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ENCYCLOPAEDIA
TOR
HALLOTHIHLINE DATINA MILITARIATEXTENDENCIA LEHLIADAL
CH
UT
MBURINN
MARINE
TOUR
WOODETUR
மலைNைTHAALUTENOIDEN
Ingravit by JTallance
Philad". Publisha by T.Dobson N. 41 S. 2.' Street 1798.
clopos
osdia
Printed in 19798.
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NOTTAWA, DIICH.
ENCYCLOPÆDI A;
DI C TI O N A RY
OR, A
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES,
Α Ν D
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;
Conſtructed on a PLAN,
BY
WHICH
1
3
>
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digeſted into the Form of Diſtinct
TRE A TI SE S
OR
SYSTEMS,
COMPREHENDING
THE HISTORY, THEORY, and PRACTICE, of each,
According to the Lateſt Diſcoveries and Improvements;
AND FULL EXPLANATIONS GIVEN OF THE
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATING TO
NATURAL and ARTIFICIAL Objects, or to Matters ECCLESIASTICAL,
CIVIL, MILITARY, COMMERCIAL, &c.
Including ELUCIDATIONS of the moſt important Topics relative to Religion, MORALS, MANNERS,
and the OECONOMY of LIFE :
TOGETHER WITH
A DescripTION of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, &c.
throughout the WORLD;
A General HISTORY, Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;
A N D
An Account of the Lives of the moſt Eminent Perſons in every Nation,
from the earlieſt ages down to the preſent times.
Compiled from theiwerings of the beſt Authors, in ſeveral languages; the moſt approved Dictionaries, as well of general ſcience as of its
particular branches the Tranſactions, Journals, and Memoirs, of various Learned Societies, the MS. Lectures of Eminent
Profeffors on different ſciences; and a variety of Original Materials, furniſhed by an Extenſive Correſpondence.
THE FIRST MERICAN. EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED.
ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.
VOL. I.
AANG
INDOCTI DISCANT, ET AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
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PRINTED BY THOMAS DOBSON, AT THE STONE HOUSE, Nº 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET.
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[Copy-Right ſecured according to law.]
одо
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'
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ATRONS of the Arts and Sciences; the
promoters of uſeful and ornamental Literature
in the United States of America, whoſe communi-
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The American Edition of the
ENCYCLOPÆDIA
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is Dedicated,
Keala
PHILADELPHIA,
1798.
with the moſt grateful reſpect,
by their much obliged ſervant,
THOMAS DOBSON
31860
A
Ꮲ Ꭱ E F A C E.
THE
utility of ſcience, and the delight which it affords to the human mind, are ac-
knowledged by every man who is not immerſed in the grofſeſt ignorance. It is to the
philoſopher that the huſbandman, the architect, the carpenter, and the ſeaman, &c.
are indebted for the principles of thoſe arts, by which they furniſh us with moſt of
the accommodations, and with all the elegances, of civilized life; whilſt the pleaſure
experienced in the very progreſs of philoſophical reſearch is ſuch, as both reaſon and
revelation intimate, not obſcurely, will conſtitute part of our happineſs in a future ſtate.
SMALL, however, would be the attainments of any man in ſcience, were they confined
within the limits of his own reſearches. Our knowledge of corporeal nature originates
in thoſe perceptions which we have by the organs of ſenſe; and which, treaſured up in
the memory, we can, by the powers of reaſon and imagination, variouſly modify, are
range, and combine, ſo as from a number of particular truths to form to ourſelves ge-
neral principles. But theſe principles would be few indeed, had each individual no
other materials of which to form them than the perceptions furniſhed immediately by
his own ſenſes. It has long been a matter of general regret, that the progreſs of ſcience
has been flow and laborious; but it never could have commenced, or could have only
commenced, were every man obliged to begin his career from his own ſenſations, with-
out availing himſelf of the diſcoveries of others who have travelled over the ſame ground
before him.
To this narrow field, however, philoſophical inveſtigation is not confined.
means of the arts of writing and drawing, the diſcoveries of one individual may be
made acceſſible to another, and the ſcience of every age and of every country treaſur-
ed
up for the uſe of ages and countries the moſt remote. Hence ariſes the utility of
what is generally called literature, or the knowledge of the languages, cuſtoms, and
manners, which have prevailed among the various nations of the earth. Without this
Lowledge the ſcience of the ancients would be locked up from the moderns and
even the dulcoveries of modern nations would be inacceſſible to each other.
With all the aid which can be furniſhed by one age or nation to another, the la-
bours of the philoſopher ſtill preſent themſelves as immenſe and difficult.
comprehends univerſal nature, of which nothing can be known but by ſenſation and
reflection; but the objects of ſenſe are all individuals, almoſt infinite in number, and
for ever changing: fo that inſtead of a ſyſtem of ſcience, the firſt view of the corporeal
world would lead us to imagine, that from our moſt diligent reſearches nothing could
be obtained but a vảſt collečtion of particular truths. Such a collection, whilſt it
would burden the memory, could be of little advantage to the arts of life; for we are
very ſeldom brought, on different occaſions, into circumſtances ſo perfectly ſimilar, as
to require, without the ſmalleſt variation, the ſame conduct.
VOL. I. Part I.
BUT
Ву
i
His object
a
iv
C E.
P R E F F A
But though all the objects of ſenſe, of memory, and of conſciouſneſs, are unqueſtion-
ably individuals diſtinct from each other, the contemplative mind of man obſerves
among them various reſemblances and analogies. It obſerves, that the ſenſation com-
municated to the fight by ſnow is ſimilar to that communicated by milk, paper, chalk,
and a thouſand other objects; that all external objects are ſolid, extended, diviſible,
and of fome figure; that the path deſcribed by a planet round the ſun reſembles
that deſcribed by a cannon ball over the ſurface of the earth; and that many
of the actions of brutes are ſimilar to thoſe which we are impelled to perform by the
internal feelings of deſire and averſion.
This view of nature, quieſcent and active, ſuggeſted to the philoſopher the expedi-
ency of ſtudying the vaſt multitude of objects which compoſe the univerſe ; not indi-
vidually, but in groups claſſed together according to their perceived reſemblances or
analogies. He ſaw that his labour would thus be at once ſhortened and rendered in-
finitely more uſeful; but he likewiſe faw, or ought to have ſeen, that it would by no
means' be taken wholly away.
Much cautious attention is requiſite to claſs objects in
human ſyſtems as they are in fact claſſed in the ſyſtem of nature. Analogies are apt
to be miſtaken for reſemblances; a reſemblance in a few particulars for a reſemblance
in all; and events, which have in reality very little in common, to be attributed to
the ſame or ſimilar cauſes. Theſe miſtakes can be avoided only by a painful in-
duction of facts, by means of experiments accurately made on individual objects; and
it was but very lately that induction was employed as the inſtrument of ſcientific re-
ſearch.
In ancient Greece, where philoſophy firſt aſſumed a ſyſtematic form, all the objects
of human thought were ranged under ten CATEGORIES or PREDICAMENTS; and every
thing which could be affirmed or denied of theſe categories was ſuppoſed to be com-
prehended under five claſſes called PREDICABLES. Among the Greek philoſophers,
therefore, the uſe of induction was to aſcertain the category to which any particular
object belonged ; after which, nothing more was to be done but, by a ſhort proceſs of
fyllogiſtic reaſoning, to affirm or deny of that object whatever could be affirmed or
denied of its category.
To this ancient arrangement of human knowledge many inſuperable objections have
been urged. But it muſt be confeſſed, that the arrangements which have been propo-
ſed in its ſtead, by the fages of modern times, lave little claim to greater perfection.
Locke claſſed all things under three categories ; SUBSTANCES, Modes, and IDEAS.
Hume reduced the number to two; IMPRESSIONS and IDEAS, The former of theſe
philoſophers admitted of only four predicables, all different from thoſe of the ancients;
the latter at firſt extended the number to ſeven, but afterwards reduced it to three;
among which none of the ancient predicables are to be found, and only on of thoſe
which had been admitted by Locke.
These different claſſifications of knowledge are the natural conſequences of mens at-
tempting what the greateſt powers of the human intellect will never be able to accom-
pliſh. It certainly was the aim of Ariſtotle, or whoever was the inventor of the categories
and the predicables, to delineate the whole region of human knowledge actual and
poflible ; to point out the limits of every diſtrict; and to aſſign to every thing which
can be the object of human thought its proper place in the vaſt arrangement. Such
an attempt evinces the ambition of its author: nor has the ambition been much leſs of
fome of thoſe by whom the rafh arrogance of the Stagyrite has been moſt ſeverely
cenſured. Locke ſays expreſsly, that as the objects of our knowledge are confined to
ſubſtances, modes, and ideas, ſo we can diſcover nothing of theſe, but ift, their identity
or diverſity; 2d, their relation ; 3d, their co-exiſtence or neceſſary: connection; and 4th,
their real exiſtence : while Hume declares, with ſome heſitation indeed, that we can
know nothing but the reſemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cauſation of our im-
preſſions and ideas.
THESE
>
PR R E F A
E.
C
dost
66 To
These attempts, as well modern as ancient, to contract the whole furniture of the
human mind into the compaſs of a nut-ſhell, and to give at once a compleat chart of
knowledge, have been cenſured, not only as preſumptuous, but as the fertile ſources of
error, by a philoſopher whoſe writings do honour to this age and nation.
make a perfect diviſion (ſays Dr Reid), a man muſt have a perfect comprehenſion of
the whole ſubject matone view:
When our knowledge of the ſubject is imperfect, any
diviſion we can make muſt be like the firſt ſketch of a painter, to be extended, con-
tracted, or mended, as the ſubject ſhall be found to require. Yet nothing is more
common, not only among the ancient but even among.modern philoſophers, than to..
draw from their incomplete diviſions, concluſions which ſuppoſe them to be perfecta
Ā diviſion is a repoſitory which the philoſopher frames for holding his ware in con-
venient order. The philoſopher maintains, that ſuch or ſuch a thing is not good
ware, becauſe there is no place in his ware room that fits it. We are apt to yield to
this argument in philoſophy, but it would appear ridiculous in any other traffic."
The truth of theſe obſervations will be controverted by no man who is not an abſo-
lute ſtranger to the various ſyſteins, ancient and modern, of what has been called the
firſt philoſophy.
But if every ſcientific arrangement of knowledge which has hitherto been propoſed
be ſo very imperfect, what judgment are we to form of that which is adopted by the
compilers of Dictionaries or Encyclopædias, in which the arts and ſciences are arranged
according to the order of the alphabet, and A, B, C, &c. conſidered as the categories ?
The author whom we have juſt quoted affirms, that of all methods of arrangement this is
the moſt antiphiloſophical ; and if he allude only to ſuch Encyclopædias as are mere
dictionaries, in which the ſeveral arts and ſciences are broken into fragments, ſcattered
through the work according as the alphabet has happened to diſpoſe of the various
technical terms which have place in each, his aſſertion is unqueſtionably true. Its
truth is indeed admitted by Chambers himſelf, the compiler of one of the firſt and moſt
valuable of theſe dictionaries, who ſpeaks of the works of his predeceſſors as containing
nothing but a multitude of materials, or a confuſed heap of incoherent parts.
mer lexicographers (ſays he) ſcarce attempted any thing like ſtructure in their works ;
they ſeem not to have been aware that a dictionary is in fome meaſure capable of the
advantages of a continued diſcourſe: and hence it is, that we ſee nothing like a whole
in what they have done."
PROPOSING to remedy this defect in his own Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, he in-
forms us, that “ his view was to conſider the ſeveral matters, not only in themſelves,
but relatively, or as they reſpect each other ; both to treat them as ſo many wholes, and
as ſo many parts of ſome greater whole; and 10 point out their connection with each
other, and with that whole, by reference: fo that by a courſe of references from gene-
rals to particulars, from premiſes to conclufions, from cauſe to effect, and vice verſa,
a communication might be opened between the ſeveral parts of the work, and the de-
tached articles be in ſome meaſure replaced in the natural order of ſcience, out of which
the alphabetical order had removed them.” To enable the reader with the greater eaſe
to replace in the order of ſcience the various articles ſcattered through the dictionary,
he furniſhed him in the preface with what muſt be conſidered as an elegant analyſis of
human knowledge ; by which may be ſeen, at one view, the mutual dependence of the
ſeveral parts upon each other, and the intimate connection of the whole.
But though the found judgment of Mr. Chambers thus directed him to make the ar-
rangement of his Cyclopædia vaſtly preferable to that of any work of the fame kind
which had been publiſhed before it; we are afraid that, in its original form, it was
fill liable to the objections of Dr Reid. Had all the articles in the work been treated
in fufficient detail to conſtitute, when reunited in the order of ſcience, ſo many com-
plete ſyſtems; yet the multitude of references was fo great, that this reunion could not
have been made but by a degree of irkſome labour, to which few readers will ever ſub-
mit,
66 For-
99
vi
P R E F A C E.
mit (A). The work therefore, with all its improvements, was ſtill a book of ſhreds
and patches, rather than a ſcientific dictionary of arts and ſciences; and conſidering
the letters of the alphabet as the categories, the arrangement was certainly inconve-
nient as well as antiphiloſophical.
Of this inconveniency, inſeparable from a mere dictionary of arts and ſciences, the
original Compilers of the Encyclopædia Britannica were fully aware ; and they reſolved
to conſtruct their own Work upon a plan from which it might be completely removed.
They were equally appriſed with their predeceſſors of the utility of explaining by it-
ſelf every technical term, and of illuſtrating every particular topic, in the wide circle
of the arts and ſciences; but they were at the ſame time ſenſīble, that it is only by
thinking in method, and reducing their ideas to the order of nature, that mankind can
make
(A) To be convinced of the truth of this aſſertion, one needs but to caſt his eye over the author's table of arrangement.
It is as follows.
MeteoroloĠY.
Senſible ; conſiſting in the perception of phenomena or external ob. HYDROLOGY.
jects--called PHYSIOLOGY or NATURAL HISTORY ; and which, MINERALOGY.
according to the different kinds of ſuch objects, divides into-
PHYTOLOGY.
(Zoology.
Natural and
Powers, and Properties-call PHYSICS, and NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Scientifical;
OR,
FONTOLOGY.
Abſtracts-called METAPHYŞICS, which ſubdivides into
which is ei-
PNEUMATOLOGY.
ther
ANALYTICS.
.
Rational; confifting in Quantities--called PURE MA- ÇArithmetic—whence
ALGEBRA.
THEMATICS—which divides,
the perception of the in-
TRIGONOMETRY.
according to the ſubject of GEOMETRY-Whence
trinſic characters or ha-
CONICS.
the quantity, into
STATICS
bitudes of fenfible ob.
SPHERICS.
Ljects-meither their - Relations to our happineſs—called Ethics, or NATURAL S Politics.
Religion, or the doctrine of RELIGION-Whence / LAW.
Offices, which ſubdivides into ( THEOLOGY, or RevelATION.
OR,
KNOWLEDGE is either
{Macic, &c
OR,
Artificialand
Technical,
(conſiſting
in the appli-
cation ofna.
turalnotices
to farther
purpoſes),
which is
either
Internal; employed in diſcovering their agreement and diſagreement; ortheirrelationsin reſpect of truth
called Logics.
Latent powers and properties of bodies-SAlchemy.
called CHEMISTRY --whence
Optics,CATUPTRICS,DIOPTRICS, SPERSPECTIVE,
whence PAINTING.
PHONICS-whence Music.
Quantitiesofbo.
HYDROSTATICS, HYDRAULICS.
dies called
PNEUMATICS.
MIXED MA-
ARCHITECTURE.
THEMATICS;
MECHANICS --whence SCULPTURE.
which, accor-
Trades and MANUFACTURES.
r Real, em-
ding to the
The MILITARY Art,
different ſub PYROTECHNIA
ployed in
FORTIFICATION.
diſcovering
into
SCHRONOLOGY.
ASTRONOMY-Whence
and apply-
DIALLING.
GEOGRAPHY, HYDRO. NAVIGATION
GRAPHY—whence ? COMMERCE.
External;
Stru&ure and economy of organical bodies, called ANATOMY.
which is
Animals-called
ŞMedicinE.
eiiher
Relations thereof
PHARMACY.
to the prefer-
AGRICULTURE.
Vegetables-called
vation and im.
GARDENING,
provement
HUNTING.
either of BRUTES called
S FARRYING.
FALCONRY.
MANEGE-whence
FISHING, &c.
{
ing the
OR,
Words, or articulate ſigns of ideas---called GRAMMAR.
Symbolical, employed in Armories---called HERALDRY.
framing and applying Tropes and Figures—called RHETORIC.
Fables---called POETRY.
Such
P R E F A C Ε.
vi
make any progreſs in uſeful knowledge. To accompliſh therefore effectually what Mr
Chambers by means of his prefatory ſcientifical analyſis attempted in vain, they endea-
voured to give a compendious, yet clear and fatisfaétory, account of the ſeveral arts
and ſciences under their proper denominations, whilſt the ſubordinate articles in each
were likewiſe explained under their technical terms. Theſe ſubordinate articles they
divided into three kinds ; of which the firſt conſiſts of ſuch as, independent of particu-
lar ſyſtems, admit of a full and complete illuſtration under their proper names ;
the ſecond, of ſuch as require to be partly diſcuſſed under the ſyſtems to which they
belong, and partly under their own denominations; and the third, of ſuch as apper-
tain to ſyſtems of which all the parts muſt be elucidated together. Articles of the firſt
kind admit of no references; thoſe of the ſecond, being only partially explained under
their proper denominations, demand references to the fyſtems where the illuſtrations
are completed; and thoſe of the laſt are wholly referred to the ſyſtems of which they
are conſtituents.
Such has been the arrangement of the Arts and Sciences in every edition of the En-
cyclopædia Britannica ; and it ſurely falls not under that cenſure which Dr Reid pro-
nounced with juſtice on many other works bearing a ſimilar title.
In the ſpirit of true philoſophy, that great man obſerves, that the ſame ſubject may
admit, and even require, various diviſions, according to the different points of view
from which it is contemplated; and we doubt not but, if he had been aſked, he would
candidly have acknowledged, that the diviſions and arrangement of the Encyclopædia
Britannica are calculated to anſwer every purpoſe which can be expected from a gene-
ral repoſitory of arts, ſciences, and miſcellaneous literature. They are ſuch as muſt
give to readers of every deſcription the moſt eaſy acceſs to the objects of their purſuit
for whilſt the philoſopher or ſyſtematic artiſt may be fully and "regularly informed by
turning to the general name of the ſcience or art which he wiſhes to explore, the man
who has occaſion to conſult only particular topics will find them illuſtrated under the
terms by which they are denominated. Contemplated from this point of view, the
arrangement ef the Encyclopædia Britannica needs not ſhrink from a compariſon even
with that of the Encyclopédie Methodique ; for though that voluminous work, confiſting
of a dictionary of dictionaries, may have the appearance of being more ſyſtematically
arranged; yet we, who have had occaſion to conſult it frequently, have never found
our object the more readily for having been obliged to travel in queſt of it through
different alphabets.
A DICTIONARY, in which the ſeveral arts and ſciences are digeſted into diſtinct trea-
tiſes or ſyſtems, whilſt the various detached parts of knowledge are explained in the order
of the alphabet, ſeems indeed to have received the beſt form of which ſuch a work is
ſuſceptible ; and may certainly be made to anſwer one end, which more philoſophical
arrangements never can accompliſh. Under the various letters of the alphabet, it is
obvious that the whole circle of the ſciences may be completely exhauſted ; and that
every diſcovery, ancient or recent, may be referred to the particular fyſtem which it
VOL. I. Part I.
b
tends
1
Such is that great and general analyſis of knowledge, which has by ſome of our correſpondents been recom-
mended to us in terms of the higheſt praiſe, and to which elegance and accuracy cannot perhaps be refuſed. Its
utility, however, as prefixed to a dictionary of arts and ſciences, is not very apparent. From each word, which
in this table is printed in capitals, many branches are made to ſpring, which in the dictionary are all treated as
feparate articles. Thus from METEOROLOGY we are referred, in a ſubordinate analyſis, to Air and the AT-
MOSPHERE: including, iſt, The hiſtory of its contents, Ærher, Fire, VAPOUR, EXHALATION, &c. 2d, ME-
TEORS formed therein; as Cloud, RAIN, Shower, Drop, Snow, Hail, Dew, DAMP, &c. RAINBOW,
PARHELION, HALO, THUNDER, WATERSPOUT, &c. WINDS, MONSOON, HURRICANE, and the like. As every
word printed in capitals, as well in this ſubordinate diviſion as in the general table, is the title of an article
treated ſeparately in the Cyclopædia, we muſt turn backwards and forwards through more than 24 references
before we come at the detached topics, which we are directed to unite into a fyſtem of METEOROLOGY. The
number of articles which muſt be united in the fame manner to conſtitute the Compiler's ſyſtem of METAPHY.
sics is upwards of 48 ; and thoſe which are referred to THEOLOGY above 300!
>
vüli
P R E F A CE.
tends to confute or to confirm, without having recourſe to the awkward expedient of
employing ſeveral alphabets, or the ſtill more inconvenient arrangement by which the
ſyſtems themſelves are broken into fragments.
But on this topic it is needleſs to expatiate. The very favourable reception with
which the two former editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica were honoured by the
Public; the ſtill greater encouragement which has been given to the preſent; and the
adoption of the plan by the editors of other repoſitories of arts and ſciences—bear ample
teſtimony to the excellence of the arrangement. On this ſubject we expreſs ourſelves
with the greater eaſe and the greater confidence, that we cannot be accuſed of flattering
our own vanity, or publiſhing our own praiſes ; for the merit of forming the arrange-
ment, as well as of introducing into the work various branches of knowledge, from
which, as they are not generally to be found in dictionaries, it derives a juſt claim to
the favour of the Public, belongs not to the Compilers of the preſent Edition.
AFTER ſurveying any particular art or ſcience, our curioſity is excited to acquire ſome
knowledge of the private hiſtory of thoſe eminent perſons by whom it was invented,
or has been cultivated and improved. To gratify this curioſity, thoſe who formed
the plan of the Encyclopædia Britannica reſolved to enrich it with a department not
to be found in any prior collection of the ſame kind except the French Encyclopédie.
Of all the various ſpecies of narrative-writing, it is acknowledged that none is more
worthy of cultivation than BIOGRAPHY; ſince none can be more delightful or more
uſeful, none can more certainly enchain the heart by irreſiſtible intereſt, or more
widely diffuſe inſtruction to every diverſity of condition. Its tendency to illuſtrate
particular paſſages in general hiſtory, and to diffuſe new light through ſuch arts and
ſciences as were cultivated by the perſons whoſe lives are related, are facts too obvious
to require proof. It exhibits likewiſe the human character in every poſſible form and
ſituation. It not only attends the hero through all the buſtle of public life, but pur-
fues him to his moſt fequeſtered retirements. It ſhows how diſtinguiſhed characters
have been involved in misfortunes and difficulties; by what means they were extricat-
ed; or with what degree of fortitude and dignity they diſcharged the various func-
tions, or ſuſtained the viciſſitudes, ſometimes proſperous and fometimes adverſe, of a
checquered and a fluctuating life. In ſuch narratives men of all ranks muſt feel them-
ſelves intereſted; for the high and the low, as they have the ſame faculties and the
fame ſenſes, have no leſs ſimilitude in their pains and pleaſures ; and therefore in the
page of honeſt biography, thoſe whom fortune or nature has placed at the greateſt dif-
tance, may mutually afford inſtruction to each other. For theſe reaſons it is, that every
man of learning and taſte has eſteemed the biographical labours of Plutarch among the
moſt valuable and intereſting remains of antiquity.
THE lives and characters, therefore, of ſuch perſons as have excelled in the arts
either of war or of peace, of ſuch as have diſtinguiſhed themſelves either on the theatre
of action or in the receſs of contemplation, will be found in the Encyclopædia Bri-
tannica alphabetically diſpoſed under their proper names. Many indeed are omitted,
for whom the reader will naturally look; fome becauſe, in the order of the alphabet,
we had paſſed the initial letters of their names before we had intelligence of their
deaths ; others, through the inadvertency, whether excuſable or not, of the Editors;
ſeveral, for a reaſon which ſhall be afterwards aſſigned for omiſſions of a different
kind, and perhaps of greater importance; and a very few from the contemptuous re-
fufal of their friends to anſwer the Editor's letters reſpectfully requeſting the neceſſary
information (B).
But
(
(B) Of this treatment we have not indeed often had occaſion to complain. While men of the firſt eminence
in church and ſtate have readily anſwered the letters that were addreſſed to them, and either communicated the
1
ins
PR R E F is
F A
E.
Ć
A
But while one part of our readers will regret that we have given no account of their
favourite philoſopher, hero, or ſtateſinan, others may be diſpoſed to remark, that we
have dragged from obſcurity the names of many perſons who were no proper objects
of ſuch public regard. To theſe we can only reply, that, with the greateſt biographer
of modern times, we have long thought that there has rarely paſſed a life of which a
faithful narrative would not be uſeful ; and that in the lives of the moſt obſcure
per-
ſons, of whom we have given any account, we ſaw ſomething either connected with
recent diſcoveries and public affairs, or which we thought capable of affording a leffon
to great multitudes in ſimilar circumſtances.
BETWEEN eminent atchievements and the ſcenes where they were performed, there
is a natural and neceſſary connection. The character of the warrior is connected with
the fields of his battles; that of the legiſlator, with the countries which he civilized ;
and that of the traveller and navigator, with the regions which they explored. Even
when we read of the perſons by whom, and the occaſions on which, any particular
branch of knowledge has been improved, we naturally wiſh to know ſomething of
the places where ſuch improvements were made. This curioſity, fo natural and ſo
laudable, has been frequently felt by ourſelves during the compilation of this Work;
and to gratify it in others, we have ſubjoined to the name of every conſiderable place
an account of its ſituation, its climate, its foil, its peculiarities, its inhabitants, with
their manners, cuſtoms, and arts; its revolutions, laws, and government, with what-
ever elſe appeared neceſſary for the readers information, and at the ſame time admiſ-
ſible into a work of ſuch variety and extent. It is indeed probable, that by many of
our readers we ſhall be thought to have done too much rather than too little in this
department; and to have filled our pages with accounts of towns and villages not of
ſufficient importance to demand general attention. But were it known how many of
ſuch places we have excluded from our Work, though recommended to us by ſome of
our moſt obliging correſpondents, thoſe who reflect upon the different taſtes of man-
kind, and conſider that we wrote for the Public at large, would forgive us for having
occaſionally employed a few ſentences in the deſcription of others, which, whatever be
their real importance, could not have been omitted without diſappointing a very nu-
inerous claſs of readers.
The knowledge of hiſtory is ſo important, not only to the ſtateſman and the legiſla-
tor, to whom indeed it is abſolutely neceſſary, but likewiſe to every man who moves
in a ſphere above that of the loweſt vulgar, that a Work profeſſing to be a general re-
poſitory of arts, ſciences, and literature, would be exceedingly defective, if it did not
contain ſome information of the tranſactions of thoſe who have been in poſſeſſion of the
world before us ; of the various revolutions of ſtates and empires; and of all the other
means which have contributed to bring every thing into the ſtate in which we behold
it. Fully, aware of this, the compilers of the Encyclopædia Britannica, beſides giving
a general view of univerſal hiſtory and chronology, have enriched this edition with a
fhort, though they hope luminous, detail of the progreſs of each particular nation,
which from the remoteſt period to the preſent time has acted a conſpicuous part on
the theatre of the world. The reader therefore will here find a very comprehenſive
view of Civil HISTORY, ancient and modern, in all its branches. Nor have the hiſto.
ries of NATURE and Religion been neglected. Of the former, it is not perhaps too
much to ſay, that in all the ſubdiviſions of its three great kingdoms, it will be found more
fully, more accurately, and more ſcientifically, detailed in this work than in any other
dictionary which has yet been publiſhed. Of the latter, a brief view is given under
the general article History; the unavoidable defects of which are in a great meaſure
b 2
fupplied
information which was requeſted, or politely aligned reaſons for wiſhing the lives of their friends not to be
publiſhed-in the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Editor recollects but two men, who maintained a fuller
filence, and theſe he cannot conſider as moving in a where much higher than his own.
2
A
P R
È.
E F
C
А.
ſupplied by the accounts that will be found, under their proper denominations, of all
the conſiderable ſects and opinions which have prevailed in the religious world from the
earlieſt periods to the preſent day.
Such was the plan of the ſecond edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica ; to which,
as it ſeems hardly capable of improvement, the Compilers of the third have, with a
few flight variations, ſtrictly adhered. Still, however, there was ample room for the
efforts of all their induſtry and all their learning; for the rapid progreſs of the phyſi-
cal ſciences had rendered the labours of their predeceſſors in many departments uſeleſs.
Beſides the introduction of ſome thouſands of new articles, there are not many of great
importance, thoſe in biography and geography alone excepted, which ſtand in this
Edition as they ſtood in the laſt. Such recent diſcoveries as could be introduced, have
been mentioned with reference to their proper authors; and, while the ſeveral ſciences
have been treated more fully and fyſtematically, greater care has been employed to
trace the hiſtory of each from its firſt invention, and to apply them all to the arts of life.
To accompliſh a taſk fo arduous and ſo important, neither labour nor expence has
been ſpared." Literary journals ; the memoirs and tranſactions of philofophic focieties;
and all the moſt valuable dictionaries of arts and ſciences, both in our own and in
other languages, have been conſtantly conſulted. The works of the moſt eminent au-
thors, as well ancient as modern, who have written on any particular art or ſcience,
have been collected and compared. Such of them as treat of topics, about which there
is no room for controverſy, and are at the ſame time ſuſceptible of abridgment, have
been abridged with the greateſt care ; whilſt others, more conciſe and tenacious of their
ſubjects, have been more cloſely purſued and more faithfully retained. Upon thoſe
branches of ſcience on which the works of other authors furniſhed nothing fit for the
purpoſe of the Editors, original eſſays and treatiſes are inſerted, which were compoſed
either by themſelves, or by ſuch of their friends as they knew to be intimately ac-
quainted with the ſubject. On diſputed points, whether in the phyſical or moral
fciences, arguments and objections have been diſplayed in their full force; and of each
of the various fects into which the Chriſtian church is divided, the account is generally
given by the moſt eminent clergyman of that feet to whom the Editors could find ac-
ceſs.
AFTER the utmoſt exertions, however, of our attention and induſtry, we are ſenſible,
perhaps more ſenſible than any of our readers, that the Work paffes from our hands in:
à ſtate far from perfection; and that the man who ſhall not diſcover in the Encyclo-
pædia Britannica miſtakes, needleſs repetitions, and even culpable omiſſions, will bring
to the examination of it no great ſtock of general knowledge. But for theſe offences the
Editors perhaps need no other apology than what will be furniſhed by the nature of
the Work and the hiſtory of its publication.
In a collection ſo extenſive and multifarious, a few miſtakes, repetitions, and omif-
fions, might ſurely be paffed over without ſeverity of cenſure, although the publication
had from the beginning to the end been ſuperintended by the fame man; but they
will be allowed to have been almoſt unavoidable, when it is known that, after the
Work was far advanced, it was committed to the care of a new Editor, who, though:
he was in a great degree a ſtranger to the contents of the printed volumes, found no
clue of his predeceſſor's which could guide him accurately through thoſe to be com-
piled,
4
We, beg it to be underſtood, that this obſervation is not made with a view to re-
move any ſhare of blame from the ſecond to the firſt Editor; for Mr Colin Macfar. .
quhar, who conducted the publication...beyond the middle...of the twelfth volume,
was a man whom few who knew himn will be diſpoſed to blame, and on whoſe indu-
ſtrious integrity thoſe who knew him beſt muſt admit that it would be difficult to
beſtow too inuch praiſe. Born in Edinburgh of parents reſpectable, though not afflu-
ent, he was, at an early period of life, bound an apprentice to a printer. This pro-
feſfion gave him a taſte for ſcience and literature, or rather furniſhed him with oppor--
tunities
1
P R E F A
Х
C E.
l
tunities of cultivating the taſte which he derived from nature: and he ſoon became
well acquainted with the moſt popular writers in natural hiſtory and in natural and
moral philoſophy. When he opened a printing-houſe of his own, rectitude of conduct
quickly recommended him to friends and to employment; and the unremitted proſe-
cution of his ſtudies eminently qualified him for ſuperintending the publication of a new
dictionary of arts, ſciences, and literature; of which, under the title of ENCYCLOPÆDIA
BRITANNICA, the idea had been conceived by him and his friend Mr Andrew Bell en-
graver.
By whom theſe gentlemen were afliſted in digeſting the plan which attracted
to thầt Work ſo much of the public attention, or whether they had any aſſiſtance, are
queſtions in which our readers cannot be intereſted. Suffice it to ſay, that Mr Mac-
farquhar had the ſole care of compiling the preſent Edition, and that, with the aid
of a very few literary friends, he brought it down to the article MYSTERIES, in the
twelfth volume, when he was cut off in the 48th year of his age by a death which,
though not. Iudden, was perhaps.unexpected. His career was indeed ſhort; but of him
it may be ſaid with as much propriety as of moſt men, Nemo parum diu vixit, qui
virtutis perfecta perfecto functus eſt munere.
AMONG his literary correſpondents was the Reverend Dr Gleig of Stirling, who had
written for him various articles, of which ſome were publiſhed during his lifetime
and others in their order after his death. Theſe ſhall be afterwards enumerated with
thoſe furniſhed by other occaſional contributors; but they are mentioned at preſent,
becauſe they account for that partial regard of Mr Macfarquhar for their author, which,
on the death of the former, induced the truſtees for his children, together with Mr Bell
the ſurviving partner, to requeſt the latter to undertake the taſk which their deceaſed
friend had hitherto diſcharged with ſo much credit to himſelf. In this propoſal, after
ſome heſitation on account of his diſtance from Edinburgh, Dr Gleig acquieſced; but
when he entered on his new office, he found matters in a ſtate of no little confuſion.
Mr Macfarquhar, though his death had not been long expected, had laboured long
under a complication of diſeaſes; the conſequence of which was, that the materials
which he had prepared for the preſs were almoſt exhauſted; and of thoſe which were
firſt called for, ſome had not paſſed through his correcting hand.
This circumſtance may perhaps account for ſome defects and inaccuracies in that
part of the Work, to which the ſecond Editor looks back with the leaſt fatisfaction: but
ihat which muſt be his apology for ſeveral repetitions and omiſſions, was the neglect of
his predeceſſor during his laſt illneſs to make an intelligible index to his own labours.
From the want of ſuch a neceſſary guide, Dr Gleig was perpetually liable, notwith-
ſtanding his utmoſt circumſpection, to give under one title an explanation of ſubjects
which had been before explained under another; and to omit articles altogether, from
a perſuaſion that they had been diſcuſſed in fome preceding volume under the general
ſyſtem to which they belong.
NEITHER his repetitions nor omiſſions, however, are ſo many as ſome have ſuppo-
fed them ; for what has been haſtily cenſured as a repetition, is frequently nothing
more than the neceſſary reſumption of ſome important ſubject. Availing himſelf
of the excellence of the plan upon which the Encyclopædia Britannica is conſtruct-
ed, he took the opportunity, when he found any ſyſtem ſuperficially treated, to ſupply
its defects under fome of the detached articles belonging to it.
Of this he ſhall men-
tion as one inſtance HYDROSTATICS; which, conſidered as a ſyſtem, muſt be con-
feſſed to be defective; but he truſts that its defects are in a great meaſure ſupplied un-
der the ſeparate articles RESISTANCE of Fluids, RIVER, SPECIFIC Gravity, and Watcr-
WORKS.
That in the Encyclopædia Britannica no account is given of ſome things which
ſhould have a place in a general repoſitory of arts, ſciences, and miſcellaneous litera-
ture, muſt be acknowledged; but it muſt likewiſe be acknowledged that ſuch omiſſions
are neither numerous nor very important; for many ſubjects, which have been ſup-
poſed to be omitted, are treated under titles different from thoſe under which they
have
xii
PRE FACE.
have been looked for. Thus the method of calculating compound intereſts, which one
of our correſpondents cannot find in our Work, is taught in the article ALGEBRA;
that of coating mirrors, of which another complains that no account is given, will be
found under the term FOLIATING ; and though it may be true, according to the
peeviſh remark of a third, that the reader is nowhere directly inſtructed how to grind
optical glaſſes, yet if he read the article GLASS-Grinding, and underſtand the doctrine
of lenſes as laid down in the article Optics, he will eaſily, if an artiſt, diſcover a
method of performing that operation for himſelf.
OMISSIONS, however, there are towards the end of the Work ; not the conſequence
of careleſſneſs, but the offspring of neceſſity.
In an addreſs to the Purchaſers of the Encyclopædia Britannica, ſubjoined to the
ninth volume, the proprietors gave a raſh promiſe to comprehend the whole of their
undertaking within the limits of eighteen; and if intervening diſcoveries ſhould make
it neceſſary, to enlarge the laſt volumes in quantity without any additional charge to
Subſcribers.
THAT the promiſe was raſh, a moment's reflection ſhould have taught them; for in
the preſent rapid progreſs of phyſical ſcience, when new diſcoveries are daily made, it
was obviouſly impoſſible, at ſo early a period, to aſcertain with preciſion how many vo-
lumes would be neceffary to bring a Work of ſuch comprehenſive variety to the utmoſt
perfection of which it is capable. This was indeed ſoon diſcovered ; but the proprie-
tors ſhrunk not from their engagement, which they determined to fulfil to the utmoſt
extent of its meaning, till the additional tax, which in 1795 was laid upon paper, in-
volved them in difficulties which they had not foreſeen. By the act of parliament they
were indeed authoriſed to reimburſe themſelves by raiſing the ſubſcription-price of
their volumes; but they choſe rather to ſubmit to a diminution of profit, than to take
even a legal advantage of that Public by which they had hitherto been ſo generouſly
ſupported.
To complete their plan, however, in its original extent, was now impoſſible, with-
out a violation of the ſacred duties which they owe to themſelves and to their families.
In this dilemma the Editor propoſed that they ſhould ſtate the caſe to their Subſcri-
bers, of whom he is confident that nine-tenths would have releaſed them from the obliga-
tion of their promiſe: but after long deliberation, they judged that it would be more
acceptable to the public-at-large-to. comprehend the Work in the propoſed number of
volumes, though they ſhould exclude from the laſt fuch articles as might be omitted
without injury to ſcience or the arts of life. If by any of their readers they ſhall be
thought to have erred in this judgment, let them not, however, be too ſeverely bla-
med; for they have done much to adhere to the ſpirit of their promiſe ; and, in the large
addition made to the bulk of the laſt volume, have ſhewn that they prefer their honour
to their intereſt. Several things have indeed been excluded; but except ſuch recent diſ-
coveries as could not be noticed under the laſt letters of the alphabet, it is believed that
very
little has been omitted which can be conſidered as of great or general importance.
At any rate, the Editor flatters himſelf, that the laſt fix volumes of the Encyclopædia
Britannica do not diſgrace thoſe by which they are preceded, and that the whole will
bear to be compared with any other Work of the ſame kind extant. Imperfect it cer-
tainly is : “ but if much has been omitted,
let it be remembered that much has like-
wiſe
becn performed;" that perfection is not to be Tooked for in the works of máñ;
and that every compilation of ſuch variety and extent ſhould be examined with the
ſpirit which actuated one of the greateſt critics of antiquity when peruſing the works
of his brother poets :
}
Verum ubi plura nitent in carmine, non ego paucis
Offendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit,
Aut humana parum cavit natura...
HOR. DE ART. POET.
WE
PRE
Xill
F
ACE.
We mentioned our obligations to occaſional contributors ; and many of our corre-
ſpondents have expreſſed an earneſt deſire to know who theſe contributors have been.
As there can be no impropriety in gratifying ſuch a deſire, we ſhall conclude this Pre-
face, by aſſigning the various articles, not compiled by the Editors themſelves, to their
reſpective authors : but as many of the writers for the firſt twelve volumes were known
to Mr. Macfarquhar alone, they will not attribute the omiſſion of their names to cul-
pable deſign, but to irremediable ignorance.
For whatever inſtruction may be conveyed in the articles ANATOMY and SURGERY
the Public is indebted to Andrew Bell, F. S. S. A. one of the proprietors, and the in-
genious Mr Fyfe. From the former of theſe gentlemen the world will ſoon receive
one of the moſt ſplendid anatomical works which it has yet feen ; and as the latter has
long officiated under Dr Monro as diſſector in the anatomical ſchool of the univerſity
of Edinburgh, it is needleſs for us to ſay how well he muſt be acquainted with the
ſubjects on which we employed hiin to write. AEROLOGY, AEROSTATION, CHEMI-
stry, ELECTRICITY, GUNNERY, HYDROSTATICS,
MECHANICS,
METEOROLOCY, with
moſt of the ſeparate articles in the various branches of natural hiſtory, we have reaſon
to believe were compiled by Mr James Tytler chemiſt ; a man who, though his con-
duct has been marked by almoſt perpetual imprudence, poſſeſſes no common ſhare of
ſcience and genius. The article BLIND was furniſhed by Dr Blacklock and Dr Moyes,
both blind themſelves, and both men of ſuperior attainments; the former in elegant
literature, and that latter in the phyſical ſciences. We believe that the article EDU-
CATION was compoſed by Mr Robert Heron, author of a hiſtory of Scotland now pu-
bliſhing, who likewiſe furniſhed the greater part of what we have publiſhed under the
titles Religion and Society. The lives of JOHNSON and Mary Queen of Scots, with
the articles INSTINCT, LOVE, METAPHYSICS, MIRACLE, the hiſtory Ethics under
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, Oath, Passion, Plastic NATURE, POLYTHEISM, PRAYER,
SLAVERY, and SUPPER of the Lord, were contributed by Dr Gleig, Editor of the laſt
fix volumes ; GRAMMAR (C) and THEOLOGY by Dr Gleig and the Reverend James
Bruce, A. B. late of Emanuel College, Cambridge ; and MOTION by Dr Gleig and
Mr Týtler. The fyftem of MEDICINE, which was publiſhed in the former edition,
was reviſed and improved for the preſent by Andrew Duncan, M. D. Fellow of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and Profeſſor of the Inſtitutes of Phyſic in the Univerſi-
ty.
The notes to the article Music were contributed by Dr Blacklock, and the hi-
ſtory of the art by William Maxwell Moriſon, Efq; advocate, who likewiſe favoured
us with what we have publiſhed on the ſcience of PHYSIOGNOMY. The articles Mv-
STERIES, MYTHOLOGY, and PHILOLOGY, we owe to the erudition of David Doig,
L. L. D. F. S. S. A. maſter of the grammar-ſchool of Stirling, and author of two very
ingenious Letters on the Savige State, addreſſed to the late Lord Kames. Naviga-
TiON, PARALLAX, PendulUM, PROJECTION of the Sphere, Ship-BUILDING, and Naval
TACTICs, were furniſhed by Andrew Mackay, L. L. D. F. R. S. E. of Aberdeen, and
known to the Public as author of a treatiſe on the Theory and Practice of finding the
Longitude
(c) Mr Bruce, who communicated the moſt valuable parts of the article GRAMMAR, and who was for
many years a ſtudent in the univerſity of St Andrew's, wiſhes, from gratitude to his old maſter, to declare,
in this public manner, that, to the inſtructions of Dr Hunter, profeſſor of humanity in that univerſity, he
is indebted for much of what philological knowledge he may poſſeſs. We believe indeed that Dr Hunter
may claim as his own the theory which we have given of the caſes of nouns, the doctrine concerning the
inverſe acceptation of the adjective, and the reſolution of the relative pronoun by means of the prepolition
of inſtead of the conjunction and. There is nothing elſe in our article which the attentive reader inay not
find in the grammatical writings of Voffius, Scaliger, Sanctius, Perizonius, Wallis, Ruddimar, Harris, Horne-
Tooke, and Dr Gregory of Edinburgh. Diſcoveries in grammar are not indeed to be looked for. They
are nearly allied to thoſe in metaphyſics ; of which, it has been well obſerved by one of the acuteſt writers
of the age, that the very appearance ſhould be rejected as an error, if not as an impoſition, upon mankind.
xiv
A C C E.
P
F R E F A
Longitude at Sea or Land. John Robiſon, M. A. ſecretary to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, and profeſſor of natural philoſophy in the Univerſity, did the Editor the
honour of contributing to the Encyclopædia Britannica the valuable articles Physics,
PNEUMATICS, Precession of the Equinoxes, PROJECTILES, PUMPS, RESISTANCE of
Fluids, River, Roof, ROPE-Making, ROTATION, SEAMANSHIP, SIGNALS, SOUND, SPE-
CIFIC GRAVITY, STATICS, STEAM and STEAM Engine, STRENGTH of Materials, TELE-
SCOPE, Tide, Articulating TRUMPET, VARIATION of the Compaſs, and Water-Works.
PHILOSOPHY is the joint production of Profeſſor Robiſon and Dr Gleig. PhysioLOGY
was furniſhed by John Barclay, M. D. of Edinburgh, whoſe merits, if the Editor be
not partial to his friend, it will raiſe high in the eſtimation of men of ſcience. The
eſſays on PREDESTINATION and PROVIDENCE were contributed by Robert Forſyth, Eſq.
advocate ; the account of the French REVOLUTION by Mr. Forſyth and Dr Gleig ; and
OXYGEN and PHLOGISTON by John Rotheram, M. D. profeffor of natural philoſophy
in the Univerſity of St Andrew's.
The other contributors to the firſt part of the Work we cannot enumerate ; but we
know that much uſeful information was occaſionally communicated by Dr Latham of
Dartford in Kent, the celebrated ornithologiſt ; by Dr William Wright Phyſician-
general to the forces in the Weſt Indies under the command of Sir Ralph Abercrom-
bie ; by the Reverend J. Hawkins, vicar of Halſted in Eſſex ; by the late Mr Adams,
mathematical inſtrument-maker to his Majeſty ; and by Mr William Jones, optician
in Holborn, London. There is, however, no man to whom the Proprietors of the En-
cyclopædia Britannica feel themſelves under greater obligations than to Dr Black,
for the very handſome offer which he made to the perſon who was at firſt entruſted
with the chemical department of the Work. And while they expreſs thus publicly
their gratitude to him, may not the Editor declare how much he is indebted to his
two aſſiſtants, the Reverend James Walker, M. A. of St John's College, Cambridge,
and Mr James Thomſon of Crieff, preacher in the church of Scotland ? Of theſe gen-
tlemen, who ſucceſſively had the care of the Work when he was neceſſarily abſent, he
could always ſay, Quibus in rebus ipſ intereſſe non poffumus, in his, operæ noſtra vicaria
fides amicorum fupponitur.
.
TO the above preface of the European Editors the publiſher of the American Edi-
tion begs leave to add, that neither care nor expenſe have been ſpared to render the
work worthy of the Public attention. Some articles have been written anew, ſeveral of
original matter have been inſerted, and many have been reviſed and important improve-
ments made in them, indeed, through every volume uſeful though minute improve-
ments have been introduced which contributed to the excellence of the work. The
engravings, the paper, and the general execution of the work muſt ſpeak for them-
ſelves, on this ſcore the publiſher thinks he has not much cenſure to fear; for typo-
graphical inaccuracies, which are comparatively few, he has 'no apology to offer, but flat-
ters himſelf that in a work of ſuch variety and extent the candid reader will view them
with indulgence.
"TROM the nature of the work many things muſt be expected to be imperfect, and
ſome through inadvertence omitted, theſe, with a variety of original materials are pro-
poſed to be taken up in a ſupplementary volume.
ENCYCLOPÆDIA.
EN CY CLO PÆ D I A.
}
A.
A;
A,
THE firſt letter of the alphabet, in all the ſignified 500; and when a daſla was added on the top,
abbreviat. known languages of the world, that of Ethiopia Ā, 5000.
abbreviat.
excepted, in which it is the 13th. It has deſervedly
A, in the Julian calendar, is the firſt of the ſeven
the firſt place in the alphabet on account of its fimplici-
DOMINICAL letters. It had been in uſe amongſt the
ty, very little more being neceſſary to its pronunciation Romans long before the eſtabliſhment of Chriſtianity,
than opening the mouth.
as the firſt of the eight nundinales literæ ; in imita-
In the Englih language A is the mark of three dif.
tion whereof it was that the dominical letters were firſt
ferent ſounds, termed, by our grammarians the broad, introduced.
the open, and the ſender A. The firſt reſembles that
A is alſo an abbreviation uſed with different inten-
of the German A, is found in ſeveral monoſyllables, . tions. Hence,
as wall, falt, &c. and is pronounced as au in cauſe. It
A, among logicians, is uſed to denote an univerſal
is probable that the Saxons expreſſed only this broad affirmative propoſition; according to the verſe,
found of the letter, as it is ſtill commonly retained in
Afferit A, negat E, verum generaliter ambe.
the northern diſtricts of England, and univerſally Thus, in the firſt figure, a ſyllogiſm conſiſting of three
throughout Scotland; as tauk for talk, wauk for walk univerſal affirmative propoſitions, is ſaid to be in Bär-
or wake. The open A reſembles that of the Italians bā-rā; the A thrice repeated, denoting fo many of the
in adagio, and is the fame with that of a in father, ra. propoſitions to be univerſal, &c. See BARBARA.
ther, &c. The flender found is peculiar to the Engliſh
A, among the Romans, was uſed in the giving of
language, and reſembles the ſound of the French diph- votes or fuffrages. When a new law was propoſed,
thong ai in pais, or their a maſculine, or perhaps it is
each voter had two wooden ballots put in his hand ;
a middle found between them : it is exemplified in place, the one narked with a capital A, ſignifying aniiquo,
waſte, &c. alſo in toleration, juſtification, and all other q. d. antiquam volo; and the other with v. R. for uti
words ending with ation.
rogas. Such as were againſt the law, caſt the firſt inte
A is fometimes added after words in burleſque poetry; the urn; as who ſhould ſay, I refuſe I antiquate it
in which caſe it only makes an additional fyllable with- or, I like the ancient law, and deſire no innovation.
A, in the trials of criminal cauſes, alſo denoted ab.
very often does in our ballads. It is alſo ſometimes ſolution; whence Cicero, pro Milone, calls A, litera
redundant, as in the words ariſe, awake, &c. which falutaris, a ſaving letter.
falutaris, a ſaving letter. Three ballots were diſtri-
are not different in fignification from riſe, wake, buted to each judge, marked with the letters, A for
&c.
abfolvo, I acquit; G for condemno, I condemn ; and
It is ſometimes a word, either noun or interje&tion ;
N. L. for nion liquet, It is not clear. From the number
in which laſt cafe it is commonly an expreſſion of grief, of each caſt into the urn, the prætor pronounced the
and joined with the aſpirate, as ah! When a noun, it is priſoner's fate. If they were equal in number, he was
only with reſpect to itſelf; as great A, little a, &c. abfolved.
A is very frequently uſed as an article; in which cafe
A, in the ancient inſcriptions of marbles, &c. occa.
it has no plural ſignification, and is uſed to denote the fionally ſtands for Auguftis, ager, aiunt, &c. When
number one, as a houſe, a field, &c. When placed as double it denotes Augufti; when triple, aurulm, ar-
an article before any of the vowels, y and w only ex-
gentum, æs; and ſometimes its meaning can only be
cepted, it is joined with the letter n; as, an illand, an
known by the reſt of the infcription. Ifidorc adds, that
orator, &c.
In the three following caſes it is a prepo- when it occurs after the word miles (ſoldier), it denotes
Sition. 1. When it goes before a participle, or noun him young. On the reverſe of ancient medals, it de-
derived fro:n a participle ; as, I am a doing this or
notes them ſtruck by the city of Argos, ſometimes by
that. 2. When uſed before local ſurnames, as Corne-
that of Athens ; but on coins of modern date, it is the
lius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis, &c. 3. When it is mark of Paris.
uſed in coinpoſition; as, a foot, a ſleep, &c. In ſome A, as an abbreviation, is alſo often found in modern
inſtances it denotes the proportion of one thing to ano writers: as, A. D. for anno Donini: A. M. artium
ther r; as ſo much a week, a man, a head, &c.
magifter, maſter of arts, &c.
1, anong the ancients, was a numeral letter, and
A, the letter a, with a line above it thus, ā, is uſed
VOLI.
А
2
112
AAR
[ 2 ]
A AR
A,
Aaron. .
GICIAN
in medical preſcriptions for ana, of each; fometimes it following year, Aaron was appointed by God high- Aaron,
is written thus, āā: e. g. Ę Mel. Sacchar. & Mann. ā, prieſt; which office he executed during the time that Aarſens
vel āā, zj.i. e. Take of honey, ſugar, and manna, of the children of Iſrael continued in the wilderneſs. He
each one ounce.
died in the fortieth year after their departure from
A, put to bills of exchange, is in England an abbre. Egypt, upon mount Hor, being then 123 years old;
viation for accepted, and in France for accepté. It is A.M. 2522, of the Julian period 3262, before the Chriſ-
likewiſe uſual among merchants to mark their ſets of ſtian æra 1452. With regard to the attempts of the
books with the letters A, B, C, &c. inſtead of the num Egyptian magicians to imitate thic miracles performed
bers 1, 2, 3, &c.
by his rod, ſee ſome remarks under the article MA-
A. Á. A. The chemical abbreviation for Amalgania,
or Amalgamation,
AARON and JULIUS (Saints) ſuffered martyrdom
AA, the name of ſeveral rivers in Germany and Swiſ- together, during the perſecution under the cmperor
ſerland,
Diocleſian, in the year 303, about the ſame time with
AACH, a little town in Germany, in the circle of St Alban, the protomartyr of Britain. We are no
Suabia, near the ſource of the river Aach, and almoft where told what their Britiſh names were, it being uſual
equally diſtant from the Danube and the lake Con- with the Chriſtian Britons, at the time of baptiſm, to
Itance. It belongs to the houſe of Auſtria. E. Long. take new names from the Greek, Latin, or Hebrew.
9. o. Lat. 47. 55.
Nor liave we any certainty as to the particulars of their
AAHUS, a little town in Germany, in the circle of death; only that they ſuffered the moſt cruel torments.
Weſtphalia, and biſhopric of Munſter. It is the capital They had each a church erected to his memory; and
of Aahus, a ſmall diſtrict ; has a good caſtle; and lies their feſtival is placed, in the Roman inartyrology, on
north-eaſt of Coesfeldt, E. Long. 7. 1. Lat. 52. 10.
the firſt of July.
AAM, or HAAM, a liquid meaſure in common uſe AARON, or Harun, Al Raſchid, a celebrated khalif,
among the Dutch, and containing 128 meaſures called or Mahometan ſovereign of the Saracen empire ; whoſe
mingles, each weighing nearly 36 ounces avoirdupoiſe ; hiſtory is given under the article of BAGDAD.
whence the Aam contains 218 Engliſh, and 148. pints Aaron Hariſchon, a learned rabbi and CARAITE
Paris meaſure.
in the 15th century, wrote an Hebrew grammar, print-
AAR, the name of two rivers, one in Swiſſerland, ed at Conſtantinople in 1581 ; probably the ſame with
and another in Weſtpalia in Gerniany. It is alſo the Aaron the caraite, wlio wrote a commentary on the
name of a ſmall iſland in the Baltic.
five books of Moſes, which is in MS. in the French
AARASUS (anc. geog.), a town of Piſidia, in king's library.
the Hither Alia, thought to be the Anafſus of Pto. AARSENS (FRANCIS), Lord of Someldyck and
lemy.
Spyck, was one of the greateſt miniſters for negocia-
AARON, high-prieſt of the Jews, and brother to tion the United Provinces could ever boaſt of. His
Mofes, was by the father's ſide great grandſon, and by father, Cornelius Aarſens, was Regiſter to the States;
the mother's grandfon, of Levi. By God's command and being acquainted with Mr Pleſſis Mornay, at the
he met Moſes at the foot of mount Horeb, and they Court of William Prince of Orange, he prevailed
went together into Egypt to deliver the children of Il- upon him to take his ſon under him, with whom he
rael : he had a great ſhare in all that Moſes did for continued ſome years. John Olden Barnevelt, who
their deliverance; the ſcriptures call him the prophet of preſided over the affairs of Holland and all the United
Moſes, and he acted in that capacity after the Iſraelites Provinces, fent hiin afterwards agent into France,
had paſſed over the Red Sea. He aſcended mount Si- where he learned to negociate under thoſe profound
nai with two of his fons, Nadab and Abihu, and fe- politicians Henry IV. Villeroy, Silleri, Roffie, Jaon-
venty elders of the people; but neither he nor they nin, &c. and he acquitted limfelf in ſuch a manner as
went higher than half way, from whence they ſaw the to obtain their approbation. Soon after, he was in-
glory of God; only Moſes and Joſhua went to the top, veſted with the character of ambaſſador, being the firſt
where they ſtaid forty days. During their abſence, who was recogniſed as ſuch by the French court ; at
Aaron, overcome by the people's eager entreaties, fet which time Henry IV, declared, that he ſhould take
up the golden calf, which the Ifraelites worſhipped by precedence next to the Venetian miniſter. He reſided
his conſent. This calf has given riſe to various con in France 15 years ; during which time he received
je&tures. Some rabbies maintain that he did not make great marks of eſteem from the king, who created hiin
the golden calf; but only threw tlie gold into the fire, a knight and baron ; and for this reaſon he was re-
to get rid of the importunities of the people ; and that ceived amongſt the nobles of the province of Holland
certain magicians, who iningled with the Iſraelites However, he became ar length ſo odious to the French
at their departure froin Eygpt, caſt this gold into court, that they deſired to have him recalled. He
the figure of a calf. According to ſome authors, was afterwards deputed to Venice, and to ſeveral Ger-
the fear of a falling a ſacrifice to the reſentment of man and Italian princes, upon occaſion of the troubles
the people by giving a refuſal, made Aaron comply in Bohemia. He was the firſt of three extraordinary
with their deſire; and they alledge alſo, that he hoped ainbaſſadors ſent into England in 1620, and the ſecond
to elude their requeſt, by demanding of the women to in 1641; in which latter embaſſy he was accompanied
contribute their ear-rings, imagining they would rather by the Lord of Brederode as firſt ambaſſador, and
chooſe to remain without a viſible deity, than be de. Heemſvliet as third, to treat about the marriage of
prived of llieir perſonal ornaments. This affair of the
This affair of the Prince William, ſon to the Prince of Orange. He
golden calf happened in the third month after the If was likewiſe ambaſſador-extraordinary to the French
raelites came out of Egypt. In the firſt month of the court in 1624, and the Cardinal de Richlieu having
jufca
-,
АВА
[ 3 ]
A B A
Ablet
Aarſens juſt taken tlie adminiſtration of affairs into his hands, he was not very well eſteemed during his life, inſomuch Abg
and knowing lie was an able man, made uſe of him to that the khalif Almanſor cauſed him to be impriſoned
Aba.
ſerve his own purpoſes. He died in a very advanced at Bagdad, for having refuſed to ſubſcribe to the opi-
Aback.
age; and his ſon who ſurvived him, was reputed the nion of abſolute predeſtination, which the Moflulmans
wealthieſt man in Holland.
call Cadha. But afterwards Abou Joſeph, who was
AARSENS (Peter), a painter, called in Italy Pietro the fovereign judge or chancellor of the empire under
Longo, becauſe of his ſtature, was born at Amſterdam the khalif Hadi, brought his doctrine into ſuch credit,
1519. He was eminent for all kinds of ſubjects; but that it became a prevailing opinion, That to be a good
was particularly famous for altar-pieces, and for repre. Muſſulman was to be a Haniſite. He died in the
ſenting a kitchen with its furniture: he had the pain 150th year of the Hegira, in the priſon of Bagdad
to ſee a fine altar-piece of his deſtroyed by the rabble aforeſaid: and it was not till 335 years after his death,
in the inſurrection 1566, though a lady of Alcmaer that Melick Schah, a ſultan of the Selgiucidan race,
offered 200 crowns for its redemption.
built for him a magnificent monument in the ſame city,
AARTGEN, or AERTGEN, a painter of merit, whereto he adjoined a college peculiarly appropriated
was the ſon of a woolcomber, and born at Leyden in to ſuch as made a profeſſion of this ſect. This was
1498. He worked at his father's trade until he had in the_485th year of the Hegira, and Anno Chriſti
attained the age of eighteen; and then having diſco- 1092. The moſt eminent fucceffors of this doctor were
vered a genius for deſigning, he was placed with Cor. Ahmed Benali, Al Giaſſas, and Al Razi who was the
nelius Engelheihtz, under whom he made a conſider maſter of Naſſari; and there is a molque particularly
able progreſs in painting. He became fo diſtinguiſh- appropriated to them in the temple of Mecca.
ed, that the celebrated Francis Floris went to Ley ABA, Abas, Abos, or Abus, (anc. geog.), the
den out of mere curioſity to ſee him. He found him name of a mountain of Greater Armenia, ſituated be-
inhabiting a poor half-ruined hut, and in a very mean tween the mountains Niphatos and Nibonis. Accord-
ſtyle of living: He ſolicited him to go to Antwerp, ing to Strabo, the Euphrates and Araxes roſe from this
promiſing him wealth and rank fuitable to his merit; mountain; the former running eaſtward, and the lat-
but Aartgen refuſed, declaring that he found more ter weſtward.
ſweets in his poverty than others did in their riches. ABA. See ABÆ.
It was a cuſtom with this painter never to work on ABACÆNA (anc. geog.), a town of Media, and
Mondays, but to devote that day, with his diſciples, another of Cana in the Hither Aſia.
to the bottle. He uſed to ſtroll about the ſtreets in ABACÆNUM (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily,
the night, playing on the German flute, and in one of whoſe ruins are ſuppoſed to be thoſe lying near Trippi,
theſe frolics was drowned in 1564.
a citadel on an high and ſteep Mountain not far from
AASAR (anc. geog.), a town of Paleſtine, in the Meſſina. The inhabitants were called Abacænini.
tribe of Judah, ficuate between Azotus and Aſcalon. In ABACATUAIA, in ichthology, a barbarous nanie
Jerome's time it was an hamlet.
of the zeus vomer. See ZEUS.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the He ABACH, a market town of Germany, in Lower
brews, and the fifth of their ecclefiaftical year, which Bavaria, ſeated on the Danube. It is remarkable for
begins with the inonth Niſan. It anſwers to the moon Roman antiquities, and for ſprings of mineral waters,
of July ; that is, to part of our month of the ſame which are ſaid to be good for various diſtempers. E.
name, and to the beginning of Auguſt: it conſiſts of Long. II. 56. N. Lat. 48. 53.
thirty days. The Jews faſt on the firſt of this month, ABACINARE, or ABBACINARE, in writers of the
in memory of Aaron's death ; and on the ninth, becauſe middle age, a ſpecies of puniſhment, conſiſting in the
on that day both the temple of Solomon, and that blinding of the criminal, by holding a hot balon or bowl
erected after the captivity, were burnt ; the former by of metal before his eyes.
the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans. The ABACK (a fea-term), the ſituation of the fails when
fame day is alſo remarkable among that people for the their ſurfaces are flatted againſt the maſts by the force
publication of Adrian's edict, wherein they were for- of the wind. The fails are ſaid to be taken aback when
bid to continue in Judea, or even to look back when at they are brought into this ſituation, either by a ſudden
a diſtance from Jeruſalem, in order to lament the defo- change of the wind, or by an alteration in the ſhip’s
lation of that city. The eighteenth of the ſame month courſe. They are laid aback, to effect an inmediate re-
is alſo a faſt among the Jews; becauſe the lamp in the treat, without turning to the right or left; or, in the ſea
fanctuary was that night extinguiſhed, in the time of phraſe, to give the ſhip ſtern-way, in order to avoid
fome danger diſcovered before her in a narrow channel,
Ab, in the Syriac čalendar, is the name of the laſt or when ſhe has advanced beyond her ſtation in the line
ſummer-month. The firſt day of this month they call- of hattle, or otherwiſe. The fails are placed in this
cd Suum Miriam, the faſt of the virgin, becauſe the poſition by Nackening the lee-braces, and hauling in
eaſtern Chriſtians faſted from that day to the fifteenth, ihe weather ones; To that the whole effort of the wind
which was therefore called Fathr-Miriam, the ceſſa- is exerted on the forepart of the furface, which readily
tion of the faſt of the virgin.
palhes the flip aftern, unleſs the is reſtrained by ſome
ABA (or rather ABAU) HANIFAH or HANFAH, fire counteracting force. It is alſo uſual to ſpread ſome
named Al-Nooma, was the fon of Thabet, and born fail aback near the ſtern, as the mizzen top-fail, when
at Caufah in the Soth year of the Hegira. This is the a ſhip rides with a ſingle anchor in a road, in order to
moſt celebrated doctor of the orthodox Muſſulmans, prevent her from approaching it ſo as to entangle the
and his feet holds the principal eſteem among the four Aukes of it with her ſlackened cable, and thereby looſen
which they indifferenly follow. Notwithſtanding this, it from the ground.
ABACOT,
Ahaz.
A 2
ABA
[ 4 ]
ABA
Abacot
H
Abacus.
Damc.
ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of ſtate ABACUS Major, in metallurgic operations, the name Abacus
worn by the kings of England, the upper part where- of a trough uſed in the mines, wherein the ore is waſhed. U
of was in the form of a double crown.
ABADDON, is the name which St John in the Abalus.
ABACTORS, or ADACTORES, a name given to Revelation gives to the king of the locuits, the angel
thoſe who drive away, or rather steal, cattle by herds, of the bottomleſs pit. The inſpired writer ſays, this
or great numbers at once; and are therefore very pro- word is Hebrew, and in Greek fignifies 'Anorriav, i, e.
perly diſtinguiſhed from fures, or thieves.
a defiroyer. That angel-king is thought to be Satan or
ABACUS, anong the ancients, was a kind of cup- the devil: but Mr le Clere thinks, with Dr. Hammond,
board or baffet. Livy, deſcribing the luxury into that by the locuſts which came out of the abyſs, may
which the Romans degenerated after the conqueſt of be underſtood the zealots and robbers, who miſerably
Aſia, fays, They had their abaci, beds, &c. plated afflicted the land of Judea, and laid it in a manner waſte
over with gold.
before Jeruſalem was taken by the Romans; and that
ABACUS, among the ancient mathematicians, figni- Abaddon, the king of the locuſts, may be John of Gif-
fied a table covered with duſt, on which they drew their chala, who baving treacherouſly left that town a little
diagrams; the word in this ſenſe being derived from before it was ſurrendered to Titus, came to Jeruſalem,
the Plioenician abak, duſt.
where he foon headed part of the zealots, who acknow-
ABACUS, in architecture, ſignifies the fuperior part or ledged him as their king, whilſt the reſt would not
member of the capital of a column, and ſerves as a kind ſubmit to him. This ſubdiviſion of the zealot party
of crowning to both. Vitruvius tells us the abacus was brought a thouſand calamities on the Jews.
originally intended to repreſent a ſquare tile laid over AÑADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave
an urn, or rather over a baſket. See ARCHITEC to gods of the firſt order. In the Roman mythology,
TURE, 1100 15. The form of the abacus is not the it is the name of a ſtone which Saturn ſwallowed, by
ſamne in all orders : in the Tuſcan, Doric, and lo- the contrivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his
nic, it is generally ſquare ; but in the Corinthian and new-born fon Jupiter : hence it ridiculouſly became
Compoſite, its fonr ſides are arched inwards, and em the object of religious worſhip.
belliſhed in the middle with ſome ornament, as a roſe ABÆ, or ABA (anc. geog.) a town of Phocis il
or other flower. Scammozzi uſes abacus for a con Greece, near Helicon ; famous for an oracle of A.
cave moulding on the capital of the Tuſcan pedeſtal ; pollo older than that at Delphi, and for a rich temple
and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or boul- plundered and burnt by the Perſians.
tin, in the Tuſcan and Doric orders, by the ſame ABAFT, a ſea-term, ſignifying the hinder part of
a ſhip, or all thoſe parts both within and without which
ABACUS is alſo the name of an ancient inſtrument for lie towards the ſtern, in oppoſition to AFORE ; which
facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is variouſly fee. Abaft, is alſo uſed as a prepoſition, and fignifies
contrived. That chiefly uſed in Europe is made by further aft, or nearer the ſtern ; as the barricade ſtands
drawing any number of parallel lines at the diſtance of abaft the main-maft, i. e. behind it, or nearer the ſtern.
two diameters of one of the counters uſed in the calcu ABAISSED, Abaiſſe, in heraldry, an epithet ap-
lation. A counter placed on the loweſt line, ſigni. plied to the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks
fies I ; on the 2d, 10 ; on the 3d, 100 ; on the 4th, downwards to the point of the ſhield, or when the
1000, &c.
In the intermediate ſpaces, the fame wings are ſhut, the natural way of bearing thein bz-
counters are eſtimated at one half of the value of the ing extended.
line immediately ſuperior, viz. between the iſt and 2d, ABAKA KHAN, the 18th emperor of the Mo-
5; between the ad and 3d, 50 ; &c. See the figure on guls, a wiſe and clement prince. He reigned 17 years,
Plate I..where the ſame number, 1788 for example, is and is by ſome authors ſaid to have been a Chriſtian.
repreſented under both diviſions by different diſpoſiti. It may be admitted, indeed, that he joined with the
ons of the counters.
Chriſtians in keeping the feaſt of Eaſter, in the city
Abacus is alſo uſed by modern writers for a table of Hanadau, fome ſhort time before his death. But this
nimbers ready caſt up, to expedite the operations of is no proof of his Chriſtianity ; it being common, in
arithmetic. In this ſenſe we have Abaci of addition, of times of brotherly love, for Chriſtiansand Mahometans
multiplication, of diviſion.
to join in keeping the fame fcafts, when each would
Chinefe ABACUS. See SWANFAN.
compliment the other with doing honour to his folem-
ABACUS Pythagoricus, the common multiplication- nity.
rable, ſo called from its being invented by Pythagoras. ABALAK, a town of Siberia, two miles from To-
ABACUS Logiſticus, is a rectangled triangle, whoſe bolík. E. Long. 64. 10. N. Lat. 57. I.
fides, forming the right angle, contain the numbers ABALIENATION, in law, the act of transfer-
from 1 to 60; and its area, the facta of each two of the ring one man's property to another.
numbers perpendicularly oppoſite. This is alſo called ABALLABA, the ancient name of APPLEBY, a
a canon of fexagefimals.
town in Weſtmoreland, remarkable only for its anti-
ABACUS Palmula, in the ancient muſic, denote quity, having been a Roman ſtation. W. Long. 1. 4o.
the machinery, whereby the ſtrings of Polyplectra, or N. Lat, 55. 38.
inſtruments of many ſtrings, were ſtruck with a plec ABALUS, (anc. geog.), ſuppoſed by the anci.
trum made of quills.
ents to be an illand in the German ocean, called by
ABACUS Harmonicus, is ufed by Kircher for the Timæus Bafilia, and by Xenophon Lampfácenus Bal.
ſtructure and diſpoſition of the keys of a muſical in- tia ; now the peninſula of Scandinavia. Here, accord-
Itrument, whether to be touched with the hands or the ing to Pliny, ſome imagined that amber dropped from
fect.
the trees,
ABANAN
АВА.
[ 5 ]
ABA
the word
i.
p
Abana ABANA, or AMANA (anc. geog.), a river of Phoe- among whom was Abaris the Hyperborean. In this Abaris,
11 nicia, which, riſing from Mount Hermon, waſhed the journey he renewed the alliance between his country-
Abaris. ſouth and weſt ſides of Damaſcus, and falls into the men and the inhabitants of the iſland of Delos. It
Phænician ſea to the north of Tripolis, called Ghryappears that he alſo went to Lacedæmon ; ſince, ac-
forrheas by the Greeks.
cording to ſome writersy, he there built a temple, con- Pauſanias
ABANGA, See Ady.
ſecrated to Proſerpine the Salutary. It is aſſerted, that lib.iii.p.94.
ABANO, a town of the Paduano, in the republic of he was capable of foretelling earthquakes, driving away
Venice, famous among the ancients for its hot baths. plagues, laying ſtorms}, &c. He wrote ſeveral books, Porphyry
ABANTES, a people who came originally from as Suidas † informs us, viz. Apollo's arrival into the in Vita Pyja
Thrace, and ſettled in Phoceca, a country of Greece, country of the Hyperboreans; The nuptials of the river thagos
where they built a town which they called Aba, after Hebras; ooogorod, or the Generation of the Gods; A A, † Under
the name of Abas their leader ; and, if we may credit collection of oracles; &c. Himerius the ſophiſt ap-
'Alapas.
fome ancient authors, the Abantes went afterwards into plauds him for ſpeaking pure Greek; which attain-
the iſland Euboea, now called Negropont: others ſay ment will be no matt:r of wonder to ſuch as conſider
the Abantes of Eubea came from Athens. The Aban the ancient intercourſe there was between the Greeks
tes were a very warlike people, cloſing with their ene and Hyperboreans. If the Hebrides, or Weſtern
mies, and fighting hand to hand.
Iſland of Scotland (ſays Mr Tolland*), were the Hy-
* Account
ABANTIAS, or ABANTIS (anc. geog.), a name perboreans of Diodorust, then the celebrated Abaris of the Dru-
of the iſland Euboea in the Egean ſea, extending a was of that country; and likewiſe a druid, having been ids, in his
long the coaſt of Greece, from the promontory Su- the prieſt of Apollo. Suidas, who knew not the dif- Pofthumous
Works, vol.
niuin of Attica to Theſſaly, and ſeparated from Bæo- tinction of tlie inſular Hyperboreans, makes him a
161.
tia by a narrow ſtrait called Euripus. From its length Scythian; as do ſome others, milled by the fame vul. +Diod. Sic.
the iſland was formerly called Macris ; afterwards A. gar error; though Diodorus has truly fixed his country lib. ii, iii.
bantias, or Abantis, from the Abantes, a people origi- in an iſland, and not on the continent. Indeed, the
nally of Thrace, called by Homer om 10b2v Koplowites, from fictions and miſtakes concerning our Abaris are infi-
wearing their hair long behind, having in a battle ex nite : however, it is by all agreed that he travelled quite
perienced the inconvenience of wearing long hair be over Greece, and from thence into Italy, where he con-
fore. From cutting their hair before, they were call. verfed familiarly with Pythagoras, who favoured him
ed Guretes.
beyond all his diſciples, by inſtructing him in his doc-
ABAPTISTON, in ſurgery, the perforating part trines (eſpecially his thoughts of nature), in a plainer
of the inſtrument called a TREPAN.
and more compendious method than be did any other.
ABARA, a town in the Greater Armenia, under This diſtinction could not but be very advantageous to
the dominion of the Turks: it is often the reſidence Abaris. The Hyperborean, in return, preſented the
of the archbiſhop of Naklivan. E. Long. 46. 25. N. Samian, as though he equalled Apollo himſelf in wiſ-
Lat. 39. 45.
dom, with the ſacred arrow, on which the Greeks
ABARANER, a town of Aſia, in Grand Armenia, have fabulouſly related † that he ſat aftride, and flew Jam blichi
belonging to the Turks : it is ſeated on the river Alin- upon it, through the air, over rivers and lakes, foreſts Vna Pytl.a.
gena. E. Long. 46. 30. N. Lat. 39. 50.
and mountains; in like manner as the volgar ſtill be- P. 128.
ABARCA, an ancient kind of ſhoe uſed in Spain lieve, particularly thoſe of the Hebrides, that wizards
for paſſing the mountains with. It was made of raw and witches fly whitherſoever they pleafe on their broom
hides, and bound with cords, which ſecured the feet ſticks. The orator Himerilis abovementioned, though
of travellers againſt the ſnow.
one of thoſe who, from the equivocal ſenſe of ihe word
ABARIM, high mountains of ſteep aſcent, feparat. Hyperborean, ſeems to have miſtaken Abaris for a Scy-
ing the country of the Anmonites and Moabites from thian, yet deſcribes his perſon accurately, and gives
the land of Canaan, where Moſes died. According to him a very noble character. “ They relate (ſays he)
Joſephus, they ſtood oppoſite to the territory of Jeri " that Abaris the fage was by nation a Hyperborean,
cho, and were the laſt ſtation but one of the Ifraelites “ appeared a Grecian in ſpeech, and reſembled a Scy-
coming from Egypt. Nebah and Piſgah were parts of “thian in his habit and appearance.
He canie to
theſe mountains.
« Athens, holding a bow in his hand, having a quiver
ABARIS, the Hyperborean ; a celebrated fage of “hanging on his fhoulders, his body wrapt up in a
antiquity, whoſe hiſtory and travels have been the sub “ plaid, girt about the loins with a gilded belt, and
ject of much learned diſcuſſion. Such a number of fa. wearing trowſers reaching from his waiſt downward.”
* Jamblichi bulous ſtories* were told of him, that Herodotus him- By this it is evident (continues Mr Toland) that he
Vita Pythag ſelf ſeems to ſcruple to relate them. He tells us only,t was not habited like the Scythians, who were always
+ Lib. iv. that this Barbarian was ſaid to have travelled with an covered with ſkins; but appeared in the native garb
arrow, and to have taken no ſuſtenance: but this does of an aboriginal Scot. As to what relates to his abi-
not acquaint us with the marvellous properties which lities, Himerius informs us, that “he was affable and
were attributed to that arrow; nor that it had been pleaſant in converſation, in diſpatching great affairs
given him by the Hyperborean Apollo. With regard « ſecret and induſtrious, quick-lighted in preſent exi-
to the occaſion of his leaving his native country, Har “gencies, in preventing future dangers circumſpect,
# Under
pocration tells us, that the whole earth being infeſted “ a ſearcher after wiſdom, defirous of friendſhip, truſt
the word with a deadly plague, Apollo, upon being conſulted, “ing little to fortune, and having every thing truſted
'AG
gave no other anſwer, than that the Athenians ſhould - to him for his prudence.” Neither the Acadeny
offer np prayers in behalf of all other nations : upon nor the Lycænm could have furniſhed a man with fit-
Walich ſeveral countries deputed ambaſſadors to Athens, ter qualities to travel ſo far abroad, and to ſuch wiſe
nations,
cap. 36.
ไ
A B A
[ 6 ]
A B A
;
Abarticu- nations, about affairs no leſs arduous than important. ABASCUS, a river of Aſiatic Sarmatia, wlich, Abafcus
lation. And if we further attentively conſider his moderation riſing from Mount Caucaſus, falls into the Euxine, be M
in eating, drinking, and the uſe of all thoſe things tween Pityus to the caſt, and Nofis to the weſt.
Abatos.
Abaſcia.
whiclı our natural appetites inceffantly crave; joining ABASITIS (anc. geog.), a tract of Aſiatic Myſia,
the candour and ſimplicity of his manners with the ſo- in which was ſituated the city of Ancyra.
lidity and wiſdom of his anſwers, all which we find ABASSI, or ABSASIS, a ſilver coin current in Per-
fufficiently atteſted: it muſt be owned, that the world fia, equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence
at that time had few to compare with Abaris.
halfpenny Sterling. It took its name from Schah
ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, a ſpecies of Abbas II. king of Perſia, under whom it was ſtruck.
articulation admitting of a manifeſt motion ; called al ABASSUS (anc. geog.), a town of the Greater
fo Diarthroſis, and Dearticulatio, to diſtinguiſh it from Phrygia, on the confines of the Toliſtobagii, a people
that ſort of articulation which admits of a very obſcure of Galatia in Aſia.
motion, and is called Synarthroſis.
ABATAMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands
ABAS, a weight uſed in Perſia for weighing pearls. by interpoſition, i. e. when a perſon dies ſeized, and
It is one-eighth leſs than the European carat.
another who has no right enters before the heir.
ABAS, in the heatlien mythology, was the ſon of To ABATE, (from the French abbatre, to pull down,
Hypothoon and Meganira, who entertained Ceres, and overthrow, demoliſh, batter down, or deſtroy), a term
offered a ſacrifice to that goddeſs; but Abas ridiculing uſed by the writers of the Engliſh common-law, both
the ceremony, and giving her opprobrious language, in the active and neutral ſenſe; as, To abate a caſtle, is
ſhe ſprinkled himn with a certain mixture ſhe held
in her to beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by ſome excep-
cup, on which he became a newt or water lizard. tion, to defeat or overthrow it. A ſtranger abateth
ABAS (Schah) the Great, was third ſon of Coda. that is, entereth upon a houſe or land void by the death
bendi, 7th king of Perſia, of the race of the Sophis. of him that laſt poſſeſſed it, before the heir takes pof-
Succeeding to his father at 18, in 1585, he found the ſeſſion, and ſo keepeth him out: wherefore, as he that
affairs of Perſia at a low ebb, occaſioned by the con- putteth out hiin in poſſeſſion is ſaid to diſſeize, fo he
queſts of the Turks and Tartars. He regained ſeveral that ſteppeth in between the former poſſeſſor and his
of the provinces they had ſeized; but death put a ſtop heir is ſaid to abate. In the neuter ſignification thus :
to his victories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He The writ of the demandant ſhall abate ; that is, bhall be
was the greateſt prince that had reigned in Perſia for diſabled, fruſtrated or overthrown. The appeal abateth
many ages; and it was he who made Iſpahan the by covin; that is, the accuſation is defeated by deceit.
metropolis of Perſia: his memory is held in the higheſt ABATE, in the manege, implies the performing any
veneration among the Perſians.
downward motion properly. Thus a horſe is ſaid to
ABAS (Schah) his grandſon, 9th king of 'Perſia, of abate to take down his curvets, when he puts both his
the race of the Sophis, ſucceeded his father Seſi at 13 hind legs to the ground at once, and obſerves the ſame
years of age: he was but 18 when he made himſelf ma exactneſs in all the times.
ſter of the city Candahar, which had ſurrendered in his ABATELEMENT, in commerce, a term uſed for
father's reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province a prohibition of trade to all French' merchants in the
about it; and he preſerved it afterwards againſt this ports of the Levant who will not ſtand to their bar-
Indian emperor, though he beſieged it more than once gains, or refuſe to pay their debts. It is a ſentence
with an army of 300,000 men. He was a very merci- of the French conful, which muſt be taken off before
ful prince, and openly protected the Chriſtians; he had they can ſue any perſon for the payment of their debts.
formed a deſign of extending the limits of his kingdom ABATEMENT, in heraldry, an accidental figure
towards the north, and had for that effect levied a pow- ſuppoſed to have been added to coats of arms, in order
erful army; but death put a ſtop to all his great deſigns to denote ſome diſhonourable demeanour or ſtain,
at 37 years of age, in 1666.
whereby the dignity of coat-armour was rendered of
ABASCIA, or ABCAS, a country in Alia, tributa- leſs eſteem. See HERALDRY.
ry to the Turks, ſituated on the coaſt of the Black ABATEMENT, in law. See To ABATE.
Sea. The people are poor, thieviſh, and treacherous, ABATEMENT, in the cuſtoms, an allowance made
up-
infomuch that there is no trading with them without on the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is
the utmoſt caution. Their commodities are furs, buck determined by the judgment of two merchants upon
and tyger ſkins, linen yarn, boxwood, and bees-wax: oath, and aſcertained by a certificate from the ſurveyor
but their greateſt traffic is in ſelling their own children, and land-waiter. .
and even one another, to the Turks; inſomuch that they ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the ſtables.
live in perpetual diſtruſt. They are deftitate of many ABATON, an erection at Rhodes, as a fence to
neceſſaries of life, and have nothing among them that the trophy of Artemiſia, queen of Halicarnaſſus, Coos,
can be called a town; though we find Anacopia, Dun- &c. raiſed in memory of her victory over the Rhodians;
dar, and Czekorni, mentioned in the maps. They have or rather as a ſcreen to conceal the diſgrace of the
the name of Chriſtians; but having nothing left but the Rhodians from the eyes of the world, the effacing or
name, any inore than the Mingrelians their northern deſtroying the trophy being with them a point of re-
neighbours. The men are robuſt and active, and the ligion.
the women are fair and beautiful; on which account the ABATOR, in law, a term applied to a perſon
Turks have a great value for the female ſlaves which who enters to a houſe or lands void by the death of
they purchaſe from among them. Their cuſtoms are the laſt poſſeſſor, before the true heir.
much the ſame as thoſe of the MINGRELIANS; which ABATOS (anc. geog.), an inand in the lake Moeris,
fee. E. Long, from 39 to 43. N. Lat. from 43 to 45,
formerly
+
ABB
[7]
ABB
Abbas
1
Abbeſs.
]
ABBOT.
Abavo. formerly famous for its papyrus. It was the burial- commander, Abbas was a famous doctor of the Muf-
place of Osiris,
ſulman law, inſomuch that he read lectures upon every
Abbas,
ABAVO, in botany a ſynonime of the ADANSONIA. chapter of the Koran, as his nephew pretended to re-
ABB, a term; among clothiers, applied to the yarn ceive them one by one from heaven. He died in 652,
of a weaver's warp. They ſay alſo Abb-wool in the and his memory is held in the higheſt veneration among
fame ſenſe.
the Muſſulmans to this day.
ABBA (anc. geog.) a town of Afric Popria, near Abul ABBAS ſurnamed Salah, was proclaimed kha-
Carthage.
lif; and in him began the Dynaſty of the
ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, lite ABBASSIDES, who poſſeſſed the khalifate for 524
rally ſignifies a father ; and, figuratively, a ſuperior, years; and there were 37 khalifs of this race who ſuc-
reputed as a father in reſpect of age, dignity, or af. ceeded one another without interruption.
fection. It is more particularly uſed in the Syriac, ABBE, in a monaſtic ſenſe, the ſame with ABBOT.
Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a title given to the ABBE, in a modern ſenſe, is the name of a curious
biſhops. The biſhops themſelves beſtow the title Abba popular character in France, very much mentioned,
more eminently on the biſhop of Alexandria ; which but very little known, in Britain. The term is not to
occaſioned the people to give him the title of Baba, be rendered in our language, as the exiſtence of the
or Papa, that is, Grandfather ; a title which he bore being which it denominates is poſterior to the reforma-
before the biſhop of Rome. It is a Jewih title of tion, and no ſuch character was known among the Ro-
honour given to certain rabbins called Tanaites; and maniſts till about a century and a half ago.
it is alſo particularly uſed, by ſome writers of the middle Abbés, according to the ſtricteſt definition, are per-
age, for the ſuperior of a monaſtery, uſually called fons who have not yet obtained any preciſe or fixed
ſettlement in church or ſtate, but moſt heartily wiſh for
ABBADIE (James), an eminent Proteſtant divine, and would accept of either, juſt as it may happen.
born at Nay in Bern in 1654 ; firſt educated there un In the mean while, their privileges are many. They
der the fainous John la Placette, and afterward at the are admiſſible in all companies, and no degradation to
univerſity of Sedan. From thence he went into Holland the beſt, notwithſtanding they are ſometimes found in
and Germany, and was miniſter in the French church of the worſt. Their dreſs is rather that of an academic,
Berlin. He left that place in 1690; came into England; or of a profeſſed fcholar, than of an ecclefiaftic; and, ne-
was foinetime miniſter in the French church in the Sa ver varying in colour, is no incumbrance on the pocket.
voy, London; and was made dean of Killalow in Ireland, Theſe abbés are very numerous, and no leſs uſeful.
He died at St Mary le Bonne near London, in 1727, They are, in colleges, the inſtructors of youth; in pri-
aged 73. He was ſtrongly attached to the cauſe of king vate families, the tutors of young gentlemen; and many
William, as appears in his elaborate defence of the re procure a decent livelihood by their literary and witty
volution, and his hiſtory of the aſſaſſination-plot. He compoſitions of all kinds, from the profoundeſt philo-
had great natural abilities, which he improved by true fophy to the moſt airy roinances. They are, in ſhort,
and uſeful learning. He was a moſt zealous defender a body of men who poſſeſs a fund of univerſal talents
of the primitive doctrine of the Proteſtants, as appears and learning, and are inceſſantly epiployed in the culti-
by his writings; and that ſtrong nervous eloquence, for vation of every various branch of literature and inge-
which he was ſo remarkable, enabling him to enforce the nuity. No ſubject whatever eſcapes them ; ſerious or
doctrines of his profeſſion, from the pulpit with great fpi- gay, folid or ludicrous, facred or profane, all pay tri-
rit and energy. He publiſhed ſeveral works in French bute to their reſearches; and as they are converſant in
that were much eſteemed; the principal of which are, A the loweſt as well as the higheſt topics, their fame is
Treatiſe on the Truth of the Chriſtian Religion; The equally great in the learned and in the ſcribbling world.
art of Knowing one's Self ; A Defence of the Britiſh A diftinguiſhing part of their character, too, though
Nation; The Deity of Jeſus Chriſt eſſential to the Chri we ſhall but fightly touch it, is their devotion to the
ſtian Religion ; The Hiſtory of the laſt conſpiracy in fair ſex : whoſe favourites, in return, they have the ho-
England, written by order of king William III.; and nour of being in the moſt enviable degree; the wit and
The Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the open- ſmartneſs for which they are uſually remarkable, being
ing the Seven Seals by the Son of God.
juſt the very things that ſuit the French ladies. In fine,
ABBAS, ſon of Abdalmothleb, and Mahomet's un theſe abbés are ſought after by moſt people, on various
cle, oppoſed his nephew with all his power, eſteeming accounts; as they are equally men of buſineſs and plea-
him an impoſtor and infidel ; but in the ſecond year of ſure, not leſs expert in the moſt ſerious tranſactions, than
the Hegira, being overcome and made a priſoner at fond of enjoying their ſhare in whatever occupies the gay
the batile of Bendir in 623, a great ranſom being de- world. Hence they diligently frequent all public ſpec-
manded for him, he repreſented to Mahomet, that his tacles, which are thought incomplete without them; as.
paying it would reduce him to poverty, which would they compoſe the moſt intelligent part of the company,
redound to the diſhonour of the family. But Mahomet and are the moſt weighty approvers or condemners of
having been informed of Abbas's having ſecreted large what paſſes in almoſt all places.
fums of money, aſked him after the purſes of gold he ABBESS, the ſuperior of an abbey or convent of
had left in his inother's cuſtody at Mecca. Abbas, up nuns. The abbeſs has the ſame rights and authority
on this, conceiving him to be really a prophet, em over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their
braced his new religion ; became one of his principal monks. The ſex indeed does not allow her to perform
captains; and ſaved his life when in eminent danger at the ſpiritual functions annexed to the prieſthood, where-
the battle of Henain, againſt the Thakefires, foon after with
the abbots is uſually inveſted; but there are inſtances
the reduction of Mecca. But beſides being a great of ſome abbeſſes who have a right or rather a privilege,
2
IR
A BB
[ 8 ]
A A BB
1
town.
Abbeville, to commiſſion a prieſt to act for them. They have even monks and nuns, which were found in ſome places very Abbey',
Abbey, a kind of epiſcopal juriſdiction, as well as ſome abbots diſorderly : upon which, the abbots, perceiving their Abbeya
who are exempted froin the viſitation of their dioceſans. diſſolution unavoidable, were induced to reſign their boyle.
Martene, in his treatiſe on the rights of the Church, houſes to the king, who by that means became inveſted
obferves, that ſome abbeſſes have formerly confeſſed with the abbey-lands: theſe were afterwards granted to
their nuns. But he adds, that their exceſſive curioſity different perſons, whoſe deſcendents enjoy them at this
carried them ſuch lengths, that there aroſe a neceſſity day: they were then valued at 2,853,000l. per annum,
of checking it. However, St Bafil, in his Rule, allows an immenſe fum in thoſe days.
the abbeſs to be preſent with the prieſt at the confeſſion Though the ſuppreſſion of religious houſes, even con-
ot her nins.
ſidered in a political light only, was of a very great na-
ABBEVILLE, a conſiderable city of France in tional benefit, it muſt be owned, that, at the time they
Picardy, and the capital of Ponthieu ; the river Somme fouriſhed, they were not entirely uſeleſs. Abbeys or mo-
runs thiough the middle of it, and divides it into two naſteries were then the repoſitories, as well as the ſemi-
parts. It has a collegiate church and twelve pariſh- naries, of learning; many valuable books and national
churches; the moſt conliderable of which are St George's records, as well as private evidences, have been preſerv.
and St Giles's, beſides a great number of monaſteries ed in their libraries; the only places wherein they could
and nunneries, a bailiwic, and a preſidial court. It is a have been ſafely lodged in thoſe turbulent times. Many
fortified town; the walls are flanked with baſtions, and of thoſe, which had eſcaped the ravages of the Danes,
ſurrounded by large ditches; and was never yet taken; were deſtroyed with inore than Gorbic barbarity at the
from which' circunſtance it is ſometimes called the diſſolution of the abbeys. Theſe ravages are pathetical-
jarden Town. The country about it is low, marſhy, ly lauiented by John Bale, in his Declaration upon Le-
and dirty. It is pretty well peopled, and is famous for land's Journal 1549.“ Coveroufneſs,” ſays he, “ was at
its woollen manufactory. The cloths and ſtuffs made that time ſo buſy about private commodity, that public
there are ſaid to be now little inferior to thoſe of Eng- wealth, in that moſt neceſſary and of reſpect, was not
land and Holland. The work, however, is aſſiſted by any where regarded. A number of them which pur-
the clandeſtine importation of Engliſh and Iriſh wool, chaſed theſe ſuperſtitious manſions, reſerved of the li-
and workmen froni Great Britain. It is about fifteen brary-books, fome to ſerve their jacks, fome to ſcour
miles east of the Britiſh channel, and ſhips may come the candleſticks, and foine to rub their boots ; ſome
froin thence by the river Somme to the middle of the they ſold to the grocer and ſoap-ſeller ; and ſome they
E. Long. 2. 6. Lat. 50. 7.
fent over ſea to the book-binders, not in ſmall numbers,
ABBEY, a monaſtery, or religious houſe, governed but in whole ſhips full ; yea, the univerſities of this
by a ſuperior under the title of abbot or ahbeſs.
realm are not clear of fo deteftable a fact. I know a
Abbey's differ from priories, in that the former are un merchant that bought the contents of two noble libra-
der the direction of an abbot, and the others of a priori ries for 4os. price ; a thame it is to be ſpoken! This
but abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are ſtuff hath he occupied inſtead of gray paper, by the
much the ſame thing, differing in little but the name. ſpace of more than thieſe ten years, and yet lie hath
Fauchet obſerves, that in the early days of the French ſtore enough for as many years to come. I ſhall judge
monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbots, and this to be true, and utter it with heavineſs, that neither
duchies and counties abbeys. Even ſome of their kings the Britons under the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the
are mentioned in hiſtory under the title of abbots. Phi. Engliſh people under the Danes and Normans, had ever
lip l. Louis VI. and afterwards the dukes of Orleans, ſuch damage of their learned monuments as we have
are called abbots of the monaſtery of St Aignan. The ſeen in our time."
dukes of Aquitain were called abbots of the monaſtery of In theſe days every abbey had at leaſt one perſon
St Hilary, at Poilliers ; and the earls of Anjou, of Št whoſe office it was to inſtruct youth , and the hiſtori-
Aubin, &c.
ans of this country are chiefly belolden to the monks
Monaſteries were at firſt nothing more than religious for the knowledge they have of fornier national events.
houſes, 'whither perſons retired from the buſtle of the In theſe houſes alſo the arts of painting, architecture,
world to ſpend their time in ſolitude and devotion. But and printing, were cultivated. The religious houſes
they foon degenerated from their original inſtitution, alſo were hoſpitals for the ſick and poor ; affording
and procured large privileges, exemptions, and riches. likewiſe entertainment to travellers at a time when there
They prevailed greatly in Britain before the reforma were no inns. In them the nobility and gentry who
tion; particularly in England : and as they increaſed were heirs to their founders could provide for a certain
in riches, ſo the ſtate became poor ; for the lands, number of ancient and faithful ſervants, by procuring
which theſe regulars poſſeſſed were in mortua manu, them corodies, or ſtated allowances of meal, drink, and
i. c. could never revert to the lords who gave them. clothes. They were likewiſe an aſylum for aged and
This inconvenience gave riſe to the ſtatutes againſt gifts indigent perſons of good family. The neighbouring
in ortmaine, which prohibited donations to theſe re- places were alſo greatly benefited by the fairs procured
ligious houſes : and Lord Coke tells us, that ſeveral for them, and by their exemption from foreſt-laws ;
lords, at their creation, had a clauſe in their grant, add to which, that the monaſic eſtates were generally
that the donor might give or ſell his land to whom he let at very eaſy rents, the fines given at renewals in-
would (exceptis viris religiofis do Judæis) excepting cluded.
monks and Jews.
ABBEYBOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the coun-
The places were wholly aboliſhed .in England at ty of Roſcommon, and province of Connaught. W.
the time of the Reformation ; Henry VIII. having Long. 8. 32. N. Lat. 56. 44. It is remarkable for an
firſt appointed viſitors to inſpect into the lives of the old abbey.
ABBEY.
I
}
I
A B B
[9]
ABB
Abbcy ABBEYHOLM, a town in Cumberland, ſo called called crofiered abbots, from their bearing the croîer Abbot.
holm, from an abbey built thcrc by David king of Scots. It or paſtoral ſtaff. Others were ſtyled se cili
enical or uni-
Abhot. ſtands on an arni of the ſea. W. Long. 2. 38. verſal abbots, in imitation of the patriach of Conſtan-
Lat. 54. 45.
tinople: whileothers were termed cardinal abbots, from
ABBOT, or ABBAT, the ſuperior of a monaſtery their ſuperiority over all other albois.- in Britain, the
of monks erected into an abbey or prelacy.
mitred abbots were lords of parliamcat ; and called
The name Abbet is originally Hebrew, where it ſig- al bots-ſovereign, and abbots-general, to diflingviih
nifies father. The Jews call father, in their language, them from the other ab'sots. And as there were lords
Ab; whence thc Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba, abbots, ſo there were alſo lords priors who had exempt
thence the Greeks A66us, which the Latins retained, juriſdiction, and were likewiic lords of Parliament.
Abbas; and hence our Abbot, the French Abbé, &c. Some reckon 26 of ihefe lords alb.ts and priors that
-St Mark and St Paul uſe the Syriac Abba in their fat in parliament. Sir Edward Coke ſays, that there
Greek, by rcaſon it was then commonly known in the were 27 parliamentary abbots and two priors. In the
fynagogues and thic primitive allemblies of the Chri- parliament 20 Rich. II, there were but 25 abbots and
itians : adding to it, by way oſinterpretation, the word two priors : but in the ſummons to parliament anilo
father, ACEH O Fatup,
Abba, father ;'q.d. Abba, that 4. Ed. III. more are named.
is to fay, Father.-But the name Ab, or Abba, At preſent, in the Roman-Catholic countries, the
which was at firſt a term oftenderneſs and affection in principal diſtinctions obſerved between the abbots are
the Hebrew and Chaldee, became at length a title of thoſe of regular and recomandatory. The former tako
dignity and honour : The Jewiſh doctors affected it; the.vow and wear the habit of their order; whereas the
and one of their moſt ancient books, containing the latter are ſeculars, though they are obliged by their
ſayings or apophthegms of divers of them, is intitled bulls to take orders when of proper age.
Pirke Abboth, or Avoth ; i.e. Chapters of the Fathers. Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot confift-
It was in alluſion to this affectation, that Jeſus Chriſt ed in clothing him with the habit called cuculus, or coul;
forbad his diſciples to call any man their father on putting the paſtoral ſtaff into his hand, and the ſhoes
carth ; which word St Jerome turns againſt the ſupe- called pedales on his feet; but at preſent, it is only
riors of the monaſteries of his time, for aſſuming the a ſimple benediction, improperly called, by fome, con-
title of Abbots, or Fathers.
fecration.
The name Abbot, then, appears as old as the inſti ABBOT is alſo a title given to others beſide the fupe-
tution of monks itſelf.—The governors of the primi- riors of monaſteries: thus bilhops, whoſe ſees were
livemonaſteries aſſumedindifferently the titles Abbots, formerly abbeys, are called abbots; as are the fupe-
* See Monk and Archimandrites*. They were really diſtinguiſhed riors of ſome congregations of regular canons, parti-
and Arcbi- from the clergy; though frequently confounded with cularly that of St Genevieve at Paris : and among the
them, becauſe a degree above laymen.
Genoeſe, tlie chief magiſtrate of their republic foriner-
In thoſe early days, the abbots were ſubject to the ly bore the title of Abbot of the people. It was like-
biſhops and the ordinary paſtors. Their monafteries wiſe uſual, about the time of Charlemagne, for ſeveral
being reniote froni cities, built in the fartheſt ſolitudes, lords to aſſume the title of count-abbots, abba comites;
they had no fare in ecclefiaftical affairs. They went and that for no other reaſon, but becauſe the ſuper-
on Sundays to the pariſh-church with the reſt of the intendency of certain abbeys was commited to them.
people; or, if they were too remote, a prieſt was ſent ABBOT (George), archbiſhop of Canterbury, was
then to adminiſter the ſacraments; till at length they born Oct. 29. 1562, at Guildford in Surrey.
were allowed to have prieſts of their own body. The went through his ſtudies at Oxford, and in 1597 was
abbot or archimandrite himſelf was uſually the prieſt: choſen principal of Univertity College. In 1599, he
but his function extended no farther than to the ſpiritual was inſtalled dean of W’incheſter : the year following,
aſſiſtance of his monaſtery ; and he remained ſtill in he was choſen vice-chancellor of the univerſity of Ox-
obedience to the biſhop. There being among the ab- ford, and a ſecond time in 1603. In 1604, that tranſ-
bots ſeveral perſons of learning, they made a vigorouslation of the bible now in uſe was begun by the direc-
oppoſition to the riſing herelies of thoſe times ; which tion of king James ; and Dr. Abbot was the ſecond of
firſt occaſioned the biſhops to call them out of their de- eight divines of Oxford, to whom the care of tranſla-
farts, and fix them about the ſuburbs of cities, and at ting the whole New Teſtament(excepting the epiſtles)
length in the cities then ſelves : from which æra their was committed. The year following, he was a third
degeneracy is to be dated. The abbots, now, ſoon time vice-chancellor. In 1608, he went to Scotland
wore off their former plainneſs and ſimplicity, and be with George Hume Earl of Dunbar, to aſliſt in eſta-
gan to be looked on as a ſort of little prelites. They af- bliſhing an union betwixt the kirk of Scotland and the
pired at being independent of the biſhops; and becanie ſo church of England; andin this affair he behaved with * Heylia's
inſupportable, that ſome ſevere laws were made againſt ſo much addreſs and moderation, that it liid the founda- hift. of
them at the council of Chalcedon; this notwithſtand- tion of all his future preferment. For king James ever Preſbyteri-
ing, in time many of them carried the point of inde- after paid great deference to his advice and counſel, any ans, p. 83.
pendency, and got the appellation of lord, with other upon the death of Dr. Overton bilhop of Litchfield and
badges of the cpiſcopate, particularly the mitre. Coventry, he named Dr. Abbot for his ſucceilor, who
Hence aroſe new ſpecies of diſtinctions between the was accordingly conſtituted biſhop of thoſe two united
abbots. Thoſe were termed mitred abbots, who were ſees in December 16c9. About a month afterwards
privileged to wearthemitre, and exerciſe epiſcopal au- he was tranſlated to the fee of London, and on the fe-
thority within their reſpective precincts, being exemp- cond of November thereafter was raiſed to the archie-
ted from the juriſdiction of the biſhop. Others were piſcopal fee.
VOL.I.
B
It
mandrite.
1
HC
A B B
[ 10 ]
A B B
A
1
Abbot,
It is not however improbable, that his extravagant vantage of this mis fortune, to leſſen him in the king's Abbot.
adulation of his royal inalter, in which he went as far favour ; but his Majeſty ſaid, “An angel might have
as any other court chaplain could do, contributed not miſcarried in this fort." His enemics alledging that
a little to the acceleration of his preferment. In the he had incurred an irregularity, and was thereby inca-
preface to a pamphlet le published, the íollowing ſpe- pacitated for performing the office of a primate ; the
cimen of ridiculous flattery occurs : Speaking of the king directed a commiflion to ten perſons to inquire
king, he ſays, “ whoſe life hath been ſo immaculate into this matter.
and unfpotted, &c. that even malice itſelf, which lcaves The reſult, however, was not ſatisfactory to his
nothing unſearched, could never find true blemiſh in Graces' enemies; it being declared, that as the mur-
its nor caſt probable aſperſion on it.--Zealous as Da- der was involuntary, he had not forfeited his archie-
vil; learned and wife, the Solomon of our age; reli- piſcopal character. The archbiſhop thenceforward ſel-
gious as Joſias ; careful of ſpreading Chriſt's faith as dom aſſiſted at the council, being chiefly hindered by
Conflantine the Greal ; juſtas Moſes ; undefiled in all his infirmities ; but in the king's laſt illneſs he was
his ways as a Jehoſaphat and Hezekias ; full of clemen ſent for, and aitended with great conſtancy till his
cy as another Theodolius.”_If Mr Walpole had ſeen Majeſty expired on the 27th of March 1625. He
this paſſage, he certainly would not have ſaid, that performed the ceremony of the coronation of king
66 honeſt Abbot could not flatter."
Charles 1, though very infirin and much troubled with
His great zeal for the Proteſtant Religion made him the gout. He was never greatly in this king's favour ;
a ſtrenuous promoter of the match between the Elector and the duke of Buckingham being his declared enemy,
Palatine and the Princeſs Elizabeth ; which was accor watched an opportunity of making him feel the weight
dingly concluded and folemnized the 14th of February of his diſpleaſure. This he at lait accompliſhed, upon
1612, the archbiſhop performing the ceremony on a the archbiſhop's refuſing to licence a fermon, preached
ſtage erected in the royal chapel. In the following by Dr Sibthorpe to juſtify a loan which the king had
year happened the famous caſe of divorce betwixt the demanded, and pregnant with principles which tended
lady Francis Howard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, to overthrow the conſtitution. The archbiſhop was
and Robert earl of Ellex: an affair which has been by immediately after ſuſpended from all his functions as
many conſidered as one of the greateſt blemiſhes iil primate, and theywereexerciſed bycertain biſhops com-
king James's reign ; but the part therein acted by the miſſioned by the king, of whom Laud, the archbiſhop's
archbiſhop added much tothe reputation he had al-
tothe reputation he had al- enemy, and afterwarus his ſucceſſor, was one : while
ready acquired for incorruptible integrity. The matter the only cauſe alligned for this procedure was, That
was by the king referred to a court of delegates. The the archbiſhop could not at that time perſonally attend
archbilhop ſaw plainly, that his Majeſty was very de- thoſe ſervices which were otherwiſe proper' for his
firous the lady ſhould be divorced : but he was, in his cogniſance and direction. He did not, however, re-
own judgment, directly againſt the divorce. He la- main long in this fituation ; for a parliament being ab-
boured all he could to extricate himſelf froin this diffi- folutely neceilary, his Grace was ſent for, and reſtored
culty, by having an end put to the cauſe by ſome o to his authority and juriſdiction. But not proving
ther way than by ſentence: but it was to no purpoſe : friendly to certain rigorous meaſures adopted by the
for thoſe who drove on this affair, had got too great prevailing church-party, lieaded by Land, whoſe power
power to be reſtrained from bringing it to the conclu- and intereſt at court were now very conſiderable, his
fion the king deſired. The archbiſhop prepared a preſence became unwelcome there ; ſo that upon the
ſpeech, which he intended to have ſpoken againſt the birth of the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II.
nullity of the marriage, in the court at Lambeth ; but Laud had the honour to baplize him, as dean of the
he did not make uſe of it, becauſe the king ordered chapel. The archbiſhop being worn out with cares
the opinions to be given in few words. He continued, and infirmities, died at Croydon, the 5th of Auguſt
however, inflexible in his opinion againſt the divorce; 1633, aged 71 years; and was buried at Guilford, the
and drew up his reaſons, which the king thought fit place of his nativity, and where he had endowed an
to anſwer himſelf. It need ſcarce be added, that fen- hoſpital with lands to the amount of 300l. per annum.
tence was given in the lady's favour. In 1611, the
In 1611, the A ſtately monument was erected over the grave, with
king publiſhed a declaration, which he ordered to be the effigy of the archbiſhop in his robes.
read in allıhe churches, permitting ſports and paſtimes He ſhewed himſelf, in moſt circumſtances of his life,
on the Lord's day : this gave great uneaſineſs to the a man of great moderation to all parties; and was dc-
archbiſhop, who, happening to be at Croydon when it firous that the clergy ſhould attract the eſteem of thelai-
came hither, had the courage to forbid its being read. ty by the fanctity of their manners, rather than claim it
Being now in a declining ſtate of health, the arch as due to their function. His notions and principles,
biſhop uſed in the ſummer to go to Hampſhire for however, not ſuiting the humoar of ſome writers, have
the fake of recreation ; and being invited by lord drawn upon him many ſevere reflections ; particularly,
Zouch to hunt in his park at Bramzill, he met there which is to be regretted, from the earl of Clarendon.
with the greateſt misfortune that ever befel hiin ; But Dr Welwood has done more juſtice to his merit
for he accidentally killed the game keeper by an and abilities*. He wrote ſeveral tracts upon various
*Memoirs,
arrow from a croſs-bow which lie ſhot at one of the ſubjects; and, as already mentioned, trandated part of 8vo. 1700,
deer. This accident threw him into a dcep melan the New Teſtament, with the reſt of the Oxford di-
choly ; and he ever afterwards kept a monthly faſton vines, 1611.
Tueſday, the day on which this fatal miſchance hap liis proper to obſerve here, that there was another
*Fuiler's
church-hift, pened, and he ſettled an annuity of 201, on the wi- writer of both his names, who flouriſhied ſoinewhat
eent xviii, dow. There were ſeveral perſons who took an ad- later.
later. This George Abbot wrote A Paraphrafe 012
Job,
P. 38.
2
P. 87.
A BB
[ 11 ]
A B D
lek,
Abbot Job, A vindication of the Sabbath, and A paraphraſe a market on Thurſday. W. Long. 1. 17. Lat. 50. 40. Abbreviate
ll on the Pſalms.
The abbey near this town was founded by a Norman I
Abbotſbury
ABBOT (Robert), elder brother to the former, and lady, about the year 1026 ; and Edward the Confeilor abdalma.
born at Guildford in 1560, went through his ſtudies in and William the Conqueror were conſiderable bene-
Baliol college, Oxford. In 1582, he took his degree factors to it.
of maſter of arts, and ſoon became a celebrated preach ABBREVIATE of ADJUDICATIONS, in Scots law,
er; and to this talent he chiefly owed his preferment. an abſtract or abridgement of a decreet of adjudication,
Upon his firſt fermon at Worceſter, he was choſen lec- which is recorded in a regiſter kept for that purpoſe.
turer in that city, and ſoon after rector of All-ſaints in ABBREVIATION, or ABBREVIATURE, a coli-
the ſame place. John Stanhope, Efq; happening to hear traction of a word or paſſage; made by dropping fome
him preach at Paul's-croſs, was ſo pleaſed with him, of the letters, or by ſubſtituting certain marks or cha-
that he immediately preſented him to the rich living of racters in their place.-Lawyers, phyſicians, &c. uſe
Bingham in Nottinghamſhire. In 1597, he took his abundance of abbreviations, partly for the ſake of ex-
degree of doctor in divinity: and, in the beginning of pedition, and partly for that of myſtery; but of all
king James's reign, was appointeá chaplain in ordinary people the Rabbins are the moſt remarkable for this
to his Majeſty ; who had ſuch an opinion of him as a practice, ſo that their writings are unintelligible with-
writer, that he ordered the doctor's book De Antichriſlo out the Hebrew abbreviatures. The Jewiſh authors
to be printed with his own conimentary upon part of and copyiſts do not content themſelves with abbrevia-
the Apocalypſe. In 1609, he was elected maſter of ting words like the Greeks and Latins, by retrenching
Baliol College; which truſt he diſcharged with the ut ſome of the letters or ſyllables ; they frequently take
moſt care and aſſiduity, by his frequent lectures to the away all but the initial letters. They even frequently
ſcholars, by his continual preſence at public exerciſes, take the initials of ſeveral fucceeding words, join them
and by promoting temperance in the ſociety. In No- together, and, adding vowels to them, make a ſort of
veinber 1610, he was made prebendary of Normanton barbraous word, repreſentative of all thoſe which they
in the church of Southwell; and, in 1612, his Majeſty have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Mofes ben Mai-
appointed him regius profeſſor of divinity at Oxford. mon, in their abbreviature is Rambam, &c. .
The fame of his lectures became very great ; and thoſe ABBREVIATOR, in a general ſenſe, a perſon who
which he gave upon the ſupreme power of kings againſt abridges any large book into a narrower compaſs.
Bellarmine and Suarez, ſo much pleaſed his Majeſty, ABBREVIATORS, a college of 72 perſons in the chan-
that, when the fee of Saliſbury became vacant, he na- cery of Rome, who draw up the pope's brieves, and re-
med him to that bifhopric, and he was confecrated duce petitions, when granted by him, into proper form
by his own brother at Lambeth, December 3, 1615. for being converted in bulls.
When he came to Saliſbury, he found the cathedral ABBÚTALS, ſignify the buttings or boundings
running to decay, through the negligence and covet of lands towards any point. Limits were anciently
ouſneſs of the clergy belonging to it: however, he found diſtinguillied by artificial hillocks, which were called
means to draw five hundred pounds from the prebenda- botemines; and hence butting. In a deſcription of the
ries, which he applied to the reparation of this church. ſite of land, the ſides on the breadth are more proper-
He then gave himſelf up to the duties of his function ly adjacerts, and theſe terminating the length are ab-
with great diligence and afliduity, viſiting his whole butantes; which, in old ſurveys, were ſometimes ex-
dioceſe in perſon, and preaching every Sunday whilſt preſſed by capitare, to head, whence abbutals are now
health would pernit. But this was not long: for his ſe- called head-lands.
dentary life, and cloſe application to ſtudy, brought ABCEDARY, or ABCEDARIAN, an epithet given
upon him the gravel and ſtone; of which he died on the to compoſitions, the parts of which are diſpoſed in the
2d of March 1618, in the fifty-eighth year of his age; order of the letters of the alphabet : thus we ſay, Ab-
having not filled the fee quite two years and three cedarian pſalms, lamentations, hymns, &c.
months, and being one of the five biſhops which Salif ABCOURT, atown near St Germains, four leagues
bury had in fix years. He was buried oppoſite to the from Paris. Here is a briſk chalybeate water, impreg-
* Worthies biſhop's ſeat in the cathedral. Dr Fuller, * ſpeaking of nated with fixed air and the foſſil alkali; and reſeni-
of England the two brothers, ſays, “that George was the niore bling the waters of Spa and Ilmnington.
in Surrey. " plauſible preacher, Robert the greateſt ſcholar ; ABDALLA, the ſon of Abdalmothleb, was the fa-
“ George the abler ſtateſman, Robert the deepeſt di- ther of the prophet Mahomet. Several other Arabians
“ vine : gravity did frown in George, and ſmile in
of eminence bore the fanie name.
66 Robert."
He publiſhed ſeveral pieces ; he alſo ABDALMALEK, the ſon of Mirvan, and the 5th
left behind him ſundry manuſcripts, which Dr Corbet khalif of the race of the Ommiades, ſurnamed Rafikal
made a preſent of to the Bodleian library.
Hegianat, i. e. the ſkinner of a ſtone, becauſe of his
ABBOTSBROMLEY, a town in Staffordſhire, extreme avarice; as alſo Ahonlzebub, becauſe his
with a market on Tueſday. After the diſſolution of breath was ſaid to be ſo poiſonous as to kill all the dies
the monaſteries, it was given to the Lord Paget; and which reſted on his face. Yet he ſurpaſſed all his pre-
has fince been called I aget's Bronley, and is ſo deno- deceflors in power and dominion ; for in his reign the
minated in the county inap: But it retains its old Indies were conquered in the eaſt, and his armies pene-
name in the king's books, and is a diſcharged vicarage trated Spain in the weſt: he likewiſe extended his em-
of 301. clear yearly value. It likewiſe retains its old pire toward the ſouth, by making himſelf maſter of
name with regard to the fairs. W. Long. I. 2. Lat. Medina and Mecca. He began his reign in the 6514
52 45.
; reigned 15
ABBOTSBURY, a ſmall town in Dorſetſhire, with of his ſons enjoyed the khalifate one after another.
ABDALMELEK,
;
B 2
1
A B D
[ 12 ]
A B D
lck
initio
Abdamies ABPAINELET (Ben Zohar), an eminent phyſician, tling thcre, in order to avoid the inſults of the Perſians. Abdcra
commonly called by the Europcans duonoar. Sce mScveral lingularities are cold of Abdara.* The graſs !
AYENZOIR.
Abderi,
of the country round it was ſo trong, that ſuch hørſes Abdication
ABDALMOT HLEB, or ABDAL MATELEB, the as eat of it ran mad. In thercign of Callander king of Plinii,
ſon of Hathem, the father of Abdalla, and grandfather Macedon, this city was ſo peitered with frogs and rats, lib. xxv. c.
of Mahomet the prophet of the Multilmans, was, it is that the inhabitants were forced to quit it for a time. 8. Juſt. lib.
ſuid, of ſuch wonderiul comelineſs and beauty, that all -The Abdcrites, or Abderitani, were very much de- XV. C. 200
women who fw him became enamoured : which may iided for their kant of wit and judgment: yet their
have given occaſion to that prophetic light, which, ac- city lias given birth to ſeveral eminent perſons; js,
cording to the Aralians, fhone on the forehcads of him, Protagoras, Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecatæus the
leis anceſtors, and descendents; it being certain that hiftorian, Niccntus the poet, and many others, who
they were very handſome and graceful men. He died were mentioned among the illuſtrious men.--In the
when Mahonet, of whom he had taken peculiar care, reign of Lyfimachus, Abdera was afiiicted for ſome
was only 8 or 9 years old ; aged, according to ſome, months with a moſt extraordinary diſcafe + : this was + Lucianus
I10, and according to other writers 120.
a burning fever, whoſecriſis was always on the ſeventh quomodo
ABDALONYMUS, or ABDOLONYMUS, (in claſſic day, and then it left them ; but it ſo diſtracted theit Hift. fit con-
hiſtory), of the royal family of Sidon, and defcended imaginations, that they fancied themſelves players. feribendus,
from king Cinyras, was contented to live in obfcurity, After this, they were ever repeating verſes froin ſome
and get his ſubſiſtence by cultivating a garden, while tragedy, and particularly out of the Andromeda of Ed-
Strato was in poſſeſſion of the crown of Sidon. Alexan- ripides, as if they had been upon the flage ; ſo that
der the Great having depoſed Strato, inquired whether many of theſe palc, meagre actors, were pouring forth
any of the race of Cinyras was living, that he might ſet their tragic exclamations in every ſtreet. This delirium
him on the throne. It was generally thought that the continued till the winter following; which was a very
whole race was extinct: but at laſt Abdalonymus was cold one, and therefore fitter to remove it. Lucian,
thought of, and mentioned to Alexander ; wino imnie who has deſcribed this diſeaſe, endeavours to account
diately ordered ſome of his foldiers to fetch him. They for it in this manner: Archelaus, an excellent player,
found the good man at work, happy in his poverty, acted the Andromeda of Euripides before the" Abde-
and entirely a ſtranger to the noiſe of arms, with which rites, in the height of a very hot ſummer. Several had
all Aſia was at that time diſturbed ; and they could a fever at their coining out of the theatre; and as their
ſcarcely perfuade him that they were in earneſt. Ales- imaginations were full of the tragedy, the delirium
ander was convinced of his high deſcent by the dig- which the fever raiſed repreſented perpetually Andro-
nity that appeared in his perſon ; but was deſirous of meda, Perleus, Meduſa, &c. and the ſeveral dramatic
learning from him in what manner he bore his poverty. incidents, and called up the ideas of thoſe objects, and
“ I will" faid Abdalonymus, “I may bear iny new the pleaſure of the repreſentation, ſo ſtrongly, thatthcy
condition as well: Theſe hands have ſupplied ny ne could not forbear imitaiing Archelaus's action and de-
ceſfities: I have had nothing, and I have wanted no clamation. And from theſe the fever ſprcad 10 others
thing.” This anſwer pleaſed Alexander ſo much, that, by infe&ion,
beſides giving him all that was Strato's, he augment ABDERAHMA, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who
ed his dominions, and gave him a large preſent out of revolted, and formed an independent principality at
the Perſian (poils.
Cordova. He had ſeveral fucceffors of the fanic name.
ABDALS, in the Eaſtern countries, a kind of ſaints ABDEST, a Perſian word, properly ſignifying the
ſuppoſed to be inſpired to a degree of madneſs. The water placed in a baſon for waſhing the hands; but is
word comes, perhaps, from the Arabic, Abdallah, the uſed tv iinply the legal purifications practiſed by the
ſervant of God. The Perlians call them devaneh kho- Mahometans before they enter on their religious ce-
da, fimilar to the Latins way of fpcaking of their pro- remonics.
phets and ſibyls, q. d. furentes deo, raging with the ABDIAS OF BABYLON, one of the boldcft legend-
god. They are often carried by exceſs of zeal, eſpe- writers, who boaſted he had ſeen our Saviour,that he was
cially in the Indies, to run about the ſtreets and kill one of the 72 diſciples, had been eye-witneſs of the ac-
all they mect of a different religion ; of which travel- tions and prayers at the deaths of ſeveral of the apoſtles,
lers furniſh inany inſtances. The Engliſh call this, and had followed into Perſia St Simon and St Jude,
running a muk, from the name of the inſtrument, á who, he ſaid, made him the firſt biſhop of Babylon.
fort of poniard, which they employ on theſe deſperate His book intitled Hiſtoria certaminis apoftolici, was pul-
occaſions. If they are killed, as it commonly happens, liſhed by Wolfgang Lazius, at Bazil, 1551 ; and it has
before they have done much miſchief, they reckon it fince borne ſeveral impreſſions in different places.
highly meritorious; and are eſteemed, by the vulgar, ABDICATION, the action whereby a magiſtrate,
martyrs for their faith.
or perſon in office, renounces and gives up the famo
ABDARA, or ABDERA, (anc. geog.) a town of before the term of ſervice is expired.
Boeotia in Spain, a Phænician colony ; now Adra, to. This word is frequently confounded with reſignation;
the weſt of Almeira in the kingdom of Granada. but differs from it, in that abdication is donc purely
ABDERA, (anc. geog.) a maritime town of Thrace, and ſimply, whereas relignation is in favour of ſome
not far from the mouth of the river Neſlus, on the third perſon. It is ſaid to be a renunciation, quitting,
eaſt ſide. The foundation, according to Herodotus, and relinquiſhing, ſo as to have nothing further to do
tvas attempted to be laid by Timelius the Clazome- with a thing; or the doing of ſuch actions as are in-
nian; but he was forced by the Thracians to quit the conſiſtent with the holding of it. On king James's lea--
deſign. The Teians undertook it, and ſucceeded; ſet. ving the kingdom, and abdicating the government, the
lords
>
1
ABE
A B E
[ 13 ]
Abel
il
Abelura.
ز
Abdomen lords would have had the word defistibil made uſe of ; ABEL-10-1/', called alſo the threſhing-ficor of
but the cominons thought it was not comprehenſive Atad; fignifying the lamentation of the Egyptians;
Abel.
enough, for that the king might then have liberty of in alluſion to the mourning for Jacob, Gen. 1. 3, 10,
returning.-Among the Roman writers it is more par II. Suppoſed to be near Hebron.
ticularly
uſed for the act whereby a father diſcarded or ABEL-Moſch, or Abelinuſch, in botany, the trivial
diſclainicd his ſon, and expelled him the family. It is naine of a ſpecies of the HIBISCUS.
diſtinguiſhed from exharadatio or difinhes iting, in that ABEL-Satti11, or Sittini, a town in the plains of
the former was done in the father's lifetime; the latter, Moab, to the N. E. of the Dead Sea, not far from
by will at his death : ſo that whoever was abdicated, Jordan, wliere the Iſraelites committed fornicatio.
was alſo dilinherited ; but not vice ve
verfa.
with the daughters of Moab: So called, probably,
ABDOMEN, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk from the great number of Sittim-trees there.
of the body which lies between the thorax and the bot ABELARD (Peter), one of the inoſt famous doc-
tom of the pelvis. See ANATOMY,
tors of the twelfth century, was born at Palais near
ABDOMINALES, or ABDOMINAL FISHES, con Nanız, in Britany : he was well learned in divini y,
ſtitute the IV en Order of the Fourth Claſs of Animals, philoſophy, and the languages; but was particularly
in the Linnæan ſyſtem. See ZOOLOGY.
diſtinguiſhed by his ſkill in logic, and his fondneſs for
ABDUCTION, in logic, a kind of argumentation, diſputations, which led him to travel into ſeveral pro-
by the Greeks called apagoge wherein the greater vinces in order to give public proof of his acuteneſs
extreme is evidently contained in the niedium, but the in that ſcience.
medium not ſo evidently in the leſſer extreme as not to After having baffled many antagoniſts, he read
require ſome farther medium or proof to make it ap- lectures in divinity with great applauſe at Paris ;
pear. It is called abduction, becauſe, from the con where he boarded with a canon whoſe name was Ful-
cluſion, it draws us on to prove the propofition affumed. bert, and who had a very beautiful niece named He-
Thus in the ſyllogiſm, “ All whom God abfolves are loire. The canon ardently wiſhed to ſee this young
free from fin; but God abſolves all who are in Chriſt; lady make a figure ainong the learned, and Abelard
therefore all who arein Chriſt are free from ſin,” the was made her preceptor : but inſtead of inſtructing lier
major is evident; but the minor, or aſſumption, is not ſo in the ſciences, he taught her to love.
Abelard now
evident without ſome other propoſition to prove it, as, perfornied his public functions very coldly, and wrote
“God received full ſatisfaction for fin by the ſuffer- nothing but amorous verſes. Heloiſe proving with child,
ings of Jeſus Chriſt.'
Abelard ſent her to a ſiſter of his in Britany, where ſhe
ABDUCTION,in ſurgery.,a ſpecies cffracture, where was delivered of a for.. To foften the canon's anger, he
in the broken parts of the bone recede from each other. offered to marry Heloiſe privately; and the old man was
ABDUCTOR, or ABDUCENT, in anatomy, a name better pleaſed with the propoſalthantheniece,who, fron
given to ſeveral of the muſcles, on account of their a ſingular exceſsof paſſion, choſe to be Abelard's miſtreſs
ſerving to withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to rather than his wife. She married, however, but uſedot-
which they belong:
tento proteſt upon oath that ſhe was ſingle, which provo-
ABEL, ſecond ſon of Adain and Eve, was a ſhep- ked the canon to uſe her ill. Upon this, Abelard ſent
herd. He offered to God ſome of the firſtlings of his her to the monaſtery of Argenteuil; where ſhe put on a
flock, at the ſame time that his brother Cain offered religious habit, but did not take the veil. Heloiſe's re-
the fruits of the earth. God was pleaſed with Abel's lations conſidering this as a ſecond treachery, hiredruf.
oblation, but diſpleaſed with Cain's ; which fo exafpe- fians, who, forcing into his chamber in the dead of the
rated the latter, that he roſe up againſt his brother night, emafculated him. This infamous treatment made
and killed him. Theſe are the only. circunſtances him fly to the gloom of a cloiſter. He aſſumed the mo-
Moſes relates of him ; though, were we to take notice naſtic habit in the abbey of St Dennis; but the diſor-
of the ſeveral particulars to which curioſity has given ders of that houſe foo:1 drove him from thence. He
birth on this occaſion, they would run to a very great was afterwards charged with hereſy; but after ſeveral
length. But this will not be expected. It is remark- perſecutions for his religious ſentiments, he ſettled in a
able, that the Greek churches, who celebrate the feaſts folitude in the dioceſe of Troies, where he built an ora-
of every other patriarch and propliet, have not done tory, to which he gave the na.de of the Paraclet. He
the ſame honour to Abel. His name is not to be was afterwards cholen ſuperior of the abbey of Ruis in
found in any catalogue of ſaints or inartyrs till the the dioceſe of Vannes : when the nuns being expelled
Toth century ; nor even in the new Ronian martyrolo- from the nunnery in which Heloiſe had been placed,
gy. However he is prayed to, with ſome other ſaints, he gave her his oratory; where ſhe ſettled with ſome
in ſeveral Roman litanies ſaid for perſons who lie at of her ſiſter nuns, and became their prioreſs.
the point of death.
Abelard mixed the philoſophy of Ariſtotle with his
ABEL Keramini, or Vincarum, beyond Jordan, in divinity, and in 1140 was condemned by the council of
the country of the Ammonites, where Jephthah de- Rheims and Sens. Pope Innocent II. ordered him to be
feated them, ſeven miles diſtant from Philadelphia, impriſoned, his books to be burnt, and forbid him ever
abounding in vines, and hence the name. It was alſo teaching again. However, he was ſoon after pardoned,
called Abela,
at the folicitation of Peter the Venerable, who received
ABEL-Mehola, the country of the prophet Eliſha, him into his abbey of Clugni, where he led an exem-
ſituate on this ſide Jordan, between the valley of Jez- plary life. He died in the priory of Marcellus at Cha-
reel and the village Bethmaela in the plains of Jordan, Jons, April 21, 1142, aged fixty-three. His corpſe
where the Midianites were defeated by Gideon. Judges, was ſent to Heloiſe, who buried it in the Paraclet.
vii. 22.
He left ſeveral works: the moſt celebrated of which
are
A BE
( 14 )
A B E
thick.
1
lexes.
Ahileree are iloſc ieiider letters that paſſed between him and ABERAVON, a borough town of Glamorganſhire Aberavon,
Heloiſe, with the account of their misfortunes prefix- in Wales, governed by a portreeve. It had a market, Aberbro-
Abentjurg: cd; which liave been tranſlated into Englith, and im- which is now diſcontinued: the vicarage is diſcharged,
morlaliſed by the harmony of Mr Pope's
numbers. and is worth 451. clear yearly value. It is feated on
ABEL-TREE, or ABELE-TREE, an obſolete name the mouth of thc river Avon, 194 miles weſt of Lon-
for a ſpecies of the poplar. See POPULUS.
don. W. Long, 3. 21. Lat. 51. 40.
ABELIANS, AGEOLITES, or ABELONIANS, in ABERBROTHICK, or ARBROATH, one of the
church-hiſtory, a feet of heretics mentioned by St Au- royal boroughs of Scotland, fituated in the county of
fin, which aroſe in the dioceſe of Hippo in Africa, Angus, about forty miles N. N. E. of Edinburgh its
and is ſuppoſed to have begun in the reign of Arcadius, W. Long. being 2. 29. and N. Lat. 56. 36. It is feat-
and ended in that of Theodofius. Indeed it was not ed on the diſcharge of the little river Brothic into the
calculated for being of any long continuance. Thoſe ſea, as the name imports, Aber in the Britiſh implying
of this feet regulated marriage after the example of ſuch a ſituation. It is a ſmall but flouriſhing place,
Abel; who, they pretended, was married, but died well built, and ſtill increaſing. The town has been
without ever having known his wife. They therefore in an improving ſtate for the forty laſt years, and the
allowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined number of inhabitants greatly augment d'; which
them to live in continence : and, to keep up the feet, is owing to the introduction of manufactures. The
when a man and woman entered into this ſociety, they number, at this time, is ſaid to be about four thou-
adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their fand : theſe principally conſiſt of weavers of coarſe
goods, and to marry upon the ſame terms of not be- brown linens, and ſome fail-cloth ; others are employ-
getting children, but of adopting two of different ed in making white and coloured threads: the remain-
der are either engaged in the ſhipping of the place, or
ABELLA, anciently a town of Campania, near in the neceſſary and common mechanic trades. The
the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abel- brown linens, or Oſnaburghs, were manufactured here
lani, and ſaid to have been a colony of Chalcidians. before any encouragement was given by Government,
The nux Avellana, called alſo Præneſtina, or the ha or the linen company erected at Edinburgh. It ap-
zelnut, takes its name from this town, according to pears from the books of the ſtamp-office in this town,
Macrobius. Now Avella.
that ſeven or eight hundred thouſand yards are anni-
ABELLINUM, anciently a town of the Hirpini, ally inade in the place, and a ſmall diſtrict round. Be-
a people of Apulia ; diſant about a mile from the rivu- fides this export and that of thread, much barley and
let Sabbato, between Beneventuni and Salernum. Pliny ſome wheat is ſent abroad. The foreign imports are
calls the inhabitants Abellinates, with the epithet pro- flax, flax-ſeed, and tiniber, from the Baltic. The
topi, to diſtinguiſh them from the Abellinates Marli. coafting trade conſiſts of coals from Borrowſtounneſs,
Now Avellino. E. Long. 15. 20. Lat. 21.
and lime from Lord Elgin's kilns in Fife. At this
ABEN EZRA (Abraham), a celebrated rabbi, born place, in default of a natural harbour, a tolerable arti-
at Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews, The wiſe, great, ficial one of piers has been formed, where, at ſpring-
and admirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of tides, which riſe here fifteen feet, ſhips of two hun-
the Holy Scriptures; and was well ſkilled in grammar, dred tons can come, and of eighty at neap-lides ; but
poetry, philoſophy, aſtronomy, and medicine. He they muſt lie dry at low water. This port is of great
was alſo a perfect maſter of the Arabic. His principal antiquity: there is an agreement yet extant between
work is, Commentaries on the Old Teſtament, which the abbot and the burghers of Aberbrothick, in 1194,
is much eſteemed: theſe are printed in Bomberg's and concerning the making of the harbour. Both parties
Buxtorf's Hebrew Bibles. His ſtile is clcar, elegant, were bound to contribute their proportions ; but the
conciſe, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures : largeſt fell to the ſhare of the former, for which he
he almoſt always adheres to the literal ſenſe, and every was to receive an annual tax payable out of every rood
where gives proofs of his genius and good ſenſe : he, of land lying within the borough.—The glory of this
flowever, advances ſome crroneous ſentiments. The place was the abbey, whoſe very ruins give ſome idea
ſcarceſt of all his books is intitled, Jeſud Mora ; which of its former magnificence. It was founded by Wil-
is a thcological work, intended as an exhortation to the liam the Lion in 1178, and dedicated to the celebra-
ſtudy of the Talmud. He died in 1174, aged 75. ted primate Thomas à Becket. The founder was bil-
ABEN Meller, a learned rabbin, who wrote a com ried here ; but there are no remains of his tomb, or
mentary on the Old Teſtament in Hebrew, intitled of any other, excepting that of a monk of the name
The Perfection of beauty. This rabbin generally of Alexander Nicol. The monks were of the Tyro-
follows the grammatical ſenſe and the opinions of neſian order ; and were firſt brought from Kčlſo,
Kiinchi. The beet cdition is that of Holland.
whoſe abbot declared thoſe of this place, on the firſt
ABENAS, a town in France, in Languedoc and in inſtitution, to be free from his juriſdiction. The laſt
the lower Vivarais, ſeated on the river Ardeſch, at the abbot was the famous Cardinal Beaton, at the ſame
foot of the Cevennes. E. Long. 4. 43. Lat. 44. 40. time archbiſhop of St Andrew's, and, before his death.
ABENEL GAUBY, a fixed ſtar of the ſecond or as great and abſolute here as Wolſey was in England.
third inagnitude, on the ſouth ſcale of the conſtella- King John, thc Engliſh monarch, granted this mona-
tion LIBRA.
ftcry moſt uncommon privileges ; for, by charter under
ABENSPERG, a ſmall town of Germany, in the his great feal, he exempted it a teloniis et confuctudine
circle and dutchy of Bavaria, and in the government of in every part of England, except London. At Aber-
Munich. It is ſcated on the river Abentz, near the Da- brothick is a chalybeate water, ſimilar to thoſe of Pe-
zube. E. Long. II. 38. Lat. 48. 45.
terhead and Glendy,
ABERCONWAY,
)
1
A B E
AB E
[ 15 ]
Lat. 57. 19.
Abercon. ABERCONWAY, or CONWAY, Carnarvon fhire, 1494, by William Elphinſton biſhop of this place, Aberdeen.
way,
North-Wales ; ſo called froin its ſituation at the mouth Lord Chancellor of Scotland in the reign of James III.
Aberdeen, of the river Conway. It is a handſome towni, plea. and Lord Privy Scal in that of James IV.
But
ſantly ſituated on the ſide of a hill, and has many con- James IV. claimed the patronage of it, and it has
veniences for trade; notwithſtanding which it is the lince been called the King's College. This college, and
poorelt town in the county. It was built by Edward I. the Maiiſchal-college in the New Town, forin one
and had not only walls, but a ſtrong caſtle which is now univerſity, called the Univerſity of King Charles. The
in ruins. Here is an inſcription on the tomb of one library is large, but not remarkable for many curioti-
Nicholas Hooks, importing that he was the one-and- ties. Hector Boethius was the firſt principal of the
fortieth child of his father, and had twenty-ſeven college ; and ſcut for from Paris for that purpoſe, on
children himſelf. It is 229 miles from London, W. an annual ſalary of forty marks Scois, at thirteen pence
Long. 3. 47. N. Lat, 53. 20.
each. The ſquare forrer on the lide of the college
ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scot. was built by contribution froin General nionk and
land, called the Old and New Towns, ſituated on the officers under bim then quartered at Aberdeen, for
the German ocean, in W. Long. I. 40. and N. the reception of ſtudents ; of which there are about
a hundred belonging to the college who lie in it.
Aberdeen is a place of great antiquity. According The New Town is the capital of the thire of Aber-
to tradition, it was of note in the reign of Gregory, deen. For largeneſs, trade, and beauty, it greatly ex-
who conferred on it ſome privileges about the year ceeds any town in the north of Scotland. It is
893. In 1004, Malcolm II. founded a biſhopric at built on a hill or riting ground, and lies on a ſmall
a place called "Mortlich in Banffihire, in memory of bay formed by the Dee, deep enough for a ſhip of
a ſignal victory which he there gained over the Danes: 200 tons, and above two miles in circumference.-
which biſhopric was tranſlated to Old Aberdeen by The buildings (which are of granite from the neigh-
David I.; and in 1163, the then biſhop of Aberdeen bouring quaries) are generally four ſtories ligh; and
obtained a new charter from Malcolm iv. There is have, for tlie moſt pait, gardens behind them, which
extant a charter of Alexander II. by which, in 1217, gives it a beautiful appearance. On the high-ſtreet is
the King grants to Aberdeen the ſame privileges he a large church, which formerly belonged to the Fran-
had granted to his town of Perth.
ciſcans. This church was begun by Bilop William
The Old Town lies about a mile to the north of the Elphinſton ; and finithed by Gavinus Dunbar, biſhop of
new, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a Aberdeen, about the year 1500. Biſhop Dunbar is ſaid
fine Gothic bridge, of a ſingle arch, greatly admired, likewiſe to have built the bridge over the Dee, which
which reſts at both ſides on two rocks. This arch, contiſts of ſeven arches. In the middle of Caſtle-ſtreet
ſaid to have been built by a biſhop of Aberdeen about is an octagon building, with neat bas-relievos of the
the year 1290, is 67 feet wide at the bottom, and 344 feet kings of Scotland from James I. to James VII. The
high above the ſurface of the river, which at ebb-tide is town-houſe makes a good figure, and has a handſome
here 19 feet deep. The old town was formerly the ſeat ſpire in the centre. The grammar-ſchool is a low but
of the biſhop, and had a large cathedral commonly cal- neat building. Gordon's hoſpital is handſome ; in front
led St Macher's. Two very antique ſpires, and one aille, is a good ſtatue of the founder : it mantains forty boys,
which is uſed as a church, are now the only remains of who are apprenticed at proper ages. The infirmary is
it. The biſhopric was founded in the time of David I. as a large plain building, and ſends out between eight
abovementioned. I he cathedral had anciently tworoirs and nine hundred cured patients annually. But the
of ſtone pillars acroſs the church, and three turrets chief public building in the new town is the Mariſchal-
the ſteeple, which was the largeſt of theſe turrets, reſt- college, founded by George Kieth earl of Mariſchal,
ed upon an arch, ſupported by four pillars. In this ca- in the year 1993 ; but ſince greatly augmented with
thedral there was a fine library; but, about the year additional buildings. There are about 140 ſtudents
1560, it was almoſt totally deítroyed. But the capital belonging to it. In both the Mariſchal and King's
building is the King's-college, on the ſouth ſide of the college the languages, mathematics, natural philolo-
town, which is a large and ſtately fabric. It is built round phy, divinity, &c. are taught by very able profeſſors.
a ſquare, with cloiſters on the ſouth ſide. The chapel is The convents in Aberdeen were: One of Mathurines,
very ruinous within; but there ſtill remains ſome wood or of the order of the Trinity, founded by William the
work of exquiſite workmanſhip. This was preſerved by Lion, who died in 1214; another of Dominicans, by
the ſpirit of the principal at the time of the reformati- Alexander II. ; a third of Obſervantines, a building
on, who armed his people and checked the blind zeal of great length in the middle of the city, founded by
of the barons of the Mearns; who, after ſtripping the the citizens and Mr Richard Vans, &c.; and a fourth
cathedral of its roof, and robbing it of the bells, were of Carmelites, or White Friars, founded by Philip de
going to violate this ſeat of learning. They ſhipped Arbuthnot in 1350.
their facrilegious booty, with an intention of expoſing Aberdeen, including the Old Town, is ſuppoſed
it to fale in Holland: but the veſſel had ſcarcely gone to contai.. 25,000 people. Its trade is conſiderable,
out of port, when it periſhed in a ſtorm with all its ill but might be greatly extended by an attention to the
gained lading. The ſteeple is vaulted with a double white fi feries.
croſs arch ; above which is an imperial crown, ſupport The harbour was long a great detriment to its trade,
ed by eight ſtone-pillars, and cloſed with a globe and and occaſioned the loſs of many lives and much pro-
two gilded croiſcs. In the year 1631 this ſteeple was perty. A ſtranger could never depend upon finding it
thrown down by a forın, but was ſoon after rebuilt as he left it ; while veflels lay at anchor in the road till
in a more ſtately form. This college was founded in the tide ſhould make, they have often been wrecked by
ſtorins
;
ABE
[ 16 ]
A B E
venily:
herdeen. ſtorms 1 hich ſuddenly aroſe. It iras very nilrrow at an excellent harbour ; an active people, converſant in Aberlcca-
the mouth, having the eaſterly rocky point of the trade, and potleted of capital , ſeated within fix hours ſhire
Grampian mountains on the ſouth, and a flat blowing failing of Long Fortys, and two days failing of the
fund on the north, extending along the coaſt for many Shetland Illes. This inattention is the more extraor-
Aberya-
miles. By the eaſterly and north eaſt forms the fand dinary, as the exports of Aberdeen, though very con-
was driven in a long ridge acroſs the harbour's mouth, fiderablc, do not balance the imports in value.
The
and forined what was called the bar. Upon this bar herring and white fiſheries, therefore, if profecuted
the depth of water at low tide was ſometimes not above with vigour, cured and dried with judgment, would not
threc fcet. Clearing away the fand, though but a par- only extend the ſcale of exports, but alſo furniſh the
tial and teinporary remedy, was a matter of great ex outward bound veſſels with freights, and better aſſort-
pence to the cominunity : If it was cleared one week ments for the foreign markets. The ſalmon of the Dec
ſo as to have five or fix feet of water at ebb, a freſh and Don are taken in grcat abundance, cured in the
ſtorin the next week undid all that had been done. The higheſt perfection, and greatly valued at the European
town at laſt came to a reſolution of erecting a ſtrong markets. If the merchants, in addition to theſe, ſhould
pier on the north fide of the harbour. This pier is alſo export the cargoes of 50 or 60 veſſels conſtantly
1 200 feet in length, and gradually increaſes in thick- employed in the herring and white fiſheries, the port
neſs and height as it approaches the ſea, where the of Aberdeen would in a few years become the moſt ce-
head or rounding is 60 feet diameter at the baſe, and lebrated mart of fiſh now exiſting.
the perpendicular elevation is 38 feet. The whole is From a round hill at the weſt end of the city, flow
built of granite, the moſt durable ſtone knowii : many two ſprings, one of pure water and the other of a
of the outlide ſtones are about three tons weight, with qualiiy reſembling the German Spa. Aberdeen, with
hewn beds. It was built under the direction of Mr Aberbrothick, Brechin, Montroſe, and Inyerbervie,
Spreacon; and the expence, amounting to above returns one meniber to Parliament.
17,000l. is defrayed by doubling the harbour-dues, ABERDEENSHIRE, comprehends the diſtricts
which are chiefly paid by the inhabitants.
of Mar, Garioch, Strathbogie, and the greater part
A little to the ſouth of the bar, they have now a of Buchan; and ſends one member to Parliament,
depth of 7 fathoms at low water ; and at the liar It is waſhed on the eaſt and north by the ocean; and
bour mouth, from eight to nine fathoms, where they abounds in ſea-ports, froni whence there is a ſafe and
had fornierly but a few feet.
ready paſſage to the Orkneys and Shetland Iſles, the
Aberdeen once enjoyed a good ſhare of the tobacco Greenland fiſheries, Norway, and the regions round
trade. At preſent, its imports are from the Baltic, and the Baltic, the German coaſt, Holland, Flanders,
a few merchants trade to the Weſt Indies and North France. It is watered by numerous ſtreanis, all of
America. Its exports are ſtockings, thread, ſalmon, them the reſort of ſalmon, and whoſe banks diſplay the
and oatmeal. The firſt is a moſt important article, as moſt extenſive plantations as well as natural woods in
appears by the following ſtate of it. For this mianu. Britain,
facture, 20,800 pounds worth of wool is annually ABERDOUR, a ſmall town in Fifeſhire, Scot-
imported, and 1600 pounds worth of oil. Of this land, on the frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of
wool are annually made 69,333 dozen pairs of ſtock Edinburgh. In old times it belonged to the Viponts;
ings; worth, at an avarage, 11. 1os.per dozen. Theſe in 1126 it was transferred to the Mortimers by marri-
are the work of the country-peoplein almoſt all parts of age, and afterwards to the Douglaſes. William, lord of
this great county, who want 45. per dozen for ſpinning, Liddeſdale, ſurnamed the Flower of chivalry, in the
and 14s. per dozen for knitting ; ſo that there is an- reign of David II. by charter conveyed it to James
nually paid them 62,3291. 14. There is, beſides a. Douglas, anceſtor of the preſent noble owner the Earl
bout 2000l. value of ſtockings manufactured from the of Morton. The monks of Inchcolm had a grant
wool of the county. The thread manufacture is ano for a burial-place here from Allan de Mortimer, in the
ther conſiderable article, though trifling in compariſon reign of Alexander III. The nuns, uſually ſtyled the
of the woollcn. The falınon fiſheries on the Dee and poor Glares, had a conyent at this place.
the Don are a good branch of trade. About 46 boats, ABERFORD, a market-town in the weſt riding
and 130 men, are employed on the firſt; and, in ſome of Yorkſhire, ſtands in a bottom ; and is about a mile
years, 167,000 lb. of filh liaye been ſent pickled to long, and indifferently well built. It is near a Ro-
London, and about 930 barrels of ſalted fiſh exported nian road, which is raiſed very high, and not far
to France, Italy, &c.--The filhery on the Don is far from the river Cock ; between which and the town
leſs confideratle. The fiſh of this river are taken in there is the foundation of an old caſtle ſtill viſible.
cruives above the bridge ; a practice contrary to the It is 181 miles north-by-weſt from London. W.
ancient laws of the kingdom, unleſs where the nature Long. 2. 45. Lat. 55.52.
of the water rendered ihe net-fithery impracticable. ABERGAVENNY, a large, populous, and flou-
The inhabitants likewiſe export conſiderable quanti- rifling town in Monmouthſhire, ſeated at the conflu-
ties of pickled pork, which they fell to the Dutch for ence of the rivers Uſk and Gayenny. It has a fine
victualling their Eaſt India fhips and men of war ; bridge over the Uſk, conſiſting of fifteen arches; and
the Aberdeen pork having the reputation of being the being a great thoronghfare from the weſt part of Wales
beſt cured of any in Europe for keeping on long to Bath, Briſtol, Glouceſter, and other places,.is well
voyages.
furniſhed with accommodations for travellers. It is
6. It is however remarkable,(Mr Knox obſerves), ſurrounded with a wall, and had once a canle. It car-
that there is 110t a ſingle decked veſſel fitted out from ries on a conſiderable trade in flannels, which are
Aberdeen fortke herring or white fiſheries: here is now brought hither for ſale from the other parts of the
3
county.
1
A LE
(
17 ]
A B E
W.
Abex.
years of
Ahernethy, county. It is 142 miles diſtant froin London. was diſcovered. After this, Dr Bradley, with another Aberration
Aberration. Long. 2. 45. Lat. 51. 50. Abergavenny appears to inſtrument more exact and accurately adapted to this }
we have been ilie Gabbanium of Antonins, and the town purpoſe, obſerved the ſame appearances not only in that
of Utk his Burrium.
but many other ſtars : and, by the great regularity
ABERNETHY (John), an eminent diſſenting mi- that appeared in a ſeries of obiervations made in all
niſter, was the fon of Mr John Abernethy a diſſenting parts of the year, the Doctor was fully ſatisfied with re-
miniſter in Colraine, and was born on the 19th of Oc- gard to the general laws of the phenomena ; and there-
tober 1680. When about nine
age,
he was
fore endeavoured to find out the cauſe of them. Не
ſeparated from his parents, his father being obliged to was already convinced, that the apparent motion of the
attend ſome public affairs in London; and his mother, ſtars was not owing to a nuration of the earıh's axis.
to ſhelter herſelf from the mad fury of the Iriſh rebels, The next thing that offered itſelf, was an alteration in
retiring to Derry, a relation who had him under his the direction of the plumb line, with which the in-
care, having no opportunity of conveying him to her, ſtrument was conſtantly rectified; but this, upon trial,
took him with him to Scotland; by which means he proved inſufiicient. Then he had recourſe to what re-
eſcaped the hardſhips he muſt have ſuffered at the liege fraction might do; but here alſo nothing ſatisfactory
of Derry, where Mrs Abernethy loſt all her other occurred. At laſt this acute aſtronomer found, that the
children. He afterwards ſtudied at the univerſity of phenomena in queſtion proceeded from the progreſſive
Glaſgow, till he took the degree of maſter of arts; and, motion of light, and the earth's annual motion in its
in 1708, he was choſen miniſter of a diſſenting con orbit : for he perceived, that if light was propagated
gregation at Antrim, where he continued above twenty in time, the apparent place of a fixed object would not
years. About the time of the Bangorian controverſy be the ſame when the eye is at reſt, as when it is mo-
(for which,ſee HOADLEY),a diſſenſion aroſe among his ving in any other direction than that of the line paf-
brethren in the miniſtry at Belfaſt, on the ſubject of ſing through the eye and object; and that, when the
ſubſcription to the Weſtminſter confeſſion ; in which eye is moving in different directions, the apparent
he became a leader on the negative ſide, and incurred place of the object would be different.
the cenſure of a general fynod. Being in conſequence ABERRATION, in optics, is uſed to denote that error
deſerted by the greateſt part of his congregation, he or deviation of the rays of light, when inflected by ?
accepted an invitation to fetile in Dublin, where his lens or ſpeculum, whereby they are hindered from
preaching was much admired. He was diſtinguilhed by meeting or uniting in the ſame point. There are two
his candid, free, and generous ſentiments; and died of ſpecies of the aberrations of rays, diſtinguiſhed by
the gout in Dec. 1740, in the ſixtieth year of his age. their different cauſes; one ariſing from the figure of
He publiſhed a volume of ſermons on the Divine At the glaſs or ſpeculum, the other from the unequal re-
tributes; after his death a ſecond volume was publiſh- frangibility of the rays of light. This laſt ſpecies is
ed by his friends; and theſe were ſucceeded by four foinetimes called the Newtonian, from the name of
other volumes on different ſubjects : all of which have its diſcoverer. See OPTICS, 1° 17. 136. 173.
been greatly admired.
ABERYSWITH, a market-town of Cardigan-
ABERNETHY, a town in Strathern, a diſtrict of ſhire, in Wales, ſeated on the Ridal, near its contlu-
Perthſhire in Scotland. It is ſeated on the river Tay, ence with the Iſtwith, where it falls into the ſea. It
a little above the mouth of the Erne. It is ſaid to have is a populous, rich town, and has a great trade in
been the ſeat of the Pictiſh kings ; and was afterwards lead, and a conſiderable fiſhery of whiting, cod, and
the fee of an archbiſhop, ſince transferred to St An- herrings. It was formerly ſurrounded with walls, and
drews. It is now greatly decayed.
fortificd with a caſtle ; but both are now in ruins. Its
ABERRATION, in aſtronomy, a ſmall apparent diſtance from London is 199 miles weſt-ſouth-weſt.
motion of the fixed ſtars diſcovered by the late Dr W. Long. 4. 15. Lat. 52. 30.
Bradley. The diſcovery was made by accident in the ABESTA, the name of one of the ſacred books of
year 1725, when Mr Molyneux and Dr Bradley began the Perſian magi, which they aſcribe to their great
to obſerve the bright ſtar in the head of Draco, mark- founder Zoroaſter. The abeſta is a commentary on two
ed y by Bayer, as it paſſed near the zenith, with an others of their religious books called Zend and Fazend;
inſtrument made by Mr Graham,inorder to diſcover the the three together including the whole ſyſtem of the
parallax of the earth's annual orbit; and, after repeated Ignicold, or worſhippers of fire.
obſervations, they found this ftar, about the beginning ABETTOR, a law-term, implying one who en-
of March 1726, to be 2011 more ſoutherly than at the courages another to the performance of ſome criminal
time of thc firſt obſervation. It now indeed ſeemed to action, or who is art and part in the performance it-,
have arrived at its utmoſt limit ſouthward ; becauſe, in ſelf. Treaſon is the only crime in which abertors are
ſeveral trials made about this time, no fenfible difference excluded by law, every individual concerned being
was obſerved in its ſituation. By the middle of April, conſidered as a principal. It is the ſame with As
it appeared to be returning back again toward the and-part in the Scots law.
north; and, about the beginning of ſune, it paſſed at ABEX, a country in High Ethiopia, in Africa,
the ſame diſtance from the zenith as it had done in De- bordering on the Red Sea, by which it is bounded on
cember, when it was firſt obſerved : in September ſol- the eaſt. It has Nabia or Sennar on the north ; Sennar
lowing, it appeared 39' more northerly than it was in and Abyſſinia on the weft; and Abytiinia on the ſouth.
March, juſt the contrary way to what it ought to Its principal towns are Snaquem and Arkcho. It is
appear by the annual parallax of the ſtars. This un ſubject to the Turks, and has the name of the Begler-
expected phenomenon perplexed the obſervers very beg of Habeleth.
beg of Habeleth. It is about five hundred miles in
much; and Mr Molyneux died before the true cauſe of it length and one lundred in breadth, and is a wretched
Vol.I.
С
country i
A BG
[ 18
A EL
18 ]
1
Ahii.
Abeyance country; for the heat here is almoſt inſupportable, and queſts, and founded the empire of the Abyſſines, call- Abians
the air is ſo unhealthy, that an European canliot ſtayed, from his name, the empire of Preſter John. He is 1
Abgillus, long in it without the utmoſt hazard of his life. It is ſaid to have written the hiſtory of Charlemagne's jour-
very mountailious, infomuch that there are many more ney into the Holy Land, and of his own into the in-
wild beaſts than men. Thercare foreſts, in which grow dies ; but they are more probably trifling romances,
a great number of cbony trces.
written in the ages of ignorance.
ABEYANCE, in law, the expectancy of an eſtate. ABIANS, anciently a people of Thrace, or (accord-
Thus if lands be leaſed to one perſon for life, with ing to fomc authors) of Scythia. They had no fixed ha-
reverſion to one another for years, the remainder for bitarions; they lcd a wandering life. Their houſes were
years is an abeyance till the death of the leilee. waggons, which carried all their pofl'etſions. They
ABGAR, or AbGARUS, a name given to ſeveral lived on the fielh of their herds and flocks, on milk,
of the kings of Edella in Syria. The moſt celebrated of and chceſe, chiefly on that of mare's milk. They were
them is one who, it is ſaid, was cotemporary with unacquainted with commerce. They only exchanged
Jeſus Chriſt; and who having a diſtemper in his feet, commodities with their neighbours. They poſſeiled
and hearing of Jeſus's miraculous cures, requeſted him, lands, but they did not cultivate them. They allign-
* Eccl. Hif. by letter, to come and cure him. Euſebius*, who be ed their agriculture to any who would undertake it, re-
lib. i. c. 13. lieved that his letter was genuine, and alſo an anſwer ſerving only to themſelves a tribute ; which they ex-
our Saviour is ſaid to have returned to it, has tranſ- acted, not with a view to live in affluence, but merely
lared them both from the Syriac, and afferts that they to enjoy the neceſſaries of life. They never took arms
were taken out of the archives of the city of Edeſſa. but to oblige thoſe to make good a promiſe to them by
The firſt is as follows: “ Abgarus, prince of Edeſſa, to whom it had been broken. They paid tribute to none
“ Jeſus the holy Saviour, who hath appeared in the fiel of the neighbouring ſtates. They deemed themſelves
" in the confines of Jeruſalem, greeting. I have heard exempt from ſuch an impoſition ; for they relied on
“ of thee, and of the cures thou haſt wrought without their ſtrength and courage, and conſequently thought
6. medicines or herbs. For it is reported thou makeſt themſelves able to repel any invalion. The Abians,
“ the blind 10 ſee, the lame to walk, lepers to be clean, we are told, were a people of great integrity. This ho-
rc devils and unclean ſpirits to be expelled, ſuch as nourable eulogium is given them by Izomer. (Strabo.)
s have been long diſeaſed to be healed, and the dead ABIATHĂR, high-prieſt of the Jews, ſon to Abi-
" to be raiſed; all which when I heard concerning melech, who had borne the ſame office, and received
" thee, I concluded with myſelf, That either thou David into his houſe. This ſo enraged Saul, who ha-
ss waſt a God come down from heaven, or the Son of ted David, that he put Abimelech to death, and 81
“ God ſent to do theſe things. I have therefore writ- prieſts ; Abiathar alone eſcaped the maſſacre. He af-
"ten to thee, beſeeching thee 10 vouchſafe to come terwards was high-prieſt ; and often gave king David
« unto me, and cure my diſeaſe. For I have alſo heard teſtimonies of his fidelity,particularly during Abſalom's
" that the Jews uſe thee ill, and lay ſnares to deſtroy conſpiracy, at which tine Abiathar followed David,
66 tliee. I have here a little city, pleaſantly ſituated, and bore away theark. But after this, conſpiring with
« and ſufficient for us both. ABGARUS. " To this Adonijah, in order to raiſe him to the throne of king
letter, Jeſus, it is ſaid, returned an anſwer by Ananias, David his father; this foexaſperated Solomon againſt
Abgarus's courier ; which was as follows: “ Bleſſed · him, that he diveſted him of the prieſthood, and ba-
« art thou, O Abgarus ! wlio haſt believed in me niſhed him, A. M. 3021, before Chriſt 1014.
« whom thou haſt not ſeen; for the ſcriptures ſay of ABIB, ſignifying an ear of corn, a name given by
me, They who have ſeen me have not believed in the Jews to the firſt month of thcir eccleſiaſtical year,
1}e, that they who have not ſeen, may, by believing, afterwards called Niſan. It commenced at the vernal
« have life. But whereas thou writeſt to have ine equinox ; and according to the courſe of the moon, by
«s come to thee, it is of neceſſity that I fulfil all things which their months were regulated, anſwered to the
“ here for which I am ſent; and having finiſhed them, latter part of our March and beginning of April.
66 to return to him that fent me: but when I am re ABIDING by WRITINGS, in Scots law: When a
<< turned to him, I will then ſend one of niy diſciples perſon founds upon a writing alleged to be falſe, he
" to thee, who ſhall cure thy malady, and give life to may be obliged to declare judicially, whether he will
or thee and thine. Jesus.” After Jeſus's aſcenſion, ſtand or abide by it as a true deed.
Judas, who is alſo named Thomas, fent Thaddeus, one ABIES, the FIR-TREE. See PINUS.
of the ſeventy, to Abgarus; who preached the goſpel to ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime
him and his people, cured him of his diſorder, and of ſtealing cattle by droves or herds. This crinie was
wrought many other miracles : which was done, ſays ſeverly puniſhed; the delinquent being often condem-
Euſebios, A. D. 43.- Though the above letters are ned to the mines, baniſhment, and ſometimes capitally, .
acknowledged to be fpurious by the candid writers of ABIHU, brother to Nadab, and Son of Aaron.
the church of Rome ; ſeveral Proteſtant authors, as Dr The two former had the happineſs to aſcend mount Si-
Parker, Dr Cave, and Dr Grabe, have maintained that nai with their father, and there to behold the glory of
they are genuine, and ought not to be rejected. God: but afterward putting ſtrange fire into their cen-
ABGILLUS (John), ſurnamed Preſter John, was ſers, inſtead of the ſacred fire commanded by God, fire
ſon to a king of the Friſcii; and, from the auſterity of ruſhing upon them killed them. Though all the peo-
his life, obtained the name of Prefter, or Prieſt. He ple bewailed this terrible cataſtrophe, Moſes forbad
attended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy Aaron and his two ſons Eleazar and Ithamar to join
Land; but inſtead of returning with that monarch to in the lamentation.
Europe, it is pretended that he gained mighty con ABII SCYTHÆ, taken by Strabo to denote the Eu-
ropean
و
I
?
A BI
( 19 )
A B J
arls
ans.
Abimilech ropean Sarmatx, bordering on the Thracians and Ba- formerly inhabited the diſtrict of Chae in Paraguay; Ahiph'ni-
ſtanæ : They were commended by Curtius for their but the hoſtilities of the Spaniards have row obliged
Abiponi- love of juſtice, and by Ammictius for their contempt them to remove fouthward into the territory lying Le ha
of earthly things.
tween Santa Fe and St Jago. The only account we
Ahjuration,
ABIMELECH, king of Gerar, a country of the have of them is that publiſhed by M. Dobrizhorfer in
Philiſtines, was cotemporary with Abraham. This pa- 1785. This gentleman, who lived ſeven years in their
triarch aná his family being there, liis wife Sarah, country, informs us that they are not numerous, the
though 90 years of age, was not ſafe in it; for Abi whole nation not much exceeding 5000; for which he
melech carried lier off, and was ſo enamoured of her, alligns as a reaſon an unnatural cuſtom among their
that he reſolved to marry her. Abraham did not de women of ſometimes deſtroying their own children
clare himſelf Sarah's huſband ; but gave out the was from motives of jealouſy, left their huſbands ſhould take
his ſiſter. But the king being warned in a drcam, that other mates during the long time they give ſuck, which
ſhe was married to a prophet, and that he ſhould die if is not leſs than two years. They are naturally white,
he did not reſtore her to Abraham, the king obeyed; but, by expoſure to the air and ſmoke, becoine of a
at the ſame time reproving Abraham for his dilinge- brown colour. They are a ſtrong and hardy race of
nuity ; who thereupon, among other excuſes, ſaid the people; which our author attributes to their marrying
was really his ſiſter, being born of the ſame father, tho' ſo late, an Abiponian ſeldom or never thinking of mar-
of a different mother. Abimelech afterwards gave con- riage till 30 years of age. They are greatly celebrated
ſiderable preſents to Abraham; and a covenant, that of on account of their chaſtity and other virtues; though,
Beerſheba, wasentered into between them.--After the according to our author, they have no knowledge of a
death of Abraham, there being a fainine in the neigh- Deity. They make frequent incurfions into the terri-
bouring countries, Iſaac his ſon alſo withdrew into Ge tories of the Spaniards, mounted on the horſes whichi
rar, which was then likewiſe governed by a king called run wild in thoſe parts. They have a kind of order of
ABIMILECH, probably the ſucceſſor of the former. chivalry for their warriors; and are foformidable, that
Here Rebekah's beauty forced her huſband to einploy 100 of their enemies will fly before ten of theſe horſe-
Abraham's artifice. Abimelech diſcovering that they men. The hatred which theſe favages, whoſe manners,
were nearly related, chid Iſaac for calling his wife his though rude and uncultivated, are in many reſpects
ſiſter ; and at the ſame time forbid all his ſubjects, pure and virtuous, bear to the Spaniards, is invincible.
upon pain of death, to do the leaſt injury to Iſaac « Theſe pretended Chriſtians,” ſays our author,“who
or Rebekah-Iſaac's proſperity loſt him the king's are the ſcum of the Spaniſh nation, practice every kind
friendſhip, and he was deſired to go from among them. of fraud and villainy among theſe poor barbarians; and
He obeyed; but Abimelech aſterwards entered into a their corrupt and vicious morals are ſo adapted to pre-
covenant with him.
judice the Abiponians againſt the Chriſtian religion,
ABIMELECH, the natural ſon of Gideon, by Druma that the Jeſuit miſſionaries have, by a ſevere law, pro-
his concubine. His violent acts and death are record. hibited any Spaniard from coming, without a formal
ed in Judges, chap. ix.
permiſſion, into any of their colonies.”—From his ac-
ABINGDON, a market-town in Berkſhire, feated count of the ſucceis of the Jeſuits in converting them
on a branch of the Thames, received its name from an to Chriſtianity, however, it does not appear that they
abbey anciently built there. The ſtreets, which are have been able to do more than bribe them to a com-
well paved, centre in a ſpacious area, in which the pliance with the ceremonies of the Popith ſuperſtitions;
market is held ; and in the centre of this area is the ſo that in general they are quite ignorant and uncivil-
market-houſe, which is ſupported on lofty pillars, with ized : a moſt ſtriking inſtance of which is, that inz
a large hall of free-ſtone above, in which the ſummer- counting they can go no farther than three; and all
aſſizes for the county are held, and other public buſi- the art of the Jeſuits to teach them the ſimpleſt uſe
neſs done, the Lent aſſizes being held at Reading. It and expreſſion of numbers has proved unſucceſsful.
has two churches; one dedicated to St Nicholas, and ABIRAM, a feditious Levite, who, in concert
the other to St Helena : the latter is adorned with with Korah and Dathan, rebelled againſt Moſes and
a ſpire, and both are ſaid to have been erected by the Aaron, in order to ſhare with them in the government
abbots of Abingdon. Here are alſo two hoſpitals, of the people; when Mofes ordering them to come
one for ſix, and the other for thirteen poor men, and with their cenſers before the altar of the Lord, the
as many poor women ; a free ſchool ; and a charity- earth ſuddenly opened under their feet, and ſwallowed
ſchool. The town was incorporated by Queen Mary. up them and their tents; and at the ſame inſtant fire
It ſends two members to parliament, wlio are choſen canie from heaven, and conſumed 250 of their follow-
by the inhabitants at large not receiving alms. Its Numb. xvi.
great manufacture is malt,large quantities of which are ABISHAI, ſon of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab,
ſent by water to London. It is fix miles and a half was one of the celebrated warriors who flouriſhed in
fouth of Oxford, 47 caſt of Glouceſter, and 55 weſt the reign of David : he killed with his own hand 300
of London. This town is ſuppoſed by Bithop Gibſon men, with no other weapon but his lance; and flew a
to be the place called, in the Saxon annals, Gloveſhoo, Philiſtine giant, the iron of whoſe ſpear weighed 300
where two fynods are ſaid to have been held, one in thekels. I Sam. xxvi. 2 Sam. xxiii.
742, and the other in 822. Long. I. 20. Lat. 51. ABJURATION, in ancient cuſtoms, implied an
ABINTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to a oath, taken by a perſon guilty of felony, and who had
perſon who inherits the right of one who died inteftate fled to a place of ſanctuary, whereby he ſolemnly en-
or without making a will. See INTESTATE.
gaged to leave the kingdom for ever.
ABIPONIANS, a tribe of American Indians, who
ABJURATION, is now uſed in Britain to ſignify the
ers.
C2
renoun-
1
A B L
[ 20 ]
А Б N
Abledli
U
Abner.
Able.
nouns.
}
NARII.
Ahjuration renouncing, diſclaiming, and denying upon oath, the Arts on the 27th of July 1516. In 1534 he fell under
ip Pretender to have any kind of right to the crown. a proſecution for being concerned in the affair nf E.
AVFUR -TION of Here!y, the folemn recantation of lizabeth Barton, called the Holy Maid of K:nt. This
any doctrine as falſc and wicked.
was an infamous impoſtor, ſuborned by the monks to
ABLACTATION, or weaning a child from the uſe fonie ſtrange geſticulations, and to pretend to inſpi-
breaſt. See WEANING.
ration by the ſpirit of prophecy; and ſo well did Ilie
ABLACTATION, among the ancient gardeners, the act her part, that ſome people of conſequence gave cre-
fame with what is called GRAFTING by approach. dit to her : but being at laſt detected, ſhe was condemn-
ABLAI, a country of Great Tertary, the inhabi- ed and executed, after diſcovering the names of her
tants of which, called Birchars or Buchares, are ſubject principal accomplices and inſtigators. On her account
to Ruffia, but that only for protection. It lies eait- Able was accuſed of miſpriſion of treaſon, by ſtat. 25.
ward of the river Irtis, and extends five hundred Hen. VIII. ; and being alſo one of thoſe who denied
leagues along the ſouthern frontiers of Siberia. the king's ſupremacy over the church, he was appre-
ABLAQUEACTION, an old term in gardening, hended and impriſoned ; during which time his con-
fignifies the operations of removing the earth and ba- finement was ſo rigorous, that the keeper of Newgate
ling the roots of trees in winter, to expoſe them more was committed to Marſhalſea priſon for ſuffering him
freely to the air, rains, ſnows, &c.
to go out upon bail. He was afterwards hanged,
ABLANCOURT. See PERROT.
drawn, and quartered, at Smithfield in 1540. Bouchier
ABLATIVE, in granımar, the fixth caſe of Latin gives himn the character of a very learned man; and
The word is formed from auferre, "to take
co to take tells us, that he uſed to teach the queen muſic and the
away.” Priſcian alſo calls it the comparative caſe; as learned langnages.
ſerving, among the Latins, for comparing, as well as ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a ſelect body of
taking away
ſoldiers choſen from among thoſe called EXTRAORDI-
The ABLATIVE is oppoſite to the DATIVE; the firſt
expreſſing the action of taking away, and the latter ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity, thoſe choice
,
that of giving
parts of the entrails of victims which were offered in
In Engliſh, French, &c. there is no preciſe mark facrifice to the gods. They were ſprinkled with flour,
whereby to diſtinguiſh the ablative from other caſes; and burnt upon the altar ; the prieſts pouring ſome
and we only uſe the term in analogy to the Latin. wine on thein.
Thus, in the two phraſes, the magnitude of the city, and ABLUENTS, in medicine, the ſame with diluters
he ſpoke much of the city; we ſay, that of the city in the or DILUENTS.
firſt is genitive, and in the latter ablative; becauſe it ABLUTION, in a general ſenſe, ſignifies the waſh-
would be fo, if the two phraſes were expreſſed in Latin. ing or purifying ſomething with water.
Tlie queſtion concerning the Greek ablative has been ABLUTION, in a religious ſenſe, a ceremony in uſe a-
the ſubject of a famous literary war between two great mong the ancients, and ſtill practiſed in ſeveral parts of
grammarians, Friſchlin and Cruſius ; the former of the world : it conliſted in waſhing the body, which was
whom maintained, and the latter oppoſed the reality always done before facrificing, or even entering their
of it. The diſpute ſtill ſubliſts among their reſpective houſes.--Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremo-
followers. The chief reaſon alledged by the former is, nies, and external worſhipitſelf. Mofes enjoined them;
that the Roman writers often joined Greek words with the heathens adopted them ; and Mahomet and his fol-
the Latin prepoſitions, which govern ablative caſcs, as lowers have continued them : thus they have got foot-
well as with nouns of the ſame caſe. To which their ing among moſt nations, and make a conſiderable part
opponents anſwer, that the Latins anciently had no of moſt eſtabliſhed religions. The Egyptian prieſts
ablativethemſelves; but inſtcad thereof, madeuſe, like had their diurnal and nocturnal ablutions; the Grecians
the Greeks, of the dative caſe ; till at length they for- their ſprinklings; the Romans their luſtrations and la-
med an ablative, governed by prepoſitions, which were vations; the Jews their waſhing of hands and feet, be-
not put before the dative : that, at firſt, the two caſes fide their baptiſms. The ancient Chriſtians had their ab-
had always the ſame termination, as they ſtill have in lutions before communion ; which the Roiniſh church
many inſtances : but that this was afterwards changed ſtill retain before their maſs, ſometimes after : the Sy-
in certain words. It is no wonder then, that the La- rians, Cophts, &c. have their ſolemn waſiringson Good-
tins ſometimes join prepoſitions which govern an abla- Friday: the Turks their greater and leſer ablutions ;
tive caſe, or nouns in the ablative caſe, with Greek da- their Ghaft and Wodou, their Amap, Taharat, &c.
tives, ſince they were originally the ſame; and that the ABNER, the ſon of Ner, father-in-law to Saul,
Greek dative has the ſame effect as the Latin ablative. and general of all his forces, who ſerved him on all oc-
ABLE, or ABEL (Thomas), chaplain to queen Ca- caſions with fidelity and courage. After the death of
tharine confort to Henry the eighth diſtinguilhed him- that prince, Abner ſet Ifhborhelh, Saul's ſon, on the
ſelf by his zeal in oppoſing the proceedings againſt that throne. A war breaking out between the tribe of Ju-
unfortunate princeſs for a divorce. For this purpoſe dah who had elected David king, and Iſrael, Abner
he wrote a piece intitled “Tractatus de non diffolvendo marched againſt that prince wit
Her:rici et Catherinæ matrimonio, i. e. A Treatiſe pro- troops, but was defeated. Abuer afterward,
ving that the marriage of king Henry and queen Ca- diſguiſed, went over to David, and diſpoſed the chiefs
therine ought not to be diſſolved." But the title of of the army and the elders of Iſrael to declare for
the book, according to bilhop Tanner, was Invicta Ve- him; and was received by David with ſuch teſtimo-
ritas. He took the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Ox- nies of affection, as gave umbrage to Joab, who killed
ford on the 4th of July 1513, and that of Maſter of him traiterouſy.
AB-
being
$
A BO
[ 21 ]
ABO
Abnolia ABNOBA, now Abenow, a long range of moun fed to imply the ſtatue of Jupiter Olympins, which Abon,
tains in Germany, taking different names according to Antiochus Epiphanes cauſed to be placed in the temple Aboriginese
Abomina- the different countries they run through. As about the of Jeruſalem. And the abomination of defolation, men-
tion.
riyer Maine, culled the Oden or Ottenwald; between tioned by the Evangeliſts, fignifies the enſigns of the
Heilc and i'ranconia, the Spuffart; and about the duchy Romans, during the lait liege of Jeruſalem by Titus,
of Wirtemberg, where the Danube takes its riſe, called on which the figures of their gods and emperors were
the Baar.
embroidered, and placed upon the temple aftcr it was
ABO, a maritime town in Sweden : it is the capi. takoni.
tal of the province of Finland, and lies upon the point ABON, ABONA, or ABONIS (ance geog.), a tou n
where the gulphs of Bothnia and Finland unite. It and river of Albion. The town, according to Camden,
is a good port ; and is the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of is Abingdon ; and the river Abhon or Ayon. But by
Upfal. It has an university, founded by queen Chri Antonine's Itinerary, the diſtance is nine isiles froni
ſtina in 1640, and endowed with the ſame privileges the Venta Silurum, or Caer-Went: others, therefore,
as that of Upfal. There is alſo a ſchool here, which take the town to be Porſhut, at the mouth oi the river
was founded by Guſtavus Adolphus, for 300 ſcholars. Avon, over againſt Briſtol. Abhon or Ayoni, in the
The town is tolerably well built, and contains ſeveral Celtic language, denotes a river.
brick buildings; but the generality are of wood paint-
ABORIGINES, (Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, Livy,
cd red. The inhabitants export linen, corn, and Virgil); originally a proper name, given to a certain
planks. It lies i 20 miles north-eaſt fron Stockholm. people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient Latium,
E. Long. 21. 28. Lat. 60. 50.
or country now called Campagna di Roma. In this
ABOARD, the inſide of a ſhip. Hence any perſon ſenſe the Aborigines are diſtinguiſhed from the Jani-
who cnters a ſhip is ſaid to go aboard: but when an genæ, who, according to the falſe Beroſus, inhabited
eneiny enters in the time of battle, he is ſaid to board; the country before them ; from the Siculi, whom
a phraſe which always implies hoſtility.–To fall a they expelled ; from the Grecians, from whom they
board of, is to ſtrike or encounter another ſhip whenone deſcended; from the Latins, whoſe name they al-
or both are in motion, or to be driven upon a ſhip by fumed after their union with Æneas and the Trojans ;
the force of the wind and current.-- Aboard-main-tack, laſtly, from the Auſonii, Volſci, Oenotrii, &c. neigh-
the order to draw the main-tack, i. e. the lower corner bouring nations in other parts of the country. Whence
of the main-fail, down to the CHESS-TREE.
this people caine by the appellation, is much diſputed.
ABOLITION, implies the act of annulling, de St Jerom ſays, they were ſo called, as being, abſque
ſtroying, making void, or reducing to nothing. In origine, the primitive planters of the country after the
law, it lignifies the repealing any law or ſtatute. flood : Dion. of Halicarnaſſus accounts for the name,
ABOLLA, a warm kind of garment, lined or dou as denoting them the founders of the race of inhabitants
bled, worn by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of of that country: others think them ſo called, as being
the city, in following the camp.-Critics and antiqua- originally Arcadians, who claimed to be earth-born,
ries are greatly divided as to the form, uſe, kinds, &c. and not deſcended from any people. Aurelius Victor
of this garnient. Papias makes it a ſpecies of the toga, ſuggeſts another opinion, viz. that they were called
or gown ; but Nonius, and the generality, a ſpecies of Aborigines, q. d. Āberrigines, from ab « from," and er-
the pallium, or cloak. The abolla ſeems rather to have rare - to wander ;” as having been before a wandering
ſtood oppoſed to the toga, which was a garment of people. Pauſanias rather thinks they were thus call-
peace, as the abolla was of war; at leaſt Varro and
from“ mountains ;” which opinion ſeeins
Martial place them in this oppoſite light. There ſeem confirmed by Virgil, who, ſpeaking of Saturn, the le-
to have been different kinds of Abollas, ſuited to differ- gillator of this people, ſays,
ent occaſions. Even kings appear to have uſed the Is genus indocile ac difperfum montibus altis
abolla : Caligula was affronted at king Ptolemy for ap Compoſuit, legeſque dedit.-
pearing at the ſhews in a purple abolla, and by the eclat The Aborigines were either the original inhabitants of
thereof turning the eyes of the ſpectators froin the the country, ſettled there by- Janus, as ſome iniagine ;
emperor upon himſelf.
or by Saturn, or Chan, as others : not long after the
ABOMĀSUS, ABO MASUM, or ABOMASIUS, names diſperſion, or ever, as ſome think, before it : Or they
of the fourth ſtomach of ruminating anjinals. It is in were a colony ſent from ſome other nation ; who ex-
the abomafus of calves and lainbs that the runnet or pelling the ancient inhabitants the Siculi,fettled in their
earning is formed wherewith niilk is curdled. See place.About this mother-nation there is great diſ-
COMPARATIVE Anatomy,
pute. Some maintain it to be the Arcadians, parties of
ABOMINATION, a term uſed in fcripture with whom were brought into Italy at different times ; the
regard to the Hebrews, who, being ſhepherds, are ſaid firſt under the conduct of Oenotrius, ſon of Lycaon,
to have been an abomination to the Egyptians, becauſe 450 years before the Trojan war; a ſecond from Thefa
they facrificed the facred animals of that people, as faly ; a third under Evander, 60 years before the
oxen, goats, ſheep, &c. which the Egyptians esteemed Trojan war : beſides another under Hercules; and
as abominations, or things unlawful. The term is alſo another of Lacedæmonians, who fled from the ſevere
applied in the ſacred writings to idolatry and idols, be diſcipline of Lycurgus : all theſe uniting, are ſaid to
cauſe the worſhip of idols is in itſelf an abominable have formed the nation or kingdom of the Aborigines.
thing, and at the ſame time ceremonies obſerved by Others will have them of barbarous rather than Gre.
idolaters were always attended with licentiouſneſs and cian origin, and to have come from Scythia ; others
otler odioils andabominable actions. The abominationz from Gaul. Laſtly, others will have them to be Ca-
of defolation foretold to the prophet Daniel, is ſuppo- naanites, expelled by Joſhua.
The
ed Te Opel
А во
[ 22 ]
ABR
Abortion
Aboukir.
The term Aborigines, though ſo famous in antiquity, cient Canopus, and is ſituated, according to Mr Sava- hout
is uſed in modern geography only occationally as an ry, ſix leagues from Pharos. Pliny ſays, from the te-
appellative. It is given to the primitive inhabitants ſtimonies of antiquity, that it was formerly an illand: Abraham.
of a country, in contradiſtinction to colonies, or new and its local appearance makes this credible ; for the
races of people.
grounds around it are ſo low, that the ſea ſtill covered
ABORTION, in midwifery, the excluſion of a foe a part of them in the days of Strabo. The town is
tus before it has acquired a fufficient degree of perfec- built upon a rock, which forms a handſome road for
tion to enable it to perform reſpiration and the other ſhipping, and is out of the reach of inundations.
vital functions. See MIDWIFERY.
See CANOPUS.
The practice of procuring abortions was prohibited ABOUT, the ſituation of a ſhip immediately after
by the ancient Greek legiſlators Solon and Lycurgus. ſhe has tacked, or changed her courſe by going about
Whether or not it was permitted among the Romans, and ſtanding on the other jack.--About ſhip! theor-
has been much diſputed. It is certain the practice, der to the hip’s crew to prepare for tacking.
which was by them called viſceribus vim inferre, was ABOUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, in Africa,
frequent enough : but whether there was any penalty near the Nile where they make the beſt opium in alí
on it, before the emperors Severus and Antonine, is the Levant. It was formerly a large, but now is a
the queſtion. Noodt inaintains the negative; and fur nican place. N. Lat. 26. 50.
ther, that thoſe princes only made it criminal in one ABRA, a ſilver coin ſtruck in Poland, and worth
particular cafe, viz. of a married woman's practiſing about one ſhilling Sterling. It is current in ſeveral
it out of reſentment againſt her huſband, in order to parts of Germany, Conſtantinople, Aſtracan, Smyrna,
defraud him of the comfort of children: this was or and Grand Cairo.
dered to be puniſhed by a temporary exile. The foun ABRABANEL, ABARBANEL, or AVRAVANEL,
dation on which the practice is ſaid to have been al- (Ifaac),a celebrated rabbi, deſcended from king David,
lowed, was, that the foetus, while in utero, was repu- and born at Liſbon A. D. 1437. He became coun-
ted as a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own ſellor to Alphonſo V. king of Portugal, and afterwards
viſcera, over which ſhe had the ſame power as over the to Ferdinand the Catholic; but in 1492 was obliged
reſt: beſides, that it was not reputed as a man, homo; to leave Spain with the other Jews. In ſhort, after re-
nor to be alive, otherwiſe than as a vegetable ; conſe- ſiding at Naples, Corfu, and ſeveral other cities, he
quently, that the crime amounted to little more than died at Venice in 1508, aged 71. Abrabanel paſſed
that of plucking unripe fruit from the tree. Seneca re- for one of the moſt learned of the rabbis; and the Jews
preſents it as a peculiar glory of Helvia, that ſhe had gave him the names of the Sage, the Prince, and the
never, like other women, whoſe chief ſtudy is their Great Politician. We have a commentary of his on
beauty and ſhape, deſtroyed the foetus in her womb. all the Old Teſtament, which is pretty ſcarce: he there
The primitive fathers, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Mi- principally adheres to the literal ſenſe ; and his ſtile is
nutius Felix, Auguſtin, &c. declaimed loudly againſt clear, but a little diffuſe. His other works are, A Trea-
The practice as virtual inurder. Several councils have tiſe on the Creation of the World; in which he refutes
condemned it. Yet we are told that the modern Ro Ariſtotle, who imagined that the world was eternal ;
miſh ecclefiaftical laws allow of diſpelations for it. A Treatiſe on the explication of the prophecies relating
Egane mentions the rates at which a diſpenſation for to the Meſſiah, againſt the Chriſtian : A book con-
it may be had.
cerning articles of Faith ; and ſome others leſs fought
The practice of artificial ahortion is chiefly in the after. Though Abrabanel diſcovers his implacable a-
hands of women and nurſes, rarely in that of phyfi- verſion to Chriſtianity in all his writings, yet he treat-
cians ; who, in ſome countries, are not admitted to the ed Chriſtians with politeneſs and good-manners in the
profeſſion without abjuring it. Hippocrates, in the common affairs of life.
vath he would have enjoined on all phylicians, includes ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended
their not giving the peffus abortivus ; though elſe- by Serenus Samonicus as an antidotc againſt agues and
where he gives the formal proceſs whereby he him- ſeveral other diſeaſes. It was to be written upon a piece
ſelf procured in a young woman a miſcarriage. It of paper as many times as the word contains letters,
may, however, be obſerved, that often all the powers omitting the laſt letter of the former every time, as in f
of art prove ineffectual, and no leſs often do the at the margin t, andrepeated in the ſame order; and then abracadabra
lempus prove the means of puniſhment by the fatal ſuſpended about the neck by a linen thread. Abracada- abracadabr
conſequences which thcy produce.
bra was the name of a god worſhiped by the Syrians;
alracadab
ABORTION, among gardeners, ſignifies ſuch fruits as ſo wearing his name was a ſort of invocation of his aid:
abıacad
are produced too early, and never arrive at maturity. a practice which, though not moreuſeful, yet was leſs ir-
abraca
ABORTIVE, is, in general, applied to whatever rational, than is the equally heatheniſh practice among
comes before its legitimate time, or to any deſign thoſe who call themſelvesChriſtians,of wearing various abra
which miſcarries.
things, in expectation of their operating by a ſympa-
abr
ABORTIVE Corn, a diſtemper of corn mentioned by M. thy, whoſe parents were ignoranceand Superſtition.
ab
Gillet, and ſuſpected to be occaſioned by infects. It ap ABRAHAM, the father and Rock whence the
pears long before harveſt, and may be known by a de- faithful ſprung, was the ſon of Terah. He was des
formity of the ſtalk, the leaves, the ear, and even the ſcended from Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine
grain.
degrees reinoved. Some fix his birth in the 1 30th year
ABORI IVE Vellum is made of the ſkin of an abortive of Terah's age, but others place it in his fathers 70th
calf.
year. It is highly probable he was born in the city of
APOUKIR, a ſmall town of Egypt, ſituate in the Ur, in Chaldea, which he and his father lcft when they
deſart between Alexandria and Roferta, It is the an-
abracadt
abrac
went
A BR
[ 23 ]
A BR
1
Lat verlionz
Chaldcorum.
xxiv. 2
Chron.
Abraham. went to Canaan, where they remained till the death of lieves that part of it which makes Tera ſo crucl as to Alraham
Terah; after which, Abraham reſumed his firſt deſign be the inforiner againſt his own ſon. Perhaps theam 0
Abiafax.
of going to Paleſtine. The Scriptures mention the fe- biguity of the word U»* might have given riſe to the
veral places he flopped at in Canaan; his journey into ficiio altogether. Such as lay itreſs on the following * It is
Egypt, where his wife was carried off from him ; his words which God ſays to Abraliam (Gen, xy: 7:), 1 the proper
going into Gerar, where Sarah was again taken from ain the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, names of a
him, but reſtored as before ; the victory he obtained imagine that he ſaved him from a great perſecution, city, and it
over the four kings who had plundered Sodom ; his ſince he employed the very fame words in the begin alſo fignifi-
ed fire. The
compliance with his wife, who inſiſted that he ſhould ning of the decalogue to denote the deliverance froni
make uſe of their maid Hagar in order to raiſe up chil- Egypi.
Eldras ix,
dren; the covenant God made with him, ſealed with
Abrahain is ſaid to have been well fkilled in many has it thus:
the ceremony of circumciſion ; his obedience to the ſciences, and to have wrote ſeveral books. Joſephust Qui eleguji
command of God, who ordered him to offer up his tells us that he taught the Egyprians arithmetic and eum de ig ne
only ſon as a facrifice, and how that bloody act was geometry; and, according to Eupolenius and Artapan,
prevented; his marriage with Keturah ; his death at
† Antiq.
he inſtructed the Phoenicians, as well as the Egyptians, lib.i.cap.7.
the age of 175 years: and his interment at the cave in aſtronomy. A work which treats of the creation 8.
of Macpelah, near the body of Sarah his firſt wife. has been long aſcribed to him ; it is mentioned in the
It would be of little uſe to dwell long upon theſe par- Talmud), and the Rabbis Chanina, and Hoſchia uſed Heideza.
ticulars, ſince they are ſo well known. But tradition to read it on the eve before the fabbath. In the firſt Hiit. Patric
arch.tom ii.
has ſupplied numberleſs others, the mention of one or ages of Chriſtianity, according to St Epiphanius y, a
two of which may not be unacceptable.
heretical fect,called Sethinians,diſperſed a piece which : 143.
Soldverf-
Many extraordinary particulars have been told rela- had the title of Abraham's Revelation. Origen mentions Hær p.206
ting to his converſion from idolatry. It is a pretty alſo a treatiſe ſuppoſed to be wrote by this patriarch.
general opinion, that he fucked in the poiſon with his All the ſeveral works which Abraham compoſed in the
milk ; that his father made ſtatues, and taught that plains of Mamre, are ſaid to be contained in the library
* Suidas, in they were to be worſhipped as gods*. Some Jewiſh of the monaſtery of the Holy Croſs on Mount Ana-
Eap8X•
authors relatet, that Abraham followed the ſame trade ria, of Ethiopia . The book on the creation was (Kirchem's
See Jorh. with Terah for a conſiderable time. Maimonaidestfays, printed at Paris 1552, and tranſlated into Latin by treatiſe of
that he was bred up in the religion of the Sabæans, who Poſtel : Rittangel, a converted Jew, and profeſſor at
libraries,
tipud Ge-
acknowledged no deity but the ſtars; that his reflec. Konigſberg, gave alſo a Latin tranſlation of it, with P. 142.
nebrand. in
tions on the nature of the planets, his adiniration of remarks, in 1642.
More Ne- their inotions, beauty, and order, made him conclude ABRAHAM USQUE, a Portugeſe Jew, who tranſla-
voch. c. 29. there muſt be a being ſuperior to the machine of the ted the Bible out of Hebrew into Spaniſh. It was print-
univerſe, a being who created and governed it: how ed at Ferrara in 1553, and reprinted in Holland in
ever, according to an old tradition, he did not renounce 1630. This Bible, eſpecially the firſt edition, which is
$ Heidegg. paganiſm till the 50th year of his age. It is relatedſ, moſt valuable, is marked with ſtars at certain words,
that his father being gone a journey, left him to ſell which are deligned to ſhow that the words are diffi-
Patriarch,
the ſtatues in his abſence ; and that a man, who pre cult to be underſtood in the Hebrew, and that they
tom. iii.
tended to be a purchaſer, aſked him how old he was, may be uſed in a different ſenſe.
Abraham anſwered, “ Fifty.” “Wretch that thou ABRAHAM (Nicholas), a learned Jeſuit born in the
art, (ſaid the other), for adoring at ſuch an age, a be dioceſe of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained the
ing which is but a day old ?” Theſe words greatly rank of divinity profeilor in the univerſity of Port-a-
confounded Abraham. Some time afterwards, a wo Mouſon, which he enjoyed 17 years, and died Septem-
man brought him fome flour, that he might give it as ber 7, 1655. He wrote Notes on Virgil and on Non-
an offering to the idols; but Abraham, inſtead of do nius; a Commentary on ſome of Cicero's Orations, in
ing ſo, took np a hatchet and broke them all to pieces, 2 vols folio : an excellent collection of theological
excepting the largeſt, into the hand of which he put pieces, in folio, intitled Fharus Veteris Teftamenti; and
the weapon. Terah, at his return, aſked whence ſome other works.
came all this hayock? Abraham made anſwer that the ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks extermina-
ſtatues had had a great conteſt which ſhould eat firſt of ted for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century.
the oblation ; " Upon which (faid he), the god you Alſo the name of another feet of heretics who had a-
ſee there, being the ſtouteſt, hewed the orhers to pieces dopted the errors of Paulus. See PAULICLINS.
with that hatchet.” Terah told hin this was banter. ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, in Eſtremadura,
ing ; for thoſe idols had not the ſenſe to act in this ſeated on the river Tajo, belongs to a marquis of the
Abraham retorted theſe words upon his ſa ſame name. It ſtands high, is fqirrounded with gardens
ther againſt the worſhipping of ſuch gods. Terah, and olive-trees, and contains thirty-five thouſand inha-
ſtung with his raillery, delivered up his ſon to the bitants. It has four convents, an almıs-houſe, and an
cogniſance of Nimrod, the ſovereign of the country: hoſpital. W. Long. 7. 18. Lat. 39, 13.
who exhorted Abraham to worſhip the fire; and, upon ABRASAX, or ABRAXAS, the ſupreme god of the
his refuſal, commanded him to be thrown into the Baſilidian heretics. It is a myſtical word, compoſed of
inidſt of the flames: “Now let your God (faid he) the Greek nunerals a, b, P, Q, , Q, s, which together
come and deliver you :" But (adds the tradition), Abra- make up the number CCCLXV. For Bafilides taught
ham came ſafe and ſound out of the flames. This that there were 365 heavens between the earth and the
$ Tradit.
Hebraic, in
tradition is not of modern date, ſince it is told by St empyrean: each of which heavens had its angel or in-
Genetin. Jeroines; who ſeems to credit it in general, but diſbe- telligence, which created it; each of which angelslike-
wife
Hilt.
P. 36.
illanner.
A BR
[ 24 ]
ABR
irient.
tor,
Abraſion wiſe was created by the angcl next alove it ; thus al. diſcovered a fleet abrerfi of Beachy-head ; i. e. off, or Abrettenco
H cending by a ſc.ie to the preme being, or firit crea direüly oppoſite to it.
Abridge-
Abreaſt,
The Balilicians used in word Abraxas by way of AEKETTLNE, or ABRETTINE (anc. geog.), a di-
charm or amulet.
fiici of it yled, in Aſia. Hence the epithet Abritte-
ABRASION, is ſometimes uſed among medicinel 71115 given io Jupiter (Surabo); whoſe prieſt was Cloon,
writers, for the effect of tharp corroſive medicines, or formerly at the head of a gang of robbers, and who
humours in wearing away the natural mucus which co. received many and great favours at the hand of Antony,
vers the membrants, and particularly thoſe of the ſto but afterwards went over to Auguſtus. The people
mach and inteſtines. The word is compoſed of the were called Alretteni; inhabiting the country between
Latin ab and rado to Mave or forape off.
Ancyra of Phrygia, and the river Rhyndacus.
ABRAVANNUS (anc. geog.) the name of a pro-
ABRIDGEMENT, in literature, a term fignify-
montory and river of Galloway, in Scotland, ſo called ing the red clion of a book into a ſmaller compaſs.
from the Celtic terms Eber, ſignifying either the mouth The art of conveying much ſentiment in few words,
of a river, or the confluence of two rivers, and dvon, is the happieſt talent an author can be poſſeſſed of.
a river.
This talent is peculiarly neceſſary in the preſent ſtate
ABRAUM, in natural hiſtory, a name given by of literature ; for many writers have acquired the dex-
fonic writers to a ſpecies of red clay uſed in England terity of ſpreading a few tritical thoughts over ſeveral
by the cabinet makers, &c. to give a red colour to hundred pages. When an author hits upon a thought
new mahogany wood. We have it from the ille of that pleaſes him, he is apt to dwell upon it, to view it
Wight ; but it is alſo found in Germany and Italy. in different lights, to force it in improperly, or upon
ABRAXAS, an antique ſtone with the word abraxas the ſlighteſt relations. Though this may be pleaſant
engraven on it. They are of various ſizes, and moſt to the writers, it tires and vexes the reader. There is
of them as old as the third century. They are frequent another great ſource of diffuſion in compoſition. It is
in the cabinets of the curious; and a collection of them, a capital object with an author, whatever be the ſub-
as complete as poſſible, has been defired by ſeveral. ject, to give vent to all his beſt thoughts. When he
There is a fine one in the abbey of St Genevieve, which finds a proper place for any of them, he is peculiarly
has occafioned much ſpeculation. Moſt of them ſeem happy. But, rather than ſacrifice a thought he is fond
to have come from Egypt; whence they are of ſome of, he forces it in by way of digreſſion, or ſuperfluous
uſe for explaining the antiquities of that country. illuſtration. If none of theſe expedients anſwer his
Sometimes they have no other inſcription beſides the purpoſe, he has recourſe to the margin, a very conve-
word: but others have the names of ſaints, angels, or nient apartment for all manner of pedantry and imper-
Jehovah himſelf annexed; though moſt uſually the tinence. There is not an author, however correct,
name of the Baſilidian god. Sometimes there is a re but is more or leſs faulty in this reſpect. An abridger,
preſentation of Ilis fitting on a lobes, or apis, ſurround- however, is not ſubject to theſe temptations. The
ed with flars, ſometimes monfrous compoſitions of thoughts are not his own ; he views them in a cooler
animals, obſcene images, Phalli and Ithyfalli. The and leſs affectionate manner ; he diſcovers an impro-
graving is rarely good, but tlie word on the reverſe is priety in ſome, a vanity in others, and a want of utili-
ſometimes ſaid to be in a more modern taſte than the ty in many. His buſineſs, therefore, is to retrench fu-
other. The characters are uſually Greek, Hebrew, perfluities, digreſſions, quotations, pedantry, &c. and
Coptic, or Hetherian, and ſometimes of a mongrel to lay before the public only what is really uſeful.
kind, invented, as it would ſeem, to render their mean This is by no means an eaſy employment: To abridge
ing the more inſcrutable. It is diſputed whether the ſome books, requires talents equal, if not ſuperior, to
Veronica of Monti euil, or the granite obeliſk men thoſe of the author. · The facts, manner, fpirit, and
tioned by Gori, be Abraxafes.
reaſoning, muſt be preſerved; nothing eſſential, either
ABREAST (a fea-term), ſide by ſide, or oppoſite in argument or illuſtration ought to be omitted. The
to ; a ſituation in which two or more ſhips lie, with difficulty of the taſk is the principal reaſon why we
their fides parallel to each other, and their heads equals have ſo few good abridgements : Wynne's abridginent
ly advanced. This term more particularly regards the of Locke's Ellay on the Human Underſtanding, is, per-
line of battle at ſea, where, on different occalions haps, the only unexceptionable one in our language.
of attack, retreat, or purſuit, the ſeveral ſquadrons or Theſe obſervations relate ſolely to ſuch abridge-
diviſions of a fleet are obliged to vary their diſpoſitions, ments as are deſigned for the public. But,
and yet maintain a proper regularity by failing in right When a perſon wants to ſet down the ſubſtance of
or curved lines. When the line is formed abreaſt, the any book, a ſhorter and leſs laborious method may be
whole squadron advances uniformly, the ſhips being followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex-
equally diſtant from and parallel to each other, ſo that amples of abridgements for the public : But as it may
the length of each ſhip forms a right angle with the be uſeful, eſpecially to young people, to know how to
extent of the ſquadron or lineabreaſt
. The commander abridge books for their own uſe after giving a few di-
in chicfis always ſtationed in the centre, and the ſe- rections, we ſhall exhibit an example or two, or ſhow
cond and third in command in the centre of their re with what eaſe it may be done.
ſpective fquadrons.--.4breaſt, within the ſhip, implies Read the book carefully ; endeavour to learn the
on a line with the beani, or by the ſide of any object principal view of the author, attend to the arguments
aboard; as, the frigate ſprung a leak abreaſt of the employed : When you have done fo, you will general-
main-hatch-way, i, e. on the ſame line with the main ly find, that what the author uſes as new or additional
hatch-way, croſſing the ſhip's length at right angles, in arguments, are in reality only collateral ones, or ex-
oppoſition to AFORE Or ABAFT the hatch-way..We tenſions of the principal argument, Take a piece of
2
paper
ADR
[ 25 ]
A BR
0)
ment,
run
one? , ,
66
a
Abridge- paper or a common-place book, pit down what the Abridging is peculiarly uſeful in taking the fub• Abrincata-
author wants to prove, ſubjoin the argument or argu- ſtance of what is delivered by Profeſſors, &c. It is
ments, and you have the ſubſtance of the book in a impoſſible, even with the aſliſtance of ſhort-hand, to
few lines. For example,
take down, verbatim, what is ſaid by a public ſpeaker. Abruzzo.
In the Effay on Miracles, Mr Hunie's deſign is to Belides, although it were practicable, ſuch a talent
prove, That miracies which have not been the imme. would be of little uſc.
would be of little uſc. Every public ſpeaker has cir-
diate objects of our ſenſes, cannot reaſonably be be- cumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which deſerye
lieved upon the teſtimony of others.
not to be copied. All that is really uſeful may be
Now, his argument (for there happens to be but comprehended in a ſhort compaſs. if the plan of the
is,
diſcourſe, and arguments employed in ſupport of the
« That experience, which in ſome things is variable, different branches, be taken down, you have the whole.
« in others uniform, is our only guide in reaſoning Theſe you may afterwards extend in the form of a diſ-
“ concerning niatters of fact. A variable experience courſe dreſſed in your own language. This would not
“ gives riſe to probability only; an uniform experi- only be a more rational employment, but would like-
ence amounts to a proof. Our belief of any fact wiſe be an excellent method of improving young nien
" from the teſtimony of eye-witneſſes is derived froni in compofition; an object too little attended to in all
“no other principle than our experience in the vera- feminaries of learning.
city of human teſtimony. If the fact atteſted be ABRINCATARUM OPPIDUM (anc, geog.), the
“ miraculous, here ariſes a conteſt of two oppoſite ex town of the Abrincata or Abrincatui, now Avranches,
“periences, or proof againſt proof. Now, a miracle in France, ſituated on an eminence in the ſouth-weſt
“ unalterable experience has eſtabliſhed theſe laws,the liſh channel. W. Long. I. 10. N. Lat. 48. 40.
“proof againſt a miracle, from the very nature of the ABROGATION, the act of aboliſhing a law, by
“ fact, is as complete as any argument from experi. authority of the maker ; in which ſenſe the word is
“ence can poſſibly be imagined ; and if ſo, it is an un- ſynonymous with abolition, repealing, and revocation.
« deniable conſequence,that it cannot be ſurmountedby Abrogation ſtands oppoſed to rogation : it is diſtin-
« any proof whatever derived from human teſtimony." guiſhed from derogation,
which implies the taking away
In Dr Campbell's Diſſertation on Miracles, the au- only ſome part of a law; from ſubrogation, which de-
thor's principalaim is to ſew the fallacy of Mr Hune's notes the adding a clauſe to it; from obrogation, which
argument; which he has done moſt ſucceſsfully by implies the limiting or reſtraining it; from difpenfation,
another ſingle argument, as follows:
which only ſets it aſide in a particular inſtance ; and
“ The evidence ariſing from human teſtimony is not from antiquation, which is the refuſing to paſs a law.
rolely derived from experience: on the contrary, te ABROKANI, or MALLEMOLLI, a kind of muſlin,
« ſtimony hath a natural influence on belief antece or clear white fine cotton cloth, brought from the Eaſt
“dent to experience. The early and unlimited afſent Indies, particularly from Bengal; being in length 16
“ given to teſtimony by children gradually contracts French ells and 3 quarters, and in breadth 5 eighths.
« as they advance in life : it is, therefore, more con ABROLKOS, the nameof certain ſhelves, or banks
“ ſonant to truth, to ſay, that our diffidence in teſtimo- of ſand, about 20 leagues from the coaſt of Brazil.
« ny is the reſult of experience, than that our faith in ABROTANUM, in botany. See ARTEMISIA
« it has this foundation. Beſides, the uniformity of and SANTOLINA.
" experience, in favour of any fact, is not a proof a ABROTONUM (anc. geog.), a town and harbour
“ gainſt its being reverſed in a particular inſtance. on the Mediterranean, in the diſtrict of Syrtis Parva,
« The evidence ariſing from the ſingle teſtimony of a in Africa, one of the three cities that went to form
“ man of known veracity will go farther to eſtabliſh a Tripoly.
« belief in its being actually reverſed : If his teſtimo ABRUS, in botany, the trivial name of the GLYCINE,
ny be confirmed by a few others of the ſame charac ABRUZZO, a province in Naples. The river Per-
« ter, we cannot with-hold our aflent to the truth of it. cara divides it into two parts; one of which is called
“ Now, though the operations of nature are governed Ulterior, whereof Aquila is the capital ; and the other
« by uniforın laws, and though we have not the teſti- Citerior, whoſe capital is Soromona. Beſides the Ap-
mony of our ſenſes in favour of any violation of penines, there are two conſiderable mountains, the one
“ them ; ftill, if in particular inſtances we have the called Monte Cavallo, and the other Monte Maiello;
“ teſtimony of thouſands of our fellow-creatures, and the top of which laſt is always covered with ſnow. A-
« thoſe too, men of ſtrict integrity, fwayed by no mo bruzzo is a cold country ; but the rigour of the climate
« tives of ambition or intereſt, and governed by the is not ſo great as to prevent the country from produ-
"! principles of common-ſenſe, That they were a&u- cing in abundance every thing requiſite for the ſupport
"ally eye-witneſſes of theſe violations, the conſtitu- of life.
of life. Vegetables, fruits, animals, and numberlels
“ tion of our nature obliges us to believe them.” other articles of ſuſtenance, not only furniſh ample
Theſe two examples contain the ſubſtance of about proviſion for the uſe of the natives, but alſo allow of
400 pages. Making private abridgements of this exportation. There is ſo large a quantity of wheat
kind has many advantages; it engages us to read with reaped, that many thouſands of quarters are annually
accuracy and attention ; it fixes the ſubject in our ſhipped off. Much Turkey wheat is ſent out, and the
minds; and, if we ſhould happen to forget, inſtead of province of Teramo fells a great deal of rice little in-
reading the book again, by glancing a few lines we ferior in goodneſs to that of Lombardy. Oil is a plen-
are not only in poſſeſſion of the chief arguments, but re tiful commodity, and wines are made for exportation
calin a good meaſure the author's method and manner. on many parts of the coaſt; but wool has always been,
VOL. I.
D
and
3
A BR
[ 26 ]
A BS
Ablin
sabruzzo. and ſtill is, their ſtaple commodity: the flocks, after in as great perfection as on the Alps of Swiſſerland, Abruzzo
palling the whole ſummer in the fine paſtures of the and are applied by the natives to wounds with equal
1
mountains, are driven for the winter into the warm fucceſs.
thiated.
plains of Puglia, and a few fpots near their own coaſt, The character of the inhabitants varies a little among
where the ſnow does not lie; there are no manufactures themſelves, according to lituation and climate, but el-
of woollenis in the province, except two ſinall ones ſentially from the diſpoſition of thie natives of the more
of coarſe cloth, and the greateſt part of the wool is ſouthern provinces. This proceeds from a difference
ſent out unwrought. No ſilk is made here, though of origin: for the Lombards, who were barbarians,
mulberry-trees would grow well in the low grounds. but not cruel ; poor, but hoſpitable ; endowed with
Formerly the territory of Aquila furniſhed Italy al- plain honeſt ſenſe, though poſleſſed of little acuteneſs
moſt excluſively withſaffron; but ſince the culture of that or ſubtlety ; remained peaceable proprietors of theſe
plant has been ſo much followed in Lombardy, it has mountianous regions, till the Normans, who were ac-
iallen to nothing in Abruzzo. In the maritime tracks of cuſtomed to a ſimilar cliinate, caine, and diſpoſſeſſed
tlie country the cultivation of liquorice has been incrca- them. The Greeks, who retained almoſt every other
ſed of late years, but foreigners export the roots in their part of the kingdom under their dominion, never had
natural ſtate: in the province of Teraino there is a ma-
any ſway here.
For this reaſon the Abruzzeſi ſtill
nufactory of pottery-ware, for which there is a great bear a great reſemblance to their northern progenitors
demand in Germany, by the way of Trieſte, as it is or maſters : to this day, one may trace in them the
remarkably hard and fine; but even this is going to ſame goodneſs of heart, but great indolence, and re-
decay, by being abandoned entirely to the ignorance pugnance to lively exertions; a fault that proceeds ra-
of common workmen. It is not to be expected that ther from a want of active virtue, than a diſpoſition to
any improvements will be made in arts and manufac- wickedneſs. Hence it comes that in theſe provinces,
tures, where the encouragement and attention of ſu- where the proximity of the frontier almoſt inſures im-
periors is wanting, and no pains taken to render the punity, fewer atrocious and inhuman deeds are heard
commodity more narketable, or to open better chan- of than in other parts of the realm. Remnants of
nels of ſale for it. The only advantages theſe provin- ancient northern cuſtoms exiſted here ſo late as the be-
ces enjoy, are the giſt of benevolent nature; but ſhe ginning of this century, and, among the mountaineers,
has kill greater preſents in ſtore for them, and waits very evident traces of the Frank and Teutonic lan-
only for the helping hand of government to produce guages may be diſcovered.
them. This whole coaſt, one hundred miles in length, ABSALOM, the ſon of David by Maacah, was bro.
is utterly deſtitute of ſea-ports ; and the only ſpots therto Thamar, David's daughter, who was raviſhed by
where the produce can be embarked are dangerous in- Amnon their eldeſt brother by another mother. Abſa-
convenient roads, at the mouths of rivers, and along a lom waited two years for an opportunity of revenging
le-fhore: the difficulty of procuring ſhipping, and of the injury done to his ſiſter ; and at laſt procured the
loading the goods, frequently caufes great quantities aſſaſſination of Amnon at a feaſt which he had prepared
of them to rot on hand: which damps induſtry, and pre- for the king's fons. He took refuge with Talmai king
vents all improvements in agriculture. The huſband- of Geſher; and was no ſooner reſtored to favour, but
man is a poor diſpirited wretch, and wretchedneſs pro- he engaged the Iſraelites to revolt from his father.
duces emigration : the uneven ſurface of the country Abſalon was defeated in the wood of Ephraim : as he
occaſions it to be inhabited by retail, if the expreſſion was flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he
niay be uſed, rather than in large maſſes; for there is hung till Joab came and thurſt him through with
not a city that contains ten thouſand people, and the three darts : David had expreſsly ordered his life to
moſt of them would find it difficult to muſter three be ſpared, and extremely lamented him.
thouſand. Villages, caſtles, and feudatory eſtates, are ABSCESS, in ſurgery ; from abfcedo, to depart.
to be met with in abundance; but the numbers of A cavity containing pus; or, a gathering of matter in
their inhabitants are to be reckoned by hundreds, not a part: So called, becauſe the parts which were joined
thouſands : in a word, the political and ſocial ſyſtem are now ſeparated ; one part recedes from another, to
of the province ſhows no ſigns of the vigour which na make
way
for the collected matter. See SURGERY.
ture ſo remarkably diſplays here in all her operations. *ABSCISSE, in conics, a part of the diameter or
The antiquary and the naturaliſt may travel here tranſverſe axis of a conic ſection intercepted between
with exquiſite pleaſure and profit; the former will find the vertex or ſome other fixed point and a ſemiordi-
treaſures of infcriptions, and inedited monuments ap- nate. See Conic Sections.
pertaining to the warlike nations that once covered the ABSCONSA, a dark lanthern uſed by the monks
face of the country ; the natural philoſopher will have at the ceremony of burying their dead.
a noble field for obſervation in the ſtupendous monu ABSENCE, in Scots law : When a perſon cited
ments that ariſe on all ſides. Monte-corno and Majella before a court does not appear, and judginent is pro-
are among the moſt intereſting ; the firſt is like an aged nounced, that judgment is ſaid to be in abſence. "Ne
monument of nature, bald, and horribly broken on perſon can be tried criminally in abſence.
every aſpect : froni various appearances, it is evident ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impreg-
that its bowels contain many valuable veins of inetallic nated with abſinthium or wormwood. Bartholin men-
ore ; but the great difficulty of acceſs renders the ſearch tions a woman whoſe milk was become abſinthiated,
of them almoſt impracticable. Majella has other me- and rendered as bitter as gall, by the too liberal uſe of
rits, and of a gayer kind :-nature has clothed its de- wormwood.
clivîties and elevated fields with an infinite variety of Vinum abſinthites, or poculum abſinthiaium, “ worm-
her moſt precious plants; vulnerary herbs grow there wood wine,” is much ſpoke of anxong the ancients as a
wholen
1
ABS
[ 27 ]
ABS
um
1
tion.
SIA.
APSIS.
Ablinthi- wholeſome drink, and evenan antidote againſt drunken- had been pleaded on both ſides, the præco uſed the abſolution
neſs, though ſome have charged it with being offen, word dixerunt, q. d. they have ſaid what they had to
Abforp.
five to the head, and liable to cauſe fevers, cephalalgias, fay; then three ballots were diſtributed to each judge,
Abſolution.
vomitings, uterine fluxes, &c. Ray alſo makes it a marked as mentioned under the article A; and as the
preventative of venery. According to the common majority fell of either mark, the accuſed was abſolved
opinion, it is made by infuſing the leaves of the plant or condemned, &c. If he were abſolved, the prætor
in wine; but, according to Fehr, it ought to be pre- diſiniſled him with videtur non feciffe, or jure videtur
pared by fermentation, in order to correct the crudi- feciffe.
ties, and call forth a volatile ſalt ; which laſt, how ABSOLUTION, in the canon law, is a juridicai act,
ever, does not exiſt in wormwood. Some prefer the
Some prefer the whereby the prieſt declares the ſins of ſuch as arc pc-
diſtilled water ; but whatever virtues wormwood pof- nitent reinitted.The Romaniſts hold abfolution a
felles reſide entirely in its eſſential oil.
partof the facrament of penance: the council of Trent,
ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of fell
. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in the decree ad
the common wormwood. See the article ARTEMI- Armenos, declare the form or eſſence of the ſacrament
to lie in the words of abſolution, I abſolve thee of thy
ABSIS, in aſtronomy, the ſame with apſis. See fins. The formula of abſolution, in the Romiſh churcli,
is abſolute : in the Greek church it is deprecatory;
ABSOLUTE, in a general ſenſe, ſomething that and in the churches of the reformed, declarative.
ſtands free or independent.
ABSOLUTION is chiefly uſed among proteſtants for
ABSOLUTE is more particularly underſtood of a being a ſentence whereby a perſon who ſtands excommuni-
or thing which does not proceed from any cauſe, or cated is releaſed or freed from that puniſhment.
does not ſubſiſt by virtue of any other being, conſi ABSORBENT, in general, any thing poſſeſſing
dered as its cauſe'; in which ſenſe, God alone is abſo- the faculty of abſorbing, or ſwallowing up another.
lute. Abſolute, in this ſenſe, is ſynonymous with inde ABSORBENT Medicines, teſtaceous powders, as chalk,
pendent, and ſtands oppoſed to dependent.
crab-eyes, &c. which are taken inwardly for drying up
ABSOLUTE alſo denotes a thing's being free from or abſorbing any acid or redundant humours in the ſto-
conditions or limitations ; in which ſenſe, the word is mach or inteſtines. They are likewiſe applied out-
fynonymous with unconditional. We ſay, an abſolute wardly to uleers or fores with the ſame intention.
decree, abſolute promiſe, abſolute obedience.
ABSORBENT Veffels, a name given promiſcuouſly to
ABSOLUTE Government, that wherein the prince is the lacteal veſſels, lymphatics, and inhalent arteries,
left ſolely to his own will, being not limited to the ob- See ANATOMY.
ſervance of any laws except thoſe of his own diſcre. Naturaliſts ſpeak of the like abſorbents in plants,
tion.
the fibrous or hairy roots of which are as a kind of va-
ABSOLUTE Equation, in aſtronomy, is the aggregate ſa abſorbentia, which attract and imbibe the nutritious
of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent juices from the earth. See PLANTS.
inequality of a planet's motion ariſing from its not be ABSORBING, the ſwallowing up, ſucking up, or
ing equally diſtant from the earth at all times, is call- imbibing any thing; thus black bodies are ſaid to ab-
ed its optic equation, and would ſubſiſt even if the pla- forb the rays of light; luxuriant branches, to abſorb
net's real motion were uniform. The eccentric ine-
or waſte the nutricious juices which ſhould feed the
quality is cauſed by the planet's motion being uniform. fruit of trees, &c.
To illuſtrate which, conceive the ſun to move, or to ABSORPTION, in the animal æconomy, is the
appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in power whereby the abſorbent veſſels imbibe the juices,
whoſe centre the earth is placed. It is manifeſt, that &c.
if the ſun moves uniformly in this circle, it muſt appear ABSORPTIONS of the Earth, a term uſed by Kircher
to move uniformly to a ſpectator on the earth, and in and others for the ſinking in of large tracts of land by
this caſe there will be no optic nor eccentric equation: means of ſubterraneous commotions, and many other
but fuppoſe the carth to be placed out of the centre of accidents.
the circle, and then, though the ſun's motion fhould Pliny tells us, that in his tine the mountain Cym-
be really uniforın, it would not appear to be ſo, being botus, with the town of Eurites, which ſtood on its
ſeen from the earth; and in this caſe there would be an ſide, were wholly abſorbed into the earth, ſo that nor
optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine the leaſt trace of either remained ; and he records the
farther, the ſun's orbit to be not circular, but elliptic, like fate of the city Tantalis in Magneſia, and after it
and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that of the mountain Sypelus, both thus abſorbed by a vi-
the ſun cannot appear to liave an uniform motion in olent opening of the earth. Galanis and Garnatus,
ſuch ellipſe : ſo that his motion will then be ſubject to towns once famous in Phænicia, are recorded to
two equations, the optic and the eccentric.
have niet the ſame fate ; and the vaſt promontory, cal-
ABSOLUTE Number, in algebra, is any pure number led Phlegium, in Ethiopia, after a violent earthqaake
ſtanding in any equation without the conjunction of li- in the night-time, was not to be feen in the morning,
teral characters; as 2x+36–48 ; where 36 and 48 the whole having diſappeared, and the earth cloſed o-
are abſolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined ver it. Theſe and many other hiſtories, atreſted by
with the letter x,
the authors of greateſt credit among the ancients, a-
ABSOLUTION, in civil law, is a ſentence whereby bundantly prove the fact in the earlier ages; and there
the party accuſed is declared innocent of the crime laid have not been wanting too many inſtances of more mo-
to his charge.--Among the Romans, the ordinary me dern date. Kircher's Mand. Subter. p. 77. Sec
thod of pronouncing judgment was this: after the cauſe EARȚA and EarTHQUAKE.
ABSOR
D 2
ABS
[ 28 ]
ABS
ز
Abforus ABSORUS, APSORUS, ABSYRTIS, ARSYRTIDES, in favour of the conſumption of fiſh, and to multiply the Abſtinence
ll APOYRTIDES, APSYRTIS, and ABSYRTIUM, (Strabo, number of fiſhermen and mariners, as well as ſpare the
Abftinence Mela, Ptolenıy;) iſlands in the Adriatic, in the gulph ilock of lhicep. ? he great faſt, ſays St Auguſtin, is to
of Carnero; ſo called from Abſyrtis, Medea's brother, abſtain from fin.
there ſlain. They are either one iſland, or two, fe ABSTINence is more particularly uſed for a ſpare
parated by a narrow channel, and joined by a bridge; diet, or a ſlender partimonious uſe of food, below the
and are now called Cherfo and Ofero.
ordinary ſtandard of nature. The phyſicians relate
ABSTEMII, in church hiſtory, a name given to wondeis of the effects of abſtinence in the cure con
ſuch perſons as could not partake of the cup of the many diſorders, and protra&ting the term of life. The
euchariſt on account of their natural avertion to wine. noble Venetian, Cornaro, after all imaginable means
Calviniſts allow theſe to communicate in the ſpecies of bad proved vain, ſo that his life was deſpaired of at
bread only, touching the cup with their lip; which, 40, recovered, and lived to near 100, by mere dint
on the other hand, is by the Lutherans deemed a pro- of abſtinence; as he himſelf gives the account. It is
fanation.
indeed ſurpriſing to what a great age the primitive
ABSTEMIOUS, is properly underſtood of a per- Chriſtians of the eaſt, who retired from the perſecu-
ſon who refrains abſolutely from all uſe of wine. tions into the deſarts of Arabia and Egypt, lived,
The hiſtory of Mr Wood, in the Medic. Tranſ. healthful and cheerful, on a very little food. Caſſian
vol. ii. p. 261. art. 18. is a very remarkable exempli- aſſures us, that the common rate for 24 hours was 12
fication of the very beneficial alterations which may ounces of bread, and niere water : with this St An-
be effected on the human body by a ſtrict courſe of thony lived 105 years ; James the Hermit 104; Ar-
abſtemiouſneſs.
fenius, tutor of the Emperor Arcadius, 120 ; S. Epi-
The Roman ladies, in the firſt ages of the republic, phanias, 115; Simeon the Stylite, 112 ; and Romauld,
were all enjoined to be abſtemious; and that it might 120. Buchanan writes, that in Scotland one Laurence
appear, by their breath, whether or no they kept up preſerved himſelf to 140 by force of temperance and
to the injunction, it was one of the laws of the Roa labour ; and Spotſwood mentions one Kentigern, af-
inan civility, that they ihould kiſs their friends and terwards called S. Mongah or Mungo, who lived to
relations whenever they accoſted them.
185 by the ſame means. Other inſtances fee under
ABSTEMIUS (Laurentius), a native of Macerata, the article LONGEVITY.
profeſſor of belles lettres in Urbino, and librarian of Abſtinence, however, is to be recommended only as
duke Guido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of Alexan- it means a proper regimen ; for in general it muſt have
der VI. He wrote, 1. Notes on moſt difficult paſſages bad conſequences when obſerved without a due regard
of ancient authors. 2. Hecatomythium, i. e. A col to conſtitution, age, ſtrength, &c. According to Dr
lection of an too fables, &c. which have been often Cheyne, moſt of the chronical diſeaſes, the infirmities
printed with thoſe of Æſop, Phædrus, Gabrias, Avi- of old age,and the ſhort lives of Engliſhmen, are owing
to repletion ; and may be either cured, prevented, or
ABSTERGENT MEDICINES, thoſe employed for remedied by abſtinence : but then the kinds of abſti-
reſolving obſtructions, concretions, &c. ſuch as ſoap, nence which ought to obtain, either in fickneſs
health, are to be deduced from the laws of diet and re-
ABSTINENCE, in a general ſenſe, the act or ha- gimen.
bit of refraining from ſomething which we have a pro Among the brute creation, we ſee extraordinary in-
penfion to or find pleaſure in.—Among the Jews, va- ſtances of long abſtinence. The ſerpent-kind, in parti-
rious kinds of abſtinence were ordained by their law. cular, bear abſtinence to a wonderful degree. We have
Among the primitive Chriſtians, ſome denied them- ſeen rattle-ſnakes that had fubfifted many months with-
ſelves the uſe of ſuch meats as were prohibited by that out any food, yet ſtill retained their vigour and fierce-
law,others looked upon this abſtinence with contempt; neſs. Dr Shaw ſpeaks of a couple of ceraſtes, (a ſort of
as to which, St Paul gives his opinion, Rom. xiv. I---3. Egyptian ſerpents), which had been kept five years in
The council of Jerufalem, which was held by the Apo a bottle cloſe corked, without any ſort of food, unleſs a
fles, enjoined the Chriſtian converts to abſtain from ſmall quantity of ſand wherein they coiled themſelves
meats ſtrangled, from blood, from fornication, and up in the bottom of the veſſel may be reckoned as
from idolatry. Abſtinence, as preſcribed by the gof- ſuch : yet when he ſaw them, they had newly caſt their
pel, is intended to mortify and reſtrain the paſſions, to ſkins, and were as briſk and lively as if juſt taken. But
humble our vicious natures, and by that means raiſe it is even natural for divers ſpecies to paſs four, five, or
our minds to a due ſenſe of devotion. But there is ſix months every year, without either cating or drink-
another fort of abſtinence, which may be called ritual, ing. Accordingly, the tortoiſe, bear, dormouſe, fer-
and conſiſts in abſtaining from particular meats at cer pent, &c. are obſerved regularly to retire, at thoſe
tain times and ſeaſons. It was the ſpiritual monarchy ſeaſons, to their reſpective cells, and hide themſelves,
of the weſtern world which firſt introduced this ritual fome in the caverns of rocks or ruins; others dig holes
abſtinence; the rules of which were called rogations; under ground; others get into woods, and lay them-
but groſsly abufed from the true nature and deſign of ſelves up in the clefts of trees; others bury themſelves
faſting.-In England, abſtinence from fleſh has been under water, &c. And theſe animals are found as fat
enjoined by ſtatute even ſince the reformation, particu- and fleſhy after fome months abſtinence as before.-
larly on Fridays and Saturdays, on vigils, and on all Sir G. Ent* weighed his tortoiſe ſeveral years ſuccef-
commonly called fish-days. The like injunctions were fively, at its going to earth in October, and coming Trant
renewed under Q. Elizabeth : but at the ſame time it out again in March ; and found, that, of four pounds, n° 194.
was declared, that this was done not out of motives of four ounces, it only uſed to loſe about one ouitce.
rcligion, as if there were any difference in ineats; but - Indeed, we have inſtances of men paſſing ſeveral
months
enus, &c.
