerëtis scriberêt is audirétis
amarent Imonerent Scriberent audirent
minuerem,
Caperenn
PERFECT. *
(Ending &rim, affixed to the perf indic. after rejecting the i.)
ama vérim, I may monuerim scripsûrim audivºrina
have loved. -
amaveris imonueris scripseris audiveris
amaverit monuerit scripserit audiverit
amaverinus monuerimus scripserimus audiverinus
amaveritis monueritis scripseritis audiveritis
amaverint monuerint scripserint audiverint
minuerim
PLUPERFECT.
(Ending issem, affixed to the perf indic. after rejecting the i.)
amavissem, I should monuissem scripsissem audivissem
Have loved. &
amavisses monuisses scripsisses audivisses
amavisset monuisset scripsisset audivisset
ama,VISSémus monuissérnus scripsissèmus audivissèmus
amavissétis - monuissétis . scripsissétis audivissetis
amavissent, monuissent Scripsissent audivissent
Iminuissem
FUTURE.
t S sim monittirus, a, scriptiirus, a, audittirus, a, um
amaturus, } sis um sim, &c. um sim, &c. Slm, &c.
as Ulm. sit minutiirus, as
aturi, ae, simus - um sim, &c.
8) Sitis
Sint
The Future Perfect is like the Perfect.
C. Imperative.
PRESENT.
(In the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. the simple stem; in the Third, the stem with ē.)
Sing. 2 amä, love! moné scribé audi
Plur. 2 amäte monéte scribite audite
minue, Cape,
Capíte
§ 109
101
EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
Sing. 2 and 3 amäto
Plur. 2 amatóte
8 amanto
amāre, to love.
FUTURE.
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. to; in the Third, ſto.)
monéto
Imonetóte
monento
scribito
Scribitóte
Scribunto
minuito, capito
D. Infinitive.
PRESENT.
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. re; in the Third, ére.),
Imonére
scribëre, min-
uère, capére
PERFECT.
(Ending isse, affixed to the perf indic. after rejecting the i.)
audito
auditóte
audiunto
audire
amavisse, to have monuisse scripsisse audiwisse
loved. minuisse
FUTURE.
Singular.
N. amaturus, as Imoniturus, as scripturus, as auditurus, a, um,
um, esse um, esse una, esse ©SS6
A. amaturum, am, moniturum, scripturum, auditurum, am,
um, esse am, Ulm, esse - a.m., um, esse lin1, 6886
Plural.
No amaturi, ae, monituri, ae, a, scripturi, ae, audituri, ae, a,
a, esse ©S$6. * a, esse ©SS6
A. amaturos, as, monituros, as, Scripturos, as, audituros, as, a,
as eS Se as eSS6 a, esse ©SS6
minuturus esse,
&c.
E. Supine.
(Ending in the First, Third, and Fourth Conj. tum; in the Second, ſtum, after rejecting the e.)
amātum, in order to monitum scriptum auditium
Move. - miniitum -
amatu monitºu scriptu auditu
minutu
F. Gerund. ,
(Ending in the First and Second Conj. ndum; in the Third and Fourth, endum.)
amandum. monendum scribendum audiendum
(acc.; gen. amandi; - minuendum,
dat., ábl., amando.) capiendum.
G. Participle.
PRESENT.
(Ending in the First and Second Conj. ns; in the Third and Fourth, ens.)
amans, loving. In OIlellS scribens audiens
- minuens, -
capiens
i
t
Q
:
102 LATIN GRAMMAR. . . . . § 109
FUTURE.
(Ending urus, affixed to the Supine, after rejecting um.)
amatiirus, a, um monittirus, a, scriptiirus, a, auditurus, a, um
Tºll Cl - um ; minutti-
I'llS, as lllll
II. PASSIVE.
(All the simple tenses of the Indic. and Subj, are formed from those that correspond to
them in the Active; r being affixed to o, or substituted for m.)
A. Indicative.
I. CONJ. II. CONJ. " III. CONJ. IV. CONJ.
- PRESENT.
amor, I am loved. moneor scribor audior
amāris (rarelyamāre) monéris (rarely scribéris" audiris
• * * monére) -
amätur - . . . monétºur scribítur auditur.
amāmur monémur scribinnur audimur
amamini monemini scribinnini audimini
amantur Imonentur scribuntur audiuntur
minuor, capior,
capéris, &c.
- - - IMPERFECT. - * *
amābar, I was loved. monébar . scribébar. audièbar
amabāris or ama— monebāris, re scribebäris, re audiebäris, re
bäre - - - t
-. * r ©
amabātur monebåtur scribebåtur audiebätur
arriabärnur . . . . In Onebärnur scribebåmur . . audiebämur
amabamini monebamini scribebannini audiebamini
amabantur Imomebantur scribebantur audiebantur
minuëbar,
Capièbar
PERFECT.
sum, I have monitus, as um's Scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um,
... been loved, sum, &c. . sum, &c. - sum, &c.
amatus, { Or 200. S - miniitus sum
i loved.
as um |es
est
ſº SUIDOlliS;
amati, {:
*** { sunt;
-- PLUPERFECT. .
been loved. eram, &c. eram, &c. eram, &c.
eram, I had monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um,
*: minūtus eran
* * eras ar
lerat
tº ©TººltiS
amati, {:
*** * *erant,
1 See § 114, b.
§ 109 ExAMPLEs of THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 103
FUTURE.
amābors I shall be monébor scribar . audiar
loved. . }
amabëris or ama- monebèris, re scribéris, re audièris, re
bère tº sº.
amabitur monebitur scribétºur audiètur
amabímur monebimur scribénur audièmur
amabimini . monebimini scribémini audièrmini
amabuntur nonebuntur scribentur audientur
minuar,
capiar, capi-
éris, &c.
FUTURE PERFECT.
ero, I shall monitus, a, um, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um,
have been ero, &c. ero, &c. ero, &c.
amatus, 2 >, > º
loved.1 miniitus ero
89 Ullal *
©TIS
erit;
amati, (...”
86, 8, €I'itºis;
erunt •
B. Subjunctive.
PRESENT.
amer, I may be loved. monear scribar audiar
amëris or amère monearis, re scribāris, re audiáris, re
amëtur moneåtur scribätur . audiátur
aménnur monieńmur scribämur audiámur
amemini moneamini scribamini audiamini
amentur Imonean tur scribantºur audiantur
minuar,
capiar, &c.
IMPERFECT.
amārer, I might be monérer scribërer audirer
loved.
amarëris or amarère monerëris, re scriberêris, re audirèris, re
amarèfºur monerëtur scriberêtur audirétºur
amarèmur monerëmur scriberêmur audirèmur
ama remini noneremini scriberemini audiremini
amarentur Imionerentºur scriberentºur audirentur
minuerer,
caperer
PERFECT.
sim, I may monitus, a, urn, scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um
have been sim, &c. Sim, &c. sim, &c.
amatus, - & sº tº
boved. Iminiitus sim.
8, Ulrºl *
sis
sit;
amati, [..."
a €, fl. SltiS
sint /1
* For amatus ero, eris, &c., amatus fuero, fueris, * is also used.
§
104 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 109
PLUPERFECT.
essem, I monitus, a, um, Scriptus, a, um, auditus, a, um,
might have essem, &c. essem, &c. essem, &c.
º atus, been loved. miniitus essem
3 UlDil | €$SeS A
eSSet,
amati, : essemus
essetis
863 &
essent
Future wanting.
C. Imperative.
PRESENT. -
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. re; in the Third, ére.)
Sing. 2 a.māre, beloved 7 monére scribére audire
Plur. 2 amamini monemini Scribinnini audimini
minuère,
capëre, &c.
FUTURE.
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. tor; in the Third, ſtor.)
Sing. 2 and 3 a.mätor, be monétor Scribitor auditor
toved & r
Plur. 3 amantor monentor scribuntor audiuntor
minuitor,
capitor, &c.
D. Infinitive.
PRESENT.
(Ending in the First, Second, and Fourth Conj. ri; in the Third, i.)
amāri, to be loved. monéri scribi ~, audiri
minui, capi
PERFECT.
Singular.
N. amatus, a, um, monitus, a, um, scriptus, as um, auditus, a, um,
esse, to have been esse, &c. esse, &c. esse, &c.
doved. - Iminiitus esse
A. amatum, arm, um,
©SS6
Plural.
N. amati, ae, a, esse
A. amatos, as, a, esse’
FUTURE.1
amatum iri monitum iri scriptum iri auditum iri
miniitum iri
1 This tense is compounded of the supine and the passive form of the infinitive of eC,
to go. (Amatum ire, in the active, to be going to love; hence, for the passive, amatum
iri.)
§ 110 DEPONENT WERBS. 105
E. Participle.
PERFECT.
(Ending us, affixed to the supine, after rejecting um.)
amātus, a, um, loved. monitus scriptus auditus
minūtus
GERUNDIVE (FUTURE).
(Ending in the First and Second Conj. Indus; in the Third and Fourth, endus.)
amandus, as um, that monendus scriberndus audiendus
is to be loved.
CHAPTER XV.
VERBS WITH A PASSIVE FORM AND ACTIVE SIGNIFICATION
(DEPONENT VERBs).
§ 110. Various verbs in Latin have a passive form with an active
signification, in some cases transitive, in others intransitive: e.g.
hortor, I exhort; morior, I die. They are called Deponent verbs
(literally, laying aside, from depomo, because they lay aside the
active form).
OBS. 1. The form of the deponents is to be explained by the conside-
ration, that the form, which is now passive, had not at first definitively and
exclusively this signification. Some verbs, which are reckoned among
the deponents, are, however, actual passives from active verbs in use,
with a signification somewhat modified; e.g. pasci, to graze (intrans.),
from pasco, to graze (trans., to lead to pasture), to fodder. Some
verbs occur both as deponents and in the active form. See Chap.
XXI. *
OBs. 2. The verbs audeo, I dare; fido, I trust (confido, diffido);
gaudeo, I rejoice; soleo, I am accustomed, – have, in the participle
perfect, an active signification, and form, with it, the perfect, and the
tenses derived from it in a passive form, with an active signification;
ausus sum, fisus sum, gavisus sum, solitus sum; pluperf indic.,
ausus eram; subj., essem, &c. They are, therefore, half deponents.
(Concerning fio, see $160. Placeo, too, and some impersonal verbs of
the second conjugation, have, in the perfect, a passive as well as an active
form. See § 128, a, Obs. 1, and § 166.) A few others — e.g. rever-
tor, I turn back—have a deponent form in the present, but an active
form, on the other hand, in the perfect, —reverti. See, under verto,
§ 139; and perio, § 145.
106 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 112
OBs. 3. Some few active verbs, with an intransitive signification, have,
notwithstanding, the perfect participle (but no other form) in the passsive,
and this participle has then an active signification: e.g. juratus, one who
has sworn, from juro, I swear (injuratus, one that has not sworn ; con-
juratus, a conspirator, from conjuro) ; coenatus, one that has dined,
from coeno, I dine. The others are adultus, Cretus, coalitus, exole-
tus, inveteratus, nupta, obsoletus, potus, pransus, svetus, each of
which is introduced, with its verb, in Chaps. XVII., XVIII., XIX.
More rare are conspiratus, from conspiro, I combine, conspire; defla-
gratus, from deflagro, to burn down (intrans.); placitus, accepted,
approved of, from placeo. In Sallust, paz conventa, from pax con-
venit."
§ 111. The deponents are referred, according to their character-
istic letters, to the four conjugations, and inflected according to the
ordinary passive form of each conjugation. The supine and per-
fect participle are formed from the stem, as in active verbs. Besides
the supine, they have also the present and future participles in the
active form, so that a deponent has three participles with an active
signification for the three leading tenses. The future subjunctive
and infinitive are compounded from the future participle as in active
verbs. -
The gerundive, unlike the other forms, retains a passive signifi-
cation; as, hortandus, that is to be eachorted. It is formed, there-
fore, only from transitive deponents; but the intransitives also have
a gerund (with an active signification, § 99).
OBs. The deponents pascor, vehor, versor, which are properly the
passives of active verbs in use, have the participles, pascons, vehens,
versans, not only in the signification belonging to them in the active,
but also in that which they have as deponents.
§ 112. The following are examples of deponents of all four con-
jugations in all tenses and moods.
1 Consideratus, considered; and (as an adjective), considerate, circumspect.
DEPONENT WERBS.
107
Indicative.
II. CONJ.
vereor, I fear.
veréris(e), &c., utéris, &c., like
like moneor
verébar
veritus Sum
veritus eram
verébor
veritus ero
Subjunctive.
Verear
verérer
veritus sim
veritus essem
veriturus Sim.
Imperative.
verere
verétor
Infinitive.
veréri
veritus esse, usus esse, &c.
&c.
veriturus esse, usurus esse,
III, CONJ.
utor, I use.
scribor
utěbar
liSULS SUITTOl
TISULS el’8,IIl
utar
liSUls; el’O
utar
utérer
lusus Sim
liSUlS eSS6Dºl
usurus sim
utëre
utit Or
uti
&c. &c.
Supine.
veritum. TISULT1
veritu U18'll
Gerund.
verendum. utendum
Participle.
Present.
Imperf.
Perfect.
Pluperf.
Future.
Fut. Perf."
Present.
Imperf.
Perfect.
Pluperf.
Future.
Present.
Future.
Present.
Perfect.
Future.
Present.
Perfect.
Future.
Gerund.
I. CONJ.
hortor, I eachorē.
hortăris (re), &c.,
like amor
hortābar
hortatus, a, um,
Sum, es, &c.
hortatus eram
hortābor
hortatus ero
horter
hortärer
hortatus sim
hortatus essem.
hortaturus Sim
hortăre
hortätor
hortàri
hortätus (al, um)
esse; hortatum
(a, um) esse, &c.
hortaturus (a,
um) esse, &c.
hortătum
hortatu
hortandum
hortans
hortätus (a, um)
hortatürus (a, um)
hortandus (a, um)
Verein S utens
veritus TiSLIS
veritiirus uSiirus
verendus utendus
IV. CONJ.
partior, I divide.
partiris, &c., like
audior
partiébar
partitus Sum.
partitus eram
partiar -
partitus ero
partiar
partirer
partitus sim
partitus essem
partiturus sim
partire
partitor
partiri
partitus esse,
&c.
partiturus
esse, &c.
partitum
partitu
partiendum
partiens
partitus
partitiirus
partiendus
108 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 114
CHAPTER XVI.
some PECULIARITIES IN THE CONJUGATION OF VERBs.
§ 113. a. In the perfect and the tenses formed from it in the
first conjugation, if r or s follows ve or vi, the V may be omitted,
and a with the e or i contracted into a ; e.g. amarunt, amarim,
amasti, amasse, for amaverunt, amaverim, amavisti, amavisse.
So, also, we and vimay be dropped before r and s in perfects in evi
(from irregular verbs of the second and third conj.), and in the
tenses formed from them: e.g. flestis, nerunt, deleram, for flevis-
tis, neverunt, deleveram, decresse for decrevisse (from decerno);
and in the perfects novi from nosco, and mövi from moveo, with
their compounds: e.g. nolim, mosse, commosse, (But always no-
vero.)
b. In the perfects in ivi and the tenses formed from them, v may
be left out before e: e.g. definieram, qvaesierat, for definiveram,
qvaesiverat, from definio, qvaero (perf irregular quaesivi); also
before i, when followed by-s, in which case ii in prose is almost .
always contracted into i: e.g. audissem, petisse (poetically peti-
isse), sisti, for audivissem, petivisse, sivisti. More rarely (in
the poets) v is left out before it (iit for ivit); e.g. audiit for au-
divit.
OBs. 1. The form iit occurs not unfrequently in petiit (peto), and is
the only one used in desiit (desino), and in the compounds of eo; e.g.
rediit. In these compounds, the form ii is also always used in the first
person; e.g. praeterii, perii. See, under eo, § 158. Otherwise, this is
quite unusual (only petii, for petivi).
OBS. 2. In the later poets, we find but rarely, for redii and petiit,
the contracted form also redi, petit, although not followed by s.
OBs. 3. In the perfects in si (xi), and the tenses formed from them, a
syncope is sometimes admitted in archaic forms and by the poets (even
Horace and Virgil), when an s follows si, the i being omitted, and either
one s or two dropped, according to § 10: e.g. scripsti, for scripsisti;
abscessem, for abscessissem; dixe, consumpset, accestis, for dix-
isse, consumpsisset, accessistis.
§ 114. a. In the third person plural of the perf indic. act., ere
(rarely in Cicero) is also used for Érunt (amavére, monuère, dix-
ére, audivere), in which case the v cannot be omitted. In erunt
the poets sometimes use the e short; e.g. stetërunt (Virg).
§ 115 PECULIARITIES OF VERBS. 109
b. In the second person singular in the passive (except in the
present indicative), the termination re is very usual for ris (in
Cicero it is the one most commonly used); in the pres, indic. (e.g.
arbiträre, vidére), it is rare, and confined almost entirely to depo-
nent verbs. (In the third conjugation it is very seldom, and in the
fourth never, used.)
c. The verbs dico, I say ; duco, I lead; facio, I do, make ; fero, I
bring, — of the third conjugation, have, in the present imperative active,
dic, duc, fac, fer, without e ; and, in like manner, the compounds of
duco (educ), fero (affer, refer), and those of facio, in which the
a remains unchanged (calefac, but confice; see, under facio, § 143).
OBS. Face sometimes occurs in the poets, more rarely duce and dice.
From scio (4th conj.), sci is unused, scite rare; for these, we find the
future scito, scitote.
According to an older pronunciation, the gerundive, in the third and
fourth conjugations, has also the termination undus, instead of endus;
e.g. juri dicundo, potiundus.
§ 115. OBSOLETE FORMS OF TENSEs. a. In the old language, and in
the poets, the pres. inf. passive sometimes ends in ier, instead of i, e.g.
amarier, scribier. º
b. The imperf indic. active and passive, of the fourth conjugation,
had sometimes, in the more ancient language, the terminations bam, bar,
instead of ébam, ebar; e.g. scibam, largibar (from the deponent lar-
gior).
c. The future indic. active and passive, of the fourth conjugation,
had sometimes, in the older style, the endings ibo, ibor, instead of iam,
iar; e.g. servibo, opperibor (from the deponent opperior).
d. In the present subj. active, we find an old termination, —im,
is, it, — especially in the word edim, occasionally used for edam, from
edo, I eat; and in duim, from the verb do, with its compounds,
particularly in prayers and execrations; di duint, di te perduint
(Cic.).
OBS. This termination was retained in sim, and in velim, nolim,
malim (as in the subj. of the perf. and fut. perf.).
e. The future imperative passive, in the second and third person singu-
lar, was anciently formed also by affixing to the stem the ending mino
(in the third conj. imino); e.g. praefamino, from the deponent prae-
fari, progredimino, from progredior.
J. In place of the usual future, another was formed, in the older lan-
guage, in the first, second (rare), and third conjugation, by affixing to
the stem the ending so (in the first and second conjugation, sso); as,
levasão (levo), prohibesso (prohibeo), axo (ago). In verbs of the
110 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 116
third conjugation in io, the i was dropped: capso, faxo, from capio,
facio; and the same modifications were introduced, for the sake of eu-
phony, as in the formation of perfects in si: e.g. adempso, from adimo
effexo, from efficio, like effectum, because it is a close syllable. Those
verbs of the second conjugation, which follow the third in the perfect, do
so also in this: e.g. jusso, from jubeo (perf. jussi). From this future,
there was formed a subjunctive in im (levassim, prohibessim, faxim);
e.g. ne nos curassis, don't trouble yourself about us. The language, in its
more refined state, retained from facio the fut. indic. faxo (in the first
person, in the poets, in threats and promises), and the fut. Subj, faxim
(in wishes, as a pres. subj. faxis, faxit, faximus, faxitis, faxint);
and, from audeo, the fut. Subj. ausin (in doubtful assertions, I might
venture, ausis, ausit, ausint). .
g. A participle is formed from some verbs, mostly intransitive
(both active and deponent), by adding to the stem bundus (a, um),
in the third conj. ibundus; e.g. contionabundus, cunctabundus,
deliberabundus (from contionor, cunctor, delibero), furibundus,
moribundus (from furo, morior, 3d; fremebundus, tremebundus,
with e, from fremo, tremo; pudibundus, from pudet, 2d). It has
the signification of the present active.
OBS. This participle is rarely found with an accusative; e.g. vitabun-
dus castra (Liv. XXV. 13).
§ 116. By a combination of the participle future active and the
participle perfect passive with the tenses of the verb sum, more
expressions may be formed than those already given (which corre-
spond to the several tenses of the indicative) to denote special rela-
tions of time; e.g. dicturus sum, I am he that will say–I am about
to say; dicturus eram, I was about to say; positus fui, I have been
placed. For the use and force of these combinations, see the Syn-
tax, §§ 341–344, 381, and 409.
Similar combinations are formed from the gerundive and sum, which
express something as fitting, in the different moods and tenses; e.g.
faciendum est, or erat, it is (was) to be done, it must be done, ought to
have been done. See, on this subject, the Syntax, $$ 420, 421.
All these combinations are comprised under the name periphras-
tic conjugation.
§ 118 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 111
CHAPTER XVII.
OF THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES IN GENERAL, AND
ESPECIALLY THOSE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
§ 117. Some verbs, though they have the perfect and supine
(participle perfect) with the endings specified in § 103 and § 105,
do not form them regularly from the stem, as found in the present,
but after some change in the same ; e.g. frégi from frango (with
the ending i, and lengthening of the vowel according to § 103, but
with the omission of the n). To the stem so altered there is
often affixed the ending of a conjugation different from that, to
which the stem of the present belongs: e.g. jūvo, I help ; juväre
(1st), perfect jūvi, with i, as if from a stem of the third conju-
gation (juv); peto, I beg; petère (3d), perfect petivi, with vi, as
if from a stem in i (4th), supine petitum; so likewise seco, I
cut ; secăre (1st), supine sectum, as if from a stem of the third
conjugation (sec). When the perfect and supine (part, perf) of
these verbs are known, the other tenses, which are determined by
these (§§ 104 and 106), are formed regularly from them.
Compound verbs are declined like the simple (uncompounded)
verbs from which they are derived. Those simple verbs, there-
fore, which are irregular in the perfect and supine, are specially
noticed below for each conjugation. Some want either both per-
fect and supine, or the supine alone, and consequently those tenses
also which are derived from them. -
§ 118. The deviation of the perfect and supine from the present has,
in most cases, arisen from the fact that, through the influence of pronunci-
ation, the stem in use in the present has been enlarged from the original
more simple stem. This increase consists most frequently either in the
addition of a vowel after the final consonant (characteristic letter) of
the stem: e.g. sona (pres. indic. sono, I sound, infin. sonare, 1st), in-
stead of son (perf. sonui, sup. somitum); ride (rideo, I laugh, 2d),
instead of rid (perf. risi, sup, risum); veni (vénio, I come, 4th),
instead of ven (perf. vēni, sup. ventum); or, in the insertion of the
letter n, sometimes after a vowel: e.g. si-no, I permit (3d), perf si-vi}
sometimes before a consonant, in which case it may also be changed by
the pronunciation to m (according to $ 8): e.g. frango, perf. frégi,
rumpo, perf. ripi." The stem of the present is reduplicated in gigno,
1 The insertion takes a peculiar form in cerno, sperno, sterno; perf, crevi, Sprevi,
stravi.
112 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 119
(genui, genitum, from gen) and sisto. A peculiar increment of the
stem is the terminal affix sco. See § 141. In consequence of this en-
largement of the stem in the present, many verbs which there have the
characteristics a, e, i (1st, 2d, 4th conj.), have a perfect and supine
according to the form of the third conj. ; and some, of which the charac-
teristic letter is a consonant in the present, form their perfect and supine
as if from a stem ending in a vowel. In uro, gero (us-si, ges-si, us-
tum, ges-tum), and some others, the stem in the present has not been
lengthened, but varied, with a view to euphony. (In the perfect and
supine of fluo, struc, veho, traho, vivo, we meet with a consonant,
which, in the present, has either been rejected altogether, or weakened,
as h, or appears in another form as v.) Some apparent irregularities
in the perfect and supine arise only from the concurrence of the charac-
teristic letter and the ending si, in the pronunciation.
The supine sometimes exhibits a remarkable irregularity, in having
tum (without any connecting vowel, not, as usual, ſtum), where the per-
fect has ui (§ 105, Obs. 2).
OBs. It is to be remarked of the supine, that this form rarely occurs;
and the supines of many verbs are, consequently, not found in Latin
authors; but we have here considered them to be in use wherever the
part. perf. passive, or the part. fut. active occurs, as these are moulded
after the same form. -
§ 119. FIRST CONJUGATION. In the first conjugation, the fol-
lowing verbs (with their compounds) have, in the perfect and supine,
ui, Itum.
OBS. The compound verb annexed in each instance serves to familiar-
ize the learner with the quantity of the radical syllable, when it is not
long by position, and shows, at the same time, how the vowel is altered in
the composition, if such a change takes place (according to $ 5, c).
Crépo (crepui, crepitum), to creak, make a noise. Discrêpo.
Cúbo, to lie. Accübo."
OBs. When the compounds of cubo insert an m before b, -e.g.
incumbo, - they are inflected according to the third conjugation, and
acquire the signification to lay one's self (to pass over into the condition
of lying): e.g. accumbo, accumbere, accubui, accubitum; accum-
bit, he lays himself by ; acciíbat, he lies by. -
Dömo, to tame. Perdömo.
Söno, to sound (part. fut. act. sonaturus, $ 106, Obs. 2). Con-
söno.
Töno, to thunder. Attöno (attonitus, as if struck by thunder,
stunned). (Intono has, for its part., intonatus.)
* Incubavit for incubuit in Quinctilian.
§ 121 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 113
Vēto, to forbid.
Plico, to fold. It is found usually only in its compounds (applico,
to apply; complico, to fold together; explico, to unfold; implico, to
fold in, entangle; replico, to unfold), — which have both ui, itum, and
avi, atum. (Generally, the perfect has ui, the supine atum; but ex-
plico usually has explicavi, in the signification to explain ; and applico
has applicavi. The simple plico is found only in the poets, without a
perſect. The participle is plicatus.)
§ 120. The following verbs have the terminations ui, tum : —
Frico, to rub, fricui, frictum (but also fricatum). Perfrico.
Séco, to cut. (Part. fut. active, secaturus, $ 106, Obs. 2.) Dis-
séco.
Mico, to glitter, has micui, without a supine. Emico, emicui, emica-
tum. Dimico, to fight, dimicavi, dimicatum. - -
Enéco, from néco, to kill (necavi, necatum), has both enecui,
enectum, and enecavi.
§ 121. The following should be separately noticed:—
Do, to give, dédi (with the reduplication), dātum, dàre. In this verb,
the a of the stem is always short, except in da and das. So, also, the
compounds, circumdo, to surround; venundo, to sell (venum, for sale);
pessundo, to throw down (pessum, downwards, to the ground); satisdo,
to give security (satis, enough); e.g. circumdédi, circumdātum. The
remaining compounds (with prepositions of one syllable) are declined
after the third conjugation. See § 133. (Duim, § 115, d.)
Júvo, to help, jūvi,jütum. (Part. fut. act. juvaturus, $106, Obs. 2.
Adjúvo.) &
sto, to stand, steti, stātum. The compounds change the e of the per-
fect into i: e.g. praesto, to stand for (to give security), to perform, prae-
stiti, praestatum; persto, to persevere; only those compounded with
prepositions of two syllables (antesto, circumsto, intersto, supersto)
retain e, – e.g. circumstéti, - but have no supine. Disto is without
either perfect or supine.
Lávo, to wash, bathe, without a perfect, which is borrowed from livo,
lavère, lávi, lautum (lotum), after the third conj., the present of which
is antiquated, and only used by the poets. (Lautus, lotus, washed,
Clean ; lautus, splendid.) In the compounds, it takes the form luo,-
e.g. abluo, - after the third conjugation (§ 130). -
Pöto, to drink, potavi, potatum, and more often potum (potus, one
that has drunk; $ ll0, Obs. 3). Epoto,
8
114 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 124
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES OF THE SECOND CON-
JUGATION.
§ 122. The following verbs affix vi and tum to the stem in the
perfect and supine (as in the first and fourth conjugation):—
Deleo, to blot out, destroy, delēvi, deleram, delētum. (Delesti,
deleram, delesse, &c.; see § 113, a.)
Fleo, to weep.
Neo, to spin.
Pleo, to fill. Used only in its compounds; as, compleo, expleo,
impleo, &c.
Abóleo, to abolish (from the unused oleo, to grow), has abolévi, abo-
litum. -
OBS. These verbs are, throughout, verba pura, as (with the exception
abolitum) they have, everywhere, the vowel e as a characteristic letter
before the ending. See § 101.
§ 123. The verbs in Veo have i in the perfect (with the radical
vowel lengthened), tum in the supine.
Cáveo, to beware, cavi, cautum. Praecăveo (praecăves).
Fäveo, to favor, fivi, fautum.
Föveo, to cherish, foster, fovi, fötum.
Möveo, to move, movi, motum. Commöveo (commöves). Com-
mosti, commosse. See § 113, a.
Vöveo, to vow, to wish, vövi, vötum. Devöveo (devöves).
The following want the supine:–
Conniveo, to close the eyes, to close one eye, connivi, or connixi (both
forms little used).
Ferved, to glow, boil, fervi and (especially in the compounds) ferbui.
(Anciently fervo, fervēre, 3d.)
Pāveo, to be afraid, pāvi.
§ 124. The following have the terminations ui in the perfect,
and tum in the Supine : — -
Döceo, to teach, docui, doctum. Dedëceo (dedēces).
Téneo, to hold, tenui (tentum). The supine and forms derived from
it are little used, except in the compounds, detíneo, obtineo, and re-
tineo. Contentus (contineo) is used only as an adjective.
§ 126 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 115
Misceo, to mix, miscui, mixtum and mistum.
Torreo, to dry up, burn, torrui, tostum.
The following has ui and sum : —
Censeo, to think, estimate, censui, censum. Accenseo. Recenseo,
has, in the supine, both recensum and recensitum.
§ 125. The following have i in the perfect, and sum in the su-
pine (as in the third conjugation): —
Prandeo, to breakfast, prandi, pransum. (Pransus, one that has
breakfasted; $110, Obs. 3.) -
Sédeo, to sit, sédi, sessum. Assideo (assides). Compare sido,
§ 133. (Circumsedeo and supersedeo, without a change of vow-
&
els.)
Possídeo, to possess, or take possession of, possédi, possessum.
Video, to see, vidi, visum. Invideo (to envy), invides; videor,
to seem. • -
Strideo, to hiss, whistle, stridi, without supine: also strido, stri-
dère, 3d. -- /
So also, but with the reduplication, which is dropped in the com-
pounds, – -
Mordeo, to bite, momordi, morsum. (Demordeo, demordi)
Pendeo, to hang, pependi, pensum. (Impended, to hang over, im-
pend, impendi.) Compare pendo, 3d, to weigh, trans.
Spondeo, promise, to become surety, spopondi, sponsum. (The
compounds without reduplication, spondi; e.g. respondeo, to answer,
respondi, responsum.)
Tondeo, to shear, totondi, tonsum. Attondeo, to clip (attondi,
attonsum).
§ 126. a. The following have si in the perfect, and tum in the
supine : *—
Augeo, to increase (trans.), auxi, auctum.
Indulgeo, to be disposed to overlook, give one's self up (e.g. to a pas-
sion), indulsi, indultun.
Torqveo, to twist, torsi, tortum.
b. The following have si in the perfect, and sum in the supine: —
Ardeo, to burn (intrans.), arsi, arsum.
Haereo, to adhere, hang fast, haesi, haesum. Adhaereo.
Jubeo, to order, jussi, jussum.
1 c, g, qv after r or 1, are dropped before s and t.
116 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 128
Mäneo, to remain, mansi, mansum. Permáneo (permänes).
Mulceo, to stroke, mulsi, mulsum.
Mulgeo, to milk, mulsi, mulsum. (The substantives mulctra, mulc-
trum, and mulctral, a milk-pail, as if from mulctum.)
Rideo, to laugh, risi, risum. Arrideo (arrides).
Svädeo, to advise, svasi, svasum. Persvädeo (persvädes).
Tergeo, to dry, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergo, tergère,
3d.)
c. The following have si in the perfect, without a supine: —
Algeo, to freeze, alsi.
Frigeo, to be cold, frixi. -
Fulgeo, to shine, glitter, fulsi. (In the poets, fulgo, fulgére, 3d.)
Lüceo, to give light, shine, luxi. Elliceo (elticet).
Lügeo, to mourn, luxi. (The substantive luctus, mourning.)
Turgeo, to swell, tursi (very rare in the perfect).
Urgeo, to press, ursi. e
§ 127. The following must be separately noticed:—
Cied, to stir up, excite, civi, citum; also, cio, cire, 4th, but always
citum. -
OBs. In the compounds, – e.g. concieo, or concio, - the forms that
follow the second conjugation fire scarcely used, except in the pres. indic.
Accire, to fetch, has, in the participle accitus, excire, both excitus and
excitus. (Concitus is rare.) -
Langveo, to be languid, sick, langui, without supine.
Liqveo, to be fluid, to be clear, liqvi, or licui, without supine.
Also the half deponents (§ 110, Obs. 2), —
Audeo, to dare, ausus sum. (Old fut. Subj. ausin, § 115, f.)
Gaudeo, to rejoice, gavisus sum.
Söleo, to be accustomed, solitus sum. Assèlet (impers.), it is the
Custom.
§ 128. a. Many of the remaining verbs of this conjugation
(chiefly intransitive) have a regular perfect, but no supine: e.g.
oleo, to smell, have a scent (redóleo, redöles); sorbeo, to sip.
Those which have a supine, and are declined entirely like moneo,
are the following: —
Caleo, to be warm ; careo, to be without ; coerceo, to restrain; and
exerceo, to eacercise (from arceo, arcui, to ward off); debeo, to owe, be
obliged ; doleo, to be in pain, grieve; häbeo, to have (adhibeo, ad-
hibes, &c.); jäceo, to lie (adjäceo, adjäces); liceo, to be on sale;
mereo, to deserve (also mereor); noceo, to injure; pāreo, to obey
§ 130 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 117
(appāreo, appāres, to appear); plâceo, to please (displiceo, displices,
to displease); praebeo, to afford; taceo, to be silent (reticeo, retices,
to be silent, to suppress); terreo, to frighten ; valeo, to be strong, to be
able.
OBS. 1. Placeo, however, has also, in the perfect (in the 3d person),
placitus est.
OBS. 2. In that portion of these verbs which is intransitive, the supine
is known only from the fut, part. ; e.g. caliturus, cariturus.
b. Some verbs (almost all intransitive) occur neither in the per-
fect nor in the supine; viz.:-
Adèleo, to set fire to ; aveo, to covet, desire ; calveo, to be bald
(calvus); caneo, to be gray-headed (canus); clueo, to be named; den-
seo, to thicken, heap up (commonly densare, 1st); flaveo, to be yellow
(flavus); foeteo, to be fetid; hebeo, to be blunt (hebes); humed, to be
moist (humidus); lacteo, to suck (the breast); liveo, to be of a livid
color (lividus); immineo, to bend over, threaten; promineo, to jut out
(emineo, eminui, to be prominent); moereo, to be sad; polled, to be pow-
erful ; renideo, to glitter, smile ; scated, to gush out ; sqvaleo, to be
dirty (sqvalidus); vegeo (rare), to stir up ; vieo (rare), to plait.
Others acquire a perfect when they assume the inchoative form (see
§ 141): e.g. areo, to be dry; aresco, to become dry ; arui, I became
dry.
OBs. On the impersonal verbs of the second conjugation, see Chap.
XXIV.
CHAPTER, XIX.
PERFECTS AND SUPINES OF THE THIRD conjugation.
§ 129. The verbs of the third conjugation have various forms in
the perfect and supine (see § 103 and 105); and are consequently
all enumerated here, arranged according to the characteristic letter,
so as to show to which form every (simple) verb belongs.
§ 130. a. Verbs in uo have i in the perfect, and tum in the
supine; as, minuo, to lessen, minui, miniitum.
(So acuo, to sharpen ; imbuo, to steep, to imbue ; induo, to clothe, put
on ; exuo, to put off; spuo, to spit; statuo, to set up, determine ; ster-
nuo, to sneeze; suo, to sew ; tribuo, to impart.) In like manner, also,
118 LATIN GRAMMAR. - $131
solvo, to loose, pay, solvi, solitum; and volvo, to roll, volvi, volti-
b. The following want the supine:—
Arguo, to accuse. (Argutus, adj., sharp, clever.) Coarguo.
Batuo, to beat, fence.
Luo, to expiate. -
OBs. Of the compounds which have the signification to wash, to
rinse (see § 121), some have the participle perfect; viz., abliitus,
diliitus, ellitus, perlütus, proliitus. (Luiturus belongs to a late
period.) >
Nuo, to nod. Used only in composition; e.g. renuo. But abnuo
has abnuiturus.
Congruo, to meet, to agree ; and ingruo, to invade, impend over.
Metuo, to fear.
Pluo (pluit, it rains). (The perfect is also written pluvi.)
Ruo, to fall, throw down, generally intransitive, has the supine ritum
(part. perf. ritus), but the part. fut. act. ruiturus (§ 106, Obs. 2).
The compounds are partly transitive: as, e.g., diruo, part. diriitus;
obruo, part. obrútus, partly intransitive: as, corruo, irruo.
c. The following are irregular: —
Fluo, to flow, fluxi, without a supine. (Fluxus, loose, slack; fluctus,
a wave.) º . . -
Strud, to heap up, build, struxi, structum.
Vivo, to live, vixi, victum.
§ 131. a. The verbs in bo and po have regularly si (psi), tum
(ptum); viz.:-
Glübo, to peel, glupsi, gluptum. Degllibo.
Nübo, to marry (of women). (Part. nupta, married.) Obniibo, to
cover with a veil.
Scribo, to write. Describo.
Carpo, to pluck. Decerpo.
Clépo, to steal. (Rare, and antiquated.)
Répo, to creep. Obrépo. -
Scalpo, to scratch, scrape, cut (with a chisel); and sculpo, to form
(with the chisel). Properly, the same word; the compounds always
have u (compare $ 5, c); e.g. insculpo.
Serpo, to creep.
b. The following deviate from this rule: —
Cumbo. The compounds of cubo, with m inserted (see § 119);
e.g. incumbo, incubui, incubitum. * * .
§ 132 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND . SUPINES. 119
Rumpo, to break, ripi, ruptum.
Strépo, to make a noise, strepui, strepitum. Obstrépo.
Bibo, to drink, bibi. Imbibo.
Lambo, to lick. Lambi. without supine.
Scâbo, to scratch. -
§ 132. a. The verbs in co (not sco), qvo, go, gvo, ho, have
regularly si, tum (which with the characteristic letter becomes xi,
ctum).
Dico, to say, dixi, dictum. Praedico, to say beforehand.
Düco, to lead, duxi, ductum. Addico.
Cöqvo, to cook, coxi, coctum. Concóqvo.
Cingo, to surround, cinxi, cinctum.
Fligo, to strike. Commonly used only in the compounds, affligo, to
strike to the ground; confligo, to fight ; infligo, to strike (against some-
thing). (Profligare, 1st, to beat to flight, overthrow, bring nearly to an
end.)
Frigo, to parch. (Supine also frixum.)
Jungo, to join.
Lingo, to lick.
Emungo, to blow one's nose. - - -
Plango, to beat (plango and plangor, to beat one's self for sor-
Tow).
Régo, to direct, manage. Arrigo, corrigo, erigo, porrigo, subrígo.
But pergo, to go on (from per and rego), has perrexi, perrectum; and
surgo, to rise (from sub and rego), surrexi, surrectum. Adsurgo,
adsurrexi, adsurrectum.
Sügo, to suck. Exstigo.
Tégo, to cover. Contégo.
Tingo, tingvo, to dip.
Ungo, ungvo, to anoint. ,
(Stingvo), to eactinguish, rare. Exstingvo, restingvo, to extinguish;
distingvo, to distinguish.
Traho, to draw, traxi, tractum. Contråho.
Veho, to carry (trans.). (Vehor, as a deponent, to drive or ride
(intrans.); invéhor, to attack.) t
Ango, to ver, anxi (rare in the perfect).
Ningo (ningit, it snows), ninxi (ninxit).
Clango, to resound, without perf. or sup.
} without supine.
b. The following deviate from this rule: —
Fingo, to form, invent, finxi, fictum.
Mingo, minxi, mictum. (In the present, more frequently mejo,
mejere.) - . . -
120 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 132
Pingo, to paint, pinxi, pictum. - -
Stringo, to graze, touch lightly, draw tight together, strinxi,
strictum.
Mergo, to immerse, mersi, mersum. (Emergo, to come to the sur-
ſace (intrans.), but in the perf. part. emersus; comp. § Ilo, Obs. 3).
Spargo, to scatter, sprinkle, sparsi, sparsum. Conspergo.
Tergo, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergeo, 2d.)
Vergo, to incline, without perfect or supine.
Ago, to drive, egi, actum. Adigo, adègi, adactum (abigo, exigo,
subígo, transigo); but perägo (perégi, peractum) and circumägo.
Ambigo, to doubt; dégo, to pass (aetatem); satágo, to be busy, without
perfect and supine. (Dégi belongs to a late period.) Prodigo (to drive
forth), spend, without supine. Cogo, to drive together, force; coègi,
COactum.
OBS. Age (pres. imp.), come now ! addressed also to several; age, con-
siderate; though we also find agite so used.
Frango, to break in pieces, frégi, fractum. Confringo, confrégi, con-
fractum. -
Ico (icio 2), to strike, conclude (foedus), Ici, ictum. (Of the
pres. indic., icit, icitur, icinur, alone are found; the only forms in
general use are ici, ictus, and icere; ferio is used instead of the
present.) -
Légo, to collect, choose, read, legi, lectum. Allégo, to choose in addi-
tion ; perlègo, to read through ; praelégo, to read aloud; and relego, to
read again (without a change of the vowel), allégi, allectum, &c.; col-
ligo, to collect ; deligo, eligo, seligo, to choose out ; collégi, collectum,
&c.; but diligo, to love, has dilexi, dilectum; and so also intelligo
(intellègo), to understand, and negligo (neglégo), to neglect.
Linqvo, to leave, liqvi, (lictum). Relinqvo, reliqvi, relictum, is
IOMOI'ê COInm011.
Vinco, to conquer, vici, victum.
Figo, to fasten, fixi, fixum. Affigo.
Parco, to spare, peperci (parsi, rare), parsum. Comparco and com-
perco, comparsi. -
Pungo, to prick, pupiigi, punctum. The compounds have punxi in
the perfect; e.g. interpungo.
Pango, to fasten, panxi, and pégi (panctum, pactum). In the sig-
nification, to fix (in the way of agreement), it has, for its perfect, pepigi,
sup. pactum; but, in this sense, the deponent paciscor is always used
in the present. Compingo, compègi, compactum, and impingo.
Oppango, oppégi, Oppactum. -
Tango, to touch, tetigi, tactum. Attingo, attigi, attactum ; con-
tingo (contingit, contigit, impers., it falls to one's share).
§ 133 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 121
§ 133. a. The verbs in do have regularly si, sum, with the omis-
sion of the d . — *…
Claudo, to shut, clausi, clausum. Concliido.
Divido, to divide, divisi, divisum.
Laedo, to injure. Collido, to strike together, &c.
Lüdo, to play. Collido.
Plaudo, to clap the hands. Applaudo. The remaining compounds
have plâdo; as, explodo, to drive off the stage.
Rădo, to scrape. Corrãdo, to scrape together.
Rödo, to gnaw. Arrödo.
Trido, to thrust. Extrüdo.
Vädo, to go, step, without perfect or supine. But invādo, invāsi, in-
vāsum, and so also evădo, pervādo.
b. The following are exceptions: —
Cédo, to yield, cessi, cessum. Concédo.
(Cando, unused.) Accendo, to set on fire, accendi, accensum. So
also incendo, succendo.
Cüdo, to forge on the anvil, clidi, clisum. Exclido.
Defendo, to defend, ward off, defendi, defensum. So also offendo,
to insult, strike against.
Edo, to eat, edi, Ésum. Comédo. (On the peculiar irregularity in
some forms of this verb, see $156.)
Fundo, to pour, füdi, fūsum. Effundo.
Mando, to chew, mandi (rare), mansum.
Prehendo, to lay hold of, prehendi, prehensum. (Also prendo.)
Scando, to climb, scandi, scansum. Ascendo, &c.
Strido, to hiss, whistle, stridi, without supine. (Also strideo, 2d.)
Rüdo, to roar, bray, rudivi (rare), without supine.
Findo, to cleave, split, fidi, fissum. Diffindo (diffidi).
Frendo, to champ, gnash the teeth, without perfect, fressum and fre-
sum. (Also frendeo, 2d.) 49
Pando, to spread out, pandi, passum (rarely pansum). Expando.
(Dispando has only dispansum.) -
Scindo, to tear, scidi, scissum. Conscindo, conscidi, conscis-
sum, &c. Abscindo and exscindo (excindo) are not used in the
supine, – exscindo not even in the perfect. (In its stead, we find ab-
scisus, excisus, from abscido, excido; see Caedo.)
Sido, to seat one's self, sédi (rarely sidi), sessum. Assido (adsido),
assédi, assessum, &c. (Compare sedeo, 2d.)
Cádo, to fall, cecidi, casum. Concido, concidi (without redupl.
and without supine), &c. (Of the compounds, only occido and re-
cido have a supine, occasum, recăsum; rarely incido.)
122 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 134
Caedo, to fell, beat, cecidi, caesum. Concido, concidi, conci-
sum, &c.
Pendo, to weigh, pependi, pensum. Appendo, appendi, appen-
sum, &c. (Suspendo, to hang up.) (Compare pendeo, 2d.)
Tendo, to stretch, tetendi, tensum, and tentum. Contendo, con-
tendi, contentum, &c. (The compounds generally have tentum;
extendo, retendo, both tentum and tensum; detendo, to slacken, take
down (tabernacula); Ostendo, to show, only tensum. Substant.
ostentum; ostentus = obtentus, stretched out before, spread out.)
Tundo, to beat, pound, tutüdi, tusum and tunsum. Contundo, con-
túdi, contusum (rarely contunsum), &c. s
Crédo, to believe, credidi, creditum. Accrédo, accredidi, accre-
ditum. *
Do. All the compounds of do, dare (1st conj., § 121), with prepo-
sitions of one syllable, are inflected after the third conjugation; as, addo,
addére, addidi, additum (condo, trado, &c.).
OBS. The doubly compounded abscondo (abs and condo) has, in
the perfect, abscondi (rarely abscondidi). From vendo, to sell, the
passive participle venditus, and the gerundive vendendus are in use,
but otherwise its passive is supplied in good writers by the verb veneo
(see § 158). So, likewise, pereo (see eo, $ 158) is generally used,
instead of the passive of perdo, to destroy, to lose (except perditus, per-
dendus, and the compound forms).
Fido, to trust, fisus sum (a half-deponent). Confido, confisus
sum ; diffido.
§ 134. a. The verbs in lo have ui, tum (ſtum) : —
Alo, to nourish, alui, altum (and alitum).
Cölo, to till, cherish, colui, cultum. Excélo.
Constilo, to consult, care for, consului, consultum.
Occiilo, to conceal, occului, occultum.
Mölo, to grind, molui, molítum.
Excello, to excel, distinguish one's self, perf. excellui (rare), with-
out supine; antecello, praecello, without perfect or supine. (Also,
excelleo, antecelleo.)
b. The following are excepted:—
Fallo, to deceive, fefelli, falsum. Refello, to refute, refelli, without
supine.
Pello, to drive away, pepúli, pulsum. Expello, expúli, expul-
sum, &c.
Percello, to strike down, percüli, perculsum.
Psallo, to play on a stringed instrument, psalli, without supine.
Vello, to tear, velli (rarely vulsi), vulsum. Convello, to tear away,
§ 136 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 123
convelli, convulsum, &c. Only avello and evello have also (but
rarely) avulsi, evulsi.
Tollo, to raise up, take away, has sustüli, sublatum (with the prepo-
sition sub; the supine from another stem; see, under fero, § 155).
Extollo, without perfect or supine.
§ 135. Verbs in mo: —
Cómo, to adorn, compsi, comptum.
Dēmo, to take away, dempsi, demptum.
Prömo, to take out, prompsi, promptum.
Sümo, to take, sumpsi, sumptum.
OBS. The other way of writing these verbs, without p (sumsi, sum-
tum) is not so correct. The p has been inserted with a view to
euphony.
Frémo, to roar, murmur, fremui, fremitum. Adfrémo.
Gémo, to sigh, gemui, gemitum. Congémo.
Vömo, to vomit, vomui, vomitum. Evêmo.
Trémo, to tremble, tremui, without supine.
imo, to buy, emi, emptum (less correctly, emtum). Coëmo, coémi,
coèmptum. The remaining compounds have i, instead of e, in the pres-
ent; as, adimo, to take away, adémi, ademptum (dirimo, to separate;
exímo, interimo, perimo, redimo).
Prémo, to press, pressi, pressum. Comprimo, compressi, com-
pressum, &c.
§ 136. Verbs in no : —
Cáno, to sing, cecini. Of the compounds, concino, occino (also
occano), and praecino, have, for their perfects, concinui, occinui,
praecinui; the others (accino, &c.) want this tense. (Substantive,
cantus, song, concentus, &c. Canto, cantare)
Gigno, to beget, génui, genitum. -
Pömo, to put, pösui, positum. Compono. (Poetical contraction;
postus, compostus, for positus, compositus.)
Lino, to smear, anoint, lèvi (livi), litum. Oblino, oblévi, obli-
tum, &c.
OBs. The later writers use the form linio regularly according to the
fourth conjugation. (Circumlinio, Quinc.) -
Sino, to permit, sivi, situm (situs, situated). Desíno, to leave off,
desivi (desisti, desiit, desieram, &c., without v ; $ 113, b, Obs. 1),
desitum. (For desitus sum, see, under coepi, § 161.)
OBs. In the perfect subjunctive of sino, i and e are contracted into i,
sirim, siris, sirit, sirint. (Not in desierim.)
Cerno, to sift, decide, crevi, cretum. Decerno, &c. In the signifi-
cation to see, to look, Gerno has neither perfect nor Supine.
124 • LATIN GRAMMAR. § 138
Sperno, to despise, sprevi, spretum.
Sterno, to throw to the ground, strew, cover, stravi, stratum. Con-
sterno, to cover, constravi, constratum, &c.
OBs. In the perfect, and the tenses derived from it, the rejection of
the v, and contraction, as in the first conjugation, occur but seldom; e.g.
prostrasse, strarat. -
Temno, to despise, tempsi, temptum; most usually contemno, con-
tempsi, contemptum (less correctly, contemsi, contemtum).
§ 137. Verbs in ro: —
Géro, to carry, perform, gessi, gestum. Congéro.
Uro, to burn (trans.), ussi, ustum. Adûro, adussi, adustum, &c.
(ambiro, extiro, iniiro), but combiiro, to burn up, combussi, com-
bustum (from an older form of the stem).
Curro, to run, cucurri, cursum. The compounds sometimes retain
the reduplication in the perfect (accucurri), but generally lose it (ac-
curri).
Féro, to bear, carry, túli, látum. See § 155.
Füro, to rave, without perfect or supine.
Qvaero, to seek, qvaesivi, qvaesitum. Conqviro, conqvisivi, con-
qvisitum, &c. -
Obs. In the first person, singular and plural, of the present indicative,
the old form, qvaeso, qvaesúmus, is used to give the style a coloring of
antiquity, or as a parenthesis (pray !).
Séro, to plait, put in rows, serui, sertum. The perfect and supine
of the simple verb are not in use (only the neuter plural of the part. per-
fect passive serta, garlands of flowers, wreaths), but those of the com-
pounds are so; as, consero, conserui, consertum. (Inséro, exséro,
desero, to forsake; disséro, to develop.)
Séro, to sow, sévi, sātum. Consero, consevi, consitum, &c. (In-
séro, to graft, interséro, to sow amongst.)”
Téro, to rub, trivi, tritum. Contéro, &c.
Verro, to sweep, verri, versum.
§ 138. Verbs in so (x0) : —
Viso, to visit, visi, without supine. Inviso. (From video.)
Depso, to knead, depsui, depstum.
Pinso, to pound, pinsui and pinsi, pinsitum and pinsum. (Also,
piso, pistum.)
Texo, to weave, texui, textum.
1 Conseruisset for consevisset in Livy is an error of the transcribers.
§ 140 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 125
Those in esso have Ivi, Itum; viz.:-
Arcesso, or accerso, to send for, arcessivi, arcessitum (accersivi,
accersitum). In the infin. pass., sometimes arcessiri.
Capesso, to take in hand. (A lengthened form of capio, § 143.)
Facesso, to make, cause, intrans., to retire. (From facio, § 143.)
Lacesso, to provoke. (From the unused lacio, § 143.)
Incesso, to attack, incessivi, without sup. (The perfect, in the ex-
pressions timor, cura, &c., incessit homines, animos, is from incédo,
although the present of the latter verb is not used in that significa-
tion.) Incepisso, to begin, without perf. and sup. (Archaic, from in-
cipio.)
Petesso, to seek, without perf. and sup. (Archaic, from peto.)
§ 139. Verbs in to : —
Méto, to mow, reap, messui (rare), messum. Deméto.
Mitto, to send, misi, missum.
Péto, to beg, seek to obtain, petivi (petii, petiit; $ 113, b, Obs. 1),
petitum. Appéto.
Sisto, to place, set up, stiti (rare), statum (adj. status, fixed); rarely
in an intransitive signification, to remain standing, place one's self, and
then in the perfect stöti (from sto, 1st, from which sisto has been formed
by reduplication). Desisto, destiti, destitum, &c. (Consisto, ex-
sisto, insisto, resisto, all invariably intransitive.) Circumsisto alone
has circumstéti, from circumsto.
Sterto, to snore, stertui, without supine.
Verto, to turn, verti, versum. In like manner, the compounds
(adverto, whence animadverto, averto, &c.). The intransitives dever-
tor, to put up ; and revertor, to return, – are deponents in the present,
and the forms derived from it (reverto is very rare); in the perfect, on
the contrary, they are active verbs, deverti, reverti (more rarely rever-
sus sum and the participle reversus). Praeverto, to be beforehand
with, surpass, has a deponent form in the intransitive signification, to
attend to a thing (above every thing else), but otherwise very seldom.
Flecto, to bend, flexi, flexum.
Necto, to tie, nexi and nexui (both rare), nexum.
Pecto, to comb, peri and pezui (both rare), pexum. •
Plecto, to punish, without perfect or supine. In the signification
to plait, we find only the part. perf. passive, plexus (compound im-
plexus).
§ 140. Verbs in sco. They are partly those in which the sco
belongs to the stem, and is retained in the inflection; partly those
126 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 141
in which sco is a prolongation of the stem, and is dropped in the
perfect and supine.
Of the first kind are (all without supine), —
Compesco, to confine, compescui.
Dispesco, to separate, dispescui.
Disco, to learn, didici. Addisco, addidici (with redupl.), &c.
Posco, to demand, poposci. Deposco, depoposci (with the re-
dupl.), &c.
§ 141. Sco is a prolongation of the stem in the inchoative verbs,
which are derived either from a verb (inchoativa verbalia), or
from a noun (inchoativa nominalia), most frequently an adjective,
to denote the commencement of a state (see § 196). The inchoa-
tiva verbalia have the perfect of the verbs from which they are
derived; e.g. : –
Incalesco, incalui, from caleo, calui; ingemisco, ingemui, from
gemo, gemui; deliqvesco, delicui, from liqveo, liqvi, or licui. Some.
of those inchoativa nominalia, which are derived from adjectives of the
second declension, have a perfect in ui (without a supine): as, matu-
resco, to ripen, maturui, from maturus; obmutesco, to grow dumb,
obmutui, from mutus; percrebresco, to grow frequent (creber), per-
crebrui (by some written percrebesco, percrebui). (So, likewise,
evilesco, to become worthless, evilui, from vilis.) Irraucesco, to grow.
hoarse (raucus), irrausi, is irregular. The others, derived from adjec-
tives in is, with many of those from adjectives in us, have no perfect; e.g.
ingravesco. (Vesperascit, the evening comes on, and advesperascit,
have vesperavit, advesperavit; consenesco, to become old, con-
senui)
OBs. Some few inchoatives have also the supine of their stems;
viz.: – º,
Coalesco (alesco, from alo, 3d), to grow together, coalui, coalitum
(in the part. perf. coalitus, grown together).
Concupisco, to desire, concupivi, concupitum. (Cupio, 3d.)
Convalesco, to become strong, healthy, convalui, convalitum.
(Valeo, 2d.) -
Exardesco, to take fire, exarsi, exarsum. (Ardeo, 2d.)
Inveterasco, to grow old, inveteravi, inveteratum (part. perf in-
veteratus, rooted). (From vetus; also, invetero.) -
Obdormisco, to fall asleep, obdormivi, obdormitum. (Dormio,
4th.)
Revivisco, to come to life again, revixi, revictum. (Vivo, 3d.)
§ 143 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 127
§ 142. Some verbs are lengthened with sco, but have lost their
inchoative signification, or are formed from stems which are no
longer extant, so that they are considered as simple, underived
verbs. These are the following: —
Adolesco, to grow up, adolévi. So also abolesco, to disappear,
cease; exolesco, to disappear, grow old; inolesco, obsolesco. (From
the unused oleo, to grow.) From adolesco comes the adjective adul-
tus, grown up, from exolesco, exoletus, from obsolesco, obsoletus,
obsolete. (Compare, aboleo, § 122.)
Cresco, to increase, crêvi, crêtum. Concresco, &c. (Part. perf.
crêtus, and particularly concretus.)
Fatisco, to crack (grow languid), without perfect or supine. (Fes-
sus, weary, adjective. Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum,
deponent.)
Glisco, to grow, spread, without perf or sup.
Hisco, to open the mouth, without perf. or sup.
Nosco, to become acquainted with, inform one's self concerning, novi,
nótum. The perfect signifies, I have made the acquaintance of, I know;
the pluperfect, I knew. Nötus is only an adjective (known), and the
fut. part. is not in use. (On the contraction, nosti, norim, see § 113, a.)
Of the compounds (from the old form gnosco), agnosco (adgnosco),
to recognize; cognosco, to become acquainted with (recognosco),
—have agnitum and cognitum in the Supine; ignosco, to pardon, has
ignotum. The remaining (dignosco, internosco) have no supine.
Pasco, to feed (cattle), pavi, pastum. (Pascor, as a deponent, to
graze.) Depasco.
Qviesco, to rest, qvièvi, qvietum.
Svesco, to accustom one's self, swevi, svetum. (Part. perf: svetus,
accustomed. Archaic present, svemus, from sveo. The compounds
have sometimes a transitive signification: e.g. assvesco, to accustom
one's self, and to accustom one; generally, however, we'find assvefacio,
in the transitive signification. Mansvetus, tame.)
Scisco, to order, ratify (a law), scivi, Scitum. (From scio.)
§ 143. Verbs with an i inserted after the characteristic letter.
(The perfect and supine are formed from the stem without i.)
Căpio, to take, cépi, captum. Concipio (concipis), concépi, con-
ceptum, &c. -
Fácio, to make, do, féci, factum. (Old fut. indic., faxo; subj.,
faxim; $ 115, f.) Fio serves for a passive in the present, and the
tenses formed from it; see § 160; but the participles (factus, facien-
dus) and the compound forms are from facio. So also the compounds
128 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 143
with verbal stems: e.g. calefacio, to make warm, calefeci, calefactum,
calefio; patefacio, patefeci, patefactum, patefio;' and with adverbs:
e.g. satisfacio, to give satisfaction, satisfeci, satisfactum, satisfit.
The compounds with prepositions alter the vowel, and are declined like.
perficio, perfeci, perfectum, in the passive (regularly) perficior. (But
conficio sometimes has confieri in the passive as well as conficior.
See § 160, Obs. 1.)
Jácio, to throw, jêci, jactum. Abjício (abjicis), abjeci, abjec-
tum, &c.
OBS. At an earlier period, the compounds were generally spoken and
written with one i ; e.g. abicio, disicio. In the poets, eicit, reice, dis-
syllables, and éjicit, rejiciunt. Porricio, archaic, to offer in sacrifice,
has no perfect.
Cupio, to wish, cupivi, cupitum.
Födio, to dig, födi, fossum. Effºdio, effédis.
Fügio, to flee, fūgi, fügitum. Aufúgio, aufügis.
Lacio, to entice, whence lacto, lactare, to make sport of one. It
is used only in compounds; allicio, to entice, allexi, allectum; so also
illicio, pellicio; but elicio, to draw out, has elicui, elicitum. (Proli-
cio is not found in the perfect and supine.)
Pario, to bring forth, pepéri, partum. (Part. fut. act. pariturus;
§ 106, Obs. 2.)
Qvätio, to shake (qvassi, unused), qvassum. Conciitio, concussi,
concussum; percutio, &c.
Râpio, to snatch, take away by force, rapui, raptum. Arrípio, ar-
ripui, arreptum, &c.
Săpio, to taste, have taste, understanding (sapivi), without sup. De-
sipio, to be foolish, without perf.
OBS. The inchoative resipisco, to become wise again, has resipivi and
resipui. -
Spécio, to look, whence specto, spectare. Used only in the com-
pounds; aspício, to behold, aspexi, aspectum; conspicio, &c.
* Some of these, however, have no other passive forms than those deduced from facio;
e.g. tremefacio, tremefactus.
§ 145 IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 129
CHAPTER XX.
THE IRREGULAR PERFECTS AND SUPINES OF THE FOURTH CON-
JUGATION.
•, § 144. The following verbs have si, tum (one has sum), as in
the third conjugation : —
Farcio, to stuff, farsi, fartum (farctum). Refercio, refersi, refer-
tum, &c. - -
Fulcio, to prop, fulsi, fultum.
Haurio, to draw (water), hausi, haustum. (Part. fut. hausturus
and hausurus.) Exhaurio. -
Sancio, to ratify, sanxi, sancitum, and oftener sanctum.
Sarcio, to patch, sarsi, sartum. Resarcio.
Sentio, to feel, think, sensi, sensum. Consentio, &c. Assentio is
oftener used as a deponent, — assentior, assensus sum.
Saepio (sepio), to fence, saepsi, saeptum. Obsaepio.
Vincio, to bind, fetter, vinxi, vinctum.
§ 145. The following have other irregularities: —
Amicio, to clothe, amictum. Not used in the perfect.
Cio, civi, citum. See cieo, § 127.
Eo, to go, ivi, Itum. See § 158.
Ferio, to strike, without perfect or supine.
(Perio 2) Apério, to open, uncover, aperui, apertum; so also opério,
to cover over, and cooperio.
(Perio?) Repério, to find, reppéri (reperi), repertum; so also
comperio, to learn, compēri, compertum. (Rarely, with a deponent
form in the present, comperior.)
- Sălio, to leap, salui (rarely, and not in the first person, salii).
Desílio, desilui (rarely desilii), &c. (The substantives saltus, de-
sultor.) -
Sepélio, to bury, sepelivi, sepultum.”
Vênio, to come, véni, ventum. (Convenio.) -
Some intransitive verbs derived from adjectives want the perfect and
supine: e.g. superbio, to be proud; caecutio, to be blind (see § 194,
Obs. 2; but saevio, and the transitives—as, mollio — are complete).
These forms are also wanting in those verbs in tirio, which denote an
inclination (verba desiderativa; see § 197); e.g. dormitārio, to be
sleepy. (From estirio, however, we have esuriturus in Terence.)
* Perf, first person sepeli (from sepelii; $113, b, Obs. I and 2) in Persius.
9
130 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - $148
CHAPTER XXI.
THE IRREGULAR SUPINES (PARTICIPLEs) OE THE DEPONENTs,
AND SOME OTHER IRREGULARITIES OF THESE VERBS.
§ 146. In some deponents the supine or participle perfect (whence.
the perf ind, &c., are formed by composition) varies from the pres-
ent in the same way as in the active verbs.
Obs. The supine itself occurs but seldom in the deponents. The perf.
part with sum (perf. indic.) is here named instead of it.
In the first conjugation, to which by far the greater part of the
deponents belongs, they are all inflected regularly.
OBs. 1. In ferior, to keep holiday, be idle; and operor, to busy one's
self with, – the perfect participle has a present signification; feriatus,
idle, unoccupied ; operatus, busied. The same also generally holds good
of arbitratus, and some others.
OBs. 2. Concerning the derivation of the deponents which follow the
first cunj., see § 193, b.
§ 147. a. Of some deponents of the first conjugation, the active form
is also occasionally, or even frequently, found in good writers; e.g. popii-
lor, to lay waste, and populo. The most important of these, including
populor, are: altercor, to dispute (alterco, Ter.); auguror, to foretell;
comitor, to accompany (comito, poet.); conflictor, to struggle (con-
flicto, Ter.); fabricor, to make ; feneror, to lend at interest ; luctor, to
wrestle (lucto, Ter.); ludificor, to make sport of, to banter; muneror,
to present ; remuneror, to recompense; oscitor, to yawn; palpor, to
stroke, flatter; stabulor, to be in the stall, have one's station. The
active form of many others is here and there met with in the older
writers.
b. On the other hand, some verbs of the first conjugation, which have
most commonly the active form, are used, by some particular authors, as
deponents; e.g. fluctuo, to fluctuate; also, fluctuor (Liv.). Further
examples of such verbs are: bello, to make war (bellor, Virg.); commu-
nico, to communicate (communicor, Liv.); elucubro, to work out (elu-
cubror, Cic.); frutico, to shoot out branches (fruticor, Cic.); luxurio,
to be luxuriant; murmuro, to murmur (commurmuror, Cic.); opsono,
to buy food (opsonor, Ter.); velifico, to set sail (velificor, Cic., to work.
jor, to favor).
§ 148. In the second conjugation the following deponents vary
from the usual formation: – - . . . . . . * * . . . .
v. S.
§ 149 IRREGULARITIES OF THE DEPONENTS. 131
Fateor, to confess, fassus sum. Confiteor, confessus sum, &c.
(Diffiteor, to deny, without part. perf.)
Reor, to think, rātus sum, without part. pres.
Medeor, to heal, without part. perf.
Misereor, to have pity on, has, in most cases, the regular perfect mise-
ritus sum, more rarely misertus sum. (Of miseretur as an imper-
sonal, see $166, b.)
Tueor, to protect (look at), (tuitus sum). Part. fut. tuiturus. In-
stead of the unused perfect, we find tutatus sum, from tutor. The per-
fect of contueor, intueor, contuitus sum, intuitus sum, is rare. (An
archaic form is tuor (3d), whence the adjective titus.)
OBs. The regular deponents of the second conjugation are: liceor, to
bid for ; mereor, to deserve (also in the active form mereo);' polli-
Ceor, to promise; vereor, to fear. -
§ 149. To the third conjugation belong the following deponents,
which may be arranged like the actives according to their char-
acteristic letters: (fungor is declined like the passive of cingo,
patior like that of qvatio, qveror, qvestus, like that of gero,
gestum, &c.)
Fruor, to enjoy, fruitus and fructus sum (both rare); part. fut. frui-
turus.
Fungor, to perform, functus sum.
Grădior, to step, go, gressus sum. Aggrédior, aggressus sum,
&c.
Lábor, to slide, fall, lapsus sum. Collābor, &c.
Liqvor, to melt (intrans.), to flow away, without part. perf.
Löqvor, to speak, locutus sum. Allóqvor. -
Mörior, to die, mortuus sum. Part. fut. moriturus. Emörior.
Nitor, to lean, exert one's self, nixus or nisus sum. Adnitor. (Eni-
tor, to bring forth young, enixa est.)
Pátior, to suffer, passus sum. Perpétior.
(From plecto, to plait, to twist, § 139.) Amplector, complector,
to embrace, amplexus sum, complexus sum.
Qvéror, to complain, qvestus sum. Conqvéror.
Ringor, to show one's teeth, without part. perf.
Séqvor, to follow, sectitus sum. Conseqvor.
TJtor, to use, usus sum. Abūtor.
(Verto, revertor, &c., see $139.)
1 Mereo is chiefly used of what is gained by trading and of military service; merere
stipendia, m. equo; on the other hand, we generally have bene, male mereri; in the
perf., also in this signification, chiefly merui.; but in the participle meritus (bene meri-
tus). -
132 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 151
§ 150. Further, the following in scor (see § 141): —
Apiscor, to obtain, aptus sum. Adipiscor, adeptus sum, is more
usual. (Indipiscor, indeptus sum.)
Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum. (From fatisco, $142.)
Expergiscor, to awake (intrans.), experrectus sum. Obsolete par-
ticiple, expergitus. -
Irascor, to grow angry (from the subst. ira), without perf. Iratus
(adj.), angry, iratus sum, I am angry. (I grew angry, is expressed by
succensui or suscensui, from succenseo or suscenseo.) -
Meniscor. Comminiscor, to devise, commentus sum. Remine
iscor, to remember, without part. perf.
Nanciscor, to obtain, nanctus and nactus sum.
Nascor, to be born, natus sum. Part. fut. nasciturus. Enascor.
(The adjectives agnatus, cognatus, prognatus, from a form gnas-
cor.)
Obliviscor, to forget, oblitus sum.
Paciscor, to make an agreement, pactus sum. Compaciscor or com-
peciscor, compactus or compectus sum. Pepigi, from the stem
pango (§ 132), is also used for the perfect.
Proficiscor, to travel, profectus sum.
Ulciscor, to revenge, ultus sum.
Vescor, to eat, without part. perf.
§ 151. In the fourth conjugation the following deponents vary
from the regular form : —
Assentior, to agree, assensus sum. See sentio, $144.
Experior, to try, experience, expertus sum. (Compare comperio,
§ 145.)
Metior, to measure, mensus 5um.
Crdior, to begin (trans.), Orsus sum.
Opperior, to wait for, Oppertus (opperitus) sum. -
Orior, to rise, ortus sum. Part. fut. oriturus. (The gerundive ori-
undus, with the signification, descended.)
OBS. 1. In the present indicative, the form of the third conjugation is
used, - orëris, oritur, orimur; in the imperf. subj., both orirer (4th)
and orérer (3d). (From adorior, adoriris, adoritur, are in use.)
OBS. 2. The regular deponents of the fourth conjugation are: blan-
dior, to flatter; largior, to present ; mentior, to lie; molior, to move,
wndertake; partior, to divide (rarely partio; but dispertio, impertio
(impartio), are more usual than dispertior, impertior); potior, to ob-
tain; sortior, to take by lot; punior, to punish (in Cicero, elsewhere we
usually find punio). -
§ 154 - IRREGULAR VERBS. 133
OBS. 3. From potior, the poets, and some prose-writers, occasionally
use, in the present indicative, potitur, potimur; and, in the imperf. Subj.,
potèrer, &c., after the third conjugation.
§ 152. Those deponents, of which the active form is in use, some-
times receive a passive signification: as, comitor, I am accompanied;
fabricantur, they are made 5 populari, to be laid waste, – but particu-
larly the part. perf. : e.g. comitatus (in all writers), elucubratus, fa-
bricatus, populatus, meritus.
§ 153. A few rare instances are met with of other deponents in a pas-
sive signification: e.g. in Cicero, adiilor, aspernor, arbitror, dignor,
criminor; in Sallust, ulciscor. Of some deponents, the participle per-
fect only is used, by good writers, in a passive signification also ;
abominatus, adeptus, auspicatus, amplexus, complexus, com-
mentus, commentatus, confessus, despicatus, detestatus, eblan-
ditus, ementitus, expertus (inexpertus), exsecratus, interpre-
tatus, ludificatus, meditatus (praemeditatus), mensus (dimensus),
metatus (dimetatus), moderatus, opinatus (necopinatus), pactus,
partitus, perfunctus, periclitatus, stipulatus, testatus, ultus (inul-
tus, unavenged), with some others in the poets, and second-rate
writers."
CHAPTER XXII.
IRREGULAR VERBs (VERBA ANOMALA).
§ 154. Those verbs are termed irregular, which vary from the
usual form, not only in the formation of the perfect and supine,
but also in the endings of the tenses, and the mode in which they
are combined with the stem. An example of one such verb, sum,
has already been adduced. The others are now given.
Possum, to be able, is inflected in the following manner: —
INDICATIVE. - SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
possum possim
pötes possis
pötest possit
possiimus - possinus
potestis - possitis
possunt possint
-ºg
* In the fut, imperat, we sometimes meet with utito, tuento, &c., for utitor, fuentor.
134 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 155
IMPERFECT.
pötéram, as, at possem, es, et
poteramus, atis, ant possèmus, etis, ent
PERFECT.
pötui, isti, it potuerim, is, it
potuimus, istis, érunt potuerimus, ftis, int
PLUPERFECT.
potuêram, as, at potuissem, es, et
potueramus, atis, ant potuissemus, etis, ent
FUTURE.
potēro, is, it
poterimus, itis, unt
Wanting.
FUTURE PERFECT.
potuéro, is, it - potuerim, is, it
potuerímus, itis, int potuerímus, itis, int
INFINITIVE.
T'RES. posse PERF. potuisse. FUT. Wanting.
The Imperative is wanting. The participle present potens is only
used as an adjective, powerful.
OBs. Possum is compounded of potis (or properly pot) and sum
(possum from potsum). Anciently and by the poets it was expressed
by potis es, est, sunt (potis being invariable in gender and number)
for potes, potest, possunt: in common language also simply pote for
potest. For possim, possis, possit, there was also an obsolete form
possiem, &c. (siem); potesse for posse. , -
§ 155. Fero, to carry, after the third conjugation, borrows its
perfect and supine, túli, latum, from other stems. In some of the
forms derived from the present, the connecting vowel between the
stem and ending is omitted, in the manner following:—
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
& INDICATIVE.
PRESENT. -
fero, fers, fert feror, ferris, fertur
ferinus, fertis, ferunt . . ferinur, ferinini, feruntur.
§ 156 IRREGULAR VERBS. 135
SUBJUNCTIVE.
IMPERFECT.
ferrem, ferres, ferret ferrer, ferréris, ferretur
ferremus, ferretis, ferrent ferremur, ferremini, ferrentur
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT. fer, ferte – ferre, ferimini
FUTURE. 2, 3 ferto 2, 3 fertor
fertote, ferunto 3 feruntor
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. ferre - ferri
The remainder is regular (imp. ind, act. ferebam, pass, ferebar; plup.
tuleram, tulissem; fut. perf. tulero, from tuli, &c.). In the same way
are declined the compounds (in which the prepositions before fero, tuli,
latum, are modified according to § 173): e.g. afféro, attili, allātum ;
offéro, obtüli, oblatum. Aufero, from ab-fero, has abs-tuli, ablatum;
refero, rettuli (retuli), relatum. Suffero, to carry, bear, has rarely
sustuli in the perfect: instead of this sustinui is employed; and sustuli,
sublatum, are used for the perfect and supine of tollo, to lift up
(§ 134). Differo, to put off, spread out, has distuli, dilatum; but in
the intransitive signification, to differ, it has neither perfect nor supine.
§ 156. The verb édo, to eat, Édi, Ésum, of the third conjugation
(§ 133), in addition to the regular inflection, has also shorter forms
in the present indicative, imperfect subjunctive, the imperative, and
present infinitive, agreeing exactly in form with those parts of the
verb sum which begin with es; viz.:-
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. IMPERFECT.
ëdo, edis, edit ederem, ederes, ederet
es, est essem, esses, esset
edimus, editis, edunt ederemus, ederetis, ederent
estis essemus, essetis, essent
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. ede, edite PRES. edere
e5, este ©$86.
FUTURE. edito, editote
esto, estote
edunto
136
§ 157
LATIN GRAMMAR.
In the passive, estur is found for editur, and essetur for ederetur."
The same abridged forms are also used in the compounds; e.g. comes,
comest, comesse, for comedis, comedit, comedere, from comédo.
§ 157. Wölo, I will; nolo, I will not (from ne volo); malo, I
had rather (from mage, i.e. magis, Volo), —are declined as fol-
lows:–
volo
vis
vult (volt)
volimus
vultis (voltis)
volunt
volebam
volebas, &c.
volui, &c.
voluerami
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
nolo
non vis
non vult
noliimus
non vultis
nolunt
IMPERFECT.
nolebam
molebas, &c.
PERFECT.
nolui
PLUPERFECT.
nolueram
FUTURE.
(nolam, unused)
noles, &c.
malo
mavis
mavult
maliimus
mavultis
malunt
malebam
malebas, &c.
malui
malueram
(malam, unused)
males, &c.
volam
voles, &c.
voluero
velim
velis
velit
velimus
velitis
velint
FUTURE PERFECT.
noluero
SUBJUNCTI VE.
PRESENT.
nolim
nolis
nolit .
nolimus
nolitis
nolint
maluero .
malim
malis
malit
malimus ..
malitis
malint
* The shorter forms have been produced by the omission of the connecting vowel and a
modification of the letters; the e in these is pronounced as long by nature.
$158 IRREGULAR VERBs. 137
IMPERFECT.
vellem - * nollem mallem
velles, &c. nolles, &c. malles, &c.
PERFECT.
voluerim noluerim maluerim
PLUPERFECT.
voluissem noluissem maluissem
FUTURE PERFECT.
voluerim noluerim maluerim
IMPERATIVE.
Wanting. PREs. SING.. noli; PLUR. nolite Wanting.
FUT. SING. 2, 3 nolito; PLUR. 2 nolitote
3 nolunto
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. velle nołle malle
PERFECT. voluisse noluisse maluisse
I’ARTICIPT,E.
PRESENT. volens molens Wanting.
OBs. The following are obsolete forms: nevis, nevult, nevelle, for
non vis, non vult, nolle; mavolo, mavelin, mavellem, for malo,
malim, mallem. From si vis, si vultis, annexed to a command or
request (pray, if you please), originated in familiar language, and the
style intended to imitate it, the expressions sis, sultis: Vide, sis, ne
qvo abeas (Ter.) Refer animum sis ad veritatem (Cic. pro Rosc.
Am. 16). Facite, sultis, nitidae ut aedes meae sint (Plaut.).
§ 158. The verb eo, to go, Ivi, ſtum, of the fourth conjugation,
is thus inflected in the present and the forms derived from it: –
INDICATIVEH. - SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
eo, is, it eam, eas, eat
imus, itis, eunt eåmus, eatis, eant
IMPERFECT.
ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, iret
ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent
FUTURE.
Ibo, ibis, ibit iturus, a, um, sim, &c.
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
138 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 159
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
PREs. SING. iſ PLUR. Ite PRES. Ire
FUT. SING. 2 and 3 ito; PLUR. 2 itote -
3 eunto
PARTICIPLE.
PRESENT. iens, euntem, euntis, &c.
GERUND. eundum.
The rest is regularly formed from ivi (iveram or ieram, ivisse,
isse, &c.) and Itum (Iturus, iturus esse). Eo being an intransitive
verb, the passive can only be formed in the third person (impersonally,
§ 95, Obs.); viz., itur, Ibatur, ibitur, ſtum est, &c., eatur, iretur.
In like manner are inflected the compounds, which usually have ii,
not ivi, in the perfect; e.g. abii, redii (§ 113, b, Obs. 1). Some of
them (adeo, ineo, praetereo) take a transitive signification, and these
form a complete passive, thus: Ind. pres. adeor, adiris, aditur,
adimur, adimini, adeuntur; imperf. . adibar, &c.; fut. adibor,
adiberis, &c. : Subj. pres. adear, &c.; imperf. adirer, &c.; Imperat.
pres. adire, fut. aditor, plur. adeuntor: Infin. pres. adiri; part. perf.
adītus; gerundive, adeundus, a, um. -
From eo comes also véneo (venum eo), to be put up for sale, be
sold, which is used as the passive of vendo (§ 133), and inflected like
the other compounds. (In the imperf. indic. sometimes veniebam.)
Ambio, to go about, is the only compound which is regularly in-
flected according to the fourth conjugation; e.g. participle present,
ambiens, ambientem, ambientis. (The imperfect is sometimes ambi-
bam.') -
§ 159. Qweo, to be able ; and neqveo, -to be unable, are inflected
like eo, but without imperative, future participle, or gerund (queo,
quis, &c.; queunt, queam, &c.; quibam, quirem, quivi, quive-
rim; or, quierim, quivisse, or quisse, &c.).
OBs. 1. The part. pres. also scarcely occurs in ordinary language;
and qvibam, qviveram, qvibo, neqvibo, are obsolete and rare forms.
Qvis and qvit, in the pres. indic., are used only with non (non qvis
and non qvit for neqvis and neqvit); in general qveo is used only in
negative propositions, and far more rarely than possum.
OBs. 2. In the older style a passive form was sometimes used where
an infinitive passive was subjoined: forma nosci non qvita est (Ter.);
ulcisci (pass.) neqvitur (Sall.). Compare coeptus sum, $161.
1 The irregularity in ed consists in the radical vowel i being changed into e before as O2
and u, and in its having in the imperf, and fut. indic, the form in bam (for ebam) and bo
(§ llā, b, c). *, - - -
§ 161 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 139
§ 160. Fio, to become, be done, answers as a passive to the verb
facio ($143), from which it borrows the perf. part, the gerundive,
and the compound tenses. , ,
The remainder varies only slightly from the regular inflection:-
INDICATIVE. - SUBJUINCTIVE.
PRESENT.
fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat
(fimus, fitis), fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant
g - IMPERFECT.
fiebam, fiebas, &c. fièrem, fieres, &c.
FUTURE.
fiam, fies, &c. Wanting.
IIME’EEATIVEH. INFINITIVE.
PREs. SING. fi; PLUR. fite . PRES. fiéri
(Factus sum, eram, ero, sim, essem, factum esse, factum iri.)
OBS. 1. For the compounds, see under facio. Confieri has only
confit, conflat, confieret (3 pers.); defieri, to be wanting, only defit,
defiunt, defiat. -
OBs. 2. In this verb (contrary to the general rule), the vowel i is long
before another vowel, except in fieri, fierem.
CHAPTER XXIII.
ID E FIE C T I W E W E R B S .
§ 161. Several verbs are not completely inflected in all the forms
of which their signification would allow. Those which want the
perfect or supine have been already specified. Some of the irregu-
lar verbs are at the same time defective. This chapter contains
those verbs especially which want the present, or are only used in a
very few isolated forms.
The verbs coepi, I began ; memini, I remember (commemini);
and Ödi, I hate, – are not used in the present, and the tenses derived
from it. The perfect of memini and odi has the signification of a
present, the pluperfect that of an imperfect, and the future perfect
that of a future. These verbs are thus inflected:—
140 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 162
* * * ~ * - INDICATIVE. . . .
PERF. coepi, coepisti, &c. memini, &c. odi, &c.
PLUP. Coeperam memineram oderam :
FUT. PERF. coepero meminero odero
SUBJUINCTIVE. --
PERF. coeperim meminerim oderim
PLUP. Coepissem meminissem odissem
FUT. PERF. (same as perf.)
IIMIPERATIVE.
Wanting. FUT. SING. 2 memento Wanting.
PLUR. 2 mementote
INFINITIVE.
PERF. coepisse meminisse odisse
IPARTICIPT.E.
PERF. PASS. coeptus Wanting (osus, obsolete)
OSUITUIS,
FUT. ACT. coepturus
OBS. From osus, which has an active signification, we find the com-
pounds, exosus, perosus, hating. ... "
Coepi is found also in the passive, coeptus sum, which is joined to
a passive infinitive: e.g. urbs aedificari coepta est; but we may also
say aedificari coepit. (In the same way also desitus est is used, from
desino, to cease (§ 136): e.g. Veteres orationes legi sunt desitae,
Cic.; but also desii: e.g. bellum jam timeri desierat, Liv.)
OBS. Incipio (incépi, inceptum, from capio) serves for a present
of coepi, and more rarely occipio (occepi, occeptum). Incipio
facere, coepi facere (less frequently incepi").
§ 162. a. Ajo, to say, say yes, is used in the following forms: —
INDICATIVEH. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
ajo, ais, ait — ajas, ajat
— — ajunt — — ajant
IMPERFECT.
ajebam, ajebas, &c.
(In Plautus and Terence, aibam.)
Coepiwith the accusative of a substantive is rare, incipio common (incipere oppug-
nationem; proelium incipitur, Sall. Jug 74); but we find in the passive ludi coepti
Sunt (Liv.), and the participle (Opus coeptum) is not uncommon.
§ 163 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 141
PARTICIPIE.
PRESENT. ajens (adj., affirmative)
OBS. The Imperative ai is quite obsolete.
b. Inqvam, I say, is used in the following forms: —
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT. IMPERFECT.
inqvam, inqvis, inqvit — — inqviebat
inqvimus, inqvitis, inqviunt
PERFECT. FUTURE.
— inqvisti, inqvit inqvies, inqviet
IMPERATIVE (rare).
PREs. SING. inqve . FUT. SING. 2 inqvito
OBS. This verb is used only when a person is introduced, speaking in
his own words, and is inserted after one or more words of the speech
cited; e.g. Tum ille, Nego, inqvit, verum esse, I deny, said he, that it
is true. Potestne, inqvit Epicurus, qvicqvam esse melius 2 In-
qvam is also used, in narrations, as a perfect.
c. Infit, he begins, is used only in the third person of the present
indicative, either alone, signifying, begins to speak, or with an infinitive,
usually one which implies speaking; e.g. laudare, percontari infit.
(Archaic and poetical. Perhaps from fari). -
§ 163. Fari, to speak (a deponent of the first conjugation), with
its compounds (affari, effari, praefari, profari), is used in the fol-
lowing forms (but those within brackets are found only in the
compounds) : — -
INDICATIVEH. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
— — fatur Wanting.
(famur, famini) -
IMPERFECT.
(fabar) (farer, &c.)
PERFECT.
fatus sum, &c. fatus sim, &c.
PLUPERFECT.
fatus eram, &c. fatus essem, &c.
FUTURE.
fabor (faberis), fabitur Wanting.
142 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 165
IMPERATIVE. INTEFINITIVE. SUPINE (second).
PREs. SING. fare PRES. fari fatu
IPA ETICIPIE.
PRESENT. fantem, fantis, &c., without nominative.
PERFECT. fatus, a, um.
GERUND. fandi, fando.
GERUNDIVE. fandus, a, um (e.g. fanda atqve nefanda).
OBs. The simple verb fari is antiquated, and used chiefly by the
poets. -
§ 164. Salveo, to be safe, uninjured, is used only in salutations;
in the imperative, salve, hail / plur. Salvete (fut, sing, salveto);
in the infinitive, in the construction salvere (te) jubeo, I bid you
welcome ; and in the fut. indic. salvebis (in written salutations).
In the same signification we find the imperative ave (have), hail!
good day / plur. avete, fut. sing. aveto; rarely avere jubeo. (Aveo
means, I am inclined, have a desire ; $128, b.)
An old imperative is apāge (&twye=abige), away with ! apage te,
pack yourself off! away with you ! (Also simply apage, away!)
As an imperative, we find also the very unusual form, cèdó, give me!
(cedo librum), out with it ! tell me ! (cedo, qvid faciam). In the plu-
ral (obsolete), cette.
OBs. Besides the verbs here given, there are others, of which one
or two forms are not found, because there was but seldom occasion for
their use, – e.g. solebo and solens, from soleo, - and their sound
was, perhaps, also disagreeable, as in dor, der, deris, from do. From
the verb ovo, to rejoice (used especially of a victorious procession, less
important than a triumph), we commonly find only the participle ovans,
—in the poets also ovat (ovet, ovaret).
CHAPTER XXIV.
IM P E R S O N A L V E R B s.
§ 165. Those verbs are called impersonal which are used only
in the third person singular, and have usually no reference to a sub-
ject in the nominative.
OBs. Besides those verbs which are exclusively impersonal, some,
which are otherwise personal, are used impersonally in certain signi-
fications; e.g. accidit, it happens, from accido. See the Syntax,
§ 218. -
§ 167 DEFECTIVE WERBS. 143
§ 166. The following verbs are impersonal:—
a. Those which indicate the weather: e.g. ningit, it snows ; pluit, it
rains ; grandinat, it hails ; also, the two inchoatives, lucescit (illu-
cescit), it grows light, the day dawns ; and vesperascit (advešperas-
cit), the evening comes on. -
b. The following verbs of the second conjugation : —
Libet, it pleases, libuit and libitum est (half-deponent). Col-
libet.
Licet, it is permitted, licuit and licitum est.
Miseret (me), (I) pity, without perf. ; also, miseretur, miseritum
est.
OBs. Misereor is also used personally. Miseror, miserari, generally
signifies, to compassionate (in words).
Oportet, it is right, necessary ; oportuit.
Piget, it veaces ; piguit and pigitum est.
Poenitet (me), (I) repent ; poenituit.
Pudet, it causes shame (p. me, I am ashamed); puduit and pudi-
tum est.
Taedet, it is irksome, causes vexation (taedet me, I am weary of it),
without a perfect; instead of which the compound, pertaesum est, is
made use of.
OBs. The verbs decet, it becomes, befits, decuit, and dedēcet, it is
wnbecoming, are, properly speaking, not impersonal, because they may
refer to a definite subject and occur in the plural (omnis eum color
decet, parva parvum decent); but yet they are used only in the third
person, inasmuch as they can be predicated neither of the speaker nor
the person addressed. -
c. Réfert, it is of importance; rétulit (from fero; distinguished
from réfero by the quantity). -
§ 167. The impersonal verbs (and those which are sometimes
used impersonally) are inflected regularly in the several forms, in
conformity with the present and perfect, but their signification does
not allow them to have an imperative, a supine, or a participle
(except that in some verbs the perf. part. pass. neuter is combined
with est, &c.). Oportet has therefore, in the indicative, oportet,
oportebat, oportuit, oportuerat, oportebit, oportuerit; in the sub-
junctive, oporteat, oporteret, oportuerit, oportuisset, oportuerit;
in the infinitive, oportere, oportuisse. But libet, licet, poemitet,
pudet, have participles somewhat varied in their meaning and
application.
144 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 168
OBS. Libens, willing, with pleasure; licens (adj.), free (unbridled);
licitus, allowed; liciturum est, liciturum esse (imperat. liceto).
Pudens (adj.), modest (pudibundus, bashful); poenitens (rare),
penitent; poenitendus, to be repented of; pudendus, what must cause
shame. Hence as a gerund (as from personal verbs), ad poenitendum,
pudendo.
Concluding Observations on the Inflection of the Verbs.
§ 168. In order to avoid mistakes, the beginner must take par-
ticular notice that some verbs, the meaning and inflection of which
are totally different, are alike in the first person of the present
indicative ; as, – *
aggéro, to heap up, 1st Conj. (in aggéro, to bring to, 3 (from gero).
prose usually, exaggero);
appello, to name, 1 ; appello, to land, 3 (pello).
compello, to address, call, l; compello, to drive together,3(pello).
colligo, to bind together, 1 (ligo); colligo, to collect, 3 (lego).
consterno, to confuse, terrify, 1; consterno, to cover over, 3 (sterno).
efféro, to make wild, 1; efféro, to carry out, 3 (fero).
fundo, to found, 1; fundo, to pour, 3.
mando, to give in charge, 1 ; mando, to chew, 3.
obsero, to bolt up, 1; obsero, to sow, 3.
salio, to dance, salui, saltun, 4; salio, to salt, salivi, salitum, 4.
volo, to fly, 1; volo, to wish ; irreg.
Others are distinguished by a difference in the quantity of the
radical vowel; as, – -
cölo, to till, to take care of, 3; colo, to strain, 1.
diſco, to dedicate, 1 ; dico, to say, 3.
indico, to inform of; praedico, indico, praedico.
to declare;
ediico, to educate, 1 ; - ediico, to lead out, 3 (duco).
légo, to read, collect, 3; 1égo, to send as a deputy, bequeath, 1.
allégo, to choose in addition; allègo, to send a deputy, to cite as
proof.
relego, to read again; relego, to banish.
Some other verbs, of the second and third conjugations, have, as is
seen in Chaps. XVIII. and XIX., the same form in the perfect or supine
and the tenses formed from them; e.g. victurus, from vinco and from
vivo. (Oblitus, smeared, from oblino; oblitus, one who has forgotten,
from obliviscor.) -
§ 170 ADWERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 145
w
CHAPTER XXV.
A D W E R B S AND PR E P O S IT I O N S .
§ 169. Adverbs have no inflection except comparison. Gener-
ally speaking only those adverbs can be compared which are derived
from adjectives and participles which are themselves compared, with
the terminations e (o) or ter (see § 198). The comparative of the
adverb is then the same with that of the adjective in the nom neut.,
and the superlative of the adverb is formed like that of the adjec-
tive, but with the ending e instead of us; e.g. : —
docte (doctus), doctius, doctissime; aegre (aeger), aegrius,
aegerrime; fortiter (fortis), fortius, fortissime; acriter (acer),
acrius, acerrime; audacter (audax), audacius, audacissime;
amanter (amans), amantius, amantissime; facile (facilis), facilius,
facillime.
OBS. Tuto makes in the sup. tutissimo ; and merito, meritissimo,
quite according to one's deserts.
§ 170. If the comparison of the adjective be irregular or defec-
tive, that of the adverb is so in the same way; e.g. : —
bene (bonus), melius, optime; male (malus), pejus, pessime;
multum (the neuter of the adjective, used as an adverb), plus,
plurimum (the same); parum, little, too little (parvus), minus,
minime (minimum, in expressing a measurement; minimum distat,
minimum invidet, Hor.); deterius (deterior), deterrime; ocius
(ocior), ocissime; potius (potior), potissimum; prius (prior),
primum and primo (properly the acc. and abl. neuter); nove (novus),
Il OVISSIO le.
The following should be particularly noticed: magis (compar.
more), maxime, which has no positive, although magnus, from which it
is derived, is compared throughout; and uberius, uberrime, from uber.
Valde, very strongly (for valide, from validus), has validius (rarely
in the poets, valdius), validissime.
OBS. The adverbs which denote a mutual relation of place, and
from which adjectives are formed in the comparative and superlative
($ 66), have a corresponding comparison as adverbs: prope, propius,
proxime ; intra, interius, intime; ultra, extra, post, — ulterius,
exterius, posterius, – ultimum or ultimo, &c. (particularly pos-
tremum and postremo); supra, superius, summe (in the highest
degree), summum (at the highest), supremum, at last, for the last
10
146 LATIN GRAMMAR. . § 172
time (rare); citra and infra have only citerius, inferius, without a
superlative. *
§ 171. Of other adverbs, only the following are compared:—
Diu, long ; diutius, diutissime.
Nuper, lately ; nuperrime, without a comparative.
Saepe, often ; saepius, saepissime.
Sécus, otherwise, ill; sécius (non, nihilosécius, no less, neverthe-
less).
Temperi (tempori), betimes; temperius.
§ 172. The Latin language has the following Prepositions, to
denote the relation between substantives: — - -
I. Those constructed with the Accusative.
Ad, to, on (close by, ad manum). * *
Adversus, adversum, against. (Rarely exadversus, opposite,
also an adverb.)
Ante, before.
Apud, at or with.
Circa, circum, round, round about. (Circum amicos, urbes,
insulas, to the friends, in the towns, in the islands round about.)
Circiter, towards, about (of time; circiter horam octavam).
Contra, opposite, against (in a hostile sense).
Cis, citra, on this side of.
Erga, towards (generally of a friendly way of feeling or acting).
Extra, outside of. -
Infra, beneath, below.
Inter, between, among.
Intra, inside of, within.
Juxta, near, by. .
Ob, before (ob oculos), on account of.
Penes, with, in the hands or power of any one.
Per, through.
Pone, behind.
Post, after, behind.
Praeter, beyond, except. (Praeter ceteros, before the others.)
Prope, near by.
Propter, near, on account of.
Supra, on the upper side of, above.
Secundum, meat to, according to.
Trans, on the other side of.
Ultra, on the other side of, beyond.
§ 172 ADWERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 147
II. Those which are constructed with the Ablative.
Ab, a, from. (Ab is always used before vowels, and often before
Consonants, a only before consonants; before te, abs is also used, abs
te.")
Absave, without (archaic; absolve te si esset, if it were not for
$/ou). -
Coram, before, in presence of.
Cum, with.
OBS. Cum is put after and joined to the personal, reflective, and
relative pronouns; mecum, nobiscum, secum, qvocum, qvacum,
qvibuscum. It may, however, be prefixed to the relative and inter-
rogative pronouns (especially in the poets); e.g. cum quo, cum
qvibus. (Mecum et cum P. Scipione.)
De, of, from (down from), concerning.
Ex, e, out of. (Ex, before vowels and consonants, e only before
consonants.)
Prae, before, in comparison with, on account of. (Prae lacrimis,
Jor tears; prae me beatus, in comparison with me.)
Pro, before, for.
Sine, without.
Tenus, up to (is put after its case: pectore tenus).
OBS. Tenus sometimes takes the genitive; e.g. crurum tenus
(Virg.).
III. Those constructed with the Accusative or Ablative.
In, in, on (abl.); but acc. in answer to the question whither.
Sub, under; abl. in answer to the question where.
Subter, beneath, on the under side of, usually the acc.
Super, concerning (abl.); above, on the upper side of (acc.).
On the construction of these four prepositions, further particulars
will be given in the Syntax (§ 230).
OBs. 1. For the particular ways of employing the remaining preposi-
tions, and their application in certain idioms and phrases, the dictionary.
must be consulted. The idiom of the Latins, in consequence of a differ-
ent way of conceiving the relations of things, is very often different
from our own; e.g. when it is said in Latin, initium facere ab aliqva
re, and not cum. (Hence, also, we find, Unde initium faciam 7)
OBS. 2. Some prepositions are also used as adverbs, the name of the
person or thing referred to not being specified: viz., coram (personally,
1 In the use of ab and ex before consonants writers vary from each other, and are not
always even consistent with themselves.
148 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 173
Jace to face); ante (before, previously, antea); circa, circiter, contra,
extra, infra, intra, juxta, pone, post (behind, afterwards, postea),
prope (near), propter (in the neighborhood), supra, ultra, subter,
super. (In antiquated style, i prae! go first ire adversum, to go to
meet.) (Ad is used as an adverb, with numerals, in the signification,
about, without any influence on the case; e.g. ad duo milia et qvin-
genti, Liv. IV. 59. Praeter is sometimes used in the signification,
except, with the same oblique case which precedes; e.g. Caeterae multi-
tudini diem statuit praeter rerum capitalium damnatis, Sall. Cat.
36.) Also, Nullae litterae praeter quae, except those which, Cic. =
praeter eas quae. -
Obs. 3. On the other hand, some adverbs are occasionally used as prep-
ositions; viz., with the ablative, palam, publicly, in presence of (populo);
procul, far from (procul mari, most generally procul a mari); simul,
together with (simul his, poet. for simul cum his); with the accusa-
tive, usqve (usqve pedes, but rarely, and only in late writers; other-
wise, usqve ad pedes); with the ablative or accusative, clam, without
the knowledge of (clam patrem, clam vobis).
OBS. 4. Prope is often combined with ab, prope ab urbe. Propius
and proxime, from prope, are also used as prepositions with the accusa-
tive; propius urbem, proxime urbem (also propius, proxime ab
urbe). Very rarely a dative is put after propius and proxime. Ver-
sus is subjoined to ad and in: e.g. ad Oceanum versus, toward the
Ocean; in Italiam versus, toward Italy. It is used in the same way
with the acc. of names of cities, in signifying motion (§ 232); e.g.
Roman versus ire, towards Rome.
OBs. 5. Ergo, for the sake of, is used (in antiquated style) as a
preposition with the genitive, and is put after its case; as, victoriae
ergo.
§ 173. In composition with verbs, and with other words begin-
ning with consonants, some prepositions undergo a modification in
the final consonant, particularly by its assimilation with the conso-
nant which follows (according to $ 10). Cum (con) is also modi-
fied before vowels.
Ab. Abscedo, abscondo (cedo, condo); aufero, aufugio (fero,
fugio, but afui, afore, or abfui); amoveo (moveo); asporto (porto);
abstineo (teneo); avello. In the other compounds, ab remains un-
changed; as, abdo, abluo, abnégo, abrado, absumo.
Ad. D is changed into the following consonant: accedo, affero,
aggero, allino, annöto, appareo, acqviro, arrögo, assumo, aspicio
(not asspicio; see § 10), attingo; but d generally stands before m
§ 173 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 149
(admiror), and always before j and v (adjaceo, adveho). Some, how-
ever, wrote adcedo, adfero, &c., and particularly adspicio.
Ex. Effero (fero, archaic, ecſero); existo (also written exsisto),
exspecto and expecto as pronounced, see § 10). (Edo, egero,
eluo, emoved, enáto, erigo, eveho ; but excedo, expedio, exqviro,
extendo.)
In. Imbibo, immergo, importo, before b, m, p; illino, irrepo;
before other consonants it remains unchanged. (But we find inbibo,
&c.) (Indigeo, indipiscor, from an older form, indu.)
Ob. Occurro, offero, oggero, opperior; before other consonants,
unchanged. (Instances of irregularity are found in obs-olesco, os-
tendo, o-mitto.)
Sub. Succurro, sufficio, suggero, summitto, supprimo, surripio
(but subrideo, to smile; subrusticus, somewhat clownish); before other
consonants, unchanged. (The following are formed irregularly : sus-
cipio, sus-cito, sus-pendo, sus-tineo, sus-tuli, from subs, with su-spi-
cio and sus-censeo or succenseo) -
Trans. Usually, traduco, trajicio, trano, sometimes tramitto (al-
ways trado and traduco, not in their literal signification); with these
exceptions, it is unaltered. (Transcribo.)
Cum, in compounds, is changed, before consonants, to con, when the
n is varied, as in in (comburo, committo, comprehendo, colligo,
corripio). But some wrote also conburo, &c. Before vowels and h, it
is changed to co; coalesco, coèmo, coire, coorior, cohaereo (coicio,
archaic for conjicio). (But comedo. Cognosco, cognatus.)
OBs. 1. Inter is changed in intelligo, per in pellicio (pelluceo and
perluceo), ante in anticipo and antisto.
OBs. 2. Of the preposition pro, it is to be observed, that it is short-
ened in some few compounds; namely, in profari, proficiscor (but pro-
ficio), profiteor, profugio, profugus, profestus, pronepos; in procuro
and propello, the pro is sometimes short. (Pröfundus, préfanus.)
With these exceptions, it is always long; produco, promitto, &c. (In
Greek words, the preposition pro is short, as in Greek, except in pro-
logus, prāpino.) We may also notice prod-eo, prodesse, prodigo
(ago), prodambulo; but proavus, prohibeo. (Otherwise, pro is not
used before vowels.)
OBs. 3. For circumeo, from circum and eo, we sometimes find cir-
cueo, especially in the part. perf. circuitus, whence the substantive
circuitus.
150 LATIN GRAMMAR. $17s
III. — RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF WORDS.
CHAPTER I.
FORMATION OF WORDS IN GENERAL. DERIVATION OF SUB-
STANTIVES.
§ 174. Roots (radices) is the name by which we distinguish
the first original words or expressions of a language, which have
neither received any augmentation nor are combined with any other
word. By receiving inflectional endings, or being used in a certain
defined way in speaking, the roots become primitive words or stems
of a certain class; as, duc-0, dux (duc-s). When a verb is imme-
diately formed from the root (as duco), it is usual to consider and
speak of it as the root.
OBS. 1. Besides those roots which express the definite idea of an ob-
ject, there are also roots which serve only to give some indication or
reference, and from these the pronominal words have taken their rise;
e.g. is, ibi, ita. Of those roots which denote ideas, most express an
action or condition, and by means of inflectional endings are immedi-
ately converted into verbs, so that the root is at the same time the stem,
to which the endings are attached (§ 26). But various substantives are,
likewise, formed immediately from the root by the simple addition of the
case-endings; e.g. dux. In many cases, the root is not found as a
werb, but only as a substantive or adjective; e.g. sol, frons, laus, pro-
bus, levis (from which again are derived frondëre, laudare, probare,
levare).
OBS. 2. Sometimes a root, in becoming a verb, is changed, and aug-
mented in the pronunciation, so that the root and the stem of the verb
(in the present) are not entirely alike: e.g. frango (stem of the pres-
ent, frang; root, frag, whence the perfect fregi). See § 118. -
OBS. 3. In the primitive verbs of the second conjugation, the e does
not properly belong to the root, except in those which have evi in the
perfect. (Hence, mon-ui, mon-i-tum, without e.) But to avoid pro-
lixity and confusion, it is most convenient to speak here of the e as if it
belonged to the root. -
§ 175. a. To the root, as it is contained in the primitive words
formed from it, are attached derivative endings (suffiaces, from suf-
figo, to attach at the end), by which derivative words are formed.
From a derived word others may be again derived, so that one and
§ 175 FORMATION OF WORDS. 151
the same word may be both a derivative itself, and a primitive in
relation to others. From the root in amo (ama) comes amabilis,
and from that amabilitas; from the root in probus comes the verb
probo, from that probabilis, and from this probabilitas.
Obs. Properly speaking, the derivative ending forms only the stem
of the new word, which does not become an actual word till it receives
the inflectional ending by which the derivative ending is itself occasion-
ally varied. From prob in probus is first formed proba (the stem of
the verb), which, with the ending of the first person present, becomes
probo. From probabil is formed probabilitat, which, with the nomi-
native ending, becomes probabilitas. For the sake of convenience, the
derivative endings are here named with the first inflectional ending (espe-
cially since a particular derivation requires at the same time a particular
way of declension); in substantives, therefore, the nominative; in ad-
jectives, the nominative masculine; in verbs, the first person of the
present indicative.
b. Derivative endings serve to distribute and classify the different
conceptions (e.g. an action, a person, a quality) which contain the
signification of the primitive, so that the words formed with one
and the same derivative ending belong to the same class, and denote
ideas which are conceived in the same way; e.g. words in tas are
substantives, which denote a property. The most important of
these kinds of derivation are here adduced according to the parts
of speech to which the derivatives belong.
OBS. 1. There are many derived Latin words, the root or primitive of
which cannot be found; others are derived according to forms which are
unusual, or can no longer be recognized; some derivative endings (espe-
cially of substantives) are used only in a very few words, or chiefly in those
the primitive of which is unknown, so that the meaning of the endings can-
not be ascertained. In the case also of those endings, the force of which
is more evident, the signification is sometimes very comprehensive, and
rather undefined. -
OBS. 2. There are, sometimes, several endings which have the same
meaning and application: e.g. tas and tudo denote properties; in
these cases, one ending is employed in some words, the other in others.
Some derivative endings are rarely found in the older writers, but be-
came common at a later period.
Obs. 3. The examining and ascertaining of the origin of words from
their roots and primitives is called Etymology (êtvuolo)i&);' the primi-
tive word is also called etymum (§rvuov, the real).
1. It will be seen that the term is here employed in a more restricted Sense than when applied
to the first part of Grammar.
152 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 177
§ 176. a. The derivative endings are attached to the stem of the
primitive, divested of the inflectional endings; e.g. from the sub-
stantive miles, gen. milit-is, are formed the verb milit-are, the
substantive milit-ia, the adjective milit-aris. In substantives of
the first and second (often also of the fourth declension), both a and
u are dropped. When primitive verbs are varied in the stem of
the present (§ 174, Obs. 2), the derivation is formed from the unal-
tered root (which is shown in the inflection of the verb); e.g. from
frango (frag) are derived the substantive fragor, and the adjective
fragilis. -
Obs. If the last syllable of the stem has a different sound in the inflec-
tion, according as it is open or close (e.g. semen, but semin-is; colo,
but cultus), this is also shown in the derivation (seminarium, colonia,
but sementis, cultura).
b. In verbs of the first and second conjugations, a and e are
dropped before those derivative endings which begin with a vowel
(am-or, pall-or, opin-io). E is also dropped before consonants
(except in those verbs which have evi in the perfect).
Ops. In stems ending in u, u is changed into uv, before a vowel;
e.g. pluviae, colluvies (but ruina). -
c. When the stem ends in a consonant, and the derivative ending
begins with a consonant, a short connecting vowel (commonly I,
more rarely ii) is frequently interposed. Sometimes no vowel is
interposed, but a consonant rejected (e.g. fulmen from fulg-eo).
This often takes place when the stem ends in V, in which case the
preceding vowel is lengthened; e.g. motus, mobilis, from mêveo,
adjúmentum from adjúvo.
d. The final vowel of the verb-stems (a, e, i, u) is always long
before the derivative ending (velāmen, complémentum; mollmen,
vollimen).
e. Sometimes the derivation is made not immediately from the
stem of the verb, but from the supine, so that a new ending is
affixed to its t or s (with the omission of um); e.g. ama-t-or.
OBS. The supine and participle are, themselves, formed like substan-
tives and adjectives by derivation from the verb.
§ 177. Substantives are derived from verbs (substantiva ver-
balia) and from other substantives, or from adjectives (subst,
denominativa).
§ 178 FORMATION OF WORDS. 153
OBs. From the proper derivative endings of the substantives, by which
they are formed from known stems with a definite modification of their
meaning, we must distinguish the final vowels a and u before the inflec-
tional endings, by which the substantives acquire the open form of declen-
sion (first and second). These endings belong to a great number of
substantives of which the roots are unknown; but it is only in a few in-
stances that substantives from known roots are formed by these alone (as
the personal names scriba, advěna, perfüga, from scribo, advenio, per-
fugio, a being, at other times, a feminine ending; coqvus, from coqvo);
but they are found in combination with other derivative endings (ia, ium,
&c.) Some few personal names are formed by simply adding the declen-
sion-endings (nom. s) to known roots or verb-stems (dux, rex, pellex,
praeses, from duco, rego, pellicio, praesideo), as also some other sub-
stantives (lex, lux, nex, vox, Obices, from lego, luceo, neco, voco,
obicio). -
Of the endings with which substantives are formed from verbs,
the following are to be noticed:—
1. or, affixed to the stem of intransitive verbs (mostly of the first or
second, never of the fourth conjugation), forms substantives, which de-
note the action or condition; amor, error, clamor, favor, pallor, furor
(amare, errare, clamare, favère, pallère, furère).
OBS. Various substantives in or are not derived from any known verb;
while, on the other hand, verbs are formed from them: e.g. honor, labor
(honos, labos), — honorare, laborare.
2. or, affixed to the stem of the supine (tor or sor), denotes the
(male) agent; amator, adjūtor, monitor, fautor, victor, cursor, peti-
tor, auditor, largitor.
From many such substantives in tor, there are formed feminines in
trix: e.g. venatrix, victrix, fautrix, adjutrix; more rarely in strix
from those in sor: e.g. tonstrix, from tonsor. (Expultrix, from ex-
pulsor, rejecting the 5.) -
OBs. 1. Sometimes, personal names in tor (ätor or ſtor) are formed
also from substantives of the first or second declension; e.g. viator, gla-
diator, funditor, from via, gladius, funda (janitor, from janua; vini-
tor, from vinea).
OBS. 2. Masculine names of persons, in o, önis, derived from verbs,
are of less frequent occurrence: e.g. erro, from errare; and heluo, from
heluari.
§ 178. Further: —
3. io (ion-is), affixed to the stem of the supine (tio, sio), denotes the
action of the verb from which it is derived; e.g. administratio, tracta".
154 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 179
tio, cautio, actio, accessio, divisio, largitio. (Mentio, from the unused
meniscor.)
OBs. More rarely, io is affixed immediately to the stem of the
verb; e.g. opinio (opinor), obsidio (obsideo), contagio (tango, tag),
oblivio (from the original stem in obliviscor). Consortio, communio,
are formed, in the same way, from adjectives.
4. us (gen. us), affixed to the stem of the supine, also denotes the
action of the verb; e.g. visus, usus, auditus.
OBs. 1. From some verbs, substantives are formed, both in io and in
us; e.g. contemptio and contemptus, concursio and concursus.
In some words, some writers prefer the one, others the other form (later
authors more usually adopt the form in us), without any difference in the
signification; in other words, there is some difference in the usage: e.g.
auditio, the act of hearing ; auditus, the sense of hearing. To signify
on, in consequence of, by (this or that action), the second supine of many
verbs (abl. in u) is made use of, without a perfect substantive being
formed; e.g. jussu, mandatu, rogatu (compare $55, 4).
OBs. 2. In some of these words in io and us, the signification of an
action is lost: e.g. Coenatio, a Supper-room ; regio, a district (rego, to
govern); legio, a legion (lego, to choose); victus, a way of life, Suste-
700,72 C6.
5. Of the same signification as io and us, but somewhat rarer, is tira,
affixed to the stem of the supine; e.g. conjectura, cultura, mercatura,
sepultura, natura (from mascor, different from natio); still more rare,
is ela, affixed to the stem of the verb: e.g. qverèla (qveror); or to that
of the supine: e.g. corruptela (corrumpo). Ium, affixed to the
stem of the verb, has nearly the same signification; e.g. judicium,
gaudium, odium, perfugium (place of refuge), vaticinium (vatici-
nor).
OBS. From some few verbs, there are formed substantives in igo, which
denote an action or a condition arising out of the action; e.g. origo
(orior), vertigo (turning, dizziness), tentigo (tendo), prurigo (pru-
rio). Cupido, formido, libido, from cupio, formido, libet.) Ies
denotes rather a result produced; e.g. congeries, effigies (from fingo,
without n), species (from the unused specio), acies from acuo.
§ 179. Further: —
6. The termination men (min-is) denotes a thing in which an action
and activity appear; e.g. vimen (vieo), flumen (fluo), lumen (luceo,
the c rejected), specimen (specio, spexi), exãmen (for exagmen,
from ago). Sometimes, the result, the means, the action itself: e.g. voli-
men, what is rolled together, a roll; actimen, what is sharpened, a point;
levamen, nomen (novi), certãmen. The poets and later, prose-
§ 180 FORMATION OF WORDS. 155
writers use many words in men, some to express an action, others the
means and instrument, which do not occur in the earlier prose-writers,
who use instead words in io, us (gen. us, $178, 4), or in mentum (see
infra, 7); e.g. Conamen, hortamen, molimen (conatus, hortatio, mo-
litio), regimen, tegmen (also tegimen, tegumen), velamentum, tegu-
mentum). -
7. The termination mentum denotes a mean, an instrument, a thing
which serves for some end; ornamentum, complementum, instru-
mentum, alimentum (alo), condimentum (condio), monumen-
tum, documentum (moneo, doceo, with the connecting vowel u),
adjúmentum (adjuvo, adjuv-i, v being rejected), momentum (mo-
veo), tormentum (torqveo). (Compare $176, e.)
OBS. Sometimes, such words in mentum are formed from substantives
or adjectives of the first or second declension, as if they came from verbs
of the first conjugation (amentum); e.g. atramentum (means of black-
ening, black paint, ink), ferramentum. - -
8. culum (in earlier times written and pronounced clum) and
bulum denote the means or instrument (sometimes the place) of an
action: gubernaculum; coenaculum, a garret (properly, a dining-
room); ferculum (fero), operculum (operio, oper-ui), vehiculum,
vocabulum, pabulum (pasco, pa-vi), stabulum (a stall, standing-
place), latibulum (lateo), infundibulum (infundo). If the stem
ends in c or g, only ulum is added; vinculum (vinc-io), cingulum,
(cingo). . - -
OBs. 1. Crum is used instead of clum (culum) when there is an 1
in the preceding syllable, or the one before it; sepulcrum (sepelio),
fulcrum (fulcio), simulacrum, lavaorum. Brum is used instead of
bulum when there is an 1 in the preceding syllable; flabrum, ventila-
brum (also cribrum, from Cerno, and some feminines in bra; e.g. dolā-
bra, latébra, vertèbra, as fabula, from fari).
OBs. 2. The same meaning is expressed by trum, before which d is
changed to s; aratrum, claustrum (claudo), rostrum (rodo).
OBs. 3. Some few such words are formed from other substantives: e.g.
turibulum, a censer, from tus; candelabrum (see Obs. 1), from
candela.
§ 180. Substantives derived from other substantives have the
following terminations : —
1. ium, affixed to personal names, denotes a condition and rela-
tion, sometimes an action or employment; e.g. collegium, convivium,
sacerdotium, ministerium, testimonium, from colléga, conviva,
sacerdos, minister, testis. Affixed to personal names in tor, it denotes
the place of the action; e.g. auditorium, from auditor.
156 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 181
2. atus, affixed to personal names, denotes a relation and office; coa-
sulatus, tribunatus, triumviratus. (Censura, dictatura, praetura,
praefectura, qvaestura.)
3. arius denotes a person who engages in something as a trade; e.g.
statuarius, argentarius, sicarius; arium, a place for collecting or pre-
serving any thing: granarium, seminarium, armamentarium, viva-
rium (place for preserving living animals), from granum, semen,
armamenta, vivus; avia, sometimes the place where labor is applied
to something. (Compare the adjective termination arius, Š l87, 10.)
4. ina, affixed to personal names, denotes an employment and a place
for carrying on a thing; medicina, sutrina (sutor), doctrina, disci-
plina, tonstrina (tonsor). (Officina, from officium; piscina, from
piscis; ruina, from ruo; rapina, from rapio ; in the neuter, textri-
num, pistrinum.) (In regina, gallina, it denotes only the feminine
gender.)
5. al, ar (the last formed is used when an I occurs in the preceding
syllable, or the one before it (compare $ 179, 8, Obs. 1), denotes a
material object, which stands in relation to a thing, or belongs to
it; e.g. puteal, animal, calcar, pulvinar, from puteus, animus, calx,
pulvinus. -
OBs. Properly the neuter of the adjective ending alis (aris), without
the e, which is retained in a few words; e.g. facale, neck-cloth.
6. Étum, affixed to the names of plants, denotes the place where they
grow together in a quantity, and also the plants themselves collectively;
e.g. olivetum, myrtetum, fruticetum, arundinetum, qvercetum, from
oliva, myrtus, frutex, arundo, qvercus.
OBs. The following are formed irregularly : salictum, carectum
(salix, carex), arbustum (arbos), virgultum (virgula).
Ile, affixed to the names of animals, denotes a stall; bubile, ovile
(bos, ovis). (Affixed to verbs, it also signifies a place; cubile, a place
to lie down, a couch ; sedile.)
OBs. Examples of derivative endings of rare occurrence, or with a
less obvious signification in substantives derived from substantives, are o
or io (in some personal names; e.g. praedo, from praeda; centurio,
mulio, from centuria, mulus; but in many other words, from some
unknown stem), ica (e.g. lectica, from lectus, and in words from an
unknown stem), Íca (fabrica, from faber), ia (e.g. militia, from miles),
tigo (e.g. aerûgo, from aes), uria (e.g. centuria, luxuria, from centum,
luxus). \
§ 181. From some names of male persons and animals in us and
er, corresponding feminine nouns are formed by affixing a to the
stem, us being dropped; e.g. eqva, cerva, capra, from eqvus, cer-
Wus, caper (see $80), dea, filia, serva, magistra, from deus, filius,
§ 182 FORMATION OF WORDS. 157
servus, magister; also in trix, from personal names in tor (§ 177,
2). Those substantives which have a corresponding feminine form
are called subst, mobilia. -
OBs. It is only in a few solitary instances, that a is found attached
in this way to stems of the third declension; antistita, clienta, hos-
pita, tibicina, from antistes, cliens, hospes, tibicen. A rarer forma-
tion still is that of regina, gallina, leaena, from rex, gallus, leo; avia,
neptis, socrus, from avus, nepos, socer.
§ 182. The following terminations should also be noticed:—
1. By means of lus, la, or lum, and culus, cula, or culum, are formed
diminutives, which are often used by way of endearment, commisera-
tion, or to ridicule something insignificant: e.g. hortúlus, a little gar-
den; matercüla, a (poor) mother; ingeniolum, a little bit of talent.
The diminutives have the same gender as their primitives, and end,
accordingly, in us, a, or um. Both sets of endings are combined in dif-
ferent ways with the different stems, and hence occasionally assume an
irregular form.
With respect to this it is to be observed:—
a. lus (a, um) is used with primitive words of the first and second
declension, and with some few of the third, but always when the charac-
teristic letter is c or g. It is affixed to the stem (after rejecting a or us),
with the connecting vowei u (therefore, ulus, ula, ulum); e.g. arcula,
litterula, lunula, servulus, Oppidulum, aetatula, adolescentulus,
facula, regulus, from arca, littera, luna, servus, Oppidum, aetas, ado-
lescens, fax, rex. If a vowel precedes us, a, um, in the primitive, then
the diminutive ends in Ölus (a, um); e.g. filiolus, lineola, ingenio-
lum, from filius, linea, ingenium.
b. To stems of the first and second declension in ul, r with a conso-
nant preceding, and in in, with some others in er and n, lus (a, um) is
affixed without a connecting vowel; r and n are assimilated with the
following l; u and i are changed into e, and e inserted before r after a
consonant (ellus, ella, ellum): e.g. tabella, ocellus (tabula, oculus);
libella, agellus, libellus, labellum (from libra, ager (agri), liber,
labrum); lamella, asellus (from lamina, asinus); catella, corolla,
opella, puella (from caténa, coróna, opera, and the unused puera, from
puer). -
OBS. 1. Diminutives of this class are sometimes formed from other
diminutives; cista, cistula, cistella, and (by again adding ula) cistel-
lula. -
OBS. 2. Some few words have the termination illus (a, um), instead
of ellus; as, bacillum, pugillus, sigillum, pulvillus, from baculum,
158 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 183
pignus, signum, pulvinus. Codicillus, lapillus, aligvilla, from co-
dex, lapis, angvis, are formed in the same way, from primitives of the
tlurd declension.
c. culus (a, um) is used with primitives of the third, fourth, and fifth
declension. In primitives of the third declension in l, r, and s, if this last
is not merely the nominative ending (consequently, when it is changed
to r in the genitive), the diminutive ending is affixed immediately to the
nominative; animalculum, fraterculus, matercula, uxorcula, corou-
lum, flosculus, osculum, opusculum, pulvisculus, from animal, fra-
ter, mater, uxor, cor, flos, OS (oris), opus, pulvis. (Vasculum, from
vas, vasis.) -
OBS. From rumor is formed rumusculus; and from arbor, arbus-
cula (and, in the same way, grandiusculus, &c., from the comparative
grandior); ventriculus, from venter (acriculus, from the adj. acer).
From Os, Ossis, is formed ossiculum. .
d. From primitives in o (on-is, or in-is) is deduced the form un-
culus; e.g. sermunculus, ratiuncula, homunculus (sermo, ratio,
hömo.) (Caruncula, from Caro; pectunculus, from pecten.)
OBs. The following are formed irregularly, with the same ending:
avunculus, domuncula, furunculus, from avus, domus, fur (ranun-
culus, from rana, with a change of gender). -
e. In primitives in es, gen. is or ei, and is, gen. is, the ending is
affixed to the stem, after dropping the nominative ending s: nubecula,
diecula, pisciculus, from nubes, dies, piscis (aedicula, from the form
aedis); in the words in e, the e is changed into i: e.g. reticulum, from
rete. - -
f. In those words in which the nominative ending s is affixed to a
consonant, and in words of the fourth declension, the ending is affixed
to the stem with the connecting vowel i (the u being first rejected in the
fourth declension); e.g. ponticulus, particula, coticula, versiculus,
corniculum (from pons, pars, cos, versus, cornu).
OBS. 1. If the stem ends in c or g, the ending lus is made use of.
See a.
OBS. 2. The following are irregular forms: homuncio (homullus),
from homo, eculeus, from eqvus; aculeus, a point or sting, masc. from
the fem. acus. -
OBS. 3. The diminutive form illus (a, um) occurs in some words with
the characteristic X, which appear to be immediately derived from verbs,
but have shorter substantives corresponding to them, formed by reject-
ing the x, and contraction; e.g. vexillum (veho, vex-i) and velum
paxillus (pango) and palus, maxilla and mala. (Tela from texo.)
§ 183. The Greek patronymics, which designate sons, daughters,
or descendants of a man, and end in Ides, Ides, or ades, of the first
§ 184 FORMATION OF words. 159
tº
declension, or end in is, idos, or ias, iados, of the feminine gender,
are used by the Latin poets, – and in prose, also, when well-known
Greek families are spoken of: Priamides, Pelides (Peleus), Aene-
ădes, Alcmaeonidae; Tantalis, Neréis (Nereus), Thestias (Thes-
tius).
§ 184. Substantives which denote a quality are formed from
adjectives, by the following endings: —
1. tas, with the connecting vowel i (itas) affixed to the stem of the
adjective; e.g. bonitas, crudelitas, atrocitas. From adjectives in ius
is formed ietas: e.g. pietas; from those in stus is formed stas: e.g.
venušta S. .
OBS. The following are without a connecting vowel: libertas, pau-
pertas, pubertas, ubertas, facultas, difficultas. Some few substan-
tives of this form are derived from substantives, as auctoritas; or from
verbs, as potestas. To this is allied the ending tus; e.g. virtus,
from vir. g
2. ia, mostly from adjectives and participles of one termination; e.g.
audacia, concordia, inertia, Clementia, abundantia, magnificentia
(from magnificus, like magnificentior), (but also miseria, perfidia, &c.,
and from those in cundus: facundia, iracundia, verecundia; but
jucunditas). -
3. tia (ſtia), from a few adjectives of three terminations; e.g.
malitia, justitia, laetitia, avaritia, pigritia, tristitia. -
OBS. Some of these have also a form in ies; as, mollitia and molli-
ties, usually planities (planus). From pauper, we find pauperies
(commonly paupertas). -
4. tido, affixed to the stem (of adjectives of three or two termina-
tions), with an i; e.g. altitudo, aegritudo, similitudo.
OBs. 1. To some adjective stems in t, udo alone is affixed; e.g. con-
svetudo, sollicitudo. - -
OBs. 2. From some adjectives, there are formed substantives,
both in tas and tudo ; e.g. claritas and claritudo, firmitas and
firmitudo. In such cases, the substantive in tudo is generally the least
used. .
OBs. 3. From dulcis is formed dulcedo (usually in derived signi-
fication, attraction, or charm), (dulcitudo, sweetness, is rare), and from
gravis (subst, gravitas, weight), gravedo, signifying heaviness of the
head, cold. (Torpédo, from torpeo.) Later writers form some addi-
tional substantives in this way; pingvedo (for pingvitudo), pu-
tredo, &c. .
OBs. 4. A more rare and peculiar termination is monia; e.g. sancti-
monia, castimonia, acrimonia. (Parsimonia, frugality, for parcino-
nia, qverinonia, a complaint, from the verb qveror.)
160 LATIN GRAMMAR- § 185
CHAPTER II.
D E R I W A TI O N OF A D J E C T I W E S ,
§ 185. Adjectives are derived partly from verbs, partly from
substantives, and a few from adverbs. From verbs are formed
adjectives with the following endings (besides the participles, which
— both those in ordinary use, and those in bundus, $ 115, g —
may also be included in this class):— *
1. idus (dus with the connecting vowel i), affixed chiefly to the stem
of intransitive verbs in eo, denotes the condition and property which are
expressed by the verb; e.g. calidus, frigidus, tepidus, humidus, ari-
dus, madidus, timidus, from caleo, &c. Some few are formed from
other verbs or from 'substantives, or have no known primitive; e.g.
rapidus, turbidus, lepidus, trepidus, whence trepidare (gravidus,
from gravis).
2. a. ilis (lis with a connecting vowel), affixed to the stems ending
in a consonant, denotes passively the capacity of being the object of an
action: e.g. fragilis, brittle; facilis, what may be done, easy; utilis,
docilis, habilis (doc-eo, hab-eo).
b. This is still oftener expressed by bilis (with the connecting vowel,
ibilis); e.g. amabilis, probabilis, flèbilis (fleo, flevi) voltibilis
(volv-o), credibilis, vendibilis (mobilis, nobilis, from mov-eo, novi,
the v being dropped).
OBs. 1. Some such adjectives have an active signification; e.g. prae-
stabilis, terribilis, causing fright. (Penetrabilis, penetrating, and
penetrable.) -
OBs. 2. Some adjectives in Îlis are formed from the supine, partly
with the signification of a possibility: e.g. fissilis, what may be cleft ;
versatilis, what may be turned ; partly (and chiefly) with the mere sig-
nification of the passive verb (produced by, like the perf. part.): e.g.
fictilis, coctilis, altilis. (Some in bilis also are formed from the su-
pine: comprehensibilis, comprehensible; flexibilis, pliant; plausi-
bilis, commendable.)
3. ax, affixed to the stem, denotes a desire, inclination, most fre-
quently one that is too violent or vicious: e.g. pugnax, audax, edax,
loqvax, rapax (rap-io); sometimes, only the action itself (like the part.
pres.): e.g. minax, threatening ; fallax, deceiving. (Capax, that which
can contain.)
4. Less usual are the endings cundus (capacity, inclination, approach
to an action): e.g. iracundus (ira-scor), facundus (fari), verécundus,
§ 187 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 161
rubicundus (ruddy, rubeo"); iilus (lus with u), denoting either a
simple action, or an inclination to it: e.g. patulus, qverulus, credulus
(garrulus, from garrio); uus, with a passive signification from trans-
itives: e.g. conspicuus, perspicuus, individuus; sometimes (poeti-
cally) with an active sense, from intransitives: e.g. congruus; aneus:
e.g. consentaneus, nearly = consentiens.
§ 186. Adjectives are formed from substantives chiefly with the
following endings, of which some closely resemble each other in
meaning, and cannot in all cases be clearly distinguished.