&c.
Phil.
ABS
[ 29 ]
ABS
Abhinenec. months as ſtrictly abſtinent as other creatures. In par- come intermixed with phyſical conſiderations ; ſuch Abſtract
ticular, the records of the Tower of London mention a are Hydroſtatics, Optics, Navigation, &c.
Abfurd.
Abſtrad, Scotchman impriſoned for felony, and frictly watched ABSTRACT, in literature, a compendious view of Abfurd.
in that fortreſs for ſix weeks : in all which time he any large work; ſhorter and more ſuperficial than an
took not the leaſt fuſtenance: for which he had his par abridgment.
don. Numberleſs inſtances of extroardinary abſtinence, ABSTRACTION, in general, the act of abſtract-
particularly from morbid cauſes, are to be found in the ing, or the ſtate of being abſtracted.
different periodical Memoirs, Tranſactions, Epheme ABSTRACTION, in metaphyſics, the operation of the
rides, &c.-It is to be added, wat, in moſt inſtances of mind when occupied by abſtract ideas. A large oak
extroardinary human abſtinence related by naturaliſts, fixes our attention, and abſtracts us from the ſhrubs
there were ſaid to have been apparent marks of a tex that ſurround it. In the ſame manner, a beautiful
ture of blood and humours, much like that of the ani woman in a crowd, abſtracts our thoughts, and engroſ-
inals abovencntioned. Though it is no improbable o fes our attention ſolely to herſelf. Theſe are examples
pinion, that the air itſelf may furniſh ſomething for nu- of real abſtraction : when theſe, or any others of a fi-
trition. It is certain, there are ſubſtances of all kinds, milar kind, are recalled to the inind after the objects
animal, vegetable, &c. floating in the atmoſpliere, themſelves are removed from our fight, they form what
which muſt be continually taken in by reſpiration, And are called abſtract ideas, or the nind is ſaid to be em-
that an animal body nay be nouriſhed thereby, is evi- ployed in abſtract ideas. But the power of abſtraction
dent in the inſtance of vipers; which if taken when is not confined to objects that are ſeparable in reality
firſt brought forth, and kept from every thing but air, as well as mentally : the lize, the figure, the colour of
will yet grow very conſiderably in a few days. So thé a tree are inſeparably connected, and cannot exiſt in-
eggs of lizards are obſerved to increaſe in bulk, after dependent of each other ; and yet we can mentally con-
they are produced though there be nothing to furniſh fine our obſervations to any one of theſe properties,
the increment but air alone; in like manner as the eggs neglecting or abſtracting from the reſt.
or ſpawn of fithes grow and are nouriſhed with the wa Abſtraction is chiefly employed theſe three ways.
ter. And hence, ſay ſome, it is that cooks, turnſpit- Firſt, When the mind conſiders any one part of a
dogs, &c. though they eat but little, yet are uſually thing, in ſome, reſpect diſtinct from the whole ; as a
fat. See FASTING.
man's arın, without the conſideration of the reſt of the
ABSTINENTS, or ABSTINENtes, a ſet of here- body. Secondly, When we conſider the mode of any
tics that appeared in France and Spain about the end ſubſtance, omitting the fubſtance itſelf; or when we
of the third century. They are ſuppoſed to have bor. feparately conſider ſeveral inodes which ſubfiſt together
rowed part of their opinions from the Gnoſtics and in one ſubject. This abliraćtion the geometricians
Manicheans, becauſe they oppoſed marriage, condenin- make uſe of when they conſider the length of a body
ed the uſe of fleſh meat, and placed the Holy Ghoſt in ſeparately, which they call a line, omitting the conti-
the claſs of created beings. We have, however, no deration of its breadth and thickneſs. Thirdly, it is
certain account of their peculiar tenets,
by abſtraction cliat the mind forms general or univerſal
ABSTRACT, in a general ſenſe, any thing ſepa- ideas; omitting the modes and relations of the parti-
rated from ſomething elſe,
cular objects whence they are formed. Thus, when
ABSTRACT Idea, in metaphyſics, is a partial idea of a we ſhould underſtand a thinking being in general, we
complex object, limited to one or more of the compo- gather from our ſelf-conſciouſneſs what it is to think;
nent parts or properties, laying aſide or abſtracting and, omitting thoſe things which have a particular re-
from the reſt. Thus, in viewing an object with the lation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we
eye, or recollecting it in the mind, we can eaſily ab- conccive a thinking being in general.
ſtract from ſome of its parts or properties, and attach Ideas formed in this manner, which are whal we
ourſelves to others: we can attend to the redneſs of a properly. call abſtract ideas, becomie general repreſen-
cherry, without regard to its figure, taſte; or conſiſt- tatives of all objects of the fane kind; and their names
See ABSTRACTION.
applicable to whatever exiſts conformable to ſuch
ABSTRACT Terms, words that are uſed to expreſs ideas. Thus the idea of colour that we receive from
abſtract ideas. Thus beauty,uglineſs, whiteneſs, round- chalk, ſnow, milk, &c. is a repreſentative of all of that
neſs, life, death, are abſtract terms,
kind; and has a name given it, whitenes, which
ABSTRACT Numbers, are aſſemblages of units, con- fignifies the ſame quality wherever found or imagi.
ſidered in themſelves without denoting any particular ned.
and determined particulars. Thus 6 is an abſtract ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, concealed,
number, when not applied to any thing ; but, if we orfar removed from common apprehenſions, and there-
ſay 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number. See the ar fore not eaſily underſtood ; in oppoſition to what is
ticle NUMBER.
obvious and palpable. Thus metaphyſics is an ab-
ABSTRACT Mathematics, otherwiſe called Pure Ma- ſtrufe fcience; and the doctrine of fluxions, and the
thematics, is that which treats of magnitude or quan- method de maximis et minimis, are abſtruſe points of
tity, abſolutely and generally conſidered, without re- knowledge.
ſtriction to any ſpecies of particular magnitude ; ſuch ABSURD, an epithct applied to any thing that
are Arithmetic and Geometry. In this ſenſe, abſtract oppoſes the human apprehention and contradicts a
mathematics is oppoſed to mixed mathematics; wherein manifeſt truth. Thus, it would be abſurd to ſay
fimple and abſtract properties, and the relations of that 6 and 6 make only 10, or to deny that twice 6
quantities primitively conſidered in pure mathematics, make 12. When the term abſurd' is applied to actions,
are applied to ſenſible.objects, and by that means be it has the ſame import as ridiculous.
3.
ABSYN.
ence.
L
ABU
[ 30 ]
A B Y
Abſyn-
thium
Abuſc
!
Abydos.
Abus.
ABSYNTHIUM. See ABSINTHIUM.
ABUSE, an irregular uſe of a thing, or the intro-
ABSYRTUS, in the heathen anythology, the ſon ducing ſomething contrary to the true intention there-
of Æta and Hypſea, and the brother of Medea. The of. In grainmar, to apply a word abuſively, or in an
latter running away with Jaſon, after her having affift- abuſive ſenſe, isto miſapply or pervert its meaning.-
ed him in carrying off the golden fleece, was purſued A permutation of benefices, without the conſent of the
by her father; when, to ſtop his progreſs, the tore biſhop, is termed abuſive, and conſequently null.
Abſyrtus in pieces, and ſcattered his limbs in his way. ABUTILON, in botany, the trivial name of ſeve-
ABTHANES, a title of honour uſed by the an- ral ſpecies of the fida. See SIDA.
cient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles ABYDOS, (anc. geog.), anciently a town built by
thanes, which in the old Saxon ſignifies king'sminiſter's; the Mileſians in Aſia, on the Hellefpont, where it is
and of theſe the higher rank were ſtyled abthanes, and ſcarce a mile over, oppoſite to Seſtos on the 'Euro-
thoſe of the lower underthanes.
pean ſide. Now both called the Dardanelles. Abydos
ABUCCO, ABOCCO, or ABOCCHI, a weight uſed lay midway between Lampſacus and Iliam, famous for
in the kingdoni of Pegu. One abacco contains 12, tec Xerxes's bridge, (Herodotus, Virgil); and for the
calis; two abuccos make a giro or agire ; two giri, half loves of Leander and Hero. (Mufæus, Ovid); celebra-
a hıza; and a hiza weighs an hundred teccalis; that ted alſo for its oyſters, (Ennius, Virgil). The inhabi-
is, two pounds five ounces the heavy weight, or three tants were a ſoft, effeminate people, given much to de-
pounds nine ounces the light weight of Venice. traction ; hence the proverb, Ne temere Abydum when
ABUKESO, in commerce, the fame with ASLAN. we would caution againſt danger, (Stephanus).
ABULFARAGIUS (Gregory), ſon to Aaron a ABYDOS, (anc, geog.), anciently an inland town of
phyſician, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diofpolis Parva, to-
the ſource of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed wards Syene; famous for the palace of Memnon and
the profeſſion of his father ; and practiſed with great the temple of Oſiris. A colony of Mileſians; (Ste-
ſucceſs, numbers of people coming froin the moſt re phanus.) It was the only one in the country into
mote parts to aſk his advice. However, he would hardly which the fingers and dancers were forbid to enter.
have been known at this time, had his knowledge been This city, reduced to a village under the empire of
confined to phyſic: but he applied himſelf to the ſtudy Augſtus, now preſents to our view only an heap of
of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well ruins without inhabitants; but to the weſt of theſe
as philofopliy and divinity; and he wrote a hiſtory ruins is ſtill found the celebrated tomb of Irmandes.
which does honour to his memory. It is written in The entrance is under a portico 60 feet high, and ſup-
Arabic, and divided into dynaſties. It conſiſts of ten ported by two rows of maſly columns. The immove.
parts, being an epitome of univerſal hiſtory from the able folidity of the edifice, the huge maſſes which com-
creation of the world to his own time. Dr Pocock pu- poſe it, the hieroglyphics it is loaded with, ſtamp it a
bliſhed it with a Latin tranſlation in 1663; and added, work of the ancient Egyptians. Beyond it is a temple
by way of ſupplement, a ſhort continuation relating 300 feet long and 145 wide. Upon entering the mo-
to the hiſtory of the caſtern princes.
nument we meet with an immenſe hall, the roof of
ABUNA, the title given to the archbiſhop or me which is ſupported by 28 columns 60 feet high and 19
tropolitan of Abyſſinia. See ABYSSINIA.
in circumference at the baſe. They are 12 feet diſtant
ABUNDANT NUMBER, in arithmetic, is a num-
from each other. The enormous ſtones that form the
ber, the ſum of whoſe aliquot parts is greater than the ceiling, perfectly joined and ineruſted, as it were, one
number itſelf. Thus the aliquot parts of 12, being I, in the other, offer to the eye nothing but one folid plat-
2, 3, 4, and 6, they make, when added together, 16. forin of marble 116 feet long and 26 wide. The walls
An abundant number is oppoſed to a deficient number, are covered with hieroglyphics. One ſees there a inul-
or that which is greater than all its aliquot parts taken titude of animals, birds, and human figures with point-
together ; as 14, whoſe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 7, ed caps on their heads, and a piece of ſtuff hanging
which make no more than ten : and to a perfect num down behind, dreſſed in looſe robes that came down
ber, or one to which its aliquot parts are equal, as 6, only to the waiſt. The ſculpture, however, is clumſy;
whoſe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 3.
the forms of the body, the attitudes and proportions of
ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, repreſented the members, ill obſerved. Amongſt theſe we may di-
in ancient nonuments under the figure of a woman ſtinguiſh ſome women ſuckling their children,and men
with a pleaſing aſpect, crowned with garlands of flow- prelenting offerings to them. Here alſo we meet with
ers, pouring all ſorts of fruit out of a horn which the tlie divinities of India. Monſieur Chevalier, formerly
holds in lier right hand, and ſcattering grain with her governor of Chandernagore, who reſided 20 years in
left, taken promiſcuouſly from a ſheaf of corn. On a me that country,carefully viſited this monument on his re-
dal of Trajan, ſhe is repreſented with two cornucopiæ, turn from Bengal. He remarked here the gods Fag-
ABUSAID, (Ebn Aljaptu), ſaltan of the Moguls, grenat, Gonez, and Vechnou or Wiſtnou, ſuch as they are
ſucceeded his father anno 717 of lhe hegira. He was repreſented in the temples of Indoſtan.-Agreat gate
the laſt monarch of the race of Jenghizkhan ; and af- opens at the bottoin of the firſt hall, which leads to an
ter his death, which happened the ſame year that Ta- apartment 46 feet long by 22 wide. Six ſquare pillars
incrlane was born, the empire was made a ſcene of ſupport the roof of it ; and at the angles are the doors
blood and defolation.
of four other chambers, but ſo cloaked up with rub.
ABUS, (anc. geog.), a river of Britain, formed by bith that thcy cannot now be entered. The laſt ball,
the confluence of the Ure, the Derwent, Trent, &c. 64 feet long by 24 wide, has ſtairs by which one den
falling into the German ſea, between Yorkſhire and fceuds into the fubierraneous apartments of this grand
Lincolnſhire, and forming the niouch of the Humber. “edifice. Tlie Arabas, in ſearching after treaſure, have
piled
1
À BY
A B Y
[ 31 ]
I
toma, vi,
P. 24.
Abydos piled up hcaps of earth and rubbiſh. In the part we it being for the moſt part reſtrained and depreſſed by Abyſs.
Abydos
are able to penetrate, ſculpture and hieroglyphics are the ſtrata of earth lying upon it ; but whenever thoſe
Abyſs. diſcoverable as in the upper ſtory. The natives ſay that ſtrata are broken, or ſo lax and porous that water can
they correſpond exactly with thoſe above ground, and peryade them, there the water of the abyſs aſcends :
that the columns are as deep in the earth as they are fills up all the clefts and fillures into which it can get
lofty above ground. It would be dangerous to go far admittance ; and ſaturates all the interſtices and pores
into thoſe vault ; for the air oftheni is ſo loaded with a of the earth, ſtone, or other matter all around the
mephitic vapour, that a candle can ſcarce be kept burn- globe, quite up to the leyel of the ocean.
ing in them. Six lions heads, placed on the two ſides The exiſtence of an abyſs or receptacle of ſub-
of the temple, ſerve as ſpouts to carry off the water. terraneous waters, is controverted by Camerarius*; *Differto
You mount to the top by a ſtaircaſe of a very ſingular and defended by Dr Woodward chiefly by iwo ar-
Tanr, ideta
ſtructure. It is built with ſtones incruſted in the wall, gunents : the firſt drawn from the vaſt quantity
Erud. ſuppo
and projecting fix feet out; ſo that being ſupported on of water which covered the earth in the time of
ly at one end, they appear to be ſuſpended in the air. the deluge ; the ſecond, from the conſideration of
The walls, the roof, and the columns of this edifice, earthquakes, which he endeavours to ſhow are oc-
have ſuffered nothing from the injuries of time ; and calioned by the violence of the waters in this a-
did not the hieroglyphics, by being corroded in ſome byſs. A great part of the terreſtrial globe has
places, mark its antiquity, it would appear to have been bcen frequently maken at the ſame moment; which
newly built. The folidity is fuch, that unleſs people argucs, according to him, that the waters, which were
make a point of deſtroying it, the building niult laſt a the occaſion thereof, were co-extended with that part
great ijumber of ages. Except the coloflal figures, of the globe. There are even inſtances of univerſal
whoſe heads ſerve as an ornament to the capitals of the earthquakes ; which (ſays he) ſhow, that the whole
columns, and which are ſculptured in relievo, the reſt abyſs muſt have been agitated: for lo general an effect
of the hieroglyphics which cover the inſide are carved muſt have been produced by as a general cauſe, and
in ſtone. To the left of this great building we ineet that cauſe can be nothing but the fubterraneous
with another much ſmaller, at the bottom of which is abyſst.
To this abyſs alſo has been attributed the origin the Earth.
| Hift. of
a fort of altar. This was probably the ſanctuary of
the temple of Oſiris.
of ſprings and rivers ; the level maintained in the Journal de
ABYLA, (Ptolemy, Mela) ; one of Hercules's pils ſurface of different feas; and their not overflowing Scavans,
lars on the African ſide, called by the Spaniards Sier their banks. To the effluvias emitted from it, fome tom. Iviii.
ra de las Monas, over againſt Calpe in Spain, the other even attribute all the diverſities of weather and change : 393;
Menivirsof
pillar ; ſuppoſed to have been formerly joined, butſe- in our atmoſphere. Kayſ, and other authors, an-
Literature,
parated by Hercules, and thus to have given entrance cient as well as modern, ſuppoſe a communication be-
tom, viii,
to the ſea now called the Mediterranean : tlie liinits tween the Caſpian ſea and the ocean by means of a p. 101, &c.
of the labours of Hercules, (Pliny.)
ſubterranean abyſs : and to this they attribute it that {Holloway
ABYSS, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſomething pro the Caſpian ſea does not overflow, notwithſtanding the Introd. to
found, and, as it were, bottomleſs. The word is ori-
great number of large rivers it receives, of which woud-
ginally Greek, abuesos; compounded of the primitive Kempfer reckons above 50 in the compaſs of 60 miles;
ward's hiſt.
of the Earth
a, and Guopos, q. 1. without a bottom.
tho', as to this, others ſuppoſe that the daily evapo- Acta Erud.
Abyss, in a more particular ſenſe, denots a deep ration may ſuffice to keep the level.
inaſs or fund of waters. In this ſenſe, the word is The different arguments concerning this ſubject l'hyfico
particularly uſed, in the Septuagint, for the water may be ſeen collected and amplified in Cockburn's Theol.
which God created at the beginning with the earth, Inquiry into the Truth and Gertainty of the Mo- Difc.ii.c. 2o
which encompaſſed it round, and which our tranſla- faic Deluze, p. 271, &c. After all, however, this P. 76.
tors render by deep. Thus it is that darkneſs is ſaid amazing theory of a central abyſs is far from be-
to be upon the face of the abyſs.
ing demonſtrated : it will perhaps in ſeveral refpects
Abyss is alſo uſed for an immenſe cavern in the appear inconſiſtent with ſound philoſophy, as well as
earth, wherein God is ſuppoſed to have collected all repugnant to the phenomena of nature. In particular,
thoſe waters on the third day ; which, in our verſion, if we believe any thing like electric attraction to have
is rendered the ſeas, and elſewhere the great deep. Dr prevailed in the formation of the earth, we muſt believe
Woodward, in his Natural Hiſtory of the Earth, af- that the ſeparation of the chaos proceeded from the
ſerts, That there is a mighty collection of waters in union of ſimilar particles. It is certain that reſt is fa-
cloſed in the bowels of the earth, conſtituting a huge vourable to ſuch operations of nature. As, therefore,
orb in the interior or central parts of it; and over the the central parts of the earth were more immediately
ſurface of this water he ſuppoſes the terreſtrial ſtrata to quieſcent than thoſe remote from the centre, it ſeensab-
be expanded. This, according to him, is what Moſes ſurd to ſuppoſe that the hcavier and denſer bodies gave
calls the great deep, and what moſt authors render the place to the more light and Huid; that the central part
great abyfs. The water of this vaſt abyſs, he alleges, mould conſiſt of water only, and the more fuperficial
does cominunicate with that of the ocean, by means of part of a cruſt or ſhell. Vid. IV hitehurſt's Inquiry in-
certain hiatuſes or chaſms paſſing betwixt it and the to the original Formation of the Strata, &c. 'See DE-
bottoni of the ocean: and this and the abyſs he ſup-
poſes to have one common centre, around which the Abyss is alſo uſed to denote hell; in which ſenſe
water of both is placed ; but ſo, that the ordinary ſur- the word is ſynonymous with what is otherwiſe called
face of the abyſs is not level with that of the ocean, Barathrum, Erebus, and Tartarus ; in the Engliſh bible,
nor at fo great a diſtance from the centre as the other, the bottomleſs pit. The unclean fpirits expelled by
Chrift,
1727,P313
>
LUGE.
I
A BY
[ 32 ]
A B Y
Abys. Chriit, beggel. ne imperaret un in abyffum irent, accor- July, Auguſt, and September; and the other in ſpring. Abyſſinia.
A'yfinia. ding to tbe vulgate ; disa@voso according to the Greek. Every man who has a thouſand cows faves oncea-year
Luke viii. 31. Rev.ix. I.
a day's milk, and makes a bath for his friends ; ſo that
Abyss is more particularly uſed, in antiquity, to de to give an idea of a man's wealth, their common ex-
note the temple of Proſerpine. It was thus called on preſſion is, he bathes so many times a-year. Their males
account of the immenſe fund of gold and riches depo- marry about ten years old, and their females younger.
fited there ; ſome ſay, hid under ground.
Their marriage tie is ſo looſe, that they part whenever
Abyss is alſo afed in heraldry to denote the centre they find that they cannot live agreeably together.
of an eſcutcheon. In which ſenſe a thing is ſaid to Belides the large towns, there are a great number
be bore in abyſs, en abyſme, when placed in the middle of villages, which in ſome places are ſo thick fown,
of the ſhield, clear from any other bearing : He bears that they look like one continued town: the houſes are
azure, a flower de lis, in abyſs.
very mean, being but one ſtory high, and built of
ABYSSINIA, by ſome called Higher Ethiopia, and ſtraw, earth, and lime. In moſt of the towns the
by the Arabians Al Habaſh, is bounded on the north houſes are ſeparated by hedges, which are always
by Nubia ; on the eait, by the Arabic gulph or Red Sea, green, and mixed with flowers and fruit-trees at a cer-
and the kingdom of Adel ; on the ſouth, by the king- tain diſtance from each other, which affords an agree-
doms of Ajan, Alabo, and Gingiro ; and on the welt, able proſpect. The government is monarchical. The
by the kingdoms of Goram, and part of Gingiro; and ſovereign has the title of Negus, and is an abſoluto
is divided into a great number of provinces. The prince. When he is in camp, the tents are fu regularly
principal river is the Nile, which has its fuurce in this diſpoſed as to have the appearance of a city ; and there
country; and the moſt conſiderable lake, that of Dam- is a captain over every diviſion, to prevent diſorders,
bea, which diſcharges itſelf into the Nile, is about 700 and to execute juſtice.
miles in lengih, and go in breadth. The air is pretty The Abyſſines in general are of an olive complexion,
temperate in the mountains, and therefore their towns tall, graceful, and well featured. Thoſe who are nei.
and ſtrong holds are generally placed on them ; but in ther mechanics nor tradeſmen (which few of them are)
the valleys it is hot and ſuffocating. The ſoil and face nor tillers of the ground, are inured to bear arms,which
of the country is various. In ſome places there are are a head-piece, a buckler, a coat of mail, bows and
nothing but rocks and profound cavernis : in others, arrows, darts, pikes capped with iron at both ends, a
eſpecially where tħereare rivers, the land is exceeding ſling, and a ſword : they have very few fire-arms, and
ly fruitful; and the banks of theſe ſtreanis are bordered thoſe were introduced by the Portugueſe. The habit
with flowers of various kinds, many of which are un- of perſons of quality is a fine lilken veſt, or fine cotton,
known in Europe. The torrents in the rainy ſeaſon
The torrents in the rainy ſeaſon with a kind of ſcarf. The citizens have the ſame ha
waſh a great deal of gold from the mountains. This
This bit, only coarſer. The common people have nothing
ſeaſon begins in May, when the ſun is vertical, or di- but a pair of cotton drawers, and a ſcarf which covers
rectly over their heads, and ends in September.-The the reſt of their body. The women are of a healthy
country produces a great variety of animals, both tame conſtitution, active, and moderately handſome, having
and wild, ſuch as lions, tigers, rhinoceroſes, leopards, neither flat noſes nor thick lips like the negroes; and
elephants, monkeys, ſtags, deer ; horſes, camels, dro nature is ſo friendly, that they ſtand in little need of
medaries, goats, cows, ſheep ; likewiſe oſtriches, with inidwives, which is indeed the caſe, of moſt countries in
a vaſt variety of other birds. In the rivers are croco the torrid zone. They appear in public as in Europe,
diles and the hippopotamus. Travellers mention alſo without being forbid the converſation of the mien as
a peculiar kind of bees, ſmall, black, and without a among the Mahometans. Princeſſes of the royal blood
ſting, which hive in the earth, and make honey and are not permitted to marry foreigners : and when they
wax that are extremely white. The country is great take the air, they go in great ſtate, wi'h 400 or 500
ly infeſted with locuſts, which devour every thing women attendants. Their language is the Ethiopic,
that is green wherever they come.
which bears a great affinity with the Arabic; but par-
Theinhabitantsare Moors, Pagans, Jews, and Chri ticular provinces have a different dialect.
ſtians. The laſt was the reigning and eſtabliſhed reli Manufactures are almoſt wholly wanting in this coun.
gion wlien father Lobo viſited this country in 1624. try; and the few trades which they have amongſt them
This diverſity of people and religion is the reaſon that are always conveyed from the father to the children.
the kingdon, in different parts, is under different forms They ſeem indeed by their churches and other ruinated
of government, and that their laws and cuſtoms are ex- places, to have had a knowledge of architecture. But
tremely various. Some of the people neither fow their the workmen were ſent for from other countries, and
lands norinprove them; but live on milk and fiefh, and were forced to do all themſelves ; ſo that when there
encamp
like the Arabs, without any ſettled habita- fabrics were reared, eſpecially the imperial palace built
tion. In ſome places they practiſe no rites of worſhip, by Peter Pais, a Portugueſe architect, the people flock-
though they believe that there dwells in the regions a. ed from all parts of Ethiopia to view it, and admired
bove a Being who governs the world : This deity they it as a new wonder of the world.-Gold, ſilver, copper,
call Oul. In theſe parts where Chriſtianity is profeſſed it and iron, are the principal ores with which their mines
is fo corrupted with ſuperſtitious errors, and ſo niingled abound in this extentive part of Africa : but not above
with ceremonies borrowed from the Jews, that little one third part is made uſe of by way of merchandize,
beſide the name of Chriſtianity is to be found among or converted into money, of which they have little or
them. (Sec the next article.)-They have two har no uſe in Abyſſinia. They cut their gold indeed into
veſts in the year ; one in winter, which begins in May, ſmall pieces for the pay of their troops, and for expen-
and laſs, with great rigour, through the months of ſes of the court, which is but a modern cuſtom among
them ;
A B Y
[ 33 ]
A B Y
Abyffinia. them ; the king's gold, before the end of the 17th cen on account of their good ſervices and integrity, 110 oully Abyſſinia.
tury, being laid up in his treaſury in ingots, with in- often give them their liberty, but libcrally reward them.
tent to be never carried out, or never uſed in any thing Into this part of the globe the admitſion of travel-
but veſſels and trinkets for the ſervice of the palacc. lers has been ſuppoſed extremely difficult, and their
In the lieu of ſmall money, they inake uſe of rock ſalt return from thence almoſt impracticable. À Scotch
as white as ſnow and as hard as ſtone. This is taken gentleman, however, of family and fortune, James
out of the mountain of Lafta, and put into the king's Bruce, Eſq; of Kinnaird, is kuown not only to have
warehouſes ; where it is reduced into tablets of a toot entered that country, but to have reſided in it feveral
long, and three inches broad, ten of which are worth ycars, and returned ſafe home, bringing with his
about a French crown. When they are circulated in
many great curiofities.
Soon after his return, the fol-
trade, they are reduced into ſtill ſmaller pieces, as oc lowing notice was given by the Count de Buffon in 211
caſion requires. This ſalt is alſo applied to the ſame advertiſement prefixed to the 3d volume of his Hifto.
purpoſe as com inozz fea-falt. With this mineral falt ry of Birds : 66 A new aid which I have received, and
they purchaſe pepper, ſpices, and ſilk ſtuffs, which are which I am anxious to announce to the public, is the
brought to them by the Indians, in their ports in the free and generous communication which I liad of the
Red Sea. Cardamuns, ginger, aloes, myrrlı, caffia, drawings and obſervations of James Bruce, Eſq; of
civet, ebony-wood, ivory, wax, honey, cotton and li- Kinnaird, who returning from Numidia, and the inte-
nens of various forts and colours, arc merchandizes rior parts of Abyſſinia, Itopt in my houſe for ſeveral
which may be had from Abyſſinia ; to which may be days, and made me a partaker of the knowledge whicii
added fugar, hemp, flax, and excellent wines, if theſe he had acquired in a tour no leſs fatiguing than ha-
people had the art of preparing them. It is affirmed zardous. It filled me with the utmoſt aſtoniſhment to
there are in this country the fineſt emeralds that are view the numerous drawings which he had made and
any where to be found; and, though they are found coloured himſelf. He poſedies the moſt perfect repre-
but in one place, they are there in great quantities, ſentations and deſcriptions of the birds, fiſhes, plants,
and ſome ſo large and ſo perfect as to be of almoſt in- edifices, monuments, dreſs, arms, &c. of different na-
eſtimable value. The greateſt part of the merchan- tions, all of them objects worthy of knowledge. No-
diſes abovementioned, are more for foreign than in- thing has eſcaped his curioſity, and his talents have
land trade. Their domeſtic commerce conſiſts chiefly been proportioned to it. The English government
in ſalt, honey, buck-wheat, grey peaſe, citrons, oran will without doubt take proper meaſures for the pub-
ges, lemons, and other proviſions, with fruits and her- lication of his work. That reſpectable nation, which
bage neceſſary for the ſupport of life, Thoſe places has given a lead to all others in diſcoveries of every
that the Abyſſian merchants frequent the moſt, who kind, will not fail to add to its glory, by ſpeedily com-
dare venture to carry their commodities by ſea them- municating to the world at large, thoſe of this excel-
ſelves, are Arabia Felix, and the Indies, particularlent traveller, who, not contented with accurate de-
ly Goa, Cambaye, Bengal, and Sumatra. With regard ſcriptions of nature, has made many important obſer-
to their ports on the Red Sea, to which foreign mer vations on the culture of different kinds of grains ; on
chants commonly reſort, the moſt conſiderable are the navigation of the Red Sea ; on the courſe of the
thoſe of Mette, Azum, Zajalla, Maja, Dazo, Patea, Nile, from its mouth to its ſource, which he has been
and Brava. The trade of the Abyſſinians by land is the firſt to diſcover ; and on different particulars which
inconfiderable. There are, however, bands of them may be of the higheſt utility to commerce and agri-
who arrive yearly at Egypt, particularly at Cairo, la- culture, thoſe great arts which are but little known
den with gold duft, which they bring to barter for the and ill cultivated. Yet, on theſe alone, the ſuperiori-
merchandiſes of that country, or of Europe, for which ty of one nation over another does depend, and for
they have occaſion. Theſe cafilas or caravans, if we ever will depend.”
may be allowed thus to call a body of 40 or 50 poor It is much to be regretted, that after ſo long an in-
wretches who unite together for their mutual alliſt- terval, this gentleman's diſcoveries have not yet made
ance in their journey, are commonly three or four their appearance. The delay has given riſe to various
months on their route, traverſing foreſts and moun ſpeculations. Doubts have even been entertaired con-
tains almoſt impaſſable, in order to exchange their gold cerning the credibility of the reports that have tran-
forneceffaries for their families and return immediately ſpired, or been gathered from his converſation. His
with the greateſt partofthe merchandiſe on their backs. honour and abilities, however, are too extenſively
Frequently the Jews or Egyptians give them large known to be affected byſuch injurious infinuations. That
credit ; which may ſeem ſurpriſing, as they are beyond he hath great talents for the information of his read-
recourſe if they ſhould fail of payment. But experience ers, appears by his diſſertation on the Theban harp*, * See the
has ſhown, that they have never abuſed the confidence which Dr Burney hath inſerted in the firſt volume of article
repoſed in them; and even in the event of death, their his Hiſtory of Muſic, and in which are alſo mentioned Harrin
fellow-travellers take care of the effects of the deceaſ- ſeveral of the Abyſſinian inſtrunients. Mr Bruce more-
cd for the benefit of their families, but in the firſt place over, is ſaid to have a great facility in learning lan-
tionary.
for the diſcharge of thofe debts contracted at Cairo.- guages, and talents for drawing ; nor perhaps was any
It remains only to be obſerved, that one of the prin- other traveller furniſhed with lo large and ſcientifican
cipal branches of trade of the Abyſſines is that of Naves; apparatus of inftruments. Add to all this, that he is
who are greatly eſteemed in the Indies and Arabia for poſſeſſed of a ſpirit and enterpriſe not eaſily to be e-
the beſt and moſt faithful, of all that the other king- qualled. The ſpeedy production, therefore, of ſo in-
doms of Africa furniſh. The Indian and Arabian mer- tereſting an account as he is capable of giving of this
chants frequently ſubſtitute them as their factors; and, almoſt unfrequented part of Africa, cannot but ſtill be
VOL. I.
earneſtly
this Dice
E
A B Y
[ 34 ]
A B Y
1
Aynia earneſtly wiſhed for. In the mean time, the following wiſhed Mr Ruffel, or his philoſophical friends, would Abyffinia,
authentic anecdotes will not, it is preſumed, be unac send him their deſiderata, as he was entirely at their
ceptable, nor ap?eir foreign to the preſent article. ſervice. - Mr Bruce added, that if he could not obtain
Mr Bruce was appointed conſulto Algiers, where adniillion into Abyſlinia, he ſtill would do his beſt in
he continued till 1765. In June 1 764, he requeſted ihe cauſe of ſcience on the eaſtern coaſt of the Red
leave of abſence from the ſecretary of ſtate for the Sea,
ſouthern department, in order to make ſome drawings As Mr Bruce liad directed the inſtruments to be
of antiquities near Tunis.
ready for him at Alexandria by the beginning of Au-
In lir Èruce's laſt letter from Algiers to the ſame guld 1 768, it is probable that he reached Cairo about
ſecretary (dated December 29, 1764), he alludes to that tinie ; from whence he proceeded to Abyſſinia,
another leave of abience, which he had likervile re by way of JEDDA, MAZAVA, and ARQUICO.
queſted, that he might viſit parts of the African con It is ſuppoſed that Mr Bruce did not continue long
tinent. He explains himſelf no farther in this letter ; at jedda, as he is ſaid to have explored the coaſt on
but it is believed that he proceeded conſiderably to the the eait lide as low as Mocha, during which drawings
ſouthward of Algiers, and made thoſe very capital were taken of many curious fiſh in the Red Sea. Mr
drawings of remains of Roman architecture, which Bruce muſt alſo have entered Abyſlinia, either at the
many have ſeen ſince his return to Britain. Before latter end of 1768, or the very beginning of 1769,
he ſet out for Algiers, he informed ſome of his friends, as he made an obſervation in that part of Africa on .
that the making ſuch excurſions for theſe intereſting the 15th of January of that year.
purpoſes was his principal inducement for accepting In this perilous enterpriſe he was accompanied by a
the conſulſhip.
Greek ſervant (named Michael), and an Italian paint-
How long he continued in Africa, the preſent writer er,who probably aſlifted in the numerons articles which
has not had the opportunity of procuring information; might deſerve repreſentation, and who died of a flux
but having intentions afterwards of viſiting Palmyra, before Mr Bruce's return to Cairo in 1773. Mr Bruce
he was ſhipwrecked on the coaſt of Tunis, and plun- muſt at times alfo have been aſliſted by many others,
dered of every thing by the barbarous inhabitants. as his inſtruments, apparatus for drawings, and other
The moſt diſtreſling part of the loſs was probably neceſſaries, from their weight and bulk could not be
that of his inſtruments, ſo neceſſary to a ſcientific tra eaſily tranſported from place to place, and perhaps re-
veller ; and though he afterwards procured ſome of quired beaſts of burden. To theſe likewiſe muſt be
theſe, yet others (particularly a quadrant) could not added ſeveral medicines which enabled him to perform
be recovered. Mr Bruce, however, determining to cures on the inhabitants, and probably occaſioned the
repair this loſs as ſoon as poſſiblc from France, fo inuch good reception he afterwards mct with.
nearer to him than England, was ſo fortunate as to be Such other particulars as happened to Mr Bruce,
provided with a time-piece and quadrant from that during his long reſidence in this unfrequented country,
quarter. Upon this occaſion Lewis XV.preſented him muſt be left to his own ſuperior narrative ; and it ſhall
with an iron quadrant of four feet radius, as he had fuífice, therefore, only to ſtate, that he made a large
probably repreſented to the academy of ſciences his number of obſervations to fix the ſituations of places,
want of ſuch an inſtrument whilft he ſhould be in out of which 31 have been examined and computed
dbyſſinia : Mr Bruce brought back with him to Eng- by the aſtronomer royal. The firſt of theſe obſerva-
land this cumbrous fellow-traveller, and, having put tions was made on the roth of January 1769, and the
upon it an inſcription to the following purport, is ſaid laſt on the 5th of October 1772, from 30 to 38 de-
to have preſented it to the univerſity of Glaſgow : grees of eaſt longitude from Greenwich, and from 12
“With this inſtrument given by the king of France, to 28 degrees of north latitude. . It need ſcarcely be
Lewis XV. Mr Bruce proceeded to the ſources of the ſaid therefore, that theſe obſervations, which include
Nile, it being carried on foot, upon mens ſhoulders, fo large an extent of almoſt unknown country, muſt
over the mountains of Abyſſinia.' This information prove a moſt valuable addition to geography; and the
was received from that eminent maker of inſtruments more ſo, becauſe the Portugueſe, who firſt viſited A-
Mr Nairne.
byſſinia, give neither longitude nor latitude of any
Where and when Mr Bruce received the French place in that empire ; and Poncet only two latitudes,
inſtruments is not known; but as he was ſtill bent on viz, thoſe of Sennar and Giefum.
viſiting Abyffinia, he gave a commiſſion to Mr W. As Mr Bruce made the laſt of his obſervations on
Ruffel, F. R. S. for a reflecting teleſcope, made by the 5th of O&ober 1772, it is probable that he might
Bird or Short; a watch with a hand to point ſeconds, then be on his return to Cairo, through Nubia and
and the neweſt and completeſt Engliſh aſtronomical Upper Egypt, where he arrived on the 15th of Janu-
tables; all of which were to be ſent to Mr Fremaux, ary 1773, after an abſence of more than four years ;
and forwarded to him at Alexandria before Auguſt. bringing back with him his Greek ſervant, named
On the 29th of March 1768, Mr Bruce was at Sidon Michael.
on the coaſt of Syria, and wrote to Mr Ruſſel from Mr Bruce-continued at Cairo four months, during
thence for the following additional inſtruments, viz. a which time he had daily intercourſe with Mr Antes;
twelve-feet reflecting teleſcope, to be divided into pie- the ſubſtance of a letter from whom will contain the
ces of three feet, and joined with ſcrews. This tele- principal confutation of Baron Tott, and others, who
ſcope was alſo accompanied by two thermometers and have been incredulous with regard to Mr Bruce's ex-
two portable barometers. Mr Bruce moreover infor- pected narrative.
ed Mr Ruffel, that he was going into a country (viz.A Mr Antes was born of German parents, who were.
byſſinia) from which few travellers had returned; and poſſeſſed of lands in the back ſettlements of Pennſylva-
މް
nia;
A BY'
[ 35 ]
А Б Ү
32
Abyflinia. nia ; and having ſhowed carly abilities as a mechanic, always agreca with the circumſtances m.catioined by Abyfinia. .
removed to Europe, where he diſtinguiſhed bimſelf in his maſter, and more particularly in relation to their
the art of watch-making, which he learned without ap- having viſited the ſources of the Nile; which the Ba-
prenticeſhip. Being a member of thechurch known by ron Tout doubts of, from having had a converſation
the name of Unitas Fratrum, and commonly called Mo- with this ſame Greek ſervant.
ravian, he wiſhed to be employed in their miſſions, and Mr Antes adds, “That Baron Tott ſtaid but a few
more eſpecially that of the fame perſuaſion eſtabliſhed days at Cairo; and, from his ſhort reſidence in that
at Cairo, who always have detired to procure oppor country, hath given ſeveral erroneous accounts relative
tunities of inſtructing the Abyſſinians.
to Egypt. Mr Antes, on the other hand, had almoſt
Mr Bruce had left Cairn fifteen months before Mr daily converſations with Michael for ſeveral years, and
Antes came there ; and the intercourſe, therefore, be often in relation to the ſources of the Nile.'
tween them firſt took place on Mr Bruce's return in Laſtly, “That after Mr Bruce left Cairo, Mr An-
I 773.
tes had converſed with others who had known Mr
Having given this account of Mr Bruce and Mr Bruce in Abyſſinia, and that he was there called Maa-
Antes's being firſt known to each other, we ſhall ſtate lim Jakube, or Mr James.
the ſubſtance of ſome information received from the After this ſtate of facts, it is conceived that no one
latter, who is now eſtabliſhed at Fulneck near Leeds, can entertain a reaſonable doubt with regard to Mr
after having reſided eleven years at Cairo.
Bruce's not only having viſited, but reſided long in
“ That Mr Bruce left Cairo in 1768, and proceeded Abyſſinia ; though it is remarkable that the Jeſuits ex-
thence by way of Jedda, Mszava, and Arquico, into preſſed the ſame doubts in relation to Poncet, who had
Abyſſinia.
continued there nearly as long as Mr Bruce. Poncet
6. That in 1771, a Greek came from Gondar (the happened to be a layman ; and the Jeſuits, perhaps,
capital) in Abyſſinia, who had a draught from Mr would not approve of any narrative that did not come
Bruce on a French Merchant at Cairo (named Roſe from father Beneveni, who accompanied Poncet to
for ſome hundreds of German crowns, which were paid Abyffinia, but unfortunately died there (a).
immediately. This draught was accompanied by a let Driven, however, from this hold, the objectors will
ter from Mr Bruce, and was the firſt time that he had poſſibly retain their incredulity as to many particulars
been heard of at Cairo ſince his departure in 1768. to be related.
“ That after Mr Bruce's return to Cairo in 1773, The firſt of theſe is, the having viſited the ſources
Mr Antes ſaw a young Armenian and his father (who of the Nile ; (which, from claſſical education,we can-
came likewiſe from Gondar) at Mr Pini's, an Italian not eaſily believe, as they were unknown to the an-
merchant of Cairo, where they and Mr Bruce con- cients, though they had ſo great curioſity with regard
verſed in the Abyſſinian language, and ſeemed glad to to this diſcovery.
meet himn again.
Many things, however, have been accompliſhed by
“ That Mr Bruce returned to Cairo from Abyſſinia travellers in modern times, which the ancients ne-
by way of Nubia and Upper Egypt; which can be ver could atchieve, and which may be attributed to
fully atteſted by the Franciſcan friars who are eſtab their want of enterpriſe (as travellers at leaſt), of lan-
limed at Iſne near Afyuwan, which latter is the high- guages, and laſtly the not being able to procure cre-
eft town of Upper Egypt.
dit when in a diſtant country. Mr Bruce could not
“That during Mr Bruce's ſtay at Cairo, which was have continued ſo long as he did in Abyſſinia, unleſs
not leſs than four months, no day paſſed without their he had drawn from Gondar upon a merchant eſtabliſh-
ſeeing each other ; which gave Mr Antes frequent op ed at Cairo.
portunities of inquiring with regard to Abyſſinia, con The difficulty, however, with regard to reaching
cerning which he was particularly intereſted from a the ſources of the Nile, ariſes principally from the un-
reaſon before ſtated.
civilized ſtate of Abyſſinia, unleſs the traveller hath a
“ Than Mr Antes likewiſe frequently converſed proper introduction (b). When once this is procured,
with Michael, Mr Bruce's Greek ſervant; who is ſtated all difficulties ſeem to ceaſe, as we find by Lobo's (c)
to have by no means had a lively imagination, and who account of this ſame diſcovery, and likewiſe by Pon-
cct's
E 2
(a) It muſt be admitted, however, that we owe to the zeal of the Jeſuits the beſt accounts we have both
of China and Paraguay. Few layinen have been actuated ſo ſtrongly for the promotion of geography and ſcience
as Mr Bruce; and we muſt therefore (upon the order of the Jeſuits being aboliſhed) look up chiefly to the miſ-
fionaries from the church of the Unitas Fratrum, who, though differing fo totally in other reſpects, ſeem to
have an equal ardour with the Jeſuits for inſtructing the inhabitants of countries unfrequented by Europeans.
Such miſſions are already eſtabliihed in Weſt Greenland, the coaſt of Labrador, N. Lat. 56, the back ſettlements
of Carolina and Penſylvania, in India, Bengal, and the Nicobar iſlands. Thoſe eſtabliſhed on the coaſt of La-
brador ſend over yearly, meteorological journals, which are communicated to the Royal Society. As for the
diſpute between Poncet and Maillet the French conſul at Cairo, See Mod. Univ. Hift. vol. 6.
(6) The profeſſing the knowledge of medicine was Poncet's introduction, and ſeems to have been that of
Mr Bruce. Even in our own civilized country, how are quacks and mountebanks reſorted to ? And what
an impreſſion muſt Mr Bruce, with his magnificent and ſcientific apparatas, have made upon the inhabitants
of ſuch a country as Abyſſinia ?
(c) In father Telles's compilation. See alſo Ludolff, who deſcribes the ſources from Gregory, who was a native
of Abyſſinia. Father Paez was the firſt who viſited them, A. D. 1622. His account of this is ſaid to be in the
archives
A BY
[ 36 ]
A B Y
>>
Aby finia. cel's narrative, who was prevented by illneſs from vi was ſhown to anoilier dißinguished traveller, Dr Shaw; Abyffinia,
fiting the very ſpot, but hath given an ample relation i ho having mentioned, in an Oxford coinmon room, Abyſlinian,
from an Ahyffinian wlio had often been there. Pon that foine of the Algerines were fond of lion's fleſh, ne-
cet, moreover, had obtained Icave from the emperor ver could obtain any credit afterwards from his bro-
to make this journey, which he ſtates is not being a ther-lellows of the ſame college, though many of them
diliant one, and that the emperor hath a palace near were learned men. It is well known, however, tho'
the very ſources.
Dr Shawy ſtates this ſame circumſtance in the publica-
If it bc doubted whether Mr Bruce hath vilited e tion of his travels, that he is cited with the greateſt
very ſource of the Nile, it may be anſwered, that per- approbation in almoſt every part of Europe. «Sir
haps no Engliſhman hath taken this trouble with re Williain Temple fomevhere mcntions, that a Dutch
gard to the ſources of the Thames, which, like moſt governor of Batavia, who lived much with one of the
other great rivers, is probably derived from many muſt conliderable inhabitants of Jaya, could never ob-
fprings and rills in different directions.
tain any credit from him after having mentioned, that
The other objection which we have often hcard, is, in Holland water became a ſolid body. The traveller
" That Mr Bruce hath mentioned in converſation, who firſt ſaw a flying fiſh probably told every one of
that the Abyſſinians cut a llicc from the living ox, this extraordinary circumſtance as ſoon as he fet his
eſteeming it one of their greateſt delicacies." foot on fore, and was probably diſcredited with re-
This ſort of dainty, indeed, is not ſo conſidered in gard to the other particulars of his voyage.
other parts of the globe ; but every nation almoſt hath The natural cauſe and progreſs of the incredulity
its peculiarities in the choice of their food. Do 110t which a traveller generally experiences, ſeems to be
we eat raw oyſters within a ſecond of their being ſepa- the following :
rated from the ſhell ! And do not we roaſt both them When he returns from a diſtant and little frequented
and lobſters whilſt alive ; the barbarity of which prac country, every one is impatient to hear his narrative ;
tice ſeems to equal that of the Abyſſinians! Do not from which, of courſe, he ſelects the more ſtriking
cooksíkin eels whilſt alive? And do not epicurcs crimp parts, and particularly the uſages which differ moſt
fiſh for the gratification of their appetites.
from our own. Some of the audience, diſbelieving
That the
Abyſſinians eat beef in a raw ſtate, is a what the traveller hath mentioned, put queſtions to
greed both by Lobo and Poncet; and the former ſays, him which ſhow their diſtruſt. The traveller by this
reeking from the beaſt. Mr Antes, moreover, was treatment becomes irritated, and anſwers fone of them
told by a Franciſcan monk, who went with the cara. peeviſhly, others ironically, of which the interrogators
van froin Abyffinia to Cairo (d), that he was witneſs of afterwards take advantage to his prejudice. Nothing
an ox being killed, and inımediately devoured by the is more irritating to an ingenuous perſon than to find
band of travellers.
his aſſertions are diſbelieved. This is commonly ex-
One reaſon, perhaps, for this uſage may be, the perienced in the croſs examinations of almoſt every
great heat of the climate, which will not permit meat witneſs. To the diſtreſſes of the traveller on his re-
to be kept a ſuſficient time to make it tender (as with turn, we may add, the being often teaſed by very ig-
us): and it is generally allowed, that a fowl, dreſſed norant queſtions.
immediately after it is killed, is in better order for cat ABYSSINIAN, in ecclefiaftical hiſtory, is uſed
ing than if it is kept four and twenty hours.
as the name of a fect, or liereſy, in the Chriſtian
Is it therefore extraordinary, that an Abyſſinian church, eſtabliſhed in the empire of Abyſſinia. The
epicure may really find (or perhaps fancy) that a piece Abyſlinians are a branch of the Copts or Jacobites ;
cut from the beaſt whilſt alive, may be more tender, with whom they agree in admitting but one nature in
or have a better reliſh, than if it is previouſly killed by Jeſus Chriſt, and rejecting the council of Chalcedon:
the butcher ? To this may be added, that according to whence they are alſo called Eutychians, and ſtand
the information which has been received on this head, oppoſed to the Melchites. They are only diſtin-
Mr Bruce's account of this practice is much miſrepre- guiſhed from the Copts, and other lects of Jacobites,
ſented by the objectors, who ſuppoſe that the ox lives by ſome peculiar national uſages.-The Abyſſinian feet
a conſiderable time after theſe pieces are cut from it. or church is governed by a biſhop or metropolitan
When theſe dainty bits, however, have been ſent to the ſtyled Abuna, ſent them by the Coptic patriarch of
great man's table (and which are probably taken from Alexandria reſiding at Cairo, who is the only perſon
the fleſhy parts), the beaſt foon afterwards expires, that ordains priefts. The next dignity is that of Ko-
when the firſt artery is cut, in providing ſlices for the mos, or Hegumenas, who is a kind of arch-preſbyter.
numerous attendants.
They have canons alſo, and monks: the former of
Upon the whole, the not giving credit to a traveller, whoin marry ; the latter, at their adniiſſion, vow celi-
becauſe he mentions an uſage which is very different bacy, but with a reſervation: theſe, it is ſaid, make a
from ours (and is undoubtedly very barbarous), ſeems promiſe aloud, before their ſuperior, to keep chaſtity;
rather to argue ignorance than acuteneſs.
but add, in a low voice, as you keep it. The emperor
This brings to recollection the incredulity which has a kind of ſupremacy in eccleſiaſtical matters. He
alone
archives of the college de propaganda fide at Rome. It is believed that there are many other curious particu-
lars for the illuſtration of geography to be found in the ſame depoſitory. Dr Shaw mentions, moreover, ſome
papers of Lippi (who accompanied the French embally into Abyſſinia, A.D. 1704), which are to be found
in the botanical library at Oxford.
(d) This points out another channel by which a traveller of enterpriſe may viſit Abyſſinia.
ABA
[ 37 ]
AO
A CA
Abyffinian alone takes cognilanccof all ccclefiafticalcaufes,except ACACIA, EGYPTIAN THORN, or BIS DINCESS
ſome ſmaller ones reſerved to the judges; and confers TREE, in botany, a fpecies of kiimoía, according to
Acacalotl, all benefices, except that of Abana.The Abyſiinians Linnæus ; tho’other botániſts make it a diſtinct genus.
have at different times cxpreffed an inclination to be See MIMOSA.
reconciled to the fee of Rome ; but rather out of The flowers of a fpecies of the acacia are uſed by
intereſt of ſtate than any other motive. The emperor the Chineſe in making that yellow, rhich we ſee
David, or the quecn regent on his behalf, wrote a bears waſhing in their lilks and fuffs, and appears
letter on this head to pope Clement VII. full of ſub- with ſo much elegance in their painting on paper. The
miſlion, and demanding a patriarch from Ronie to method is this :
be inſtructed by: which being complied with, he They gather the flowers before they are fully open ;
publicly adjured the doctrine of Eutychias and Dioſ- theſe they put into a clean earthen veiſel over a gentle
corus in 1626, and allowed the ſupremacy of the pope. heat, and itir them continually about, as they do the
Under the emperor Sultan Seghed all wasándone again; tea-leaves, till they become dryifli and of a yellow co-
the Romiſh millionaries ſettled there had their churches lour; then to half a pound of ihe flowers they add
Lahen from thein, and their new converts banilhed or three ſpoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little
put to death. The congregation de propaganda have inore, till there is juſt enough to bold the flowers in-
inade ſeveral attempts to revive the miſſion, but to lit- corporated together: they boil this for fonie time, and
tle purpoſe...The doctrines and ritual of this ſectary the juice of the flowers mixing with the water, it be-
from a ſtrange compound of Judaiſm, Chriſtianity, and comes thick and yellow ; they then take it from the
ſuperſtition. They practiſe circunicilion; and are ſaid fire, and ſtrain it through a piece of courſe filk. Το
loe xtend the practice to the feniales as well as males: the liquor they add half an ounce of cominon alum,
They obſerve both Saturday and Sunday fabbaths : and an ounce of calcined oyſter-ſhells reduced to a fine
they eat no meats prohibited by the law of Moſes : powder. All is then well mixed together; and this is
women are obliged to the legal purifications : and bro- the fine laſting yellow they have to long fed.
thèrs marry their brothers wives, 6C.. On the other The dyers of large pieces uſe the flowers and ſeeds
hand, they celebrate the epiphany with peculiar feſti- of the acacia for dying three different ſorts of yellow.
vity, in meinory of Chriſt's baptiſm; when they plunge They roaſt the flowers, as before obſerved ; and then
and ſport in ponds and rivers ; which has occaſioned mix the ſeeds with them, which muſt be gathered
fome to affirm that they were baptized anew every for this purpoſe when fullripe : by different admixture
year. Among the ſaints-days is one conſecrated to Pin of theſe, they give the different ſhades of colour, on-
late and his wife ; by reaſon Pilate waſhed his hands ly for the deepeſt of all they give a ſmall mixture of
before he pronounced ſentence on Chriſt, and his wife Brazil wood. .
deſired liim to have noching to do with the blood of Mr Geoffroy attributes the origin of bezoar to the
that juſt perfon. They have four lents: the great one ſeeds of this plant; which being brouſed by certain
conimences ten days earlier than ours, and is obſerved animals, and vellicating the ſtomach by their great
with much ſeverity, many abſtaining therein even from fournefs and aftringency, cauſe a condenſation of the
fifh, becaufe St Paul ſays there is one kind of fleſh of juices, till at length they become coated over with a
men, and another of fihes. They allow of divorce, itony matter, which we call BEZOAR.
which is eaſily granted among them, and by the civil Falſe ACACIA. See ROBINIA.
judge; nor do thcir civil laws prohibit polygamy it Three-thorned ACACIA, or Honey-lociift. See GLE-
ſelf. They have at leaſt as many miracles and legends DISTIA.
of ſaints as the Romiſh church ; which proved no ſmall ACACIA, in the Materia Medica, the infpiffated juice
embarraſſment to the Jeſuit milionaries, to whom they of the unripe fruit of the Mimosa Niletica.
produced fo many miracles, wrought by their ſaints This juice is brought from Egypt, in roundiih
in proof of their religion, and thoſe fo well circum- malhes, wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of
ſtantiated and attefted, that the Jeſuits were obliged to a deep brown colour, inclining to black; inwardly of
deny miracles to be any proof of a true religion ; and a reddiſh or yellowiſh brown ; of a firm conſiſtence, but
in proof hereof to allege the ſame arguments againſt not very dry. It foon ſoftens in the mouth, and diſ-
the Abyſſinians, which Proteftants in Europe allege a covers a rough, not diſayreeable taſte, which is fol-
gainſt Papiſts. They pray for the dead, and invoke lowed by a ſweetiſh relih. This infpiffated juice en-
faints and angels; have ſo great a veneration for the tirely diſſolves in watery liquors; but is ſcarce ſenſibiy
virgin, that they charged the Jeſuits with not render- acted on by recified ſpirit.
ing her honour enough. Images in painting they ve Acacia is a mild aſtringent medicine. The Egyp-
nerate ; but abhor all thoſe in relievo, except the croſs. tians give it in ſpitting of blood, in the quantity of a
They hold that the ſoul of man is not created ; be- dram, diſſolved in any convenient liquor ; and repeat
cauſe, ſay they, God finiſhed all his work on the ſixth this doſe occaſionally : they likewiſe employ it in col-
day. They admit the apocryphal books, and the lyria for ſtrengthening the eyes, and in gargariſms for
canons of the apoſtles, as well as the apoſtolical con quinſeys. Among us, it is little otherwile uſed than
ftitutions, for genuine. Their liturgy is given by Al- as an ingredientin mithridate and theriaca, and is rare .
varez, and in Engliſh by Pagit.
ly met with in the ſhops. What is uſually ſold for the
ACA, ACE, or acon, a lown of Phænicia, on the Egyptian acacia, is the inſpiſſated juice of unripe lloes :
Mediterranean; afterwards called Ptolemais; 110W Acre. this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and ſome-
ACACALOTL, the Braſilian name of a bird called what ſharper taſte, than the true ſort, See the next
by ſome corous aquaticus, or the water-raven : proper- article.
ly, the pelicanus carbo, or coryorant. See PELICANUS. German ACACIA, the juice of unripe floes inſpiſſated
nearly
A CA
i 38 ]
A CA
Acacia ficarly to dryneſs over a genile fire, care being taken world were become ſo numcrous, that, from a view Academics
H to prevent its burning. It is moderately aftringent, of this inconſtancy and uncertainty of human opinions,
Academics
. limilar to the Egyptiau acacia, for which it has been many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond thé Academy,
commonly ſubſtituted in the ſhops. It is given in reach of our comprehenſion. . Abſolute and univerſal
fluxes, and other diſorders where ityptic medicines are ſcepticiſm was the natural conſequence of this conclu-
indiculed, from a ſcruple to a dram.
fion. In order to remedy this abuſe of philoſophy
ACACIA,amongantiquaries, foniething reſemblinga and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the
roll or bag, ſeen on medals, as in the hands of ſeveral principles of the academical philoſophy; and, in his
confols and emperors. Some take it to repreſent a Phædo, reaſons in the following manner. “ If we are
handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made lignals “ unable to diſcover truth, (ſays he), it muſt be owing
at tlie games; others, a roll of petitions or memorials ; " to two circumſtances: either there is no truth in
and fonie, a purple bag full of carth, to remind them “the nature of things; or the mind, from a defect
of their mortality.
" in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon
ACACIANS, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, the nanie of w the latter fuppofition, all the uncertainty and fluc-
ſeveral fects of heretics; ſome of which naintained, “tuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind
that the Son was only a ſimilar, not the ſame, ſubſtance « admit of an eaſy ſolution : Let us therefore be mo-
with the Father ; and others, that he was not only a "deſt, and aſcribe our errors to the real weakneſs
diſtinct, but a diſſimilar, ſubſtance. Two of theſe ſects w of our own minds, and not to the nature of things
had their denomination from Acacius biſhop of Cæſa "themſelves. Truth is often difficult of acceſs; in
rea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his " order to come at it, we muſt proceed with caution
opinions, ſo as, at different times, to be head of both. “ and diffidence, carefully examining every ſtep ; and
Another was named from Acacius patriarch of Con 6 after all our labour,we will frequently find our great-
ftantinople, who lived in the cloſe of the fifth cen « eſt efforts diſappointed, and be obliged to confeſs our
tury.
“ignorance and weakneſs.”
ACACIUS, firnamed Luscus, becauſe he was blind Labour and caution in their reſearches, in oppofi-
of one eye, was biſhop of Cæſarea in Paleſtine, and ſuc tion to raſh and haſty deciſions, were the diſtinguiſhing
ceeded the famous Euſebius : he had a great ſhare in characteriſtics of the diſciples of the ancient academy.
the baniſhment of Pope Liberius, and bringing Felix to A philoſopher, poſſeſſed of theſe principles, will be
the fee of Rome. He gave name to a ſect, and died Now in his progreſs; but will ſeldom fall into errors,
about the year 365. He wrote the life of Euſebius, or have occaſion to alter his opinion after it is once
and ſeveral other works.
formed. Vanity and precipitance are the great ſources
ACACIUS (St.), biſhop of Amida, in Meſopotamia, in of ſcepticiſm. Hurried on by theſe inſtead of attending
420, was diſtinguiſhed by his piety and charity. He to the cool and deliberate principles recommended by
fold the plate belonging to his churchi, to redeem fe the academy, ſeveral modern philoſophers have
ven thouſand Perſian llaves who were ready to die with plunged themſelves into an abſurd and ridiculous kind
want and miſery; and giving each of them ſome mo- of fcepticiſm. They pretend to deſcredit ſubjects that
ney, ſent them home. Veranius, their king, was ſo af are plain, ſimple, and eaſily comprehended; but give
fected with this noble inſtance of benevolence, that he peremptory and deciſive judgments upon things that
deſired to ſee the biſhop; and this interview procured evidently exceed the limits of our capacity. Of theſe,
a peace between that prince and Theodoſius I. Berkley and Hume are the moſt conſiderable. Berkley
There have been ſeveralother eminent perſons of the denied the exiſtence of every thing, excepting his own
ſame name ; particularly, A mattyr under the emperor ideas. Mr Hume has gone aſtep further,and queſtioned
Decius : A patriarch of Antioch, who ſucceeded Baſil even the exiſtence of ideas ; but at the ſame time has
in 458, and died in 459 : A biſhop of Miletum in the not heſitated to give determined opinions with regard
fifth century: A famous rhetorician in the reign of the to eternity, providence, and a future ftate, miraculous
emperor Julian : and, A patriarch of Conſtantinople in interpoſitions of the Deity, &c. fubjects far above the
the fifth century; who was ambitious to draw the whole reach of our faculties.
reach of our faculties. In his eſſay on the academical
power and authority of Rome by degrees to Conſtan or ſceptical philofophy he has confounded two very
tinople, for which he was delivered over irretrieva- oppoſite ſpecies of philoſophy. After the days of Plato,
bly to the devil by Pope Felix III.
indeed, the principles of the firſt academy were groſsly
ACAD, or ACHAD, (anc. geog.) the town in which corrupted by Arceſilaus, Carneades, &c. This might
Nimrod reigned, called Archad by the ſeventy ; ſitua lead Mr Hume into the notion that ihe academical and
ted in Babylonia, to the eaſtward of the Tigris. Sceptical philoſophy were ſynonymous terms. But no
ACADEMICIAN, or ACADEMIST, a member of principles can be of a more oppoſite nature than thoſe
an academy. See ACADEMY in a modern ſenſe. which were inculcated by the old acadeniy of Socrates
ACADEMICS, or ACADEMISTS, a denomination and Plato, and the ſceptical notions which were pro-
given to the cultivators of a ſpecies of philoſophy ori- pagated by Arcelilaus, Carneades, and the other diſci-
ginally derived from Socrates, and afterwards illu- ples of the ſucceeding academics.
ſtrated and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove ACADEMY, in antiquity, a garden, villa, or grove,
near Athens, conſecraied to the memory of Academus, ſituated within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his
an Athenian hero ; from which circunſtance this phi- followers held their philoſophical conferences. It took
lofophy received the name of academical. Before the
Before the its name from one Acadeinus, or Ecademus, who was
days of Plato, philoſophy had in a great meaſure the original owner of it, and made it a kind of gymna-
fallen into contempt. The contradictory ſyſtems and fium : he lived in the time of Theſeus ; and, after his
hypotheſes which had ſucceiſively been urged upon the death, it retained his name, and was conſecrated to
his
ACA
[ 39 ]
ACA
Academics, his meinory. Cimon embelliſhed it with fountains, prelident, two adjuncts or ſecretaries,and colleagues or Academies.
trees, and walks ; but Sylla, during the fiege of Athens, niembers without reſtriction. The colleagues, at their
employed theſe very trees in making battering engines adıniſlion,obligethemſelves to two things: firſt,tochooſe
againit the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place of ſome object out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral
retirement, near Puzzuoli, which he alſo named an kingdom, to handle, provided it had not been treated
academy, where he compoſed his Academical queſtions, of by any colleague before : the ſecond, to apply thein-
and his book De natura deorum.
ſelves to furniſh materials for the annual Ephemerides,
ACADEMY, among the moderns, is nioſt commonly Each member to bear a ſymbol of the academy ; v12,
uſed to ſignify a society of learned mien eſtabliſhed a gold ring; whercon, inſtead of a ſione, is a book
for the improvement of any art or ſcience, and gene open, and, on the face thereof, an eye; on the other
rally under the protection of a prince.
fide the motto of the academy, Nunquam otiofus.
The firſt Acadeny wc read of, was eſtabliſhed by II. CHIRURGICAL Academies; as that inſtituted ſome
Charlemagne, at the inſtigation of ALCUIN. It was years ago, by public authority, at Paris : the niein-
compoſed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor bers of which were not only to publiſh their own and
himſelf being a member. In their academical con correſpondents obſervations and improvements; but to
ferences, every perſon was to give an account of what give an account of all that is publiſlied on ſurgery, and
ancient authors he had read ; and each even aſſumed to compoſe a complete hiſtory of the art, by their
the name of ſome ancient author who pleaſed him molt, extracts from all the authors ancient and modern
or ſome'celebrated perſon of antiquity. Alcuin, from who have wrote on it.
who have wrote on it. A queſtion in ſurgery is an-
whoſe letters we learn theſe particulars, took that of nually propoſed by the academy, and a gold medal of
Flaccus, the fivname of Horace ; a young lord, named 200 livres value given to him who furniſhes the moſt
Augilbert, took that of Homer: Adelard, biſhop of ſatisfactory anſwer.
Corbie, was called Auguſtin: Riculfe, biſhop of Mentz, Academy of Surgery at Vienna, was inſtituted fonie
was Dametas ; and the king himſelf, David. This years ago by the prefent emperor, under the direction
fhows the miſtake of ſome modern writers, who re of the celebrated Brambilla. In this there were at
late, that it was in conformity with the genius of the firſt only two profeſſors ; and to their charge the in-
learned men of thoſe times, who were great admirers ftruction of 130 young men was committed, 30 of
of Roman names, that Alcuin took the name of Flac whom had formerly been ſurgeons in the army. But
cus Albinus.
of late the number both of the teachers and pupils
Moſt nations have now their academies ; but Italy has been conſiderably increaſed.
has the greateſt number.-The French have many appointed to teach pathology and practice; Boecking,
flouriſhing academies, moſt of which were eſtabliſhed anatomy, phyfiology, and phyſics : Streit, medical and
by Lewis XIV. There are but few in Britain ; and pharmaceutical ſurgery; Hunczowſky, ſurgicalopera-
thoſe of chiefeſt note go by a different name. See the tions,midwifery,and the chirurgia forenſis; and Plenk,
article SOCIETY.
chemiſtry and botany. To theſe alſo has been added,
In giving an account of the principal Academies, it Beindl, as profector and extraordinary profeſſor of
ſeems moſt proper to arrange them according to their ſurgery and anatomy. Befides this, the emperor, with
ſubjects.
his uſual liberality, has provided a large and ſplendid
1. MEDICAL Academies, as that of the Naturæ Cu edifice in Vienna, which affords habitation both for the
riofi in Germany ; that founded at Palermo in 1645: tcachers, the ſtudents, pregnant women, patients for
another at Venice in 1701, which meets weekly in a clinical lectures and ſervants. He has alſo purchaſed
hall near the grand hoſpital ; another at Geneva in for the uſe of this academy a medical library, which
1715, in the houſe of M. Le Clerc. The colleges of is open everyday : a complete ſet of chirurgical inſtru-
phyſicians at London and Edinburgh are alſo, by ſome; ments; an apparatus for experiments in natural philo-
ranked in the number of Academies.
fophy ; a collection of natural hiſtory ; a number of
The Academy of Natura Curioſi, called alſo the anatomical and pathological preparations; a collection
Leopoldine Academy, was founded in 1652, by Jo. of preparations in wax brought from Florence; and a
Laur. Bauſchius, a phyſician ; who, in imitation of the variety of other uſeful articles. Adjoining to the
Engliſh, publiſhed an invitation to all phyſicians to building alſo there is a good botanical garden.
communicate their extraordinary caſes ; and, nieeting Among other parts of this inſtitution, three prize-
with ſucceſs, was elected preſident. Their works were medals, each of the value of 40 fiorins, are to be an-
at firſt publiſhed ſeparately; but in 16 70 a new ſcheme nually beſtowed on thoſe ſtudents who return the beſt
was laid for publiſhing a volume of obſervations every. anfwer to queſtions propoſed the year before. Theſe
year. The firſt volume appeared in 1684, under the prizes are not entirely founded by the emperor, but
title of Ephemerides, and the work has been continued are in part owing to the liberality of Brendellius the
with ſome interruptions and variations of the title, cc. protochirurgus a Vienna.
In 1687, the emperor Leopold took the ſociety under III. ECCLESIASTICAL Academies; as that of Bologna
his protection,granting the
members ſeveral privileges; in Italy inſtituted in 1687, employed in the examina-
particularly that their preſidents ſhould be counts pa- tion of the doctrine, diſcipline, and hiſtory, of each
latine of the holy Roman empire. This academy has age of the church.
no fixed reſidence, nor regular aſſemblies; inſtead of IV. COSMOGRAPHICAL Academies ; as that at Ve-
theſe, there is a kind of bureau, or office, firſt eſtabliſh- nice, called the Argovauts. This was inſtituted at the
edat Breſlau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg, ſolicitation of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of
where letters, obſervationis, &c. from correſpondents geographical knowledge. Its deſign was to publiſh
or members are taken in. The academiy conſiſts of a exact maps, both celeſtial and terreſtrial, as well par-
3
ticular
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Academy. ticular as general, together with geographical, hiſtori- ciſms that may be made upon it. To this law the Academy.
cal, and aſtronomical deſcriptions. Each member, in preſident or promoter himſelf is ſubject; and no aca-
order to defray the expence of ſuch a publication, was demiſt is allowed to publiſh any thing againſt the wri-
to ſubſcribe a proportional fun, for which they were tings of another without leave from the ſociety.
to receive one or inore copies of each piece publiſhed. Several other Academies of Sciences have been
For this end three ſocieties are ſettled ; one iindcr founded in Italy; but, for want of being ſupported by
F. Moro, provincial of the minorities in Hungary; ano- princes, did not continue long. The loſs of them, how.
ther under the abbot Laurence au Rue Payenine all ever, was abundantly repaired by the inſtitution of o.
Marais ; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jefuit, profef- thers Atill fublifting ; ſuch as, thc Academy of Filarmo-
for of mathematics in the Roman college. The device nici at Verona ; of Ricovatri at Padua, where a lcarned
of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the diſcourſe on the origin of ſprings was delivered by
motto Plus ultra ; and at its expence all the globes, Sig. Valliſnieri, firſt profeſſor of phyſicin the univer-
maps, and geographical writings, of F. Coronelli have lity of that city, and which was afterwards printed.
been publilhed.
To the Academy of the Muti de Reggio, at Modena,
V. Academies of Sciences. Theſe comprehend ſuch the ſame Sig. Valliſnieri preſented an excellent diſ-
as are erected for iniproving natural and mathematical courſe on the ſcale of created beings, ſince inſerted
knowledge. They are otherwiſe called Philofophi in his hiſtory of the generation of man and animals
cal and Ehyſicalacadeinies.
printed at Venice in the year 1721.
The firſt of theſe was inſtituted at Naples, about the F. Merſenne is ſaid to have given the firſt idea of a
year 1560, in the houſe of Baptiſta Porta. It was call- philoſophical academy in France, towards the begin-
ed the Academy Sucretorum Nature ; and was ſuc- ning of the 17th century, by the conferences of natu-
ceeded by the Academy of Lyncei, founded at Rome by raliſts and mathematicians occaſionally held at his
Prince Frederic Celi, towards the end of that century. lodgings; at which Gaſſendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes,
Several of the members of this academy rendered it fa- Roberval, Paſcal, Blondel, and others aſſiſted. F. Mer-
mous by their diſcoveries ; among theſe was the cele- ſenne propoſed to each certain problems to examine, or
brated Galileo, Several other academies were inſtitu certain experiments to be made. Theſe private affem-
ted about that time, which contributed greatly to the blies were ſucceeded by more public ones, formed by
advancement of the ſciences ; but none of them com Mr Montmort, and Mr Thevenot the celebrated tra-
parable to that of the Lyncei.
veller. The French example animated ſeveral Engliſh-
Some years after the death of Toricelli, the Academy men of diſtinction and learning to erect a kind of
del Cimento made its appearance, under the protection philoſophical academy at Oxford, towards the clofe of
of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de Medicis. Oliver Cromwell's adminiſtration; which, after the
Redi was one of its chief members ; and the ſtudies reſtoration, was erected into a Royal Society, See so-
purſued by the reſt may be collected from thoſe curi CIETY. The Engliſh example, in its turn, animated the
ous experiments publiſhed in 1667, by their ſecretary French. Lewis XIV. in 1666, aſlifted by the counſels
Count Laurence Magulotti, under the title of Saggi di of Mr Colbert, founded an academy of ſciences at
Naturali Eſperienze; a copy of which was preſented Paris, with a ſufficient revenue to defray the charge
to the Royal Society, tranſlated into Engliſh by Mr of experiments, and ſalaries to the members.
Waller, and publiſhed at London in 40.
Royal Academy of Sciences. After the peace of the
The Acarlemy degl' Inquiets, afterwards incorporated Pyrenees, Lewis XIV. being deſirous of eſtabliſhing
into that of Della Traciá in the ſame city, followed the the arts, ſciences, and literature, upon a ſolid founda-
example of that of Del Cimento. Soine excellent dif- tion, directed M. Colbert to form a fociety of men of
courſes on phyſical and matheniatical ſubjects, by Ge- known abilities and experience in the differentbranch-
miniano Montenari, one of the chief members, were es, who ſhould meet together under the king's protecti-
publiſhed in 1667, under the title of Perſieri Fiſico on, and communicate their reſpective diſcoveries. Ac-
Matematici.
cordingly Mr Colbert, having conferred with thoſe
The Academy of Roſſano, in the kingdom of Naples, who were at that time moſt celebrated for their learn-
was originally an academy of Belles Letters; founded ing, reſolved to form a fociety of ſuch perſons as were
in 1540, and transformed into an Academy of Sciences converſant in natural phileſophy and mathematics, to
in 1695 at the ſolicitation of the learned abbot Don join to them other perſons ſkilled in hiſtory and other
Giacinto Gimma; who being made preſident, under branches of erudition, along with thoſe who were en-
the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a tirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres,
nevy ſet of regulations. He divided the academiſts grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians
into the following claſſes : Grammarians,Rhetoricians, andnatural philoſophers were ordered to meet on Tueſ-
Poets, Hiſtorians, Philoſophers, Phyſicians, Mathema- days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king's li-
ticians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a claſs apart for brary, where the books of mathematics and natural
Cardinals and perſons of quality. To be admitted a philoſophy were contained ; the learned in hiſtory to
inember, a man muſt have ſome degrees in the faculty. aſſemblc on Mondays and Tueſdays, in the hall where
The members are not allowed to take the title of Aca- the books of hiſtory are contained; and the claſs of
demills in the beginning of their books, without a Belles Letters to aſſemble on Wedneſdays and Fridays.
written permiſſion from their preſident, which is not All the different claſſes were likewiſe ordered to meet
granted till the work lias been examined by the cen together upon the firſt Tueſday of every month ; and,
fors of the academy ; and the permiſſion is the greateſt by their reſpective ſecretaries, make a report of the
honour the academy can confer, as they thereby adopt proceedings of the foregoing month.
the work, and are anſwerable for it againſt all criti In a ſhort time, however, the claſſes of Hiſtory,
3
Belles
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Academics. Belles Lettres, &c. Werc united to the French Academy, been very exact in publishing, every year, a volume Academica
which was originally inſtituted for the improvement containing either the works of its own members, or
and refining the French language ; ſo that the royal ſuch memoirs as have been compoſed and read to the
Academy contained only two clailes, viz. that of natu- academy during the courſe of that year. To each vo-
ral philoſophy and mathematics.
lume is prefixed the hiſtory of the academy, or an ex-
In the 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the tract of the memoirs, and, in general, of whatcver has
26th of January., gave this Academy a new form, and been read or faid in the academy ; at the end of the
put it upon a more reſpectable footing.–It was now biſtory, are the eulogiums on ſuch academifts as have
to be compoſed of four kinds of members, viz. hono. died that year.-M. Rouille de Mellay, counſellor to
rary, penſionary, aſſociates, and eleves. Theſe laſt were the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of
a kind of pupils, or ſcholars, each of whom was at. 2500, and the other of 2000 livres, which are alter-
tached to one of the penſionaries. The firſt claſs to nately diſtributed by the parliament every year ; the
contain ten perſons, and each of the reſt twenty. The ſubject for the firſt muſt relate to phylical aſtroncny,
honorary academilts to be all inbabitants of France ; and thoſe for the latter to navigation and commerce,
the penſionaries al to relije at Paris ; eight of the af Notwithſtanding the advantages which themembers
fociates allowed to be foreigners ; and the eleves all of this academy enjoy over others, in having their ex-
10 live at Paris. The officers to be, a pretident named pences defrayed, and even being paid for their time
by the king, out of the claſs of honorary academiſts ; and attendance, they have fallen under ſome imputa-
and a ſecretary and treaſurer to be perpetual. Of the tions, particularly that of plagiariſm, or borrowing
pentionaries, three to be geometricians, three aſtrono- their neighbour's inventions; but with what juſtice we
iners, three mechanics, three anatomiſts, three che, do not ſay.
miſts, three botaniſts, and the remaining two to be ſe The French have alſo conſiderable academiesini moſt
cretary
and treaſurer. Of the twelve ailociates, two of their great cities : as, at Montpelier, a royal aca-
to apply themſelves to geometry, two to botany, and demy of ſciences on the like footing as that at Paris,
two to chemiſtry. The eleves to apply themſelves to being as it were a counter part thereof; at Thoulouſe,
the ſame kind of ſcience with the penſionaries they an academy under the denomination of Lanterniſts
were attached to ; and not to ſpeak except when call- others at Niſmes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bourdeaux,
ed by the preſident. No regular or religious to be ad &c.
mitted, except into the claſs of honorary academiſts; The Royal Academy of Sciences at Birlin was founded
nor any perſon to be admitted either for aſſociate or in 1 700, by Frederic Il. king of Pruſſia, on the model of
penſionary, unleſs known by ſome conſiderable printed that of England; excepting that, beſides natural know-
work, ſome niachine, or other diſcovery. The aſſem- ledge, it likewiſe comprehends the Belles Lettres. In
blies were held on Wedneſdays and Saturdays, unleſs 1710, it was ordained that the preſident ſhall be one
either of then happened to be a holiday, and then the of the counſellors of ſtate, and noininated by the king.
aſſembly was held on the preceding day.- To encou The nienbers were divided into four claſſes, the first
rage the members to purſue their labourrs, the king for proſecuting phyſics, medicine, and chemiſtry; the
ged not only to pay the ordinary penſions, but e- fecond for mathematics, aſtronomy, and mechanics;
ven to give extraordinary gratifications, according to the third for the German language and the hiſtory of
the merit of their reſpective performances ; furniſhing the country; thc fourth for oriental learning, parti-
withal the expence of the experiments and other in- cularly as it may concern the propagation of the goſ-
quiries neceſſary to be made. If any member gave in pel ainong infidels. Each claſs to elect a director for
a bill of charges of experiments he had made, or delir- themſelves, who fall hold his poſt for life. The mem-
ing the printing of any book, and brought in the char- bers of any of the claſſes have free admiſſion into the
ges of graving, the money was immediately paid by aſſemblies of any of the reſt.
, ,
The great of this inſtitution was the cele.
the bill. So, if an anatomißt required.live tortoiſes, for braced Mr Leibnitz, wlio accordingly was made the
inſtance, for making experiments about the heart,&c. firſt director. The firſt volume of their tranſactions
as many as he pleaie were brought him at the king's was published in 1710, under the title of Mifc:llanea
charge. Their motto was, liiveilt et perfecit. Berolinenſia; and though they received but few marks
In the year 1716, thc duke of Orleans, then regent, of the royal favour for ſome time, they continued to
made an alteration in their conſtitution ; augmenting publiſh new volumes in 1723, 1725, 1774, and 1740.
the number of honoraries, and of affociates capable of Atlaſt, however, Frederic III. the late king of Pruf-
being forcigners, to 12; admitting regulars among fia, gave new vigour to this academy, by inviting to
liich aſſociates; and ſuppreſſing the claſs of cleves, as Berlin fuch foreigners as were moſt diſtinguiſhed for
it appeared to be attended with ſome inconveniences, their merit in literature, and encouraged his ſubjects
particularly that of making too great an inequality a to profecute the ſtudy and cultivation of the ſciences
mong the chemiſts, and being productive of ſome mif- by giving apple rewards; and thinking that the acade-
underſtaudings and animolities among the members. niy, which till that time had had ſome miniſter or opll-
Atthe lime time he created other two clates; one con. lent nobleman for iis-preſident, would find an advan-
fiſting of 12 adjuncts, who, as well as the aſſociates, tage in having a man of letters at its head, he confer-
were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative red that honour on M. Maupertuis. At the ſame time,
ro fcience ; and the other fix free alluciates, who he gave a new regulation to the academy, and took
were not attached to any particular ſcience, nor obli- upon himſelf the title of its protecto
ged to prrrſue any particular work.
The academiſts hold two publicaiſemblies an nually;
Since its re-eltablishment in 1625, this academy has one in January, on the late king's birth-day; alia the
VOL. 1.
Olher
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5
Academies. Other in May, on the day of his acceſſion to the throne. ſtowed a largeſs of 2000l. which ſhe has renewed as Acadeniies.
At the latter of theſe is given, as a prize, a gold me-
occaſion has required.
dal of 50 ducats value: the ſubject for this prize is The purpoſe and intent of theſe travels will appear
ſucceſſively, natural philofophy, mathcmatics, meta from the inſtructions given by the academy to the ſe-
phyſics, and erudition.
veral perſons who were engaged in them. They were
The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterſburgh ordered to purſue their inquiries upon the different
was projeĉted by Czar Peter the Great. That great ſorts of earths and waters; upon the beſt methods of
monarch having, during his travels, obſerved the ad. cultivating the barren and deſart spots ; upon the local
vantage e of public ſocieties for the encouragement and diſorders incident to men and animals, and the moſt
promotion of literature, formed the delign of founding efficacious means of relieving them; upon the breeding
an academy of ſciences at St Peterſburgh. By the ad- of cattle, and particularly of fheep ; on the rearing of
vice of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he conſulted on this bees and lilk-worms; on the different places and ob-
occaſion, the ſociety was regulated, and ſeveral learn- jects for fiſhing and hunting ; on minerals ; on the arts
ed foreigners were invited to become members. Peter and trades; and on forming a Flora Ruſlica, or collec-
himſelf drew the plan, and ſigned it on the roth of tion of indigenous plants: they were particularly in-
Feb. 1724 ; but was prevented, by the ſuddenneſs of ſtructed to rectify the longitude and latitude of the
his death, from carrying it into execution. His de- principal towns; to make aftronomical, geographical,
ceaſe, however, did not prevent its completion : for on and meteorological obſervations; to trace the courſe
the 21ſt of December 1725, Catharine I. eſtabliſhed of the rivers ; to take the moſt exact charts; and to be
it according to Peter's plan; and on tlie 27th of the very diſtinct and accurate in remarking and deſcribing
ſame month the ſociety was firſt aſſembled. On the the manners and cuſtoms of the different people, their
iſt of Auguſt 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting dreſſes, languages, antiquities, traditions, hiſtory, re-
with her preſence, when profeſſor Bulfinger, a German ligion; and, in a word, to gain every information
naturaliſt of great eminence pronounced an oration which might tend to illuſtrate the real ſtate of the
upon the advances made by the loadſtone and needle whole Ruſſian empire.
for the diſcovery of the longitude.
In conſequence of theſe expeditions, perhaps no
The empreſs ſettled a fund of 49821. per annum for country can boaſt, within the ſpace of ſo few years,
the ſupport of the academy; and fifteen members, all ſuch a number of excellent publications on its internal
eminent for their learning and talents, were admitted ſtate, on its natural productions, on its topography,
and penfioned, under the title of Profeſſors, in the va- geography, and hiſtory; on the manners, cuſtoms,
rious branches of literature and ſcience. The moſt and languages of the different people, as have iſued
diſtinguiſhed of theſe profeſſors were Nicholas and Da- from the preſs of this academy.
niel Bernouilli, the two De Lilles, Bullinger, and The firſt tranſactions of this ſociety were publiſhed
Wolf,
in 1728, and intitled Commentarii Academia Scienti-
During the fort reign of Peter II. the ſalaries of arum Imperialis Petropolitanæ ad an. 1726, with a
the members were diſcontinued, and the academy was dedication to Peter II. The publication was conti-
utterly neglected by the court ; but it was again pa- nued under this form until the year 1747, when its
tronized by the empreís Anne, who even added a {e- tranſactions were called Novi Gommentarii Academia,
minary for the education of youth, under the ſuperin- &c. In 1777 the academy again changed the title in-
tendance of the profeſſors. Both inſtitutions flouriſhed to Atta Academiæ Scientiarum Imperialis Petropoli-
for ſome time under the direction of Baron Korf; but tana, and likewiſe made fome alteration in the ar-
upon his death, towards the latter end of Anne's reign, rangement and plan of the work. The papers, which
an ignorant perſon being appointed preſident, many of had been hitherto publiſhed in the Latin tongue, are
the moſt able members quitted Ruſſia. At the acceſ now written either in that language or French; and a
fion of Elizabeth, new life and vigour were again re- preface is added, ſtyled Partie Hiſtorique, which con-
ſtored to the academy : the original plan was enlarged tains an account of its proceedings, meetings, admil-
and improved ; ſome of the moſt learned foreigners fion of new nembers, and other remarkable occur-
were again drawn to Peterſburgh; and, what was con rences. Of the Commentaries, 14 volumes were pub-
fidered as a good omen for the literature of Ruſſia, two liſhed: the firſt of the New Cominentaries made its.
natives, Lomonoſof and Rumovſky, men of genius and appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 1776. Un-
abilities, who had proſecuted their ſtudies in foreign der the new title of Asta Academia, ſeveral volumes
univerſities, were enrolled among its members. The have been given to the public, and two are printed
annual inconie was increaſed to 10,6591, and ſoon af- every year. Theſe tranſactions abound with ingenious.
terwards the new inſtitution took place.
and elaborate diſquiſitions upon various parts of fcience
The preſent empreſs Catharine III. with her uſual and natural hiſtory, and which reflect the greateſt ho-
zeal for pronioting the diffuſion of knowledge, has ta nour upon their authors; and it may not be an exaga
ken this uſeful ſociety under her more immediate pro- geration to aſſert, that no ſociety in Europe has more
tection. She has altered the court of directors greatly diſtinguiſhed itſelf for the excellenccofits publications,
to the advantage of the whole body ; ſhe has corrected and particularly in the more abſtruſe parts of the pure
many abuſes, and has înfufed a new ſpirit into their and mixed mathematics.
reſearches. By her majeſty's particular recommenda The academy is ſtill compoſed, as at firſt, of fifteen
tion, the moſt ingenious profeſſors have viſited the va- profeffors, beſide the prelident and director. Each of
rious provinces of her yaſt dominions; and as the fund theſe profeſſors has a houſe and an airnual ſtipend from
of the academy was not ſufficient to ſupply the whole 2001. to bool. Beſide the profeſſors, there are four
expence of theſe ſeveral expeditions, the empreſs be- adjunéts, who are penſioned, and who are preſent at
the
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Academies, the ſittings of the ſociety, and ſucceed to the firſt ya fund for theſe prizes is fupplied from private dona- Academics.
cancies. The direction of the academy is at preſent tions.
conſigned to the Princeſs Dalhkof.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen, owes
The building and apparatus of this academy are ex its inſtitution to the zeal of fix literati, whom Chriſ-
traordinary. Thereis a fine library,conſiſting of 36000 tian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of
curious books and manuſcripts. There is an extenlive medals. The count of Holſtein was the firſt preli-
muſeum, in which the various branches of natural hi. dent ; and the fix perſons who firſt formed the deſign,
ſtory, &c. are diſtributed in different apartments: it is were John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, Chriſtian
extremely rich in native productions, having been con Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Pontopidan, and
fiderably augmented with a variety of ſpecimens col Bernard Moelman. Theſe perſons occaſionally meet.
lected by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenſtaedt, and other ing for that purpoſe, cxtended their deſigns; aſſociated
learned profeſſors, during their late expeditions thro' with them others who wereeminent in ſeveralbranches
the Ruſſian empire. The ſtuffed animals and birds of ſcience; and forming a kind of li:erary ſociety, em-
occupy one apartment. The chamber of rarities, the ployed themſelves in ſearching into, and explaining
cabinet of coins, &c. contain innumerable articles of the hiſtory and antiquities of their country. The
the higheſt curioſity and value. The fociety has this count of Holſtein warmly patronized this ſociety, and
motto, Paulatim.
recommended it ſo ſtrongly to Chriſtian VI. that, in
The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Inſti- 1743, his Daniſh Majeſty took it under his protection,
tute of Bologna, was founded by count Marſigli in 1712, called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it
for the cultivating of phyſics, mathematics, medicine, with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their
chemiſtry, and natural hiſtory. Its hiſtory is written former purſuits, natural hiſtory, phyſics, and mathe-
by M. de Limiers, from memoirs furniſhed by the matics. In conſequence of the royal favour, the mem-
founder himſelf.
bers engaged with freſh zeal in their purſuits ; and
The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or Royal the academy has publiſhed 15 volumes in the Daniſh
Swediſh Academy, owes its inſtitution to fix perſons of language, fome whereof have been tranſlated into
diſtinguiſhed learning, amongſt whom was the celebra Latin.
ted Linnæus : they originally met on the ad of June American Academy of Scierices, was eſtabliſhed
1739, formed a private ſociety, in which fome differ- in 1780 by the council and houſe of repreſentatives
tations were read ; and in the latter end of the ſame in the commonwealth of Maſſachuſett's Bay for promo-
year their firſt publication made its appearance. As ting the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of
the meeting continued and the members increaſed, the natural hiſtory of the country; for determining
the ſociety attracted the notice of the king, and was, the uſes to which its various natural productions might
on the 31ſt of March 1741, incorporated under the be applied ; for encouraging medicinal diſcoveries,
name of the Royal Swedish Academy. Not receiving mathematical diſquiſitions, philoſophical inquiries and
any penſion from the crown., it is only under the pro- experiments, aſtronomical, meteorological, and geo-
tečtion of the king, being directed, like the Royal graphical obſervations, and improvements in agricul-
Society, by its own members. It has now a large ture, manufactures, and commerce; and in Hort, for
fund, which has chiefly ariſen from legacies and other cultivating every art and ſcience which may tend to
donations ; but a profeſſor of experimental philoſophy, advance the intereſt, honour, dignity, and happineſs,
and two ſecretaries, are ſtill the only perſons who re of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The
ceive any ſalaries. Each of the members reſident at members of this academy are never to be more than
Stockholm becomes preſident by rotation, and conti 200, nor leſs than 40.
nues in office during three months. There are two VI. Academies or Schools of ARTS; as that at Peterſ.
ſpecies of members, native and foreign : the election of burgh, which was eſtabliſhed by the empreſs Elizabetli,
the former is held in April, and of the latter in July : at the ſuggeſtion of count Shuvalof, and annexed to the
no money is paid at the time of admiſſion. The diſ- academy of ſciences: the fund was L.4000 per annum,
ſertations read at each meeting are collected and pub- and the foundation for 40 ſcholars. The preſent empreſs
liſhed four times in the year; they are written in the las formed it into a ſeparate inſtitucion, enlarged the
Swediſh language, and printed in octavo, and the an annual revenue to L.12,000, and has augmenied thie
nual publications make a volume. The firſt 40 vo number of ſcholars to zoo; the has alſo conſtructed, for
lumes, which were finiſhed in 1779, are called the Old the uſe and accommodation of the members,
Tranſactions ; for in the following year the title was circular building, which fronts the Neva. The ſcho-
changed into that of New Tranſactions. The king is lars are admitted at the age of fix, and contine until
ſometimes preſent at the ordinary meetings, and par- they have attained that of 18: they are clothed, fed,
ticularly at the annual aſſembly in April for the elec- and lodged, at the expence of the crown. They are
tion of members. Any perſon who ſends a treatiſe all infructed in reading and writing, arithmetic, the
which is thought worthy of being printed, receives the French and German languages and drawing. At the
tranſactions for that quarter grutis, and a ſilver medal, age of 14 they are at liberty to chooſe any of the fol-
which is not eſteemed for its value, being worth only loving arts, divided into four claſſes. 1. Painting in
three ſhillings, but for its rarity, and the honour con all its branches of hiſtory, portraits, battles and land-
veyed by it. All the papers relating to agriculture ſcapes; architecture ; Mofaic; enamelling; &c.2. En-
are put forth ſeparately under the title of Oeconomica graving on copperplates, ſeal-cutting, &c. a. Carving
alta. Annual premiuins, in money and gold medals, in wood, ivory and amber.
principally for the encouragement of agriculture and ing, inſtrument-making, caſting ſtatues in bronze and
inland trade, are alſo diſtributed by the academy. The other metals, imitating gems and medals in paſte and
other
2
large
F 2
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ACA
Academiet. Other coupontiuns, gilding and varniſhing. Prizes together, which is called ſetting the group. The paine - Academies
memek are annually diſtributed to thoſe who excel in any par- ingsand models made after this model, are called aca.
ticular art; and from thoſe who have obtained four nemics or academy-figures. They have likewiſe a lru-
prizes, trelvc are ſelected, wlio are ſent abroad at the inan who ſands for a niodel in the public fclioul.
charge of the cmpreſs. A certain fum is paid to de. Every three months, three prizes for delign are diftri-
fray their travelling expences; and when they are fet- bated among the cleves or diſciples; two others fur
iled in any town, they receive an annual ſalary of L.60. painting, and two for ſculpture every year.
which is continued during four years. There is a ſinall There is alſo an Academy of Painting, Sculpture,
aſſortment of paintings for the uſe of the ſcholars; &c. at Rome, eſtabliſhed by Lewis XIV. wherein ihofé
and thoſe who have made great progreſs are permitted who have gained the annual prize at Paris are intitled
to copy the pictures in the emprcſs's collectivit. For 10 be threc ycars entertained at the king's expence,
the purpoſe of delign, there are models in plaſter of for their further imprurcmcnt.
the beſt antique natues in Italy, all done at Rome, of The Academy of Architecture, eſtabliſhed by N.
the ſame fize with the originals, which the artiils of Colbert in 1671, conſiſting of a company of ſkilful
the academy were employed to caſt in bronze.
architects, under the diection of the ſuperintendant
The Royal Acadervy of Arts in London, was in- of the buildings.
ſtituted for the encouragement of Deſigning, Painting, The Academy of Dancing, erected by Lewis XIV.
Sculpture, &c. &c. in the year 1763. This academy with privileges above all the reſt.
is under the immediate patronage of the king, and un Vil. Academies of Law ; as that famous one at
der the direction of 40 artiſts of the firſt rank in their Beryta, and that of the Sitientes at Bologna.
ſeveral profeſſions. It furnilles, in winter, living mo VIII. Academies of HISTOR?" ; as the Koyat Academy
dels of different chara ters to draw after; and, in ſum- of Fortugueſe Hili ory at Liloul. This academy was
mer, models of the ſame kind to paint after. Nine of inſtituted by king John V. in 1720. It conſiſts of a
the ableft academicians are annually tlested out of the director, four cenſors, a ſecretary, and 50 members ;
40, whoſe buſineſs is to attend by rotation, to ſet the to each of whom is affigued fome part of the ccclefiafti-
figures, to examine the performance of the ſtudents, cal or civil hiſtory of the natioa, which he is to treat
and to give them neceſary inſtructions. There are either in Latin or Portugueſe. in the church-hiſtory
likewiſe four profeſſors, of Fainting, of Architecture, of of each dioceſe,the prelates, fynods, councils,churches,
Anatomy, and of Ferſpective, who annually read public monaſteries, academies, peilons illuſtrious for ſanétity
lectures on the ſubjects of their ſereral departments ; or learning, places famous for iniracles or relics, muit
belide a preſident, à council, and other officers. The be diſtincly related in twelve chapters. Thecivil hiſto-
admiſſion to this academy is free to all ſtudents pro- ry compriſes the tranſactions of the kingdom from the
perly qualified to reap advantage from the ſtudies cul- government of the Romans down to the preſent time.
tivated in it; and there is an annual exhibition of paini. The members who rclide in the country are obliged 20
ings, ſculptures, and deſigns, open to all artiſts of di- make collections and extracts out of all the regiſers,
ſtinguiſhed níeric.
&c. where they live. Their meetings to be once in
The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris. This 15 days.
took its riſe from the diſputes that liappened between A medal was ſruck by this academy in honour of
the maſter painters and ſculptors in that capital ; in con- their prince: the front of which was his effigy, with
fequence of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin Corucille, and the inſcription Johannes V.L:r/itanorum Rex; and, on
others of the king's painters, formed a delign of inſtitu- the reverſe,lhe ſame prince is repreſented ſtanding, and
ting a particular academy; and having preſented a peti railing Hiſtory almoſt proſtrate before him, with the le-
lion to the king, obtained an arret dated Jan. 20. 1648. gend Hiſtoria Reſurgés. Undern ath are the follow-
In the beginning of 1655, they obtained from cardi- ing words in abbreviature : REGia ACADemia HI-
nal Mazarin a brevet, and letters patent, which were Sioria LUSITanæ, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decem-
regiſtered in parliament; in gratitude for which favour bris MDCCXX.
they choſe the cardinal for thcir protector, and the Academy of Suabian Hiflors at Tubingen, was lately
chancellor for their vice-prote&or. In 1653, by means eſtabliſhed by ſome learned men, for publihing the
of M. Culbert, they obtained a penſion of 4000 livres. beſt hiſtorical writings, the lives of the chief hiſto-
The academy conſiſts of a proiector ; vice-protetor; rians, and compiling new 'nienoirs, on the ſeveral
a director; a chancellor ; four rectors; adjunéts to the points and periods thereof.
rectors ; a treaſurer ; four profeſſors, one of which is IX. Academies of ANTIQUITIES ; as that at Corto.
profeſſor of anatomy, and another of geometry ; fc na in Italy, and at Upſal in Sweden. The firſt is
veral adjuncts and counſellors, an hiſtoriogropher, a deſigned for the ſtudy of Hetrurian antiquities; the
ſcretary, and two uſhers.
other for illuſtrating the northern languages, and the
The Academy of Painting holds a pablic aſſembly antiquities of Sweden, in which notable diſcoveries
every day for two hours in the afternoon to which tlie have been inade by it. The head of the Hetrurian
painters reſort either to deſign or to paint,and where the academy is called Lucomon, by which the ancients go-
ſculptors model after a naked perſon. There are 12 vernors of the country were diſtinguiſhed. One of their
profeſſors, each of whom keeps the ſchool for a month; laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the
and there are 12 adjuncts to ſupply them in caſe of year ; another is to fix their ſeſſions, and impoſe a tax
need. The profeſſor upon duty places the naked man of a diſſertation on each member in his turn.
as he thinks proper, an ſets him in two different atti. The Acadeny of Medals and Infcriptions at Paris was
tudes every weck. This is what they call fitting the ſet on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of
model. In one week of the month he ſets two models Lewis XIV. in 1663, for the ſtudy and explanation
of
$
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1
Academies. of ancient inonuments, and perpetuating great and afterwards premeditately; which gave them the deno. Academies,
memorable cyents, eſpecially thoſe of the French mo mination of Belli Humori. After ſome experience, co-
narchy, by coins, relievos, inſcriptions, &c. The ming more and more into the taste of theſe excrciíes,
number of incmbers at firſt was confined to four or they reſolved to form an Academy of Belles Lettres ;
five, chofen out of ihoſe of the French academy; and changed the title of Bellz Humori for that of H13-
who me in the library of Mr Colbert, froin whom moriffi : chooſing for their device, a cloud, which, after
they received his majeſty's orders. The days of their being formed of exhalations from the ſalt waters of
mectings were not determined; but generally they the ocean, returns in a gentle ſweet ſhower; vith this
met on Wedneſdays, eſpecially in the winter ſeaſon : motto froni Lucretius Redit agmine dillci.
but, in 1691, the king having given the inſpection of In 1690, the Academy of Arcadı was eſtabliſhed at
this acadený to M. de Pontchartrain comptroller ge- Ronie, for reviving the ſtudy of Poetry and of the
rcral, &c. he fixed their meetings on Tueſdays and Belles Lettres. Beſides moſt of the politer wits of
Saturdays.
both ſexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many
By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1701, princes, cardinals, and other ecclefiaftics; and, to a
the academy was compoſed of ten honorary members ; void diſputes about pre-cntinence, all appear maſked
ten aſſociates, cach of whom had two declarative voices; after the manner of Arcadian ſhepherds. Within ten
ten penſionaries; and ten eleves, or pupils. They then years from its firſt eſtabliſıment, the number of Axa-
met every Tueſday and Wedneſday, in one of the halls demifts amounted to fix hundred. They hold affeni-
of the Louvre; and had two public inectings yearly, Llies feren tinies a-year in a mead or grove, or in the
one the day after Martinimas and the other the 16th gardens of fome noblemen of diſtinction. Six of theſe
after Eaſter. The claſs of eteves has been ſuppreſled, meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and
and united to the aſſociates. The king noninates their verſes of the Arcadi reſiding at Rome, who read
preſident and vice-prelident yearly; but their ſecreta- their own compoſitions ; except ladies and cardinals,
ry and treaſurer are perpetual. The reſt are choſen who are allowed to enploy others. The ſeventh ineet-
by the members themſelves, agreeably to the conſti- ing is ſet apart for the compoſitions of foreign or ab-
tutions on that behalf given them.
ſent members.
One of the firſt undertakings of this academy, was This academy is governed by a Cuſtos, who repre-
10 compoſe by means of medals, a connected hiſtory of ſents the whole ſociety, and is choſen every four years,
the principal events of Levis XIV's reign: but in this with a power of elecling 12 others yearly for his aſ-
deſign they met with great difficulties, and of conſe- liſtance. Under theſe are two ſub-cuſtodes, one vicar
quence it was interrupted for many years; but at length or pro-cuftos, and four deputies or ſuperintendants, an-
it was completed down to the advancement of the duke nually choſen. The laws of the ſociety are immuta-
of Anjou to the crown of Spain.
ble, and bear a near reſemblance to the ancient model.
In this celebrated work, the eſtabliſhment of the There are five manners of electing members. The
academy itſelt was not forgot. The medal on this firſt is by acclamation. This is aſed when ſovereign
ſubject repreſents Mercury litting, and writing with an princes, cardinals, and ambaſſadors of kings, delire to
antique ſtylas on a table of braſs, he leans with his be admitted ; and the votes are then giren viva voce.
left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet are The ſecond is callcd annumeration. This was intro-
feveral others placed upon a card : the legend, Rerum duced in favour of ladies andacademical colories, where
gearum fides; and on the exergue, Acadena regi. the votes are taken privately. The third repreſenta
inſcriptionum et nimiſinatum, iniliiteta M.DC.LXII. tion, was cfiablilhed in favour of colonics and univer.
fignifying that the Royal Academy of medals and In- fities, where the young gentry are bred; who hare
ſcriptions, founded in 1653, ought to give to future each a privilege of recommending one or two mcm-
ages a faithful teltimony of all great actions. Beſides bers privately to be balloted for. The fourth, f11110-
this work, we have ſeveral volumes of their niemoirs; gation; whercby new members are ſubſtituted in the
and their hiftory, written and continued by their ſc. room of thoſe dead or expelled. The laſt, deſtinatıcı
cretaries.
whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, per-
X. Academies of BELLES LETTRES, are thoſe where- fons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi con-
in eloquence and poctry are chiefly cultivated. Theſe fered upon them till ſuch time as a vacancy fhall hap-
are very numerous in Italy, and not uncommon in pen. All the members of this body, at their admiſ-
France.
fion, affiume new paſtoral names, in imitation of the
The Academy of Umidi at Florence has contributed mepherds of Arcadia. The academy has ſeveral cc-
greatly to the progreſs of the ſciences by the excel. lonies of Arcadi in different cities of Italy, who are
lent Italian tranſlations given, by ſome of its members, all regulated after the fanie manner.
of the ancient Greek and Latin hiſtorians. Their XI. Academics of LANGUAGES; called, by fome,
chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the ſame Grammati:al Academies: as.
time that they have applied thenifelves to the polith The Acad my della Cruſca at Florence, famous for
ing of their language, which produced the Academy its vocabulary of the Italian tongue, tras formed in 1982,
del la Crufca.
but ſcarce heard of before the year 1584, when it be-
The Academy of Humoriſts, Umoriſli, had its origin came noted for a diſpute between Tafro and ſeveral of
at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a its members. Many authors confound this with the
Roman gentleman ; at which ſeveral perſons of rank Florentine academy. The diſcourſes which Toricelli,
were gueſts; and, it being carnival time, to give the the celebrated diſciple of Galileo, delivered in the ar-
ladies ſome diverſion, they took themſelves to the re- ſemblies,concerning levity, the wind, the power of per-
citing of verſes, ſonnets, ſpeeches, firſt ex tempore, and cuſion, mathematics, and military architecture, are a
proof
1
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900. " of members is limited to
Academies, proof that theſe academiſts applied themſelves to The Royal Spaniſh Academy at Madrid held its firſt Academics
things as well as words.
meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the N
Acæna.
duke d’Eſcalona. It conſiſted at firſt of eight acade-
Tha Academy of Fructiferi had its riſe in 1617, at
an aſſembly of ſeveral princes and nobility of the conn- miſts, including the duke ; to which number 14 others
try, who met with a deſign to refine and perfect the were afterwards added, the founder being choſen pre-
German tongue. It flouriſhed long under the direc ſident or director. In 1714, the king granted them
tion of princes of the empire, who were always choſen his confirmation and protection. Their device is a cru-
preſidents. In 1668 the number of members aroſe to cible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Lim-
upwards of 900. It was prior in time to the French pia, Fya, y da Eſplendor; “it purifies, fixes, and gives
academy, which only appeared in 1629, and was not brightneſs." The number
eſtabliſhed into an academy before the year 1635. Its 24; the duke d’Eſcalona to be director for life, but
hiſtory is written in the German tongue by George his ſucceſſors choſen yearly, and the ſecretary to be
Neumarck.
perpetual. Their object, as marked out by the royal
The French Academy, which had its riſe from a meet declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national
ing of men of letters in the houſe of M. Conrart,in 1629. language: they were to begin with chooſing carefully
In 1635, it was erected into an academy, by Cardinal ſuch words and phraſes as have been uſed by the beſt
Richlieu, for refining and aſcertaining the French lan- Spaniſh writers ; noting the low, barbarous, or obſo-
guage
and ſtile.-The number of its members are li lete ones; and compoſing a dictionary wherein theſe
mited at 40; out of whom a director, chancellor, and may be diſtinguiſhed from the former.
ſecretary, are to be choſen : the two former hold their XII. Academies of POLITICS ; as that at Paris, con-
poſt fortwo months, the latter is perpetual. Themem- fiſting of ſix perſons, who met at the Louvre, in the
bers of this acadeny enjoy ſeveral privileges and im chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs
munities, among which is that of not being obliged to were lodged. But this acadeny proved of little fer-
anſwer before any court but that of the king's houſe vice, as the kings of France were unwilling to truſt any
hold. They meet three times a-week in the Louvre ; but their miniſters with theinſpection of foreign affairs.
at breaking up, 40 ſilver medals are diſtributed among For a further account of ſimilar eſtabliſhments, ſec
them, having on one fide the king of France's head, the article SOCIETY.
and on the reverſe, Proiecteur de l' Academie, with lau ACADEMi is alſo a term for ſchools and other ſemi-
rel, and this motto, A l' Immortalité. By this diſtri- naries of learning among the Jews,where their rabbins
bution, the attendance of the Academiſts is ſecured, and doctors inſtructed their youth in the Hebrew lan-
thoſe who are preſent receiving the ſurplus otherwiſe guage, and explained to them the Talmud and the ſe.
intended for the abſeiit. To elect or expel a member, crets of the caballa : Thoſe of Tiberias and Babylon
at leaſt 18 are required ; nor can any be choſen unleſs have been the moſt noted.
he petition for it: by this expedient, the affront of The Romans had a kind of military academies, eſta-
reſúſals from perſons elected is avoided. Religious are bliſhed in all the cities of Italy, under the name of
not admitted ; nor can any noblemen, or perſon of Gampi Martis. Here the youth were admitted to be
diſtinction, be admitted on another footing than as a trained for war at the public expence.
The Greeks,
inan of letters. None are to be expelled, except for beſide academies of this kind, had military profeſſors
baſe and diſhoneſt practices; and there are but two called Tactici, who taught all the higher offices of
inſtances of ſuch expulſions, the firſt of M. Granier war, &c. &c.
for refuſing to return a deposit, the other of the Abbé ACADEMY is often uſed to denote a kind of col-
Furetiere for plagiariſm. The delign of this acade- legiate ſeminary, where youth are inſtructed in arts
my was to give not only rules, but examples, of good and ſciences. There is one in Portſmouth for teaching
writing. They began with making ſpeeches on fub- navigation, drawing, &c.; another ac Woolwich, for
jects taken at pleaſure, about 20 of which were print- fortification, gunnery, &c.---Beſides theſe, there are
ed. They met with great oppoſition from the parlia numerous academies, cſpecially in London, for teach-
ment at their firſt inſtitution; it being two years be- ing mathematics, languages, writing, accounts,
fore the patents granted by the king would be regiſter- drawing, and other branches of learning.
cd. They have been ſeverely ſatyrized, and their ſtyle The nonconformiſt miniſters, &c. are bred up in
has been ridiculeda, enervating inſtead of refining the private academies; as not approving the common u-
French language. They are alſo charged with having niverſity education. The principal of their academies
ſurfeited the world by flattery, and having exhauſted are thoſe in London, Daventry, and Warrington.
all the topics of panegyric in praiſe of their founder ; ACADENY is likewiſe a name given to a riding-
it being a duty incumbent on every meinber, at his ad ſchool, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the
miſſion, to make a ſpeech in praiſe of the king, the greal horſe, &c. and the ground allotted is uſually cal-
cardinal,the chancellor Seguier,and the perſon in whoſe led the Manege.
place he is elected. The moſt remarkable work of this Academi Figure, a drawing of a naked man or wo-
academy is a di&tionary of the French tonguc; which, man, taken from the life ; which is uſually done on
after 50 years ſpent in ſettling the words and phrales paper with red or black chalk, and ſometimes with pa-
lo bc uſed in writing, was at laſt publiſhed in 1694. ſtils or CRAYONS. See ACADEMY, NOVI. par. 4. fupra.
The foundation of an Academy ſimilar to the above, ACADIE, or ACADY, in geography, a name for-
has been propoſed at Peterſburgh, by the learned prin- merly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. See
ceſs Daſhkof: il is to conſiſt of 60 members. The Nova Scotia,
plan has been approved by the empreſs, who has al ACÆNA, in antiquity, a Grecian meaſure oflength,
ready given a fund for its ſupport and eſtabliſhment. being a ten feet-rod, uſed in meaſuring their lands.
ACENA,
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Acana
Acanthas.
DIUM.
ACÆNA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or troops, who are generally ſent out in detachments to Acantha
der belonging to the tetrandria claſs of plants; the procure intelligence, haraſs the enemy, or ravage the I
Acangis. characters of which are theſe: The calyx is a perian- country.
thium conſiſting of four leaves, which aie ovate, con ACANTHA, in botany, the prickle of any plant ;
cave, equal, and perſiſtent ; there is no corolla: The in zoology, a term for the ſpine or prickly fins of
Stamina conſiſts of four equal middle-lized filaments op- fiſhes.
poſite to the calyx; the antheræ are quadrangular, ACANTHABOLUS, in ſurgery, an inſtrument
twin, erect: the piſtillum has an inverſely-ovate hiſped for pulling thorns, or the like, out of the ſkin.
germ ; the ſtylus is ſmall, and inflected on one ſide; ACANTHINE, any thing reſembling or belong-
and the ſtignia is a ſmall thickiſh coloured membrane, ing to the herb acanthus. Acanthine garınents, among
divided into many ſegments : The pericarpiun is an the ancients, are ſaid to be made of the down of thi-
inverſely-ovated dry one-celled berry covered with ſtles; others think they were garments embroided in
prickles bent backwards : The feed is fingle. There imitation of the acanthus.
is only one ſpecies, a native of Mexico.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS FISHES, a term uſed
ACAJOU, or CASHEW-NUT-TREE. See ANACAR- by Linnæus and others for thoſe fithes whoſe back-fins
are hard, oſſeous, and prickly.
ACALANDRUS, a river falling into the bay of ACANTHOS, a town of Egypt, near Memphis,
Tarentum, not far from the Metapontum, (Pliny, Stra- (Pliny); now Bifalta. Alſo a maritime town of Ma-
bo); now Fiurie de Rofito.
cedonia, to the weſt of mount Athos, a colony of An-
ACALEPTIC, in ancient proſody, a complete verſe. drians, (Thucydides,Ptolemy); nowĒriffo; near which
ACALYPHA, the THREE-SEEDED MERCURY, was ſhown Xerxes's ditch, of ſeven ſtadia, in order to
a genus of plants belonging to the monæcia mona- ſeparate mount Athos from the continent, and convey
delphia claſs. The characters of this genus are the his ſhips, without doubling Athos, into the Singitic
following.-Male flowers crowded above the feinale Bay. Acanthos, is alſo a town of Epirus.
ones: The calyx is a three or four-leaved perianthium, ACANTHUS, BEAR'S-BREECH, or brank-ar fine,
the leaflets roundiſh, concave, and equal: The corolla is in botany : a genus of the angioſpermia order, be-
wanting: The ſtamina have from 6 to 18 filaments, longing to the didynamia claſs of plants; and ranking
which are ſhort, crowded, and connected at the baſe; in the 4th natural order, Perfonata. The generic
the antheræ are roundilh.-Female flowers fewer, pla- characters are: The calyx is a perianthiam with leaf-
ced beneath, and received into a large divided involu- lets of three alternate pairs unequal and perſiſtent: The
crum : The calyx is a perianthium, conſiſting of three corolla is one-petal'd and unequal; the tubus very ſhort,
leaflets, which are concave, converging, ſmall, and cloſed with a beard; no upper-lip, the under-one very
perſiſtent : Nocorolla: The pill illum has a roundih ger- large, flat, ſtraight, very broad, three-lobed, and ob-
men: the ſtyli are three, branchy, oftener tripartite, tuſe: The ſtamina have four ſubulated filaments ſhor-
and long; the ſtigniata are ſimple : The pericarpiumhas ter than the corolla ; the two ſuperior rather longer,
a roundiſh iriſulcated trilocular capſule, the valvulets recurvate, and incurved at the top; the antheræ are
gaping two ways: The ſeeds are ſolitary, roundiſh, and oblong, compreſled, obtuſe,lateral, parallel, and villous
large.—This genus ranks in the 38th natural order, before: the piſtillnm has a conic germen; a filiform
Tricocca. There are five ſpecies, all natives of Virginia. ftylus, the length of the ſtamina ; and two acute la-
ACAMANTIS (the ancient name of the iſland of teral ſtigmata : The perianthium is an acutely-ovated
Cyprus), taken from one of its promontories ſituated bilocular capſule, with a lateral partition: The feeds
to the weſt, and called Acamas. Teos in Ionia was one or two, flelliy and gibbous.
alſo called thus from Acanius the founder.
Species. 1. The mollis, or common bear's-breech, a
ACAMAS, ACAMANTIS (anc. geog.), the weſt native of Italy, is the ſort that is uſed in medicine, and
promontory of the iſland of Cyprus, from whence it is ſuppoſed to be the mollis acanthus of Virgil; and
took its ancient name: now Cape Pifanio or Epiſanio, the leaves are famous for having given riſe to the
where formerly was a town of the ſame name, now a capital of the Corinthian pillars. 2. The ſpinoſus,
village called Grufocco.
or prickly bear's-breech ; the leaves of which are
ACAMAS, ſon of Theſeus, followed the reſt of the deeply jagged in very regular order, and each ſeg:
Grecian princes to the fiege of Troy; and was deputed, ment is terminated with a ſharp ſpine, as are alſo the
with Diomedes, to the Trojans, in order to get Helen footſtalks of the leaves and the eripaleinent of the flow-
reſtored. Laodice, Priam's daughter, fell in love with er, which renders it troubleſome to handle them. 3. Ili.
him, ſtole a night with him, and had a fon by him call- cifolius, or ſhrubby bear's-breech, grows naturally in
ed Munitus. He was one of the heroes who concealed both the Indies. It is an evergreen ſlirub, which riſes
themſelves in the wooden horſe. One of the tribes of about for feet high; and is divided into many branch-
Athens was called Acamantides from him, by the ap es, garniſhed with leaves like thoſe of the conimon
pointmentof the oracle; and he founded a city in Phry. holly, and armed with ſpines in the fame manner:
gia Major, called Acamantium. Homer mentions the flowers are wbite, and ſhaped like thoſe of the
two other heroes of this name; one a Thracian prince common acanthus, but finaller. 4. The nigra, or
who came to ſuccour Prian, another a ſon of Ante- Portugal bear's-breech, with ſmooth finuated leaves of
a livid green colour, was diſcovered in Portugal by
ACANACEOUS PLANTS, ſuch as are armed with Dr Juſſieu of the royal garden at Paris. 5. The mid-
prickles.
dle bear's-breech, with entire leaves, having ſpines
ACANGIS, that is, Ravagers or Adventurers ; a
,
on their border, is ſuppoſed to be the acanthus of
name which the Turks give their huſfars or light- Dioſcoridesa
Gulture
nor.
I
ACA
A CA
48
1
1
Acarchus Cultura,&c. They are all pere:inial plants. Thefirſt ACARNANIA, the firſt country of Free Greece, carrria
H1 and ſecond ſpecies may be propagated either by feeds, or Greece Proper, bounded on thc weſt by the Sinus
Асаrаина
or by offsets from the roots. The best way is to raiſe Ambracius, and ſeparated from Ætolia by the river ricarus.
them from the ſeeds : which ſhould be ſown about the Achelous on the eaſt, and by the sinus Ambracius
end of March, in a light ſoil. They are beſt dropped from Epirus. The people were called Acaruancs, de-
at diſtances into ſhallow drills, and covered three noting perſons unſhorn ; other Etolians, to the eaſt of
quarters of an inch with mould. When the plants are the Achelous, being called Guretes (Homer) from
come up, the ſtrongest ſhould be marked, and the reſt being ſhorn. According to Lucian, they were noted
should be pulled up, that they may ſtand at a yard di- for effeminancy and incontinence; hence the proverb,
ſiurce one from another. They require no other cul- Porcellus Acarnanius,
Porcellus Acarnanius. This country was famous for
ture but to keep them clear írom veeds. The third,
an excellent breed of horſes ; fothal A x G PUIXOS ITT Qu, is
fourth, and fifth forts, are propagated only by ſeeds ; a proverbial ſaying for a thing excellent in its kind.
which, as they do not ripen in Europe, inuil be op. It is now called la Garniæ and il Deſpotato.
tained from the places in which they grow ilaturally: ACARON, or ACCARON, a town of Paleſine, call-
the plants are ſo tender, that they cannot be preſer- ed Ekron in fcripture. It was the boundary of the Phi-
ved out of the ſtove in northern countries. The firſt liſtines to the north; ſtood at ſome diſtance froni the
fpecies is the fort uſed in medicine. All the parts of it ſea, near Bethſliemeth ; and was famous for the idol of
have a foſt fiveetith taſte, and abound with a mucilagin?- Baalzebub.
o'is juice : its virtues do not ſeein to differ from thoſe ACARUS, the Tick or MITE, a genus of inſects
of althea and other mucilaginous plants.
belonging to the order of aptera, or ſuch as have no
ACANTHUS,in architecture, an ornament repreſent. wings. The acarus has eight legs; two eyes, one on
ing the leaves of the acanthus, uſed in the capitals of each ſide of the head ; and two jointed tentacula. The
the Corinthian and Compoſite orders.
female is oviparous. Linnæus enumerates 35 ſpecies;
ACAPULCO, a conliderable town and port in of which ſome are inhabitants of the earth, ſome of
Mexico, on the South Sea. It has a fine harbour, from waters ; ſome live on trees, others among ſtones, and
whence a ſhip annually fails to Manila in the Philip- others on the bodies of other animals, and even under
pine iſlands, near the coaſt of China in Alia ; and an their ſkin. The deſcription of a few of the moſt re-
other returns annually from thence with all the trea niarkable will here ſuffice.
ſures of the caſt Indies, ſuch as diamonds, rabies, ſap 1. The firo, or cheeſe-mite, is a very minate ſpecies.
phires, and other precious ſtones; the rich carpets of To the naked eye, theſe mites appear like moving par-
Perſia; the camphire of Borneo; the benjamin and ticles of duſt but the microſcope diſcovers then to
ivory of Pegu and Cambodia, the filks, muflins, and be perfect animals, having as regular a figure, and per-
calicoes, of the Mogul's country; the gold-duſt, tea, forming all the functions of life as perfectly, as crea-
china-ware, lilk, and cabinets, of China and Japan ; tures that exceed them many times in bulk. The prin-
belides cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper; cipal parts of them are the head, the neck, and the
inſomuch that this ſingle thip contains inore riches than body. The head is ſmall in proportion to the body ;
many whole fleets. The goods brought to Acapulco and has a Niarp ſnout, and a mouth that opens and thuts
are caried to the city of Mexico by mules and pack- like a mole's. They have two ſmall eyes, and are ex-
horſes ; and from thence to Vera Cruz on the North tremely quickfighted; and when they have been once
Sea, in order to be ſhipped for Europe. Acapulco itſelf touched with a pin, you may ealily perceive how cnn-
is a ſmall place, couliſting about 2 or 300 thatched ningly they avoid a ſecond touch. Their legs are cach
houſes. Ships arrive at the port by two inlets, ſepa- furniſhed at the extremity with two little claws, with
rated froin each other by a ſinall iiland : the entrance which the aniinal very nicely takes hold of any thing.
into them in the day-time is by means of a fea-breeze, The hinder part of the body is plump and bulky; and
as the failing out in the night-time is effected by a ends in an oval form, from which there iſſue out a few
land-brceze. A wretched fort, 42 pieces of cannon, exceeding long hairs. Other parts of the body are
and a garriſon of 60 men, defend it. It is equally ex alſo beſet with thin and long hairs. The males and
tenſive, fare, and coinmodious. The hafon which con females are ealily diſtinguiſhed in theſe little animals.
fitutes this harborir is ſurrounded by lofty mountains, The females are oviparous, as the lonſe and ſpider ;
which are ſo dry, that they are even deftitute of water. and from their eggs the young are hatched in their
The air liere is liot, heavy, and unwholeſome ; to proper form, without having any change to undergo
which none can habituate themſelves, except certain afterwards. They are, however, when firſt hatched,
negroes that are born under a ſimilar climate, or ſome extremely minute ; and, in their growing to their full
mulattoes. This feeble and miſerable colony is crow ſize, they caſt their ſkins ſeveral times. Thcſe little
ded with a vaſt acceſſion to its numbers upon the arri creatures may be kept alive many months between two
val of the galleons ; traders flocking here from all the concave glaſſes, and applied to thic inicroſcope at plea-
provinces of Mexico, who come to exchange European ſure. They are thus often ſeen in coitu, conjoined tail
437,500l toys, their own cochineal, and about ten millions* of to tail ; and this is performed by an incredibly ſwift
Sterling tilver for fpices, mullins, printed liuens, ſilk, per- motion. Their eggs, in warm weather, hatch in 12
fumes, ant the gold works of Aſia, W. Long. 102. or 14 days; but in winter they are much longer.
29. N. Lat. 17. 30.
Theſe eggs are lo ſmall, that a regular computation
ACARAI, a town of Paragray in South America, ſhows, that 90 millions of them are not ſo large as a
built by the felnits in 1624. Long 116. 40. S. lat, 26'. conimon pigeon's egg*. They are very voracious ani- * Baker's
ACARAÚNA, a finall American fifa, called by mals, and have often been ſeen to eat one another. Microſcopes
our ſailors too old-wifi. See LA BRUS.
Their manner of eating is by thruſing alternately one p. 187.
3
jaw
ACA
[ 49 ]
ACA
il
Acarus. jaw forward and the other backward, and in this man ſhining, and gloſſy ; and the whole animal feems di. Acaras
ner grinding their food ; and after they have done ftended, and ready to burit; the colour is a brighi
feeding, they ſeem to chew the cud. There are ſe- red, but a little duſkier on the ſides than ellewhere : Acarcry.
veral varieties of this ſpecies found in different ſub. the head is very ſmall, and the legs ſhort ; there is on
ſtances beſides chceſe ; as ili malt-duſt, flour, oalmeal, each ſide a ſinall duſky ſpol near the thorax, and a few
&c. Thoſe in nialt-duſt and oat-meal are much nimbler hạirs grow from different parts of the body. It is ve-
than the cheeſe-mites, and have more and longer hairs. ry common on trees, particularly on the currant, on
There are alſo a ſort of wandering mites, which range the fruit of which we frequently ſee it running.
wherever there is any thing they can feed on : They 9. The longicornis, or red ſtone-acarus, is very
are often ſeen in the form of a white duſt, and are not ſmall, and of a bright red colour ; the body is round,
ſuſpected to be living creatures.—The mite is called and diſtended; the head is very ſmall and pointed;
by authors, ſimply, Acarus. It is an animal very tena the legs are moderately long, and of a paler red than
cious of life, and will live months without food. Mr the body : the antennæ are much longer than in any
+ Arcan. Lewenhoek t had one which lived 11 weeks on the otlier ſpecies. It is frequent about old ſtone-walls and
Nat. ton.. point of a pin, on which he had fixed it for examining on rocks, and runs very niinbly. See Plate I.
iv. p. 368. by his microſcope.
10. The aquaticus is a ſmall ſpecies: the body is of
2. The ſanguiſugus. The hinder part of the abdo a figure approaching to an oval, and the back appears
men is crenated, the ſcuttellum is oval and yellowilh, depreſſed; it is of a bright and ſtrong ſcarlet colour. .
and the beak is trifid. It is a native of America, and The head is ſmall ; the legs are moderately long and
ſticks ſo faſt on the legs of travellers, ſucking their firm, and are of a paler red than the body. It is com-
blood, that they can hardly be extracted.
mon in hallow waters, where it runs very ſwiftly along
3. The telarius is of a greeniſh yellow colour. It the bottom. Its diminutiveneſs hinders the beauty of
has a ſmall ſting or weapon, with which it wounds the its colours from being perceived, as they are not diſ-
leaves of plants, and occaſions them to fold backward. cernible without the microſcope.
They are very frequently to be met with in the autumn, 11. The holoſericeas is a ſmall ſpecies: its body is
incloſed in the folded leaves of the lime-tree.
roundiſh, but a little approaching to oval; the back
4. The exulcerans, or itch-acarus, is a very ſmall ſomewhat depreſſed: it is of a fine ſcarlet colour, and
ſpecies : its body is of a figure approaching to oval, covered with a velvety down. The head is very ſmail;
and lobated; the head is ſmall and pointed; its colour is the eyes are two, and very ſmall; the legs are ſhort
whitiſh, but it has two duſky ſemicircular lines on the and of a paler red, and there is a ſmall black ſpot near
back. It has long ſetaceous legs, but the two firſt are the inſertion of the anterior ones. It is very common
ſhort. It is found in the puſțules of the itch : authors in under the ſurface of the earth, and ſometimes on herbs
general have ſuppoſed that it cauſes that diſeaſe ; but and among hay. It is ſuppoſed to be poiſonous if
others obſerve, that if this were ſo, it would be found ſwallowed; but we do not ſeem to have any certain
more univerſally in thoſe puſtules. It is more proba- account of ſuch an effect.
ble that theſe only make a proper nidus for it. See, 12. The longpipes is the largeſt of the acarus kind :
however, the article ITCH.
its body is roundiſh, of a duſky brown on the back,
5. The batatas is of a blood-colour, and a little with a duſkier ſpot of a rhomboidal figure near the
rough ; the fore pair of legs are as long as the body. middle of it; the belly is whitih; the legs are ex-
It inhabits the potatoes of Surinam.
tremely long and ſlender. On the back part of the
6. The ovinus, or ſheep-rick, has a flat body, of a head there ſtands a little eminence, which has on it a
roundiſh figure, but ſomewhat approaching to oval, kind of double creſt, formed as it were of a number of
and of a yellowiſh white colour, and has a ſingle large ininute Ipines : the eyes are ſmall and black, and are
round ſpot on the back: the anus is viſible in the lower two in number. It is very comnion in paſtures
part of the body; the thorax is ſcarce conſpicuous ; towards the end of ſummer. Ray and Liſter call it
the head is very ſmall and black; the mouth is bifid : araneus cruſtatus longpipes ; Mouffet, arneus long-
the antennæ are of a clavaged figure, and of the length pipes; and, notwithſtanding its having but two eyes,
of the ſnout; the legs are ſhort and black.
and black. It is com it has been almoſt univerſally ranked among the ſpi-
mon on ſheep, and its excrements ſtain the wool green: ders.
it will live in the wool many months after it is ſhorn ACASTUS, in claſſic hiſtory, the ſon of Pelias king
from the animal.
of Theſſaly, and one of the moſt famous hunters of his
7. The coleoptratorum, or acarus of inſects, is ex- time, married Hippolyta, who falling deſperately in
tremely minute : its body is round, reddiſh, and cover- love with Peleus her ſon-in-law, and he reſuling to gra-
ed with a firm and hard ſkin ; the head is very ſmall, tify her wiſhes, the accuſed him to her huſband of a
the neck ſcarce viſible; the legs are moderately long, rape ; on which he flew them both.
the anterior pair longer than the others; it has a white ACATALECTIC, a term, in the ancient poetry,
neſs about the anus. It is frequent on the bodies of for ſuch verſes as have all their feet or fyllables, in
many inſects, which it infefts, as the loufe does others; contradiſtin&tion to thoſe that have a fyllable too few.
it runs very ſwiftly: the humble bee, and many other ACATALEPSY, fignifies the impoſſibility of com-
of the larger inſects, are continually infeſted with it; prehending ſomething.---The diſtinguiſhing tenet of
but none ſo much as the common black beetle, which the Pyrrhoniſts was their aſſerting an abſolute acata-
has thence been called the louſy beetle.
lepſy in regard to every thing.
8. The baccarum, or ſcarlet tree-mite, is a ſmall ACATERY, or ACCATRY, anciently an officer of
ſpecies: its body is roundilli, and the back not at all the king's houſehold, deſigned for a check betwixt the
flatted, as it is in many others ; the ſkin is Imooth, clerks of the kitchen and the
purşeyors.
VoL, I.
G
АСА.
ACC
50 ]
ACC
↑
tion.
It was
Acutharfia ACATHARİSIA, in medicine, an impurity of the Suppoſe a body let fall from on high : the primary Accelera
1 blood or huniours.
cauſe of its beginning to deſcend is doubtleſs thepower
tion,
Accelera-
ACATHISTUS, the name of a folemn hymn an of gravity ; but when once the deſcent is commenced,
ciently ſung in the Greek church on the Saturday of that ſtate becomes in ſome nicaſure natural to the bo-
the fifth week of Lent, in honour of the Virgin, for dy; ſo that if left to itſelf, it would perſevere in it
having thrice delivered Conſtantinople from the inva for ever, even though the firſt cauſe ſhould ceaſe: as
jions of the barbarous nations.
we ſee in a ſtone caſt with the hand, which continnes
ACATIUM, in the ancient navigation, a kind of to move after it is left by the cauſe that gave it mo-
boat or pinnace uſed for military purpoſes. The aca tion. But, beſide the propenſity to deſcend impreſſed
I!!!1n was a ſpecies of thoſe veſſels called naves actua by the firſt cauſe, and which of itſelf were ſufficient
ria, i. e. ſuch as were wrought with oars.
to continue the ſame degree of inotion, once begun,
funnetiines made uſe of in battle. Strabo deſcribes
Strabo deſcribes in infinitum ; there is a conſtant acceſſion of fubfcuent
it as a privateer or private ſloop.
efforts of the ſame principle, gravity, which continues
ACAULIS, in botany, a term applied to certain to act on the body already in motion, in the ſame man-
plants, the flowers of which have no pedicule or ſtalk ner as if it were at reſt. Here, then, being a double
to l'ipport them, but reſt immediately on the ground, cauſe of motion ; and both acting in the ſame direc-
ſuch as the carline thiſtle, &c.
tion, viz. directly towards the centre of the earth; the
ACCA (St), biſhop of Haguftaldt, or Hexham, in motion they joinily produce muft neceſſarily be greater
Northumberland, ſucceeded Wilfrid in that ſee in 709. than that of any one of them. And the velocity thus
Ile ornamented his cathedral in a moſt magnificent increaſed having the ſame cauſe of increaſe ſtill per-
manner : he furniſhed it alſo with plate and holy veſt- fiſting, the deſcent muſt neceſſarily be continually ac-
ments; and erected a noble library, conſiſting chiefly celerated.
of eccleſiaſtical learning, and a large collection of the The motion of a body aſcending, or impelled up:
lives of the ſaints, which he was at great pains to pro- wards, is diminiſhed or retarded from the fame prin: -
cure.- He was accounted a very able divine, and was ciple of gravity, acting in a contrary direction, in the
famous for his ſkill in church-muſic. He wrote ſeveral ſame manner as a falling body is accelerated : See RE-
pieces : particularly, Paſiones San&torum, the Suffer TARDATION. A body thus projected upwards, riſes till
ings of the Saints: Pro illuftrandis fcripturis, ad Be it has loſt all its motion : which it does in the ſame
dam; for explaining the ſcriptures, addreſſed to Bede. time that a body falling would have acquired a veloci-
He died in 740, having enjoyed the ſec of Hexham 31 ty equal to that wherewith the body was thrown up..
years, under Egbert king of the Northumbrians. Hence the ſame body thrown up, will riſe to the
ACCALIA, in Roman antiquity, ſolemn feſtivals "fanie height from which falling it would have acquired
held in honour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus's nurſe : the velocity wherewith it was thrown up : And hence
they were otherwiſe called LAURENTALIA.
the heights which bodies thrown up with different
ACCAPITARE, in law, the act of becoming vaf velocities do aſcend to, are to one another as the
ſal of alord, or of yielding himn homage and obedience. ſquares of thoſe velocities.
Hence,
ACCELERATION of Bodies of inclined Planes. The ſame ·
ACCAPITUM, ſignifies the money paid by a vaſſal general law obtains here as in bodies falling perpendi-
upon his admiſſion to a feu.
cularly : the effect of the plane is to make the inotion
ACCAPITUM, in ancient law, was uſed alſo to Nower; but the inclination being every where equal,
expreſs the relief due to the chief lord. See RELIEF. the retardation ariſing therefrom will proceed equally
ACCEDAS AD CURIAM, in the Engliſh law, a in all parts, at the beginning and at the ending of the
writ lying, where a man has received, or fears, falſe motion. See MECHANICS.
judgment in an inferior court. It lies alſo for juſtice ACCELERATION of the Motion of Pendulums-Themo-
delayed, and is a ſpecies of the writ RECORDARE, tion of pendulous bodies is accelerated in their de-
ACCELERATION, in mechanics, the increaſe of fcent; but in a leſs ratio than that of bodies falling
velocity in a moving body. Accelerated motion is that perpendicularly. See MECHANICS and PENDULUM.
which continually receives freſh acceſſions of yetocity. Acceleration of the Motion of Projectiles. See PRO..
Acceleration ſtands directly oppoſed to retardation, JECTILE.
which denotes a diminution of velocity.
ACCELERATION is alſo applied in the ancient aſtro-
ACCELERATION is chiefly uſed in phyfics, in re nomy, in reſpect of the fixed ſtars. This acceleration
ſpect of falling bodies, i, e, of heavy bodies tending to was the difference between the revolution of the pri-
wards the centre of the earth by the force of gravity. mum mobile and the folar: revolution; which was com-
That natural bodies are accelerated in their deſcent, is puted at three minutes and 56 ſeconds.
evident from various conſiderations, both a priori and ACCELERATION of the Moon, a:term ufcd to expreſs
pofteriori. Thus, we actually find, that the greater the increaſe of the moon's mean motion from the ſun,
height a body falís from, the greater impreſſion it compared with the diurnal motion of the earth; ſo that
makes, and the more vehemently does it ſtrike the ſub it is now a little ſwifter than it was formerly. Dr Hal-
ject plane, or other obſtacle.
ley was the firſt who made this diſcovery; and he was
Various were the ſyſtems and opinions which philo- led to it by comparing the ancient cclipſes obſerved at
ſophers produced to account for this acceleration. But Babylon with thoſe obſerved by Albatennius in the
the immediate cauſe of acceleration is now ſufficiently ninth century, and fonie of his own time. He was
obvious; the principle of gravitation, which dcter not able to aſcertain the quantity of this acceleration,
mines the body lo deſcend, determining it to be acce becauſe the longitudes of Bagdad, Alexandria, and
lerated by a neceffary conſequence.
Aleppo, where the obſervations were made, had nor
been
1
1
tion
Accent.
1
*
ACC
[ 51 ]
Асс
Acecleraó been accurately determined. But fiace his time, the manuſcript, accendones. Aquinas adheres to the fur- Accenfi
longitude of Alexandria has been aſcertained by Cha- mer, Pitiſcus to the latter. The origin of the word,
! zelles; and Babylon), according to Ptolemy's account, ſuppoſing it accendones, is from accendo, I kindle ; fup-
Accendoncs lies 50' eaſt from Alexandria. From theſe data, Mr poling it accedones, from accedo, I accede, am added to.
Dunthorne compared ſeveral ancient and modern eclip- The former places their diſtinguishing characlerin en.
ſes, with the calculations of them, by his own tables,and livening the combat by their exhortations and ſugge.
hereby verified Dr Halley's opinion ; for he found that ſtions ; the latter fuppoſes them to be much the lane
the ſame tables repreſent the moon's place more back with what among us are called ſeconds, among the lta-
ward than her trųe place in ancient eclipſes, and more lians, patroni : excepting that theſe latter only ſtand by
forward than her trueplace in later eclipſes; and thence to ſee the laws of the ſword duly obſerved, without in-
jaſtly inferred, that her motion in ancient times was termeddling to give advice or inſtruction.
ilower ; in later times quicker, than the tables give it. ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain ſupernu-
But he did not content himſelf with merely aſcertain merary ſoldiers, deligned to ſupply the places of thoſe
ing the fact ; he proceeded to determine the quantity who ſhould be killed or anywiſe diſabled. They were
of the acceleration ; and by means of the moſt ancient thus denominated, quia accenfebantur, or ad c. 1.fun12
eclipſe of which any authentic account remains, ob- adjiciebantur. Vegetius calls them fupernumerarii le-
ſerved at Babylon in the year before Chrif 721, he gionum: Cato calls thein ferentarii, in regard they
concluded, that the obſerved beginning of this eclipte furniſhed thoſe engaged in battle with weapons, drink,
was not above an hour and three-quarters before the &c. Though Nonnius ſuggeſts another reaſon of that
beginning by the tables; and therefore the moon's true appellation, viz. becauſe they fought with ſtones,flings,
place could precede her place by computation but little and weapons quæ ferruntur, ſuch as are thrown, not
more than 50' of a degree at that time. Adnitting carried in the hand. They were ſometinies alſo called
the acceleration to be uniform, and the aggregate of velitis, and velati, becauſe they fought clothed, but not
it as a ſquare of the time, it will be at the rate of in armour ; ſometimes adfcripticii, and adſcriptivi ;
about 10 in 100 years.
ſometimest rorarii. The accenſi, Livy obſerves, were
Dr. Long attributes the acceleration above deſcribed placed at the rear of the army, becauſe no great mat-
to one or more of theſe cauſes : either. 1. The annual ter was expected from them : they were taken out of
and diurnal motion of the earth continuing the ſame, the fifth claſs of citizens.
the moon is really carried round the earth with a great ACCENSI, in antiquity, denotes an inferior order of
er velocity than heretofore: or, 2. The diurnal motion officers, appointed to attend the Romau magiſtrates,
of the earth and the periodical revolutions of the moon ſomewhat in the manner of uſhers, ſerjeants, or.tip-
continuing the ſame, the annual motion of the earth ſtaves among us.
ſtaves among us. They were thus called froni accire,
round the ſun is a little retarded; which makes the to ſend for ; one part of their office being to call aſſen-
(un's apparent motion in the ecliptic a little flower blies of the people, fummon parties to appear and an-
than formerly, and conſequently, the moon in pafling ſwer before the judges, &c.
froin any conjunction with the ſun, ſpends leſs time ACCENSI,was alſo an appellation given to a kind of
before ſhe again overtakes the ſun, and forms a ſubſe- adjutants, appointed by the tribune to aſſiſt each cena
quent conjunction : in both theſe caſes, the motion of turion and decurion. In which ſenſe, accenfus is fyno.
the moon from the ſun is really accelerated, and the nymous with optio. In an ancient inſcription, given
fynodical month actually ſhortened. Or, 3. The annual by á Torre, we meet AccensUS EQUITUM ROMANO-
motion of the earth, and the periodical revolution of RUM: an office no where elſe heard of. That author
the moon continuing the ſame, the rotation of the ſuſpects it for a corruption; and iuſtead thereof reads
earth round its axis is a little retarded : in this caſe
days, hours, minutes, ſeconds, &c. by which all periods ACCENSION, the action of ſetting a body on fire ;
of time muſt be meaſured, are of a longer duration ; thus the accenſion of tinder is effected by ſtriking fire
and conſequently the fynodical mouth will appear to with flint and ſteel.
be ſhortened, though it really contains the ſame quan ACCENT, in reading or ſpeaking, an inflection of
tity of abſolute time as it always did. If the quantity the voice, which gives to each ſyllable of a word its
of matter in the body of the ſun be leſſened by the due pitch in refpect of height or lowneſs. See READ-
particles of light continually ſtreaming from it, the ING. The word is originally Latin, accentus: a com-
motion of the earth round the fun may become flower: pound of ad, to ; and cano, to ling. Accentus, quafi,
if the earth increaſes in bulk, the motion of the moon adcantus, or juxta cantun. In this ſenſe, accent is fy-
round the earth may be quickened thereby. See A. nonymous with the Greek Tovos ; the Latin tenor, or
tonzor ; and the Hebrew wyn, guſtus, taſte.-For the
ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two doctrine of Accents in Compoſition, ſee Poetry, Part III.
muſcles of the penis, which ſerve for ejecting the urine Nº 103. 114.
or femen. See ANATOMY, Table of the Muſcles. Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of miniſters in character placed over a ſyllable, to direct the ſtreſs of
the Romiſh church, whoſe office is to light and trim its pronunciation. We generally reckon three gram-
the candles.
matical accents in ordinary uſe, all borrowed from the
ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of Greeks, viz. the acute accent, ('), which ſhows when
gladiators, whoſe office was to excite and animate the the tone of the voice is to be raiſed. The grave aca
combatants during the engagement. The orthogra- cent ("), when the note or tone of the voice is to be
phy of the word is conteſted: the firſt edition of Ter- depreſſed. The circumflex accent (or ^), is compoſed
tullian, by Rhenanus, has it accedones; an ancient of both the acute and the grave, and points out a kind
of
ACCENSIBUS,
.
STRONOMY.
G 2
ACC
[52]
ACC
Accent
tion.
މް
Accent. of undulation of the voice. The Latins have made the owing to the different pronunciation which obtained in
ſame uſe of thcfe thrce accents.
the different parts of Greece. He brings ſeveral reaſons,
The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and à priori, for theuſe of accents, even in the earlieſt days: Accepta-
muſical accent: though the firſt and laſt feeni, in effect, as that they then wrote all in capital letters equidiſtant
to be the ſame ; both being comprited under the ge- froin cach other, without any diſtinction either of words
neral name of t07ic accents, becauſe they give the pro or phraſes, which without accents could ſcarce be in-
per tone to fyllables; as the rhetorical accents are ſaid telligible ; and that accents were neceflaryto diſtinguiſh
to be euphonic, becauſe they tend to make the ambiguous words, and to point out their proper
mean-
pronunciation more ſweet and agreeable. There are ing; which he contirms from a diſpute on a paſſage in
four euphonic accents, and 25 tonic ; of which fome Homer, inentioned by Ariſtotle in his Poetics, chap.v.
are placed above, and others below the ſyllables; the Accordingly, he obſerves, that the Syrians, who have
Hebrew accents ferving not only to regulate the riſings tonic, but no diſtinctive accents, have yet invented cer-
and fallings of the voice, but alſo to diſinguiſh the tain points, placed either below or above the words, to
feftions,periods, and numbers ofperiods, in a diſcourſe; fhow their mood, tenſe, perſon, or ſcnſe.
and to anſwer the ſame purpoſes with the points in The uſe of accents, to prevent ambiguities, is moſt
other languages. Their accents are divided into ein remarkably perceived in ſome eaſtern languages, par-
perors, kings, dukes, &c. each bearing a title anſwer- ticularly the Siameſe and Chineſe. Ainong the peo-
able to thicimportance of the diſtinction it makes. Their ple of China, every word, or (which is the ſame thing)
emperor rules over a whole phraſe, and terminates the ſyllable,adınits of five accents, as ſpoken more acurately
ſenſe completely ; anſwering to our point. Their king or remiſsly; and thus ſtands for many different things.
anſwers to our colon ; and their duke to our comma. The ſame found ya, according to the accent affixed to
The king, however, occaſionally becomes a duke, and it, fignifies God, a wall, excellent, ſtupidity, and a
the duke a king, as the phraſes are more or leſs fort. gooſe. The Chineſe have but 330 fpoken words in their
It muſt be noted, by the way, that the management language; but theſe being multiplied by the different
and combination of theſe accents differ in Hebrew accents or tones, which affect the vowels, furniſh a
poetry from what they are in proſe. The uſe of the to- language tolerably copious. By means hereof, their
nicor grammatical accents has been much controver 330 ſimple founds conie to denote 1650 things; but
ted : fome holding that they diſtinguiſh the ſenſe ; this being hardly ſufficient, they are encreaſed further
while others maintain that they are only intended to by aſpirates added to each word to double the number.
regulate the muſic, or ſinging ; alleging that the Jews The Chineſe only reckon four accents: for which the
fing, rather than read, the ſcriptures in their fyna- miſſionaries uſe the following marks, aa, á, à, ä; to
* Cooper, gogues*. Be this, however, as it will, it is certain the which they have added a fifth, thus, ã. They made a
Doin. Mo- ancient Hebrews were not acquainted with theſe ac kind of modulation; wherein, prolonging the duration
faiac. Clav.cents. The opinion which prevails amongſt the learn of the ſound of the vowel, they vary the tone, railing
cd, is that they were invented about the ſixth century, and ſinking it by a certain pitch of voice: ſo that their
by the Jewiſh doctors of the ſchool of Tiberias, called talking is a ſort of nulic or ſinging. Attempts have
the Mafforetes,
been made to determine the quantity of the riſe or fall in
As to the Greek accents, now ſeen both in manu each accent by means of mulical notes ; but this is hard
fcripts and printed books, there has been no leſs diſ to cffect, as being different in different perſons. Hence
pate about their antiquity and uſe than about thoſe of the great difficulty of the language to foreigners; they
the Hebrews. Iſaac Voſſius endeavours to prove them are forced to fing moſt ſcrupulouſy: if they deviate
of modern invention; aſſerting, that anciently they had ever ſo litile from the accent, they ſay quite a diffe-
nothing of the kind, but only a few notes in their po rent thing from what was intended. Thus, meaning
etry, which were invented by Ariſtophanes the gram to compliment the perſon you are talking to with the
marian, about the time of Ptolemy Philopater; and title Sir, you call him a beaſt with the ſame word,
that theſe wereof muſical,rather than grammatical uſe, only a little varied in the tone. Magalhon makes the
ferving as aids in the finging of their poems, and very langnage the eaſier to learn on this account.--The
different from thoſe introduced afterwards. He alſo Siameſe are alſo obſerved to fing rather than talk.
ſhows from ſeveralancient grammarians, that the man Their alphabet begins with ſix characters, all only
nerof writing the Greek accerts in theſe days was quite equivalent to a K, but differently accented. For thó
different from that which appears in our books. The au in the pronunciation the accents are naturally on the
thorof La Methode Greque,p.546,0bferves, that the right vowels, yet they have ſome to diverſify ſuch of their
pronunciation of the Greek language being natural to conſonants as are in other reſpects the ſame.
'the Greeks, it was needleſs for them to mark it by ac ACCENT, in muſic, is a certain enforcement of par-
cents in their writings : ſo that, according to all ap- ticular founds, whether by the voice or inſtruments,
pearance, they only began to make uſe of them fo low generally uſed at the beginning of bars.
as the time in which the Romans, being curious to ACCEPTANCE,in law,a perſon's agreeing to offers
learn the Greek tongue, ſent their children to ſtudy at made in bargaining, by which the bargain is concluded.
Athens, thinking thereby to fix the pronunciation; and ACCEPTANCE, in the church of Rome, is put for
to facilitatcit toſtrangers; which happened, as the ſame receiving the pope's conſtitutions.
autlior obſervcs,a little before Cicero's time. Wetſtein, Acceptance, in commerce, is the ſubſcribing,
Greek profeſſor at Bafil, in a learned differtation, en. figning, and making one's ſelf debtor for the ſum con-
deavours to prove the Greek accents of an older ſtand tained in a bill of exchange or other obligation.
ing. He owns that they were not always formed in the ACCEPTATION, in grammar, the ſenſe or mean-
ſame manner by the ancients; but thinks that difference ing wherein any word is taken.
ACCEP.
P. 31.
A CC
[ 53
Асс
1
Accepter
Acce ory.
7
ACCEPTER, or ACCEPTOR, the perſon who ac- gain with the par vagum, wrapped up in the ſame Acceſſory
cepis a Bill of exchange, &c.
common integumeni, and after quitting them, are di-
ACCEP TILATION, among civilians, an acquit- ſtributed into the muſcles of the neck and ſhoulders. Accident.
tance or diſcharze given by the creditor to the debtor See ANATOMY,
without the payment of any value.
ACCESSORY, among painters, an epithet given to
ACCESSIBLE, ſomething that may be approach- ſuch parts of an hiſtory-piece as ſerve chicíly for or-
ed, or that acceſs may bc had to. Thus we ſay, Such nament, and might have been wholly left out : ſuch
a place is accellible on one ſide, &c.
as vafes, arinour, &c.
ACCESSION, in law, is a method of acquiring ACCI, (anc. geog.) a town of Tarraconenſis, for-
property, by which, in things that have a cloſe connec- merly called Atto; ſuppoſed to be Guadix, to the east
tion or dependence upon one another, the property of of the city of Granada, at the foot of a mountain, near
the principal thing draws after it the property of the the ſource of the rivulet Guadalantin ; now greatly de-
acceſſory: Thus, the owner of a cow becomes like cayed. It is the Colonia Accitania Gemella, ani was
wiſe the owner of the calf. It ſometimes likewiſe ſig- of ſome repute among the Ronan colonies. The peo-
nifies conſent or acquieſcence.
ple were called Gemellenſes, becauſe the colouy con-
ACCESSION, anong phyſicians, is uſed for a pa- liſted of coloniſts from the third and ſixth legions.
roxyſin of a diſeaſe ; among politicians, it fignines a ACCIAIOLI (Donata), a man famous for his learn-
prince's ſucceeding to the government upon the death ing and the honourable employments he poifelled in
of his predecefior,
Florence his native country, in the 15th century. He
ACCESSORY, or ACCESSARY, ſomething that ac wrote, A Latin tranſlation of ſonie of Plutarch's Lives;
cedes, or is added to another more conſiderable thing; Commentaries on Ariſtotle's Ethics and Politics ; and
in which ſenſe the word ſtands oppoſed to PRINCIPAL. the life of Charlemagne. He was ſent to France by
Accessorr, or Acceſſary, in common law, is chiefly the Florentines, to lue for ſuccour from Levis XI.
uſed for a perſon guilty of a felonious offence, not prin- againſt Pope Sextas IV. but on bis journey died at
cipally, but by participation : as, by advice, command, Milan ; his body was carried to Florence, and buried in
or concealment.
the church of the Carthulians. The ſmall fortune he left
There are two kinds of acceſſories : before the fact, his children is a proof of his probity and diſintereſted-
and after it. The firſt is he who commands, or pro- neſs. His daughters, like thoſe of Ariſtides, were
cures another to commit felony, and is not preſent him- married at the public expence, as an acknowledgement
felf; for if he be preſent, he is a principal. The fee of his ſervices. His funeral eulogium was ſpoken by
sond is he who receives, affifts, or comforts any man Chriflopher Landini ; and an elegant epitaph, by Poli-
that has done murder, or felony, whereof he has know- tion, was inſcribed on his tomb.
lcdge. A man may be alſo acceſſory to an acceſſory, ACCIDENT, in a general ſenſe, denotes any ca-
by aiding, receiving, &c. an acceſſory in felony. ſual accident.
An acceſſory in felony ſhall have judgment of life Accident, among logicians, is uſed in a threefold
and member, as well as the principal who did the fe. ſenſe. 1. Whatever does not eſſentially belong to a
lony; but not till the principal be firſt attainted, and thing; as the clothes a man wears, or the money in his
conviet, or outlawed thereon. Where the principal is pocket. 2. Such properties in any ſubject as are not
pardoned without attainder, the acceſſory cannot be eſſential to it; thus whiteneſs in paper is an acci-
arraigned; it being a niaxim in law, Ubi non eft prin- dental quality. 3. In opposition to ſubitance, all qua-
cipalis, non poteft cffe accellarius: but if the principal lities whatever are called accidents; as ſweetneſs, foít-
be pardoned, or have his clergy after attainder, the ac- neſs, &c.
ceffory ſhall be arraigned ; 4 and 5 W. et M. cap. 4. ACCIDENT, in grammar, implies a property attach.
And by ſtat. 1 Anne, cap. 9. it is enacted, that where ed to a word, without entering into its eflential defini-
the principal is convicted of felony, or ſtands mute, or lion ; for every word, notwithſtanding its fignifica-
challenges above 20 of the jury, it ſhall be lawful to tion, will be either primitive, derivative, ſimple, or
proceed againſt the acceſſory in the ſame manner as if compound, which are the accidents of words. A
the principal had been attainted; and notwithſtanding word is ſaid to be primitive, when it is taken from no
ſuch principal fhall be admitted to his clergy,pardoned, other word in the language in which it is uſed: thus
or delivered before attainder. In ſome caſes only, if
In ſome caſes only, if heaven, king, good, are primitive words. It is ſaid to
the principal cannot be taken, then the acceſſory may be derivative, when it is taken from ſome other word:
be proſecuted for a miſdemeanour, and punished by thus heavenly, kingdom, goodneſs, &c. are derivatives,
fine, impriſonment, &c. In the loweſt and higheſt A ſimple word is eaſily diſtinguiſhed froni a compound:
offences there are no acceſſories, but all are principals: thus juſt, juſtice, are ſimple words ; unjuft, injuſtice,
as in riots, routs, forcible entries, and other treſpaſſes, are compound : res is a ſimple word, as well as publica;
which are the loweſt offences. So alſo in the higheſt but reſpublica is a compound. Beſides theſe accidents,
offence, which is, according to the Engliſh law, high which are common to all ſorts of words, each particu.
treaſon, there are no acceſſories.
lar ſpecies has its accidents: thus the accidents of the
Acceſſories, in petty treaſon, murder, and in felonies noun ſubſtantive are the gender, declenſion, and nuin-
of ſeveral kinds, are not to have their clergy. There ber; and the adjective has another accident,namely,the
can be no acceſſory before the fact in mantlaughter; compariſon. See the articleGRAMMAR and LANGUAGE.
becauſe that is ſudden and unprepenfed.
ACCIDENT, in heraldry, an additional point or mark
ACCESSORY Nerves, in anatomy, a pair of nerves, in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re-
which, ariſing from the medulla in the vertebræ of the tained without altering the eſſence of the armour; ſuch
neck, aſcend, and enter the ſkull, and paſs out of it a. as, abatenent, difference, and tincture.
ACCI .
A CC
i 54 ]
A CC
OVID,
.
Accidental, ACCIDENTAL, in a general ſenſe, iinplies fome- panies of fiſhermen, ſome of which are rented for fix Accipiter
Accipenſer. thing that happens by accident, or that is not ellential thouſand guilders,near three hundred pounds,per ann.
-- to its ſubject.
They are found in vaſt abundance in the American ri- Accius.
ACCIDENTAL, in philoſophy, is applied to that ef vers in May, June, and July; at which time they leap
fect which Hows from ſome cauſe intervening by acci- fome yards out of the water, and, falling on their ſides,
dent, without being ſubject, or at leaſt without any make a noiſe to be heard in ſtill weather at a great
appearance of its being ſubject, to general laws or regu- diſtance. Caviare is made of the roes of this, and alſo
lar returns. In this ſenſe, accident is oppoſed to confiant of all the other ſorts of ſturgeons, dried, ſalted, and
and principal. Thus the ſun's place is, with reſpect to pickled up cloſe. Ichthyocolla, or ifinglaſs, is likewiſe
the curth, the conſtant and principal cauſe of the heat made of the ſound of this filh, as well as that of the
in ſummer, and the cold in winter ; whereas winds, others; but in very ſmall quantity. The ſturgeoil
fnoirs, and rains, are the accidental cauſes which of-
grows to a great lize, to the length of 18 feet, and to
ten alter and inodify the action of the principal cauſe. the weight of 500 pounds. In the manner of breed-
ACCIDENTAL Foint, in perſpective, is that point in ing, this fiſh is an exception among the cartilaginous
the horizontal line where the projections of two lines, kind; being, like the bony fiſh, oviparous, ſpawn-
parallel to each other meet the perſpective plane. ing in water.
ACCIDENTAL Colours, are thoſe which depend upon ACCIPITER, the name of Linnæus's firſt order of
the affections of the eye, in contradiſtinction to thoſe Birds. See ZooLOGY.
which belong to the light itſelf. The impreſſions made Among the Romans, the term accipiter ſignified
upon the eye by looking ſtedfaflly at a particular co hawk, and which, from its being very carnivorous,
lour, are various, according to the lingle colour or com they are conſidered as birds of bad omen ;
bination of colours in the object; and they continue
for ſome time after the eye is withdrawn, and give a Odimus accipitrem, quia femper vivit in armis,
falſe colouring to other objects. Mr Buffon has en-
deavoured to trace the connections which theſe acci Pliny, however, tells us, that in ſome caſes, parti-
dental colours have with ſuch as are natural, in a va cularly in marriage, it was eſteemed a bird of good
riety of inſtances. The ſubject has alſo been conſidered omen, becauſe it never eats the hearts of other birds
by De la Hire, and.M. Epences; and M. d'Arcy has intimating thereby, that no differences in a married
contrived a machine for determining the duration of ſtate ought to reach the heart. The accipiter was
the effects of light, and after ſeveral trials, finds that worſhipped as a divinity by the inhabitants of Tenty-
it continues about eight thirds of a minute.
ra, an iſland in the Nile, being conſidered by them as
ACCIPENSER, in ichthyology, a genus of fines the image of the ſun ; and hence we find that lumina-
belonging to the Amphibia Nantes of Linnæus. The ry repreſented, in hieroglyphics, under the figure of
accipenſer has a ſingle linear noſtril : the mouth is in a hawk.
the under part of the head, and contains no teeth ; the ACCISMUS, denotes a feigned refuſal of ſome-
cirri are below the ſnout, and before the mouth. There thing which a perſon earneſtly deſires. The word is
are three ſpecies of this genus, viz.
Latin ; or rather Greek, Axxiouos; ſuppoſed to be form-
1. The ruthenius has 4 cirri, and 15 ſquamous pro ed from Acco, the name of a fooliſh old woman noted
tuberances. It is a native of Ruſſia.
in antiquity for an affectation of this kind.
2. The huſo has 4 cirri ; the body is naked, i. e. has Acciſmus is ſometimes conſidered as a virtue ; fome-
no prickles or protuberances. The ſkin of the huſo times as a vice, which Auguſtus and Tiberius prac-
is ſo tough and ſtrong, that it is employed for ropes tiſed with great ſucceſs. Croniwell's refuſal of the
in carts and other wheel-carriages ; and the ichthyo. crown of England may be brought as an inſtance of an
colla, or ISINGLASS of the ſhops, famous as an agglu- Acciſmus.
tinant, and uſed alſo for the fining of wines, is made ACCISMUS is more particularly uſed, in rhetoric, as
from its ſound or ſcales. The ancients were acquaint- a ſpecies of irony.
ed with the fiſh that afforded this drug. The huſo is ACCITUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Hiſpania Ba-
the largeſt of the genus, and grows to 24 feet in length. tica, now Finiana, as appears from an ancient inſcrip-
It inhabits the Danube and the rivers of Ruſſia. tion ; ſituate on an eminence of the mountains Alpu-
3. The ſturio, or ſturgeon, with 4 cirri and 1 fquam- Xaras in Granada.
ous protuberances on the back. This fiſh annually af ACCIUS (Lucius), a Latin tragic poet, the ſon of
cends the rivers in Britian, but in no great numbers, a freedman, and, according to St Jerome, born in the
and is taken by accident in the falınon-nets. It ſeems a conſulſhip of Hoſtilius Mancinus and Attilius Serra-
ſpirirleſs fiſh, making no manner of refiſtance when nus, in the year of Rome 583; but there appears
entangled, but is drawn out of the water like a lifeleſs ſomewhat of confuſion and perplexity in this chronolo-
lump. It is ſeldom taken far out at ſea, but frequents gy.. He made himſelf known before the death of Pa-
ſuch parts as are not remote from the æſtuaries of great cuvius, a dramatic piece of his being exhibited the
riyers. It is admired for the delicacy and firmneſs of ſame year that Pacuvius brought one upon the ſtage,
its fleſh, which is white as veal, and extremely good the latter being then eighty years of age, and Accius
when roaſted. It is generally pickled. A conſiderable only thirty. We do not know the name of this piece
quantity are annually ſent to Britain from America of Accius's, but the titles of ſeveral of his tragedies
and the Baltic rivers. Great numbers are taken during are mentioned by various authors,
. He wrote on the
ſyininer in the lakes Friſchchaff, andСuriſch-haff near moſt celebrated ſtories which had been repreſented on
Pillau, in large nets made of ſmall cord. The adjacent the Athenian ſtage; as Andromache, Andromeda, A-
Ahores are formed into difricts, and tarmed out to com treus, Clytemneſtra, Medea, Meleager, Philocletes,
the
1
Асс
[ 55 ]
A CC
tion.
Accius, the civil wars of Thebes, Tereus, the Troades, &c. Acclamations were not unknown on the theatres in Acclama-
Acclama. He did not always, however, take his ſubjects from the earlieſt ages of the Roman commonwealth ; but
tion.
the Grecian ſtory ; for he con poſed one dramatic piece they were artleſs then, and little cther than confuſed
wholly Roman: it was intitled Brutus, and related to fhouts. Afterwards they became a ſort of regular con-
the exploſion of the Tarquins. It is affirmed by ſome, certs. That mentioned by Phædrus, lætare incolumis
that he wrote alſo comedies ; which is not unlikely, if Roma ſalvo principe, which was made for Auguſtus, and
'he was the author of two pieces, the Wedding and proved the occaſion of a pleaſant miſtake of a flute-
the Merchant, which have been aſcribed to him. He player called Princeps, fhows that muſical acclamations
did not confine himſelf to dramatic writing for he left were in uſe in that emperor's reign. Revertentem ex
other productions, particularly his annals, mentioned Provincia modulatis carminibus profequebantur, ſays
by Macrobias, Prifcian, Feftus, and Nonnius Marcelo Suetonius, who gives another inſtance in the time of
lus. He has been cenſured for writing in too harſli a Tiberius : a falſe report of Germanicus's recovery bea
ſtyle, but in all other reſpects has been eſteemed a very ing ſpread through Rome, the people ran in crowds to
great poet. He was ſo much eſteemed by the public, the capitol with torches and vi&ims, ſinging, Salva
that a comedian was puniſhed for only mentioning his Roma, Salva Patria, Salvus eft Germanicus.---Nero,
name on the ſtage. Cicero ſpeaks with great derifion paſſionately fond of muſic, took ſpecial care to improve
of one Accius who had written a hiſtory; and, as our and perfect the inuſic of acclamations, Charmed with
author had wrote annals, ſome inſiſt that he is the per- the harmony wherewith the Alexandrians, who came
ſon cenſured: but as Cicero himſelf, Horace, Quinti-' to the games celebrated at Naples, had ſung his praiſes,
lian, Ovid, and Paterculus, have ſpoken of our author he brought ſeveral over to inſtruct a nunber of youth,
with ſo much applauſe, we cannot think it is him whom choſen from among the knights and people, in the dif-
the Roman orator cenſures with ſo much ſeverity, ferent kinds of acclamations practiſed at Alexandria.
There was alſo in this age a pretty good orator of Theſe continued in uſe as long as the reign of Theo-
the ſame name, againſt whom Cicero defended Cluen doric. But the people did not always make a ſingle
tius. He was born in Piſaurum, and perhaps was a re chorus; ſometimes there were two, who anſwered each
lation of our poet.
other alternately: thus, when Nero played on the
ACCIUS, a poet of the 16th century, to whom is theatre, Burrhus and Seneca, who were on either
attributed A Paraphraſe of Æsop's Fables, on which hand, giving the ſignal by clapping, 5000 ſoldiers
Julius Scaliger beſtows great encomiums.
called Auguſtals, began to chant his praiſe, which the
ACCLAMATION, à confuſed noiſe or thout of fpectators were obliged to repeat. The whole was
joy, by which the public expreſs their applauſe, eſteem, conducted by a mufic-nafter called Nleſochorus or Pau.
or approbation.
farius.-The honour of acclamations was chiefly ren-
ACCLAMATION, in a more proper ſenſe, denotes a dered to emperors, their children, and favourites; and
certain form of words, uttered
with extraordinary ve to the magiſtrates who prelided at the games. Per
hemence, and in a peculiar tone ſomewhat reſem ſons of diſtinguiſhed merit alſo ſometimes received
bling a ſong, frequent in the ancient aſſemblies. Ac- them, of which Quintilian gives us inſtances in Cato
clamations were uſually accompanied with applauſes, and .\'irgil. The moſt uſuai fornis were, Feliciter, Lon-
with which they are ſometimes confounded; though giorem vitam, Annos felices. The actors themſelves,
they ought to be diſtinguiſhed; as acclamation was and they who gained the prizes in the games of the
given by the voice, applauſe by the hands; add, that circus, were not excluded the honour of acclama--
acclamation was alſo beſtowed on perſons abſent, ap tions,
plauſe only on thoſe preſent. Acclamation was alſo To theatrical acclamations may be added thofe-of
gived by women, whereas applauſe ſeems to have been the ſoldiery and people in time of triumph. The
confined to men.
viforious army accompanied their general to the capi-
Acclamations are of various kinds; eccleſiaſtical, tol; and, among the verſes they ſung in his praiſes, fre-
military, nuptial,ſenatorial,ſynodical, fcholaftic, thea- quently repeated, Io TRIUM P-HE, which the people
trical, &c. We meet with loud acclamations, muſical, anſwered in the ſame ſtrain.. It was alſo in the way
and rythmical acclamations; acclamations of joy, and of acclamation, that the ſoldiers gave their general the
reſpect, and even of reproach and contumely. The title of Imperator, after ſome notable victory: a title
former, wherein words of happy omen were uſed, which he only kept till the time of his triumph.
were alſo called Laudationes, et bona vota, or good with. The acclamations of the ſenate were ſomewhat more
cs; the latter, Execrationes et convicia. Suetonius fur- ſerious than the popular ones ; but aroſe from the ſame
niſhes an inſtanceofthis laſt kind in the Roman ſenate, principle, viz. a deſire of plealing the prince or his fa-
on occaſion of the decree for demoliſhing the ſtatues of yourites; and aimed likewiſe at the ſame end, either to
Domitian, when the fathers, as the hiſtorian repreſents expreſs the general approbation and zeal of the com-
it, could not refrain from contumelious acclamations of pany, or to congratulate him on his victories, or to
the deceaſed. The like were ſhown after the death of make him now proteſtations of fidelity. Theſe accla-
Commodus, where the acclamations run in the follow mations were uſually given after a report made by ſome
ing ſtrain : Hofti patriæ honores detrahantur, parricide ſenator, to which the reſt all expreſſed their conſent by
konores detrahuntur ; hoftis ftatuas undique, parricide crying Omnes,OMNES ; or elſe, ÆQUUM EST, JUS-
ftatuas undigne, gladiatoris ftatuas undique,&c.-The
Sometimes they began with acclamations,
formula, in acclarations, was repeated ſometimes a and fometinies ended with them without other debates.
greater, ſometimes a leffer, number of times. Hence It was after this manner that all the elections and pro-
we find in Roman writers acclamatum eſt quinquies, et clamations of emperors, made by the ſenate, were con-
vicies ; five times, and twenty times : ſometinies alſo ducted ; ſomething of which practice is ſtill retained
fexagies and cyen cctuagies ; fixty and eight times. at modern elections of kings and eniperors, where Vivat
3
Rex
i
TUM EST.
АСС
( 56 )
A CC
ti012.
Mary forms.
Accommo-
men,
Acclama- Rex, Vive le Ru", and Long live the King, are cuſto- miſplaced, were frequently prohibited by the ancient Acclama.
doctors, and at length abrogated; though they ap-
tion
The Greeks borrowed the cuſtom of receiving their pear to have been in ſome uſe as low as the time of 1
emperors in the public places from the Romans. Luit St Bernard,
dation.
prand relates, that at a proceſſion where he was pre ACCLAMATION Medals, among antiquaries, fach as
ſent, they ſung to the emperor Nicephorus, Troaa ETH; repreſent the people expreſſing their joy in the poſtur.
that is, Many years: which Codin expreſſes thus, by of acclanation.
το ψαλλειν το πολυχρoνιον, or by το πολυχρονιζειν ; and the ACCLIVITY, the riſe or afcent of a hill, in oppo-
with or falutation by nonexporromes. And at dinner, the ſition to the declivity or deſcent of it. Some writers
Grecks then preſent wiſhed with a loud voice to the in fortification uſe it for the talus of a rampart.
emperor and Bradas, Ut Deus annos multiplicet; as he ACCOLA, anong the Romans, fignified a perſon
tranſlates the Greek. Plutarch mentions an acclania who lived near ſome piace ; in which ſenſe, it differed
rion ſo loud, upon occaſion of Flaminius's reſtoring li from incola, the inhabitant of ſuch a place.
berty to Greece, that the very birds fell from heaven ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently uſed in the
with the ſhout. The Turks practiſe fomething like conferring of knighthood.
this on the light of their emperors and grand viziers Antiquaries are not agreed wherein the accolade
to this day.
properly conliſted. The generality ſuppoſe it to be the
For the acclanations wherewith authors, poets, &c. embrace, or kiſs, which princes anciently gave the new
were received, who recited their works in public; it is kniglit, as a token of their affection:whence the word
to be obſerved, the aſſemblies for this purpoſe were held accolade; q. d. a claſping, or taking round the neck.
with great parade in the moſt folemn places, as the ca Others will rather have it to be a blow on the chine of
pitol, temples, the Athenæum, and the houſes of great the neck, given on the ſame occaſion. The Accolade
Invitations were ſent every where, in order to is of ſome antiquity, in which foever of the two ſenſes
get the greater appearance. The chief care was, that it be taken. Greg. de Tours writes, that the kings of
the acclamations might be given with all the order and France, even of the firſt race, in conferring the gilt
pomp poſſible. Nien of fortune who pretended to wit, ſhoulder-belt, kiſſed the knights on the left chcek. For
kept able applauders in their ſervice, and lent them to the accolei, or blow, John of Saliſbury affures us, it was
their friends. Others endeavoured to gain them by in uſe among the ancient Normans : by this it was that
preſelits and treats. Philoſtralus mentions a young William the Conquerorconferred the honourofknight-
man named Vayus, wholent nioney to the men of let hood on his fon Henry. At firſt, it was given with
ters, and forgave the intereſt to ſuch as applauded his the naked fift; but was afterwards changed into a blow
exerciſes. Theſe acclamations were conducted much with the flat of the ſword on the ſhoulder of tlie knight.
after the ſame manner as thoſe on the theatre, both as ACCOLEE, ſometimes ſynonymous with Acco-
to the muſic and the accompaniments ; they were to LADE, which fee. It is alſo uſed in various ſenſes
be ſuited both to the ſubject and to the perſon. There in heraldry: ſometimes it is applied to two things
were particular ones for the philoſophers, for orators, joined ; at other times, to animals with crowns, or col-
for hiſtorians, and for poets. It would be difficult to lars about their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy's
rehearſe all the forms of them ; one of the moſt uſual arms ; and, laſtly, to kews, battons, maces, ſwords,
was Sophos, which was to be repeated three times. Mar &c. placed fallierwiſe behind the ſhield.
tial comprehends feveralother uſual fornis in this verſe: ACCOLTI (Bernardo), ſecretary to the republic
Graviter, Cito, Nequter, Euge, Beate. of Florence, was furnamed L'Unico, or the Nonfuch,
Neither the Greeks nor Romans were barren on this probably from the great extent of his underſtanding,
head. The names of gods and heroes were given thoſe the variety of ſciences he had acquired, and the ex-
whom they would extol. 'It was not enough to do it cellency of his poetic vein; which not only gained
after each head of diſcourſe, chiefly after the exordi him a ſeat among the academicians of the court of
um ; but the acclamations were renewed at every fine Uı bino, but made that great Mecænas, pope Leo X.
paſſage, frequently at every period.
in 1520, create him prince of the ſtate of Nepi. He
The acclamations wherewith the ſpectators honour wrote many pieces; among others, a collection of beau-
ed the victories of the athlelæ, were a natural conſe tiful poems, printed in Venice in 1519 and 1553.
quence of the impetuous motions which aternded the ACCOMMODATION, the application of one
gymnaſtic ganies. The cries and acclamations of the thing, by analogy, to another; or the making two or
people, ſometimes expreſſing thcir compaſſion and joy, more things agree with one another.
ſometimes their horror and diſguſ, are ſtrongly To k10\ a thing by accommodation, is to know it
pained by different poets and orators.
by the idea of alumilar thing referred thereto,
Acclamations made alſo a part of the ceremony of A prophecy of ſcripture is ſaid to be fulfilled vari-
marriage. They were uſed for the omen's fake; be ous ways ; properly, as when a tlıing foretold comes
ing the Læta On:11!a, ſometimes ſpoken of before to paſs : and improperly, or by way of accommoda-
marriage in Roman writers.
tion, when an event happens to any place or people,
Acclamations, at firſt practiſed in the theatre, and like to what fell out ſome time before 1o another.
paſſing thence to the fenate, &c. was in proceſs of time Thus, the words of Ilaiah, ſpoken to thoſe of his own
received into the acts of councils, and the ordinary aſ time; are ſaid to be fulfilled in thoſc who lived in our
ſemblies of the church. The people expreſſed their Saviour's ; and are accommodated to them : “ Yehy-
approbation of the preacher varioully; the more uſual pocrites, well did laias prophecy of you," &c. which
forms were, Oithodox! Third Apoftle, &c. Theſe accla faire words St Paul afterwards accosi11.00 daies to the
mations being ſometimes carried to exceſs, and often Jews of his time,
I
The
АСС
[ 57 )
АСС
Accom-
topi. i.
Accompa The primitive church accommodated multitudes of Teſtament, and fulfilled under the New. We ſay a Accom.
niment Jewiſh, and cven heathen ceremonies and practices, to literal accompliſhment, a myſtical or ſpiritual accom- plifliment
í
Chriſtian purpoſes ; but the Jews had before done the plihment, a ſingle accompliſhment, a double accom-
Accountant
plifhment.
ſame by the Gentiles : fome will even have circumci- pliſhment, a Jewith accompliſhment, a Chriſtian, a
fion, the tabernacle, brazen ſerpent, &c. to have been heathen accompliſhment. The ſame prophecy is ſoine-
originally of Egyptian uſe, and only accommodated by times accompliſhed in all, or in ſeveral of thoſe different
• Saurin. Moſes to the purpoſes of Judaiſm*. Spencer maintains, ways. Thus, of ſome of the prophecies of the Old Te-
Diff. O.T. that nioſt of the rites of the old law were an imitation ſtament, the Jews find a literal accomplifment in their
of thoſe of the Gentiles, and particularly of the Egyp- own hiſtory, about the time when the prophecy was
tians; that God, in order to divert the children of 1f- given : the Chriſtians find another in Chriſt, or the
rael from the worſhip they paid to the falſe deities, earlieſt days of the church; the heathens another, in
conſecrated the greateſt part of the ceremonies per- fome of their emperors; the Mahometans another, in
formed by thoſe idolaters, and had formed out of them their legiſlator, &c. There are two principal ways of
a body of the ceremonial law; that he had indeed made accompliſhing a prophecy ; directly, and by accommo-
fome alterations therein, as barriers againſt idolatry ; dation. See ACCOMMODATION, and PROPHECY.
and that-he thus accommodated his worſhip to the ge ACCOMPLISHMENT, is alſo uſed for any inental or
nius and occaſions of his ancient people. To this perſonal endowment.
+ De legib. condeſcenſion of God, according to Spencert, is ow Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns
Hebr.diff.i. ing the origin of the tabernacle, particularly that of among the lights and ſhades of a picture.
1. 3. p. 32. the ark. Theſe opinions, however, have been con ACCORDS (Stephen Tabourot, ſeigneur des) advo-
troverted by later writers.
cate in the parliament of Dijon in France, and king's
ACCOMPANIMENT, ſomething attending or advocate in the bailiwic and chancery of that city, born
added as a circumſtance to another, either by way of in the year 1549. He was a man of genius and learn .
ornament, or for the ſake of ſymmetry.
ing; but too much addicted to trifles, as appears from
ACCOMPANIMENT,in muſic, denotes the inſtruments his piece, intitled,“ Les Bigarrures,” printed at Paris
which accompany a voice, in order to ſuſtain it, as well in 1582. This was not his firſt production, for he
as to make the muſic more full. The accompaniment is had before printed ſome ſonnets. His work, in-
uſed in recitative, as well as in fong; on the ſtage, as titled, “Les Touches,” was publiſhed at Paris in
well as in the choir, &c. The ancients had likewiſe 1585; which is indeed a collection of witty poems,
their accompaniments on the theatre ; they had even but worked up rather in too looſe a manner, according
different kinds of inſtruments to accompany the chorus, to the licentious taſte of that age. His Bigarrures are
from thoſe which accompanied the actors in the reci- written in the fame ſtrain. He was cenſured for this
tation.--The accompaniment, among the moderns, is way of writing, which obliged him to publiſh an apo-
frequently a different part or melody from the ſong it logy. The lordſhip of Accords is an imaginary fief or
accoinpanies. It is diſputed whether it was ſo among title from the device of his anceſtors, which was a
the ancients. It is generally alleged, that their ac- drum, with the motto, à tous accords, "chiming with
companiments went no farther than the playing in all.” He had ſent a ſonnet to a daughter of Mr Be-
octave, or in antiphony to the voice. The Abbé Fra• gat, the great and learned preſident of Burgundy,
guier, from a paſſage in Plato, pretends to prove, that << who (ſays he) did me the honour to love me:-
they had actual ſymphony, or muſic in parts : but his And inaſnıuch (continues he), I had fubfcribed my
arguments ſeem far from being concluſive.
ſonnet with only my device, à tous accords, this lady
AccoMPANIMENT, in painting, denotes ſuch objects firſt nicknamed me, in her anſwer, Seigneur des Ac-
as are added, either by way of ornament, or probability; cords ; by which title her father alſo called me ſeveral
as dogs, guns, game, &c. in a hunting piece.
times. For this reaſon I choſe this ſurname, not only
ACCOMPANIMENT, in heraldry, any thing added to in all my writings compoſed at that time, but even in
a fhield by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling, fup- theſe books.” He died July 24th 1561, in the 46th
porters, &c. It is alſo applied to ſeveral bearings about year of his
age.
a principal one ; as a ſaltier, bend, feſs, chevron, ACCOUNT, or ACCOMPT, in a general ſenſe, a
&c.
computation or reckoning of any thing by numbers.
ACCOMPLICE, one that has a hand in a buſineſs ; Collectively, it is uſed to expreſs the books which
or is privy in the ſame deſign or crime with another. merchants, traders, bankers, &c. uſe for recording
See AcceSSORY.
their tranſactions in buſineſs. See BOOK-KEEPING.
By the law of Scotland, the accomplice can only be Chamber of ACCOUNTS, in the French polity, is a
proſecuted after the conviction of the principal offend- ſovereign court of great antiquity, which takes cog-
er, unleſs the acceſſion of the accomplice is immediate, niſance of and regiliers the accounts of the king's re-
in ipſo actu, fo as in effect to render thein co-principal. venue. It is nearly the ſame with the Engliſh Court of
By the general rule, the accomplice ſuffers the ſame Exchequer.
puniſhment with the principal offender ; yet if he be re Account is taken ſometimes, in a particular ſenſe,
markably leſs guilty, juſtice will not permit equal p for the computation of time: thus we fay, The Julian
nifhment.
Account, the Gregorian Account, &c. in which ſenſe
The council of Sens, and ſeveralother ſynodical fla-- it is equivalent to Myle.
tutes, expreſsly prohibit the revealing of accomplices. ACCOUNTANT, or ACCOMPTANT, in the moſt
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or general ſenſe, is a perſon ſkilled in accounts.
'fulfilling of any thing.
more reſtricted ſenſe, it is applied to a perſon, or of-
ACCOMPLISHMENT, is principally uſed in ſpeaking ficer, appointed to keep the accounts of a public com-
-of events foretold by the Jewiſh prophets in the Old pany or office; as the South-ſea.
Vol. I.
H
ACCOUNT
In a
Us
ACC
( 58 )
ACC
Accounts
tion
ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and to the ſame thing, or of ſeveral circumſtances to the Accuinula,
antſnip balancing accounts.
See BOOK-KEEPINC.
fame proof.
}
ACCOUNTAN -CENERAL, a new officer in the ACCUMULATION of Degrees, in an univerſity, is the
Accumula-
Accufation.
tion.
court of Chancery in Great Britaill appointed by act of taking ſeveral of thein together, or at ſmaller intervals
parliainent to receive all moneys lodged in court in than uſual, orthan is allowed by the rules of the uni-
Itead of the maſters, and convey the ſame to the bank verlily.
of England for ſecurity,
ACCURSED, ſomething that lies under a curſe,
ACCOUTREMENT, an old terin, applied Lo the or ſentence of exconimunication,
furniture of a ſoldier, knight, or gentleman.
In the Jewiſh idiom, accurfed and crucified were fy-
ACCRETION, in phyfics, the increaſe, or growth nonymous. Among them, every one was accounted
of an organical body, by the acceſſion of new parts. accurſed who died on a tree. This ferves to explain the
See NUTRITION, PLANTS, and VEGETABLES. difficult pallage in Rom. ix. 3. where the apoftle Paul
ACCRETION, among civilians, the property acquired wiſhes himſelf accurſed after the manner of Chrill, i.e.
in a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to or crucified, if happily he might by ſuch a death ſave his
following another already occupied : thus, if a legacy countrymen. The propolition dró here made uſe of,
be left to two perſons, one ofwhom dies before the tel. is uſed in the ſame ſenſe, 2 Tim. I. 3. where it ob-
tator, the legacy devolves to the ſurvivor by right of viouſly ſignifies after the manner of:
accretion,
ACCURSIUS, a law-profeſſor in the 13th century,
ACCROCHE, in heraldry, denotes a thing's be- born in Florence. His authority was for ſome time
ing hooked with another.
ſo great, that he was called the Idol of the Lawyers.
ACCUBATION, a poſture of the body, between Other three lawyers of note had the ſame nanie.
fitting and lying. The word comes from the Latin accu ACCURSIUS (Mariangelus), a famous critic of the
bare, compounded of ad, to, and cubo, I lie down. Ac 16th century, born at Aquilo in the kingdom of Na-
cubation, or Accubitus, was the table-poſture of the ples. His Diatrebes, printed at Rome in folio, in
Greeks and Romans ; whence we find the words par 1524, on Ovid and Solinus, are a proof of his abili-
ticularly uſe for the lying, or rather (as we call it) fit ties in that kind of erudition. In his edition of Ain-
ting down to meat. The Greeks introduced this poſa mianus Marcellinus there are five books niore than in
ture. The Romans, during the frugal ages of the re any of the preceding ones; and he affirms he had cor-
public, were ſtrangers to it: but as luxury got footing, rected 5000 errors in that hiſtorian. His predomi-
this poſture came to be adopted, at leaſt by the men ; nant paſſion was the ſearching for and collecting of old
for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in them manuſcripts: yet he made Latin and Italian verſes ;
to lie down among the nien : though, afterwards, this was complete maſter of the French, German, and Spa-
too was got over. But children did not lie down, nor niſh tongues ; and underſtood optics and níuſic. Hc
ſervants, nor ſoldiers, nor perſons of meaner condition; purged himſelf by oath, being charged for being a pla-
.but took their meals ſitting, as a poſture leſs indulgent. giary with regard to his Aufonius; it being reported,
TheRonian manner of diſpoſing themſelves at table was that he had appropriated to himſelf thc labours of Fa-
this: A low round table was placed in the cenaculum, bricio Varana, biſhop of Camerino.
or dining-room ; and, about this, uſually three, fome ACCUSATION, the charging any perſon with a
times only two, beds or couches ; according to the num- criminal action, either in one's own name, or in that
ber of which, it was called biclinium or triclinium. of the public.
of the public. The word is compounded of ad, to;
Theſe were covered with a ſort of bed-clothes, richer and caufari, to plead.
or plainer according to the quality of the perſon, and Writers on politics treat on the benefit and the in-
furniſhed with quilts and pillows, that the gueſts might conveniences of public accuſations. Various argu-
lie the more commodiouſly. There were uſually three ments are alleged, both for the encouragenient and,
perfons on each bed; to crowd more, was eſteemed for- diſcouragement of accuſations againſt great men. No-
did. In eating, they lay down on their left ſides, with thing, according to Michiavel, tends more to the pre-
their heads reſting on the pillows, or rather on their ſervation of a ſtate, than frequent accuſations of per-
elbows. The firſt lay at The head of the bed, with ſons truſted with the adminiſtration of public affairs.
his feet extended behind the back of the ſecond ; the This, accordingly, was ſtrictly obſerved by the Ro-
ſecond lay with the back of his head towards the navelmans, in the inſtances of Camillus, accuſed of corrup-
of the firſt, only ſeparated by a pillow, his feet behind tion by Manlius Capitolinus, &c. Accuſations, how-
the back of the third; and ſo of the third, or fourth. ever, in the judgment of the ſame author, are not more
The middle place was eſteemed the moſt honourable. beneficial than calumnies are pernicious ; which is alſo
Before they came to table, they changed their clothes, confirmed by the practice of the Romans. Manlius
putting on what they called cænatoria veſtis, the dining- not being able to make good his charge againſt Ca-
garment; and pulled off their ſhoes, to prevent fouling millus, was caſt into priſon.
the coucli.
By the Roman law, there was no public accuſer for
ACCUBITOR, an ancient'officer of the emperors public crimes ; every private perſon, whether intereſt-
of Conſtantinople, whoſe buſineſs was to lie near the ed in the crime or not,.might accuſe, and profecute the
emperor. He was the head of the youth of the bed- accuſed to puniſhment, or abſolution. Calo, the moſt
chamber, and had the cubicularius and procubitor un- innocent perſon of his age, had been accuſed 42 times,
der him.
and as often abſolved. But the accuſation of private
ACCUMULATION, in a general ſenſe, the act of crimes was never received but from the mouths of thoſe
heaping or amaſſing things together. Among lawyers, who were immediately intereſted in them : None (-.g.)
it is uſed in ſpeaking of the concurrence of ſeveral titles but the huſband could accuſe his wife of adultery.
The
A CE
( 59
A CE
]
lus.
Accuſative The ancicnt Romon lawyers diflinguiſhed between artiſt could concealalltheſe blemiſhes among the ſtrokes Acephalı
1 poſtulatio, delatio, and accuſatio. For, firſt, leave was of bis work ; but when it was to be formed into cups
Acentetum delired to bring a charge againſt one, which was called or precious vaſes, they always choſe the acentetum
Acepha.
poftulare: then he againſt whon the charge was laid, which had no flaws or blemiſhes.
was brought before the judge : which was called de ACEPHALI, or ACEPHALITÆ, a term applied to
ferre, or nominis delatio : laſtly, the charge was drawn ſeveral ſects who refuſed to follow ſome noted leader.
up and preſented, which was properly the accufatio. Thus the perſons who refuſed to follow either John of
The accuſation properly commenced, according to Antioch, or St Cyril, in a diſpute that happened in the
"Pædianus, when the reus or party charged, being irr- council of Epheſus, were termed Acephali, without a
terrogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and ſub- head or leader. Such biſhops, alſo, as were exempt
ſcribed his name to the delatio made by his opponent. froin the juriſdi&tion and diſcipline of their patriarch,
In the French law, none but the Procureur general, were ſtyled Acephali.
or his deputies, can form an accuſation, except for ACEPHALI, the levellers in the reign of king Henry
high-treaſon and coining, where accuſation is open to I. who acknowledged no head or ſuperior. They were
every body. In other crimes, private perſons can on reckoned ſo poor, that they had not a tenement by
ly act the part of denouncers, and demand reparation which they might acknowledge a ſuperior lord.
for the offence, with damages.
ACEPHALOUS, or ACEPHALUS, in a general
In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man Niall be im- ſenſe ; without a head.
priſoned or condemned on any accuſation, without trial The term is more particularly uſed in ſpeaking of
by his peers, or the law; none ſhall be vexed with any certain nations, or people, repreſented by ancient na-
accuſation, but according to the law of the land; and turaliſts and coſmographers, as well as by fone mo-
no man niay be moleſted by petition to the king, &c. dern travellers, as formed without heads ; their eyes,
unleſs it be by indi&tment or preſentment of lawful men mouths, &c. being placed in other parts.
or by proceſs at conmon law. Promoters of ſuggeſ Such are the Blemmyes, a nation of Africa near the
tions, are to find furety to purſue them; and if they do head of the Niger, repreſented to be by Pliny and So-
not make them good, ſhall pay damages to the party linus; Blemmyes traduntur capita abelle, ore et oculis
accuſed, and alſo a fine to the king. No perſon is pectore affixis. Cteſias and Solinus mention others in
obliged to anſwer upon oath to a queſtion whereby India near the Ganges, fine cervice ocules in kumeris
he may accuſe himſelf of any crime.
habentes Mela alſo ſpeaks of people, quibus capita et
ACCUSATIVE; in the Latin grammar, is the vultus in pectore funt. And Suidas, Stephanus Byzan.
fourth caſe of nouns, and ſignifies the relation of the tinus, Vopiſcus, and others after them, relate the like.
noun on which the action implied in the verb termi. Some modern travellers ſtill pretend to find acephalous
nates; and hence, in ſuch languages as have caſes, theſe people in America.
nouns have a particular termination, called accuſative : Several opinions have been framed as to the origin
as, Auguſtus vicit Antonium, Auguſtus vanquiſhed An- of the fable of the Acephali. The firſt is that of Tho-
tony. Here Antonium is the noun, on which the ac mas Bartholin, who turns the whole into a metaphor ;
tion implied in the verb vicit terminates ; and, there- being convinced, that the name Acephali was anciently
fore, muſt have the accuſative termination. Ovid, given to ſuch as had leſs brain, or conducted themſelves
ſpeaking of the palace of the ſun, ſays, Materiem fuo leſs by the rules of prudence, than others. Olearius
perabat opus, The work ſurpaſſed the materials. Here rather apprehends, that the ancient voyagers, viewing
materiem has the accuſative termination ; becauſe it certain barbarous people from the coaſts, had been in-
determines the action of the verb ſuperabat.-- In the poſed on by their uncouth dreſs; for that the Samo-
Engliſh language there are no cafes, except the geni- gitians, being ſhort of ſtature, and going in the ſeve-
live; the relation of the noun being ſhown by the aſ- rity of winter with their heads covered in hoods, ſeem
fiſtance of prepoſitions, as of, to, from, &c.
at a diſtance as if they were heedleſs. F. Laſitau ſays,
ACCUSIORUM COLONIA (anc. geog.), an in- that by Acephali are only meant, people whoſe heads
land town in the Cavares, in Gallia Narbonenſis: now are ſunk below their ſhoulders. In effect, Hulſius, in
Grenoble, in Dauphiné. See GRENOBLE.
his epitome of Sir Walter Raleigh's voyage to Guaiana,
ACE, among gameſters, a card or die marked only alſo ſpeaks of a people which that traveller found in the
with one point.
province of Irvipanama, between tlie lakes of Panama
ACELUM, or ACELIUM (anc. geog.), a town of and Caffipa, who had no head or neck; and Hondius,
the Venetian territory, now called, Azolo, ſituated to in his map, marks the place with the figures of theſe
the weſt of Trevigi, at the ſource of the rivalet Mu- monſters. Yet De Laet* rejects the ſtory; being in- * Defcript.
fone. E. Long. 13°. N. Lat. 45°.
formed by others, that the inhabitants of the banks Amer... 17.
ACENTETUM, or ACANTETA, in natural hiſto- of the Caora, a river that flows out of the lake of C. 22.
ry, a name given by the ancients to the pureſt and Caſſipa, have their head ſo far funk between their
fineſt kind of rock cryſtal : They uſed the cryſtal in floulder, that many believed they had their eyes in
many ways; ſometimes ingraving on it, and fome- their ſhoulders and their mouths in their breaſts.
times forming it into vaſes and cups, which were held But though the exiſtence of a nation of Acephali
next in value to the vaſa murrhina of theſe times. be ill warranted, naturaliſts furniſh ſeveral inſtances
The cryſtal they obtained from the iſland of Cyprus ofindividuals born without heads, by fonie luſus or a- † In Eph.
was much eſteemed; but often faulty in particular berration of nature. Wepfer gives + a catalogue of Ger. dec.T.
parts, having hairs, cracks, and foulneſſes, which they ſuch acephalous births, from Schenckius, Licetus, Pa- an. 3. obf
.
called falts, in the middle of the large pieces. Pliny ræus, Wolfius, Mauriceau, &c.
Dec.2.an...
tells us, that when it was uſed for engraving on, the ACEPHALUS, an obſolete terin for the tænia or obfer. 148.
tape- p. 258.
1
129.P.184.
H 2
1
ACE
[60]
A CE
Acéphalus, tape-tyorın, which was long ſuppoſed to be accphalous. The timber of the common maple is far ſuperior lo Acer,
See TANIA.
acer,
the
the beech for all the uſes of the turner.
The firſt who gave it a head was Tul-
When it
the
pius ; and after hin, Fchr: The former even makes abounds with knots, as it frequently does, it is highly Maple-tret
Maple trec
ic biceps, or two headců.
eſteemed by joiners for inlayings. It is alſo frequeintly
ACEPHALUS, is alſo ufed to expreſs a verſe defeâive employed for making musical inſtruments, on account
in the beginning
of its lightneſs; and for the whiteneſs of its wood was
ACER, the MAPLE or SYCAMORE Tree, a genus formerly eſteemed for making tables, &c. But the
of the monccia order, belonging to the polygainia claſs principal value of the maple is for underwood; il be-
of plants; and ranking under the 23d Natural Order ing of a quick growth, and affording good fuel.
Trihiata .-The generic characters, both natural and 3. The negundo, or Virginian afh-leaved maple, is
eſſential, are : The HERMAPHRODTE calyx is an a a very ſtrong ſhooting tree ; and in Virginia, where it
cute, coloured, one-leaved perianthium, divided into is a native, is one of the largeſt trees of this kind.
five ſegments, flat and entire at the baſe, and perſiſtent: Its leaves are of a pale green, and well adapted to give
the coi olla is five-petal'd, ovate, and expanding : the a variety of tint : but Hanbury ſays, that this tree
ſtamina conſiſt of eight ſubulated fhort filaments; the ought not to be planted in expoſed ſituations, the
antheræ fimple, the duſt cruciformn: The piſillum has branches being ſubject to be ſplit off by the wind. Its
a compreſſed germen, immerſed in the receptacle, uſes are ſimilar to thoſe of the ſycamore.
which is convex, perforated, and large ; the ſlylus is 4. The platanoides, or Norway-maple, grows na-
filiform : the ſtigmata are two, pointed, flender, and turally in Norway, Sweden, and other northern coun-
reflex: The pericarpium conſiſts of two or three cap tries of Europe. It riſes to a good height, and is well
fulæ uniting at the baſe, roundiſh, compreſſed, each furniſhed with branches with ſmooth leaves, of a ſhining
terminated with a large membránous wing: The feeds green colour, and beautifully indented. Theſe have an
are folitary and roundiſh. The MALE calyx, corolla, acrid milky juice, which prevents them from being
and ſtamina, are the ſame as in the herinaphrodite; preyed upon by inſects as the ſycamore is ; and as this
The piſtillum has no germen, nor ſtylus ; the ſtigma ſpecies refifts the ſpray of the ſea equally with the firſt,
is befid. [Neta, On the firſt opening of the flower, it is preferable in plantations ſituated near the ſea. In au-
the ſtigma alone appears; a few days after, the ſtylus, tunn the leaves dye to a golden yellow colour, which
-The hermaphrodite flowers on the ſame umbel are cauſes a delightful effect at that ſeaſon when the differ-
frequently of two forts: the inferior ones feminine, ent tints of decaying vegetables are diſplayed. The flow.
the antheræ of which do not burſt, but the piſtillum ers are alſo beautiful; they conie out early in the ſpring,
quickly grows into fruit : the ſuperior ones maſculine, are of a fine yellow colour, and ſhow themſelves to ad
of which the antheræ ſcatter their pollen, but the vantage before the leaves come out. They are frequent-
piſtilla without increaſing fall off.]
ly ſucceeded by keys, which ſometimes arrive at maturi.
Species, with their uſes and properties.] 1. The iyin Britain. Thereisa variety with ſtriped leaves.
pſeudo-platanus, or fycamore, is a very large and 5. The rubrum, or Virginia ſcarlet flowering maple,
beautiful tree, with broad leaves, divided into five is a native of that country, and never grows to a large
lobes ferrated in their edges; of a dark green colour ſize in Britain. It is, however, cultivated in gardens
on the upper ſide, but paler and ſomewhat hoary un. for the beauty of its flowers, which appear in the be-
derneath'; the flowers are very finall, and of a green- ginning of April, in roundiſh bunches, at the bottom
ith white colour. The corolla of this ſpecies is of the footſtalks of the leaves.
of the footſtalks of the leaves. The ſeeds are ripe in
ſcarcely diſtinguiſhable froni the calyx, and the ſta- five or lix weeks after ; and ought to be immediately
mina are long. The fruit is large, and beautifully fown, being otherwiſe very apt to perim. The tree
varicgated with green and purple. This ſpecies is a ought to be heltered, eſpecially whilſt young, from the
native of Germany, but thrives very well in Great north-eaſt winds ; it delights in a moiſt light ſoil, where
Britain, where it is frequent in plantations. It is very it will thrive much better, as well as produce many
proper for making plantations near the ſea, or ſhelter more flowers and much better ſeeds, than in a dry
ing ſuch as are already too near it ; becauſe the ſyca- ground. A variety of this tree is known in England
more-tree reſiſts the ſpray of the ocean much better by the name of Sir Charles Wager's Flowering Maple,
than inoſt other trees. But it has this inconvenience, from its being firſt fent from America to Sir Charles
that its leaves are devoured by inſects, ſo as to become Wager. The flowers of this kind come out in larger
full of holes, and very unlightly : which has cauſed cluſters than the other, and ſurround the ſmall branch-
the planting of it to be much neglected of late. It es, ſo that the tree appears entirely covered with them,
has, however, long been conſidered as a timber and makes a much more beautiful appearance than the
tree, having been mạch uſed by the turners for former, which is now not ſo much eſteemed.
wooden bowels, diſhes, trenchers, &c. ; but ſince 6. The faccharinum,or ſugar-maple, is a large grow-
the cuſtom of uſing earthen ware has become ſo pre- ing tree : will arrive at the height of 40 feet ; and has
valent, its value for thoſe purpoſes has greatly decrea- broad thin leaves, divided into five principal parts;
ſed. There are two varieties; one with broad leaves which are again indented or cut at the edges into fe-
and large keys, the other with variegated leaves. By veral acute fegments. Their furface is ſmooth, of a
tapping it yields a liquor not unlike that of the birch light green colour, whitiſh underneath; and they grow
tree ; from which the highlanders of Scotland ſome on pretty long footſtalks. The flowers come out in
times make an agreeable and wholeſome wine. the ſpring, about the time of the Norway maple ; and
2. The campeſtris, or common maple, is too well they are ſucceeded by long keys, which ſometimes ri-
known to need any particular deſcription, as it grows pen in England. In America the inhabitants tap this
very frequently in hedge-rows in moſt parts of Britain, tree in the ſpring, boil the liquor, and the feces af-
ford
A CE
{ 61
ACE
]
the
Acer, ford a uſeful ſugar. The fycamore, the ash-leaved, duce ſuch quantities of flowers; which makes the latter Acer,
and the Norway maples, alſo abound with a faccharine method more eligible for thoſe vi ho want theſc plants thic
Maple-tree juice, from which there is no doubt but a uſeful ſugar for a low ſhrubbery.--Seeds of the variegated kinds al- Maple-tree
might be prepared.
fo, when ſown, will produce variegated plants in re-
7. The Penſylvanicum, or American mountain-ma turn: which renders the propagation of theſe forts
ple, very much reſembles the ſugar-maple, only its very expeditious where plenty of feeds may be had.
leaves are more pointed.
Where theſe are not to be obtained, the plants are
8. The opalus, or Italian maple, is very common propagated by budding, as afterwards directed.
in moſt parts of Italy, particularly about Home; but 2. By layers. All the ſpecies may be propagated by
in Britain is very rarely to be met with, though hardy this method; though it is never practiſed for the coni-
enough to bear the open air. It is one of the largeit mon maple and the ſycamore. The young fhoots may
ſpecies of trees in Italy, and affords a great ſhade by be at any time laid down in the autumn, winter, or
its numerous and large leaves. On this account it is early in the ſpring. By the autumn following, they
planted on the road-lides, and near habitations. will have ſtruck root, and become good plants ; when
9. The monfpeſulanum, or Montpelier maple, is the ſtrongeſt may be ſet out in the places where they
common in the ſouth of France, and in Italy; but is are to renain ; whilſt the weakeſt may be planted in
hardly met with in Britain. The leaves reſemble thoſe the nurſery, like the ſeedlings, for a year or two, to
of the common maple; but are of a much thicker ſub- acquire ſtrength.
ſtance, a fhining green colour, and not fo large. They 3. By cuttings : which method, however, is chiefly
continue in verdure very late in the autumn, which practiſed on the aſh-leaved and Norway maples, which
renders the trees inore valuable.
iure readily take root this way. The cuttings ſhould
10. The creticum, or Cretan maple, grows natural. be the bottom parts of the lait year's ſhoots : They
ly in the Levant ; it ſomewhat reſembles the laſt fpe- fhould be taken off early in October, and planted in
cies; but its leaves are of a much thicker texture, and rows in a moiſt ſhady place. The ſpring and ſummer
their footſtalks covered with a ſoft hairy down; where following, they muſt be duly watered as often as dry
as thoſe of the other are ſmooth and ſoft.
weather makes it neceſſary, and be kept clean from
Propagation and culture.]-1. By feeds. The firſt weeds. By the autumn they will be fit to remove into
four ſpecies are eaſily propagated in this way. The the nurſery; though if the cuttings are not planted
keys, when ripe in autumn, may be gathered, and in a too cloſe, they may remain in their ſituation for a year
few days after ſown about an inch and an half deep, in or two longer, and then be ſet out finally, without the
beds of common mould. In ſpring the plants will ap- trouble of being previouſly planted in the nurſery.
pear, and inake a ſhoot of about a foot and an half 4. By budding, grafting, and inarching. Theſe
by the autumn following, if the ground of the ſemi methods are only practiſed for the variegated forts and
nary be tolerably good, and they are kept free from the large broad-leaved kind. The latter is to be conti-
weeds. The ſpring after they come up they ſhould be nued no otherwiſe than by budding it on ſtalks of the
planted in the nurſery in rows two feet and an half common ſycamore; for from the feeds, tho' ſo large
aſunder, and their diſtance in the rows inuſt be one foot themſelves, only the common fycamore is produced.
and an half. Here they may remain till they are big In order to propagate theſe varieties by budding,
enough to plant out finally, with no further trouble than let ſome plants of the common ſycamore, one year old,
taking off unſightly fide-branches, and ſuch as have a be taken out of the ſeminary, and ſet in the nurſery in
tendency to make the tree forked, except digging be rows a yard afunder, and the plants about a foot and
tween the rows, which muſt always be done every a half diſtance from each other in the rows : Let the
winter. For the other ſpecies, their feeds, as they ground be kept clean froin weeds all fummer, and
do not ripen in this country, ought to be procured from turned in in the winter; and the ſummer following the
the places where they naturally grow, and managed in ſtocks will be of a proper ſize to receive the buds,
the following manner: A cool ſhady part of the ſemi which ſhould be taken from the moſt beautifully-ſtriped
nary ſhould be appropriated for the purpoſe; the mould branches. The beſt tinie for this work is the niddle or
fhould be made fine; beds fhould be marked out four latter end of Auguſt. Having then budded your ſtocks
feet wide, and in length proportionable to the quantity; with the eyes or buds fronting the north, early in Oc-
and in theſe the ſeeds ſhould be regularly fown, ſifting tober take off the baſs-matting, which before this time
over then about half an inch of the fineſt niould. When will have confined the bark and pinched the bud, but
the plants come up,they muſt be kept clean from weeds, not ſo as to hurt it much. Then cut off the ſtock
and frequently watered; and this work muſt be duly at juſt above the bud, and dig the ground between the
tended to all ſummer. The next ſpring, the ſtrongeſt rows. The ſummer following, keep the ground clean
may be drawn out, and planted in the nurſery, in rows from weeds ; cut off all natural ſide-buds from the ſtock
two feet aſunder, and at the diſtance of a foot froin each as they come out ; and by autuinn, if the land is good,
other in the rows ; leaving the others in the ſeminary the buds will have ſhot forth, and formed themſelves
to gain ſtrength. The ſpring following they alſo muſt into trees five or fix feet high. They may be then re-
receive the ſame culture ; and in the nurſery they may moved into the places where they are deligned to re-
remain with no other trouble than keeping the ground main ; or a few of them only may be drawn out, lea-
clean from the weeds in ſummer, digging between thè ving the others to be trained up for larger ſtandards.
rows in the winter, and taking off all ſtrong and irre The ſtriped Norway maple ſhould be budded on ſtocks
gular fide-ſhoots till they are planted out. Trees raiſed of its own kind; for on iheſe they take beít, and both
from ſeedswill grow faſter and arriveat greater height, kinds are not very liable to run away from their co-
than thoſe raiſed from layers: but they will not pro- lours. Variegated plants in general must be planted in
poor,
ACE
[ 62 ]
A CH
Acuib
THROSIS.
Aceta-
bulum,
Aceta.
poor, hungry, gravelly, or fandy ſoils, to feed the diſ. by forming that ſpecies of articulation called ENAR-
bulum
caſe which occalions theſe beautiful ſtripes, and cauſe
it to be more powerful. But theſe trees ſhow their ACETABULUM, in botany, the trivial name of a ſpe-
Achæans.
ſtripes in greater perfection in a good ſoil : The plant, cies of the peziza, or cup-peziza, a genus belonging to
though in fickneſs, has the appearance of health; thé the cryptogamia fungi of Linnæus. It has got the
foots are vigorous and ſtrong ; the leaves are large, name of acetabulum, from the reſemblance its leaves
leſs liable to be hurt by infects; and the ſtripes appear bear to a cup.
See PEZIZA.
nore perfect, natural, and beautiful, than thoſe on ACETARY. Nehemiah Grew, in his anatomy of
ſtunted trees growing on a poor ſoil.
plants, applies the term to a pulpy ſubſtance in certain
ACERB, a four rough aſtringency of taſte, ſuch as fruits, e.g. the pear, which is incloſed in a congeries
that of unripe fruit.
of ſmall calculous bodies towards the baſe of the fruit,
ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the citerior princi- and is always of an acid taſte.
pality of Naples, with a biſhop's fce. E. Long. 15.
ACETOSA, Sorrel; by Linnæus joined to the ge-
46. N. Lat. 40, 50.
nus of Dock, under the title of Rumex. See RUMEX.
ACERINA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Pliny, ACETOSELLA, in botany, a ſpecies of OXALIS.
and other of the old naturaliſts, to the fiſh we at this ACETOUS, an epithet applied to ſuch ſubſtances
time call the ruffe. See PERCA.
as are four or partake of the nature of vinegare
ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar erected, among ACETUM, VINEGAR, the vegetable ACID of the
the Romans, near the bed of a perſon deceaſed, on chemiſts. See VINEGAR.
which his friends daily offered incenſe till his burial. ACHABYTUS (anc, geog.), a high niountain in
The real intention probably was to overconieany offen- Rhodes, on the top of which ſtood a temple of Jupiter.
five ſmell that might ariſe from the corpſe. The Chi ACHÆA (anc. geog.), a town of the iſland of
neſe have ſtill a cuſtom like this: they erect an altar Rhodes, in the diſtrict of Jalyſus, and the firſt and
to the deceaſed in a room hung with mourning; and moſt ancient of all, ſaid to be built by the Heliades,
place an image of the dead perſon on the altar, to which or Grandſons of the Sun.
every one that approaches it bows four times, and of ACHÆA, a hamlet of Aſiatic Sarmacia on the Eux-
fers oblations and perfumes.
ine. The inhabitants were called Achæi, a colony of
The Acerra alſo ſignified a little por wherein were the Orchomenians.
put the incenſe and perfumes to be burnt on the altars ACHÆANS, the inhabitants of ACHAIA Propria,
of the gods and before the dead. It appears to have a Peloponneſian ſtate. This republic was not con-
been the ſame with what was otherwiſe called thuri- ſiderable in early times, for the number of its troops,
bulim, and pyxis.
nor for its wealth, nor for the extent of its territories;
We find mention of Acerræ in the ancient church. but it was fained for its probity, its juſtice, and its
The Jews had alſo their Acerræ, in our verſion render- love of liberty. Its high reputation for theſe virtues
ed cenfers; and the Romaniſts ſtill retain them under was very ancient.
ancient. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to
the name of incenfe-pots. In Roman writers, we fre- re-eſtabliſh order in their towns, adopted the laws and
quently meet with plena acerra, a full acerra : to un cuſtoms of the Achæans. After tlie famous battle of
derſtand which, it is to be obſerved, that people were Leuctra, a difference aroſe betwixt the Lacedemonians
obliged to offer incenſe in proportion to their eſtate and and Thebans, who held the virtue of this people in
condition; the rich in larger quantities, the poor only ſuch veneration, that they terminated the diſpute by
a few grains ; the former poured out acerras full on their deciſion. The government of the Achæans was
the altar, the latter took out two or three bits with deniocratical. They preſerved their liberty till the
their fingers.
time of Philip and Alexander : But in the reign of
ACERRA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of thoſe princes, and afterwards, they were either ſubject
Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro ; ſeated on the ri to the Macedonians, who had made themſelves maſters
ver Agno. E. Long. 15. 10. N. Lat. 40. 55. of Greece, or oppreſſed by cruel tyrants. The Achæan
ACERRÆ (anc. geog.), the ancient name of a commonwealth conſiſted of twelyeinconſiderable towns
town on the Clanius, in Campania, not far from Naples, in Peloponneſus. Its firſt annals are not marked by any
now ACERRA.-The name alſo of another town, now great action, for they are not graced with one eminent
called la Girola in the territory and to the ſouth-eaſt character. After the death of Alexander, this little
of Lodi, where the rivulet Serio falls into the Adda, republic was a prey to all the evils which flow from po-
to the weſt of Cremona and north of Placentia. litical diſcord. A zeal for the good of the community
ACESCENT, a word uſed to denote any thing was now extinguilhed: Each town was only attentive
which is turning four, or which is ſlightly acid. It is to its private intereſt. There was no longer any ſtabi-
only applied properly to the former of theſe two mean- lity in the ſtate ; for it changed its maſters with every
ings. The ſecond may be expreſſed by either of the revolution in Macedonia. Towards the 124" Olym-
two words, accidulous or ſub-acid.
piad, about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and
ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a meaſure uſed by when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the republic of the A-
the ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It ſeems chæans recovered its old inſtitutions and unanimity.
to have acquired its name froni a velfel in which ace The inhabitants of Patæ and Dymæ were the firſt
tum or vinegar was brought to their tables, and which afferters of ancient liberty. The tyrants were baniſh-
probably contained about this quantity,
ed, and the towns again made one commonwealth.
ACETABULUM, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone for A public council was then held, in which affairs of
receiving, the proruberant head of another, and there, importance were diſcuſſed and determined. A regiſter
was
ACH
[ 63 ]
A CH
Achæi was appointed to record the tranfactions of the coun Sea, on the ſouth by Elis and Arcadia, and on the eaſt Achaia
1 cil. This aſſembly had two preſidents, who were no by Sicyonia: inhabitants, the Achaans, properly ſo
1
Achaja. minated alternately by the different towns.
But in called; its metropolis, Patre. It is now called 'Ro- Aclieen.
ſtead of two preſidents, they ſoon elected but one. Ma mania Alta, in the Morea.
ny neighbouring towns which admired the conſtitution Achaia was alſo taken for all thoſe countries that
of this republic, founded or equality, liberty, the love joined in the Achæan league, reduced by the Romans
of juſtice, and of the public good, were incorporated to a province. Likewife for Peloponneſus.
with the Achæans, and admitted to the full enjoyment ĀCHAIÆ Preſbyteri, or the Preſbyters of Achaia,
of their laws and privileges. The arms which the were thoſe who were preſent at the martyrdom of St
Achæans chiefly uſed were ſlings. They were trained Andrew the Apoſtle, A. D. 59; and are ſaid to have
to the art from their infancy, by flinging from a great written an epiſtle in relation to it. Bellarmin, and fe-
diſtance, at a circular mark of a moderate circamfe- veral other eminent writers in the church of Rome,
rence. By long practice they took ſo nice an aim, allow it to be genuine, while Du Pin, and ſome o-
that they were ſure, not only to hit their eneinies on thiers, expreſsly rejcct it.
the head, but on any part of the face they choſe. ACHAIUS, ſon of Ethwin, was raiſed to the
Their ſlings were of a different kind from thoſe of the crown of Scotland, A. D. 788. The emperor Char-
Balearians, whom they far ſurpaſſed in dexterity. lemagne ſent an embally to deſire an alliance with
ACHÆÍ, (Achæans); the inhabitants of Achaia him againſt the Englih, whoſe parties ſo infeſted the
Propria. Ín Livy, the people of Greece; for the moſt ſeas, that the merchants could not carry on their
part called Achivi, by the Roman poets.. In Homer,
In Homer, trade. This alliance was concluded in France upon
the general name for Grecians. See ACH EANS. conditions ſo advantageous to the Scots, that Achaius,.
ACHÆORUM PORTUS, (Pliny.) ; now Porto to perpetuate the memory of it, added to the arms
Buon, a harbour of the Cherſoneſus Taurica, on the of Scotland a double field lowed with lilies. He died
Euxine, Another, near Sigæum, into which the in 819.
Xanthus, after being joined by the Simois, falls. ACHALALACTLI, in ornithology, a ſpecies of
ACHÆMENES, according to Herodotus, was fa- king's-fiſher. See ALCEDO. .
ther of Cambyſes, and grandfather of Cyrus the firſt, ACHAN, the ſon of Carni, of the tribe of Judah,
king of Perſia. Moſt of the commentators of Horace at the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred thekels
are of opinion, that the Achæmenes whom that poet of ſilver, a Babyloniſh garment, and a wedge of gold,
mentions, ode xii. of his 2d book, was one of the Per contrary to the expreſs command of God. This ſin
ſian monarchs: but, if that were true, he muſt have proved fatal to the Iſraelites, who were repulſed at the
reigned before the Medes ſubdued the Perſians; for fiege of Ai. In this dreadful exigence, Joſhua proſtra-
we do not hear of any king of that name from the time ted himſelf before the Lord, and begged that he would
that the Perſians founded that great monarchy, which have mercy upon his people. Achan was diſcovered
is looked upon as the ſecond univerſal one. However by caſting lots, and he and his children were ſtoned to
this be, the epithet Archæmenians is frequently given death. This expiation being made, Ai was taken by
to the Perſians, in the old Latin poets.
ſtratagem. Joſh. vii. 8. 9.
ACHEMENES, ſon of Darius I. king of Perſia, and ACHANE, an ancient Perſian corn meaſure, con--
brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt be- taining 45 Attic medimni.
ſtowed on hin, after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians ACHARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, ſituate
to return to their allegiance. He ſometinie after com between Trulles and Nyſa; in which were the temple
manded the Egyptian feet in the celebrated expedition of Pluto, and the cave Charoniuni, where patients ſlept
which proved ſo fatal to all Greece. The Egyptians in order to obtain a cure.
having again taken up arms after the death of Xerxes, ACHAT, in law, inplies a purchaſe or bargain.
Achæmenes was ſent into Egypt to ſuppreſs the rebel- And hence probably purveyors were called Achatorsg.
lion ; but was vanquiſhed by Inarus, chief of the rebels, from their making bargains.
fuccoured by the Athenians.
ACHATES, the companion of Eneas, and his moſt
ACHÆUS, coulin-german to Seleucus Ceraunus faithful friend, celebrated in Virgil.
and Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, became a ACHATES, in natural hiſtory. See AGATE.
very powerful monarch, and enjoyed the dominions ACHATES (anc. geog.), a river of Sicily, now the
he had uſurped for many years ; but at laſt he was pu- Drillo; which runs from north to fouth, alınoſt paral-
niſhed for his uſurpations in a dreadful manner, in the lel with, and at no great diſtance from, the Gela; and.
*Lib. viii, 140th year of Rome, as related by Polybius*.
rifes in the north of the territory of Notto. It gave
cap. v. 6. ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece name to the Achates, or Agate, ſaid to be firſt found
which Ptolemy calls Hellas; the younger Pliny, Græ. there.
cia ; now called Livadia : bounded on the north by ACHAZIB, or ACHZIB, (anc. geog.), a town of
Theſſaly, the river Sperchius, the Sinus Maliacus, and Galilee, in the tribe of Aſher, nine
miles from Ptole-
mount Oeta ; on the weſt by the river Achelous mais.-Alſo a town in the more ſouthern parts of the.
the eaſt, turning a little to the north, it is waſhed by tribe of Judah.
the Archipelago, down to the promontory of Sunium ; ACHÉEN, ACHE', or ACHEN, a kingdom of Su-
the ſouth, joined to the Peloponneſus, or Morea, by matra in the Eaſt-Indies, filuated on the north-weſt-
the iſthmus of Corinth, five miles broad.
ern part of the iſland.
ACHAIA Propria, anciently a ſmall diſtrict in the The capital is ſituated on a river which empties it-
north of Peloponneſus, running weſtward along the bay ſelf near the north-weſt point, or Acheen-head, about
af. Corinth, and bounded on the weſt by the Ionian two miles fron, the mouth. It lies in a wide valley,
formed:
1
; on
A CH
[ 64 ]
ACH
>
Achcen. formel likean amphitheatrebytwolofiyranges of hills. voyages they undertake, and the purpoſes for which achcen.
The river is notlarge, and by emptying itſelf in ſeveral they deſign them. The river is covered with a mul-
channels is rendered very thallow at the bar. In the titude of liſhing ſampans or canoes, which go to ſea
dry monſoon it will not admit boats of any burthen, with the morning breeze, and return in the afternoon,
much leſs large vellels, which lie without, in the road with the ſea wind, full laden.
formed by the islands off the point. Though no long Having no convenient coins, though moſt ſpecies of
er the great mart of eaſterii commodities, it ſtill carries money will be taken there at a valuation, they com
on a conſiderable trade with the natives of that part of monly make their payments in gold duſt, and for that
the coaſt of Indoftan called Telinga, who ſupply it with purpoſe are all provided with ſcales or ſmall ſteelyards.
the cotton goods of their country, and receive in re- They carry their gold about them wrapped up in
turn, gold-duſt, ſapan-wood, betel-nut, patch-leaf (col- pieces of bladder, and often purchaſe to ſo ſmall an a-
fus indicus), a little pepper, fulphur, camphire, and mount, as to make uſe of grain or ſeeds for weights.
benzoin. The country is ſupplied with Bengal opi The monarchy is hereditary; and the king uſually
um, and alſo with iron, and many other articles of maintains a gaard of 100 Seapoys about his palace.
merchandize, by the European traders.
According to Mr Marſden, “ the grand council
Acheen is eſteemed, coinparatively, healthy, being of the nation conſiſts of, the King or Sultan, four
more free from woods and ſwamps than moſtother por- Oolooballangs, and eight of a lower degree, who
lions of the iſland; and the fevers and dyſenteries to ſit on his right hand, and fixteen Cajourangs, who
which theſe are ſuppoſed to give occaſion, are there
lit on his left. At the king's feet ſits a woman,
faid to be uncominion. The ſoil is light and fertile ; to whom he makes knownı his pleaſure : by her it
and the products, beſides thoſe already enumerated as is communicated to an eunuch, who lits next to her,
articles of export trade, and a variety of fine fruits, are and by him to an officer named Cajoorang Gondong,
chiefly rice and cotton. There is likewiſe fome raw who then proclaims it aloud to the affembly. There
filk procured in the country, of very inferior quality . are alſo preſent two other officers, one of whom has
Gold duſt is collected in the mountains near Acheen, the government of the bazar or market, and the o-
but the greateſt part is brought from the ſouthern ports ther the ſuperintending and carrying into execution
of Nalaboo and Sooſoo. The ſulphur is gathered from the puniſhment of criminals. All matters relative to
a volcano mountain in the neighbourhood, which ſup- commerce and the cuſtoms of the port coine under the
plics their own conſumption for the manufacture of juriſdiction of the Shabandar, who performs the cere-
gun-powder, and admits of a large exportation.' mony of giving the chap or licence for trade ; which
In their perſons, the Acheneſe differ from the reſt of is done by lifting a golden handed creeſe over the head
the Sumatrans, being taller, ftouter, and darker com of the merchant wlio arrives, and without which he
plexioned. They appear not to be a genuine people; but dares not to land his goods. Preſents, the value of
are thought, with great appearance of reaſon, to be a which are become pretty regularly aſcertained, are then
mixture of Bartas, Malays, and Moors from the weſt of ſent to the king and his officers. If the ſtranger be in
India. In their diſpoſitions they are more active and the ſtyle of an ambaſſador, the royal elephants are ſent
induſtrious than their neighbours; they poſſeſs more down to carry him and his letters to the monarch's
penetration and fagacity; have more general know- preſence; theſe being firſt delivered into the hands of
Iedge; and as merchants, they deal upon a more exten an eunuch, who places them in a ſilver diſh, covered
live and liberal footing. Their religion is Mahome- with rich ſilk, on the back of the largeſt elephant,
taniſm ; and, having a great number of moſques and which is provided with a machine (houder) for that
prieſts, its forms and ceremonies are ftri&ly obſerved. purpoſe. Within about an hundred yards of an open
The appearance of the town, and the nature of the hall where the king fits, the cavalcade ſtops, and
buildings, are much the ſame as are found in the ge- the ambaſſador diſmounts, and makes his obeiſance by
nerality of Malay bazars, excepting that the fuperior bending his body, and lifting his joined hands to his
wealth of this place has occafioned a great number head. When he enters the palace, ifan European, he
of public edifices, but without the ſmalleſt pretenſions is obliged to take off his ſhoes ; and having made a ſe.
to magnificence. The king's palace, if it deſerves the cond obeiſance, is ſeated upon a carpet on the fioor,
appellation, is a very rude and uncouth piece of archi- where betel is brought to him. The throne was ſome
tecture, deligned to reſiſt the force of an enemy, and years agoof ivory and tortoiſeſhell, and when the place
Lurrounded for that purpoſe by ſtrong walls, but with was governed by queens, a curtain of gauze was hang
out any regular plan, or view to the modern fyftem of before it, which did not obſtruct the audience, but pre-
military attack. The houſes in common are built of vented any perfect view. The ſtranger, after ſome ge-
bamboos and rough timber, and raiſed fome feet from neral diſcourſe, is 'then conducted to a ſeparate build-
the ground on account of the place being overflowed ing where he is entertained with the delicacies of the
in the rainy ſeaſon.
country, by the officers of ſtate, and in the evening re-
A conſiderable fabrick of a thick fpecies of cotton turns in the manner he came, ſurrounded by a prodi-
cloth, and of ſtuff for the ſhort drawers worn both by gious number of lights. On high days (areeryah) the
Malays and Acheneſe, is eſtabliſhed here, and ſupplies king goes in great ſtate mounted on an elephant richly
an extenſive demand. They weave alſo very handſome capariſoned, to the great moſque,preceded by his ooloo-
filk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the ballangs; who are armed nearly in the European man-
dreſs which is called by the Malays cayen ſarrong.
The Acheneſe are expert and bold navigators, The country under the immcdiate juriſdiction of
and employ a variety of veſſels, according to the Acheen, is divided into three diſtricts, named Duo
pooloo
3
4
ner."
A CH
[65 ]
A CH
Achen, pooloo duo, Duo pooloo leemo, and Duo pooloo anam. the bellowing of their waters, or from their ploughing Acheri
Achelous. Each diArict is governed by a Pangleemo, and under the earth in their courſe: Hercules,reſtraining bydykes
him an Imaum and four Pangecches to each moſque, and mounds theinundations of thé Achelous, is ſaid to Achicolum.
« Achen has ever been remarkable for the ſeverity have broken off one of his horns, and to have brought
with which crimes are puniſhed by their laws ; the back plenty to the country. See the preceding article.
ſame rigour ſtill ſubſiſts, and there is no commutation ACHERI (LUKE D'), a learned Benedictine of the
admitted, as is regularly eſtabliſhed in the ſouthern congregation of St Maur, was born at St Quintin, in
countries. There is great reaſon, however, to conclude Picardy, in 1609; and made himſelf famous by printing
that the poor alone experience the rod of juſtice; the ſeveral works, which till then were only in manuſcript:
nobles being ſecure from retribution in the number of particularly, The epiſtle attributed to St Barnabas ;
their dependents. Petty theft is puniſhed by ſuſpend. The works of Lanfrank, archbiſhop of Canterbury ;
ing the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy A collection of ſcarce and curious pieces, under the
weight lied to his feet; or by cutting off a finger, a title of Spicilegium, i. e. Gleanings, in thirteen vo-
hand, or leg, according to the nature of the theft. lumes, quarto. The prefaces and notes, which he an-
Many of thele mutilated
and wretched objects are daily nexed to many of theſe pieces, ſhow him to have been a
to be ſeen in the ſtreets. Robbery on the highway and man of genius and abilities. He had alſo fonie ſhare.in
houſe-breaking are puniſhed by drowning, and after the pieces inſerted in the firſt volumes of The acts of
wards expoſing the body on a Itake for a few days. If the faints of the order of St Bennet; the title wliereof
the robbery is committed upon an imuumor prieſt, the acquaints us that they were collected and publiſhed
facrilege is expiated by burning the criminal alive. Aby him and father Mabillon. After a very retired life,
man who is convicted of adultery is ſeldom attempted till the age of 73, he died at Paris the 29th of April,
to be ſcreened by his friends, but is delivered up to the 1685, in the abbey of St Germain in the fields, where
friends and relations of the injured huſband. Theſe he had been librarian.
take him to ſome large plain, and forming themſelves ACHERNER, or ACHARNER, a ſtar of the firſt
in a circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon magnitude in the fouthern extremity of the conſtel-
called a Gadonbong, is then delivered to him by one of lation ERIDANUS.
his family, and if he can force his way through thoſe ACHERON, a river of Epirus. The poets feign-
who ſurround him, and make his eſcape, he is not ed it to have been the ſon of Ceres, whom ſhe hid in
liable to further proſecution; but it commonly happens hell for fear of the Titans, and turned into a river, o-
that he is inſtantly cut to pieces. In this caſe liis re ver which fouls departed were ferried in their way to
lations bury him as they would do a buffalo, refuſing to Elyſium.
admit the corpſe into their houſe, or to perform any ACHERON, a river of Theſprotia, in Epirus; which,
funeral rites." Theſe diſcouragements to vice might after forming the lake Acherufia, at no great diſtance
ſeem to beſpeak a moral and virtuous people : yet all from, it falls into the ſea near the promontory of Chi-
travellers agree in repreſenting the Acheneſeas one of merium, to the weſt of the Sinus Ambracius, in a courſe
the moſt diſhoneſt and flagitious nations of the Eaſt. from north to fouth.
Achen was viſited by the Portugueſe in 1509, only ACHERON, or ACHEROS, a river of the Bruttii iit
I 2 years after they had diſcovered the paſſage to the Italy, running from eaſt to weſt: Where Alexander
Eaſt-Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. They made king of Epirus was flain by the Lucani, being decei.
various attenipts to eſtabliſh themſelves in the country, ved by the oracle of Dodona, which bid him beware of
but were expelled with diſgrace. See SUMMATRA. Acheron.
ACHELOUS, in fabulous hiſtory, wreſtled with ACHERSET, an ancient meaſure of corn, conjec-
Hercules, for no leſs a prize than Deianira, daughter tured to be the ſame as our quarter, or eight buſhels.
to king Oenus : but as Achelous had the power of aſ ACHERUSIA PELUS, a lake between Cuinæ and
fuming all ſhapes, the conteſt was long dubious : at laſt, the proniontory Miſenum, now it Lago Della Collucia,
as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his (Cluverius.) Some confound it with the Lacus Lucri-
horns ; ſo that he was forced to ſubmit, and to redeemn us, and others with the Lacus Averni. But Strabo
it by giving the conqueror the horn of Amalthea, the and Pliny diſtinguiſh them. The former takes it to be
ſame with the Cornucopia or horn of plenty ; which an effuſion, exundation, or waſhes of the ſea, and there-
Hercules having filled with a variety of fruits, conſe- fore called by Lycophron, Axap851a xu916.---Alfo a lake
crated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by ſaying, of Epirus, through which the Acheron runs.—There
That Achelous is a winding river of Greece, whole is alſo an Acherufia, a peninſula of Bithynia on the
ſtream was forapid, that it roared like a bull, and over Euxine, near Heraclea, and a cave there of the ſame
flowed its banks; but Hercules, by bringing itinto two name, through which Hercules is fabled to have de-
channels, broke off one of the horns, and ſo reſtored ſcended to hell to drag forth Cerberus.
plenty to the country. See the next artick.
ACHIAR, is a Malayan word, which fignifies all
ACHElous, a river of Acarnania; which riſes in forts of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and ſpice.
mount Pindus, and, dividing Ætolia from Acarnania, The Dutch import from Batavia all ſorts of achiar,
falls from north to ſouth into the Sinus Corinthiacus. but particularly that of BAMBOO (ſee ARUNDO), a
It was formerly called Thuas, from its impetuoſity, and kind of cane, extremely thick, which grows in the
king of rivers, (Homer.) The epithet Achelous is Eaſt Indies. it is preſerved there, whilſt it is ftill
uſed for Aqucus, Virgil); the ancients calling all water green, with a very ſtrong vinegar and ſpice; and is
Achelous, eſpecially in oaths, vows, and facrifices, accor called bamboo-achiar. The name changes according
ding to Ephorus: Now called Afpro Fotamo. Rivers to the fruit with which the achiar is niade.
are by the ancient poets called Taurifornies, either froin ACHICOLUM, is uſed to expreſs the fornix, tho-
VOL. I.
I
lus,
ز
ACH
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A CH
و
Achillæa. lus, or fudatorium of the ancient baths; which was a venna, or Alpine umbelliferous worin wood, takes its Achillæa.
hot room where they uſed to ſweat. It is alſo called name from the mountains of which it is a native. It
architrolus.
feldom grows above fix or ſeven inches in height; it
ACHILLÆA, YARROW, MILFOIL, ŅOSEBLEED, ſupports umbels of white flowers, like thoſe of the
or SNEEZEWORT ; a genus of the order of the polyga- common ſneezewort, which appear in April and May.
mia fuperflua, belonging to the fyngeneſia claſs of The leaves are tilvery, and ſhaped like thoſe of worn-
plants. The natural order to which it belongs is the wood, which often decay in the autumn and winter.
49th, Compoſitæ diſcoides.
6. The tanacetifolia, or eaſtern ſneezewort, with tan-
The characters are : The common calyx is ovate fey leaves, is a very humble plant, ſeldom riſing above
and imbricated, with ovate, acute, converging ſcales. lix inches in height. The flowers are nearly as large
The compound corolla is rayed; the hermaphrodite co-
as thoſe of the common ſneezewort, white, and grow-
rollets are tubular ilī the diſc, the feminine lingui- ing in flat umbels. They appear in June and July,
form and from 5 to 10 in the rays: The proper corol. The leaves of the plant have ſome likeneſs to thoſe of
la of the hermaphrodites is funnel-ſhaped, expanded, the common wormwood, are very hoary, grow cloſe
and divided into 5 ſegments; that of the females, to the ground, and decay in autumn ſo as to make little
tongue-ſhaped, inverſely cordated, expanding, and of appearance in winter. Like the laſt ſpecies, this is a
3 ſegments. The ſtamina in the bermaphrodites con- native of the Alps. 7. The ageratum, or ſweet maud.
fiſt of 5 very ſhort capillary filaments; the anthera is lin, was formerly much uſed in medicine and for culi-
cylindric and tubular. The piſtillum in the hermaphro- nary purpoſes, but has now fallen ſo much into neg-
dites lias a ſmall germen ; the ſtylus is filiform the lect as to be totally unknown in the markets; fo that
Jength of the ſtamina; the ſtigma is obtuſe and end- when it is demanded, the white maudlin is ſubſtituted
notched : in the females, the germen is ſmall; the ſty- in its ſtead. The reaſon of this ſubſtitution was, that
Ius is filiform ; the ſtigmata are 2, obtuſe and reflected the latter is more hardy and eaſily propagated than the
The pericarpium is wanting ; the calyx ſcarcely chan- ſweet maudlin, which is apt to rot in wet winters. The
ged; the receptacle filiform, elongated at the diſc of common maudlin flowers in June and July, and the ſeeds
the ſeeds, ovate, and twice as long as the calyx. The are ripe in September. 8. The Egyptiaca, or hoary
Seeds are ſolitary, ovate, and furniſhed with a lock of ſneezewort, is a native of the Archipelago. It hatlı-
wool; no pappus. The receptaculum is chaffy and ele- very hoary leaves, which remain all the year ; and
yated.
the plants growing cloſe and low, make a pretty ap-
Species and properties. There are 20 ſpecies, of pearance at all ſeaſons. The flowers are yellow, and
which the following are the principal: I. The mil are produced in umbels on the top of the ſtalks ; they
lifolium, or common yarrow, is found naturally on appear in June, and continue till the end of Septem-
banks, and by the fides of foot-paths, in moſt parts of ber. 9. The ptarmica, or common ſneezewort, grows
England. It moſt commonly bears white howers, wild in the woods, and other ſhady places, in many
though a variety of it is found which bears purple ones. parts of England; fo is not admitted into gardens.
Theſe, however, do not long continue to bear flowers There is a variety, however, with double flowers,
of this colour, if tranſplanted into gardens. It was which is preſerved in gardens, and is commonly known
formerly uſed in medicine ; but though it may ſtill have by the name of double maudlin. This ſpecies creeps
a place in ſome diſpenſatories, no phyſician of any note greatly by the roots, ſo as ſoon to overſpread a lar
expects any virtue from it, or ever preſcribes it. It ſpot of ground. If planted in pots, ſo as to confine its
creeps greatly by its roots, and alſo multiplies by the roots from creeping, the ſtalks grow cloſe together,
feeds, ſo that it becomes a troubleſome weed where it and make a tolerable appearance when in flower ; but
is once allowed to get a footing. The cultivation of it when at a diſtance, ſo that the roots have full liberty.
is recommended by Mr Anderſon, in his Eſſays on A lo run, the flowers appear but indifferently. 10. The
griculture, as a proper food for cattle. This ſpecies macrophylla, or Alpine ſneezewort, with fewer
was the proper achillæa of the ancients, ſo named from leaves, is a native of the Alps. It produces many ſtalks
Achilles ; who, having been the diſciple of Chiron, firſt riſing near three feet high; having looſe branching
brought it into uſe for the cure of wounds and ulcers. umbels of white flowers on their top, reſembling thoſe
2. The fantolina, or eaſtern ſneezewort, is ſometimes of the common ſneezewort, but larger. 11. The na-
cultivated in gardens; it has large yellow flowers, which na, or hoary Alpine milfoil, is likewiſe a native of the
ſtand upon pretty long foot talks placed ſingly, not in Alps; the leaves are hoary, and the umbels of its flow-
bunches as in the common kind. It has leaves like ers are more compact than the former; the ſtalks do not
lavender-cotton, which,when rubbed,emita ſtrong oily riſe more than a foot high. 12. The nobilis, or ſweet
odour. The flowers appear in June and July. 3. The milfoil, approaches to the nature of the common mil-
tomentoſa, or woolly yarrow, is a native of the ſouth of foil; but its leaves are of a paler green, and are nei-
France and Spain, but lives in the open air in England. ther ſo long nor ſo much cut off as thoſe of the common
The flowers are of a bright yellow, and continue long milfoil are: they have a ſtrong ſweet ſcent when brui-
in beauty, growing in cluſters at the top of the ſtalks, ſed. 13. The alpina, or white maudlin, bears fome re-
which feldom riſe above a foot high. The leaves are ſemblance to the common ſneezewort; but the leaves
finely cut, and very hoary. 4. The abrotanifolia, or are longer, of a deeper green colour, and deeply in--
tall eaſtern yarrow, is a native of the iſlands in the Ar dented in their edges; the flowers are white, and the
chipelago : it grows to the height of two feet and a roots creep far under ground. The plant will riſe, in
half, with large umbels of yellow flowers on the top; good land, to the height of four feet.
the leaves reſemble thoſt of the common wormwood, Culturé. All the forts of yarrow are eaſily propa-
and are cut into long narrow ſegments. 5. The cla- gated by ſeeds, which may be fown either in the ſpring
ACH
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A CH
1
Achmet,
Achilleid, or autuinn upon a bed of common carth. When the ACHILLINI (Alexander), born at Bologna, and Achillini
Achillcs. plants come up, and are ſtrong enough for tranſplant. doctor of Philoſophy in that univerſity. He flourilhed
ing, they ſhould be planted in beds in the nurſery, in the 15th and 16th centuries, and by way of eminence
where they may continue till autumn, when they ſhould was ſtyled the Great Philoſopher. He was a ſteataſt
be tranſplanted to the places where they are to remain. follower and accurate interpreter ofAverroes upon Ari-
The Archipelago kinds, however, are often deſtroyed ſtotle, but moſt admired for his acuteneſs and ſtrength
by ſevere froſt; ſo they ought to be ſheltered during of arguing in public and private diſputations. He made
the winter. Theſe kinds alſo rarely bring their ſeeds a ſurpriſing quick progreſs in his ſtudies, and yras very
to perfection in England; they are therefore to be early promoted to a profeſſorſliip in the univerſity; in
propagated by ſlips, which may be taken off and plant- which he acquitted himſelf with ſo much applauſe that
ed in a ſhady border any time in ſummer, when they his name became famous throughout all Italy. He con-
will take root in about ſix weeks, and then may be tinued at Bologna till the year 1506; when the uni-
tranſplanted where they are to remain.
verſity of Padua made choice of him to ſucceed Anto-
ACHILLEID, ACHILLEIS, a celebrated poem of nio Francatiano in the firſt chair of philoſophy, and
Statius, in which that author propoſed to deliver the his fame brought vaſt numbers of ſtudents to his lec-
whole life and exploits of Achilles; but being prevent- tures at Padua :- but the war, wherein the republic of
ed by death, he has only treated of the infancy and e Venice was engaged againſt the league of Cambray,
ducation of this hero. See Starius.
putting a ſtop to the lectures of that univerſity, he
ACHILLES, one of the greateſt heroes of ancient withdrew to his native country; where he was received
Greece, was the ſon of Peleus and Thetis. He was a with the ſame marks of honour and diſtinction as be-
native of Pythia, in Theſſaly. His mother, it is ſaid, fore, and again appointed profeſſor of philofophy in
in order to conſume every mortal part of his body, uſed Bologna. He ſpent the remainder of his life in this
to lay him every night under live coals, anointing him city, where he died, and was interred with great pomp
witli ambroſia, which preſerved every part from burn- in the church of St Martin the Great, which belongs to
ing but one of his lips, owing to his having licked it. the Carmelite Friars. Jovius, who knew Achillini, and
She dipped him alſo in the waters of the river Styx; heard his lectures, ſays, that he was a man of ſuch ex-
by which his whole body became invulnerable, except ceeding ſimplicity, and ſo unacquainted with addreſs
that part of his heel by which ſhe held him. But this and flattery, that he was a laughing-ſtock to the pert
opinion is not univerſal, nor is it a part of his charac- and faucy young ſcholars, although eſteemedon account
ter as drawn by Homer; for in the Iliad (B. xxi. 161.) of his learning. He wrote ſeveral pieces on philofo-
he was actually wounded in the right arm, by the lancé phical ſubjects, which he publiſhed, and dedicated to
of Afteropaus, in the battle near the river Scamander. John Bentivogli.
Thetis afterwards entruſted him to the care of the cen ACHILLINI (Claudius), grandſon of the former,
taur Chiron, who, to give him the ſtrength neceſſary read lectures at Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma; where
for martial toil, fed him with honey and the marrow he was reputed a great philoſopher, a learned divine, an
of lions and wild boars. To prevent his going to excellent lawyer, an eloquent orator, a good mathe-
the ſiege of Troy, ſhe diſguiſed him in female apparel, matician, and an elegant poet. He accompanied Car-
and hid him among the maidens at the court of king dinal Ludovino, who went as legate into Piedmont; but
Lycomedes : but Ulyſſes diſcovering him, perſuaded being afterward neglected by this cardinal, when he
him to follow the Greeks. Achilles diſtinguiſhed him- became pope under the name of Gregory XV. he left
ſelf by a number of heroic actions at the ſiege. Being Rome in diſguſt, and retired to Parına ; where the duke
diſguſted, however, with Agamemnon for the loſs of appointed him profeſſor of law, with a good ſalary. He
Briſeis, he retired from the camp. But returning to publiſhed a volume of Latin Letters, and another of
avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he flew Hec. Italian poems, which gained him great reputation : he
tor, faſtened his corps to his chariot, and dragged it died in 1640, aged 66.
round the walls of Troy. At laſt Paris, the brother ACHIOTTĚ, or Achiott, a foreign drug, uſed
of Heftor, wounded him in the heel with an arrow, in dying, and in the preparation of chocolate. It is
while he was in the temple treating about his marriage the ſame with the ſubſtance more uſually known by
with Philoxena, daughter to king Priam. Of this the name ARNOTTO ; which ſee
wound he died, and was interred on the promontory of ACHIROPOETOS, a name given by ancient wri-
Sigæum; and after Troy was taken, the Greeks ſacri ters to certain miraculous pictures of Chriſt and the
ficed Philoxena on his tomb, in obedience to his deſire, Virgin, ſuppoſed to have been made without hands.
that he might enjoy her company in the Elyſian fields. The moſt celebrated of theſe is a picture of Chriſt,
It is ſaid that Alexander, ſeeing his tomb, honoured preſerved in the church of St. John Lateran at Rome;
it by placing a crown upon it ; at the ſame time cry. ſaid to have been begun by St. Luke, but finiſhed by
ing out, that “ Achilles was happy in having, during the miniſtry of angels.
his life, ſuch a friend as Patroclus ; and, after his ACHMET, ſon of Seerim, has left a book concern-
death, a poet like Homer.” Achilles is ſuppoſed to ing the interpretation of dreams according to the doc-
hiave died 1183 years before the Chriſtian æra. trine of the Indians, Perſians and Egyptians, which
ACHILLES TATIUS. See TATIUS.
was tranſlated out of the Greek into Latin by Leo Tuf-
Tendo Achillis, in anatomy, is a ſtrong tendinous cus in 1160. He lived in the 9th century.
cord formed by the tendons of ſeveral muſcles, and in ACHMET-GEDUC, a famous general under Ma-
ſerted into the os calcis. It has its naine from the fa- homet II. and Bajazet II. in the 15th century. When
tal wound Achilles is ſaid to have received in that part Mahomet II. died, Bajazet and Zezan both claimed
from Paris the ſon of Priam.
the throne : Achmet ſided with the former, and by his
bravery
I 2
A CH
( 68 ) je
A CH
strhmct- bravery and conduct fixed the crown on his head. But and pretended to cure all diſorders. Somc lucky in- Achmin
fchet, Bajazet took araylislife; thining virtue being always ſtances of ſucceſs, due lo ilaturc alone, and ſometimes !
Achmin,
Achras.
an unpari'onable crime in the eyes of a tyrant. to the imagination of the patients, gave him great ce-
ACHMETSCHEr, a town of the peninſula of lebrity. He ſoon confined his ſerpent Haridi co the
the Criinea, the rellence of thc ſultan Galga, who is tomb, producing him only to oblige princes and per-
ellett fon of the khan of Tartary. Long. 51. 20. Lat. fons capable of giving him a handſome rccompence.
45. C.
The ſucceſſors of this prieſt, brought up in the ſame
ACHLIM, a large town of Upper Egypt, ſituated principles, found no difficulty in giving fanćtion to
on the eaiern bank of the Nile. “One admires there fo advantageous ani error. Thiey added to the general
(ſays Abulieda, as quoted by Mr Savary), a temple, perfuation of his virtue that of his iinmortality. They
which is comparable to the moſt celebrated monuments had the boldneſs even to make a public proof of it.
of antiquity. It is conſtructed with ſtoncs of a ſurpri. The ferpent was cut in pieces in preſence of the Emir,
finy lize,on which are ſculptured innumerable figures.” and placed for two hours under a vafe. At the inſtant
Though this town be fallen from its ancient ſplendor, of lifting up the vaſe, the prieſts, no doubt, had the
it is till one of the moſt beautiful of Upper Egypt. addreſs to ſubſtitute one exałly reſembling it. A mira-
Acco:ding to Mir Savary, an Arab prince commands cle was proclaimed, and the immortal Haridi acquired a
there, and the police is well attended to. The ſtreets freſh degree of confideration. This knavery procures
are wide and clean, and commerce and agriculture flou- them great advantages. The people Hock from all quar-
riſh. It has a manufactory of cotton, Ituffs, and pot ters to pray at this tomb; and if the ſerpent crawls
tery, which are conveyed over all Egypt. It is the out from under the ſtone, and approaches the ſuppliant,
ſame that Herodotus calls Cheinmnis, and Strabo Pang it is a ſign that his malady will be cured. It may be
polis, or the city of Pan, who was worſhipped there. imagined, that he does not appear till an offering has
Herodotus ſays, that Perſeus was a native of this city, been made proportioned to the quality and riches of
and that his deſcendants had eſtabliſhed feſtivals there the different perſons. In extraordinary caſes, where
in his honour. It has loſt its ancient cdifices, and niuch the ſick perſon cannot be cured without the preſence
of its extent; the ruins of the temple, deſcribed by of the ferpent, a pure virgiz muſt come to folicit him.
Abulfeda, being without its limits, to the north. No To id inconveniences
on this head, they take care
thing remains of it but ſome ſtones, of ſuch magnitude to chooſe a a very young girl indeed. She is decked out
that the Turks have not been able to move them. They in her beſt clothes, and crowned with flowers. She
are covered with hieroglyphics. On one of them are puts herſelf in a praying attitude ; and as the prieſts
traced four concentric circles, in a ſquare. The inner are inclined, the ſerpent comes out, inakes circles
moſt of theſe contains a fun. The two ſucceeding ones, round the young ſuppliant, and goes and repoſes on
divided into 12 parts, contain, one, 12 birds, the other, her. The virgin, accompanied by a vaſt multitude,
12 animals almoſt effaced, which appear to be the carries him in triumph amidſt the general acclama-
ſigns of the zodiac. The fourth has no diviſions, and tion. No hunian reaſoning would perſuade theſe igno-
preſents 12 human figures; which Mr Savary imagines rant and credulous Egyptians that they are the dupes
to repreſent the 12 gods, the 12 months of the year, of a few impoſtors: they believe in the ſerpent Ha-
and the 12 ſigns of the zodiac. The Egyptians, ſays ridi as firmly as in the prophet.”
Herodotus, are the firſt who divided the year into 12 ACHONRY, a ſmall town of Ireland, in the pro-
months, and employed the naines of the 12 gods. The vince of Connaught and county of Sligo, ſeated on the
four ſeaſons occupy the angles of the ſquare, on the river Shannon.
fide of which may be diſtinguiſhed a globc with wings. ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, lying along the river
Mr Savary thinks it probable that this ſtone belonged Jordan, not far from Gilgal; ſo called from Achan,
to a teniple dedicated to the ſun, that the whole of the troubler of Iſrael, being there ſtoned to death.
theſe hieroglyphics mark his paſſage into the ſigns of ACHOR, in medicine, a ſpecies of HERPES.
tlie zodiac, and his courſe, whoſe revolution forms the ACHOR, in mythology, the god of flies; to whom,
year. The columns of this temple have been partly according to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene facrifi-
broken to inake lime and millſtones. Some of them ced, in order to obtain deliverance from the inſects and
have been tranſported into one of the inofques of Ach the diſorders occafioned by them.
mim, where they are placed without taſte; others are ACHRADINA (anc. geog.), one of the four ci-
heaped up in the fquares of thie town.
ties or diviſions of Syracuſe, and the ſtrongeſt, largeſt,
Mr Savary tells us of a ſerpent which is wor and moſt beautiful part of it ; feparated by a very ſtrong
ſhipped here, and is the wonder of the country. wall from the outer town, Tyrha and Niapolis. It was
“Upwards of a century ago (ſays he), a religious adorned with a very large forum, with beautiful por-
Turk called Scheilk Haridi died here. He paffed ticos, a moſt elegant prytaneum, a ſpacious fenate-
for a faint among the Mahometans; who raiſed a houſe, and a ſuperb temple of Jupiter Olympius,
monument to him, covered with a cupola, at the ACHRAS, or SAPOTA PLUM: a genus of the ino-
foot of the mountain. The people flocked from all nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of
parts to offer up their prayers to him. One of their plants; and ranking in the 430 Natural Order, De-
prieſts, profiting by their credulity, perſuaded them mofa.
that God had made the ſoul of Scheilk Haridi paſs in The characters are: The calyx is a perianthium,
to the body of a ferpent. Many of theſe are found conſiſting of fix ovate concave erect leaflets, the ex-
in the Thebais, which are harınleſs ; and lie had terior ones broader and ſhorter, the interior ones co-
taught one to obey his voice. He appeared with his louied. The corolla is compoſed of one ovate petal,
ſerpent, dazzled the vulgar by his ſurpriſing tricks, the height of the calyx; the border divided inio fix
fcgments,
ACH
[69]
A ĆE I
Acicana
thera
1
do
Achras ſegments. The ſtanina have lix ſhort ſubalared fila botanical gardens, and that more for the ſake of va-
ments at the throat of the çorolla ; and the antheræ riety than beauty. It grows to the height of three
Achyran, are acute. The piltillum has a roundiſh depreſſed ger- feet, with oblong pointed leaves. The fiowers come
thes. men; the ſtylus" is fubulated, and longer than the out in long ſpikes from the extremities of the branches, Acidiry.
corolla ; the ſtigma is obtuſe. The pericarpium is a and appear in July, the ſeeds ripening in September.
globular twelve-celled pomum, with very ſoft fleſh. Plants of this kind muſt be reared in a hot-bed, and
The ſeeds are ſolitary, ovate, and gloſſy.
may be tranſplanted when they have acquired ſaffici.
There are four fpecies, all natives of the Weſt In ent ſtrength. If kept in pots, and ſhieltered during
dies. The principal are, 1. The ſapota, with oblong the winter in a warm green-houſe, they will live two
oval leaves, and ſmootlı turbinated fruit. 2. The mam-
or three years.
moſa, with ſpear-ſhaped leaves, and large oval fruit. ACICANTHERA, in botany, the trivial name of
The firit is common about Panama, and ſome places a ſpecies of RHEXIA.
in the Spaniſh Weſt Indies; but is not to be found in ACICULÆ, the ſmall pikes or prickles of the
any of the Britiſlı ſettlements in America. The fe- hedge-hog, echinus-marinus, &c.
cond fort is very common in Jamaica, Barbadoes, and ACIDALIUS (Valens) would, in all probability,
moſt of the Weſt India Iſlands, where the trees are have been one of ihe greateſt critics in theſe latter a-
planted in the gardens for their fruit, which is by many ges, had he lived longer to perfect thoſe talents which
perſons greatly eſteemed. They grow to the height of nature had giv
nature had given bim. He was born at Witſtock, in
350r 40 feet, having a ſtraight trunk covered with an Brandenburg; and having viſited ſeveral academies in
alh-coloured bark. The branches are produced on e Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was
very fide, forming a regular head; and are beſet with greatly efteemed, he afterwards took up his relidence
leaves near a foot long, and almoſt three inches broad at Brellaw, the metropolis of Sileſia. Here he remain-
in the middle. The flowers are of a cream colour : ed a conſiderable tiine, in expectation of fome employ-
and are ſucceeded by large oyal fruit covered by a ment; but nothing offering, he turned Roman-Catho-
browniſh ſkin, incloſing a thick pulp of a ruffet colour, tic, and was choſen rector of a ſchool at Nieſſa. It
very luſcious, and called natural marmalade, from its is related, that about four months after, as he was fol-
reſemblance to that of quirices. The ſtones taken in lowing a proceſſion of the hoft, he was ſeized with a
emullion are reckoned good againſt the gravel –Theſe ſudden phrenzy, and being carried home, expired in a
trees being natives of very hot climates, cannot be pre- very ſhort time. Bat Thuanus tells us, that his ex-
ſerved in Britain, except in the warmeſt ſtoves. ceflive application to ſtudy was the occaſion of his un-
ACHROMATIC, an epithet exprefling want of co- timely death: and that his fitting up a-nights in compo-
lour. The word is Greek, being compounded of ſing his conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a
privative, and xpound, colour.
.
diſtemper which carried him off in three days, on the
ACHROMATIC Telefcopes, are teleſcopes contrived to 25th of May 1595, being juſt turned of 28. He wrote
remedy the aberrations in colours ; ſee ABERRATION. a Commentaryon Quintus Curtius; alſo, Notes on Ta-
A particular account of the invention and conſtruc- citus, on the twelye Panegyrics; beſides ſpeeches, let-
lion of thefo inftruments will be found under Optics. ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are inſerted in
ACHTELING, a meaſure for liquids uſed in Ger the Deliciæ of the German poets; and conſiſt of epic
many. Thirty-two achtelings make a heemer; four verſes, odes, and epigrams. A little piece, printed in
fciltims or fciltins, make an achteling.
1595, under the title of Mulieres 1012 ffe hominus,
ACHYŘ, a ſtrong town and caſtle of the Ukrain, " That women were not of the human ſpecies,” was
Subject to the Ruſſians ſince 1667. It stands on the falſely afcribed to him. But the fact was, that Acida-
river Vorſklo near the frontiers of Ruſſia, 127 miles lius happening to meet with the manuſcript, and think-
W. of Kiow, Long. 36. o. Lat 49. 32.
ing it very whimſical, tranſcribed it, and gare it to the
ACHYRANTHES, in botany, a gents of the pen- bookſeller, who printed it. The performance was high-
tandria order, belonging to the monogynia claſs of ly exclaimed againſt, inſomuch that the bookſeller be-
plants, and aſſociating with the Miſecllane“, in the ing ſeized, he diſcovered the perſon who gave him the
54th Natural Order.
manuſcript, and a terrible outcry was made againſt Aci-
The characters are: The calyr is a double peri- dalius. A ſtory goes, that being one day to dine at a
antlaium ; the exterior one conliſting of three lan friend's houſe, there happened to be ſeveral ladies
ced acute leaves, which are perfiftent; the interior of at table ; who fuppofing him to be the author, were no-
five leaves, alſo perſiſtent. No corella: Tlie nectarium ved with ſo much indignation, that they threatened to
is five-valved ſurrounding the germen, bearded at the throw their plates at his head. Acidalius, however, in-
top, concave, and falling off. The flamina conliſt of geniouſly diverted their wrath. In his opinion, he ſaid,
five filaments the length of the corolla, the antheræ the author was ajudicious perſon, theladies being cer-
are ovate and incumbent. The piſtillum has a top- tainly more of the ſpecies of angels than of men. Mr
ſhaped germen the ſtylus is filiform, and the length Baillet has given him a place among his Enfans Cele-
of the ſtamina ; the ſtigma is villous, and divided into bres; and ſays, that he wrote a comment upon Plau-
two ſegments. The perianthium is a roundith one tus when he was bat 17 or 18 years old, and that he .
celled capſule, not gaping. The feed is ſingle and ob- compoſed ſeveral Latin poems at the fame age.
long.
ACIDALUS, a fountain in Orchonienus, a city of
this genus cight ſpecies are enumerated; but Bæotia, in which the Graces, who are ſacred to Ve-
he character of the genus does not agree in thein all. nus, bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to
The ſpecies are all natives of the Indies. Only one Venus, (Virgil.)
of them, the amaranthus, is cominonly cultivated in ACIDITY, that quality which renders bodies acid.
ACI.
Of
1.
ACT
[ 70 ]
ACI
1
Acids.
I
Gcncral
of acids.
4
be the acie
Acidoton, ACIDOTON, in botany, the trivial name of a ſpe- with ſuch powerful and even deſtructive properties Acids.
cics of ADELIA.
as many of the acids poſteſs. -The late diſcove-
ACIDS, in chemiſtry, the nanie by which one of ries concerning air of different kinds have ſuggeſted Mr Lavoi-
the general claſſes of ſalts are diſtinguiihed. Tlic cha a new theory, firſt publiſhed by M. Lavoiſier, and ſtre- ſier's hypo-
racteriſtic marks of them are, 1. The peculiar taſte nuouſly maintained by the French chemiſts, viz. That theſis, that
properties which we call four; though this does not hold univer- the acid principle is contained in the air ; and, accor- air is the
fully: for the acid of arſenic, which in other reſpects ding as it combines itſelf with different ſubſtances, acid princi-
manifeſts a ſtrong acid power, has not this four taſte; forms acids of different denominations.
ple.
rior are the volatile ſulphureous acid, or thoſe of tung This theory he conſiders as eſtabliſhed by numerous
(i en and molybdana, lately diſcovered by Mr Scheele, indiſputable experiments. Theſe cannot here be de-
Very diſtinguiſhable in this way. On the other hand, tailed; but his concluſions from the whole are, That
ihe ſtrong acids of vitriol, nitre, and even ſea-falt, are “ dephlogiſticated air enters as a conſtituent part into Baſis of de-
altogether cauſtic, and cannot be taſted until they have the compolition of ſeveral acids, particularly the phoſ- phlogiſti-
been largely diluted with water. 2. With water they phoric, vitriolic, and nitrous ; that this pure and high-cated air
combine into a fluid, the ſpecific gravity of which is not ly reſpirable air is the conſtitutive principle of acidity
ſuppofeil to
a medium betwixt the water and acid ſeparately taken. common to all acids; and that the difference by which
principle.
This holds good with the ſtrong acids, which grow hot they are diſtinguiſhed from each other is produced
with water, and ſhrink into leſs bulk by reaſon of their by the union of one or more principles belides this
ensitting a quantity of the fire they contain: but whe- air, ſo as to confitute the particular form under which
ther it alſo takes place in the weaker acids, has not yet each acid appears." To dephlogiſticated air in its
been aſcertained; though the probability is, that it will ſtate of fixity, therefore, he gives the title of the aci-
take place in them alſo. 3. With ſpirit of wine, they
3. With ſpirit of wine, they difying or oxygenous principle ; and concludes farther
unite into a very volatile and inflammable ſubſtance cal. from his experiments, 1.“ That, when combined with
led ethir. This muſt alſo be underſond only of the the matter of fire, heat, and light, this principle pro-
ftrong mineral acids, or of the acetous when very much duces dephlogiſticated air ; though he conſiders this
concentrated ; for the acids of tartar, borax, arſenic, poſition as not capable of abſolute demonſtration. It
lapis ponderoſus (tungſten), and molybdäna, do not muſt not, therefore, be confounded with the follow-
produce any. 4. They change the blue colour of ve- ing; which, he ſays, are ſupported by experiment and
getables to red, and heighten the colour of thoſe which poſitive proofs. 2. That the ſame acidifying principle,
are already red.–This property is moreuniverſal than combined with phlogiſtic ſubſtances or charcoal, forms
thoſe we have yet inentioned; but the volatile fulphu- fixed air. 3. That with ſulphur it forms vitriolic acid.
reous acid, thoſe of tungſten and molybdäna, arc excep 4. That with nitrous air it forms nitrous acid. 5. That
tions. 5. They unite with all kinds of earths except with Kunckel's phoſphorus, it forms the phoſphoric
ing the ſiliceous (though the fluor acid dillolves this acid. 6. With ſugar it forms the acid of ſugar,” &c.
ailo), with fixed and volatile alkalies, and with metals, The opinion of Mr Lavoiſier concerning the com-
in ſuch a manner as to form componnds conſiderably poſition of acids has in part been adopted by Mr Kir-Mr Kir-
permanent, and whoſe ingredients cannot be ſeparated wan; who, in his treatiſe on Phlogiſton, publiſhed in wan's opi-
without ſome difficulty. This is the moſt univerſal and 1787, informs us that he is now of opinion that de- nions.
diſtinguiſhing mark; and there is not any acid but what phlogiſticated air becomes an eſſential conſtituent part
ſhows its attraction for one or more of theſe ſubſtances, of acids. All acids (he adds) conſiſt of two principles :
cfpecially the alkaline falts. Oils and fats, indeed, will one peculiar to each, which, in the opinion of the an-
unite with alkalies; but they may be ſeparated by the tiphlogiſtians, has not as yet been decompoſed, and
weakeſt known acids, ſo that there is no danger of conſequently inuſt be looked upon, relative to the pre-
confounding the two together. 6. When mixed with ſent ſtate of our knowledge, as a ſimple ſubſtance :
any fermentable liquor, they prevent that proceſs from the other, pure air, in a concrete ſtate ; that is, de-
taking place : or, if it has already begun, they will prived of the greater part of its ſpecific heat, and con-
put a ſtop to it. This alſo muſt be underſtood only of denſed into a ſmall volume. The firſt they call the
the ſtronger acids, or at leaſt will require a conſiderable acid baſis; the laſt, the oxygenous principle: thus the
quantity of the weaker to effect it. 7. They cannot vitriolic acid, according to them, conſiſts of ſulphur
be frozen but in a degree of cold below the freezing as its baſis, and pure air in a concrete ſtate as its aci.
point of water. This property is likewiſe not univer- difying or oxygenous principle. This doctrine of the
fal, but is remarkable only in the ſtronger acids. compoſition of acids has been admitted by ſome of the
of the na-
The nature of acids has long been a inatter of fpe- ableſt defenders of phlogiſton, and particularly by that
ture of a culation, and of late has engaged the attention of phi. diſtinguiſhed philoſophic chemiſt M. de Morveau, with
loſophers very confiderably. Some have ſuppoſed them this ſingle modification, that the baſes of acids contain
to be ſimple chemical elements, while others imagined phlogiſton, which they loſe on uniting to pure air :
them to be compoſed of water and earth. Both yet it ſeems very difficult to conceive how pure air can
theſe opinions, however, are inadıniſſible ; the former, unite to phlogiſton, a ſubſtance to which it has the
becauſe we are certain that moſt acids may be entirely greateſt affinity, without forming a new compound en-
decompoſed, and reſolved irto aerial vapours of differ- dowed with very different properties from thoſe which
ent kinds, which could not happen if they were ſimple it poſſeſſed before ſuch union. It ſeems therefore more
and unchangeable eleinents ; the latter, becauſe there reaſonable to conclude, either that it forms water, as
is not the ſmalleſt probability that two ingredients, Mr Cavendiin thinks : or fixed air, as I ſhall afterwards
ſeemingly ſo infipid and inactive as water and earth endeavour to prove."
could by their union produce a compound endowed In his explanation of the formation of acids, Mr
Kirwan
5
2
cids.
+
А A CI
[ 71 ]
ACI
Droid
6
Whether
conteſted.
continues
Acids, Kirwan firf ſtates the opinion of the antiphlogiſtians, giſticated air, phlogiſticated air, and inflainmaile air,
Acids.
viz. Thaithe vitriolic acid, when conſidered abltracted- all in their concrete ſtate.
ly from the water it contains, always conſiſts of fulphur "Red, yellow, green, and blue nitrous acids,
(which they conſider as a ſimple ſubſtance) united to a when thoſe colours are intenſe, owe thcir origin to the
large portion of theoxygenous principle. “In my opi. abſorption of nitrous air ; and conſequently the pro-
nion (ſays he), it contitts uf a balis or radical principle, portion of their principles is variable, though all
which, when ſaturated with phlogiſton, conſtitutes ſul- have the dephlogiſticated acid for their ground. Thus
phur ; when faturated with fixed air, becomes common Dr Prieſtley, having expoſed ſtrong pale-yellow nitrous
fixed vitriolicacid; and, when combined partly with the acid, whoſe ſpecific gravity could not be leſs than
one and partly with the other, becomes volatile vitri. 1.400 to nitrous air, found that 100 grains of this
olic acid. That ſulphur, during its converſion into vi- acid abſorbed, in two days, 247 cubic inches of nitrous
triolic acid,unites to air of ſome ſort or other, is evident air : now, 100 grains of this ſpirit inuft have contain-
from the quantity of air which it abſorbs, in whatever ed, by my calculation, about 21 grains of dry acid,
way that converſion is brought about. Thus, firſt, du- and theſe 21 grains took up 91.39 grains of nitrous
ring combuſtion in reſpirable air, 100 grains of ſulphur air. When about 20 cubic inches of nitrous air were
abſorb 420 cubic inches of pure air, or about 143 grains: abſorbed (that is, about ſeven grains), the acid became
but the proportion of this pure air united with a given of an orange colour ; when 50 cubic inches were ab-
quantity of ſulphur is not eaſily determined, becauſe forbed (about 18 grains) it became green ; and when
it is vitriolic air that is conſtantly formed ; and this air nearly the whole was abſorbed, it evaporated in the
eſſentially contains fome portion of fulphur in ſolution, form of nitrous vapour, carrying off part of the wa-
which portion is variable. Secondly, Pyrites, during ter with it. Hence we ſee, that nitrous vapour con-
their decompoſition, abſorb a confiderable proportion of fiſts of nitrous acid united to three or four times its
pure air, as Mr Lavoiſier has obſerved : ſo alſo does weight of nitrous air and a little water."
liver of ſulphur expoſed to the atmoſphere, for after Mr Kirwan next proceed to conteſt Mr Lavoiſier's Mr Lavoi-
ſome time it is converted into tartar vitriolate." opinion, that nitrous air is a conſtituent principle of the fier’stheory
Mr Kirwan next proceeds to inquire, whether the nitrous acid. “ The following experiments (ſays he)
pure air abe air abſorbed during the combuſtion of ſulphur continues ſhow that nitrous air is not a conſtituent principle of
forbed in to be pure air ; or whether it be converted into water the nitrous acid, but that fixed air is. I. There is not a
the burning or fixed air ? He inclines to the latter opinions, for va doubt but that pure nitrous acidenters entire,and with-
of ſulphur rious reaſons * which he ſpecifies.
out decompofition, into fixed alkalis, and forms nitre.
to be fo.
With regard to the nitrous acid, the experiments of Now if nitre be diſtilled in a good earthen retort, it
Mr Cavendiſh, as well as of the French chemiſts, leave will be wholly decompoſed ; and ſo alſo will the acid
p. 29.
no room to doubt that it is produced during the defia- itſelf, except a few drops which paſs in the beginning
gration of dephlogiſticated and infiammable air. Mr of the diſtillation, and nothing but dephlogiſticated
Cavendiſh has ſhown that the nitrous acid may be air, more or leſs pure, and conſequently intermixed
of the nia formed by taking the electric ſpark in a mixture of with phlogiſticated air and a flight proportion of fixed
trous acid. three meaſures of phlogiſticated air and ſeven of de- air, will be found: theſe, therefore, are its true conſti-
hlogiſticated air, or, in weight, one part of the for tuent parts when diſengaged from ſubſtances that can-
mer and about 2.6 of the latter. Mr Lavoiſier, as not communicate phlogiſton to it in any remarkable
has been already mentioned, ſuppoſes the nitrous acid quantity, ſuch as alkalies and carths; but ifit be ſepara-
to be compoſed of nitrous air united to the oxygenous ted from fubſtancesthat contain phlogiſton, ſuch as ine-
principle, or baſis of pure air ; and 100 grains of dry tals, it will then indeed be reſolved into nitrous air and
nitrous acid conſiſt of 64 grains of nitrous air united dephlogiſticated air more or leſs pure, the phlogiſton
to 36 of pure air deprived of its ſpecific fire; or, ac of the fixed air being detained by the metal. Mr Ber-
'cording to Mr Kirwan's calculation, 173 cubic inches thollet, who ſeems to have made the experiment with
of nitrous air and 105 of pure air. But nitrous air, the greateſt exactneſs, produced 714 cubic inches of de-
as Mr Lavoiſier himſelf has obſerved, is a compound; phlogiſticated air from a troy ounce of nitre. This,
100 grains of it, according to him, containing 32 of however, was far from being of the pureſt kind; and
phlogiſticated and 68 of pure air ; confequently 64 Dr Prieſtley, Mr Berthollet, and Mr Succow, obſery-
grains of it contain 20.5 of phlogiſticated air, and ved, that the air which firſt paſſes contains fixed air
pure air. Hence, according to him, 10ộ and renders lime-water turbid. Here then we have
grains of dry nitrous acid contain 79 of pure air and three of the conſtituent parts of the nitrous acid, with
20% of phlogiſticated air. Mr Kirwan is of opinion ſcarce any nitrous air ; which the antiphlogiſtians ſup-
8
Proportion
that 100 grains of pure, dry, and colourleſs nitrous poſe to be one of the conſtituent parts of the acid, and
acid contain 38.17 grains of fixed air as its acidifying to make two thirds of its bulk when exhibited in an
principle, 57.06 of nitrous baſis, and 4: 77 of phlogiſton aerial form.
parts.
united to the nitrous baſis. With regard to the nitrous To obyiate an objection that the quantity of fixed
I balis itſelf, he ſays that one third of its weight is air thus obtained is too ſmall to deſerve to be ranked
phlogiſticated and two thirds dephlogiſticated air, among the conſtituent parts of the nitrous acid, Mr
both in a concrete ſtate.
Kirwan firſt inquires in what proportion it ought to
“ Nitrous bafis (ſays Mr Kirwan), ſaturated with exiſt there ; and though this is variable, according to
phlogiſton, conſtitutes nitrous air : 100 grains of this the different ſtates of the nitrous acid with reſpect to
balis take up nearly 22 of phlogiſton. Hence the con- phlogiſtication, he reckons it at one-third of the acid
Lituent principles of nitrous acid are fixed air, dephlo- as exiſting in the nitre ; and, from the decompoſition of
this.
* Ellay,
7
Formation
43.5 of
of its con-
'Itituent
t
A CI
[
72 ]
ACI
I 2
which
و
1
Acids. this fixed air, and the phlogiſton emitted by it of conſe ced (about one-third of a grain), might well be con Aciits.
quence, heattributes the phlogiſtication and redneſs of tained in the phlogiſticated air he employed, or perhaps
the nitrous acid when expoſed to more beat. As a
fornied in the operation.”
proof that fixed air may bc decompoſed in this man Having thus far ſtated the different opinions of
vier, hc adduces i wo experiments of Dr Prieſley. In the moſt celebrated French and Engliſh philoſophers
One of theſc,dephlogiſticated air was obtained by means concerning the compoſition of acids, it is neceſſary
cíacctous acid in that concentrated ſtate in which it to take notice of ſome experiments made by Mr Experi-
is calle rad col vinegar. Having mixed half an ounce Watt, in order to determine whether the dephlo- ments by
of the acid with two ounces of calcined whiting, he giſticated air produced from nitre really proceeds froin Mr Watt,
obtained froin it 350 ounce-meaſures of air ; of which a decompoſition of the acid, or what quantity of the
ſeem con-
about one third was fixed more in the firſt portion, latter is required to conſtitute a determinate
qual-
trary to Mr
and leſs in the laſt. The ſtandard of the reliduum ini tity of the former. To aſcertain this *, 240 grains of
Kirwan's
the firſt portion was, 1.66, in the ſecond, 1.42, and mercury were put into a glaſs retort with 480 grains doctrine.
in the third, 1.38; which is very near the goodneſs of of diluted dephlogiſticated nitrous acid, which was the * Philos.
Tranf.
common air. The whiting then weighed 760 grains. quantity neceſſary to diſſolve the whole of the mercury;
On alding a quarter of an ounce more of radical vine and as ſoon as the common air was expelled, a proper
v. lxxiv.
P. 339.
gar, and repeating the operation, 120011cc-nieaſures veſſel was applied to receive the air produced in the
of air were obtained, and the whiting was reduced to operation. Sixteen ounce-meaſures of nitrous air came
730 grains. A third operation, in which another quar over during the ſolution, and on changing the recei-
ter of an ounce of vinegar was added, reduced the mat ver, a quantity of dilute, but highly phlogiſticated ni-
ter to 49 grains : but the laſt portion of air extracted trous acid, was obtained. The air receiver being again
had no fixed air, and was conſiderably belter than that applied, four ounce-meaſures of ſtrong and pure nitrous
of the atmoſphere. --The othtr experiment was air were obtained, which, by the dephlogiſticated air
made with line-ſtone alone; from four ounces of the that aroſe immediately after, were reduced to half an
whit: cryſtals, of which 830 ounce-meaſures of air were ounce-meaſure. The production of dephlogiſticated
obtained, the firſt portion of which had only one air continued very rapid, the mercury being all the
fourth of fixed air, and the ſtandard of the reliduum while reccived, until the operation was ended by the
was never better than 1.56, nor worſe than 1.66; fo diſtillation or ſublimation of the whole of the mercury.
that it was nearly of the goodneſs of common air. Two hundred and eighteen grains of the metal were
Our author then proceeds to relate ſeveral other ex obtained in its running form, and 22 remained in the
periments in which the nitrous acid was decompoſed; form of an orange-coloured ſublimate in the upper part
but a particular relation of them would ſurell this ar of the retort. The 16 ounce-meaſures of nitrous air,
ticle beyond its due bounds. At laft, however, he firſt obtained, were then converted into nitrous acid by
concludes in the following manner. " If ſpirit of the gradual admiſſion of common air, and then added
nitre be niade to boil, and its vapour received through
to the water in the baſon in which the receiver had
a red-hot earthen tube, it will be converted into de been inverted; the whole quantity being about two
phlogiſticated air, in which a portion both of phlogi. quarts, and very acid to the taſte, ſparkling at the ſame
ſticated and fixed air is found, as Dr Prieſtley has diſ time with nitrous air. To determine the quantity of
covered: the water through which this air paſſes will acid thus recovered, as well as that which remained in
alſo contain fixed air. Here then are ſeveral ways of
the ſublimate, a ſolution of alkali of tartar was made
decompoſing the nitrous acid; and in one only it is and by experiment it was found, that 120 grains of the
reſolved into nitrous and dephlogiſticated air ; and in acid, originally employed in diffolving the mercury,
ſa-
this way it may, at leaſt, be ſtrongly ſuſpected to re turated 352 grains of this ſolution ; the orange colour-
ceive an addition of another principle. Why then ſhould ed ſublimate and all the acid liquor recovered being fa-
theſe be regarded as its conſtituent principles ? And as turated by 1395 grains of the ſame. Hence it appears,
Fixed air in the two limpleſt methods of decompoſition, in which by the rule of proportion, that out of 480 grains of
One of the
eleinents of
the re-action of no foreign ſubſtance can be ſuſpected, nitrous acid originally employed, only five were loſt;
nitrous
it appears in the form of dephlogiſticated, phlogiſtica "a ſmaller quantity (as Mr Watt juſtly obſerves) than
ted, and fixed air ( the former always containing a por what might reaſonably be ſuppoſed to be loſt in the
tion of the two lalt), why then ſhould not theſe be ac proceſs by the extrenie volatility of the nitrous acid.”
counted its true conſtituent parts ? ---This theory His concluſion therefore is, that “ the nitrous acid
How ni-
trous acid is
is further confirined by reflecting on the manner in does not enter into the compoſition of dephlogiſticat-
naturally
which nitrous acid is generated by nature.
Mr ed air : it ſeems only to ſerve to abſorb phlogiſton froin
generated. Thouvenel found that this acid is conſtantly produced the
watery part of the mercurial nitre.”
when chalk is expoſed to a mixture of putrid air and This experiment was repeated with cubic nitre, and
common air, or putrid and dephlogiſticated air ; but if only 30 ounce-meaſures of air diſtilled from an ounce
the putrid air be paſſed through linie. Water, it is ne of the mineralalkali exactly faturated with nitrous acid,
ver generated ; and that it is rarely produced by the ex The water through which the air paſſed was acid, and
poſure of quick lime or fixed alkalis to theſe airs. The the refiduum in the retort alkaline; but on mixing the
reaſon that alkalis, though aërated, are not ſo proper, two together, the ſolution was found to be exactly neu-
is, that they do not combine with phlogiſticated air tral by every poſſible teſt.
as calcareolis earihs do. Mr ( avendiſh, indeed, pro Not ſatisfied with theſe experiments, Mr Watt di-
duced nitrous acid without any apparent mixture of ſtilled an ounce (430 grains) of common nitre, ſtop-
fixed air ; but the atom of it neceſſary for the ſor- ping the proceſs when 50 ounce-meaſures of air had
mation of the ſmall quantity of nitrous acid he produ- been produced. This air had a ſtrong finell of the
3
nitrous
3
IO
-
acid,
II
А A CI
( 73 )
A CI
Acids.
If
15
13
wan.
Acids. nitrous acid, from which it could not be freed by walli temperature of the atmoſphere, we have no fort of
ing with the water in the baſon. The reſiduum in the proof. On the contrary, the inpoflibility of ac-
retort was alkaline as before, and the water ſlightly counting for the loſs of acid in this caſe is an evident
acid ; nor was the ſaturation completed by mixing the proof of the fallacy of that hypotheſis.--By Mr Lavoi-
two together. Ten grains of weak nitrous acid, 105 fier's analyſis, 100 grains of nitre contain 57 of calo Quantityof
grains of which contained the acid of bo of nitre, com ſtic alkali; by Mr Bergman's, 49; by Mr Wenzel's, acid con-
pleted the ſaturation. Theſe ten grains contained the 52 ; by Mr Wiegleb's, 46; by inine, 63: the mean tained in
acid of 57 grains of nitre; which, by Mr Kirwan's ex of all which is, 53; which leaves 46.5 for acid and nitre.
periments, is equal to two grains of real nitrous acid. water, which is very nearly the weight of the air
“We have therefore (ſays Mr Watt) 34 grains weight expelled. The different quantity of acid aſſigned by
of dephlogiſticated air produced, and only two grains different perſons to nitre, is in part owing to its de-
of real acid miſſing; and it is not certain that even this gree of phlogiſtication in nitre. I believe at preſent
quantitywas deſtroyed. becauſe ſome portion of theglaſs that 100 grains of nitre contain 34 of acid, and about
of the retort was diffolved by the nitre, and ſome part I 2 of water, including the water in the acid and that
of the materials employed in making the glaſs being of cryſtallization."
aikali, we may conclude, that the alkali of the nitre Mr Kirwan next proceeds to conſider, in a manner Frinciples
would be augmented by the alkali of that part of the ſimilar to that above related, the compoſition of the of the ma-
glaſs it had diſſolved; but as the glaſs cracked into other acids.—The marine acid, according to hiin, con- rine acid,
1mall pieces on cooling, and ſome part of the coating lifts of a peculiar baſis united to phlogiſton, and a cer-
adhered firmly to it, the quantity of the glaſs that tain quantity of fixed air ; to both of which the baſis
was diſſolved could not be aſcertained.”
ſeems to have a ſtrong affinity. On depriving it of
Anſwered To avoid the force of objections drawn from theſe this phlogiſton, the affinity of the acid to fixed air be-
by Mr Kir- experiments, and which ſcem ready to overthrow his comes much ſtronger, and it ſaturates itſelf fo largely
hypotheſis, as well as that of Mr Lavoiſier entirely, Mr with it, that its attractions for other ſubſtances, con-
Kirwan makes the following reply.--"My inge- taining little or no phlogiſton, become nearly as weak
nious friend Mr Watt, as well as Mr Cavendiſh, are as thoſe of fixed air itſelf when equally condenſed; but
of opinion, that the whole quantity of dephlogiſticated with reſpect to bodies that contain a conſiderable quan-
air, produced from the diſtillation of nitre, ariſes from tity of phlogiſton, its affinities are much ſtronger, as
the dephlogiſtication of the water it contains, it being its baſis attracts the phlogiſton, while thoſe bodies
decompoſed by the nitrous acid, which then becomes attract its exceſs of fixed air. In this ſtate it does not
phlogiſticated. This opinion is expoſed to inſurmount. expel fixed air from aërated fixed alkalis or earths
able difficulties. For, in the firſt place, nitre affords de until it is heated; and then dephlogiſticated air ſepa-
phlogiſticated air at the rate of 146.125 cubic inches rates from it, and it becomes, in all reſpects, commo:1
for every hundred grains of nitre, which, by the proper. marine acid. For as it contains an exceſs of fixed air,
allowances for phlogiſticated air, ſhould weigh 46.77 it acts nearly as an acid of the ſame nature; but when
grains: but then dephlogiſticated air is only one of the heat is applied, its bafis dephlogiſticates its own fixed
conſtituent parts of water, for it contains 13 per cent. air, which then becomes dephlogiſticated air, at the
of inflammable air, that is to ſay, 87 grains of dephlo ſame time that the acid becomes common marine acid,
giſticated air: to form 100 grains of water requires an and acts as ſuch.
91
addition of 13 grains of inflammable air ; conſequent Mr Lavoiſier, and other philoſophers, who deny the Mr Lavoi-
ly 46.77 grains of dephlogiſticated air require nearly , exiſtence of phlogiſton, are of opinion, that the com- fier's opini- .
of inflammable air, and would then forin 53.77 grains mon marine acid coniiſts of a peculiar batis united to a
of water, which exceeds half the weight of the nitre; ſmall proportion of pure air, or oxygenous principle,
a quantity of water, as Mr Watt owns, certainly in and the dephlogiſticated marine acid differs fronı it only
admiſſible. Mr Watt found, that the water over which by containing an exceſs of this principle.—This opi-
the air proceeding from the decompoſition of 960 nion they are chiefly induced to maintain, becauſe the
grains of nitre had been received, contained only the acid in its dephlogiſticated fate is procured by diſtil-
acid belonging to 120 grains of nitre; and even this ling comnion marine acid from inanganeſe; and the
ſmall quantity he inferred only from my experiments. manganeſe, if difilled by itſelf, before the acid is di-
But my experiments are totally inapplicable in this ſtilled from it, affords dephlogiſticated air ; but after
caſe; for I afed only the dephlogiſticated nitrous a the acid is diſtilled from it, it yields none.- “Thisex- Conteſted
cid : and alkalis are ſaturable by a much ſmaller quan. 'periment, however, (ſays Mr Kirwan), proves no more by Mr Kir-
tity of phlogiſticated thau of dephlogiſticated acids, as but that the manganeſe contains ſome air which is de, wan.
is evidcnt in the caſe of the deplogij icated marine acid, phlogiſticated during the calcination. And that this air
as Stahl long ago obſerved; for hc ſays, that the vo is fixed air, appears from the following confiderations :
latile acid of ſulphur faturates to times as much alkali The black calx of manganeſe alınoſt always gives out
as the fixed. Mr Bergman and Mr Scheele obſerved, fixed air at firſt, before any dephlogiſticated air ap-
that melted nitre is ſtill neutral, though it be phlo- pears; whence it is natural to thilik, that the dephilo-
giſticated ; therefore it is air, and not water, which giſticated air proceeds from the dephlo ziſtication of the
it wants. Accordingly Dr Prieſtley found it to injure fixed. And lience, if it be diſtilled with tilir scriron,
common air by attrairing its dephlogiſticated part: or in a gun-barrel, it ſcarce gives out any other than
bul il it be kept in fuſion for ſome time, it loſes its a fixed air ; if at any time it gives out dephlogiſticated
cid, and becomes alkaline; and the air it receives air, with little or no mixture of fixed air, this is owing
muſt furcly be deemed rather to recompoſe the acid to a very perfect depblogiſtication of the calx, and to
than to form water ; of whoſe formation, in the its containing very little moiſture. Thus Dr Prieſtley,
VOL. I.
K
having
Oll.
Inn
A CI
[ 74 ]
A CI
20
18
in his fa-
vour.
Acids. having pafled the team of boiling water through man With regard to the acid of ſugar, Mr Kirwan ob Acids.
ganele heated in an carthen tube, obtained a very large ſerves, that ſugar itſelf is a compound of fixed air with
quantity of fixed air, and ſcarce any other; though on a much larger proportion of inflaminable air, and ſome
Saccharine
repeating this experiment with manganeſe well freed water, all condenſed to a degree of which we are ig- acid.
froin calcareous earih, I obtained a large portion of de- norant, but retaining, upon the whole, much more
phlogiſticated air ; biil I believe much depends on the ſpecific beat than either oil or charcoal; tho' he ſeems
degree of heat to which the tube is ſubjected. But inclined to the hypotheſis of Mr Morvean, that this
having diſtilled inanganeſe,which yielded of itſelf ſome fubftance has for its baſis a fine ethereal oil, to which
fixed air with common, ſpirit of ſalt, I obtained de a large proportion of condenſed inflanımable air is fil-
phlogiſticated marine acid, and not a particle of fixed peradded. The acid of ſugar, then, according to hin,
air; which ſhows that this laſt combined with the de- conliſts of this peculiar balis deprived of its ſuperfluous'
phlogiſticated baſis, and formed the dephlogiſticated phlogiſton, and united to a great quantity of fixed air in
acid. Mr Hermſtadt having diffolved the black calx a concrete ſtate. He is alſo of opinion, that it does
in common marine acid, and precipitated it with an aë not exiſt ready formed in the ſugar, but is produced in
rated fixed alkali, obtained, as uſual, a white preci- the operations that fubflance undergoes : that it de-
pitate ; which, when heated, afforded a great part of rives moſt of its acid principle from the nitrous acid
the fixed air it had abforbed from the alkali; but when employed; the nitrous balis taking up the phlogiſton,
heated to ſuch a degree as to be of a brown red colour, and the fixed air of the nitrous acid combining with
and conſequently dephlogiſticated, it converted com the faccharine bafis. He conteſts ſtrongly an opinion
mon fpirit of falt into a dephlogiſticated acid, which of Mr Lavoiſier, that ſugar is a ſort of charcoal, which,
could proceed only from ſome fixed air yet unexpelled: uniting with the oxygenous principle of the nitrous
Yet if fal-ammoniac be diſtilled with the black calx of acid, decompoſes it, fets looſe the nitrous air, and
manganeſe, it will be expelled in a cauſtic ſtate ; for forms the faccharine acid ; and that, towards the end
the fixed air unites to the dephlogiſticated marine ba- of the operation, the faccharine acid itſelf is decom-
fis in preference to the volatile alkali."
poſed ; the conſequence of which is the produc-
Deciſive Several other experiments are related by Mr Kirwan, tion of fixed air, which, according to him, is only the
experiment which the limits of this article will not allow us to in- oxygenous principle combined with charcoal. On this:
ſert; but the following, he is of opinion, fully confirms Mr Kirwan remarks, 1.“ That, according to this the-
his hypotheſis, and fubverts that of the antiphlogiſtians. ory, the acid of ſugar fhould be the ſame with fixed
(Six cubic inches of inflanımable air were mixed with air, ſince both are compoſed of the oxygenous prin---
as much dephlogiſticated marine air over lime-water. ciple united with charcoal; or, if Mr Layoilier ſhould
In about so minutes after the greater part of the di- reply, that ſugar is different from common chare ,
minutión had taken place, a white cloud appeared on coai, he reminds him, that, according to his own ta-
the ſurface (a) of the lime-water, and by agitation it ble of affinities, the oxygenous principle has a much
became ſtill inore turbid. As it was poſſible that the ſtronger attraction for charcoal than for ſugar, and
manganeſe might be mixed with calcareous earth, ſome confcquently that the latter ought to be decompoſed
dephlogiſticated marine air was extracted from another by the former ; nay, that it ſhould be regenerated by
portion of it, and received on line-water; but it was various nictallic ſubſtances, which, according to him,
wholly abſorbed, without forming the leaſt cloud, tho' have a greater attraction for this principle. 2. Accor-
there was lime enough ; for, on adding aërated water, ding to this hypotheſis, the faccharine acid ought to
a cloud appeared."
weigh more than the ſagar employed in the operation ;
Phoſphoric The other acids particularly treated of by Mr Kir, which is ſo far from being the caſe; that it is univer-
acid. wan are the phoſphoric and ſaccharine. In his treatiſe faliy agreed to be inuch leſs; Bergman making it only
on the former, he adopts the analyſis of Mr Lavoiſier, d, Mr Chaptal from a toths, and Mr Sage ths..
changing only his acid principle of dephlogiſticated 3. If the faccharine acid conſiſted of ſugar, or conſiſt-
for fixed air. From this it appears, that the phoſpho- ed of that ſubſtance undecompoſed, and barely united
ric acid conſiſts of a peculiar bafis united to 2.265 of to the oxygenous principle, it ought to be formed by
its weight of the acid principle; or, in other words, treating ſugar with the black calx of manganeſe, or
100 grains of dry phoſphoric acid contains about 69 of with dephlogiſticated marine acid; both of which, ac-
fixed air and 31 of its peculiar balis : 100 grains of cording to him, liave leſs attraction for the oxygenous
the phoſphoric baſis take up 226.5 of fixed air, or principle than ſugar. Laſtly, (ſays Mr Kirwan), if the Fixed air
32.9 of phlogiſton when it becomes phoſphorous; and acid of ſugar be diſtilled, it is wholly converted into the acid
100 grains of phoſphorus contain 75.24 of baſis and water, fixed inflammable air, and not a particle of coal principle,
24.76 of phlogiſton.-The baſis of this acid is the only or dephlogiſticated air is found in it. It is not there, according
one that can be procured free, both from the phlogi- fore reaſonable to look on either of them as its conſtitu- to Mr Kir-
{ton and the acidifying principle ; it is called, though ent principles ; but as fixed air alone can be extrac-
improperly, as it is not ſoluble in water, the glacial ted from all vegetable acids, it ſeems to be the true a-
phoſphoric acid, Mr Lavoiſier and others are of opini- cidifiable principle.
on, that phoſphorus is a ſimple ſubſtance containing Having given a view of the preſent opinions re-
no phlogiſton, and that the acid conſiſts of the oxyge- lative to the original formation of acids, it remains to
nous principle united to it.
treat a little more particularly of each of the different
19
21
wan,
kinds.
(a) On mixing theſe, a denſe white cloud appears ; one half the bulk of both diſappears, and the reſiduum.
explodes like a mixture of inflammable and dephlogiſticated air.
ACI
[ 75 ]
A CI
و
Acis.
22
23
tion.
24
count of
tractions
for alka-
Acids. kinds. Tliey are divided into three different claſſes, attraction for phlogiſton ; and unite with certain oily Acidulons
expreſſive of their origin, viz. the Mineral, Vegetable, and infiammable matter fo vehemently as to occaſion 1
and Animal. The mineral acids are thoſe of vitriol, great heat, and ſometimes even violent and unextin-
Acids, how
divided.
nitre, ſea-ſalt, borax, amber, fluor, arſenic, tungſten, guiſhable flame. This is particularly the caſe with
nolybdäna, &c. The vegetable are, thoſe of vine- lhe nitrous acid, or with a mixture of the two; and
Enumera- gar, tartar, ſugar, benzoin, apples, citrons, lemons, indeed the nitrous acid, though weaker than the vi-
tamarinds, forrel, cork, &c. The animal acids are, triolic, ſhows itſelf in every inſtance to be far inore ac-
the microſmic or acid of urine, and that of bones, both tive, and to perform all its operations with vaſtly great-
of which are alſo called the phoſphoric, though this er rapidity, than the other. All theſe particulars, how-
might be accounted a vegetable acid, as it is procured ever, as they properly fall under the article CHEMI-
by diſtilling muſtard and ſome other vegetables by a STRY, are there explained at length : together with
violent fire. Beſides theſe, there are the acids of ants, the origin and peculiar methods of preparing each of
waſps, bees, ſilk-worms, milk, &c. It has alſo been the acids, and the various uſes to which they may be
diſcovered, that the human calculus is formed for the applied in arts and manufactures. See alſo their diffe-
moſt part of a peculiar acid, which has received the rent titles as they occur in the order of the alphabet ;
name of lithiaſic acid. Laſtly, As an acid diſtinct as, NITRE, VINEGAR, VITRIOL, &c.
from all theſe, we niay now add fixed air, by ſome cal ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is ſlightly acid;
led the aerial, and by others the cretaceous acid ;' the it is ſynonymous with the word Jilb-acid.
latter appellation it derives from creta, chalk, becauſe ACIDULÆ. Mineral waters that contain a briſk
it is found in that ſubſtance in great quantity. See ſpirit, when unaccompanied with heat, are thus named;
AEROLOGY.
but if they are hot alſo they are called THERJA E. See
Generalac The general properties of acids have already been e MINERAL WATERS.
numerated; the moſtremarkable ofwhich is their attrac ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that
their at tion for alkaline falts, earths, and metals. Though this have an acid in their compofition.
is common to all, yet very conſiderable differences are ACIDUM AEREUM, the ſame with Fixed AIR.
lis, &c.
obſerved among them in this reſpect, and on thoſe differ ACIDUM pingue, an imaginary acid, which ſome
ences depend almoſt all the phenomena of that part of German chemiſts ſuppoſed to be contained in fire, and
CHEMISTRY which treats of ſalts. As theſe phenomena by combining with alkalies, lime, &c. to give them
are particularly conſidered under that article, we ſhall their cauſtic properties ; an effect which is found cer-
here only in general take notice, that the three acids tainly to depend on the loſs of their fixed air.
named the vitriolic, nitrous, and marine, are the ſtrong AČILA, OCILA, or OCELIS (anc. geog.), a ſtaple
eſt of them all; that is, if any other acid be united to or mart town in Arabia Felix, on the Arabic gulf,
an alkali, earth, or metal, the union will be broken by from which, according to Pliny, they ſet fail for In-
ad ding to that compound any of the three acids juſt dia. Now Ziden.
mentioned. Neither are theſe equal in power among ACILIUS GLABRIO (Marcus), conſul in the
themſelves ; for the vitriolic is ſtronger than the ni- year of Rome 562, and 211 years before the Chriſtian
trous, and the nitrous ſtronger than the marine. The æra, diſtinguiſhed himſelf by his bravery and conduct
rule, however, is liable to certain exceptions and vari- in gaining a complete victory over Antiochus the
ations, depending chiefly on the circumſtances of heat Great, king of Syria, at the ſtreights of Thermopylæ
or cold, moiſture or dryneſs, and particularly on the in Theſſaly, and on ſeveral other occaſions. He built
ſtate of the marine acid with regard to its being in the the Temple of piety at Rome, in conſequence of a vow
form of an aqueous Huid or reduced to a dry vapour. he made before the abovementioned battle : and the
In this laſt caſe it ſeems ſtronger than either the vi- reaſon of his giving it that name is very reinarkable.
triolic or nitrous ; and even when in an aqueous ſtate, The ſtory is mentioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus,
both the nitrous and marine acids, when added in great and others. See the article Piety,
quantity, ſeem to oppreſs and overwhelm the ſtronger ACINIPPO (anc. geog.), a town of Bætica ; its
vitriolic acid, ſo that they will partly expel it froni an ruins, called Ronda la Viega, are to be ſeen near A-
alkaline falt. This does not depend on the mere quan- runda, in the kingdom of Granada.
tity of acidity they poſſeſs : for the acetous acid may ACINODENDRUM, in botany, the trivial name
be concentrated to ſuch a degree as to become ſtronger of a ſpecies of MELASTOMA.
in this reſpect than ſpirit of falt; yet it will always be in ACINOS, in botany, the trivial name of a ſpecies
ferior in point of real ſtrength, when tried with an al- of THYMUS.
kali in competition with the latter. The aerial acid is ACINUS, or ACINI, the ſmall' protuberances of
the weakeſt of all; and may be expelled not only by mulberries, ſtrawberries, &c. and by ſome applied to
vinegar, but by the acid juices of fruits, tartar, and grapes. Generally it is uſed for thoſe ſmall grains
the acids of tungſten and molybdäna.
growing in bunches, after the manner of grapes, as
Some acids have the property of reſiſting the fire, Liguſtrum, &c.
and melting into a kind of glaſs, ſuch as that of borax ACIS, in fabulous hiſtory, the ſon of Faunus and
and phoſphorus. This circumſtance gives them an ad- Simetheis, was a beautiful ſhepherd of Sicily, who be-
vantage over the ſtronger acids which are volatile; and ing beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was ſo
thus the two juſt mentioned, as well as thoſe of arſenic enraged, that he daſhed out his brains againſt a rock;
and tungſten, will, in a very ſtrong heat, expel the a after which Galatea turned him into a river, which
cid of vitriol itſelf, though the latter will, in the cold, was called by his name.
expel any one of them with great eaſe.
Acis, (Ovid, Theocritus); a river of Sicily, run-
Both tlievitriolic and nitrous acids have a very ſtrong ning from a very cold ſpring, in the woody and thady
foot
K 2.
A CN
( 76 )
А со
Coeniete.
your.
it by.
Acknow. foot of mount Etna, earward into, and not much a chanted the divine ſervice night and day in their pla- Acoluthi
ledyment bove a mile from the ſea, along green and pleaſant ces of worſhip. They divided themſelves into three I
banks, with the ſpeed of an arrow, from which it takes budies, who alternately ſucceeded each other, ſo that concroba.
its name.
It is now called Aci laci, or Chinci, accor their churches were never ſilent. This practice they
ding to the different Sicilian dialects: Antonine calls founded upon the precept, Fray without cealing. They
it Acr1:s. Alſo the name of a hamlet at the mouth of flouriilıcd in the caſt about the middle of the 5th cen-
ile Alis.
tury. There are a kind of acoemeti ſtill ſubſiſting in
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general ſenſe, is a thic Roman church, viz. tlic rcligious of the holy fa-
perſon's owning or confeſſing a thing; but, more crament, who keep up a perpetual adoration, fome one
particularly, is the expreſſion of gratitude for a fa or other of them praying before the holy facrament
day and night.
ACK NOILEDGMEXT-Money, a certain ſum paid by ACOLUTHI, or ACOLUTHISTS, in antiquity, was
tenants, in ſeveral parts of England, on the death of an appellation given to thoſe perſons who were ſteady
their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new and iminoveable in their reſolutions : and hence the
lords.
ſtoics, becauſe they would not forſake their principles,
ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miſfive
110r alter their reſolutions, acquired the title of Acolu-
weapon, with a thong affixed to it, whereby to draw it thi. The word is Greek, and compounded of d, priv.
back. Moſt authors deſcribe it as a kind of dart or ja- and xoneve Gu, way; as never turning from the origi-
velin ; but Scaliger makes it roundiſh or globular, and nal courſe.
full of ſpikes, with a flender wooden ſtem to poiſc ACOLUTHI, among the ancient Chriſtians, implied
a peculiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin
ÁCLOWA, in botany, a barbarous naine of a fpe- church; for they were unknown to the Greeks for
cies of COLUTEA. It is uſed by the natives of Gui- above 400 years. They were next to the ſub-deacon;
nea to cure the itch: They rub it on the body as we and we learn from the fourth council of Carthage,
do unguents.
tbat the archdeacon, at their ordination, put into their
ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is u hands a candleſtick with a taper, giving them there-
fually applied to the maturity of an animal juſt before by to underſtand that they were appointed to light the
it begins to decline; and phyſicians liave uſed it to candles of the church; as alſo an empty pitcher, to
expreſs the utmoſt violence or criſis of a diſeaſe. imply that they were to furniſh wine for the eucha-
ACMELLA, in botany, the trivial naine of a fpe- riſt. Some think they had another office, that of at-
cies of SPILANTHUS,
tending the biſhop wherever he went. The word is
ACMONIA, and AGMONIA, in Peutinger's map, Greek, and compounded of c, priv. and xwxvw, to hina
a town of Phrygia Major, now in ruins. The inhabi- der or diſturb.
tants are called Anonenfes by Cicero, and the city Gia ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the
vitas Acmonenfis. Alſo a city of Dacia (Ptolemy), on office order of divine ſervice; or the prayers, cere-
the Danube, near the ruins of Trajan's bridge, built monies, hymns, &c. whereof the Greek ſervice is
by Severus, and called Severicum ; diſtant 12 German compoſed.
miles from Temeſwar, to the ſouth-eaſt.
ACOMA, a town of North America, in New Mex-
ACNIDA, VIRGINIAN HEMP, in botany, a ge- ico, ſeated on a hill, with a good caſtle. To go into
nius of the diæcia order, belonging to the pentandria the town, you muſt walk up 50 Reps cut out of the
claſs of plants; and, in the Natural Order, alſocia- rock. It is the capital of that province, and was ta-
ting with the Scabrida (53). The characters are: ken by the Spaniards in 1599. W. Long. 104. 15.
In the male, the calyx is a perianthium conſiſting of L. 35. 0.
five leaves, oyate, concaye, acute, and membranous on ACOMAC or ACCOMACK, the name of a county 112
the margin. No corolla. The ſtamina conſiſt of five Virginia. It is on the eaſtern fide of the Chelapeak
very ſhort capillary filaments; the antheræ are verſa- bay, on a ſlip of land, called the eaſtern ſhore.
tile, two-celled, and forked at both ends.-Female on ACOMINATUS (Nicetas), was ſecretary to Alex-
a ſeparate plant'; of which the calyx conſiſts of an in- ius Comnenus and to Iſaacus Ángelus ſucceſſively: he
volucrum many-leaved, linear, and deciduous; and a wrote an hiſtory from the death of Alexius Comnenus
perianthium two-leaved, very ſmall, and perſiſtent. No 1118, where Zonaras ended his, 10 the year 1203,
corolla. The piſtıllum has an ovate germen ; the ſtyli which has undergone many impreſſions, and is much
are five, long, reflected, and downy; the ſtigmata are applauded by the beſt critics.
ſimple. The pericarpium is an egg ſhaped fruii, com ACONITE. Sce ACONITUM.
preſſed, many-angled, ſulcated, and covered with a Winter ACONITE. Sco HELEBORUS.
ſucculent calyx. The feed is ſolitary, round, and com ACONCROBA, in botany, the indigenous name of
preſſed. There is only one ſpecies of it, viz. the ac a plant which grows wild in Guinea, and is in great
nida cannabida. It is a native of Virginia ; but rarely cítcem among the natives for its virtues in the ſmall..
cultivated in Europe, except for tlie ſake of variety. pox. They give an infuſion of it in wine. The leaves
It has little beauty, and at preſent is applied to no of this plant are opake, and as ſtiff as thoſe of the phi-
uſeful purpoſe.
lyrea; they grow in pairs, and ſtand on ſhort foot-
ACNU A, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain ſtalks ; they are ſmall at each end, and broad in the
meaſure of land, near about the Engliſh rood, or fourth middle; and the largeſt of them are about three inches
part of an acre.
in length, and an inch and quarter in breadth in the
ACOEMETÆ, or ACOEMETI, in church-hiſtory; middle. They are of a dušky colour on the upper
or, Men who lived without deep: A ſet of monks who fide, and of a pale green underneath.
ACONITIE
or
ز
ވެ
ACO
[77]
А со
t
Aconiti, ACONITI, in antiquity, an appellation given to water ſtanding near their roots in the winter-time. Aconitun.
Aconitum, ſome of the ATHLETI, but differently interpreted. They may all be propagated by fowing their feeds in
Mercurialis underſtands it of thoſe who only anointed autumn, upon a north border, where they are ſcreened
their bodies with oil, bút.did not ſmear themſelves o- from the ſun. The plants will come up in the ſpring,
ver with duſt, as was the uſual practice.
when they muſt be kept clean from weeds, during the
ACONITUM,ACONITE,WOLFSBANE,or MONKS- ſummer-months: and in very dry ſeaſons, if they are
HOOD ; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to 'frequently refreſhed with water, their growth will
the polyandria claſs of plants. In the natural order, be greatly promoted. The following autumn they
it aſſociates with the Multiſiliqua, 26. The cha- fhould be tranſplanted into thady borders, in rows a foot
racters are: There is no calyx. The corolla conſiſts of aſunder, and the plants fix inches diſtant from one
five unequal petals oppoſite in pairs ; the higheſt hel- another. In this filuation they may remain two years,
met-tubed, inverted, and obtuſe ; the two lateral ones, when they will carry flowers, and ſo may be tranſ-
broad, roundiſh, oppoſite, and converging ; the two planted to thoſe places
where they are to remain. The
loweſt, oblong, and looking downwards : The nectaria eaſtern monkſhood is a native of the Levant, from
are two, piped, nodding, and ſitting on long ſubulated whence the ſeeds of it were firſt fent by Dr Tourne-
peduncles, and concealed under the higheſt petal : The fort to the royal garden at Paris, from whence fome
ſcales are fix, very ſhort, coloured, and in an orb with other gardens have been furniſhed with ſeeds. It is
the nectaria. The ſtamina conſiſt of numerous ſmall very rare in Europe at preſent.
fubulated filaments; the antheræ are ereét and ſmall. Qualities. Since the time of Theophraſtus, moſt of
The piſtillum has three (five] oblong germens, ending the ſpecies of monkíhood have been reckoned a deadly
in ſtyli the length of the ſtamina ; the ftigmata are poiſon both to men and brutes. Dioſcorides, however,
fimple and reflected. The pericarpium has three or recommends the externalapplication of common monks-
five univalve capſules gaping inward. The ſeeds are hood for pains of the eyes. The flowers of a great
numerous, angular, and wrinkled.
many ſpecies communicate their noxious quality by
Species. 1. The lycoctonum, or yellow wolfsbane, being ſmelled to ; and thoſe of the ſpecies called na-
grows upwards of three feet high, flowers about the pellus being placed on the head, occaſion a violent me-
middle of June, and if the ſeaſon is not warm will con grin. Of the bad qualities of theſe plants we fome-
tinue in flower till Auguſt. 2. The altiſſimum, or times avail ourſelves to get rid of vermin. A decoc-
greateſt yellow wolfsbane, grows upwards of four tion of the roots deſtroys bugs ; the ſame part being
feet high, and the ſpikes of its flower are much longer powdered, and adminiſtered in bread or ſome other pa-
in this fort than the former. 3. The variegatum, latable vehicle to rats and mice, corrodes and inflames
or leſſer wolfsbane, ſeldom grows more than two feet their inteſtines, and ſoon proves mortal. The juice of
high, it carries blue flowers, and the ſpikes of them the plant is uſed to poiſon Aeſh with, for the deſtruc-
are much ſhorter than either of the two laſt. 4. The tion of wolves, foxes, and other ravenous beaſts. The
anthora, or wholeſome wolfsbane, flowers in the middle beſt antidote to the poiſon of the different monks-
of Auguſt, and often continues in beauty till the middle hoods is ſaid to be the root of the anthora, a ſpecies of
of Seplember ; its flowers are not large, but are of a the ſame genus, hence termed heaithful or wholeſome
beautifulſulphur-yellow colour. 5.Thenapellus,bears monkſnood. The ſame plant is regarded as efficacions
large blue flowers, which appear in Auguſt, and make againſt bites of ſerpents and other venomous creatures.
à pretty appearance. There are two or three varieties The roots have a bitter acrid taſte; the leaves are only.
of this kind ; one with white, another with roſe-co- bitter : the former are chiefly uſed in medicine ; and,
loured, and a third with variegated flowers: but theſe beſides the excellent quality juſt mentioned, are fto-
are only varieties which often change. 6.The Pyra- machic, and promote perſpiration. The peaſants, who
midale, or common blue monkſhood, bears a long ſpike gather the plants on the Alps and Pyrenees, are ſaid to
of blue flowers, which appear ſooner than any of the uſe it with ſucceſs againſt the biting of mad dogs, and
other forts, being ſo early as June, or fonietimes even to cure the cholic. It is remarkable, that the monks-
May. The ſpikes of flowers are upwards of two feet hoods with blue flowers are much more virulent than
long, ſo that it makes a pretty appearance; the feeds the yellow or white-flowered kinds. Miller aſſerts
are ripe in September. 7. The alpinum, or large- that the huntſmen of the wolves and other wild beaſts
flowered inonkſhood, flowers in Auguſt, and will grow on the Alps, dip their arrows into the juice of thoſe
to the height of five feet in good ground; the flowers plants, which renders the wounds made by them
are very large, of a deep blue colour, but not many deadly.
upon each ſpike. 8. The pyreniacuni, or Pyrenean That the anthora is an antidote to the poiſon of the
monkſhood, flowers in July. It grows about four feet reſt of the ſpecies, is not conſidered as a fa&t ſufficient-
high, and carries a long ſpike of yellow flowers. 9. The ly eſtabliſhed. Of the effects of the above, indeed,
cammarum, grows about four feet high, and flowers and other vegetable poiſons, medical writers give but
in the beginning of July. 13. The orientale, or eaſt- a confuſed account. In general, thoſe which are not
ern monkſhood, grows ſometimes more than ſix feet of the narcotic kind, nor excite violent vomitings and
high, and bears a white flower.
purgings, produce their pernicious effects by irritating
Gulture. All theſe ſpecies, except the laſt, are na the nervous coats of the ſtomach and inteſtines, ſo as to
tives of the Alps, the mountains of Germany, Au- occaſion violent convulſions, not only in them, but,
ſtria, and Tartary ; ſo require a cool flady ſituation, through the whole body. The proper cure is evacua-
except the wholeſome wolfsbane, which muſt have an tion by vomit: but this is not to be obtained without
open expoſure. They thrive better in a moiſt than dry fome difficulty ; becauſe there is uſually ſuch a contrac-
foil : but the ground muſt not be ſo wet as to have the tion about the upper orifice of the ſtomach, that no--
thing
A CO
[ 78 ]
А со
Y
Acontías thing can either be ſwallowed or thrown up. In this terminating in a point ; the root is pretty long, of a 'Acorus
11 cafe, an infuſion of tobacco has been recommended, whitiſh, reddiſh, and partly greeniſh colour. Among 1
Acorus.
Acouſtic.
and may probably be of ſervice : for being itſelf of a the lcaves there ariſes a ſingle one, thicker and more
very ſtimulating nature, it may for a moment take off robuſt than the reſt, furrowed on the ſurface, and of a
"the violent ſpaſms occaſioned by the poiſon ; in which paler green. On this grow frequently two ſpikes of
caſe, a violent vomiting will immediately enfue.-The Howers, by many writers called juli
. Theſe are of a
flomach being thoroughly emptied, and deglutition brown colour, having a chequered ſurface. The root
rendered eaſy, the cure may be completed by oily and of this plant has a very agreeable flavour, which is
mucilaginous medicines. On account of the poiſonous greatly improved by drying. It is reckoned carmina-
qualities of monkſhood, no ſpecies of it ſhould be plant- tive and ſtomachic, laving a warm, pungent, bitteriſh
ed where children have acceſs, leſt they ſhould ſuffer taſte; fo is frequently uſed as an ingredient in bitters.
by putting the leaves or flowers in their mouths, or It has been complained of, however, as communicating
rubbing them about their eyes ; for the juice of the a nauſeous flavour to thoſe bitters in which it was in.
"Teaves will occafion great diſorder by being only rubbed fuſed ; and Neumann obſerves, that its agreeable fla-
upon very tender fleíh ; and the farina of the flowers, vour, as well as its diſtinguiſhing taſte, reſides entirely
when blown into the eyes, cauſes them to ſwell greatly. in a volatile eſſential oil ; the reſiduum after diſtillation
ACONTIAS, in zoology, an obſolete name of the having a nauſeous flavour, not at all reſembling that of
anguis jaculis, or darl-ſnake, belonging to the order the calamus. It is an ingredient in the mithridate and
of amphibia ſerpentes. See ANGUIS.
theriaca of the London pharmacopoeia; and in the aro-
ACONTIUM, &X OV Trov, in Grecian antiquity, a kind matic and ſtomachic tinctures, and compound arum
of dart or javelin, reſembling the Roman pilum. powder, of the Edinburgh. The freſh root candiedis
ACONTIUS (James), a philoſopher, civilian, and faid to be employed at Conſtantinople as a preſervative
divine, born at Trent in the 16th century : he embra- againſt epedemic diſeaſes. The leaves of this plant have
ced the reformed religion ; and, coming into England a ſweet fragrant ſmell, more agreeable, though weaker
in the reign of queen Elizabeth, was much honoured than that of the roots. Neither horſes, cows, goats,
by her, which he acknowledges in a book dedicated ſheep, nor ſwine, will eat the herb, or its root.
to that queen. This work is his celebrated Collection Culture. The acorus being a perennial plant, may
of the Siratagems of Satan, which lias been fo often be tranſplanted into a garden, where it will thrive very
tranſlated, and borne ſo many editions.
well if the ground is moiſt ; but never flowers unleſs it
ACOSTAN, a mountainous iſland in the north grows in water. It loves an open ſituation, and will
ſeas between Aſia and America, obſerved by captain not thrive well under the ſhade of trees. The flowers
Cook.
appear the latter end of June, and continue till Au-
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See QUERCUS. guſt.
Acorn, (in ſea-language), a little ornamental piece ACORUS, in the materia medica, a name ſometimes
of wood, faſhioned like a cone, and fixed on the upper- given to the great galangal. See KEMPFERIA.
noſt point of the ſpindle, above the vane, on the maſt Acorus, in natural hiſtory, blue coral. Thetrue fort
head. It is uſed to keep the vane from being blown is very ſcarce; fome, however, is fiſhed on the coaſts
off from the ſpindle in a whirlwind, or when the ſhip of Africa, particularly from Rio del Re to the river of
leans much to one ſide under fail.
the Camarones. This coral is part of the merchan-
ACORUS,CALA MUS AROMATICUS,Sweet FLAG, diſe which the Dutch trade for with the Camarones :
or Sweet Rush: A genus of the monogynia order, that of the kingdom of Benin is alſo very much eſteem-
belonging to the hexandria claſs of plants; and ranking ed. It grows in form of a tree on a rocky bottom.
in the second natural order, Piperita. The characters ACOUSMATICI, ſometimes alſo called Acouſtici,
are: The calyx is a cylindric ſimple fpadix covered in Grecian antiquity, ſuch of the diſciples of Pythago-
with florets; there is no ſpatha, nor perianthium. The ras as had not completed their five years probation.
corolla is compoſed of fix obtufe, concave, looſe petals. ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that rc-
The ſtamina conſiſt of fix thickiſh filaments, ſomewhat lates to the ear, the ſenſe of hearing, or the doctrine
longerthan the corolla;the antheræ are thickiſh and di of founds.
dymous. The piſillum has a gibbous oblong germen the Acoustic Duct, in anatomy, the ſame with meatus
length of the ſtamina ; no ſtylus ; the ſtigma a promi- auditorius, or the external paſſage of the ear. See A-
nent point. The pericarpium is a ſhort triangular,
obtuſe, three-celled capſule, attenuated at both ends. Acoustic Inſtrument, or auricular tube. See Acou-
The feeds are numerous, and of an oblong egg-ſhape. STICS, nº 26.
There is but one ſpecies, the acorus calamus. It Acoustic Veſels, in the ancient theatres, were a
grows naturally in ſhallow ſtanding waters, and is kind of veſſels made of braſs, ſhaped in the bell fa-
found wild in ſome parts of Britain. It grows plenti- fhion, which being of all tones within the pitch of the
fully in rivulets and marſhy places about Norwich and voice or even ofinſtruments, rendered the ſounds more
other parts of the iſland, in the canals of Holland, in audible, ſo that the actors could be heard through all
Switzerland, and in other countries of Europe. The parts of theatres, which were even 400 feet in diameter.
Thops have been aſually ſupplied from the Levant with Acoustic Diſciples, among the ancient Pythago-
dried roots, which do not appear to be ſuperior to thoſe reans, thoſe more commonly called ACOUSMATICI.
of other parts. The leaves are ſometimes two feet
long,narrow,compreſſed, ſmooth,andof a bright green, The SCIENCE of
ACOUSTICS
NATOMY.
79
A CO U S TICs
3
S
ted.
I
Diacouſtics
IN
NSTRUCTS us in the nature of found. It is di- carry them forward; and if we make allowance for the
vided by ſome writers into Diacouſtics, which ex difference of its denſity, perhaps the ſounds move in -
plains the properties of thoſe founds that come di- it with a proportional rapidity to what they are found
C'atacou- rectly from the ſonorous body to the ear; and Gata to do in the elaſtic fluid of air.
Stics. co:iſtics, which treats of reflected ſounds : but ſuch di. One thing however is certain, that whether the fluid
ſtinction does not appear to be of any real utility. which conveys the note be elaſticor non-elaſtic, what-
Char. I. Different theories of Sound.
ever found we hear is produced by a ſtroke, which the
founding body makes againſt the fluid, whether air or
of the veo
Moſt ſounds, we all know, are conveyed to us on water. The fluid being ſtruck upon, carries the im-
hicles of the boſom of the air. In whatever manner they either preſſion forward to the ear, and there produces its ſen-
found.
float upon it, or are propelled forward in it, certain it fation. Philoſophers are ſo far agreed, that they all What
is, that, without the vehicle of this or ſome other fluid, allow that ſound is nothing more than the impreſſion ſound is, -
we ſhould have no ſounds at all. Let the air be ex-
made by an elaſtic body upon the air or water (B), and and how
hauſted from a receiver, and a bell ſhall emit no found this impreſſion carried along by either fluid to the or-
propagaa
when rung in the void; for, as the air continues to gan of hearing. But the manner in which this convey-
grow leſs denſe, the found dies away in proportion, fo ance is made, is ſtill diſputed: Whether the ſound is
that at laſt-its ſtrongeſt vibrations are almoſt totally diffuſed into the air, in circle beyond circle, like the
filent.
waves of water when we diſturb the ſmoothneſs of its
Air not the
Thus air is a vehicle for ſound. However, we muſt ſurface by dropping in a ſtone ; or whether it travels
only one not, with ſome philoſophers, aſſert, that it is the only along, like rays diffuſed from a centre, ſomewhat in
vehicle; that, if there were no air, we ſhould have no the ſwift manner that electricity runs along a rod of
ſounds whatſoever: for it is found by trial, that ſounds iron ; theſe are the queſtions which have divided the -
are conveyed through water almoſt with the fame faci- learned.
6
lity with which they move through air. A bell rung in Newton was of the firſt opinion. He has explained Newton's -
water returns a tone as diétinct as if rung in air. This the progreſſion of ſound by an undulatory, or rather a theory.
was obſerved by Derham, who alſo remarked that the vermicular, motion in the parts of the air. If we have
tone came a quarter deeper. Some naturaliſts aſſure an exact idea of the crawling of ſome inſects, we ſhall
us alſo, that fiſhes have a ſtrong perception of ſounds, have a tolerable notion of the progreſſion of found upon
even at the om of deep rivers (A). From hence, this hypotheſis. The inſect, for inſtance, in its motion,
it would ſeem to be not very material in the propaga- firſt carries its contractions from the hinder part, in or-
tion of ſounds, whether the Auid which conveys them der to throw its fore-part to the proper diſtance; then
be elaſtic or otherwiſe. Water, which, of all ſubſtan- it carries its contractions from the fore-part to the hin-
ces that we know, has the leaſt elaſticity, yet ſerves ta der to bring that forward. . Something ſimilar to this
is.
4
(A) Dr Hunter has proved this, and demonſtrated the auricular organ in theſe animals. See Fish, and
COMPARATIVE Anatomy,
(B) Though air and water are both vehicles of found, yet neither of them ſeems to be ſo by itſelf, but on-
lğas it contains an exceedingly ſubtile fluid capable of penetrating the moſt ſolid bodies. Hence, by the mie.
dium of that fluid, founds can be propagated through wood, or metals, even more readily than through the o-
pen air. By the ſame means, deaf people may be made ſenſible of ſounds, if they hold a piece of metal in their
mouth, one end of which is applied to the founding body. As it is certain, therefore, that air cannot pene-
trate metals, we muſt acknowledge the medium of found to be of a more ſubtile nature ; and thus the electrical
fluid wil naturally occur as the proper one. But why then is found no longer heard in an exhauſted recei-
ver, if the air is not the fluid by which it is conveyed, ſeeing the ele&rical matter cannot be excluded? The
reply lo this is obvious: The electrical fluid is ſo exceedingly ſubtile, and pervades ſolid bodies with ſo niuch
eaſe, that any motion of a ſolid body in a quantity of electric matter by itſelf, can never excite a degree of a-
gitation in it ſufficient for producing a ſound ; but if the electric fluid is entangled among the particles of air,
water, wood, metal, &c. whatever affects their particles will alſo affect this fluid, and produce an audible
noiſe. In the experiment of the air-pump, however, there may be an ambiguity, as the gradual exhauſting of
the air creates an increaſing difference of preſſure on the outſide, and may occaſion in the glaſs a difficulty of
vibrating, ſo as to to render it leſs fit to communicate to the air without the vibrations that ſtrike it from
within. From this cauſe the diminution of found in an exhauſted receiver may be ſuppoſed to proceed, as
well as from the diminution of the air. But if any internal agitation of its parts ſhould happen to the elec-
trical Auid, exceeding loud noiſes might be propagated through it, as has been the caſe when large meteors
have kindled at a great diſtance from the earth. It is alſo difficult to account for the exceeding great ſwiftneis-
of found, upon the ſuppoſition that it is propagated by means of air alone ; for nothing is more certain, than thatthew
ſtrongeſt and most violent gale is, in its courſe, inert and fluggiſh, compared with the motion of ſound.
8.
ACOUSTIC S.
Chap. I.
Sound,
Different in tile motion of the air when ſtruck upon by a ſounding denſity every where as at the ſurface of the earth, in Different
Theories of body. To be a little more preciſe, ſuppole ABC, the ſuch a caſe, a pendulum, that reached from its liigheſt Theories of
ſtring of an harplichord ſcrewed to a proper pitch, and ſurface down to the ſurface of the earth, would by its Sound,
Plate I.
drawn out of the righe line by the finger at B. We vibrations diſcover to us the proportion of its velocity
fig, I. ſhall have occaſion elſewhere to obſerve, that ſuch a with which founds travel. The velocity with which
firing would, if let go, vibrate to E ; and from E to D, each pulſe would move, he ſhows, would be as much
and back again ; that it would continue thus to vibrate greater than the velocity of ſuch a pendulum ſwinging
like a pendulum for ever, if not externally reſiſted, and with one complete vibration, as the circumference of a
like a pendulum, all its little vibrations would be per circle is greater than the diameter. From hence he
formed in equal times, the laſt and the firſt being e calculates, that the motion of ſound will be 979 feet
qually long in performing; alſo, that, like a pendulum, in one ſecond. But this not being conſonant to ex-
its greateſt ſwiftneſs would always be when it arrived perience, he takes in another conſideration, which de-
at E, the middle part of its motion. Now then, if this ſtroys entirely the vigour of his former demonſtration,
ſtring be ſuppoſed to fly froni the finger at B, it is ob- naniely, vapours in the air ; and then finds the inotion
vious, that whatever be its own motion, ſuch alſo will of ſound tobe 11 42 feet in one ſecond, or near 13 miles
be the motion of the parts of air that fly before it. Its in a minute : a proportion which experience had eſta-
motion, as is obvious, is firſt uniformly accelerated for- bliſhed nearly before.
7
ward from B to E, then retarded as it goes from E to Thus much will ſerve to give an obſcure idea of a Preceding
D, accelerated back again as it returns from D to E, theory which has met with numbers of oppoſers. Even Theory opje
and retarded from Eto B. This motion being there- John Bernouilli, Newton's greateſt diſciple, inodeſtly poſed.
fore ſent in ſucceſſion through a range of elaſtic air, it owns that he did not pretend to underſtand this part
muſt happen, that the parts of one range of air muſt of the Principia. He attempted therefore to give a
be ſent forward with accelerated motion,
and then with more perſpicuous demonſtration of his own, that night
a retarded motion. This accelerated motion reaching confirm and illuſtrate the Newtonian theory. The
the remoteft end of the firſt range will be communi- ſubject ſeemed to reject elucidation: his theory is ob-
cated to a ſecond range, while the neareſt parts of the viouſly wrong, as D'Alembert has proved in his Thie-
firſt range being retarded in their motion, and falling ory of Fluids.
8
back with the receſſion of the ſtring, retire firſt with Various have been the objections that have been The objeca
an accelerated, then with a retarded motion, and the made to the Newtonian fyftem of ſounds. It is urged, tions.
remoteſt parts will ſoon follow. In the mean time, that this theory can only agree with the motion of
while the parts of the firſt range are thus falling back, ſound in an elaſtic fluid, whereas founds are known to
the parts of the ſecond range are going forward with nove forward through water that is not elaſtic. Το
an accelerated motion. Thus there will be an alter- explain their progreſs therefore through water, a fe-
nate condenſation and relaxation of the air, during the cond theory muſt be formed : ſo that two theories muſt
time of one vibration; and as the air going forward be made to explain a ſimilar effect; which is contrary
ſtrikes any oppoſing body with greater force than upon to the ſimplicity of true philofophy, for it is contrary
retiring, ſo each of theſe accelerated progreſſions have to the ſimplicity of nature. It is farther urged, that
been called by Newton a pulſe of ſound.
this ſlow vermicular motion but ill repreſents thc velo-
Thus will the air be driven forward in the direction city with which founds travel, as we know by experi-
of the ſtring. But now we muſt obſerve, that theſe ence that it is almoſt 13 miles in a minute. In ſhort,
pulſes will move every way ; for all motion impreſſed it is urged, that ſuch undulations as have been deſcri-
upon fluids in any direction whatſoever, operates all bed, when coming from ſeveral ſonorous bodies at once,
around in a ſpliere : ſo that ſounds will be driven in all would croſs, obſtruct, and confound each other ; ſo
directions, backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards, that, if they were conveyed to the ear by this means,
and on every ſide. They will go on ſucceeding each we ſhould hear nothing but a medley of difcord and
other, one on the outſide of the other, like circles in broken articulations. But this is equally with the reſt
diſturbed water ; or rather, they will lie one without contradictory to experience, ſince we hear the fulleſt
the other, in concentric ſhells, tell above ſhell, as concert, not only without confuſion, but with the high-
we fec in the coats of an onion.
eft pleaſure. Theſe objections, whether well founded
All who have remarked the tone of a bell, while its or not, have given riſe to another theory : which we
ſounds are decaying away, muſt have an idea of the ſhall likewiſe lay before the reader ; though it too ap-
pulſes of ſound, which, according to Newton, are form- pears liable to objections, which ſhall be afterwards
ed by the air's alternate progreſſion and receſſion. And mentioned.
it muſt be obſerved, that as each of theſe pulſes is Every found may be conſidered as driven off from Another
formed by a ſingle vibration of the ſtring, they muſt the founding body in ſtraight lines, and impreſſed upon Theory.
be equal to each other ; for the vibrations of the ſtring the air in one direction only : but whatever impreſſion
are known to be fo.
is made upon a fluid in one direction, is diffuſed upon
Agaill, as to the velority with which founds travel, its ſurface into all directions ; ſo that the found firſt
this Newton determines, by the moſt difficult calcula- driven directly forward ſoon fills up a wide ſphere, and
tion that can be imagineil, to be in proportion to the is heard on every ſide. Thus, as it is impreſſed, itin-
thickneſs of the parts of thc air, and the diſtance of ſtantaneouſly travels forward with a very ſwift motion,
theſe parts from each other. From hence he goes ou reſembling the velocity with which we know electri-
to prore, that each little part moves backward and for city flies from one end of a line to another.
vard like a pendulum ; and from thence lie proceeds Now, as to the pulſes, or clofe ſhakes, as the muſi-
to demonfirate, that iſ the atmoſphicre were of the fame cians expreſs it, which a founding body is known to
3
makc
9
1
Chap. I.
A C O U S T I CS
81
Different make, cach pulſe (ſay the ſupporters of this theory,) anſwered by ſaying, that the depth or height of the Different
Theories of is itſelf a diſtinct and perfect found and the interval note proceeded from the ſlowneſs or ſwiftneſs of the Theories of
Sound. between every two pulſes is profoundly ſilent. Con tiines of the vibrations. The loweſt vibrations, it has Sound. .
tinuity of found from the ſame body is only a decep- been ſaid, are qualified for producing the deepeſttones,
tion of the hearing ; for as each diſtinct ſound ſucceeds while the ſwifteſt vibrations produce the higheſt tones.
at very ſmall intervals, the organ has no time to tranſ- In this caſe, an effect has been given for a cauſe. It is
mit its images with equal ſwiftneſs to the mind, and in fact the force with which the founding ſtring ſtrikes
the interval is thus loſt to ſenſe ; juſt as in ſeeing a the air when ſtruck upon, that makes the true diſtinc-
flaming torch, if flared round in a circle, it appears tion in the tones of ſounds. It is this force, with great-
as a ring of fire. In this manner a beaten drum, at erorleſsimpreſſions,reſemblingthegreater or leſs force
ſome ſmall diſtance, preſents us with the idea of con of the blows upon a non-elaſtic body, which produces
tinuing ſound. When children run with their ſticks correſpondent affections of ſound. The greateſt forces
along a rail, a continuing ſound is thus repreſented, produce the deepeſt ſounds: the high notes are the ef-
though it need ſcarce be obſerved that the ſtroke a fect of ſmall efforts. In the ſame manner a bell, wide
gainſt each rail is perfectly diſtinct and inſulated. at the mouth, gives a grave found ; but if it be very
According to this theory, therefore, the pulſes are mally withal, that will render it ſtill graver ; but if
nothing more than diſtinct ſounds repeated by the fame mally, wide, and long or high, that will make the
body, the firſt ſtroke or vibration being ever the loud tone deepeſt of all.
eft, and travelling farther than thoſe that follow; while Thus, then, will elaſtic bodies give the deepeſt
each ſucceeding vibration gives a new found, but with found, in proportion to the force with which they
diminiſhed force, till at laſt the pulſes decay away to ſtrike the air : but if we ſhould attempt to increaſe their
tally, as the force decays that gives them exiſtence. force by giving them a ſtronger blow, this will be in
All bodies whatſoever that are ſtruck return more vain ; they will ſtill return the ſame tone ; for ſuch is
or leſs a ſound : but fome, wanting elafticity, give back their formation, that they are fonorous only becauſe
no repetition of the ſound ; the noiſe is at once begot- they are elaſtic, and the force of this elaſticity is not
ten and dies : while other bodies, however, there are, increaſed by our ſtrength as the greatneſs of a pendu-
which being more elaſtic and capable of vibration, give lum's vibration will not be increaſed by falling from
back a ſound, and repeat the ſame ſeveral times ſuc a greater height.
cellively. Theſe laſt are ſaid to have a tone ; the Thus far of the length of chords. Now as to the fre-
others are not allowed to have any.
quency with which they vibrate the deepeſt tones, it
This tone of the elaſtic ſtring, or bell, is nutwith- has been found, from the nature of elaſtic ſtrings, that
ſtanding noghing more than a ſimilar ſound to what the longeſt ſtrings have the wideſt vibrations, and con-
the former bodies produced, but with the difference of ſequently go backward and forward floweſt; while, on
being many times repeated while their note is but the contrary, the ſhorteſt ſtrings vibrate the quickeſt,
ſingle. So that, if we would give the former bodies a or come and go in the ſnorteſt intervals. From hence
tone, it will be neceſſary to make them repeat their thoſe who have treated of ſounds, have aſſerted, as was
ſound, by repeating our blows ſwiftly upon them. This faid before, that the tone of the ſtring depended upon
will effectually give them a tone; and even an unmuſi the length or the ſhortneſs of the vibrations. This,
cal inſtrument has often had a fine effect by its tone however, is not the caſe. One and the ſame ſtring,
in our concerts.
when ſtruck, muſt always, like the ſame pendulum,re-
Let us now go on then to ſuppoſe, that by ſwift turn preciſely ſimilar vibrations ; but it is well known,
and equably continued ſtrokes we give any non-elailic that one and the ſame ſtring, when ſtruck upon, does
body its tone : it is very obvious, that no alterations not always return preciſely the ſame tone : ſo that in
will be made in this tone by the quickneſs of the ſtrokes, this caſe the vibrations follow one rule, and the tone
though repeated ever ſo faſt. Theſe will only render another. The vibrations muſt be invariably the ſame
the tone inore equal and continuous, but make no al- in the ſame ſtring, which does not return the ſame tone
teration in the tone it gives. On the contrary, if we invariably, as is well known to muſicians in general. In
nake an alteration in the force of each blow, a diffe- the violin, for inſtance, they can eaſily alter thetone of
rent tone will then undoubtedly be excited. The dif. the ſtring an octave or eight notes higher, by a ſofter
ference will be ſmall, it muſt be confeſſed ; for the method of drawing the bow; and ſome are known thus
tones of theſe inflexible bodies are capable but of ſinall to bring out the moſt charming airs imaginable. Theſe
variation ; however, there will certainly be a diffe- peculiar tones are by the Engliſh fiddlers called flute-
rence. The table on which we write, for inſtance, notes. The only reaſon, it has been alleged, that can
will return a different ſound when ſtruck with a club, be aſſigned for the ſame ſtring thus returning different
from what it did when ſtruck only with a ſwitch. This tones, muſt certainly be the different force of its ſtrokes
non-elaſtic bodies return a difference of tone, not in upon the air. In one caſe, it has double the tone of
proportion to the ſwiftneſs with which their ſound is the other ; becauſe upon the ſoft touches of the bow,
repeated, but in proportion to the greatneſs of the only half its elaſticity is put into vibration.
blow which produced it ; for in two equal non-elaſtic This being underſtood (continue the authors of .
bodies, the body produced the deepeſt tone which was this theory), we ſhall be able clearly to account for
ſtruck by the greateſt sblow.
many things relating to ſounds that have hitherto
We now then come to a critical queſtion, What been inexplicable. Thus, for inſtance, if it be alk-
is it that produces the difference of tone in two elaſtic ed, When two ſtrings are ſtretched together of equal
founding bells or ſtrings? Or what makes one deep and lengths, tenſions, and thickneſs, how does it happen,
the other ſhirill? This queſtion has always been hitherto that one of them being ſtruck, and made to vibrate
Vol. I.
L
throughout,
.
82
ACOUSTIC S.
Chap. I.
II
The naturo
IO
1
Plate I.
Different throughout, thc other ſhall vibrate thronghout alſo the roughneſs of its ſurface be to touch the ſtring at Different
Theeres of the aniwer is obvious: The force that the ſtring ſtruck every inſtant ; to remedy this, therefore, the bow muſt Theories of
Sound receives is communicated to the air, and the air com be preſſed the harder as it is drawn quicker, and thus
Sound.
in unicates the faine to the fimilar ſtring ; which there. its fulleſt ſonnd will be brought from the inſtrument.
fore riceives all the force of the former ; and the force Ifthe ſwiftneſs of the vibrations in an inſtrument tlius
bcing equal, the vibrations muſt be ſo too. Again, rubbed upon, exceed the force of the decper found in
put the queflion, If onc ſtring be but half the length another, then the ſwift vibrations will be heard at a
of the other, and be ſtruck, how will the vibrations greater diſtance, and as much farther off as the ſwiftncfs
be? The anſweris, The longeſt ſtring will receive all in them exceeds the force in the other.
the force of the ſtring halt as long as itſelf, and there By the fame theory (it is alleged) may all the phe-
fore it will vibrate in proportion, that is, through half nomena of inufical ſounds be ealily explained.--The of Muhal
iis length. In the fame inanner, if the longest itring fables of the ancients pretend, that muſic was firſt sounds il-
were three times as long as the other, it would only found out by the beating of different hanimers upon the luſtrated
vibrate in a third of its length; or if four times, in a ſmith's anvil. Without purſuing the fable, let us en- according
fourth of its length. In ſhort, whatever force the deavour to explain the nature of muſical ſounds by a
to the ſame
ſmalier ſtring impreſſes upon the air, the air willim- ſimilar method. Let us ſuppoſe an anvil, or ſeveral ſi-
theory.
preſs a ſimilar force upon the longer ſtring, and par- wilar anvils, to be ſtruck upon by ſeveral liammers of
tially excite its vibrations.
different weights or forces. The hammer, which is
Eolian From hence alſo we may account for the cauſe of double that of another, upon ſtriking the anvil will
Lyre. See thoſe charming, melancholy gradations of ſound in the produce a found double that of the other : this double
Eolian lyre ; an inſtrument (ſays Sir John Hawkins) found muſicians have agreed to call an Octave. The
fig. 2.
lately obtruded upon the public as a new invention, ear can judge of the difference or reſemblance of theſe
* Vide Kir- though deſcribed above a century ago by Kircler *. founds with great eaſe, the numbers being as one and
cheri Mu- This inſtrument is eaſily made, being no.hing more two, and therefore, very readily compared. Suppofe
furgia. lib. than a long narrow box of thin dale, about 30 inches that an hammer, three times leſs than the firſt, ſtrikes
ix,
long, 5 inches broad, and 14 inches diep, with a cir the anvil, the found produced by this will be three
cle in the middle of the upper ſide or belly about it times leſs than the firſt : ſo thatthe ear, in judging the
inch diameter, pierced with ſmall holes. Onthis ſide are fimilitude of theſe founds, will find foniewhat more
ſeven, ten, or (according to Kircher) fifteen or more difficulty ; becauſe it is not ſo eaſy to tell how often
ſtrings of very fine gut, ſtretched over bridges at each one is contained in three, as it is to tell how often it
end, like the bridge of a fiddle, and ſcrewed up or re is contained in two. Again, ſuppoſe that an hanımer
laxed with ſcrew-pins (B). The ſtrings are all tuned four times leſs than the firſt ſtrikes tlie anvil, the ear
to one and the ſame note; and the inſtrument is placed will find greater difficulty ſtill in judging preciſely the
in ſome current of air, where the wind can bruſh over diffes ence of the ſounds; for the difference of the num-
its ſtrings with freedom. A window with the ſalh bers four and one cannot ſo ſoon be determined with
juſt raiſed to give the air admiſſion, will anſwer this preciſion as three and one. If the hanımer be five
purpoſe exactly. Now when the entering air blows times leſs, the difficulty of judging will be ſtill greater.
apon theſe ſtrings with different degrees of force, there If the haminer be lix times leſs, the difficulty ſtill in-
will be excited different tones of found; fometimes the creaſes, and ſo alſo of the ſeventh, inſomuch that the
blaſt brings out all the tones in full concert ; ſometimes ear cannot always readily and at once determine the
it ſinks them to the ſofteſt inurmurs; it feels for every preciſe gradation. Now, of all compariſons, thoſe
tone, and by its gradations of ſtrength folicits thoſe which the mind makes moſt caſily, and with leaſt la-
gradations of ſound which art has taken different me bour, are the moſt pleaſing. There is a certain re-
thods to produce.
gularity in the human foul, by which it finds happi-
It remains, in the laſt place, to conſider (by this neſs in exact and ſtriking, and eaſily-made compari-
theory) the loudneſs and lowneſs, or, as the muſicians fons As the ear is but an inſtrument of the mind, it
fpeak, the ſtrength and ſoftneſs of found. In vibra is therefore moſt pleaſed with the combination of any
ting elaſtic ſtrings, the loudneſs of the tone is in pro. two ſounds, the differences of which it can moſt rea-
portion to the deepneſs of the note ; that is, in two dily diſtinguiſh. It is more pleaſed with the concord
ſtrings, all things in other circumſtances alike, the of two founds which are to each other as one and two,
deepeſt tone will be loudeſt. In muſical inſtruments than of two founds which are as one and three, or one
upon a different principle, as in the violin, it is other and four, or one and five, or one and fix or ſeven. Up-
wiſe ; the tones are made in ſuch inſtruments, by a on this plcaſure, which the mind takes in compariſon,
number of ſmall vibrations crowded into one ſtroke. all harmony depends. The variety of ſounds is infi-
The rofined bow, for inſtance, being drawn along a but becauſe the ear cannot compare two ſounds
ſtring, its roughneſſes catch the ſtring at very ſmall ſo as readily to diſtinguiſh their diſcrimations when
intervals, and excite its vibrations. In this inſtrument, they exceed the proportion of one and ſeven, muſicians
therefore, to excite loud tones, the bow muſt be drawn have been content to confine all harmony within that
quick, and this will produce the greateſt number of vi- compaſs, and allowed but ſeven notes in muſical com-
brations. But it muſt be obſerved, that the more poſition.
quick the bow paſſes over the ſtring, the leſs apt will
Let us now then ſuppoſe a ſtringed inſtrument fitted
UP
nite ;
(B) The figure repreſents the inſtrument with ten chords ; of which fome direct only eight to be tuned
uniſons, and the two outermoſt octaves below them. But this ſeems not to be material.
Chap. I.
83
A C COU S TICS.
tor.
Of Muſical up in thic order mentioned above. For inſtance: Let muſicians now conſtís, that instead of one to:e it ac- Of Muſical
Sounus. the firſt flring be twice as long as the ſecond; lul the tually returns four tones, and that confiantly. The Sounds
We third ſtring bc three timncs ſhortcr than the firit ; let 110s arc, belide ihe fundamental tone,am octive above,
the fourth be four times, the fifth ſtring rive times, a twelfth above, and a ſeventeenth. One of the baſs-
and the ſixth fix times as ſhort as the firſt.
Such an
notes of an harpſichord has been dillected in this mail-
inſtrument would probably give us a repreſentation of ner by Ramcan, and the aclual exiſtence of theſe tones
the lyre as it canie firſt froin the liand of the inven- proved beyond a pollibility of being controverted. In
This inſtrument will give us all the ſeven notes fact, the experiment is eaſily tried ; for if we ſinarlly
following each other, in the order in which any two ſtrike one of the lower keys of an harpſichord, and
of them will accord together moſt pleaſingly; but yet then take tnc finger briſkly atray, a tolerable ear will be
it will be a very inconvenient and a very diſagreeablc able to diſtinguiſh, that, after the fundamental tone has
inſtrument: inconvenient, for in a compaſs of ſeven ceaſed, three other ſhriller tones will be diſtinctly
ftrings only, the firſt muſt be ſeven times as long as hcard; firit the octave above, then the twelfth, and
che laſt; and diſagreeable, becauſe this firſt ſtring will laſtly the ſeventeenth : the octave above is in general
be ſeven times as loud alſo ; ſo that when the tones are almoſt inixed with the fundamnental tone, ſo as not to
to be played in a different order, loud and ſoft fwands be eaſily perceived, except by an ear long habitaated
would be intermixed with moſt diſguſting alternations. to the niinute diſcrimination of founds. So that we
In order to improve the firſt inſtrument, thercfore, may obſerve, that the ſmalleſt tone is heard laſt, and the
ſucceeding muſicians very judiciouſly threw in all the deepeſt and largeſt one firſt: the two others in order.
other ſtrings between the two firſt, or, in other words, In the whole theory of ſounds, nothing has given
between the two O&aves, giving to each, however, the greater room for ſpeculation, conjecture, and diſap-
fame proportion to what it would have had in the firſt pointment,than this amazing propertyin elaſtic ſtrings.
natural inſtrument. This made the inſtrument more The whole ſtring is univerſally acknowledged to be
in
portable, and the ſounds more even and pleaſing. They vibration in all its parts, yet this ſingle vibration re-
therefore diſpoſed the ſounds between the Octave in turns no leſs than four different ſounds. They who
their natural order, and gave each its own proportional account for the tones of ſtrings by the number of their
dimenſions. Of theſe founds, where the proportion vibrations, are here at the greateſt loſs. Daniel Ber-
between any two of them is moſt obvious, the concord nouilli ſuppoſcs, that a vibrating ſtring divides itſelf
between them will be moſt pleaſing. Thus Octaves, into a number of curves, each of which has a peculiar
which are as two to one, have a moſt harmonious effect; vibration ; and though they all ſwing together in the
the fourth and fifth allo ſound ſweetly together, and common vibration,yet each vibrates within itſelf. This
they will be found, upon calculation, to bear the ſame opinion, which was ſupported, as most geonietrical
proportion to each other that Octaves do. " Let it ſpeculations are, with the parade of demonſtration,
“ not be ſuppoſed (ſays Mr Saveur), that the muſical was only born foon after to die. Others have aſcribed
« ſcale is merely an arbitrary combination of ſounds; this to an elaſtic difference in the parts of the air, each
“it is made up from the conſonance and differences of of which, at different intervals, thus received different
“ the parts which compoſe it. Thoſe who have often impreſſions from the ſtring, in proportion to their ela-
“ heard a fourth and fifth accord together, will be ſticity. This is abſurd. If we allow the difference of
“ naturally led to diſcover their difference at once; and tone to proceed from the force, and not the frequency,
" the mind unites itſelf to their beauties.” Lctus then of the vibrations, this difficulty will adnic of an eaſy
ceaſe to aſſign the coincidences of vibrations as the ſolution. Theſe ſounds, though they ſeem to exiſt to-
cauſe of harmony,ſince theſe coincidences in two ſtrings gether in the ſtring, actually follow each other in ſuc-
vibrating at different intervals, muſt at beſt be but for- ceſſion : while the vibration has greater force, the
tuitous; whereas concord is always pleaſing. The true fundamental tone is brought forward : the force of the
cauſe whyconcord is pleaſing,muuſt ariſe from our power, vibration decaying, the octave is produced, but almoſt
in ſuch a caſe, of meaſuring more eaſily the differences only inſtantaneoully; to this ſucceeds, with diminiſhed
of the tones. In proportion as the note can be mea force,the twelfth; and, laſtly, the ſeventeenth is heard
ſured with ils fundamental tone by large and obvious to vibrate with great diſtinctneſs,while the three other
diſtinctions, then the concord is moſt pleaſing; on the tones are always ſilent. Theſe ſounds, thus excited,
contrary, when the ear meaſures the diſcriminations of are all of them the harmonic tones, whofe differences
two tones by very ſınall parts, or cannot meaſure them from the fundamental tone are, as was ſaid, ſtrong, and
at all, it loſes the beauty of their reſemblance; the diſtinct. On the other hand, the diſcordant tones can-
whole is diſcord and pain (c).
not be heard. Their differences being but very finall,
But there is another property in the vibration of a mu- they are overpowered, and in a manner drowned in the
fical ſtring not yet taken notice of, and which is alleged tones of ſuperior difference : yet not always neither
to confirm the foregoing theory. If we ſtrike the ſtring for Daniel Bernouilli has been able, from the fame
of an harpſichord, or any other elaſtic ſounding chord ſtroke, to inake the ſame ſtring bring out its harma-
whatever, it returns a continuing ſound. This till of nic and its diſcordant tones allo (D.) So that from
late was conſidered as one ſimple uniſorni tone; but all hence we may juſtly infer, that every note whatſoever
L 2
is
(c) It is certain, that in proportion to the ſimplicity of relations in found, the ear is pleaſed with its combina-
tions'; but this is not to be admitted as the cauſe why muſicians have confined all harmony to an octave. Diſ-
criminated ſounds, whoſe vibrations either never coincide, or at leaſt very rarely, do not only ceaſe to pleaſe,
but violently grate the ear. Harmony and diſcord, therefore, are neither diſcriminated by the judgment of
hearers, nor the inſtitution of muſicians, but by their own ellential and immutable nature.
(1) Vid. Memoires de l'Academie de Berlin, 1753, P.153.
;
84
Chap. I.
A
S.
Sounds.
12
note."
Of Muſical is only a ſucceſſion of tones; and that thoſe are moſt ſharp. A battery conſiſting of ſixty-four jars, each of Muſical
Sounds. diſtinctly heard, whoſe differences are moſt eaſily per- containing half a ſquare foot, founded F below the C.
ceivable.
« The lame battery, in conjunction with another
Objections To this theory, however, though it has a plauſible of thirty-one jars, founded C ſharp. So that a great-
to the pre-appearance, there are ſtrong and indeed inſuperable er quantity of coated glaſs always gave a deeper note.
ceding the objections. The very fundamental principle of it is Differences in the degree of a charge in the ſame
ory. falſe. No body whatever, whether elaſtic or non-e- jar made little or no difference in the tone of the ex-
laſtic, yields a graver found by being ſtruck with a ploſion: ifany, a higher charge gave rather a deeper
larger inſtument, unleſs either the founding body, or
that part of it which emits the found, is enlarged. In Theſe experiments ſhow us how much the gravity or
this caſe, the largeſt bodies always return the graveſt acuteneſs of ſounds depend on the quantity of air put
founds.
in agitation by the founding body. We know that the
In ſpeaking of elaſtic and non-elaſtic bodies in a mu noiſe of the electric explotion ariſes from the return
fical ſenſe, we are not to puſh the diſtinction ſo far as of the air into the vacuum produced by the electric
when we ſpeak of them philoſophically. A body is mu- flaſh. The larger the vacuum, the deeper was the
fically elaſtic, all of whoſe parts are thrown into vibra note: for the ſame reaſon, the diſcharge of a muſket
tions ſo as to emit a ſound when only part of their ſur produces a more acute note than that of a cannon; and
face is ſtruck. Of this kind are bells, muſical ſtrings, thunder is deeper than either.
and all bodies whatever that are conſiderably hollow. Beſides this, however, other circumſtances concur
Muſical non-elaſtics are ſuch bodies as cmit a ſound to produce different degrees of gravity or acuteneſs in
only from that particular place which is ſtruck: thus, ſounds. The ſound of a table ſtruck upon with a piece
a táble, a plate of iron nailed on wood, a bell funk of wood, will not be the ſame with that produced from
in the earth, are all of them non-elaſtics in a muſical a plate of iron ſtruck by the ſame piece of wood, even
ſenſe, though not philoſophically ſo. When a ſolid bo- if the blows ſhould be exactly equal, and the iron per-
dy, ſuch as a log of wood, is ſtruck with a ſwitch, only fectly kept from vibrating:
-Here the ſounds are gene-
that part of it emits a ſound which comes in contact rally ſaid to differ in their degrees of acuteneſs, accord-
with the ſwitch; the note is acute and loud, but would ing to the ſpecific gravities or denſities of the ſubſtan-
be no leſs ſo though the adjacent parts of the log were ces which emit then. Thus gold, which is the moſt
removed. If, inſtead of the ſwitch, a heavier or lar- denſe of all metals, returns a much graver ſound than
ger
inſtrument is made uſe of, a larger portion of its filver; and metalline wires, which are niore denſe than
furface then returns a found, and the note is conſe- therms, return a proportionably greater ſuund. But
quently more grave; but it would not be ſo, if the neither does this appear to be a general rule in which
large inſtrument ſtruck with a fliarp edge, or a ſurface we can put confidence. Bell-metal is denſer than cop-
only equal to that of a ſmall one.
per, but it by no means appears to yield a graver found;
In ſounds of this kind, where there is only a ſingle on the contrary, it ſeems very probable, that copper
thwack, without any repetition, the immediate cauſe of will give a graver found than bell-metal, if both are
the gravity or acuteneſs ſeems to be the quantity of air ſtruck upon in their non-elaſtic ſtate; and we can by
diſplaced by the founding body; a large quantity of no means think that a bell of pure tin, the leaſt denſe
air diſplaced, produces a grave found, and a ſmaller of all the metals, will give a more acute found than
quantity a more acute one, the force wherewith the air one of bell-metal, which is greatly more denſe.-In
is diſplaced ſignifying very little. What we here ad- ſome bodies liardneſs ſeems to have a conſiderable ef-
vance is confirmed by ſome experiments made by Dr fect. Glaſs, which is conſiderably harder than any
Prieſtley, concerning the muſical tone of electrical diſ- metal, gives a more acute found; bell-metal is harder
charges. The paſſage being curious, and not very long, than gold, lead, or tin; and therefore ſounds much
we ſhall here tranſcribe it :
more acutely; though how far this holds with regard
• As the courſe of my experinents has required a to different ſubſtances, there are not a ſufficient num-
great variety of electrical exploſions, I could not help ber of experiments for us to judge.
obſerving a great variety in the muſical tone made by In bodies muſically elaſtic, the whole ſubſtance vi.
the reports. This excited my curioſity to attempt to brates with the ſlighteſt ſtroke, and therefore they al-
reduce this variation to ſome meaſure. According- ways give the ſame note whether they are ſtruck with
ly, by the help of a couple of ſpinets, and two perſons a large or with a ſmall inſtrument; ſo that ſtriking a
who had good cars for muſic, I endeavoured to aſcer- part of the ſurface of any body muſically elaſtic is e.
tain the tone of ſome electrical diſcharges ; and ob- quivalent, in it, to ſtriking the whole ſurface of a non-
ſerved, that every diſcharge made ſeveral ſtrings, par-
elaſtic one.
If the whole ſurface of a table was ſtruck
ticularly thoſe that were chords to one another, to vi with another table, the note produced would be neither
brate : but one note was always predominant, and more or leſs acute whatever force was employed ; be-
founded after the reſt. As every exploſion was re cauſe the whole ſurface would then yield a found, and
peated ſeveral times, and three of us feparately took no force could increaſe tlie ſurface : the found would
the fame note, there remained no doubt but that the indeed be louder in proportion to the force employed,
tone we fixed upon was at leaſt very near the true but the gravity would remain the ſame. In like man-
one. The reſult was as follows :
ner, when a bell, or muſicalſtring, is ſtruck, the whole
"A jar containing half a ſquare foot of coated glaſs ſubſtance vibrates and a greater ſtroke cannot increaſe
founded F ſharp, concert pitch. Another jar of a dif the ſubſtance. Hence we ſee the fallacy of what is
ferent form, but equal ſurface, founded the ſame. ſaid concerning the Pythagorean anvils.' An anvil is
“ A jar of three ſquare feet ſounded C below F a body mulically elaſtic, and no difference in the tone
can
Chap. I.
ACOUSTIC S.
85
13
of Muſical can be perceived whether it is ſtruck with a large, or the moſt ſimple and the moſt agreeable, though neither Propaga-
Sounds. with a ſmall haminer ; becauſe either of them are ſuf the most acute nor the loudeſt...As far as we can tion of
ficient to make the whole ſubſtance vibrate, provided judge, quickneſs of vibration contributes to the uni-
Sound.
nothing but the anvil is ſtruck upon : ſmiths, however, formiry, or ſimplicity, but not to the acuteneſs, nor to
do dot ſtrike their anvils, but red-hod iron laid upon the loudneſs of a muſical note.
their anvils ; and thus the vibrations of the anvil are It may here be objected, that each of the different
ſtopped, ſo that it becomes a non-elaſtic body, and the pulſes, of which we obſerve the ſound of a bell to be
differences of tone in the ſtrokes of different hammers compoſed, is of a very perceptible length, and far from
proceed only from the ſurface of the large hammers being inſtantaneous ; ſo that it is not fair to infer that
covering the whole ſurface of the iron, or at leaſt a the ſound of a bell is only a repetition of a ſingle inſtan-
greater part of it than the ſmall ones. If the ſmall taneous ſtroke, ſeeing it is evidently the repetition of
hammer is ſufficient to cover the whole ſurface of the a lengthened note. To this it may be replied, that
iron as well as the large one, the note produced will be the inappretiable ſound which is produced by ſtriking
the fame, whether the large or the ſmall hammer is uſed. a bell in a non-elaſtic ſtate, is the very ſame which,
Laſtly, The argument for the preceding theory, being firſt propagated round the bell, forms one of
grounded on the production of what are called flute theſe ſhort pulſes that is afterwards re-echoed as long
notes on the violin, is built on a falſe foundation; for as the vibrations of the metal continue, and it is im-
the bow being lightly drawn on an open ſtring, pro- poſſible that the quickneſs of repetition of any found
duces no flute-notes, but only the harmonies of the note can either increaſe or diminiſh its gravity.
to which the ſtring is tuned. The flute-notes are pro-
duced by a particular motion of the bow, quick and CHAP. II. Of the propagation of Sound. Newton's
near the bridge, and by fingering very gently. By
Doctrine explained and vindicated.
this management, the ſame founds are produced, tho '
at certain intervals only as ifthe vibrations were tranſ The writers on found have been betrayed into theſe
Propaga-
ferred to the ſpace between the end of the finger- board difficulties and obſcurities, by rejecting the 47th pro- tion of
and the finger, inſtead of that between the finger and poſition, B. ii. of Newton, as inconcluſive reaſoning. Sound.
the bridge. Why this ſmall part of the ſtring ſhould Of this propoſition, however, the ingenious Mr Young
vibrate in ſuch a caſe, and not that which is under the of Trinity college, Dublin, has lately given a clear,
immediate action of the bow, we muſt own ourſelves. explanatory, and able defence. He candidly owns that
ignorant: nor dare we affirm that the vibrations real the demonſtration is obſcurely ſtated, and takes the li-
ly are transferred in this manner, only the ſaine ſounds berty of varying, in ſome degree, from the method of
are produced as if they were.
Newton,
Though theſe objeétions ſeem fufficiently to over ~ 1. The parts of all ſounding bodies, (he obſerves),
turn the foregoing theory, with regard to acute ſounds vibrate according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum :
being the effects of weak ſtrokes, and grave ones of for they may be conſidered as compoſed of an indefi-
ſtronger impulſes, we cannot admit that longer or nite nuinber of elaſtic fibres; but theſe fibres vibrate
florter vibrations are the occaſion of gravity or a according to that law. Vide Helſham, p. 270.
cuteneſs in found. A muſical ſound, however length “ 2. Sounding bodies propagate their motions on all
ened, either by ſtring or bell, is only a repetition of a fides in directum, by ſucceſſive condenſations and rare.
ſingle one, whoſe duration by itſelf is but for a mo factions, and ſucceſlive goings forward and returnings.
ment, and is therefore termned inappretiable, like the backward of the particles. Vide prop.43.B.2. Newton..
ſinack of a whip, or the exploſion of an electrical bat “ 3. The pulſes are thoſe parts of the air which vi-
tery. The continuation of the ſound is nothing more brate backwards and forwards; and which, by going
than a repetition of this inſtantaneous inappretiable forward, ſtrike (pulſant) againſt obſtacles. The lati.
noiſe after the manner of an echo, and it is only this tude of pulſe is the rectilineal ſpace through which the
echo that makes the found agreeable. For this reaſon, motion of the air is propagated during one vibration
mafic is much more agrecable when played in a large of the ſounding body.
hall where the ſound is reverberated, than in a ſmall “ All pulfes move equally faſt. This is proved by
room where there is no ſuch reverberation. For the experiment; and it is found that they deſcribe 1070
ſanie reaſon, the ſound of a ſtring is more agreeable Paris feet, or 11 42 London feet in a ſecond, whether
when put on a hollow violin than when faltened to the ſound be loud or low, grave or acute,
a plain board, &c.--In the ſound of a bell, we cannot 5. Prob. To determine the latitude of a pulſe.
avoid obſerving this echo very diftin&ly. The found Divide the ſpace which the pulſe deſcribes in a given
appears to be made up of diftin&t pulſes, or repetitions time (4) by the number of vibrations performed in the
of the ſame note produced by the ſtroke of the hammer. ſame time by the founding body, (cor. I. prop. 24-
It can by no means be allowed, that the note would be Smith's Harinonics), the quotient is the larirude.
more acute though theſe pulſes were to ſucceed one “M. Sauveur, by fome experiments on organ-pipes,
another more rapidly; the found would indeed become found that a body, which gives the graveſt harmonic
more ſimple, but would ſtill preſerve the ſame tone. found, vibrates 12 times and a half in a ſecond, and
In muſical ſtrings the reverberations are vaſtly more that the ſhrilleſt founding body vibrates 51.100 times
quick than in bells ; and therefore their found is more in a ſecond. At a medium, let us take the body which
uniform or ſimple, and conſequently more agreeable gives what Sauveur calls his fixed found : it performs
* See Har- than that of bells. In muſical glaſſes*, the vibrations roo vibrations in a ſecond, and in the ſame time the
monics. muſt be inconceivably quicker than in any bell, or pulſes deſcribe 1070 Pariſian feet; therefore the ſpace
ft inged inftrument, and hence they are of all others. deſcribed by the pulſes whilſt the body vibrates once,
that
bon
+
.
1
Chap. II.
86
A CO U S T I C S.
Propaga-
that is, the latitude or interval of the pulſe, will be Draw the right linc PS equal to Ee, biſcct it in O, and Propaga-
tion of 10.7 feet.
from the centre o with the rudius O P deſcribe ilie tion of
Sound. 66 6. Prob. To find the Proportion which the circle SIPh. Let the wholc tiine of the vibration of Sound.
greateſt ſpace, through which the particles of the air a particle and its parts be denored by the circumfer-
vibrate, bears to the radius of a circle, whoſe perinie- rence of this circle and its proportional parts. And
ter is equal to the latitude of the pulſe.
ſince the particles are ſuppoſed to be at lirit agitated
“ During the firſt half of the progreſs of the elaſtic according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, if at any
fibre, or ſounding body, it is continually getting near time PH, or PHS), the perpendicular HL or bl, be let
er to the next particle ; and during the latter half of fall on PS, and if Ee be taken equal to PL or Pl, the
its progreſs, that particle is getting farther from the particle E ſhall be found in e. . Thus will the particle
fibre, and theſe portions of time are equal (Helſham): E perform its vibrations according to the law of a cy-
therefore we may conclude, that at the end of the pro- cloidal pendulum. Prop. 52. B. I. Prircipia.
greſs of the fibre, the firſt particle of air will be near “ Let us ſuppoſe now, that the particles have been
ly as far diſtant from the fibre as when it began to fucceffively agitated, according to this law, for a cer-
move ; and in the ſame manner we may infer, that all tain time, by any cauſe whatſoever, and let us examine
the particles vibrate through ſpaces nearly equal to what will be the comparative elaſtic forces ariſingfrom
that run over by the fibre.
their mutual action, by which they will afterwards con-
“Now, M. Sauveur ( Acad. Science, an. 1700, p.141) tinue to be agitated.
has found by experiment, that the middle point of a “ In the circumference PHSh take the equal arches
chord which produces his fixed found, and whoſe dia- HI, IK, in the ſame ratio to the whole circumference
meter is th of a line, runs over in its ſmalleſt ſenſible which the cqual right lines EF, FG have to BC the
vibrations eth of a line, and in its greateſt vibrations whole interval of the pulſes; and let fall the per-
72 times that ſpace; that is 72+th of a line, or 4 pendiculars HL, IM, KN. Since the points E, F, G
lines, that is, įd of an inch.
are ſucceſſively agitated in the ſame manner, and per-
“ The latitude of the pulſes of this fixed found is form their entire vibrations of progreſs and regreſs
10.7 feet(5); and ſince the circumference of a circleis while the pulſe is propagated from B to C, if Pů be
to its radius as 710 is to 113, the greateſt ſpace deſcri- the time from the beginning of the motion of E, PI
bed by the particles will be to the radius of a circle, will be the time from the beginning of the motion of
whoſe periphery is equal to the latitude of the pulſe as F, and PK the time from the beginning of the motion
id of an inch is to 1.7029 feet, or 20.4348 inches, that of G; and therefore Es, F©, Gy will be reſpectively
is, as I to 61.3044.
equal to PL, PM, PN in the progreſs of the particles.
“ If the length of the ſtring be increaſed or diminiſh- Whence 10 or EF+F9--E, is equal to EF-LM. But
ed in any proportion, cæteris paribus, the greateſt eo is the expanſion of EF in the place :P, and therefore
fpace deſcribed by its middle point will vary in the this expanſion is to its mean expanſion as EF---LM to
ſame proportion. For the inflecting force is to the EF. But LM is to IH as IM is to OP, and IH is to
tending force as the diſtance of the ſtring from the EF as the circumference PHSh is to BC ; that is, as
middle point of vibration to half the length of the OP is to V, if V be the radius of a circle whoſe cir-
ſtring (see Helſham and Martin); and therefore the cumference is BC; therefore, ex æquo, LM is to
inflecting and tending forces being given, the ſtrirg EF as IM is to V; and therefore the expanſion of EF
will vibrate through ſpaces proportional to its length; in the place to is to its mcan expanfion as V-IM is
but the latitude of the pulſe is inverſely as the number to V; and the elaſtic force exiſting between the phy-
of vibrations performed by the ſtring in a given time, fical points E and F is to the mean elaſtic force as
(5) that is, directly as the time of one vibration, or
directly as the length of the ſtring (prop. 24. cor. 7.
is to Cotes Pneum Lett. 9.) By the ſame
VIM
Smith's Harmonics) ; therefore the greateſt ſpace arguments, the elaſtic force exiſting between the phy-
through which the middle point of the ſtring vibrates, fical points F and G is to the mean elaſtic force as
will vary in the direct ratio of the latitude of the pulſc,
or of the radius of a circle whoſe circumference is e-
is to ; and the difference between theſe
V KN
qual to the latitude, that is, it will be to that radius forces is to the mean elaſtic force as
as I to 61.3044.
IMGKN
«« 7. If the particles of the aërial pulſes, during any V-V.IM--V.KN+IM.KN
is to
5;
that is, as
part of their vibration, be ſucceſſively agitated accord- IM-KN
is to
ing to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the conipara-
5 ; or as IM-KN is to V; if one ,
V?
tive elaſtic forces ariſing from their mutual action, by ly (upon account of the very narrow limits of the vi-
which tliey will afterwards be agitated, will be ſuch as bralion) we ſuppoſe IM and KN to be indefinitely leſs
will cauſe the particles to continue that motion, accor-
than V. Wherefore, ſince V is given, the difference
ding to the ſame law, to the end of their vibration.
of the forces is as IM-KN, or as HL-IM (becauſe
Plate 1, " Let AB, BC, CD, &c. denote the equal diſ- KH is biſected in:I), that is (becauſe HL-IM is
tances of the ſucceſlive pulſes ; ABC the direction to IH as OM is to OI or OP, and IH and OP are
of the motion of the pulſes propagated from A to- given quantities) as OM; that is, if Ffbe biſealed in
wards B; E, F, G, three phyſical points of the
Ω ας Ωφ.
quieſcent medium, ſituated in the right line AC at e “ In the ſame nianner it may be ſhown, that if PHSh
qual diſtances from each other ; Ee, Ff, Gg the very be the time from the beginning of the motion of E,
ſmall equal ſpaces through which theſe particles vi- PHSi will be the time from the beginning of the mo-
brate ; , q, 9 any intermediate places of theſe points. tion of F, and PHSk the time from the beginning of
the
I
I
I
V
fig. 7.
Chap. II.
A C U S T I C S.
87
tion of
tion of
Sound.
I
Propaga- the motion of G; and that the expanſion of EF in acting on the ſecond during the time of its motion, Propaga-
the place eo is to its mean expanſion as EF+Fp-Et, would have been denoted by HLÍM, that is, would
or as EF tim is to EF, or as 7thlis to V in its re have been directly at MO (7). And if this iime be Sounds.
greſs; and its elaſtic force to the mean elaſtic force as diminiſhed till I becomes coincident with P, that is, if
is top; and that the difference of the elaſtic juſt beginning to move, and before the third particle
; and that the difference of the elaſtic you take the particles in that ſtate when the ſecond is
Vtbl
forces exiſting between E and F, and between F and
has yet been ſet in motion ; then the point M will fall
G is to tlie mean elaſtic force as kn-im is to V ; that
on P, and MO become PO; that is, the comparative
is, directly as 120.
elaſtic force of the ſecond particle, at the inſtant in
66 But this difference of the elaſtic forces,exiſting be-
which it begins to move, will be the force with
tween E and F, and between F and G, is the com-
which it is agitated in any other momeni of time, be-
parative elaſtic force by which the phyſical point q is fore the ſubſequent particle has yet been ſet in motion,
agitated : and therefore the comparative accelcrating directly as its diſance from the middle point of vibra-
force, by which every phyſical point in the medium tion. Now this comparative elaſtic force, with which
will continue to be agitated both in progreſs and re-
the ſecond particle is agitated in the very moment in
greſs, will be directly as its diſtance from the middle which it begins to move, ariſes from the preceding
point of its vibration; and conſequently, will be ſuch particle's approaching it according to the law of a pen-
as will cauſe the particles to continue their motion, un-
dulum ; and therefore, if the preceding particle ap-
diſturbed, according to the law of a cycloidal pen- proaches it in this manner, the force by which it will
dulum. Prop. 38. t. 1. Newton.
be agitated, in the very moment it begins to move,
“Newton rejects the quantity 7 VXIM+KN+IMx will be exactly ſuch as ſhould take place in order to
KN on ſuppolition that IM and KN are indefinitely fore ſets out according to that law, and conſequently
niove it according to the law of a pendulum. It there-
leſs than V. Now, although this may be a reaſonable
hypotheſis, yet, that this quantity may be ſafely re-
the ſubſequent elaſtic forces, generated in every ſuc-
jected, will, I think, appear in a more ſatisfactory magnitude which ſhould take place, in order to pro-
celliye moment, will alſo continue to be of the juſt
manner from the following confiderations derived from
duce ſuch a motion.
experiment: PS, in its greateſt pollible ftate, is to V
as I is to 61.3044 (6); and therefore IM or KN, in
"9. The pulſes of the air are propagated from
its greateſt poſſible ſtate, (that is, when the vibrations founding bodies, according to the law of a cycloidal
of the body are as great as poſſible, and the particle in pendulum. The point Ě of any elaſtic fibre pro- Plate I.
the middle point of its vibration) is to V as one is to
ducing a ſound, may be conſidered as a particle of fig. 7 .
ajr vibrating according to the law of a pendulum (').
122.6. Hence Vo=15030.76,—VXIM+KN=245-2 This point £ will therefore move according to this
and IMXKN=r; therefore V: is to V-VXIM+ law for a certain time, denoted by the arch IH, before
KN+IMXKN as 15.03076 is to 14.78656 ; that is, the ſecond particle begins to move ; for found is pro-
as 61 is to bo nearly.
pagated in time through the ſucceſſive particles of air
“ Hence it appears, that the greateſt poſſible error (4). Now from that inſtant, the comparative elaſtic
in the accelerating force, in the middle point, is the force which agitates F, is (8) directly as its diſiance
ft part of the whole. In other points it is much from the middle point of vibration. F therefore ſets
leſs; and in the extreme points the error entirely va-
out with a motion according to the law of a pendulum :
niſhes.
and therefore the comparative elaſtic force by which it
“ We ſhould alſo obſerve, that the ordinary ſounds will be agitated until G begins to move, will continue
we hear are not produced by the greateſt poſſible vi that law (8). Conſequently F will approach Gin the
bration of which the founding body is capable ; and fame manner as E approached F, and the comparative
that in general IM and KN are nearly evaneſcent with elaſtic force of G, from the inſtant in which it begins
reſpect to V. And very probably the diſagreeable ſen to move, will be directly as its diſtance from the middle
ſations we feel in very loud ſounds, ariſe not only from point of vibration; and ſo on in ſucceſſion: Therefore
IMor KN bearing a ſenſible proportion to V, by which all the particles of air in the pulſes ſucceſſively ſet out
means the cycloidal law of the pulſes may be in ſome from their proper places according to the law of a pen-
meaſure diſturbed, but alſo from the very law of the dulum, and therefore (7) will finiſh their entire vi-
motion of the founding body itſelf being diſturbed. brations according to the ſame law.
For, the proof of this law's being obſerved by an e-
" Gor. I. The number of pulſes propagated is the
laſtic fibre is founded on the hypotheſis that the ſpace, fame with the number of vibrations of the tremulous
through which it vibrates, is indefinitely little with body, nor is it multiplied in their progreſs : becauſe
reſpect to the length of the ſtring. See Smith's Har- the little phylical liacey, (fig. 7) as ſoon as it returns
monics, p. 237, Helſhan, p. 270.
to its proper place, will there quieſce; for its velocity,
68. If a particle of the medium be agitated, ac-
which is denoted by the line IM, then vaniſhes, and its
cording to the law of a cycloidal penduluny, the com- denſity becomes the ſame with that of the ambient me-
parative elaſtic force, asting on the adjacent particle, dium. This line, therefore, will no longer move, un-
from the inſtant in which it begins to move, will be leſs it be again driven forwards by the impulte of the
ſuch as will cauſe it to continue its motion according founding body, or of the pulſes propagated from it
to the ſanie law,
" Cor. 2. In the extreme points of the little fpice
“ For let us ſuppoſe, that three particles of the me- through which the particle vibrates, the expantion of
dium had continued to move for tiines denoted by the
the air is in its natural ſtate ; for the expanliori of the
arches PK, PI, PH, the comparative elaſtic force, phyſical line is to its natural expanſion as VAIM is
7T
2
88
ACOUSTIC S.
Chap. II.
tion of
Sound.
Propaga- to V; but IM is then equal to nothing. In the middle “ Suppoſe, now, that the ſtrings AB, CD, (fig. 2, Propaya-
tion of point of the progreſs the condenſation is greateſt ; for 3.) differ in length only. The force inflecting AB
Sound.
İM is then greateſt ; and conſequently the expanſion through GE is to the tending force, which is given, as
V-IM leaſt. In the middle of the regreſs, the rare GE to AG; and this tending force is to the force Plate III.
faction is greateſt ; for im, and conſequently V+-im, inflecting CD through the ſpace HP equal to GE, as
is then greateſt.
HD to HP. Therefore, ex æquo, the forces inflecting
“ 10. To find the velocity of the pulſes, the den- AB and CD through the equal ſpaces GE and HP,
fity and elaſtic force of the medium being given. are to each other as HD to AG, or as CD to AB
BE
« This is the 49th prop. B. 2. Newton, in which But the force inflecting CD through HP is to the force
he ſhows, that whilſt a pendulum, whoſe length is equal inflecting it through HF, as HP or GE to HF, that
to the height of the homogeneous atmoſphere, vibrates is, becauſe theſe ſpaces are as the times (11), as AB
once forward and backwards, the pulſes will deſcribe to CD. Therefore, ex æquo, the forces inflecting AB
a ſpace equal to the periphery of a circle deſcribed and CD, when the tones are equally ſtrong, are to each
with that altitude as its radius.
other in a ratio of equality. Hence we ſhould ſuppoſe,
« Cor. 1. He thence ſhows, that the velocity of the that in this caſe, an equal number of equal impulſes
pulſes is equal to that which a heavy body would ac would generate equally powerful tones in theſe ſtrings.
quire in falling down half the altitude of that homoge. But we are to obſerve, that the longer the ſtring, the
neous atmoſphere; and therefore, that all pulſes move greater, cæteris paribus, is the ſpace through which a
equally faſt, whatever be the magnitude of Ps, or the given force inflects it (Malcolm); and therefore what-
time of its being deſcribed ; that is, whether the tone ever diminution is produced in the ſpaces thro' which
be loud or low, grave or acute. See Hales de Sonis, the ſtrings move in their ſucceſſive vibrations, ariſing
49.
ſtrings
i Cor. 2. And alſo, that the velocity of the pulſes or from the reſiſtance of the air, this diminution will
is in a ratio compounded of the direct ſubduplicate ra bear a greater proportion to the leſs ſpace, through
tio of the elaſtic force of the medium, and the inverſe which the ſhorter ſtring vibrates. And this is confirm.
fubduplicate of its denſity. Hence ſounds move fome- ed by experience ; for we find that the duration of the
what faſter in ſummer than in winter. See Hales de tone and motion of the whole ſtring exceeds that of any
Sonis, p. 141.
of its ſubordinate parts. Therefore, after a given in.
“11. The ſtrength of a tone is as the moment of terval of time, a greater quantity of motion will remain
the particles of air. The moment of theſe particles, in the longer ſtring ; and conſequently, after the ſuc-
(the niedium being given) is as their velocity; and the ceflive equal impulſes have been made, a greater degree
velocity of theſe particles is as the velocity of the ſtring of motion will ſtill ſubſiſt in it. That is, a given num
which ſets them in motion (9). The velocities of two ber of equal inipulſes being made on various Itrings dif-
different ſtrings are equal when the ſpaces which they fering in length only, a ſtronger found will be produced
deſcribe in their vibrations are to each other as the in that which is the longer.
times of theſe vibrations: therefore, two different tones
are of equal ſtrength, when the ſpaces, through which CHAP. III. Of the Velocity, &c. of Sound. Axioms.
the ſtrings producing them vibrate, are directly as their
vibration.
EXPERIENCE has taught us, that found travels at about Velocity of
Plate III. « 12. Let the ſtrength of the tones of the two the rate of 1142 feet in a ſecond, or near 13 miles in a found.
ſtrings AB, CD, which differ in tenſion only (fig. I, minute; nor do any obſtacles hinder its progreſs, acon-
2.) be equal. Quere the ratio of the inflecting forces trary wind only a ſmall matter diminiſhingits velocity.
F and f. From the hypothehs of the equality of the The method of calculating its progreſs is eaſily made
ſtrength of the tones, it follows (11), that the ſpace known. When a gun is diſcharged at a diſtance, we
GE muſt be to the ſpace HF as jy to F, (Smith's ſee the fire long before we hear the found. If then we
Harm. Prop. 24. Cor. 4.) Now the forces infecting know the diſtance of the place, and know the time of
AB, CD through the equal ſpaces GE, HP are to the interval between our firſt ſeeing the fire and then Its progreſs
each other as the tending forces, that is, as F to f. hearing the report, this will ſhow us exactly the time calculated.
Malcolm's Treatiſe on Muſic, p. 52.) But the force the ſound has been travelling to us. For inſtance, if
inflecting CD through HP is to the force inflecting it the gun is diſcharged a mile off, the moment the flaſh is
through HF as HP or GE to HF, (ib.p. 47.) that is, feen,you take a watch and countthe ſeconds till you hear
by the lıyp. as f1 LOF. Therefore,exæquo, the forces the found ; the number of ſeconds is the time the found
inflecting AB and CD, when the tones are equally has been travelling a mile.Again, by the above ax-
ſtrong, are to each other as F+f1 to f+F, or as Fion, we are enablcd to find the diſtance between ob-
to f. That is, the forces neceſſary to produce tones jects that would be otherwiſe immeaſurable. For ex-
Distances
of equal ſtrength in various ſtrings which differ only in ample, ſuppoſe you ſee the flaſh of a gun in the night at calculated
tenſion, are to cach other in the ſubduplicate ratio of ſea, and tell ſeven ſeconds before you hear the report, by means
the tending forces, that is, inverſely as the time of one it follows therefore, that the diſtance is ſeven times of ſound.
vibration, or directly as the
number of vibrations per 1 142 feet, that is, 24 yards more than a mile and a
formed in a given time. Thus, if CD be the acute half. In like manner, if you obſerve the number of
octave to AB, its tending force will be quadruple that ſeconds between the lightning and the report of the
of AB, (Malcolm's Treatiſe on Muſic, p. 53); and thunder, you know the diſtance of the cloud from
therefore to produce tones of equal ſtrength in theſe whence it proceeds.
ftrings, the force impelling CD muſt be double that Derham has proved by experience, that all founds All ſounds
impelling AB: and ſo in other caſes.
whatever travel at the ſame rate. The found of a gun, travelatthe
and ſame rate.
14
IS
16
17
I
Chap. IV.
A CO V S T I C S.
89
rated
20
21
22
24
ing Galle-
ry, l'late 1.
Reverbe- and the ſtriking of a hammer, are equally ſwift in their in the tube it will be to that without, as the ſuperficies Rever be-
rated motions : the forteſt wiſper flies as Twiitly, as far as it of ſuch a ſphere to the æra of the large end of the tube
Sounds.
Sounds.
goes, as the loudeſt thunder.
ncarly.
To theſe axioms we may add the following.
But it is obvious, Mr Young obſerves, that the con-
Smooth and clear ſounds proceed from bodies that finement of the voice can have little effect in increaſing
18
are homogeneous, and of an uniform figure; and harſh the ſtrength of the ſound, as this ſtrength dependson
or obtuſe ſounds, from ſuch as are of a mixed matter the velocity with which the particles move. Were this
and irregular figure.
reaſoning concluſive, the voice ſhould iſſue through the
19 The velocity of ſound is to that of a briſk wind as ſmalleſt poſſible orifice; cylindrical tubes would be pre-
fifty to one.
ferable to any that increaſed in diameter ; and the leſs
The ſtrength of ſounds is greateſt in cold and denſe the diameter, the greater would be the effect of the in-
air, and leaſt in that which is warm and rarefied. ſtrument ; becauſe the plate or maſs of air to be moved,
Every point againſt which the pulſes of found ſtrike, would, in that caíc, beleſs, and conſequently the effect
become a centre from which a new ſeries of pulſes of the voice the greater ; all which is contradicteel
are propagated in every direction.
by experience.
Sound deſcribes equal ſpaces in cqual times.
The cauſe of the increaſe of found in theſe tubes
muſt therefore be derived from ſome other principles :
CHAP. IV. Of Reverberated Sounds,
and amongſt theſe we ſhall -robably find, that what the
ingenious Kircher has ſuggeſted in his Phonurgia is the
SOUND, like light, after it has been reflected from moſt deſerving of our attention. He tells us, that the
ſeveral places may be collected in one point, as into a augmentation of the found depends on its retlećtion from
focus ; and it will be there more audible than in any the tremulous ſides of the tube ; which reflections, con-
other part, even than at the place from whence it pro- fpiring in propagating the pulſes in the ſame direction,
ceeded. On this principle it is that a wiſpering gal- muſt increaſe its intenſity.” Newton alſo ſeems to have
lery is conſtructed.
conſidered this as a principal cauſe, in the ſcholium
The form of this gallery muſt be that of a concave of prop. 50. B. 2. Princip. when he ſays, “we hence
Whiſper- hemiſphere (E), as ABC; and if a low foundor whiſper fee why ſounds are ſo much encreaſed in ſtentoro-
be uttered at A, the vibrations expanding themſelves phonic tubes, for every reciprocal motion is, in each
fig. 3.
every way will impinge on the points DDD, &c. and return, increaſed by the generating cauſe.
from thence be reflected to EEE, and from thence to Farther, when we ſpeak in the open air, the effect
the points F and G, till at laſt they all meet in C, on the tympanum of a diſtant auditor is produced mere-
where, as we have ſaid, the found will be the inoſt ly by a ſingle pulſe. But when we uſe a tube, all the
diſtinctly heard.
pulſes propagated from the mouth, except thoſe in the
direction of the axis,ſtrike againf the fides of the tube,
Speaking-
The augmentation of found by mcans of ſpeaking- and every point of impulſe becoming a new centre, from
trumpet, trumpets,is ufually illuſtrated in the following manner: whence the pulſes are propagated in all directions, a
fig. 4.
Let ABC be the tube, BD the axis, and B the mouth- pulſe will arrive at the ear from each of thoſe points ;
piece for conveying the voice to the tube. Then it is thus, by the uſe of a tube, a greater number of pulſes
evident, when a perſon ſpeaks at B in the trumpet, the are propagated to the ear, and confequentby the found
whole force of his voice is ſpent upon the air contained increaſed. The confinement too of the voice
may
have
in the tube, which will be agitated through the whole fome effect, though not ſuch as is afcribed to it by
length of the tube; and, by various reflections from the fome : for the condenſed pulſes produced by the naked
ſide of the tube to the axis, the air along the middle voice, freely expand every way; but in tubes, the late-
part of the tube will be greatly condenſed, and its 10 - ral expanſion being diminiſhed, the direct expanſion
mentum proportionably increaſed, ſo that when it comes will be increaſed, and conſequently the velocity of the
to agitate the air at the orifice of the tube AC, its particles, and the intenſity of the ſound. The ſubſtance
force will be as much greater than what it would have alſo of the tube has its effect; for it is found by expe-
been without the tube, as the ſurface of a ſphere, whoſe riment, that the more elaſtic the ſubſtance of the rube,
radius is equal to the length of the tube, is greater than and conſequently the more ſuſceptible it is of theſe
the ſurface of the ſegment of ſuch a ſphere whoſe baſe tremulous motions, the fronger is the ſound.
is the orifice of the tube. For a perſon ſpeaking at B, If the tube be laid on any non-elaſtic ſubſtance, it
without the tube, will have the force of his voice ſpent deadens the ſound, becauſe it prevents the vibratory
in exciting concentric ſuperficies of air all around the motion of the parts. The ſound is increaſed in ſpeaking
point B; and when thoſe ſuperficies or pulſes of air are trumpets, if the tube be ſuſpended in the air; becauſe
diffuſed as far as D every way, it is plain the force of the agitations are then carried on without interruption.
the voice will there be diffuſed through the whole fu- Theſe tubes ſhouldincreaſe in diameter from the inouth
perficies of aſphere whoſe radiusis BD; butin the trum- piece, becauſe the parts, vibrating in direstions perpen-
per it will be ſo confined, that at its exit it will be dif- dicul:r to the ſurface, will conſpire in impelling for-
fuſed through ſo much of that ſpherical ſurface of air ward the particles of air, and coniequently, by increa-
as correſponds to the orifice of the tube. But ſince the fing their velocity, will increaſe the intentity of the
force is given, its intenſity will be always inverſely as found : and the ſurface alſo increaling, the nunber of
the number of particles it has to move ; and therefore points of impulſe and of new propagations will increaſe
VOL. I.
M
pro-
+
25
1
(E) A cylindric or elliptic arch will anſwer ſtill better than one that is circular.
go
ACOUSTIC S.
Chap. IV.
1
rated
Sounds.
rated
Reverbe- proportionaily. The ſeveral cauſes, thercfore, of the the oblong ſpheroid, generated by the revolution of Reverbe-
increaſe of the found in theſe tubes, Mr Young concludes this ellipfe round its major axis.
to be, 1. The diminution of the lateral, and conſe " As there may be leveral ſpheroids of different Sounds.
qasıtly the increaſe of the direct, expanſion and ve magnitudes, ſo there may be ſeveral uiifcrent echoes of
locity of ile included air. 2. The increaſe of the thie fame original ſound. And as there may happen to
number of pelſes, by increaſing the points of new pro- be a greater number of reflecting points in the ſurface
pazation. 3. The reflections of the pulſes from tlie of an exterior ſpheroid than in that of an interior, a
treniulous fides of the tube, which impel the particles ſecond or a third echo may be much more powerful
of air forward, and thus increaſe their velocity. than the firſt, provided that the ſuperior number of re-
ficcting points, that is, the ſuperior number of rcflcc-
26 An echo is a reflcaion of ſound irriking againſt fonie ted pulles propagated to the car, be more than ſuffi-
Fclioes.
object, as an image is reflected in a glaſs : but it has cient to compenſate for the decay of ſound which a-
beca difpuied that are the proper qualities in a body riſes from its being propagated through a greater ſpace.
for thus reficiing ſwinds. It is in general known, that This is finely illuſtrated in the celebrated echoes at the
caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, lake of Killarney in Kerry, where the firſt return of
return this image of found. We have heard of a very the ſound is much inferior in ſtrength to thoſe which
extraordinary echo, at a ruined fortreſs near Louvain iinmediately ſucceed it.
in Flanders. If a perſon ſung, he only heard his - Fronı what has been laid down it appears, that for
own voice, without any repetition: on the contrary, the moſt powerful echo, the founding body ſhould be in
thoſe who ſtood at ſome diſance, heard the echo but one fo, us of the ellipſe which is the ſection of the echo-
not the voice; but then they heard it with ſurpriling ing ſpheroid, and the hearer in the other. However,
variations, ſometimes louder, ſometimes ſofter, now an echo may be heard in other ſituations, though not ſo
more near, then inore diſtant. There is an account favourably ; as ſuch a number of reflected pulſes may
in the memoirs of the French academy, of a ſimilar arrive at the ſame time at the ear as may be ſufficient
echo near Polen.
to excite a diſtinct perception. Thus a perſon often
As (by nº 21 and 22) every point againſt which the hears the eclio of his own voice ; but for this purpoſe
pulſes of ſounds ſtrike becomes the centre of a new ſe- he ſhould ſtand at leaſt 63 or 64 feet from the reflect-
ries of pulſes, and ſound deſcribes equal diflances in ing obſtacle, according to what has been ſaid before. .
equal times; therefore, when any found is propagated At the common rate of ſpeaking, we pronounce not
from a centre, and its pulſes ſtrike againſt a variety of above three ſyllables and an half, that is, ſeven half
obſtacles, if the ſum of the right lines drawn from that fyllables in a ſecond ; therefore, that the echo may re-
point to each of the obſtacles, and from each obſtacle turn juſt as ſoon as three ſyllables are expreſſed, twice
to a ſecond point, be equal, then will the later be a the diſtance of the ſpeaker from the reflecting object
point in which an echo will be heard. 6 Thus let A muſt be equal to 1000 feet ; for, as found deſcribes
be the point from which the found is propagated in all 1142 feet in a ſecond, ths of that ſpace, that is, 1000
directions, and let the pulſes ſtrike againſt the obfta- feet nearly, will be deſcribed while fix half or three
cles C, D, E, F, G, H, I, &c. each of theſe points whole fyllables are pronounced : that is, the ſpeaker
becomes a new centre of pulſes by the firſt principle, muſt ſtand near 500 feet from the obſtacle. And in
and therefore from each of them one ſeries of pulſes will general, the diſtance of the ſpeaker from the eciioing
paſs through the point B. Now if the ſeveral ſums ofthe ſurface, for any number of ſyllables, muſt be equal to
rightlines AC+CB, AD+DB, AE+EB, AG+GB, the ſeventh part of the product of 1142 fcet multiplied
AH+HB, Al+IB, &c. be all equal to each other, by that number.
“In churches we never hear a diſtinct echo of the
it is obvious that the pulſes propagated from A to theſe
points, and again from theſe points to B, will all ar-
voice, but a confuſed found when the ſpeaker utters
rive at B at the ſame inſtant, according to the ſecond his words too rapidly ; becauſe the greateſt difference
principle; and therefore, if the hearer be in that point, of diſtance between the direct and reflected courſes of
İris car will at the ſame inſtant be ſtruck by all theſe fuch a number of pulſes as would produce a diſtinct
pulfes. Now it appears from experiment (See Muſſchen- found, is never in any church equal to 127 feet, the
limit of echoes.
broek, V. ii. p. 210), that the ear of an exerciſed mu-
<< But though the firſt reflected pulſes may produce
lician can only diſtinguiſh ſuch ſounds as follow one
another at the rate of 9 or so in a ſecond, or any ſlow.
no echo, both on account of their being too few in
direct and reflected found, there ſhould intervene the formed, as that the pulſes which
come to the ear after
er rate : and therefore, for a diſtinct perception of the number, and too rapid in their return to the ear ; yet
it is evident, that the reflecting furface may be ſo
a
deſcribes L'ac or 127 feet nearly. And therefore, 127 feet or more,arrive at the ear in ſufficient numbers,
two reflections or more may, after having deſcribed
unleſs the ſum of the lines drawn from each of the ob- and alſo ſo nearly at the ſame inſtant, as to produce
ſtacles to the points A and B exceeds the interval AB
an echo, though the diſtance of the reflecting ſurface
by 127 feet, no echo will be heard at B. Since the from the ear be leſs than the limit of echoes. This
ſeveral ſums of the lines drawn from the obſtacles to
is confirmed by a ſingular echo in a grotto on the banks
the points A and B are of the ſame magnitude, it ap- of the little brook called the Dianan, about two miles
pears that the curve paſſing through all the points C, from Caſtlecomber, in the county of Kilkenny. As
D, E, F, G, H, I, &c. will be an ellipſe, (prop. 4. you enter the cave, and continue ſpeaking loud, no re-
B. 2. Ham. Con.) Hence all the points of the obſta-
turn of the voice is perceived: but on your arriving at
cles which produce an echo, muſt lie in the ſurface of
2
Chap. IV.
gi
ACOUSTIC S.
ments,
ou.
uitter
28
27
tue,
Entertain- a certain point, which is not above 14 or 15 feet from ral, that though a man ſpeak ever ſo fortly, and eron Entertain-
ing Experi- the reflečting ſurface, a very diſtinct echo is heard. Whiſper into the ear thereof, ic will prelently open its i'g Experi-
ments, &c. Ilow this echo cannot ariſe from the firſt courſe of pul- mouth, and reſolve the queſtion in Frencia, Latin,
ſes that are reflected to the ear, becauſe the breadth of Welſh, Iriſh, or Engliſh in good terms, uttering it out
the cave is ſo ſmall, that they would return too quick- of its mouth, and then ſhut it until the next quellion
ly to produce a diſtinct ſenſation from that of the ori- be aſked.”—The two following, of a ſimilar nature,
ginal ſound : it therefore is produced by thoſe pulſes, appear to have been inventions of Kircher, by means
which, after having been reflected ſeveral times from of which (as lie informs us *) he uſed to
* Phorur-
one ſide of the grotto to the other, and having run o. feigned and ludicrous conſultations, with a view to gia Nova,
fect. vi. c.I.
ver a greater ſpace than 127 feet, arrive at the ear in ſhow the fallacy and impoſture of ancient oracles.'
conſiderable numbers, and not more diſtant from each II. Let there be two heads of plaſter of Paris, placed
other,in point of time, than the ninth part of a ſecond." on pedeſtals, on the oppoſite lides of a rooin. There The copi-
muſt be a tin tube of an inch diamecer, that muſt paſs municative
Bufts.
This article ſhall be diſmiſſed with a few inventions from the ear of one head, through the pedeſtal, under
founded on ſome of the preceding principles, which the floor, and go up to the mouth of the other. Ob.
may amuſe a number of our readers.
ſerve, that the end of the tube which is next the ear of
the one head, ſhould be conſiderably larger than that
Entertaining Experiments and Contrivances. eid which comes up to the mouth of the other. Let
the whole be ſo diſpoſed that there may not be the
1. the Con I. PLACE a concave mirror of about two feet diameter, leaſt fufpicion of a communication.
verſive Sta- as AB (G), in a perpendicular direction. The focus of Now, when a perſon ſpeaks, quite low, into the ear
this mirror may be at 15 or 18 inches diſtance from of one buſt, the ſound is reverberated thro' the length
Plate I.
its ſurface. At the diſtance of about five or ſix feet of the tube, and will be diſtinctly heard by any one
fig. 5.
let there be a partition, in which there is an opening who ſhall place his ear to the mouth of the other. It
EF, equal to the ſize of the mirror : againſt this is not neceſſary that the tube ſhould come to the lips
opening muſt be placed a picture, painted in water of the buſt. If there be two tubes, one going to the
colours, on a thin cloth, that the found may eaſily paſs ear, and the other to the mouth, of each head, two per-
through it (1)
ſons may converſe together, by applying their mouth
Behind the partition, at the diſtance of two or three and ear recriprocally to the mouth and ear of the buſt;
feet, place another mirror G H, of the ſame ſize as the and at the ſame time other perſons that ſtand in the
former, and let it be diametrically oppoſite to it. middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not
At the point C let there be placed the figure of a hear any part of their converſation.
29
man ſeated on a pedeſtal, and let his ear be placed ex III. PLACE a buſt on a pedeſtal in the corner of a The Oracu,
actly in the focus of the firſt mirror : his lower jaw room, and let there be two tubes, as in the foregoing lar Head.
muſt be made to open by a wire, and ſhut by a ſpring; amuſement, one of which muſt go from the mouth and
and there may be another wire to move the eyes: theſe the other from the ear of the buſt, through the pedeſtal,
wires muſt paſs through the figure, go under the and the floor, to an under apartment. There may be
floor, and come up behind the partition.
likewiſe wires that go from the under jawand the eyes
Lét a perſon, properly inſtructed, be placed behind of the buſt, by which they may be ealily moved.
the partition near the mirror. You then propoſe to A perſon being placed in the under roon, and at a
any one to ſpeak ſoftly to the ſtatue, by putting his ſignal given applying his ear to one of the tubes, will
mouth to the ear of it, aſſuring him that it will anſwer hear any queſtion that is aſked, and immediately re-
inſtantly. You then give the lignal to the perſon be- ply; moving at the ſame time, by means of the wires,
hind the partition, who, by placing his ear to the fo- the mouth and the eyes of the buſt, as if the reply
cus I, of the mirror G H, will hear diſtinctly what the
came from it.
other ſaid ; and, moving the jaw and eyes of the ſtatue IV. In a large caſe, ſuch as is uſed for dials and ſpring A Solar So-
by the wires, will return an anſwer directly, which clocks, the front of which, or at leaſt the lower part of nata.
will in like manner be diſtinctly heard by the firſt it, inuſt be of glaſs, covered on the inſide with gauze,
ſpeaker.
let there be placed a barrel organ, which, when wound
This experiment appears to be taken from the up, is prevented from playing, by a catch that takes a
Century of Inventions of the Marquis of Worcef- toothed wheel at the end of the barrel. To one end of
ter; whoſe deſigns, at the time they were published, this catch there muſt be joined a wire, at the end of
were treated with ridicule and neglect as being im- which there is a flat circle of cork, of the ſame dimen-
practicable, but are now known to be generally, if not fion with the inſide of a glaſs tube, in which it is to riſe
univerſally practicalle. The words of the Marquis are and fall. This tube muſt communicate with a refer-
theſe : “ How to make a brazen or ſtone head in t'ie voir that goes acroſs the front part of the bottom of the
midſt of a great field or garden, fo artificial and natu caſe, which is to be filled with ſpirits, ſuch as is uſed in
ther-
30
NI 2
(G) Both the mirrors here uſed inay be of tin or gilt paiteboard, this experiment not requiring ſuch as are
Very accurate,
(H) The more effectually to conceal the cauſe of this alluſion, the mirror AB may be fixed in the wainſcot,
and a gauze or any other thin covering thrown over it, as that will not in the leaſt prevent the found from
being reflected. An experiment of this kind may be performed in a field or garden, between two hedges, in
one of which the inirror AB may be placed, and in the other an opening artfully contrived.
92
ACOUSTICS
Chap. IV.
Entertain, thermometers, but not coloured, that it may be the chinney, goes under the floor, and up one of the legs Entertain-
ing Experi. better concealed by the gauze.
of the harpſichord, into the caſe, and round a ſmall ing experi-
ments, 6°C.
This caſe being placed in the ſun, the ſpirits will be wheel fixed on the axis of that firſt mentioned. There ments, &6.
rarefied by the heat; and riling in the tube, will lift ſhould be pullies at different diſtances, behind the
up the catch or trigger, and let the organ in play : wainſcot and under the fioor, to facilitate the motion
which it will continue to do as long as it is kept in the of the chord.
fun ; for the ſpirits cannot run out of the tube, that This machinery inay be applied to any other keyed
part of the catch to which the circle is fixed being inſtrument as well as to chimes, and to many other
prevented from riting beyonda certain point by a check purpoſes whcre a regular continued motion is re-
placed over it.
quired,
When the machince is placed againſt the ſide of a An inſtrument of this fort may be confidered as a
room on which the ſun ſhines ſtrong, it may conſtantly perpetual motion, according to the vulgar accepta-
remain in the ſanie place, if you incloſe it in a ſecond tion of the term ; for it will never ceaſe going till the
cafe, made of thick wood, and placed at a little di- fire be extinguiſhed, or ſome parts of the machinery
ſtance from the other. When you want it to perform, be worn out.
32
it will be only neceſſary to throw open the door of the VI. Ar the top of a ſummer-houſe, or other building, A Ventofal
outer caſe, and expoſe it to the ſun.
let the wind-wheel B (of which A is an horizontal Symphony,
But if the machine be moveable, it will perform in ſection,) be on the upper end of the perpendicular Plate i.
all ſeaſons by being placed before the fire ; and in the axis F; on the lower end of which is fixed the pini- fig. 6.
winter it will more readily ſtop when removed into on C that takes the toothed wheel D on the axis of
the cold.
the great wheel E-The perpendicular axis F goes
A machine of this fort is ſaid to have been invented down very near the wall of the room, and
by Cornelius Dreble, in the laſt century. What the covered after the ſame manner as are bell-wires.
conſtruction of that was, weknow not ; it might very In the great wheel there muſt be placed a num.
likely be more complex, but could ſcarce anſwer the ber of ſtops, correſponding to the tunes it is to play.
intention more readily.
Theſe ſtops are to be moveable, that the tunes may be
V. UNDER the keys of a common harpſchord let altered at pleaſure. Againſt this wheel there muſt
tous Harp there be fixed a barrel, ſomething like that in a cham- hang 12 ſmall bells, anſwering to the notes of the ga-
ſichord, ber organ, with ſtops or pins correſponding to the tunes mut. Therefore, as the wheel turns round, the ſtops
you would have it play. Theſe ſtops muſt be moveable, ſtriking againſt the bells, play the ſeveral tunes. There
ſo that the tunes may be varied at pleaſure. From ſhould be a fly to the great wheel, to regulate its mo-
each of the keys let there go a wire perpendicular tion when the wind is ſtrong. The wheel E, and the
down : the ends of theſe wires muſt be turned up for bells, are to be incloſed in a caſe.
about one-fourth of an inch. Behind theſe wires let There may be ſeveral ſets of bells, one of which
there be an iron bar, to prevent them from going too may anſwer to the tenor, another to the treble, and a
far back. Now, as the barrel turns round, its pins third to the baſs; or they may play different tunes, ac-
take the ends of the wires, which pull down the keys, cording to the ſize of the wheel. As the bells are
and play the harpſichord. The barrel and wires are ſmall, if they are of ſilver, their tone will be the more
to be all incloſed in a cafe.
pleaſing.
In the chimney of the ſame room where the harpſi Inſtead of bells, glaffes may be here uſed, ſo difpo-
chord ſtands, or at leaſt in one adjacent, there muſt be fed as to move freely at the ſtroke of the ſtops. This
a ſmoke jack, from whence comes down a wire, or machinery niay likewiſe be applied to a barrel-organ;
cord, that, paſling behind the wainſcot adjoining the and to many other uſes.
may be
31
Automa.
Acqs
0
Acqui.
tance.
Lat. 44. 40.
А со
ACQ
ACQS, a town at the foot of the Pyrenæan moun- ferrat, with a biſhop's fee, and commodious baths. It
Acquiſition
tains, in the government of Foix in France. It takes its was taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken by 1
name froni the hot waters in theſe parts. E. long. I. the Piedmonteſe in 1746 ; but after this, it was taken Acquit-
40. lat. 43. o.
again and diſmantled by the French, who afterwards
ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Ita- forſook it. It is ſeated on the river Bornia, 25 miles
ly, in the territory of the church, and patrimony of N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Caſal. E. long. 8. 3o.
St Perer, with a bilhop's ſee It is ſeated on a moun-
tain, near the river Paglia, ten miles W. of Orvietto, ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining
and 57 N. by W. of Rome. E. long. II. 53. Lat. or procuring ſomething. Among lawyers, it is uſed
42. 43.
for the right or title to an eſtate got by purchaſe or
ACQUARIA, a ſmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a donation,
diſtrict of Modena, which is remarkable for its medi ACQUITTAL, a diſcharge, deliverance, or fet-
cinal waters. It is 12 miles ſouth of the city of Mode- ting of a perſon free from the guilt or ſuſpicion of an
E. long. 11. 17. lat. 44. 24.
offence.
ACQUEST, or Acquist, in law, ſignifies goods ACQUITTANCE, a releaſe or diſcharge in wri-
got by purchaſe or donation. See CONQUEST. ting for a ſum of money, witneſſing that the party has
ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont- paid the ſaid fum.-No nian is obliged to pay a ſum of
moncy
, ,
lla.
Plate I
Acarus.
ARACUS.
Aphis.
V
.
Frig
Acous TICS
1.
E
Figi 2.
Vig. 7
B
2 |
D
Figa
А
O
Tiga
.
3
Ln
Mm
NI
1.
F
B
K
P
chwil
11
B
Fig. 5.
Fig
. 8
6.
A
E
G
7
P
Ei
А
G
it
E
D
BI
B
F
H
Fig.l.
AEROSTATION.
Fig. 2.
H
K
H
G
01:11
c
0111i1I||||tit!!, ''
D
F
HA
BARBIE!!!11!li:
A.M. BONElimunomat
E.
B
M
I
I
OTA
R.foot fulp
A CR
[ 93 ]
A CR
Acra
Acres
Acrafis.
money if the demandant refuſes to give an acquittance, &, priv. and reporrepes, to mix ; q. d. not mixed in a juſt Acrath,
which is a full diſcharge, and bars all actions, &c. An proportion.
acquittance given by a ſervant for a fun of money re ACRATH(anc. geog.), a place in Mauritania Tin-
ceived for the uſe of his maſter, ſhall be a good dif- gitana, now ſuppoſed to be Velez de Camara : A for-
charge for that fum, provided the ſervant uſed to re tified town in the kingdom of Fez, with a capital and
ceive his maſter's rents, debts, &c.
commodious harbour on the Mediterranean, {carce a
ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coaſt of Guinea, mile diſtant from Penon de Velez, a Spaniſh fort.
where the Engliſh, Dutch, and Danes, have ſtrong W. Long. 5. Lat. 34. 45.
forts, and each fort its particular village. W. Long. ACRE, or ACRA, a ſea-port town in Syria. It was
0. 2. Lat. 5.0.
formerly called Ptolemais, and is a biſhop's ſee. It
ACRA (anc. geog.), one of the hills of Jeruſalem, was very famous in the time of the cruſadoes, and un-
on which ſtood the lower town, which was the Old Je- derwent ſeveral ſieges both by the Chriſtians and Sa-
ruſalem ; to which was afterwards added Zion, or the racens. It is ſituated at the north angle of a bay,
city of David. Probably called Acra, from the fort which extends in a ſemicircle of three leagues, as far
refs which Antiochus built there in order to annoy the as the point of Carmel.
temple, and which Simon Maccabæus took and razed During the Cruſades, the pofleſſion of this town
to the ground.
was long diſputed by the Chriſtians and Saracens. In
ACRA fapygia (anc. geog.), called Salentia by Pto- 1192 it was taken from the latter by Richard I. of
lemy; now Capo di San Maria di Leuca: A promon- England and Philip of France, who gave it to the
tory in the kingdom of Naples, to the ſouth-eaſt of O. knights of St John of Jeruſalem, who kept poffeffion
tranto, where formerly was a town, now lying in ru. of it 100 years, when it was retaken by the Saracens,
ins, on the Ionian fea, over againſt the Montes Acro- and almost entirely deſtroyed. This event is rendered
ceraunii of Epirus.
inemorable by an act of ſingular reſolution with which
ACRÆ (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, whoſe inhabi. it was accompanied. A number of beautiful young
tants were called Acrenfes. It ſtood to the ſouth of nuns, terrified at the proſpect of being expoſed to the
Syracuſeat the diſtance of 24 miles, near the place now brutal-luſt of the infidels, determined to avoid the vio-
called the monaſtery of Santa Maria d'Arcia, on an lation of their chaſtity, by rendering themſelves ob-
eminence, as appears from Silius Itaļicus. The Sy- jects of arerſion. With this view they cut off their
racuſans were the founders of it, according to Thuci noſes and mangled their faces. The Saracens, inda-
dydes, 70 years after the building of Syracuſe, or 665 med with reſentment at a ſpectacle which prevented
before Chrift. Hence the epithet Acreus.
the gratification of their appetites, immediately put
ACRAGAS, or AGRAGAS (anc. geog:), ſo called them all to the ſword. After the expullion of the
by the Greeks, and ſometimes by the Romans, but cruſaders, it remained almoſt deſerted; but in our time
more generally Agrigentum by the latter ; a town of has again revived by the induſtry of Daher ; and the
Sicily. In Greek medals the inhabitants are called works erected by Djezzar, within the laſt ten years,
AKPITANTINOI, and Agrigentini by Cicero. The town have rendered it one of the principal towns upon the
ſtood upon a mountain, at the confluence of the Acra- coaſt. The moſque of this Pacha is boaſted as a ma-
gas and Hypſa, near the port called Europsov by Prole- ſterpiece of eaſtern taſte. The bazar, or covered mar-
my, but Eriveby, or the Dock, by Strabo ; and in the ket, is not inferior even to thoſe of Aleppo ; and its
time of the latter, ſcarce a trace of all that fide remain public fountain furpaſſes in elegance thoſe of Damaſcus,
ed. In the year before Chriſt 384, the people of Gela though the water is of a very indifferent quality. The
built Acragas, 108 years after building their own city. Pacha has derived the more honour from theſe works,
It took its name from the river running by it ; and be. as he was himſelf both the engineer and architect :
ing but two miles from, enjoyed all the conveniences he formed the plans, drew the deſigns, and ſuperin-
that ſhould come by, the ſea. It was a place of great tended the execution.
ſtrength, ſtanding on the top of a very ſteep rock, and The port of Acre is one of the beſt ſituated on the
waſhed on the ſouth ſide by the river Acragas, now coaſt, as it is ſheltered from the north and north-weſt
called Fiume di Gergenti, and on the ſouth-weſt by the winds by the town itſelf; but it is greatly choaked up
Hypſa, with a citadel to the ſouth-eaſt, externally fur- ſince the time of Fakr-el-din. Djezzar has contented
rounded by a deep gulf, which inade it inacceſſible but himſelf with making a landing-place for boats. The
on the ſide next the town. It was famous for the ty- fortifications, though more frequently repaired than
rant Phalaris and his brazen bull. They were a peo- any other in all Syria, are of no importance: there
ple luxurious in their tables, and magnificent in their are only a few wretched low towers, near the port,
dwellings; of whom Empedocles, in Diogenes Laer. on which cannon are mounted ; and theſe ruſty iron
lius, ſays, that they lived to-day as if they were to die pieces are ſo bad, that ſome of them burſt every time
to-morrow, and built as if they were to live forever, they are fired. Its defence on the land ſide is merely
Tlie country round the city was laid out in vine and a garden-wall, without any ditch.
olive yards, in the produce of which they carried on Corn and cotton form the baſis of the commerce of
a great and profitable commerce with Carthage. E. Acre, which is becoming more flouriſhing every day.
Long. 13. 30. Lat. 37. 20.
Of late, the Pacha, by an abuſe common throughout
AČRASIA, among phyſicians, implies the predo- all the Turkiſh empire, has monopolized all the
trade
minancy of one quality above another, either with re in his own hands ; no cotton can be ſold but to him,
gard to artificial mixtures, or the humours of the hu- and from him every purchaſe muſt be made. In vain
man body. The word is Greek, and compounded of have the European merchants claimed the privileges.
granted
1
1
ACR
( 94 )
A CR
Acre.
granted them by the Sultan ; Djezzar replicd, that he made by order of Congreſs, contains 589 millions of Acre- Fight
was the Sultan in his country, and continued his mo. acres, excluſive of water, which is coni puted at 51
Acrido-
nopoly. Theſe merchants in general are French, and millions more.
have ſix houſes at Acre, with a conſul ; an Imperial Acre-Fight, and old ſort of duel fought by Engliſh
phagi.
agent too is lacely ſettled there ; alſo a relident for and Scottiſh combatants, between the frontiers of their
Ruſſia.
kingdoms, with fword and lance: it was alſo called
That part of the bay of Acre, in which ſhips an camp-fight, and the combatants champions, from the
chor with the greateſt ſecurity lies to the north of open field being the ſtage of trial.
Mount Carmel, below the village of Haifa (commonly ACRE-Tar, a tax laid on land at fo inuch per acre.
called Caiffa). The bottom is good holding ground, In fome places this is alſo called acre-ſhot. Impoſitions
and does not chafe the cables; but the harbour is open on lands in the great level are to be raiſed by a pro-
to the north-weſt wind, which blows violently along portionable acre-tax, 20 Car. II. cap. 8.--An acre-tax
all this coaſt. Mount Carmel, which cominands it to of 2s.6d. per acre, for draining Hadenham-level, 13
the ſouth, is a flattened cone, and very rocky ; it is Geo. I. cap. 18.
about 2000 feet high. We ſtill find among
the ACRIBEIA, a term purely Greek, literally deno-
brambles wild vines and olive trees, which prove that ting an exquiſite or delicate accuracy ; fonietimes uſed
induſtry has formerly been employed even in this un. in our language, for want of a word of equal ſignifica-
grateful fuil : on the ſummit is a chapel dedicated to tion.
the prophet Elias, which affords an extenſive proſpect ACRID, a name for any thing that is of a ſharp or
over the ſea and land. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre, and pungent taſte. See MATERIA MEDICA.
37 N. of Jeruſalem. E. Long. 39. 25. Lat. 32. 40. ACRIDOPHAGI, in the ancient geography, an
ACRE, 'in the Mogul's dominions, the ſame with Ethiopian people, repreſented as inhabiting near the
lack, and ſignifies the ſum of 100,000 rupees; the ru deſerts, and to have fed on locuſts. This latter cir-
pee is of the value of the French crown of three livres, cumſtance their name imports; the word being com-
of 30 fols of Holland ; an 100 lacks of rupees make pounded of the Greek axpis lucuft, and ox7w to eat. We
a couron in Indoſtan, or 10,000,000 rupees : the pound have the following account of them by Diodorus Si-
Sterling is about eight rupees' ; according to which culus *. Their ſtature was lower than that of other * Lib. iii.
proportion, a lack of rupees amounts to 12,500 pounds men; they were meagre, and extremely black. In the & xxxix.
Sterling
ſpring, high weſt winds drove from the deſert to their Alſo Stra-
ACRE, the univerſal meaſure of land in Britain. quarter locuſts of an extraordinary ſize, and remarka- bo, lib. xvi.
The word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the Ger- ble for the ſqualid colour of their wings. So great was
man aker, a field), did not originally ſignify a deter the number of theſe inſects, that they were the only
mined quantity of land, but any open ground, eſpe- ſuſtenance of the barbarians, who :ook them in the fol-
cially a wide champaign ; and in this antique ſenſe it lowing manner:. At the diſtance of ſome ftadia from
feems to be preſerved in the names of places, as Caſtle. their habitations there was a wide and deep valley,
acre, Welt-acre, &c. An acre in England contains They filled this valley with wood and wild herbs, with
four ſquare roods, a rood 40 perches or poles of 16 which their country abounded. When the cloud of
feet each by ſtatute. Yet this meaſure does not pre- locults appeared, which were driven on by the wind,
vail in all parts of England, as the length of the pole they ſet fire to the fuel which they had collected. The
varies in different counties, and is called cuſtomary nea-
fioke which aroſe from this imnienſe fire was ſo thick,
ſure, the difference running from the 16; feet to 28. that the locuſts, in croſing the valley, were ſtifled by
The acre is alſo divided into 10 ſquare chains, of 22 it, and fell in heaps on the ground. The paſſage of
yards cach, that is, 4847 ſquare yards. An acre in the locuſts being thus intercepted for many days, they
Scotland contains four ſquare roods ; one ſquare rood made a large proviſion of thoſe inſects. Aš their coun-
is 40 ſquare falls; one ſquare fall, 36 ſquare ells; one try produced great quantities of ſalt, they ſalted them,
ſquare ell, nine ſquare feet and 73 ſquare inches; one to render them more palatable, and to make then keep
ſquare foot, 144 ſquare inches. The Scots acre is till the next ſeaſon. This peculiar ſupply was their
alſo divided into 10 ſquare chains; the meaſuring ſole food : they had neither herds nor flocks. They
chain (lionld be 24 ells in leugth, divided into 100 were unacquainted with fiſhing; for they lived at a diſ-
links, each link 8,928 inches ; and ſo one ſquare tance from the ſea. They were very active, and ran
chain will contain 10,000 ſquare links. The Englilh with great ſwiftneſs. But their life was not of long
ſtatite-acre is about three roods and fix falls ſtandard duration ; it exceeded not forty years. The cloſe of
ineaſure of Scotland.
their life was extremely miſerable ; for in their old age,
The French acre, arpent, contains in Engliſh acre, winged lice of different, but all of ugly forms, bred in
or 54,450 ſquare Engliſh feet, wliereof the Engliſh their bodies. This malady, which began in the breaſt
acre contains only 43,560.-The Straſburgh acre is a and belly, ſoon ſpread through the whole frame. The
bout half an Engliſh acre.-The Welh acre contains patient at firſt felt an itching; and the agreeable ſen-
commonly two Engliſh ones. The Iriſh acre is equal fation produced by his ſcratching of himſelf, preceded
to one acre two roods and 19 perches, zs, Engliſh. a moſt deplorable calamily. For when thoſe lice,
Dr Grewattenpts to aſcertain.the number of acres in which had bred in his body, forced their way out,
England, which, according to him, amounts to 46 they cauſed effufions of corrupt blood, with excrucia-
millions and 80,000. The United Provinces are ſaid ting pains in the kin. The unhappy man, with 11-
to contain 4,38 2,000 acres : The province of Holland nienlable cries, was induſtrious himſelf to make paf-
but one million of acres. The territory of the United ſages for them with his nails. In ſhort, theſe lice iſ-
States of Ainerica, according to calculations lately ſued forth ſucceſſively from the wounds made by the
hands
ACR
[ 95 ]
ACR
ca.
Acrido- hands of the patient, as from a veſel full of loles, and ſuch qua: .ities is in the ſpace of a few days to get Acrilius
phagi. in ſuch numbers that it was impoſſible to externinate viſibly failer and in better condition than before."
14
them.--Whether this extraordinary and dreadful diſ The abbé Poiret, alſo, in this Menoir on the Inſects Acrobatica
teniper was occaſioned by the food of the inhabitants of Barbary and Numidia, informs us, “ That the
of this country, or by a peſtilential quality of their Moors make locuſs a part of their food ; that they
climate, it is difficult to determine. Indeed, as to the go to hunt them ; fry them in oil and butter ; and ſell
credibility of the whole account, we muſt leave the thein publicly at Tunis, at Bonne, &c.
reader to judge.
From theſe accounts, we may ſee the folly of that
But though the circumſtances of theſe people ſhould diſpute among divines about the nature of St John's
be deemed fabulous, yet may the acridophagia be true. food in the wilderneſs : ſome maintaining the original
It is well known, that to this day the inhabitants of word to ſignify the fruits of certain trees; others, a
Ethiopia, Arabia, &c. frequently uſe locuſts as food. kind of birds, &c. : but thoſe who adhered to the li-
The reader will not be diſpleaſed if wc lay before him teral meaning of the text were at leaſt the moſt ortho-
the reſult of Dr Haſſelquiſt's inquiries as to this parti- dox, although their arguments were perhaps not ſo
cular, who travelled in Syria and Egypt ſo late as the ſtrong as they might have been, had thcy had an op-
year 1752. This ingenious gentleman, who travel portunity of quoting ſuch authors as the above.
led with a view to improve natural hiſtory, informs ACRISIUS, king of Argos (fab, hift.), being told
us, that he aſked Franks, and many other people who by the oracle that he mould be killed by his grandchild,
had lived long in theſe countries, whether they had e thut up his only daughter Danaë in a brazen tower :
ver heard that the inhabitants of Arabia, Ethiopia, &c. but Jupiter coming down in a golden fhower, begot
uſed locuſts as food. They anſwered that they had. Perſeus upon her: after Perſeus had ſlain the Gorgons,
He likewiſe aſked the fame queſtion of Armenians, he carried Meduſa's head to Argos; which Acriſius
Copts, and Syrians, who lived in Arabia, and had ſeeing, was turned into a ſtatue.
travelled in Syria and near the Red Sea ; ſome of whom ACRITAS (anc. geog.), a promontory of Meſe-
ſaid they heard of ſuch a practice, and others that they nia, running into the
ſea, and forming the beginning
had often ſeen the people eat theſe inſects. He at laſt of the bly of Mcilene. Now called Capo di Gallo,
obtained complete ſatisfaction on this head from a between Methone to the weſt, and Corone to the eaſt,
learned fheck at Cairo, who had lived lix years in Mec where the Sinus Coronæus begins.
This gentleman told him, in preſence of M. le ACROAMATIC, or ACROATIC, in general, de-
Grand the principal French interpreter at Cairo, and notes a thing ſublime, profound, or abftrufe.
others, that a famine frequently rages at Mecca when ACROAMATICI, a denomination given the diſ-
there is a ſcarcity of corn in Egypt, which obliges the ciples or followers of Ariſtotle, &c. who were admit-
inhabitants to live upon coarſer food than ordinary : ted into the ſecrets of the inner or acroamatic philo-
That when corn is ſcarce, the Arabians grind the lo- fophy.
'cuſts in hand-inills, or ſtone-mortars, and bake thene
ACROATIC. Ariſtotles le&ures to his diſciples
into cakes, and uſe theſe cakes in place of bread : were of two kinds, exoteric and acroatic. The acroatic
That he has frequently ſeen locuſts uſed by the Ara were thoſe to which only his own diſciples and inti-
bians, even when there was no ſcarcity of corn
but
mate friends were admitted ; whereas the exoteric
then they boil them, ſtew them with butter, and make were public, and open to all. But there are other dif-
them into a kind of fricaſſee ; which he ſays is not diſ ferences. The acroatic were ſet apart for the higher
agreeably taſted, for he had ſometimes tarted theſe lo and more abſtruſe ſubjects ; the exoteric were employ-
cuſt-fricaffees out of curioſity.
ed in rhetorical and civil ſpeculations.. Again, the
* Voyage to
A later traveller, Dr Sparrman, informs us *, acroatics were more ſubtile and exact, evidence and
« That locuſts ſometimes afford a bigh treat to the demonſtration being here aimed at; the exoterics chief-
vol.1.p.36. more unipoliſhed and remote hordes of the Hottentots; ly aimed at the probable and plauſible. The former were
when, as ſometimes happens, after an interval of 8, the ſubject of the mornings exerciſes in the Lyceum,
10, 15, or 20 years, they make their appearance in the latter of the evenings. Add, that the exoterics.
incredible numbers. At theſe times they come from were publiſhed: whereas the acroatics were kept ſe.
the north, migrating to the ſouthward, and do not ſuf cret ; being either entirely concealed; or, if they were
fer themſelves to be impeded by any obſtacles, but publiſhed, it was in ſuch obſcure terms, that few but
fly boldly on, and are drownea in the ſea whenever
his own diſciples could be the wiſer for them. Hence,
they come to it. The females of this race of inſects, when Alexander complained of his preceptor for pub.
which are moſt apt to migrate, and are chiefly eaten, liſhing his acroatics, and thus revealing what ſhould
are ſaid not to be able to Hy; partly by reaſon of the have been reſerved to his diſciples, Ariſtotle anſwered
ſhortneſs of their wings, and partly on account of that they were made public and not public; for that
their being heavy and diſtended with eggs ; and ſhort none who had not heard them explained by the author
ly after they have laid theſe in the ſand, they are ſaid giva voce, would underſtand them.
to die. It is particularly of theſe that the Hottentots ACROATHOUM, or ACROTHOUM (anc. geog.),
make a brown coffee-coloured ſoup, which, at the ſame a town ſituated on the top of mount Allios, where the
time, acquires from the eggs a fat and greaſy appear inhabitants, according to Mela, were longer lived by
The Hottentots are highly rejoiced at the ar half than in any other country: called by the moderii
rival of theſe locuſts, though they are ſure to deſtroy Greeks, Agrov opos; by the Italians, La Cima di Monte
every bit of verdure on the ground: but the Hotten Santo.
tots make themſelves ample amends for this loſs, by ACROBATICA, or ACROBATICUN, from expoc,
falling foul on the animals themſelves, cating them in high, and Bettw, or Baivo I go; an ancient engine,
whereby
the Cape,
ance.
2
А ск
iyo ]
A CR
raunia
lium.
Acroce- whercby people were raiſed aloft,yt!iat they might ſee this plain ; and hence its name: To the north it liad a Acropolita
more conveniently about them. The aviobatica among wall, built by the Pelaſgi, and therefore called Pelaf 1
:
the Greeks amounted to the ſaine with what they call gic; and to the ſouth a wall, by Cynon the ſon of Mil- Acrofto-
Acropolis.
ſcanforium among the Latins. Authors are divided tiades, out of the Perſian (poils, many ages after the
as to the office of this engine. Turnebus and Barba- building of the north wall. It had nine gates, and
rus take it to have been of the military kind, raiſed was therefore called Enneapylon ; yet but one princi-
by beliegers, high enough to overlook the walls, and pal gate or entrance, the aſcent to which was by a
diſcover the ſtate of things on the other lide. Baldus tight of ſteps of white inarble, built by Pericles with
rather ſuppoſes it a kind of moveable ſcaffold, or cradle, great magnificence, (Plutarch).
contrived for raiſing painters, plaſterers, and other ACROPOLITA (George), one of the writers in
workmien, to the tops of houſes, trees, &c. Some
Some the Byzantine hiſtory, was born at Conſtantinople, in
ſuſpect that it might have been uſed for both purpofes; the year 1220, and brought up at the court of the em-
which is the opinion of Vitruvius and Aquinas. peror John Ducas at Nice. He was employed in the
ACROCERAUNIA, or Montes CERAUNII(anc. moft important affairs of the empire ; being fent am-
geog.), mountains running out into the ſea (ſo called baſſador to Lariſſa, to eſtabliſh a peace with Michael
from their being often thunderitruck), ſeparating the of Epiras; and was conftiruted judge to try Michael
Ionian ſea from the Adriatic ; where Illyria ends and Connenus, ſuſpected of engaging in a conſpiracy.
Epirus begins; now called Monti della Chimera. Theodorus Laſcaris, the ſon of John, whom he had
ACROCHERISMUS, among the Greeks, a ſort taught logic, appointed him governor of all the weſtern
of gymnaſtic exerciſe, in which the two combatants provinces in his empire. In 1255, he was taken pri-
contended with their hands and fingers only, without ſoner in a war with Michael Angelus : but gaining his
cloſing or engaging the other parts of the body. liberty in 1260, by nieans of the emperor Palæologus,
ACŘOCORINTHUS (anc. geog.), a high and he was ſent by hiin ambaſſador to Conſtantine, prince
ſteep hill, hanging over the city of Corinth, which was of Bulgaria ; and was employed in ſeveral other nego-
taken within the walls, as an acropolis, or citadel. On ciations. He wrote, A Continuation of the Greek Hi-
its top ſtood a temple of Venus; and lower down if- ſtory, from the taking of Conſtantinople by the Latins
ſuled the fountain Pyrene.
till it was recovered by Michael Palæologus in 1261,
ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the which makes part of the Byzantine hiſtory ; A Trea-
fcapula or ſhoulder-blade. See ANATOMY.
tiſe concerning Faith, Virtue, and the Soul ; An Ex-
ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM,in poetry, a kind poſition of the Sermons of St Gregory Nazianzeň and
of poem, wherein every ſubſequent verſe begins with other pieces. Gregory Cyprian, patriarch of Con-
the letter wherewith the immediately preceding one ſtantinople, in his encomium upon hiin, prefixed to
terminated.
Acropolita's hiſtory, is perhaps ſomewhat extravagant
ACRON, a celebrated phyſician of Agrigentum, in his praiſe, when he ſays he was equal to Ariſtotle
who firſt thought of lighting large fires, and purity- in philoſophy, and to Plato in the knowledge of divine
ing the air with perfumes, to put a ſtop to the pefti- things and Attic eloquence.
lence that ravaged Athens, and which was attended ACROSPIRE, a vulgar terın for what botaniſts call
with ſucceſs. He lived about 473 years before the the plume. See the article PLANTS.
Chriſtian æra.
ACROSPIRED, in malt-making, is the grain's
ACRON, a territory on the gold-coaſt of Guinea, in ſhooring both at the root and blade end.
Africa, bordering on the Fantynean country. The ACROSTIC, in poetry, a kind of poetical compo-
Dutch have a fort here called Fort Patience; and un ſition, diſpoſed in ſuch a manner, that the initialletters
der it is a village, inhabited only by fiſhermen. The of the verſes form the name offome perfon, kingdom,
other inhabitants are addicted to huſbandry, and ſell place, motto, &c. The word is compounded of the
their corn to other countries. There is plenty of gaine, Greek, exp @w extremity, and orixu,verſe. The acroſtic
which is very commodious for the Dutch factory. The is confidered by the critics as a ſpecies of falſe wit, and
people are very ignorant, and go naked like the reſt of is therefore very little regarded by the moderns.
the negroes. This is called Little Acron ; for Great ACROSTICUM, RUSTYBACK, WALL-RUE,
Acron is farther inland, and is a kind of a republic. FORK-FERN, in botany, a gentis of the cryptogamia
ACRONICAL,ACHRONYCHAL, or ACHRONICAL, filices. The fructifications are accumulated on the
in afronomy, is a term applied to the riſing of a ſtar, whole inferior ſurface of the frond, ſo that they every-
when the ſun is ſet in the evening; but has been pro-
Where cover it. There are upwards of 30 fpecies;
miſcuoully uſed to expreſs a ſtar's riſing at ſunſet, or but only three of them (according to others, two)
ſetting at fun-rife.
are natives of Britain, viz. the ſeptentrionale, or horn-
ACRONIUS LACUS, (Mela); a ſmall lake formed cd ferii, which grows on walls or clifts of rocks ; the
by the Rhine, foon after its riſe out of the Alps, and ilvenſe, or hairy fern, growing in clifts of rocks; and
after paling the greater lake at Conſtance, called Ve- the thelyptris, or marih fern, in tufty bogs.
met is, and 110w the Bodengee, or lake of Conſtance. ACROSTOLIUM, in ancient naval architecture,
ACROPOLIS (anc. geog.), the citadel, and one the extreme part of the ornament uſed on the prows of
of the diviſions of Athens; called Polis, becauſe con their ſhips, which was ſometimes in the ſhape of a
ſtituting the firſt and original city; and the Upper Po buckler, helmet, animal, &c. ; but more frequently cir-
lis, to diſtinguiſh it from the Lower, which was after- cular, or ſpiral. It was uſual to tear them from the
wards built round it in a large open plain, the Acro- prows of vanquiſhed veſſels, and fix them to the con-
polis ſtanding on a rock or eminence in the heart of querors, as a ſignal of victory.
or
I
ACRO-
Аст
[97]
ACT
AA.
tic
Act.
و
Acroteleu-
ACROTELEUTIC, among eccleſiaſtic writers, an open-mouthed, about it.
open-mouthed, about it. Each priſoner is attended
appellation given to any thing added to the end of a with a familiar of the inquiſition; and thoſe to be burnt
T pſalm; as the Gloria Patri; or Doxology.
have alſo a Jeſuit on each hand, who are continually
ACROTERIA, in architecture, ſmall pedeſtals, preaching to them to abjure. After the priſoners, comes
uſually without baſes, anciently placed at the middle a troop of familiars on horſeback; and after them the
or two extremes of pediments or frontiſpieces, ſerving inquilitors, and other officers of the court, on mules ;
to ſupport the ſtatues, &c. It alſo lignifies the figures laſt of all, the inquiſitor-general on a white horſe, led
placed as ornaments on the tops of churches, and the by two men with black hats and green hat bands. A
Tharp pinnacles that ſtand in ranges about fiat buildings ſcaffold is erected in the Terriero de Paio, big enougļi
witli rails and balluſters.
for two or three thouſand people; at one end of whichi
Among ancient phyſicians, it ſignified the larger ex are the priſoners, at the other the inquiſitors. After
tremities of the body, as the head, hands, and feet. a ſermon nade up of encoiniums on the inquiſition, and
It has alſo been uſed for the tips of the fingers, and invectives againſt heretics, a prieſt aſcends a dek near
fometimes for the eminences or proceſſes of bones. the middle of the ſcaffold, and having taken the abjura-
ACROTHYMION, from Qupu, extreme, and Aureos, tion of the penitents, recitesthe final ſentence of thoſe
thyme. A ſort of ware deſcribed by Celſus as hard, whu are to be put to death ; and delivers thein to the
rough, with a narrow baſis and broad top; the top is ſecular arm, earneſtly beſeeching at the ſame time the
of the colour of thyme, it eaſily ſplits and bleeds. fecular power not to touch their blood, or put their
This tumour is alſo called thymus.
lives in danger. The priſoners being thus in the hands
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power; of the civil magiſtrate are preſently loaded with chains,
and differs from power, as the effect from the cauſe. and carried firſt to the ſecular goal, and from thence in
Acr, in logic, is particularly underſtood of an ope an hour or two brought before the civil judge ; who,
ration of the human mind. Thus to diſcern and ex after aſking in what religion they intend to die, pro-
amine, arc acts of the underſtanding; to judge and af nounces ſentence, on ſuch as declare they die in the
firm, are acts of the will. There are voluntary and communion of the church of Rome, that they fhall be
ſpontaneous acts; the former are produced by the o firſt ftrangled, and then burnt to aſhes; on ſuch as die
peration of the foul, the latter without its privity or in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Boch are
participation.
immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of exe-
Act, in the univerſities, fignifies a theſis maintained cution ; where there are as many ſtakes ſet up as there
in public by a candidate for a degree, or to ſhow the are priſoners to be burnt, with a quantity of dry furz a-
capacity and proficiency of a ſtudent. The candidates bout them. The ſtakes of the profeſſed, that is, ſuch
for a degree of bachelor and maſter of arts are to hold as perſiſt in their hereſy, are about four yards high,
philoſophical Acts; and thoſe for bachelor of divinity, having a ſmall board towards the top for the prisoner
theological Acts, &c. At Oxford, the time when ma to be feated on. The negative and relapſed being first
fters or doctors complete their degrees is alſo called the ſtrangled and burnt, the profeſſed mount their ſtakes
alt; which is held with great ſolemnity. At Cam- by a ladder; and the Jeſuits, after ſeveral repeated ex-
bridge, they call it the commencement.
hortations to be reconciled to the church, part with
Act of Faith, Auto da Fe, in the Romiſh church, is them, telling them they leave them to the devil, who
a folemn day held by the inquiſition, for the puniſh- is ſtanding at their elbow to receive their ſouls, and
ment of heretics, and the abſolution of theinnocent ac carry them with him into the flames of hell. On this
cuſed*. They uſually contrive the Auto to fall on fome a great, hout is raiſed; and the cry is, Let the dogs
quiſition. great feſtival, that the execution may paſs with the beards be made; which is done by thruſting flaming
more awe and regard; at leaſt it is always on a Sunday furzes faſtened to long poles againſt their faces, till
The Auto da Fe may be called the laſt act of the their faces are burnt to a coal, which is accompanied
inquiſitorial tragedy; it is a kind of goal-delivery, ap- with the loudeſt acclamations of joy. At laſt, fire is ſet
pointed as oft as a competent number of priſoners in to the furz at the bottom of the ſtake, over which the
the inquiſition are convicted of hereſy, either by their profeſſed are chained ſo high, that the top of the flanie
own voluntary, or extorted confeſſion, or on the evi- ſeldom reaches higher than the ſeat they liton ; fo that
dence of certain witneſſes. The proceſs is thus: in the they rather ſeem roaſted than burnt. There cannot be
morning they are brought into a great hall, where a more lamentable fpectacle ; the ſufferers continually
they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear cry out while they are able, Nifericordia por amor de
in the proceſſion. The proceſſion is led up by domini. Dios, “ Pity for thic love of God !"yerit is beheld by all
can friars ; after which come the penitents, fome with ſexes, andages, with tranſports of joy and ſatisfaction.
ſan-benitoes, and ſome without, according to the na Act, in dramatic poetry, ſignifies a certain divia
ture of their crimcs; being all in black coats without fion, or part, of a play, deligned to give ſome reſpite
ſleeves, and bare-footed, with a wax-candle in their both to the actors and ſpectators. The Romans were
hands. Theſe are followed by the penitents who have the firſt who divided their theatrical pieces into acts ;
narrowly eſcaped being burnt, who over their black for no ſuch diviſions appear in the works of the firſt
coats have flames paintedwith their points turned downl. dramatic poets. Their pieces indeed conſiſted of ſeve-
wards, Fuego revolto. Next come the negative, and ral parts or diviſions, which they called protaſis, epi-
relapſed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their taſis, cataſtaſis, and cataſtrophes but theſe diviſions were
habits pointing upwards. After theſe come ſuch as pro- not marked by any real interruptions on the theatre:
fefs doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, be. Nor does Ariſtotlemention any thing of acts in his Art
fides flames pointing upwards, have their picture paint. of Poetry. But, in the time of Horace, all regular
ed on their breaſts, with dogs, ferpents, and devils, all and finiſhed pieces were divided into five asts.
VOL.I.
N
Neuve
* See In-
Å
АСТ
[ 38 ]
Аст
At
1
Avda.
Acta,
Acts.
inent, &c.
Nenve minor, nen fit quinto productior aftu
&c. Under Marcus Antoninus, this was carried fur-
Fabula, 91.& pofci vult & ſpectata reponi.
ther: perſons were obliged to notify the births of their
The first act, according to ſome critics, beſides in- children, with their names and furnames, the day,con-
troducing upon the ſtage the principal characters of the fal, and whether legitimate or fpurious, to the præfects
play, ought to propoſe the argument or ſubject of the of the ærarium Saturmi, to be entered in the public
piece; the ſecond, to exhibit this to the audience, by acts; though before this time the births of perſons of
carrying the fable into execution; the third, to raiſeob- quality appear thus to have been regiſtered.
ſtacles and difficulties : the fourth, to remove theſe, or Acta Senatus, among the Romans, were minutes
raife new ones in the attempt; and the fifth, to con of what palled and was debated in the ſenate-houſe.
clude the piece, by introducing fome accident that may Theſe were alſo called Commentarii, and by a Greek
unravel the whole affair. This diviſion, however, is name utupauata. They had their origin in the con-
Hot eſſentially neceſſary; but may be varied according fulfhip of Julius Cæſar, who ordered them both to be
to the humour of the author, or the nature of the ſub- kept and publiſhed. The keeping them was continued
ject. Sçe POETRY, Part Il. Sect. i.
under Auguftus, but the publication was abrogated.
Act of Grace. See GRACE.
Afterwards all writings, relating to the decrees or ſen-
Act, among lawyers, is an inſtrument in writing for tences of the judges, or what paſſed and was done be-
declaring or juſtifying the truth of any thing. In which fore them, or by their authority, in any cauſe, were
ſenſe, records, decrees, ſentences, reports, certifi- alſo called by the name Atta: In which ſenſe we read
cates, &c. are called afts.
of civil acts, criminal acts, intervenient acts ; acta ci-
Acts, alſo denote the deliberations and reſolutions vilia, criminalia, intervenientia, &c.
of an aſſembly, fenate, or convention; as acts of parlia Public Acts. The knowledge of public acts forms
Likewiſe matters of fact tranſmitted to part of a peculiar ſcience, called the DIPLOMATIC,
poſterity in certain authentic books and memoirs. of great importance to an hiſtorian, ſtateſman, chro-
ACTA Conſiſtorii, the edicts or declarations of the nologer, and even critic. The preſervation of them
council of ſtate of the emperors. Theſe edicts were was the firſt occaſion of erecting libraries. The ſtyle
generally expreſſed in ſuch terms as theſe: “ The au of afts is generally barbarous Latin. Authors are di.
guſt emperors, Dioceſian and Maximian, in council de vided as to the rules of judging of their genuineneſs,
clared, " That the children of Decurions ſhould not be and even whether there be any certain rule at all. F.
expoſed to wild beaſts in the amphitheatre.”
Germon will have the greater part of the acts of former
The ſenate and ſoldiers often ſwore, either through ages to be ſpurious. Fontanini aſſerts, that the num-
abject fattery or by compulſion, upon the edifts of the ber of forged acts now extant is very ſmall. It is cer-
cmperor, as we do upon the bible.
the bible. And the name of tain there were ſevere puniſhnients inflicted on the for-
Apidius Merula was eraſed by Nero out of the regiſter gers and fallifiers of acts.The chief of the Engliſh
of ſenators, becauſe he refuſed to ſwear upon the edicts acts, or public records, are publiſhed by Rymer, under
of the emperor Auguſtus.
the title of Fædera, and continued by Saunderſon ; an
ACTA Diurna, was a ſort of Roman gazette, con extract whereof has been given in French by Rapin,and
taining an authorized narrative of the tranſactions wor tranſlated into Engliſh under the title of Alta Regia.
thy of notice which happened at Rome. Petronius has Great commendations have been given this work : alſo
given us a ſpecimen of the atta diurna in his account fome exceptions made to it; as that there are many ſpu-
of Trimalchis; and as it may not perhaps be unenter rious acts, as well as errors, in it; ſome have even char,
taining to ſee how exactly a Roman newſpaper runs in ged it with falſifications. The public acts of France
the ſtyle of an American one, the following is an article fell into the hands of the Engliſh after the battle of
or two out of it:
Poitiers, and are commonly ſaid to have been carried
66 On the 26th of July, 30 boys and 40 girls were by them out of the country. But the tradition is not
born at Triinalchi's eſtate at Cuma.
fupported by any ſufficient teſtimony.
" At the ſame time a ſlave was put to death for ut Acts of the Apofiles, one of the ſacred books of the
tering diſreſpectful words againſt his lord.
New Teſtament, containing the hiſtory of the infarit-
“The ſame day a fire broke.out in Pompey's gardens, church, during the ſpace of 29 or 30 years from the
which began in the night, in the ſteward's apartment. aſcenſion of our Lord to the year of Chriſt 63.-It was
Acta Populi, among the Romans, were journals or written by St Luke; and addreſſed to Theophilus, the
regiſters of the daily occurrences; as aſſemblies, trials, perſon to whom the evangeliſt had before dedicated'his
exccutions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c. goſpel. Welere find the accompliſhment of ſeveralof
of illuſtrious perſons, and the like. Theſe were other the promiſes made by our Saviour; his aſcenſion ; the
wiſe called Asta Publica, and Alta Diurna, or ſimply deſcent of the Holy Ghoſt; the firft preaching of the a-
Acta. The Alta differed from Annals, in that only poltles, and the miracles whereby their doctrines were
the greater and more important matters were in the confirmed ; an admirable picture of the manners of the
latter, and thoſe of leſs note were in the former. Their primitive Chriſtians; and, in ſhort, every thing that
origin is attributed to Julius Cæfar, who firſt ordered paſſed in the church till the diſperſion of the apoſtles,
the keeping and making public the acts of the people. who ſeparated themſelves in order to propagate the
Soine trace them higher, to Servius Tullius ; who, to goſpel throughout the world. From the period of that
diſcover the number of perſons born, dead, and alive, ſeparation, St Luke quits the hiſtory of the other apo-
ordered that the next of kin, upon a birth, ſhould put ſtles, who were then at too great a diſtance from him,
a certain piece of money into the treaſury of Juno Lu and confines himſelf more particularly to that of St
cina ; upon a death, into that of Venus Libitina: the Paul, who had choſen him for the companion of his
like was alſo to be done upon afluming the toga virilis, labours. He follows that apoſtle in all his miſſions,
and
ACT
[99]
ACT
1
Aets. and even Rome itſelf ; for it appears that the Ats within the intention, though without the letter, of Adæ,
w were publiſhcd in the ſecond year of StPauls's retidence the act; and ſome acts extend by cquity to things not Actaa.
in that city, or thc 36th year of the Chriſtian æra, and mentioned therein. See PARLIAMENT.
in the or roh year of Nero's reign. The flyle of ACTE, were meadows of remarkable verdure and
this work, which was originally compoſed in Greek, is luxuriancy near the ſea-lhure, wherc the Romans uſed
"miuch purer than that of the other canonical writers; to indulge themſelves to a great degree in ſoftneſs and
and it is obſervable, that St Luke, who was much better delicacy of living. The word is uſed in this ſenſe by
acquainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan. Ciccro and Virgil ; but Vollius thinks it can only be
guage, always, in his quotations from the Old Teſta- uſed in ſpeaking of Sicily, as theſe two authors did.
ment, makes uſe of the Sepluagint verſion. The coun ACTÆA, ACONITUM RACEMOS U11, HERS CRIS-
cil of Laodicea places the Acts of the Apoſtles among TOPHER, or BANE-BERRIES; a genus of the monogy-
the canonical books, and all the churches have ac nia order, belonging to the polyandria claſs of plants,
knowledged it as ſuch without any controverſy. The characters are : the calyx is a perianthium con-
There were ſeveral Spurious ACTS OF THE Apo- fiſting of four roundiſh, obtuſe, concave leaves, which
STLES ; particularly, 1. Aits, ſuppoſed to be written fall off. The corolla conſiſts of four petals, larger
*See Abdias
by Abdias*, the pretended biſhop of Babylon, who than the calyx, pointed at both ends, and falling off.
gave out that he was ordained biſhop by the Apoſtles 1 he ſiamina conſiſt of numerous capillary filaments;
themſelves when they were upon their journey into the antheræ are roundiſh, erect, and didymous. The
Perſia. II. The Asis of St Peter : this book came o- piſlilium has an ovate germen ; no ſtylus ; the ſtigma
riginally froń the ſchool of the Ebionites. III. The thickiſh and obliquely deprelled. The pericarpiumis
Acts of St Paul, which is entirely loſt. Euſebius, who an oval ſmooth one-furrow'd one-cell'd berry. The
had ſeen it, pronounces it of no authority. IV. The ſeeds are very numerous, ſemiorbicular, and incumbent
Acts of St John the Evangelift ; a book made uſe of by in a double order.-This genus is aſſociated with the
the Encratites, Manichæans, and Priſcillianiſts. V.The Multifiliqua, the 26th natural order. There are four
Acts of St Andrew ; received by the Manicheæns, En Species and properties. 1. The ſpicata, or common
cratites, an Apotactics. Vi. The Acts of St Thomas the herb-chriſtopher, is a native in ſeveral parts of Britain.