1. eus denotes the material of which a thing consists; e.g. aureus,
ligneus, cinereus (cinis, ciner-is), igneus, vimineus. It more rarely
denotes something which a thing resembles in its nature; e.g. virgineus
(poet.), maidenlike, roseus (poet.)
OBs. To denote the kind of wood of which a thing is made, the
ending neus or nus is commonly employed; e.g. iligneus, or ilignus,
qverneus, qvernus, populneus (rarely populnus, also populeus),
faginus (connecting vowel i), cedrinus. In the same way we find
eburneus, eburnus, coccinus, coccineus, and adamantinus, chrys-
tallinus. The ending nus also signifies what belongs to a thing or
comes from it; as, paternus, fraternus, maternus, vernus (of spring).
2. Icius (cius with i) denotes the material of which a thing is made,
or that to which a person or thing belongs: e.g. latericius, caement-
icius, tribunicius, aedilicius, gentilicius (relating to the gentiles,
the members of the same gens).
OBs. Sometimes adjectives in icius are derived from the part. perf.
pass. or from the supine, and denote the way in which a thing originates,
and consequently its kind: commenticius, feigned ; collaticius,
effected by contributions; adventicius. (Novicius, from novus.)
3. aceus denotes material or resemblance, or that to which a thing
belongs; e.g. argillaceus, ampullaceus (formed like a bottle), gallin-
a CéliS.
§ 187. Further: — - -
4. Hous (cus with i) denotes to what a thing belongs or relates; e.g.
bellicus, civicus, hosticus. -
OBs. 1. Instead of civicus, hosticus, prose-writers rather use civilis,
hostilis (5), except only in the combinations, corona civica, ager
hosticus. -
OBs. 2. From these must be carefully distinguished the following
words derived from verbs or prepositions: amicus, inimicus, pudicus,
anticus, posticus (apricus, from an uncertain root).
1 Jucundus (juvo), fecundus.
162 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 187
OBS. 3. The belonging to a thing is also expressed by ticus; e.g.
aqvaticus, rusticus, domesticus.
5. ilis denotes what is agreeable to the nature of a thing and resem-
bles it, also what belongs to it; civilis, puerilis, anilis (anus), scur-
rilis, gentilis. (Subtilis of uncertain derivation, but humilis, parilis.)
6. alis has the same signification as ilis, but is far more common;
e.g. naturalis, fatalis, decemviralis, judicialis, mortalis, regalis,
virginalis (liberalis, from the adjective liber). If the ending be pre-
ceded by an 1, or if the last syllable but one before the ending begins or
ends with 1, aris is used instead of alis (compare $ 179, 8, Obs. 1);
e.g. popularis, militaris, palmaris (but pluvialis, fluvialis).
OBS. atilis, what belongs to a thing, is at home in a thing, is suited
to a thing; aqvatilis, fluviatilis, umbratilis.
7. ius denotes a conformity, or belonging to something; e.g. patrius,
regius. It is usually formed from personal names in or; praetorius,
imperatorius, uxorills.
8. inus denotes what belongs to a thing or proceeds from it: e.g.
divinus, marinus, libertinus; particularly from the names of animals:
e.g. ferinus, eqvinus, agninus (e.g. of meat, agnina'). -
OBs. From this termination we must carefully distinguish inus (nus
with a connecting vowel), of the material, especially with the names of
trees and plants (§ 186, 1, Obs.). -
9. anus denotes a resemblance, a belonging to a thing: montânus,
urbanus, rusticanus, meridianus (humanus, from homo); espe-
cially from ordinal numbers, in order to show what belongs to a partic-
ular number: miles primanus, a soldier of the first legion; febris
qvartana, a quarian ague.
10. arius, what concerns or belongs to a thing; agrarius, gregarius,
ordinarius, tumultuarius. (In the masc. it is often used as a sub-
stantive, of a person who occupies himself with any thing. See § 18O, 3.)
From the distributive numerals are formed adjectives in arius, in order
to denote that a thing bears a particular relation to a certain number:
e.g. nummus denarius, a coin which contains ten asses; senex
septuagenarius, an old man of Seventy, &c.; numerus ternarius, the
number three. (The following are formed from adverbs: adversarius,
contrarius, temerarius; necessarius, from necesse.)
11. Ivus, what belongs or is adapted to a thing; festivus, furtivus
(furtum), aestivus (irregularly from aestas). Affixed to participles,
it denotes (like icius) the way in which a thing has originated; e.g.
nativus, sativus, captivus.
* Bubulus, Ovillus, suillus.
§ 189 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVEs. I63
§ 188. Further: —
12. Ösus denotes the property of being full of a thing; ingeniosus,
calamitosus, libidinosus, lapidosus, damnosus, periculosus (ambi-
tiosus, superstitiosus, from ambition-is, superstition-is, omitting the
n; laboriosus). From substantives of the fourth declension there is
formed uosus; e.g. Baltuosus.
13. tilentus (lentus with a connecting vowel; after n and i, olentus),
full of a thing, connected with a thing; e.g. fraudulentus, turbulentus,
sangvinolentus, violentus. -
14. The ending atus (formed like a participle of the first conjugation)
denotes what a thing has, or is provided with, and forms a great number
of adjectives: e.g. barbatus, calceatus; falcatus, set with sickles,
sometimes, formed like a sickle ; virgatus, Striped; auratus, gilt ;
togatus. *
OBs. 1. From substantives in is, gen. is, is derived the form itus:
e.g. auritus, crinitus (all poetical or of more recent date; also mel-
litus from mel, galeritus from galerus); from words of the fourth
declension are formed a few in Titus: as, cornitus, astütus (nasūtus,
from nasus, 2), but arcuatus (arqvatus).
OBS. 2. With tus are also formed onustus, robustus, venustus,
funestus, scelestus, honestus, modestus, molestus.
15. Less important endings are timus (legitimus), ensis (belonging
to a particular place; castrensis, forensis), ester (campester,
eqvester).
OBs. 1. From some substantives in or, which are derived from verbs
(§ 177, 1), the poets form adjectives in Örus: canorus, odorus (odor,
from oleo); decorus (decet) is used in prose.
OBs. 2. From some adjectives are formed diminutives according to
the rules given above (§ 182) for the substantives; parvulus, aureolus,
pulchellus, misellus, pauperculus, leviculus (parvus, aureus,
pulcher, miser, pauper, levis). Bellus (bonus), novellus (novus),
and paullum (parvus) are formed irregularly.
OBs, 3. From adverbs of time and place are formed adjectives which
express the property of belonging to a certain time or place, — some of
them with peculiar derivative endings, and with a number of irregulari-
ties in the several words: as, in inus (peregrinus, from peregre;
repentinus, matutinus, intestinus; clandestinus, from clam); timus
(diutinus, pristinus); rnus (hodiernus, diurnus, nocturnus, from
diu, in its earlier meaning, by day, and noctu); ternus (sempiternus,
hesternus from heri); icus (posticus).
§ 189. Adjectives are formed from proper names according to
special rules. Of adjectives derived from the names of men and
families it is to be observed : —
164 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 190
1. The names of Roman families (gentes) in ius are properly adjec-
tives (Fabius, gens Fabia), and are used, as such, of a man's works or
undertakings, so far as they pertain to the community or state; e.g. lex
Cornelia, Julia, via Appia, circus Flaminius. Any thing else that
relates to a member of a gens, and is named after him, is expressed by
adjectives in anus derived from the name; e.g. bellum Marianum,
classis Pompejana.
2. From Roman surnames are formed adjectives in ianus, to indicate
what relates to a man, or is named after him: e.g. Ciceronianus,
Caesarianus; more rarely in anus from some in a . e.g. Sullanus;
and from some few in us: e.g. Gracchanus (more usual forms are
Lepidianus, Lucullianus, &c.); also rarely in inus: e.g. Verrinus,
Plautinus.
OBs. Some few adjectives, which have become surnames, are partly
used as adjectives applying to the family and the individual (domus
Augusta, portus Trajanus), partly have new adjectives derived from
them, as Augustanus. By the poets and later writers, adjectives in
eus were formed from Roman names; as, Caesareus, Romuleus (even
gens Romula).
3. From Greek proper names, the two Greek forms in éus (ius,
etos) and icus are made use of, of some both forms, but of others one
only, or at least chiefly; e.g. Aristotelius, Epicureus, Platonicus,
Demosthenicus.
§ 190. From the names of towns, adjectives are formed in Latin
with the endings anus, inus, as, ensis, which express what belongs
to the town, and are at the same time used as substantives to denote
the inhabitants (nomina gentilicia). These Latin adjectives are
formed also from many Greek towns (or towns known to the
Romans through the Greeks), but not from all.
1. anus is used with names ending in a, ae, um, i. e.g. Romanus,
Formianus (Formiae), Tusculanus (Tusculum), Fundanus
(Fundi); also with some Greek names in a and ae: e.g. Trojanus,
Syracusanus, Thebanus, and some others, which have also in Greek an
adjective in anus: e.g. Trallianus (Tralles).
OBs. From the names of towns, which form a Greek word in ites
(itmg) to express the name of the inhabitants, adjectives are formed in
Latin in itanus; e.g. Tyndaritanus (Tyndaris), Panormitanus
(Panormus), Neapolitanus (and so from all in polis). (Gaditanus,
from Gades.)
2. inus, with names ending in ia and ium : e.g. Amerinus (Ame-
ria), Lanuvinus (Lanuvium), (Praenestinus, Reatinus, from Prae-
§ 191 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 165.
neste, Reate); and with various Greek names, which have inus also in
the Greek: e.g., Centuripinus, Tarentinus, Agrigentinus.
3. as (gen. atis), with some in a, ae, and um (mostly na, nae, and
num); e.g. Capénas (Capena), Fidenas (Fidenae), Arpinas,
Urbinas, Antias. (Never with Greek towns.)
4. ensis, with names in o, and some in a, ae, um: e.g. Sulmonensis,
Tarraconensis, Bononiensis (Bononia), Cannensis (Cannae),
Ariminensis (Ariminum), (Carthaginiensis, Crotoniensis); and with
Greek names of towns, from which the names of the inhabitants are
formed in evs (tévg, iensis): e.g. Patrensis, Chalcidensis, Laodi-
censis, Nicomedensis, Thespiensis, with some others (Atheniensis).
OBS. 1. In some rare instances, eus is retained from evg: e.g. Cittieus,
for Cittiensis; Halicarnasseus, for Halicarnassensis.
OBS. 2. The following adjectives, derived from the names of towns,
are irregular in their form : Tiburs, Camers, Caeres, Vejens.
5. The Greek adjectives in ius (tos), formed from the names of
towns and islands (in us, um, and Ön, with some others), are retained
in Latin: e.g. Corinthius, Rhodius, Byzantius, Lacedaemonius,
Clazomenius (Clazomenae), (Aegyptius, from the name of the coun-
try, Aegyptus); so also those in énus: e.g. Cyzicenus; sometimes
also those in aeus: e.g. Smyrnaeus, Erythraeus (Cumanus in prose,
Cumaeus in poetry, and so with several others).
OBs. The Latin writers also occasionally retain the Greek names
of the inhabitants in tes (ätes, ites, 5tes); e.g. Abderites, Spartia-
tes (adj. Spartanus), Tegeates (adj. Tegeaeus), Heracleotes.
§ 191. The names of nations are often themselves adjectives,
formed with the endings given in the preceding paragraphs;
e.g.:-
Romanus, Latinus (from Latium), Sabinus (without a primitive),
and in scus or cus (Oscus, Volscus, Etruscus, Graecus); in this case,
they are used as genuine adjectives to express whatever concerns and be-
longs to the people (bellum Latinum, &c.). From other national names,
which are pure substantives, are formed adjectives in icus, and from the
Greek (or such as were adopted from the Greeks) also in ius; e.g. Itali-
cus, Gallicus, Marsicus, Arabicus, Syrius, Thracius, Cilicius (Italus,
Gallus, Marsus, Arabs, Syrus, Thrax, Cilix). Of individuals, how-
ever, such expressions are used as miles Gallus, &c., not Gallicus;
and the poets use and even decline as adjectives national names in us,
which are otherwise substantives: e.g. orae Italae (Virg.); aper Mar-
sus, flumen Medum (Hor. for Medicum), Colcha venena.
OBs. 1. In the same way, we read, in the poets, flumen Rhenum,
for flumen Rhemus. (Mare Oceanum, Caes.)
166. - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 193
Obs. 2. Concerning the use of the Greek feminine national names and
adjectives in is and as, in the Latin poets, see, under Rules for Inflec-
tion, § 60, Obs. 5. They also employ the Greek feminines of some
national names ending in ssa (Cilissa, Cressa, Libyssa, Phoenissa,
Threissa, or Thressa) both as substantives and adjectives; e.g. Cressa
pharetra (Virg.).
§ 192. From the names of countries (which are regularly formed
from the national names by the ending ia; Italia, Gallia, Graecia,
Cilicia, Phrygia), adjectives are sometimes again formed to denote
what is in the country (not the people) or comes out of it; e.g.
pecunia Siciliensis, exercitus Hispaniensis, the Roman army in
Spain. (Africanus, Asiaticus.)
Obs. 1. We must notice some names of countries in ium (like names
of towns): e.g. Latium, Samnium; with some of Greek origin in us
(Aegyptus, Epirus).
OBs. 2. There are several names of nations, from which no names of
countries are formed, but the same word is used to designate both : e.g.
in Aeqvis, Sabinis, Bruttiis habitare, hiemare; in Bruttios ire; ex
Sequamis exercitum educere.
CHAPTER TIT.
D E R IV A TI O N O F W E R B So
§ 193. Verbs are derived from substantives, from adjectives, and
from other verbs.
a. Many transitive verbs are derived from substantives by sim-
ply affixing to the stem the endings of the first conjugation. These
verbs signify to exercise and employ on something that which is
denoted by the substantive; e.g. fraudare, honorare, laudare, nu-
merare, turbare, onerare, vulnerare, --
OBS. 1. In the formation of such verbs, a preposition is sometimes
prefixed; e.g. exaggerare, to heap up (agger; aggerare is rare and
poet.); exstirpare, to root out (stirps). See Rules for the Composi-
tion of Words, $206, b, 2. F
OBs. 2. In a few instances, intransitive verbs are formed by this mode
of derivation; e.g. laborare, militare, from labor, miles.
OBS. 3. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation:
e.g. finire, vestire, custodire, punire (finis, vestis, custos, poena);
§ 195 - DERIVATION OF VERBS. 167
the intransitive servire; a few intransitives after the second; e.g. floreo,
frondeo (flos, frons).
b. In the same way are formed from substantives (and adjectives)
a great number of deponents of the first conjugation, mostly with
an intransitive signification (to be something, behave like something,
occupy one's self with something, &c.); e.g. : —
Philosophor, to be a philosopher, philosophize (philosophus); grae-
cor, to act or live like a Greek (Graecus); aqvor, to fetch water (aqva);
piscor, to fish (piscis); negotior, to traffic (negotia); laetor, to be joy-
jul (laetus); far less frequently with a transitive signification: e.g. in-
terpretor, to interpret, explain (interpres, an interpreter); osculor, to
Kiss (osculum, a kiss); furor, to steal (fur, a thief), &c. (Partior,
sortior, from pars, sors.)
OBs. The following have peculiar derivative endings: navigo (litigo,
mitigo), and latrocinor (patrocinor, vaticinor).
§ 194. Transitive verbs are formed from adjectives (mostly from
those of the first and second declension) by adding the endings of
the first conjugation; first, with the signification, to make a thing
what the adjective denotes; and, secondly, with a signification often
modified in various ways: —
Maturare, to make ripe, to hasten; levare, to make smooth (lévis);
ditare, to enrich (dives); honestare, to honor; probare, to approve.
Such verbs have rarely an intransitive signification: e.g. nigrare, to be
black ; concordare, to be agreed; propinqvare, to draw near ; durare
(trans.) to harden, (intrans.) to endure.
OBS. 1. A preposition sometimes enters into the composition of such
transitive verbs: e.g. dealbare, to whiten (albus); exhilarare, to cheer
(hilarus). (Compare $ 206, b, 2.) (Memoro, propinquo, are com-
monly commemoro, appropinquo, in the best prose.)
OBS. 2. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation:
e.g. lenire, mollire, stabilire (lenis, mollis, stabilis); and some intran-
sitives: e.g. superbire, ferocire (superbus, ferox; the deponent blan-
dior, from blandus); some few intransitives, after the second: e.g.
albeo, to be white; caneo, to be gray.
§ 195. From verbs are derived new verbs with a signification
somewhat varied in the following ways: —
1. By the ending ito (itäre, 1st) are derived verbs which denote a
frequent repetition of an action, frequentative verbs. The ending is
affixed to the stem of verbs of the first conjugation, and to the stem of
the Supine of verbs of the third, and those of which the supine is simis
168 LATIN GRAMMAR. * § 197
larly formed; e.g. clamſto, rogito, minitor (minor), dictito, cursito,
haesito (haereo), visito (video), ventito (venio).
OBS. From ago, qvaero, nosco (3d), are formed agito, qvaerito,
noscito, as from verbs of the first conjugation. Latito, pavito, pol-
licitor, from lateo, paved, polliceor (2d).
2. The repetition of an action is also expressed by simply affixing the
ending of the first conjugation to the stem of supines formed according
to the third; e.g. curso (cursare), merso, adjuto (adjutum), tutor
(tutus, from tueor), amplexor (amplexus, from amplector), Íto
(itum). Most of these verbs, however, denote, not a simple repetition,
but a new idea of an action, in which a repetition of the original action
is implied: e.g. dicto, dictare, to dictate (dico, to say); pulso, to
beat (pello, to thrust); qvasso, to break to pieces (qvatio, to shake);
tracto, to handle (traho, to draw); salto, to dance (salio, to leap,
skip); capto, to snatch at (capio, to lay hold of). (Canto, to sing,
from cano, to sing and play; gesto, to carry, from gero, to carry,
achieve.)
OBS. Habito, licitor, from habeo, liceor, 2d.
§ 196. 3. The ending sco (scere, 3d) is affixed to the stem (in
the second conjugation retaining the e, in the third with the con-
necting vowel i) to form inchoative verbs, which denote the begin-
ning of an action or condition. By far the greater number of
inchoatives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation, and
often have a preposition prefixed at the same time: e.g. labasco,
to begin to stagger (labare); calesco, to grow warm ; and inca-
lesco (caleo), exardesco, effloresco (ardeo, floreo, not exardeo or
effloreo), ingemisco, to sigh over (gemo); obdormisco, to fall
asleep (dormio).
Besides the inchoatives derived from verbs, many are formed in esco
from adjectives (inchoativa nominalia); e.g. maturesco, nigresco,
mitesco (maturus, niger, mitis). See the Rules for Inflection, § 141.
A few are formed from substantives: e.g. puerasco, from puer; ignes-
cere, from ignis, to take fire.
OBs. Concerning verbs in sco (scor), which have an inchoative mean-
ing, see § 140 and 142.
§ 197. 4. The ending tirio (urire, 4th), added to the stem of the
supine, forms desideratives, which express an inclination to a thing:
e.g. esurio, to have a desire to eat, to be hungry; empturio, to wish
to buy; parturio, to be in labor. There are, however, only a few
such verbs; and they are little used, except esurio and parturio.
OBS. Ligürio, scaturio, &c., are not desideratives.
§ 198 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 169
5. The termination illo (illare, 1st), added to the stem, forms some
few diminutive verbs; e.g. cantillo, to quaver, from cano.
6. From some intransitive verbs there are formed, by a change of the
conjugation, — sometimes, also, by a change in the quantity of the radical
syllable, – transitive verbs, which signify the causing of that which is
denoted by the intransitive. From fugio, to fly; jaceo, to lie ; pended,
to hang, weigh (intrans.); liqveo, to be clear, fluid, – come fugo (1st),
to cause to fly; jacio, to throw ; pendo, to weigh (by hanging up); liqvo
(1st), to clarify. From cado, to fall; sédeo, to sit, — come caedo, to
fell; sédo (1st), to pacify.
OBS. The signification is otherwise altered in sido, to sink; assido, to
seat one's self; sedeo, to sit; assideo, to sit by. See also under cubo,
§ 119.
CHAPTER IV.
D E R I V A. T I O N OF A D W E R B S .
§ 198. Adverbs are derived from adjectives (numerals), substan-
tives (pronouns), and the noun forms of verbs (participles and
supines), rarely from other adverbs or prepositions.
Adverbs, which express a way or manner, are derived from adjec-
tives, by the endings 6 (0), and ter.
a. The ending 5 is affixed to the stem of adjectives and partici-
ples used adjectively (perf.) of the first and second declension; e.g.
probé, modeste, libere, aegre (aeger, aegri), docte, ornate.
OBs. 1. From bonus is formed bené (of the é, see § 19, 2); from vali-
dus, valde.
OBs. 2. From some adjectives and participles of the second declen-
sion, there are formed adverbs in 5 (abl.); as, tutó, crebrö, neces-
sario, consulto. From certus are formed both certö and certe, which
are generally used alike: certe scio and certo comperi (for certain);
certe eveniet, it will certainly happen; and nihil ita exspectare quasi
certo futurum. But, in the signification, at least, we always find
certe."
b. The ending ter is affixed to the stem of adjectives and participles
of the third declension (with the connecting vowel i): e.g. graviter, acri-
.1 The others in o which are used in good writers are arcano, cito, continuo, falso,
fortuito, gratuito, liqvido, manifesto, perpetuo, precario, raro (rare, thinly,
far apart), secreto, sedulo, serio, sero, auspicato, directo, festinato, necopi-
nato, improviso, merito (according to one’s deserts); and immerito, Optato, Sor-
tito (according to lot); further, primo, Secundo, &c. See § 199, Obs. 2.
170 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 199
ter (acer, acris), feliciter (audacter is preferred to audaciter); but
if the stem ends in t, one tis omitted: e.g. sapienter (instead of sapient-
ter), amanter, solerter.
OBS. 1. From hilarus and hilaris are formed hilare and hilariter;
from opulens and opulentus opulenter.
OBS. 2. From some adjectives in us, there is formed, besides the adverb
in e, another in ter: e.g. humane and humaniter, firme and firmiter;
especially from those in lentus: e.g. luculente and luculenter. (Al-
ways violenter, usually gnaviter.) -
OBs. 3. From difficilis, alius, and neqvam, are formed difficulter,
aliter, neqviter. From brevis is formed breviter, briefly; and brevi,
shortly, in a short time ; from proclivis proclivi (proclive), down-
wards.
c. From some adjectives, no proper adverb is formed, but the neuter
(accus.) serves as an adverb. This is the case with facile (but difficul-
ter, recens (lately), sublime (on high), multum, plurimum, paullum,
nimium (but oftener nimis), tantum, qvantum, ceterum, plerumqve,
potissimum.
OBs. (Commodum, in the nick of time; commode, suitably.) On
the use of neuter adjectives for adverbs by the poets, see Syntax, $ 302.
§ 199. From the cardinal numbers are formed adverbs, which,
with the exception of the four first, end in ies; e, o, em, im, inta,
um and i being dropped before the ending. These are the follow-
ing: —
semel, once (not allied to unus) septies decies
big, twice (from duo, by a change duodevicies, or octies decies
in the pronunciation) undevicies, or movies decies
ter vicies
qvater semel et vicies or vicies semel
qvingvies (older form, qvin- (not semel vicies) (vicies et
qviens) semel)
sexies (sexiens, &c.) bis et vicies or vicies bis (vicies
septies et bis, &c.) -
octies tricies
Ilovies qvadragies, &c.
decies centies
undecies Centies tricies, or centies et tri-
duodecies cies, &c. -
terdecies, or tredecies ducenties *
qvaterdecies, or quattuordecies millies (bis. millies, decies mil-
qvingviesdecies, or quindecies lies, centies millies, &c.)
sexies decies, or sedecies
§ 201 IXERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 171
OBS. 1. To these adverbs correspond the pronominal adverbs toties
so often ; quoties, how often ? (See § 201, 4.)
OBS. 2. From the ordinals are formed adverbs in um and o, which are
employed to signify, for which time: e.g. tertium consul, consul for the
third time ; quartum consul (eo anno lectisternium, qvinto post
conditam urbem, habitum est, Liv. VIII. 25); or, in enumerations:
primum, in the first place; tertium, thirdly. For the first time, first, is
generally expressed by primum ; primo usually signifies, in the begin-
ning, from the beginning. For the second time, is expressed by iterum
(secundum is not used); instead of secundo, secondly, the Latins
more frequently say deinde, tum. For the remaining numbers, the forms
in um are the most usual, particularly in the signification of a certain
number of times. For the last time, is expressed by ultimum (postre-
mum, extremum); now for the last time, hoc ultimum; then for the
last time, illud ultimum.
§ 200. a. Some adverbs are formed from substantives by means
of the ending ſtus, to denote a proceeding from something: e.g.
funditus, from the foundation ; radicitus. The following are
formed in the same way from adjectives: antiqvitus, from times
of yore ; divinitus, by divine ordering ; humanitus, after the man-
ner of men.
b. By atim (as if from supines of the first conjugation) adverbs are
formed from substantives and adjectives, denoting in this or that way;
e.g. catervatim, gregatim, gradatim; vicatim, by streets, from street
to street; singulatim, severally; privatim, as an individual.
OBs. The following are formed without a tribiitim, by tribes ; viri-
tim, man by man ; furtim (fur), ubertim (uber).
c. By the termination im, adverbs are formed from the supine, to
denote the way and manner: e.g. caesim, punctim, by striking, by
stabbing; carptim, by snatches; separatim, separately; passim, here and
there (scattered, and without order, pando). (Mordicus, with the teeth,
from mordeo, is formed quite irregularly).
§ 201. From the pronouns are formed adverbs, which denote
place, time, degree, number, manner, and cause, and have the same
power of expressing the relation of things which the pronouns have.
For each idea (of place, time, &c.) there are formed correlative
adverbs corresponding to the different classes of pronouns, – de-
monstrative, relative, and interrogative, indefinite relative, and
indefinite. The relative adverbs connect the sentence to which they
belong with another, and are conjunctions: the adverbs of place
172 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 201
differ according as they signify remaining in a place, or motion to a
place, from a place, or on a certain road.
1. Adverbs of place : —
a. (in a place) demonstr. ibi, there; hic, here; istic, there, there by
you ; illic, there ; ibidem, in that same place; alibi, elsewhere : relative
and interrogative, ubi, where; where? indefinite relative, ubicunqve,
ubiubi, wherever: indefinite, alicubi, uspiam, usqvam, anywhere (nus-
qvam, nowhere; utrobiqve, in both places): indefinite universal, ubi-
vis, ubiqve, ubilibet, in any place you will, everywhere.
b. (to a place) demonstr. eo, thither (huc, istuc, and isto, illuc and
illo, eodem, alio); relative and interrogative, qvo (utro, of two);
indefinite relative, quocumqve, qvoqvo; indefinite, aliqvo, usqvam
(nusqvam, utröqve); indefinite universal, qvovis, qvolibet.
c. (from a place) demonstr. inde, thence (hinc, istinc, illinc, indi-
dem, aliunde); relative and interrog., unde ; indef, relative, undecun-
qve (rarely undeunde); indefinite, alicunde (utrinqve); indefinite
universal, undīqve, undelibet.
d. (on the road) demonstr., ea, on that road (hac, istac, illā, and
illac, eadem, aliã); relative and interrogative, qvā; indefinite relative,
qvacunqve (q.vaqva); indefinite, aliqvā; indefinite universal, qvavis,
qvalibet.
2. Adverbs of time: demonstr., tum, then (tunc); interrogative,
qvando, when 2 (ecqvando, whether ever?); relative, qvum, when, as ;
indefinite relative, qvamdocumqve, qvamdāqve, whenever; indefinite,
aliqvando, once (q.vandoqve, rarely quandocumqve), unqvam, ever
(nunqvam, never).
OBs. 1. In place of the indefinite pronominal adverbs derived from
aliqvis (alicubi, &c.), shorter forms, derived from quis, are used after
the conjunctions ne, num, si, and nisi, which are the same as the longer
forms with the removal of ali: e.g. necubi, that nowhere; neqvo, ne-
cunde, ne qua, ne quando.
OBs. 2. Ubicunqve, qvocungve, undecungve (undeunde), rarely
occur without a relative signification, as indefinite words expressing uni-
versality. *
3. Adverbs of degree: demonstr., tam, so (so very); relative and
interrogative, qvam, as, how 2 indefinite relative, qvamvis, qvamlibet,
how much soever.
4. Adverbs of number: demonstr., toties, so often ; relative .
and interrogative, qvoties (so often) as, how often ? indefinite
relative, qvotiescunqve, how often soever; indefinite, aliqvoties, some-
times.
5. Adverbs which express way and manner: demonstr., ita, sic, so, in
this way (corresponding to is and hic); relative and interrogative, ut,
§ 203 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 173
uti, as, how 2 (qvi, how 2); indef, relative, utounqve (utut). (In later
writers, qvaliter, rarely taliter.) -
6. Adverbs of the cause: demonstr., eo, therefore; relative, qvod
qvia, because; interrogative, cur, wherefore?
From these adverbs, others are again formed by composition; e.g.
eatenus, qvatenus, &c. (See § 202, Obs.)
§ 202. Some adverbs are yet to be noticed, which denote rela-
tions of place. -
a. In o (as in eo, qvo, &c.), from prepositions (or adverbs), to
express motion to a place; citro, ultro (to that side; then, of one's
own accord, into the bargain), intro, porro (forwards, further, from
pro), retro (re).
b. In orsum, orsus, oversum, oversus (from versus), to denote
a direction to one side, from pronouns and prepositions; horsum,
qvorsum, aliorsum, aliqvoversum, qvoqvoversus, prorsum, for-
wards (prorsus, completely, throughout), retrorsum (rursum, rursus,
again), introrsum, sursum (from sub), deorsum, seorsum. (Dex-
trorsum, sinistrorsum.) (Extrinsecus, from without, intrinsecus,
Jrom within, are opposites.)
c. fariam, in — places, in —parts, from numerals; bifariam, quadri-
fariam, (multifariam). - - -
OBs. Some of the remaining derivative adverbs are substantives in
a certain case (sometimes in an obsolete form), used with a special
meaning: e.g. partim (old accusative from pars), forte (fors),
temperi, vesperi, noctu (nox; interdiu, by day), mane, foris (esse,
out of the house, from home), foras (ire, out of doors). Others are
compounds of a case and a governing word; e.g. hactenus, qvemad-
modum (intérea, praetereà, proptereà, anteå, posteå, with an unusual
construction). In nudiustertius, the day before yesterday, nudius-
qvartus, nudiusqvintus, &c., words grammatically connected are
fused into one by the pronunciation (nunc dies tertius, qvartus, &c.,
viz. est).
CHAPTER V.
THE FORMATION OF NEW WORDS BY COMPOSITION.
§ 203. By composition two words are formed into a new com-
pound word (verbum compositum, as opposed to verbum simplex),
the meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the two com-
pounded words.
174. - LATIN GRAMMAR. . § 204
If two words are used in a fixed order to denote a single idea,
but are yet syntactically combined as separate words, each with its
proper grammatical form, the composition is termed spurious. Such
compounds are formed from a substantive and adjective, which are
both declined: e.g. respublica, the state ; jusjurandum, an oath
($ 53); or, from a genitive and a governing word: e.g. senatus-
eonsultum, verisimilis. The words thus connected may occasion-
ally be separated, especially by que and ve; resqve publica,
senatusve consulta (res vero publica).
OBS. Even in genuine compounds of a verb (or participle) with a
preposition or the negative in, the older poets occasionally separate
the particle from the verb by qve: e.g. inqve ligatus, for illigatus-
que, bound up (Virg.); inqve salutatus, for insalutatusqve, un-
greeted (Virg.); so also hactenus, eatenus, qvadamtenus, by a word
interposed: e.g. quadam prodire tenus (Hor.). In prose, this
separation (tmesis)" is sometimes used with the intensive per: e.g. per
mihi mirum visum est; pergratum perqve jucundum, with an
unaccented word in the middle. (On qvicunqve, qvilibet, see § 87,
Obs. 2.) &
§ 204. The first part of the compound may be a noun (substan-
tive, adjective, or numeral), an adverb, a preposition, or one of
those particles which occur only in composition as prefixes. These
are the following:—
Amb, round (round about), dis, on different sides (from each other,
tn two), ré (réd), back (again), sé, aside, which denote the local
relations of the action, and are commonly named inseparable preposi-
tions (e.g. ambédere, to eat round about ; discerpere, to tear in pieces ;
récedere, to retreat; sécedere, to go aside); and the negative particle in
(in-, un-). Some verbs, mostly intransitive, are found as the first
member of a compound, with facere; e.g. calefacio.
OBS. 1. Amb is altered into am in amplector, amputo; into an
before c (q): e.g. anceps, and viro. (Anfractus, anhelo.)
Dis remains unaltered before c (q), p, t (discedo, disqviro, dis-
puto, distraho), and before s with a vowel following (dissolvo);
before f the s is assimilated (differo, diffringo); before the other con-
sonants it is changed to di (dido, digero, dimitto, dinumero, diripio,
discindo, disto, divello; but disjicio, properly disicio; dijungo, and
sometimes disjungo); this di is long, but in dirimo, from disemo, the
preposition is short. (Otherwise dis is not used before vowels.)
*Tnesis, a cutting, from Téuvø, to cut.
§ 205 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 175
Re before vowels becomes red (redarguo, redeo, redigo, redoleo,
redundo, redhibeo). (So also seditio, from se and eo; in no other
instance is se used before a vowel.) Re is short, but (in verse) is
lengthened in recido, religio, reliqviae (rarely in reduco). In the
perfect of reperio, repello, refero, and retundo, the first consonant
of the verb was pronounced (and in older times also written) double;
repperi, reppuli, rettuli, rettudi (from the reduplicated pepuli, &c.).
OBS. 2. The negative in is only compounded with adjectives and
adverbs, and with some few participles, which have assumed altogether
the character of adjectives: e.g. incultus, uncultivated; indoctus,
unlearned ; and with substantives, in order to form negative adjectives
or substantives: e.g. informis, shapeless, ugly, from forma; infannis
(fama); injuria, injury, from jus. It is varied before consonants like
the preposition in. (Some compounds of participles with the negat, ve
in must be carefully distinguished from the participles which resemble
them, from verbs compounded with the preposition in : e.g. infectus,
wndone (in and factus); and infectus, dyed (inficio); indictus, not
said; and indictus, ordered, imposed (indico). In good style, how-
ever, the negative compound of the participle is rarely used when the
verb is found compounded with in ; so that, e.g. immixtus signifies
only mixed (immisceo); infractus, broken (infringo); but unmiaced,
wnbroken, are expressed by non mixtus, non fractus.)
OBs. 3. Ve (of rare occurrence) has also a negative signification in
vécors, vēgrandis, vésanus. In some compounds ne (nec) is made
use of; e.g. néqveo, néfas (nécopinatus, négotium)."
OBS. 4. It is only in composition that we find sesqvi, one and a half;
e.g. sesqvipes (whence sesqvipedalis). Semi, from semis (gen.
semissis), is used in compounds to denote half.
§ 205. a. If the first member be a noun, the second is affixed to
its stem (omitting the inflectional endings, and a and u in the first,
second, and fourth declensions). If the second member begins with
a consonant, the connecting vowel i is often inserted; e.g. causidi-
cus, magnanimus, corniger, aedifico, lucifuga. (Naufragus with
a diphthong from navis, frango.) -
OBS. 1. In some words, however, the connecting vowel is not em-
ployed; e.g. puerpera (puer, pario), muscipula (mus, capio).
Hence the final consonant of the first member has been dropped in the
pronunciation of some words; e.g. lapicida (lapis, lapid-is, and
caedo), homicida (homin-is). (Opifex, from opus, facio).
* Ne is short in neqveo and nefas, and the words allied to it (nefarius, nefandus,
nefastus), long in other words (neqvam, neqvitia, neqvaqvam, neqvicqvam,
nedum). Nec is short. -
176. LATIN GRAMMAR. § 206
ORs. 2. The connecting vowel o (u) is rare: ahenobarbus, brazen-
beard ; Trojugena.
OBs. 3. For the adverbs formed from adjectives, the stem of the ad-
jectives is used, except bene and male (svaviloqvus, but beneficus).
b. In the radical syllable of the second member of a compound word,
the vowels á and ae are more frequently, but not always, changed
according to $ 5, c.; and the same is true of e in the open radical syllable
of some verb-stems (see the examples in Chaps. XVII., XVIII., XIX.,
XX.); inimicus (amicus), inermus (arma). (A is altered to u
before l; e.g. calco, inculco.)
OBs. Exceptions, like permáneo, contråho, perfrémo, inhaereo,
may be seen elsewhere; concăvus.
c. The compound word generally retains the grammatical form of the
last member, if it belongs to the same class of words; e.g. inter-rex,
dis-similis, per-ficio. Yet substantives and verbs sometimes vary.
See e.
d. If the compound word belongs to a different class of words from
the last member, a suitable grammatical form is given to the stem of the
latter: e.g. maledicus, from male and dico; opifex, from opus and
facio (fac), with the nominative ending s.
OBS. Sometimes, however, the ending of a substantive is suitable to
the adjective compounded from it: as, crassipes, from crassus and pes;
discolor, from dis and color.
e. Sometimes a particular derivative ending is affixed, corresponding
to the signification of the new word, so that it is formed at once by
composition and derivation: e.g. exardesco, from ex and ardeo, with
the inchoative form; latifundium, from latus and fundus; Trans-
alpinus, from trans Alpes.
§ 206. The compound words may be referred to various classes
according to the various ways in which the compound signification
is deduced from the meaning of the simple words. These are: –
a. Composita determinativa, in which the first word defines the
meaning of the last more exactly after the manner of an adjective
or adverb. In this way prepositions, prefixes, and adjectives are set
before substantives: as, cognomen, interrex, dedecus, injuria, nefas,
viviradix; more frequently prepositions, prefixes, and adverbs are put
before adjectives or verb-stems, in order to form adjectives: e.g. sub-
rusticus, somewhat clownish ; consimilis, tercentum, beneficus,
altisènus. (Exinde, desuper.) A great class of verbs especially is
thus compounded with prepositions (also with amb, dis, re, se), (see
Chaps. XVII., XVIII., XIX., XX.); rarely with adverbs (maledico,
§ 206 FORMATION OF WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 177
satisfacio). (Subirascor, subvereor, to become a little angry, to be a
little afraid.)
OBS. 1. The composition of a verb already compounded with a new
preposition (by which a vocab. decompositum is formed) is not com-
mon in Latin, except with super; e.g. superimpendo. (Recondo,
abscondo, assurgo, Consurgo, deperdo, dispereo, recognosco, since
condo, surgo, perdo, pereo, and cognosco are considered as simple
verbs; repercutio, repromitto, subinvideo, to envy a little. A few
others are found in inferior writers.) -
OBS. 2. Some substantives of this class take the ending ium, and
denote a collection, a portion; e.g. latifundium (lati fundi), cavae-
dium, triennium (biduum, triduum, qvatriduum, from dies). From
sexviri (seviri), the sia'men (as a board), and similar words, comes the
singular sexvir, &c., of a member of such a fraternity. (Duumvir,
triumvir, plur. duoviri, tresviri, and duumviri, triumviri.)
b. Composita constructa, in which one member is considered as
grammatically governed by the other: they are divided again into two
classes.
1. The first member is a substantive, or a word put for a substantive,
which may generally be conceived of as an accusative (object), sometimes
as an ablative, governed by the second member, which is a verb. In
this way are formed especially substantives, mostly personal names
(without an ending affixed, or with the nominative ending s, or in a, us):
e.g. signifer (signum fero), agricola, opifex, causidicus, tubicen
(tubă cano), tibioen (for tibiicen), funambulus (in fune ambulo);
also neuters in ium, naufragium, and some adjectives: e.g. magnificus;
with others in ficus, letifer, and verbs: e.g. belligero, animadverto,
tergiversor (with a frequentative form, and as a deponent), amplifico,
aedifico, gratificor, from facio.
OBs. 1. In stillicidium, gallicinium, the first member is to be con-
sidered as a genitive governed by the verb (stillarum casus).
OBs. 2. Compounds are formed in a similar way from an intransitive
verb-stem and facio; e.g. calefacio, to cause to be warm (caleo, to
warm); tremefacio, expergefacio, to awake (trans.); assvefacio, to
accustom to a thing." (Condocefacio, commonefacio, perterrefacio,
from transitive verbs, only express the agency more emphatically.)
2. The first member is a preposition, the second a substantive or a
word put for a substantive, which is to be conceived of as governed by the
preposition. Thus are formed, – 1. adjectives: e.g. intercus (aqva),
particularly by adding the endings anus, inus, aneus (e.g. ante-
signanus, Transpadanus, suburbanus, Transtiberinus, circum-
1 For the sake of the versification, the poets sometimes have tepēfacio, liqvéfit, &c.,
instead of tepēfacio, liqvěfit, &c.
12
178 . - LATIN GRAMMAR. $206
foraneus); 2. verbs of the first, more rarely of the fourth, conjugation,
which denote to bring into a given relation: e.g. segregare (to bring
away from the grex), insinuare (in sinum), irretire (in rete),
erudire (to bring out of rudeness). The verbs, however, which are so
formed with ex, often denote only to make into something: e.g. effemi-
nare, explanare, efferare (§ 193, Obs. 1, § 194, Obs. 1). -
c. Composita possessiva, which are adjectives compounded of an
adjective (numeral, participle), a substantive, or a preposition, for their
first member, and a substantive for their second, and denote in what way.
some subject has that which is expressed by the last member of the
compound word: e.g. crassipes (one that has thick feet, thickfoot, thick-
footed), qvadripes, alipes (wingfooted), trimestris (three-monthly,
what has three months), concolor (of a like color), concors, affinis
(that which has its boundary on something); decolor (that which has no
color, colorless), exsors (for which there is no lot), expers, enervis,
informis (which is without form, shapeless, ugly), inermus, unarmed.
OBS. 1. If the substantive belongs to the third declension, adjectives
of one ending are formed (concors, excors, &c., with a nominative
ending; bimaris, of two endings); from substantives of the first and
second declensions are formed adjectives in us, as bifurcus; but fre-
quently also in is, if the preceding syllable be long by position: elim-
gvis, enervis (bicornis). In some the ending is variable. See § 59,
Obs. 3. -
OBS. 2. In the numerals in decim the two members are added.
SY N T A X . .
RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS.
§ 207. SYNTAX teaches how words are combined to make
connected discourse. The inflections of words are employed,
partly to show how the words in a proposition are mutually
related and connected (First part of the Syntax), partly to
define the relations of the whole proposition; viz., the mode
of the assertion, and the time of the fact asserted (Second
part). Besides the inflections, the succession and order of
the words and propositions also serve to give precision to
discourse (Third part). - wº
OBS. In Latin, as in other languages, the regular order of the words
is sometimes changed, because attention is paid rather to the sense than
to the words and their grammatical form. This is called constructio
ad sententiam, synesim. Sometimes, too, a convenient rather than a
strictly accurate form of expression is aimed at. The irregularities
hence arising, which, in some cases, have become established by use,
may generally be reduced to three kinds, either to an abbreviated form
of expression (ellipsis), where something is omitted which the mind
must supply, or to a superfluous expression (pleonasmus) * or to attrac-
tion (attractio), where the form of one word is determined by another,
though not standing in exactly the same relation. Such peculiarities of
expression are sometimes termed figures of speech, or figures of syntax,
to distinguish them from rhetorical figures of speech, which do not affect
the grammatical form. -
1. The Greek word oivtašić denotes a joining or arranging together.
2 "EWWellpg, deficiency; TAeovaguóg, redundancy.
PART FIRST.
THE COMBINATION OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION.
CHAPTER I.
THE PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT
AND PREDICATE, THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE.
§ 208. a. Discourse consists of propositions. A propo-
sition is a combination of words, which asserts (or re-
quires) something (an action, condition, or quality) of
another. A complete proposition consists of two principal
parts: the subject, or that of which something is asserted;
and the predicate, or that which is asserted of the subject."
It is in some cases unnecessary to designate the subject
by a separate word, since the ending of the verb often
indicates it; e.g. eo, I go.
Obs. 1. An action may be said to take place without being referred to
a definite subject (impersonally). See § 218. -
Obs. 2. Sometimes a proposition is not fully stated, because the words
which are not expressed may easily be understood from the context, as,
for example, in answers.
b. The subject of a proposition is expressed by a substantive (or
several substantives combined), or another word used as a substan-
tive; viz., either a pronoun: e.g. ego; or an adjective, which names
persons or things according to some particular quality: e.g. boni,
the good; bona, good things, what is good; or by an infinitive: e.g.
vinci turpe est; or by any word used only to denote its own sound
and form: e.g. vides habet duas syllabas, (the word) wides has
two syllables.
1 Subjectum (subjicio), properly what is laid underneath, the foundation (the subject
of the discourse); praedicatum, from praedicare, to assert.
§ 209 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 181
OBS. 1. Something may also be asserted of the contents of a whole
proposition, and it may therefore stand for the subject, having its
predicate in the neuter gender; e.g. qvod domum emisti, gratum
mihi est. -
OBS. 2. If the subject be a personal pronoun, it is usually omitted,
being known from the ending of the verb: e.g. curro, curris; in the
same way, is, he, as the subject, is often omitted. (See §§ 321, 482, and
484, a.)
OBS. 3. In the imperative proposition in the second person, the predi-
cate is not combined with the subject, but is addressed to the subject, the
name of which may be added in the vocative.
§ 209. a. The predicate consists either of a verb (whether active
or passive), which by itself denotes a definite action, condition, or
character: e.g. arbor crescit, arbor wiret, arbor caeditur (simple
predicate); or of a verb which does not in itself denote a definite
action, condition, or character, and an adjective (participle) or sub-
stantive with it as a predicate noun, by which the subject is defined
and described: e.g. urbs est splendida; deus est auctor mundi
(resolved predicate). -
Obs. 1. A substantive or adjective, used as a predicate noun, may
sometimes be represented in the predicate by a neuter demonstrative or
relative pronoun; e.g. Nec tamen ille erat sapiens, qvis enim hoc
fuit 2 (Cic. Fin. IV. 24.) Qvod ego fui ad Trasimenum, id tu hodie
es (Liv. XXX. 30). The adverbs satis, abunde, nimis, parum, may be
used as predicate nouns.
OBS. 2. On the supplying of the verb from the context, and its omis-
sion by ellipsis, see §§ 478,479.
b. Besides sum, those verbs are also used as incomplete in them-
selves, and are therefore combined with a predicate noun, which
denote to become, and to remain (fio, evado, maneo); as well as
the passives of many others, signifying to name, to make, to hold,
or consider, &c., which are completed by the simple addition of the
words which denote what a thing is named, what it is made, and
for what it is held; e.g. : —
Caesar creatus est consul; Aristides habitus est justissimus.
(See § 221, and, on the active of these verbs, $227.)
OBs. 1. It is not quite correct to call sum the copula, and the sub-
joined word alone the predicate.
OBS. 2. Instead of being joined to a predicate noun in the nominative,
esse may be combined with some other expression, which serves to de-
182 LATIN GRAMMAR. $ 211
scribe or define, as, for instance, with a genitive; esse alicujus, esse
magni pretii, of great value, pluris; or with a preposition and its case, or
with an adverb of place, to denote the place or relation in which a thing
is: esse in Gallia, in magno timore, prope esse, praesto esse. (Esse
pro hoste, to be accounted an enemy.) Sometimes, also, in familiar lan-
guage, sum is used with an adverb which denotes way and manner (ita,
sic, ut), instead of an adjective; e.g. Ita sum, sic est vita hominum
(=talis). So also we find the expressions, recte sunt omnia (all is
well); more rarely, inceptum frustra fuit, impune fuit. The follow-
ing are used impersonally: ita est, sic est, so it is ; contra est; bene
est, it is well; melius est alicui, some one is better off. Esse is used as a
verb of complete and independent meaning, signifying to exist; est
I}eus. The other verbs above cited may also be used with a complete
and independent meaning; e.g. Verres ab omnibus nominatur.
OBs. 3. Some verbs express only a relation to an action or suffering,
which action is then given by the addition of another verb in the infinitive,
the predicate thus becoming more complex: e.g. cogito proficisci;
cupio haberi bonus; videor esse magnus (often, videor magnus).
§ 210. a. The predicate may be more definitely limited by ad-
verbs, and by substantives or words used substantively, which give
the object and circumstances of the action; e.g. Caesar Pompejum
magno praelio vicit." e
b. A substantive may be connected in a certain relation with
another substantive in order to define it more accurately; e.g. pater
patriae. To every substantive also there may be added other sub-
stantives descriptive of the same person or thing, to define or char-
acterize it more closely; e.g. Tarqvinius, rex Romanorum. The
subjoining of these is called apposition, and that which is subjoined
is said to be in apposition.
c. To every substantive may be added adjectives (participles),
which may be again defined by a substantive in a certain case; e.g.
vir utilis civitati svae, a man useful to his state. -
OBS. An adjective, which is immediately connected with the substan-
tive, is called attributive (vir bonus), to distinguish it from that which is
used as a predicate with the verb sum; vir est bonus.
§ 211. a. The verb of the predicate agrees in number and per-
son with the subject: pater aegrotat; ego valeo; nos dolemus;
vos gaudetis. -
. It objectum from objicio, that which is placed over against the action and exposéd
to it.
$ 212 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 183
OBS. 1. We must here remark of the first person, that, in Latin, a
man sometimes speaks of himself in the first person plural (see § 483;
and of the second, that, in certain kinds of propositions, the second per-
son singular of the verb in the subjunctive is used of a hypothetical sub-
ject in the same way as you is often employed in English. See § 370,
and $ 494, Obs. 5. (On the phrase, uterqve nostrum veniet, see
§ 284, Obs. 3.) .
OBS. 2. The third person plural is sometimes used without a definite
subject to denote a common saying (ajunt, dicunt, ferunt, narrant, &c.),
or the general use of a term (appellant, vocant), or a general opinion
(putant, credunt), and also, when the verb vulgo is introduced, to
express what persons in general do; Vulgo ex oppidis gratulabantur
Pompejo (Cic. Tusc. I. 35). Saturnum maxime vulgo colunt ad
occidentem (Id. N. D. III. 17). -
b. The predicate adjective or participle agrees with the subject
in number, gender, and case; in the same way every adjective
(partic.) is regulated by the substantive with which it is con-
nected : — • *
Feminae timidae sunt. Hujus hominis actiones malae sunt,
Consilia pejora. -
A personal or reflective pronoun used as a subject has the gender
which belongs to the name of the person or thing for which it
stands; Vos (you women) laetae estis.
OBS. 1. A neuter predicate adjective may be joined to a subject of
the masculine or feminine gender, to denote a being of a certain class in
general (substantively); e.g. varium et mutabile semper femina
(Virg. Æn. IV. 569), woman is always a changeable and inconsistent
being ; varia et mutabiliss. fem, a woman is always changeable and in-
consistent. Turpitudo pejus est (something worse) quam dolor (Cic.
Tusc. II. 13). z -
OBS. 2. If the subject has for its predicate a personal name, which has a
distinct form for the masculine and feminine gender, that form is preferred
which corresponds to the gender of the subject: Stilus est optimus
dicendi magister; philosophia est magistra vitae. The same rule
applies to apposition; e.g.: moderator Cupiditatis pudor (Cic.). Ef-
fectrix beatae vitae sapientia (Cic.). (But Ovid dicam de the
sauro omnium rerum memoria? Cicero de Or. I. 5.)
$ 212. If two or more subjects of different persons are spoken of
at the same time, the verb is in the first person plural, if one of the
subjects is of this person; and with the second, if one of the subjects
is of this and none of the first person: –
184 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 213
Ego et uxor ambulavimus; tu et uxor tua ambulavistis. Haec
neqve ego neqve tu fecimus. (Ter. Ad. I. 2, 23.)
Obs. 1. If two subjects have the same verb, and this is predicated of
each of them separately, and with the addition of different circumstances,
the predicate is put in the plural where it is intended to give promi-
nence to what is common and similar in the two transactions: Ego te
poétis (= apud poétas), Messala antiqvariis criminabimur (Dial.
de Orat. 42). But where a contrast is to be forcibly expressed, the predi-
cate is usually regulated by the nearest subject: e.g. Eigo sententiam,
tu verba defendis. So, also, sometimes, with et—et: e.g. et ego et
Cicero meus flagitabit (Cicero ad Att. IV. 17); and always so, when,
to a single defined individual, there is added a general designation of
others, who are in no way related to him: Et tu et omnes homines
sciunt (Cicero ad Fam. XIII. 8).
OBs. 2. When the predicate is placed with the first subject, and the
others follow, the first only is regarded; e.g. Eit ego hoc video et vos
et illi.
§ 213. a. Two or more connected subjects of the third person
singular take the predicate (1) in the plural, if importance be at-
tached to the number as well as to the connection, which is gener-
ally the case with living beings : —
Castor et Pollux ex eqvis pugnare visi sunt (Cic. N. D. II. 2);
pater et avus mortui sunt (both of them).
Also, when persons and things are connected; Syphax regnumqve
ejus in potestate Romanorum erant (Liv. XXVIII. 18).
2. In the singular, when the subjects are considered collectively
as a whole; e.g. : –
Senatus populusqve Romanus intelligit (Cic. ad Fam. V. 8). This
is often the case with things and impersonal ideas, one idea being ex-
pressed by several words, or several ideas, which are connected, being
considered as one: e.g. Tempus necessitasqve postulat (Cic. Off. I.
23). Religio et ſides anteponatur amicitiae (Id. Off... III. 11).
Divitias gloria, imperium, potentia seqvebatur (Sall. Cat. 12).
But when the things and ideas are expressed as distinct and opposed,
the verb stands in the plural: e.g. Jus et injuria natura dijudicantur
(Cic. Legg. I. 16). Mare magnum et ignara (= ignota) lingva
commercia prohibebant (Sall. Jug. 18).
OBs. 1. Sometimes, when the subjects are personal appellations, the
verb is used in the singular, because each individual is thought of sepa-
rately, and the verb drawn to the nearest subject: e.g. Et proavus I.
§ 214 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 185
Murenae et avus praetor fuit (Cic. pro Mur. 7).* Orgetorigis filia
et unus e filiis captus est (Cæs. B. G. I. 26). This oécurs especially
when the verb precedes: Dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et Ismenias
(Cic. Verr. IV. 42); otherwise, very rarely.
b. When subjects of the singular and plural (in the third person)
are connected, and the predicate stands mearest that in'the singular,
the verb may also be put in the singular, progidéé thát this subject
is made more particularly prominent or considered separately ;
otherwise, the verb is in the plural ; e.g.:—
Ad corporum sanationem multum ipsa corpora et natura valet
(Cic. Tusc. III. 3). Hoc mihi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia
concedit (Cic. Acad. II. 35). Consulem prodigia atqve eorum
procuratio Romae tenuerunt (Liv. XXXII. 9).
OBs. 1. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive particle aut,
the predicate is sometimes regulated (both in gender and number) by
the nearest subject; sometimes, it is put in the plural : Probarem hoc,
si Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret (Cic. Tuse. V. 9). Non, si
qvid Socrates aut Aristippus contra consvetudinem civilem
fecerunt, idem ceteris licet (Id. Off. I. 41). But with aut— aut
vel — vel, neqve — neqve, the predicate is almost always regulated by
the mearest subject: e.g. In hominibus juvandis aut mores spectari
aut fortuna solet (Cic. Off. II. 20). Nihil mihi novi neqve M.
Crassus neqve Cn. Pompejus ad dicendum reliqvit (Cic. pro
Ealbo, 7). The plural occurs very seldom : Nec justitia nec amicitia
esse omnino poterunt nisi ipsae per se expetantur (Cic. Fin. III.
21); except when the subjects are of different persons; for then the
plural is generally employed (according to § 212) : Haec neqve ego
neqve tu fecimus (Ter.). •
OBs. 2. If the subjects are not connected by conjunctions, but the
sentence is divided into several clauses by the repetition of a word
(anaphora), the predicate is found both in the singular (as referring to
the mearest elause) and (more rarely) in the plural : Nihil libri, nihil
litterae, nihil doctrina prodest (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10). Qvid ista
repentina affinitatis conjunctio, qvid ager Campanus, qvid effusio
pecuniae significant ? (Cic. ad Att. II. 17).
§ 214. a. If the subjects connected are of different gender, the
adjective or participle of the predicate is regulated in gender, pro-
vided the singular be used (§ 213, a, 2) by the mearest subject ;
1 1Et, Q. Maximus et Iu. Paullus et M. Cato iis temporibus fuerunt (Cic. ad
Ram. IV. 6), all lived at that time.
186 LATIN GRAMMAR. . § 214
Animus et cónsilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus
(Cic. pro Cluent. 53). &
b. If, on the contrary, the plural is employed, then the gender ín
the case of lîvîng beings is masculine ; Uxor mea et filius mortui
sumt. The neuter gender is used qf things and impersonal ideas :
Secundae res, honores, imperia, victoriae fortuita sunt (Cic. Off.
II. 6). Tempus et ratio belli administrandi libera praetori per-
missa sunt (Liv. XXXV. 25). The gender may, however, be
regulated by the nearest subject, when this is itself in. the plural
(so that the plural of the predicate may be referred to it alone):
Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorqve caeli (Cic. in Cat. III.
8). Brachia modo atqve humeri liberi ab aqva erant (Cæs. B.
G. VII. 56).
OBs. In case of the combination of living beings (of the male sex)
with objects devoid of life, either the masculine is employed (when the
1atter have at the same time some reference to living beings) ; Rex
regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. XXI. 50) ; or the neuter (so that;
the whole is considered as a thing) : Romani regem regnumqve
Macedoniae sua futura sciunt (Liv. XL. 10), their property. Naturä
inimica sunt libera civitas et rex (Liv. XLIV. 24), hostile beings.
If the mearest subject be itself in the plural, the gender may be deter-
mined by that alone: Patres decrevere, legatos sortesqve oraculi
Pythici exspectandas (Liv. V. 15) ; and this is always the case when
the predicate stands first : Missae eo cohortes qvattuor et C. Annius
praefectus (Sall. Jug. 77).
c. Even with connected subjects Of the same gender, which are not
living beings, the predicate, when the plural is used, is often in the
neuter: Ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant (Liv. XXXVII.
32). Nox atqve praeda hostes remorata sunt (Sall. Jug. 38).
d. An adjective which is annexed as an attribute to two or more
substantives, is regulated by the mearest ; e.g. : —
Omnes agri et maria; agri et maria omnia (for the sake of per- .
spicuity, often expressed thus: agri omnes omniaqve maria). Cae-
saris omni et gratia et opibus sic fruor ut meis (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9).
OBs. 1. If adjectives are introduced as a special characteristie in
apposition, they are treated according to the rule under b ; e.g. labor
voluptasqve dissimillimâ naturâ, societate qvadam inter se juncta
sunt (Liv. V. 4), things which by nature are very different. (Other-
wise, very seldom ; Gallis natura corpora animosqve magna magis
qvam firma dedit, Liv. V. 44.) . .
§ 215 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 187
OBs. 2. If several adjectives are attached to a substantive in such a
way as to suggest the notion of several different things of the same name,
the substantive is put either in the singular or plural; but if it be the
subject, it always takes a plural predicate : Legio Martia qvartaqve
rempublicam defendunt (Cic. Phil. W. 17); prima et vicesima
legiones (Tac. Ann. I. 31). In the same way, it is also said of two
men with a common name: Cn. et P. Scipiones (Cic. pro Balb. 15);
more rarely, Ti. et C. Gracchus (Sall. Jug. 42); but Cn. Scipio et L.
Scipio.
OBs. 3. (On $$ 212—214). In some few instances it happens that
regard is paid, in the treatment of the predicate, only to the more remote
subject as the essential one, to which the nearer is only supplementary;
e.g. Ipse meiqve vescor (Hor. S. II. 6, 66).
$ 215. The nature and character of the subject are sometimes
more regarded in the predicate than the grammatical form of the
word employed.
a. With collective nouns used of living beings, some prose-writers,
and the poets occasionally, join a plural predicate of the gender to which
the individuals belong, but only in the case of substantives which denote
an undefined number (a crowd, number, heap, part), as pars, vis,
multitudo: Desectam segetem magna vis hominum immissa in
pars — pars (some — others), uterqve, the superlative with quisqve,
agrum fudere in Tiberim (Liv. II. 5). Pars perexigua, duce
amisso, Roman inermes delati sunt (Liv. II. 14). In this way
(optimus quisqve), are sometimes used with the plural: e.g. Utergue
eorum exercitum ex castris educunt (Caes. B. C. III. 30). Delecti
nobilissimus quisqve (Liv. VII. 19). &
OBs. With substantives which denote an organized whole (exercitus,
classis, &c.), such a plural predicate is only found by a negligence in
the expression; e.g. Cetera classis, praetoria nave amissa, qvantum
qvaeqve remis valuit fugerunt (Liv. XXXV. 26). We must not
confound with this use of the predicate in the plural, the employment of
the plural verb in a subordinate proposition, with reference to the indi-
viduals which are denoted in the leading proposition by a collective
word: Hic utergve me intuebatur seseqve ad audiendum signi-
ficabant paratos (Cic. Fin. II. 1). Idem humano generi evenit,
qvod in terra collocati sunt (sc. homines) (Id. N. D. II. 6).
b. If male persons are denoted figuratively by feminine or neuter
substantives, the predicate is, notwithstanding, sometimes added in the
natural gender: Capita conjurationis virgis caesi ac securi per-
cussi sunt (Liv. X. 1); so also occasionally with millia: Millia
triginta servilium capitum dicuntur capti (Liv. XXVII. 16).
188" LATIN GRAMMAR. § 217
' c. If the mames of other persons are connected with a singular subject
by the preposition cum, the predicate, if it refers to them all, usually
stands im the plural, just as if they were several subjects regularly eon-
nected ; Ipse dux cum aliqvot principibus capiuntur (Liv. XXI. 60).
If the gemder be different, the rule § 214, b, is followed ; Ilia cum Lauso
de Numitore sati (Ov. Fast. IV. 54). The singular, however, may be
used when the subjects are not really considered as acting or suffering to-
gether; Tu cum Sexto scire velim qvid cogites (Cic. Att. VII. 14).
§ 216. If the predicate consists of sum, or one of those verbs
mentioned in § 209, b, and a substantive, the verb is usually gov-
erned in number and gender by this substantive, if it comes imme-
diately after it (or after an adjective belonging to it): —
Amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. Andr. III. 3, 23).
Hoc crimen nullum est, nisi honos ignominia putanda est (Cic.
pro Balb. 3). •
OBs. But this is not always the case, especially where sum denotes
to make up, constitule : e.g. Captivi militum praeda fuerant (Liv.
XXI. 15); or where the number or gender of the subject is essential to
the meaning of the proposition: e.g Semiramis puer esse credita
est (Justin I. 2). If the subject is an infinitive, the verb. always
agrees with the substantive in the predicate ; Contentum rebus suis
esse maximae sunt certissimaeqve divitiae (Cic. Parad. VI. 3).
§ 217. When an apposition is added to the subject in another
gender or number, the predicate agrees with its proper subject:—
Tullia, deliciae nostrae, munusculum tuum flagitat (Cic. ad Att.
I. 8).
Only when oppidum (urbs, civitas) is added to plural names of
towns, the predieate commonly agrees with the former : Corioli oppi-
dum captum est (Liv. II. 83). Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum
opulentissimum, concrematum est fulmine (Plin. H. N. II. 58).
Also, when a proper name is put after a general or figurative designation,
the predicate agrees with the proper mame ; Duo fulmina nostri im-
perii subito in Hispania, Cn. et P. Scipiones, exstincti occiderunt
(Cic. pro Balb. 15).
OBS. 1. To a plural subject there is often added by apposition a more
special definition with the words alter — alter, alius — alius, and qvis-
qve, in the singular: Ambo exercitus, Vejens Tarqviniensisqve,
suas qvisqve abeunt domos (Liv. II. 7). Decemviri perturbati
alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt (Liv. III. 50). The
general subject is often left out, and must be inferred from what goes
before: Cum aliu5 alii Bubsidium ferrent, audacius regigtcre
§ 218 PARTS OF A PROPOSITION. 189
coeperunt (Caes. B. G. II. 26), as they helped one another. Pro se
qvisqve dextram ejus amplexi grates habebant (Curt. III. 16).
Sometimes, however, the predicate agrees with word in apposition:
Pictores et poetae suum quisque opus a vulgo considerari vult
(Cic. Off. I. 41). His oratoribus duae res maximae altera alteri
defuit (Cic. Brut. 55). Especially when a division and contrast are
denoted by alter — alter, or by the special names of the individual sub-
jects; Duo consules ejus anni, alter morbo, alter ferro periit (Liv.
XLI. 22).
OBS. 2. When another substantive is connected with the subject by
qvam (tantum, qvantum) or nisi (in comparisons or exceptions), the
predicate, if it follows the word so subjoined, often agrees with it: e.g.
magis pedes qvam arma Numidas tutata sunt (Sall. Jug. 74). Me
non tantum litterae q.vantum longinqvitas temporis mitigavit
(Cic. ad Fam. VI. 4). Qvis illum consulem nisi latrones putant
(Id. Phil. IV. 4). (This is unusual, if a resemblance only is denoted
by a word subjoined with ut or tanqvam.)
§ 218. An impersonal proposition, by which the existence of an
action or relation is asserted, without being referred, as predicate,
to any noun for its subject, is formed in Latin as follows: —
a. By the purely impersonal verbs (enumerated in § 166).
OBs. 1. Those verbs which denote the weather, especially tonat,
fulgurat, fulminat, are also predicated personally of the god (Jupiter),
who is conceived of as the author of the tempest, as well as figuratively
of others; e.g. tomare, of orators. (Dies illucescit.)
OBS. 2. With the verbs libet, licet, piget, pudet, poenitet, taedet,
we sometimes find a neuter pronoun in the singular used as a subject, to
point out what produces the feeling expressed by the verb: e.g. sapi-
entis est proprium nihil, qvod poemitere possit, facere (Cic. Tusc.
W. 28). Non, qvod qwisqve potest, ei licet (Id. Phil. XIII. 6).
(Occasionally even in the plural: Non te haec pudent? Ter. Ad. IV.
7, 36. In servum omnia licent, Senec. de Clem. I. 18.) With
these exceptions, what produces the feeling is expressed by the addition
of a case (the genitive, see $292), by the infinitive, the accusative with
the infinitive, a proposition with quod, or by an indirect question; each
of which supplies the place of a subject, but is not the grammatical sub-
ject. -
OBs. 3. On the way in which the person is expressed with miseret,
&c., see § 226; with libet, licet, § 244, a. The gerund of pudet and
poemitet is occasionally used as if from a personal verb, signifying, I am
ashamed, I repent : e.g. Non pudendo, sed non faciendo id, qvod
non decet, impudentiae nomen fugere debemus (Cic. Or, I. 26).
190. LATIN GRAMMAR. § 218
voluptas saepius relinqvit causam poenitendi qvam recordandi
(Id. Fin. II. 32). But it never governs a case.
b. By several verbs, which are used in this way in a certain sig-
nification, but are personal in others: e.g. accidit, evenit, contin-
git, it happens; constat (inter omnes), it is agreed; appåret, it is
evident, &c. (These verbs are followed by an infinitive or a sub-
ordinate proposition, to which the assertion refers.)
OBs. In this class we may place, est with an adverb, without a sub-
ject. See § 209, b, Obs. 2.
c. By the passive of intransitive verbs (or of transitives, which
are used intransitively in a certain signification), by which it is
simply asserted that the action takes place: Hic bene dormitur.
Ventum erat, ad urbem. Invidetur potentibus (see § 244, b).
Nunc est bibendum. Dubitari de fide tua audio. (Concerning
the participle and gerundive, see § 97.)
OBs. The idiomatic frequency of impersonal expressions in Latin
may be avoided in English in various ways, particularly by the use of the
indefinite they and one : e.g. one sleeps well here ; I hear that they doubt .
your honor; they had come to the city; and, the powerful are envied;
now we must drink. Where the posture of affairs is to be expressed in
a general way, res is sometimes used for the subject: Haud procul
seditione reserat (Liv. VI. 16); res ad bellum spectabat, ad inter-
regnum rediit (Liv. II. 56).
d. By the verb est with a neuter adjective, followed by an infini-
tive or a subordinate proposition: e.g. turpe est, divitias praeferri
virtuti. Incertum est, qvo tempore mors ventura sit.
OBs. 1. In this case, the infinitive or the subordinate sentence may be
-considered as the subject. -
OBs. 2. An impersonal proposition is also formed by the third person
of the verbs possum, soleo, coepi, desino (coeptum est, desitum
est), and the infinitive of an impersonal verb or an infinitive passive
(acording to c): solet Dionysium, qvum aliqvid furiose fecit.
poemitere (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 5). Potest dubitari. Desitum est
turbari (Liv. W. 17).
1. Accedit, attinet, conducit, convenit, expedit, fallit (fugit, praeterit me),
interest, liqvet, patet, placet, praestat, restat, vacat, and a few others. -
§ 219 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 191
CHAPTER II.
*
THE RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES IN THE PROPOSITION 5 TEIE
CASES ; THE NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE.
§ 219. The relation in which a substantive, or a word used as
a substantive (pronoum, adjective, participle), stands to the other
parts of a proposition, is denoted by its Case (sometimes with the
help of a preposition). -
Substantives standing in the same relation stand also in the same
case ; viz.: — -
a. The word which has another in apposition with it, and the word in
apposition: Hic liber est Titi, fratris tui; Tito, fratri tuo, viro
optimo, librum dedi. .
b. Words which are connected by conjunctions, or by enumeration,
or divisiom and antithesis; e.g. Gajus laudis, Titus lucri cupidus est.
c. The word with which a question is put, and that with which the an-
swer is given (if in the answer there is only the name of the person or
* thing in question): e.g. Qvis hoc fecit ? Titus (sc. fecit). Cujus
haec domus est ? Titi et Gaji, fratrum meorum. Cui librum
dedisti? Tito, fratri tuo.
OBs. 1. If a word in the accusative, dative, ablative, or genitive, be
subjoined to amother word, in order to complete and define its meaning,
we say that the former is govermed by the latter (as its object). If a word
generally takes other words in a particular case, — e.g. the dative, — in
order to define it, we say that it is constructed with, or governs this
case. Since the construction depends on the signification of the govern-
ing word, and this occasionally varies, the same word may be differently
constructed, according to its different significations.
OBS. 2. If a word in a certain signification may be constructed with two.
different cases, — e.g. similis rei alicujus, and rei alicui, — we some-
times, but, rarely, find the two constructions in the same sentence united
by a conjunction, or in antithesis: Stoici plectri similem lingvam
solent dieere, chordarum dentes, nares cornibus iis, qvae ad mer-
vo8 resonant in cantibus (Cic. N. D. II. 59). (Adhibenda est
qvaedam reverentia adversus homines, et optimi cujusqve et reli-
qvorum, Cic. Off. I. 28.)
OBs. 3. The introduction of dico, I meam, does not, affect the con-
struction of a word in apposition: Qvam hesternus dies nobis, con-
sularibus dico, turpis illuxit! (Cic. Phil. VIII. 7.).
192 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 221
OBs. 4. When words are cited simply as words (materialiter, no regard
being had to the idea which they express), they are, notwithstanding,
when they admit of inflection, generally put in Latin in that case which
the governing verb calls for, especially with the prepositions ab and pro:
Burrum semper Ennius dicit, munqvam Pyrrhum (Cic. Or. 48).
Navigare ducitur a navi (amor ab amando, in the gerund). Pau-
peries dicitur pro paupertate. Except when a direct reference is made
to some particular form; e.g. ab Terentius fit Terenti, from the nomi-
native Terentius comes the vocative Terenti.
§ 220. In regard to apposition, it is to be observed, that in Latin
it often denotes, not the character of the person or thing in general,
but the condition in which the person or thing is during the time
implied in the sentence: —
Cicero praetor legem Maniliam suasit, consul conjurationem
Catilinae oppressit (as praetor, as consul, - when he was praetor, when
he was consul). Cato senex scribere historiam instituit (as an old
man, in advanced life). Hic liber mihi puero valde placuit (when I
was a boy). Hunc quemadmodum victorem feremus, qvem me
victum quidem ferre possumus (in case he should be victorious) 2
Asia Scipioni provincia obtigit. Adjutor tibi venio. (Compare
§ 227.) In this way, it is said: ante Ciceronem consulem (before
Cicero as consul, before the consulship of Cicero).
Obs. 1. In such cases, numeral adverbs may be added, to denote a
repetition of the same relation; e.g. Pompejus tertium consul judicia
ordinavit (when he was consul for the third time, in his third consul-
ship).
OBs. 2. Apposition does not denote a quality which is merely pre-
sumed or imputed (e.g. he was taken up as a thief), which must be
expressed by tanqvam, qvasi, or ut; nor yet a comparison, which is
denoted by ut, sic—ut, tanqvam; sic eos tractat, ut fures. Cicero
ea, qvae nunc usu veniunt, cecinit ut vates (Corn. Att. 16), like a
prophet. -
OBs. 3. Sometimes a word is put in apposition to a single word, which
is the object of an active or the subject of a passive proposition, al-
though, according to the sense, it belongs to the whole sentence, or to the
predicate of it: e.g. Admoneor, ut aliqvid etiam de sepultura di-
cendum existimem; rem non difficilem (Cic. Tusc. I. 43), which is
no difficult matter.
§ 221. The subject of a proposition and the predicate noun with
sum, or fio, evado, maneo, or with a passive verb of incomplete
signification, is put in the nominative.
§ 222 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 193
Caesar fuit magnus imperator. T. Albucius perfectus Epicureus
evaserat (Cic. Brut. 35)."
The passives of verbs of naming, creating, accounting (see § 227),
which, to complete their signification, require the addition of words which
shall show how the subject is named or accounted, or what it is created,
are followed simply by those required words in the nominative: Numa
creatus est rex. Aristides habitus est justissimus.
§ 222. The Accusative in itself only denotes that a word is not
the subject; but further than this, like the nominative, it specifies
no particular relation. The Object of transitive verbs, or the person
or thing to which the action of the subject is directly applied, is put
in the accusative: Caesar vicit Pompejum; teneo librum. The
object may be turned into the subject, and the same verb predicated
of it in the passive; in which case the agent (which in the active
proposition was the subject) is subjoined with a or ab: Pompejus
a Caesare victus est; liber a me tenetur.
OBs. 1. (On $$ 221 and 222). What is predicated of the subject as
an action, may be predicated of the object as suffering, so that this takes
the place of the subject. The accusative is the original word, unlimited
and unrelated. In the masculine and feminine, a peculiar form—the
nominative — has been devised, in order to denote the word as a
subject (or a predicate noun); but, in the neuter, the accusative and
nominative are identical. The accusative, therefore (as an absolute
form of the noun introduced), is in the most simple way to define and
complete the predicate expressed in the verb. In the indefinite infini-
tive expression, where the connection between the subject and predicate
is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicate noun stand in the
accusative: e.g. hominem currere, that a man runs; esse dominum,
to be lord. See § 394, and § 388, b.
OBS. 2. In the case of some verbs, which may be limited in the active,
by means of the preposition ab, - e.g. postulare aliqvid ab aliqvo,-
it may sometimes be doubtful, in the passive, whether ab has the same
signification as with the active verb, or whether it denotes the agent; e.g.
postulatur a me may signify either, others demand of me, or, I de-
7mand.
OBS. 3. With reference to the use of the passive, it is to be observed,
that it is often employed in Latin, where, in English, an active transitive
is used, with the reflective pronoun expressed or understood, because the
action is conceived of, not so much as proceeding from the subject as some-
* Evado denotes a result which is produced or attained after a considerable time.
13
194 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 223
thing directed towards it: e.g. commendari, to recommend one's self;
congregari, to assemble (themselves); contrahi, to contract (itself);
delectari, to delight (one's self); effundi, to pour out ; diffundi, to
spread; lavari, to wash ; moveri, to move ; mutari, to change; porrigi,
to reach. But this depends as much on the way in which the action is
contemplated by the speaker, as on any usage affecting the several verbs.
Sometimes, the passive, in Latin, has a peculiar signification, which a
mere literal translation would not adequately express: as, tondeor, to
get shaved; cogor, to see one's self obliged, &c.
OBS. 4. Some few verbs occasionally lay aside their transitive charac-
ter, and are used in the active, with a reflective signification; e.g. duro,
inclino, insinuo, muto, remitto, verto. In other instances, an object
is omitted, which may easily be supplied from the context, and the verb
used as intransitive in a special signification; e.g. solvere, appellere
(navem), movere (castra), ducere in hostem (exercitum). These
and similar examples may be found in the dictionary. -
§ 223. a. Whether a verb is transitive, depends on the question
whether it signifies at the same time both a direct activity of some-
thing, and a direct working or operating upon something. (Of those
verbs, which in Latin only suggest the idea of an action in reference
to an object, which in such cases follows in the dative, we shall speak
when we treat of the dative case.)
b. Many Latin verbs are in their conception fundamentally dis-
tinct from the English verbs by which they are commonly trans-
lated, and they have therefore a different construction; e.g. : —
Paro bellum (I prepare for war; properly, I prepare war); peto
aliqvid ab aliqvo (I ask a person for something; properly, I seek to get
a thing from a person); qvaero ex (ab or de) aliqvo, qvaero causam
(I ask some one, inquire qfter the reason); consolor aliqvem, but also
consolor alicujus dolorem (I console some one in his distress); excuso
tarditatem litterarum, I apologize for my tardiness in writing (or
me de tarditate litterarum); but also excuso morbum, I plead illness
as my eaccuse.
OBs. Many verbs have different significations, so that in one they are
transitive and govern the accusative, while in another they are differently
constructed: as, consulo aliqvem, I consult some one ; consulo ali-
cui,' I have a regard to some one's interest; consulo in aliqvem, I treat
some one, e.g. crudeliter; animadverto aliqvid, I observe something;
animadverto in aliqvem, I punish some one.
+-
1 Si qui exire volunt, consulere sibi possunt (Cic. in Cat. II. 27).
: - ºr
§ 223 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 195
c. Many verbs that are properly intransitive sometimes assume
a transitive signification: e.g. several, which denote a state of mind,
or its expression as occasioned by something; as, -
Doleo, I am pained; lugeo, I mourn; doleo, lugeo, aliqvid, 1
lament something : horreo, I tremble, shudder; horreo aliqvid, I
am alarmed at something ; miror, qveror, aliqvid, I wonder at, com-
plain of something ; gemo, lacrimo, lamentor, fleo, ploro aliqvid, I
weep for something; rideo aliqvid, I laugh at something; so likewise
maneo (tetriste manet supplicium, awaits thee, Virg.), crepo (e.g.
militiam, to be always talking of); depereo aliqvem, to be in love with
one; navigo mare, I navigate the sea ; salto Turnum, I dance Turnus
(represent him by dancing); erumpo stomachum in aliqvem (pour
out my bile).
These peculiarities of different verbs must be learned by practice,
and from the dictionary. The poets have used several verbs transitively,
which are never so used in prose.”
OBS. 1. The passive, however, in prose is used only of a few such verbs
as have clearly assumed a transitive meaning. We say, rideor, I am
laughed at ; but doleo, horreo, never have the passive, except in the
gerundive, horrendus, horrible. -
OBS. 2. We must particularly notice the accusative with olere, redo-
lere, to smell of, i.e. to have the Smell of ; sapere, resipere, to have the
taste of; e.g. olere vinum, to smell of wine. In the same way, it is
said, sitire sangvinem; anhelare scelus (to breathe out wickedness);
spirare tribunatum (to have one's mind full of the tribuneship); vox
hominem sonat (sounds like that of a man. Never in the passive).
OBS. 3. The poets often go very far in giving intransitive verbs a
transitive signification: e.g. in expressions like resonare lucos cantu
(Virg.), to make the groves re-echo with song; instabant Marti currum
(Virg.), they labored diligently at a car; stillare rorem ex oculis
(Hor.), manare poètica mella (Id.), to drop, let flow. They also form
a passive from such expressions: e.g. triumphatae gentes (Virg., in
prose triumphare de hoste); nox vigilata (Ov.).”
OBS. 4. The accusative of a substantive of the same stem, or at least
of corresponding signification, may stand with verbs which are otherwise
not used transitively, usually with the addition of an adjective or pro-
noun: e.g. vitam tutiorem vivere, justam servitutem servire, insan-
ire similem errorem (Hor.). Ego patres vestros vivere arbitror,
1 Manere, however, is also constructed with the dative, to remain to a person. So liker
wise, res aliqvem latet, and less frequently, alicui.
2 Mediasqve fraudes -
IPalluit audax (Hor. Od. III. 27. 27).
* Regnata Laconi rura Phalanto (Hor. Od. II. 612).
193 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 224
et eam quidem vitam quae est sola vita nominanda (Cic. Cat. M.
21). Hence, in the passive, hac pugna pugnata (Corn. Hann. 5), when
this battle was fought. (Nunc tertia vivitur aetas, Ov. Met. XII.
188.)
§ 224. It is particularly to be observed, that several verbs, which
denote a motion through space, when compounded with prepositions,
acquire a transitive signification, and are constructed with the accu-
sative. Such verbs are the following : —
a. Those compounded with the prepositions, circum, per, praeter,
trans, super, subter; as, circumeo, circumvenio, circumvehor,
percurro, pervagor, praetergredior, praetervehor, praeter volo,
transeo, transilio, transno, supergredior, subterfugio, subterlabor;
e.g. locum periculosum praetervehor.
OBS. 1. So also praecedo, praegredior, praefluo (flow by), praeve-
nio (praecurro, with the acc. and dat.); obed (regionem, negotia),
with obambulo, obeqvito, oberro, with the signification, to walk, ride,
Tove through, or over (but with the dative, signifying, before or against,
obequitare portae); usually subeo (tectum, montem, nomen exulis;
subire ad muros, to draw near beneath the walls, poet. Subire portae;
subit animo mihi, it occurs to me). In the case of the others com-
pounded with ob and sub, the reference to a thing is expressed by the
dative. See § 245.
OBs. 2. The accusative stands also with verbs compounded with
circum, which denote a voice or sound; circumfremo, circumlatro,
circumsøno, circumstrépo. -
OBS. 3. Supervenio, to come upon, after, to, is constructed with the
dative.
b. Various verbs, which, from being compounded with ad, con, or in,
acquire a derived and altered meaning; as, adeo, to visit, apply to some
one (colonias, deos, libros Sibyllinos), to enter upon (hereditatem);
aggredior, adorior, to attack; convenio, to meet a person (in order
to speak with him); coeo, to enter upon (societatem); ineo, to enter,
jorm, enter on, tread (societatem, consilia, rationem, magistratum,
fines). Both these and the verbs adduced under a are used also in
the passive as complete transitives: Flumen transitur; hostis cir-
Cumventus ; societas inita est. -
OBS. 1. Adeo ad aliqvem, I go to some one; accedo ad aliqvem.
(Compare $245, a, with Obs. 2.)
OBS. 2. Insidére locum, to take possession of a place, to settle there
(insidere locum, to keep possession of it); insidére in animo, to im-
press itself on the mind; insistere viam, iter, pursue, enter upon;
insistere loco (dat.) and in loco, to stand in a place. Ingredior and
§ 226 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 197
invado are constructed both with the simple accusative and with the
preposition repeated (ingredi urbem and in urbem; ingredi iter,
magistratum, to enter upon ; invadere in hostem, Cic.; hostis in-
vaditur, Sall.); usually irrumpo in urbem, insilio in eqvum, but
also irrumpo urbem, insilio eqvum (not in the passive). Incessit
(from incedo; see § 138) timor patres and cura patribus (dat.).
Other verbs with in (e.g. incido, incurro, involo, innato) are used
only rarely and poetically with the accusative instead of with in or the
dative.
c. Excedo, egredior, to overstep ; e.g. fines.
OBS. In the signification to go out, these verbs are mostly constructed
with ex, as also commonly elabor; evado, to slip from, escape. Con-
cerning excedo, egredior, with the simple ablative, see $ 262. (The
passive of excedo and evado is not used. Exec, with the accus., -
e.g. modum, - is poetical.)
d. Antevenio, to be beforehand with ; antegredior, to go before.
The verbs antecedo, anteed, antecello, praesto, to excel, are con-
structed both with the dative and the accusative, but most frequently
with the former (not in the passive).
. OBS. Excello is used with the dative (excellere ceteris), or withou
a case (inter omnes). .
§ 225. Those verbs which denote presence in a place (jaceo,
sedeo, sto) govern the accusative when they are compounded with
circum; Multa me pericula circumstant. (Concerning the com-
pounds with ad, see $ 245, Obs. 2.)
OBS. We must separately notice obsideo (with its signification
entirely changed; to besiege). Of other compound verbs, which convey
no idea of space, and yet become transitive by composition, we may
notice allatro, alloqvor, impugno, oppugno, and expugno. (Attendo
aliqvid : e.g. versum, and aliqvem, attendo animum ad aliqvid,
praeed verba, Carmen.)
§ 226. With the impersonal verbs piget, pudet, poenitet, taedet
(pertaesum est), miseret, the name of the person whose mind is
affected stands as an object in the accusative (but that which ex-
cites the emotion, in the genitive): e.g. pudet regem facti; miseret
nos hominis; solet vos beneficiorum poemitere. In the same
way decet, it beseems, becomes, and dedecet, govern the accusative;
e.g. Oratorem irasci minime decet.
OBS. Transitive verbs which are used impersonally retain the accusa-
tive; e.g. non me fallit (fugit, praeterit), it does not escape my
attention. -
198 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 227
§ 227. Some verbs, which do not in themselves denote a com-
plete action, take, besides the object itself, the accusative of a sub-
stantive or adjective, which constitutes a predieate of the object,
and serves to complete the notion of the verb. (Strictly speaking,
this accusative forms an apposition to the object.) In the passive,
these verbs are used as incomplete with the predicate noum in the
nominative, according to § 209. Such verbs are the following:—
a. Those verbs which denote to make (to choose, nominate), to have
or appoint (to give, take, assume, &c.), as facio, efficio, reddo, creo,
eligo, declaro, designo, renuntio, dico, &e., do, sumo, capio, in-
stituo, &c. That into which a thing is made, &c., is subjoined to these
verbs in the accusative: Avaritia homines caecos reddit.' Meso-
potamiam fertilem efficit Euphrates (Cic. N. D. II. 52). scipio
F. Rupilium potuit consulem efficere (Id. Lael. 20). Populus
Homanus Numam regem creavit (jussit, Liv.). Ciceronem una
voce universus populus Romanus consulem declaravit (Cic. de
Leg. Agr. II. 2). Appius Claudius libertinorum filios senatores
legit. Cato Valerium Flaccum in consulatu collegam habuit.
Tiberius Druso Sejanum dedit adjutorem. Augustus Tiberium
filium et consortem potestatis ascivit.
b. Those verbs which signify to show one's self as something, to find a
thing of a certain character: e.g. Praesta te virum (Cic.). Rex se
clementem praebebit. Cognosces me tuae dignitatis fautorem
(in me you will find ome who will promote your dignity).
e. Those verbs which signify to name and to look upon or esteem
(to hold, reckon, declare), (appello, voco, nomino, dico, saluto, &c.,
inscribo, to entitle; habeo, duco, existimo, numero, judico, and
sometimes puto): Summum consilium reipublicae Romani appel-
larunt senatum. Cicero librum aliqvem Laelium inscripsit.
Senatus Antonium hostem judicavit. Te judicem aeqvum puto
(Cic.). Quid intelligit Epicurus honestum ? What does Epicurus
conceive qf as virtue ? What does he understand by virtue ? (Cic. de Fin.
II. 15).
OBS. 1. Habeo and existimo are used in this signification mostly in
the passive: Aristides habitus est justissimus; nolo existimari
impudens. We also find habere aliqvem pro hoste (to treat him as
an enemy) ; pro nihilo putare; in hostium numero habere; parentis
loco (in loco) habere (ducere) aliqvem.
1 Reddo is especially used with adjectives; but not in the passive, where fieri alone is
employed.
$228 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 199
OBs. 2. Puto, existimo, judico, duco, to think, believe, hold (that a
thing is so and so), are followed by an infinitive proposition. Credor,
used in the way here mentioned (to be looked upon as something), is
poetical; credor sangvinis auctor (Ovid). - -
OBS. 3. If several objects, differing in gender or number, are com-
bined with one of these verbs, the predicate noun, if it be an adjective or
participle, is regulated according to the rules given in §§ 213 and 214.
OBS. 4. A predicate noun may also be subjoined to the passive
participle of these verbs: e.g. Marius hostis judicatus, Marius who
was declared an enemy; and (although rarely) in other cases besides the
nominative and accusative, e.g. in the ablative: Filio suo magistro
eqvitum creato (Liv. IV. 46), when he had named his son mag. eqv.
Consulibus certioribus factis (Liv. XLV. 21, from certiorem facio,
to apprise); and in the dative: Remisit tamen Octavianus Antonio
hosti judicato amicos omnes (Svet. Oct. 17).
§ 228. Some few words, all of which have for their object a
person (or something considered as a person), may take another
accusative, to denote a more remote object of the action; viz.: –
a. Doceo, to teach one a thing; edoceo, to inform, acquaint with;
dedoceo, to cause one to unlearn a thing (make one break off); celo, to
keep one in ignorance of a thing (conceal): e.g. docere aliqvem litteras.
Non celavi te sermonem hominum (Cic.). But we find also the
construction, docere aliqvem de aliqvare, signifying to acquaint with
something ; and celare aliqvem de aliqva re.
OBS. In the passive, the accusative may be retained with doceo
(doceri motus Ionicos, Hor. ; L. Marcius sub Cn. Scipione omnes
militiae artes edoctus fuerat, Liv.), especially with the participle
(doctus iter melius, Hor.; edoctus iter hostium, Tac.); but the
more usual expression is discere aliqvid (doceri de aliqvare, to be
informed). (Also, doctus Graecis litteris, skilled in Greek ; doceo
aliqvem Graece loqvi; Graece loqvi docendus.) The accusative
of a neuter pronoun may stand with celor (e.g. Hoc nos celatos non
oportuit, Ter. Hec. IV. 4, 23); otherwise, it is expressed celor de re
aliqva." -
b. Posco (reposco); flagito, to demand something from one; oro,
to pray for something; rogo, to ask ; interrogo (percontor), to ask
one about a thing: Verres parentes pretium pro sepultura liberum
* Docere aliqvem Latine, Graece (scire, nescire, oblivisci Latine, Grae-
ce); docere aliqvem fidibus (to teach one to play on a stringed instrument). With a
simple accusative of the thing in the signification to lecture on, trado (philosophiam
trado) is used in preference to doced. -
200 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 229
poscebat (Cic. Verr. I. 3). Caesar frumentum Aeduos flagitabat
(Caes. B. G. I. 16). Achaei regem auxilia orabant (Liv. XXVIII.
5). Tribunus me primum sententiam rogavit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 1).
Socrates pusionem geometrica quaedam interrogat (Cic. Tusc. I.
24). Hence, in the passive, interrogatus sententiam (and in the
poets, poscor aliqvid, something is desired of me).
OBS. 1. We may also say posco, flagito aliqvid ab aliqvo (as we
always find peto, postulo aliqvid ab aliqvo). (Precor decs, ut.)
Rogo and oro are also put merely with the name of the thing wished
for; rogare auxilium, pacem orare. These verbs have especially
two accusatives, when the object desired is expressed by the neuter of a
pronoun (e.g. hoc te oro; qvod me rogas), or of a numeral adjective
(unum, multa te rogo, see § 224). The same holds of rogo; inter-
rogo, to ask about ; they have a substantive as the accusative of the
thing only when they mean to call upon a person to say something:
e.g. sententiam, testimonium; with this exception, interrogo de
re aliqva. Percontor is rarely used in this way. (Si quis meum te
percontabitur aevum, Hor. Ep. I. 20, 26), commonly percontor
aliqvem, to examine a person, or percontor aliqvid ex aliqvo.
OBS. 2. Here we may also notice the expression, velle aliqvem
aliqvid, to want a thing from a person ; e.g. quid me vis?
§ 229. 1. The accus. neuter of a pronoun (id, hoc, illud, idem,
qvod, qvid, aliud, alterum, aliqvid, qvidpiam, qvidqvam, qvid-
qvid, nihil, utrumqve) or of a numeral adjective (unum, multa,
pauca), is sometimes subjoined to intransitive verbs, to denote, not
the proper object, but the compass and extent of the action (in gen-
eral). This is done— -
a. In particular with several verbs which denote a state of mind and
its expression; e.g. laetor, glorior, irascor, succenseo, assentior,
dubito, studeo. A more accurate definition is often annexed to the
pronoun by an additional clause. (The pronoun belongs properly to
the substantive notion contained in the verb itself; e.g. hoc glorior =
haec est gloriatio mea. If the object of the verb is to be expressed by
a substantive, another case, or a preposition, must be employed: e.g.
victoria glorior, de plerisqve rebus tibi assentior.) Vellem idem
posse gloriari, qvod Cyrus (Cie. Cat. M. 10), strictly, to boast the
same thing ; i.e. of the same thing. Utrumqve laetor, et sine dolore
corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1). Al-
terum fortasse dubitabunt, sitne tanta vis in virtute, alterum non
dubitabunt, qvin Stoici convenientia sibi dicant (Cic. Finn. V.
28). Illud vereor, ne tibi Dejotárum succensere aliqvid suspicere
§ 230 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 201
(Cic. pro Dej. 13), that he entertains some grudge. Omnes mulieres
eadem student (Ter. Hec. II. 1, 2), have the same inclinations.
b. Likewise, with other verbs, which may require, to complete their
notion, a similar definition of measure and extent: Qvid prodest
mentiri ? Hoc tamen profeci. Ea, qvae locuti sumus (different
from de qvibus locuti sumus). Si remittent qvidpiam dolores
(Ter. Hec. III. 2, 14). Si qvid adolescens offenderit, sibi totum,
tibi nihil offenderit (Cic. ad Fam. II. 18), if he commits a fault, he
will have to bear all the consequences, and not you. Callistratus in
oratione sua multa invectus est in Thebanos (Corn. Epam. 9),
heaped many reproaches on the Thebans. -
OBS. 1. Hence in the passive, si qvid offensum est, instead of the
purely impersonal, si offensum est. Hoc pugnatur (Cic. Rosc.
Am. 3), this is the object of the contest.
OBS. 2. With the phrase auctor sum (I advise, assure), we some-
times find a neuter pronoun in the singular, as with a transitive verb; e.g.
Consilium petis, qvid tibi sim auctor (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 8. Else-
where, cujus rei).
2. This method of limiting an action occurs sometimes, also, with transi-
tive verbs which have an accusative of the proper object: Qvidqvid
ab urbe longius arma profertis, magis magisqve in imbelles
gentes proditis (Liv. VII. 32). Nos aliqvid Rutulos juvimus
(Virg. Æn. X. 84). This is found especially with verbs of warning or
exhorting: moneo, admoneo, commoneo, hortor; also with cogo.
Discipulos id num moneo, ut praeceptor es non minus quam ipsa.
studia ament (Quint. II. 9, 1). Metellus pauca milites hortatus,
est (Sall. Jug. 49). Qvid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra
fames 2 (Virg. Æn. III. 56). This accusative is found with the passive
also: Non audimus ea, qvae ab natura monemur (Cic. Lael. 24).
If a neuter pronoun is not used, we find, e.g., admoneo aliqvem rei,
(§ 291), or de re. But in a very few cases we find the accusative of a sub-
stantive, instead of de; Eam rem nos locus admonuit (Sall. Jug. 79).
§ 230. The accusative is employed with the prepositions given in
$172, II. With regard to those prepositions which, according to
the different relations they express, may be employed with the accu-
sative or the ablative, the following observations may be useful.
In. a. In has the accusative when it denotes a motion to or into, or a
direction towards a thing, and in the kindred although not literal signi-
fications derived from these, and denoting a state of mind, action towards,
and in reference to something, activity in a certain direction, and with a
certain object. Proficisci in Graeciam, in carcerem conjicere, in civi-
tatem recipere; advenire in provinciam, convenire, congregari,
concurrere, exercitum contrahere in locum aliqvem (and hence
202 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 23O
congregari aliqvo, eo, not alicubi, ibi); tres pedes habere in longi-
tudinem, in latitudinem ; dicere in aliqvem, amor in patriam, me-
rita in rempublicam; accipere in bonam partem (in good part); in
speciem (for appearance's sake); mutari in saxum; consistere in
orbem (into a circle, so asto make a circle) ; in majus celebrare (so as
to exaggerate) ; grata lex in vulgus (in its effect om the lower classes);
multa dixi in eam sententiam (to this purport) ; in eas leges (on those
conditions, so that the conditions were such) ; in tres annos (for three
gyears); in omne tempus, in perpetuum ; in dies singulos crescere,
for every day, daily (in dies, day by day ; in horas, hourly); dividere
(distribuere, &c.), in tres partes, into three parts.' '
b. In has the ablative when it denotes the being or happening in a
thing or at a place, and in the significations derived from these (om, with
a thing, among, during am action, &c.) ; in urbe esse, in ripa sedere
(considere) ; in flumine navigare, in campo currere; vas in mensa
ponere; in Socrate (in Socrates, in the person qf Socrates); in opere
(in the workman's hands).
OBs. 1. Sometimes in stands with the ablative of a persom, in order to
distinguish it as the object om which something is practised, in reference
to which something takes place: Hoc facere in eo homine consve-
runt, cujus orationem approbant (Cæs. B. G. VII. 21). Achilles
non talis in hoste fuit Priamo (Virg. Æn. II. 540), did not conduet
himself thus toward (in reference to) him. Hoc dici in servo potest
(qf a slave).* (Poetically, ardere in aliqva, to be enamoured qf a.
person.) -
OBs. 2. In some few expressions, in, joined to esse and habere, is
occasionally (but only by way of exception) followed by an accusative
sing. instead of an ablative : e.g. habere in potestatem ; in amicitiam
dicionemqve populi Romani esse.*
OBs. 3. Although pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, have in
with the ablative (collocare aliqvid in mensa), yet we say imponere in
currum, in naves (in a carriage, to lade the ships), and sometimes
exponere milites in terram (to lamd) : but otherwise, imposuistis in
cervicibus nostris dominum; imponere praesidium arci, dative,
see § 243). (Reponere pecuniam in thesauris, and in thesauros, to
put it in the treasury.)
* In spem futurae multitudinis urbem munire (Liv. I. 8), with reference to the
hope, so as to conmect with it the hope.
* The relatiom expressed by the preposition in these sentences is better given by the phrase
in the case Qf; in eo homine, im the case qf that 7mam ; in Priamo, in the case qf Priam ;
in servo, in the case of a slave. (T.) i •
8 This originated in an inaccuracy of the pronunciation, where the distinction between the
accusative and ablative rested on the single letter m; om the other hand, we mever find such
phrases as in imperium esse, or in vincla habere. - - - .. . -
§ 230 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 203
OBS. 4. With certain verbs, the usage varies, in some cases, between
in with the accusative, and in with the ablative, with some slight differ-
ence of meaning. Thus, we find includere aliqvem in carcerem,
orationem in epistolam (to bring into), and includere aliqvem in
carcere (to shut up); also simply includere carcere (see Ś 263) and
includere aliqvid orationi suae (see, under the dative, $ 243); so
also condere aliqvem in carcerem (in vincula), to throw into prison,
but condere aliqvid in visceribus (Cic.), incidere aliqvid in aes
(to cut a thing in brass), in tabula (on a tablet), and incidere nomen
saxis (dat., see $ 243); imprimere, insculpere aliqvid in animis, in
cera and cerae. We find abdere se in aliqvem locum (in intimam
Macedoniam, Cic.), to go to a place for the purpose of concealment
(hence also abdere se domum, Arpinum, according to § 232, eo, ali-
qvo), but abdere milites in insidiis, abditus in tabernaculo.
Sub. a. Sub takes the accusative when it denotes motion and direc-
tion; e.g. sub scalas se conjicere, venire sub oculos, cadere sub
sensum; also of time, when it denotes towards, immediately after, at
about : sub noctem, sub adventum Romanorum, sub dies festos
(immediately after the holidays); sub idem tempus."
b. Sub has the ablative when it denotes the being under a thing; sub
mensa, esse sub oculis. (Rarely when applied to time; sub ipsa pro-
fectione, during the very time of.)
Super has the ablative, in prose, only when it signifies concerning:
Hac super rescribam ad te postea (Cic. ad Att. XVI. 6); with this
exception, it takes the accusative. (In the poets, we also find super foco,
on the hearth, &c.)
Subter (under, on the under side of) usually has the accusative, very
rarely the ablative, and that only in the poets; e.g. subter prae-
cordia.
OBS. 1. The compound adverbs, pridie and postridie, are also, to a
certain extent, used as prepositions with the accusative, but in good
writers only with the days of the month, and the names of festiva's
(pridie Idus, postridie Nonas, postridie ludos Apollinares); with
the genitive usually only in the expression, pridie, postridie ejus diei.
For a peculiar use of the preposition ante (in ante, ex ante), see the
section on the Calendar, in the Appendix.
OBS. 2. Not only is the adverb propius, proxime (according to $172,
Obs. 4), used like the preposition prope with the accusative (more rarely
with the dative), but even the adjective is sometimes constructed in this
way: e.g. propior montem (Sall.), proximus mare (Caes.); but the
dative is, in such cases, the most usual. (Proximus ab aliqvo, the next
after a person, in a series, like prope ab, not far from ; propius a terra
r—
* [Extremae sub casum hiermis, jam vere seremo (Virg, Georg. I. 840).]
204 LATIN GRAMMAR. • **4 § 232
moveri; proxime alter ab altero habitant. In the signification
near, we find both accedo prope aliqvem and prope accedo ad ali-
qvem.) .
§ 231. With the following transitive verbs compounded with
trans, – traduc0, trajicio, transport0,--we have not only the name
of the object, but also that of the place over which a thing is led
or transported, in the accusative (which belongs to the preposition):
Hannibal copias Iberum traduxit. Caesar milites navibus
flumen transportat. (Also traducere, trajicere, homines trans
Rhenum.)” - 3
OBs. Of the same character is the expression adigo aliqvem arbi-
trum, to bring a person before (ad) the judge ; and adigo aliqvem jus-
jurandum (also ad jusjurandum, and adigo aliqvem jurejurando),
to put one to his oath.
§ 232. The proper names of towns and smaller islands (each of
which may be considered as a town) stand in the accusative with-
out a preposition, when they are specified as the place where the
motion is to end:—
Roman ire, Athenas proficisci, Delum navigare (appellere clas-
sem Puteolos, navis appellitur Syracusas, runs into the harbor of
Syracuse). Haec via Capuam ducit. Usqve Ennam profecti sunt
(Cic. Verr. IV. 49), as far as to. But ad is used when only the vicin-
ity of the town is meant; Adolescentulus miles ad Capuam profectus
sum (Cic. Cat. M. 4), to an encampment before Capua. -
OBS. 1. Where no motion is indicated, but only an extent of space
expressed, the preposition is added; omnis ora Salónis ad Oricum
(Caes. B. C. III. 8).
OBs. 2. If urbs or oppidum be prefixed, the preposition is inserted:
Consul pervenit in oppidum Cirtam (Sall. Jug. 102), into Cirta; ad
oppidum Cirtam would mean, arrived at Cirta. So also usually, when
urbs or oppidum with an adjective is put after the proper name;
Demaratus Corinthus contulit se Tarqvinios in urbem Etruriae
florentissimam (Cic. R. P. II. 19). -
OBs. 3. In is used with the names of countries, and larger islands.
Sometimes, however, we find the names of larger islands constructed
like the names of towns; in Cyprum venit, and Cyprum missus
est.
OBs. 4. In the poets, the names of countries also are put as the place
where a motion is to end without a preposition; e.g. Italiam venit
1 Trajicere exercitum Pado, on the Po; trajicere, transmittere flumen, to
cross the river. Trajicere in Africam, without an object, to cross over to Africa. . .
§ 234 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 205
(Virg.). (Occasionally, in prose, the Greek names of countries in us,
as Aegyptus, Epirus, Bosporus; e.g. Aegyptum proficisci (Corn.
Dat. 4). The poets also use national names, as well as common names
in general, when considered as the place where a motion is to end, in the
accusative without a preposition; e.g. Ibimus Afros (Virg. Ecl.
I. 64). Tua mea imago haec limina tendere adegit (Id. Æn. VI.
696). Verba refers aures non pervenientia nostras (Ovid, Met.
III. 462).'
§ 233. The accusatives domum, home ; and rus, to the country, —
are constructed like the names of towns: e.g. domum reverti, rus
ire; also, domos, of several different homes ; e.g. ministerium resti-
tuendorum domos obsidum (Liv. XXII. 22), the business Qf bring-
άng each qf the hostages to his home. To domum may be added a
possessive pronoum or a genitive, in order to show whose house is
meant: e.g. domum meam, domum Pompeji venisti (domum alie-
nam, domum regiam = regis); domos suas discesserunt (Corn.
Them. 4) ; but we also find in domum suam, in domum Pompeji
(and domum ad Pompejum).
OBS. 1. With other pronouns and adjectives in must be inserted; in
domum amplam et magnificam venire.
OBs. 2. The accusative of the place is sometimes joined to a verbal
substantive: domum reditio (Caes.); reditus inde Romam (Cic.).*
§ 234. a. When the measure of extent is given, or a movement
is measured, the word which expresses the measure is put in the
accusative with verbs, and such adjectives or adverbs as express
extension (longus, latus, altus, crassus); e.g.:—
Hasta sex pedes longa; fossa decem pedes alta; terram duos
pedes alte infodere. Fines Helvetiorum patebant in longitudi-
nem ducenta qvadraginta millia passuum. Caesar tridui iter pro-
cessit. A recta conscientia transversum ungvem (a finger's breadth)
non oportet discedere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 20). a
b. When a distance is specified (abesse, distare), the measure
may stand either in the accusative or the ablative ; e.g. :— '
Abesse tridui iter (Cic.). Teanum abest a Larino xviii
millia passuum (Cic. pro Cluent. 9). Aesculapii templum v mil-
libus passuum ab Epidauro distat (Liv. XLV. 28).
* [Tumulum antiqvae Cereris, sedemqve sacratam venimus (Virg. Æn. II•
742).] -
* [Iter Italiam (Virg. Æn. III. 507). Hac iter elysium (Id. Æn. VI. 542).]
206 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 235
In like manner both cases are used when it is said at what dis-
tance a thing takes place ; e.g.:—
-Ariovistus millibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit;
(Cæs. B. G. I. 48). Caesar millia passuum tria ab Helvetiorum
castris castra ponit (Id. ibid. I. 22). -
OBs. So also magnum spatium abesse (Cæs. B. G. II. 17), and
aeqvo spatio a castris utrisqve abesse (Id. ibid. I. 43). But if
spatium or intervallum be used in -defining the distance at, which a
thing happens, these words always stand in the ablative: e.g. Rex
Juba sex millium passuum intervallo consedit (Cæs. B. C. II. 38).
Hannibal xv ferme miillium spatio castra ab Tarento posuit
(Liv. XXV. 9). If the place from which the distance is reckoned
is not specified, the preposition ab only often stands before the
measure ; A. millibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt (Cæs.
E. G. II. 7).'
c. In the same way with the adjective natus (so and so) old ;
the number of the years (the measure of the age) is put in the
accusative ; viginti annos natus.
OBS. Concerning the way of designating the measure by comparison
with natus (major natus, more tham, §years old), and other adjec-
tives of extension (e.g. longior, more tham, ells, and the like, long,
&c.), see § 306.
§ 285. In specifying duration and extent of time (how long?), the
words which define the time are put in the accusative : —
IPericles qvadraginta annos praefuit Athenis. Veji urbs decem
aestates hiemesqve continuas circumsessa est (Liv. V. 22). An-
num jam audis Cratippum (Cic. Off. I. 1). Dies noctesqve fata
nos circumstant (Id. Phil. X. 10).* Ex eo dies continuos qvinqve
Caesar copias pro castris produxit (Cæs. B. G. I. 48), did it omce
a day for five successive days. Occasionally per is prefixed (as in English
fhrough) ; Ludi decem per dies facti sunt (Cic. in Cat. III. 8),
through tem whole days.
OBs. 1. The way in which time is expressed with ordinals should be
noticed; Mithridates annum jam tertium et vigesimum regnat (of
the current year).
OBs. 2. The accusative also stands with abhinc, ago ; e.g. Qvaestor
fuisti abhinc annos qvattuordecim.
-
1 [INTaves ex eo loco ab millibus passuum octo vento tenebantur (Cæs. B.
G. IV. 22).]
* Not maerely by day and by night, but all through the day and night.
§ 237 RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 207
OBS. 3. The ablative, to express duration of time, is rare in the best
writers: Tota aestate Nilus Aegyptum obrutam oppletamgve tenet
(Cic. N. D. II. 52). Pugnatum est continenter horis qvingve
(Caes. B. C. I.47). This construction occurs more frequently in later
writers; e.g. Octoginta annis vixit (Senec. Ep. 93). On the other hand,
to express the time which is applied to any purpose, and in which it is .
accomplished, the ablative is always employed; e.g. Tribus diebus opus
perfici potest. See § 276.
§ 236. In exclamations of astonishment or suffering at the condi-
tion or character of a person or thing, the person or thing stands in
the accusative with or without an interjection : —
Heu me miserum! or Me miserum ! O fallacem hominum spem
fragilemqve fortunam (Cic. de Or. DII. 2). Testes egregios (iron-
ical.)
OBS. 1. In the exclamation with the interjection pro, the vocative is
employed: Pro, Di immortales! Pro, sancte Juppiter 1 except in the
phrase, Pro deum (hominum, deum atqve hominum) fidem The
vocative of direct address may also be used with o : O magna vis veri-
tatis! O fortunate adolescens, qvi tuae virtutis Homerum praeco- .
nem inveneris! (Cic. pro Arch. 10).
OBs. 2. With the interjections hei and vae, which express lamenta-
tion, the name of the person or thing lamented is put in the dative:
Hei mihil Vae tergo meo
OBS. 3. With en and ecce (which call the attention to something as
present), we often find the nominative (in Cicero, always): Ecce tuae
litterae (behold, there came your letter). En memoria mortui sodalis.
The accusative occurs less frequently. -
§ 237. The poets use the accusative more freely in certain com-
binations, and in this some prose-writers imitate them in a few
instances.
a. The passive of the verbs cingo, to gird; accingo, induo, to clothe:
exuo, to undress ; induco, to draw over, — is employed with a new active
signification, — to clothe one's self with, to put on, exuor, to put off, and
constructed with the accusative: Coroebus Androgei galeam clipei-
qve insigne decorum induitur (Virg. Æn. II. 392). Priamus inu-
tile ferrum cingitur (Id. ibid. II. 511). (Figuratively: magicas
accingi artes (Id. ib. IV. 493), to put on magic as armor, to equip one's
self with it. Inducta cornibus aurum victima (Ov. Met. VII. 161).
Virgines longam indutae vestem (Liv. XXVII. 37). (Otherwise
in prose: induo aliqvem veste; also, induc vestem, to put on a
dress.)
208 LATIN GRAMMAR. * § 237
OBs. In the same way, it is said, Cyclopa moveri, to dance a Cy-
clops (represent him in dancing); and, in prose: censeri magnum agri
modum, to return a large quantity of land.ſor assessment.
b. The participle perfect of the passive (as in Greek the parti-
ciple perfect of the passive and middle) is used of a person who has
done something to himself, as an active verb, with an accusative: —
Dido Sidoniam picto chlamydem circumdata limbo (Virg. Æn.
IV. 137), who had on, qvae sibi circumdederat. Pueri laevo sus-
pensi loculos tabulam que lacerto (Hor. Sat. I. 6,74), who had—sus-
pended. Juno nondum antiqvum saturata dolorem (Virg. Æn. V.
608), who had not yet satisfied her pique."
OBS. But it is sometimes employed also to designate a person to
whom something is done (by others); e.g. per pedes trajectus
lora tumentes (Virg. Æn. II. 273), who has straps drawn through his
feet.
c. The accusative is put with passive and intransitive verbs, and
with adjectives, to denote that part of the subject with reference to
... which the verb or adjective is predicated of it: —
Nigrantes terga juvenci (Virg. Æn. V. 97); lacer ora; os humer-
osqve ded similis. Eqvus micat auribus et tremit artus (Virg. G.
III. 84). An accusative, denoting something incorporeal, is found
so used in a few instances: Qvi genus (estis) 2 (Virg. Æn. VIII.
114). In this way, passive verbs acquire a reflective signification
(as under ö); Capita Phrygio velamur amictu (Virg. Æn. III.
545), we cover our heads.
OBs. 1. In prose, the active is used for the reflective expression
(velamus capita); otherwise, the ablative is always employed in this
construction (ore humerisqve deo similis). See § 253. Only in
speaking of wounds, we find the accusative with ictus, saucius, trans-
verberatus, &c.; Adversum femur tragula ictus (Liv. XXI. 7).
OBs. 2. This use of the accusative, as well as that explained under
a and b, is common in Greek, and has originated in Latin (with a few
exceptions, as with censeor) from an imitation of that language.
OBs. 3. In a similar way (adverbially) are used, in prose, the expres-
sions, magnam (maximam) partem, for the most part (e.g. Svevi
maximam partem lacte atqve pecore vivunt, Caes. B. G. IV. 1),”
and vicem alicujus (mean, vestram, &c.), for any one, on account of
(properly, instead of), particularly with intransitive verbs and adjectives,
1 [Nodo sinus collecta fluentes (Wirg. Æn. I. 320).]
* Ex aliqva, magna, majore parte, partially, for the most part.
§ 24O ^ THE DATIVE. * 209
which denote an emotion of the mind: tuam vicem saepe doleo,
indignor; nostram vicem irascuntur; sollicitus, anxius reipub-
licae vicem; suam vicem (for his part) officio functus. So like-
wise cetera, in other respects ; vir cetera egregius (Liv.).
§ 238. In a few phrases, the accusative stands for the more special
case, genitive or ablative ; se. id temporis, for eo tempore (e.g.
id temporis eos venturos esse praedixeram, Cic. in Cat. I. 4) ;
id (illud) aetatis, for ejus aetatis (e.g. homo id aetatis; qvum
esset illud aetatis), and id (hoc, omne) genus, for ejus (hujus
omnis) generis (e.g. id genus alia, other things Qf that kind).
OBs. Concerning the genitive in id temporis, compare § 285, b.
On virile, muliebre secus, see § 55, 5.
§ 239. We must particularly notice the elliptical expression, Qvo
mihi (tibi), with an accusative, signifying, What am I (are you) to
do with ? qf what use is to me (to yov) ? e.g. Qvo mihi for-
tunam, si non conceditur uti? (Hor. Ep. I. 5, 12) ; and similarly :
Unde mihi (tibi), Where can I get ? e.g. unde mihi lapidem ?
(Id. Sat. II. 7, 116). (Qvo tibi, Pasiphaë, pretiosas sumere ves-
tes? Ov. A. A. I. 303.)
CHAPTER III.
T H E ID A T I V E.
§ 240. The remaining cases, except the vocative, denote severally
a particular relation, in which a person or thing stands either to an
action, but without being immediately the object acted on (accu-
sative), or to amother person or thing.
OBs. The dative and the ablative primarily denoted the local relation
of a person or thing to an action ; viz., the dative, the direction of the
action towards something external to itself, or its taking place near it;
the ablative, the taking place of the action on or in something (also, at
the same time its proceeding from a place, from being in a place).
Subsequently, these cases were used of other relations, in which
the imagination discovered a resemblance with the outward material
relations. This now became the proper leading signification of these
cases; and the actual local relations were, for the most part, defined
more closely through the medium of prepositions, sometimes with one
of these special eases (the ablative), sometimes with the accusative, as
the general form of the word.
14
210 LATIN GRAMMAR. ' § 241
§ 241. The dative denotes, in general, that what is asserted by
the predicate is done, or holds good, for and in reference to some
particular person or thing (the relation of interest): —
Subsidium bellissimum senectuti est otium (Cic. de Or. I. 60).
Charondas et Zaleucus leges civitatibus suis scripserunt (Id.
Legg. II. 6). Domus pulchra dominis aedificatur, non muribus
(Id. N. D. III. 10). Foro nata eloqventia est (Id. Brut. 82). Non
scholae, sed vitae discimus (Sen. Ep. 106). Sex. Roscius praedia
coluit aliis, non sibi (Cic. Rosc. Am. 17), for the benefit qf. Nihil
loci est segnitiae neqve socordiae (Ter. Andr. I. 8, 1). Orabo
nato uxorem (Id. ib. III. 2, 47), I will propose for her for my son.
Eilius Blaesi militibus missionem petebat (Tac. Ann. I. 19), applied
for discharge for the soldiers.
OBS. 1. This dative, which is not (as in the following special rules)
attached to a single word, but to the whole predicate, is commonly
called Dativus commodi and incommodi.
• *
OBs. 2. The special signification in defence qf (a person or thing)
never resides in the dative, but is expressed by pro: Dicere pro
aliqvo, pugnare pro nobilitate, pro patria mori; so also we find
esse pro aliqvo, in his favor : Hoc non contra me est, sed pro me.
OBS. 3. A whole proposition is sometimes qualified by a dative of
interest, to show in reference to what a thing is so and so, instead
of qualifying a single substantive by means of a genitive or preposition:
Is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. II. 30. Also, populationum).
Qvis huic rei testis est? (Cic. pro Quinct. 11). Ei bestiarum cor-
poribus multa remedia morbis et vulneribus eligimus (Cic. N. D.
II. 64. Also, contra morbos, or remedia morborum). Neqve
mihi ex cujusqvam amplitudine aut praesidia peribulis aut ad-
jumenta honoribus qvaero (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 24, in which example
the double dative should be remarked ; I seek for myself no protection
against (in reference to) future dangers : adversus pericula, praesidia
periculorum). Aduatuci locum sibi domicilio delegerunt (Cæs;
E. G. II. 29). The poets take greater liberties in this respect: e.g.
Ibissimulant, qvae sit rebus causa novandis (Virg. Æn. IV. 290) ;
otherwise, causa hujus rei novandae). (Longo bello materia,'
Tac. H. I. 89.)
OBs. 4. We may particularly notice the use of the dative with the
verb sum with a predicate noun, where it is specified in what relation
one person stands to another: Murena legatus Lucullo fuit (Cie. pro .
Mur. 9), legatus with Lucullus, Qf Lucullus. L. Mescinius heres est
M. Mindio, fratri suo (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 26). IDucem esse alicui,
to be one's leader.
§ 242 THE DATIVE. 211
OBs. 5. Here we may also notice the dative with facio (fio), with
qvid, idem, signifying to do with one (in relation to one): e.g. quid
facies huic conclusioni? (Cic. Acad. II. 30). Qvid 2 Eupolemo
non idem Verres fecit? (Cic. Verr. IV. 22). Qvid mihi futurum
est? On the ablative in this signification (hoc homine), see § 267.
OBs. 6. The dative of a participle is occasionally used to denote when
(under what circumstances) a thing occurs: Sita Anticyra est in Lo-
cride laeva parte sinum Corinthiacum intrantibus (Liv. XXVI.
26), on the left to those who sail in = on the left as you sail in. Duo
milites neqvaqvam visu ac specie aestimantibus pares (Liv. VII.
10). -
§ 242. The dative is particularly joined to many verbs which
in themselves denote an acting in reference to something. Many
transitive verbs express an action, which, besides the object acted
on, concerns another person or thing with reference to which it is
performed, and therefore take two substantives, the proper object
in the accusative, and a reference object, or more remote object, to
which the action is directed, in reference to which it is performed,
in the dative: Dedi puero librum; trado provinciam succes-
sori; erranti viam monstro. The dative also stands with the
passive of these verbs, the relation, being the same: Liber puero
datus est; provincia successori traditur; erranti via mon-
stratur. -
Such verbs are, e.g., do, trado, tribuo, concedo; divido, to dis-
tribute; fero, to bring ; praebeo, praesto, polliceor, promitto; debeo,
to be indebted; nego, adimo, monstro, dico, narro, mando, praecipio,
&c. (with which the more remote object is most frequently a person). But,
besides this, the dative stands with all expressions formed of a verb and
an accusative, which in their combination denote a similar relation to a
person or thing: e.g. modum ponere irae; patefacere, praecludere
aditum hosti ; fiden habere alicui, or narrationi alicujus ; morem
gerere alicui, to humor a person; nullum locum relinqvere precibus,
honestae morti; dicere (statuere) diem colloqvio, to fia: a day for
a conference. --
OBS. 1. This dative of the more remote object is sometimes properly
used with Latin verbs, where, on account of the somewhat different mean-
ing and construction of the English phrases commonly used in translating
them, we should have expected a different construction in Latin. So we
find probare alicui sententiam suam, to make his opinion agreeable to
some one (in the passive, haec sententia mihi probatur); conciliare
Pompejum Caesari, to make Pompey a friend to Caesar, gain him over
212 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 243
to Caesar; placare aliqvem alicui. Especially should we notice
minari (minitari) alicui malum, mortem, to threaten one with a mis-
Jortune, with death (on the other hand, minari alicui baculo, abl. with
the stick, as an instrument). (The construction svadere alicui aliqvid
is generally found only when the object is a pronoun: as, faciam, qvod
mihi svades; otherwise, we most usually find svadere bellum (with-
out a dative); or svadere alicui ut [to advise one to — J. The same
holds of persvadeo [in the passive, persvasum mihi est, ut]).
OBS. 2. In compound phrases, the usage sometimes fluctuates (com-
pare $ 241, Obs. 3) between the dative qualifying the whole phrase, and
the genitive qualifying the object of the proposition: e.g. finem facere
injuriis, to put an end to the injuries, to set bounds to them; but finem
facere scribendi, to leave off writing. -
OBS. 3. In English, this relation of the more remote object is usually
denoted by prepositions (for, to, &c.). In Latin, ad can only stand
when an actual motion to a place (or to a person in a place) is intended.
We find dare alicui litteras, to give one a letter to take care of; but
dare litteras ad aliqvem, to write a letter to some one; mittere alicui
aliqvid, to send one something (that he is to have); mittere legatos
ad aliqvem, mittere litteras alicui and ad aliqvem; scribere ad ali-
qvem, to write to some one; scribere alicui, to write something for one;
dicere ad populum, to make a speech before the people (not to say to
the people). º
$ 243. A reference to something distinct from the proper object
is often expressed by compounding the verb with one of the prepo-
sitions ad, ante, circum (con), de, ex, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
sub. With these verbs (both in the active and the passive), the
more remote object to which the preposition applies is put in the
dative. But if an actual or figurative local relation (motion to or
from a place, a continuance or agency in a place) is clearly indi-
cated by those verbs which are compounded with ad, de, ex, in,
sub, then (in the best prose-writers) the preposition is usually
repeated and constructed with its proper case: —
a. Afferre reipublicae magnam utilitatem; affere alicui vim,
manus; consuli milites circumfundebantur; circumdare brachia
collo, to put one's arms round a person's neck; Caesar Ambiorigi
auxilia Menapiorum et Germanorum detraxit; urbs hostibus
erepta est; inferre alicui injuriam; injicere hominibus timorem;
imponere alicui negotium ; objicere aliqvem telis hostium; hon-
estas praefertur utilitati; omnia virtuti postponi debent; homines
non liberiter se alterius potestati subjiciunt; supponere ova
gallinis.
§ 243 THE DATIVE. 213
b. (Manifest local relation): Ad nos multi rumores afferuntur;
affigere litteram ad caput alicujus (Cic. Rosc. Am. 20), to fasten it
on his head; detrahere annulum de digito; injicere se in hostes,
into the midst of the enemy; inscribere aliqvid in tabula; inferre
signa in hostem; * imponere in cervicibus hominum sempiternum
dominum (a figurative but manifest local relation); imprimere
notionem in animis; eripere aliqvem e periculo.”
OBS. 1. In the case of some verbs compounded with ad, the preposi-
tion is repeated, even without its proper signification, in preference to
employing the dative, especially with addo, adjicio: adjungo, to add
(but adjungo mihi amicum, I gain myself a friend); applico me ad
virtutem, ad philosophiam, ad aliqvem doctorem, I attach myself
to him ; adhibeo ad aliqvid, to apply to any purpose. Subjicio
and subjungo occur in derived signification with both constructions:
Mummius Achajae urbes multas sub imperium populi Romani
subjunxit; subjicio aliqvid oculis and sub oculos, to place some-
thing (under) before one's eyes, sensibus and sub sensus. We read
extorqvere alicui gladium and pecuniam ab aliqvo; impendere
pecuniam, operam in aliqvid, and (in later writers) alicui rei.
OBS. 2. The verbs compounded with cum usually repeat the preposi-/
tion; confero, comparo, compono aliqvid cum aliqvo, conjungo
eloqventiam cum philosophia. Yet we find also the dative: Ennius n
eqvi fortis senectuti comparat suam (Cic. Cat. M. 5); parva com-
ponere magnis. Tibi me studia communia beneficiaqve tua jam
ante conjunxerant (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 11). We find always, com-
munico aliqvid cum aliqvo.
OBs. 3. The later writers (from Livy downwards) use the dative with
increasing frequency, even in an improper signification, like the poets:
e.g. incidere nomen saxis (Plin. Min. Incidere legem in aes;
foedus in columna incisum, Cic.). Insculpere elogium tumulo
(Svet.). - -
OBs. 4. The dative is also sometimes put with continuo (laborem
nocturnum diurno, cause it to follow immediately after), socio, jungo,
on account of their similarity in signification with these compound verbs.
* [Inferretolve deos Latio (Virg. AEm. I 6).]
* The following verbs, as well as some others, belong to this class: affero, affigo,
admisceo, admoveo, circumdo, circumfundo, circumjicio, circumpono,
detraho, decutio, deripio, detero, eripio, extorqveo, impono, imprimo, in-
fero, injicio, interpono, objicio, offero, offundo, oppono, praeficio, subdo,
subjicio, subjungo, supporo, subtraho (superpono); and those which denote a ,
comparison: antefero, antepono, praefero, praepono, posthabeo, postpono ;
to these we may add aufero.
214 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 244
(Sapientia juncta eloqventiae, Cic.) So also aeqvare aliqvem
alicui, to put one person on a level with another; aeqvare turrim
muris, to make the tower equal to the walls, i.e. to build it as high.
OBs. 5. For another construction with adspergo, circumdo, and
some other verbs, see § 259, b.
§ 244. a. The dative is also used for the more remote object with
various intransitive verbs, which denote an action, state of mind, or
condition, with reference to a person or thing, but without convey-
ing (to a Latin) the idea of an immediate acting upon it (e.g. to
benefit, to injure, to please, &c.) : — &
Prodesse reipublicae et civibus; nocere hosti; memo omnibus
placere potest; magnus animus victis parcit.
The most important of these are : —
a. (Those which signify to benefit, to injure): prosum, obsum,
noceo, incommodo, expedit, conducit."
b. (To be for or against, to yield): adversor, obtrecto, officio,
cedo, suffragor, refragor, intercedo, gratificor.
c. (To be well or ill affected): cupio (alicui, to wish one well),
faveo, gratulor, studeo ignosco, indulgeo, invideo,” insidior.
d. (To assist, to take care for, to remedy, to spare): auxilior,
opitulor, patrocinor,” consulo, prospicio, medeor (sano governs
the acc.), parco.
e. (To please, to displease): placeo, displiceo.
f. (To order, obey, serve, advise, persuade): impero,” obedio,
obseqvor, obtempero, pareo, servio, famulor, suadeo,persuadeo.
g. (To be friendly or unfriendly, or to speak as such): assentior,
blandior, irascor, succenseo, convicior, maledico, minor.
h. (To trust, to distrust): credo, fido, confido, diffido.”
i. Desum (liber mihi deest, I have not the book ; amicis, officio
deesse, not to support one's friends, not to do one's duty; * nubo, to
marry (used only of a woman);’ propinqvo (appropinqvo), to ap-
proach ; supplico, to implore; * videor, to seem. -
* Taedo, to injure, offend, transitive, aliqvem or aliqvid.
* Invideo is followed by the dative either of the person or the thing; invideo tibi and .
invideo felicitati tuae. When both person and thing are to be expressed, the usual con-
struction is, e.g., Caesaris laudi invidebat, ignosco festimationi alicujus.
* Adjuvo aliqvem, to aid, further, transitive.
~ * Jubeo aliqvid, aliqvem facere aliqvid, transitive.
" * Fido and confido (rarely diffido) also govern the ablative.
* Careo, to be without, dispense with, re aliqva. IXeficio, to fail, frequently with the
accusative (vox Oratorem). -
* Nupta alicui and cum aliq vo.
* Precor, to entreat, deos, transitive.
§ 244 THE DATIVE. 215
k. (To happen, to befall): accidit, contingit, evenit.
l. Libet, licet. The same is the construction of the phrases obviam
eo (obvius sum, fio), praesto sum ; dicto audiens sum (alicui), to
listen to a man, obey him; supplex sum, auctor sum (alioui, to advise
one).
the subject with the passive; and such verbs (like those which are
intránsitive) can only be used impersonally in the passive, in which
case the dative follows without alteration: —
Invidetur (men envy) praestanti florentiqve fortunae (Cic. de
Or. II. 52). Non parcetur labori (Id. ad Att. II. 14). Nemini
nocetur; legibus parendum est (one must obey). Obtrectatum est
adhuc Gabinio (Id. pro Leg. Man. 19). Divitibus invideri solet,
nem are accustomed to envy. Mihi nunqvam persvaderi potuit,
animos esse mortales (Cic. Cat. M. 22), no man has ever been able to
convince me.