Apofile ; received particularly by the Manichæans. It grows to the height of about two feet and a half ;
VII. The Acts of St Philip. This book the Gnoſtics the foot-ſtalks of the leaves ariſe from the root ; theſe
made uſe of. VIII. The Acts of St Matthias. Some divide into three ſmaller foot-ſtalks, each of which are
have imagined that the Jews for a long time had con- again divided into three, and there have each three
cealed the original acts of the life and death of St Mat- lobes, ſo that each leaf is compoſed of 27 lobes or ſmal-
thias written in Hebrew; and that a monk of the ab- ler leaves. The flowers grow in ramous fpikes, and are
bey of St Matthias at Treves, having got them out of of a pure white: they are borne upon a llender, jointed,
their hands, procured them to be tranllated into Latin, and furrowed ſtem; appear in May; and are ſucceeded by
and publiſhed them ; but the critics will not allow them black, ſhining, pulpy berries, about the ſize of peas,
to be authentic.
which ripen in the autumn. This plant is a powerful
Acts of Pilate ; a relation ſent by Pilate to the em repellent, and the root has been uſed internally in ſome
peror Tiberius, concerning Jeſus Chriſt, his death, re nervous caſes, but muſt be adminiſtered with caution.
ſurrection, aſcenſion, and the crimes of which he was The berries are highly poiſonous. It is ſaid toads re-
† Efeub.ii. convicted before himt. It was a cuſtom among the fort to this plant, on account of its fetid finell. Sheep
Hif Eccles. Romans, that the proconfuls and governors of provin- and goats eat it cows, horſes, and ſwine refuſe it.
ces ſhould draw up acts or memoirs, of what happened 2.The alba, or American herb-clariſtopher, is a native
in the courſe of their government, and ſend them to the of North America. The leaves of this ſpecies are ſome-
emperor and ſenate. The genuine acts of Pilate were what like the former, but not ſo deeply indented in the
ſent by him to Tiberius, who reported them to the ſe- edges. The flowers grow in a more compact ſpike, and
nate ; but they were rejected by that aſſembly, becauſe the berries are very white and tranſparent when ripe ;
not immediately addreſſed to them : as is teftified by the roots are compoſed of thick knobs. This ſpecies
Tertullian, in his Apol. cap. 5. and 20, 21. The has been uſed as an emetic, and ſometimes called ipia
heretics forged acts in imitation of them : in the reign cacoanha. 3. The racemoſa, or American black or wild
of the emperor Maximin, the Gentiles, to throw an ſnakeroot, is likewiſe a native of North-America. It
odium on the Chriſtian name, ſpread about ſpurious has large compound leaves,riſing immediately from the
Acts of Pilate ; which the emperor, by a ſolemn edict, root, and branched after the ſame manner as the firſt
ordered to be ſent into all the provinces of the empire, which grow more than two feet high. The flower-
and enjoined the ſchool-maſters to teach and explain ftem riſes to the height of four or five feet; and carries
them to their ſcholars, and make them learn them by along ſpike of white flowers reflected at the top. Theſe
heart. Theſe a&s, both the genuine and the ſpurious, appear in June or the beginning of July, but the ſeeds
are loft. There is indeed extant, in the Pſeudo-Hege- do not come to maturity in Britain. The root of this
ſippas, a letter from Pilate to the emperor Claudius, plant is greatly uſed by plıyſicians in this country,
+ Cave Hif. concerning Jeſus Chriſt $; but it diſcovers itſelf at in many diſorders; and is ſuppoſed to be an antidote a-
Sec.Apoftol.
firſt ſight not to be authentic.
gainſt poiſon, or the biting of a rattle-ſnake. 4. The
Act of Parliament of Great Britan, is a poſitive cimicifuga, is a native of Siberia ; the leaves reſemble
law, conſiſting of two parts, the words of the act, and thoſe of the feathered columbine ; the ſtalks riſe little
its true ſenſe and meaning; which being joined, more than a foot high, ſupporting particles of white
make the law. The words of acts of parliament ſhould flowers, which appear in May. This ſpecies is rare
be taken in a lawful ſenſe. Caſes of the fame nature are in Britain.
Gulture
1
lib.ii.cap.2.
and ix. 5.
Literar
?
N 2
>
&
ACT
( 100 ]
ACT
1
Autio,
TESTARI.
Adæon Gulture. The firſt ſpecies llall a perennial root, a full-blown flower, which has given it the denomi.
L but the ſtalks annually decay. It may be propagated nation of the power fiſh,
Actinia. cither by ſeeds, or parting the roots, which ſhould be ACTIO, in Roman antiquiries, an action at law in
tranſplanted in a!ltumn. The feeds ſhould be ſown foon a court of juſtice. The formalities uſed by the Ro-
after they are ripe, or they will lic a whole year in the mans, in judicial adions, were there : If the difference
ground before they vegetate. They ſhould be ſown in failed to be made up by friends, the injured perſons
à ſhady border: and as all the plants do not come up at proceeded in jus reum vocare, to ſummon the offending
the ſame time, the border ſhould 110t be diſturbed till party to the court, who was obliged to go and give bond
the following autuni11, when they ſhould be tranſplant- for his appearance.
ed into a ſhady border, where they may be allowed to The offending party might be fummoned into court
remain and flower --The ſecond ſpecies may be pro- viva voce, by the plaintiff himſelf meeting the defen-
pogated in the ſame manner : only the plants ſhould dant, declaring his intention to him, and commanding
be allowed three feet every way, on account of their hiin to go before the magiſtrate and make his defence.
wide-ſpreading leaves. This ſpecies delights in a If he would not go willingly, he might drag and force
light moiſt foil, and ſhady fituation. The third is hin along, unleſs he gave ſecurity for his appearance
uſually propagated by feeds ſent annually from North on ſome appointed day. If he failed to appear on the
America : it thrives in the ſame kind of ſoil as the for- day agreed on, then the plaintiff, whenſoever he met
mer ; and is very hardy, requiring no other cultare him, might take him along with him by force, calling
than the common flowering-ſhrubs. The plants ſhould any by-Itanders to bear witneſs, by aſking them viſne
not be often removed for that will prevent their flow- anteflari; the by-ſtanders upon this turned their ear to-
ering ſtrong.-The fourth requires a moiſt loamy ſoil, wards him in token of their conſent: To this Horace
and thady ſituation. It may be propagated in the ſame alludes in his Sat. againſt the in pertinent, Lib. I. Sat.
manner as the others.
9. See this further explained under the article AN-
ACTÆON, in fabulous hiſtory, the ſon of Ariſtæus
and Autonoc; a great hunter. He was turned by Di Both parties being met before the prætor, or other
ana into a ſtag, for looking on her while bathing; and ſupreme magiſtrate preſiding in the court, the plaintiff
died by his own dogs.
propoſed the action to the defendant ; in which he de-
ACTANIA, an illand, according to Pliny, in the ſigned to profecute him. This they termed edere aca
North ſea. Ít lies to the weſt of Holſtein and Dit- tionem ; and was commonly perfornied by writing it in
merſch, 110t far from the mouth of the Eyder and Elbe, a tablet, and offering it to the defendant, that he might
and is now called Heyligland.
fee whether he had better ſtand the fuit or conu-
ACTE. See SAMBUCUS.
pound.
ACTIAN Games,in Roman antiquity, were foiemn In the next place came the poſtulatio aétionis, or the
games inſtituted by Auguftus, in memory of his vic. plantiff's petition to the prætor, for leave to proſecute
tory over Marc Anthony at Actium, held every fifth the defendant in ſuch an action. The petition was
year, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, ſince called granted by writing at the bottom of it actionem do, or
Actius. Hence Aftian Years, an æra commencing from refuſed by writing in the ſame manner aétionem non
the battle of Actian, called the Æra of Auguftus. do.
Virgil infinuates them to have been inſtituted by Æ The petition being granted, the plantiff vadabatur
neas; from that pallage Æn. III. v. 280.
reum, i.e. obliged him to give ſureties for his appear-
Aétiaque Iliacis celebramus litora ludis.
ance on ſuch a day in the court; and this was all that
Æn.iii. 280. was done in public, before the day fixed upon for the
But this he only does by way of compliment to Auguf- trial.
tus; attributing that to the hero from whom he de In the mean tiine, the difference was often made up,
ſcended, which was done by the emperor himſelf: as either tranſactione, by letting the cauſe fall as dubious;
is obſerved by Servius.
or pactione, by compoſition for damages amongſt
ACTINIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the friends.
order of vermes molluſca. The body is oblong and On the day appointed for hearing, the prætor or-
ſmootli, attaching itſelf firmly by its baſis to rocks or dered the ſeveral bills to be read, and the parties ſum-
other folid ſubſtances, having a dilatable apex hooked moned by an accenfus, or beadle. See Accensi.
witliin. The mouth is furniſhed with crooked teeth, Upon the non-appearance of either party, the de-
the roſtrum cylindrical and radiated. There are five faulter loſt his cauſe ;--if they both appeared, they
fpecies, ſome of which make a beautiful appearance, were ſaid fe ftetiffe ; and the the plaintiff proceeded
and are called Animal Flowers, Sca Anemonies, and litem live actionem intendere, i. e. to prefer his fuit,
Urtica Mariña. See ANIMAL Flower.
which was done in a ſet form of words, varying accor-
Progreſſive inotion in theſe creatures is ſo flow, that ding to the difference of the actions. After this the
it is difficult to perceive any, as they ſcarce advance the plaintiff deſired judgment of the prætor, that is, to be
length of one inch in an hour. It would ſeem they do allowed a judex or arbiter, or elſe the recuperatores or
not all produce, when handled, the painful ſenſation centumviri. Theſe he requeſted for the hearing and
which had acquired them the name of fea-nettles--- deciding the buſineſs ; but none of them could be de-
They are viviparous,feed on ſhellfiſh, open their mouth fired but by the conſent of both parties.
more or leſs according to the ſize of the prey they have The prætor having afligned them their judges, de-
to deal with, and then reject the ſhell through the ſame fined and determined the number of witneſſes to bead-
aperture. When the mouth is open, all the tentacula mitted, to hinder the protracting of the ſuis ; and
of the acinia may be ſeen, reſembling in that ſituation then the parties proceeded to give their caution, that
the
ACT
[ 101 ]
न
ACT
a
Adion. the judgment, whatever it was, ſhould ſtandand be per- which before had always been referred to ſeparate Aflion.
formed on both ſides. The judges took a ſolemn oath laws ; and to reduce the laws of motion, and thoſe of
to be impartial; and the parties took the juramentum equilibrium, to one and the ſame principle.
calumniæ. Then the trial began with the aſſiſtance of ACTION, in ethics, denotes the external ſigns or ex.
witneſſes, writings, &c. which was called difceptatio preſſions of the ſentiments of a moral agent. See
caufae.
Active Power, infra.
ACTION, in a general ſenſe, implies nearly the Action, in poetry, the ſame with ſubject or fable.
ſame thing with ACT.-Grammarians, however, ob- Critics generally diſtinguiſh two kinds, the principal
ſerve fome diſtinction between action and aft; the for, and the incidental. The principal action is what is
mer being generally reſtricted to the common or ordi- generally called the fable; and the incidental an epi-
nary tranſactions, whereas the latter is uſed to expreſs fode. See POETRY, Part II.
thoſe which are remarkable. Thus, we ſay it is a good ACTION, in oratory, is the outward deportment of
action to comfort the unhappy; it is a generous ac to che orator, or the accommodation of his countenance,
deprive ourſelves of what is neceſſary for their fake. voice, and geſture, to the ſubject of which he is treat-
The wiſe man propoſes to himſelf an honeſt end in all ing. See ORATORY, Part IV.
his actions; a prince ought to mark every day of his life ACTION, in a theatrical ſenſe. See DECLAMATI-
with ſome act of greatneſs. The abbé Girard makes
ON, Art. IV.
further diſtinction between the words action and act, Action for the Pulpit. See DECLAMATION, Art. I.
The foriner, according to him, has more relation to the Action, in painting and ſculpture, is the attitude
power that acts than the latter ; whereas the latter has or poſition of the ſeveral parts of the face, budy, and
more relation to the effect produced than the former: limbs of ſuch figures as are repreſented, and whereby
and hence the one is properly the attribute of the other. they feem to be really actuated by paffions. Thus we
Thus we may properly ſay, “ Be ſure to preſerve a fay, the action of ſuch a figure finely expreſſes the
preſence of mind in all your actions; and take care that paſſions with which it is agitated : we alſo uſe the
they all be acts of equity.'
ſame expreſſion with regard to animals.
ACTION, in mechanics, implies either the effort ACTION, in phyſiology, is applied to the functions
which a body or power makes againſt another body or of the body, whether vital, animal, or natural.
power, or the effect ilſelf of that effort.
The vital functions, or actions, are thoſe which are
As it is neceſſary in works of this kind to have a par- abſolutely neceſſary to life, and without which there is
ticular regard to the common language of mechanics no life, as the action of the heart, lungs, and arteries.
and philoſophers, we have given this double definition : On the action and reaction of the folids and fluids ony
but the proper fignification of the term is the motion each other, depend the vital functions. The pulſe and
which a body really produces, or tends to produce, in reſpiration are the external ſigns of life. Vital diſeaſes
another; that is, ſuch is the motion it would have pro are all thoſe which hinder the influx of the venous
duced, had nothing hindered its effect.
blood into the cavities of the leart, and the expulſion
All power is nothing more than a body actually in of the arterial blood from the fame.-The natural func-
motion, or which tends to move itſelf; that is, a body tions are thoſe which are inſtrumental in repairing the
which would move itſelf if nothing oppoſed it. The ſeveral loſſes which the body ſuſtains ; for life is def-
action therefore of a body is rendered evident to us by tructive of itſelf, its very offices occaſioning a perpe-
its motion only; and conſequently we muſt not fix any tual waſte. The manducation of food, the deglutition
other idea to the word action, than that of actual mo and digeſtion thereof, alſo the ſeparation and diſtribu-
tion, or a ſimple tendency to motion. The famous que tion of the chyle and excrementitous parts, &c. are
ſtion relating to vis viva, and vis mortua, owes, in all under the head of natural functions, as by theſe our a-
probability, its exiſtence to an inadequate idea of the liment is converted into our nature. They are neceſſa-
word action ; för had Leibnitz and his followers obfer ry to the continuanceofour bodies.-Theanimal func-
ved, that the only preciſe and diſtinct idea we can give tions are thoſe which we perform at will, as muſcular
to the word force or action, reduces it to its effect, that motion, and all the voluntary actions of the body, they
is, to the motion it actually produces or tends to pro. are thoſe which conſtitute the ſenſes of touch, taſte,
duce, they would never have made that curious dif- fmell, ſight, hearing ; perception, reaſoning, imagina-
tinction.
tion, memory, judgment, affections of the mind. With-
Quantity of Action, a name given by M. de Mau out any, or all of them, a man may live, but not fo com-
pertuis, in the Memoirs of the Pariſian Academy of fortably as with them.
Sciences for 1 744, and thoſe of Berlin for 1746, to the Action, in commerce, is a term uſed abroad for a
product of the maſs of a body by the ſpace which it certain part or ſhare of a public company's capital
runs through, and by its celerity. He lays it down ſtock. Thus if a company lias 400,000 livres capital
as a general law, “that, in the changes made in the ſtock, this may be divided into 400 actions, cach con-
"ſtate of abody, the quantity of action neceſſary to pro- fiſting of 1000 livres. Hence a man is ſaid to have two,
« duce ſuch a change, is the leaſt poſible." This prin- four, &c. a tions, according as he has the property of
ciple he applies to the inveſtigation of the laws of re two, four, &c. 1000 livres capital ſtock. The trans-
fraction, of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of ferring of actions abroad is performed much in the
ading employed by the Supreme Being. In this man- ' fame manner as ſtocks are in England. See Stocks.
ner M. de Maupertuis attempts to connect the meta ACTION, in law, is a demand made before a judge
phyſics of final cauſes with the fundamendal truths of for obtaining wliat we are legally intitled to demand,
mechanics, to ſhow the dependence of the colliſion of and is more commonly known by the name of lau-fuil
both elaſtic and hard bodies upon one and the ſame law, or proceſs, Sce SUIT.
ACTIONARY,
ACT
( 102 )
ACT
Actor.
tive Powers
Axionary ACTIONARY, or ACTIONIST, a proprietor of it, being more of the nature of the ſalt of liine: for a
8
ſtock in a trading company.
quantity of the Acton water being boiled high, on be-
Acton.
ACTIONS, among merchants, ſometimes ſignifying mixed with a ſolution of ſublimate in pure water,
moveable effects ; and we ſay the merchant's creditors threw down a yellow ſediment. The ſalt of the Acton
have ſeized on all his actions, when we mean that they water is more nitrous than that of Epſoin ; it ſtrikes a
have taken poſſeſſion of all his active debts.
deep red, or purple, with the tincture of logwood in
ACTIVE, denotes ſomething that communicates brandy, as is uſual with nitrous ſalts ; it does not pre-
aliion or motion to another ; in which acceptation it cipitate ſilver out of the ſpirit of nitre, as common ſalt
ſtands oppoſed to paſſive.
does: 1 ID of this water yields 48 grains of falt.
Active, in granımar, is applied to ſuch words as ACTOR, in general, ſignifies a perſon who acts or
expreſs action; andis therefore oppoſed to paffive. The performs ſomething.
active performs the action, as the paſſive receives it. ACTOR, among Civilians, the proctor or advocate
Thus we ſay, a verb active, a conjugation active, &c. in civil courts or cauſes : as, Aftor eccleſia has been
or an active participle.
ſometimes uſed for the advocate of the church ; actor
Active Verbs, are ſuch as do not only ſignify doing, dominicus for the lord's attorney; aftor villæ , the ſtew-
or acting ; but have alſo nouns following them, to be ard or head bailiff of a village.
the ſubject of the action or impreſſion : thus, To love, ACTOR, in the drama, is a perſon who repreſents
to teach, are verbs active ; becauſe we can ſay, To love ſome part or character upon the theatre. The drama
& thing, to teach a man. Neuter verbs alſo denote an conſiſted originally of nothing more than a ſimple cho-
action, but are diſtingniſhed from active verbs, in that rus, who ſung hymns in honour of Bacchus ; ſo that
they cannot have a noun following them : ſuch are the primitive actors were only fingers and muſicians.
To Jeep, to go, &c.—Some grammarians, however, Theſpis was the firſt that, in order to eaſe this un-
makethree kinds of active verbs: thetranfaétive, where formed chorus, introduced a declaimer, who repeated
the action paſſes into a ſubject different from the agent: fome heroic or comic adventure. Æſchylus, finding a
reflected, where the action returns upon the agent; ſingle perſon tireſome, attempted to introduce a ſe-
and reciprocal, where the action turns mutually upon cond, and changed the ancient recitals into dialogues.
the two agents who produced it.
He alſo dreſſed his actors in a more majeſtic manner,
ACTIVE Power, in metaphyſics, the power of exe and introduced the cothurnus or buſkin. Sophocles
cuting any work or labour : in contradiſtinction to added a third, in order to repreſentthe various incidents
*De Reid Speculative powers*, or the powers of ſeeing, hearing, in a more natural manner: andhere the Greeks liopped,
on the Ac- remembering, judging reaſoning, &c
at leaſt we do not find in any of their tragedies above
The exertion of active power we call action; and three perſons in the ſame ſcene. Perhaps they looked
of Man, as every action produces ſone change, ſo every change upon it as a rule of the dramatic poem, never to admit
muſt be cauſed by ſome effect, or by the ceſſation of more than three ſpeakers at a time on the ſtage ; a rule
ſome exertion of power. That which produces a which Horace has expreſſed in the following verfe:
change by the exertion of its power, we call the cauſe
Nec quarta loqui perfona laboret.
of that change ; and the change produced, the effect This, however, does not prevent their increaſing the
of that cauſe. See METAPHYSICS.
number of actors in comedy. Before the opening of a
Active Principles, in chemiſtry, ſuch as are ſuppoſed play, they named their actors in fıill theatre, together
to act without any aſſiſtance from others; as mercury, with the parts they were to perform. The ancient
fulphur, &c.
actors were maſked, and obliged to raiſe their voice
ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of act- extremely, in order to make themſelves heard by the
ing, or the active faculty. See ACTIVE.
innumerable crowd of people who filled the amphithe-
Sphere of Activity, the whole ſpace in which the atres: theywere accompanied with a player on theflute,
virtue, power, or influence, of any object, is exerted. who played a prelude, gave them the tone, and play.
ACTIUM (anc. geog.), a town ſituated on the ed while they declaimed. Horace ſpeaks of a kind of
coaſt of Acarnania, in itſelf inconſiderable, but famous ſecondary actors, in his time, whoſe buſineſs was to
for a temple of Apollo, a ſafe harbour, and an adjoin- imitate the firſt; and leſſen themſelves, to become bet-
ing promontory of the fame name, in the mouth of ter foils to their principals.
the Sinus Ambracius, over againſt Nicopolis, on the The moderns have introduced an infinite number of
other ſide of the bay: it afterwards became more fa- actors upon the ſtage. This heightens the trouble and
mous on account of Auguſtus's victory over Anthony diſtreſs that ſhould reign there, and makes a diverſity,
and Cleopatra ; and for quinquennial games inſtituted in which the ſpectator is ſure to be intereſted.
there, called Astia or Ludi Artiaci. Hence the epi. Actors were highly honoured at Athens. At Rome
thet Altius, given to Apollo (Virgil). Actiaca era, they were deſpiſed, and not only denyed all rank among
a computation of time from the battle of Adium. The the citizens, but even when any citizen appeared upon
promontory is now called Capo di Figalo.
the ſtage he was expelled his tribe and deprived of the
ACTIUS, in mythology, a ſurname of Apollo, from right of ſuffrage by cenſors. Cicero, indeed, eſteems
Actium, where he was worſhipped.
the talents of Rofcius : but he values his virtues ſtill
ACTON, a town near London, where is a well that niore; virtues which diſtinguiſhed him fo remarkably
affords a purging water, which is noted for the pun- above all others of his profeſſion, that they ſeemed to
gency of its ſalt. This water is whitiſh, to the taſte it have excluded him from the theatre. The French
is ſweetiſh, with a mixture of the fame bitter which is have, in this reſpect, adopted the ideas of the Romans;
in the Epſom water. The ſalt of this water is not quite and the Engliſh thoſe of the Greeks.
ſo ſoft as that of Epſom ; and is more calcareous than Actor, the name of ſeveral perſons in fabulous hi-
ſtory
P. 12.
.
I
A CT
( 103 )
A CU
$
Adorum ſtory. One Aitor among the Aurunci is deſcribed by ACTUARIUS, a celebrated Greek phyſician, of Actuerir
ll Virgil as an hero of the firſt rank. Æn, xii.
the 13th century, and the firſt Greek author who has W
Actuariæ.
ACTORUM TABULÆ, in antiquity, were tables in-
in antiquity, were tables in- treated of mild purgatives, ſuch as callia, manna, ſera,
dicuna,
ſtituted by Servius Tullius, in which the births of chil- &c.' His works were printed in one volume folio, by
dren were regiſtered. They were kept in the treaſury Henry Stephens, in 1567.
of Saturnus.
ACTUARIUS, or ACTARIUS, a notary or officer ap-
ACTRESS, in a general ſenſe, a female who acts pointed to write the acts or proceedings of a court, or
or performs foinething.
the like. In the Eaſtern Empire, the actuarii were
ACTRESS, in the drama, a female performer. Wo. properly officers who kept the military accounts, re-
men actors were unknown to the ancients, among ceived the corn from the fufceptores or ſtore-keepers,
whom men always perforined the female character ; and delivered it to the foldiers.
and hence one reaſon for the uſe of maſks among ACTUATE, to bring into act, or put a thing
them.
in action. Thus an agent is ſaid, by the ſchoolmen,
Actreſſes are ſaid not to have been introduced on the to actuate a power, when it produces an act in a ſub-
English ſtage till after the reſtoration of king Charles ject. And thus the mind may be ſaid to attuate the
II. who has been charged with contributing to the body.
corruption of manners by importing this uſage ACTUS,in ancient architecture, a meaſure in length
from abroad. But this can be but partly true : the equal to 120 Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, the
queen of James I. acted a part in a paſtoral; and word ſignified the length of one furrow or the diſtance
Prynn, in his Hiſtriomaſtix, ſpeaks of women actors a plough goes before it turns.
in his time as whores; which was one occaſion of the ACTUS Minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet in
ſevere proſecution brought againſt him for that book. length, and four in breadth.
Thereare ſome very agreeable and beautiful talents, Actus Major, or ACTUS Quadratus, a piece of
of which the poſſeſſion commands a certain ſort of ad- ground in a ſquare form, whoſe ſide was equal to 120
miration ; but of which the exerciſe for the ſake of feet, equal to half the jugerum.
gain is conſidered, whether from reaſon or prejudice, Actus Intervicenalis, a ſpace of ground four feet in
as a ſort of public proſtitution. The pecuniary recom- breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
pence, therefore, of thoſe who exerciſe them in this ACUANITES, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, the ſame
manner, muſt be ſufficient, not only to pay for the with thoſe called more frequently MANICHEEs. They
time, labour, and expence of acquiring the talents, took the name from Acua, a diſciple of Thomas one
but for the diſcredit which attends the employment of of the twelve apoſtles.
them as the means of ſubſiſtence. The exorbitant re ACULEATE, or ACULEATI, a term applied to any
wards of players, opera-lingers, opera-dancers, &c. are plant or animal armed with prickles.
founded upon thoſe two principles; the rarity and ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.
beauty of the talents, and the diſcredit of employing ACULER, in the manege, is uſed for the motion
thein in this manner. It ſeems abſurd at firk light of a horſe, when, in working upon volts, he does not
that we ſhould deſpiſe their perſons, and yet reward go far enough forward at every time or motion, ſo that
their talents with the moſt profuſe liberality. While his ſhoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and
we do the one, however, we muſt of neceſſity do the his croupe comes too near the centre of the volt.
other. Should the public opinion or prejudice ever al Horſes are naturally inclined to this fault in making
ter with regard to ſuch occupations, their pecuniary demi-volts.
recompence would quickly diminiſh. More people ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen,
would apply to them,
and the competition would quick- moſt generally ſuppoſed to have been taken from the
ly reduce the price of their labour. Such talents, points or edges of darts, ſwords, or other weapons.
though far froin being common, are by no means ſo ACUNA (Chriſtopher de), a Spaniſh Jefuit, born
rare as is imagined. Many people poſſeſs them in great at Burgos. He was admitted into the ſociety in 1612,
perfection, who diſdain to make this uſe of them; being then but 15 years of age. After having devoted
and many more are capable of acquiring them, if any fonie years to ſtudy, he went to America, where he af-
thing could be made honourably by then.
ſiſted in making converts in Chili and Peru. In 1640,
ACTUAL; ſomething that is real and effective, or he returned to Spain, and gave the king an account
that exiſts truly and abſolutely. Thus philoſophers uſe how far he had ſucceeded in the commiſſion he had re-
the terms actual heat, actual cold, &c. in oppoſition ceived to make diſcoveries on the river of the Amazons;
to virtual or potential. Hence, among phyſicians, a and the year following he published a deſcription of
red-hot iron, or fire, is called an actual cautery ; in di this river, at Madrid. Acuna was ſent to Rome, as
ftin&tion from cauteries, or cauſtics, that have the procurator of his province. He returned to Spain
power of producing the ſame effect upon the animal with the title of Qualificator of the Inquiſition ; but
ſolids as actual fire, and are called yotential caute ſoon after embarked again for the Weſt Indies, and
ries. Boiling water is actually hot; brandy, pro was at Lima in 1675, when father South well publiſhed
ducing heat in the body, is potentially hot, though of at Ronie the Bibliotheque of the Jeſuit writers. Acu-
itſelf cold.
na's work is intitled, Nileto defcwbrimento del grux r19
ACTUAL Sin, that which is committed by the perſon de las Amazonas; i. e. “ a niew diſcovery of the great
himſelf, in oppoſition to original fin, or that which he river of the Amazons." He was ten months together
contracted from being a child of Adam.
upon this river, having had inſtructions to inquire into
ACTUARIE NAVES, a kind of ſhips among the everything with the greateſt exacneſs, that his majeſty
Romans, chiefly deligned for ſwift failing.
might thereby be enabled to render the navigation
.
1101€
A D A
( 104 )
ADA
Ai
ture
Adam.
the
و
Acupune- more eaſy and coinmodious. He went aboard a ſhip Ap Ludos, in antiquity, a ſentence upon criminals
at Quilo with Peter Texiera, who had already been ſo amcig the Romans, whereby they were condemned to
far up the river, and was therefore thought a proper entertain the people by fighting either with wild beaſts,
Åd.
perſon to acco::pany him in this expedition. They or with one another, wid thus executing juſtice upon
embarked ii. February 1639, but did not arrive at Pa themſelves.
ra till the December following. It is thought that AD Metalla, in antiquity, the puniſhment of ſuch
the revolutions of Portugal, by which the Spaniards criminals as were condemned to the mines, among
loſt all Bratil, and the colony of Para at the mouth of Romans; and therefore called Metalici.
the river of the Amazons, were the cauſe that the re AD Valorem, a term chicrly uſed in ſpeaking of the
lation of this Jefuit was ſuppreſſed ; for as it could not duties or cuſtoms paid for certain goods : The duties
te of any advantage to the Spaniards, they were afraid on ſome articles are paid by the namber, weiglıt, mea-
it night prove of great ſervice to the Portugueſe. ſure, tale, &c.; and others are paid ad valorem, that is,
The copies of this work became extremely ſcarce, ſo according to their value.
that the publiſhers of the French tranſlation at Paris ADAĞ E, a proverb, or ſhort ſentence, coniaining
allerted, that there was not one copy of the original fome wiſe obſervation or popular ſaying. Eraſmus has
extant, excepting one in the poſſeſſion of the tranſla- made a very large and valuable collection of the Greek
tor, and, perhaps, that in the Vatican library. M. de and Roman adages; and Mr Ray has done the ſame
Goinberville was the author of this trénſation : it was with regard to the Engliſh. We have alfo Kelly's
publiſhed after his death, with a long diſſertion. An collection of Scots Proverbs.
account of the original may be ſeen in the Paris Jour ADAGIO, in muſic. Adverbially, it ſignifies ſoft-
nal, in that of Leiptic, and in Chevereau's Hiſtory of ly, leifuroly ; and is uſed to denote the floweſt of all
the world.
times. Uſed ſubſtantively, it fignifies a flow inove-
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a ſurgical opera- ment. Sometimes this word is repeated, as adagio,
tion among the Chineſe and Japaneſe, which is per- adagio, to denote a ſtill greater retardation in the time
formed bypricking the part affected with a ſilver needle. of the muſic. ,
They employ this operation in headachs, lethargies, ADALIDES, in the Spaniſlı policy, are officers
convulſions, colics, &c.
of juſtice, for matters touching the military forces.
ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a ſpe- In the laws of king Alphonſus, the adalides are fpo-
cies of ſyngathus. See SYNGA SHUS.
ken of as officers appointed to guide and direct the
ACUSIO COLONIA, now ANCONE, according to
now ANCONE, according to marching of the forces in time of war. Lopez repre-
Holſtenius, between Orange and Valence, near Mon- ſents them as a ſort of judges, who take cogniſance of
telimart, on the banks of the Rhone.
the difference ariſing upon excurſions, the diſtribution
ACUTE, an epithet applied to ſuch things as ter of plunder, &c.
minate in a ſharp point or edge. And in this ſenſe it ADAM, the firſt of the human race, was formed
ſtands oppoſed to obtaſe.
by the Almighty on the ſixth day of the creation. His
ACUTE Angle, in geometry, is that which is leſs body was made of the duſt of the earth ; after which,
than a right angle, or which does not fubtend go de. God animated or gave it life, and Adam then became
grees.
a rational creature.-Hisheavenly Parent did not leave
ACUTE-angled Triangle, is a triangle whoſe three his offspring in a deſtitute ſtate to ſhift for himſelf: but
angles are all acute.
planted a garden, in which he cauſed to grow not on-
ACUTE-angled Core is, according to the ancients, a ly every tree that was proper for producing food, but
right cone, whoſe axis makes an acute angle with its likewiſe ſuch as were agreeable to the eye, or merely
ſide.
ornamental. In this garden were allembled all the
ACUTE, in muſic, is applied to a found or tone that brute creation ; and, by their Maker, cauſed to paſs
is ſharp or high, in compariſon of ſome other tone. before Adan, who gave all of them names, which were
In this ſenſe, acute ſtands oppoſed to grave. judged proper by the Deity himſelf. In this review,
Acute Accent. See ACCENT.
Adam found none for a companion to himſelf. This
ACUTE Diſeaſes, ſuch as come ſuddenly to a criſis. folitary ſtate was ſeen by the Deity to be attended with
This term is uſed for all diſeaſes which do not fall un ſome degree of unhappineſs; and therefore he threw
der the head of chronic diſeaſes.
Adam into a deep ſleep, in which condition he took a
ACUTIATOR, in writers of the barbarous ages, rib from his ſide, and healing up the wound formed a
denotes a perſon that whets or grinds cutting inſtru- woman of the rib he had taken out.
On Adam's a-
ments; called alſo in ancient gloſſaries,acutor, uxoUntus, waking, the woman was brought to him ; and he im-
ſainiarius, coharius, &c. In the ancient armies there mediately knew her to be one of his own ſpecies, call.
were acutiators, a kind of ſmiths, retained for whet- ed her his bone and his fleſh, giving her the name of
ting or keeping the arins ſharp.
woman becauſe ſhe was taken out of man.
AD, a Latin prepoſition, originally ſignifying to, The firſt pair being thus created, God gave them
and frequently uſed in compoſition both with and with authority over the inferior creation, commanding them
out the d, to expreſs the relation of one thing to ano to ſubdue the earth, alſo to increaſe and multiply and
ther.
fill it. They were informed of the proper food for the
Ad Beſijas, in antiquity, is the puniſhment of cri- beaſts and for them; the graſs, or green herbs, being
minals condemned to be thrown to wild beaſts. appointed for beaſts ; and fruits or feeds, for man.
Ad Hominem.,. in logic, a kind of argument drawn Their proper employment alſo was aſſigned then
from the principles or prejudices of thoſe with whom namely, to dreſs the garden, anıl to keep it.
we argue.
Though Adam was thus highly favoured and inſtruc-
1
2
ted
ADA
( 105 )
A DA
nouveau ciet
et la nouvelle
ac-
ma
Adain. ted by his Maker, there was a ſingle tree, which grew tuc or power of producing his like, without the con Adam,
in the middle of the garden, of the fruit of which they current aſſiſtance of woman. The diviſion into two
were not allowed to eat; being told, that they ſhould ſexes, he imagined*, was a conſequence of man's fin; * Prefaceta
[urely die in the day they eat of it.
This tree was and now, ſhe obſerves, mankind are become ſo many a book in-
named, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. monfers in nature, being much leſs perfect in this re- titled, Le
This prohibition, however, they ſoon broke through. fpećt than plants or trees, who are capable of producing
The woman having entered into converſation with the their like alone, and without pain or miſery. She even
terre, Amii.
Serpent, was by him perſuaded, that by eating of the imagined, that, being in an ecſtacy, we ſaw the figure 679.
tree the ſhould become as wiſe as God himſelf, and of Adam before he fell, with the manner how, by him-
cordingly, being invited by the beauty of the fruit, and ſelf, he was capableof procreating other men. “God,"
its deſirable property of imparting wiſdom, ſhe plucked ſays ſhe, “ repreſented to my mind the beauty of the
and eat; giving her huſband of it at the ſame time, firſt world, and the manner how he had drawn it froin
who did likewiſe eat.
thie chaos : every thing was bright, tranſparent, and
Before this tranſgreſſion of the divine command, A- darted forth light and ineffable glory. The body of
dam and his wife had no occaſion for clothes, neither Adam was purer and more tranſparent than cryſtal, and
had they any ſenſe of fame; but immediately on eat- vaſtly fleet; through this body were feen veſſels and
ing the forbidden fruit, they were aſhamed of being rivulets of light, which penetrated from the inward to
naked, and made aprons of fig-leaves for themſelves. the outward parts, through all his pores. In ſome
On hearing the voice of God in the garden, they were veſſels ran fluids of all kinds and colours, vaſtly bright,
terrified, and hid themſelves : but being queſtioned by and quite diaphanous. The moſt raviſhing harmony
the Deity, they confeſſed what they had done, and re aroſe from every motion; and nothing reſiſted, or could
ceived ſentence accordingly; the man being condemn- apnoy, him. His ftature was taller than the preſent
ed to labour ; the woman to ſubjection to her huſ race of men: his hair was ſhort, curled, and of a colour
band, and to pain in childbearing. They were now inclining to black; his upper lip covered with ſhort
driven out of the garden, and their acceſs to ic pre hair : and inſtead of the beſtial parts which modeſty
vented by a terrible apparition. They had clothes will not allow us to name, he was fahioned as our boa
given them by the Deity made of the ſkins of beaſts. dies will be in the life eternal, which I know not whe-
In this ſtate Adam had ſeveral children; the names ther I dare reveal. In that region his noſe was forme
of only three of whom we are acquainted with, viz. ed after the manner of a face, which diffuſed the moſt
Cain, Abel, and Seth. He died at the age of 930 years. deliciousfragrancyand perfumes; whence alſomen were
Theſe are all the particulars concerning Adain's life, to iſſue,all whoſe principles wereinherentin him; there
that we have on divineauthority: but a vaſt multitude of being in his belly a veílel, where little eggs irere form-
others are added by the Jews, Mahometans, andothers; ed; and a ſecond veſſel filled with a fluid, which impreg-
all of which muſt be at beſt conjectural ; moſt of them, nated thoſe eggs : and when man heated himſelf in
indeed, appear downright falſehoods or abſurdities. the love of God, the deſire he had that other creatures
The curioſity of our readers, it is preſumed, will be fuf- fhould exiſt beſides himſelf, to praiſe and love God,
ficiently gratified by the few that are here ſubjoined. cauſed the fluid abovementioned (by means of the fire
According to the Talmudiſts, when Adam was cre of the love of God) to drop on one or more of theſe
ated, his body was of immenſe magnitude. When he eggs, with inexpreſſible delight; which being thus im-
ſinned, his ſtature was reduced to an hundred ells, ac pregnated, illued, ſome time after, out of man, by this
cording to ſome; to nine hundred cubits, according canalt, in the ſhape of an egg, whence a perfect man fi. e. the
to others; who think this was done at the requeſt of was hatched by inſenſible degrees. Woman was form- naſal canal,
the angels, who were afraid of ſo gigantic a creature. ed by taking out of Adam's ſide the veſſels that con-
ſituated as
In the iſland of Ceylon is a mountain called the Peak tained the eggs; which ſhe ſtill poſſeſſes, as is diſcover-
above de-
ſcribed.
or mountain of Adam, from its being according to the ed by anatomiſts. "
tradition of the country, the reſidence of our firſt pa Many others have believed, that Adam at his firſt
rent. Here the print of his footſteps, above two palms creation was both male and female: others, that he had
in length, are ſtill pointed out.
two bodies joining together at the ſhoalders, and their
Many reveries have been formed concerning the faces lookingoppolite ways like thoſe of Janus. Hence,
perſonal beauty of Adam. That he was a handſome ſay theſe, when God created Eve, he had no more to
well-ſhaped man is probable ; but ſome writers, not do than to ſeparate the two bodies from one anotherf.
# Sec
content with this, affirm, that God, intending to create Of all others, however, the opinion of Paracelſus ſeems Androgynes.
man, clothed Himſelf with a perfectly beautiful human the moſt ridiculous!). Negabat primos parentes ante lap- (Paracelſus
body, making this his model in the formation of the ſum habuilſe partes generationi hominis neceffarias ; cre- apud Vfi-
body of Adam
debat poftea acceflilje, ut ſtrumam gutturi.
um de philoa
Nor has the imagination been leſs indulged con Extravagant things are aſſerted concerning Adam's
Jophie, c. ix.
cerning the formation of the human ſpecies male and knowledge. It is very probable that he was inſtructed
P: 71.
female. It would be endleſs to recount all the whim- by the Deity how to acrompliſh the work appointed
fies that have been wrote on this ſubject; but as Mad. him, viz. to dreſs the garden, and keep it from being
Bourignon has made a conſiderable figure in the reli- deſtroyed by the brute creatures ; and it is alſo proba-
gious, or rather fuperftitious world, we cannot help in- ble that he had likewiſe every piece of knowledge com-
ſerting ſome of her opinions concerning the firſt man, muuicated to him that was either neceſſary or pleaſing:
which are peculiarly marvellous. According to the but that he was acquainted with geom cry, mathema-
revelations of this lady, Adam before his fall poſſeſſed tics, rhetoric, poetry, painting, ſculpture, bo. is too
in himſelf the principles of both ſexes, and the vir- ridiculous to be credited by any ſober perſon. Soms
VOL. I.
rabbies,
A DA
[ 106 ]
A D A
Adam. rabbies, indeed, have contented themſelves with equal- lions at the time the giants warred upon one another. Adam
ling Adam's knowledge to that of Moſes and Solomon; St Jerom imagined that Adam was buried at Hebron; I
while others, again, have maintained that he excelled others, on Mount Calvary. Some are of opinion that Adamites.
the angels themſelves. Several Chriſtians ſeem to be he died on the very ſpot where Jeruſalem was after-
littlebehind theſe Jewsinthe degree of knowledge they wards built; and was buried on the place where Chriſt
aſcribe to Adam ; nothing being hid from him, ac ſuffered, that fo his bones might be ſprinkled with the
cording to them, except contingent events relating to Saviour's blood !!!
futurity. One writer indeed (Pinedo) excepts politics; ADAM (Melchior) lived in the 17th century. He
but a Carthufian friar, having exhauſted, in favour of was born in the territory of Grotkaw in Silelia, and
Ariſtotle, every image and compariſon he could think educated in the college of Brieg, where the dukes of
of, at laſt aſſerts that Ariſtotle's knowledge was as ex that name, to the utinoſt of their power, encouraged
tenſive as that of Adam. In conſequence of this ſur learning and the reformed religion as profeſſed by Cal-
priſing knowledge with which Adam was endued, heis
yin. Here he became a firm Proteſtant; and was en-
ſuppoſed to have been a conſiderable author. The Jews abled to purſue his ſtudies by the liberality of a perſon
pretend that he wrote a book on the creation, and an of quality, who had left ſeveral exhibitions for young
other on the Deity. Somerabbies aſcribe the 92d pfalm ſtudents. He was appointed rector of a college at
to Adam ; and in ſome manuſcripts the Chaldee title of Heidelberg, where he publiſhed his firſt volume of il-
this pſalm expreſsly declares that this is the ſong of luſtrious men in the year 1615. This volume, which
praiſe which the firſt man repeated for the ſabbath-day. conſiſted of philoſophers, poets, writers on polite li-
Various conjectures have been formed concerning terature, and hiſtorians, &c. was followed by three o-
the place where man was firſt created, and where the thers; that which created of divincs was printed in
garden of Eden was ſituated : but none of theſe have 1619; that of the lawyers came next; and, finally, that
any folid foundation. The Jews tell us, that Eden was of the phyſicians : the two laſt were publiſhed in 1620.
ſeparated from the reſt of the world by the ocean; and All the learned men, whoſe lives are contained in theſe
that Adam, being baniſhed therefrom, walked acroſs four volumes, lived in the 16th, or beginning of the 17"
the ſea, which he found every way fordable, by rea century, and are either Germans or Flemings; but he
* This is
ſon of his enormous ſtature*. The Arabians imagined publiſhed in 1618 the lives of twenty divines of other
juſt the pic- paradiſe to have been in the air ; and that our firſt pa countries in a ſeparate volume. All his divines are Pro-
ture of the rents were thrown down from it on their traiifgreſ-
teſtants. The Lutherans were not pleaſed with him,
Orion or
fion, as Vulcan is ſaid to have been thrown down for they thought him partial ; nor will they allow his
Polyphe-
mus of the headlong from heaven by Jupiter.
work to be a proper ſtandard whereby to judge of the
Strange ſtories are told concerning Adam's children. learning of Germany.
learning of Germany. He wrote other works beſides
neid. iii.663. That he had none in the ſtate of innocence, is certain his lives, and died in 1622.
664. X.763. from ſcripture ; but that his marriage with Eve was not ADAM's Apple, a name given to a ſpecies of CITRUS,
conſummated till after the fall, cannot be proved from
ADAM's Needle, See YUCCA.
thence. Sonie imagine, that for many years after the Adam's Peak, a high mountain of the Eaſt Indies,
fall, Adam denied himſelf the connubial joys by way in the iſland of Ceylon, on the top of which they be-
of penance; others, that he cohabited with ano lieve that the firſt man was created. See ADAM.
ther woman, whoſe name was LILITH. The Ma ADAM, or Adom, a town in the Peræa, or on the o-
hometans tell us, that our firſt parents having been ther ſide the Jordan, over-againſt Jericho, where the
thrown headlong from the celeſtial paradiſe, Adam fell Jordan began to be dried up on the paſſage of the Iſ-
zipon the iſle of Serendib, or Ceylon, in the Eaſt-In raelites; (Joſua.)
dies; and Eve on lodda, a port of the Red Sea, not ADAMĂ, or ADMAH, one of the towns that were
far from Mecca. After a feparation of upwards of involved in the deſtruction of Sodom ; (Mofes.)
200 years, they met in Ceylon, where they multiplied: ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the dia-
according to ſome Eve had twenty, according to others niond. (See DIAMOND.) It is likewiſe applied to
only eight, deliveries; bringing forth at each time the ſcoriæ of gold, the magnet, &c.
twins, a male and female, who afterwards married. ADAMIC EARTH, a name given to common red
The Rabbins imagine that Eve brought forth Cain clay, alluding to that ſpecies of earth of which the firſt
and Abel at a birth ; that Adam wept for Abel an hun man is ſuppoſed to have been made.
dred years in the valley of tears near Hebron, dur ADAMI POMUM, in anatomy, a protuberance in
ing which time he did not cohabit with his wife ; and the fore-part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides.
that this ſeparation would probably have continued It is thought to be ſo called upon a ſtrange conceit, that
longer, had it not been forbid by the angel Gabriel. a piece of the forbidden apple which Adamn eat, ſtuck
The inliabitants of Ceylon affirm, that the falt lake on by the way, and occafioned it.
the mountain of Colembo conſiſts wholly of the tears ADAMITES, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, the name of
which Eve for one hundred years together Ahed becauſe a fect of ancient heretics, ſuppoſed to have been
of Abel's death.
branch of the Balilidians and Carpocratians.
Some of the Arabians tell us, that Adam was buri. Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adamites
ed near Mecca on Mount Abukobeis : others, that No from their pretending to be re-eſtabliſhed in the ſtate of
ah, having laid his body in the ark, cauſed it to be innocence, and to be ſuch as Adam was at the nioment
carried after the deluge to Jeruſalem by Melchiſedek of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him in
'the ſon of Shem: of this opinion are the eaſtern his nakedneſs. They detefted marriage ; maintain-
Chriſtians ; but the Perſians affirm that he wasinterred ing that the conjugal union would never lavc taken
in the ille of Serendib, where his corps was guarded by place upon earth had ſin been unknown,
This
poets. Æ
ز
و
3
+
A DA
A DA
[ 107
]
Adamus
Adana
This obſcure and ridiculous ſect did not at firſt laft licy of the church ; and the following year he was na-
long; but it was revived, with additional abſurdities, in med, with Mr. David Lindſay, to report their proceed-
Adamfou. the twelfth century, by one Tandamus,fince knowil by ings to the earl of Mortoun, then regent. About this
the name of Tanchelin, who propagated his errors at
time the earl made him one of his chaplains; and on
Antwerp, in the reign of the einperor Henry V. He the death of biſhop Douglas, promoted him to the
maintained, that there ought to be no diſtinction be- archiepiſcopal fee of St Andrew's, a dignity which
tween prieſts and laymen, and that fornication and a brought upon him great trouble and uneaſineſs: for now
dultery were meritorious actions. Tanchelin had a the clamour of the preſbyterian party roſe very high a-
great number of followers, and was conſtantly attend- gainſt him, and many inconſiſtent abſurd ſtories were
ed by 3000 of thele profligates in arins. His ſect did propagated concerning him. Soon after his promo .
not, however, continue long after his death : but ano tion, he publiſhed his catechiſm in Latin verſe, a
ther appeared under the name of Turlupins, in Savoy work highly approved even by his enemies ; but ne-
and Dauphiny, where they committed the moſt bru- .vertheleſs, they ſtill continued to perfecute him with
tal actions in open day.
great violence. In 1578, he ſubmitted himſelf to
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one the general aſſembly, which procured him peace but
Picard, a native of Flanders, ſpread theſe errors in for a very little time ; for, the year following, they
Germany and Bohemia, particularly in the army of brought freſh accuſations againſt him. In the year
the famous Ziſca,notwithſtanding the ſevere diſcipline 1582, being attacked with a grievous diſeaſe, in which
he maintained. Picard pretended that he was ſent into the phyſicians could give him no relief, he happened
the world as a new Adam, to re-eſtabliſh the law of to take a ſimple medicine from an old woman, which
nature ; and which, according to him, conſiſted in ex did him ſervice. The woman whoſe name was Aliſon
poſing every part of the body, and having all the wo. Pearſon, was thereupon charged with witchcraft, and
men in common. This ſect found alſo ſome partizans committed to priſon,but eſcaped outof her confinement;
in Poland, Holland, and England : they aſſembled in however, about four years afterwards, ſhe was again
the night'; and it is aſſerted, that one of the funda- found and burnt for a witch. In 1583, king James
mental maxims of their ſociety was contained in the canie to St Andrews; and the Archbiſhop, being much
following verſe :
recovered, preached before him, and diſputed with Mr
Jura, perjura, fecretum prodere noli.
Andrew Melvil, in preſence of his Majeſty, with great
ADAMUS, the philoſopher's ſtone is ſo called by reputation, which drew upon him freſh calumny and
alchemiſts ; they ſay it is an animal, and that it has perſecution. The king, however, was ſo well pleaſed
carried its inviſible Eve in its body, ſince the moment with him, that he ſent him ambaſſador to Queen Eli-
they were united by the Creator.
fabeih, at whoſe court he reſided for ſome years. His
ADAMSHIDE, a diſtrict of the circle of Raften- conduct, during his embaſſy, has been variouſly report-
burg, belonging to the king of Pruſſia, which, with ed by different authors. Two things he principally
Dombroſken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars. laboured, viz. the recommending the king his maſter
ADAMSON (Patrick), a Scottiſh prelate, archbi to the nobility and gentry of England, and the pro-
ſhop of St Andrews. He was born in the year 1543 curing ſome ſupport for the epiſcopal party in Scotland.
in the town of Perth, where he received the rudiments By his eloquent preaching, he drew after him ſuch
of his education ; and afterwards ſtudied philoſophy; crouds of people, and raiſed in their minds ſuch a bigh
and took his degree of maſter of arts at the univerſity idea of the young king his maſter, that queen Eliſabeth
of St Andrews. In the year 1566, he ſet out for forbad hini to enter the pulpit during his ſtay in her
Paris, as tutor to a young gentleman. In the month of dominions. In 1584, he was recalled, and fat in the
June of the ſame year, Mary queen of Scots being parliament held in Auguſt at Edinburgh. The Preſby-
delivered of a ſon, afterwards James VI. of Scotland terian party was ſtill very violent againſt the archbi-
and Firſt of England, Mr Adamſon wrote a Latin poem ſhop. A provincial fynod was held at St Andrew's
on the occaſion. This proof of his loyalty involved in April 1586 ; the Archbiſhop was here accuſed and
him in ſome difficulties, having been confined in France excommunicated : he appealed to the king and the
for ſix months ; nor would he have eaſily got off, had ſtates, but this availed him little : for the mob being
not Queen Mary, and ſome of the principal nobility, excited againſt him, he durſt ſcarce appear in public.
intereſted themſelves in his behalf. As ſoon as he re At the next general aſſembly, a paper being pro-
covered his liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bour duced containing the archbiſhop's fubmiſſion, he was
ges. He was in this city during the maſſacre at Paris; abfolved from the excommunication. In 1588, freſh
and the fame perſecuting ſpirit prevailing among accuſations were brought againſt him. The year fol-
the catholics at Bourges as at the metropolis, he lived lowing, he publiſhed the Lamentations of the prophet
concealed for ſeven months in a public houſe, the ma Jeremiah in Latin verſe ; which he dedicated to
ſterof which, upwards of 70 years of age, was thrown the king, complaining of his hard uſage. In the lat-
from the top thereof, and had his brains daſhed out, ter end of the ſame year, he publiſhed a tranſlation of
for his charity to heretics. Whilft Mr Adamſon lay the Apocalypſe, in Latin verſe ; and a copy of Latin
thus in his fepulchre, as he called it, he wrote his La- verſes, addreſſed alſo to his Majeſty, when he was in
tin poetical verſion of the Book of Job, and his Tra- great diſtreſs.
great diſtreſs. The king, however, was ſo far from
gedy of Herod in the ſame language. In the year giving him aſſiſtance, that he granted the revenue of
1573, he returned to Scotland ; and, having entered his fee to the duke of Lennox; ſo that the remaining
into holy orders, became miniſter of Paiſley. In the yaar part of this prelate's life was very wretched, he having
1575, he was appointed one of the commiſſioners, by hardly ſubſiſtence for his family. He died in 1591.
the general aſſembly, to ſettle the juriſdiction and Po ADANA, a town of Aſia, in Natolia, and in the
province
02
A DA
t
ADA
[ 108 ]
new
Adanfonia. province of Carinania. It is ſeated on the river Cho- ning from the middle rib; they are of a lucid green Adanſonai.
quen ; on the banks of which ſtands a ſtrong little caſtle colour, As the plants advance in height, the leaves
built on a rock. It has great number of beautiful alter, and are divided into three parts, and afterwards
fountains brought from the river by means of water into five lobes, which ſpread out in the ſhape of an
works. Over the river there is a ſtately bridge of fif hand. The tree ſheds its leaves in November, and
teen arches, which leads to the water-works. The cli ones begin to appear in June. Its flowers in July, and
mate is very pleaſant and healthy, and the winter mild the fruits ripens in October and November. It is very
and ſerene: but the ſummer is ſo hot as to oblige the common in Senegal and the Cape de Verd illands :
principal inhabitants to retire into the neighbouring and is found 100 leagues up the country at Gulam, and
mountains, where they ſpend ſix months among ſhady upon the ſea-coaſt as far as Sierra-lcona.
trees and grottoes, in a moſt delicious manner. The The age of this tree is perhaps no leſs remarkable
adjacent country is rich and fertile, and produces me than its enorinous ſize. Mr Adanſon relates, that in a
lons, cucumbers, pomegranates, pulſe, and herbs of botanical excurſion to the Magdalene illands, in the
all ſorts, all the year round; befides corn, wine, and neighbourhood of Goree, he diſcovered fome calabaſh-
fruits in their proper ſeaſon. It is 30 miles eaſt of trees from five to lix feet diameter, on the bark of
Tarſus, on the road to Aleppo. E. long 35.42. N. which were engraved or cut to a conſiderable depth
lat. 38.10.
a number of European names. Two of theſe names,
ADANSONIA, ETHIOPIAN SOUR-GOURD, MON which he was at the trouble to repair, were dated one
KIES-BREAD, or AFRICAN CALABASH-TREE, a genus the 14th, the other the 15th century. The letters
of the monodelphia order, belonging to the polyandria were about fix inches long, but in breadth they occu-
claſs of plants; the characters of which are: The calyx pied a very ſmall part only of the circumference of the
is a perianthium one leay'd, half five-cleft, cup-form, trunk : from whence he concluded they had not been
(the diviſions revolute), deciduous: The corolla con cut when theſe trees were young. Theſe inſcriptions,
àfts of five petals, roundith nerved, revolate, growing however, hethinks ſufficient to determine pretty nearly
reciprocally with the claws and ſtamina : the ſtamina theage which theſe calabalh-trees may attain ; for even
have numerous filaments, coaleſced beneath into a tule, ſuppoſing that thoſe in queſtion were cut in their early
and crowning it, expanding horizontally the antheræ years, and that trees grew to the diameter of ſix feet
kidney-form, incumbent: The piſtillum has an egged in two centuries, as the engraved letters evince, how
germ; the ſtylus very long, tubular, variouſly intorted; many centuries muſt be requiſite to give them a dia-
the ſtigmata numerous (10) priſmatic, villous, ray-ex- meter of 25 feet which perhaps is not the laſt term of
panded : The pericarpium is an oval capſule, woody, their growth! The inſcribed trees mentioned by this
not gaping, ten-celled, with farinaceous pulp, the par- ingenious Frenchman had been ſeen in 1555, almost
titions mcmbranous: The ſeeds are numerous, kidney- two centuries before, by Thevet, who mentions them
ſhaped, rather bony, and involved in a friable pulp. in the relation of his voyage to Terra Antarética or
There is at preſent but one known fpecies belonging Auſtralis. Adanſon ſaw them in 1749.
to this genus, the BAOBAB, which is perhaps the lar The virtues and uſes of this tree and its fruit are
geſt production of the whole vegetable kingdom. It various. The negroes of Senegal dry the bark and
is a native of Africa.
leaves in the ſhaded air; and then reduce them to
The trunk is not above 12 or 15 feet high, but from powder, which is of a pretty good green colour.
65 to 78 feet round. The loweſt branches extend al. This powder they preſerve in bags of linen or cot-
mon horizontally ; and as they are about 60 feet in ton, and call it lillo. They uſe it every day, putting
length, their own weight bends their extremities Lothe two or three pinches of it into a meſs, whatever it
ground, and thus form an hemiſpherical maſs of ver- happens to be, as we do pepper and falt : but their
Jure of about 120 or 130 feet diameter. The roots view is, not to give a reliſh to their food, but to pre-
extend as far as the branches: that in the middle forms ſerve a perpetual and plentiful perſpiration, and to at-
a pivot, which penetrates a great way into the earth ; tcmper the too great heat of the blood ; purpoſes
the reſt ſpread near the ſurface. The filowers are in which it certainly anſwers, as ſeveral Europeans have
Froportion to the ſize of the tree: and are followed by provedby repeated experiments,preſerving themſelves
an oblong fruit, pointed at both ends, about 10 inches from the epidemic fever, which, in that country, de-
long, five or ſix broad, and covered with a kind of ſtroys Europeans like the plague, and generally rages
greeniih down, under which is a ligneous rind, hard during the months of September and october, when,
and almoſt black, marked with rays which divide it the rains having ſuddenly ceaſed, the ſun exhales the
lengthwiſe into fides. The fruit hangs to the tree by water left by them upon the ground, and fills the air
a pedicle two feet long and an inch diameter. It con- with a noxious vapour. M. Adanſon, in that critical
tains a whitiſh ſpongy juicy ſubſtance ; with ſeeds of a ſcafon, made a light prifan of the leaves of the baobab,
brown colour, and thaped like a kidney bean. The which he had gathered in the Auguſt of the preceding
bark of this tree is nearly an inch thick, of antah- year, and liad dried in the ſhade ; and drank conſtantly
coloured grey, greaſy to the touch, bright and very about a pint of it every morning, either before or af-
fmooth : the outfide is covered with a kind of varniſh;. ter breakfaſt, and the ſame quantity of it every even-
and the inſide is green, ſpeckled with red. The wood ing after the heat of the ſun began to abate ; he alſo
is white, and very ſoft; the firſt ſhoots of the ear are fometimes took the ſame quantity in the middle of the
green and downy.
day, but this was only when he felt ſome ſymptoms of
The leaves of the young plants are entire, of an ob. an'approaching fever. By this precaution he preſer-
long fum, about four or five inches long, and almoſt ved hiinſelf,during the five years hereſided at Senegal,
three broad towards the top, having ſeveral veins run- from the diarrhæa and fever, which are ſo fatal there
and,
-
1
A D A
( 109 )
A DA
Adanſonia and which are, however, the only dangerous diſeaſes 12th of their facred, and 6th of their civil-year. On Adarce
of the place; and other officers ſuffered very ſeverely, the 7th day of it, the Jews keep a feaſt for the death of
Adar.
only one excepted, upon whom M. Adanſon prevailed Mofes ; on the 13th, they have the feaſt of Eſther; and
Addiction:
to aſe this remedy, which for its fimplicity was defpi- on the 14'", they celebrate the feaſt of Purim, for the
ſed by the reſt. This ptiſan alone alſo prevents that deliverance from Haman's conſpiracy.--As the lunar
heat of urine which is common in theſe parts, from the year, which the Jews followed in their calculations, is
month of July to November, provided the perſon ab ſhorter than the ſolar by about II days, which at the
ſtains from wine.
end of three years make a month, they then interca.
The fruit is not leſs uſeful than the leaves and the late a 13th month, which they call Veadar, or the fe-
bark. The palp that envelopes the ſeeds has an agree- cond Adar.
able acid taſte, and is eaten for pleaſure : it is alſo ADARCE, a kind of concreted ſalts found on reeds
dried and powdered, and thus uſed medicinally in peſti- and other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a
lential fevers, the dyſentery, and bloody Aux; the remedy in ſeveral cutaneous diſeaſes.
doſe is a drachm, paſſed through a fine ſieve, taken ADARCON, in Jewiſh antiquity, a gold coin men-
either in common water, or in an infuſion of the plan- tioned in ſcripture, worth about 15s. ſterling.
tain. This powder is brought into Europe under the ADARME, in commerce, a ſmall weight in Spain,
riame of terra
figillata lemnia. The woody bark of the which is alſo uſed at Buenos-Aires, and in all Spaniſh
fruit, and the fruit itſelf when ſpoiled, helps to ſup- America. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at
ply the negroes with an excellent ſoap, which they Paris is called the demi-gros. But the Spaniſh ounce is
make by drawing a ley from the aſhes, and boiling it ſeven per cent, lighter than that of Paris. Stephens
with palm-oil that begins to be rancid.
renders it in Engliſh by a dram.
The trunks of ſuch of theſe trees as are decayed, the ADATAIS, ADATIS, or ADATYS, in commerce,
negroes hollow out into burying places for their poets, a muſlin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, of which
muſicians, buffoons : perſons of theſe characters they the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters
eſteem greatly while they live, ſuppoſing them to de broad. It comes from the Eaſt-Indies; and the fineſt
rive their ſuperior talents from ſorcery or a commerce
is made at Bengal.
with demons; but they regard their bodies with a kind ADCORDABILIS DENARII, in old law books,
of horror when dead, and will not give them burial in fignify money paid by the vallal to his lord, upon the
the uſual manner, neither ſuffering then to be put into ſelling or exchanging of a feud.
the ground, nor thrown into the ſea or any river, be ADCRESCENTES, among the Romans, denoted
cauſe they imagine that the water would not then nou a kind of foldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put
riſh the filh, for the earth produce its fruits. The bo on duty; from theſe the ſtanding forces were recruited:
dies ſhut up in theſe trunks become perfectly dry with-
See ACCENSI.
out rotting, and forming a kind of mummies without ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and
the help of embalment.
Italy, which riſes in mount Braulio, in the country of
The baobab is very diſtinct from the calabaſh-tree of the Grifons, and, paſſing through the Valteline, t:a-
America, with which it has been confounded by fa verſes the lake Como and the Milaneſe, and falls into
ther Labat. See CRESCENTIA.
the Po, near Cremona.
Culture. This tree is propagated from feeds, which ADDEPHAGIA, in medicine, a term uſed by
are brought from the countries where they grow na ſome phyſicians, for glattony, or a voracious appetite.
turally. Being natives only of hot climates, the plants ADDER, in zoology, a name for the VIPER. See
will not thrive in the open air in Britrin, even in ſum COLUBER.
mier. The ſeeds are therefore to be ſown in pots, and ADDER-Bolts,or Adder-flies. See LIBELULLA.
plunged into a hot-bed, where the plants will appear Sea- ADDER, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of Syn-
in about ſix weeks, and in a ſhort time after be fit to
tranſplant. They muſt then be planted each in a ſe. Water-ADDER, a name given to the COLUBER Na.
parate pot, in light fandy earth, and plunged into a trix.
hot-bed, ſhading them until they have taken root : af Adder-ſtung, is uſed in reſpect of cattle, when ſtung
ter which they ſhould have freſh air admitted every day with any kind of venomous reptiles, as adders, ſcor-
in warın weather; but muſt be ſparingly watered, as pions, &c. or bit by a hedge-hog or ſhrew.- For the
being apt to rot. They grow quickly for two or three cure of ſuch bites, ſome uſe an ointment made of dra-
years, but afterwards make little progreſs; the lower gon's blood, with a little barley-meal, and the whites
part of the ſtem then begins to ſwell, and put out la-
teral branches, inclining to a horizontal poſition, and ADDER-Wort, or Snakewood. See POLYGONUM.
covered with a light grey bark. Some of this kind ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the
of plants were raiſed from ſeeds obtained from Grand pope's mitre-bearers, ſo called, according to Ducange,
Cairo by Dr William Sherard, in 1724, and were becauſe they walk at the Pope's right-hand when he
grown to the hcight of 18 feet ; but were all deſtroyed rides to viſit the churches.
by the ſevere froſt in 1740; after which they were ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax uſed by
nnknown in Britain till the return of Mr Adanſon to fhip-wrights, carpenters coopers, &c.
Paris in 1754.
ADDICTI, in antiquity, a kind of ſlaves, among
ADAPTERS, or ADOPTERS. See CHEMISTRY, the Romans, adjudged to ſerve fome creditor whom
(Index).
they could not otherwiſe ſatisfy, and whoſe llaves they
ADÁR, the name of a Hebrew month, anſwering became till they could pay or work out of the debt.
to the end of February and beginning of March, the ADDICTION, among the Romans, was the ma-
king
GNATHUS.
of eggs.
*
A DD,
[ 110 ]
A D D
Addictio, king over goods to another, either by fale, or by legal againſt Perrault, had he before ſeen ſuch excellent pieces Addiſon.
Addifon. ſentence; the goods ſo delivered were called bona ad- by a niodern hand. He publiſhed nothing in Engliſh
dicta. Debtors were ſometimes delivered over in the before the twenty-ſecond year of his age; when there
fame manner; and thence called fervi addicti. appeared a ſhort copy of verſes written
by him, and ad-
ADDICTIO IN DIEM, among the Romans, the ad- dreſſed to Mr Dryden, which procured him great re-
judging a thing to a perſon for a certain price, unleſs putation from the beſt judges. This was ſoon follow-
by ſuch a day the owner, or ſome other, give niore ed by a tranſlation of the Fourth Georgic of Virgil,
for it.
(omitting the ſtory of Ariſtæus), much commended by
ADDISON (Lancelot), ſon of Lancelot Addiſon Mr Dryden. He wrote alſo the Eſſay on the Geor-
a clergyman, was born at Mouldiſmeaburne, in the pa- gics, prefixed to Mr Dryden's tranſlation. There are
riſh of Croſby Ravenſworth in Weſtmoreland, in the ſeveral other pieces written by him about this time;
year 1632. He was educated at Queen's College, Ox. among the reſt, one dated the 3d of April 1694,
ford ; and at the Reſtoration of king Charles II. accept- addreſled to H. S. that is, Dr Sacheverel, who be-
ed of the chaplainſhip of the garriſon of Dunkirk : came afterwards ſo famous, and with whom Mr Addi-
but that fortreſs being delivered up to the French in ſon lived once in the greateſt friendſhip; but their in-
1662, he returned to England, and was ſoon after timacy was ſome time after broken off by their diſagree-
made chaplain to the garriſon of Tangier ; where he ment in political principles. In the year 1695, he
continued ſeven years, and was greatly eſteemed. In wrote a poem to king William on one of his cam-
1670, he returned to England, and was made chaplain paigns, addreſſed to Sir John Somers lord keeper of
in ordinary to the king; but his chaplainthip of Tangier the great ſeal. This gentleman received it with great
being taken from him on account of his abſence, he pleaſure, took the author intothenumber of his friends,
found himſelf ſtraitened in his circumſtances, when he and beſtowed on him many marks of his favour.
ſeaſonably obtained the rectory of Milfton in Wiltſhire, Mr Addiſon had been cloſely preſſed, while at the
worth about 120l. per annum. He afterwards became univerſity, to enter into holy orders; and had once re-
a prebendary of Sarum ; took his degree of doctor of folved upon it: but his great modeſty, his natural dif-
divinity at Oxford ; and in 1683 was made dean of fidente, and an uncommonly delicate ſenſe of the in-
Litchfield, and the next year archdeacon of Coventry. portance of the ſacred function, made him afterwards
His life was exemplary; his converſation pleaſing, and alter his reſolution; and having expreſſed an inclina-
greatly inſtructive; and his behaviour as a gentleman, tion to travel, he was encouraged thereto by his patron
a clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place abovementioned, who by his intereſt procured him
of his reſidence. He wrote, 1. A ſhort Narrative of from the crown a penſion of L.300 per annum to fup-
the Revolutions of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco: port him in his travels. He accordingly made a tour
2. The preſent Hiſtory of the Jews : 3. A Diſcourſe to Italy in the year 1699; and, in 1701, he wrote a
on Catechiſing : 4. A Modeſt Plea for the Clergy : poetical epiſtle from Italy to the earl of Halifax, which
5. An Introduction to the Sacrament : 6. The firſt has been univerſally eſteemed as a moſt excellent per-
State of Mahometiſnı : and ſeveral other pieces. This formance. It was tranſlated into Italian verſe by the
worthy divine died on the 20th of April 1703 and abbot Antonio Maria Salvini, Greek profeſſor at Flo-
left three ſons : Joſeph, the ſubject of the next article; rence. In the year 1705, he publiſhed an account of
Gulſton, who died while governor of Fort St George; his travels, dedicated to lord Somers; which, though
Lancelot, maſter of arts, and fellow of Magdalen Col at firſt but indifferently received, yet in a little time
lege in Oxford : and one daughter firſt married to Dr met with its deſerved applauſe.
Sartre prebendary of Westminſter, and afterwards to In the year 1702, he was about to return to-Enge
Daniel Combes, Eſq.
land, when he received advice of his being appointed
ADDISON (Joſeph), ſon of dean Addiſon the ſub- to attend prince Eugene, who then commanded for the
ject of the laſt article. He was born at Milſton, near emperor in Italy : but the death of king William hap-
Ambreſbury, in Wiltſhire, on the rhof May 1672 ; pening ſoon after, put an end to this affair as well as his
and not being thought likely to live was baptized the penſion; and he remained for a conſiderable time un-
ſame day. He received his firſt rudiments of his edu- employed. But an unexpected incident at once raiſed
cation at the place of his nativity, under the reverend him, and gave him an opportunity of exerting his fine
Mr Naiſh ; but was ſoon renoved 10 Saliſbury, under talents to advantage: for in the year 1704, the lord
the care of Mr Taylor ; and from thence to the char- treaſurer Godolphin happened to complain to lord Ha-
ter-houſe, where he commenced his acquaintance with lifax, that the duke of Marlborough's victory at Blen.
Sir Richard Steele. About fifteen, he was entered at heim had not been celebrated in verſe in the manner it
Queen's College, Oxford, where he applied very cloſe- deſerved ; and intimated, that he would take it kindly,
ly to the ſtudy of claſſical learning, in which he made if his lordſhip, who was the known patron of the poets,
a ſurpriſing proficiency.
would name a gentleman capable of doing juſtice to ſo
In the year 1687, Dr Lancaſter, dean of Magda- elevated a ſubject. Lord Halifax replied, ſomewhat
len College, having, by chance, ſeen a Latin poem of haſtily, that he did know ſuch a perſon, but would
Mr Addiſon's, was ſo pleaſed with it, that he imme not mention him ; adding, that long had he feen, with
diately got hin elected into that houſe, where he took indignation, men of no merit maintained in luxury at
up
his degrees of bachelor and maſter of arts. His Latin the public expence, whilſt thoſe of real worth and mo-
pieces in the courſe of a few years, were exceedingly ad- deſty were ſuffered to languiſh in občcurity. The
mired in both univerſities: nor werethey leſs eſteemed treaſurer anſwered very coolly, that he was forry there
abroad, particularly by the celebrated Boileau, who is ſhould be occaſion for ſuch an obſervation, but that he
reported to have ſaid, that he would not have written would do his endeavour to wipe off ſuch reproaches for
thc
A D D
[ III ]
A D D
3
Addiſon. the future ; and he engaged his honour, that whoever every line in which liberty was mentioned, as a fatire Addifosi.
his lordſhip named, as a perſon capable of celebrating on the Tories; and the Tories echoed every clap, to
this victory, ſhould meet with a ſuitable recompence. ſhow that the ſatire was unfelt. When it was printed,
Lord Halifax thereupon named Mr Addiſon ; inſiſting, notice was given that the Queen would be pleaſed if
however, that the treaſurer himſelf ſhould ſend to him; it was dedicated to her " but as he had deſigned that
which he promiſed. Accordingly he prevailed on Mr compliment elſewhere, he found himſelf obliged,"ſays
Boyle (afterwards lord Carlton) then chancellor of Tickell, “ by his duty on the one hand, and his ho-
the exchequer, to make the propoſal to Mr Addiſon ; nour on the other, to ſend it into the world without
which he did in ſo polite a manner, that our author any dedication.” It was no leſs eſteemed abroad, ha-
readily undertook the taſk. The lord-treaſurer had a ving been tranſlated into French, Italian, and German;
fight of the piece, when it was carried no farther than and it was acted at Leghorn, and ſeveral other places,
the celebrated fimilie of the angel ; and was ſo pleaſed with vaſt applauſe. The Jeſuits of St Omers made a
with it, that he immediately appointed Mr Addiſon a Latin verſion of it, and the
ſtudents acted it with great
commiſſioner of appeals, vacant by the promotion of magnificence.
Mr Locke, choſen one of the lords commiſſioners for About this time, another paper called the Guardian
trade. The Campaign is addreſſed to the Duke of was publiſhed by Steele, to which Addiſon was a prin-
Marlborough ; it gives a ſhort view of the military cipal contributor. It was a continuation of the Spec-
tranſactions in 1704, and contains a noble deſcription tator, and was diſtinguiſhed by the ſame elegance and
of the two gſeat actions at Schellemberg and Blen- the fame variety; but, in conſequence of Steele's pro-
heim. In in 1705, he attended lord Halfax to Hano- penſity to politics, was abruptly diſcontinued in order
ver; and the year following was appointed under-ſecre to write the Engliſhnian.
tary to Sir Charles Hedges ſecretary of ſtate ; in which The papers of Addiſon are marked in the Spectator
office he acquitted himſelf ſo well, that the earl of Sun- by one of the letters in the name of Clio, and in the
derland, who ſucceeded Sir Charles in December, con Guardian by a Hand. Many of theſe papers were
tinued Mr Addiſon in his employment.
written with powers truly comic, with nice diſcrimi-
A taſte for operas beginning at this time to prevail nation of characters, and accurate obſervation of na-
in England, and many perſons having ſolicited Mr Ad- tural or accidental deviations from propriety ; bat it
diſon to write one, he complied with their requeſt, and was not ſuppoſed that he had tried a comedy on the
compoſed his Roſamond. This, however, whether ſtage, till Steele, after his death, declared him the au-
from the defect of the muſic, or from the prejudices thor of “ The Drumner.” This, however, he did
in favour of the Italian taſte, did not ſucceed upon the not know to be true by any cogent teſtimony: for
ſtage; but the poetry of it has, and always will be, when Addiſon put the play into his hands, he only
juſtly admired. About this time, Sir Richard Steele told him it was the work of a gentleman in the com-
compoſed his comedy of the Tender Huſband, to which pany; and when it was received, as is confeſſed, with
Mr Addiſon wrote a prologue. Sir Richard ſurpriſed cold diſapprobation, he was probably leſs willing to
him with a dedication of this play, and acquainted the claim it. Tickell omitted it in his collection ; but the
public, that he was indebted to him for ſome of the teſtimony of Steele, and the total ſilence of any other
moſt excellent ſtrokes in the performance. The mar claimant, has determined the public to aſſign it to Ad-
quis of Wharton, being appointed lord lieutenant of diſon, and it is now printed with his other poetry.
Ireland in 1709, took Mr Addiſon with him as his Steele carried “The Drumner" to the playhouſe, and
fecretary. Her majeſty alſo made him keeper of the afterwards to the preſs, and ſold the copy for 50 gui-
records of Ireland, and, as a father mark of her fa-
To Steele's opinion may be added the proof
vour, conſiderably augmented the ſalary annexed to ſupplied by the play itſelf, of which the characters are
that place. Whilſt he was in this kingdom, the. Tat- fuch as Addiſon would have delineated, and the ten-
ler was firſt publiſhed ; and he diſcovered his friend dency ſuch as Addiſon would have promoted.
Sir Richard Steele to be the author, by an obſervation It is ſaid that Mr Addiſon intended to have compo.
on Virgil, which he had communicated to him. He ſed an Engliſh dictionary'upon the plan of the Italian
afterwards afſifted conſiderably in carrying on this pa- (Della Cruſca); but, upon, the death of the queen
per, which the author acknowledges. The Tatler be- being appointed ſecretary to the lords juſtices, he had
ing laid down, thc Spectator was ſet on foot, and Mr not leiſure to carry on ſuch a work. When the earl of
Addiſon furniſhed great part of the moſt admired pa- Sunderland was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland,
pers. The Spectator made its firſt appearance in March Mr Addiſon was again made ſecretary for the affairs
1711, and was brought to a concluſion in September of that kingdom ; and upon the earl's being removed
I712.
from the lieutenancy, he was choſen one of the lords.
His celebrated Cato appeared in 1713. He'form- of trade.
ed the deſign of a tragedy upon his ſubject when he Not long afterwards an attempt was made to revive
was very young, and wrote it when on his travels: the Spectator, at a time indeed by no means favour-
he retouched it in England, without any intention of able to literature, when the ſucceſſion of a new family
bringing it on the ſtage ; but his friends being per- to the throne filled the nation with anxiety, diſcord,
fuaded it would ſerve the cauſe of liberty, he was pre- and confuſion ; end either the turbulence of the times
vailed on by their ſolicitations, and it was accordingly or the ſatiety of the readers put a ſtop to the publica-
exhibited on the theatre, with a prologue by Mr Pope, tion, after an experiment of 80 numbers, which were
and an epilogue by Dr Garth. It was received with afterwards collected into an eighth volume, perhaps
the moſt uncommon applauſe, having run thirty-five more valuable than any of thoſe that went before it :
nights without interruption. The Whigs applauded Addiſon produced more than a fourth part.
In
neas,
A D D
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A D D
)
Adlifon. In 1715, he began the Freeholder, a political pa- ly endeavoured to reclaim him ; but his arguments and Addiſon.
per, which was much admired, and proved of great expoftulations had no effect: One experiment, how-
uſe at that juncture. He publiſhed alſo, about this over, remained to be tried.
over, remained to be tried. When he found his life
time, verſes to Sir Godfrey Kneller upon the king's near its end, he directed the young lord to be called :
picure, and ſome to the princeſs of Wales with the and when he deſired, with great tenderneſs, to hear
tragedy of Cato.
his laſt injunctions, told him, “ I have ſent for you that
Before the arrival of king George he was made fe “ you may ſee how a Chriſtian can die.” What ef-
cretary to the regency, and was required by his office fect this awful ſcene had on the earl's behaviour is not
to ſend notice to Hanover that the queen was dead, known: he died himſelf in a ſhort time. Having gi-
and that the throne was vacant. To do this would ven directions to Mr Tickell for the publication of his
not have been difficult to any man but Addiſon, who works, and dedicated them on his death-bed to his
was ſo overwhelmed with the greatneſs of the event, friend Mr Craggs, he died June 17. 1719, at Holland-
and ſo diſtracted by choice of expreffion, that the lords, houſe, leaving no child but a daughter who is ſtill
who could not wait for the niceties of criticiſm, called living.
Mr Southwell, a clerk in the houſe, and ordered him Addiſon's courſe of life before his marriage has been
to diſpatch the meſſage. Southwell readily told what detailed by Pope. He had in the houſe with him
was neceffary, in the common ſtyle of buſineſs, and Budgell, and perhaps Philips. His chief companions
valued himſelf upon having done what was too hard were Steele, Budgeil, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and
for Addiſon.
Colonel Brett. With one or other of theſe he al-
In 1716, he married the counteſs dowager of War- ways breakfaſted. He ſtudied all morning; then din-
wick, whom he had ſolicited by a very long and anxi ed at a tavern, and went afterwards to Button's. From
ous courtſhip. He is ſaid to have firſt known her by the coffeehouſe he went again to the tavern, where
becoming tutor to her ſon. The marriage, if uncon he often fat late, and drank too much wine.
tradicted report can be credited, made no addition to Dr Johnſon, in delineating the character of Addi-
his happineſs; it neither found them nor made them fon, obſerves with Tickell, that he employed wit on
equal. She always remembered her own rank, and the ſide of virtue and religion. He not only made the
thought herſelf intitled to treat with very little cere- proper uſe of wit himſelf, but taught it to others;
mony the tutor of her ſon. It is certain that Addiſon and from his time it has been generally ſubfervient
has left behind him no encouragement for ambitious to the cauſe of reaſon and truth. He has diſſipated the
love. The year after, 1717, he roſe to his higheſt prejudice that had long connected gaiety with vice,
elevation, being made ſecretary of ſtate ; but is repre- and eaſineſs of manners with laxity of principles. Hc
ſented as having proved unequal to the duties of his has reſtored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence
place. In the houſe of commons he could not ſpeak, not to be alhained. This is an elevation of literary
aird therefore was uſeleſs to the defence of the govern- character, “ above all Greek, above all Roman fame. "
In the office he could not iſſue an order with- No greater felicity can genius attain than that of ha-
out loſing his time in queſt of fine expreſſions. At ving purified intellectual pleaſure, ſeparated mirth from
laſt, finding by experience his own inability for public indecency, and wit from licentiouſneſs ; 'of having
buſineſs, he was forced to folicit his diſmiſlion, with a taught a ſucceſſion of writers to bring elegance and
penſion of 1500l. a-year. Such was the account of gaiety to the aid of goodneſs; and, to aſe expreſſions
thoſe who were inclined to detract from his abilities; yet more awful, of having “ turned many to righte-
but by others his relinquiſhment was attributed to de Kouſneſs.” As a deſcriber of life and manners, he muſt
clining health, and the neceſſity of receſs and quiet. be allowed to ſtand perhaps the firſt of the firſt rank.
In his retirement, he applied bimſelf to a religious His humour, which, as Steele obſerves, is peculiar to
* Evidences work*, which he had begun long before ; part of himſelf, is ſo happily diffuſed as to give the
grace
of
of the Xian which, ſcarce finiſhed, has been printed in his works. novelty to domeſtic ſcenes and daily occurrences. He
Religion. He intended alſo to have given an Engliſh paraphraſe never « outſteps the modeſty of nature," nor raiſes
of ſonic of David's pſalms. But his ailments increaſed, merriment or wonder by the violation of truth. His
and cut ſhort his deligns. He had for ſome time been figures neither divert by diſtortion, nor amaze by ag.
oppreted by an aſthmatic diſorder, which was now ag- gravation. He copies life with ſo much fidelity, that
gravated by a dropſy, and he prepared to die conform- he can be hardly ſaid to invent; yet his exhibitions
ably to his precepts and profeſſions. He ſent, as Pope have an air ſo much original, that it is difficult to
relates, a meſſage by the earlof Warwick to Mr Gay, ſuppoſe them not merely the product of imagination.
deliring to fcehim: Gay, who had not viſited him for As a teacher of wiſdom he may be confidently follow-
ſome time before, obeyed the ſummons, and found ed. His religion has nothing in it enthuſiaſtic or fu-
himſelf received with great kindneſs. The purpoſe for percilious; he appears neither weakly credulous nor
which the interview had been ſolicited was then diſco- wantonly ſceptical ; his morality is neither dangerouſ-
vered : Addiſon told him, that he had injured him ; ly lax nor impracticably rigid.
but that if he recovered, he would recompenſe bim. of fancy and all the cogency of argument are employ-
What the injury was he did not explain, nor did Gayed to recommend to the reader his real intereſt, the
ever know; but ſuppoſed that ſoine preferment deſign care of pleaſing the Author of his being. Truth is
ed for him had by Addiſon's intervention been wich- fhown ſometimes as the phantom of a viſion, ſoine-
held. Another death-bed interview, of a more foleinn times appears half-veiled in an allegory; ſometimes
nature, is recorded: Lord Warwick was a young man of attracts regard in the robes of fancy, and ſometimes
very irregular life, and perhaps of looſe opinions. Addi- ſteps forth in the confidence of reaſon. She wears a
fon,for whom he did not want reſpect, had very diligent- thouſand dreſſes, and in all is pleaſing.
nient.
1
Thc
A D D
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A D D
Addiſon.
Hient
ments.
The Doctor, however, has related the following a ſuch an occaſion is always a ſufficient, and the only re- Addita-
necdote, which every admirer of Addiſon, every man ward to, Sir, your moſt obedient, humble ſervant,
U
of feeling, muſt be reluctant to believe. “ Steele (ſays J. ADDISON.”—The anecdote which follows was told
Add tions
the Doctor), whoſe imprudence of generoſity, or va- by the late Dr Birch Addiſon and Mr Temple Stan-
of place.
nity of profuſion, kept him always incurably neceffi- yan were very intimate. In the familiar converſations
tous, upon ſome preſling exigence, in an evil hour, which paſſed between them, they were accuſtomed
borrowed an hundred pounds of his friend, probably freely to diſpute each other's opinions. Upon ſome
without much purpoſe of repayment ; but Addiſon, occalion, Mr Addiſon lent Stanyan five hundred pounds.
who ſeems to have had other notions of a hundred After this, Mr Stanyan behaved with a timid reſerve,
pounds, grew impatient of delay, and reclaimed his deference, and reſpect; not converting with the ſame
loan by an execution. Steele felt, with great ſenſibi- freedom as formerly, or canvalling his friend's ſenti-
lity, the obduracy of his creditor ; but with enotions
This gave great uneaſineſs to Mr Addiſon.
of forrow rather than of anger.” It is much to be One day, they happened to fall upon a ſubject, on which
wiſhed, ſays Dr Kippis, that Dr Johnſon had produ- Mr Stanyan had always been uſed ſtrenuously to oppoſe
ced his authority for this narration. It is very poſſible, his opinion. But, even upon this occaſion, he gave
that it may be only a ſtory the Doctor had ſomewhere way to what his friend advanced, without interpofing
heard in converſation, and which is entirely ground- his own view of the matter. This hurt Mr Addiſon
lefs : « and this I am the rather inclined to believe, lo much, that he ſaid to Mr Stanyan, “ Either contra-
as I have been aſſured by one of the nioſt reſpectable dict me, or pay me the money. ”
characters in the kingdom, that the fact hath no foun In Tickell's edition of Mr Addiſon's works there
dation in truth.” Mr Potter, in a late publication, are ſeveral pieces hitherto unmentioned, çiz. The Diſ-
hath informed us, that he is told by the beſt authority, ſertation on Medals; which, though not publiſed till
that the ſtory is an abſolute falſehood.
after his death, yet he had collected the materials, and
Mr Tyers, in “ An hiſtorical Eſſay on Mr Addi- began to put them in order, at Vienna, in 1 702. А
ſon,” printed, but not publiſhed, has mentioned fome pamphlet, intitled, The preſent State of the War,
facts concerning him, with which we were not before and the Neceſſity of an Augmentation, conſidered.
acquainted. Theſe are, That he was laid out for dead The late Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff. The
as ſoon as he was born : that, when he addreſſed his Whig Examiner came out on the 14th of September
verſes on the Engliſh poets to Henry Sacheverell, he 1716: there were five of theſe papers attributed to
courted that gentleman's lifter: that, whenever Ja- Mr Addiſon, and they are the ſevereſt pieces he ever
cob Tonſon came to him for the Spectator, Bayle's wrote. He is ſaid alſo to have been the author of a
French Hiſtorical and Critical Dictionary lay always performance intitled Differtatio de inſignioribus Roma-
open before him : that, upon his return to England, norum Poetis, and of a Diſcourſe on Ancient and Mo-
after his travels, he diſcharged ſome old debts he had dern learning.
contracted at Oxford, with the generoſity of good ADDITAMENT, ſomething added to another,
intereſt: that he was put into plentiful circumſtances Thus phyſicians call the ingredients added to a medi-
by the death of a brother in the Eaſt Indies: that, cine already compounded, additaments.
having received encouragement from a married lady, ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting two
of whom he had been formerly enamoured, he had the or more things, pr augmenting a thing by the acceſſion
integrity to reſiſt the temptation : that he refuſed a of others thereto.
gratification of a three hundred pounds bank-note, ADDITION, in ARIHMETIC, ALGEBRA, &c. Sec
and afterwards of a diamond ring of the ſame value, theſe articles.
froin a Major Dunbar, whom he had endeavoured to ADDITION, in muſic, a dot marked on the right ſide
ſerve in Ireland by his intereſt with lord Sunderland: of a note, fignifying that it is to be founded or length-
and that his daughter by lady Warwick is ſtill alive ened half as much more as it would have been without
and unmarried, reliding at Bilton near Rugby, and poſ- ſuch mark.
ſeſſing an income of more than twelve hundred a-year. ADDITION, in law, is that name or title which is
The following letter, which probably relates to the given to a man over and above his proper name and
caſe of Major Dunbar, reflects great honour on Mr ſurname, to ſhow of what eſtate, degree, or myſtery
Addiſon's integrity: “ June 26. 1715. Sir, I find he is; and of what town, village, or country.
there is a very ſtrong oppoſition formed againſt you ; ADDITIONS of Eſtate, or Quality, are, Yeoman, Gen-
but I ſhall wait on my lord lieutenant this morning, tleman, Eſquire, and ſuch like.
and lay your caſe before him as advantageouſly as I ADDITIONS of Degree, are thoſe we call nanies of
can, if he is not engaged in other company. 'I am dignity; as Knight, Lord, Earl, Marquis, and Duke.
afraid what you ſay of his grace does not portend you ADDITIONS of Myſtery, are ſuch as ſcrivener, paint-
any good. And now, Sir, believe me, when I affure er, maſon, and the like.
you I never did, nor ever will, on any pretence what ADDITIONS of Place, are, of Thorp, of Dale, of
foever, take more than the ſtated and cuſtomary fees Woodſtock.-Where a man hath houſehold in two
of my office. I might keep the contrary practice places, he ſhall be ſaid to dwell in both ; ſo that his
concealed from the world, were I capable of it, but addition in either may ſuffice. Knave was anciently a
I could not from myſelf; and I hope I ſhall always regular addition. By ſtat. 1. Hen. V. cap. 5. it was
fear the reproaches of my own heart more than ordained, that in ſuch ſuits or actions where proceſs of
thoſe of all mankind. In the mean time, if I can outlawry lies, ſuch addition ſhould he made to the
ſerve a gentleman of merit, and ſuch a character as name of the defendant, to ſhow his eſtate, myſtery,
you bear in the world, the ſatisfaction I meet with on and place where he dwells; and that the rrits not ha-
VOLI.
P
ving
t
A D E
[ 114 }
Ä D E
$
Additions ving ſuch additions ſhall abate if the defendant take method, this genus belongs to the 38 horder, Tricoccæ: Adélme-
1) exception thereto ; but not by the office of the court. Of this genus there are three ſpecies; the bernardia, 9
Adenia-
Adelia. The reaſon of this ordinance was, that one man night the ricinella, and acidoton, for which we have no pro-
not be troubled by the outlawry of another ; but by per nanies in Engliſh. They are natives of Jamaica,
graphy,
reaſon of the certain addition, every perſon might bear and are akin to the ricinus or croton, and may be pro-
his own burden.
pagated in hot-beds from ſeeds procured from Jamaica.
ADDITIONS, in diſtilling, a name given to ſuch ADELME, or ALDHELM, ſon to Kenred, nephew
things as are added to the waſh, or liquor, while in a to Ina king of the Weſt-Saxons; after having been
ſtate of fermentation in order to improve the vinolity educated abroad, was abbot of Malmſbury 30 years.
of the ſpirit, procure a larger quantity of it, or give He was the firſt Engliſhman who wrote in Latin, the
it a particular favour. All things, of whatever kind, firſt who brought poetry into England, and the firſt
thus added in the time of ferınentation, are called by biſhop of Sherburn. He lived in great eſteem till his .
thoſe of the buſineſs who ſpeak moſt intelligently, ad- death, which happened in 709. He was canonized,
ditions ; but many confound them with things of a ve and many miracles were told of him. He is mention-
ry different iiature, under the name of ferments. See ed with great honour by Camden and Bayle, and his
DISTILLING.
life was written by William of Malmſbury.
ADDITIONS, in heraldry, ſome things added to a ADELPHIANÍ, in church hiſtory, a ſect of an-
coat of arms, as marks of honour; and therefore di- cient heretics, who faſted always on Sundays.
re&tly oppoſite to abatements. Among additions we ADELSCALC, in ancient cuſtoms, denotes a fer-
reckon BORDURE, QUARTER, CANTON, GYRON, vant of the king. The word is alſo written adelfcalche,
PILE, &c. Sce Thele articles.
and adelfcalcus. It is compounded of the German adelgur
ADDRESS, in a general ſenſe, is uſed for ſkill and or edel, “ noble," and ſcalc, « ſervant."
and Scalc,“ ſervant.” Among the
good management, and of late has been adopted from Bavarians, adelfcalcs appear to have been the ſame with
the French. It is uſed alſo in commerce, as ſynony- royal thanes among the Saxons, and thoſe called mini--
mous with direction to a perſon or place. The word Stri regis in ancient charters.
is formed of the French verb adreſler, To direct any ADEMPTION, in the civil law, implies the re-
thing to a perſon.
vocation of a grant, donation, or the like.
ACDUCENT MUSCLES, or ADDUCTORS, in ana ADEN, formerly a rich and conſiderable town of
tomy, thoſe muſcles which pull one part of the body Arabia the Happy. It is ſeated by the ſea-ſide, a
towards another. See ANATOMY, Table of the Muſcles. little eaſtward of the ſtraits of Babelmandel.
ADEB, in commerce, the name of a large Egyp ADENANTHERA, BASTARD FLOWER-FENCE, a
tian weight, uſed principally for rice, and conſiſting of genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
210 okes, each of three rotolos, a weight of about two candria claſs of plants. In the natural method, it
drams leſs than the Engliſh pound. But this is no cer belongs to the 33d order, Lonzentaceæ. The cha-
tain weight; for at Roſetto the adeb is only 150 okes. racters are : The calyx is a perianthium conſiſting
ADEL, a kingdom on the eaſtern coaſt of Africa, of one very ſmall five-toothed leaf. The corolla con-
which reaches as far as the ſtraits of Babelınandel, ſiſts of five bell ſhaped lanceolate ſeſſile petals, convex
which unite the Red Sea to the ſea of Arabia. This within and concave under. The ſtamina have ten erect
country produces corn, and feeds a great number of ſubulated filaments ſhorter than the corolla ; the anthe-
cattle. The inhabitants carry on a trade in gold, ſil ræare roundiſh, incumbent, bearing a globular glandon
ver, ivory, oil, frankincenſe, a ſortof pepper, and other the exterior top. The piſlilluin has a long gibbous ger-
merchandiſes of Arabia and the Indies. The king was men; the ſtylus ſubulated the length of the ſtamina ;
formerly a vaſſal to the grand negus of Abyſſinia: but the ſtigma ſimple. The pericarpiun is a long com-
being Mahometans, and
the Abyſſinians a ſort of Chri- preffed
membranous legumen. The feeds are very nu-
ſtians, they could not agree; and in 1435 came to an merous, roundiſh, and remote.
open rupture, when the Adelines threw off the yoke, Only one ſpecies of this plant is known in Britain :
ſeeking protection from the Grand Signior. The prin- but thire is a variety, with Icarlet feeds ; which, how-
cipal places are, Adela, ſeated in the centre of the ever, is rare, and grows very ſlowly. It is a native of
country, and is the town where the king reſides : Zei- India, and riſes to a conſiderable height. It is as large
la, near the Arabian Sea, is a rich town, and has a asthetaniarind tree; ſpreads its branches wide on every
good trade : Barbora, near the ſea-coaſt, is an ancient fide, and makes a fine hade ; for which reaſon, it is
trading town. It rains very feldom in this country. frequently planted by the inhabitants in their gardens
ADELIA, a genus of the monodelphia order, be or near their habitations. The leaves of this tree are
longing to the diæcia claſs of plants the characters doubly winged, the flowers of a yellow colour, and
of which are: The MALE calyx is a perianthium one- diſpoſed in a long bunch. Theſe are ſucceeded by long
leaved, three-parted; the florets fublanced and con twiſted membranaceous pods, incloſing ſeveral hard
cave: No corolla : The ſtamina conſiſt of many capil- compreſſed ſeeds, ofa beautiful ſcarlet, or ſhining black,
lary filaments the length of the calyx, conjoined at colour. This plant muſt be raiſed in a hot-bed, and
the baſe in a cylinder; the antheræ are roundiſh. The kept during the winter in a ſtove.
FEMALE calyx is a five-leaved perianthium ; the leaflets ADENBURG, or ALDENBURG, a town of Weſt-
fublanced, concave, perſiſtent: No corolla : The piſtil- phalia, and in the duchy of Burg, ſubject to the Elec-
Jum has a roundiſh germen; the ſtyli are three, ſhort, tor Palatine. It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne, and
and divaricated; the ſtigmata lacerated : The perian- 17 W. of Bonn : E. Long. 7. 25. Lat. 51. 2.
thiunis a three-grained, roundiſh,three-celled capſule: ADENOGRAPHY, that part of anatomy which
The ſeeds are ſolitary and roundiſh. In the natusal treats of the glandular parts. See ANATOMY.
ADE-
A DH
[ 115 ]
A DI
men.
2. The pe-
Adenoides ADENOIDES, glandulous, or of a glandular form; ACTION OF ADHERENCE, in Scots law ; 'an ac- Agion of
an epithet applied to the PROSTAT Æ.
tion competent to a huſband or wife, to compel either adherence
Adhatoda. ADENOLOGY, the ſame with Adenography. party to adhere, in caſe of defertion.
ADENOS, a kind of cotton, otherwiſe called ma ADHESION, in a general ſenſe, implies the ſtick. Adjazzo.
rine cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Mar. ing or adhering of bodies together,
ſeilles, where it pays 20 per cent. duty.
ADHESION, in philoſophy. See COHESION.
ADEONA, in mythology, the name of a goddeſsin ADHESION, in anatomy, a term for one part ſtick-
voked by the Romans when they ſet out upon a journey. ing to another, which in a natural ſtate are ſeparate.
ADEPHAGIA, in mythology, the goddeſs of glut. For the inoſt part, if any of thoſe parts in the thorax or
cony, to whom the Sicilians paid religious worſhip. belly lie in contact, and inflame, they grow together.
ADEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdo-The lungs very frequently adhere to the pleura.
It alſo ſignifies animal fat of any kind.
ADHIL, in aſtronomy, a ſtar of the fixth magni-
ADEPTS, a term among alchemiſts for thoſe who tude, upon the garment of Andromeda, under the laſt
pretended to have found the panacea or philoſopher's- ſtar in her foot.
ſtone.
ADHOA, in ancient cuſtoms, denotes what we
ADERBIJAN, a province of Perſia, bounded on otherwiſe call relief. In which ſenſe we ſometimes alſo
the N. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi, find the word written adoha, adhoamentum,and adhoga.
on the E. by Ghilan, and on the w. by Curdiſtan. mentum.
The principaltownis Tauris ; from 42. to 48. E. long. ADIANTHUM, MAIDEN-HAIR; a genus of the
from 36. to 39. lat.
order of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia claſs of
ADERNO, a ſmall place in the Val di Demona in plants. The fructifications are collected inoval ſpots
the kingdom of Sicily : E. long. 15. 25. lat. 28. 5. under the reflected tops of the fronds.
The ancient ADRANUM.
Species. Ofthis genus botanical writers enumerate
ADES, or HADES, denotes the inviſible ſtate. In fifteen ſpecies; the moſt remarkableare the following.
the heathen mythology, it comprehends all thoſe re 1. The capillus veneris, or true maiden-hair, is a na-
gions that lie beyond the river Styx, viz. Erebus, Tar tive of the ſouthern parts of France, from whence it
tarus, and Elyſium. See HELE.
is brought to Britain; though it is likewiſe ſaid to
ADESSENARIANS, ADESSENARIT, in church- grow plentifully in Cornwall, and the Trichomanes has
hiſtory, a ſect of Chriſtians who hold the real preſence been almoſt univerſally ſubſtituted for it.
of Chriſt's body in the euchariſt, thouglı not by way datum, or American maiden-hair, is a native of Ca-
of tranſubſtantiation. They differ conliderably as to nada; and grows in ſuch quantities, that the French
this preſence ; ſome holding that the body of Chriſt is ſend it from thence in package for other goods, and the
in the bread; others that it is about the bread; and apothecaries of Paris uſe it for maiden-hair in the com-
others that is under the bread.
pofitions wherein that is ordered. 3. The trapezi.
ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuſtom, whereby the forme, or black American maiden-hair, is a native of
children of a former marraige are put upon the ſame Jamaica ; and has ſhining black ſtalks, and leaves of
footing with thoſe of the ſecond. This is alſo called an odd ſhape, which make an agreeable variety among
unio prolium, and ſtill retained in ſome parts of Ger- other plants, fo is ſometimes cultivated in gardens.
many.
Culture. The firſt ſpecies grows naturally out of
AD FINES (Antonine), a town of Swiſſerland, the joints of walls, and fiſſures of rocks. It ought
ſuppoſed to be the modern Pfin, in the north of the therefore to be planted in pots filled with gravel and
diſtrict of Turgow, on the rivulet Thur, not far from lime-rubbiſh ; where it will thrive much better than in
way between Con- good earth. It muſt alſo be feltered under a frame
ſtance and Frauenfield. So called, becauſe when Ce- during the winter.—The ſecond is to be treated in
cinna, general of the emperor Vitellius, with the aux the ſame manner; but the third will not thrive in Brią
iliary Řhetians, defeated the Helvetii, the former tain, unleſs kept in a ſtove during the winter.
extended their borders thus far, their territory end Properties. The true maiden-hair has been greatly
ing here ; and, in time of the Romans, it was the laſt celebrated in diſorders of the breaſt proceeding from a
town in this quarter, and of ſome repute.
thinneſs and acrimony of the juices; and likewiſe for
ADHA, a feſtival which the Mahonetans celebrate opening obſtructions of the viſcera, and promoting the
on the roth day of the month Dhoulbegiat, which is expectoration of tough phlegm. But modern practice
the 12th and laſt of their year. This month being pays little regard to it; the aſplenium trichomanes, or
particularly defined for the ceremonies which the pil- Engliſh maiden-hair, ſupplying its place. See Asple-
grims obſerve at Mecca, it takes its name from thence,
for the word ſignifies the month of Pilgrimage. On that ADIAPHORISTS, in church-hiſtory, a name im-
day they facrifice with great folemnity, at Mecca, and porting lukewarmneſs, given, in the 16th century, to
no where elſe, a ſheep, which is called by the ſame the moderate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions.
name as the feſtival itſelf. The Turks commonly call of Melanchon, whoſe diſpolition was vaſtly more paci.
this feſtival the Great Bairam, to diſtinguiſh it from fic than that of Luther.
the lefler, which ends their faſt, and which the Chri ADIAPHOROUS, ADIAPHORUS, a name given
ſtians of the levant call the Eaſter of the Turks. The by Mr Boyle to a kind of ſpirit diſtilled from tartar
Mahometans celebrate this feſtival, out of the city of and ſome other vegetable bodies ; and which is neither
Mecca, in a neighbouring valley; and ſometimes they acid, vinous, nor urinous; but in many reſpects dif.
facrifice there a camel. See BAIRAM.
ferent from any other ſort of ſpirit.
ADHATODA, in botany. See JUSTICIA.
ADJAZZO, APRAZZO, or AJACCIO, in geography,
NIUM
P2
A
A DJ
í 116 ]
ADJ
A
tion,
Adicative a handſome town and caſtle of Corlica in the Mediter- debt; or that action by which the holder of an heri. Adjuna
ranean, with a bithop's ſee, and a good harbour. it table right, labouring under any defect in point of form, I
Adjudica- is populous, and fertile in wine. It is 27 miles S. W, may ſupply that defect.
Allegation
of Corte. E. long. 41. 54. lat. 38. 5.
ADJUNCT, anong philoſophers, ſignifies ſome-
ADJECTIVE, in grainmar, a kind of noun joined thing added to another, without bcing any neceſſary
with a ſubſtantive, either expreſſed or implied, to how part of it. Thus water abſorbed by cloth or a ſponge,
its qualities or accidents. See GRAMMAR.
is an adjunct, but no neceſſary part of either of theſe
ADICE, a river in Italy, which taking its riſe ſubſtances. .
ſouth of the lake Glace among the Alps, runs fouth by ADJUNCT, in metaphyſics, fome quality belonging
Trent, thien eaſt by Verona in the territory of Venice, to either the body or mind, whether natural or acqui.
and falls into the golph of Venice, north of the mouth red. Thus thinking is an adjunct of the mind, and
of the Po.
growth an adjunct of the body.
ADJOURNMENT, the putting off a court, or ADJUNCT, in mutic, a word which is employed to
other mecting, till another day. In England there is a denoninate the connection or relation between the
difference between the adjournment and the proroga. principal mode and the modes of its two-fifths, which,
tion of the parliament; the former being not only for from the intervals that conſtitute the relation between
a horter time, but alſo done by the houſe itſelf; where them and it, are called its adjuncts.
as the latter is an act of royal authority.
ADJUNCT is alſo uſed to ſignify a colleague, or ſome
ADIPOSE, ir terin uſed by anatomiſts for any cell, perſon aſſociated with another as an alfiſtant.
menibrane, &c. that is remarkable for its fatneſs. ADFUACT Cods, or ADJUNCTs of th. Gods, among
ADIRBEITSAN, in geography, a province of the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added as
Perlia, in Aſia, and part of the ancient Media. It is aſſiſtants to the principal ones, to eaſe them in their
bounded on the N. hy the province of Shiryan, on the functions. Thus, to Mars was adjoined Bellona and
S. by Irac-Agemi and Curdiſtan, on the E. by Gilan Nemeſis ; to Neptune, Salacia; to Vulcan, the Cabi-
and the Caſpian fca, and on the W. by Turcomania. ri; to the Good Genius, the Lares ; to the Evil, the
ADIT, in a general ſenſe, the paſſage to, orentrance Lemures, &c.
of, any thing.
ADJUNCTS, in rhetoric and grammar, fignify cer-
Apir of a Mine, the hole, or aperture, whereby it tain words or things added to others, to amplify or
is entered and dug, and by which the water and ores augment the force of the diſcourſe.
are carried away. The term amounts to the ſame with ADJUNCTS, or ADJOINTS, in the royal academy of
cuniculus or drift, and is diſtinguiſhed from air-ſhaft. ſciences at Paris, denote a claſs of members, attached
The adit is uſually made on the ſide of a hill, towards to the purſuit of particular ſciences. The claſs of Ad-
the bottom thereof, about four, five, or ſix feet high, junets was created in 1916, in licu of the Eleves: they
and eight wide, in forni of an arch; ſometimes cut in are twelve in number ; two for geometry, two for me-
the rock, and ſometimes ſupported with timber, ſo con. chanics, two for aſtronomy, two for anatomy, two for
ducted as that the ſole or bottom of the adit may an chemiſtry, and two for botany. The Eleves not ta-
fwer to the bottoin of the ſhaft, only ſomewhat lower, ken into this eſtablithinent were admitted on the foot.
that the water may have a ſuſficient current to paſs of ſupernumerary Adjunéts.
away without the uſe of the pump. Damps and the ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an officer
impurity of the air are the great iinpediments againſt whoſe buſineſs it is to atlift the major. Each battalion
driving adits above 20 or 30 fathoms, by reaſon of the of foot and regiment of horſe has an adjutant, who re-
neceflity, in this caſe, ofletting down air-ſhafts from ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major;
the day to meet the adit, which are often very expen- which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers
live, both on account of the great depth of mines, and out to the ſerjeants. When detachments are to be
the hardneſs of the mineral ſtrata to be cut through. made, he gives the number to be furniſhed by each
The beſt remedy againſt this is that practiſed in the company or troop, and afligns the hour and place of
coal-mines, near Liege, where they work their adits rendezvous. He alſo places the guards; receives, and
without air-ſhafts: the manner of which is deſcribed diſtribuics theannunition to the companies, &c. ; and,
by Sir Robert Moray. Vid. Phil. Tranſ. N° 5. by the major's orders, regulates the prices of bread,
Adit of a Mine is ſometimes uſed for the air-fhaſt beer, and other proviſions. The word is ſometinies
itſelf, being a hole driven perpendicularly from the ſur- uſed by the French for an aid-du-camp.
face of the earth into ſome part of the mine, to give cil AJJUTANTS-general, among the jeſuits, a ſelect
trance to the air. To draw off the ſtanding water in number of fathers, who reſided with the general of
winter, in deep mimes, they drive up an adit, or air the order, each of whom had a province or country af-
fhaft, upon which the air diſengages itſelf from the ſigned him, as England, Holland, &c. and their buſi-
water, when it begins to run with ſuch violence as pro- neſs was to inform the father-general of ſtate-occur-
duces a noiſe equal to the burſting of a cannon, da lhes rences in ſuch countries. To this end they had their
every thing in the way againſt the ſides of the mine, correſpondents delegated, emiſſaries, viſitois, regents,
and looſens the very rocks at a diſtance. Ibid. N° 26. provincials, &c.
ADJUDICATION, implies the act of adjudging, ADJUTORIUM, a term uſed by phyſicians for
or determining, a cauſe in favour of ſome perſon. any medicine in a preſcription but the capital one.
ADJUDICATION, in Scots law, the name of that ac ADLE-EGGS, fuch as have not received an impreg-
tion by which a creditor altaches the heritable eſtate nation from the ſemen of the cock.
of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appro ADLEGATION, in the public law of the German
priate it to himſelf, either in payment or ſecurity of his empire, a right claimed by the ſtates of the empire of
adjoin-
1
A D M
[ 117 )
A D M
Adlocution adjoining plenipotentiaries,in public treaties and nego- which have leave to trade along that coaſt, are obliged Admini-
ciations, to thoſe of the emperor, for the tranſacting of to unload here, paying 13 per cent. of the price they ſtrator
Admini-
matters which relate to the empire in general. In ſell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 per ceiit.
Admiral.
kration which ſenſe adiegauon differs from legation, which is if otherwiſe ; beſides which, they pay 3 per 1000,
the right of ſending amballadors on a perſon's own ac- duty, for conſulſhip and ſome other ſmall royal rights
count.--Several princes and ſtates of the empire enjoy and claims.
the right of higation, who have not that ot adlegaron, ADMINISTRATOR, in law, he to whom the or-
and vice verfu. The bithops, for inítance, have the dinary commits the adminiſtration of the goods of a
right of adlegation in the treaties which concern the perſun deceaſed, in default of an executor.-An action
common intereſt, but no right of legation for their own lies for, or againſt an adminiſtrator, as for, or againſt
private affairs. "The like had the duke of Mantua. an executor; and he ſhall be accountable to the value
The emperor allows the princes of Germany the privi- of the goods of the deceaſed, and no farther :-unleſs
lege of legation, but difpures that of adlegation. They there be waſte, or other abuſe chargeable on him. If
challenge it as belonging to them jure regni, which the adminiſtrator die, his executors are not adminiſtra-
they enjoy in common with the emperor himſelf. tors; but the court is to grant a new adminiſtration.
ADLOCUTION, ADLOCUTIO, in antiquity, is - If a ſtranger, who is neither adminiſtrator nor exe-
chiefly underſtood of ſpeeches made by Roman gene- cutor, takes the goods of the deceaſed, and adminiſter,
rals to their armies, to encourage them before a battle. he ſhall be charged, and ſued as an executor, not as an
We frequently find theſe adlocutions expreſſed on me adminiſtrator. The origin of adminiſtrators is derived
dals by the abbreviature ADLOCUT. COH.-The ge- from the civil law. Their eſtabliſhment in England is
neral is fonetimes repreſented as ſealed on a tribunal, owing to a ſtatute made in the 31ſt year of Edw. III.
often on a bank or inount of turf, with the cohorts Till then, no office of this kind was known beſide that
ranged orderly round him, in manipuli and turma. of executor ; in caſe of a want of which, the ordinary
The uſual formula in adlocutions was, Fortis effet ac had the diſpoſal of goods of perſons inteſtate, &c.
fidus.
ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, a perſon legally
ADMANUENSES, in ancient law books, denote impowered to act for another whom the law preſumes
perſons who ſwore by laying their hands on the book. incapable of acting for himſelf. Thus tutors or cu-
-In which ſenſe, admanuenſes amount to the ſame rators are ſometimes ſtylcd adminiſtrators in law to pu-
with layinen ; and ſtand oppoſed to clerks, who were pils, minors, or fatuous perſons. But more generally
forbid to ſwear on the book, their word being to be the term is uſed to imply that power which is conferred
reputed as their oath; whence they were alſo deno. by the law upon a father over the perſons and eſtates
minated fide digni.
of his children during their minority. SeeLaw,Noclxi.
ADMEASUREMENT, ADMENSURATIO, in law, ADMINISTRATOR, is ſometimes uſed for the preſi-
a.writ which lies for the bringing thoſe to reaſon, or dent of a province; for a perſon appointed to receive,
mediocrity, who ufurp more of any thing than their manage, and diſtribute, the revenues of an hoſpital or
fare. This writ lies in two caſes; termed, religious houſe ; for a prince who enjoys the revenues
ADMEASUREMENT of Dower, Admenfuratio dotis, of a ſecularized biſhopric; and for the regent of a king-
where the widow of the deceaſed holds more from the dom during a minority of the prince, or a vacancy of
heir, or his guardian, on account of her dower, than of the throne.
right belongs to her. And,
ADMIRABILIS SAL, the ſame with GLAUBER's
AD MEASUREMENT of Pafture, Admenfuratio pafturæ; falt. See CHEMISTRY, nº ! 24.
this lies between thoſe who havě COMMON of paſtures ADMIRAL, a great officer or magiſtrate, who has
appendant to their freehold, or common by vicinage, the government of a navy, and the hearing of all ma-
in caſe any of them ſurcharge the common with more rine cauſes.
cattle than they ought.
Authors are divided with regard to the origin and
ADMINICLE, à term uſed chiefly in old law. denomination of this important officer, whom we find
books, to imply an aid, help, aſſiſtance, or fupport. eſtabliſhed in moſt kingdoms that border on the ſea.
The word is Latin, adminiculuni ; and derived from But the moſt probable opinion is that of Sir Henry
adminicuior, to prop or ſupport.
Spelman, who thinks, that both the name and dignity
ADMINICLE, in Scots law, ſignifies any writing or were derived from the Saracens, and, by reaſon of the
deed referred to by a party, in an action of law, for holy wars, brought into Europe; for admiral, in the
proving his allegations.
Arabian language, ſignifies a prince, or chief ruler,
ADMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the and was the ordinary title of the governors of cities,
church, whoſe buſineſs it was to attend to and defend provinces, &c. and therefore they called the com-
the cauſe of the widows, orphans, and others deſtitute mander of the navy by that name, as a name of dignity
of help.
and honour. And indeed there are no inſtances of
ADMINISTRATION, in general, the govern- admirals in any part of Europe before the year 1284,
ment, direction, or management of affairs, and parti- when Philip of France, who had attended Śt Lewis in
cularly the exerciſe of diſtributive juſtice; among ec the wars againſt the Saracens, created an admiral. Du
cleſiaſtics, it is often uſed to expreſs the giving or diſ- Cange afſures us, that the Sicilians were the firſt, and
penting the facraments, &c.
the Genoeſe the next, who gave the denomination of
ADMINISTRATION, is alſo the name given by the Admirai to the commanders of their nuvalarniaments;
Spaniards in Peru to the ſtaple magazine, or warehouſe, and that they took it from the Saracen or Arabic E-
eſtabliſhed at Callao, a ſmall town on the S. Sea, which mir, a general name for every commanding officer. As
is the port of Lima, the capital of that part of South for the exact time when theword wasintroduced in Eng-
Aúerica, and particularly of Peru. The foreign ſhips, land, it is uncertain ; ſome think it was in the reign of .
Edward I.
A D M
[ 118 ]
A D M
Admiral. Edward I. Sir Henry Spelman is of opinion that it To the lord high-admiral belong all penaltics and Admirál,
was firſt uſed in the reign of Henry III. becauſe nei amercements of all tranſgreſſions at ſea, on the ſea- Admiradig
ther the laws of Oleron made in 1266, nor Bracton, fore, in ports and havens, and all rivers below the
who wrote about that time, make any mention of it ; firſt bridge from the ſea ; the goods of pirates and fe-
and that the term admiral was not uſed in a charter in lons condemned or enſlaved, ſea-wrecks, goods float-
the eighth of Henry III. wherein he granted this of- ing on the ſea, or caſt on the ſhore (not granted to lords
fice to Richard de Lacey, by theſe words Maritiniam of manors adjoining to the ſea), and a ſhare of lawful
Angliæ ; but in the 56th year of the ſame reign, not prizes, alſo all great fiſhes, commonly called royal fiſhes,
only the hiſtorians, but the charters themſelves, very except whales
and ſturgeons : to which add, a ſalary
frequently uſe the word admiral.
of 7000l. a year.
Anciently there were generally three or four admi In ſhort, this is ſo great an office, in point of truſt,
rals appointed in the Engliſh ſeas, all of them holding honour, and profit, that it has been uſually given to
the office durante bene placito: and each of them having princes of the blood, or the moſt eminent perſons a-
particular limits under their charge and government: mong the nobility. There has been no high admiral for
as admirals of the fleet of ſhips, from the mouth of the fome years; the office being put in commiſſion, or un-
Thames northward, ſouthward or weſtward. Beſides der the adminiſtration of the lords commiſſioners of
theſe, there were admirals of the Cinque Ports, as in the admiralty, who by ſtatute have the ſame power
the reign of Edward III. when one William Latimer and authority as the lord high admiral.
was ſtyled admiralis quinque portuum ; and we ſome Lord High ADMIRAL of Scotland, one of the great of
times find that one perſon has been admiral of the fleets ficers of the crown, and ſupreme judge in all inaritime
to the ſouth ward, nortliward, and weſtward: but the caſes within that part of Britain. See Law, Part III.
title of admiralis Angliæ was not frequent till the reign N° clvii. 15.
of Henry IV. when the king's brother had that title ADMIRAL, alſo implies the commander in chief of
given him, which in all commiſſions afterwards was any ſingle ficet or ſquadron, or, in general, any flag-
granted to the ſucceeding admirals. It may be ob- officer whatever. The commander of a fleet carries
Terved, that there was a title above that of admiral of his flag at the main-top-maſt head.
England, which was locum-tenens regis fuper mare, the Vice ADMIRAL, is the commander of the ſecond ſqua-
king's lieutenant general of the ſea ; this title we find dron, and carries his flag at the fore-top-maſt head.
mentioned in the reign of Richard II. Before the uſe Rear ADMIRAL, is the commander of the third ſqua-
of the word admiral was known, the title of cuſtas maris dron, and carries his flag at the mizen-top-maſt head.
was made uſe of.
Vice ADMIRAL, is alſo an officer appointed by the
Lord High ADMIRAL of England, in ſome ancient re lords commiſſioners of the admiralty. There are ſeveral
cords called capitanus maritimarum, an officer of great of theſe officers eſtabliſhed in different parts of Great-
antiquity and truſt, as appears by the laws of Oleron, Britain, with judges and martials under them, for
ſo denominated from the place they were made at by executing juriſdiction within their reſpective limits.
Richard I. The firſt title of Admiral of England, ex Their decrees, however, are not final, an appeal ly-
preſsly conferred upon a ſubject, was given by patenting to the court of admiralty in London.
of Richard II. to Richard Fitz-Allen, jun'. earl of A ADMIRAL is alſo an appellation given to the moſt
rundel and Surrey; for thoſe who before enjoyed this conſiderable fhip of a fleet of merchant-men, or of the
office were ſimply termed admirals, though their juriſ- vefrels employed in the cod-fiſhery of Newfoundland.
diction ſeems as large, eſpecially in the
reign of Ed This laſt has the privilege of chooſing what place he
ward III. when the court of admiralty was firſt erected. Pleaſes on the ſhore to dry his fith.; gives proper orders,
This great officer has the management of all mari and appoints the fiſhing places to thoſe who come af-
time affairs, and the government of the royal navy,with ter him ; and as long as the fifhing ſeaſon continues,
power of deciſion in all maritime cafes both civil and he carries a flag on his main-maſt.
criminal : he judges of all things done upon or beyond ADMIRAL, in zoology, the Engliſh name of a fpe-
the fea, in any part of the world ; upon the ſea-coaſts, cies of the voluta, a ſhell-fiſh belonging to the order of
in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers below the vermes teſtacea. See VOLUTA.
firſt bridge from the ſea. By him, vice-admirals, rear ADMIRALTY properly ſignifies the office of lord
admirals, and all ſea-captains are commiſſioned: all de. high-admiral, whether diſcharged by one ſingle per-
puties for particular coaſts, and coroners to view dead ſon, or by joint commiſſioners called lords of the admi-
bodies found on the ſea-coaſts, or at ſea ; he alſo ap- raly.
points the judges for his court of admiralty, and may Court of ADMIRALIT, is a ſovereign court, held by
impriſon, releaſe, &c. All ports and havens are infra the lord high-admiral, or lords of the admiralty, where
corpus comitatus, and the admiral hath no juriſdiction cognizance is taken in all maritime affairs, whether
of any thing done in them. Between high and low civil or criminal. All crimes committed on the high-
water mark, the common-law and the high-admiral ſeas, or on the great rivers below the firſt bridge next
have juriſdiction by turns, one upon the water, and the the ſea, are cognizable in this court only, and before
other upon the land.
which they muſt be tried by judge and jory. But in civil
The lord-admiral has power, not only over the ſea cauſes the mode is different, the deciſions being all
men ſerving in his ſhips of war, but over all other ſea- made according to the civil law. From the ſentences of
men, to arreſt them for the ſervice of the ſtate : and the admiralty-judge an appeal always lay, in ordinary
if any of them run away,without leave of the admiral, courſe, to the king in chancery, as inay bc collected
he hath power to make a record thereof, and certify fron ſtatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. which directs the
the ſame to the ſheriffs, mayors, bailiffs, &c. who appeal from the archbiſhop's courts to be determined by
Thall cauſe them to be apprehended and impriſoned. perſons named in the king's commiſſion, “like as in
* cafc
A DN
[ 119 ]
A DN
Admiralty " caſe of appeal from the admiral-court.” But this is other flowers, and afterwards grow to true roots. The Adnnur
alſo expreſsly declared by ſtatute 8 Eliz. C 5. which French call them cayeux, “ ſtalks.”
Adnata. enacts, that upon an appeal made to the chancery, the ADNOUN, is uſed by ſome grammarians to ex. Adonia.
ſentence detinitive of the delegates appointed by com prefs what we more uſually call an Adjective. The
million ſhall be final.
word is formed by way of analogy to adverb; in re-
Appeals from the vice-admiralty courts in Ameri- gard adjectives have much the ſame office and relation
ct, and other plantations and ſettlements, may be to nouns that adverbs have to verbs. Bilhop \Vilkins
brought before the courts of admiralty in England, as uſes the word adname in another ſenſe, viz. for what
being a branch of the admiral's juriſdiction, tho' they we otherwiſe call a prepoſition.
may alſo be brought before the king in council. But ADOLESCENCĒ, the ſtate of growing youth ; or
in caſe of prize veſſels, taken in time of war, in any that period of a perſon's age commencing from hisin-
part of the world, and condemned in any courts of ad- fancy, and terminating at his full ſtature
or nianhood.
miralty or vice-admiralty as lawful prize, the appeal The word is formed of the Latin adolefcere, to grow.
lies to certain commiſioners of appeals conſiſting chiefly - The ſtate of adoleſcence laſts ſo long as the fibres
of the privy council, and not to judges delegates. And continue to grow, either in magnitude or firmneſs.
this by virtue of divers treaties with foreign nations, The fibres being arrived at the degree of firinneſs and
by which particular courts are eſtabliſhed in all the tenſion ſufficient to ſuſtain the parts, no longer yield
maritime countries of Europe for the deciſion of this or give way to the efforts of the nutritious natter to
queſtion, whether lawful prize or not ? for this being extend them ; ſo that their farther accretion is ſtop-
a queſtion between ſubjects of different ſtates, it be- ped, from the very law of their nutrition. Adoleſcence
longs entirely to the law of nations, and not to the is commonly computed to be between 15 and 25, or e-
municipal laws of either country, to detetermine ven 30 years of age; though in different conſtitutions
it.
its terms are very different. -The Romans uſually
Court of ADMIRALTY in Scotland. See LAW, Part reckoned it from 12 to 25 in boys; and to 21 in girls,
III. Nº clvii. 15.
&c. And yet, ainong their writers, juvenis and adoa
ADMIRALTY INands, lie in about 2° 18' S. Lat. and lefcens are frequently uſed indifferently for any perſon
16° 44' E. long. There are between 20 and 30 under 45 years.
iſlands ſaid to be ſcattered about here, one of which a ADOLLAM, or ODOLLAM (anc. geog.), a town :
lone would make a large kingdom. Captain Carterets in the tribe of Judah, to the eart of Eleutheropolis.
who firſt diſcovered them, was prevented touching at
David is ſaid to have hid himſelf in a cave near this
them, although their appearance was very inviting, on town, (Bible.)
account of the condition of his ſhip, and of his being ADON, a populous village in the province of Stahl-
entirely unprovided with the articles of barter which Weiſſenberg, belonging to Hungary. It lies in a
ſuit an Indian trade. He deſcribes them as clothed fruitful country, towards the river Danube. Long.
with a beautiful verdare of woods, lofty and luxuriant, 19. 20. Lat. 47. 30.
interſperſed with ſpots that have been cleared for plan ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being
tations, groves of cocoa nut-trees, and houſes of the in the ſcriptures. The proper meaning of the word is
natives, who ſeem to be very numerous. The largeſt of my lords, in the plural number ; as Adoni is my lord, in
theſe iſlands is 18 leagues long in the direction of caſt the fingular. The Jews, who either out of reſpect, or
and weſt. The diſcoverer thinks it highly probable ſuperſtition, do not pronounce the name of Jehovah,
that theſe iſlands produce ſeveral valuable articles of read Adonai in the room of it, as often as they meet
trade, particularly ſpices, as they lie in the fame clj. with Jehovah in the Hebrew text. But the ancient
mate and latitude as the Moluccas.
Jews were not ſo fcrupulous; nor is there anylaw which
ADMONITION, in eccleſiaſtical affairs, a part of forbids them to pronounce the name of God. Calmet.
diſcipline much uſed in the ancient church. It was the ADONIA, in antiquity, folemn feaſts in honour of
firſt act, or ſtep, towards the punishment or expulſion Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The
of delinquents. In caſe of private offences, it was per- Adonia were obſerved with great ſolemnity by moſt
formed according to the evangelical rule, privately; nations; Greeks, Phænicians, Lycians, Syrians, Egyp-
in caſe of public offence, openly, before the church. tians, &c. From Syria, they are ſuppoſed to have paf-
If either of thoſe ſufficed for the recovery of the fallen ſed into India. The prophet Ezekiel* is underſtood to *Ch. viii. 14. ;
perſon, all further proceedings in the way of cenſure fpeak of them. They were ſtill obferved at Alexandria
ceaſed : if they did not, recourſe was had to excom. in the time of St Cyril; and at Antioch inthat of (ulian
inunication.
the apoſtate, who happened to enter that city during
ADMONITIO Fuſtiun, among the Romans, a military the ſolemnity, which was taken for an ill omen. The
puniſhment, not unlike our whipping, only it was per. Adonia laſted two days: on the firſt of which certain
formed with vine-branches.
images of Venus and Adonis were carried, with all the
ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cuſtoms, the pompand ceremonies practiſed at funerals; the women
reduction of the property of lands or teneinents to wept, tore their hair, bear their breaſts, &c. imitating
inortmain. See MoRTMAIN.
the cries and lamuiltations of Venus for the death of
ADNATA, in anatomy, one of the coats of the her paramour. This lamentation they called Afwidouoso
cye, which is alſo called conjunctiva and albuginea. The Syrians were not contented with weeping, but gave
ADNATA, is alſo uſed for any hair, wool, or the like, themſelves diſcipline, thaved their heads, &c. Among
which grows upon animals or vegetables.
the Egyptians, the queen herſelf uſed to carry theimage
ADNATA, or Adnafcentia, among gardeners, denote of Adonis in proceſſion. St Cyrilmentions an extraordi- .
thoſe off-ſets, which, by a new germination under the nary ceremony practiied by the Alexandaians: A letter
earth, proceed from the lily, narcillus, hyacinth, and, waswritten tothewomenof Bybulus,tainform then that
3
Adonis,
1
ware
)
A D 0
[ 120 ]
ADO
Adonides, Adonis was found agaia: this letter was thrown into has from five to fifteen oblong petals obtuſe and glof- Adoniſts
Adonis. llie ſea, which (it was pretended) did not fail punctual. fy. The jidinina conſiſt of very numerous, ſort, lub-
ly to convey it to By bulus in ſeven days; upon the re ulatea ular.cuts ; the antheræ are oblong and infleči. Adoption.
ceipt of which, the Byblian women ceaſed their inourn ed. 1 he pfiillum has numerous gerinina collected in
ing, ſung his praiſes, and made rejoicings as if he were a head; no styli ; the ftigmata acute and reflected.
raiſed to life again: Or rather, according to Meurlius, There is no pericarpium; the receptacle is oblong and
the two offices of mourning and rejoicing made two di. ſpiked. The ſeeds are numerous, irregular, angular,
ſtinct feaſts, which were held at diferent times of the gibbous at the baſe, reflected at the top, fumewhat
year, the one ſix months after the other; Adonis being prominent, and awnleſs.
fuppoſed to paſs half the year with Proferpine, and half Species. The moſt remarkable ſpecies are the follow-
with Venus.- The Egyptian Adonia are ſaid to have ing : 1. The annua, or common adonis, is a native of
been helfin memory of the death of Osiris; by others, Kent, where it is found in great plenty in the fielus ſown
of his ſickneſs and recovery. Billiop Patrick dates their with wheat. Its flowers a cofa beautiful ſcarlet colour,
origin from the ſlaughter of the firit-born under Mofes. and appear in the beginning of June ; the ſeeds ripen-
ADONIDES, in botany, a name given to Lotaniſts ing in Auguſt and September. Great quantities of
who deſcribed or made catalogues of plants cultivated theſe flowers are ſold in London, under the name of
in any particular place.
Red Morocco. 2. The æſtivalis, or annual adonis, with
ADONIS, ſon to Cinyras king of Cyprus, the dar- yellow flowers, grows much taller than the firſt, has its
ling of the goddeſs Venus: being killed by a wild boar leaves thinner ſet, and of a lighter colour. 3. The
in the Idalian woods, he was turned into a flower of a vernalis, or perennial adonis, grows naturally on the
blood-colour, ſuppoſed to be the Anemone. Venus mountains of Bohemia, Pruffia, and other parts of
was inconſolable; and no grief was ever more celebrated Germany. It flowers the latter end of March, or be-
than this, moſt nations having perpetuated the memory ginning of April ; the ſtalks riſe about a foot and a
*See Adoo of it by a train of anniverſary ceremonies*. Among half high ; and when the roots are large, and have ſtood
pia. Shakeſpeare's poems, is a long one on the ſubject of unrenoved for ſome years, they will put out a great
Venus's affection for Adonis.
number of ſtalks from each root; on the top of each of
The text of the vulgate in Ezekiel, viii. 14. ſays, theſe grows one large yellow flower. 4. The apennina,
that this prophet ſaw women ſitting in the temple, and is a native of Siberia and the Appenines.
weeping for Adonis : but according to the reading of Gulture. The firſt two ſpecies, being annual, muſt
the Hebrew text, they are ſaid to weep for Tammuz, be propagated from ſeeds, which ought to be ſown in
or the hidden one. Among the Egyptians, Adonis was autumn, fuon after they are ripe, or they will be in
adored under the name of Oſiris the huſband of Iſis. danger of not growing up that year. They thrive beſt
But he was ſometimes called by the name of Ammuz, in a light ſoil. The third and fourth ſpecies are like-
or Tammuz, the concealed, tó denote probably his wiſe to be propagated from ſeeds, which muſt be ſown
death or burial. The Hebrews, in deriſion, call himn in autumn, or they feldom ſucceed. When the plants
ſometimes the dead. Pfal. cvi. 28. and Lev. xix. 28. come up, they muſt be carefully kept clear from weeds;
becauſe they wept for him, and repreſented him as and in very dry weather their growth will be promoted
one dead in his coffin ; and at other times, they call by being now and then watered. They ſhould remain
him the image of jealouſy, Ezek. viii. 3. 5. becauſe in the place where they are fown till the ſecond year;
he was the object of the god Mars's jealouſy. The and be tranſplanted thence in autumn, to the place
Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians called him Ado- where they are to remain.
nis, and F. Calmet is of opinion, that the Ammonites ADONISTS, a ſect or party, among Divines and
and Moabites gave him the name of Baal-peor. See Critics, who maintain, that the Hebrew points ordina-
BAAL-PEOR.
rily annexed to the conſonants of the word Jehovah,are
ADONIS, Adonius, (anc. geog.); a river of Phoe not the natural points belonging to that word, nor ex-
nicia, riling in Mount Lebanon, and falling into preſs the true pronunciation of it ; but are the vowel-
the fea, after a north-weſt courſe, at Bybulus ; fa- points, belonging to the words Arlonai and Elohim, ap-
mous in fable, as a beautiful ſhepherd youth, (Virgil ;) plied to the conſonants of the ineffable name Jehovah :
ſon of Cynaras, kingof the Cyprians, loved by Venus, to warn the readers, that inſtead of the word Jehovah,
ſlain by a boar, and turned into a river. Theocritus la- which the Jews were forbid to pronounce, and the true
ments him dead in an idyllion, or rather ode, as did the pronunciation of which had been long unknown to
women yearly, when in flood time, the river rolled them, they are always to read Adonui. They are op-
down a red earth, which tinged its waters, deemed to poſed to Jehovills: of whom the principal are Druſius,
be his wound bleeding afreſh. In the Phoenician lan. Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland, who has pu-
guage Adan ſignifies a willow, and Adon lord, with. bliſhed a collection of their writings on this ſubject.
ihe ſaine radical letters. Hence itdsos Adovas, Salignus, ADOPTIANI, in church hiſtory, a ſect of ancient
and Kupas, or Kopes Adavis, for Kepsos. Adonidis horti, heretics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand of
are gardens beautifully arranged, but more adapted Toledo, wlio, towards the end of the eighth century,
for pleaſure than profit.
advanced the notion, that Jeſus Chriſt, in his human na-
ADONIS, Bird's-eye, or Pheaſants-eye ; a genus of ture, is the ſon of God, not by nature, but by adoption.
the polyandria order, belonging to the polygynia claſs ADOPTION, an act by which any one takes ano-
of piants. It is aſſociated with the Multiſiliquæ, or ther into his family, owns him for his ſon, and ap-
26th Nat. Order-The characters are ; The calyx is points him for his heir.
a perianthium, conſiſting of five obtuſe concave leaves, The cuſtom of adoption was very common among
ſomewhat coloured, and deciduous. The corolla the ancient Greeks and Romans: yet it was not prac-
tiſed,
A DO
A DO
i 121
121 )
ܪ
Adoption, tiled, but for certain cauſes expreſſed in the laws, and Belides the formalities preſcribed by the Romatlaw, Adoption.
with certain formalities uſual in ſuch caſes. It was a various other methods have taken place; which have
tort of imitation of nature, intended for the comfort given denominations to different ſpecies of adoption,
of thoſe who had no children : wherefore he that was among the Gothic nations, in different ages. As,
to adopt was to have no children of his own, and to be ADOFTION by arms, was when a prince made a pre-
paſt the age of geriing any; nor were eunuchs allow. fent of arms to a perſon, in conſideration of his mierit
ed to adopt, as being under an actual impotency of and valour. Thus it was that the king of the Heruli
begetting children; neither was it lawful for a young was adopted by Theodoric ; Athalaric
by the emperor
man to adopt an elder, becauſe that would have been Juſtinian; and Cofroes, nephew of the king of Perſia,
contrary to the order of nature ; nay, it was even re- by the emperor Juſtin.-The obligation here laid 0!
quired that the perſon who adopted ſhould be eighteen the adoptive ſon was, to protect and defend the father
years older than his adopted ſon, that there might at from injaries, affronts, &c. And lience, according to
leaſt appear a probability of his being the natural fa- Selden, the ceremony of dubbing knights took its orie
ther.
gin as well as name.
Among the Greeks it was called uiorns, filiation. It ADOPTION by baptiſm, is that ſpiritual affinity which
was allowed to ſuch as had no iſſue of their own ; ex- is contracted by god-fathers and god-children, in the
cepting thoſe who were not x upset EQUtwy, their own ma ceremony of baptiſın. This kind of adoption was in-
fers, e.ge llaves, women, inadmien, infants, or perſous troduced into the Greek church, and came afterwards
under twenty years of age ; who being incapable of in uſe among the ancient Franks, as appears by the
making wills, or managing their own eſtates, were not Capitulars of Charlemagne.
allowed to adopt heirs to them. Foreigners being in In reality, the god-father was ſo far conſidered as
capable of inheriting at Athens, if any ſuch were a- adoptive father, that his god-children were fuppoſed
dopted, it was neceſſary firſt to make them free of the to be intitled to a Mhare in the inheritance of his e.
city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the a- ftate.
dopted had his name enrolled in the tribe and ward of ADOPTION by hair, was performed by cutting off the
his new father ; for which entry a peculiar time was hair of a perſon, and giving it to the adoptive
father.
allotted, viz. the feſtival fapgunca. Topreventrah and It was thus that pope John VIII. adopted Bofon king
inconſiderate adoptions, the Lacedemonians had a law, of Arles; which perhaps is the only inſtance in hi-
that adoptions ſhould be tranſacted, or at leaſt confirm- ſtory, of adoption, in the order of the eccleſiaſtics ; &
ed, in the preſence of their kings. The children adopt- law that profeſſes to imitate nature, not daring to give
ed were inveſted with all the privileges, and obliged to children to thoſe in whom it would be thought a criine
perform all the duties, of natural children ; and being to beget any.
thus provided for in another family, ceaſed to have any Adoption by matrimony, is the taking the children
claim of inheritance, or kindred, in the family which of a wife or huſband, by a former marriage, into the
they had left, unleſs they firſt renounced their adop- condition of proper or natural children ; and admitting
tion; which, by the laws of Sulon, they were not al. them to inherit on the fame footing with thoſe of the
lowed to do, unleſs they had firſt begotten children, to preſent marriage. This is a pra&ice peculiar to the
bear the name of the perſon who had adopted them : Germans; among whon, it is more particularly knownı
thus providing againſt the rain of families, which would by the name of einkindſchaft; among their writers in
otherwiſe have been extinguiſhed by the deſertion of Latin, by that of unio proliun, or union of ilues. But
thoſe who had been adopted to preſerve them. If the the more accurate writers obſerve, that this is no adop-
children adopted happened to die without children, the tion. See ADFILIATION.
inheritance could not be alienated from the family into ADOPTION byteſtament, that performed by appointing
which they had been adopted, but returned to the re a perſon heir by will, on condition of his aſſuming the
lations of the adopter. It ſhould ſeem, that by the nanie, arms, &c. of the adopter. Of which kind we
Athenian law, a perſon, after having adopted another, meet with ſeveral inſtances in the Roman hiſtory.
was not allowed to marry without permiſſion from the Among the Turks, the ceremony of adoption is per-
magiſtrate : in effect, there are inſtances of perſons, formed by obliging the perſon adopted to paſs through
who being illuſed by their adoptive children, petition- the ſhirt of the adopter. Hence, among that people,
ed for ſuch leave. However this be, it is certain fome to adopt, is exprefled by the phraſe, to draw another
men married after they had adopted fons : in which through my shirt. It is ſaid, that ſomething like this
caſe, if they begat legitimate children, their eſtates has alſo been obſerved among the Hebrews; where the
were equally thared between the begotten and adopted. prophet Elijah adopted Eliſha for his ſon and ſucceſſor,
The Romans had two forms of adoption ; one be- and communicated to him the gift of prophecy, by
fore the prætor ; the other at an afſembly of the people, letting fall his cloak or mantle on him. But adoption,
in the times of the commonwealth, and afterwards by properly ſo called does not appear to have been prac-
a refcript of the emperor. In the former, the natural tiſed among the ancient Jews: Moſes ſays nothing of
father addreſſed himſelf to the prætor, declaring that it in his laws; and Jacob's adoption of his two grand-
he emancipated his ſon, reſigned all his authority over fons, Ephraim and Manaſſeh, is not ſo properly all
him, and conſented he ſhould be tranſlated into the fa- adoption, as a kind of ſubſtitution, whereby thefe two
mily of the adopter. The latter was practiſed, where ſóns of Joſeplı were allotted an equal portion in Iſrael
the party to be adopted was already free; and this was with his own fons.
called adrogation. The perſon adopted changed all ADOPTION is alſo uſed, in theology, fora federal act
his names; aſſuming the prename, name, and ſurname of God's free grace; whereby thoſe who are regene-
of the perſon who adopted him.
rated by faith, are admitted into his houſehold, and
VOL. I.
Q
intitled
1
ADO
[ 22 ]
A DO
Adoption intitled to a fare in the inheritance of the kingdom of to his lips, the fore-finger reſting on his thumb, which Adoration.
ll heaven.
was erect, and thus bowing his head, turned himſelf
Adoration.
ADOPTION is ſometimes alſo uſed, in ſpeaking of the round from left to right. The kiſs thus given was
ancient clergy, who had a cuſtom of taking a maid or called ofculum labratum ; for ordinarily they were afraid
widow into their houſes, under the denomination of to touch the images of their gods themſelves with their:
an adoptive, or ſpiritual filer or niece.
profane lips.. Sometimes, however, they would kiſs.
ADOPTION is alſo uſed in ſpeaking of the admiſſion their feet, or even knees, it being held an incivility to
of perſons into certain hoſpitals, particularly that of touch their inouths; ſo that the affair paiſed at ſome
Lyons; the adminiſtrators whereof have all the power diſtance. Saturn, however, and Hercules, were adored
and rights of parents over the children admitted.. with the head bare ; whence the worſhip of the laſt
ADOPTION is alſo uſed for the reception of a new a was called inſtitutum peregrinun, and ritus Græcani--
cadeny into the body of an old one. Thus
cus, as departing from the cuſtomary Roman method,
The French academy of Marſeilles was adopted by which was to facrifice and adore with the face veiled,
that of Paris ; on which account we find a volume of and the cloths drawn up to the ears, to prevent any
ſpeeches extant, made by ſeveral members of the aca interruption in the ceremony by the fight of unlucky
demy of Marſeilles, deputed to return thanks to that objects. The Jewiſh manner of adoration, was by
of Paris for the honour.
proſtration, bowing, and kneeling.-The Chriſtians
In a ſimilar ſenſe, adoption is alſo applied by the adopted the Grecian rather than the Roman method,
Greeks, to the admitting a monk, or brother, into a mo and adored always uncovered. The ordinary poſture
naſtic community : fometimes called
ſpiritual adoption of the ancient Chriſtians was kneeling, but on Sundays
ADOPTIVE, denotes a perſon or thing adopted by ſtanding : and they had a peculiar regard to the Eaſty,
another.
to which point they ordinarily directed their prayers..
Adoptive children, among the Romans,were on the ADORATION is more particularly uſed for the act of
fame footing with natural ones; and accordingly were praying, or preferring our requeſts or thankſgivings.
either to be inſtituted heirs, or expreſsly diſinherited, to Almighty God.
otherwiſe the teſtament was null. The emperor A ADORATION is alſo uſed for certain extraordinary
drian preferred adoptive children to natural ones ; be civil honours or reſpects which reſemble thoſe paid to
cauſe we chooſe the former, but are obliged to take the Deity, yet are given to men.
the latter at random.
The Perſian manner of Adoration, introduced by
M. Menage has publiſhed a book of eloges, or ver Cyrus, was by bending the knee, and falling on the
fes addreſſed to him; which he calls Liber Adoptivus, face at the prince's feet, ſtriking the earth with the
an adoptive book; and adds it to his other works. forehead, and kiſſing the ground. This ceremony,
Heinſus, and Furſtemburg of Munſter, liave likewiſe which the Greeks called 7 poorverv, Conon refuſed to
publiſhed adoptive books.
perform to Artaxerxes, and Caliſthenes to Alexander
In eccleſiaſtical writers we find adoptive women, or the Great, as reputing it impious and unlawful.
fifters, (adoptivæ fæminæ, or forores,) uſed for thoſe The Adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian
handmaids of the ancient clergy, otherwiſe called ſub- emperors conſiſted in bowing or kneeling at the prince's.
introducte.
feet, laying hold of his purple robe, and preſently with-
Adoptive arms are thoſe which a perſon enjoys by drawing the hand and clapping it to the lips. Some
the gift or conceſſion of another, and to which he was attribute the origin of this practice to Conſtantius. It
not otherwiſe intitled. They ſtand contradiſtinguiſh- was only perſons of ſome rank or dignity that were in-
ed from arms of alliance.
titled to the honour. Bare kneeling before the empe..
We fonetimes meet with adoptive hair, by way of ror to deliver a petition, was alfo called adoration.
oppoſition to natural hair ; and adoptive gods, by way The practice of adoration may be ſaid to be ſtill ſub-
of contradiſtinction to domeſtic ones. The Romans, fiſting in England, in the ceremony of kiſſing the king's
notwithſtanding the number of their domeſtic, had or queen's hand, and in ſerving them at table, both be-
their adoptive gods, taken chiefly from the Egyptians: ing performed kneeling.-
ſuch were Iſis, Oſiris, Anubis, Apis, Harpocrates, and ABORATION is more particularly uſed for kiflingone's
Canopus.
hand in prefence of another, as a token of reverence.
ADORATION, the act of rendering divine ho- The Jews adored by kiſſing their hands and bowing
nours; or of addreſſing a being, as ſuppoſing it a down their heads; whence, in their language, kiſing is
god. The word is compounded of ad to;' and os, properly uſed for adoration.'
oris,“mouth ;" and literally ſignifies, to apply the hand ADORATION is alſo uſed among Roman writers for
to the mouth ; Manum ad os admovere, q.d.“ to kiſs a high ſpecies of applauſe given to perfons, who had
the hand;" this being, in the eaſtern countries, one of ſpoken or performed well in public. (See ACCLAMA-
the great marks of reſpect and ſubmiſſion.--The Ro- tion.) We meet with adoration paid to orators, ac-
mans practiſed adoration at ſacrifices, and other fo- tors, muſicians, &c. The method of expreſſing it was,
lemnities ; in paſſing by temples, altars, groves, &c.; by riſing, putting both hands to their mouth, and then
at the ſight of ſtatues, images, or the like, whether returning them towards the perſon intended to be ho-
of ſtone or wood, wherein any thing of divinity was
ſuppoſed to reſide. Uſually there were images of the ADORATION is alſo uſed, in the court of Rome,
for
gods placed at the gates of cities, for thoſe who went the ceremony of kiffing the pope's feet.-The intro-
in or out, to pay their reſpects to.-The ceremony of duction of adoration among the Romans is aſcribed to
adoration among the ancient Romans was thus: The the low flattery of Vitellius, who, upon the return of C.
devotee having his head covered, applied his right hand Cæfar from Syria, would not approach him otherwiſe
than
>
1
noured.
A DO
( 123 )
ADR
Аоха.
Adoration than with his head covered, turning himſelf round,and ROOT, or INGLORIOUS; a genus of the tetragynia or. Ad Ponchers
then falling on his face. Heliogabulus reſtored the der, belonging to the octandria claſs of plants. In Omnium,
i
practice, and Alexander Severus again prohibited it. the natural method it belongs to the 13th order, or
Adranuik.
Diocleſian redemanded it; and it was, in fonie meaſure, Succulent a.–The characters of this genus are : The
continued under the ſucceeding princes, even after the calyx is a perianthium beneath, divided into two ſeg-
eſtabliſhment of Chriſtianity, as Conſtantine, Conſtan- ments, flat, perſiſtent. The corolla is compoſed of one
tius, &c. It is particularly ſaid of Diocleſian, that he flat petal, divided into four ovate acute ſegments long-
had gems faſtened to his floes, that divine honours er than the calyx. The ſtamina conſiſt of eight ſubu-
might be more willingly paid him, by kiſſing his feet. lated filaments the length of the calyx; with roundih
The like uſage was afterwards adopted by the popes, antheræ. The piſtillum has a germen bencath the
and is obſerved to this day. Theſe prelates, finding a receptacle of the corolla ; four ſimple, erect, perfift-
vehement diſpoſition in the people to fall down before ent ſtyli, the length of the ſtainina ; and ſimple ſtig-
them and kiſs their feet, procured crucifixes to be fa- mata. The pericarpium is a globular four-celled berry
ftened on their ſlippers ; by which ſtratagem, the ado- between the calyx and the corolla. The
ſeeds are ſo-
ration intended for the pope's perſon is ſuppoſed to be litary and compreſſed.
transferred to Chriſt. Divers acts of this adoration we There is but one ſpecies, which is a native of the
find offered even by princes to the pope.
woods in Britain, and ſeveral parts of Europe : it is a
ADORATION is alſo uſed for a method of electing a very low plant, ſeldom riſing more than four or five
pope. The election of popes is performed two ways; inches high ; the leaves reſemble thoſe of bulbous fu-
by adoration and by Scrutiny. In election by adora- mitory; the flower-ſtalk ariſes immediately from the
tion, the cardinals ruſh haftily, as if agitated by ſome root, on the top of which grow four or five ſmall
ſpirit, to the adoration of ſome one among them, to flowers of an herbaceous white colour, which appear in
proclaim him pope. When the election is carried by the beginning of April, and the berries ripen in May,
ſcrutiny, they do not adore the new pope till he is pla. ſoon after which, the leaves decay. The herb may be
ced on the altar.
procured by tranſplanting the roots any time after the
Barbarous ADORATION is a term uſed, in the laws of leaves decay, till winter. They muſt be planted in the
king Canute, for that performed after the manner of ſhade, under ſhrubs; for they will not thrive if expoſed
the heathens who adored idols. The Romiſh church is to the ſun. The leaves and flowers ſmell like muſk,
charged with the adoration of ſaints, martyrs, images, from whence it has by ſome been called muſk-crowfoot.
crucifixes, relics, the virgin, and the hoſt; all which by AD PONDUS OMNIUM, among phyſiciants, on abbre-
Proteſtants are generally aggravated into idolatry, on viation in their preſcriptions, ſignifying that the laſt
a ſuppoſition, that the honour thus paid to them is ab- mentioned ingredient is to weigh as much as all the
folute and ſupreme, called by way of diſtinction Latria, reſt together.
which is due only to God. Roman-catholics, on the AD Quod Damnum, in the Engliſh law, a writ di-
contrary, explain them as only a relative or ſubordi- rected to the ſheriff, commanding him to inquire into
nate worſhip, called Dulia and Hyperdulia, which ter the damage which may befal from granting certain
minates ultimately in God alone. But may not the privileges to a place, as a fair, a market, or the like.
ſame be ſaid of the idol-worſhip of the heathens ? . ADRACHNE, in botany, a ſpecies of the ſtraw-
The Phæcinians adored the winds, on account of the berry-tree. See ARBUTUS.
terrible effects produced by them; the fame was adopt ADRAMELECH, one of the gods of the inha-
ed by moſt of the other nations, Perſians, Greeks, bitants of Sepharvaim, who were ſettled in the country
Romans, &c. The Perſians chiefly paid their adora- of Samaria, in the room of thoſe Ifraelites who were
tions to the fun and fire ; fome ſay alſo to rivers, the carried beyond the Euphrates. The Sepharvaites made
wind, &c. The motive of adoring the ſun was the their children paſs through the fire, in honour of this
benefits they received from that glorious luminary, idol and another called Anamelech.' It is ſuppoſed,
which of all creatures has doubtleſs the beſt preten- that Adrammelech meant the ſun, and Anamelech the
ſions to ſuch homage.
moon : the firſt ſignifies the magnificent king ; the fe-
ADOR EA, in Roman antiquity, a word uſed in cond the gentle king.
different ſenſes ; ſometimes for all manner of grain, ADRĂMYTTIUM (anc. geog.), now Andramiti ;
-- fonietiines for a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and a town of Myſia Major, at the foot of mount Ida, an
offered in ſacrifice ; and finally for a dole or diſtribu- Alhenian colony, with a harbour and dock near the
tion of corn, as a reward for ſome ſervice; whence by Caicus. Adramyttenus the epithet; as Adramyttenus
metonymy it is put for praiſe or rewards in general. Sinus, a part of the Egean Sea, on the coaſt of Myſia ;
ADOSCULATION, a term uſed by Dr Grew, to Adramyttenus Convenus, ſeſſions or affizes. The eighth
imply a kind of impregnation, without intromiffion in order of the nine Conventus Juridici of the province
and in this manner he ſuppoſes the impregnation of of Aſia.
plants is affected by the falling of the farina fæcundans ADRANA, a river of Germany,(Polybius): now
on the piſtil.
the Eder, riſing on the borders of the county of Naf-
ADOSEE, in heraldry, ſignifies two figures or fau, to the North-eaſt of, and not far from Dillenburg,
bearings being placed back in back,
running through the landgraviate of Helle, the county
ADOUR, the name of a river in France, which riſes of Waldeck, by Fritzlar, and then again through the
in the mountains of Bigorre, and running N.by Tarbes landgraviate, and, together with the Fulda, falling in-
through Gaſcony, afterwards turns E, and, paſſing by to the Weſer, to the ſoutlı of, and not far from Caiſel.
Dax. falls into the bay of Biſcay, below Bayonne. ADRANUM, or HADRANUN, (anc. gcog.), nov
ADOXA, TUBEROUS MOSCHATEL, HOLLOW. Aderno; a town of Sicily, built by the clder Dionyfius,
2.2
3
A DR
( 124 )
A DR
3
Adrafea at the foot of mount Ætna, (Diodorus Siculus), four rigin, is on coins and, ſtones Hadrianus; but if from Adrian.
1 hundred years before Chriſt. So called from the tenie the town in the territory of Venice, as the more an-
Adrianun. ple of Adranus, or Hadranus, a god much worſhipped cient, and of which that of the Piceni is a colony, this
by the Sicilians; with a river of the ſame name, (Ste- will juſtify the common appellation Adriaticum.
phanus,) now Fiume d'Aderno. The inhabitants, ADRIAN, or bŁADRLAN, (Publius Ælius), the
Hadrantani, and Adranite.
Roman emperor. He was born at Rome the 24th of
ADRASTEA, in antiquity, an epithet given to the January, in the 76th year of Chriſt. His father lefthim
goddeſs Nemefis, or Revenge. It was taken from king an orphan, at ten years of age, under the guardian-
Adraſtus, who firſt erected a temple to that deity. fhip of Trajan, and.Cælius: Tatianus a Roman knight.
A DRASTIA Gertamına, in antiquity, a kind of Py. He began to ſerve very early in the armies, having beeil
thian games, inſtituted by Adraſtus king of. Argos, in tribune of a legion before the death of Domitian. He
the year of the world 2700, in honour of Apollo, at was the perſon choſen by the army of Lower Moelia,
Sicyon. Theſe are to be diſtinguiſhed from the Py to carr.y. the news of Nerva's death to Trajan, fuccef-
thian games celebrated at Delphi.
for to the empire. He accompanied Trajan in moſt of
ADRASTUS, king of Argos, ſon of Talaus and his expeditions, and particularly diſtinguiſhed himſelf
Lyfianiſta, daughter of Polybius king of Sicyon, ac in the ſecond war againſt the Daci; and having before
quired great honour in the famous war of Thebes, in been quæſtor, as well as tribune of the people, he was
ſupport of Polynices his ſon-in-law, who had been ex now ſucceſſively prætor, governor of Pannonia, and
cluded the ſovereignty of Thebes-by Eteocles his bro conſul. After the liege of Atra in. Arabia was raiſed,
ther, notwithſtanding their reciprocal agreement. Trajan, who had already given him, the government of
Adraſtus, followed by Polynices and Tydeus his.other Syria, left him the command of the army; and at
ſon-in-law, by Capanens and Hippomedon his ſiſter's length, when he found death approaching, it is ſaid be
fons, by Amphiaraus his brother-in-law, and by Par- adopted him. Adrian, who was then in Antiochia,
thenopaus, marched againſt the city of Thebes; and as ſoon as he received the news thereof, and of Tra-
this is the expedition of the Seven Worthies, which jan's death, declared himſelf emperor,, on the IIth of
the poets have ſo often ſung. They all loſt their lives Auguſty. 117. No ſooner had he arrived at the im-
in this war, except Adraſtus, who was ſaved by his perial dignity, then he made peace with the Perfians,
horſe called Arion. This war was revived ten-years to whom he yielded up a.great part of the conqueſts of
after by the fons of thoſe deceaſed warriors, which his predeceſſors; and from generoſity; or policy, he
was called the war of the Epigones, and ended with remitted, the debts-of the Roman people, which, ac-
the taking of Thebes. None of them loſt their lives cording to the calculation of thoſe who have reduced
except Ægialeus ſon of Adraſtus ; which afflicted him them to modern moneyi, amounted to 225500,000 gol-
ſo much that he died of grief in Megara, as he was den crowns; and he burnt all the bonds and obliga-
leading back his victorious arny.
tions relating to thoſe debts, thatthe people might be
ADRAZZO, or AJACCIO. The ſame with Ad- under no apprehenſions of being called to an account
JAZZO.
ADRIA, or HADRIA (anc. geog), the name of two ration of this fact, in which he is repreſented holding
towns in Italy. One in the country of the Veneti, on a flambeau in his hand; to ſer fire to all thoſe bonds
the river Tartarus, between the Padus and the Athe. which he had made. void. He went to viſit all the pro-
fis, called Atria by Pliny and Ptolemy, but Adrias by vinces; and did not return to Rame till the year 118;
Strabo. Another on the river Vomanus, in the ter when the ſenate decreedhim atriumph, and honoured
ritory of the Piceni, (to which Antonine's Itinerary him with the title of Father of his country;; but lie
from Rome is directed), the country of the anceſtors refuſed both, and deſired that Trajan's image might
of the emperor Adrian. From which of theſe the Ad. triumph. No prince travelled more than Adrian;
riatic ſea is denðminated, is matter of doubt. A there being hardly one province in the empire which
ļhird opinion is, that it is ſo called from Adrias he did not viſit. In 120 he went into Gaul; from
the ſon of Joan, of Italian origin ; (Euſtathius in thence he went over to Britain, in order to ſubdue
Dionyfium.)
the Caledonians, who were making continual inroads
ADRIANUM (or ADRIATICUM) MARE (anc. into the provinces. Upon his arrival they retired to-
geog.), now the gulf of Venice, a large bay in the Me- wards the north: he advanced however as far as York,
diterranean, between Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Greece, and where he was diverted from his intended conqueſt by
Italy. It is called by the Greeks, Aspias Kontos; and the deſcription ſome old ſoldiers he found there, who
Adria by the Romans, (as Arbiter Adriæ Notus, Hor.) had ſerved under Agricola, gave him of the country.
Cicero-calls it Hadrianum Mare; Virgil has Hadrida In hopes, therefore, of keeping them quiet by erilar-
ticas Undas. It is commonly called Mare Adriaticum, ging their bounds, he delivered up to the Caledonians
without an aſpiration ; but whether it ought to have all the lands lying between the two Friths and the
one, is a diſpute: if the appellation is from Hadria, Tyne; and at the ſame time, to ſecure the Roman pro-
the town of the Piceni, it muſt be written Hadriuticum, vinces from their future incurſions, built the famous
becauſe the emperor's name, who thence derives his o- wall which ſtill bears his name (A). Having thus ſet-
tled
(A) This work, though called by the Roman hiſtorians murus, which fignifies a wall of ſtone, was only
compoſed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried on from the Solway Frith, a little weſt of the
village of Burgh on the Sands, in as direct a line as poſſible, to the river Tyne on the eaſt, at the place where
the
A DR
A DR
[ 125
I 25 ]
Adriar. tled marters in Britain, he returned to Rome, where mory. He underſtood the ſciences perfectly well; but Adrian.
he was honoured with the title of Reſtorer of Britain, was very jealous of others who excelled in them. He
as appears by: ſome medals. He ſoon after went into was alſo crnel, envious, and laſcivious. Antoninus his
Spain, to Mauritania, and at length into the Eaſt, ſucceſſor obtained his apotheolis; and prevented there-
where he quieted the commotions raiſed by the. Par- ſciſſion of his acts, which the ſenate once intended.
thians. After having viſited allthe provinces of Alia, ADRIAN IV. (Pope), the only Engliſhman who
he returned to Athens in 125, where he paſſed the ever liad the bonour of fitting in the papal chair. His
winter:,, and was initiated in the myſteries of Eleuſi name was Nicholas Brekeſpere ; and he was born at
nian Ceres. He went from thience to Sicily, chiefly to Langley, near St Alban's, in Hertfordſhire. His
view mount Ætna, contemplate its phenomena, and father having left liis family, and taken the habit of
enjoythe beautiful and extenſive proſpect afforded from the monaſtery of St Alban's, Nicholas was obliged to
its top: He returned to Rome the beginning of the ſubmit to the loweſt offices in that houſe for daily fiip-
year 1:29.; and, according to fome, he went again, the port. After ſome time, he deſired to take the habit in
ſame year, wo Africa ; and, after his return from that monaſtery, but was rejected by the abbot Richard, .
thence, to the Eaſt. He was in Egypt in the year Upon thishe veſolved to try his fortune in another coun-
132, reviſited: Syria the year following, returned to try, and accordingly went to Paris ; where, though in
Athens in: 1349, and to Rome in 135. The perfecu- very poor circumftances, he applied himſelf to his
tion against the Chriſtians was very violent under his ſtudies with great aſſiduity, and made a wonderful pro-
reign ; but it was ar length ſuſpended, in confequence ficiency. But having ſtill a ſtrong inclination to a re-
of the remonſtrances of Quadrat biſhop of Athens, ligious life, he left Paris, and removed to Provence,
and Ariſtides, two Chriſtian philoſophers, who pre- where lie became a regular clerk in the monaſtery of
ſented the emperor with ſonic books in favour of the St Rufus. He was no immediately allowed to take
Chriſtian religion. He conquered the Jews; and, by the habit ; but paſſed ſome time, by way of trial, in re-
way, of inſulo, erected a.temple to Jupiter on Calvary, commending himſelf to the monks by a ſtrict attention
and placeda ftatue of Adonis in themanger of Bethle- to all their commands. This behaviour, together with
hem; he cauſed alſo the images of ſwine to be engra- the beauty of his perſon, and prudent converſation,
ven on the gatos.of Jeruſalem. At laſt he was ſeized rendered him fo acceptable to thoſe religious, that af-
with a dropſy, which vexed him to ſuch a degree, ter ſome time they intreated hiin to take the habit of
that he
became alinoſt raving mad. A great number the canonical order. Here he diſtinguiſhed himſelf ſo
of phyſicians were ſent for, and to the multitude of much by his learning and ſtrict obſervance of the mo-
chem he aſcribed his death. He died at Baiæ in the naftic diſcipline, that, upon the death of the abbot, he
638 year of his age, having reigned 21 years. The was choſen ſuperior of that houſe ; and we are told
Latin verſes (B.): he addreſſed to his foul have been that he rebuilt that couivent. Pope Eugenius III.
much criticiſed and variouſly interpreted. There are being appriſed of the great merit of Nicholas, and
ſome fragments of his Latin poems extant, and there thinking he might be ſerviceable to the church in 2
are Greek verſes of his in the Anthology. He alſo higher ſtation, created him cardinal-biſhop of Alba
wrote the hiſtoryof his own life: to which, however, in 1146. In 1148, his Holineſs ſent him legate to
he did not choſe to put his name ; but that of Phlegon, Denmark and Norway; where, by his fervent preach-
one of his freed-men, a very learned perſon, was pre- ing and diligent inſtructions, he converted thoſe bar-
*Vide Spar- fixed to iti*. He had great wit, and an extenſive me barous nations to the Chriſtian faith; and erected Up-
fat
tan, in Adri-
ano.
the town of Newcaſtle now ſtands ; ſo that it muſt have been above 60 Engliíh, and near 70 Roman miles in
length. It conſiſted of four parts: 1. The principal agger, mound of earth, or rampart, on the brink of the
ditch. 2. The ditch on the north ſide of the rampart. 3. Another rampart on the ſouth ſide of the principal
one, about five paces diſtant from it. 4. A large rampart on the north ſide of the ditch. This laſt was pro-
bably the military way to the line of forts on this work: it was ſo to thoſe formerly built by Agricola ; and if
it did not ſerve the fame purpoſe in this, there muſt have been no military way attending it.--The fouth ram-
part might-ſerve for an inner defence in caſe the enemy friould beat them from any part of the principal ram-
part, or it might be deſigned to protect the ſoldiers from any ſudden attack of the provincial Britons. For
many ages, this work hath been in ſo ruinous a condition, that it is impoſſible to diſcover its original dimen-
ſions with certainty. From their appearance, it ſeems probable that the principal rampart was at leaſt 10 or
12 feet high, and the ſouth one not much leſs; but the north one was conſiderably lower. From the dimen-
lions of the ditch taken as it paſſes through a lime-ſtone quarry near Harlow-hill, it appears to have been 9 feet
deep, and I wide at the top, but ſomewhat narrower at the bottom. The north rampart was about 20 feet
diſtant from the ditch.
(B) The verſes are theſe:
Animula vagula, blandula,
Hofpes, comefque corporis,
Quæ nunc, abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nec, ut foles, dabis jacos ?
Thus tranſlated by Mr Pope :
Ah ! fleeting ſpirit! wand'ring fire,
That long haſt warm'd my tender breaft,
Muſt thou no more this frame inſpire ?
No more a pleaſing cheerful gueſt
Whither, ah whither art thou flying?
To what dark undiſcover'd ſhore?
Thou ſeem'ft all trembling, ſhiv'ring, dying,
And wit and humour are no more!
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1 26 ]
Adrian. fal into an archiepiſcopal ſee. When he returned to this, made his eſcape, and it could never be known Adrian
Rome, he was received by the pope and cardinals with exactly what was become of him. He was one of the i
great marks of honour and Pope Anaftafius, who firſt that effectually reformed the Latin ſtyle. He ftu- Adrianople
ſucceeded Eugenius, happening to die at this time, died Cicero with great ſucceſs, and made many excel-
Nicholas was unanimouſly choſen to the holy fee, in lent obſervations on the propriety of the Latin tongue.
November 1154, and he took the name of Adrian. The treatiſe he compoſed De fermone Latino, is a proof
When the news of his promotion reached England, of this. He had begun a Latin tranſlation of the old
King Henry II. fent Robert abbot of St Alban's, and Teſtament. He wrote De vera philofophia: This trea-
three biſhops, to Rome, to congratulate him on his tiſe was printed at Cologn 1548. -
election ; upon which occafion Adrian granted very ADRIAN VI. (Pope), was born at Utrecht in
conſiderable privileges to the monaſtery of St Alban's, 1459. His father was not able to maintain him at
particularly an exemption from all epiſcopal juriſdic- ſchool, but he got a place at Louvain, in a college
tion, excepting to the fee of Rome. Adrian, in the in which a certain number of ſcholars were maintained
beginning of his pontificale, boldly withſtood the at- gratis. It is reported that he uſed to read in the night-
tempts of the Roman people to recover their ancient time by the light of the lamps in the churches or
liberty under the confuls, and obliged thoſe magiſtrates ſtreets. He made a conſiderable progreſs in all the
to abdicate their authority, and leave the government Sciences; led an exemplary life ; and there never was
of the city to the pope.
In 1155, he drove the he a man leſs intriguing and forward than he was. He
retic Arnaud of Breffe, and his followers, out of took his degree of do&or of divinity at Louvain ; was
Rome. The faine year he excommunicated William ſoon after made canon of St Peter's, and profeſſor of
king of Sicily whoravaged the territories of thechurch, divinity at Utrecht, and then dean of St Peters and
and abſolved that prince's ſubjects from their allegi- vice-chancellor of the univerſity. He was obliged to
ance. About the ſame time, Frederic king of the Ro leave an academic life, to be tutor - to the archduke
mans, having entered Italy with a powerful army, A. Charles. This young prince made no great progreſs
drian met him near Sutrium, and concluded a peace under him : however, never was a tutor more conifi-
with him. At this interview, Frederic conſented to derably rewarded ; for it was by Charles V.'s credit he
hold the pope's ſtirrup whilſt he mounted on horſe was raiſed to the papal throne. Leo X. had given him
back. After which, his holineſs conducted that prince the cardinal's hat in 15:17. After this pope's death,
to Rome, and in St Peter's church placed the imperial ſeveral cabals in the conclave ended in the election of..
crown on his head, to the great mortification of the Adrian, with which the people of Rome were very
Roman people, who aſſembled in a tumultuous man much diſpleaſed. He would not change his name,
ner, and killed ſeveral of the Imperialiſs. The next and in every thing he ſhowed a great diſike for all of
year a reconciliation was brought about between the tentation and ſenſual pleaſures, though ſuch an averſion
pope and the Sicilian king, that prince taking an oath had been long ago out of date. He was very partial
to do nothing farther to the prejudice of the church, to Charles V. and did not enjoy much tranquillity un-
and Adrian granting him the title of king of the two Si- der the triple crown. He lamented much the wicked
cilies. He built and fortified ſeveral caſtles, and left the morals of the clergy, and wiſhed to eſtabliſh a refor-
papal dominions in a more flouriſhing condition than he mation of manners among them. He died Sept. 14.
found them. But notwithſtanding all his ſucceſs, he was 1523
extremely ſenſible of the difquietudes attending fo high ADRIANI (Joanni Batiſta), was born of a patrici-
IA
a ſtation, and declared to his countryman John of Sa an family at Florence, in 1511. He wrote a Hiſtory of
liſbury, that all the former hardſhips of his life were his own Times in Italian; which is a continuation of
mere amuſement to the misfortunes of the popedom: Guicciardini, beginning at the year 1536 ; to which
that he looked upon St Peter's chair to be the moſt Thuanus acknowledges himſelf greatly indebted : be-
uneaſy ſeat in the world; and that his crown ſeemed ſide which, he compoſed fix funeralorations,on the em-
# Baronius to be clapped burning on his head*. He died Septem- peror Charles V. and other noble perſonages, and is
Annal.tom ber 1. 1159, in the fourth year and tenth month of his thought to have been the author of a long letter on an
xii.an.1154 pontificate ; and was buried in St Peter's church, near cient painters and ſculptors, prefixed to the third vo-
the tomb of his predeceſſor Eugenius. There are cx lume of Vaſari. He died at Florence in 1579.
tant ſeveral letters, and ſome homilies, written by Pope ADRIANISTS, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, a ſect of
Adrian.
heretics divided into two branches; the firſt were diſ-
ADRIAN, cardinal-prieſt, of the title of St Chry- ciples of Simon Magus, and flouriſhed about the year
fogonus, was a native of Cornetto in Tuſcany. Inno- 34. Theodoret is the only perſon who has preſerved
cent VIII. ſent him nuncio into Scotland and into their name and memory ; but he gives us no account
France; and after he had been clerk and treaſurer of of their origin. Probably this ſect, and the ſix others
the apoſtolic chamber, pope Alexander VI. whoſe fe- which ſprung from the Simonians, took their name
cretary he had been, honoured him with the cardinal's from the particular diſciples of Sinion. The ſecond
hat. His life was a continucd ſcene of odd alterations. were the followers of Adrian Hamſtead, the anabaptiſt;
He narrowly eſcaped death the day Alexander VI. poi- and held fome particular errors concerning Chriſt.
foned himſelf by miſtake. Afterward he drew upon ADRIANOPLE, a city of Turkey in Europe, íız
himſelf the hatred of Julius II. ſo that he was obliged the province of Romania, and the fee of an archbiſhop
to go and hide hiinfelfin the mountains of Trent. Ha under the patriarch of Conſtantinople. It is about ſe-
ving been recalled by,Leo X. he was foungrateful, that ven or eight miles in circumference, including theold
he engaged in a conſpiracy againſt him. The pope par- city and ſome gardens. The moſques and other pu-
doned this fuxle, but the cardinal, not caring to truſt to blic buildings are built of ſtone, and are very elegant:
but
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A D V
Adrogatiun but private houſes in general are meanly built; and the ADVANCED Guard, or Vanguard, in the art of war, Advanced
ſtreets are exceeding dirty. The walls and towers are the firſt line or diviſion of an army, ranged or march I
Advanced.
Adventure
in a great meaſure fallen to decay. However, there is ing in order of battle ; or, it is that part which is next
Bay.
a beautiful bazar, or market, half a mile long, called the enemy, and marches firſt towards them.
Ali Balla. It is a vaſt arched building, with fix gates, Advanced Guard, is more particularly uſed for a
and 365 well-furniſhed ſhops, kept by Turks, Arme ſmall party of horſe ſtationed before the main-guard.
nians, and Jews, who pay five crowns a-month for. ADVANCER, among ſportſmen, one of the ſtarts
cach ſhop.. The number of inhabitants of all nations or branches of a buck's attire, between the back antler
and religions may be about 100,000 : proviſions are
and the palm.
plenty, and living cheap. The air is wholeſome, and ADUAR, in the Arabian and Mooriſh cuſtoms, a
the country very pleaſant in ſummer, on account of kind of ambulatory village, confifting of tents, which
the river and ſtreams that run near and about the city; theſe people remove from one place to another, as ſuits
the chief of which is the Mariza. Theſe promote their conveniency:
and preſerve the verdure of the gardens, meadows, and ADVENT, in the calendar, properly ſignifies the
fields, for a conſiderable part of the year. In the win. approach of the feaſt of the nativity. It includes four
ter there is plenty of game. Near the principal ba- Sundays, which begin on St Andrew's day, or on the
zar there is another, about a mile in length, covered Sunday before or after it. During advent, and to the
with boards, with holes on each ſide to let in the light. end of the octaves of epiphany, the ſolemnizing of
It is full of good ſhops, which contain all kinds of marriage is forbid without a ſpecial licence. It is ap-
con modities. Sultan Selim's inoſque ſtands on the pointed to employ the thoughis of Chriſtians on the
Aide of a hill, in the midſt of the city; and hence this 'firſt advent or coming of Chriſt in the fiefh, and his
magnificent ſtructure may be ſeen on all ſides. Every ſecond advent or coming to judge the world. The pri-
thing made of gold and ſilver, jewels, piſtols, ſcine mitive Chriſtians practifed great auſterity during this
tars, &c. are ſold in another part of the city, called ſeaſon.
by travellers the bizeftein, though it differs little from AD VENTREM INSPICIENDUM, in law, a writ by
a bazar. This contains about 200 ſhops, and is co which a woman is to be ſearched whether ſhe be with
vered like the former: but the covering is ſupported child by a former huſband, on her with-holding of
by two rows of large pillars. The grand viſier's pa lands from the next, failing iſſue of her own body.
lace is nothing more than a covenient houſe, after the ADVENTURE, in a general ſenſe, ſome extraor--
Turkiſh manner of building. The emperor's ſeraglio dinary or accidental event. It alſo denotes a hazardous
isa regular ſtructure, in a plain near the river Tungia. or difficult undertaking.
It is two miles in compaſs, and has ſeven gates, be Bill of ADTENTURE, among merchants, a writing
ſides thoſe of the gardens, which are ſeveral miles in ſigned by a merchant, teſtifing the goods mentioned
circumference. Thecity is governed by a mullah cadi, in it to be ſhipped on board a certain yeſſel belonging
who has an abſolute authority both in civil and crimi to another perſon, who is torun all hazards; the mer-
nal matters. In the time of the plague, or war,
the chant only obliging himſelf to account to him for the
grand fignior has ſometimes refided here. The Turks produce.
took this city from the Greeks in 1362, and made it ADVENTURE-Bay, in Van Diemen's land. There is
the capital of the einpire, till Mahomet II. took Con a beautiful ſandy beach*, about two miles long, at the * Cook's
ftantinople in 1453. E. Long. 26. 27. Lat. 41. 41. bottom of Adventure Bay, formed to all appearance laſt voyage
ADROGATION, in Ronian antiquities, a fpecies by the particles which the fea waſhes from a fine white B. i. ch. 6.
of adoption, whereby a perſon who was capable of fand-ſtone. This beach is very well adapted for haul-
chooling for himſelf was admitted by another into the ing a feine. Behind it is a plain, with a brackilh
relation of a fon. The word is compounded of ad, "to,” lake, out of which we caught, byangling, ſome bream
and rogare,'to aſk," on account of a queſtion put in the and troue. The parts adjoining the bay are moſtly
ceremony of it, whether the adopter would take ſuch hilly, and are an entire foreſt of tall trees, rendered
a perſon for his fon ? and another to the adoptive, whe almoſt impaffable by breaks of tern, thrubs, &c. The
ther he conſented to become ſuch a perſon's fon ? foil on the flat land, and on the lower part of the
ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which hills, is fandy, or conſiſts of a yellowiſh earth, and
the flamens fat during the ſacrifices.
in ſome parts of a reddiſh clay; but further up the
ADSTRICTION, among phyſicians, a term -uſed hills, it is of a grey tough caft.
hills, it is of a grey tough caſt. This country, upon
to denote the rigidity of any part.
the whole, bears nany marks of being very dry, and
ADUACA, or ATUACA, anciently a large and fa the heat appears to be great. No mineral bodies, nor
mous city of the Tungri ; now a ſmall and inconſider ſtones of any other kind but the white ſand-ſtone,
able village, called Tongeren, in the biſhopric of Liege, were obſerved by us ; nor couldwefind any vegetables
to the north-weſt of the city of Liege, in the ter. i that afforded ſubliſtence for man. The foreſt-trees.
tory of Haſpengow, on the rivulet Jecker, that foon are all of one kind, and generally quite ſtraight: they
after falls into the Maeſe. E. Long: 5.52. Lat. 50. 54. bear cluſters of ſmall white howers. The principal
ADVANCE, in the mercantile ſtyle, denotes mo plants obſerved, are wood-forrel, milk-wort, culweed,
ney paid before goods are delivered, work done, or bu- bell-flower, gladiolus, famphire, and ſeveral kinds of
fineſs performed.
fern : the only quadruped, a ſpecies of opolſum, about
ADVANCED, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſome twice the ſize of a lirge rat. The kangooroo, found
thing poſted or ſituated before another. Thus, further northward in New Holland, may alſo be ſup-
ADVANCED Ditch, in fortification, is that which fur- poſed to inhabit here, as ſome of the inhabitants had
rounds the glacis or eſplanade of a place.
pieces of the ſkin of that animal.
They
T
A DV
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A DU
)
3
Adventurer The principal forts of birds irrthe woods are brown ADVENSATOR, in antiquity, a fcrvant who at- Adverfitor
hawks or eagles, crows, large pigeons, yellowiſh pa tended the rich in returning from ſupper, to give them
Adverfa.
roquets, and a ſpecies which we called inotacilla ca. notice of any obſtacles in the way, at which they might Adultera-
tive.
nea, froin the beautiful azure colour of its head and be apt to ſtumble.
neck. On the fliore were ſeveral gulls, black oyſter ADVERTISEMENT, in a general ſenſe, denotes
catchers, or ſea-pies, and plovers of a ſtone-caloar. any information given to perſons intereſted in an affair;
Theinhabitants ſeemed mild and cheerful, with lite and is more particularly uſed for a brief account of an
tle of that wild appearance that ſavages in general affair inſerted in the public papers, for the information
have. They are almoſt totally devoid of perſonal ac of all concerned.
rivity or genius, and are nearly upon a par with the ADULA (anc. geog.), a mountain in Rbatia, or the
wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. They diſplay, country of the Griſons, part of the Alps, in which are
however, ſome contrivance in their method of cutting the fountains of the Rhine ; now St Godhards.
their arms and bodies in lines of different directions, ADULE, or ADULIS, (anc. geog:) a town of E-
raiſed above the ſurface of the ſkin. Their indiffer- gypt built by fugitive Naves, diftant from its port on
ence for preſents, their general inattention, and want the Red Sea 20 ftadia. Pliny calls the inhabitants
of curioſity, were very remarkable, and teſtified no Adulitae. The epithet is either Adulitanus; as, Monu-
acuteneſs of underſtanding. Their complexion is a mentum Adulitanum, on the pompous inſcription of the
dull black, which they ſometimes heighten by ſmut- ſtatue of Ptolemy Euergetes, publiſhed by Leo Alatius
ting their bodies, as was ſuppoſed, from their leaving at Rome in 1631, and to be found in Spon and Theve-
a mark behindon any clean ſubſtance. Their hair is not : Or, Adulicus; as Adulicus Sinus, a part of the
perfeâly woolly, and is clotted with greaſe and red Red Sea.
ochre, like that of the Hottentots. Their noſes are ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is
broad and full, and the lower part of the face projects arrived at maturity: Thus we ſay, an adult perſon, an
conſiderably. Their eyes are ofa moderate lize, and adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a youth
though they are not very quick or piercing, they give between 14 and 25 years of age.
the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleaſing caſt. ADULTERER, a man who commits adultery. See
Their teeth are not very white, nor well ſet, and their ADULTERY.
mouths are too wide: they wear their beards Jong, and ADULTERESS,a woman guilty of ADULTERY. An
clotted with paint. They are, upon the whole, well adultereſs, by the Engliſh law, undergoes no temporal
proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant. puniſhment whatever, except the loſs of her dower
Their favourite attitude is to ſtand with one ſide for and the does not loſe even that, if her huſband is weak
ward, and one hand graſping, acroſs the back, the enough to be reconciled to her, and cohabit with her
oppoſite arm, which, on this occaſion, hangs down by after the offence committed. 13 Ed. I. cap. 34.
the ſide that projects.
But it is to be obſerved, that adultereſſes are fuch
ADVENTURER, in a general ſenſe, denotes one either by the canon or civil law. According to the
who liazards fomething.
former, a woman is an adultereſs who, either being
ADVENTURERS, is particularly uſed for an ancient herſelf married, converſes carnally with another man;
company of merchants and traders, erected for the dif- gr being ſingle herſelf
, converſes with a man that is
covery of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. married. According to the latter, ſhe is not an adul.
The fociety of adventurers had its riſe in Burgundy, tereſs, if ſhe be not herſelf in the married ſtate, though
and its firſt eſtabliſhment from John Duke of Brabant ſhe converſes with a man that is. The crime, in this
in 1248, being known by the nanie of The brotherhood caſe, was more properly called ſtuprun than adulterium.
of St Thomas a Becket. It was afterwards tranſlated Hence, among the Romans, the word adultera “ a-
into England, and ſucceſſively confirmed by Edward dultereſs,” differed from pellex, which denoted a fin-
III. and IV. Richard III. Henry IV. V. VI. and gle woman who cohabited with a married man, and
VII. who gave it the appellation of Merchant Adven- pellex differed from concubina which fignified her who
turers.
had only intercourſe with an unmarried man. The
ADVERB, in grammar, a particle joined to a verb, former was reputed infamous, and the latter innocent.
adjective, or participle, to explain their manner of ac ADUTERATION, the act of debaſing, by an im-
ting or ſuffering; or to mark ſome circumſtance or proper mixture, ſomething that was pure and genu-
quality ſignified by them. The word is formed from ine.
the prepolition ad, « to,"and verbum, “a verb;'and The word is Latin, formed of the verb adulterare,
fignifies literally a word joined to a verb, to ſhow how, “ to corrupt,” by mingling ſomething foreign to any
when, or wherc, one is, does, or fufters; as, the boy, fubftance. There are in England laws againſt the a-
paints neatly, writes ill; the houſe ſtands there, &c. dulteration of coffee, tea, tobacco, ſnuff, wine, beer,
See GRAMMAR.
bread, wax, hair-powder, &c.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of ADULTERATION of Coin, properly imports the mak-
accounts, not unlike our journals or day-books. It is ing, or caſting of a wrong metal, or with too baſe or
more particularly uſed for a kind of common-place too much alloy.
book. See COMMON-PLACE-BOOK.
Adulterations of coins are effected divers ways; as,
ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word expreſſing by forging another ſtamp or inſcription ; by mixing
ſome difference between what goes before and what impure metals with the gold or ſilver : moſt properly,
follows it. Thus, in the phraſe, he is an honeſt man, by making uſe of a wrong metal, or an undue alloy,
but a great enthufiaft, the word but is an adverſative or too great an admixture of the baſer inetals with
conjunction.
gold or ſilver. Counterfeiting the ſtamp, or clipping
and
?
1
---
A DU
[ 129 )
ADU
commerce.
A
Adulterine and leffening the weight, do not fo properly come under Thera are varions conje&ures concerning the anci. Adaltery.
Adultery. the denomination of adulterating.-Evelyn gives rules ent puniſhnient of adultery among the Romans. Some
and methods, both of adulterating and detecting a will have it to have been made capital by a law of Ro-
dulterated metals, &c.- Adulterating is ſomewhat leſs mulus, and again by the twelve tables. Others, that
extenſive than debaſing, which includes diminiſhing, it was firſt made capital by Auguftus ; and others, not
clipping, &c.
before the emperor Conſtantine. The truth is, the pu-
To adulterate or debaſe the current coin, is a capi- niſhment in the early days was very various, much be-
tal crime in all nations.--The ancients puniſhed it with ing left to the difcretion of the huſband and parents of
great ſeverity: among the Egyptians both hands were the adulterous wife, who exerciſed it differently, rather
cut off; and by the civil law, the offender was thrown with the ſilence andcountenance of the magiſtrate than
to wild beaſts. The emperor Tacitus enacted, that any formal authority from him. Thus we are told, the
counterfeiting the coin ſhould be capital ; and under wife's father was allowed to kill both parties, when
Conſtantine it was made treaſon, as it is alſo among us. caught in the fact, provided he did it immediately, kil-
The adulterating of gems is a curious art, and the me. led both together, and as it were with one blow. The
thods of detecting it no leſs uſeful. Nichols Lapid. p. 18. fame power ordinarily was not indulged the huſband,
ADULTERINE, in the civil law, is particularly except the crime were committed with ſome mean or
applied to a child iſſued from an adulterous amour or infamous perſon; tho', in other caſes, if his rage car.
Adulterine children are more odious than ried him to put them to death, he was not punihed as
the illegitimate offspring of ſingle perſons.-The Ro- a murderer. On many occations, however, revenge was
man law even refuſes then the title of natural children; not carried ſo far; bat mutilating, caſtrating, cutting
as if nature diſowned them.-Adulterine children are off the ears, nofes, &c. ferved the turiz. The puniſh-
not eaſily diſpenſed with for admiſſion to orders. Thoſe ment allotted by the lex Julia, was not, as many have
are not deemed adulterine, who are begotten of a wo. imagined, death ; but rather baniſhment, or deporta-
man openly married, through ignorance of a former tion, being interdicted fire and water: though Oétavi-
wife being alive. By a decree of the parliament of us, appears, in ſeveral inſtances, to have gone beyond
Paris, adulterine children are declared not legitimated his own law, and to have put adulterers to death. Un-
by the ſubſequent marriage of the parties, even though der Macrinus, many were burnt at a ſtake. Conſtantino
a papal diſpenſation be had for ſuch marriage, wherein firſt by law made the crime capital. Under Conſtan-
is a clauſe of legitimation.
tius and Conftans, adulterers were burnt, or fewed in
ADULTERINE Marriages, in St Auguſtine's ſenſe, de- facks and thrown into the ſea. Under Leo and Mar.
note ſecond marriages, contracted after a divorce. cian, the penalty was abated to perpetual baniſhments
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one or cutting off the noſe. Under Juſtinian, a further mi-
married perſon and another, or between a married and tigation was granted, at leaſt in favour of the wife,who
unmarried perſon.
was only to be ſcourged, leſe her dower, and be ſhut up
Puniſhments have been annexed to adultery in moſt in a monaſtery: after two years, the huſband was at li-
ages and nations, though of different degrees of feve, berty to take her back again ; if he refuſed,
ſhe was
ha-
rity. In many it has been capital ; in others venial, and
ven, ai
ade a nan for life: Butit ſtill remained death
attended only with flight pecuniary mulets. Some of in the huſband. The reaſon alleged for this difference
the penalties are ſerious, and even cruel ; others of a jo- is, that the woman is the weaker veſſel. Matthæus de-
coſe and humorous kind. Even contrary things have claims againſt the empreſs Theodora, who is ſuppoſed
been enacted as puniſhments for adultery. By ſome to have been the cauſe of this law, as well as of others
laws,the criminals are forbid marrying together, in care procured in favour of that fex from the emperor.
they became ſingle ; by others, they are forbid to Under Theodofius, women convicted of this crime
marry any beſides each other ; by ſome, they are inca were puniſhied after a very ſingular manner, viz. by a
pacitated from ever committing the like crime again; public conftupration ; being locked up in a narrow cell,
by others, they are glutted with it till it becomes and forced to admit to their embraces all the men that
downright nauſeous.
would offer themſelves. To this end the gallants were
Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were allowed to to dreſs themſelves on purpoſe, having ſeveral little
redeem themſelves by a pecuniary fine ; the woman's bells faſtened to their clothes, the tinkling of which
father, in ſuch caſes, returned the dower he had recei- gave notice to thoſe without of every motion. The
ved from her huſband, which ſome think was refunded cuſtom was again aboliſhed by the ſame prince.
by the adulterer. Another puniſhment among thoſe By the Jewiſh law, adultery was puniſhed by death
people was, putting out the eyes of adulterers. in both parties, where they were both married, or on-
The Athenians had an extraordinary way of puniſh- ly the woman. The Jews had a particular method of
ing adulterers,called y apatinue o apapavond wors, practiſed trying, or rather purging, an adultereſs, or a woman
atlealt on the poorer fort who were not able to pay the ſuſpected of the crime, by making her drink the bit-
fines. This was an awkward ſort of impalement, per ter waters of jealouſy ; which, if he were guilty, made
formed by thurſting one of the largeſt radiſhes up the her ſwell.
anus of the adulterer, or, in defect thereof, a fiſh with Among the Mingrelians, according to Chardin, a-
a large head called mugil, “ muller.". Alcæus is ſaid dultery is puniſhed with the forfeiture of a hog, which
to have died this way, though it is doubled whether is uſually eaten in good friendſhip between the
gallant,
the puniſhment was reputed mortal. Juvenal and Ca the adultrefs, and the cuckold. In ſome parts of the
tullus fpeak of this cuſtom, as received alſo among the Indies, it is ſaid any man's wife is permitted to pro-
Romans, though not authoriſed by an expreſs law, as ſtitute herſelf to him who will give an elephant for the
it was among the Greeks.
uſe of her; and it is reputed no ſmall glory to her to
VOL. I.
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have
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more
Adultery. have been rated ſo high. Adultery is ſaid to be ſo vered unleſs it were committed, and the commiſſion is Adultery.
vainne frequent at Ceylon, that not a woman but practiſes it, never ſecure from diſcovery.
never ſecure from diſcovery. 2dly, If adulterous con-
notwithſtanding its being puniſhable with death. A. nections were allowable whenever the parties could
mong the Japaneſe, and divers other nations, adultery hope to eſcape detection, which is the concluſion to
is only penal in the woman. Among the Abyſſinians, which this argument leads, the huſband would be left
the crime of the huſband is ſaid to be only puniſhed on no other ſecurity for his wife's chaſtity, than in her
the innocent wife. In the Marian iſlands, on the con want of opportunity or temptation : which would pro-
trary, the woman is not puniſhable for adultery; but bably deter moſt men from marrying; or render mar-
if the man go aſtray he pays ſeverely: the wife and riage a ſtate of continual jealouſy and alarm to the huſ.
her relations waſte hislands, turn himn out of his houſe, band, which would end in the flavery and confinement
&c. Among the Chineſe, there is reaſon to conclude of the wife.
that adultery is not capital; for it is ſaid that fond pa The marriage-vow is “ witneſſed before God," and
rents will make a contract for their daughters fu- accompanied with circumſtances of folemnity and re-
lure huſbands to allow them the indulgence of a gal- ligion which approach to the nature of an oath. The
lant.
married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little ſhort
In Spain, they puniſhed adultery in men by cutting of perjury, and the ſeduction of a married woman is
off that part which had been the inſtrument of the little leſs than ſubornation of perjury :—and this
crime. In Poland, before Chriſtiany was eſtabliſhed, guilt is independent of the diſcovery,
they puniſhed adultery and fornication in a very parti But the uſual apology for adultery is the prior tranſ-
cular manner: the criminal they carried to the mar greſſion of the other party; and ſo far, indeed, as the
ket-place, and there faſtened him by the teſticles with bad effects of adultery are anticipated by the conduct
a nail; laying a razor within his reach, and leaving of the huſband or wife who offends firſt, the guilt of
him under the neceſſity, either of doing juſtice apon the ſecond offender is extenuated. But this can never
himſelf or of periſhing in that condition.
amount to a juſtification ; unleſs it could be ſhown that
The Saxons formerly burnt the adultreſs, and over the obligation of the marriage-vow depends upon the
hcraſhes erected a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was condition of reciprocal fidelity ; a conſtruction which
hanged. In England, likewiſe, adultery, by the appears founded neitherinexpediency, norin theterms
ancient laws, was ſeverely puniſhed. King Edmund of the vow, nor in the deſign of the legiſlature which
the Saxon ordered adultery to be puniſhed in the ſame preſcribed the marriage-rite. The way of conſidering
manner as homicide ; and Canute the Dane ordered the offence upon the footing of provocation and retalia-
that a man who committed adultery ſhould be bartiſh- tion, is a childiſh trifling with words.
ed, and that the woman ſhould have her noſe and cars “ Thou ſhalt not commit adultery," was an inter-
In the time of Henry I. it was puniſhed with dict delivered by God himſelf; yet ſcripture has been
the loſs of eyes and genitals.
adduced as giving countenance to the crime. As Chriſt
In Britain, adultery is reckoned a ſpiritual offence, told the woman taken in adultery,“ Neither do I con-
that is, cognizable by the ſpiritual courts, where it is demn thee," we muſt believe, it is ſaid, that he deemed
puniſhed by fine and penance. The common law takes her conduct either not criminal, or at leaſt not a crime
no farther notice of it, than 10 allow the party grie- of the heinous nature we repreſent it to be. But fron
ved an action and damages. This practice is often cen a more attentive examination of the caſe, it will be
ſured by foreigners, as making too light of a crime, evident that nothing can be concluded from it favour-
the bad conſequences of which, public as well as pri- able to ſuch an opinion. The tranſaction is thus re-
vate, are ſo great. It has been anſwered, that per- lated* : Early in the morning Jeſus came again in- * St John's
haps this penalty, by civil action, is more wiſely cal- to the temple, and all the people came unto him ; Goſpel
, ch.
culated to prevent the frequency of the offence, which " and he ſat down and taught them; and the Scribes viii.
ought to be the end of all laws, than a ſeverer puniſh- and Phariſees brought unto him a woman taken in
He that by a judgment of law is, according adultery; and When they had ſet her in the midſt,
to circumſtances, ſtripped
of great part of his fortune, " they ſay unto him, Maſter, this woman was taken
thrown into priſon till he can pay it, or forced to fly in adultery, in the very act; now Moſes in the law
his country, will, no doubt, in moſt caſes, own that he commanded that ſuch ſhould be ſtoned, but what
pays dearly for his amuſement.
«ſayeſt thou? This they ſaid tempting hiin, that they
As to the moral turpitude of this offence, fome have might have to accuſe hiin : but Jeſus ſtooped down,
yainly endeavoured to deny or explain it away by va (and with his finger wrote on the ground as though
rious arguments, and even by an appeal to ſcripture. <he heard them not. So when they continned aſking
On the part of the man who ſolicits the chaſtity of a him, he lift up himſelf, and ſaid unto them, He that
married woman, it certainly includes the crime of SE is without fin amongſt you, let hin firſt caſt a
DUCTION, and is attended with miſchief ſtill more 6 ſtone at her ; and again he ſtooped down and wrote
complicated and extenſive: It creates a new ſufferer, on the ground, and they which heard it being con-
the injured liuſband, upon whoſe ſimplicity and affec « victed by their own conſcience, went out one by one,
tion is inflicted a wound the moſt painful and incu-, beginning at the eldeſt, even unto the laſt; and Je-
rable that human nature knows. The infidelity of the • ſus was left alone, and the woman ſtanding in the
woman is aggravated by cruelty to her children, who midſt. When Jeſus had lift up himſelf, and ſaw nono
are generally involved in their parents ſhame, and al but the woman, he ſaid unto her, Woman, where
ways made unhappy by their quarrel.
are thoſe thine accuſers ? Hath no man condemned
It has been argued, that theſe conſequences ought othee? She ſaid unto him, No man, Lord : and lie:
leſs to be attributed to the crime than to the diſcovery, ſaid unto her, Neither do I.condenın thee; go and lin
But, in the firſt place, the crime could not be diſco. 110 more.!
cut off.
I
ment.
#This
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1
was not true.
Adultery. • This they ſaid tempting him, that they might allowed in the ancient church, and is ſtill continued in Adultery,
have to accuſe him ;' that is, to draw him into an the Greek, as well as the Lutheran and Calviniſt Advocate.
exerciſe of judicial authority, that they might have churches. Romaniſts, however, diſallow of it, and the
to accuſe him before the Roman governor of uſurping council of Trent even anathematized thoſe who main-
or intermeddling with the civil government. tain it : though the canon of anathematization was
Paley's
This was their delign; and Chrif's behaviour mitigated in deference to the republic of Venice, in
Moral and throughout the whole affair proceeded from a know- ſome of whoſe dominions, as Zant, Cephalonia, &c.
Political
ledge of this deſign, and a determination to defeat it. the contrary uſage obtains. The eccleſiaſtical courts
Philofopby, He gives them at firſt a cold and fullen reception, well in England ſo far agree with thoſe of Rome, that they
.
ſuited to the inſiduous intention with which they came: only grant a divorce à menſa et thoro, in caſe of adul-
p. 203
" he ſtooped down, and with his finger wrote on tery ; ſo that a complete divorce, to enable the parties
the ground as though he heard them not.' 6 When to marry again, cannot be had without an act of par-
they continued aſking him,' when they teazed him liament.
to ſpeak, he diſmiſſed them with a rebuke, which the ADULTERY is alſo uſed in ancient cuſtoms, for the
impertinent malice of their errand, as well as the fe- puniſhment or fine impoſed for that offence, or the
cret character of many of them, deſerved : "he that is privilege of proſecuting for it. In which ſenſe adulte-
without fin (that is, this fin) among you, let him rium amounts to the ſame with what the Saxons call
« firſt caſt a ſtoneat her.' This had its effect.
This had its effect. Stung legerwita.
with the reproof, and diſappointed of their aim, they ADULTERY is ſometimes uſed in a more extenſive
ſtole away one by one, and left Jeſus and the woman ſenſe, for any ſpecies of impurity or crime, againſt
alone. And then follows the converſation, which is the virtue of chaſtity; and in this ſenſe divines under-
the
part of the narrative moſt material to our preſent ſtand the ſeventh commandment.
ſubject. Jeſus ſaith unto her, Woman, where are ADULTERY is alſo uſed, eſpecially in ſcripture, for
thoſe thine accuſers ? hath no man condemned thee? idolatry, or departing from the true God, to the wor-
«She ſaid, No man, Lord. And Jeſus ſaid unto her, ſhip of a falſe one.
Neither do I condenin thee ; go and fin no more. ADULTERY is alſo uſed, in eccleſiaſtical writers, for
Now, when Chriſt aſked the woman, "Hath no man a perſon's invading or intruding into a biſhopric du-
condemned thee? he certainly ſpoke, and was under- ring the former biſhop's life. The reaſon of the ap-
ſtood by the woman to ſpeak, of a legal and judicial pellation is, that a biſhop is ſuppoſed to contract a
condenination; otherwiſe her anſwer, ‘No man,Lord,' kind of ſpiritual marriage with his church. The tranſ-
In every other ſenſe of condemation, lation of a biſhop from one fee to another was alſo re-
as blame, cenfure, reproof, private, judgment, and the puted a ſpecies of adultery on the ſuppoſition of its be-
like, many had condemned her ; all thoſe, indeed, who ing a kind of ſecond marriage, which, in thoſe days,
brought her to Jeſus. If then a judicial ſentence was was eſteemed a degree of adultery. This concluſion
what Chriſt meant by condemning in the queſtion, the was founded on that text of St Paul, Let a biſhop be
common uſe of language requires us to ſuppoſe that the huſband of one wife, by a forced conſtruction of
he meant the ſame in his reply, Neither do I con church for wife and of biſhop for huſband. Du-Cange.
demn thee: i. e. I pretend to no judicial character ADULTERY is alſo uſed, in ancient naturaliſts, for
or authority over thee ; it is no office or buſineſs of the act of ingrafting one plant upon another. In
mine to pronounce or execute the ſentence of the law. which ſenſe, Pliny ſpeaks of the adulteries of trees,
When Chriſt adds, "Go and ſin no more,' hein effect arborum adulteria, which he repreſents as contrary
cells her that ſhe had finned already ; but as to the to nature, and a piece of luxury, or needleſs refine.
degree or quality of the ſin, or Chriſt's opinion con-
cerning it, nothing is declared, or can be inferred, ei ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perſon ſkill-
ed in their law, who undertook the defence of cauſes
It has been controverted, whether adultery may be at the bar. The Roman advocates anſwered to one
lawfully committed in war, with the enemies wives ? part of the office of a barriſter in England, viz. the
The anſwer is in the negative, and the authoriſed prac- pleading part ; for they never gave council, that being
tice of civilized nations is agreeable to this. It has the buſineſs of the juriſconſulti.
alſo been a famous queſtion, whether it be lawful for The Romans, in the firſt ages of their ſtate, held
a woman to commit adultery with the conſent of her the profeffion of an advocote in great honour; and
huſband, and for the procuring ſome great good to the feats of their bar were crowded with fenators and
him ? St. Auſtin apparently allows of it; at leaſt does conſuls ; they, whoſe voices commanded the people,
* De Serm.
not condemn it*.
thinking it an honour to be employed in defending
It has likewiſe been a diſpute, whether it be lawful them. They were ſtyled comites, honorati, clariffimi,
Mont.lib. i. for one of the parties married to commit adultery, with and even patroni ; as if their clients were not leſs obli-
the conſent of the other, for the ſake of having chil- ged to them than freed men to their maſters. The
$ 49. et De dren? of which we have inſtances in Abraham, who, bar was not at that time venal. Thoſe wlio aſpired
to honours and offices took this way of gaining an in-
on this account, converſed with Hagar : and likewiſe
lib. xvi.
among the Greeks and Romans. Pollman, a German tereſt in the people, and always plcaded gratis. But
cap. 25.
profeſſor, has a diſſertation on the huſband's right to no ſooner were luxury and corruption introduced into
alienate his wife's body to ancther's uſe.
the commonwealth, than the bar become a fharer in
It is much diſputed whether adultery diffolves the' them. Then it was that the ſenators let out their
bond of matrimony, and be a ſufficient cauſe of di- voices for pay, and zeal and eloquence were ſold to
vorce, ſo that the partiesmay marry again.
This was
the higheſt bidder. To put a ſtop to this abufe, the
tribunc
Dient.
ther way:
{
Dom, in
cap. 16.
Civ. Dei,
T
R2
1
A DV
A DV
(
1.32 )
2
?
Advocates, tribune Cineius procured a law to be paſſed, called from or pope. Sometimes the churches petitioned kings, Advocates
him Lex Cincia, whereby the advocates were forbid &c. to appoint then an advocate; ai other times this
to take any money of their clients. It had before this was done of their own accord. By ſome regulations,
been prohibited the advocates to take any prefents or no perſon was capable of being elected advocate, un-
gratuities for their pleading, The emperor Auguſtus leſs he had an eſtate in land in the ſame county.
added a penalty to it : 110twithſtanding which, the ad Regular ADVOCATES, thoſe duly formed and quali-
vocates played their part ſo well, that the emperor fied for their profeſſion, by a proper courſe of fiudy,
Claudius thought it an extraordinary circunſtance, the requiſite oath, ſubſcription, licence, &c.
when he obliged them not to take above eight great Subordinate ACVOCATES, thoſe appointed by other -
feſterces, which are equivalent to about 641. Sterling, fuperior ones, acting under them, and accountable to
for pleading each cauſe.
them. There were various reaſons for the creation of
ADVOCATE is ſtill uſed, in countries and courts theſe ſubordinate advocates; as, the ſuperior quality
where the civil law obtains, for thoſe who plead and of the principal advocate, his being detained in war,
defend the cauſe of clients truſted to them.
or being involved in other affairs; but chiefly the too:
ADVOCATE of a City, in the German polity, a ma great diſtance of ſome of the church-lands, and their
giſtrate appointed in the emperor's name to adminiſter lying in the dominions of foreign princes...
juſtice.
Supreme or Sovereign ALYCCATES, were thoſe who
ADVOCATE is more particularly uſed, in church hi- had the authority in chief; but acted by deputies or
ſtory, for a perſon appointed to defend the rights and ſubordinate advocates. Theſe were called alſo princi.
revenues of a church or religious houſe. The word pal, greater, and forretimes general advocates.' Such
advocatus, or advowee, is ſtill retained for what we uſu-
in many caſes were kings, &c. when either they
ally call the patron, or he who has the advowſon, or had been choſen advocates, or became ſuch by be-
right of preſentation, in his own name.
ing founders or endowers of churches. Princes had
Confiftorial ADVOCATES ; officers of the confiftory at alſo another title to advocateſhip, ſome of them pre-
Rome, who plead in all oppoſitions to the diſpoſal of tending to be advocati nati of the churches within
benefices in that court: they are ten in number. their dominions,
Eletive ADVOCATES, thoſe choſen by the abbot, bi ADVOCATES, in the Engliſh courts, are more.geo.
ſhop, or chapter ; a particular licence being had from nerally called counſel. See COUNSEL.
the king, or prinçe, for that purpoſe. The elections Faculty of ADVOCATES, in Scotland, a reſpectable
were originally made in the preſence of the count of body of lawyers, who plead in all canfes before the
the province.
Court of Seſſion, Juſticiary, and Exchcquer. They
Feudal ADVOCATES. Theſe were of the military are alſo intitled to plead in the houſe of
peers, and on
kind, who, to make them more zealouş for the inte ther fupreme courts in England.
reſt of the church, had lands granted them in fee, In the year 1660, the faculty founded a libiary
which they held of the church, and did homage, and upon a very extenſive plan, ſuggeſted by that learned
took an oath of fidelity to the biſhop or abbot. Theſe and eminent lawyer Sir George M'Kenzie of Roſe
wețe to lead the vaſſals of the church to war, not only haugh, advocate to king Charles II. and king James
in private quarrels of the church įtſelf, but in military VII. who enriched it with many valuable books.' I8-
expeditions for the king's ſervice, in which they were has been daily increaſing ſince that time, and now con-
the ſtandard-bearers of their churches.
tains not only the beſt collection of law-books in Eu-
Fiſcal Advac ATE, fifci advocatus, in Roman anti rope, but a very large and ſelect collection of books on
quity, an officer of ſtate under the Roman emperors, all ſubjects. Beſides, this library contains a great
who pleaded in all cauſes wherein the fiſcus, or private number of original manuſcripts, and a vaſt variety of
treaſury, was concernede
Jewith, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Engliſh coins and
Juridical ADVOCATES, in the middle age, were thofe medals.
who from attending cauſes in the court of the comes, A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoes.
or count of the province, became judges themſelves, three ſeveral trials: The firſt is in Latin, upon the ci-
and held courts of their vaſſals thrice a-year, under the vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities; the ſecond,
name of the tria placita generalia. In conſideration in Engliſh, upon the municipal law of Scotland; and,
of this further fervice, they had a particular allowance in the third, he is obliged to defend a Latin theſis,
of one third part of all fines, or mulets, impoſed on which is impugned by three members of the faculty.-
defaulters, &c. befides a proportion of diet for them- Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate
ſelves and ſervants.
makes a short Latin ſpeech to the lords, and then takes
Matricular ADVOCATES, were the advocates of the the oaths to the government and de fideli.
mother or cathedral churches.
The faculty at preſent conſiſts of above 200 mem-
Military Advocates, thoſe appointed for the de- bers. As an advocate or lawyer is eſteemed the gen-
fence of the church, rather by arms and authority than teeleſt profeſſion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for-
by pleading and eloquence. Theſe were introduced tune take the degree of advocate, without having any
in the times of confuſion, when every perſon was obli- intention of practiſing at the bar. The circumſtance
ged to maintain their own property by force; biſhops greatly increaſes their number, gives dignity to the
and abbots not being permitted to bear arms, and the profeſſion, and enriches their library and public fund..
ſcholaſtic or gowned advocates being equally unac It is from this reſpectable body thai all vacancies on
quainted with them, recourſe was had to knights, no the bench are generally ſupplied.
blemen, ſoldiers, or even to princes.
Lord ADVOCATE, or King's Advocate, one of the
| Nominative ADVOCATES, thoſe appointed by a king eight great officers of ſtate in Scotland, who as ſuch
failed
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Advocation (at in parliament without election. He is the princi- their example. Thus we read in hiſtory of the ad- Advowee,
Advosee, pal'crown-lawyer in Scotland. His buſineſs is to act vowees of Augſburg, of Arras, &c.
Adyowion,
as a public proſecutor, and to plead in all caſes that The vidamus aſſumed the quality of adyowces; and
concern the crown ; but particularly in ſuch as are of hence it is, that ſeveral hiſtorians of the eighth cen-
a criminal nature. The office of king's advocate is tury confound the two functions together. Hente al-
not very ancient : It ſeems to have been eſtabliſhed ſo it is, that ſeveral ſecular lords in Germany bear
about the beginning of the 16th century. Originally mitres for their creſts, as having anciently been ad-
he had no power to profecute crimes without the con vowees of the great churches.
currence ofę a private party ; but, in the year 1597, Spelman diftinguiſhes two kinds of ecclefiaftical ad-
he was empowered to proſecute crimes at his own in. vowees.--The one, of cauſes or proceſſes advocati
ſtance. He has the privilege of pleading in court with caufarum; the other, of territory or lands, advocati
his bat on. This privilege was firſt granted to Sir foli. The former were nominated by the king, and
Thomas Hope; who having three ſons lords of ſeſſion, were uſually lawyers, who undertook to plead the
it was thought indecent that the father hould plead cauſes of the monaſteries. The other, which ftill
uncovered before the ſons, who as judges fat covered. ſubfiſt, and are ſopietines called by their primitive
BıçL OF ADVOCATION, in Scots law, a writing name, advowees, though more uſually patrons, were
drawn up in the form of a petition ; whereby a party, hereditary, as being the founders and endowers of
in an action before an inferior court, applies to the fu- churches, &c. or their heirs.
preme court, or court of Sellion, for calling the action Women were ſometimes advowees,advocatilfe. And,
from the inferior court before itſelf.
in effect, the canon law mentions fome who had this
Letters of ADVOCATION, in Scots law, the decree or title, and who had the fame right of preſentation, &c.
warrant of the court of Seſſion upon cogniſance of the in their churches which the advowees themſelves had.
facts ſet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of a In a ſtat. 25 Edw. III. we meet with advowee paràs
fummons, and palling under the ſignet, diſcharging the moant for the higheſt patron ; that is, the king.
inferior judge and all others from further procedure in ADVOWSON, or ADVOWZEN, in common law,
the cauſe; and advocating it to itſelf.
ſignifies a right to preſent to a vacant benefice. Ado
ADVOWEE, in ancient cuſtoms and law books, vowſon is ſo called, becauſe the right of preſenting to
denotes the advocate of a church, religious houſe, or the church was firſt gained by ſuch as were founders,
the like. There were advowees of cathedrals, abbeys, benefactors, or maintainers of the church.
inonafteries, &c. Thus, Charlemagne had the title of Though the nomination of fit perſons to officiate iz
advowee of St Peter's; king Hugh, of St Riquier; every dioceſe was originally in the biſhop, yet they
and Bolandus mentions ſome letters of pope Nicholas, . were content to let the founders of churches have the
by which he conſtituted king Edward the Confeffor, nomination of the perſons to the churches ſo founded,
and his ſucceſſors, advowecs of the monaſtery at Weſt- reſerving to themſelves a right to judge of the fitneſs
minſter, and of all the churches in England.. Theſe of the perſons ſo nominated.
advowees were the guardians, prolectors, and adınini Advowſons formerly were moſt of them appendant
ſtrators of the temporal concerns of the churches, &c. to manors, and the patrons were parochial barons :
and under their authority were paſſed all contracts the lordſhip of the manor and patronage of the church
which related to them. It appears alſo, from the moſt were ſeldom in different hands, until adyawſons were
ancient charters, that the donations made to churches given to religious houſes. But of late times the lord-
were conferred on the perſons of the advowees. They ſhip of the manor alld advowſon of the church have
always pleaded the cauſes of the churches in court, been divided.
and diſtributed juſtice for them, in the places under Advowfons are preſentative, collative, or donatide :
their jurifdi&tion. They alſo commanded the forces preſentative, where the patron preſents or offers his
furniſhed by their monaſteries, &c. for the war; and clerk to the bihop of the di&ceſe, to be inſtituted in
even were thcirchampions, and ſometimes maintained his church ; collative, where the benefice is given by
duels for them.
the bifhop, as original patron thereof, or by means of
This office is ſaid to have been firſt introduced in the a right he has acquired by lapſe ; donative, as where
fourth century, in the time of Stillico; though the the king or other patron does,
by a fìngle donation in
Benedictines do not fix its origin before the eighth writing, put the clerk into poſſeflion, without preſen-
century. By degrees, men of the firſt rank were tation, inftitution, or induction. .
brought into it, as it was found neceſſary either to de- . Sometimes, anciently, the patron had the ſole 10-
fend with arms or to protect with power and authority. mination of the prelate, abbor, or prior ; either by in-
In ſome monaſteries they were only called conſervators; veſtiture (i. e. delivery of a paſtoral ſtaff), or by direct
but thefe, without the name, had all the functions of preſentation to the dioceſan; andif a free election was
advowees. There were alſo ſometimes ſeveral ſub- left to the religious, yet a conge d'elire, or licence of
advowees, or ſub-advocates, in each monaſtery, who election, was firſt to be obtained of the patron, and .
officiated inſtead of the advowees themſelves; which, the perſon elected was confirmed by him. If the
however, proved the ruin of monaſteries; thoſe infe- founder's family became extint, the patronage of the
rior officers running into great abuſes.
conyent went to the loril of the manor. Unleſs the
Hence alſo, huſbands, tutors, and every perſon in ſeveral colleges in the univerſities be reſtrained in the
general, who took upon him the defence of another, number of advowſons they may receive, it is argued
were denominated advowees, or advocates. Hence ſe- they will in time acquire ſuch a ſtock as to fruitrate
veral cities had their advowees; which were eſtabliſh- the deſign of their foundation (which is the education
ed long after the ecclefiaftical ones, and doubtleſs from of youth, by creating too quick a fucceffiou of fel-
lows ;
1
A D Z
( 134 ]
Æ DI
AC
the eye.
more.
cap. 6.
Açuct lows; ſo that there will not be in the colleges a ſuflī- boards, &c. It is ground from a baſe on its inſide to
ll cient number of perſons of competent age, knowledge, its outer edge; ſo that, when it is blunt, they cannot
Adza. and experience, to inſtruct and form the minds of the conveniently grind it without taking its helye out of Ædicula,
youth.--In ſome colleges the number of advowſons is
ſaid to be already two thirds, or more, of the number AÈ, or Æ, a diphthong compounded of A and E.
of fellows. It is objected, on the other ſide, that the Authors are by no means agreed as to the uſe of the
fucceſſion of fellows may be too ſlow as well as too ae in Engliſh words. Some, out of regard to etymo-
quick; whereby perſons well qualified may be detained logy, infilt on its being retained in all words, particu-
fo long in colleges as not to have ſtrength or activity larly technical ones, borrowed from the Greek and
enough left for the diſcharge of parochial functions. Latin ; wliile others, from a conſideration that it is
Colleges holding more advowfons in number than
no proper diphtliong in our language, its found being
moiety of the fellows, are not capable of purchaſing no other than that of the ſimple e, contend that it
Grants of advowſons by papiſts are void. ought to be entirely diſuſed ; and, in fact, the ſimple e
9 Geo. II. c. 36. § 5. II Geo. II. c. 17. § 5.
has of late been adopted inſtead of the Roman a, as
Advowſons are temporalinheritances and lay fees ;
in the word equator, &c.
they may be granted by deed or will, and are aflets in
ÆACEA, in Grecian antiquity, folemn feſtivals
the hands of heirs or executors. Preſentations to ad and
games celebrated at Ægina, in honour of Æacus.
vowſons for money, orother reward, are void. 31 Eliz. ÆACUS, the ſon of Jupiter by Ægina. When the
ifle of Ægina was depopulated by a plague, his father,
In Scotland, this right is called patronage. See in compaſlion to his grief, changed all the ants upon it
PATRONAGE.
into men and women, who were called Myrmidons,
ADUST, ADUSTUS, among phyſicians, &c. is ap from peopren Egnan ant. The foundation of the fable is
plied to ſucli humours as by long heat become of a hot faid to be, that when the country had been depopula-
and fiery nature. Such is choler ſuppoſed to be. ted by pirates, who forced the few that remained to
Melancholy is uſually conſidered as black and aduſtbile. take ihelter in caves, Æacus encouraged them to come
Blood is ſaid to be aduſt, when, by reaſon of ſome out, and by commerce and induſtry recover what they
extraordinary heat, its more ſubtile parts are all eva had loſt. His character for juſtice was ſuch, that, in a
porated, leaving the groſſer, with all the impurities time of univerſal drought, he was nominated by the
therein, half turrified.
Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his prayer
ADY, in natural hiſtory, a name given to the palm was anſwered. See the article ÆGINA. The Pagans
tree of the iſland of St Thomas. It is a tall tree, with alſo iniagined that Æacus, on account of his impartial
a thick, bare, upright ſtem, growing ſingle on its root, juſtice, was choſen by Pluto one of the three judges of
of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of the dead : and that it was his province to judge the Eu-
this tree ſhoots into a vaſt number of branches, which ropeans.
being cut off, or an inciſion being made therein, afford ÆBURA (anc. geog.), a town of Spain, in Eſtre-
a great quantity of ſweet juice, which fermenting ſup- madura, on the river Guadiana, to the weſt of Me-
plies the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit rida, now called Talavera. W. Long. 7. 15. Lat.
of this tree is called by the Portugueſe Caryoces and Ca. 38. 40.
rioffe ; and by the black natives, Abanga. This fruit ÆCHMALOTARCHA, in Jewiſh antiquity, a ti-
a
is of the ſize and ſhape of a lemon ; and contains a tle given to the principal leader or governor of the He-
kernel, which is good to car. The fruit itſelf is eat brew captives reſiding in Chaldea, Allyria, and the
roaſted, and the raw kernels are often mixed with man- neighbouring countries. This magiſtrate was called
dioc meal. Theſe kernels are ſuppoſed very, cordial. by the Jews roſch-galah, i. e. the chief of the capti-
An oil is alſo prepared from this fruit, which anſwers vity : but the above term, of like import in the Greek,
the purpoſe of oil or butter. This oil is alſo uſed for is that uſed by Origen and others who wrote in the
anointing ſtiff and contracted parts of the body.
ADYNAMIA, in medicine, debility, or weakneſs, The Jewiſh writers aſſure us, that the achmalotarchæ
from ſickneſs,
were only to be choſen out of the tribe of Judah. The
ADYNAMON, among ancient phyſicians, a kind eaſtern Jews had their princes of the captivity, as the
of weak factitious wine, prepared from muſt boiled weſtern Jews their patriarchs. The Jews are ſtill ſaid
down with water ; to be given to patients to whom to have an achmalotarcha at Babylon, but without the
genuine wine might be hurtful.
authority of the ancientones. Baſnage Hiſt. Jews, and
ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the inoſt retired Prideanx's Connection.
and ſacred place of their teinples, into which none but ÆCULANUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Hir-
the prieſts were allowed to enter. The Sanctum Sanc- pini in Italy, at the foot of the Appenine, to the eaſt
torum of the temple of Solomon was of the nature of of Abellinum, contracted Æclanum, ſituate between
the pagan adytum, none but the high prieſt being ad Beneyentum and Tarentum. The inhabitants are call-
mitted
into it, and he but once-year:
ed Æculani by Pliny; and Æclanenſes, in an ancientin-
ADZE, or ADDICE, a cutting-tool of the ax kind; ſcription, (Gruter). The town is now called Fricento,
having its blade made thin and arching, and its edge Cluverius 43 miles eaſt of Naples. E. Long. 15. 38.
at right angles to the handle; chiefly uſed for taking Lat. 41. 15.
off thin chips of timber or boards, and for paring away ÆDES, in Roman antiquity, beſides its more ordi-
certain irregularities which the ax cannot coine at. nary fignification of a houſe, likewiſe ſignified an in-
The adze is aſed by carpenters, but more by coopers, ferior kind of temple, conſecrated to ſome deity.
as being convenient for cutting the hollow ſides of ÆDICULA, a term uſed to denote the inner part
of
Greek tongue.
Æ DI
( 135 ]
Æ GI
.
Ædilate, of the temple, where the altar and ſtatue of the deity different office. In an ancient inſcription we alſo meet Ædilitum
Ædile. ſtood.
with ädile of the camp, edilis caftrorum.
1
ÆDILATE, the office of ædile, ſometiines called ÆDILITIUM EDICTUM, among the Romans, was Egida:
Ædilitiy.
See the next article.
that whereby a remedy was given a buyer, in caſe a
ÆDILE (adilis), in Roman antiquity, a magiſtrate vicious or unfound beaſt, or ilave, was ſold him. IC
whoſe chief buſineſs was to ſuperintend buildings of all was called ædilitium, becauſethe preventing of frauds
kinds, but more eſpecially public ones, as temples, in ſales and contracts belonged eſpecially to the curule
aqæducts, bridges, &c. To the ædites likewiſe be ædiles.
longed the care ofthe highways, public places, weights ÆDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer belong-
and meaſures, &c. They alſo fixed the prices of pro- ing to the temple, who had the charge of the offerings
viſions, took cognizance of debauches, puniſhed lewd treaſure, and ſacred utenſils. The female deities had
women, and ſuch perſons as frequenced gaming honſes. a woman officer of this kind called Æditua.
The cuſtody of the plebiſcita, or orders of the people, ÆGAGROPILA, a ball compoſed of a ſubſtance
was likewiſe committed to them. They had the inſpec- reſembling hair, generated in the ſtomach, of the cha-
tion of comedies and other pieces of wit ; and were ob- mois-goat. This ball is of the ſame nature with thoſe
liged to exhibit magnificent games to the people, at found in cows, hogs, &c.
their own expence, whereby niany of them were ruin ÆGÆ, or ÆGEA (anc. geog.), the name of Ædef-
ed. To them alſo belonged the cuſtody of the ple- sa, ſo called from the following adventure : Caranus,
biſcita, and the cenſure and examination of books.
the firſt king of Macedonia, being ordered by the o-
They had the power, on certain occaſions, of iſſuing racle to ſeek out a ſettlement in Macedonia, under the
ediets ; and, by degrees, they procured to themſelves conduct of a flock of goats, ſurpriſed the town of Æ-
a conſiderable juriſdiction, the cognizance of various deſſa during a thick fog and rainy weather, in follow-
cauſes, &c. This office ruined numbers by its expen- ing the goats that fled from the rain ; which goats
fiveneſs ; ſo that, in Auguſtus's time, even many fe ever after, in all his military expeditions, he cauſed
nators declined il on that account.
to precede his ſtandard ; and in memory of this he
All theſe functions which rendered the ædiles
ſocone called Ædeſfa Ægaa, and his people Ægæadæa. And
fiderable belonged at firſt to the ædiles of the people, hence probably, in the prophet Daniel, the he-goat is
ædiles plebeii, or minores: theſe were only two in num the ſymbol of the king of Macedon.
ber, and were firſt created in the ſame year as the tri ÆGEAN SEA (anc. geog.), now the Archipelago,
bunes : for the tribunes, finding themſelves oppreſſed a part of the Mediterranean, ſeparating Europe from
with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the fe- Alia and Africa ; waſhing, on the one hand, Greece
nate to have officers, with whom they might intruſt and Macedonia ; on the other, Caria and Ionia. The
matters of leſs importance; and accordingly two ædiorigin of the name is greatly diſputed. Feftus advan-
les were created; and hence it was that the æsiles were
ces three opinions : one, that it is ſo called from the
élected every year at the ſame aſſembly as the tribunes. many iflands therein, at a diſtance appearing like lo
But theſe plebeian ædiles having refuſed, on a ſignal many goats: another, becauſe Ægea queen of the A-
occaſion, to treat the people with ſhows, as pleading mazons periſhed in it: a third opinion is, becauſe Æ-
themſelves unable to ſupport the expence thereof, the geus, the father of Theſeus, threw himſelf headlong
patricians made an offer to do it, provided they would into it.
admit them to the honours of the ædilate. On this ÆGEUS, in fabulous hiſtory, was king of Athens,
occaſion there were two ædiles created, of the num and the father of Theſeus. The Athenians having
ber of the patricians, in the year of Rome 388; they bafely killed the ſon of Minos king of Crete, forcarry-
were called cediles curules, or majores; as having a right ing away the prize from theni, Minos made war upon
to fit on a curule chair, enriched with ivory, when the Athenians; and being victorious, impoſed this ſe-
they gave audience ; whereas the plebeian ædiles vere condition on Ægeus, that lie ſhould annually ſend
only fat on benches. Beſides that the curule ædiles into Crete ſeven of the nobleſt of the Athenian youths,
frared all the ordinaryfunctions with the plebeian, their choſen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. OIL
chief employ was, to procure the celebration of the the fourth year of this tribute, the choice fell on The-
grand Roman ganies, and to exhibit comedies, ſhews feus; or, as others ſay, he himſelf intreated to be ſent.
of gladiators, &c. to the people, and they were alſo The king, at his ſon's departure, gave orders, that as
appointed judges in all caſes relating to the ſelling or the ſhip failed with black ſails, it ſhould return with the
exchanging eſtates.
fame in cafe he periſhed; but, if he became victorious,
To eaſe theſe four firſt ædiles, Cæfar created a new he ſhould change them into white. When Theſeus re-
kind, called ædiles cercales, as being deputed chiefly to turned to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and for-
take care of the corn, which was called donum cereris; got to change the fails in token of his victory, accord-
for the Heathens 'honoured Ceres as the goddeſs who ing to the agreement with his father; the latter,
preſided over corn, and attributed to her the inven- who watched the return of the veſſel, fuppoſing by
rion of agriculture. Theſe ædiles cereales were alſo the black fails that his ſon was dead, caſthimſelf head-
taken out of the order of patricians. In the munici- long into tlie ſea, which afterwards obtained the name
pal cities there were ædiles, and with the fame autho- of the Ægean Sea.
of the Ægean Sea. The Athenians decreed Ægeus
rity as at Rome.
divine honours; and ſacrificed to him as a marine dei.
We alſo read of an ædiles alimentarius, expreſſed in ty, the adopted ſon of Neptune.
abbreviature by Ædil. alim. whoſe buſineſs ſeems to ÆGIAS, among phyſicians, a white ſpeck on the
have been to provide diet for thoſe who were maintain- pupil of the eye, which occafions a dimneſs of light.
ed at the public charge, though others aflign him a ÆGIDA, (Pliny ) ; now Capo d' Iftria, the princi-
pal
I
2
Æ GI
Æ G I
( 136 )
C
CUS.
Ægilops pal town on the north of the territory of Inria, ſituated had a common temple dedicated to Jupiter in Ægina. Ægina.
in a little illand, joined to the land by a bridge. In an TheÆginetæ applied to commerce: and were the firſt
Egina. inſcription, (Gruter), it is called itgades Inſula. E. who coined money, called Noulouse A girasor: hence Æ-
Long. 14. 20. Lat. 45. 50. It was afterwards called gineticum æs, formerly in great repute. The inhabi-
Juftinopolis, after the enperor Juftinus.
tants were called Myrmydones, or a nation of ants,
ÆGILOPS, the name of a tuinor in the great angle from their great application to agriculture. See ÆA-
of the eye; either with, or without, an inflammation.
The word is compounded of art, goat, and who eye ;
This iſland was ſurrounded by Attica, the territory
as goats are ſuppoſed extremely liable to this diftem- of Megara,and the Peloponneſus, each diſtant about 100
per.
Aadia, or 12 miles and a half. In circuinference it was
Authors frequenly uſe the words ægilops, anchilops, reckoned. 180 ſtadia, or 22 miles and a half. It was
and fiſtula lachrymalis, promiſcuouſly; but the more waſhed on the eaſt and ſouth by the Myrtoan and Cre-
accurate, after Ægineta, make a difference.-The tu tan ſeas.
nior, before it becomes ulcerous, is properly called an It is now called Eyina, or.Egina, the g ſoft and the i
chilops: and, after it is got into the lachrymal paſſages, ſhort. The temple abovementioned is ſituated upan
and has rendered the os lachrymale carious, fiftula la- the ſummit of a mountain called Panhellenius, about
chrymalis.
an hour diſtant from the ſhore. The Æginetans affirm-
If the ægilops be accompanied with an inflamma- ed it was erected by ÆACUS ; in whoſe time Hellas
tion, it is ſuppoſed to take its riſe from the abundance being terribly oppreſſed by drought, the Delphicoracle
of blood which a plethoric habit diſcharges on the cor was conſulted; and the reſponſe was, That Jupiter muſt
ner of the eye. If it be without an inflammation, it is be rendered propitious by Æacus. The cities intreat-
ſuppoſed to proceed from a viſcous pituitous humour, ed him to be their mediator : He facrificed and prayed
thrown upon this part.
to Jupiter Panhellenius, and procured rain.
The method of cure is the ſame as that of the oph The temple was of the Doric order, and had fix co-
thalmia. But, before it has reached the lachrymal paſ- lumns in front. Twenty-one of the exterior columns
{ages, it is managed like other ulcers. If the ægilops are yet ſtanding, with two in the front of the pronaos
be neglected, it burſts, and degenerates into a fiſtula, and of the pofticam, and five of the number which
which eats into the bone.
formed the ranges of the cell. The entablature, except
ÆGILOPS,Wild Feſtug;a genus ofthe monocia order, the architrave, is fallen. The ſtone is of a light brown
belonging to the polygamia claſs of plants, and ranking iſh colour, much-eaten in many places, and indicating
under the 4th natural order, Gramina.--The characters a very great age. Some of the columns have been in-
are: The hermaphrodite calyx is a two-valved glume, tri- jured by boring to their centres.for the metal. In-fe-
florous ; the corolla a two-valved glume, the exterior veral, the junction of the parts is ſo exact, that each
valvalet terminated by three ariſtæ or awns, the in- ſeems to conſiſt of one piece. This ruin Mr Chandler
terior awnleſs: Stamina, three capillary filaments.; conſiders as ſcarcely to be paralleled in its claim to a
ſtyle, two: Seed, one, oblong. Male calyx and corolla, remote antiquity. The fituation on a lonely mountain,
each a glume as in the former; and ſiamina, the ſame at a diſtance from the ſea, has preſerved it from total
number.— There are ſeven ſpecies, natives of Italy demolition, amid all the changes and accidents of nu-
and ſome other parts of Europe; one of them, the in- merous centuries.
curvata, a native of Britian, grows by the fea-ſhore, and Near the ſhore is a barrow, raiſed, it is related, for
is vulgarly called ſea-hard-grafs.
Phocus, upon the following occaſion. Telamon and
ÆGILOPs is alſo the trivial name of a ſpecies of Peleus, fons of Æacus, challenged their half-brother
QUERCUS.
Phocus to contend in the Pentathlum. In throwing
ÆGIMURUS ( anc. geog. ), an iſland on the bay the ſtone, which ſerved as a quoit, Peleus hit Phocns,
of Carthage, about 30 miles diſtant from that city, who was killed; when both of them fled. Afterwards,
(Livy); now the Galetta : This iſland being after. Telamon ſent a herald to affert his innocence. Æacus
wards ſunk in the ſea, two of its rocks remained a would not ſuffer him to land, or to apologize, except
bove water, which were called Arx, and mentioned from the veſſel ; or, if he choſe rather, from a heap caſt
by Virgil, becauſe the Romans and Carthaginians er- up, in the water. Telamon, entering the private port
tered into an agreement or league to ſettle their mi by night, raiſed a barrow, as a roken, it is likely, of a
tual boundries at theſe rocks.
pious regard for the deceaſed. He was afterwards
ÆGINA, in fabulous hiſtory, the daughter of Æ- condemned, as not free from guilt; and failed away a-
ſopus, king of Bæotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who gain to Salamis. The barrow in the ſecond century,
debauched her in the ſimilitude of a lambent flame, when ſeen by Pauſanias, was ſurrounded with a fence,
and then carried her from Epidaurus to a defert illand and had on it a rough ſtone. The terror of fomé
called Oenope, which afterwards obtained her own dreadful judgment to be inflicted from heaven had
pre-
ſerved it entire and unaltered to his time ; and in a
ÆGINA (anc. geog.), an iſland on the Saronic Bay, country depopulated and neglected, it may ſtill endure
or bay of Engia, 20 miles diſtant from the Piræeus, for many ages.
fornierl.y vying with Athens for naval power,andat the The ſoil of this iſland is, as deſcribed by Strabo,
ſea-fight of Salamin diſputing the palm of viétory with very ſtony, eſpecially the bottoms, but in ſome places
the Athenians. It was the country and kingdom of notunfertile in grain. Beſides corn, it produces olives,
Aacus, who called it Ægina from his mother's name, grapes, and almords ; and abounds in pigeons and
it being before called Qenopia, (Ovid ). The inhabi- partridges. It has been related, that the Ægine-
tants were called Ægineta , and Æginenfes. 'The Greeks tans annually wage war with the feathered race, care-
3
fully
naine.
1
1
Æ GI
[ 137 ]
Æ GI
Ægina fully collectingor breaking their eggs, to prevent their Æginhard, after the loſs of his lamented wife, is fup- Egipas
11 multiplying, and in conſequence a yearly ſamine. They poſed to have paſſed the remainder of his days in reli-
Æginhard.
have nó hares, foxes, or wolves. The rivers in ſun- gious retirement, and to have died ſoon after the year
Ægiſthus.
mer are all dry. The vaiwode or governor farms the 840. His life of Charlemagne, his annals from 741 to
revenue of the Grand Signior for 12 purſes, or 6000 839, and his letters, are ali inſerted in the ad volume
piaſtres. About half this ſum is repaid yearly by of Ducheſne's Scriptores Francorum. But there is an
the caratch-money, or poll-tax.
improved edition of this valuable hiſtorian, with the
ÆGINA, the capital of the above iſland. Its ſite has annotations of Hermann Schmincke, in 40, 1711.
been long forſaken. Inſtead of the temples mention ÆGIPAN, in heathen mythology, a denomination
ed by Pauſanias, there are 13 lonely churches, all given to the god Pan, becauſe he was repreſented with
very mean; and two Doric columns ſupporting their the horns, legs, feet, &c. of a goat.
architrave. Theſe ſtand by the ſea-ſide toward the ÆGIPHILA, GOAT-FRIEND ; a genus of the mo-
low cape ; and, it has been ſuppoſed, are a remnant nogyniaorder, belonging to the tetrandria claſsof plants;
of a temple of Venus, which was ſituated by the port the characters of which are: The calyx is a ſingle-lea-
principally frequented. The theatre, which is recor ved perianthium, bell-ſhap'd, four-tooth’d, looſe, very
ded as worth ſeeing, reſembled that of the Epidaurians ſhort, and perſiſtent: The corolla conſiſts of one petal;
both in ſize and workmanſhip. It was nor*far from the tubus cylindric, narrower and longer than the ca-
the private port; the ſtadium, which, like that at Priene, lyx; the border divided into four ſegments, flat and e-
was conſtructed with only one ſide, being joined to it qual; the divilions oblong : The ſianina conſiſt of four
behind, and each ſtructure mutually ſuſtaining and erect capillary filaments; the antheræ are incumbent
propping the other. The walls belonging to the ports and ſquared: The piſtillum has a germen above; a ca-
and arſenal were of excellent maſonry, and may be tra- pillary, two-cleft, middle-lized ſtylus; and a ſimple
ced to a conſiderable extent, above, or nearly even with ſtigina: The pericarpium is a roundiib unilocular ber-
the water. At the entrance of the mole, on the left, ry: The ſeeds are four. There is only one fpecies, a
is a ſmall chapel of St Nicholas; and oppoſite, a ſquare native of Martinique.
tower with ſteps before it, detached, from which a ÆGIS, in the ancient mythology, a name given to
bridge was laid acroſs, to be removed on any alarm. the ſhield or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas.
This ſtructure, which is mean, was erected by the Ve The goat Amalthea, which had ſuckled Jove, being
netians, while at war with tlie Turks in 1693. dead, that god is faid to have covered his buckler with
ÆGINETA (Paulus), a celebrated ſurgson of the the ſkin thereof; whence the appellation ægis, from
iſland of Ægina, from whence he derived his name. aç, ayos, She-goat. Jupiter, afterwards reſtoring the
According to M. Le Clerc's calculation, he lived in beaſt to life again, covered it with a new ſkin, and pla-
the fourth century ; but Abulpharagius the Arabian, ced it among the ſtars. As to his buckler, he made a
who is allowed to give the beſt account of thoſe times, preſent of it to Minerva ; whence that goddeſs's buck-
places him with more probability in the ſeventh. Hisler is alſo called ægis.
knowledge in furgery was very great, and his works Minerva, having killed the Gorgon Meduſa, nailed
are deſervedly famous. Fabricius ab Aquapendente her head in the middle of the ægis, which henceforth
has thought fit to tranſcribe him in a great variety of had the faculty of converting into ſtone all thoſe who
places. Indeed the doctrine of Paulus Ægineta, toge- looked thereon; as Meduſa herſelf had done during
ther with that of Celſus and Albucaſis, make up the her life.
whole text of this author. He is the firſt writer who Others take the ægis not to have been a buckler, bat
takes notice of the cathartic quality of rhubarb; and, a cuiraſs, or breaſt-plate: and it is certain the ægis of
according to Dr Milward, is the firſt in all antiquity Pallas, deſcribed by Virgil, Æn. lib. viii. ver. 435,
who deſerves the title of a man-midwife.
muſt have been a cuiraſs ; ſince that poet ſays expreſs-
ÆGINHARD, the celebrated ſecretary and ſup- ly, that Meduſa’s head was on the breaſt of the god-
poſed fon-in-law of Charlemagne. He is ſaid to have deſs. But the ægis of Jupiter, mentioned a little high-
been carried through the ſnow on the ſhoulders of the er, ver. 354, ſeems to have been a buckler : the words
affectionate and ingenious Imma, to prevent his being
Gum fæpe nigranten
tracked from her apartments by the emperor her fa Ægida concuteret dextra,
ther : a ſtory which the elegant pen of Addiſon has agreeing very well to a buckler ; but not at all to a
copied and embelliſhed from an old German chronicle, cuiraſs or breaſt-plate.
and inſerted in the 3d volume of the Spectator.–This Servius makes the ſame diſtinction on the two paſ-
happy lover (ſuppoſing the ſtory to be true) ſeems to fages of Virgil : for on verſe 354, he takes the ægis
have poſſeſſed a heart not unworthy of fo enchanting a for the buckler of Jupiter, made, as abovementioned,
miſtreſs, and to have returned her affection with the of the ſkin of the goat Amalthea; and on verſe 455
moſt faithful attachment; for there is a letter of Ægin- he deſcribes the ægis as the armour which covers the
hard's ſtill extant, lamenting the death of his wife, breaſt, which in ſpeaking of men is called cuiraſs, and
which is written in the tendereſt ſtrain of connubialaf. ægis in ſpeaking of the gods. Many authors have over-
fistion ;- it does not, however, expreſs that this lady looked theſe diſtinctions for want of going to the four-
was the affectionate princeſs and indeed fomelatecritics ces.
have proved that Imma was not the daughter of Char ÆGISTHUS, in ancient hiſtory, was the ton of
lemagne. -But to return to our hiſtorian: He was a Tyeſtes by his own danghter Pilopeia, who, to con.
native of Germany, and educated by the munificence of ceal her fame, expoſed hiin in the woods : fome fay
his imperial maſter, of which he has left the moſt grate- he was taken up by a hepherd, and ſuckled by a goat,
ful teſtimony in his preface to the life of that monarch. whence he was called Agilihus. He corrupted Cly,
VOL. I,
S
temneſtra
Æ GO
( 138 ]
Æ GO
mon.
DIOS,
Ægithallus temneſtra the wife of Agamemnon ; and with her af. into the Helleſpont, to the north of Ceſtos ; alſo a Ægofpota.
liſtance flew her huſband, and reigned ſeven years in town, ſtation, or road for thips, at its mouth. Here
#goſpota- Mycenæ. He was, together with Clytemneſtra,
llain the Atlaenians, under Conon, through the fault of his
by Oreſtes. Pompey uſed to call Julius Cæſar Ægiſthus, colleague Iſocrates, received a lignal overthrow from
on account of his having corrupted his wife Mutia, the Lacedemoniansunder Lyſander, which was follow-
whom he afterwards put away, though he had three ed by the taking of Athens, and put an end to the
children by her.
Peloponneſian war. The Athenian fleet having fol-
ÆGITHALLUS (anc. geog.), a promontory and lowed the Lacedemonians, anchored in the road, over
citadel of Sicily, between Drepanum and the Empo- againſt the enemy, wlio lay before Lampſacus. The
rium Aegiſtanum, afterwards called Acellus ; corrupt- Hellefpont is not above two thouſand paces broad in
ly written Aegitharfos, in Ptolemy; ſituate near mount that place. The two armies ſecing themſelves ſo near
Eryx, and now called Capo di Santo Teodoro.
each other, expected only to reſt that day, and were
ÆGIUM, (anc. geog.) a town of Achaia Propria, in hopes of coming to a battle on the next.
five miles from the place where Helice ſtood, and fa But Lyſander had another deſign in his view. He
mous for the council of the Acheans, which uſually niet commanded the ſeamen and pilots to go on board their
there on account either of the dignity or commodious galleys, as if they were in reality to fight the next
fituation of the place. It was alſo famous for the wor morning at break of day, to hold themſelves in readi-
fhip of Ouxqupsos Esus, Conventional Jupiter, and of Pa- nefs, and to wait his orders with profound filence.
nathæan Geres. The territory of Ægium was watered He commanded the land-army in like manner to draw
by two rivers, viz. the Phænix and Meganitas. The up in battle upon the coaſt, and to wait the day with-
epithet is Ægienſis. There is a coin in the cabinet of out noiſe. On the morrow, as ſoon as the ſun was ri-
the king of Pruſſia, with the inſcription Airi, and the ſen, the Athenians began to row towards them with
figure of a tortoiſe, which is the ſymbol of Pelopon- their whole fleet in one line, and to bid them defiance.
nelus, and leaves no doubt as to the place where it was Lyſander, though his ſhips were ranged in order of
ſtruck.
battle, with their heads towards the enemy, lay ſtill
ÆGOBOLIUM,in antiquity, the facrifice of a goat without making any movement. In the evening, when
offered to Cybele. The ægobolium was an expiatory the Athenians withdrew, he did not ſuffer his ſoldiers
facrifice, which bore a near reſemblance to the tauro to go alhore, till two or three galleys, which he had
bolium and criobolium, and ſeems to have been ſome fent out to obſerve them, were returned with advice
times joined with them.
that they had ſeen the enemy land. The next day
ÆĞOPODIUM, SMALL WILD ANGELICA,Gout. paſſed in the ſame manner, as did the third and fourth.
WORT, GOATSFOOT, HERB GERARD, or ASHWEED; Such a conduct, which argued reſerve and apprehen-
a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentan- fion, extremely augmented the ſecurity and boldneſs
dria claſs of plants ; the characters of which are : of the Athenians, and inſpired them with an extreme
The univerſal calyx is a manifold convex umbel; the contempt for an army, which fear, in their ſenſe, pre-
partial one, conſimilar and flat; there is no involucrum; vented from ſhowing themſelves, and attempting any
and the proper perianthium is ſcarcely diſcernible: thing.
The univerſal corolla is uniform, the florets all fertile; Whilſt this paſſed, Alcibiades, who was near the
the proper one has five inverſe-ovate, concave, equal fleet, took horſe, and came to the Athenian generals ;
petals, inflected at the top: The Stamina conſiſt of to whom he repreſented, that they kept upon a very
five fimple filaments twice the length of the corolla ; diſadvantageous coaft, where there were neither ports
the antheræ roundiſh: The piſtillum has a germen be nor cities in the neighbourhood ; that they were ob-
neath; two purple erect ftyli the length of the corol- liged to bring their proviſions from Ceſtos with great
let; the ſtamina are headed: No pericarpium : The · danger and difficulty; and that they were very much
fruit is ovate, ftriated, and bipartite; The feeds are in the wrong to ſuffer the ſoldiers and mariners of
two, ovate, on one ſide conyex and ſtriated, and flat the fleet, as ſoon as they were aſhore, to ftraggle and
on the other. There is but one ſpecies, a native of diſperſe themſelves at their own pleaſure, whillt they
Britain and other parts of Europe. It is very common were faced in view by the enemy's fleet, accuſtomed
under hedges and about gardens; the leaves reſemble to execute the orders of their general with the rea-
thoſe of Angelica, and it carries ſmall white flowers. dieſt obedience, and upon the lighteſt ſignal. He
I s roots run ſo faſt, as to render it a very troubleſome offered alſo to attack the enemy by land with a ſtrong
weed.
body of Thracian troops, and to force them to a bat-
ÆGOPRICORN, a genus of the monæcia order, tle. The generals, eſpecially Tydeus and Menan-
belonging to the diandria claſs of plants; the characters der, jealous of their command, did not content them-
of which are: The calyx both of the male and female felves with refuſing his offers, from the opinion, that
is a tubular perianthium of one leaf divided into three if the event proved unfortunate, the whole blame
ſegments: Corolla wanting in both: The fanina con would fall on them, and if favourable, that Alcibia-
fift of a ſingle ere&t filament longer than the calyx, with des alone would have the honour of it'; but rejected
an oyate anthera : The piſtillum has an ovate germen, alſo with inſult his wiſe and falutary council, as if a
three divaricated ſtyli, and ſimple perſiſtent ſtigmata: man in diſgrace loft his ſenſe and abilities, with the
The pericarpium is a globular berry, three-grained favour of the commonwealth. Alcibiades withdrew.
within, and three-cell'd: The feeds are folitary, and The fifth day the Athenians prcfented themſelves
angular on one ſide. There is but one ſpecies, a na again, and offered batlle ; retiring in the evening ac-
tive of Surinam.
cording to cuſtom with more inſuliing airs tfian the
ÆGOSPOTAMOS, (anc. geog.), a river in the days before. Lyſander, as uſual, detached-ſome gal-
Thracian Cherſoneſus, falling with a ſouth-eaſt courſe leys to obſerve them, with orders to return with the
utmoſt
A
Æ M I
Æ G Y
[ 139
139]
mos
1
Ægoſpora- utmoſt digilence when they ſaw the Atheniaus land with, or compoſed of, veins of black and white, or black Ægyptus
ed, and to put up a brazen buckler at each ſhip’s head and blueiſh, with ſometimes a plate or vein of whitiſh li
Æmilius,
1 as ſoon as they reached the middle of the channel. red. The authors of theſe accounts ſeem to have un-
Ægyptilla. Himſelf in the mean time ran through the whole line derſtood by this name the ſeveral ſtones of the onyx,
in his galley, exhorting the pilots and officers to hold ſardonyx, and camæa kind; all which we have at pre-
the ſeamen and ſoldiers in readineſs to row and fight fent common among us, but none of which poſſeſs any
on the firſt ſignal.
ſuch ſtrange properties.
As ſoon as the bucklers were put up in the ſhips ÆGYPTUS, (fab. hiſt.) was the ſon of Beleus, and
heads, and the admiral galley had given the ſignal by brother of Danaus. See BELIDES.
the ſound of trumpet, the whole fleet ſet forward in ÆLINATÆ, in antiquity, a denomination given to
good order. The land-army at the ſame time made all the ſenators of Miletus, becauſe they held their deli-
poſſible haſte to the top of the promontory to ſee the berations on board a ſhip, and never returned to land,
battle. The ſtrait that ſeparates the two continents till matters had been agreed on,
in this place is about fifteen ſtadia, or three quarters LIAN (Claudius), born at Prænefte in Italy. He
of a league in breadth ; which ſpace was preſently clear- taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonius, un-
ed through the activity and diligence of the rowers. der the Emperor Alexander Severus. He was firnamed
Conon the Athenian general was the firſt who percei- Megawor
Margawor, Honey-Mouth, on account of the ſweet-
ved from ſhore, the fleet advance in good order to at neſs of his ſtyle. He was likewiſe honoured with the
tack him ; upon which he immediately cried out for title of Sophiſt, an appellation in his days only given to
the troops to embark. In the height of ſorrow and men of learning and wiſdom. He loved retirement,
trouble, fome he called to by their names, ſome he and devoted himſelf to ſtudy. He greatly admired and
conjured, and others he forced to go on board their ſtudied Plato, Ariſtotle, Iſocrates, Plutarch, Homer,
galleys; but all his endeavours and emotion were inef Anacreon, Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman,
fectual, the ſoldiers being diſperſed on all ſides. For gives the preference to the writers of the Greek nation.
they were no ſooner come on ſhore, than foine ran His two moſt celebrated works are, his Various Hi-
to the futlers, fome to walk in the country, ſome ſtory,and Hiſtory of Animals.
ſtory, and Hiſtory of Animals. He compoſed likewiſe
to ſleep in their tents, and others had begun to dreſs a book on Providence, mentioned by Euſtathius ; and
their ſuppers. This proceeded from a want of vigi another on divine Appearances, or The Declarations
lance and experience in their generals, who, not ſuf of Providence. There have been ſeveral editions of
pecting the leaſt danger, indulged themſelves in lais Various Hiſtory.
taking their repoſe, and gave their ſoldiers the ſame ÆLI PONS (anc. geog.) one of the fortreſſes near
liberty.
the wall or rampart, or, in the words of the Notitia,
The eneny had already fallen on with loud cries and through the line of the hither wall; built, as is thought,
a great noiſe of their oars, when Conon, diſengaging by Adrian*. Now Porteland, (Camden), in North- *See Adrian
himſelf with nine galleys, of which number was the fa umberland, between Newcaſtle and Morpeth.
(emperor).
cred ſhip called the Paralian, ſtood away for Cyprus, ÆLIUS PONS, now il Ponte S. Angelo, a ſtone-
where he took refuge with Evagoras. The Pelopon- bridge at Rome, over the Tyber, which leads to the
ncſians, falling upon the reſt of the fleet, took imme. Burgo and Vatican from the city, along Adrian's mole,
diately the galleys which were empty, aud diſabled and built by the Emperor Adrian.
deſtroyed ſuch as began to fill with men. The ſoldiers, ÆLFRED, See ALFRED
who ran without order or arms to their relief, were ei ÆLURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or
ther killed in the endeavour to get on board, or flying god of cats; repreſented ſometimes like a cat, and
on ſhore were cut to pieces by the enemy, who landed ſometimes like a man with a cat's head. The Egyp-
in purſuit of them. Lyſander took 3000 priſoners, tians had ſo ſuperſtitious a regard for this animal, that
with all the generals, and the whole fleet. After ha. the killing it, whether by accident or deſign, was pu-
ving plundered the camp, and faſtened the enemy's niſhed with death : and Didorus relates, that, in the
galleys to the ſterns of his own, he returned to Lamp time of extreme famine, they choſe rather to eat one
facus amidſt the found of flutes and ſongs of triumph. another than touch theic ſacred animals.
It was his glory to have atchieved one of the greateſt AEM, AM, or Ame, a liquid meaſure uſed in moſt
military exploits recorded in hiſtory with little or no parts of Germany ; but different in different towns ;
loſs, and to have terminated a war in the ſmall ſpace the aen commonly contains 20 vertils, or 80 maſſes;
of an hour, which had already laſted 27 years, and that of Heidelberg is equal to 48 maties; and that of
which, perhaps, without him, had been of much longer Wirtembergh to rbo maſſes. See AAM.
continuance.
ÆMILIUS (Paulus), the ſon of Lucius Paulus,
ÆGYPT. See EGYPT,
who was killed at the battle of Cannx, was twice coll-
ÆGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of ſeve ful. In his firſt conſulate he triumphed over the Li-
ral detergent ointments; which are deſcribed under guriants ; and in the ſecond ſubdued Perſeus king of
the article OINTNENT.
Macedonia, and reduced that country to a Roman pro-
ÆGYPTILLA, in natural hiſtory, the name of a vince, on which he obtained the ſurnameof Macedoni.
ſtone deſcribed by the ancients, and ſaid by ſome all-
cus.
He returned to Rome loaded with glory, and
thors, to have the remarkable quality of giving water triumphed for three days. He died 168 years belore
the colour and taſte of wine. This ſeems a very ima Chriſt.
ginary virtue, as are indeed too many of thoſe in for ÆMILIUS (Paulus), a celebrated hiſtorian, born at
nier ages attributed to ſtones. The deſcriptions left us Verona, who obtained ſuch reputation in Italy, that he
of this remarkable foffil tell us, that it was variegated was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourboi, in
S2
the
Æ N E
( 140 ]
E NI
U17
1
Æneid.
rimoboli- the reign of Lewis XII. in order to write the hiſtory ſtroke. In an epic poem this merit is the next to ſub- Ængina,
of the kings of France in Latin, and was given a ca- limity. The ſecond book of the Æneid is one of the Ænigma.
nonry in the cathedral of Paris. He was near 30 greateſt maſter pieces that ever was executed. The
years in writing that hiſtory, which has been greatly death of old Priam, and the family-pieces of lêneas,
admired; and died at Paris on the 5th of May 1529. Anchiſes, and Creuſa, are asiender as can be conceiv-
AMOBOLIUM, in antiquity, the blood of a bull ed. In the fourth book, the unhappy paſlion and
or ram offered in the facrifices, called taurobolia and death of Dido are admirable. The epiſodes of Pallas
criobclia; in which ſenſe the word occurs in ancient and Evander, of Niſus and Euryalus, of Lauſus and
infcriptions.
Mezentius, are all ſuperlatively fine.
ÆNARIA (anc, geog.), an iſland on the bay of In his battles, Virgil is far inferior to Homer. But
Cumz, or over again it Cumæ in Italy, (Pliny.) It is in the important epiſode, the deſcent into hell, he has
alſo called Inarime, (Virgil); and now Iſchia : ſcarce outdone Homer by many degrees. There is nothing ill
three iniles diſtant from the coaſt, and the promontory antiquity to equal the ſixth book of the Æneid.
Miſenus to the weſt ; 20 miles in compaſs; called Pz ANGINA, one of the iſlands of the Archipelago.
thecuſa by the Grcehs. It is one of the Oenotrides, It lies in the bay of Engia, and the town of that name
and fenced round by very high rocks, ſo as to be in contains about 800 houſes and a cattle; and near it are
acceſſible but on one ſide; it was formerly famous for the ruins of a magnificent ſtructure, which was pro-
its earthen ware.
See ISCHIA.
bably a temple.
ÆNEAS (fab, hiſt.), a famous Trojan prince, the ÆNIGMA, denotes any dark faying, wherein ſome
fou of Anchiſes and Venus. At the deſtruction of well-known thing is concealed underobfcure language.
Troy, he bore his aged father on his back, and ſaved The word is Greek, Awigues, formed of arvotter 1 , oba
him from the Greeks; but being too folicitous about Soure innuere, to hint a thing darkly, and of anos, an
his fon and houſehold-gods, loit his wife Creuſa in the obſcure ſpeech or diſcourſe. The popular nameis riddle;
eſcape. Landing in Africa, he was kindly received by from the Belgic raeden, or the Saxon aracthan, to in-
queen Dido: but quitting her coaſt, he arrived in Italy, terpret. Fa. Bouhours, in the memoirs of Trevoux,
where he married Lavinia the daughter of king Lati- defines an ænigma, A diſcourſe, or painting, inclading
nus, and defeated Turnus, to whom ſhe had been con fome hidden meaning, which is propoſed to be gueſſed.
tracted. After the death of his father-in-law, he was Fainted ÆNIGMAS, are repreſentations of the works
made king of the Latins, over whoin he reigned three of nature,orart, concealed under human figures, drawn
years: but joining with the Aborigines, he was ſlain from hiſtory, or fable.
in a battle againſt the Tuſcans. Virgil has rendered A Verbal ÆNIGMA, is a witty, artſul, and abſtruſe
the name of this prince immortal, by making him the deſcription of any thing.--In a general ſenſe, every
hero of his poelll.
See ÆNEID.
dark ſaying, every difficult queſtion, every parable, .
ÆNEAS SYLVIUS, (Pope). See Pius II. may paſs for an enigma. Hence obſcure laws are
ÆNEATORES, in antiquity, the inuſicians in an called Ængmata furis. The alchemiſts are great
army, including thoſe who played trumpets, horns,&c. dealers in the ænigmatic language, their proceſſes for
The word is formed from æneus, on account of the the philoſophers ſtone being generally wrapped up in
brazen inſtruments uſed by them.
riddles: e. g. Fac ex mare et fæmina circulum, inde
ÆNEID, the name of Virgil's celebrated epic po- quadranglum, hinc triangulum, fac circulur, et habebis
Blair's Lec- em. The ſubject of the Æneid, which is the eſtab- lapidem philofophorum.-F. Meneſtrier has attempted to
liſhment of Æneas in Italy, is extremely happy. No reduce the compoſition and reſolution of ænigmas to a
thing could be more intereſting to the Romans than to kind of art, with fixed rules and principles, which hc
look back to their origin from ſo famous a liero While calls the philoſophy of enigmatic images.
the object was ſplendid itſelf, the traditionary hiſtory The Subject of an ÆNIGMA, or the thing to be
of his country opened intereſting fields to the poet ; concealed and made a myſtery of, he juſtly obſerves,
and he could glance at all the future great exploits of ought not to be ſuch in itſelf; but, on the contrary,
the Romans, in its ancient and fabulous ſtate. common, obvious, and eaſy to be conceived. It is to ,
As to the unity of action, it is perfectly well pre. be taken, either from nature, as the heavens, or ſtars ;
ſerved in the Æneid. The ſettlement of Æneas, by or from art, as painting, the compaſs, a mirror, or
the order of the gods, is conſtantly kept in view. The the like.
epiſodes are linked properly with the main ſubject. The Form of ÆNIGMAS conſiſts in the words, which,
The nodus, or intrigue of the poem, is happily ma whether they bein proſe or verſe, contain either ſome
naged. The wrath of Juno, who oppoſes Æneas, gives deſcription, a queſtion, or a proſopopæia. The laſt
riſe to all his difficulties, and connects the human with kind are the moſt pleaſing, inaſmuch as they give life
the celeſtial operations throughout the whole poem. and action to things which otherwiſe have them not.
One great imperfection of the Æneid, however, is, To make an ænigma, therefore, two things are to be
that there are alınoſt no marked characters in it. A- pitched on,which bear ſome reſemblance to each other;
chates, Cloanthes, Gyas, and other Trojan heroes who as the ſun and a monarch; or a ſhip and a houſe :
accompanied Æneas into Italy, are inſipid figures. and on this reſemblance is to be raiſed a ſuperſtructure
Even Æneas himſelf is without intereſt. The charac of contrarieties to amuſe and perplex. It is eaſier
ter of Dido is the beſt ſupported in the whole Æneid. to find great fabjects for ænigmas in figures than in
The principalexcellencyof Virgil is tenderneſs. His words, inaſmucli as painting attracts the eyes and ex-
ſoul was full of ſenſibility. He muſt have felt him cites the attention to diſcover the ſenſe. The ſubjects
ſelfall the affecting circumſtances in the ſcenes he de of enignias in painting, are to be taken either from
{cribes; and he knew how to touch the heart by a ſingle hiſtory or fable: the compoſition here is a kind of me-
tamorphols,
Æ NI
( 141 ]
ÆNI
Nec anus ;
Ænigma, tamorpholis, wherein, e.g. human figures are changed exemplars of it: one found 140 years ago, on a mar- Ænigmas.
into trees, and rivers into metals. It is eſſential to æ ble near Bolognia: the other in an ancient MS. writ-
nigmas, that the hiſtory or fable under which they ten in Gothic letters, at Milan. It is controverted be-
are preſented, be known to every body; otherwiſe it tween the two cities, which is to be reputed the more
will be two ænigmas inſtead of one ; the firſt of the authentic.
hiſtory or fable, the ſecond of the ſenſe in which it
The Bononian Enigma.
is to be taken. Another eſſential rule of the ænigma
D. M.
is, that itonly admits of one ſenſe. Every ænigma which
Ælia Lelia Griſpis,
is fuſceptive of different interpretations, all equally
Nec oir, nec mulier,
natural is ſo far imperfect. What gives a kind of eru-
Nec androgyna ;
dition to an ænigma, is an invention of figures in ii-
Nec puella, nec juvenis,
luations, geſtures, colours, &c. authoriſed by paſſages
of the poets, the cuſtoms of artiſts in ſtatues, baſſo relie-
Nec cafla, nec meretrix,
vos; inſcriptions, and medals.-In foreign colleges,
Nec pudica;
The explication of ÆNIGMAS makes a conſiderable
Sed omnia :
exerciſe, and that one of the moſt difficult and amu-
Sublata
ing, where wit and penetration have the largeſt field.
Nsque fame, neque ferro,
-By explaining an ænigma, is meant the finding a
Neque veneno;
inotto correſponding to the action and perſons repre-
Sed oninibus :
ſented in a picture, taken either froni hiſtory or my-
Nec cælo, nec terris,
thology. The great art of this exerciſe contiſts in the
Nec aquis,
choice of a motto, which either by itſelf, or the cir-
Sed ubique jacet.
cumſtances of time, place, perſon who ſpeaks, or thoſe
Lucius Agatha Priſcius,
before whom he is ſpeaking, may divertthe ſpectators,
Nec maritus, nec amator,
and furniſh occafion for ſtrokes of wit ; alſoin ſhowing
Nec neceſarius;
to advantage the conformities between the figure and
Neque mærens, neque gaudens,
thing figured; giving ingenious turns to the reaſons
Neque flens;
employed to ſupport what is advanced, and in artfully
Напс,
introducing pieces of poetry to illuſtrate the ſubject and
Nec molem, nec pyramidem,
awaken the attention of the audience.
Nec ſepulchrum,
As to the ſolution of ænigmas, it may be obſero -
Sed omnia,
ved, that thoſe expreſſed by figures are more difficult ·
Scit et nefcit, cui pofuerit.
to explain than thoſe conſiſting of words, by reaſon That is to fay, To the gods manes, Ælia Lalia Crifpis, .
inages may fignify more things than words can ; ſo nerther man, or woman, nor hermaphrodite ; nleither girl,
that to fix them to a particular ſenſe, we muſt apply nor youlug woman, nor old ; neither chafte, nor a whore;
every ſituation, fymbol, &c. and without omitting a but all theſe : killed neither by hunger, nor ſteel, 1lor poi-
circumſtance.-As there are few perſons in hiſtory, or fol ; but by all theſe : reſts neither in heaven, nor on
mythology, but have ſome particular character of vice earth nor in the waters ;
earth nor in the waters ; but every where. Lucius A-
or virtue, we are, before all things, to attend to this gatho Prifcius, neither her huſband, nor lover, nor friend;
character, in order to divine what the figure of a per- neither forrowful, nor joyful, 1107 weeping, ceitain or
ſon repreſented in a painting ſignifies, and to find what uncertain, it whom he rears this monument, neither e-
agreement this may have with the ſubject whereof we rects her a temple, nor a pyramid, nor a tomb, but
would explain it. Thus, if Proteus be repreſented in all theſe. In the MS. at Milan. inſtead of D. 11. we
a picture, it may be taken to denote inconſtancy, and find A. M. P. P. D. and at the end the following ad
applied either to a phyſical or moral ſubject, whoſe dition :
characteris to be changeable ; e.g.an almanack, which Hoc eft fepulchrum intus cadaver non habens,
expreſſes the weather, the ſeaſons, heat, cold, ſtorms, Hoc eft cadaver ſupulchrum extra non babens,
and the like. The cobeurs of figures may alſo help to
Sed cadaver idem eft et lspulchrum
unriddle what they mean: white, for inſtance, is a mark We find near 50 ſeveral ſolutions of this ænigma
of innocence, red of modeſty, green of hope, black of advanced by learned men. Alarius Michael Ange-
forrow, &c. When figures are accompanied with lus maintains Ælia Lelia Criſpis to ſignify rain-wa-
Symbols, they are leſs precarions; theſe being, as it ter falling into the ſea. Ri. Vitus firſt explained it of
were, the foul of ænigmas, and the key that opens the Niobe turned to a ſtone, aiterwards of the rational
myſtery of them. Of all the kinds of ſymbols which foul, and afterwards of the Platonicidea ; Jo. Turrius,
may be met with in thoſe who have treated profeſſed- of the materia prima ; Fr. Schottus, of an eunuch ;
ly on the ſubject, the only truly ænigmaticalare thoſe Nic. Bernardus of the philoſophers-ſtone, in which he
of Pythagoras, which, under dark proverbs, hold forth is followed by Borrichius ; Zach. Pontimus, of three
effons of morality; as when he ſays, Siateram ne tran. human bodies in the ſame ſituation and buried hy three
filias, to ſignify, Do no injuſtice.
different men at the ſame time ; Neſmondius, of a
But it muſt be added, that we meet with ſome ænig lasv-fuit; Jo. Gaf. Gerartius, of love ; Zu. Boxhor-
inas in hiſtory, complicated to a degree, which noch nius, of a Madow ; P. Terronus, of muſic, Fort Li.
tranſcends all rules, and has given great perplexity cetus, of generation, friendſhip, and privation : M.Ov.
to the interpreters of them. Such is that celebrated Montalbanus, of lemp; Car. Cæſ. Malvaſia, of an a-
ancient one Ælia Lelia Criſpis, about which many of bortive girl promiſed in marriage : Pet. Niengulus, of
the learned have puzzled their heads. There are two the rule of chaſtity, preſcribed by the founder of the
military
>
و
Æ OL
Æ O L
I 142
142 ]
Æon.
Ænigmato- military religion of St Mary ; M. de Ciconia, of pope being again ſcrewed in, the ball is placed on a pan of Æviis
graphy Joan; Heumanus, of Lot's wife ; and laſtly, J.Č. S. kindled charcoal, where it is well licated, and there
an anonymous writer in the Leiplic Acts, of the Chri- iſſues from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious vio-
Æolipile. ftian church.
lence and great noiſe, which continues till all the in-
ÆNIGMATOGRAPHY, or ÆNIGMATHOLOGY, cluded water is diſcharged. The ſtronger the fire is, ,
the art of reſolving or making ænigmas.
the more elaſtic and violent will be the ſteam; but care
ÆNONA (anc. geog.), a city of Liburnia, called by muſt be taken that the ſmall orifice of the pipe be not,
Pliny Civitas braſini, the reaſon of which is unknown; by any accident, ſtopped up; becauſe the inſtrument
alſo Enona, and is now called Nona; on the Adriatic, by would in that caſe infallibly burſt in pieces, with ſuch
which it is forthe greater part ſurrounded; over-againit violence as may greatly endanger the lives of the per-
the iſland Giſſa, from which it is diſtant four miles to
fons near it. Another way of introducing the water
the weſt. E. Long. 160, Lat. 280.
is to heat the ball red-hot when empty, which will
ÆNUS (anc. gcog.), now the Inn, a river of Ger- drive out almoſt all the air ; and then by ſuddenly im-
many, which, riſing in the country of the Griſons, merging it in water, the preſſure of the atmoſphere
out of the Alps, in the diſtrict called Gottes-haus-punt, will force in the fluid, till it is nearly full. Des Cartes
runs through the Griſons, the county of Tyrol, the and others have uſed this inſtrument to account for the
duchy of Bavaria, and through Paſſau into the Da- natural cauſe and generation of the wind : and hence
nube.
it was called Æolopila:q. d. pila Æoli, the ball of Æo.
ÆNUS, Ænos, or Ænun (anc. geog.), a town of lus or of the god of the winds.
Thrace, ſituate on the eaſt-moſt mouth of the Hebrus, ÆOLIS,or ÆOLIA ( anc. geog ), a country of the
which has two mouths; and ſaid to be built by the Cu- Hither Aſia, ſettled by colonies of Æolian Greeks.
means. It was a free town, in which ſtood the tomb Taken at large, it comprehends all Troas, and the coaſt
of Polydorus, (Pliny); Ænius is the epithet. Here the of the Helleſpont to the Propontis, becauſe in thoſe
brother of Cato Uticenfis died, and was honoured with parts there were ſeveral Æolian colonies: more ſtrictly,
a monument of marble in the forum of the Ænii, (Plu- it is ſituated between Troas to the north, and Ionia to
tarch) ; called Ænei, (Stephanus) ; Livy ſays that the the ſouth. The people are called Æoles, or Æolii.
town was otherwiſe called Abſynthus. Now Eno.
. ÆOLIUM MARE (anc. geog.), a part of the Egean
ÆNITHOLOGIUS, in poetry, a verſe of two ſea, waſhing Æolis ; called alſo Myſium, from Mylia.
dactyls and three trochæi ; as, Praelia dira placent Now called, Golfo di Smyrna.
truci juventae.
ÆOLUS in heathen mythology, the god of the
ÆOLIÆ INSULÆ, now Isole di Lipari, (anc. winds, was ſaid to be the ſon of Jupiter by Acaſta, or
geog.), ſeven iſlands, ſituated between Sicily and Italy, Sigelia, the daughter of Hippotus; or, according to
lo called from Æolus, who reigned there about the others the ſon of Hippotus by Meneclea, daughter of
time of the Trojan war. The Greeks call them Hephaea Hyllus king of Lipara. He dwelt in the iſland
ſtiades ; and the Romans Vulcaniae, from their fiery Strongyle,110w called Strombolo,one of the ſeven iſlands
eruptions. They are alſo called Liparaeorum Inſu- called Æolian from their being under the domin-
lae, from their principal iſland Lipara. Dionyfius Pe- ion of Æolus. Others ſay, that his reſidence was at
riegetes call them frutar becauſe circumnavigable. Regium, in Italy; and others again place him in the
ÆOLIC, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſomething be- illand Lipara. He is repreſented as having authority
longing to Æolis.
over the winds, which he held enchainedin a vaſt cavern
ÅOLIC, or Æolian, in grammar, denotes one of to prevent their continuing the develations they had
the five dialects of the Greek tongue. It was firſt uſed been guilty of before they were put under his direction.
in Boeotia ; whence it paſſed into Æolia, and was that Mythologiſts explain the original of theſe fables, by
which Sappho and Alcæus wrote in. The Æolic dia. ſaying, that he was a wiſe and good prince; and, be-
lect generally throws out the, aſpirate or ſharp ſpirit, ing ſkilled in aſtronoiny, was able, by the flux and re-
and agrees in ſo many things with the Doric dialect flux of the tides, and the nature of the volcano in the
that the two are uſually confounded together
iſland Strongyle, to foretel ſtorms and tempeſts.
Æolic digama is a name given to the letter F which Harp of Æolus, or the Æolian lyre. See Acou-
the Æolians uſed to prefix to words beginning with STICS, nº 10.
vowels as Foros, for orvos; alſo to inſert between yow ÆON, a Greek word, properly fignifying the age
els, as ofis, for oss.
or duration of any thing.
Æolic Verſe, in proſody, a verſe conſiſting of an i Æon, among the followers of Plato, was uſed to
ambus, or ſpondee; then of two anapeſts, feparated fignify any virtue, attribute, or perfection : hence
by a long ſyllable ; and, laſtly, of another ſyllable. they repreſented the deity as an aſſemblage of all poſ-
Such as, Oſtelliferi conditor orbis. This is otherwiſe fible æ011s ; and called himn pleroma, a Greek term
called eulogic verſe ; and, from the chief poets who fignifyingfulneſs. The Valentinians, who, in the firſt
uſed it, Archilochian and Pindaric.
ages of the church, blended the conceits of the Jewiſh
ÆOLIPILE, in hydraulics, is a hollow ball of me- cabaliſts, the Platoniſts, and the Chaldean philoſophers,
tal, generally uſed in courſes of experimental philofo- with the ſimplicity of the Chriſtian doctrine, invented
phy, in order to demonſtrate the pollibility of convert a kind of Theogony, or Genealogy of Gods (not un-
ing water into an elaſtic ſteam or vapour by heat. The like that of Heliod), whom they called by ſeveral glo-
inſtrument therefore, conſiſts of a ſlender neck, or rious names, and all by the general appellation of
pipe, having a narrow orifice inſerted into the ball by Æons ; among which they reckoned Ze, Life ; Aogos,
means of a ſhouldered ſcrew. This pipe being taken Vord; Morogovas, Only-begotten ; ITanpwpu, Fulneſs; and
out, the ball is filled almoſt full of water, and the pipe many other divine powers and emanations, amounting
in
Æ RA
( 143 )
A ER
Ara.
Ver, &c.
Æra in number to thirty; which they fancied to be fuc or nation ; and the epochs are poins fixed by chrono. Ærarium
0 ceſlively derived from one another; and all from one logiſts and hiſtorians. The idea of an æra compre-
ſelf-originated deity, named Bythus, i.e. profound or hends alſo a certain ſucceſſion of years proceeding from
Æeriala
unfathomable ; whom they called likewiſe, The most a fixed point of time, and the epoch is that point it-
high and ineffable Father. See VALENTINIANS. ſelf. Thus the Chriſtian æra began at the epoch of
ÆORA, among ancient writers on medicine, is uſed the birth of Jeſus Chriſt. See CHRONOLOGY, where
ſor geſtation ; which ſort of exerciſe was often preſcri- the different Æras, &c. are enumerated and explained.
bed by the phyſicians of thoſe days. Other exerciſes ÆRARIUM, the treaſury or place where the pub-
confifted principally in the motion of the body ; but lic money was depoſited amongſt the Ronians.
in the æora the limbs were at reſt, while the body was ÆRARIUM Sanctius contained the monies ariſing from
carried about and moved from place to place, in ſuch the twentieth part of all legacies: this was kept for the
a manner as the phyſician preſcribed. It had there extreme neceſſities of the ſtate.
fore the advantages of exerciſe, without the fatigue of Ærarium Privatum was the emperor's privy purſe,
it. This exerciſe was promoted ſeveral ways: fome or the place where the money ariſing from his private
times the patient was laid in a ſort of hammock, fup- patrimony was depoſited.
ported by ropes, and moved backward and forward; Ærarium Vicefimarum, the place where the money
fometimes his bed run nimbly on its fect. And belide ariſing from the taxes levied fromforeign countries was
theſe, the ſeveral ways of travelling were accounted laid up, ſo called becauſe it moſt commonly conſiſted
fpecies of the æora, whether in the litter, in a boal or of a twentieth part of the produce.
mip, or on even ground in a chariot.--Aſclepiades was ÆRARIUM Ilithyae, or funonis Lucinae, was where
the firſt who brought geſtation into practice, which the monies were depoſited which parents paid for the
was uſed as a means to recover ſtrength after a fe- birth of each child.
There are ſeveral other treafuries mentioned in hif-
ÆQUANA JUGA, (anc. geog.) ; mountains of tory, as the erarium juventutis, Veneris, &c. The
Picenum, in the kingdom of Naples, now called Mon- temple of Saturn was the public treaſury of Rome,
tagna di Sorrento, denominated from the town Æqua, either becauſe Saturn firſt taught the Italians to coin
which being deſtroyed, was replaced by Vicus, now money, or, which is moſt likely, becauſe this temple
Vico di Sarrento; called alſo Æquana, Sil. Italicus. was the ſtrongeſt and moſt ſecure, and therefore the
ÆQUIMELIUM, in antiquity, a place in Rome, fitteſt place for that purpoſe.
where ſtood the houſe of Spurius Melius, who, by lar Ærarium differs from fifcus, as the firſt contained
geſſes corrupting the people, affected the fupreme the public nioney, the ſecond that of the prince. The
power : refuſing to appear before the dictator Cincin two are, however, ſometimes indiſcriminately uſed for
natus, he was lain by Servilius Ahala, maſter of the each other.
horſe ; his houſe was razed to the ground; and the ÆRARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a
ſpot on which it ſtood was called Area Equimelii. degraded citizen, who had been ſtruck off the liſt of
(Livy.)
his century. Such perſons were ſo called becauſe they
ÆRA, in chronology, a fixed point of time from were liable to all the taxes (æra), without enjoying
whence any number of years is begun to be counted. any of its privileges.
It is ſometimes alſo written in ancient authors Era. The ærarii were incapable of making a will, of in-
The origin of the term is conteſted, though it is ge. heriting, of voting in aſſemblies, of enjoying any poſt
nerally allowed to have had its riſe in Spain. Sepul- of honour or profit; in effect, were only ſubject to the
veda ſuppoſed it forned from A. ER. A. the notæ or burdens, without the benefits of ſociety; yet they re-
abbreviatures of the words, annus erat Augufti, occa tained their freedom, and were not reduced to the con-
fioned by the Spaniards beginning their computation ditioni of laves. To be made an ærarius was a pu.
from the time their country came under the dominion nihnient inflicted for ſome offence, and reputed one
of Auguſtus, or that of receiving the Roman calendar. degree more ſevere than to be expelled a tribe, tribit
This, opinion, however ingenious, is rejected by Sca- moveri.
liger, not only on account that in the ancient abbre ÆRARIUS was alſo an officer inſtituted by Alexander
viatures A never ſtood for annus, unleſs when preceded Severus, for the diſtribution of the money given in lar-
by ľfor vixit ; and that it ſeems improbable they geſſes to the ſoldiery, or people.
ſhould put ER for erot, and the letter A, without any ÆRARIUS was alſo uſed for a perſon employed in
diſcrimination, both for annus and Auguſtus. Voſſius coining or working braſs.
nevertheleſs favours the conjecture, and judges it at Theſe are ſometimes called ærarii fufores: at other
leaſt as probable, as either that of Ifidore, who de- times, ærarius is diſtinguiſhed from fufor; the former
rives æra from æs, the tribute-money,” wherewith anſwering to what we now call copper-ſmiths, the lat-
Auguſtus taxed the world: or that of Scaliger himſelf, ter to founders.
who deduces it likewiſe from æs, though in a different ÆRARIUS was likewiſe applied to a ſoldier who re-
manner. Æs, he obferves, was uſed among the an-
cients for an articlı or item in an account ; and hence AERIA, or EERIA (auc. geog.), the ancient name
came alſo to ſtand for a ſum or number itſelf. of Egypt: the ſcholiaſt on Apollonius Rhodius, ſays,
From the plural ara, came by corruprion ra, æram, that not only Theſſaly, but Egypt, was called 'Hepic by
in the fingular ; much as Olti, Oſtiam, the name of a the Greeks, which Euſebius allo confirms : and lience
place, from Oſtia, the mouths of the Tyber.
Apollinarius, in his tranſlation of the 14th Pſalm,
The difference between the terms era and epoch is, uſes it for Egypt. Heſychius applies this name to E-
that the æras are certain points fixed by come people, thiopia.
AERIAL,
ceives pay.
A E R
( 144 )
AER
INC.
Aerial, AERIAL, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſomething rius, are no mention of biſhops : on the contrary, Ti- Flos Ærie,
Aerians. partaking of the nature of air; thus, aërial ſubſtance, mothy evidently received his ordination from the pref- Aeroyra-
aerial particles, &c.
byters or prieſts.--Epiphanius zealouſly maintains the phy.
AERIAL Perſpective. See PERSPECTIVE and PAINT: ſuperiority of bishops againſt the Acrians. The word
preſbytery, uſed by the apoſtle, he obſerves, includes
AERIANS, in church hiſtory, a branch of Arians, both bishops and prieſts; the whole ſenate or aſſembly
who, to the doctrines of that ſect, added ſome pecu- of the ecclefiaftics of thie place.
liar dogmas of their own; as, that there is no diffe Flos ÆRIS, among alchemiſts, ſmall ſcales procu-
rence bctween biſhops and prieſts; a doctrine main- red from copper nielted by a ſtrong heat ; it is fome-
tained by many modern divines, particularly of the times uſed for ærugo or verdigriſe.
presbyterian and reformed churches. The ſect receiv AEROGRAPHY, from amp, air, and gpuow, I de-
edits denomination from Aerius an Armenian prieſt of fcribe; a deſcription of the air, or atmoſphere, its limits,
the fourth century. He founded his do&rine chiefly dimenſions, properties, &c.—This amounts to much
upon ſome pallages in St Paul; and, among others, the ſame with aerology, unleſs we ſuppoſe the latter to
upon that in 1 Tim. iv. 14. where the apoſtle exhorts enter into the rational, and the former to confine it-
him not to neglect the gift he had received by the laying ſelf to a deſcription of the more obvious affections
on of the hands of the Prejby tery. Here, obſerves Ac- thereof. See ATMOSPHERE.
I
A E RO ROLOGY,
THE do&rine or ſcience of Air, its nature and dif great uſe for thoſe concerned in public buildings. In
ferent ſpecies, with their ingredients, properties, hort, there is perhaps no ſtation in life where ſome
phenomena, and uſes.
knowledge of this ſubject may not be of uſe.
Air, in a general ſenſe, is that inviſible fluid every-
where ſurrounding the globe ; on which depends not Sect. I. Of the general Conſtitution, Mechanical
only animal but vegetable life ; and which ſeeilis, in Properties, and Operations of the Air.
ſhort, to be one of the great agents employed by na-
ture in carrying on her operations throughout the § 1. The general Conſtitution of the Air we breathe.-
world.
For many ages this fluid was ſuppoſed to be ſimple Ancient e-
Though the attention of philoſophers has in all ages and homogeneous ; its common operations to depend pinions
been engaged in ſome meaſure by inquiries concerning on its heat, cold, moiſture, or dryneſs; and any effects concerning
the nature of the atmoſphere, yet till within theſe lait which could not be explained by theſe (ſuch as the the air.
30 years, little more than the mere mechanical action appearance of peſtilential diſeaſes), were reckoned to
of this fluid was diſcovered, with the exiſtence of ſome be entirely ſupernatural, and the immediate effects of
anomalous and permanently elaſtic vapours, whoſe pro- Divine power. But, however ſimple and homogene-
perties and relation to the air we breathe were almoſt ous this fluid may have been thought in former times,
Within the abovementioned pe- it is ſo far from poſſeſſing the fimplicity of an element,
riod, however, the diſcoveries concerning the conſti- that it is the receptacle of all kinds of effluvia produced
tuent parts of the atmoſphere itſelf, as well as the na from terreſtrial ſubſtances either naturally or artificial-
ture of the different permanently elaſticfluids which go ly.Hence, whatever maybe the nature of the aërial fluid
under the general name of air, have been ſo numerous when abſolutely pure, that which we breathe, and com-
and rapid, that they have at once raiſed this ſubject to monly goes under the name of air, muſt be conſidered Common
the dignity of a Science, and now form a very conſider as an exceedingly heterogeneous mixture, various at air a very
able, as well as important, part of the modern ſyſtem various times, and which it is by no means poſſible to
heteroge-
of natural philoſophy.
analiſe with accuracy.
Utility of
Thoſe diſcoveries, indeed, have not been more in Though, in this view, air ſeems to be a kind of ſink
the ſubject, tereſting to philoſophers, than uſeful to ſcience and be or common ſewer, where all the poiſonous effluvia ari- manner
neficial to ſociety. Many perplexing proceſſes in che- ling from putrid and corrupted matters are deposited; it purifics
miſtry have been explained in conſequence of them, yet it has a wonderful facility of purifying itſelf, and itſelf.
ſeveral have been facilitated, and a number of new one way or other of depoſiting thoſe vapours contained
and uſeful ones have been introduced. The pheno- in it; ſo that it never becomes noxious except in par-
mena attending metallic calcinatiɔns and reductions ticular places, and for a ſhort time; the general maſs
have been greatly elucidated. The knowledge of the remaining upon all occaſions pretty much the ſame.
uſe of the air in reſpiration ; the method of aſcertain. The way in which this purification is effected is dif-
ing its purity and fitneſs for that function; the inveſti. ferent,according to the nature of the vapour with which
gation of dephlogiſticated air ; the method of impregn the air is loaded. That which moſt univerſally pre- Valt quan-
nating water with fixed air ; are all calculated to an vails is water; and from experiments it appears, that tities of
fiver purpoſes of the higheſt utility. The medicinal the quantity of aqueous vapour contained in the at- water €01-
propertics of fixed air have been in a great meaſure moſphere is immenſe. Dr Halley, from an experi tinuallydiſ-
aſcertained, and its antiſeptic qualities in other re ment op the evaporation from a fluid ſuríacc heated to
to it by e-
ſpects promiſe to be of conſiderable advantage. The the ſame degree with that given by our meridian fin, vaporation.
method of aſcertaining the prity of the air of a place, has calculated, that the evaporation from the Mediter-
and the manncr of ventilating an apartment, are of ranean ſea is alone ſuflicient to yield allthe water of
neous fluid.
3
In what
charged in
3
the
Sect. I.
A E ROL OG Y.
145
6
5
vapours
of Air the rivers which run into it. Dr. Watſon, in his Che- properly pefiilential. The contagion of the plague it. Of dit
in general, mical Elays, has given an account of ſome experiments ſelf ſeems to be of an heavy llaggith nature, incapable in general.
made with a view to determine the quantity of the wa of ariſing in the air, but attaching itſelf to the walis
ter raiſed from the earth itſelf in time of drought. of houſes, bed-cloths, and wearing apparel. Hence
He informs us, that, when there had been no rain for ſcarce any conſtitution of the atmoſphere can diſpel
aboye a month, and the graſs was become quite browni theſe noxious efiluyid ; nor does it ſeem probable that
and parched, the evaporation from an acre was not leſs peſtilential diſtempírs ever ceaſe until the contagion
than 1500 gallons in 24 hours. Making afterwards has operated ſo long, and been ſo frequently cominu-
two experiments, when the ground had been wetted by nicated from one to another, that, like a ferment much
a thunder-ſhower the day before, the one gave 1973, expoſed to the atmoſphere, it becomes vapid, commu-
the other 1905, gallons in 12 hours: From this the nicates a milder infection, and at lait loſes its ſtrength
air is every moment purified by the aſcent of the va- altogether.
pour, which flying off into the clouds, thus leaves room § 2. Nechanical Properties of the AIR.-In commo:1
for the exhalation of freſh quantities ; ſo that as the with water, the air we breathe poſſeſſes gravity, and Specific
vapour is conſiderably lighter than the common atmo- conſequentlywill perform everything in that waywhich gravity of
ſphere, and of conſequence aſcends with greater velo water can do, making allowance for the great diffe- the air.
city, the air during all this time is ſaid to be dry, not rence between the ſpecific gravity of water and of air.
withſtanding the vaſt quantity of aqueous fluid that This difference indeed is exceedingly great, and has
paſſes through it.
been variously calculated. Ricciolus eſtimates the gra-
Different Nor is it only from the aqueous vapour that the air vity of air to be to that of water as 1 to 1000 ; Mer-
kinds of
is purified at this time. Much of thât vapour ariſing ſennus, as I to 1300, or 1 to 1356 ; Lana, as I to 6 40 ;
from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable fub- and Galileo, only as I to 400. Mr Boyle, by more ac-
which con-
ſtances, and which by ſome modern philoſophers is curate experiments makes the air at London to be to
taminateit.
called phlogiſton, attaches itſelf to the aqueous vapour,
water as 1 to 983 ; and thinks, that, all things con-
and aſcends along with it. Another part is abſorb. ſidered, the proportion of 1 to 1000 may be taken as
ed by vegetables ; for the phlogiſtic vapour, as is
a mediun. But by three experiments made ſince that
ſhown under AGRICULTURE, nº 5. is probably the food time before the Royal Society, the ſpecific gravity of
of plants. The phlogiſtic vapours which aſcend along the air was determined to be to that of water as 1 to
with the water, probably continue there and deſcend 840, 852, and 860. By a very accurate experiment,
along with the rain; whence the fertilizing qualities Mr. Haukſbee fixed the proportion as I to 885. But
of rain-water above thoſe of any other. Thus we may as all theſe experiments were made when the barome-
ſee why a dry air, whether cold or hot, muſt always ter was at 29 inches, Dr Jurin ſuppoſes, that, at a
be wholeſome ; but as the atmoſphere cannot always medium between heat and cold, when the barometer
receive vapours, it is obvious, that when great rains is 30 inches high, the proportion between the two
come on, eſpecially if attended with heat, the lower fluids may be taken is one to 800; and this agrees with
regions of the air muſt be overloaded with vapours both the obſervations of the Hon. Mr Cavendiſh, made
of the aqueous and phlogiſtic kind, and of confequence when the barometer was 29; inches, and the thermo-
be very unwholeſome.
meter at 50.
But beſides the aqueous and phlogiſtic vapours, both By means of its gravity, the air preſſes with great Effects of
of which are ſpecifically lighter than common air, force upon all bodies, according to the extent of their the gravity
there are others, which, being ſpecifically heavier, ſurface. M. Paſcal has computed the quantity of this of the air.
cannot be carried off in this manner. Hence theſe preſſure to be no leſs than 2232 pounds upon every
grofs vapours contaminate certain places of the atmo- ſquare foot of ſurface, or upwards of 15 pounds on
ſphere, rendering them not only unhealthy, but abſo- every ſquare inch. According to ſome expriments
lutely poiſonous. Of theſe are, 1. Sulphureous, acid, made by M. Amontons and de la Hire, à column of
and metalline exhalations. Theſe are produced prin- air on the furface of the earth, and 36 fathoms high,
-cipally by volcanoes ; and as they deſcend, in conſe- is equal in weight to three lines depth of mercury.
quence of their ſpecific gravity, they ſuffocate and from the barometer, however we know that the
ſpread deſtruction all around them, poiſoning not only whole preſſure of the atmoſphere is very different;
animals, but vegetables alſo. 2. The vapours ariting fometimes being equal only to a column of 28 inches,
fron houſes where lead and other metals are ſmelted, and varying from thence to 31 inches. The whole
have the ſame pernicious qualities; inſomuch that the quantity of preſſure muſt thus be be immenſe, and has
men who breathe them, the cattle who eat the graſs, been computed equal to a globe of lead 60 miles in dia.
and the fillies who inhabit the waters on which they meter.
fall, are poiſoned by them if taken into the body in a By means ofitsgravity, the atmoſphere accompliſhes
certain proportion. 3. Of the ſame kind are the mo many uſeful purpoſes in nature. It prevents the ar-
fetes, or emanations of fixed air, which ſometimes pro- terial veſſels of animals and the fap-veſels of plants
ceed from old lavas, or perhaps from ſome other places from being too mucli diftended by the expanſive power
even of the ſurface. From all theſe the air ſeems not
From all theſe the air ſeems not (whatever it is). which has a perpetual tendency to
capable of purifying itſelf, otherwiſe than either by well them out.' Thus we ſee, that, in the operation
diſperſing them by winds, or by letting them fubfide of cupping, where the preſure of the air is taken off
by their ſuperior gravity, till they are abſorbed either from a particular part, the expanſive force inſtantly
by the earth or water, according as it is their nature acts, and ſwells out the veſſels to a great degree. Hence
to unite with one or other of theſe elements. 4. Of alſo, when animals are put into an air-pump, their
this kind alſo ſeem to be the vapours which are called whole bodies (well.
VOL.I.
T
Бу
146
A E R o L o G Y.
Sect. I.
Of Air
Of Air
8
IQ
filled up:
By its gravity, the air promotes the union of fluid ſuch a property or not. The air, however, being e.
in general bodies, which would inſtantly ceaſe in vacuo. Thuslaſtic, is neceſſarily affected by the preſſure, which re. in general
oils and ſalts, which remain united in air, ſeparate as duces it into ſuch a ſpace, that the elasticity, which re-
Elaſticity ſoon as that fluid is extracted. Hence alſo, when lot acts againſt the compreſliing weight, is equal to that
of the air. water is put under an exhauſted receiver, it boils vio. weight. In effect, the law of this elaſticily is, that it
lently ; becauſe the preſſure of the air being now ta increaſes as the denſity of the air increaſes; and the
ken of, the particles of ſteam, which exiſted inviſibly dentity increaſes as the force increaſes by which it is
among the water, and which the gravity of the atmof- preſled. Now there muſt neceſſarily be a balance be-
phere prevented from flying off ſo ſoon, are now hur tween the action and re-action : i.e. the gravity of the
ried up with great velocity, by means of the exceſſive air which tends to compreſs it, and the elaſticity by
comparative gravity of the aqueous fluid.
which it endeavours to expand, muſt be equal. Hence
On the gravity of the air depend the aſcent of wa the elaſticity increaſing, or diminiſhing univerſally, as
ter in pumps, ſyphons, &c. and likewiſe all the pheno- the denſity increaſes or diminiſhes, it is no matter whe-
nomena of the barometer.
ther the air be compreſſed and retained in ſuch a ſpace
Beſides its gravity, which the air has in common by the weight on the atmoſphere, or by any other
with water and other quids, there' is another which means ; it muſt endeavour in either caſe to expand
it has only in common with fleain or vapour. This is with the ſame force. And hence, if air near the earth
called its elal icity ; by which, like a ſpring it allows be pent up in a veſſel, and all communication with the
itſelf to be compreſſed into a ſmaller bulk, and then external fluid cut off, the preſſure of the incloſed air
returns again to its original ſize upon removing the will be equal to the weight of the atinoſphere at the
preſſure.
time the quantity was confined. Accordingly, we find
The elaſticity of the air was firſt aſcertained by ſome mercury faſtained to the ſame height, by the elaſtic
experiments of lord Bacon, who, upon this principle, force of air incloſed in a glaſs veflei, as by the whole
conſtructed the firſt thermometer, which he called his atmoſpherical preſſure. On the ſame principle air may
vitrum calendare. Of this power we have numerous be artificially condenſed ; and hence the ſtructure of.
proofs. Thus a blown bladder being ſqueezed in the the Air-Gun.
hand, we find the included air ſenſibly reſiſt; ſo that,
The utmoſt limits to which air, of the denſity which Utmoſt li.
upon ceaſing to compreſs, the cavities or impreſſions it poſſeſſes at the ſurface of the earth, is capable of be-mits of its
niade in its ſurface are readily expanded again and ing compreſſed, have not been aſcertained. Mr Boyle condenfa-
inade it 13 times more denſe ; Dr Halley ſays that he tion and
The ſtructure and office of the Air-Pump depend has ſeen it compreſſed ſo as to be bo times denſer than expanſion.
on this elaſtic property. Every particle of air always in its natural ſtate, which is farther confirmed by M.
exerts a niſus or endeavour to expand, and thus ſtrives Papin and M. Huygens. Dr Hales, by means of a
againſt an equal endeavour of the ambient particles; preſs, condenſed it 38 times; and by forcing water in
whoſc reſiſtance happening by any means to be weak an iron ball or globe, into 1551 times leſs ípace than
ened, it immediately diffuſes itſelf into an immenſe it naturally occupies. However, Dr Halley has af-
Hence it is that thin glaſs bubbles, or blad- ſerted, in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, Abr. vol. ii.
ders filled with air, and exactly cloſed, being included p. 17. that from the experiments made at London, and
in the exhauſted recciver of an air,-pump, burit by the by the academy del Cimento at Florence, it might be
force of the air they contain ; and a bladder almoſt fafely concluded, that no force whatever is able to re-
quite flaccid, ſwells in the receiver and appears full. duce air into 800 times leſs ſpace than that which it
The ſame effect alſo takes place, though in a ſmaller naturally poilefles on the ſurface of our earth. In an-
degree, on carrying the flaccid bladder to the top of ſwer to this, M. Amontons, in the Memoirs of the
an high mountain.
French Academy, maintains, that there is no fixing
Whether It has been queſtioned among philoſophers, wlicther any bounds to its condenſation ; that greater and great-
this proper• this elaſtic power of the air is capable of being deſtroy- er weights will ſtill reduce it into leſs and leſs conipaſs :
ed or diminiſhed. Mr Boyle made ſeveral experiments that it is only elaſtic in virtue of the fire which it con-
diminiſhed,
with a view to diſcover how long air would retain its tains ; and that as it is impoſſible ever to drive all the
ſpring after having aſſumed the greateſt degree of ex fire out of it, it is impoſſible ever to make the utmoſt
panſion his air punip would give it; but he was never condenſation.
able to obſerve any ſenſible dimunition. Deſaguliers The dilation of the air, by virtue of its elaſtic force,
found, that air, after having been incloſed for half a is found to be very ſurpriſing; and yet Dr. Wallis fug-
year in a wind-gun, had loft none of its elaſticity; and geſts, that we are far from knowing the utmoſt of
Roberval, after preſerving it in the ſame manner for which it is capable. It ſeveral experiments made by
16 years, obſerved, that its expanſive projectile force Mr. Boyle, it dilated firſt into nine times its former
was the ſame as if it had been recently condenſed. ſpace; then into 31 times; than into 60; then into 150.
Nevertheleſs, Mr Haukſbee concludes, from a later Afterwards it was brought to dilate into 8000 times
experiment, that the ſpring of the air may be diſturb- its ſpace, then into 10,000, and even at laſt into 13,679
ed by a violent preffure, in ſuch a manner as to require times its ſpace; and this altogether by its own expan-
fone time to return to its natural tone. Dr Hales in- five force, without the help of fire. On this depend
Terred, from a number of experiments, that the elaſtin the ſtructure and uſe of the MANOMETER.
city of the air is capable of being impaired and dimi Hence it appears, that the air we breathe near the
niſhed by a variety of cauſes.
ſurface of the earth is compreſſed by its own weight
The weight or preſſure of the air has no dependence into at lcaſt the 13,679th part of the ſpace it would
on its elaſtici:y; but would be the ſame whether it had poſſeſs in vacuo. But if the fame air be condenſed by
extent.
9
ty can be
arta
Sect. I.
A E ROLOGY.
147
by heat.
13
IZ
14
Of sir art, the ſpace it will take up when moſt dilated, to ſolution of thcſe aliments in the ſtomach and bowels, Ordir
iin general. that it pollelſes when condenſed, will be, according to which is much promoted by it; and, in reality, all in general.
thc lame author's experiments, as 550,000 to 1. natural curruption and alteration feeni to depend on
M. Amonions, and others, we have already obfer- air.
Expanſion
of the air ved, attribute the rarefaction of the air wholiy to the § 3. Effects of the different Ingredients of Air.-
fire contained in it; and therefore by increaling the This fluid acts, not only by its common properties of
degree of heat, the degree of rarefaction may be car- gravity and elaſticity, but produces nuinerous other cf-
ried ſtill farther than its ſpontaneous dilatation. Air fects ariſing from the peculiar ingredients of which it
is expanded one-third of its bulk by boiling water. conſiſts.
Dr Hales found, that the air in a retort, when the Thus, 1. It not only diſolves and attenuates bodies Solvent.
bottom of the veſſel was juſt beginning to be red-hot, by its preſſure and attrition, but as a chaos containing power of
the air on
was expanded through twice its fornier ſpace; and ina all kinds of menſtrua, and conſequently posſeſſing pow-
inetale,
white, or almoft melting heat, it occupied thrice its ers for diſſolving all bodies. It is known that iron
former ſpace; but Mr Bobins found it was expanded and copper readily diſſolve and become ruity in air, un-
by the heat of iron, juſt beginning to be white, to four leſs well defended with oil. Boerhaave allures us, that
times its former bulk. On this principle depend the he has ſeen pillars of iron ſo reduced by air, that they
ſtructure and office of the THERMOMETER.
might be crumbled to duſt between the fingers ; and as
M. Amontons firſt diſcovered that air will expand for copper, it is converted by the air into a ſubſtance
in proportion to its denſity with the ſame degree of much like the verdigriſe produced by vinegar.
heat. On this foundation the ingenious author has a Mr Boyle relates, that in the ſouthern Engliſh co-
diſcourſe, to prove that the ſpring and weight of the lonies the great guns ruft ſo faſt, that after lying in
air, with a moderate degree of warmth, may enable the air for a few years, large cakes of crocus martis
it to produce even earthquakes, and other of the most may be ſeparated from them. Acoſta adds, that in
vehenient comniotions of nature." See the article Peru the or diſſolves lead, and conſiderably increaſes
EARTHQUAKE.
its weight. Yet gold is generally eſteemed indiſſoluble
General ef The elaſtic power of the air, then, is the ſecond great by air, being never found to contract ruſt, though ex-
fects of the ſource of the effects of this important fluid. Thus it in- poſed to it ever ſo long. In the laboratories of che-
air's clafti- ſinuates into the pores of bodies; and, by poſſeſſing this miſts, however, where aqua regia is prepared, the air
city. prodigious faculty of expanding, which is ſo eaſily ex- becoming impregnated with a quantity of the vapour
cited, it muſt neceſſarily put the particles of bodies of this menftruum, gold contracts a ruſt like other bo-
into which it inſinuates itſelf into perpetual oſcillations. dies.
Indeed, the degree of heat, and the air's gravity and Stones alſo undergo the changes incident to metals. On ftones,
denſity, and conſequently its elaſticity and expanſion, Thus Purbeck ſtone, of which Saliſbury cathedral con-
never remaining the ſame for the leaſt ſpace of time, fifts, is obſerved gradually to become ſofter, and to
there muſt be an inceſſant vibration or dilatation and moulder away in the air ; and Mr Boyle gives the ſame
contraction in all bodies.
account of Blackington ſtone. He adds, that air may
We obſerve this reciprocation in ſeveral inſtances, have a conſiderable operation on vitriol, even when a
particularly in plants, the air-vefſels of which do the ſtrong fire could act no farther upon it. And he has
office of lungs; for the contained air alternately ex- found, that the fumes of a corroſive liquor work more
panding and contracting, according to the increaſe or ſuddenly and manifeſtly on a certain metal when fuf-
diminution of the heat, alternately preſſes the veſſels tained in the air, than the menſtruum itſelf did, which
and eaſes them again, thus keeping up a perpetual mio emitted fumes on thoſe parts of the metal which it co-
tion in their juices.
vered ; referring to the effects of the effluvia of vinegar
Hence we find, that no vegetation or germination on copper.
will proceed in vacuo. Indeed, beans have been ob The diſſolving power of air is increaſed by heat, and
ſerved to grow a little tumid therein ; and this has led by other cauſes. It combines with water ; and by ac-
fome to attribute that to vegetation which was really ceſs of cold, depoſits part of the matter which was
owing to no other cauſe than the dilatation of the air kept diſſolved in it by a greater degree of heat. Hence
within then. The air is very inſtrumental in the pro- the water, by being depoſited and condenſed upon any
duction and growth of vegetables, not only by invigo- cold body, ſuch as glaſs, &c. in windows, forms fogs,
rating their leveral juices whilein an elaſtic active ſtate, and becomes viſible.
but alſo by greatly contributing in a fixed ſtate to the In the various operations of chemiſtry, air is a very Various
union and firm connection of their ſeveral conſtituent neceſſary and important agent; the reſult of particular chemical
parts.
proceſſes depending on its preſence or abſence, on its effects of
From the ſame cauſe it is, that the air contained in being open or incloſed. Thus, the parts of animals the air.
bubbles of ice, by its continual action burſts the ice. and vegetables can only be calcined in open air ; in
Thus alſo, entire columns of marble ſometimes cleave cloſe vellels they never become any other than black
in the winter time, from the increaſed elaſticity of ſome coals. And theſe operations are effected by the changes
little bubble of air contained in them. From the fame to which the air is liable. Many inſtances might be
principle ariſe all putrefaction and fermentation ; nei- adduced to this purpoſe. Let it ſuffice to obſerve,
ther of which will proceed, even in the beſt diſpoſed that it is very difficult to procure oil of fulphur, per
ſubjects, in vacuo.
campanam, in a clear dry atnoſphere ; but in a thick
Since we find ſuch great quantities of elaſtic air ge- moiſt air it may be obtained with greater eaſe, and in
nerated in the ſolution of animal and vegetable fub- larger quantities. So, pure well-fermented wine, ifit
ftances, a good deal muſt conſtantly ariſe from the dif- be carried to a place where the air is repleniſhed with
the
I5
T2
148
0 G Y.
A E ROL
ROLOG
Sect. II.
18.
19
neral wa
ters.
20
و
16
Of Air the fumes of new wine then fermenting, will begin to Dr Hales firſt attempted to determine the quantity of Air
in gencral. ferment afreih.
of air produced from difcrent bodies; for which pur- in general,
.
1 he changes in the air ariſe from various cauſes, pule le iade experiments on almoſt every known ſub-
and are obſervable, not only in its mechanical proper- itance in nature, examining them by diſtillation fer- By Dr
ties, ſuch as gravity, denſity, &c. but in the ingredients mentation, combuſtion, combinations, &c. He alſo Hales.
that compoſe it. Thus, as Fafhlun in Sweden, noted firſt fufpected, that the briſkneſs and ſparkling of the
for copper-mines, the mineral exhalations affect the air Waters called acdulous, were owing to the air they Suſpicion
of air in niin
in ſuch a manner as to diſcolour the filver coin in purſes; contained. But notwithſtanding all his diſcoveries con-
and the fame effluvia change the colour of braſs. In cerning the quantity of elaſtic Huid obtained from dif-
Carniola, Canipania, &c. where are mines of ſulphur, ferent bodies, he did not imagine there was any ellen-
the air becomes ſometimes very unwholeſome, which tial difference between this fluid and the air we breathe;
occafions frequent epidemic diſeaſes, &c.
only that the former was loaded with noxious vapours,
The effluvia of animals alſo have their effect in vary foreign to its nature. His fufpicion concerning this
ingthe air ; as is evident in contagious diſeaſes, plagues, impregnation was confirmed by M. Venel, profeſor of Confirmed
murrains, and other mortalities, which are ſpread by chemiſtry at Montpelier, in a memoir read before the by M. Ver.
än infected air.
Royal Academy of Sciences in 1750. This gentle, nel.
For the vivifying principle of air, ſee the article man was able to diſengage the air from the Seltzer
BLOOD.
waters, and to meaſure its quantity; which lie con-
ſtantly found to amount to about one-fifth of its bulk.
SECT. II. Hiſtorical Account of the principal Diſcove. The water thus deprived of its air became flat, and
ries concerning the Compoſition of Atmoſpherical Air ceaſed to ſparkle; the only diiterence then betwixt it
and other Airial Fluids.
and common water was, that the former contained a
ſmall quantity of ſea-falt. Upon theſe principles he
WHILE the preceding diſcoveries were making con- attempted to recompoſe Seltzer water, by diſſolving
cerning the inechanical and other properties of the air, in a pint of common water two drachms of foſſile al-
little notice ſeems to have been taken of the elementa- kali, and then adding an equal quantity of marine acid.
ry parts of the air itſelf, or the different kinds of fluid The quantity of ſea-falt produced by the union of
which go under that name. It was known, indeed, theſe two, he knew would prove equal to that contain-
that air was ſeparable from terreſtrial bodies by means ed in a pint of Seltzer water; and the efferveſcence
of fire, fermentation, &c. but this was commonly rec produced by the action of the acid and alkali upon
koned to be the ſame with what we breathe. Van each other, he imagined, would produce air ſufficient
Van Hel. Helmont, a diſciple of Paracelſus, was the firſt who for the impregnation of the water. In this he was
munt the undertook to make inquiries concerning this ſpecies of not deceived ; the water thus produced was not only
firft difcor air. He gave it the name of gas ſylveſtre, from the analogous to Seltzer, bat much more ſtrongly impreg-
verer of dif-
ferentkinds
Dutch word ghoall, fignifying ſpirit ; and obſerves, that nated
with air.
of air.
ſome bodies reſolve themſelves almoſt entirely into it. Dr Black firſt diſcovered, that chalk, and the other Diſcoveries
- Not (ſays he) that it had been actually contained earths reducible to quicklime by calcination, conſiſt of by Dr
in that form in the bodies from which it was ſeparated ; an alkalinc earth, by itſelf ſoluble in water, but which, Black, &c.
biit it was contained under a concrete form, as if fixed, combined with a large quantity of fixed air, becomes
or coagulated.” According to this author, the gas inſoluble ; loſing the properties of quicklime, and af-
fylveſtre is the ſame with what is ſeparated from all ſuming the natural appearance we obſerve thoſe carths
ſubſtances by fermentation ; from vegetables by the to have when not reduced into lime. The ſame thing
action of fire ; from guu-powder when it explodes ; hc diſcovered in magneſia alba, and in alkalis both
and from charcoal when burning. On this occaſion he fixed and volatile. On the fixed air contained in theſe
aflerts, that 62 pounds of charcoal contain 61 pounds bodies, he found not only their property of effervef-
of gas and only one pound of earth. To the effluvium cing with acids to depend, but likewiſe their mildneſs;
of
gas he alſo attributes the fatal effects of the grotto both the alkalis and calcareous caith being highly
del Cani in Italy, and the ſuffocation of workmen in cauſtic when deprived of their fixed air. He alſo found,
mines. He aſſerts, that it is to the corruption of the that this fluid, which he called fixed air, had different
aliment, and the gas diſcharged from it, that we are degrees of affinity with different ſubſtances; that it
to attribute wind, and the diſcharges ofit from the bow was ſtronger with calcareous earth than with fixed al-
els. Upon the ſame principles he accounts for the kali; with fixed alkali, than magneſia; and with mag-
(welling of dead bodies which have remained for a time nelia, than volatile alkali. He alſo ſuſpected, that the
under water, and for the tumours which ariſe on ſome fixed air of alkaline ſalts unites itſelf with the precipi-
parts of the body in certain diſeaſes. He alſo deter tates of metals, wlien thrown down from acids; and
mines,that this gas is different from the air we breathe; that the increaſe of weight obſervable in theſe preci-
that it has a greater affinity with water: and he ima- pitates was owing to this cauſe. But he was of opini-
gined it might conſiſt of water reduced to vapours, or on, that the fluid which he called fixed air was very
à very ſubtile acid combined with volatile alkali. different from the common air we breathe; and there-
Diſcoveries
My Boyle repeated all Van Helmont's experiments fore adopted the name of air, merely as one already
by Mr to more advantagethan he himſelfhad performed them; eſtabliſhed, whatever impropriety there might be in
Boyle. but ſeems not to have proceeded further in his diſco- the term.
veries than Van Helmont did: only he found ſome It was not long before the diſcovery of this ſpecies
bodies, ſuch as ſulphur, amber, camphor, &c. dimi- of air ſuggeſted new theories in phyſiology and natural
nish the volume of air in which they burn.
philoſophy. Mr Haller had inferred, from Dr Hales's
experiments,
21
17
Sect. Ir.
A E ROL GY.
1149
25
22
diſh.
of Air experiments, that air is the real cement of bodies ; been diſcovered by different perſons unknowi to cach Dephlogiſ.
in general. which, fixing itſelf in the ſolids and faids, unites them other. We ſhall therefore proceed to give an account ticated Air.
to each other, and ſerves as a bond by which they are of the different kinds of aësial fluida, beginning with
kept from diſſolution. In 1764, Lir Macbride of Dub- thoſe wnich are known, or ſuppoſed, tu conitiiuto a
lin publiſhed a number of experiments in ſupport of part of our atmoſphere.
this doctrine. Fronı his work it appears, that fixed
air is ſeparated, not only from all ſubítances in ferinen-
SECT. III. Of Dephiogiſticated Air.
tation, but alſo from all animal ſubſtances as they begin
to putrefy; and that this air is capable of uniting it f 1. Diſcovery and Methods of procuring this Ku..
fulf to all calcareous earths, as well as alkalis both fixed of Air.
of Air.- Dephlogiſticated air was firſt obtained by Dr
and volatile, and reſtoring to them the property of ef- Prieſtley on the 1ſt of Auguſt 1774. The circumitar.-
ferveſcing with acids when they have by any means ces which led him to the diſcovery, were his having
been deprived of it. But though theſe opinions have always procured infiammable air from ſpirit of ſalt, by
ſince been found erroneous, the concluſions drawn by adding to it ipirit of wine, oil of olives, oil of turpen-
hiin from his numerous experiments ſtill hold good, tine, charcoal, phoſphorus, beeswax, and even fulphur.
viz, that fixed air is an elaſtic fluid, very different from Hence he ſuſpected, that the common air we breathe
the common air we breathe: that it is poſſeſſed of a might be compoſed of ſome kind of acid united with
ſtrong antiſeptic quality, and may be introduced with phlogiſton. On this fuppofition he extracted air from Whence
ſafety into the inteſtinal canal, and other parts of the mercurius calcinalus per fe, by expoſing it to the focus firft extrac-
animal ceconomy, where common air would have fatal of a burning-glaſs 12 inches ili diameter; and, having ted.
effects; but is mortal if breathed into the lungs, &c. repeated the experiment with red precipitate and iini-
Quantity
In 1766 and 1767, Mr Cavendiſh communicated um, he found, that though a quantity of fixed air was
of fixed air ſome new experiments to the royal Society at Lone always produced, yet after that was ſeparated, the re-
contained don, wlierein he determines the quantity of air con mainder ſupported Aame much more vigorouſly than
in alkaline tained in fixed alkali, when fully ſaturated with it, to conimon air ; for a candle burned in it with a flame
falts deter- be five-twelfths ofits weight and ſeven-twelfths invo- very much enlarged, and with a crackling noiſe, at
mined by
latile alkali: that water is capable of abſorbing more the ſame time that it appeared fully as much diminiſh-
Mr Caven-
than its own bulk of this air ; that it has then an agree ed by the teſt of nitrous air. Whence he concluded,
able, ſpirituous, and acidulous taſte; and that it has that it was reſpirable; and, on making the experiment,
the property of diffolving calcareous earths and mag found that it actually was ſo, for a mouſe lived a full
nelia, as well as almoſt all the metals, eſpecially iron half hour in a quantity of this fuid ; which, had it been
and zinc: that the vapour of burning charcoal occaſi common air, would only have kept it alive half that
ons a remarkable diminution of common air, at the tinie. Nor did the animal ſeem to be otherwiſe injured
ſame tinie that a conſiderable quantity of fixed air is than by the cold; as it preſently revived on bringing
produced in the operation. He alſo found, that ſolu- it near the fire, and the remainder of the air ftill ap-
tion of copper in ſpirit of ſalt, inſtead of producing in peared better than that of the atmoſphere, when the
flammable air, like that of iron or zinc, afforded a teſt of nitrous air was applied to it.
fpecies of air which loſt its elaſticity as ſoon as it came This pure kind of air being diſcovered, the Doctor Why na-
into contact with water.
next proceeded to name it dephlogiflicat:d, from his meil de-
The diſcoveries of Dr Black concerning fixed air opinion that common air, in the act of barning, ab- phlogiſtica-
concerning had not been long publiſhed, when they were violently forbed phlogiſton ; of conſequence, he ſuppoſed, that ted.
attacked by ſome foreign chemiſts, while his cauſe was which abſorbed the moſt, or which moſt vigorouſly and
as eagerly eſpouſed by others. The principal oppo for the greateſt length of time ſupported flame, was
fixed air.
nents were Mr Meyer apothecary at Oſnabruck, Mr ſuppoſed to contain the ſmalleſt quantity of this ſub-
Crans phyſician to his Ruſſian Majeſty, and Mr de ſtance. In the courſe of his inquiries why this kind
Smeth at Utrecht. Their arguments, however, were of aircomes to be ſo much depblogiſticated, he fell upon
effectually anſwered at the time by Mr Jacquin, bota a niethod of extracting it from a great variety of ſub-
nical profeſſor at Vienna; and the numerous diſcove ſtances;viz. by moiſtening them with ſpirit of nitre,and
27
ries' made ſince that time have given ſuch additiɔnal then diſtilling them with a ſtrong heat. Thus he ob- Produced
confirmation to his doctrine, that it is now univerſally tained it frou flowers of zinc,chalk, quicklime, lacked from a
adopted by chemiſts both in Britain and other coun lime, tobacco-pipe clay, fiint, Muſcovy tals, and even great vari-
tries. It was reſerved, however, for Dr Prieſtley to glaſs. He then found, that by ſimply diſſolving any ety of ſub-
Compofi- make the great diſcovery concerning the nature of our metal in the nitrous acid, and then diſtilling the folu- ftances.
tion of the atmoſphere; and to inform the world, that it is com tion, he could obtain very pure air: and Mr Warltire
atmoſphere poſed of two fluids; the one abſolutely noxious, and found even the trouble of diſtillation unneceſſary; no-
diſcovered. incapable of ſupporting animal life for a moment; the thing more being requiſite than to moiſten red lead
other extremely falutary, and capable of preſerving with the ſpirit of nitre, and then pour upon it the oil
animals alive and healthy for a much longer time than of vitriol, which inſtantly diſengaged the dephlogiſti-
the pureſt air we can ineet with. This may be conſi cated air without applying any more heat than what
dered as the ultimate period of our hiſtory : for fince was generated by the mixture.
that time the diſcoveries of philoſophers ſtill living, in While diſcoveries of this kind engaged Dr Prieſtley This kind
many different countries, have been ſo rapid, that it is in England, Mr Scheele was employed in a ſimilar man- of air diſ-
difficult to aſcertain the dates of them by any authentic ner in Sweden ; and had actually obtained the ſame covered al-
documents; eſpecially as, by reaſon of ſuch numerous kind of air, without knowing any thing of what Dr
ſo by Mr
Scheele.
experiments, the ſame things have not unfrequently Prieſtley had done. The latter had the merit of the
prior
26
23
Conteſt
the doc-
trine of
28
150
A E R o L OG Y.
Sect. 111.
trous acid.
Dephlegif- prior diſcovery: bu: Mr Scheele's method was more kind, and then expoſed to a redheal, cithcr in fand or Lephlogif-
tuated Air. liinpie, continnig only in the diltillation of nitre witli over d naked fire, while the neck of the veilel udsticated Air.
a ſtrong leat; by which means it is now ſound that plunged in water or mercury.
depilogilticoled air inay be obtained in very coniider Having ditiolved fix pennyucights of very clean iron
able quantity, and in as great purity, as by the more in oil or vitriol, and thien diſillcd the folution to dry-
cxpentire proceiles. The pure air from nitrc had in- nncfs in a long-necked retort, he received the common
dce partly been obtained by Dr Hales long before air a litule phlogisticated, fome fixed air, much vitrio-
this time ; ſince he inforins us, that half a cubic inch lic acid air, and laſtly I
lic acid air, and laſtly 18 ounce meaſures of dephlo-
of nitre yielded 90 cubic inches of air, which was un giſticated air. The iron that remained undiſſolved
doubtedly the fluid we ſpeak of; but as he neglected weighed 23 grains, ſo that the air was yielded by five
to profecute the diſcovery, nothing farther was known pennyweights one grain of iron. The ochre weighed
at that time.
ſeven pennyweights thirteen grains : ſo that, ſays lie,
May be
As the nitrous acid was univerſally concerned in the there probably remained a quantity of oil of vitriol in
produced firſt proceſſes for obtaining this kind of air, it was for it; and conſequently, had the heat been greater, more
without ni- ſome time generally believed to be a peculiar pro- air would have been obtained.
perty of that acid alone to produce it ; but the in In his experiments with the nitrous acid, as it had
defatigable genius of Dr Prieſtley foon found, that it conſtantly been found, that by pouring on more nitrous
might not only be procured where no nitrous acid was acid on the reſiduum, and repeating the operation,
employed, bui where the ſubſtances were treated with more dephlogiſticated air might be obtained, the Doc-
vitriolic acid. It was indeed evident, from the very tor determined to try whether the ſame would not hold
firſt experiment, that nitrous acid was not eſſentially good with vitriolic acid alſo.
neceſſary ; fince pure air was procured from precipitate added more oil of vitriol to the reſiduum of the laſt-
per ſe, in the preparation of which no nitrous acid is mentioned experiment. Whenin a red heat with a glaſs
einployed. The Abbé Fontana found, that 192 grains retort, it yielded a quantity of vitriolic acid air, no
of this ſubſtance yielded 65; cubic inches of dephlogi- fixed air, but about 24 ounce meaſures of dephlogiſti-
ſticated air, at the ſame time that the weight of it was cated air: when, the retort being melled, a good deal
reduced to 788, grains, which is nearly the weight of of the air was neceſſarily loſt; but, on reſumning the
that quantity of air. It had formerly been obſerved, proceſs in a gun-barrel, he procured as much air as
that the weight of mercury is augmented during its had been got before.-Purſuing theſe experiments, he
converſion into precipitate per ſe, as that of lead is by obtained with common cruſt of iron and oil of vitriol,
its converſion into minium. The experiments juſt now dephlogiſticated air at the firſt diſtillation, and a great
mentioned, therefore, ſhow, that during this proceſs deal more from the reſiduum, by pouring freſh oil of
the air is decompounded ; the pure dephlogiſticated vitriol upon it. The ſame product he obtained from
part of it being abſorbed by the metal, and appearing blue vitriol, ſolution of copper in the vitriolic acid,
again on the application of heat, and the ſame appears and from a ſolution of mercury in that acid. On this
to be the caſe with red lead, from the experiment of ſubſtance he remarks, that “ either by means of oil of
Mr Warltire already mentioned. With regard to this vitriol er ſpirit of nitre, it yields a great quantity of
laſt ſubſtance, however, a very great ſingularity is ob- dephlogiſticated air: but with this difference, that in
ſerved; viz. that when newly prepared it yields none the proceſs with fpirit of nitre, almoſt the whole of
at all, and even for ſome time after the produce is the mercury is revived (not more than a twentieth
much ſmaller than when it has been long kept. The part being loſt, if the proceſs be conducted with care);
reaſon of this ſeems to be, that the minium ftill con but in that with vitriolic acid, alınoſt the whole is loſt.”
tains a conſiderable quantity of phlogiſton, which flies From the later experiments of Mr Lavoiſier, however,
off into the atmoſphere by long keeping, a larger quan- it appears that the Doctor's proceſs had not been con-
tity of the dephlogiſticated part of the atmoſphere be- ducted with ſufficient care; as from two ounces of the
ing imbibed a the ſame time. The mode of applying dry falt forned by a combination of vitriolic acid with
heat has alſo a very conſiderable effect on the quantity mercury, the former obtained 6 drachms 12 grains of
of air produced. Thus, Dr Prieſley remarks *, that running mercury, beſides 3 drachms 58 grains of mer-
and obferv " from equal quantities of red lead, without any mix- curial ſublimate of two different colours. Dephlogi-
ture of ſpirit of nitre, and uſing the ſame apparatus for ſticated air was likewiſe obtained from pure calx of
diſtilling it, he obtained, by means of heat applied tin, or putty, mixed with oil of vitriol; but none in
Produced
{uddenly, more air than when-flowly applied, in the any trial with the marine acid, excepting when it was
in greateſt
quantities
proportion of ten to fix. The proportion of fixed air mixed with minium.; in which caſe the air oblainedwas
Vy a quick was the ſame in both caſes, and the remainder equally probably that which the minium would have yielded
aid violent dephlogiſticated.”
without any addition.
hcat.
By heat alone, the Doctor found, that ſedative ſalt, Thereſult ofall theſe, and innumerableother experi-
manganeſe, lapis calaminaris, and the mineral called ments made by philoſophers in different countries, was,
Method of lapri ponderofus, wolfram, or tungſten, would yield de- that dephlogiſticated air may be obtained from a vast
extracting
it from va-
phí giſticated air ; tlie firſt indeed in very ſmall quan- variety of mineral and metallic ſubſtances by means of
32
rious fub- tity, and ſometimes even of a quality very little ſupe- the vitriolic and nitrous acids. It now remained only How de-
Itances. rior to common air. In theſe experiments, he made to diſcover in what manner this fluid, fo eſſentially ne- phlogiſti-
uſe of ſmall-bellied retorts of green glaſs, which can ceſſary to the ſupport of animal life, is naturally pro- cated air is
ſtand the fire beſt, containing about an ounce of water, duced in quantities ſufficient for the great expence of naturally
and having narrow necks 18 or 20 inches long. The it throughont the whole world, by the breathing of a-
produced
ſubſtance to be examined was put into a retort of this nimals, the ſupport of fires, &c. This diſcovery, in-
deed,
1
* Exper.
ii. 27.
30
31
Sect. III.
A E ROL OG Y.
151
ſect. 4.
;
34
meilts
Vephlogiſ- deed, had been made before even the exiſtence of de- only by the abſorption juſt mentioned, but by the e-Dephl ozir
ticatedAir
. phlogiſticated air itſelf was known. Dr Prieſtley, af- misſion of dephlogiſticated air. He obſerved in gene-ticated .:ir.
cer liaving tried various methods of purifying contawi ral, that plants have power of correcting bad air, and
nated air unſucceſsiully, found at laſt, that ſome kinds even of improving coinmon air in a few hours, when
of vegetables anſwered this purpoſe very effectually; expoſed to the light of the ſun ; but, in he night-time,
for which diſcovery he received the thanks of the or when they are not in Auenced by the folar rays, they
Royal Society. Among the vegetables employed on this contaminate the air. This property, however, does
occaſion, he found mint anſwer the purpoſe very effec not belong in an equal degree to all kinds of plants :
* Exper. tually. “When air,” ſays he*,“ has been freſhly and nor is it poilible to diſcover by the external properties
and obſerv. ſtrongly tainted with putrefaction, ſo as to ſmell of a plant, whether it be fit for this purpoſe or not; as
vol
. i. p. I. through the water, ſprigs of mint have preſently died ſcine which have a bad ſmell, and are entirely unſit for
upon being put into it, their leaves turning black; but food, ſhow themſelves much ſuperior to others whoſe
if they do not die preſently, they thrive in a nioſt ſur external appearance would ſeem preferable. His ine-
priſing nianner. In no other circumſtances have I ſeen thod of inaking the experiment was, to fill a vial with
vegetation ſo vigorous as in this kind of air, which is air, fouled either by reſpiration or combuſtion ; after
immediately fatal to animal life. Though theſe plants which a ſprig of any plant was introduced, by pailing
have been crowded in jars filled with this kind of air, it through the water in which the vial was immerſed.
every leaf has been full of life ; freſh ſhoots have The vial was then ſtopped ; or it was removed into a
branched out in various directions, and grown much ſmall balon full of water, and expoſed to the ſun, or li-
33 faſter thanother ſimilar plants growing in the ſameex. tuated in ſome other proper place as occaſion required.
Noxious air poſure in common air. -Having in conſequence of Air phlogiſticated by breathing, and in which a candle
improved this obſervation rendered a quantity of air thoroughly could not burn, after being expoſed to the ſun for three
by vegeta- noxious, hy mice breathing and dying in it, he divi- hours, with a ſprig of peppermint in it, was ſo far cor-
ting mint.
ded it into two receivers inverted in water, introdu- rected, as to be again capable of ſupporting flame.-
cing a ſprig of mint into one of them, and keeping The following experiment, however, made with a
the other receiver unaltered. About eight or nine muſtard plant, may be looked upon as deciſive: A plant
days after, he found that the air of the receiver into of this kind was put into a glaſs receiver containing
which he had introduced the ſprig had become reipi. common air, and its ſtei cut off even with the moutlı
rable for a mouſe lived very well in this, whereas it of the receiver. The veſſel was ihen inverted in all
died the moment it was put into the other.
earthen pan, containing ſome water to keep the plant
Experi From theſe experiments the Doctor at firſt conclu- alive, and the whole apparatus was ſetover-night in a
ded, that in all caſes the air was meliorated by the ve room. Next morning the air was found ſo much con-
ſeemingly
contradic-
getation of plants: but even in his firſt volume he ob- taminated, that it extinguiſhed the tiame of a wax ta-
tory.
ſerves, that ſome experiments of this kind did not an per. On expoſing the apparatus to the fun for a quar-
ſwer ſo well towards the end of the year as they had ter of an hour, the air was found to be ſomewhat cor-
done in the hot ſeaſon ; and a ſecond courſe ſeemed to rected ; and after an hour and an half it was ſo far 1m -
be almoſt entirely contrary to the former. Having proved, that by the teſt of nitrous air it appeared con-
tried the power of ſeveral ſorts of vegetables upon air liderably better than common air.
infected by reſpiration or by the burning of candles, Before we proceed farther in the account of Dr In- Dephlogif-
he found that it was generally rendered worſe by their genhouſz's experiinents, it will be neceſſary to relate ticated air
vegetation ; and the longer the plants were kept in the fome obſervations made by Dr Prieitley; from which produced
infected air, the more they phlogiſticated it; though it appears, that dephlogiſticated air, in very confider-
in ſeveral caſes it was undoubtedly meliorated, eſpeci- able quantity, may, in certain circumſtances, be pro-
ally by the ſhoots of ſtrawberries and ſome other cured froin water alone. The ſubſtance of theſe is,
plants, introduced into the vials containing foul air, that water, eſpecially pump-water, when expoſed to
and inverted in water, which were placed near them, the light of the ſun, emits air ſlowly : but after ſome
whilſt their roots continued in the earth in the garden. time a green matter appears on the bottom and ſides
Sometimes the infected air was ſo far mended by the of the glaſs; after which it emits very pare air in great
vegetation of plants, that it was in a great meaſure quantity, and continues to do ſo for a very long time,
* Exper.
turned into deplogiſticated air. “On the whole,*'? even after the green matter has ſhown ſome ſymptoms
and Obferv. fays Dr Prieſtley, “ I ſtill think it probable, that the of decay by becoming yellow. He obſerved, that the
iv. vegetation of healthy plants, growing in ſituations na water which naturally contained the greateít quantity
tural to them, huve a ſalutary effect on the air in which of fixed air, yielded alſo the greateſt quantity of that
they grow.-- For one inſtance of the melioration of air which was dephlogiſticated; but that the quantity of
in theſe circumſtances ſhould weigh againſt an hundred the latter niuch exceeded that of the fixed air contain-
in which the air is made wurſe by it, both on account ed even in any water. The light of the ſun ivas found
of thc diſadvantages under which all plants labour, in to be an eſſential requiſite in the formation of this air,
the circumllances in which theſe experiments nuſt be as very little, and that of a much worſe quality, was
made, as well as the great attention and many precau- produced in the dark.
Experi-
tions that are requiſite in conducting ſuch a proceſs.” Asthegreen matter produced in Dr Prieftley's glaſ-
ments of
Dr Ingen-
At the tine that Dr Prieſtley made theſe experi- (es, was by himſelf, as well as others, conſidered as be-
houfzon ments, he ſuppoſed that the air was meliorated merely longing to the vegetable kingdom, Dr Ingenhoulz im-
the melio- by the abſorption of phlogiſton from that which had pioved upon his proceſs, by putting the leaves of plants
been tainted, but the experiments of Dr Ingenhouſz, into water, and expoling them to the fin. All plants From the
air by ve- inade in 1779, ſhowed that this was accompliſhed, not were not equally fit for producing dephlogiſticated air leaves of
getation.
36
from wa-
ter.
35
ration of
37
22
by Plinis.
152
A E ROL OG Y.
Sect. III.
39
A
40
nature,
Nephlogiſ by this actioiirore than eylhcother. Some poiívnous air, which all plants abſorb, through their pores ; the Lcphlogiſ
ticated air. plants, as the hyoſcyamus, lauro-ceraſus, night-llade, phlogiſtic part becoming part of their ſubitance, and ticated air.
the tobacco-plant, a triplex vulvaria, cicuta aquatica, i obably being the true vegetable food, as is explain-
and ſabina, were found very fit for the purpoſe ; but ed more at large under the article AGRICULTURE.-
the pureſt kind of air was extracted from fome aquatic Dry plants have little or no effect upon the air until
vegetables, the t!!"antine-trees and eſpecially from the they were noiſtened.--Onallthete experiments,how-
grecn matter h crected in a fore trough which was ever, it muſt be obſerved, that they have ſometimes
kept continually tilled with water froin the ſpring near failed in the hands of thoſe whom we cannot but ſup-
the bigh-rond. The purity of this dephlogiſticatedair, poie very capable of trying them; as Mr Scheele,
he ſays, was equal, if not ſupcrior, to that procured by Mr Cavallo, and the Abbé Fontana.
the beſt chemical proceſſes; as it ſometimes required After the publication of Dr Ingenhouſz's experi- Sir Benja-
eight times its owli quantity of nitrous air to ſaturate ments, it became generally believed, that the atnioſ- min Thom.
it. All parts of the plants were not found equally pro- phere was meliorated by the common proceſs of vege- fon’s expe-
per for the production of dephlogiſticated air; the full tation, and that plants abſorbed the phlogiſtic part as ments.
grown leaves yield it in greatelt quantily and purity, their food, diſcharging the pure dephlogiſticated airas
eſpeciaily from their under ſurface. It was allo pro an excrement ; which is juſt the reverſe of what hap-
cured from the green ſtalks.-One hundred leaves of pens to animals, who abſorb the pure part in reſpira-
Naſturtium Indicum, put into a jar holding a gallon, tion, and reject the phlogiſtic. In the Philoſophical
tilled with ordinary pump-water, and expoſed to the Tranſactions for 1787, however, we find a number of
run from 10 to 12 o'clock, yielded as much air as fills experiments related by Sir Benjamin Thompſon, which
ed a cylindrical jar four inches and an half in length, ſeem to render this matter dubious.-One very confi-
and one and three quarters in breadth.-0:1 removing derable objection is, that the green matrer, already
this quantity of air, and expoſing them again to the mentioned in Dr Prieſtley's experiments, when care-
{iin till leven o'clock, about half as much was produced, fully obſerved by a good microſcope, appears not to be
of a quality ſlill fuperior to the former ; and next mor- of a vegetable, but of an animal nature. The colouring
ling by eleven o'clock, they yielded as much more of matter
of the water, ſays he, is evidently of an animal Green mat-
an equal quality. The roots of the plants, he ſays, nature ; being nothing more than the aſſemblage of an ter obfer-
when kept ont of ground, generally yield bad air, and infinite number of very ſmall, active, oval-formed ani- ved by D
at all times contaminate common air, a few only ex malcules, without any thing reſembling tremella, or
Preſtley,
ſaid to be of
cepted. Flowers and fruits, in general, yield a very that kind of green matter or water-moſs which forms
an animal
ſmall quantity of noxious air, and containinate a great upon the bottom and ſides of the veſſel when this water
quantity of common air at all times, eſpecially in the is ſuffered to remain on it for a conſiderable time, and
night, and when kept in the dark, Two dozen of into which Dr Ingenhouſz ſuppoſes the animalcules
young and ſmall French beans, kept in a quart-jar of above inentioned to be actually transformed.
common air for a ſingle night, contaminated the air This gentleman has alſo found, that ſeveral animal
to ſuch a degree, that a very lively chicken died by be ſubſtances, as well as vegetables, have a power of ſepa-
ing confined in it leſs than half a minute.
rating dephlogiſticated air from water when expoſed
38
The obſervations of Dr Ingenhouſz on the whole, to the light of the ſun, and that for a very great length
ons from ſays Mr Cavallo, clearly ſhow, “that the vegetation of time. Not that the ſame quantity of water will al-
Dr Ingen- of plants is one of the great means employed by nature ways continue to furniſh air; but the fame animal ſub-
houſz's ex- to purify the atmoſphere, ſo as to counteract, in great ſtance being taken out, waſhed, and again put into
priments, meaſure, the damage done by animal reſpiration, con freſh water, ſeems to yield dephlogiſticated air, with-
buſtion, &c. It may only be ſaid, that vegetation does out any kind of limitation.
not appear to be ſufficient to remedy entirely that da Raw ſilk poſſeſſes a remarkable power of this kind.
Dephlo-
mage.
The Doctor himſelf, however, ſpeaks very To determine it, Sir Benjamin introduced 30 grains of giſticated
highly of the powers of vegetables in this reſpect. He this ſubſtance, previoully waſhed in water, into a thin air produ-
inforns us,that their office in yiclding dephlogiſticated glaſs globe 4 inches in diameter, having a cylindrical ced by raw
air begins a few hours after the ſun has made his ap- neck ths of an inch wide, and twelve inches long, in- filk.
pearance in the horizon, or rather after it has paſſed the verting the globe into a jar filled with the ſame kind of
ineridian, and ceaſes with the cloſe of the day ; except water, and expoling it to the action of the ſun in the
ing ſome plants which continue it a ſhort time after ſun window. It had not been ten minutes in this ſituati .
ſet: The quantity of dephlogiſticated air, yielded by on, when the filk became covered with an infinite
plants in general, is greater in a clear day than when it number of air-bubbles, gradually increaſing in lize, till,
is ſomewhat cloudy. It is alſo greater when the plants at the end of two hours, the lilk was buoyed up, by
are more expoſed to the ſun, than when they are ſituated their means, to the top of the water. By degrees they
in ſhady places. He obſerves, moreover, that the da- began to ſeparate themſelves, and form a collection of
mage done by plants in the nighi,is more than countcr air in the 11pper part of the globe ; which, when exa-
balanced by the benefit they afford in the day-time.- mined by the teſt of nitrous air, appeared to be very
“By a rough calculation,(ſays hc), I found the poiſon- pure. In three days he had collected 3 cubic inches of
ous air, yielded by any plant during the whole night, air ; into which a wax-taper being introduced, that
could not amount tuone hundredth part of the dephlo- had juſt been before blown out, the wick only remain-
giſticated air
which the ſame plant yielded in two hours ing red, it inſtantly took fire, and burned with a bright
time in a fair day.”-It does not appear, however, that and enlarged fame. The water in the globe appeared
plants yieldi dephlogiſticated air by any kind of genera- to have loſt fomething of its tranſparency, and had
tion of that Muid, but only by filtrating the comnion changed its colour to a very faint greeniſh caſt, having
Concluſi-
41
3
at
Sect. III.
A E R O L OG Y.
153
.
out heat.
Dephlogif- at the ſame time acquired the ſmell of raw ſilk- This provided fix globes of 4; inchies in diameter, and filled Dephlog:f-
ticated Air. was ſeveral times repeated with freſh water, retaining them with ſpring water, he introduced into each of thein ticated Air .
the ſame lilk, and always with a ſmaller reſult; but 15 grains of one of the following ſubſtances,viz.tu.eep's
with this difference, that when the ſun ſhone very wool, eider-down, fur of a Rullian hare, cotton wool,
bright, the quantity of air produced was not only lint or the ravelings of linen yarn, and human hair.-
greater, but iis quality ſuperior to that yielded when The reſults of t. eſe experiments were, 1. The globe
the ſun's rays were fecble, or when they were fre- containing the ſheep's wool began to yield air in three
quently intercepted by flying clouds. “The air, how- days; but ſeveral days of cloudy weather intervening,
ever, (ſays he), was always not only much better than he did not remove it for ſome time, when only if this
common air, but even than that produced by the freſh of an inch of air was collected, which proved very
leaves of plants expoſed in water to the ſun's rays in the pure when tried with nitrous air ; bilt the wool, even
experiments of Dr Ingenhouſz; and, under the moſt in the moſt favourable circumſtances, never afforded
favourable circumſtances, it was ſo good, that one mea more than one third of the quantity which we'llu have
ſure of it required four of nitrous air to faturate it, been yielded by lilk. 2. The water with the eider-
and the whole five meaſures were reduced to 1.35." down began to furniſh air almoſt immediately, and con-
No air pro-
An experiinent was next made in order to determine tinued to do ſo in quantities little leſs than had been
duced in
the effect of darkneſs upon the production of air: and furnithed by the tilk, and nearly of the fanie quality.
the dark. in this caſe only a few inconſiderable bubbles were One cubic inch and three quarters of this air, furaithcd
formed, which remained attached to the filk; nor was the eighch day from the beginning of the experiment,
the cafe altered by removing the globe into a German with three meaſures of nitrous air, was reduced to
ſtove. Some ſingle bubbles, indeed, had detached 1.34. 3. The fur of the hare produced inore air than
theniſelves from the ſilk and aſcended to the top, but the wool, but leſs than the eider-down,. Two cubic
the air was in too little quantity to be meaſured or inches of air were collected in four days; which made
proved.-The medium heat of the globe, when expo its appearance in a different manner from that of the
fed to the ſun's rays, was about 90° of Fahrenheit, other ſubſtances, the air-bubbles being at conſiderable
though ſometimes it would riſe as high as 96 ; but air diriances from one another, and growing to an uncom-
was frequently produced, when the heat did not exceed mon ſize before they detached themſelves from the fur.
Effects of 65 and 70º – On reverſing this experiment, in order The cotton yielded a confiderable quantity of air of a
light with- to try the effect of light without heat, it was found, better quality than any of the fornier. The ravelings
that by plunging the globe into a mixture of ice and of linen were very llow in furniſhing air, and produced
water, which brought it to the temperature of about but a ſmall quantity; only tiro cubic inches being col-
50° of Fahrenheit, the produce of air was diminiſhed, lected in the ſpace of a fortnight. This ſubſtance ap-
though it ſtill continued in conſiderable quantity. peared to be the very reverſe of the hare's fur ; for the
Th: effect of artificial light, inſtead of that of the air, inſtead of attaching and collecting itſelf about the
Of artificial
light.
ſun, was next tried. For this purpoſe all the air was ſubſtance in large bubbles, ſcarce ever
made its appear-
removed from the globe ; and its place being ſupplied ance in fufficient quantity to raiſe it to the top of the
with a quantity of freſh water, ſo as to render it quite water. The human hair furnihed ſtill leſs than the
full, it was again inverted in the jar, and removed into a linen, and the produce was of inferior quality, though
dark room ſurrounded with fix lamps and reflectors; fix ftill ſuperior to the common atmoſphere.
wax candles were alſo placed at different diſtances from In order to diſcover the comparative fineneſs of air
three to fix inches from it, and diſpoſed in ſuch a man- produced from vegetables and from raw ſilk, a ſmall
ner as to throw the greateſt quantity of light poſſible quantity of air from the ſtem of a pea-plant, which had
upon the ſilk, taking care at the ſame time that the four healthy leaves upon it, was proved with nitrous
water ſhould net acquire a greater heat than 90°. In air, and found greatly inferior to that from raw ſilk
this ſituation the filk began to be covered with air and ſeveral of the ſubſtances already mentioned. An
bubbles in about ten minutes; andin ſix hours as much entire plant of houſewort, of a moderate ſize, furnished
was coll. cted as could be proved by nitrous air, when only ths of a cubic inch of air in ſeven hours, and
it was found to be very pure. A frelli-gathered, that greatly inferior to common air; but the leaves a-
healthy leaf of a peach-tree, and a ſtem of the pea- lone afforded a much greater quantity, and of a qua-
plant with thiee leaves upon it, furniſhed air by expo- lity greatly ſuperior.
46
ſure to the ſame light, but in ſmaller quantities than Having proceeded thus far, it was next determined of the
by the action of the ſolar rays. The air produced ini to aſcertain how much air a given quantiiy of water quantity
the dark, in whatever manner procured, was always would yield by expoſure to the ſun's rays. For this of air pro-
in too ſmall a quantity to be meaſured.
purpoſe, a globe of fine white, clear, and very thin cured by
In making theſe experimenis, as it was found ſome- glaſs, containing 296 inches, being filled with freh
thiefe fub-
what tronbleſome to invert the glubes in water, they ipring water, and 30 grains of rart till immerſed in it, ſtances
were at laſt onlykept in an inclined pofture on the table, was expoſed to the air for three days in the month of from wa.
as repreſented in Pl. X. fig. 1. the air collecting itſelf May, but for the moſt part cold and cloudy. During ter.
in the upper part of the belly. Having provided him. this time only 94 inches of air were produced; but
ſelf with a number of globes of different fizes, he then next day, by expoſure to the fun from nine in the
proceeded in his experiments in the following manner. morning till five in the afternoon, the weather being
Various
Finding that raw ſilk, expoſed to the action of light, very fine, 8.46 inches more were produced. The wa-
fubitances produced to great a quantity of air, he was induced to ter had now aſſumed a light greeniſh colour. Next
ſubſtituted iry whether ſome other ſubſtances might not be found day, the product of air was nine cubic inches, of a
out capable of doing the ſame. Having therefore better quality ; and the day tollowing, fix inches ſtill
Lilk.
Vol. I.
U
ſuperior,
44
means of
45
for raw
154
Sect. III.
A E ROL
R o L O GY.
48
wa-
tinies air of
the beſt
Dephlogiſ- ſuperior, though expoſed only for three hours and an to be nearly equivalent to that of water; and, by a Dcphlogiſ--
ticated.dir
. half; but the next day, it being cold and cloudy, only comparative view of the two through a microſcope, ticated Cir.
this of an inch of air were produced, and theſe mani- the ſurfaces appeared to be as 1000 to 3468. By pro-
feitly inferior to the foregoing. No more air could ceeding in this calculation, it appeared that the ſurface
afterwards be procured, excepting one quarter of a cu of 30 grails of the cotton could not be leſs than 660
bic inch ; ſo that from 296 inches of this water, 33.96 ſquare inches, while that of a like quantity of the ſilk
of air were obtained.
amounted to no more than 476. Fence it evidently
In this experiment the air produced was every day appeared, that the produce of air from the two ſub-
removed from the globe, and its place ſupplied with ſtances was neither in proportion to their weights nor
water : the following were made, to determine what their ſurfaces. It appeared alſo, that the quality of
alteration would take placc on allowing the quantity the air produced at firſt was conſiderably inferior to that
of air produced to remain from firſt to laſt. The globe yielded ſometime afterwards. In order to aſcertain
being therefore iilled again, and the filk well waſhed the times at which air of the beſt quality was produ-
and replaced in it, the quantity of air produced a- ced, &c. the following experiments were inade : 1. A At whet
mounted in four days to 30.1 cubic inches; and would globe, containing 46 cubic inches, being filled with
probably have been more conſiderable, had not the ter, and 30 grains of raw ſilk, well waſhed, and freed
globe been unable to contain it along with the water, from the remains of former experiments, put into it,
quality is
prrduced.
and therefore there was a neceſſity for putting an end yielded in a cold and cloudy day only th of a cubić
to the experiment. The quality was ſuperior to the inch of air: the two following days ir yielded 31 cubic
forner. In this experiment the water had loſt its inches, the quality of which was ſuperior to that of the
tranſparency, and acquired a greeniſh caſt ; a quantity former in the proportion of 296 to 114 (A)
2. The
of yellowith earth was precipitated to the bottom, and globe filled again with water, in two other days when
altached itſelf ſo ſtrongly to the glaſs, that it could the funſhine was leſs powerful, the quality was 197,
not be removed without great difficulty.
and the quantity r th ; but afterwards, when the
On varying the experiment, by employing unwaſh- weather became fine, the quantity was again 3.8 in-
ed raw ſilk, it was found, that 17 grains of it in 20 cu. ches, and quality 342. 3. The globe being again fil-
bic inches of water, produced, for the firſt 4 days, air led with water, and expoſed to the fun for two days,
of a worſe quality than the atmoſphere; but afterwards yielded 2.2 inches of air, of a quality equal to 233.
yielded near two inches of a fuperior quality. The 4. A ſimilar globe, with poplar-Cotton which had been
quantity of this air was ſuperior to that in other expe- uſed in former experiments, gave 2.53 inches, of a qua-
riments, though its quality was ſomewhat inferior. lity 28o. 5. A ſmall globe of 20 inches, with 17
In reflecting on the experiments above related, it oc- grains of raw ſilk, gave one cubic inch of air, of the
curred to Sir Benjamin, that the cotton-like ſubſtance quality 263. 6. A large globe of 296 inches, filled
produced by the populus nigra, a ſpecies of poplar tree, with freſh water, and a ſmall quantity of conferva rivu-
might be a proper ſubſtitute for the raw ſilk; eſpeci- laris, gave i cubic inch, of the quality only of 124.
ally as he recollected, that on rendering it very dry The water was changed to a brown colour.
7. On
for ſome other purpoſe, ſome parcels of it had quitted repeating the experiment with a ſmall handful of the
the plate on which they were laid, and mounted up to conferva, 13,14 cubic inches of air were produced, of
the top of the room. An hundred and twenty grains the quality 246. The water was very faintly tinged,
of this ſubſtance were therefore put into the large towards the end of the experiment, of a greeniſh caſt.
globe containing 296 inches; but after expofure to the 8. The globe of 46 inches, with 30 grains of raw ſilk
fun for ſome hours, the air produced, in quantity a uſed in many former experiments, produced in two days
bout Ifths of a cubic inch, was found to be little bet 1.6 cubic inches of air, of the quality of 204. 9. A
ter than phlogiſticated air. In three days after, only globe of equal capacity, with 15 grains of poplar-cot-
one cubic inch was formed ; and this appeared to be ton, produced in the ſame time 1.28 inches, of the
completely phlogiſticated. Next day, only a few in- quality 260. In both theſe experiments, the water had
conſiderable air-bubbles appeared; but, the day fol- acquired a faint greeniſh caſt; but the colour of that
lowing, the water ſuddenly changed to a greeniſh co with the cotton was deepeſt. On examining this wa-
lours and began all at once to give good air, and in ter with a microſcope, it was found to contain a great
great abundance. This day 10.42 cubic inches were number of animalcules exceedingly ſmall, and nearly
produced, and the next 14.34. The ſame water con of an oval figure ; that with the ſilk contained them
tinued to furniſh air for four days longer; the whole likewiſe, but not in ſuch numbers : however, our
quantity amounting to 441 cubic inches, the quality author aſſures us, that in all caſes in which the
of which was ſuperior to that of the air produced in water acquired a greeniſh hue, he never failed to find
former experiments,
thern ; and thinks, that from their preſence alone,
In ſpeculating on the cauſe of this production of air, the colour of the water in the firſt inſtance univerſally
it occurred to our author, that perhaps the quantity of aroſe.
it might be in proportion to the ſurfaces of both.' In As Sir Benjamin was now more than ever embarraſſed Expri-
dudion of
order to aſcertain this, he viewed an hair of filk, and with reſpect to the ſhare the ſilk and other bodies em ment with
another of poplar-cotton, through a good microſcope, ployed in theſe experiments had in producing the air,
fpun glaſs.
when the former appeared twice the diameter of the he made the following experiment to determine the
latter. The ſpecific gravity of the cotton was found matter : “ Concluding (ſays he), that if ſilk and other
bodies,
47
Of the
cauſe of
this pro-
air.
(A) In all theſe experiments, the quality of the atmoſpheric air is ſuppoſed to be 100.
Sect. III.
A E R O L 0 G Y.
155
ticated Air.
SI
50
of air pro- alone.
Dephlogif- bodies, uſed in the foregoing experiments, actually did ceaſed. The whole amounted to 40 cubic inches, and Dephious.
ticated Air, not contribute any thing, conſidered as chemical ſub- the quality 213
Kances, in the proceſs of the production of pure air Theſe are the principal experiments contained in Sir
yielded by water ; but if, on the contrary, they acted Benjamin Thompſon's letter to Sir Joſeph Banks.
merely as a mechanical aid in its Separation from the In his poſtſcript he obſerves, that as he never was De Inger-
water, by affording theni a convenient turface for air to thoroughly ſatisfied with
the opinion of Dringerhoufz, houfz's
attach itſelf to ; in this caſe, any other body having a that the dephlogiſticated air was elaborated in the ver theory con-
teſted.
large ſurface, and attracting air in water, might be fels of the plant, he found his doubts rather confirmed
made uſe of inſtead of the filk in the experiment, and than diminiſhed by the experiments above related.
pure air ſhould be furniſhed, though the body ſhould "That the freſh leaves of certain vegetables (ſays he)
be totally incapable of communicating anything what- expoſed in water to the action of the
ſun's rays, cauſe
ever to the water.
a certain quantity of pure air to be produced, is a fact
With a view to aſcertain this, the large globe being which has been put beyond all doubt : but it does not
made perfectly clean, and filled with ſpring-water, he appear to nie by any means ſo clearly proved, that this
introduced into it a quantity of the fine thread of glaſs air is elaborated in the plant by the powers of vege-
commonly called ſpun.glaſs, ſuch as is uſed for making tation,-phlogiſticated or fixed air being received
by
a bruſh for cleaning jewels, and an artificial feather the plant as food, and the dephlogiſticated air rejected
ſold by Jew pedlars. The reſult of the experiment as an excrement:' for beſides that many other ſub-
was, that the globe being expoſed to the ſun, air. ſtances, and in which no elaboration or circulation can
bubbles began almoſt inſtantly to make their appear- poſſibly be ſuppoſed to take place, cauſe the water in
ance on the ſurface, and in four hours 0.77 of a cul which they are expoſed to the action of the light to
bic inch of air was produced, which, with nitrous air, yield dephlogiſticated air as well as plants, and even in
ſhowed a quality of 88 ; after which, not a lingle glo- much greater quantities, and of a more eminent qua-
bule more was procured, though the globe was expo- lity; the circumſtances of the leaves of a vegetable,
ſed for a whole week in fine ſunſhine weather. Hence which, accuſtomed to grow in air, are ſeparated from
it appears, that ſomething more than mere ſurface was its ſten and confined in water, are ſo unnatural, that I
wanted to produce dephlogiſticated air from water by cannot conceive that they can perform the ſame func-
means of the ſun's light.
tions in ſuch different ſituations.
Of the The following experiments were made with a view
“ Among many facts which have been brought in
quantity to determine the quantity and quality of air produced ſupport of the received opinion of the elaboration of
and quality by means of the heat and light of the ſun froin water air in the veſſels of plants, there is one upon which
A large jar of clear glaſs, containing 455 cu- great ſtreſs is laid, which, I think, requires further ex-
bic inches, being waſhed very clean, was filled with amination. The freſh healthy leaves of vegetables,
water alone
freſh ſpring water, inverted in a glaſs baſon of the ſeparated from the plant, and expoſed in water to the
fame, and expoſed to the weather for 28 days. At the action of the ſun's rays, appear, by all the experiments
ſame time, another ſimilar jar was filled with water which have hitherto been made, to furniſh air only for
taken from a pond in a garden in which many aquatic a Mort time. After a day or two, the leaves, chan-
plants were growing, and expoſed in the ſame place, ging colour, ceaſe to yield air. This has been con-
and during the ſame period. The latter began to yield ceived to ariſe from the powers of vegetation being de-
air in pretty large quantities on the third day, and ſtroyed, or, in other words, the death of the plant:
continued to do ſo till the 14h; the former yielded and from hence it has been inferred, with ſome degree
little or none till the 14th; when it began to emit air, of plauſibility, not only that the leaves actually retain-
and continued to do ſo till the 22d. On removing the ed their vegetative powers for ſome time after they
air produced, that from the ſpring-water was 14
in-
were ſeparated from their ſtalk; but that it was in
ches in quantity, and 138 in quality ; but from the conſequence of the exertion of thoſe powers, that the
pond water, 31, in quantity, and 252 in quality. The air yielded in the experiment was produced.
colour of the water was not changed ; but both of ci But I have found, that although the leaves, expo. Leaves of
them had depoſited a conſiderable quantity of earth, ſed in water to the action of light, actually do ceaſe plants re-
which was found adhering to the ſurfaces of the glaſs to furniſh air after a certain time, yet that they regain ſume their
baſons in which the jars were inverted. As theſe ba- this power after a fi.ort interval, when they furaish (or property of
fons, however, were very thick, and conſequently had rather cauſe the water to furniſh) more and better air
emitting
but little tranſparency, the ſediment of the water was
air, after
than at firft; which can hardly be accounted for upon ſeeming to
in a great meaſure deprived of the benefit of the ſun's the ſuppoſition that the air is elaborated in the veſſels have luit it.
light; the experiment was therefore repeated with the of the plant."
following variation: In a large cylindrical jar of very In confirmation of this doctrine, the globe of 46
finetranſparent glaſs, joinches in diameter and 12 in- inches was filled with freſh ſpringwater,and two peach-
ches high, filled with ſpring-water, a conicaljar, 9 in- leaves trere expoſed for todays to the fun. In four
chesin diameter at the bottom, and containing 214 in- days the rater ſeemed to be entirely exhufted ; but,
ches, was inverted, and ille whole expoſed to the ſun next day, the water acquired a greenil colur, and
for 2 í days. Little air was furniihed till the 7th day, again produced air pretty plentifully, wliich appeared
when the liquor allumed a greeniſh caſt, and a tine in bubbles on the leaves; and on the oth day, 0.34 of
ſlimy ſediment of the ſame colour, the green matter of a cubic inch of air was produced, or the quality 232.
Dr Prieſtley, beginning to be formed on the bottom, Next day it yielded,,chsofa cubic inch, oi the quality
air was generated in abundance, and was furnished in 291. The three ſucceeding daysityiclded!' inches,thie
pretty large quantities till the 18th, when it entirely quality 307; after which an end was put to the expe-
riment.-
duced from
52
$
Ua
156
A E R O L 0 G Y.
Sect. III.
57
53
Pure air
54
procure
Dephlogiſ- riment.-Onmaking other trials with leaves immerſed All phlogiſtic proceſſes are promoted much better Dephlogif-
ticated Air in water already green and prepared to yield dephlogi- by dephlogiſticated than common air. Ir Prieſtley ticated Air.
fticared air, it was found that they produced air in påt a quantity of pyrophorus into one of the ſmall jars
great quantity: but our author is of opinion, that all uſed for making cxpcriments upon air in quikıilver ;
the appearances may be ſolved, by ſuppoling that the then filling up the yellel with that fluid, he inverted it Burns ve-
air was produced in the maſs of water by the green in a baſon of the ſame, and threw in dephlogilticated hemently
matter; and that the leaves, lilk, &c. did no more than air at dintcrent times. It always occalioned a ſudden with pyro-
alliſt it in making its eſcape, by affording a conveni- and vehement accenſion, like the Haſhing or gun-pow- phorus.
ent ſurface to which it could attach itſelf, in order to der, and the air was greatly dininiiled.
58
collect together and aſſume its elaſtic formi.
It has been, almoit throughout all ages, believed, Common
Thus we ſee, that nature is provided with abundant tnat combuſtion in every inſtance diminithed common air is not
reſources for the ſupplying of this pure part of the at- air, or reduced it to a ſinaller volume : but the late diminiſhed
moſphere which is ſubject to ſuch continual waſte ; and experiments of Mr Lavoiſier have ſhown, that this is by burning
there is not the leaſt doubt, that in a great number of a miſtake ; and that in ordinary proceſſes attended
caſes the light of the ſun produces pure air from wa with the production of fixed and phlogiſticated air,
ter as well as from vegetables. It is probable, alſo, the quantity of vapour produced is equivalent to that
that even the waters of the ocean contribute towards abſorbed, or otherwiſe made to diſappear during the
found in
this falutary purpoſe ; as Dr Dobſon of Liverpool operation. With dephlogiſticated air the caſe is very
fea-water.
found, that ſca-water contained air ſuperior in quality different. Mr Lavoiſier having introduced a burning
to that of the atmoſphere. The purification of armo-
59
candle into a glaſs jar filled with very pure air obtain-
Butdephlo-
{pherical air by agitating it in water, will be conſidered ed from calcinated mercury, a great heat took place ; giſticated
in a ſubſequent ſection.
which at firſt expelled a ſınall quantity of the air ; but air ſuffers
How to As dephlogiſticated air is found to ſupport animal afterwards, when the candle was extinguiſhed, it was diminution
life for a much longer time than common air, it has found that two-thirds of the bulk of air employed had
pure air in- been ſuppoſed that it might anſwer valuable purpoſes been converted into fixed air, or a quantity of this
large quan- in medicine, proyided any cheap method of procuring kind of air equivalent to the former had been produ-
sity,
it in large quantities could be fallen upon. With this ced. The remainder, after taking up the fixed air by
view, Mr Cavallo propoſes to diſtil it from nitre with cauſtic alkali, was ſtill as pure as before. In the com-
a ſtrong heat; but the experiments already related cer mon proceſſes, he obſerves, that not more than one-
rainly point out an calier method, free from the ex- tenth of the air employed is converted into fixed air.
pence and trouble which muſt neceffarily attend cvery In this experiment, the ſuperior gravity of fixed air,
chemical operation of this kind.
and the conſequent condenſation of the other, must
§ 2. Pronerties of Dephlogiſticated Air.This kind undoubtedly have produced fome diminution in the
of air poſſeſſes fonie of the properties of common air in volume of air, though Mr Lavoiſier does not take no-
a very eminent degree, but is deficient in others. Thoſe 'tice of it. In other caſes, however, the diminution
in which it excels, are the ſupport of flame and of ani- is much more perceptible. Mr Scheele having intro-
mal life. It is equally elaſtic, or rather more ſo, than duced føme live coals into a inatrafs filled with dephlo-
common air ; as it likewiſe exceeds it a litile in ſpecific giſticated air, found that it was diminiſhed by one-
gravily, the proportion betwixt it and common air fourth of its quantity. Repeating the experiment
being that offbo to 152. On introducing a lighted with fulphur, the flame became larger and more vivid
candle into dephlogiſticated air, the flame not only than in common air, and three-fourths of its quantity
grows larger, but becomes exceedingly bright; and were loft. Putting a piece of phoſphorus into ſeven
when the air is very pure, the candle burns with a ounce-meaſures of this kind of air, ſtopping the mouth
crackling noiſe, as if the air contained ſome combuſti- of the bottle with a cork, and ſetting fire to the phoſ-
lle matter, at the ſame time that the wax or tallow phorus within it, the phial broke to pieces, as ſoon as
55 Waites ſurpriſingly faſt.
the flame was extinguiſhed, by the preſſure of the ex-
Dephiogis. The heat of the fame is in proportion to its light. ternal air. Repealing the experiment with a ſtronger
ticated air If we fill a bladder with dephlogiſticated air, and then vial, and opening it afterwards under water, the fluid
produces faften to its neck a glaſs tube whoſe aperture is drawn ruſhed into it in ſuch a manner as almoſt to fill it en-
to a fine point, the dephlogicated air, if driven out tirely. This extraordinary diminution was alſo per-
by preſſing the bladder, will augment the heat of a ceived on ſetting fireto inflammable air in the dephlo.
candle co ſuch a degrce, that if any ſmall bits of giſticated kind. The way in which he accompliſhed
metal, placed on a piece of charcoal, be held in the this was, by filling a matraſs with depli logiſticated air,
apex of the flame, they will almoſt inſtanly be melted. and inverting it over a phial containing an effervefcing
Even grains of platina may by this means be melted; mixture of vitriolic acid and iron-filings plunged into
and in a larger fire there is no doubt that the effects of a veſſel of hot water, and furniſhed with a ſlender tube
56
burning mirrors might be equalled.
reaching above the furface of the vefiel, as repreſented
Explodes On mixing dephlogiſticated and infiammable air, to Plate X. fig. 2. The inflammable air illuing from
with in gether, an exploſion takes place as on mixing com the orifice of the ſmall tube, was ſet on fire previous
Sanimable mon and inflammable air, but with much greater vio to the inverſion of the mattraſs, and the mouth of the
gir,
lence. If an ounce vial, which for this purpoſe ſhould latter immerſed in the water; on which that fluid ſoon
be very ſtrong, be filled with a little inore than one- began to riſe, and continued to do ſo till ſeven-cighths
third of dephlogiſticated and the reſt inflammable air, of the veſſel were full. In caſes of low combuſtion,
and the flame of a candle preſented to its mouth, it where common air is diminiſhed and phlogiſticated,
will expl:de nearly as loud as a ſinall piſtol.
the dephlogiſicated kind was found to be almoſt en-
carina
heat.
tirely
>
1
cated with
Sect. III.
A E ROL O GY.
157
Dephlogiſ- tirely deſtroyed. A phial, containing 20 ounce mea riment is performed over line-water (to abſorb the Dephlogis
ticated Air. (ures of dephlogiſticated air, and inverted into a ſolu fixed air produced in reſpiration), the diminution by a ticated Air.
tion of hepar ſulphuris, was entirely filled with the mixture of nitrous air is leſs than it would otherwiſe
60 latter in the ſpace of two days.
be ; but it is ſtill diininiſhed much more than comnion
l'henome The purity of deplilogiſticated air is aſcertained air afcer an animal has died in it ; which ſeenis to in-
na of de- by its degree of diminution with nitrous air ; which, timate, that the death of the animal in dephlogiſtica-
phlogiſti-, like that of the diminution by liver of ſulphur, or 0 ted air is principally owing to the fixed air formed by
therwiſe, is to be conſidered as a phlogiſtic proceſs, or
nitrous air.
the act of reſpiration. It may be ſaid, that the in-
kind of burning, eſpecially as a conſiderable degree of fiammable principle diſcharged through the lungs of
heat is thereby generated. Very grcat differences are an animal, being perhaps combined with ſome other
perceived in this refpect; and according to the quan- principle, requires a longer time to combine with the
tity of diminution, the air is ſaid to be two, three, dephlogiſticated air than the phlogitton of nitrous air ;
or four times better than common air. It is not yet but this is only an hypothetical cxplanation of the
accurately determined how far this proportionable pu- abovementioned remarkable phenomenon, which re-
rity extends. Dr Prieſtley mentions ſome extracted quires many direct proofs.'
62
from red lead five times as pureas common air. Another Dephlogiſticated air is much inferior to that of the Vegetation
quantity, produced from a ſolution of mercury in nitrons common atmoſphere in ſupporting vegetablelife. This is fupport-
ed
acid, was ſo pure, that one meaſure of it mixed with has been aſcertained by the experiments of Dr Prieſt-
phlogiſtic
Iwo of nitrous air, which had been obtained in the ley, Mr Fontana, Mr Scheele, Dr Ingenhouſz, &c. Cated air.
firſt part of the ſame proceſs, occupied only 0.03 of a Dr Prieſtley took three ſprigs of mint, and having put
meaſure. • Repeating the experiment (ſays he), I allile roors into vials containing the fame pump-water
found, that two ineaſures of nitrous air were rather which had been for ſoine time expoſed to the atmo-
more than ſufficient to ſaturate one meaſure of the de- ſphere, introduced one of them into a jar of dephlogi-
phlogiſticated air; ſo that poſſibly, had the former ex ſticated air, anotherinto ajar of common air, andathird
periment been made with more circumſpection, the di- into that which had been phlogiſticated with nitrous.
minution, extraordinary as it was, would have been air ſeveral months before, and in ſuch a ſtate, that one
ſomewhat greater. Indeed it cannot be fuppofed, meaſure of it, and one of nitrous air, occupied the
that exactly two meaſures of nitrous air ihould be the ſpace of meaſures. This was done in April; and
preciſe quantity that would afford the greateſt diminu on examining then on the 12th of May following, it
tion. It ſhould alſo be conſidered, that a ſmall por was found, that the plant in phlogiſticated air had
tion of air might be yielded by the water in which the grown remarkably, much better than that in common
experiments were made. Upon the whole, therefore, air ; while the plant in dephlogiſticated air had a very
I am inclined to think, that, were it poſſible to make fickly appearance. Examining them on the 26th of the
both the dephlogiſticated and nitrous air in the greateſt ſame month, the appearance continued nearly as before;
purity, and then to mix them in ſome exact propor- but it was now found, that though the plant in phlo-
tion, the aerial form of them both would be deitroy- giſticated air had grown ſo well, the air was not ſen-
ed, the whole qnantity ſeeming to diſappear, as in libly improved by it, though the dephlogiſticated air
61 the mixture of alkaline and acid air."
was injured by the plant which grew in it.
How de Notwithſtanding this great degree of purity, the 3. Of the Compoſition of Dephlogiſticated Air. 63
phlogiſti- beſt dephlogillicated air is capable of being contami- When Dí Prieſtley firſt diſcovered the exiſtence ofthis Dr, Prieſt-
nated by ſome of the proceſſes which affect the com fluid, having found that it was always procured by .cy's firſt
maybe con-
mon air of our atmoſphere. Dr Prieſtley having in- means of earthy ſubſtances; and that as it came over, ,
hypotheſis
taminated.
troduced a quantity of very dry, clean nails, into a re the bubbles appeared full fiue of white powder ; he
ceiver filled with dephlogiſticated air, and inverted it concluded, that it is compoſed of the nitrous acid and
in quickſilver, found, that about nine months after, earth, with as much phlogiſton as is neceſſary to its
one-tenth of the whole quantity had diſappeared, tho' elaſticity; and that the common atmoſphere has as
he could not perceive any ruſt upon the nails. The much more as is neceſſary to bring it into the mean
effects of combuſtion have already been related, viz. as condition in which we find it. It was not long, how-
producing a great quantity of pure fixed air; but pu- ever, before this theory wet with oppolition. Dr
trefaction and animal reſpiration probably contaminate Prieitley himſelf, though induced, fron the waſte of
it in a manner ſimilar to that of atmoſpherical air, the folid matter uſed in his experiments, to conclude
though few or no experiments ſeem to have been made that the air contained ſome quantity of earth, was
on this ſubject. Mr Cavallo, however, informs us, nevertheleſs unable, by any method he could think of
that " when an animal is contined in a quantity of de to aſcertain that quantity. His experiments were op 64
phlogiſticated air, and is kept therein till it dies, that poſed by others made by Lavoiſier ; who inliſted, that Difference
air is not rendered ſo bad but that it will ſtill be ca when ſolution of mercury was carefully diſtilled, the betwixt Ds
pable of conſiderable diminution by nitrous air. This metal was obtained in full quantity, or with ſcarce
Prieſtley,
Mr Lavoie
ſeems to ſhow, that dephlogiſticated air is fomewhat any loſs, notwithſtanding the dephlogiſticated air pro- fier, &c.
different from pure conimon air; or that common air duced. This gentleman having put two ounces and
is originally different from dephlogiſticated air, lower- one drachm of mercury into red precipitate, and after-
ed by the addition of phlogiſton. The phenomenon is wards revived it, loft a very few grains of the metal;
certainly very remarkable ; and ſometimes a quantity which, he ſays, might be the weight of a little red
of dephlogiſticated air, after having been breathed by matter that was found adhering to the neck of the
an animal till it died, will appear by the nitrous teſt veſſel. The ſame thing was obſerved by Mir Foniana,
co be even better than common air. When the expe- who repeated the experiment oiten with leſs than a
grain
.
cated air
158
A E ROL OG Y.
Sect. III.
Farth cana
not be
air.
waler.
the nitrous
Dephlogiſ- grain weight of loſs. The veſſel he uſed had a neck it, only a few grains of weak nitrous acid are obtainl- Dephlogif-.
ticated lir of about two feet long: and he particularly remaias, cd, more or leſs as the fire applied is weak or ſtrong: ticated Air.
that, in order to ſucceed in this experiment, the tire but that the quantity of dephlogiſticated air extricated
hould be managed with very great dexterity ; tor if froin it follows the contrary rule ; being greateſt when
that be tou ſtrong, part of the precipitate will be vo the hear is moſt violent and ſuddenly applied, and leſs
latilized, and then the refult of the experiment is pre when the fire is grauually applied.
carious.
On calcining metals in dephlogiſticated air, very ſin-
Theſe experiments were oppoſed by others made by gular phenomena are obſerved, which ſeem to throw
Dr Prieſtley, who in ſeveral trials found that a conti. great light upon the composition of this fluid. « One
derable quantity of the metal was always loft. In one of the moſt ſimple of all phlogiſtic proceſſes (ſays Dr
of theſe experiments, out of 11 pennyweights 10 Prieſtley), is that in which metals are melted in dephlo-
grains of inercury, the loſs amounted to one penny- giſticated air. I therefore began with this, with a
weight two grains. In another experiment, 88 grains view to aſcertain whether any water be produced when
were loſt, out of a quantity of red precipitate, in the the air is made to diſappear in it. Accordingly, into
preparation of which half an ounce of
ounce of mercury had a glaſs veſſel, containing ſeven ounce-meaſures of pret-
been employed. The quantity of mercury loſt in his ty pure dephlogiſticated air, 1 introduced a quantity of
experiments, or rather the proportion of it to that of iron turnings, which is iron in thin ſınall pieces, ex-
the metal employed, was always various, and the dif- ceedingly convenient for theſe and many
other
expe.
65
ference not very ſmall; whence Mr Cavallo and others, riments, having previouſly made them, together with
with
great appearance of reaſon, conclude, tliat thé the veſſel, the air, and the mercury by which it was
ved to exilf true reaſon of any perceptible loſs was the ſtrong heat confined, as dry as I poſſibly could. Allo to prevent
in dephlo- made uſe of in the diſtillation, and conſequently that the air from imbibing any moiſture, I received it im-
giſticated there is no reaſon to ſuppoſe that any earth exiſts in mediately in the veilel in which the experiment was
dephlogiſticated air.
made, from the proceſs of procuring it froin red pre-
The
next queſion was, Whether any of the nitrous cipitate, ſo that il had never been in contact with any
67
acid exiſted in dephlogiſticated air ? That it contains
I then fired the iron by means of a burning Dephlogiſ-
none in a proper ſtate of acidity, is indeed evident from lerts, and preſently reduced the ſeven ounce-meaſures ticated air
many decilive experiments; but an idea was naturally to 0.65 of a meaſure; but I found no more water af- imbibed by
entertained, that in the formation of dephlogiſticated ter this proceſs than I imagined it had not been poffi- calces of
66 air the nitrous acid was decompoſed, and part of it en ble for me to exclude, as it bore no proportion to the
Whether tered into the compoſition of the aerial fluid. This air which had diſappeared. Examining the reliduum
gave riſe to the theories of Mr Lavoiſier and Mr of the air, I found one-fifth of it to be fixed air ; and
acid enters Kirwan, which are noticed under the article ACID; when I tried the purity of that which remained by
itscompofi-
as alſo the experiments of Mr Watt, which tend the teſt of nitrous air, it did not appear that any phlo-
ed to ſhow that no nitrous acid was deitroyed in giſticated air had been produced in the proceſs : for
the compoſition of dephlogiſticated air. To theſe though it was more impure than I ſuppoſe the air with
Mr Kirwan replied in the manner related in that ar which I began the experiment muſt have been, it was
ticle. We ſhall here, however, give a quotation from not more ſo than the phlogiſticated air of the ſeven
Dr Prieſtley as a kind of addition to Mr Watt's teſti ounce-meaſures, which had not been affected by the
mony on this head, ſo that the reader may be the bet- proceſs, and which muſt have been contained in the
ter able to determine the weight of the evidence on refiduum, would neceſſarily make it. In this caſe, one
both ſides.
meaſure of this reliduum, and two of nitrous air, oc-
" At Mr Watt’t requeſt (ſays he), I endeavoured to cupied the ſpace of 0.32 of a meaſure. In another
aſcertain the quantity of acid that was expelled from experiment of this kind, ten ounce-meaſures of de-
nitre, in procuring the dephlogiſticated air from it. phlogiſticated air were reduced to 0.8 of a meaſure, and
To do this, I put two ounces of purified nitre into a by waſhing in lime-water to 0.38 of a meaſure. In
glaſs retort, and receiving the air in 300 ounce mea another experiment, 7 ounce-meaſures of dephlogiſti-
ſures of water, only filled each recipient half full, and catcd air were reduced to half an ounce-meaſure, of
agitated the air very inuch in the water, in order to which one-fifth was fixed air, and the reliduum was
make the fluid imbibe as much as poſſible of the acid quite as pure as the air with which I began the expe-
it contained. Notwithfanding this agitation,however, riment; the teſt with nitrous air, in the proportions
every velfclofthe air retained a ſtrong ſnellóf the acid. abovementioned, giving 0.4 in both caſes .
The moment the air ceaſed to comc, I filled a large " In tlieſe experiments the fixed air niuſt, I pre-
phial with the water, and carried it to Mr Watt, who ſume, have been formed by the union of the phlogiſton
carefully examined it: and in a paper which he preſent from the iron and dephlogiſticated air in which it was
ed to tlie Royal Society, and which is published in the ignited ; but the quantity of it was very ſmall in
pro-
Philofophical tranſactions, he has given an account of portion to the air wlich had diſappeared ; and at that
the quantity of acid that was contained in all the 300 time I had no ſuſpicion that the iron, which had been
ounces of water : whence it may be fairly inferred, melted and gathered into round balls, could have im-
that there was no occalion 10 ſuppoſe that any of the bibed it; a melting heat having been fufficient, as I
acid entered into the compoſition of the air ; but that had imagined, to expel every thing that was capable
it was all either rendered volatile or rctained in the of aſſuming the forın of air froin any ſubſtance what-
water." On the other hand, the Abbé Fontana in ever. Senlible, however, that ſuch a quantity of air
forms us, that, in diſtilling an ounce of nitre with a muſt have been iml.ibed by Concething, to which it inuſt
Itrong heat, in order to expel dephlogillicated air froin have given a very perceptible addition of weight, and
ſceing
tion.
Sect. III.
A E ROL L O GY.
159
of water
atno.
?
ver.
Dephlogiſ- ſeeing nothing elſe that could have imbibed it, it oc was revived; but on weighing it, he found that 2! Deplilogiſ-
ticated Airo curred to me to wcigh the calx into which the iron grains out of In} had been lost, belides the 7 ounce- ticated air.
68
had been reduccd; and I preſently found, that the nieafiires of inflammable air which had yani ned. Con-
Dephlogif- dephlogiſticated air had actually been imbibed by the ſidering all theſe circumſtances, the Doctor had now
ticated air melted iron, in the ſame manner as inflammable air no doubt tliat the two kinds of air had united and
imbibed by had been imbibed by the melted calces of metals in my fornied either fixed air or water; and with a view to
iron.
former experiments, however iniprobable ſuch an ab deterinine this point, he repeated the experiinent in a
forplion might have appeared a priori. In the firſt veſſel where the inflammable was confined by niercury,
inſtance, about twelve ounce-meaſures of dephlogiſti- both the vetiel and mercury having been pevioully
cated air had diſappeared, and the iron had gained six nade as dry as poſſible. In theſe circumſtances he bad
grains in weight. Repeating the experiment very fre. no ſooner begun to heat the iron, than the air was
quently, I always found that other quantities of iron, perceived to diminiſh, and at the ſame tiine the inſide
trcated in the ſame manner, gained limilar additions of the veſſel to become cloudy, with particles of dew
of weight, which was always very nearly that of the that covered almoſt the whole of it. Theſe particles
69
air which had diſappeared.
by degrees gathered into drops, and ran down in all
Is capable
“ Concluding from the preceding experiments, that places, excepting thoſe which were heated by the ſun-
of taking it iron, ſufficiently heated, was capable of ſaturating it beams. On collecting the water produced in this ex-
up from the ſelf with pure air from the atmoſphere, I then proceed- periment, by means of a piece of filtering paper care-
ed to melt it with the heat of a burning lens in the fully introduced to abſorb it, he found it to be as near-
ſphere.
open air, and I preſently found, that perfect iron was ly as poſible of the ſame weight with that which had
eaſily capable of being fuſed in this way, and conti been loft by the iron ; and alſo in every experiment of
nued in this fuſion a certain time, exhibiting the ap this kind, in which he attended to the circumſtance, 72
pearance of boiling or throwing our air ; whereas it he found that the quantity of inflamınable air which Quantity
was, on the contrary, imbibing air; and, when it was had diſappeared was about double that of the depilo-produced
in this man-
ſaturated, the fuſion ceaſed, and the heat of the lens giſticated air ſet looſe in the operation, ſuppoſing that
could make no farther impreſſion upon it. When this weight to have been reduced into air. Thus, at one
was the caſe, I always found that it had gained weight time, a piece of this ſlag abſorbed Sounce-ineaſures
in the proportion of 7 to 24, which is very nearly of inflammable air, while it loſt the weight of about
one-third of the original weight. The ſame was the three ounce-meaſures of dephlogiſticated air, and the
effect when I melted ſteel in the ſame circumſtances, water collected weighed two grains. Another time a
and alſo every kind of iron on which the experiment, piece of flag loſt 1.5 grains, and the water produced
could be tried. But I have reaſon to think, that withı was 1.7 grains. In a third caſe, where 64 ounce-nea-
a greater degree of heat than I could apply, the iron ſures of inflammable air were reduced to 0.92 of a mea-
might have been kept in a ſtate of fuſion ſomewhat fure, the iron had lost the weight of 3.3 ounce-nea-
longer ; and by that ineans have imbibed more than ſures of dephlogiſticated air, or nearly two grains.
even one-third of its criginal weight.
The Doctor having ſucceeded ſo well with ironi, next Expe
70
Remark-
“ There was a peculiar circumſtance attending the tried the calx of copper, or thoſe ſcales which fly off' ments with
able pheno- melting of caſt iron with a burning lens, which ren from it by hammering whilſt it is red-hot ; and found copper.
nienon at dered it impoſſible to aſcertain the addition that was water produced in the inflamniable air in the ſame
tending the made to its weight, and at the ſame time afforded an manner as when the ſcales of iron were uſed. On il-
melting of amuſing ſpectacle : for the moment that any quantity fing precipitate per ſe, he imagined at firſt that water
caft-iron. of it was melted, and gathered into a round ball, it was obtained froin this ſubſtance alſo ; but on repeat-
began to diſperſe in a thouſand directions, exhibiting ing the experiment to more advantage he found no
the appearance of a nioſt beautiful fire-work; ſome of
more water than might be ſuppoſed to have been
con
the particles flying to the diſtance of half a yard from tained as an extraneous ſubſtance either in the inflani-
the place of fuſion; and the whole was attended with mable air or in the red precipitate. With iron, how-
a conſiderable hiſſing noiſe. Some of the largeſt pie- ever, the caſe was vaſtly different. As the Doctor
ces, which had been diſperſed in this manner, I was had formerly ſatisfied himſelf that inflamınable air al-
able to collect, and having ſubjected them to the heat ways contains a portion of water, and alſo that when
of the lens, they exhibited the ſame appearance as the it has been ſome time confined by water it imbibes
larger naſs from which they had been ſcattered. more, ſo as to be increaſed in its ſpecific gravity by
( When this caſt iron was melted in the bottoin of that means, he repeated the experiment with inflam-
a deep glaſs receiver, in order to collect all the
par mable air which had not been confined by that fluid,
ticles that were diſperſed, they firinly adhered to the but was received in veiſel of dry mercury from the
glaſs, melting it fuperficially, though without making veſſelin which it had been generated, but in this caſe the
it crack, ſo that it was fill impoffible to colle& and water was produced, to appearance,as copiouſly as in the
weigh them. However, I generally found, that, not former experiment. “Iudeed (Cays he), the quantity
withſtanding the copious difperfion, what remained af- of water produced, ſo greatly exceeding the weight of
ter the experiment rather exceeded thin fell ſort of all the inflammable air, is ſufficient to prove that it
the original weight of the iron "
muſt have had foule other ſource than any conſtituent
Formation
On attempting to revive this calx of iron in infiam- part of that air, or the whole of it, together with the
mable air, a very new and unexpected appearance took water contained in it, without taking into conſidera-
from de
phlogifi- place. Having put a piece of iron ſaturated with pure tion the correſponding loſs of weicht’in the iron.
cated and air into a veſſel filled with infamınable air confined by " I muſt here obſerve, that the iron ſlag which I
inflam water, the inflanımable air diſappeared and the metal had treated in this manner, and which had thereby loft
miable air.
the
2
160
Sect. III.
E ROL
G Y.
74
Iron may
cated air as
75
ments of
Mr Caven-
water.
78
cate com-
mon air.
Dephlogiſ- the weight which it liad acquired in dephlogiſticated about two grains, though the veſſel was ſtopped in Dephlogiſ-
ticated Air. air, became perfect iron as at firſt, and was then ca ſuch a manner that no air could eſcape by the explo- ticated Air.
pable of being melted by the burning lens again; fo fion. It is alſo related, thal on repeating the experi-
that the ſame piece of iron would ſerve for tlieſe ex ment, in glaſs veſlels, the inſide of the glaſs, though
be made to periments as long as the operator ſhould chooſe. It clean and dry before, immediately became dewy;
imbibe de- was evident, therefore, than if the iron had loſt its, which confirmed an opinion he had long entertained,
phlogiſti-
phlogiſton in the preceding fution, it had acquired it that cominon air depolits its moiſture by phlogiſtica-
often as we
again from the inflammable air which it had abſorbed; tion. The experiment, however, did not ſucceed with
pleaſe.
and I do not ſee how the experinient can be accounted MirCavendiſh, at leaſt with regard to the loſs of weight;
for in any other way."
whichi never exceeded the fifth part of a grain, and
Experi As the experiments of Dr Prieſtley tend very cominonly was nothing at all. In theſe experiments
niuch to throw ſome light on the compolition of de the greateſt care was taken to obſerve with accuracy
phlogiſticated air, we ſhall here give an account of the diminution of air by the exploſion, and quality of
diſh, &c. on ſome others inade by Mr Cavendiſh, as well as thoſe the remainder ; from which it appeared, that- 423 mea-
of Dr Prieſtley and the French cheniiſs, upon water: fures of inflammable air were nearly ſufficient to phlo-
From all which it is concluded by the moſt celebrated giſticate icoo of common air, and that the bulk of
Quantity of
philoſophers and chemiſts, Thai dephlogiſticated air air remaining after the explotion is very little more infiamma-
is one of the conſtituent and elementary parts of water, than four-fifths of the common air employed ; whence ble air ne-
inflammable air being the other ; though the opinion he conclusies, that " when they are mixed in this pro- ceffary to
is ſtill conteſted by ſome foreign chemiſts.
portiol, almoſt all the inflammálile, and about one-fifth phlogiſti-
Phil. Tranh: * As there ſeemed great reaſon,” ſays Mr Caven- of the common air, loſe their elaſticity, and are con-
Ixxiv. 125. diſh, ss to think, from Dr Prieſtley's experiments, that denſed into the dew which lines the glaſs.
the nitrous and yitriolic acids were convertible into de To examine more exačily the nature of this dew,
phlogiſticated air, 1 tried whether the dephlogiſticated 500,000 grain-meaſures of inflammable air were burnt
part of common air might not be converted into nitrous with about 24 times the quantity of common air, and
or vitriolic acid.” For this purpoſe he impregnated the burnt air was made to paſs through a glaſs cylinder
ſome milk of lime with the fumes of burning ſulphur, eight feet long and three-fourths of an inch in diame.
by burning 122 grains of ſulphur in a large glaſs re ter, in order to depoſit the dew. The two airs were
ceiver, in which ſome lac calcis was included. No conveyed lowly into this cylinder by ſeparate copper
nitrous ſalt, nor any thing beſides ſelenite, was pro- pipes, patling through a braſs plate which ſtopped up
duced in the proceſs. Neither was any nitrous acid one endofthe cylinder; and as neither inflammable nor
produced by phlogiſticaling common air with liver of common air can burn by themſelves, there was no dan-
ſulphur, or by treating dephlogiſticated air in the ſame ger of the flame ſpreading to the niagazines from which
The liver of ſulphur uſed in theſe experi- they were conveyed. Each of theſe magazines con-
ments was made with lime; and the only obfervation fifted of a large tin veſel inverted into another juſt big
made on this occalion was, that the ſelenite produced enough to receive it. Theinner veſſel communicated
was much more ſoluble in water than when made with with the copper pipe, and the air was forced out of it
26 dephogiſticated vitriolic acid.
by pouring water into the outer veſſel: and in order
Whether To try whether any vitriolic acid was produced by that the quantity of common air cxpelled ſhould be
the phlo- the phlogiſtication of air, 50 ounces of diſtiled water 2' times that of the inflammable air, the water was
giſtication were impregnated with the
fumes produced on mixing let into the outer veſels by two holes in the bottom of
52 ounce-meaſures of nitrous air with a quantity of the ſame tin pan ; the whole which conveyed the water
into thai vefſel in which the common air was confined
triolic acid. common air fufficient to decompound it.
done by filling a bottle with ſome of this water, and being 24 times as big as the other. In trying the ex-
inverting it into a baſon of the ſame; and then by a fy- periments, the magazines being firſt filled with their
phon, letting in as much nitrous air as filled it halffull; reſpective airs, the glaſs cyliuder was taken off, and
after which, common air was added lowly by the fanie water let by the two holes into the outer veſſels, till
fyphon, till the nitrous vir was decompounded. When the airs began to iſſue from the ends of the copper
this was done, the diſtilled water was further impreg- pipes ; they were then fer on fire by a candle, and the
nated in the ſame manner till the whole quantity of cylinder pit on again in its place. By this means up-
nitrous air was employed. The impregnated water wards of 135 grains of water were left in the cylinder,
was ſentibly acid to the taſe; and on dilillation yield- which had no taſte nor ſmell, and which left no per-
ed firſt phlogillicated nitrous acid, then water, and ceptible ſediment on being evaporated to dryneſs ; nei-
laſtly a very acid liquor conſiſting of dephlogiſticated ther did it yield any pungent ſmell during the evapo-
nitrous acid. By ſaturation with falt of tartar, 87 ration ; in ſhort, it ſeemed
pure waier. In one of his
grains of vitre, without any mixture of vitriolated tar-
experiments a little footy matter was perceived, bitir
tar, or other vitriolic ſalt, were obtained.
was found to proceed from the luting. On repeating
Nitrous au
Theſe experiments having proved unſucceſsful, Mr the experiment with dephlogiſticateit, inſtead of con-
cid produ- Cavendiſh next proceeded to try the effects of explo inon air, the produce was njirous acid.
ced from ding dephlogiſticated and in Hamnable air together ili The following concluſion is drawn by Mr Cavendiſh
dephlo, ir
cloſe veſſels. Ic begins with relating an experiment from all theſe experiments : “ There ſeem two ways
of Dr Pr eftley ; in whi' h. it was ſaid that on firing Ly which the production of the nitrous acid, in the
a mixture of common and inílanimable air by electri manner above mentioned, may be explained: firſt, by
city, in a cloſe copper veſſel holding about three pints, ſuppoling that dephlogiſticated air contains a little ni-
a loſs of weight was always perceived, on an average trous acid, which entersinto it as one of the component
parts ;
111aniier.
of air
pro-
duces vi-
This was
77
ticated and
in flanima-
blc air.
I
Seit. IIT.
A E ROL O GY.
161
tients.
Hephlogif- parts; and that this acid, when the inflammable air is when red hot, and becomes, as I have already obſcrv. Dephlogif-
ticated Air. in ſufficient proportion, unites to the phlogiſton, and is ed, the ſame ſubſtance in all reſpects, it is evident that ticated Air
túrned into phlogiſticated air, but does not when the this air or water, as exiſting in the iron, is the very
Conclufi- inflamınable air is in too ſmall proportion : and, ſecond- faine thing; and this can hardly be explained but on
ons from ly, by ſuppoſing that there is no nitrous acid mixed the fuppolition that water confiſts of two kinds of air,
theſe expe- with or entering into the compolition of dephlogiſti- viz. inflammable and dephlogiſticated.”
cated air; but that, when the air is in ſufficient pro Of theſe proceſſes he gives the following explana-
portion, part of the dephlogiſticated air with which it is tion: “When iron is heated in dephlogiſticated air,
dcbaſed is, by the ſtrong affinity of phlogiſton to de we may ſuppoſe that, though part of its phlogiſtion
phlogiſticated air, deprived of its phlogiſton, and turn- eſcapes, to enter into the compoſition of the ſmall quan-
ed into nitrous acid; whereas, when the dephlogiſti- tity of fixed air which is then procured, yet enough re-
cated air is not more than ſufficient to conſume the in mains to form water with the dephlogiſticated air which
flammable air, none then remains to deprive the phlo- it has imbibed, ſo that this calx conſiſts of the inti-
giſticated air of its phlogiſton, and turn it into acid. mate union of the pure earth of iron and of water;
If the latter explanation be true, I think we muſt al and therefore, when the ſame calx, thus faturated with
low that dephlogiſticated air is in reality nothing but water, is expoſed to heat in inžiammable air, this air
dephlogiſticated water, or water deprived of its phlo enters into it, deſtroys the attraction between the wa-
giſton; or, in other words, that water conſiſts of de ter and the earth, and revives the iron, while the wa-
phlogiſticated air united to phlogiſton. On the other ter is expelled in its proper form.
hand, if the former explanation be true, we muſt ſup The whole of the Doctor's opinions on the compo-
poſe, that dephlogiſticated air conſiſts of water united nent parts of this kind of air, however, are ſummed
up
to a little nitrous acid, and deprived of its phlogiſton; in the following ſentence in his Obfervations relating to Obferv.and
but ſtill the nitrous acid in it muſt only make a very Theory ." The only kind of air that is now thought Exper. vi.
ſmall part of the whole, as it is found that the phlo to be properly elementary, and to conſiſt of a ſimple 40%.
giſticated air into which it is converted is very fm:ll ſubſtance, is dephlogiſticated air ; with the addition at
in compariſon of the dephlogiſticated air. I think the leaſt of the principle of leat,concerningwhich we know
fecond of theſe explanations ſeems much the more like very little ; and as it is not probable that this adds any
ly; as it was found that the acid in the condenſed li- thing to the weight of bodies, it can hardly be called
quor was of the nitrous kind, not only when the de. an element in their compoſition. Dephlogiſticated air
phlogiſticated air was prepared from nitrous acid, but appears to be one of the elements of water, of fixed
when procured from plants or turbith mineral. Ano air, of all the acids, and many other ſubſtances, which,
ther ſtrong argument in favour of this opinion is, that till lately, have been thought to be ſimple.'
82
dephlogiſticated air yields no nitrous acid when phlo Theexperiments of the French philoſophers were of Experi-
giíticated by liver of ſulphur; for if this air contains the ſame nature with thoſe of Mr Cavendiſh, but con- ments of
nitrous acid, and yields it when phlogiſticated by ex ducted on a larger ſcale. The inference drawn from the French
plofion with inflammable air, it is very extraordinary them was the lane with that already mentioned, viz.
philofu-
phers.
that it ſhould not do ſo by other means, But what that dephlogiſticated and inflammable air in all caſes
forms a ſtronger, and, I think, almoſt deciſive argu are the two conſtituent parts of water. This opinion
ment in favour of this explanation, is, that when the is adopted by Mr. Kirwan in his Treatiſe on PHogiſt017.
dephlogiſticated air is very pure, the condenſed liquor “The experiments of Mr Cavendiſh, and of Mr Mr Kir-
is made much more ſtrongly acid by mixing the air to Monge,” ſays he," appear to me to leave no room to
wan's con-
cluſions
be exploded with a little phlogiſticated air.
doubt, that when very pure dephlogiſticated and in-
from them,
Dr Prieſt-
The experiments of Dr Prieſley alluded to were fiammable air are inflamed, the product is mere wa-
ley's expe- thoſe in which inflammable air was ſuppoſed by Mr ter (A); for when theſe airs are employed in the pro-
riments,
Lavoiſier to be procured from water by paſſing its per proportion, only 0,02 of the mixture of both airs
fteain through ret-hot iron tubes. It was ſoon diſco-
It was ſoon difco- retains its aërial form. Now it is impoſſible to ſuppoſe
vered, however, by Dr Prieſtley, that this inflammable that all the water obtained pre-exiſted in theſe airs;
air did not proceed from the water, but from the iron of that is, that 49 parts in 50 were mere water.
84
the tube; and might beobtained by tranſmitting aqueous Notwithſtanding theſe poſitive concluſions, howy- The fore-
vapour through charcoal or iron placed in tubes of cop- ever, by ſome of the moſt reſpectable names in Eng- going theo-
per, glaſs, or earthen ware, niade red-hot, but not land, the evidences adduced have been unſatisfac-ries not al-
ihrough theſe tubes by themſelves. In this caſe, the tory to ſome French chemills; trho maintain, that
together
fatisfacto
loſs of the water employed exceeded that of the inflam- Meſſrs Cavendiſh, Pricſtley, and Kirtan, are totally
mable air produced in the proportion of 1.3 to 2; and miſtaken with regard to the produciion of rater from
the iron which had thus abſorbed the water, appeared dephlogiſticated and inflammable air; contending, that
exactly ſimilar to that which had been burned in de-º the water obtained had previou:'y exiſted in the air, and
81 phlogiſticated air in the manner already related. His was not originally produced in the operation. The
Hisepinion concluſions from thence are theſe: “ Since iron gains fact, indeed, becoinės ſomewhat dubious from ſome ex-
concerning the ſame addition of weight by being melted in de- periments related by Dr Prieſley himſelf, and of
phlogiſticated air, and alſo by the addition of water which we shall now proceed to give an account.
VOL.I.
X
One
83
80
гу.
the compe-
fition of
water.
(A) The experiments of Mr Cavendiſh ſhow that nitrous acid is the produc in this caſe. He tales notice of
the difference between the reſult of the French experiments and his, but aſcribes it to their fing intamma-
ble air prepared from charcoal: His was from zinc.
162
Sect. III.
A E R o L o G
0 GY.
meilts.
86
Inconcen
Dephlogiſ. Onc conlequence of the hypotheſis in queſtion is evi- of air I decompoſed, I had no doubt of being able to Dephlogif-
ticated Air. dent, that if water really be produced by the deflagra- aſcertain the proportion that the water and air bore to ticated Air.
tion of either dephlogiſticatedor common air with in each other. With this view a mixture was made of a
fiammable air, the quantity of liquid obtained ought to large quantity of air, one-third dephlogiſticated and
85
increaſe in proportion to the quantity of the two airs iwo thirds in Hammable, from iron and oil of vitriol.-
arifing the conſumed, and that without any limitation. This, But though I had a fenfible quantity of water at the
fome of Dr however, is not the caſe, as Dr.Prieſtley has obſerved. firſt exploſion (in each of which between four and five
Prieſtley's He had ſucceeded indeed with ſcales of iron and cop- ounce-meaſures of the mixture of air were uſed), I was
experi per, as has already been related; and in the experiment ſurpriſed to perceive no very ſenſible increaſe of the
with the latter, the production of water was ſo copious, quantity of water on repeating the exploſions. Having
that when only 34 ounce-meaſures of air were abſorb- therefore expended 48 ounce-mealures of the mixture,
ed, the water ſtood in drops on the inſide of the veſſel, the proceſs was diſcontinued; and, collecting the wa-
and ſome of theſe ran down it. Water was alſo pro ter with all the care that I could, I found no more
cured by firing dephlogiſticated and inflammable air than three grains, when there ought to have been
from iron by the electric ſpark in a cloſe veſſel, an ex-
eleven.
periment ſimilar to thoſe made by Mr Lavoiſier at Pa “ In this proceſs the inſide of the veſſel was always
ris. In his firſt experiment he put 2.75 ounce-mea very black after each exploſion; and when I poured in
fures of a mixture of air, of which one-third was de the mercury after the exploſion, though there was no-
phlogiſticated and two-thirds inflammable air from thing viſible in the air within the vetfel, there iſſued
iron, in a cloſe veſſel, and, after the exploſion, found in froin the mouth of it a denſe vapour. This was the
it one grain of inoiſture ; but on repeating the experi- caſe, though I waited ſo long as two minutes after any lible va-
ment with half as niuch dephlogiſticated as inflammable exploſion, before I proceeded to put in more mercury pour ari-
air, he could perceive no ſign of moiſture. The greateſt in order to make another; which, iſ the vapour had fing from
difficulty, however, which he ſays he ever met with re been ſteam, would have been time more than ſuficient water.
ſpecting the preceding theory, aroſe from his never ha to permit it to condenſe into water. I even perceived
ving been able to procure any water when he revived this vapour when I had a quantity of water in the vef-
red precipitate in inflammable air, or at leaſt no more ſel, and the exploſion was conſequently made over it,
than might have been ſuppoſed to be contained in the as well as in contact with the ſides of the veſſel which
inflammable air as an extraneous ſubſtance.
were wetted with it; fo that, as this vapour had paſ-
In order to make the experiment with the ſcales of ſed through the whole body of water when the veſſel
iron and that with the red pecipitate as much alike was inverted, it is probable that it muſt liave conſiſted
as poſſible, and compare them both to the greateſt ad- of ſomething elſe than mere water. But I was never
vantage, he made them one immediately after the other able to collect any quantity of it, though it inuſt have
with every circumſtance as nearly the ſame he could. been ſomething produced by the union of the two kinds
Theinflammable air was the ſame in both experiments, of air.
and both the ſcales of iron and red precipitate were In order to collect a qnantity of this vapour, he con-
made as dry as poſſible. They were heated in veſſels trived an apparatus, which, by diffuſing it through
of the fame ſize and form, and equally confined by dry thin glaſs veſſel, he ſuppoſed would condenſe all the
mercury: and yet with the former,water was produced contents whether fiuid or ſolid; but after repeating
as copiouſly as before, viz. running down the inſide of the experiment as carefully as poſſible, by taking 20
the veſſel in drops, when only four ounce-meaſures of exploſions, and repeating the whole ſeveral times o-
inflammable air were abſorbed ; but though he heated ver, he could find nothing in the veſſel beſides a ſmall
the red precipitate till eight ounce-meaſures of thein- quantity of water, which, added to that in the ſtrong
flammable air were abſorbed,and only 0.75 of an ounce veſſel, came far ſhort of the weight of the air that
meaſure remained, there was hardly any ſenſible quan- was decompoſed.
tity of water produced, “certainly,” ſays he, (o not - All the conjecture,” ſay he,“ that I can advance, Prieffley's
one-tenth of what appeared in the experiment with the in order to explain this phenomenon is, that ſince foot
conjecture
ſcales of iron. In this experiment there can be no yields pure air, part of the foot is formed by the union concerning
doubt but that the dephlogiſticated air produced from of the dephlogiſticated air in the atmoſphere, and the this vapour.
the red precipitate mixed with the inflammable air in inflammable air of the fuel : but ſmoke, which contains
the veſſel ; and as no water equal to the weight of the much foot, is ſoon diſperſed, and becomes inviſible in
two kinds of air was produced, they muſt have formed the open air. Such, therefore, may be the caſe here.
ſome more folid ſubſtance, which in the finall quantities The foot formed by the union of the two kinds of air,
I was obliged to uſe, could not be found.
may be diffuſed through the air, in the veſſel in which
« The difficulty, with reſpect to what becomes of they are exploded, and be carried inviſibly into the
the two kinds of air, was nor leſſened by the attempts common atmoſphere ; which may account for my not
which I made to collect all that I could fronı repeated being able to collect any quantity of it in this appa-
decompoſitions of inflammable and dephlogiſticated air ratus.'
in a cloſe veſſel. As I had produced water in this pro Not diſcouraged by this bad ſucceſs, the Doctor at. Unfucceſs-
ceſs when no more than a ſingle exploſion was made attempted to collect this volatile matter by means of a ſulattempts
a time, I thought that by continuing to make explo. quantity of water incumbent upon the mercury in the to collect it,
ſions in the ſame veſſel, the water would not fail to ac- ftrong glaſs veſſel in which the exploſions were made,
cumulate till any quantity might be collected ; and I though he had found that part of it could eſcape
intended to have collected a conſiderable part of an through the water. He decompoſed a great quantity of
And as I would know exaâly what quantity the two kinds of air in theſe circumſtances; and pre-
fently
87
88
ز
Oulnlce.
1
Sect. IV
A E RO L OG Y.
163
Too great
Water in
conſider-
ed from de-
air
Dephlogif- ſently found that the water becaine very cloudy, and its bulk, inſteadof enlarging it, which might have bcen Phlogiſti-
ticated Air, was at length filled with a blackiſh matter. This he inore naturally expected from the niixture of any va- cated Air.
collected, and found that it remained perfectly black pour whatever. it was alſo ſuppoſed by ſome, that the
upon the earthen veſſel in which the water containing phlogiſon was not only entirely devoid of gravity, but
it was evaporated; which would not have been the that it was a principle of poſitive levity; ſo that the ab-
caſe if the blackih matter in the water had been that folute weightof bodies was diminiſhed by an union with
powder of mercury which is produced by agitating it it, and augmented when it was expelled, though their
in pure water : For that black maſs always became ſpecific gravity was diminiſhed. Various otherſurpriſing
white running mercury the moment the water was e-
90
properties were attributed to phlogiſton : ſuch as that
vaporated from it. If a ſufficient quantity of this mat, of giving elaſticity to air, of conſtituting fame by a
powers at
ter could have been procured, he could have ſatisfied chemical combination with air, &c. Its emiſſion into the tributed ter
89
hiinſelf whether it was foot or not.
atmoſphere was ſuppoſed to be alway as attended with phlogiſtoa.
“That water in great quantities (ſays), is ſome a diminution of air; and therefore, all proceſſes in
times produced from burning inflammable and dephlo- which air was diminiſhed and becanie noxious, ſuch as
able quan, giſticated air,is evident from the experiments of Meſſrs that by liver of ſulphur, a mixture of iron filings and
Cavendiſh and Lavoilier. I have alſo frequently collect- brimſtone, &c. were called phlogiſtic proceſſes. Refpi-
phlogiſtica ed conliderable quantities of water in this way, though ration of animals was taken into the ſame account ; but
teil and in- never quite ſo much as the weight of the two kinds of neither in this, nor in combuſtion, was it allowed that
flammable air decompoſed. My apparatus for this purpoſe was the any kind of vital ſpirit was abſorbed by the blood, or
following : Into the mouth of a large glaſs balloon, I ſeparated from the air by the burning body. On the
See Plate introduced a tube, from the orifice of which there contrary, it was ſtrenuouſly argued, that all this was
X.fig.3. continually iſſued inflammable air from a veſſel con- performed by the
emiſion of phlogiſton from the lungs
taining iron and oil of vitriol. This being lighted,
This being lighted, or the inflamed ſubſtance, which depraved the air, and
continued to burn like a candle. Preſently after the
Preſently after the diminiſhed it in bulk; and as all air was ſuppoſed to
lighting of it, the inſide of the balloon always became contain phlogiſton, it was likewiſe imagined, that in all
cloudy, and the moiſture foon gathered in drops, and caſes where air was mended, as by the growing of ve-
ſettled in the lower part of the balloon To catch getables, oragitation in water, the emendation was ac-
what might iſſue in the form of vapour, in the cur compliſhed, not by the emiſſion of any thing into the
rent of air through the balloon, I placed the glaſs tube atmoſphere, but by the mere abſorption of phlogiſton.
b, in which I always found fonie water condenſed. In other reſpects this ſubſtance was thought to be an
It is very poſſible, however, that in both theſe modes exceedingly powerful principle in nature; the light of
of experinenting, the water may be converted into the ſun itſelfand the electric fluid being ſaid to be modi-
a kind of vapour, which is very different froin ſteam, fications of it, the different kinds of airs to be phlogo
and capable of being conveyed a great way through ſtic vapours, &c.; ſo that the whole ſyſtem of nature
air, or even water, without condenſation along with ſeemed ready to be abſorbed by it at once.
the air with which it is mixed ; and on this account The formidable powers of this principle were firſt Docirine of
it may not be poſſible, in either of theſe modes checked by the diſcoveries of Mr Lavoiſier, though the phlogiſton
of experimenting, to collect all the water into which latter erred equally on the contrary fide ; and not con-
oppoſed by
the two kinds of air may be converted. The nature tent with keeping the phlogiſtic principle within due the foreign
of this kind of vapour into which water may be chan- bounds, would needs deny its exiſtence altogether *.
ged, and which is not readily condenſed by cold, is very In a treatiſe published in the year 1782, he firſt im- gifer
little underſtood, but well deſerves the attention of phi- pugns Dr Prieſtley's theory of reſpiration, and denies
loſophers.
that the reſpiration of animals has the property of
si That the water collected in the balloon comes phlogiſticating air in a manner ſimilar to what is effect-
from the decompoſition of the air, and not from the ed by the calcination of metals and many other che-
freſh air circulating through it, was evident from pla- mical proceſſes; and that it ceaſes not be reſpirable till
cing balls of hot iron in the place of the flame, and the inſtant when it becomes ſurcharged, or at leaſt fa-
finding that, though the balloon was as niuch lieated turated, with phlogiſton."
by them as by the Hame of the burning of the inflam In order to diſprove this aſſertion, he introduced Mr Levoi-
nable air, and conſequently there muſt have been the four ounces of mercury to 50 cubic inches of common fier's expe-
ſame current of the external air through it, no moi. air, propoſing to calcine the metal by keeping it for 12 riments on
ſture was found in the balloon."
days in a heat almoſt equal to that which is neceſſary calcination
to inake it boil. After the expiration of the appoint-of metals
Sect. IV. Of Phlogiſticated Air.
ed time, 45 grains of precipitate per fe were formed, and reſpi.
ration.
and the air in the vetiel was diminiſhed by about th
89
The univerſal prejudice in favour of the exiſtence of its volume. In this ſtate it did not precipitate lime
Phlogiſti-
cation of air of that principal named Phlogiſton, firſt ſuggeſted by water, but inſtantly extinguiſhed candles, and killed
explained. Stahl, gave riſe, on the firſt appearance of Dr Prieſt- animals inmerſed in il; no longer affording any red
ley's diſcoveries, to a theory, concerning the action vapours, or being diminiſhed by mixture with nitrous
of this ſubſtance upon air and other bodies. As
As air: On diililling ihe precipitate produced, about as
it had been obſerved, that air was diminished, in much dephlogiſticated air was obtained as had been
fome caſes at leaſt, by burning, univerſally by re left by the common air in the calcinationl ; and by re-
ſpiration, and by ſome other proceſſes, it was ima- combining t'is with the nosions air left in the veſſel,
gined that phlogiſton was a body of ſuch a ſingular na- heri con pored a fluidnearly of the ſame goodneſs with
Ture, that when mixed with air, it always diminiſhed common air. ilence he draws the following conclui-
fion:
91
* See phlo-
>>
2
1
164
A È R o L O GY.
Sect. IV.
cute air.
93
cal air.
94
97
on air.
Obferv. vi.
Phlogiſti- fions: 1. Thats ells of the air web:eaihe are mephitic, indeed, either thc one or the other may be cxtracted Phlogiſti-
or incapable uſ ſupporting the reſpiration of animals, at pleaſure by employing the proper methods. The câted dir.
or the intamination and combuſtion of bodies. 2. That ſtrongeſt arguments in lavour of the tranſmutation of
Compofi. thc furplus, or only 4th of the volume of atmoſpherical plılogiſticated air into that of a pure, kind, were drawn
tion of at- air, isrcfpirable. 3. Thatin the calcination of mercury, from the purification of noxious air by vegetation, and
moſpheri- this metallic fubftance abſorbs the ſalubrious part, lea- by agita on in water. In the forinor calc, however,
ving only the mephitic portion of the air. 4. That by it has been obſerved in the laſt ſcéiion, that this fcuina
reuniting theſe iwo portions which had been ſeparated, ing purification is no other than an exchange of the
we can recompound air timilarto that of the atmoſphere. one air for the other ; the vegetables abſorbing the
To determine the efects of reſpiration upon air, a phlogiſi icated, and cnitting the aephlogit.icated air in
Effects of
reſpiration live ſparrow was placed under a glaſs receiver, filled its ſtcad. With reſpect to the agitation in water, the
with comnion air and inverted in inercury, coulaining matter remained more dubious ; and it is only in the How air is
31 cubic inches. In a quarter of an hour it bccama cl laſt volume of Dr Prieilley's treatiſe that we have any purified hy
gitated, and in 55 minutes dicd convulſed. Notwith- account of this being accomplished by an cinnon of agita'ion int
itanding the heat of the animal, which neceiſarily, at purerair from the water." in the infancy of my ex- water
Exper. and
firſt, rariîed the air in the receiver, there was a fell- periments.” ſays he, “I concluded, that all kinds of
liblé diminution of its bulk; which, at the end of 15 air were brought by agitation to the ſame ſiate; the
385
minutes, amounted to one-fortieth : but, inſtead of pureſt air being partially phlogiſticated, and air com-
increaſing afierwards, the diminution became fome- pletely phlogiſticated being thereby made purer ; in-
th ing leis in about half an hour ; and when the animal flammable air alſo loting its inflammability, and all of
was dead, and the air in the receiver had recovered the them brought into ſuch a ſtate as that a candle would
temperature of the room where the experiment was juſt go out in then. This inference I inade from all
made, the diminution did not appear to exceed one the kinds of air with which I was then acquainted, and
fixteenth part.-This air which had been reſpired by which did not require to be confined by mercury, bcing
the ſparrow, though in many reſpects ſimilar to that in brought to that ſtale by agitation in a trough of wa-
which the niercury had been calcined, differed from ter, the ſurface of which was expoſed to the open air ;
it in this reſpect, that it precipitated lime-water, and, never imagining that when the air in my jar was fepa-
by introducing cauſi ic fixed alkali to it, was reduced rated from the common air by a body of water, genc.
óne-lixth in bulk by the abſorption of fixed air ; after rally about twelve inches in depth (adding that with-
which it appeared exactly the ſame with that produced in to that without the jar), they could have any influ-
by the calcination of mercury or other metals ; and at ence on each other. I have, however, been long con-
moſpherical air was recompoſed by mixing this with vinced, that, improbable as it then appeared to me,
pure dephlogiſticated air in the proportions already this is actually the caſe."
mentioned.
This remarkable fact is illuſtrated by the following Water per-
Sheele's That common air is compounded of two kinds of experiments : 1. About three ounce-meaſures of air, vious to air,
experi elaſtic fluids, Mr Scheele has proved by the following phlogiſticated by nitrous air, was agitated for a quar. and purifies
experiment: “I diſolved ( ſays he ) one ounce of al ter of an hour in a veſſel containing 20 ounces of wa- it in paſſing
kaline liver of ſulphur in eightounces of water ; of this ter, which had been boiled for ſeveral hours, and which through.
folution I poured four ounces into an empty bottle, was ſtill very warm. By this proceſs it became dimi-
whoſe capacity was 24 ounces, and worked it well ; niſhed one-listh, and conſiderably improved in qua-
then I turned ile bottle, immerſed its neck into a ſmall lity. The next day the remainder was agitated for
veſſel with water, and kept it in this polition a fort another quarter of an hour, and the water which
night. The ſolution had partly loſt its red colour, and had been boiled at the ſame time, when it was alſo
ſome fulphur had been precipitated from it during this diminiſhed in quantity and improved in quality.
tiine. After this I put the bottle in the ſame polition 2. An equal quantity of air, phlogiſticated by means
ir a larger veſſel with water, keeping the mouth and of iron-filings and brimſtone, being agitated for 20
neck under water, and the bottom of the bottle above minutes, was diminished one-ſeventh, and improved
water, and thus I drew the cork under water, which ſo far that a candle would burn in it. 3. After ex-
inmediately ruſhed with violence into the bottle. On pelling all the air he could from a quantity of water
examining the quantity of water in the botule, it was by boiling, he put to it, in ſeparate phials, air that
found, that during this fortnight, fix parts out of 20 had been phlogiſticated with iron-filingsandbrimſtone,
of air were loft.” On repeating the experiment with as well as that which the heat had expelled, leaving
the ſame materials, and in the ſame bottle, only four them with their mouths in water, and agitating theni
parts out of 20 were loſt by ſtanding a week, and no occaſionally. On examining the phials in about two
96
more than ſix after four months.
months, lie found both the air that was confined by
Compofi From theſe experiments, and many others ſimilar, water and that which had been expelled by heat com-
tion of at- it appears that the doctrine of phlogilton had been car- pletely phlogiſticated. 4. That water does imbibe the
moſpheric ried too far by Dr Prieſtley and other Britiſh philofo- purer partof the atmoſphere,inpreference to that which
phers, and that the air conſiſts of two kinds of Auids is impure, is evident, he ſays, from any examination of
monſtrated,
one perfectly falutary, and friendly in the higheſt de- it : For if the water be clear, and free from any thing
gree to animal life; the other altogether unfit for it. that is putreſcent, the air expelled from it by heat is ge-
Theſe two appear incapable of being converted direct. nerally of the ſtandard of I ; whereas that of the atmo-
ly into one another by any proceſs, natural or artifici- ſphere, when the nitrous air is the pureſt, is about 1.2.
al : for though both are deſtructible, yet they are Phlogiſticated air is equally inviſible with common
Properties
always converted into other ſubſtances ; from which air, and ſomething more elaſtic. Mr Kirwan pro- of phlogiſti-
cured cated air.
98
95
Hients.
cal air de.
99
Sect. IV,
A E R o L o G Y.
165
1
ro
Nitrous
this may
Phlogiſti- cured fomc perfectly phlogiſticated, ſo that it was not made fmaller for that purpoſe, bcing introduced into Phlogiſti-
cated Air. in the lead diminiſhed by nitrous air, from a mixture the end of the bent tube Ni, lhe air, on removing ille cated lir
of iron-filings and brimſtone. Having dried it by finger from C, was forced into that tube by the pref-
frequently introducing dry filtering Paper under thejar ſure of the quicklilver in the lcg BC. Thus he was
that contained it, he found its weight to be to that of enabled to introduce any quantity he pleaſed of a..y
the common air as 985 to 1000, the barometer ſtand kind of air into the tube M; and by the ſame inearis it
ing at 30.46 and the therinometer ar 60°. The other was in his power to let up any quantity of ſoap-icy, or
properties of it are, that it is extremely fatal to ani other liquor which he wanted to be in contacī with it.
mal life, and friendly to that of vegetables, inſonuch In one cafe, however, in whiclı he wilied to introduce
thatit is now generally believed to be the true and proper air into the tubes many times in the ſame experiment,
nouriſhment of the latter. It ſeems to exiſt originally, in he made uſe of the apparatus repreſented fig. 6. co!l-
very large quantity, in our atmoſphere. It may be fiſting of a tube AB, of a ſmaller bore, a ball C and
feparated from the common maſs of air by combuſtion, a tule DE of a larger bore. This apparatus was firſt
by reſpiration, by putrefaction, and in ſhort by every filled with quickliver ; and then the ball C and the
fpecies of phlogiſtic proceſs; neither is there any other tube A B were filled with air, by introducing the end
fpecies of air but what may be converted into this by A under a glaſs iuverted into water, which contained
means of fire, dephlogiſticated air alone excepted. the proper kind of air, and draving out the quick-
Phlogiſticated air is now generally believed to be a ſilver from the leg ED by a ſyphon. A ter being thus
acid procu- combinacion of the nitrous acid with phlogiſton; and furniſhed with air, the apparalus was weighed, and the
red from that, in its gradual progreſs towards this, which is its end A introduced into one end of the tube M, and
phlogiſti- ultimate ſtage, it firſt aſſumes the character of phlo- kept there during the experiment; the way of forcing
cated air.
giſticated nitrous acid; then of nitrous air, in which it air out of this apparatus inio the tube being by thiuſ-
readily parts with its phlogiſton to the atmoſphere, or ing down the tube ED, a wooden cylinder of ſuch a
rather to the dephlogiſticated part of it; and laſtly, it fize as almoſt to fill up the whole bore, and by occa-
becomes phlogiſticated air, in which theunion betwixt fionally pouring quickſilver into the ſame tube, to ſup-
the principles is ſo ſtrong, that it cannot be broken by ply the place of that puſhed into the ball c. After
ſimple expoſure to dephlogiſticated air without heat; the experiment was finihed the apparatus was weigh-
though the experiments of Mr Cavendith ſhow, that ed again, which ſhowed exa:ily how much air had been
be done by means of the electric fpark, which forced into the tube M during the whole experiment;
produces the moſt violent heat we can imagine. it being equal in bulk to a quantity of quichulver,
It had been frequently obſerved, that common at whole weight was equal to the increaſe of weight of
moſpherical air was always diminiſhed by taking the the apparatus. The bore of the tube M, afed in ihela
electricfpark in it; and this diminution was ſuppoſed to experiments, was about the tenth of an inch in dia-
be occaſioned by the phlogiſtication of the air, and ſepa- meter; and the length of the column of air occupying
ration of its fixed part; in conſequence of which it the upper part of the tube was in general from ths
was urged, that lime-water is precipitated by taking to 1 inches. In order to force an electrical ſpark
the electric fpark over it in a ſmall quantity of air. through the tube M, it was neceſſary to place an in-
Mr Cavendiſh, however, who has carefully examined ſulated ball at ſuch a diſtance from the conductor as to
Mr Caven- this ſubject, denies that any fixed air is produced in receive a ſpark from it, and to make a communication
diſh's this manner ; and by a ſet of very curious experiments, between that ball and the quickſilver in one of the
riments on publiſhed in the 75th volume of the Philoſophical glaſſes, while the quickſilver in the other glaſs com-
the produc- Tranſactions, has clearly ſhown that nitrous acid, and inunicated with the ground.
treus acid, not fixed air, is the product of this operation.
When the electric ſpark was made to paſs through
The apparatus uſed in theſe experiments, was that common air included between ſhort columns of a folu-
repreſented Plate X. fig. 4. and conſiſts only of a tion of litmus, the ſolution acquired a red colour, and
crooked glaſs tube, whoſe ends are plunged into quick- the air was diminiſhed, as had been obſerved by Dr
ſilver contained in two glaſſes, in the middle part of Prieſtley, When lime-water was uſed inſtead of the
which the air is confined betwist the two portions of ſolution of liimus, and the ſpark was continued till the
quickſilver. The air was introduced by means of a air could be no further diininished; but not the ſmalleſt
ſmaller tube, fig. 5. the tube M of the foriner fi- cloud could be perceived in the water, though the air was
gure being filled with quicktilver,the bent end of which reduced to two thirds of its original bulk; which is a
was introduced into a jar DLF, filled with the pro- greater diminution than it could have ſuffered by any
per kind of air, and inverted in water. The end C phlogiſtic proceſs, that being little more than one-fifth
being ſtopped by the finger, the quickſilver was thus of the whole. The experiment being repeated with
prevented froin falling out, let the tube be placed in impure dephlogiſticated air, a great diminution took
what poſition it would, until this preſſure was reinoved. place, but without any cloud in the lime-water. Nei-
Upon introducing the crooked tube into the jar in the ther tras any cloud produced when fixed air prislet up
poſition repreſenied in the figure, and removing the into it; bure, on the addition of a little cauitic volatile
finger from the orifice at C, the quicklilver would de- alkali, a brown l. ciment immediately appeared.
fcend; and by ſtopping this orifice again, any q121 It being thus erident that t'ie lime was ſiturated by
tity of the fluid may be allowed to run out, and the ſome acid produced in the operatioa, ihe experiment
empty ſpace of the tube will be filled with the air ie-
was repeated with ſoap-leys to diſcover the nature of
fired. Having thus got the proper quantity of air in it. A previous experiment had been made in order to
to the tube ABC, it was held with the end C upper- know what degree of purity the air onght to be of to
moſt, and ſtopped with the finger, and the end A, produce the greatest diminution; and thus it was
found,
IOI
expe.
160
A E R o L O GY.
Sect. IV.
IO2
different
acii.
103
P’hlogiſti- found, that when good dephlogiſticated air was uſed, quantity of nitre produced was the ſame that would Phlogiſti-
cated Air. the diminution was b'll finall; where perfectly phlo- have been obtained from the ſoap-leys, had thcy been cated Air.
gillicated air was inade uſe of, no ſenſible diminution ſaturated with nitrous acid; which ſhows, that the
Propor-
took place, but when fivc paris of pure dephlogiſtica- production of the nitre was not owing to any decom-
tions of the ted air were nixed with three of common air, almoſt poſition of the ſoap-leys.
the whole was made to diſappear. It muſt be remem “ The foap-leys uſed in the foregoing experiments
airs necef- hered, that cominon air conliſts of one part of dephlo. were made from ſalt of tartar prepared without nitre,
ſary for the
giſticated and four of phlogiſticated air; ſo that a mix- and were of ſuch a ſtrength as to yield one-tenth
production
of nitrous
ture of five parts of pure dephlogiſticated air and three of their weight of nitre when ſaturated with nitrous
of common air, is the ſame thing as a mixture of ſeven acid. The dephlogiſticated air was alſo produced
parts of dephlogiſticated air with three of phlogiſtica- without nitre ; that uſed in the firſt experiment with
ted. Having made theſe previous trials, he introdu- the ſoap-leys being procured from the black powder
ced into the tube a little ſoap-leys, and then let up ſome formed by the agitation of quicklilver mixed with lead,
dephlogiſticated and common air mixed in the above. and that uſed in the latter from turbith mineral. In
mentioned proportions, which, riſing in the tube M, the firſt experiment, the quantity of ſoap-leys uſed was
divided the ſoap-leys into its two legs. As faſt as the 35 meaſures, each of which was equal in bulk to one
air was diminiſhed by the electric ſpark, he continued grain of quickſilver; and that of the air abſorbed was
to add more of the ſaine kind till no further diminution 416 ſuch meaſures of phlogiſticated air and 914 of
took place. The foap-leys being then poured out of dephlogiſticated. In the ſecond experiment, 178
the tube, and ſeparated from the quicklîlver, ſeemed meaſures of ſoap-leys were uſed ; which abſorbed 1920
to be perfedly neutralized, as they did not at all dif- of phlogiſticated air and 4860 of dephlogiſticated.
colour paper tinged with blue flowers.
On evapora-
It muſt be obſerved, however, that in both experi-
ting the liquor to dryneſs, a ſmall quantity of ſalt was inents fonie air remained in the tube undecompoſed,
left, which was evidently nitre, from the manner in whoſe degree of purity I had no means of trying ; ſo
which a paper impregnated with the ſolution of it that the proportion of each ſpecies of air abſorbed
burned. On repeating the experiment on a larger cannot be known with much exactneſs.
ſcale, with five times the quantity of materials, pure “As faras the experiments hitherto publiſhed extend,
nitre was obtained in proportion, and was found by the we ſcarcely know more of the nature of the phlogiſti-
left of terra ponderoſa ſalita, to contain no more vitri cated part of the atmoſphere, than that it is not dimi-
olic acid than what might have been expected in the niſhed by lime-water, cauſtic-alkalies, or nitrous air ;
ſoap-ley itſelf, and which is exceedingly ſmall. that it is unfit to ſupport fire or inaintain life in ani-
As, in ſome former experiments of Mr Cavendiſh, mals; and that its ſpecific gravity is not much leſs
dila's opi- it had been found, that by deflagrating nitre with than that of common air : ſo that though the nitrous
charcoal, the whole of the acid was converted into acid, by being united to phlogiſton, is converted into
phlogiſticated air, he concluded that this kind of air air polleſſed of theſe properties; and, conſequently,
phlogiſti-
is nothing elſe than nitrous acid united to phlogiſton; though it was reaſonable to ſuppoſe, that part at leaſt
according to which, it ought to be converted into ni- of the phlogiſticated air of the atmoſphere conſiſts of
trous acid by being deprived of its phlogiſton. “But this acid united to phlogiſton ; yet it might be fairly
(ſays he) as dephlogiſticated air is only water depri- doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or wlie-
ved of phlogiſton, it is plain, that adding dephlogitti- ther there are not, in reality, many different ſubſtan-
cated air to a body, is equivalent to depriving it of ces confounded by us under the name of phlogiſticated
phlogiſon, and adding water to it; and therefore air. I therefore made an experiment to determine Expe-i-
phlogiſticated air ought alſo to be reduced to nitrous wliether the whole of a given portion of the atmo- ment to de-
acid, by being made to unite or form a chemical com- ſpherecould be reduced tonitrousacid,or whether there termine the
bination with dephlogiſticated air ; only the acid thus was not a part of a different nature from the reſt, which nature of
formed will be more dilute than if the phlogiſticated would refuſe to undergo that change. For this pur-
phlogiſti-
air was ſimply deprived of phlogiſton.
poſe, I diminiſhed a ſimilar mixture of dephlogiſtica-
" This being premiſed, we may ſafely conclude, that ted and common air in the ſaine manner as before,
in he preſent experiments, the phlogiſticated air was until it was reduced to a ſmall part of its original
enabled by means of the electrical ſpark, to unite to, bulk; after which fome dephlogiſticated air was add-
or form a chenical combination with, the dephlogiſt- ed, and the ſpark continued until no further diminu-
cated air, and was thereby reduced to nitrous acid, tion took place. Having by theſe means condenſed
which united to the ſoap-leys, and formed a ſolution as much as I could of the phlogiſticated air, i let up
of nitre, for in theſe experiments the two airs actually ſome ſolution of liver of ſulphur to abſorb phe dephlo.
diſappeared, and nitrous acid was formed in their room: giſticated air ; after which only a ſmall bubble of air
and as it has been ſhown, from other circumſtances, remained unabforbed, which certainly was 1100 more
that philogiſticated air muſt form nitrous acid when than oth of the bulk of the phlogiſticated air let up
combined with dephlogiſticated air, the abovemention- into the tube; ſo that iſ there is any part of the phlo-
ed opinion feems to be ſufficiently eſtabliſhed. Auda giſticated air of our atmoſphere which differs from the
futher confirmation is, that nodiminution of air is per- reſt, and cannot be reduced to nitrons acid, we may
ceived when the electric ſpark is paſſed «ither through ſafely conclude, that it is not more than , . th part of
pure deploogilicated or through perfectly phlogiſti- the whole.”
cated air · which indicates a neceſſity for the combi Though theſe experiments had ſhown that the
Halion of the 'wo ir. order to produce nitrous acid. chief cauſe of this diminution of airs is the converſion
It was alſo found by the laſt experiment, that the of the phlogiſticated hisid into nitrous acid, it seemed
Nr {'aven-
nions on
nature of
cated air.
A
To4
cated air,
not
Sect. V
A E ROL O GY.
167
105
107
air.
ticated air
incloſed he.
tween dif-
Phlogiſtica- not unlikely, that when any liquor containing inflam- or, more improperly, cretaceous acid, from its being Fixed Air.
ted Air. mable matter was in contact with the air in the tube, contained in great quantities in chalk, as has been al-
ſome of this matier might be burnt by the ſpark, and ready mentioned.
Efreas of thereby diminiſh the air. In order to determine this, Fixed air is the heavieſt of all perinanently elaſtic Specific
the electric the electric ſpark was paſſed through dephlogiſticated fluids, excepting thoſe derived from the mineral acids. gravity,
&c of fixed
ſpark on air included between different liquors; and the reſult Mr Kirwan determines it to be to common air as 1500
dephlogif- of the experiments was, that when dephlogiſticated to 1000, the barometer being at 29.85, the thermo-
air, containing only th part of its bulk of phlogi- meter at 64, and the fixed air being extracted froin cal-
ſticated air, was confined between ſhort columns of careous ſpar by marine acid, whoſe ſpecific gravity was
ferent li- ſoap-leys, and the ſpark paſſed through it till no far 1.0145. He obſerves, however, that though this air
quors.
ther diminution could be perceived, the air loſt * ds of Was obtained in the drieſt inanner poulīble, and that
its bulk ; which is not a greater diminution than might the globe which contained it appeared perfectly free
very likely proceed from the decompoſition of the froin moiſture ; yet, when carried into a room 27 de-
ſmall quantity of phlogisticated air contained in it, as grees colder, the infide of the globe was covered with
the dephlogiſticated air might calily be mixed with a dew, which foon formed viſible drops.--Inits concrete
ſmall quantity of common air while putting into the ſtate, fixed air is one of the heavieſt bodies in nature.
tube. When the fame dephlogiſticated air was con Mr Kirwan, in the 71ſt volume of the Philoſophical
fined between columns of diſtilled water, the diminu. Tranſactions, gives an account of his ingenious method
tion was rather greater than before, and a white pow- of finding the ſpecific gravity of fixed air in its fixed
der was formed on the ſurface of the quicktilver be- ſtate, when combined with calcareous earth, from
neath : the reaſon of which, in all probability, was, which it appears, that fixed air, in that ſtate, is pro-
that the acid produced in the operation corroded the. digiouſly concentrated, and, were it poſſible to exift
quicklilver, and formed the powder ; and that the ni- by itſelf in that concentrated ſtate, it would be the
trous air produced by that corroſion united to the de- heavieſt body known, gold and platina excepted.
phlogiſticated air, and cauſed a greater diminution Mr Kirwan firſt aſcertained the ſpecific gravity of a
tlan would otherwiſe have taken place. When a ſo- piece of white marble; then expelled the fixed air fronı
lution of litmus was uſed initead of diſtilled water, the a known weight of it finely powdered, by means of di-
ſolution ſoon acquired a red colour ; which grew paler luted vitriolic acid; the bulk and weight of the obtain-
and paler as the ſpark was continued, till it became ed fixed air being aſcertained. Next, he calcined a
quite colourleſs and tranſparent. The air was dimi- known quantity of the ſame ſort of marble, by keeping
niſhed by almoſt one-half, and might perhaps have been it in a white heat for the ſpace of 14 hours ; after
further diminiſhed had the park been coutinued. which, being weighed again, and from the weight loft
When lime-water was let up into the tube, a cloud by this calcination, the weight of the fixed air, which
was formed, and the air was further diminiſhed by muſt have eſcaped from it according to the abovemen-
about one-fifth; the remainder was good dephlogiſti- tioned experiment, being ſubtracted, the remainder is
cated air. In this experiment, therefore, the litmus the weight of water contained in the marble; from
was, if not burnt, at leaſt decompounded, ſo as to which experiments it appears, that 100 grains of the
loſe entirely its purple colour, and to yield fixed air; marble contained 32.42 grains of fixed air, 11.66 grains
ſo that, though ſoap-leys cannot be decompounded of water, and 55.92 grains of pure calcareous earth.
by this proceſs, yet the ſolution of litmus can, and “I next (ſays he) proceeded to diſcover the ſpecific
ſo verò likely might the ſolutions of many other ſub- gravity of the lime. Into a braſs box, which weighed
ſtances be. But there is nothing in any of theſe ex- 607.65 grains, and in the bottom of which a ſmall hole
periments which favours the opinion of the air being was drilled, I ſtuffed as much as poſſible of the finely-
at all diminiſhed by means of phlogiſton communica- powdered lime, and then ſcrewed the cover on, and
ied to it by the electric ſpark.
weighed it both in air and in water. When iminerſed
in this latter, a conſiderable quantity of common air
SECT. V. Of Fixed Air.
was expelled; when this ceaſed, I weighed it. The
reſult of this experiment was as follows:
106
Fixed air
The diſcovery of this kind of air is as old as Van
Grains,
found in a Helmont; who gave it the name of gas filveſtre, from Weight of the box in air
607.65
great varie- its being emitted in great quantity by burning char- Its loſs of weight in water
73.75
ty of ſuh- coal. Subſequent diſcoveries ſhowed, that a Huid of weight of the box and lime in air
1043.5
Itances, the ſame kind was plentifully produced by fermenting Weight of the lime ſingly in air
435.85
liquur, in almoſt every kind of combuſtion, and natu Loſs of weight of the box and lime in water 256.5
rally generated in vaft quantity in mines and coal-pits, Loſs of weight of the lime ſingly
where it is known by the name of the choak-damp; “ Hence, dividing the abſolute weight of the lime
that it exills in a concrete ſtate in alkaline falts, chalk, by its loſs in water, its ſpecific gravity was found to
limeſtone, the thells of marine animals, magneſia alba, be 2.3908.
&c. in a very large proportion, conftituting one-half, “ from theſe data I deduced the ſpecific gravity of
and ſometimes more of their weight; and that it might fixed air in its fixed ſtate; for 100 grains of marble con.
always be extracted from the atmoſphere, in unlimit. fift of 55.92 of earth, 32.42 of fixed air, and 11.66 of
ed quantity, by expoſing certain ſubſtances to it.- water; and the ſpecific gravity of the marble is 2.717.
On examining the nature of this fluid, it was found Now the ſpecific gravity of the fixed air, in its nxed
fo manifeſtly acid, that it has now obtained a place ſtate, is as its abſolute weight, divided by its loſs of
among theſe ſubſtances under the name of sërial acid; weight in water; and its loſs of weight in water is as
the
182.3
168
A E ROLOG Y.
Sect. V.
ΙΟΟ
TIC
-55.92.–23.59 grs.
ICS
Its other
Fixed Air, the loſs of 100 grains of marble, minus the lolies of the made by Dr Pricſlley appear fully as convincing as Fixed Air.
pure calcareous earth and the Wülcr.
any, we ſhall here content ourſelves with giving an
account of them.
Loſs of 100 grs. of marble =
= 36.8 grs.
The compound nature of fixed air, and the principles Dr Prieſt-
2.717
from which it is formed, were firſt diſcovered by Mr ley's expe-
Loſs of 55.92 grs, of calcareous
Kirwan; but Dr Prieſtley was not convinced by the riments" on
earth
proofs he adduced, till after making ſome experiments the compo-
2.39
of his own. The firſt was, by firing ſavings of iron ficion of
Loſs of 11.66 grs, of water =
11.66
in dephlogiſticated air ; when he obſerved a confider-fixed air.
able reliduum of fixed air, though that in the receiver
35.05
« Then the loſs of the fixed air 36.8–35.05=1.75; could only have yielded infiammable air. The hypo-
had been of the pureſt dephlogiſticated kind, and iron
conſequently its ſpecificgravity is 32.42-18.52." thtlis of Mir Kirwan was ſtill further confirmed by an
1.75
experiment in whichiron-filings, which couldonlyhave
F'ixed air differs conſiderably in its properties from yiclded inflammable air, were mixed with red precipi-
properties. the airs already inentioned. Its acidity is manifeſt to tale, which is known to yield only pure dephlogiſti-
the taſte, and ſtill more from its neutraliſing both fixed cated air. On heating theſe in a glaſs relort, they
and volatile alkalis; which it will do in ſuch a manner
gave a great quantity of fixed air, in ſome portions of
as not only to deſtroy their cauſticity, but to give them which nineteen-twentieths were abſorbed by lime-
a manifeſtly acid taſte, and will inoreover enable them water, and the refiduuin was inflammable ; but when
to form cryſtals of a neutral or acidulous ſalt. It has the red precipitate was mixed with powdered charcoal,
a conſiderable antiſeptic power, and will even check which had been found to yield only inflammable air,
the putrefaction of animal ſubſtances; tho’it has been the fixed air produced from it was ſo pure that only
obſerved, that in this caſe it acts only by abſorbing the one-fortieth part remained unabſorbed by water, which
putrid effluvia already emitted from the body, and be- is as pure asthat generally prepared from chalk and oil
comesitſelf very offenſive, while it ſweetens the other. of vitriol. In fome of theſe experiments it appeared,
When taken into the lungs, it is equally poiſonous with that three ounce-meaſures of dephlogiſticated air went
phlogiſticated orany other noxious air,and extinguiſhes to the compoſition of two of fixed air : for one ounce
fame as effectually'; but, when mixed with dephlogiſ, of red precipitate gave 60 ounce-ineaſures of dephlo-
ticated air, may be inſpired without any danger, and giſticated air ; and, when mixed with two ounces of
cven in its pure ſtate may be ſwallowed in large quan- iron-filings, it gave about 40 ounce-meaſures of fixed
tities, not only without danger, but with the moſt falu-
air that were aclually abſorbed by water, beſides a re-
lary effects in ſome diſeaſes, whence it has now be ſiduum that was inflammable. The ſame proportion
come an article of the Materia Medica. As an acid it
was obtained when half the quantity of materials were
ſtands in the loweſt rank, being expelled from alkalis made uſe of ; but on uſing an ounce of each, only 20
by every other; though it is capable of ſeparating oils, ounce-meaſures of fixed air, including the refiduum,
ſulphar, and the colouring matter of Pruſſian blae, could be got.
100
from the ſubſtances with which they are combined.
In conſidering this ſubject farther, it occurred
Conſtituent The origin of this acid was for a long tinie as much Prieſtley, that his experiments, in which charcoal was
principles unknown as that of the others; and while the general uſed, lay open 10 an objection, that ſince dry wood, and
of fixed air. prejudice remained that acids were a kind of primary imperfectly made charcoal, yield fixed air, it might be
elements unchangeable in their nature, it was ſuppoſed ſaid, that all the elements of fixed air are contained in
that fixed air was ſome modification of the others, pro. charcoal ; and though this ſubſtance alone, even with
bably the nitrous. But the diſcoveries made of late
the aſſiſtance of water, will not yield fixed air, this
years, have abundantly ſhown, that the chemical prin- might be effected by treating it with other ſubſtances
ciples are by no means ſo indeſtructible as they were
without their imparting any thing to it; eſpecially as
imagined ; and that the vegetable acids particularly, the inflammable air procured from charcoal by nieans
illay be almoſt totally reſolved into fixed air. Hence
of water, appears to contain fixed air when decompof-
it vas naturally ſuggeſted, that fixed air itſelf might cl with the dephlogiſticated kind. In order to expel
be a compound of ſome other principles; and it was all the fixed air froin charcoal, he made a quantity of
ſuggeſted by Dr Black, that it was a combination of it from dry oak, and pounding it while hot, inftantly
atmoſpherical air with j hlogiſton. As the air of our mixed four meaſures of it with one of red precipitatc,
atmoſphere, however, is compounded of two ſubſtances, and, putting them into an earthen retort, got, with a
one of which naturally contains no phlogiſton, and the heat no greater than what was ſuficient to revive the
other as much as it can hold; it ſeemed unlikely that mercury, a large quantity of air, half of which was
there ſhould be any poſſibility of adding to the quantity fixed. Afterwards the proportion of fixed air was leſs,
of phlogiſtion contained in a portion of the atmoſphere, and at laſt no fixed air at all was obtained ; but as the
without decompoſing it in fonie manner or other. Suc- refiduun was worſe than the common atmoſphere, he is
ceeding experiinents evinced, that it was by a decom- thence inclined to believe, notwithſtanding MrCaven-
poſition of the pure part of atmoſpherical air, and a diſh's experiments, that phlogiſticated air may be com-
combination ofthe phiogiſton of the fuel with its baſis, poſed of phlogiſton and dephlogiſticated air.' In ano-
Prieſtley's
that fixed air was produced; and this fact was evinced ther experiment he found a better proportion of char-
opinion
by numerous experiments made by Mr Kirwan, Mr coal and red precipitate. This was by mixing one the compo
concerning
Lavoiſier, and Dr Prieſtley, ſo that it is now looked
ounce of precipitate with the ſame quantity of perfect fition of
upon to be generally eſtabliſhed: and as the experiments
char- phlogiſtica-
ز
III
ted air.
Sećt. V.
A E ROL O GY.
169
1
IIZ
Fixed Air. charcoal hot from the rotort in which it was made. had not been able to do it with that which I had got Fixed Air.
Putting theſe into a coated retort, he expelled from by means of vitriolic acid ; bal I learned from Mr Me-
them, by a ſtrong heat, about 30 ounce-meaſures of therie, that this is peculiar to the vitriolic acid, the re-
air, the whole of which was the pureſt fixed air, lea mains of which, diffuſed through the inflammable air,
ving only about one-fortieth part unabſorbed by water, procured by it, he conjectures, may actually decompoſe
and this alınoſt perfeâly phlogiſticated.
the fixed air produced in the proceſs. For, as I have
Having recollected, that in ſome former experi, hinted before, when the inflammable air is produced
ments he had obtained fixed air from nitrous acid and from iron by means of ſpirit of ſalt, there is a vcry per-
charcoal, he therefore repeated the experiment with ceivable quantity of fixed air when it is united with de-
fome of the ſame charcoal which had then been made phlogiſticated air. When I decompoſed theſe two
uſe of; when fixed air was obtained, in the quantity kinds of air in equal quantities, they were reduced to
ſometimes only of one-fifth, and ſometimes of one about 0.5 of a nieaſure, and of this not more than a.
half; to the formation of which he ſuppoſed the phlo- bout one fortieth part was fixed air. This experiment
giſticated air produced by heating the nitrous acid muſt ought, however, to be added to the other proofs of
have contributed. On account of the objections, how fixed air being pruduced by the union of dephlogiſti-
ever, which might be inade to the uſe of charcoal, he cated air and phlogiſton.
next employed iron, which was liable to nothing of this “ The laſt inſtance, which I ſhall inention, of the Proportion
kind; and on mixing an ounce of iron-filings with as generation of fixed air from phlogiſton and dephlogiſ- of fixed air
much charcoal, and then heating them in a glaſs re ticated air, is of a much more ſtriking nature than any
produced
froni de-
tort, he obtained 20 ounce-meaſures of air, of which that I have yet recited Having made what I call
phlogiſtica-
one-ſeventh remained unabſorbed by water. The reli charcoal of copper, by paſling the vapour of ſpirit of ted air.
duum was of the ſtandard of 1.52, but ſlightly inflam wine over copper when it was red-hot, I leated a piece
mable. Repeating the experiment with half an ounce of it in different kinds of air. Iui common air, obſer.
of iron filings, he got 26 oun ce-meaſures of air, of ving neither increaſe nor decreaſe in the quantity, I
which the firſt part was pretty pure, but afterwardsone concluded, perhaps too haſtily, that no change was
tenth remained unabſorbed by water; but on mixingone made in it: for when I repeated the experiment in
ounce of precipitate with two ounces of filings, he got dephlogiſticated air, the charcoal burned very intenſe-
about 40 ounce-meaſures of air, ofthe firſt portions of ly; and when a part of it was conſumed, which (like
which only one-twentieth was unabforbed by water, conimon charcoal in the ſame proceſs, was done with-
though towards the concluſion the reſiduum was grea- out leaving any ſenſible refiduum) I found that no heat
ter. In this proceſs he got in all 36 ounce-meaſures of which I could apply afterwards, had any farther effect
pure fixed air, completely abſorbed by water, belides on what was left of the charcoal. Concluding, there-
about other four ounce-meaſures, which, he ſuppoſes, fore, that ſome change muſt be made in the quality of
might have been abſorbed in receiving the air and the air, I examined it, and found about nine-tenths to
transferring it into other veſſels.
be the pureſt fixed air ; and the reſiduum was ſuch as
Fixed air was alſo produced from red pecipitate would have been made by ſeparating the abſolutely pure
mixed with braſs filings, with zinc, from turbith mi part of the dephlogiſticated air, leaving all the inpuri-
neral with iron filings, and from the black powder into ties behind.- Having aſcertained this fact, I repeated
which mercury mixed with lead is eaſily converted. the experiment, weighing the piece of charcoal very
In this laſt caſe the Doctor ſuppoſes that the fixed air carefully before and after the proceſs; and then found,
was produced from the dephlogiſticated kind abſorbed that by the loſs of one grain of charcoal, I reduced four
by the metals and the phlogiſton of the
lead ; and this ounce meaſures of dephlogiſticatedair till one-ninth on-
is confirmed by an obſervation that the fixed air always ly remained unabſorbed by water; and again, with the
comes firſt in the proceſs, when the phlogiſton is moſt loſs of one grain and an half of the charcoal, I reduced
readily ſeparated, but afterwards the produce becomes fix and an half-meaſures of dephlogiſticated air uill five
quite pure and dephlogiſticated. In attempting, how and an half-meaſures were pure fixed air. In this pro-
ever, to increaſe the quantity of fixed air by heating ceſs there was a diminution of bulk after the experi-
this black powder in dephlogiſticatedair, he found on ment, as might have been expected from the change of
ly an augmentation of the quantity of dephlogiſticated the air into one of a heavier kind by means of a ſub-
air, and that of the pureſt kind.
ſtance or principle that could not add inuch to the
Perhaps,” ſays he,“ as deciſive a proof as any of weight of it. In one of the experiments, 4.3 ounce-
the real production of fixed air from phlogiſton and de meaſures of dephlogiſticated air were reduced about
phlogiſticated air, may be drawn from the experiments one-thirtieth part of the whole; and in this caſe, when
in which I always found a quantity of it when I burn the fixed air was ſeparated by water, there was a reſi-
ed ſulphur in dephlogiſticated air. In one of theſe ex duum of 0.75 of a meaſure of the ſtandard of 1.0,
periments, to which I gave particular attention, fix whereas the dephlogiſticated air, before the experi-
ounce-meaſures and an half of the deph logisticated air inent, had been of the ſtandard of 0.2.
were reduced to about two ounce-meaſures; and one " That dephlogiſticated air actually enters into the
fifth of this was fixed air. When both the vitriolic compoſition ofthe fixed air, in this experiment, is evi-
acid and fixed air produced by this operation were dent from the weight of the latter, which far exceeds
abſorbed by water, the remainder was very pure de- that of the charcoal diſperſed in the proceſs. For, in
logiſticated air.
this laſt experiment, the weight of the fixed air pro-
“ I had always concluded, that no fixed air could duced was 4.95 grains. Confequently, ſuppoſing the
be procured by the decompofition of inflammable air charcoalto be wholly phlogifton, as it is very nearly fo,
which had beeen produced by mineral acids, becauſe I fixed air may be ſaid to conſiſt of 3.45 parts of dephilo-
Vol.I,
Y
gifticated
A E ROL
170
Sect. V.