The beginner must take particular care that he is not misled by the
b. This more remote object cannot, like the proper object, become
i
English phrases, I am envied, maligned, &c., to use the verbs, obtrecto,
invideo, parco, maledico, and studeo, personally in the passive.
OBS. 1. With some verbs the construction varies between the dative
and the accusative, according to the meaning." Metuo, timeo, caveo,
signify, with an accusative (aliqvem, aliqvid), to fear some one (some-
thing), to beware of something (an evil, an enemy); with a dative,
to be (from a motive of kindness) anxious or apprehensive for some-
thing: e.g. timeo libertati, caveo veteranis (poetically, mater pallet
pueris).” Prospicio and provideo, with a dative, signify, to be pro-
spectively anxious about a thing: e.g. prospicere saluti, providere
vitae hominum; with an accusative, to take care for the providing of
something, e.g. frumentum. Tempero aliqvid, to order, to regulate
(properly, to mix): e.g. rempublicam legibus; moderor aliqvid, to
conduct, arrange; e.g. consilia; with a dative, to moderate: e.g. tem-
pero, moderor irae, laetitiae. Consulo, see $223, b, Obs. *
OBs. 2. Some few verbs are used both with the accusative and the
dative without any perceptible difference in their signification: adiilor
(generally the accusative), aemülor (almost always the accusative),
comitor, despèro (salutem and saluti; pace desperata, after the hope
of peace was given up), praestolor. In poetry, verbs of contending,
&c. (certo, pugno, luctor), with the dative instead of the ablative
with cum ; e.g. Frigida pugnabant calidis (Ov. Met. I. 19).
* [Consulere sibi and se (Cic. Cat. II. 27).]
* Caveo (mihi) ab aliqvo, ab aliqvare, to be an one’s guard against a person or
thing.
216 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 245
OBS. 3. Some few of these verbs have also such atransitive signification,
that they may take (according to § 242) both a proper object in the ac-
cusative and a more remote object: as, credo alicui aliqvid, to trust a
thing to any one (aliqvid creditur alicui); impero provinciae
tributum, milites, to command a province to pay tribute, to furnish
troops (tributum imperatur provinciae); minor alicui mortem (see
$ 242, Obs. 1); prospicere, providere exercitui frumentum. (In-
video alicui aliqvam rem, - whence res invidenda, a thing for which
a person is to be envied,—but more commonly aliqva re. See $260, b.)
OBS. 4. To change such a dative into the subject of a proposition,
and to use the verb personally in the passive, is a rare irregularity:
Eigo cur, acqvirere pauca si possum, invideor 2 (Hor. A. P. 56).
Vix eqviden credor (Ov. Trist. III. 10, 35). Medendis corporibus
(Liv. VIII. 36), by the healing of the bodies.
OBS. 5. In a few instances, a substantive which is derived from a
verb that governs the dative, and denotes the idea contained in it, is
itself constructed alone with the dative: Insidiae consuli non pro-
cedebant (Sall. Cat. 32), the plots against the consul did not succeed.
. Obtemperatio legibus (Cic. Legg. I. 15).
§ 245. a. The intransitive verbs compounded with the preposi-
tions ad, ante (con), in, inter, ob, post, prae, re, sub, super, like
the transitive verbs similarly compounded (§ 243), take the dative
to express relation to another object; namely, that to which the
preposition applies, if the compound verb has a secondary meaning,
which suggests no idea of any local relation; e.g. : —
Adesse amicis, antecellere omnibus, instare victis et fugienti-
bus, indormire causae (to sleep over a cause), intervenire, interesse
praelio, occurrere venientibus, praeesse exercitui, resistere inva-
dentibus, respondere exspectationi, subvenire egentibus, suc-
cumbere dolori. The dative remains unaltered, if the verb stands
impersonally in the passive: Resistitur audaciae hominum; egenti-
bus subveniendum est."
1. Such verbs are adjaceo, alludo, annuo, arrêpo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior,
assideo, asto, antecedo, anteed, antecello (see § 224, d), colliido, congruo,
consentio, convenire (to be fitting, suitable; convenire cum, to agree with ; pax,
res convenit inter nos, we are agreed about peace, the matter); consto (mihi), con-
söno, incumbo (incubo), indormio, inhaereo, illudo (auctoritati; also transi–
tive, praecepta), immorior, inna scor, innitor, insto, insisto, insulto (alicui in
calamitate; also, patientiam alicujus); interjaceo (rarely with an accusative), in-
tervenio, occurmbo (morti, but more frequently morterm or morte, in death);
obrépo, obsto, obstrépo, obtingo, obvenio, obversor, praesidio, repugno,
resisto, succumbo, supersto, with the compounds of sum. -
§ 246 THE DATIVE. 21'ſ
b. But if a local relation be clearly designed, though only figura-
tively, the preposition with its case is commonly used:—
Adhaeret navis ad scopulum. Inhaeret sententia in animo.
Ajax ineubuit in gladium. Severitas inest in vultu. Incurrere
in hostes; invehi in aliqvem; incurrere in reprehensionem; in-
cidere in periculum, in morbum (to fall); concurrere, congredi Gum
hoste; cohaerere cum aliqvo. - -
Sometimes a different preposition is employed to denote the local
relation more accurately; e.g. obrepere in animum, obversari ante
oculos.
Ops. 1. In individual verbs, we must particularly notice the way in
which the idea is conceived; so we have incumbo in or ad studium
aliqvod, to apply one's self to a study ; acqviesco in aliqvo, to acquiesce
in any thing, to find composure in it. In general, the older prose-
writers more frequently repeat the preposition (e.g. always insum in);
the poets and later writers use the dative more (inesse rei), even
where the verb has its own proper signification: e.g. accidere genibus
praetoris (Livy; we find in Cicero, ad pedes alicujus), congredi
alicui, cohaerere alicui.
OBs. 2. The preposition is never repeated with adjaceo, assideo,
asto (assidere alicui, not ad aliqvem.); accedo, on the other hand,
never has the dative, except in the signification to join, to go over to (an
opinion, a party), accedo Ciceroni, sententiae Ciceronis, or when it
means to be added ; otherwise, the construction is always accedo ad.
In the poets and some few prose-writers (chiefly of a later age), the
accusative is sometimes found after the compounds of jaceo, sedeo, and
those verbs which denote motion, with ad in its proper signification (i.e.
applied to space), without the preposition being repeated: e.g. assidere
muros, adjacere Etruriam (Livy); allabi Oras, accedere aliqvem
(Sall.), advolvi genua. On the verbs compounded with ante, and on
praesto, see § 224, d.
§ 246. The verb sum stands with the dative, to denote that some-
thing exists for (is possessed by) a person or thing : —
Sex nobis filii sunt. Hominicum deo similitudo est (Cic. Legg.
I. 8). Jam Troicis temporibus erat honos eloqventiae (Cic. Brut.
10). Controversia mihi fuit cum avunculo tuo (Cic. Fin. III. 2).
Rhodiis cum populo Romano amicitia societasqve est, the Rho-
dians are friends and allies of the Romans.
T} iſ .
§ {*- : ***, * .
OBs. 1. This form of expression is commonly used only to denote *
what belongs to a person or thing as a possession or given relation, not
of what appertains to it as a quality or as a constituent part. We should
therefore avoid such phrases as Ciceroni magna fuit eloqventia (for in
218 LATIN GRAMMAR. . . § 247
Á *
Cicerone), or Huic provinciae urbes sunt opulentissimae tres (for
Haec provincia urbes habet, or In hac provincia sunt, &c.).
OBS. 2. In the expression mihi (tibi, ei rei) est nomen, cognomen,
I have the name, am called (nomen mihi manet, I retain the mame,
datum, inditum est) the name itself stands either in the nominative (in
apposition to nomen): Ei morbo nomen est avaritia (Cic. Tusc.
IV. 11) ; or (more frequently) in the dative (by attraction to mihi,
&e.): Scipio, cui postea Africano cognomen fuit (Sall. Jug. 5).
Leges decemvirales, qvibus tabulis duodecim est nomen (Liv.
III. 57), which are called the twelve tables. Puero ab inopia Egerio
inditum nomen (fd. I. 34). Yet the name may also stand in the
genitive, governed by nomen; e.g. Q. Metello Macedonici nomen
inditum est (Vell. I. 11). With active expressions such as nomen do,
dico alicui, the same constructions are found (the accusative taking the
place of the nominative) : Filius, cui Ascanium parentes dixere
nomen (Liv. I. 1); ei cognomen damus tardo (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 58);
but the dative is more generally employed. .
OBs. 8. The following expression is imitated from the Greek: Ali-
qvid (e.g. militia) mihi volenti est, a thing is agreeable to my wish,
properly, is related to me as wishing it (Sall. Jug. 84).
- § 247. a. The dative (according to its general signification,
§ 241) is put with adjectives, to denote that a thing has a certain :
quality for a person or thing ; e.g.:—
Civis utilis reipublicae; res tibi facilis, ceteris difficilis; onus
grave ferentibus; homo omnibus gratus et carus; oratio plebi
accepta. &
OBs. The adjectives proprius and dignus (which do not denote any
- particular definite quality) are constructed otherwise. See § 290, f, and
§ 268, a.
b. The dative is particularly put with certain adjectives, which
in themselves denote a reference to something else, as a friendly
or unfriendly. disposition, similarity, nearness (amicus, inimicus,
aeqvus, iniqvus, propitius, infensus, infestus, &c., with obnoxius,
subject.; par, impar, dispar, similis, dissimilis, consentaneus,
contrarius, aeqvalis, qf the same age ; propinqvus, propior, proxi
mus, vicinus, finitimus, conterminus, affinis, cogmatus) ; e.g.: —
Siculi Verri inimici infestiqve sunt; verbum Latinum par
Graeco et qvod idem valeat (Cic. Fin. II. 4) ; locus propinqvus
urbi. Nihil est tam cognatum mentibus nostris qvam numeri
(rhythm) atqve voces (Cic. de Or. III. 51).
§ 248 THE DATIVE. 219
OBS. 1. Some such adjectives are frequently used in speaking of per-
sons (or what is considered as a person) as substantives with the geni-
tive; viz., amicus, inimicus (amica, inimica, also familiaris, a
confidant), par (one's like or equal), aeqvalis, cognatus, propinqvus
(a relation, also necessarius), affinis, vicinus. Amicus, inimicus,
and familiaris are so used, even in the superlative: regis amicissi-
mus; inimicissimus illius; familiarissimus meus. (Also iniqvi
mei, nostri, invidi nostri.) Thus, too, we generally find, superstes
omnium suorum, one who has survived all his friends, – less frequently
superstes alicui. -
OBS. 2. Similis (consimilis, adsimilis) and dissimilis are put in
the best writers both with the genitive and the dative; and, in the ear-
lier writers, almost always with the genitive of the names of living
beings (especially gods and men): similis igni and ignis, similis pa-
tris, similis mei, sui, nostri. -
OBs. 3. The poets say not only dissimilis, but also diversus alicui,
instead of ab aliqvo (different from), and use the verbs discrepo,
differo, disto, dissideo, with the dative instead of with ab ; Qvid dis-
tant aera lupinis? (Hor.)
OBs. 4. Affinis, signifying concerned in, governs both the dative and
the genitive: Affinisei turpitudini; affinis rei capitalis.
OBs. 5. Propior and proximus are also put with the accusative. See :
§ 230, Obs. 2 (after subter).
OBs. 6. Those adjectives which denote an aptitude for any thing
(aptus, habilis, idoneus, accommodatus, paratus), have more often
ad than the dative: orator ad nullam causam idoneus; homo
ad rem militarem aptus. Idoneus arti cuilibet (Hor.). They
govern the dative in the signification suited, fitted : oratores aptissimi
concionibus; histriones fabulas sibi accommodatissimas eli-
gunt. (Alienum nostrae dignitati, unsuited to our dignity. See
§ 268, b.) -
OBs. 7. The dative is also put with the adverbs convenienter,
congruenter, constanter, obseqventer; e.g. vivere convenienter
naturae, dicere constanter sibi. *
OBs. 8. The poets sometimes employ the dative after idem (in any
case but the nom.), instead of atqve with the nominative; Invitum
qvi servat, idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), the same as he who
kills him.
§ 248. The datives mihi, nobis (sometimes tibi, vobis), are put
with expressions of surprise and reprehension, with demands or
with questions about a person, in order to denote a certain degree
of concern or sympathy:-
220 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 249
$
Qvid ait nobis Sannio? what does our Sannio say? Qvid mihi
Celsus agit? how is my Celsus? Hic mihi qvisqvam misericor-
diam nominat? (Sall. Cat. 52), will any one here speak to me qf pity?
Haec vobis illorum per biduum militia fuit (Liv. XXII. 60).
(Dativus Ethicus.)
s. - OBs. Qvid tibi vis ? what do you want ? what do you mean by that?
Qvid sibi vult haec oratio ? What do these words meam ? Qvid
, haec sibi dona voluerunt ?
§ 249. The dative sometimes denotes the design and operation
of a thing (that which it subserves, and to which it tends). In this
way the dative is used with sum, and with the verbs which signify
to impute, assume, or take ; and in some other phrases with do,
habeo, sumo, capio, pono (to give, have, take, or place as some-
thing); so likewise the datives praesidio, subsidio, auxilio,* with
verbs which denote a movement and positioni (in war). The verb
has oftem amother dative at the same time, which denotes to whom,
a thing is serviceable for this or that purpose ; cui bono est ? who
is benefited ? - * rv, &o*
Incumbite in studium eloqventiae, ut et vobis honori, et ami-
cis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumento esse possitis (Cic. de Or.
I. 8). Esse usui, impedimento, esse argumento, documento, testi-
monio.* Summam laudem S. Roscio vitio et culpae dedisti (Cic.
Rose. Am. 16). Neqve hoc ei qvisqvam tribuebat superbiae (Corn.
Timol. 4). Laudi, honori, probro vertere, ducere, habere aliqvid
alicui; dare alicui aliqvid muneri, dono (also donum, in apposi-
tion) ; habere rempublicam qvaestui (as a source qf gain) ; habere
aliqvid religioni (to make conscience qf a thing) ; ludibrio, con-
temptui habere; ponere aliqvid pignori; locum capere castris;
Aduatici locum sibi, domicilio delegerunt (Cæs. B. G. II. 29). Ve-
jentes Sabinis auxilio eunt. Caesar legiones duas castris prae-
sidio relinqvit. (Canere receptui, to sound a, refreat.)*
OBs. Especially is the dative of a substantive having a gerundive
agreeing with it used (even after a substantive) to denote a purpose and
: destination; e.g. decemviri legibus scribendis. See § 415.
1 [Custodiae: Custodiae ex suis ac praesidio reliquerunt (Cæs. B. G. II. 29).]
2 Esse odio, to be hated; esse alicui magnae curae, to be a subject of great anaciety
to a persom ; est, alicui cordi, it pleases him, is agreeable to him. (We also meet, with the
expression, maximum est, argumentum, the strongest argument is —, but est, argu-
mentum, documentum alone, with a dependent proposition, is unusual in the best
writers.)
8 [IIinc populum . . . venturum excidio Libyae (Virg. Æn. I. 22).]
§ 252 - THE ABLATIVE. 221
§ 250. a. With passive verbs the agent is sometimes put in the
dative instead of the ablative with ab; in prose, however, with the
idea somewhat modified, since it denotes, either that the action is
done for the interest of the agent, or (in the perfect and pluper-
fect) that it exists for him as completed:—
Sic dissimillimis bestiis communiter cibus quaeritur (Cic.
N. D. II. 48). Haec omnibus pertractata esse possunt (Id. de
Or. II. 34). Res mihi tota provisa est (Id. Verr. IV. 42). But in
the poets even without this distinction; Carmina qvae scribuntur
aqvae potoribus (Hor. Ep. I. 19, 3).
b. On the other hand, the dative is regularly put with the gerun-
dive and gerund, to denote the person who has to do something .
(whose duty a thing is) : — - f... --
Hoc mihi faciendum est; haec pueris legenda sunt (the boys
must read this). See §§ 420 and 421.
§ 251. The poets use the dative, in order to express the direction of
a motion towards: It clamor caelo (Virg. Æn. W. 451 = ad coelum
versus). Spolia conjiciunt igni (i.g. in ignem, Id. ib. XI. 194).
‘CHAPTER IV.
T H E A. B. L. A. T I W E •
§ 252. The Ablative denotes, in general, that a thing, though not
standing in the relation of the direct or more remote object indi-
cated by the accusative and dative, belongs to the predicate, serving
to complete and define it more accurately (stands with the thing
predicated as a circumstance attending it, or a thing pertaining to
it). The ablative is used in this way either with the prepositions
given in § 172, 1, or alone: for those cases in which the ablative
is used without a preposition, the rules are given below.
OBs. Nearly everywhere where the ablative stands in Latin, a prepo-
sition (as in, through, on, from, with, by) is used in English. This dif-
ference should be carefully noted by beginners. The general divisions
which are made in classifying the Latin ablatives sometimes approximate
so nearly, that it cannot be easily determined to which class some par-
ticular cases belong.
222 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 254
- § 253. The ablative denotes that with regard to which something
is predicated of the subject :—
Aeger pedibus (in the feet); claudus altero pede; captus ocu-
lis; eloqventia praestantior (in eloquence); nulla re inferior;
aetate et gloria antecellere; natione Gallus (by nation) ; centum
numero (in number) erant. Sunt qvidam homines non re, sed
nomine (not in reality, but in name). specie urbs libera est, re vera
omnia ad nutum Romanorum fiunt (Liv. XXXV. 31). Non tu
qvidem tota re, sed temporibus errasti (Cic. Phil. II. 9). - -
OBs. With regard to is expressed by ad in connection with adjectives,
when mention is made of something external to the subject, with regard
to which judgment is passed on the subject: accusare multos qvum
periculo$um est tum sordidum ad famam (Cic. Off. II. 14). Nulla
est species (sight) pulchrior et ad rationem sollertiamqve (in
respect qf their wise arrangement) praestantior qvam solis lunaeqve
cursuum (Cic. N. D. II. 62). On the side qf, or in the direction qf, where
the situation and condition of a person or thing are spoken of, is also
expressed by ab : Caesar metuebat, ne a re frumentaria laboraret
(Cæs. B. G. VII. 10), lest he should be embarrassed with respect to pro-
visioms ; mediocriter a doctrina instructus. .a
§ 254. The ablative is used to denote the means and instrument,
by and with which a thing takes place or is done (ablativus instru-
* menti):— -
Manu gladium tenere; capite onus sustinere; secüri aliqvem
percutere; amorem forma et moribus conciliare ; servari cura et
opera alicujus; aliqvid animo (scientia, amore, numero), com-
prehendere, vexare aliqvem injuriis et contumeliis; veneno ex-
stingvi. Britanni lacte et carne vivunt. I.ycurgus leges suas
auctoritate Apollinis Delphici confirmavit. Lege Julia Latini civi-
tatem Romanam consecuti sunt. -
OBs. 1. The thing which, with passive verbs, stands as the means,
is, in active propositions, oftem put in the nominative as the agent:
e.g. in the passive, Dei providentia mundus regitur; in the
active, Dei providentia mundum regit; but also Deus providentia
$ua mundum regit. In the passive, a thing is only represented
as acting (and this is done by adding the preposition ab, instead of
using the mere ablativus instrumenti), when it is thought of as a per-
son : e.g. Non est consentaneum qvi metu non frangatur, eum
frangi cupiditate, nec, qvi invictum se a labore praestiterit, vinci
a voluptate (Cie. Off. I. 20), labor and voluptas are persomified as par-
ties in the struggle. Eo a natura ipsa ducimur; but, natura fit, ut
liberi a parentibus amentur. (Piget dicere, ut vobis animus ab
§ 255 - THE ABLATIVE. 223
ignavia atqve socordia corruptus sit, Sall. Jug. 31. The more usual
construction would omit ab.)
OBS. 2. Some poets use ab where the ablativus instrumenti would
usually stand in prose : e.g. Turbinem celer assveta versat ab arte
puer (Tib. I. 5, 4), by the help of his wonted art. Sidereo siccata
ab aestu (Ov. Met. VI. 341)."
OBs. 3. When it is intended to denote that a thing is effected by the
employment of a rational agent, the ablative is not used, but per:
Augustus per legatos suos bellum administrabat (also opera
legatorum). But the ablative may stand when the person is named
simply as a substitute for the thing it implies: e.g. testibus for tes-
tium dictis; or when it is considered as a thing: e.g. bodies of troops:
Jacent (they are convicted) suis testibus (Cic. pro Mil. 18). Hos-
tem sagittariis et funditoribus eminus terrebat (Sall. Jug. 94).
(On the contrary, of animals; bubus arare, eqvo vehi, like curru.)
§ 255. The ablativus instrumenti is used in Latin, in some con-
structions, where the notion of a mean or instrument is not conveyed in
the English expression which most nearly corresponds to them: e.g.
extollere aliqvem honoribus (by posts of distinction, instead of
which we should say, in English, to posts of distinction); erudire ali-
qvem artibus et disciplinis (but also, erudire aliqvem in jure
civili, of a particular department of instruction). In such expressions
as florere (opibus et gratia) and valere (T. Coruncanius plurimum
ingenio valuit), we have at the same time the idea of abundance. See
§ 259. (Sacrificatum est majoribus hostiis, greater victims were
sacrificed; faciam vitula pro frugibus.)
OBS. 1. With verbs which signify to value, to judge, to classify, &c.,
the ablative denotes that by which the valuation is regulated (the means
and measure of the valuation): Non numero haec judicantur, sed
pondere. Magnos homines virtute metimur, non fortuna (Corn.
Eum. 1). Populus Romanus descriptus erat censu, ordinibus,
aetatibus (Cic. Legg. III. 19). Amicitiae caritate et amore cer-
nuntur (Id. Part. Or. 25). Hecato utilitate officium dirigit magis
qvam humanitate (Cic. Off. III. 23). -
OBs. 2. Some verbs which signify to enclose, to hold, to receive, are
sometimes followed by the ablative of the place by which the enclosing
is effected, instead of the preposition in; as, includere aliqvem
carcere (in carcere, usually in carcerem), versu aliqvid con-
cludere, recipere, invitare aliqvem tecto, urbe (usually aliqvem
in civitatem, in ordinem senatorium, aliqvem domum recipere),
tenere se castris (copias in castris continere), tollere aliqvem
1 [Torrida ab igni (Virg. Georg. I. 234).]
224 LATIN GRAMMAR. . § 256
rheda. Especially contineri aliqva re, to be composed qf, to rest
vpom ; artes, qvae conjectura continentur. Consto, to consist Qf, is
usually constructed with ex (ex animo et corpore), sometimes with
in, or the ablative only.
§ 256. The ablative denotes the motive (in the agent himself)
from whieh, or the influence through which (by virtue qf which), a
thing is done (ablativus causae moventis) :—
Incendi dolore, ira incitari, ardere studio, cupiditate occaecari,
caecus avaritia, exsultare gaudio. Multi homines officia dese-
runt mollitia animi (Cic. Finn. I. 10). Qvod benevolentia fit, id
odio factum criminaris (Id. Rosc. Am. 15). Qvidam morbo ali-
qvo et sensus stupore svavitatem cibi non sentiunt (Id. Phil. II.
45). Servius Tullius regnare coepit non jussu, sed voluntate
atqve concessu civium (Id. R. P. II. 21). (Conversely : injussu
imperatoris de statione discedere.) Veni ad eum ipsius rogatu
arcessituqve (Cic. N. D. I. 6).
(So permissu, coactu, efflagitatu, hortatu alicujus facere aliqvid,
&c., with verbal substantives, which are used only in the ablative, § 55,
4).' Romano more filii puberes cum parentibus non lavantur
(Id. Off. I. 35). Cimon Atheniensium legibus emitti e vinculis non
poterat, nisi pecuniam solvisset (Corn. Cim. I.).
OBS. 1. The ablative of the motive is put most frequently with in-
transitive and passive verbs, which denote the state of mind of the sub-
ject, and more especially with their participles, when they qualify the
subject of a proposition, where, in English, we often only say, out qf.
(Adductus, ardens, commotus, incitatus, incensus, impulsus ira,
odio, haec feci, I did this out qf anger, hatred.) Livy says, also: ab
ira, ab odio, ab insita animis levitate, om account qf (out Qf) anger,
&c. (A preventing cause is expressed by prae: prae moerore, prae
lacrimis loqvi non possum, I cannot speak for tears. Gens suarum
rerum impotens, prae domesticis discordiis, Liv. IX. 14.) (Per
me licet, as far as I am concerned, for all me ; qvi per aetatem pot-
erant, by reason qf age.)
OBs. 2. According to is more accurately expressed by ex; Coloniae
ex foedere milites dare debebant.
OBs. 8. We must also notice the expressions, mea (tua, &c.) sen-
tentia, meo judicio, im my (your) opinion : Curio mea sententia vel
eloqventissimus temporibus illis fuit (Cic. de Or. II. 23). So-
crates omnium eruditorum testimonio totiusqve judicio Graeciae
qvum prudentia et acumine tum vero eloqventia omnium fuit
facile princeps (Id. ib. III. 16). (The ablative here denotes that om
the strength of which a person forms or expresses an opinion.)
1 Injussu is used also as an adverb without a genitive (Liv.).
§ 258 THE ABUATIVE. 225
§ 257. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake Qf, are put
with (and usually after) a genitive or possessive pronoum : —
Reipublicae causa accusare aliqvem; tua causa hoc facio; dolo-
rum effugiendorum gratia voluptates omittere.
OBS. 1. Without a genitive or possessive promoun, we have ea de
causa, Or ea causa; justis causis, ea gratia.
OBs. 2. With these exceptions, the cause (signifying that for the sake
qf which a thing is done) is not expressed by the ablative, but by the
prepositions ob and propter (or by causa, gratia). Yet from a con-
ciseness of expression the use of the^ablative of means or motive comes
very near to denoting the cause, and is almost identical with it; e.g.
Iuevitate armorum et qvotidiana exercitatione mihil hostibus
noceri poterat (Cæs. B. G. V. 34, i.q. efficiebatur, ut nihil no-
ceri posset). The distinction between the ablative of the motive
(in the subject itself) and the mode of exactly expressing the cause
may be seen from the following example : Non tam ob recentia ulla
merita qvam originum memoria (Liv. XXXVIII. 39), remembering
their origin.
OBs. 8. Here we may notice the use of the ablative eo, and occasion-
ally hoc, in the signification om that account (= ideo): Homines
suorum mortem eo lugent, qvod eos orbatos vitae commodis
arbitrantur (Cic. Tusc. I. 18). (Millia frumenti tua triverit area
centum, Non tuus hoc capiet venter plus ac meus, Hor. Sat. I.
1, 46.)
§ 258. The ablative of a substantive qualified by an adjective
(participle) or promoun, denotes the way in which a thing is done,
the accompanying circumstances under which it is done (ablativus
modi). With those substantives which in themselves denote a way
or manner (modo, more, ratione, ritu, sometimes consvetudine,
habitu), a genitive may be put instead of the adjective.
Miltiades summa aeqvitate res Chersonesi constituit (Corn.
Milt. 2), with the greatest justice. IDeos pura, integra incorrupta et
mente et voce venerari debemus (Cic. N. D. II. 28). Summa
vi insistere. More Carnadeo disputare. Fieri nullo modo (pacto)
potest. Apis more modoqve carmina fingo (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 27).
Voluptas pingitur pulcherrimo vestitu et ornatu regali (ìm, or with,
the most beautiful vestments and royal magníficence) in solio sedens
(Cic. Fin. II. 21). (Also, habitu reginae, in the garb qf a queen.)
Ire agmine qvadrato. Allobrogum legati pontem Mulvium
magno comitatu ingrediuntur (Id. in Cat. III. 2), with a numerous,
15
226 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 258
8uite). Obvius fit Miloni Clodius, expeditus, in eqvo, nulla rheda,
nullis impedimentis (Id. pro Mil. 10), without a carriage, without bag-
90g€.
So nullo ordine, nullo negotio, without difficulty, &c. Saltus
haud sine clade, majore tamen jumentorum qvam hominum
pernicie, superatus est (Liv. XXI. 35). Nonum jam annum velut
in acie adversus optimates sto maximo privatim periculo, nullo
publice emolumento (Id. VI. 39). Yet the preposition cum is often
introduced when something accompanying the action, or externally
connected with it, is spoken of: e.g. magno studio aliqvem adju-
vare, and cum magno studio adesse (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 24); cum
labore operoso et molesto moliri aliqvid (Id. N. D. II. 23); cum :
omni gravitate et jucunditate aliqvid explicare (Id. de Or. I. 13).
HRomani cum magno gaudio Horatium accipiunt (Liv. I. 25).
sedere cum (in) tunica pulla (Cie. Verr. IV. 24).
OBs. 1. On the other hand, cum can never be put with those sub-
stantives which, in themselves, denote a way and manner (modo, &c.),
or a disposition and purpose (hac mente, hoc consilio feci, aeqvo
animo fero), or a condition (ea condicione, ea lege, on the condition),
nor yet with the parts of the body: nudo capite, promisso capiilo
incedere.
OBs. 2. If the name of that which accompanies the action, and is
manifested by it, has no adjective or pronoun agreeing with it, the
preposition cum is employed: e.g. cum cura scribere (not cura
alone), cum fide exponere, cum virtute vivere. Multa facere im-
pure atqve taetre, cum temeritate et imprudentia (Cic. Div. I.
29). Some ablatives, however, are excepted, which, in certain com-
binations, are used alone adverbially ; as, ordine, ratione (recte atqve
ordine facere, via et ratione disputare), more, jure, injuria, con-
sensu, clamore, silentio (also cum clamore, cum silentio), dolo,
fraude, vi, vitio (in the phrase, vitio creatus), agmine (ire, in the
order of march). (Non proeliis neqve acie bellum gerere, Sall. Jug.
54, of the way and means chosen. Versibus aliqvid scribere.) The
preposition per is sometimes used in almost the very same sense, to
denote in a certain way : e.g. per vim (multa dolo, pleraqve per
vim audebantur, Liv. XXXIX. 8), per simulationem ; per scelus
et latrocinium aliqvid auferre (Cic. Verr. I. 21) ; per litteras, in
writing ; per cauBam exercendorum remigum (Cæs. B. C. III. 24),
vnder the pretext.
OBs. 3. Cum must always be put to express any thing that a
person has with or on him (except his dress), even if an adjective
Be added ; servus comprehensus est cum gladio, and cum magno
gladio. -
§ 260 THE ABLATIVE. • 227 .
OBs. 4. Asin the example magno comitatu, the modal ablative is oftem
used of military forces: exiguis copiis pugnare; proficisci, venire,
adesse omnibus copiis, expedito exercitu, triginta navibus longis.
But cum is also used; Caesar cum ommibus copiis Helvetios seqvi
coepit (Cæs. B. G. I. 26). (When there is no adjective or numeral,
cum is always used.) -
OBS. 5. Here also we may notice the expressions, pace alicujus and
bona venia alicujus dicere aliqvid, with his permissiom ; periculo
alicujus aliqvid facere, at his risk ; also, alicujus auspiciis, imperio,
ductu rem gerere, under any one's command; simulatione (specie)
timoris cedere, with assumed fear (Cæs. B. C. II. 40) ; obsiàum
nomine, as hostages (Id. B. G. III. 2) ; classis nomine pecuniam
civitatibus imperare, to impose a taae, under the pretence qf employing
it for the equipment qf a fleet (Cic. pro Flacc. 12); alicujus verbis
salutare aliqvem, in some one's mame. On the other hand, cum
(to) sometimes serves to denote an (attendant) consequence and effect:
Accidit, ut Verres illo itinere veniret Lampsacum cum magna ca-
lamitate et prope pernicie civitatis (Cic. Verr. I. 24).
§ 259. The ablative serves to denote the príee for which a thing
is bought, sold, made, or brought about (also with the verbs esse,
stäre, constare, licere, signifying to cost, to be on sale for), and to
express the value at which a thing is estimated:— • -
Eriphyle auro viri vitam vendidit. Praedium emitur (vênit)
centum millibus nummum. Caelius habitat triginta millibus
(Cic. pro Cæl. 7). Apollonius mercede docebat. Victoria
Eoenis (dative) multo sangvine stetit. ' Tritici modius in Sicilia
erat (aestimatus est) ternis sestertiis (Cic. Verr. III. 81). Otium
non gemmis venale. .
OBs. 1. If the price is only indefinitely given (as being high or low),
the genitive of adjectives is sometimes used to express it (tanti, magni,
&c.). See § 294. : •
OBs. 2. We find the expressions mutare, commutare, permutare
aliqvid aliqvo, to ecchange a thing (part with it for something else):
e.g. fidem et religionem pecunia mutare ; oves pretio mutare.
* Sometimes, however, they denote, to obtain a thing in exchange for
another. We also have commutare aliqvid cum aliqvo, to acquire or
part vith a thing in the way of evchange (usually the latter).
§ 260. The ablative : is put with various verbs, to define their
meaning more accurately, by specifying ín what, and ín reference
to what, the action or condition in question is manifested.
228 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 260
a. With those verbs which signify (intrans.) to have an abund-
ance of any thing, or (trans.) to provide with any thing, to treat any
one (any thing) in such a way, that he (it) obtains something, the
ablative is employed, to show in what the abundance consists, and
with what a thing is provided (ablativus copiae); e.g.: —
Abundare otio, affluere divitiis; culter manat cruore, is drip-
ping with blood; refercire libros fabulis; augere aliqvem scientia;
imbuere vas odore, animum honestis artibus; afficere aliqvem
beneficio, honore, incommodo, poena, ignominia; dignari aliqvem
honore. .
Such verbs are abundo, redundo, affluo, scated, and others in cer-
tain significations: e.g. pluit lapidibus, it rains stones; aures vocibus
circumsönant, persönant : * compleo, expleo, impleo, refercio,
stipo, instruo, orno, onero, cumulo, satio, augeo, remuneror, afficio,
imbuo, conspergo, respergo, dignor (in an active signification), and
some others. (Littora urbibus distincta, studded with cities.)
OBS. In the poets and a few prose-writers, impleo and compleo
have the genitive instead of the ablative; e.g. implere hostem fugae
et formidinis (Liv. X. 14). The same construction is occasionally
found in the poets with one or two of the other verbs; e.g. Satiata
ferinae dextera caedis erat (Ov. Met. VII. 808).
b. The signification of some verbs may be conceived in two ways,
so that they may either be constructed with the accusative and
ablative in the way above noticed (to furnish one with a thing), or
(signifying, to give a person a thing, to do a thing for and in refer-
ence to him), with the accusative and dative: e.g. domare scribam
suum anulo aureo, to present one's secretary with a gold ring ; and
donare adjutoribus suis multa, to make many presents to his coad-
jutors. -
Such verbs are the following: dono, circumdo (urbem muris and
muros urbi), adspergo (alicui labeculam, to affic, to spirt on him,
as it were; and aliqvem ignominia, to bespatter, to cover); induo
(aliqvem veste, particularly in the passive, indutus veste, and alicui
vestem”), inuro (alicui notam and aliqvem nota), misceo (com-
monly aqvam nectare, rubor candore mixtus, more rarely fletum
cruori, misceo iram cum luctu), and admisceo, with some few others
compounded with ad and in (afflo, illino, imprimo, inscribo, intexo);
also circumfundo, especially in the passive; circumfundor luce and
circumfunditur mihi lux.
1 We find also clamor hostes circumsonat, and hence circumsonor clamore.
* Also induc vestem, to put on a dress; and poet, induor. See § 237, a.
§ 262 * THE ABLATIVE. 229
OBS. The following is a bold poetical expression (in Virg. Æn. VI.
229): Ter socios pura circumtulit unda, went round and sprinkled
them with pure water. (Loca custodiis intermissa, Liv. VII. 36,
i.g., ubi custodiae intermissae sunt.)"
§ 261. a. The ablative is put with those intransitive verbs which
signify a deficiency in (a need of) Something, and those transitive
verbs which signify a deprivation of a thing, to denote that of which
there is a deficiency or of which a person is deprived (ablative
of want); as, with careo, egeo, indigeo, Waco, -orbo, privo,
spolio,” fraudo, nudo (to strip of ); e.g.: —
Carere sensu, egere auxilio, vacare culpa, spoliare hominem
fortunis, nudare turrim defensoribus.
OBS. Egeo and indigeo (indigeo especially very often) also govern
the genitive.”
b. In the same way we have invideo alicui aliqva re (laude sua),
and interdico alicui aliqva re, forbid a person the use of a thing and
access to it; e.g. aqva et igni, domo sua. (In the passive, imperson-
ally; prodigis (dative) solet bonis interdici.)
OBs. 1. These verbs are less frequently constructed with an accusa-
tive: invidere alicui laudem (but often invidere laudi alicujus),
and interdicere feminis usum purpurae ; interdicta voluptas.
OBs. 2. A double construction (as in § 259, b) is found with exuo
(aliqvem veste and vestem mihi, or commonly only vestem) and
abdico (me magistratu and abdico magistratum).
§ 262. Those verbs are also constructed with an ablative, which
denote (being intransitive) to abstain from a thing, to renounce it;
or (transitive), to free, to keep away, to eacclude from something ;
as, -
Abstineo, desisto, supersedeo, libero, solvo, exsolvo, levo,
exOnero, arCeO, prohibeo, excludo: e.g. abstinere (or abstinere
se) maledicto, scelere, liberare aliqvem suspicione, levare aliqvem
onere, arcere tyrannum reditu, prohibere aliqvem cibo tectoqve;
prohibere Campaniam populationibus, to protect from pillage.
But the verbs which signify to abstain, to hinder, to exclude, are also used
with the preposition ab: e.g. abstinere a vitiis; prohibere hostem a
1 [Virgineum suffuderit ore cruorem (Virg. Georg. I, 430).]
2 [Foliis viduantur Orni (Hor. Od. II. 9, 8).] -
8 Waco occurs also in the signification to be unoccupied, and then a dative may be sub-
joined: e.g. philosophiae, have leisure to engage in it; hence, in later writers, vacare rei
alicui, to apply to a thing, spend one's time about it. - • * -
230 LATIN GRAMMAR. *
§ 264
pugna (cives a periculo); excludere aliqvem a republica. Where
a person is specified, the preposition is always employed; arcere
aliqvid a sese.
OBs. 1. Ab is rarely put with libero, and never with levo, ex-
onero, absolvo, but only the ablative. (Liberare aliqvem ex incom-
modis, out of.) -
OBS. 2. Intercludo has a double construction (viam, fugam alicui,
to cut off; and aliqvem commeatu, a castris, shut out from). -
OBS. 3. Only the poets and some later prose-writers use absterreo,
deterreo, and occasionally also some verbs compounded with dis, as .
dignosco, disto, distingvo, together with secerno, sepāro, with the
ablative without ab; e.g. vero distingvere falsum, turpi secernere
honestum (Hor.). -
OBS. 4. The poets, in imitation of a Greek idiom, have put the geni-
tive with some few such verbs; e.g. abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. III.
27, 69), desine qverelarum (Id. Od. II. 9, 17), solutus operum (Id.),
Jreed from work. -
§ 263. Those verbs also, which denote to remove a person or
thing (with violence) from or out of the place where it is, are some-
times put with the ablative alone, but usually with a preposition of
place (ab, ex, de); e.g. : –
Movere aliqvem vestigio, pellere, expellere, depellere hostem
loco (e loco, ab urbe), deturbare aliqvem moenibus (demoenibus); .
also, in a derived signification, deturbo, and especially dejicio (ali-
qvem spe, praetura, but also de sententia).
In the same way, the ablative without a preposition is often put with
cedo, to retire from, quit; decedo, excedo (cedere loco, vita, and
e loco, de vita; decedere provincia, Italia, and de provincia; also,
cedere alicui possessione hortorum, to give up possession to one); so
also with abeo, used of resigning an office (abeo, magistratu, dicta-
tura).” - *
Obs. The ablative alone is very rare with exed, egredior, ejicio.
On the ablative of the names of towns in answer to the question, Whence?
see $ 275.
§ 264. With the verbs gaudeo, laetor, glorior, doleo, moereo, and
with fido and confido, the ablative denotes that at which one rejoices,
&c., or that on which a man relies; e.g. gaudere aliorum incom-
modo, gloriari victoria sua, confidere natura loci.
... 1 Excidere uxore (Ter. Andr. II. 5, 12). In the language of the courts, causa, for-
mula cadere, manumittere (manu mittere) servum. - . . .
§ 266 THE ABLATIVE. 231
OBS. Fido and confido also have the dative (diffido, almost always).
See § 244. Doleo has also the accusative (meum casum illi dolue-
runt). See § 223, c. Glorior de and in aliqva re (in and of the
possession of a thing). Nitor auctoritate alicujus, support one's self
on it (as a mean or instrument); also, divinatio mititur in conjectura.
We should also notice delector aliqvare and aliqvo, to find pleasure in
any thing or person); Laelio valde delector.
§ 265. The verbs utor (abütor), fruor, fungor, potior, vescor,
have the object in the ablative: —
TJ ti victoria, frui otio, fungi munere, urbe potiri, vesci carne.
(Utor aliqvo amico, to have him for a friend, – amico being in appo-
sition; so, likewise, Me usurus es aeqvo, you will find me fair.)
OBs. 1. The use of the ablative is to be explained by the fact, that
these verbs had not originally a purely transitive signification. Potior is
also put with the genitive, though rarely in prose; but always in the
phrase, potiri rerum, to make one's self master of Sovereign power (to
possess it).
OBs. 2. In the older poets, and some few prose-writers, these verbs
are occasionally found with the accusative. The gerundive is used like
that of a common transitive verb which governs the accusative: e.g. in
munere fungendo; dare alicui vestem utendam; spes potiun-
dorum castrorum (Caes. B. G. III. 6 = castris potiendi).
§ 266. The expression opus est stands as a predicate with the
nominative, without altering opus; e.g. : —
Dux nobis (dative) et auctor opus est (Cie. ad Fam. II. 6), we need
a leader and guide; exempla permulta opus sunt (Id. de Invent. II.
19).
Or impersonally (there is need, one wants) with the ablative;
e.g. : — - &
Praesidio opus est. Auctoritate tua mihi opus est. Qvid (nihil)
opus est verbis 2 (In the negative form, or the interrogative with qvid,
it is, almost without exception, impersonal.) In this last way, usus est
is also employed with the same signification: Viginti usus est minis.
(Si usus est, in case it should be necessary.)
OBs. With opus est, that which is necessary may also be expressed
by an infinitive, or an accusative with the infinitive; e.g. Qvid opus est
maturare 2 or, Opus est te abire, opus est Hirtium conveniri, that
Hirtius should be spoken to. Instead of this infinitive, the ablative of a
participle, or substantive combined with a participle, is often employed:
opus est maturato (Liv. I. 58). Opus fuit Hirtio convento (Cic, ad
Att. X. 4). Qvid opus est facto (qvid, - as if fieri were to fol-
low). -
232 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 268
§ 267. We should particularly notice the ablative with assvesco and
assvefacio; e.g. assvetus labore (more rarely with the dative,
assvetus militiae); and with sto, to adhere to, abide by (stare con-
ditionibus, promissis, stare suo judicio),” and with facio and fio
when the question is, What is to be, or can be made, or become of a
thing: Qvid facies hoc homine? Qvid fiet nave? (Qvid me fu-
turum est?)
OBs. We find also with the dative, Qvid facies huic homini (with) 2
see § 241, Obs. 5. (Qvid fiet de militibus? What is to be done with
respect to the soldiers ?)
§ 268. The ablative is put with various adjectives, which are
allied in signification with the verbs cited in §§ 260, 261, 262, and
264, to point out the object in reference to which the quality is
given. Such adjectives are the following : —
a. Those which denote an abundance of any thing (§ 260): praeditus,
onustus, plenus, fertilis, dives, also dignus and its opposite indignus;
e.g. onustus praeda, dives agris.
OBS. 1. Plenus, fertilis, dives, are also put with the genitive, which
is the usual construction of plenus, in the best writers: Gallia plena
civium optimorum; plenus rimarum; ager fertilis frugum. So
also the participles refertus and completus (but only with the geni-
tive of personal appellations): Gallia referta negotiatorum; carcer
completus mercatorum.
OBS. 2. Conjunctus, combined with any thing (used of things) often
has the ablative: Mendicitas aviditate conjuncta (conjungere men-
dicitatem cum aviditate); but, Talis simulatio conjuncta est avi-
ditati, borders on vanity.
OBs. 3. The word macte is used alone, or with the imperative of
sum (macte esto, este), in praises and congratulations, and takes the
name of the thing on account of which a man is pronounced happy
(generally virtute) in the ablative: Macte virtute diligentiaqve esto.
(Juberem te macte virtute esse, Liv. II. 12, would congratulate you
on your bravery.)”
b. Those which denote a want of something, an exemption from some-
thing (§§ 261 and 262): inanis, nudus, orbus, vacuus, liber, im-
munis, purus, alienus (strange, unsuitable), and also extorris; e.g.
orbus rebus omnibus, liber cura animus; ducere aliqvid alienum
. . . [Nullo officio aut disciplina adsuefacti (Caes. B. G. IV. 1).]
. * Also stare in eo, qvod sit judicatum.
3 This word is generally, but without good reason, considered as the vocative of an adjective
otherwise unused.
§ 27o THE ABLATIVE. 233
sua majestate; extorris patria, regno. (On inops and pauper, see
§ 209, e.) But these adjeetives, with the exception of inanis, orbus,
and extorris, are also used with the preposition ab ; oppidum vacuum
defensoribus and a defensoribus.
OBs. 1. I,iber always has ab with the names of persons (locus liber
ab arbitris), otherwise but seldom. Alienus has ab, especially in the
signification disinclined (alienus a litteris), and always with the names
of person§; alienus a me.
OBs. 2. Inanis and immunis have also the genitive : haec inanis-
sima prudentiae reperta sunt; alienus, less frequently. The rest of
these adjectives are hardly found with the genitive, except in the poets:
liber curarum, purus sceleris, vacuus operum; mons nudus arbo-
ris (Ov.). Alienus, signifying inconvenient, urfavorable, has also the
dative.
c. Contentus, anxius, laetus, maestus, superbus, fretus. Natura
parvo cultu contenta est. Fretus conscientia officii.'
d. IDignus and indignus: dignus beneficio, poena; dignus Hercule
labor; indigna homine oratio.
§ 269. Those participles which denote birth (natus, ortus, geni-
tus, satus, editus), have the parentage or rank indicated in the
ablative : —
Mercurius Jove et Maja natus erat; matus nobili genere; ὸςves:
tri loco ortus. With the parents, ex (de) is also used; Ex fratre
et sorore nati erant.
OBs. More remote ancestors are expressed by ortus ab: Belgae orti
sunt a Germanis (Cæs. B. G. II. 4). Cato Uticensis a Censorio
ortus erat (Cic. pro Mur. 31).
§ 270. The ablative sometimes denotes the measure of distance.
See, under the accusative, § 234. With comparatives the ablative
denotes how much a thing exceeds (is greater or less than) some-
thing else in the quality mentioned:— -
IRomani duobus millibus plures erant qvam Sabini; uno digito
plus habere, a finger more ; multis partibus (times) major; dimidio
mimor ; altero tanto longior, as lomg agaim ; qvinqvies tanto am-
plius (Cic. Verr. III. 97). Honestas omni pondere gravior ha-
penda est qvam reliqva omnia (Id. Off. III. 8), infinitely more weighty,
more important. In the same way, the ablative is used, with ante and
post, signifying how much earlier or later a thing takes place ; and with
1 IFretus also occurs in Livy with a dative (like fido).
234 LATIN , GRAMMAR. § 27l
infra, supra, and ultra: e.g. multis annis ante; novem annis post
bellum Punicum.
OBS. 1. The ablative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is accordingly
used with comparatives, as well as with ante and post, aliter and secus,
to denote the measure indefinitely : e.g. eo, so much ; qvo, as ;* multo,
tanto, qvanto, paullo, nihilo; multo major, paullo post (rarely post
paullo); qvo antiqvior, eo melior. (Hoc major gloria est, qvod
solus vici, so much the greater, because, i.q. so much the greater as —.)
' But we also find adjectives in the accusative (adverbs in m), as mul-
tum, aliqvantum, in the poets and later writers, instead of the ablative;
e.g. Aliqvantum iniqvior (Ter. Heaut. I. 2, 27). (With the super-
lative, multo maxima pars, the greatest part by far.)
OBs. 2. The ablative of those adjectives which denote number and
quantity is also found with the verbs malo, praesto, supero, and those
compounded with ante : Multo malo. Omnis sensus hominum
multo antecellit sensibus bestiarum (Cic. N. D. II. 57). But (ex-
cept with malo) the accusative is also used: Multum (tantum)
praestat, it is much (so much) better.
OBS. 3. Sometimes ante, with the ablative, refers to the present; so
long ago: e.g. Catilina paucis ante diebus erupit ex urbe (Cic. in
Cat. III. 1) ; which is otherwise expressed by abhinc with the accusative
(see § 235, Obs. 2), or by ante with the accusative (see the following
observation). -
OBS. 4. The interval of time is also expressed by the accusative
with ante and post, instead of the ablative ; so that decem diebus
post (ante, — or, by alteringthe arrangement of the words, decem post
diebus, rarely post decem diebus) is the same as post (ante) decem
dies (decem post dies) : e.g. Eodem etiam Rhodia classis post
dies paucos venit (Liv. XXXVII. 18). Aliqvot post menses
homo occisus est (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 44).' Sometimes ante
centum annos is used to denote a hundred years ago (= centum
abhinc annos); and post tres dies, in three days. For the expression
with an ordinal number, ante diem decimum qvam, and the use of the
ablative only in the signification ago (his centum annis), see § 276,
Obs. 5 and 6.
§ 271. With comparatives the second member of the compari-
son, which is otherwise subjoined with qvam (than), is often ex- ^
pressed by the ablative; e.g. major Scipione = major qvam Scipio.
For further particulars om this head see under the comparative
§ 304, &c. - *
1 For decem diebus anteqvam (postqvam), earlier (later) tham, we find also (less
frequently) aiite (post) decem dies qvam.
§ 273 THE ABLATIVE. «- 235
OBS. The ablative seems properly to denote that the higher degree is
brought to light by the other, which is associated with it in the com-
parison.
§ 272. The ablative of a substantive combined with an adjective
(participle, pronoun) is joined to a substantive either with the verb
esse, or without any connecting word, to denote the quality and
character of a person or thing (the ablative qf quality, the descrip-
tive ablative):—
Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo. Herodotus
tanta est eloqventia, ut me magnopere delectet (Cic. de Or. II. 13).
Summis ingeniis exqvisitaqve doctrina philosophi (Id. Fin. I. 1).
C. Valerius, summa virtute et humanitate adolescens (Cæs. B. G.
I. 47). Erat inter Labienum et hostem difficili transitu flumen
ripisqve praeruptis (Id. B. G. VI. 7). Apollonius affirmabat
servum se illo nomine habere neminem (Cic. Verr. V. 7). (Philo-
dami filia summa integritate pudicitiaqve existimabatur, Cic.
Verr. I. 25, = esse existim.) *
OBs. 1. For the distinction between the ablative of quality and the
genitive of quality, see § 287, Obs. 2. -
OBs. 2. In the same way, we have trulla aureo manubrio, a cup
with a goldem handle (of a constituent part of the vessel itself) ; but also
cum aureo manubrio.' Sometimes the ablative of quality is put with
sum, to denote a situatiom, where we otherwise find in : Esse magna
gloria. Nunqvam pari periculo Carthago fuerat (Corn. Hannib. 2).
IEsse meliore condicione ; eodem statu e$$e, manere; and in
eodem statu. •
OBs. 3. Instead of the ablative, a genitive is sometimes used, when ref-
erence is made to external form and magnitude : e.g. clavi ferrei digiti
pollicis crassitudine (Cæs. B. G. III. 13), qf the thiekness qf ome's
thumb. Uri sunt specie et figura et colore tauri (Id. B. G. VI. 28).
§ 278. A local relation (the remaining or happening in a place,
motion from a place) is commonly expressed by prepositions (in —
ab, ex, de)siin some cases, however, the preposition is left out and
the ablative used alone.
a. The remaining or happening in a place is denoted by the abla-
tive alone, when the mames of towns and smaller islands (which may be
regarded as towns) are spoken of, if the names belong to the third
declension, or are of the plural number: Babylone habitare; Athenis
litteris operam dare.*
i [Nuntiabant, agnum cum duobus capitibus natum, et Sinuessae porcum
Ihumano capite (Liv. XXXII. 9).]
3 Carthagini, Tiburi, See § 42, d.
236 «-* LATIN GRAMMAR. § 273
If, on the other hand, the name of the town (or island) is of the
singular number and of the first or second declension, the genitive is
employed. See § 296.
OBs. If urbs or oppidum precedes, in is inserted ; in oppido
Hispali. So also, in general, when there is a word in apposition to the
name ; Cives Romanos Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppido, saepe cum
mitella vidimus (Cic. pro. Rab. Post. 10). -
b. In like manner the preposition in is often omitted with the word
locus, when accompanied by a pronoun or adjective: hoc loco; aeqvo
loco pugnare ; castra opportunis locis posita erant; (but also in
altis locis, especially in speaking of what happens in all high places).
The following also stand without a preposition: ruri (more rarely,
rure), in the country ; dextra, laeva, om the right, on the left ; terra
mariqve, by land and sea (also mari res magnas gerere; but in mari,
om the sea ; in terra pedem ponere); and sometimes medio, in the
middle ; medio aedium, in the middle qf the house ; medio coeli
terraeqve. (Usually in mediis aedibus, medius inter coelum ter-
ramqve.) (See § 300, b, and § 311.)
OBs. 1. When locus has a derived signification, in is almost always
omitted; secundo loco aliqvem numerare; meliore loco res
nostrae sunt. Yet we find both parentis loco ducere (habere)
aliqvem, filii loco esse, and in parentis, in filii loco.* Ioco and in
loco (suo loco) denote in the right place (in one's own place). In is
also sometimes omitted with parte, partibus, signifying side. Reliqvis
oppidi partibus sic est pugnatum, ut aeqvo loco discederetur
(Cæs. B. C. III. 112). With libro, in is usually omitted, when the
contents of the whole book are referred to ; De amicitia alio libro
dictum est (Cic. Off. II. 9). Animo stands without a preposition
when emotions of the mind are spoken of; commoveri, angi animo, vol-
vere aliqvid animo.
OBs. 2. The poets often use other words also in the ablative, without
a preposition, to express remaining in a place, when there is no fear of
its being confounded with other significations of the ablative: Lucis
habitamus opacis (Virg. Æn. VI. 678). Custodia vestibulo sedet
(Id. ib. VI. 575). . Silvisqve agrisqve viisqve corpora foeda
jacent (Ov. Met. VII. 547).
e. The ablative is also usually used without a preposition, when the
adjective totus is subjoined, to denote that something is pervaded : e.g.'
lUrbe tota gemitus fit, through the whole city. Caesar nuntios tota
civitate Aeduorum dimittit (Cæs. B. G. VII. 88). Menippus,
tota Asia illis temporibus disertissimus (Cic. Brut. 91), in all Asia,
1 Farentis numero esse, haberi; but in numero oratorum esse (haberi,
duci), to be reckomed amnongst the orators.
§ 275 THE ABLATIVE. 237
if one were to search through all Asia. Qvis toto mari locus tutus
fuit 2 (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11), what place in the whole sea 2
OBS. In is nevertheless also used: e.g. Tanti terrae motus in
Gallia compluribusqve insulis totaqve in Italia facti sunt (Cic. de
Div. I. 35). Nego in tota Sicilia ullum argenteum vas fuisse,
qvod Verres non conqvisierit (Id. in Verr. IV. 1).
§ 274. The ablative is used without a preposition to signify the
path or way by which, or direction in which, a movement takes place:
Via Nomentana (via breviore) proficisci; porta Collina urbem
intrare; recta linea deorsum ferri; Pado frumentum subvehere,
on the Po, up the Po.
$ 275. A motion from a place is expressed without a preposition
by the ablative of the names of towns and smaller islands, and the
words domo, from home, rure, from the country; and sometimes
humo, from the ground:— -
Roma proficisci, discedere Athenis, Delo Rhodum navigare;
frumentum Rhodo advehere; domo auxilium mittere; rure ad-
venire; oculos tollere humo (also, ab humo).
OBs. 1. Ab is, however, sometimes (by Livy usually) used with the
names of towns, and always when a removal from the neighborhood of
a town is spoken of; e.g. Caesar a Gergovia discessit (Caes. B. G.
VII. 59), from Gergovia, which he had been besieging. The preposition
is likewise used when oppidum or urbs precedes the name: Expellitur
ex oppido Gergovia (Id. ib., VII. 4). (Genus Tusculo, ex clar-
issimo municipio, profectum, Cic. pro Font. 14.)
OBs. 2. The ablative of the names of towns (together with domo) is
used without a preposition to denote the place from which a letter is
written (e.g. Româ a. d. iv. Idus Octobres), and with abesse, to be
absent ; e.g. abesse Roma (but tria millia passuum a Roma abesse,
of the distance).
OBs. 3. To denote a person's home, we sometimes find such expres-
sions as Gn. Magius Cremonă (Caes. B. C. I. 24), Gn. Magius of
Cremona; more usually with an adjective: Gn. Magius Cremonensis.
(In Livy we also find Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia, I. 50.) In the
same way is used the ablative of the names of the Roman tribes; Ser-
vius Sulpicius Lemoniã, of the Lemonian tribe.
Obs. 4. The poets use also the ablatives of other words to indicate
the place from which a motion proceeds: e.g. descendere caelo
(Virg.); labi eqvo (Hor.). (Abesse virtute Messalae, to fall short
of, Hor.) Of the ablative with certain verbs, in the signification out of,
away from, see $263.
238 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 276
• § 276. The ablative of words which denote a space of time is
used both to denote the time at which (when) a thing happens, and
the time within which, in the course of which, it happens:—
a. Tertio anno urbs capta est. Hora $exta (vigilia tertia)
Caesar profectus est. Res patrum memoria (nostra aetate) gestae.
Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat (Cic. de Div.
II. 56). Qva nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dianae Ephesiae
templum deflagravit (Id. N. D. II. 27). Initio aestatis consul in
Graeciam trajecit. So also without an adjective (or genitive): hieme
(in the winter), aestate, die, nocte, luce (in broad day).
b. Roscius Romam multis annis non venit (Cic. Rosc. Am. 27).
Nemo his viginti annis reipublicae fuit hostis, qvi non bellum
eodem tempore mihi qvoqve indixerit (Id. Phil. II. 1). Saturni
stella triginta fere annis cursum suum conficit . (Cic. N. D. II.
20). Agamemnon vix decem annis urbem unam cepit (Corn.
Epam. 5). - •
OBS. 1. To express the time when a thing happens, in is added, in some
particular phrases. To denote a thing which is always true, we find the
expressions, in omni aetate, in omni aeternitate (through, all eter-
mity), in omni puncto temporis (at every moment). In tempore, and
simply tempore, signifies at the right (suitable) time.* In tali tem-
pore (Sall. Cat. 48), under such circumstances ; auxilio alicui esse in
gravissimis ejus temporibus. -
OBs. 2. Some words, too, which do not, in themselves, denote time,
but, an event, are used, in the ablative, without a preposition, in order to
intimate the time when a thing takes place, particularly adventu and
discessu with a genitive: Adventu Caesaris in Galliam Moritas-
gus regnum obtinebat (Cæs. B. G. V. 54), at the time qf Cæsar's
arrival ; with some others (ortu, occasu solis), comitiis, ludis, gla-
diatoribus, at the time qf (during) the comitia, &c. ; sometimes, also,
pace, in time qf peace ; bello, tumultu, in time qf war ; but in bello,
in the war. With the addition of an adjective : Praelio Senensi
consul ludos vovit, and in praelio Senensi; bello Punico secunido
(bello Antiochi), at the time qf the second Punic war, and in bello
Alexandrino, in the Alexandriam war.* To express the different times
of life, in is inserted : e.g. in pueritia; but it may be omitted, when
the ablative is qualified by an adjective: prima, extrema pueritia.
We have initio, principio, in the beginning, and in initio*
1 Ad tempus, ad diem, at the right (appointed) time.
2 In later Writers also: dedicatione templi Veneris Genetricis, at the consecra-
tiom, Plin. Maj. ; publico epulo, at a public emtertaimmemt, Svet., &c.
8 Principio also signifies firstiy. •
§ 276 - TEHE ABLATIVE. 239
OBS. 8. To express the time within, which a thing takes place, in is
sometimes inserted: Sulla sollertissimus omnium in paucis tem-
pestatibus factus est (Sall. Jug. 96); particularly when a numeral is
employed to show how qfien a thing happens, or how much is done in a
certain time : e.g. bis in die (a day) saturum fieri; ter in anno nun-
tium audire. Lucilius in hora saepe ducentos versus dictabat
(Hor. Sat. I. 4, 9). (But also septies die, Seven times a day.)
OBs. 4. In the same way, in is often inserted to intimate within what
time, reckoned from a certain point, a thing happens: Decrevit sena-
tus, ut legati Jugurthae in diebus proximis decem Italia decede-
rent (Sall. Jug. 28) ; but also diebus decem (Id. ib. 38), qvatriduo
eum exspecto (in four days). Paucis diebus and in paucis die-
bus, in the course qf a few days, a fev days qfterwards, or in a
few days : Paucis diebus Jugürtha legatos Romam mittit (Sall.
Jug. 13) ; paucis diebus ad te veniamę Here, too, we should
notice the expression in connection with a relative clause : paucis
(in paucis) diebus (annis), qvibus , a few days after, 5
e.g. Diebus circiter xv, qvibus in hiberna ventum est, de-
fectio orta est (Cæs. B. G. V. 26). In paucis diebus, qvibus
haec acta sunt, Chrysis moritur (Ter. And. I. 1, 77). Sex. Roscii
mors qvatriduo, qvo is occisus est, Chrysogono nuntiatur (Cie.
Bosc. Am. 37), properly, in the course qf the same four days, during
which his assassination took place.' -
OBs. 5. We must particularly remark the use of the ablative with hic
or ille to give the period of time, measured from the present, or from
some given point in the past, within which a thing occurs : His annis
qvadringentis Romae rex fuit (Cic. R. P. I. 87), it is mot more than
.four hundred years since there vas a king at Rome, -— four humdred years
ago, or less. Ante hos qvadringentos annos and abhinc annos
qvadringentos is a more definite statement. See § 270, Obs. 4.
IRespondit, se paucis illis diebus argentum misisse Lilybaeum
(Id. Verr. IV. 18). Hanc urbem hoc biennio evertes (Id. Somn.
Scip. 2), before two years are past ; more definitely, intra biennium.*
OBs. 6. For an ablative of time with an ordinal numeral, followed by
the adverb ante or post (e.g. die decimo post or decimo post die),
we find also the preposition ante or post, with the accusative: post diem
decimum (decimum post diem), as in § 270, Obs. 4. (Post tertium
diem moriendum mihi est, Cic. Div. I. 25 = tribus his diebus, post
* [Oppidum paucis diebus, qvibus eo ventum est, expugnatum (Cæs. B. G.
III. 18). Diebus x, qvibus materia, coepta, erat, comportari (Id. ibid. IV. 18)]
* Intra centum annos, in less tham a humdred years ; inter centum annos, im
the coursè of a humdred years, in a period of a humdred years ; e.g. Inter tot annos unus
innocens imperator inventus est (= tot annis).
240 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 277
tres dies.) For decimo die anteqvam, or postqvam (e.g. undecimo
die postqvam a te discesseram, Cic. ad Att. XII. 1), we find also
ante, post decimum diem, qvam ; e.g. Post diem qvintum, qvam
iterum barbari male pugnaverant, legati a Boccho veniunt (Sall.
Jug. 102). We even find (though this is a rare instance) post sextum
cladis annum (Tac. Ann. I. 62), for sexto anno post cladem.
(Ante qvintum mensem divortii, Svet. Claud. 27.)'
OBs. 7. Concerning the use of the ablative instead of the accusative
in expressing the duration of an action, see § 235, Obs. 3.
§ 277. A substantive (or substantive pronoun) having an adjec-
tive or participle agreeing with it, or having another substantive in
apposition, by which it is described as being in a certain state (rege
vivo, te vivo, rege mortuo, rege duce), is put in the ablative, and
joined to a proposition, torshow that that which is asserted in the pro-
position takes place during the continuance of that which is expressed
by the ablatives. This is called the ablative absolute, or ablative of
consequence (also, duo ablativi). It denotes either simply a par-
ticular time (e.g. factum est rege vivo, while the king lived) ; or
the way in which the action is peiformed, or the relation to it of
some person or thing (e.g. bellum gestum est rege duce, so that
the king was commander, i.q. under the king's command). The
force of this construction, which expresses occasion, contrast, and
the like, is given in English by a great variety of phrases :—
Augustus natus est Cicerone et Antonio consulibus (in the con-
sulate qf Cicero and Antony); iisdem consulibus Catilinae conjuratio
erupit (under the same consuls), Pythagoras Tarqvinio Superbo re-
gnante in Italiam venit (in the reign Qf Tarquin). Regibus ejectis
consules creari coepti sunt (qfter the expulsion qf the kings). An-
tonius Caesare ignaro magister eqvitum constitutus est (without
Caesar's knowledge). Hoc factum est me invito. Nihil de hac re
agi potest salvis legibus (Cic. ad Fam. I. 2), without violating the
laws. I.ex Cassia lata est Scipione auctore (Id. Legg. III. 16), at
the instigation, or by the advice qf Scipio. Qvo auctore tantam rem
aggressus es ? INonne simillimis formis saepe dispares mores
sunt et moribus simillimis figura dissimilis est? (Id. N. D. I. 35),
do we mot qften find different characters under the same eaeterior ? (Aestu
magno ducere agmen, Id. Tusc. II. 15, in very hot weather. Tabulas
1 For die (anno) decimo postqvam, we find (without the preposition) die (anno)
decimo qvam : e.g. Anno trecentesimo altero, qvam condita, Boma est, ite-
rum mutatur forma civitatis (Liv. III. 88). (Postridie qvam, postero die
qvam.) So likewise it is said: Intra, qvintum, qvam affuerat, diem (Svet. Jul. 85),
before the fif?li day after. - -
§ 278 'THE ABLATIVE. 241.
in ford, summa hominum freqventia, exscribo, Id. Verr. II. 77, in
the midst of a great crowd. Compare $257.)
A negative may also be attached to the adjective or participle; factum
hoc est me non invito.
OBs. 1. In this way, the contents of a whole proposition, with its
accessory ideas, may, by means of participles, be expressed as a circum-
stance qualifying another proposition; e.g. hostibus post acre pro-
lium a littore submotis, Caesar castra posuit. See §§ 428 and 429.
OBs. 2. A simple demonstrative pronoun may sometimes stand in place
of the adjective: Qvid hoc populo obtineri potest ? (Cic. Legg. III.
16,) what measure can be carried, so long as the people is such as it now
is, or with the present people?" His moribus, in the present condition of
the public morals.
Obs. 3. In a few particular expressions, an external circumstance is
intimated still more briefly by the ablative of a single word; e.g. se-
reno (Liv. XXXVII. 3), with a fair sky; austro (Cic. Div. II. 27),
in a south wind, when the wind is southerly.
§ 278. a. Sometimes, when it can be done without obscuring the
sense, a single predicate is qualified by several ablatives, which all
differ from each other, so far as the application of the foregoing
rules are concerned : —
Et legibus et institutis (§ 256) vacat senectus muneribus is
(§ 261) qvae non possunt sine viribus sustineri (Cic. Cat. M. 11).
Catilina scelerum exercitatione (§ 254) assvefactus erat frigore
et fame et siti perferendis (§ 267). (Id. in Cat. II. 5.) Menippus
meo judicio (§ 256, Obs. 3) tota Asia (§ 273, c) illis temporibus
(§ 276) disertissimus erat (Cic. Brut. 91).
b. An ablative, which denotes reference ($ 253), or the means
(§ 254), as well as an ablative of place (§§ 273, a, 274, 275), or of
time (§ 276), is sometimes joined immediately to a verbal substan-
tive, and not to the predicate of the proposition; e.g.: —
Harum ipsarum rerum reapse, non oratione, perfectio (Cic. Rep.
I. 2); exercitus nostri interitus ferro, fame, frigore, pestilentia (Id.
in Pis. 17); mansio Formiis (Id. ad Att. IX. 5); reditus Narbone
(Id. Phil. II. 30); illa universorum civium Romanorum per tot
urbes uno puncto temporis misera crudelisqve caedes (Id. pro
Flacc. 25). (Bello civili victor.) This, however, is rare. (Com-
pare $ 298.) -
* [Itaqve ego illum exercitum, et Gallicanis legionibus, et hoc delectu,
qvem in agro Piceno et Gallico Q. Metellus habuit, et his copiis, qvae a
nobis quotidie comparantur, magno Opere contemno (Cic. in Cat. II. 8).]
16
242 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 280
CHAPTER V.
T EI E G E N IT I W E .
§ 279. The genitive of a word denotes that another stands with
it in some connected relation, and is in this way defined by it. The
genitive serves chiefly to show the relation of the substantive so
used to some other substantive (or word put substantively), so
that both substantives in combination express one idea; it is, how-
ever, also combined with some adjectives and verbs.
OBs. The connection denoted by the genitive #y be divided princi-
pally into three kinds. It is either an immediate one between two sub-
stantive ideas, of which one is conceived of as belonging to the other,
and defined by it (patria hominis, patria nostra), the possessive
or subjective genitive; or it directs some energy or quality or effort
towards some object (studium gloriae, studiosus gloriae, oblivisci
rei, studium nostri), the objective genitive; or it represents a thing as
subordinate to something else as its whole (pars rei, pars nostrum),
the genitive of the whole, the partitive genitive. To these leading classes,
are to be subjoined some more special applications, in some of which the
primary notion cannot be ascertained with certainty.
§ 280. The genitive depending on a substantive is used to
express the name of a person or thing to which something be-
longs (the possessive or subjective genitive): —
As, for instance, by relationship, filius Ciceronis; by possession, horti
Caesaris; by origin, tabula Apellis (a picture by Apelles); by mutual
relation and position, hostis Romanorum (an enemy of the Romans);
or as an action, fuga Pompeji; quality, fortitudo Leonidae; contents,
and appurtenance, vasa abaci (the vessels belonging to the sideboard);
servus Titii, dominus Stichi; Cupido Praxitelis (the Cupid — a
statue— of Praaiteles); libri Ciceronis (the books of Cicero, either as
author or possessor); consvetudo nostri temporis; hominum genus
(the race of men, the race which they constitute); poena sceleris; laus
recte factorum; frumentum triginta dierum (corn for thirty days, as
much as thirty days require); animus patris (the disposition of the
father, or a father, i.g. a fatherly disposition); comitia consulum
(the assembly for the election of consuls, i.d. that in which they are
elected).
§ 28o TETE GENITIVE. 243
OBS. 1. The relation which in Latin is denoted by the genitive is
usually expressed in English by a preposition (especially qf), or by a
substantive and adjective : e.g. ordo mercatorum, the mercantile class ;
pellum servorum, the war with the slaves (also, bellum servile).
OBS. 2. In order to avoid repetitiom, the substantive which governs
the genitive may be omitted, if it can, without ambiguity, be supplied
from the context: Meo judicio stare malo qvam omnium reliqvorum
(Cic. ad Att. XII. 21). Perspicuum est, benevolentiae vim esse
magnam, metus imbecillam (Id. Off. II. 8). Qvis potest sine
maxima contumelia conferre vitam Trebonii cum Dolabe11ae ?
(Id. Phil. XI. 4.) Flebat pater de filii morte, de patris filius (Id.
Verr. I. 30). (On the other hand : Nulla est celeritas, qvae possit
cum animi celeritate contendere, Id. Tusc. I. 19). A pronoun (hic
or ille), answering to*he word understood, is rarely inserted before the
genitive, and only when direct reference is made to something already
known, or mentioned shortly before; Nullam enim virtus aliam mer-
cedem laborum periculorumqve desiderat praeter hanc laudis et
gloriae (Cic. pro Arch. 11), except this, qf which I have already
spoken. Expressions like the following: Videtisne captivorum ora-
tionem cum perfugis convenire (Cæs. B. C. II. 39), instead of cum
perfugarum (sc. oratione) ; or, Ingenia nostrorum hominum mul-
tum ceteris hominibus praestiterunt (Cic. de Or. I. 4), instead of
ceterorum hominum ingeniis, result from a want of precision in the
thought, the person orthing itself being put in the place of that which
belongs to it.
OBS. 3. The word aedes or templum is often omitted (elliptically),
after the preposition ad (sometimes after ab), before the genitive of the
name of the divinity : Ventum erat ad Vestae. Pugnatum est ad
Spei.
OBS. 4. A man's wife or son or daughter is, in a few instances, briefly
expressed by the genitive alone: Verania Pisonis (Plin. Ep. II. 20),
Piso's Verania, i.q. Piso's wífe Verania ; Hasdrubal Gisgonis (Liv.
XXV. 87), Gisgo's Hasdrubal, i.q. Hasdrubal, the son Qf Gisgo, to dis-
tinguish him from another famous Hasdrubal, the son of Hamilcar. In
the case of sons, this way of expression is chiefly used with names which
are not Roman. (So likewise, Flaccus Claudii, Flaccus, the slave, or
.freedman qf Claudius.)
OBs. 5. Since a thing may belong to a person in various ways, it fol-
lows that one and the same possessive genitive, governed by the same
word, may admit of two meanings ; e.g, libri Ciceronis. So also, inju-
riae praetoris, the unjust acts qf the prætor (active); and injuriae
civium, the wrongs suffered by the citizens (passive).
244 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 282
OBs. 6. We may notice especially the use of the indeclinable substan-
tive instar, which, in common language, is used only im combination with
a genitive, to signify as much a8, the same (in compass, weight, impor-
tanee) : as, Plato mihi est instar omnium (Cic. Brut. 51), as good as
all togefher ; haec navis urbis instar inter ceteras habere videba-
tur (Id. Verr. V. 34), to be, as it were, a city; montis instar eqvus
(Virg. Æn. II. 15, apposition), a horse like a mountain.
OBS. 7. The possessive genitive may also be governed by an adjective
used substantively, or by a neuter pronoun ; Omnia erant Metelli
ejusmodi (Cic. Verr. II. 26), every thing from Metellus, that is, all his
measures. (See also, § 485, e, Obs.)
§ 281. Instead of being joined immediately to the governing
substantive, a possessive genitive may be cgmbined with it by
means of the verb sum or fio, so as to declare whose a thing is, or
- whose it becomes, or to whom it belongs:—
Domus est patris. Ego totus Pompeji sum (Cic. ad Fam. II.
13). Hic versus Plauti non est (Id. ibid. IX. 16), is not by Plautus.
Omnia, qvae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt (Id. Top. 4). Thebae
populi Romani belli jure factae sunt (Liv. XXIII. 13).
In the same way, facio expresses whose property a thing is made;
puto, habeo, existimo, whose it is supposed to be ; e.g. Neqve glo-
riam meam, laborem illorum faciam (Sall. Jug. 85), I will mot take the
glory to myself, and leave the toil to them.
OBs. From this use of sum with the genitive, signifying to be some
one's, to belong to some one, is derived the expression, aliqvid est mei
judicii, is for me to decide ; esse dicionis Carthaginiensium, to be under
the jurisdiction qf the Carthaginians (Liv. XXX. 9), and facere ali-
qvid suae dicionis, potestatis, arbitrii, to öring a, thing under ome's own
power, make it dependent on one's own disposa! ; Romani imperio aucti,
Albani dicionis alienae facti erant (Liv. I. 25). Marcellus id nec
juris nec potestatis suae esse dixit (Id. XXV. 7), that he had meither
the right nor the power.
§ 282. The genitive with the verb sum also denotes to whom or
what a thing suitably and appropriately belongs:—
Non hujus temporis ista oratio est (is mot suífed to). Petu-
lantia magis est adolescentium qvam genum (is more appropri-
ate). &
In this way especially a genitive (or a possessive pronoun) is
often, by the help of the verb sum, combined with an infinitive for
the subject, to express what is any one's affair (task, duty, custom,
&c.), what is the nature (characteristic sign) of a thing:—
§ 283 THE GENITIVE. 245
Cujusvis hominis est errare, nullius, nisi insipientis in errore
perseverare (Cic. Phil. XII. 2), to err is the lot qf every mam, may hap-
pen to every man. Est boni judicis parvis ex rebus conjecturam
facere. Secundas res immoderate ferre levitatis est (befrays weak-
mess Qf character). Nihil est tam angusti animi tamqve parvi qvam
amare divitias (Cic. Off. I. 20). (Tempori cedere semper sapien-
tis habitum est, Cic. ad Fam. IV. 9, has always been considered fitting
for a wise man.)
OBS. 1. The same is more definitely expressed thus: judicis officium
(munus) est; sapientis est proprium, &e. Humanum est errare.
Stulti est, it is peculiar to the fool, a distinguishing mark qf the fool ;
stultum est, it is foolish. With adjectives of ome termination, the first
method of expression is almost always employed ; Est prudentis sus-
tinere impetum benevolentiae (Cic. Læl. 17). We should hardly
say, Est prudens sust. imp. bem.
OBs. 2. The following construction is worthy of notice : Negavit
moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum mulieres accumbe-
rent (Cic. Verr. I. 26), that it was according to the Greek custom.
§ 283. A genitive is used with substantives of transitive signifi-
cation to express the object of the transitive force (the objective
genîtive). Such substantives are those which are derived. from
transitive verbs, and express the notion of the verb ; and others,
which denote an affection, aversion, knowledge, ignorance, or a
power, capacity, or influence ; e.g.: —
Indagatio veri, accusatio sceleratorum, amor Dei (love to God,
amare Deum), odium hominum (misanthropy), timor hostium (fear
emtertained qf the ememy), spes salutis, cura rerum alienarum, oblivio
officii (obliviscor officii); taedium vitae (taedet vitae, § 292),
fuga laboris, studium severitatis, studium Pompejaraarum par-
tium, cupiditas gloriae, fames auri; scientia juris, peritia belli,
ignoratio veri; potestas (copia) rei alicujus (facere alicui potesta-
tem dicendi); signum erumpendi (for breaking out) ; occasio et
locus pugnae (pugnandi); materia jocorum; libertas dicendi;
praecepta vivendi (rules for life). -
OBs. 1. Amor Dei, timor hostium, may also signify (as the posses-
sive genitive, according to § 280) God's love (to others), fear enter-
tained by the enemy. The context shows which signification is to be
adopted. - 4
OBs. 2. With those words which denote a feeling towards any one, the
prepositions, in, erga, and adversus, are also used ; e.g. odium, mu-
lierum, and odium in hominum universum genus (Cie. Tusc. IV.
11). Meum erga te studium. Adhibenda est reverentia qvae-
246 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 284
dam adversus homines, et optimi cujusqve et reliqvorum (Cic.
Off. I. 28). The preposition is especially to be used when the. govern-
ing word itself stands in the genitive ; Si qvid amoris erga me in te
residet (Id. ad Fam. V. 5).
OBs. 3. This genitive, therefore, with verbal substantives, has the
same meaning as the accusative with the verb (or the genitive with the
verbs adduced below, § 29l; and § 292; memoria beneficiorum, tae-
dium vitae). Yet verbal substantives, whose verbs do not govern the
accusative, are sometimes put with the genitive, to indicate a more remote
reference to something to which the action is directed, and in which
it shows itself, and which, with the verbal substantive, forms a com-
pound idea : e.g. aditus laudis (am opportunity for glory) ; incita-
mentum periculorum (incitare aliqvem ad pericula); amicitia est
omnium divinarum humanarumqve rerum cum benevolentia et
caritate consensio (Cic. Læl. 6), agreement in ; vacatio militiae; fidu-
cia virium; victoria belli civilis; contentio honorum (Cic. Off. I.
25), the struggle for Qffice ; magnam virtutis opinionem habere (Cæs.
E. G. VII. 59), to have the reputation Qf great bravery. In the same
way, we fimd, with the names of persons, dux belli, the leader in the
war), victor trium bellorum (Liv. VI. 4), magister officii. (The
objective genitive with a substantive corresponds but very rarely with
the dative governed by a verb, — as, obseqvium corporis (Cic. Leg.
I. 23), — except in the instance of studium).
OBs. 4. An objective genitive may sometimes be connected with
the governing substantive by the verb sum ; e.g. Ars est earum rerum,
qvae sciuntur (Cic. Or. II. 7), an art applies to those things that are
lcnown. -.
, § 284. The genitive is put with words which denote a part of a
thing, in order to designate the whole, which is divided (the partí-
tive genîtive). The partitive words may be substantives, numerals
(cardinal and ordinal), and adjectives of number (multi, pauci, &c.),
pronouns, adjectives of the superlative degree (or the comparative
for the superlative), and neuter adjectives used substantively:—
Magna pars militum; duo genera civium (two classes qf citi-
zens); multi militum (many qf the soldiers ; multi milites, many sol-
diers); tertius regum Romanorum ; alter accusatorum ; nemo
mortalium (nemo mortalis, no mortal) ; solus omnium; illi Grae-
corum, qvi (those qf the Greeks, who); fortissimus Graecorum;
plerumqve Europae (the greater part qf Europe). Ager Appulus,
qvod ejus publicum populi Romani erat, divisus est (Liv. XXXI.
4), so much qf it as was state property.
§ 284 THE GENITIVE. 247
OBS. 1. Instead of the genitive, the prepositions ex, de, and, in cer-
tain combinations, in or inter, among, are also used: e.g. melior ex
duobus, alter de duobus, aliqvis de heredibus, unus e tribus (one
of three); Thales sapientissimus in septem fuit (Cic. Legg. II. 11);
inter omnes unus excellit (Id. Or. 2). But a partitive substantive
is not readily combined by a preposition with another substantive (not
pars ex exercitu). Concerning the use of a distributive apposition
(consules alter—alter), instead of a proper division (consulum alter
— alter), see $217, Obs. 1.
OBs. 2. A partitive genitive may also be governed by a substantive,
which does not, in itself, signify a part, if several persons or things are
designated by one name, and then mentioned severally; Venio ad
ipsas provincias, qvarum (of which) Macedonia, qvae erat antea
munita et pacata, graviter a barbaris vexatur (Cic. Prov. Cons. 2).
On the other hand, a partitive genitive is rarely combined with the sub-
ject of a proposition by sum without a governing noun, as in the
following instances: Ariminenses erant duodecim coloniarum
(Cic. pro Caec. 35), were of, belonged to, the twelve colonies. Fies
nobilium tu quoqve fontium (Hor. Od. III. 13, 13), one of the fa-
mous fountains.
OBs. 3. The word uterqve is always used with the genitive of pro-
nouns (uterqve eorum, both of them ; uterqve nostrum, both of us);
with substantives, on the contrary, it is generally put as an adjective:
uterqve frater (rarely, uterqve legatorum, Vell. II. 50).
OBs. 4. The adverb partim is used as a partitive adjective in the
nominative and accusative with the genitive or a preposition: Partim
eorum ficta aperte, partim effutita temere sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55).
Partim e nobis timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi (Cic. Phil.
VIII. 11). (The gender is regulated by the leading idea.)
OBs. 5. The use of a neuter adjective, in the singular or plural, as
a substantive with the genitive, to denote a part (or parts) of a thing,
is rare in the earlier writers (Cicero), with the exception of dimidium,
half; e.g. dimidium pecuniae (Cic. Q. Fr. II. 4); but common at a
later period, and in the poets: medium (reliqvum) noctis; extre-
mum aestatis; ad ultimum inopiae (Liv. XXIII. 19), to the extrem-
ity of want ; plana urbis; ultima Orientis. In the older writers, it is
media nox, extrema aestas; ultimus Oriens (see § 311); plana
urbis loca. In the poets and later writers, the partitive idea often
disappears, and only the quality of the thing is expressed; e.g. incerta
belli, the uncertainty (accidents) of war; lubricum paludum, slippery,
marshy ground (Tac. Ann. I. 65)."
sº
1 In poetical language also cuncta terrarum (Hor. Od. II. 1, 28), the whole of the earth,
and (according to Obs. 6) cuncti hominum.
248 LATIN GRAMIMAR. § 285
OBs. 6. In some rare instances, an adjective that is neither an adjec-
tive of quantity, nor yet in the meuter gender, is used substantively with
a partitive genitive; e.g. expediti militum (Liv. XXX. 9), the light-
armed qf the soldiers.
OBs. 7. Beginners must observe, that, in English, the expressions,
many qf, feu qf, mone qf, are often used where no partition is intended,
but an enumeratiom of the whole; in such cases, neither a genitive nor a
preposition which signifies division eam be employed, in Latin; but we
may say: amici, qvos multos habet (qf whom he has many), and
qvos video esse nonnullos (Cic. pro Balb. 27), qf whom I perceive
there are some. Hominibus opus est eruditis, qvi adhuc, in hoc
qvidem genere, nostri nulli fuerunt (Cic. de Or. III. 24), qf whom
there have beem mome with us. Veniamus ad vivos, qvi duo de con- -
sularium numero reliqvi sunt (Cic. Phil. II. 6).
OBS. 8. The partitive genitive may also be governed by an adverb in
the superlative, to show of which, among many, the predicate holds good
in the highest degree; Sulpicius Gallus omnium nobilium maxime
Graecis litteris studuit (Cic. Brut. 20).
OBs. 9. With the pronominal adverbs of place, which denote the place
where a motion is to end, we fimd a genitive, signifying up to a certain
point (degree) of something: Nescire videmini, qvo amentiae pro-
gressi sitis (Liv. XXVIII. 27). Eo miseriarum venturus eram
(Sall. Jug. 40). Of the same character is the phrase qvoad ejus
facere poteris, fieri poterit. -
OBs. 10. The gemitive loci sometimes follows pronominal adverbs of
place to define them more exactly (amtiquated): ibidem loci res erit
(literally, the matter will be at the same point qf place) ; but especially
locorum, terrarum, gentium, to strengthen the expression : Ubinam
gentium sumus? Ubicumqve terrarum et gentium violatum jus
civium Romanorum est, ad communem libertatis causam perti-
net (Cic. Verr. V. 55). Nusqvam gentium, mowhere in the world.
(Longe gentium.) Of the same kind are the idioms postea loci, qfter-
wards (strictly, at a later point qf time) ; interea loci, in the meam.
time ; adhuc locorum, till mow.
OBS. 11. It is further to be observed, that the ablatives, hoc, eo, eo-
dem, qvo, are sometimes put substantively with the genitive loci (eo
loci), for hoc loco, eo loco, &c.
§ 285. a. The genitive is put, with words which denote a num-
ber, a measure, or a quantity, in order to denote the kind, the thing
measured or counted (genitivus generis) : —
Magnus numerus militum; magna viâ argenti; acervus fru-
menti; modius tritici; vini tres amphorae; ala eqvilum. Auri
§ 285 • THE GENITIVE. 249
navis (Cic. Fin. IV. 37), a ship-load qf gold ; flumina lactis, rivers qf
milk (Ovid). Tria millia eqvitum. See § 72. -
OBs. So also, sex dies spatii (Cæs. B. C. I. 3, — properly, siae days?
term = a term of six days ; also, spatium sex dierum) ; sestertii
bini accessionis (Cic. Verr. III. 49), two sesterces addition (accessio
duorum sestertiorum, an addition qf tuo sesterces). Praedae homi-
num pecorumqve. Imber sangvinis.
b. This genitive is governed by the nom. or acc. sing. neut. of an
adjective of quantity (multum, plurimum, amplius, mimus, mini-
mum, tantum, qvântum, tantumdem, nimium, sometimes exi-
guum,* or of a (demomstrative, relative, interrogative, or indefinite)
pronoum, and by mihil, the governing word being used as a substan-
tive, in order to lay stress on the measure or degree or nature of
the things spoken of:—
Multum temporis in aliqva re ponere; minimum firmitatis
habere; id negotii habeo ; hoc praemii; hoc tantum laboris itiner-
isqve (Cic. Verr. V. 49); nihil virium; qvod roboris erat (what
there was in strength, the strength which there was). Qvidqvid habui.
militum, misi. Qvid mihi consilii datis ? Qvid tu hominis es ?
(Ter. Heaut. IV. 6, 7), what sort qf man are you ? Exiguum campi
(Liv. XXVII. 27).* Where this prominence is mot aimed at, we fimd
simply tantum studium, tanta (tam multa) opera; qvod consilium
mihi datis ? &c. (Plus operae = major opera, plus itself not being
used as an adjective.) - -
The above adjectives and promouns may also have, for their genitive,
a meuter adjective of the second declension, which stands as a substan-
tive : aliqvid pulchri; qviddam movi; nihil boni; tantum mali;
hoc incommodi; qvod pulchri erat, omne sublatum est (whatever
beautiful things there were) ; but also, aliqvid pulchrum; nihil altum,
nihil magnificum cogitare. (The adjectives of the third declension are
not employed in this way ; we always find the form aliqvid memora-
bile. The adjectives of quantity are combined with another adjective
only in, the genitive in the singular: plurimum novi; in the plural,
the other construction is used: plurima nova, § 30i, b ; plura
nova). «* •
OBs. 1. Such an adjective or promoum, with a genitive, cannot be gov-
erned by a preposition ; we must say, ad tantum studium, not ad tan-
tum studii. Yet we find ad multum diei (ad multum diem), till
1 Not magnum or parvum. ` .
* [Cur sui qvidqvam esse imperii aut potestatis trans Rhenum postularet
(Cæs. B. G. IV. 16).]
« • -«^
250. LATIN. GRAMMAR. § 286
late in the day ; and ad id loci (locorum), up to that point, up to that
time. - - - - -
OBs. 2. The student should notice the expressioms nihil reliqvi
facere (literally, to make no residue, i.e. to leave nothing remaining,
vndone), and nihil pensi habere (literally, to have mothing weighed, i.e.
to care nothing ; nec qvicqvam iis pensi est, qvid faciant, Liv.
XXXIV. 49).
c. In the same way, the adverbs satis, abunde, affatim, nimis, and
parum, are used as substantives in the nominative and accusative (but
not after prepositions) with the genitive : Satis copiarum habes; pa-
rum prudentiae (too little prudence).
§ 286. Sometimes a substantive containing a more general idea
is followed by another. in the genitive, by which the former is
denoted more specifically (genitivus definitivus, or epexegeti-
cus) : —
Vox voluptatis, the word pleasure ; nomen regis, the kingly name,
the name Qf king;' verbum monendi, the word monere; numerus
trecentorum, the number three hundred ; opus Academicorum, the
treatise Academica; familia Scipionum, the Seipio family ; con-
svetudo contra deos disputandi, the habit qf disputing against the
gods. (The genitive of the gerumd is oftem used in this way.)* (Ar-
Bor fici, arbor abietis, the fig-tree, the fir-tree.)
OBs. 1. In Latin, two substantives eam never be connected immedi-
ately (without apposition) in the same case, except when a person or a
plaee is indicated at onee by its generic and proper mame (Rex Tullius,
urbs Roma, amnis Rhenus, terra Italia). In geographical designa-
tions, the proper name is also put in some few instanees (chiefly by the
poets) in the gemitive: tellus Ausoniae (Virg. Æn. III. 477), the land
qf Ausonia ; celsa Buthroti urbs (Id. ib. III. 293) ; promontorium
Fachyni (Liv. XXIV. 35).
OBs. 2. In this way, the genitive sometimes supplies the place of
apposition, when a general idea is followed by the special one which
contaims it; e.g. Parvae causae vel falsae suspicionis vel repentini
terroris (Cæs. B. C. III. 72), small causes, which consist in false suspi-
ciom, Or sudolem, alarm.* Aliis virtutibus, continentiae, gravitatis,
justitiae, fidei, te consulatu dignum putavi (Cic. pro Mur. 10).
Unum genus est infestum nobis eorum, qvos P. Clodii furor rapinis
pavit (Id. pro Mil. 2), the class which, consists qf those persons.
1 But also in a, possessive signification ; the name of the king, e.g. Frederic, &c.
2 [Injuriae retentorum equitum Romanorum (Cæs. de Bell. Gall. III. 10).]
* Causa, suspicionis may also meam the cause qf the suspiciom. • • . * ^ .
§ 287 TEIE GENITIVE. 251
~_
OBS. 3. If, by the aid ofthe verb sum, a substantive is explained by
another, which might have been combined with it without a verb in the
genitive case to form a single idea, the genitive is often put with sum,
and not the nominative, the subject being understood as repeated
after sum: Unum genus est eorum, qvi, &c. (Cic. in Cat. II. 8), one
class is that qf those, consists qf those. Captivorum numerus fuit
septem millium ac ducentorum (Liv. X. 36), the number qf the pris-
oners was sevem thousand two humdred (numerus septem millium).
Major pars Atheniensium erat (Just. V. 10), the greater part was Qf
Athenians, consisted Qf Athenians ; but also, Praenestini maxima parB
fuere (Liv. XXIII. 19).
§ 287. The genitive of a substantive with an adjective (numeral,
participle, pronoun) is either put with a substantive immediately
by way of description, or is connected with a subject by the verb
sum, in order to show its nature and properties, its requirements,
its size and kind (the genítíve qf quality, the descríptíve genitive).
a. Juvenis mitis ingenii; vir et, consilii magni et virtutis; civi-
tates magnae auctoritatis; plurimarum palmarum vetus gladiator
(Cic. Rosc. Am. 6), an old gladiator, who has obtained many victories.
Natura humana imbecilla atqve aevi brevis est (Sall. Jug. 1).
b. Res magni laboris (which require much labor) ; hospes multi
cibi (Cic. Fam. IX. 26).
c. Classis trecentarum navium ; fossa centum pedum ; exsilium
decem annorum; homo infimi generis ; multi omnium generum
(Cic. de Or. II. 9), many men qf every kind ; vir ordinis senatorii;
omnes gravioris aetatis (Cæs. B. G. III. 16), all men qf advanced
age. Virtus tantarum virium non est (Cic. Tusc. V. 1). Hoc
non est tanti laboris, qvanti videtur. Classis fuit trecentarum
navium. (Also, Critognatus magnae auctoritatis in Arvernis
habitus est (Cæs. B. G. VII. 77), passed for an influential man.
Caesar diversarum partium habebatur (Svet. Jul. 1), it was sup-
posed that Cæsar belonged to the opposite party. Di me finxerunt
animi pusilli (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 17), have created me pusillanimous.)
OBs. 1. We must particularly notice the descriptive compounds of the
genitive modi with a pronoum, which are used altogether as indeclinable
adjectives: hujusmodi, ejusmodi, illiusmodi, istiusmodi, ejusdem- sa
modi, cujusmodi (relat. and interrog.), cujuscunqvemodi, cuicui-
modi, cujusqvemodi; e.g. ejusmodi causa, ejusmodi causae, &c.
OBS. 2. The genitive of quality resembles the ablative of quality
(§ 272) ; but the genitive demotes more the general nature and kind of
the subject (qf), while the ablative rather puts forward particular quali-
252 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 288
ties and circumstances belonging to it (with). In many instances, these
two forms of expression are either not at all or very slightly distin-
guished ; e.g. Neqve monere te audeo, praestanti prudentia virum,
neque confirmare, maximi animi hominem (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 8).
In the older writers (Cicero), the ablative is used of qualities in general
more frequently than the genitive. But to express the requisites for a
thing, its size and kind, the genitive alone (not the ablative) is em-
q.loyed. See the examples, under b and c. On the other hand, the abla-
tive only, and not the genitive, is used to express its constitution with
reference to its external parts: Britanni sunt capillo promisso atqve
omni parte corporis rasa praeter caput et labrum superius (Cæs.
I3. G. V. 14). We always say esse bono animo (to be qf good
courage) ; animo forti et erecto, ea mente ut, &c., qf the state qf
mind, but maximi animi homo, qf the whole character. (A man qf
genius, qf character, homo ingeniosus, gravis.)
OBs. 3. The genitive and ablative of quality are both generally sub-
joined to an indefinite appellative noun (as we also say, in English,
** Hannibal, a general of great ability,” not, ** Hannibal, of great abil-
ity *'). Yet single exceptions are met with : Tum T. Manlius Torqva-
tus, priscae ac nimis durae severitatis, ita locutus fertur (Liv.
XXII. 60). Agesilaus, annorum octoginta, in Aegyptum pro-
fectus est (Corn. Ages. 8), an old mam, qf eighty, at the age qf
eighty.'
§ 288. Since the genitive is combined with another substantive in
various significations, it may sometimes happen, if mo ambiguity results
from it, that two genitives may be attached to the same substantive, each
with its own proper signification : Superiorum dierum Sabini cuncta- .
tio (Cæs. B. G. III. 18), the delay qf Sabinus durìng the preceding days ;
because we say, superiorum dierum cunctatio, the delay qf the pre-
ceding days. Scaevolae dicendi elegantia (Cic. Brut. 44). Labor
est functio qvaedam vel animi vel corporis gravioris operis et
muneris (Id. Tusc. II. 15), the execution by the soul or body qf a work or
qffice somewhat difficult. One genitive may be governed by another: e.g.
Haec fuit causa intermissionis litterarum (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 13),
Erat majestatis populi Romani prohibere injuriam (Sall. Jug. 14).
Reminiscere incommodi populi Romani et pristinae civitatis Hel-
vetiorum (Cæs. B. G. I. 14); but such combinations tend to make the
style awkward or obscure.*
1 [Praestanti sapientia, et nobilitate Pythagoras (Cic. Tuse. Disp. IV. 1). Ic-
cius Remus, summa nobilitate et gratia inter suos (Cæs. B. G. II. 6).]
2 [The following is am instance of three genitives: IEorum dierum consuetudine iti-
neris nostri exercitus perspecta, (Cæs. B. G. II. 17).] - / *
<s>
§ 289 THE GENITIVE. 253
§ 289. The genitive is employed (as an objective genitive) with
many adjectives which denote a quality that is directed to a certain
object (transitive adjectives). (Compare $ 283 on the objective
genitive with substantives.) Such adjectives are the following: —
a. All partieiples in the present from transitive verbs, when they
Stand as pure adjectives, – i.e. when they are not used to signify a rela-
tion or action at a particular time, but denote a quality in general, - and
the adjectives in ax formed from transitive verbs: amans reipublicae
civis (amantior reipublicae, amantissimus reipublicae; see $ 62);
negotii gerens (carrying on a business); injuriarum perferens (but
if an adverb be subjoined, the participle has usually the construction of
the verb: homo facile injurias perferens); patiens laboris atqve
frigoris; appetens gloriae ; tenax propositi vir; tempus edax
rerum; capacissimus cibi viniqve. 9
b. Those adjectives which denote a desire (knowledge) of a thing or
experience in it, or the reverse (dislike, ignorance, inexperience): as
avarus, avidus, Cupidus, studiosus (fastidiosus), conscius, inscius,
nescius, gnarus, ignarus, peritus, imperitus, prudens, rudis, insolens
(insolitus), insvetus, memor, immemor; and sometimes those which
denote forethought or want of forethought (providus, diligens, curi-
osus, incuriosus): e.g. cupidus gloriae, studiosus litterarum, per-
itus belli, ignarus rerum omnium, insvetus male audiendi, memor
beneficii; vir omnis officii diligentissimus (Cic. pro Cael. 30)."
OBs. 1. Such is also the construction of consultus in jurisconsultus,
one acquainted with law (but also jureconsultus), and certus in the
phrase certiorem aliqvem facere; e.g. consilii, voluntatis (but as
frequently with de). The poets and later writers employ also some
other adjectives of cognate signification in this way; e.g. callidus,
doctus (doctissima fandi, Virg.).”
OBs. 2. Conscius is sometimes put according to this rule with the
object in the genitive, and a dative of the person with whom one is privy
to a thing (according to $ 243): e.g. conscius alicui caedis, mens
sibi conscia recti, conscius sibi tanti sceleris (Sall. Cat. 34); some-
times also with the dative of the thing to which a person is privy : con-
scius facinori, conscius mendacio alicujus.
OBs. 3. Rudis and prudens are also used with in ; prudens in jure
civili. (Also rudis ad pedestre certamen, inexperienced in the foot-
race; insvetus ad onera portanda.)
[Rudis agnminum sponsus (Hor. 0d. III. 2,9). Imbrium divina avis immi-
neratum (Id. ibid. 27, 10).] ---
* [But dulces docta modos (Hor. Od. III. 9, 10). See § 228, Obs 1
254 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 290
§ 290. Further, an objective genitive is put—
c. With those adjectives which denote power over a thing and the
opposite, as compos, impos, potens, impotens; e.g. compos mentis,
impotens eqvi regendi.
d. Those which denote a participation, a guilty concern in any thing,
and the opposite, as particeps, expers, consors, exsors; reus, ac-
cused of a thing; affinis, manifestus, insons; e.g. particeps consilii,
expers periculorum, reus furti (reum furti facio), insons probri,
affinis rei capitalis.
OBS. In later writers, noxius, innoxius, and suspectus are also so
used. Affinis has also the dative. See § 247, b, Obs. 4. Consors is
also used as a substantive; consors alicujus (any one's partner) in
lucris atqve furtis."
e. Those adjectives which denote an abundance or want of any thing
are put both with the genitive and ablative (§ 268); inops and (poet.)
pauper have the genitive only : inops auxilii, pauper argenti (Hor.);
and plenus is most frequently so constructed: plenus rimarum; vita
insidiarum et metus plena.
OBS. 1. Egenus, indigus, and sterilis are usually found only with
the genitive.
OBS. 2. In the same way are constructed with the genitive, prodigus,
profusus, lavish of (prodigus aeris); liberalis, generous with (liberalis
pecuniae, Sall. Cat. 7); parcus, sparing (parcissimus somni).
OBS. 3. In the poets those adjectives and participles which denote an
exemption from any thing, also take the genitive, according to Greek
usage. See § 268, b, Obs. 2.
f. Similis and dissimilis govern sometimes the genitive and some-
times the dative. See § 247, b, Obs. 2. Proprius, peculiar to, has the
genitive; e.g. vitium proprium senectutis (rarely the dative). Com-
munis often has the genitive: e.g. Memoria communis est multarum
artium. Hoc commune est potentiae cupidorum cum otiosis
(Cic. Off. I. 21); but also the dative: Omni aetati mors est com-
munis (Id. Cat. M. 19).
OBs. With the personal and reflective pronouns, communis must
always be constructed with the dative, as in the following: commune
mihi (tibi, sibi) cum aliqvo.
g. The poets and later prose-writers (e. g. Tacitus) used many other
adjectives besides with the genitive, to denote a certain reference to a
thing, which is otherwise expressed by the ablative (with respect to) or
by prepositions (de, in); e.g. modicus voluptatis (in voluptate),
atrox odii, integer vitae (vitā), maturus aevi, lassus maris ac viae
1 Expers is found with the ablative (in Sallust), but it is unusual.
§ 292 THE GENITIVE. 255
(with the idea of a certain fulness and satiety), vetus militiae,
ambiguus futuri (de futuro, with the notion of ignorance), dubius
viae, certus eundi.' Animi, in particular, is often put in this way with
adjectives which denote a certain state of feeling; aeger, anxius, laetus,
' ingens animi. Compare § 296, b, Obs. 3.*
§ 291. Those verbs also take a genitive (objective) which signify
to remember and forget (memini, remimiscor, obliviscor ; very
rarely, recordor), and those which denote to remind (a person) qf
a thing (admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio) : —
Semper hujus diei et loci meminero. Oblivisci decöris et
officii. Catilina.admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae
(Sall. Cat. 21). Omnes tui sceleris et crudelitatis ex illa oratione
commonefiunt (Cic. Verr. V. 48).*
OBs. 1. The accusative is often put with those verbs which signify to
remember and to forget, most frequently with memini, when they denote
to have a thing in the memory (knowledge 4f a thing) or the reverse (but,
not to think qf a thing, or mot to think Qf it) ; memini numeros, si
verba tenerem (Virg. B. IX. 45). Oblivisci causam (to forget the
case, of am advocate). Antipatrum Sidonium tu probe meministi
(Cic. de Or. III. 50), you still remember him, you knew him well.
ERecordor, to remember, think qf, almost always governs the accusative;
we also find recordor de aliqvo. (Mentionem facio rei and de re.)
OBs. 2. With admoneo, etc., we also have, instead of the genitive,
the accusative neuter of a pronoun or numeral adjective (§ 228, c); and
likewise the preposition de: Unoqvoqve gradu de avaritia tua com-
monemur (Cic. Verr. I. 59).
OBs. 3. The impersonal expression, venit mihi in mentem, an
idea strikes me, is put, in the same way as those verbs, with the
genitive ; Venit mihi Platonis in mentem, Plato occurs to me. But
it is also used personally, that which strikes a person being put as the
subject: Non venit in mentem pugna apud Regillum lacum? (Liv.
VIII. 5.) Venit mihi in mentem vereri.
§ 292. The verb misereor (miseresco), to pity; and the imper-
sonal verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur), piget, poenitet, pudet,
taedet, pertaesum est, — have the object of the feeling (the person
* — —
1 [Capitis minor (Hor. Od. III. 5, 42). Fessi rerum (Virg. Æn. I. 178). Felices
operum (Id. G. I. 277)] *.
2 [Also motus animi (FIor. Od. II. 2, 6).j
8 The genitive with these verbs denotes that the mind is directed to an object, and is thus
in eombimation with it.
256 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 293
or thing which one pities, is ashamed of, &c.) in the genitive. (The
person who is ashamed, &c., is expressed by the accusative, § 226).
IMiserére laborum ! IMiseret me fratris. Poenitet me consilii.
Suae q.vemqve fortunae poemitet (Cic.), every one is dissatisfied with
his lot. Hos homines infamiae suae neqve pudet neqve taedet.
The genitive with pudet also denotes the person before whom the shame
is felt; Pudet me deorum hominumqve (Liv. III. 19).
OBS. Instead of the genitive, we find also an infinitive of the action
which is the object of repentance, shame, &c. Pudet me haec fateri.
With piget, poemitet, pudet, we have sometimes a demonstrative or
relative pronoun in the neuter as a subject. See § 218, Obs. 2. (Poemi-
tendus, pudendus. See § 167, Obs.) Miseror, commiseror, to
bewail, govern the accusative.
§ 293. With those verbs which signify to accuse, impeach, con-
vict, condemn, acquit, the name of the crime of which a person is
accused, &c., is put in the genitive, as with accliso, incuso, insi-
mulo, arcesso (to charge one before a court of justice); postulo,
ago Cum aliqvo (to bring an action against a person for—); ar-
guo, Coarguo, convinco, damno, condemno, absolvo; e.g. : —
Accusare aliqvem furti; damnari repetundarum; convincere
aliqven maleficii; absolvere aliqvem improbitatis.
OBS. 1. Besides the verbs cited, a few others are also so constructed
in certain legal formulas: e.g. interrogare aliqvem ambitus (Sall. Cat.
18), to charge a man with obtaining office corruptly; judicatus pecuniae,
condemned in a case relating to money (Liv. IV. 14). We should like-
wise notice the participle compertus, convicted (of a thing); e.g.
nullius probri compertus."
OBS. 2. The following construction is also used: accusare, postu-
lare, damnare aliqvem de veneficio, de vi (but not arguo). The
ablative crimine (ablat, instrum.) is likewise often put with these
verbs: arcessere aliqvem crimine ambitus; damnatus est crimine
repetundarum, ceteris criminibus absolutus (in what relates to the
remaining counts and charges). (Accusari, damnari, absolvi lege
Cornelia, according to the Cornelian law : absolvi suspicione sceleris,
to be relieved from the suspicion of crime.) (Accusare inertiam
adolescentium, to complain of the indolence of young men.)
OBS. 3. With damno and condemno, the punishment to which a
person is condemned (that with which he shall atone for his crime), is
put in the genitive or ablative; e.g. damnari capitis, pecuniae, or
* In the Jurists teneri (furti).
§ 294 THE GENITIVE. ^ 257
capite.' Omnia mortalium opera mortalitate damnata sunt (Sen.
Ep. 91). For a definite penalty consisting of money or land, the ablative
is always employed: damnari decem millibus, tertia parte agri, as
with multo always; agro pecuniaqve hostes multare. (Damnari ad
bestias, in metalla. Voti damnari.)
§ 294. When the price for which a thing is bought, sold, or made,
is stated indefinitely (by an adjective of quantity, or nihilum), the
priee is expressed in the gemitive with tanti, qvanti (tantidem,
qvantivis, qvanticumqve), pluris, minoris; but in the ablative
with magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, nonnihilo.* With
those verbs which signify to estimate (duco, facio, habeo, pendo,
puto, taxo, together with sum signifying to be worth, have a certain
price), the genitive of all these words is employed, aestimo alone
having both cases: —
Qvanti Chrysogonus docet? (Juv. VII. 176), On what terms does
Chrysogonus teach ? Frumentum suum qvam plurimo vendere.
Qvanti oryza empta est ? Parvo (Hor. Sat. II. 3, 156). Volup-
tatem virtus minimi facit. IDatames unus pluris apud regem
fiebat qvam omnes aulici (Corn. Dat. 5). Homines sua parvi
pendere, aliena cupere solent. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est
consilium domi (Cic. Off. I. 22). Magni and magno aestimo
virtutem.* «,
OBs. 1. The verbs which mean to estimate take also (in common dis-
course) the genitives flocci, mauci, assis (unius assis), teruncii, with
a negative, signifying mot to value in the least, to esteem not worth a far-
thing: Judices rempublicam flocci non faciunt (Cic. ad Fam. IV.
5). (Hujus non facio, I care mot that much for it !) Putare, habere
pro nihilo.
OBs. 2. Here we may also notice the idioms, aeqvi boniqve (or
boni alone) facio aliqvid, boni consulo, to take in good part.
OBs. 3. The expressiom tanti est first denotes simply something
(something good) is worth so much, is qf such importance, that one
ought to do or bear something for its sake ; Tanti non fuit Arsacem
capere, ut earum rerum, qvae hic gestae sunt, spectaculo careres
(Cael. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 14). Without any definite subject, we have :
tanti est, it (the thing spoken of) is worth the trouble ; nihil est tanti,
1 IDamnatusqve longi
Sisyphus Aeolides laboris (Hor. Od. II. 14, 19).
* The genitive of tantius, qvantus, and the comparatives, the ablative of mihilum,
of the positives and superlatives (as also of the diminutive tantulum).
8 This genitive is mearly allied to the genitive of quality.
17
258 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 296
it is not worth the trouble. Lastly, it is used of an evil which it is worth
while to bear (which one is ready to bear), usually with an infinitive for
its subject: Est mihi tanti, Qvirites, hujus invidiae tempestatem
subire, dummodo a vobis belli periculum depellatur (Cic. Cat. II.
7); but also with a substantive : Aut si rescierit (Juno), sunt, o,
sunt jurgia tanti (Ov. Met. II. 424), then. I will bear her brawling.
§ 295. The impersonal verb interest, it is qf ìmportance, points
out the person or thing to whom a matter is of importance, by the
genitive or the possessive pronouns meâ, tua, sua, nostra, vestra
(abl. sing. fem.). Réfert, in the same signification, has the same
construction with the pronouns, but rarely with the genitive.*
Caesar dicere solebat, non tam sua qvam reipublicae interesse,
ut salvus esset (Svet. Jul. 86). Clodii intererat, Milonem perire
(Cic. pro Mil. 21). Qvid tua id refert ? (Ter. Phorm. IV. 5, 11).
(Refert compositionis, Qvinct. IX. 4, 44, it is qf importance for the
rhetorical arramgement qf words.)
OBS. 1. Ad is generally employed to express that in reference to
which something is of importance ; Magni ad honorem nostrum
interest, me qvam primum ad urbem venire (Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 1).
OBs. 2. The thing which is of importance may be designated by a
neuter pronoun (so that the verbs do not stand quite impersonally):
Qvanti id refert ? Hoc vehementer interest reipublicae; or by an
infinitive: Omnium interest recte facere; but it is most frequently
expressed by the addition of a clause with the accusative and infinitive,
or with ut (ne), or in an interrogative form. Of how much importance
it is, is denoted either by adverbs (multum, plurimum, tantum,
qvantum, nihil, magnopere, vehementer), or by the genitive of the
price (magni, parvi, qvanti, &c.).
OBs. 3. The verbs impleo, compleo, egeo, and particularly indigeo,
are sometimes used with the genitive instead of the ablative. See under
ablative, § 260, a, Obs., § 261, a, Obs. Concernimg the poetical geni-
tive with verbs which signify to desist, to refrain from, see § 262, Obs. 4.*
§ 296. a. The names of towns and small islands of the first and
second declension singular are put in the genitive, to denote the
place where a thing is or occurs:—
IRomae esse, Rhodi vivere, Corinthi habitare. (Of other names
the ablative is used. See § 273, a.)
, 1 The origim of this singular construction is unknown. Perhaps the pronoum has a kind
of adverbial signification ; in my direction (in relatiom to me).
2 Concerning ergo with the genitive, see § l72, Obs. ö.
§ 296 THE GENITIVE. 259
OBs. 1. Sometimes the genitive of larger (Greek) islands is also so
, used: Cretae considere (Virg. Æn. III. 162) ; Conon Cypri vixit
(Corn. Chabr. 3), or (but rarely) of the Greek names of countries in
us: Chersonesi domum habere (Corn. Milt. 2). Compare § 232,
Obs. 3 and 4. • .
OBs. 2. Such a genitive rarely has an appositive expression sub-
joined, and then the ablative with in is used: Milites Albae consti-
terunt, in urbe opportuna, munita, propinqva (Cic. Phil. IV. 2).
In a very few such cases the ablative without in is used: Vespasianus
Corinthi, Achajae urbe, nuntios accepit de Galbae interitu (Tae.
Hist. II. 1). 1 If urbs or oppidum (insula) with in precedes, the
name of the town - (or island) is in the ablative : Cimon in oppido
Citio mortuus est (Corn. Cim. 3) ; in insula Samo (Svet. Oct.
26). (Likewise in ipsa Alexandria, with a pronoum or adjective. We
also fimd tota Tarracima, Cic. de Or. II. 59, in all Tarracina, according
to § 273, e.)
OBs. 8. This idiom proceeds from the fact that the genitive singular
of the first and second declension (in i) has a different origin from the
gemitive of the third declension, and at first, in addition to its other
meanings, conveyed the notion of being in a place.
b. In the same way are used the genitives domi, at home ; humi,
on the ground (to the ground) ; with belli and militiae in conjunc-
tion with domi: —
Sedere domi. Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi
(Cic. Off. I. 22). Humi jacere, prosternere aliqvem humi. P.
Crassi, L. Caesaris virtus fuerat domi militiaeqve cognita (Cic.
Tusc. V. 19). Saepe imperatorum sapientia constituta est salus
civitatis aut belli aut domi (Cic. Brut. 78). (In other connections,
we have in bello, in militia.)
OBS. 1. Domi in this signification may be combined with a genitive
or a possessive pronoun : Marcus Drusus occisus est domi suae.
Clodius deprehensus est cum veste muliebri domi Caesaris. (Domi
alienae.) Otherwise it is expressed thus: in domo aliqva; in domo
casta; in domo, in the house (not at home).
OBs. 2. For humi the poets also say humo, in humo. (Always as
in humo nuda, when an adjective follows.)
OBS. 8. In the same way animi is employed in expressions which
denote doubt and anxiety: Exspectando et desiderando pendemus
animi. Absurde facis, qvi te angas animi (also animo). Tot
populos inter spem metumqve suspensos animi habetis (Liv. VIII.
13). Confusus atqve incertus animi (Id. I. 7). -*
1 [Antiochiae, celebri qvondam urbe et copiosa, antecellere omnes inge-
nii gloria, contigit (Cic. pro Arch. poet. 8).]
260 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 297
§ 297. a: The same relation which is expressed by the genitive
is commonly expressed by the possessive pronouns (which repre-
sent the genitive of the personal):—
IPater meus; libri mei; ista domus tua est; comitia tua (which,
comcern you) ; meä causâ, for my sake (§ 256); nulla tua epistola,
mo letter from you ; unis litteris meis; cum magno meo dolore.
Tuum est videre, qvid agatur. A genitive may therefore stand in
apposition to a possessive pronoun : e.g. Tuum, hominis simplicis,
pectus vidimus (Cic. Phil. II. 43). Cui nomen meum absentis
honori fuisset, ei meas praesentis preces non putas profuisse ?
(Id. pro Planc. 10.) Mea unius opera respublica salva est (Cic.
im Pis. 8), by my activity alome. Vesträ ipsorum causä. Hi ad
vestram omnium caedem Romae restiterunt (Cic. Cat. IV. 2).
The genitives unius, ipsius (ipsorum), in particular, are oftem so con-
slrucleùl. -
OBS. The genitives nostrum and vestrum are often put with
omnium for noster and vester, always indeed when omnium precedes ;
Voluntati vestrum omnium parui (Cic. de Or. III. 55), your unani-
mous wish (voluntati vestrae parui). Patria est communis omnium
nostrum parens (Id. Cat. I. 7). Otherwise but rarely ; e.g. splendor
vestrum for vester (Id. ad Att. VII. 18).
b. When a personal or reflective pronoun ought to be subjoined
to a substantive, adjective, or verb as an object in the genitive (ob-
jective genitive), the genitive neuter singular of the corresponding
possessive pronoum (mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri: properly, qf my
being, &c.) is used instead of the wanting genitive ; e.g.: —
Studium nostri, devotion to us. Rogo, ut rationem mei habeatis,
that you would have regard to me. Habetis ducem memorem vestri,
oblitum sui (Cic. Cat. IV. 9). Pudet me vestri Grata mihi
vehementer est memoria nostri tua (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 17), your
remembrance qf* me, that you think qf me. Multa solet veritas prae-
bere vestigia sui (I,iv. XL. 54).
OBs. 1. With personal names, which contain the idea of an active
verb, the subjoined genitive may merely denote, with reference to whom
a person is so named : it is them considered as a possessive genitive, and
is represented by a possessive pronoun ; e.g. accusator tuus (Cice-
ronis). Nosti Calvum, illum laudatorem meum (Cic. ad Att. I. 16).
But it may also be considered as an objective genitive, the idea of an
action or operation, of which some one is the object, being put promi-
nently forward; e. g. frater meus misit filium ad Caesarem, non
solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei (Cic. ad Att.
XI. 8), to entreat for himself, to complain qf me. Omnis natura est
§ 298 THE GENITIVE. 261
servatrix sui (Id. Fin. W. 9), strives to preserve itself. With a few
other words, too, the genitive may be differently understood, and therefore
represented by pronouns in different ways: e.g. imago mea, my picture;
and imago mei, a picture of me (which represents me). On the other
hand, a possessive pronoun is rarely substituted for a clearly objective
genitive: e.g. meo desiderio for desiderio mei, from a longing for
me; tuā fiducià for fiducia tui (Cic. Verr. W.68). Habere rationem
suam (Id. Off. I. 39 = sui).
OBS. 2. The genitives mei, tui, &c., may also be used instead of a
possessive pronoun, to mark something emphatically, as belonging to the
nature of a thing: Pressa est tellus gravitate sui (Ov. Met. I. 30),
by its weight (the weight peculiar to it). Later writers sometimes carry
this still further.
c. The partitive genitive of nos, vos, is represented (when a
number is divided) by nostrum, vestrum: —
Magna pars nostrum ; multi vestrum; uterqve nostrum; quis
vestrum. '? But if a partition of the human being is spoken of,
the genitives, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are employed; e.g. Nostri
melior pars animus est (Senec. Qv. Nat. I., praef.).
OBs. Nostrum and vestrum are rarely used objectively for nostri and
vestri: Cupidus vestrum (Cic. Verr. III. 96). Custos urbis et ves-
trum (Id. Cat. III. 12), of the town and you, each individual of you.
To express partition (of a number) with the reflective pronoun, we must
use ex se or suorum (of this or their people).
§ 298. Appendic to Chapter V. a. In such special relations as
cannot be expressed by the genitive, a substantive, to limit the
meaning of another substantive, may be connected with it by a pre-
position: judicium de Volscis; voluntas totius provinciae erga
Caesarem. But the beginner must beware of using such construc-
tions, where the preposition in English only connects one idea with
the other in a general way; for, in such cases, the relation is ex-
pressed in Latin by a possessive or objective genitive; e.g. not
Livius in proemio ad bellum Punicum, but in prooemio belli
Punici. -
b. The referring of a preposition with its case to a single sub-
stantive may sometimes be obscure in Latin, in consequence of the
want of a definite article and the free position of the words, because
the definition may be also referred to the verb and the whole predi-
cate, or it may give a clumsy character to the sentence. In such
cases the construction with a preposition is avoided. But no am-
biguity arises, and this construction is most frequently employed
262 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 298
1. When the substantive to which the words refer has already a geni-
tive, or am adjective or pronoun with it, so that the preposition with its
case may be attached to the first definition as a second and more accurate
one, being usually put between the principal substantive and the genitive
or adjective: Caesaris in Hispania res secundae (Cæs. B. C. II. 37);
sextus liber de officiis Hecatonis (Cic. Off. III. 23) ; caedes in
pace Fidenatium colonorum (Liv. IV. 32) ; omnes ante Socratem
philosophi (Cie. Acad. I. 4). Ista mihi fuit perjucunda a proposita
oratione digressio (Id. Brut. 85).
2. Where the substantive and the definition , annexed by the
preposition may, from their signification, be naturally and easily
combined into one idea, as, for instance, verbal substantives with
prepositions which are akin to the signification of the verb contained
in the substantive ; substantives which denote a temper of mind, or
a way of acting, with in, erga, adversus ; names of persons and
things with de, ex (in certain combinations, a), to denote their
origin, class, home, place of starting (with de and ex also, in a
partitive significatiom), or with cum and sine, to denote that which
does or does not pertain to or accompany ; names of external objects,
with their local relations defined by ad and in; and in some other cases,
especially where, from the arrangement of the words,. the preposition
points more to the substantive than the verb: Discessio ab omnibus
iis, qvae sunt bona in vita (Cic. Tusc. I. 34) ; reditus in urbem;
aditus ad me (iter ex Hispania, in Macedoniam); totius provin-
ciae voluntas erga Caesarem ; crudelitas in cives; contumeliae et
injuriae in magistratum Milesium (Cic. Verr. I. 34) ; auxilium ad-
versus inimicos; homo de plebe Romana, de schola; civis Ro-
manus a conventu Panormitano; caduceator ab Antiocho (Liv.
XXXVII. 45) ; litterae a Gadibus; aliqvis de nostris hominibus
(Cic. pro Flacco, 4) ; morbus cum imbecillitate; simulacrum Ce-
reris cum facibus (Cic. Verr. IV. 49); sine ratione animi elatio;
lectionem sine delectatione negligo (Id. Tusc. II. 3); homo sine
re, sine fide, sine spe (Id. pro Cæl. 32); omnia trans Iberum,
Antiochia ad Sipplum; insulam in lacu Prelio vendere (Cic.
pro Mil. 27) ; metus insidiarum a meis (Id. Somn. Scip. 3), insidious
plottings om the part qf my friends ; omnis metus a vi atqve ira deo-
rum sublatus est (Id. N. D. I. 17), all fear in respect to, qf ę
Canulejus victoria de patribus (over the patrieians) et favore plebis
ingens erat (Liv. IV. 6).
OBS. 1. To avoid ambiguity, a suitable participle may be introduced :
e.g. judicium de Volscis factum ; litterae Gadibus allatae; insula
in lacu Prelio sita; lectio delectatione carens; sometimes, too, a.
periphrasis with a relative may be employed: e.g. libri, qvi sunt de
**
§ 299 THE WOCATIVE. 263
natura deorum, or, libri, qvos Cicero de natura deorum scripsit.
In other cases, an adjective is put instead of a preposition with its case.
See § 300, Obs. 3. - t
OBs. 2. Two connected limiting words, of which one is subordinate to
the other, cannot be joined to a substantive by prepositions; we, there-
fore, cannot say, simulacrum Cereris cum facibus in manibus, but
faces manibus tenens.
CHAPTER VI.
T H E V O C A T L V E .
§ 299. a. The Vocative is used when a person is called or spoken
to, and is inserted in the sentence without any connection with the
rest of the proposition: — -
Vos, o Calliope, precor, aspirate canenti! (Virg. AEn. IX. 525),
Assist me, Calliope, thou and thy sisters /
The interjection o is not inserted in prose, in customary addresses,
or in calling to a person (Credo ego vos, judices, mirari (Cic.).
Vincere scis, Hannibal; victoria uti nescis. Adeste, amicil) but
only in exclamations of surprise, of joy, or of anger: O dii boni, qvid
est in hominis vita diu (Cic. Cat. Maj. 19). O tenebrae, o lutum,
o sordes, o paterni generis oblite 1 (Id. in Pis. 26). Compare $236,
Obs. 1.
OBs. In the poets, o is often prefixed to the vocative, without any
particular emphasis.
b. Limiting words may be added to the word which stands in the
vocative according to the common rules: —
Primă dicte mihi summâ dioende Camenå, Maecenas 1 (Hor.
Ep. I. 1) thou, Maecenas 1 sung (i.e. whom I have sung) in my first song,
and shall sing in my last.
OBs. 1. In the poets, and in antiquated style, the nominative is some-
times found instead of the vocative: e.g. Almae filius Majae (Hor.
Od. I. 2, 43). Vacuas aures mihi, Memmius, adhibe (Lucr. I. 45).
Vos, o Pompilius sangvis (Hor. A. P. 292). Audi tu, populus Al-
banus (Liv. I. 24). f
OBS. 2. In some rare instances, a word in apposition in the nomina-
tive is added to the vocative; e.g. Hoc tu (audes), succinctus patria
qvondam, Crispine, papyro 2 (Juv. IV. 24). Conversely, we some-
times meet with the vocative of a participle or adjective which would.
264 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 300
be more correctly in the nominative to agree with the subject of the verb;
Heil 1 terra ignota canibus date praeda Latinis alitibusqve jaces
(Virg. AEn. IX. 485).
OBS. 3. In prose addresses, the vocative is usually put after some
other words in the proposition: Credo ego vos, judices, mirari —
Qvousqve tandem abutére, Catilina, patientia nostra? Yet it may
be prefixed with a kind of solemn dignity: Rex Bocche! Magna nobis
laetitia est (Sall. Jug. 102), as also in vehement expressions of feeling:
O mi Attice, vereor (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 12).
CHAPTER VII.
of THE USE OF THE ADJECTIVES (ADVERBs), AND PARTICU-
LARLY OF THEIR, DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
§ 300. a. An Adjective is either put with a substantive simply
as an attribute or predicate, to denote a quality in general (vir bo-
nus, virest bonus), or it stands in apposition, and denotes, with
reference to the verb, the state of the substantive during the action;
e.g. : —
Multi eos, qvos vivos coluerunt, mortuos contumelia afficiunt
(in their lifetime, after their death). Natura ipsa de immortalitate
animorum tacità judicat (Cic. Tusc. I. 14). Legati inanes (empty-
handed) ad regem revertuntur (Id. Verr. IV. 28). Hannibal oc-
cultus subsistebat (Liv. XXII. 12), secretly halted. With a collective
substantive, such an apposition is regulated according to the verb: Cu-
neus hostium, ut labentem ex eqvo Scipionem widit, alacres gau-
dio per totam aciem discurrunt (Liv. XXV. 34).
b. Those adjectives, more especially, which denote order and
succession, are used in apposition in Latin, where in English we
should use an adverb (qualifying the verb) or a periphrasis with a
relative clause.
Hispania postrema omnium provinciarum perdomita est (Liv.
XXVIII. 12), Spain was reduced to obedience last of all the provinces;
or, Of all the provinces, Spain was the last that was reduced to obedience.
Omnium exterarum nationum princeps Sicilia se ad amicitiam
populi Romani applicuit (Cic. Verr. II. 1). Dubito, qvid primum,
qvid medium, qvid extremam ponam. Gajus quintus advenit.
Medius ibam (in the middle).
§ 300 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 265
c. In the same way are used totus, solus, diversus (different
ways), sublimus (on high), freqvens, proximus, as also prudens
(knowingly), sciens, imprudens, invitus: Philosophiae nos penitus
totosqve tradimus (Cic. Tusc. W. 2). Soli hoc contingit sapienti
(only to the wise man). Aqvila sublimis abiit. Roscius erat Ro-
mae freqvens (Cic. Rosc. Am. 6). Consules in provincias diversi
abiere. Manlius assedit proximus Laelio. Plus hodie boni feci
imprudens quam sciens ante hunc diem unqvam (Ter. Hec. V. 2,
40). Invitus discedo. (Dare alicui pecuniam mutuam.)
OBS. 1. So, likewise, the relation between the direction of a move-
ment, and the place where it occurs, is expressed by the adjectives adver-
sus, secundus, obliqvus, joined with the name of the place: in adversum
collem subire (up the hill); secundo flumine navigare; obliqvo
monte decurrere (Liv. VII. 15), obliquely down the mountain.
OBs. 2. Other adjectives also, which denote relations of time and place,
are used by the poets in apposition, instead of adverbs: Aeneas se ma-
tutinus agebat (Virg. Æn. VIII. 465). Gnavus mane forum, ves-
pertinus pete tectum (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 20). Domesticus otior (Id. Sat.
I. 6, 128) = domi. * * -
Obs. 3. It is to be observed, that in not a few cases, where, in Eng-
lish, a substantive is defined by another substantive with a preposition,
or a compound substantive is used, the definition is expressed, in Latin,
by a derivative adjective, which denotes something that stands in a cer-
tain relation, consists of a certain material, belongs to something, &c.;
e.g. filius herilis, tumultus servilis (the rising of the slaves), bellum
sociale, vincula ferrea, iter maritimum, pedestre, metus regius
(Liv. II. 1), awe (entertained) of the king (objective), Hector Naevia-
nus (the Hector of the poet Navius), Hercules Xenophonteus; and so
frequently with proper names. Those adjectives should be particularly
noticed which express the home, and place of residence: Dio Syracusa-
nus (of Syracuse), Hermodorus Ephesius, &c. (far less frequently,
Cn. Magius Cremonä, Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia (Liv. I. 50), and
others); also, the place where a thing has happened: clades Allien-
sis, pugna Cannensis. In some cases, both forms are used: poculum
aureum and ex auro; pugna Leuctrica and pugna. Lacedaemoni-
orum in Leuctris (Cic. Div. II. 25). Bellum servile and bellum
servorum. (Conversely, a genitive is sometimes found in Latin, where
an adjective would be used in English; as, domicilia hominum, human
dwellings.) *
OBS. 4. It is rarely the case that any other adjectives are added to a
proper name (in prose) than those which serve to discriminate several of
the same name (e.g. Africanus major, minor, Piso Frugi, as a sur-
name, magnus Aiexander, Liv. VIII. 3), or express, the native place
266 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 301
or residence; other adjectives can only stand with a common noun put
in apposition: e.g. Plato, homo sapientissimus, the wise Plato; Capua,
urbs opulentissima, the wealthy Capua. We find, also, Illa severa
Lacedaemon (Cic. Legg. II. 15), with the addition of a pronoun.
(The poets, on the other hand, allow themselves such expressions as
docti verba Catonis, doctae Athenae, and the like.) It is also un-
usual, in Latin prose, to put with common nouns adjectives which are to
characterize, not one or more individuals, but the whole class. Such ad-
jectives are generally put with a more comprehensive generic term;
e.g. columba, animal timidissimum, the timid dove (of doves in
general).
OBs. 5. When a substantive in combination with an adjective de-
notes a particular kind and class (e.g. navis oneraria), an additional
characteristic may be added by means of a new adjective; e.g. navis
oneraria maxima (Cic. Verr. V. 52), statuae eqvestres inauratae
(Id. ibid. II. 61), corona aurea exigua. (Instead of multae graves
causae, multa magna incommoda, we must say, multae et graves
o, multa et magna inc., and so in general, when multus is followed by
an adjective in the positive that denotes a good or bad quality, or a cer-
tain degree of importance. But multi fortissimi atqve optimi viri
(Cic. Fam. W. 17).
§ 301. Adjectives are sometimes used as substantives in order to
designate persons or things distinguished by a particular quality.
With respect to this we may observe: — -
a. The plural of adjectives is often used to designate men of a
particular class and kind: e.g. docti, the learned; boni, the good;
omnes boni, all good men (also homines docti, and in certain com-
binations viri, as viri fortes, viri boni): the singular, on the con-
trary, is rarely so used, and only when the context excludes all
ambiguity; e.g. : —
Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digna est
(Cic. Lael. 24). Est prudentis, sustinere impetum benevolentiae
(Id. ib. 17. Compare $ 282, and Obs. 1). Plurimum in faciendo
interest inter doctum et rudem, non multum in judicando (Id. Or.
III. 51). -
The nominative and accusative are very rarely so employed.
OBS. In the philosophical style, however, sapiens (the wise man),
is often used substantively. Sometimes, another adjective is subjoined
to an adjective used substantively; e.g. nihil insipiente fortunato
intolerabilius fieri potest (Cic. Lael. 15), a fool favored by fortune.
Nobilis indoctus (Juven. VIII. 49), an unlearned noble. (No man
of learning, any learned man, are expressed by memo doctus, qvis-
§ 301 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 267
qvam doctus, with the substantives nemo and qvisqvam, in the same
way as nemo Atheniensis, qvisqvam Romanus; a man of great
learning, homo doctissimus; a true philosopher, homo vere sapiens;
and thus always, when the degree and character of a quality are to be
specified.)
b. The whole class of objects of a certain character is expressed.
in Latin by the neuter plural: bona, what is good (good things);
mala, what is bad (bonum, a good, something good; malum, an
evil, something bad); omnia pulchra, every thing beautiful; multa
memorabilia, much that is remarkable ; ubi plurima nitent, where
the greater part is beautiful; omnia nostra, all that belongs to us.
Omne pulchrum, every individual thing that is beautiful; e.g. : —
Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat, Hor. A. P. 337;
but never multum memorabile. (Compare what is said of the pro-
nouns, $ 312, b.) The singular, on the contrary, is made use of when
an idea is general, and not a whole class of several objects is to be
understood: e.g. verum, the truth, verum fateri, verum audire, in-
vestigatio veri (but vera nuntiare, to bring true intelligence; veritas,
the quality of being true); natura, justi et aeqvi mater, the mother of
justice and equity; multum, plurimum, tribuo huic homini. -
OBS. 1. Often, too, the periphrasis with res is made use of; res.
bonae et honestae. With adjectives, ambiguity may result in those
cases in which the neuter is not distinguished from the other genders.
The adjectives of the third declension are not often used in the way last
mentioned (in the singular), except in the nominative or accusative.
(Mater justi, but not utilis. Yet Livy says (XLII. 47), Potior
utilis quam honesti cura.) -
OBS. 2. Concerning the neuter singular or plural of adjectives, with
a genitive of the parts of a thing, see § 284, Obs. 5.
OBS. 3. The neuter of adjectives is sometimes combined with prepo-
sitions into particular phrases and adverbial expressions: e.g. esse in
integro, to be undecided, so that one has his hands still free; de (ex)
improviso, unexpectedly; de integro, afresh; sine dubio, without
doubt (doubt, subst: dubitatio); particularly with ex, but mostly in
later writers: e.g. ex facili (= facile), ex affluenti (= affluenter).
c. Certain adjectives have acquired the full force of inde-
pendent substantives, their masculine and feminine suggesting in
general only the idea of a person, the neuter that of a thing, with
a given quality; e.g. amicus, inimicus, adversarius, amica ($247,
b, Obs. 1) bonum, malum, ludicrum, a play; simile, a likeness,
inane, empty space. With others, on the other hand, a particular
268 LATIN. GRAMMAR. ' § 303
substantive was originally understood, which was left out by ellipsis,
until the adjective gradually came to be used quite independently;
e.g. patria (civitas, urbs, terra), fera (bestia).
Obs. 1. Some adjectives were so frequently used in combination with
a particular substantive, that the adjective was in course of time used
alone for the whole idea, but in such a way that the omitted substantive
was clearly kept in view; especially in certain combinations and with
certain verbs which suggested the substantive: e.g. cani (capilli);
frigidam, calidam (aqvam) potare; primas, secundas (partes)
agere, actor primarum; tertiana, qvartana (febris); ferina (Carne)
vesci; dextra, sinistra (manus); hiberna, stativa (castra); prae-
texta (toga). Such expressions are to be learned by attentive reading,
and from the dictionary. -
OBs. 2. (On the whole paragraph.) We should notice as a license
(chiefly poeticaſ), that in some few instances a substantive personal
name is used in apposition with (nearly) the meaning of an adjective, and
consequently with an adverb qualifying it: Minime largitor dux (Liv.
VI. 2). Populus late rex (Virg. Aen. I. 21). (Concerning iterum,
tertium consul, see $220, Obs. 1.) In other cases, where an adverb
appears to be combined with a substantive, it is merely a conciseness of
expression which may easily be explained: e.g. Omnes circa populi
(Liv. XXIV. 3) = omnes qvi circa sunt; nullo publice emolumento
(Liv. VI. 39) = qvod ad rempublicam attinet, sine ullo emolu-
ImentO. - -
§ 302. In the poets, adjectives in the neuter (accusative), sometimes
in the plural, are not unfrequently put for adverbs, especially with verbs
which denote an intransitive and external action that may be observed
by the senses: e.g. altum dormire, torvum clamare, perfidum
ridere, insveta rudens, acerba tuens; turbidum laetari; nefandum
furens. Victor eqvus pede terram crebra ferit (Virg. G.III. 499).
(In prose, somare, olere peregrinum, to have a foreign sound, savor;
§ 223, c, Obs. 2.)
$ 303. a. When two words (ideas) are compared by means of
an adjective or adverb, the last word (the second member of the com-
parison) is combined with the first (the first member of the compari-
son) by a particle of comparison (qvam, ac, than, as), and it is put
in the same case if the verb or governing word is common to both
members. Qvam is used with comparatives (ac only in antiquated
and poetical style) : —
Ignoratio futurorum malorum melior est qvam scientia. Ne-
mini plura beneficia tribuisti quam mihi. Haec res laetitiae
§ 303 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 269
plus habet qvam molestiae. Hoc est hominis gloriae qvam
scientiae studiosioris. Cui potius credam, qvam tibi ? Donum
specie qvam re majus. (Non Apollinis magis verum atqve hoc
responsum est, Ter. Andr. IV. 2, 14). Titius non tam acutus
qvam Sejus est. Titium alia poena affecisti atqve Sejum.
OBS. 1. Concerning the use of ac, see § 444, b. The members are
put in the same case, eveh if the sentence be an accusative with an in-
finitive : Decet nobis cariorem esse patriam qvam nosmetipsos
(Cic. Fin. III. 19. Patria nobis carior est qvam nosmetipsi).
OBS. 2. Sometimes the word qvam with the second member of the
comparison is put in juxtaposition with the first member before the confi-
parative, to make the contrast more striking: Ex hoc judicari potest,
virtutis esse, qvam aetatis, cursum celeriorem (Cic. Phil. V. 17).
IMaris subita tempestas qvam ante provisa terret navigantes
vehementius (Id. Tusc. III. 22).
b. If the first member is governed by a word which does mot also
belong to the second member of the comparison, a new proposition
must be formed, with a verb of its own (sum): —
Haec verba sunt Varronis, hominis doctioris, qvam fuit Clau-
dius (Gell. X. 1). Verres argentum reddidit L. Cordio, homini
non gratiosiori, qvam Cn. Calidius est (Cie. Verr. IV. 20). Hoc
est Titii, hominis non tam acuti, qvam Sejus est
If, however, the first member is an accusative, this case is oftem
retained, although the governing word cannot be repeated (attrac-
tion): — -
Ego hominem callidiorem vidi neminem qvam Phormionem
(Ter. Phorm. IV. 2, 1) = qvam Phormio est. Patrem qvum fervet
maxime, tam placidum reddo qvam ovem (Ter. Ad. IV. 1, 18)
= qvam ovis est. Tibi, multi majori, qvam Africanus fuit, me,
non multo minorem qvam Laelium, et in republica et in amicitia
adjunctum esse patêre (Cic. ad Fam. V. 7) = qvam Laelius fuit.
OBs. 1. The examples under a show that we may always use the
same case whem the first 'member of the comparison is the subject, or
when the adjective (the adverb in combination with an adjective or
partieiple; e.g. splendidius ornatus) does not belong as an attribute
or predicate to the first member itself, but to another word. If, on the
contrary, the adjective or adverb belongs (either alone, or as part of a
description ; e.g. majoris pretii, splendidius ornatus) to the first
member of the comparison, amd this is not the subject, the governing
word can very seldom be repeated; e.g. Propemodum justioribus
270 LATIN GRAMMAR. ' § 304
utimur illis, qvi omnino avocant a philosophia, qvam his (viz.
utimur, qvi rebus infinitis modum constituunt (Cic. Finn. I. 1).
OBs. 2. Even if both the members of the comparison are subjects, a
new proposition is formed with a verb of its own, if a difference of time
is to be expressed: Pompejus munitior ad custodiendam vitam
suam erit, qvam Africanus fuit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). But such a
difference oftime is not always distinctly expressed.
§ 864. If in a sentemce with the comparative (of an adjective or
adverb) the first member of the comparison is a nominative or accu-
sative, the particle of comparison may be omitted and the second
member put in the ablative (§ 271): —
Turpis fuga mortis omni est morte pejus (Cie. Phil. VIII. 10).
Tullus Hostilius ferocior Romulo fuit (Liv. I. 22). Nihil est
laudabilius placabilitate et aeqvitate. Qvid nobis duobus labori-
osius est ? (Cic. pro Mil. 2, = qvis — laboriosior ? Nihil illo
homine foedius.) Lacrimä nihil citius arescit (Rhet. ad Her. II.
31). Qvem auctorem locupletiorem Platone laudare possumus?
(Cic. R. P. I. 10). Cur Sybaris olivum sangvine viperino cautius
vitat? (Hor. Od. I. 8, 9) = qvam sangvinem viperinum.
But qvam is not omitted when the comparative as an adjective does
not belöng to the members of the comparison, but to amother word: Tu
splendidiorem habes villam qvam ego.
OBS. 1. The omission of qvam after the comparative of an adverb is
rare in prose. After the comparatives of adjectives the ablative is more
frequently put in good prose for the nominative and for the subject-
accusative (the accusative with the infinitive) than for the object-aecu-
sative. Yet the use of the ablative instead of an object-accusative is
also not unfrequent, and particularly usual with pronouns ; Hoc nihil
mihi gratius facere poteris. It should be especially noticed, that the
relative pronoun is frequently put in the ablative, governed by a com-
parative following, and accompanied by a negative, when we should
employ in English a superlative in ' apposition: Phidiae simulacra,
qvibus nihil in illo genere perfectius videmus (Cic. Orat. 8), than,
which we see nothing more perfect, i.q. the most perfect we See. Punicum
bellum, qvo nullum majus Romani gessere (Liv. XXXVIII. 53),
the greatest the Romans have ever prosecuted (not maximum quod
Romani, but perhaps maximum eorum quae Romani). Qvam is
never used in this construction with the relative. (Pleonastic: Qvid
hoc tota Bioilia est clarius qvam omnes Segestae matronas et
virgines convenisse, qvum Diana exportaretur ex oppido ? (Cic.
Verr. IV. 35).
§ 305 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 271
OBs. 2. It is a rare license to put the ablative after the comparative
when the latter stands in any other ease than the nominative and accu-
sative; Pane egeo, jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. I. 10,
11) = qvam mellitae placentae sunt.'
OBs. 3. The poets use this ablative also with alius; Ne putes alium
Bapiente bonoqve beatum (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 20).
OBs. 4. In order to express that something exceeds what is supposed
or required, or does not correspond to it, the Latins employ the abla-
tives spe, exspectatione, opinione, justo, solito, aeqvo, necessario
-before a comparative, either of an adjective or adverb: e.g. Opinione
omnium majorem animo cepi dolorem (Cic. Brut. 1). Caesar
opinione celerius venturus esse dicitur (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 23),
tham had been expected. Amnis solito citatior (Liv. XXIII. 19).
§ 305. If a magnitude, which is expressed either by a numeral
or by a substantive which denotes a measure (e.g. annus, a year ;
pars dimidia, half; digitus transversus, a finger-breadth ; &c.),
is increased by plus or amplius (more than), or diminished by mi-
nus (less than), plus, amplius, or minus, with or without, qvam, is
added to the name of the magnitude, without any influence on its
case, which remains the same which the context would require
without these comparatives (plus qvam triginta milites, plus tri-
ginta milites, cum militibus plus qvam triginta, cum militibus
plus triginta). But if this case be the nominative or accusative
(intersunt sex millia, habeo decem milites), plus, amplius, or mi-
mus, may be put as the nominative or accusative, amd take the mame *
of the magnitude in the ablative (interest amplius sex millibus,
habeo plus decem militibus); e.g.:—
a. Caeduntur Hispani nec plus qvam qvattuor millia effuge-
runt (Liv. XXXIX. 31). Zeuxis et Polygnotus non sunt usi plus
qvam qvattuor coloribus (Cic. Brut. 18). Caesar legem tulit, ne
praetoriae provinciae plus qvam annum neqve plus qvam bien-
nium consulares obtinerentur (Cic. Phil. I. 8).
b. Plus septingenti capti sunt (Liv. XLI. 12). Plus pars dimi-
dia ex qvinqvaginta millibus hominum caesa est (Id. XXXVI.
40). Apes nunqvam plus unum regem patiuntur (Sen. de Clem. I.
19). Spatium est non amplius pedum sexcentorum (Cæs. B. G.
I. 38). Plus dimidiati mensis cibaria (Cic. Tusc. II. 16). Tribu-
1 The ablative after a comparative, which belongs to a third substantive, is a, very rare
exception ; C. Caesar majorem senatu animum habuit (Vell. Paterc. II. 61), =
qvam Senatus.
272 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 306
num plebis plus viginti vulneribus acceptis jacentem moribun-
dumqve vidistis (Id. pro Sest. 39). Qvinctius tecum plus annum
vixit (Id. pro Quinct. 12). With a different order: Decem haud
amplius dierum frumentum (Tac. H. IV. 52. Cum decem haud
plus millibus militum (Liv. XXVIII. 1).
c. Catilina initio non amplius duobus millibus militum habuit
(Sall. Cat. 56). Roscius nunqvam plus triduo Romae fuit (Cic.
Rosc. Am. 27). Inter hostium agmen et nostrum non amplius
senis millibus passuum intererat (Cæs. B. G. I. 15).
OBS. 1. When amplius, plus, or minus, with a plural, stands for the .
subject with or without qvam, the verb is always put in the plural: Am-
plius sunt sex menses.
OBs. 2. Plus and magis both signify more, but the former (like am-
plius) relates to the quantity, the latter to the degree; the former corre-
sponds to the comparative of much, the latter to that of very ; magis is,
conseqently, used as an adverb of comparison with verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs. With verbs, however, plus is also usedas an adverb (prop-
erly, to a greater eatent, in a greater measure) ; e.g. Vitiosi principes plus
exemplo qvam peccato nocent (Cic. Legg. III. 14). Fieri non
potest, ut qvisqvam plus alterum diligat qvam se (Id. Tusc. III.
29). (In the positive, we rarely find such an expression as multum
honus—i.e. multum with an adjective, but more frequently, mul-
tum utor aliqvo, have much intercourse with a persom ; multum me
litterae consolantur, Cic. ad Att. XIV. 13). To show that a word
does not exhaust an idea, plus is always employed: Animus plus
qvam fraternus. Confitebor eos plus qvam sicarios esse (Cie.
IPhil. II. 18). On the other hand, magis (potius) timeo qvam spero.
Non magis, non plus signifies as little, when both members of the com-
parison are negative : Scutum, gladium, galeam in onere nostri mili-
tes non plus numerant qvam humeros, lacertos, manus (Cic.
Tusc. II. 16). Non nascitur ex malo bonum, non magis qvam
ficus ex olea (Sen. Ep. 87); but it also denotes in mo higher degree, i.e.
the other as much, when both are affirmed: Jus bonumqve apud vete-
res non legibus magis qvam natura valebat (Sall. Cat. 9); in the
latter ease. however, the word expressing the antithesis is oftem interposed
between them.
OBs. 3. We find (with the measure of the difference in the ablative,
according to § 270) both Uno plus Etruscorum cecidit (Liv. II. 7),
one more fell om the side of the Etruscams ; and Unâ plures tribus legem
antiqvarunt (Id. V. 30), one tribe more.
§ 306. With adjectives and adverbs, which denote a measure,
and take an accusative (according to § 234, a), the simplest way of
§ 308 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 273
enhancing or diminishing the given measure is by the addition of
plus, amplius, or mimus, with or without qvam, according to the
preceding paragraph : —
TJmbra non amplius qvattuor pedes longa (Plin. Hist. Nat. VI.
39). Nix minus qvattuor pedes alta jacuit (Liv. XXI. 61). Mi-
nus qvinqve et viginti millibus longe ab Utica copiae aberant
(Cæs. B. C. II. 37). But we may also use the comparative of the adjec-
tive or adverb (longer than four feet, instead of more tham four feet long),
and add the word expressing the measure, either in the accusative, with-
out qvam, according to § 234, a, or in the ablative, if the adjective
stands in the nominative or accusative: Digitum non altior unum
(Lucr. IV. 415). Gallorum copiae non longius millia passuum
octo aberant (Cæs. B. G. V. 53). Palus non latior pedibus qvin-
qvaginta (Id. ib. VII. 19). (Qvinqvaginta pedibus latior might
also signify fifty feet broader than something else, according to
§ 270.) -
OBs. 1. With natus (so many years) old, we say either (aecording
to the first form of expression), natus plus, amplius, minus (qvam) tri-
ginta annos (rarely in the ablative, plus triginta annis), or (accord-
ing to the second form), major (minor) qvam triginta annos natus
(Liv. XLV. 32), or (omitting qvam), major triginta annos natus
(Cie. pro Rosc. Am. 14), or simply major (minor) triginta annis
(without natus, Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 35).' (Distinct from major (mi-
nor), natu, older (younger) than another, and from grandis . natu,
maximus natu.)
OBs. 2. Concerning the way in which the degree of difference is ex-
pressed by the ablative with a comparative, see § 270, with Obs. 1.
§ 307. A comparison of two qualities, which are found in the
same subject or action in an unequal degree, is denoted either by
the positive with magis, or by two comparatives ; e.g.:—
Magis audacter qvam prudenter ; consilium magis honestum
qvam utile ; L. Aemilii contio fuit verior qvam gratior populo
(Liv. XXII. 38). Non timeo, ne libentius haec in Clodium
evomere videar qvam verius (Cic. pro Mil. 29). Bella fortius
qvam felicius gerere (Liv. V. 43).
§ 808. The comparative also serves to denote that the quality
referred to exists in a considerable or too high a degree:—
1 The following forms of expression are ofless frequent occurrence: major triginta, an-
nis matus; major triginta annis natu ; major triginta, annorum, with the
gemitive of quality and the omission of qvam.
18
274 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 310
Senectus est natura loqvacior (Cic. Cat. M. 16), rather talkative,
somewhat talkative. Voluptas, qvum major atqve longiorest, omne
animi lumen exstingvit (Id. ib. 12). Themistocles minus parenti-
bus probabatur, qvod liberius vivebatet rem familiarem negligebat
(Corn. Them. 1). (Aliqvanto, paulo liberius. More definitely, nimis
longus, libere.)
OBs. 1. Too great in proportion to something (greater than one could
expect according to something), is expressed by major qvam pro re
aliqva: Proelium atrocius qvam pro numero pugnantium (Liv.
XXI. 29). Too great (and not suitable) for something is sometimes ex-
pressed by the comparative with the ablative (not qvam); Ampliores
humano fastigio honores (Svet. Jul. 76; otherwise, honores hu-
manum fastigium excedentes, ultra hum. fastigium exaggerati, and
the like)." Too great (greater) for is expressed by major qvam ut or
major qvam qvi; e.g. major qvam Cui tu nocere possis, too great
for you to hurt.
OBs. 2. Isolated irregularities in the use of the comparative are
met with here and there in certain writers (Sallust, Livy, and espe-
cially Tacitus); e.g. the omission of magis or potius before qvam
(Veteres Romani in pace beneficiis qvam metu imperium agita-
bant, Sall. Cat. 9), or the addition of a superfluous magis or potius
with a comparative (Themistocli optabilius videbatur oblivisci
posse potius, qvod meminisse nollet, qvam, qvod semel audisset
vidissetve, meminisse, Cic. de Or. II. 74. Siculi se ab omnibus
desertos potius quam abs te defensos esse malunt, Id. Dio. in
Caec. 6), or the combination of a comparative and a positive (q.vanto
inopina, tanto majora, Tac. Ann. I. 68).
§ 309. The comparative is used in Latin of the highest degree
when two only are mentioned:—
Qvaeritur, ex duobus uter dignior sit, ex pluribus, qvis dignissi-
mus (Quinct. VII. 4, 21). Similiter faciunt, qvi inter se conten-
dunt, uter potius rempublicam administret, ut si nautae certent,
qvis eorum potissimum gubernet (Cic. Off. I. 25), of two rivals.
Major fratrum melius pugnavit, the elder of the (two) brothers fought
the best.
§ 310. The superlative often denotes not that degree which is
exclusively the highest (in comparison with all others of a certain
class), but only a very high degree (really the highest, when the
whole group, to which the individual is conceived of as belonging,
is included):-
—&
* Qvid aeternis minorem consiliis animum fatigas P (Hor. Qd, II. 11, 11).]
§ 310 IDEGREES OF COMPARISON. 275
1Es tu qvidem mihi carissimus, sed multo eris carior, si bonis
praeceptis laetabere (Cic. Off. III. 33).' Vir fortissimus et claris-
simus L. Sulla. Optime valeo. The exclusive signification is known
either from the context or from the addition of a partitive genitive or a
preposition (optimus omnium, ex omnibus).
OBS. 1. If the partitive genitive is of a different, gender from the sub-
ject, the gender of the superlative should properly be always regulated by
that of the genitive, because it denotes a single object ofthat class: Ser-
vitus omnium malorum postremum est (Cic. Phil. II. 44) ; but it is,
motwithstanding, oftem regulated by that of the subject: Indus est om-
nium fluminum maximus (Cic. N. D. II. 52). I)ulcissime rerum !
(Hor. Sat. I. 9, 4).
OBs. 2. The exclusive signification of the superlative is expresséd more
strongly by the addition of unus, or unus omnium; e.g. P. Scaevo-
lam unum nostrae civitatis et ingenio et justitia praestantissimum
audeo dicere (Cic. Læl. 1). Res una omnium difficillima. Miltiades
et antiqvitate generis et gloria majorum unus omnium maxime
florebat (Corn. Milt. 1). The superlative (evem when not exclusive) is
increased in force by longe, multo (which is the measure of the difference
between it amd others) ; multo formosissimus. Concerning the super-
lative with qvisqve, see the Appendix on the pronouns, § 495.
OBs. 3. In order to express the highest possible degree, either qvam
maximus (optimus, &c.), qvantus maximus; with adverbs, qvam
maxime, qvantum maxime, ut maxime, are combined with possum,
or we have only (less definitely) qvam maximus, qvam maxime;
Jugurtha qvam maximas potest (qvam potest maximas) copias
armat (Sall. Jug. 48), as many troops as he can. Hannibal, qvantam
maximam vastitatem potest, caedibus incendiisqve efficit (Liv.
XXII. 3), the greatest devastation, he can. Tanta est inter eos,
qvanta maxima potest esse, morum studiorumqve distantia (Cic.
Lael. 20). Caesari te commendavi, ut diligentissime potui (Id. ad
Fam. VII. 17). — Dicam qvam brevissime. Mihi nihil fuit opta-
bilius, qvam ut qvam gratissimus erga te esse cognoscerer (Cic.
ad Fam. I. 5). Vendere aliqvid qvam plurimo.
OBs. 4. We should also notice the way in which comparison is ex-
pressed with the relative : Tam sum mitis qvam qvi lenissimus (viz.
est; (Cic. pro Sull. 31). Tam sum amicus reipublicae qvam qvi
maxime (Id. ad Fam. V. 2). Te semper sic colam et tuebor ut;
qvem diligentissime (sc. colam; Id. ib. XIII. 62).
1 [Qvum illa, certissima, sunt visa, argumenta, atqve indicia sceleris, ta-
bellae, signa, manus, deniqve uniuscujusqve confessio, tum multoilla cer-
tiora, eQlor, oculi, vultus, taciturnitas (Cic. in Cat. III, 5).]
276 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 312
§ 311. The superlatives which denote an order and sequence
according to time and place (primus, postremus, ultimus, novissi-
mus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus), as well as the
adjective medius, are often combined with a substantive, in order
to denote that part of the thing which the adjective specifies;
e.g.:--
Vere primo, at the beginning of spring : extremo anno; ad sum-
mam aqvam appropinqvare, the surface of the water; summus
mons a Labieno tenebatur, the summit of the mountain; ex intima
philosophia, from the innermost part of philosophy; in media urbe,
per medium mare, in the middle of the town, through the middle of the
sea. (Particularly in expressing time and place in the ablative or with
prepositions. Also reliqva, cetera Graecia, the rest of Greece.)
OBs. Medius is also used (like a superlative) with a partitive geni-
tive : Locum medium regionum earum delegerant, qvas Svevi
obtinent (Caes. B. G. IV. 19). (Poetically, locus medius juguli et
lacerti, instead of inter jugulum et lacertum, Ov. Met. VI. 409).
CHAPTER WITI.
PEGULIARITIES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE
AND RELATIVE PRONOIJNS,
$ 312. a. If a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, but refers
to a substantive going before, it agrees with it in gender and num-
ber as an adjective. If it refers to several connected substantives,
the gender is determined according to the rule laid down in § 214,
b and c.
Mater et pater — ii; honores et imperia—ea; ira et avaritia —
eae or ea. Bonus et fortis civis ita justitiae honestatique ad-
haerescet, ut, dum ea conservet, qvamvis graviter offendat (Cic.
Qff. I. 25), these virtues.
If a demonstrative pronoun designates some object not previously
named, while thé character and name of the object are definitely
understood, it agrees in gender with the object understood:—
Hic (eqvus) celerior est; haec (avis) pulchriores colores
habet. If the thing be understood indefinitely and without any partic-
ular name, the neuter is employed; Hoc, qvod tu manu tenes, cupio
scire, qvid sit.
§ 314 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 277
b. If a demonstrative pronoum, which does not refer to any indi-
vidual substantive, denotes something that comprehends a plurality
(e.g. the contents of a speech, a series of circumstances), it is put
in the neuter plural (like adjectives, § 301, b): — •
Ea, qvae pater tuus dicit, vera sunt. Haec omnia scio. Post-
qvam haec rex animadvertit, constituit abire. Qvae narras, mihi
non placent (i.q. ea, qvae narras). (Hoc, this ome circumstance.)
The same holds of the relative pronoun, where it is used (copulatively)
instead of the demonstrative ; Qvae qvum ita sint, simce them this is so
(simce the circumstances are so). (But of a single thing; Qvod qvum
ita sit.)
§ 313. If a demonstrative pronoun is first put indefinitely as a
subject or object (that, this), and them connected with a substantive
hy sum, or a verb that signifies to name or esteem, the pronoum
takes the gender and number of the substantive (attraction): —
ERomae fanum Dianae populi Iuatini cum populo Romano
fecerunt. Ea erat confessio, caput rerum Romam esse (Liv. I.
45). Haec mea est patria (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Eas divitias, eam
bonam famam magnamqve nobilitatem putabant (Sall. Cat. 7).
Cum ducibus ipsis, non cum comitatu confligant. Illam enim
fortasse virtutem nonnulli putabunt, hanc vero iniqvitatem
omnes (Cic. pro Balb. 27). (Non amicitiae tales, sed conjura-
tiones putandae sunt, Id. Off. III. 10, a, thing qf that kind (such a
- thing) is mot to be regarded, &c. Nullam virtutem nisi malitiam
putant, Id. Legg. I. 18, they consider nothing to be virtue.)
OBs. The deviations from this are rare, and are generally the result
of a particular effort, either to express a thing entirely indefinite (in the
neuter: Nec sopor illud erat, Virg. Æn. III. 173), or to secure the
more distinet, conceptiom of a person, which person is then described by
means of a neuter substantive ; Haec (filia tua) est solatium, qvo
reficiare (Sem. ad Helv. 17).
§ 314. It may also be noticed, that I,atin writers sometimes use a
demonstrative pronoum (or a relative instead) • in agreement with sub-
stantives, in a suggestive sense, instead of adding that which is suggested
in the gemitive ease. The substantives in such cases usually denote an
emotion of the mimd : e.g. hic dolor, this pain ; instead of dolor hujus
rei, pain on account qf this thing. Cassivellaunus essedarios ex
silvis emittebat et magno cum periculo nostrorum eqvitum cum
iis confligebat, atqve hoc metu (by the alarm thus occasioned) latius
vagari prohibebat (Cæs. B. G. V. 19). Sed haec qvidem est per-
facilis et perexpedita defensio (Cie. de Finn. III. 11, i.q. hujus
rei). (Haec similitudo, something like this.) -
278 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 315
OBs. Concerning the employment of a superfluous demonstrative
pronoun after parenthetical sentences, and with the particle qvidem,
see § 489.
315. a. The relative pronoun corresponds in gender and num-
ber to the substantive (or word used substantively) to which it
refers. Ifit refers to several words, it is put in the plural, although
each of them may be in the singular: if the words are of different;
gender, the rule in § 214, b, is followed ; e.g.:—
Grandes natu matres et parvuli liberi, qvorum utrorumqve
aetas misericordiam nostram reqvirit (Cic. Verr. V. 49). Otium
atqve divitiae, qvae prima mortales putant (Sall. Cat. 86). Eae
fruges atqve fructus, qvos terra gignit (Cic. N. D. II. 14; qvos
being referred to the nearest word). In conformity also with § 214, c,
a neuter relative may be subjoined to the names of several inanimate
objects of the same gender (masc. or fem.): Fortunam nemo ab in-
constantia et temeritate sejunget, qvae (which, qualities) digna
certe ' non sunt deo (Cic. N. D. III. 24). (Summa et doctoris
auctoritas est et urbis, qvorum alter te scientia augere potest,
altera exemplis, Id. Off. I. 1, according to § 214, b, Obs.)
OBs. 1. If a common and a proper name of different genders are com-
|bined, e.g. flumen Rhenus, the relative may agree with either: flumem
ERhenus, qvi agrum Helvetiorum a Germanis dividit (Cæs. B. G. I.
2). Ad flumen Scaldem, qvod influit in Mosam (Id. ib. VI.
33).
OBs. 2. The substantive to which a relative pronoun refers is some-
times repeated for the sake of perspicuity or emphasis, or even quite
superfluously : IErant omnino itinera duo, qvibus itineribus domo
exire poterant (Cæs. B. G. I. 6). Tantum bellum, tam diuturnum
tam longe lateqve dispersum, qvo bello omnes gentes ac nationes
premebantur (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 12). (Illius temporis mihi venit
in mentem, qvo die, citato reo, mihi dicendum sit, Id. Div. in Cæc.
13).'
b. A relative which*refers, not to a single word, but to the whole
predicate or the entire contents of a propositiom, is put in the
meuter : — *»
Sapientes soli, qvod est proprium divitiarum, contenti sunt;
rebus suis (Cic. Par. VI. 8). In this case, id qvod is often used for
1 [In the following example of this kind the relative precedes the demonstrative clause:
Ut, qvae religio C. Mario, clarissimo viro, non fuerat, qvo minus C. Glau-
ciam, de qvo nihil nominatim erat decretum, praetorem occideret, ea nos
religione im privato P. Lentulo puniendo liberaremur (Cic. in Cat. III. 6);
§ 317 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 279
qvod : Si a vobis, id qvod non spero, deserar, tamen animo non
deficiam (Id. Rosc. Am. 4).' The relative proposition is usually
1nserted before the predicate to which it refers.
c. The attraction spoken of in § 3l3, between a demonstrative em-
ployed indefinitely, and the substantive following, holds good also with
the relative ; Qvae apud alios iracundia dicitur, ea jm imperio
superbia atqve crudelitas appellatur (Sall. Cat. 51, what among
others —).
§ 316. If a relative which refers to a substantive going before
has another substantive connected with it by means of the verb
sum, or one of the verbs which signify to mame, to esteem, the num-
ber and gender of the relative may be accommodated either to the
substantive which precedes, Or that which follows:—
IDarius ad eum locum, qvem Amanicas Pylas vocant, pervenit:
(Curt. III. 20). Thebae ipsae, qvod Boeotiae caput est, in magno
tumultu erant (Liv. XLII. 44).* The last is done when an observa-
tion is appended to a word already defined (a definite person or thfng) :
Cn. Pompejo, qvod imperii populi Romani lumen fuit, exstincto,
interfectus est patris simillimus filius (Cic. Phil. V. 14). Justa
gloria, qvi est fructus verae virtutis honestissimus (Id. in Pis. 24).
If, on the contrary, the idea is only defined by the relative clause, the
relative, for the most part, agrees with the preceding word ; Flumem
qvod appellatur Tamesis (Cæs. B. G. V. 11), a river, the river.
OBs. In some few instances, the relative, even in the circumstances
just described, agrees with the word which follows : e.g. Animal hoc
providum, acutum, plenum rationis et consilii, qvem vocamus
hominem (Cic. Legg. I. 7). (Ex perturbationibus morbi con-
ficiuntur, qvae vocant illi voojuxta, Id. Tusc. IV. 10, and Alterum
est cohibere motus animi turbatos, qvos Graeci πά0m nominant,
Id. Off. II. 5.)
§ 317. In the construction of a promoun, more regard is sometimes
had to the sense of the word to which it refers than to its grammatical
form.
a. A relativè often agrees with the personal pronoun which is em-
bodied in a possessive, the genitive of the personal pronoun being
represented by the possessive : Vestra, qvi cum summa integritate
1 [Magna, id qvod necesse erat, accidere, perturbatio facta est (Cæs. B. G.
IV. 29).]
3 [Ea, qvae secuta, est, hieme, qvi fuit, annus Cn. Pompejo, IMI. Crasso
Coss. (Cæs. B. G. IV. 1).]
280 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 318
vixistis, hoc maxime interest (Cic. pro Sall. 28). Vestra consilia
accusantur, qvi mihi $ummum honorem et maximum negotium
imposuistis (Sall. Jug. 85). •
b. Sometimes a pronoum in the plural follows a substantive in the
singular, the thought being extended to a number of individual objects:
Constituerant, ut eo signo cetera multitudo conjurationis suum
qvisqve negotium exseqveretur. Ea (sc. negotia) divisa hoc
modo dicebantur, &c. (Sall. Cat. 43). L. Cantilius, scriba ponti-
ficis, qvos (sc. scribas pontificum) nunc minores pontifices appel-
lant (Liv. XXII. 57).
c. After collective substantives in the singular, the relative sometimes
follows in the plural, having reference to the several individuals: Caesar
eqvitatum omnem, qvem ex omni provincia coactum habebat,
praemittit, qvi videant, qvas in partes hostes iter faciant (Cæs.
B. G. I. 15). (But not in an explanatory parenthesis.) Ex eo genere
and ex eo numero are often followed by the relative in the plural, and
in the gender of the individual persons or things mentioned: Unus ex
eo numero, qvi ad caedem parati erant (Sall. Jug. 85). Amicitia
est ex eo genere, qvae prosunt (Cic. Finn. III. 21).
d. To a figurative appellation of a man, in which the natural gender is
departed from, the relative is often added in the natural gender, the
figure being dropped:. Duo importuna prodigia, qvos improbitas
tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat (Cic. pro Sest. 17).
OBS. 1. Other deviations from the general rule are only inaccuracies
of language ; e.g. Vejens bellum ortum est, qvibus Sabini arma con-
junxerant (Liv. II. 58), as if he had said bellum cum Vejentibus.
OBs. 2. Here it may also be observed, that after a demonstrative or
indefinite promoum unde may be put instead of a qvo (qva) amd a
qvibus, and qvo instead of ad qvem (qvam, qvod) and ad qvos
(qvas, qvae): e.g. is, unde petitur, the person from whom a thing is
(judicially) demanded, the defendant. Erat nemo, unde discerem
(Cic. Cat. M. 4) Homo et domi nobilis et apud eos, qvo se con-
tulit, gratiosus (Id. Verr. IV. 18). So likewise qva sometimes stands
for per qvae, qvos : e.g. ex his oppidis, qva ducebantur (Id. Verr.
V. 26); and ubi for in qvo.
§ 318. The relative pronoun may be the subject or object of the
proposition which is formed with it, or may stand in any other rela-
tion to it, and take the form or case which indicates its relation.
The relative pronoun represents the three persons ; and if it is
the subject, the verb agrees, in person with the relative: — -
Vös, qvi affuistis, testes esse poteritis, you, who were present.
§ 32o DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 281
' On the other hand,—
Ii nostrum, or ii vestrum, qvi affuerunt, testes esse possunt.
After is also, as a predicate noun agreeing with a subject of the
first or second person, the relative takes the same person : —
Non is sum, qvi glorier, one who boasts,
§ 319. An indefinite substantive, which the relative proposition
defines, is sometimes drawn into the relative proposition, taking the
same case with the relative: the relative proposition them precedes
the demonstrative:—
Qvae cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile explentur sine
ulla injuria (Cic. Finn. I. 16), i.q. eae cupiditates, qvae. Ad
Caesarem qvam misi epistolam, ejus exemplum fugit me tibi
mittere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 51, i.q. ejus epistolae qvam). In qvem
primum Heneti Trojaniqve egressi sunt locum, Troja vocatur
(Liv. I. 1).
OBs. The poets do this also where the relative proposition follows
the demonstrative, or at any rate the demonstrative pronoun : Poeta id
sibi negoti credidit solum dari, Populo ut placerent, qvas fecisset
fabulas (Ter. Andr. prol. 3). Illi, scripta qvibus comoedia prisca
viris est, hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi (Hor. Sat. I. 10, 16).
Qvis non malarum, qvas amor curas habet, Haec inter oblivis-
citur (Id. Ep. 2, 37, i.q. malarum curarum, qvas —). It is a still
greater irregularity, when a substantive that should stand in the nomina-
tive takes the ease of the relative, and yet retains its place before it :
TJrbem, qvam statuo, vestra est (Virg. Æn. I. 573), for urbs,
qvam. -
§ 820. When an antecedent noun with its relative clause is, in
idea and form, mew to the main proposition, and qualifies the same,
or a single word of the same, after the manner of a noun in appo-
sition in English, it is almost always drawn into the relative
clause : —
IPeregrinum frumentum, qvae sola alimenta ex insperato for-
tuna dedit, ab ore rapitur (Liv. II. 35), the only nourishment whieh.
$antömes non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, qvae civitas est
in provincia (Caes. B. G. I. 10). Firmi et constantes amici
eligendi sunt, cujus generis est magna pénuria (Cie. Læl. 17), a
class which is very rare. (We rarely find a construction like the follow-
ing: Dictator dictus est Q. servilius IPriscus, vir, cujus provi-
dentiam in republica multis aliis tempestatibus ante experta
civitas erat, Liv. IV. 46). • . ę
282 . LATIN GRAMMAR. » § 321
OBs. If a relative proposition is annexed to a superlative, to show with
what limitation the superlative must be understood, the adjective is placed
in the relative proposition: Themistocles noctu de servis suis, qvem
habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit (Corn. Them. 4), the most faifh-
.ful that he had. Agamemnon Dianae devoverat, qvod in suo regno
pulcherrimum natum esset illo anno (Cic. Off. III. 25), the most beau-
tjful thing that should be born. M. Popillius in tumulo, qvem prox-
imum castris Gallorum capere potuit, vallum ducere coepit (Liv.
VII. 23). Qvanta maxima potest celeritate, with the greatest speed
he cam, § 3iO, Obs. 3. At other times, too, when a relative proposition
has a special reference to the adjective connected with a substantive, the
adjective may be drawn into the relative proposition: P. Scipioni ex
multis diebus, qvos in vita celeberrimos laetissimosqve vidit, ille
dies clarissimus fuit (Cic. Læl. 3). (Where we employ the super-
lative in apposition in English, the comparative with a negation is used
in Latin, according to § 304, Obs. 1.)
§ 321. If the relative pronoum refers to a demonstrative which
stands alone, the latter is often put after the relative proposition : —
IMale se res habet, qvum, qvod virtute effici debet, id tentatur
pecunia (Cic. Off. II. 6).
It is oftem entirely omitted when no emphasis is laid upon it,
mostly when it is a nominative or an accusative, especially when
the relative stands in the same case in which the demonstrative
would have stood : —
Maximum ornamentum amicitiae tollit, qvi ex ea tollit vere-
cundiam (Cic. Læl. 22). Atilium sua manu spargentem semen,
qvi missi erant, convenerunt (Id. Rosc. Am. 18). Qvem neqve
gloria neqve pericula excitant, frustra hortere (Sall. Cat. 58), it
were in vain to urge him. Inter omnes philosophos constat, qvi
ünam habeat, omnes habere virtutes (Cic. Off. II. 10; eum, the
subject, being omitted). Minime miror, qvi insanire occipiunt ex
injuria (Ter. Ad. II. 1, 43, eos omitted). Haud facile emergunt,
qvorum virtutibus obstat res angusta domi (Juv. III. 164). The
same omission of the demonstrative pronoun takes place where the sub-
stantive is drawm into the relative proposition according to § 319; see
there the first and third example. Qvae prima innocentis mihi de-
fensio oblata est, suscepi (Cic. pro Sull. 83).
OBs. In the other cases, which are not so easily supplied from the
context, the demonstrative is sometimes left out, if it would have to
stand in the same case as the relative: Qvibus bestiis erat is cibus,
ut alius generis bestiis vescerentur, aut vires natura dedit aut
\
§ 323 DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 283
celeritatem (Cic. N. D. II. 48); Piso parum erat, a qvibus debu-
erat, adjutus (Id. Phil. I. 4, i.q. ab iis, a qvibus); otherwise but
seldom : e.g. in the dative in certain legal expressions (Ejus pecuniae,
qvi volet, petitio esto = ei, qvi volet) ; or where qvi approaches tO
the signification of siqvis: xerxes praemium proposuit, qvi novam
voluptatem invenisset (Cie. Tusc. V. 7). If the demonstrative is
emphatic (to give prominence to a particular person, thing, or class), it
cam never be omitted ; A me ii contenderunt, qvi apud me et ami-
citia et dignitate plurimum possunt (Cic. Rosc. Am. 1).
§ 322. The nominative or accusative of an indefinite pronoun
(one, some one, something) is left out before the relative, if persons
or things of some particular nature or destination are spoken of in
the most general terms ; e g.: — - …
Sunt, qvi ita dicant. Non est facile reperire, qvi haec credant.
Habeo, qvod dicam, something to say. Misi, qvi viderent, some, to
see. But sunt qvidam, qvi, there are certain persons who (compare
§§ 363 and 365). •
§ 823. a. If two relative propositions are combined and referred
to the same word, and if the relative which they contain is in dif-
ferent eases (qvem rex delegerat et qvi populo gratus erat), the
second relative is sometimes omitted and supplied from the first,
but only in the nominative and accusative : —
Eamne rationem seqvare, qva tecum ipse et cum tuis utare,
profiteri autem et in medium proferre non audeas ? (Cic. Finn.
II. 23), but which you do mot venture. Bocchus cum peditibus,
qvos Volux, filius ejus, adduxerat, neqve in priore pugna affuerant
(i.q. et qvi in pr. p. non affuerant), postremam Romanorum aciem
invadunt (Sall. Jug. 101).
b. Sometimes, if the relative ought to stand first in the nominative
and them in some other ease, the demonstrative is takes the place of the
second relative ; Omnes tum fere, qvi nec extra hanc urbem vix-
erant, nec eos aliqva barbaries domestica infuscaverat, recte
loqvebantur (Cic. Brut. 74). -
OBs. 1. If the demonstrative and relative are governed by the same
preposition, and the same verb is understood in the relative proposition
which is expressed in the demonstrative, the preposition may be omitted
before the relative: In eadem causa (position) sumus qva vos. Me
tuae litterae nunqvam in tantam spem induxerunt, qvantam
aliorum (Cic. ad Att. III. 19). . -
OBs. 2. If a relative which refers to a demonstrative pronoun (with-
out a substantive) ought properly to be governed by an infinitive to be
284 - LATIN- GRAMMAR. . § 324
supplied from the verb in the leading proposition, and put in the accusa-
tive, it is sometimes (by attraction) put in the ease of the demonstrative;
e.g. Raptim, qvibus qvisqve poterat, elatis, penates tectaqve
relinqventes exibant (Liv. I. 29), i.q. elatis iis, qvae qvisqve
poterat efferre. .
§ 324. a. Talis, tantus, and tot, are followed in comparisons by the
corresponding relative adjectives qvalis, qvantus, qvot; of which qvalis
and qvantus, in gender and number, agree either with the same sub-
stantive: Nemo ab dis immortalibus tot et tantas res tacitus
optare ausus est, qvot et qvantas di immortales ad Pompejum
detulerunt (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 16) ; or with another substantive
which is compared with the first in character or magnitude : Non habet
tantam pecuniam, qvantos sumptus facit. Amicum habere talem
volunt, qvales ipsi esse non possunt (Cic. Læl. 22). (Tantundem,
qvantum: Voluntatem municipii tantidem, qvanti fidem suam
fecit, Id.. Rosc. Am. 39.)
b. Qvi agrees with the demonstrative idem in gender and number,
but its case will be the same or different, according to its construction
in the relative proposition : Iidem abeunt, qvi venerant (Cic. Finn.
IV. 8), they go auay just as they came. Eandem Romani causam
belli cum Boccho habent qvam cum Jugurtha (Sall. Jug. 81).
Eisander eodem, qvo Alcibiades, sensu erat (Corn. Alc. 5). In
eadem sum sententia, qvae tibi placet (qvam tibi semper placuisse
scio). If qvi is to stand in the same case as idem, and have the same
verb repeated or understood, ac may be substituted for qvi: Est
animus erga te idem ac fuit (Ter. Heaut. II. 2, 24) = qvi fuit.
Ex iisdem rebu8 argumenta sumpsi, ac tii (= ex qvibus tu).
PART sE coND.
ON THE NATURE AND MODE OF THE AssERTION, AND THE TIME
OF THE THING ASSERTED.
CHAPTER I.
oF THE KINDs oF PROPosITIONS, AND THE MooDs IN GENERAI.
§ 825. A Proposition is either an independent and leading propo-
sition, which is asserted simply by itself: e.g. Titius currit ; or a
subordinate proposition, which is not asserted by itself, but appended
to another proposition, in order to complete and define the whole
of it or some particular word in it: Titius currit, ut sudet. The
leading proposition is sometimes incomplete without the addition
of the subordinate: e.g. Sunt qvi haec dicant. Non sum tam
imprudens qvam tu putas. .-
A leading proposition may have several which are subordinate; e.g.
Qvum hostes appropinqvarent, imperator pontem interscindi
jussit, ut eos w transitu prohiberet. A subordinate proposition may
again have another subordinate proposition attached to it; e.g. Labo-
randum est in juventute, ut, qvum senectus advenerit, honeste
otio frui possimus. -
A main proposition with its subordinate proposition (or proposi-
tions) forms a compound proposition, which, like a leading propo-
sition standing alone, has a complete sense, at which the discourse
can break off. a. - • »
§ 826. Subordinate propositions are connected with the leading
proposition, either by a conjunction (eonjunctional propositions):
è.g. Haec scio, qvia adfui; or by a relative (pronoun or adverb)
(relative propositions): e.g. Omnes, qvi adfuerunt, haec sciunt;
or by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), (depend-
erit άnterrogative propositions) : e.g. Qvaero, unde haec scias; or in
à peculiar form with the verb in the infinitive (ìnfinitive proposi-
tions, the accusative with the infinitive): e.g. intelligis, me haec
§Glr€, ' r • •. -
286 LATIN GRAMMAR. - $ 327
OBs. 1. The relative subordinate propositions explain or define an
idea of the leading proposition, but may, themselves, also express the
same idea (by a periphrasis). The other subordinate propositions rep-
resent either the subject of the leading proposition (subjective proposi-
tions): e.g. Qvod domum emisti, gratum mihi est; or the object
of the verb, or of some other word in the leading proposition (objec-
tive propositions): e.g. Video te currere; operam dabo, ut res
perficiatur; or they denote different circumstances connected with it, so
that they stand in relations similar to those which are expressed by the
ablative of a substantive or by prepositions. But the difference of the
grammatical form corresponds only in part to this division. The infini-
tive propositions represent either a subject or an object (§§ 394–398, a),
the dependent interrogative propositions an object; in other cases, an
object is represented by a conjunctional proposition (§ 371-376). One
kind of conjunctional propositions (with qvod to denote an existing rela-
tion, $ 398, b) may either represent a subject or object, or be used in
pointing out a circumstance (in eo qvod, in that). The rest of the con-
junctional subordinate propositions, which express circumstances, are
divided according to the different ideas, in relation to which they define
the leading proposition, into final (denoting a purpose), consecutive
(denoting a consequence), causal, conditional, concessive, temporal, and
modal (propositions of time and mood), and comparative propositions,
which are denoted by particular conjunctions. In so far as the temporal
and modal conjunctions are relative adverbs of time and mood (qvam,
of degree), the temporal and modal propositions have an affinity to the
relative.
OBs. 2. When a conjunctional proposition, containing a reason, con-
trast (although), concession, time, or condition, naturally precedes the
main proposition, it is called the protásis, and the main proposition is
denominated the apodösis.
OBs. 3. Many propositions refer by means of (demonstrative) ad-
verbs to other propositions, of which they express the reason, conse-
quence, &c., but are stated entirely independently as leading propositions;
e.g. propositions with nam, itaqve, &c.
$ 327. A relative proposition often contains not merely a peri-
phrasis or a remark simply subjoined, but stands in a relation to
the leading proposition, which is otherwise expressed by conjunc-
tions, denoting the design (who was to - that he), the reason
(who = since he), &c. This is expressed by the mood of the verb.
See § 363 and the following. s
OBS. Concerning the use of the relative instead of the demonstrative,
to connect a proposition with that which precedes it, see, in the chapter
§ 330 PROPOSITIONS AND MOODS IN GENERAL. 287
on the combinations of propositions, $ 448. Concerning other peculiari-
ties in the construction of relative propositions, see $$ 445 and 446.
§ 328. Several propositions may be arranged one after the other,
without standing in the relation of leading and subordinate propo-
sitions, by the aid of copulative, disjunctive, or antithetical conjunc-
tions, and sometimes even without a conjunction (co-ordinate propo-
sitions) : —
Eit mihi consilium tuum placet et pater id vehementer probat.
Mihi consilium tuum placet, sed pater id improbat. (Ego con-
silium probo, pater improbat.) (Neqve curtu hoc consilium tam
vehementer probes, neqve Cur pater tantopere improbet, in-
telligo.) The co-ordinate propositions are, therefore, either all leading
propositions, or all subordinate propositions of one leading propo-
sition.
§ 329. The proposition is conceived and expressed by the speaker
in different ways with reference to the actual existence of the thing
stated. Its contents are either stated as something that actually is
or takes place: e.g. Titius currit; or as the will of the speaker:
e.g. curre, Titi; or only as a conception: e.g. Titius currit, ut
sudet. (It is not said that Titius perspires, but his perspiring is
only conceived of and expressed as a design.)
The different ways in which a proposition is conceived, and be-
sides this the relation of the subordinate to the leading proposition,
are denoted in Latin by the three personal and definite moods, the
Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive, in which the verb is re-
ferred to a definite subject (oratio finita). The relation of the
subordinate proposition may also in some cases be expressed in
Latin by using the verb in the indefinite form, the infinitive (oratio
infinita). --
OBs. By means of the participle, the substance of a subordinate
proposition is expressed as a quality of the subject of the leading propo-
sition. -
§ 330. Subordinate propositions, when co-ordinate with each other,
stand in the same relation to the leading proposition, and have the
same mood (but not always the same tense).
OBS. 1. In one single case, however, two subordinate propositions in.
combination have different moods, because their contents are differently
conceived (non qvod—sed qwia). See § 357, b. s"
288 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 332
OBs. 2. Of two leading propositions which are combined, the one may
sometimes be asserted unconditionally (in the indicative), the other
doubtingly and hypothetically, or by way of concession (in the subjunc-
tive): e.g. neqve nego neqve affirmare ausin. Neqve divelli a
Catilina possunt et pereant sane, qvoniam sunt ita multi, ut eos
carcer capere non possit (Cic. in Cat. II. 10).
CHAPTER II.
T H E IN D I C A TI W E A N D IT S T E N S E S.
§ 331. The Indicative mood is that in which a thing is simply
asserted (affirmatively or negatively) or a question simply asked.
It is therefore used in all propositions, both leading and subordinate,
where no particular rules require another mood:—
Pater venit. Pater non venit. Num pater veniet? Qvando ve-
nies? Haec etsi nota sunt, commemorari tamen debent, qvod ad
summam rei pertinent. Qvod domum emisti, gratum mihi est.
Qvoniam tibi placet, desistam. 4
OBs. An independent (direct) question is one which constitutes an
independent leading proposition. It expresses a wish that the whole
proposition thus interrogatively expressed should either be confirmed
(as a matter of fact) or denied (Venitne pater?), or that a single idea,
expressed by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, should be defined.
(Concerning the interrogative particles, see §§ 450–453. Quite distinct
from this is the indirect or dependent question, which forms a subordi-
nate proposition, denoting the object of a proposition or idea; e.g. qvae-
sivi, num pater venisset. See § 356.
§ 332. It is to be particularly noticed, that in a conditional sen-
tence (in which a thing is or is not, in case another thing is or is
not) both propositions (the leading proposition which is qualified,
and the subordinate which expresses the qualification) are put in
the indicative, if the condition (that a thing is or is not, in case
another thing is or is not) is expressed simply; i.e. without any
qualification of its meaning:—
Si Deus mundum creavit, conservat etiam. Nisi hoc ita est,
frustra laboramus. Simullum jam ante consilium de morte Sex.
Roscii inieras, hic nuntius ad te minime omnium pertinebat
(Cie. Rosc. Am. 34). Si millil aliud fecerunt, satis praemii ha-
bent. . . . \ t - . r
§ 334 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 289
, OBs. Such a sentence denotes only that such is the relation which
obtains between the two propositions; but nothing is stated of the actual
truth of their contents, when taken singly. The indicative is also re-
tained when it is said that a thing holds, equally good under different
conditions, which is expressed by sive — sive: Mala consvetudo est
contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive simulate (Cic.
N. D. II. 67). Hoc loco libertissime utor, sive quid mecum ipse
cogito, sive aliqvid scribo aut lego (Cic. Legg. II. 1).
§ 333. The thing asserted is either simply referred to one of the
three leading tenses, the present, past, or future, or stated (medi-
ately, relatively) with reference to a certain past or future point of
time, as being at that time present (contemporary with it), or past,
or future (praesens in praeterito, praeteritum in praeterito, fu-
turum in praeterito; praesens in futuro, praeteritum in futuro,
futurum in futuro). These relations of time are expressed partly
by the simple tenses of the verbs (and by the passive compounds
which correspond to the simple active forms), partly by a peri-
phrasis by means of the future participle and sum, as follows:–
PRESENT. PERFECT. FUTURE.
scribo scripsi - scribami
In Praeterito. scribebam, scripseram, scripturus eram (fui)
I was writing (at that time). I had writ- I was (at that time) on
- ten. the point of writing.
In Futuro. scribam, scripsero, I scripturus ero, I shall
I shall (then) write. shall have (then) be on the point
- written. of writing. #
Besides these a future thing is designated as now at hand (and
referred to the present) in a particular way, by the periphrasis
scripturus sum.
§ 334. The Present declares that which now is, comprising also
what happens and exists at every time : e.g. Deus mundum con-
servat; and what is thought of as present, such as opinions and
expressions in books, which are still extant: e.g. Zeno aliter judi-
cat. Praeclare hunc locum Cicero tractat in libris de natura
deorum. Sometimes the present is used instead of the perfect in
narrations. See § 336. -
OBS. The present is often used of that which has endured for some
time, and still continues: Tertium jam annum hic sumus. An-
num jam audis Cratippum (Cie. Off. I. 1); especially with jamdiu
19
290 LATIN GRAMMAR. * § 335
and jamdudum: Jamdiu ignoro, qvid agas (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 9).
In bonis hominibus ea, qvam jamdudum tractamus, stabilitas
amicitiae confirmari potest (Id. Lael. 22).
§ 335. a. The Perfect is used in Latin in relating and giving
Żnformation of past occurrences both in continuous history and iso-
lated notices of events (the historical perfect”): —
Caesar Galliam subegit. Illo anno duae res memorabiles ac-
ciderunt. Hostes qvum Romanorum trepidationem animadver-
tissent, subito procurrerunt et ordines perturbarunt. L. Lucullus
multos annos Asiae provinciae praefuit (Cic. Acad. II. 1). Qvum
(at the time when) hoc proelium factum est, Caesar aberat.
b. The perfect is also used to express a thing as done and com-
pleted, presenting a contrast to the present moment, at which the
thing is no longer spoken of as continuing (the perfect absolute.”
definite): e.g. Pater jam vénit (is already come). Is mos usqve
ad hoc tempus permansit. Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Virg. Æn.
II. 325), Ilium has been, i.d. is no more. (Perii! it is all over
with me.)
OBs. 1. If a thing be spoken of that is repeatedly or customarily
done, the perfect is used in subordinate propositions, which express
time, condition, or place (after quum, qvoties, simulac, si, ubi, and
indefinite relative expressions), if the action of the subordinate is to be
supposed as antecedent to that of the leading proposition. (In Eng-
lish, the present is generally used.) Qvum ad villam veni, hoc
ipsum, nihil agere, me delectat (Cic. de Or. II. 16), in English,
when I come. Qvum fortuna reflavit, affligimur (Id. Off. II. 6).
Si ad luxuriam etiam libidinum intemperantia accessit, duplex
malum est (Id. ib. I. 34). Qvocunqve aspexisti, ut furiae, sic tuae
tibi occurrunt injuriae (Id. Par. 2).” (If the leading proposition is in
the preterite (imperfect), the subordinate is put in the pluperfect. See
§ 338, a, Obs.) -
OBS. 2. Concerning the perfect after postgvam, and similar particles,
see § 338, b. -
OBS. 3. The perfect is sometimes found in the poets (in imitation of
the Greek aorist), instead of the present, to express a thing that is custom-
arily done (and has already often taken place): Rege incolumi mens
1 In Greek the aorist is used in this signification.
2 This is the same as the Greek perfect.
8 In books the future perfect is sometimes improperly substituted for the perfect; e.g.
accesserit for accessit. -
§ 337 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 291
omnibus una est; amisso rupere fidem constructaqve mella di-
ripuere ipsae (Virg. Georg. IV. 212), of the bees.
OBs. 4. On the use of the perfects odi, memini, novi, in the signifi-
cation of the present, see the Rules for the Inflection of Words, § l6l
and § 142. (Svevi, consvevi, I am accusto med.)
§ 336. In lively, connected marrative, past events are often spoken
of as present, the present tense being employed instead of the per-
fect (the historical present): —
Ubi id Verres audivit, Didorum ad se vocavit ac pocula popog-
cit. Ille respondet, se Lilybaei non habere, Melitae reliqvisse,
Tum iste continuo mittit homines certos Mélitam; scribit ad
qvosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa perqvirant (Cic. Verr. IV. 18).
Exspectabant omnes, qvo tandem Verres progressurus esset,
qvum repente proripi hominem ac deligari jubet (Id. ib. V. 62). :
OBs. 1. The poets sometimes use the historical present somewhat
strangely in noticing a single event, and in relative propositions : Tu
prima furentem his, germana, malis oneras atqve objicis hosti
(Virg. Æn. II. 548), for onerasti and objecisti. Cratera antiqvum
(tibi dabo), qvem dat Sidonia Dido (Id. ib. IX. 266), for dedit.
OBs. 2. When the partigiple dum denotes what happens while some-
thing else happens, and especially what happens, because something else
happens (being occasioned by it), itis usually constructed with the present,
although the action be past, and the perfect (sometimes the pluperfect)
used in the leading proposition : Ibum haec in colloqvio geruntur.
Caesari nuntiatum est, eqvites Ariovisti propius accedere (Cæs.
E. G. I. 46). Dum obseqvor adolescentibus, me senem esse
oblitus sum (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Ita mulier dum pauca mancipia
retinere vult, fortunas omnes perdidit (Id. Div. in Cæc. 17).
IDum elephanti trajiciuntur, interim Hannibal eqvites qvingentos
ad castra Romana miserat speculatum (Liv. XXI. 29). Yet the
perfect may also be used (of an action), or the imperfect (of a condi-
tion. See § 337): Dum Aristo et Pyrrho in una virtute sic omnia
esse voluerunt, ut eam rerum selectione exspoliarent, virtutem
ipsam sustulerunt (Cic. Finn. II. 13). Dum Sulla in aliis rebus
erat occupatus, erant interea qvi suis vulneribus mederentur (Id.
Rosc. Am. 32). When dum signifies as long as, it never has the pres-
ent, except of actually present time ; Hoc feci, dum licuit (Cic. Phil.
III. 13).
§ 837. The Imperfect (praesens in praeterito) is used when we
transfer ourselves in idea into a past time, and describe what was
them present. It is therefore employed of states existing at a particu-
292 • LATIN GRAMMAR. . . . . § 337
lar time, or actions which were taking place at a given time (still going
on and not yet completed, while something else was happening), or
of that which was customary at a certain time (with a certain per-
son or thing), or was often repeated. (On the other hand, it is not
used of isolated occurrences or in general historical statements of
what formerly took place, or went on in a certain way, even in
speaking of a thing that continued for a long time). Qvo tempore
Rhilippus Graeciam evertit (am occurrence) ; etiam tum Athenae
gloria litterarum et artium florebant (conditiom at the time speci-
fied ; but Athenae multa secula litterarum et artium gloria flo-
ruerunt (notice of a fact) ; Caesar consilium mutavit (relation of
a fact) ; videbat enim, nihil tam exiguis copiis confici posse
(representation of his views at the time ; vidit enim would signify
for he came to the conclusion). . - •
Regulus Carthaginem rediit neqve eum caritas patriae retinuit
(notice of what did, and did not happen). Neqve ignorabat (i.e. at
the time when he was returning, &c.), se ad exqvisita supplicia profi-
cisci, sed jusjurandum conservandum putabat (Cic. Off. III. 27).
Qvum Verres ad aliqvod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica usqve
in cubiculum deferebatur (Cic. Verr. V. 11). Romae qvotannis
bini consules creabantur (custom ; but qvamdiu Roma libera fuit,
semper bini consules fuerunt, notice of a fact). Archytas nullam
capitaliorem pestem qvam voluptatem corporis dicebat a natura
datam (Cic. Cat. M. 12); also, dicere solebat; on the contrary, di-
cere solitus est, had a habit qf saying.* In Graecia musici floru-
erunt, discebantqve id omnes (Id. Tusc. I. 2), and it was the custom
that all learmed music. IDicebat melius qvam scripsit Hortensius
(Id. Or. 38), H. spoke better, i.q. was accustomed to speak befter, than, he
has written, than he shows himself in his written, speeches. On the other
hand, qvam scribebat, than he was accustomed to write. Janua heri
tres horas patuit, but heri, qvum praeterii, janua patebat. . Pu-
tavi, I have thought, or I adopted the opinion ; putabam, I was qf
opinion.
OBs. 1. An actiom that was on the point of happening at a certain
time (futurum in praeterito) is sometimes represented, by the imperfect,
as already begum and proceeding ; Hujus deditionis ipse, qvi dedeba-
tur, svasor et auctor fuit (Cic. Off. III. 30), who was thereby deliv-
ered up, whose surrender was in question. The imperfect, when applied
1 [The beginner will do well to notiee, that the imperfect indicative in this sense is some-
times expressed in English by the auxiliary would, which is never. to be translated by the sub-
junctive in Latin : Socrates would say, Socrates dicebat, or dicere solebat.]
§ 338 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 293
to a thing that is spoken of as happening in time past, and not com-
pletely finished, may sometimes be rendered, in English, by began to :
Constitit utrumqve agnmen et proelio sese expediebant (Liv. XXI.
46). Themistocli qvidam pollicitus est, se artem ei memoriae,
qvae tum primum proferebatur, traditurum (Cic. Acad. II. 1).
OBs. 2. Connected examples of the use and interchange of the per-
fect, the historical present, the imperfect, and the historical infinitive
(according to $ 392), in narrative and description, may be seen, in Cic.
Verr. IV. 18; and in Livy, III. 36–38. -
§ 338. a. The Pluperfect (praeteritum in praeterito) is used of
that which had already happened at a certain time past, or at the
time when a certain action now past took place. w -
Dixerat hoc ille, qvum puer nuntiavit, venire ad eum Laelium
(Cic. R. P. I. 12). Qvum ego illum widi, jam consilium mutave-
rat.
OBs. With leading propositions in the imperfect of customary and
repeated action, those subordinate propositions are put in the pluper-
fect which are in the perfect when the leading proposition is in the pres-
ent, according to § 335, b, Obs. 1: Qvum ver esse coeperat, Verres
dabat se labori atqve itineribus (Cic. Werr. V. 10). Alcibiades,
simul ac se remiserat, luxuriosus, libidinosus, intemperans' repe-
riebatur (Corn. Alc. 1). Si a perseqvendo hostes deterrere ne-
qviverant, disjectos ab tergo circumveniebant (Sall. Jug. 50).
(Compare $ 359, on the subjunctive, in such subordinate proposi-
tions.) * - ?
b. When it is stated that two actions immediately followed each
other, the perfect is used after the conjunctions postead vam or
postgvam, ubi, ut, simul atqve or ac (or simply simul), ut primum,
qvum primum, as soon as , inasmuch as we merely designate both
actions as past, without expressing their mutual relation by the
verb: — - -
Posteagvam victoria constituta est ab armisqve recessimus,
erat Roscius Romae freqvens (Cic. Rose. Am. 6). Pompejus, ut
eqvitatum suum pulsum widit, acie excessit (Caes. B. C III. 94).
Simulac primum Verri occasio visa est, consulem deseruit (Cic.
Werr. I. 13).
OBs. 1. Postgvam is put with the pluperfect when it is intended to
denote, not something that ensued immediately, but a transaction that
occurred after the lapse of some time: e.g. P. Africanus, postead vam
bis consul et censor fuerat, L. Cottam in judicium vocavit (Cic.
294 * » LATIN GRAMMAR. § 339
Div. in Cæc. 21) ; especially when a definite interval is specified; e.g.
Hannibal anno tertio postqvam domo profugerat, in Africam venit
(Corn. Hann. 8). Post diem qvintum, qvam (§ 276, Obs. 6) bar-
bari iterum male pugnaverant, legati a Boccho veniunt (Sall.
Jug. 102) Otherwise, postqvam is rarely put with the pluperfect, —
very rarely with the pluperfect subjunctive.'
OBs. 2. Postqvam, ubi, and ut are often put with the imperfect
to show a state qf things that had come om, — to show that some-
thing occurred, or was accustomed to occur: Postqvam Eros e Bcena
non modo sibilis, sed etiam convicio explodebatur, confugit in
Roscii domum et disciplinam (Cic. Rosc. Com. 11), he was hissed
off as qften as he came on the stage). Postqvam id difficilius visum
est, neqve facultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pompejum transierunt
(Cæs. B. C. III. 60), they found it difficult (a single fact), and there
was no opportunity (state of things).
OBs. 3. When ubi and simulac are used of a repeated action, they
take the pluperfect. See the Obs. on a.
OBs. 4. After the particles mentioned in paragraph b, the historical
present (§ 336) may also be employed, if the action is conceived of as
prolonged during the occurrence of the other action; Postqvam per-
fugae murum arietibus feriri vident, aurum atqve argentum
domum regiam comportant (Sall. Jug. 76). +
OBs. 5. The particles anteqvam and priusqvam, before, and dum,
donec, until, are used with the perfectindicative, not with the pluperfect:
Anteqvam tuas legi litteras, hominem ire cupiebam (Cic. ad Att.
II. 7), often expressed in English, before I had read your letter. His-
pala non ante adolescentem dimisit, qvam fidem dedit, ab his
sacris se temperaturum (Liv. XXXIX. 10). IDe comitiis, donec
rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit (Liv. XXIII. 31).* (Concerning the
subjunctive with these particles, see the following chapter, § 360)
OBs. 6. The pluperfeet fueram sometimes stands in the poets, and in
a few instanees in other writers, instead of the imperfect eram: Nec
satis id fuerat; stultus qvoqve carmina feci (Ov. ex Pont. III. 8,
87). In some other verbs, from some peculiarity of signification, the
pluperfect may seem to be used instead of the imperfect: e.g. super-
fueram, I had remained over; consveveram, I had accustomed myself.
- § 339. The Future (simple) denotes both a future action in gen-
eral, and also that which will take place at a certain time to come
(praesens in futuro): Veniet pater, Illo tempore respublica
_-* -*• •
1 The pluperfect indic. oeeurs Sall. Jug. 44; subjumctive, Cie. pro Leg. Mam. 4.
2 [(Petilini non ante expugnati sunt qvam vires ad ferenda arma dee-
rant, Liv. XXIII. 80, of a state of things which had come on)-]
§ 339 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 295
florebit. (The distinction therefore which exists between the per-
fect and imperfect as to the past, is not made with reference to the
future.)
OBs. 1. In English, the expression of the future is commonly omitted
in subordinate propositions, ifit is found in the leading proposition; but,
this omission may not take place in Latin: Naturam si seqvemur ducem
numqvam aberrabimus (Cic. Off. I. 28), in English, If we follow.
Profecto beati erimus, qvum, corporibus relictis, cupiditatum?
erimus expertes (Id. Tusc. I. 19). EIoc dum erimus in terris,
erit caelesti vitae simile (Id. ib. I. 31). (Qvi adipisci veram
gloriam volet, justitiae fungatur officiis (Id. Off. II. 13); where the
futurity is indicated in the leading proposition by the exhortation.)* In
English, too, the present is often used instead of the future in assur-
ances and conjectures (e.g. he is coming in three days), a mode of
speaking which is mot usual in Latin, except where an action is referred
to that is already partially commenced: Tuemini castra et defendite
diligenter, si qvid durius acciderit; ego reliqvas portas circumeo
et castrorum praesidia confirmo (Cæs. B. C. III. 94).
OBS. 2. Yet the present is used in Latin in some cases where we
might expect the future : —
a. When one asks one's self what one must do or think (on the
instant): Qvid ago ? Imusne sessum ? (Cic. de Or. III. 5). §tantes
plaudebant in re ficta; qvid arbitramur in vera facturos fuisse?
(Id. Læl. 7). -
b. With dum, until, when a waiting (waiting for) is expressed: Ex-
specto dum ille venit (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 126). Ego in Arcano
opperior, dum ista cognosco (Cic. ad Att. X. 3).
c. Usually with anteqvam and priusqvam, when it, is said that;
something will happen before something else : Anteqvam pro I.
Murena dicere instituo, pro me ipso pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur.
1). Sine (permit), priusqvam amplexum accipio, sciam, ad hostem
am ad filium venerim (Liv. II. 40). But also Anteqvam de re-
publica dicam ea qvae dicenda hoc tempore arbitror, exponam
breviter consilium profectionis meae (Cic. Phil. I. 1). (Before
something has happened, is expressed by the future perfect.)
1 [This rule, however, is mot adhered to by the poets, where the present, is met, with in such
combinations, especially after ubi jam, quum jam : —
(Tvibra ubi) medium luci atqve umbris jam dividit orbem,
lExercete, viri, tauros (Virg. G. I. 210).
Hoc etiam emenso quum jam decedit Olympo,
IProfuerit, meminisse magis (Id. ibid. 450).
Ipsa ego te, medios cum Sol. accenderit, aestus,
Cum sitiunt herbae, et pecorijam gratior umbra, est,
Ira secreta, senis ducam (Id. G. IV. 401).]
296 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 340
§ 340. By the Future Perfect (praeteritum in futuro) a future
action is designated as already completed at a given future time : —
Qvum tu haec leges, ego illum fortasse convenero (Cic. ad Att.
IX. 15), Ishall perhaps have spoken with him. Hic prius se indicarit,
qvam ego argentum confecero (Ter. Heaut. III. 3, 23), will have.
betrayed himself before I have procured the money. Si (ubi) istuc
venero, rem tibi exponam. Melius morati erimus, qvum di-
dicerimus, qvid natura desideret (Cic. Fin. I. 19). De Carthagine
vereri non ante desinam, qvam illam excisam e§se cognovero (Id.
Cat. M. 6). Si plane occidimus ego omnibus meis exitio fuero (Id.
ad Q. Fr. I. 4), I shall have been ; of the future result of what is past.
OBS. 1. In English, it is often not expressly asserted in the sub-
ordinate propositions, that one action precedes amother, and the present;
istherefore frequently used where the future perfeet must be employed in
Latin; e.g. When I come to you, I will —. In Latin, the present may
stamd in a conditional proposition, although the leading proposition has
the future, if an action that takes place precisely at the present moment
is pointed out as the condition of a future result: e.g. Perficietur
bellum, si urgemus obsessos (Liv. V. 4). Moriere virgis, nisi
signum traditur (Cic. Verr. IV. 39). (Ifthe action of the subordinate
proposition is contemporary with that of the leading proposition, the
simple future is made use of. See § 339, Obs. 1.)
OBs. 2. If the future perfect stands both in the leading and subordi-
nate propositions, it is intended to indicate that one action will be com-
pleted at the same time with the other: Qvi Antonium oppresserit, is
pellum confecerit (Cic. ad Fam. X. 19). Vicerit enim Caesar, si
consul factus erit (Id. ad Att. VII. 15). Pergratum mihi feceris,
si de amicitia disputaris (Id. Læl. 4). (Tolle hanc opinionem;
luctum sustuleris, Id. Tusc. I. 13). By the use of the perfeet in the
leading proposition, that which is eertain and secure is represented as if
it had already taken place: Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus (Cic.
ad Fam. XII. 6).
OBs. 8. In order to indicate more forcibly that the will (the power)
precedes the action, si voluero (potuero, licuerit, placuerit) is some-
times put, wbem si volam (potero, &c.) might also be employed; e.g.
Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verbis utitur (Cic.
Legg. II. 18). I
OBs. 4. In some few instances, the meaning of the future perfect
approaches that of the simple future ; e.g. in specifying a future result
(what will have happemed): Multum ad ea, qvae qvaerimus, tua
ista explicatio profecerit (Cic. Finn. III. 4) ; or in signifying what
will happen while something else takes place, or what will soon be done :
Tu invita mulieres; ego accivero pueros (Cic. ad Att. V. 1).
§ 342 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 297
Clamor et primus impetus castra ceperit (Liv. XXV. 38). (The
comic writers, especially Plautus, carry this still further.) We should
particularly notice the use of videro (videris, &c.) of a thing whieh is
postponed to another time, or left to amother's consideratiom : Qvae
fuerit causa, mox videro (Cic. Finn. I. 10). Recte secusne, alias
viderimus (Id. Ac. II. 44). Sed de hoc tu ipse videris (Id. de Or.
I. 58), you yourself may look to this. Sitne malum dolor necne,
Stoici viderint (Id. Tusc. II. 18). (Of odero and meminero, see
§ 161.) •.
§ 341. In order to express what is füture with reference to a
given time, the Latin writers employ (in the active) the future par-
ticiple with such tenses of the verb sum as the signification re-
quires ; (periphrastic conjugation, § 116). -
This participle with the present sum (futurum im praesenti) is
distinguished from the simple future by pointing out the future
action as something which the subject is just om the point of doing,
or now already resolved to do:—
Qvum apes jam evolaturae sunt, consonant vehementer (Varr.
R. R. IlI. 16). Bellum scripturus sum, qvod populus Romanus
cum Jugurtha gessit (Sall. Jug. 5). Qvid timeam, si aut non
miser post mortem aut etiam beatus futurus sum (Cic. Cat. M. 19).
Sin una est interiturus animus cum corpore, vos tamen me-
moriam nostri pie imviolateqve servabitis (Id. ib. 22). Facite,
qvod vobis libet; daturus non sum amplius (Id. Verr. II. 29).
OBs. This form is always used in specifying the conditiom of an action
which is to take place: Me igitur ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici
futuri sumus (Cic. Finn. II. 26), if we are to be true friends. Res-
persas manus sangvine paterno judices videant oportet, si tantum
facimus (parricidium) credituri sunt (Id. pro Rosc. Am. 24).
§ 342. a. The part. fut. with fui (futurum in praeterito abso-
lutum) denotes that something was future (contemplated) at a time
past: —
vos cum Mandonio et Indibili consilia communicastis et arma
consociaturi fuistis (Liv. XXVIII. 28), were on the point qf. Si illo
die P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri ? (Cic. pro Sest.
38), were you prepared to ?
b. The part. fut. with eram (futurum im praeterito) signifies what
was future and contemplated at a certain definite time, and by this
means points out a situation, disposition, destination, &c., as it was
at that time:— -
298 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 344
Profecturus eram ad te, qvum ad me frater tuus venit. Sicut
Campani Capuam, Tuscis ademptam, sic Jubellius et ejus milites
Rhegium habituri perpetuam sedem erant (Liv. XXVIII. 28),
thought of retaining. Ibi rex mansurus erat, si ire perrexisset (Cic.
Div. I. 15). -
OBs. The participle with fueram may denote what was in contempla-
tion before a certain time: Aemilius Paulus Delphis inchoatas in
vestibulo columnas, qvibus imposituri statuas regis Persei fue-
rant, suis statuis victor destinavit (Liv. XLV. 27); but it is used by
the poets in precisely the same sense as with eram.
§ 343. The participle with ero (futurum in futuro) denotes that
something will be in contemplation at a certain future time:—
Orator eorum, apud qvos aliqvid aget (at a certain, time is already
speaking), aut acturus erit (shall have to speak), mentes sensusqve
degustet oportet (Cic. de Or. I. 52). Attentos faciemus auditores,
si demonstrabimus, ea qvae dicturi erimus (what we shall be on the
point of saying), magna, nova, incredibilia esse (Id. de Inv. I. 16).
OBs. In the passive, which has no participle with a future significa-
tion, we must express those relations of time which in the active are
denoted by the part. fut., with sum, by giving a different turn to the
sentence ; e.g. by the impersonal est in eo, ut; Erat in eo, ut urbs
caperetur, was 'on the point qf being taken.
§ 344. The combination of the perf. part. with sum, which forms
the perfect passive, may sometimes denote the condition in which a
thing now is in consequence of a previous action ; e.g. Haec navis
egregie armata est (present of the accomplished condition). The
corresponding form for the imperfect is the same which otherwise
demotes the pluperfect : Naves Hannibalis egregie armatae erant.
With fui a perfect is formed, which denotes that a thing has been
(for some time) in a certain condition : Bis deinde post Numae
regnum Janus clausus fuit (Liv. I. 19). Leges, qvum qvae latae
sunt, tum vero qvae promulgatae fuerunt (Cic. pro Sest. 25),
both those which were brought forward, and those which remained
(for some time) posted up for public inspection. It is incorreet to
use this form for the customary perfect (of an action).'
* [In many such passages fuit, may be eonsidered as a verb denoting existence, rather tham
the logical copula: Ijiterni momumentum monumentoque statua superim,
posita fuit, qvam statuam tempestate dijeetam nuper vidimus ipsi (Liv.
XXXVIII. 56) There was at Liternum a monument and a, statue placed upon it, &c. The
di$tinctiom is expressed in German by the two auxiliaries werden and seyn, but cannot
always be clearly marked im English.] - .
§ 345 THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES. 299
OBS. 1. The part. perf. with fueram properly denotes (correspond-
ing with the combination with fui) the pluperfect of a condition : e.g.
Arma, qvae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Cic. Div.
I. 84) ; but it is also used instead of the usual pluperfect of the action:
e.g. Locrenses qvidam circumventilRhegiumqve abstracti fuerant
(Liv. XXIX. 6). In the same way, amatus ero and fuero are used in
the future perfect with the same meaning, but the first is to be preferred.
OBS. 2. The beginner must beware ofusing the Latin perf. pass. of a
thing that is still taking place and going forward, although in English
the verb to be is used with the participle as an adjective. The king is
loved is expressed by rex amatur.
§ 845. The epistolary style in Latin has this peculiarity, that the
writer often has in his eye the time when the letter will be read,
and therefore, instead of the present, and perfect, uses the imperfect
and pluperfect, where the receiver would use these tenses, in report-
ing the substance of the letter, while referringit back to the time
of writing: —
Nihil habebam, qvod scriberem; neqve enim novi qvidqvam
audieram et ad tuas omnes epistolas rescripseram pridie; erat
tamen rumor, comitia dilatum iri (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10. The re-
ceiver of the letter would repeat this as follows : Tum, qvum Cicero
hanc epistolam scripsit, nihil habebat, qvod scriberet; neqve
enim novi qvidqvam audierat et ad omnes meas epistolas rescrip-
serat pridie ; erat tamen rumor, &c.)
On the contrary, every thing which is said in general terms, and
without particular reference to the time of composing the letter,
must, be put in the usual tense : —
Ego te maximi et feci semper et facio. Pridie Idus Februarias
haec scripsi ante lucem (simply of the letter written thus far, which
was afterwards contimued; the receiver would say: Haec Cicero
scripsit ante lucem) ; eo die eram coenaturus apud Pomponium
(Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). The other form, too, is frequently not used
when it might have been adopted.
300 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 347
CHAPTER III.
T H E S U B J U N C T I W. E.
§ 346. In the subjunctive a thing is asserted simply as an idea
conceived in the mind, so that the speaker does not at the same time
declare it as actually existing; e.g. curro, ut sudem. In some kinds
of subordinate propositions the subjunctive is also used of a thing
which the speaker asserts as existing, in order to show that it is
not considered by itself, but as a subordinate member of another
leading idea; e.g. ita cucurri, ut vehementer sudarem.*~In the
leading proposition the subjunctive may be referred to two princi-
pal kinds; the hypothetical, by which a thing not actually existing
is asserted by way of assumption; and the optative, by which a
thing is expressed as our wish or will. -
OBS. In English, we often use the auxiliary verbs may, can, must,
would, should, to express that which in Latin is denoted by the sub-
junctive. In such cases, therefore, the beginner must beware of using
possum, licet, debeo, oportet, volo, which are only employed when a
power, a permission, a duty, a wish is actually intended (rogavi, ut
abiret, that he would go away, to go away. He must also avoid using
the future (or the futurum in praeterito) contrary to Latin usage.
See on this subject, § 378, b, in the following chapter.
§ 347. a. The subjunctive is used in sentences conditional of that
(the apodosis, $326, Obs. 3) which is noticed as not actual fact,
both in the leading proposition of that which does not hold good,
but would hold good on a certain supposition, and in the subordi-
nate (the protasis), with si, nisi, ni, si non, etiamsi, of the sup-
position which is assumed in the statement, but declared not actually
to hold good. (Compare $ 332.)
b. That which would take place now or at a future time, or (con-
trary to the actual fact) is supposed as taking place, is expressed by
the imperfect; what would have taken place at a previous time, or
of which it is assumed that it has taken place, by the pluperfect: —%
1 This last use of the subjunctive originated from the first and proper use, in consequence
of the form being transferred from such subordinate propositions as express a simple concep-
tion (e.g. propositions expressing a purpose) to others which assert Something actually ex-
isting (e.g. propositions expressing a result), because they agreed with the first in being con-
ceived of as depending on the leading proposition, and necessary to complete its signification.
But while the subjunctive was so transferred and applied in some cases, in others, on the con-
trary, it was not so.
§ 347 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 301
Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret. Siscirem, dicerem.
Si scissem, in quo periculo esses, statin ad te advolassem. Si
Metelli fidei diffisus essem, judicem eum non retinuissem (Cic.
Werr. A. I. 10). Nunqvam Hercules ad deos abisset, nisi eam
sibi viam virtute munivisset (Id. Tusc. I. 14). Si Roscius has
inimicitias cavere potuisset, viveret (Cic. Rosc. Am. 6), he would
be still living. Necassem jam te verberibus, nisi iratus essem (Id.
R. P. I. 38), if I had not been angry.
The present subjunctive is employed when a condition that is
still possible is assumed as occurring now or at some future time,
while it is at the same time intimated that it will not actually
OCCURI" - -
Me dies, vox latera deficiant, si hoc nunc vociferari velin (Cic.
Verr. II. 21), which I can, but do not intend. Ego, si Scipionis
desiderio me moveri negem; mentiar (Id. Lael. 3). (In English,
the imperfect is often used in this case: If I were to deny it, I should
speak an untruth.)
OBs. 1. The present is also often used instead of the imperfect of a
thing which is no longer possible, and where there is no reference to the
future, by a turn of rhetoric, where a thing is represented as if it might
still take place: Tu si hic sis, aliter sentias (Ter. Andr. II. 1, 10),
put yourself a moment in my situation, you will then think otherwise.
Haec si patria tecum logvatur, nonne impetrare debeat? (Cic.
Cat. I. 8). (The present must in this case be used both in the leading
and subordinate propositions.) -
OBs. 2. In the same way, the imperfect is sometimes put instead of
the pluperfect either in both propositions, or in the subordinate proposi-
tion, or (most rarely of all) in the leading proposition alone: Curigitur
et Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos fere et qving vaginta
annos eventura putaret, et ego doleam, si ad decem millia an-
norum gentem aliqvam urbe nostra potituram putem 2 (Cic. Tusc.
I. 37). Num tuigitur Opimium, situm esses (suppose you had lived
at that time) temerarium civen aut crudelem putares? (Id. Phil.
VIII. 4). Non tam facile opes Carthaginis concidissent, nisi illud
receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Id. Verr. II. 1). Persas,
Indos, aliasqve si Alexander adjunzisset gentes, impedimentum
majus qvam auxilium traheret (Liv. IX. 19). Such an imperfect,
however, can only be put in the subordinate proposition (but is by
no means always employed) when the action denoted by it is not con-
sidered as one that has happened and been completed before the other,
but as accompanying it and continuing along with it, or sometimes as
occurring repeatedly: Haec si reipublicae causa faceres, in ven-
302 LATIN GRAMMAR.' § 348
dendis decumis essent pronuntiata, qvia tua causa faciebas,
imprudentia praetermissum erat (Cic. Verr. III. 20). The imper-
fect is found in the leading proposition, or in both propositions (but not
always), when one may imagine a repetition of the thing asserted (e.g.
in attempts), or a continuing state (but not of a single event, which
would have happened or not happened).
OBs. 3. The poets sometimes use the present subjunctive even instead
of the pluperfect of a thing that would have happened at a previous
time: Spatia si plura supersint, transeat (Diores) elapsus prior
(Virg. AEn. W. 325).
OBs. 4. When the conditional statement of the protasis is contrary to
a coming reality, the futurum in praet. (essem with the future part.)
is used; Paterer ni misericordia in perniciem casura esset (Sall.
Jug. 31, from in perniciem cadet) [ºf pity were not going to result in
ruin, as it is]. On the periphrasis casurus fuerim for cecidissem in
the apodosis, see § 381.
c. Sometimes the supposition, which does not actually hold good,
but on which the assertion is made, is not expressly indicated by a
conditional clause, but pointed out in another way, or supplied from
the context: — -
Illo tempore aliter sensisses. Qvod mea causa faceres, idem
rogo, ut amici mei causa facias. Neqve agricultura neqve frugum
fructuumqve reliqvorum perceptio et conservatio sine hominum
opera ulla esse potuisset (Cic. Off. II. 3), if human labor had not
been applied. Magnitudo animi, remota a communitate conjunc-
tioneqve humana, feritas sit qvaedam et immanitas (Id. ib. I.44),
separated, sc. in case it were separated. Ludificari enim aperte et
calumniari sciens non videatur (Id. Rosc. Am. 20), for he would (in
the case mentioned, which is only assumed) not appear, &c. Si un-
qvam visus tibi sum in republica fortis, certe me in illa causa
admiratus esses (Id. ad Att. I. 16), viz. si affuisses.
§ 348. Sometimes, however, a proposition limited by a condition
is put in the indicative, although it is shown by the subjunctive in
the proposition containing the condition, that the latter is not actu-
ally fulfilled. This is done when the apodosis may be in a manner
conceived of as independent of the protasis and valid in itself, either
from brevity in the expression of the idea (ellipsis), or rhetorical
liveliness in the diction. Such turns of speech are the follow-
ing:— -
a. By a periphrasis with the part. fut. and fui or eram (futurum in
praeterito, see § 342), it is shown what a person was actually ready
§ 348 THÆ SUBJUNCTIVE. 303
to do in a certain case (that did not occur) : Si tribuni me triumphare
prohiberent, Furium et Aemilium testes citaturus fui rerum a me
gestarum (Liv. XXXVIII. 47). Illi ipsi aratores, qvi reman-
serant, relicturi omnes agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma
litteras misisset (Cic. Verr. III. 52). Here, the indieative is always
employed.
b. The indicative is sometimes put to express that part of an action
of which it may be said that it actually has taken place (or is taking
place), while the condition applies to the completion and effect of the
whole : Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuis-
set (Liv. II. 10. Compare Obs. 2). Multa me dehortantur a
vobis, mi studium reipublicae superet (Sall. Jug. 31). So the im-
perf. indic. is put of a thing which was on the point of happening, amd,
on a certain condition, would have been completely effected: Si per I,.
IMetellum licitum esset, matres illorum, uxores, sorores veniebant
(Cic. Verr. V. 49). Sometimes also of a thing which has partly occurred
already in the present time : Admonebat me res, ut hoc qvoqve
loco interitum eloqventiae deplorarem, mi vererer, ne de me ipso
aliqvid viderer qveri (Cic. Off. II. 19).
c. The imperfect indicative is oftem used of a thing which, in a cer-
tain case which does not actually hold, would, at the present time,
be right and proper, or possible (debebam, decebat, oportebat, pote-
ram, or eram with a gerundive or neuter adjective), as if to show the
duty and obligation or possibility more unconditionally (especially when
the idea of a thing which is otherwise and generally right is applied to
a particular case): Contumeliis eum onerasti, qvem patris loco, si
ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas (Cic. Phil. II. 88). Si vic-
toria, praeda, laus dubia essent, tamen omnes bonos reipublicae
subvenire decebat (Sall. Jug. 85). Si Romae Cn. Pompejus pri-
vatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat deli-
gendus (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 17). Si mihi nec stipendia omnia
emerita essent necdum aetas vacationem daret, tamen aeqvum
erat me dimitti (Liv. XLII. 84). Si tales nos natura genuisset,
ut eam ipsam intueri et perspicere possemus, haud erat sane, qvod
qvisqvam rationem ac doctrinam reqvireret (Cic. Tusc. III. 1).
Poterat utrumqve praeclare (fieri), si esset fides, si gravitas in
hominibus consularibus (Cic. ad Fam. I. 7). (But also: Haec si
diceret, tamen ignosci non oporteret, Cic. Verr. I. 27, especially in
opposition to something uneonditional: Cluentio ignoscere debebitis,
qvod haec a me dici patiatur; mihi ignoscere non deberetis, si
tacerem, Cic. pro Cluent. 6.) In the same way, the perfect indicative
is used of past time, instead of the pluperfect subjunctive: Debuisti,
vatini, etiamsi falso venisses in suspicionem P. Sestio, tamen mihi
A^
304 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 348
ignoscere (Cic. in Vat. 1). Si ita Milo putasset, optabilius ei fuit
dare jugulum P. Clodio qvam jugulari a vobis (Id. pro Mil. 11).
IDeleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores
essent (Liv. XXXII. 12). (Qvid facere potuissem, nisi tum con-
sul fuissem ? Consul autem esse qvi potui, nisi eum vitae cursum
tenuissem a pueritia, per qvem pervenirem ad honorem amplissi-
mum ? Cic. R. P. I. 6.)
OBs. When it is declared, without a condition, what might or ought
to happen, or have happened, but does not happen, with possum,
debeo, oportet, decet, convenit, licet, or sum with a gerundive, or
sum with such adjectives as aeqvum, melius, utilius, par, satis (satius
est), &c., the imperfect indicative is commonly used to represent present;
time, to describe that which does not happen, and the perfect and
pluperfect indicative to represent the past: Perturbationes animorum
poteram morbos appellare; sed non conveniret ad omnia (Cic.
Finn. III. 10). Ne ad rempublicam qvidem accedunt nisi coacti;
aeqvius autem erat id voluntate fieri (Id. Off. I. 9). Oculorum
fallacissimo sensu Chaldaei judicant ea, qvae ratione atqve animo
videre debebant (Id. Div. II. 43).* Aut non suscipi bellum opor-
tuit, aut geri pro dignitate populi Romani oportet (Liv. V. 4).
Illud potius praecipiendum fuit, ut diligentiam adhiberemus in
amicitiis comparandis (Cic. Læl. 16). Prohiberi melius fuit im-
pediriqve, ne Cinna tot summos viros interficeret, qvam ipsum
aliqvando poenas dare (Id. N. D. III. 33). Qvanto melius fuerat,
promissum patris non esse servatum (Id. Off. III. 25). Catilina
erupit e senatu triumphans gaudio, qvem omnino vivum illinc
exire non oportuerat (Id. pro Mur. 25). (Non modo unius patri-
monium, sed urbes et regna celeriter tanta neqvitia devorare potu-
isset (Id. Phil. II. 27), with the accessory significatiom, supposing it had
had towns and kingdoms.) So, likewise, that which might yet happem, and
its character, are expressed by the present indic. : Possum perseqvi
multa oblectamenta rerum rusticarum ; sed ea ipsa qvae dixi,
sentio fuisse longiora (Cic. Cat. M. 16). Longum est enumerare,
dicere, &c., it would be tedious. (Possim, si velim. § 347, b.)
d. A thing which might have occurred on a certain condition is repre-
sented, by a rhetorical emphasis of expression, as if it had already
occurred, in order to show how near it was: Perierat imperium, si
Fabius tantum ausus esset, qvantum ira svadebat (Sen. de Ir. I.
11) ; particularly in the poets: Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustule-
rat, nisi Faunus ictum levasset (Hor. Od. II. 17, 27).
1 In the editioms of Latim authors debeam is sometimes put incorrectly instead of debe-
bam. >- -
§ 348 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 305
ι
OBs. By the poets, and some later prose-writers (e.g. Tacitus),
eram is sometimes used in a qualified proposition entirely in the sense
of essem; Solus eram, si non saevus adesset Amor (Ov. Am. I.
6, 34). • -
e. Sometimes that which would happen in a possible assumed case (at
variance with the real fact) is simply stated as something that will happen
(fut. indie. for pres. subj.) ; Dies deficiet, si velim paupertatis cau-
sam defendere (Cic. Tusc. V. 35). •
OBs. 1. What might almost have happened is expressed, in Latin, by
the perf. indic. with prope or paene (as a thing that has been very near
happening) ; Prope oblitus sum, qvod maxime fuit scribendum
(Cæl. ap. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 14). -
OBs. 2. Sometimes, a conditional proposition belongs immediately to
an infinitive, governed by the verb of the leading proposition, and is, for
that reason alone, put in the subjunctive (according to § 369), without
any influence on the leading proposition, which stands unconditionally
in the indicative; $apiens non dubitat, si ita melius sit, migrare de
vita (Cic. Finn. I. 19). In this way, nisi and si non with the sub-
junctive often follow non possum with the infinitive : e.g. nec bonitas
nec liberalitas nec comitas esse potest, si haec non per se expetan-
tur (Cic. Off. III. 33). Caesar munitiones prohibere non poterat,
nisi praelio decertare vellet (Cæs. B. C. III. 44). The same holds
of other conditional propositions, which do not contain a condition apply-
ing to the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it, which
has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent, proposition, so that
the conditional clause belongs to the oratio obliqva (§ 369): e.g.
Metellus Centuripimis, nisi statuas Verris restituissent, graviter
minatur (Cic. Verr. II. 67 = minatur, se iis malum daturum, nisi
— Minatur is stated absolutely without any condition). Nulla
major oócurrebat res, qvam si optimarum artium vias traderem
meis civibus (Cic. de Div. II. 1; i.q. nullam rem putabam majorem
esse). ' Sometimes, for the sake of brevity, a conditional proposition,
in the subjunctive, is attached to a leading proposition which is expressed.
unconditionally ; Memini numeros, si verba tenerem (Virg. Buc. IX.
45) = et possem canere si.
OBs. 3. When we have a conditional proposition in the indicative,
expressing the conditional relation simply and without any accessory
signification, the leauing proposition may stand in the subjunctive for
some other reason; e.g. beeause it contains a wish or a demand or a
question with a negative signification, to indicate what is to happen
(§ 351, § 353), or because it is a dependent, question (§ 356): Si
stare non possunt, corruant (Cic. Cat. II. 10). Non intelligo
qvamobrem, si vivere honeste non possunt, perire turpiter velint
20
306 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 350
(Id. ib. II. 10). We should particularly remark the use of an indica-
tive conditional proposition in connection with a wish or curse in solemn
protestations and oaths: Ne vivam, si scio (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16).
Peream, nisi sollicitus sum (Id. ad Fam. XV. 9).
§ 349. The subjunctive is used in all propositions annexed by
particles of comparison, which state something that does not actu-
ally exist, but is only assumed for the sake of comparison (as if;
hypothetical propositions of comparison) : —
Sed qwid ego his testibus utor, qvasi res dubia aut obscura
sit? (Cic. Div. in Caec. 4). Me juvat, velut si ipse in parte laboris
ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervenisse (Liv. XXXI.
1). Parvi primo ortu sic jacent, tanqvam omnino sine animo
sint (Cic. Finn. W. 15). (Concerning the particles used, in such proposi-
tions, see § 444, a, Obs. 1, and b.)
OBs. In English, the imperfect and pluperfect are required to ex-
press what is thus merely assumed; but, in Latin, the subordinate is
regulated by the leading proposition, and has the imperfect or pluperfect
only when the leading proposition belongs to past time. But the imper-
fect is used in expressing comparison with a thing which would hold
good in another case, not actually occurring; At accusat C. Cor-
, nelii filius, idemgve valere debet, ac si pater indicaret (Cic. pro
Sull. 18).
§ 350. a. The subjunctive is used of that which does not actually
take place, but which, with an indefinite subject assumed for the
occasion, might take place, and would do so if the attempt were
made (conjunctivus potentialis). Such a subject is expressed by
an indefinite or interrogative pronoun, or by a relative periphrastic
clause (also in the subjunctive) : — wº
Credat quispiam (one might believe). Dicat (dixerit) aliqvis
some one might here say). Qvis Credat 2 Qvis eum diligat, qvem
metuat? (Who could love a person whom he hated? Qvis diligit, Who
loves 2) Qvis neget, cum illo actum esse praeclare 2 (Cic. Lael. 3.
Qvis negabit, who will deny ?) Qvi videret, urbem captam diceret
(Id. Verr. IV. 23), would have said. Poterat Sextilius impune ne-
gare; quis enim redargueret 2 (Id. Finn. II. 17), who could have
refuted him? Of a thing which is now possible, the present or future
perfect (as a hypothetical future, without its proper signification, see
§ 380) is used in this way; of past time, the imperfect.
OBs. Concerning the use of the second person of the verb in propo-
sitions of this kind, see § 370,
§ 351 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 307
b. With definite subjects also, a thing which easily can and will
happen when there is an occasion for it, is modestly and cautiously
expressed in the subjunctive, most frequently in the first persom, to
denote that to which one is inclined. In the active the future per-
fect is here generally used (without its usual signification): —
IHaud facile dixerim, utrum sit melius. Hoc -sine ulla dubita-
tione confirmaverim (I might affirm, if the occasion should arise),
eloqventiam esse rem unam omnium difficillimam (Cic. Brut. 6).
At non historia cesserim Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi Sal-
lustium verear (Quinct. X. 1, 101). Themistocles nihil dixerit, in
qvo Areopagum adjuverit (Cic. Off. I. 22), will mot easily be able to
adduce any thing. -
OBs. 1. We should particularly notice the following subjunctives of
this class: velim, nolim, malim, by which a wish is modestly ex-
pressed (I could wish, could wish not, would rather): e.g. velim dicas;
velim ex te scire; nolim te discedere. A wish, which ome would en-
tertain under other circumstances, but which cammot now be fulfilled, is
expressed by vellem, nollem, mallem: e.g. Vellem adesse posset
Panaetius (Cic. Tusc. I. 88). Nollem factum. (Vellet, he could have
wished). -
OBs. 2. Such a subjunctive may also be employed in a subordinate
proposition, with a conjunction which is otherwise constructed with the
indicative: Etsi eum, qvi profiteri ausus sit, perscripturum se res
omnes Romanas, in partibus singulis fatigari minime conveniat
(would be highly unbecoming), tamen provideo animo, qvicqvid pro-
gredior, in vastiorem me altitudinem invehi (Liv. XXXI. 1).
Camillus, qvamqvam exercitum assvetum imperio, qvi in Volscis
erat, mallet, nihil recusavit (Liv. VI. 9. The simple antithesis would
have to be expressed by etsi and qvamqvam with the indicative, § 361,
Obs. 2).
OBs. 3. A conjecture respecting a thing which is actually the fact, is
not expressed by the subjunctive, except with the particle forsitam, it may
be that, which, in the best writers, is almost always put with that mood;
e.g. Concedo; forsitam aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi qvippiam fece-
rit (Cic. Verr. II. 32).
§ 851. a. The subjunctive is used to express a wish, and (in the
first person plural) mutual incitement or encouragement (the opta-
tive):—
Valeant cives mei, sint incolumes, sint beati (Cic. pro Mil. 84).
Ne vivam, si tibi concedo, ut ejus rei cupidior sis, qvam ego sum
(Cic. ad Fam. VII. 23). Vivas et originis hujus gaudia longa
308 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 351
feras (Juv. VIII. 46). Imitemur majores nostros! Memineri-
mus, etiam adversus infimos justitiam esse servandam (Cic. Off.
I. 13).
b. The subjunctive is sometimes used instead of the imperative
in commands and prohibitions. See what is said on this subject in
treating of the imperative, Chapter V.
OBs. 1. With the subjunctive thus used, the negation is expressed by
ne, not non. See § 456. Wishes are expressed still more strongly by
the addition of the particle utinam (utinam ne) : e.g. Utinam ego
tertius vobis amicus adscriberer (Cic. Tusc. V. 22; the imperfect
being used of a thing which cannot happen). Utinam ne Phormioni id
svadere in mentem incidisset (Ter. Phorm. I. 8, 5). Utinam is, in
some rare instances, employed with a non following, which is closely
annexed to the verb: Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi, qvo utinam
susceptus non essem (Cic. ad Att. XI. 9). The expression o, si (with
the subjunctive) is elliptical; O mihi praeteritos referat si Juppiter
annos (Virg. Æn. VIII. 560). -
OBs. 2. By the particles dum, dummodo, or modo alone (modo
ut), f only, provided that (dum ne, dummodo ne, modo ne), a wish
òr demand is annexed to a proposition by way of condition or limita-
tion : Oderint, dum metuant. Gallia aeqvo animo omnes belli
patitur injurias, dummodo repellat periculum servitutis (Cic. Phil.
XII. 4). Omnia postposui, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem,
(Cic. Fil. ad Fam. XVI. 21). Celeriter ad comitia tibi veniendum
censeo, dummodo ne qvid haec festimatio imminuat ejus gloriae
qvam consecuti sumus (Cic. ad Fam. X. 25). Manent ingenia
senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Id. Cat. M. 7).
Concede, ut Verres impune haec emerit, modo ut bona ratione
emerit (Cie. Verr. IV. 5). -
OBs. 3. The beginner may observe that an exhortation is often ex-
pressed, in Latin, by a question with qvin, why not? Qvin imus?
Qvin taces ? Qvin tu urges occasionem istam ? (Cic. ad Fam.
VII. 8). ; -
OBs. 4. In the imperfect and pluperfect, the subjunctive is used, in
an advisory or imperative sense, of a thing which ought to have been,
done, as distinguished from that which, according to a previous state-
ment, has actually been done : Curio causam Transpadanorum
aeqvam esse dicebat ; semper autem addebat, Vincat utilitas rei-
publicae ! Potius diceret (he should rather have said), non esse
aeqvam, qvia non esset utilis reipublicae, qvam qvum non utilem
diceret, esse aeqvam fateretur (Cic. Off. III. 22). Saltem aliqvid
de pondere detraxisset (Id. Finn. IV. 20), he should, at least, have
§ 353 TEHE SUBJUNCTIVE. 309
deducted Frumentum ne emisses (Id. Verr. III. 84), you should
not have bought any wheat. - - -
OBS. 5. Concerning the subjunctive in the continued oratio obliqva,
for the imperative of the oratio recta, see § 404.
§ 352. A permission, and an assumption or admission of a thing
that is not actually so, or which one leaves undecided and will not
contend about, are expressed by the subjunctive:—
Fruatur sane Gabinius hoc solatio (Cic. Provv. Cons. 7), let
Gabinius keep this comfort íf he . will. Vendat aedes vir bonus
propter aliqva vitia, qvae ceteri ignorent; pestilentes , sint et
habeantur salubres; male materiatae sint, ruinosae; sed hoc
praeter dominum nemo sciat; qvaero, si haec emptoribus non
dixerit, num injuste fecerit (Cic. Off. III. 18). Malus civis,
improbus consul, seditiosus homo Carbo fuit. Fuerit aliis (sup-
pose he has been so to others) ; tibi qvando esse coepit ? (Id. Verr. I.
14). Ne sint in senectute vires (Id. Cat. M. II.), let us assume thaw
age has no powers.
§ 353. The subjunctive is used in inquiries as to what is (or
was) to be done, what shall be, or should have been done, especially
when it is intended to indicate that something will not be done (has
not been dome): Qvid faciam ? (What am I to do? i.q. I can do
^otháng.). . . . -
Utrum superbiam Verris prius commemorem an crudelitatem ?
(Cic. Verr. I. 47); Quam te memorem, virgo ? (Virg. Æn. I. 327),
VVhat shall I call you? Qvid hoc homine faciatis ? aut ad qvam
spem tam importunum animal reservetis ? (Cic. Verr. I. 16).
Qvia faceret aliud ? (Cic. de Or. III. 23), What else was he to do?
Haec qvum viderem, qvid agerem, judices ? Contenderem contra
tribunum plebis privatus armis ? (Cic. pro Sest. 19). Qvid
enumerem artium multitudinem, sine qvibus vita omnino nulla
esse potest ? (Id. Off. II. 4) = non enumerabo. Cur plura com-
memorem ? (But, Cur haec commemoro? of a thing which one is
already actually doing.) Qvidni meminerim ? (Cic. de Or. II. 67),
JWhy should I mot remember ? (negation of non memini). Also in
questions expressive of disapprobation, by which a thing is described as
not to be thought of: Qvaeso, qvid istuc consilii est ? Illius stul-
titia victâ ex urbe rus tu habitatum migres ? (Ter. Hec. IV. 2,
18), should you — ? Ego te videre noluerim ? (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 8),
Can you suppose that I was unwilling to see you ?
OBs. In questions relating to something that is not to be thought, of,
an elliptical expression with ut is also used: Egone ut te interpellem ?
t» •
• • * • * ç.
'-* • C.
• j •
£» v . .t
810 LATIN GRAMMAR. ' § 356
(Cie. Tusc. II. 18) = Fierine potest, ut, &c. Qvanqvam qvid
loqvor ? Te ut ulla res frangat? Tu ut unqvam te corrigas? (Id.
Cat. I. 9.)
§ 354. The subjunctive is employed in all propositions that
denote the object of a preceding verb or expression (objectìve pro-
positions, object-clauses), and are connected with it by the particles
ut, that ; ne, ut ne, ut non, qvin, qvominus, that not : —
Sol efficit ut omnia floreant. Verres rogat et orat Dolabellam,
ut ad Neronem proficiscatur (Cic. Verr. I. 29). Precor, ne me
deseras. Vix me contineo, qvin involem in illum (Ter. Eun. V.
2, 20). IMos est hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus
excellere (Id. Brut. 21). - * .
OBs. When and with what particle such propositions are to be formed
is shown in the appendix to this chapter. In some particular cases the
particle may be omitted. See § 372, b, Obs. 4; § 373, Obs. 1; § 375, a,
Obs. 1. -
§ 355. The subjunctive is used im all subordinate propositions,
which are subjoined to amother proposition, tO express its purpose
or end, or its result, and are connected with it by the particles ut,
in order that ; ne (ut ne), that not ; qvo, that so much ; ut, so that ;
ut non, so that not ; qvim, that not (without). The subjunctive is
likewise put after ut (ut non) in the signification although (even
suppose that), and medum, much less ; e.g.:—
Legum omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus. Haec
ideo ad te scribo, ne me oblitum esse mandatorum tuorum putes.
-Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fetus
possit et grandiores edere (Cic. de Or. II. 30). Verres Siciliam
ita vexavit et perdidit, ut restitui in antiqvum statum nullo modo
possit (Id. Verr. A. I. 4). In virtute multi sunt adscensus; ut (so
that) is gloria maxime excellat, qvi virtute plurimum praestet (Id.
pro Planc. 25). Nunqvam accedo, qvin abs te abeam doctior
(Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 21). Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda vol-
untas (Ov. ex Pont. III. 4, 79). Vix in ipsis tectis frigus vitatur,
nedum in mari sit facile abesse ab injuria temporis (qf the season ;
Cie. ad Fam. XVI. 8). *.
OBs. Concerning some peculiarities in the combination of these propo-
sitions, and in the use of the conjunctions, see Chap. IX. § 440; con-
cerning ne and ut ne, § 456 with Obs. 3. •
§ 356. In the subjunctive are put all dependent interrogative
propositions; i.e. all propositions which are connected with another
* s,
.• • <$ o° •
w* e
• , • e •
:
ę 2. &.
*s ῦ
sy . ; * ¢ ę
ę
?
v*
»
e*
•»
*
¢
§ 356 & THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 311
proposition by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, or by an inter-
rogative particle, in order to designate the object of a verb, of a
phrase, or of a single adjective or substantive : —
Qvaesivi ex puero qvid faceret, ubi fuisset. Incertum est, qvid
qvaeqve nox aut dies ferat. IDifficile dictu est, utrum hostes
magis Pompeji virtutem pugnantes timuerint an mansvetudinem
victi dilexerint (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 14). Doleam, necne doleam,
nihil interest (Id. Tusc. II. 12). Vides, ut (how) alta stet nive
candidum Soracte (Hor. Od. I. 9, 1). Valetudo gustentatur
notitia $ui corporis et observatione, qvae res prodesse soleant
aut obesse (Cic. Off. II. 24).'
OBS. 1. Concerning the interrogative particles, see §§ 451—453. The
beginner must avoid confounding dependent questions with those relative
clauses which in English begin with what (= that, which); e.g. I give
what I have, do, qvae habeo; Isaid what I knew (repeated all I knew),
dixi, qvae sciebam. Ibico, qvod sentio, I say what I think, i.e.
what Isay is my real opinion ; dicam, qvid sentiam, I shall tell what
Ithink, i.e. Ishall state what my opìnìon ìs. .
OBS. 2. In dependent, questions about a thing which is to happen, the
notion is to is frequently not expressed by a separate word : Vos hoc
tempore eam potestatem habetis, ut statuatis, utrum nos semper
miseri lugeamus (are to mourm), an aliqvando per vestram vir-
tutem sapientiamqve recreemur (Cic. pro Mil. 2). Non satis
constabat, qvid agerent (Cæs. B. G. III. 14), they did mot rightly
know what they were to do. • -
OBS. 3. In the oldest poets (Plautus and Terence) a dependent, inter-
rogative proposition sometimes stands in the indicative: e.g. si nunc
memorare velim, qvam fideli animo et benigno in illam fui, vere
possum (Ter. Hec. III. 5, 21); in the later poets (Horace, Virgil)
this is rare, in prose quite inadmissible. Sometimes a direct questiom is
put after dic or qvaero, where an indirect one might have been em-
ployed: Ibic, qvaeso: Num te illa terrent, triceps Cerberus, Cocyti
fremitus, travectio Acherontis ? (Cic. Tusc. I. 5). Here it may also
be observed, that the expression nescio qvis (nescio qvomodo, nescio
qvo pacto, nescio unde, &c.) is often inserted in a proposition that is
not interrogative, by way of parenthesis, or as a remark exclusively
applying to a single word: minime assentior iis, qvi istam nescio
qvam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Cic. Tusc. III. 6), that —
how shall I term it? — insensibility to pain. Licuit esse otioso
Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae, licuit etiam mihi; sed, nescio
qvomodo, inhaeret in mentibus qvasi seculorum qvoddam au-
gurium futurorum (Id. Tusc. I. 15).
1 Quid agis ?— Quid agam P (sc. quaeris). Male.
312 LATIN GRAMMAR. $357
OBS. 4. Concerning the mood of interrogative propositions in the
oratio obliqva, see $405. - . -
§ 357. a. Subordinate propositions, which specify a cause and a
reason (by means of the particles quod and qwia, because), or an
occasion (by means of the particles qvoniam, qvamdo, since), are
usually put in the indicative (if the speaker adduces the actual
reason, the actual occasion, according to his own views); but in
the subjunctive, if the reason (or occasion) is given according to
the views of another party, who is represented as the agent in the
main proposition: — - ?
- Aristides nonne ob eam causam expulsus est patria, qvod
praeter modum justus esset 2 (Cic. Tusc. V. 36), because he was too
just in the opinion of his fellow-citizens? Bene majores accubitionem
epularem amicorum, qvia vitae conjunctionem haberet, con-
vivium nominaverunt (Id. Cat. M. 13); in this passage the imperfect
also shows, that the reason alleged is agreeable to the view taken by the
ancestors. -
Sometimes such a subjunctive is employed where the indicative
might also have been made use of, because the reason assigned is
assumed by the speaker himself also as the real one: —
Romani tamen, qvia consules adid locorum (hitherto) prospere
rem gererent, minus his cladibus commovebantur (Liv. XXV. 22),
because they saw that the consuls were successful. - , * *
On this account qvod (but not qvia), with a subjunctive, is used
after verbs which signify praise, blame, complaint, surprise, where we
give the reason as the assertion of another: Laudat Panaetius Afri-
canum, qvod fuerit abstinens (Cic. Off. II. 22). Socrates accu-
satus est, qvod corrumperet juventutem et novas superstitiones
introduceret (Quinct. IV. 4, 5). But if the speaker himself designates
something that is an actual fact as the ground of the complaint, &c., the .
indicative is employed: Qvod spiratis, qvod vocem mittitis, qvod
formam hominum habetis, indignantur (Liv. IV. 3).
OBs. 1. The speaker may also express the reason of his own actions
in the subjunctive as if according to the views of another party, if he states
how the matter formerly appeared to him, without expressly confirming
this view now : Mihi semper Academiae consvetudo de Omnibus
rebus in contrarias partes disserendi non ob eam causam solum
placuit, qvod aliter non posset, qvid in qvaqve re verisimile esset,
inveniri, sed etiam qvod esset ea maxima dioendi exercitatio
(Cic. Tusc. II. 8). -- -
§ 358 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 813
OBs. 2. Sometimes qvod is put with the subjunctive of a verb of say-
ing or thinking, although not the circumstance that some One said or
thought a thing, but the substance of what was said or thought, con-
veys the reason as given by another: Qvum Hannibalis permissu
exisset e castris, rediit paullo post, qvod se oblitum nescio qvid
diceret (Cic. Off. I. 13), because, as he said, he had forgotten some-
thimg. Multi praetores qvaestores et legatos suos de provincia
decedere jusserunt, qvod eorum culpa se minus commode audire
arbitrarentur (Id. Verr. III. 58).
b. The subjunctive is employed, where it is intended to denote
that the reason alleged is not the real and actual one : —
Nemo oratorem admiratus est, qvod Latine loqveretur (Cic. de
Or. III. 14). In this way, particularly non qvod (non ideo qvod
non eo qvod) or non qvia is put with the subjunctive, followed by sed
qvod (qvia), introducing the true motive : Pugiles in jactandis caes-
tibus ingemiscunt, non qvod doleant animove succumbant, sed
qvia profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur venitqve plaga ve-
hementior (Cic. Tusc. II. 23), (Jactatum in condicionibus neqvio-
qvam de Tarqviniis in regnum restituendis, magis qvia id negare
E'orsena neqviverat Tarqviniis, qvam qvod negatum iri sibi ab
ERomanis ignoraret (Liv. II. 13) = non qvod — ignoraret, sed qvia
— neqviverat). There are a few exceptions: non qvia nasus nullus
illi3 erat (Hor. Sat. II. 2, 90).
OBs. For non qvod (non qvia), non qvo, mot that, is also em-
ployed: De consilio meo ad te, non qvo celandus esses, nihil
scripsi antea, sed qvia communicatio consilii qvasi quaedam
videtur esse efflagitatio ad coeundam societam vel periculi vel
laboris (Cic. ad Fam. V. 19). (Also non qvo —, sed ut or sed me.)
Por non qvod (qvo) non, we find also non qvin; e.g. non tam ut
prosim causis, elaborare soleo, qvam ne qvid obsim; non qvin
enitendum sit in utroqve, sed tamen multo est turpius oratori
nocuisse videri causae qvam non profuisse (Cic. de Or. II. 72).
§ 358. The subjunctive is put after the particle qvum, when it
denotes the occasion (since, qvum causal), or (with imperfects and
pluperfects) the succession and order of events in historical narra-
tion (when) : — s *
Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio
ipsa monet amicitia3 comparare (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Dionysius
qvum in communibus sugge$tis. congistere non auderet, contionari
ex turri alta solebat (Id. Tuse. V. 20). Epaminondas qvum vicis-
set Lacedaemonios apud Mantineam atqve ipse gravi vulnere
314 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 358
exanimari se videret, qvaesivit, salvusne esset clipeus (Id.
Pinn. II. 80).
If, on the other hand, an action is only referred to a certain time,
so that, qvum signifies when, with a present or future, or at the time
when, the indicative is employed ; though in speaking of past time
the imperfect subjunctive is likewise admissible :—
Qvi injuriam non propulsat, qvum potest, injuste facit (Cic. Off.
III. 18). Qvum inimici nostri venire dicentur, tum in Epirum ibo
(Id. ad Fam. XIV. 3). Res, qvum haec scribebam, erat in extre-
mum adducta discrimem (Id. ib. XII. 6). IDionysius ea, qvae con-
cupierat, ne tum qvidem, qvum omnia se posse censebat, conse-
qvebatur (Id. Tusc. V. 20). Qvum Caesar in Galliam vënit,
alterius Gallorum factionis principes erant Aedui, alterius Se-
qvani (Cæs. B. G. VI. 12). Zenonem, qvum Athenis essem,
audiebam freqventer (Cic. N. 1). I. 21). C. Caesar tum, qvu111
maxime furor arderet Antonii, firmissimum exercitum compara-
vit (Id. Phil. III. 2). Qvanto facilius abire fuit hosti, qvum
procul abessemus, qvam nunc, qvum in cervicibus sumus (Liv.
XLIV. 39). With the other conjunctions of time, which denote the
succession of actions, the indicative is made use of. See § 338, b.
OBS. 1. The indicative is also used when qvum (qvum interim)
connects an event with a time and circumstances previously mentioned:
Jam ver appetebat, qvum Hannibal ex hibernis movet (Liv. XXII.
1). Jam scalis egressi milites prope summa ceperant, qvum oppi-
dani concurrunt, lapides, ignem, alia praeterea tela ingerunt (Sall.
Jug. 60). Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, qvum interim
Dyrrachii milites domum, in qva eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere
coeperunt (Cic. in Pis. 38). (So likewise, Nondum centum et decem
anni sunt, qvum de pecuniis repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est;
(Id. Off. II. 21), it is not yet one hundred and ten years, simce a
law .) •-
OBs. 2. Qvum signifying inasmuch as stands with the indicative in
the present and perfect: Concedo tibi, ut ea praetereas, qvae, qvum
taces, nulla esse concedis (Cic. Rosc. Am. 19), inasmuch as you are
silent, by being silent. Praeclare facis, qvum Caepionis et Luculli
memoriam tenes (Id. Finn. III. 2) ; but with the subjunctive in the
imperfect: Munatius Plancus qvotidie meam potentiam criminaba-
tur, qvum diceret, senatum, qvod ego vellem, decernere (Cic. pro
Mil. 5). After laudo, gratulor, gratias ago, gratia est, qvum is
found with the indicative in the same sense as qvod, that, because ; e.g.
Gratulor tibi, qvum tantum vales apud I)olabellam (Cic. ad Fam.
IX. 14). •.
()
§ 359 THE sUBJUNCTIVE. 315
OBs. 3. Qvum usually has the subjunctive when it expresses a kind
of comparison, and especially a contrast, between the contents of the
leading proposition and the subordinate (while on the other hand, whereas,
although); Hoc ipso tempore, qvum omnia gymnasia philosophi
teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire qvam philoso-
phum malunt (Cic. de Or. II. 5). Hence also with qvum — tum, as
well — as, when each member has its own verb, the first is oftem put in
the subjunetive, to express a kind of comparison (between the general
and the particular case, the earlier and the later, &c.); e.g. Qvum mul-
tae res in philosophia neqvaqvam satis adhuc explicatae sint, tum
perdifficilis et perobscura qvaestio est de natura deorum (Cie.
N. D. I. 1). Sex. Roscius qvum omni tempore nobilitatis fautor
fuisset, tum hoc tumultu proximo praeter ceteros in ea vicinitate
eam partem causamqve defendit (Id. Rosc. Am. 6). If only the
connection between the two is to be expressed, the indicative is used:
Qvum ipsam cognitionem juris augurii conseqvi cupio, tum me-
hercule tuis incredibiliter studiis delector (Cic. ad Fam. III. 9).
OBs. 4. We always have the subjunctive in audivi (auditum est)
ex eo, qvum diceret, I have heard him say. So also the subjunctive is
almost always found used after the phrase : Fuit (erit) tempus (illud
tempus, dies), qvum, there was once a time, there will come a time, when
(such a time that) ; also after the simple expression, fuit, qvum : Il-
lucescet aliqvando ille dies, qvum tu fortissimi viri magnitudinem
animi desideres (Cic. pro Mil. 26). Fuit, qvum mihi qvoqve ini-
tium reqviescendi fore justum arbitrarer (Id. de Or. I. 1).
§ 359. When an action that is oftem repeated (every time that, as qftem
as) is expressed by qvum, or other conjunctions (ubi, postqvam, qvo-
ties, si), or by indefinite relative words (qvâcunqve, ubicunqve, qvo-
cunqve, in qvamcunqve partem, ut qvisqve, according as each),
with the verb in the imperfect or (more frequently, aceording to § 338,
a, Obs.) in the pluperfect, the older writers (Cicero, Cæsar, Sallust) com-
monly use the indicative ; others, again, give the preference to the sub-
junetive: Qvum ver esse coeperat, Verres dabat se labori atqve
itineribus (Cic. Verr. V. 10). Qvamcunqve in partem eqvites
impetum fecerant, hostes loco cedere cogebantur (Cæs. B. C. II.
41). Numidae si a perseqvendo hostes deterrere neqviverant, dis-
jectos a tergo aut lateribus circumveniebant; sin opportunior
fugae collis qvam campi fuerant, INumidarum eqvi facile evadebant
(Sall. Jug. 50). Qvemcunqve lictor jussu consulis prehendisset,
tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. III. 11). Qvum (every time that) in
jus duci debitorem vidissent, convolabant (Id. II. 27). Id fecialis
ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum mittebat (Liv. I. 32).
316 *» E,ATIN GRAMMAR. § 36v
' § 860. The conjunctions dum, donec, and qvoad, signifying until,
with priusqvam and anteqvam, are (according to the most regular
usage) constructed with the indicative, when an action is simply
expressed that has actually commenced or is commencing (a), but
with the subjunctive, if a design is at the Same time intimated (until
something can be done), or an action which has not actually com-
menced (before something can be done, i.e. so that it is not doné
(b). Yet the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are also em-
ployed in simply indicating a point of time and an action which has
really taken place (especially with anteqvam, priusqvam, in the
historical style (c) : the subjunctive is also found with anteqvam
and priusqvam, in speaking of a thing which usually happens
before something else happens (d). - .J
a. De comitiis, donec rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit (Liv.
XXIII. 31). Haud desinam, donec perfecero (Ter. Phorm. II. 8,
72). Milo in senatu fuit eo die, qvoad senatus dimissus est (Cié.
pro Mil. 10). Mecum deserta qverebar, dum me jucundis lapsam
sopor impulit alis (Prop. I. 3, 43).* Non in hac re sola fuit ejus-
modi, sed, anteqvam ego in Siciliam veni, in maximis rebus ac
plurimis (Cic. Verr. II. 47). Non defatigabor anteqvam illorum
ancipites vias rationesqve percepero (Id. de Or. III. 86). Epami-
nondas non prius bellare destitit, qvam urbem Lacedaemoniorum
obsidione clausit (Corn. Epam. 8).
b. Iratis subtrahendi sunt ii, in qvos impetum conantur facere,
dum se ipsi colligant (Cic. Tusc. IV. 36), until they (that they may)
compose themselves.* Numidae, priusqvam ex castris subveniretur
in proximos colles discedunt (Sall. Jug. 54). Anteqvam homines
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam per-
rexi (Cic. pro Planc. 41). -
e. Trepidationis aliqvantum elephanti edebant, donec qvietem
ipse timor fecisset (Liv. XXI. 28). Paucis ante diebus, qvam
Syracusae caperentur, Otacilius in Africam transmisit (Id. XXV.
81).* . « * •
d. Tragoedi qvotidie, anteqvam pronuncient, vocem cubantes
sensim excitant (Cic. de Or. I. 59). Tempestas minatur ante-
qvam surgat (Sen. Ep. 108). * , ,
OBs. 1. Concerning exspecto dum, opperior dum, with a present,
see § 339, Obs. 2. Exspectare dum, with the subjunctive, answers
1 IDum is but. rarely used in this signification; (usqve ad eum finem, dum, Cie.
Verr. Aet. I. 6).
2 Here dum is employed, not donec, to indicate design.
3 Non ante (prius) . . . quam always takes the perfect indicative. .
§ 361 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 317
nearly to the English to expect, that (with the indicative, to wait, unti!) :
Exspectas fortasse, dum dicat, Patietur, perferet (Cic. Tusc. II. 7).
Nolite exspectare, dum omnes obeam oratione mea civitates (Id.
Verr. II. 51). (Also exspecto, ut: Nisi forte exspectatis, ut illa
diluam, qvae Erucius de rebus commenticiis objecit, Id. Rosc.
Am. 29.) *
OBs. 2. Dum and donec may also be constructed with the sub-
junctive in the signification so long as, when a design is expressed (so
Iong, while, — i.e. that something may be done in the meam time) ; Die
inseqventi qvievere milites, dum praefectus urbis vires inspiceret.