OG
0 GY.
IIS
Fixed .lir. giſticated air, and 1.5 of phlogiſton ; ſo that the de- ved, that water impregnated with fixed air is a much Fised Air.
phlogiſticated air is more than three times the propor- worſe conductor of electricity than the ſame fluid inn-
tion of phlogiſton in it. I muſt not conclude, how- pregnated with mineral acids. On (till varying the
ever, without obſerving, that, in one experiment, Ine- circumſtances of the experiment, by uſing common
ver failed to produce fixed air ; though it is not eaſy to water inſtead of that which had abſorbed fixed air, he
fee how one of its ſuppoſed elements, viz. dephlogiſti- found that the quality of the reliduum was evidently
cated air, could enter into it. This is by healing iron better than that of the original fixed air.
in vitriolic acid air. In one of theſe experiments, four In order to diſcover whether the heat or light of Effects of
ounce-ineafures of the vitriolic acid air were reduced to the electric ſpark were the circunſtances which effects a ſtrong
0.65 of an ounce-meaſure ; and of the quantity loft ed the change, the Doctor threw a ſtrong light, by hcat on fix-
cd air.
three and an half meaſures were fixed air abſorbed by means of a lens, for ſome hours, on a quantity of
113 lime-water, and the remainder weatly infiammable. pounded glaſs confined in fonie fixed air; but though
Effects of Fixed air, even then pure and unmixed, is remark- the volume of refiduum was thus ſomewhat increaſed,
the electric ably altered by the electric fpark, part of it being thus yet as it was of the ſame quality with common air ho
fpark on
rendered iomiſcible in water. Dr Prieſtley, having ſuſpected that it might be only that portion which had
fixed air.
taken the electric ſpark for about two hours in a ſmall been introduced among the particles of the glaſs. The
quantity of fixed air confined by inercury, found, that quantity of air was increaſed after the operation.
after the operation, one-fourth of it remainedim miſci. With glaſs-houſe ſand made very hot, the quantity of
ble with water ; though, before it, only one-thirtieth air was likewiſe increaſed ; but the experiment was
part had remaincd unabſorbed. Theinſide of the tube not more ſatisfactory than the former. Heated bits of
had become very black; which, in other experiments crucibles increaſed the quantity of refiduum in the pro-
of a ſimilar hind with vitriolic acid air, he had obſerved portion of 10 to 6.6 ; but the quality was injured ei-
to ariſe from the adheſion of a ſmall quantity of mer ther directly by a compariſon with nitrous air or by
cury ſuperſalurated with phlogiſton. In another ex- producing a larger quantity of reliduun equally bad.
periment, in which the ſpark was taken an hour and By heating iron, however, in fixed air, part of it was
ten minutes in about half an ounce-meaſure of fixed evidently converted into phlogiſticated air. On heat-
air, one-fifth remained unabſorbed, and the ſtandard of ing turnings of malleable iron for ſome time in fixed
the reſiduum was o.9, thongh, before the operation,only air, one-tenth part of it was rendered immiſcible with
one thirtieth part had been abſorbed, and the ilandard water ; and on repeating the proceſs with the remain-
of the reſidaun was r.o. In this experiment, alſo, he der, there was a reſiduum of one-fourth of the whole.
obſerved, that the air was increaſed about a twentieth There was alſo a ſmall addition to the quantity of air
part. On taking the electric ſpark an hour in half an after the firſt part of the proceſs, but none aftcr the
ounce of fixed air, as much reſiduum was left as had ſecond; nor could he, after a third and fourth pro-
remained in five times the quantity of the ſame fixed ceſs, render more than one fourth immiſcible with wa-
air in which no ſpark liad been taken. This reſiduum ter. In two experiments, the reſiduum was intam-
was alſo much purer than that of the original fixed air, inable, and burned with a blue flame.
116
the ſtandard being 0.8; whercas that of the original With regard to the quantity of fixed air which may Quantity of
fixed air had been, as before, 1.0. On repeating the be expelled from different ſubſtances, Dr Prieſtley ob- fixed airex-
experiment, he found the reſiduum ftill greater, but ferves, that from ſeven ounces of whiting, the pureſt pelled from
equally pure ; and, in this caſe, a good quantity of calcareous ſubſtance we are acquainted with, he expel- different
black matter was obſerved adhering to the tube. Ha- led by heat 630 ounce-ineaſures of air ; by which ſubſtances,
ving taken the ſpark in a ſmall tube containing th of means the whiting was reduced to four ounces.
One
an ounce-meaſure of fixed air, the inſide of the tube third of this was ſomewhat phlogiſticated; the ſtand-
was clouded with black matter, and in the bottom was ard being 1.36 and 1.33. Repeating the experiment,
Experi a ſmall quantity of yellowiſh matter reſembling ſul- he obtained 440 ounce-meaſures of air from lix ounces
ment in fa- phur; the reſiduum was between one-fourth and one of whiting; about one-half of which was fixed air, and
fifth of the whole, and leſs pure than formerly. This the remainder of the ſtandard of 1.4. On moistening
Prieſtley's circumſtance he alſo ſuppoſes to be a proof that ſome calcined whiting with waterimpregnated with vi-
hypotheſis
fixed air may be compoſed of phlogiſton and de- triolic acid air, he obtained 90 ounce-meaſures; of
concerning
the compo- phlogiſticated air. Purſuing this experiment, by la- which the firſt portions were three-fourths fixed air,
ſition of king the electric ſpark three hours in a ſmall quantity and the ſtandard of the reſiduuni 1.5;the latter had leſs
phlogiſtica- of fixed air, he obſerved that it was firſt increaſed, and fixedair and the ſtandard of the reſiduum was 1.44. The
then diminiſhed about one-eighth of the whole ; the whiting was rendered black and hard, but became ſoft
inſide of the tube being very black on the upper part, and white with ſpirit of ſalt. Three ounces and a
and below the mercury very yellow, for the ſpace of quarter of lime fallen in the air, yielded 375 ounce-
a quarter of an inch all round the tube ; but this ſpace meaſures ; of which about one-fifth was fixed air, and
had been above the mercury in the beginning of the the ſtandard of the reſiduum 1,4. Four ounces of white
operation. One-third of the air remained unabſorbed lead had yielded 240 meaſures of air when the retort
by water ; but ſo impuse, that the ſtandard of it was melted. The reſiduum of the firſt proceſs was one-
1.8, or almoſt completely phlogiſticated.--Varying third, the ſtandard 1.36; and of the laſt the ſtandard
the proceſs by uſing water impregnated with fixed air was 1.28, that with the common atmoſphere being
inſtead of mercury, the quantity of air was much aug 1.23. Two ounces and three quarters of wood-aſhes
mented by that which came from the water ; but thus yielded, in a very ſtrong heat, 430 ounce-meaſures of
the far greater part of it was incapable of being ab- air ; of the firſt portion of which one-tenth, of the fe-
forbed by lime-water; and on this occaſion he obſer- cond one-third, and of the third one-half, was fixed
114
vour of
ted air,
air
Sect. VI.
A E ROL GY.
171
II
pro-
Fixed Air. air. The ſtandard of the reliduuin of the firſt portion whom they were fir17 publiſhed in 1767. Its effc ?S, Irfaran?a.
-- was 1.6, and of tlie ſecond 1.7. It extinguiſhed a however, had long before been fatally experienced by ble kir.
candle ; ſo that the air came properly from the aſhes, miners; in whoſe ſubterraneous habitations it is often
and not from any remaining particles of the charcoal collected in ſuch quantities as to produce the moſt iniamma
mixed with them. After the proceſs, the aſhes weigh dreadful cffects. It is produced in abundance from ble air
ed 839 grains ; but by expoſure to the air for one day, putrid animal and vegetable ſubſtances; and, in gene- duced in
the weight was increaſed to 842 grains; and, perliaps ral, by all thoſe which part with their phlogiſon ca mines from
with more heat than before, yielded 50 ounce-meaſures fily. Being much lighter than common air, it always putrid wa-
of air ; of which about one-eighth was fixed air, and riſes to the top of thoſe places where it is generated; ters, &c.
the ſtandard of the reſiduum 1.38 and 1.41. A can ſo that it cannot be confined except in ſome vaulted
dle burned in this reſiduum, and the aſhes were reda place, but always ſtrives to aſcend and mix with the
ced 10 7391 grains. Two ounce-meaſures of Hoin atmoſphere. By itſelf it is very noxious, and will in-
berg's pyrophorus burned in the open air, and then ſtantly put an end to animal life; but when mixed
diſtilled in a retort, yielded 144 ounce-meaſures of with atmoſpherical air, may be breathed in much
air; of which one-half at firſt was fixed air, but at the greater quantity than fixed air. Its great infiamma-
laſt very little. The reſiduum of the firſt portion ex bility in this ſtate, however, renders it very dangerous
tinguiſhed a candle, but that of the laſt burned with to bring any lights, or even to ſtrike a flint with ſteel,
a blue lambent flame. The ſtandards of both with ni in thoſe places where it abounds. But this only takes
trous air were about 1.8. The pyrophorus was then place when the inflammable air is mixed with common
kept two days in the retort, with the mouth immerſed atmoſpherical or with dephlogiſticated air; in which
in mercury; after which, on being taken out, it burn. caſe, the exploſion is inuch more violent than the for-
ed as ſtrong as ever. Immediately before the burning, mer; for pure inflammable air extinguiſhes flame as
it weighed 428 grains ; immediately after it, 449 ; effe&tually as fixed or phlogiſticated air.
but being ſpread thin and expoſed to the atmoſphere Beſides the fubterraneous places already mentioned,
for a night, the weight was increaſed to 828 grains ; this kind of air is found in ditches; over the ſurface of
though, on being well dried, it was again reduced to putrid waters, out of which it eſcapes ; in burying-
486. Subjecting it to a greater heat than before, the places; in houſes of office where putrid animaland vege-
matter yiclded 110 ounce-meaſures of air ; the firft table natters are accumulated ; and may, by flanding
portions of which were half fixed air, but the laſt con or boiling, be extracted from the waters of moſt lakes
tained very little, and burned with a blue lambent and rivers, eſpecially thoſe in which great quantities
flame. It was then reduced to 396 grains. The ex of fermenting and putrefying matters are thrown: and
periment was then repeated with a quantity of pyro as putrefa&ion thus ſeems to be the principal ſource of
phorus, which would not take fire in the open air ; inflammable air, it thence lappens, that much more 118
and on heating this ſubſtance in an earthen retort, five of it is produced in warm than in cold climates.
ſevenths of the firſt part of the produce was fixed air : thoſe countries, we are informed by Dr Franklin, that quantities
but this proportion gradually diminiſhed ; lill at laſt if the mud at the bottom of a pond be well ſtirred, and produced
nine-tenths of the whole was inflammable air, burning a lighted candle brought near to the ſurface of the wa-
in hot cli-
with a lanbent blue flame. This inflammable air be ter immediately after, a flame will inſtantly ſpread a
ing decompoſed with an equal quantity of dephlogiſti- conſiderable way over the water, from the acceſſion of
cated air, yielded 0.86 of a meaſure of fixed air. A. the inflammable air, affording a very curious ſpectacle
nother quantity of pyrophorus, which burned very well, in the night-time. In colder climates, the generation
and which by expoſure to the atmoſphere had gained of inflammable air is not ſo plentiful as to produce this
132 grains, being again expoſed to heat in an earthen phenomenon ; nevertheleſs Mr Cavallo informs us, that
retori, gave 180 ounce-meaſures of air ; three-ſevenths it may be plentifully procured in the following manner,
119
of the firſt portion of which was fixed, and the reſt in all the ponds about London. “Fill a wide-mouched Mr Caval-
phlogiſticated air ; but afterwards only one-half was bottle with the water of the pond, and keep it invert- lo's method
fixed and the reſt inflammable, burning with a lambent ed therein ; then, with a ſtick, ſtir the mud at the of collect-
blue flame ; and at laſt it was wholly inflammable. bottom of the pond, juſt under the inverted bottle, ſo ing infiam-
This pyrophorus took fire again after being poured as to let the bubbles of air which come out of it enter
mable air
out of the retort, but not without the alliſtance of ex into the bottle ; which air is inflammable. When by
fromponds.
ternal heat. It had been red-hot through the whole thus ſtirring the mud in various places, and catching
maſs at the firſt burning, and the ſurface was covered the air in the bottle until this is filled, a cork or glaſs
with white allies ; but all the inſide was as black as ſtopper muſt be put over it whilſt ftanding in water ;
ever it had been. Four ounces of dry ox-blood yield-
Four ounces of dry ox-blood yield- and then the bottle may be taken home, in order to
ed 1200 ounce-meaſures of air, and it was conjectured examine the contained inflammable flaid at leiſure.”
that not leſs tha:1 200 meaſures had eſcaped. It con The great quantity of inflammable air produced in Meteors
tained no fixed air. The firſt portion burned with a warm climates has given occaſion to ſome philoſophers thought to
large lambent white flame, the middle portion fainter, to ſuppoſe, that it may poſſibly have foine ſhare in proceed
and the laſt was hardly inflammable at all.
producing certain atmoſpherical meteors. The weak from it.
maining coal weighed 255 grains, and was a good con lightnings without any exploſion, which are ſome-
ductor of electricity.
times perceived near the horizon in ſerene weather,
SECT. VI. Inflammable Air.
are by them conjectured to procced from inflammable
air fired by electric exploſions in the atinoſphere.
Weowethe knowledge of the exiſtence, and of ſome Mr Volta ſuppoſes that the ignes fatui are occaſioned
remarkable properties, of this air, to Mr Cavendiſh, by by the inrammable air which proceeds from marſhy
grounds,
In Great
mates.
I20
The re-
Ya
B
172
Λ Ε R Ο L O GY.
Sect. VI.
I 24
1 21
T
Inilanma- grounds, and is ſct on fire by electric ſparks; but tlıcíe the inflammable air produced in this way cane only Inflamma-
ble Air. phenomena can be accounted for in a more probable from the metal, without attending to the ſhare which ble Air.
manner from the aclion of the electric flud itſelf. Water had in the production. Some latc experiments
This kind of air is more common than any of the of Mr Lavoiſier, however, ſhowed, that water had a How pro-
other noxious airs; for there is hardly any inflainiable great ſhare in the production of inflammable air ; info- cured fron
ſubſtance on earıh, out of which it may not be ex niuch that it gave occaſion to a ſuppoſition, that the water and
tracted by one means or other. The fluids, however, water was the only ſource from whence it was derived, other fluid
which go by the general name of inflammable air, have This miſtake, however, was detected by Dr Prieſtley;
and ſolid
ſubſtances.
(carce
ally
other property
property in common to theni all, be who, by his numerous and accurate experiments, ſecins
fides thoſe of inflammability, and being ſpecifically in a manner to have exhauſted the ſubject. The me-
Differences lighter than the common atmoſpherical air. In oilier thod which /Ir Lavoilier had followed, was to ſend
among in- reſpects, the differences between them are very conti the ſteam of boiling water through a red-lot iron
flammable derable. The ſmell, weight, power of burning, of tube ; in doing which, the intenſe heat acquired by
airs.
preſerving their properties and the phenomena atrend the water occafioned the production of a great quan.
ing their combuſtion, are by no means the ſanie in tity of inflammable air. Dr Prieſtley repeated his ex-
ilem all ; fume burning in an exploſive manner; 0 periments not only with water, but with other fluids.
iliers quietly, and with a lambent Aame of a white or Sending the vapour
Sending the vapour of two ounces of ſpirit of wine
blue colour. It is, however, neceſſary to make a pro- through a red-hot earthen tube, he obtained 1900
per diſtinction between an inflammable elaſtic fluid or ounce-meaſures of inflammable air, which burned with
inflammable gas, which may be properly called ſo, and a white lambent flame. It contained no fixed air ;
that u hich is evidently made by combining an inflan and 30 ounce-meaſures of it weighed eight grains leſs
mable ſubſtance with common air ; which being eaſily than an equal quantity of common air. He collected
feparable from the air, leaves that flaid in the ſtate alſo 0.35 of an ounce-nieaſure of water. In this experi.
it was before. Thus a drop of ether, put into a quan ment, the weight of the water collected was 168 grains,
tity of common air, mixes itſelf with it, and takes fire of the inflammable air633 grains, and that of the ſpirit
on the approach of flame, like a mixture of inflamma of wine originally was 821 grains, ſo that as little was
ble and conimon air ; but if the air to which ether is loſl in the proceſs as could be expected.-Repeating the
added be wathed in water, the latter is ſoon ſeparated experiment with vitriolic ether, an ounce of it treated
from it. Common air becomes alſo inflammable by in the ſame manner in an carthen tube almoſt filled
being tranſmitted through ſeveral eflential oils; and with pieces of broken earthen retorts and crucibles,
thus the air contiguous to the plant called fraximella one-tenth part of an ounce of water was collected,
becomes inflammable in calm and hot weather, by the and 740 once-meaſures of inflammable air were pro-
einillion of its intiammable air.
cured, without any mixture of fixed air, burning
Extracted By heat alone, a conſiderable quantity of this kind with a while lambent flame like that of wood, and
from vari- of air may be extracted from moſt inflainmable ſub not exploding with dephlogiſticated air. Twenty-
ſtances, and even from ſome of the metals. Dr Hales nine ounce-meaſures of this weighed five grains leſs
ftances by obtained inflammable air by fimply diftilling wax, than an equal quantity of common air. Vapour of
heat.
pitch, amber, coals, peaſe, and oyſter ſhells; and Mr fpirit of turpentine yielded inflammable air mixed with
Fontana informs us, that he obtained a conſiderable much black ſmoke, which foon collected on the ſur-
quantity of inflammable air from ſpathoſe iron, by the face of the water in the receiver. The ſinell of this
astion of fire only applied to it in a matraſs. Dr air was exceedingly offenſive, and its flame was much
Prieſtley, however obrained it from a vaſt number of leſs luminous than that of the fornier. Its ſpecific
other ſubſtances, by diſtilling them in a gun-barrel ; to gravity was the ſame with that of the air procured
the extremity of which was luted a tobacco pipe, or from ſpirit of wine. Olive oil yielded a conſiderable
finall glaſs tube, with a flaccid bladder tied on the quantity of air on being mixed with calcined whiting;
end. He obſerves, that the heat muſt be ſuddenly the firſt portions burning with a large white flame, and
123
applied, in order to get a conſiderable quantity of air the laſt with a lambent blue one.
More air .
from theſe ſubſtances. “Notwithſtanding (ſays he) In extracting air from ſolid ſubſtances, the ſteain
procured the ſame care be taken in luting, and in every other of water was always neceſſary; and thus inflammable
by a ſud-
reſpect, lix, or even ten, times more air may
be
got air was produced from a great number of different
den than
ones,
by a ſudden heat than by a ſlow one, though the heat
gradual
From ſulphur treated in this manner in an
that is laſt applied be as intenſe as that which was ap carthen tube, infiammable air was obtained of a nature
plied ſuddenly. A bit of dry oak, weighing about ſimilar to that from oil of vitriol and iron. From ar-
twelve grains, will generally yield a ſheep's bladder ſenic, the produce was one-feventh of fixed air ; but
ſull of inlamınable air with a briſk heat, when it will all the reſt ſtrongly infiammable, with a ſmell ſcarcely
only yield cwo or three ounce-meaſures if the ſame diſtinguiſhable from that of phoſpborus. Twenty
heat be applied gradually." When he wanted to ex ounce-meaſures of this air weighed 45 grains leſs tlian
tract inflammable air from metals, a glaſs was uſed, the an equal quantity of common air. Both theſe experi-
focus of which afforded a more intenſe heat than any ments, however, were very troubleſome, on account of
furnace he could apply: and in this way he obtained the volatility of the matters, which fublimed and
infiammable air from ſeveral metals; as iron, braſs, choaked up the tubes. From two ounces of the
and tin; but with the metallic calces he had no ſuc ſcales of iron or fining cinder, which he has found to
ceſs.
be the ſame thing, Dr Prieſtley obtained 580 ounce-
In the infancy of his experiments, and even after meaſures of air ; one-tenth of the firſt part of which
very conſiderable practice, the Doctor imagined, that was fixed air, but afterwards it was all inflammable.
Forty
I22
ous fub-
heat.
Sect. VI.
Α Ε R Ο L L OG G Y.
173
(titucnt
.
mr.able air.
I 27
Inflaınma- Forty ounce meaſures of this air weighed two grains air produced in this manner (ſays he) is of the lighteſt Inflamma-
ble Air. more than an equal quantity of conimon air. From kind, and free from that very offenlive ſmell which is ble Air.
charcoal expoſed to the red-hot ſteam of water, in- generally occaſioned by the rapid ſolution of metals in
flammable air was procured in great quantities. From oil of vitriol ; and it is extricated in as little time in
nincty-four grains of perfect charcoal, that is, prepared this way as it is põllible to do it by any mode of fulu-
with a ſtrong heat ſo as to expel all fixed air from it, tion. The following experiment was m de with a
and 240 ounces of water, 840 Ourice-meaſures of air view to aſcertain the quantity of inflamınable air that
were obtained, one-fifth, part of which was fixed air ; may be procured in this manner from any given quan-
and the inflammable part appeared likewiſe, by decom- tity of iron. Nine hundred and fixty grains of iron,
poſitioni, to have a quantity of fixed air intimately when diſſolved in acids, will yield about 800 ounce-
combined withit.-Threeounces of bones burnt black, meaſures of air; but, treated in this manner, it yield-
and treated in this manner in a copper tube, yielded ed 1054 incaſures, and then the iron had gained 329
840 ounce-meaſures of air ; the water expended being grains in weight (A)."
126
288 grains, and the bones loſing 110 grains of their Inflammable air having been at firſt produced oily of the con,
weight. This air, he obſerves, differs conſiderably from metals by means of acids, it was then lupposed
from that of any other kind of iníammable air; being that part of the acid neceſſarily enters into its compo- principles
in ſeveral reſpects a medium betwixt the air procured lition ; but this hypothelis is now found to be ill
fron charcoal and that from iron. It contains about grounded. " That no acid (ſays Dr Prieſlley), is ne-
one-fourth of its bulk of uncombined fixed air, but ceffarily contained, or at leait in any fenfible quantity, No acid
not quite one-tenth intimately combined with the re either in inflammable air, though produced by means contained
mainder. The water that came over was blue, and of acids, or in the dephlogiſticated air of the atmo- in it.
pretty ſtrongly alkaline; owing to the volatile alkali {pliere,is evidentfromthe following experiment, wbich
not having been totally expelled by the heat which had I made with the greateſt care: Taking a baſon which
reduced the bones to blackneſs.
contained a ſmall quantity of water tinged blue with
A variety of ſubſtances, faid not to contain any the juice of turnſole, I placed it in a bent tube of
phlogiſton, were ſubjected to the ſame proceſs, but glaſs, which came from a velſel containing iron and
without yielding any inflammable air. The experi- diluted oil of vitriol ; and lighting the current of in-
ments with iron, however, were the moft ſatisfactory flanimable air as it iſſued from this tube, ſo that it
as being ſubject io leſs variation than thoſe with char- burned exactly like a candle, I placed over it an in-
coal; and clearly evincing, that the air in the proces verted glaſs jar, ſo that the mouth of it was plunged
does not come from the water alone, but from the in the liquor. Under this jar the inflammable air burn-
iron alſo ; or, as Dr Prieſtley ſays, 's only from the ed as long as it could; and when extinguiſhed for
iron ; the weight of water expended, deducting the want of more pure air, I ſuffered the liquor to riſe as
weight of air produced, being found in the addition high as it could within the jar, that it might imbibe
of weight in the iron as nearly as could be expected in whatever hould be depofited from the decompoſition
experiments of this kind. And though the inflam- of either of the two kinds of air. I then took off
mable air procured in the proceſs is between one the jar, changed the air in it, and lighting the ſtream
third and one-half more than can be procured from of inflammable air, replaced the jar as before. This
iron by ſolution in acids, the reaſon may be, that I did till I had decompoſed a very great quantity of
much phlogiſton is retained in the folutions ; and the two kinds of air, without perceiving the leaſt
therefore much more may be expelled from iron when change in the colour of the liquor, which muſt liave
pure water, without any acid, takes place of it. The been the caſe if any acid had entered as a neceſſary
produce of air, and likewiſe the addition of weight conſtituent part into either of the two kinds of air.
gained by the iron, are alſo much more eaſily aſcer- I alſo found no acid whatever in the water, which was
tained in theſe experiments than the quantity of water procured by keeping a ſtream of inflammable air con-
expended in them; on account of the great length of ſtantly burning in a large glaſs balloon, through which
the veſſels uſed in the proceſs, and the different quan- the air could circulate, ſo that the flame did not go
tities that may perhaps be retained in the worm of the Neither was there any acid produced in the de-
tube.
compoſition of inflammable and dephlogiſticated air
The following are the reſults of fome of the Doc- in a ſtrong cloſe glaſs veſſel.
Propor tor's experiments.---Two hundred and ſixty-ſeven " With reſpect to inflammable air, I have obſerved,
tions of in- grains, added to the weight of a quantity of iron, pro- that when ſufficient care is taken to free it from any
flammable, duced a loſs of 336 grains of water, and an emiſſion acid vapour that may be accidentally contained in it,
airobtained
of 8 40 ounce-meaſures of air ; and in another experi- it is not in the ſmalleſt degree affected by a mixture of
by means
ment, 140 grains added to the weight of the iron alkaline air. On the whole, therefore, I have at pre-
of fteam. produced a loſs of 240 grains of water, and the emiſ- ſent no doubt, but that pure inflammable air, though it
ſion of 420 ounce-meaſures of air. “ The inflammable certainly contains water, does not neceſſarily contain
any
out.
125
from iron
(A) In theſe experiments, the Doctor ſeems not to have ſuppoſed that any particular kind of water was ne-
cellary for this production of inflammable air : but in the Memoirs of the Philoſophical Society at Haerlem, it
is aſſerted by Dr. Deiman and M. Paets Van Trooſtwyk, that the experiment will not ſucceed when boiled or
diſtilled water, or any other than that containing fixed air, is inade uſe of; and to this air they attribute the
calcination of the iron, and production of infiammable air. This affertion, however, is contrary to what we find
related by Mr Kirwan. See n° 138.
174
A E R o L O GY.
Sect. VI.
132
Witer neo
tion.
water.
130
the air.
Inflamma- any acid: yet an acid vapour may be eaſily diffuſed the experiment. Theſe circumſtances, however, de- Inflaminia-
ble Air. through it, and may perhaps in many caſes be obili ceived me, and perhaps would have deceived any other ble Air.
nately retained by it, as 110 kind of air ſeems to be ca perſon ; for I did not know, and could not have be-
pable of ſo great a variety of impregnations as infaṁ- lieved, the powerful attraction between water and char- Fxcettive
mable airis."
coal or iron, when the latter are intenſely hot. They attradion
128
Mr Cavendiſh firſt perceived the neceſſity of moi will find, and attract it, in the midſt of the hotteſt betwixt
ceſſary to ſture to the production of inflammable air ; but it was fire, and through any pores that may be left open in charcoal, or
iron and
its produc- not until after making ſeveral experiments that Dr a retort; and iron filings are ſeldom ſo dry as not to
Prieſtley could adopt the ſame idea. He had obſerved have as inuch moiſture adhering to thein as is capable
ſome very remarkable circumſtances relating to the of enabling them to give a conſiderable quantity of in-
production of infiammable air from charcoal, by which flammable air. But my attention being now fully
he was induced to ſuppoſe that the former was pure awakened to the ſubject, I preſently found that the
phlogiſton in a volatile ſtate without any moiſture circumſtances abovementioned had actually milled ine;
129
whatever,
Charcoal
The Doctor obſerves, that “ charcoal is I mean with reſpect to the concluſion which I drew
totally con- generally ſaid to be indeſtructible, except by a red from the experiments, and not with reſpect to the ex-
vertible in- heat in contact with air. But I find (ſays he), that it periments themſelves, cvery one of which will, I
to inflam- is perfectly deſtructible, or decompoſed, in vacuo, and, doubt not, be found to anſwer, when properly tried.
mable Air, by the heat of a burning lens, almoſt convertible into “ Being thus appriſed of the influence of unper-
inflamınable air; ſo that nothing remains beſides an ceived moiſture in the production of inflammable air,
exceedingly ſmall quantity of white aſhes, which are and willing to aſcertain it to my perfect fatisfaction,
feldom viſible, except when in very ſmall particles they I began with filling a gun-barrel with iron filings in
happen to croſs the ſun-beams as they fly about the their common ſtate, without taking any particular pre-
receiver. It would be be impoſſible to collect or weigh caution to dry them, and I found that they gave air
them ; but according to appearance, the aſhes thus as they had been uſed to do, and continued to do ſo
produced, from many pounds of wood, could not be many hours: I even got ten ounce-meaſures of inflam-
Weight of
ſuppoſed to weigh a grain. The great weight of alhes mable air from two ounces of iron filings in a coated
alhes deri-
ved from produced by burning wood in open air ariſes from glaſs retort : At length, however, the production of
what is attracted by them from the air. The air which inflammable air from the gun-barrel ceaſed; but, on
1 gel in this manner is wholly inflammable, without putting water to it, the air was produced again ; and
133
the leaſt particle of fixed air in it. But in order to a few repetitions of the experiment convinced me that Inflamma-
this, the charcoal muſt be perfectly well made, or with I had been too precipitate in concluding that inflam- ble airis not
ſuch a heat as would expel all the fixed air which the mable air is pure phlogiſton. I then repeated the ex- pure phlo-
wood contains; and it muſt be continued till it yields periment with the charcoal, inaking the receiver, the gifton.
inflammable air only, which in an earthen retort, is ſtand on which I placed the charcoal, and the charcoal
foon produced.
itſelf, as dry and hot as poſſible, and uſing cement in-
"Wood or charcoal is even perfectly deſtructible, ſtead of wet leather, in order to exclude the air. In
that is, reſolvable into infiammable air, in a good theſe circumſtances I was not able, with the advantage
earthen retort, and a fire that would about melt iron. of a good ſun and an excellent burning lens, to decom-
In theſe circumſtances, after all the fixed air had come poſe quite ſo much as two grains of the piece of char-
over, I ſeveral times continued the proceſs during a coal which gave me ten ounce-meaſures of inflamma-
whole day; in all which time inflammable air has ble air; and this, I imagine, was effected by means
been produced equably, and without any appearance of ſo much moiſture as was depoſited from the air in
of a termination. Nor did I wonder at this, after its ſtate of rarefaction, and before it could be drawn
ſceing it wholly vaniſh into inflammable air in vecio. from the receiver. To the production of this kind of
A quantity of charcoal made from oak, and weighing inflammable air, therefore, I was now convinced that
about an ounce, generally gave me about five ounce water is as eſſential as to that from iron."
134
I3I meaſures of inflaminable airin twelve minutes.'
In his analyſis of different kinds of inflammable air, Priettlcy's
Lxperi Although from theſe experiments it did not appear the Doctor obferves, that the difference moſt com- analyſis of
ment ſhows that water was in any ways eſſentially neceſary to the monly perceived is, that ſome of them burn with a different
ing the ne-
kinds of in-
production of this kind of inflammable air, it appeared lambent flame, ſometimes white, ſometimes yellow,
ceflits of
flammable
manifeſtly to be ſo in the following: “ At the time
“At the time and ſometimes blue ; while another kind always burns
the produc- (ſays he)when I diſperſed any quantity of charcoal with with an explofion, making more or leſs of a report
tion of in- a burning lensin vacuo, and thereby filled my receiver when a lighted candle is dipped into a jar filled with
flammable with nothing but inflammable air, I had no ſuſpicion it. The inflammable air extracted from metals by
that the wet leather on which my receiver ſtood could means of acids is of this laſt kind; and that from wood,
have any influence in the caſe, while the piece of char- coal, or other inflammable ſubſtances by means of heat,
coal was ſubject to the intenſe heat of the lens, and belongs to the former. It has alſo been obſerved, that
placed ſeveral inches above the leather. I had allo theſe kinds of inflammable air have different ſpecific
procured inflammable air froin charcoal in a glazed gravities; the, pureſt, or that which is extracted from
earthen retort for two whole days ſucceſſively, during iron, &c. being about ten times as light as common
which it continued to yield it without intermiſſion. air ; but ſome of the other kinds not more than twice
Alſo iron-filings in a gun-barrel, and a gun-barrel it as light (A).
ſelf, had always given ir.flammableair whenever I tried This difference was for ſome time attributed to a
quantity
ز
water to
air,
air.
(A) -Iere the Doctor's calculation differs ſomewhat from that of Mr Kirwan; who, in his Treatiſe on Phlo-
giſton,
Sect. VI.
A E ROL O GY.
175
135
coinpofi-
Inflamma- quantity of fixed air intimately combined with the Equal parts of dephlogiſticated air and the inflam- Inflamma
ble Air. heavier kinds, ſo that it could not be diſcovered by mable kind produced from ſpirit of wine, were redu- ble Air.
lime-water, while the lighteſt contained no fixed air at
ced to one meaſure, and by waſhing in lime-water to
all. In order to aſcertain this point, he had recourſe 0.6 of a meaſure. The ſtandard of thc rcliduum was
to decompoſition; which was performed by mixing 1.7.--In another experiment, in which the va pour of
with the inflammable air to be tried an equal quantity the ſpirit of wine had paſſed through a tube filled with
of cominon or dephlogiſticated air, and then confining bits of crucibles, the firſt diminution was to 1.6, the
them in a ſtrong glaſs veſſel previouſly filled eillier with ſecond to 1.4, and the ſtandard of the reſiduum was to
water or mercury; making afterwards an electric ſpark 1.84: but in a third, the firſt diminution was to 1.2,
in ſome part of the mixture by means of wires inſerted the ſecond to 0.9.–Air procured by ſteam from red-
through the ſides of the veſſel, and nearly meeting with hot platina was reduced to 0.72 of a meaſure, and the
in it. Thus he ſuppoſed that he might be able to de ſtandard of the reſiduum was 0.9. It contained no
termine the quantity of coinbined fixed air, and likewiſe fixed air.---Air from brimſtone, with an equal part of
the relative quantity of phlogiſton contained in each dephlogiſticated air, was diminiſhed to 0.6, and 110
of them. The former appeared by waſhing the air fixed air was found in the reſiduuin. Its ſtandard was
with lime-water after the explotion, and obſerving 0.95:-With inflammable air froin arſenic, the firſt re-
how much of them was abſorbed ; and the latter by duction was to 1.15, the ſecond to 0.95. The ſtand-
examining the reſiduum with the teſt of nitrous air, and was 0.82.-With the inflammable air procured by
and obſerving the purity of it. Finding, however,
Finding, however, a decom poſition of alkaline air, the diminution by ex-
that, in ſome caſes, more fixed air was found after the plotion was to 0.96, and no fixed air was contained in
exploſion than could have been contained in the inflam the reliduum; the ftandard of which was 0.8--17-
niable air, he was thence led to obſerve thegeneration of Aammable air from ether reſembles that from ſpirit of
fixed air from the princples mentioned in the laſt ſection. wine. The firſt dirinution was to 1.36, the ſecond to
Fixed air In proſecuting this ſubject, it was found, that one 1.2; and the ſtandard was 1.9.
generated meaſure of inflammable air produced by ſteam from Inflammable air procured by ineans of ſteam from
in the de- metals, and one of dephlogiſticated air, ſich as by charcoal of metals produces a conſiderable quantity of
mixture with two meaſures of nitrous air was reduced fixed air; the firſt diminution being to 1.12, the ſe-
tion of in-
flammable
10 0.72 of a meaſure, were reduced by exploſion to cond to 0.8, and the ſtandard of the reſiduum 1.9.
air.
0.6 of a meaſure ; the reſiduum, by an equal quantity This analyſis was of the firſt portion that came over,
of nitrous air, was reduced to 0.87. With the ſaine the ſecond was ſomewhat different; the firſt diminil-
dephlogiſticated air, the inflammable air from fining- tion being to 1.0, the ſecond to 0.75, and the ſtand-
cinder and charcoal was reduced only to 1.85 of a ard of the reſiduum 1.9.--From coak, or the charcoal
meaſure ; but by wahing in lime water, to 1.2. The of pitcoal, the firſt diminution was tº 1.15, the ſecond
refiduum examined by nitrous air appeared to be of the to 0.95, and the ſtandard -.9; but the dephlogiſtica-
ſtandard ofo.9. In another proceſs, the diminution afler ted air in this experiment was by no means pure.
the exploſion was to 1.55,and that after waſhing in lime With intlanımable air from ſpirit of turpentine, the
water to 0.65, of a meaſure ; in a third, by exploſion to firſt diminution was to 1.7, the ſecond to 1.6, and the
1.6, and by waſhing to 0.66; and in a fourth, the firſt ſtandard 1.2—From bones, the firſt dimninution was
diminution was to 1.6, and the ſecond to 0.9. In this to 0.67, the ſecond to 0.58; the ſtandard 1.47.
laſt experiment there was a generation of an entire From common charcoal, the firſt diminution was to
meaſure of fixed air; and that this liad not been con 1.5, the ſecond to 0.74, and the ſtandard 1.7. In ano.
tained originally in any latent ſtate in the original ther experiment, the firſt diminution was to 0.82, the
fluid, was evident from the ſpecific gravity of the in ſecond to 0.63, and the ſtandard of the reſiduum
flammable air made uſe of. This, indeed, was one of 1.37.
the heavieſt kinds of the Huid: but 40 ounce-meaſures Inflammable air procured by diſtilling ſome rich
of it weighed only two grains more than an equal bulk mould in a gun-barrel had a very offenſive ſmell, like
of common air ; whereas, had all the fixed air found that procured from putrid vegetables; it contained one-
in the reſiduum been contained in the original air, it twentieth part of uncombined fixed air. When this
must haye been at leaſt one half heavier.
" Indeed was ſeparated from it, and the remainder decompoſed
(ſays the Doctor) if any quantity of inflammable air, with dephlogiſticated air, the firſt diminution was to
of about the ſame ſpecific gravity with common air 1.4, the ſecond to o.67, and the ftandard of the reli-
(which is the caſe with that ſpecies of it I am now duum was 0.6.-The air procured from caſt iron has
conſidering), yield ſo much as ſeven-tenths of its bulk likewiſe a peculiarly offenſive ſmell ; and, on this ac-
of fixed air in conſequence of its exploſion with de count, the Doctor imagined, that it might contain
phlogiſticated air, it is a proof that at leaſt part of more phlogiſton than common inflammable air, ſo as
that fixed air was generated in the proceſs, becauſe to abſorb more dephlogiſticated air than the other.
ſeven-tenths of ſuch fixed air would weigh more than But this conjecture did not appear to be well founded;
the whole meaſure of inflanımable air.
for on exploding it with dephlogiſticated air in the
proportions
giſton, informs us, that in his experiments he uſed « inflammable air extracted from clean newly-made filings
of ſoft iron, in the temperature of 59º, by vitriolic acid whoſe ſpecific gravity was 1.0973, and obtained over
mercury, having very little ſmell, and what it had being very unlike the uſual ſmell of inflammable air."
The weight of this air, when the barometer ſtood at 29.9, and the thermometer at 60°, was found to be to
that of common air as 84.3 to 1000; and, conſequently, near 12 times lighter.
1996
A E ROL O GY.
Sect. VI.
137
water.
air.
1..llanma proporcions a cady meniurcd, lle diminuion was on walcr, a very conſiderable increaſc is made in its Inflanna-
UC dir the ſame as wich inlammablo air produced irom the ſpecific gravity ; ſo that from being ten or twelve times ble Air.
malleable kind, viz, 1.55.
lighter than atmoſpherical air, it ſoon becomes only
In theſe experiments, it ſeemed evident, that at leaſt ſeven times lighter. This great propenſity to unite Great pro-
part of the fixed air found after the explosion was pro with water is alſo taken notice of by Mr Kirwan; who penſity of
duced by its means; but the following ſeem no leſs con tells us, that the bulk of inflammable air obtained o- inflamma-
vinciny proofs, that fixed air may be converted into the ver water with the alliſtance of heat towards thc end, ble a ir to
inflammable kind, or at leaſt that the cleinents of fixed was one-eighth greater than when produced over mer- unite with
air may remain in inflammable air in ſuch a manner as cury; but that the weight of it in the former caſe was
136
to be imperceptible. On heating in an earthern re only eight or nine times leſs than common air.
Fixed air tort a quantity of Naked lime, which had long been " From 85 cubic inches of inflammable air obtained
convertible hept cloſe corked in a bottle, it gave air, of which one over water, I extracted,” ſays he,“ by oil of vitriol ex-
into in-
fifth was generally fixed air ; but in the gun-barrel the poſed to it for 55 hours, two grains of water; and,
Hammable fame line yielded no fixed air at all, but a great quan- ihough undoubtedly there is an error in all theſe expe-
tity of inflammable air of the explolive kind, like that riments, yet there can be little doubt but this inflam-
which is got from iron alone by means of water. As mable air contained one-half its weight of water. The
this total diſappearance of the fixed air appeared ex inflammable air, by the ſubtraction of its water, loſt its
traordinary, the Doctor was induced to repeat it ſeven ſmell, but continued as intiammable as ever; and there-
ral times with all poſſible care; and the following was fore there is no reaſon to think that it was decompoſed,
the reſult of his experiments : Three ounces of flaked or that water is any way eſſential to it."
linie, which had for ſome time been expoſed to the The concluſion is directly contrary to that of Dr
open air, heated in an earthen tube, yielded 14 ounce Prieſtley, that water is an eſſential ingredient in the
meaſures of air, of which only two and an half remain- compolition of inflammable air ; nor do the experi-
ed unabſorbed by water; the reſiduum was ſlightly in ments of the latter, already recited, ſeem to have had
fiammable, but not perfectly phlogiſticated. Three any weight with him, as he concludes his Treatiſe on
138
ounces of the ſame lime, heated in a gun-barrel, gave Phlogiſton in theſe words. " To the proofs I have Mr Kir-
20 ounce-meaſures of air, all of which was inflam heretofore given, that inflammable air and phlogiſton wan's con-
mable, and no part fixed. It was expected, however, are the ſame ſubſtance, juſt as ice and the vapour of cluſion con-
that the fixed air would have appeared on the decom water are called the ſame ſubſtance, no objection of cerning the
poſition of this inflammable air with the dephlogiſti- any weight has ſince been made. Some have thought
principles
of inflam-
cated kind: but after this proceſs, it appeared to be that I ſhould have included the matter of heat or ele mable air.
exadly ſuch inflammableair as is procurcd from metals mentary fire in the definition of inilammable air: butas
by the mineral acids, or by ſteam; the diminution of fire is contained in all corporeal ſubſtances, it is per-
the two kinds of air being exa&tly the ſame: and tho'fectly needleſs, except where bodies differ in the quan-
fome fixed air was found in the reliduum, it was no city of it they contain ; and in this reſpect I expreſsly
more than is uſually met with in the decompoſition of mentioned its difference with phlogiiton to conſiſt.
inflammable air procured by means of ſpirit of ſalt.- Others, attending to the quantity of water contained
Suppoſing that the two kinds of air might incorporate, in inflammable air, have ſuppoſed it to be an eſſential
when one of thein was generated within the other, a ingredient in the compoſition of this air, and have call-
gun-barrel was filled with fixed air, and the cloſed end ed it phlogiſticated water ; but they may as well fup-
of it put into a hot fire, Inflammable air was inſtant poſe water to be an eſſential ingredient in common air,
ly produced ; but when the fixed air was ſeparated or fixed air, and call this laſt acidulated water: for in-
from it, it burned like inflammablc air with which no flammable air, equally as other airs, inay be deprived of
other kind had ever been mixed.
its water without any limitation, and yet preſerve all
On heating iron-turnings in five ounce-meaſures of its properties unaltered ; which ſhows the preſence of
fixed air, the quantity of it was increaſed about one water to be no way eſſential to it. Laſtly, others have
ounce-meaſure, and there remained one and three- thought, that it eſſentially requires an acid or an alkali,
fourths unabſorbed by water. The experiment was re or ſome ſaline ſubſtance, for its baſis ; as if there were
peated with the ſame reſult; and it was farther obferv- any more repugnance in the nature of things that philo-
ed, that though the infiammable air procured in this giſton ſhould exiſt in an aërial ſtate without any balis,
manner did not appear by the teſt of lime-water to con than marine air, alkaline air, or dephlogiſticated air;
tain any fixed air, yet when it was decompoſed by fir- when it is evident, than an aerial ſtate requires no more
ing it with an equal quantity of dephlogiſticatedair, the than a certain proportion of latent heat: but the
pro-
reliduuni contained one-third of fixed air. The dimi- duction of inflammable air from iron by means of di-
nutioil was to 1.45. Hence the Doctor conjectures, ſtilled water, without any acid or ſalt, has effectually
that though, in ſome caſes, the fixed air appears to be done away any ſuſpicion of that ſort.”
generated by the decompoſition of dephlogiſticated and On the other hand, Dr Prieſtley informs us, that Dr Prieſt-
inflammable air, yet that inflammable air, when thus «inflammable air ſeems now to conliſt of water and in- lcys con-
produced in contact with fixed air, may combine with flammable air: which, however, ſeems extraordinary, cluſion.
it, ſo as to be properly contained in it, and in ſuch a as the two ſubſtances are hereby made to involve each
manner that it cannot be diſcovered by lime-water. other; one of the conſtituent parts of water being in-
Inflammable air, when produced in the drieſt way flammable air, and one of the conſtituent parts of in-
poſſible, is exceedingly light, as has been already ob- flammable air being water; and therefore, if the expe-
ſerved: but Dr Prieſtley has found, that by ftanding riments would favour it (but I do not ſee that they do
ſo),
2)
139
ز
2
Sect. VI.
A E R o L o G Y.
177
+
144
140
Inflamma- ſo), it would be more natural to fuppoſe, that water, angle was 72 degrees, ſo as to half cover a large o'ject. It hamma-
ble Air. like fixed air, conſiſts of phlogiſton and dephlogistica- glats in one of Mr Dollond's perspectives, and ſo turn- ble Air.
ted air, in ſomne different inode of conibi:ration.
ed round as to make the frame of a window, at the di-
" There is an aſtoniſhing variety in the different ſtance of 1230 feet, ſeen partly through the priſm and
kinds of inflammable air, the cauſe of which is very im- partly through common air, appear undivided. The
perfccy known. Thelighteſt, and therefore probably inflammable air was then blown out of the priſm, tur
the pureſt kind, ſeems to conliſt of phlogiſton and wa no part of the apparatus was moved; when the franie
ter only. But it is probable that oll, and that of dif of the window teen through the object glaſs and
ferent kinds, may be held in folation in ſeveral of the priſm as before, ſeemed to ſeparate about four i.1-
them, and be the reaſon of their burning with a lam ches.
bent flame, and alſo of their being ſo readily reſolved The inflammability of this fpecies of air has given Schemes to
into fixed air when they are decompoſed by dephlr.- occaſion to various projects concerning it; ſuch as that employ it
giſticated air ; though why this ſhould be the cale, I of employing it to give light and heat: and lamps have for various
cannot imagine.
been deſcribed, which nay be lighted by the electric purpoſess'
- When inflammable and dephlogiſticated air are ſpark in the night time. By its means alſo very pret-
burned together, the wcight of the water produced is ty artificial fires are made, with glaſs tubes bent in va-
never, I believe, found quite equal to that of both kinds rious directions, and pierced with a great nuinber of
of air. May not the light, therefore, emítted from the ſmall apertures. The inflammable gas is introduced
fiame, be part of the phlogiſton of the inflaminable air into theſe tubes, from a bladder filled with that fluid,
united to the principle of heat ? And as light accom and fitted with a copper cock. When the bladder is
panies the electric Spark, may not this alſo be the real preſſed, the inflammable air, being made to paſs into
accenfion of ſome phlogiſtic matter, though it is not eaſy the tube, iſſues out of all the ſmall apertures, and is fet
to find the ſource of it.”
on fire by a lighted taper. None of theſe contrivances,
The French chemiſts, who deny the exiſtence of however, have ever been applied to any uſe; and the
phlogiſton, are of opinion, that in Hammable air is a ſcheme of Mr Volta, who propoſed to ſubſtitute its ex-
ſimple uncompounded element; but for a more full ploſive force inſtead of gun-powder, is found inſuffi-
diſcuſſion of this ſubject, ſee the article PHLOGISTON. cient, on account of the weakneſs of the exploſion, ex-
Abſorption Inflammabile air is abſorbed by water in conſiderable, cept when the two airs are fired in very great quan-
of inflam- quantity, but by the application of heat may be expel-' tity, which would be incompatible with the ſmall bulk
mable air led again in equal quantity. By agitation in water Dr neceſſary for warlike engines.
by water,
Priestley was formerly of opinion that this kind of air
might be rendered as good as common air ; but this Sect. VII. Sulphurated Infiammable Air.
undoubtedly proceeds from the atmoſpherical air tranſ-
mitted by the water, as is the caſe with phlogiſticated This was diſcovered by Dr Prieſtley at the time
air mentioned in the laſt ſection. After a quantity of when he was engaged in the experiment of which ſome
water, which had abſorbed as much inflammable airas account has been given in the laſt ſection, of tranſmit-
it could, had been ſuffered to ſtand a month, it was ex ting the ſteam of water and other fluids through red-
pelled by heat, and found to be as ſtrongly inflammable hot tubes containing ſome ſolid material. Having, a. Firſt pro-
as ever. The water after the proceſs, depoſited a inong others, treated manganeſe in this manner, by cured from
kind of filmy matter ; which he ſuppoſed to be the ſtopping one end of the heated tube with a cork be- manganeſe.
earth of the metal that had been employed in produ- fore the ſteam was applied, he received forty ounce-
cing it.
meaſures of air, of which one ſixth was fixed air, and
Plants in general grow tolerably well in inflammable the reſt of the ſtandard of 1.7, lambently infiammable.
on vegeta- air, and the willow plant has been obſerved to abſorb Having then opened the other end of the tube in or-
Its inflammability is not di- der to admit the ſteam, air was procured more co-
animal life. great quantities of it.
miniſhed by the putrefaction of animalſubſtances, nor piouſly than before. Of 50 ounces of this air, one-
does their putrefaction ſeem to be retarded by it. Ani- ſeventh was fixed, and the reſt, of the ſtandard of 1.8,
mals confined in it are killed almoſt as ſoon as in fixed exploſively inflammable. The laſt portions were very
air: but inſects, which can live a conliderable time in turbid ; and the ſmell, eſpecially that of the laſt por-
phlogiſticated air, live alſo a conſiderable time in this tion, was very fulphureous, tinging the water of a ve-
Rind of air; but at laſt they become torpid, and appear ry dark colour, by depoſiting in it a quantity of blackiſh
to be dead, though they will ſtill recover if reinoved water. However, the air itſelf became preſently tranſ-
into the open air. Mr Cavallo relates, that the Abbe parent, and had no other appearance than that of any
Fontana, having filled alarge bladder with inflammable other kind of air. On looking at the jar in about ten
air, began to breathe it in his preſence'; after having minutes after, it was quite black and opaque; ſo that
made a very violent expiration, in which caſe the ef- nothing could be ſeen in the inſide of it. Filling after-
fects are moſt powerful. The firſt inſpiration produced wards another jar with the ſame kind of air, in order
a great oppreſion in his lungs, the ſecond made him to obſerve the progreſs of this uncommon phenomenon,
look very pale, the third was ſcarce accomplished he found, that when the water was well ſúblided, black
when he fell on his knees through weakneſs. Birds and ſpecks began to appear in different places, and, ex-
ſmall quadrupeds, incloſed in ſmall veſſels of this air, tending themſelves in all directions, at length joined
refractive
died after very few inſpirations. Laſtly, inflammable each other, till the whole jar was become pertedly
power.
air appears to have a ſmaller ſhare of refrative power black, and the glaſs opaque. When this was doi:e, he
than common air ; for Mi Warltire informs us, that transferred the air in:o another jar; and it ſoon pro-
having placed an hollow triangular priſın, of which the duced a fiinilar effect upon this, though it never became
VOL. I.
Z
144
I41
Its effects
tion and
142
Has little
178
A E ROLOG
OG Y.
Sećč. VIII.
Air.
air.
145
vitriolic
got
14*
Indamma- fo black as the jar in which it had been firſt recei. This kind of air, when pure, is inſtantly fatalto ani- Alkaline
ble Air. ved. It alſo frequently happened, thit only the lower mal life, and extinguilhes lame; though, when mixed
part of the jar would become black, as if the maiter with common atmoſpliericul air, it is ſlightly inflani-
with which it was loaded had kept ſubſiding, though mable, and alſo medicinal in faintings and other caſes 246
inviſibly, in the maſs of air, and occupied only the of debility. A candle dipped into a jar of this air Properties
of alkaline
lowerregions, leaving the upper part entirely free from is extinguished; but juſt before the flame goes out, it
it. On expoſing to the open air the veiſels thus turn- is enlarged by the addition of another fiame of a pale
ed bluck, the colour preſently diſappeared, and a yel- yellow colour, and ſometimes a weak fiarie fpreads for
low or brownincrustation was left upon it. The ſame a conſideralle way, or even though the whole body of
change took place when the veiſels were inverted in the alkaline air. The eleüric ſpark taken in it ap-
water, in order to obſerve the alteration of the air with- peai's of a red colour. Every ſpark taken in it aug.
in them; but on examining this air, no ſenſible change wents its bulk, and by degrees turns the whole into
was perceived. In ſome caſes, indeed, he thought the inflammable air. It is readily abſorbed by water, as
air was injured, but it was much leſs ſo than he had has been already obſerved, and diſſolyes iće almoſt as.
expected. After depoſiting the black matter, the air faſt as an hot fire. On confining ſome water imprego
ſtill retained its fulphureous ſmell, and he did not nated with alkaline air in a glaſs tube, and this expo-
imagine that would ever leave it entirely.
fing it to a ſtrong heat in a ſand-furnace for ſome days,
Procured On trying other ſpecimens of manganeſe, no air of he obſerved that a white ſediment or incruſtation was
from ivory this kind was obiained; but ſome time after, having formed on the ſurface. The Dr remarked, that
melted in occaſion to make a large quantity of inflammable air, bits of linen, charcoal, and ſponge, admitted into a.
he uſed, inſtead of freſh iron, ſoine that had been al- quantity of alkaline air, diminiſhed it, and acquired a
açıd air.
ready melted in vitriolic acid air. Diffolving this with very pungent ſmell; eſpecially the ſponge, a bit of
a conſiderable quantity of freſh metal in diluted vitrio- which, about the ſize of an liazle-nut, abſorbed an
lic acid, he found that the water in which the air was ounce-meaſure. It is remarkable that copper, which
received became very black, and depoſited more fedi- is ſo eaſily corroded by the common volatile alkalis,
ment than had appeared in the experiment with the is not affected by alkaline air. The ſpecific gravity of
manganeſe. The jars were as black as ink, but be- this kind of air is, by Mr Kirwan, determined to be
cane yellow on expoſure to the air as before, ſo that to that of common air as 600 to 1000; though, as he
there could be no doubt of its being the ſame thing juſtly obſerves, this muſt differ very conſiderably ac-
he had before. On burning a quantity of it, this cording to the quantity of moiſture' it contains.
kind of air appeared to contain ſome vitriolic acid, the In proſecuting his experiments on alkaline air, Dr Proofs of
balloon being filled with a very denſe white fume,which Prieſtley conluded that it contains phlogiſton, both its contain--
rendered the water ſenſibly acid to the taſte. Onde- froin its being convertible into inflammable air by elec- ing phlo-
compuſing it with dephlogiſticated air, however, he tric exploſions, and likcwiſe from its reviving the cal- giſton.
found the diminution exactly the ſame as when com ces of nietals. In attempting to aſcertain the quan-
mon iniammable and dephlogiſticated air were uſed; 10 tity of lead revived in alkaline air he met with two
that it appeared to contain neither more nor leſs phlo- difficulties ; the firſt, on account of ſome part of the
giſton than the other; only there was a ſmall quantity calx being blackened and imperfeclly revived; the fe-
of fixed air produced, which is never the caſe with cond, that the lead completely revived was diffolved by
common inflammable air from vitriolic acid and iron. the mercury employed to confine the air. To prevelit
When the ſulphurated inflammable airis received o this laſt inconvenience, he put the powdered maſſicot
ver mercury, very little black matter is produced on the ſubſtance he choſe to employ on this occafion) in-.
the jars; and it is remarkable, that though the black to ſmall earthen cups, contriving to place them with
matter collected on them,when the air is taken through their mouths upwards, in ſuch a manner, that when
water, foon grows yellow upon expoſing it to the air, the lead was revived by means of a burning lens, it
it is not the caſe with that which remains in the waa would remain in the cup, and not mix with the mer-
ter; it adheres to the evaporating vefſel in form of a cury which ſupported it. The proportions of metal
black incruſtation, which does not burn blue until it then revived, were fix grains of lead in three ounce-
has been digeſted in the nitrous acid, which deprives ineaſares, 16, in three meaſures and an half, 13 in two
it of its ſuperfluous phlogiſton, and leaves it both of and an half, and 12 in three anduhree-fourths ; but the
the colour and ſinell of ſulphur.
experiment on which he laid the greateſt ſtreſs, was
that in which 264 grains of lead were revived in 75
SECT. VIII. Of Alkaline Air.
ounce-meaſures of alkaline air. In this proportion,
100 ounce-meaſures of alkaline air, would revive 352.
This was procured by Dr Prieſtley, in the begin. grains of lead; but an equal quantity of inflammable air
ning of his experiments, from common ſpirit of ſal. from iron would have revived 480 grains of metal.
ammoniac with quicklime, or the materials from which This deficiency appeared ſomewhat furpriſing to the
it is made. He did not at that time proſecute the Doctor, conſidering that alkaline air refolved into
diſcovery farther than by impregnating water with it; more than twice its bulk of the inflammable kind;
by which means he could make a niuch ſtronger alka- though it is poſſible, that inflammable air from iron
line ſpirit than any to be met with in the ſhops. His may contain more phlogiſton than that into which al-
method of procuring it was by mixing one part of kaline air is reſolvable.
pounded fal-ammoniac with three parts of flacked lime; On heating red precipitate in alkaline air, the mer-
and for common experiments the fame quantity of ma cury was revived as in other caſes, and a conſiderable
terials would laſt a conſiderable time..
quantity of water was produced, though none appears
+
on
Sect. VIII,
A E R o L o G Y.
179
Air.
Air.
27
ced from
150
Alkaline on reviving it with common infiammable air, “ It has out there being any proper decor:poſition of the air. Nirr sus
even (ſays he) run down in drops in the inſide of a That this is the caſe ſeems probable from an experi-
veſſel which contained five ounce-meaſures of the air ; ment in which I uſed porcelain inſtead of common
and a conſiderable quantity of dephlogiſticated air was earthen ware ; which did not become black in the pro-
found in the reſiduum.” On throwing the focus of the cefs, though inflammable air was produced.”
149
lens on red precipitate, incloſed in this kind of air, till In ſome of Dr Prieſtley's experiments, he had ob- Volatile al-
three nicaſures of it were reduced to two, water was ſerved that iron, which had long ruſted in nitrous air, kali produ-
produced as uſual, and the ſtandard of the reſiduum gave out a ſtrong ſmell of volatile alkali. This extra-
was 1.7. In another experiment, 1 violent exploſion ordinary phenomenon, however, was only perceived nitrous air
took place before he could obſerve whether any water where the nitrous air and iron had been in contaê for
148
was produced or not.
a very long time; but he found that it was much foon-
Converſion In examining the phenomena which attend the con er produced by making uſe of a weak folution of cop-
of alkaline verſion of alkaline air into the infiammable kind, the per; by putting iron into which he obtained that ſpe-
into inflam-Doctor was induced to believe that it was occaſioned cies of nitrous air called deg hlagiſticated. A phial con-
mable air. by heat alone, without the concurrence of light. The taining ſome of this iron, which had been uſed only
eſteets of the former were firſt perceived on heating once for the purpoſe juſt mentioned, having been kept
ome ochre of iron in alkaline air; when, though the cloſe corked for about two nionths, was accidentally
matter turned black, as in an incipient reduction of the broken ; when ſome pieces of the iron were found co-
mietal, he found a conſiderable increaſe of quantity in- vered with a green cruſt, and theſe had a ſtrong ſmell
ſtead of decreaſe in the air, as he had expected ; and, of volatile alkali. On making ſome more experiments
on examining the quality of it, he found that it con on this ſubject, he found that two months ſtanding was
tained no fixedair, but was entirely inflammable. With requiſite to produce the alkaline ſmell delired.
ſcales of iron a ſimilar enlargement was perceived; but
in this way he could never increaſethe quantity to more
Sect. IX. Of Nitrous Air.
.
than double that which had been originally employed,
and even after this the whole ſmelled ſtrongly of vola This kind of air is plentifully obtained in all caſes How pro-
tile alkali; and the iron had undergone no change. where the nitrous acid is combined with phlogiſton : duced.
The Doctor now,concluding from theſe experiments Thus, when it is mixed with metals, or animal or ve-
that the change of alkaline into inflammable air was getable ſubſtances, nitrous air is produced in great
produced by this cauſe alone, proceeded to repeat the quantities; bat very ſparingly when treated with me.
experiment, by heating in the alkaline air bits of dry tallic calces, earths, or other matters which are ſaid to
crucibles, or of eartheu retorts, which had been juſt contain little or no phlogiſton. All the metals, ex-
before expoſed to very great heats, ſo that they could cepting gold, platina, and regulus of antimony, which
not be ſuppoſed to give out any air themſelves, and are not ſoluble in the pure nitrous acid, yield nitrous
therefore could only ſerve to communicate a ſtrong air on being treated with it; and even from theſe,
heat to the alkaline air; and in theſe experiments the when diſſolved in aqua regia, ſome quantity of this air
reſult was the ſame as when ochre and iron were made may be obtained. Every metal, however, does not
ure of. The bits of white earthen ware were always yield it in equal quantity, with equal facility, or e-
turned black ; but finding the ſame effect of augment- qually good." Silver, copper, iron, braſs, biſmuth or
ing the air and giving it an inflammable quality, though nickel, when put into nitrous acid, yield this air in
he uſed the bit of crucible over and over again, he was conſiderable quantity : Mercury yields it but flowly
thoroughly convinced that the change was effected by without the application of heat, though no great de-
heat alone.
gree of it is neceſſary. Copper and iron, eſpecially the
In all theſe experiments, however, with a burning- latter, require the acid to be cautiouſly applied on ac-
glaſs, as a ſtrong light was alſo concerned, he heated a count of the violent emiſſion of fumes. Gold, platina,
quantity of alkaline air in a green glaſs retort,receiving and regulus of antimony, when put in aqua regia, yield
in a glaſs tube, filled with water, all the air that could nitrous air pretty readily; but lead yields it in ſmall-
be expelled from it by heat. At firſt it was all abſorb er proportion than any other metal, and zinc does the
ed by the water, being merely alkaline air expelled by ſame among the ſemimetals, the elaſtic fluid produced
the rarefaction ; but wlien the bulb of the retort be from it being moſtly phlogiſticated air.
came red-hot, he found that the bubbles driven out In the production of this kind of air, great differen-
were not wholly abſorbed, and at laſt none of them ces are perceived by a diverſity in the ſtrength of the
were ſo Theſe were altogether inflammable ; ſo that acid. Thus, if we diſſolve copper in ſtrong nitrous a-
no doubt remained of the change being produced by cid, no nitrous air is produced, though the fame ma-
heat alone, without any intervention of light. terials will yield air in great quantity by the mere af-
It was farther obſerved, that whenever the alkaline fution of water to dilute the acid. This is very pro- Whyftrong
air was changed into inflammable by means of bits of perly explained by Doctor Prieſtley, from the proper- nitrous. cid
retorts or crucibles containing clay, they always be ty that the nitrous acid has of attracting phlogiſton, yielas its
came black during the proceſs. He inclined therefore which is evident from what happens in the ſolution of nitrous air.
to ſuppoſe, that ſomething might be depoſited from mercury. When ſtrong ſpirit of nitre is poured upon
the air which might attach itſelf to the clay. “ In- this metal, the ſolution foon begins, and is very rapid,
deed, (ſays he) if this was not the caſe, I do not ſee yet not a ſingle bubble of elaſtic fluid is produced ; but
why the clay ſhould become black ; though, perhaps, in a ſhort time the acid next to the mercury is chan-
part of the ſame phlogiſton which forms the inflam- ged into an orange colour, which is an indication of its
mable air may be attracted by the red-hot clay, withi- having acquired phlogiſton, probably from the nitrous
Ze 2
air
151
1 So
A E R o L o G Y.
Sect. IX.
Air.
Air.
152
Nitrous air which is decompoſed the moment it is for med, and periilı very ſoon in nitrous air, and even in common Nitrous
before its particles are divided into viſible bubbles. The air faturated with nitrous air ; but Dr Priestley informs
bubbles of air indeed break through the coloured acid, us, that “though in general plants die almoſt imme-
but they diſappear the moment they come in contact diately in water impregnated with nitrous air, yet in
with the pale-coloured acid. As ſoon as the whole one caſe of this kind, when the ſuperfluous nitrous air
quantity oi acid has aſſumed the orange colour, nitrous was let out under water, ſo that no part of it was de-
air eſcapes froin it in conſiderable quantity ; but the compoſed in contact with the water, the plant grew
mixture of water deprives thc acid of its power of de- in it remarkably well."
con puling nitrous air. The ſtrong and pale-coloured Water, by agitation in nitrous air, may be made to
nitrous acid ought to be diluted with at leaſt two or imbibe one-tenth partof its bulk; and afterwards theni-
three parts of water to one of the acid, for the ea trous air may be expelled again by boiling, though not
fy production of nitrous air from copper and mercu in the ſame quantity as it was abſorbed ; but for this
ry:
purpoſe the water ihould be previoully deprived of its
In common experiments no other degree of heat is air. Dr Prieſtley informs us, that having carefully
neccflry than that produced by the efferveſcence it- pumped all the air out of a quantity of rain-water,
felf,except n:ercury be uſed, which requires the appli- letting it ſtand 24 hours in a good vacuum, and then
cation of ſome degiee of heat; but when the metal ex. impregnating it with nitrous air, he inſtantly expelled
poſes a very great ſurface to the acid, as is the caſe it again by boiling, when he obtained only about one
when the ulings of the metal are uſed, the effervef- fourth part of it, though ſufficiently pure, and with-
cence and producion of nitrous air are often inuch out any mixture of fixed air. Water may alſo be de-
quicker than can be conveniently managed. The moſt prived of the nitrous air it contains, though it does not
proper method of producing nitrous air, however, is freeze quite ſo readily when impregnated with this air
explained in the laſt ſection of this treatiſe.
as in its natural ſtate.
Froperties Nitrous air by itſelf is cqually tranſparent and in Nitrous air is abſorbed by ſtrong oil of vitriol nearly
of nitrous viſible with conimon air, excepting at its firſt produc- in the ſame quantity as by water; the acid acquiring
air,
tion, when it is fo.newhat coloured, owing to a litle a purple colour, by reaſon of the phlegiſton contained
ſuperfluous nitrous acid, or to ſome carthy particles in the nitrous air. The ſtrong nitrous acid abſorbs it
which are carried up with it. Its ſmell reſembles that in great quantity; and becomes ſmoking, orange co-
of nitrous acid, or indeed is the very fame ; becauſe, loured, and afterwards green, on account of the phlo-
in paſſing through the common air to our noſtrils, it giſton contained in it. Marine acid imbibes but a
is decompoſed, and converted into nitrous acid. The ſmall quantity, and very ſlowly, acquiring at the ſame
fame is to be ſaid of its taſte ; though Mr Fontana, time a light-blue colour. Both nitrous air and com-
who taſted it without any contact of external air, af mon air phlogiſticated by it are meliorated by agila-
firms that it has no taſte whatever. The method in tion in nitrous acid,
which he aſcertained this fact was as follows. Having Nitrous air is abſorbed in conſiderable quantity by
firſt introduced the nitrous air into a boille of elaſtic radical vinegar, and the concentrated vegetable acid.
gum in water, as is done with glaſs bottles, he brought Solution of green vitriol imbibes it in much greater
his mouth, fhut, while the neck of the elaſtic gum quantity than water, and acquires a black colour ;
bottle was under water, near the neck of it; and then, which, however, foon goes off by expoſure to the
by preſſing the bottle, introduced the nitrous air into common air. Its taſte alſo becomes acid.–Very little
his mouth. The experiment, however, is by no means is abſorbed by cauſtic alkalis. Oil-olive ſlowly ab-
void of danger; for if the perſon happens to draw any ſorbs a confiderable quantity, but oil of turpentine
quantity of this air into the lungs, he may be nearly abſorbs much more. By a little agitation, it will
fuffocated, as nitrous air is exceedingly noxious. In imbibe more than ten times its quantity of nitrous
perſorning of it, he recommends to exhauſt the mouth air ; acquiring at the ſame time a yellowiſh or orange
entirely of common air, though he does not inform us colour, and becoming a little glutinous. The part
how this can be done ; nor indeed is it eaſy to con which is not abſorbed appears to be converted into
ceive the poſſibility of doing ſo.
phlogiſticated air.-Ether and ſpirit of wine abſorb
Though nitrous air extinguiſhes flame, it may by it very quickly, but no nitrous air is obtained by the
certain proceſſes be brought into ſuch a ſtate that a application of heat after they have abſorbed it. It is
candle will burn in it with an enlarged flame; and it greatly diminiſhed by oil of curpentine, liver of ſul-
beconies what Dr Prieſtley calls dephlogiſticated nitrous phur, and pyrophorus; all of which leave it in a phlo-
a.r, which is treated of in the next ſection. It is giſticated ſtate. It is alſo diminiſhed and phlogiſtica-
remarkable, however, that when a candle is extill- ted by being kept in a bladder, alternately expoſed to
guiſhed, as it never fails to be in common nitrous air, moiſture and dryneſs. Nitrous acid air has the ſame
the flame ſeems to be a little enlarged about its edges effect.
by the addition of another bluiſh flame before the for One of the moſt remarkable properties of nitrous Diminiſhes
mer goes out.
air, is its diminution with dephlogiſticated air ; by dephlogir-
Extremely
Nitrous air ſeems to be the moſt fatal to animal life which means it becomes a teſt of the quantity of that ticated air.
fatal to a-
Even inſects, which can bear phlogiſticated kind of air contained in the atmoſphere. With pure
nimal and and inflamınable air, generally die the moment they dephlogiſticated air, the diminution is almost.to no-
vegetable are put into it. Frogs, ſnails, and other animals thing, at the ſame time that ſome quantity of nitrous
life. which do not reſpire very frequently, die in a few mi- acid is reproduced by the decompoſition of the nitrous
nutes, and generally do not recover even when taken air ; but as our atn:oſphere is always mixed with a
out of this noxious fluid before they are dead. Plants conſiderable quantity of phlogiſticated air, on which
nitrous
154
5
153
of ally
Sect. IX.
A E ROL GY.
181
Air.
Air,
155
tic
ز
Nitrous nitrous air has no effect, the diminution in this caſe is cepting that with dephlogiſticated air, beſides the ex. Nitrous
never fo conſiderable. Upon this principle the EU periment in which it was decompoſed by the electric
DIOMETER is conſtructed.
ſpark; which furniſhes a ſtrong objection to this hy.
Its antiſep-
Another very remarkable property of nitrous air is potheſis.” To aſcertain the matter more fully, the
power.
its ſtrong antiſeptic power; inſomuch that animal mat- following experiments were inade.
ters may, by its means, be preſerved for many months “When nitrous air is decompoſed by iron, or by a
without corruption. This property, it was thought, mixture of iro: and fulphur, the water, over which the
might have been extremely uſeful on many occalions; proceſs is conducted, acquires no acidity; but I had
but Dr Prieſtley, after a number of experiments on ſuppoſed that all the acid was abſorbed by the iron.
the ſubject concludes in the following manner. “ Ni. Having by me a quantity of this iron which had been
trous air will indeed preſerve meat from putrefaction; reduced to perfectruſt in nitrous air,and which, I knew,
but after long keeping, it becomes very offenlive both muſt have imbibed more than its weight of the air,
to the noſtrils and palate, though the ſmell is not alto- I thought that the acid might be obtained from it by
gether that of putrcfaction ; and indied the ſubſtance diſtillation ; but a quantity of this ruſt of iron, diſtill-
continuing quite firm, it could not be properly putrid. ed in an earthen retort, yielded neither nitrous air
-Having formerly experienced the remarkable anti-r nor nitrous acid, at leaſt in any quantity that could fa-
ſeptic power of nitrous air, I propoſed an attempt to your the common hypotheſis.
preſeve anatomical preparations, &c. by means of it; “I then endeavoured to decompoſe nitrous air by
but Mr Key, who made the trial, found, that, after heating iron in it with a burning lens; and in this
ſome months, various animal ſubſtances were thrivel- proceſs I ſucceeded far beyond my expectation: for the
led, and did not preſerve their forms in this kind of air was preſently diminiſhed in quantity, while the
156
air."
iron becanie of a darker colour, was ſometimes melted
Specific The ſpecific gravity of nitrous air, as well as of in:o balls, and gathered conſiderable weight, though
gravity of other kinds, has been aſcertained by Mr Kirwan. As it had no appearance of containing any initious acid.
nitrous air, it corrodes metals, be endeavoured to find its weight In the firſt experiment, the original quantity of ni-
by comparing the loſs fuſtained by the materials which trous air was diminished to about one-third ; and after
produce it. Thus he found, that 14 grains of the this, it was increaſed." The increaſe was found to
materials produced 38.74 inches of nitrous air ; and, ariſe from a production of inflammable and dephlogi-
conſequently, by proper calculation, that the ſpecific ſticated nitrous air.
gravity of nitrous air is to that of atmoſpheric air as The Doctor proceeded to try various other experi-
1195 to 1000.--"" If this air (ſays he had been ob ments on the decompoſition of nitrous air, particularly
tained over water, or in ſtrong heat, its weight would that of burning Homberg's pyrophorus; but without
probable have been very different ; as it is liable to be any ſucceſs, or obtaining the finalleſt particle of ni-
mixed with phlogiſticated air, nitrous vapour, and a trous acid. His concluſions from the whole are the
variable quantity of water. Nitrous vapour would following.
158
render it heavier, and phlogiſticated air or water pro “ Water ſeems to be a neceſſary ingredient in ni. Nitrous air
bably lighter.'
trous as well as infiammable air; at leaſt without a compoſed
Conipo With
regard to the conſtituent principles, or ele- quantity of water, nitrous air cannot be formed, for of phlegir
ticated ni-
rent parts ments of nitrons air, all thoſe who look upon phlogi- example, copper will be diſſolved in ſtrong nitrous
of nitrous
fton to be a diſtinct ſubſtance, have believed that the acid without producing any nitrous air, juſt as iron and water.
former is a compound of nitrous acid and phlogiſton. may be diſſolved in concentrated vitriolic acid without
By the oppoſite party, it is ſuppoſed to be a ſubſtance producing inflammable air.
entirely ſimple, and one of the conſtituent parts of the “ That nothing is neceſſary to the formation of ni.
nitrous acid. This opinion ſeems in part now to be trous air belides phlogiſticated nitrous acid and water,
entertained by Dr Prieſtley himſelf, notwithſtanding is evident from the production of it by the impregna-
his fornier ſentiments on the ſubject.
66 I had no tion of pure water with phlogiſticated nitrous vapour
doubt on the ſubject (ſays he) until I read the work formed by the rapid ſolution of biſinuth ; an experi-
of Mr Metherie ; who aſſerts, that nitrous air contains ment which I mentioned before. However, to make
no proper nitrous acid, but only one of the elements it in a more unexceptionable manner, I interpoſed a
of it; the other being dephlogiſticated air, which had glaſs veſſel between that in which the folution was
before been conſidered by Mr Lavoiſier as the prin- made and that in which the water to be impregnated
ciple of all acidity.Ainong other obfervations in with the phlogiſticated vapour was contained, that
ſupport of his allertion, Mr Metherie has the follow- whatever was diſtilled over by the heat of the proceſs
ing. 1. Nitrous air burit together with inflammable might be prevented from reaching the water. In
air, produces no nitrous acid. 2. Though nitrous air theſe circumſtances, however, when nothing but the
be obtained from a ſolution of mercury in the nitrous dry phlogiſticated vapour could enter the water, it be-
acid, almoſt all the acid is found in the ſolution, 3. gan to ſparkle and yield nitrous air very copionly as
Nitrous air, abſorbed by marine acid, does not make ſoon as it had received a bluer linge from the inpreg-
aqua regia. 4. He is of opinion, that a ſmall portion nation.-Nitrous air is alſo produced by pouring a
of the nitrous acid being decompoſed, furniſhes a pure highly coloured or phlogiſticated nitrous acid into
air, ſo altered, that, uniting with inflammable air, it pure water, in which no metal or earthy matter is
changes it into nitrous air.
any way concerned.
"In reviewing the experiments I had formerly “ I have formerly obſerved, how readily nitrous air Effects of
made on this kind of air, I could not recollect any of is diminiſhed by taking the electric fpark in it. This the electric
them in which the pure nitrous acid was produced, ex experiment I have frequently repeated, in order more fpark on ni.
particularly
137
trous acid
air.
159
trous air.
IS2
Sečt. X.
A E ROL
0 G Y.
ur.
161
Nitrous particularly to aſcertain the quantity and quality of the are very irregular, ſo that they feldom produce the like Dephlogif-
refiduum. In one experiment half an ounce of nitrous effects with the regularity one night expect. Dr ticated Nic
air was reduced, in lcis than half an hour, to one quar- Prieſtley once found, that by the contact of iron in trous Air.
Icr of its bulk. One fourth of the reliduum was ſtill quicklilver, it was ſo changed as to be fired with an
iritrous, and the reſt phlogiſ.icated. Taking the elec- explofion like a weak inflammable air ; whilſt another
tric ſpark in a quantity of nitrous air till it was dimi- quantity of nitrous air, which had been treated'in like
niſhed to one-third, the whole was completely phlogi- manner for about the ſame length of time, only ad-
ſticated, not affecting common airat all, and extinguiſh- mitted a candle to burn in it with an enlarged fame.
ing a candle. A white matter was formed with the In that ſection of his laſt volume in which the Doc- Compo-
mercury over which the ſpark was taken, which made tor treats of this kind of air, he obſerves, that water is nent parts
the water admitted to it extremely turbid. In another abſolutely neceſſary to its compolition, or rather to the of dephlo-
proceſs, the electric fpark was taken in a quantity of decompoſition of the comnion nitrous air by iron. He giſticated
nitrous air,
nitrous air tillit could 110 more be diminiſhed, when it had decompoſed it before, either by previouſly filling
was reduced in bulk in the proportion of 10 to 24. the veſſels that were to contain the nitrous air with
Letting it ſtand all night upon the mercury, it was in water or with mercury; though it had always requi-
creaſect in the proportion of 114 10 24; ſeemingly by red a much longer time when the latter was made uſe
the acid uniting to the mercury and generating more of. The reaſon of its being formed at all in this last
nitrous air, ſince it had that ſinell. No water appear way, was a ſmall quantity of moiſture adhering to the
ed after the proceſs; and the water adnitted to it ac-
inſide of the veflel containing the mercury.
162
quired no acid taſte, but an aſtringent one like that of To try the influence of water in this caſe, he now Effects of
water impregnated with nitrous air. There was a procured a number of very clean ſmall needles; and water on
white powderformed, as in the former experiments. having made a phial, and likewiſe a proper quantity of nitrous air.
To try if it were poſſible to make water imbibe the a mercury, quite clean and dry, he put the needles into
cid from the nitrous air, the electric ſpark was taken the phial, and, filling it up with mercury, introduced
in it, with a ſmall quantity of water over the mercury. the nitrous air: but it continued in this way for ſix or
But even this water did not acquire any acid taſte, but eight months without the ſmalleſt alteration. Intro-
only an aſtringent one.
ducing a few drops of water, a diminution of about
The Doctor concludes his experiments on this ſub- one-third of the air took place, and the remainder ap-
ject with a conjecture, that the phlogiſton, and nei- peared to be phlogiſticated. On the 26th of May 1782,
ther the heat nor light of the electric, contributes to he examined a quantity of nitrous air, which had been
the decompoſition of nitrous air. As his final ſenli. confined with iron-ſhavings from the 27th of Auguſt
ments on the matter, however, are merely conjecture, preceding, when he found one-half of it abſorbed; the
without any certain experiments to confirm them, we remainder ſupported the flame of a candle better than
Thall here referthe reader to his Section on Theory, at common air, though a mouſe died in it; ind yet this
the end of his fixth volume of experiments, &c. air had continued ſeveral months in the ſame ſtate with
regard to quantity, nor was it at all probable that its
SECT. X. Dephlogiſticated Nitrous Air. quality would have been altered by any length of
time.
163
This ſpecies differs from common nitrous air in be Though this kind of air is produced by the contact Beft me.
ing able to ſupport flame, though it ſtill continues fatal of iron and nitrous air, the Doctor has never been able thod of
How pro- to animal life. Common nitrous air may be converted to aſcertain the quantity of nitrous air which a given procuring
cured.
into the dephlogiſticated kind by particular proceſſes; quantity of iron can decompoſe; and though iron ſoon.
though, when zinc is diſſolved in the nitrous acid, if becomes ſo much affected by this proceſs that it crum-
the air be taken at different times, that which comes bles into powder, it ſtill ſeems equally capable of dea
about the middle, or rather the latter end of the pro- compoſing a freſh quantity. Having made a compa-
ceſs, will be of this kind ; in which it not only ſup- rative experiment, by putting together one quantity of
ports the burning of a candle, but the flame is enlarged nitrous air with freſh iron and another with ruſt, he
(ſometimes to four or five times its original bulk) by found that in both the air was diminiſhed to about one-
the addition of a weaker and bluiſh flame round third, and a candle burned in both equally well; but
the former ; and this burning is fonetimes accompa- neither of them had the properties of frein nitrous air
nied with a crackling noiſe, as if the candle was burn in any degree.
ing in dephlogiſticated air. It may alſo be obtained As the proceſs for obtaining dephlogiſticated nitrous
in ſome part of the proceſs of procuring nitrous air air by means of iron is very tedious, the Doctor en-
from iron, though with this metalthe ſucceſs is uncer deavoured to find another which might be attended
fain; byt tin yields a conſiderable quantity of it. By with leſs inconvenience. This he accompliſhed by dif-
expoſing iron to nitrous air, it may be ſo far dephlo- ſolving turnings of iron in a dilute ſolution of copper
giſticated as to admit a candle to burn in it. Dr Prieſt, in nitrous acid (the ſame that remains after the pro-
ley filled an eight-ounce phial with nails, and then with duction of nitrons air), mixing it again with an equal
Inercury; and diſplacing the mercury with nitrous air, quantity of water. Without this precaution, he tells
left the phial inverted ill a quantity of the faine fluid. us, tliat though the iron will at firſt be acted upon very
Two months after, the nitrous air was found to be flowly, yet the mixture will at length grow ſo hot as
changed in ſuch a manner as to adinita candle to burn actually to boil, and the proceſs will be exceedingly
in it with its natural flame ; and by continuing ſtill troubleſome; however it will be neceſſary previous to
longer in contact with the iron, a candle would burn any attempt to diſſolve the iron, to heat the ſolution of
in it with an enlarged flainę. Theſe changes, however, copper, in order to expel all the nitrous air and ſuper-
fluons
160
it.
1
Sect. XX.
A E R o L o G
0 GY.
183
Dephlogif- fluous nitrous acid. Without this precaution a quan the glaſs tube ; and it is ſometimes diſcovcrable in the Nitrous
zicated Ni- tity of common nitrous air will be produced,
recipient. When ſuch ſubſtances are put to the oil of Acid as,
trous Air.
Dephlogiſticated nitrous air is abſorbed by water al- vitriol as cauſe a great crferveſcence with that acid,care
moſt as readily as fixed air, and in conſiderable quani ſhould be taken to add them by very ſmall quantities
tity; the liquid taking up about one-half its bulk of al a time, and likewiſe to apply the heat by very ſlow
air. After being thus ſaturated, the whole quantity degrees, left the rapid production of air, and the heat
of dephlogiſticated nitrous air may be expelled pure by attending it, thould break the veſſels. It is moftua-
heat, and is eaſily received in veliels containing mer. bly produced by uſing ſtrong oil of vitriol and char--
cury It was likewiſe obſerved, that as this kind of coal; but in moſt caſes the production of vitriolic acid
air much reſembles fixed air in its properties of being air is attended with that of inflammable, and ſometimes
imbibed by water, and expelled again by heat, it re fixed or phlogiſticated air. With ethier about one-
ſembles it alſo in this farther property, that all the air half of the firit produce is inflammable ; but the quanz-
which has been actually incorporated with the water tity leſſens as the proceſs goes on. The Doctor ob-
will noi.be imbibed by water again. But the propor- ſerved, that, when quickſilver was uſed, the acid was
tion of this part is three or four times greater than the not turned black, as in other experiments of the like
correſponding part of fixed air ; it is alſo conſiderably nature. He alſo obſerved, that iron yielded a little in-
more phlogiſticated. Water impregnated with it very flammable air together with the acid gas ; but that the
foon parts with it again on being expoſed to the atmo elaſtic fluid produced when zinc was uſed, contained
ſphere.-It diſcovers not the ſmalleſt trace of contain about two parts of inflanimable and one of acid air.
ing either acid or alkali. Its fpecific gravity is leſs Copper, ſilver, and lead, when heated in vitriolic acid,
than that of common air. On heating red precipitate yield the purest vitriolic acid air without any mixture
in this kind of air, pure phlogiſticated air was pro- of inflammable air; but the lead yields only a very
duced without affecting, or being affected by, the ni- ſmall quantity, and requires a great degree of heat. It
trous air. Repeating the experiment with malleable is procured in the greateſt abundance froin the fumes
iron, the quantity of it was enlarged, and the whole of burning ſulphur, and is then called the volatile vi-
164
phlogiſticated, without any mixture of fixed air.
By triolic, or fulphureous acid; for an account of the pro-
Mnde to healing bits of clean crucibles or retorts in this kind of perties of which, ſee CHEMISTRY, (Index).
166
approach to air, it ſeemed to approach in quality to common atmo § 2. Of Nitrous Acid Air. This is the pure nitrous How ob.
the nature ſpherical air; and the effects were always found to be acid by itſelf, without any addition of phlogiſton. It tained.
of atmof-
the more conſiderable the longer the proceſs was con is procured by heating the ſtrong ſpirit of nitre in a
ſpherical
tinued. On attempting, however, to determine whe- phial,and then receiving the vapouringlaſsveſſels filled
ajr
ther this change in the conſtitution of dephlogiſticated with quicklilver. It is, however, extremely difficult,
nitrous air was occalioned by means of heat or light, or rather impoſſible, to preſeve it for a length of time
167
he heated it in earthen tubes ; but found, that though by means of any Huid hitherto known. Water abſorbs Cannot be
theſe were glazed both on the outſide and inſide, and it immediately, and quicktilver is corroded, and pro- preſerved
ſeemed perfectly air-tight both before and after the ex duces nitrous air. “ But (ſays Dr Prieſtley) tho' the by means
periment, the air had eſcaped. By the cle tric
ſpark acid vapour very ſoon unites with the quicksilver, yet, of fluids.
it was rendered wholly immiſcible with water, and thejar in which it was received being narrow, the fa-
brought to the ſtandard of 1.45 ; ſo that the Doctor line cruſt which was formedon the ſurface of the quick-
had no doubt of its being reſpirable. Yet this kind of ſilver, impeded the action of the acid upon it" till I
air, though it admits a candle to burn ſo well in it, will had an opportunity of adınitting water to the air I
not kindle pyrophorus, though the nitrous air from had produced, and of ſatisfying myſelf, by its abſorp-
which it is produced would inſtantly ſet it on fire. tion, ofits being a real acid air, having an affinity with
water ſimilar to other acid airs.'
SECT. XI. Of Vitriolic, Nitrous, Marine, and The moft remarkable property of this vapour is, that Allumes 2
other Acid Airs.
its colour may be made inore or less intenſe by the red colour
165
mere circumſtance of heat. It may be confined in by being
§ 1. Vitriolic acid Air.-This is always a combina- glaſs veſſels with ground-ſtoppers, orin tubes hermeti- heated.
fured. tion of vitriolic acid with phlogiſton, and conſequently cally ſealed, and thus expoſed to the action of heat :
may be procured from any mixture of that acid in its in which caſe it will be found, that the colour of the
highlyconcentrated ſtate with phlogiſtic matters. Hence vapour becomes conſiderably more intcaſe in propor-
it is obtained from all the metals, gold and platina ex tion as the glaſs veſſel containing it is more or leſs
cepted, on boiling them with ſtrong oil of vitriol. It heated ; and that, on the contrary, the intenſity of
is alſo procurable from the ſame acid rendered black by the colour diminiſhes as it is cooled. t
any phlogiſtic matter. No greater heat is required to bable (ſays Dr Prieſtley), that if this vapour was not
expel this kind of air than that produced by the flame confined, but had room to expand itſelf, it would be-
of a candle. It is the heavieſt of all aërial Huids, next coine colourleſs with heat. This at leaſt is the caſe
to fluor acid air, being to common air as 2265 to 1000. when it is conabined with water. The phenoinena I
Dr Prieſtley informs us, that a quantity of vitriolic refer to are very common in the proceſs for making
acid thus impregnated with phlogiſton, will yield many dephlogiſticated air, in which I firſt obſerved them.
times more air than air equal quantity of the ſtrongeſt But the ſame things are obfervable in the proceſs for
fpirit of falt.-When the vitriolic acid air is produced producing any other kind of air in which much ſpirit of
in great plenty, the top of the phial in which it is gene- nitre is made uſe of; and likewiſe conſtantly in the -
rated is commonly filled with white vapours. The air common proceſs for making ſpirit of nitre itſelf. IE
has alſo the ſame appearance as it is tranſmitted through is, that when the heat is moderate, the vapour within
3.
tue.
168
How pro-
66 It ſeems pro-
104 .
.
E ROL OG
0 G Y.
.
Sect. XIIair.
§ 3.
170
Niarile site !!1s cibe or retori is red; but that, as the heat as to lilik in water ; and its ſmell is in great mcaſure Fluor Acid
Acid air. iucrcufes, it becomes tranſparent. The Dodor ha- altered. Etler abſorbs it very faſt, and has its colour Air, &c.
16.9 Ting obſerved that reúlead, inrpregnated with nitrous allered by the impregnation, becoining firſt carbid,
Its effccis vapour, may ve preſerved a long time without delithen yellow,and at lalt brown. The air over the ether
172
o.1 red-lead. quefcing or loſing its acid, made uſe of a compoſition is ſtrongly inflammable. A ſmall bit of phoſphorus Changed
of this kind for procuring the nitrous vapour with ſmoked and gave light in this acid air ; and the elaſtic into in-
which he filled his tubes. By imbibing this vapour fluid was but little diminiſlied in twelve hours.
On flammable
thominium loſt its red colour and became white. "I the admiſſion of water, about four-fifths of the gas
put (ſays he) a ſmall quantity of this white minium were abſorbed, and the reſt was inflammable. This
into a glaſs tube cloſed at one end; then holding it to
to change was alſo effected by a great number of other
the fire, make it emit the red vapour till the whole ſubítailces : ſome of whichi, liowever, require a con-
tube is filled with it ; and having the other end of the liderable time to produce their effect ; ſuch as cruſis
lube drawn out ready for cloſing, as ſoon as the vapour of bread not burned, dry wood, dry fleſh, roaſted pieces
begins to ifue out of that end, I apply my blowpipe of beef, ivory, and even flints. See CHEMISTRY, (In-
and feal it. By this means I conclude tliat the tube dux.)
is filled with a pure red vapour, without any mixture § 4. Of Fluor Acid Air. The diſcovery of fluor a-
of nitrous air, and per..aps common air alſo.” For a cid air was made by Mr Scheele, who obtained it by di-
furiher account of the properties of nitrous acid air, ſtilling the ſpar called fluor with vitriolic acid.' Dr
fee C11EMISTRY, (Index.)
Prieſtley, who made ſeveral experiments upon the ſub 173
Of Marine Acid Air.--The marine acid, by ject, was of opinion that this new acid was only the Different
heat, may be reſolved into a permanently elaſtic and vitriolic diſguiſed by its connection with the fuor, froin vitri-
tranſparent inviable vapour, which, however, is more He even ſuppoſed that he had produced it by pouring olic acid
air.
eatily preſerved in its aërial ſtate than nitrous acid air, vitriolic acid on other plioſphoric ſpars : both thefe
How ob- as the former has no effect upon quickſilver. An eaſy, opinions, however, he has now retracted, and believes
tained. and cheap method of obtaining this kind of air is by the fuor acid to be one of a peculiar kind. Its moſt
filling a phial, fitte, with a glaſs tube and flopper, remarkable property is the great attraction it has for
with common ſalt, and then pouring a ſinall quantity ſiliceous earth, fo that it even corrodes and makes
of oil of vitriol upon it; which, by the aſſiſtance of holes in the retorts in which it is diſtilled. Sée CHE-
heat, will diſengage the acid principle, or the marine MISTRY, (Index).
acid air, from the ſalt. “ A phial (ſays Dr Prieſtley) 5. Of the Vegetable and other Acid Air.-By
prepared in this manner will ſuffice, for common ex means of heat alone, the concentrated vegetable acid
periments, many weeks; eſpecially if ſome more oil emits a permanently elaſtic and aërial fluid. This has
of vitriol be occaſionally put to it. It only requires a the properties of the acid of vinegar ; but, like it, is
little more heat at the laſt than at the firit. Indeed, weaker than the reſt of the mineral acid airs, though
at firſt, the heat of a perſon's hand will often be ſuf- it agrees with them in its general chara:ters. Water
ficient to make it throw out the vapour.
In warm
imbibes it as readily as any of the other acid airs, oil-
weather it will even keep ſmoking many days without olive readily abſorbs it, arid in conſiderable quantity,
the application of any other heat. On this account loſing at the ſame time its yellowiſh colour, and be-
it Mould be placed where there are no metallic uten- coming quite tranſparent. Common air is phlogiſti- Phlogiſti-
fils which it can corrode ; and it may eaſily be per- cated by it, as it is alſo by the liquid vegetable acid. cates com-
ceived when the phial is throwing out this acid vapour, As the vegetable acid, however, from which this air mon air.
as it always appears in the open air in form of a light had been obtained, was diililled by oil of vitriol, the
white cloud.'
Doctor ſuſpected that what he had examined might
After the marine acid has yielded all the air that derive moſt of its properties from the cil of vitriol, and
can be expelled from it, it is extremely weak, ſo that rather be vitriolic than vegetable acid air.
Its proper- it can but barely corrode iron. The gas itſelf is con An acid air, ſomewhat different from any hitherto Air from
fiderably heavier than common air, the ſpecific gravity deſcribed, was obtained by Dr Prieſtley from the va folution of
of the two being in the proportion of five to three; pour ariſing on diſtilling to dryneſs a ſolution of gold gold.
a cubic inch weighing 0.654 grains. It is very fatal in marine acid impregnated with nitrous acid vapour,
to animal life, but leſs ſo than pure nitrous air ; for which makes the beſt kind of aqua regia.
6 The
fies and ſpiders live longer in marine acid than in ni- produce (ſays he) was an acid air of a very peculiar
In dipping a candle into a jar of this air kind, partaking both of the nature of the nitrous and
the flame is extinguilhed; but the moment before it marine acids; but more of the latter than of the for-
gocs out, and alſo when it is afterwards firſt lighted mer, as it extinguiſhed a candle; but it was both ex-
again, it barns with a green or light-blue flame, like tinguiſhed and lighted again with a moſt beautiful deep
that of common falt thrown into a fire. Its diminu- blue flame. A candle dipped into the ſame jar with this
tion by the electric ſpark is barely perceptible. Ice kind of air went out more than 20 times ſucceſſively,
is diſſolved by it as faſt as ifit touched a red-hot iron. making a very pleaſing experiment. The quantity of
Il is partly abſorbed by alınoſt every ſubſtance con this acid air is very great ; and the reſiduum I have
taining phlogiſton, and the remaining part becomes ſometimes found to be deplılogiſticated, ſometimes
inflammalle. Oil of olives abſorbs it very ſlowly, and phlogiſticated, and at other times nitrous air."
oil of turpentine very faſt; by which they both be-
Sect. XII. Of Hepatic Air.
come almoſt black, and the remainder of the air is in-
flammable. Eſſential oil of mint abſorbs marine air This ſpecies of air, firſt particularly taken notice
pretty faſt, becoming brown, conſiſtent, and ſo heavy of by Mr Bergman, who obtained it from an ore of
zinc
174
171
175
ties.
5
2
Sect. XIII.
A E ROL 0 GY
.
185
vyas
9
3 3
177
1
33
8
8
tis.
8
33
9
F3
Atmoſphe- zinc called Fferi 'ogal-na nigra Danremgreitlis, and . The 2nd of Jvarch it wis, though the Atmolhe.
rical dir, which was found to contiili 21
) paris of fulphur, one cold increaſcd, and the barometer food higher than rical Air.
of regulus of arſenic, fix of water, fix of lead, nine before. The 19 of April in was, though the ba-
176
of iru i, 45 of zinc, and tour of uliccous earih. The rometer and thermometer did not Vary, and 10 ftood iill
Broduced
firſt froin hepatic air was produced but in ſmall quantity by the 2rít. In May and June it ſtood between and
an ore of pouring oil of vitriol on this mineral; ſpirit of falt is. Tie 301h of July it ſtood at it. From the 3d
zinc. produced it in much larger quantity ; but nitrous acid to the 15th of September at its
The 6th of Octo-
produced only nitrous air. The moſt proper method bcr at during a high form; but after it ftood be-
Beft obtain- of obtaining this air is by pouring marine acid on he tween and ? , till the 4th of November, when it
par fulphu- par fulphuris, which extricates il in vait quantity. It fell to and continued bei ween & and to the
is ſaid alſo to be ſometimes produced naturally from 20th, when it role to . The 21ſt it fell to 8, and
putrefying matters. It is the characteriſtic of all li. ſtood between and still the 8th of December,
vers of ſulphur, whether they be made with alkalis or when it roſe to 's; and from thence to the 31ſt it
earths. The ſmell of the pure gas is intolerable; and ſtood between
ſtood between and '
the vapour has a ditagreeable effect on many metallic As it has already been ſhown that the pure dephlo.
ſubſtances, particularly ſilver, lead, copper, &c. de- giſticated part of the atmoſphere is entirely conſumed
ſtroying their colour, and rendering them quite black. by phlogiſtic proceſſes, ſuch as that of fermenting
It is ſuddenly fatal to animal life, renders fyrup of brimſtone and iron-filings, this eudiometer muſt be
violets green, and is inflammable, burning with a very conſidered as an exact teſt of the proportion of de-
light blue flame. It is decompoſed by vitriolic and phlogiſticated air contained in the atmoſphere. The
ritrous air, by dephlogiſticated air, and by the contact ſmall variation in the quantity shows, that the procef-
of atmoſphe.ical air, in which caſe it depolits a ſmall ſes in nature which deſtroy this air, are nearly balanced
quantity of ſulphur; being indeed, as is ſuppoſed by by thoſe which produce it ; though it muſt appear fur-
Mr Bergman and Mr Kirwan, no other than ſulphur priting, that both theſe Huids, fo extremely different,
kept in an aërial form. Its ſpecific gravity, compared hould be produced at all ſeaſons of the year in a pro-
with that of atmoſpherical air, is as pro6 to 1000. portion nearly equal ; nor is it leſs ſurpriſing that two
It combines readily with water, and gives the ſmell fluids of unequal ſpecific gravity ſhould remain incor-
to the fulphureous medicinal waters. Its great attrac- porated together without any tendency to ſeparate,
tion for ſome of the metals and their calces makes it which
which it is certain they never do, cither in the atmo-
the baſis of ſome Sympathetic Inks. See alſo CHE- ſphere itſelf, or when confined in veſſels in any quanti-
MISTRY, (Index.)
ty whatever.--Asphlogiſticated air is ſomewhat light-
er than dephlogiſticated, it might be ſuppoſed that the
SECT. XIII. Of Atmoſpherical Air.
former would occupy the higher regions of the atmo- Upper re-
ſphere in ſuch a manner as to render them conſider- gions of the
The two component parts of our atmoſphere, viz.ably more unwholſome than the lower parts; but this
falubrious
dephlogiſticated and phlogiſticated air, have been ſo ſeems not to be the caſe : On the contrary, it appears than the
fully treated of under their reſpetive ſections, that by experiments with the eudiometer, that the upper lower.
little remains to be faid in this place, excepting to de- parts of the air contain a greater proportion of dephlo-
termine the proportion in which they are uſually met giſticated air than thoſe near the earth. See EUDIO-
Froportion with in the common air. The only regular ſet of ex-
of the two periments which have been made on this ſubject are
ingredients thoſe of Mr Scheele. He conſtructed an eudiometer, Sect. XIV. Of the artificial Production of Airs of dif-
of which it
is compo-
consiſting of a glaſs receiver, which could contain 34
ferent kinds.
fed.
ounces of water, and a glaſs cup containing a mixture
of one pound of iron-filings, and an equal weight of § 1. FIXED Air, or Aërial Acid. The artificial me-
flowers of fulphur moiſtened; which cup ſtanding up- thods of producing this are principally three, viz. by
on a glaſs ſupporter, was inſerted in the former re- fermentation, by heat, and by acids.
ceiver, which, when this was in it, could contain 33 (1) By Fermentation. When vegetable or animal
ounces of water. To the outſide of the glaſs tube or ſubſtances, eſpecially the former, are fermented, they
receiver, was affixed a flip of paper, to the height of a yield a great quantity of fixed air. In breweries, on
third of the tube, containing 11 diviſions, each corre the ſurface of the fermenting liquor, there is always a
fponding to one ounce of water. This paper was var ſtratum of fixed air reaching as high as the edge of the
niſhed over with oil varniſh, to preventits being ſpoil- vats; ſo that if theſe veſſels are deep, and the ferment-
ed by water. The whole tlien was placed in water, ing liquor much below their edges, the abovemention-
which gradually roſe as the air was diminiſhed. This ed ſtratum inay be ſome feet in thickneſs. The ſame
mixture would ſerve four times before the power of di- phenomenon is obſervable in the fermentation of wines
miniſhing air was loft. He carefully compared the in general; and it is owing to the production and ela-
height of the air therein with the barometer and ther- fticity of fixed air, that fermenting liquors, when put
mometer, both before and after the experiment; in into cloſe veſſels, often burſt then with great violence.
eight hours the experiment was completed. With The caſe is the ſame whatever ſubſtance it is that un--
this inſtrument he examined the goodneſs of the com- dergoes the vinous fermentation, though the quantity
mon air in Stockholin every day for a whole year, and of fixed air produced is not the ſanie in all ſubſtances,
found the diminution never to exceed zz, nor to fall
nor to fall nor even in the ſame ſubſtance at different times, From
ſhortof 8 re; ſo that upon a medium it may be eſtimated 42 cubic inches of beer Dr Hales obtained 639 cubic
at z's. During the months of January and February it inches of air in 13 days. From a quantity of ſugar
VOL. I.
undergoing
179
air miore
178
METER.
as
А а
186
A E E ROL O GY.
Sect. XIV.
P
vers.
1
700
Of Artifi- undergoing the vinous fermentation, Mr Cavendiſh ob- leſs inixed with any purrid or offenſive effluvium, than Of Artifi-
cial Airs. tained ſo much fixed air, that out of 100 parts of the a whole animal, or than the liver, &c. The propor- cial Airs,
former 57 appeared to have been volatilized and con tion of inflammable and of fixed air is alſo various, ac-
verted into fixed air.
cording to the various parts employed.
But though a vait quantity of fixed air eſcapes du (2.) By heat. in every combuſtion, except that of
ring this proceſs of fermentation, a very confidcrable fulphur or of metals, a quantity of fixed air is genera-
portion Nill remains united with the fermented liquor, ted. This may be obſerved by fixing a lighted candle
and to this it oives all its briſkneſs and agreeable puna in 2:1 inverted receis er over a baſon of lime-water,
gent acidulous taſte; for when the fixed air is totally a precipitation of the lime will preſently enfue; and
evaporated, the liquor becomes entirely vapid and fiat. the ſame precipitation (which is one of the characte-
Hence alſo we are furniſhed with a inethod of reſtoring riſtics of fixed air) will always enſue, wliether a candle,
the briſkneſs to theſe liquors after they have loſt it in a burning piece of wood, or, in ſhort, any other com-
conſequence of being expoſed to the atmoſphere, viz. buſtible ſubſtance, except fulphur or metals, be made
by impregnating them again with fixed air, either na. uſe of.
turally or artificially produced.
During this production or extrication of fixed from
Dr Prieſtley has inade ſeveral experiments in order atmoſpherical air, the latter is commonly ſuppoſed to
to determine the quantity of fixed air contained in ſe- be conſiderably diminiſhed, though M. Lavoiſier and
veral ſorts of wine. His method was to take a glaſs Mr Scheele have now rendered that opinion doubt-
phial (fitted with a ground ſtopple and tube), capable ful. If a piece of charcoal be burned by throwing
of containing in ounce-meaſure. This he filled with the focus of a leuis upon it when contained in a glaſs
wine, plunged it into a proper veſſel of water. The receiver inverted in water, after the apparatus is cool-
whole was then put over the fire, and the water, into ed, the water will have mounted a ſmall way into the
which the phial was plunged, ſuffered to boil. The receiver. The diminution, however, is limited, and
end of the tube being placed under the month of an depends on ſeveral circumſtances. Dr Hales has ob-
inverted receiver filled with quickſilver, the heat ex- ſerved, that, in equal receivers, the air ſuffers a greater
pelled the fixed air from the wine, which entering into diminution by burning large candles than ſmall ones;
the receiver, aſcended in bubbles through the quick- and likewiſe that, when equal candles are made uſe of
ſilver to the top, puſhing out part of the metal and ta the diminution is greater in ſmall than in large recei.
king its place. The reſult of his experiments was as The cauſe of this phenomenon probably is, that
follows:
the air contained in the receiver cannot all come into
[ Madeira
contact with the flame of the candle ; whence, as ſoon
Port of fix years old
as the air which is neareſt the flame becomes conta-
I oz.
Hock of five years
minated, the candle is extinguiſhed. Thus the author
meaſ. Barrelled claret
지
​meaſ. of a Conciſe Treatiſe on the Various kinds of Perma.
of Tokay of 16 years
nently Elaſtic fluids, has diminiſhed the air of an in-
Champagneofiwoyears
2 oz. meaſ.
verted receiver one lixth part, by moving the candle
Bottled cyder of 12 years
whilſt it burned through the different parts of the vef-
During the acerous fermentation alſo, liquors emit fel, ſo that the flame was brought into contact with a
nature of its other component parts has not yet been mained in one ſituation till it became extinct. Dr
thoroaghly aſcertained.
Mayow obſerved, that by the burning of a candle the
Fixed air is likewiſe produced, though in no great air was diminiſhed of one thirtieth only; Dr Hales
quantity, by putrefaction. In this caſe, however, a found it to be diminiſhed of one twenty fixth part; and
great part of the elaſtic fluid conſiſts of inflammable Dr Prieſtley found it to be diminiſhed of one fifteenth
and phlogiſticated air, and the fixed air itſelf ſeeins to or ſixteenth. Mr Cavendiſhi obſerved, that air ſuf-
be intimately connected with a putrid offenſive effluvi- fered a diminution of one-tenth of the whole quantity,
It ſeemed to Dr Prieſtley to “depend in ſome by paſſing through an iron-tube filled with red-hoť
meaſure upon the time and other circumſtances in the powder of charcoal. A candle, or any other combuſ-
diſſolution of animal or vegetable ſubſtances, whether tible body, will ceaſe to burn by itſelf, and conſequently
they yield the proper putrid elluvium, or fixed or in to contaminate a quantity of confined air much ſooner
flammable air.'
than when it is, in ſome manner, forced to burn by the
The elaſtic fluid produced by putrefying vegetables, external application of heat. " The focus of a burn-
when kept in a moderate degree of heat, is almoſt all ing mirror,” ſays Dr Prieſtley, “thrown for a ſuffi-
fixed air ; while that from animal ſubſtances contains cient time either upon brimſtone or wood, after it has
ſeveral times more inflammable than fixed air. Vege- ceaſed to burn of its own accord, and has become
table ſubſtances yield almoſt all the permanently elaſtic charcoal, will have a much greater effect of the ſame
fluid in a few days, but animal bodies continue to emit kind, diminiſhing the air to its utmoſt extent, and
it for ſeveral weeks. When the claſtic fluid yielded making it thoroughly noxious.” The combuſtion of
by animal ſubſtances is abſorbed by water, and that the phuíphorus of urine diminiſhes air in a great de-
water boiled, the fixed air may then be obtained with gree. Mr Lavoiſier has obſerved, that by the coin-
out any nixture of the putrid eftluvium. It is alſo to buſtion of phofphorns, air may be dimipilhed of about
be obſerved, that the quantity of elaſtic fluid produ- one-fifth or one-ſixth. This accurate philofopher has
cible from animal ſubſtances is various according to alſo obſerved, that the acid of phosphorus thus formed,
the nature of the parts of the animal employed. Thus acquires the weight loſt by the diminiſhed air ; finding
the muſcular parts will yield iefs elaſtic fluid, and alſo that about three inches of air were abſorbed by every
of an
1
ounce
IT
contained of pure
fixed air
3
I
7
3 ditio.
11.
011
Sect. XIV.
A E ROL O GY.
187
cial sirs.
180
Of Artifi- one grain of phoſphorus, when the experiment was but does not produce any fixed air, ſince thelime-water, Of Artifi-
cial Airs, tried with a receiver inverted in water, upon the ſur over which the calcination is made, does not become
face of which a ſmall quantity of oil had been intro. turbid; and when metallic calxes are expoſed to a ſuf-
duced; but when the receiver was inverted in quick- ficiently ſtrong heat, they in general yield ſome fixed
ſilver, the abſorption was conſtantly between two one air: ſo that it ſeems that the fixed air which is formed
fourth and two three-fourth inches for each grain. Mr in the act of the calcination of metals is abſorbed by
Cavallo mentions his having often repeated the expe. the calx. Some fixed air may be obtained from red
riment of burning phoſphorus in a glaſs tube inverted lead, by no greater degree of heat than that of the flame
in water, by applying the cloſed part of the tube, of a candle applied to the phial that contains it.
wherein the phoſphorus was contained, to a pretty The calcareous earths, which, when acted on by Obtained
ſtrong fire, when he always obſerved that the utmoſt acids, yield a vaſt quantity of fixed air, produce a very from earth
dimninution of the incloſed air effected by this means ſmall quantity of it when expoſed to a ſtrong heat by by means
of heat.
was full one-fifth.
themſelves, in a proper veffel, even when expoſed to the
Dr Hales remarked, that after the extinction of focus of a lens. Dr Prieſtley, in his experiments re-
candles in-areceiver, the air continued to diminiſh for lating to the production of dephlogiſticated air from va-
ſeveral days after. This may be owing to the gradual rious
ſubſtances, when moiſtened with nitrous acid, and
abſorption of part of it by the water; it having been afterwards expoſed to a ſufficient degree of heat, gene-
remarked by Dr Prieſtley, “ that this diminution of rally found that ſome fixed air was produced together
air by burning is not always immediately apparent, till with the dephlogiſticated air ; but often obtained fixed
the air has paſſed ſeveral times through water; and that air only, without any depblogiſticated air being mixed
when the experiment was made with veſſels ſtanding in with it, or fixed and nitrous air together. From halfan
quickſilver inſtead of water, the diminutionwasgeneral- ounce of ruſt of iron, moiſtened with ſpirit of nitre, and
ly inconſiderable till the air had paſſed through water.' dried, he obtained about a quart of elaſtic fiuid, about
In theſe experiments of burning combuſtible bodies one-third of which was fixed and the reſt nitrous air,
in a quantity of air, and meaſuring the diminution, we From aſhes of pit-coal, treated in the ſame manner, he
fhould always remark two cauſes of miſtake, viz. the obtained nearly the like reſult. But in thoſe experi.
abſorption of air by the coaly reſiduum of the burned ments, the Doctor moſtly uſed a gun-barrel, into which
matter, which ſometimes is very conſiderable, or by he introduced the ſubſtances to be tried; ſo thatit is very
the fluid in which the receiver is inverted, and the probable, as he juſtly obſerves, that the iron might have
production of elaſtic fluid from the burning ſubſtan- contributed to the formation of the fixed air. In fact,
ces; thus gunpowder generates a great quantity of when he tried ſubſtances of the ſame fort, firſt in a gun-
claſtic fluid when inflamed, &c.
barrel and then in glaſs veſſels, he obtained much more
Even the electric ſpark ſeparates fixed air from com fixed air in the fornier than in the latter caſe. One
mon atmoſpherical air ; for when a number of theſe of thoſe experiments he made with tobacco-pipe clay,
ſparks are taken in a ſmall quantity of common air which, after being moiſtened with ſpirit of nitre, was
over lime-water, a diminution will take place, the lime when dry expoſed to the fire in a gun-barrel, and yield.
will be precipitated, and if we put a blue vegetable ed ſome elaſtic fluid, which appeared to be wholly fix.
juice inſtead of the lime-water, it will be turned red ed air ; but repeating the experiment in a glaſs-phial
by the acidity of the fixed air depoſited upon it. Dr with a ground ſtopple, and taking the produced ela.
Prieſtley having cemented a wire into one endof a glaſs ſtic fluid at eight different times, found that on the
tube, the diameter of which was about one-tenth of an beginning ſome fixed air was produced, but afterwards
inch, and having fixed a braſs ball to that extremity the produce was dephlogiſticated air. He made a
of the wire which was out of the rube, filled the lower ſimilar experiment with flints carefully calcined in
part of it with the juice of turnſole or archil, ſo that a cloſe yeſſels, and obtained a ſimilar reſult,
181
quantity of common air was contained in the tube bę. Moſt minerals contain fixed air, which may be ex- From dific
tween the extremity of the wire and the ſurface of the tracted to a certain degree by means of heat. Mr rent mine-
liquor. Then takingtheelectricſparks between the ſaid Krenger, diſtilling a greeniſh fuſible ſpar, which was rals.
wire and liquor for about one minute, the upper part luminous in the dark, obtained from it fome perma.
of the liquor began to look red, and in about two mi- nently elaſtic fluid, which, like fixed air, cryſtallized a
nutes it was manifeſtly ſo. The air at the ſame time, folution of fixed alkali. Nir Fontana in his analylis of
was diminiſhed in proportion as the liquor became red; the malachite, finds that that mineral contains a vajt
but when the diminution arrived to be one-fifth of the quantity of fixed air, as pure as that which is extract.
quantity of the air contained, then a longer electriza- ed from chalk by means of vitriolic acid.
tion produced no fenfible effect. 66 To determine, From almoſt every metallic ore and earthy mineral
ſays the doctor, “ whether the cauſe of the change of ſome fixed air may be obtained, as well as froin chalk,
colour was in the air or in the electric marter, 1 ex« llme-loue, marble, marine iliells, fixed aud volatile al.
panded the air which had been diminiſhed in the tube kali, and from magnesia alba, by nesnsor a violent fire,
by means of an air-pump, till it expelled all the liquor, or of acids,
and admitted freſh blue liquor in its place; but after In Mr Boyle's, Dr Boerhazre's and Dr Hales's
that, electricity prodaced iio fenfible effect, cither on works, and in other books, the quantities of elastic
the air or on the liquor; fo that it was evident that the Anid generated in various pro eiles, and by divers ſuba
electric matter had dccompoſed the air, and had made ftances, are mentioned with diſtincion, but as thoje
it depoſit fornerhing that was of ari aria nature." writers are not acquainted with the charaerefiicpro.
The calcination of metals, as already obfcrved, pblo. perties of fixed air, we do not know whether the elific
giſticates, and conſequently diminillies common air ; Auid mentioned by them was pure fixed air or not.
From
188
Sect. XIV.
Y.
Α Ε E R 0 L
L 0 G
Of Artifi. From animal ſubſtances, mixed with ſpirit of nitre, Thoſe properties of calcarcous earths and allalis Of Artifi-
cial Airs, and fonetimes heated a little, in order to facilitate the were aſcertained by the learned Dr Black, who per- cial Airs,
production of elaſtic Anid, Dr Prieſtley obtained, in fornied a variety of deciſive and well-contrived experi-
general, fised air ; but whercas the fixed air produced ments, upon which he formed a juít theory, viz. that
by a ſimilar proceſs with vegetable fubitances is moſtly the cauſticity, ſharpneſs, folubility, &c. of thoſe ſub-
mixed with nitrous air, this is mixed with an elaſtic ſtances, was owing to the fixed air being expelled from
fluid, which is ſeldom nitrous in a very ilight degree, them; and that when they were combined with a pro-
but is often phlogiſticated air, viz. in ſuch a ſtate as per quantity of fixed air, they were mild, &c. The
extirguiſhes a candle, does not diminih common air, Doctor gives the epithet of mild to thoſe ſubſtances
nor is itſelf diminiſhed by nitrous air. Towards the when they are combined with air, and of cauſic when
end of the proces, the Doctor remarks, that when deprivedófit; as cauſtic calcareous earth, cauſtic fixed
by means of a ſtrong heat, the produce of air is very alkali, &c. Among the other experiments, he connec-
rapid, and the air full of clouds, it is, like air, produ- ted two phials by means of a bent tube; in one of which
ced from vegetable ſubſtances in the ſame circumſtan- he pot foine cauſtic fpirit of ſal ammoniac, and in the
ces, lightly inflammable, burning with a lambent, otherſome mild alkali, or mild calcareous earth ; then
182 greenil, or bluiſh flame.”
pouring, through a hole made in the ſide of the latter
Abundant-
(3.) By acids. Calcareous ſubſtances in general pro- phial, lonie acid upon the mild alkali, ſo as to produce
ly produced duce abundance of fixed air when acted upon by any fome fixed air, which, paſſing through the tube into
reous tube acid, only the ſtrongeſt acids will expel from them the other phial, combined with the ſpirit of fal ammo-
Itances.
more fixed air than the weakeſt; and it happpens to be niac, and rendered it mild.
peculiarly advantageous for thoſe who want to produce Eaſy methods of obtaining Fixable Air for occaſional
a great quantity of fixed air, that the vitriolic acid is Experiments, &c.
both the cheapeſt and ſtrongeſt acid, and, upon the (1.) By Ferixentation. Mix together equal parts of
whole, the fitteſt for this purpoſe. The phenomena brown ſugar and
good yeſt of beer, to which ada about
attending the production of fixed air from calcareous twice the bulk of water. This mixture being put in-
ſubſtances, &c. are themſelves very remarkable, and to a phial, to which a bent tube with a cork inay be
furniſh the ſubject of much ſpeculation in philoſophy. adapted, will yield a conſiderable quantity of fixed air,
- The principal facts are the following. I. When
1. When which may be received into a phial filled with quick-
calcareous earths, alkalis, and inagneſia, in their uſual filver or water, as in the following proceſs.
ſtate, are mixed with acids, they cauſe an efferveſcence; (2.) By Acids. Let a glaſs tube, open at both ends,
and conſequently the production of a permanently ela. be bent, by means of a blow-pipe and the flame of a
ſtic fluid, namely, fixed air. 2. Theſe ſubſtances re candle, nearly into the ſhape of an S, as it is repre-
tain the
fixed air very obſtinately; ſo that a ſtrong fire ſented by AB, and fix a cork D to one of its exire- Plate X.
is neceſſary to expel it from magneſia, and the ſtrongeſt mities, ſo as to fit the neck of a common phial, that fig. 1.
is not ſufficient to expel it entirely from fixed alkalis, may hold about four or five ounce meaſures. The hole
and eſpecially from calcareous earths (A). When theſe through the cork may be made with an iron wire red-
ſubſtances are treated with acids, they yield the fixed hot, and the tube may be faſtened in it with a bit of
air, becauſe they have a ſtronger attraction to thoſe ſoft wax, ſo as not to let any air go through. Fill a
acids than to the fixed air. 3. The calcareous earths ſimilar phial, or any glaſs receiver K, with water, and Cavallo or
which are inſoluble in water, when deprived of the invert it after the manner ſhown above, in a baſon HI, Air.
fixed air become ſoluble in it. Thus lime-ſtone is not about half filled with water. Now put ſome chalk or
ſoluble in water, but lime (viz. lime-ſtone deprived of marble, groſsly powdered, into the bottle E, ſo as to
irs fixed air (is foluble in water. And if thoſe ſub fill about a fourth or fifth part of it, and upon it pour
ſtances, deprived of their fixed air, are put in a ſitua- ſome water, juſt enough to cover the chalk; then add
lion proper to recover their loft fixed air, they loſe ſome oil of vitriol to it, which needs not be more than
the property of being ſoluble in water. Thus, when about the fourth or fifth part of the water. Imnie-
lime-water is expoſed to fixed air, the lime abſorbs the diately after, apply the cork D, with the tube AB,
fixed air; and, loſing at the ſame time its property of to the bottle, and putting it in the ſituation FG, let
being ſoluble in water, is precipitated from it in the the extremity B of the tube paſs through the water of
Itate it was before calcination, vil. of a calcareous the baſon into the neck of the bottle K, which now
carth inſoluble in water, and capable of effervefcing muſt be kept up with the hand, or other convenient
with acids. 4. Alkalis, both fixed and volatile, when ſupport, as it cannot reſt upon the bottom of the ba-
deprived of their fixed air, become more cauſtic, and ſon. The mixture of chalk, &c. in the bottle FG,
more powerful ſolvents, incapable of cryſtallization, will immediately begin to efferveſce, ſhowing a froth-
and of efferveſcing with acids. But if to thoſe alkalis, ing, and an inteſtine motion accompanied with heat,
and alſo earths rendered more cauſtic, their fixed air that may be felt by applying the hand to the outſide
be reſtored, they acquire at once all the properties of the fluid. The elaſtic fluid called fixed air is co-
they had before they were deprived of the fixed air, piouſly emitted from this mixture, and paſſing through
viz. they become more mild, efferveſce with acids, re che bent tube, will go into the bottle K, as appears
cover their weight, &c.
by the bubbles which come out of the tube, and, par-
fing
(A) Chulk, lime-ftone, &c. after being kept in a very ſtrong fire for many hours, if they are put into
acids, yield a conſiderable quantity of fixed air ; which ſhows that the pureſt quick-lime contains ſome
fixed air.
Sect. XIV.
A E : R OLOGY,
189
Air,
Of Artifi- fing through the water, afcend to tbe top of the in this acidulated water, or water impregnated with fix- Of Artifi-
cial Airs, verted bottle. In proportion as the elaſtic Auiù fills ed air, is its being a powerful antiſeptic. As the moſi cial Hirs.
the botile K, the water gradually deſcends, and al, laſt uſed mineral waters are meuicinal principally on ac-
is quite expelled from it; the bottle K then is filled count of their being impregnated with fixed air, betides
with fixed air, and being corked under water, n'ay be which they generally contain ſome ſmall portion of mc.
renoved from the baſon, and kept for uſe. Another tal or falt dillolvcd ; they may be imitated by impreg-
bottle
miay then be filled with water, and may be in- naling water with fixed air and then addirig that quan-
verted over the cxtremity of the bent tube in the place ty of ſalt or of metal, that by analylis the original
of K, which other botile may be filled in a ſimilar man mineral waters are found to contain.
ner, and ſo on till the mixture in FG has finiſhed to
183
yield any fixed air.
It is for its great property of hindering putrefaction, Uſeful pro-
If one of theſe bottles filled with fixed air be un that fixed air by itſelf, or incorporated with various perties of
corked, and, holding it with the mouth upwards, a fiuids, cſpecially with water, and that vegetables, fixed air.
lighted wax taper, bent like L, or a finall piece of it ſugar, and other ſubſtances which abound with fixed
affixed to the extremity of a wire, be immediately let air, are very powerful rcniedies in putrid diſeaſes. Sir
down in it, the fiame will be inſtantly extinguished. John Pringle fuproſes, with great probability, that
The ſame thing will happen if a lighted piece of wood the frequent uſe of ſugar and vegetables, which at this
is let down in it.
time make up a conliderable part of the diet of the
Take a clean bowl, and putting the mouth of a bot- European nations, prevents thoſe puirid diſeaſes and
tle, filled with fixed air, in it, uncork it, and keep it in plagues which formerly were rather frequent.--Dr
that ſituation for about a minute. The fixed air be. Macbride, ſhowing experimentally that fixed air is
ing ſpecifically heavier than common air, will conie out diſcharged by ſuch fubitances as form our common
of the bottle, and will remain at the bottom of the food, aſcribes the preſervation of the body from putre-
bowl, whilſt common air enters into the bottle; which faction in great nieaſure to the fixed air, which in the
bottle may now by removed; and, in order to ſhow the ordinary proceſs of digeſtion is diſengaged from the a-
real exiſtence of the fixed air, which will immediately liment, and incorporates with the Huids of the body.
Cavallo on
ſhow its being heavier than common air, put a lighted From the ſame property it may be alſo uſefully ap-
wax-taper into the bowl, pretty near its bortom, which plied to ſeveral economical purpoſes. Mr Henry
taper will be extinguiſhed immediately. The air in found, that fixed air can preſerve fruit for a confider-
this experiment muſt be agitated as little as it is poſ- able time. He tried a brinch of Italian grapes, which
ſible. That the flame of the wax taper was really ex being ſuſpended in the middle part of Dr Nooth's ap-
tinguiſhed by the fixed air, may be eaſily proved in the paratus, and being ſupplied with plentiful ſtreams of
following maner :--Blow once or twice into the bowl, fixed air every day, was preſerved without any lions of
by which means the fixed air will be expelled from it decay for about one month longer than a ſimilar bunci
and then, on letting down a lighted wax-taper in it as ſuſpended in a decanter containing common air. Straw-
before, it will be found that it is nolonger extinguiſh. berries and cherries he alſo found to be preſerved
ed, but will burn very well, the bowl being now filled without decay ſome days longer in fixed than in
with common air. This experiment never fails of fur common air. Indeed fixed air preſerves not only fruit,
priſing the ſpectators, as it clearly exhibits two remark- but reſiſts putrefaction in general. Dr Macbride,
able properties of a fluid, which they can neither ſee in his elegant eſlays on Medical and Philoſophical
nor diſtinguiſh by the feeling.
Subjects, has published various experiments which de-
When the bottle K is about half filled with fixed monſtrate this property of fixed air. He found, that
air, put a mark with a bit of ſoft wax on the othide not only good meat was preſerved incorrupt for a con-
of it, juſt coinciding with the level of the water in it, fiderable time, when expoſed to fixed air ; but that
and immediately after ſhake the bottle; but taking the putrefaction of ſubſtances actually putrid was im-
care that its mouth be not lifted above the ſurface of peded by this ineans, and even that thoſe ſubſtances
the water in the baſon. After having ſhaken it for were reſtored from the putreſcent to a ſound ſtate.
184
about a minute, on intermitting the agitation, it will That putrefaction was checked by fermentation, was Refifts pu-
be found that the water is above the inark; which diſcoverd by Sir John Pringle ; and Dr Macbride ob- trefafllon.
fhows that ſome of the fixed air has been abſorbed by ſerved, that this effect was owing to the fixed air pro-
Let this abſorption be carried on as far as pof- duced in the act of ferınentation. But it muſt be
fible, by agitating the bottle repeatedly, and allowing obſerved, that when the ſound, or even putria ſub-
time to let more fixed air be produced and enter into ſtances, expoſe a very great ſurface to the fixed air, as
the bottle in proportion as the water abſorbs it. Then is the caſe with milk, bile, and other fluids impregna-
apply the hand, or a finger, to the mouth of the bottle ted with fixed air, and alſo with ſınall bits of meat,
whilſt under water ; bring the bottle out, and turn it then they are preſerved for a conſiderable time : buie
with the mouth upwards. The water then will be large pieces of ſolid animal ſubſtances, as for inſtance
found to have acquired a pleaſant acidulous taite. The roundil pieces of Helh of about half a pound weight,
water thus impregnated with fixed air changes the blue do not ſeem to remain incorrupt much longer in fixed
infuſion of ſome vegetable ſubſtances into red; ſo that than in common air ; at leaſt the difference is inconſi-
if a weak folution of heliotrope is mixed with it, or derable. Sir William Lee, baronet, in two of his let-
indeed if it is ſimply expoſed to fixed air, the liquor ters to Dr Prieſtley, informs him of his having found,
acquires a reddiſh appearance. It alſo corrodes iron,
It alſo corrodes iron, that fleſh-meat, even in the hot ſeaſon, could be pre-
and ſome other metals, much more eaſily than cominon ſerved wholeſome for ſeveral days, by only waſhing it
water.
But the greateſt and moſt uſeful property of two or three times a-day in water impregnated with
fixed
;
it.
?
Igo
Α Ε R OLOGY.
Sect. XIV.
185
Of Artifi- fixed air. "We have been enabled,” fays he, 66 to this means its combuſtion would be accelerated, ſo as of Artifi,
cial Airs. preſerve meat as perfecily fiveer and good to the ex to let it burn inſtantly, and go off with an exploſion, cial Airs,
tent of ten days, as at the firſt killing: and there ſeems cauſed by the ſudden rarefaction of the air. In fact,
no doubt it might be preſerved much longer.” He this effect may be ealily obſerved in the following man.
has even recovered ſome meat that had begun to ner: When the bottle is to be inverted into the balon,
change. This uſeful diſcovery, Sir William juſtly ob in order to let it be filled with the inflammable gas,
ſerves, may be very beneficial to the public, eſpe- inſlead of filling it entirely with water, let half of it
cially to butchers. « Particularly a butcher,” ſays remain filled with common air ; then invert it, and let
he,“ who deals pretty largely, aſſures me he found the other half, which is now filled with water, be filled
the greateſt ſucceſs from it, and only objects that the with inflammable airafter the uſual imanner; and when
veal was a little diſcoloured though kept perfectly the bottle is full, remove it in the manner hown above,
ſweet."
and approach it to the flame of the candle, by which
Fixed air, as it combines with water, ſo it may be means the inilanımable air takes fire ; but now it ex-
combined with other liquors. Beer, wine, and other plodes all at once with a large flame and a confider-
fermented liquors, may be impregnated with fixed air, able report, ſometimes breaking the bottle in which it
and by tliis means their ſharpneſs niay be reſtored, is contained. In this caſe, the bottle being filled with
when they are become vapid, or as it is commonly ſaid, equal parts of inflammable and common air, theſe two
deed. The acidulous taſte communicated by the im elaſtic fluids were mixed together, fothat almoſt every
pregnation of fixed air, cannot be diſcovered in beer, particle of theore touched every particle of the other,
wines, and, in ſhort, in ſuch liquors which have much and hence the ſudden combuſtion was occaſioned, The
taſte of their own, Milk acquires an acidulous taſte force of this exploſion is ſo very conſiderable, that ſome
by being impregnated with fixed air, and is thereby piſtols have been contrived, which are charged with a
prcſerved incorrupt for ſome days; which affords a mixture of air and inflammable gas, and being fired
very eaſy expedient of preſerving milk in thoſe pla- by means of an electric fpark, are capable to drive a
ces where it cannot be had new very often.
leaden bullet with great violence. Sometimes thoſe
piſtols are niade of glaſs (but in this caſe they are not
Production
§ 2. To produce INFLAMMABLE Air.--The proceſs charged with a bullet), and it is very diverting to ſhow
of inflam-
for making this ſort of gas is the ſame as that for ma that piſtols are charged and explode by the combuſtion
mable air
king fixed air: one of the materials only muſt be dif- of an inviſible ſubſtance.
ferent, viz. iron-filings, or groſsly powdered zinc, When a ſlender pipe is tied to the neck of a blad-
muſt be nſed inſtead of chalk ; to which filings fome der, and the bladder is filled with inflammable air,
oil of vitriol and water muſt be added, in the ſame pro after the manner deſcribed in the preceding experi-
portion as in the fixed air, or rather a little more of ment (viz. when the bladder was required to be filled
oil of vitriol.
with fixed air), two very pleaſing experiments may be
N. B. Inſtead of the filings of iron, ſmall nails, or performed with it. First, the inflammable gas may be
ſmall bits of iron-wire, anſwer equally well. inflamed by applying the flame of the candle to the
The inflammable elaſtic fluid produced hy this mix- extremity of the pipe; and ſqueezing at the ſame time
ture has a diſpleaſing ſmell, even when mixed with a the bladder, a ſtream of fire will be formed in the air,
very large quantity of common air; ſo that if any which will laſt as long as the bladder contains any in-
conſiderable quantity of it comes out of the bottle, flammable air ; for this gas coming out of the pipe
before the cork with the bent tube be applied to it, &c, with violence, will continue inflamed
for a conſiderabic
its (mell may be perceived all over the room in which way in the air. Secondly, the extremity of the pipe
the experiment is made, but this ſmell is not particu. may be dipped into a ſolution of ſoap, then removing
larly offenſive.
it from the ſolution, and ſqueezing the bladder very
When a bottle has been filled with this claſtic fluid, gently, a ball of foap-water may be formed, including
ſtop the mouth of it with your thumb, or any ſtopper, inflammable air: whiclı ball, on account of the inflan-
and taking it out of the baron, brilig it near the flame mablegas being much lighter than common air, as foon
of a candle ; and when the mouth of the bottle is very as it is detached from the pipe will aſcend upwards,
near ir, remove the ſtopper, and the elaſtic fuid con and will break by daſhing againſt the ceiling, contrary
tained in the bottle will be immediately inflamed; and to thoſe commonly made by children, which in ſtill air
if the capacity of the bottle is nearly equal to four go downwards. Whilſt the ball is aſcending, if the
ounce-meaſures, it will continue burning quietly for Aame of the candle be approached to it, the film of
about half a minute, the flame gradually deſcending ſoap-water will be inſtantly broke, and the inflam-
lower and lower, as far as about the middle of the bote mnable air will take fire
mable air will take fire ; thug a flame may be ſhown
ile, in proportion as the infiammable gas is confirmed to be ſeemingly produced froin a ſoap-ball!
187
In this experiment we fee, that inflaniniable air fol. By taking elečtric ſparks in any kind of oil, fpirit Inflamina-
lows the geiieral rule of all other combustible ſub of viuc, ether, or ſpirit of fal ammoniac, Dr Prieſt- blc air oh-
ſtances, namely, that of burning only when in contact ley obrained inflammable air. The oil, or other li- tained from
with conimon air: thus che tune of this gas, whilſt quor, was confined in a glaſs tube by quickſilver, and va: ious ſub-
burning, is obſervable only on that ſurface of it which a wire wis cemented in the upper part of the tube, ſtances,
is contiguous to ilio common air ; ſo that if the bottle through which the ſparks being fent, went to the
186
be clofed, the flame is put out immediarely, becauſe quicllilver through the oil; but after that a fcw ſparks
Pleno.
the air is intercepted from it. But if the inílammable had been taken, a quantity of inflammable air was
air were put in fuch a ſituation as to expoſe a very generated, &c. Left the production of inflammable
great ſurface to the common air, it is plain, that by air fliould be attributed to the cement which faſtened
the
މް
nicna.
Sect. XIV,
A A EROLOGY,
191
of Artifi- the wire, the Doctor repeated the experiment with By means of nitrous acid, infiammable air may be of Artifi-
cial Airs. ether in a glaſs ſyplion ; but the inflammable air was obtained from various ſubſtances containing phlogiſton; cial Airs.
generated as before. This elaſtic fluid does not loſe but it is always mixed with nitrous air, and ſometimes
its inflammability by being palled ſeveral times from alſo with fixed and common or phlogiſticated air. if
one vefſcl into another through water.
two parts of ſpirit of wine, mixed with one part of
Alkaline air, by taking elc&tric exploſions in it, is nitrous acid, are put into a chia) with a ground-ſtopple
changed into inflammable air.
and tube, and the flame of a candle be applied to it, fo
By means of acids, inflammable air is obtained in
as to heat it gradually, the inflammable air will be pro-
grcater abundance, and more readily., Iron, zinc, or duced very readily the infiammability of which is,
tin, yield plenty of inflammable air when acted on by however, not very permanent, for by a little waſhing
diluted vitriolic or marine acids.
in water it may be annihilated. In the ſolution of
If iron is put into ſtrong vitriolic acid, the quan- moſt ſubſtances in nitrous acid, it generally happens,
tity of elaſtic fluid that is produced is very little, ex that the elaſtic fuid, which is obtained towards the
cept heat be applied to the phial, for then the pro. latter end of the proceſs, soſſeſſes the property of be
duction of elaſtic fluid is more copious; but this cla. ing inflanımable: thus iron, diffolved in nitrous acid,
ſtic fluid is vitriolic acid air, mixed with a ſınall poro yields nitrous air ; but when the nitrous air ceaſes to
tion of inflammable air, the proportional quantity of be produced, if the heat of a candle be applied 10 the
it being leſs when the acid is more concentrated. ſolution, more elaſtic fiuid will be produced which is
Zinc treated after thefanie manner, produces the like inflamniable. “ The nitrous acid (ſays Dr Ingen.
effects, except that it gives more elaſtic fluid, without houz) when mixed with iron-filings in a very diluted
the application of heat, than iron does; and the great- ſtaie, gives, by the aſſulance of a moderate degrce of
eſt part of the produced elaſtic fluid is inflammable. heat, a mixture of different airs, partly fixed, parily
In order to obtain the greateſt quantity of inflam conimon air, and partly phlogiſticatedair. See further
mable air from iron or zinc, the vitriolic acid muſt be the article AEROSTATION.
diluted with much water, as about one part of ſtrong
oil of vitriol to five or ſix parts of water. Dr Prieſt 3. To produce NITROUS Air --This permanently
ley found, that u grains of iron yielded 8; ounce.
elaſtic fluid is never found naturally, like fixed or in-
meaſures of inflammable air. According to Mr Ca flaminable air, but is entirely artificial.
188
vendiſh, one ounce of zinc, diſſolved either in the yi-
Either ſilver, copper, brais, iron mercury, biſmuth, Nitrous air
triolic or marine acid, yields a quantity of inflamma. or nickel, when mixed with nitrous acid, yield nitrous is entirely
ble air equal to the bulk of 356 ounces of water ; one air in great quantities. Some of them, eſpecially mer- artificial.
ounce of iron, diffolved by means of vitriolic acid, cy, require the aid of heat in order to produce the
yields a quantity of inflammable air equal to the bulk claſtic fluid ; the flame of a candle applied to the phial
of 412 ounces of water; and one ounce of tin yields is ſufficient: but others, eſpecially copper and iron,
half as much inflammable air as iron does.
do not want the application of any heat. Gold plaa
The folutions of iron, tin copper, lead and zinc, tina, and the regulus of antimony, when put in aqua
in the marine acid, produce marine acid air, and in- regia, yield nitrous air pretty readily. Among the
flammable air, but in various quantities. The propor- metals, lead yields nitrous air in the ſmalleſt quantity.
tion of the former to the latter is as one to eight in “ I poured (ſays Dr. Prietily) ſmoking ſpirit of nitre
iron, as one to fix in tin, as three to one in copper into a phial with a ground-Itopple and tube, contain-
and lead, and as one to io in zinc. Regulus of anti- ing ounce-mcaſure filled with ſmall leaden flot,
mony, diſſolved in marine acid, with the application fo as to leave no common air at all, either in the
of heat, yields a ſmall quantity of elaſtic fluid, which phial or in the tube ; and I placed it ſo as to
is weakly infiammable.
receive the air that might come from it in water. 184
Dr Prieſtley obtained inflammable air, not only by After waiting an hour, in which little or no air vas From what
difolving various ſubſtances in marine acid, but alſo by produced, I applied the flame of a candle, though ſubſtances
expoſing divers bodies to inarine acid air, which is not very near, to it : and in theſe circumſtances i produced,
got
probably the pureſt part of the inarine acid. Having about an ounce-meaſure of air: but upon ſome water
admitted iron-filings to this acid air, they were diffol- ruſhing into the phial while the candle was withdrawn,
ved by it pretty faſt ; half of the elaſtic fluid diſap- air was produced very plentifully. I collected in alí
peared, and the reſt was rendered unabſorbable by wa about a quarter of a pint ; and might probably have
ter, and inflammable. The ſame effect was produced got much more, but that the ſalt formed by the ſolu-
by almoſt every ſubſtance which contains phlogiſton, tion of the lead had ſo nearly cloſed up the tube, that
as by ſpirit of wine, oil of olives, ſpirit of turpentine, I thought proper to diſcontinue the proceſs. The air,
charcoal, phoſphorus, bees wax, fulphur, dry-cork- both of the firſt and of the laſt produce, was of the
wood, pieces of oak, ivory, pieces of roaſted beef, and ſame quantity ; and ſo far nitrous, that tio meaſures
even ſoine pieces of a whitiſh kind of fint.
of common air, and one of this, occupied the ſpace
A greater or ſmaller portion of the acid air was ab- of two meaſures only; excepting that the very firſt
forbed, and the reſt ſometimes was all inflammable, and very laſt produce, mixed with common air, took
and often was partly acid air, which was ſoon abſorbed up a little more room than that which I got in the
on the admiſion of water, and parily inflammable. middle of the proceſs. When the air was produced
In fhort, it ſeems as if this acid air, having a great very faſt, it was exceedingly turbid, as if it had been
affinity with phlogiſton, ſeparates it from all thoſe ſub- filled with a white powder.
ſtances which contain it even in ſmall quantity, and Among the ſemi-metals, zinc gives the weakeſt ni-
from that combination becomes inflammable.
trous air, when diffolved in nitrous acid. The elaſtic
fluid
-
I
A E R o L OG V.
192
Sećt. XIVXIV
accurate.
dwt. grs.
O
I
.
of arriſ. fluid produced from ii is noftly phloginicuted air. elutic fluid, render the operation both difficult and Of Artifi-
011 sd.rs from ſuur peilywei:hts and 17 grains of zinc, diliol- dangerous for the operator'.
cial Airs.
ved in fpirit or nitre diluted with an equal quantity of Åslie nitrous air is molily neceſſary to try the
190
wa.er, Òr Priefilcy obuwned about 12 ounce-meaſures goodness of reſpirable air, it is of great conſequence Pure mer.
or very treak nitrous air, It occalioned a very iliglit to makc it always of one conſtant degree of goodneſs ; cury yields
efferveſcence when inixed with common air. The but this object is anſwered by diffolving fubilances of the beſt.
Dolor obtained nitious air even from ſume flowers of a very homologous nature in the nitrous acid; theie-
zinc. “Having ſays he) mixed a quantity of blue fore it is plain, that the metals whoſe lidlure is more
ſpirit of nitre with riowers of zinc, which were of a uniforin muſt be prefcrred for this purpoſe. Accord-
dull colour, and appeared from ſcveral experiments to ingly, braſs yields nitrous air of a more uniform nature
contain a portion of phlogiſton, it yielded, with the than iron : copper is fuperior to braſs; bat pure mer-
heat of a candle applied to the phial which contained cury is ſtill ſuperior to copper : and indecd this is the
it, Itrong nitrous, air; when the common ſpirit of nitre, metal which, conſidering its nature, uniformity of ſub-
applied in the ſame manner, gave only phlogiſticated ſtance, and eaſy folution, is upon the whole the moſt
ait; the phlügiſton of which came probably from the uſeful for this purpoſe.
caix itſelf, though a ſmall portion of it might have been It has been generally obſerved, that folid vegetable
in the nitrous acid, which I believe is never entirely ſubſtances, when diſlolved in nitrous acid, yield inore
free from it."
nitrous air than the animal ſubſtances, though this ni-
The quantity of nitrous air that may be obtained trous air is not ſo pure as that obtained from metals.
froni various metals, is difficult to be aſcertainled, 011 Sometimes it contains ſome fixed air, and a good
account of the diverſity occaſioned by the ſtrength of deal of inflammable air which is inoſly produced to-
the acid, the vérious nature of the metallic ſubſtance, wards the end of the proceſs. On the other hand, the
and the method of performing the experiments. The nitrous air, extracted from aniinal ſubſtances generally
following is a table of the produce of nitrous air from contains a good deal of phlogiſticated air, and foine-
various metals, extracted from Dr Prieſtley's firſt vo times fonie fixed air. In order to obtain nitrous air
lume of Experiments and obſervations; but which, from the ſolution of animal and vegetable ſubſtances
as the author himſelf intimates, is far from being very in nitrous acid, often ſome degree of heat muſt be ap-
plied to the phial. The acid alſo ſometimes niuſt be
very concentrated, and in other caſes it muſt be dilu-
6
of ſilver yielded 17 ounce-meaſures. ted; but it is hardly worth while, or practicable, to
5 19
of quickſilver, 41
determine with exactneſs all thoſe particular caſes.
2nd of copper,
To make Nitrous Air.-The metal, viz, copper,
of braſs,
braſs or mercury, is firſt put into the bottle (which,
of iron,
as well as the whole proceſs, is the ſame as that de-
5
of biſinuth, 6
fcribed for fixed Air), ſo as to fill about one-third of
of nickel,
the ſame ; then ſome water is poured into the bottle,
The various ſtrength of the nitrous acid produces ſo as juſt to cover the metal-filings; and laſtly, the ni-
great diverſity in the production of nitrous air. Thus, trous acid is added, the quantity of which, when ſtrong,
if copper is diffolved in ſtrong nitrous acid, it will not ſhould be about one-third or half the quantity of the
produce the leaſt quantity of nitrous air ; but when dif water. The ſmell of the nitrous gas is very penetra-
folved in diluted nitrous acid, it produces a great quan- ting and offenſive, and occaſions a red ſmoke as foon
tity of that elaſtic fluid. The ſtrong and pale.coloured as it comes into contact with the common air; hence
nitrous acid ſhould be diluted with at leaſt wo or three whenever any of it eſcapes from the bottle, it may be
parts of water to one of the acid, for the eaſy pro- obſerved not only by the ſmell, but alſo by the flight
duction of nitrous air from copper and mercury. red colour.
The briſkneſs of the efferveſcence, and the produc In order to obſerve the principal property of this
tion of nitrous air, are promoted by heat, and alſo by elaſtic fluid, which is that of diminiſhing the bulk of
letting the metallic ſubſtance preſent a great quantity common air, let a glaſs tube, cloſed at one end, and
of ſurface to the acids,
about nine inches long, and half or three quarters of
For the generality of experiments, no other degree an inch in diameter, be filled with water, and inverted
of heat is required than that produced by the effer- in water ; then take a ſmall phial, of about half an
veſcence itſelf, except mercury be uſed, which requires ounce-meaſure, filled with common air, and plunging
the application of ſome heat. When the nietal exhi it under the water contained in the fame baſon where
bits a very great ſurface to the acid, as is the caſe when the inverted tube is kept, let that quantity of air en-
filings are uſed, the efferveſcence and production of ter into the tube, which will go to the tup of it, the
nitrous air are often much quicker than can be con water ſubliding accordingly. Let a mark be made,
vcniently managed.
either with a file or by ſticking ſoft wax on the tube,
Copper or braſs, when clipped into flat bits, each juſt oppoſite to the ſurface of the water in it, which
about two or three grains in weight, and about a will mark how much the tube is filled by that given
quarter of a ſquare inch in ſurface, and when diſſolved meaſure of air. After the ſame manner, fill the ſame
in nitrous acid properly diluted, yield nitrous air very ſmall phial (which we ſhall call the meaſure again with
equably ; but if iron be uſed, the pieces of it ſhould air ; throw that air into the tube, and put a mark on
be larger and fewer; in ſhort, it ſhould preſent a much the tube coinciding with the level of the water in it.
leſs ſurface to the diluted acid; otherwiſe the increaſe In this manner, let four or five meaſures be marked on
of heat in the proceſs, and the rapid production of the tube. Now, if three meaſures of common air are
145
2
O
21
20
I
I 2
4
2
put
Se&t. XIV.
A E R o L O GY.
193
Of Artilio put into this enbe, when filled with water and inverted, the Antediluvians to the great purity of the atmoſphere of Art fi.
cial Airs. ihey will fill a ſpace of it as far as the third mark. at that time; the whole maſs being afterwards tainted cial Air-.
The ſame thing will happen if tlırce meaſures of ni- by the deluge, in ſuch a manner that it could never
trous inſtead of common air be put in it; but if two regain its former purity and falubrity. B:t all this as
meafurcs of common air and one mcaſure of nitrous yet is mere conjecture; and excepting the ſingle fact,
air, or one meaſure of the former and two of the lat that animals live much longer in a quantity of dephlo-
ter, be introduced in it, they will fill a ſpace much giſticated than of common air, there is no evidence
ſhorter than the third mark. On the moment that that the former contributes more to longevity than the
theſe two kinds of elaſtic fluids come into contaci, a latter. Dr Prieſtley even throws out a conjecture, that
reddiſh appearance is perceived, which foon vaniſhes, the uſe of dephlogiſticated air mighit perhaps wear out
and the water, which at firſt nearly reaches the third the ſyſtem much ſooner than common air, in the ſame
mark, riſes gradually into the tube, and becomes near manner as it conſumes fuel much faſter than common
ly ſtationary after about two or three minutes; which air. The great quantity, however, even of the pure
shows that the diminution is effected gradually. See air, which is requiſite to ſupport animal life, and the
EUDIOMETER
expence and trouble of the moſt ready methods of
procuring it, have hitherto prevented any fair trial
§ 4. To procure DEPHLOGISTICATED Air.—This is from being made. Yet philoſophers, conſidering the
no other than exceedingly pure atmoſpherical air, en probability there is of this kind of air being ſalutary
tirelyfree from thoſe heterogeneous vapours which con. in many diſeaſes, baving beſtowed fome pains in at-
taminate the air we commonly breathe. The eaſieſt tempting to find out methods of procuring it eaſily
inethod of procuring this air is to put ſome red-lead into and in large quantity ; concerning which we have
the bottle, together with ſome good ſtrong oil of vi the following obſervations in Cavallo's Treatiſe on
triol, but without any water. Let the red-lead fill Air.
about a quarter of the bottle, and the vitriolic acid be "A man makes in general about 15 inſpirations in
about the ſamie quantity or very little leſs; then ap a minute, and takes in about 30 cubic inches of aërial
ply the bent tube to the bottle, and proceed in the fluid. But the air which has been once inſpired is not
faine manner as above. But it muſt be remarked, that thereby much injured, and it may be refpired again
without heat this mixture of red-lead and vitriolic acid and again; ſo that upon a very moderate calculation,
will not give any dephlogiſticated air, or it yields an and as appears from aétual experiments often repeated,
inconſiderable quantity ofit; for which reaſon the flame we may ſafely affert, that a perſon can breathe 400
of a candle (that of a wax taper is ſufficient) muſt be cubic inches of good ordinary atmoſpheric air, at leaſt
applied under the bottom of the bottle ; which for this 30 times, without any inconvenience, i, e, it would
purpoſe muſt be rather thin, otherwiſe it will be eaſily ſerve for two minutes ; after which that air, though
cracked (A). In this manner the red-lead will yield much depraved, is ſtill in a ſtate of being breathed,
a good quantity of elaſtic fluid, the greateſt part of but then it would occaſion fome uneaſineſs. Now,
which is dephlogiſticated air ; but not the whole quan- fuppoſing the dephlogiſticated air employed to be four
tity of it, for a good portion of fixed air comes out tinies more pure than common air, 400 cubic inches
with it. In order to ſeparate the fixed air from the de of dephlogiſticated air would ſerve for at leaſt 120 re-
phlogiſticated air, the inverted bottle, when filled with ſpirations or eight minutes.
the compound of both, as it is emitted from the red " But ſuppoling ihat 30 inches of common air are
lead, muſt be fhook in the baſon for impregnating completely phlogiſticated by a ſingle inſpiration, and
water with fixed air ; by which means the water will changed for ſuch as is quite freſh, which indeed is the
abſorb the whole quantity of fixed air, and leave the caſe in common reſpiration, then 450 cubic inches of
dephlogiſticated air by itſelf.
common air will be requiſite for one minute's reſpira-
From every experiment it appears, that dephlogiſti- tion, and 27,000 for one hour; and as dephlogiſtica-
cated air, if it could readily be obtained, and at a cheap ted air is ſuppoſed to be four times as good, the ſame
rate, would be a moſt valuable manufacture. The quantity of it will ſerve for four hours. Indeed, if we
heat communicated by means of it to burning fuel is could depend on the allertions of Mr Fontana, that
incredible.
by adding lime-water to abſorb the fixed air produced
Theſe are not the only advantages which might be by reſpiration, an animal can live 30 times as long as
expected from dephlogiſticated air. It has been found without it, no doubt a niuch ſmaller quantity would
by experience, that animals will live much longer in ferve."
this kind of air than in an equal quantity of common
But it is certain ſuch aſſertions cannot be true; be-
air ; whence it is ſuppoſed, that the breathing of it muſt cauſe, though the fixed air ſhould be abforbed as ſoon
be much more healthy, and contribute to longevily as produced, the remaining quantity would ſtill be
much more than the common atmoſphere. Nay, there containinated by phlogiſton. Nay, we are informed
are not wanting ſome who attribute the longevity of by Dr Prieſtley, who repeated Fontana's experiments,
VOL. 1.
Bb
that
1
(A) In this operation the flame of the candle, when once applied, muſt be kept continually near it; and
when the mixture does not produce any inore elaſtic fuid, or the operation is required to be intermitted, care
Nould be taken to remove the extremity of the bent tube from the water firſt, and then to tale of the fame of
the candle from under the bottle; otherwiſe, if the flame of the candle be firſt removed, the inaterials within
the bottle condenſing by cold, the water immediately enters, which in an inſtant fills the bottle, and generally
breaks it.
1944
A E R o L O GY.
Sect. XIV.
of Artifi- tliat animals will not live longer in a quantity of de uſual apparatus and furnace, the expences at preſent Of Artifi-
cial Airs. phlogiſticated air when it ſtands in contact with lime neceſſary in London for the production of :2,000 cu- cial Airs.
water, than they will when no lime-water is uſed. bic inches of dephlogiſticated air, (viz. the price of one
In what manner a difference ſo enormous can take pound of nitre, ofan earthen retort or other veſſel, and
place, between philoſophers in other reſpects fo accu of charcoal), aniount to about 4s. or 4s. 6d.”
rate, we can by no means determine. It is plain, Another method of preparing dephlogiſticated air
however, that if 27,000 inches of common air are ne is, hy blowing that of the coinnion atmoſphere thro'
ceſſary for a perſon in one hour, the ſame quantity of melted nitre. In this proceſs the phlogiftori contained
dephlogiſticated air cannot be breathed longer than in the atmoſphere is gradually conſumed, by detonating
four hours, nor even ſo long with any real advantage. with the acid of the nitre, and therefore iſſues much
Mr Cavallo indeed allows only 12,000 inches for four more pure than before. This method has the appear-
hours; but though this might no doubt ſuſtain life for ance at firſt of being much eaſier and more comniodious
that time, the perſon muſt at beſt expect nothing from than the former ; but as it is impoſſible to mix the at-
it fuperior to the common atmoſphere, if he was not moſpheric air fo exactly with the melted nitre that every
materially injured by it.
particle of the one niay come in contact with every
Avery ready method of procuring dephlogiſticated air particle of the other, it is plain that the former mé-
in large quantity, is by means of nitre; and on the fup thod inuſt be preferable ; not to mention that it will
poſition that 12,000 inches are ſufficient for four hours, be found exceedingly troubleſome to blow the air
(or for 40 hours, as he limits the Abbé Fontana's ſuppo- through the nitre, as the latter will be perpetually apt
fition), Mr Cavallo proceeds in the following manner : to cool and concrete into lumps by the cold blaſt.
“The inſtruments neceſſary for the production of de-
phlogiſticated air from nitre are the following; viz. § 5. Topracure VITRIOLIC Acid Air.—This conſiſts of
earthen retorts, or earthen veſſels with a ſtraight neck, the vitriolicacid,united with ſome phlogiſton, which vo-
ſomewhat in the ſhape of Florence flaſks, but with a latilizes and renders it capable of aſſuming the form of
longer neck, theſe being cheaper than the retorts, and a permanently elaſtic fluid. To obtain it, ſome ſtrong
anſwering as well ;-a ſmall furnace, in which the concentrated vitriolic acid muſt be put into the uſual
earthen retort muſt be kept red-hot; a common bottle, together with ſome ſubſtance capable of fur-
chimney fire is not ſufficient. Theſe furnaces may be niſhing phlogiſton, Olive oil anſwers very well. The
very eaſily made out of large black lead crucibles. oil of vitriol ſhould be about three or four times as
The nitre muſt be put into the retort or other veſſel, much as the ſweet oil, and both together ſhould fill
ſo as to fill half or nearly three quarters of its belly; about one-third or half the bottle. A gentle degree
then a bent glaſs tube is luted to the neck of the car of heat is then required, in order to let theſe materials
then velſel, in ſuch a manner as not to let any elaſtic yield any elaſtic fluid; which may be done by apply.
fuid eſcape into the open air. The beſt lute, or ce ing the faine of a wax taper, as directed above for the
ment for this or ſimilar purpoſes is inade by mixing to production of dephlogiſticated air.
gether whiting and drying oil. The retort being put
into the furnace, muſt be ſurrounded with lighted
$ 6. To procure MARINE Acid Air, which is no o-
charcoal, which is to be ſupplied according as it waſtes:
ther than the marine acid itſelf,and which without any
in ſhort, the belly of the retort muſt be kept quite ſea-ſalt, or common kitchen fait, into the uſual bottle
addition becomes a permanently elaſtic fluid ; put ſome
red-hot, or rather white-hot, for about three hours at
leaſt. If, inſtead of the retort, the other deſcribed
in which the materials for producing elaſtic fluids aro
tarthen veſſel be uſed, care ſhould be had to place it
generally put, ſo as to fill about a fourth part of it,
with the neck as little inclined to the horizon as pos-
and upon this ſalt pour a ſmall quantity of good con-
fible, leſt the nitre ſhould ſtop the neck and break it."
centrated vitriolic acid ; then apply the bent tube to
The air is then to be received into large glaſs jars, as
the bottle, and introduce it through the quickſilver
is uſual in other experiments on air.
into the receiver, filled with andinverted in quickſilver
* The retort or other earthen yeſſel that is uſed for
after the uſual method, and the elaſtic fluid is copi-
this purpoſe cannot ſerve for more than once, becauſe ouſly produced.
it generally breaks in cooling; and beſides, the de § 7. 70 procure NITROUS Acid Air. This may be
compoſed nitre cannot eaſily be taken out of it. The obtained from heated nitrous acid, the vapour of which
retort capable of holding a pound of nitre (the quan- acquires a permanent elaſticity, and it has been found
tiry neceſſary for producing 12,000 cubic inches of to remain uncondenſed into a viſible fluid by any cold
dephlogiſticated air) for this operation, coſts at leaſt to which it has been hitherto expoſed. The great dif-
half-a-crown; the other earthen veſſels in the ſhape of ficulty is to find a fluid capable of confining this acid
Florence flaſks, but with longer necks, coſt about air ; becauſe it is eaſily and abundantly abſorbed by
18d. a-piece, or 25. ; ſo that the price of theſe veſſels water, which is one of its properties by wlich it differs
forms a conſiderable part of the expence. If glaſs from nitrous air. It acts upon quickſilver, and alſo
up-
veſſels are employed, the nitre will not yield near ſo on oils : hence its examination cannot be made but
much air, though of a purer fort, becauſe the glaſs very imperfectly; for ſubſtances muſt be expoſed to it,
veſſels cannot endure ſuch a great fire as the earthen or mixing with it, whilſt it is actually changing its na-
ones. The retorts of metal, or at leaſt of theſe metals ture by acting on the mercury or other fluid that con-
which are moſt uſually enployed for this purpoſe, viz. fines it.
iron and copper, phlogiſticate in a great meaſure the When water has abſorbed a good quantity of this
air as ſoon as produced. Conſidering, then, all theſe elaſtic fluid, it acquires the properties of nitrous acid;
kircunstances, it appears, that when a perſon has all the and when heated, it yields a large quantity of nitrous
air,
Sect. XIV.
A E ROL O GY.
195
Of Artifi- air, viz. a quantity many times greater than that which air is at firſt produced without the help of heat: bat in Of Artifi-
cial Air. water is wont to imbibe of it by agitation, or by any a ſhort time it will be neceſſary to apply the flame of cial Airs.
known means.
a candle to the bottle, by which means a conſiderable
When the nitrous acid air is combined with effen- quantity of this elaſtic fluid is obtained.
tial oils, a conſiderable efferveſcence and heat are pro.
duced, nearly in the ſame manner as when the nitrous $ 9. ALKALINE Air.-Let the uſual bottle be about
acid itſelf is poured upon thoſe oils.
halffilled with volatile ſpirit of fal ammoniac; and after
applying the bent tube, &c. let the flame of a candle
$ 8. Fluor Acid Air.–Put ſome of thoſe minerals be brought under the bottle, by which means the al
called fluors, or fuſible Spars, pulverized into the uſual kaline air will be produced copiouſly.
bottle, and upon it pour ſone concentrated oil of vi HEPATIC Air. "See Sect. XI. fupra.
triol ; then adapt the bent tube, &c. The fiuor acid
I
N
D
E
X.
A.
Alkaline air : Its properties, 129. Its exceſſive attraction Explodes violently with in-
Aerial acid, a name for fixed 146. Contains phlogiſton, for water, 132.
flammable air, 56. Burns
air, no 106.
147. Converted into inflam- Combuſtion, whether common violently with pyrophorus,
Air, ſuppoſed anciently to be mable air, 148.
air is diminiſhed by it, 58, 57. Is diminiſhed by com-
homogeneous, I. Not fo in Animals : Cauſe of their death
183.
buſtion, 59,-and by nitrous
reality, 2. Has ſome way of in dephlogiſticated air, 61. Contagion of the plague,of a hea air, 60, 154. In what man-
purifying itſelf, 3. Halley's Effects of inflammable air un vy Iluggith nature, 5.
ner it may be contaminated,
calculation of the quantity of them, 141.
Copper : Dr Prieſtley's experi 61. Does not ſupport vege-
water evaporated into it from Arſenic : Inflammable air pro ments to produce water by its tation, 62. Of its compo-
the ſea, 4. Dr Watſon's of duced from it by the red-hot means, 73. Is not affected
nent parts, 63. Does not
the moiſture evaporated from
ſteanı of water, 124.
by alkaline air, 146.
contain earth, 65. Whether
dry ground, ibid. How it is Aſhes gain moſt of their weight Cotton-wool: Quantity of de it contains any nitrous acid,
purified from the aqueous va by abſorption from the atmo phlogiſticated air produced 66. Imbibed by calces of
pour, 4. From phlogiſtic va ſphere, 122.
by its means from water 45. metals, 67. By iron, 68.
pours, 5. Why a dry air is Atmosphere conſiſts of two very Cretaceous acid: An improper Mr Cavendiſh's experiments
always wholeſome, but a different kinds of fluids, 24, name for fixed air, 107. on its compoſition, 75. Ni-
moiſt one is not, ibid. Con 93. The proportions of
D
trous acid produced from a
taminated in certain places by theſe, 178. The upper parts Darkneſs : Its effects on the mixture of it and inflamma-
various kinds of vapours,ibid. ofit more falubrious than the production of air, 42.
ble air, 77. Suppoſed to be
How purified from vapours lower, 179.
Dephlogiſticated air diſcovered one of the component parts
heavier than itſelf, ibid. Its
B.
by Dr Prieſtley, 24. Firſt of water, 81, 82, 83. * Ef-
ſpecific gravity compared Black's (Dr) diſcoveries, 21, obtained by means of a burn fects of the electric ſpark on
with water, 6. Its preſſure as His theory concerning fixed ing-glaſs from precipitate it whenincloſed between dif-
a gravitating fluid, 7. Effects air attacked at firſt, but now per fe,25. Why called dephlo. ferent liquors, 105. Dr
of its gravity on vegetables univerſally received, 23. giſticated, 26. Produced from Prieſtley's experiments on
and animals, ibid. Of its e. Boyle's diſcoveries, 17. - a great variety of ſubſtances, the production of fixed air
laſticity,8. Whether this can
C.
ibid. Diſcovered by Mr from it, 110.
be impaired, 9. Its elaſticity Calcination of metals : Mr La Scheele, 28. May be ob- Dephlogiſticated nitrous air, how
is always in proportion to its voiſier's experiments on it, tained without the uſe of ni. procured, 160. Its compo-
denſity, ibid. How far a
92.
His concluſions there trous acid, 29. Produced in nent parts, 161. Beſt me-
quantity of air may be com from with regard to the greateſt quantities by a ſud thod of procuring it, 163,
preſſed, 10. Is capable of compoſition of atmoſpherical den and violent heat, 30. Made to approach to the na-
vaſt dilatation by its elaſtic
air, 93
Method of procuring it from ture of atmoſpherical air,
force, ibid. In what propor- Caſt iron : Remarkable pheno different ſubſtances, 31. How 164.
tion it is expanded by heat, menon attending its calcina it is produced by nature, 32. Diminution of air, ſuppoſed to
II. Its elaſticity ſuppoſed to tion with a burning-glaſs, 70. Method of obtaining it from be owing to phlogiſton emit-
be the cauſe of earthquakes, Gavallo's concluſions from Dr water, 36. From the leaves
ted into it, 89.
ibid. Effects of its elaſticity Ingenhoufz's experiments, of plants, 37. By means of
E.
on various bodies, 12. Great 38. His method of collec raw ſilk, 41. From various Earth is not a component part
ſolvent power of the air, 13. ting infiammable air from
other ſubſtances, 45. Quan of dephlogiſticated air, 65.
Its chemical effects, 15. Air ponds, 119.
tity of it produced from wa Efervelience between acids and
contained in mineral waters, Cavendiſh's experiments on ter, 46. Of the cauſe of its alkalis occaſioned by fixed
19, 20. Decompounded in water, 75.
roduction, 47. At what
air in the latter, 21.
the calcination of metals, 29.
duction of nitrous acid, IOI, times it is produced of the Eider-down : Dephlogiſticated
Is not diminimed in common I02.
beſt quality, 48. Found in air produced by its means
caſes of combuſtion, 58. A Charcoil yields a great quantity ſea-water, 53. How to pre-
froin water, 45.
kind of air procured from ſo of fixedair, 16.-lotally con-
ſerve it in large quantity, 54. Electric ſpark: Its effects on de-
lution of gold, 175.
vertible into inflammable air, It produces intenſe heat, 55. phlogiſticated air incloſedbe-
B b 2
tween
On the pro-
196
A ER O L OG Y.
INDEX.
å
I 42.
21.
tween different liquors, 105. proriced from its folution, fity of water for the produc duction of depblogiſticated
Onfixed air, 113. On nitrous 175. A beautıful experiment tion of inilamınable air, 131. air, 36. Eflects of light
air, 159
vill it, i'. Green Baller Is not pure phlogiſton, 133. witliout hcat, 43.
Of arti.
F
rbieri ed by Dr Prieſtlcy in Prieſtlcy's analytis of diffe-
ficial light, 44.
Fermentation: Why iz will not glais jis įroducing dephlo rent kinds of it, 134. Fixed Lint produces dephlogiſicated
go on in 200110, 1 2.
gilised air, proved to be air generated in its dccom-
air, 45.
Fermented 1191101 sreſored from
of all animal nature, 40. poſition, 135. Fixed air Litmus, its ſolution decom-
a vapid ſtate by adding fixed
1
conycrtible into it, 136. Has pounded by taking the elec-
air to them, 18o.
Halcs, Dr, his diſcoveries, 18, great propenlity to unite tricſpark in dephlogiſticated
Finery-cinder, the ſame with
19.
with water, 137. Dr Prieſ air confined over it, 105.
ſcales of iron, conſiſts of the Heat ; Its effects on fixed air, ley's concluſion with regard Liver of fixiphur abſorbs dephlo-
metal united with dephlogi I15
to its component parts, 139. giſticated air, 95. Yields
ſticated air, 124.
Hepatic air, produced from an Its abſorption by water, 140, hepatic air in plenty, 177.
Fire ſuppoſed to be the cauſe of orc of zinc, 176.
Its effects on vegctation and
M.
the air's elaſticity, 11. Beſt obtained from liver of ful animal liſt, 141. Has little Manganeſe : Sulphurated in-
Fixed air contained in abfor phur, 177. Ils properties, 16. refractive
power,
filamınable air first produced
bent earths and alkaline falts, Hot Climates : Great quantity Schemes to employ it for
from it, 144.
Its proportion in theſe of inflammable air produced various purpoſes, 143. Marble, why it ſometimes
ſubſtances, 22. Efferveſcence in them, 118.
Ingerhoufz, Dr, his experi burſts with froſt, 5.
ofthefe fubftances with acids Human hair produces dephlo ments in the melioration of
Marino Acid Alr,howprocu-
occaſioned by fixed air, 21. giſticated air with water, 45. air by vegetation,35. Produ red, 170. Its properties, 171.
Increaſes the weight of me-
I
ces dephlogiſticated air from Changed into inflammable
tallic precipitates, 21. Sup- Ice diffolved very faſ by alka water by means of the leaves
air, 172.
poſed to be the principal of line air, 146. And by ma of plants, 37. Concluſions Mediterranean Sea: Quantity
union in terreſtrial bodies,
rine acid air, 171.
from his experiments, 38. of water evaporated from its
ibid. Separated from fermen- Incondenſiblevapourariſing from His theory diſputed, 51.
ſurface, 4.
ting and putrifying ſubſtan. water, 86. Prieſtleys con Iron ſometimes diſſolved by the Metallic vapours, their poiſon-
ces,21. Diſſolves earihs and
jectures concerning it, 87. air, 13. Yields dephlogiſti ous qualities, 5.
metals, 22. Formed by the Attempts to collect it, 88. cated air with oil of vitriol, Metallic calces imbibe dephlo-
union of phlogiſton with de- Inflammable air: Method of 31. Imbibes dephlogiſticated giſticated air, 67.
phlogiſticated air,67. Found burning it in the dephlogi air, 68. Takes it from the Mercury yields dephlogiſtica-
in a great variety of ſubſtan-
ſticated kind, 59.
Water atmoſphere, 69. May be ted air either with nitrous or
ces, 106. Specific gravity, produced from a mixture of made to imbibe dephlogiliica-
vitriolic acid, 31.
and other properties of this inflammable and dephlogi ted air as often as we pleaſe, Mineral waters colitain air,
kind of air, 107, 108. Its ſticated air, 77. Quantity of 74. Properties of the in-
conſtituent principles, 109. it neceſſary to phlogiſticate flammable air obtaincd from Mint reſtores noxious air to a
Dr Prieſtley's experiments coinmon air, 78. This kind it by means of ſteam, 125. ſtate of falubrity by its vege-
on its compoſition, Ilo. Pro of air produced in mines,
K.
tation, 32. 33.
portion of it produced from from putrid waters, &c. 117. Kirwan's concluſion concern-
Kirwan's concluſion concern Mofetes, their nature, 5.
dephlogiſticated air, 1 12. Ef Great quantities generated in ing the artificial production Muſtard, its effects on air, 35.
fects of the electric fpark on hot climates, 118. Mr Ca of water, 83. Obſerves the
N.
it, 113. Of a ſtrong heat on vallo's method of collecting propenfily of inflammable air Nitre yields a great quantity of
it, 115. Quantity ofit ex-
il from ponds, 119.
Me. to unite with water, 137. dephlogiſticated air, 28.
pelled from different ſubſtan teors thought to be produced His opinion concerning the Nitrons air diminiſhes dcphlo-
Generated in the by it 120. Different kinds conſtituent principles of in giſticated air, 60,154. Yields
decompoſition of inflammable of inflammable air, 121. Ex flammable air. 138.
nitrous acid when decompo-
air, 135. Convertible into tracted from various ſubſtan-
L.
fed, 76. How procured, 150.
inflammable air, 136. Great ces by heat, 122. More air Lavoiſier corrects a proceſs of Why ſtrong nitrous acid
quantities produced by fer procured by a ſudden and Dr Prieſtley, 31. His ex yields none, 151. Properties
menting ſubſtances, 180.
violent than by a gradual periments on the diminution ofit, 152. Extremely fatal to
Proportions contained in dif heat, 123. How procured of air by burning, 58, 59: vegetable and animal life,
ferent kinds of wine, 181. from water and other flaid Differences betwixt him and 153. Has a ſtrong antiſeptic
Emitted by putrefying mat-
and ſolid ſubſtances, 124. Dr Prieſtley, 64. Denies power, 155. Its ſpecific gra-
Proportions of inflammable the exiſtence of phlogiſton, vity, 156. Ils component
Foniana, Abbe: Effects of his air procured from iron by 91. His experiments on the parts, 157. Compoſed of
breathing inflammable air, means of ſteam, 125. Of calcination of metals and re phlogiſticated nitrous acid
141.
the conſtituent parts of in ſpiration, 92, 93, 94.
and watcr, 158. Effects of
French philoſophers, their expe flammable air, 126. No acid Lead : Proportions of it re the electric fpark on it, 159.
riments on the compoſition of contained in it, 127. Water vived in alkaline air, 147. Nitrous acid, whether or not
water,
82.
neceſſary to its production Leaves of plants ſeparate de it enters the compoſition of
Fur of a Rufian bare produces according to Dr Prieſtley, phlogiſticated air from wa nitrous air, 66. Produced
dephlogiſticated air with 128. Denied by Mr Kir ter, 37. Reſume this pro from dephlogiſticated and
water, 45.
wan, 138. Charcoal totally perty after they ſeem to have
inflammable air, 77.
G
convertibleintoit, 729. Ex-
loſt it, 52.
Nitrous acid air, how procu-
Gold: A peculiar kind of air periment ſhowing the necef- Light : Effects of it in the pro red, 166. Cannot be pre-
ſerved
19, 20.
ces, 116.
ters, 182.
INDEX.
A E ROL GY.
197
V.
ΙΙΟ.
ſerved by mcans of any finid, cerning thc non-exiſtence of 0:2 its diminution by com 32. Experim.crtsſoom acl,
167. Allumes a red colour nitrous acid in dephlogiſlica buſtion, 59. On the com contradi&tory, 34. Dili
by being heated, 163. Its ted air, 66. Difficulties a ponent parts of the atino genhouſz's cxperimcats 6.2
effcos on red lead, 169. riſing fiom fome of his ex ſphere, 24.
This ſtubject, 25:
Noxious air, how purified by periments concerning the Sea-water contains pure air,53. Van Helmoit's diſcovcries, 16.
agitation in water, 97, generation of water in defic Seltzer-water imitated by her Vegetable acul c. phlogiſticates
0.
grating dephlogiſticated and Venel, 20.
cominion air, 174.
Oils and Salts, why they ſepa inflammablc air, 85. His Sheep's woolſej'arates dephlogi. Vitriolic acid alr, 165.
rate in vacuo, 7.
conjectures concerning the fticated air from water, 45. Volatile ulkale produced from
Olive oil, with whiting, yields incondenſible vapnar of wa. Soot yields pure air by diſtilla-
nitrous acid and iron, 149.
inflammable air, 124.
ter, 87. His experiments 012 tion, 87.
P.
the compoſition of fixed air, Sponge imbibes a great quantity Witer, quantity of it erapo.
Phlogiſticated air, its properties,
His opinion concern of alkaline air, 146.
rated from the Mediterrane-
99. Nitrous acid procured ing the compolition of phlo. Spun-glaf, unſucceſsful at an, 4.
From an acre of
by means of it, too. Mr giſticated air, II. Experi tempt to procure dephlogiſ ground, ibid. Why it boils
Cavendiſh's opinions on its ment in favour of his hypo ticated air from water by its violently in vacuo, 7. Pro-
nature, 103.
thclis concerning phlogiſti means, 49.
duces dephlogiſticated air,
Phlogiſtication of air, whether
cated air, 114.
Steam,proportions ofinflamma 36. Quantity of air yielded
it contains any vitriolic acid, Putrefying ſubſtances emit fix ble air obtained by its means by it, with the mixture of
76. Explained, 89.
ed air, 182.
from different ſubſtances, various ſubſtances, 46. By
Phlogiſton, too great powers at-
R.
125. Its influence on the
water alone, 50. Formed by
tributed to it, 90.
Its ex-
Raw-ſilk produces dephlogiſti production of inflammable
the defiagration of inflam-
iſtence denied by the foreign cated air by means of water, air from charcoal, 132. mable and dephlogiſticated
chemiſts, 91. Whether in 41. Various ſubſtances ſub- Stones fometimes diſſolved by air, 71. Quantity produced
flammable air is pure phlo-
ſtituted for it, 45. Compa-
in this nianner, 72, 73. Ca-
giſton or not, 133, 138.
riſon between its ſurface and Sulphureous vapours, their per vendiſh's experiments onthis
Contained in alkaline air, that of the cotton-like ſub nicious effe&s, 5.
ſubject, 75. Dr Prieſley's
147.
ſtance of the Populus nigra, Sulphar yields inflammable air experiments on the ſame,80,
Plants purify air by their ve 47.
with ſtead, 124.
81. Experiments of the
getation, 38.
Red-lead yields no dephlogiſti. Sulphurated infiammableair pro. French philoſophers and Mr
Populus nigra, dephlogiſticated catcd airwhen firſt prepared, cured from manganeſe, 144. Kirwan, 82, 83. Water per-
air plentifully produced from and but little for ſome time and from iron melted in vi. vious to air, 98. Method of
water by means of its cotton after, 29. Gives a greater
triolic acid air, 145.
procuringinflammable airby
like ſubſtance, 46, 47.
quantity by a ſadden than a
T.
iis means, 124. Always ne-
Precipitate per fe, yields no
ſlow heat, 30.
Tb0711fon, Sir Benjamin, his ex ceſſary to the production of
water on being revived into Respiration, Mr Lavoiſier's ex periments on the production
this kind of air, 128, 131.
a mctal, 73.
periments on it, 91.
of dephlogiſticated air, 39 Attraction betwixt it and
Prieſtley, Dr, diſcovers dephlo. Retorts with long necks proper
et feq.
burning charcoalor iron,132.
giſticated air, 24. His first for diſtilling dephlogiſtica. Turpentine oil yields inflamma Great propenſity of inflam-
hypothefis concerning the
ble air, 124.
mable air to unite with it,
S.
V.
component parts of dephlo-
137, 140. Its effects on ni-
giſticated air, 63. Differ- Scales of iron the ſame with Vegetation will not go on in trous air, 162.
ence betwixt ſome of his ex finery-cinder, 124.
vacuo, and why, 12. Pro. Iines, proportions of fixed air
periments and thoſe of La-
Scheele diſcovers dephlogiſtica duces dephlogiſticated air, in diferent kinds of thein,
voiſier, 64. His opinion con ted air, 28. His experiments 32. Improves noxious air, 182.
the air, 14.
ted air, 31.
7
Aeromans
су
Aeronau.
tica.
A E R
A ER
AEROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed through the atmoſphere, ſuſtained as a ſhip in the ſea. Aeropliva
by means of air, wind, &c. See DIVINATION, nº 5. Sec AEROSTATION.
lacea.
AEROMETRY, the ſcience of meaſuring the air. AEROPHYLACEA, a term uſed by naturaliſts
It comprehends not only the doctrine of the air itſelf, for caverns or reſervoirs of air, ſuppoſed to exiſt in the
conſidered as a fluid body, but alſo its preſſure, elaſti- bowels of the earth. Kircher ſpeaks much of aero-
city, rarefaction, and condenſation. But the term is phylacea, or huge caverns, replete with air, diſpo-
at preſent not much in uſe, this branch of natural phi- fed under ground; from whence, through numerous
loſophy being more frequently called Pneumatics. See occult paſſages, that element is conveyed either to
PNEUMATICS.
ſubterraneous receptacles of water, whichi, according
AERONAUT, a perſon who attends and guides to him, are hereby raiſed into fprings or rivers, or irra
an air-balloon. See AEROSTATION and AIR-Balloon., to the funds of fubterraneous fire, which are hereby
AERONAUTICA, from anp, and vaLTIXOS, derived fed and kept alive for the preparation of metals, mine-
fromi yaws, fhip; the art of ſailing in a veſſel or machinerals, and the like.
AEROSTATION
198
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν
Sa ſcience newly introduced into the Encyclopædia. dering that the folid contents of veſſels increaſe in
,
,
I
5
2
nical
means,
of ſuſpending weights in the air; but in its modern ac- ſed that a metalline veſſel might be made fo large,
ceptation, it ſignifies aerial navigation, or the art of na- that, when emptied of its air, it would be able not
vigating through the atmoſphere. Hence alſo the ma- only to raiſe itſelf in the atmoſphere, but to carry up
chines which are employed for this purpoſe are called paſſengers along with it; and he inade a number of
aeroſtats, or aeroſtatic machines; and from their glo- calculations neceſſary for putting the project in execu-
bular ſhape, air-balloons.
lion. But though the theory was here unexception-
The romances of almoſt every nation have recorded able, the means propoſed were certainly inſufficient to
inſtances of perſons being carried through the air, both accompliſh the end: for a veſlel of copper, made ſo
by the agency of ſpirits and by mechanical inventions; thin as was neceſſary to make it float in the atmo-
Lord Bae- but till the time of the celebrated Lord Bacon, no ra ſphere, would be utterly unable to reſiſt the external
on firſt puh- tional principle appears to have been thought of by preſſure ; which being demonſtrated by thoſe ſkilled in
liſhed the which this might be accompliſhed. Before that time, mechanics, no attempt was made on that principle.
true prin. indeed, Friar Bacon had written upon the ſubject; and In the year 1709, however, as we were informed by Strange
roltation, many had been of opinion, that, by means of artificial a letter publiſhed in France in 1784, a Portugueſe propoſal of
wings, fixed to the arms or legs, a man night fly as projector, Friar Guſman, applied to the king for en-
Friar Gur-
well
as a bird : but theſe opinions were thoroughly couragement to his invention of a flying machine. The mani.
Impoffibili- refuted by Borelli in his treatiſe De Motu Animalium, principle on which this was conſtructed, if indeed it
ty of flying where, from a compariſon between the power of the had any principle, ſeems to have been that of the pa-
by inecha- muſcles which move the wings of a bird, and thoſe per kite.
per kite. The machine was conſtructed in form of a
which move the arms of a man, he demonſtrates that bird, and contained ſeveral tubes through which the
the latter are atterly inſufficient to ſtrike the air with wind was to paſs, in order to fill a kind of fails, which
ſuch force as to raiſe him from the ground. It can were to elevate it ; and when the wind was deficient,
not be denied, however, that wings of this kind, if the fame effect was to be performed by means of bel-
properly conſtructed, and dexteroully managed, might lows concealed within the body of the niachine. The
be ſufficient to break the fall of a human body from an afcent was alſo to be promoted by the electric attrac-
high place, ſo that ſome adventurers in this way might tion of pieces of amber placed in the top, and by two
poſſibly come off with ſafety ; though by far the great ſpheres incloſing magnets in the ſame ſituation.
eft number of thoſe who have rafhly adopted ſuch Theſe childiſh inventionis ſhow the low ftate of ſci-
ſchemes, have either loſt their lives or linibs in the ence at that time in Portugal, eſpecially as the king,
attempt.
in order to encourage him to farther exertions in ſuch
In the year 1672, Biſhop Wilkins publiſhed a trea an uſeful invention, granted him the firſt vacant place
Bifhop Wil- tiſe, intitled, the Diſcovery of the New World ; in in his college of Barcelos or Santarem, with the firſt
which he mentions, though in a very indiſtinct and profeſſorſhip in the Univerſity of Coimbra, and an an-
Albertus de confuſed manner, the true principle on which the air nual penſion of 600,000 reis during his life. Of this
is navigable ; quoting, from Albertus de Saxonia and De Guſman, it is alſo related, that in the year 1736,
Francis Mendoca, so that the air is in ſome part of it he made a wicker baſket of about ſeven or eiglit feet
navigable : and upon this ſtatic principle, any braſs or diameter, and covered with paper, which raiſed itſelf
iron veſſel (ſuppoſe a kettle), whoſe ſubſtance is much about 200 feet in the air, and the effect was generally
heavier than that of water, yet being filled with the attributed to witchcraft.
lighter air, it will ſwim upon it and not link. So fup In the year 1 766, Mr Henry Cavendiſh aſcertained Poſſibility
poſe a cup or wooden veſſel upon the outward borders the weightand other properties of inflamable air, de- of hodies
of this elementary air, the capacity of it being filled termining it to be at leaſt ſeven times lighter than riſing in the
with fire, orrather ethereal air, it muſt neceſſarily, up common air. Soon after which, it occurred to Dr
air thought
of by Dr
on the ſame ground, remain ſwimming there, and of Black, that perhaps a thin bag filled with infiammable
Black and
itſelf can no more fall than air empty Mip can fink.” air might bc buoyed up by the common atmoſphere; MrCaval-
This idea, however, lic did noi ly any means purſue, and he thought of having the allantois of a calf prepa- lo.
but relted his hopes entirely upon mechanical motions, red for this purpoſe: but his other avocations prevent-
to be accompliſhed by the mere ſtrength of
allan, oi
ed him from profecuting the experiment. Thcfame
by ſprings, &c. and which liave been demonſtrated in- thought occurred ſome years afterwards to Mr Cavallo ;
capable of anſwering any uſeful purpoſe.
and lic has the honour of being the firſt who made ex-
Biſhop La-
The only perſon who bronght bis ſcheme of flying periments on the ſubject. He firſt tried bladders; but
na’sſchenze. to any kind of rational principle was the Jeſuit Fráncis the thinneſt of theſe, however well ſcraped and prepa-
Lana, cotemporary with Biſhop Wilkins. He, being red, were found too heavy. He then tried Chineſe
acquainted with the real weight of the atmoſphere, paper; but that proved fo permeable, that the vapour
juſtly concluded, that if a globular veſſel were exhauſt- paſſed through it like water through a fieye. His ex-
ed of air, it would wcigh leſs than before ; and conſi- periments, therefore, made in the ycar 1772, proceed-
ed
3
Scheme of
kins and
Saxonia,
1
6
Hiſtory
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
199
7
8
Rients,
I
for,
rer.
ed no farther than blowing up ſoap bubbles with in- ſo far damaged, that it became neceſſary to prepare a
flammable air, which aſcended rapidly to the ceiling,
new one for the time that it had been determined to
ard broke againſt it.
honour the experiment with the royal preſence ; and
Aeroſtation But while the diſcovery of the art of aeroſtation ſuch expedition was afed, that this vaſt machine, of
diſcovered ſeemed thus on the point of being made in Britain, it near 60 feet in height and 43 in diameter, was made,
by Monf.
was all at once announced in France, and that from a painted with water-colours both within and without,
Montgol.
fier,
quarter whence nothing of the kind was to have been and finely decorated, in no more than four days and
9
expected. Two brothers, Stephen and John Mont- four nights. Along with this machine was ſent a Some ani-
golfier, natives of Annonay, and maſters of a conſider- wicker cage, containing a ſheep, a cock, and a duck,
Inals fafely
able paper manufactorythere, had turned their thoughts which were the firſt animals ever ſent through the at- fent thre'
the air.
towards this project as early as the middle of the year moſphere. The full ſucceſs of the experiment was pre-
1782. The idea was firſt ſuggeſted by the natural vented by a violent guſt of wind which tore the cloth
aſcent of the ſmoke and clouds in the atmoſphere ; and in two places near the top before it aſcended : Fluv.
their deſign was to form an artificial cloud, by incloſing ever, it roſe to the height of 1440 feet; and, after re-
the ſmoke in a bag, and making it carry up the cover- maining in the air about eight minutes, fell to the
Account of ing along with it. Towards the middle of November ground at the diſtance of 10,200 feet from the place
his experi- that year, the experiment was made at Avignon with of its ſetting out. The animals were not in the leaſt
fine ſilk bag of a parallelopiped ſhape. By applying hurt.
burning paper to the lower aperture, the air was rare The great power of theſe aeroſtatic machines, and Mr Pilatre
fied, and the bag aſcended in the atmoſphere, and their very gradual deſcent in falling to the ground, had de Rozier
ſtruck rapidly againſt the ceiling. On repcating the originally thowed thai they were capable of tranſport the firſt 24-
rial navigae
experiment in the open air, it roſe to the height of ing people through the air with all imaginable ſafety;
about 70 feet.
and this was further confirmed by the experiment al-
An experiment on a more enlarged ſcale was now ready mentioned.
ready mentioned. As Mr Montgolfier, therefore,
projected; and a new machine, containing about 650 propoſed to make a new aeroſtatic machine, of a firmer
cubic feet, was made, which broke the cords that con and better conſtruction than the former, Nír Pilatre de
fined it, and roſe to the height of about 6oo feet. A Rozier offered himſelf to be the firſt aerial adventu-
nother of 35 feet in diameter roſe about 1ooo feet
high, and fell to the ground three quarters of a niile This new machine was conſtructed in a garden in
from the place where it aſcended. A public exhibition the Fauxbourg of St Antoine. It was of an oval ſhape,
was next made on the fifth of June 1783, at Annonay, about 48 feet in diameter and 74 in height; elegantly
where a vaſt number of ſpectators aſſembled. An im- painted on the outſide with the ligns of the zodiac,
menſe bag of linen, lined with paper, and containing ciphers of the king's name, and other ornaments. A
upwards of 23,000 cubic feet, was found to have a proper gallery, grate, &c., were appended in the man-
power of lifting about 500 pounds, including its own ner afterwards deſcribed ; ſo that it was eaſy for the
weight. The operation was begun by burning chop- perſon who aſcended to ſupply the fire with fuel, and
ped ſtraw and wool under the aperture of the machine, thus keep up the machine as long as he pleaſe!!. The
which immediately began to ſwell; and after being ſet weight of the whole apparatus was upwards of 16co
at liberty, aſcended into the atmoſphere. In ten mi- pounds. The experiment was performed on the 15th
nutes it had aſcended 6000 feet; and when its force of October 1783.
of October 1783. Mr Pilatre having placed himſelf Account of
was exhauſted, it fell to the ground at the diſtance of in the gallery, the machine was inflated, and permit-
7668 feet from the place from whence it ſet out. ed to afcend to the height of 84 feet, where he kept rent voyan
Soon after this, one of the brothers arrived at Paris, it afloat for about four ininutes and a half; after
where he was invited by the Academy of Sciences to which it deſcended very gently: and ſuch was its
repeat his experiments at their expence. In conſe- tendency to aſcend, that it rebounded to a conſiderable
quence of this invitation, he conſtructed, in a garden height after touching the ground. Two days after,
in the Fauxbourg of St Germain, a large balloon of an he repeated the experiment with the ſame fuccefs as
elliptical form. In a preliminary experiment, this ma before ; but the wind being ſtrong, the machine did
chine lifted up from the ground eight perfons who held not ſuſtain itſelf ſo well as forinerly. On repeating
it, and would have carried them all off if more had not the experiment in calmer weather, he aſcended to
quickly come to their aſſiſtance. Next day the expe the height of 210 feet. His next aſcent was 262
riment was repeated in preſence of the members of the feet; and in the deſcent, a guſt of wind having
academy; the machine was filled by the combuſtion of blown the machine over fonie large trees of an adjoin-
50 pounds of ſtraw made up in ſmall bundles, uponing garden, Mr Pilatre ſuddenly extricated himſelf
which about 12 pounds of chopped wool were thrown from ſo dangerous a ſituation, by throwing ſoine ſtraw
at intervals. The uſual ſucceſs attended this exhibi- and chopped wool on the fire, which raiſed hiin at
tion : The machine foon ſwelled ; endeavoured to a once to a ſufficient height. On deſcending again, he
fcend ; and immediately after ſuſtained itſelf in the once more raiſed himſelf to a proper height by throw-
air, together with the charge of between 4 and 500 ing ſtraw on the fire. Some time after, he aſcended
pounds weight. It was evident that it would have in company with Mr Girond de Villette to the height
afcended to a greater height; but as it was deſigned of 330 feet ; hovering over Paris at leaſt nine minutes
to repeat the experiment before the king and royal in light of all the inhabitants, and the machine keep-
family at Verſailles, the cords by which it was tied ing all the while perfectly ſteady.
down was not cut. But in conſequence of a violent rain Theſe experiments had ſhown, that the aeroſtatic
and wind which happened at this time, the machine was machines might be raiſed or lowered at the pleaſure of
this
II
his diffe-
ges.
I
coa
Λ Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
Hiſtory.
14
may inflate
is
1
16
of
the perfo.1s who afcended: they had likewiſe diſcover- fully inflated of itſelf during the night: but upon in-
el, that the keeping them fáſt with ropes was no quiry, it was found, that they had inadvertently left In what
advantage; hul, on the contrary, that this was attend- open a ſtop-cock connected with the balloon, by which manner a
ci vith inconvenience and hazard. On the 21ſt of the common air gaining acceſs, had mixed itſelf witli
balloon
Tovember 1793, therefore, M. Pilatre determined to the inflammable air ; forming a compound ſtill lighter
partly filled
undertakean aerial voyage in which the machine thould than the common atmoſphere, but not ſufficiently light itſelf
be fully fct at liberty. Every thing being gor in rea- to anſwer the purpoſes of aeróſtation. Thus they were
dineſs, the balloon was filled in a few minutes : and obliged to renew their operation ; and, by fix o'clock
M. Pilatre placed himſelf in che gallery, counterpoiſed in the evening of next day, they found ihe machine
by the Marquis d'Arlaudcs, who occupied the other conliderably lighter than the conmon air ; and, in an
fide. It was intended to make fonie preliminary ex hour after, it made a conſiderable effort to aſcend.
perinents on the aſcending power of the machine: The public exhibition, however, had been announced
hutthc violenceof the wind prevented this from being only for the third day after ; ſo that the balloon was
done, and even damaged the balloon eiſentially : lo allowed to remain in an inflated ſtate for a whole day;
that it would have been entirely deſtroyed had not during which they found it had loſt a power of aſcent Loſs of
timely a liſtance been given, The extraordinary ex- equal to about three pounds, being one ſeventh part power in
ertions of the workmen, however, repaired it again in
of the whole. When it was at laſt ſet at liberty, after their bal.
tsvu hours, and the adventurers ſet out. They met laving been well filled with inflarnmable air, it was 35
with no inconvenitnce during their voyage, which pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. It
laſted about 25 minutes ; during which time they remained in the atmoſphere only three quarters of an
had pafled over a foace of above five miles.-- From hour, during which it had traverſed 15 miles. Its
the account given by the Marquis d’Arlandes, it ap- ſudden deſcent was ſuppoſed to have been owing to a
pears that they met with ſeveral different currents of rupture which had taken place when it had aſcended
air; the effect of which was, to give a very fentible the higher regions of the atmoſphere.
ihock to the machine, and the direction of the motion The ſucceſs of this experiment, and the aerial voy. Firſt aerial
ſeemed to be from the upper part downwards. It ap- age made by Meſſrs Rozier and Arlandes, naturally voyage
pears alſo that they were in ſome danger of having the ſuggeſted the idea of undertaking ſomething of the Mefits.
balloon burnt altogether ; as the Marquis obſerved fe. ſame kind with a bailoon filled with inflammable air.
Charles and
veral round holes made by the fire in the lower part The machine uſed on this occaſion was formed of gores
Roberts.
of it, which alarmed him conſiderably, and indeed not of ſilk, covered over with a varniſh made of caoutchouc,
without reaſon. However the progreſs of the fire of a ſpherical figure, and meaſuring 27; feet in dia-
was eaſily ſtopped by the application of a wet ſpunge, meter. A net was ſpread over the upper hemiſphere,
and all appearance of danger ceaſed in a very ſhort and was faſtened to an hoop which paſſed round the
tiine,
middle of the balloon. To this a ſort of car, or ra-
Montgol This voyage of M. Pilatre and the Marquis d'Ar ther boat, was ſuſpended by ropes, in ſuch a manner
landes may be ſaid to conclude the hiſtory of thoſe as to hang a few feet below the lower part of the bal-
aeroſtatic inachines which are elevated by means of loon; and, in order to prevent the burſting of the ma-
ponerededley fire ; for though many other attempts have been made chine, a valve was placed in it; by opening of which
upon the ſame principle, moſt of them have either ſome of the inflammable air might be occaſionally let
flammable proved unſucceſsfuior were of little conſequence. They out. A long lilken pipe communicated with the bal-
have thereforc given place to the other kind, filled with loon, by means of which it was filled. The boat was
inflammable air; which, by reaſon of its ſmaller fpe- made of baſket work, covered with painted linen, and
cific gravity, is both more manageable, and capable of beautifully ornamented; being 8 feet long, 4 broad,
performing voyages of greater length, as it does not and 35 deep; it weight 130 pounds. At this time,
require to be ſupplied with fuel like the others. This however, as at the former, they met with great difficul-
was invented a very ſhort time after the diſcovery had tiesin filling the machine with inflammable air, owing
been made by M. Montgolfier. This gentleman had to their ignorance of the moſt proper apparatus,
But
indeed deſigned to keep his method in ſome degree a at laſt, all obſtacles being removed, the two adventu-
ſecret from the world, but as it could not be conceal rers took their ſeats at three quarters after one in the
ed, that a bag filled with any kind of fluid lighter than afternoon of the firſt of December 1783. Perſons
the common atmoſphere would raiſe init, inflammable killed in mathematics wereconveniently ſtationed with
air was naturally thought of as a proper fuccedancum proper inſtruments to calculate the height, velocity,
for the rarefied air of M. Montgolfier. The firſt ex-
&c, of the balloon.
Experi-
The weight of the whole appa-
periment was made by two brothers Meſſrs Roberts, ratus, including that of the two adventurers, was found
and M. Charles a profeſſor of experimental philoſo to be 604 pounds, and the power of aſcent when they
Charlesand
phy. The bag which contained the gas was com po-
ſet out was 20 pounds ; ſo that the whole difference
Roberts.
ſed of luteſtring, varniſhed over with a ſolution of the betwixt the weight of this balloon and an equal bulk
elaſtic guin called caoutchouc; and that with which of common air was 624 pounds. But the weight of Specific
they made their firſt eſlay was only about 13 Engliſh conimon atmoſphere diſplaced by the inflaminable
gas
gravity of
feet in diameter. Many difficulties occured in filling was calculated to be 771 pounds, ſo that there remains the inflam-
it with the inflamıınable air, chiefly owing to their ig- 147 for the weight of the latter ; and this calculation
norance of the proper apparatus ; inſomuch, that, afa' makes it only 5 times lighter than cominon air.
voyage.
ter a whole day's labour from nine in the morning, At the time the balloon leſt the ground, the ther-
they had yot the balloon only one third part full. mometer food at go of Fahrenheit's ſcalc, and the
Next inorning they were ſurpriſed to find that it had quicklilver, in the barometer at 30.18 inches; and, by
fier's m.-
chines ſu-
with in-
air.
13
ment of
Meſſrs
17
this firſt
means
permanent
ADROSTATION
Montgolfier's Balloon
Fauxbourg | Antoine
Plate 11
MUKA
Blanchard's Balloon
14
1
Verſailles B.
Montgolfiers B.
Jaunbourg of S." Germain
+
Charles' & Roberts B
Champ de Mar
21
!
:
liv
iR.teet Jeuip. Phuait
Hiſtory
A E R O S T A TI O N.
201
acroſtatic
ga
in the at.
23
nieans of the power of aſcent with which they left the ings and windings of the voyage, he ſuppoſes that he
ground, the balloon roſe till the mercury fell to 27 in had gone through nine miles at leaſt. By the calcu-
ches, from whence they calculated their height to be lations of M. de Maunier, he roſe at this time not leſs
about 600 yards. By throwing out ballaſt occaſion than 10,500 feet high; a height ſomewhat greater
ally as they found the machine deſcending by the e than that of Mount Ætna. A ſmall balloon, which
ſcape of ſome of the inflammable air, they found it had been ſent off before the two brothers ſet out on
practicable to keep at pretty near the ſame diſtance their voyage, took a direction oppoſite to that of the
from the earth during the reſt of their voyage ; the large one, having met with an oppoſite current of air,
quickſilver Auctuating between 27 and 27.65 inches, probably at a much greater height.
and the thermometer between 530 and 57°, the whole The ſubſequent aerial voyages differ ſo little from
time. They continued in the air for the ſpace of an that juſt now related, that any particular deſcription of
hour and three quarters, when they alighted at the them ſeems to be fuperfluous. It had occurred 10 Mir Attenints
diſtance of 27 miles from Paris ; having ſuffered no Charles, however, in his laſt fight, that there might be tu guide
inconvenience during their voyage, nor experienced a poſſibility of directing the machine in the atmoſphere;
machines
any contrary currents of air, as had been felt by and this was ſoon attempted by Mr Jean-Pierre Biai-
Mellrs Pilatre and Arlandes. As the balloon ſtill re- chard, a gentleman who had, for ſeveral years before, moſçliere.
18
Mr Charles tained a great quantity of inflammable gas, Mr Charles amuſed himſelf with endeavours to fly by mechanical
aſcends by determined to take another voyage by himſelf. Mr means, though he had never ſucceeded in the under-
laimſelf. Robert accordingly got out of the boat, which was taking. As ſoon as the diſcovery of the acroſtatic ma-
thus lightened by 1 30 pounds, and of conſequence the chines was announced, however, he reſolved to add the
aeroſtatic machine now had nearly as much power of wings of his former machine to a balloon, and made no
afcent. Thus he was carried up with ſuch velocity, doubt that it would then be in his power to direct him-
that in twenty minutes he was almoſt 9000 feet high, ſelf through the air at pleaſure. In his firſt attempt
and entirely out of ſight of terreſtrial objects. At the hewas fruſtrated by the impetuoſity of a young gentle.
moment of his parting with the ground, the globe had man, who inſiſted, right or wrong, on aſcending along
been rather flaccid; but it ſoon began to ſwell, and with him. In the
In the ſcuffle which enſued on this occa-
the inflammable ai: eſcaped from it in great quantity fion, the wings and other apparatus were entirely de-
through the filken tube. He alſo frequently drew ſtroyed ; ſo that Mr Blanchard was obliged to conmit Two firſt
the valve that it might be the more freely emitted, himſelf to the direction of the wind ; and in another voyages of
and the balloon effectually prevented from burſting. attempt it was found, that all the ſtrength he could ap- Mr Blan-
chard.
The inflammable gas being conſiderably warmer than ply to the wings was ſcarce ſufficient to counteract the
the external air, diffuſed itſelf all round, and was impreſſion of the wind in any degree. In his voyage,
felt like a warm atmoſphere ; but in ten minutes the he found his balloon, at a certain period, acted upon
thermometer indicated a variation of temperature as by two contrary winds; but, on throwing out four
great as that between the warmth of ſpring and the pounds of ballait, he aſcended to a place where he net
ordinary cold of winter. His fingers were benumbed with the ſame current he had at ſetting out from the
Has a pain by the cold, and he felt a violent pain in his right earth. His account of the ſenſations he felt during His fenſa-
in his ear
ear and jaw, which he aſcribed to the dilatation of this voyage, was ſomewhat different from that of Mr tiuns while
the air in theſe organs as well as to the external cold. Charles; having, in one part of it, found the atmo, in the at-
when in
the higher
The beauty of the proſpect which he now enjoyed, ſphere very warm, in another cold; and having once moſphere.
xegions.
however, 'made amends for theſe inconveniences. found himſelfvery hungry, and at another time almoſt
At his departure the ſun was ſet on the valleys; but overcome by a propenſity to ſleep. The height to
the height to which Mr Charles was got in the at which he aroſe, as meaſured by ſeveral obſervations with
moſphere, rendered him again viſible, though only mathematical inftruments, was thought to be very little
for a ſhort time. He ſaw, for a few ſeconds vapours leſs than 20,000 feet; and he remained in the atino-
riſing from the valleys and rivers. The clouds ſphere an hour and a quarter.
ſeemed to aſcend from the earth, and collect one upon The attempts of Mr Blanchard to direct his machine Voyage of
the other, ſtill preſerving their uſual-form ; only their through the atmoſphere, were repeated in the month Meil. Mar-
colour was grey and monotonous for want of ſufficient of April 1784 by Meſſrs Morveau and Bertraud, at
Bertrand.
Various light in the atmoſphere. By the light of the moon, Dijon, who raiſed themſelves with an inflammable air
currents of he perceived that the machine was turning round with balloon to the height, as it was thought, of 13,000 feet;
wind and hini in the air; and he obſerved that there were con- paſſing through a ſpace of 18 miles in an hour and 25
eddies in
theſe re-
trary currents which brought him back again. He ob- minutes. Mr Morveau had prepared a kind of oars
gions.
ſerved alſo, with ſurpriſe, the effects of the wind, and for directing the machine through the air ; but they
that the ſtreamers of his banners pointed upwards ; were damaged by a guſt of wind, ſo that only two of
Streamers which, he ſays, could not be the effect either of his them remained ſerviceable; by working theſe, howe-
of his ban- aſcent or deſcent, as he was moving horizontally at the ever, they were able to produce a ſenſible effect on the
time. At laſt, recollecting his promiſe of returning motion of the machine. In a third aerial voyage per- Third
upwards.
voy-
to his friends in half an hour, he pulled the valve, and formed by Mr Blanchard, he ſeemed to produce ſome age
accelerated his deſcent. When within 200 feet of the effect by the agitation of his wings, both in aſcending, lilanchard.
earth, he threw out two or three pounds of ballaſt, deſcending, moving fidewiſe, and even in ſoine mea-
which rendered the balloon again ſtationary: but, in a ſure againſt the wind; however, this is ſuppoſed, with
little time afterwards, he gently alighted in a field a ſome probability, to have been a miſtahe, as, in all his
bout three miles diſtant from the place whence he fet ſucceeding voyages, the effects of his machinery could
out; though, by making allowance for all the turn not be perceived.
Vol. I.
Сс
Thc
19
24
and jaw
25
20
veau and
21
ners
ſtand
26
of Mr
202
Α Ε R Ο 8 Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
Hiſtory
27
royage of
Meltieurs
Charles
er.'
31
28
32
The ſucceſs of Meſſrs Charlcs and Robert in their which a deviation of about 80 degrees would liave been
Second
former experiments, encouraged them ſoon to repeat obtained.
them, with the addition of ſome machinery to direct “We had already obſerved (ſay thcy), that if we
their courſe. Having enlarged their former balloon to did not deviate more than 22 degrees, it was becauſe
and Robert. to the ſize of an oblong ſpheroid 46; feet long and 27 the wind carried us at the rate of 24 miles an hour ;
in diameter, they made it to float with its longeſt part and it is natural to judge, that, if the wind had been
parallel to the horizon. The wings were made in the twice as ſtrong as it was, we ſhould not have deviated
ihape of an umbrella without the handle, to the top of more than one-half of what we actually did ; and, on
which a flick was fiftcned parallel to the aperture of the contrary, if the wind had been only half as ſtrong,
the umbrella. Five of theſe were diſpoſed round the our deviation would liave been proportionably great-
boat, which was near 17 feet in length. The balloon
was tillcd in 3 hours, and, with the addition of 450 Having thus related all that has been done with re- Contrivan-
pounds of ballalt, remained in a quilibrio with the ai- gard to the conducting of aeroſtatic machines through ces uſed to
moſphere. About 10011, on the 19th of September the atmoſphere, we ſhall now relate the attempts that prevent the
1784, they began to aſcend very gently in conſequence have been made to leſſen their expence, by falling upon Aamniable
of throwing out 24 pounds of ballaſt, but were ſoon ſome contrivance to aſcend without throwing out bal- air.
obliged to throw out eight pounds more in order to a laſt, and to deſcend without losing any of the inflan-
Are in dan- void running againſt ſome trees, Thus they roſe 10 mable air. The fiſt attempt of this kind was made Voyage of
the Duke
ger of run- the height of 1400 feet, when they perceived ſome by the Duke de Chartres; who, on the 15th of July
ning into
de Chartres
thunder-clouds near the horizon, On this they aſcend- 1784, aſcended with the two brothers, Charles and Ro.
thunder
clouds.
ed and defcended, to avoid the danger, as ihe wind bert, from the Park of St Cloud. The balloon was
blew directly towards the threatening clouds; but, of an oblong form, made to aſcend with its longeſt dia-
from the height of 600 feet to that of 4200 above the meter horizontally, and meaſured 55 feet ill length
ſurface of the earth, the current was quite uniform and and 24 in breadth. It contained within it a ſmaller
in one direction. During their voyage they loſt one balloon filled with common air; by blowing into which
of their oars; but, found, that by means of thoſe which with a pair of bellows, and thus throwing in a confi-
remained, they conſiderably accelerated their courſe. derable quantity of common air, it was ſuppoſed that
From the account of their voyage, it would ſeen that the machine would become ſufficiently heavy to deſcend,
they had paſſed ſafely through the thunder-clouds; as eſpecially as, by the inflation of the internal bag, thé
we are informed, that, about 40 minutes after three, inflammable air in the externalone wouldbe condenſed
tliey heard a loud clap of thunder; and, three minutes into a ſmaller ſpace, and thus become ſpecifically hea-
after, another inuch louder ; at which time the ther- vier. The voyage, however, was attended with ſuch
mometer funk from 77 to 59 degrees. This ſudden circumſtances as rendered it impoſſible to know what
cold, occaſioned by the approach of the clouds, con would have been the event of the ſcheme. The power
denſed the inflammable air ſo that the balloon deſcend- of aſcent with which they ſet out, ſeems to have been
ed very low, and they were obliged to throw out 40 very great ; as, in three minutes after parting with the
29
Heat of the pounds of ballaſt; yet on examining the heat of the air ground, they were loſt in the clouds, and involved in is involved
air within within the balloo11, they found it to be 104”, when that ſuch a denſe vapour that they could ſee neither the ſky in dark
their bal- of the external atmoſphere was only 63. When they nor the earth. In this fituation they ſeemed to be clouds and
loon.
had
attacked by
got ſo high that the mercury in the barometer ſtood attacked by a whirlwind, which, beſides turning the
only at 23,94 inches, they found themſelves becalmed; balloon three times round from right to left, ſhocked, wind.
Effect of
ſo that the machine did not go even at the rate of two and beat it ſo about, that they were rendered incapable
their oars feet in a ſecond, though it had before gone at the rate of aling any of the means propoſed for directing their
in moving of 24 feet in a ſecond. On this they determined to courſe, and the ſilk ſtuff of which the helm had been
the ma-
try the effect of their oars to the utmoſt; and, by compoſed was even torn away. No ſcene can be con-
chine,
working them for 35 minutes, and marking the ſhadow ceived more terrible than that in which they were now
of the balloon on the ground, they found, in that time, involved. An immenſe ocean of ſhapeleſs clouds rolled
that they had deſcribed the ſegment of an ellipſis whoſe one upon another below them, and ſeemed to prevent
longeſt diameter was 6000 feet. After having tra any return to the earth, which ſtill continued inviſible,
velled about 150 miles, they defcended, only on account while the agitation of the balloon became greater every
of the approach of night, having ſtill 200 pounds of moment. In this extremity they cut the cords which
ballaſt left.
held the interior balloon, and of confequence it fell
Their concluſion, with regard to the effect of their down upon the aperture of the tube that came from
wings, is as follows: "Thoſe experiments ſhow that the large ba' non into the boat, and ſtopped it up.
far from going againſt the wind, as is ſaid by ſome They were then driven upwards by a guſt of wind from
perſons to be poſſible in a certain manner, and ſome below, which carried them to the top of th’e ſtormy
aeronauts pretend to have actually done, we only ob- vapour in which they had been involved. They now
tained, by means of two oars, a deviation of 22 de ſaw the fun without a cloud; but the heat of his rays,
grecs : it is certain, however, that if we could have with the diminiſheil deniity of the atmoſphere, had ſuch
uſed our four oars, we might have deviated about 40 an effect on the inslammablc air, that the balloon ſeem-
degrees from the diredion of the wind, and as our ma ed every n oinentre dy to burſt. To prevent this they
chine would have been capable of carrying ſeven per- introduced a lick through the tube, in order to puſh
fons, it would have been eaſy for five perſons to have away the inner balloon from its aperture ; but the ex-
gone, and to have put in adion cight oars, by means of panſion of the inflammable air puſhed it ſo cloſe, that
all
33
a whirl-
30
މް
Hiſtory
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
203
34
all attempts of this kind proved ineffectual. It was Lear. As the balloon was ſcarcely ſufficiellt to carry
now, however, becoine abſolutely neceſſary lo give vent two, they were obliged to throw out all their ballait
to a very conſiderable quatity of the inflammable air; except three bags of ten pounds each ; when they at
for which purpoſe the Duke de Chartres himſelf bored laſt roſe gently, though making very little way on
two holes in the balloon, which tore open for thelength account of there being ſo little wind. At a quarter
of ſeven or eight feet. On this they deſcended with after one o'clock, the barometer, which on the cliff
great rapidity ; and would have fallen into a lake, had ſtood at 29.7 inches, was now fallen to 27.3, and the
they not haſtily thrown out 60 pounds of ballaſt, which weather proved fine and warm. They had now a moſt
enabled thein juſt to reach thc water's edge.
beautiful proſpect of the ſouth coaſt of England, and
The ſucceſs of the ſcheme for raiſing or lowering were able to count 37 villages upon it. After paling
aeroſtatic machines by means of bags filled with com over ſeveral veſſels, they found that the balloon, at 50
mon air.being thus rendered dubious, another method minutes after one,was deſcending on which they threw
was thought of. This was to put a ſmall aeroſtatic out a fack and an half of ballaſt, but as tliey ſaw that
machine with rarefied air under an inflammable air. it ſtill deſcended, and that with much greater velocity
balloon, but at ſuch a diſtance that the infiammable air than before, they now threw out all the ballaſt. This
of the latter might be perfectly out of the reach of the ſtill provingineffectual, they next threw out a parcel of
fire uſed for inflating the former ; and thus, by increa books they carried along with them, which made the
ſing or diminiſhing the fire in the ſmall machine, the balloon aſcend, when they were about midway betwixt
abſolute weight of the whole would be conſiderably di France and England. At a quarter paſt two, finding
Unfortu- miniſhed or augmented. This ſcheme was unhappily themſelves again deſcending, they threw away the re-
nate voyage put in execution by the celebrated Mr Pilatre de Ro- mainder of their books, and, ten minutes after, they
of Mefirs zier, and another gentleman named Mr Romaine. Their bad a moſt enchanting proſpect of the French coatt.
Rozier and inflammable-air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter, Still, however, the machine deſcended; and as they had
Romaine. and the power of the rarefied-air one was equivalent to now no more ballaſt, they were fain to throw away
about 60 pounds. They afcended without any appear their proviſions for eating, the wings of their boat, and
ance of danger or ſiniſter accident; but had not been every other moveable they could eaſily ſpare. “We
long in the atmoſphere when the inflammable-air bal- threw away, ſays Dr Jeffries, our only bottle, which,
loon was ſeen to ſwell very conſiderably, at the ſame in its deſcent, caſt out a ſteam like ſmoke, with a ruſh-
time that the aeronauts were obſerved, by means ofte- ing noiſe ; and when it ſtruck the water, we heard and
leſcopes, very axious to get down, and buſied in pull- felt the ſhock very perceptibly on our car and balloon."
ing the valve and opening the appendages to the bal. All this proving inſufficient to ſtop the deſcent of the
loon, in order to facilitate the eſcape of as inuch in- balloon, they next threw out their anchors and cords,
flammable air as poſſible. A ſhort time after this the andat laſt ſtripped off their clothes, faſtening themſelves
whole machine was on fire, when they had then attained to certain ſtrings, and intending to cut away the boat
the height of about three quarters of a mile from the as their laſt reſource. They had now the ſatisfaction,
ground. No exploſion was heard; and the filk which however, to find that they were riſing ; and as they
compoſed the air-balloon continued expanded, and paſſed over the high lands between Cape Blanc and
ſecmed to reſiſt the atmoſphere for about a minute; Calais, the machine roſe very faſt, and carried them to
after which it collapſed, and the remains of the appa a greater height than they had been at any former
ratus defcended along with the two unfortunate travel part of their voyage. They deſcended ſafely among
lers ſo rapidly, that both of them were killed. Mr Pi ſome trees in the foreſt of Guiennes, where there was
latre ſeemed to have been dead before he came to the juſt opening enough to admit them.
ground; but Mr Romaine was alive when ſome perſons It would be tedious as well as unneceſſary to recount
came up to the place were he lay, though he expired all the other aerial voyages that have been performed
immediately after.
in different parts of Europe: It appeared ſufficient
Theſe are the moſt remarkable attempts that have for the purpoſe of this article to notice thoſe which
been made to improve the ſcience of aeroſtation ; tho' were moſt remarkable and intereſting; and therefore
a great number of other expeditions through the at an account of the ingenious Mr Baldwin's excurſion
moſphere have taken place. But of all the voyages from Cheſter, alluded to above, ſhall now cloſe our
35 which had been hitherto projected or put in exe-
enumeration.
Voyage of cution, the moſt daring was that of Mi Blanchard. On the 8th of September 1785, at forty minutes
Mefl.Blan-
and Dr Jeffries acroſs the Straits of Dover which paſt one P. M. Mr Baldwin aſcended from Cheſter in
ſeparate Britain from France. This took place on Mr Lunardi's (A) balloon. After traverſing in a variety
Jeffries
acroſs the the 7th of January 1785, being a clear froſty mor of different directions, he firſt alighted, at 28 minutes
Straits of ning, with a wind, barely perceptible, at N. N. W. after three, about 12 miles from Cheſter, in the
The operation of filling the balloon began at 10 neighbourhood of Frodſham ; then reafcending and
o'clock, and, at three quarters after twelve, every purſuing his excurſion, he finally landed at Rixton
thing was ready for their departure. At one o'clock
At one o'clock moſs, five miles N. N. E. of Wavington, and 25 miles
Mr Blanchard deſired the boat to be puſhed off, which from Cheſter. Mr Baldwin has publiſhed his Obſerva-
now ſtood only two feet diſtant from that precipice ſo tions and Remarks made during his voyage, and taken
finely deſcribed by Shakeſpeare in his tragedy of King from minutes. Our limits will not admit of relating
Сс 2
many
chard and
Dover.
(A) Accounts of this gentleman's adventurous excurſions have been publiſhed in all the Newſpapers; and
therefore it appeared unneceſſary to take up room with an account of them in this article.
204
Hiſtory.
Λ Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
many of his obſervations ; but the few following are hciglat he poured down a pint. bottle full of water; and
ſome of the moſt important and curious. " The fen as the air did not oppoſe a reliſtance fufficient to break
ſation of aſcending is compared to that of a ſtrong the ſtrear into ſmall drops, it moſtly fell down in large
preſſure from the bottom of the car upwards againſt drops. In the courſe of the balloon's tract it was
the foles of his feet. At the diſtance of what appeared found much affected by the water (a circumſtance ob-
to him ſeven miles from the earth, though by the ba- ſerved in former aerial voyages). Al one time the
romerer ſcarcely a mile and a half, he had a grand and direction of the balloon kept continually over the wa-
nioſt cnchanting view of the city of Cheſter and its ter, going direcly towards the ſea, ſo much as to en-
adjacent places below. The river Dee appeared of a danger the aeronaut; the mouth of the balloon was
red colour; the city very diminutive ; and the town opened, and he in two minutes deſcended into an under
entirely blue. The whole appeared a perfect plain, current blowing from the ſca: he kept deſcending, and
the higheſt building having no apparent height, but landed at Bellair farm in Rinſley, 12 miles from Cheſter.
reduced all to the ſame level, and the whole terreſtrial Here he lightened his car by 31 pounds, and inſtantly
proſpect appeared like a coloured map. Juſt after his reaſcending was carried into the interior part of the
firſt aſcent, being in a well-watered and inaritime part country,performing a number of different nanæuvres,
of the country, he obſerved a remarkable and regular Athis greateſt altitude he found his reſpiration free and
tendency of the balloon towards the ſca ; but ſhortly eaſy. Several bladders which he had along with him
after riſing into another current of air, he eſcaped the crackled and expanded very conſiderably. Clouds and
danger: this upper current, he ſays, was viſible to him land, as before, appeared on the ſame level. By way
al the time of his deſcent, by a lofty found ſtratum of of experiment, he tried the upper valve two or three
clouds flying in a ſafe direction. The perſpective ap- times, the neck of the balloon being clofe ; and re-
pearance of things to him was very remarkable. The marked, that the eſcape of the gas was altended with a
łoweſt bed of vapour that firſt appeared as cloud was growling noiſe like millſtones, but not near ſo loud.
pure white, in detached fleeces, increaſing as they Again, round the ſhadow of the balloon, on the clouds
roſe: they preſently coaleſced, and formed, as he heobſerved the iris. A variety of other circumſtances
expreſſes it, a fea of cotton, tufting here and there by and appearances he met with, 'is fanciſully deſcribed ;
the action of the air in the undiſturbed part of the and at 53 minutes paſt three he finally landed.
clouds. The whole became an extended white floor The frequency of aerial voyages, accompanicd with
of cloud, the upper ſurface being ſmooth and even. particular details of trilling and unintereſting circum-
Above this white floor he obſerved, at great and une- ſtances, and apparently made with a view to promote
qual diſtances, a vaſt aſſemblage of thunder-clouds, the intereſt of particular perſons, regardleſs of any ad-
each parcel conſiſting of whole acres in the denſeſt vancement in knowledge, have now ſunk the ſcience
form : he compares their form and appearance to the of aeroſtation ſo low in the opinion of moſt people, that
ſmoke of pieces of ordnance, which had conſolidated that before giving any account of the moſt proper me-
as it were into maſſes of ſnow, and penetrated thro' the thod of conſtructing theſe machines, it may ſeem nie-
upper ſurface or white floor of common clouds, there ceſſary to premiſe ſomething concerning the uſes to
remaining viſible and at reft. Some clouds had mo which they may poſſibly be applied. Theſe according
tionsin flow and various directions, forming an appear-
to Mr Cavallo are the following.
ance truly ſtupendous and majeſtic. He endeavours «The ſmall balloons, eſpecially thoſe made of paper, Uſes of ada
to convey fomeidea of the ſcene by a figure ; (and from and raiſed by means of ſpirit of wine, may ſerve to ex- roftation,
which figa 13 of Plate III. is copied). A repreſents plore the direction of the winds in the upper regions
a circular view he had from the car of the balloon, him- of the atmoſphere, particularly when there is a calm
ſelf being over the centre of the view, looking down on below: they may ſerye for ſignals in various circum-
the white floor of clouds and ſeeing the city of Cheſter ftances, in which no other means can be uſed; and let-
through an opening, which diſcovered the landſcape ters or other ſmall things may be eaſily ſent by them,
below, limited by ſurrounding vapour, to leſs than two as for inſtance from ſhips that cannot ſafely land on
miles in diameter. The breadth of the outer margin de- account of ſtorms, from belieged places, iſlands, or the
fines his apparent height in the balloon (viz. 4 miles) a- like. The larger aeroftatic machines may anſwer all
bove the white flour of clouds. Mr Baldwin alſo gives a the abovementioned purpoſes in a better manner; and
curious deſcription of his tracing the ſhadow of the they may, beſides, be uſed as a help to a perſon who
balloon over tops of volumes of clouds. At firſt it wants to afcend a mountain, a precipice, or to croſs a
was ſmall, in ſize and ſhape like an egg ; but ſoon en river; and perhaps one of theſe machines tied to a boat
creaſed to the magnitude of the ſun's diſc, ſtill grow. by a long rope, may be in ſome cafes, a better fort of
ing larger, and attended with a moſt captivating ap- fail than any that is uſed at preſent. The largeſt fort
pearance of aniris encircling tlie whole ſhadow at ſome of machines, which can take up one or more men, may
diſtance round it,the colours of which were remarkably evidently be ſubfervient to various oeconomical and
brilliant. The regions did not feel colder, but rather philoſophical purpoſes. Their conveying people froin
warmer, than below. The ſun was hotteſt to him place to place with great ſwiftneſs, and without trouble,
when the balloon was ſtationary. The diſcharge of a may be of eſſential uſe, even if the art of guiding them
cannon wlien the balloon was at a conſiderable height, in a direction different from that of the wind ſhould
was diſtinctly heard by the aeronaut; and a diſcharge never be diſcovered. By means of thoſe machines the
from the ſame piece, when at the height of 30 yards, Shape of certain ſeas and lands may be betier, aſcer-
fo diſturbed him as to oblige him for ſafety to lay hold tained; men may aſcend to the tops of mountains they
firmly of the cords of the balloon. At a conſiderable never viſited before; they may be carried over marſhy
and
36
Principles.