(Otherwise, they always take the indicative ; Ti. Gracchus, P. F., tam-
diu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum manebit, Cic. Off.
II. 12.) * .
OBS. 3. Concerning anteqvam and priusqvam with the present, see
§ 339, Obs. 2. The present indicative is put with these conjunctions
even to express a thing that one wishes to prevent, that must not happen:
Dabo operam, ut istuc veniam anteqvam ex animo tuo effluo (Cic.
ad Fam. VII. 14).
OBS. 4. When ante, citius, or prius qvam is used, to denote what is
impossible, or what is to be warded off at any cost, it is followed by the
subjunctive (since the action is considered as mot taking place) : Ante
leves pascentur in aethere cervi, qvam nostro , illius labatur pec-
tore vultus (Virg. B. I. 59). . (Zeno Magnetas dixit in corpora
5va citius per furorem saevituros, qvam ut Romanam amicitiam
violarent, Liv. XXXV. 31.) So, likewise, after potius qvam ; Pri-
vabo potius Lucullum debito testimonio qvam id cum mea laude
communicem (Cic. Acad. II. 1).
§ 361. The subjunctive is annexed to the particle qvamvis,
though ever so much (how much soever), and to licet, although (prop-
erly the verb licet, with an ellipsis of ut): — *
, , Qvod turpe est, id, qvamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri
nullo modo potest (Cic. Off. III. 19). Improbitas, licet adversario
molesta Bit, judici invisa est (Quinct. VI. 4, 15).
OBs. 1. Qvamvis properly signifies however much you will, and the
subjunctive by itself expresses the concession: Let it be concealed
(§ 352). Qvantumvis is used in the same way : Ista, qvantumvis
exigua sint, in majus excedunt (Sen. Ep. 85). Licet is rarely used
by good writers quite as a conjunction, but commonly as a verb with a
permissive signification (may) : Fremant omnes, licet; dioam, qvod
sentio (Cic. de Or. I. 44), they may ali evelaim against it, yet I
will, &c. - v«
■»
818 LATIN GRAMMAR. , § 362
OBS. 2. The contrast between what is asserted and something else,
that actually does (or did) take place, is expressed by qvanqvam or
etsi (more strongly, tametsi) with the indicative : Romani qvanqvam
itinere et proelio fessi erant, tamen Metello instructi obviam
procedunt (Sall. Jug 53). Caesar, etsi nondum eorum consilia
cognoverat, tamen fore id, qvod accidit, suspicabatur (Cæs. B. G.
IV. 31). Tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam
(Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 27); (they take the subjunctive only when there is
some other reason for it; e.g. according to § 350, b, Obs. 2, or accord-
ing to §§ 369, 370). By etsi and (more frequently) etiamisi as condi-
tional particles, it is expressed that a thing takes place even in a certain
case, and under a certain condition. The indicative is employed (ac-
cording to § 332), when the condition is simply expressed (without being
negatived): Viri boni multa ob eam causam faciunt, qvod decet,
etsi nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident (Cic. Finn. II. 14).
Qvod crebro aliqvis videt, non miratur, etiamsi, cur fiat, nescit
(Cic. Div. II. 22); the subjunctive, when it is stated that the condition
does not obtain: Etiamsi mors oppetenda esset, domi atqve in patria
mallem, qvam in externis atqve alienis locis (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 7).
Cur Siculi te defensorem habere nolint, etiamsi taceant, satis
dicunt; verum non tacent (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 6. Dicunt in the in-
dicative, according to § 348, b), they declare it by their way of acting,
suppo8e even that they were silent. -
OBS. 8. The poets and later writers use qvamvis with the indicative
for qvamqvam, although (of a thing which actually does take place), or
etiamsi, evem, if* ; Pollio amat nostram, qvamvis est rustica, Musam
(Virg. B. III. 84), which is very rare in the older prose-writers. On the
other hand, they use qvanqvam with the subjunctive, instead ofthe indica-
tive : Nec vero Alcidem me sum laetatus euntem accepisse lacu, nec
Thesea Pirithoumqve, dis qvanqvam geniti essent (Virg. Æn. VI.
394). Qvinctius, qvamqvam moveretur his vocibus, manu tamen
abnuit, qvicqvam opis in se esse (Liv. XXXVI. 84).
§ 862. a. Relative propositions (whether introduced by the rela-
tive pronoun or a relative adverb) take the indicative when they
simply give a more precise but actually true definition of an idea
of the leading proposition, or when they, by a periphrasis, which is
equivalent to a simple noun, describe and specify an idea, concern-
ing which some statement is made ; e.g. : —
Demosthenes, qvi Athenis versabatur, clarissimus orator fuit.
Ubi talia impune fiunt, vita omnium in periculo est. Num alii
oratores probantur a multitudine, alii ab iis, qvi intelligunt (Cic.
Erut. 49), by connoisseurs.
w
§ 363 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 319
The indicative is also employed in propositions beginning with
an indefinite relative pronoun ($ 87) or adverb, which describe an
idea (by periphrasis), but leave it indefinite so far as any individual
person or thing, or the extent of its application, is concerned :-
Qvoscunqve de te qveri audiwi, qvacunqve potui ratione, pla-
cavi (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 2). P. Lentulus, qvidqvid habuit (whatever
ability he possessed), qvantumcunqve fuit, id totum habuit e disci-
plina (Id. Brut. 77). Patria est, ubicunqve est bene (Id. Tusc. W.
37). Sed qwoqvo modo illud se habet, haec qverela vestra nihil
valet (Id. pro Lig. 7). Utrum (whichever of the two, it is indifferent
whether it be one or the other) ostendere potest, vincat necesse est
(Id. pro Tull. § 28).
OBS. We must notice, as an exception to this rule, that certain writers
use the subjunctive after indefinite relatives, in order to express a re-
peated action. See § 359.
b. But in various cases the relative proposition takes the sub-
junctive, to denote either a mere conception of the mind (a thing
not actually existing), or a particular relation between the contents
of the relative proposition and the leading proposition. (Hence a
relative with the subjunctive often has the same signification, which
is expressed more definitely by means of a conjunction.)
§ 363. a. The subjunctive is employed, when the relative propo-
sition expresses a design connected with the action mentioned in the
leading proposition (who is to = that he, qvi = ut is) or a destina-
tion which a thing has (something that may, something to —):—
Clusini legatos Roman, qvi auxilium a senatu peterent, mi-
sere (Liv. W. 35). Misi ad Antonium, qvi hoc ei diceret (Cic. Phil.
I. 5), one who was to Homini natura rationem dedit, qva
regerentur animi appetitus (Id. N. D. II. 12). Sunt multi, qvi
eripiunt aliis, qvod aliis largiantur (Id. Off. I. 14), who take from
some to give to others. Germani neqve Druides habent, qvi rebus
divinis praesint, neqve sacrificiis student (Caes. B. G. VI. 21).
Haec habui, de amicitia qvae dicerem (Cic. Lael. 27), this was what
I had to say. Habes, qvod agas et qvote oblectes (something to do
and amuse yourself with). Non habet, unde solvat (he has not the
means of paying). Dediei, ubi habitaret (a place to live in). Compare
§ 365.
b. It should be particularly remarked, that the relative with the
subjunctive is put after the adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus,
and sometimes after aptus, to express that of which a person is
worthy, or for which he is qualified:–
320 LATIN . GRAMMAR. § 364
Digna res est, qvam diu multumqve consideremus (qvae diu
multumqve consideretur). Homines scelerati indigni mihi vide-
hantur, qvorum causam agerem... Gajus, non satis idoneus visus
est, cui tantum negotium committeretur. Nulla mihi videbatur
aptior persona, qvae de senectute loqveretur, qvam Catonis (Cic.
Læl. 1). • -
OBs. 1. The poets and later prose-writers construct these adjectives also
with the infinitive (of the active or passive voice, as the connection may
require): Lyricorum Horatius fere solus legi dignus est (Quinet.
X. 1, 96) = qvi legatur. Fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hör. Ep.
I. 16, 12)= qvi det. (Dignus, ut (Liv.) is very rare.) .
OBs. 2. From non (nihil) habeo (nihil est, non est) qvod (I have
nothing to , there is nothing to ), we must distinguish the ex-
pression non habeo, I do not know, with a dependent, question ; De
pueris qvid agam, non habeo (Cic. ad Att. VII. 19).
OBs. 3. Here we may also notice the subjunetive, which is employed
after the particles cur, qvamobrem, qvare, when causa, ratio, argu-
mentum, or a phrase of similar import precedes (the reasom for which
, reaSOn tO ). See § 372, b, Obs. 6.
one is to
§ 864. The subjunctive is employed in relative propositions,
which give a more complete idea of a certain quality and show how
it operates, so that qvi has the meaning of ut after talis (one who,
i. q. such a one that): —
Innocentia est affectio talis animi, qvae noceat nemini (Cic.
Tusc. III. 8). Nulla acies humani ingenii tanta est, qvae penetrare.
in coelum possit (Id. Ac. II. 39). Qvis potest esse tam aver$us a
vero, qvi neget, haec omnia, qvae videmus, deorum immortalium
potestate admimistrari (Id. Cat. III. 9). Ego is sum, qvi nihil
unqvam mea potius qvam meorum civium causa fecerim (Id. ad
Eam. V. 21). (Also: Non is es, Catilina, ut te unqvam pudor a
turpitudine revocarit, Cic. Cat. I. 9.) L. Pinarius erat vir acer et
qvi nihil in fide Siculorum reponeret (Liv. XXIV. 37). Syracu-
sani, homines periti, qvi etiam occulta suspicari possent, habe-
bant rationem qvotidie piratarum, qvi securi ferirentur (Cic. Verr.
V. 28). Nunc dicis aliqvid, qvod ad rem pertineat (Cic. Rosc. Am.
18), something qf such a nature, that it Num qvidqvam potest
eximium esse in ea natura, qvae nihil nec actura sit unqvam
neqve agat neqve egerit? (Id. N. D. I. 41), a being, that , 0,
being qf such a kind, that In enodandis nominibus vos Stoici,
qvod miserandum sit, laboratis (Id. ib. III. 24), to a pitiable degree.
(So also after a comparative : Campani niajora deliqverant, qvam qvi-
hus ignosci posset. See § 308, Obs. 1.)
§ 365 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 321
OBS. 1. Such a relative proposition is connected either with a demon-
strative word, which demotes a quality (e.g. talis, tantus, ejusmodi, is)
or with a substantive of a generic signification (e.g. a being which, or
aliqvid, qvod), or with an adjective characteristie, to define it more pre-
cisely. This subjunctive is sometimes also used in relative propositions
which do not complete a conception already presented, but which contain
a description themselves (by periphrasis), when we wish to express a
general idea of a person or thing of a particular mature, constitution, or
quality, and, at the same time, to draw attention to the bearings of this
nature or quality on the statement in the main proposition : Hoc non
erat ejus, qvi innumerabiles mundos mente peragravisset (Cic.
Finn. II. 31), was not becoming for a man, who , such a mam, as.
Qvi ex ipso audissent, qvum palam multis audientibus loqvere-
• tur, nefaria qvaedam ad me pertulerunt (Cic. ad Att. XI. 8), per-
sons who , such persons, as. Qvi audiverant would meam those
who , the particular persons who. At ille nescio qvi, qvi in scho-
lis nominari solet, mille et octoginta stadia qvod abesset, videbat
(Cie. Ac. II. 25), things which were distant, such things as were. Qvod
aberat would signify some particular thing which was distant.
OBs. 2. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used in relative proposi-
tions, which restrict to a certain defined class something that is stated in
general terms; particularly, with qvi qvidem (at least, who) amd qvi
modo (who only = jf he only) : Ex oratoribus Atticis antiqvissimi
sunt, qvorum qvidem scripta constent (so far, at least, as their writ-
ings are to be relied on as authentie), Pericles et Alcibiades (Cic. de
Or. II. 22). Xenocrates unus, qvi deos esse diceret, divinationem
funditus sustulit (Id. de Div. I. 3). servus est nemo, qvi modo
tolerabili condicione sit servitutis, qvi non audaciam civium per-
horrescat (Id. Cat. IV. 8). Qvod sciam, qvod meminerim, so far
as I know, remember = qvantum scio. Pergratum mihi feceris, si
eum, qvod sine molestia tua fiat, juveris (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 23, so
far as it cam be done without inconvenience to yourself. (But we also
find, with the same signification, Qvae tibi mandavi, velim cures,
qvod $ine tua molestia facere poteris, Id. ad Att. I. 5.)
§ 365. After a general assertiom, that there is or is not something,
of which a certaim relative proposition may be asserted (something
of such a kind that the latter may be asserted of it), the relative
proposition takes the subjunctive ; thus the subjunctive stands after
the expressions est, qvi; sunt, reperiuntur, non desunt, qvi; ex-
stitit, exstiterunt, exortus est, qvi (exortus est philosophus, qvi) ;
habeo, qvi (one who); est, ubi (there are places where); memo est,
qvi; nihil est, qvod (qvis est, qvi ?), &c. ; e.g. :-
21
322 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 365
$unt, qvi discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem
(Cic. Tusc. I. 9). Fuere, qvi crederent, M. Crassum non
ignarum Catilinae consilii fuisse (Sall. Cat. 17). In omnibus
seculis pauciores viri reperti sunt, ' qvi suas cupiditates, qvam
qvi hostium copias vincerent (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 4). Nemo
est orator, qvi se Demosthenis similem esse nolit (Id. de Opt.
Gen. Or. 2). Qvod ex majore parte unamqvemqve rem appellari
dicunt, est, ubi id valeat (Id. Tusc. V. 8), there are cases, in which
Est qvatenus amicitiae dari venia possit (Id. Læl. 17), there
INullas accipio litteras, qvas non statim
is a point up to which
ad te mittam.
OBs. 1. The poets frequently use the indicative after such of these
expressions as are affirmative ; e.g. est (sunt), qvi (not after the nega-
tive, such as nemo est, qvi): Sunt, qvos curriculo pulverem Olym-
picum collegisse juvat (Hor. Od. I. 1, 3). Interdum rectum vulgus
videt; est, ubi peccat (ld. Ep. II. 1, 63). In good prose-writers, such
examples are rare (Sunt, qvi ita dicunt, imperia Pisonis superba
barbaros neqvivisse pati, Sall. Cat. 19), except where a definitive
pronoum or adjective of number is appended to the affirmative clause;
as, sunt multi (sunt multi homines), &c. ; for, in this case, the
indicative is used as well as the subjunctive : Sunt multi, qvi eripiunt
aliis, qvod aliis largiantur (Cic. Off. I. 14). Nonnulli sunt in hoc
ordine, qvi aut ea, qvae imminent, non videant, aut ea, qvae
vident, dissimulent (Id. in Cat. I. 12). Duo tempora incide-
runt, qvibus aliqvid contra Caesarem Pompejo svaserim (Id. Phil.
II. 10).
OBs. 2. If a relative proposition belongs to a negative antece-
dent, of which something definite is predicated (as, nothing is a good),
it may stand in the indicative, as being subjoined as a mere defini-
tion : e.g. Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id possidet, melio-
rem facit (Cic. Par. I. 4, nothing, that does mot make its possessor
better, is a good) ; or it may be appended in the subjunctive in the man-
ner above mentioned: Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id pos-
sideat, meliorem faciat, nothing is a good, there is no good which would
fot make its possessor better. Nemo rex Persarum potest esse, qvi
non ante Magorum disciplinam perceperit (Cic. de Div. I. 41).
OBs. 3. For qvi non after nemo est, qvod non after nihil est,
qvin (is, id) may likewise be employed (§ 440, Obs. 8). Where a
definite case must necessarily be expressed (as it nearly always must,
if the relative would have beem in the accusative), either is must be
inserted, or (which is to be preferred) the relative retained (qvem non,
qvod non).
§ 367 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 323
§ 866. Relative propositions are put in the subjunctive, when
they are intended to express the reason of the leading proposition,
so that qvi approaches to the signification of qvum is. (You are
to do it, as he who can do it, iq. since you can do it)
Caninius fuit mirifica vigilantia, qvi suo toto consulatu somnum
non viderit. (Cie. ad Fam. VII. 30). Miseret tui me, qvi hunc
tantum hominem facias inimicum tibi (Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 32). Ut
cubitum discessimus (when we were gone to bed) me, qvi ad multam
noctem vigilassem, artior qvam solebat somnus complexus est
(Cic. Somn. Scip. 1). O fortunate adolescens, qvi tuae virtutis
Homerum praeconem inveneris (Id. pro Areh. 10).
OBs. 1. In many eases, the choice rests with the speaker, whether he
will expressly show, by the use of the subjunctive, that the relative propo-
sition contains the reason, or whether he will simply add it in the indica-
tive as an explanation. Thus, it may be said: Habeo senectuti
magnam gratiam, qvae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis
et cibi sustulit (Cic. Cat. M. 14); but he might also have said: auxe-
rit — sustulerit (since it has, because ît has). -
OBs. 2. The assigning of the reason is strengthened by the expres-
sions utpote qvi, ut qvi (as one who) or praesertim qvi ' (especially
as ome who, i.q. especially as he), which are constructed with the sub-
junctive. Qvippe qvi (properly signifying certainly, as one apho »
certainly, since he —) is constructed both with the subjunctive and, in
some writers (Sallust, Livy), with the indicative : solis candor illus-
trior est qvam ullius ignis, qvippe qvi immenso mundo tam longe
lateqve colluceat (Cic. N. D. II. 15). Animus fortuna non eget,
qvippe qvae probitatem, industriam, aliasqve artes bonas neqve
dare neqve eripere cuiqvam potest (Sall. Jug. 1).
OBs. 3. The subjunctive is likewise employed in relative propositions,
which contain an antithesis to the leading proposition (compare what is
said of qvum, § 358, Obs. 3) : Ego, qvi (although I) sero ac leviter
Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, qvum in Ciliciam proficiscens
Athenas venissem, complures ibi dies sum commoratus (Cic. de
Or. I. 18). Nosmetipsi, qvi Lycurgei (strict as Lycurgus) a prin-
cipio fuissemus, qvotidie demitigamur (Id. ad Att. I. 18).
§ 367. A relative proposition constituting a periphrasis may be
put in the subjunctive with an hypothetical declaration of what will
happen in case the existence of such a person or thing as that indi-
cated in the periphrasis should be assumed ; e.g.:—
————*
* [Praesertim qui nos non pugnando, sed tacendo superare potuerunt
(Gic. in Cat. III. 8).] ` » — * •
324 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 369
Haec et innumerabilia , ex eodem genere qvi videat, nonne
cogatur confiteri deos esse (Cic. N. D. II. 4), if any one sees this, will
he not be compelled ? Qvi — videt, nonne cogitur ? is mot he who
sees this compelled? See § 350, a. -
§ 368. Relative propositions stand in the subjunctive, when they
form constituent parts of an expression (of a thought, resolution,
&c.), which is mentioned in the leading proposition as the expres-
sion of another party, and do not contain am idea which the speaker
himself declares as his own : —
Socrates exsecrari eum solebat, qvi primus utilitatem a jure
sejunxisset (Cic. Legg. I. 12), who had first ; whom Socrates
himself thought of as the author of this separation. Nemo extulit
eum verbis, qvi ita dixisset, ut qvi adessent, intelligerent, qvid
diceret (Id. de Or. III. 14), him, who (i.q. any one, because he), accord-
img to his view, had so spoken, -. Paetus omnes libros, qvos fra-
ter suus reliqvisset, mihi donavit (Id. ad Att. II. 1), which his
brother might have left ; which his brother, as he believed, had left.
With a different, sense, it would be : qvos frater ejus reliqvit, which,
his brother left. In Hispaniis prorogatum veteribus praetoribus
imperium, cum exercitibus, qvos haberent (Liv. XL. 18; expressed
as a part of the senatusconsultum.) . '
OBs. The thought mentioned in the leading proposition may be the
speaker's own, if it be presented as one that he entertained at some other
time : Occurrebant. (I called to mind) colles campiqve et Tiberis
et hoc coelum, sub qvo natus educatusqve essem (Liv. V. 54).
Sometimes, there is only a slight difference between a relative proposi-
tion giving a part of amother person's thought (in the subjunctive) and
the same proposition giving the speaker's own thought (in the indica-
tive) ; e.g. Majores natu mil rectum putant, nisi qvod sibi placue-
rit, or nisi qvod ipsis placuit. (The subjunctive shows that they are
conscious of the process of thought whieh determines their judgment.
Compare § 490, c, Obs. 8, respecting sui and suus.)'
§ 369. As in relative propositions (§ 368), so also the subjunctive
is used in otber subordinate propositions, which supplement the
thought of the leading proposition, and are, so to speak, parts of it.
Thus, for instance, in conditional propositions: Rex praemium pro-
posuit (praemium propositum est) si qvis hostem occidisset (§ 348,
1 Alius alia, causa, allata, qvam sibi ad proficiscendum necessariam esse
diceret, petebat, ut sibi Caesaris voluntate discedere liceret, (Caes. B. G. I. 39).
I)ieeret stands in the subjunctive instead of qvae—necessaria esset (uhe reason which,
as he said, compelled him). See § 357, a, Obs. 2. «- - • .
§ 369 • THE SUBJUNCTIVE. . 325 /^
Obs. 3. Compare what is said of causal propositions, § 357, a.)
The subjunctive is for the same reason used in all subordinate pro-
positions (whether relative or connected by conjunctions), which
are added to complete an idea expressed by an infinitive, or a propo-
sition standing in the subjunctive, or in the accusative with the
infinitive, the contents of which subordinate proposition are asserted
by the speaker not simply as an actual faet, but only as a constitu-
ent part of the idea stated in the infinitive or subjunctive (oratio
obliqva, indirect discourse). If, on the other hand, a remark or
explanation by the speaker himself (which may be omitted without
prejudice to the leading idea) or a description of something that
actually exists independently of the contents of the main proposi-
tion is introduced into the midst of a subjunetive or infinitive pro-
position, the indicative is employed.
a. Potentis est facere qvod velit. (Homo potens facit qvod
vult.) Non dubitavi id a te petere, qvod mihi esset omnium
maximum maximeqve necessarium (Cic. ad Fam. II. 6. Id a te
peto, qvod mihi est maximum.) Qvod me admones, ut me inte-
grum, qvoad possim, servem, gratum est (Id. ad Att. VII. 26.
Serva te integrum, qvoad poteris). Rogavit, ut, qvoniam sibi
vivo non subvenisset, mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur
(Id. Div. I. 27. Qvoniam mihi vivo non subvenisti, mortem meam
ne inultam esse passus sis). In Hortensio memoria fuit tanta,
ut, qvae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem
redderet, qvibus cogitavisset (Id. Brut. 88. Hortensius, qvae
secum erat commentatus, ea verbis eisdem reddebat, qvibus
cogitaverat). Mos est Athenis, laudari in concione eos, qvi sint
in proeliis interfecti (Id. Or. 44). . Si luce qvoqve canes latrent,
qvum deos salutatum aliqvi venerint, crura iis suffringantur, qvod
acres sint etiam tum, qvum suspicio nulla sit (Id. Rosc. Am. 20.
The actual occurrence would be thus expressed: canes latrant, qvum
deos salutatum aliqvi venerunt, and, crura iis suffringuntur, qvod
acres sunt' etiam tum, qvum suspicio nulla est). Et earum re-
rum, qvibus abundaremus, exportatio, et earum, qvibus egeremus,
invectio nulla esset, misi his muneribus homines fungerentur (Id.
Off. II. 3. Earum rerum, qvibus abundamus, exportatio nulla est.
The excess and deficiency also form a part of the hypothesis : Even íf we
had a superabundamce qf any thing, ît could mot be exported ).
b. Apud Hypanam fluvium, qvi ab Europae parte in Pontum
influit (observation of the narrator himself), Aristoteles ait, bestio-
las qvasdam nasci, qvae unum diem vivant (part ofthe assertion of
Aristotle (Id. Tusc. I. 39). Qvis potest esse tam aversus a vero,
Í
<**
.*,
826 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 369
qvi neget, haec omnia, qvae videmus (the whole qf this visible uni-
verse), deorum immortalium potestate administrari (Cic. in Cat.
III. 9).
OBS. 1. In many eases, a relative clause may either contain an inde-
pendent idea, or describe an existing class of persons or things, or sim-
ply give some part of a thought to which reference has already been
made : Eloqvendi vis efficit, ut ea, qvae ignoramus, discere, et ea,
qvae scimus, alios docere possimus (Cic. N. D. II. 59). Here ea,
qvae ignoramus and ea, qvae scimus are designated as two existing
classes of objects; but it might also have been expressed: ut ea, quae
ignoremus, discere, et ea, qvae sciamus, alios docere possimus,
what may be unknown, or known to us. If, when the leading proposi-
tion is in the perfect, a general idea is expressed in such a subordinate
proposition not in the present, but in the imperfect, it is thereby shown
to be a part of the thought in the main proposition, and dependent on
it: Rex parari ea jussit, qvae ad bellum necessaria essent; but,
rex arma, tela, machinas, ceteraqve, qvae in bello necessaria sunt,
parari jussit.
OBs. 2. The historians not umfrequently use the indicative irregu-
larly in relative circumlocutions and definitions, which are yet naturally
or necessarily to be understoòd as parts of a thought quoted as another's:
e.g. Scaptius infit, annum se tertium et octogesium agere, et in eo
agro, de qvo agitur, militasse (Liv. III. 71. In eo agro, de qvo
agitur, militavi). C. Mario magna atqve mirabilia portendi harus-
pex dixerat; proinde, qvae animo agitabat, fretus dis ageret (Sall.
Jug. 63. Proinde, qvae animo agitas, fretus dis, age !) In other
authors, the indicative is rarely retained in such propositions: Tertia
est sententia, ut, quanti quisque se ipse facit, tanti fiat ab amicis
(Cic. Læl. 16).
OBs. 3. It may be especially noticed, that the particle dum is often
put, by the poets and later writers, with the historical present (§ 336,
Obs. 2) in the indicative, though the proposition is a part of another
person's thought, which is expressed in the infinitive: Dic, hospes,
Spartae, nos te hic vidisse jacentes, dum sanctis patriae legibus
obseqvimur (Cic. poet. Tusc. I. 42). (More accurately : Video, dum
breviter voluerim dicere, dictum esse a me paullo obscurius, Cie.
de Or. I. 41.) -
OBs. 4. Sometimes a second subordinate propositionis, for the sake of
stating a circumstance more fully, added to a subjunctive clause which
is a part meither of another's thought, nor of a general idea expressed
by the infinitive, but a clause, for instance, expressing time or cause with
qvum. In such cases, the added subordinate clause is not unfre-
quently in the subjunctive, although the substance of it might have been
§ 370 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 327
expressed in the indicative as something actually true: De his rebus
disputatum est qvondam in Hortensii villa, qvae est ad Baulos
qvum eo postridie venissemus, qvam apud Catulum fuissemus
(Cic. Acad. II. 8). -
§ 370. Besides the rules which have thus far been given for the
subjunctive, it is particularly to be noticed, that the second person
singular of the subjunctive is used of an assumed person represent-
ing a single indefinite subject (some one, one), which is imagined,
and, so to speak, addressed, in order to express something indefi-
nite. In leading propositions, this form is found only in conditional
discourse, in potential expressions, and questions concerning that
which can and will happen (§§ 350 and 353) ; but in subordinate
propositions, with conjunctions and in relative propositions (with qvi
or an indefinite relative), and in commands and prohibitions (see
on the imperative, Chap. V.): —
Aeqvabilitatem conservare non possis, si aliorum naturam imi-
tans omittas tuam (Cic. Off. I. 31. Of definite subject, it would be,
conservare non possumus, si omittimus.) Dicas (credas, putes)
adductum propius frondere Tarentum (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 11) = dicat
aliqvis). Qvem neqve gloria neqve pericula excitant, neqvicqvam
hortere (Sall. Cat. 58). Crederes victos esse (Liv. II. 43), ome might
have believed. they were conquered. (Concerning the imperfect, see § 350,
a.) Tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab iis
membra divelli citius posse diceres (Cic. pro Sull. 20). Ut sunt,
qvi urbanis rebus bellicas anteponant, sic reperias multos, qvibus
periculosa consilia qvietis splendidiora videantur (Id. Off. I. 24).
Ubi istum invenias, qvi honorem amici anteponat suo? (Id. Læl.
17. Of an actual subject : Ubi eos inveniemus, qvi opes amicitiae
non anteponant ? (Id. ibid.) Bonus segnior fit, ubi negligas (Sall.
Jug. 31). If not in the second persom, it would be expressed, ubi neg-
ligitur). Qvum aetas extrema advenit, tum illud, qvod praeteriit,
effluxit; tantum remánet, qvod virtute et recte factis consecutus
sis (Cic. Cat. M. 19 = consecuti sumus, consecutus aliqvis est).
Conformatio sententiarum permanet, qvibuscunqve verbis uti
velis (Id. de Or. III. 52 = utimur).
OBs. 1. A conditional proposition of this kind in the subjunctive does
not require the subjunétive in the leading proposition : Mens qvoqve
et animus, nisi tanqvam lumini oleum instilles, exstinguuntur
senectute (Cic. Cat. M. 11) ; except when the conditional proposition
contains a merely imaginary ease, in which something would occur: Si
constitueris te cuipiam advocatum in rem praesentem e$$e ven-
• .
328 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 372
turum atqve interim graviter aegrotare filius coeperit, non sit
contra officium non facere, qvod dixeris (Cic. Off. I. 10), assuming
that some one had , it would them —.
OBs. 2. Tu is very seldom inserted when the second person is em-
ployed in this way (e.g. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id
non agas, conseqvitur, Cic. Tusc. I. 38); on the other hand, te, tui,
tibi, tuus, can refer to such a subject. In the same way, to denote
an indefinite and assumed subject, te is put in the accusative with the
infinitive, as only the assumed object of a judgment (see $ 398, a); e.g.
Nullum est testimonium victoriae certius, qvam, qvos saepe
metueris, eos te vinctos ad supplicium duci videre (Cic. Werr.
W. 26).
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
OF OBJECT-CLAUSES IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE, AND OF THE PARTI-.
CLES USED WITH THEM. -
/
§ 371. Since the idea of an action or condition as the object of a
verb or phrase may be expressed not only by a proposition in the
subjunctive, but also by the infinitive (accusative with the infini-
tive), and the subjunctive propositions of this class are formed with
various particles according to the nature of the predicate in the
leading proposition, rules will here be given for the use of these
propositions, and of the particles proper to each. (Those cases in
which the object is expressed by an accusative with the infinitive,
or an infinitive alone, will be treated of in the sixth chapter.) Gen-
erally speaking, an object is expressed by a proposition in the sub-
junctive after all verbs and phrases which signify an effort or
activity, or indicate that something happens.
Obs. In English, an infinitive is very often used where an object-clause
in the subjunctive would occur in Latin. - *
§ 372. a. A proposition with ut, is subjoined to all those verbs
or phrases, which, in one way or another, signify to bring about an
occurrence, or to labor, to contribute, to interest one's self, to bring it
about; as : — *
(a) Facio, efficio, perficio, conseqvor, asseqvor, adipiscor, im-
petro, pervincio; consvetudo, natura fert; (b) oro, rogo, peto,
precor, obsecro, flagito, postulo, curo, video (look to it, that), pro-
§ 372 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 329
video, prospicio, svadeo, persvadeo, censeo (to advise), hortor,
adhortor, moneo, admoneo, permoveo, adduco, incito, impello,
cogo, impero, mando, praecipio, dico (to say to a person, that he is
to —), scribo, mitto (to write to any one, send to any one, bring or-
ders to any one, that he is to —), edico, concedo, permitto (sino),
statuo (to determine that some one is to), constituo, decerno, volo
(to wish, that some one ), nolo, malo, opto (that some one —),
studeo (to eacert one's self, endeavor that some one ), nitor, con-
tendo, elaboro, pugno, id ago, operam do, legem fero, lex est, sena-
tus consultum fit, auctor sum, consilium do, magna cupiditas eşt
(a vehement longing that something should take place), &c. Sol efficit,
ut omnia floreant. Cura, ut valeas. Rogavi, ut proficiscerentur.
Dolabella ad me scripsit, ut quam primum in Italiam venirem
(Cic. ad Att. VII. 1). Elaborandum est, ut nosmet ipsi nobis
mederi possimus (Id. Tusc. III. 3). Multitum qvum maxime fal-
lunt, id agunt, ut boni viri esse videantur (Id. Off. I. 13).
OBS. It may be observed of the particle ut (uti), that it has its root
in the same interrogative and relative pronominal stem from which uter,
ubi, &c., are derived, and therefore originally signifies how, or (rela-
tively) as (§ 201, 5). From how is deduced the signification that, as
applied to express a purpose and the object of the verb (to exert one's
self, how one may attain a thing), and from the relative usage partly the
signification as soon as (ut veni, abiit), partly that of so that (just as the
pronoun qui acquires the signification of so that he). Then the original
signification is still further lost, so that the word only marks out a propo-
sition indefinitely and generally as the object or complement of another
(with verbs of happening).
b. If the object is expressed negatively (to bring it about, to
exert one's self, that a thing may not happen), the particle me is used
instead of ut (also ut—ne). Peto, non ut aliqvid novi decerma-
tur, sed me quid novi decernatur (Cic. ad Fam. II. 7). Wos
adepti estis, ne qYem civem metueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13). After
the verbs which signify to bring about, to effect, ut non is also
made use of. See on this $ 456, with Obs. 3.
OBs. 1. We should remark the expression videre, ne, to look to it,
that not, to see whether perhaps not... Vide, ne mea conjectura sit
verior (Cic. pro. Cluent. 35). Hence, vide ne has sometimes nearly
the signification of I fear, that. -
OBs. 2. Those verbs that signify to wish that a thing may happen
(volo, &c., placet, it is determined, sometimes studeo, postulo), gov-
ern also an accusative with the infinitive : Volo te hoc scire. See § 396.
Volo (nolo, malo) is commonly used with the subjunctive without ut
330 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 372
only in short and unambiguous expressions (see Obs. 4), otherwise with
the accusative and infinitive: Qvid vis faciam? (Ter. Eun. V. 9, 24).
Vis ergo experiamur 2 (Virg. B. III. 28). Tu ad me de rebus
omnibus scribas velim (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 13). (More rarely:
Volo, ut mihi respondeas, Cic. in Vat. 6). Sino, to let, permit,
is used in the same way; e.g. sine, vivam (rarely, ut vivam); other-
wise, with the infinitive (§ 390) or the accusative with the infinitive
(§ 396).
OBS. 3. With some of those verbs which signify to influence others to
do something, the action is sometimes expressed by the infinitive alone, .
as after moneo, and particularly cogo. See § 390. Some may be
followed by ad with the gerund: Impello aliqvem ad faciendum ali-
qvid. -
OBS. 4. After those verbs which denote a wish, combined with an
influence over others (particularly, to advise, to beg, to persuade), and
after fac and faxo (but with these exceptions, not after facio and the
others which signify to effectuate, to obtain) ut may be omitted, and the
subjunctive alone employed, if the construction is free from ambiguity,
especially if the subjunctive stands near the governing verb: Dic veniat.
Fac cogites, qvisis. Sine te exorem (Ter. Andr. W. 3, 30). Caesar
Isabieno mandat, Remos reliqvosqve Belgas adeat atqve in officio
contineat (Caes. B. G. III. 11). Albinus Massivae persvadet,
qvoniam ex stirpe Masinissae sit, regnum Numidiae ab senatu
petat (Sall. Jug. 35). Jugurtha oppidanos hortatur, moenia de-
fendant (Id. ibid. 56).
OBs. 5. Some of the verbs and phrases here mentioned have, at the
same time, another signification, in which they denote an opinion, or
the eliciting of an opinion; and then they govern an accusative with the
infinitive: as, statuo, to assume; decerno, to determine, decide; volo,
to maintain (of philosophical dicta); contendo, to maintain; con-
cedo, to grant ; persvadeo, to make a person believe; moneo, to remind
one (that so and so is); efficio (conficio), to make out, prove; cogo, to
conclude, make good; adducor, to be induced to believe; auctor sum,
to assure, — e.g. concedo, non esse miseros, qvi mortui sunt (Cic.
Tusc. I. 7). Dicaearchus vult efficere, animos esse mortales (Id.
ib. I. 31). Yet concedo, contendo, efficio, adducor, and a few simi-
lar expressions, are, in consequence of their original signification, also
used with ut; Ex qvo efficitur, ut, qvod sit honestum, id sit solum
bonum (Cic. Tusc. W. 15; but also Ex qvo efficitur, honestate una
vitam contineri beatam, Id. ibid.). Facio, signifying to represent a
person as doing a thing, has an accusative with the infinitive, or the
present participle in apposition to the object (as, induco aliqvem
loqventem); Isocratem Plato admirabiliter in Phaedro laudari
§ 373 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 331
fecit (Cic. de Opt. Gen. Or. 6). xenophon Socratem disputantem
facit, formam dei qvaeri non oportere (Id. N. D. I. 12). Polyphe-
mum Homerus cum ariete colloqventem facit ejusqve laudare
fortunas, qvod, qva vellet, ingredi posset, et qvae vellet, attinge-
ret (Id. Tusc. V. 89). Fac, suppose, assume, always has the accusative
with the infinitive; e.g. Fac, qvaeso, qvi ego sim, esse te (Cic.
Fam. VII. 23). (Facio, with an accusative with the infinitive, in
the signification to cause, is poetical: Nati me coram cernere letum
fecisti, Virg. Æn. II. 588).
OBs. 6. After the words causa, ratio, and argumentum, and
phrases of a similar signification, the object is expressed by a proposi-
tion with one of the particles qvare, qvamobrem, cur (reason, why, i.e.
reason to). We have also simply est (nihil est, qvid est) cur (qvamob-
rem, qvare, qvod), one has reason (no reason) : Multae sunt causae
qvamobrem hunc hominem cupiam abducere (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 65).
Qvid fuit causae, cur in Africam Caesarem non seqverere? (Cic.
Phil. II. 29.) Nihil affert Zeno, qvare mundum ratione uti pute-
mus (Id. N. D. III. 9), no reasom why we should believe. Qvid est
cur tu in isto loco sedeas ? (Id. pro Cluent. 53.) Non est, qvod
invideas istis, qvos magnos felicesqve populus vocat (Senec. Ep.
94). (Very rarely, causa est, ut.)'
§ 373. With verbs and phrases, which denote in general that a
thing happens or is going on, is on the point of happening, a propo-
sition with ut is used, to signify what happens, &c. ; thus with fit,
futurum est, accidit, contingit, evenit, usu venit, est (ìt ìs the
case, that), seqvitur, restat, reliqvum est, relinqvitur, superest,
proximum est (the meaet action, the meaet thèng is) extremum est,
prope est, longe abest, tantum abest. (In negative propositions
ut non, and not ne, is employed: see § 456, with Obs. 3.)
Accidit, ut illo tempore in urbe essem, Saepe fit, ut ii, qvi
debeant (owe us momey), non respondeant ad tempus (Cic. ad Att.
XVI. 2). ' Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, seqvitur, ut falsa sit
(Id. de Fat. 12). Restat, ut doceam, omnia, qvae sint in hoc
mundo, hominum causa facta esse (Id. N. D. II. 61). Proximum
est, ut doceam, deorum providentia mundum administrari (Id.
ib. II. 29). Propius nihil est factum qvam ut Cato occideretur
(Id. ad Qv. Fr. I. 2, 5). (So also: servilius ad id, qvod de pecu-
1 Magna, causa absolutionis Fonteji est, ne qva insignis huic imperio
ignominia, suscipiatur (Cic. pro Font. 12). A weighty reason for acquitting Fonteius is,
that no signal disgrace be incurred (i.e. the wish to avoid, etc. —. A proposition expressing a
purpose, like: suscipienda bella, sunt ob eam causam ut sine injuria, vivatur,
Cic. Off. I. 11). -
332 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 374
nia credita jus non dixerat, adjiciebat (added this proceeding), ut na
delectum qvidem militum haberet, Liv. II. 27.) . .
OBs. 1. Here we should also notice the expressions necesse est and
oportet, it-is mecessary, which are cónstructed sometimes with the sub-
junctive without ut (necesse est, ut is rare), sometimes with the accu-
sative and infinitive: Leuctrica pugna immortalis sit, necesse est
(Corn. Epam. 10). Corpus mortale interire necesse est. Ex
rerum cognitione efflorescat oportet oratio , (Cic. de Or. I. 6).
(Oportet, used to signify duty, always has the accusative with the infini-
tive. . Without a definite subject, it is expressed thus: necesse est ire,
oportet ire.) (Concerning licet with the subjunctive, see § 389,
Obs. 5.) - - - -
OBs. 2. When seqvitur denotes a logical conclusion, it may have the
accusative with the infinitive, but is generally constructed with ut. Con-
tingit (mihi) signifying I succeed, and restat (it remains) are also, by
the poets and later writers, constructed with the simple infinitive : Non
cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. I. 17, 36). (The
following is the more usual construction: Thrasybulo contigit, ut pa-
triam liberaret, Corn. Thras. 1.) - -
OBs. 8. The verb accedit, to this is to be added (by which the hearer
is referred to some circumstamce yet remaining), is either similarly con-
structed with ut, or it is followed by an indicative proposition with qvod
which states the circumstance (compare § 398, l) : Ad Appii Claudii
senectutem accedebat etiam, ut caecus esset (Cic. Cat. M. 6).
Accedit, qvod patrem plus etiam, qvam tu scis, amo (Id. ad
Att. XIII. 21. (If a circumstance is stated, not as actually existing,
but only as conditional and assumed, qvod eannot stand, but only ut;
e.g. Si vero illud qvoqve accedet, ut dives sit reus, difficillima
causa erit. On the other hand, there is mo variation in the construction
of adde qvod, add the circumstance, that ). (Concerning exspecto,
ut, see § 360, Obs. 1). - •
§ 374. A substantive or pronoun with sum, which suggests that
a thing happens or is to happen, is followed by a proposition with
ut, to show what the preceding noun or pronoun refers to, and how
it manifests itself: —
Est hoc commune vitium in magnis liberisqve civitatibus, ut
invidia gloriae comes sit (Corn. Chabr. 3). Mos est hominum, ut
nolint eundum pluribus rebus excellere (Cic. Brut. 21). Cultus
deorum est optimus, ut (consists in this, that) eos semper pura, inte-
gra, incorrupta mente veneremur (Id. N. D. II. 28). Altera est res
(the second thing required is) ut res geras magnas et arduas plenas-
qve laborum (Id. Off. I. 20). Fuit hoc in M. Crasso, ut existimari
vellet nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis anteferre (Id. de
§ 375 OBJECT-CLAUSES. . 333
Or. II. 1). Adhuc in hac $um $ententia, nihil ut faciamus, nisi qvod
Caesar velle videatur (Id. ad Fam. IV. 4). In eo est, ut proficis-
car. .
OBs. 1. Such expressions as mos est, cultus est optimus (with-
out a pronoun) are sometimes also completed by a simple infinitive :
Virginibus Tyriis mos est gestare pharetram (Virg. Æn. I. 336).
OBs. 2. If a judgment is pronounced concerning the character of an
action that is only supposed (not declared as of actual occurrence) by
means of an adjective with sum, or some equivalent phrase, as aeqvum
est, optimum est, &c., magna laus est (it is a very meritorious thing),
qvi probari potest ?(how can it be approved qf?), qvam habet aeqvita-
tem ? (what fairness is there in it ?) the subject is expressed either by
an infinitive alone or an accusative with the infinitive (§ 398, a). Yet
such propositions.are also found with ut, when it is intended to denote,
at the same time, the reality or falsity, possibility or impossibility of the
action ; e.g. Non est veri$imile, ut Chrysogonus horum servorum
litteras adamarit aut humanitatem (Cic. Rosc. Am. 41). Qvid tam
inauditum qvam eqvitem Romanum triumphare ? Qvid tam inu-
sitatum qvam ut, qvum duo consules fortissimi essent, eqves
IRomanus ad bellum maximum pro consule mitteretur ? (Id. pro
Leg. Man. 21). Magnificum illud etiam Romanisqve gloriosum
ut Graecis de philosophia litteris non egeant (Id. Div. II. 2). -
§ 375. a. A proposition with ne is put after those verbs, which
in themselves express a hindering and resisting force (working to
prevent a thing from happening) ; as, impedio, prohibeo, deterreo,
obsisto, obsto, officio, repugno, intercedo, interdico, teneo (to
withhold, teneo me, contineo), tempero, recuso, caveo (to avoid
doing a thing, to take measures, that so and so may not —), &c. :— .
Impedior dolore animi, ne de hujus miseria plura dicam (Cic.
pro Sull. 33). Pythagoreis interdictum erat, ne faba vescerentur
{Id. Div. I. 30). Histiaeus Milesius obstitit, ne res conficeretur
(Corn. Milt. 3). Regulus, ne sententiam diceret, recusavit (Cic.
Off. III. 27). Cavebam, ne cui suspicionem darem (Id. ad Fam.
III. 12). . ' - . + - - -
. OBs. 1. Cave is often used' without, ne : Cave putes, cave facias,
(Sometimes recuso, to refuse ; and caveo, to avoid, take the infini-
tive: Cave id petere a populo Romano, qvod jure tibi negabitur
(Sall. Jug. 64). (Caveo, ut , to take care that, make arrangements
that .) *« - - * .
OBs. 2. Impedio and prohibeo. often have fhe infinitive (§ 390):
Me et Sulpicium impedit pudor a Crasso hoc exqvirere (Cic. de
Or. I. 85). Num igitur ignobilitas sapientem beatum esse prohi-
334 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 375
bet? (When, on the other hand, these verbs are constructed with me,
the accusative is seldom retained. We find pudor impedit, ne exqvi-
ram, but less frequently, me impedit, ne exqviram.)
b. To those verbs and phrases, which signify to hinder and to be
a hindrance (impedio, prohibeo, officio, obsto, obsisto, deterreo,
teneo, and per me fit, per me stat, it is chargeable to me, moror,
in mora sum, &c.), the objective proposition with qVominus (lite-
rally, that so much the less) may be subjoined:—
Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse, qvominus de te certum
haberemus (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 5). Caesar cognovit, per Afranium
stare, qvominus dimicaretur (Caes. B. C. I.41). Hanc ego causam,
qvominus novum consilium Capiamus, imprimis magnam puto
(Sall. Cat. 51), of a reason against a thing. Qvominus is used in
the same way after other verbs, which either by themselves signify resist-
ance, or acquire such a meaning from the context (e.g. pugno, to con-
tend that not), and are qualified by a negative (non, vix) or take
the form of a question which implies a negative; e.g. Non recusabo,
qvominus omnes mea scripta legant (Cic. Finn. I. 3). Hoc fecisti,
ne pupillo tutores consulerent, qvominus fortunis omnibus everte-
retur (Id. Verr. III. 7).
c. After verbs and phrases, which signify to resist and detain
from, or to omit (praetermitto, and expressions which acquire this
meaning from the context, especially facio and causa est), to delay,
as cunctor, exspecto, as well as after abest, dubito, and dubium
est, qvin, that not, is used to designate the object, when the negative
force of the verb or phrase is cancelled by being qualified by a nega-
tive or by taking the interrogative form: — * ,
vix me contineo, qvin involem in illum (Ter. Eun. W. 2, 20).
Non possumus, qvin alii a nobis dissentiant, recusare (Cic. Ac. II.
3). Facere non potui, qvin tibi et sententiam et voluntatem de-
clararem mean (Id. ad Fam. VI. 13). Clamabant, exspectari diu-
tius non oportere, qvin ad castra iretur (Caes. B. G. III. 24).
Haud multum abfuit, qvin Ismenias interficeretur (Liv. XLII. 44).
Qvid est causae, qvin decemviri coloniam in Janiculum possint
deducere (Cic. de Leg. Agr. II. 27). Agamemno non dubitat, qvin
brevisit Troja peritura (Id. Cat. M. 10). Non erat dubium, qvin
Helvetii plurimum possent (Caes. B. G. I. 3). Dubitare qvisqvam
potest, qvin hoc multo sit homestius 2
OBS. 1. Some verbs, therefore [compare b and c1, even when they
are not qualified by a negative, are followed by quominus and ne
interchangeably (prohibeone and qvominus); and some verbs, when
§ 376 OBJECT-CLAUSES. 335
qualified by a negative, are followed by either qvominus or qvin
(e.g. non recuso, qvominus and qvin); but qvin often stands where
qvominus would be inadmissible. But after the verbs which prop-
erly signify to hinder and forbid (impedio, prohibeo, intercedo, and
interdico), qvominus is regularly used, qvin scarcely ever; after those
which signify to omit (absum and dubito), only qvin. Qvin alone is
sometimes used when the preceding proposition is qualified by some
word expressing limitation (paullum, perpauci, aegre), instead of
a negative; e.g. Paullum abfuit, qvin Fabius Varum interficeret
(Caes. B. C. II. 35). (So also Dubita, si potes, qvin, i.g. dubitare
non potes, qvin). Instead of facere non possum, qvin, I cannot
Yefrain from (fieri non potest, qvin), we may also say ut—non ($ 372,
b, and § 373): Fieri non potest, ut, qvem video te praetore in Sicilia
fuisse, eum tu in tua provincia non cognoveris (Cic. Verr. II. 77).
OBS. 2. Of the verb dubito, it is to be observed, that, when used
affirmatively, it is always followed by an indirect question: (dubito an,
dubito an non. See § 453). After non dubito (dubium non est),
we find also, in some writers (Cornelius, Livy), an accusative with the
infinitive, instead of quin. (Non dubitabant, deletis exercitibus,
hostem ad oppugnandam urbem venturum, Liv. XXII. 55.) Non
dubito (qvis dubitat 2) with an infinitive (non dubito facere, di-
cere, &c.), signifies I have no scruple, do not hesitate. Yet in this signi-
fication, too, it is sometimes put with qvin; e.g. Nolite dubitare, qvin
uni Pompejo credatis omnia (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 23).
OBS. 3. Qvin is rarely found with negative verbs, which express an
opinion and explanation (non nego, qvis ignorat), instead of the
accusative with the infinitive: Qvis ignorat, qvin tria Graecorum
genera sint (Cic. pro Flacc. 27), instead of tria Graecorum genera
€SS6,
OBS. 4. Qwin is derived from the old relative and interrogative abla-
tive qvi and the negative particle, and consequently its primitive signifi-
cation is how not (so that not). Hence arises the signification why not?
(qvin imus 2 $ 351, Obs. 3); and from this again the signification yes,
indeed (why not, indeed?).
§ 376. After verbs and phrases of fearing, the thing feared (that,
which is not wished for) is distinguished by ne (in English that)
and the thing wished for (which, it is feared, will not happen) by
ut (in English that not) or ne non (that not), ne mullus, &c. : —
Vereor, ne pater veniat (I fear that my father will come); vereor,
ut pater veniat (that he will not come); vereor (non vereor), ne
pater non veniat. Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset
vulnus Scipionis (Liv. XXIV. 42). Omnes labores te excipere
336 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 377
video; timeo, ut sustineas (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 2). Vereor, ne
consolatio nulla possit vera reperiri (Id. ibid. VI. 1). Non ve-
reor, ne tua virtus opinioni hominum non respondeat (Id. ibid.
II. 5). Senatores suos ipsi cives timebant, ne Romana plebs metu
perculsa pacem , acciperet (Liv. II. 9); in this example, an accusa-
tive object also depends on timeo. In the same way, ne or ne non
stands after periculum (danger that, that not) : Periculum est, ne
ille te verbis obruat (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 14). Nullum periculum
est, ne locum non invenias. -. .
OBs. Metuo, timeo, vereor, to be gfraid (not have the courage) to do
a thing, to shrink from doing it, are followed by the infinitive ; as,
vereor facere. But in good prose only vereor is so used: Vereor te
laudare praesentem (Cic. N. D. I. 21). (Timeo and metuo are
rarely found with the accusative and infinitive, with the signification, to
expect with apprehension that something will happen.)
CHAPTER IV.
THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIvE.
§ 377. The tenses are in general distinguished. and expressed in
the subjunctive in the same way as in the indicative, both by the
simple forms and by those compounded with participles (amatus
sim, &c.), so that we shall here only notice what is peculiar to the
way of expressing time in the subjunctive : — .
Pater aberat. Qvum (since, because) pater abesset, eram in
timore. Pater profecturus erat. Qvum pater profecturus esset
(was on the point qf departing), valde occupatus eram. Paene,
cecidi. Vides, qvam paene ceciderim. Audivit aliqvid. Audiv-
erit aliqvid, legerit (Cic. de Or. II. 20), he must have heard and read
something. Qvis putare potest, plus egisse Dionysium tum,
qvum eripuerit civibus suis libertatem, qvam Archimedem, qvum
sphaeram effecerit (Id. R. P. I. 17 = Nihilo plus egit Dionysius
tum, qvum eripuit c. s. l, qvam Archimedes, qvum sphaeram
effecit.) - - - • -
OBs. 1. The difference between amatus sim and amatus fuerim is
like that, between amatus sum and amatus fui; § 344. Amatus
fuissem is also put for amatu8 essem, as amatus fueram for amatus
€IaiIÌl. • . * - •*
OBs. 2. The imperfect forem (§ 108, Obs. 8) is employed in the same
signifieation as essem, especially in conditional propositions (would be)
§ 378 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. , 337
and those expressive of a purpose (ut foret, ne foret, qvi foret). In
the compound tenses (amatus forem, amaturus forem) many writers
(Sallust, Livy, the poets) use forem exactly like essem; e.g. Gaudebat
consul, qva parte copiarum alter consul victus foret, se vicisse
(Liv. XXI. 53). (Cicero does not use it at all in the compound tenses,
and elsewhere very rarely.)
§ 378. a. The present subjunctive is in many instances employed,
when the thing represented is properly future, partly because the
relation of time is sufficiently evident from the nature and construc-
tion of the subjunctive proposition, partly because we do not in
idea accurately distinguish between the present and the future (as
in assumptions, wishes, &c.). Hence the subjunctive has no simple
form of the future in the active, and no future at all in the passive.
1. Thus the present is used in leading propositions in the sub-
junctive, namely, in conditional propositions ($ 347, b), in potential
propositions relating to a thing which can or is to be done (§ 350
and $353), and in wishes (§ 351). For examples, see the paragraphs
referred to. But in potential propositions the future perfect is .
sometimes employed as a hypothetical future. See § 350 and
§ 380, - -
2. Propositions which denote a design and object are also ex-
pressed with the present (the effect being conceived of as contem-
poraneous with the act of the main proposition). See the examples
in §§ 354 and 355, with $ 371 and the following.
Consequently, if past time be spoken of the imperfect is used
(and not the futurum in praeterito): Rogabat frater, ut cras
venires (not venturus esses). See examples elsewhere.
OBs. After non dubito quin, and those phrases which denote the
relation of one proposition to another in the most general way (est,
seqvitur, accidit) the future is employed to express what will happen at
a future time : Non est dubium, qvin legiones venturae non sint
(Cie. ad Fam. II. 17). (But in familiar language the present is also
made use of: Hoc haud dubium est, qvin Chremes tibi non det
gnatam, Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17); [as in English: It is clear enough, that
gyou don't get the old man's daughter, instead of will not get].
3. Dependent questions, hypothetical propositions of comparison
(qvasi, &c.), and propositions expressing a result, are put in the
present, as in English, when the leading proposition is in the future
and the subordinate proposition contemporaneous with it (when it
22
338 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 379
does not belong to a still more distant future): Qvum ad illum
venero, videbo, qvid effici possit. Sic in Asiam proficiscar, ut
Athenas non attingam.
4. Wherever in the oratio obliqva a leading proposition in the
future is accompanied by a subordinate in the subjunctive, which
in the oratio recta would stand in the future indicative (§ 339,
Obs. 1) the latter is put in the present :—
Negat Cicero, si naturam seqvamur ducem, unqvam nos aber-
raturos (= Si naturam seqvemur ducem, nunqvam aberrabimus).
b. In the other kinds of subordinate propositions (in which the
connection itself does not show that the subordinate proposition
belongs to future time), the periphrasis of the future participle with
the verb sum, which has here precisely the sense of a simple future,
is made use of in the active:—
Scire cupio qvando frater tuus venturus sit. In eam rationem
vitae mos fortuna deduxit, ut sempiternus sermo hominum
de nobis futurus sit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. I. c. 13). Non intelligo,
cur Rullus qvemqvam tribunum intercessurum putet, qvum
intercessio stultitiam intercessoris significatura sit, non rem
impeditura (Id. de Leg. Agr. II. 12). In the passive, another turn
must, be given to the expression: e.g. Qvaero, qvando portam aper-
tum iri putes. Ita cecidi, ut nunqvam erigi possim (that I shall
mever rise).
§ 379. The future perfect of the subjunctive is in the active like
the perfect, and is expressed in the passive (in subordinate proposi-
tions) by the perfect subjunctive (so that only the preterite sense
appears in the verb, while its futurity is ascertained from the lead-
ing proposition): —
Adnitar, ne frustra vos hanc spem de me conceperitis (Liv.
XLIV. 22), that you shall mot have conceived this hope in vain. Ros-
cius facile egestatem suam se laturum putat, si hac indigna
suspicione liberatus sit (Cic. Rosc. Am. 44; independently expressed:
facile feram, si — liberatus ero). Caesar magnopere se confidere
dicit, si colloqvendi cum Pompejo potestas facta sit, fore, ut
aeqvis condicionibus ab armis discedatur (Cæs. B. C. I. 26; Bi
potestas facta erit discedetur).
• If past time be spoken of (after a leading proposition in the pre-
terite), the pluperfect is used in the same way, to denote an action
which was to be completed before amother:—
$381 - THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 339
Promisi me, qvum librum perlegissem, sententiam mean dic-
turum esse (when I had read = when I should have read). Divico
cum Caesare agit, Helvetios in eam partem ituros atqve ibi
futuros, ubi eds Caesar constituisset atqve esse voluisset (Caes.
B. G. I. 13). Dicebam, qvoad metueres, omnia te permissurum,
simulac timere desisses, similem te futurum tui (Cic. Phil. II. 85).
(In English the imperfect alone is often employed; where Caesar settled
them, should settle them, &c., the completion of the one action before the
other not being noted so accurately.)
$380. The future perfect subjunctive in the active voice is em-
ployed in hypothetical and modest statements of that which is possi-
ble; not, however, in the proper signification of that mood and tense,
but merely as a hypothetical future or present (to which the present
corresponds in the passive and in deponent verbs). See § 350, and,
with respect to the use of the second person, $ 370. It stands like-
wise in prohibitions as a simple future or present; me dixeris, do
not say. See Chap. W. -
OBs. In conditional propositions in the second, person, this future
signifies (more distinctly, however, than the present), that a case is
named which is now for the first time to be conceived of. This future is
found in a few phrases only instead of the present subjunctive after ut
or ne (that not); e.g. ut sic dixerim, and that never in the best
writers (Qvinct. I. 6, 1). -
§ 381. The periphrasis of the future participle and fuerim (fu-
turum in praeterito) is used in a conditional proposition instead of
the pluperfect subjunctive, if the proposition is a subordinate one,
which on some other account would have had the subjunctive; e.g.
after ut, after quum (causal), or as a dependent question. (Its
hypothetical character is then shown by the periphrasis, on the point
of —. Compare what is said under the indicative in § 342, and
$ 348, a.) -
ovum haec reprehendis, ostendis, qvalis tu, si ita forte accidis-
set, fueris illo tempore consul futurus (Cie. in Pis. 7). (As an
independent question: Qvalis tu, si ita forte accidisset, consul illo
tempore fuisses?) Virgines eo cursu se ex sacrario proripuerunt,
*ut, si effugium patuisset, impleturae urbem tumultu fuerint (Liv.
XXIV. 26). If the leading proposition be in the preterite, the pluper-
fect is employed in a dependent question: Apparuit, qvantam exci-
tatura molem vera fuisset clades, qvum vanus rumor tantas pro-
cellas excivisset (Liv. XXVIII. 24).
340 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 382
In the passive, where this form is not found, other modes of expres-
sion are made use of; for it rarely happens that the subjunctive of
the simple pluperfect is used, both on account of the hypothetical
nature of the sentence and also for some other reason. The im-
perfect subjunctive, on the other hand, can, at one and the same
time, be used hypothetically, and form an indirect question, or follow
ut, etc. : —
Hi homines ita vixerunt, ut, qvidqvid dicerent, nemo esset, qvi
non aeqvum putaret (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 41).
Obs. In those cases where the perfect indicative is used in am inde-
pendent, sentence, according to § 348, b and e, and. Obs. 1 and 2, the
perfect is retained in the subjunctive : Tanta negligentia castra
custodiebantur, ut capi potuerint, si hostes aggredi ausi essent
(= capi, castra potuerunt).
§ 382. The time of a subjunctive subordinate proposition is deter-
mined by referring to the time of the leading proposition.* The
past time is therefore expressed in the subordinate proposition by
the perfect, whem the leading proposition belongs to the present or
the future ; but if the latter itself belongs to past time, the imper-
fect (praesens in praeterito) or pluperfect (praeteritum in prae-
terito) is employed in the subordinate proposition : —
Video (videbo), qvid feceris. Qvis nescit, qvanto in honore
apud Graecos musica fuerit ?, (not esset, although in the direct
assertion or question it would be : Magno in honore musica apud
Graecos erat; or, Qvanto in honore musica apud Gr. erat ?)
Vidi (videbam, videram) qvid faceres. Videbam (vidi, videram),
qvantum jam effecisset. Nemo est, qvi hoc nesciat; nemo erat
(futurus erat), qvi nesciret; nemo futurus est, qvi nesciat. Eo
fit, ut milites animos demittant. Eo factum est, ut milites animos
demitterent.
If the mearest leading proposition be an accusative with an infini-
tive, notice must be taken whether it is dependent on a verb in the
preterite (so that the present infinitive is the praesens in praete-
rito, and the future infinitive the futurum in praeterito): —
Indignum te esse judico, qvi haec patiaris. Indignum te esse
judicavi, qvi haec paterere. Negavi me unqvam commissurum
esse, ut jure reprehenderer.
1 This rule, with the inferences drawn from it, is commonly termed the rule for the
sequence of the tenses (consecutio temporum).
§ 382 *. THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 341
OBs. 1. We should here notice that the historical present, so far as
the propositions depending on it (or depending on a present infinitive
which belongs to it) are concerned, is treated sometimes as an actual
present, sometimes as a perfect (which it virtually is) : Tum demum
Liscus proponit, esse nonnullos qvorum auctoritas apud plebem
plurimum valeat; qvi privati plus possint, qvam ipsi magistratus
(Cæs. B. G. I. 17). Caesar, ne graviori bello occurreret, maturius
qvam consverat, ad exercitum proficiscitur (Id. ib. IV. 6). Some-
times, with some want of exactness, the two constructions are united:
Helvetii legatos ad Caesarem mittunt, qvi dicerent, sibi esse in
animo iter per provinciam facere, propterea qvod aliud iter
nullum haberent; rogare, ut ejus voluntate id sibi facere liceat
(Cæs. B. G. I. 7). (Concerning the transition to the present after the
preterite in a long oratio obliqva, see § 403, b.)
OBS. 2. Where the assertions and opinions of older writers or schools
are mentioned in the present, the discourse or narrative sometimes pro-
ceeds in such forms as the preterite would have called for if it had been
made use of; e.g. Chrysippus disputat, aethera esse eum, qvem
homines Jovem appellarent (Cic. N. D. I. 15; instead of appellent).
But this oceurs chiefly in propositions which are separated from the
leading propositiom in a continuous oratio obliqva (§ 403, b).
OBs. 3. After ut, signifying so that, qvin, qvi non (but that,
without), in propositions expressing a result, . the perfect is sometimes
used (instead of the imperfect), although the leading proposition belongs
to past time, if the statement in the subordinate proposition is conceived
and expressed generally as a distinct historical fact, not merely with
reference to the main transaction or to a certain particular point of
time: Aemilius Paullus tantum in aerarium pecuniae invexit, ut
unius imperatoris praeda finem attulerit tributorum (Cie. Off. II.
22), that the booty has put an end to imposts (for all time following, up
to the present moment). Verres in itineribus eo usqve se prae-
bebat patientem atqve impigrum, ut eum nemo unqvam in eqvo
sedentem viderit (Cic. Verr. V. 10), that mo one has seem him even om
a single occasion ; videret would signify that no one ever then saw
him = was accustomed to see him. Thorius erat ita non timidus ad
mortem, ut in acie sit ob rempublicam interfectus (Cic. Finn. II.
20), was so little afraid qf death that he (as we know) fell. This con-
struction is often found, when a single historical fact is representejl as
the consequence of some general quality which has been described.
Some historians occasionally use this perfect, even in eases where the
imperfect would be more usual (especially Cornelius Nepos).
OBs. 4. Isolated instances of deviation from the rule result from an
inaccuracy of expression; e.g. Video igitur multas esse causas, qvae.
342 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 383
istum impellerent (Cic. Rosc. Am. 33; fuisse was at the time in the
speaker's mind). Pugna indicio fuit, qvos gesserint animos (Liv.
VII. 33; the author was thinking that he had used est in the preceding
clause). Qvae fuerit hesterno die Cn. Pompeji gravitas in di-
cendo, . . . perspicua admiratione declarari videbatur (Cic. pro
Balb. 1; fuerit, as if it was to be followed by memoria tenetis.)
§ 388. After a leading proposition in a past tense (as well as
after the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in hypothetical sen-
tences) dependent questions and propositions expressing a purpose
(ut, ne, qvi for ut, is) or object regularly take a past tense also,
and are expressed in the imperfect, although their import may hold
good also at the present or at all times (in which case the present is
often used in English):—
Tum subito Lentulus scelere demens, qvanta conscientiae vis
esset, ostendit (Cic. Cat. III. 5), how great the power qf conscience is.
Qvemadmodum officia ducerentur ab honestate, satis explicatum
arbitror libro superiore (Id. Off. II. 1), how duties are derived.
IHaec Epicurus certe non diceret, si, bis bina qvot essent, didi-
cisset (Id. N. D. II. 18), how much twice two is. Haec non, ut vos
excitarem, locutus sum, sed ut mea vox officio functa consulari
videretur (Id. Cat. IV. 9). Vos adepti estis, ne qvem civem
metueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13), that you have mot to fear. Sic mihi per-
spicere videor, ita natos esse nos, ut inter onìnes esset societas
qvaedam (Id. Lael. 5). (On the other hand: Multos annos in causis
publicis ita sum ver$atus, ut defenderim multos, laeserim ne-
minem (Id. Div. in Cæc. 1), of the whole conduet, as it now appears.
To express a resultas it exists only at the present time, the present tense
is necessarily employed: Siciliam Verres ita vexavit ac perdidit,
ut ea restitui in antiqvum statum nullo modo possit (Cic. Verr.
Act. I. 4).
OBS. 1. So also with qvum, the reason is often expressed in the im-
perfect as one that existed at that time (in that case), although it may
also hold good now : Hoc scribere, praesertim qvum de philosophia
scriberem, non auderem, nisi idem placeret Panaetio (Cic. Off. II.
14), espeeially as I am writimg about philosophy, especially in a philo-
sophical work.
OBs. 2. Yet a dependent question, a proposition expressing a pur-
pose or object, sometimes stands in the present after a perfect (not.
after an imperfect), when this perfect represents the present state
of affairs, and a condition which has commenced, rather than the nature
and character of the previous action: Etiamne ad subsellia cum
ferro atqve telis venistis, ut hic eum aut juguletis aut condemnes
§ 384 THE IMPERATIVE. 343
tis ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 11), Are you come here into court? — Generi
animantium omni est a nature tributum, ut se, vitam, corpusqve
tueatur (Id. Off. I. 4). Tueretur would denote the design of Nature,
when she created living beings. (Exploratum est omnibus, qvo loco
causa tua sit, Cic. Verr. V. 63. Here esset could not stand, since explo-
ratum est mihi has only a present signification, I know. Qvales viros
creare vos consules deceat, satis est dictum, Liv. XXIV. 8. Here,
too, the present alone is admissible, because the action referred to is yet;
to come.)
OBs. 3. When the perfect (according to § 335, b, Obs. 1) denotes
only the action that takes place on each several occasion, it is followed
By the present in a propositiom expressing a purposè : Qvum misimus
qvi afferat agnum, qvem immolemus, num is mihi agnu8 affertur,
qvi habet exta rebus accommodata ? (Cic. Div. II. 17).
OBs. 4. Sometimes, the tense of a dependent proposition is governed
rather inaccurately, mot by the leading proposition, but by some remark
in another tense which is inserted between the leading and subordinate
propositions; e.g. Idem a te nunc peto, qvod superioribus litteris
(sc. petivi), ut, si qvid in perditis rebus dispiceres, qvod mihi
putares faciendum, me moneres (Cie. ad Att. XI. 16). Curavitqve
Servius Tullius, qvod semper in republica tenendum est, ne pluri-
mum valeant plurimi (Id. R. P. II. 22).
CHAPTER v.
T EI E I M E E R A T I V E.
§ 384. The Imperative expresses a request, a command, a pre-
cept, or an exhortation. The present imperative is employed, when
the request, the command, &c., is stated with reference to the pres-
ent time or without, reference to a definite time or condition ; the
future (which has a form for the third person as well as the second),
when the request or command is stated with express reference to
the time following or some particular case that may occur: it is
consequently employed in laws and where the style of laws is imi-
tated: —
Vale, O Jupiter, serva, obsecro, haec nobis bona (Ter. Eun. V.
8, 19). Patres conscripti, subvenite misero mihi, ite obviam inju-
riae (Sall. Jug. 14). Fac venias. Facite, judices, ut recordemini
344 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 386
qvae sit temeritas multitudinis (Cic. pro Flacc. 24) = recordamini,
judices. Cura, ut valeas. Rem vobis proponam ; vos eam suo,
on nominis pondere penditote (Cic. Verr. IV. 1), then estimate it.
Qvum valetudini tuae consulueris, tum consulito navigationi (Id.
ad Fam. XVI.4). Regio imperio duo sunto iiqve consules apellan-
tor (Id. Legg. III. 3). Servus meus Stichus liber esto (in wills).
Non satis est, pulchra esse poèmata; dulcia sunto, et, qvocunqve
volent, animum auditoris agunto (Hor. A. P. 99). Esto (Be
it so 1).
OBs. The second person of the future indicative is sometimes used for
the second person of the imperative, in order to express a firm conviction
that the command or direction will be complied with, especially in familiar
language: Si qvid acciderit novi, facies, ut sciam (Cic. ad Fam. XIV.
8), you will inform me.
§ 385. A command, exhortation, demand, request, or counsel, is
often (except in the language of the laws) expressed in the third
person by the subjunctive. So also in the second person, of a sub-
ject which is only assumed:—
Aut bibat aut abeat! (Cic. Tusc. W. 41). Status, incessus, vul-
tus, oculi teneant decorum (Id. Off. I. 35). Injurias fortunae,
qvas ferre neqveas, defugiendo relinqvas (Id. Tusc. W. 41), one
must escape by flight. *
OBs. The subjunctive is rarely so used of a definite second person
(mostly only in the poets): Si sciens fallo, tum me, Juppiter optime
maxime, pessimo leto afficias (Liv. XXII. 53), then mayest thout tº
Si certum est facere, facias; verum ne post conferas culpam in
me (Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97).
§ 386. In laws a prohibition is expressed by the future impera-
tive with ne (neve = et ne, vel ne). With this exception, the
subjunctive is employed in prose in prohibitions and requests of a
negative form (ne, nemo, nihil, etc.), in the present tense (or the
future perfect) when the verb is in the third person; and when the
verb is in the second person in the active voice the future perfect is
used, and in the passive the perfect is preferred (rarely the pres-
ent) : —
Nocturna sacrificia ne sunto (Cic. Legg. II. 9). Borea flante,
ne arato, semen ne jacito (second person, Plin. H. N. XVIII. s. 77).
Puer telum ne habeat. (Capessite rempublicam, neqve quem-
qvam ex aliorum calamitate metus ceperit, Sall. Jug. 85.) Hoc
facito, hoc ne feceris (Cic. Div. II. 61). Nihil ignoveris, nihil gra-
§ 338 THE INFINITIVE. 345
tiae causa feceris, misericordia commotus ne sis (Id. pro Mur. 31).
Illum jocum ne sis aspernatus (Id. ad Q. Fr. II. 12). Ne tran-
sieris Iberum; ne qvid rei tibi sit cum Saguntinis (Liv. XXI. 44).
(Scribere me pigrére, be not negligent in writing, Cic. ad Att. XIV. 1).
The poets use also the present imperative: Ne saevi (Virg. Æn. VI.
544).
OBS. 1. The second person of the present subjunctive active is found
in prohibitions, which are directed only to an assumed subject: Isto
bono utare, dum adsit; quum absit, ne reqviras (Cic. Cat. M. 10);
otherwise but rarely, and only in the oldest poets (Verum ne post con-
feras culpam in me, Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97).
OBS. 2. A prohibition is also often expressed by the imperative noli
or nolito: e.g. Noli putare, Brute, qvenqvam uberiorem ad di-
cendum fuisse, qvam C. Gracchum (Cic. Brut. 33). Si insidias
fieri libertativestrae intelligetis, nolitote dubitare eam consule
adjutore defendere (Id. de Leg. Agr. II. 6). (Cave facias.)
CHAPTER VI.
T H E IN FIN IT I W E AND ITS T E N S E S .
§ 387. The Infinitive expresses the idea of a verb in general
(with the distinctions of tense, dicere, dixisse, &c.), but without
applying that idea to a definite subject, to form a proposition
with it. -
Ops. In that kind of subordinate propositions, which is called the
accusative with the infinitive, the infinitive is indeed combined with a
definite subject, and so far forms a proposition with it, but without the
distinctions of person, or (so far as the simple infinitive is concerned) of
number or gender which characterize the subject.
§ 388. a. The infinitive stands as the subject of a proposition,
when an act or state, taken in an indefinite and absolute sense,
has something predicated of it; and with the verb sum, it is used
as the predicate of another infinitive: –
Bene sentire rected ve facere satis est ad bene beated ve viven-
dum (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 1; bene sentire rectegve facere puto satis
esse ad benevivendum). Apud Persas summa laus est fortiter
venari (Corn. Alc. 11). Semper haec ratio accusandi fuit hones-
tissima, pro sociis inimicitias suscipere (Cic. Div. in Caec. 19).
346 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 388
Invidere non cadit in sapientem (Cic. Tusc. III. 10). Nihil aliud
est (nihil aliud puto esse) bene et beate vivere nisi recte et
honeste vivere (Cic. Par. I. 3). (Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,
Cic. ad Att. XIII. 28. Qvibusdam totum hoc displicet philoso-
phari, Id. Finn. I. 1). It is less frequently used as the simple ob-
ject of a verb: Beate vivere alii in alio, Epicurus in voluptate ponit.
(Cic. Finn. II. 27).
OBs. It is, however, unusual to make the infinitive the subject of a
proposition (treating it, in all respects, like a substantive), unless the
verb of the proposition is sum, or some one of those which (like cadit,
displicet) approximate to the impersonal verbs. (Hos omnes eaderm
cupere, eaderm odisse, eadem metuere, in unum coègit, Sall. Jug. 31;
better, eaedem Cupiditates, eaden odia, iidem metus in unum
coègerunt.)
b. An adjective or substantive, which is connected as a predicate
noun, or by way of apposition with an infinitive used thus indefi-
nitely (without a subject), is always put in the accusative (§ 222,
Obs. 1), and so also the participle, when the compound form of the
infinitive is used:—
Consulem fieri magnificum est. Magna laus est, tantas res
solum gessisse. Ad virtutem non est satis vivere obedientenn
legibus populorum. Praestat honestevivere qvam honeste natum
esse. Divitias contemnere, comparantem cum utilitate communi,
magni animi est (Cic.), when one compares. -
OBs. 1. The infinitive is not used appositively to define an undefined
substantive; thus, we do not find labor legere, but labor legendi. See
§§ 286 and 417. (An infinitive, however, may be added in apposition to
a substantive which is defined by an adjective: Demus nobis acerbam
necessitudinem, pariter te errantem et illum sceleratissimum per-
seqvi (Sall. Jug. 102), a hard necessity, namely ; but this, too, is
rare; and by far the most common construction is acerbam necessitu-
dinem perseqvendi.)
OBs. 2. To such an infinitive, a subordinate proposition may be sub-
joined in the third person singular of the active voice, without a definite
subject, — the same subject being understood, to which the infinitive
might be referred (in English, one): Neqve mihi praestabilius quid-
qvam videtur qvam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impel-
lere, qvo velit, unde autem velit, deducere (Cic. de Or. I. 8), whither
one will. Nulla vox inimicior amicitiae reperiri potuit quam
ejus, qvi dixit, ita amare oportere, ut si aliq vando esset osurus
(Id. Lael. 16.)
§ 389 THE INFINITIVE. 347
§ 389. Verbs which, from the nature of their signification, call
for a second act by the same person (a second verb with the same
subject), are followed by the infinitive of that second verb. Such
verbs are those which designate a wish, power, duty, custom, incli-
mation, purpose, beginning, continuatiom, cessation, neglect, &c. ;
8\S : —
Volo, nolo, malo, cupio, studeo, conor, nitor, contendo (tento,
poet. amo, qvaero), possum, qveo, neqveo (poet. valeo), audeo
(poet. sustineo), vereor (poet. metuo, timeo), gravor, non dubito,
scio, nescio, disco, debeo, soleo, adsvesco, consvevi, statuo, con-
stituo, decerno, cogito, paro, meditor, instituo, coepi, incipio,
aggredior, pergo, persevero, desino, intermitto, maturo (to hasten),
cesso, occupo (to hasten to anticipate amother ín doing a thing), recor-
dor, memini, obliviscor, negligo, omitto, super$edeo, non curo (I
do mot like, poet. parco, fugio) ; further the (wholly or partially) imper-
sonal verbs libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est (it seemed
good to me, I resolved), fugit (me, I neglect), pudet, poenitet, piget,
taedet, amd the expressions necesse est, opus est. The infinitive is
likewise put after some phrases of similar import; e.g. habeo in animo,
in animo est, consilium est (cepi), certum est, animum induco,
prevail upon one's self (also in animum induco). Vincere scis, Han-
nibal, victoria uti nescis (Liv. XXII. 51). Antium me recipere
cogito. Oblitus sum tibi hoc dicere. Visum est mihi de se-
nectute aliqvid ad te scribere (Cic. Cat. M. 1). Pudet (me) haec
fateri. Certum est (mihi) deliberatumqve omnia audacter libere-
qve dicere (Cic. Rosc. Am. 11). Tu animum poteris inducere
contra haec dicere ? (Id. Div. I. 13). Nemo alteri concedere in
animum inducebat (Liv. I. 17).
OES. 1. Those verbs which denote a determined purpose are found
also with ut: Athenienses statuerunt, ut urbe relicta naves con-
scenderent (Cic. Off. III. 11). In like manner, we find both animum
induco facere, and ut faciam. So also with opto: Phaeton optavit,
ut in currum patris tolleretur (Cic. Off. III. 25), and Optat arare
caballus (Hor. Ep. I. 14, 43). (Merui, ut honorarer, like impetro, and
honorari.) Concerning the infinitive or the genitive of the gerund, in
some phrases consisting of a substantive and sum, see § 417, Obs. 2.
OBs. 2. The poets use the infinitive after some verbs which, when
used figuratively, demote inclination and effort, but which, in prose, have
no such meaning; e.g. ardeo, trepido (ardet abire fuga, Virg. Æn.
IV. 281). They also use the infinitive after some verbs which are else-
where followed by ut or ne to express the purpose (compare § 419).
Hoc acrius omnes (apes) incumbent generis lapsi sarcire ruinas
348 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 390
(Virg. G. IV. 248). Otherwise, ad ruinas sarciendas, ut ruinas
sarciant. Isolated expressions of this kind are found, here and there,
in prose; e.g. Conjuravere nobilissimi cives patriam incendere
(Sall. Cat. 52).
OBs. 3. The infinitive may follow the participle paratus, ready: para-
tus frumentum dare (ad frumentum dandum); so likewise (chiefly
in the poets, and in the style of a later period), contentus, svetus
assvetus, insuetus.
OBs. 4. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, and studeo, an accu-
sative (of the pronoun) with the infinitive is sometimes employed instead
of the simple infinitive (as, in stating what one wishes that another
should do, see § 396), the whole circumstance, which is the object of
the will and desire, being conceived rather as a distinct thing in
itself (most frequently with esse, or a passive infinitive); e.g. Sapien-
tem civem me et esse et numerari volo (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9).
Cupid me esse clementem; cupio in tantis reipublicae periculis
me non dissolutum videri (Id. Cat. I. 2). A similar construction is
found with postulo: Eigo quoqve a meis me amari postulo (Ter.
Ad. V. 4, 25); and with constituo, to engage, promise (§ 395, Obs. 3).
(Pation appellari sapiens, for pation me appellari sapientem, accord-
ing to the rule given in § 396, is poetical.)
OBs. 5. Licet, too (though the instances are rare) is found con-
structed with the accusative and infinitive (according to $ 398, a):
Ron licet me isto tanto bono uti (Cic. Verr. V. 59). (In familiar
language, and that style in which it is imitated, licet and licebit are
also used with the subjunctive, ut being omitted. § 361, Obs. 1.)
§ 390. The infinitive is subjoined to the verbs doceo, assuefacio,
jubeo, veto, sino, arguo, insimulo, to denote what one teaches,
orders, forbids, or allows a person to do, or accuses him of doing;
it may likewise be subjoined to the verbs cogo (subigo), moneo,”
hortor (dehortor), impedio, and prohibeo, which otherwise have
an objective proposition in the subjunctive with ut, &c. (§§ 372 and
375). The infinitive is also added to the passive of these verbs
(and to deterreor, to be deterred).
Docebo Rullum posthac tacere (Cic. Leg. Agr. III. 2). Num
sum etiamnum vel Graece loqvi vel Latine docendus? (Id. Finn.
II. 5). Herus me jussit Pamphilum observare. Consules ju-
bentur (receive orders ; jussi sunt, received orders) exercitum scribere.
Caesar legatos ab opere discedere vetuerat. Nolani muros por-
1 [Nonilla quisqvam me nocte per altun
Ire, neqve ab terra moneat convellere funerm (Virg. Georg. I. 456).]
§ 390 THE INFINITIVE. 349
tasqve adire vetiti sunt (Liv. XXIII. 16). Improbitas nunqvam
respirare eum sinit (Cic. Finn. I. 16). Accusare non sum situs (Id.
pro Sest. 44). Insimulant hominem fraudandi causa discessisse
(Id. Verr. II. 24). Roscius arguitur patrem occidisse. Num te
emere venditor coëgit ? Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et
metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare (Cic. Finn.
I. 20). Prohibiti estis pedem in provincia ponere (Cic. pro
Lig. 8).
OBs. 1. The verbs jubeo, veto, sino, have, in this construction, the
name of the one who receives the command, &c., as their object, al-
though, in other circumstances (without the infinitive), they could not
take this object. The object of the verb is subject as regards the infini-
tive (jubeo te salvum, salvam, vos salvos, salvas esse; hence, in the
passive, jubeor salvus esse). (Sino is also used with the subjunctive,
with or without ut. § 372, b, Obs. 2.)
OBs. 2. Jubeo with ut, or with the subjunctive without, ut, is rare,
whem it means to order: Magoni nuntiatum ab Carthagine est, sena-
tum jubere, ut classem in Italiam trajiceret (Liv. XXVIII. 36).
So also veto me, or qvominus is rarely met, with.' (Jubeo alicui, ut
faciat, or alicui, faciat, is found only in later writers.)
OBS. 3. If, with jubeo and veto, the persom to whom a thing is com-
manded or forbiddem is mot specified, a simple infinitive may follow:
Hesiodus eadem mensura reddere jubet, qva acceperis, aut etiam
cumulatiore, si possis (Cic. Brut. 4). Desperatis etiam Hippocra-
tes vetat adhibere medicinam (Id. ad Att. XVI. 15). But it is more
usual, when the infinitive has an object, to express the purport of the
eommand or prohibition in the passive by an accusative with the infini-
tive. See § 396.
OBs. 4. The poets and later writers sometimes use other verbs, which
express an influence over others, and govern the accusative with the
infinitive, instead oftaking the subjunctive with ut: Quid dolens (from
what provocalion) regina deum insignem pietate virum tot adire la-
bores impulit ? (Virg. Æn. I. 9). Sollicitor nullos esse putare deos
(Ov. Am. III. 9, 36), I am tempted E'uere, qvos pavor mando
etiam capessere fugam impulerit (Liv. XXII. 6). Amici Neronem
orabant cavere insidias (Tae. Ann. XIII. 13).
OBs. 5. The infinitive is occasionally used instead of ut (chiefly in the
poets or later writers), with some verbs which govern the dative, and
denote am influence over others to induce them to an action ; e.g. with
svadeo, concedo, permitto, impero: Imperavi egomet mihi omnia
assentari (Ter. Eun. II. 2, 21). Servis qvoqve pueros hujus
1 [Vetabo sub isdem sit trabibus (Hor. Od. III. 2, 26).]
350 LATIN. GRAMMAR. § 392
aetatis verberare concedimus (Curt. VIII. 26). Hence, in the passive t
De republica, nisi per concilium, loqvi non conceditur (Caes. B. G.
VI. 20). *
OBs. 6. The poets use the infinitive with do and reddo, to give to a
person to, i.g. give a person the power to : Grajis dedit ore ro-
tundo Musa loqvi (Hor. A. P. 323). Hence, in the passive (in the
later prose-writers, also): Qvantum mihi cernere datur, so far as it
is given me to see, so far as I can see (Plin. Ep. I. 10). (Adimam can-
tare severis, Hor. Ep. I. 19, 9.) (Celso gaudere et bene rem gerere
refer, wish Celsus joy and prosperity, Id. Ep. I. 8, 1, after a Greek
usage). -
§ 391. In the poets (and, in some cases, in the later prose-writers),
the simple infinitive is found, instead of a case of the gerund after adjec-
tives, and instead of the supine, both of the active and passive voice.
See § 419, § 4ll, Obs. 2; and $ 412, Obs. 3.
OBs. The infinitive stands after a preposition in the phrase interest
inter; e.g. Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime valere et gravissime
aegrotare nihil prorsus dicebant interesse (Cic. Finn. II. 13).
(Nihil praeter plorare, Hor. Sat. II. 5, 69, nothing but .)
§ 392. The present infinitive is often used in a peculiar way
in narration instead of the imperfect indicative, when the writer
passes from the relation of events to the description of a state of
things that has suddenly taken place and begun, and of recurring
actions and emotions that follow in rapid succession (the historical
infinitive). The proposition remains otherwise unaltered, precisely
as if the indicative had been employed. Usually several such in-
finitives are found in succession.
Circumspectare tum patriciorum vultus plebeji (then the plebeians
began to search) et inde libertatis captare auram, unde servitutem
timuerant. Primores patrum odisse (hated) decemviros, odisse ple-
bem; nec probare, qvae fierent, et credere haud indignis accidere
(Liv. III. 37). (Odisse has a present signification.) Hoc ubi Ver-
res audiwit, usqve ed commotus est, ut sine ulla dubitatione in-
sanire omnibus videretur. Qvia non potuerat eripere argentum,
ipse a Diodoro erepta sibi vasa optime facta dicebat; minitari
absenti Diodoro, vociferari palam, lacrimas interdum vix tenere
(Cic. Verr. IV. 18). This construction is even found after qvum,
qvum interim, qvum tamen, if the time at which a particular state
of things took place or appeared has been previously specified: Fusis
Auruncis, victor tot intra paucos dies bellis Romanus promissa
consulis fidemqve Benatus expectabat, qvum Appius, et insita
§ 393 THE INFINITIVE. 351
superbia animo, et ut collegae vanam faceret fidem qvam asper-
rime poterat, jus de creditis pecuniis dicere (Liv. II. 27), when Ap-
pius suddenly began, Jamqve dies consumptus erat, qvum
tamen barbari nihil remittere, atqve, uti reges pi'aeceperant, acrius
instare (Sall. Jug. 98). Patres ut . . . credere, ita malle (Liv. III.
65). .* -
OBs. The infinitive, thus used, presents to the hearer or reader a
pieture of a transient state of things, or of a rapid succession of acts,
without separating the acts from each other, or referring them to any
particular time.
$
§ 393. If to an infinitive, which refers to a preceding word as its
subject, a predicate substantive or adjective, or a word in apposition,
is added, them this predicate or appositive word agrees in case with
the subject. .
a. If therefore an infinitive, depending on one of the verbs named
in § 389 or on the passive of those named in § 390, is connected
with a subject which is in the nominative case, then the added sub-
stantive or adjective is put in the nominative : —
Cupio esse clemens. Bibulus studet fieri consul. Habeo in
animo solus proficisci. (Sustinuit conjux exsulis esse viri, Ov.
Trist. IV. 10, 74, she endured to be.) Jubemur securi (securae)
e$$€.
b. If the infinitive belongs to an accusative (after the verbs men-
tioned in § 390, and after an impersonal verb with the accusative),
the added word is put in the accusative : — •
Coëgerunt eum nudum saltare. Pudet me victum discedere.
c. If the infinitive belongs to a dative, the added word is also put
im the dative:—
Hannibal nihil jam majus precatur deos, qvam ut incolumi
cedere atqve abire ex hostium terra liceat (Liv. XXVI. 41). In
republica mihi negligenti esse non licet (Cic. ad Att. I. 17). Qvo
tibi, Tilli, sumere depositum clavum fieriqve tribuno ? (Hor. Sat.
I. 6, 25. Compare § 239.) Nec fortibus illic profuit armentis nec
eqvis velocibus esse (Ov. Met. VIII. 553). (Mediocribus esse
poëtis non homines, non di concessere, Hor. A. P. 372. See § 390,
Obs. 5.)
OBs. 1. An infinitive with the accusative is, however, occasionally
found after licet with the dative (as if the infinitive had no definite sub-
ject, • § 388, b); e.g. Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum (Cic. pro
352 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 395
Balb. 12). The accusative must be employed when the dative is not
actually expressed, although it may be understood: Medios esse (to be
neutral) jam non licebit (Cic, ad Att. X. 8).
OBs. 2. If a verb, which otherwise governs the dative, is used with-
out the dative, for the sake of making the expression indefinite (e.g.
licet, one can), then the word connected with the infinitive must be in
the accusative: Haec praescripta servantem (if one observes), licet
magnifice, graviter, animoseqve vivere (Cic. Off. I. 26). So also,
when the infinitive is constructed with est alicujus. See § 388, b, the
last example.
§ 394. A subject stands in the accusative having an infinitive as
its predicate, in order to present the proposition so expressed as an
idea, which is the object of an assertion or judgment; e.g. Homi-
nem ire, that the man goes [or, that the man should go]; Caesarem
vicisse, that Caesar has conquered [or, that Caesar should have con-
quered]. This construction is called the accusative with the infini-
tive. If, in the completed proposition of which the accusative with
the infinitive forms a part, the subject and object might be con-
founded (both being in the accusative), this must be avoided; e.g.
by making the proposition passive; as, Ajo hostes a te vinci posse;
rather than ajo te hostes Vincere posse; but the sense and connec-
tion (together with the arrangement of the words) usually obviate
any ambiguity.
An accusative with the infinitive may be dependent on (governed by)
another proposition of the same form: Milonis inimici dicunt, caedem,
in qva P. Clodius occisus est, senatum judicasse, contra rempub-
licam esse factam (Cic. pro Mil. 5).
§ 395. An accusative with the infinitive is put after verbs and
phrases, which denote a knowledge and opinion that a thing is or
takes place, or a declaration that a thing is or takes place (verba
sentiendi and declarandi), and expresses what is thought or
said:—
Thus after video, audio, sentio, animadverto, scio, nescio, &c., in-
telligo, perspicio, comperio, suspicor, &c., disco, doceo (to inform
one that ), persvadeo (convince one that ), memini, &c., credo,
arbitror, &c., judico, censeo, duco; spero, despèro, colligo, con-
cludo (infer), dico, affirmo, nego, fateor, narro, trado, scribo, nuntio,
ostendo, demonstro, significo, polliceor, promitto, minor, simulo,
dissimulo, &c., appāret, elicet, constat, convênit (it is agreed that
—), perspicuum, certum, Credibile est, &c., communis opinio
§ 395 • THE INFINITIVE. 353
est, fama est, spes est, auctor sum (to assure), testis sum, certiorem
aliqvem facio (to inform a persom that ), &c. ; e.g. : —
Sentit animus se sua vi, non aliena moveri. Platonem Cicero
scribit Tarentum ad Archytam venisse. Ex multis rebus intelligi
potest (concluditur), mundum providentia divina administrari.
Dejotärus tuum hostem esse duxit suum (Cie. pro Dej. 5). Spero
me propediem istuc venturum esse. Caesar pollicetur, se iis
auxilio futurum. Fama est, Gallos adventare. Qvem putas tibi
fidem habiturum ? (Qvaesivi ex te, qvem putares tibi fidem habi-
turum). Qvando haec acta esse dicis ?
OBs. 1. Such a proposition may also connect itself with a substantive
which means opiniom, judgment, &c., either in apposition, when a pro-
noun agreeing with the substantive points to the next proposition, or
when the substantive, by its connection with the rest, of the proposition
to which it belongs, acquires the force of a verbum sentiendi, &e.;
e.g. Hunc sermonem mandavi litteris, ut illa opinio, qvae semper
fuisset, tolleretur, Crassum non doctissimum, Antonium plane
indoctum fuisse (Cic. de Or. II. 2). Atqve etiam subjiciunt se
homines imperio alterius de causis pluribus; ducuntur enim aut
benevolentia aut beneficiorum magnitudine aut spe, sibi id utile
futurum (Id. Off. II. 6). So, likewise, an accusative with the infinitive
may be added. as an apposition to a pronoun which, from the connection,
comes to signify opinion, judgment, &e.; e.g. Posidonius graviter et
copiose de hoc ipso, nihil esse bonum, nisi qvod honestum esset,
disputavit (Cie. Tuse. II. 25).
OBs. 2. Some few verbs, which are not properly verba sentiendi
or declarandi, sometimes acqüire such a meaning, in certain eombina-
tions; e.g. mitto, to apprise any one by a messenger (Fabius ad colle-
gam misit, exercitu opus esse, qvi Campanis opponeretur, Liv.
XXIV. 19), defendo, to allege ; purgo, to say by way qf eaccuse, that ;
interpretor, to state, by way qf explanation, that. (Stoicis placet,
omnia peccata paria esse, the Stoìcs assume .) Concerning con-
cedo, &c., with the accusative and infinitive, or ut, see § 372, Obs. 5.
Concerning dubito, non dubito, § 375, c, Obs. 2.
OBs. 3. The beginner must notice, that verbs which signify to hope, to
promise, and to threaten, and are commonly used, in English, with a sim-
ple present infinitive, when the leading and the dependent, verb have the
same subject (e.g. he promised to come, I hope to see him, I threatemed ta
go away), must be followed, in Latin, by the accusative with the infinitive:
promittebat, se venturum ; spero, me eum visurum; minabar, me .
abiturum. The verbs spero and polliceor are found sometimes (but
rarely) with the infinitive alone, instead of the accusative with the infini-
tive : e.g. Magnitudine poenae reliqvos deterrere sperans (Caes.
23 •
354 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 395
IB. C. III. 8) ; for ge deterriturum.' (Spero nostram amicitiam
non egere testibus, said of a thing present.) (Nego facere, poetical,
to refuse to do.) -
OBS. 4. Concerning duco, existimo, judico, puto, with two accusa-
tives without an infinitive, see § 227, c.
OBs. 5. Audio te contumeliose de me loqvi, I hear (learn) that
3you speak contemptuously qf me ; audivi te ipsum dicere, Iheard you
say, was witness 'that yow said (also, audivi, and audivi ex te, quum
diceres, Iheard the assertion from you); audivi te dicentem, I heard
you speak (make a speech). (Video pueros ludere; vidi pueros magno
studio ludentes.) -.
OBS. 6. The contents of the infinitive proposition are sometimes
Briefly pointed to beforehand by a neuter pronoun ; e.g. Illud negare
potes, te de re judicata judicasse ? (Cic. Verr. II. 33); or by ita or
sic ; e.g. Sic enim a majoribus nostris accepimus, praetorem
qvaestori suo parentis loco esse oportere (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 19).
(Zeno ita definit, perturbationem esse aversum a ratione animi
motum, gives the definition that passion ; Zeno ita definit, ut
perturbatio sit aversa a ratione animi commotio, defines passiom in
such a way, that it is, according to this definition , Cic. Tusc. IV.
21, compared with Off. I. 27.)
OBs. 7. The person or thing concerning which something is asserted
in the accusative with the infinitive is not often introduced into the lead-
ing proposition with the preposition de, but is found only in the infini-
tive proposition. Therefore, we should not say, De Medea narrant,
eam sic fugisse , but Medeam narrant sic fugisse ; mot;
de Crasso scribit Cicero, nihil eo laetius fuisse, but Crasso Cicero
scribit nihil laetius fuisse; not Cornelius de qvo narrasti, eum
Athenas profectum esse (qf whom you related, that he was , but
qvem narrasti Athenas profectum esse. Yet the second form is also
found, (1) where such a compression of the sentence would not be easy ;
e.g. I)e hoc Verri dicitur, habere eum perbona toreumata (Cic.
Verr. IV. 18, because the passive dicor is only used personally, in the
signification it is said (generally) Qf me, and does not admit of a dative);
or, (2) where the attentionis first drawn generally to the thing to be men-
tioned; e.g. IDe Antonio, jam ante tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me
conventum (Cic. ad Att. XV. 1), as to what relates to A. . We
must also notice such expressions as the following in questions which are
interrupted, and then continued by a new question: Qvid censes
(censetis, putamus) hunc ipsum S. Roscium ? qvo studio et
1 [Ad eum legati veniunt, qvi polliceantur obsides dare, atqve imperio
populi Romani obtemperare (Cæs. B. G. IV. 21). Ad eum legati veraerunt, qvi
se ea, qvae imperasset facturos pollicerentur (Id. IV. 22).]
§ 396 THE INFINITIVE. 355
qva intelligentia esse in rusticis rebus (Cic. Rosc. Am. 17; also,
qvid censes §. Roscium, nonne summo studio esse et summa intel-
ligentia ?), where the accusative already points to the infinitive
construction. .
OBs. 8. It is less customary in Latin than in English to insert a
verbum sentiendi or declarandi with ut, as, as a subordinate propo-
sition ; and it is preferable to make such a verb the leading proposition
with an accusative with the infinitive depending upon it. (Verrem
narrant , rather than Verres, ut narrant; Socratem Plato
scribit , rather than Socrates, ut Plato scribit.) Yet we fre-
quently find ut opinor, or simply opinor, credo, ut audio, employed
parenthetically.
§ 396. An accusative with the infinitive is put after those verbs
which denote a wish that something should happen, or the enduring
or allowing it (verba voluntatis); namely, volo, nolo, malo, cupio,
opto, studeo, postulo, placet, sino, patior, with jubeo, impero,
prohibeo, veto (to command, forbid, that somethèng should be done) ;
e.g. : — • .**
Majores corpora juvenum firmari labore voluerunt (Cic. Tusc.
II. 15). Tibi favemus, te tua virtute frui cupimus (Id. Brut. 97).
Senatui placet, Crassum Syriam obtinere (Id. Phil. XI. 12). Nul-
los honores mihi decerni sino (Id. ad Att. V. 21). Verres homi-
nem corripi jussit. Caesar castra vallo muniri vetuit. Delectum
haberi prohibebo (Liv. IV. 2). Non hunc in vincula duci impera-
bis ? (Cic. Cat. I. 11). • -
OBs. 1. These verbs also take after them a proposition with ut
(prohibeo with ne or qvominus, veto with ne), but jubeo (§ 390,
Obs. 2), patior, and veto, very rarely. (Sometimes writers pass from
the accusative with the infinitive to the other construction : Placuit
creari decemviros sine provocatione, et ne qvis eo anno alius
magistratus esset, Liv. III. 32.) Concerning cupio me clementem
esse for cupio esse clemens, see § 389, Obs. 4. Later writers and
the poets put also an accusative with the infinitive (passive) after per-
mitto (with the dative), and after verbs of entreating, commanding, &c.,
which, in the best writers, always have ut; e.g. praecipio, mando,
interdico, oro, precor: Otho corpora cremari permisit (Tac. H. I.
47). Caligula praecepit, triremes itinere terrestri Romam devehi
(Svet. Cal. 47).
OBS. 2. After volo (nolo, malo, cupio), an accusative with the infini-
tive of the perf. pass. is often used in the signification will have a thing
done = will that something should be done; e.g. Sociis maxime lex
consultum esse vult (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 6). (Often simply consul-.
356 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 397
tum volo, without esse: Iuegati Sullam orant, ut Sex. Roscid
famam et filii innocentis fortunaB conservatas velit, Cic. pro Rose.
Am. 9.)
OBs. 3. Jubeo, sino, veto, prohibeo, and impero, take only a
passive infinitive, or esse with a subject accusative ; since, if it is active,
we find jubeo (veto) aliqvem facere, -with a simple infinitive (§ 390),
and impero alicui ut faciat (e.g. Nonne lictoribus tuis imperabis,
ut hunc in vincula ducant ?). From jubeo, veto, prohibeo, im-
pero hunc occidi, a new phrase may be formed in the passive, when
the person who commands or forbids is not specified (nom. with the infini-
tive. See § 400): Hic occidi jubetur, vetatur, prohibetur, impera-
tur; e.g. Jussus es renuntiari consul (Cic. Phil. II. 32), it was ordered
that you should be proelaimed consul. In lautumias Syracusamas, si
qvi publice custodiendi sunt, etiam ex ceteris oppidis Siciliae
deduci imperantur (Id. Verr. V. 27). Ad prohibenda circumdari
opera Aeqvi se parabant (Liv. III. 28). (Such expressions are dis-
tinct from jubeor, prohibeor, facere; § 390.)
OBs. 4. The verb censeo, to think, vote for, advise, has various con-
structions, which may be here noticed: Censeo Carthaginem esse
delendam (1 think that Carthage must i.e. vote for it). Censeo
bona reddi (I vote, will, that the property should be restored, as with
jubeo). Antenor censet belli praecidere causam (Hor. Ep. I. 2,
9), votes for cutting qff; in the poetical and later style for praeciden-
dam esse or praecidi. Censeo, ut perrumpas, I advise you to break
through (censeo, perrumpas).
§ 397. An accusative with the infinitive is put with those verbs
which denote satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or surprise at the exist-
ence of a thing (verba affectuum), such as gaudeo, laetor, glorior,
doleo, angor, sollicitor, indignor, qveror, miror, admiror, fero
(to be resigned to a thing), aegre, moleste fero. Yet qvod (with
the indicative or subjunctive, according to § 357) may also be em-
ployed with these verbs, in order to denote more the reason of the
feeling:—
Gaudeo id te mihi svadere, qvod ego mea sponte feceram (Cic.
ad Att. XV. 27). Nihil me magis sollicitabat, qvam non me, si
qvae ridenda essent, ridere tecum (Id. ad Fam. II. 12). Miror, te
ad me nihil scribere (Id. ad Att. VIII. 12). Varus promissa non
servari qverebatur. (Laetor, qvod Petilius incolumis vivit in
urbe, Hor. Sat. I. 4, 98. Scipio qverebatur, qvod omnibus in
rebus homines diligentiores essent qvam in amicitiis comparan-
dis, Cic. Læl. 17). Irascor amicis, cur me funesto properent arcere
§ 398 THE INFINITIVE. 357
veterno (Hor. Ep. I. 8, 10), I am angry with my friends, asking, in
thought, why they e
$ 398. a. An accusative with the infinitive is used with the imper-
sonal verbs which signify propriety or desirableness (oportet, decet,
convenit, expedit, nihil attinet, interest, refert), and with other
impersonal expressions consisting of sum and a substantive or ad-
jective (as, opus, necesse, utile, rectum, turpe, fas, tempus, mos,
nefas, facinus, etc.), by means of which a similar judgment is
passed on the nature of an act or relation, while it is neither asserted
nor suggested that the act or relation really exists: —
Qvos ferro trucidari oportebat, eos nondum voce vulnero (Cic.
Cat. I. 4). Accusatores multos esse in civitate, utile est, ut metu
contineatur audacia (Id. Rosc. Am. 20). Omnibus bonis expedit,
salvam esse rempublicam (Id. Phil. XIII. 8). Tempus est, nos
de illa perpetua jam, non de hac exigua vita cogitare (Id. ad Att.
X. 8). Facinus est, civem. Romanum vinciri (Id. Verr. V. 66).
Haec benignitas etiam reipublicae utilis est (= utile est), redimi
e servitute captos, locupletari tenuiores (Id. Off. II. 18).
OBs. 1. Concerning the use of ut in propositions which are the object
of a judgment, see § 374, Obs. 2. -
OBs. 2. Oportet, it is necessary, and necesse est are also constructed
with a subjunctive without ut; $ 373, Obs. 1. If it is not said who has
to do a thing, the infinitive alone is employed (§ 388: ex malis eligere
minima oportet, Cic. Off. III. 1); but the proposition is often altered
into an accusative with the infinitive passive: Hoc fieri et oportet et
opus est (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 25).
OBs. 3. By an inaccuracy of expression, a simple infinitive (active)
and an accusative with the infinitive (passive) are sometimes combined
in one judgment: Proponi oportet, qvid afferas, et id qvare ita sit,
ostendere (Cic. de Or. II. 41).
b. If on the other hand it is intended to show that a thing (a
circumstance, a relation of things) actually exists, and at the same
time a judgment or remark is made and uttered concerning it, the
thing spoken of is expressed by a proposition with qyod (that, the
circumstance that; with the indicative, if the mood of the leading
proposition does not, according to $ 369, require the subjunctive).
Such a proposition with qvod (of a real fact) is often connected
with a pronoun (hoc, illud, id, ea res, &c.) which points to it;
sometimes, too, with a substantive in the way of apposition (to
explain it): —
358 LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 398
Eumeni inter Macedones viventi multum detraxit, qvod
alienae erat civitatis (Corn. Eum. 1). Multa sunt in fabrica
mundi admirabilia, sed nihil majus qvam qvod ita stabilis est
atqve ita cohaeret ad permanendum, ut nihil ne excogitari qvidem
possit aptius (Cic. N. D. II. 45). Non ea res me deterruit, qvomi-
nus ad te litteras mitterem, qvod tu ad me nullas miseras (Id. ad
Fam. VI. 22). Percommode factum est (cadit), qvod de morte
et de dolore primo et proximo die disputatum est (Id. Tusc. IV.
30). Non pigritia facio, qvod non mea manu scribo (Id. ad Att.
XVI. 15), that I do mot write with my owm hand does mot proceed from
laziness ; but, pigritia factum est, ut ad te non scriberem, my lazi-
mess caused me not to write to you ; § 373. Hoc uno praestamus vel
maxime feris, qvod exprimere dicendo sensa possumus (Id. de
Or. I. 8). Aristoteles laudandus est in eo, qvod omnia, qvae
moventur, aut natura moveri censet aut vi aut voluntate (Id.
N. D. II. 16). Pro magnitudine injuriae proqve eo, qvod summa
respublica in hujus periculo tentatur (Id. Rosc. Am. 51), in propor-
tiom to the circumstance, that. IMe una consolatio sustentat, qvod
tibi nullum a me amoris, nullum pietatis officium defuit (Id. pro
Mil. 36), one consolation, namely, that. (So also, accedit, qvod. See
§ 373, Obs. 3. Praeterqvam qvod, eaecept that. Praetereo, mitto,
qvod, I passed by the circumstance, that, say nothing qf it, that •
OBs. 1. In saying, Utile est, Gajum adesse, we only express an
opinion, in general, that the presence of Gaius is (will be) useful, but
we do not say that he is actually present. If we say, on the other hand,
Ad multas res magnae utilitati erit, qvod Gajus adest, we make it;
known that Gaius is present, and judge of the consequences of this fact.
Ey the first form, however (the accusative with the infinitive), the pres-
ence of Gaius is not denied: it may, therefore, be sometimes employed
for the other, especially when a feeling produced by some particular cir-
cumstance is, at the same time, indicated (compare § 397): Nonne
hoc indignissimum est, vos idoneos habitos, per qvorum senten-
tias id asseqvantur, qvod antea ipsi scelere asseqvi consverunt?
(Cic. Rosc. Am. 3.) Te hilari animo esse et prompto ad jocan-
dum, valde me juvat (Id. ad Q. Fr. II. 13).
OBS. 2. The leading proposition often contains, not a direct judg-
ment or assertion concerming that which stands in the proposition with
qvod, but an observation which is occasioned by and refers to it, so that
qvod signifies as to the fact. that ; e.g. Qvod autem me Agamemno-
nem aemulari putas, falleris (Corn. Epam. 5). Qvod scribis, te, si
velim, ad me venturum, ego vero te istio esse volo (Cic. ad Fam.
XIV. 3). Qvod autem deinde dicit, but as to the fact that he pro-
ceeds to say, or, in briefer, but nearly equivalent English, but íf he pro-
ceeds to say.
§ 400 THE INFINITIVE. 359
OBs. 3. Of qvod (with the subjunctive), instead of the accusative
with the infinitive after verba sentiendi and declarandi, only solitary
examples are found, and those in the later writers.
OBS. 4. Instead of a judgment expressed in a distinct proposition by
an adjective and sum, followed by the accusative and infinitive, or by a
proposition with qvod, an adverb alone is occasionally made use of:
TJtrum impudentius Verres hano pecuniam a sociis abstulit an
turpius meretrici dedit an improbius populo Romano ademit 2
(Cic. Verr. III. 36). Utilius starent etiam nunc moenia Phoebi
(Ow. Her. I. 67) = utilius erat stare, &c.
§ 399. An accusative with the infinitive sometimes stands with-
out a governing proposition, in order to express surprise and com-
plaint, that a thing happens or may happen, mostly with the
interrogative particle ne (to denote inquiry and doubt) : —
Me miserum I Te, ista virtute, fide, probitate, in tantas aerum-
nas propter me incidissel (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 1). Adeone homi-
nem esse infelicem qvemqvam, ut ego sum ! (Ter. Andr. I. 5, 10).
That a man can be so unfortunate as I am / Mene incepto desistere
victam 2 (Virg. AEn. I. 37)." *
OBs. (On $$ 395–399.) The beginner should accurately compare and
distinguish the different ways in which the subordinate propositions,
which, in English, are introduced by the conjunction that, are expressed
in Latin, and, after putting aside those, in which that denotes a design
or a consequence (in order that, so that), he must observe that the object
of an effort or action is expressed by objective propositions with the sub-
junctive (see the appendix to Chap. III.); the object of an opinion,
knowledge, declaration, or feeling, on the other hand, by the accusative
with the infinitive; and a circumstance concerning which a judgment is
expressed by the accusative with the infinitive, when a judgment is stated
in general, or by a proposition with qvod, when the relation is denoted
as actually existing.
$ 400. a. Instead of an impersonal passive of a verb of saying,
relating, informing, or of thinking, believing, finding, or of com-
manding or forbidding (see § 396, Obs. 3), or of the verb videtur,
at seems, appears, followed by an accusative with the infinitive (e.g.
dicitur, patrem venisse), another mode of expression is used, the
subject of the infinitive proposition being made the nominative sub-
ject of the passive verb, and the infinitive being subjoined to com-
1 In the following exclamation we have the infinitive only: Tantum laborem capere
ob talem filium ! (Ter. Andr. V. 2, 27.)
360 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 400
plete the idea and the proposition.* (In this case every word, which
is annexed to the infinitive, becomes nominative according to
§ 393) : —
Lectitavisse Platonem studiose Demosthenes dicitur (Cic. Brut.
31). Aristides unus omnium justissimus fuisse traditur (narra-
tur, fertur). Oppugnata (sc. esse) domus Caesaris per multas
noctis horas nuntiabatur (Cic. pro Mil. 24). Luna solis lumine
collustrari putatur (Id. Div. II. 43). Regnante Tarqvinio Su-
perbo in Italiam Pythagoras venisse reperitur (Id. R. P. II. 15).
Malum mihi videtur esse mors. Videris mihi (it appears to me that
gyov) satis bene attendere. Videor mihi (or simply videor) Graece
luculenter scire (it seems to me, that I , I believe that I ).
Visus sum mihi animos auditorum commovere. -
OBs. Even in an observation inserted parenthetically with ut (asit
seems), videor is, almost always, referred personally to the subject
spoken of: Ego tibi, qvod satis esset, paucis verbis, 'ut mihi vide-
par, responderam (Cic. Tusc. I. 46). Philargyrus tuus omnia
fidelissimo animo, ut mihi qvidem visus est, narravit (Id. ad Fam.
VI. 1).
b. With verbs, however, of saying or thinking (but not with jubeor,
vetor, prohibeor, or videor), the impersonal form of expression is
more usual in the compound tenses : —
Traditum est, Homerum caecum fuisse (Cic. Tusc. V. 39); and
with the gerundive with sum, it is almost always used: Ubi tyrannus est,
ibi dicendum est, plane nullam esse rempublicam (Id. R. P. III.
81). (Julius Sabinus voluntaria morte interisse creditus est, Tac.
Hist. IV. 67.) •
OBs. In the simple tenses, dicitur, traditur, existimatur, &c., are
rarely used impersonally with an accusative with the infinitive : e.g. Eam
gentem traditur fama Alpes transisse (Liv. V. 33) ; but nuntiatur and
dicitur are so employed when followed by a dative : Non dubie mihi
nuntiabatur, Parthos transisse Euphratem (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 1) ;
nuntiatur also without a dative: Ecce autem repente nuntiatur, pira-
tarum naves esse in portu Odysseae (Id. Verr. V. 34). With vide-
tur (mihi), the accusative with the infinitive is employed very rarely (with
jubetur, &c., never).
c. The personal form of expressiom is also sometimes used instead
of the impersonal in the passive of other verbs, which do not sig-
mify to speak or to think in general, but denote a more peculiar and
1 This form is usually, but improperly, styled the nominative with the infinitive.
§ 40l THE INFINITIVE. 361
special kind of declaration, or knowledge ; as, scribor, demonstror,
audior, intelligor, &c. ; e.g.:— -
Eibulus nondum audiebatur esse in syria (Cic. ad Att. V. 18),
as yet nothing was heard Qf B.'s being in Syria. Scutorum gladiorum-
qve multitudo deprehendi posse indicabatur (Id. pro Mil. 24).
Ex hoc dii beati esse intelliguntur (Id. N. D. I. 38). Pompejus
perspectus est a me toto animo de te cogitare (Id. ad Fam. I. 7).
Eut, in these cases, the impersonal form is the more usual.
OBs. The poets and later writers extend this usage farther than the
earlier prose-writers; e.g. Colligor placuisse, for colligitur (it is in-
ferred) me placuisse (Ov. Am. II. 6, 61). Suspectus fecisse (Sall.),
compertus fecisse (Liv.). (Hi fratres in suspicionem venerant
suis civibus fanum expilasse Apollinis, i.e. putabantur, Cic. Verr.
IV. 13. Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidia-
retur Clodio, i.e. demonstratur, Id. pro Mil. 18.)
d. When a- statement of the words or opinion of another is com-
menced in this way, and then eontinued through several infinitive propo-
sitions (§ 403, b), the latter take the accusative with the infinitive : Ad
Themistoclem qvidam doctus homo accessisse dicitur eiqve
artem memoriae pollicitus esse se traditurum; qvum ille qvaesis-
set, qvidnam illa ars efficere posset, dixisse illum doctorem, ut
omnia meminisset (Cic. de Or. II. 74).
§ 401. If the subject in an accusative with the infinitive is a personal
or reflective pronoum, which corresponds to the subject of the leading
verb (dico, me esse; dicit, se esse), this pronoun (partieularly me,
te, se, more rarely nos, vos) is sometimes left out with verba decla-
randi and putandi; but this must be looked on as an irregularity :
Confitére, ea spe huc venisse, qvod putares hic latrocinium, non
judicium futurum (Cic. Rosc. Am. 22) = te venisse. Qvum id
nescire Mago diceret, nihil facilius scitu est, inqvit Hanno (Liv.
XXIII. 13) = se id nescire. This is done, more especially when an
accusative with the infinitive is dependent, on amother with the same sub-
ject: Licet me existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere (Cic. de
Or. III. 36) = me ista posse perdiscere. With the future infinitive aet-
ive, this omission occurs very frequently in the historians, in which
case esse is also generally omitted: Alcon, precibus aliqvid motu-
rum ratus, transiit ad Hannibalem (Liv. XXI. 12) = se moturum.
INe nocte qvidem turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosqve
carcerem minabantur (Id. VI. 17). (On the contrary, it is hardly
ever found with the perfect infinitive passive.)
OBs. 1. When, in a continued oratio obliqva (§ 403, b), several
accusatives with the infinitive have se for their subject, it is often
omitted. _.
362 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 402
OBs. 2. It is important to discriminate between this and the occa-
sional omission, before the infinitive, of a personal or demonstrative
pronoun which does not refer to the subject of the leading proposition,
when it may be easily ascertained from the connection, and from the
previous mention of it : Petam a vobis, ut ea, qvae dicam, non de
memetipso, sed de oratore dicere putetis (Cic. Or. III. 20). Vale-
rius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam (sc. ple-
bis) vicem indignantem magistratu abisse (Liv. II. 31).
OBS. 3. The poets, in some few instances, put a simple infinitive with
the nominative, as in Greek, instead of the accusative with the infini-
tive, when it has the same subject as the main proposition: Vir bonus
et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus = (se paratum esse Hor. Ep. I.
7, 22). (Sensit medios delapsus in hostes = se delapsum esse
Virg. Æn. II. 877.)
§ 402. a. Propositions subordinate to the accusative and infinitive
retain the customary form of the oratio finita. Yetthe accusative with the
infinitive is used in them ifthey are relative propositions, in case the rela-
tive only continues the thought, so that it might be ehanged to a demon-
strative with or without et: Postea autem Gallus dicebat ab Eudoxo
Cnidio sphaeram (a celestial globe) astris coelo inhaerentibus esse
descriptam, cujus omnem ornatum et descriptionem sumptam ab
Eudoxo, Aratum extulisse versibus (Cic. R. P. I. 14). It might
also read: esse descriptam; ejus omnem ornatum, &c. Marcellus,
qvum Syracusas cepisset, reqvisivisse dicitur Archimedem illum,
qvem qvum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse (Cic. Verr.
IV. 58) = et, qvum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse. (So
also, Jacere tam diu irritas sanctiones, qvae de suis commodis
ferrentur, qvum interim de sangvine et supplicio suo latam legem
confestim exerceri, for et interim, Liv. IV. 51. But such examples,
with relative conjunctions, are very unusual.)*
b. If one subject of a proposition is compared with another (by qvam,
atqve, or idem qvi, tantus qvantus, and similar expressions), so that
the same verb obviously belongs to both (e.g. Iisdem rebus com-
moveris, qvibus ego, se. commoveor), and the leading proposition
is an accusative with the infinitive, the second subject is also put in the
accusative, although its verb should be, strictly speaking, understood
with it in a finite mood, because the governing verb (on which the accusa-
tive with the infinitive depends) cannot be applied to this member of the
*-
1 Porsena, prae se ferebat, qvemadmodum, si non dedatur obses, pro
rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum.
(Liv. II. 13) = prae se ferebat, si mon dedatur obses, se— habiturum, deditam
contra, &c. Admonemus, cives nos eorum esse et, si non easdem opes
habere, eandem tamen patriam incolere (Id. IV. 3).
§ 403 THE INFINITIVE. 363
proposition: Suspicor, te eisdem rebus qvibus me ipsum com-
moveri (Cic. Cat. M. 1); properly, qvibus ipse commoveor.
.Antonius ajebat, se tantidem frumentum aestimasse, qvanti Sa-
cerdotem (Id. Verr. III. 92); properly, qvanti Sacerdos aestimas-
set. (Attraction. Compare § 303, b.)
c. If two propositions, each of which has its own verb, are compared
by a comparative with qvam, and the leading proposition passes over into
the accusative with the infinitive, the subordinate proposition sometimes
takes the same form : Num putatis dixisse Antonium minacius
qvam facturum fuisse ? (Cie. Phil. V. 8.) Affirmavi qvidvis me
potius perpessurum qvam ex Italia exiturum (Id. ad Fam. II. 16).
Consilium dicebant specie prima melius fuisse qvam usu apparitu-
rum (Liv. IV. 60). This, however, is rare, especially when (as in the
last example) the subjunctive should stand in the oratio recta after
qvam (according to § 360, Obs. 4), which mood is then commonly re-
tained: Certum habeo, majores qvoqve qvamlibet dimicationem
subituros fuisse potius qvam eas leges sibi imponi paterentur (Liv.
IV. 2).
§ 403. a. An accusative with the infinitive is often put without
being governed directly by a verbum sentiendi or declarandi,
where a person is mentioned immediately before in such a way,
that a speech, an opinion, or a resolution is ascribed to him, and
the purport of his speech or opinion, or the reasoning on which he
acts, is now alleged, so that one may supply in one's mimd, he says
(said), he thinks (thought), or some equivalent expression:—
ERegulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit: sententiam ne
diceret, recusavit; qvamdiu jurejurando hostium teneretur, non
esse se senatorem (Cic. Off. III. 27), for (he thought and said), so
long as he was boumd by the oath exacted from him by the enemy, he was
mo senator. Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit, qvi socie-
tatem connubiumqve novo populo peterent; Urbes qvoqve, ut
cetera, ex infimo nasci; deinde, qvas sua virtus ac dii juvent,
magnas opes sibi magnumqve nomen facere, &c. (Liv. I. 9. This
is the language which Romulus desired the ambassadors to hold.) This
use of the accusative with the infinitive, in which the speaker or writer
adduces not his own expressions and thoughts, but those of others, is
specially called oratio obliqva, as distinguished from the oratio di-
recta. •
OBs. 1. Sometimes the name oratio obliqva is used of every gram-
matical way of expressing the thought of a third party. See § 369.
OBs. 2. Sometimes the transition to this accusative with the infinitive
takes place very abruptly, no indication being given by any particular
364 LATIN GRAMMAR. $ 404
word, that the expressions or ideas of another person are introduced;
e.g. Conticuit adolescens: haud dubie videre aliqva impedimenta
pugnae consulem, qvae sibi nom apparerent (Liv. XLIV. 36).
Sometimes a negative verb precedes, from which an affirmative idea
(says, thinks) is to be supplied: Regulus reddi captivos negavit esse
‘utile; illos enim adolescentes esse et bonos duces, se jam con-
fectum senectute (Cic. Off. III. 27).
b. In the same way entire speeches or discussions of other per-
sons and their views are often cited in a series of accusatives with
the infinitive, the first of which is either directly governed by a
verb, or put in the way above mentioned under a (continuous oratio
obliqva). With reference to this it is to be noticed, that a speech
or argument belonging to past time, and connected with a verb in
the preterite, should regularly be continued as depending on the
preterite, the subordinate propositions being thus required to stand
in the imperfect or pluperfect. Yet a transition to the present may
take place, the leading verb understood being thought of as if it
were the historical present (he says, &c.). If the oratio obliqva
begins with a historical present, it is continued in the present, but
may also (according to § 382, Obs. 3) be changed to the preterite.
Examples of such a continuous oratio obliqva (some of them ex-
hibiting the variations above noticed in the tenses of the subordinate
propositions) may be found in Caesar in the first book of the Gallic
War, Chaps. 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 31, 35, 36, 44, 45, and in Livy in
the first book, Chaps. 50, 53; in the second book, Chap. 6, &c.
§ 404. That which, in the oratio directa, was expressed in the im-
perative, or in the subjunctive with the force of a command or prohibi-
tion, is expressed, in the oratio obliqva, by the subjunctive; and in
such a way, that the present of the former becomes the imperfect of the
latter (they should, he said=you shall; they were not to believe = you
are not to believe): Sin bello perseqvi perseveraret, reminiscere-
tur pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Qvare ne committeret, ut is
locus ex calamitate populi Romani nomen caperet (Caes. B. G. I.
13 = si bello perseveras, reminiscitor pristinae virtutis Helveti-
orum. Qvare ne commiseris, ut .) Burrus praetorianos nihil
adversus progeniem Germanici ausuros respondit; perpetraret
Anicetus promissa (Tac. Ann. XIV 7 = perpetret Anic.). The
present may, however, be retained, if the first governing verb is the his-
torical present, or if the narrative is changed to the historical present:
Vercingetorix perfacile esse factu dicit frumentationibus Roma-
§ 407 THE INFINITIVE. 365
hos prohibere aeqvo modo alimo $ua ipsi frumenta corrum-
pant aedificiaqve incendant (Cæs. B. G. VII. 64) = aeqvo modo
animo vestra ipsi frumenta corrumpite.
§ 405. a. Questions which occur in the oratio directa in the indica-
tive are expressed in the oratio obliqva by the accusative with the infini-
< tive, if, in the oratio directa, they stood in the first or third person,
but in the subjunctive, if the second person was there made use of, in
which case the present or perfect of the direct discourse is regularly
changed to the imperfect and pluperfect. (Yet the present may be
retained here also, according to § 403.) Tf the question in the oratio
directa is asked in the first person, then the speaker is commonly repre-
sented, in the oratio obliqva, by the reflective pronoun se; but this may
be omitted (especially if the same subject is found also in the preceding
propositions), so that the first and third persons are only distinguished
by the context (as in the oratio obliqva in English all three are ex-
pressed by he, they): Qvid se vivere, qvid in parte civium censeri,
si, qvod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi
non possint ? (Liv. VII. 18 = qvid vivimus, qvid in parte civium
censemur?) Si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam
recentium injuriarum memoriam deponere posse? (Cæs. B. G. I. 14;
with the omission of se = si — volo, num — possum ?) An qvic-
qvam superbius esse qvam ludificari sic omne nomen Latinum ?
(Liv. I. 50) = an qvicqvam superbius est? Scaptione haec as-
signaturos putarent finitimos populos ? (Liv. III. 72) = putatis ?
Qvid de praeda faciendum censerent ? (Liv. V. 20) = censetis ?
OBs. Exceptions to this, where questions of the first and third per-
son are put in the subjunctive, or questions of the second person in the
infinitive, are rare. g*
b. Questions which, in direct discourse, are put in the subjunctive,
(§ 350, a, and § 353) retain the subjunetive (usually with an alteration
of the tense) : Qvis sibi hoc persvaderet ? (Cæs. B. G. V. 29) = qvis
sibi hoc persvadeat ? Cur fortunam periclitaretur ? (Id. B. C. I.
72) = cur fortunam pericliter ?
§ 406. In the infinitive the three leading tenses are distinguished
as in the indicative: Dico eum venire, venisse, venturum esse;
dico eum decipi, deceptum esse, deceptum iri. In the tenses
compounded with esse this word is often omitted, whether the infini-
tive has an accusative or a nominative connected with it : Victum
me video, Facturum se dixit, Hannibal deceptus errore loco-
rum traditur,
§ 407. The perfect infinitive designates the action as finished and
complete: Poteras dixisse (Hor. A. P. 328), you might have already
366 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 408
said. Bellum ante hiemem perfecisse possumus (Liv. XXXVII.'
19), we may have finished the war ; but little differing from perficere
poterimus. In this signification, the perfect infinitive occasionally stands
in Latin with satis est, satis habeo, contentus sum, where the present
is used in English, and particularly with the expressions poenitebit,
pudebit, pigebit, juvabit, melius erit, to signify what will follow the
completion of the action expressed by the infinitive: Proinde qviesse
erit melius? (Liv. III. 48).
OBS. 1. With oportuit, decuit, convênit, debueram, oportuerat,
&c., when used for the purpose of telling what ought to have been done
(§ 348, Obs. 1), the perfect infinitive is often employed in the active amd
commonly in the passive, and in the latter usually without esse: Tunc
decuit flesse (Liv. XXX. 44). Ego id, qvod jampridem factum
esse oportuit, certa de causa nondum facio (Cic. Cat. I. 2). Ado-
lescenti morem gestum oportuit (Ter. Ad. II. 2, 6).
. OBs. 2. In the poets, the perfect infinitive active is sometimes used
(like the Greek aorist) for the present infinitive, but only as a simple
infinitive after a verb (especially after verba voluntatis et potestatis),
not as a subject (§ 388, a), nor in the accusative with the infinitive: Fra-
tres tendentes opaco Peliom imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. III. 4,
52). Immanis in antro bacchatur vates, magnum si pectore pos-
£it excussisse deum (Virg. Æn. VI. 77). (In the earlier style, volo
is constructed in prohibitions with the perfect infinitive; e.g. consules
edixerunt, ne qvis qvid fugae causa vendidisse vellet, Liv.
XXXIX. 17).
§ 408. a. There is no special form of the infinitive to represent the
imperfect (so that after a leading verb in the present or future the imper-
fect indicative of direct discourse always becomes the perfect infinitive:
Narrant illum, qvoties filium conspexisset, ingemuisse = in-
gemiscebat, qvoties filium conspexerat), nor the pluperfect in the
active voice. In the passive, the perfect participle is used with fuisse,
as in the indicative with fui or eram, to express a condition (imperfect
of the condition); e.g. IDico Luculli adventu maximas Mithridatis
copias omnibus rebus ornatas atqve instructas fuisse urbemqve
Cyzicenorum obsessam esse ab ipso rege et oppugnatam vehemen-
tissime (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 8) = copiae ornatae atqve instructae
erant urbsqve obsidebatur. In this way, too, the pluperfect of an
action may sometimes be expressed; e.g. nego litteras jam tum scrip-
tas fuisse. (But it is never used for the conditional pluperfect in the
subjunctive. See § 409.)
b. In the accusative with the infinitive, qfter a governing verò in the
past time (as well as after the historical present), the present, perfect,
and future infinitive are used of a thing which, at the time indicated in
§ 409 THE INFINITIVE. 367
the leading proposition, was present, past, or future, consequently as the
imperfect, pluperfect, and futurum in praeterito; Dicebat, dixit,
dixerat, se timere (that he feared, was afraid), se timuisse, decep-
tum esse (that he had feared, had been deceived), seventurum esse,
deceptum iri (that he would come, should be deceived).
OBS. 1. The perfect infinitive must always stand after a perfect, when
something is designated that was past at the time of the leading proposi-
tion, though the pluperfect may not be used in English; e.g. Multi scrip-
tores tradiderunt, regem in praelio adfuisse (have related, that the
king was present). -
OBS. 2. The present infinitive is commonly used after the perfect
memini (which has the signification of a present), when a past transac-
tion is spoken of, of which one has been an actual witness, and which
one calls to mind (as if the signification were, I noticed, when the trans-
action took place, that ) : Memini Catonem anno ante, qvam
est mortuus, mecum et cum Scipione disserere (Cic. Lael. 3). L.
Metellum memini puer (I remember from the years of my boyhood)
ita bonis esse viribus extremo tempore aetatis, ut adolescentiam
non reqvireret (Id. Cat. M. 9). On the other hand, the perfect
infinitive is always used of a thing of which one has not been an actual
witness: Memineram C. Marium, qvum vim armorum profugis-
set, senile corpus paludibus occultasse (Cic. pro Sest. 22); and
the perfect may also stand in the first case, if the object be merely to
contrast the thing remembered with the present, and to avoid ambi-
guity: Meministis me ita initio distribuisse causam (Cic. Rosc.
Am. 42; this might also have been expressed by distribuere). So
also with memoria teneo (Cic. Philipp. VIII. 10, and Verr. V. 16).
$ 409. To represent the conditional pluperfect subjunctive, the
part. fut. with fuisse is employed in the infinitive of the active
voice (facturus fuisse, corresponding to facturus fui; $ 342. Com-
pare $348, a, and § 381) : —
Num Gºn. Pompejum censes tribus suis consulatibus, tribus
triumphis laetaturum fuisse, si sciret se in solitudine Aegyptio-
rum trucidatum iriº (Cic. Div. II. 9). In the passive, the periphra-
sis futurum fuisse, ut (it would have happened, that) is made use of:
Theophrastus moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, qvod homini-
bus tam exiguam vitam dedisset; nam si potuisset esse longin-
qvior, futurum fuisse, ut omnes artes perficerentur (Cic. Tusc. III.
28). (Platonem existimo, si genus forense dicendi tractare volu-
isset, gravissime et copiosissime potuisse dicere, Cic. Off. I. 1, be-
cause it would be expressed, in the oratio recta, Plato potuit, accord-
ing to § 348, c.)
368 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 411
OBS. The conditional imperfect subjunctive may be expressed after
a preterite by the future, infinitive as the futurum in praeterito (in the
passive, by futurum esse or fore, ut): Titurius clamabat, si Caesar
adesset, neqve Carnutes interficiendi Tasgetii consilium fuisse
capturos (= cepissent), neqve Eburones tanta cum contemptione
nostra ad castra venturos esse (=venirent, Cæs. B. G. V. 29).
But the transition to the oratio obliqva after a preterite usually involves
the change of the imperfect into the pluperfect, or at least permits that
. . change; e.g. Si ditior essem, plus darem = dixit se, si ditior esset,
plus daturum fuisse.
§ 410. For the fut. infin., both in the active and passive voice, a
periphrasis with fore (sometimes futurum esse), ut (amem or
amer, that it will happen, that —), is often made use of; e.g. Clama-
bant homines, fore, ut ipsi sese dii immortales ulciscerentur
(Cic. Verr. IV. 40) ; especially in verbs, which want the supine
and the future participle : —
Video te velle in coelum migrare ; spero fore, ut contingat id
nobis (Cic. Tusc. I. 34).
OBS. 1. The infinitive posse is also usually employed where one might;
have expected the future (will be able), especially after spero: Roscio
damnato, sperat Chrysogonus se posse, qvod adeptus est per
scelus, id per luxuriam effundere (Cic. Rosc. Am. 2).
OBs. 2. Fore with the part. perf. corresponds to the future perfect
(in passive and deponent verbs) : Carthaginienses debellatum mox
fore rebantur (Liv. XXIII. 13), that they should soom have terminated
the war. Hoc dico, me satis adeptum fore, si ex tanto in omnes
mortales beneficio nullum in me periculum redundarit (Cic. pro
Sull. 9).
CELAPTER VII.
OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIvE.
§ 411. The first (active) Supine, in um, is, used aftér verbs which
signify motion (e.g. eo, venio, aliqvem mitto), to express the design
with which the motion takes place, and is constructed with the case
of its verb: —
Legati in castra Aeqvorum venerunt qvestum injurias (Liv. III.
25). Fabius Pictor Delphos ad oraculum missus est sciscitatum
$ 413 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 369
qvibus precibus deos possent placare (Id. XXII. 57). Lacedae-
monii senem sessum receperunt (Cic. Cat. M. 18), to sit among
them.
OBS. 1. We also find: Dare alicui aliqvam nuptum (to give in
7marriage to any one). Eo perditum, eo ultum, have almost the same
meaning as, perdo, ulciscor (I go to destroy). -
OBS. 2. That which is expressed by the supine may also be indicated
by ut, ad, causa (qverendi causa), or by the participle future (§ 424,
Obs. 5). The poets sometimes use the simple infinitive, instead of
this supine : Proteus pecus egit altos visere montes (Hor. Od.
I. 2, 7).
$ 412. The second supine, in u, is used with adjectives, to denote
that the quality they express is attributed to the subject of the pro-
position in reference to a certain action, performed upon it (conse-
quently in a passive signification): — -
Hoc dictu quam re facilius est. Honestum, turpe factu (to do,
if one does it). Uva peracerba gustatu (to taste). Qvid est tam
jucundum Cognitu atqve auditu quam sapientibus sententiis
gravibusqve verbis ornata oratio 2 (Cic. de Or. I. 8).
OBS. 1. Some few adjectives, especially facile, difficile, and proclive,
stand in the neuter with a supine, even when they properly refer to an
active infinitive as their subject, and are followed by a proposition which
ought to depend on this infinitive: Difficile dictu est, qvanto opere
conciliet homines comitas affabilitasqve sermonis (Cic. Off. II.
14) = dicere ad calamitatum societates, non est facile inventu
(== invenire), qvi descendant (Id. Lael. 17). In the same way, fas
and nefas are also used: Nefas est dictu, miseram fuisse Fabii Max-
imi senectutem (Cic. Cat. M. 5).
OBs. 2. The supine rarely stands with dignus, indignus; e.g. Nihil
dictu dignum (Liv. IX. 43) = Nihil dignum, qvod dicatur.
OBs. 3. Ad (with regard to) with the gerund is often used in the
same signification as the second supine, particularly after facilis, diffi-
cilis, jucundus; e.g. Res facilis ad intelligendum, easy to wnder-
stand. Verba ad audiendum jucunda (Cic. de Or. I. 49). In the
poets and later writers, we find such constructions as the following with
the infinitive: facilis legi, easy to read. Cereus in vitium flecti (Hor.
A. P. 161).
$ 413. The Gerund (which has only the oblique cases) is used
to express the meaning of the present infinitive active (that is, the
absolute meaning of the verb), when the infinitive ought to stand
in some particular case (not the nominative); e.g. studium obtempe-
24
370 - LATIN GRAMMAR. -- § 414
randi legibus (see the following sections). If the verb governs the
accusative, then in place of the gerund and the accusative governed
by it (e.g. consilium capiendi urbem; perseqvendo hostes, by
pursuing the enemy) the word so governed may be put in the case
of the gerund with the gerundive for its adjective (consilium
urbis capiendae; perseqvendis hostibus), so that the substantive
and gerundive together represent the action as taking place in refer-
ence to the person or thing named in the substantive. If the
gerund would have to be governed by a preposition, the expression
with the gerundive is used always with the accusative, and almost
always with the ablative; thus, ad placandos deos (not ad pla-
candum deos), in victore laudando (not in laudando victorem)."
The dative also of the gerund with an accusative (esse onus
ferendo, for oneriferendo) is very unusual.
OBs. 1. In all other cases (the genitive and the ablative without a
preposition), the choice between the gerund with an accusative and the
gerundive is determined by euphony and perspicuity, or the mere pleas-
ure of the writer. Some writers, therefore, retain the gerund far more
frequently than others, who (as, Cicero and Caesar) prefer using the
gerundive. Yet the gerund is mostly retained when the object is a neuter
adjective or pronoun; e.g. studium aliqvid agendi, falsum fatendo (by
confessing something that is false), cupiditas plura habendi, -except
where the neuter singular denotes an abstract idea; studium veri inve-
niendi (of discovering the truth). -
OBs. 2. In the earlier writers, we occasionally meet with a remarkable
irregularity; the accusative plural, which should be governed by a gerund
in the genitive (e.g. facultas agros latronibus condonandi), being
turned into the genitive, as if the gerundive were to be employed (agro-
rum condonandorum), while the gerund itself still remains unaltered:
Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae reipublicae
caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latroni-
bus condonandi (Cic. Phil. W. 3).
§ 414. a. The infinitive, partly from its own nature, and partly
from the usage of the language, cannot occur in all those relations
to other words, in which an actual substantive would be placed.
Hence the cases of the gerund (and of the gerundive used for it)
are not always found where the same cases of a substantive would
be employed.
1 In the published editions of Latin authors, such expressions as ad levandum fortu-
nam for ad levandam fortunam, and the like, are inaccuracies of the press. * *
§ 415 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 371
OBs. In a very few instances, a gerund, or a substantive having a gerun-
dive agreeing with it, is put in apposition with a substantive word, whose
construetionis such as would be regular for a gerumd : Nunqvam ingén*-
um idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atqve imperandum, habil-
ius fuit (Liv. XXI. 4). Non immemor ejus, qvod initio consu-
latus imbiberat, reconciliandi animos plebis (Id. II. 47).
b. The accusative of the gerund (or of the gerundive combined
with a substantive) occurs only after a preposition, very frequently
ad, less frequently inter, during (an action), and ob:—
Ereve tempus aetatis satis longum est ad bene honesteqve
vivendum (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Natura animum ornavit sensibus
ad res percipiendas idoneis (Id. Finn. V. 21). Tuis libris nos-
met ipsi ad veterum rerum memoriam comprehendendam impulsi
sumus (ld. Brut. 5). (Facilis ad intelligendum. See § 412, Obs.
3.) Cicero inter agendum nunqvam est destitutus scientia juris
(Quinct. XII. 8, 10). T. Herminius inter spoliandum corpus hos-
tis veruto percussus est (Liv. II. 20). Flagitiosum est ób rem
judicandam pecuniam accipere (Cic. Verr. II. 32).
OBs. It is only in isolated unusual constructions that the gerund (or
gerundive) stands after ante, in, circa; e.g. Qvae ante conditam
condendamve urbem traduntur (Liv. praef.), what is handed down
from the times before the city was built, or in building. Conferre aliqvid
in rempublicam conservandam atqve amplificandam (Cic. pro Leg.
Man. 16; usually, ad).
§ 415. The dative of the gerund or gerundive (which latter is
almost always found where the gerund, if used, would govern an
accusative, § 413) is employed after verbs and phrases which may
have for their remote object an action that is in progress (as, prae-
esse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere, to fiae a time, a
place, for the doâng qf something); and after adjectives which de-
note a fitmess and adaptation for a certain action or destination :—
IPraeesse agro colendo (Cic. Rosc. Am. 18). Meum laborem
faominum periculis sublevandis impertio (Id. pro Mur. 4). Con-
sul placandis dis dat operam (Liv. XXII. 2). Ver ostendit fruo-
tus futuros; reliqva tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis
accommodata sunt (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Genus armorum aptum
tegendis corporibus (Liv. XXXII, 10). Area firma templis por-
ticibusqve sustinendis (Id. II. 5), firm enough to Animis
natum inventumqve poëma juvandis (Hor. A. P. 377). (But after
such adjectives, ad with the accusative of the gerund is more frequently
employed.) • • • - • -
372 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - S 4.it;
The dative of the gerund also expresses a destination in official
appellations (especially with compounds of vir); eg. decemviri
legibus scribendis; curator muris reficiendis; and after comi-
tia: – s
Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit (Liv.
II. 8).
OBs. 1. We should especially notice esse with the dative of the
gerund (esse solvendo) or gerundive, signifying to be in a condition to,
able to, capable of (particularly of payments and pecuniary obligations):
Tributo plebes liberata est, ut divites conferrent, qWi oneri ferendo
essent (Liv. II. 9). Experiunda res est, sitne aliqvi plebejus,
ferendo magno honori (Id. IV. 35). (The same construction occurs
vith sufficere.)
OBs. 2. Some writers occasionally employ the dative of a substantive
with the gerundive after other expressions also, to denote a destination
and purpose; e.g. His avertendis terroribus in triduum feriae in-
dictae (Liv. III. 5). Non exercitus, non dur, scribendo exer-
citui erat (Id. IV. 43). Germanicus Caecinam cum qwadraginta
cohortibus distrahendo hosti ad flumen Amisiam misit (Tac.
Ann. I. 60).
$ 416. The ablative of the gerund or gerundive stands sometimes
as an ablative of the means and instrument, sometimes after the
prepositions in, ab, de, ex.
Homines ad deos nulla re propius accedunt qvam salutem
hominibus dando (Cic. pro Lig. 12). Volscus stando et vigiliis
fessus erat (Liv. II. 65). Omnis loqvendi elegantia augetur legen-
dis oratoribus et poétis (Cic. de Or. III. 10). Tempus absumere
legationibus audiendis. In voluptate spermenda virtus vel maxime
cernitur (Id. Legg. I. 19). Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo
amplitudo Platonis (Id. Or. I.). Primus liber Tusculanarum dis-
putationum est de contemnenda morte (Id. Div. II. 1). Summa
voluptas ex discendo capitur (Id. Finn. V. 18).
OBs. 1. Sometimes, the ablative of the gerundive and gerund denotes
rather the way and manner, the modal relation shown by the identity of
time, [as, in English, by the word uphile, “ lest while ye gather up the
tares, ye root up the wheat, also,” for which might be substituted,
“ lest by gathering up the tares,” &c., which comes very near the
gerundive expression] : Qvis est enim, qwi nullis officii praeceptis
tradendis philosophum se audeat dicere? (Cic. Off. I. 2, who, while
he teaches no rules of duty). L. Cornelius, complexus Appium, non,
cui simulabat, consulendo, diremit certamen (Liv. III. 41), uhile he
§ 417 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 373
did not consult for the interests qf the person for whose interests he pre-
tended to consult. -
OBs. 2. The ablative of the gerund (or gerundive) is very rarely
governed by a verb, an adjective, or the preposition pro: Appius non
abstitit continuando magistratu (Liv. IX. 34). Contentus possi-
dendis agris (Id. VI. 14), content with possessing the lands ; usually,
possessione agrorum. Pro omnibus gentibus conservandis' aut
juvandis maximos labores suscipere (Cic. Off. III. 5). (Nullum
officium referenda gratia magis est necessarium, Id. Off. I. 15, as
the ablative after the comparative.)
OBs. 3. Since the preposition sine is never used with the gerund, the
Beginner may here notice the different ways in which without, followed
by a verbal noun, is rendered in Latin. That which does mot happen,
whem spoken of as something contemporaneous, is expressed by the
participle present, either in apposition to the subject or the object,
or in the form of the ablative absolute ; what does not happen or has
not happened, previously, by the participle perfect: Miserum est
nihil proficientem angi (Cic. N. D. III. 6). Nihil adversi accidit
non praedicente me (Id. ad Fam. VI. 6). Romani non rogati Grae-
cis auxilium offerunt (Liv. XXXIV. 23). Consul, non exspectato
auxilio collegae, pugnam committit. Natura dedit usuram vitae
tanqvam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die (Cic. Tusc. I. 39). A con-
dition precedent is expressed by misi: Haec dijudicari non possunt,
nisi ante causam cognoverimus (sometimes, Haec dijudicare non
poterimus nisi melius de causa edocti, or, nisi causa ante cognita.
See § 424, Obs. 4; § 428, Obs. 2.) To express a necessary conse-
quence or a necessarily accompanying circumstance, ut non or qvin is
employed, according to § 440, a, Obs. 3; or qvi non: nihil ab illis
tentatur, de qvo non ante mecum deliberent. In some cases, a
connection by a copulative conjunction may convey the same meaning:
Fieri potest, ut recte qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqvi
non possit (Cic. Tusc. I. 8), without being able to express his ideas with
elegance.
§ 417. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive stands after sub-
stantives and adjectives as an objective genitive (§§ 283 and 289) ;
after substantives which demote the quality of an act, and, further,
after substantives, as a defining genitive (genitivus definitivus,
e.g. verbum monendi = the word monere, see § 286) to define a
generic word by a specifie word of the same class:—
Cum spe vincendi abjecisti etiam pugnandi cupiditatem (Cic.
ad Fam. IV. 7). Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus super-
vacuos aut ars re familiari moderate utendi (Sen. de Benef. II. 34).
374 ' LATIN GRAMMAR. § 417
Ita nati factiqve sumus, ut et agendi aliqvid et diligendi aliqvos
et referendae gratiae principia in nobis contineremus (Cic. Finn.
V. 15). Germanis neqve consilii habendi neqve arma capiendi
spatium datum est (Cæs. B. G. IV. 14). Potestas mihi data est
augendae dignitatis tuae (Cic. ad Fam. X. 13). Voluntas, con-
svetudo aliqvid faciendi. Vestis frigoris depellendi causa re-
perta primo est (Id. de Or. III. 38). Sp. Maelius in suspicionem
incidit regni appetendi (Id. pro Mil. 27, suspiciom qf aiming at 5
regni appetiti, qf having aimed at —). Cicero auctor non fuit
Caesaris interficiendi (Id. ad Fam. XII. 2). Principes civitatis
non tam sui conservandi qvam tuorum consiliorum reprimendo-
rum causa Roma profugerunt (Id. Cat. I. 3; = se conservandi.
Eor se the genitive sui is put in the neuter, according to § 297, b, if the
gerundive is used, and that whether se be the singular or the plural).
Maxima illecebra est peccandi impunitatis spes (1d. pro Mil. 16;
the genitive with illecebra, according to § 283, Obs. 8). Peritus
nandi. Valde sum cupidus in longiore te ac perpetua disputa-
tione audiendi (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Neuter sui protegendi cor-
poris memor erat (Liv. II. 6). Difficultas navigandi. Arrogantia
respondendi, in replying. Triste est nomen ipsum carendi (Cic.
Tusc. I. 36), the word ** to want." (Duo sunt genera liberalitatis,
unum dandi beneficii, alterum reddendi, Id. Off. I. 15. Compare
§ 286, Obs. 2.)
OBs. 1. The genitive of the gerund is nót governed by verbs (obli-
tus sum facere, pudet me facere).
OBs. 2. Some few substantives, which may be constructed with the
genitive of the gerund, may acquire, in conjunction with est, the force
of am impersonal expression (will, inclinatiom, déc.), after which the
infinitive is employed (§ 389). Thus, we find Tempus est abire (but
tempus committendi praelii, a favorable time for giving battle):
nulla ratio est ejusmodi occasionem amittere (Cic. pro Cæc. 5) ;
consilium est (my plan is = decrevi) exitum exspectare. (The
following is more unusual : Ii, qvibus in otio vel magnifice vel mol-
liter vivere copia erat, Sall. Cat. 17 = licebat.) In the same way,
consilium capio usually stands with the infinitive ; e.g. Galli consil-
ium ceperunt ex oppido profugere (Cæs. B. G. VII. 26), sometimes
also consilium ineo. (The following is the usual construction : M.
Lepidus interficiendi Caesaris consilia inierat, Vell. II. 88; and in
the passive it is exclusively employed: Inita sunt consilia urbis
delendae, Cic. pro Mur. 37.) Sometimes, also, the meaning of such a
phrase gives occasion to the addition of a proposition with ut; e.g. Sub-
ito consilium cepi, ut, anteqvam luceret, exirem (Cic. ad Att. VII.
10. Compare § 373 and § 389, Obs. 1.) Concerning the use of
§ 419 oF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIVE. 375
/
the infinitive instead of the genitive of the gerund by the poets, see :
§ 4l9.
OBs. 3. Ad is, in a few instances, employed after certain phrases (e.g.
facultatem dare, afferre, locum, signum dare, aliqva or nulla est ra-
tio) instead of the genitive of the gerund govermed by the substantive;
e.g. Oppidum magnam ad ducendum bellum dabat facultatem (Cæs.
B. G. I. 38); the more usual construction would be ducendi belli. Si
Cleomenes non tanto ante fugisset, aliqva tamen ad resistendum
ratio fuisset (Cic. Verr. V. 34). Ne haec qvidem satis vehemens
causa ad objurgandum fuit (Ter. Andr. I. 1, 123). *.
OBs. 4. The gemitive of a substantive and gerundive is sometimes
subjoined to the verb sum, to denote the purpose which a thing serves
(or that to which it belongs, somewhat like the genitive, explained in
§ 282) : Regium imperium initio conservandae libertatis atqve
augendae reipublicae fuerat (Sall. Cat. 6). Tribuni plebis con-
cordiam ordinum timent, qvam dissolvendae maxime tribuniciae
potestatis rentur esse (Liv. V. 3).
OBs. 5. In a few writers (especially those of a later period), causâ
is sometimes omitted after the genitive of a gerund or a substantive and
gerundive; e.g. Germanicus in ZEgyptum proficiscitur cognos-
cendae antiqvitatis (Tac. A. II. 59). Perhaps this idiom has
originated in a gemitive, which was added to a substantive, in order
to define it; e.g. Marsi miserunt Romam oratores pacis petendae
(Liv. IX. 45).
§ 418. Sometimes the gerund is employed less accurately, so as
to have the appearance of a passive signification, inasmuch as it
either (especially in the genitive) merely designates the aetion of
the verb in general, and so takes the place of a substantive (e.g.
movendi for motüs), or is referred in idea to some Other agent tham
the grammatical subject of the proposition :—
Multa vera videntur neqve tamen habent insignem et propriam
percipiendi notam (Cic. Acad. II. 31), mark Qf recognition, mark by
which they cam be fcnown. Antonius hostis judicatus, Italia cesse-
rat; spes restituendi nulla erat (Corn. Att. 9) = restitutionis or
fore, ut restitueretur. Jugurtha ad imperandum Tisidium voca-
batur (Sall. Jug. 62), that they might give him orders. Annulus in digito
subtertenuatur habendo (Lucr. I. 313), by our wearing it. (Facilis
ad intelligendum. See § 412, Obs. 3. Signum recipiendi, for re-
treat = se recipiendi, Cæs. B. G. VII. 52.)
§ 419. The poets often use the simple infinitive after substantives
(with est), adjectives, and (more rarely) verbs, when the prose usage
376 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 420
would require the gerumd either in the genitive, or governed by ad
or in : —
Si tanta cupido est bis Stygios innare lacus, bis nigra videre
Tartara (Virg. Æn. VI. 134) = immandi — videndi. Summa elu-
dendi occasio est mihi nunc senes et Phaedriae curam adimere
argentariam (Ter. Phorm. V. 6, 8). Pelides cedere nescius (Hor.
Od. I. 6, 6) = cedendi. Avidus committere pugnam (Ov. Met.
V. 75). Audax omnia perpeti gens humana (Hor. Od. I. 8, 25)
= ad omnia perpetienda. Nos numerus sumus et fruges consu-
mere mati (Id. Ep. I. 2, 27). Fingit eqvum magister ire, viam
qva monstret eqves (Id. ib. 65). Non mihi sunt vires inimicos
pellere tectis (Ov. Her. I. 109) = ad inimicos pellendos. Durus
componere versus (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 8) = in versibus componendis.
(Eqvus, qvem candida Dido esse sui dederat monumentum et
pignus amoris, i.q. ut esset, Virg. Æn. V. 572.)
§ 420. The gerundive (of transitive verbs) denotes something
that, must be done (is to be done): Vir minime contemnendus
(virum minime contemnendum, viro minime contemnendo, &c.,
through all the cases): Vires haud spernendae. Cognoscite aliud
genus imperatorum, sane diligenter retinendum et conservan-
dum (Cic. Verr. V. 10). In combination with the verb sum (in
all the simple tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive)
the gerundive denotes that a certain action îs to be done (must be
done, is proper and necessary). If a definite subject be spoken of,
to whom the actiom is a duty (who has to do it), this subject is put
in the dative (§ 250, b) : — .
Ager colendus est, ut fruges ferat. Fortes et magnanimi sunt
habendi, non qvi faciunt, sed qvi propulsant injuriam (Cic. Off. I.
19). Tria videnda sunt oratori, qvid dicat et qvo qvidqve loco
et qvomodo (Cic. Or. 14). Credo rem aliter instituendam (sc.
esse). Provideo multas mihi molestias exhauriendas fore (that
I shall have to emdure). Qvaero, si hostis supervenisset, qvid mihi
faciendum fuerit (corresponding to faciendum fuit, in the indicative;
- § 348, c). . <*
OBs. After a negation, and particularly after vix, the gerund or
gerundive sometimes takes the modified signification of that which may
be done: Vix ferendus dolor (Cic. Finn. IV. 19). Vix credendum
erat (Caes. B. G. V. 28), it was hardly credible (impersonally. See § 421.)
In the poets and later writers, videndus is sometimes found even with-
out a negation, signifying visible (to be seem), and the like.
§ 422 OF THE SUPINE, GERUND, AND GERUNDIyE. 377
§ 421. a. From intransitive verbs (which otherwise have no
gerumdive) the neuter of the gerundive is used with est (sit, esse,
&c.) as an impersonal phrase (like venitur, ventum est; § 218, c.,
compare § 97), to signify that the actiom must be done. The sub-
ject which has to do something is expressed by the dative, as with
the ordinary gerumdive and the impersonal phrase governs the sama
case as the verb (dative, ablative, or genitive):— .
Nunc est bibendum. Proficiscendum mihi erat illo ipso dies
Obtemperandum est legibus. Utendum erit viribus. Obliviscen-
dum tibi injuriarüm esse censeo. .
Obs. 1. If the verb governs the dative, two datives may come to-
gether; e.g. Aliqvando isti principes et sibi et ceteris populi
ERomani universi auctoritati parendum esse fateantur (Cic. pro Leg.
Man. 22). But this is rather avoided. Instead of the dative of the agent,
the ablative with ab is used in a very few instances; e.g. Aguntur
lbona multoruzm civium, qvibus est a vobis consulendum. (Id.
ib. 2). -
' OBs. 2. The verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior, have the proper
geruntlive, although they govern the ablative ; e.g. Rei utendae causa.
Non paranda solum sapientia sed fruenda etiam est (Cie. Finn. I.
1); but, in this construction with the verb sum, the impersonal form is
more usual (utendum est viribus).'
b. The earliest writers sometimes form such an impersonal phrase from
transitive verbs, and let an accusative follow ; e.g. Mihi hac nocte
agitandum est vigilias (Plaut. Trin. IV. 2, 27), instead of mihi hac
nocte agitandae sunt vigiliae. Aeternas poenas in morte timen-
dum est (Lucr. I. 112). In good prose-writers, this is very unusual.
§ 422. The gerundive is subjoined to the object, or in the passive,
to the subject of certain verbs, which signify to give, to transfer, to
make over, to take, to obtain (do, mando, trado, impono, relinqvo,
propono, accipio, suscipio, &c.), in order to specify it as the design
and purpose of the action, that something should be done to the
object or subject (to give a person a thing to keep, i.q. that it may
be kept): —
Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinqvis sepeliendum tra-
didit (Corn. Eum. 13). Demus nos philosophiae excolendos (Cic.
Tusc. IV. 38). Laudem gloriamqve P. Africani tuendam con-
servandamqve suscepi (Id. Verr. IV. 38). Loco (conduco) opus
faciendum, vectigal fruendum, to let (contract for) the execution qf a
1 Gloriandus (Cic. Tusc. v. 17); obliviscendus (Hor.).
378 3 * LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 424
work, to farm the revenue. Eqvorum qvattuor millia domanda
eqvitibus divisa sunt (Liv. XXIV. 20). So also with the verb curo,
to have a thing done: Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curat (Caes.
B. G. I. 13). Conon muros Athenarum reficiendos curavit (Corn.
Con. 4), had the walls of Athens rebuilt. (Edicendum curo, ut, I have
it proclaimed, that.)
OBs. 1. The poets here use the present infinitive active (as is often
the case in English); e.g. Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in
mare Creticum portare ventis (Hor. Od. I. 26, 1). In prose, we
find Do (ministro) alicui bibere, give one to drink (without an accusa-
tive). Jussitei bibere dare.
OBs. 2. We sometimes find such expressions as deligere, proponere
sibi aliqvos ad imitandum (Cic. de Or. III. 31, instead of imitan-
dos), the verb being taken in its absolute sense.
OBs. 3. Though it is allowable to say habeo aedem tuendam, the
keeping up of the temple is intrusted to me, yet habeo statuendum,
dicendum, &c., I have to decide, must decide (for statuendum mihi
est), is a later idiom. (We must also notice habeo with the infinitive
of dico, and of similar verbs; as, scribo, polliceor, in the signification
I can : Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum (Cic. N. D. III.
39), that is what I had to say, could say. De republica nihil habui
ad te scribere, Id. ad Att. II. 22).
CHAPTER VIII.
O F T H E P A R T I C I P L E S .
§ 423. A Participle, after the manner of an adjective, but with
the distinctions of time, present, past, and future, describes a person
or thing as doing or suffering something, or as being in a certain
state. The active participles, which represent the person or thing
as acting, govern the case of their verb; and all participles may
themselves be qualified by subordinate propositions or otherwise,
just as the verb of an independent proposition may be qualified by
words or clauses introduced into the predicate : —
Venit Gajus ad me querens valde miserabiliter de injuria sibi
a fratre suo illata.
§ 424. a. The present and perfect participles are used instead of
a relative clause, like an adjective, to qualify a substantive. In such
§ 424 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 379
a case the participle does not bring forward any circumstance bear-
ing on the main proposition (see $425): carbo ardens; legati a
rege missi. Ordo est recta quaedam collocatio, prioribus se-
qventia annectens (Qvintil. VII. 1, 1). A participle may likewise
be used substantively in place of a relative clause ; dormiens = is,
qvi dormit. . But this is done only where no ambiguity can result
from it, where there is nothing to lead to the supposition that the
participle bears on the main proposition as in § 425, most of the
cases being in the plural, and very few in the nominative or accu-
sative singular (compare $301, a). A further definition (by cases,
adverbs, prepositions, &c.) is not often subjoined to a participle that
stands substantively, in any case only a very short and perspicuous ,
one:– - - -
Jacet corpus dormientis ut mortui (Cic. Div. I. 30). Nihil
difficile amanti puto (Id. Or.10). Uno et eodem temporis puncto
nati (persons who are born) dissimiles et naturas et vitas habent
(Id. Div. II. 45). Romulus vetere consilio condentium urbes
asylum aperit (Liv. I. 8) = eorum, qvi urbes condunt or condide-
runt. Male parta male dilabuntur (Cic. Phil. II. 27). Clodius
omnium ordinum consensu pro reipublicae salute gesta resciderat
(Id. pro Mil. 32) = ea, qvae omnium — gesta erant. Imperaturus
omnibus eligi debet ex omnibus (Plin. Paneg. 7).
b. The participle present and perfect are often used to express
not only or chiefly, that the substantive is now doing something or
that something has been done to it before, but a certain quality and
a certain state in general, so that the participle acquires precisely
the nature of an adjective; e.g. domus ornata, vir bene de repub-
lica meritus. Animalia alia rationis expertia sunt, alia ratione
utentia (Cic. Off. II. 3), rational. Consequently many participles
admit of degrees of comparison (see § 62), and in this case the
present participle of transitive verbs generally has the genitive in-
stead of the accusative (§ 289, a).
OBs. The future participle cannot be used with the simple force of an
adjective, except in the particular instance when a relation of time is
conceived of as a general property of a thing; as, futurus, future, anni
venturi.
c. The participle perfect of many verbs has assumed in the neuter
gender precisely the signification of a substantive, and is treated as
such ; e.g. peccatum, pactum, Votum. Some participles, particu-
380 * LATIN GRAMMAR. § 425
larly dictum, factum, and responsum, are used in a substantive
signification, sometimes precisely as substantive (praeclarum fac-
tum, fortia facta, ex alterius improbo facto), and sometimes as
participles combined with adverbs; e.g. recte facta, facete dictum,
alterius bene inventis obtemperare (Cic. pro Cluent. 31), espe-
cially if there is also an adjective or possessive pronoun : —
IMulta Catonis et in senatu et in foro vel provisa prudenter
vel acta constanter vel responsa acute ferebantur (Cic. Læl. 2).
§ 425. By means of the participles the description of a contem-
porary, past, or future action, connected with the main action, is
„added appositively to a substantive (or equivalent word) of the
leading proposition ; the participles thus serving not only to fix the
relative time of the maim actiom, but also its manner and circum-
stances, such as the motive, occasion, contrast, condition (design).
Such relations and circumstances are often expressed in English by
subordinate propositions with conjunctions (while, during, if, after,
since, because, although), or by phrases with prepositions. The
participles are therefore well adapted to impart smoothness and
brevity to the style, especially as they may be annexed mot only to
the subject of the leading proposition (which is most usual), but
also to the object, either direct or remote, or to a genitive:—
Aër effluens huc et illuc ventos efficit (Cic. N. D. II. 39).
Omne malum nascens facile opprimitur; inveteratum fit plerum-
qve robustius (Id. Phil. V. 11), at its birth, — whem it has grown older.
M' Curio ad focum sedenti Samnites magnum auri ponâus attule-
. runt (Id. Cat. M. 16). Valet apud nos clarorum hominum me-
moria etiam mortuorum (Id. pro Sest. 9). Valerium hostes
acerrime pugnantem occidunt (while fighting). Miserum est nihil
proficientem angi (Cic. N. D. III. 6), without doing any good. Diony-
sius tyrannus cultros metuens tonsorios candenti carbone sibi
adurebat capillum (Id. Off. II. 7), for fear qf. Risus saepe ita re-
pente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tenere neqveamus (Id. de Or. II.
38), although we wish it. IDionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus
Corinthi pueros docebat (Id. Tusc. III. 12), after he had beem eae-
pelled, after his expulsion. Claudius audendum aliqvid improvisum
rebatur, qvod coeptum non minorem apud cives qvam hostes
terrorem faceret, perpetratum in magnam laetitiam ex magno
metu verteret (Liv. XXVII. 43). Romani non rogati Graecis
ultro adversus Nabin auxilium offerunt (Id. XXXIV. 23). Qvis
hoc non intelligit, Verrem absolutum tamen ex manibus populi
§ 425 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 381
Romani eripi nullo modo posse ? (Cic. Verr. I. 4), even jf he should
be acquitted. Magna pars hominum est, qvae navigatura de tem-
pestate non cogitat (Sen. de Tranq. An. 11), when they are to
sail.'
OBs. 1. It should here be observed, that in Latin the past time has
no active participle (except in deponents amd half-deponents, and the few
verbs given in § ll0, Obs. 3), and that the present and future have no
passive participle.
OBs. 2. Two actions which are contemporaneous or following in close
succession, one of which, as a circumstance accompanying the other, is
expressed in Latin by the participle, are often connected in English by
and : Caesar celeriter aggressus Pompejanos ex vallo deturbavit
(Cæs. B. C. III. 67). T. Manlius Torqvatus Gallum, cum qvo
provocatus manum conseruit, in conspectu duorum exercituum
caesum torqve spoliavit (Liv. VI. 42) = cecidit et spoliavit.
IPatrimonium Sex. Roscii domestici praedones vi ereptum possi-
dent (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 6). (We should notice also the repetition of
the preceding verb in the participle : Romani qvum urbem vi cepis-
sent captamqve diripuissent, Carthaginem petunt, Liv. XXII.
20, when they had conquered the towm, and then plundered it. Romulus
Caeninensium exercitum fundit fugatqve; fusum perseqvitur;
Id. I. 10). -
OBs. 3. A relative or interrogative proposition may also be ex-
pressed in a participial form ; a participle which governs a relative or
interrogative pronoum, or is defined by it, being added to the subject
or object of a proposition (but rarely to another word) : Insidebat in
mente Phidiae species pulchritudinis eximia qvaedam, qvam
intuens ad illius similitudinem artem et manum dirigebat (Cic. Or.
2), looking to which, he , i.q. to which he looked amd Cogi-
tate, qvantis laboribus fundatum imperium, qvanta virtute stabili-
tam libertatem una nox paene delerit (Id. Cat. IV. 9).
OBs. 4. Instead of a complete subordinate proposition, a participle
is sometimes connected by the particle nisi, when a negation pre-
cedes, in order to express an exception or negative condition: Non
mehercule mihi nisi admonito venisset in mentem (Cic. de Or.
II. 42) = nisi admonitus essem. In the same way, a participle is
sometimes connected (but, in general, only in the later writers, from the
time of Livy) by qvanqvam, qvamvis, qvasi, tanqvam, velut, or
non ante (prius) qvam, to denote a contrast or comparison, or to fix
• . i Est apud Platonem Socrates, qvum esset, im custodia, publica, dicens
Critonisuo familiari, sibi post tertium diem esse moriendum (Cic. de Div. I.
25), Socrates is introduced in Plato, we read in Plato of Socrates, as saying to his friend Crito.
(IDicens denoting the manner, not est dieens for dicit.) •
382 LATIN GRAMMAR. - S426
the time of the action, which is otherwise expressed by a subordinate
proposition, introduced for the purpose: Caesarem milites, qvamvis
recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti (Svet. Jul. 70). Sagun-
tini nullum ante finem pugnae qvam morientes fecerunt (Liv.
XXI. 14) — qvam mortui sunt. Rubos fessi pervenimus utpote
longum carpentes iter (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 94) = utpote qvi carperemus,
§ 396, Oòs. 2. (On the other hand, the combination of a participle with the
preposition sine, in phrases like the following, — ** without a correspond-
ing benefit," — is not admissible in Latin. Oh the proper mode of ex-
pressing this, see § 416, Obs. 3.)
OBs. 5. The participle future commonly stands in the older writers
(Cicero, Cæsar, Sallust), only in combination with the verb sum, to
express certain relations of time conneeted with the action (futurus
also as a pure adjective). In the later writers, it serves, like the other
participlcs, to denote circumstances aiid relations, sometimes in the sig-
nification £f or when, sometimes (more frequently) to signify a design,
or a prospect of something: Perseus, unde profectus erat, rediit, belli
casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. XLII. 62). Horatius Cocles
ausus est rem plus famae habituram ad posteros qvam fidei (Id.
II. 10). Hostes carpere multifariam vires Romanas, ut non suf-
fecturas ad omnia aggressi sunt (Liv. III. 5), thinking that they would
not - Neqve illis judicium aut veritas (erat), qvippe eodem
die diversa pari certamine postulaturis (Tac. H. I. 32). It is also
employed by the same writers as a concise mode of expressing a whole
conditional proposition, which should have been subjoined to the preced-
ing: Martialis dedit mihi qvantum potuit, daturus amplius, si
potuisset (Plin. Ep. III. 21) = et dedisset amplius.
§ 426. Sometimes a substantive is used with the perfect participle
in such a way, that we have to think not so much of the person or
thing itself in its specified circumstances, as of the actiom performed
om the subject considered in itself substantively ; e.g.:—
Rex interfectus, the (perpetrated) murder qf the king. (Like the
gerundive, especially in the genitive, with this difference, that the gerundive
does not designate the action as completed.) L. Tarqvinius missum
se dicebat, qvi Catilinae nuntiaret, ne eum Lentulus et Cethegus
deprehensi terrerent (Sall. Cat. 48), that the arrest qf* L. and C.
should not alaym him. Pudor non lati auxilii patres cepit (Liv.
XXI. 16). Sibi qvisqve caesi regis expetebat decus (Curt. IV.
58). Regnatum est Romae ab condita urbe ad liberatam annos
ducentos qvadraginta qvattuor (Liv. I. 60), from the foundation qf
the city to its liberation. Ante Capitolium incensum (Id. VI. 4).
Major ex civibus amissis dolor qvam laetitia fusis hostibus fuit
§ 428 . OF THE PARTICIPLES. 383
(Liv. IV. 17), at the loss of citizens. Tiberius militem ob surreptum
e viridario pavonem capite puniit (Svet. Tib. 60). (This form
is particularly employed, in order to obtain a concise mode of expres-
sion, when the corresponding verbal substantive is not in use; e.g. from
condere, interficere, nasci.) -
OBS. 1. Livy uses, in this way, even the participle of an intransitive
verb standing by itself in the neuter with an impersonal signification:
Tarqvinius Superbus bellica arte aeqvasset superiores reges, nisi
degeneratum in aliis huic quoqve laudi offecisset (Liv. I. 53), the
circumstance that he had degenerated in other respects, his other degener-
acy."
OBs. 2. Concerning the participle perfect in the ablative with opus
est, see § 266, Obs.
§ 427. Habeo in combination with a participle passive perfect of
verbs of insight or determination (the participle being either used
appositively with the object of the verb, or standing alone in the
neuter) forms a kind of periphrastic perfect active, which at the
same time indicates the present condition; habeo aliqvid perspec-
tum having not merely the force of perspexi, but signifying, that I
now have this insight into a thing, and that it stands before me
clearly investigated: —
Si Curium nondum satis habes cognitum, valde tibi eum com-
mendo (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 7). Tu si habes jam statutum, qvid
tibi agendum putes, supersedeto hoc labore itineris (Id. ad Fam.
IV. 2). Verres deorum templis bellum semper habuit indictum
(Id. Verr. V. 72), was always at open war with the temples.
OBS. The periphrasis factum (rem factam) dabo for faciam is
archaic.
§ 428. A participle combined with a subject and put in the abla-
tive is annexed to another proposition in the way described in § 277
as an ablative absolute, to show that the main action takes place at
the same time with the action expressed in the participle (present),
or after it (perfect), or while it is to take place (future), and by
these means to indicate the time of the main action, the occasion of
it, the way in which it is performed, a contrast, a condition, &c.
The participle in the ablative absolute may be limited and qualified
by cases, propositions, and adverbs, just as the proposition for
1 Notum, furens quid femina. possit (Virg. Æn. W. 6), the knowledge what —.
Sometimes an adjective is used instead of a participle: vix una, Sospes navis ab hosti-
bus (IHor, Od. I. 37, 13). - .
384 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 428
which this ablative is substituted might have been qualified by the
Sa, II 16 : —
Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam, Archilochus
regnante Romulo (Cic. Tusc. I. 1). Qvaeritur, utrum mundus (the
firmament) terra stante circumeat, an mundo stante terra vertatur
(Sen. Q. N. VII. 2). Perditis rebus omnibus, tamen ipsa virtus
se sustentare potest (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 1). Caesar homines inimico
animo, data facultate per provinciam itineris faciendi, non tem-
peraturos ab injuria existimabat (Cæs. B. G. I. 7), if (in case that)
the permission should be given them IRarumper silentium et
qvies fuit, nec Etruscis, nisi cogerentur, pugnam inituris et dicta-
tore arcem Romanam respectante (Liv. IV. 18).
OBs. 1. Ablatives absolute are not commonly used, when the person
or thing which should form their snbject occurs in the main proposition
as the subject, object, or remote object; for, in that case, the participle
is introduced in agreement with that subject or object: Manlius caesum
Gallum torqve spoliavit, not Manlius, caeso Gallo, eum torqve
spoliavit; still less, Manlius Gallum, caeso eo, t. sp. Hosti ce-
denti instandum est (not, hoste cedente, ei instandum est). Some-
times, however, ablatives absolute are found in such cases, in order to
draw a more marked distinction between the contents of the participial
and those of the leading proposition, and to indieate more prominently
the order of events or the relation they bear to each other: Vercinget-
orix, convocatis suis clientibus facile incendit (sc. eos) (Cæs. B.
G. VII. 4). Nemo erit, qvi credat, te invito, provinciam tibi esse
decretam (Cic. Phil. XI. 10) = tibi invito provinciam e. d. (Se
judice nemo nocens absolvitur, Juv. XIII. 3, before his own judg-
ment-seat.) For the same reason the ablative absolute is generally made
use of, where the subject of the participle stands in the genitive in the
leading proposition: M. Porcius Cato vivo qvoqve Scipione alla-
trare ejus magnitudinem solitus erat (Liv. XXXVIII. 54).
Jugurtha fratre meo interfecto regnum ejus sceleris sui praedam
fecit (Sall. Jug. 14). -
OBs. 2. Ablatives absolute, like a simple participle (see § 424, Obs.
4) may sometimes be subjoined with nisi, when a negation precedes, to
point out an exception: Nihil praecepta atqve artes valent nisi adju-
vante natura (Qvinct. Prooem. § 26) = nisi qvum adjuvat matura.
Regina apum non procedit foras nisi migraturo agmine (Plin. H.
N. XI. 17) = nisi qvum agmen migraturum est. So likewise ablatives
absolute may be connected with the sentence in which they stand by
qvanqvam, qvamvis or qvasi, tanqvam, velut, or non ante (prius)
qvam: Caesar, qvanqvam obsidione Massiliae summaqve frumen-
tariae rei penuria retardante, brevi tamen omnia subegit (Svet. Jul.
§ 428 OF THE PARTICIPLES. • 385
84). Albani, velut diis qvoqve simul cum patria relictis, sacra ob-
livioni dederant (Liv. I. 31) =velut si deos . . . reliquissent. But
this construction rarely occurs in the earlier writers, with whom indeed
it is almost entirely confined to quasi: Verres, qvasi praeda sibi ad-
vecta, non, praedonibus captis, si qui senes ac deformes erant,
eos in hostium numero ducit (Cic. Verr. V. 25).
OBs. 3. Ablatives absolute of the participle future are rare, and mot [
met with in the older writers. (Compare § 425, Obs. 5.)
OBs. 4. Ablatives absolute in the passive, with a leading proposition
in the active, usually denote an action proceeding from the subject of the
leading proposition, unless the name of an agent with ab is added to the
passive participle ; e.g. Cognito Caesaris adventu, Ariovistus legatos
ad eum mittit. In this case the leading subject sometimes stands
between the two ablatives : e.g. His Caesar cognitis milites aggerem
comportare jubet (Cæs. B. C. III. 62). (C. Sempronius causa
ipse pro se dicta damnatur, Liv. IV. 44; i.q. qvum ipse causam pro
se dixisset.) Sometimes the ablatives absolute express something that
has happened with reference to the leading subject : Hannibal, spe po-
tiundae Nolae adempta, Acerras recessit (Liv. XXIII. 17). Aedui
Caesarem certiorem faciunt, sese, depopulatis agris, mom facile ab
oppidis vim hostium prohibere (Cæs. B. G. I. 11, qfter their fields
}ad been already plumdered).
OBS. 5. To the participle in the ablative absolute it is not usual to add
other ablatives, which might lead to a sacrifice of euphony or perspicuity;
indeed, long and complicated propositions in general are not oftem ex-
pressed in this way. Another participle is rarely added as an adjective
in the ablative absolute ; e.g. IDefosso cadavere domi apud T. Ses-
tium invento, C. Julius Sestio diem dixit (Liv. III. 33). Writers
generally endeavor to avoid such a concurrence of two participles.
(Eumene pacatiore invento, Liv. XXXVII. 45. See § 227, Obs.
4.)'
OBs. 6. Occasionally tum (tum vero, tum deniqve) follows the
ablative absolute, im order emphatically to indicate that its action is ante-
cedent to the act expressed by the leading verb, and is its basis or con-
dition : Hoc constituto, tum licebit otiose ista qvaerere (Cic. Finn.
IV. 13). Sed confecto proelio, tum vero cerneres, qvanta animi
vis fuisset in exercitu Catilinae (Sall. Cat. 61).
OBS. 7. The ablative absolute cam also take a relative or interroga-
tive form, the subject in it being a relative, or the question of a sentence
applying only to some accompanying circumstance : Id habes a natura
ingenium, qvo exculto summa omnia facile asseqvi possis (by the
4 The following complicated construction occurs in I,iv. I. 46: conciliata, plebis vo-
luntate agro capto ex hostibus viritim diviso.
386 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 43o.
cultivation qf which). Qva freqventia omnium generum prose-
qvente creditis nos Capua profectos ? (Liv. VII. 30). Qvaerunt,
qvo admonente hoc mihi in mentem venerit.
§ 429. Sometimes the ablative of a participle perfect stands alone im-.
personally in the same way as the ablative ofa substantive and participle in
combination, followed by. a dependent proposition (accusative with the
infinitive, interrogative proposition, or ut). (So in particulár audito, .
cognito, comperto, intellecto, nuntiato, edicto, permisso, and some-
times a few others.) Alexander, audito, Ibarium movisse ab Ecba-
tanis (had set out from Ecbatana), fugientem inseqvi pergit (Curt. V.
35). Consul, statione eqvitum ad portam posita, edictoqve, ut,
qvicunqve ad vallum tenderet, pro hoste haberetur, fugientibus
obstitit (Liv. X. 36).' -*
OBS. 1. Sometimes a participle stands alone without any thing depend-
ing on it: Tribuni militum, non loco castris ante capto, non prae-
munito vallo, nec auspicato, nec litato, instruunt aciem (Liv. V.
38). (Compare the adverbs auspicato, consulto, &c. § i98, a, Obs. 2.)
OBs. 2. In the ablative absolute the subject may be left out and
understood, ifit is am indefinite or demonstrative pronoum, which has a
relative corresponding to it: Additur dolus, missis, qvi magnam vim
lignorum ardentem in flumen conjicerent (Liv. I. 37). (Caralitani,
simul ad se Valerium mitti audierunt, nondum profecto ex Italia,
sua sponte ex oppido Cottam ejiciunt, Cæs. B. C. I. 30, where eo
has to be supplied from the context.)
§ 430. As the methods of indicating that a second act introduced
into a sentence is only a qualification of the main proposition are
various (by a subordinate proposition with a conjunction, by a par-
ticiple in agreement with some word in the proposition, and by the
ablative absolute), it is usual, when a long series of circumstances
is to be given, to vary the syntax, the participial constructions
being either subjoined to the subordinate proposition (the protasis)
to explain and define it, or entering into the leading proposition : —
Consul, nuntio circumventi fratris conversus ad pugnam, dum
se temere magis qvam caute in mediam dimicationem infert, .
vulnere accepto, aegre ab circumstantibus ereptus, et suorum
animos turbavit et ferociores hostes fecit (Liv. III. 5). Yet a
series of ablatives absolute is occasionally employed to express circum-
StanCeS ›› follow in succession (e.g. Cæs. B. G. III. 1). This

1 Incerto is found as an equivalent expre$siom for qvum incertum esset, in Livy
XXVIII. 36.
$431 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 387
depends on the greater or less care which the writer has for variety and
precision of expression.
$ 431. a. The participle denotes the time with reference to the (
leading verb of the proposition, so that, if this be in the preterite, "
the participle present has the signification of the imperfect (prae-
sens in praeterito), the participle perfect that of the pluperfect
(praeteritum in praeterito), and the participle future that of the
futurum in praeterito, and this must also be borne in mind in speci-
fying time in subordinate propositions depending on a participle.
(Haec omnia Titius pridem mutavit me probante, signifies, there-
fore, with my approbation at the time, not which I now approve.)
b. The participle perfect of deponents or half-deponents is not
unfrequently joined to the subject instead of the participle pres-
ent (imperfect) to indicate the motive, occasion, or manner of the
main action (since) : —
Patebor me in adolescentia, diffisum ingenio meo, qvaesisse ad-
jumenta doctrinae (Cic. pro Mur. 30). Caesar, iisdem ducibus
usus, qvi nuntii venerant, Numidas et Cretas sagittarios subsidio,
oppidanis mittit (Caes. B. G. II. 7). Ego copia et facultate causae
confisus, vide, qvo progrediar (Cic. pro Rosc. Com. 1). Yet this
occurs chiefly in the historical style, where the leading proposition is in
the perfect or historical present, or in those cases where the present par-
ticiple is not in use (ratus, solitus).
OBS. 1. With these exceptions there are but few instances of the
participle perfect inaccurately used attributively with the force of a
present: Melior tutionqve est certa pax quam sperata victoria
(Liv. XXX. 30) = qvae speratur. So called is never expressed in Latin
by ita dictus, but by qui dicitur, qvi vocatur, qvem vocant. -
OBS. 2. In some writers (Livy and those of a later period) we occa-
sionally find ablatives absolute formed with the participle perfect to ex-
press a circumstance which does not precede, but accompanies or follows
the main action: Volsci inermes oppressi dederunt poenas, vix
nuntiis caedis relictis (Liv. IV. 10), so that scarcely - Hannibal
totis viribus aggressus urbem momento cepit, signo dato, utomnes
puberes interficerent (Id. XXI. 14). Suetonius Paullinus biennio
prosperas res habuit, subactis nationibus firmatisqve praesidiis
(Tac. Agric. 14), while he subdued nations. -
388 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 433
CHAPTER IX.
COMBINATION OF COORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS,
AND THE USE OF THE CONJUNCTIONS FOR THIS PURPOSE.
THE INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES.
§ 432. The Coordination of Propositions (§ 328) is denoted by
copulative, disjunctive, and adversative conjunctions.
§ 433. The CoPULATIve, CoNJUNCTIONs are et, qve (which is
affixed to the end of a word), ac (atave), and (combined with a
negation) nec, neqve, and not. Et simply connects two coordinate
words or propositions, without any additional signification whatever;
while qve rather marks the second member as a supplement to the
first, and as a continuation or enlargement of it; e.g.:-
Solis et lunae reliqvorumqve siderum ortus; de illa civitate to-
taqve provincia. Pro salute hujus imperii et pro vita civium
progve universa republica (Cic. pro Arch. 11). Prima seqventem
homestum est in secundis tertiisqve consistere. Tu omnium.
divinarum humanarumqve rerum nomina, genera, causas aperuisti,
plurimumqve poetis nostris, omninoqve Latinis et litteris luminis
et verbis attulisti (Cic. Acad. I. 3). Mihi vero nihil unqvam
populare placuit, eamqve optimam rempublicam esse duco, qvam.
hic consul constituit (Id. Legg. TII. 17)." It is therefore often em-
ployed to connect two notions which are to be considered as a connected
whole (senatus populusqve Romanus, but Caesare et Bibulo con-
sulibus, of the two consuls considered as equal), or with two words,
which express only one leading idea (jus potestatemqve habere). (In
many cases no distinction is made : noctes et dies, noctes diesqve.
Rerum divinarum et humanarum scientia, Cic. Off. I. 43; omnium
divinarum humanarumqve rerum consensio, Id. Lael. 6). Ac
(which only stands before consonants) or atqve (before consonants and
(vowels) puts forward the second member somewhat more forcibly in
comparison with the first as distinct from it and equally important (omnia
honesta atqve inhonesta, the unbecoming no less than the becoming:
omnium rerum, divinarum atqve humanarum, vim, naturam, cau-
sasqve nosse, Cic. de Or. I.49). Yet this accessory signification is often
not to be recognized, especially with the shorter form ac, which is used
1 Examples of a series of such additions and continuations may be seen in Cicero, Legg. I.
23, and Phil IX. 7.
§ 434 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 889
for variety with et, if one of the two connected members is again sub-
divided: Magnifica vox et magno viro ac sapiente digna (Cic. Off.
III. 1). Concerning neqve, see § 458.
OBS. 1. Et is sometimes employed as an adverb for etiam, also ; but
in the earlier writers, it, for the most part, occurs only in certain com-
binations; e.g. simul et, et nunc (sed et), &c.
OBS. 2. If a negative proposition is followed by an affirmative, in
which the same thought is expressed or continued, qve, et, or ac, is
employed in Latin, where in English we use but : Socrates nec patro-
num qvaesivit ad judicium capitis nec judicibus supplex fuit,
adhibuitgve liberam contumaciam, a magnitudine animi duotam
(Cic. Tusc. I. 29). Tamen animo non defician, et id, qvod sus-
cepi, qvoad potero, perferam (Id. pro Rosc. Am. 4). Nostrorum
militum impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga verterunt
(Caes. B. G. IV. 35). - -
§ 434. The omission of the copulative conjunctions (Asyndeton)"
occurs in Latin in quick and animated discourse, not only where
there are three or more members, but even with two: —
Aderant amici, propinqvi (Cic. Verr. I. 48). Adsunt, qveruntur
Siculi universi (Id. Div. in Caec. IV.). So occasionally, in speaking
of colleagues in office: Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus; in ex-
amples: In ferisinesse fortitudinem saepe dicinus, ut in eqvis, in
leonibus (Id. Off. I. 16); in contrasts, which embrace a whole class of
subjects: prima, postrema; fanda, nefanda; aedificia omnia, pub-
lica, privata; ultro, citro; and in certain expressions of judicial official
language, when two words are put together for greater accuracy: qvic-
qvid dare facere oportet: aeqvum bonum, right and justice, Qvi
damnatus est, erit, he who has been or shall be condemned. -
OBS. 1. In an enumeration of three or more perfectly coordinate
words, we may either connect each of them with the preceding by a
conjunction, if we wish to give a certain prominence to each (Polysynde-
ton),” or omit the conjunction entirely: summa fide, constantia, justi-
tia; monebo, praedicam, denuntiabo, testabor;” or omit it between
the first members, and annex que to the last : summa fide, constantia,
justitiaqve (but we must avoid, in this case, using et, ac, or atqve,
unless with a desire to mark the last member as distinct from the rest).
So also alii, ceteri, reliqvi, stand at the end of an enumeration with-
out a conjunction (honores, divitiae, cetera) or with qve, rarely with
1 doiv6erog, unconnected.
2 troAvoiváetog, connected in many ways.
8 As in the above example, four words thus united without conjunctions are often made up
of two pair of words which are either nearly connected or mutually contrasted.
390 LATIN GRAMMAR. . . § 435
et; and we always find postremo, deniqve, not et postremo, et deni-
qve. (Sibi liberisqve et genti Numidarum, where the two first ideas
are more nearly connected.)
OBs. 2. The place of a copulative conjunction may be supplied, in
animated discourse, by repeating, in each member of the sentence, a
word common to all (Anaphora): Si recte Cato judicavit, non recte
frumentarius ille, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit
(Cic. Off. III. 16). Nos deorum immortalium templa, nos muros,
nos domicilia sedesqve populi Romani, aras, focos, sepulcra majo-
rum defendimus (Id. Phil. VIII. 3). Another conjunction may be
repeated in the same way: Si loca, si fana, si campum, si canes, si
eqvos consvetudine adamare solemus, qvantum id in hominum
consvetudine facilius fieri poterit? (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Neo tamen
omnes possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium expugna-
tiones, ut pedestres navalesqve pugnas, ut bella a se gesta, ut
triumphos recordentur (Id. Cat. M. 5). Promisit, sed difficulter,
sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis verbis (Sen. de Benef. I. 1).
OBs. 3. We cannot, in Latin, subjoin an illative adverb (itaqve, igi-
tur, ergo) to a copulative particle (as in English, and therefore, and
consequently); we must therefore say propterqve eam causam, and
the like.
$435. a. Both members of a combination are rendered promi-
nent by et — et, both — and, for which qye— et and qve — que
are occasionally employed in some writers.
OBs. 1. Qve — et connect only single words, not propositions: e.g.
Legatiqve et tribuni (Liv. XXIX. 22), seqve et ducem (and that not
in all writers, e.g. in Cicero); qve — que (also not found in all writers)
are used with a double relative proposition: Qvigve Romae q.vigve in
exercitu erant (Liv. XXII. 26) = et qvi — et qui; but otherwise, they
rarely occur in prose, and only to connect single words, the first of which
is a pronoun: Meqve regnumqve meum (Sall. Jug. 10). Et — que
are only found as a loose way of connecting two propositions: Qvis
est, qvin intelligat, et eos, qvi haec fecerint, dignitatis splendore
ductos immemores fuisse utilitatum suarum, nosqve, qvum ea
laudemus, nulla alia re nisi honestate duci? (Cic. Finn. W. 22).
OBS. 2. Concerning neqve — et, et — neqve, see § 468, c.
OBS. 3. Qvum —tum, both — and (concerning the mood, when
qvum forms a subordinate proposition, see § 358, Obs. 3). Tum —
tum always signifies at one time, at another time, as also modo —modo,
nunc — nunc, more rarely in prose jam —jam. (With these, and simi-
lar partitive phrases, a copulative particle is never used.) Less usual
expressions are qva– qva (of two single words): e.g. qva consules,
§ 436 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 391
qva exercitum hostes increpabant; and simul — simul, which last
approaches, in signification, to partim — partim: e.g. increpare simul
tumultum, simul ignaviam militum.
OBs. 4. It may here be observed, that when a general description is
followed by something more special, no such particle as the English
namely is used in Latin: Veteres philosophi in qvattuor virtutes
omnem honestatem dividebant, prudentiam, justitiam, fortitudi-
nem, modestiam (namely, prudence, justice, &c.). If an explanation
is added in a new proposition, nam and enim are made use of; e.g.
tres enim sunt causae, there are mamely three causes. The word
nempe signifies surely (is it not so?), and expresses our conviction
that what we say will mot be denied. *.
§ 436. The DISJUNCTIvE CoNJUNCTIONS are aut, vel (ve, at-
tached to a word), sive. Two words which are essentially different
in meaning are separated by aut:—
Officia omnia aut pleraqve servantem vivere (Cic. Finn. IV. 6).
Nihil aut non multum (non multum aut nihil omnino; semel aut
non saepe).
The simple aut is therefore particularly used in questions which
imply an objection or a negative, or in expressing sentiments of
disapprobation, when we wish to separate the ideas, and to keep
them distinct: —
Ubi sunt ii, qvos miseros dicis, aut qvem locum incolunt ?
(Cie. Tusc. I. 6). Qvid est majus aut difficilius qvam severi-
tatem cum misericordia conjungere ? Homines locupletes et
honorati patrocinio se usos aut clientes appellari mortis instar
putant (Cic. Off. II. 20). (Concerning aut after a negative, see § 458,
c, Obs. 2.) Vel denotes a distinction, which is of no importance, or
relates only to the choice of an expression; e.g. A virtute profectum
vel in ipsa virtute positum (Cic. Tuse. II. 20) ; in the earlier writers
especially, when a more suitable expression is added (also, vel potius;
vel dicam ; vel, ut verius dicam; vel etiam).'
z\n unimportant distinction or one of name only is likewise ex-
pressed by ve, either with subordinate accessory ideas of the lead-
ing proposition, or (which is more usual) in subordinate proposi-
tions:—
1 Aut eloqventiae nomen relinqvendum est (Cic. de Or. II. 2), or evem — ; vel
concidat omne caelum, omnisqve natura, consistat necesse est (Id. Tusc. I,
23.)
392 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 437
post hanc contionem duabus tribusve horis optatissimi nuntii
venerunt (Cic. Phil. XIV. 6). Timet, ne qvid plus minusve qvam
sit necesse dicat (Cic. pro Flacco. 5; si plus minusve dixero). Non
satis est judicare, qvid faciendum non faciendumve sit (Id. Finn.
I. 14). Aut — aut repeated denotes an opposition, in which the mem-
bers exclude one amother, or at least are considered as distinet and sepa-
rate: Omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est; aut omnino
aut magna ex parte. Aut inimicitias aut labores aut sumptus sus-
cipere nolunt (Cic. Off. I. 9). Vel — vel denotes such a distinction,
that the things distinguished may, nevertheless, be connected (partly —
partly), or it is indifferent (with reference to what is asserted) which is
chosen, or such as properly relates only to a difference of expression:
IPostea, vel qvod tanta res erat, vel qvod nondum audieramus Bibu-
lum in Syriam venisse, vel qvia administratio hujus belli mihi
cum Bibulo paene est communis, qvae ad me delata essent, scri-
benda ad vos putavi (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 1). Nihil est tam conve-
niens ad res vel secundas vel adversas qvam amicitia (Id. Læl.
5). Una atqve altera aestas vel metu vel spe vel poena vel proe-
miis vel armis vel legibus potest totam Galliam sempiternis vin-
culis adstringere (Cic. Prov. Cons. 14). (Ve — ve has the same signi-
fication in the poets.) » . .
OBs. Vel has also the signification even, especially with superlatives :
e.g. vel optime; fructus vel maximus. Per me vel stertas licet
(Cic. Acad. II. 29). It is used also in eiting examples (for example,
particularly): Raras tuas qvidem sed svaves accipio litteras; vel,
qvas proxime acceperam, qvam prudentes ! (Cic. ad Fam. II. 18).
Qvam sis morosus vel ex hoc intelligi potest, qvod.
Sive (seu) stands not only in the signification of vel si, or èf, as a
conditional conjunction (§ 442, b), but also as a mere disjunctive con-
junction, whem it denotes a distinction which is not essential, or of im-
portance. Nihil perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive (seu)
potius turpissima fuga (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 3). Ascanius florentem
urbem matri seu novercae reliqvit (Liv. I. 8). (In the best writers,
when used singly, it is generally found with potius, in correction of what «*
has been previously said.) With sive — sive (by which, however, only
nouns and adverbs, and not verbs, eam be connected with this significa-
' tion), it is left undecided which member is the right one, as a thing
of no importance, so far as the purport of the sentence is concerned:
Ita sive casu sive consilio deorum immortalium, qvae pars civi-
tatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat,
ea princeps poenas persolvit (Cæs. B. G. I. 12).
§ 437. The ADvERsATIvE CONJUNCTIoNs are sed, autem, verum
(vero, ceterum), at. Yet it is to be remarked that these words
§ 437 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 393
often serve to introduce a mew independent proposition without any
grammatical connection, properly so called.
OBs. Autem and vero do not stand at the beginning of a proposi-
tion, but after a word, or two closely connected words, as, for example, a
preposition with its case (de republica vero); autem, even after seve-
ral, which canmot be well separated.
a. Sed denotes something which alters, limits, or sets aside what
goes before (and corresponds on the whole most mearly to the Eng-
lish but) : —
Ingeniosus homo, sed in omni vita inconstans. Non contentio
animi qvaeritur, sed relaxatio. Saepe ab amico tuo dissensi, sed
sime ulla ira. (Non qvod —, sed qvia ; non modo — sed, &c.) In
transitions it is employed where one leaves a subject and does not mention
it, further: Sed haec parva sunt ; veniamus ad majora. Ego a
Cvinto nostro non dissentio ; sed ea, qvae restant, audiamus
(Cie. Legg. III. 11).
b. With autem, om the contrary, we only add something that is
different from the preceding; and it denotes an opposition which
does mot set aside what goes before, or serves simply to add an ob-
servatiom or to continue the discourse : —
Gyges a nullo videbatur; ipse autem omnia videbat (Cic. Off.
III. 9). Mens mundi providet, primum ut mundus qvam aptissi-
mus sit ad permanendum, deinde ut nulla re egeat, maxime autem,
ut in eo eximia pulchritudo sit (Id. N. D. II. 22). Orationes
Caesaris mihi vehementer probantur; legi autem complures (ld.
Erut. 75). Nunc, qvod agitur, agamus; agitur autem, liberine
vivamus am mortem obeamus (Id. Phil. XI. 10). Est igitur homini
cum deo rationis societas ; inter qvos autem ratio, inter eos etiam
recta ratio communis est (Id. Legg. I. 7).
e. At emphatically calls the attention to something different and
opposed (on the other hand), and connects it with what goes before
rather as an independent proposition:—
Magnae divitiae, vis corporis, alia omnia hujusmodi brevi
dilabuntur; at ingenii egregia facinora immortalia sunt (Sall. Jug.
2). At is frequently employed to introduce in a new proposition am ob-
jection started by one's self or another, or the answer to an objection (yes,
òut) : At memoria minuitur (Cie. Cat. M. 7), certainly, but it is
said that the memory is impaired. Nisi forte ego vobis cessare
nunc videor, qvod bella non gero. At senatui, qvae sint ge- '
renda, praescribo, et qvomodo (Id. ib. 6). (This signification is still
394 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 437
stronger in at enim, at vero.) At oftem stands too in the signification
yet, however (at least, after conditional propositions) : Si se ipsos illi
nostri liberatores e conspectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum
reliqverunt (Cic. Phil. II. 44). Res, si non splendidae, at toler-
abiles (at tolerabiles tamen, attamen tolerabiles). At is also to be
notieed in interrogative exclamations subjoined to a sentence: Una
mater Cluentium oppugnat. At qvae mater ! (Cic. pro Cluent. 70).
Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur. At qvam rhetorice ! qvam
copiose ! (Id. Tusc. III. 26). And in prayers and wishes that break
out suddenly : At te di deaeqve perduint! (Ter. Hec. I. 2, 59).
OBs. Atqvi denotes an objection and assurance (pretty much
the same as yes, but indeed) ; in conclusioms it signifies but now
(further): Qvod si virtutes sunt pares, paria etiam vitia esse
necesse est. Atqvi pares esse virtutes facillime perspici potest
(Cic. Par. III. 1. Autem is likewise sometimes used in this sense).
d. Verum has nearly the same signification as sed (e.g. sed etiam
and verum etiam, and in transitions: Verum de his satis dictum
est), but somewhat more decidedly corrects what has gone before.
Ceterum is used by some writers (Sallust, Livy) instead of sed, or
verum, in many, but not in all combinations (e.g. not ceterum
etiam). Vero contains properly an assurance and confirmation
(certainly), but stands as a conjunction, when that which follows is
asserted and maintained still more strongly than that which pre-
cedes, particular emphasis falling on the word before vero:—
Musica Romanis moribus abest a principis persona, saltare vero
etiam in vitio ponitur (Corn. Epam. 1) ; or, saltare vero multo
etiam magis, or saltare vero ne libero qvidem dignum judicatur.
Tum vero furere Appius (historical infinitive), but then Appius
became quite raving. In the same way we find neqve vero, and (but)
also mot, and that mot : Est igitur causa omnis in opinione, nec vero
aegritudinis solum, sed etiam reliqvarum omnium perturbationum
(Cic. Tusc. III. 11). Vero may likewise be added to qvum — tum, to
emphasize the truth of a statement: Pompejus qvum semper tuae
laudi favere mihi visus est, tum vero, lectis tuis litteris, perspectus
est a me toto animo de te ac de tuis commodis cogitare (Cic. ad
Eam. I. 7). -
OBs. An adversative conjunction is often omitted, when the subjects
of two propositions are brought into contrast by the different things pred-
ieated of them ; or when the same thing differently qualified is predicated
of them. The same omission occurs between two subordinate propositions
which are coordinate with each other, providedtheir mutual relationis suffi-
sciently obvious without the conjunction: Opinionum commenta delet;
§ 439 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 395
dies, maturae judicia confirmat (Cic. N. D. II. 2). Opifices in artifi-
ciis suis utuntur vocabulis nobis incognitis, usitatis sibi (Id. Finn.
III. 2). Qvum primo Galli tantum avidi certaminis fuissent, deinde
'ERomanus miles ruendo in dimicationem aliqvantum Gallicam
ferociam vinceret, dictatori neutiqvam placebat fortunae se com-
mittere adversus hostem iis animis corporibusqve, qvorum omnis
in impetu vis esset, parvâ eâdem langvesceret morä (Liv. VII.
12). Qvid est, qvamobrem abs te Q. Hortensii factum non repre-
hendatur, reprehendatur meum (Cic. pro Sull. 1).
§ 438. Sometimes two coordinate propositions, whether connected
by means of autem and vero, or standing together without any con-
junction, must be understood to combine their meaning in such a
way, that they together only make one assertion. The sense might
therefore be expressed (and often is expressed in English) by sub-
ordinating the one proposition to the other by means of a conjunc-
tion. This form of expression is made use of, when, in order to
prove something, we seek to draw attention to the agreement, or
difference, compatibility or incompatibility, of two propositions, and
the combined propositions are either expressed interrogatively
(rarely in the negative), or attached to a leading proposition which
points to the combination of the two as incongruous or absurd.
Qvid igitur ? Hoc pueri possunt, viri non poterunt ? (Cic. Tusc.
II. 14). Cur igitur jus civile docere semper pulchrum fuit, ad
dicendum si qvis acuat aut adjuvet in eo juventutem vituperetur?
(Id. Or. 41), if therefore it was always a creditable thing —, why should
amy one öe censured — ? Est profecto divina vis, neqve in his cor-
poribus atqve in hac imbecillitate nostra inest qviddam, qvod
vigeat et sentiat, et non inest in hoc tanto naturae tam praeclaro
motu (Id. pro Mil. 31), and åf there is something in our bodies that
lives amd feels, it cannot be supposed that there is not, &c.). Qvid
causae est, cur Cassandra furens futura prospiciat, Priamus sapiens
idem facere non qveat ? (Id. Div. I. 39). Neminem oportet esse
tam stulte arrogantem, ut in se rationem et mentem putet inesse,
in caelo mundoqve non putet (Id. Legg. II. 7). A double question
of this kind is often connected with what precedes by an (or — ? § 453):
IAm ex hostium urbibus Romam ad nos transferri sacra religiosum
fuit, hinc sine piaculo in hostium urbem Vejos transferemus ?
(Liv. V. 52). ę
§ 439. (Subordinate Combination). Concerning the conjunctions
with which objective propositions are formed in the subjunctive, see
the Appendix to Chap. III. of this Part (§ 371 and the following) ;
396 LATIN GRAMMAB. § 440
concerning propositions with qvod to denote a relation actually sub-
sisting, see § 398, b.
OBs. 1. (Attraction). In object-clauses with conjunctions, or in de-
pendent questions, we sometimes find this irregularity, that a substantive
(or pronoun). that ought to be the subject in the object-clause, is drawn
into the leading proposition, either as the object of the verb or as the
subject, in case the verb would otherwise stand impersonally (as intran-
sitive or in the passive voice). In good prose, however, this Attraction is
very rare, and is found after an active verb only where the writer at first
contemplated another turn of expressiom, and afterwards added the sub-
ordinate proposition : Istuc, qvidqvid est, fac me, ut sciam (Ter.
Heaut. I. 1, 32). Simul vereor Pamphilum, ne orata nostra
neqveat diutius celare (Id. Hec. IV. 1, 60) = ne Pamphilus. Qvae
timebatis, ea ne accidere possent, consilio meo ac ratione provisa
sunt (Cic. de Leg. Agr. II. 37), instead of provisum est. Nam san-
`gvinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa, nervos, venas, omnem deniqve mem-
brorum et totius corporis figuram videor posse dicere, unde con-
creta et qvomodo facta sint (Id. Tusc. I. 24). Nosti Marcellum,
qvam tardus et parum efficax sit (Cael. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 10).
OBs. 2. Where by the pronouns hic and particularly ille, a fact
related to the main proposition is referred to, which fact is soon to be
stated, the statement oftem follows in an independent proposition with
enim or nam instead of a proposition with qvod: Atqve etiam illa
concitatio declarat vim in animis esse divinam. Negant enim
gine furore qvemqvam poëtam magnum esse posse (Cic. de Div. I.
37). Sed illa sunt lumina duo, qvae maxime causam istam con-
tinent. Primum enim negatis fieri posse, &c. (Id. Acad. II. 33).
'§ 440. a. A proposition expressing a result may either be con-
nected with a demonstrative word preceding, which signifies a
measure or degree (sic, ita, adeo, tam, tantus, talis, is, &c.) or
be annexed without any such correlative word. We should notice
the use of qvam ut after a comparative, signifying (greater) than
that, too (great) to. (Also, qvam qvi, § 308, Obs. 1.)
OBs. 1. Tantum abest, ut — ut (not ut potius): Tantum abest, ut
amicitiae propter indigentiam colantur, ut ii, qvi propter virtutem
minime alterius indigeant, liberalissimi sint atqve beneficentis-
simi (Cic. Lael. 14). Sometimes, after tantum abest, ut, the second
proposition is put independently, instead ofbeing connected by ut as a
proposition expressing a result. Tantum abfuit, ut inflammarea
nostros animos; vix somnum tenebamus (Cic. Brut. 87).
§ 440 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 397
OBS. 2. Both an object-clause with ut and a result may sometimes
stand with the same leading proposition: At ceteris forsitam ita
petitum sit, ut dicerent, ut utrumvis salvo officio facere se posse
arbitrarentur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 1).
OBs. 3. Ut non (in such a way, that — mot) is used after a negative
proposition to denote a neeessary and inevitable consequence (mot —
without) ; e.g. Ruere illa non possunt, ut haec non eodem labefacta
motu concidant (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 7). The same meaming is ex-
pressed by qvin ; e.g. Nunqvam accedo, qvin abs te abeam doctior
(Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 21). Qvim, that mot (see § 375, c, Obs. 4), is gen-
erally employed after negative assertions (nemo, nihil est, &c.), and
after questions which have a negative force (qvis est, &c.), to express
what holds universally without any exception: Nihil est, qvin male
narrando possit depravari (Ter. Phorm. IV. 4, 16) = qvod non.
Nullus ést cibus tam gravis, qvin is die et nocte concoqvatur (Cie.
N. D. II. 9) = qvi nom. Hortensius nullum patiebatur esse diem
qvin aut in foro diceret aut meditaretur extra forum (Id. Brut.
88). Nunqvam tam male est Siculis, qvin aliqvid facete et com-
mode dicant (Id. Verr. IV. 43).
OBs. 4. Ut takes the signification of although, even suppose that,
from first signifying, ** even if we suppose the ease that ; ° the proposition
is therefore a result, and is expressed negatively with ut mom : Ut
qvaeras omnia, qvomodo Graeci ineptum appellent, non reperies
(Cic. de Or. II. 4). Verum ut hoc non sit, tamen praeclarum spec-
taculum mihi propono (Id. ad Att. II. 15).
OBS. 5. Qvo, that so much (= ut eo), is used when a comparative
- follows (qvo facilius, that so much more easily = that the more easily).
In a few cases, it is equivalent to a simple ut, or has the meaning that
thereby ; e.g. Deos hominesqve testamur, nos arma neqve contra
patriam cepisse neqve qvo pericula aliis faceremus (Sall. Cat. 33).
Qvare, also, is sometimes used to signify either that by those means, or
(so) that on, that account : Permulta sunt, qvae dici possunt, qvare
intelligatur, summam tibi fuisse facultatem maleficii suscipiendi
(Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 33).
OBS. 6. A proposition denoting a design sometimes indieates, not the
object of the leading proposition given, but the design with which the
statement is made, the proposition on which it really depends being
omitted for the sake of brevity : Senectus est natura loqvacior; ne
ab omnibus eam vitiis videar vindicare (Cic. Cat. Maj. 16), which I
mentiom, that I may not, &c. A similar omission is sometimes found
with si, qvoniam, qvandoqvidem; e.g. Qvandoqvidem est apud
te virtuti honos, ut beneficio tuleris a me, qvod minis neqvisti,
trecenti conjuravimus principes juventutis Romanae, ut in te
398 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 442
hac via grassaremur (Liv. I. 12), that you may, &c., I will tell you,
three hundred of us, &c.
§ 441. Concerning the causal conjunctions (which indicate either
a proper cause, or simply an occasion and some general relation
which constitutes the motive for an action; quod, qvia, qvum, qvo-
niam, more forcibly expressed qwoniam qvidem, qvamdo, qvamdo-
qvidem), nothing further is to be observed in a grammatical point
of view (with reference to the form of the proposition) than what
has been laid down above in Chap. III. (§§ 357, 358) concerning
the mood of propositions so connected. On the conjunctions of
time, and the form of the propositions which they connect, see, also,
Chapters II. and III. (§§ 358, 359, 360).
OBs. We may also notice ut in the signification of since : Utillos
libros edidisti, nihil a te postea accepimus (Cic. Brut. 5); also,
Annus est, qvum (ex qvo) illum vidi.
§ 442. a. Of the CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONs it is to be ob-
served, that si in descriptions and narratives sometimes designates
rather each repeated occasion (as often as, every time that), than a
condition (§ 359). The limitations of its meaning are more precise
in the expressions simodo, si qvidem, if indeed (sometimes nearly
causal, since), si maxime, if ever so much ; si forte, if by chance;
sijam, if now ; ita Si, under the condition, in case that. Sometimes
a proposition has two conditions annexed to it, the one more general
(more remote), and the other more special (proximate):—
Si quis istorum dixisset, qvos videtis adesse, in quibus summa
auctoritas est, si verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura dix-
isse, qvam dixisset, putaretur (Cic. Rosc. Am. 1). (For the ar-
rangement, compare $ 476, b ; and concerning si as an interrogative
particle, see below, § 451, d.)
OBS. 1. Tum, or (more forcibly) tum vero (then, indeed), is some-
times used in the apodosis, where a circumstance is to be marked em-
phatically or contrasted with others: Si id actum est, fateor me er-
rasse qui hoc maluerim ; sin autem victoria nobilium ornamento
atgve emolumento reipublicae debet esse, tum vero optimo et
nobilissimo cuiqve mean orationem gratissimam esse oportet
(Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 49). Haec si et ages et senties, tum eris non
modo consul, sed magnus etiam consul (Id. ad Fam. X. 6). (Si —
at, see $437, c.)
§ 442 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 399
OBS. 2. In animated discourse, instead of a protasis with si, the con-
dition is sometimes enunciated in an independent proposition, and that
which would have been the apodosis follows also in a distinct proposi-
tion. In such cases, the indicative is used (sometimes in an interroga-
tive form), when a thing is spoken of, which actually occurs now and
then, or perhaps will occur, its real existence being here neither affirmed
nor denied; otherwise, the subjunctive, as relating to an imaginary
assumption ($ 352): De paupertate agitur, multi patientes pau-
peres commemorantur; de contemmendo honore, multi inhono-
rati proferuntur (Cic. Tusc. III. 24). Rides, majore cachinno
concutitur; flet, silacrimas conspexit amici (Juv. III. 100). Roges
me (suppose you were to ask me) qvalem deorum naturam esse
ducam, nihil fortasse respondeam; quaeras, putemne talem esse,
qvalis modo a te sit exposita, nihil dicam mihi videri minus (Cic.
N. D. I. 21). Dares hano vim M. Crasso, ut digitorum percus-
sione heres posset scriptus esse, qvi re vera non esset heres, in
foro, mihi crede, saltaret (Id. Off. III. 19). In a real protasis of a
hypothetical sentence, on the contrary, si is only omitted by the poets in
some few passages, where the connection and the form of the verb make
the relation sufficiently obvious: Tu qvoqve magnam partem opere
in tanto, sineret dolor, Icare, haberes (Virg. Æn. VI. 30).
OBS. 3. In order to show that a certain conseqence does not follow
from a particular condition or relation, the negative precedes the condi-
tional proposition: Non, si Opimium defendisti, Carbo, idcirco te
isti bonum civem putabunt (Cic. de Or. II. 40). (Non, si !
idcirco non, it does not follow, that — not § 460.)
b. Sin (as well as sin autem) stands for si to signify but if, if,
on the other hand, either after another protasis with si, or without
any such preceding it: —
Si plane a nobis' deficis, moleste fero; sin Pansae assentari
commodum est, ignosco (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 12). Luxuria quum
omni aetati turpis tum senectuti foedissima est; sin autem etiam
libidinum intemperantia accessit, duplex malum est (Id. Off. I.
34). Sive stands for vel si, or if; e.g. Postulo, sive aeqvum est,
oro (Ter. Andr. I. 2, 19) = vel, si aeqvum est, oro, as it is also ex-
pressed. Sive—sive repeated, with a common apodosis, signifies
whether—or (§ 332, Obs.). But sive—sive may stand in such a way,
that each sive forms the protasis to a distinct apodosis, when two cases
are put, and the consequence assigned to each (a dilemma): Sive enim
ad sapientiam perveniri potest, non paranda solum ea, Bed fruenda
etiam est; sive hoc difficile est, tamen nullins est modufi investi-
400 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 442
gandi veri (Cic. Finn. I. 1). (In English, this ean only be distin-
guished by a periphrasis from si — sim: For one can either attain wisdom
or not ; in the first case, &c.)
OBs. For sive volo, sive nolo, the expression velim, nolim (sup-
pose I vere villing, suppose Iwere unwilling = whether I wish it or not)
is also used in familiar language.
c. A negative condition is expressed by nisi, f not (unless), in
such a way as to exclude the case in which a thing does not occur ;
while, when this condition is wanting, it does or would occur, does,
or would do so. (Ni is antiquated, but occurs in certain expres-
sions of legal phraseology and of daily life, and in some few other
instances ; e.g. ita; ni ita est. For nisi we sometimes find nisi si,
eaccept £f, eaccept in case that.) Si non, with an emphasis on the
negation, is used only where non is united with the following verb
so as to form one negative idea (not to do, not to be), which is put
forward in opposition to the affirmative notion, so that the case in
which a thing holds, or will hold, is negatively expressed:—
Glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si
Metellus hanc epistolam non misisset (Cic. Verr. III. 18), §f Me-
tellus had omitted to semd this letter. Fuit apertum, si Conon non
fuisset (jf it had not been for Conon), Agesiliaum Asiam Tauro tenus
regi erepturum fuisse (Corn. Con. 2). Aeqvitas tollitur omnis, si
habere suum cuiqve non licet (Cic. Off. II. 22), §f hindrances are
laid in the way Qf every man's keeping his own.
In most cases nisi may also be here used, with a slight difference; e.g.
Nisi Conon fuisset; yet not always; e.g. Si feceris id, qvod os-
tendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, ignoscam (Cic.
ad Fam. V. 19). In the signification though not —, yet, we never have
nisi, but si nom (also si minus, chiefly where there is no separate verb
attached); e.g. Si mihi republica bona frui non licuerit, at carebo
mala (Cic. pro Mil. 34). Cum spe, si non bona, at aliqva tamen
vivere. Hoc si minus verbis, re confiteri cogitur (Cic. de Fat. 10).
If not, without a verb, in opposition to something going before, is ex-
pressed by si (sim) minus, more rarely si non: Si id assecutus sum,
gaudeo; sin minus, hoc me tamen consolor, qvod posthac nos
- vises (Cie. ad Fam. VII. 1). Si qvid novisti rectius istis, candi-
dus imperti; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 67).
OBs. 1. Nisi forte, umless perchamce, eaccept om the supposition that,
connects a limitation and exeeption with the foregoing : Nemo fere
saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit (Cic. pro Mur. 6). An ironieal or
§ 443 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 401
taunting conjecture is often added in this way : Non possum reperire
qvamobrem te in istam amentiam incidisse arbitrer, nisi forte id
egisti (umless, perchamce, this was your ol)ject), ut hominibus ne ob-
livisci qvidem rerum tuarum male gestarum liceret (Cic. Verr. III.
80). (Nisi vero is always ironical.)
OBS. 2. Nisi is subjoined to negatives and questions with a negative
sense with the signification of but or eæcept : Qvod adhuc nemo nisi
improbissimus fecit, posthac nemo nisi stultissimus non faciet
(Cic. Verr. III. 94). Qvem unqvam senatus civem nisi me (=
praeter me) nationibus exteris commendavit ? (Id. pro Sest. 60).
Nunqvam vidi animam rationis participem in ulla alia misi hu-
mana figura (Id. N. D. I. 31). Nihil aliud fecerunt nisi rem de-
tulerunt (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 37). In this way, non and nisi often
belong to one phrase (not — eaccept, only), but in the best writers they
are usually separated by their position: Primum hoc sentio, nisi in
lbonis viris amicitiam esse non posse (Cic. Læl. 5).
OBs. 3. After a negative proposition (or one which has a negative
force), nisi (nisi tamen) introduces an exception (only, omly so much,
3yet) : De re nihil possum judicare; nisi illud mihi persvadeo, te,
talem virum, nihil temere fecisse (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 73). Plura
de Jugurtha scribere dehortatur me fortuna mea, et jam antea
expertus sum, parum fidei miseris esse. Nisi tamen intelligo,
illum supra, qvam ego sum, petere (Sall. Jug. 24). (Nisi qvod,
eaeeept in so far as, oecurs also after affirmative propositions: Tuscu-
lanum et Pompejanum valde me delectant; nisi qvod me aere
alieno obruerunt, Cic. ad Att. II. 1).
§ 443. CONCEssIvE CONJUNCTIONs are those which denote some
opposing circumstance, notwithstanding which the leading proposi-
tion is true, and may signify, either simply that we allow such
circumstance to be assumed, or that we actually assert it as a fact ;
such are qvamvis, licet, qvanqvam, etsi, tametsi (tamemetsi), eti-
amsi, usually employed when the concessive proposition comes first,
with tamen following. See § 361, with the Observations. (Ut, sup-
pose even, even êf; see § 440, a, Obs. 4. Qvum, whereas, while on
the other hand ; see § 358, Obs. 3.) Of these, qvanqvam, etsi, and
tametsi (most frequently qvamqvam) are also so used, that they
do not indicate a subordinate proposition, but annex a remark by
which the preceding statement is limited and corrected, in an inde-
pendent form as a leading proposition (however, and 3yet, certainly,
although): —
26
402 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 444
Qvanqvam non sumus ignari, multos studiose contra esse dic-
turos. Qvanqvam qvid loqvor ? Qvanqvam qvis ignorat, tria
Graecorum esse genera? (This is often done when the preceding
train of thought is broken off as useless or superfluous). Etsi persa-
pienter et qvodam modo tacite dat ipsa lex potestatem defen-
dendi (Cic. pro Mil. 4), yet it is superfluous to argue that the law must
sometimes give way to higher considerations, for the law itse!f* •
IMihi etiam qvi optime dicunt, tamen, nisi timide ad dicendum
accedunt, et in exordienda oratione perturbantur, paene impu-
dentes videntur. Tametsi id accidere non potest (Cic. de Or.
I. 26).
OBS. Later writers combine concessive particles without a verb of
their own, not only with participles (see § 424, Obs. 4, § 428, Obs. 2),
but also with adjectives, and other words used to qualify a pro-
position; e.g. Cicero immanitatem parricidii, qvanqvam per se
manifestam, tamen etiam vi orationis exaggerat (Quint. IX. 2, 53,
for qvanqvam per se manifesta est). In the earlier writers, qvamvis
only is found with an adjective, in the signification though ever so; e.g.
Si hoc onere carerem, qvamvis parvis Italiae latebris contentus
essem (Cic. ad Fam. II. 16).
§ 444. The COMPARATIvE CoNJUNCTIONS are of two kinds.
a. A resemblance (as, in the same way as) is expressed by the parti-
cles ut, uti (ut — ita, item; which also signify as, for example), sicut,
velut (also signifying for example), ceu (in the poets, and later prose-
writers), tanqvam (also signifying as £f, see Obs. 1), qvasi (as íf,
see the same Obs.); also, qvemadmodum, in the comparison of two
propositions (rarely, qvomodo). (Prout, in proportion as ; pro eo,
ut , pro eo, qvantum .)
OBs. 1. Tanqvam rarely (and qvasi still more , rarely) denotes a
comparison of two things, both of which are stated as actual facts
-(Artifex partium in republica tanqvam in scena optimarum, Cic.
pro Sest. 56, an actor, who plays the best part in the state, as well as
„on the stage. Tanqvam poetae boni solent, sic tu in extrema parte
muneris tui diligentisBimus esse debes, Id. ad Q. Fr. I. I. c, 16).
In this ease, the idea is generally expressed by ut, sicut, qvemadmo-
dum — ita. A hypothetical proposition, which is only assumed for the
sake of comparison (as if, § 349) is expressed by tanqvam or tanqvam
si, velut si (ut si, rarely velut alone) and qvasi. Qvasi (qvasi vero)
is particularly used, when in derision, or to correct an erroneous suppo-
tion, we state what is nof the ease : Qvasi ego id curem ! As if I
cared for that ! Qvasi vero haec similia sint (non multum intersit)!
§ 444 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 403
(Perinde, or proinde qvasi, perinde tanqvam, in the same way as 3f,
perinde ac si).*
OBs. 2. Qvasi stands before a word, to signify that it is used to ex-
press a thing figuratively, and by way of approximation ; e.g. Servis
respublica qvaedam et qvasi civitas domus est (Plin. Ep. VIII.
16). Qvasi morbus qvidam, qvasi qvoddam vinculum.)
OBs. 3. A comparison by means of ut — ita (sic) is oftem made use
of, in order to draw attention to a difference, and to limit the first mem-
her by the second, with the signification certainly — but (om the othcr
hand) : Ut errare potuisti (qvis enim id effugerit ?) sic decipi te
non potuisse, qvis non videt? (Cic. ad Fam. X. 20). Consul ut
fortasse vere, sic parum utiliter in praesens certamen respondit
(Liv. IV. 6). On the use of ut — ita with qvisqve, see § 495. Ita
(with a wish) — ut is used in oaths (so truly , as) : Ita me dii
ament, ut ego nunc non tam mea causa laetor qvam illius
(Ter. Heaut. IV. 1, 8); the wish may also be inserted in the affirmation
as a parenthesis, without ut : Saepe, ita me dii juvent, te auctorem
consiliorum meorum desideravi (Cic. ad Att. I. 16). (Compare
peream, si § 348, Obs. 4.)
OBS. 4. Notice the form of expression in the following : Ajunt homi-
nem, ut erat furiosus, respondisse, &e. (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 12, where
the adjective is introduced into the clause expressing comparison, raging
as he was = qvo erat furore, not hominem furiosum, ut erat).
OBs. 5. Where am example is added to confirm what precedes, this
is mot put, as in English, in a demonstrative form (so, for eæample, your
father lately told me), but relatively with ut (velut): Ut nuper pater
tuus mihi narravit
b, Qvam and ac (atqve) are used as conjunctions which merely
connect the members of a comparison, without themselves express-
ing similarity (or equality). Qvam stands after tam (so — as), after
comparatives and words with a comparative signification, as ante,
post, supra, malo, praestat. (Dimidius, multiplex qvam.) Ac,
which is also a simple copulative conjunction, has the signification of
as, than, &c., with adjectives and adverbs which denote similarity
or dissimilarity (equality or inequality) ; namely, similis, dissimilis,
similiter, par, pariter, aeqve, juxta, perinde or proinde, contra-
rius, contra, alius, aliter, secus, pro eo (în proportion as), and
sometimes after idem, talis, totidem, for qvi, qvalis, qvot (§ 328,
1 Perinde ac instead of perinde ac si, and sicut instead of velut si, are rare ex-
pressions,
404 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 445
b) ; also in combination with si (perinde, similis, similiter, pari-
ter, juxta, idem ac si, as àf) : —
Amicos aeqve ac semetipsos diligere oportet. Ibate operam,
ne simili utamur fortuna atqve antea usi sumus (Ter. Phorm. Prol.
38). Similiter facis, ac si me roges, cur te duobus contuear ocu-
lis (Cic. N. D. III. 3). Aliter, atqve ostenderam, facio (Id. ad
Fam. II. 3). Longe alia nobis, ac tu scripseras, narrantur (Id. ad
Att. XI. 10). Non dixi secus, ac sentiebam (Id. de Or. II. 6).
Philosophia non proinde, ac de hominum vita merita est, lauda-
tur (Id. Tusc. V. 2). Cornelii filius Sullam accusat, idemqve
valere debet, ac si pater indicaret (Id. pro Sull. 18). •
OBs. 1. Aeqve, juxta, proinde, . contra, and secus, are also, but
less frequently, constructed with qvam. Alius, aliter, may stand with
qvam, if the proposition in which they occur is negative, or interroga-
tive with a negative sense, and sometimes under other circumstances, in
the later writers (from Livy, downwards) : Agitur nihil aliud in hac
causa, qvam ut nullum sit posthac in re publica publicum con-
Bilium (Cic. pro Rab. perd. 2). Cavebo, ne aliter Hortensius,
qvam ego velim, meum laudet ingenium (Id. Verr. I. 9). Jovis
epulum num alibi qvam in Capitolio fieri potest ? (Liv. V. 52).
Te alia omnia, qvam qvae velis, agere moleste fero (Plin. Ep. VII.
15). Instead of nihil (qvid) aliud qvam, we oftem find nihil (qvid)
aliud nisi; e.g. Bellum ita suscipi debet, ut nihil aliud nisi pax
qvaesita videatur (Cic. Off. I. 23). (See § 442, c, Obs. 2.)
OBs. 2. Instead of similis, similiter, proinde ac si, we also find si-
milis, similiter, proinde ut si, tanqvam si, qvasi.
OBS. 3. A eopulative clause may occasionally supply the place of a
comparative; e.g. Haec eodem tempore Caesari mandata refere-
bantur et legati ab Aeduis et a Treviris veniebant (Cæs. B. G. I.
87), at one and the same time Cæsar received these orders and ambassa-
dors came Et is very rarely found after alius, and other words,
where it cannot be understood as purely copulative.
OBs. 4. In the poets, and later writers, the word expressing compari-
son is sometimes repeated, without a conjunction: Aeqve pauperibus
prodest, locupletibus aeqve (Hor. Ep. I. 1, 25).
§ 445. The use of relative propositions in Latin has some pecu-
liarities. • -
A relative proposition may again have a subordinate proposition
appended to it, to which it stands in the relation of a leading prop-
osition ; e.g. Ut ignava animalia, qvae jacent torpentqve, si
cibum iis suggeras, If, then, the relative refers to the same per-
$ 445 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 405
son or thing (as the demonstrative) in the subordinate proposition:
(like iis in the above example), the relative may be incorporated
in the proposition which was subordinate to it, but now takes the
lead of it, and may have its case determined by the new coustruc-
tion (so that in the leading proposition a demonstrative is to be
supplied from the subordinate): — -
Ut ignava animalia, qvibus si cibum suggeras, jacent torpentave
(Tac. Hist. III. 36); just as one may say, Ignavis animalibus sicibum
suggeras, jacent torpentave). Is enim fueram, cui quum liceret
majores ex otio fructus capere quam ceteris, non dubitaverin me
gravissimis tempestatibus obvium ferre (Cic. R. P. L. 4) = qvi
qvum mihi liceret —, non dubitaverin.
In the next place a connection may be formed by a relative pro-
noun between a leading and subordinate proposition (a protasis and
apodosis), in which the relative pronoun belongs exclusively to the
subordinate proposition (without being at the same time understood
as a demonstrative in the leading proposition). Propositions thus
connected are expressed in English either by resolving the relative
into a demonstrative (which belongs to the subordinate proposition)
and a conjunction (belonging to the leading proposition) or by a
circumlocution; sometimes the subordinate proposition may be ren-
dered by an infinitive or a substantive with a preposition: – -
Easvasi Pompejo, qvibus ille si paruisset, Caesar tantas opes,
qvantas nunc habet, non haberet (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 6) = ut, si ille
iis paruisset, Caesar tantas opes habiturus non fuerit, &c. Noli
adversus eos me velle ducere, cum qvibus ne contra to arma fer-
rem, Italiam reliqvi (Corn. Att. IV.) = against those with whom I was
so unwilling to bear arms against you, that I left Italy for that very'
reason. Ea mihi dedisti, qvae ut conseqverer, qvemvis laborem,
suscepturus fui, the very thing for the attainment of which I, &c.
Populus Romanus tum ducem habuit, qvalis si qvi nunc esset,
tibi idem, qvod illis accidit, contigisset (Cic. Phil. II. 7). .*
In this way two relatives sometimes come together in the same
sentence (in different cases), when its subordinate proposition is
already relative for some other reason: — -
Epicurus non satis politus est iis artibus, qvas qui tenent, eru-
diti appellantur (Cic. Finn. I. 7, the possessors of which are called
learned, or, the possession of which procures one the appellation of
learned). Infima est condicio et fortuna servorum, qvibus, non
406. LATIN GRAMMAR. ` § 447
male praecipiunt, qvi ita jubent uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13).
(Ea mihi eripere conantur qvae, si adempta fuerint, nulla dignita-
tis meae conservandae spes relinqvitur = qvibu8 ademptis, § 428,
Obs. 7).
§ 446. A relative clause is in a peculiar manner introduced into
or placed before a proposition, to show the relation of this proposi-
tion to some quality or charaeteristie of the person or thing spoken
of in the proposition. This quality, or characteristic, is mentioned
in the relative clause, of which it, is usually the subject, with sum;
but it sometimes forms a genitive or ablative of quality with the
relative, and as such qualifies the subject of the main proposition : —
Si mihi negotium permisisses, qvi meus amor inte est, confecis-
sem (Cie. âd Fam. VII. 2), such is my love to you. Spero, qvae tua
prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, vivere (Id. ad
Att. VI. 9). Qva es prudentia, nihil te fugiet (Id. ad Fam. XI. 3).
Ajax, qvo animo traditur (sc. fuisse), millies oppetere mortem.
qvam illa perpeti maluisset (Id. Off. I. 31). (The same sense may
be expressed by pro: Tu pro tua prudentia, qvid optimum factu
sit, videbis, Cic. ad Fam. X. 27). - -
OBs. Qvantus is sometimes used in the same way: Qvanta in-
genia in nostris hominibus esse video, non despero fore aliqvem
aliqvando, qvi existat talis orator, qvalem qvaerimus (Cic. de Or.
I. 21), considerimg the great abilities which, Illis, qvantum
importunitatis habent, parum est impune male fecisse (Sall.
Jug. 31).
§ 447. Where in English the subject of a proposition is described :
by means of the verb to be, and a superlative, or an ordinal numeral,
or a substantive with an adjective, followed by a relative clause, in
Latin only a simple proposition is used, while the superlative, or.
ordinal, is used appositively : —
Primum omnium Sejum vidimus, the first man we saw was Sejus.
Hoc firmissimo utimur argumento (or ex argumentis, qvibus uti-
mur, firmissimum hoc est, with the relative proposition referring to the
whole elass ; not argumentum firmissimum, qvo utimur, hoc est).
Caesar explorat, qvo commodissimo itinere vallem transire pos-
sit (Cæs. B. G. V. 49). Non contemnendus hic hostis advenit,
it is no contemptible enemy that is eoming here.'
1 Ùharilaus fuit, qvi ad Publium Philonem venit, et tradere se ait, moe- .
nia statuisse (Liv. VIII. 25), i.e. there was a certain Charilaus there : he came — : nct, I?
was Charilaus, who (Charilaus ad lE'hilomem venit). -*
§ 449 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 407
§ 448. The Latins often use the relative pronoun, not to connect
a subordinate proposition, but as a demonstrative, in order to con-
tinue the discourse in a new proposition, so that qvi stands for is,
while it at the same time connects the proposition with the preced-
ing, almost like et is (never, therefore, where et or some other par-
ticle of transition is actually made use of.) But this can only be
done when no emphasis rests on the pronoun (on account of an
antithesis or the like). Qvi may also be used in this way in a
protasis, and in combination with such conjunctions as mark a pro-
tasis; e.g. qui quum (= et qYum is). In the same way are
employed the relative particles quare, qvamobrem, qvapropter,
qvocirca (and therefore) : —
Caesar eqvitatum omnem mittit, qvi videant, qvas in partes
hostes iter faciant. Qvi, Cupidius novissimum agnmen insecuti,
alieno loco cum equitatu Helvetiorum proelium committunt
(Caes. B. G. I. 15). Postremo insidias vitae hujusce Sex. Roscii
parare coeperunt, neqve arbitrabantur se posse diutius alienam
pecuniam domino incolumi obtinere. Qvod hic simulatove sensit,
de amicorum cognatorumqve sententia Roman confugit (Cic. pro
Rosc. Am. 9), as soon as he observed this. Qvae q.vum ita sint, nihil
censeo mutandum (now this being the state of the case).
OBs. 1. Sometimes such a relative refers more freely to a person or
thing not named in the words which immediately precede it, but sug-
gested by the connection, and mentioned not long before; e.g. Ad
illam quam institui, causam frumenti ac decumarum revertar.
Qvi qvum agros maximos per se ipsum depopularetur, ad mi-
nores civitates habebat alios quos immitteret (Cic. Verr. III. 36,
of Verres, whose conduct is the subject of the whole passage).
OBs. 2. In Latin, neither an adversative conjunction (autem, vero).
nor one that expresses a conclusion (igitur, ideo) can be attached to the
relative. Yet sed qvi is used in opposition to a preceding adjective
(but in this case the sed connects the adjective with the omitted antece-
dent of qui): Vir bonus, sed qwi omnia negligenter agat. But if
a compound proposition begins with a relative clause, the conjunction
which belongs to the leading proposition is drawn into it: Qvae autem
(igitur) cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile explentur =IBae
autem (igitur) cupiditates, qvae, &c.
§ 449. Qvod (properly the neuter of the relative pronoun) some-
times stands before a conjunction belonging to a subordinate propo-
sition which begins a period, to denote the connection of the thought ,
with the preceding, especially before si and nisi (qvod si, now if,
408 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 450
and âf, but áf, qvod nisi), but also before etsi, qvia, qvoniam, and
utinam:—
Qvod si corporis gravioribus morbis vitae jucunditas impedi-
tur, qvanto magis animi morbis impediri necesse est ? (Cic. Finn.
I. 18), and if—. Coluntur tyranni duntaxat ad tempus. Qvod
si forte ceciderunt, tum intelligitur, qvam fuerint inopes amico-
rum (Id. Læl. 15), but if they fal! Qvodsi illinc inanis pro-
fugisses, tamen ista tua fuga nefaria, proditio consulis tui scelerata.
judicaretur (Id. Verr. I. 14), now even íf Qvod nisi Metel-
lus hoc tam graviter egi8set atqve illam rem imperio prohibuisset,
vestigium statuarum Verris in tota Sicilia nullum esset relictum
(Id. ib. II. 66). Qvod etsi ingeniis magnis praediti qvidam di-
cendi copiam sine ratione conseqvuntur, ars tamen est dux cer-
tior qvam natura (Id. Finn. IV. 4), amd even êf Qvod qvia
nuIlo modo sine amicitia firmam et perpetuam jucunditatem
vitae temere possumus, idcirco amicitia cum voluptate connecti-
tur (Id. ib. I. 20). In other cases, when qvod stands before qvum
and ubi, it has its original signification as a relative pronoun (im the place
of the demonstrative) in such a way that that which is briefly indicated
By the pronoun is afterwards expressed more definitely by an accusatiye
with the infinitive (according to § 395, Obs. 6), by which means the pro-
noum becomes superfluous : e.g. Criminabatur etiam M. Pomponius I.
IManlium, qvod Titum filium, qvi postea est Torqvatus, appellatus
ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare jussisset. Qvod qvum
audisset adolescens filius, negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse
Romam dicitur (Cic. Off. III. 81), when the son observed this,
that .1
§ 450. A direct question, in which no interrogative pronoun, pro-
nominal adjective, or adverb is used, may be put without any parti-
cle, which marks its interrogative charaeter, if it is asked with an
expression of doubt and surprise ; a question expressed affirmatively
implying that the answer is expected in the negative, and vice
®e^SO, : —
Tantimal eficii crimen probare te, Eruci, censes posse talibus
viris, si ne causam qvidem maleficii protuleris ? (Cic. Rosc. Am.
26). Ut omittam vim et naturam deorum, ne homines qvidem
censetis, nisi imbecilli essent, futuros beneficos et benignos
fuisse ? (Id. N. D. I. 44). Clodius insidias fecit Miloni ? (Id. pro
Mil. 22). Rogas ? (Id. ib. 22), Can you ask ? Infelix est Fabri-
•———
1 The first-mentioned use of qvod is traced in a, similar manmer.
§ 451 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 409
cius, qvod rus suum fodit? (Sen. de Prov. 8). Qvid ? non sciunt
ipsi viam, domum qva redeant ? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 25). Non pu-
det philosophum in eo gloriari, qvod haec non timeat? (Cic. Tusc.
I. 21).
A single dependent question (not disjunctive) must always be
distinguished by an interrogative particle.*
§ 451. The particles which serve to designate a single question
are ne (attached to the end of a word). num (numme, nummam,
mumqvid, ecqvid), with a negative nonne (si, whether). (Con-
cerning am and utrum see under the head of the disjunctive ques-
tion, §§ 452, 453.)
a. Ne, when affixed to a verb, denotes a question in general, without
any accessory significatiom (affirmative or negative): Venitne pater?
Yet it, sometimes implies (im direct questions) an affirmation, so that
it has nearly the same force as nonne : Videmusne (videsne), ut
pueri me verberibus qvidem a contemplandis rebus perqvirendis-
qve deterreantur ? (Cic. Finn. V. 18). Estne Sthenius is, qvi
omnes honores domi suae magnificentissime gessit? (Id. Verr. II.
46). If, om the other hand, ne is attached to another word than the
verb, its effect is to express surprise, sometimes a doubt : Apollinemme
tui Delium spoliare ausus es? IIline tu templo tam sancto manus
impias afferre conatus es ? (Cic. Verr. I. 18). (It rarely has this
force with a verb: Potestne, Crasse, virtus servire ? Id. de Or. I.
52). In dependent, questions, this accessory signification is lost sight
of, and it is rendered in English by whether: Qvaero de Regillo
Lepidi filio, rectene meminerim, patre vivo mortuum, Cic. ad Att.
XII. 24.)*
b. Num, in direct questions, almost always implies that a negative reply
is expected; in dependent propositions, it only asks the question (whether).
The doubt is expressed somewhat more strongly by numne (with the
addition of the enclitie ne): Num negare audes ? (Cic. in Cat. I. 4).
Num facti Pamphilum piget ? Num ejus color pudoris signum
usqvam indicat? (Ter. Andr. V. 3, 6). Numne, si Coriolanus
habuit amicos, ferre contra patriam arma illi cum Coriolano debu-
erunt ? Num Viscellinum amici regnum appetentem debuerunt
adjuvare ? (Cic. Læl. 11). (Num qvid vis ? Have you amy com-
mands? without a negative signification.) Legati speculari jussi sunt,
r—
1 The following is a direct questiom : IDic mihi: Tysippus eodem aere, eadem
temperatione, ceteris omnibus centum Alexandros ejusdemmodi facere
non posset (Cic. Acad. II. 26): Tell me ; could mot Lysippus —?
* Aim* tu ? Ain* vero ? Do you say so ? What do you say?
410 {. LATIN GRAMMAR. § 45l
nu-m sollicitati animi sociorum a rege Perseo essent (Liv. XLII.
19). The simple interrogative phrase is strengthened by the addition
of qvid (in the accusative, according to § 229, b) : Numqvid duas
habetis patrias ? (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Scire velim, numqvid me-
cegse sit esse Romae (Id. ad Att. XII. 8). The Same is expressed, in
falailiar language, by nummam (as in qvisnam, numqvisnam).
OBs. Ecqvid also stands as a mere interrogative particle, when we
draw a person's attention to something: Qvid est, Catilina? Ecqvid
attendis? Ecqvid animadvertis horum silentium ? (Cic. in Cat.
1. 8). (Qvid venis ? Wfiy do you come ?)
e. Nonne expresses a, question to which an affirmative answer is
expected, an appeal being made to that which the person addressed must
ad mit and acknowledge: Qvid ? canis nonne similis lupo ? (Cic.
IN. D. I. 35). Si qvi rex, si qva natio fecisset aliqvid in civem
ERGmanum ejusmodi, nonne publice vindicaremus ? non bello
perseqveremur ? (Id. Verr. V. 58). (In this way, where there are
repetitions, nonne often stands only in the first clause): Qvaesitum
ex Socrate est, Archelaum, Perdiccae filium, nonne beatum puta-
ret (Cic. Tusc. V. 12).
OBS. By a question with nonne, a certainty is expressed, that a thing
is so, by a question with non (see above) surprise, that a thing is mot so
(does not take place), and a doubt of the possibility of its being denied:
Nonne meministi, qvid paullo ante dixerim ? (Do you mot remem-
ber ? You remember, surely, —.) Tu hoc non vides? (Do you,
restlly not see this ?) Yet nonne is sometimes found where we should
expect simply non. -
d. Si sometimes stands in dependent questions, in the signification
w' ether : Visam, si domi est (Ter. Heaut. I. 1, 118; with the indica-
tiye instead of the subjunctive). Philopoemen qvaesivit, si Lycor-
ta5 incolumis evasisset (Liv. XXXIX. 50). Yet this is rare in
prose, except with exspecto, and with verbs which designate an attempt
(experior, tento, conor), after which it is the conjunction commonly
used: Ser. Sulpicius non recusavit, qvominus vel extremo spiritu,
Ei qvam opem reipublicae ferre posset, experiretur (Cic. Phil. IX.
1). Tentata res est, si primo impetu capi Ardea posset (Liv. I.
57). From this it comes that even where no such verb has preceded, si
is put with the subjunctive of possum (volo) following, to express a
design and an attempt (whether perhaps, to try whether perhaps): Hos-
te3 circumfunduntur ex omnibus partibus, si qvem aditum repe-
rire possint (Cæs. B. G. VI. 37) Hannibal- etiam de industria
E'abium irritat, si forte accensum tot cladibus sociorum detrahere
ad aeqvum certamen possit (Liv. XXII. 13).
§ 452 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. '411
§ 452. In a DISJUNCTIvE question, by which we ask which of
two (or more) opposed members is affirmed or denied, the first
member is distinguished by utrum or ne; yet this sign may be
omitted (especially where the antithesis is short and obvious), and
the question expressed solely by the tone. The second (and re-
maining) members are distinguished by an (anne), or (especially
in dependent questions, the first member of which has no such sign)
by ne.
(Ne — ne is rare, and found chiefly in the poets : utrum — ne, very
rare.) Or not is expressed by annon or necne. Utrum nescis, qvam
alte ascenderis, an id pro nihilo habes ? (Cic. ad Fam. X. 26).
Utrum Milonis corporis an Pythagorae tibi malis vires ingenii
dari ? (Id. Cat. M. 10). Permultum interest, utrum perturbatione
aliqva animi an consulto fiat injuria (Id. Off. I. 8). Utrum hoc tu
parum meministi, am ego non satis intellexi, an mutasti senten-
tiam ? (Id. ad Att. IX. 2). Vosne L. Domitium an vos L. Domitius
deseruit ? (Cæs. B. C. II. 82). Qvaeritur, virtus suamne propter
dignitatem an propter fructus aliqvos expetatur (Cic. de Or. III.
29). Sortietur am non ? (Id. Prov. Cons. 15). Deliberabatur de
Avarico, incendi placeret an defendi (Cæs. B. G. VII. 15). Refert,
qvi audiant orationem, senatus an populus an judices (Cie. de Or.
III. 55). In incerto erat, vicissent victine essent (Liv. V. 28).
Nihil interesse putant valeamus aegrine simus (Cic. Finn. IV.
25). Qvi teneant oras, hominesne feraene, qvaerere constituit
(Virg. Æn. I. 308). Dicamne huic, an non dicam ? (Ter. Eun. V.
4, 46). Qvaeritur, Corinthiis bellum indicamus an non (Cic. Inv.
I. 12). Sunt haec tua verba necne ? (Id. Tusc. III. 18). Utrum
vultis patri Flacco licuisse istam pecuniam capere necne ? (Id.
pro Fiacc. 25). Dii utrum sint, necne sint, qvaeritur (Id. N. D.
III. 7). I)emu8 beneficium, necne, in nostra est potestate (Id.
Off. I. 15).
OBS. 1. Utrum (from uter, which qf two) shows at once the number
of alternatives (but is also used when there are more than two mem-
bers). It is strengthened by affixing ne to the nearest word which the
question emphasizes: Est etiam illa distinctio, utrum illudne non
videatur aegre ferendum, ex qvo suscepta sit aegritudo, an om-
nium rerum tollenda omnino aegritudo (Cic. Tusc. IV. 27). In the
poets, we also find utrumne in one word.
OBs. 2. From this we must distinguish utrum as a pronoun, with
which the two members following with ne — an are in apposition :
aeqvum Scipio dicebat esse Siculos cogitare, utrum esset illis
utilius, suisne servire, an populo Romano obtemperare (Cic. Verr.
412 LATIN GRAMMAR, § 453
IV. 33). (Utrum, employed in a simple question, instead of num, is a
very rare irregularity.) -
§ 453. An stands not only in the second member of a disjunctive
question, but also in such simple questions as are used to complete
and emphasize what immediately precedes ; when it is asked what
must be the case otherwise (i.e. if there is some objection to be made
to what goes before) ; or, what must be the case then (i.e. if some
idea involved in what goes before is confirmed), or when a question
is itself answered under the form of a question, or some conjecture
respecting what is asked is added in the interrogative form (in
which case an sometimes takes the meaning of nonne) : —
Epicurus voluptatem sensus titillantem nimis etiam novit,
qvippe qvi testificetur, ne intelligere qvidem se posse, ubi sit aut
qvod sit ullum bonum praeter illud, qvod sensibus et corpore
capiatur. An haec ab eo non dicuntur ? (Cic. Finn. II. 3), Or does
he not say this ? Qvasi non necesse sit, qvod isto modo pronun-
ties, id aut esse aut non esse. An tu dialecticis ne imbutus qvi-
dem es ? (Id. Tusc. I. 7), Or have you mot learned evem the first principles
qf dialectics ? Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, habeo, qvae velim.
An me, inqvam, nisi te audire vellem, censes haec dicturum
fuisse ? (Id. Finn. I. 8), Do yow, them, believe that ? Qvid ais ?
am venit Pamphilus ? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 11), What say you? is Pam-
philus come ? Qvid dicis ? an bello fugitivorum Siciliam virtute
tua liberatam ? (Cic. Verr. V. 2). Qvando autem ista vis evanuit?
an postqvam homines minus creduli esse coeperunt ? (was it mot
from the time when ? Id. Div. II. 57).' The signification or? is strengthened
by vero: An vero dubitamus, qvo ore Verres ceteros homines
inferiore loco solitus sit appellare, qvi ob jus dicendum M. Octa-
vium poscere pecuniam non dubitarit ? (Cic. Verr. I. 48), Or can.
we doubt ?
A double question, which involves am inference, § 438, is oftem so con-
nected by an or am vero. In other simple questions an is not used, ex-
cept in the later writers and the poets in dependent, questions; e.g.
IReges dicuntur torqvere mero, qvem perspexisse laborant, an sit
amicitia dignus (Hor. A. P. 436).* Qvaeritur, an providentia
mundus regatur (Qvinct. III. 5, 6). From this, however, we must
except the usage of an in the signification whether mot (whether mot per-
1 Numqvid duas habetis patrias? an est una, illa, patria, communis P (Cic.
Tegg. II. 2; mot disjunctive, but first a simple question: have you perhaps — ? and then it, is
added : is mot rather — ?)
2 The poets occasionally employ even am — an in a disjunctive interrogation: Virg. Æn. X.
680; Oy. Met. x. 254.
§ 454 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 413
haps, inclining to an affirmation) after haud scio, nescio, dubito, du-
toium, incertum, est, and sometimes after other expressions which denote
uncertainty (delibero, haesito): Qvae fuit unqvam in ullo homine
tanta constantia ? Constantiam dico ? Nescio an melius patien-
tiam possim dicere (Cie. pro Lig. 9). Aristotelem excepto Platone
haud scio an recte dixerim principem philosophorum (Id. Finn. V.
3). Est id qvidem magnum atqve haud scio am maximum (Id. ad
Eam. IX. 15). Dubito an Venusiam tendam et ibi exspectem de
legionibus (Id. ad Att. XVI. 5). Moriendum certe est, et id incer-
tum, an hoc ipso die (Id. Cat. M. 20). Qvi scis, an prudens huc se
projecerit ? (Hor. A. P. 462), how do you know whether he has mot
perhap8 —? The expressions haud scio an, nescio an, acquire therefore
the signification perhaps, and denote a suspicion that a thing is. A
doubt whether a thing is, is expressed by the addition of negatives:
Contigit tibi, qvod haud scio an nemini (Cic. ad Fam. IX. 14).
Hoc dijudicari nescio an nunqvam, sed hoc sermone certo non
potest (Id. Legg. I. 21). Atqve haud sciam an me opus qvidem
sit, nihil unqvam deesse amicis (Id. Læl. 14), whether it is on the
whole even to be wished.* Anne (with the enclitic ne) is not often used,
aud in prose only in the second part of a double question: Interrogatur,
tria pauca sint, anne multa (Cic. Acad. II. 29).
OBs. 1. An is sometimes used without an express question, to denote
an umcertainty and wàvering between two conceptions (or perhaps, it is
umcertain whether — or): Themistocles, qvum ei Simonides an qvis
alius artem memoriae polliceretur, Oblivionis, inqvit, mallem (Cic.
Einn. II. 32). Ea suspicio, vitio orationis an rei, haud sane pur-
gata est (Liv. XXVIII. 43) = incertum, vitio orationis an rei.
OBS. 2. From disjunctive questions we must carefully distinguish ques-
tions concerning two (or more) different but not opposed members, con-
nected by aut, to both (or all) of which an answer in the negative is
anticipated: Qvid ergo ? solem dicam aut lunam aut coelum deum ?
(Cic. N. D. I. 30). Num me igitur fefellit ? aut num Antonius
diutius sui potuit esse dissimilis ? (Id. Phil. II. 36).
§ 454. An answer is expressed affirmatively by etiam, ita, yes ;
or (with emphatic affirmation) by vero (rarely verum), 3yes, cer-
tainly ; sane (sane qvidem), yes ìndeed, yes willingly ; or by merely
repeating the verb with which the question is expressed. We may
also combine the verb with vero, or vero and a pronoum, which
denotes the subject in the question. A negative answer is ex-
i Neseio an is used in later writers, without thus approximating to an assertion: Nes-
cio an noris hominem, qvamqvam nosse debes (Plin. Ep. VI. 2l).
414 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 455
pressed by non, minime (emphatically by minime vero). An
answer conveying a correction (no, on the other hand ; much rather)
is indicated by imo (imo vero) : —
Aut etiam aut non respondere (Cic. Acad. II. 32). Dices, habeo
hic, qvos legam, non minus disertos. Etiam; sed legendi semper
occasio est, audiendi non semper (Plin. Ep. II. 3).— Qvidnam ?
inqvit Catulus; an laudationes ? Ita, inqvit Antonius (Cic. de Or.
II. 10. Ita vero; ita est; ita prorsus). — Fuisti saepe, credo, qvum
Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum. Vero, ac libenter qvidem
(Id. Tusc. II. 11). Facies ? Verum (Ter. Heaut. V. 3, 11). Visne
locum mutemus et in insula ista sermoni reliqvo demus operam
sedentes? Sane qvidem (Cic. Legg. II. 1). — Fierine potest?
Potest. Qvaesivi, fierine posset. Ille posse respondit. — Dasne,
aut manere animos post mortem aut morte ipsa interire ? Do vero
(Cic. Tusc. I. 11). Qvaero, si haec emptoribus venditor non dixerit
aedesqve vendiderit pluris multo, qvam se venditurum putarit,
num injuste fecerit ? Ille vero, inqvit Antipater (Id. Off. III. 13).
— Cognatus aliqvis fuit aut propinqvus ? Non (Id. Verr. II. 43.
Non fuit). Num igitur peccamus ? Minime vos qvidem (Cic. ad
Att. VIII. 9). An tu haec non credia (Do you them mot believe this?)
Minime vero (Id. Tusc. I. 6). (Non faciam, mo, that I will mot do.)
— Causa igitur non bona est ? Imo optima (Id. ad Att. IX. 7).
Qvid ? si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne filius ? Imo
vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat (Id. Off. III. 23). Vivit ?
Imo vero etiam in senatum venit (Id. in Cat. I. 1).
OBs. 1. Since vero only gives emphasis, it may also be employed in
propositions, which assure us of the negative of a thing that has been
doubted, where it may be translated by mo : Ego vero tibi non
irascor, mi frater (no, I am not angry with you).
OBs. 2. Where the motive or explanation of an affirmation or denial
is immediately subjoined with enim, the affirmation or denial is oftem not;
expressed by any specifie word: Tum Antonius, Heri enim, inqvit,
hoc mihi proposueram, ut hos abs te discipulos abducerem (Cic.
de Or. II. 10), yes, for—. (Siqvidem —, yes, íf-—.)
§ 455. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. The usual word by which a
thing is stated negatively is non, not. Haud, not, originally signi-
fies a negation somewhat less definite, yet there is often no distinc-
tion to be observed in the meaning ; but in good prose haud is
commonly not used with verbs (except in the expressiom haud scio
an), but only with adjectives and adverbs (e.g. haud mediocris,
haud spernendus, haud procul, haud sane, haud dubie, certavnly,
' § 456 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 415
doubtless), and in some of the best writers (Cicero, Cæsar) it is
rarely met with even in this combination ; in other authors it occur8
more frequently. Scarcely, almost not, is expressed by vix.
OBs. 1. Where the negation is opposed to an affirmation, haud is not
used even with adverbs; we eam only say, non tam— qvam, non modo
— sed, non qvo — sed.
OBs. 2. Neqvaqvam, by no means; neutiqvam, in no wise (rare in
prose); haudqvaqvam, by no means (homo prudens et gravis, haud-
qvaqvam eloqvens, Cic. de Or. I. 9).
OBs. 3. Non, in connection with a verb, often signifies to omit to.
Hence comes the expressiom non possum with non and an infinitive;
I cannot omit to, I cannot do otheruyise than (= facere non possum,
qvin): Non potui non dare litteras ad Caesarem (Cic. ad Att.
VIII. 2). Non poteram in illius patriae custodis tanta suspicione
non metu exanimari (Id. pro Mil. 24). Tuum consilium nerao
potest non maxime laudare (Id. ad Fam. IV. 7).
OBs. 4. Nihil (nothing), in no respect, in no wise (§ 229 b), is som:e-
times put with verbs in the place of non : Ea species nihil terruit
eqvos (Liv. IV. 38), struck no terror into the horses. De vita beata
nihil repugno (Cic. N. D. I. 24). Nihil necesse est ad omnes tuas
litteras rescribere (Id. ad Att. VII. 2). This is rarely done with
adjectives : Plebs Ardeatium, nihil Romanae plebi similis, in agros
optimatium excursiones facit (Liv. IV. 9). (Nonnihil molesta
haec sunt mihi, Ter. Ad. I. 2, 62).
OBS. 5. In familiar speaking and writing, and in imitations of the same,
nullus is sometimes used, in apposition to the subject, instead of non,
occasionally with an intensive signification (not at all): Sextus ab
armis nullus discedit (Cic. ad Att. XV. 22). Haec bona in tabulas
publicas nulla redierunt (Cic. Rose. Am. 44), were mot entered at all.
Multa possunt videri esse, qvae omnino nulla sunt (Id. Acad. II.
15), do mot eæist at all. (On the other hand, we have always industria
non mediocris, no small industry, if the negation applies to the adjec-
tive ; but nemo magnus homo, nulla magna virtus invidiam
effugit.)
§ 456. A negation which denotes a will, wish, or design, is ex-
pressed by ne. Ne is consequently used in wishes (with the sub-
junctive, § 351), in exhortations to assume a thing (§ 352), in
prohibitions amd warnings (in the imperative or subjunctive, § 386),
in object-clauses after verbs which denote an activity or an effort
and wish (§ 372, b, and § 375), and in propositions denoting a, pur-
pose (§ 355) ; while, on the contrary, ut non is employed in proposi-
•
416 LATIN. GRAMMAR. § 457
tions expressing a result, and in those object-clauses which are
treated of in §§ 373 and 374. In object-clauses after verbs denot-
ing a wish and effort ($ 372, but not after such as denote an agency
employed in hindering a thing, § 375) and in propositions denoting
a purpose, ut —ne is often employed instead of me, by which is ex-
pressed first of all the object or design in general, and afterwards
the negation : —
Trebatio mandavi, ut, si tu eum velles ad me mittere, ne re-
cusaret (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 1). Sed ut hio, qvi intervenit, ne
ignoret, qvae res againr, de natura agebamus deorum (Id. N. D.
I. 7). -
When the negation in a final proposition or object-clause is ex-
pressed in English by a negative pronoun or pronominal adverb
(that mone, &c.) the negation is expressed in Latin by the particle,
which is followed by an affirmative pronoun (ne qvis, qvid, ullus,
mecubi, neqvando) : —
Edictum est, ne qvis injussu consulis castris egredèretur. Also
in prohibitions, ne quis faciat, ne quid feceris, is more frequent than
memo faciat, nihil feceris (especially in the language of the law).
OBS. 1. Ne is the shortest form of the negative particle. It is seen
in ne — quidem, in neqve, mescio, &c.
OBS. 2. In some passages, chiefly in the poets, non is found instead
of me with the subjunctive to express a prohibition or a summons; e.g.
Non sint sine lege capilli (Ov. A. A. III. 133).
OBs. 3. In object-clauses after verbs which signify to bring to
pass, to effect, especially after facio and efficio, ut rion is also made
use of (ut nemo, nihil, nusqvam, &c.). Ex hoc efficitur, non ut
voluptas ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum
(Cic. Finn. II. 8). In like manner non without ut is used after velim,
vellem (§ 350, b, Obs. 1) : Vellem tua te occupatio non impe-
disset (Id. ad Att. III. 22).
OBs. 4. Utne (occasionally ne), signifying so that, is used when pre-
caution, forethought, or restriction is to be indicated, especially with ita
preceding: Minucius sciebat, ita se rem augere oportere, ut ne
qvid de libertate deperderet (Cic. Verr. II. 30). Danda opera est
ut etiam singulis consulatur, sedita, ut ea res aut prosit aut certe
ne obsit reipublicae (Id. Off. II. 21). (Ita admissi sunt in urbem,
ne tamen is senatus daretur, Liv. XXII. 61.)