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
205
to it.
and dangerous grounds; they may by that means come is left. For this reaſon ſmoke aſceilds into the atino.
ollt of a beſieged place, or an illand; and they may, in ſphere, and heated air in that which is coider. The
38
hot climates, aſcend to a celdregion of the atmoſphere, aſcent of the latter is ſhown in a very eaſy and ſatis- Experi-
cither to refreſh themſelves,orto obſerve the ice which factory manner by bringing a red-hot iron under one ments
is never ſeen below; and, in ſhort, they may be thus of the ſcales of a balance, by which the latter is in- ſhowing
the impulſe
taken to ſeveral places, to which human art hitherto ftantly made to aſcend; for, as ſoon as the red-hot
of heated
knew of 110 conycyanice.
iron is brought under the ſcale, the hot air being light- air.
“ The philoſophical uſes, to which theſe machines er than that which is colder, aſcends, and ſtrikes the
may be ſubſervient, are numerous indeed; and it may bottom, which is thus impelled upwards, and the op-
be ſufficient to ſay, that liardly any thing which paſſes poſite fcale deſcends, as if a weight had been put in-
in the atmoſphere is known with preciſion, and that
principally for want of a method of aſcending into it. Upon this ſimple principle depends the whole theo.
The forniation of rain, of thunder-ſtornis, of vapours, ry of aeroſtation, for it is the ſame thing whether we
hail, ſnow, and meteors in general, require to be atten render the air lighter by introducing a quantity of
tively examined and aſcertained. The action of the
The action of the heat into it, or incloſing a quantity of gas fpecifically
barometer, the rarefaction and temperature of the air in lighter than the common atmoſphere in acertain ſpace;
various regions, the deſcent of bodies, the propagation both will aſcend, and for the ſame reaſon. A cubic
of ſound, &c. are ſubjects which all require a ſeries of foot of air, by the moſt accurate experiments, has
obſervations and experiments, the performance of been found to weigh about 554 grains, and to be ex-
which could never have been properly expected be- panded by every degree of heat, marked on Fahren-
fore the diſcovery of aeroſtatic machines.
heit's thermometer, about zirth part of the whole.
Tothoſe uſes we may add the gratification of curioſity By heating a quantity of air, therefore, to 500 de-
and pleaſure as a very trong inducement tothe practice grees of Fahrenheit, we will juſt double its bulk when
of an art, in which, with any tolerable degree of cau the thermometer ſtands at 54 in the open air, and in
tion, there appears not to be the ſmalleſt danger. the ſame proportion we will diminih its weight; and
Every one who has tried the experiment teſtifies, that if ſuch a quantity of this hot air be incloſed in a bag,
the beauty of the proſpect afforded by an aſcent, or that the exceſs of the weight of an equal bulk of com-
the pleaſure of being conveyed through the atmoſ-. non air weighs more than the bag with the air con-
phere, cannot be exceeded. No one has felt the tained in it, both the bag and air will riſe into the at-
leaſt of that giddineſs conſequent upon looking from moſphere, and continue to do ſo until they arrive at a
the top of a very high building or of a precipice, nor place where the external air is naturally ſo much ra-
have they any of the ſickneſs ariſing from the motion refied that the weight becomes equal; and here the
of a veſſel at ſea. Many have been carried by bal. whole will floate
loons at the rate of 30, 40, or even 50 miles an hour, The power of hot air in raiſing weights, or rather
without feeling the leaſt inconvenience, or even agi- that by which it is itſelf impelled upwards, may be
tation of the wind; the reaſon of which is, that as ſhown in the following manner: Roll up a ſheet of
the machine moves with nearlythevelocity of the wind paper into a conical form, and, by thrusting a pin in-
itſelf, they are always in a calm, and without uneafi to it near the apex, prevent it from unrolling. Faſten
neſs. Some have apprehended danger from the elec it then, by its apex, under one of the ſcales of a ba-
tricity of the atmoſphere; and have thought that a lance by intans of a thread, and, having properly
ſtroke of lightning, or the ſmalleſt electric ſpark, hap- counterpoiſed it by weights, put it into the oppoſite
pening near a balloon, might ſet fire to the inflamma ſcale ; apply the flame of a candle underneath, you
ble air, and deſtroy both the machine and the adven will inſtantly perceive the cone to ariſe, and it will not
turers... Mr Cavallo has ſuggeſted ſeveral conſiderati be brought into equilibriuin with the other but by a
ons for diminiſhing apprehenſions of this kind. Bal nuuch greater weight than thoſe who have never ſeen
loons have been already raiſed in every ſeaſon of the the experiment would believe. If we try this experi.
year, and even when thunder has been heard, without ment with more accuracy, by getting proper recep-
injury. In caſe of danger, the aeronauts may either tacles made which contain determinate quantities of
dcſcend to the earth, or aſcend
above the region of the air, we will find that the power of the heat depends
clouds and thunder-ſtorms. Beſides, as balloons are much more on the capacity of the bag which contains
formed of materials that are not conductors of electri it than could be well ſuppoſed. Thus, lct a cubica!
city, they are not likely to receive ſtrokes, eſpecially receptacle be made of a ſmall wooden frame covered
as by being encompafled with air they ſtand inſulated. with paper capable of containing one foot of air, and
Moreover, inflammable air by itſelf, or unmixed with let the power of a candle be tried with this as above
a certain quantity of common air, will not burn ; ſo directed for the paper cone. It will then be found that
that if an electric ſpark ſhould happen to paſs through a certain weight may be raiſed; but a much greater Rarefied-
the balloon, it would not ſet fire to the inflammable one will be raiſed by having a receptacle of the ſame air balloons
air, unleſs a hole was made in the covering.
kind which contains two cubic feet ; a ſtill greater ought to be
37
Principles
The general principles of aeroſtation are ſo little by one of three feet; a yet greater by one of four feet,
of aeroſta- different from thoſe of hydroſtatics, that it may ſeem &c. and this even though the very fame candle bé
large as
tion.
poffible.
ſuperfluous to inſiſt much upon them. It is a fact made uſe of ; nor is it known to what extent even
univerſally known, that when a bodyisimmerſedin any the power of this ſmall fiame might be carried.
fluid, if its weight be leſs than an equal bulk of that From theſe experiments it appears, thatin the aero.
fluid, it will riſe to the ſurface ; but if heavier, it will ſtatic machines conſtructed on Montgolfier's plan, it
Link ; and if equal, it will remain in the place where it inuſt be an advantage to have them as large as poſſible ;
becauſe
1
39
made as
206
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο N.
Principles:
40
comnion
43
1
becauſe a ſmaller quantity of fire will then havea great found, that balloons, in paſſing through the higher re-
er effect in railing them, and the danger from that gions of the atmoſphere, acquire a very conliderable
element, which in this kind of machines is chiefly to be quantity of moiſture, not only from the rain or ſnow
How bal- dreaded, will be in a great meaſure avoided. On this they ſometimes meet with, but even from the dew and
loons might ſubject it may be remarked, that as the cubical con vapour which condenſes upon them. On this an eva-
riſe by the tents of a globe, or any other figure of which balloons poration will inſtantly take place; and as it is the pro-
are made, increaſe much more rapidly than their ſur perty of this operation to produce a very violent cold,
heat of the faces, there muſt ultinately be a degree of magni.
the internal heat of the balloon muſt be ſoon exhauſted
atmoſphere
tude at which the ſmalleſt imaginable heat would raiſe in ſuch a manner as to make it become ſpecifically hea-
any weight whatever. Thus, ſuppoſing any aeroſtatic vier than the common atmoſphere, and conſequently
machine capable of containing 500 cubic feet, and the deſcend in a much ſhorter time than it would have done
air within it to be only one degree hotter than the cx by the mere loſs of air. To this, in all probability, Greatien-
ternal atmoſphere ; the tendency of this machine to we are to aſcribe the deſcent of the balloon which car- dency of
riſe, even without the application of artificial heat, ried Meſſrs Blanchard and Jeffries; and which ſeemed Mr Klan-
would be near an ounce. Let its capacity beincreaſed ſo extraordinary to many people, that they were ob- chard's bal-
16 times; and the tendency to ariſe will be equivalent liged to have recourſe to an imaginary attraction in loon to de-
ſcend ac-
to a pound, though this may be done without making the waters of the ocean in order to folve the pheno-
counted
the machine 16 times heavier than before. It is cer menon, This ſuppoſition is rejected by Mr Caval-for.
tain, however, that all aeroſtatic machines have a ten lo; who explains the matter, by remarking, that in
dency to produce or preſerve heat within them, which tivo former voyages made with the fame machine,
would by no means be imagined by thoſe who have it could not long ſupport two men in the atmoſphere ;
not made the experiment. When Meſſrs Charles and ſo that we had no occaſion to wonder at its weakneſs
Roberts made their longeſtaerial voyage of 150 miles, on this occaſion. 6. As for its riſing higher (ſays he)
they had the curioſity to try the temperature of the juſt when it got over the land, that may be eaſily ac-
air within their balloon, in compariſon with that of counted for. In the firſt place, the two travellers
the external atmoſphere; and at this time they found, threw out their clothes juſt about that time ; fecondly,
that when the external atmoſphere was 63°, the ther in conſequence of the wind's then increaſing, the bal-
mometer, within the balloon ſtood at 1040. Such a differ loon travelled at a much greater rate than it had donic
ence of temperature muſt have given a machine of the whilſt over the ſea ; which increaſe of velocity leſſened
magnitude which carried them a conſiderable aſcend its tendency to deſcend: beſides which, the viciſſitudes
ing powerindependent of any other cauſe, as it amount of heat and cold may produce a very conſiderable ef-
ed to 41 grains on every cubic foot ; and therefore in fect; for if we ſuppoſe, that the air over the land was
a machine containing 50,000 ſuch feet would have colder than that over the ſea, the balloon coming into
been almoſt 200 pounds. Hence we may eaſily ac the latter from the former, continued to be hotter than
count for what happened at Dijon, and is recorded by the circumambient air for ſome time after ; and conſe-
Mr Morveau. " A balloon, intended to be filled with quently, it was comparatively much lighter when in
A balloon inflammable air, being completed, was, by way of the cold air over the land, than when in the hotter air
rifes thus trial, filled with the common air, and in that ſtate ex over the ſea; henccit floated eaſier in the former than
into the at- poſed to the atmoſphere. Now it was obſerved, and in the latter caſe.'
moſphere. indeed a ſimilar obſervation had been made before, It ſeems indeed very probable, that there was ſome-
that the air within the balloon was much liotter than thing uncommon in the caſe of Mr Blanchard's balloon
the circumambient air: the thermometerin the former while paſſing over the ſea; for, as it roſe higher after
ſtood at 1 200 ; whereas in thelatter, even when the fun reaching the land than in any former period of the
flione upon it, the thermometer ſtood at 840. This voyage, and likewiſe carried thein to the diſtance over
Thowed a conſiderable degree of rarefaction within the land iorc than half of that which they had paſſed over
balloon ; and confequently it was ſuſpected, that by water, we can ſcarce avoid ſuppoſing, that it had a.
means of this rarefaction alone, eſpecially if it were tendency to deſcend when over the water more than
to increaſe a little, the balloon might aſcend. On the when over land, independent of any loſs of air. Now,
30th of May, about noon, the wind being rather it does not appear that the air over the ſea is at alſ
ſrong, agitated the balloon ſo that two men were em warmer than that above land ; on the contrary, there
ployed to take care of it ; but notwithſtanding all is every reaſon to believe, that the ſuperior reflective
their endeavours,
it eſcaped from its confinement, and, power of the land renders the atmoſphere above it
lifting up about 65 pounds weight of cords, equato warmer than the ſea can do ; but it is very natural to
rial circle, &c. roſe many feet high, and, paſſing over ſuppoſe, that the air above the ſea is more moiſt than
ſome houſes, went to the diſtance of 250 yards, where that above land, and conſequently by letting fall its
at length it was properly ſecured.”
moiſture upon the balloon, muſt have occaſioncd an e-
Internal This difference between the external and internal vaporation that would deprive the machine of its inter-
heat of the heat being ſo very conſiderable, muſt have a great in nal leat, which it would partly recover after it entered
balloonshas fluence upon aeroſtatic machines, and will undoubtedly the warmer and drier atmoſphere over land.
great influ- influence thoſe filled with inflammableair as well as the We ſhall now proceed to the conſtruction of aero-
Conſtruco
other kind: Nor is it unlikely, that the ſhort time ſtatic machines; of which the ſmaller are only for a- tion of ae-
aerial voy- which many aerial voyagers have been able to continue muſement, or fome Night experiments, and are very roftatic meta-
ages.
in the amoſpliere, may have been owing to the want eaſily made. As in all of them, however, it is of the chines.
of a method of preſerving this internal heat. It may utmoſt cenfequence to have the weight as little as pof-
naturally be ſuppoſed, and indeed it has always been fible, the ſhape becomes an object of great conſidera-
41
41
cnce on
tion.
Practice.
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
207
45
Of their
tion. For this purpoſe a ſpherical figure has been ma- method of preparing it : “Take one pound of bird-
thematically demonſtrated to be the beſt ; as capable of line, put it into a new proper earthen pot that can re-
ſhype. containing a greater quantity under a ſmaller ſurface liſt the fire, and let it boil gently for about one hour,
than any other. Thus a perfect ſphere contains leſs viz. till it ceaſes to crackle; or, which is the ſame
furſace in proportion to its ſolidity than a ſpheroid; a thing, till it is ſo far boiled, as that a drop of it being
fpheroid leſs than a cylinder ; the latter leſs than a let fall upon the fire will burn: then pour upon it a
cube ; and a cube ſtill leſs than a paralleloſiped. In pound of ſpirits of turpentine, ſtirring it at the ſame
all caſes, therefore, where we can till the whole capa- time with a wooden ſpatula, and keeping the pot at a
city of the balloon with air equally light, the ſpherical good diſtance from the flame, leaſt the vapour of this
figiire is undoubtedly to be preferred; and this hulds eſſential oil ſhould take fire. After this, let it boil for
good with regard to all inflammable air-balloons, whe- about ſix minutes longer ; then pour upon the whole
ther their lize be great or ſmall; but in the rarefied three pounds of boiling oil of nuts, linſeed, or poppy
airones, where the under part muſt necellarily be much rendered drying by ır.cans of litharge ; ſtir it well, let
colder than the upper, the globular ſhape ſeems not ſo it boil for a quarter of an hour longer, and the varniſlı
proper. An inverted cone, or truncated pyramid, with is made.
is made. After it has reſted for 24 hours, and the
the ſmaller part undermoſt, ſeems then to be moſt pro- fediment has gone to the bottoin, decant it into aro-
per, as it allows the heated air (which has a great ten ther pot; and when you want to uſe it, warm, and ap-
dency to expand as well as to aſcend) to collect in the ply it with a flat bruih upon the filk ſtuff, whilſt that
wide part at the top, while the uſeleſs ſurface in the is kept well ſtretched. One coat of it may be ſuffi-
lower part, and which, in any other figure, would con cient; but if two are neceſſary, it will be proper to
tain only the colder and heavier air, is thus thrown give one on each ſide of the filk, and to let them dry
aſide. In fact it has been found, that aeroſtatic ma in the open air while the ſilk remains extended.” 48
chines, raiſed by ineans of rarefied air, when made of Vír Cavallo gives the following method of preparing Mr Caval-
the ſhape of a parallelopiped, or even one deviating this varniſh, which he prefers to that of M. d Si lo's nie-
thod.
ſtill more from the ſhape of a globe, have anſwered the Fond.---. In order to render linſeed-oil drying, boil
purpoſe as well as they could have been ſuppoſed to it with two ounces of faccharum faturni and three
do, had ever ſo much care been taken in forining them ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil
exactly to that ſhape. The very firſt machine made has diſſolved them, which will be accompliſhed in half
by Mr Montgolfier was in form of a parallelopiped; an hour ; then put a pound of birdlime and half a
and though it contained only 40 cubic feet, ſhowed a pint of the drying oil into a pot (iron or copper pots
very conſiderable power of aſcent. A very large one, are the ſafeſt for this purpoſe), the capacity of which
74 feet high, which Mr Montgolfier had deligned to may be equal to about one gallon, and let it boil very
exhibit before the royal family, had the middle part of gently over a ſlow charcoal fire till the birdlinie ceaſes
it priſmatic for about the height of 25 feet; its top to crackle, which will be in about half or three quar-
was a pyramid of 29 feet : and its lower part was a ters of an hour; then pour upon it two pints and a
truncated cone of near 20 feet. It weighed 1000 half more of drying oil, and let it boil for one hour
pounds; and, notwithſtanding its ſhape, in a very ſhort longer, ſtirring it very frequently with an iron or
time manifeſted a power of alcent equal to 500 pounds. wooden ſpatula. As the varniſh, whilſt boiling, and
Another aeroſtatic machine of a ſmaller ſize, but of the eſpecially when it is nearly done, fwells very much,
figure of a parallelopiped, being ſuffered to aſcend care ſhould be had to remove, in thoſe caſes, the pot
with 30 ſheets of oiled paper fixed to a wire frame, from the fire, and to replace it when the varniſh ſub-
and ſet on fire, roſe to a great height, and in 22 mi- fides, otherwiſe it will boil over. Whilſt the ſtuff is
nutes could not be ſeen. It ſeems therefore, that, with boiling, the operator ſhould, from time to time, ex-
regard to the ſhape of theſe machines, it is by no means amine whether the varniſh has boiled enough ; which
neceſſary to adhere rigidly to that of a ſphere ; but is thus known:- Take ſome of it upon the blade of a
that any oblong form anſwers very well.
knife, and then, after rubbing the blade of another
Materials.
For experimental purpoſes, both the inflammable knife upon it, ſeparate the knives ; and when on this
and rarefied air-balloons may be made of paper ; the ſeparation, the varniſh begins to form threads between
former being made of that kind called thin-poſt, var the two, you may conclude that it is done ; and,
niſhed over with linſeed-oil ; the latter either of that without looſing time, it muſt be removed from the fire.
or any other kind, without varniſhi. In order to avoid When it is alnioſt, though not quite, cold, add about
the danger of burning, however, it has been propoſed an equal quantity of ſpirit of turpentine: mix it
to impregnate the paper of which theſe ſmall rarefied well together, and let it reſt till the next day; when,
air-balloons are made with ſolution of ſal-amnioniac, having warmed it a little, ſtrain and bottle it. It
alum, or foine other fult ; but this does not ſeem to be it is too thick, add ſome more ſpirit of turpentine.
neceſury. Thoſe filled with inflammable air have been When this varniſh is laid upon the filk, the ſtuff
made of gold-beater ſkin or peeled bladders; but the ſhould be made perfectly dry, and ſtretched; ſo that
cheaper muterial of paper is undoubtedly preferable. the varniſh, which ought
the varniſh, which ought to be uſed lukewarm, may
Fir aeroſtatic machines of a larger ſize, the material fill up the pores of the ſtuff. The varniſh fhould be
for inflam- univerſilly employed is varniihed tilk; and for thoſe of laid once very thin upon one ſide of the ſtuff; and
mable-air the rarefied-air kind, linen painted over with ſome lize about 12 hours after, two other coats of it ſhould be
balloons,
colour, or lined with paper. The beſt varniſh for an laid on, one on each ſide ; and, 24 hours after, the
according
infiammable air-balloon is that made with bird-lime, ſilk may be uſed, though in cold weather, it may be
St Fond.
and reco'nmended by Mir Fanjas de Saint-Fond, in a left to dry ſome time longer."
treatile publiſhed on the ſubject. The following is his Much has been ſaid in France of their elaſtic gum-
varnish,
46
74
Beſt varnich
to Mr de
205
Practice.
A E R OS T'A
Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
varnifli, and its compoſition kept a ſecret ; but Mreach equal to a quarter of the circumference, ſo that
Baldwin, after many expenſive trials, declares to the the whole length AE of the pattern may be equal to
world what he conſiders as the ſecret; and it is merely half the circumference. Thirdly, divided AD into 18
this:“ Take any quantity of caoutchouc, as two ounces equal parts; and to the points of diviſion apply the
averdupois ; cut it into finall bits with a pair of ſciſ- lines fg, hi, kl, &c. parallel to each other, and perpen-
fars; put a ſtrong iron ladle (like that uſed by plum- dicular to AD. Fourthly, divide the whole circum-
bers) over a common pitcoal or other fire. The fire ference in twice the given number of pieces, and make
muſt be gentle, glowing, and without ſinoke. When DC and BB cach equal to the quotient of this divi-
the ladle is hot, much below a red heat, put a ſingle fion ; ſo that the whole, BC, is equal to the greateſt
bit into the ladle. If black ſmoke illues, it will pre- breadth of one of theſe pieces. Fifthly, multiply the
ſently flame and diſappear, or it will evaporate with abovementioned quotient by the decinals annexed to
out fame : the ladle is then too hot. When the fg, viz. 0.99619, and then the product expreſſes the
ladle is leſs hot, put in a ſecond bit, which will pro- length of fg ; again niultiply the fanie length of DE
duce a white ſmoke. This white ſmoke will continue by the decimals annexed to hi, and the product ex-
during the operation, and evaporate the caouthouc : preſſes the length of hi; and, in ſhort, the product
therefore no time is to be loſt; but little bits are to ariſing from the multiplication of the length of DC by
be put in, a few at a time, till the whole are melted. the decimals annexed to each of the parallel lines,
It ſhould be continually and gently ſtirred with an gives the length of that line. Laſtly, having found
iron or braſs ſpoon. Two pounds or one quart of the lengths of all theſe lines, draw by hand a curve-
the beſt drying oil (or of raw linſeed oil, which, to line palling through all the extremities of the ſaid
gether with a few drops of neats-foot oil, has ſtood a lines, and that is the edge of one quarter of the pat-
inonth, or not fo long, on a lump of quicklime, to tern. The other quarters may be eaſily deſcribed, by
make it more or leſs drying), is to be put into the applying to them a piece of paper cut according to
melted caoutchouc, and ſtirred till hot, and the whole that already found.--Suppoſe, for example, that the
poured into a glazed veſſel, through a coarſe guaze or diameter of the balloon to be conſtructed is 20 feet,
fine ſieve. When ſettled and clear, which will be in and that it is required to make it of 12 pieces: then,
a few minutes, it will be fit for uſe either hot or cold.” in order to draw the pattern for thoſe pieces, find the
Mr Baldwin is not at liberty, he obferves, to publiſh circumference of the balloon, which is 62.83 feet, and,
the art of laying on the varniſh: but ſays, that it con- dividing it by four, the quotient is 15.7 feet; maké
ſiſts in making no inteſtine motion in the varniſh, which therefore AD equal to 15.7 feet, and DE likewiſe of
would create minute bubbles ; that therefore bruſhes the ſame length Divide the circumference 62.83 by
are improper. Mr Blanchard's method of making elaſtic- 24, which is double the number of pieces that are to
gum varniſh for the ſilk of a balloon, is the following form the balloon, and the quotient, 2.618 feet, is the
« Diffolve elaſtic gum (caoutchouc) cut ſmall in five length of DC and likewiſe of BD ; ſo that Bç is
times its weight of ſpirit of turpentine, by keeping them equal to 5.236 feet. Then, having divided the line
ſome days together; then boiſ one ounce of this folu AD into 18 equal parts, and having drawn the paral-
tion in eight ounces of drying linſeed-oil for a few mi lel lines from thoſe points of diviſion, find the length
nutes ; laſtly, ſtrain it. It muſt be uſed warm. The of each of thoſe lines by multiplying 2.618 by the de-
pieces of silk for the balloon muſt be cut out of a pro- cimals annexed to that line. Thus, 2.618, multiplied
per ſize, according to the dimenſions, after the varniſh by 0.99619, gives 2.608 feet for the length offg; and
is ſufficiently dry: They may be joined by laying again, multiplying 2.618. by 0:98481, gives 2.578
about half an inch of the edge of one piece over the feet for the length of hi ; and fo of the reſt.- In cut-
edge of the other, and ſewing them by a double ſtitch- ting the pieces after ſuch a pattern, care ſhould be
ing. Mr Blanchard uſes expeditiouſly the following taken to leave them about three quarters of an inch all
method. He lays about half an inch of the edge of round larger than the pattern, which will be taken up
one piece flat over the edge of the other, and paſſes a by the ſeams.
hot iron over it ; in doing which a piece of paper To the upper part of the balloon there ſhould be
ought to be laid both under and over the lilk. The adapted, and well fitted in, a valve opening inwards ;
joining may be rendered more ſecure by running it to which ſhould be faſtened a ſtring paſſing through
with a ſilkthread, and ſticking a ribband over it. The a liole made in a ſmall piece of round wood fixed in
ribbands laid over ſeams may be ſtuck with cominon the lower part of the balloon oppoſite to the valve, the
glue, provided the varniſh of the filk is properly dried. end of this ſtring faſtened to the car below, ſo that the
When the glue is quite dry, the ribbands ſhould be aeronaut may open the valve when occaſion requires.
varniſhed over, to prevent their being unglued by the The action of this valve may be underſtood froin fig. 6.
rain.
A round braſs plate AB has a round hole CD, about
of cutting
The beſt method of cutting the pieces of ſilk that are two or three inches diameter, covered on both ſides
for a globe. to forin a balioon, is to deſcribe a pattern of wood or ſtiff with Irong ſmooth leather. On the inſide there is a
card-paper, and then to cut the ſilk upon it. As the fatter E, alſo of braſs, covered with leather, which is
edges of ſuch a pattern are not perfect circles, they to cloſe the hole CD; being about two inches larger
cannot be deſcribed by a pair of compaſſes; but the in diameter than the hole. It is faſtened to the lea-
âg. 5.
beſt method of drawing them is as follows. Firſt, draw, ther of the plate AB; and by a ſpring, which need .
on a flat ſurface two right lines AE and BC, per not be very ſtrong, it is kept againſt the hole. The
pendicular to cach other. Secondly, find the circum- elaſticity of the gas itſelf will help to keep it ſhut.
ference anſwering to the given diameter of the balloon To this ſhitter the ſtring is faſtened, by which it is
in feet and decimals of a foot ; and make AD and DE occaſionally opened for the eſcape of gas. A ſmall
3
ſtring
د
49
gores
Plate III.
AcOUSTICS
А.
Frigo
B
G
Plate JII
Frig
D
E
4
A View from a Balloon above the douds seerid
M
M
Fig. 3
Frig?
0,81915
10,96598
E
A
B
G
G
T
H
F
D
H
I
AEROSTATION
13
12
CUD
A
-B
A
IT
----0,08716
0,17 365
Š
, 2 58 82
:
0,34 2 0 2
-0,49262
-0,5
--0157 358
----0,64279
-0,70711
0,76604
0,86608
0,90631
0,9 3969
k
h
0,98 481
f
0,99619
B
D
Fig
5
son
С
gi
Fig!!
39
E
E
Trig top
D
by M'Balduin
Frig
&
B
C
Frigg
KO
sufig 7
OB.
I
H.
M
OS
A
А.
M
1
E
V
R. Seet Iculp. Philad
Practice.
A E R O S T AT IO N.
2009
fring or other ſecuriy ſhould be fixed to the futter proper to uſe the turnings or chippings of great picces
and the place, ſo as not to admit thc floutier to be o of iron, as of cancion, &c. than the blings of that
pened beyond a certain faſe diſtance. To the lower metal, becauſe the heat attending the erte. veicence
pari of the balloon two pipes ſhould be fixed, made of will be diminiſhed ; and the diluted acid will paſs
the ſame ftutí as the envelope; 6 inches diameter for more readily tlırough the interfices of the turnings
a balloon of 30 feet, and proportionally larger for bal. when they are heaped together, than throgh the ti-
loons of a greater capacity. Thcy muſt be long enough lings, which ſtick cloſer to one anor'er. The weight
for the car.
For balloons of 18 feet and leſs diame of the inflammable air thus obtained by means of acid
ter, one neck or pipe will be ſufficicnt. Tbeſc pipes of vitriol, is, in the common way of procuring it, ge-
are the apertarcs through which the inflammable gas nerally one ſeventh part of the weight of common air ;
is introduced into the balloon.
but with the neceſſary precautions for philofophical
The car or boat is beſt made of wicker-work, cover- experiments, leſs than one-lcnth of the weight cř
ed with leather, and well painted or varuilhed over ; common air. Tivo other foris of elaſtic fluids are
and the proper method of ſuſpending it, is by ropes ſometimes generated with the intammable air. There
proceeding froin the net which goes over the balloon. may be ſeparated from it by pafing the inflammable
This niet thould be formed to the ſhape of the balloon, air through water in wlich quichiime has been diilol-
and fall down to the middle of it, with various cords ved. The water will abſorb theſe fluids, cool the in-
proceeding from it to the circumference of a circle a- fiammalle air, and prevent its over-heating the bal-
bout two feet below the balloon ; and from that circie loon when introduced into it.
other ropes ſhould go to the edge of the boat. This Fig. 7. of Plate III, repreſents an apparatus de-
circle may be made of wood, or of ſeveral pieces of ſcribed by Mr Cavallo as proper for filling balloons of
flender cane bound together. The meſhes of the net the ſize of two or three feet in diameter vith infiam-
niay be ſmall at top, againſt which part of the balmable air, after paſſing it through water.-A is the
loon the inflammavie air exerts the greateſt force; bottle with the ingredients; BCD a tube faſtened in
and increaſe in ſize as they recede from the top. A the neck at B, and paſſing through C, the cork of the
hoop has ſometimes been applied round the middle of other bottle, in which there is another hole made 10
the balloon to faſten the net. This, though not ab receive the tube on which the balloon is lied. Thus it
ſolutely neceſſary, is beſt made of pieces of cane bound is plain, that the infiamniable air coming out of the
together, and covered with icather.
tube D will paſs firit through the water of the bottle
With regard to the rarefied-air machines, Mr Ca E and then into the balloon. Two ſmall caſks may
vallo recommends firſt to ſoak the cloth in a ſolution be uſed inſtead of the bottles A and E.
of fal aninoniac and common ſize, uſing one pound of 2. Infiammable air may be obtained at a much
each to every gallon of water ; and when the cloth is cheaper rate by the action of fire on various ſubſtances ;
quite dry, 10 paint it over in the inſide with ſome but the gas which theſe yield is not ſo light as that
earthy colour, and ſtrong fize or glue. When this produced by the efferveſcence of acids and metals. The
paint has dried perfectly, it will then be proper to ſubſtances proper to be uſed in this way are, pit-coal,
varniſh it with oily varniſh, which might dry before it aſphaltum, amber, rock-oil, and other minerals: wood
could penetrate quite through the cloth. Simple dry- and eſpecially oak, camphor-oil, ſpirits of wine, ether,
ing linſeed oil will anſwer the purpoſe as well as any, and animal ſubſtances, which yield air in different de-
provided it be not very fluid.
grees, and of various ſpecific gravities ; but pit-coalis
Of filling
It now only remains to give ſome account of the the preferable ſubſtance. A pound of this expoſed to
aeroſtatic method by which aeroſtatic machines may be filled ared heat, yields about three cubic feet of inflammable
machines. with their proper gas, in order to give them their air, which, whether it be paſſed through crater or not,
power of aſcending into the atmoſphere ; and here we weighs about one-fourth of the weight of common air.
are enabled to determine with much greater preciſion Dr Prieſtley found, as we have elſewhere noticed, that
concerning the inflammable-air balloons than the o animal or vegetable ſubítances will yield fix or ſeven
Methods of others. With regard to them, a primary conſideration times more infiammable air when the fire is ſuddenly
procuring is, the moſt proper method of procuring the inflamma- incieaſed than when it is gently raiſed, though it be
infamma- ble air. It may be obtained in various ways, as has been afterwards made very itrong. Mir Cavallo obſerves,
fhown under the article AEROLOGY : But the moſt that the various ſubſtances above enumerated general.
advantageous methods are, by applying acids to cer- ly yield all their inflammable air in about one hour's
tain metals ; by cxpoſing animal, vegetable, and ſome time. The general method is, to incloſe the ſubſtances
mineral ſubſtances, in a cloſe veſſel to a ſtrong fire; in iron or earthen veſſels, and thus expoſe them to a
or by tranſmitting the vapour of certain fluids through firong fire fufficient to make the veiſels red-hot: the
red-hot tubes,
inflammable air proceeding from the aperture of the
1. In the firſt of theſe methods, iron, zinc, and veilel is received into a tube cr refrigeratory,and, paſs-
vitriolic acid, are the materials moſt generally uſed. ing through the tube or worm, is at laſt collested in a
The vitriolic acid muſt be diluted by five or six parts balloon or other veſſel. A gun barri 1 has ofren leen
of warcr. Iron may be expected to yield in the com uſed for eſſays of this kind. The ſubſtance is put into
mon way 1 700 times its own bulk of gas; or one cubic it ſo as to fill fix or eight inches of its loweſt part, the
foot of inflammable air to be produced by 4 ounces of remainder filled with dry fan]: a tuber adapted to
iron, the like weight of oil or vitriol, and 221 oun the mouth of the barrel, is brought into a baſon of
ces of water. Six ounces of zinc, an equal weight of water under an inverted receiver; and the part of ihe
oil of vitriol, and 30 ounces of water, are neceſſary barrel containing the fubfiance being put into the
for producing the faine quantity of gas. It is more
It is more fire and made red-hot, the inflammable air is col-
VOL. I.
Dd
lected
50
w
SI
ble air
>
Α Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
Practice.
These pro-
53
lected ir lac inverted recciver. As the gun-barrel can It has indeed been recommended to uſe zinc inſtead
hot ſerve for producing a large quantity of inflammable of iron filings, becauſe white vitriol, the ſalt produced
air, Mr Cavallo recommends, as the moſt advantageons by the union of the vitriolic acid and zinc, is much
thape, the following contrivance :-Let the yellel be more valuable than the green fort produced by the ul-
made of clay, or rather of iron, in the ſhape of a Flo. nion of the ſame acid with iron. But though this is
rence Halk, ſomewhat larger, and whoſe neck is longer undoubtedly the caſe, it will as certainly be found, up-
and larger (See ABC, ſig. 8.) Put the ſubſtance to be on trial, that the ſuperior price of the zinc will be more
uſed into this vellel, ſo as to fill about four-fifths or leſs than an equivalent for all tlie advantage that can be
of its cavity AB. If the ſubſtance is of ſuch a nature derived from the additional price of the white vitriol. 52
as to ſwell inuch by the astion of the fire, lute a tube For a balloon of 30 feet diameter, Mr Cavallo recom- Mr ('aval-
of braſs, or firſt a braſs and then a leaden tube, to the mends 3900 pounds of iron turnings, as much oil of lo's receipto-
neck C of the veiſel; and let the end D of the tube be vitriol, and 19,500 pounds of water.
ſhaped as in the figure, ſo that going into the water of a portions, however, appear too great with reſpect to
tub HI, it may terminate under a ſort of inverted vef the acid and metal, and too little with reſpect to the
ſel EF, to the upper aperture of which the balloon G water,
Oil of vitriol will not exert its power upon
is adapted. Things thus prepared, if the part AB of iron unleſs it be diluted with five or fix times its quan-
the veſſel is put into the fire, and made red-hot, the in- tity of water ; ill which caſc, a much ſmaller quantity
flammable air produced will come out of the tube CD, of both acid and metal will ſerve. Mr Lunardi, who Mr Lunar-
and paſſing through the water will at laſt enter into the from the number of his voyages had certainly much di's me-
balloon G. Previous to the operation, as a conſider practical knowledge in aeroſtation, filled his balloon thod.
able quantity of common air remains in the inverted at Edinburgh and Glaſgow with about 2000 pounds of
vefſel EF, which it is more proper to expel, the veſſel iron (the borings of cannon procured from Carron),
EF ſhould have a ſtop-cock K, through which the as much vitriolic acid, and 12,000 pounds of water.
common air may be ſucked out, and the water aſcend The iron was placed in his veſſels in layers, with ſtraw
as high as the ſtop-cock. The dimenſions of ſuch an between them, in order to increaſe the ſurface. His
apparatus Mr Cavallo gives thus: Diameter of largeſt apparatus was not materially different from that of Mr
part of the veſſel ABC ſeven inches, length of whole Cavadlo, repreſented bottom of Plate I. fig. 2. where
veſſel 16 inches; diameter of its aperture one inch, AA are two tubs, about three feet in diameter and
diameter of the cavity of tube CD three-fourths of an nearly two feet deep, inverted in large tubs BB filled.
inch ; lower aperture of the veſſel EF fix inches, leaſt with water. In the bottom of each of the inverted
height of the veſſel EF 24 inches; its aperture F about tubs a hole is made, and a tube E of tin adapted, which
two inches. The aperture of the veſſel EF ſlould be is about ſeven inches in diameter, and ſeven or eight
at leaſt one foot below the ſurface of the water in HI. long. To theſe tubes the filken ones of the balloon .
Care muſt be taken that the fire uſed in this proceſs be are to be tied. Round each of the tubs B, five, fix,
at a fufficient diſtance, otherwiſe it may happen to fire or more ſtrong caſks are placed ; in the top of each-
the inflammable air which may eſcape out of the veſſel two holes are made, and to one of theſe holes a tin
EF.
tube is adapted, and ſo ſhaped, that, palling over the
3. The laſt method of oblaining inflammable air was edge of the tub B, and through the water, it may ter-
lately diſcovered by Mr Lavoilier, and alſo by Dr minate with its aperture under the inverted tub A.
Prieſtley. Mr Lavoiſier made the ſteam of boiling wa The other hole of theſe caſks ferves for the introduc-
ter paſs through the barrel of a gun, kept red-hot by tion of materials, and is ſtopped with a wooden plug.
burning coals. Dr Prieſtley uſes, inſtead of the gun- When the balloon is to be filled, put the net over it,
barrel, a tube of red-hot braſs, upon which the ſteam and let it be ſuſpended as ſhown by CDF; and having
of water has no effect, and which he fills with the expelled all the common air from it, lct the ſilken tubes
pieces of iron which are ſeparated in the boring of can- be faſtened round the tin ones EE ; and the materials.
By this method he obtains an inflammable air, being put into the caſks, the inflammable air, paſſing
the ſpecific gravity of which is to that of common air into the balloon, will ſoon diſtend, and render it ca-
as I to 13. In this method, not yet indeed reduced pable of ſupporting itſelf; after which the rope GH
10 general practice, a tube, about three quarters of an may be flipped off. As the balloon continues to be
inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is filled filled, the net is adjuſted properly round it; the cords
with iron turnings; then the neck of a retort, or cloſe that ſurround it are faſtened to the hoop MN; then.
boiler, is luted to one of its ends, and the worm of a the boat IK being placed between the two ſets of
refrigeratory is adapted to its other extremity. The caſks, is faſtened to the hoop MN, and every thing
middle part of the tube is then ſurrounded with burn- that is required to be ſent up, as ballaſt, inſtruments,
ing coals, ſo as to keep about one foot in length of it &c. is placed in it. At laſt, when the balloon is little
red-hot, and a fire is always made under the retort or more than three quarters full, the filken tubes are ſe-
boiler ſufficient to make the water boil with vehemence parated from thetin ones of the inverted tubs, and their
In this proceſs a conſiderable quantity of inflamma- extremnities being tied up, are placed in the boat.
ble air comes out of the worm of the refrigeratory. It Laſtly, the aeronauts being feated in the boat, the la-
is ſaid that iron yields one half more air by this means teral ropes are ſlipped off, and the machine is abando-
than by the action of vitriolic acid.
ned to the air. (See Blanchard's balloon, Plate II.)
For filling large balloons, a greater apparatus is ne This apparatus was at laſt reduced by Mr Lunardi to
ceſſary; and the only materials that can, with any cer- its utmoſt ſimplicity, by uſing only two large caſks,
tainty of ſucceſs, be employed for producing the pro- and ſuffering the vapour to go into the balloon with
per gas, are, oil of vitriol, and iron filings or turnings. out paſſing through water. Thus his balloon was filled
mon.
in
Practice.
Λ Ε R Ο S Τ Α Τ Ι Ο Ν.
211
balloons.
1
in leſs than half an hour, when, before, it has requi. fcending, and diſcharge of the ballaſt for aſcending,
red two hours at leaſt. The ſinking of his caſks in the will by degrees render the machine incapbuble of float-
ground was alſo an additional convenience, as it created ing; for in the air it is impoſſible to ſupply the loſs of
no confuſion, and rendered the materials inuch more ballast, and very difficult to ſupply that of inflammable
calily conveyed into them.
air. Theſe balloons will alſo riſe or fall by means of
54
Of filling
With regard to the rareficd-air balloons, the method the rarefaction or condenſation of the incloſed air, oc-
rarefied-air of filling them is as follows. A ſcaffold ABCD, the cafioned by heat and cold. It has been propoſed to
breadth of which is at leaſt two-thirds of the diameter of aid a balloon in its alternate inotion of aſcent and de-
the machine, is elevated about fix or eight feet above ſcent, by annexing to it a veſſel of common air, which
the ground. From the middle of it deſcends a well E, might be condenſed for lowering the machine,
and ra.
riſing about two or three feet above it, and reaching refied again, by expelling part of it, for raiſing the
to the ground, furniſhed with a door or two, through machine : But a veſſel adapted to this purpoſe inuſt
which the fire in the well is ſupplied with fuel. The be very ſtrong; and, after all, the aſſiſtance afforded by
well ſhould be conſtructed of brick or of plaſtered wood, it would not be very coilſiderable. M. Dleunier, in or-
and its diameter ſhould be ſomewhat leſs than that of der to attain this end, propoſes to incloſe one balloon
the machine. On each ſid of the ſcaffold are erected filled with common air in another alled with inflam-
two maſts HI, KL, each of which has a pulley at the niable air: as the balloon aſcends, the inflammable air
top, and rendered firm by means of ropes KG, KP, is dilated, and of courſe compreſſes the internal balloon
HP, HG. The machine to be filled is to be placed containing the common air ; and by diminiſhing its
on the ſcaffold, with the neck round the aperture of quantity, leſſens its weight. If it nould be neceſſary
the well. The rope paſſing over the pullies of the to ſupply this loſs, he ſays it may be eaſily done by a
two maſts, ſerves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the pair of bellows fixed in the gallery. Others have proa
balloon about 15 feet of more above the ſcaffold ; and poſed to annex a ſmall machine with rarefied air to an
the reſt of the machine is repreſented by the dotted inflammable-air balloon by ropes, at ſuch a diſtance that
lines in the figure MNO. The machine is kept ſteady, the fire of the former might not affect the inflammable
and held down, whilſt filling, by ropes paſſing through air of the latter: the whole apparatus, thus combined,
loops or holes about its equator ; and theſe ropes may of balloons formed on the two principles of heated and
eaſily be diſengaged froin the machine, by flipping inflammable air, might be raiſed or lowered by merely
them through the loops when it is able to ſuſtain it increaſing or diminishing the fire in the lower balloon.
ſelf. The proper combuſtibles to be lighted in the Wings oroars are the only means of this ſortthat have
well
, are thoſe which burn quick and clear, rather than been uſed with ſome fucceſs; and as Mr Cavallo ob-
ſuch as produce much ſnioke ; becauſe it is hot air, ſerves, they ſeem to be capable of conſiderable improve-
and not ſmoke, that is required to be introduced into ment. Although great effects are not to be expected
the machine. Small wood and ſtraw have been found from them when the machine goes at a great rate, the
to be very fit for this purpoſe. Mr Cavallo obſerves, as beſt methods of moving thoſe wings are by the hu-
the reſultofmanyexperiments with ſmallmachines,that man ſtrength applied ſimilarly to the oars of a water-
ſpirits of wine are upon the whole the beſt combuſtible; man. They may be made in general of ſilk ſtretched
but its price may prevent its being uſed for large ma between wires, tubes, or ſticks; and when uſed inuſt
chines. As the current of hot air aſcends, the machine be turned edgewiſe when they are moved in the direc-
will ſoon dilate, and lift itſelf above the ſcaffold and tion in which the machine is intended to be impelled,
gallery which was covered by it. The peffengers, fu but flat in the oppoſite direction. Fig. 9. Plate III.
el, inſtruments, &c. are then placed in the gallery. is the repreſentation of one of Mr Blanchard's wings.
When the machine makes efforts to aſcend, its aper. Fig. 1o. is one of thoſe uſed by Mr Lunardi, which
ture muſt be brought, by means of the ropes annexed to conſiſts of many ſilk ſhutters or valves, ABCD, DECF,
it, towards the ſide of the well a little above the ſcaf &c. every one of which opens on one ſide only, viz.
fold; the fire-place is then ſuſpended in it, the firelight. ADBC opens upon the line AB, DECF opens upon the
ed in the grate, and the lateral ropes being flipped off line DC, &c. In conſequence of this conſtruction, this
the machine is abandoned to the air. (See Mongolfi- ſort of oars do not need being turned edgewiſe. Fig.
er's balloon, Plate II.) It has been determined by accu II. repreſents one of the wings uſed by the brothers
rate experiments, that only one-third of the common Roberts in the aerial voyage of the 19th September
air can be expelled from theſe large machines ; and 1784; and fig. 12. repreſentsone of the wings conſtruct-
therefore the aſcending power of the rarefied air in ed by Count Zambeccari, which conſiſts of a piece of
them can be eſtimated as only equal to half an ounce
lilk ſtretched between two tin tubes ſet at an angle ;
averdupoiſe for every cubic foot.
but theſe wings are ſo contrived as to turn edgetriſe
The conduct of balloons, when conſtructed, filled, by themſelves when they go on one direction. Other
and actually aſcending in the atmoſphere, is an object contrivances have been made to direct aeroſtatic ma-
of great importance in the practice of aeroſtation. The chines, but they have moſtly been invented to effect a
method generally uſed for elevating or lowering the power upon them as upon a ſhip. It appears, however,
balloons with rarefied air, has been the increaſe or di that they can have no effect when a machine is only
minution of the fire ; and this is entirely at the com moved by the wind alone, becauſe the circuniambient
mand of the aeronaut, as long as he has any fuel in the air is at reſt in reſpect to the machine. The cafe is
gallery. The infiammable-air balloons have been ge- quite different with a veiſel at ſea, becauſe the warer on
rally raiſed or lowered by diminiſhing the weight in which it floats ſtands whilſt the veſſel goes on ; but it
the boat, or by letting out ſome of the gas through muſt be time and experience that can realize the ex-
the valve : but the alternate eſcape of the air in de peciations ſuggeſted by theſe contrivances.
Dd 2
AERSHOT,
5 S 0
( 212 )
Æ SC
Aerſhot AERSHOT, a town in the Netherlands, in the he ſhowed ſoine of his dialogues, and received from him ſchylus.
duchy of Brabant, and capital of the duchy of herſhot. a handſome reward. He would not venture to profefs
Æſchines. It is feated on the river Deinur, ten miles eaſt of Ma- philofophy at Athens, Plato and Ariſtippus bcing in
lines or licchlin, and cight north of Louvain. E. ſuch bigh eſtee. ; but he ſet up a ſchool to maintain
Long. 5. 4. N. Lat. 51. 15.
himſelf. He afterwards wrote orations for the Forum.
ERUGINOUS, an epithet given to ſuch things as Phrynicus, in Photius, rauks him among the beſt ora-
reſemble or partake of the nature of the ruſt of copper. tors, and mentions his orations as the Itandard of the
ARUVO, in natural hiſiory, properly ligpilies the purc Atticítyle. Herinogenes has alſo fpohen very high-
ruſl ofcopper, whether natural or artificial. The for- ly of him. He alſo wrote ſeveral dialogues, of which
mer is found about copper mines, and the latter, called inereareonly three extant: 1.concerning Virtue, whe-
verdegies, made by corroding copper-plates with acids. ther it can bu taught. 2. Eryxias, or braliſtratus ; con-
See Verdenis.
cerning riches, whether they are good. 3. Aaiochus;
ÆRUSCATORES, in antiquity, a kind of ſtrol- concerning death, whether it is to be feared. Mir Le
ling beggars, not unlikegyplies, who drew money from Clerc has given a Latin tranſlation of thein, rith noles,
the creduleus by fortune-telling, &c. It was alſo a de- and ſcveral differtations intitled Sylva Fhilologica.
nomination given to griping exactors, or collectors of ASCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens.
the revenge. The Galli, or prieſts of Cybele, were Authors differ in reyard to the tiine of his birth, fome
called arufitores nagre izatsis; and u.nasay upres, on placing it in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad ;
account of their begging or collecìing alms in the but according to Stanlcy, who relies on the Arunde-
ſtreets; to which end they had little bells whereby lian inarbles, he was born in the 63d Olympiad. He
to draw people's attention to them, much like ſome or was the ſon of Euphorion, and broilier to Cynegirus
ders of mendicants in ſome parts of Europe.
and Aminias, who diſtinguiſhed themſelvesinthe battle
AERX, or Airy, anong ſportſmen. See Airy. of Marathon, and the ſea-fight of Salamis, at which en-
Æs UXORIUM, in antiquity, a fum paid by bache- gagements & fchylus was likewiſe preſelit. In this laſt
lors, as a penalty for living lingle to cld age. This action, according to Diodorus Siculus, Aminias, the
tax for not marrying ſeems to have been firſt impoſed younger of the three brothers, cominanded a ſquadron
in the year of Rome 350, under the cenſorſhip of M. of ſhips, and behaved with ſo much conduct and bra-
Furius Camillus and M. Poſthumus. At toe cenfus, very, that he ſunk the admiral of the Pertian ficet, and
or review of the people, each perſon was aſked, Et tu ſignalized himſelf above all the Athenians. To this
ex anima fententia uxorein habes liberum quærendor 1912 brother our poet was, upon a particular occaſion, obli-
€611fa? He who had no wife was hereupon fined af- ged for faving his life : Ælian relates, that Æſchylus
ter a certain rate, called as uxorium.
being charged by the Athenians with certain blafphe-
Æs per et librann was a formula in the Roman law, mous expreſſions in ſome of his pieces, was accuſed of
I hereby purchaſes and ſales are ratified. Originally impiety, and condemned to be ſtoned to death : they
the phraſe ſeems to have been only uſed in ſpeaking were juſt going to put the ſentence in execution, when
of things fold by weight, or by the ſcales; but it after- Aminias, with a happy preſenceofmind, throwing alide
wards was uſed on other occalions. Hence even in a his cloak, ſhowed his arm without a hand, which he had
doptions, as there was a kind of imaginary purchaſe; loft at the battle of Salamis in defence of his country.
the formula whereof expreſſed, that the perſon adop- This fight made ſuch an impreſſion on the judges, that,
ted was bought per æs et libran.
touched with the reniembrance of his valour, and with
Æs Flavum, yellow copper, among the Romans, an the friendſhip he ſhowed for his brother, they pardoned
appellation given to the coarſer kinds of braſs. Æſchylus. Our poet, however, reſented the indignity
Æs Galdarium, a term uſed by the German minera. of this perſecution, and reſolved to leave a place where
lifis, for a ſubſtance which ſometimes occurs to thoſe his life had been in danger. He became more dcter-
who work upon cobalt, and is uſed for the making the mined in his reſolution when he found his pieces leſs
fine blue colour called ſinalt.
pleaſing to the Athenians than thoſe of Sophocles, tho'
Æs Uſtum, à chemical preparation, made of thin a much younger writer. Soine affirnı, that Æſchylus ne-
leaves of copper, fulphur, and nitre, placed ſtratum ver ſat down to compoſe bul when he had drankliberal-
Super ſtratum in a crucible, and ſet in a charcoal fire ly. He wrote a great numberoftragedies, of which there
till all the fulphur is conſumed; after which, the cop- are but ſeven remaining: and notwithſtanding the ſharp
per is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to power. cenſures of ſome critics, he muſt be allowed to have
Some quench the leaves of copper in vinegar, and re been the father of the tragic art. In the time of Theſpis,
peat the calcination.--Its principal uſe is in colouring there was no public theatre to act upon; the ſtrollers
glaſs, to which it gives a beautiful tincture. The fur driving about from place to place in a cart. Æſchylus
geons uſe it as a deterſive, and ſome have given it in- furniſhed his actors with maſks, and dreſſed them
fernally; but it is certainly a very dangerous medi. ſuitably to their characters. Helikewiſe introduced the
cine, aod ſhould be avoided.
bufkin, 10 make tijen appear more like heroes.--The
ÆSCHINES, a Socratic philoſopher, the ſon of ancients gave Æſchylus alſo the praiſe of having been
Charinus a fauſage-maker. He was continually with the firſt who reinoved murders and ſhocking fights from
Socrates; which occaſioned this philoſopher to ſay, that the eyes of the ſpectators. He is ſaid likewiſe to have
the ſauſage-maker's fon was the only perſon who knew leſſened the number of the chorus. M. Le Feyre
how to pay a due regard to him. It is ſaid that po- has obſerved, that Æſchylus never repreſented women
verty obliged him to go to Sicily to Dionyſius the Ty- in love in his tragedies; which, hcfays, was not ſuited
rant'; and that he met with great contempt from Plato, to his genius; but, in repreſenting a woman tranſported
but was extremely well received by Ariſtippus; to whom with fury, he was incomparable. Longinus ſays, that
Æſchylus
-
1
Æ SC
[ 213 ]
Æ SC
mene.
pilis,
Afchyno- FEſchylus has a noble boldneſs of expreſſion; and that ſucceeded by large pods containing kidney-ſhaped Zſcula-
his imagination is lofty and heroic. It muſt be owned, feeds.
however, that be affected pompous words, and that his Gulture. Tlieſe plants are propagated by ſeeds,
ſenſe is 100 often obſcured by figures : this gave Sal- which ſhould be fown early in the ſpring, on a hot-
malius occalion to ſay, that he was more difficult to bed; and when the plants have itrength enough to be
bo underſtood than the ſcripture itſelf. But notwith- renoved, they ſhould each be put into a ſeparate pot
Standing llicſeimperfections, ihis poet was hellingreat filled with light earth, and plunged into à hut-bed.
veneration by clic Athenians, who made a pillic de. As they increaſe in lize, they must be removed : 10
cree that his tragedies thonld be played after his death. larger pots ; but if theſe are two large, the plants will
He was killed in the 69!h year of his age, by an eagle noi thrive. They muſt be brought forward early in the
letting fall a lortvile upon his head as he was walking in year, otherwiſe the ſecond kind will not perfectits ſecd.
the fields. He had inc honour of a porr pous funeral ÆSCULAPIUS, in the Heatheil mythology, the
from the Sicilians, who buried hiin near the river Ge- god of phylic, was the ſon of Apollo and thc nymph
la ; and the tragedians of the country performed plays Čcronis. He was educated by the Centaur Chiron,
and theatrical exerciſes at his tomb. The beſt edition who lau2ht hin phyſic ; by which means £ículapius
of his plays is that of London, 1663, fol. with a La- curedine moit deſperate diſeaſes. But jupiter,enrayed
tin tranſlation, and a learned commentary by Thomas at his rcitoring to life Hippolitas, who had been torn
Stanley.
in pieces by bis own horſes, killed him with a thunder-
ÆSCHYNOMENE,BASTARD SENSITIVE-PLANT:
bolt. Acaruin; 1o Cicero, there were three deities
A genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dia- of this name: the firſt, the ſon of Apollo, worſhipped
delphia claſs of plants; the characters of which are : in Arcadia, vhoinvented the probe, and bandages for
The calyx is a one-leav'd campanulated bilabiated pe- wounds; the ſecond, she brother of Mercury, killed
rianthium ; the lips equal, but the ſuperior one two- by lightning; and the third, the fon Ariſippus and
cleft, the inferior iridentate. The corolla is papillio- Arfoe, who firſt taught the art of tooth-drawing
naceous ; the banner cordated and ſubringent; the ale and purging. At Epidaurus, Æſculapius's ftatue was
ovate, obtuſe, and Morter than the banner ; and the of gold and ivory, with a long beard, his head fur-
carina lana.ed, pointed, and the length of the alz. rounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty flick,
The ſtamisa conliſt of 10 ſimple 9-cleft filiments; and the other entwined with a ferpent; he was ſeated
the-antheræ finall. The piltillam is an oblong villous on a throne of the ſame materials is his ſtatue, and
colunnar germen; the ftylus ſubulated and aicending, had a dog lying at his ieet. The Romans crowned him
the ftigia fimple arid ſomewhat obtuſe. The pericar- with laurel, lo repreſent his deſcent from Apollo ; and
pium is a long compreſed, unilocular jointed pod. the Phaliaſins repreſented him as bcarrileſs. The coch,
The feeds are kidney-ſhaped, and ſolitary within each the raven, and the goat, were ſacred to this deity. His
joint. Of this genus there are reckoned ſix. chief temples were at Pergamus, Snyrna, Trica a ci-
Species. 1. The aſpera (as well as the reſt of this ge- ty in Ionia, and the ille of Coos; in all which, votive
nus) is a native of warm countries. It riſes to the height tablets were hung up, ſhowing the diſeaſes cured by
of four or five feet, having a ſingle herbaceous ſtalk, his aſſiſtance. But his moſt famous ſhrine was at Epidau-
which is rough in ſome parts. The leaves come out on rus; where, every five years, games were inſtituted
every ſide towards the top, forming a fort of head; to him, nine days after the Iſthmian games at Corinth.
the flowers come out between the leaves, two or three ÆSCULUS, the HORSE-CHESNUT: A genus of
together upon long foorſtalls; they are yellow, and the monogynia order, belonging to the heptandria
Maped like thoſe of peas: after the fiower is paſt, the claſs of plants; and ranking, in the natural method,
germen becomes a fiat jointed pod, which, when ripe, under the 39th order, Trihlatx.--The characters are:
parts at the joints, and in each diviſion is lodged a ſingle The calyx is a ſmalliingle-leaved, bellied perianthium,
kidney-ſhaped feed. 2. The American, ſeldom viſes divideđ into five ſegments. The corolla (except in the
more than two feet in height. The flowers come out pavia, where it is four petal'd and clole) confitis of
from the leaves on branching footſtalks, five or ſix to five roundili, flat expanding petals, unequally co-
gether; theſe are much leſs than the former, and of a loured, and with narrow claws inſerted into the calyx.
paler yellow colour. Thcfeed is lodged in pods like the The ji amina have ſeven ſubulated declining filaments,
other. 3. The arborea, grows to the lacight of fix or the length of the corolla ; the antheræ afcending. The
ſeven feet, with a ſingle ſtem; the flowers come out two piſillum is a roundiſh germen, ending in a ſubulated
or three together, of a copper colour, and as large as ſtylus ; the fligma pointed. The pericarpium is a
thoſe of the aſpera. 4. The ſelban hath woody ſtems and leathery, roundith, trilocular, three-valved capſule.
branches garniſhed with ſmooth leaves. The flowers The ſeeds are two, and ſubglobular. In this genus
are ſmall, of a deep yellow colour, and come out on Van Rozen and Miller obſerve both niale and herma.
long ſpikes hanging downward. The feed is contain- phrodite flowers. There are two
ed in a finooch pod not jointed. 5. The punila, riſes Species. 1. The hippocaſtanum, or cominon horſe-
to the hcight of about three feet; has flowers of a pale chelnut. It was brought from the northern parts of
yellow colour, which comes out fometimes lingic, ato Alia about the year 1550, and ſent to Vienna about
iher times two or three upon eaclı footſtalk. The ſeeds 1588. This tree makes a noble appearance all the
are contained in a long falcated pod haring 13 or 14 month of May, the extremities of the branches being
diviſions, each of which lodges a lingle fced. 6. The terminated by fine ſpikes of flowers ſpotted with rufe
grandiflora, riſes fix or eight feet high, with a woody colours, ſo that the whole tree ſeems covered with them.
ftem, fending out branches towards the top, garniſhed It is quick in its growth; ſo that in a few years it ar-
with obtufe leaves. The Howers are large, yellow, and rivcs at a ſize large enough to afford a good fhade in
fuinner,
1
Æ SC
[ 214 ]
Æ SC
J
Efculus. [anmer, as alſo to produce plenty of flovers. They they ſhould be left to Nature to form their beautiful Æfcules.
have, however, this great inconvenience, that their parabolic heads, and aſſume their utmoſt beauty.--The
wood is of no uſe, being unfit even for turning: and horſe-cheſnut, like moſt other trees, delighis moſt in
their leaves beginning to fall in July, foon deprive the good fat land; but it will grow exceedingly well on
trces of their beauty. There is ſomething very lingu- clayey and marley grounds.
lar in the growth of theſe trees; which is, that the Miller ſays, “When theſe trees are tranſplanted,
whole ſhoot is performed in leſs than three weeks after their roots thould be preſerved as entire as poſlible, for
the buds are opened. The nuts are reckoned good they do not ſucceed well when torn or cut: nor ſhould
food for horſes. In Turkey, they are ground, and any of the branches be ſhortened, for there is ſcarce
mixed with the provender for theſe animals, cſpecially any tree that will not bear amputation better than this ;
thoſe which are troubled with coughs,and broken wind- fo that when any branches are by accident broken, they
ed. Deer are alſo very fond of the fruit ; and at the ſhould be cut off cloſe by the item, that the wound
time of their ripening keep much about the trees, but may heal over."
eſpecially in ſtrong winds, when the nuts are blown The ſecond ſpecies is propagated, 1. By budding
down, which they carefully watch, and greedily de- it upon the young plants of the horſe-cheſnut. Theſe
your as they fall.
ſtocks ſhould be raiſed as ras directed in that article.
2. The pavia, or ſcarlet-flowering horſe-cheſnut, a They ſhould be planted in the nurſery way, one foot
-native of Carolina, the Brazils, and the Eaſt. It grows aſunder, and two feet diſtant in the rows, which
to about fifteen or ſixteen feet high : and there is a ſhould be kept clean of weeds, and muſt be dug be-
delicacy in this tree that makes it delirable. The bark tween every winter till the operation is to be perform-
of the young ſhoots is quite ſimooth, and the growing ed. After they have ſtood in the nurſery-ground
ſhoots in ſummer are of a reddiſh hue. The leaves about two years, and have made at leaſt one good
are palmated, being pretty much like thoſe of the ſummer's ſhoot, the ſummer following is the time for
horſe-cheſnut, only much ſmaller, and the indentures the operation. Then, having your cuttings ready foon
at the edges are deeper and much more acute. The after midſummer, the evenings and cloudy weather
-lobes of which they are compoſed are ſpear-ſhaped; ſhould be made choice of for the work. Whoever has
they are five in number, are united at their baſe, and a great number of trees to inoculate, muſt regard 110
ſtand on a long red footſtalk. The leaves grow oppo- weather, but keep working on, to get his buſineſs over
ſite by pairs on the branches, which are ſpread abroad before the ſeaſon ends; and, indeed, a good hand will
on every ſide. The flowers come out froin the ends be always pretty ſure of ſucceſs be the weather what
of the branches. The firſt appearance of the buds it will. If the ſtocks were healthy, the ſummer fol-
in May; though they will not be in full blow till the lowing they will make pretty good ſloots; and in a
middle of June. They are of a bright red colour and year or two after that will flower. This is one me-
conſequently have a pleaſing effect among the vaſt tribe thod of propagating this tree; and thoſe plants that
of yellow-flowering forts which ſhow themſelves in are propagated this way will grow to a larger lize than
bloom at that ſeaſon. They continue in ſucceſſion for thoſe raiſed immediately from ſeeds.-2. This tree
-upwards of ſix weeks, and ſometimes ſucceeded by alſo may be propagated by ſeeds; which will fome-
ripe ſeeds in our gardens.
times ripen with us, and may be obtained out of our
Propagation and culture. The firſt fpecies is pro. gardens. The manner of raiſing them this way
pagated from the nuts. In autumn, therefore, when is as follows: Let a warın border be prepared ; and if
they fall, a ſufficient quantity ſhould be gathered. it is not naturally fandy, left drift-ſand be mixed with
Theſe ſhould be fown ſoon afterwards in drills, about the ſoil; and in this border let the ſeeds be ſown in
two inches aſunder. If the nuts are kept till ſpring, the month of March, about half an inch deep. After
many of them will be faulty ; but where the ſeminary- this, conſtant weeding muſt be obſerved ; and when
ground cannot be got ready before, and they are kept the plants are come up, if they could be ſhaded in the
ſo long, it may be proper to put them in water, to try heat of the day, it would be much better. Theſe,
their goodneſs. The good nuts will ſink, whliſt thole with now and then a gentle watering in a dry ſeaſon,
which are faulty will ſwim; ſo that by proving them will be all the precautions they will require the firſt
this way you may be ſure of good nuts, and have more ſummer. The winter following, if the ſituation is not
promiſing hopes of a crop. In the ſpring the plants extremely well ſheltered, protection inuſt be given them
will come up ; and when they have ſtood one year, from the hard black froſts, which will otherwiſe often
they may be taken up, their top-roots ſhortened, and deſtroy them; fo that it will be the ſafeſt way to have
afterwards planted in the nurſery. When they are of the bed hooped, to cover them with mats in ſuch
fufficient ſize to be planted out finally, they muſt be weather, if the ſituation is not well defended : if it is,
taken outofthe nurſery with care, the great lide-ſhoots this trouble may be ſaved ; for, even when young,
and the bruiſed parts of the roots ſhould be taken off, they are tolerably hardy. In about two or three years
and then planted in large holes level with the ſurface tliey may be removed into the nurſery, or planted
of the ground, at the top of their roots; the fibres be- where they are to remain, and they will Aower in three
ing all ſpread and lapped in the fine nold, and the or four years after. The uſual nurſery-care muſt be
îurf alſo worked 10 the bottom. A ſtake ſhould be taken of them when planted in that way; and the beſt
placed to keep them faſe from the winds ; and they time for planting them there, or where they are to re-
muſt be fenced from the cattle till they are of a ſuffi- main, is October ; though they will grow exceeding
cient ſize to defend themſelves. The beſt ſeaſon for all well if removed in any of the winter months; but if
this work is October. After the trees are planted, planted late in the ſpring, thcy will require more
-neitlier knife nor hatchet ſhould come near theni; but watering, as the ground will not be ſo regularly
ſettled
ÆE SO
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Æ T H
Æfop.
lib, ii, 2395
ſettled to the roots as if they had been planted ear- ſigned this as a puniſhment for their treatmentoſ Æfop: Efop
lier.
they endcavoured to make an atonement, by raiſing a
ÆSOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon, pyramid to his honour.
Æthalia.
about the sot. Olympiad, under the reign of Croeſus ÆSOP (Clodius), a celebrated ator, who flouriſhed
the laſt king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he about th 67071 year of Rome. He and Roſcius were
was greatly indebted to naturc ; but in other reſpects cotemporaries and the beſt performiers whoever appear.
not fo fortunate, being born a flave and extremely de ed upon the Roman ſtage, the former excclling in tra-
forined. St Jerom, ſpeaking of him, ſays he was un- gedy, the latter in comedy. Cicero put himſelfunder
fortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death; their direction to perfect his action. Æſop lived in a
hinting thereby at his deformity, ſervile ſtate, and moſt expenſve manner, and at one entertainment is
tragical end. His great genius, however, enabled him ſaid to have had a diſh which coſt above eight hundred
to ſupport his misfortunes ; and in order to alleviate the pounds ; this diſh, we are cold, was filled with ſinging
hardſhips of ſervitude, he compoſed thoſe entertaining and ſpeaking birds, ſome of which coſt near 5cl. The
and inſtructive fables which have acquired him ſo much delight which Æſop took in theſe ſort of birds proceed-
reputation. He is generally ſuppoſed to have been the ed, as Mr Bayle obſerves, from the expence. He did
inventor of that kind of writing ; but this is conteſted not make a diſh of them becauſe they could ſpeak, ac-
by ſeveral, particularly Quintilian, who ſeems to think cording to the refinement of Pliny upon this circuni-
that Hefiod was the firſt author of fables: Æfop, how- ſtance, this motive being only by accident; but becauſe
ever, certainly improved this art to a very great de of their extraordinary price. If thcir had been any
gree ; and hence it is that he has been accounted the
birds that could not ſpeak, and yet more ſcarce and
author of this ſort of productions:
dear than theſe, he would have procured ſuch for his
Æfopus auctor quam materiam reperit,
lable. Æſop's ſon was no leſs luxurious than the father,
Hanc ego pollivi verſibus ſenariis.
for he diſſolved pearls for his gueſts to ſwallow. Some
Phed. Prol. ad. lib. i. ſpeak of this as a common practice of his ; but others
“ If any thoughts in theſe iambics ſhine,
mention his falling into this exceſs only on a particular
Th'invention's Æſop's, and the verſe is mine."
day,when he was treating his friends. 'Horace* (peaks "Sat. ii.
The firſt maſter whom Æſop ſerved, was one Cara- only of one pearl of great value, which he diſſolved in
fius Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens; and there vinegar, and drank. Æſop, notwithſtanding his ex-
in all probability he acquired his purity in the Greek pences, is ſaid to have died worth above 160,000l.
tongue. After him he had ſeveral maſters; andar length When he was upon the ſtage, he entered into his part
came under a philoſopher named Idmon or Iadmon who to ſuch a degree, as ſometimes to be ſeized with a per-
enfranchiſed him. After he had recovered his liberty, fect ecſtaſy : Plutarch mentions it as reported of him,
be foon acquired a great reputation amongit the Greeks; that whilft he was repreſenting Atreus deliberating
ſo that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wif- how he ſhould revenge himſelf on Thyeſtes, he was to
dom having reached Croſus, he ſent to inquire after tranſported beyond himſelf in the heat of astion, that
him, and engaged him in his ſervice. He travelled with his truncheon he ſmote one of the ſervant croſ-
through Greece, according to the ſame author: whe- fing the ſtage, and laid him dead on the ſpot. .
ther for his own pleaſure, or upon the affairs of Creſus, ÆSTIMATIO CAPITIS, a termn met with in old
is uncertain ; and paſſing by Athens ſoon after Pili law-books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for
ſtratus had uſurped the ſovereign power, and finding offences con mitted againſt perſons of quality, accord-
that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he ing to their ſeveral degrees.
told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter ÆSTIVAL, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſomething
for a king. The images made uſe of by Æſop are cer connected with, or belonging to, fummer. Hence
tainly very happy inventions to inſtruct mankind; they æſtival ſigni, æſtival ſolſtice, &c.
poſſeſs all that is neceſſary to perfect a precept, having ÆSTUARIA, in geography, denotes an arm of the
a mixture of the uſeful with the agreeable. « Æſopſea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the
the fabuliſt (ſays Aulus Gellius) was deſervedly e Cheſapeak-bay, &c. ,
ſteemed wiſe, ſince he did not, after the inanner of the ÆSTUARIES, in ancient baths, were fecret paſ-
philoſophers,rigidly andimperiouſlydi&tate ſuch things fages from the hypocauſtum into the chambers.
as were proper to be adviſed and perſuaded; but, fra-. ESTUARY, among phyſicians, a vapour-bath,
ming entertaining and agreeable apologues, hethereby or any other inſtrument for conveying hcat to the
charms and captivates the human mind."-Æfop was body.
put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us that he came ÆSYMNIUM, in antiquity, a monument erected to
there with a great quantity of gold and ſilver, being the memory of the heroes, by ?£fyinnus the Megarean.
ordered by Croeſus to offer a facrifice 10 Apollo, and He conſulting the oracle in what manner the Megare.
to give a conſiderable ſum to each inhabitant: but a ans might be moſt happily governed, was anſwered, If
quarrel ariſing betwixt him and the Delphians, he ſent they held confulution with the more 11ulinerous: whom he
back the money to Crolus ; for he thought thoſe for taking for the dead, built the ſaid monument, and a
whom the prince deſigned it, had rendered themſelves ſenate-houſe that took within its compaſs the monu-
unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi contrived ment; imagining, that thus the dead would allift in
an accuſation of facrilege againſt him; and pretending their conſulations. - (Pauſanias.)
they had convicted him, threw him headlong from a ÆETH, or ATH,a ſtrong little town in the Auſtrian
rock. For this cruelty and injuſtice, we are told they. Netherlands and province of Hainault, ſituated on the
were viſited with famine and peſtilence; and conſulting river Dender, about twenty miles S. W. of Bruſſels.
the oracle, they received for anſwer, that the god de ÆTHALIA, or ILUA (anc. geog.) now Elba; an
3.
iland
[ 216 ]
Æ T H
allenge
#shelitan, iſland on the coaſt of Etruria, in compaís an hundred cluded to permeate thoſe of all other bodiei, and con Ether
Ather miles, à boundingiairon, as kiba frill docs. Stephanis fequently be diffuſed through all the parts of ſpace li
calls it ihale. The port of Lethalid iras called 41 which anſwers to the full charauler of au æther. Sce JEthuſa.
gous, (Diod. Sicul.)
HEAT.
AIESTAN, See AT HELSTAN.
Thcexiſtence of ſuch an ælkerial inedium being ſet-
ÆTHER, is uſually underſtood of a thin, ſubtile tled, that author proceeds to its properties ; infcrring
matter, or medium, imuch tiver and lurer than air; it lo be not only rarer and more Huid than air, butex-
which comniencilig froni che limits of our atmoſphere ceedingly morc elaſtic and active : ill virtue of which
poileiles the whole heavenly ſpace.-The word is properties, he ihows, that a great part of the phenomc-
Greek, wlup, ſuppoſed to be formed from the verb na of nature may be produced by it. To the weight,
to buril, to flane;” ſome of the ancients, par- e. g. of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or the
ticularly Anaxagoras, ſuppoſing it or the nature offre. weight of all other bodies; and to its elaſticity, the
See FIRE.
elastic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the
The philoſophers cannot conceive that the largeſt emillion, refraction, reflection, and other phenomena
part of the creation dould be perfectly void; and there- of light; as alſo, ſenſation, muſcular motion, &c. In
fore they fill it with a ſpecies of matter under the de- fine, this ſanie matter ſeems the primum mobile, the
nonination of æther. But they vary extremely as to firſt ſource or ſpring of phyſical action in the modern
the nature and characler of this æther. Some conceive fyftem.
it as a body fui generis, appointed only to tll up thevacui. The Carteſian æther is ſuppoſed not only to pervade,
ties between the heavenly bodies; and theretore con- but adequately to all, all the vacuities of bodies; and
fined to the regions above our atmoſphere. Others thus to make an abſolute plenum in the univerſe.
fuppofe it of fo fubtile and penetrating a nature, as to But Sir lluac Newton overturns this opinion, from
pervade the air,and other bodies,and poſſeſſes the pores divers confidations ; by ſho'wing, that the celeſtial
and intervals thereof. Others deny the exiſtence of a ſpaces are void of all featible refillance : for, hence it
ny ſuch ſpecific matter; and think the air itſelf, by that follows, that the matter contained therein mun beim-
immenſe tcnuity and expanſion it is found cancer', menſely rare, in regard the reſillanceof bodiesis chief-
may diffuſe itſelf through the interſtellar Ipaeväga: 1 ly as their denſity ; ſo that if the licavens were thus
be the only matter found therein.
adequarely filled with a medium or inatter, how ſubtile
In effect, æther, bein; no object of our ſenſe, but foever, they would refift the motion of the planets and
the mere work ofiinagina'ion, brought only upon the comets much more than quicklilver or gold.
ſtage for the ſake of hypothes, or to folve ſome phe The late diſcoveries in electricity have
thrown great
nomenon, real or imaginary ; authors take the liberty light upon this ſubject, and rendered it extremely pro-
to modify it how they pleafe. Some ſuppoſe it of an bable that the æther ſo often talked of is no other than
elementary nature, like other bodies ; and only diſtin. the electric fluid, or ſolar light, which diffuſes itſelf
gaiſhed by its tenuity, and the other affedions confc. throughout the whole fyftem of nature. See ELEC-
quent thereon ; which is the philoſophical æther. O. TRICITY, FIRE, HEAT, LIGHT, &c.
thers will have it of another ſpecies, and not elemen ÆTHER, in chemiſtry, the lighteſt, moſt volatile,
lary ; but rather a ſort of fifth element, of a purer, and moſt inflammable of all liquids, is produced by
more refined, and ſpirituous nature,than the ſubliances diſtillation of acids with re&ified fpirit of wine. See
about our eartlı; and void of the common affections CHEMISTRY and PHARMACY (the Indexes).
thereof, as gravity, &c. The heuvenly ſpecies beiag ÆTHERIAL, ETHERIUS, ſomething that belongs
the ſuppoſed region or reſidence of a more exalted claſs 10, or partakes of, the nature of ÆTHER.
Thus we
of beings, the niedium muſt be more exalled in pro. ſay, the atherial Space, ætherial regions, &c.
portion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of < Some of the ancients divided the univerſe, with re-
thcr, or ætherial matter.
fpect to the matter contained therein, into clementary
The term æther being thus embai raſed with a va and ætherial.
riety of ideas and arbitrarily applied to ſo many dif Under the ætherial world was included all that ſpace
fcrent things, the later and ſeverer philoſophers chooſe above the uppermoſt element, viz. fire. This they
to ſet it alide, and in lieu thereof ſubstitute other more ſuppoſed to be perſcaly liomogencous, incorruptible,
deterininate ones. Thus, the Carteſians uſe the term unchangeable, &c. See CORRUPTION. ThcChaldees
materia fubtilis ; which is their æther: and Sir Iſaac piaced an ætherial world between the einpyreum aud
Newton, ſometimes a fubtile ſpirit, as in the cloſe of the region of the fixed ſtars. Befide which, they
his Principiu; and ſometimes a ſubtile or atherial me ſometimes alſo ſpeak of a ſecond ætherial world, mcan-
dium, as in his Optics,
ing by it the ſtarry orb; and a third ätherial world,
The truth is, there are abundance of confiderations, by which is meant the planetary region.
which ſeem to evince the exiſterce of fume matter in ÆTHIOPIA. See THIOPIA.
the air, much finer than the air itſelf. There is an 1117 ÆTHIOPS, Mineral, Martial, and Antimonial.
knojn ſomething, which remains behind when the air See PHARMACY (11!dex).
is taken away; as appears from certain effects which #THUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
we fce produced in vacuo. Heat, Sir Iſaac Newton digynia claſs; and, in the natural method, ranking
obſerves, coinmunicated through a vacuum almoſt as under the 45th order, Uinbellain. The characters are :
readily as through air : but ſuch communication can The calyx is an univerſalumbel expanding the interior
not be without ſome interjacent body, lo act as a nie rays ſhorter by degrees; with a partial rwbel, ſmall,
dium. And ſuch body may be fubtile enough to pe and expanding. There is no univerfalinvolucrum;
netrate the pores of glaſs; and may be very well con the parlial one is dimidiated, with thrce or five leaf-
lets,
2
A ET
Æ TN
(
217 ]
eat it.
Aetiang lets, and pendulous ; the proper perianthium ſcarcely, whom he learned grammar and logic, he was crdained Aetius,
0 diſcernible. The univerſal corolla is uniform, with deacon, and at length biſhop, Ly Eudoxus patriarch Ltra.
Aetius. fertile florets ; the partial one has five heart-inflected of Conſtantinople. St Epiphanius has preſerved 47 of
unequal petals. The llamina conſiſt of five ſimple fila- his propoſitions againſt the Trinity. * His followers
nients, with roundilh antheræ. The piſtillun is a ger were called AETIANS.
men beneath ; with two reflected ſtyli; the ſtigmata Aetius, a famous phyſician, born at Amida in Me-
obtufe. There is no pericarpium; the fruit is ovate, ſopotamia, and the author of a work intitled Tetrabı-
ſtriated, and tripartite. The ſeeds are two, roundith blos, which is a collection from the writings of thoſe
and ſtriated. There is but one ſpecies, viz. the æthuſa phyſicians who went before him. He lived, accor-
ſynapium, fools-parlley, or leſſer hemlock (a native of ding to Dr Friend, at the end of the 5th or the begin-
Britain), which grows in corn-fields and gardens. This ning of the 6th century.
plant, from its reſemblance to common parſley, hath AETIUS, governor of Gallia Narbonenſis in the
ſometiines been miſtaken for it ; and when eaten, it oc- reign of Valentinian III. forced the Franks who were
caſions sickneſs. If the curled-leaved parſley only was palling into Gaul to repaſs the Rhine. He defeated
cultivated in our gardens, no ſuch miſtakes would hap- the Goths; and routed Attila king of the Huns, who
pen in future. Cows, horſes, ſheep, goats, and ſwine, invaded Gaul with an army of 700,000 mien. But the
It is noxious to geeſe.
eniperor, jealous of the inerit of this great inan, kill-
AETIANS, in church-hiſtory, a branch of Arians ed him in 454 with his own hand, under the pretence
who maintained, that the Son and Holy Ghoſt are in that he had permitted the invaſion of the Huns, after
all things diſſimilar to the Father. See AETIUS. . Attila's defeat.
ÆTIOLOGY, is that part of Pathology which is ÆTNA, (in the Itineraries Æthna, ſuppoſed froia
employed in exploring the cauſes of diſeaſes.
allw,“ to burn;' according to Bocharl, from Athuna,
AETION, a celebrated painter, who has left us an a furnace, or Ætuna, darkneſs), now Ilonte Gibello : a
excellent picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he volcano or burning mountain of Sicily, ſituated il
exhibited at the Olympic Games: it repreſents a mag- lat. 382. N. long. 154. E.
nificent chamber, where Roxana is ſitting on a bed of This mountain, famous from the remoteſt antiquity,
a moft ſplendid appearance, which is rendered ſtill both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, ſtands in the
more brilliant by her beauty. She looks downwards, eaſtern part of the iſland, in a very extenſive plain,
in a kind of confuſion, being ſtruck with the preſence called Val Demoni, from the notion of its being inha-
of Alexander ſtanding before her. A number of little bited by devils, who torment the ſpirits of the damn-
Cupids Autter about, fome holding up the curtain, as ed in the bowels of this yolcano.
if to ſhow Roxana to the prince, whilſt others are Concerning the dimenſions of mount Ætna, we can Inconfift-
buſied in undreſſing the lady ; ſome pull Alexander by ſcarce extract any thing conſiſtent, even from the ac- ent ac-
the cloak, who appears like a young baſhful bride counts of the lateſt and moſt ingenious travellers. Pin-counts con-
groom, and preſent him to his miſtreſs; he lays his dar, who lived about 435 years before Chriſt, calls it
cerning the
magnitude
crown at her feet, being accompanied by Epheſtion, the Pillar of heaven, on account of its great height of Ætna.
who holds a torch in his hand, and leans upon a youth, All modern writers likewiſe agree, that this mountain
who repreſents Hymnen. Several other little Cupids is very high, and very large; but differ excellively both
are repreſented playing with his arms; ſome carry his as to its height and magnitude: ſome making it no leſs
lance, ſtooping under ſo heavy a weight; others bear than twelve miles high, others eight, others ſix, ſome
along his buckler, upon which one of them is ſeated, four, while Mr Brydone, and Sir
William Hamilton,
whom the reſt carry in triumph; another lies in am who lately aſcended to its higheſt fummit, reduce its
buſh in his armour, waiting to frighten the reſt as they height to little more than two miles ; nay, by ſome it
paſs by. This picture gained Aetion ſo much repu is reduced to 10,036 feet, ſomewhat leſs than two
tation, that the preſident of the games gave him his miles. No leſs remarkable are the differences concern-
daughter in marriage.
ing its circumference : ſome making it only 60 miles
ÆTITES, or EAGLE-STONE, in natural hiſtory, a round, others 100; and Signior Recupero, from whom
flinty or cruſtated ſtone, hollow within, and contain Mr Brydone had his information in this reſpect, affirms
ing a nucleus, which, on ſhaking, rattles within. It it to be no leſs than 183 miles in circuit.
was formerly in repute for ſeveral extraordinary magi We are ſorry to detract from the merit of Mr Bry-
cal as well as medical powers; ſuch as preventing abor- done, or to involve in obfcurity what he hath been at
tion, diſcovering thieves, and other ridiculous propers ſo much pains to elucidate; but every perſon who com-
ties. The word is formed from astu, " eagle ;” the pares the account of mount Ærna's circumference, gi-
popular tradition being, that it is found in tlie eagle's ven by Signior Recupero, and to which Mr Brydone
neſt, whether it is ſuppoſed to be carried while the fe ſeems to have aſſented, with its apparent circumference
male fits, to prevent her eggs from being rotten. It on the map prefixed to that gentleman's tour through
is found in ſeveral parts: near Trevouxin France, one Sicily and Malta, inuſt at once be ſtruck with the pro-
can ſcarce dig a few feet, without finding a conſidera- digious diſparity. Indeed, it is plain, that, in the map,
ble ſtrata or beds of the coarſer or ferruginous kind.' the geographer hath not lett room for any ſuch moun.
They are originally ſoft, and of the colour of yellow tain; nor can we help thinking, that, by comparing
ochre. But the fineſt and moſt valued of all the eagle- the diſtances of ſome of the Sicilian towns from one a-
ſtones, are accidental ſtates of one or other of our nother, Signior Recupero's dimenſions will be found
common pebbles.
enorinoully exaggerated.--Certain it is, that there the
AETIUS, one of the moſt zealous defenders of geographer hath placed Catania, which ſtands at the
Arianiſın, was born in Syria, and flouriſhed about the foot of mount Ætna, on one ſide, no more than 28
year 336. After being ſervant to a grammarian, of miles from the moſt diſtant point of the river Alcanza
VOL.I.
Еe
tara,
1
Ε Τ Ν
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Æ T N
2
Ætna.
Etna. tara, which forms the boundary on the oppoſite ſide; wife exported to Malta and Italy, making a conſiderable
med ſo that a circle, whoſe radius is 14 or 15 miles, muſt branch of commerce. On the north ſide of this ſnowy
encompaſs as much ſpace as we can pollibly think is oc region, Mr Brydone was aſſui ed, that there are ſeveral
cupied by the baſis of Mount Ætna. Thus we will re ſmalllakes which never thaw; and that the ſnow mixed
duce the circumference of this famous mountain to be with the aſhes and ſalt of the mountain areaccumulated
tween 80 and go miles ; and even when we do fo, it to a vaſt depth. The quantity of falts contained in this
muſt ſtill be acknowledged to be very great.
mountain, he, with great probability, conjectures to be
But if we are embarraſſed with the circunference one reaſon of the preſervation of its ſnows; for ſaltin-
of Etna, we are much more ſo with the accounts rela creaſes the coldneſs of ſnow to a ſurpriſing degree*.
* See Cold,
ting to its height; and one circumftance, particular In the middle of the ſnowy regions ſtands the great and Congo-
lation.
ly, creates almoſt inſurmountable difficulties. It is a crater, or mouth of Ætna; from which, though con-
greed upon by all travellers, and among the reſt by Sir trary to the uſual method of travellers, we ſhall begin
William Hamilton, that from Catania, where the af our particular account of this mountain. Sir William
cent firſt begins, to the ſummit, is no leſs than 30 Hamilton deſcribes the crater as a little mountain a-
miles. The deſcent on the other ſide we have no ac bout a quarter of a nilc perpendicular, and very ſteep,
count of; but, whatever ſuppoſition we make, the ſituated in the middle of a gently inclining plain, of Crater de-
height of the mountain muſt be prodigious. If we ſup- about nine milesin circumference. It is entirely formed fcribed.
poſe it likewiſe to be 30 miles, and that mount Ætna of ſtones and allies; and, as Mr Hamilton was infor-
can be repreſented by an equilateral triangle, each of med by ſeveral people of Catania, had been thrown
whoſe fides is 30 miles, we will have an amazing ele up about 25 or 30 years before the time (1769) he viſit-
vation indeed, no leſs than 26 miles perpendicular !-- ed niount Ætna. Before this mountain was thrown
Such a height being beyond all credibility, we muſt up, there was only a prodigious large chaſm, or gulph,
contract the ſides of our triangle, in proportion to its in the middle of the abovenientioned plain ; and it
balis. We ſhall begin with allowing 1o miles for the has been remarked, that about once in 100 years the
difference between a ſtraight line from Catania to the top of Ætna falls in ; which undoubtedly muſt be the
ſummit, and the length of the road, occaſioned by the caſe at certain periods, or the mountain behoved con-
inequalities of the mountain ; and ſuppoſing the de- tinually to increaſe in height. As this little mountain,
ſcent on the other ſide to be ſomewhat ſhorter, we may though emitting ſmoke froin every pore, appeared ſo-
call it 15 miles. Mount Ætna will now be repreſented lid and firm, Mr Hamilton and his companions went
by a ſcalene uriangle, whoſe baſe is 30 miles, its long up to the very top. In the middle is a hollow, about two
eſt lide 20, and its ſhorteſt 15, from which propor-
miles and a half in circumference, according to Mr
tions we will ſtill find its height to be betwixt eight Hamilton ; three miles and a half, according to Mr
Dimenſions and ninc miles.-This is ſtill incredible ; and when
Brydone ; and three or four, according to Mr D'Or-
uncertain, all the various relations concerning the height of Æt ville. The inſide is cruſted over with ſalts and fulphur
na are compared, we hope it will not be thought pre of different colours. It goes ſhelving down, from the
ſumptuous in us to give it as our opinion, that the true top, like an inverted cone; the depth, in Mr Hamil-
dimenſions of this mountain are as yet unknown. The ton's opinion, nearly correſponding to the height of
following meaſures are given by different authors: the little mountain. From many places of this ſpace
Height above the ſurface of the ſea, 10,036 feet. iſſue volumes of ſulphureous ſmoke, which being much
One hundred and righty miles circumference at the heavier than the circumambient air, inſtead of afcend-
baſe.–Faujas de S. Fon in his Volcans du Vivarais. ing in it, roll down the ſide of the mountain, till, co-
Height 12,000 feet. Brydone. Tour to Sicily. ming to a more denſe atmoſphere, it ſhoots off horizon-
Height 2500 toiſes.--La Platrière, ſaid as from tally, and forms a large tract in the air, according to
Recupero.
the direction of the wind; which, happily for our tra-
Height 1950 toiſes---Diameter 30 miles.---Men vellers, carried it exactly to the ſide oppofite to which
telle Geogr. comp.
they were placed. In the middle of this funnel is the
Otliers make its height only 2000 toiſes, and its tremenduous and unfathomable gulph, ſo much cele-
fuperfices zoo ſquare miles.
brated in all ages, both as the terror of this life, and
Generalap. Concerning the products and general appearance of the place of puniſhment in the next. From this gulph
pearancc, this volcano, authors are much better agreed.—The continually iſſue terrible and confuſcd noiſes, which in
journey from Catania to its ſummit has been lately eruptions are increaſed to ſuch a degree as to be heard
defcribed by three travellers, M. D'Orville, Mr Bry at a prodigious diſtance. Its diameter is probably very
done, and Sir William Hainilton. All theſe agree, different at different times: for Mr Hamilton obfer-
that this ſingle mountain affords an epitome of the dif ved, by the wind clearing away the ſmoke from time
ferent climates throughout the whole world : towards to time, that the inverted hollow cone was contracted
che foot, it is very liot; farther up, more temperate ; almoſt to a point; while Mr D'Orville and Mr Bry-
and grows gradually more and more cold the higher we done found the opening very large. Both Mr Bry-
aſcend. Ai the very top, it is perpetually covered with done and Mr Hamilton found the crater too hot to
ſnow: from thence the whole inandis ſuppliedwith that deſcend into it ; but Mr D)'Orville was bolder ; and
article, ſo neceſſary in a hot climate, and without which accordingly he and his fellow-traveller, faſtened to
the natives ſay Sicily could not be inhabited. So great ropes which two or three men held at a diſtance for
is the demand for this commodity, that the biſhop's re fear of accidents, deſcended as near as poſſible to the
venies, which are conſiderable, ariſe from the ſale of brink of the gulph ; but the ſmall flames and ſmoke
mount Ætna's ſnow; and he is ſaid to draw 1000l. a which iſſued fro:n it on every ſide, and a greeniſh ſul-
year from one ſmall portion lying on the north ſide ofthe phur, and pumice-ſtones, quite black, which covered
jountain. Great quantities of low and ice are like the margin, would nut permit them to come fo near
&c.
S
Æ TN
( 219 )
A TN
zones.
the ſtars
Ætna. as to have a full view. They only ſaw diſtinctly in whole iſland, and far into the ſea on the other ſide, Ætha,
the middle, a naſs of matter which roſe, in the ſhape forming a viſible tract in the air, which, as the ſun
of a cone, to the height of about 60 feet, and which riſes above the horizon, is ſliortened, and at laſt con-
towards the baſe,as far as their light could reach, might fined to the neighbourhood of Ætna. The moſt beautiful
be 600 or 800. While they were obſerving this ſub- part of the ſcene, however, in Mr Brydone's opinion,
ſtance, ſome motion was perceived on the north ſide, is the mountain itſelf, the iſland of Sicily, and the 110-
oppoſite to that whereon they ſtood; and immediately merous iſlands lying round it. Theſe laſt ſeen to be
the mountain began to ſend forth ſmoke and aſhes. cloſe to the ſkirts of Ætna ; the diſtances appearing
This eruption was preceded by a ſenſible increaſe of reduced to nothing.
its internal roarings; which, however, did not conti This inountain is divided into three zones, which Diviſion in-
nue ; but after a moment's dilatation, as if to give it might properly enough be diſtinguiſhed by the names into three
vent, the yol ano reſumed its former tranquillity; but of torrid, temperate, and frigid: they are, however,
as it was by no means proper to make a longer ſtay in known by the names of the Piedmontefé, or Regione cul-
ſuch a place, our travellers immediately returned to ta, the cultivated or fertile region ; the Sylvola, woody,
their attendants.
or temperate zone ; and the Regione deferta, the frigid,
On the ſummit of mount Ætna, Mr Hamilton ob or deſert zone, or region. All theſe are plainly diſtin.
ferves, that he was ſenſible of a difficulty in reſpiration guiſhed from the ſummit. The Regione deferta is mark- Regionæ
from the too great fubtility of the air, independent of ed out by a circle of ſnowandice, which extends on all deſerta--
what aroſe from the ſulphureous ſmoke of the nioun fides to the diſtance of about eight miles, beginning at
tain. Mr Brydone takes no notice of this, which pro the foot of the crater. Greateſt part of this region is
bably aroſe from the air being in a more rarefied ſtate ſmooth and even. This is immediately ſucceeded by
at the time of Mr Hamilton's obſervations than of Mr the Sylvofa, or woody region ; which forms a circle of
Brydone's; the barometer, as obſerved by the former, the moſt beautiful green, ſurrounding the mountain on
ſtanding at 18 inches and 10 lines, by the latter at 19 all ſides. This region is variegated with a vaſt number
inches 6 lines.
of mountains of a conical form, thrown up by Etna in
In theſe higla regions there is generally a very vio- thoſe eruptions which burſt out from its lides. Mr Ha-
lent wind, which, as all our travellers found it con milton counted 44 on the Catania lide, each having its
ſtantly blowing from the ſouth, may poſſibly be com crater, many with large trees flouriſhing both within
monly directed from that point. Here Mr Brydone's and without the craters. All theſe except a few of late
thermometer fell to 27º.
date, have acquired a wonderful degree offertility. The
The top of Ætna being above the common region circumference of this zone, or great circle, according
Bplendor of
of vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great to Recupero, is not leſs than 75 or 80 miles. It is every
feen from fplendor.—Mr Brydone and his company obſerved, as where ſucceeded by the Regione culta; which is much
the top of they aſcended in the night, that the number of ſtars broader than the reſt, and extends on all ſides to the
ſeemned to be infinitely increaſed, and the light of each foot of the mountain. Here terrible devaſtations are
of them appeared brighter than uſual; the whiteneſs of ſometimes committed by the eruptions; and the whole
the milky-way was like a pure flame which ſhot acroſs region is likewiſe full of conical mountains thrown up
the heavens; and, with the naked eye, they could ob- by them. The circumference of this region, is, by Re-
ſerve cluſters of ſtars that were inviſible from below. cupero, reckoned 183 miles ; but we have already gi-
Had Jupiter been viſible, he is of opinion that ſome of ven our reaſons for rejecting theſe dimenſions. This
his ſatellites might have been diſcovered with the na region is bounded by the ſea to the ſouth and ſouth-
ked eye, or at leaſt with a very ſmall pocket-glaſs. eaſt; and on all other ſides, by the river Semetus and
He likewiſe took notice of ſeveral of thoſe meteors Alcantara, which form the boundaries of mount Æina.
called falling ſtars; which appeared as much elevated About a mile below the foot of the great crater, are Il Torre del
as when viewed from the plain : a proof, according found the ruins of an ancient ſtructure, called Il Torre Filoſofo.
to Mr Brydone, that “theſe bodies move in regions del Filofofo, by ſome ſuppoſed to have been built by the
"much beyond the bounds that ſome philoſophers philofopher Empedocles, who took up his habitation
“have aſſigned to our atmoſphere."
here, the better to ſtudy the nature of mount Ætna.
To have a full and clear proſpect from the ſummit By others they are ſuppoſed to be ruins of a temple of
Extenſive
proſpect.
of mount Ætna, it is lieceſſary to be there before ſun- Vulcan. They are of brick, and ſeem to have been or-
riſe ; as the vapours raiſed by the ſun, in the day-time, namented with marble. Some where in this region alſo,
will obſcure every object : accordingly, our travellers Mr D'Orville found a great oblong block of poliſhed
took care to arrive there early enough ; and all agree, marble, eight or ten feet high, and three or four thick;
that the beauty of the proſpect from thence cannot be though how it came there was quite unaccountable to
expreſſed.Here Mr Brydone and Mr Hamilton had a him. From Mr D'Orville's and Mr Brydone's accounts
view of Calabria in Italy, with the ſea beyond it; the we muſt reckon this part of the mountain pretty ſteep:
Lipari illands, and Stromboli a volcano at about 70 but Mr Hamil:on ſays, that the aſcent was ſo gradual,
miles diſtance, appeared juſt under their feet; the as not to be in the leaſt fatiguing; and had it not been
whole iſland of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, for the ſnows, they might have rode on their mules to
&c. appeared diſtint, as if ſeen on a map. Maſſa, a Sici- the very foot of the crater.
lian author, affirms, that the African coaſt, as well as The woody region deſcends eight or nine miles be- Regione
that of Naples, with many of its iſlands have been diſ- low the Regione deferta, but differs greatly in the rem- Sylvoſa.
covered from the top of Æ011a. The viſible horizon perature of the climate. Mr Hamilton obſerved a gra-
here is not leſs than 8 or 900 miles in diameter. The dual decreaſe of the vegetation as he advanced; the
pyramidal ſhadow of the mountain reaches acroſs the under part being covered with large timber trees, which
grew
Ætna.
Ee 2
Ε Τ Ν
[ 220 ]
Æ TN
ter,
Atna. grew gradually leſs as he approached the third region, eſteemed Sicilian authors, affirms that he has ſeen ſolid Ætna.
at laſt they degenerated into the ſmall plants of the oaks there upwards of 40 feet round. All theſe grow
northern climates. He alſo obſerved quantities of ju on a thick rich ſoil, which ſeems originally to have
niper and tanſey; and was informed by his guide, that been formed of aſhes thrown out by the mountain.
later in the ſeaſon (he viſited Ætna in June 1769) there Here the barometer ſtood at 26 inches 5 lines and an
are a great many curious plants, and in ſome places half, indicating an elevation of near 4000 feet.
rhubarb and ſaffron in great plenty. In Carrera's hi. The Piedmonteſe diſtrict is covered with towns, vil-
Regions
ſtory of Catania, there is a liſt of all the plants and lages, monaſteries, &c. and is well peopled, notwith- Culta.
herbs of Ætna, in alphabetical order.
ſtanding the danger of ſuch a ſituation : but the ferti-
This region is extolled by Mr. Brydone as one ofthe lity of the ſoil tempts people to inhabit that country
moſt delighful ſpots on earth. He lodged for a night and their ſuperſtitious confidence in their ſaints, with
in a large cave near the middle, formed by one of the the propenſity mankind have to defpiſe danger which
moſt ancient lavas. It is called La Spelonca del Capri- they do not ſee, render them as ſecure there as in any
ole, or the goats cavern; becauſe it is frequented by other place. Here, Sir William Hamilton obſerves they
thoſe animals, which take refuge there in bad weather. keep their vines low, contrary to the cuſtom of thoſe
Here his reſt was diſturbed by a mountain thrown up who inhabit mount Veſuvius ; and they producea
in the eruption 1 766. It diſcharged great quantities ſtronger wine, but not in ſuch abundance : here alſo
of ſmoke, and made ſeveral explotions like heavy can- many terrible eruptions have burſt forth ; particularly
non fired at a diſtance; but they could obſerve no ap one in 1669. At the foot of the mountain raiſed by Subterra-
pearance of fire.
that eruption, is a hole, through which Sir William neous ca-
This gentleman likewiſe viſited the eaſtern ſide of Hamilton deſcended, by nieans of a rope, into ſeveral verns.
the Regione fylvofa, intending to have aſcended that way ſubterraneous caverns, branching out and extending
to the ſummit, and deſcended again on the ſouth ſide much farther than he choſe to venture, the cold there
to Catania ; but found it impracticable; though what being exceſſive, and a violent wind extinguiſhing fomo
the inſurmountable difficulties were, he does not men of the torches. Many other caverns are known in this
Eruption of
tion. On this ſide, part of the woody region was de- and the other regions of Ætna; particularly one near
boiling wa-
ſtroyed, in 1755, by an immenſe torrent of boiling wa this place called La Spelonca della Palomba, (from the
ter which iſſued from the great crater. Its traces were wild pidgeons building their neſts there.) Here Mr
ſtill very viſible, about a mile and a half broad, and Brydone was told that ſome people had loſt their ſenſes,
in ſome places more. The foil was then only begin- from having advanced too far, imagining they ſaw de-
ningtorecoverits vegetative power, which it ſeems this vils and damned fpirits.--Some of theſe caverns are
torrent had deſtroyed for 14 years.--Near this place are made uſe of as magazines for ſnow; which they are
ſome beautiful woods of cork, and evergreen oak,grow- well adapted for, on account of their extreme cold.
ing abſolutely cut of the lava, the ſoil having hardly Theſe are with great probability ſuppoſed by Sir Wil-
filled the crevices, and not far off our traveller obſer- liam Hamilton to be the hollows made by the iſſuing
ved 7 little mountains that ſeemed to have been form- of the lava in eruptions.
ed by a late eruption. Each of theſe had a regular cup, In this region the river Acis, ſo much celebrated by River Acisi
or crater, on the top; and, in fome, the middle gulph, the poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its
ur l'oragine, as the Sicilians call it, was ſtill open. riſe. It burſts out of the earth at once in a large ſtream,
Into theſe gulphs Mr Brydone tumbled down ſtones, runs with great rapidity, and about a mile from its
and heard the noiſe for a long time after. All the ſource throws itſelf into che ſea. Ils water is remark-
fields round, to a conſiderable diſtance, were covered ably clear; and fo extremely cold, that it is reckoned
with large burnt ſtones diſcharged from theſe little dangerous to drink it : It is ſaid, however to have a
volcanoes.
poiſonous quality, from being impregnated with vitriol;
The woody region, eſpecially the eaſt ſide, called in conſequence of which cattle have been killed by it.
Carpinetto, abounds with very large cheſnut-trees; the It never freezes, but is ſaid often io contract a greater
moſtremarkable of which has been called from its ſize, degree of cold than ice.
Caſtagno de Gento Cavalli, or cheſnut-tree of an hun Having thus given an account of this mountain in Appearan-
dred horſe. M. Brydone was greatly diſappointed at its quiet and peaceable ſtate, we muſt now deſcribe ces during
the light of this tree, as it is only a buſh of five large the appearance it puts on during the time of an erup-
ones growing together: but his guides aſſured him that tion, when it ſpreads deſtru&ion for many miles round,
all theſe five were once united into one ſtem; and Sig- and is capable of ſtriking the boldeſt with terror.
nior Recupero told him, that he himſelf had been at Sir William Hamiltoil, who has cxanlined both Ve-
the expence of carrying up peaſants with tools to dig ſuvius and Ætna in a very accurate manner, never had
round this buſh of trees, and found all the ſtems united an opportunity of ſeeing an eruption of the latter ; but
below ground in one root. The circumfcrence, as mea as he is of opinion that the two volcanoes agree per-
ſured by Meſſrs Brydone and Glover, who accompanied fectly in all reſpects, only that the latter is on a much
him, announted to 204 feet. Another of theſe, about a larger ſcale than the foriner, we hope it will not be
mile and a halfhigher on the mountain,is called Gaflag- unacceptable to our readers to give an account of ſome
na del Gala : it riſes from one folid ſtem to-a conſide- of the general appearances of Veſuvius when in a ſtate
rable hcight; after which it branches out and is a much of eruption, the better to help their ideas concerning
fuer object ihan the other: thi, was meaſured two fect Ærna.
above the ground, and found to be 76 feet in circuin It has been already obſerved, that a ſmoke con-
ference. A third, called Caſtagna del Nave, is pretiy ſtantly iſſues from the top of Ætna, and that its inter-
nearly of the ſame fize ; and Maſſa, one of the moſt nal noiſes never ceaſe. The caſe is the ſame with Vefu-
--
Over-
grown
chefnut-
trees.
an erup
tion.
vius :
Æ TN
[ 221)
Ε Τ Ν
Etna.
Obſerva-
Ætna. vius : and Sir William Hamilton obſerved, that in bad pearance of the lava, the violent eruptions of the moun-
weather the ſmoke was more conſiderable, as well as tain generally, though not always, ceaſe ; for if this
the noiſe much louder, than when it was fair ; ſo that burning matter gets not fufficient vent, the commo-
in bad weather he had frequently heard the inward ex tions increaſe to a prodigious degree.- In the night-
plolions of the mountain at Naples ſix miles diſtant from time the lava appears like a ſtream of fire, accompanied
Veſuvius. He alſo obſerved the ſmoke that iſſued with flame : but in the day time it has no ſuch appear-
from the mountain in bad weather to be very white, ance; its progreſs is marked by a white ſmoke, which
moift, and not near ſooffenſive as the ſulphureous ſteams by the reflection of the red-hot matter in the night aſ-
from various cracks in the ſide of the mountain. ſumes the appearance of flame.
Signs of an
The firſt ſymptom of an approaching eruption is an All the abovementioned ſymptoms preceded the great Eruptionis
approach- increaſe of the ſmoke in fair weather:after ſome time, eruption of Ætna in 1669. For ſeveral months before 1669.
ing erup-
a puff of black ſmoke is frequently ſeen to ſhoot up in the lava broke forth, the old mouth, or great crateron
tion.
the midſt of the white to a conſiderable height. Theſe the ſummit, was obſerved to fend forth great quantities
puffs are attended with conſiderable exploſions : for of ſmoke and flame; the top had fallen in, ſo that the
Hamilton's while Veſuvius was in this ſtate, Sir William Hamilton mountain was much lowered; the iſlands alſo of Volcan
went up to its top, which was covered with ſnow; and and Stromboli, two volcanoes to the weftwardof Sicily,
tions, p. 4. perceiving a little hillock of ſulphur, about ſix feet were obſerved to rage more than uſual.--Eighteen days
high, which had been lately thrown up, and burnt with before the eruption, the ſky was very thick and dark,
a blue flame at the top, he was examining this pheno- with thunder, lightning, frequent concuſſions of the
menon, when ſuddenly a violent report was heard, a earth, and dreadful ſubterraneous bellowings. On
column of black ſmoke ſhot up with violence, and was The Iſth of March, ſome time before the lava got vent,
followed by a reddiſh flame. Immediately a ſhower of a rent was opened in the mountain twelve miles in
ſtones fell; upon which he thought proper to retire. length, into which, when ſtones were thrown down,
Phenoniena of this kind, in all probability, precede the they could not be heard to ſtrike the bottom. Burning
eruptions of Ætna in a much greater degree.-The rocks,6o palms (15 of our feet) in length, were thrown
ſmoke at length appears wholly black in the day-time, to the diſtance of a mile; others of a leſſer ſize were
and in the night has the appearance of flame; ihowers carried three miles off; the internal noiſes of the moun-
of aſhes are fent forth, earthquakes are produced, the tain were exceedingly dreadful, and the thunder and
mountain diſcharges volleys of red-hot ſtones to a great lightning from the ſmoke ſcarce leſs terrible than
height in the air. The force by which theſe ſtones they. When the lava at laſt got vent, it burſt out of
are projected, as well as their magnitudes, ſeems to be a vineyard, 20 miles below the great craier, and ſprung
in proportion to the bulk of the mountain. Signior upintothe air to a conſiderable height. Here it formed
Recupero aſſared Mr Brydone, that he had ſeen ini a mountain of ſtones and aſhes, not leſs, as Sir W
menſely large ones thrown perpendicularly upwards Hamilton conjectures, than half á mile perpendicular
to the height of 7000 feet, as he calculated from the in height, and three miles in circumference. For 54
time they took to arrive at the earth after beginning days neither ſun nor ſtars had appeared : but ſoon af.
to deſcend from their greateſt elevation. The larget ter the lava got vent, the mountain became very quiet.
ſtone, or rather rock, that was ever known to be emit Theterrible effects of this fiery ſtream may beimagined
ted by Veſuvius, was 12 feet long and 45 in circum- from its amazing extent; being, as Sir Wm Hamilton
ference. This was thrown a quarter of a mile ; but obſerves, no leſs than 14 miles long, and in many pla-
much larger ones have been thrown out by mount Æt. ces ſix in breadth. In its courſe, it deſtroyed the ha-
11a, almoſt in the proportion in which the latter exceeds bitations of near 30,000 perſons; and meeting with a
Veſuvius in bulk. Along with theſe terrible fymp- lake four miles in compaſs, it not only filled it up,
toms, the ſmoke that iſſues from the crater is fome-
ſome though ſeveral fathom deep, buit made a mountain in
times in a highly electrified ſtate. In this caſe, the the place of it. Having reached Catanea, it deſtroyed
ſmall afhes which are continually emitted from the cra part of its walls, and ran for a conſiderable length into
ter, are attracted by the fmoke, and riſe with it to a the ſea, forming a ſafe and beautiful harbour; which,
great height, forming a vaſt black, and to appearance however, was ſoon filled up by a freſh torrent of the
denſe, column; froin this column continual laſhes of fame inflamed matter.
Thunder & forked or zig-zag lightning iſſue, ſometimes attended It is not eaſy for thoſe wlio have never been preſent Phenome-
lightning with thunder, and ſometimes not, but equally powerfut at thoſe terrible operations of nature, to repreſent to pa at the
with ordinary lightning. This phenomenon was ob- their minds the horrors which muſt åttend the break-breaking
fmeke.
forth of the
ferved by Sir William Hamilton in the ſmoke of Veſu- ing forth of the lava ; for though the giving vent to lavan
vius, and has alſo been taken notice of in that of Æt this burning matter generally produces a cellation of
na ; and where this electrified ſmoke hath ſpread over the violent efforts of the internal fire, yet at the very
a tract of land, much miſchief hath been done by the inſtant of its exploſion ſcarce any thing can be con-
lightning proceeding from it.
ceived fo dreadful. See VESUVIUS.
When theſe dreadful appearances have continued When the lava firſt iſſues, it appears very fluid, and Hamilton's
ſometimes four or five months, the lava begins to make runs with the rapidity of a ſwift river; but even then it obſerva-
its appearance. This is a ſtream of melted mineral ſurpriſingly reſiſts the impreſſion of ſolid bodies : for Sir tions, p, 10,
matters, which in Veſuvius commonly boils over the wm Hamilton could not pierce that of Veſuvius with a
top, but very feldom does ſo in Ærna ; owing to the ſtick driven againſt it with all his force ; nor did the
great weight of the lava, which long before it can be largeſt ſtone he was able to throw upon it ſink, but made
raiſed to the vaſt height of mount Ætna, burſts out a ſlight impreſſion, and then floated along. This hap-
through ſome weak place in its lide. Upon the ap- pened almoſt at the very niouth, when the lava appear.
ed
from the
--
Æ TN
[222]
Æ TN
Oll!
Ætna.
tions.
Lava of
1669 de-
fcribed.
ed liquid as water, and when he ſaw it running with a they found the mouth from whence this terrible deluge Ætna.
rapidity cqual to the river Severn at the paſſage near iſſued to be only a hole about so feet diameter. This
briſtol. A deſcription of the lava illuing from mount is alſo confirmed by Mr brydone ; and is probably the of the hole
Diameter
Ætna in 1669 was ſent to the court of England by fame throngh which Sir Win Hamilton deſcended into whence the
Lord Winchelſea, who at that iine happened to be at the ſubterranean cavernis already mentioned.
lava iſſued.
Catania in his way home from an embally at Conſtanti. Mount Ætna, as we have already remarked, has Antiquity
nople. His account is not now to be procured ; but been a celebrated volcano from the reinoteſt antiquity, of the erup-
Mr Hamilton found a copy in Sicily, and hath given Diodorus Siculus mentions eruptions of it as happening
an extract, part of which follows.
66 When it was 500 years before the Trojan war, or 1693 years before
night, I went upon two towers in different places; and I the Chriſtian æra. From Homer's lilence with regard
could plainly ſee, at ten miles diſtance, as we judged, to the phenomenon of Ætna, it is to be preſumed that
the fire begin to run from the mountain in a direct line, the volcano had been many ages in a ſtate of inactivity,
the flaine to aſcend as high and as big as one of the and that no tradition of its burning remained among
greateſt ſteeples in your Majeſty's kingdoms, and to the inhabitants at the time he compoſed his Odyiſey;
throw up great ſtones into the air ; I could diſcern the perhaps it never had emitted flames ſince the couniry
river of fire to deſcend the mountain of a terrible fiery was peopled. The firſt eruption taken notice of by an-
or red colour, and ſtones of a paler red to ſwim there. cient, but by no means cotemporary authors, happened
on, and to be ſome as big as an ordinary table. We before the Greeks landed on the iſland, and is ſuppoſed
could ſee this fire to move in ſeveral other places, and to have ſcared the Sicani from the eaſt part of Sicily.
all the country covered with fire, aſcending with great Pindar, quoted above, is the oldeſt writer extant who
flames in many places, ſmoking like to a violent fur- ſpeaks of Ætna as a volcano. The firſt recorded erup-
nace of iron melted, making a noiſe with the great lion was in the time of Pythagoras. Plato was invited
pieces that fell, eſpecially thoſe that fell into the ſea. by the younger Dionyſius to examine the ſtate of the
A cavalier of Malta, who lives there, and attended me mountain after the ſixth. It threw up flames and laya
told me, that the river was as liquid, where it iſſues near an hundred times between that period and the
out of the mountain, as water, and came out like a battle of Pharſalia ; it was particularly furious while
torrent with great violence, and is five or fix fathom Sextus Pompeius was adding the horrors of war to its
deep, and as broad, and that 110 ſtones ſink therein."
devaſtations. Charlemagne happened to be at Catania
The account given in the Philoſophical Tranſac- during one of the eruptions; and from his reign the
tions is to the famc purpoſe. We are there told, that chronicles mention fifteen down to that of the year
the lava is s nothing elſe than divers kinds of metals 1669, the moſt terrible of them all. Since 1669 there
and minerals, rendered liquid by the fierceneſs of the have been ſeveral eruptions, but none of them compa-
fire in the bowels of the earth, boiling up and guſhing rable to it. In that which happened in 1766, the lava
forth as the water doth at the head of ſome great ri- ſprang up into the air to a conliderable height, twelve
ver; and having run in a full body for a ſtone's caſt miles below the ſummit ; but formed a ſtream only lix
or more, began to cruſt or curdle, becoming, when miles in length and one mile in breadth.
cold, thore hard porous ſtones which the people call The laſt eruption happened in 1787. From the Iſt Account of
Scarri." Thoſe, though cold in compariſon of wliat to the roth of July, there were ſigns of its approach. the late e-
firſt iſſues from the mountain, yet retained ſo much On the rith, after a little calm, there was a ſubterra-ruption,
1787.
heat as to reſemble huge cakes of lea-coal ſtrongly ig- neous noiſe, like the ſound of a drum in a cloſe place,
nited, and came tumbling over one another, bearing and it was followed by a copious burſt of black ſmoke.
down or burning whatever was in their way.-In this It was then calm till the 15th, when the ſame progna)-
manner the lava proceeded ſlowly on till it came to the ſtics recurred. On the 17th, the fubterrancous noiſe
ſea, when a moſt extraordinary conflic enſued betwixt was heard again ; tlie ſmoke was more abundant, ſlight
the two adverſc elements. The noiſe was vaſtly more ſhucks of an earthquake followed, and the lava flowed
dreadful than the loudeſt thunder, being heard thro' from behind one of the two little mountains which forni
the whole country to an immenſe diſtance; the water the double head of Ærna. On the 18th, while the
ſeemed to retire and diminiſh before the lava, while ſpectators were in anxious expectation of a more ſevere
clouds of vapour darkened the fun. The whole fiſh eruption, all was quict, and continued ſo more than
on the coaſt were deſtroyed, the colour of the ſea it 12 hours : ſoon after they perceived ſome new Mocks,
ſelf was changed, and the tranſparency of its waters accompanied with much noiſe; and the mountain threw
loſt for inany months.
olt a thick ſmoak, which, as the wind was weſterly,
While this lava was iſſuing in ſuch prodigious quan- foon darkned the eaſtern horizon : two hours after-
tity, the merchants, whoſe account is recorded in the wards a flower of fine black brilliant ſand deſcended:
Philoſophical Tranſactions, attempted to go up to the on ile eaſt ſide it was a ſtorm of fones ; and, at the
mouth itſelf; but durft not come nearer than a furlong, foul of the mountain, a deluge of flaflies of fire, of
leſ they ſhould have been overwhelmed by a vaſt pillar ſcoria and lava.
of aſhes, which to their apprehenſion exceeded iwice Theſe appearances continued the whole day; alile
the bigneſs of St Paul's ſteeple in London, and went ſetting of the fim the ſcene changed. A number of
up into the air to a far greater heighe; at the mouth conical flanies roſe from the volcano; one on ihe norih,
roſe
waves of the ſea againſt rocks, or like diſtant thunder, and fell alternately. At threc in the morning, the .
which ſometimes was ſo violent as to be heard 60, or mountain appeared cleft, and thefum milfecincda burn-
even roo miles off; to which diſtance alſo part of the ing maſs. The concs of light which aroſe from the
alles were carried. Some time after, leaving gone up, crater were of an immenſe extent, particularly the two
juſt
+
Æ TN
[223]
A F F
Ætna, juſt mentioned. The two heads ſeemed to be cut away; tried many experiments on it: from whence he con- Ætolarcha
Ætna falt. and at their ſeparation was a cone of flame, ſeemingly cluded, that this falt is ſo far from occaſioning the ex-
compoſed of many lefſer cones. The fame ſeemed of ploſions of that mountain, as ſome have ſuppoſed, that Affection.
the height of the mountain placed on the mountain ; it does not exiſt in it, but is formed during the burn-
ſo that it was probably two miles high, on a baſe of a ing. Phil. Tranſ. Nº 100.
mile and a half in diameter. This cone was ſtill co ÆTOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, the prin-
vered with a very thick ſmoke, in which there appear- cipal magiſtrate or governor of the Ætolians.
cd very brilliant flathes of lightning, a phenomenon AFER (Domitius), a famous orator, born at Nif-
which Ætna had not before afforded. Attimes, ſounds mes, flourilhed under Tiberius and the three ſucceed-
like thoſe from the exploſion of a large cannon were ing emperors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of
heard ſeemingly at a lcſs distance than the wquntain. him, and commends his pleadings. But he diſgraced
From the cone, as from a fountain, a jet of many fla- his talents, by turning informer againſt ſome of the moſt
ming volcanic matters were thrown, which were cir diſtinguiſhed perſonages in Rome. Quintilian, in his
ried to the diſtance of fix or ſeven miles : from the youth, cultivated the friendſhip of Domitius very aſſi-
baſe of the cone a thick ſmoke aroſe, which, for a mo duoully. He tells us that his pleadings abounded with
inent, obſcured ſome parts of the flame, at the time pleaſant ſtories, and that there were public collections
when the rivers of lava broke out. This beautiful ap- of his witty ſayings, ſome of which he quotes. He alſo
pearance continued three quarters of an hour. It be mentionstwo books of his 6s On Witneſſes.” Domitius
gan the next night with inore force; but continued was once in great danger from an inſcription he put up-
only half an hour. In the intervals, however, Ætna on a ſtatue erested by him in honour of Caligula, where-
continued to throw out flames, ſmoke, ſtones ignited, in he declared that this prince was a ſecond time a
and flowers of ſand. From the 20th to the 22d, the conſul at the age of 27. This he intended as an encom-
appearances gradually ceaſed. The ſtream of lava was iun, but Caligula taking it as a farcaſm upon his youth,
carried towards Bronte and the plain of Lago. and his infringment of the laws, raiſed a proceſs againſt
After the eruption, the top of the mountain on the him, and pleaded himſelf in perſon. Domitias inſtead
weſtern ſide was found covered with hardened lava, of making a defence, repeated part of the emperor's
fcoria, and ſtones. The travellers were annoyed by
The travellers were annoyed by ſpeech with the higheſt marks of admiration ; after
ſmoke, by ſhowers of ſand, mephitic vapours, and ex which he fell upon his knees, and, begging pardon,
cellive heat. They ſaw that the lava which came from declared, that he dreaded more the eloquence of Cali-
the weſtern point divided into two branches, one of gula than his imperial power. This piece of flattery
which was directed towards Libeccio; the other, as we ſucceeded ſo well, that the emperor not only pardon-
have already ſaid, towards the plain of Lago. The lava ed, but alſo raiſed him to the conſulſhip. Afer died
on the weſtern head of the mountain, had from its va in the reign of Nero, A. D. 59.
rious ſhapes been evidently in a ſtate of fuſion: from AFFA, a weight uſed on the Gold Coaſt of Guinea.
one of the ſpiracula, the odour was ſtrongly that of li. It is equal to an ounce, and the half of it is called
ver of ſulphur. The thermometer, in deſcending, was eggeba. Moſt of the blacks on the Gold Coaſt give theſe
at 40 degrees of Farenheit's ſcale ; while near the names to thoſe weights.
lava, in the plain of Lago, it was 140 degrees. The AFFECTION, in a general ſenſe, implies an at-
lava extended two miles; its width was from 13 to tribute inſeparable from its ſubject. Thas magnitude,
21 feet, and its depth 13 feet.
figure, weight, &c. are affections of all bodies; and
Theſe are the moſt remarkable circumſtances we have love, fear, hatred, &c. are affections of the mind*. *See Moral
been able to collect, that might ſerve to give an ade AFFECTION,ſignifying a ſettled bent of mind toward Pbiloſopby,
quate idea of this famous mountain.-Many things, a particular being or thing; occupies a midule ſpace Parti
. fec.i.
however, concerning the extent, antiquity, &c. of the between diſpoſition on the one hand, and paſſion on the iv.
lavas, remain to be diſcuſſed, as well as the opinions of other t. It is diſtinguiſhable from Diſpulition, which Fition
, and
philoſophers concerning the origin of the internal fire being a branch of one's nature, originally, muft exift
Paliunto
which produces ſo much miſchief: but the contideration before there can be an opportunity to exert it upon any
of theſe belongs to the general article VOLCANO, to particular object; whereas Affection can never be ori.
which the reader is referred.--The fate of Catania and ginal, becaule, having a ſpecial relation to a particular
Hybra, which have often been deſtroyed by eruptions, object, it cannot exiſt till the object has once at leaſt
will be mentioned under theſe two words.
been preſented. It is alſo diſtinguiſhable from Paſſion,
ÆTNA falt, Sul Ætna, a name given by ſome authors which, depending on the real or ideal preſence of its
to the fal ammoniac, which is found on the ſurface object, vaniſhes with its object : whereas Affection is a
and lides of the openings of Ætna, and other burn- laiting connection; and, like other connections, ſublifts
ing mountains after their eruptions ; and ſometimes even when we do not think of the perſon. A familiar
on the ſurface of the ferruginous matter which they example will illuſtrate this. There may be in one per.
throw out.
This falt makes a very various ap- ſon's mind a diſpoſition to gratitude, which, chrough
pearance in many caſes; it is ſometimes found in large want of an object, happens never to be exerted; and
and thick cakes, fometimes only in form of a thick which therefore is never diſcovered even by the perſon
powder, ſcattered over the ſurface of the earth and himſelf. Another, who has the ſame diſpolition, meets
ſtones. Some of this filt is yellow, fome white, and with a kindly office that makes him grateful to his bene-
ſome greeniſh. This fall is a concrete of nitre, ſulphur, factor: Anintiinate connection is formed between them,
and vitriol, burnt and ſublined together; Borelli found termed affc&t10n : which, like other connections, has a
once a vait quantity of this ſalt on inount Æina, and permanent exiſtence, though not always in view. The
af-
1
7
A F F
[ 224 ]
AFF
Affection affe&ion, for the moſt part, lies dormant, till an oppor- them, as Reuben's inccſt with Balah his father's con- Affinity
1
tunity offer for exerting it: in that circumſtance, it is cubine, and the action of Ammon with his ſiſter Ta-
Affinity.
converted into the paſſion of gratitude ; and the oppor mar; and that of Herod-Antipas, who married He. Amilion.
tunity is eagerly ſeized of teſtifying gratitude in the rodias his ſiſter-in-law, his brother Philip's wife,
warmeſt manner.
while her huſband was yet living.
AFFECTION, among phyſicians, ſignifies the ſame AFFINITY is alſo uſed to denote conformity or a-
as diſeaſe. Thus the hyſteric affection is the ſame greement: Thus we ſay, the affinity of languages,
with the hyſteric diſeaſe.
the affinity of words, the affinity of ſounds, &c.
AFFERERS, or AFFERORS, in law, perſons ap AFFINITY, or ELECTIVE ATTRACTION, are ternis
pointed in court-leets, courts baron, &c. to ſettle, upon uſed by modern chemiſts to expreſs that peculiar pro-
vath, the fines to be impoſed upon thoſe who have been penſity which different ſpecies of matter have to unite
guilty of faults arbitrarily puniſhable.
and combine with certain other bodies excluſively, or
AFFETUOSO, or Con AFFETTO, in the Italian in preference to any other conne&ion.
muſic,intimates that the part to which it is added ought AFFIRMATION, in logic, the aſſerting the truth
to be played in a tender moving way, and conſequently of any propoſition.
rather ſlow than faſt.
AFFIRMATION,in law,denotes an indulgence allow-
AFFIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plight- ed to the people called Quakers; who, in caſes where
ing of troth between a man and woman to marry each an oath is required from others, may make a ſolemn af-
other.
firmation that what they ſay is true; and if they make
AFFIDAVIT, ſignifies an oath in writing, ſworn a falſe affirmation, they are ſubject to the penalties of
before ſome perſon who is authoriſed to take the ſame. perjury.
AFFINITY,anong civilians, implies a relation con AFFIRMATION is alſo uſed for the ratifying or con-
tracted by marriage; in contradiſtinction to conſangui- firming the ſentence or decree of ſome inferior court:
nity, or relation by blood. Affinity does not found any Thus, in England, they ſay, the houſe of lords affirm-
l'eal kinſhip; it is no more than a kind offiction, intro ed the decree of the lord chancellor, or the decree of
duced on account of the cloſe relation between huſband the lords of feflion.
and wife. It is even ſaid to ceaſe when the cauſe of it AFFIRMATIVE, in grammar. Authors diſtin-
ceaſes : hence a woman who is not capable of being a guiſh affirmative particles; ſuch is, yes.- The term
witneſs for her huſbaud's brother during his lifetime, affirmative is ſometimes alſo uſed ſubſtantively. Thus
is allowed for a witneſs when a widow, by reaſon the we ſay, the affirmative is the more probable ſide of the
affinity is diſſolved. Yet with regard to the contract. queſtion: there were ſo many votes, or voices, for
ing marriage, affinity is not diffolved by death, though the affirmative.
it be in every thing elſe.
AFFIX, in grammer, a particle added at the cloſe
There are ſeveral degrees of affinity, wherein mar of a word, either to diverſify its form or alter its ſigni-
riage was prohibited by the law of Moſes: thus, the fication. We meet with a fixes in the Saxon, the Ger-
ſon could not marry his mother, nor his father's wife man, and other northern languages; but more eſpecial-
(Lev. xviii. 7. et. ſeq.): the brother could not marry ly in the Hebrew, and other oriental tongues. The
his ſiſter, whether ſhe were ſo by the father only or Hebrew affixes are ſingle ſyllables, frequently ſingle
by the mother only, and much leſs if ſhe was his ſiſter letters, fubjoined to nouns and verbs; and contributo
both by the fame father and mother; the grandfather not a little to the brevity of that language. The ori-
could not marry his grand-daughter, either by his ſon ental languages are much the ſame as to the radicals,
or daughter. No one could marry the daughter of his and differ chiefly from each other as to affixes and
father's wife ; nor the ſiſter of his father or mother. prefixes,
Nor the uncle his niece; nor the aunt her nephew. AFFLATUS, literally denotes a blaſt of wind,
Nor the nephew the wife of his uncle by the father's breath, or vapour, ſtriking with force againſt another
lide. The father-in-law could not marry his daugh- body. The word is Latin, formed from ad“ to,” and
ter-in-law : nor the brother the wife of his bro- flare" to blow." Naturaliſts ſometimes ſpeak of the
iher, while living; nor even after the death of his afflatus of ſerpents. Tully uſes the word figuratively,
brother, if he left children. If he left no children, for a divine inſpiration ; in which ſenſe, he aſcribes all
the ſurviving brother was to raiſe up children to his great and eminent accompliſhments to a divine affilatus.
deceaſed brother, by marrying his widow. It was for The Pythian prieſteſs being placed on a tripod or per-
bidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one forated ſtool, over a holy cave, received the divine.
time, or the daughter of the mother's ſon, or the afflatus, as a late author expreſſes it, in her belly; and
daughter of her daughter, or two fifters together. It being thus infpired, fell into agitations, like a phrene-
is true the patriarchs before the law married their tic; during which ſhe pronounced, in hollow groans
fifters,as Abraham married Sarah, who was his father's and broken ſentences, the will of the deity. This af-
daughter by another mother; and two ſiſters together, flats is ſuppoſed, by ſome, to have been a ſubterra-
as Jacob married Rachel and Leah ; and their own neous fume, or exhalation, wherewith the pric teſswas
ſiſters by both father and mother, as Seth and Cain. literally inſpired. Accordingly, it had the effects of
But theſe caſes are not to be propoſed as examples : a real plıyſical diſeaſe; the paroxyſm of which was ſo
becauſe in fome they were authoriſed by llecellity; in vehenient, that Plutarch obſerves it ſometimes proved
others by cuſtom; and the law as yet was not in being. mortal. Van Dale ſuppoſes the pretended enthuliaſm of
If ſome other examples may be found, either before the Pythia to have ariſen from the fumes of aromatics.
or ſince the law, the ſcripture expreſsly diſapproves of AFFLICTION, is not itſelf, in propriety of medi-
cal
1
I
AFR
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A FR
Africa
tween two or niore.
Aforage cal ſpeech, a diſeaſe, but it produces many : for what other quarters of the globe; and has thereby a much
Q ever excites envy, anger, or hatred, produces diſeaſes nearer communication with Europe, Alia, and Ame-
Africa. from tenſe fibres ; as whatever excites fear, grief, joy, rica, than any one of theſe has with another. For,(I
or delight, begets diſeaſes from relaxation.
It is oppoſite to Europe in the Mediterranean, for al-
AFFORAGE, in the French cuſtoms, a duty paid 'moſt 1000 miles in a line from eaſt to weft; the diſ-
to the lord of a diſtrict, for permiſſion to ſell wine, or tance ſeldom 100 miles, never 100 leagues, and ſome-
others liquors, within his ſeignory. Afforage is alſo times not above 20 leagues. (2) It is oppoſite to A-
uſed for the rate or price of proviſions laid and fixed by ſia for all thelength of the Red Sea, the diſtance fomne.
the provoſt or ſhcriils of Paris.
times not exceeding five leagues, ſeldom fifty. (3) Its
AFFORESTING, A FORESTATIO, the turning coaſt for the length of about 2000 miles lies oppolite
ground into foreſt. The Conqueror, and his ſuccel to America at the diſtance of from soo to 700 leagues,
Tors, continued afforeſting the lands of the ſubject for including the iſlands: whereas America, unleſs where
many reigns ; till the grievance became ſo notorious, it may be a terra incognita, is no where nearer Europe
that the people of all degrees and denominations were than ioco leagues; and Alia, than 2500.
brought to ſue for relief; which was as length obtain As the equator divides this continent almoſt in the
ed, and commiſſions were granted to ſurvey and pe- middle, the far greateſt part of it is within the tro«
rambulate the foreſt, and ſeparate all the new afforeſted pics; and of conſequence the heat in ſome places is al-
lands, and re-convert them to the uſes of their propri- moſt inſupportable by Europeans, itbeing there great-
etors, under the name and quality of purlieu or pouralle ly increaſed by vaſt deſerts of burning ſand. It can-
land.
not be doubted, however, that, were the country well
AFFRAY, or AFFRAYMENT, in law, formerly lig- cultivated, it would be extremely fertile; and would
nified the crime of affrighting other perſons, by ap- produce in great abandance not only the neceſſaries,
pearing in unuſual armour, brandifing a weapon, &c. but alſo the luxuries, of life. It has been aſſerted, that
bat, at preſent, affray denotes a ſkirmish or fight be the ſugars of Barbadoes and Jamaica, as alſo the gin-
ger, cotton, rice, pepper, pimento, cocoa, indigo,
AFFRONTEE, in heraldry, an appellation given &c. of theſe iſlands, would thrive in Africa to as much
to animals facingone another on an eſcutcheon ; a kind perfection as where they are now predaced. Nor can
of bearing which is otherwiſe called confrontet, and it be doubted, that the Eaſt Indian {pices, the tea of
ſtands oppoſed to adolfze.
China and Japan, the coffee of Mocha, &c. would all
AFFUSION, the act of pouring ſome fluid fub- thrive in ſome parts of the African coaſt; as this con-
ſtance on another body. Dr Grew gives ſeveral expe- tinent has the advantage of feeling no cold, the climate
riments of the lucation ariſing from the affulion of being either very warm or very temperate.
divers menſtruums on all ſorts of bodies. Divines and Whatever may be the caſe with the internal parts of
church hiſtorians ſpeak of baptiſm by affuſion ; which Africa, it is certain that its coaſts are well watered
amounts to much the ſame with what we now call
with many very conſiderable rivers. The Nile and the
Sprinkling.
Niger may be reckoned among the largeſt in any part
AFRÅNIUS, a Latin poet, who wrote comedies of the world, America excepted. The firſt diſcharges
in imitation of Menander, comniended by Tully and itſelf into the Mediterranean, after a prodigious courſe
Quintilian : he lived in the 1 70th Olympiad.
from its ſource in Abyſſinia. The origin neither of
AFRICA (according to Bochart, from a Panic the Nile,nor of the Niger, is certainly known; but that
word, fignifying Ears of Gorn) ; one of the four great of the latter is ſuppoſed to run through a t act of land
diviſions, by the inoderns called quarters, of the world, little leſs than 3000 miles. Both theſe rivers annually
and one of the three called by the Greeks Harespon, or overflow their banks, fertilizing by that mealis the
continents. By thein it was alſo called Libya.
countries through which they paſs. The Gambia and
Africa lies fouth of Europe, and weſt of Aſia. It is Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger. Many
bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, which fe- vaſt ridges of mountains alſo run through different parts
parates it from the former; on the north-eaſt, by the of this continent; but their extentis very little known.
Red Sea, which divides it from Aſia, and to which it is Some of the moſt remarkable are, (1.) Thoſe called
attached by a neck of land called the Iſthmus of Suez, Atlas, lying between the 20th and 25thdegree of north
about 60 miles over,ſeparating the Mediterranean from latitude, and ſuppoſed almoſt to divide the continent
the Red Sea. On the weſt, ſouth, and eaſt, it is bound from eaſt to weſt. (2.) The mountains of the magis, ſo
ed by tlie main ocean : ſo that it is properly a vaſt pe called on account of their great height; ſuppoſed to be
ninfula, bearing fome faint reſemblance of a pyramid, the boundaries berveen Abyilinia and ſome of the in.
the baſe of which is the northern part, running along terior kingdonis. (3.) The mountains of Sierra Leo
the ſhores of the Mediterranean; and the top of the ona, ſo called on account of their abounding with li-
pyramid is the niort fontherly point, called the Gape ons, and likewiſe ſuppoſed to be the boundaries of ſome
of Good Hope. Its greateſt length from north to fouth is of the nations. (4) Thoſe called by the ancients the
4300 miles, and its greateſt breadth from eaſt to weſt mountașiis of God, on account of their being ſubject to
is 3500 miles; reaching froin Lat. 37° N. 10 358 S. perpetual thunder and lightning, or all theſe, how-
and from Long. 179 w. to 519 E.
ever, little more is known than their names.
Though the greateſt part of this continent hath been To what we have already faid concerning the pro.
in all ages unknown both to the Europeansand Afiatics, duce of Africa, we may ald, that no part of the world
its fituation is more fivourable than either Europe or abounds with goldandiilver in a greater degree. Here
Aſia for maintaining an intercourſe with other na alſo are a prodigious number of elephants; and it is
tions. It ſtauds, as it were, in the centre of the three ſurpriling, that neither the ancient nor modern Euro-
VOL.I.
Ff
peans,
&
A FR
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Africa. peans, notwithſtanding their extravagant and inſati- time power of the former was annihilated by Alexan- Africa.
able thirſt after gold and ſilver, ſhould have endea. der's conqueſt of Tyre, and the empire of the latter
voured to eſtablilli themſelves effe&ually in a country was overturned by the Romans.
inuch nearer to them than either America or the Eait That the peninſula of Africa, however, was in re-
Indies, and where the objects of their deſire are found ality failed round by the Phenicians, we have on in-
in equal, if not greater, plenty.
diſputable authority; for ſome of that nation under-
Next to gold and ſilver, copper is the moſt valuable took the voyage, at the command of Necho king of E-
metal; and on this continent is found in great plenty, gypt, about 604 years bef re the Chriſian æra. They
inſomuch that the mountains of Atlas above mentioned idiled from a port in the Red Sea, and after three
are ſaid all to be compoſed of copper ore. In ſhort, years returned by the Mediterianean : and the very
Africa, though a full quarter of the globe, ſtored with objections that were made to the veracity of their
an inexhauſtible treaſure, and capable of producing al accounts at that time, are unanſwerable proofs to us
moſt every necetſary, conveniency, and luxury of life, that this voyage was really accompliſhed. They pre-
within itſelf, ſeems to be utterly neglected both by its tended, that, having failed for ſome time, the fun be-
own inhabitants and all other nations : the former, came more and more vertical, after which he appeared
being in a favage ſtate, are incapable of enjoying the in the north, and ſeemed to recede froin them : that
bleſſings offered them by nature ; and the latter taking as they returned, the ſun gradually ſeemed to move
no farther notice of the inhabitants, or their land, than fouthwards ; and, after becoming vertical once niore,
to obtain at the eaſieſt rate what they procure with as appeared then in the ſouth ſide of them as before they
little trouble as poſſible, or to carry them off for Naves ſet out. This, which we know muſt certainly have been
to their plantations in America.
the caſe, was deemed incredible at that time, and uni-
Only a ſnall part of this continent was known to verſal ignorance concerning the extent of this conti-
the ancients, viz. the kingdoin of Egypt, and the nor nent prevailed till the 15th century. The firſt attempts
thern coaſt, comprehending little more than what is towards attaining a knowledge of Africa was made by
now known by the name of Barbary. It was divided the Portugueſe in 1412. Notwithſtanding their vici-
into Africa Propria, and Africa Interior: Africa Pro- nity, they had never ventured beyond Cape Non, fitu-
pria comprehended only the Carthaginian territories. ated in about N. lat. 27°.; it had received its name
Africa Interior comprehended all other nations to the from a ſuppoſed impoffibility of paſſing it. This year
ſouthward of theſe territories, or thoſe at a greater di- they proceeded 160 miles farther, to Cape Bojador ;
ſtance froin Rome. The only kingdoms, however, which ſtretching a conſiderable way into the Atlantic
with which the Romans had any connection, were the ocean, with rocky clifts, appeared ſo dreadful to the
Numidians, the Mauritanians, and the Gætuli. All navigators, that they returned without any attempt to
theſe, as well as Egypt, were ſwallowed up by that paſs it. In an attempt to double this formidable cape,
enormous power, and reduced to the condition of Ro- they diſcovered the Madeira iſlands in 1419: but Cape
man provinces. But the Romans never ſeem to have Bojador continued to be the boundary of their conti-
penetrated beyond the tropic of cancer. There appears, nental diſcoveries till 1433; when they penetrated
indeed, to have been ſome intercourſe between them within the tropics, and in a few years diſcovered the
and the Ethiopians: but the latter always preſerved river Senegal, Cape de Verd, and the iſlands which lie
their liberty ; and we find their queen Candace men off that promontory. In 1449, the weſtern iſlands,
tioned in the times of the apoſtles, when the Roman called the Azores, were diſcovered : and in 1471, they
power was at its higheſt pitch.
firſt penetrated beyond the line ; and were ſurpriſed to
Between the tropic of cancer and the equinoctial find, that the torrid zone, contrary to the opinion of
line, a multitude of ſavage nations were ſuppoled to the ancients, who imagined it to be burnt up with
have their reſidence, known by the names of Melano. heat, was 110t only habitable, but fertile and populous.
gætuli, Nigritæ, Blemmyes, Dolopes, Aſtacuri, Lo In 1484, they proceeded 1500 miles beyond the line
cophagi, Ichthyophagi, Elephantophagi, &c. (which ſo that they began to entertain hopes of finding that
are taken notice of, as well as the others already men way a paſſage to the Eaſt Indies : and two years after-
tioned, under their proper names); but that Africa wards, the Cape of Good Hope was diſcovered by Bar-
was a peninſula, ſeems to have been totally unknown tholomew de Diaz; but it was not till the year 1497,
both to the Europeans and Aſiatics for many ages. that the Portugueſe, under Vaſquez de Gama, actually
It is probable indeed, that ſome of the Phenicians, and doubled this cape, and diſcovered the true ſhape of the
their offspring the Carthaginians, were not ſoignorant; continent. Thus the coaſts of Africa were made per-
as they carried navigation to a much greater height featly known; and probably the knowledge concerning
than either the Greeks or Romans : but their diſcove- its iirterior parts would have been much greater than
ries were all concealed with the greateſt care, leſt other it is, had not the general attention been called off from
nations ſhould reap the benefit of thein
the benefit of thein ; and accord- this continent by the diſcovery of America in 1492.
ingly we can now find no authentic accounts concern The Romans for a long time maintained their power
ing them. The navigation round Africa, in particular, in Africa : but in the year 426, Bonifacius, ſupreme
is recorded by the Greek and Roman writers rather as governor of all the Roman dominions in this quarter,
a ſtrange amuling tale than as a real tranſaction ; and being compelled to revolt by the treachery of another
as neither the progreſs of the Phenician and Carthagi. general called Aetius, and finding himſelf unable to
nian diſcoveries, nor the extent of their navigation, contend with the whole ſtrength of the Roman em-
were communicated to the reſt of mankind, all memo- pire, called in Genferic king of the Vandals to his aid ;
rials of their extraordinary ſkill in naval affairs ſeeni who thereupon abandoned the provinces he had ſeized
in a great meaſure to have periſhed, when the mari. in Europe, and paſſed over into Africa., Bonifacius,
however,
2
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AFR
Africa. however, being ſoon after reconciled to his empreſs thority of theſe princes ſtands on a precarious footing, Africa.
Placidia, endeavoured in vain to perſuade the Vandals each tribe or ſeparate body of their ſubjects being un-
to retire. Hereupon a.war enſued, in which the bar der the influence of a petty chieftain of their own,
barians proved victorious, and quickly over-ran all the ſtyled Negus, to whoſe commands, however contrary
Roman provinces in Africa. In the year 435, a peace to thoſe of the Negaſcha Negaſcht, or king of kings,
was concluded; when Numidia and ſome other coun they are always ready to ſubmit.
tries were ceded to the Vandals, who ſoon after ſeized The fertility of a country ſo prodigiouily extenſive,
all the reſt. Theſe barbarians did not long enjoy their might be ſuppoſed more various than we sind it is : in
ill-gotten polleiſions : for, about the year 533, Be- fact, there is no medium in this part of Africa witlı
liſarius drove them out, annexing the provinces to regard to the advantages of foil; it is either perfecely
the eaſtern empire ; and in 647, the Saracens, having barren or extremely fertile. This ariſes from the iri-
conquered Mcſopotamia, Egypt (which anciently was tenſe heat of the ſun ; which, where it meets with ſuf-
not included in the meaning of the word Africa), ficient moiſture, produces the utmoſt luxuriancy; and
Phenicia, Arabia, and Paleſtine, broke like a corrent in thoſe couuiries were there are few rivers, reduces
into Africa, which they quickly ſubdued. Their vaſt the ſurface of the earth to a barren ſand. Of this fort
empire being in 936 divided into ſeven kingdoms, the are the countries of Anian and Zaara; whichi, for
African Nates retained their independency long after want of water, and conſequently of all other necella-
the others were ſubdued by the Turks : but in the be- ries, are reduced to perfect deſerts, as the name of the
ginning of the 16th century, being afraid of falling un latter denotes. In thoſe countries, on the other hand,
der the yoke of Spain, they invited the Turks to their where there is plenty of water and particularly where
aſſiſtance; who firſt protected, and then inſlaved, them. the rivers overflow the land part of the year as in A-
They ſtill continue in a kind of dependence on the Ot- byſſinia, the productions of nature, both of the animal
toman empire. They are not, however, properly and vegetable kinds, are found in the highest perfec-
fpeaking, the ſubjects of the grand Signior, but call tion and greateſt abundance. The countries of Plan-
him their protector, paying him an annual tribute. On dingo, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola, Batua, Truticui,
the coaſts, the natives are almoſt all addicted to pira- Monomotapa, Caſati, and Mehenemugi, are extreme-
cy; and with ſuch ſucceſs have they carried on their ly rich in gold and ſilver. The baſer metals, likewiſe,
employment, that the greateſt powers in Europe are are found in theſe and many other parts of Africa.
become their tributaries, in order to procure liberty But the perſons of the natives make the moſt conſider-
to trade on the Mediterranean.
able article in the produce and traffic of this miſerable
Concerning even thoſe ſtates which are neareſt to quarter of the globe.
Europe, very little is known : but the interior nations On the Guinea or weſtern coaſt, the Engliſh trade
are ſcarce known by name ; nor do almoſt any two of to James Fort, and other ſettlements near and up the
the moſt learned moderns agree in their diviſion of A river Gambia; where they exchange their woollen and
frica into kingdoms; and the reaſon is, that ſcarcely linen manufactures, their hardware, and ſpirituous li-
any traveller hath ever penetrated into theſe inhoſpi. quors, for the perſons of the natives. By the treaty
table regions. According to the beſt accounts, con of peace in 1783, the river of Senegal, with its de
cerning thoſe regions of Africa lying beyond Egypt pendencies, were given up to France. Gold and ivory,
and Barbary, they are divided in the following man next to the llave trade, form the principal branches of
On the weſtern coaſt, to the ſouth of Barbary, African commerce. There are carried on from the
lie the kingdoms of Bildulgerid, Zaara, Negroland, ſame coaſt, where the Dutch and French, as well as
Loango, Congo, Angola, Benguela, and Terra de Engliſh have their ſettlements for this purpoſe.
Netal. On the eaſtern coaſt beyond Egypt, are thoſe The Portugueſe are in poflellion of the eaſt and weſt
of Nubia, Adal, Ajan, Zanguebar (between theſe two coaſt of Africa, from the Tropic of Capricorn to the
a huge deſart is interpoſed), Monomatapa, and Sofola. Equator ; which iin menſe tract they became maſters
In the interior parts, the kingdoms of Lower Ethio- of by their ſucceſſive altempts and happy diſcovery and
pia, Abex, Monemage, and Matanan, are made men- navigation of the Cape of Good Hope. From the
tion of. The ſouthermoſt part, called Cafraria, is coaſt of Zanguebar, on the eaſtern ſide they trade not
well known for the habitation of the Hottentots. only for the articles abovementioned, but likewiſe for
In many material circumſtances, the inhabitants of ſeveral others; as ſena, aloes, civet, ambergris, and
this extenſive continent agree with each other. If we frankincenſe. The Dutch have ſettlements towards
except the people of Abyſſinia, who are tawny, and the ſouthern part of the continent, in the country
profcſs a mixture of Chriſtianity, Judaiſm, and Pagan. called Caffraria, or the land of the Hottentots, parti-
iſm, they are all of a black complexion. In their re cularly Cape Town, which is well ſettled and fortified ;
ligion, except on the ſea-coaſts, which have been viti where their hips bound to India uſually put in, and
ted and ſettled by ſtrangers, they are pagans; and tie trade with the natives for their cattle, in exchange for
form of government is everywhere monarchical. Few which they give them fpirituvus liquors.
princes, however, polleſs a very extenſive juriſdiction ; The Portugueſe beingſovereigns of the greateſt part
for as the flatives of this part of Africa are groſsly ig- of the coaſt, have a number of black princes their tri-
norant in all the arts of utility or refinement, they butaries. There are ſome independent princes who
are little acquainted with one another; and generally have extenſive dominions ; particularly the kings of
united in ſmall focieties, each governed by its own Dahome and Widah, the moſt noted of any for the
prince. In Abyſſinia, indeed, as well as in Congo, infamous flave trade. Upwards of 200 years have the
Loango, and Angolo, we are told of powerful mo European nations traded with Africa in human fleſh;
narchis; but on examination, it is found that the au. and encouraged in the Negro countries, wars, rapine,
F f 2
deſolation,
ner.
A G A
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[ 228
]
or
Africa defolation, and murder, that the West India iſlands the commander in chief of that corps ; as the general Agades
might be ſupplied with that cominodity. The annual of horſe is denominated ſpabeclar aga. The aga of #
Age.
exportation of poor creatures from Africa for llaves the Janitſaries is an officer of great importance. He is Agape.
hath exceeded 100,000; numbers of whom are driven the only perſon who is allowed to appear before the
down like ſheep, perhaps a 1000 miles from the ſea. Grand Signior without his arms acroſs his breaſt in the
coafl, who are generally inhabitants of villages that poſture of a ſlave.
poſture of a Nave. Eunuchs at Conſtantinople are in
have been ſurrounded in the night by armed force, and poffeffion of moſt of the principal poſts of the ſeraglio:
carried off to be ſold to traders.--Nor do the plan The title aga is given to them all, whether in employ-
ters, who purchaſe them, uſe any pains to inſtruct menl or not. This litle is alſo given to all ſuch men
them in religion, to make them amends for the oppreſ- without employ, and eſpecially to wealthy landholders.
lion thus exerciſed upon them. It is ſaid they are un We find alſo agas in other countries. The chief
naturally avcrſe to every thing that tends to it; yet officers under the Khan of Tartary are called by this
the Portugueſe, French, and Spaniards, in their ſet nanie. And among the Algerines, we read of agas
tlenicnts, ſucceed in their attempts to it'ſtruct them, choſen from among the boluk baſhis (the firſt rank of
as much to the advantage of the commerce as of reli- military officers), and ſent to govern in chief the towns
gion. It is for the ſake of Chriſtianity, and the ad and garriſons of that ſtate. The aga of Algiers is the
vantages accompanying it, that Engliſh llaves embrace preſident of the divan, or ſenate. For ſome years, the
every occaſion of deſerting to the ſettlements of theſe aga was the ſupreme officer ; and governed the ſtate in
nations. But upon this ſubjcct the feelings and re the place of baſlaw, whoſe power dwindled to a ſha-
flection of that nation have of late been abundantly dow. But the ſoldiery riſing againſt the boluk bajhis,
rouſed, and in the inveſtigation of it the wiſdom of agas, maſſacred moſt of them, and transferred the
the legiſlator is ſoon to be employed.
ſovereign power to the calif, with the title of Dey or
AFRICAN COMPANY, a ſociety of merchants, eſta-
King
bliſhed by King Charles the II. for trading to Africa; AGADES, a kingdom and city of Negroland in A-
which trade is now laid open to all the ſubjects, paying frica. It lies nearly under the tropic of Cancer, be-
10 per cent. for maintaining the forts.
zween Gubur and Cano. The town ſtands on a river
AFRICANUS (Julius), an excellent hiſtorian of that falls into the Niger; it is walled, and the king's
the third century, the author of a chronicle which palace is in the midſt of it. The king has a retinue,
was greatly eſteemed, and in which he reckons 5500 who ſerve as a guard. The inhabitants are not ſo
years froin the creation of the world to Julius Cæſar. black as other negroes, and conſiſt of merchants and
This work, of which we have now 110 more than what artificers. Thoſe that inhabit the fields are ſhepherds
is to be found in Euſebius, ended at the 221ſt year
of or herdſmen, whoſe cottages are made of boughs, and
the vulgar æra. Africanus alſo wrote a letter to Ori are carried about from place to place on the back of
gen on the hiſtory of Suſanna, which he reckoned oxen. They are fixed on the ſpot of ground where
luppoſititious; and we have ſtill a letter of his to, Ari- they intend to feed their cattle. The houſes in the
itides, in which he reconciles the ſeeming contradic- city are ſtately, and built after the Barbary faſhion.
tions in the two genealogies of Chriſt recorded by This kingdom was, and may be ſtill, tributary to the
Si Mathew and St Luke.
king of Tombut. It is well watered; and there is great
AFSLAGERS, perſons appointed by the burgo. plenty of graſs, cattlc, fenna, and manna.
maſters of Amſterdam to preſide over the public ſales vailing religion is the Mahometan, but very looſely
Diadcin that city. They muſt always have a clerk of profefled.
profefled. N. Lat. 26. 10. E. Long. 9. 10.
ilie ſecretary's office with them, to take an account of AGALLOCHUM. See XYLO ALOes.
the ſale. They correſpond to our brokers, or auc AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally
fioncers.
uſed to ſignify any kind of ornaments in a temple ;
AFT, in the ſea language, the ſame with ABAFT. but afterwards for the ſtatues only, as being moſt con-
AFTER BIRTH, in midwifery, lignifies the mem ſpicuous.
bianes which ſurrounded the infant in the womb, AGAMEMNON, the ſon of Atreus by Erope, was
generally called the ſecundines. See MIDWIFERY. captain general of the Trojan expedition. It was fore-
AFTERMATH, in huſLandry, ſignifies the graſs told to hin by Caſlandra, that his wife Clytemneſtra
which ſprings or grows up after mowing.
would be his death : yet he returned to her ; and ac-
AFTERNOON, the latter half of the artificial day, cordingly he was ſlain by Ægiſthus, who had gained up-
or that ſpace between 1iooni and night.
on his wife in his abſence, and by her means got the
AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, exceffive pains felt government into his own hands.
in ile groin, loins, &c. after the woinan is delivered. AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a deſignation
AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees, given to the muſes, from a fountain of mount Helicon,
are thoſe which leave the live ſome time after the first
called Aganippe.
has ſwarmed. See BEE.
AGANIPPE, in antiqity, a fountain of Boeotia
AFWESTAD, a large copper-work belonging to at mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and
the crown of Sweden, which lies on the Dala, in the Boeotia, ſacred to the mufes, and running into the river
province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden. It looks like a Permeſleus ; (Pliny, Pauſanias.) Ovid ſeems to make
town, and has its own church. Here they make cop Ayunippe and Hippucrene the ſame. Solinus more tru-
per plates; and hive ainint for finall ſilver coin, as well ly diſtinguiſhes thein, and aſcribes the blending them
as a royal poſt-Houſc. W. Long. 14. 10. N. Lat. 58. 19. to poetical licenſe.
4GA, in the turkiſh language, ſignifies a great lord AGAPE, in eccleſiaſlical hiſtory, the love-feaſt, or
of coniniander. Hence the aga of the Janiſſaries is feaſt of charily, in uſe among the primitive Chriſtians ;
when
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A GA
[229]
AGA
Agapetą, when a liberal contribution was made by the rich to AGARIC. See AGARICUS.
Agaric,
Agard. feed the poor. The word is Greek, and ſignifies love. Female AGARIC. See BOLETUS.
Agaricus
St Cryſoſtom gives the following account of the feaſt, Mineral AGARIC, a marley earth reſembling the
which he derives from the apoltolical practice. He vegetable of that name in colour and texture, It is
ſays, “the firſt Chriſtians had all things in common, found in the fiſſures of rocks, and on the roofs of ca-
as we read in the Acts of the Apoſtles; but when that verns; and is foinetimes uſed as an aſtringentin fluxes,
equality of poffeffions ceaſed, as it did even in the A- hemorrhagies, &c.
poſtles tinie, the agape, or love-feaſt, was ſubſtituted AGARICUS, or MUSHROOM, a genus of the order
in the room of it. "Upon certain days, after partaking of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamnia claſs of plants.
of the Lord's fupper, they met at a common feaſt; the Species and uſes. Botanical writers enumerate 55
rich bringing proviſions, and the poor who had nothing ſpecies belonging to this genus; of which the moſt re-
being invited.” It was always attended with receiving markable are the following.
the holy ſacrament;but there is ſome difference between 1. The campeſtris, or common muſhroom, has the
the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circum- top or cap firſt of a dirty cream colour, convex, and,
ſtance of time, viz. Whether this feaſt was held before if but juſt expanding, the under part, or what is called
or after the communion. St Cryſoſtom is of the lar the gills, is of a bright fleſh red: this colour laſts but
ter opinion; the learned Dr Cave of the fornier. Theſe a little time before it turns darker; and when the
love-feaſts, during the three firſt centuries, were held plant is old, or has been ſome time expanded, the gills
in the church without ſcandal or offence ; but, in after become of a dark brown, the cap almoſt flat, of a
times, the heathens began to tax them with impurity. dirty colour, and often a little ſcaly. It differs mach
This gave occalion to a reformation of theſe agapæ. in ſize in different plants, it being from an inch to
The kiſs of charity, with which the ceremony uſed to ſeven inches broad. The general uſe of it is well
end, was no longer given between different fexes; and known. It is found in woods, old paſtures, and by
it was expreſsly forbidden to have any bedsor couches, road-lides, and is in the greateſt perfection in Sep-
for the conveniency of thoſe who would be diſpoſed to tember. There is a variety of this with a yellowilh
eat more at their eaſe. Notwithſtanding theſe precau- white cap and white gills ; this is very firm, but ſeldom
tions, the abuſes committed in thein became ſo noto expands ſo freely as the true fort, and when broiled
rious, that the holding of them (in churches at leaſt) will exude a yellowiſh juice. It is probable this ſort
was ſolenınly condemned, at the council of Carthage, is not pernicious, though it is always rejected by ſuch
in the year 397
as can diſtinguiſh it.
AGÁPET Æ, in eccleſiaſtical hiſtory, a name given 2. The pratentis, or champignion, is very common
to certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient upon heaths and dry paſtures. A number of them ge-
church, aſſociated themſelves with, and attended on, nerally come up in a place, ranged in curved lines or
ecclefiaftics, out of a motive of piety and charity. circles. The cap is ſmall, almoſt flat, from one to
In the primitive days there were women inſtituted two or three inches diameter, of a pale buff colour,
Deaconesses, who, devoting themſelves tothe ſervice often crimpled at the edges, and, when dry, tough
of the church, took up their abode with the miniſters, like leather or a thin piece of fine cork. The gills
and aſſiſted them in their functions. In the feryour of are of the colour of the cap; are thinly placed ; with
the primitive piety,there was nothing ſcandalous in theſe a ſhort one, and ſometimes two, coming from the edge
ſocieties: but they afterwards degenerated into liber- of the cap between each. The ftalk or pillar is alſo
tiniſım ; inſomuch, that St Jerom alks, with indigna- of the colour of the cap; it is long, ſlender, and all
tion, unde, agapetcruen pefis in ecclefias intr0211. This the way of a thickneſs. This plant hias but little ſmell;
gave occaſion to councils to ſuppreſs them.–St Atha- is rather dry ; and yet, when broiled or ſtewed, it
nalius, mentions a prieſt, named Leontius, who, to re communicates a good flavour. In perfection at the
move all occaſion of ſuſpicion, offered to mutilate him- fame time with the former.
felf, to preſerve his beloved companion.
3. The chantarellus, or chanturelie agaric, is rather
AGARD (Arthur), a learned Engliſh antiquarian, a ſmaller fungus than the former. The cap is yellow,
born at Tofton in Derbyſhire in the year 1540. His of different hues in different plants, fome being of a
fondneſs for Engliſh antiquities induced him to make pale yellow, and others of an orange colour. It is gene.
many large collections; and his office as deputy cham- rally funk in the middle, ſomewhat reſembling a tun-
berlain of the exchequer, which he held 45 years, gave nel, and its edges are often twiſted and contorted ſo as
him great opportunities of acquiring ſkill in that ſtudy. to form finuſes or angles. The gills are of a deeper
Similarity of taſte brought him acquainted rith Sir colour than the outſide, are very fine, even, numerous,
Robert Cotton, and other learned men, who alſociated and beautifully branched. The ramifications begin at
themſelves under the name of The Society of Antiquarians, the ſtalk, and are variouſly extended towards the edge
of which fociety Mr Agard was a conſpicuous menibcr. of the cap. The pillar is of the fame colour as the
He maile the doomſJay-book his peculiar ſtudy ; and cap, is feldom inſerted in the centre, but rather ſide-
compoſed a work purpoſely to explain it, under the title ways; it is ſhort, thickith at the root, and the gills
of Tractatus de ufit et obfcrioribus verbis libride Domef- moſtly run down the top, which make it appear ſmall-
day: he alfo compiled a book for the ſervice of his ſuc- eſt in the middle. This plant broiled with ſalt and
ceſſors in office, which he depoſited with the officers pepper has much the flavour of a roaſted cockle; and
of the king's receipt, as a proper index for ſucceeding is eſteemed a delicacy by the French, as is the former.
officers. All the reſt of his collections, containing at it is fonnd in woods and high paſtures, and is in per-
least twenty volumes, he bequeathed to Sir Robert fection about the end of Ser ember.
Cotton; and died in 1615.
4. The delicioſus, or orange agaric. The general
fize
AG A
[230]
AGA
Agaricus. ſize of the cap of this ſpecies is from two to four prey to worms, flies, and other inſects. The common Agaricus
inches broad. Its form is circular, with the edges muſhroom,wbich is in general eſteem (though we have
bent inwards ; convex on the upper ſurface, except ſeveral others better) is not ſafely eaten when produced
in the centre, where it is a little depreſled, ſo as near upon a moiſ ſoil. Thoſe who gather muſhrooms for
ly to reſemble the apex of a ſmooth apple. The co fále ſhould therefore have particular regard to the lands
lour is a ſordid yellow, ſtreaked with alh and yellow- they collect them from, eſpecially if they know they
iſh brown, from the centre to the edge, and when it are to be broiled ; but if they be intended for catchup,
is broken it emits a gold colour juice. The gills are perhaps they may be leſs cautious, as the ſalt and ſpices
of a deep yellow, and a few of them come out by pairs with which the jnice is boiled may correct any evil
at the ſtalk, bilt divide immediately, and run ſtraight diſpolition in the plants. But, even in this caſe, catch-
to the edge of the cap. "The ſtalk or pillar is thinneſt
The ſtalk or pillar is thinneſt up made of muſhrooms taken from a dry foil has a
near the middle, thickeſt at the root, and when cut more aromatic and pleaſant flavour than that which is
tranſverſely, it is quite white in the centre, with a made of thoſe taken from a inoiſt one, and it will al-
fine yellow ring that goes to the edge. The fungus, ways keep a great deal better.
well teaſoned and then broiled, has the exact flavour Of the poiſonous forts, the two following are the
of a roaſted muſcle. Its prime time is September, and moſt fingular :
ir is to be found in high dry woods.
7. The muſcarius, or reddiſh muſhroom, has a large
5. The cinnamomeus, or brown muſhroom, has a hat, almoſt flat, either white,red, or crimfon, fometimes
cap the colour of freſh-tanned hides. At firſt it is beſet with angularred warts; the gills are white,fiat,and
hemiſpherical, firm, even, and fleſhy, with moſtly a inverſely ſpear-ſhaped ; the pillar is hollow,the cap fixed
ſmall riſing in the centre ; but when old it is quite flat. to the middle of the pillar, limber, and hanging down.
The gills are of a yellowiſh brown, not very diſtant This ſpecies grows in paſtures, and is ſaid to deſtroy
from each other, bent like a knee at the pillar, and bugs effectually if the juice is rubbed upon the walls and
have a ſhort one or two run from the edge of the cap bed-poſts. The inhabitants of the north of Europe,
between each. The pillar is near the length of a fin- whoſe houſes are greatly in fcited with flies at the de-
ger, firni, rather thick, brown at the baſe, of a ſor- cline of ſummer, infuſe it in niilk, and ſet it in their
did yellow upward, and, when cut tranſverſely, of a windows, and the flies upon taſting the leaſt drop are
finc'white grain. The cap in different plants is from inſtantly poiſoned. An infulion of common pepper in
two to five inches broad. The whole plant has a plea- milk anſwers the ſame purpoſe : but the flies through
fant ſmell, and when broiled gives a good flavour. It time become wiſe enough not to taſte it; and though
is found in woods in September and October.
vaſt numbers are at firſt deſtroyed, it is impoſſible to
6. The violaceus, or violet muſhrooin. Its cap, clear a houſe of theſe inſects by this means. This is
when firſt expanded, is ſmooth, hemiſpherical, the the moucho-more of the Ruſſians, Kamtſchadales, and
main ſurface of a livid colour, but towards the margin Koriacs, who uſe it as an inſtrument of intoxication.
it is of a better blue. When full grown or old, it be. They ſometimes eat it dry, ſometimes immerſed in a
comes corrugated, and of a ruſty brown. The gills fermented liquor made with the epilobium, which they
of a young plant are of a beautiful violet colour, and drink notwithſtanding the dreadful effects. They are
regularly placed. The pillar is of the colour of the firſt ſeized with convullions in all their limbs, then
giils, ſhort, of a conical form, but ſwelled at the baſe with a raving ſuch as attends a burning fever. A thou-
into a ſort of bulb. Its upper part is ſurrounded with fand phantoms, gay or gloomy (according to their con-
an iron-coloured wool, which, in a plant juſt expand- ftitutions), preſent themſelves to their imaginations :
ing, ſtretches croſs to the edge of the cap like a web. fome dance, others are ſeized with unſpeakable hor-
This ſpecies requires niuch broiling; but when ſuffici rors. They perſonify this muſhroon; and, if its ef-
ently done and ſeaſoned, it is as delicious as an oyſter. feets urge them to ſuicide, or any dreadful crime, they
It is found in woods in October. Hudſon's bulboſus ſay they obey its commands. To fit themſelves for
is only a variety of this plant.
premiditated aſſaſſinations, they take the moucho-
The above are the only ſpecies that can be ſafely more. Such is the faſcination of drunkenneſs, among
recommended as edible : though there are ſome o theſe people, that nothing can induce thein to forbear
ther forts which are frequently eaten by the country this dreadful potion!
people ; and it is probable the greateſt part of thoſe 8. The clypeatos, or long-ſtalked muſhroom, has
with firm Acſhy caps might be eaten with ſafety, pro an hemiſpherical hat tapering to a point, and clammy ;
vided they were choſen from dry grounds. It is the pillar is long, cylindrical, and white; the gills are
well known that foil and ſituation have a great in- white, and not concave, duſted with a fine powdery
fluence upon the properties of plants; and theſe be- ſubſtance on each ſide; the rout is bulbous, long, and
ing of a lingular nature, and abſolutely between that hooked at the end. It is found in September, in
of an animal and vegetable, may be more powerfully woodlands and paſtures. This fpecies is thought to
affected than a complete ſpecies of either, by reaſon be poiſonons; and we have the following account of
they have neither leaves nor branches to carry off the the ſymptoms produced by cating it, in Di Percival's
noxious damps and vapours of a ſtagnant foil, as a per- Eſſays. “ Robert Uſherwood, of Middletown, near
fed vegetable has; nor have they any groſs excremen Mancheſter, a ſtrong healthy mail, aged 50 years, ear-
tal c!iſcharges, like thoſe of living animal. The gills ly in the morning gathered and eat what he ſuppoſed
no doubt do exhrle ſome of their fuperfinous moiſture; to be a muſhroom. He felt no fymptoms of indiſpo-
but their fituation is ſuch, that any thick ſteam from lition, till five o'clock in the evening ; when, being
the earth may lodge in them, and by clogging their very thirſty, he drank near a quarı of table-beer.
excretory ducts, render the plants norbid. Thus they Soon afterwards he became univerſally ſwoln, was ſilk,
ſoon run into a ſtate of putrefaction, and become a and in great agonies. A ſevere vomiting and purging
ſucceeded,
A G A
[ 23! ]
A G A
1
,
Agaricus, ſucceeded, with violent cramps in his legs and thighs. rature to receive the ſpawn; for this is deſtroyed by Agaricus ,
- He diſcharged ſeveral pieces of the fungus, but with too niuch heat; though, before planting, it may be kept
little or no relief. His pains and evacuations continued, very dry, not only without derriment, but with conſi-
almoſt without intermiſſion, till the next night; when derable advantage.—The bed being in a proper tem-
he fell into a ſound Neep, and awaked in the morning perature for the ſpawn, the covering of litter hould be
perfectly caſy, and free from complaint.
taken off, and the ſides of the bed ſmoothed ; then a
Many of the different ſpecies of this genus grow on covering of light rich earth, about an inch thick,
cows or horſes dung, on dunghills, on rotten wood, in Mould be laid all over the bed; but this ſhould not bé
cellars, or on the trunks of trees ; of which the nioit wet. Upon this the ſpawn muſt be thruſt, laying the
remarkable is,
lumps two or three inches aſunder ; then gently cover
9. The quercinus, or agaric of the oak. This is this with the ſame light earth, above half an inch
of various lizes, ſometimes not exceeding the bigneſs thick; and put the covering of litter over the bed, lay-
of the fift, ſometimes as large as a mali's head. It ing it fo thick as to keep out wet, and prevent the bed
takes at leaſt a year or two to grow to its full ſize. from drying. In ſpring or autumn the milfhrooins
It is dark coloured, hard, heavy, and woody; it is will begin to appear, perhaps in a month after making;
ſometimes uſed by the dyers, as an ingredient in the but when the beds are made in ſummer or winter, they
black dye. It taſtes at firſt ſweetiſh in the mouth, but are much longer before they produce. In any feaſon,
preſently becomes very bitter and nauſeous. It was however, they ought not to be haſtily deſtroyed; ſince
formerly an article in the Materia Medica ; but is muſhroom-beds have been known to produce very
now defervedly rejected froin our pharmacopæias. plentifully, even after the ſpawn has lain in thein five
Culture. Only the efculent kinds of muſhroonis are or lix months. When the beds are deſtroyed, the
cultivated ; and the following method is uſed by the ſpawn ſhould be carefully preſerved, and laid up in a
gardeners who raiſe them for ſale. If the young mulh- dry place, at leaſt five or ſix weeks before it is again
rooms cannot be procured from gardens, they muſt be planted.--The difficulty of managing muſhroom-beds
looked for in rich paſtures during the nonths of Au. is, to keep them always in a proper degree of moiſture.
guſt and September: the ground muſt be opened about In the ſummer ſeaſon they may be uncovered to re-
their roots, where it is frequently found full of ſmall ceive gentle ſhowers of rain at proper times and in
white knots; which are the off-ſets, or young mukh- long dry ſeaſons the beds ſhould now and then be
rooms. Theſe muſt be carefully gataered in lumps, watered, but much wet ought by no means to be ſuf-
with the earth about them : but as this ſpawn cannot fered to come to them. During the winter ſeaſon they
be found in the paſture, except at that ſeaſon when the muſt be kept as dry as poſſible, and ſo cloſely covered
muſhrooms are naturally produced, it may be ſearched as to keep out cold. In froſty, or very cold weather,
for at any time in old dung-bills, eſpecially where there if ſome warm litter, ſhaken out of a dung-heap, is laid
has been much litter, and it hath not been penetrated on, the growth of the muſhroonis will be promoted :
by wet ſo as to rot : it may alſo be found very often but betwixt this and the bed, a covering of dry litter
in old hot-beds ; or it may be procured by mixing muſt be interpoſed; which ſhould be renewed as it de-
ſome long dung from the ſtable, which has not been cays; and, as the cold increaſes, the covering muſt be
thrown on a heap to ferment, with ſtrong earth, and thickened. By attending to theſe directions, plenty of
put under cover to prevent wet getting to it. The
muſhrooins may be produced all the year round. One
ſpawn commonly appears in about two months after bed will continue good for many months. For a pe-
the mixture is made : but proportionably ſooner the culiar, perhaps fabulous, method of producing mulh-
more effectually the air is excluded, provided the mix rooms, ſee the article LYNCURIUS.
ture is not kept ſo cloſe as to heat. Old thatch, or Phyſicians have diſputed much about the qualities
litter which has lain long abroad ſo as not to ferment, of muſhrooms; ſome conſidering them as a rich nou-
is the beſt covering. The ſpawn has the appearanc, riſhment, and perfectly innocent, when properly cho-
of white mould ſhooting out into long ſtrings, by which fen ; and others aſſerting them to be extremely dele-
it may be caſily known wherever it is met with.- The terious. Moſt of the fungi are indeed of a hurtful
beds for receiving the ſpawn are now to be prepared. quality; and, with reſpect to the whole tribe, the ef-
Theſe ſhould be made of dung in which there is plenty culent are very few. Efculent muſhrooms are very
of litter, but which ſhould not be thrown on a heap to nutritive, very readily alkalefcent, and more fo with-
ferment: that dung which has lain ſpread abroad for a out intermediate accícency than any other vegetable :
month or longer is beft. The beds ſhould be made on they are therefore a rich nouriſhment, and much dkin
dry ground, and the dung laid on the ſurface; the to animal food ; on which account they may be in-
width at the bottom ſhould be two and a half or three dulged in conſiderable quantity to ſtrong perſons. It
feet, the length in proportion to the quantity of mulh- requires,however,ſkill to diſtinguiſh this eſculentkind;
rooms deſired; then lay the dung about a foot thick, and very few, eſpecially of thoſe who are commonly
covering it with ſtrong earth about four inches deep. employed to gather them, viz. the ſervants, have ftu.
Upon this lay more dung, about joinches thick; then died Cluſius, or other authors who have been at the
another layer of earth, ſtill drawing in the ſides of the pains to diſtinguiſh them. Perhaps eſculent muih--
bed, ſo as to form it like the roof of a houſe ; which may rooms, if old, acquire a dangerous acrimony; and for
be done by three layers of dung, and as many of earth. theſe reafons Dr Cullen is of opinion that it is for the
When the bed is finiſhed, it muſt be covered with litter moſt part prudent to avoid them. In the warm cli-
or ola thatch, both to prevent its drying too faſt and mates they may be uſed as light food; but here it is
to keep out wet. In this ſituation it ought to remain prepoſterous to uſe them along with animal food, as
cight or ten days, when it will be in a proper tempe- they do not correct its alkaline tendency.
AGATE,
A GA
( 232 )
A GA
Agate.
tins, Αχατης,
1. ii. c. 95.
AGATE or ACHAT, (among the Greeks and La- cher *, on which was the repreſentation of a heroine
Agate.
and Achates, from a river in Sicily, on the armed'; and one in the chu ch of St Mark in Venice
* Ephem.
banks of which it was firſt found), a very extenlive ge- has the repreſentation of a king's head adorned with a
German,
nus of the ſemipellucid gems.
diadem. On another, in the inuſæum of the prince dec. i an. I.
Theſe ſtones are variegated with veins and clouds, of Gonzaga, was repreſented the body of a man with ohf. 151.
but have no zones like thoſe of the onyx. They are all his clothes in a running poſture. A ſtill more cu-
compoſed of chryſtal debaſed by a large quantity of rious one is mentioned by de Boot t, wherein appears a † De Gem.
earth, and not formed, either by repeated incruſtations circle ſtruckin brown, as exactly as if done with a pair
round a central nucleus, or made up of plates laid even of compaſſes, and in the middle of the circle the exact
ly on one another; but are merely the effect of one fim- figure of a biſhop with a mitre on : but inverting the
ple concretion, and variegated only by the diſpoſition ſtone a little, another figure appears; and if it is turn-
given, by the Auid they were formed in, to their dif ed yet further, tivo others appear, the one of a man,
ferently coloured veins or matters.
and the other of a wonian. But the moſt celebrated
Agates are arranged according to the different co agate of this kind is that of Pyrrhus, wherein were re-
lours of their ground. Of thoſe with a white ground preſented the nine muſes, each with their proper attri-
there are three ſpecies. (1.) The dendrachates, mocoa butes, and Apollo in the middle playing on the harp 1. & Pling,
ftone, or aboreſcent agate. This ſeems to be the ſame In the emperor's cabinet is an oriental agate of a fur- 1 xxxvii.
with what ſome authors call the achates with rolemary priſing bigneſs, being faſhioned into a cup, whoſe dia- C. 3.
in the middle, and others achates with little branches meter is an ell, abaling two inches. In the cavity is
of black leaves. (2). The dull, milky-looking agate. found delineated in black ſpecks, B. XRISTOR. S. XXX.
This, though greatly inferior to the former, is yet a Other agates have alſo been found, repreſenting the
very beautiful ſtone. It is common on the ſhores of numbers 4191,181: whence they were called arithme-
rivers in the Eaſt Indies, and alſo in Germany and tical agates, as thoſe repreſenting men or women have
ſome other parts of Europe. Our lapidaries cut it in obtained the name of anthropomorphous.
to counters for card-playing, and other toys of ſmall Great medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to
value. (3.) The lead-coloured agate, called the phalfa- the agate, ſuch as relifting poiſons, eſpecially thoſe of
chates by the ancients.
the viper, ſcorpion, and ſpider; but they are now very
Of the agates with a reddiſh ground there are four juſtly rejected from niedicinal pradice. The oriental
{pecies. (1.) An impare one of a fleſh-coloured white, ones are all ſaid to be brought from the river Gambay.
which is but of little beauty in compariſon with other A mine of agates was frome time ago diſcovered in
agates. The admixture of fleſh-colour is but very Tranſylvania, of divers colours ; and ſome of a large
Night; and it is often found without any clouds, veins, ſize, weighing ſeveral pounds.
or other variegations; but ſometimes it is prettily vein Agates may be ſtained artificially with ſolution of
ed or variegated with ſpots of irregular figures, ha- ſilver in ſpirit of nitre, and afterwards expoſing the
ving fimbriated edges. It is found in Germany, Italy, part to the fun ; and though theſe artificial colours
and
ſome other parts of Europe ; and is wrought into diſappear on laying the ſtone for a night in aquafortis,
toys of ſmall value, and often into the German gun- yet a knowledge of the practicability of thus ſtaining
flints. It has been ſome times found with evident fpeci. agates, muſt render thoſe curious figures abovemen-
mens of the perfect molles bedded deep in it. (2.) tioned ſtrongly ſuſpected of being the work not of na-
That of a pure blood colour, called hamachates, or ture, but of art. Some account for theſe phenome-
the bloody agate, by the ancients. (3.) The clouded na from natural cauſes. Thus, Kircher, who had ſeen
and ſpotted agate, of a pale fleſh colour, called by the a ſtone of this kind in which were depicted the four
ancients the carnelian agate, or fardachates. 4. The letters uſually incribed on crucifixes, I. N. R. I. ap-
red-leaa coloured one, variegated with yellow, called prehends that ſome real crucifix had been buried un-
the coral agate, or coralla-achates, by the ancients. der-ground, among ſtones and other rubbiſh, where
Of the agates with a yellowiſh ground there are on the inſcription happening to be parted from the croſs,
ly two known ſpecies; the one of the colour of yel- and to be received among a foſt mould or clay ſuſcepti-
low wax, called cerachates by the ancients ; the other ble of the impreſſion of the letters. camne afterwards to
a very elegant ſtone, of a yellow ground, variegated be petrified. In the ſame inanuer he ſuppoſes the agate
with white, black, and green, called the leonina, and of Pyrrhus to have been formed. Others reſolve inuch
leonterferes by the ancients.
of the wonder into fancy, and ſuppoſe thoſe flones
Laſtly, of the agates with a greeniſh ground, there formed in the fame manner with the Gamieux * or Flo. * See Ca-
is only one known ſpecies, called by the ancients juf- rentine ſtones.
pachates.
The agate is uſed for making cups, rings, feals,han-
Of all theſe ſpecies there are a great many varieties; dles for knives and forks,hilts for ſwords and hangers,
ſomeof them having upon them natural repreſentations beads to pray with, ſmelling boxes, patclı-boxes, &c.
of men and different kinds of animals, &c. Theſe being cut or fawed with no great difficulty. At Paris,
repreſentations are not confined to thc agaies wlioſe none have a right to dealin this commodity except the
ground is of any particular colour, but are occaſional- wholeſale mercers and goldſmiths. The ſword-cutlers
ly found on all the different ſpecies. Velchius had in are allowed to ſell it, but only when madeinto handles
his cuſtody a tieth-coloured agate, on one fide of which for couteaux de chaſſe, and ready to ſet in. The cutlers
appeared a half-inoon in great perfeétion, repreſented have the fane privilege for their knives and forks.
by a milky ſemicircle ; on the orher ſide, the phaſes of Conſiderable quantities of theſe ſtones are ſtill found
vefper, or the cvcning-flar; whence he denominated it near the river Achates in Sicily. There are found in
an aphrodiſian agate. An agate is mentioned by Kir- fome of theſe the ſurpriling repreſentations above-
micux,
I
inen-
A G A
[ 233 ]
Agate mentioned, or others ſimilar to thein. By a dexterous Leyden, 1594, i.1 410; and in Paris ai the king': piini- Agatho
0
management of theſe natural ſtairs, medals have been ing-houſe, 1660, in folio.
1)
Agathias. produced, which ſeem maſter-pieces of nature: for this AGATHO, a tragic and comic poet, difcivie to Agave,
ſtonc bears the graver well ; and as pieces of all man- Prodicus and Socrates, applauded in Plato's Dialogues
nitudes are found of it, they make all ſorts of work of for his virtue and beauty. His firſt tragedy rbtained
it. The high altar of the cathedral of Meſſina is all over the prize ; and he was crowned in the preſence of
encruſted with it. The lapidaries pretend that the In- upwards of 30,000 men, the 4th year of the go:lı
dian agates are finer than the Sicilian; but Father La- Olympiad. There is nothing now extant of liis, ex-
Voyage bar* informis us, that in the ſame quarries, and even in copt a few quotations in Ariſtotle, Athenæus, and
d'Ital.tom. the ſame block, thercare found pieces much finer than others
v, p. 156,
others, and theſe fine pieces are ſold for Indian agates AGATHOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, vás
in order to enhance their price.
ſon of a polier at Reggio. He was a thief, a common
AGATE, among antiquarics, denotes a ſtone of this ſoldier, a centurion, a general, and a pirate, all in a
kind engraven by art. In this ſenſe, agates inake a ſpe- regular ſucceſſion. He defeated the Carthaginians fc-
cies of antique geins; in the workmanſhip whereof 1 veral times in Sicily, and was once defeated himſelf.
find eminent proofs of the great ſkill and dexterity of He firſt made himſelf tyrant of Syracuſe, and then of
the ſculptors. Several agates of exquiſite beauty are all Sicily ; after which, he vanquilhed the Carthagi-
preſerved in the cabinets of the carions; but the facts nians again both in Sicily and Africa. But at length
or hiſtories repreſented on theſe antique agates, how. havingill ſucceſs,ar.d being in arrcars with his ſoldiers,
ever well executed, are now become ſo obſcure, and they mutinied, forced him to fy his camp, and cut
their explications ſo difficult, that ſeveral diverting the throats of his children, whom he left behind. Re-
miſtakes and diſputes have ariſen among thoſe who un- covering himſelf again, he relieved Corſou, beſieged
dertook to give iheir true mcaning.
by Caſſander ; burnt the Macedonian fleet ; returned
The great agate of the apothcolis of Auguſtus, in to Sicily ; murdered the wives and children of thoſe
the treaſury of the holy chapel, when ſent from Con- wbo had murdered his ; afterwards meeting with the
ftantinople to St Lewis, paſſed for a triumph of Joſeph. ſoldiers themſelves, he put them all to the ſword; and
An agate, now in the French king's cabinet, had been ravaging the ſea-coaſt of Italy, took the city of Hip-
Hift. Acad, kept 700 years with great devotion, in the Benedictine poniuni. He was at lengıfı poiſoned by his grandſon Ar-
R. Infcript. abbey of St Evre at Toul, where it paſſed for St John chagathus, in the 72. year of his age, 290 years before
tom. I, p. the Évangeliſt carried away by an eagle, and crowned Chriſt, having reigned 28 years.
*37.–344• by an angel; but the Heatheniſm of it liaving been
AGATHYRNA, or AGATHYRNUM, AGATHYRSA,
lately detected, the religious would no longer give it or AGATHYRSUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily; now
a place among their relicts, but preſented it in 1684 S. Marco ; as old as the war of Troy, being built by
to the king. The antiquaries found it to be the apo- Agathyrnus, ſon of Æolas, on an eminence. The
thcolis of Germanicus. In like manner the triumph gentilitious name is Agathyrneus; or, according to the
of Joſeph was found to bc a repreſentation of Germa- Roman idion, Agathyrnenfis.
nicus and Agrippina, under the figures of Ceres and AGAVE, the common American aloe : A genus of
"Triptolemus. Another was preſerved, from time im- the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs
menorial, in one of the moſt ancient churches of of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
France, where it had paſſed for a repreſentation of pa- the roth order, Coronarie. The characters are : There
radiſe and the fall of man; there being found on it two is no calyx : The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-
figures repreſenting Adam and Eve, with a tree, a ſer- shaped ; the border fix-parted, with lanced erect divi-
pent, and a Hebrew inſcription round it, taken froin fions : The ſiamina conliſt of fix erect filaments, longer
The third chapter of Genefis, “The woman ſaw that than the corolla ; the antheræ are linear, ſhorter thai
the tree was good,”' &c. The French academiſts, in the filaments, and verſatile: The piftıllum is an oblong
ftçad of our firſt parents, found Jupiter and Minerva germen; the ſtylus is filiform, the length of the itami-
reprcfented by the two figures: the inſcription was of na, and triangular ; the ftigma headed and triangular:
a modern date, written in a Rabbinical character, ve The pericarpium is an oblong triangular capſule, tri-
ry incorrect, and poorly engraven. The prevailing locular and three-valred: The feeds are numerous. Of
opinion was, that this agate repreſented ſimply the thisgenus, botanical writers enumerate eight ſpecies.
worſhip of Jupiter and Minerva at Athens.
Of the Americana,or great American aloe, the ſtems
AGATE, is alſo a name of an inſtrument uſed by generally riſe upwards of 20 feet high, and branch oui
goldwire-drawers; ſo called from the agate in the niid on every ſide towards the top, ſo as to form a kind of
dle of it, which forms its principal part.
pyrainid: the ſlender ſhoots being garniſhedwith green.
AGATHIAS, or, as lie calls himſelf in liis epi. iſh yellow flowers, which ſtand erect, and coine out in
grams, AGATHIUS, diſtinguiſhed by the title of Scho- thick cluſters at every joint : theſe make a fine ap-
iafticus, a Greek hiſtorian in the 6th century under pearance, and continue long in beauty ; a fuccellion of
Juſtinian. He was born at Myrina, a colony of the an new flowers being produced for near three months ini
cient Æolians, in Alia the leſs, at the mouth of the ri. favourable ſeaſons, if the plant is protected from the
ver Phythicus. He was an advocate at Smyrna. Tho' autumnal colds. The ſeeds do not ripei in England.
he had a taſte for poetry, he was yet more famous for It has been generally thought, that theſe plants do not
his hiſtory, which begins with the 26th year of Juſtic flower till they are 100 years old: but <his is a mil-
ìian's reign, where Procopius ends. It was printed takc; for the time of their flowerin, depends on their
in Greck and Latin, with Bonaventure Vulcanius's, at growth : fu't liat in hot countries, where they grow
VOL.I.
falt,
t
GS
AGE
[ 234 ]
AGE
Ago.
entrance.
It is a
Adge, faſt, and expand many leaves every ſeaſon, they will yielded her productions without culture ; men held all
Age.
flower in a few years; but in colder climates, where things in common, and lived in perfect friendſhip.
ilier groivih is low, it will be much longer before they This period is ſuppoſed to have laſted till the expullion
ſhoot up their ſtem. There is a variety of this ſpecies of Saturn from his kingdom. The ſilver age commen-
with ſtriped leaves, which are pretty common in the ced when inen began to deviate from the paths of vir-
Engliſh gardens. The other forts are ſo tender, that tue; and in conſequence of this deviation, their lives
they inuit conſtanıly remain in the love.
became leſs happy.. The brazei age commenced on a
ADGE, a city of France, in Lower Languedoc, farther deviation, and the iron age took place in confc-
in the territory of Agadez, with a biſhop's fee. The quence of one ſtill greater.
The quence of one ſtill greater.—A late author, however,
dioceſe is ſmall, bui is one of the richeſt countries in reflecting on the barbariſm of the firſt ages, will have
the kingdom. It produces fine wool, wine, vil, corn, the order which the poets allign to the four ages invert-
and ſilk. It is ſeated on the river Eraut, a mile and a ed; the firil being a time or rudeneſs and ignorance,
quarter from its mouth, where it falls into the gulph more properly denominated an iron than a golden age.
of Lyons, and where there is a fort built to guard its When cities and ſtates were founded, the ſilver age
It is well peopled ; the houſes are built of commenced, and lince arts and ſciences, navigation
black ſtone, and there is an entrance into the city by and commerce, have been cultivated, the golden age has.
ſour gates. The greateſt part of the inhabitants are
taken place.
inerchants or ſeamen. The public buildings are but In ſome ancient northern monuments, the rocky or
mean: the cathedral is ſmall, and 110t very handſome: Tony age correſponds to the brazen age of the Greeks.
the bithop's palace is an old building, but convenient. It is called rocky, on account of Noah's ark, which
The city is extended along the river, where it forms reſted on mount Araral ; whence men were ſaid to be
a little port, wherein ſmall craft may enter. Theie deſcended or ſprung from mountains: or from Delle
is a great concourſe of pilgrims and other devou pro- calion and Pyrrha reſtoring the race of mankind, by
ple to the chapel of Notre Dame de Grace
throwing tiones over their heads. The northern poets
little without the city, between which and the chapel allo llyle the fourth age of the world the aſher age,
there are about 13 or 14 oratories, which they viſit from a Gothic king Madenis, or Mannus, who on ac-
with naked feet. The convent of the Capuchins is well count of his great ſtrength was ſaid to be made of aſh,
built, and on the outſide are lodgings and apartments or becauſe in his time people began to make uſe of
for the pilgrims who come to perform their neuvaine weapons made of that wooj.
or nine days devotion. The chapel, which contains Among the Jews, the duration of the world is alſo
the image of the Virgin Mary, is diſtinct from the
diſtinct from the divided into three ages. 1. The feculum inane, or
E. Long. 3. 20. Lat. 43. 19.
void age, was the ſpace of time froin the creation to
AGE, in the moſt general ſenſe of the word, figni- Moſes. 2. The preſent age, denotes all the ſpace of
fies the duration of any being, from its firſt coming in- tiine from Moſes to the coming of the Melliah ; and,
to exiſtence to the time of ſpeaking of it, if it ſtill con 3. The age to come, denotes the time from the come.
tinues ; or to its deſtruction, if it has ceaſed to exiſt ing of the Meſſiah to the end of the world.
fome time before we happen to mention it.
Various other diviſions of the duration of the world
Among the ancient poets, this word was uſed for the into ages have been made by hiſtorians-- The Sibyl-
fpace of thirty years; in which ſenſe, age amounts to line oracles, wrote, according to fome, by Jews ac-
much the ſame with generation. Thus, Neſtor is ſaid quainted with the prophecies of the old I eſtament,
to have lived three ages when he was 90 years old. divide the duration of the world into ten ages; and ac-
By ancient Greek hiſtorians, the time élapſed ſince the cording to Joſephus, cach age contained lix hundred
beginning of the world is divided into three periods, years. It appears, by Virgil's fourth eclogue, and o-
which they called ages. The firſt reaches from the ere- ther teſtimonies, that the age of Auguſtus was repu-
ation to the deluge which happened in Greece during ted the end of thoſe ten ages, conſequently as the peri-
the reign of Ogyges; this they called the obſcure or od of the world's duration.
1!ncertain age, becauſe the hiſtory of mankind is alto By fome, the ſpace of time commencing from Con-
gether uncertain during that period. The ſecond they ſtantine, and ending with the taking of Conſtantinople
call the fabulous or heroic age, becauſe it is the peri. by the Turks in the 15th century, is called the muda.
od in which the fabulous exploits of their gods and he- dle age: but others chooſe rather to date the middle
roes are ſaid to have been performed. It began with age from the diviſion of the empire made by Theodo-
the Ogygian deluge, and continued to the firſt Olyn- ftus at the cloſe of the 4th century, and extend it to
piad; where the third or hiſtorical age commenced. the time of the emperor Maximilian 1. in the begin-
This diviſion, however, it muſt be obſerved, holds good ning of the 16th century, when the empire was firſt
only with regard to the Greeks and Romans, who had divided into circle.--The niddle is by Tome denoted
no hiſtories earlier than the firſt Olympiad ; the Jews, the barbarous age, and the latter part of it the loweſt
Egyptians, Phenicians, and Chaldees, not to mention age. Some divide it into the non-academical and acaa
the Indians and Chineſe, who pretend to much higher denical ages. The firſt includes the ſpace of time from
antiquity, are not included in it.
the 6th to the 9th centuries, during which ſchools or
The interval ſince the firſt formation of man has been academies were loſt in Europe. The ſecond from the
divided by the poets into four ages, diſtinguiſhed by the 9th century, when ſchools were reſtored, and univer-
epithets of golden, ſilver, brazen, and iron. During ſities eſtabliſhed, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne.
the golden age, Saturn reigned in heaven, and juſtice The ſeveral ages of the world may be reduced to three
and innocence in this lower world. The earth then grand epochas, viz. the age of the law of nature, called
by
covent.
AGE
[ 235 ]
AGE
4
Khige by the Jews the void age, from Adam to Moſes; the AGEMOGLANS, AGIAMOGLANS, or Azaro - Agema.
age of the Jewiſh law, from Moſes to Chriſt ; and GLANS, in the Turkiſh polity, are children purchaſed gians
li
from the Tartars, or raiſed every third year, by way
Agema. the age of grace, from Chrilt to the preſent year.
Agent.
AGE is alſo frequently uſed in the ſame ſenſe with of tribute, from the Chriſtians tolerated in the Turkide
centilry, to denominate a duration of 100 years. empire. Thoſe, after being circumciſed and inſtructed
Age likewiſe ligniſies a certain period of the du- in the religion and language of their tyrannical maſters,
ration of human life, by ſome divided into four ſtages, are learnt the exerciſes of war, till they are of a pro-
namely, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age ; the ber age for carrying arms; and from this corps the Ja-
firſt extending to the 14th year, the ſecond to the niſſaries are recruited. With regard to thoſe who are
25th, the third lo the 50th, and the fourth to the end thought unfit for the army, they are employed in the
ef life ; by others divided into infancy, childhood, loweſt offices of the feraglio. Their appointments alſo
youth, manhood, and old age.
are very ſmall, not exceeding ſeven afpers and a half
AGE, in law, lignifies a certain period of life, when per day, which amount to about threepence-halfpenny
perſons of both ſexes are enabled to do certains acts. Sierling.
Thus, one at twelve years of age ought to take the AGEN, a city of France, on the river Garonne, the
oath of allegiance to the king in a leet; at fourteen capital of Agenois in Gujenne, and the fee of a biſhop.
he may marry, chuſe his guardian, and claim his lands The gates and old walls, which are yet remaining, how
held in foccage. Twenty-one is called full age, a irani that this city is yery ancient, and that its former cir-
or woman being then capable of acting for theinſelves, cuit was not ſo great as the preſent. The palace,
of managing their affairs, making contracts, diſpoſing wherein the preſidial holds his fellions at this day, was
of their eſtates, and the like.
heretofore called the caſtleof Montravel, and is ſeated
Age of a Horſe. See Horse.
without the walls of the old city, and on the ſide of
Age of Trees, Theſe after a certain age wolte. the foſſe. There are likewiſe the ruins of another
An oak át an hundred years old ceaſes to grow. The caſtle called Lasagne, which was without the walls cloſe
uſual rule for judging of the age of wood, is by the by a brook. Though the ſituation of Agen very
number of circles which appear in the ſubſtance of a convenient for trade and commerce, the inhabitants
trunk or ſtock cut perpendicularly, each circle being are ſo very indolent that there is very little ; of which
ſuppoſed the growth of a year : though fome reject the neighbouring cities take the advantage. It is ſeat-
this method as precarious, alledging that a limple cir ed on the bank of the river Garonne, in a pleaſant
cle is ſometimes the produce of ſeveral years : beſides, country: but is itſelfavery mean and diſayreeable place,
that, after a certain age, no new circles are formed. the houſes being ill built, and the ſtreets narrow, crook-
Age-prier, in law, is when an action being brought ed, and dirty. E. Long. 0. 30. N. Lat. 44. I 2.
againſt a perſon under age, for lands deſcended to him, AGENDA, among philoſophers and divines, figni-
he, by motion or petition, ſhews the matter to the fies the duties which a man lies under an obligation to
court, praying the action may be ſtaid till his full age, perform : thus, we meet with the agenda of a Chri-
which the court generally agrees to.
fian, or the duties he ought to perform, in oppoſition
AGELNOTH, EGELNOTH, or ETHELNOTH, in to the credenda, or things he is to believe.
Latin Achelnotus, archbiſhop of Canterbury, in the AGENDA, among merchants, a term ſometimes uſed
reign of Canute the Great, ſucceeded Livingus in that for a memorandum-book, in which is ſet down all the
fee in the year 1020. This prelate firnamed the Good, buſineſs to be tranſacted during the day, either at
was the the ſon of Agilmer, and, at the time of his elec home or abroad.
tion, dean of Canterbury. After his promotion he AGENDA, among eccleſiaſtical writers denote the
went to Rome, and received his pall from Pope Bene- ſervice or office of the church.
ſervice or office of the church. We met with agenda
diet VIII. In his way thither, as he paſſed through matutina • veſpertina, “ morning and evening pray-
Pavia, he purchaſed, for an hundred talents of ſilver ers ;” agenda diei, “the ofiice of the day," whether
and one of gold, St Auguftin's arm, which was kept feaſt or faſt day ; agenda mortuorum, called alſo fimply
there as a relic ; and ſent it over to England as a pre- agenda, “ the ſervice of the dead.'
ſent to Leofric earl of Coventry. Upon his return, he AGENDA is alſo applied to certain charch-books,
is ſaid to have raiſed the fee of Canterbury to its for- compiled by public authoriiy, preſcribing the order
mer luſtre. He was much in favour with king Ca and manner to be obſerved by the miniſters and peo-
nute, and employed his intereſt with that monarch to ple in the principal ceremonies and devotions of the
good purpoſes. It was by his advice the king ſent church. In which ſenſe, agenda amounts to the ſame
over large ſums of money for the ſupport of the foreign with what is otherwiſe called ritual, liturgy, acalou-
churches ; and Malmſbury obſerves, that this prince ihii, miſſal, formulary, directory, &c.
was prompted to acts of piety, and reſtrained from ex AGENHINE, in old writers, fignifies a gueſt
ceſſes, by the regard he had forthe archbiſhop. Agels that has lodged at an inn for three nights, after
noth, after he had fat 17 years in the fee of Can which time he was accounted one of the family; and
terbury, departed this life the 29th of October, 1038, if he offended the king's peace, his hoſt was anſwer-
and was ſucceeded by Eadſius, king Harold's chap- able for him.
able for him. It is alſo written HOGENHINE and
lain.–This archbiſhop was an author, having written,
1. A Panegyric on the bleſſed Virgin Mary. 2. A AGENORIA, in mythology, the gooddeſs of con-
Letter to Earl Leofric concerning St Auguſtin. 3. rage and induſtry, as Vacinatras of indolence.
Letters to ſeveral perſons.
AGENT, in a general ſenſe, denotes any alive
AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a body of power or cauſe. Agents are either natural or moral.
foldiery, not unlike the Roman legion.
Natural agents are ſuch inaniinate bodies as have a
power
HOGENHINE.
Gg 2
AGE
( 236 )
A G E
#
extent.
!
1
Agent poirer to act upo: olher bodies in a certaia and deter as he came to the throne, he adviſed the Lacedæmo- sdgefileas.
ininate manner; as, gravity, fire, &c. Mloral agents, oni nians to be beforehand with the king of Perlid, who
Agefilaus, the contrary, are rational crcatures, capable of regula was making great preparations for war, and to attack
ting their actions by a certain rule.
hiin in his own doninions. He was himſelf choſen for
AGENT, is alſo uſed to denote a perſon intruſted with this expedition; and gained ſo many advantages over.
the management of an affair, whether belonging to d the enemy, that if the league which the Athenians and
ſucitty, company, or private perſon.
the Thebans forned againlt the Lacedæmonians had
AGE.TES 112 rebus, one of the ranks of officers in the not obliged him to return home, he would have car-.
court of the Conſtantinopolitat emperors, whoſe bile sied his vidorious arms into the very heart of the Per-
fineſs was to collect and convey the corn both for the fian canpirc. He gave up, liowever, all theſe triumphs
army and houſehold; to carry letters and meſſages from rcadily, to come to the fuccour of his country, which
court to all parts of the empire; to regulate couliers,and lie happily rclieved by his victory over the allies in Bæ-
their vehicles; to make frequent journeys and expcdi. otii. He obtained another near Corinth ; but to his
tions through the provinces, in order to inſpect any mu great mortification, the Thebans afterwards gained fe-
tions, diſturbances, or machinations tending that way, verall over the Lacedæmonians. Theſe misfortunes at
and to give early notice thereof to the emperor. firſt raiſed ſomewhat oía.clamour againſt him. He had
The agentes in rebus, are by ſome made ſynonymous been fick during the firſt advantages which the enemy
with our poſt-maſters, but their functions were of grcat gained; but as ſoon as he was able to act in perſon,
They correſpond to what the Greeks call by his valour and prudence he prevented the Tliebans
wupocopot, and the Latins veredaru.
from reapingihe advantagesoftheir victories; infomuch
There were various orders or degrees of agentes iiz That it was generally believed, had he been in hcalth at
rebus ; as, tribuni, primicerii, fenatores, ducenarii, br. the beginning, the Lacedæmonianswould have ſustained
archi, circitores, equites, tyrcnes, &c. through all which no l::les, and that all would have been loſt had it not
they roſegradatim. Their chief, who relided at Con been for his aſſiſtance. Il cannot be denied but he loved
(tantinople, was denominated princeps; which was a war more than.the intereſt.of his country required; for,
poſt of great dignity, being reckoned on a level with if he could have lived in peace, he had ſaved the Lace-
that of proconſul. They were ſettled in every part of dæmonians ſeveral loſſes, and they would not liave been
the empire ; and are alſo ſaid to have ſerved as inter- engaged in many enterpriſes which in the end contri.
preters.
bited much to weaken their power. He died in the
AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of third year of the 104th Olympiad, being in the 83th year
land allowed to each citizen. See AGRARIAN LAW. of his age, and 41ſt year of his reign. Agelilaus would
AGER PICINUS, or Picenum, (anc. geog.) a ter-
neverſuffer
any picture or ſculpture to be made of him,
ritory of Italy to the ſouth-eaſt of Umbria, reaching and prohibited it alſo by his will : this he is ſuppoſed .
from the Apennine to the Adriatic. The people arc to have done from a conſciouſneſs of his own deformity;
called Picentes (Cicero, Livy), diſtinct from the Picen for he was of a ſhart ſtature, and iame of one foot, ſo
tini on the Tuſcan ſea, though called by. Greek writers that ſtrangers uſed to deſpiſe him at the firſt light. His
Max svorivos. This name is ſaid to be from the bird Picus, fame went before him into Egypt, and there they had
under whoſe conduct they renioved from the Sabines, formed the higheſt idea of Agelilaus. When he landed
of whom they were a colony.
in that country, the people ran in crouds to ſee him ;
AGERATUM,BASTARD-HEMP-AGRIMONY: Age but great was their ſupriſe whenthey ſaw an ill-dreſſed,
nus of the polygamia æqualis order, belonging to the flovenly mean-looking little fellow lying upon the
fyngeneſia claſs of plants; and in the natural method graſs; they could not forbear laughing, and applied to
ranking under the 49th order, Gompofitæ diſcoid:s. The him the fable of the mountain in labour. He was,
characters are: The common calyx is oblong, with ma however, the firſt to jeſt upon his own perſon ; and fucli
uy ſcales. The compound corolla is uniform ; the co was the gaiety of his temper, and the ſtrength with
rollets hermaphrodite, tubular and numerous : the which he bore the rougheſt exerciſes, that theſe qua-
proper corolla is funnel-ſhaped; the border 4-cleft, and lities made amends for his corporal defects.
expanded. The ſiamina conſiſt of 5 capillary very ſhort extremely remarkable for plainneſs and frugality of his
filaments; the anthera is cylindric and tubular. The dreſs and way of living. “This (ſays Cornclius Nepos)
piſtillum is an oblong gerinen ; with a filiform ftylus, is eſpecially to be admired in Ageſilaus : when very
and two flender erect ſtigmata. There is no pericar. great preſents were ſent him by kings, guvernors, and
pium ; the calyx unchanged. The ſeeds are ſolitary, ſtates, he never brought any of them to his own houſe ;
oblong, and angular. The receptaculum is naked, con- liechanged nothing of the diet, nothing of the apparel
vex, and very ſmall. Of this genus there are three of the Lacedæmonians. He was contented with the
Species ; the conyzoides, the houſtonianum, and the fame, houſe in which Euriſthenes the founder of his
altifſimuin. All theſe are natives of warm climates. family had lived; and whoever entered there, could fee
The two firſt are annual plants, and conſequently can no ſign of debauchery none of luxury;but on the contra-
be propagated only by ſeeds; which, however, come ry, many of moderation and abſtinence ; for it was fur-
to perfection in England. The third ſpecies will niſhed in ſuch a manner, that it differed in nothing froin
bear the ſevereſt cold of Britain, but its ſeeds do not that of any poor or private perſon." Upon his arrival
in Egypt, all kind of proviſions were ſent to him ;
AGERATUM, or MAUDLIN. See ACHILLE. but he choſe only the moſt common, leaving the per-
AGESILAUS, king of the Lacedæmonians, the fumes, the confections, and all that was eſteemed moſt
fon of Archidamus, was raiſed to the throne notwith- delicious, to his ſervants. Agelilaus was extrenely
tanding the ſuperior claim of Leotychides. As foon fond of his children, and would often amuſe himſelf by
joining
He was.
riper in it.
AGG
Ć 237 )
A G H
1
Arga, joining in their diverſions : one day when he was ſur- now generally known by the name chanffers, or cauf:- Aggerhuys
Agger. Priſed riding upon a ſick with them, he ſaid to the ways.
!
perſon who had ſeen in him in this poſture, “Forbear AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the Aghrim.
talking of it till you are a father.”
province of the fame name. It is ſubject to Denmark,
AGGA, or AGCONNA, a Britiſi ſettlement on the and lituated in E. Long. 28. 35. and N. Lat. 59. 30.
gold-coaſt of Guinea. It is ſituated under the meri AGGERS-HERRED, a diſtrict of Chriſtianſand,
dian of London, in 6 degrces of N. Lat.
and a dioceſe of Norway. It conſiſts of three juridical
AGGER, in the ancient military art, a work of for- places ; namely, Aſcher, Weſt Barum, and Ager.
tification, uſed both for the defence and the attack of AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, a general name
towns, camps, &c. In which ſenſe it is the ſame with for all medicines of a glutinous or viſcid nature, which,
what was otherwiſe called vallum, and in later times ag- by adhering to the folids, contribute greatly to repair
gejluni; and among the modernis lines, ſometimes cava their loſs.
liers, terraſs &c. The agger was uſually a bank, or AGGLUTINATION, in a general ſenſe, denotes
elevation of earth or other matter, bound and ſupports the joining two or more things together, by means of a.
ed with timber ; having ſometimes turrets on the top, proper glue or cement.
wherein the workmen, engineers, and ſoldiery, were AGGLUTINATION, among phyſicians, implies the
placed. It was alſo accompanied with a ditch, which action of reuniting the parts of a body, ſeparated by a
ferved as its chief defence. The uſual materials of wound, cut, &c. It is alſo applied to the adion of
which it was made were earth,boughs, faſcines, ſtakes, ſuch internal medicines as are of an agglutinating qua-
and even trunks of trees, ropes, &c. variouſly croſſed, lity, and which, by giving a glutinous contiſtence to
and interwoven ſomewhatin the figureofſtars; whence the animal-Huids,render them more proper for nouriſh-
they were called fellati axes, Where theſe were want- ing the body.
ing, ſtones, bricks, tiles, ſupplied the office : on ſome AGGREGATE, in a general ſenſe, denotes the fum
occaſions, arms, utenſils, pack-ſaddles, were thrown in of ſeveral things added together, or the collection of.
to fill it up.
We even read of aggers formed of the thein into one whole. Thus, a houſe is an aggregate.
carcaſes of the ſlain ; ſometimes of dead bones mixed of ſtones, wood, mortar, &c. It differs from a mixed
with lime ; and even with the heads of flaughtered ci or compound, inaſmuch as the union oftheſe lait is more
tizens. For want of due binding, or ſolid materials, intimate than between the parts of an aggregate.
aggers have ſometimes tumbled down, with infinité AGGREGATE, in botany, is a term uſed to expreſs
miſchief to the men. The beſiegers uſed to carry on
thoſe flowers, which are coni poſed of parts or florets,
a work of this kind nearer and nearer towards the fo united by means either of the receptacle or calyx,
place, till at length they reached the very wall. The that no one of them can be taken away without de-
inethods taken, on the other ſide, to defeat them, were ſtroying tlie form of the whole. They are oppoſed to
by fire, eſpecially if the agger were of wood ; by ſap- fimple powers, which have no ſuch common part, and
ping and undermining, if of earth ; and, in ſome caſes, are nſually divided into ſeven kinds, viz. the aggregate,
by erecting a counter agger.
properly ſo called, whoſe receptacle is dilated, and
The height of the agger was frequently equal to that whoſe forets are ſupported by fuot-ſtalks ; ſuch are
of the wall of the place. Cæſar tells us of one he made, the blue daiſy, thrift, or ſea-pink, &c. ; the compound;
that was zo feet high and 330 fcet broad. Belides the umbellatı; the cinofe; the amentaceous; the gl1-
the uſe of aggers before towns, the generals uſed to mofe; and the ſpadiceous,
fortify their camps with ſuch works; for want of this AGGREGATION, in phyſics, a ſpecies of union
precaution, armies have often been ſurpriſed and whereby.ſeveral things which have 110 natural depene.
ruined.
dence or connection with one another are collected to-
There were vaſtaggers made in towns and places on gether, ſo as in ſome ſenſe to conſtitue one. Thus, a
the ſea-lide, fortified with towers, caſtles, &c. Thoſe heap of ſand, or a maſs of ruins, are bodics by aggrc-
made by Cæſar and Pompey at Brundufium, are fa- gation.
mous. Sometimes aggers were even built acroſs arms AGHER, a torn of Ireland, which ſends two mem-
of the ſea, lakes, and moraſſes; as was done by Alex- bers to parliament. It is ſituated in the ſouthern part
der beforc Tyre, and by M. Anthony and Caflius.- of Ulfter, not far from Clogher.
The wall of Severus, in the north of England, may be AGHRIN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
conſidered as a grand agger, to which belong ſeveral Wicklow, and province of Leinſter, litaated about 13-
lefler ones.
See SEVERUS'S Wall.
miles ſouth weſt of Wicklow.
AGGER, in ancient writers, likewiſe denotes the AGHRIM, in Galway; a ſmall village, diftant about
middle part of a military road, raiſed into a ridge, with 21 miles from Dublin, and rendered memorable by 2,
a gentle ſlope on either ſide, to make a drain for the - decilive battle fought there, and at Kilcommodlon-hill,,
water, and keep the way dry.
the 12th of July 1691, between general Ginchle and
The terın is alſo uſed for the whole road, or military Monſieur St Ruth, the commanders under king Wil-
way. Where highways were to be made in low grounds, liam III. and James II, when St Ruth, the general of
as between two hills, the Romans uſed to raiſe them the Iriſh army, with 7cco of his meni, vere ilain; buc
above the adjacent land, ſo as to make them on a level of the Englith only 6oo. The vicory was the more
with the hills. Theſe banks they called aggeres. Ber- conſiderable, as the Engliſh army contífted of no more
gier mentions ſeveral in Gallia Belgica, which were than 18,000 men ; whereas the Iriſh were computed at
thus raiſed ten, fifteen, or twenty feet above ground. 20,000 foot and sooo horſe and dragoons. They loſt
They are ſometiines alſo called aggeres calceati; and likewiſe nine pieces of braſs cannon; all their ammunias
tien,
( 238 )
AGI
Agiades tion, tonts and baggage ; moſt of their smell arms, Henry, with ſome of his beſt officers, carefully exa- Ayincourt.
which thçy ihrow away to expediic ticir right; with nined the ground, and pitched upon a ficld of battle,
A pincourt.
I fandarus, and 32 pair of colours,
admirably calculated to preferve a ſmall army fronı be-
AGIALES, in the Turkih armies, a kind of pio- ing ſurrounded by a great one. It was a gentle de-
necrs employed in fortifying camps, ſmoothing of clivity from the village of Agincourt, of fuflicient ex-
roads, and ihe like Onices.
tent for his ſmall arny, defended on each ſide by hedges,
AGILITY, an aptitude of the ſeveral parts of the trees, and bruſh-wood. Having placed guards and
body to motion. The improving of agility was one of kindled fires on all ſides, the king and his army be took
the chief objects of the iuſtitution of games and exer themſelves to reſt; except ſuch as were of a more ſe-
ciſes. The athleia made particular profeſlion of the rious turn of mind, and, conſidering that as the laſt
ſcience of cultivating and improving agility. Agility night of their lives, ſpeil it devotion.
of body is often ſuppoſed peculiar to ſome people ; yet The French, exulting in their numbers, confident of
it ſeems leſs owing to any thing peculiar in their frame victory, and abounding in proviſions, ſpent the night
and ſtructure, than to practice.
in noiſy feſtivity, and in forming fanciful ſchemes a-
AGINCOURT, a village of the French Nether bout the diſpoſal of their priſoners and their booty,
lands, ſituated in E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 50. 35 ; fa It was in general reſolved to put all the Engliſh to the
inous on account of the victory obtuined by Henry V. (word, except the king and the chief nobility, who
of England over the French, in 1415.
were to be taken priſoners for the ſake of their ran-
The ariny of Henry, after landing in France, was fons.
by various accidents reduced to 10,000 men, of whom On the morning of Friday, the memorable 25th of
not a few were fict, or ſlowly recovering from fickneſs; October, A. D. 1415, the day of Criſpin and Criſpia-
-they had to traverſe a long tract of country, inha nus, the Engliſh and French armies were ranged in or.
bited by exaſperated enemies, from whom they were der of battle, each in three lines, with bodies of cavalry
to procure provilions, lodgings, guides, intelligence, on each wing. The Conſtable D'Albert, who com-
and every thing they wanted ; that country was de manded the French arıny, fell into the ſnare that was
fended by niany ſtrong towns, interfected by deep ri- laid for hiin, by drawing up his army in the narrow
rers, and guarded by an army of 100,000, or (accord- plain between the two woods. This deprived him, in
ing to ſome conteniporary writers) 140,000 men. a great meaſure, of the advantage he ſhould have den
Henry, undaunted by all theſe dangers and difficul- 'rived from the prodigious ſuperiority of his numbers;
ties, departed from Harfleur, marching his army in obliged him to make his lines unneceſſarily deep, about
three-lines, with bodies of cavalry on the wings. He 30 nien in file ; to croud his troops, particularly his
proceeded by very eaſy journeys, that he might not fa- cavalry, ſo cloſe together, that they could hardly move
tigue his troops, or diſcourage them by the appearance or uſe their arms; and, in a word, was the chief cauſe
of a fight; obſerving the ſtricteſt diſcipline, and pay- of all the diſaſters that followed.
of all the diſaſters that followed. The French, it is
ing generouſly for every thing he received; which in- faid, had a conſiderable number of cannon of different
duced the country people to bring proviſions to his fizes in the field; but we do not hear that they did
camp, in ſpite of all the commands they had received any execution, probably for want of roon. The firſt
to the contrary. To keep his men in ſpirits, and from line of the French army, which conſiſted of 8000 men-
xepining, the king fared as illas the meaneſt ſoldier, at-armis on foot mixed with 4000 archers, with 500
altrays appearing with a clearful countenance, and ad men-at-arins mounted on each wing, was commanded
dreſſing them in the moſt friendly and encouraging by the Conſtable D'Albert, the dukes of Orleans and
language. They arrived at the village of Agincourt, Bourbon, and many other nobles; the dukes of Alen-
in the county of St Pol, on the evening of October çon, Brabant, and Bar, &c. conducted the ſecond line;
24th; and there beheld the whole French army, at a
and the earls of Marte, Damartine, Fauconberg, &c.
{mall diſtance, directly in their route. The king took were at the head of the third line. The king of Eng.
an attentive view of it from an eminence; and being land employed various arts to ſupply hvis defect of num-
fully convinced that it was impoſſible to proceed any bers. He placed 200 of his beſt archers in ambuſh, in
further on his way to Calais without a battle, and e a low nieadow, on the flank of the firſt line of the
qually impoſlīble to return to Harfcur with ſo great an French. His own firſt line conſiſted wholly of archers,
army in his rear, he reſolved to hazard an action next four in file ; each of whom, beſides his bow and ar-
morning, as the only means of preſerving himſelf and rows, had a battle-axe, a ſword, and a fake pointed
his little army from deſtruction.
with iron at both ends, which he fixed before him in
The Engliſh army lodged that night in the villages the ground, the point inclining outwards, to protect
of Agincourt, Maiſoncelle, and ſome others; where him from cavalry ; which was a new invention, and had
they met with better accommodation than they had a happy effect. That he might not be-incumbered, he
been accufomed to for ſome time paſt, and ſpent part diſmiſſed all his priſoners, on their word of honour to
of their time in mutual exhortations to fight bravely in ſurrender themſelves at Calais, if he obtained the vic-
the approaching battle. The king, overhearing ſome tory; and lodged all his baggage in the village of A-
of his nobles expreſſing a wiſh that tlic many brave gincourt, in his rear, under a nender guard The
nien who were idle in England were preſent to aſſiſt command of the firſt line was, at his earneſt requeſt,
them, is ſaid to have cried oui" No! I would not coinmitted to Edward duke of York, alliſted by the
have one man inore:-if we arc defeated, we are too lords Beaumont, Willoughby, and Fauhope; the ſecond
inany-if it ſhall pleaſe God to give us the victory, as was conducted by the king, with his youngeſt brother
I truſt he will, the ſmaller our number the greater our Humphrey duke of Glouceſter, the earls of Oxford,
glory." The moon lappening to ſhine very bright, Marſial, and Suffolk ; and the third was led by thé
duke
AGI
( 234 )
A GI
Agio
Ayis.
Agincourt, duke of Exeter, the king's uncle. The lines being was inconſiderable: thoſe of Engliſh contemporary
forined. the king, in Mining armour, with a crown of writers who make it the greateſt, afiirm, that it did not
goldadorned with precious ſtones on his helmet, mount- exceed 100, and that the duke of York and the earl
ed on a fille white horſe, rode along them, and addreſ of Suffolk were the only great men who fell on that
ſed each corps with a cheerful countenance and ani- fide in this niemorable action.
mating ſpeeches. Toinflame their reſentment againſt AGIO, in commcrce, is a term chiefly uſed in Hol-
their enemies, he told them, that the French had de- land, and at Venice, to ſignify the difference between
cerinincd to cut off threc fingers of the right hand of the value of bank-ſtock and the current coin. The
every priſoner ; and to rouſe their love of honour, he agio in Holland is generally three or four per cent.
declared, that every ſoldier in that army who behaved and al Rome it is from 15 to 25 per cent, but at Venice
well, ſhould from henceforth be deemed a gentlemanl, the agio is fixed at 20 per cent.
and be intitled to bear coat-arınour.
AGIOSYMANDRUM, a wooden inſtrument uſed
When the two armies were drawn up in this man- by the Greek and other churches, under the dominion
ner, they ſtood a conſiderable time gazing at one ano. of the Turks, to call together aſſemblies of the people.
ther in folemn ſilence. But the king, dreading that The agiojiandrum was introduced in the place of
the French would diſcover the dangeroftheir ſituation bells, which the Turks prohibited their Cliriſtian
and decline a battle, coinmanded the charge to be ſubjects the uſe of, leſt they ſhould make them ſub-
founded, about ten o'clock in the forenoon. At that ſervient to fedition.
inſtant, the firſt line of the Engliſh kneeled down, AGIS, king of Lacedæmon, was deſcended from
and kiſſed the ground; and then ſtarting up, diſchar- Ageſilaus 11. in a right line. He projected the re-
ged a flight of arrows, which did great execution a- forination of his kingdom, by the reſtoring of the laws
mong the crowded ranks of the French. Inimediate- of Lycurgus ; bit he fell under the weight of an en-.
Jy after, upon a lignal being given, the archers in am- terpriſe that could not but be diſagreeable to all thoſe
buſh aroſe, and diſcharged their arrows on the flank of who had great poſſeſſions, and had been long accuſtom-.
the French line, and threw it into ſome diſorder. The ed to the ſweets of a voluptuous life. Agis being in
battle now became general, and raged with uncommon the slower of his age, and having a very refined deſire
fury. Tlie Engliſh archers, having expended all their of glory, practiſed the ancient diſcipline firſt in his
arrows, threw away their bows, and, ruſhing forward, own perſon : his clothes and his table were accord-
made dreadful havoc with their ſwords and battle-axes. ing to the manners of former times ; which is ſo
The firſt line of the enemy was, by theſe means, de. much the more to be admired, becauſe Ageſiſtrata
feated ; its leaders being either killed or taken priſon- his mother and Archidamia his grandınother had
ers.. The ſecond line, commanded by the duke D'A- brought him up volup:noully. When he founded
lençon, (who had made a vow either to kill or take the his people's minds, he found the younger fort oppo-
king of England, or to perish in the attempt), now fed his project leſs than thoſe who had enjoyed a
advanced to the charge, and was encountered by the relaxation of diſcipline ſeveral years. The greateſt
ſecond line of the Engliſh, conducted by the king. difficulty was expected to ariſe from the women. They
This conflict was more cloſe and furious than the for had at that time inore credit thau ever; for their
mer. The duke of Glouceſter, wounded and unhorſed, powerišnever greater than when luxury is in faſhion.
was protected by his royal brother till he was carried Ageſilaus's mother did not at all reliſh the propo-
off the field. The duke-D'Alençon forced his way to fed reformation. She muſt have loſt her riches, which
the king, and aſſaulted him with great fury; but that gave her a ſhare in a thouſand forts of intrigues ; ſu
prince brought him to the ground, where he was in- the oppoſed the delign at once, and treated it as a
ſtantly diſpatched. Diſcouraged by this diſaſter, the chimera. But her brother Agefilaus, whom Agis had
ſecond line made no more reſiſtance; and the third fled engaged in his intereſts, knew how to manage her in
without ſtriking a blow; yielding a complete and gló- ſuch a manner that the promiſe to ſecond the enter-
rious victory to the Engliſh, after a violent ſtruggle of priſe. She endeavoured to gain the women : but in-
three hours duration.