§ 457. Ne—qvidem (separated by the emphatic and antithetical
word) signifies also not (as little as the preceding, or as any thing
else):—
§ 458 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 417
Postero die Curio milites in acie collocat. Ne Varus qvi-
dem dubitat copias producere (Cæs. B. C. II. 33). Si non
sunt (in case they do mot exist), nihil possunt esse; ita ne miseri
qvidem sunt (Cic. Tusc. I. 6). It most frequently gives prominence
to the object of the negation, and signifies mot even : Ne matri qvidem
dixi. Ne cum Caesare qvidem egi. Ac ne illud qvidem vobis ne-
gligendum puto, qvod mihi ego extremum proposueram (Cic. pro
Leg. Mam. 7; also et ne — qvidem).
A short subordinate proposition, or a conjunction and the most
important word of the subordinate proposition, oftem stand between
ne and qvidem:—
Ne qvantum possumus qvidem cogimur (Cic. Cat. M. 11). Ne-
qve contra rempublicam neqve contra jusjurandum ac fidem
amici causa vir bonus faciet, ne si judex qvidem erit de ipso
amico (Id. Off. III. 10).
OBs. The later writers (from and after Livy and Ovid) put nec in the
same signification as ne — qvidem: Non inutilem puto hanc cogni-
tionem; alioqvi nec tradidissem (Qvinct. V. 10, 119). Esse aliqvid .
manes et subterranea regna, nec pueri credunt (Juv. II. 152).
§ 458. a. A negation connected with a copulative particle (and
not) is usually expressed by neqve, nec (which is therefore a nega-
tive conjunction, not a mere adverb): —
Caesar substitit neqve hostes lacessivit. De Qvinto fratre
nuntii tristes nobis nec varii venerant (Cic. ad.Att. III. 17).
Where a negative pronoun or pronominal adverb follows a copu-
lative particle in English (and no one, and no where, and never), it
is expressed in Latin by neqve with an affirmative pronoun or ad-
'verb (neqve qvisqvam, qvidqvam, ullus, usqvam, umqvam).
Horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, nec praeteritum tem-
piis unqvam revertitur (Cic. Cat. M. 19).
OBs. 1. Sometimes, however, et non is employed, when the negation
is blended, as it were, into one idea with some particular word following,
and the whole treated as coordinate with what goes before: Patior, judi-
ces, et non moleste fero (Cic. Verr. I. 1; here non qualifies moleste,
and the whole expression of satisfaction, non moleste fero, is connected
by et with patior). Demetrius Syrus, vetus et non ignobilis di-
cendi magister (Id. Brut. 91). Habebit igitur lingvam deus et
non loqvetur (Id. N. D. I. 33), and will yet be dumb. In the same
way, et nemo, et nullus, &c., nullusqve, nihilqve, déc., are also
used: Domus temere et nullo consilio administratur (Cic. Inv.
27
418 LATIN GRAMMAR. ^. § 458
I. 34). Nihil hominem, nisi qvod honestum decorumqve est,
aut admirari aut optare oportet, nulliqve neqve homini neqve
fortunae succumbere (Id. Off. I. 20). Eo simus animo ut mori-
endi .diem nobis faustum putemus nihilqve in malis ducamus
qvod sit a diis constitutum (Id. Tusc. I. 49). Ac non, et
non, are particularly employed in the signification and not rather.
(whem a correction is subjoined to a conditional, interrogative, or
ironical expression): Nam si qvam Rubrius injuriam suo mo-
mine ac non impulsu tuo fecisset, de tui comitis injuria qves-
tum ad te venissent (Cic. Verr. I. 31). Qvasi vero isti, qvos
commemoras, propterea magistratus ceperint, qvod triumpharant,
et non, qvia commissi sunt iis magistratus, re bene gesta trium-
pharint (Id. pro Plane. 25). C. Antonius, tanqvam extruderetur
a senatu in IMacedoniam ac non contra prohiberetur proficisci, cu-
currit (Id. Phil. X. 5). (Where, on the contrary, an erroneous opinion
negatived is placed in contrast with that which is correct, it is usual to
employ non — not et non, or sed non : Haec morum vitia sunt, non
senectutis (Cie. Cat. M. 18).
OBs. 2. Sometimes even the copulative particle, which connects a
second independent proposition with a preceding one, has combined with
it the negative, which properly belongs to a clause subordinate to that
second proposition: Consules in Hernicos exercitum duxerunt, ne-
qve inventis in agro hostibus, Ferentinum, urbem eorum, vi cepe-
runt (Liv. VII. 9) = et, qvum hostes in agro non invenissent, urbem
Hostes deustos pluteos turrium videbant, nec facile adire
apertos ad auxiliandum animadvertebant (Cæs. B. G. VII. 25) =
et animadvertebant, non facile . (The poets even allow the et
which belongs to ait or inqvit to coalesce with a negative belonging to
the words quoted: Neqve, ait, sine numine vincit, Ov. Met. XI.
263, = et ait, Non sine m. v.)
b. Neqve is used instead of a simple non, when a negative prop-
ositiom is connected by enim, tamen, vero (neqve enim, for not ;
neqve tamem, yet not, and 3yet not ; neqve vero, but not, and not,
also not). Yet we sometimes find non enim, rarely non tamen,
by which the negation acquires greater emphasis. (Nam — non
only when the negative is intimately connected with a word follow-
ing. Neqve enim — neqve, and nam neqve — neqve.)
e. The combination of two or more negative members into one
unity is denoted by neqve — meqve (nec — nec, neqve — nec, nec
— neqve), neither — nor ; e.g. neqve bonus neqve malus; neqve
consilium mihi placet neqve auctor probatur. The second mem-
ber may be made more prominent by the addition of vero:—
§ 458 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. 419
Secundum genus cupiditatum Epicurus nec ad potiendum
difficile esse censet nec vero ad carendum (Cic. Tusc. V. 33).
The combination of an affirmative and negative member is de-
noted by et — neqve, both — and ^ot; neqve — et, both not — amad
(less frequently neqve — qve): —
Intelligitis, Pompejo et animum praesto fuisse neqve consilium
defuisse (Cic. Phil. XIII. 6). Patebat via et certa nec longa (I l.
ib. XI. 2). Voluptates agricolarum nec ulla impediuntur senec-
tute et mihi ad sapientis vitam proxime videntur accedere (Id.
Cat. M. 15). Homo nec meo judicio stultus et suo valde pru-
dens (Id. de Or. I. 39). (Ex qvo intelligitur, nec intemperantiam
propter se esse fugiendam temperantiamqve expetendam, non
qvia voluptates fugiat, sed qvia majores conseqvatur, Id. Finn.
I. 14.)
OBs. 1. Instead of et — ne, we may employ et — et non, whem the
non (as in a, Obs. 1) is intimately combined with a word following, so
as to form one idea with it : Manlius et semper me coluit diligen-
tissime et a nostris studiis non abhorret (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 22).
Assentior tibi, et multum facetias in dicendo prodesse saepe et
eas arte nullo modo posse tradi (Id. de Or. II. 56). Multa alio-
rum judicio et facienda et non facienda nobis sunt (Id. Off. I. 41),
when neqve could, by no means, be used.
OBs. 2. If a negative (non, neqve, and not, or a negative pronoun,
or nego, nolo) belongs to two connected words, and stands before
them both, these are often themselves conneeted by a negative, so that
the negative is repeated: Non enim solum acuenda nobis neqve
procudenda lingva est, sed complendum pectus maximarum re-
rum copia et varietate (Cie. de Or. 80), in English, we must not on'y
whet and sharpem the tongue. Minora dii negligunt nec agellos sin-
gulorum nec viticulas perseqvuntur (Id. N. D. III. 35), amd
do mot mind the fields and vines qf individuals. Agrum in hi3
regionibus meliorem neqve pretii majoris nemo habet (Ter.
Heaut. I. 1, 12). In this example, by a rare exception, the common
negative is near the end of the sentence. In prose, the connection
by a copulative particle is used only when the ideas are completely
blemded: Nulla res tanta ac tam difficilis est, qvam Q. Catulus
non consilio regere possit (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 20). Nec tan-
-tum moerorem ac luctum senatui mors P. Clodii afferebat, ut nova
qvaestio constitueretur (Id. pro Mil. 5). (The poets are more free ;
yet it is very unusual for a new propositiom, which the negative should
also qualify, to be connected by et or qve.) On the other hand,
the second member may be connected by aut or ve: Neqve enim mari
420 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 466
venturum aut ea parte virium dimicaturum hostem credebant
(Liv. XXI. 17). Non recito ubivis coramve qvibuslibet (Hor.
Sat. I. 4, 73). (Also nec — nec — aut: Eqvites hostibus neqve sui
colligendi neqve consistendi aut ex essedis desiliendi facultatem
dederunt, Cæs. B. G. V. 17.) But the addition of a second propo-
sition, which is also negative by a simple aut, is rare, and poetical: Nec
te hinc comitem asportare Creüsam fas (est) aut ille sinit superi
regnator Olympi (Virg. Æn. II. 778). Aut — aut also follows after a
negative: Ante id tempus nemo aut miles aut eqves a Caesare ad
Pompejum transierat (Cæs. B. C. III. 61). Consciorum nemo aut
latuit aut fugit (Liv. XXIV. 5). Nondum aut pulsus remorum
strepitusqve alius nauticus exaudiebatur aut promontoria classem
aperiebant (Id. XXII. 19).
§ 459. For et ne or aut, following ne, neve and neu are made
use of:—
Hominem mortuum in urbe neve sepelito neve urito (Cic.
Legg. II. 23). Opera dabatur, ne qvod iis colloqvium inter se
neve qvae communicatio consilii esset (Liv. XXIII. 84). Caesar
milites cohortatus est, uti suae pristimae virtutis memoriam re-
tinerent neu perturbarentur animo (Cæs. B. G. II. 21).
Neve — neve repeated (like neqve — neqve) is used in prohibi-
tions (it is, however, of rare occurrence) : —
Neve tibi ad solem vergant vineta cadentem neve inter vites
corulum sere (Virg. G. II. 298); and in dependent propositions with
ut preceding (ut neve — neve): Peto a te, ut id neve in hoc reo
neve in aliis reqviras (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). .
OBs. We find, however, solitary examples of nec, instead of neve :
Teneamus eum cursum, qvi semper fuit optimi cujusqve, neqve
ea signa audiamus, qvae receptui canunt (Cic. R. P. I. 2). Nec
hoc pertimueris (Cic.). Eaec igitur lex in amicitia sanciatur, ut
neqve rogemus res turpes neqve faciamus rogati (Id. Læl. 12). In
the poets, neve is also used instead of et ne, in such a way that the
et belongs to amother proposition (as in the case of neqve, § 458, a,
()hs. 2) : Neve foret terris securior arduus aether, affecta$$e ferunt
regnum caeleste Gigantas (Ov. Met. I. 151).
§ 460. Two negatives coming together do away with the nega-
tive signification. If the negative particle be placed immediately
before a negative word, the universal negation alone is set aside,
and there results an ìndefinite affirmation : thus, nonnemo, not no
one — some one, some feuo ; nonnullus, nonnihil, nonnunqvam,
§ 46o CONJUNGTIONS AND PARTICLES. 421
isometimes. If, on the other hand, non belongs to a predicate, and
this (negative) predicate is asserted of a negative subject, there
results a universal affirmation ; no one does it not (omits to do it) =
all without exception do it : so nemo mom, nullus mom, all ; nihil
nom, every thing; mumqvam non, always; nusqvam non, every-
'where.
Nemo Arpinas non Plancio studuit (Cic. pro Planc. 9). Nulli
non ad nocendum satis virium est (Sen. Ep. 105). Achilles nihil
non arroget armis (Hor. A. P. 122), let Achilles claim every thing.
(Concerning non possum non, see § 455, Obs. 3.)
OBs. 1. The particles nec non do not stand together in good prose
simply as a substitute for et, or as a connective between two single
words; but they are used to carry on the idea, by adding, that a certain
other thing cannot (can also not) be denied: Nec hoc Zeno non vidit,
sed verborum magnificentia est delectatus (Cie. Finn. IV. 22), and
this also did mot escape the observation of Zeno, but —. Neqve vero
non omni supplicio digni P. Claudius, I. Junius consules, qvi
contra auspicia navigarunt (Cie. Div. II. 38), and therefore the consuls
P. C. and L. J. cannot but be deserving of the severest punishment. Nec
enim is, qvi in te adhuc injustior, qvam tua dignitas postulabat,
fuit, non magna signa dedit animi erga te mitigati (Id. ad Fam. VI.
1). Inferior writers and the poets use nec non also in immediate jux-
taposition (Nec non et Tyrii — convenere, Virg. Æn. I. 707) and for
the conneetion of two single words (and also).
OBs. 2. Two negatives do not destroy one amother, if either (a) a prop-
osition begins with a general negation, and a single idea is then brought
prominently forward by ne — qvidem, or if (b) a general negation pre-
cedes, and is then repeated distributively with the single terms : Non
enim praetereundum est ne id qvidem (Cic. Verr. I. 60). Epi-
curus, qvid praeter voluptatem sit bonum, negat se posse ne sus-
picari qvidem (Id. Fin. II. 10). Sic habeas, nihil mehercule te
mihi nec carius esse nec svavius (Id. ad Att. V. 1; this might also
have been expressed according to § 458, c, Obs. 2, aut cariuB aut
svavius). Nemo unqvam neqve poeta neqve orator fuit, qvi
qvenqvam meliorem qvam se putaret (Id. ib. XIV. 20). Non me
carminibus vincet nec Thracius Orpheus nec Linus (Virg. B. IV.
55). (Ea nesciebant, nec ubi, nec qvalia essent, Cic. Tusc. III. 2.)*
(Nolebant successum non patribus, non consulibus, Liv. II. 45.)
1 The comie writers in Bomie few instances use neqve haud in place of the simple
In 6®ve.
422 LATIN GRAMMAR. • § 461
§ 461. a. The rising to something more important is indicated
by non modo, non tantum (not only), non solum (not alone) —
sed etiam, verum etiam.
OBs. Modo properly denotes rather the degree, solum the extent,
but mo definite distinction is observed. Non tantum is not oftem used,
except whem the subject Or the predicate is common to both clauses.
Instead of sed etiam we find also simply sed, by which a more compre-
hensive word, which at the same time comprises the preceding, is substi-
tuted in its place : Pollio, omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum, sed
praefuit (Cic. ad Fam. I. 6) ; but it: is also used without this accessory
signification. We rarely meet, with sed — qvoqve, which denotes merely
am addition, not a rising to something more important. The first member
may also be negative: non modo (non solum) non — sed etiam (sed
potius, sed): Non modo non oppugnator, sed etiam defensor (Cic.
pro Planc. 81). Hoc non modo non pro me est, sed contra me est
potius (ld. de Or. 111. 20).
b. To rise to a more emphatic negative, and assert that even a
thing which was sure to happen does not take place, non modo or
non solum is combined with sed ne — qvidem, sed vix:—
Vobis inter vos non modo voluntas conjuncta fuit, sed me
praeda qvidem adhuc divisa est (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 11). In this
case, non modo or non solum has usually another negative, either after
it (a), so that non modo, non solum, qualifies an idea which is already
negative (not omly not, not only mo one, &c.), or before it (b), and
therefore common to both clauses (nemo non modo, nihil non modo,
&c. : No one, I will mot say), so that, properly speaking, in the latter
case, the negative is repeated in ne — qvidem: (a) Ego non modo
tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo qvidem factum tuum (Cic. pro
Sull. 18). Non modo nihil acqvisiverunt, sed ne relictum qvidem
et traditum et suum conservaverunt (Id. de Or. III. 32). Obscoe-
nitas non solum non foro digna, sed vix convivio liberorum (Id.
de Or. II. 62). (b) Nihil iis Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne
de bonis qvidem suis reliqvi fecit (Id. Verr. III. 48). Nullum
non modo illustre, sed ne motum qvidem factum (Id. in Pis. 1).
Id ne unqvam posthac non modo confici, sed ne cogitari qvidem
possit a civibus, hodierno die providendum est (Id. in Cat. IV. 9).
If both clauses have a common predicate, to which the negative belongs,
and the predicate stands in the last clause, the negation which lies in
ne — qvidem (vix) may be applied to the whole, so that instead of
non modo non (non solum non), we have, in the first clause, only
non modo (non solum) : Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne
libero qvidem digna est (Cie. Læl. 24). Senatui non solum juvare
§ 462 CONJUNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. '423
rempublicam, sed ne lugere qvidem licuit (Id. in Pis. 10). Non
modo manus tanti exercitus, sed ne vestigium qvidem cuiqvam
privato nocuit (Id. pro Leg. Man. 13). (In the complete form:
Nemini privato non modo manus t. e., sed ne vestigium qvidem
nocuit.) Advena non modo civicae, sed ne Italicae qvidem stir-
-pis (Liv. I. 40) = qvi non modo — stirpis esset. Haec genera
virtutum non solum in moribus nostris, sed vix jam in libris
reperiuntur (Cic. pro Cæl. 17). But the complete form is also made
use of: Hoc non modo non laudari, sed ne concedi qvidem potest
(Cic. pro Mur. 3). Sthenius id potuit, qvod non modo Siculus
nemo, sed ne Sicilia qvidem tota potuisset (Id. Verr. II. 46).
OBs. 1. In the same way, it is said: Hoc non modo recte fieri, sed
omnino fieri non potest (Cic. Acad. II. 19). If each clause has its
distinct predicate, non modo, sed ne — qvidem, instead of non modo
non, is a very rare irregularity. -
OBs. 2. Non modo (not non solum) followed by sed (sed etiam,
verum, verum etiam) is used with the meaning of the phrase I will
not say (non dico, non dicam), when it, is intended to show that the
first clause comprises too much, and that we must abide by the second
and more limited one: Qvae civitas e$t in Asia, qvae non modo
imperatoris aut legati, sed unius tribuni militum animos ac spiri-
tus capere possit? (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 22). Sine ulla non modo
religione, verum etiam dissimulatione (Id. Verr. V. 1). • (Num.
exploratum cuiqvam esse potest, qvomodo sese habiturum sit
corpus, non dico ad annum, sed ad vesperum ? Cic. Finn. II. 28).
OBS. 8. The leading clause maay, for the sake of emphasis, stand be-
fore non modo (non solum) to indicate that of which the assertion is
first and chiefly true: Secundas etiam res nostras, non modo adver-
sas, pertimescebam (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 14), and not only. If the
leading assertion be negative (non, nullus, ne — qvidem), non modo
indicates what is still more emphatically denied (much less, to say noth-
ing qf) : Nullum meum minimum dictum, non modo factum (Cic.
ad Fam. I. 9). Apollinis oracula nunqvam ne mediocri qvidem
cuiqvam, non modo prudenti, probata sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55).
(Nedum, not to mention that See § 355; then also without a verb,
as an adverb : mot to say = much less ; from the time of Livy, it occurs
also without a negative preceding: not to say = much more.)
§ 462. a. Of other particular negative expressions we may notice
the following: nom ita, mot so very (non ita magnus, haud ita
magnus) ; non item, mot in the same way = on the other hand not
(or simply not, in antithesis with the foregoing predicate under-
stood:—
424 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 462
Corporum offensiones sine culpa accidere possunt, animorum
inon item, Cic. Tusc. IV. 14) ; nondum, not yet (neqvedum, and mot
yet, sometimes for nondum; nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum ; also,
nondum etiam); non jam, no more, no longer ; tantum non, modo
non, almost (strictly, only this not, 80 that this one thing is wanting :
tantum non ad portas et muros bellum est, Liv. XXV. 15); nihil
admodum (admodum nihil), a8 good as nothing.
b. The words nemo (nihil) and ne, with some verbs which con-
tain a negation in theimselves (nolo, nescio, and particularly nego),
are by an inaceuracy of expression sometimes put in such a way,
that in an added (antithetical) clause only the affirmiiative idea con-
tained in the words is understood (and they become equivalent to
Iomnes, omnia, ut, volo, scio, dico):
Nemo extulit eum verbis, qvi ita dixisset, ut, qvi adessent, in-
telligerent, qvid diceret, sed contempsit eum, qvi minus id facere
potuisset (Cic. de Or. III. 14). Appius collegis in castra scribit,
ne Virginio commeatum dent atqve etiam in custodia habeant
(Liv. III. 46). Pleriqve negant Caesarem in custodia mansurum
postulataqve haec ab eo interposita esse, qvominus, qvod opus
esset ad bellum a nobis pararetur (Cic. ad Att. VII. 15) = say that
Caesar will not keep his engagement, but
P A R T THIRD .
ORDER AND POSITION OF WORDS AND PROPOSITIONS.
CHAPTER I.
OF THE ORDER OF THE WORDS IN A PROPOSITION.
§ 463. Since in Latin the connection and construction of the
words may easily be known from their inflection, their position is
not determined by such strict and definite rules as is usually the
case in English and other modern languages, but is regulated in a
great measure by the emphasis which is laid on the individual words
according to the sense of the passage, and sometimes also by a
regard to euphony.
Obs. The position of the words is therefore to be distinguished from
their grammatical order, which is the order of their mutual relations.
The latter is sometimes called the Construction, and the giving it is called
construing the sentence.
§ 464. The most simple arrangement of the words is this: that
the subject, with what belongs to it, stands first, and the predicate
follows afterwards, in such a way that the verb usually stands last,
in order to keep the whole sentence together; while the direct ob-
ject and the remote object, or the predicate noun, with whatever
else qualifies the verb (ablative, prepositions with cases, adverbs)
are placed in the middle. Generally speaking, a governed and lim-
iting word (with the exception of the genitive when depending on
a substantive) is placed before the word which governs or is limited
by it (gloriae cupidus, hostes perseqvi). Of those words which
are used to limit or qualify the predicate, that part stands first,
which, according to the sense and design of the passage, is of the
greatest importance, and is first thought of:—
426 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 465
Romani Jovi templum in Capitolio condiderunt. Romani tem-
plum in Capitolio Jovi, Junoni, Minervae condiderunt. Numa
Pompilius omnium consensu rex creatus est.
But usually the object is put before the other words which limit
the verb, so that these stand as near as possible to it (hostem eqvi-
tatu terrere). Questions begin with the interrogative word and
what belongs to it, subordinate propositions with the conjunction or
the relative pronoun.
§ 465. a. The simple arrangement of the words is so far departed
from for the sake of emphasis, that the word on which a particular
stress is laid, as forming an antithesis to some other idea, either
expressed or floating in the mind, is put before the less important
word, which would otherwise precede it; e.g. the governing word
before that which it governs, or the word which helps to define the
verb before the object: Caesar eqvitatu terrere hostem quam
cominus pugnare maluit. If for the sake of such a contrast, or
for some other reason, a writer is giving prominence to a word as
the most important with reference to the meaning of a whole propo-
sition (e.g. the verb, when he would suggest that it is remarkable or
surprising that a subject should have such a predicate), this word is
put at the beginning without reference to its grammatical class or
construction: —
IMovit me oratio tua. Sua vitia insipientes et suam culpam in
senectutem conferunt (Cic. Cat. M. 5). Honesta magis quam pru-
dens oratio visa est. A malis mors abducit, non a bonis (Cic.
Tusc. I. 34).
A word, to which the proposition points from the beginning, and
which completes the sense as soon as it is uttered; or a word on
which the thought dwells, as it were, for a time, may gain emphasis
by being placed at the end of the proposition : —
Seqvemur igitur hoc tempore et in hac occasione potissimum
Stoicos (Cic. Off. I. 2). Helvetii dicebant, sibi esse in animo iter
per provinciam facere, propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum
(Caes., B. G. I. 7). Attici vita et oratio consecuta mihi videtur
difficillimam illam societatem gravitatis cum humanitate (Cic.
Legg. III. 1).
OBs. 1. When the verb stands before the object, some emphasis,
though it may be but slight, usually falls on the notion contained in the
verb. In the arrangement, Liber tuus exspectationem mean vicit,
§ 465 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 427
the expectation entertained of the book is first thought of, and then the
fact that it has been surpassed; in the arrangement, Libertuus vicit
exspectationem mean, the effect of the book is put prominently
forward. But where there is no motive for giving prominence to either
idea, the first arrangement is preferred. It constitutes an exception to
this rule when an important object consisting of a union of several words
is emphatically placed at the close of the proposition.
OBs. 2. Sometimes the verb is put first only to avoid separating the
other connected words, or to give prominence to one of them, and at the
same time to form the transition: Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum
duobus Rosciis Amerinis (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 6).
OBS. 3. The verb sum is often put without any emphasis before the
predicate noun, particularly in definitions, or when the description con-
sists of several emphatic words: Virtus est absolutio naturae. Sve-
vorum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum
omnium (Caes. B. G. IV. 1).
OBS. 4. The participle of a passive verb formed with est (sum) is
not unfrequently separated from its auxiliary. Especially it may be ob-
served, that sometimes the participle stands first, then the subject, or
something that qualifies the proposition, and last of all est: Omne ar-
gentum ablatum ex Sicilia est (Cic. Verr. IV. 16). Tecum mihi
instituenda oratio est (Id. Fin. W. 29). Sometimes est (sit) stands
without emphasis somewhere in the middle of the proposition, and the
participle is put last: qvi in fortunae periculis sunt ac varietate
versati (Cic. Verr. V. 50. Compare $472, b).
b. Relative words, referring to an antecedent which really pre-
cedes them in the sentence, always stand first in the relative clause
(in prose). Relatives, on the contrary, which refer to a demon-
strative proposition following, may stand after a very emphatic
word; and this is also the case with interrogative pronouns: —
Roman quae asportata sunt, ad aedem Honoris et Virtutis
videmus (Cic. Verr. IV. 54), in contrast with what remained in
Syracuse. Tarentum vero qva vigilantia, qvo consilio (Fabius)
recepit? (Id. Cat. M. 4).
So likewise, when a conjunctional subordinate proposition pre-
cedes the leading proposition, the conjunction may stand after one
or several words which have a particular emphasis, frequently after
pronouns which refer to something preceding : — -
Haec tu, Eruci, tot et tanta si nactus esses in reo, qvamdiu
diceres? (Cic. Rosc. Am. 32). Qvae q.vum ita sint, nihil censeo
428 LÀTIN GRAMMAR. § 466
mutariâum. Romam ut nuntiatum est, Vejos captos, velut ex
insperato immensum gaudium fuit (Liv. V. 32). In prose the verb
is never put before the relative or the conjunction.
OBs. Ut and ne, even where the leading proposition comes first, have
sometimes one or more words before them : tempore et loco consti-
tuto, in colloqvium uti de pace veniretur (Sall. Jug. 113). Cati-
lima postulabat, patres conscripti ne qvid de se temere crederent
(Id. Cat. 31). In particular a negative word often stands before ut,
signifying so that (vix ut, nemo ut, nihil ut, nullus ut; also prope ut,
paene ut, sometimes magis ut).
§ 466. a. An adjective which belongs to a substantive as its
attribute, or a genitive which is governed by a substantive, usually
stands after the substantive, but may stand before it, when, for the
sake of contrast, or for any other reason, we wish to emphasize the
adjective or genitive as qualifying words:—
IEx rerum copia verba nasci debent. Filiorum laudibus etiam
patres cohonestantur. Tuscus ager Romano adjacet (Liv. II.
49). -
OBs. 1. In titles and names, and where custom has established the
forms of expression for certain things, the adjective or genitive often has a
fixed and definite place after the substantive : Civis Romanus, populus
Romanus, res familiaris, aes alienum, jus civile, via Appia, magis-
ter eqvitum, tribunus militum. Some unusual emphasis laid on this
part of the expression ehanges this order in a very few instances.
OBs. 2. Demonstrative pronouns stand before the substantive if nó
particular emphasis is to be laid on the latter: Incendium curiae, op-
pugnationem aedium M. Lepidi, caedem hanc ipsam contra rem-
publicam senatus factam esse decrevit (Cic. pro Mil. 5).
b. Between a substantive and its adjective there may stand words
which qualify the substantive or the adjective : Summum eloqventiae
studium ; in summa bonorum ac fortium virorum copia; nocturnus
in urbem adventus; nostra in amicos benevolentia; in summis,
qvae nos urgent, difficultatibus ab iis, qvos miserat, difficultati-
bus. (But we may also say, in summa copia bonorum ac fortium
virorum, and, if the emphasis is to be placed on the genitive, in bono-
rum ac fortium virorum summa copia). Homo omnibus virtuti-
bus ornatus (ornatus omnibus virtutibus homo, but also omnibus
virtutibus ornatus homo, according to the varying emphasis). (Homo
summò ingenio, summo ingenio homo, summo homo ingenio.)*
1 Permagnum optimi pondus argenti (Cic. Phil. II. 27), so placed to give a promi-
nence to both adjectives, and at the same time te bring argenti, which forms am antithesis
with other words, to the last place.
§ 468 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 429
So likewise a preposition, which with its case qualifies the substantive
governing the genitive, may be inserted with its case between the gov-
erning substantive and the genitive ; and the same may also sometimes
|be done with a relative clause : Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula
et judicio volumine (Cic. N. D. I. 16). Cato inimicitias multas
gessit propter Hispanorum, apud qvos consul fuerat, injurias (Id.
Div. in Cæc. 20).
§ 467. Sometimes, especially in the oratorical style, words quali-
fying a substantive are separated from it so as to fix the attention
on them more particularly, while the intermediate words are less
prominent ; but no intermediate words should be allowed to make
the construction ambiguous or uncertain. Thus one may sepa-
rate —
a. An adjective (or pronoun) from its substantive, so that the former
is put further forward or back: Qvatridui sermonem superioribus
ad te perscriptum libris misimus (Cic. Tusc. V. 4). Sine ulla
rerum exspectatione meliorum (Id. ib. IV. 8). Magna nobis
pueris, Q. frater, si memoria tenes, opinio fuit, II. Crassum, &c.
(Id. de Or. II. 1). Sometimes, only a single unemphatic word (e.g. a
pronoun as the subject or object, an adverb, &c.) is inserted between
them : Hic me dolor angit; hoc ego periculo moveor. Marcelli
ad Nolam proelio populus se Romanus erexit (Cic. Brut. 3).
Magna nuper laetitia affectus sum.
b. A mame from a word in apposition: Gravissimus auctor in
originibus dixit Cato, morem apud majores hunc fuisse, &c. (Cic.
Tusc. IV. 2).
e. A genitive and its governing word, so that one or the other stands
-first, in the sentence: Peto igitur a te, qvoniam id nobis, Antoni,
hominibus id aetatis, oneris ab horum adolescentium studiis im-
ponitur, ut exponas, &c. (Cic. de Or. I. 47). Stoicorum, non igno-
ras, qvam sit subtile, vel spinosum potius disserendi genus (Id.
Einn. III. 1).
§ 468. Adverbs, which belong to a verb, usually stand next to
it (before it, if it concludes the proposition) ; but they may either
be placed for the sake of emphasis at the beginning or end of the
sentence, or be inserted without emphasis between the more promi-
nent words ; e.g. : — -
Magna nuper, M. Tulli, laetitia affectus sum. Bellum civile
opinione plerumqve et fama gubernatur (Cic. Phil. V. 10. Com-
pare § 472, b).
430 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 469
Adverbs which belong to an adjective or another adverb almost
invariably stand before it, and adverbs of degree always, except
admodum, which can be placed after the adjective, when that is
itself emphatic : gravis admodum oratio. Sometimes the adverb
of degree may stand for emphasis at the beginning of the sentence,
and the adjective be put further back:—
Hoc si sulpicius noster faceret, multo ejus oratio esset pressior
(Cic. de Or. II. 23). -
The negative particles always stand before the word to which
they belong, and therefore before the verb (but not always imme-
diately before it), when they apply to the whole proposition.*
OBS. The interrogative qvam is often separated from its adjective by
an umemphatic sum : Earum causarum qvanta qvamqve sit justa
' unaqvaeqve videamus (Cic. Cat. M. 5). (Tam in bona causa is
rarely substituted for in tam bona causa.)
§ 469. The prepositions (those of one syllable, especially) are some-
times inserted between an adjective which is emphatic (numeral, adjec-
tive of multitude, superlative), or a pronoun, and the substantive :
tribus de rebus; multis de causis; paucos post menses; magna
ex parte; summa cum cura; qva de causa; ea de causa; qva in
urbe ; multos ante annos. It is less usual in good prose, to put the
preposition between a genitive and its substantive : deorum in mente
(except when the genitive is a relative or demonstrative pronoum: qvo-
rum de virtutibus).
OBs. 1. Some prepositions of two syllables (ante, circa, penes,
ultra, but especially contra, inter, propter) are sometimes put after a
relative pronoun (without a substantive) ; e.g. ii, qvos inter erat;
is, qvem contra venerat. (So, likewise, we find fundus, negotium,
qvo de agitur; and rarely, qvos ad, hunc post, hunc juxta, hunc
adversus.) A few later writers (as Tacitus), imitating the freedom of
the poets, go still further in the transposing (Anastrophe) of the preposi-
tions).*
OBs. 2. A preposition may be separated from its case (a) by a geni-
tive belonging to the latter, and that even with a subordinate proposition
attached to it: propter Hispanorum, apud qvos consul fuerat, inju-
rias (Cic. Div. in Cæc. 20); b. by an adverb belonging to the word
governed by the preposition: ad bene beateqve vivendum; c. (rarely)
*
1 Jam nunc, mov already, in contrast with the future; nunc jam, now, in contrast
with the past, with an intimatiom of some recent change.
2 Faesulas inter Arretiumqve (Liv. XXII. 3).
§ 471 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 431
by an object of the word governed, if this is a participle or adjective:
in bella gerentibus (Cic. Brut. 12; the ordinary construction would
be in iis, qvi bella gerunt); adversus hostilia ausos (Liv. I. 59);
d. (rarely) by a copulative adverb, or one used for affirmation: post
enim Chrysippum (Cic. Fin. II. 13; usually, post Chrysippum
enim); contra mehercule meum judicium (Id. ad Att. XI. 7). The
unemphatic particles que, ne, ve, are also sometimes appended to a
preposition of one syllable (e.g. exqve iis, deve coloniis, postve ea,
cumqve libellis); but they are more usually annexed to the substan-
tive governed by the preposition: de consilio destitit, in patriam-
qve rediit in reqve eo meliore, qvo major est (Cic. Fin. I. 1).
§ 470. The prepositions are repeated with substantives that fol-
low each other, when we wish to indicate the difference of the ideas
and not to allow them to be blended into one (a te et a tuis), con-
sequently always when et — et are used (et in bello et in pace),
and nec — nec, usually also with aut — aut, and vel — wel, and
after nisi (in nulla re nisi in virtute), and after a comparative (in
nulla re melius qvam in virtute); on the contrary, not with words
which are connected by qve.
OBs. 1. With et — et and aut—aut, the preposition may sometimes
be put before the conjunction: cum et nocturno et diurno metu (Cic.
Tusc. W. 23).
OBS. 2. Some prepositions of one syllable are often repeated without
any particular reason. Inter is frequently repeated after interest (in-
terest inter argumentum conclusionemgve rationis et inter medio,
crem animadversionem, Cic. Finn. I. 9), and occasionally also in
other connections, particularly in the poets (Nestor Componere lites
inter Peliden festinat et inter Atriden, Hor. Ep. I. 2, 12).
OBS. 3. A substantive cannot, in Latin, be governed by two prepo-
sitions: we must say, ante aciem postve eam (not ante postve
aciem).
$471. The following observations apply to the position of cer-
tain particles which connect the discourse. Enim, for, always
stands after one word, seldom after two. (Nam always at the be-
ginning, and so, also, namgve in the best prose.) Ergo, therefore,
either stands first, or after an important word of the sentence (Hunc
ergo, qvid ergo, &c.); when it denotes not a conclusion, but only
a transition, it is almost always put after a word. It is usual to
put igitur after one or two words (Qvid habes igitur, qvod mu-
tatum velis ?), or even last, after several words that are closely
432 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 472
connected (Ejus bono fruendum est igitur, Cic. Tusc. V. 23).
Yet it is also put first, — in some writers (e.g. Sallust) more fre-
quently than others. (Itaqve, therefore, consequently, very rarely
stands after a word in good prose.) Tamen stands at the begin-
ning, except where a single word is to be made emphatic by anti-
thesis. Etiam, also, even, stands generally before the particular
word to which it belongs; but it is also put after it, especially if the
word is removed to the beginning of the sentence for the sake of
emphasis. Qvoqve, also (in good writers), always stands after the
word to which it belongs, and which contains the new idea that is
added: Me qvoqve haec ars decepit; tuâ qvoqve causâ. So
likewise qvidem is always put after the word, which is thus empha-
sized and contrasted with others:—
Nostrum qvidem studium vides, qvam tibi sit paratum. Id
nos fortasse non perfecimus; conati qvidem saepissime sumus
(Cic. Or. 62), at least. L. qvidem Philippus gloriari solebat, &c.
(Id. Off. II. 17). Ac Metellum qvidem eximia ejus virtus defendet.
The same holds good of demum. (Nunc demum, sexto demum
anno.)
OBs. 1. If enim, autem, or igitur and est or sunt come into juxta-
position, the verb usually stands, without emphasis, in the second place,
if the proposition begins with the word on which the emphasis is laid;
e.g. Qvis est enim ; nemo est autem. §apientia est enim una,
qvae maestitiam pellat ex animis (Cic. Finn. I. 43). Magna est
enim vis humanitatis (Id. Rosc. Am. 22). On the other hand, the
verb is put in the third place, if the emphasis falls more on the words
which come after it; e.g. Cupiditates enim sunt insatiabiles (Id.
IFinn. I. 13).
OBS. 2. Concerning some other words, which always have a definite
place in the proposition, all that is necessary to be said is noticed else-
where: as on inqvit, § 162, b, Obs.; on autem and vero, § 437, Obs. ;
on qvisqve, § 495.
§ 472. a. Words which belong at the same time to several con-
nected words are regularly put either before or after all of them : —
Hostes victoriae non omen modo, sed gratulationem praecepe-
runt. Amicitiam nec usu nec ratione habent cognitam. Yet;
the common word is sometimes put with the first of them, while the sec-
ond follows after, and greater emphasis is given to both : Ante Laelii
aetatem et Scipionis (Cic. Tusc. IV. 3). Qvae populari gloria
decorari in Lucullo debuerunt, ea fere sunt et Graecis litteris cele-
brata et Latinis,(Id. Acad. II. 2).
§ 474 ORDER OF WORDS IN A PROPOSITION. 433
b. In other cases also, particularly in oratory, another word that is
less emphatic is inserted between two connected words (e.g. the object,
the subject, the verb of the proposition, or some qualifying phrase), by
which means the mind is induced to dwell more on each, or the last is
added as an afterthought: Ipse Sulla ab se hominem atqve ab exer-
citu sud removit (Cic. Verr. I. 15). Oppida, in qvibus consistere
praetores et conventus agere solent (Id. ib. W. 11). Ne opifices
qviden se ab artibus suis removerunt, qvi Ialysi, qvem. Rhodi
vidinus, non potuerunt aut Coae Veneris pulchritudinem imitari
(Id. Or. 2). (Dolori suo maluit quam auctoritativestrae obtem-
perare, Id. pro Leg. Man. 19).
$ 473. a. Words which mutually emphasize kindred or contrasted
ideas, are put together: Qvaedam falsa veri speciem habent.
Seqvere, qvo tua te virtus ducet.
b. If two coordinate propositions or two series of connected
words form an antithesis, in which the separate words correspond
to each other, the order is sometimes inverted in the second propo-
sition or series, instead of being repeated, in order to make the
antithesis more striking; so that the word which stands at the be-
ginning of the first member finds its counterpart at the end of the
last (Chiasmus): *—
Ratio nostra consentit, repugnat oratio (Cic. Finn. III. 3). Cla-
riorem inter Romanos deditio Postumium quam Pontium incru-
enta victoria inter Samnites fecit (Liv. IX. 12).
§ 474. The poetical arrangement of words is distinguished from
that followed in prose by a much greater freedom, and also by the
circumstance that it is regulated not only by the sense and empha-
sis, but often by the necessity of the verse. The freedom is shown
in the circumstance, that words which are connected together in
meaning, and in prose would stand together, are often separated,
and words which in prose have their appointed place are trans-
posed to another part of the sentence. Care, however, is taken,
that the construction be not thereby rendered doubtful or ambigu-
ous. The following are the cases rhost frequently met with:—
a. Adverbs and prepositions with their cases (ablatives without a
preposition) are separated from the verbs, or participles, to which they
belong; Ille, datis vadibus qui rure extractus in urbem est, solos
felices viventes clamat in urbe (Hor. Sat. I. 1, 12).
i Xiaopièg from Atáčelv, to place crosswise.
28
434 - LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 474
b. Adjectives and genitives are arbitrarily separated by other words
from the substantive to which they belong: Saevae memorem Junonis
ob iram (Virg. Æn. I. 4). Ipse deum tibi me claro demittit
olympo regnator (Id. ib. IV. 268). In particular, it frequently hap-
pens that a substantive and its adjective or participle are put separately
in the two divisions of a hexameter or pentameter: Egressi optata.
potiuntur Troes arena (Id. ib. I. 172). Ponitur ad patrios bar-
bara praeda deos (Ov. Her. I. 26). -
e. Prepositions are not only put arbitrarily between an adjective or a
genitive and its substantive (Trojano ab sangvine; qvibus orbis ab
oris), but also stand after the substantive with the adjective (puppi
deturbat ab alta), or even with the genitive (ora sub Augusti). They
are also put (but rarely, and generally only the dissyllables) after all the
words whose case depends on them : maria omnia circum; acres inter
numeretur (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 53).
. OBs. Sometimes, another word, unconnected with the substantive,
is inserted between the preposition and its case: Vulneraqve illa ge-
rens, qvae circum plurima muros accepit patrios (Virg. Æn. II.
278): Ultor ad ipse suos caelo descendit honores (Ov. Fast. V.
551); and even where the case precedes the preposition by which it is
governed: vitiis nemo sine nascitur (Hor. Sat. I. 8, 69). A prepo-
sition which belongs to two substantives is sometimes attached only to
the last: Foedera vel Gabiis vel cum rigidis aeqvata Sabinis (Hor.
Ep. II. 1, 25). Non legatos neqve prima per artem tentamenta
tui pepigi (Virg. Æn. VIII. 143).
d. The conjunctions et, nec (rarely, aut, vel) and sed (sed enim) are
sometimes put, after a word in the second member of the sentence: Qvo
gemitu conversi animi, compulsus et omnis impetus (Virg. Æn.
II. 73). Progeniem sed enim Trojano ab sangvine duci audierat
(Id. ib. I. 19). The same is done with the relative pronoun (which
sometimes stands after several words): Arma virumqve cano, Trojae
qvi primus ab oris — venit. Tu numina ponti Victa domas, ip-
sumqve, regit qvi numina ponti (Ov. Met. V. 370). The same
holds of nam and namqve. Conjunctions which connect subordi-
nate propositions are often removed from the beginning of the propo-
S1t1On. *
e. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions (et, ac, atqve, neqve,
neve — aut, vel) are not always followed immediatély by that which
they conneet with a foregoing word, but one or more words, which
relate in common to both of the connected words, are interposed: In-
vidia atqve vigent ubi crimina (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 61). Qvum lectu-
lus aut me porticus excepit (Id. ib. I. 4, 133). Caestus ipsius et
§ 475 ARRANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 435
Herculis arma (Virg. Æn. W. 410). Neo dulces amores sperne
puer neqve tu choreas (Hor. Od. I. 9, 15).
..f. The particles qve, ne, ve, are sometimes removed from the word
to which they properly belong to some word common to both members
of the sentence, usually the verb: Hic jacet immiti consumptus
morte Tibullus, Messalam terra dum seqviturqve mari (Tib. I. 3,
55). Non Pyladem ferro violare aususve sororem (Hor. Sat. II.
3, 139). (Pacis eras mediusqve belli, Id. Od. II. 19, 28. Semper
in adjunctis aevoqve morabimur aptis, Id. A. P. 178).
OBS. Sometimes que is removed from the first word of a new propo-
sition to the second or third: (Furor hic) semper in obtutu mentem
vetat esse malorum, Praesentis casus immemoremove facit (Ov.
Tr. IV. 1, 39). (Brachia sustulerat, Diqve o communiter omnes,
dixerat, parcite, Ov. Met. VI. 262, instead of dixeratgve, Di, &c.)
g. A substantive common to two connected propositions is some-
times not introduced till the second clause, either without any qualify-
ing word, or having an adjective which stands in the first clause:
Transmittunt cursu campos atqve agnmina cervi pulverulentå
fugā glomerant (Virg. AEn. IV. 154). An sit mihi gration ulla,
qvove magis fessas optem demittere naves, qvam qvae Darda-
nium tellus mihi servat Acesten (Id. ib. W. 28). Qvid pater Is-
mario, qvid mater profuit Orpheo 2 (Ov. Am. III. 9, 21). -
h. Words belonging to a short leading proposition, especially its verb,
are sometimes inserted in the subordinate proposition belonging to it:
Sedulus hospes paene, macros, arsit, turdos dum versat in igni
(Hor. Sat. I. 5, 72). Qvicqvid erat medicae, vicerat, artis, amor
(Tib. II. 3, 14). -
OBs. The arrangement of the words is not equally free in all poets, and
in every species of poetry. Thus, the comic poets avoid bold transposi-
tions, which would be too much at variance with the usual expressions of
every-day life.
CHAPTER II.
A R R A N G E M E N T OF P R O P O S IT I O N S e
§ 475. When the parts of a compound proposition (§ 325) are
so arranged, that we cannot break off before the last clause has
been enunciated, and yet retain a correct and perfect grammatical
form, it has the name of a period (periodus). A period is formed,
therefore, by putting the subordinate before the leading proposition,
436 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 476
or by inserting in the leading proposition itself one or more subor-
dinate propositions, which qualify it ; and this last form (when the
leading proposition is broken by intervening propositions) sometimes
receives the name of period by way of distinction (period in a nar-
rower sense). It may often happen, that the protasis and apodosis
are each divided by intervening propositions, and have consequently
the structure of a period. The way in which the individual propo-
sitions are arranged and connected together so as to form periods, is
. called the Structure of the period. This gives discourse more con-
nection, since in this way all the parts of a leading conception
present themselves in the natural order in which they occur to the
mind, and in that order are linked together (the cause before the
effect, &c.).
§ 476. The Latin language is particularly well adapted for the
formation of a variety of intricate periods, since it admits, more
freely than many, of the insertion of one proposition in another,
and the placing of the subordinate before the leading proposition.
With respect to this liberty the following observations may be
made. -
a. All subordinate propositions, which it would be possible to
place before the leading proposition to which they belong, at the
beginning of a period (that is to say, all subordinate propositions,
except such as denote a result), may also be inserted in the leading
proposition after its first word or words, and that without its being
necessary that any particular grammatical element of the proposition
in which it is inserted (with the exception of particles and pronouns
which serve as connectives), should precede the insertion : —
L. Manlio, qvum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius, tribunus
plebis, diem dixit (Cic. Off. III. 31). Antea, ubi esses, ignora-
bam.
OBs. 1. A period in which the leading proposition is interrupted is
often formed by placing first a word which is common to the leading
and the subordinate proposition (e.g. as a common subject or object),
and putting the subordinate proposition immediately after it: Stultitia,
etsi adepta est, qvod concupivit, nunqvam se tamen satis con-
secutam putat (Cic. Tusc. V. 18). Pompejus Cretensibus, qvum
ad eum usqve in Pamphiliam legatos deprecatoresqve misissent,
spen deditionis non ademit (Id. pro Leg. Man. 12).
OBs. 2. A relative proposition (including those introduced by a relative
pronominal adverb to express time or manner) may stand before the
§ 476 ARRANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 487
démonstrative proposition, not only when the former actually begìns the
period, but also when one or more words of the latter are placed before the
relative propositiom, the demonstrative word itself and the remainder of
the demonstrative proposition being placed after the relative proposition.
Such am arrangement serves not only to unite the propositions more
closely, but also to add force to comparison and contrast: Invidi, qvi-
hus ipsi uti neqveunt, eorum tamen fructu alios prohibent. Pri-
mum vigilet adolescens necesse est in deligendo (qvem imitetur),
deinde, qvem probavit, in eo, qvae maxime excellent, ea diligen-
tissime perseqvatur (Cic. de Or. II. 22). Ceteris in rebus, qvum
venit calamitas, tum detrimentum accipitur (Id. pro Leg. Man. 6).
Si Verres, qvam audax est ad conandum, tam esset obscurus in
agendo, fortasse aliqva in re nos aliqvando fefellisset (Id. Act. I.
in Verr. 2). (The relative clause may also stand first where two nouns
or adverbs are compared: Orationem habuit ut honestam, ita parum
utilem. Insigncm eam pestilentiam mors qvam matura tam acerba
M. Furii fecit, Liv. VII. 1.)
b. Between a subordinate proposition at the commencement of a
period and the leading proposition which it introduces, there may
be inserted a second subordinate proposition, which is more inti-
mately connected with the latter, or contains some special observa-
tion or definition applying to it:—
Et qvoniam studium meae defensionis ab accusatoribus atqve
etiam ipsa susceptio causae reprehensa est, anteqvam pro L. Mu-
rena dicere instituo, pro me ipso pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur. 1).
Qvum hostium copiae non longe absunt, etiamsi irruptio nulla
facta est, tamen pecua relinqvuntur, agricultura deseritur (Id. pro
Leg. Mam. 6). Fugatis hostibus, qvanqvam flumen transire tuto
licebat, tamen reliqvum exercitum opperiri placuit. (Here the
subordinate proposition is inserted between the participial and leading
propositions : though, after the defeat qf the enemy, the river might have
been crossed with safety.) Si qvis istorum dixisset, in qvibus
summa auctoritas est, si verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura
dixisse, qvam dixisset, putaretur (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 1. Compare
§ 442, a). Hujus rei qvae consvetudo sit, qvoniam apud homines
peritissimos dico, pluribus verbis docere non debeo (Id. pro
Cluent. 41; where the subordinate proposition is inserted between a de-
pendent question and the governing proposition). Qvoniam, cujus
consilio Sex. Roscius occisus sit, invenio, cujus manu sit per-
cussus, non laboro (Id. pro Rosc. Am. 34). Macedonia qvum se
consilio et manu Fonteji conservatam dicat, ut illa per hunc a
Thracum depopulatione defensa est, sic ab hujus nunc capite Gal-
438 • LATIN GRAMMAR. - -§ 476
lorum impetus depellet (Cic. pro Font. 16. In this example the rela-
tive proposition, after a protasis, precedes the demonstrative leading
proposition).
c. A subordinate proposition, which belongs to another subordi-
nate proposition (usually a conjunctional one), is sometimes placed
before the latter (before the conjunction), instead of being inserted
in it or put after it. (In this way a particular prominence is given
to the statement contained in the proposition so prefixed) : —
Qvid autem agatur, qvum aperuero, facile erit statuere, qvam
sententiam dicatis (Cic. Phil. V. 2). Rogavi, qvoniam cetera
concessissent, ne hoc unum negarent. Qvod usu non veniebat,
de eo si qvis legem aut judicium constitueret, non tam pro-
hibere videretur qvam admonere (Cic. pro Tull.. 4). Caesar, ab
exploratoribus certior factus, hostes sub monte consedisse, qva-
lis esset natura loci, qvi cognoscerent, misit (Cæs. B. G. I. 21).
OBs. The different forms given under a (Obs. 2), b, and e, may
be eombined; e.g. Philosophandi scientiam concedens multis, qvod
est oratoris proprium, apte, distincte, ornate dicere, qvoniam in
eo studio aetatem consumpsi, si id mihi assumo, videor id meo
jure qvodam modo vindicare (Cie. Off. I. 1). After the participle,
the relative proposition qvod est, &c., takes the first place ; then, in
order the better to establish the demonstrative proposition, the clause
commencing with qvoniam, &c., is inserted (b), and lastly the demon-
strative itself is changed to a subordinate proposition with si, retaining,
however, according to c, its own subordinate propositions before it.
It happens very frequently, in Livy, that what is expected as an apodo-
sis to a preceding subordinate proposition or. to several such, suddenly
becomes a subordinate proposition itself by the insertion of a conjunc-
tion (qvum, qvia): Ibi qvum Herculem, cibo vinoqve gravatum
sopor oppressisset, pastor, accola ejus loci, momine Cacus, ferox
viribus, captus pulchritudine boum, qvum avertere eam praedam
vellet, qvia, si agendo armentum in speluncam compulisset, ipsa
vestigia qvaerentem dominum eo deductura erant, aversos boves
caudis in speluncam traxit (Liv. I. 7).
d. If a dependent proposition (especially an indirect question)
is drawn to the beginning of the period by a pronoun which refers
to something that precedes, or with a view to emphasis and anti-
thesis, we may insert either the whole governing proposition (if it
be short), or some words of it, in the dependent proposition, be-
tween the connecting pronoun or the emphatie words which come
{irst and the interrogative word or conjunction : —
§ 477 ARRANGEMENT OF PROPOSITIONS. 439
Qvae, breviter, qvalia sint in Cn. Pompejo, consideremus (Cic.
pro Leg. Man. 13). Stoicorum autem, non ignoras, qvam sit sub-
tile vel spinosum potius disserendi genus (Id. Finn. III. I.). Ex
qvibus, alienissimis hominibus, ital paratus venis, ut tibi hospes
aliqvis recipiendus sit (Id. Div. in Caec. 15). Infima est conditio
et fortuna servorum, qvibus, non male praecipiunt, qvi ita jubent
uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13. Compare $ 445).
OBs. The accusative with the infinitive is not considered absolutely
as a distinct proposition, but as intimately combined with the leading propo-
sition (in which it may be inserted according to a . Omnes Caesarem
appropinqvare narrabant). Not only, therefore, may we insert a
short proposition (which again may itself be a subordinate proposition),
or one or several words of it, in an accusative with the infinitive, in the
manner pointed out under d (Platonem Cicero scribit Tarentum
venisse ; eam causam quum ego me suscepturum profiterer, repu-
diatus sum), but even where the leading proposition comes first, its verb
often stands after the subject of the infinitive (particularly a pronoun),
sometimes also after another very emphatic word: Caesar sese negat
eo die proelio decertaturum.
§ 477. Care should be taken in the structure of periods, that each
subordinate proposition be inserted just where there is occasion to
think of its contents, or where it is called for by some word of the
leading proposition. In the historical style the chronological ar-
rangement of the several parts of the leading proposition, and the
circumstances to which it refers, is particularly to be attended to.
It is also necessary, where there are several subordinate proposi-
tions, to avoid too great a uniformity in their structure, unless it
should happen that several circumstances which stand in the same
relation to the leading proposition are expressed in coordinate
propositions. We must especially avoid inserting one proposition-
in another in such a way that several terminations of a precisely
similar form come together at last, especially a number of verbs,
which belong severally to different members of the proposition,
although such periods are occasionally found in the old writers (e.g.
Constiterunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qvi, qvid sibi, qvamdo
praeter spem hostis occurrisset, faciendum esset, consulerent,
qvieti opperientes, Liv. XXXIII. 6)." In a good period there
must be a certain symmetry of the parts, particularly between those
1 On the other hand, there is no objection to several verbs coming together, one of which is
governed by the other in the infinitive; e.g. Foedus sanciri posse dicebant.
440 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 478
inserted and the conclusion of the leading proposition, so that this
may not be too short and abrupt, unless this very brevity is intended
to produce a certain effect. The two following may serve as ex-
amples of carefully constructed periods:— -
Ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravi, qvum aestu febriqve jac-
tantur, si aqvam gelidam biberunt, primo relevari videntur de-
inde multo gravius vehementiusqve afflictantur, sic hic morbus,
qvi est in republica, relevatus istius poena, vehementius, vivis
reliqvis, ingravescet (Cic. in Cat. I. 13). Numitor, inter primum
tumultum, hostes invasisse urbem atqve adortos regiam dictitans,
qvum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisqve obtinendam
avocasset, postqvam juvenes, perpetrata caede pergere ad se gra-
tulantes vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris,
originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem
deinceps tyranni seqve ejus auctorem ostendit (Liv. I. 6).
FIRST APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX.
OF SOMIE SPECIAI, IRREGULARITHES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF
WORDS.
§ 478. THE VERB UNDERsTooD. In coordinate propositions
the verb is often omitted in one of the propositions, and supplied
in it from the other, in the same or a different person and number,
and not only (as in English) in the clause which follows from that
which precedes, but also in the reverse order (because in Latin the
proposition usually concludes with the verb):—
Beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Cic. Finn.
II. 37). In iis, in qvibus sapientia perfecta non est, ipsum illud
perfectum honestum nullo modo (se. esse potest), similitudines
honesti esse possunt (Id. Off. III. 8). L. Luculli virtutem qvis?
at qvam multi villarum magnificentiam sunt imitati ? (Id. ib. I.
39). Nec Graeci terra nec Romanus mari bellator erat (Liv. VII.
26). (The referring a verb to two subjeets, differing in person, number,
or gender, is called Syllepsis.)
OBs. 1. In a subordinate proposition, the verb may be supplied
from a preceding subordinate proposition of the same character: Ea
magis percipimus atqve sentimus, qvae nobis ipsis prospera
§ 478 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 441
aut adversa eveniunt, qvam illa, qvae ceteris (Cic. Off. I. 9);
rarely from a subordinate proposition of a different kind : certe
nihil (intelligit honestum) nisi qvod possit ipsum propter se
laudari. Nam si propter voluptatem (se. laudatur), qvae est
ista laus, qvae possit e macello peti? (Id. Finn. II. 15). In
short subordinate propositions, the verb may be supplied from leading
propositions which have the same subject : Sapienter haec reliqvisti,
si consilio, feliciter, si casu (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 28). In relative
expressions of comparison, the verb is omitted, as in eoordinate propo-
sitions: Adeptus es, qvod non multi homines novi (Cic. Fam. V.
18). The verb is rarely supplied in the leading proposition from the
subordinate : e.g. Si te municipiorum non pudebat, ne veterani
qvidem exercitus ? (Cic. Phil. II. 25); this occurs most frequently in
comparisons: Ut enim cupiditatibus principum et vitiis infici solet
tota civitas, ita emendari et corrigi continentia (Cic. Legg. III.
18). Olim, qvum regnare existimabamur, non tam ab ullis, qvam
hoc tempore observor a familiarissimis Caesaris (Cic. ad Fam.
VII. 24; in this example the verb is understood in another tense, — ob-
servabar, — which is the ease sometimes when the remaining words indi-
cate the difference of time : Jugurtha dicit, tum sese, paulo ante
Carthaginienses, post, ut qvisqve opulentissimus videatur, ita
Romanis hostem fore, Sall. Jug. 81).
OBS. 2. From a verb in a finite mood, the infinitive is often supplied
in a subordinate proposition ; e.g. Rogat Rubrium, ut, qvos commo-
dum ei sit, invitet (Cic. Verr. I. 26). Si noles sanus, curres hy-
dropicus (Hor. Ep. I. 2, 34). With this exception a verb is very rarely
supplied from a different mood (as, for example, when the whole sense is
expressed by a single word which is antithetical to one going before) ; as,
Si per alios Roscium hoc fecisse dicis, qvaero, servosne an liberos
(Cie. Rosc. Am. 27) = per servosne an per liberos hoc eum fecisse
dicas ? 1 «
OBs. 3. Sometimes (but mostly in writers who are accustomed to a
Harshness of construction) one verb is used as common to two antithetical
propositions (or objects), which is only suitable to the mearest, so that
some kindred signification, comprised under the same more general idea,
must be supplied with the other: e.g. Germanicus, qvod arduum, sibi,
cetera legatis permisit (Tac. Ann. II. 20; from permisit we must
supply with sibi, he reserved for himself, he imposed on himself). (This
is called Zeugma.)
-.
1 Sed utilitatis specie in republica saepissime peccatur, ut in Corinthi
άisturbatione nostri (Cic. Off. III. ll, sc. peccarunt).
442 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 479
§ 479. ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. Sometimes the verb is
omitted, though it cannot be supplied from a preceding or subse-
quent proposition, so that we only see from the other words of the
proposition what verb is to be understood. This Ellipsis of the
verb is met with only in animated discourse, in short and simple
propositions, chiefly leading propositions in the indicative. On this
point we must make the following remarks:—
a. Est and sunt are often omitted in short and pithy general judg-
ments and sentences, or in quick and passionate transitions, sometimes
also in rapid descriptions, which consist of antithetical clauses, and with .
the perfect participle in propositions which form single members of a
continuous narrative: Omnia praeclara rara (Cic. Læl. 21). Jucundi
acti labores (Id. Finn. II. 32). Sed haec vetera; illud vero recens,
Caesarem meo consilio interfectum (Id. Phil. II. 11.) Ecqvis est,
qvi illud aut fieri noluerit aut factum improbarit ? Omnes ergo in
culpa (Id. ib. II. 12). Africa fines habet ab occidente fretum
nostri maris et Oceani, ab ortu solis declivem latitudinem, qvem
locum Catabathmom incolae appellant. Mare saevum, importuo-
sum, ager frugum fertilis, bonus pecori, arbore infecundus; caelo
terraqve penuria aqvarum (Sall. Jug. 17). Nondum dedicata erat in
Capitolio Jovis aedes; Valerius Horatiusqve consules sortiti, uter
dedicaret; Horatio sorte evenit; Publicola ad Vejentium bellum
profectus. Aegrius, qvam dignum erat, tulere Valerii necessarii,
dedicationem tam incliti templi Horatio dari (Liv. II. 8). Erat
and fuit (erant and fuerunt) are less frequently omitted, and only where
the past time is sufficiently indicated by the context: Polycratem Sa-
mium felicem appellabant. Nihil acciderat ei, qvod nollet, nisi
qvod amulum, qvo delectabatur, in mari abjecerat. Ergo infelix
unä molestiâ, felix rursus, qvum is ipse anulus in praecordiis pis-
cis inventus est ? (Cic. Finn. V. 30).
OBs. In the poets est is often left out in a rather striking manner;
e.g. in relative propositions: Pol me occidistis amici, cui sic extorta
voluptas (Hor. Ep. II. 2, 188). The subjunctive of sum is very
rarely omitted, especially in prose : Potest incidere contentio et com-
paratio, de duobus honestis utrum honestius (Cic. Off. I. 43).
Esse in an accusative with the infinitive is rarely omitted (except with
participles, concerning which see § 406, and with gerundives), e.g. in
the expression volo, (nolo, malo) me phy$icum, me patris similem,
me audacem, I wish to be and to pass for—.
b. Inqvit is sometimes omitted in a brief notice of the change of
persons in a dialogue: Tum Crassus cet. Huic ego, Nolo te mirari
cet. Praeclare qvidem dicis, Laelius (sc. inqvit);. etenim video
§ 479 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 443
cet. (Cie. R. P. III. 82). This oeeurs in the poets, even where inqvit
should form an apodosis : Ut vidit socios, “Tempus desistere pugnae
(sc. inqvit), solus ego in Pallanta feror" (Virg. Æn. X. 441).
c. Dico and facio may be omitted in leading propositions, when am
assertion or action is briefly characterized by an adverb of praise or dis-
praise: Bene igitur idem Chrysippus, qvi omnia in perfectis et
maturis docet esse meliora (Cic. N. D. II. 14). Scite enim Chry-
sippus, ut clipei causa involucrum, vaginam. gladii, sic praeter
mundum cetera omnia aliorum causa esse generata (Id. ib. II.
14). Qvanto haec melius vulgus imperitorum, qvi non membra
solum hominis deo tribuant, sed usum etiam membrorum ? (Id.
ib. I. 86), how much better does the common man do this = does he treat
this subject? -*
OBs. So also occasionally in quoting an example : Alia subito ex
tempore conjecturâ explicantur, ut apud Homerum Calchas qvi
ex passerum numero belli Trojani annos auguratus est (Cie. Div.
I. 33). Facio and fio are also sometimes omitted after me: Ibe ever-
tendis diripiendisqve urbibus valde considerandum est, ne qvid
temere, ne qvid crudeliter (Cic. Off. I. 24). Cave, turpe qvidqvam
(Id. Tusc. II. 22). -
d. The verb may, in general, be omitted, in familiar and every-day
discourse, or imitations of it, in those leading propositions in which am
accusative or other words (e.g. an adverb) qualifying the verb sufficiently
point it out, and in which it is desired to attain the greatest brevity, and
to compress, as it were, the whole proposition into an accusative, Or
some other qualifying form: Crassus verbum nullum contra gratiam
(Cic. ad Att. I. 18). Ubi enim aut Xenocratem Antiochus seqvi-
tur aut Aristotelem ? A. Chrysippo pedem nunqvam (Id. Acad.
II. 46). Qvas tu mihi, inqvit, intercessiones, qvas religiones?'
(Id. Phil. I. 10). A me Caesar pecuniam ? (sc. postulat, Id. Phil.
II. 29). Ille ex me, nihilne audissem navi; ego negare (Id. ad
Att. II. 12). Sed qvid ego alios (sc. commemoro)? ad me ipsum
jam revertar (Id. Cat. M. 18). Sed ad ista alias (sc. respondebo);
nunc Lucilium audiamus (Id. N. D. II. 1). Cicero Attico salu-
tem (occurs often in the superscriptions of letters). Di meliora!
(dent).
OBs. 1. In certain expressions, snch an ellipsis has become a general
usage; e.g. in the phrases nihil ad me, ad te, &e. (sc. pertinet, it does
mot concern me): qvid mihi (nobis, &c.) cum hac re ? what have I to.
do with it ? Qvorsum haec ? Especially in certain transitions with
qvid, how ; qvid, qvod (how is it that ? what shall we say to
this, that ?) qvid, si (how, if ); qvid ergo ? qvid
enim ? qvid tum ? (what, then ?) qvid postea ? Qvid multa? (sc.
444 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 480
dicam = in short ; also, ne multa). So likewise, in some proverbial.
expressions; as, Fortuna fortes (sc. adjuvat). Minima de malis
(eligenda sunt).
OBS. 2. Sometimes, when the writer is hurrying in a raoid style, he
omits, after the nominative, a verb of happening, occurring, &c., in order
quickly to give a new point or item of his narrative: Clamor inde
concursusqve mirantium, qvid rei esset (Liv. I. 41). Italiae rur-
sus concursatio eadem comite mima; in oppida militum cru-
delis et misera deductio (Cic. Phil. II. 25), after that followed again,
&c. (Qvid Pompejus de me senserit, sciunt, qvi eum Paphum
secuti sunt. Nusqvam ab eo mentio de me nisi honorifica (Id.
ib. II. 15).
OBs. 3. Such omissions are less frequent in the subordinate propo-
sition: Itaqve exspecto, qvid ad ista (sc. dicturus sis, Cic. Tusc.
IV. 20).
OBs. 4. Sometimes, we find the infinitives dicere, commemorare,
and the like, left, out in this manner: Sed non necesse est nunc
omnia (Cic. Tusc. III. 18).
OBS. 5. We may particularly notice the expression nihil aliud qvam
(in Livy, and the sueceeding writers), in which originally the verb
facio appears to have been omitted (e.g. Venter in medio qvietus
nihil aliud qvam datis voluptatibus fruitur, Liv. II. 32 = nihil
aliud facit nisi fruitur, see § 442, c, Obs. 2), but which, in
these writers, stands simply as an adverb, in the sense of merely, only,
with a verb; e.g. Hostes, nihil aliud qvam perfusis vano timore
Romanis, citato agmine abeunt (Liv. II. 63), qfter they had omly -»
(Nero philosophum, a qvo convicio laesus erat, nihil amplius
qvam urbe Italiaqve summovit, Svet. Ner. 39). In the same way,
si nihil aliud (evem ìf nothing else is attained) stands with the signifiea-
tion at least (evem £f from mo other motive): Vénit in judicium P.
Junius, si nihil aliud, saltem ut eum, cujus opera ipse multos an-
nos esset in sordibus, paullo tandem obsoletius vestitum videret;
(Cic. Verr. I. 58).
OBs. 6. Quite distinct from Ellipsis is the sudden breaking off of a
proposition which has been commenced, and which we do not choose to
complete (Aposiopësis) ; e.g. Qvos ego—sed motos praestat compo-
nere fluctus (Virg. Æn. I. 135).
§ 480. ANACOLUTHIA. Sometimes writers indulge in the same
inaccuracy, which occurs in oral discourse ; namely, that a proposi-
1 Qvum ille ferociter ad haec (sc. diceret), se patris sui tenere sedem -
clamor oritur (Liv. I. 48). v -
§ 48o IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 445
tion which has been commenced is so broken off either by long and
complicated subordinate propositions, or by parentheses under the
form of independent propositions (e.g. with nam, enim), that it
cannot easily, if at all, be continued and concluded in agreement
with the beginning, the connection being forgottem or no longer
obvious. In order to show in this case, that the writer returns to
the beginning which had been interrupted, it is usual to employ one
of the particles verum, sed, verum tamem, sed tamen (but, as I
wished to say ; also, sed haec omitto, and similar expressions), or
igitur, ergo, inqvam (I say, with a repetition of the leading
idea), or only a pronoum, which refers back to the leading idea, after
which the interrupted proposition is repeated and concluded, oftem
in a form somewhat altered, so that the original beginning of the
proposition remains without a corresponding conclusion. Sometimes,
too, the continuation of the discourse is thus modified, without any
indication of this kind. This want of strict grammatical coherence
is called Anacoluthia, and such a proposition am Anacoluthom.* Some
particular kinds of it are found in rhetorical compositions, others of
a freer character in such as imitate the style of oral discourse; e.g.
in dialogues: —
Qvi potuerunt ista ipsa lege, qvae de proscriptione est (sive
Valeria est sive Cornelia; neqve enim novi nec scio), verum ista
ipsa lege bona Sex. Roscii venire qvi potuerunt ? (Cic. Rose. Am.
43). Saepe ego doctos homines — qvid dico “saepe " ? immo,
nonnunqvam ; saepe enim qvi potui, qvi puer in forum venerim
neqve inde unqvam diutius qvam qvaestor abfuerim ? — sed ta-
men audivi, et Athenis qvum essem, doctissimos viros et in Asia
Scepsium Metrodorum, qvum de his ipsis rebus disputaret (Id.
de Or. II. 90). Scripsi etiam — nam me jam ab orationibus dis-
jungo fere referoqve ad mansvetiores Musas, qvae me maxime jam
a prima adolescentia delectarunt, — scripsi igitur Aristotelio more
tres libros de oratore (Id. ad Fam. I. 9). Octavio Mamilio Tus-
culano (is longe princeps Latini nominis erat, si famae credi-
mus, ab Ulixe deaqve Circe oriundus) ei Mamilio filiam nuptum
dat (I,iv. I. 49). Te alio qvodam modo, non solum natura et
moribus, verum etiam studio et doctrina esse sapientem, nec
sicut vulgus, sed ut eruditi solent appellare sapientem qvalem in
* 'Avako%ov6ía is compounded of the negative a and άκολουθέω, to follow. A protasis,
which wants the regularly corresponding apodosis, has the special name of Anantapodotora
(àvavtaTööoTov).
446 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 481
Graecia neminem (nam qvi septem appellantur, eos qvi ista sub-
tilius qvaerunt, in numero sapientium non habent), Athenis unum
accepimus, et eum qvidem etiam Apollinis oraculo sapientissimum
judicatum, — hanc esse in te sapientiam existimant, ut omnia tua
in te posita esse ducas humanosqve casus virtute inferiores
putes (Cic. Læl. 2). Nam nos omnes, qvibus est alicunde aliqvis
objectus labos, omne, qvod est interea tempus priusqvam id re-
scitum est, lucro est (Ter. Hec. III. 1, 6; the sentence is not con-
tinued in the way it should have been after the nominative nos
omnes).
OBs. 1. A particular kind of anacoluthia consists in leading the
reader to expect a combination of two coordinate members (e.g. by et
— et, neqve — neqve ; duae causae, altera — altera; primum qvia,
deinde qvod), but them dwelling so long on the first member, that the
connection of the sentence is lost, and the second member of the idea is
subjoined by itself in amother way. Multos oratores vidimus, qvi
neminem imitentur, et suapte natura, qvod velint, sine cujusqvam
similitudine conseqvantur, qvod et in vobis animadverti recte
potest, Caesar et Cotta, qvorum alter inusitatum nostris qvidem
oratoribus lepórem qvendam et salem, alter acutissimum et sub-
tilissimum dicendi genus est consecutus. Neqve vero vester
aeqvalis Curio qvenqvam mihi magno opere videtur imitari (Cic.
de Or. II. 23. He had at first intended to say, Qvod et in vobis
animadverti potest et in aeqvali vestro Curione).
OBs. 2. If particles which connect subordinate propositions are far
removed from the proposition which depends upon them, they are some-
times repeated, especially ut: Verres Archagatho negotium dedit
ut, qvicqvid Haluntii esset argenti coelati aut si qvid etiam vaso-
rum Corinthiorum, ut omne statim ad mare ex oppido deporta-
retur (Cic. Verr. IV. 23).
§ 481. a. From the grammatical irregularities which have been
here discussed (in which the construction of words and sentences
departs from general rules) we must distinguish those peculiarities
of expression which have to do with the method of conceiving and .
expressing particular thoughts without making any change in the
inflections or the grammatical construction of words, and are, there-
foré, only rhetorical peculiarities qf style. They are found espe-
cially in oratorical language, and still more frequently in the poets,
who by these means sometimes give their language more force and
animation, and at other times attain greater freedom and facility in
the structure of their verse. Among these peculiarities we may
§ 481 IRREGULARITIES IN CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 447
here notice that way of expression, which is called Hendiadys (āv
ôuž övoiv, one by two), by which a word, which should be connected
with another substantive as a qualifying word (as an adjective or
in the genitive), is connected with it by a conjunction as a coordi-
nate ; e.g. : — -
Pateris libamus et auro (Virg. Georg. II. 192) = pateris aureis,
or Molem et montes insuper altos imposuit (Id. Æn. I. 61) =mo-
lem altorum montium.
OBS. 1. We may refer to the same class the custom (even more strik-
ing in Latin than in English) of saying that a person does a thing him-
self which he causes to be done by others (curat faciendum, fieri
jubet); e.g. Piso anulum sibi facere volebat (Cic. Verr. IV. 25).
Virgis quam multos Verres ceciderit, qvid ego commemorem 2
(Id. ib. W. 53).
OBs. 2. Another irregularity, in the poets, consists in this, that in
consequence of the freedom with which the imagination can transfer a
quality from one object of thought to another (e.g. from a person to an
action and its result) the adjective is occasionally referred to a different sub-
ject from that, to which, strictly considered, it appears to belong : Capi-
tolio regina dementes ruinas parabat (Hor. Od. I. 37, 6). Sometimes,
by means of an adjective or participle, a quality is attributed to a person
or thing, which it does not yet possess, but only acquires as a result of
the action announced in the proposition; e.g. premit placida aeqvora
pontus (Virg. Æn. X. 103); i.e. premit ita, ut placida fiant, pre-
mendo placida fiant. This last idiom is called prolepsis adjectivi,
the anticipation of an adjective.
b. Certain discrepancies between the Latin and other languages
(as, for example, English) are owing to the fact that in particular
cases one of the languages describes an action in a more circum-
stantial way than the other, either by using a circumlocution in the
place of the simple verb, by which the action is, as it were, resolved
into two, or by repeating the same idea (by a p"eonasm) twice. As
an example of such phraseological peculiarities of Latin (which are
in general to be learned by practice and from the dictionary) we
may notice the periphrastic use of facio: —
Facite, ut non solum mores ejus et arrogantiam, sed etiam vul-
tum atqve amictum recordenini (Cic. pro Cluent. 40). Faciendum
mihi putavi, ut tuis litteris brevi responderem (Id. ad Fam. III.
8). Invitus feci, ut L. Flaminium e senatu ejicerem (Id. Cat. M.
12). In dependent questions after a verb that denotes judgment and
consideration, the idea to think is often repeated pleonastically: Itinera,
448 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 484
qvae per hosce annos in Italia nostri imperatores fecerunt, recor-
damini; tum facilius statuetis, qvid apud exteras nationes fieri
existimetis (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 13), what you are to believe happens,
instead of what happens. In a similar way, it is said, permitto, con-
cedo (permittitur), ut liceat; e.g. Lex permittit, ut furem noctu
liceat occidere (Cic. pro Tull. 47).
SECOND APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX.
OF THE SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF THE PRONO UNS,
§ 482. The personal pronoun, as a subject, is usually omitted,
when the persom is not emphasized (in contrast with others, or with
reference to its own character, or because several actions are re-
ferred to the same subject) :—
Tu nidum servas, ego laudo ruris amoeni rivos (Hor. Ep. I. 10,
6). Et tu apud patres conscriptos contra me dicere ausus es ?
(Cic. Phil. II. 21). Tu a civitatibus pecunias classis nomine coë-
gisti, tu pretio remiges dimisisti, tu archipiratam ab oculis om-
nium removisti (Id. Verr. V. 52).
§ 483. In Latin, an individual not unfrequently speaks of him-
self in the first persom plural, when he thinks more of the condi-
tion and bearings of the subject under discussion, than of himself
personally in distinction from others : —
Reliqvum est, ut de felicitate Pompeji plura dicamus (Cic. pro
Leg. Man. 16). Qvaerenti mihi, qvanam re possem prodesse
qvam plurimis, nulla major occurrebat, qvam si optimarum artium
vias traderem meis civibus, qvod compluribus jam libris me arbi-
tror consecutum. Nam et cohortati sumus, ut maxime potuimus,
ad philosophiae studium in eo libro, qvi inscriptus est Hortensius,
et, qvod genus philosophandi maxime et constans et elegans arbi-
traremur, qvattuor Academicis libris ostendimus (Id. Div. II. 1).
Noster is used in the same way, instead of meus.
OBs. Concerning the redundant personal pronoun with qvidem, see
below, on the demonstratives, § 439, ò. -
§ 484. a. The pronoun is (the indirect demonstrative) is omitted
as a nominative, when we continue simply to speak of the same
§ 484 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 449
person as before without emphasis or contrast ; but it is used when,
after a short notice of the person of whom we are about to speak,
we come to the thing which was especially to be said: —
P. Ammius Asellus mortuus est C. Sacerdote praetore. Is qvum
haberet unicam filiam, eam bonis suis heredem instituit (Cic. Verr.
I. 41). So, likewise, the accusative or dative of this pronoun is very
often omitted, when the word to which it refers is found in the same
grammatical construction in a preceding leading or subordinate proposi-
tion, or in a preceding proposition with which the proposition to which
the pronoun belongs is connected by a copulative or disjunctive particle.
This oceurs, however, when the pronoun is not emphatie, and when
the proposition in which the pronoun belongs is short and simple :
E'ratrem tuum ceteris in rebus laudo, in hac una reprehendere
cogor. Non obsistam fratris tui voluntati, qvoad honestas patie-
tur; favere non potero. Under these circumstances, the accusative is
also sometimes omitted, where that which is referred to by the pronoun
preeedes in the nominative: Libri, de qvibus scribis, mei non sunt;
sumpsi a fratre meo. (The same ease is never repeated with two con-
nected verbs, thus: I saw him, and asked him ; but vidi eum rogavi-
qve.)
b. Is is sometimes followed, not by qvi, but by qvicunqve ; e.g.
Qvid habeo, qvod faciam, nisi ut eam fortunam, qvaecunqve erit
tua ducam meam (Cic. pro Mil. 36 = qvae erit tua, qvaecunqve
erit) or si qvis (is, si qvis =is, qvi, si qvis); e.g. Ipse Allie-
nus ex ea facultate, si qvam habet, aliqvantum detrahet (Cic. Div.
in Cæc. 15).
e. A more precise definition of a word is connected emphatically by
et is (atqve is, et is qvidem), and that ; nec is, amd that mot : Habet
homo primum memoriam et eam infinitam rerum innumerabilium
(Cic. Tuse. I. 24). Uno atqve eo facili proelio caesi ad Antium
hostes (Liv. IV. 57). Epicurus una in domo et ea qvidem an-
gusta qvam magnos qvantaqve amoris conspiratione consentien-
tes tenuit amicorum greges ! (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Erant in Romana
juventute adolescentes aliqvot, nec ii tenui loco orti, qvorum in
regno libido solutior fuerat (Liv. II. 8). (If that which is added
belongs to the predicate and to the assertion in general, the neuter is
employed, et id; e.g. Apollonium doctum hominem cognovi et stu-
diis optimis deditum, idqve a puero, Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 16). In
the same way, we find sed is: Severitatem in senectute probo, sed
eam, sicut alia, modicam (Cic. Cat. M. 18).'
1 Hostis et is hostis, qvi —, tribunus et Curio tribunus —, homines ignoti
atqve ita, ignoti, ut — (without qvidem, when the preceding word is repeated with an
addition which gives emphasis). 29
450 . LATIN GRAMMAR. § 485
§ 485. a. Hic, this, is used to denote what is nearest to the
speaker in place, time, or thought: —
Tum primum philosophia, non illa de natura, qvae fuerat anti-
qvior, sed haec, in qva de bonis et malis deqve hominum vita
disputatur, inventa dicitur (Cic. Brut. 8). Opus vel in hac mag-
nificentia urbis conspiciendum (Liv. VI. 4), that qf the present day,
qf our time. Qvi haec vituperare volunt, Chrysogonum tantum
posse qveruntur (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 48), the present state qf things.
Sex. Stola, judex hic noster (Id. pro Flacco), who sits here as judge.
Ille, that, refers to something more distant (veteres illi, qvi —), but
often designates what is important or well known: Ex suo regno sic
Mithridates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto Medea illa qvondam
profugisse dicitur (Cic. pro Leg. Mam. 9). (Concerning hic and ille,
in motices of time, see § 276, Obs. 5.) If two persons or things that,
have been previously named be spoken of, hic is generally referred to
the last mentioned, ille to the more remote ; e.g. Caesar beneficiis
atqve munificentia magnus habebatur, integritate vitae Cato.
Ille mansvetudine et misericordia clarus factus, huic severitas
dignitatem addiderat (Sall. Cat. 54). But hic, not unfrequently,
refers not to the last named, but to that which is mearer in thought and
in its nature: Melior tutiorqve est certa pax, qvam sperata
victoria, haec (pax) in tua, illa in deorum potestate est (Liv.
XXX. 80).
OBs. What is expressed in the oratio directa by hic is desig-
mated in the oratio obliqva by ille; yet hic may sometimes be retained
with emphasis from the oratio directa. Tu (vos) of the oratio di-
recta is expressed in repeating the speech of another chiefly by ille, but
also by is : Caveat, ne illo cunctante Numidae sibi consulant (Sall.
Jug. 62) = cave, ne te cunctante Tamen, si obsides ab iis
sibi dentur, sese cum iis pacem esse facturum (Cæs. B. G. I. 14)=
tamen, si obsides a vobis dantur ©
b. Hic, and especially ille, also refer to something that is to be
mentioned next (hic being used for what is present, ille for Some-
thing new or well known) : —
Nonne qvum multa alia mirabilia, tum illud imprimis.? (Cic.
de Div. I. 10, the following eircumstance espeeially). (On the addition
of a proposition referring to hic or ille with enim or nam, see § 439,
Obs. 2.)
c. Hic is used in relative clauses instead of is (hic, qvi), when the
thing so described is designated as something near (e.g. haec, qvae a
nobis hoc qvatriduo disputata sunt, Cic. Tusc. IV. 38); otherwise,
but seldom. -
§ 487 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 451
OBS. We must also notice hic et hic, hic et ille, this and that, this
or that ; ille et ille, one or two.
§ 486. Iste is used of that which refers to the person addressed
(of a thing which is in his neighborhood, relates to him, proceeds
from him, is mentioned by him, &c.); hence iste tuus (iste vester)
are oftem found combined, or iste has the same signification as tuus
(vester): —
Ista oratio, that speech (which you make). Qvaevis mallem causa
fuisset qvam ista, qvam dicis (Cic. de Or. II. 4). De istis rebus
exspecto tuas litteras (Id. ad Att. II. 5), concerning what happens
where you are. Age, nunc isti doceant (those philosophers whom yow
follow), qvonam modo efficiatur, ut honeste vivere summum
bonum sit (Id. Finn. IV. 11).
Yet iste is also used of a thing which is near or present to the
speaker, but which he (contemptuously) motions from him (as, e.g.
by the accuser when speaking of the defendant in a court of jus-
tice), or of a thing which we have ourselves recently named or
mentioned (and think of as more remote) ; e.g.: —
Pructum istum laudis, qvi ex perpetua oratione percipi potuit,
in alia tempora reservemus (Cic. Verr. A. I. 11). Utinam tibi
istam mentem dii immortales duint (Id. in Cat. I. 9), Would that
the gods would give you such a disposition. Si qvid novisti rectius
istis, candidus imperti; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. Ep. I.
6, 67).
OBs. What is said of the distinction, in meaning, between hic, ille,
and iste, applies also to the adverbs derived from them.
§ 487. a. Ipse stands alone (without the addition ofis) where the
emphasis falls in English on self (selves), because it indicates a
contrast with something else which is distinct from or substituted
for, to something out of or instead of the person or thing itself:—
Accipio, qvod dant; mihi enim satis est; ipsis non satis (Cie.
Finn. II. 26). Qvaeram ex ipsa (Id. pro Cæl. 14). Parvi de eo,
qvod ipsis superat, gratificari aliis volunt (Id. Finn. V. 15). (Ipsi,
qvi scripserunt, the authors themselves. But is ipse, evem he, even that,
that very.)
OBs. 1. Ipse is to be noticed in the signification of ecaetly, preeisely :
Crassus triennio ipso minor erat qvam Antonius (Cic. Brut. 43).
(Nunc ipsum, just mow ; tum ipsum, qvum, precisely at the moment
when.)
452 LATIN GRAMMAR. S 488
OBs. 2. Et ipse stands in the signification also, likewise, when the
same is said of a new subject, which had been previously said of oth-
ers: Deinde Crassus, ut intelligere posset Brutus, qwem hominem
lacessisset, tres et ipse excitavit recitatores (Cic. pro Cluent. 51),
thereupon Crassus, as his opponent had done, likewise
b. In reflective assertions (expressing an action of the subject on
itself) ipse stands in the same case with the subject (in the nomi-
native), when it is intended to express what the subject itself does
(as distinguished from what others do and what is performed by
the aid of others); on the other hand, it stands in the same case
with the personal or reflective pronoun, when it is indicated that
the action is exerted upon the subject, and not on other persons: –
Non egeo medicina; me ipse consolor (Cic. Lael. 3). Valvae
clausae repagulis subito se ipsae aperuerunt (Cic. Divin. I. 34).
Cato se ipse interemit (was not killed by others). Junius necem
sibi ipse conscivit (Id. N. D. II. 3). Non potest exercitum is
continere imperator, qui se ipse non continet (Id. pro Leg. Man.
13), uho does not himself keep himself under control. Tu qwoniam
rempublicam nosqve conservas, fac, ut diligentissime te ipsum,
mi Dolabella, custodias (Id. ad Fam. DC. 14). Ea gessimus, ut
omnibus potius qwam ipsis nobis consuluerimus (Id. Finn. II. 19).
Sensim tardeve potius nosmetipsos cognoscimus (Id. Finn. V.
15). Facile, quod cujusqve temporis officium sit, poterimus, nisi
nosmetipsos valde amabimus, judicare (Id. Off. I. 9).
Yet the Latins sometimes use the nominative of ipse, when the
antithesis might lead us to expect another case (in order to mark
more emphatically the relation of a person or thing to itself, as at
once subject and object) : –
Verres sic erat humilis atqve demissus, ut non modo populo
Romano, sed etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur (Cic. Verr. I.
6). Ipse sibi inimicus est (Id. Finn. V. 10). Se ipsi omnes na-
tura diligunt (Id. Finn. III. 18). (Ipse is often so used before se and
sibi.) Secum ipsiloqvuntur (Id. R. P. I. 17). (Crassus et Anto-
nius ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis non potuerunt, Cic. de Or. II. 2,
from their own writings. Ipse per se, per se ipse, in and of him-
self.)
$ 488. Idem is often used where something new is said of a per-
son or thing already mentioned, to denote either similarity (likewise,
also, at the same time) or a contrast (yet, on the other hand): –
§ 489 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 453
Thorius utebatur eo cibo, qvi et svavissimus esset et idem.
facillimus ad concoqvendum (Cic. Finn. II. 20). Nihil utile, qvod
non idem honestum (Id. Off. III. 7). P. Africanus eloqventia.
cumulavit bellicam laudem, qvod idem fecit Timotheus, Cononis
filius (Id. Off. I. 32). Etiam patriae hoc munus debere videris,
ut ea, qvae salva per te est, per te eundem sit ornata (Id. Legg. I.
2). Inventi multi sunt, qvi vitam profundere pro patria parati
essent, iidem (but om the other hand) gloriae jacturam ne minimam
qvidem facere vellent (Id. Off. I. 24). Epicurus, qvum (while) opti-
mam et praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem esse
in deo gratiam (Id. N. D. I. 43).
§ 489. A demonstrative pronoun is used redundantly in certain.
combinations:—
a. When a substantive or a pronoum has been separated from its predi-
cate or governing verb by an intervening proposition (especially a relative
proposition), it is sometimes emphatically recalledto mind by the pronoun
is (rarely hic, where an antithesis is to be made very prominent):
Plebem et infimam multitudinem, qvae P. Clodio duce fortunis
vestris imminebat, eam Milo, qvo tutior esset vestra vita, tribus
suis patrimoniis delenivit (Cic. pro Mil. 35). Haec ipsa, qvae
nunc ad me delegare vis, ea semper in te eximia et praestantia
fuerunt (Id. de Or. II. 28). Agrum Campanum, qvi qvum de vec-
tigalibus eximebatur, ut militibus daretur, tamen infligi magnum
reipublicae vulnus putabamus, hunc tu compransoribus tuis et
collusoribus dividebas (Id. Phil. II. 39). (This idiom involves a kind
of anacoluthia. See § 480.) -
OBs. 1. In a similar way, hic and ille are inserted in eomparisons:
Ingeniosi, ut aes Corinthium in aeruginem, sic illi in morbum inci-
dunt tardius (Cic. Tusc. IV. 14).
OBs. 2. Sometimes a subject, without being separated from its predi-
cate, is emphatieally distinguished from others by the addition of is (or
is vero) : Ista animi tranqvillitas ea est ipsa beata vita (Cic. Finn.
V. 8). Sed urbana plebs ea vero praeceps ierat multis de causis
(Sall. Cat. 37).
b. When the participle qvidem stands with a concessive signification
(indeed, to be sure) with a predicate (verb or adjective), with sed follow-
ing, it is, in the best writers, not, connected immediately with the verb or
adjective, but a pronoum is inserted before qvidem, which corresponds to
the word of which the predicate is conceded ; namely, eqvidem (for ego
qvidem), nos qvidem, tu qvidem, vos qvidem, ille (more rarely, is)
qvidem: Reliqva non eqvidem contemno, sed plus tamen habent
spei qvam timoris (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 16), the rest I do not, indeed, de-
454 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 490
spise, but —. Oratorias exercitationes non tu qvidem reliqvisti,
sed certe philo$ophiam illi8 anteposuisti (Id. de Fat. 2). P. Scipio
non multum ille qvidem nec saepe dicebat, sed omnes sale face-
tiisqve superabat (Id. Brut. 34). Ludo autem et joco uti illo qvi-
dem licet, sed tum, qvum gravibus seriisqve rebus satisfecerimus
(Id. Off. I. 29). Sapientiae studium vetus id qvidem in nostris,
sed tamen ante Laelii aetatem et Scipionis non reperio, qvos
appellare possim nominatim (Id. Tusc. IV. 3). Libri scripti in-
considerate ab optimis illis qvidem viris, sed non satis eruditis
(Id. ib. I. 3), by men, who were, to be sure Cyri vitam et disci-
plinam legunt, praeclaram illam qvidem, sed non tam aptam rebus:
nostris (Id. Brut. 29). (Less usually : Proposuit qvidem legem,
sed minuti$$imis litteris et angustissimo loco, Svet. Cal. 41).
§ 490. a. The REFLECTIvE PRONOUN and the possessive suus
derived from it refer back to the subject, like the word self: —
Ipse se qvisqve diligit (Cic. Læl. 21). Bestiis homines uti pos-
sunt ad suam utilitatem (Id. Finn. III. 20). Fabius a me diligitur
propter summam suam humanitatem et observantiam (Id. ad Fam.
XV. 14). Cui proposita est conservatio sui (the preservation ' Qf
himself, self-preservation = conservare se) necesse est huic partes
qvoqve sui caras esse (Id. Finn. V. 13). Concerning the second sui,
see, under b. Si pater familias, liberis suis a servo interfectis, sup-
plicium de servo non sumpserit crudelissimus videatur (Id. in
Cat. IV. 6). (Inter se, mutually, one another, together, may refer also to.
the direct or remote object : Etiam feras inter se partus et educatio.
conciliat, Cic. Rosc. Am. 22. So, likewise, ipsum per se, ipsi
per se.)
b. Suus may also refer to some other substantive in the sen-
tence, especially to the direct or remote object. Sometimes, how-
ever, it refers to other cases also, when the mutual relation of the
word with which suus agrees, and the one to which it refers, is em-
phasized with respect to the assertion of the proposition, as by his
own, her own, in English. It is found (even when it cannot be so.
translated) especially where the word to which it refers denotes the
proper logical subject (the person whose fate, course of conduct,
&c., are spoken of) ; also, when a distributive relation is indicated
by the help of qvisqve, or an activity of the person indicated with
respect to that which is represented by the word with which suus
agrees: — • §
§ 490 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 455
Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt (Cic. pro Sest. 68).
Suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. IV. 33). Si ceteris recte facta
sua prosunt, mihi mea ne qvando obsint, providete (Cic. in Cat.
III. 12). Fides sua sociis parum felix in praesentia fuit (Liv.
III. 7). Desinant insidiari domi suae consuli (Cic. in Cat. I. 18).
Volscis levatis metu suum rediit ingenium (Liv. II. 22), their cus-
tomary, peculiar character. Justitia suum cuiqve distribuit (Cic.
N. D. III. 15). Sua cujusqve animantis natura est (Id. Finn. V.
9). Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae
(Sall. Cat. 21 =jubebat cogitare de sua , where suus refers to the
subject of cogitare). Dicaearchum cum Aristoxeno, aeqvali et
condiscipulo suo, doctos sane homines, omittamus (Id. Tusc. I.
18), with his fellow-pupil, so that he may take his fellow-pupil with him.
But Omitto Isocratem discipulosqve ejus, Ephorum et Naucratem
(Cic. Or. 51). Pisonem nostrum merito ejus amo plurimum (Id.
ad Fam. XIV. 2). Verri de eadem re litterae complures a multis.
ejus amicis afferuntur (Id. Verr. II. 39). IDeum agnoscis ex operi-
bus ejus (Id. Tusc. I. 28). *
OBs. Suus, his (her, their) own, may even be referred to the person
or thing generally treated of in the discourse, though it be not ex-
pressly named in the same proposition: Mater qvod svasit sua, ado-
lescens mulier fecit (Ter. Hec. IV. 4, 38). Is annus omnem
Crassi spem atqve omnia vitae consilia morte pervertit. Fuit hoc
luctuosum suis (to his friends), acerbum patriae, grave bonis omni-
pus (Cic. de Or. III. 2). . .
c. Se and suus in subordinate propositions refer not only to the
subject in the same proposition, but also to the subject of the lead-
ing proposition, or of the word (a participle, for instance, on which.
the subordinate proposition depends), when the dependent, proposi-
tion is stated as the sentiment of this subject. This is always the.
case with accusatives with the infinitive, with propositions which
denote the object of an exertion and effort (§§ 372 and 375), with
propositions expressing an object and dependent questions, and with
such relative and other subordinate propositions as are designated
by the subjunctive as the sentiments of another (§§ 368 and
369):—
$entit animus se vi sua, non aliena moveri (Cic. Tusc. I. 23).
(After a general infinitive: Haec est una omnis sapientia, non arbi-
trari sese scire, qvod nesciat, mot to think that one knows (Cie. Acad.
I. 4). Oravit me pater, ut ad se venirem. Id ea de causa Caesar
fecit, ne se hostes occupatum opprimerent. Exposuit, cur ea res.
---
456 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 490
parum sibi placeret. Solo Pisistrato qvaerenti, qva spe fretus
sibi obsisteret, respondit senectute (Cic. Cat. M. 20). Accusat
amicos, qvod se non adjuverint. Ariovistus respondet, si qvid
Caesar se velit, illum ad se venire oportere (Cæs. B. G. I. 34).
Legati Caerites Deos rogaverunt, ut Romanos florentes ea sui (sc.
Caeritum) misericordia caperet, qvae se rebus affectis qvondam
populi Romani cepi$$et (Liv. VII. 20). Paetus omnes libros,
qvos frater suus reliqvisset, mihi donavit (Cic. ad Att. II. 1).
Tum ei dormienti idem ille visus est rogare, ut, qvoniam sibi vivo
non subvenisset, mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur (Id. IDiv.
I. 27). ZEdui se victis ceteros incolumes fore negant (= si ipsi
victi sint, si hostes se vicerint).
OBs. 1. se and suus are also referred to the person in the leading
proposition, whose language or sentiments are expressed in the sub-
ordinate, even when this person is not the grammatical subject of the
former: Jam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem
apud se educari (Liv. I. 5). A Caesare valde liberaliter invitor,
sibi ut sim legatus (Cic. ad Att. II. 18).
OBs. 2. Sometimes nothing but the connection can show whether se
(suus) refers to the subject of the leading proposition or that of the
subordinate; e.g. Hortensius ex Verre qvaesivit, cur suos (i.e. Hor-
tensij) familiarissimos rejici passus esset (Cic. Verr. I. 7). Se.
and suus are even found in the same proposition, so used that one refers
to the nearest subject, while the other refers to the subject of the leading
proposition : Livius Salinator Q. Fabium Maximum rogavit, ut
meminisset, opera sua (sc. Livii) se (sc. Fabium) Tarentum re-
cepisse (Cic. de Or. II. 67). Romani legatos in Bithyniam mise-
runt, qvi a Prusia rege peterent ne inimicissimum suum (sc. Ro-
manorum) apud se haberet (Corn. Hann. 12). -
OBs. 3. We find, however, in the Latin authors, some passsages less
carefully written, where the subordinate proposition either necessarily
expresses an idea conceived by the leading subject (as, for example,
object-clauses), or is shown to be such by the use of the subjunctive,
and where, notwithstanding, is, ejus is used instead of se, suus, of the
person which is the subject of the leading proposition. (This never oc-
curs in an accusative with the infinitive which is immediately connected
with the leading proposition). On the other hand, there are also found
some few passages where se and suus are employed, though there is no
subjunctive to indicate that the sentiments expressed are those of
another: Helvetii persvadent Rauracis et Tulingis, uti, eodem usi
consilio, oppidis suis vicisqve exustis, una cum iis proficiscantur
(Cæs. B. G. I. 5). Audistis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos,
Mercurium, qvi sacris anniversariis apud eos coleretur, VerriB
§ 491 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 457
imperio esse sublatum (Cic. Verr. IV. 39). Chrysogonus huno
sibi ex animo scrupulum, qvi se diesqve noctesqve stimulat ac
pungit, ut evellatis, postulat (Cic. Rosc. Am. 2). Metellus in iis
urbibus, qvae ad se defecerant, praesidia imponit (Sall. Jug. 61).
IPatres nil rectum, nisi qvod placuit sibi, ducunt (Hor. Ep. II.
1, 83). Thus, we find both qvantum in se est, erat (so far as it
rests, rested, with him), and (more correctly) qvantum in ipso, est,
erat.
Obs. 4. Ipse for se ipsum, sibi ipsi, &c. (in a subordinate proposi-
tion, referring to the subject of the leading proposition), is found in the
best writers in a few passages, where the word self is to be made promi-
nent: sunt qvi se recusare negent qvominus, ipsis mortuis, terra-
rum omnium deflagratio conseqvatur (Cic. Finn. III. 19).1
OBs. 5. Se and suus sometimes stand in universal assertions, without
being referred to a definite subject preceding, in the signification ome's
self: Negligere, qvid de se (qf ome) qvisqve sentiat, non solum ar-
rogantis est, sed etiam omnino dissoluti (Cic. Off. I. 28). -
OBs. 6. Instead of se (sibi) inter se, mutually, one another, it is
usual to say only inter se, omitting the object: Veri amici non solum
colent inter se ac diligent, sed etiam verebuntur (Cic. Læl. 22).
(Inter nos = nos or nobis inter nos; inter vos.)
§ 491. The possessive pronouns (pronominal adjectives) may be
omitted in Latin, when the relation which they would express is
easily ascertained from the context, (especially, therefore, where
they serve to refer a thing to the subject, but sometimes, also, where
they would point to the direct or remote object), and when no kind
of emphasis rests on the possessive as a qualifying word:— -
Patrem amisi, qvum qvartum annum agebam, matrem, qvum
sextum (amisit — agebat). Roga parentes (sc. tuos). Manus •
lava et coena ! Frater meus amatur ab omnibus propter sum-
mam morum svavitatem. Patris animum mihi reconciliasti (sc.
mei). Yet suus is also not unfrequently used, where it might have been
omitted.
OBs. 1. The possessive pronoun designates, in eertain combinations
(e.g. with tempus, locus, deus, numen), that which is suitable, correct,
or favorable, for a person or thing. Suo loco, suo tempore. Loco
aeqvo, tempore tuo pugnasti (Liv. XXXVIII. 45). Vadimus non
numine nostro (Virg. Æn. II. 396).
1 In later authors (e.g. L. Seneca, and Curtius), ipsum is found here and there instead of
se in the aecusative with the infinitive: Sciunt, ipsos Omnia, habere communia, (Sem.
ep. 6). Macedonuim reges credunt ab illo deo ipsos goenus ducere (Curt.
IV. 7).
458. LATIN GRAMMAR. § 493
OBS. 2. Concerning nulla tua epistola (from you), mea unius opera,
See § 297, a. (Iniqvo suo tempore, Liv. II. 23.)
§ 492. On the INTERROGATIVE PRONoUNs the following obser-
vations may be made.
a. The Latins can combine two interrogative pronouns in one
proposition in such a way, that a question is asked both concerning
the subject and the object: —
Considera, qvis quem fraudasse dicatur (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 7),
who is said to have defrauded, and whom he is said to have defrauded.
Nihil jam aliud qwaerere judices debetis, nisi uter utri insidias
fecerit (Id. pro Mil. 9), which of these two laid a plot for the other. *
OBS. Concerning the interrogative with a participle, see $424, Obs.
3, and $428, Obs. 7.
b. An interrogative exclamation of surprise (at the greatness of
a thing, &c.) is expressed affirmatively: —
Ovam multos scriptores rerum suarum magnus ille Alexander
secum habuisse dicitur ! (Cic. pro Arch. 10). Hic vero adolescens
qvum eqvitaret cum suis delectis eqvitibus, qvos concursus facere
solebat! qvam se jactare 1 (Id. pro Dej. 10). (If non is introduced,
the surprise or the question applies to the negative idea: Qvam id te,
di boni, non decebat! How ill it became you ! Cic. Phil. II. 8.)
OBs. 1. Concerning the use of dependent questions with a pronoun,
it may here also be observed, that in English the object of a communica-
tion or question is sometimes expressed by a substantive with a relative
proposition attached to it, a construction which is not usual, in Latin, -
an interrogative proposition being employed instead; e.g. I told him of
the progress which the boy had made, narravi ei, qvos progressus puer
fecisset. Writers are not agreed as to the motives which induced Tiberius
to take this step, qvae Tiberium causae impulerint, scriptores non
consentiunt. (Non poemitet, qvantum profecerim, I am not dissat-
isfied with the progress which I have made.)
OBs. 2. A direct question respecting the reason or motive of an action
is expressed by the pronominal adverb cur; qvare is used only in de-
pendent propositions, and usually after expressions which indicate a
motive ($ 372, b, Obs. 6. Compare $440, b, Obs. 1). Qvidni is used
only with the subjunctive, to signify why should not? (§ 353).
§ 493. a. Of the INDEFINITE PRONOUNs aliqvis denotes in the
most general way some one, some thing, a single undefined person
or thing:—
§ 493 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 459
Pecit hoc aliqvis tui similis. Si mihi esset obtemperatum, si non
optimam, at aliqvam rempublicam, qvae nunc nulla est, haberemus
(Cie. Off. I. 11). Ut tarda aliqva et langvida pecus (Id. Finn. II. 13).
IDeclamabam saepe cum M. Pisone et cum Q. Pompejo aut cum
aliqvo qvotidie (Id. Brut. 90), or some other person (nearly equiva-
lent to alius aliqvis, though the word itself does not bear this significa-
tion). (Est aliqvid, it is yet something, not so absolutely nothing.)
Qvis has the same signification (dicat qvis, dicat aliqvis, ome might
say), but is used where an indefinite subject or object is to be designated
very slightly, and without emphasis (one) ; e.g. Fieri potest, ut recte
qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqvi non possit (Cie. Tusc.
I. 3) ; especially in relative propositions (what one, &c.), after qvum
(when ome), and usually after si, nisi, ne, num: Qvo qvis versutior
et callidior est, hoc invisior et suspectior (Cic. Off. II. 9). Illis
promissis standum non est, qvae coactus qvis metu, qvae de-
ceptus dolo promisit (Id. ib. I. 10). Si qvam repperero causam,
indicabo. Galli legibus sanctum habent, ut si qvis qvid de repub-
lica a finitimis rumore ac fama acceperit, uti ad magistratum de-
ferat (Cæs. B. G. VI. 20). Vereor, ne qvid subsit doli. (Sicubi
accidit, ne qvando fiat, &c.)
OBS. 1. Yet we find aliqvis, and the words derived from it, not unfre-
quently after si, and sometimes after ne, especially if some emphasis
rests on the pronoun (somewhat, a certain measure, in opposition to
much, little, all) : Si aliqvid de summa gravitate Pompejus, si mul-
tum de cupiditate Caesar remisisset, pacem stabilem nobis habere
licuisset (Cic. Phil. XIII. 1). Timebat Pompejus omnia, ne vos
aliqvid timeretis (Id. pro Mil. 24). Si aliqvando (on a single occa-
sion) tacent omnes, tum sortito coguntur dicere (Id. Verr. IV.
64). -
Obs. 2. The plural of aliqvis is aliqvi; aliqvot is used only when a
certain number is thought of. •
b. Qvispiam is also employed, like qvis, to denote a single person
or thing which is quite indefinite (dicat qvispiam), but not so abso-
Iutely without emphasis : —
Forsitam aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi qvidpiam fecerit (Cic. Verr. .
II. 82). Communi consvetudine sermonis abutimur, qvum ita
dicimus, velle aliqvid qvempiam aut nolle sine causa (Id. de
Eat. 11).
c. Qvidam is a certain one (a definite person or thing, of which,
however, a more precise notice is umnecessary):—
460 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 494
Qvidam ex advocatis, homo summa virtute praeditus, intelligere
se dixit, non id agi, ut verum inveniretur (Cic. pro Cluent. 63).
Habitant hic qvaedam mulierculae (Ter. Ad. IV. 5, 13). Hoc non
facio, ut fortasse quibusdam videor, simulatione (Cic. ad Fam. I.
8). (On its use in combination with qvasi, when a name is made use
of that is not strictly appropriate, see § 444, a, Obs. 2.) (Certus qvi-
dam, a certain definite individual.)
OBs. By nonnemo, one or two, some (few) definite but unnamed
persons are always indicated: Video de istis, qvi se populares haberi
volunt, abesse nonneminem. Is (Cic. in Cat. IV. 5; the dis-
course is continued with is, because nonnemo, grammatically considered,
is in the singular). Nonnihil, somewhat (most frequently as an adverb:
Nonnihil timeo, nonnihil miror, &c.). Nonnullus (adj.), not ex-
actly none, some, a part.
§ 494. a. The substantive quisqvam and the adjective ullus
(which sometimes stands as a substantive, see § 90, Obs., and in
the plural is both a substantive and adjective) denote any one what-
ever, any at all, even if it were only a single individual, whoever
or whatever it may be, and express an affirmative idea in the
most general way, without conveying the notion of a distinct per-
son or thing. Qvisqvam and ullus are used, therefore (first) in
negative propositions and in questions which have the force of a
negative, where the negation is universal and relates to the whole
proposition, and after the preposition sine: —
Sine sociis memo quidqvam tale conatur (Cic. Lael. 12). Justi-
tia nunqvam nocet cuiqvam, qvi eam habet (Id. Finn. I. 16).
Sine virtute neqve amicitiam neqve ullam rem expetendam conse-
qvi possumus (Id. Lael. 22). (The negative word must always pre-
cede.) Sine ullo auxilio (without any help whatever, destitute of all
aid)." Tu me existinas ab ullo malle mea legi probariqve quam
ate? (Cic. ad Att. IV. 5). Qvid est, qvod qvisqvam dignum Pom-
pejo afferre possit? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11). Qvisqvamne istuc
negat? (Id. N. D. III. 28). So likewise, Qvasi vero qvisqvam vir
excellenti animo in rempublicam ingressus optabilius quidqvam
arbitretur qvam se a suis civibus reipublicae causa diligi (Cic. in
Vat. 3= nemo arbitratur). Desitum est videri quidqvam in socios
iniqvum, qvum exstitisset in cives tanta crudelitas (Id. Off. II. 8
= Nihil jam iniqvum videbatur).
1 Sine omni timore (Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17), is a very unusual form of expression. (Ne
sine omniqvidem sapientia, Cic. de Or. II. 1, without the whole compass of philosophy. .
§ 494 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS, 461
• OBS. 1. If, on the other hand, the sense only requires the negation of
some one particular affirmative idea, aliqvis or qvispiam is made use
of: Non ob ipsius aliqvod delictum (Cic. pro Balb. 28), not om ac-
count qf this or that crime committed by himself. Vidi, fore, ut ali-
qvando non Torqvatus neqve Torqvati qvispiam similis, sed
aliqvis bonorum hostis aliter indicata haec e$$e diceret (Id. pro
Sull. 14). In the same way, ne qvis, ne qvid, &c., are commonly
employed. (Ne qvis unqvam. Ne qvisqvam, that mo one, whoever
it may be : Metellus edixit, ne qvisqvam in castris panem aut
qvem alium coctum cibum venderet, Sall. Jug. 45.) Qvisqvam
(ullus) is also not, used, when the negation applies, mot to the whole
proposition, but to a single word with which it is combined, so as to form
one negative idea: Qvum aliqvid non habeas, whem one has mot this or
that thing (Cic. Tusc. I. 36) ; or when two negations cancel each other :
Nemo vir magnus sine aliqvo afflatu divino unqvam fuit (Cic. N.
D. II. 66). Non sine aliqvo incommodo. Hi philosophi mancam
fore putaverunt sine aliqva accessione virtutem (Cic. Finn. III. 9
= nisi adjungeretur aliqva accessio). (Ne illi qvidem, qvi male-
ficio et scelere pascuntur, possunt sine ulla particula justitiae
vivere, without any particle whatever, Cic. Off. II. 11.)
OBs. 2. In a negative proposition with qvisqvam, the predicate may
be completed with an unemphatic aliqvis or qvispiam: Ne suspicari
qvidem possumus, qvenqvam horum ab amico qvidpiam con-
tendisse, qvod contra rempublicam esset (Cic. Læl. 11).
b. Further, qvisqvam (ullus) is used with emphasis in other
propositions to signify any one whatever, any one at all, as well as
after comparatives (in the latter case it is invariably employed ;
e.g. taetrior tyrannus qvam qvisqvam superiorum), in conditional
and relative propositions, where the condition and the qualification
expressed by the relative clause are to have the broadest possible
scope and bearing, and in general expressions of disapprobation: —
Aut enim nemo, qvod qvidem magis credo, aut, si qvisqvam
ille sapiens fuit (Cic. Læl. 2). §i tempus est ullum jure hominis
necandi, certe illud est non modo justum, verum etiam necessa-
rium, qvum vi vis illata defenditur (Id. pro Mil. 4), if there be any
time whatever.' Qvamdiu qvisqvam erit, qvi te defendere audeat,
vives (Id. in Cat. I. 2), so long as there is any one, whoever it may be.
Dum presidia ulla fuerunt, Roscius in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Id.
Rosc. Am. 43). Cuivis potest accidere, qvod cuiqvam potest
(Sen. de Tranq. An. 11). Laberis, qvod qvidqvam stabile in regno
1 [Qvae nec potest ulla esse, nec debet (Cic. Tusc. III. 6).]
462 : LATIN GRAMMAR. - § 494
putas (Cic. Phil. VIII. 4). Nihil est exitiosius civitatibus, qvam
qvidqvam agi per vim (Id. Legg. III. 18). Indignor, qvidqvam
reprehendi, non qvia crasse compositum illepideve putetur, sed
qvia nuper (Hor. Ep. II. 1, 76). • -
OBs. 1. What is true of qvisqvam is true also of the eorresponding
adverbs (unqvam, usqvam, as these adverbs are distinguished from ali-
qvando, alicubi, aliqvo, uspiam): Bellum maxime memorabile
omnium, qvae unqvam gesta sunt (Liv. XXI. 1).
OBs. 2. In some cases, it rests with the speaker to make what he says
emphatic and absolute by using qvisqvam, or to use aliqvis instead:
£i qva me res Romam adduxerit, enitar, si qvo modo potero ($f
I cam do it in ome way or amother), ut praeter te nemo dolorem meum
sentiat; si ullo modo poterit (if it is at all possible), ne tu qvidem
(Cic. ad Att. XII. 23). Portentum atqve monstrum certissimum
est, esse aliqvem humana figura, qvi eos propter qvos hanc lucem
aspexerit, luce privarit (Cic. Rosc. Am. 22); it might also be ex-
pressed esse qvenqvam —).
OBs. 3. With respect to nullus (which corresponds to ullus), it is to
he observed that nullius and nullo sometimes (but rarely, and never in
the best prose-writers), serve as a substitute for the genitive and ablative
of nihil: Graeci praeter laudem nullius avari (Hor. A. P. 324). Deus
nullo magis hominem separavit a ceteris animalibus qvam dicendi
facultate (Qvinct. II. 16, 12). Usually, nullius rei, nulla re. For
nihili is only used as genitive of price (§ 294); nihilo only as an abla-
tive of price, with comparatives (§ 270; nihilo melior, n. magis, n.
minus) and with the prepositioms ab, de, ex, pro, whem it means nothing
in the abstract and absolutely (ex nihilo, de nihilo nasci; but ex nulla
re melius intelligitur, from no single thing). In like manner, nihilum
is used with ad and in (ad nihilum redigere, but ad nullam rem
utilis). Non ullus, non unqvam, instead of nullus, nunqvam, is rare
in prose.
OBs. 4. An indefinite pronoum, which is the antecedent to a relative,
is sometimes omitted. See § 322.
OBs. 5. In English, a proposition is sometimes made indefinite or
general by the use of the very indefinite subject, one. Much more fre-
quent is the similar use of man in German, and on in French. The
Latin language, having no corresponding pronoun, represents its force by
a variety of methods, — (1) by the passive : e.g. rex hic valde diligitur
(here one loves, or, more commonly, they love the king) ; (2) by imper-
sonal verbs: e.g. non licet (one may not) ; invidetur mihi; solet dici
(see § 218, a and c, and Obs. 2, under d); (3) by the use of the third
person plural (see § 211, a, Obs. 2 = homines solent) ; (4) or the first
persom plural, where something indefinite is true of the speaker : e.g.
§495 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 463
qvae volumus credimus libenter (Cæs. B. C. II. 27); (5) by the use
of qvis, aliqvid (dicat aliqvis) ; (6) by the second person singular
of the subjunctive (see § 370, and Obs. 2) ; (7) by the third person
singular without a definite subject in subordinate propositions depending
on am infinitive (see § 388, b, Obs. 2); and finally (8) by the use of se
in an aecusative with the infinitive after am indefinite infinitive (§ 490, e).
It is to be observed, moreover, that, inqvit is used without, a definite
subject (one says), when the speaker introduces an objection or reply
which is wont to be made to what he says: Iidem si puer parvus occi-
dit aeqvo animo ferendum putant. Atqvi ab hoc acerbius exegit
natura qvod dederat. Nondum gustaverat, inqvit, vitae svavita-
tem (Cic. Tusc. I. 39). -
§ 495. Qvisqve signifies each in particular, by himself (distribu-
tively) : — -
Suus cuiqve homos habetur. Suae qvemqve fortunae maxime
poenitet (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 1). Sibi qvisqve maxime consulit.
(Se and suus stand before qvisqve, in prose.)'
When a relative and demonstrative proposition are combined,
qvisqve almost always stands in the relative proposition, commonly
(without emphasis) immediately after the relative, so that evem se
and suus stand after qvisqve: —
Qvam qvisqve norit artem, in hac se exerceat (Cie. Tusc. I. 18).
Qvanti qvisqve se ipse facit, tanti fiat ab amicis (Id. Læl. 16).
(Ineunte adolescentia id sibi qvisqve genus aetatis degendae con-
stituit, qvod amavit, Cic. Off. I. 32. Sometimes qvisqve is re-
peated; as, Qvod cuiqve obtigit, id qvisqve teneat, Id. ib. I. 7.)
This pronoum is also used in order to denote a general relation and
proportion applicable to each individual person or thing (to each
case) in particular, where we employ in English the words any one,
a man, a thing : —
Qvo qvisqve est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracundius
et laboriosius (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 11). Ut qvisqve maxime ad
suum commodum refert, qvaecunqve agit, ita minime est vir
honus (Cic. Legg. I. 18. It, very often stands in this way with the
superlative with ut — ita). Ut qvisqve me viderat, narrabat (Cic.
Verr. A. I. 7), as qften as any one sau, me .2
i Such examples as the following are rare: Transfugas EIannibal in civitates
qvemqve suas dimisit, (Liv. XXI. 48), where instead of suas the substantive is put first;
for the sake of emphasis. Qvod est, cujusqve maxime suum (Cic. Off. I. 31, each
ome's owm).
2 The later writers also say ut, qvis.
464 w LATIN GRAMMAR. § 496
In this signification (of a universal relation, which manifests itself
in each individual) it is frequently combined with a superlative,
which always precedes it: —
Maximae cuiqve fortunae minime credendum est (Liv. XXX.
30), the highest fortune is always the least to be trusted; each fortune
is to be least trusted in proportion as it is the highest. Optimum qvid-
qve rarissimum est (Cic. Finn. II. 25). Ex philosophis optimus
et gravissimus quisqve confitetur multa se ignorare (Id. Tusc. III.
28), all good philosophers. (In the earlier and good writers, the singu-
lar is chiefly used in this way, but the plural also in the neuter.) (Deci-
mus qvisqve, § 74, Obs. 2. Primus qvisqve, each successive first one,
each as it stands first after the preceding one has been taken, i.e. one after
the other, successively: Primum quidqve consideremus, Cic. N. D.
I. 27.) *
OBs. 1. On the other hand, qvisqve never signifies every one taken
collectively; this is expressed by omnes or nemo non, or by quivis,
signifying every one, whoever it may be: Caeterarum rerum perspi-
cuum est, qvo quaeqve discedat (each for itself); abeunt enim
omnia illuc unde orta sunt (Cic. Cat. M. 22). (Yet we find the
expression cujusqvemodi, of every kind you please.) Unusqvisqve,
every one, is used like the corresponding phrase in English. (The older
writers have sometimes used qwidqvid for qvidqve; e.g. ut quidqvid
objectum est, Cic. Tusc. W. 34.)
OBs. 2. Each of two by himself (herself, itself) may be expressed by
uterqve; e.g. Natura hominis dividitur in animum et corpus.
Qvum eorum utrumqve per se expetendum sit, virtutes quoqve
utriusqve per se expetendae sunt (Cic. Finn. IV. 7). Qvisqve,
however, is used in combination with suus: Duas civitates ex una
factas; suos cuiqve parti magistratus, suas leges esse (Liv. II. 44).
Concerning uterqve nostrum (veniet), uterqve frater, see $284, Obs.
3; concerning uterqve sometimes used as a collective with the plural,
$ 215, a. It may here be observed, that the plural utriqve (which with
these exceptions denotes two pluralities, § 84, Obs.) is sometimes used
irregularly of two individual persons or things, hi utriqve being then
used for horum uterqve: Duae fuerunt Ariovisti uxores, utraeqve
in ea fuga perierunt (Caes. B. G. I. 53). Agitabatur animus ferox
Catilinae inopia rei familiaris et conscientia scelerum, qvae
utraqve (= qvorum utrumqve) his artibus, qvas supra memoravi,
auxerat (Sall. Cat. 5). Utraqve cornua (Liv. XXX. 8). Utrumqve,
both (without reference to the gender of the single words).
§ 496. Of alius and alter it is to be observed, that the Latins
use alter, where one more is mentioned besides one that has been
§ 496 SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF PRONOUNS. 465
spoken of (in opposition to that alone and by itself), where in Eng-
lish we use the word amother ; e.g.:— -
Solus, aut cum altero (Cic. ad Att. XI. 15; also, unus aut sum-
mum alter; unus, alter, plures). Ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat.
I. 1, 40.) Nulla vitae pars, neqve si tecum agas qvid, neqve si
cum altero contrahas, vacare officio potest (Cic. Off. I. 2). In this
way alter is often used as equivalent to neighbor, one's fellow-man.
E*ontejus Antonii, non ut magis alter, amicus erat (Hor. Sat. I. 5,
33). (But we also find : ut non magis qvisqvam alius, Id. Sat. II. 8,
49.) Alter Nero, another Nero, a second (the secomd) Nero. (On the
other hand alter can never have the signification of difference, which is
expressed by alius.)
OBs. 1. Alius when repeated signifies one — another (aliud ex alio
malum; aliud hic homo loqvitur, aliud sentit ; alii Romam versus,
alii in Campaniam, alii in Etruriam proficiscebantur) ; in the same
way alter— alter is used of two, the one — the other (also unus— alter).
But the repetition of alius, or alius with an adverb derived from it,
denotes also that the predicate is differently defined for the different
persons spoken of: Discedebant alius in aliam partem (alius alio),
they separated, one to one side, the other to amother. Aliter cum aliis
loqveris. Haec aliter ab aliis definiuntur. (In this sense it is also
used of two, because alter does not express difference: Duo deinceps
reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, Liv. I. 21.)
OBs. 2. Ceteri, the others, the rest absolutely ; reliqvi, the rest, which
remain after some have been deducted: hence we find ceteris antecel-
lere, praestare, and praeter ceteroB, but sex reliqvi; in many other
cases they are without a distinction.
30 l*^
P R O S O D Y.
THE MOST IMPORTANT RULES OF LATIN METRE (VERSIFICA-
TION).
§ 497. The structure of Verse is founded in Latin (and Greek)
on the different quantity (the length and shortness) of the syllables.
In English, on the contrary, and other modern languages, the struc-
ture of verse is founded on the accentuation or non-accentuation of
the syllable. A verse (versus, properly signifying only, a line)
consists in Latin of a series of long and short syllables, which (in
shorter divisions, feet) succeed each other according to a fixed rule,
which is the measure of the verse (metrum).
OBs. 1. The word metrum (uérgov, measure) is also used of a defi-
nite combination of several verses. See § 509.
OBS. 2. A verse is in general a series of words, which are grouped
together without any break while they are uttered, but are somewhat
separated from what follows, that the order and alternation of syllables
which appear in it may be compared with other series. With this view
it is required that the verse should only have a certain length, and that
the alternation of the syllables should be easily caught and retained by
the ear. Either this alternation of syllables shows in the verse itself an
agreement and repetition of the same form, or this agreement and repe-
tition appear in the combination of several verses; and herein consists
the poetical rhythm, or the regular movement which is the object of verse,
and of which verse is a part.
§ 498. The feet of the verse (pedes), i.e. the separate combina-
tions of syllables, of which a verse consists, are formed of long and
short syllables brought into contrast with one another. The long
syllable has twice the duration (mora) of the short. Combinations
of syllables of the same kind (e.g. — — or v v v) are not proper
(metrical) feet, from which a kind of verse may be composed, but
yet they may often stand in the place of feet of the same length, so
that a long syllable is represented by two short ones, or two short
ones by a long one (e.g. — — for — v. v.); and it may even be a
characteristic of a peculiar metre, that such feet are used in certain
$499 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 467
places (Spurious Feet). The place which the long and consequently
more important syllable assumes in genuine feet is called arsis
(raising); that occupied by the short one, thesis (sinking). (When
therefore the spurious foot v v v is put instead of — v, the two
first syllables make up the arsis; when —— stands for — v v, the
first syllable is in the arsis, but the last, if it stands for w w —.)
The arsis may precede the thesis (so that the movement, as it were,
goes downwards), or follow it (so that the movement goes up-
wards)."
OBs. The measuring and recitation of a verse, according to its feet, is
called scanning (scansio).
§ 499. The following are the different kinds of feet:—
a. Those whose arsis and thesis are of equal duration (together four
morae) are —
— v V, dactylus ;
v v —, anapaestus.
b. Those whose arsis is twice as long as the thesis (together three
morae), –
— v, trochaeus or chorēus;
v —, iambus.
c. Those in which one part of the foot is half as long again as the
other (together five morae), –
— v —, creticus (with a double arsis);
1 In speaking, however, of the Arsis and Thesis in Greek and Latin Verse, we must not
think, as is usually done, of an elevation and depression of the voice, since the names are bor-
rowed from Music, and taken from the movement of the stick used in beating time, on which
account, too, they had with the ancients a signification opposite to that which, by a misunder-
standing, they have since acquired: the ancients named the important part Thesis, the other
Arsis. We should also guard against the opinion which is generally current; viz., that the
ancients accentuated the long syllable (in the arsis) and distinguished in this way the move-
ment of the verse (by a so-called verse-accent, ictus metricus), and consequently often
accentuated the words in verse quite ofherwise than in prºse (e.g. Arma virumqve cano
Frojae qvi primus ab oris Italiam fato profugus Lavinaqve venit Littora),
which is impossible; for the verse depends on a certain prescribed order and form of move-
ment being distinguishable, when the words are correctly pronounced. In our own verses we
do not accentuate the syllables for the sake of the verse, but the syllables which are perceptibly
distinguished by the accentuation in prose form verse by being arranged to succeed each other
in this way. In Latin and Greek (where even in prose pronunciation the accent was quite
subordinate, and is never named in speaking of rhetorical euphony, while on the other hand
the difference of quantity was distinctly and strongly marked) the verse was audibly distin-
guished by this very alternation of the long and short syllables. But as it is not possible for us.
either in prose or verse, to pronounce the words according to the quantity in such a way as
the ancients did, we cannot recite their poetry correctly, but are forced in the delivery to give
a certain stress of voice to the Arsis, and thus make their verses somewhat resemble ours.
It should, however, be understood that it was different with the ancients themselves (until the
latest centuries of their history, when the pronunciation itself underwent modifications).
468 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 500
- \ \º V, paeon primus;
\º V V -, paeon quartus. *
OBS. The paeons may be considered as resolutions of the creticus,
which is also called amphimacer. g
d. Spurious feet, —
——, spondéus (instead of the dactyl or anapaest);
v V v, tribrachys (instead of the trochee or iambus; was often also
called trochaeus). -
To these we may add the compound foot choriambus (— v v —),
consisting of a trochee and an iambus.
OBS. 1. In anapaestic, trochaic, and iambic verse, two feet are reck-
oned together to a dipodia (double foot)."
OBs. 2. The spondee and the tribrach, as combinations of syllables
of precisely equal prosodial value, are peculiar to Greek and Latin verse,
and in English versification are of no significance, so far as the recogni-
tion of them by the ear is concerned. What is called the spondee in our
imitations of ancient verse (as, for instance, hexameter verse) is in fact
a trochee, – an accented followed by a comparatively unaccented syl-
lable.
§ 500. A verse is formed either by repeating the same foot sev-
eral times (simple verse) or by combining and mixing different feet
(compound verse). A verse, even if the rule of its composition be
departed from in some particulars, and in some of the places differ-
ent feet substituted, will, in many cases, make on the whole the
same impression on the ear, and be easy of recognition. This is the
case especially in long and simple verses, which are repeated with-
out the introduction of any different kind of verse. (See below on
the different kinds of verse.) The last syllable of Latin verses may
always be either long or short (anceps), since an accurate com-
parison is here prevented by the pause (but for this reason, too, it
can never be resolved, - into v v). A verse often concludes in
such a way, that the last foot is incomplete, and is then called ver-
sus catalecticus.
1 The names of the feet are all borrowed from the Greek. Several other kinds are usually
enumerated, the Pyrrhichius v v, Proceleusmaticus v V v v, Molossus — — —, Bac-
chius v — —, Antibacchius — — v., Amphibrachys v — v, the second and third Paeon
v — v. v., v v — v, four Epitrites v — — —, &c., together with the Ionicus a majore
— — J. J., and a minore v J ––. But these combinations of syllables are not elementary
parts of verse, and are only looked upon as feet in consequence of an erroneous way of repre-
senting and dividing the verse.
§ 502 - RULES OF LATIN METRE. 469
OBS. A distinction is made between versus catalectici in syllabam,
where a single syllable follows the last complete foot, and catalectici in
dissyllabum, where two syllables follow a foot of three syllables; but
these two syllables may be considered as a distinct dissyllabic foot.
§ 501. Caesura (cutting) is the name given to the division of
certain longer verses into two parts, by causing a word in a certain
given position to end in the middle of a foot. This gives rise to a
pause, which, however, does not interfere with the continuity of the
verse, since the incomplete foot draws the attention to the remainder.
In some others of the longer verses such a break is found at the end
of a foot, — that is, the foot and the word end with the same syllable
(diaeresis); but then the close of the verse is apt to have a differ-
ent (catalectic) form, so that the attention is thus directed to the
end. w
OBS. 1. The term Caesura is sometimes applied to a division of the
words at the termination of each foot (so that each of the two parts of
the word belongs to a separate foot). In simple verses of some length
euphony is improved by this division and the seeming contest between
the words and the verse, as in this hexameter: — .
| | | | |
TJna salus victis nullam sperare salutem;
whereas by a complete or too frequent coincidence of the words with the
feet the verse is, as it were, broken up, as in the following hexameter: —
Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,
which is also in other respects not well constructed (see Obs. 2).
OBS. 2. The name of word-feet is given to whole words in a verse, when
they are considered as prosodial combinations of syllables; e.g. tem-
pora as a dactyl, arma as a trochee, pelluntur as — — v (spondee and
v, or — and trochee). Simple verses of some length lose in variety and
euphony, when the word-feet which follow in succession are too uniform;
as, e.g. in this hexameter: —
Sole cadente juvenous aratra relinqvit in arvo,
where four words in succession have the form v — v.
§ 502. a. The correctness of the verse, so far as prosody is con-
cerned, depends on all the syllables being used according to their
proper pronunciation and quantity. But with respect to this it is
to be noticed, that certain freedoms in the pronunciation of indi-
vidual words and forms were looked upon as allowed in poetry (see
on the alteration of i and u into j and v, diaeresis and synizösis, $ 5,
a, Obs. 4; $ 6, Obs. 1; on illius, unſus, $37, Obs. 2; on stetërunt,
470 LATIN GRAMMAR. º § 502
§ 114, a ; on réligio, réliqviae, for réligio, réliqviae, $ 204, a,
Obs. 1), especially in the case of words or proper names, which
otherwise could not be used at all in a particular kind of verse
(e.g. alterius and Príámides in the hexameter, on which account
they are pronounced alterius, Priamides; for püéritſa Horace
says puertia). In the arsis of dactylic verses (hexameters), the
short final syllable of polysyllables, if ending in a consonant, is
sometimes used as long; so also qve occasionally in the second
arsis of the hexameter: —
Desine plura puer, et quod nunc instat, agamus (Virg. B. IX.
66).
Pectoribiis inhians spirantia consulit exta (Id. AEn. IV. 64).
Tum sic Mercurium alloquittir ac talia mandat (Id. Æn. IV.
222). -
Sub Jove mundus erat, subiit argentea proles (Ov. Mct. I.
114).”
Tum Thetis humanos non despexit hymenaeos (Catull. 64, 20).
Sideraqvé ventiqve nocent avidaeqve volucres (Ov. Met. W.
484).
(Angulus ridét, ubi non Hymetto, Hor. Od. II. 6, 14, in a Sapphic
verse.)”
OBs. 1. The shortening of a syllable that is usually long is called sys-
töle (contraction); the lengthening of a short one, diastöle (extension).
OBs. 2. The old comic poets (Plautus and Terence) in many cases
used syllables as short, which are long by position (§ 22, Obs. 5). So
likewise they deviated not unfrequently (Plautus especially) by contrac-
tion and the rejection of syllables (syncope) from the usual pronuncia-
tion of the words. Besides this, they treated the metres themselves
(with reference to the feet which may be used, &c.) with great freedom,
so that the metrical reading and explanation of their verses is often very
difficult, the more so, since in many passages, particularly in Plautus,
they are incorrectly written. They must consequently be almost entirely
passed over here.
1 The last syllable of the perfect of compounds of eo is very often lengthened in this way.
2 The lengthening in the arsis, not by the arsis, as it is commonly explained on the assumed
theory of a verse-accent, rests, as a tolerated license, on the circumstance, that in definite places
in certain verses the reader expects and requires a long syllable, and hence is not misled, if the
poet, within certain limits, allows himself to use a short one, but varies the pronunciation of
the syllable in respect of the quantity, in such a way that the requirements of the verse are
in a manner Satisfied. This license therefore corresponds to the occasional accentuation of
unaccented syllables in modern Verse. -
§ 503 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 471
b. A hiatus should be avoided. This is produced when a final
vowel (or m) meets an initial vowel ($ 6) in the same verse, it
being at the same time requisite to pronounce the former (in order
to make the verse complete), instead of dropping it by elision (ec-
thlipsis). (The concurrence of vowels at the end of one verse and
the beginning of another does not offend the ear, since a pause falls
between them.) Yet the poets have sometimes allowed themselves
a hiatus in longer dactylic verses, in cases where it was less objec-
tionable; namely: –
a. With a long final vowel or diphthong (ae) in the arsis: Orchades
et radii et amara pausia bacca (Virg. G. II. 86). Qvid struit?
aut qva spé inimica in gente moratur 2 (Id. Æn. IV. 235). Tune
ille Aeneas, qvem. Dardanio Anchisae (Id. Æn. I. 617), mostly at
the caesura; b. with a long final vowel (diphthong) in the thesis, so that
the vowel becomes short in the pronunciation: Credimus? an, qvi
âmant, ipsi sibi somnia fingunt? (Virg. B. VIII. 108). Insiilač
Ionio in magno (Id. Aºn. III. 211). Torva leaena lupum seqvitur,
lupus ipse capellam, te Corydón, Ö Alexi' (Id. B. II. 65); c. with a
short final vowel (in the thesis) where there is at the same time a comple-
tion of the sense, a caesura, or a repetition of the same word: Et vera
incessu patuit déâ. Ille ubi matrem (Virg. Æn. I. 405). In a syl-
lable ending in m (which is always short) the hiatus is extremely rare.
OBs. Interjections, which consist only of a vowel, cannot be elided.
Here therefore the hiatus must be avoided in another way, except so far
as it may be tolerated (as in the following example, O ubi campi, Virg.
Georg. II. 486, according to a, and Buc. II. 65 under b); ae at the end
of a word is very seldom elided before a short vowel.
§ 503. Of the SIMPLE DACTYLIC verses the most important, and
the only one which is used by itself, without combination with others,
is the HEXAMETER, versus hexameter (metrum here signifying
foot). It consists of five dactyls and a trochee (or of six dactyls,
the last of which is catalectic in dissyllabum). Each of the four
first dactyls may be exchanged with a spondee. A spondee is very
rarely substituted for the fifth dactyl by such poets as are most
careful in the structure of the verse, because in this way the dac-
tylic form of the verse becomes less conspicuous. If a spondee
stands as the fifth foot (a spondaic verse), the fourth foot is gen-
erally a dactyl,
472 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 504
The hexameter has regularly a caesura in the third foot, either
after the arsis (masculine casura), or after the first short syllable
of the dactyl (feminine caesura): *—
Árma viruńqve canã, Trojae qvi primus ab oria.
Vi superum, saevae memorem Junonis obiram.
Id metuens veterisqve memor Saturnia belli.
Sometimes the caesura is not in the third foot, but after the arsis
of the fourth : *—
Illi se praedae accingunt dapibusqve futuris (Virg. Æn. I. 210).
Even when a word ends in the third foot, the caesura in the fourth
sometimes makes a more suitable division in the verse:–
Jamgve faces ét saxa volant, | furor arma ministrat (Virg. Æn. I. 150).
Posthabita coluisse Samo; I hic illius arma (Id. ib. I. 16; hiatus).
The hexameter is the verse best adapted to a uniformly progressive
exhibition of events, and is therefore used in narrative (epic) poems
(versus heroicus, verse of heroic poetry), and in didactic poems,
satires, and poetical epistles. -
OBs. 1. Qve, at the end of a hexameter, is, in some few instances,
elided before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse (versus
hypermeter. The last syllable of Latinorum, at the end of the verse
in AEn. VII. 160, is elided).
OBs. 2. In carefully constructed hexameters, a proposition which is
grammatically quite distinct from the foregoing does not begin with or
in the last foot. . -
§ 504. a. The following dactylic verses are used (by Horace) in
combination with other verses: —
— J J – 2 (versus Adonius); e.g.
- Fusoe, pharetra.
— J J — J. J. Sz (versus Archilochius minor);
Pulvis et umbra sumus.
_ J J – J J — J J – $2 (v. dactylicus tetrameter Catalecticus) :
— — — — (--)
Carmine perpetuo celebrare.
O fortes pejoraqve passi.
Ossibus et capiti inhumato.
1 Caesura penthemimeres (Tevffmuluspág), after the fifth half foot.
* Caesura karū totrov Tpoxalov, after the trochee of the third foot.
* Caesura hephthemimeres (épôm/uplepſig), after the seventh-half foot. .
§ 506 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 473
b. A dactylic verse of a peculiar form is the so-called PENTA-
METER, which consists of two parts, always separated by the diaere-
sis (§ 501), each of which has two dactyls and a syllable of an in-
complete foot (in the first division always a long syllable). Spon-
dees may also be used instead of the two first dactyls. The
pentameter is never used alone, but a hexameter and pentameter
are combined to form a DISTICH, and this combination is continually
repeated:—
Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum,
Lapsaqve sub terras | Ortaqve signa canam.
OBS. This form is applied particularly to elegies (versus elegiacus)
and epigrams (by Ovid it is employed also in didactic poetry).
§ 505. The ordinary ANAPAESTIC verse is versus anapaestus di-
meter (here the metrum is a dipody, $499, Obs. 1), which consists
of four anapaests, with a diaeresis between the second and third.
The anapaests may be changed for spondees, and these again for dac-
tyls. (Seneca does not use the dactyl in the last foot.) Yet each
line is not considered completely as a verse by itself, but a whole
series of verses (a system) is so combined, that (in Greek without
an exception) the hiatus is excluded, and the last syllable is not
anceps, and the final and initial consonant make position, till the
system ends by the sense being completed, sometimes with a ver-
sus monometer of two anapaests (in Greek with a catalectic
termination). These anapaests are used in the choral songs (in
Latin only in tragedies, of which Seneca's alone are preserved);
e.g. : -
tº- 4-º * gº-ºº: * * ^* * -
Qvanti casus humana rotant"
** * sº ^* * →
Minor in parvis Fortuna furit,
* \º - * * – * \º - \* ^*-
Leviusqve ferit leviora deus; * * *
* *º- ^* \º -> <--> - * * -
Servat placidos obscura qvies,
º assº * * - -
Praebetave genes CaSal Sectll’OS.
(Sen. Hippol. 1124 seqq.)
§ 506. TRochAIC verses are divided into dipodies ($499, d, Obs.
1), and in longer verses the second foot of the dipody may be
changed for a spondee without disturbing the trochaic movement.
474 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 507
The most usual trochaic verse (in lively scenes in tragedies and
comedies) is the catalectic tetrameter (tetrameter trochaicus cata-
lecticus, also trochaicus Septenarius, from the number of the per-
fect feet). It consists of seven trochees and a syllable, and has the
diaeresis (§ 501) after the fourth foot. A tribrach may stand every-
where instead of the trochee, and in the even places (2, 4, 6, the
last in the dipodies) a spondee.
Nulla vox humana constat absºlve septem litteris,
Rite vocavit vocales, qvas magistra Graecia (Terent. Maur.).
In the comic poets the diaeresis is not always observed: they often
use spondees in all places except in the seventh foot, and then also
substitute a dactyl or anapaest for a spondee, so that the form of
the verse is very variable.
Of other trochaic verses the following is found in Horace — v — v —
v Sz (trochaicus dimeter catalecticus) : —
Truditur dies die.
§ 507. a. IAMBIC verses are measured by dipodies, and in longer
verses the first foot of every dipody may be changed for a spondee,
without disturbing the iambic movement. The most usual iambic
verse is that with six feet, called iambicus trimeter (from the three
dipodies) or senarius (from the feet), which is used in some special
smaller compositions alone, or with other iambic verses, and is also
the usual verse in dramatic dialogue. In the most careful writers
(as Horace) a spondee may stand in the uneven places (1, 3, 5)
instead of the iambus, and (but more rarely) a tribrach instead of
every iambus, except the last. (The spondee in the first and third
foot is very rarely changed again for a dactyl, or in the first for an
anapaest.) This verse has usually a caesura after the thesis of the
third foot, or if not there, after the thesis of the fourth. The form
is therefore as follows (Hor. Ep. 17) : —
\,'
^^ - \º - \-M ~ \,' — \-M - \v -
tºº * tº-
\, \, \, \, \!\ ^\-W \-Z \tº \-/ V V \, \! \º
The comic poets allow themselves greater irregularities, since they also
put a spondee in the even places (2, 4), only not in the sixth foot, and
use a dactyl and an anapaest here and there in each of the first five feet.
§ 508 RULES OF LATIN METRE. 475
Poéta cum primum animum ad scribendum adpulit,
Id sibi negoti credidit solum dari,
Populout placerent, qvas fecisset fabulas.
- * \º
Verum aliter evenire multo intelligit.
Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur.
(Ter. Andr. prol. init.)
OBS. The comic poets also use iambic tetrameters, sometimes complete
ones of eight feet (octonarii), sometimes catalectics (septenarii) of
seven feet and a syllable, usually with a diaeresis after the fourth foot,
and with great freedom in the change of the feet.
b. Of other iambic verses the following are found in Horace : —
<— v — $4 – v Sz (iamb. dimeter)."
(— v V) (\v v \')
Imbres nivesqve comparat.
*— v — sº — v.-v-> (iamb. trimeter catalecticus);
(-, -, -)
Trahuntgve siccas machinae carinas.
SZ — I v — I — — I v — I – (Alcaicus euneasyllabus); -
Fit scindat haerentem coronam.
OBs. 1. Choliambus (scazon, limping iambus) is the name given to a
verse which is produced by changing the last iambus of an iambic trime-
ter for a trochee or spondee. The fifth foot is then always a regular
iambus: — -
O qvid solutis est beatius curis (Catull).
OBs. 2. Cretic and paeonic verses occur only in the comic poets, and
are here passed over. The choriambus is produced when a dactylic move-
ment in the arsis is interrupted by a new arsis. In the verses which are
called choriambic, the choriambus occurs once or oftener in the middle of
a compound verse. See the next paragraph. In one ode only (III. 12)
Horace has imitated a Greek form, which consists of choriambic movement,
introduced by an anapaest (VS ––v v ——w v –), continued un-
broken to the conclusion (or properly in divisions, each of which contains
the combination of syllables v V — —, called Ionicus a minore, repeated
ten times).
§ 508. Compound verses contain a more artificial movement, but
even this exhibits a certain rhythmical proportion which may be
476 LATIN GRAMMAR. § 508
distinguished as exercising a controlling influence, either in the
verse itself, or, if this be short, in the verses with which it is com-
bined. If a dactylic movement passes into trochees, the form of
verse is called logaoedic. Sometimes an introductory foot of two
syllables (the Basis) is put before a dactylic or logacedic series. In
other verses the choriambic form is seen in the middle, and the con-
clusion is logaoedic. The compound verses make a more lively
impression, and belong to the character of lyric poetry. The most
important forms (especially those used by Horace) are the follow-
ing:— -
—w v-v->! (Aristophanicus);
Lydia dic, per omnes.
— J. v – J J –v – S-4 (Alcaicus decasyllabus);
Nec virides metuunt colubras.
– J J – J. v . J J – J. v – J – J – S2 (Archilochius major) ;
Solvitur acris hyems grata vice veris et Favoni.
~ — — v J – S-4 (Pherecrateus);
Vis formosa videri.
–––v v — J. S.2 (Glyconicus);
Nil mortalibus arduum est.
(–$4—w v — v-v — $4 (Phalaecius, not in Horace);
v Sz -
Vivamus, mea. Lesbia, atqve amenus. Catull.).
* – I v — 1 — — I v v — I v S4 (Alcaicus hendecasyllabus)
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori.
—w I —— | – | V V | – V | — S2 (Sapphicus);
Integer vitae scelerisqve purus.
OBS. The caesura may also sometimes stand after the first short syllable
of the dactyl.” -
(—w —– I – v v — 1 — v.v. I — V | -\! (Sapphicus major);
Cur timet flavum Tiberim tangere 2 cur olivum ?)
-- I -> <- |-> - I -\' | S4 (Asclepiadeus minor);
Crescentem seqvitur cura pecuniam.
-- I -- ~- || --> -- || --> -- IS-2 (Asclepiadeus major);
Qvis post vina gravem militiam aut pauperiem crepat?
* From Wöyoc, speech, and dotdº, song.
2 The Alcaio hendecasyllabic verse consists of iambi with an anapaest in the fourth foot,
the Sapphic of trochees with a dactyl in the third foot; but, as a rule (in Horace), a spondee is
always substituted for the iambi or trochees in the third place of the Alcaic, and in the second
place of the Sapphic verse. *
§ 509 RULES OF LATIN METRE. - 477
OBS. The so-called versus asymarteti, which consist of two divis-
ions, so loosely connected that a hiatus may be allowed between them,
and the final syllable of the first part is anceps, are (at least in Horace)
best considered as two verses. As such may be mentioned: —
—vº-vº I-4–v-º-vs. (elegiambus) and
<--->4 – ~ * | – v v — v vs. (iambelegus).
§ 509. In lyrical poems it is most customary to employ not a
succession of the same verses, but either a combination of two of
different kinds (simple or compound), which is repeated (distichs),
or a combination of several lines, which is called a strophe.” Every
such combination is often called a metre. The strophes used by
Horace (besides distichs) are the following:— -
I. The SAPPHIC strophe; three Sapphic verses ($ 508) and a versus
Adonius ($ 504). See, for an example, the second ode of the first
book. *
OBS. In this strophe, we find a few instances of a syllable elided at
the end of a line before a vowel in the next line (Od. II. 2, 18), and of
a word divided between the third Sapphic verse and the v. Adonius
(Od. I. 2, 19). --
II. The FIRST ASCLEPIADEAN strophe; three smaller Asclepiadean
verses and a Glyconic ($ 508). For an example, see the sixth ode of
the first book. - • ‘ . 9.
III. The SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN strophe; two smaller Asclepiadean
verses, a Pherecratian ($ 508), and a Glyconic. See the fourteenth ode
of the first book.
IV. The ALCAIC strophe; two Alcaic hendecasyllabic verses (Al-
caici hendecasyllabi, $ 508), an Alcaic enneasyllabic verse (Alc.
enneasyllabus, $ 507, b), and an Alcaic decasyllabic verse (Alc. de-
casyllabus, $ 508). See, for example, the ninth ode of the first
book. (An elision occurs at the end of the third line of Od. II. 3, 27.)
OBs. 1. These strophes are named after the Greek poetess Sappho,
and the poets Asclepiades and Alcaeus.
OBs. 2. Distichs which occur in Horace may here be mentioned, with
the names usually assigned to them : —
1. The second Asclepiadean metre; a Glyconic verse, and the smaller
Asclepiadean ($ 508). (Book I. Ode 3.) (An elision occurs at the end
of the Glyconic verse, Book IV. 1, 35.)
12tpoſſi, a turn.
478 - LATIN GRAMMAR. § 509
2. The greater Sapphic metre; an Aristophanic and a greater Sap-
phic verse (§ 508). (Book I. Ode 8.) &
3. The first Archilochian metre; a dactylic hexameter, and a smaller
Archilochian verse (§ 504, a). (Book IV. Ode 7.) +
4. The second Archilochian metre; a hexameter and a versus iam-
belegus ($ 508, Obs.). If the iambelegus is considered as two verses,
this metre becomes a strophe of three lines. (Epod. 13.)
5. The third Archilochian metre; an iambic trimeter (§ 507) and a
versus elegiambus ($ 508, Obs.); it may also be considered as a
strophe of three lines. (Epod. 11.)
6. The fourth Archilochian metre; a greater Archilochian verse
($ 508) and a catalectic iambic trimeter (§ 507, b). (Book I.
Ode 4.) - h
7. The Alcmanic metre; a hexameter, and a dactylic catalectic tetra-
meter (§ 504, a). (Book I. Ode 7.)
8. The second Iambic metre; an iambic trimeter and an iambic di-
meter. (Epod. 1.) •
9. The first Pythiambic metre; a hexameter and an iambic dimeter.
(Epod. 14.)
10. The second Pythiambic metre; a hexameter and an iambic tri-
meter). (Epod. 16.) - • *
11. The Trochaic metre; a catalectic trochaic dimeter (§ 506) and a
catalectic iambic trimeter. (Book II. Ode 18.)
The smaller Asclepiadean verse (§ 508), repeated line after line, is
called the first Asclepiadean metre (Book I. Ode 1); and the iambic tri-
meter, used in the same way, the first iambic. (Epod. 17.) -
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. OF THE ROMAN WAY OF ExPRESSING THE DATE.
THE division of time into weeks of seven days with distinct
names was not used by the ancient Romans (before the introduction
of Christianity). The months were distinguished by the names
adopted by us from the Romans. These were adjectives, with
which mensis was understood and might be also expressed (mense
Aprili). July and August had the names of Qvinctilis and Sex-
tilis down to the time of the emperor Augustus. The days of the
month were computed from three leading days in each, which were
called Calendae (Kal), Nonae, and Idus (Iduum), and to which
the name of the month was appended as an adjective : Calendae
Januariae, Nonis Decembribus, &c. (Less correctly, Calendae
Januarii.) The Calends (Calendae) were the first day of the
month, the Nones (Nonae) were the fifth, and the Ides (Idus) the
thirteenth, but in the months of March, May, July, and October the
Nones were the seventh, and the Ides the fifteenth. From these days
they counted backwards, so that in the earliest part of the month
they stated how many days there were before the Nones, and after
that how many before the Ides, and after the Ides how many before
the Calends of the month following. The day before the Nones
(Ides, Calends) was expressed by the adverb pridie with the accu-
sative: pridie Nomas Januarias, pridie Calendas Februarias (the
31st of January). The day before that was called the third day
before the Nones (Ides, Calends), since the Nones (Ides, Calends)
were themselves included in the computation, and so on with the
preceding days, the fourth, &c. But this is expressed in a peculiar,
and, in a grammatical point of view, striking way, - diem tertium,
diem quartum, &c., being inserted in the accusative between the
preposition ante and Nonas (Idus, Calendas) : —
480 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Ante diem tertium Nomas Januarias," ante diem quartum Calen-
das Februarias (written a. d. III Non. Jan., a. d. IV. Kal. Febr., &c.).
This expression is considered as one word, before which in and ex may
stand; e.g. ex ante diem III Nonas Junias usqve ad pridie Calen.
das Septembres; differre aliqvid in ante diem XV Calendas No-
vembres. -
(It often happens that nothing more is written than III Non. which is
usually read tertio (die) Nonas, but which ought, perhaps, to be read
as a. d. III Non.)
We may therefore ascertain the days of the month, when stated
in the Roman manner, by subtracting the number given in the case
of the Nones from 6 (or 8 for the Nones of March, May, July, or
October), and in the case of the Ides from 14 (or from 16), because
the Nones and the Ides themselves are included in the reckoning,
and in the case of the Calends, by adding 2 to the number of days in
the preceding month and subtracting from the amount the number.
specified (because the computation is made not from the last day of
the month itself, but from the first of the following, and this is
included): — -
A. d. III Non. Jan. = 3d January; a. d. VIII Id. Jan. = 6th Janu-
ary; a. d. XVII Kal, Febr. = 16th January; a. d. XIV Kal. Mart.—
16th February; a. d. V Id. Mart. = 11th March. (In leap-year, the
intercalated day was counted between a. d. VI Kal. Mart, and a. d. VII
Eal Mart, and denominated a, d. bissextum Kal. Mart, so that a. d.
VII K., a. d. VIII, &c. (computing backwards), answers, as in the
ordinary February, to the 23d, the 22d, &c.).
II. CoMPUTATION OF MONEY, AND MODE OF ExPRESSING
FRACTIONS. :
A. Sums of money were generally computed amongst the Romans.
(except in the earliest period and under the later emperors) by the
sestertius (nummus sestertius, sometimes only nummus), a silver
coin, which at first was equal to 24, subsequently to 4 asses, about
4 cents. These are counted regularly; e.g. trecenti sestertii, duo
1 The expression appears properly to signify before (on the third day) the Nones, &c. We
find also the same construction with the names of festivals, a. d. V. Terminalia. -
COMPUTATION OF MONEY. 481
millia sestertiorum (or sestertium, $37, Obs. 4). But to express
several thousand sestertii the substantive sestertia, sestertiorum
(not used in the sing.), is also made use of: hence duo, Septem ses-
tertia, = duo, septem millia sestertiorum; and in the older writers
this is the usual way of expressing a round number of thousands
under a million.
A million of sesterces (sestertii) is regularly expressed by deeies
centena (centum) millia sestertiorum (sestertium), sometimes
only decies centena, millia sestertium being understood (Hor.).
But instead of this we commonly find the abbreviated expression
decies sestertium (generally reversed sestertium decies), and so
on for larger numbers: undecies sestertium, 1,100,000 sesterces,
duodecies, vicies, ter et vicies (2,300,000). In such expressions
sestertium is treated and declined as a neuter substantive in the
singular; e.g. (nom) sestertium qvadragies relinqvitur; (ace.)
sestertium quadragies accepi; (abl.) sestertio decies fundum emi,
in sestertio vicies egere (to be poor in possession of 2,000,000 ses-
terces). Sometimes, when the connection is obvious, the adverb
alone is put without sestertium. Greater and smaller numbers are
combined in this way: —
Accepi vicies ducenta triginta quinqve millia quadringentos
decem et septem nummos (Cic. Werr. Lib. I. 14), 2,235,417 ses-
terces.
Sestertius is often denoted by the sign HS (properly IISemis,
24, sc. as), which sign is also used for sestertia and sestertium.
Hence arises some ambiguity, when the numbers (by which HS
tres and HS tria may be distinguished) are not declined, and when
both the numeral adjective and the numeral adverb are expressed
by signs (e.g. decem and decies both of them by X). This am-
biguity can only be removed by considering what sum will be most
agreeable to the context.”
B. 1. A fraction is expressed in Latin, as in English, by the
ordinal number with pars, e.g. pars tertia (the third part, a third),
qvarta, qvinta, vicesima, &c. º. is expressed by pars dimidia.
Pars is often omitted, only tertia, qvarta, &c., being used. (Di-
midia, however, is not used without pars, but dimidium, half, and
* In printed books we sometimes find a thousand expressed by a stroke over the number,
So that HSX stands for decem millia sestertium or decem sestertia.
31
482 LATIN GRAMMAR.
dimidia hora, dimidius modius, &c.) For sexta we have also
dimidia tertia; and for octava, dimidia quarta. The numera-
tors are stated as in English; e.g. duae tertiae, #; tres septimae,
#; qVintae partes horae tres, # of an hour. But sometimes the
'fraction was divided into two smaller ones with the numerator 1;
e.g. : — § -
Heres ex parte dimidia et tertia est Capito (Cic. ad Fam. XIII.
29), 4 + 4 =#; horae qvattuordecim atqve dimidia cum tri-
gesima parte unius horae (Plin. H. N. VI. s. 39), 14% + ºr = 143:
Europa totius terrae tertia est parset octava paulo amplius (Plin.
H. N. VI. s. 38), rather more than #-H # = }}. * - -
OBs. Duae partes agri, tres partes, &c., where the denominator is
not given, signify #, #.
2. The as (a Roman copper coin) and the pound (libra) were
divided into twelve ounces, unciae, and for every number of ounces
or twelfths under twelve there was a separate name. These names
also served, especially in matters of inheritance, in land-measure,
and measures of length, and in the calculation of interest, to denote
the twelfths of a whole, twelfths of an inheritance (the whole inher-
itance being called as); or of the unit of measure (jugerum or pes);
and of the unit of interest (one per cent); and were sometimes also
used of twelfths of other objects. The names (besides uncia) are
sextans, 4 (P.); qvadrans, 4 (ſº); triens, (#3); qVincunx, Iº;;
semis (generally semissis), , (ſº); septunx, Iº; bes, # (ſº);
dodrans, # (#3); dextans, # (+9); deunx, ##. -
Librae tres cum semisse (34 pounds). Heres ex asse, heir of the
whole estate; ex dodrante, of three fourths ; ex triente, ex parte di-
midia et sextante. Triumviri viritim diviserunt terna jugera et
septunces (Liv. W. 24), 34"; acres to each. Fenus ex triente factum
erat bessibus (Cie. ad Att. IV. 15), had risen from 4 p. e. per month
to #. Obeliscus centum viginti qvingve pedum et dodrantis
(Plin. H. N. XXX. s. 14, 5), 1254 ft. Frater aedificii reliqvum
dodrantem emit (Cie. ad Att. I. 14). -
OBS. Semis is also sometimes subjoined (in second-rate authors) as
an indeclinable word; as, foramina longa pedes tres semis (et semis),
3% feet long.
ABBREVIATIONS.
483
III. ABBREVIATIONS WHICH FREQUENTLY occUR IN THE EDI-
TIONS OF THE LATIN CLAssIcs.
A- C» ę ę
App. . .
D. . . .
G. or C. .
Gn. or Cn.
I<. ę • « ò
L. ę … £-
IMI. ę ę c *
Cal. IKal. .
Cos. . . .
Coss. . .
ID. ę • ¢>
Des. . . .
IE*© ¢ ę ę
Id. . . .
Imp. . .
IN. ce « » •
O. IMI. * ¢
P. C. ¢ « }
IP. R. . .
a. FIRST NAMEs.
Aulus.
Appius.
Decimus.
Gajus (the more cor-
rect) or Cajus.
Gnæus or (less cor-
rectly) Cnejus.
Kæso.
Lucius.
Marcus.
ö. OTHER WoRDs.
Calendae.
Consul.
Consules.
D. Divus (D. Cae-
sar).
Designatus.
Filius.
Idus.
Imperator. -
Nepos (P. Mucius P.
IF. Q. N. = Publii
filius, Qvinti ne-
pos).
Qptimiis Maximus
(surname of Jupi-
ter).
Patres Conscripti.
Eopulus Romanus.
Manius.
Mamercus.
Numerius.
Publius.
Qvintus.
Sextus.
Servius.
Spurius.
Titus.
Tiberius.
Pontifex Maximus.
Q. F. F. Q. §. Qvod felix faustum-
qve sit.
Q.B.FF.Q.S. Qvod bonum felix
faustumqve sit.
Qvirites.
Eespublica.
Senatus populusqve
Romanus.
Senatusconsultum.
Salutem (in letters).
Salutem dicit pluri-
ÌÌYaIÌl.
§.V.BEE.V. Si vales bene est; ego
IMI! . . .
IN. or Num.
IP. . . .
Q. • • •
§. or Sex.
Ser. . . .
5p. . . .
T. . . .
IPont. Max.
Qvir. . .
IResp. . .
§. P. Q. R. .
§. C.
5. . . . .
S. ID. P. .
Tr. PI. . .
valeo (introducto-
ry formula in let-
ters).
Tribunus plebis.
IND EX.
.A. is changed into 8, i, or ē, 5 c.
# for as in Greek Proper Names, 85, Obs. 2.
a for e in Greek words of the First Declension,
35, Obs. 1.
a and es (ia and ies) used indiscriminately in
the Nominative, 56, 3.
a rarely used instead of the Greek Nominative
es, 35, Obs. 3.
à as a substantive termination, 177 a.
ab (a) millibus passwum duobus, 234 b, Obs.
Ab or the abl. alone with Passive Verbs, 254,
Obs. 1. Instead of the Abl. Instrum., 254,
Obs. 2. Ab, on the side of, with respect to,
253, Obs. Has an ambiguous signification
with certain Werbs, 222, Obs. 2. With the
names of Towns, 275, Obs. 1.
abdere in aliqvem locum and in aligvo
loco, 230 (in) Obs. 4.
abesse Roma, 275, Obs. 2.
abest (tantum), 440 a., Obs. 1.
abhinc, 235, Obs. 2.
ABLATIVE in abus, 34, Obs. 4; in isforibus, 44,
3; in wbus for ibus, 46, Obs. 4. Signification,
252 (240, Obs). Signifying, with regard to,
253. Instrument, 254 (of Personal Names,
254, Obs. 3; where other constructions are
made use of in English, 255). Of Measure,
255, Obs. 1. Of Efficient Cause, 256, and
Obs. 1. (Does not otherwise signify Cause,
257, Obs. 2; signifying according to ; mea
sententia, 256, Obs. 3.) Abl. modi, 258. The
ablative of certain words used Adverbially,
258, Obs. 2. Of Military Forces, 258, Obs.
4. Of Price, 259 (294). As a Definition
with Verbs, 260, seq. (With verbs of
Abundance, 260; of Deficiency, 260; varied
by another construction [dat. and accus.],
260, b, and Obs; with verbs which have the
signification of Releasing, 262; of Removing,
\
263; of Shutting up and Comprising, 255
Obs 2; with gaudeo, doleo, &c., 264; with
wtor, &c., 265); with ous
Phrases, 266
267. With Adjectives and Participles, 268,
269. Of Distance, 270. Of Difference, with
Comparatives, 270. Ablative of the Second
Member of the Comparison, 271, 304 (the
ablatives spe, opinione, &c., 304, Obs. 4).
Ablative of Quality, 272, 287, Obs. 2 (esseT
with the ablative instead of in, 272, Obs. 2).
Ablative of the names of Towns answering to
the question unhere, 273 a 5 to the question
whence, 275 (of a person's Home, 275, Obs 3);
of other words answering to the question
where, 273 b, c (in the poets, Obs. 2); to the
question whence, 275 (in the poets, Obs. 4); to
denote the Direction of a Motion, 274. Ablative
of Time answering to the questions when, and
in how long a time, 276 (rarely answering to
the question how long, 235, Obs. 3); to the
question how long ago (his centum annis), 276,
Obs. 5. Ablative of Punishment with damno,
293, Obs. 8. ABLATIVE ABsolute, 277;
of Participies, 428 (where not to be employed,
Obs. 1; with quanqvam and misi, Obs. 2;
their relation to the Subject of the leading
Proposition, Obs. 4). ABL. ABS. of a Parti-
ciple without a Substantive, 429, with Obs. 1;
with the omission of the Pronominal Subject,
429, Obs. 2; abl. of the Gerund, 416. Several
ablatives in a different signification with the
same Predicate, 278; the ablative joined im-
mediately to a Substantive, 278 b.
abundantia, 56.
abus (termination) for is, 34, Obs. 4.
ac, atqve, 433; ac mon, 458, Obs. 1. As a
particle of Comparison, 303 a, 444 b ; ac si,
ib.
accedit quod and ut, 373, Obs. 3; accedo
with ad and with the Dative, 245 b, Obs. 2.
Accent, 14, 23; 498, note.
accusare inertiam adolescentium, 293,
Obs. 2.
AccusATIVE in im, 42, l; Greek acc. in a,
45,2; in im and in, 45, 2 b,; ym or yn, 45,2 c :
486
INDEX,
às, 45, 6; in en and em in Greek Proper
Names, 45, 2 d. Signification, 222. With
oleo, sapio, sono, 223, Obs. 2. Of a Subst.
of the same stem, with intrans. verbs, 223 c,
Obs. 4. With verbs which acquire a Transi-
tive signification by being compounded with
a Preposition, 224, 225. Two Accusatives
with verbs signifying to make into any thing,
to name, &c., 227, a, b, c, with doceo and
other verbs, 228. Accus. of a Pronoun with
Verbs which do not govern a Substantive in
the Accus., 229, 2. Accus. of the names of
Towns answering to the question whither,
232 (in the poets, of names of Countries and
Common Nouns, Obs. 4). Accus. of Exten-
sion and of Distance, 234 a, b. Of Time,
235. In Exclamations, 236. Poetical usage
of the accus. with Passive Verbs, which as-
sume a new Active Signification, 237 a, with
a Part. Perf., 237 b,; of the Part affected,
237, c (with ictus, saucius, Obs. 1). Adverbial
Accus., 237 c, Obs. 3. Accusative of the
Second Member of a Comparison instead of
a Distinct Proposition, 303 b. Accus. of the
Gerund, 414. Accus. with an Infinitive (as a
Predicate and in Apposition), 388 b. Accus.
with the Inf, 222, Obs. 1; see Infinitive.
and Succession, 300, a, b,; solus, totus, &c.,
ib, c (adversus, secundus, Obs. 1). Adjectives
of Time and Place instead of Adverbs in the
Poets, 300,0bs. 2. Adjectives in Latin, where
Substantives with Prepositions are made use
of in English, 300, Obs. 3. Adjectives with
Proper Names, 300, Obs. 4. Employed as
Substantives in the Masculine and Neuter
sing. and plur., 301, 247 b, Obs. 1 (amicus,
&c.). Adjectives in the Neuter with Preposi-
tions (de integro), 301 b, Obs. 3. Position of
Adjectives, 466 a, b, 467 a (in the Poets,
474 b). The poets use greater freedom
in combining them with Substantives, 481,
Obs. 2. Prolepsis Adjectivi, ib. Two Adjec-
tives referred to one Substantive, to denote
different Persons or Things, 214 d, Obs. 2.
admoneo with a Genitive or the Preposition
de, 291, Obs. 2.
adolescens, adolescentior, 68 b.
adventu (Caesaris) on (Caesar's) arrival, 276,
Obs. 2.
ADVERB, 24, 4. Pronominal Correlative Ad-
verbs, 201. Comparison of Adverbs, 169 seq.
Adverbs used as Prepositions, 172, Obs. 3.
Derivation, 198 seq.; forms in e, ter, o, 198.
Numeral Adverbs, 199. Adverbs in o and
wm with Comparatives, 270, Obs. 1, 2. Ad-
Achillei, genitive, 38, 3.
acqviesco im, 245, Obs. 1.
ad with numerals, ‘about,’ 172, II., Obs. 2.
verbs apparently combined with a Substan-
tive, 301 c, Obs. 2. Position, 468. Some
With names of Towns, 232, and Obs. 1. ‘With
regard to,” 253, Obs. (refert ad, 295, Obs. 1).
Distinguished from the Dative (litteras dare
which are always put after other words, 471.
An adverb instead of a judgment expressed in
a distinct Proposition, 398 b, Obs. 4.
Adversative Conjunctions, 437. Omitted, 437 d,
Obs. Not attached to the Relative Pronoun,
448, Obs. 2. -
adversus, in adversum collem, 300 c, Obs. 1.
ae diphthong, 5 b, Obs. 1. ae, oe, e, 5 b, Obs. 8.
aedes (aedem), omitted, 280, Obs. 3.
aeqvare aliqvem alicut, 243, Obs. 4.
aeqve ac, 444 b, and Obs. 1; aeque — aeque,
ib. Obs. 4.
aeqvi bonique facio, 294, Obs. 2.
affinis with a Genitive and Dative, 247 b,
Obs. 4.
Affirmative idea (omnes, ut dico), understood
from one that is negative, 462 b.
age, agite, 132 b (ago), and Obs.
ai, an old termination of the Genitive, 34,
Obs. 1.
alienus, its construction, 268 b, Obs. 1, 2;
247 b, Obs. 6.
aliqvis and qwis, 493 as and qwisqvam,
494 a, Obs. 1; aliqvi and aliqvot, 493 a,
Obs. 2. Adverbs from aliqvis and qwis, 201,
2. Obs. 1. Aliquid pulchri and pulchrum
memorabile, 285 b.
alicwi and ad aliqvem), 242, Obs. 3. With
the Gerund instead of the Second Supine,
412, Obs. 3. Instead of the Genitive of the
Gerund, 417, Obs. 3. Verbs compounded
with it which take the Accusative, 224 b,
245, Obs. 2; with the repetition of ad, 243,
Obs. 1, 245 b, with Obs. 2. Aptus ad rem and
aptus rei, 247 b, Obs. 6. Ad Vestae, 280,
Obs. 3. Ad multum diei, adid locorum,285b,
Obs. 1.
adde, qvod, 373, Obs. 3
adhibeo ad, 243, Obs. 1.
a digo aliqvem jusjurandum, 231, Obs.
ADJECTIVE, its signification, 24, 2. Inflec-
tion, 58 seq. Adjectives of One Termination,
60 b. Neuter Plural of these adjectives, 60 c.
Defective Adjectives, 61 (58, Obs, 3). Varying
between different Terminations, 59, Obs. 3,
60, Obs. 1. Derivation, 185 seq. (from Proper
Names of Persons, 189; of Towns, 190). In
the Neuter as an Adverb, 198 c ; in the Poets,
802. Adjectives in the Neuter with a Parti-
tive Genitive, 284, Obs. 5. Adjectives in
Apposition, particularly those denoting Order
INDEX.
487
alius, a Pronoun, its Declension, 37, Obs. 2,
84. Alius sapiente, 304, Obs. 3. Alius ac,
mihil aliud gram, nihil aliud misi, 444 b, Obs.
1. Altus – alius, alius aliter, alia via, 496,
Obs. 1.
alter, 84, and Obs. ; where the idea of Two is
not immediately brought forward, 496. Alteri,
84, Obs. Alterius, 87, Obs. 2. Alter — alter
in Apposition, 217, Obs. 1.
alterni, every other, 74, Obs. 2.
amb, 204.
ambo, 71.
amicus alicwi and alicufus, 247 b, and Obs. 1.
Amicissimus, inimicissimus alicujus, ib.
amplius with and without quam, 305.
an in Disjunctive Interrogations, 452; in those
of a Supplementary kind, 453; in the poets
and later writers in simple Dependent Inter-
rogations, ib. After nescio, dubito, ib. De-
noting Uncertainty, ib. Obs. 1. An vero,
453.
Anacoluthia, 480.
Anapaest, 499. Anapaestic Verses, 505.
Anaphora instead of the Copulative Conjunc-
tion, 434, Obs. 2. Number of the Predicate
where there is Anaphora of the Subject, 2.13b,
Obs. 2.
Anastrophe of the Preposition, 469, Obs. 1.
Ancipites vocales et syllabae, 15.
Animals, names of, their Gender, 30. Twofold
form according to the sex, 30 c, Obs.
animans, its Gender, 41 (p. 42).
animi (= animo) with Adjectives, 290 g; with
Verbs, 296 b, Obs. 3.
animo without in, 273 b, Obs. 1.
animum induco, induco in animum, 389.
anne, 452.
annon, 452.
Answer, Affirmative and Negative, 454.
ante paucos dies, paucis ante diebus, 270,
Obs. 4; ante decem dies quam, ib.; ante
diem decimum quam, 276, Obs. 6. Ante diem
in noticing the day of the month, p. 480.
Verbs compounded with ante with the Accus-
ative, 224 d.
anteqvam (postgvam) with the Perfect, 338,
Obs. 5; with the Present Indic. instead of
the Future, 339, Obs. 2, c.; 360, Obs. 3.
With the Indic. or Subj. 360 (and Obs. 4).
a page, 164.
apodosis, 826, Obs. 2.
Aposiopesis, 479, Obs. 6.
applicare se ad aliqvid, 243, Obs. 1.
APPosition, 210 b. Its Use and Meaning, 220.
Of alius, alter, qvisqve, without any influence
on the Predicate, 217, Obs. 1. Apposition to
the whole Proposition, 220, Obs. 3. Apposi-
tion of the Adjective, 300. Apposition sepa-
rated from the word to which it belongs, 467 b.
aptus, with the Dative or ad, 247 b, Obs. 6.
Aptus qui, 363 b.
arbor fici, 286.
ardeo in aliqvi, 230, Obs. 1.
argos and argi, 56, 7, Obs.
Arsis and Thesis, 498. Lengthening of a syl-
lable by Arsis, 502 a, with the note.
as, an old Termination of the Genitive, 34,
Obs. 2.
as and is, Greek words with these termina-
tions employed as Adjectives, 60, Obs. 5.
as, (the) and its parts, Supplement II. B. 2.
Aspiration, 9.
assvetus with the Ablative, 267.
Asyndeton with two members, 434.
at, 437 c (at qui vir).
atgue, See ac.
atgvi, 437 c, Obs.
attendo aliqvid and ad aliquid, 225, Obs.
ATTRACTION, 207, Obs. With the Second
Member of a Comparison, 303 b. With the
Demonstrative Pronoun, 313; with the Rela-
tive, 315 c, 316; with the case of a Relative,
823 b, Obs. 2; with a Relative Subordinate
Proposition belonging to an Accus. with the
Infinitive, 402 b. Attraction of the Subject
of a Subordinate Proposition to the Leading
Prop., 439, Obs. 1.
Attribute, 210, Obs.
auctor sum with a Pronominal Accusative,
229 b, Obs. 2.
audiwi eum dicere, dicentem, eac eo, qvum
diceret, 395, Obs. 5.
ave, 164.
ausim, 115 f.
auspicio alicufus rem gerere, 258, Obs. 5.
aut, aut — aut, 436. Aut continuing a Ne-
gation, 458 c, Obs. 2; aut — aut after a Ne-
gation, ib. Number of the Predicate with
Subjects which are connected by aut or aut
—aut, 213 b, Obs. 1.
autem, 487 b.
Barbarous Names, how declined, 54, Obs. 4.
Basis in Verse, 508.
belli, 296 b.
bonā veniã alicujus, 258, Obs. 5.
bundus, a Participle Termination, 115 g.
c, its pronunciation, 8. Relation to qu, ib.
Caesura, 501. Of the Hexameter, 503.
Calendae, Suppl I.
Calendar (Roman), ib.
camere receptui, 249.
Cardinal Numbers, 70.
488
INDEX.
CASEs, recti and obliqui, 32, Obs. Their Ter-
minations, 33. Defective Inflection of, 55.
Different Cases with the same Governing
Word, 219, Obs. 2. Signification of the casus
obliqué in general, 240. i
Catalectic Verse, 500, and Obs.
causa terroris, a cause consisting in terror,
286, Obs. 2. Causa (ratio) cur (quamobrem),
372 b, Obs. 6; causa, qvominus, nulla causa
qvim, 375 b and c.
causã, with the Genitive, 257. Omitted with
the Genitive of the Gerund, 417, Obs. 5.
cave facere and cave facias, 375 a, and
Obs. 1.
caveo, its construction, 244 b, Obs. 1.
ce, a Demonstrative Termination, 81, Obs. 82,
Obs. 2 (hicine, sicine).
cedo, cette, 164.
cedere, with the Abl., 263.
celare, its construction, 228 a, and Obs.
censere faciemdum, aliquid fieri, facere (ut)
facias, 396, Obs. 4. Censer; with an Ac-
cus., 237 a., Obs.
certiorem facere rei and de re, 289 b,
Obs. 1.
ceteri and reliqvi, 496, Obs. 2. Ceteri at
the end of an enumeration, not et ceteri, 434,
Obs. 1. Cetera employed Adverbially, 237 c,
Obs 3.
Chiasmus, 473 b. f
Choliambus (scazon) 507 b, Obs. 1.
Choreus, 499
Choriambus, 499. Choriambic Verses, 507 b,
Obs. 2. -
cingor with an Accus., 237 a.
circum. Werbs compounded with it take the
Accus., 224 a, and Obs. 2, 225.
clam, 172, Obs. 3.
co, con, see cum.
coepi, and coeptus sum, 161.
cogo, with two Accusatives, cogor aliqvid,
229, 2.
CoLLECTIVEs with the Predicate in the Plural,
215 a. The Relative referred to them in the
Plural, 317 c.
Common Nouns, 29. Names of animals as
Common Nouns, 30 b.
communis, its construction, 290 f.
compacto, ex, 150 (paciscor).
comparare (componere, conjungere) with cum
and with the Dative, 243, Obs. 2.
COMPARATIVE, its Formation, 63; formed
from Prepositional Stems, 66. Diminutives
of it, 63, Obs. With gwam (ac), 303 a , with
a whole Proposition, 303 b, with the Abl.,
804, with Obs. 1 (spe, 6minione, aequo, &c.,
Obs. 4). Compar. of Adjectives of Measure,
how constructed, 306. Two Comparatives
connected by goam, 807. Compar. of a Con-
siderable Degree, 808. Instead of the Super-
lative when only two are mentioned, 309.
Trregular Construction of the Compar., 308,
Obs. 2.
Comparative Particles, 444.
Comparison, 62. Irregular, 65. Defective, 66
and 67.
Compertus probri, 293, Obs. 1.
pertus fecisse, 400 c, Obs.
complures, 65, 2, Obs.
Composita, 203; Determinativa, 206 af Con-
structa, b, Possessiva, c.
Composition, 203 seq. (spurious, 53). Form,
203 seq. Signification of the Forms, 206.
Compound Verbs with a Transitive signification,
224; with a Dat. or the Prep. repeated, 243,
245.
Concessive Conjunctions, what Mood they take,
361, with the Obss.; annexing a Remark
which limits the preceding statement in an
independent form, 443; with Participles and
Adjectives, ib. Obs. -
conciliare aliquem alicui, 242, Obs. 1.
Conclusive Particles not connected with the
Relative Pronouns, 448, Obs. 2; nor with the
Copulative Conjunction, 434, Obs. 3.
Conditional Conjunctions, 442.
CoNDITIONAL PROPOSITIONs in the Indic.,
332; in the Subjunctive, 347. The Condition
not expressed in the form of a Proposition,
347 c. The Prop. limited by a Condition in the
Indic, though that which expresses the con-
dition is in the Subjunctive, 348 (370, Obs. 1).
Condit. Prop. in the Subjunctive as belonging
to an Infinitive, 348 e, Obs. 3. The Condition
expressed by an Independent Proposition,
442 a., Obs. 2. Two Condit. Propositions an-
nexed to a Leading Proposition, 442 a.
confieri, 143 (facio). t
Conjugation (p. 92, m). How the Four Con-
jugations are related to each other, 101.
Conjunction, 24, 6; classes of, 432; see Adver-
sative, Copulative, &c. Position of the Con-
junctions, 465 b. Conjunctions transposed in
the poets, 474 d, the Copulative and Dis-
junctive sometimes separated from the Second
member, 474 e.
conjunctus with the abl., dat., and cum,
268 a., Obs. 2.
Connecting vowel, 176 c, 205 a.
conscius, 289 b, Obs. 2.
Consecutio temporum, 382.
Corn-
consilium capio facere and faciendi, 417,
Obs. 2.
consolari dolorem alicujus, 228 b.
ENDEX.
489
Consonants Doubled, 10. Modification of the l
Consonants when they come together, ib.
When dropped, ib. 11, Obs. Combinations
of the Consonants at the beginning of words,
13, Obs. 1. -
constare, ex, in, constare re, 255, Obs. 2.
contentus with the Infinitive, 389, Obs. 3.
contingit ut, and with the Infinitive, 873,
Obs. 2.
contineri aliqvare, 255, Obs. 2.
continuare aliqvid alicui, 243, Obs. 4.
Contraction, 6, Obs. 1. With the rejection of 2,
182 f. Obs 3.
contrarius ac, 444 b.
conventa pax, 110, Obs. 3.
Coordinate Propositions in place of the com-
bination of a Leading and Subordinate prop.,
438.
Copula, 209 b, Obs. 1.
Copulative Conjunctions, 433. Inserted or
omitted where several words are connected.
434, Obs. 1. Not added to Illative Particles,
ib., Obs. 3. For Adversative, 433, Obs. 2.
Correlative Pronouns, 93, Adverbs, 201.
cotidie (orthography), 8.
Countries, names of, 192; treated as the
names of Towns, 232, Obs. 4; some ending
in us, fem., 39 b.
crassitudine (digiti) “of the thickness,”
272, Obs. 3.
credor auctor, 227 c, Obs. 2; for ereditur
mihi, 244, Obs. 4.
Creticus, 499.
crimine, 293, Obs 2.
cujus, a, un, and cujas, 92, Obs. 2.
Cum, conjunction, see quum.
cum, preposition, how modified in Composi-
tion, 173 Put after its case (ºnecum), 172,
Obs. Qvid mihi (tibi) cum aligvo 2 479 d,
Obs. 1; cum magmo studio, and simply
magno studio, cum cura, 258, and Obs. 1, 2;
cum omnibus copiis, and simply omnibus
copiis, 258, Obs. 4; cum magna calamitate |
Decomposita, 206 a., Obs. 1.
civitatis (to), 258, Obs. 5. Subjects con-
nected by cum with the Predicate in the
Plural, 215 c. Verbs compounded with cum
which take the Accus., 224 b; with a repeti-
tion of the Preposition, more rarely with the
Dative, 243, Obs. 2.
Cupid esse, and me esse, 389, Obs. 4.
cur: est, nihil est, cur, 372 b, Obs. 6;
cur, qvare, qvidni, 492 b, Obs. 2.
curo faciendum often expressed by facio,
481 a, Obs. 1.
factyl, 499; Dactylic Verses, 503, 504.
damnare, Construction, 293, Obs. 2, 3
*
DATIVE, Irregular forms in the Plural, see
Ablative; Greek in si, 45, 8. Signification of
the Dative, 241 (240 Obs.). Dativus commodi
et incommodi, 241, Obs. 1. Dative annexed
to the Whole Phrase, instead of the Genitive
with a Substantive, 241, Obs. 3 and 4 (lega-
tum esse alicut), and 242. Obs. 2 (causa rebus
novandis, 241, Obs. 3). Dative with facio,
Jit, 241, Obs. 5; Dative of a Participle signi-
fying “when one,” ib., Obs. 6. Dative as
object of Reference with Werbs, 242. Dative
with Compound Transitive Verbs, or the
Preposition repeated, 243 (and Obs. 3). With
Intransitive Werbs, 244; with a Verbal Sub-
stantive, 244, Obs. 5. With Compound In-
transitive Verbs or the Preposition repeated,
245; with sum, 246. Double Dative with
nomen est (do), 246, Obs. 2. With Adjectives,
247. With diversus, discrepo, disto, 247 b,
Obs. 3. Dative or ad with aptus, &c., 247 b,
Obs. 6. With some Adverbs (convenienter,
&c.), 247 b, Obs. 7. With idem, 247 b, Obs.
8. Dativus ethicus, 248. Dative denoting
the Design and Operation, 249, especially the
Dative of the Gerundive, 249, Obs. 415.
Dative of the Agent instead of ab with pas-
sives, 250 a. Dative of the Direction towards,
251. Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive,
415. Dative with an Infinitive (licet mihi esse
beato), 393 c. Dative of the Agent with the
Gerundive, 420, 421 a, and Obs. 1.
de Partitive, 284, Obs. 1. de improviso,
301 b, Obs. 3. De with an Accus with the
| Infin. following (de hoc dicitur Verri, eum —),
395, Obs. 7. Verbs compounded with de with
a remote object, 243.
debebam, debui, of a thing which would
be Obligatory in an assumed case, 348 c : of
a thing which should have been done, 348 c,
Obs.
decet, decent, 166 b, Obs.
Declinatio, p. 20, note.
; Declensions, their Number and mutual Rela-
tion, 33, Obs. 1.
deest, deeram, pronounced dest, dēram,
108, Obs. 2.
Defectwa numero, 50 and 51 Casibus, 55.
defendo = defendendi causa dico, 395,
Obs. 2.
deniqve, not et denigve, 434, Obs. 1.
DEPONENTs, 110; with irregular Supines, 146
seq.; varying between this and the Active
form, 147; Passive of the last named used
in a passive signification, 152; other Depo-
ments in a Passive signification, especially the
Part. Perf., 153. Deponents of the First Con-
jug derived from Substantives 1938,
490
INDEX.
Derivation, 174. Derivative. Terminations how
affixed to the Stem, 176.
Derivatives, 175 a. -
Desideratives, without Perfect and Supine, 145.
Their Formation, 197, 4.
desitus sum, 136, 161 (coepi).
dexterior, dextimus, 67 d, Obs. 2.
Diaeresis, 5 a., Obs. 4, in a metrical significa-
tion, 501.
Diastole, 502 a, Obs. 1.
dico, “I mean,” without influence on the
Case, 219, Obs. 3. Dico to say to a person,
that he is to —, 372. Dico, omitted, 479;
dicere, 479 d, Obs. 4.
differre alicui, 247 b, Obs. 3.
dignus qui, 333; dignus legi, 363, Obs. 1;
dignum dictu, 412, Obs. 2.
dimidius quam, 444 b.
Diminutives, their Formation, 182; of Adjec-
tives, 188, 15, Obs. 2; from Comparatives,
63, Obs. ; Diminutive Werbs, 197, 5.
Dipodia, 499, Obs. 1.
Diphthongs, 5 b.
dis, 204 (Obs. 1). Adjectives and Werbs com-
pounded with, which take a Dative (in the
poets), 247 b, Obs 3.
discessu (Caesaris), at (Caesar's) departure,
276, Obs. 2.
Disjunctive Conjunctions, 436.
Distich, 504. Combinations in this form, 509,
Obs. 2. -
distinctus, “studded,” 260 a.
Distributive Numbers, 69, 75; when employed,
76. In the Sing. (in the poets), 76 d. Obs.
Genitive Plural, 87, Obs. 4. Adjectives de-
rived from them, 187, 10.
diversus alicui (in the poets), 247 b, Obs. 3.
dives, dis, 60 c, Obs. 1.
do (minist, 0) bibere, 422, Obs. 1; do (reduu)
loqvi, 390, Obs. 6; datur mihi cernere, ib.
docere, doceri, its Construction, 228 a,
docere aligvem Graece (scire, oblivisci Graece),
228 a, Obs.
domus, declension, 46. Domi (domui), 296 b.
Domum, 233. Domo, 275. (Domum suam,
Pompeji, domum ad Pomp., 233.)
donec, dum, with the Perf. Indic., 338 b,
, Obs. 5; with the Indic. and the Subj, 860,
Obs. 2. -
dubito, non dubito, quin; non dubito, with
an Accus. with the Infin. ; non dubito facere,
375 c (Obs. 1 and 2). Dubito an, 453.
duim, 115 d.
dum, see donec, Dum, while, with the Pres.,
336, Obs. 2, and (in the poets and later
writers), with the Indic., where the Subj.
might have been expected, 869, Obs. 8. Dum,
donec, with the Perf., 338, Obs. 5. Erspecto,
opperior dum, 839, Obs, 2 b, 360, Obs. 1.
Dum, dummodo, dum me, 351 b, Obs. 2.
With Negations (nondum, &c.), 462 a.
e and i permuted, 5 c.
e and a in the Nom. of Greek words, 35, Obs.
1. Eand iin the Abl. of the Third Declension,
42, 3.
ecce, en, 236, Obs. 3.
eccum, eccam, 83, Obs. 2.
ecqvid, as an Interrog. Particle, 451 b, Obs.
Ecthlipsis, 8. -
edim, 115 d.
egeo, indigeo, with the Abl, and Gen., 261
a, Obs. ; 295, Obs. 3.
egenus, egentior, 65, 1, Obs.
et expressed in Latin by é and i, 5 b, Obs. 2.
Elision, 6.
Ellipsis, 207, Obs. ; of the Werb, 479; in every-
day, familiar discourse, 479 d.
ellum, ellam, 88, Obs. 1.
en, 236, Obs. 3.
enim, for “namely,” 435, Obs. 4; referring
to ille, hic, 439, Obs. 2. In answers, yes (no),
for, 454, Obs. 2.
ens, 108, Obs. 1.
eo (hoc)— quo, 270, Obs. 1.
eo (hoc), on that account, 257, Obs. 3.
eo (huc) dementiae, 284, Obs. 9; eo loci, 284,
Obs. 11.
Epicoena, 30 a.
Epistolary style, Tenses usedin, 345.
eqviden, 489 b.
er, Latin Termination for the Greek poc, 88, 1,
Obs. Adjectives in er which follow the Third
Decl., 59.
eram, in conditional language instead of essem,
348 c, Obs. and d.
ergo, as a preposition with a Genitive, 172,
Obs. 5. - -
ergo, an Adverb. its position, 471. In resum-
ing a discourse which has been interrupted,
480.
es, Greek nouns in, 35, Obs. 8. Greek Proper
Names in es declined, 85, Obs. 4; 45, 2, d;
as, Greek Nom. Plu., 45, 5.
es and is used indifferently in the Nom. of
some words, 41 (p. 86).
escit, esit, 108, Obs. 4.
esse, to exist, to be, 209 b, Obs. 2. With an
Adverb instead of the Predicative Noun (sic
sum), ib. Esse pro hoste, ib. With the dative,
246. Est mihi volenti, ib., Obs. 3. Esse odio,
curae, &c.,249; esse solvendo, oneri ferendo,
415, Obs. 1. Esse conservandae libertatis,
4.17, Obs. 4. Esse, manere, with the Abl,
INDEX.
491
without in, 272, Obs. 2. Est meum (alicufus)
facere, 282. Est in eo, ut faciam, 343, Obs.
Est cur, qvamobrem, qvare, 372 b, Obs. 6.
Est qui, 365.
et and qwe, 433. Et for etiam, ib. Obs. 1; for
a Comparative Conjunction, 444 b, Obs. 3.
Et—et broken off, 480, Obs. 1. Et — que,
. 435, Obs. 1. Et — neqve, neqve — et, 458 c.
Et non, et memo (used rarely for megve, megue
qvisqvam), 458 a., Obs. 1; et mon, “and not
much rather,” ib. Et harshly made to co-
alesce with mon, 458 a., Obs. 2. Et — et mon,
458 c, Obs. 1. Et is, “and that,” 484 c. Et
ipse, “likewise,” 487 a, Obs. 2.
etiam, “yes,” 454; its Position in the Sen-
tence, 471.
etiamsi, 361, Obs. 2.
etsi, 861, Obs. 2. Etsi, tametsi, used to annex
a remark, 443,
Etymology, 175, Obs. 3.
ex facili-facile, 301 b, Obs. 3.
ex, Partitive, 284, Obs. 1; eac eo genere, qvt
(plur.), ex eo numero, qvi (plur.), 317 c.
eu, Diphthong, 5 b.
evado, 221, note.
eus, Greek termination, 38, 3.
excusare morbum, 223 b : aligvid and se
de aligva re, ib.
exosus, 161, Obs.
exspecto, dum, 839, Obs. 2; 360, Obs. 1;
eacspecto ut, ib.
facere, its Compounds, 143. Accentuation
of its Compounds, 23, Obs. 1. Facere as the
last part of the Compound, 204; 206 b 1, Obs
2. Qvid facies huic * hoc * de hoc & 241, Obs.
5; 267, and Obs. Facere with a Gen. of
Price, 294, and Obs. 1. Facere aliqvid alicu-
jus, 281; aliqvid suae dicionis, sui arbitrii,
ib., Obs. Facio aliqvern log venterm and logvi,
facio te videre, 372 b, Obs. 5. Facere non
possum, 375 c. Facio omitted, 479 c. Facere
wt, Periphrastic, 481 b. Fac cogites, 372 b,
Obs. 4. Fac, “suppose,” ib., Obs. 5.
facilis ad legendum for lectu, 412, Obs.
3 (in the poets facilis legi). *
familias, old Genitive, 34, Obs. 2.
familiaris, familiarissimus, alicui and
alicujus, 247 b, Obs. 1.
fas, nefas dictu, 412, Obs. 1.
faxo, faxim, 115 f.
Feet, see Verbal, Verse.
feriatus, 146, 2, Obs. 1.
fidere, confidere, diffidere, their con-
struction, 244, 264, Obs. -
fieri. Qvid fiet huic P hoc P de hoc P
241, Obs. 5; 267. Fieri alicuſus, 281.
- Figures of Speech, 207, Obs.
filius, omitted, 280, Obs. 4.
fore, forem, 108, Obs. 3. Forem, 377, Obs.
2. Fore, ut, 410. Fore with the Part. Perf.,
410, Obs. 2.
forsitan, with the Subj., 350 b, Obs. 3.
Fractions, mode of expressing, Suppl. II. B.
Frequentatives, of two kinds, 195.
fretus, 268 c, and note.
frustra esse, 209 b, Obs. 2.
fuam, 108, Obs. 4.
fuit aeqvum, utilius, &c., 348 e, Obs.
fueram for eram, 338, Obs. 6; 342, Ob3. ; 344,
Obs. 1.
Future, old. in so, 115 f.
FUTUBE (simple) in the Indic , 339; in Subord.
Prop., ib., Obs. 1 (compare 340, Oos. 1).
Future (Simple and Perfect), 340, Obs. 1.
Fut. in praesenti (facturus sum), 3:1; in
praeterito, 342; in futuro, 343. Fut. Iudic.
of the Second Person instead of the Imper.,
884, Obs. Fut. Subj. often not expressed,
378 as Periphrastically, 378 b. Fut. in praet.
in the Subj., 381.
Futurum eacactum, 340 (Obs. 1); in the Lead-
ing and Subordinate Proposition at the same
time, ib., Obs. 2; approaching insignification
to the Simple Future, ib., Obs. 4 (odero,
meminero, 161). Fut. Exact. in the Subj.,
879; as a Dubitative and Hypothetical Future,
380 (Obs.); in Prohibitions with me, 383.
futurum esse, ut, 410; futurum, ſuisse,
wt, 409.
Gender, 27; different in the Sing. and Plur.,
57. Gender of the Predicate where there are
several Subjects, 214.
GENITIVE in i in Proper Names of the Third
Declension, 42, 2; is wanting in the Plur. of
some words of the Third Declension, 44 c,
Obs. 2, and e, Obs. ; Gen. Plur. in um instead
of arum, orum, 34, Obs. 3; 37, Obs. 4; in
orum for um, 44, 2; Greek Gen. in os, 45, 3;
in its from words in o, ib. ; in on in the Plur.,
38 and 45, 7; in i in the Fourth Declension,
46, Obs. 2. Signification of the Genitive
Case, 279 and Obs. Gen. Possessive and Con-
junctive, 280; with the force of an Adjective,
280, Obs. 1; with the omission of the govern-
ing Substantive, to be supplied from a preced-
ing clause of the sentence, Obs. 2. Irregu-
larities thence arising, ib.; with the omission
of wator, filius, Obs. 4. Ambiguous, injuria
sociorum, Obs. 5; Genitive Possessive with
sum, fio, facio, 381; with sum in the signifi-
cation, “to be suitable, proper,” 282; Gen.
Objective with Substantives, 283; used for the
492
INDEX.
Adverbs in, erga, adversus, ib., Obs. 2; not
merely used instead of the Accus. with Werbs,
ib., Obs. 3; connected with the governing
Substantive by sum, ib., Obs. 4. Partitive,
284 (after Adjectives in the Neuter, Obs. 5;.
not to be employed in certain cases, Obs. 7;
with Pronominal Adverbs of Place, hue de-
mentiae, Obs. 9; the Genitives loci, locorum,
terrarum, Obs. 10). Genitivus generis, 285 a.
(sestertii bini accessionis, Obs.); with Adjec-
tives of Quantity and Neuter Pronouns, 285.
b; with satis, abunde, &c., 285 c. Genitivus
eperegeticus, 286 (instead of an Apposition
Obss. 1, 2; with sum for the Nom. of a Pre-
dicate Noun, Obs. 3); of quality, 287 (distin-
guished from the Ablative of Quality, Obs. 2;
with a Proper Name, Obs. 3). Several Geni-
tives dependent on one Substantive, 288.
Objective with Adjectives, 289,290 (signifying
“with respect to,” 290 g). With Verbs, 291–
3. Of Price, 294. Genitive with interest and
refert, 295; with impleo, egeo, ib., Obs. 3.
Of the names of Towns of the First and Sec-
cond Declension in answer to the question
where, 296 a. Genitive in Apposition to a
Possessive Pronoun, 297 a. Genitive of the
Gerund, 417. Gen. according to the Greek
Idiom instead of the Abl., 262, Obs. 4. Posi-
tion of the Genitive, 466; Gen. separated
from the governing Noun, 467 c. \
gentilicia nomina, 190.
gentium,284, Obs. 10.
Genus, see Gender. -
GERUND and GERUNDIVE, 99, The Gerund
as a case of the Infinitive, 413. Used indiffer-
ently in the place of the Gerundive (of Transi-
tive Werbs), ib., and Obs. 1. Gerund retained
in the Gen. with a Subst. in the Gen. Plural
(agrorum condonandi), 413, Obs. 2. —Accu-
sative of the Gerund (or Gerundive), 414 b
(with ad instead of the Second Supine, 412,
Obs. 3). —Dative 415 (to signify a Purpose,
Obs. 2); Abl., 416 (of the Way and Manner,
Obs. 1; with what Prepositions not to be
employed, Obs. 2 and 3). Gen., 417 (used
indiscriminately with the simple Infinitive,
Obs. 2; with the omission of the word causa,
Obs. 5). Gerund (in the Abl, and Gen.) ap-
parently Passive, 418.
GERUNDIve for the Gerund, 418. With sum ||
and alone to signify a thing that is to be done,
ticable, Obs.). Ger. of Intransitive Verbs
used Inpers. in the Neuter, 421 a ; in the
older writers occasionally that of Trans. Verbs
also with the Accus, ib, b. Gerundive of
utor, fruor, ib a, Obs. 2. Gerundive with
the object of certain Verbs (do, suscipio, ali-
qvid faciendum),422; with habeo, ib., Obs. 3.
gratiâ, 257. &
Greek Nouns with Greek forms retained in
Latin, 83, Obs. 3, and under the Several De-
clensions. -
HI, its pronunciation, 9.
habere, with a word in apposition to the Ob-
ject (mostly in the Passive, habeor justus), 227
c, Obs. 1; pro hoste, in hostium numero,
parentis loco, in parentis loco, ib. Habere,
mom (nihil) habere, qvod (ubi), 368. Non habere,
qvid, 363, Obs. 2. Habere perspectum, 427.
Habere aedem tuendam, 422, Obs. 3. Habeo
dicere, ib. -
Half-Deponents, 110, Obs. 2.
haud, 455. Haud scio an 453.
heimihi, 236, Obs. 2.
Hendiadys, 481 a.
Heteroclita, heterogenea, 56, Obs.
Hexameter, 503.
Hiatus, 6; where tolerated, 502 b.
hic, 485-(hic, qvi, ib. c.; hic ethic, hic et ille
Obs.). In Notices of Time, 276, Obs. 5. Hoc
praemii, 285 b. Hujus non facio, 294, Obs.
1. Hoc populo, “with such a people,” 277,
Obs. 2.
Hispanus, Hispaniensis, 192.
hoc, “on this account,” 257, Obs. 3.
hospes, as an Adjective, hospita, 60, Obs. 2.
humo, ab humo, 275; humi, 296 b.
Hypothetical Propositions, see Conditional.
I, where a Consonant (j), 5 a., Obs. 2; changed
to a Consonant (abjes), 5 a., Obs. 4. I and e
interchanged, 5 c. I a Connecting. Vowel, 176
c, 205 a. -
lambus, 499. Iambie Verses, 507.
jamdiu, jamdudum with the present, 334,
Obs.
ibam, in the Imperf. for iebam, ibo in the
future for iam, 115 c.
fictus femur, 237 c. Obs. 1.
: Ictus metricus an erroneous idea, 498, note.
id aetatis, temporis, id generis for ejus gen-
eris, 238. Id quod, 315 b.
idem qvi, iden ac, 324 b. Idem with the
Dative, 247 b, Obs. 8. Idem, likewise (on the.
other hand), 488.
idoneus qvi, 363; idoneus dare, ib., Obs.
420 (with a Negation to denote what is prac- | 1. *
idus, Suppl. I. p. 479.
ier, old termination of the Infinitive, 115 a.
igitur, its position, 471. On resuming a dis-
course which has been broken off, 480.
ignoscere festinationi alicujus, 244, a., n.
INDEX.
493
ille and hic, 485. In notices of Time, 276,
Obs. 5. Referring to what follows, 485 b.
Ille et ille, 485 c, Obs.
im, a personal termination of Werbs, 115 d.
imo, imo vero, 454.
impedio, its construction, 375 a (Obs. 2) and
b.
IMPERATIVE, old in mino, 115 e. Pres. and
Fut., 384. Expressed by a Subjunctive, 385.
How expressed in the oratio obliqua, 404.
IMPERFECT, 337. Of a thing which was on the
point of happening, 337, Obs. 348 b. Imperf.
Subj. irregularly employed after a Present in
the Leading Proposition, 382, Obs. 2; Perfect
to be used in Dependent Questions after a
Present, ib., Obs. 4. Imperf. Subj. in Sub-
ordinate Propositions, where the Present is
made use of in English, 883. Imperf, and
Pluperf. Subj. interchanged in Conditional
Propositions, 347 b, Obs. 2.
impero hoc fieri, imperor duct in carcerem,
396, and Obs. 3.
IMPERSONAL VERBS, 165 seq ; compare, 218
b. Employed Personally, 218 a, Obs. 1. In-
transitive Verbs used Impersonally in the
Passive, 95, Obs. 218 c, 244 b. Impersonal
Construction, 218.
implere, complere, with the Gen. and
Abl., 259 a., Obs. ; 295, Obs. 3.
in a Negative Particle in compound words, 204,
Obs. 2.
in a Preposition with the Accus. and Abl., 230
and Obss. With an Ahlative of Time, 276,
Obs. 1 and 3 (“within,” Obs. 4). In diebus
(or simply diebus) decem; qºribus, 276, Obs. 4. |
In die, “a day,” (bis in die), 276, Obs. 3. In
Partitive, 284, Obs. 1. Verbs compounded
with it with the Accus. or the Prep. repeated,
224 b, Obs. 2; with the Dat. or the Prep. (in- ||
cidere in aes and aeri inesse in, inesse rei)
243, and Obs. 3; 245 b, Obs. 1.
incessit timor, 138 (incesso).
Inchoatives, 141, 196.
Indeclinable Substantives, 54.
INDICATIvº, 331. In Hypothetical Proposi-
tions for the Subjunctive, 348; of a thing
which would be a duty, which ought to have
been done, 348 e, and Obs. With si and ut in
Protestations, 348 e, Obs. 3. With Indefinite
Relatives, 362. Used by way of Exception
and where the Subjunctive might have been
expected, 356, Obs. 3 (in Dependent Interro-
gative Propositions), 360. Obs. 3 (antequam),
368, Obs. 369, Obs. 1, 2, and 3 (in Subordinate
Propositions, which express the idea of a third
party).
induor, with the Accus., 287 a.
INFINITIVE, its signification, 387. As a Sub-
ject, 388 a, with the Obs. (rarely in Apposi-
tion to a Substantive, 388 b, Obs. 1). After
Verbs and Phrases, 389 (used indifferently
with ut, Obs. 1; with 7 aratus and the like,
Obs. 3; employed indiscriminately with the
Accus with the Infin., Obs 4). After doceo,
jubeo, prohibéo, &c. (after jubeor, &c.), 390;
in the Poets after various Verbs, Obs. 4 (after
Verbs which govern the Dative, svadeo, &c.,
Obs 5). With interest, inter, 391, Obs. In-
finitive Historical, 392. Simple Infin. (Nom.
with the Infin.) with verba declarandi and
sentiemdi in the Passive, with jubeor, videor,
&c., 400 (in suspicionem venio fecisse, ib. c,
Obs.); changed to the Accus. with the Infin.,
400 d. Simple Infin. for the Accus. with the
Infin. in the poets, 401, Obs. 3. Infinitive
instead of the Supine, or instead of the
Gerund in the Genitive or with ad, 411, Obs.
2; 412, Obs. 3; 417, Obs. 2; 419; instead of
the Gerundive with do, &c., 422, Obs. 1.
Cases with the Infinitive, 388 b, 393. The In-
finitive understood from a Werb of another
form, 478, Obs. 3.
INFINITIVE, Accusative with the. Its Signi-
fication, 394 (222, Obs 1, 387, Obs.). With
verba declaramdi and sentiemdi, after. Phrases
and Substantives, 395 (372, Obs. 5); in appo-
sition to a Pronoun, 395, Obs. 1; after mitto,
&c., Obs. 2; with spero, promitto, Obs. 3;
previously pointed to by a Pronoun, or sic,
ita, 395, Obs. 6. With verba voluntatis, 396
(372 b, Obs. 2, 389, Obs. 4; with licet, 389,
Obs. 5; in the later writers with permitto,
oro, &c. 396,-Obs. 1). With verba affectuum,
379 (used indifferently with quod). In uni-
versal judgments concerning a Relation, 398,
a (373, Obs. 2). How distinguished from a
proposition with quod, 398 b, and Obs. 1. In
Exclamations, 899. Accus. with the Infin.,
or Simple Infin. (Nom. with the Infin.) with
the Passive of verba declarandi and sentiemdi,
400. Accus. with the Infin. in Relative Prop-
ositions, 402 a, b, in Propositions with quam,
402 c. Accus. with the Infin. after a general
intimation of the purport of a speech or ar-
gument, 403. In Questions in the orat. obliq.,
405. With the omission of the Reflective
Pronoun as a Subject, 401 (of a Pronoun that
is not Reflective, Obs. 2). Accus. with the
Infin. Passive and a Simple Infin. combined,
398 a, Obs. 3. Position of the Accus. with
the Infin. and Combination with the Leading
Proposition, 476 d.
Infinitive, its Tenses, 406.
infit, 162 c.
494
INDEX.
Inflectiom, 25, with the Obs.
iniqvi mei, 247 b, Obs. 1.
inqvam on returning to the subject of the
discourse, 480. Inqvit, omitted, 479 b.
instar with the Genitive, 280, Obs. 6.
inter, Partitive, 284, Obs. 1; repeated, 470,
Obs. 2. Inter with the Gerund, 414 b. Inter
tot annos, 276, Obs. 5, note. Inter se = se,
sibi inter se, 490 c, Obs. 6.
interdico, 261 b. -
interest, 295.
Interjectiom, 24, 7.
interrogare aliqvem ambitus, 293, Obs.
1. Interrogare, with two Accusatives, 228 b,
Obs. 1.
intervallo (spatio) 234 b, Obs.
Intransitive Verbs assume a Transitive Signi-
fication, 223 e (Obs. 3); with an Accus. of
the same stem, ib., Obs. 4; become Transitive
by being compounded with Prepositions, 224.
invidere alicui aliqvid or aliqva re, imvidere
fortunae alicujus, 261 b, and Obs. 1. Invid-
eor, 244, Obs. 4. ę
io, Verbs in, which follow the Third Conjuga-
tion, 100 c, Obs. 102, Obs. 2.
ipse, without is, 487 a ; ipse, signifying ** ex-
actly,” ib., Obs. 1. Et ipse, ib. a, Obs. 2.
Ipse drawm to the Subject or to some other
case, ib. b ; suis ipsi scriptis, ib. Ipse for se
ipsum, 490 c, Obs. 4. Nunc ipsum, tum ip-
sum, 487 a, Obs. l.
ire ultum, perditum, 411, Obs. 1.
is omitted and inserted, 484 a. Et is (atque is),
et is qvidem, 484 c. Is, qvicunqve, and is,
si qvis, ib. b. Is, ejus, instead of se, suus,
490 c, Obs. 3.
Islands, the names of larger Islands, some-
times constructed like the names of Towns,
232, Obs. 3, 296 a, Obs. 1.
iste, 486.
ita and sic, 201, 5; ita sum, 209 b, Obs. 2. Ita
si, 442 a, Ita ut, 444 a, Obs. 3 (ita me di
* amemt, ut). Ita ** yes,** 454.
jubeo te facere, (ut facias) 390, and Obs. 2;
jubeo facere (without a person), ib., Obs. 8;
jubeo hoc fieri, ib., Obs. 8, and 396 (Obs. 3).
Jubeor creari, ib., Obs. 3; jabeo and curo
often omitted (facio for jubeo fieri), 481 a,
Obs. 1. -
judicatus pecuniae, 293, Obs. 1.
junctus, with the Dative, 243, Obs. 4.
ius, a termination of the Genitive, 87, Obs. 2.
juvenis as an Adjective, 60 c, Obs. 4.
JK, 8.
.-*
I, and r interchanged, 179, 8, Obs. 1 (clum,
crum; bulum, brum), 180, 5 (al, ar), 187, 6
(alis. aris).
Leading Proposition, 825; entirely or partially
introduced into the Subordinate Proposition,
476 d.
Letters, their Division, 4 seq. Gender of their
Names, 81; their Names Indeclinable, 54,
Obs. 1.
libens, 167, Obs.
libro and in libro, 273 b, Obs. 1.
Ilicet mihi esse civi (rarely civem), 393, and c,
Obs. l ; licet esse civem, ib.; licet me esse
civem, 389, Obs. 5. Licet as a conjunction,
861, and Obs. 1.
licent, licems, 218 a, Obs. 2.
Liquids, 7.
loci, locorum, with Adverbs of Place, 284,
Obs. 10 Interea, postea loci, adhuc locorum,
ib. Eo loci for eo loco, ib., Obs. 11.
loco, 273 b, and Obs. 1.
Logaoedic Verses, 508.
IMI, its pronunciatiom, 8.
macte, 268 a, Obs. 3.
magis omitted or redundant, 308, Obs. 2.
IMagis and plus, 305 b, Obs. 2. Non magis
(mom — magis) qvam, ib. -
major, minor, matus, how constructed,
306, Obs. (distinet, from major matu).
malim, mallem, 850 b, Obs. 1.
mane, 54.
manere with the Accus. and Dat., 223 c, and
note.
materia, materies, 56, 3.
materialiter, words so employed, 31 ; when
inflected, 219 c, Obs. 4.
medius, medio, in media, urbe, 278 b,
811. Medius with a Partitive Genitive, ib.,
Obs. IMedius eo, 800 b.
mei, tui, sui, as Objective Genitives, 297 b;
as Partitive, 297 c.
memini with the Gen. and Accus., 291, and
Obs. 1. With the Pres. of the Infin. (memini
puer), 408 b, Obs. 2. s.
mereo, mereor, 148, 0b8. and note. Mereo
fieri amd ut fiam, 389, Obs. 1.
met, an Affix, 79, Obs. 2; 85, Obs. ; 92, Obs. l.
metrum, 497 ; metre, 509.
militiæ, 296 b.
mille, millia, 72.
Million, how expressed in Iatin, 73.
minari alicui mortem, alicui baculo, 242,
Obs. 1.
mimor natus, 806, Obs. -
minus with and without qvam, 305.
miseret, misereor, miseror, 166.
INDEX.
495
mitto ad aliqvem ut—, mitto ad aligvem opus
esse, 372 a ; 395, Obs. 2.
Mobilia substantiva, 181.
moderari with the Accus. and the Dat., 244 b,
Obs. 1.
Modi, 96, 329.
Modi, compounds of (ejusmodi, &c.), 287,
Obs. 1.
modo (dummodo), modo ut, modo me, 351 b,
Obs. 2. Modo non, 462 a.
Money, Computation of, Suppl. II.
Monoptota, diptota, &c., 55.
Months, Names of, 28 a, in er, 59, Obs. 2 (com-
pare Suppl. I.).
Moods, see Modi.
moris est, 282, Obs. 2.
Mountains, Names of, as plur. tantum, 51 g.
moveri Cyclopa, 237 a, Obs.
Multiplication expressed by Distributives, 76 b.
multus (multa tabella), 65, 2, Obs. Multi et
graves for multi graves, 300, Obs. 5.
multum utor, 305 c, Obs. 2. Multo with
the superlative, 310, Obs. 2.
mutare, commutare permutare aliqvid aliqvo
(cum aliquo), 259, Obs. 2.
* Namely " not expressed, 435, Obs. 4.
Names of Ships and Dramatic Compositions
used as Feminines, 31, Obs. Proper Name,
one that is common to two or more in the
Plural, those which are not common being
in the Singular, 214 d, Obs. 2. Proper Names
not to be combined with all adjectives, 300 c,
Obs. 4. Plural of Proper Names, 50, Obs.
4.
National Names, 190, 191. Used as Adjectives,
191. For the Names of Countries, 192,
Obs. 2.
natu, 55, 4; (grandis) major, 306, Obs.
natus (annos) 234 c. Compared, 306, Obs.
ne as a negative in compound words, 204,
Obs. 3.
ne, a Negative Particle, 456 (Ne quis, that no
one, ib.; ut me, ib. ; me tamen, Obs. 4). In
Wishes, 351 b, Obs. 1; in Prohibitions, 386.
Ne and ut me in Object-clauses (354), 872 b,
375 a (omitted, cave putes, Obs. 1), 376 (with
verba timendi). Ne mon, ib. Ut understood
from it, 462 b. Ne-qvidem, 457; after a
Negation, 460, Obs. 2.
– me, Enclitic Interrogative Particle abbrevi-
ated (viden'), 6, Obs. 2. How used, 451 a,
in Disjunctive Interrogations, 452.
necesse est with the Subjunctive (with or
without ut) or the Infin., 873, Obs. l.
necrle, 452.
nedum, 855, 461, Obs. 8.
negare, dicere to be understood from it in
the second clause, 462 b (compare 403 a,
Obs. 2).
Negation, Particles of, 455 seq. Negation con-
tinued by aut or ve, 458 c, Obs 2. Two
Negations constitute an Affirmation, 460; in
what cases this does not hold good, Obs. 2.
Position of the Negative, 468.
Negative answers, 454.
nemo, without a Gen. in use (abl.), 91.
Nemo scriptor, Gallus, doctus, ib., Obs. ;
301 a, Obs. Nemo mon, 460. An affirma-
tive subject understood from memo, 462 b.
nempe, 435 a., Obs. 4.
neqve (nec), 458 (neqve gvfsqvam, &c.), put
instead of et and mon, not belonging to the
copula, ib. a, Obs. 2; with enim tamen, vero,
ib. b, where “and” is made use of in Eng-
lish, ib. c, Obs. 2; instead of me — quidem,
457, Obs ; new, 459, Obs. Neque— neqve
broken off,480, Obs. Neqve — et, 458 c. Neque
— aut, ib., Obs. 2. Number of the Predicate
with Subjects which are connected by megwe
— neqve, 213 b. Obs. 1. Nec mon, 460, Obs. 1.
(Neqve haud, ib., Obs. 2, note.)
nescio an, 453. Nescio meque — megve, 460,
Obs. 2. Nescio quis, mescio quomodo, &c.,
356, Obs. 3.
neve neu, 459.
Neuter Plural, not formed from all adjectives,
60 c. Neuter of the Predicate with a different
Gender of the Subject, 211 b, Obs. 1; with
several Subjects of different Gender, 214 b,
of the same Gender, ib. c.
ni, 442 c.
nihil for mon, 455, Obs. 4. Nihil aliud quam,
479, Obs. 5; si nihil aliud, ib. Nihil ad me,
ib. d, Obs. 1. Nihil mon, 460. "Nihil ad-
modum, 462 a. Nihili, nihilo, how used,
494 b, Obs. 3.
nisi and si mon, 442 c. Nisi forte, misi vero,
ib., Obs. 1; misi after negatives (nemo misi),
Obs. 2; introducing an exception, Obs. 3;
nisi quod, ib. Nihil (qvid) aliud misi, 444 b,
Obs. 1.
noli, nolito in prohibitions, 386, Obs. 2.
nomen mihiest Mercurio, Mercurius, Mercurii,
246, Obs. 2. Obsidum nomine, 258, Obs. 5.
Noun forms of the Werb, 99. *
NOMINATIVE instead of the Wocative, 299,
Obs. 1; in Apposition to the Vocative, b,
Obs. 2. Nom. with the Infin., 400 (401, Obs.
3); a Nom. without a Werb, 479 d, Obs. 2.
non instead of me, 456, Obs. 2. Non possum
mon, 455, Obs. 3. Non modo, non tantum,
mon solum, 461 a mon modo, non solum —
sed ºne-qvidem (sed viz), non modo non -
496
INDEX.
sed me — quidem, ib. b : non modo—sed me
—qvident for non modo mon, ib. (mon modo,
sed omnino mon, Obs. 1); non modo = non
dico, ib., Obs. 2: non modo, “much less,”
ib., Obs. 3. Non ita, non item, nondum
necdum, 462 a. Non quo and non quin, 357
b. Obs. Non, si — ideirco, 442 a., Obs. 3.
nonne, 45.1 c.
nonnemo, 493 c, Obs.
nonae, Suppl. L.
nos, noster, for ego, meus, 483.
nostrum, vestrum, as Partitive Genitives,
297 cº, as Possessive Genitives with omnium,
ib a, Obs. ; as Objective, ib. c, Obs.
nudiustertius, nudiusqvartus, 202, Obs.
nullus in the Gen. and Abl. for memo, 91.
Nullius, nullo (rarely) for nullius rei, nulla re.
494 b, Obs. 3. Nullus for mon, 455, Obs. 5;
nulla rheda, “without a carriage,” 258.
num, numne, numqvid, 451 b.
Number of the Predicate with several Subjects,
213; Peculiarities of Numbers of Substan-
tives, 5). See Singular, Plural.
Numeral Adverbs, 199; in um and o, ib., Obs.
2. With sestertium, Suppl II.
Numeral Signs, 70, and Obs. 2.
Numerals, 24, 2, Obs. Their Classification, 69.
nuptum dare, 411, Obs. 1.
O and u related, 5 c.; o instead of it after v, 5
a, Obs 3.
O Interjection with the Accus. or Woc., 236,
Óbs. 1. O, si—, 351 b, Obs. 1.
obequitare with the Accus. or Dat., 224 a,
Obs. 1.
Object, 210 a, 222, and Obs. 1.
Object Clauses, with ut and other Particles,
371 seq.
Oceanus, mare Oceanum, 191, Obs. i.
oe, for the Greek Nom. termination ot, 88, 1.
oleo with the Accus., 223, Obs. 2.
ollus, 82, Obs. 1.
on, a Greek termination of the Genitive, 88, 1,
45, 7.
on, Nominative termination of Greek Proper
Names, and o, 45, 1.
operatus, 146, Obs. 1.
oportet with the Subj. (with or without ut)
or the Infin., 373, Obs. 1; oportet hoc fieri,
398 a., Obs. 2. Oportebat, oportuit, oportue-
rat, of a thing which would have been proper
in a certain case, or which should have been
done, 348 c, and Obs. Oportuit factum, 407,
Obs. 1.
opto, ut fiam and fieri, 389, Obs. 1.
opus est, 266 (Hirtium convenire, Hirtium
conveniri, Hiriio convento, Obs.).
ORATIo obliqva, 369, 403; continuous,
403 b.
Ordinal Numbers, 69, 74; with quisqve, 74,
Obs. 2. Adjectives formed from them, 187,9.
oriundus, 151 (orior).
Orthography, Roman, unsettled, 12.
ortus aliqvo and ab aliqvo, 269, Obs.
orum, termination of the Genitive, for um,
44, 2.
os and or in the Nom. of some words, 41 (p.
38).
Ös, a Greek termination of the Genitive, 45, 3.
Ös, Greek Nom. of the Second Declension, 38,
Obs. 2.
ovans, 164, Obs.
pace alicujus, 258, Obs. 5.
paene, prope, with the Perf. Indic., 348 e,
Ohs. 1.
Paeon, 499.
par, Ablat., 42 b, Obs. Paralicui and alicujus,
247 b, Obs. 1.
paratus with the Infin., 389, Obs. 3.
Parisyllaba in es and is, 40 c, Obs. 1.
pars—pars with the Plur. of the Predicate,
215 a. Partem (magnam partem), 237 c,
Obs. 3. Partibus without in, 273 b, Obs. 1.
PARTICIPLEs, 99. Compared, 62; in bundus,
115 g. Formed from some Impersonal Verbs,
167, Obs. How used, 423, 424 (to denote a
circumstance). Participle governing a Rela-
tive or Interrogative Pronoun, 425, Obs. 3;
with nisi, qvanqvam, &c., instead of a whole
Proposition, ib., Obs 4 (428, Obs. 2).
ticiple used as a Substantive, 424 a ; as an
Adjective, 424 b. Participles in Ablatives
Absolute, 428. Ablatives of a Participle alone,
429. Participles used together with other
ways of denoting circumstances, 430. Par-
ticiples with a Predicate Noun (judicatus
hostis), 227 c, Obs. 4. Relation of the Parti.
ciple to the Leading Werb in respect of Time,
431 a. -
Participle Fut. irregularly formed in some
Verbs, 106, Obs. 2. Not used as an Adjective,
424 b, Obs. Limited employment of it by
the older writers, 425, Obs. 5, 424; rare in
Ablative Absolute, 428, Obs. 3. With sum,
341; fui, eram, 342, 348 a ero, 343; fuerim,
381; fuisse, 409.
Participle Perf of some Intrans. Verbs, 110,
Obs. 3: of Deponents with a Passive significa-
tion, 153. With an Accus. (in the poets),
237 b. With fui as a Perfect to express a
Condition, 344. In the Neuter as a Substan-
tive (bonam factum, bene factum), 424 c.
With a Substantive (rez interfectus) denotes
A Par- y
.
INDEX. 497
substantively the Action performed (caedes
regis), 426. A Neuter Part, put alone in
this signification, 426, Obs. 1. With habeo,
427, Part. Perf. of Deponents with the sig-
nification of a Present, 431 b. That of
other Werbs rarely so used, ib., Obs. Part.
Perf, in Ablatives Absolute of a circumstance
that accompanies or follows the action, ib.,
Obs. 2. -
Participle present as an Adjective with the Gemi-
tive, 289 a.
Particles, 24, 6, Obs.
partim with the Gen., 284, Obs. 4.
pascens, Particle of pasco and of pascor, 111,
Obs.
PASSIVE, not formed from all Werbs which may
have an Accus., 223 c, Obs. 1; 224 c. Obs.
Rare from Verbs which govern the Dative,
244, Obs 4. In some Verbs with a new Active
signification, 237 a. Used with a Reflective
signification, 222, Obs. 3. Passive of some
Verbs followed by an Infin. Passive (qvitus
sum, neqvitur), 159, Obs. 2; see coeptus
Słęż72.
paterfamilias, 34, Obs. 2.
Patronymics, 183.
pensi nihil habere, 285 b, Obs. 2.
Pentameter, 504 b.
per prefixed to Adjectives with an Intensive
signification, 68 c, Obs. (Timesis, 203, Obs.)
per, Preposition to express the duration of :
Time, 235. Per vim, simulationem, per
causam remigum exercendorum, 258, Obs. 2 .
Per me licet, potes, 256, Obs. 1.
perdo, in the Passive usually pereo (except
perditus), 133, Do Obs.
PERFECT, its Formation, 103 Syncope and
Contraction, 113 a. Irregular with respect
to the Present, 117, seq. Historical, 335 a 5
definite, ib. b. Of actions which are repeated,
with quum, &c., ib. b, Obs. 1. Used in the
poets of a thing which usually happens, ib.,
Obs 3. With postgvam, &c., 338 by with
antequam, &c., ib , Obs. 5. Perfect of a
Condition in the Passive with fui, 344. Perf.
Subj, sometimes used instead of the Imperf.
with ut, qvin, 382, Obs. 3. In Subordinate
Propositions with an Accus. with the Infin.,
382. Perf. Subj. in the Passive in Prohibi-
tions with me, 386. Perf. Inf, of a Completed
Action (poteras diarisse) with satis est, poemi-
tebit, &c., 407 (with oportuit, &c., Obs. 1); as
a Pluperf. after a Preterite, 408 b; instead of
the Present in the poets, 407, Obs. 2; formed .
with fuisse in the Passive, 408 a. Present
and Perfect Infin. with memini,408 b, Obs. 2.
periculo alicujus, at any one's peril, 258,
Obs. 5.
perinde and proinde quasi; perinde as
(si), 444 a, Obs, and b.
Period, Structure of Periods, 475 – 477.
Periphrastic Conjugation, see Conjugatio.
* Periphrastic Conjugation, 116. Use of it in the
Indic. 841 seq.; in the Subjunct., 381; in
the Infin. 409. .”
perosus, 161, Obs.
Perseus, declension of, 38, 3.
PERSON of the Predicate where there are
several Subjects, 212. Person, the Second,
of an assumed Subject, 370. The Third Per-
son Singular without a defined Subject in
Subordinate Propositions with the Infinitive,
388 b, Obs. 2; the Third Person Piural with-
out a defined Subject, 211 a, Obs. 2.
Personal Forms, 98.
Phraseological peculiarities of the Latin lan-
guage, 481 b.
Place, Adverbs of, 201, 1.
plenus with the Gen. and Abl., 268 a, Obs. 1,
290 e.
| Pleonasmus, 207, Obs. 481 b.
Pluperfect, see Plusqvamperfectum.
fºLURAL formed from words which commonly
want it, 50, and Obs. 1. Plural formed in
Latin from the names of General Ideas, ib.,
Obs. 3. Plural of Adjectives used Substan-
tively, 301; of Pronouns, 312.
Pluralia tantum, of two kinds, 51; with Distri-
butives, 76 c.
| plus with and without quam, 305. For magis
ib. c, Obs. 2 (animus plus quam fraternus).
Uno plus and plures, ib., Obs. 3.
Plusqvamperfectum, 338; with quum, &c., of
Repeated Actions, where the Imperf. is used
in English, ib. a, Ohs. Pluperf. Subj. 379;
not used in Conditional Propositions which
on another account would have had the Sub-
junctive, 381. Changed with the Imperf, in
Condit. Prop., 347 b, Obs. 2. Represented in
the Infin. by the Part. Fut. with fuisse,
409.
poenitet hoc, 218 a., Obs. 2. Poenitendo,
ad poemitendum, ib., Obs. 3.
pondo, 54, Obs. 3.
Position, 15.22; weak, 22.
Position of the Verb sum, 465 a, Obs. 3; sepa-
rated from the Participle, Obs. 4. Position of
est, sumt, with enim, &c., 471, Obs. 1. Est
and sunt omitted, 479 a. Esse omitted, 396,
Obs. 2 (volo consultwm), and 406 (401).
posse as a Future, 410, Obs. 1.
postavam, posteauvam, with the Perf.
32
498
INDEx.
338 b,; with the Plup., Obs. 1; with the Im-
perf., Obs. 2. Post diem decimum quam, 276,
Obs. 6; post decem dies quam, 270, Obs. 4.
postridie, 280 b, Obs. 1. Suppl. I.
potiri rerum, 265, Obs. 1.
putius omitted and redundant, 308, Obs, 2.
Pulius (cittus) quam (quam ut) with the Sub-
junctive, 360, Obs. 4.
prae lacrimis, 256, Obs. 1.
prae with an Intensive signification prefixed
to Adjectives, 68 c, Obs.
praest-ire alicut and aliquem, 224 d.
praete: as an Adverb, 172, III., Obs. 2.
praeverto, praevertor, 163 (verto).
Pl:EDICATE, 208 a. Simple, resolved, Predicate
Noun, 209 a. The Predicate Noun repre-
sented by a Pronoun, 209 a, Obs. 1. Relation
of the Predicate where there are several Sub-
jects, as to Person, 212; Number, 213; Gen-
der, 214. Referred to the more remote
Subject, ib. d, Obs. 3. Defined by the nat-
ural character of the Subject, 215. The
Werb regulated according to the Predicate
Noun, 216. With a Subject which has an
Apposition differing from it in Gender or
Number, 217. Referred to a Noun appended
by quain or nisi, 217, Obs. 2.
Prefixes, 204.
PREPoS iTIONS, 24, 5. Enumerated, 172. Used
as Adverbs, ib., Obs. 2. Modified in Compo-
sition, 173. Prepositions with their case im-
mediately attached to a Substantive, 298
(sometimes by means of a Participle, ib., Obs.
1). Position of the Prepositions, 469 with
Obss. 1 and 2; the Prep. repeated, 470.
Position less restricted in the poets, 474 c.
The Prep. omitted with the Relative, 323 b,
Obs. 1. Prepositions Inseparable, 204.
PRESENT of Verbs sometimes has the varied
stem, 118. Present of a thing which still
continues, 334, Obs. Historical, 336 (in the
poets, Obs. 1); treated as a Present and as a
Perfect, 382, Obs. 1. With dum, “while,”
336, Obs. 2. For the Future, 339, Obss. 1
and 2. Present Subj. supplying the place of
the Future, 378 a ; in Conditional Proposi-
tions, 347 b (Obss. 1 and 3). In Hypothetical
Propositions of Comparison, 349, Obs. ; of the
Subjunctive Potential, 350.
pridie, postridie, 230 b, Obs. 1 (p. 203).
1°rimitives, 174.
primuny, primo, 199, Obs. 2.
princeps, 60 c, Obs. 4.
priusqv \m, see Anteqvam.
pro shortened in some compounds, 178, Obs. 2.
pro, Interjection (pro deum fidem), 236, Obs. 1.
probare alicui sententiam, 242, Obs. 1.
procul a mari and procul mari, 172,
Obs. 3. -
prohibere Campaniam populationibus, cives
a periculo, 262. Prohibeo with me, qvomimus,
Infin., Accus. with the Infin., 375 a (Obs.
2); b, 390, 396; opera prohibenter fieri, 396,
Obs. 3.
promitto me facturum, 395, Obs. 3.
PRONoUN, 24, 2, with the Obs. Classification
of the Pronouns, 78. Personal Pronouns in-
serted and omitted, 482. Gen. Plur 297 a,
Obs. The Objective Gen. supplied by mei,
tui, &c., ib. b. Partitive Gen., ib. c.
ProNOUN (Demonstrative) referring to several
Substantives, 312 a , in the Neuter Plur., ib.
b. Agrees with the Substantive in the Predi-
cate, 313; connected with a Substantive
instead of being put in the Genitive, 314. Re-
ferred less accurately to the preceding Noum,
317. Put after the Relative, 321. Omitted
before the Relative, ib., with the Obs. Re-
dundant after a Noun separated by an Inter-
vening Proposition, 489 a , with quidam, ib.
b; see also hic, is, ille, iste.
PRONOUN (Relative) referred to several Sub-
stantives, 315 a ; the Substantive repeated
with it, ib. a, Obs. 2. Referred to the fol-
lowing Substantive, 316. Referred less accu-
rately to the Preceding Noun (in several
ways), 317 (to the Person indicated by a Pos-
sessive Pronoun, ib. a). Draws the Substan-
tive to it, 319, 320. Draws a Superlative to it
from the Leading Proposition, 320; precedes
the Demonstrative, 321. Omitted in the
second member of the sentence or replaced by
a Demonstrative, 323. Put by attraction in
the case of the Demonstrative, ib., Obs. 2.
Relative after idem, 324 b. The Relative
drawn into a Subordinate Proposition belong-
ing to the Relative Proposition, 445; forming
a Periphrasis for pro, 446; used Copulatively
in the place of a Demonstrative, 448; not put
with Adversative or Illative Particles, ib.,
Obs. Relative Correlatives, 324 a. Position
of Relative Words, 465 b,; of the Relative
Prop. before the Demonstrative, 476 a, Obs.
2. Subjunctive in Relative Propositions,
See Subjunctive.
PRONOUN (Indefinite Relative), 87, sometimes
employed as an Indefinite Universal, 87, Obs.
1, 93; Obs. 1; 201, 2, Obs. 2. With the In-
dicative, 362.
Pronoun (Indefinite), 89, 493 (see quis, aliqvis,
&c.). Omitted before the Relative, 322.
Pronoun (Interrogative), 88. Belonging to a
INDEx.
499
Participle, 325, Obs. 3.
492 a.
Pronoun (Possessive), 92. Combined with a
Genitive, 297 a. Used for the Objective
Genitive (mei, &c.), ib. b, Obs. 1. Omitted,
491. Denotes what is Suitable and Advan-
tageous, ib., Obs. 1.
Pronoun (Reflective), 85. Sui as an Objective
Genitive, 297 b (sui conservandi causa for the
Plural, 417). Se omitted as the Subject of an
Infinitive Proposition, 401. Se and suus not
referred to the Subject, 490 b; in the Sub-
ordinate Prop. referred to the Subject of the
Leading Prop., ib. c (Obs. 1). Confounded
with is, ib., Obs. 3. Se, suus, in the signifi-
cation one (one's), ib., Obs. 5.
Pronominal Adverbs, 201.
Pronunciation according to Quantity and Ac-
cent, 14, 498, note.
prope, prope ab, 172, Obs. 4. Propius,
proacime, with the Accus. (rarely with the
Dat.), ib. Propius ab, 280, Obs. 2 (p. 207).
propior, proximus, with the Dat. and (less
frequently) the Accus., 230, Obs. 2 (p. 203),
247 by proacimus ab, ib.
PROPOSITIONs, their kinds, 325. Compound
Propositions, ib. Co-ordinate Propositions,
828. Two Co-ordinate Propositions combined
so as to form one Assertion, 438. Sequence
of the Propositions, 475, 476. Leading and
Subordinate Proposition intimately com-
bined, 476 d, in the poets, 474 h.
proprius with the Gen., more rarely with the
Dat., 290 f.
PRosol Y, 14.
Protasis, 326, Obs. 2. -
pro tua praesentia, 446.
providus, providentior, 65, Obs.
prudens with in, and with the Gen., 289 b,
Obs. 3.
-pte, 92, Obs. 1.
pudet, hoc pudet, 218 a, Obs. 2. Pudendi,
pudendo, ib., Obs. 3. Pudet me alicufus,
292.
Two combined,
pugno, Compounds of it which govern the
Accus., 225 Obs.
Qv, 8.
qva, qvae in the Nom. Sing. Fem. and Plur.
Neuter, 90. -
qva—qva, 435, Obs. 3.
qvaero ex; 223 b.
qvaeso, qvaesumus, 137 (qvaero).
qualiscunqve, quariºuscumqve, 93, and
Obs. 1. -
quam with the Comparative, 303 as inserted
or omitted with plus, amplius, minus, 305.
Qvam and ac,444b). Qvam pro, 308, Obs. 1.
(Major) quam, ut quam gwi, ib., Obs. 1, 364,
440 a. Qvam maximus, qvam possum mazi-
mus, 310, Obs. 3. Qvam for postgvam, 276,
Obs. 6, note. Qvam with the second member
of a Comparison inserted before the Compar-
ative, 803 a, Obs. 2. Qvam separated from
its Adjective, 468 Obs.
qvamobrem, qvare (est, nihil est, qv.), 372
b, Obs. 6. -
qvamdvan, 361, Obs. 2, with the Subjunc-
tive for quamvis, ib., Obs. 3. Introducing
an Observation, 443.
qvamvis (qvantumvis), 361 (Obs. 1); with the
Indic. for quamgvam, Obs. 3; with Adjec-
tives, 443, Obs.
Quantity, 14. Of the final vowel of Verb
Stems in Inflection and Derivation, 102, Obs.
1, 176 d.
qvantus potest maximus, 310, Obs. 3.
qvaqva, Ablat. of a later period, 87.
qvare (est, qvare), 372 b, Obs. 6; “that by
those means,” “so that, on that account,”
440, Obs. 5. -
qvasi, 444 a, Obss. 1 and 2; what Tense it
takes, 349, Obs.
-qve, its Signification, 433; after Negations
for sed, ib., Obs. 2; qve — et, qve — que, 435
a, Obs. 1. Qve (ve, me) with Prepositions,
469, Obs. 2; transposed in the poets, 474 f
(Obs.). Lengthened in the Arsis, 502 a, eli-
ded at the end of an Hexameter, 503, Obs. 1.
qveo occurs mostly in Negative Propositions,
159, Obs. 1. Qvitus sum, ib., Obs. 2.
QUESTIONS, Direct and Dependent, 331; De-
pendent in the Subjunctive, 356 (exception,
ib., Obs. 3); in the Subj. when an inquiry is
made what is to be done, 353; Elliptical
Question with ut, ib., Obs. Questions with-
out a Particle, 450. Interrogative Particles,
451; with Disjunctive Questions, 452. Ques-
tions connected by aut not Disjunctive, 453,
Obs. 2. Questions in the oratio obliqva, 405,
Interrogative Exclamation of Surprise, ex-
pressed Affirmatively, 492 b.
qvi, Ablative, 86, Obs. 2; Interrogative Ad-
verb, 88, Obs. 2.
qvi qvidem, qvi modo, 364, Obs. 2.
qvi non and qwin, 440, Obs. 3; 865, Obs. 3.
qvia, what Mood it takes, 857.
qvicumqve (qvaliscumqve, quilibet), divided
by Tmesis, 87, Obs. 2. Without a relative
signification, ib., Obs. 1. Qvicumqve and the
Particles derived from it, with the Perf, and
Pluperf. Indic., 335 b, Obs. 1; 388 a, Obs.
500
INDEX.
With the Indic. or the Subj. of the Pluperf.,
359.
qvid hominis es? 285 b.
qvid, Elliptical expressions with it, 479 d,
Obs. 1.
qvid (Roscium) censes
Obs. 7.
qvidam, 493 c.
qviderm, its position, 471, with a Pronoun
prefixed, 489 b.
qvin, its Signification, 875, Obs. 4. After
verba praetermittendi, dubitandi, &c., where
their negative force is destroyed, ib. c (Obs.
1); quis ignorat, qvin, Obs. 3. Qvin imus?
qvin taces 2 351 b, Obs. 3. Qvin, “but that,”
440 a., Obs' 3. For qui mon, 365, Obs. 3. Nom
qvin (= non quia mon), 357 b, Ubs.
qvippe qui, 366, Obs. 2.
qvis and qwi, Interrog. Pronoun, 88, 1; In-
definite, 89, 90, 1. Qvis, Indef. Pronoun,
how used, 493 a y Adverbs derived from it,
201, 2, Obs. 1.
quispiam, 493 b.
qvisqvam and ullus, 90,3,494 (in Negative
and other propositions). Used indifferently
with aliqvis, 494 b, Obs. 2.
qvisqve, its Signification (distributive) and
Position, 495. With the Superlative, ib.
With quotus and Ordinal numbers, 74, Obs.
2. Optimus quisqve with the Verb in the
Plur., 215 a. Qvisqve in apposition to a
Subject in the Plural, 217, Obs. 1. Not used
for omnes, memo mon, 495, Obs. 1.
qvisqvis, usual forms, 87. Qvicqvid, anti-
quated for quidqve, 495, Obs. 1.
quo-ad quem, ad quos. 317, Obs. 2. Qvo
mihi with the Accus. or with an Infin., 239.
Qvo=ut eo, 440, Obs. 5. Non quo, 357 b,
Obs. Qvorninus, 375, c, Obs. 1.
quoad ejus, 284, Obs. 9.
qvod a Causal Particle with the Indic. or
Subj., 357; qvod diceret, ib. a, Obs. 2; after
the verba affectuum, 379. Shows a Fact as the
object of a Judgment, 398 b (Obs. 1). Qvod
“as to the fact, that,” ib., Obs. 2. Before
other Conjunctions (qvod si, &c.), 449. (Pro-
noun qvod pointing to an Accus. with the
Infin. following, ib.) Qvod sciam, 364, Obs.
2 Nihil est, quod, there is no reason why —,
372 b, Obs 6.
qvominus, see Qvo.
qvoqve, its Position, 471. Non modo —sed
quoqve for sed etiam, 461, Obs.
qvoqvo modo, 87, Obs. 1.
qvoties with the Perf. Indic., 335 b, Obs. 1;
with the Pluperf, in the Indic. or Subj., 359.
monne — P 895,
qvotus quisqve, 74, Obs. 2.
qvurn with the Perf. and Pluperf. Indic., 335
b, Obs. 1; 338 a., Obs. Qvum causale with
the Subj., 358. Qvum temporale with the
Indic. and Subj. of the Imperf, and Pluperf.,
ib.; quum (qvum interim) introducing the
notice of an Event, ib., Obs. 1; quum, since,
ib ; quum, while, with the Indic , Obs. 2;
qvum, although, with the Subj., Obs. 3.
Qvum with the Indic. or the Subj. to desig-
nate Repeated Actions, 859. Qvum — tum,
358, Obs. 3 (distinct from tum — tum, 435
a, Obs 3). Auditum est eaceo, qvum diceret,
358, Obs. 4. Quum with the Historical
Infin., 392.
R put for s, 8; r and l interchanged, see l.
Radiz, see Root.
ratio nulla est with the Infin., 417, Obs. 2.
re and ris, Personal termination, 114 b.
re a Particle used in Composition, 204; its
quantity, ib.
reapse, 82.4.
reddo not used in the Passive for fio, 227 a,
note -
Reduplication, 103, and Obs.
204, Obs. 1.)
réfert, 166 c, 295.
refertus, 268 a., Obs. 1.
Reflective Verbs expressed by the Passive, 222,
Obs. 3. -
Relative Indefinite Pronouns and Particles
employed in designating repeated actions
with the Perf. Indic., 335 b, Obs. 1; with the
Pluperf., 338 a., Obs. ; with the Subj., 359.
Relative Propositions to denote an Object and
Motive, 827; in the Subj., 363, seq. In what
cases they are not to be formed, 447. Seebe-
sides Pronoun (relative).
reliqui nihil facere, 285 b, Obs. 2.
reliqvum est, relinqvitur, restat ut,
373
repetundarum, repetundis, 55, 5.
res used Periphrastically, 301 b, Obs. 1; in-
stead of an Impersonal expression, 218 c,
Obs.
Rhenum flumen for Rhenus, 191, Obs, i.
Rivers (names of), their Gender, 28 a.
Root, 26, Obs. 1, 174; enlarged in the Present
of Verbs, 118.
p0ſ (with the consonant preceding), a Greek ter-
mination, corresponding to the Latin in er, 38,
Obs.
rudis rei and in re, 289 b, Obs. 8.
rus, to the country, 233; rure, ruri, in the
country, 273 b : rure, from the country, 275.
(In rettuli, &c.,
INDEX.
501
8, at the end of words had anciently a weaker
pronunciation, 22, Obs. 4. Between two
vowels has been changed to r, 8 (40, 2, Obs.,
41, p. 35, note 1).
saltare Turnum, 223 c.
salve, salvere, 164.
sapere with the Accus., 223 c, Obs. 2.
satis with the Genitive, 285 c.
sco a Verbal termination, 140 — 142.
se, sibi, see Reflective Pronoun.
se, a Particle in compound words, 204.
secundo, 199, Obs. 2.
8ecundo flumine, 300, Obs. 1.
secus virile, muliebre, 55, 5.
sed, 437. On resuming a discourse, 480 (sed
tamem).
sennis, Suppl. II. B, 2 Obs. ;
Obs. 4.
8enex as an Adjective (in the poets), 60 c,
Obs. 4.
sententiâ meâ, 256, Obs. 3.
seqvior, sëcius, 66 b, Obs.
seqvitur, ut (less frequently the Accus. with
the Infim.), 373, Obs. 2.
sesqui, 204, Obs. 4.
sestertius, sestertia, sestertium de-
cies, Suppl. II. A.
sexcenti, denoting a great number, p. 70,
note.
si with the Subj., 347. Omitted, 442 a, Obs.
2. Si forte, si modo, si jam, si maxime, si
qvidem, si more accurately defined by an-
other si, ita, si, 442 a ; si non, distinct from
nisi, 442 c ; si (sim) mimus, ib. Si mihil
aliu/, 479, Obs. 5. Sim (sim autem), 442 b.
Si as an Interrogative Partiele (whether),
451 d.,
sic sum, 209 b, Obs. 2.
8ignification of Substantives, different, in the
Plur. and in the Sing., 52.
similis with the Dat. and the Gen., 247 b,
Obs. 2; 219, Obs. 2.
simul his for cum his, 172, Obs. 3. Simul —
simul, 435, Obs. 3.
sine ullo auxilio (notsime omni), 494 a (nom
sine aliqvo, Obs. 1). Never used with the
Gerund, 416, Obs. 3.
Singular of certain Substantives used collec-
tively (eqves, pedes), 50, Obs. 5.
singuli, 76 a ; in singulos terni or tres, ib.,
Ob8.
sinisterior, 67 d, Obs. 2.
simo (ut) vivat, sino eum vivere, hoc
fieri, 372 b, Obs 2; 390 (Obs. 1); 396. Ac-
cusare mom sum situs, 890.
$irim, 186, Obs. (sino).
semi, 204,
sive, seu, 436;= vel si, 442 b; sive — sive,
ib. ; with the Indic., 332, Obs.
** So called,** 481 b, Obs. f.
sociare aliqvid alicui, 243, Obs. 4.
somare hominem, 223, Obs. 2.
spero facere for me facturum is rare, 395,
Obs. 3; spero me posse, 410, Obs. 1.
Spondee, 499.
sponte, 55, 4.
stare with the Ablative, 267. Stat per ali-
qvem, qvomimus, 375 ö.
Stem, 26, 40. Stem of Verbs varied in the
Present, 118.
Strophe, 509.
svadere, its Construction, 242, Obs. l.
sub with the Accus. and the Abl., 230. Verbs
compounded with it, 243, 245 (subjicio, sub-
jungo sub, 243, Obs. 1). In some Com-
pounds sus, 173; with a Diminutive signifi-
catiom, 206 a.
subire montem (in the poets portae, animo),
224 a, Obs. 1.
SUBJECT, 208 a ; Omitted, ib. b, Obs. 2, 3; in
a Subordinate Proposition subjoined to am
Infinitive, 888 b, Obs. 2; the Reflective Pro-
noun as a Subject omitted in `an Infinitive
Proposition, 401; also one that is mot Reflec-
tive, ib., Obs. 2. Several Subjects varyingim
their grammatical character, 212, seq.
SUBJUNCTIvE, its Signification, 346. In Hypo-
thetical Propositions, 847. Im Hypothetical
Propositions of Comparisom, 849. Potentialis,
350; in a Modest Affirmation, 350 ö (in Sub-
ordinate Propositions, with Conjunctions
which otherwise take the Indicative, ib. Obs.
2). As am' Optative in Wishes, 851. A8 an
Imperative and in Prohibitions, 885, 386. In
the Imperf. and Pluperf. of a thing whieh
ought to have been done, 351 ö, Obs. 4. In
Concessions and Assumptioms, 352. In Ques-
tions as to what is or may be done, 858. In
Object. Clauses after ut, &c., 354. In Prop-
ositions which express a Design or Result,
855 In Dependent Interrogative Propositions,
856. Subjunctive and Indicative with qvod,
qvia, 857. With qvum causale, and in the
Imperf. and Pluperf. with qvum temporale,
858. Subjunctive and Indicative of Repeated
Actions relating to Past Time, 359. With ante-
qvam, priusqvam, dum, donec, qvoad, 860
(citïus, potius, qvam, Obs. 4}. With qvamvis,
licet, 861. In Relative Propositions, 862 b,
seq. ; to express a Design or Destination (dig-
mus, idoneus), 863; with cur, qvamobrem,
863, Obs. 3. With the significatiom of talis ut,
864 (persons who, Obs. l). With the force of
502
INDEX.
a Limitation (qvi qvidem, qvod sciam, qvod
fieri possit) 364, Obs. 2. After a Universal
Affirmation or Negation (Subjunctive and
Indicative Proposition belonging to a Nega-
tive Idea, 365, Obs. 2); in a Causal significa-
tion, 366 (qvippe qui, ut qui, Obs. 2; to
express a Contrast, Obs. 3); to designate a
Hypothetical Subject, 367; to point out the
Thought of Another, 368. Subjunctive in
other Subordinate Propositions to designate
the idea of Another Party, 369. Subjunctive
in the Second Person, of an indefinite,
assumed subject, 370. Subjunctive in Ques-
tions in a continuous oratio obliqva,
405 a.
Subordinate Propositions, 325; of different
kinds, 326, with Obs. 1; their Position, and
insertion in the Leading Proposition, 476.
Substantives, their Derivation, 177, seq. Sub-
stantiva mobilia, 181. Substantives put as
Adjectives, 60, Obs. 2, 3, 4; 301, c, Obs. 2.
subter, 230.
svemus, 142 (svesco).
svetus with the Infin., 389, Obs. 3.
Suffix, 175.
sui, suus, see Reflective Pronoun.
Sum, See eSSe.
sunt qui, 365, and Obs. l.
super with the Accus. and the Abl., 230.
superi (superus) 66.
Superlative, wanting, 67, 68 b. In a significa-
tion which is not absolute, 310. With unus,
wnus omnium, ib., Obs. 2; strengthened in
other ways, Obs. 3. Differing in Gender from
the Partitive Genitive, ib., Obs. 1. Denoting
a Part of a thing (summus mons), 311.
Drawn into the Relative Proposition, 320, Obs.
superstes alicujus, 247 b, Obs. 1.
SUPINE, 99. How formed, 105. Supines with
# where the Perfect has ivi, 105, Obs. 3. Not
in use from all Verbs, 118, Obs. (128 a).
Usage of the First, 411; of the Second, 412.
suspectus fecisse, 400 c, Obs.
Syllables, Division of, 13 (Obs. 2). Measure of,
as to Quantity, 14, seq. Freedoms which
the poets allow themselves in this respect,
502; the Comic poets, ib., Obs. 2.
syllepsis, 478.
syncaeresis, symizesis, 6, Obs. 1.
symaloephe, 6.
syncope, 11; in the Perfects in si (aci), 113,
Obs. 3.
Synesis in respect of the Gender, 31, Obs. 41
(termination e), 46 (termination us). Con-
structio ad Symesim, 207, Obs.
Systole, 502 a, Obs. i.
talis, tantus— qvalis, qvantus, 324 a.
tam – quann qui, 310, Obs. 4. Tam in bona
causa = in tam bona causa, 468, Obs.
tanqvam, 444 a, Obs. 1.
tanti est, 294, Obs. 3.
tantum abest, 440 a., Obs. 1. Tantum
non, 462 a.
tempero aliqvid and alicui, 244, Obs. 1.
tempus est ire, 417, Obs. 2.
teneri (furti), 293, Obs. 2, note.
TENSES of the Indicative, 333, seq. (absolute
and relative); in the Epistolary style, 345.
Of the Subjunctive, 377, seq (in Hypothetical
and Potential discourse, 347, 349, Obs. 350).
Of the Infinitive, 406, seq. Tense of the Sub-
ordinate Proposition defined by a remark in-
serted, 383, Obs. 4.
ter, Pronouns ending in, their signification in
the Plural, 84, Obs.
terra mariqwe, 273 b. Terrarum with Ad-
verbs of Place, 284, Obs. 10.
“Than,” not expressed with amplius, plus, and
minus, 805.
“That,” how to be expressed in Latin, 369,
Obs.
Thesis, 498.
ti, its pronunciation, 8. -
timeo aliqvem and alicui, 244, Obs. 1.
timeout, timeo ne, or ut mon, 376.
Tmesis, 203, Obs. 87, Obs. 2.
“Too great to,” 308, Obs. 1.
tor, Substantives in, used as Adjectives, 60,
Obs. 2.
totă urbe, Asia, Tarracina, 273 c (296 a,
Obs. 2).
Towns, names of, in us, 39 b : in o, 41 (pp. 36,
37); on, ib. (pp. 44, 45). In the Accusative
answering to the question whither, 232 (Obs.)
In the Ablative answering to the question
where, 273 a 5 to the question whence, 275,
(Obs. 1) Genitive (of those of the First and
Second Declension) answering to the question
where, 296 a.
trajicio, its Construction, 231, and note.
trans. Werbs Compounded with it which
take a double Accus., 231.
Transitive and Intransitive Werbs, 94 (Obs.).
Transitive signification assumed, 223 c, laid
aside, 222, Obs. 4. -
trix, Substantives in, used as Adjectives, 60 c
Obs. 2.
Trochee, 499. Trochaic Verses, 506.
tu. te of a Subject which is only assumed,
370, Obs. 2.
tum — tum, 435, Obs. 3; tum ipsum, 487 a,
Obs. 1. Tum (tum vero, tum denigve) added
INDEX.
503.
after an Ablative Absolute, 428, Obs. 6; tum
tum vero) in the Apodosis, 442 a., Obs. 1.
U, v, 4, 5 a., Obs. 3. V pronounced for u, 5 a,
Obs 4. U for i (optwmus), ib., Obs. 5. Its
affinity to l, 5 c. U and o, ib. Words in w,
46, Obs. 1; those used only in the Ablative,
55, 4. U as a Substantive Termination, 177,
Obs. V rejected in the Perfect, il3 a , in
Derivatives, 176 c.
ui Diphthong, 5 b.
Ulixei, 38, Obs. 3. Ulizi, 42, 2.
ullus, 90, 3, Obs 494. Ullius, ullo, and occa-
sionally ulli as Substantives, 90, 3, Obs.
ultimum hoc, illud, 199, Obs. 2.
um, Genitive termination for arum, 34, Obs. 3;
for orum, 37, Obs. 4.
uncia and its Compounds, Suppl. II. B. 2.
unde = a quo, a quibus, 317, Obs. 2.
Unde mihi with the Accus , 239.
unus, uni, 71; unt with pluralia tantum, 76
c, Obs. -
unus, unus omnium with Superlatives,
310, Obs. 2.
usqve as a Preposition, 172, Obs. 3.
usus est = opus est, 266.
ut, 201, 5 ; origin and connection of its differ.
ent significations, 372 a., Obs. How employed
in Object Clauses, 372, 373, 374 (Obs. 2).
After verba timendi, 376. Used indifferently
with the Infin. or the Accus. with the Infin.,
872 b, Obss. 2 and 5; 373, Obs. 2; 374, Obs. 2
(verisimile non est, ut); 389, Obs. 1. ut
omitted, 872 b, Obss. 2 and 4; 373, Obs. 1.
ut in questions (egone ut, tu ut), 353, Obs. 1.
ut, “although,” 440 a., Obs 4. ut (ne)
“which I mention, that,” ib. b. ut, ne and
ut non, 372 b, 456, with Obs. 3; ut ne (me)
signifying “so that,” Obs. 4. Ut non, “with-
out,” 440 a., Obs. 3. U. gwi, utpote gwi with
the Subjunctive, 366, Obs. 2. ut, “since,”
441, Obs. Ut si, 444 b, Obs. 2. ut repeated,
480, Obs. 2. ut-ita, “certainly — but,”
444 a, Obs. 3; ut quisqve — ita, 495. Ut erat
iratus, 444 a., Obs. 4. ut, “so for example,”
ib. a, Obs. 5. ut put after one or more
words, 465 h, Obs.
uterqve with the Plur.,215 a. Utergve frater,
utergve eorum, 284, Obs. 3. Utrique hi for
horum uterqve, utraqve cornua for wtrumqve
cornu, 495, Obs. 2 Utergve and quisque,
ib.
utilaliqvo amico, 265. With the Accus.,
ib. Obs. 2. Utendus, ib.
utinam, utinam ne, utinam—non, 351
8, Obs. 1.
utrum, 452 (utrum —'ne, with a word inter-
posed, Obs. 1; utrum as a Pronoun followed
by ne—an, Obs. 2).
vacare rei, 261 a, note.
vae with the Dat., 236, Obs. 2.
ve, 436; after a Negative, 458 c, Obs. 2; ap-
pended to Prepositions, 469, Obs. 2; Trans
posed, 474 f. and Obs.
ve in Compound words, 204, Obs. 3.
vel vel—vel, 436 (“even,” Obs.).
vehens from veho and cehor, 111, Obs.
velle aliq vern aliqvid, 228 b, Obs. 2. Qvid.
tibi visf 248, Obs. Wolenti mihi est, 246,
Obs. 3. Welim, vellem, 350 b, Obs. 1. Volo
(ut) facias, te facere, hoc fieri, hoc factum, me
esse clementem, 372 b, Obs. 2; 389, Obs. 4;
396 (Obs. 2). Velim, nolim, 442 b, Obs.
velum, vexillum, 182, Obs. 3.
vendo, veneo (not vendor), 133 (do),
Obs.
venit mihi in mentem,291, Obs. 3
VERB, 24, 3, 94. Transitive and Intransitive
Verbs, 94, Obs. ; 222, 223. Verba pura and
impura, 101 (122, Obs. ; 174, Obs. 3) Deri-
vation of the Verbs, 190–196. The Werb
defined by the Predicate Noum, 216, Podi-
tion of the Verb, 465 a, with the Obss. The
Verb Understood, 478; omitted by Ellipsis,
479. Verba inchoativa, &c., see Inchoativa,
&c.
Verbal Feet, 501, Obs. 2.
verbis alicujus, 258, Obs. 5.
vereor facere, 376, Obs.
Vero (verum), 437 d. In Answers, 454.
versans from verso and versor, 111, Obs.
Verse, 497, Obs. 2; Simple Compound, 500.
Feet in, 498, 499 (genuine, spurious, unne-
cessary feet assumed). Measure of Verse,
497.
Versus Adonius, 504. Archilochius major and
minor, ib. Alcaicus enneasyllabus, 507.
Names of the Compound species of Verse, 508.
Versus asymarteti, 508, Obs.
versus, Prep. (an, in – versus), 172, III.
Obs. 4.
verum, 437 d. Verum, verum tamen in re-
suming the discourse, 480.
Veto te facere, veto facere, vet B hoc
fieri, vetor hoc facere, vetor creari,
390, Obs. 3; 396, Obs. 3.
vicem alicujus, 237 c, Obs. 3.
videre ut, 372 a. Widere, ne, 372 b, Obs. 1.
Widero, viderit, 340, Obs. 4. Videor (not
videtwr), 400 a, with the Obs., and b, with
the Obs.
504
INDEX.
vir, its Compounds, 206 a, Obs. 2.
VocativK, 32; of Greek words in es, 35, Obs.
8; of words in ius, 37, Obs. 3; of Greek
words in s of the Third Declension, 45, 4.
How employed (with or without oy, 299; in
the Predicate instead of the Nom., 299, Obs.
2. Its Position, ib., Obs 3.
Vowels, Modification of, 5 c.; in Composition,
205 b.
Without, how expressed, 416, Obs. 3.
Words, Position of, very free in Eatin, 463; the
most simple, 464; modified according to the
Emphasis, 465, seq.; 472, 473. In the Poets,
474. -
Word-féet, 501, Obs. 2.
X rejected in some words (tela, velum), 182 f
Obs. 3.
Zeugma, 478, Obs. 3.
|
sity of Miº'
#58946
MUTILATE (ARD
§§ PRINTED IN W. G. A.
33-520-002







... is -
Pººr. § * w’s :- . ...
p
ºn