ſtead of ſuffering themſelves to be perfuaded, they ap-
The king did not permit his men to purſue the fu. plied to Leonidas the other king of Lacedæmon, and
gitives to a great diſtance, but encouraged them to take humbly befought him to frustrate the deligns of his
as many priſoners as they could on or near the field; collcague. Leonidas durſt not oppoſe it openly, for
in which they were ſo ſucceſsful, that, in a little time, fear of irritating the people ; to whom the reforma-
his captives were more numerous than. his foldiers. Á tion was agreeable, becauſe they found their account
great proportion of theſe priſoners were men of rank in it. He contented himſelf with countermining it by
and fortune; for many of the French nobleſſe being intrigues, and fowing ſuſpicions as it Agis had aſpired
on foot, and loaded with their heavy armour, could not to tyranny, by pulling down the rich and raiſing the
make their eſcape. Among theſe were the dukes of poor. Agis did not fail to propoſe his new laws to
Orleans and Bourbon, the marſhal Boucicaut,the counts the ſenate, relating to the diſcharge of debts, and a
D'Eu, Vendome, Richemont, and Harcourt, and 7000 new diviſion of the lands. Leonidas, being ſupported
barons, knights, and gentlemen. The French left dead by the rich, oppoſed this project foftrongly, that there
on the field of battle, che conſtable D'Albert, the three was one voice more againſt it than for it. He paid
dukes of Alençon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbiſhop of dear for his ſucceſs in this affair. Lyſander, one of
Sens, one marſhal, 13 earls, 92 barons, 1500 knights, the Ephori, who had been the grand promoter of the
and á far greater number of gentlemen, beſides ſeveral reformation, called him to account; alleged the celeſtial
thouſands of common ſoldiers. Even the French hi- figns;and putto death Cleoinbrotus,a princeofthe royal
ſtorians acknowledge, that the loſs of the Engliſh blood and ſon-in-law to Leonidas, to make ſure of the
kingdon.
AGI
[ 240 )
A G M
cgiſmert, hingdom. Icouijas being frightened at this look rc and are created by letters-patent. Each royal foreſt Agifymba
Agilor. fuge in a ten;le ; whither his daughter, ihe wife of has four agillors.
Cleombrotus, followed him. He was luminoncd : and AGISYIBA (auc. gcog.), a diſtrict of Libya 111- Agmen.
becauſe he did not appcar, lie was degraded of his dig- tcrior, according to Agatheniérus, ſituated to the ſouth-
nity, which was conferred on Cleonsbrotus. He o'y eaſt of the Æthiopes Anthropophagi ; the parallel paſ-
taincdicave to relicto Tegaa. The New Ephori had fing through which, at 160 to the ſouth of the equator,
Lyfander and Mandroclidas tried for innovation: theſe was the utmoſt extent of the knowledgc of theancicnts
pcrſuaded the two hings to unite and turn out there to the ſouth (Ptolemy).
deplori. The thing was brought about; but not with AGITATION, the act of ſhaking a body, or toſling
out a great uproar in the city. Agelilauis, one of the
Agetilaus, one of the it backwards and forwards.
Epliori that fuccecded thoſe who were juſt turned out AGITATION, in phyſics, is often uſed for an inteftine
would have cauſed Lconidas to be killed on the
way commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fermena
to Tegæa, if Agis had not ſent him a ſtrong guard. tation and efferveſcence are attended with a briſk agin
The reformation might then have been cſtabliſhed, if tation of the particles.
Ageſilaus had not found means to elude the good in AGITATionisone of the chief canſesorinſtruments
tentions of the two kings. Whilſt this was tranſact of mixtion : by the agitation of the parts of the blood
ing, the Achaians aſked aſſiſtance; which was given and chyle, in their continual circulation, fanguification
thein, and Agis had the command of the troops. He is in a good meaſure effected. Butter is made out of
acquired a good deal of reputation in this campaign. milk by the ſame means : in which operation, a fepa-
At his return, he found his aitairs to embroiled by ration is made of the oleous parts from the ferous, and
the ill conduct of Ageſilaus, that it was impoflible a conjunction of the oleous together. Digeſtion itſelf
for him to inantain himſelf. Leonidas was recalled is only ſuppoſed to be an inſenſible kind of agitation.
to Lacedæmon; Agis retired into the temple and AGITATION is Feruted one of the ſymptoms of in-
Cleomenes into another. Thc wife of the latter bea
Thc wife of the latter be- fpiration. Petit inforins us
ſpiration. Petit inforins us *, that, in the laſt century, * petit. de
haved herſelfin ſuch a manner that the became the ad- there aroſe in a church in Italy, for the ſpace of a year, Sybilla, l.i.
miration of every body. Leonidas was contented with a vapour of an extraordinary kind, which put all thé Nouv. Rep.
baniſhing his ſon-in-law; after which he applied him- people into trembling and agitations, and unleſs they Lett. tom.
ſelf entirely to the ruin of Agis. One of the Ephori, got away betimes, ſet them a dancing, with ſtrange
viii.p.1113
who had no inind to return what Agefiftrata had lent contortions and gefticulations. This ſeems to verify
him, was the principal inſtrument of the misfortune what has been related of the temple of Delphi.
of this ſamily. Agis never went out of his fanctuary AGITATION is alſo uſed in medicine for a ſpecies
bat to bathe. One day, as he was returning from of exerciſe popularly called ſwinging. Maurice prince
thence to the temple, he was ſeized by that Ephorus of Orange round this method a relief againſt the ſevere
and carried to priſon. Then he was brought to his pains of the gout and ſtone. Bartholine mentions firs
trial and condemned to death, and delivered to the of the toothach, deafneſs, &c. removed by vehement
executioner. His mother and grandmother uſed all agitations of the body.
the intreaty and importunity imaginable, that, as AGITATOR, in antiqnity, a term ſometimes uſed
was king of Lacedæmon, he might at leaſt be permit for a charioteer, eſpecially thoſe who drove in the cir-
ted to plead his cauſe before the people. But they cas at the curule games.
were apprehenfive left his words would make too great AGITATORS, in the Engliſh hiſtory, certain officers
an impreſſion, and therefore they ordered him to be ſet up by the army in 1647, to take care of its inte-
ſtrangled that very hour. The Ephorus who was in reſts.-Cromwelljoined the agitators,only with a view
debt to Ageſiftrata permitted that princeſs to go into to ſerve his own ends; which beingonce accompliſhed,
ihe priſon ; which he granted likewiſeto Agis's grand- he found means to get them aboliſhed.
mother ; but he gave orders to ſtrangle thein one after AGLAIA, the name of the youngeſt of the three
another. Ageſiftrata died in a manner that was "x Graces, eſpouſed to Vulcan.
tremely to her honour. The wife of Agis, who was AGLIONBY (John), an Engliſh divine, chaplain
a princeſs of grcat fortune and prudence, and one of in ordinary to king Jantes I. a man of univerſal learn-
the fineſt ladies in Greece, was forced away from her ing, wlio had a very conſiderable hand in the tranſla-
apartment by king Leonidas, and obliged to marry his tion of the New Teſtament appointed by king James I.
fon, who was then very young, and hardly fit for mar-
in 1604.
riage.
AGMEN, in antiquity, properly denotes a Roman
AGISTMENT, AGISTAGE, or AGISTATION, in army in march: in which ſenſe, it ſtands contradi-
law, the taking in other people's cattle to graze at fo ftinguiſhed from acies, which denoted the army in bat-
much per week. The terın is peculiarly uſed for the tlc array; though, on fomne occaſions, we find the iwo
taking cattle to feed in the king's forests, as well as words uſed in differently for each other. The Roman
for the profits ariling from that practice.--It is alſo armies, in theirmarches, were divided into primum ag.
liſed, in a metaphorical ſenſe, for any lax, burden, or men, anſwering to our vanguard; medium agmen, our
change ; thus, the tax levied for repairing thc banks main-battle ; and poftremum agmum, the rear-guard.
of Ronney-inarſh was called azıſtamentuin.
The order of their march was thus : After the firſt lig-
AGISTOR, or AGISTATOR, an oicer belonging nal with the trumpets, &c. the tents were taken down,
to foreſts, who has the care of cattle taken in to be and the baggage packed up; at the ſecond lignal, the
grazed, and levics llic moneys due on that account. baggage was to be loaden on the horſes and carriages;
ithcy' are geircrally called queſi-lakers or gift-takers, and at the third figual, they were to begin their march.
Firſt
3
A GN
[ 241 ]
A GO
1
1
5
Agnate Firſt came the extraordinarii ; then the auxilliaries of from all manner of accidents; to expel cvil ſpirits, &c. Arhus
tlie firſt wing, with their baggage ; theſe were follow. The name literally ſignifies Lamb of God; this being
Agnus. ed by the legions. The cavalry marched either on fuppoſed an image or repreſentation of the Lamb of Agonalis
.
each ſide or behind.
God who took away the fins of the world. They co-
AGNATE, in law, any male relation by the fa ver it up with a piece of ſtuff cut in form of a heirt,
ther's ſide.
and carry it very devourly in their proceſſions.--The
AGNEL, an ancient French gold coin, firſt ſtruck Romiſh prieſts and religious derive conſiderable pecu-
under the reign of St Louis, worth about twelve ſols niary advantage from ſelling theſe Agnus Deis to ſome,
fix deniers. The agnel is alſo called ſometimes mouton and preſenting them to others. The pope provides a
d'or, and agnel d'or. The denomination is ſuppoſed regular ſupply, by conſecrating once in ſeven years;
to have ariſen from the figure of a lamb, agnus, or they are diſtributed by the maſter of the wardrobe,
lieep, ſtruck on one ſide.
and received by the cardinals and other prelaies, with
AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its riſe great reverence, in their caps and mitres. This cere-
in the mountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, walhes mony they pretend to derive from an ancient cuſtom
the town of Acerra; and, paſſing between Capua and of the church, wherein part of the paſchal taper con-
Averſa, falls into the Mediterranean, about ſeven miles ſecrated on Holy Thurſday was diſtributed among the
north of Puzzuoli.
people, to perfume their houſes, fields, &c. in order to
AGNOETÆ (from «groew, to be ignorant of,) in drive away devils, and to preſerve them from ſtorms
church-hiſtory, a ſect of ancient lieretics, who main and teinpeits, The Agnus Dei is forbidden to be
tained that Chriſt, conſidered as to his human nature, brought into England under pain of incurring a pre-
was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the munire ; 13 Eliz. cap. 2.
time of the day of judgment. Eulogius, patriarch of Agnus Dei is alſo a popular name for that part of
Alexandria, aſcribes this hereſy to certain ſolitaries in the maſs wherein the prieſt, ſtriking his breaſt three
the neighbourhood of Jeruſalem, who built their opi. times, rehearſes, with a loud voice, a prayer beginning
nion upon the text Mark xiii. 32 “Of that day and
“Of that day and with the words Agnus Dei.-The Agnus Dei is ſaid
“ hour knoweth no inan, no not the angels who are to have been firſt brought into the iniſſal by pope Ser-
os in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only.”.
gius I.
The ſame paſſage was made uſe of by the Arians; and Agnus Scythicus. See Scythian LAMB.
hence the orthodox divines of thoſe days were induced AGOGE, among ancient muſicians, a ſpecies of
to give various explications thereof. Some allege, that modulation, wherein the notes proceed by contiguous
our Saviour here liad no regard to his divine nature, degrees.
but only ſpoke of his human. Others understand it AGON, among the ancients, 'implied any diſpute
thus, That the knowledge of the day of judgment or conteſt, whether it had regard to bodily exerciſes
does not concern our Saviour conſidered in his quality or the accompliſhments of the mind ; and therefore
of Meſſiah, but God only: which is the moſt natural poets, muſicians, painters, &c. had their agons, as
folurion.
well as the athletæ. Games of this kind were celebra-
AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth ted at moſt of the heathen feſtivals, with great folemnity,
or honorary name, given to a perſon on account of either annually, or at certain periods of years. Among
fome extraordinary action, virtue, or other accompliſh- the latter were celebrated at Athens, theagon gymnicus,
ment. Thus the agnomen Africanus was beſtowed the agon nemeus inſtituted by ihe Argives in the 53d
upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great Olympiad, and the agon Olympius inſtituted by Her-
atchievements in Africa. The agnomen was the third cules 430 years before the firſt Olympiad.--The Ro-
in order of the three Roman naines ; thus, in Marcus mans alſo, in imitation of the Greeks, inſtituted conteſts
Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the prænomen, Tullius the of this kind. The emperor Aurelian eſtabliſhed one
pomen, and Cicero the agnomen.
under the name of agorz folis the conteſt of the ſun
AGNUS, or LAMB, in zoology, the young of the Diocleſian another, which he called agon capitolinus,
ovis or ſheep. See Ovis.
which was celebrated every fourth year, after the inan-
Agnus Caftus, in botany, the trivial naine of a ſpe- ner of the Olympic games. Hence the years, inſtead
cies of the vitex. See VITEX. The Greeks call it of luftra, are ſometimes numbered by agones.
egy Qu, chaſte; to which has ſince been added the re Agon alſo ſignified one of the miniſers employed in
duplicative caftus, q.d.-chaſte chaſte. It was famous the Heathen ſacrifices, and whoſe buſineſsit was to ſtrike
among the ancients as a ſpecific for the preſervation of the victim. The name is ſuppoſed to have been derived
chaſtity. The Athenian ladies, who made profeſſion from hence, that ſtanding ready to give the ſtroke he
of chaſtity, lay upon leaves of agnus caftus during the aſked, Agon' ? or Agone? Shall I ſtrike ?
feaſts of Ceres.-Being reputed a cooler, and parti AGONALES, an epithet given to the SALII.
cularly of the genital parts, it was anciently uſed in AGONALIA, in Roman antiquity, feſtivals ce-
phyſic to allay theſe inordinate motions ariſing from lebrated in honour of Janus, or the god Agonis,
ſeminal turgeſcences : but it is out of the preſent whom the Romans invoked before undertaking any
practice.
affair of importance.
Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax AGONALIS CIRCUS, now La Piazza Navona, a
ſtamped with the figure of a lamb ſupporting the ban- long, large, beautiful ſtreet in the lieart of Rome, a.
ner of the croſs. Tlieſe being conſecrated by the dorned with fountains, and the obeliſk of Caracalla, ſtill
pope
with great folemnity, and diſtributed among the retaining the form of that circus. The reaſon of the
people, are ſuppoſed to have great virtues ; as, to pre name Agonalis is either unknown or doubtful. Ovid
ſerve thoſe who carry them worthily, and with faith, ſeems to derive it from the agones, or folemn games,
Vol. I.
Hh
there
3
AGO
( 242 ]
A G R
MUS.
ajoy
i
Agonifma there celebrated ; fuppoſed to have been the Ludi Apolo ranomi, at Athens, were ten in number, five belong- Agouti
1 linares, or détaci, initituted by Auguſtus; whence ing to the city, and as many to the Piræus ; though 1
Agorano- the circus was called Apollinaris; allo Alexandrinus, others make them fifteen in all, of whom they affign Agricola
.
from the emperor Alexander Severus, who either en ten to the city. To theſe a certain toll or tribute was
cloſed or repaired ihe circus.
paid, by all who brought any thing to ſell in the
AGONISMA, in antiquity, denotes the prize given market.
to the vicior in any coinbat or diſpute.
AGOUTI, or AGUTI. See Mus.
AGONISTARCHA, from aywy 66 combat,” and AGRA, the capital down of a province of the ſame
αρχος schief,” in antiquity, ſeems to have been much name, in Indoftan, and in the dominions of the Great
the fame with agunotheta ; though tome ſuggeſt a dif. Mogul. It is looked upon as the largest city in theſe
ference, making it the office of the former to preſide paris, and is in the form of a half-moon. A nan on
at and direct the private exerciſes of the athleræ, which horſeback can hardly ride round it in a day. It is ſur-
they went through by way of practice, before they rounded with a wall of red ſtone, and with a ditch 100
made their appearance on the public theatres or am feet wide. The palace is prodigiouſly large, and the
phitlıcatres.
ſeraglio commonly contains above 1000 women. There
AGONISTICI, in church-hiſtory, a name given by are upwards of 800 baths in this town ; bur that which
Donatus to ſuch of his diſciples as he ſeni to fairs, travellers molt admire, is the mauſoleum of one of the
markets, and other public places, to propagate his doc- Mogul's wives, which was 20 years in building. The
trine; for which reaſon they were alſo called Circui- indigo of Agra is the moſt valuable of all that comes
tores, Corcelliones, Gatropite, Goropitæ, and at Rome from the Eaſt Indies. This town is ſeated on the river
Montenfes. They were called Agoniſtici, from the Greek Jemma, about 50 miles above its confluence with the
« combat," in regard they were ſent as it were lo Tehemel, and is 300 miles N. E. of Sural. E. Long.
fight and ſubdue the people to their opinions.
79. 12. N. 26. 29.
AGONIUM, in Roman antiquity, was uſed for the AGRARIAN LAWS, aniong the Romans, thoſe
day on which the rex ſacrorum ſacrificed a victim, as relating to the diviſion and diſtribution of lands of
well as for the place where the games were celebrated, which there were a great number ; but that called the
otherwiſe called ag011.
Agrarian Law, by way of eninence, was publiſhed by
AGONOTHETA, or AGONOTHETES, in Grecian Spurius Caſſius, about the year of Rome 268, for di-
antiquity, was the preſident or ſuperintendant of the viding the conquered lands equally among all the citi-
ſacred games; who not only defrayed the expence at zens, and limiting the number of acres which each
tending them, but inſpected the manners and diſcipline citizen might enjoy. The Roman lands were of feve-
of the athletæ, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. ral kinds; fome conquered from the enemies, and not
AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alſo uſed for yet brought to the public account; others brought in-
the pangs of death. Much of the terror of death con deed to the public, but clandeſtinely uſurped by pri-
fiſts in the pangs and convulſions wherewith the agony vate great inen; laſtly, others purchaſed with the
íeens attended; though we have reaſon to believe that public money, in order to be divided. Agrarian laws,
the pain in ſuch caſes is ordinarily not extremely acute; either for dividing lands taken from the eneny, or the
a courſe of pain and ſickneſs having uſually ſtupified public lands, or thoſe purchaſed with the public mo-
and indiſpoſed the nerves for any quick ſenſations. ney, were eaſily paſſed with diſturbance; but thoſe
However, various means have been thought of for mi. whereby private rich men were to be deprived of their
tigating the agony of death. Lord Bacon conſiders lands, and the common people put in poilellion of
this as part of the province of a phyſician ; and that what had been held by the nobility, were never at-
not only when ſuch a mitigation niay tend to a recove tempted without great diſturbances.
ry, but alſo when, there being no further hopes of a Several have pleaded for the neceſfiiy of agrarian
recovery, it can only tend to make the paſſage out of laws in England: but no author has entered ſo deeply
liſe more calm and eafy. Complacency in death, which into the ſubject as Mr Harrington in his Oceana ; which
Auguſtus ſo much deſired, is certainly no ſmall part of the reader who chooſes may confult.
happineſs. Accordingly the author laſt cited ranks AGREDA; a town of Spain, in Old Caſtile, near
euthanaſia, or the art of dying eaſily, among the de- the frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues
ſiderara of ſcience ; and does not even ſeem to diſap- fouth-weſt of Taracon.
prove of the courſe Epicurus took for that end,
AGRIA, called by the Germans Eger, is a ſmall
Hinc flygias ebrius haufit aquas.
but ſtrong town in Upper Hungary, and is a biſhop's
Opium lias been applied for this purpoſe, with the ap- fee. It is ſituated on a river of the ſame name, and
plauſe of ſoine, but the condemnation of more.
has a citadel called Eriaw. It was belieged by the
AGONYCLITÆ, or AGONYCLITES, in church- Turks in 1552, with 70,000 men : but they loft' 8000
hiſtory, a fee of Chriſtians, in the 7th century, who in one day; and were obliged to raiſe the fiege, though
prayed always ſtanding, as thinking it unlawful to the garriſon conſiſted only of 2000 Hungarians, aſſiſt-
kneel.
ed by the women, who performed wonders on this
AGORÆUS, in heathen antiquity, an appellation occaſion. However, it was afterwards taken by Ma-
given to ſuch deities as had ſtatues in the market-place; homet III. in 1596; but was relaken by the emperor
particularly Mercury, whoſe ſtatue was to be ſeen in in 1687 ; ſince which time it has continued under the
almoſt every public place
dominion of the houſe of Auſtria. It is 47 miles north-
AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a magi eaſt of Buda, and 55 ſouth-weſt of Caſſovia. E. Long.
ſtrate of Athens, who had the regulation of weights 20. 10. N. Lat. 48. 10.
and meaſures, the prices of proviſions, &c.-The ago AGRICOLA, (Cnens Junjus), born at Frejus in
Pro-
1
A G R
( 243 )
A GR
i
Si nos,
Agricola. Provence, was, in Veſpaſian's time, made lieutenant to AGRICOLA (George), a German phyſician, famois Agricola.
- Vetrius Bolanus in Britain; and, upon bis return, was for his ſkill in metals. He was born at Glaucha,
ranked by that emperor among the patricians, and made in Miſnia, the 24th of March 1492. The diſcoveries
governor of Aquitania. This poſt he held three years; which he made in the mountains of Bohemia, gave
and upon his return he was choſen conſul, and after him ſo great a deſire of examining accurately into e-
wards appointed governor of Britain, where he greatly very thing relating to metals, that though he had en.
diſtinguiſhed himſelf. He reformed many abuſes oc gaged in the practice of phyſic at Joachimſtal by ad-
caſioned by the avarice or negligence of former gover vice of his friends, he ſtill proſecuted his ſtudy of fofo
nors, put a ſtop to extortion, and cauſed jaltice to be ſils with great affiduity; and at length removed to
impartially adminiſtered. Veſpaſian dying about this Chemnitz, where he entirely devoted himſelf to this
time, his ſon Titus, knowing the great merit of Agri- ſtudy. He ſpent in purſuit of it the penſion he had of
cola, continued him in the government.
In the Maurice duke of Saxony, and part of his own eſtate
ſpring, he marched towards the north, where he made ſo that be reaped mere reputation than profit from his
ſome new conqueſts, and ordered forts to be built for labours. He wrote ſeveral pieces upon this and other
the Romans to winter in. He ſpent the following win- ſubjects; and died at Chemnitz the 21ſt of November
ter in concerting ſchemes to bring the Britons to con 1555, a very firm Papiſt.
In his younger years he
forin to the Roman cuſtoms. He thought the beſt way ſeemed not averſe to the Proteſtant doctrine; and he
of diverting them from riling and taking arms, was to highly diſapproved of the ſcandalous traffic of indul-
ſoften their rough manners, by propoſing to them new gences, and ſeveral other things in the church of
kinds of pleaſure, and inſpiring them with a deſire of Rome. The following lines of his were pofted up in
imitating the Ronan manners. Soon after this, the the itreets of Zwickaw, in the year 1719 •
country was adorned with inagnificent teinples, porti-
cos, baths, and many other fine buildings. The Britiſh Si nos injecto ſalvebit ciſtula nummo,
nobles had at length their fons educated in learning; and
Heu nimium infelix tu mibi, pauper, eris !
Chrifte, tua fervatos morte beaſti,
they who before had the utmoſt averſion to the Roman
Tam nibil infelix tu mihi, pauper, cr15.
language, now began to ſtudy it with great afſiduity
If wealth alone ſalvation can procure,
they wore likewiſe the Roman habit ; and, as Tacitus
How fad a ſtate for ever waits the poor!
obſeryes, they were brought to conſider thoſe things as
But if thou, Chriſt, our only ſaviour be,
marks of politeneſs, which were only ſo many badges
Thy merits ſtill may bleſs ev'n poverty!
of ſlavery. Agricola, in his third campaign, advan-
ced as far as the Tweed ; and in his fourth, he ſub-
In the latter part of his life, however, he had
dued the nations betwixt the Tweed and the friths of attacked the Proteſtant religion, which rendered him
Edinburgh and Dunbritton, into which the rivers
ſo odious to the Lutherans, that they ſuffered his
Glotta and Bodotria diſcharge themſelves ; and here he body to remain unburied for five days together ;
built fortreſſes to ſhut up the nations yet unconquered. fo that it was obliged to be removed from Chem-
In his fifth, he marched beyond the friths; where he nitz to Zeits, where it was interred in the principal
made fome new acquiſitions, and fixed garriſons along church.
the weſtern coaſts, over againſt Ireland. In his fixth
AGRICOLA (John), a Saxon divine born at Illebe
campaign he paſſed the river Budotria, ordering his in 1492. He went as chaplain to count Mansfield, when
ficer, the firſt which the Romans ever had in thoſe that nobleman attended the Elector of Saxony to the
parts, to row along the coaſts, and take a view of the
diet of Spire in 1526, and that of Augſburg, in 1530.
northern parts. In the following ſpring, the Britains He was of a reſtleſs ambitious temper, rivalled and
raiſed an army of 30,000 men; and the command was
wrote againſt Melanchon, and gave count Mansfield
given to Galgacus, who, according to Tacitus, made occaſion to reproach him feverely. He obtained a pro-
an excellent ſpeech to his countrymen on this occaſion. fefforſhip at Wittemberg, where he taught particular
Agricola likewiſe addreſſed his men in very ſtrong and doctrines, and became founder of the ſeat of Antino-
eloquent terms. The Romans gained the victory, and mians; which occaſioned warm diſputes between him
10,000 of the Britains are ſaid to have been killed.
and Luther, who had before been his very good friend.
This happened in the reign of the emperor Domitian; But though he was never able to recover the favour ei-
who, growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recal ther of the elector of Saxony or of Luther, he recei.
led him, under pretence of making him governor of ved ſome confolation from the faine he acquired at Ber.
Syria. Agricola died ſoon after; and his death is
lin; when he became preacher at court; and was cho-
fufpected to have been occaſioned by poiſon given him ſen in 1548, in conjunction with Julius Phlug and
by that emperor. Tacicus the hiſtorian inarried his
Michael Heldingus, to compoſe the famous Interiin,
daughter, wrote his life, and lamients his death in the which made ſo much noiſe in the world. He died at
moſt pathetic manner.
Berlin in 1566.
A
G RI CU L T
U RE
Definition.
M
TAY be defined, The art of diſpoſing the earth in by this definition, agriculture, ſtriály ſpeaking, includes
ſuch a manner as to produce whatever vegetables in it the cultivation of every ſpecies of vegetable what-
we deſire, in large quantity, and in the greateſt perfec. ever, and conſequently comprehends all that is under-
tion of which their natures are capable. But though ſtood of gardening and planting, we mean here to con-
fine
HL 2
244
AGRICULTURE
Hiſtory.
mattcrs.
fine onrſelves to the cultivation of thoſe ſpecies of grain, nally unſkilled in agriculture; though as we know not
graſs, &c. which are generally neceſſary as food for the original inſtruments of huſbandry uſed by mankind
inen and beaſts,
when living in one ſociety, we cannot fix the date of
the improvements in this art. Different nations have
HISTORY. The anriquity of this art is undoubtedly beyond always been in a different ſtate of civilization ; and
thai of all others; for we are informed by Scrip. agriculture, as well as other arts, has always been in
ture, that Adam was ſent from the garden of Eden different degrees of improvement among different na-
to till the ground; and, this being the caſe, he certain tions at the ſame time.
ly muſt have known how to do ſo. It would be ridi From the earlieſt accounts of the eaſtern nations, we
culous, however, to imagine that he was acquainted have reaſon to think, that agriculture has at all times
with all the methods of ploughing, harrowing, fallow been underſtood by them in conſiderable perfection;
ing, &c. which are now made uſe of; and it would be ſeeing they were always ſupplied not only with the
equally ſo to ſuppoſe, that he uſed ſuch clumſy and neceſſaries, but the greateſt luxuries of life.
unartful inſtruments as wooden hooks, horns of oxen, As ſoon as the deſcendants of Abraham were ſettled
&c. to dig the ground, which were afterwards employ. in Paleſtine, they generally became huſbandmen, from
ed for this purpoſe by certain ſayages : but as we know the chiefs of the tribe of Judah to the loweſt branch of
nothing of the particular circumſtances in which he was the family of Benjamin. High birth or rank did
ſituated, we can know as little concerning his method not at that time make any diſtinction, for agriculture
of agriculture.
was conſidered as the moſt lionourable of all employ-
The prodigious length of life which the antedilu ments; witneſs the illuſtrious examples of Gideon,
vians enjoyed, muſt have been very favourable to the Sanl, and David.
advancement of arts and ſciences, eſpecially agriculture, The Chaldeans, who inhabited the country where
to which it behoved them to apply themſelves in a par- agriculture had its birth, carried that valuable art to a
ticular inanner, in order to procure their ſubliſtence. It degree of excellence unknown in former times. They
is probable, therefore, that even in the antediluvian cultivated their lands with great aſſiduity, and ſeem to
world, arts and ſciences had made great progreſs, nay, have found out ſome means of reſtoring fertility to an
might be farther advanced in ſome reſpects than they are exhauſted foil, by having plentiful harveſts in ſucceſſion ;
at preſent. Of this, however, we can form no judge on which account they were not obliged, as their pre-
ment, as there are no hiſtories of thoſe times, and the deceſſors had been, to change their fituations, in order
fcripture gives us but very ſlight hints concerning theſe to obtain a fufficiency for themſelves and their nume-
rous flocks and herds.
No doubt, by the terrible cataſtrophe of the flood, The Egyptians, who, from the natural fertility of
which overwhelmed the whole world, many ſciences their country by the overflowing of the Nile, raiſed
would be entirely loft, and agriculture would ſuffer; as every year vaſt quantities of corn, were ſo ſenſible of
it was impoſſible that Noah or his children could put the bleſſings reſulting from agriculture, that they aſcri-
in practice, or perhaps know, all the different methods bed the invention of that art to Ofiris. They alſo re-
of cultivating the ground that were formerly uſed. The garded Iſis, their ſecond deity, as the diſcoverer of
common inethods, however, we cannot but ſuppoſe to the uſe of wheat and barley, which before grew wild
have been known to him and his children, and by them in the fields, and were not applied by that people to the
tranſmitted to their poſterity: ſo that as long as man- purpoſes of food. Their fuperftitious gratitude was
kind continued in one body without being diſperſed in- carried ſo far, as to worſhip thoſe animals which were
to different nations, thearts,agriculture eſpecially, would employed in tillage ; and even to the produce of their
neceſſarily advance; and that they did ſo, is evident from lands, as leeks, onions, &c.
the undertaking of the tower of Babel. It is from the The divine honours paid to Bacchus in India were
diſperſion of mankind conſequent upon the confuſion derived from the ſame fource, he being conſidered in
of tongues, that we muſt date the origin of ſavage na that country as the inventor of planti ig vineyards, and
tions. In all ſocieties where different aris are cultiva the other arts attendant upon agriculture.
ted, there are ſome perſons who have a kind of gene It is alſo related of the ancient Perſians, on the moſt
ral kuowledge of moſt of thoſe practiſed through the reſpectable authority, that their kings laid aſide their
whole ſociety, while others are in a manner ignorant grandeur once every month to eat with huſbandmen.
of every one of them. If we ſuppoſe a few people of This is a ſtriking inſtance of the high eſtimation in
underſtanding to ſeparate from the reſt, and become which they held agriculture; for at that time arts were
the founders of a nation, it will probably be a civilized practiſed among that people in great perfection, parti.
one, and the arts will begin to flouriſh from its very cularly thoſe of weaving, needle-work, and embroidery.
origin; but, if a nation is ſounded by others whoſe in- The precepts of the religion taught by their ancient
telleets are in a manner callous to every human ſcience magi, or prieſts, included the practice of agriculture.
(and of this kind there are many in the moſt learned The faint among them was obliged to work out his
countries), the little knowledge or memory of arts that falvation by purſuing all the labours of agriculture :
were among the original founders will be loft, and ſuch And it was a maxim of the Zendaveſta, that he who
a people will continue in a ſtate of barbariſm for many fows the ground with care and diligence, acquires a
ayes, unleſs the arts be brought to them from other greater degree of religious merit, than he could have
nations.
gained by the repetition of ten thouſand prayers.
From this, or ſimilar cauſes, all nations of equal an. The Phenicians, ſo well known in ſcripture by the
riquity have not been equally ſavage, nor is there any name of Philiſtines, were alſo remarkable for the at-
Lolid reaſons for concluding that all nations were origi- tention to, and ſkill in agriculture. But finding them.
felves
Hiſtory
A G R I CU 1 T T U R E.
245
ſelves too much diſturbed and confined by the incur there the arts thrive ; but where the earth neceſſarily
fions and conqueſts of the Iſraelites, they ſpread them- lies uncultivated, there ihe other aris are deſtroyed."
ſelves throughout the greateſt part of the Mediterra Other eminent Greck writers upon agriculture
nean iſlands, and carried with them their knowledge were, Democritus of Abdera, Socraticus, Archytas,
in the arts of cultivation.
Tarentinus, Ariſtotle, and Theophraftus, from whom
Mago, a famous general of the Carthaginians, is ſaid the art received conſiderable improvements.
to have written no leſs than 28 books on the ſubject; The ancient Romans eſteemed agriculture ſo honour-
which Columella tells us were tranſated into Latin by able an employment, that the moſt illuſtrious ſenators
the expreſs order of the Roman ſenate. We are in. of the empire, in the intervals of public concerns, apa
forined by the ancient writers, that Ceres was born in plied then ſelves to this profeſſion; and ſuch was the
Sicily, where lle firſt invented the arts of tillage and ſimplicity of thoſe ages, that they aſſumed no appear-
of fowing corn. For this eſſential ſervice, the was, ance of magnificence and ſplendor, or of majeſty, but
agreeably to the ſuperſtition of thoſe ages, deified, when they appeared in public. At their return from
and worſhipped as the goddeſs of plenty. The truth the toils of war, the taking of cities, and the fubduing
of this is that in the time of Ceres, the iſland, through of hoftile nations, their greateſt generals were impa-
her endeavours and the induſtry of the people, became tient till they were again employed in the arts of cul-
very fruitful in corn; and agriculture was there eſtecm tivation.
ed ſo honourable an employment, that even their kings Regulus, when in Africa, requeſted of the ſenate to
did not diſdain to practiſe it with their own hands. be recalled, left his farm might luffer, for want of pro-
But time, which at firſt gave birth to arts, often per cultivation, in his abſence; and the ſenate wrote
cauſed them to be forgotten when they were removed him for anſwer, that it ſhould be taken care of at the
from the place of their origin. The deſcendants of public expence, while he continued to lead their ar-
Noah, who ſettled in Europe, doubtleſs carried their inics.
knowledge of agriculture with them into the regions Cato the cenfor, after having governed extenſive
which they ſucceſſively occupied. But thoſe who took provinces, and ſubdued many warlike nations, did not
poſſeſſion of Greece were ſuch an uncivilized race, that think it below his digniiy to write a Treatiſe on Agri-
they fed on roots, herbs, and acorns, after the man culture. This work (as we are told by Servius) he
ner of beaſts. Pelaſgus had taught them the culture dedicated to his own fon, it being the firſt Latin trea-
of the oak, and the uſe of acorns as food; for which tiſe written on this important ſubject; and it has been
ſervice, we are told, divine honours were paid him handed down to us in all its purity, in the manner that
by the people.
Caro wrote it.
The Athenians, who were the firit people that ac Varro compoſed a treatiſe on the ſame ſubject, and
quired any tincture of politerieſs, taught the uſe of corn on a more regular plan. This work is embelliſhed
to the reſt of the Greeks. They alſo inſtructed them
They alſo inſtructed them with all the Greek and Latin erudition of that learned
how to cultivate the ground, and to prepare it for the author, who died 28 years before the commencenient
reception of the feed. This art we are told, was of the Chriſtian æra. Virgil, who lived about the
taught them by Triptolemus. The Greeks ſoon per- ſame time, has, in bis Georgics, adorned this fub-
ceived that bread was more wholeſome, and its taſte ject with the language of the Muſes, and finely illuſ-
more delicate than that of acorns and the wild roots of trated the precepts and rules of huſbandry left by He-
the fields ; accordingly they thanked the gods for ſuch fiod, Mago, and Varro.
an unexpected and beneficial preſent, and honoured Columella, who flouriſhed in the reign of the em--
their benefactor.
peror Claudins, wrote 12 books on huſbandry, replete
As the arts of cultivation increaſed, and the blef- with important inſtruction.
fings they afforded became generally experienced, the From this period to that of the reign of Conſtantine
people ſoon preferred them to whatever the ravages of Poganatus, huſbandry continued in a declining ſtate;
conqueſt, and the cruel depredations of ſavage life, but that wiſe emperor cauſed a large collection of the
could procure. And accordingly we find, that the A. moſt uſeful precepts relating to agriculture to be ex-
tlienian kings, thinking it more glorious to govern a tracted from the beſt writers, and publiſhed them un-
ſmall ſtate wiſely, than to aggrandize themſelves, and der the title of Geoponics. It has been aſſerted, that he
enlarge the extent of their doininions by foreign con made this collection with his own hand; and the truth
queſts, withdrew their ſubjects from war, and moſtly of the aſſertion is not improbable, as it is well known,
employed them in cultivating the earth. Thus, by that after he had conquered the Saracens and the A-
continued application, they brought agriculture to a rabians, he not only practiſed and encouraged, but ftu-
conſiderable degree of perfection, and foon reduced it died the arts of peace, fixing his principal attention
on agriculture, as their beſt foundation,
Heſiod was the firſt we know of ainong the Greeks After the death of Conſtantine, however, the in-
who wrote on this intereſting ſubject. According to creaſing attention of the people to commerce, and the
the cuſtom of the Oriental authors, he wrote in poetry, ignorance and groſs fuperftition of the ages which ſuc-
and embelliſhed his poem with luxuriant deſcriptions ceeded, ſeems to have rendered agriculture an almoſt ne-
and ſublime imagery. He calls his poem Weeks and glected ſcience. The irruptions of the northern na-
Days, becauſe agriculture requires exact obſervations tions ſoon aboliſhed any improved ſyſtem. Theſe innu-
on times and reaſons.
merable and enterpriſing barbarians, who over-ran all
Xenophon has alſo, in his Oeconomics, remarked, Europe, were originally ſhepherds or hunters, like the
that agriculture is the nurſing mother of the arts, For, preſent Tartars and the favages of America. They con-
fays he, “ where agriculture ſucceeds proſperouſly, tented themſelves with poſſelling thoſe vaſt defarts made
by
to all art.
246
AGRICULTURE.
Hiſtory.
of Plin.
by their own ravages, without labour or tronble, cul Qut in a cart in great abbundance, he was to have the
tivating only a very ſmall ſpot near their habitations; uſe of the land for three years. Whoever cui down a
and in this trifling huſbandry only the meaneſt llaves wood, and converted the ground into arable, with the
were employed; fo thal the art itſelf, which formerly conſent of the owner, was to have the uſe of it for five
was thought worthy of the ſtudy of kings, was now years. If any one folded his catile, for one year, up-
looked upon as inean and ignoble ; a prejudice which on a piece of ground belonging to another, with the
is ſcarcely effaced at preſent, or at leaſt but very lately owner's conſent, he was allowed the uſe of that field
-During this period, therefore, we find 110 veliiges for four years.
of any thing toltrably written on the ſubjcct. No new Thus, though the Britons had in a great meaſure
attempts were made to revive it, or to improve it, lill loſt the kowledge of agriculture, they appear to have
the year 1478, when Creſcenzio publiſhed an excellent been very aſliduous in giving encouragement to ſuch as
performance on the ſubject at Florence. This rouized would attempt a revival of it; but, among the Anglo-
che ſlumbering attention of his countrymen, ſeveral of Saxons, things were not at preſent in fo good a ſtate.
whom ſoon followed his example. Among theſe, Tat Theſe reſtleſs and laughty warriors, liaving contrac-
ti, Steffano Auguſtino Gallo, Sanſovino, Lauro, and ted a diſtaſte and contempt for agriculture, were at
Tarello, deferve particular notice.
pains to enact laws to prevent its being followed by any
At what time agriculture was introduced into Bri. Other than women and llaves. When they firſt arri-
tain, is uncertain. When Julius Cæſar firſt invaded that ved in Britain, they had no occaſion for this art, being
iſland, it was nog wholly unknown. That conqueror ſupplied by the natives with all the neceſſaries of
was of opinion, that agriculture was firſt introduced by life. After the commencement of hoſtilities, the Sax-
ſome of thoſe colonies from Gaul which had ſettled in ons ſublifted chiefly by plunder : but having driven
the ſouthern paris of Britain, about 100 yerrs before out or extirpated moſt of the ancient Britons, and di-
* Cæſar de the Roman invaſion *.
vided their lands among themſelves, they found them-
Bell. Gall.
It is not to be expected that we can now be acquaint- ſelves in danger of ſtarving, there being now no ene-
lih. s.c. 12
ed with many of the practices of theſe ancient huf- my to plunder ; and therefore they were obliged to
bandmen. It appears, however, that they were not apply to agriculture.
unacquainted, with the uſe of manures, particularly The Saxon princes and great men, who, in the divi-
marle. This we have on the authority of Pliny t, who fion of the lands, had received the greateſt ſhares, are
Nat. Hiſt. telis us, that it was peculiar to the people of Gaul and ſaid to have ſubdivided their eſtates into two parts,
lib. 17.c. 6.
of Britain; that its effects continued 80 years ; and which were called the in-lands and the out-lands. The
that no man was ever known to marle his field twice, in-lands were thoſe which lay moſt contiguous to the
&c.—It is highly probable, too, that linne was at this manſion-houſe of their owner, which he kept in his
time alſo uſed as a manure in Britain, it being certain own poſſeſſion, and cultivated by his ſlaves, under the
ly made uſe of in Gaul for this purpoſe at the time of direction of a bailiff, for the purpoſe of raiſing provi-
Julius Cæſar's invaſion.
fions for the family. The out-lands were thoſe at a
The eſtabliſhment of the Romans in Britain produ- greater diſtance from the houſe, and were let to the
ced great improvements in agriculture, inſomuch that ceorls, or farmers of thoſe times, at very moderate
prodigious quantities of corii were annually exported rents. By the laws of Ina king of the wen Saxons,
from the iſland; but when the Roman power began to who reigned in the end of the ſeventh and beginning
decline, this, like all the other arts, declined allo, and of the eighth century, a farm conſiſting of ten hides,
was almoſt totally deſtroyed by the departure of that or plough-lands, was to pay the following rent; “ Ten
people. The unhappy Britons were now expoſed to caſks of honey; three hundred loaves of bread ; twelve
frequent incurſions of the Scots and Picts, who deſtroy- caſks of ſtrong ale; thirty caſks of ſmall ale; two
ed the fruits of their labours, and interrupied them in
oxen ;
ten wedders; ten gecſe; twenty hens;
the exerciſe of their art. After the arrival of the Sax- cheeſes; one caſk of butter ; five ſalmon ; tweniy pounds
ons in the year 449, they were involved in ſuch long of forage; and one hundred eels." From this low
wars, and underwent ſo many calamities, that the huf rent, the imperfection of agriculture at that time is
bandmen gradually loſt much of their ſkill, and were eaſily diſcoverable ; but it is ſtill more ſo from the low
at laſt driven from thoſe parts of the country which prices at which land was then fold. In the ancient
were moſt proper for cultivation.
hiſtory of the church of Ely, publiſhed by Dr Gale,
After the Britons retired into Wales, though it ap there are accounts of many purchaſes of lands by Ædel-
pears from the laws made relative to this art, that agri- wold the founder of that church, and by other bere-
culture was thought worthy of the attention of the le. factors, in the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, in the
gillature, yet their inſtruments appear to have been very tenth century. By a compariſon of theſe accounts it
unartful' 'It was enacted that no man ſhould undertake appears, that the ordinary price of an acre of the beſt
to guide a plough who could not make one ; and that land in that part of England, in thoſe tinies was no
the driver ſhould make the ropes of twiſted willows, more than 16 Saxon pennies, or about four ſhillings
with which it was drawn. It was uſual for fix or eight ſterling: a very trifling price, even in compariſon
perſons to form themſelves into a ſociety for fitting out with that of other cominodities at the ſame time, for, hy
one of theſe ploughs, providing it with oxen and every comparing other accounts, it appears, that four theep
thing neceſſary for ploughing; and many minute and were then equal in value to an acre of the beſt land,
curious laws were made
for the regulation of ſuch ſo and one horſe of the ſame value with three acres, The
cieties. If any perſon laid dung on a field with the frequent and deplorable famines which aflicted England
conſent of the proprietor, he was by law allowed the about this time, are further inſtances of the wretched
uſe of that land for one year. If the dung was carried ſtate of agriculture. In 1043, a quarter of wheat ſold
for
ten
Hiſtory.
A G GRICULTUR
R E.
247
from 60 Saxon pennies (15 ſhillings ſterling), and at About the year 1600, France made fome conſider-
that time equal in value to ſeven or eight pounds able efforts to revive the arts of huſbandry, as appears
ſterling at preſent.
from ſeveral large works, particularly Les Moyens de
The invaſion of the Normans, in 1066, contributed devenir Riche; and the Coſmopolite, by Bernard de
very inuch to the improvement of agriculture ; for, by Palifiy, a poor porter, who ſeems to have been placed
that cvent, many thouſands of huſbandmen from Flan by fortune in a ſtation for whith nature never intended
ders, France, and Normandy, ſettled in Britain, ob him; Le Theatre d'Agriculture, by Deferres ; and
tained eſtates or farms, and cultivated them after the L'Agriculture et Marfori Ruſtique, by Meſſrs Etienne;
manner of their country. The implements of huſban. Liebauli, &c.
dry, uſed at this time, were of the ſame kind with thoſe Nearly in the ſame period, the practice of huſbandry
employed at preſent; but loine of them were leis per became more prevalent among this people and the Fle-
fect in their construction. The ploagh, for example, mings than the publiſhing of books on the ſubject.
had but one ſtilt or handle, which the ploughman Their intention leemed to be that of carrying on a pri-
guided with one hand, having in his other handan in vate lucrative employment, without inſtructing their
ítrement which ſerved both for cleaning and mending neighbours. Whoever therefore became detirous of
the plough, as well as for breaking the clods. The copying their method of agriculture, was obliged to
Norman plough had two wheels; and in the light foil vill thar country, and make his own remarks on their
of Norinandy was commonly drawn by one or two practice.
oxen; but, in England, a greater number was often The principal idea they had of huſbandry was, by
neceſſary. In Wales, the person who conducted the keeping the lands clean and in fine tilth, to make a
oxen in the plough walked backwards. Their carts, farni reſemble a garden as nearly as pollible.
harrows, fcythes, ſickles, and fails, from the figures Such an excellent principle, at firſt ſetting out, led
of them ſtill remaining, appear to have been nearly of them of courſe to undertake the culture of ſmall farms
the ſame conſtruction with thoſe that are now uſed. In only, which they kept free from weeds, continually
Wales, they did not uſe a lickle for reaping their corn, turning the ground, and manuring it plentifully and
but an inſtrument like the blade of a knife, with a judiciouſly. When they had by this method brought
wooden handle at each end.---Their chief manure, next the foil to a proper degree of cleanlineſs, health, and
to dung, ſeeins ſtill to have been marle. Sumner fal- ſweetneſs, they chiefly cultivated the more delicate
lowing of lands deſigned for wheat, and ploughing graſſes, as the fureſt means of obtaining a certain pro-
thein ſeveral times, appear to have been frequent prac fic updil a finall eſtate, without the expence of keep-
tices of the Engliſh fariners in this period.
ing many draught horſes and ſervants. A few years
We are, after all, very much in the dark with reſpect experience was fufficient to convince them, that ten
to the ſtate and progreſs of agriculture in Great Bri acres of the beſt vegetables for feeding cartle, properly
tain previous to the fourteenth century. That it was cultivated would naintain a larger ſtock of grazing
pretty generally practiſed, eſpecially in the eaſtern, animals than forty acres of common farm grafs on
fouth, and midland parts of England, is certain ; but land badly cultivated. They alſo found, the beſt
of the mode, and the ſucceſs, we are left almoſt totally vegetables for this purpoſe were lucerne, faintfoin, tre-
ignorant. In the latter end of the fifteenth century, foil of all kinds, field turnips, &c.
however, it ſeems to have been cultivated as a ſcience, The grand political ſecret of their huſbandry, there-
and received very great improvement.
fore, conliſted in letting farms on improvement. They
At this time in England Fitzherbert, Judge of the are ſaid alſo to have diſcovered nine forts of manure;
Common-Pleas, ſhone forth with diſtinguiſhed emi but what they all were we are not particularly in-
nence in the practical parts of huſbandry. He ap. formed. We find, however, that marle was one of
pears to have been the firſt Engliſhman who ſtudied the the uſe and virtues of which appear alſo to have
nature of foils, and the laws of vegetation, with philo been well known in England two hundred years
ſophical attention. On theſe he formed a theory con. ago, although it was afterwards much neglected. They
firmed by experiments, and rendered the ſtudy pleaſing were the firſt people among the moderns who plough-
as well as profitable, by realizing the principles of the ed in green crops for the ſake of fertilizing the ſoil ;
ancients, to the honour and advantage of his country. and who confined their ſheep at night in large ſheds
Accordingly, he publiihed two treatiſes on this ſubject : built on purpoſe, the floors of which were covered
the firſt, intitled The Book of Huſbandry,appeared 1534; with fand or virgin earth, &c. which the thepherd
and the ſecond, called The Book of Surveying and In carted away each morning to the compoſt daughill.
provements, in 1539. Theſe books, being written at In England, during the civil wars, though the ope.
a time when philoſophy and ſcience were but juſt rations and improvements in huſbandry ſuffered ſome
emerging from that gloom in which they had long temporary checks, there flouriſhed ſeveral excellent
been buried, were doubtleſs replete with many errors ; writers on the ſubject, and the art itſelf received con-
but they contained the rudiments of true knowledge, ſiderable enco'iragement. Sir Hugh Platt svas one of
and revived the ſtudy and love of an art, the advantages the moſt ingenious huſbandmen of the age in which he
of which were obvious to men of the leaſt reflection. lived; ver ſo great was his modeity, that all his works,
We therefore find that Fitzherberi's books on Agri- except his Paradiſe of Flora, ſeem to be poſthumous.
culture foon raiſed a ſpirit of emulation in his country He held a correſpondence with moſt of the lovers and
men, and many treatiſes of the ſame kind fuccellively patrons of agriculture and gardenirg in England; and
appered, which time has bowever deprived us of, or ſuch was the juſtice and !nodeſty of his temper, that he
at leaſt they are become ſo very ſcarce as only to be always named the author of every diſcovery communica-
found in the libraries of the curious.
ted to him. Perhaps no man in any age diſcovered, or at
leaſt
them;
2
248
AGRICULTURE
Hiſtory.
leaſt brought into uſe, ſo many new kinds of manure. nobility, clergy, and gentry of that kingdom. In
This will be evident to thoſe who read his account of proof of this, it will be ſufficient to obſerve, that
the compoſt and covered dung-hills, and his judicious the Tranſactions of the Dublin Society for encourage-
obſervations on the fertilizing qualities lodged in ſalt, ing Huſbandry are now cited by all foreigners in their
ſtreet-dirt, and the ſullage of ſtreets in great cities, meinoirs relating to that ſubject. And the obſerva-
clay, fuller's earth, niooriſh earths, dung-hills made in tions of that diſcerning and judicious writer, Arthur
layers, fern, hair, calcination of all vegetables, malt. Young, Eſq; in his late Tour through that kingdom,
duit, willow-tree earth, ſoaper's alhes, urine, marle, ſhow, that in many reſpects improvements there have
and broken pilchards.
of late years made a progreſs nearly as rapid as in
Gabriel Plattes may be ſaid to have been an origi. England.
nal genius in huſbandry. He began his obſervations After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, moſt of the na-
at an earlier period, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, tions of Europe, by a ſort of tacit conſent, applied
and continued them down to the Commonwealth. But themſelves to the ſtudy of agriculture, and continued
notwithſtanding ihe great merit of this writer, and the to do ſo, more or leſs, amidſt the univerſal confuſion
eſſential ſervicehchad rendered his country by his wric that ſucceeded.
tings, the public ungratefully ſuffered him to ſtarve The French found, by repeated experience, that
and periſh in the ſtreets of London; nor had he a ſhirt they could never maintain a long war, or procure a to-
on his back when he died.
lerable peace, unleſs they could raiſe corn enough to
Samuel Hartlib, a celebrated writer on agriculture ſupport themſelves in ſuch a inanner as 11ot to be ob-
in the laſt century, was highly eſteemned and beloved liged to harſh terms on the one hand, or to perili by
by Milton, and other great men of his time. In the famine on the other. This occaſioned the king to give
preface to his work intitled His Legacy, he laments public encouragement to agriculture, and even to be
that no public director of Hofbandry was eſtabliſhed in preſent at the making of ſeveral experiments. The
England by authority; and that they had not adopted great, and the rich of various ranks and ſtations, fol-
the
Flemich method of letting farms upon improvement. lowed his example ; and even the ladies were candi-
This remark of Hartlib's procured himn a penſion of dates for a ſhare of fanie in this public-ſpirited and
L. 100 a-year from Cromwell; and the writer after commendable undertaking.
wards, the better to fulfil the intention of his bene. During the hurry and diſtreſſes of France in the war
factor, procured Dr Beatti's excellent annotation on of 1756, conſiderable attention was paid to agricul-
the Legacy, with other valuable papers from his nu. ture. Prize-queſtions were annually propoſed in their
merous correſpondents.
rural academies, particularly thoſe of Lyons and Bour-
The time in which Hartlib flouriſhed ſeems to have deaux; and many judicious obſervations were made by
been an xra when the Engliſlı huſbandry roſe to great the Society for improving agriculture in Brittany.
perfection, compared with that of former ages; for Since the concluſion of that war in 1763, matters
the preceding wars had impoveriſhed the country gen- have been carried on there with great vigour. The
tlemen, and of courſe made them induſtrious. They univerſity of Amiens made various propoſals for the
found the cultivation of their own lands to be the moſt advancement of huſbandry; and the Marquis de Tour-
profitable ſtation they could fill. But this wiſe turn billy (a writer who proceeded chiefly on experience)
was not of long continuance. At the reſtoration, had the principal direction of a Georgical ſociety eſta-
they generally became infected with that intoxication bliſhed at Tours.
and love of pleaſure which ſucceeded. All their in The ſociety at Rouen alſo deſerves notice ; nor have
duſtry, and knowledge were exchanged for neglect and the king and his minifters thought it unworthy their
diſſipation; and huſbandry deſcended almoſt entirely attention. There are at preſent about fifteen focieties
into the hands of conimon farmers.
exiſting in France, eſtabliſhed by royal approbation,
Evelyn was the firſt writer who inſpired his country for the promoting of agriculture; and theſe have twenty
men with a deſire of reviving the ſtudy of agriculture; co-operating ſocieties belonging to theni.
and he was followed by the famous Jethro Tull. The About this time vigorous exertions began to be
former, by his admirable treatiſes on earth and on made in Ruſſia to introduce the moſt approved ſyſtem
planting, and the latter, by ſhowing the ſuperior advan- of huſbandry whiclı had taken place in other parts of
tages of the drill-huſbandry, excited numbers to bring Europe. The preſent Empreſs has fent ſeveral gentle-
their theory to the teſt of fair experiment.
men into Britain and ocher countries to ſtudy agricul-
Many valuable and capital improvements have, ſince ture, and is giving it all poſſible encouragement in her
that period, been made in Engliſh huſbandry; and own doininions.
theſe great men have been ſucceeded by a variety of The art of agriculture has alſo been for near 30
writers, inany of whom have done eſſential ſervice, by years publicly taught in the Swediſh, Daniſh, and
enlightening the minds of their countrymen, and ex Gerinan univerſities, where the profeſſors may render
citing them to emulation.
effectual ſervice to their reſpective countries, if they
About the middle of the laſt century, Ireland be underſtand the practical as well as the ſpeculative part,
gan to make a conſiderable figure in the art of huſ and can converſe with as much advantage with the far-
bandry. It muſt indeed be confeſſed, that the Iriſh mer as with Virgil and Columella.
had very ſtrong prejudices in favour of a wretched me Even Italy has not been totally inactive. The Nca-
thod of agriculture, till Blyth opened their eyes by his politans of this age have condeſcended to recur to the
excellent writings. Since that time, a ſpirit of im- firſt rudiments of revived huſbandry, and begun to ſtu-
provement has more or leſs been proinoted, and in dy anew the Agricultural Syſtem of Creſcenzio, firſt
inany inſtances carried on with great zeal, by the publiſhed in 1478. The people of Bergamo have pur.
ſued
I
Hiſtory.
A G R I CU L T U RE.
249
ſued the fume plan, and given a new edition of the Ri. of the learned in Leipfic and Hanover to this important
cordo d'Agriculture de Tarello, firſt publiſhıcd in 1577. object. During the rage and devaſtation of a long war,
The duchy of Tuſcany have imbibed the famie ſpirit they cultivated the aris of peace ; witneſs the Journal
for improvement. A private gentleruan, above 40 years d'Agriculture printed at Lciplic, and the Recueils d'
fince, left his u hole fortune to endow an acadeny of Hanover printed in that city,
agriculture. The firſt eccleſiaſtic in the duchy is pre Even Spain, conſtitutionally and habitually inactive
ſident of this ſociety, and many of the chief 110bility on ſuch occaſions, in ſpite of all their natural indolence,
are inembers.
and the prejudices of bigotry, invited Linnæus, with
His Sardinian Majeſty has alſo ſent perſons to learn the offer of a large penſion, to ſuperintend a college
the different modcs of practice in foreign countries; and founded for the purpoſe of making new enquiries into
made fome ſpirited attempts to eſtabliſh a beiter me. the hiſtory of Nature and the art of agriculture.
tliod of agriculture among his ſubjects.
Among the Japaneſe, agriculture is in great repute ;
In Poland, alſo, M. De Biclufki, grand marſhal of and among the Chineſe it is diſtinguiſhed and encou-
the crown, has inade many ſucceſsful attempts to in- raged by the court beyond all other ſciences. The
troduce the new huſbandry among his countrymen ; Emperor of China yearly, at the beginning of ſpring,
and procured the beſt inſtruments for that purpoſe from goes to plough in perſon, attended by all the princes and
France, England, and other parts of Europe.
grandees of the empire. The ceremony is performed
The Hollanders are the only people now in Europe with great folemnity ; and is accompanied with a fa-
who ſeem to look upon agriculture with indifference. crifice, which the emperor, as high-prieſt, offers to
Except the ſingle collateral inſtance of draining their Chang-Ti, to enſure a plentiful crop in favour of his
fens and moralles, they have ſcarcely paid any atten- people.
tion to it; and even this ſeeins to have proceeded more But, without any improper partiality we are
from the motive of ſelf-preſervation than any love of, fully juſtified in aſſerting, that Britain alone cx-
or diſpoſition to, hníbandry.
ceeds all modern nations in huſbandry; and from
In the year 1 756, a few ingenious and public-ſpirit- the ſpirit which for the laſt twenty years bas ani-
ed men at Berne in Switzerland eſtabliſhed a ſociety for mated many of her nobility and gentry, to be.
the advancement of agriculture and rural economics, come the liberal patrons of improvement, there
In that ſociety were many men of great weight in the is reaſon to believe that this inoſt uſeful of arts will,
republic, and moſt of thein perſons of a true caſt for in a few years, be carried to a greater pitch of per.
making improvements in huſbandry, being enabled to fection than it has ever yet attained in any age or
join the practice with the theory.
country.--The Royal Society, the Bath Society, and
Nor muſt we here omit to mention, that the juſtly cele- the Society of Arts, &c. in particular, have been fig-
brated Linnæus and his diſciples have performed great nally uſeful in this reſpect ; and the other aſſociations,
things in the north of Europe, particularly in diſcover. which are now eſtabliſhed in many parts of the king-
ing new kinds of profitable and well-taſted food for cat. dom, co-operate with them in forwarding their laudable
ile. About the ſame time, Sweden beſtowed ſucceſsful deſign.
labours on a foil which had before been looked upon as It is not, however, to the exertion of public ſocie-
cold, barren, and incapable of melioration. Of this ties, excellent and honourable as they are, that all the
the Stockholm Memoirs will be a laſting monument, modern improvements in agriculture owe their origin.
Denmark, and many of the courts in Germany, fol- To the natural genius of the people have been added
lowed the fame example. Woollen manufactures were the theory and practice of all nations in ancient and
encouraged, and his Daniſh Majeſty ſene three perſons modern times. This accumulated maſs of knowledge
into Arabia Felix to make remarks, and bring over has been arranged, divided, and ſubdivided ; and after
ſuch plants and trees as would be uſeful in huſbandry, raſſing the teſt of practical experiments, the eſſential
building, and rural affairs.
and moſt valaable parts of it have been preſerved, im-
The duchy of Wirteinburgh, alſo, a country by no proved, and ainply diffuſed in the works of Lord
means unferiile, but even friendly to corn and paſture Kames, Mr Young, Stillingfieet, Dr Hunter, Ander-
age, has contributed its affiftance towards the improve- fon, Dickſon, Ellis, Randal, Lille, Marſhal, Mortimer,
ment of agriculture, having more than 30 years ſince Duhamel, Bradley, Kent, Mills, and a few other wri-
publiſhed 14 ceconomical relations at Stutgard. ters upon this grand art of rendering mankind happy,
Neither muſt we forget the very aſſiduous attention wealthy, and posverful.
PART I.
THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.
IN
I
N an art ſo extenſively uſeful to mankind, and which dation if we could aſcertain what their proper nou-
has been ſo univerſally practiſed ſince the creation riſhment is, than we can do without this knowledge.
of the world, it is natural io expect the moſt exact and -The reaſon of the great differences regardirg the
Ignorance
and perfect theory. Bat in this we are totally dilap- practice, probably, is the difficulty of making expe.
of the food pointed.
riments in agriculture. It is not in this art as in Me-
of vegeta-
One reaſon of this want of a diſtinct tlieory of agri- chanics, Chemiſtry, &c. where an experiment can be
bles, the
culture is, the ignorance of what is properly the food made in hour, or a day or two at fartheſt: an expe-
reaſon of of vegetables ; for as the art of agriculture conſiſts riment in agriculture cannot le properly made in leſs
imperſec-
priocipally in ſupplying them with a proper quantity than ſeveral years. Some favourable unobſerved cir-
theory of a- of food, in the moſt favourable circumſtances, it is evi- cumſtances, quite foreign to the experiment iiſelt, may
griculture. dent, we might proceed upon a much ſurer four concur to produce pienitul ciops for a year or (tro:
Vol. I.
I i
and
tion in the
250
AGRICULTURE..
Part I.
Thery. and thus the farmır may be induced 10 publilh his they likewiſe increaſe in bulk by admitting water to Theory.
** fa'icicd improvements; which falling in the hands of o. their roots, and morc fo when the water contains nuch
thers, or perhaps even in his own on a repetition of the of that kind of efllaviuin than wlien it contains leſs :
experiment, the new iinprovements are totally neglect- fo we would conclude, that the nouriſhment received
ed, and things continue in their old way. Were he, by the roots of plants is of the ſame kind with that
llowever, capable of ſeeing and landling the food of received by their leaves; and that this food inay be
vegetables, as well as he can do that of a horſe or an given them in greater plenty than they naturally re-
ox, and procuring it in any imaginable quantity, it is ceive it, by impregnating the air which ſurrounds them,
plain, that he would be able to cauſe vegetables grow
or the waier which moiſtens them, with a greater quan-
in their wtmoſt luxuriancy, or, if we may be allowed city of putrid matter than what they contain in a nati-
the expreſſion, fatten them, with as great certainty as ral ſtate.
he can farten a horſe or an ox, when he hath plenty of
proper food to give theni.--Toaſcertain what this food SECT. II. The foregoing Theory confirmed from confi-
is, therefore, muſt be a ſtep towards the perfection of derations on the nature of vegetable Mould, and the
agriculture ; and to this we ſhall contribute our endea different kinds of Manure found proper for fertil-
izing the Soil.
your.
6
2
Various
food of
3
thrive in
Sect. I. Of the proper Food of Plants.
Though plants will grow on any kind of earth, All kinds of
and flouriſh vigorouſly, if plentifully ſupplied with wa-earth not
ter; yet ſome kinds of ſoils are found much more proper equallypro-
We ſhall not here ſpend time in refuting the theories for ſupplying them with nouriſhment than others.-We performou-
fuppofi of thoſe who iinigined the vegetable food to conſiſt of
cannot, indeed, allow the inferences to be quite fair
getables,
tions culto oily and ſaline ſubſtances. A more probable ſuppo- which ſome would draw from experiments on plants
cerning the
ſition has been, That Water and Air are the proper ſet in mere fand, &c. ; viz. that the earth is of no other
vegetable food, to which alone they owe their increaſe uſe to vegetation than to afford a proper fupport to the
plants.
in bulk and weight. That plants cannot be ſupported plant, that it be not eaſily moved out of its place ; be-
without both thele is very ceriain; but we know, that cauſe the experiments made on fingle vegetables are al-
air is a composind fluid ; and water is never without ways performed in or very near houſes, where the air
fome impurities, jo may alſo be conſidered as a com is by no incans ſo pure as in the open fields, and con-
pound.—Is it then the aqueous, the earthy, the acid, or ſequently where they have an opportunity of receiving
the phlogistic part of the air, which nouriſhes plants ? as much nouriſhment from the air as inay compenſate
In like inanner, is it the pure elementary part of wa. the want of what they would have derived from the
ter which nouriſhes them? or does it contribute to their earth if planted in a rich ſoil. Lord Kames, in the
growth only by the heterogeneous ſubſtances which it Gentleman Farmer, mentions an experiment whercin a
contains !
pea was planted on ſome cotton ſpread on water, in a
Vegetables
From Dr Prieſtley's experiments on different kinds phial. It ſprung, and puhed roots through the cotton
of air, it appears that the parelt kind of that fluid is into the water. The plant grew vigorouſly, and, at
putrid air. not the fittelt for the purpoſes of vegetation. On the the time of his writing the experiment, carried large
contrary, vegetables flouriſhed in a ſurpriſing degrce pods full of ripe ſeed. From this experiment, or
when confined in a ſmall quantity of air made perfectly others of a ſimilar kind, however, a farmer would no
noxious by the patrid eſiluvia of animal bodies.- be thought to act very judiciouſly, who ſhould conclude
Hence it appears probable, that ſuch effluvia, or, in that nothing more was requiſite to produce a plentiful
other words, the eilence of corrupted matter, conſtitute crop, than to keep his fields conſtantly ſoaking with
at leaſt one ſpecies of vegetable food ; and when vege- water, and apply his labour only for that purpoſe, with-
tables are put into ſuch circumſtances that the ſteams out regarding either tillage, manure, or the difference
of putrefying bodies can have acceſs to them, we are of foils. Experience has abundantly ſhown, that by
ſure they will thrive the better.
certain operations perſormed on the earth itſelf, it is
The Doctor alſo found, that by agitating putrid air rendered much more capable of ſupplying vegetables
in water, part of which was expoſed to the atmoſphere, with plenty of nouriſhment than if ſuch operations were
innbibing
the water acquired a very putrid noxious ſmell ; which omitted ; and that ſome kinds of fuils cannot without
putrid ef ſhows, that waier, as well as air, is capable of abſorbing certain additions be rendered ſo fit for this purpoſe as
thoſe elluvia which are found proper food for vegetables. Others; and this is what conſtitutes the difference be-
We cannot help concluding, therefore, that in the con tween a rich and a poor foil.
tinual aſcent of water in vapour, and its deſcent again That ſpecies of earth which is capable of ſupply. Of the true
in rain, which is a much more effe&tual agitation than ing the vegetable kingdom with nouriſhment in the vegetable
could be made by Dr Prieſtley, the water muſt be very greateſt plenty, is found beit in well cultivated gar-
intimately combined with the phlogiſtic or putrid efilu dens. Ii is not, however, even in theſe, found in per-
via which are contained in the air. To this union we feet purity ; being conſtantly mixed with greater or leſs
are led ſtrongly to fufpect that rain-water owes its fer. proportions of ſand, ſmall ſtones, &c. It can be had
tilizing qualities; for the pureſt ſpring waters, thongh by itſelf, and entirely ſeparated froin all other ſubſtances,
moſt wholeſome for animals, are not found to be fitteſt only by ſuffering vegetable or animal bodies to putrefy.
Putrid ef- for promoting the growth of vegetables.—As, there. By'undergoing this operation, they are at laſt reſolved
fluvia the forc, vegetables evidently receive nouriſhment both by into a kind of earth, which appears perfectly the ſaine,
proper food their leaves and roots, and increaſe remarkably in bulk from whatever ſubſtance it is produced. Of this earth
of plants. by abſorbing the putrid effluvia from the air"; and as Dr Lewis gives us the following characters. It is in-
diſſoluble
4
Water ca-
pable of
fluvia.
7
earth,
Part I.
A G R I CU L TU R E.
251
.
8
ted with
9
wes.
Theory. diffolable in acids, ſomewhat tenacious when moiſtened “There may perhaps be another cauſe why rofica. Theory,
with water, friable when dry, and acquires tio addition tion will be of benefit to conſumptions. lc
ic is well
al hardneſs in the fire.The chemiſtry of nature, and known, that, after ſome days drought, on the falling
that of art, however, are ſo very diſſimilar, that an ac of rain that moiſtens the earth, there ariſes a grateful
count of the chemical properties of this carih can be but ſmell, which we are all ſenſible of; and this is common-
of very little ſervice to the practice of agriculture; howe ly attributed to the vegetables, which before lapleſs, but
ever, to thoſe abovementioned we may add, that when now refreſhed hy rain, perſpire mora copioully, But
it is diſtilled with a violent fire, a volatile alkaline ſpie Reaumur obſerved, that a like fragrancy is alſo per.
rit, and fæerid oil, ſimilar to thoſe of hartſhorn or other ceptible after rain when the corn has been cut down in
animal ſubſtances, are obtained.
the fields, where there only remains dry ſtubble ; and
This earth
As the volacile alkali is known to be produced in examining the matter more particularly, he found that
impregna- great plenty by diſtilling putrid fiibſtances either ani- dry earth is without imell, but as ſoon as it is moitten-
mal or vegetable, the obtaining an alkaline ſpirit from ed to the degree of having the confiftcace of ſoftiſh pap,
putrid ef-chis kind of eartlı is a ſtrong argument of its being it then diffuſes a ſtrong ſınell ; but if more water is
fluvia,
much impregnated with the putrid effluvium, which we added, the ſmellis dimin hed, nay even quite cilſipated.
have already mentioned as tlie proper vegetable food Neither does it ſeem an eaſy natter to exbauſt that power
contained in the air and water. ' Indeed, conſidering of producing ſmells which the earth is poffefled of. E.
that this kind of earth is produced by putrefaction, it very day, during a fortnight, he made cakes of moiſtened
is next to an impoſſibility that it ſhould not be impreg. earth; and having dried and wetted them over again, he
nated with putrid (teams, as much as earth can be ; and could not perceive that the earth was leſs fragrant after
if the earth which is moſt impregnated with theſe ſteams all theſe repeated experiments, if it was again wetted.
is found to afford the greateſt quantity of nouriſhment He furtlier olierved, that this fragrancy does not diffuſe
to vegetables, we have from thence an additional proof itſelf to any thing at a great diſtance, without being mi.ch
that they live on the putrid matter emitted from dead diminiſhed, and ſoon entirely gone.. It has been ob-
animals and vegeiables like themſelves.
ſerved, that this expiration of the earth ceaſes if thun-
Earth is ca-
That we may be the more aſcertained of this, •it der and ſtorms foon follow : while they continue, it bea
pable of ab- muſt be conſidered, that the earth, which undoubtedly gins to return; and when over, the ſame fragrancy of
ſorbing pu- is the great ſource of nouriſhment to vegetables, is ca the earth for ſome hours affects the ſmell of a nian as
trid ftcams pable of abſorbing putrid effluvia inore powerfully, or he walks along over a conliderable tract of ground,
in prodigi; at least in much greater quantity, before it is ſaturated. There is no one, I believe, but has ſometimes made
ous quanti-
than either the air or water. The practice of bury. this obſervation; and hence the earth, when moiſtened
ing dead bodies is an undeniable proof of this. They to a certain degree, ſeems to exhale fragrant odours,
are laid but a ſmall depth under the ground; yet the abo- and indeed various in varicus places, as we are ſenſible
minable Itench emitted by the carcaſe is retained in of from their diverſity. They are for the moſt part of
the earth, ſo that it never penetrates in ſuch a man a falubrious quality; as ſome perſons quite faint and
ner as to be offenſive. That earth may be ſaturated languid in the ſummer-heats perceive themſelves non-
with this putrid matter, as well as air or water, is very derfully refreſhed, whilft, after rain, they ſnuff up the
certain ; and, if caſe of ſuch a faturation, no doubt fragrant odour. In ſome places thoſe effluvia are per-
either of theſe will take up the ſuperfluous quantity, haps bad, and may be the cauſes of diſeaſes."
and become noxious; but unleſs the earth is fully fa. This property of emitting a fragrant ſmell is like-
curated, both of them will depoſit part of what they wiſe taken notice of by Dr Home in his Principles of
themſelves contain in the earth, and by that means bé- Agriculture and Vegetation. Some phyſicians have
come more falutary than they were before.
preſcribed a bath of earth for the cure of conſump-
Agreeable That earth is capable of attracting putrid effluvia from tive patients; and Dr Solano de Luque was of opinion,
odour emit- the air, perhaps, may not be ſo readily granted; and in that the earth had the property of abſorbing conta-
ted by moiſt deed we know of no experiment whereby il can be gious miaſınata into it: but whether it can abſorb theſe
fhown that putrid air is made falutary by having any miaſmata from living bodies or not, it certainly can ab-
kind of earth agitated in it: but if we conGder the ex sorb them from dead ones; for a piece of putrid meat
ceeding great ſalubrity of the air in the country, and will be much ſweetened by lying for a ſhort time in the
the healthineſs of thoſe who follow the plough, or are ground.
employed in digging the ground, we muſt at leaſt al From all this we cannot indeed infer, that putrid Power of
low, that when the ground is turned up, it communi air is ſweetened by mere earth ; but we diſcover whal tranſmuta-
cates no kind of noxious quality to the air ; which it is perhaps more important, namely, that though earth tion in the
would certainly do, if it emitted a putrid effluvium. is the common receptacle of all putrid matie's both earth aſſer.
So far from this, the ſmell of moiſt earth is always a animal and vegetable, there is a change made on them
grecable and wholeſome; and here we have the fatis. when in it, which cannot be made either by air or wa-
faction to find our theory ſomewhat confirmed by the ter. Thus, if the carcaſe of a ſmall animal is left to
celebrated Baron van Swieten, late phyſician to the putrefy in the air, it becomes exceedingly offenſive,
empreſs of Hungary.
and continues ſo from firſt to latt. The ſame thing
5 Phyſicians,” ſays he, “ uſually adviſe their patients happens if it is left to putrefy in water. But, in earth,
to ruſtication, not only that they may enjoy a pure and the caſe is quite different. After the carcaſe is con-
freely circulating air ; but that, as their ſtrength in- fumed, the earth which has imbibed all the putrid
creaſes, they may, diſengaged from all care, exerciſe fteams, inſtead of exhaling an offenfive odour, diffuses
their body by the flighter labours of agriculture, and an agreeable one; and thus we may ſee that it is en-
other country amuſements.
dued with a power no leſs remarkable than that of it-
traction
10
parth,
II
teils
1 i 2
252
AGRICULTURE.
Part I.
16
of vegeta-
11
13
Theory. traction or repullion, and which we may diſtinguiſh by To thoſe who reckon the food of vegetables to con- Theory.
the name of tranſmutation. With regard to water, liſt of oils or ſalts, the operation of fallowing ground
the care is more evident: for the moſt putrid water will muſt appear an uſeleſs one, as it can tend neither to Oils and
be ſweetened by percolation through earth, or even produce oils nor falts, but to destroy them. As its falts not the
running in a channel for ſome time on its ſurface; but utility, however, cannot be denied, the ſavourers ol truc vege-
if it contains any impurities of the ſaline kind, they this theory imagine, that the ground, by repeated ope- table food.
will not be ſeparated, or at leaſt in very ſmall quan- rations of this kind, is fitted for atracting ike nitrous
tity.
falts from the air: but it is found, that there (alts can-
Attraction The exiſtence of ſuch a power as that of tranſinuta not be attracted by earth, or any other ſubſtance, even
inſufficient tion we will be obliged to own, whatever we imagine when expoſed for a great length of time to the air
to ſolve the the vegetable food to conſiſt of; for it is impoſible to with a vicw to produce falt-petre; which gives a ſtrong
phenomena ſolve the phenomena of vegetation by attractions and fufpicion againſt their cxitfence; and even if nitre is
tion,
repulſions. If we ſuppoſe the vegetable food to be mixed with the loil, it is found to be detrimental, and
ſalt, let us attack and repel ſalt as we will, it remains will kill or poiſon plants inſtead of nouriſhing them.
falt from firſt to laſt. Let us ſuppoſe it water, the 2. Overflowing the ground with water. This is Overflow
caſe is the ſame ; and, by mere attraction, nothing but found prodigioully to increale the fertility of any foil. irg the foil
maſſes of falt, or pools of water, could be produced. It is well known how much Egypt owes in the annual with water,
The caſe is the ſame on our own hypothelis; for, ſup- overflowing of the Nile; and even in this country the
poling plants compoſed of the patrid eilluvia of others, overflowing of any ground is found to be attended with
and of dead aniinals, if nature was endued with no great advantage. This is practiſed by Mr Bakewell
other power than attraction or repulſion, the vegetable of Leiceſterſhire, famous for his improvenient in the
would neceſſarily be a corrupted maſs like that of which breed of cattle; and he finds it fully to anſwer an an-
it was compoſed. This power, as we have already ſeen, mual manuring of any other fort. It is alſo recom-
relides only in the earth, and in the vegetables them- mended by Mr Anderſon of Monkhill, in his Eſſays on
felves; air and water can indeed act as powerful fol- Agriculture,
18
vents, but cannot transform or compound.
The fertilizing quality of water will eaſily be ac- Reaſons of
confirma-
Wé mult next conſider the nature of thoſe different counted for on the ſame principles. When grown ve, the increaſo
tion of the operations, which, from time immemorial, have been getables are covered with water, their growih, how- of fertility
above theo-performed on the earth, in order to cauſe it produce ever vigorous before, is immediately ſtopt, unleſs they
by the over-
flowing.
Ty fron the the greateſt crops of vegetables. If all of theſe ſhall be of the aquatic kind : they die, are diſolved, and
different or be found confpiring to one general purpoſe, then the putrefied; in which caſe, their finer parts are undoubt-
perations of
agriculture
ſhorteſt and moſt eaſy method of aitaining that pur- ealy abſorbed by the earth : and thus the floating, as
poſe is undoubtedly the moſt proper to be practiſed in it is called, of fields with water, anſwers the purpoſe of
agriculture, whether it hath been as yet put in execu- fallowing, with very little trouble. This is not all : for
tion or not.
flagnating water always depoſites a ſediinent, which
Frequent ploughing, or fallowing. The imme. inixing with the diiſolved parts of the vegeiables all
Fallowing. diate confequences of this is to expoſe different quan over the field, forms an excellent manure; and when
lities of the ſoil to the action of the air and ſun, which the water is allowed to run off, the heat of the ſun ſoon
will not fail to exert their ſolvent powers upon it. In brings the higheſt degree of putrefaction on the dead
conſequence of this action, the earth is partly reduced vegetables; the flluvia of which, mixing with the mud
to powder; many of the roots of vegetables, with which depoſited from the water, makes it exceedingly rich.
19
it always abounds, are diffolved and putrefied; and the Upon the ſuppolition of oily and ſaline food for ve. Oils & falts
earth produced froin thein inixes with the reſt, as well getables, this operation muſt certainly be prejudicial ; cannot he
as the effluvia tliey emit during their diſſolution. The for noihing can fo effcctually deprive any ſubſtance of
ble food.
earth foon begins again to exert its prolific powers, falt as ſteeping it in water. Neither will water either
and a crop of vegetables is produced. By a repeticion depolit oil from itſelf, or luffer it to mix with the ground
of the ploughing, theſe are turned with their roots up- if accidentally brought to it; nay, though a field were
wards, are expoſed to the folvent powers of the air and previuſy impregnated with oil, upon overflowing it
light; in conſequence of which they die, are putrefied, with water great part of the oil would be ſeparated,
and more of the native ſoil is reduced to powder, and and riſe to the top: ſo that, in either caſe, this opera-
mixed with them. By a frequent repetition of this tion could not fail to impoveriſh land rather than enrichi
proceſs, the ſoil becomes vaſtly more tender, and ap- it; and as vegetables are found to be ſupplied with food
proaches to the nature of garden mould, and its ferti- in plenty by an operation which muſt undoubtedly
lity is conſiderably increaſed.
tend to take away both oils and ſalts from them, we
The capaci-
Lord Kaines is of opinion, that the reaſon of the cannot help thinking this a demonſtration, that their
ty of a foil fertility of any ſoil being increaſed by fallowing, is, food is compoſed neither of oil nor falt.
to retain that its capacity of retaining water is increaſed. But
3. Mannring, or mixing lhe foil with different ſub- Of manures
water not this cannot be admitted; for ſo far from being more ſtances.-We ſhall here confine ourſelves to thoſe which and their 0-.
increaſed by diſpoſed to retain water by its pulveriſation, the ſoil is are of undoubted efficacy, and have their credit elta- peration,
fallowing. evidently more diſpoſed to part with it, either by eva; bliſhed by long experience. Theſe are, 1. lime, chalk,
poration, or by ſuffering the moiſture to percolate thro' marle, ſhells, or other earihs, called by the chemiſts
it. In this reſpect it is far inferior to clay; for though calcareous earths; 2. foot; 3. alhes; 4. dung of dif-
dry garden-mould abſorbs watcr much more quickly ſerent kinds. (1) The lime, chalk, marle, and ſhells,
than clay, it alſo dries much ſooner, and thus all the are all found to be of the faine nature. The marle
advantage is loſt.
differs from the reſt, only in having a mixture of clay
along
Theſe are,
I4
I.
the vegeta-
1-3
20
Part. I.
AGRICULTURE.
253
21
1
Theory. along with its calcareous part. Theſe contain neither ſalt of any kind from dung, they would probally al. Theory.
falt nor oil of any kind; they readily imbibe water, ter their ſentiments. The volatile ſalts procured froin
and as readily part with it. Quicklime, indeed, retains this as well as oiher animal matters, are mere creatures
watcr very obſtinately : but ſuch lime as is laid upon of the fire: putiid urine produces them indeed without
the ground ſoon returns to the ſame ſtate in which it heat, but ſcarce any other animal ſubſtance. Never-
originally was ; and powdered limeſtone is found to theleſs, other putiid ſubſtances will ſerulize the ground
anſwer as well for the purpoſes of manure as that which as well as urine, and therefore inuft act in ſome other
has been burnt; fo thai here ne may conſider them way than by their ſalts. Though Dr Frielily's exfe-
all as ſubſtances of the ſame claſs. If any of theſe riments had never been made, we could have formed no
ſubltances are mixed with dead animal or vegetable oiher rational ſuppoſition concerning the manner in
bodies, they remarkably quicken their diſſolution and which putrid ſubliances fertilize the earth, than what
corruption, as appears from Sir John Pringle's expe We have already done ; but as he has ſhown that ve.
riments on putrefaction. When mixed with the ſoil, getables are prodigiouſy increaſed in bulk ly the itere
therefore, they moſt undoubtedly exert their powers on contact of theſe putrid ſtreams, where no faline ſub-
ſuch ſubſtances as they find there, in the ſame manner ſtances that could have acceſs to then, we cannot help
as they do on others; that is, they muſt haſten their thinking this a deciſive experiment concerning the
difTolution and putrefaction, and give the pure vege manner in which the ground is fertilized by maniring
table mould an opportunity of abſorbing their putrid with dung or other purrid ſubſtances.
ftcams, and conſequently of being fertilized by it in We ſhall conclude this part of the ſubject with an ac- Effects of
the ſame inanner as by putrid ſubſtances of any kind. count of lonie experiments concerning the effects of fa- ſalıne ſub-
(2.) Thoſe who contend for oily and ſaline principles line ſubſtances on the growth of vegetables. The fol- ſtances on
in the vegetable food, avail themſelves of the uſefulneſs lowing are related by lord Kames, in his Gentleman growing
vegetables,
of foot as a manure ; which is not only oily of itſelf, Farmer.--A number of Jeruſalem artichokes were ſet
but affords a great quantity of yolatile falt, along with in pots filled with pure ſand. One plant was kept as
fome neutral fal-aininoniac. It must be remembered, a ſtandard, being nouriſhed with water only. Other
however, that not an atom either of volatile ſalt or ſal. planis of the ſame kind were nouriſhed with water in
ammoniac can be extracted from foot without a conſi- which ſalt of tartar, a fixed alkali, was diſſolved.
derable heal, which no ſoil can give, nor could any Theſe grew inore vigorouſly than the ſtandard plant ;
vegetable bear. Neither doth its oil appear without but, by reiterated waterings, there came to be ſuch an
a great degree of leat ; and though it feels ſoinewhat accumulation of the fixed alkali among the ſand, as to
nnetuous to the touch, this is but a mere deception ; for make the plants decay, and at laſt to die. Some plants
no true oil, capable of floating on water, can be ob were nouriſhed with water in which ſal-ammoniac, a
tained froin fool without diſtillation. It is impoſſible, volatile alkali, was diſſolved. Theſe grew alſo well for
therefore, that foot can act upon the ſoil either as an ſome time; but, like the fornier, were deſtroyed by
oily or a ſaline ſubſtance ; how far it is capable of dif- frequent reiterations of it. Weak lime-water prono-
folution by putrefaction, or being otherwiſe converted ted the growth of its plants more than common waier.
into an earth, hath not yet been deterın.ined by expe. But water completely faturated with quicklime, pro-
riments; but as it yields, on diſtillation, the ſame ved more noxious than that which contained a fixed al-
principles which are obtained fron animal or putrefied kali, tliough leſs than that which contained a ſolution
vegetable ſubſtances, it is probable that foot enriches of volatile alkali.- Urine promoted, for a long time,
the ground in the ſame manner that they do. (3.) The the growth of its plans; and the moſt putrid appeared
uſe of alles in manure is likewiſe urged as an argument to have the ſtrongest effect; but at lait it totally deſtroy-
for the food of vegetables being of a ſaline nature ; as
them. Water 171.pregnated with putrid animal and ve-
it is known, that the common alkaline ſalts are procured gerable fubfiances, did more effettually promote the growth
by lixiviating the aſhes of wood and other vegetables. Of its plants than any cirer jotution; and in every ſiage
Experience, however, ſhows us, that aſhes are no leſs of the proceſs appeared to be falutary.'
fit for manure after the falt is extracted from them than With regard to other faline ſubſtances, there are not common
before. Indeed, if there be any difference, it is in many experiments which can be depended upon con- falt ineffec-
favour of the wathed aſhes. The alkali itſelf, though in cerning their qualities as manure.
Mr Anderſon re.
manure,
Sir John Pringle's experiments it was found to be anti- lates an experiment made with common falt; the fuc-
Septic, or a reſiſter of putrefaction, is nevertheleſs a ceſs of which, we apprehend, may justly enough beta-
powerful diſſolvent; and as it muſt foon loſe its alkaline ken as a ſpecimen of what is to be expected from ma-
properties when mixed with the earth, in conſequence nures of a ſimilar kind. He marked out a circle of fix
of the univerſal exiſtence of the vitriolic acid, thoſe feet diameter in the middle of a graſs-field, which he
ſubſtances which it has diffolved will be more diſpoſed diſtinguiſhed by driving a ſtake in its centre. All over
to putrefaction than before, and conſequently tend to this circle he rewed common falt, which, about the
fertilize the ground in the manner we have already de. ſtake, lay near an inch thick on the ground. In this
fcribed. The waſhed aſhes are feptics, or promoters ſtate he left it to the operations of nature.
of putrefaction, and conſequently art in the ſame man- Sprung up as uſual, neither better nor worſe about the
ner as chalk or limeſtone. (4.) All kinds of dung are ſtake than in the reſt of the field, and the place where
ſo much diſpoſed to putrefaction, that it is difficult to the circle was could be diſtinguiſhed only by the ſtake,
imagine any other way in which they can be ſerviceable which was left there for ſome years.
to vegetation than by their putrid efavia. People in. Upon theſe experiments we need make very fewob .
deed inay dream of imaginary falts in dung ; but if fervations. They are ſo much in favour of our theory,
they knew or conſidered the difficulty of procuring that they ſeem made on purpoſe to confirm it. The
fixed
22
tual as a
The graſs
25.4
AGRICULTURE.
Part 1.
1
25
23
kept in
Theory. fixed alkali employed in Lord Kames's experiments will not be perceptible; and people who are in poffef. Theory.
would firſt exert its ſolvent powers on fuch heteroge- fion of ſuch ground may imagine that they enjoy a
neous ſubſtances as it niet with among the ſand: for no foil which will be perpetually fertile ; but long ex-
find can be ſuppoſed to be perfectly free of theſe. As perience has taught us, that the richeſt ſoils will at laſt
long as it exerted its ſtrength on theſe only, the plant be exhauſted by repeated cropping without manure, as
would thrive, for the reaſons we have already men according to our theory they ought to be.
tioned; but having exhauſted the ſmall quantity of lub Where the ground luas been ſuffered to remain un.
-Itances contained in the ſand, it would next attack the cultivated for for many ages, produing all that line ſuc-
plant itſelf, which conſequently would decay and die. culent plants which are ealily putrefied, and trees, the
The ſame effects would neceſſarily follow in a greater leaves of which likewiſe contribute to enrich the ground
degree froin (trong lime-water which contains lime in by their falling off and inixing with it, the foil will in
its cauſtic ſtate ; for this is a more powerful ſolvent a manner be totally made up of pure vegetable earth,
than fixed alkali itſelf, and would not fail to deſtroy and be the richeſt, when cultivated, that can be ima-
every thing it touched; nor is it at all improbable that gined. This was the caſe with the lands of America.
the plant would ſeem to grow vigoroully by the diſlo They had remained uncultivated perhaps ſince the crea-
lution of part of its own roots, more nouriſhment be tion, and were endowed with an extraordinary degree
ing by this ineans given to thoſe which remained ſound. of fertility ; it is nevertheleſs certain that ſuch grounds
Volatile alkali is likewiſe a powerful folvent: but, as have been long cultivated, were ſo much exhauſted,
by reaſon of ils volatility would exert its cauſtic power as to be not much better than the generality of culti-
on the plant ſooner than either liine or fixed alkali; vated grounds in France or England. Here, then, we One fpecies
and accordingly it ſeems to have been the moſt deſtruc have an example of one ſpecies of poor foil ; namely, of poor foil
tive of any thing that was tried. It ſeems owing to this, one that has been formerly very rich, but has been deſtroyed
that putrid urine at laſt deſtroyed the plants whoſe deprived, by repeated cropping, of great part of by lime.
growth it ſo long promoted; while water iimpregnated the vegetable food it contained.' The farmer who
with other purid matters, which yield no volatile al is in polieflion of ſuch ground, would no doubt willingly
kali without heat, proyed always falutary.
reſtore it to its former ſtate; the preſent queſtion is,
End to be From all this, we may draw the following general What muſt be done in order to obtain this end! We
concluſion, viz. That the principal end which a far have mentioned ſeveral kinds of inanures which long
view by a mer ought to keep in view, is to impregnate his ground practice has recommended as ſerviceable for improving
farmer.
as much as poſſible, with ſabitances which either actually ground: we ſhall ſuppoſe the farmer tries lime, or
contain patrid matter, or which are in their own na. chalk; for, as we have already ſeen, their operations
ture ſeptic, or promoters of putrefaction. To impreg; upon the foil muſt be preciſely the ſame. This ſubſtance,
nate the air with putrid effluvia is impoſible: and ihop being of a ſeptic nature, will act upon ſuch parts of the
it could be done, would be highly dangerous; for how. ſoil as are not putrefied, or buit imperfectly ſo; in conſe-
ever falutary ſuch effluvia may be to vegetables, nothing quence of which, the farmer will reap a better crop
can be more fatal to mankind. The putrid ſubſtances, than formerly. The ſeptic nature of the line is not al.
therefore, can only be uſed by mixing them with the tered by any length of time. In ploughing the ground,
eartlı ; and in whaiever manner they can be moſt per the lime is more and more perfectly mixed with it, and
fectly, and in the greateſt quantity, mixed with the gradually exerts its power on every putreſcible matter
foil, there the beſt crops may be expected.
it touches. As long as any matter of this kind re-
mains, the farmer will reap good crops : but when the
Sect. III. Of the different Soils, and the Manures
putreſcible matter is all exhauſted, the ground then
moſt proper for each.
becomes perfectly barren ; and the cauſtic qualities of
Richeſt ACCORDING to the theory we have juſt now laid the lime are more unjuſtly blamed for burning the
foils muſt down, the richeſt ſoil muſt be that which contains the ground, and reducing it to a caput mortuum; while it
at laſt be greateſt quantity of putrid matter, either animal or ye is plain, the lime has only done its office, and made
impo-
getable ; and ſuch is the earth into which animal and the foil yield all that it was capable of yielding.
26
veriſhed.
vegetable ſubſtances reſolve themſelves. Was this earth When the ground has been longuncultivated, producing A ſpecies
to be had in perfection, it is evident it could not ſtand all the time plants, not ſucculent, but ſuch as are very
foil melic
in need of manure of any kind, or be the leaſt enrich difficultly diſſolved, and in a manner incapable of pu-
rated by
ed by it; for containing an immenſe quantity of putrid trefaction; there the ſoil will be exceſſively barren, and
lime.
matter, it would freely communicate it to the vegetables yield very ſcanty crops, tho' cultivated with the greateſt
planted in it, which would grow in the nioſt luxuriant
care.
Of this kind are thoſe lands covered with heath,
manner, without requiring any other care than that of which are found to be the moſt barren of any, and the
keeping them conſtantly ſupplied with water.
moſt difficultly brought to yield good crops. In this
ſuppoſe the crop left upon the ground to putrefy and caſe lime will be as ſerviceable, as it was detrimental
mix with the earth as before, the ſoil will contain the in the other : for by its ſeptic qualities, it will con-
fame quantity of putrid matter the ſecond year that it tinually reduce more and more of the ſoil to a putrid
did the firſt, and be equally prolific: but if the crop ſtate ; and thus there will be a conſtant ſucceſſion of
emoved to another place, and nothing is brought better and better crops, by the continued uſe of lime
back to enrich the ground in its ſtead, it is evident, when the quantity firſt laid on has exerted all its force.
that it will contain leſs of the true vegetable food the By a continued uſe of this manure the gronnd will be
ſecond year than it did the firſt, and conſequently be gradually brought nearerand nearer to the nature of gar-
leſs prolific. For ſome time, however, the difference den-mould; and, no doubt, by proper care, might be
made
of poor
If we
Part I.
AGRICUL UUR E.
255
27
red.
30
Theory. made as good as any : but it will be as great a miſtake that lime alone, upon a poor foil, will, in nally caſes, Tlcory:
to imagine, that, by the uſe of lime, this kind of ſoil produce a much greater and more laſting degree of
inay be rendered perpetually fertile, as to think that fertility than dung alone.”
the other was naturally fo ; for though lime enriches Thus far Mr Anderſon's experience is exactly con-
this foil, it does ſo, not by adding vegetable food to it, formable to the theory we have laid down, and what
but by preparing what it already contains ; and when ought to happen according to our principles. Fie nierz-
all is properly prepared, it muſt as certainly be exhauſt- tions, however, ſome fads which ſeem very ſtrongly lo
ed as in the other caſe.
militate againſt it; and indeed he himſeli fecus 10
Poor foils, Here, then, we have examples of two kinds of poor proceed upon a theory altogether different.
29
how reſto- ſoils ; one of which is totally deſtroyed, the other
" Calcareous matter alone (ſays he) is not capable Query con-
greatly improved, by lime, and which therefore require of rearing plants to perfection ;--- monld is necef. cerving the
very different manures ; lime being inore proper for ihe ſary to be niixed with it in certain proportionis, nature of a
laftihan dung ; while dung, being more proper to reſtore before it can form a proper ſoil. It remains, proper ſcil.
an exhauſted ſoil than lime, ought only to be uſed for however, to be determined, what is the due pro-
the firſt. Beſides dunging land which has been ex portion of theſe ingredients for forming a proper
hauſted by long cropping, it is of great ſervice to let it foil.
lie fallow for ſome time : for to this it owed its ori. 66 We know that neither chalk, nor marle, norlime,
ginal fertility ; and what gave the fertility originally can be made to nouriſhi plants alone ; and ſoils are
cannot fail to reſtore it in ſome degree.
ſometimes found that abound with the two firſt of theſe
By attending to the diſtinction between the reaſons to a faulty degree. But the proportion of calcareous
for the poverty of the two foils juſt now mentioned, we matter in theſe is ſo much larger than could ever be
will always be able to judge with certainty in what caſes produced by art, where the ſoil was naturally deſtitute
lime is to be uſed, and when dung is proper. The of theſe ſubſtances, that there ſeeins to be no danger of
mere poverty of the ſoil is not a criterion whereby we can erring on that ſide. Probably it would be niuch taſier
judge; we muſt conſider what hath made it poor. If to correct the defects of theſe ſoils in which calcareous
it is naturally ſo, we may almoſt infallibly conclude, that matters ſuperabound, -by driving earth upon them as
it will become better by being manured with lime. If a manure, than is generally imagined ; as a very ſmall
it is artificially poor, or exhauſted by continual crop- proportion of it ſometimes affords a very perfect foil.
ping, we may conclude that liine will entirely de. I fall illuſtrate my meaning by a few examples.
ſtroy it.--We apprehend, that it is this natural kind of ~ Near Sandſide, in the county of Caithneſs, there Examples
poverty only which Mr Anderſon ſays in his Eſſays on is a pretty extenſive plain on the ſea.coaſt, endowed of foil per-
Agriculture, may be remedied by lime ; for we can ſcarce with a moſt ſingular degree of fertility. In all ſeaſons perpetu-
think that experience would direct any perſon to put it produces a moſt luxuriant berbage, although it never ally fer-
tile.
28 lime upou land already exhauſted. His words are, got any manure ſince the creation ; and has beeu for
Mr Ander “ Calcareous matters act as powerfully upon land time immemorial ſubjected to the following courſe of
fon's opini that is naturally poor, as upon land that is inore“ crops. -
richly impregnated with thoſe ſubſtances that " I. Bear, after once ploughing from graſs,
ing line.
tend to produce a luxuriant vegetation."
uſually a good crop.
" Writers on agriculture have long been in the cu-
66 2. Bear, after once ploughing, a better crop
ſtom of dividing manures into two claſſes, viz. Enriching:
than the firſt.
manures, or thoſe that tended directly to render the
3. Bear, after once plorghing, a crop equal
ſoil more prolific, however ſterile it may be; among the
to the firſt.
foremoſt of which was dung: Exciting manures, or thoſe
4. 5. and 6. Natural graſs, as cloſe and rich
that were ſuppoſed to have a tendency to render the
as could be imagined, might be cat, if
foil more prolific, merely by acting upon-thofe enrich.
the poſſeſſor ſo inclined, and would yield.
ing manures that had been forinerly in the ſoil, and
an extraordinary crop of hay each year.
giving them a new ſtimulas, ſo as to enable them to « After this the ſame courſe of cropping is renewed.
operate anew upon that ſoil which they had formerly The ſoil cliat admits of this ſingular mode of farming,
fertilized. In which claſs of ſtimulating mannures, appears to be a pure incoherent ſand, deſtitute of the
linie was always allowed to hold the foremoſt place. ſmalleſt particle of vegetable mould; but, upon exa-
" In conſequence of this theory, it would follow, mination, it is found to confift almoſt entirely of brokea
that line conid only be of uſe as a manure when ap fhells: the fine mould here bears ſuch a ſmall propor-
plied to rich foils---and when applied to poor ſoils, tion to the calcareous matter, as to be ſcarce percep-
would produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful, tible, and yet it forms the moſt fertile ſoil that ever I
effects.
yet inet with
“ I will frankly acknowledge, that I myſelf was ſo 6 I have ſeen many other links (downs) upon the
far iinpoſed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to fea-fhore, which produced the moſt luxuriant her bage,
be hurried along with the general current of mankind, and the cloſeſt and ſweeteſt pile of graſs, where they
in the firm perſuaſion of the truth of this obſervation, conſiſted of ſhelly fand ; which, without doubt, derive
and for many years did not ſufficiently advert to thoſe their extraordinary fertility from that cauſe.
facts that were daily occuring to contradict this “ A very remarkable plain is found in the iſland of
theory.---I am now, however, firmly convinced, from Jir-eye, one of the Hebrides. It has been long eni•
repeated obſervations, that lime, and other calcareous ployed as a common; ſo that it has never been diſturb-
nanures, produce a much greater proportional improve. ed by the plough, and affords annually the moſt luxu--
ment upon poor foils than ſuch as are richer. And riant corp of herbage, conſisting of white clover, and
3
others
on concernl.
256
AGRICULTURE,
Part I.
32
water.
Theory. cher valualle paſture-graſſes, that can be met with help thinking the attempt altogether chemerical and Theory.
day there. The foil confifts of a very pure thelly fand, vain. There is not one example in nature of a foil
* Fro'n theſe examples, I think it is evident, illata perpetually fertile, where it has no ſupply but from the
Perpetual
very fmail proportion of vegetable mould is ſufficient to air, and the rain which falls upon it.
The above ren fertility of
jender calcareous matter a very rich foil. Perhaps, cited examples can by no nicans, be admitted as proofs foils chime-
Izowever, a larger proportion may be neccffary when it of perpetual fertility. We know, that the graſs on the rical.
is mixed wich clay thi.n with fand; as poor chalky banks of a river is much more luxuriant than what
foils ſeem to be of the nature of that compofition. grows at a diſtance ; the reaſon is, that the water is at-
To theſe examples brought by Nir Anderſon, we tracted by the carth, and communicates its fertilizing
may add ſome of the ſame kind mentioned by Lord qualities to it; but was the river to be dried up the
Kaines. His lordſhip having endeavoured to eſtabliſh graſs would foon become like the reſt. Why should
che theory of water being tlie only food of plants, tho' not the ocean have the ſame power of fertilizing plains
he himſelf frequently deviates from that theory, yet near its ſhores, that rivers have of fertilizing ſmall ſpots
thinks it poſible, upon ſuch a principle, to make a ſoil near their banks? We fee, however, ibat it hath not ;
perpetually fertile.
for the ſea-ſhores are generally fandy and barren. The
" To recruit (ſays he) with vegetable food, a ſoil reaſon of this is, that the waters of the ocean contain a
impoveriſhed by cropping, has hitherto been held the quantity of looſe acid*; and this acid is poiſonous to * See Wan
only object of agriculture. But here opens a grander plants; but abſtracting this acid part, we heſitate not ter.
objeci, worthy to employ our keeneſt induſtry, that of to affirm, that ſea-water is more fertilizing than river-
inaking a foil perpetually feriile. Sach foils actually
It is impoſſible to know how far the waters of
exiſt; and why ihould it be thought, that imitation the ocean penetrate under ground through a ſandy
Here is above the reach of art? Many are the inſtan foil. Where they meet with nothing to abſorb their
ces of nature being imitated with ſucceſs. Let us not acid, there the ground is quite barren ; but in paffing
deſpair, while any hope remains ; for invention never through an immenſe quantity of broken fhclls, the
was exerciſed upon a ſubject of greater uility. The
The calcareous matter weare very certain, will abſorb all the
attempt may ſuggeſt proper experiments; it inay open acid ; and thus the foil will be continually benefited by
new views; and if we fail in equalling nature, inay we its vicinily to the ocean. All the above fields, there-
not, however, hope to approach ic? A ſoil perpetually fore, are evidently ſupplied with nouriſhment froin the
fertile muſt be endowed with a power to retain moiſture ocean: for if the ſalt-water has ſufficient efficacy 10
ſufficient for its plants; and at the ſame time muſt be render fields which are in its neighbourhood barren,
of a nature that does not harden by moiſture. Cal. why ſhould it not render hem fertile when the cauſe
careous earth promiſes to anſwer both ends : it prevents of barrenneſs is remoyed from its waters ?
a ſoil from being hardened by water; and it may pro After all, the field in Caithneſs, mentioned by Mr
bably alſo invigorate its retentive quality. A field Anderſon, ſeems to have been perpetually fertile only
ihat got a ſufficient doſe of clay-marle, carried above in graſs; for though the ſecond year it carried a better
30 ſucceſſive rich corps, without either dung or ſallow. crop of bear than it did the firſt, yet the third year
Doth not a foil fo meliorated draw near to one per the crop was worſe than the ſecond, and only equal to
petually fertile? Near the caſt ſide of Fife, the coaſt the first. Had it been ploughed a fourth time, the crop
for a mile inward is covered with ſea-fand, a foot depth would probably have been worſe than the firſt. Ground
or fo ; which is extremely fertile, by a mixture of ſea- is not near ſo much exhauſted by graſs as corn, even
fhells reduced to powder by attrition. The powdered though the crop be cut, and carried off; and ſtill leſs,
flells, being the ſame with ſhell-marle, make the ſand if it only feeds cattle, and is manured by their dung :
retentive of moiſture ; and yet no quantity of noiſture which appears to have been the caſe with this field.
will unite the fand into a ſolid body. A foil fo mix. Lord Kames, indeed, mentions fields in Scotland, that,
ed, ſeems to be not far diſtant from one perpetually paſt memory, have carried ſucceſſive crops of wheat,
fertile. Theſe, it is true, are but faint ellays ; but peaſe, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without a ina-
what will not perſeverance accompliſh in a good cauſe?” nure ; and particulariſes one on the river Carroll, of
Having this, in a manner, poſitively determined nine or ten acres, which had carried 103 corps of oats
with Mr Anderſon, that no doſe of calcareous matter without intermiſſion, and without manure : but as we
can poſſibly be too great, we cannot help owning our are not acquainted with any ſuch fields, nor know any
31
felves ſurpriſed on finding his Lordſhip expreſſing him- thing about their particular ſituation, we can form no
Inconfiften-ſelf as follows: “An over-doſe of thell-marle, laid per- judgement concerning them.
cy in Lord haps an inch, and an inch and a half, or two inches Beſides the iwo kinds of ſoils abovementioned, there
Clay and
Kames's
thick, produces, for a time, large crops ; but at laſt it are others, the principal ingredient of which is clay or ſandy foils,
renders the foil a caput mortuum, capable of neither ſand. The firſt of theſe is apt to be hardened by the
corn nor graſs; of which there are too many inſtances heat of the fun, ſo that the vegetables can ſcarce pe-
in Scotland ; the ſame probably would follow from alı netrate it in ſuch a manner as to receive proper nou-
over-doſe of clay-marle, fione-marle, or pounded lime- riſhment. The ſecond, if it is not fituated ſo as to re-
ſtone.”—To account for this, he is obliged to make a ceive a great deal of moiſture, is very apt to be parch-
ſuppoſition directly contrary to his former one; nainc ed up in fuummer, and the crop deſtroyed ;
nor has it
ly, that calcareous nraiter renders the ſoil is capable of fufficient adheſion to ſupport plants that have few roots
retaiuing water. This phenomenon, however, we think and grow high. From theſe oppoſite qualities, it is
is lolved pon the principles firſt laid down, in a fd- evident, that theſe two foils would be a proper manure
tisfactory manner, and without the leaſt inconſiſtency. for one another ; the clay would give a ſufficient de-
As to rendering fuils pcrpctually ſcriile, we cannot gree of firmneſs to the fand, and thic fand would break
~
33
3
the
3
Part I.
AGRICULTURE.
257
34
the earth
Thcory. thic 100 grcat tcracity of the clay. According to Dr the winter's froſt; but theſe ploughings yield 1:crop Tresry.
Home's experimeuts, however, and is the worſt manure as long as the field is not fou n. By planting in the
for clay that can be uſed. He recommends marle moſt. ficld, however, thoſe vegetables whole roots ſwell to a
To rcduck clay-ground as ncar as poflible to the form conſiderable bulk, the ground muſt be conſtantly a?ed
of purc vegetablc mould, it muſt firſt be pulverized. upon by the ſwelling of their roots in all dire sions; and
This is moſt effectually performed by ploughing and thus the growing of the crop itſelf may be cqual, or i-
harrowing ; but care muſt be taken not to plougl it pcrior, in efficacy to ſeveral ploughings, at the func
whilſt too wet,otherwiſcit will concrcrcinto hard clots time that the farmer enjoys the benefit ofit. Theplant
which can ſcarcely be broken. After it is pulverized, moſt remarkable for the fuelling of its roots is the po-
however, ſome means mufl be taken to keep it from tato ; and by none is the ground meliorated more, or e-
concreting again into the ſame hard maſſes as before. ven ſo much. They are not, however, eqrally proper
According to Lord Kames, though clay, after pulve- for all ſoils. In clay they do not thrive, nor are pala-
rization, will concrete into as hard a maſs as before, if table; but in hard gravelly or fandy fuils, they grow to
mixed with water ; yet if mixed with dunghill juice, it a large ſize, and are of an excellent quality. Turnips
will not concreteany more. Lime alſo breaks its tenaci- likewiſe contribute to meliorate the ground, by the
ly, andis very uſeful as a manurc for this kind of foil. ſwelling of their roots, though not ſo much as potatoes.
Fertility of The conclufion we wiſh the practical farmer to draw They have this advantage, however, that they thrive
from our theory is, I hat there is a certain limit to the in almoſt any ſoil. In clay ground, peas and beans thrive
limited,
fertility of the earth, both as to duration and to de- exceedingly well, and therefore are proper in this kind
gree, at any particular time : that the nearer any ſoil of ſoil as a preparatory for other kinds of grain. Theſe
approaches to the nature of pure garden-mould, the puſh their roots deep into the ground, and cover ic
nearer it is to the moſt perfect degree of fertility ; but with their leaves more than other crops ; ſo that the
that there are no hopes of keeping it perpetually in ſuch fun has not ſo much acceſs as when it is covered with
a ſtate, or in any degree of approximation to it, but other kinds of grain. Wherever any of theſe kinds
by conſtant and regular manuring with dang. Lime, of vegetables are raiſed, it is obſerveable, that more or
chalk, marle, &c. may be proper to bring it near to leſs blackneſs is communicated to the ſoil : an evident
this ſtate, but are abſolutely unfit to keep it continu lign of its melioration ; this being the colour of the
ally fo. They may indeed for ſeveral years produce true vegetable mould, or loany ſoil, as it is called.
large corps ; but the more they increaſe the fertility Beſides the abovementioned plants,carrots,parſuips,
for ſome years, the fooner will they bring on an abſo- cabbages, and all thoſe vegetables which link their
lute barrenneſs; while regular manuring with plenty roots deep in the ground, anſwer the fanie purpoſe of
of dung will always enſure the keeping
up the ſoil in looſening and pulveriſing the earth ; but as they will
good condition, without any occafion for fallow. What not thrive but on ground already well cultivated, they
we have ſaid concerning the uſe of lime, &c.'applies cannot be raiſed to any advantage for the purpoſe of
likewile to the practice of frequent ploughing, though meliorating a poor foil.
in a leſs degree. This tends to meliorate ground that It hath been cuſtomary in many places, particular-
is naturally poor, by giving an opportunity to the ve- ly in England, to fow turnips, peale, buck-wheat,&c.
getable parts to putrefy ; but when that is done, it and then to plough them down for manuring the land.
tends to exhauſt though not ſo much as lime. A ju. This being ſimilar -to that operation of nature by
dicious farmer will conſtantly ſtrive to keep his lands which ſhe renders the uncultivated foils ſo exceedingly
always in good condition, rather than to make them fertile, cannot fail of being attended with ſingular ad.
ſuddenly much better; left a few years ſhould convince vantages; and might be looked upon as preferable even
him that he was in reality doing almoſt irreparable miſ- to driving dung on the land to ſatten it, was it not
chief, while he fancied himſelfmaking improvements. attended with the entire loſs of a crop for that year. ,
As for the ridiculous notions of ſtimulating the ground
by ſaline manures, we hope they will never enter ilie
Sect. V. Of defroying IVeeds.
brain of any rational practitioner of agriculture. WHAT We have already ſaid regarding the cultivation
of the ſoil, reſpects only the fitting of it for producing
Sect. IV. Of the different kinds of Vegetables pro- all kinds of vegetables indiſcriminately. Experience,
per to be raiſed with a view 10 the Melioration of however, ſhows, that the ground is naturally much
Soil.
more diſpoſed to produce and nouriſh ſome kinds of
Soil pulve-
The methods of meliorating foils, which we have vegetables than others; and thoſe which the earth
rized by
mentioned above, conſiſting of tedious and laborious ſeems moſt to delight in, are commonly ſuch as are of
certain vec operations that yield no return at firſt, it is natural for very little uſe to man ; but if neglected, will increaſe
getables. a farmer to wiſh for ſome method of meliorating his to ſuch a degree, as entirely to deſtroy the plants intend-
ground, and reaping crops at the ſame time. One very ed to be railed, or at leaſt hinder them from coming to
conſiderable ſtep towards the inelioration of ground is, perfection, by depriving them of nouriſhment. The
its pulverization. This is accompliſhed by repeated clearing the ground of weeds, therefore, is an article
ploughings(2), as already mentioned; eſpecially if per- no leſs neceffary in agriculture, than the diſpoſing it to
formed in autumn, that the ground may be expoſed to produce vegetables of any kind in plenty.
VOL. I.
kk
The
<
35
(A) This, however, muſt be underſtood with fonie limitation : for it appears from experience, that many
light and thin foils receive detriment rather than advantage from frequent ploughings ; particularly in ſummer
When the fun exhales the nutritive particles in great abundance,
258
AGRICULTURE,
Part I.
36
-
37
out.
Theory. The iceds may be divided, according to the time of of broom, and greedily dcvour every young ſhoot ; fo Theory.
.
their duration, into annual, or ſuch as ſpring from a that if any remain after the firſt year, there will not be
Weeds di- feed, and die the ſame year; and perennial, that is, ſuch a veftige the ſecond. If this nicthod of extirpating
vided into as are prop.gated by the roots, and laſt for a number of broom is equally effectual with that of frequent plough-
annual and years. The first kind are the leaſt noxious, and moſt ing, it is certainly inuch more profitable, as there is
Dirennial. eaſily destroyed. For this purpoſc it will be ſufficient no food inore nouriſhing to ſheep than young broon.
to let them ſpring up till near the time of ripening their Broom, however, is ſaid to have a lingular effect upon
feed, and then plough them down before it comes to ſheep: it makes them drunk ſo effettually, that when
niaturity. It is alſo of ſervice to deſtroy ſuch weeds heated with a little driving, they tumble over, and lie.
as grow in borders, or neglected corners, and frequent- without motion.
ly ſcatter their feeds to a great diſtance ; ſuch as the Thewhin is a fine evergreen (hrub,carrying a ſweet-
thiſtle,dandelion,rag-weed, &c. for theſe are ſufficient fmelling flower all the year round. It propagates both
to propagate their ſpecies through a deal of ground; by feed and by its roots, which ſpread ſometimes to the
as their feeds are carried about with the wind to very diſtance of 10 or 12 feet; and hence, when once eſta-
conſiderable diſtances. A farmer ought alſo to take bliſhed, it is with difficulty extirpated. The beſt me-
care, that the ſmall ſeeds of weeds, ſeparated from corn thod is to ſet fire to the whins in froſty weather ; for
in winnowing, be not fown again upon the ground; froſt has the effect to wither whins, and make them
for this certainly happens when they are thrown upon burn readily. The ſtumps muſt then be cut over with
a dunghill; becauſe, being the natural offspring of the a hatchet ; and when the ground is well ſoftened by
earth, they are not eaſily deſtroyed. The beſt method rain, it may be ploughed up, and the routs taken out
of preventing any miſchief from this cauſe, would be by a harrow adapted to that purpoſe. If the field is
to burn them.
foon laid down to graſs, the whiris will again ſpring up
Perennial Perennial weeds cannot be effectually deſtroyed, but in great abundance, from the ſeeds, and finall
parts of
weeds, how by removing the roots from the ground, which is often the roots left in the ground. In this caſe, paſturing
deſtroyed. a matter of ſome difficulty. Many of theſe roots ſtrike with ſheep is an effectual remedy ; as they are no leſs
ſo deep in the ground, that they can ſcarcely be got fond of young whins than of young broom ; and if
The only method that can be depended upon in there are a ſufficient number, they will not leave a.
this caſe, is frequent ploughing, to render the ground ſingle plant above ground. But if graſs is not imme.
as tender as poſible ; and harrowing with a particular diately wanted, the moſt effectual method of clearing a
kind of harrow, which ſhall hereafter be deſcribed, in field of whins, is by reiterated ploughings.
order to collect theſe pernicious routs.
When collec The thorn, or bramble, ſpreads its roots very wide,
ted, they ought to be dried and burnt, as the only and at the ſame time ſinks them deep in the earth.
efféctual method of inſuring their doing no further Though cut in the winter, it riſes, and comes to ſuch
miſchief.
perfection as to carry fruit in ſummer. It can only
There is a particular ſpecies of weed, peculiar only be extirpated by ploughing up the ground, and collecon
to graſs-lands, of a ſoft ſpongy nature, called fog, which ting the roots.
it is found very difficult to exterminate. Where the land
can be conveniently tilled, this weed may be deſtroyed Sect. VI. Of the most proper kinds of Vegetables to be
by covering it with a crop of peaſe, potatoes, &c. or,
paffing a heavy roller over the ground will be of great raiſed for the purpoſes of feeding Cattle.:
ſervice; for fog owes its origin to too great a laxity of
38 the ſoil, and will not grow upon firm ground.
THOUGH this muſt be an article of the utmoſt con--
Brooin, Beſides theſe kinds of weeds which are ofan herbace ſequence to every farmer,we do not find that it has been
furze, &c.
ous nature, there are others which are woody, and much conſidered. Mr Anderſon feenis to have been the
how de-
froyed,
grow to a very conſiderable lize; ſuch as broom, furze firſt writer on agriculture who hath properly attended
or whins, and thorns. Broom is an evergreen ſhrub, to this ſubject ; and what he hath wrote upon it, ra-.
that thrives beſt in fandy ſoil; and there it grows fo vi. ther a catalogue of deſiderata, than any thing elſe :
gorouſly, as ſcarce to admit any graſs under it. It pro and indeed the deſiderata on this ſubject are ſo many
pagates by feed which grows in pods; and theſe, when and ſo great, that we muſt acknowledge ourſelves ve-
fully ripe, break with violence, ſcattering the ſeeds all ry unable to fill them 110:- To attain to a competent
around. Thus, a field which is overgrown with knowledge in this reſpect, the following things muſt
broom, beſides the old plants, always contains an in be taken into conſideration. (1.) The wholetomeneſs Qualities
finite number of young ones ; ſo that though the old of the food for cattle, with regard to health and of the food.
plants die when cut over, a freſh crop conſtantly ſprings ſtrength, or fatneſs. (2) The quantity that any extent requiſite
for cattle.
up. It may, however, be deſtroyed by frequent plough- of ground is capable of yielding. (3.) The quantity
ing and harrowing, in the ſame manner as other peren- neceſſary to feed the different kinds of cattle. (4.) The
nial weeds are ; for it does not for ſome time carry any labour of cultivation; and, (5) The ſoil they require
feed, and the frequent ploughing encourages the vege to bring them to perfection, and the effect they have
tation of all thoſe that arealready in the ground, which upon it.
cannot fail of being deſtroyed by frequent repetitions of With regard to the wholeſomeneſs, it is plain, that
the operation. Another method of deſtroying broom, as the natural food of wild cattle is the green ſucculent
is by paſturing the field where it grows with theep. A plants they meet with all the year round, food of this
few of the old buſhes may be left as a ſhelter, and theſe kind, could it be had, muſt be preferable to hay; and
will be in a good meaſure prevented from ſpreading by accordingly we find that cattle will always prefer ſuc-
the cropping of the theep. Theſe animals are very fond culent vegetables where they can get them. To find
plants.
.
39
Part I.
AGRICULTURE.
259
40
acre,
45
41
42
Theory. plants of this kind, and having proper qualities in o- giving putreſcent food to his cattle. It is well brown, Theory, .
ther reſpects, we muſt ſearch among thoſe which con what a prodigious difference, therc is in the health of
linic
green all the year round, or cuine to their great- the human ſpecies when fed on putri: meats, in com-
eft perfeâion in the winter time. Of theſc, cabbages pariſon of what they enjoy when fupplied with food of
Cabbages, bid fair for holding the firſt place ; both as being very a contrary nature; and why may there not be a dif-
their pro- fucculent, and a very large quantity of them growing ference in the health of beaſts, as well as of mer, when
perties
upon a ſmall ſpace of ground. In Mr Young's Six in ſimilar circumſtances !—It is alſo very probable,
Months Tour, we have an account of the produce of that as carrots are more folid than cabbages or turnips,
cabbages in many different places, and on a variety of they will go much farther in feeding cattle than ei-
foils. The produce by Mr Crow at Keplin, on a clayther of them. The abovementioned example of the
foil, was, on an average of ſix years, 35 ton per acre; hog ſeems ſome kind of confirmation of this; he being
by Mr Smelt at the Lcaſes, on a fandy gravel, 38 tons fed, for ten days together, with 21 15. leſs weight of
per acre ; by Mr Scroop at Danby, on an average of carrots than what an ox devoured of cabbages and hay
ſix years, 37 tons per acre : and the general average in one day. There is a great diſproportion, it muſt
of all the accounts given by Mr Young, is 36 tons per be owned, between the bulk of an ox and that of a
hog ; but we can ſcarce think that an ox will eat as
Cabbages, however, have the great inconveniency much at a time as ten hogs. At Parlington in York-
of ſometimes imparting a diſagreeable flavour to the ſhire, 20 work horſes, four bullocks, and lix milk-cows,
inilk of cows fed with them, and even to the fleſh of were fed on the carrots that grew on three acres, from
other caiile. This, it is ſaid, may be prevented by the end of September till the beginning of May; and
carefully picking off the decayed and withered leaves: the animals never taſted any other food but a little hay.
and very probably this is the caſe ; for no vegetable The milk was excellent, and 30 hogs were fattened
inclines more to putrefaction than this ; and therefore upon what was left by the other cattle.
particular care ought to be taken to pull off all the Potatoes likewiſe appear to be a very palatable food Potatoes.
Airrender-
leaves that have any ſymptoms of decay. Dr Prieſtley for all kinds of cattle; and not only oxen, hogs, &c.
ed noxious found that air was rendered noxious by a cabbage-leaf are eaſily fed by them, but even poultry. The cheap-
by them. remaining in it for one night, though the leaf did not
neſs of potatoes compared with other kinds of food for
ſhow any fymptom of putrefaction. --For milk-cows, cattle, cannot well be known, as, beſides the advantage
probably the cabbages might be rendered more proper of the crop, they improve the ground more than any
food by boiling them.
other known vegetable. According to a correſpondent
Turnip-
The culture of the turnip-rooted cabbage has lately of the Bath Society*, “roaſting pork is never ſo moiſt • Letters
rooted cab. been much practiſed, and greatly recommended, parti- and delicate as when fed with potatoes, and killed from and Papers
bage.
cularly for the purpoſe of a late ſpring feed; and ſeems the barn-door without any confinement. For bacon on Agricul-
indeed to be a moſt important article in the farming and hams, two buſhels of pea-meal ſhould be well in- ture, &c.
ceconomy, as will be ſhown in its proper place. corporated with four buſhels of boiled potatoes, which
Turnips.
Turnips likewiſe produce very bulky crops, though quantity willfat a hog of twelve ſtone (fourteen pounds
far inferior to thoſe of cabbages. According to Mr to the ſtone). Cows are particularly fond of them :
Young's calculation, the fineſt ſoil does not produce half a buſhel at night, and the ſame proportion in the
above five tons of turnips per acre ; which is indeed a morning, with a ſmall quantity of hay, is ſufficient to
very great diſproportion : but poſſibly ſuch a quantity keep three cows in full milk; they will yield as much
of turnips may not be conſumed by cattle as of cab- and as ſweet butter as the beſt graſs. In fattening
bages ; an ox, of 80 ſtone weight, eat 210lb. of cab- cattle, I allow thein all they will eat : 2 beaſt of about
bages in 24 hours, beſides ſeven pound of hay. 35 ſtone will require a buſhel per day, but will fatten
Carrots are found to be an excellent food for cattle one-third ſooner than on turnips. The potatoes ſhould
of all kinds, and are greatly reliſhed by them. In a be clean Traſhed, and not given until they are dry.
rich ſand, according to Mr Young's account, the pro- They do not require boiling for any purpoſe but fat-
duce of this root was 200 buſhels per acre. In a finer tening hogs for bacon, or poultry; the latter eat thein
foil, it was 640 buſhels per acre. A lean hog was fat- greedily. I prefer the champion potato to any for
ted by carrots in ten days time : he eat 1901$. ; and I ever cultivaied.
I ever cultivated. They do not anſwer ſo well for
his fat was very fine, white, firin, and did not boil a horſes and colts as I expected (at leaſt they have not
way in the dreſſing. They were preferred to turnips with me), though fome other gentlemen have appro-
by tlie cattle ; which having taſted the carrots, foon ved of them as ſubſtitutes for oats. "
becane fo fond of them, as difficultly to be made to The abovementioned vegetables have all of tliem the
cat the turnips at all. It is probable, indeed, that property of meliorating, rather than exhauſting the
carrots will make a more wholeſome food for cattle foil; and this is certainly a very raluable qualification:
than either cabbages or turnips,as they are ſtrongly an- but carrots and cabbages will not thrive except in foils
tiſeptic ; infomuch as to be uſed in poultices for correc- that are already well cultivated; while potatoes and
ting the ſanies of cancers. It is probably owing to turnips niay be uſed as the firſt crops of a foil with
this, thaithe milk of cows fed on carrots is never found great advantage. In this reſpect, they are greatly ſu-
to have any bad taſte. Six horſes kept on them thro' perior to the others; as it may be diſagreeable to take
the winter without oats,performed their work as uſual, up the beſt grounds of a farin with plants deſigned
and looked equally well. This may be looked upon only for food 10 cattle.
as a proof of their falubrity as a food ; and it certain Buck-vheat (Polygonum fagopyrum) has been latcly Duck-
ly can be no detriment to a farmer to be ſo much ver recommended as an uſeful article in the preſent as wheat.
fant in medical matters, as to know the impropriety of well as other reſpects. It has been chiefly applied to the
feeding
vol. iii, art.
16.
43
44
Carrots,
46
K k 2
260
AGRICULTURE.
Part I.
47
Theory. feeding hogs, and eſteemed equal in value to barley ; excluded, under the name of weeds, from cultivated Theory,
it is much more eaſily ground than barley, as a malt fields and places fet aparı for natural graſs, green or
mill will grind it completely. Horſes are very fond freſi ineat was no longer to be found.
of the grain ; poultry of all ſorts are ſpeedily fattened Rocque allowed the force of this reaſoning ; but ſaid,
by it; and the buttom of the plant affords food for bees the knowledge of a graſs, or artificial paſture, that
at a very opportune ſeaſon of the year, when'the inea would vegetate in winter, and produce green fodder for
dows and trees are moſtly ſtripped of their flowers. cattle, was loſt; at leaſt, that he knew of no ſuch
Probably the grain may hereafter be even found a ina plant.--Mr Wycli, however, knowing how very great
terial article in diſtillation, ſhould a ſufficient quantity thc advantage would be of diſcovering a green fodder
be raiſed with that vicw. From the ſucceſs of fonie for winter and early in the fpring, wrote to Berne, and
experiments detailed in the Bath Society papers, and
alſo to fome conſidérable places in Sweden, ftating the
for which a premium was beſtowed, it has been infer fame argument, and aſking the ſame queſtion. His an-
red, that this article ought in nuinerous caſes to ſuper ſwers to theſe letters were the ſame that had been given
cede the practice of ſummer-fallowing.
by Rocque. They owned there muſt be ſuch a plant,
Whins an Whins have lately been recommended as a very pro but declared they did not know it.
excellent per food for cattle, eſpecially horſes; and are recom Mr Wych then applied again to Rocque; and deli-
food for
mended by Mr Anderſon in a particular manner, red him to ſearch for the plant ſo much delired, and ſo
horfes.
They have this advantage, that they require no culture, certainly exiſting. Rocque ſet about this ſearch with
and grow on the very worſt ſoil ; but they are trouble great aſſiduity; and finding that a pimpernel, called
fome to cut, and require to be bruiſed in a mill con burnet, was of very ſpeedy growth, and grew near as
ſtructed for this purpoſe ; neither is the ground at all fait in winter as in ſunıner, he took a handful of it
meliorated by letting whins grow upon it for any length and carried it into his ſtable, where there were five hor-
of time. Notwithſtanding theſe diſadvantages, how ſes; every one of which eat it with the greateſt eager-
ever, as whins continue green all the year round, and neſs ſnatching it even without firſt ſinelling it. Upon
when bruiſed will afford an excellent ſucculent food, the ſucceſs of this experiment he went to London, and
which ſeems pofſeffed of ſtronglyinvigorating qualities, bought all the burnet-ſeed he could get, amounting to
they may be looked upon as the cheapeſt winter-food no more than eight pounds, it having been only uſed in
that can poſſibly be given to cattle. According to the ſalads; and he paid for it at the rate of 4s. a pound.
calculations of Mr Eddiſon of Gateford, a ſingle acre, Six of the eight pounds of ſeed he fewed upon half an
well cropped with whims, will winter ſix horſes : at acre of ground, in March, in the year 1761, with a
three or four years growth, the whole crop ſhould be quarter of a peck of ſpring-wheat, both by hand. The
taken, cut cloſe to the ground, and carried to the feed being very bad, it came up but thin. However, he
mill; in which the whins are to be bruiſed, and then fowed the other two pounds in the beginning of June,
given to the horſes. Four acres ought to be planted, upon about fix rood of ground: this he mowed in the
that one may be uſed each year, at the proper age to beginning of Auguſt ; and at Michaelmas he planted
be cut; and he reckons the labour of one man ſuflici off the plants on about 20 rood of ground, giving each
ent for providing food to this number of horſes. He plant a foot every way, and taking care not to bury
ſays they all prefer the whins to hay or even to corn. the heart. Theſe plants bore two crops of feed the
Hurnet. The herb called burnet hath likewiſe been recom year following ; the firſt about the middle of June, the
mended as proper food for cattle, on account of its ſecond about the middle of September ; but the June
being an evergreen; and further recommended, by crop was the beſt. The year after, il grew very rank,
growing almoſt as faſt in winter as in ſummer. Of this and produced two crops of feed, both very good. As
herb, however, we have very various accounts. In a it ought not to be cut after September, he let it ſtand
letter addreſſed by Sir James Caldwell, F.R.S. to the till the next year ; when it ſheltered jıſelf, and grew
Dublin Society, the culture of this plant is ſtrongly very well during all the winter, except when there was
recommended on the authority of one Bartholomew a hard froſt; and even during the froſt it continued
Rocque, farmer at Walham-Green, a village about green, though it was not perceived to grow. In the
three miles ſouth-weſt of London.
March following it covered the ground very well, and
Reconi What
gave occaſion to the recommendation of this was fit to receive cattle.
mended by plant, was, that about the year 1760, Mr Wych, chair If the winter is not remarkably ſevere, the burnet,
Sir Jamies man of the committee of Agriculture of the London though cut in September, will be 18 inches long in
Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures, March ; and it may be fed froin the beginning of Fe-
and commerce, came to Rocque (who was become very bruary till May: if the cattle are taken off in May,
eminent by the premiums he had received from the ſo there will be a good crop of ſced in the beginning of
ciety), and told him, he had been thinking, that as July. Five weeks after the cattle are taken off, it may
there are many animals which ſubliſt wholly upon the be removed, if that is preferred to its ſtanding for feed;
fruits of the earth, there muſt certainly be ſome plant it grows at the rate of an inch a-day, and is made into
or herb fit for them that naturally vegetates in winter; hay like other graſs. It may be mown three times in
otherwiſe we muſt believe the Creator, infinitely wiſe one ſummer, and ſhould be cut juſt before it begins to
and good, to have made creatures without providing flower. Six-rood of ground has produced 1150 pounds
for their ſubſiſtence; and that if there had been no at the firſt cutting of the third year after it was ſowed;
ſuch plants or herbs, many ſpecies of animals would and, in autumn 1763, Rocque fold no leſs than 300.
have periſhed before we took them out of the hands of buſhels of the ſeed.
nature, and provided for them dry meat at a ſeaſon, According to Rocque, the ſoil in which burnet flou-
when, indigenous plants having been indiſcriminately rillies beft, is a dry gravel; the longeſt drought never
hurts
48
19
Part I.
AGRICULTU R E.
261
54
30
fun.
Theory. hurts it: and Sir James Caldwell aſſerts, that he ſaw a in ſummer, which may be cut three or four times Theory.
very vigorous and exuberant plant of this kind growing wijhout injuring the plant. The leaves are more pa-
fron between two bricks in a wall in Rocque's ground, latable to cattle than moſt other garden plants, and are
without any communication with the ſoil; for he had found to be very wholeſome. The farmers in thoſe
cut away all the fibres of the root that had ſtretched parts of Germany where it is chiefly cultivated, we are
downward, and penetrated the earth, long before. told, prefer this ſpecies of beet, for feeding cattle, to
Burnet was found equally fit for feeding cows, ſheep, cabbages, principally becanſe they are not fo liable to
and horſes; but the ſheep muſt not be ſuffered to crop be hurt by worms or inſects ; but they think they are
it too cloſe. Though nofeed was left among the hay, not ſo nourithing as turnips, potatoes, or carrots, and
yet it proved nouriſhing food : and Roque kept a that cattle are not nearly fo foon fattened by this rout
horſe, upon nothing elſe, who, at the time of writing as by carrots, parſnips, or cabbages. It has even been
the account, was in good heart, and looked well. He aſſerted, that this root affords leſs nouriſhment than
affirmed alſó, that it cared horſes of the diſtemper cal- any of thoſe that have been commonly employed for
led the greaſe, and that by its means he cured one feeding cattle. This does not correſpond with the
which was thought incurable ; but ſays, it is only the pompous accounts with which the public have been en-
fii ſt crop which has this effect.
tertained. Upon the whole, however, it is a planc
This is the ſubſtance of Sir James Caldwell's letter which ſeems to deſerve the attention of fariners ;
to the Dublin Society, at leaſt as to what regards the as on ſome foils, and in particular circumſtances, it may
culture of Burnet; and it might reaſonably be expect- prove a very uſeful article for the above purpoſes.
ed, that a plant, whoſe uſe was recommended to the In Mr Anderſon's eſſays, we findit recommended to sleeps fefe
public with ſo much parade, would ſoon have come into make trial of ſome kinds of gralles, which probably cue graſs
Burnet rec-univerſal eſteem. We are ſurpriſed therefore, on look- would not only anſwer for freih fodder during the win-
oned an
ing into Mr Miller's Dictionary, to find the following ter, but might alſo be cut for hay in ſummer. This
improper words, under the article Poterium:~" This plant has is particularly the caſe with that ſpecies called ſheep's
food by Mr of late been recommended by perfons of little skıll, to be feſcue graſs.' “ I had (ſays he) a ſmall patch of this
Mr Ander, ſown as a winter pabulum for cattle: but whoever will graſs in winter 1773; which, having been cut in the
give themſelves the trouble to examine the grounds month of Auguſt or September preceding, was ſaved
where it naturally grows, will find the plants left un from that period, and had advanced before winter to
eaten by the cattle, when the graſs about them has been the length of five or fix inches ; forming the cloſeſt
cropped to the roots ; beſides, in wet winters, and in pile that could be imagined. And although we had
ſtrong land, the plants are of ſhort duration, and there about fix weeks of very intenſe froſt, with ſnow; and
fore very unfit for that purpoſe : nor is the produce about other fix weeks, immediately ſucceeding that,
ſufficient to tempt any perſon of ſkill to engage in its of exceeding keen froſt every night, with frequent
culture ; therefore I wilh thoſe perſons to make trial thaws in the day-time, without any ſnow, during which
of it in ſmall quantities, before they embark largely in time almoſt every green thing was deſtroyed; yet this
Mự Anderſon, too, in his Eſſays little patch continued all along to retain as fine a ver-
on Agriculure, mentions the produce of burnet being dure as any meadow in the month of May ; hardly a
ſo ſmall, as not to be worth cultivating.
point of a leaf having been withered by the uncommon
Upon the authority of Mr Rocque, likewiſe, the ſeverity of the weather. And as this graſs begins to
white beet is recommended as a moft excellent food vegetate very early in the ſpring, I leave the reader to
for cows ; that it vegetates during the whole winter, judge vhat might be the value of a field of grafs of
conſequently is very forward in the ſpring : and that this kind in theſe circumſtances.
the moſt profitable way of feeding cows is, to mow this Of another kind of graſs, called purple fefcue, Mr
herb, and give it to them green all the ſummer. It Anderſon gives the following character. "It retain- Purple fece
grew in Rocque's garden, during a very great drought, ed its verdure much better than rye-graſs during the cue.
no leſs than four feet high, from the 30th of May to winter-ſeaſon : but it had more of its points killed by
the 3d of July ; which is no more than one month and the weather than the former. It likewiſe riſes in the
four days. In ſummer it grows more than an inch a- ſpring, at leaſt as early as rye-graſs.”
day, and is beſt fown in March : a buſhel is enough This ingenious farmer has alſo made experiments
for an acre, and will not coſt more than ten ſhillings. on the culture of theſe and ſeveral other kinds of graſ-
It thrives beſt in a rich, deep, light ſoil: the ſtalks ſes; which being very well worthy of attention, we
are very thick and ſucculent; the cows ſhould there. Thall here inſert.
fore eat them green.
1. Purple fefcue-graſs. “Although this graſs is very
Root of Another ſpecies of beet (Beta cicla), the Mangel often found in old paſtures, yet it has but a few flower-
ſcarcity. Wurzel, or Root of Scarcity, as it has been called, has ſtalks, and as it is greedily eat by all domeſtic animals,
been lately extolled as food for both man and cattle theſe are ſellom ſuffered to appear ; ſo that it uſually
but, after all, ſeems only to deſerve attention in the remains there unperceived. But it ſeems to be better
latter view. It is a biennial plant ; the root is large able to endure the peculiar acrimony of the dung of
and fleſhy, ſometimes a foot in diameter. It riſes above dogs than almoſt any other plant; and is therefore of-
the ground ſeveral inches, is thickeft at the top, taper ten to be met with in dog-hills, as I call the little hills
ing gradually downward. The roots are of various by road-lides where dogs uſually piſs and dung : and
colours, white, yellow, and red; but theſe laſt are al as it is allowed to grow there undiſturbed, the farmer
ways of a much paler colour than beetrave. It is good may have an opportunity of examining the plant, and
fodder for cows, and does not communicate any taſte becoming acquainted with its appearance.
to the milk. It produces great abundance of leaves “The leaves are long and ſmall, and appear to be
roundith,
51
White beet
recon-
mended.
$4
52
262
A G R I C'U L T U R E.
55
Theory, roundilı, ſomething like a wire ; bat, upon examina- advanced with an additional vigour, in proportion to Theory,
tion, tlicy are found not to be tubulated like a recd or the declining ſtrength of the Hower-ſtalks: for the
ruſh : the lides of the leaf being only földed together leaves of the young plant ſeldom exceed two feet,
from the middle rib, exactly like the ſtrong bent-graſs where as numbers oi the old leaves were near four fect
on the ſea fhore. The flower ſtalk is ſmall,and branches in length.
out in the head, a little reſembling the wild-cat ; only "From theſe peculiarities in the growth of this plant,
the grains are much ſmaller, and the ear does not ſpread it would ſeem to promiſe to be of great uſe to the far-
full open, but lies bending a little to one ſide. The incr; as he could reap from a field of it, for the firſt two
ſtalks are often ſpotted with reddiſh freckles, and the or three years, as great a weight of hay as he could
tops of the roots are uſually tinged with the ſame co obtain fiom any of the culmiferous gralles (theſe bear-
lour; from whence it has probably obtained its diſtinc- ing a long jointed ſtalk); and, if he meant afterwards to
tive name of Feſtuca rubra, or red (purple) ffone, paſture it, he would ſuffer no inconveniences from the
“It is often to be met with in old garden-walks; and lower-ſtalks ; and the ſucculent leaves that continue to
as its leaves advance very quickly after cutting, it may vegetate during the whole ſuinmer, would at all times
uſually be diſcovered above the other grailes, about a furnih his cattle with abundance of wholeſome food.
week or fortnight after the walks are cut. Nor do It has alſo been remarked, that this graſs riſes as early
they ſeem to advance only at one ſeaſon, and then ſtop in the ſpring asrye-grais; and continues green for the
auid decay, like the rye-graſs; but continue to advance greateſt part of winter, which the other does not. It
during thewhole of theſummer,evenwhere thcy are not is moreoveran abiding plant, as it ſeems never to wear
cut; ſo that they fonietiines attain a very great length. out of the ground where it has once been eſtabliſhed.
Laſt ſeaſon, (1774,) I meaſured a leaf of this graſs, that On all which accounts, it appears to me highly to me-
ſprung up in a neglected corner, which was four feet rit the attention of the farmer; and well deſerves to
and four inches in length, although not thicker than have its ſeveral qualities, and theculture that beft agrees
a'ſmall wire. It is unneceſſary to add, that theſe lcaves with it, aſcertained by accurate experiments.
56
naturally trail upon the ground, unleſs where they meet 2. “ Sheeps fefcue graſs, or feſtuca ovina, is much Sheeps fef-
with ſome accidental ſupport ; and that if any quan- praiſed by the Swedil naturaliſts for its ſingular value cue defcri-
tity of it is ſuffered to grow for a whole ſeaſon, with as a paſture-graſs for Meep; this animal being repre- heda
out being eat down or cut, the roots of the leaves are ſented as fonder of it than of any other graſs, and fat-
almoſt rotted, by the overſhadowing of the tops of the tening upon it more quickly than on any other kind
other leaves, before the end of the ſeaſon.
of food whatever. And indeed, the general appearance
Appear-
This is the appearance and condition of the plant of the plant, and its peculiar manner of growth, ſeems
ance in its in its native ſituation ; as it is ſeldom that it is diſco very much to favour the accounts that have been given
cultivated vered but in pretty old paſtures, and as in that ſtate
ftate.
it carries only a very few feed-falks, it was with ſome “This plant is of the fame family with the former,
difficulty that I could collcct a ſmall handful of the feed, and agrees with it in ſeveral reſpects; although they
which I carefully fowed in a ſmall patch of garden- may be eaſily diſtinguiſhed from one another. Its
mould, to try if it could be eaſily cultivated. It came leaves, like the former, in its natural ſtate, are always
up as quickly as any other kind of graſs, but was at rounded, but much ſmaller ; being little bigger than
firſt as ſmall as hairs : the leaves, however, advanced large horſe-hairs,or ſwines-briſtles, and ſeldom exceed
apace; and were, before autumn, when the grain with ſix or ſeven inches in length. But theſe ſpring out of
which they had been fowed was cut down, about 1o the root in tufts, ſo cloſe upon one another, that they
or 18 inches in length : but having been ſown very reſemble, in this reſpect, a cloſe hair-bruſh more than
thin, it was neceſſary to pick out ſome other kinds of any thing elſe I know : ſo that it would ſeem natural-
graſs that came up amongſt it, left it might have ly adapted to form that thick ſhort pile of graſs in
been choaked by them. Early next fpring it advanced which ſheep are known chiefly to delight. Its flower-
with prodigious vigour, and the tufts that were form- ſtalks are numerous, and ſometimes atlain the height
ed from every ſeed became exceeding large; ſo that it of two feet ; but are more uſually about 12 or 15 inch-
quickly filled the whole ground. But now the leaves es high.
57
were almoſt as broad as thoſe of common rye-graſs, "Upon gathering the ſeeds of this plant, and low- Its appear-
and the two ſides only inclined a little towards one ing them as the former, it was found that they ſprung ance when
another from the mid-rib, without any appearance up as quickly as any other kind of graſs ; but the cultivated.
of roundneſs. In due time a great inany feed-ſtalks leaves are at firſt no bigger than a human hair. From
ſprung out, which attained very nearly to the height each ſide ſprings up one or two of theſe hair-like fi-
of four feet, and produced feeds in abundance ; which laments, that in a ſhort time ſend out new off-ſets, ſo
inảy be as eaſily ſaved as thoſe of conimon rye-graſs. as quickly to form a ſort of tuft, which grows larger
«The prodigious difference between this plant in its and larger, till it at length attains a very large ſize, or
native and cultivated ſate amazed me; but it was with till all the intervals are cloſed up, and then it forms
a good deal of ſatisfaction that I found there would be the cloſeſt pile of graſs that it is poſſible to imagine.
no difficulty of procuring feeds from it, which I had In April and May it puſhed forth an innumerable quan-
much doubted of at firſt. It would ſeeni, that nature tity of flower-ſtalks, that afforded an immenſe quan-
hath endowed this plant with a ſtrong generative power tity of hay; it being ſo cloſe throughout, that the
during its youth, which it gradually loſes as it advan- ſcythe could ſcarcely penetrate it. This was allowed
ces in age (for the difference perceived in this caſe to ſtand till the ſeeds ripened; but the bottom of the
could not be attributed to the richneſs of the ſoil); ſtalks were quite blanched, and almoſt rotted for want
and that, on the contrary, when it was old, the leaves of air before that time.
us of it.
/
" This
Part I.
A G R I CU L T U RE.
263
28
What foil
moſt
pro•
per.
Theory, 66 This was the appearance that it made the firſt year ſoftneſs and ſucculence of the blade, the lively light Theory.
after it was ſowed: but I have reaſon to think, that, af- green colour of the leaves, and the matted intertexture
ter a few years, it likewiſe produces fewer ſeed-ftalks, of its roots. But, irotwithſtanding the ſoftneſs of its
and a greater quantity of leaves than at firſt. But firſt leaves,when the feed-Italks advance, they are rough
however that inay be, it is certain, that if theſe are eat to the touch, ſo that the plant then aſſumes a very dif-
down in the ſpring, it does not, like rye.graſs, perliſt ferent appearance from what we would have expected.
in a continual tendency to run to feed; but is at once The ear is branched out into a great number of fine ra-
determined to puſh forth a quantity of leaves without mifications ſomewhat like the oat, but much ſmaller.
almoſt any ſtalks at all : and as all domeſtic animals, This kind of graſs, however, would not be eaſily culti-
but more eſpecially ſheep, are extremely fond of this vated, on account of a kind of ſoft meinbrate that
graſs, if they have liberty to paſture where it grows, makes the ſeeds adhere to the ſtalk, and to one another,
they hite it ſó cloſe as never to ſuffer almoſt a ſingle feed- after they are ſeparated from it, as if they were inter-
ſtalk to eſcape them ; ſo that the botaniſt will often mixed with cobweb, ſo that it is difficult to get them
ſearch in vain for it, when he is treading upon it with ſeparated from the ſtalk, or to ſpread readily in ſowing.
his feet. The beſt way to diſcover it in any paſture, It ſpreads, however, fo faſt by its runniag
roots, that
is to ſearch for it in winter, when the tufts of it may a ſmall quantity lowed very thin, would be ſufficient to
be eaſily diſtinguiſhed from every other kind of graſs, ſtock a large field in a fhort time.
by their extraordinary cloſeneſs, and the deep green Theſe are the kinds of graffes, properly ſo called,
colour of the leaves.
which have not as yet been cultivated, that Mr An-
“ It ſeems to grow in almoſt any ſoil ; altho'it is ima derſon thinks the moſt likely to be of value ; but bea
gined that it would flouriſh beſt in a light ſandy ſoil, fides theſe he recommends the following, of the pea.
as it can evidently live with leſs moiſture tlan almoſt tribe.
60,
any other kind of graſs ; being often ſeen to remain in 1. Milk-vetch, liquorice-vetch, or milk-wort. This Milk-
the ſods that have been employed in coping for ſtone- plant, in ſome reſpects, very much reſembles the com
vetch.
dykes, after all the other grafies that grew in them mon white clover ; from the top of the root a great
have diſappeared. It is likewiſe found in poor barren number of foots come out in the ſpring, ſpreading a-
foils, where hardly any other plant can be made to grow long the ſurface of the ground every way rounů it
at all, and on the ſurface of dry worn-out peat-moſs, from which ariſe a great many cluſters of bright yel-
where no moiſture remains ſufficient to ſupport anyo low flowers, exactly reſembling thoſe of the common
ther plant whatever : but in neither of theſe licuations broom. Theſe are ſucceeded by hard round pods, fil-
does it thrive ; as it is there only a weak and unlightly led with ſmall kidney-ſhaped ſeeds. From a ſuppoſed
plant, very unlike what it is when it has the good for reſemblance of a cluster of theſe pods to the fingers of
tune to be eſtabliſhed upon a good foil ; although it is an open hand, the plant has been ſometimes called
feldomer met with in this laſt ſtate than in the former. ladies fingers. By others it is called crow-toes, froni a
" I will not here repeat what has been already ſaid fancied reſemblance of the pods to the toes of a bird.
about the particular property that this plant poffeíſes of Others, from the appearance of the bloilom, and the
continuing all winter : nor point out the benefits that part where the plant is found, have called it feal, im-
the farmer may reap from this valuable quality.He properly fell-broom. It is found plentifully almoſt e-
need not, however, expect to find any verdure in win- very where in old graſs-fields; but as every ſpecies of
ter on ſuch plants as grow upon the looſe moſly foil domeſtic animals eat it, almoſt in preference to anyo
abovementioned; for, as the froſt in winter always ther plant, it is ſeldom allowed to come to the flower
hoves up the ſurface of this foil, the roots of the plants in paſture grounds, unleſs where they have been acci-
are ſo lacerated thereby, as to make it, for ſome tine dentally ſaved from the cattle for ſome time ; ſo that
in the ſpring, to all appearance dead. Nor will he of it is only about the borders of corn-fields, or the ſides
ten perceive niuch verdure in winter upon thoſe plants of incloſures to which cattle have not acceſs, that we
that grow upon poor hungry foils, which cannot afford have an opportunity of obſerving it. As it has been
abundant nouriſhment to keep them in a proper ſtate imagined that the cows which feed on theſe paſtures,
of vegetation at all times : but ſuch plants as grow where this plant abounds, yield a quantity of rich milk,
on earthen dykes, which uſually begin to vegetate with the plant has from that circumſtance, obtained its moſt
vigour when the autumnal rains come on, for the moſt proper Engliſh name of milk-vetch.
part retain their verdure at that ſeaſon almoſt as well One of the greateſt recommendations of this plant Its good
as if they were in good garden-mould.
is, that it grows in poor barren ground, where almoſt qualiti 3.
“ I have been very particular in regard to this plant; no other plant can live. It has been obſerved in ground
becauſe, in as far as my obſervations have yet gone, it ſo poor, that even heath, or- ling (erica communis),
promiſes on many accounts to make a moſt valuable ac would ſcarcely grow; and upon bare obdurate clays,
quiſition to the farmer, and thereforejuſtly demands a where no other plant could be made to vegetate ; in-
very particular ſhare of his attention."
ſomuch that the ſurface remained entirely uncovered,
3. The holcas lanatus, or creeping ſofi-graſs of Hud- unleſs where a plant of this kind chanced to be eſta-
fon.--This is conſidered by our author as one of the bliſhed; yet even in theſe unfavourable circumſtances,
moſt valuable kinds of ineadow-gralles ; its pile being it flouriſhed with an uncommon degree of luxuriance,
exceedingly clofe, ſoft, and ſucculent. It delights and yielded as tender and ſucculent, though not ſuch
much in moiſture, and is ſeldom.found on dry ground, abundant Moots, as if reared in the richeſt manured
unleſs the ſoil is exceedingly rich. It is often found on fields. In dry barren ſands, alſo, where alınoſt no 0-
thoſe patches near ſprings, over which the water fre ther plant could be made to live, it has been found to-
quently.flows; and may be known by the uncominoni ſend out ſuch a number of healthy ſhoots all around, as-
61
59
Holcus la-
natus.
Ima
264
AGRICULTURE.
Part I.
Blue tare.
64
7 heory. to cover the carth with the cloſeſt and moſt beautiful 3. The common bloce tare fecnis more likely than Theory,
carpet that can be deſired.
the former to produce a more rouriſhing kind of hay,
63
The ſtalks of the milks-vetch are weak and fiender, as it abounds much more in feeds ; but as the ſtalks
ſo that they ſpread upon the ſurface of ille ground, un come up more thinly froin the root, and branch more
leſs they are ſupported by ſome other vegetable. In above, it does not appear to be fo well adapted for a
ordinary fuils they do not grow to a great length, nor pafture-graſs as the other. The leaves of this plant
produce inany flowers ; Lut in richer fields the talks are much fmaller, and more divided, than thoſe of the
grow to a much grcater length, branch out a good other; the ſtalks are likewiſe ſmaller, and grow to a
deal, but carry few or no flowers or feeds. From theſe much greater length. Though it produces a great
qualities our author did not attempt at firſt to cultivate quantity of ſeeds, yet the ſmall birds are ſo fond of
it with any other view than that of paſture ; and with them, that, unleſs the field was carefuly guarded, few
this intention, ſowed it with his ordinary hay feeds, of them would be allowed to ripen,
expecting no material benefit from it till he deſiſted 4. The Vicia ſepium, purple everlaſting, or buſh-vetch. Buſh-
from culing his field. In this, however, he was a Our author gives the preference to this plant beyond vetch,
greeably diſappointed; the milk vetci growing, the all others of the ſame tribe for paſure. The roots
firſt ſeaſon, as tall as his great clover, and ſoiining ex of it ſpread on every ſide a little below the ſurface
ceeding fine hay ; being carce diſtinguihable froni lu of the ground, froin which, in the ſpring, many ſtems
cerne, but by the ſlenderueſs of the ſtalk, and propor- ariſe quite cloſe by one another; and as theſe have a
tional ſmallueſs of the leaf.
broad tufted top covered with many leaves, it forms as
Another recomiendation to this plant is, that it is cloſe a pile as could be deſired. It grows very quick-
perennial. It is ſeveral years after it is ſowed before ly after being cut or cropt, but does not arrive at any
it altains to its full perfection ; but, when once cfca- great height; ſo that it appears more proper for paſtu-
bliſhed, it probably remains for a great number of rage than making hay; altho', upon a good foil, it will
years in full vigour, and produces anually a great grow ſufficiently high for that purpoſe; but tlie ſtalks
quantity of fodder. In antumn 1773, Mr Anderſon grow ſo cloſe upon one another, that there is great dan-
cut the ſtalk from an old plant that grewon a very inl ger of having it rotted at the root, if the ſeaſon ſhould
different foil ; and after having thoroughly dried it, he prove damp. It ſeems to thrive beſt in a clay ſoil. 65
found that it weighed 14 ounces and a haif.
Beſides theſe,there are are a variety of others of the Everlaſting
The falks of this plant die down entirely in winter, fame claſs, which he thinks might be uſeful to the pca,
and do not come up in the ſpring till the ſame time fariner. The common garden everlaſting pea, culli.
that clover begins to advance; nor does it advance ve vated as a flowering plant, he conjectures, would yield
ty faſt, even in ſummer, when once cilt down or eat a prodigious weight of hay upon an acre; as it grows
over : ſo that it ſeems much inferior to the abovemen to the hcight of ten or twelve feet, having very ſtrong
tioned graſſes; but might be of uſe to cover the worſt ſtalks, that could ſupport themſelves without rotting
parts of a farm, on which no other vegetable could till they attained a great height.
66
62
thrive.
Oneother plant, hitherto unnoticed, is recommend. Achillæa
Yellow 2. The conm012 Jellow vetchling, (Lathyrus pratenſis) ed by our author to the attention of the farmer ; it millefo-
lium.
vetchling, or everlaſting tare, grows with great luxuriance in is the commonyarrow, ( Achillea millefolium),orhundred-
ſtiff clay foils, and continues to yicld annually a great leaved graſs. Concerning this plant, he remarks, that,
weight of fodder, of the very beſt quality, for any in almoſt every fine old paſture, a great proportion of
length of time. This is equally fit for paſture, or the growing vegetables with which the field is covered,
hay; and grows with equal vigour in the end of fum conſiſts of it, but the animals which feed there are ſo
iner as in the beginning of it: fo would admit being fond of the yarrow, as never to allow one feed-ſtalk of
paſtured upon in the ſpring, till the middle, or even it to come to perfection. Hence theſe ſeed-ſtalks are
the end of May, without endangering the loſs of the never found but in neglected corners, by the ſides of
crop of lay. This is an advantage which no other roads; and are fo diſagreeable to cattle, that they are
plant except clover poffeffes ; but clover is equally un never taſted; and thus it has been erroncouſly thought
fit for early paſture or for hay. Sain-foin is the only that the wholeplant was refuſed by them.-Theleaves
plant whoſe qualities approach to it in this reſpect, and of this plant have a great tendency to grow very thick
the yellow vetchling will grow in ſuch ſoils as are ut upon one another, andare therefore peculiarly adapted
terly unfit for producing fain-foin.--- It is alſo a peren- for paſturage. It arrives at its greateſt perfection in
nial plant, and increaſes ſo faſt by its running roots, rich fields that are naturally fit for producing a large
that a ſmall quantity of the feed would produce a ſuf and ſucculent crop of graſs. It grows alſo upon clays ;
ficient number of plants to fill a whole field in a very and is among the firſt plants that ſtrike root in any
short time. If a ſmall patch of good ground is lowed barren clay that has been lately dug from any conſi-
with the ſeeds of this plant in rows, about a foot di- derable depth ; ſo that this plant, and thiſtles, are uſual-
ftance from one another, and the intervals kept cicar of ly the firſt that appear on the banks of deep ditches
weeds for that ſeaſon, the roots will ſpread ſo much as formed in a clayey foil. All animals delight to eat it ;
to fill up the whole patch next year ; when the ſtalks but, from the dry aromatic taſte it poſſeſſes, it would
may be cut for green fodder or hay. And if that ſeem peculiarly favourable tothe conſtitution of ſheep.
parch were dug over the ſpring following, and the It ſeems altogether unfit for hay.
roots taken out, it would furniſh a great quantity of Beſides theſe plants, which are natives of Great Lucerne:
plants which might be planted at two or three feet Britain there are others, whiclı, though natives of
diſtance from one another, where they would probably other countries, are found to thrive very well in Bri-
overſpread the whole field in a ſhort time.
lain ; and have been raiſed with ſuch ſucceſs by indi-
3
viduals,
67
Part I.
AGRICULTURE.
265
70
71
72
Theory. viduals, as highly to mcrit thcattention of every farmer. ces, it is very apt to rot; one part of it orcille.coming Theory.
Anong thoſeihe firſt place is claimed by lucerne. another in ſuch a manner as 10 prevent thc acccſs of
This is the plant called medica by the ancients, be- freſh air ; upon which putrefaction foon enſues, as las
cauſe it came originally from Media, and on the culture been already obſerved with regard to the feſcue gralles.
of which they beſtowed ſuch great care and pains. It In graſs, or any herbaceous plant, where the leaves Smut in
hath a perennial root,and annual ſtalks, which, in good are only wanted, thisover luxuriancy cannot be called grain,
ſoil, riſe to three fcet,or ſometimes more in height; its a diſcaſe, but is a very deſirable property ; but in any
leaves grow at a joint likcihoſe of clover ; the Huwers kind of grain, it is quite otherwiſe. Dr Home, in his
which appear in June, are purple, and its pods of a Principles of Agriculture and Vegetation,claſſes thefinut
ſcrew-like ſhape, containing feeds which ripen in Sep- in grain among the diſeaſes ariling from this cauſe. He
tember. All ſorts of domeſtic cattle are fond of this is of opinion, that 100 great an abundance of juices in a
plant, eſpecially when allowed to eat it green,and black vegetable will produce diſeaſes ſimilar to thoſe occa-
cattle may be fed very well with the hay made from it; fioned by rcplction in animal bodies; viz. flagnations,
but an exceſs of this food is ſaid to be very dangerous. corruptions, varices, carioſities, &c. along with the too
Lucerne has the property of growing very quickly great luxuriancy we have juſt now mentioned, which
after it is cut down, inſomuch that Mr Rocque has he expreſſes by “ too great an abundance of water-
inowed it five times in a ſeaſon, and Mr Anderſon af- ſhoots.” Hence he is induced to claſs the ſinut among
firms he has cut it no leſs than fix times. It is, how- diſeaſes ariſing from this cauſe; it being a corruption
ever,not very eaſily cultivated; in conſequence of which happening moſt in rainy ſeaſons, and to weak grain,
it ſometimes does not ſucceed; and as it dies entirely in Like other contagious diſeaſes, he tells us, the ſmut
the winter, it is perhaps inferior to the feſcue gralles may be communicated from the infected to healthful
already ineirioned, which, tho’ deſpiſed and neglected, grain. As a preventative, herecon incnds ſtecping the How pre-
might probably yicld as rich a crop as lucerne, with grain in a ſtrong pichle of fea-falt. Belides the effect vented.
68 ont any danger of a miſcarriage.
which this has upon the grain itſelf, it is uſeful for ſe-
Timotlıy Another graſs was brought from Virginia, where it parating the good from the bad; the beſt feed falling to
grafs. is a native, and ſown by Rocque in 1763. This graſs the bottom, and the faulty ſwimming on the top of the
is called Timothy, froní its being brought from New- liquor. For the fanie purpoſe, a ley of wood-afhes and
York to Carolina by one Timothy Hanſon. It grows quicklime is recommended by ſome ; and, by others, 2
beſt in a wet foil ; but will thrive in almoſt any. If it ſolution of ſaltpetre or copperas; after which the grain
is ſown in Auguſt, it will be fit for cutting in the latter is to be dried with lacked line, or dry turfaſhęs. This
end of May or beginning of June. Horſes are very ſolution, however, we can by no means recommend, as
fond of it, and will leave lucerne to eat it. It is alſo it ſeems moſt likely to kill the grain entirely.
preferred by black cattle and ſheep; for a ſquarc piece According to Dr Home, dung is a preventative of Diſeaſes
of land having been divided into four equal parts, and diſeaſes ariſing from too great moiſture; in confirination from too
one part ſowed with lucerne, another with fan-foin, a of which, he relates the following experiment. « Two great moi-
ſture, how
third with clover, and the fourth with timothy, ſome acres of poor ground, which had never got any ma-
prevented.
horſes, black cattle, and ſheep, were turned into it, nure, were fallowed with a deſign to be fown with
when the plants were all in a condition for paſturage; wheat; but the ſcheme being altered, ſome dung was
and the timothy was eaten quite bare, before the clover, laid on a ſmall part of it, and the whole fowed, after it
lucerne, or fan-ſoin, was touched.
had got five furrows, with barley. A great quantity
One valuable property of this graſs is, that its roots of rain fell. The barley on that part which was dung-
are ſo ſtrong and interwoven with one another, that ed was very good; but what was on the reſt of the
they render the wetteſt and ſofteſt land, on which field turned yelloir after the rains, and when ripe was
horſe could not find footing, firm enough to bear the not worth the reaping."
heavieſt cart. With the view of imp oving boggy lands,
The rant of nouriſhment in plants may be eaſily Diſeaſe pe-
therefore, ſo as to prevent their being poached with the known by their decay; in which caſe, the only remedy culiar to
feet of cattle, Mr Anderſon recommends the cultiva- is, to ſupply them with food, according to the methods ſaffron,
tion of this kind of graſs, from which he has little we have already directed,or to remove from their neghi-
expeclation in other refpects.
bourhood fich other plants as may draw off the nou-
riſlument from thoſe we with to cultivate. inthe Me-
Sect. VII. Of the Diſeaſes of Flants. moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1728, Mr Du
Hamel mentions a diſeaſe, which he calls le mort, that
These are divided by Tournefort into the following attacks ſaffron in the ſpring. It is owing to another
claſſes. 1. Thoſe which ariſe from too great an abun- plant, a ſpecies of trefoil, fixing ſome violet-coloured
dance of juice ; 2. Fron) having too little; 3. From its threads, which are its roots, to the roots of the fuffron,
bad qnalities ; 4. From its unequal diſtribution ; and and ſucking out its juice. This diſeaſe is prevented
69
5. From external accidents.
by digging a trench, which faves all the unaffected.
Too great an abundance of juices cauſes at firſt The bad qualities, or unequal diſtributions, of the Vegetables
tov great prodigious luxuriant growth of the vegetable ; ſo that juices of plants, are the occalion of ſo few of the diſeaſes deſtroyed
it does not come to the requilite perfection in a due to which vegetables in every country are fubject, that by inſease
dance of
time. Wheat is ſubjet, in ſome climates, to a diſeaſe of we forbear to mention thein at preſent. Most of the
juices,
this kind; it vegetatos exceſively, without ever car diſeaſes of plants are owing to external accidents, par-
rying ripe grain; and the ſame diſeaſe may be artifi- ticularly to the depredations of inſects—The infes
cially produced in any grain, by planting it in too rich by which the greateſt devaſtations are committed in
a ſoil. Too much iain
is apl like riſe to do the ſame. Great Britain are, ſnails, calterpillars, grabs, and fiies.
When a vegetable is fupplied loo abundantly with jui- Thefaails and catterpillars feed onthe leavesandyoung
VOL.I.
LI
73
74
Effects of
an abun-
moors;
266
AGRICULTURE.
Part I.
75
79
Grubs.
Tl.cory. Thcois; by which means they often totally deſtroy the turnips is, that all the feeds contained in the dung,and Theory.
vegetable. Where the planis are or eaſy acceſs, theſe which of courſe are carried on the land with it, vege-
Infees die vermin may be deſtroyed by ſprinkting the vegetable tate almoſt immediately, are moſtly killed by the fe-
Nroyed by with lime-water ; for quick-lime is mortal poifon to verity of the winter, and the few that remain ſeldom
limewater, creatures of this kind, and throws them into the great- avoid deſtruction from the plough-Ihare.
el agonies the moment they are touched with it. On The following method of ſowing has alſo been re- Various re-
trees, however, where this method cannot ſo well be commended as a preventative of the ty :- About medies a-
followed, fumigation is the moſt proper ; and, for this Midluminer, take the firſt opportunity when it rains, sainſt the
purpoſe, nothing is better than the ſmoke of vege- or there is an apparent certainty of rain approaching,
turnpily.
tables not perfectly dry. In ſome caſes the eggs of to fow your tuinipſied; if about the full moon,
the
theſe deſtroying creatures may be obſerved, and onght better.' In this cate, neither hurrow, bruſh, nor roll,
without doubt immediately to be taken away. On the after ſowing: The natural heat of the ground at that
fruit trees, as apples, pears, medlars, on ſome forcft- feaſon, and the conſcquent fermentation occafioned by
trecs, the oak and dwarf-maple eſpecially, and the copious rain, will give an aſtoniſhingly quick vegeta-
white and black thorn in hedges, a kind of little tufts tion to the ſecd, which in a few days will be up and out
are to be obſerved, reſembling, at firſt ſight, withered of all danger from the fly. At all events, ſow not till it
leaves twiſted, by cobweb, about the uppermoſt twigs rains; it is better to wait a momlı, or even longer, for
or branches. Theſe contain a vaſt number of little black rain, than to fow (merely for the ſake of fowing about
eggs, that in the ſpring produce ſwarms of caterpillars the uſual time) when the ground is parched with heat.
which devour every thing. To prevent this, all the By the ſcorching of the ſun, the vil and vegetative
twigs on which theſe cobwebs appear thoald be taken quality of tne leed are exhauſted ; and the few weals
off and burnt as ſoon as poflible. This ought to be plants that come up will be deſtroyed by the fly before
done before the end of March, that none of the eggs theycan attain ſtrength to put forth their rough leaves.
76 be allowed ſuflicient time for hatching.
The fly infeſts the ground abundantly in dry hot wea-
The grubs are a kind of wornis which deſtroy the ther, but does no injury in rain. The falling rain will
corn by feeding upon its rools; they are transformed ſufficiently waſh the turnip-feed into the ground with-
every fourth year into the beetles called cock-chaffers, out hurrowing it in ; which, inſtead of increly cover-
may-bugs, &c. they are very deſtructive when in their ing, 100 often bliries this imall 1eed at ſo great a depth,
vermicular ſtate, and cannot then be deſtroyed becauſe as never afterwards to get above ground.”
they go deep in the ground. When become beetles, The following remedies are alſo recommended as
theyconceal themſelves under the leavesoftrees, where having ofien proved ſucceſsful :--A ſmall quantity of
they fcem allcep till near ſunſet, when they take their fool fuin over the land at their first appearance. Bran-
flight. It is only now that they can be deſtroyed, and ches of elder with the leaves bruiſed,drawn in a grate
zhat by a very laborious method; namely, by ſpreading over them. Muik nixed with the feed before it is
pack-lheets below the trees in the day-time when the ſown. And fulphur burnt under it, after moiſtening
bectles are in their torpid ſtate, then ſhaking them off it with water in which tobacco has been ſteeped.
and burning them. Some time ago, they made ſuch But ſhowers on the plants as ſoon as they appear a-
devaſtationsin the county of Norfolk, that ſeveral far- bove ground,are eſteemed the beſt preſervatives. They
mers were entirely ruined by them ; one gathered 80 enfeelle and kill the fly, and haſten the plants into the
buſhels of theſe inſects from the trees which grew on rough leaf, in which ſtate they are out of danger.
his farm. It is ſaid that, in 1574, there fell tuch a The ſweet ſmell of the turnip has been thought to
inultitude of theſe inſects into the river Severn, that attract the fly ; upon which suppoſition, the remedy
they ſtopped and clogged the wheels of the water- appeared to contiſt in overpowering that ſmell by one
mills.
which is ſtrong, fetid, and diſagreeable. Hence it has
" Turnip fly, Turnips, when young, are apt to be totally deſtroyed been recommended, that upon an acre of turnips fown
by a multitude of little black flies, from thence called in the uſual way, a peck or inore of dry foot be
the turnip-fly. As a preventative of theſe, ſome ad thrown after the ground is finiſhcd, and in as regular
viſe the feed to be mixed with brimſtone; but this is a way as he fows the feed.
80
improper, as brimſtone is found to be poiſonous to ve Some time ago an inſecè, called the corn-butterfly, Corn buta
getables. The beſt method feens to be the fumiga- committed ſuch ravages while in its vermicular ſtate, terfly,
tion of the fields with ſmoke of half.dried vegetables. in France, that upwards of 200 pariſhes were ruineá
78 For this purpoſe weeds will anſwer as well as any. by it; and the miniſtry offered a reward to the diſco-
Prevented This fumugation muſt no doubt be often repeated, in verer of an effectual remedy againſt this deſtroying
by fumiga- order to drive away the innumerable multitudes of theſe
The cure which was at laſt diſcovereil, was
tion), &c. inſects which are capable of deſtroying a large field of to heat the corn, in an oven, ſo much as not to de-
turnip.
ftroy its vegetative power, but ſufficiently to deſtroy
Some have fuppoſed that the fly is either engendered the ſmall worms which made their neft in the ſubſtance
in new dung, or enticed by it ; and have therefore ad- of the grain, and at laſt eat out the ſubſtancc fo coin-
viſed the manure to be laid on in the autumn preced- pletely that 110thing could be got from the huſk, even
ing, by which it loſes all its noxious qualities, while by boiling it in water. It is certain, that though in-
its nutritive ones are retained, notwithſtanding theſe fects can bear a great deal of cold, they are eaſily de-
might be ſuppoſed liable in ſome degree to be exhaled ſtroyed by a ſlight degree of heat; nor is the vegeta-
by the fun. This method is ſaid to have been aſcer- tive power of corn eaſily deſtroyed, even when kept for
tained by experiments; and it is added, that another a long time in a pretty ſtrong heat. This method muſt
material advantage accruing from autumn manuring for therefore be very effectual for deſtroying all kinds of
infces.
77
wor171.
Part I.
AGRICULTURE.
267
laſt year.
Theory, inſects with which grain is apt to be infected : bit care Hence he is convinced, that no ſets ought to be uſed Thcory.
muſt be taken not to apply ioo great a beat ; and the from old-tilled or couch-graſs land ; and that, in order
adjuſting of the preciſe degrce ncceſſary to deſtroy the to have good ſets, they ihould be procured from land
inſect, with ut hurting the corn, will be attended with that was purpoſely fallowed for them; from freſh ley
ſome difficulty.
land, where tıey are not curled; or from ley land thét
81
The curled The curled diſeaſc in potaloes has long been a ſub was burnt laſt fpring. He directs to place them on
difcaſe in ject of inveſtigation and experiment anong farmers; virgin mould, and the potatoes will have no curled ones
potatoes. and the knowledge of its cauſe aud cure ſeems yet to amongſt them ; and to keep them for vinter, from any
remain a defideratum. The Agricultural Society at
other kind.
Mancheſter, a few years ago, offered a premium for
To avoid the uncertainty of getting good ſets, he
diſcovering by actual experiment the cauſe of the dif. recommends crabs to be gathered froin potatoes grow-
eaſe in queſtion ; and a great variety of letters were, ing this year on irem iand free froin curl, and the next
in conſequence,addreſſed to them upon the ſubject. As ſpring to low them on freth ley land; and continue to
theſe contain many intereſting obſervations both on the plant their fets on freth ley land yearly, which he is
diſeaſe itſelf and the beſt methods hitherto adopted for convinced will prevent the curl.
preventing it, the following abſtract of them may not All the good potatoes he ſaw this year, either on
freſh ley land or on oll.tilled land, were raiſed from
improperly be introduced in this place.
82
Various
1. According to the writer of the firſt letter, this fels that grew upon freſh ley land laſt year; and where
methods of diſeaſe is cauſed by an inſect produced by froſt or bad he has ſeen curled potatoes, he found, upon inquiry,
prevention. keeping before fctting; and the neweſt kinds, ſuch as the potalo-ſets grew upon old-tilled and worn-out land
have been raiſed within theſe nine or ten ytais, are
He gives as a general reaſon for the diſor-
moſt apt to curl, becauſe they will not ſtand to be hept der, that the land is oftener crupi than it had uſed to
in winter and ſpring before ſetting, as the old kinds be, inuch more corn being now raiſed than formerly.
will. In autumn 1776, he got up a bed of potatoes
V. In 1772, this writer planted ſome potatoes by
to lay by in winter, leaving plenty in the ground as
accident full nine inches deep: when taken up, many
regular as poſſible ; and, before the ſeverity of winter of the plaüts were rotted, and a few curled. He kept
came on, covered part of the bed with ſtraw and peaſe- the whole produce for feed, and planted two acres with
baulm, and left the other part of the bed uncovered. it in 1773, not quite lix inches deep. The crop was
That part of the bed which was covered was quite free amazingly great; and he did not obſerve any curled
from curied ones; but the uncovered part produced a planis among them. In 1774, many of theſe were
great many curled, owing, as the writer ſays, to froſt planted in different foils; yet they were ſo infected
and ſeverity of the weather.
with the curled diſeaſe, that not one in twenty eſcaped.
II. This writer liad about a quarter of an acre of In 1775, the complaint of this diſeaſe became general.
potatoes, well manured with cow and horſe dung, and In 1776, it occurred to him that the good crop of 1773
took the greateſt care in picking the fine ſmooth-ſkinned was owing to the accidental deep ſetting of 1772; and
potatoes for ſets; yet nine out of ten parts were curled. that the reaſon why the ſame ſeed became curled in
He altributes the cauſe of this diſeaſe to a white grub or 1774, was their being ſet ſo near the ſurface in 1773;
infect, which he found near the root, about half an
and attributes the diſeaſe to the practice of ebb-ſetting.
inch long, with eight or ten legs, its head brown and In 1777, he took ſome potatoes from a crop that was
hard ; as upon examining a number of the curled roots, curled the year before, and after cutting the ſets, left
he found them all bitten, chiefly from the ſurface to them in a dry room for a month. Half were planted
the root, which of courſe ſtopped the progreſs of the in ground dug fourteen days before; the other half,
lap, and threw the leaf into a curl. The uncurled having been lieeped in a brine made of whitſter's alhes
roots were not bitten. He tried a few experiments as for two hours, were alſo planted in the ſame land at
follow :- Firſt, he put ſoot to the inſects in the rows
the faine time. The ſteeped ones came up ten days
for two days; and after that, he put lime to them for before the others, and hardly any miſſed or were curl-
the ſame time, but they ſtill kept lively; next le puted. The uniteeped ones generally failed, and thoſe
a little falt, which deſtroyed ihem in a few hours, few that came up were moſtly curled.
From which he infers, that if coarſe falt rere put into He therefore adviſed as a remedy, 1. That the po-
the ground at the time the land is preparing for pota tatoes intended for next year's fets be planted nine in-
toes, it would effectually cure this diſtemper. ches deep. 2. That they remain in the ground as long
III. In this letter, the cauſe of the diſeaſe is attri as the ſeaſon will permit. g. That theſe fets be well
buted to the method of earthing the ſtems while in cul. defended from froſt till the beginning of March. 40
tivation ; and the branch, ſtriking root into the new That the ſets be cut a fortnight before planting. 5.
earthed-lip ſoil, it is ſaid, produces potatoes of ſuch a That they be ſteeped, as above, two hours in brine or
nature as the year following to cauſe the diſeaſe com- ley. 6. That the dung be put over the ſets. And
plained of.
7. That freſh ſets be got every year from fandy ſoils
To prevent the diſeaſe, it is recommended to take near the coaſt, or on ile ſhore.
the ſets from thoſe potatoes that have not bred any P. S. At planting, the hard dry ſets ſhould be caſt
froni the branch covered ; or otherwiſe, to dig the afide, for they will probably be curled. Curled pota-
part the ſets are to be raiſed from.
toes always proceed from ſets which do not rot or pu-
IV. According to this writer, the diſorder proceeds trety in the ground.
from potatoes being ſetin old-tilledor worn-out ground; VI. This writer had five drills of the old red pota-
for though thoſe polatocs may look tolerably well, yet toes, and four of the winter whites, growing at the
their ſets will moſt, iſ not all, produce curled potatoes. fame time in the ſame field.
fame time in the ſame field. The drills were prepared
I 1 2
exactly
263
AGRICULTURE.
Part. I.
will not.
'Theory. exactly alike. Ainong the red not one was curled; He allows, that the curl has frequently happened to Theory.
the winter whites were nearly all curled. He ſays he perſons who have uſed laige potatoes for ſtis ; for, as
has found by experience, that the red never curl. all roots are 1.0t equally affected, ſome curled ones may
VII. Two of the writer's neighbours liad their fets be mixed with the rest.
out of one heap of potatoes. They both ſet with the To prevent the evil, cut your fets from clean and
plough, the one early, and the other late in the ſea middle-lized potatoes, cathered from places as clear of
fon. Moſt of thoſe early let proved curled, and inost the curl as pollible ; preſerve them as uſual till ſpring.
of thoſe ſet late ſmooth; the latter on clay land. If any are harder or grallı more in cutting than uſual,
A few roods of land were alſo planted with ſmall cait them alide. He would alſo recommend the railing
potatoes, whiclı liad lain ſpread on a chamber Alcor all a fret! fort from the crab produced on the forts leait
the winter and ſpring, till the middle of May. They affected, wlich in Lancaſhire are the long-duns.
were ſoft and withered ; they proyed ſmooth and a X. Set potatoes with the ſprits broke off, and they
good crop. Middle-lized potatoes, withered and ſoft, will cſays the writer of this letter) be curled ones; if
which had been kept in a large dry ccllar, and the ſet with the ſprits 011, they will not be curled. Again,
ſprouts of which had been broken off three tiines, pro take a potato which is ſprit, and cut a ſet off with two
duced alſo a ſmooth good crop.
fights: break one ſprit oif, and let the other ſtay on,
Hence he was led to think a ſuperfuity of fup, 0c and ſet it ; the former will be curled, and the latter
caſioned by the feed being unripe, inight cauſe the dif-
eaſe. To be ſatisfied in this, he aſked the farmer whe When you have holed your potatoes, take them out
ther he had ſet any of the ſame potatoes this year, and before they are ſprit, and lay them dry until you have
what was the nature of his land ? He told him bóhe ſet or ſown them, and you will have no curled pota-
had; that they had been ſet on his farın fourteen years, toes.
without ever curling; that his ſoil was a poor whitiſh XI. This writer was at the expence of procuring
fand of little depth; that he let thoſe he deſigned for ſets at fifty miles diſtance, and where this difcaſe was
keeping grow till they were fully ripe.”
not known. The firſt year's trial was ſucceſsful; the
Hence he concludes, the only ſure way to prevent year following he procured ſets from the ſame place,
the curl is, to let potatoes intended for ſeed ſtand till but one-fifth of his crop was infected. By way of ex-
they are fully ripe, and to keep them dry all winter. periment, he planted ſets from roots which had been
VIII. This writer ſet a quantity of the red potatoes, infected the year before, and ſome of theſe produced
without having a curled one amongſt then. His me healthy plants, free from all infection.
thod is, when the ſets are cut, to pick out ſuch as are As every effect muſt have a cauſe, le ſuppoſed it
reddeſt in the inſide. On digging them up at Mis might be ſome inſect, which, living on the leaves, gave
chaelmas, he mixes none of the curled ſeed
among
the them that curled and fickly appearance, as is the caſe
others. The curled are eaſily diſtinguiſhed, by their in the leaves of many ſlirubs and trees. But whether
Stalks withering two months before the reſt of the the inſect is lodged in the old ſers, and to be deſtroyed
crop.
at the time of planting, or, proceeding from fome ex-
The cauſe of the curled diſeaſe he attributes to po ternal cauſe, can only be deſtroyed afterwards, he is
tatoes being of late years produced from ſeed inſtead not yet certain, although he has made the following
of roots, as formerly. Such will not ſtand good more experiments.
than two or three years, uſe what method you pleaſe. On a piece of ground that had not been dug for 20
Laſt ſpring, he ſet the old red and white ruſſets, and years, he planted four rows of ſets, which he knew to
had not a curled potato aniongſt them.
be perfectly clear; the drills were two feet diſtant, the
On the lime-ſtone land about Denbigh, in North fets one foot diſtant in each drill. He then planted
Wales, they have no curled potatoes. If this be ow on the ſame ground four rows with fets from curled
ing to the nature of that land, perhaps lime might potatoes at cqual diſtances ; in each row were about.
prevent the diſeaſe.
IX. According to this writer, all ſorts of grain
Lot ift, the curled ſtate.
wear out and turn wild if ſown too long on the ſame Nº 1. Without inanure, Nº 3. In foot,
land; the ſame will hold good in all ſorts of pulſe, 2. In falt,
4. In quicklime.
peaſe, beans, and (as he conceives) potatoes. It ge-
Lot 2d, the clear fets.
nerally happens, that thoſe who have moſt curled po NO 1. Without manure, | N° 3. In ſoot,
tatoes plant very ſmall fets.
2. In falt,
4. In quicklime.
Eleven years ago he bought a parcel of freſh fers, of Thoſe planted in ſalt and foot in both lots were de-
the golden-dun kind, and has uſed them without change ſtroyed. In lot 1. nº 1. and 4. all curled. Lot 2. n° 1.
to the preſent year, without any being curled. This and 4. quite clear.
he principally attributes to his having always planted This experiment was made on a ſuppoſition that tlic
good large ſets.
infect lodged in the ſet, and muſt be deſtroyed by plant-
About four years ſince, he thought of changing his ing. But of that he is not fully ſatisfied. He re-
ſets, as his potatoes were too ſmooth, too round, and peated ſalt, foot, and quicklime, on the branches of
much diminiſhed in ſize. But the curl at that time ſeveral curled potatoes. Salt deſtroyed all he touched
beginning to be very alarming, he continued his ſets with it. Lime and foot had, he thought, a partial
till part of his crop niiſſing laſt year, he was obliged to effect on the plants. After ſome time, they appeared
buy new ſets this ſpring, which, being finall, were almoſt as healthy as the reſt. Thus, although he had
curled like other peoples.
done little towards the cure, he flatters himſelf he has
pointed
20 fets.
| Nº
1
Part I.
AGRICULTURE.
269
.
Theory. pointed out the cauſe, the infects on the curled plants potatoes are larger, the diſeaſe ſeems to be increaſed. Theory.
.
being not only very mumierous, but viſible to the naked They alſo cut their fets out of the richeſt and largeſt
eye.
potatoes, which is perhaps another cauſe of this evil.
XII. This writer aſcribes the cauſe of the diſcafe In cold countries, where they ſet their own feed,
to the frol, and bud keeping in winter and ipring be- which has grown on poor land, with leſs dung, they
fore ſetting. They are liable to be damaged by froſt have no curled plants. On the contrary, when they
after they are fet, but this may be prevented by cover- bought rich and large potatoes for ſeed, they have
ing. If it be aſked, why froſt did not injure them for been curled in great quantities. He believes, the
merly ? he anſwers, it is only the new kinds which richneſs and largeneſs of the ſecd to be the cauſe of
are apt to curl. To this may be addeủ, that leſs care is the evil ; for he does not remember to have ſeen a
now taken of the fced than formerly. To provent the curled ſtem which did not ſpring from a ſet of a large
latter, let them remain in the ground covered with potato.
.
haulm or litter, till the time they are wanted for ſet XVI. This writer apprehends the curled diſeaſe in
ting; and, in caſe no froit touches them afterwards, potatoes to proceed from a defect in the planta ſemina-
they will be free from the diſeaſe.
lis, or feed-plant; and from comparing curled ones
XIII. This writer ſays, the red potato was as ge with others, there appeared to be a want of, or ina-
nerally planted as the winter-whiteandthe Lincolnshirebility in, the powers of expanding or unfolding the
kidney are now. The firſt, being a later potato, did parts of the former ; which, froni this defect, forms
not ſprout fo early as the others. The white ſprout ihrivelled, ſtarved, curled ſtems. On examining ſome
very early, and therefore ſhould firſt be moved out of of the ſets at the time of getting the crop, he found
the place where they have been preſerved in the winter. them hard and undecayed ; ſo hard, indeed, that ſome
Inſtead of that, they are often let remain till their of them would not be ſoft with long boiling. This
roots and ſprouts are matted together. On ſeparating led him to think, that ſome manures might have the
them, theſe ſprouts are generally rubbed off, and they ſame effect on them as tanners ooze has on leather,
are laid hy till the ground is ready ; during which in asd ſo harden them, that the embryo plant conld not
terval they ſprout a ſecond time : but theſe ſecond come forth with eaſe; but a cloſer examination taught
ſprouts, being weak and languid, will ſhrink, ficken, him otherwiſe, and that that they grow equally in all
and die; and the fruit at the roots will be ſmall, hard, manures.
ill ſhaped, and of a brown colour.
Some have thought that the fermentation is occa-
Now, if putting off th¢ ſprouts once or more, be ſioned by too great quantities being heaped together ;
fore the ſets are put in the ground, be the cauſe (as but the writer has ſeen an inſtance, wherein a ſingle
he verily believes it is) of the curled diſeaſe, an ealy potato, preſerved by itſelf, when ſet, produced ſtems
remedy is at hand. When the potatoes intended for of the curled kind. He thinks the moſt conſiſtent and
fets are dug up, lay thein in a weſt aſpect as dry as rational opinion is, that the diſeaſe is occaſioned by
poſſible : in ſuch a ſituation they will not ſprout fo foon. the potatoes being taken from the ground before the
The beſt time for removing mof forts, is the firſt fine ftamen, or miniature-plant, is properly matured and
day after the 24th of February. Cut them into ſets ripened.
as ſoon as poſſible, and let them remain covered with For let it be obſerved, that the potato, being a na-
dry fand till the ground is prepared, which ſhould be tive of a warmer cliniate, has there more fun, and a
a winter fallow. Lay the ſets in without breaking off longer continuance in the ground, conſequently, it
any of the ſprouts, for the ſecond will not be ſo vigo- has not the ſame natural canſes in a cold climate to
rous. This accounts for one ſprout out of three froin mature the ſeed-plant as in its native ſtate. All the
the ſame ſet being curled. The two items not curled opportunities, therefore, ought to be given in whiclı
roſe from two later eyes, and were firſt ſprouts. The climate will adınit for nature to complete her work,
ſprout curled was a ſecond, the firſt having been rab. and fit the ſtamen for the next ſtate of vegetation,
bed off.
eſpecially in thoſe intended for feed.
But if the poo
XIV. This writer ſays, that laſt ſpring one of his tato be taken up before the feed-plant be fully matu.
neighbours cut and ſet, in the uſual way of drilling, red, or the air and fap-veſels have acquired a proper
ſome loads of the largeſt potatoes he could procure ; degree of firmneſs or hardneſs, it muſt, when thus rob-
and more than half of them proved curled. Being a bed of further nutrition, ſhrivel up; and when the yeſ-
few ſets ſhort of the quantity wanted, he planted ſome ſels, in this inimature ſtate, come to act again in the
very finall potatoes which he had laid by for the pigs. ſecond fiate of vegetation, they may produce plants
Theſe being fully ripe and folid, there was not a cur which are curled.
led plant among them. He apprehends, the others If it be aſked, why are they more common now
being curled was owing to their not being fully ripe. than formerly? he anſwers, that before the preſent
A crop of potatoes, ſet this year in rows on ground mode of ſetting them took place, people covered them,
that had borne a crop of tliem lait year, were moſtly while in the ground, with ſtraw, to protect them from
curled ; but many plants came up from feed left in the froſt.
ground laſt ſeaſon, and there was not a curled one If it be aſked, why one ſet produces both curled and
ſmooth ſteins? he anſwers, we ſuppoſe every eye to
XV. Oflate years, this writer ſays, great improve. contain a planta feminalis; that all the embryos, or
ments have been made in ſetting potatoes and cutting ſeed-plants, contained in one potato, are nouriſhed by
the ſets. The ground is drefled cleaner and danged one root; that, as in ears of corn, ſome of theſe feed-
ſtronger. Many people, in drilling, wrap up the lets plants may be nouriſhed before others.
.
entirely in the dung ; by which means, though their One of his neighbours, laſt year, ſet two rows of
potatoes,
among them.
270
A G K I CULTURE.
Part I.
1
Theory. potatoes, which proving all curled, he did not take ſhoots, plaating them pretty deep in freſh earth, with Theory.
them up; and this year tliere is not a curled one a miature of quicklime, or on lime-ſtone land.
emong them. Such potatoes, therefore, as are delign A correſpondent of the Bath Society is convinced
ed for ſecd, ſhould be preſerved as long in the ground that, whatever may be its cauſe, the fault itſelf is indie-
as poſſible.
rent in the ſeed; and has coinmunicated the following:
XV!. This writer adviſes ſuch ſct3 to be planted method of avoiding it: “I made a hot-bed in the fol-
as grow in moſs-land; and, he lays, there will not be lowing manner: (which method I have uſed ever ſince)
a linçle curled one the firſt year. This is afirmed by I laid horſe-dung, &c. (as is generally uſed in making
the inhabitants of two townilips, where they grow a hot-beds) about 18 inches thick; over which 1 ſpread
mazing quantities. A medical gentleman fowed laſt a layer of fine rich mould about four or five inches
year two buihels of ſets from one of the above places, thick : upon the top of this mould I laid, in different
and had not one curled; but on lowing them again diviſions, a certain number of potatoes of various forts,
this year, he had a few.
ſome of my own growth, and others brought from dif-
Notwith ítanding there ſeems to be a diverſity of ferent parts, and covered theſe lightly over with more
opinions in the above writers, occaſioned by the diffc- mould; they ſoon came up. I then obſerved which
rent appearances of their crops, and the ſeemingly was freeſt from the blight or curl ; for if there were
contrary effects of the means uſed to prevent or cure not more than one defective in forty or fifty, I concluded
the diſeaſe, we conceive that the following general I might ſet of that ſort with ſafety. This method I
propofitions may be fairly drawn from the whole. have now pracliſed lear twelve years, and never loſt
1. That ſome kinds of potatoes are (cæteris paribus) my crop or any part thereof worth mentioning; whilft
much more liable to be affected by the diſeaſe than the my neighbours, who followed the old method, werc
reſt; and that the old red, the golden dun, and the frequently diſappointed in their crops; and to the beſt
long-dun, are the moſt free from it.—2. That the of my knowledge, all thoſe of iny neighbours who have
diſeaſe is occaſioned by one or inore of the following of late been perſuaded to take the trouble of uſing the
cauſes, either ſingly or combined: Iſt, By froſt, either ſaine means as myſelf, have never failed of ſucceſs to
before or after the ſets areplanted : 2d, From planting their utmoſt wilhes inone inſtance ; nor do I ever think
fets out of largeunripe potatoes : 3d, From planting too it will fail, if duly attended to; the fault being ſome
near the ſurface,and in old worn-out ground: 4th,From hidden cauſe in the ſeed unknown at preſent, and I be-
the firſt ſhoots of the ſets being broken off before plant- lieve incurable by any nieans, at leaſt which have yet
ing; by which means there is an incapacity in the plane come to my knowledge. My reaſon for planting niy
ia ſeminalis to ſend forth others ſufficiently vigorous to hot-beds ſo ſoon is, that if the froſt hinders the firit
expand ſo fully as they ought.--3. That the moſt ſuc- experiment, or they all prove bad, I may liave time to
ceſsful methods of preventing the diſeaſe, are cutting make a ſecond or third if neceſſary, with different
the ſets from ſmooth middle-lized potatoes, that were forts of ſeed, before the proper ſeaſon arrives for plan-
full ripe, and had been kept dry after they were taken ting in the fields and grounds appointed for the great
out of the ground; and without rubbing off their firſt and general crop.”
PART II. PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE.
THE inftruments employed in agriculture are vari-
و
I.
83
Scots
Sect. I. Inftruments of Huſbandry.
The head is iliat part of tlie plough which goes in
the ground ; therefore the ſlıorter and narrower it is,
lhe friction will be the leſs, and the plough more eaſily
ous; as the plough, the harrow, the roller, &c. drawn : but the longer the head is, the plough goes
which are again greatly diverſified by various conſtruc more ſteadily, and is not ſo eaſily put out of its direc-
tions adapted to particular uſes.
tion by any obſtructions that occur. Twenty inches is
Of PLOUGH S.
conſidered as a mean length; and five inches is the
moſt convenient breadth.
The plough conſtructed in the following manner is The SHEATH, E, is driven into the mortoiſe b, and
Fig. 26
plough, ſtillile moſt common andthe moſt generally underſtood thus fixed to the head A B. It is not perpendicular to
in Scotland: and, if properly made, is the beſt foran the head, bui placed obliquely, ſo as to make the angle
ſwering all purpoſes, when only one is uſed; though formed by the lines A B and E B about 60 degrees.
others are, perhaps, inore proper on fone particular oc- The heath is about 13 inches long, beſides what is dri-
caſions.
ven into the mortoiſe b (fig. 1.); about three inches
84
Deſcription
The parts of which this plough is compoſed, are, the broad, and one inch thick.
of the Scots head,the bcani, the ſheath, the wreſt, the mould-board, The ſheath is fixed to the mould-board, as in fig. II.
plough. thciwo handles, the tworungs, the ſock, and the coul- E, in the ſame manner as the wreſ is fixed to the head
ter, the two laſt aremadeofiron,and all the reſt of wood. in fig. 4.
l'late V. The HEAD, is deſigned for opening the ground be The MOULD-BOARD, is deſigned to turn over the Fig.3
fig. I. low. Thelength of the head from A to B is about 20 earth of the furrow made by the plough; and it is ob-
inches, and the breadth from A to D about five inches; vious, that, according to the poſition of the ſhacath, the
C is the point upon which the fock is driven, and the mould-board will turn overtheearth of the furrow more
length from B to C is about ſix inches; a is the mor or leſs ſuddenly. Beſides, when it forms a leſs angle
toife into which the larger handle is fixed, and bis the with the head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great
mortoiſe into which the ſheath is fixed.
danger of being choked, as the farmers term it.
The
1
Part II.
A G R CU L T U R E.
271
l'iz. 3.
ވެ
Practice. The Larger HANDLE, F A, is fixed to the head, by feet fix inches. The leſer handle is fixed to the mould Practice.
driving it into the mortoiſe a(fig. 1.). It is placed in the board at M, fig. 10. and to the wreſt K B, at L.
ſame plaue with the head ; and its length from A Fis Fig. Il. repreſents the plough complete, by joining
about tive feet four inches, and its diameter a:the place together figures 6. and 10. in the ſheath EB. The
where it is fixed to the beam is about twoinches and an wreft B K is ſuppoſed to make an angle with the head
hall, and tapers a little to the top F. About ten inches A B as in fig. 7. and the handles joined together as in
from A, there is a curye in the landle, which, when F fig. 9.
is raiſed to its proper height, mahes the lower part of After having given ſuch a particular defcription of
it nearly parallel to the heath £ B. This curve is de- all the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it
Ligned to ſtrengthen the handle. The proper position will eatly appear how it ſeparates,raiſes and turns over
of the handleis, when the top F is about three icet two the earth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth
inches higher than the bottom of the head d B. would open above the middle of the ſock, and in a line
The longer the handles, the plough is the more eaſi- before the heath ; but as the coulter opens the earth
ly managed, becauſe the levers are mored ſtant from the in a line with the left ſide of the head, if the ſoil has
centre of motion. The higher the top of the handles, any coheſion, the earth of the furrow will be wholly
the plough is more eaſily raiſed out of the ground pro- raiſed from the left ſide, and, as the fock moves for-
vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man's ward, will be thrown on the right ſide of the flieach,
breaſt.
and by the caſting out of the mould-board, or the rai-
Fig.4.
The Beam, is fixed to the larger handle and the ſing of the wreſt, will be turned over.
ſheath, all of which are placed in the ſame plane with The BRIDLE,or Muzzle, is anotherarticle belong- Fig. 12,
the head. The length of it, from H to 1, is about fix ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,
feer ; its diameter is about four inches. when the anūthe cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonly
plough is in the ground, the beam ſhould be juſt high uſed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam hy a
enough not to be incommoded by any thing on the ſur. bolt through it. A B C is the muzzle, AC the bolt
face.
by which it is fixed to the beam ; D. is the ſwingle-tree
The poſition of the bean depends on the number of or croſs-tret, to which the traces are fixed ; and Bis
cattle in the plough. When two horſes are yoked, the a hook, or cieck, as it is commonly called, which joins
beam ſhould be placed in ſuch a manner as to make the the niuzzle and ſwingle-tree.
perpendicular diriance betwixt the bolt-hole of the Some ute another kind of muzzle, ABCD. It is Fig. 132
beam and the plane of the head about 21 inches; when fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by
four horſes are yoked, two a-breaſt, this diſtance which the cleek of the ſwingle-tree may be fixed ei-
Thould only be about 18 inches.
ther to the right or the left of the beam. There are
Fig. 5.
The SOCK, BP, is fixed to the end of the head, and alſo ditie.ent holes for the hind-bolt to paſs thro', by
is about two feet long. in fitting the Sock to the head,
in fitting the Sock to the head, which the draught may be fixed either above or below
the point ought to be turned a little to the land or left the beain. An is the fore-bolt upon which the
becauſe otherwiſe it is apt to come out of the muzzle turns ; on B C are four notches, betwixt any
land altogether. When turned to the left, it likewiſe two of which the cleeh of the ſwingle-tree may be fixed,
takes off more land; when turned upwards, the plough When the cleek is fixed at B, the plough is turned to-
gous ſhallow; and when downwards, it goes deeper. wards the firm land, and takes off a broader furrow;
The COULTER, is fixed to th beam, and is about and when fixed at C, it is turued towards the plough-
two fcet ten inches long, two inches and a half broad, ed land, and takes off a narrower furrow. È and F
ſharp at the point and before, and thick on the back, are the holeson each ſide thro' which the hindmoſt bolt
like a knife. It is fixed and directed by wedges, ſo as palies. When the bolt is put thro'the higheſt two, theſe
to make the point of it equal to, or rather a litle be- holes being thereby brought to the middle of the beam,
fore the point of the fock, and upon a line with the left the fore-part of the muzzle is raiſea above the beam,
ſide of the head. This oblique polition enables it to and the plough is made to go deeper ; and when put
throw roots, &c. out of the land, whi-h requires leſs through the loweſt tivo, the fore part of the muzzle is
force than cutting or puſhing them forward.
funk below the beam, and the plough is made to go
Fig. 7.
The WREST, BD, is fixed to the he.d, anů is about ſhallower. This muzzle may be ſo constructed as lo
26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It is tised have the ſame play with the common one. A is the Fig, 16,
to the head at B, in ſuch a manner as to make the end of the beam ; B a plate of iron ſunk into it, and
angle contained between the lines AB and BD about with a ſimilar one in the other ſide, is rivetted into it
25 degrees. The wreſt is ſeldom or never placed in by bolts ; C is the muzzle fixed to theſe plates of iron
the ſame place with the head, but gradually raiſed from by the bolt D, whi h bolt may be put through any of
the place where it is fixed to it; that is, from B to K, the holes E E. From the conſtruction of this un uzzle
as in fig. 8. The poſition of the wrest determines the it is plain, that it has the ſame play with the common
nature of the furrow. When the wreſt is ride and low one and that by it the land of the plough may be al-
fet, the ſurrow is inde; and when it is narrow and high tered at pleuvre.
85
ſet, the furrow is narrow.
Of all forms, that of the Scotch plough is the fit- Properties
F'ig 9. repreſents the two HANDLEs, fixed together teſt for breaking up ſtiff and rough land, eſpecially of the scuts
by the two rungs. The larger handle has already been where ſtones abound; and no leſs fit for ſtrong cliy's plough.
deſcribed; the leſſer one is a few inches ſhorter, and liardened by drouglit. The length of its head gives it
does not require to be quite ſo itrono. The diſtance of a firm hold of the ground; its weight prevents it from
the handles at the little rung depends on the polition being thrown out by ſtones; the length of the handles
of the wreſt. Their diſtance at M and P is about two gives the ploughman great comniand to direct its mo-
ſide ;
Fig. 6.
tion ;
272
AGRICULTU RE.
Part I.
}'radice. tion; and by the length of iis head, and of its mould- plough go more caſily, becauſe the roots of the graſs, Practice
board, it lays the furrow-llice cleverly over. This which go beyond the reach of the plouglı, are niore
plough was contrived during the iníacy of agricul- eaſily cut by the feather, than they can be torn aſunder
lure, and was well contrived : in the ſoils above de. by the comnion ſock. The feathered fock is alſo of
86 fcribed, it has not an equal.
great uſe in cutting and deſtroying root-weeds. The
In what foil But in icnder fuil it is improper, becauſe it adds con non ſock, however, anſwers much better in ſtrong
improper. greatly tothe expenceof ploug bing, without any coan land.
terbalancing benefit. The length of the head and It is proper here to add, that in fitting the feathered
nould-board increaſes thc friction, and conſequently it fock to the head, the point of it ſhould be turned a
requires a greater number or oxen or horſes than are litile from the land, or a little to the right hand, 89
necellary in a ſhorter plough. There is another par If we look back 30 years, ploughs of different con- Ignorance
licular in its form, that reliſts thedraught: the mould ſtructions did not entereven into a dream. The Scotch of farmers
in Scotland
board makes a i angle with the ſock, inſtead of making plough was univerſally uſed, and no other was known.
but a few
a line with it gently curved backward. There is an There was no leſs ignorance as to the number of cattle
years ago,
objection againſt it no leſs folid, that it does not ſtir neceſſary for this plough. In the ſouth of Scotland,
the ground perfectly : the linder part of the wreſt ſix oxen and two horſes were univerſal ; and in the
riſes a foot above the ſole of the head; and the eartlı north, 10 oxen, ſometimes 12. The firſt attempt to
that lies immediately below that hinder part, is left leſſen the number of oxen was in Berwickſhire. The
unſtirred. This is ribbing land below the ſurface, fi low part of that county abounds with ftone, clay, and
inilar to what is donc by ignorant farmers on the ſur- marl, the inoſt ſubſtantial of all manures, which had
face.
been long uſed by one or two gentlemen. About 25
Theſe defects muſt be ſubmitted to in a foil that re. years ago it acquired reputation, and ſpread rapidly.
quires a ſtrong heavy plough ; but may be avoided in As two houſes and two oxen were employed in every
à cultivated ſoil by a plough differently conſtructed. inarl-cart ; the farmer, in ſummer-fallowing, and in
Of all the ploughs fitted for a cultivated foil free of preparing land for marl, was confined to four oxen and
ſtones, thal introduced into Scotland about 20 years two horſes. And as that manure afforded plenty of
ago, by James Small in Blackadder Mount, Berwick- fucculent ſtraw for oxen, the farmer was ſurpriſed to
ſhire, is the beſt. Itis now in great requeſt; and with find that four oxen did better now than ſix formerly.
reaſon, as it avoids all the defects of the Scots plough. Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded flow-
The ſhortneſs of its head and of its mould-board lellen ly, till people were taught by a noted farmer in that
the frițion grearly : from the point of the ſock to the country, what induſtry can perform by means of power
back part of the head it is only 30 inches; and the properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty talk to
whole length, from the point of the beam to the end marl five or fix acres in a ycar. That gentleman, by
of the handles, between eight and nine feet. The plenty of red clover for his working.cattle, accom-
ſock and mouldboard make one line gently cùrving; pliſhed the narling 50 acres in a ſummer, once 54.
and conſequently gather no earth. Inſtcad of a wrelt, Having ſo much occaſion for oxen, he tried with ſuc-
the under edge of the mouldboard is in one plain with ceſs two oxen and two horſes in a plough; and that
87
the ſole of the head; which makes a wide furrow, with- practice became general in Berwickſhire.
go
Chain-
out leaving any part unſirred. It is termed the chain Now here appears with luſtre the advantage of the Ad
plough plough, becauſe it is drawn by an iron chain fixed to chain-plough. The great friction occaſioned in the ges of the
Plate v
the back part of the beam immediately before the Scotch plough by a long head, and by the angle it
fig, I.
plough par-
coulter. This has tipo advantages: firſt, by means of makes with the mouldboard, neceſſarily r
requires two ticularly il-
a muzzle, it makes the plough go deep, or ſhallow; oxen and two horſes, whatever the ſoil be. The fric- luſtrated.
and, next, it ſtreſſes the beam leſs than if fixed to the tion is ſo much leſs in the chain-plough, that two good
point, and therefore a ſlenderer beam is ſufficient. horſes are found ſufficient in every foil that is proper
This plough may be well conſidered as a capital im- for it. Beſides, the reducing the draught 10 a couple
provement ; not only by ſaving expence, but by ma of horſes has another advantage, that of rendering a
king better work. It is proper for loams ; for coarſe- driver unneceſſary. This ſaving onevery plough,where
clays; and, in general, for every ſort of tender ſoil two horſes and two oxen were formerly uſed, will, by
free of ſtones. It is even proper for opening up pa the ſtricteſt computation, be L. 15 Sterling yearly; and
ſture-ground, where the ſoil has been formerly well where four horſes wercuſed, noleſsthan L. 20 Sterling.
cultivated.
There is now ſcarce to be ſeen in the low country of
Of the Sock
A ſpiked fock is uſed in the Scotch plough. The Berwickſhire a plough with niore than two horſes ;
Plate V,
difference between it and the feathered ſock will be which undoubtedly in time will become general. We
beſt underſtood by comparing their figures. Fig. 14. know but of one further improvement, that of uſing
is the common ſock, and fig. 15. the feathered one. two oxen inſtead of two horſes. That draught has
From the conſtruction of the feathered ſock, it is been employed with ſucceſs in ſeveral places; and the
obvious, that it inuſt meet with greater reliſtance than ſaving is ſo great, that it muſt force its way every
the comion fock, However, when the plough takes where. It may be confidently affirmed, nu fuil ſtirred
off the earth of the furrow broader than that part of in & proper ſeaſon, can ever require more than two
the fuck which goes upon the head, it is more eaſily horſes and two oxen in a plough, cven ſupposing it the
drawn than thc plough with the common ſock; for the Liffeſt clay. In all other foils, two good horſes, or
earıh which the common ſock leaves to be opened two good oxen abreaſt, nay be relied on for every o.
by the preſt, is more eaſily opened by the feather of peration of the chain-plough.
the otier ſock. In ley, the feathered ſock makes the A chain-plough of a ſmaller lize than ordinary,
3
drawn
chain
1
88
D
ofing
P
E
Trig
B
Fig 6
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Plate 2
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20
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Fig 3.
D
Fig 4
4
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B
Frig:6
26
B В
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Fig8
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Frigg
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Fig 13
i
Fig 10
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2,6
B.
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Frig: 11
to
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Fig 12
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Refoit chreiben
i
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
73
23
A ſmall
piir-
Plate VII.
Practice, drawn by a ſingle horſe, is of all the moſt proper in order to its being burnt. Nr Bradley lias given tlie Preise.
for horſe-hoeing, fuppoting the land to be mellow, following deſcription of a very limple inſtrument of
which it ought to be for that operation. It is ſuffi-
this kind : From A 10 A (fig.15.) is the plough-beam, The Pering
cient for making furrows to receive the dung, for
about ſeven feet long, mortiſed and pinioned into the Plough,
ploughing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the block B, which is of clean timber wi hout knots, Plate VII,
CC are the ſheaths or ſtandards, made flat on the in- fig. 4.
91
crop.
A ſtill ſmaller plough of the fame kind may be re fide, to cloſe equally with the paring plate, and faiten-
ſingle horſe commended for a kitchen-garden. It can be reduced ed to it with a bolt and key on each ſide, as at D.
plough re. to the ſmalleſt fize, by being made of iron ; and where E is the paring plate of iron laid with Itcel, about four
commend the land is properly dreſſed for a kitchen-garden, an
inches wide, and from 12 to 18 inches long. This
ed for va iron plough
ofthefmallef lize drawn by a horſe will ſave plate muſt be made to cut on the ſides, which are bolt-
poſes.
ed to the ſtandards as well as at the bottom part. FF
much ſpade-work. In Scotland, thirty years ago, a kit-
chen-garden was an article of luxury merely, becauſe are two iron braces to keep the ſtandards from giving
at that time there could be no cheaper food than oat way : theſe ſtandards muſt be mortiſed near the oui-
meal. At preſent, the farmer maintains his ſervants at ſides and through the block. GG are the plough
double expence, as the price of oat-meal is doubled; handles, which muſt be fixed flope-ways betireen the
and yet he has no notion of a kitchen-garden more
beam and the ſtandards. The pin-holes in the bcam,
than he had thirty years ago. He never thinks, that
the uſe of which is to make the plough cuć niore or
living partly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would leſs deep, by fixing the wheels nearer to or farther
fave much oat-meal: nor does he ever think, that from the paring plate, ſhould not be above two inches
change of food is more wholeſome, than vegetables alunder.
94
alone, or oat-meal alone. We need not recommend Fig. 1, repreſents the four-coultered plough of lír The Four.
potatoes, which in ſcanty crops of corn have proved Tull. Its beam is ten feet four inches long, where- coultered
Plough,
a great bleſſing : without them, the labouring poor as that of the common plough is but tight. The beanı
would frequently have been reduced to a ſtarving con- is ſtraight in the common plough, but in this it is
dition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen- ſtraight only from a to b, and thence arched: fo that
garden with as much induſtry as he beſtows on his the line let down perpendicularly from the corner at ,
potatoe crop, he need never fear want; and he can to the even furface on which the plough itands, would
cultivate it with the iron plough at a very ſmall ex-
be il; inches; and if anotherline were lct down from
pence. It may be held by a boy of 12 or 13; and the turning of the beam at b to the ſame ſurface, it
would be a proper education for a ploughman. But it would be one foot eightinches and a half; and a third
is the landlord who ought to give a beginning to the line let down to the ſurface from the bottom of the
improvement. A very ſmall expence would inclofe an beam at that part which bears upon the pillow, will
acre for a kitchen-garden to each of his tenants; and ſhow the beam to be two feet ten inches high in that
it would excite their induſtry, to beſtow an iron plough part. At the diſtance of three feet two inches from
on thoſe who do beſt.
the end of the beam a, at the plough-tail, the firſt coul-
Nor is this the only caſe where a ſingle-horſe plough ter, or that next the ſhare, is let through ; and at 13
may be profitably employed. It is ſufficient for feed- inches from this, a ſecond coulter is let through : a
furrowing barley, where the land is light and well- third at the ſame diſtance from that ; and, finally, the
dreſſed. ”It may be uſed in the ſecond or third plough. fourth at the fame diſtance from the third, that is, 13
ing of fallow, to encourage annual weeds, which are inches : and from a to bis ſeven feet.
deſtroy ed in ſubſequent ploughings.
The crookedneſs of the upper part of the beam of
Thé Rotheram plough is a machine of very ſimple this plough is contrived to avoid the too great length
Plough conſtruction, and eaſily worked. AB is the beam, of the three foremoſt coulters, which would be too
Plate VII, CD the ſheath, EBD the main handle, FR the ſmall- much if the beam was ſtraight all the way; and they
er handle, GH the coulter, Ki the fock or ſhare, NP would be apt to bend and be diſplaced, unleſs they
the bridle, S the fly-band, and ML a piece of wood were very heavy and clumſey. Ah is the beſt wood to
in place of a head. The whole of this plough ſhould make the beam of, it being fufficiently ſtrong, and yet
be made of aſh or elm ; the irons ſhould be ſteeled and light. The fheat in this plough is to be ſeven inches
well-tempered; and that part of the plough which is broad. The fixing of the ſhare in this, as well as in
under ground in tilling ſhould be covered with plates the common plough, is the niceſt part, and requires
of iron. The difference between this and the common the utmoſt art of the maker; for the well-going of the
plough ſeems to conſiſt in the bridle at the end of the plough wholly depends upon the placing this. Sup-
beain, by which the ploughman can give the plough poſing the axis of the beam, and the left ſide of the
more or leſs land by notches at N, or make it cut deep ſhare, to be both horizontal, they muſt never be fet
er or ſhallower by the holes at P ; in the coulter or parallel to each other ; for if they are, the tail of the
ſhare, which are ſo made and ſet as to cut off the new ſhare bearing againſt the trench as much as che point,
furrow without tearing; and in the mould-board, which would cauſe the point to incline to the right hand, and
is ſo ſhaped at firſt to raiſe a little, and then gradually it would be carried out of the ground into the furrow.
turn over the new cut furrow with very little reſiſtance. If the point of the ſhare ſhould be ſet ſo, that ils lide
But the greateſt advantage attending it, is its being ſo ſhould make an angle on the right lide of the axis of
caſy of draught, that it will do double the work of any the beam, this inconvenience would be much greater;
common plough.
and if its point ſhould incline inuch to the lcft, and
The Faring plough is an inſtrument uſed in ſeveral make too large an angle on that ſide with the axis of
parts of England for paring off the ſurface of theground, the beam, the plough would run quite to the left hand;
Vor.).
and
'92
Rotheram
fig. 3,
Mm
AGRICULTURE.
274
Part II.
Practice, and if the holder, to prevent its running quite out of thickneſs, as allow the edges to be well ſteeled. The Practice.
the ground, turus the upper part of his plough to wheels are fixed by two bolts going through the bulls,
wards the left hand, the pin of the thare will riſe up, with eyes on one end for the axies of the wheels to
and cut the furrow diagonally,leaving it halfunplough- runin, and nuts and ſcrews on the other to make them
ed. To avoid this and ſeveral other inconveniences, very firm and ſunk in the bulls, to prevent their inter-
he ſtraight ſide of the ſhare muſt make an angle upon fering with the weights L. L. &c. reſting on them.
the left ſide of the beam ; but that muſt be ſo very a G. G. &c. are hollow pieces of wood, called thorles,
cute a one, that the tail of the ſhare may only preſs each 34 inches long, which incloſe the bolt M. M.
leſs againſt the ſide of the trench than the point does. and keep the vulls C. C. &c. at their proper diſtances,
This angle is ſhown by the pricked lines at the bottom but may be made longer or ſhorter at pleaſure, accor-
of fig. 9. where ef is ſuppoſed to be the axis of the ding as the ſward requires to be cut in larger or ſmall-
beam lét down to the ſurface, and gf parallel to the left er pieces. They are in two pieces bound together,
ſide of the ſhare ; and it is the ſubtenſe eg that deter- and jointed by a ſtrap of leather or cord, which allows
niines the inclination which the point of the ſhare muſt them to be readily changed when the cutting wheels
have towards the left hand. This ſubtenſe, ſays Mr require to be kept at more or leſs diſtance.
Tull, at the fore-end of an eight-feet beann, ſhould ne The iron bolt M. M. goes through two pieces of
ver be more than one inch and a half, and whether the wood or iron P. P. 7 inches long, clear of the wood,
beam be long or ſhort, thc ſubtenſe muſt be the ſame. ſupported by iron ſtays fixed to the frame, and thro
The great thing to be taken care of, is the placing all the bulls. It requires to be ſtrong, as the draught
the four coulters; which muſt be ſo ſet, that the four of the horſes terminate there.
imaginary places deſcribed by their four edges, as the H. H. NA 2. and 3. a cylinder or ſegment of
plough moves forward, may be all parallel to cach o. wood, 7 inches diameter, called a rocking tree, which
ther, or very nearly ſo ; for if any one of them ſhould goes acroſs the frame, and noves on the pivots fixed
be very much inclined to, or ſhould recede much from into it, one at each end, ſupported by an iron bolt or
either of the other, then they would not enter the piece of wood mortiſed into the frame, 8 inches high,
ground together. In order to place them thus, the as appears in N8 2. and 3: to which 6 chains or ropes
beam muſt be carefully pierced in a proper manner. are fixed by hooks, at different diſtances, as you want
The ſecond coulter-hole muſt be two inches and a half your cuts, 9, 8, 7, or ſix inches from one another, and
more on the right hand than the firſt, the third muſt arejoined to the end of each bull in which the cutting
be as much more to the right of the ſecond, and the wheels run; ſo that when the rocking tree is turned
fourth the ſame meaſure to the right hand of the third; about by the lever I. fixed in the middle of it, all
and this two inches and a half muſt be carefully mea the bulls, with their cutting wheels, are raiſed out of
ſured from the centre of one hole to the centre of the
the ground at once, as in N° 3. by which means the
other. Each of theſe holes is a mortiſe of an inch and machine may be turned, or moved from place to place
quarter wide, and is three inches and a half long at the with great eaſe, without any danger of ſtraining the
top, and three inches at the bottom.
The two oppo-
wheels.
ſite ſides of this hole are parallel to the top and bot L. L. L. &c. NS 1. 2. 3. are weights of freeſtone,
tom, but the back is oblique, and determines the ob 26 inches long and 6 inches broad ; the under one 4
liquity of the ſtanding of the coulter, which is wedg- inches thick, the upper one 3 inches thick ; weighing
ed tight up to the poll. The coulter is two feet eight about 64 lb. the under, and 48 the upper ; each of
inches long before it is worn; the handle takes up lix them having two holes, through which iron ſpikes,
teen inches of this length, and is allowed thus long, firmly fixed in the bulis, paſs, in order to keep them
un ar the coulter may be driven down as the point wears ſtcady.
away. As to the wheels, the left hand wheel is 20 When the ground is eaſily cut, theunder ſtone may
inches diameter, and that on the right hand two feet anſwer ; when more difficult, the other ſtone may be
ihree inches, and the diſtance at which they are fet added; ſo that every wheel may have 7 ſtone-weight
from each other is two feet 5 inches,
upon it, which has been found ſufficient for the fineſt
land and tougheſt ſward the machine has ever been
2. The PATENT SWARD-CUTTER.
tried on.
Caſt iron weights will anſwer fully beiter,
but arc more expenſive.
The different parts of this inſtrumentarerepreſent The lever I. NO 2. 3. which ought to be 5 feet long,
ed by Ne 1. 2. 3. of fig. 6. A. A. &c. a ſquare frame muſt have a Niding rope on it; fixed to the back part
.3 feet 4 inches from the fore to the hind part, by 4 of the frame ; ſo that when the cutting wheels are all
cutter,
feet 3 inches, the breadth of the machine within taken out of the ground three or four inches, by the
Plase VI.
fide; the timber (when of fir) 4 inches ſquare, pla- rocking tree's being turned partly round by the lever,
ced on two wheels B. B. 3 feet diaineter, a little more the rope may be fixed to it by a loop over the pin R.
or leſs (the old fore-wheels of a chaiſe may anſwer the Ne 3. (it ought to be placed 3 feet 4 inches from the
purpoſe), to ſupport the hind part of the machine. extrentity of the lever I.) Thus all the cutting wheels
C.C. &c. are lix ſtrong pieces of wood, called bulls, are kept out of the ground till the machine is turned ;
3 feet long, 5 inches and a half broad, the thickneſs and then by inoving the loop off the pin, it Nips back
6 inches at E. -and tapering to 3 inches at F. Into towards the frame, and the lever is gently let back to
theſe bulls are fixed the cutting wheels, which are i its placa', as in N& 2. by which the cutting wheels are
ron, 13 inches diameter, ths of an inch thick at the put into their former poſture, by the weights fixed on
centre, about an inch diameter for piercing holes to fix ihe bulls in which they run. The levers in ay be made
the iron axles in ; from that they are to be of ſuch of good tough allie
P.P. NOT
36
Paluut
Sward.
1
Part 11.
AGRICULTURE.
275
Practice,
1
P. P. N° 1. a ſmall bult of iron, with a hook on to which the ſward-cutter, conſiling of four, ix, or Practice.
one end of it (one is ſufficient), to ſtrengthen the bolt more cutting wheels, is never liable, from theſe being
M. M. to be hooked on the centre of it, and joined to entirely independent ofone another,cutting the ground
the frame by a nut and ſcrew.
acroſs theridges before ploughing, and rendering that
The grooves in which the cutting wheels run, may operation calier to two horſes tlian it would be to three
be covered below at the hinder part with a plate of without its being cat. The furrow being cut acroſs,
thin black iron, 6 inches long, 3 inches broad, having falls finely from the plough in ſquares of any ſize re-
a llit in it where the wheels run, to prevent (if found quired not under fix inches, in place of long flips of
neceffary) any graſs, weeds, or ſmall ſtones, from fill- tough ſward ſeldom and imperfectly broke by the four-
ing the grooves, and clogging the wheels.
coultered plough.
To the frame Nº 1. are fixed (for a double-horſe This inſtrument is very fit for preparing ground for
ſward-cutter) three ſhafts, as in a waggon, of ſuch burrbating, as it will ſave much band-labour.
length, ſtrength, and diſtance from one another, as any It may be properly uſed in croſs-cutting clover of
workman may think proper.
one or tivo years ſtanding, to prepare the ground for
Fora ſinglé horſe fward-cutter (which has only four wheat, if the land is ſtiff and moiſt enough.
cutting wheels); a pair of ſhafts are uſed, and may It may be applied to cutting and crofs-cutting pa-
make the two sides of the frame without any joinings. ſture-ground, intended to have manure of any kind put
The width of the frame, in proportion to the double- upon it to meliorate the graſs. In this it will far ex-
horſe ſward-cutter, is as four to fix.
ceed the ſcarificator nientioned in one of Mr Young's
It is recommended for a double-horſe ſward-cutter tours ; as that inſtrument is liable, as well as the four-
to have eight bulls and wheels, in order that when it coultered plough, to be thrown out of its work when
is uſed to reduce hard clody ſunimer-fallow, or land meeting with a ſtone or other interruption. This the
for barley, before the laſt furrow, or even after it, the ſward-cuitter is proof againſt, which is looked on as its
whole weight (42 ſtone) employed in cutting the ſtiff- greateſt excellence.
eſt land and tougheſt [ward, may be applied to the 8 In preparing for barley, the (ward-cutter excels a
bulls then at 6 inches from one another. The 64 lb. roller of any kind in reducing the large hard clods ir
weights to be applied to fix of the bulls, and two of clay land, occaſioned by a ſudden drought, after its
the 48- 1b. weights to each of the additional bulls, being ploughed too wet; and it is likewiſe very pro-
which is a ſufficient weight for the purpoſe, and will per for reducing ſuch clay land when ander afummer-
effectually prevent a clod of more than fix inches fallow. In this operation, the ſward-cutter is greatly
breadth from eſcaping being broke to pieces. to be preferred to the cutting-roller, likewiſe men-
In the ſame manner, afingle-horſe ſward-cutter may tioned by Mr Young in one of his tours; for the
have ſix bulls for the abovementioned purpoſe; the wheels of the latter being all dependent one on ano-
28 ſtone belonging to it divided thus : The 64 lb. ther, when one is thrown out by a ſtone, three or f ur
weights to four of the balls, and two of the 48 lb. muſt ſhare the ſame fate. Belides, the cutting-roller
weights to each of the additional bulls.
has but ſeven wheels in ſix feet; whereas the ſward-
That the machine may come as cheap as poſſible to cutter has fix in four feet three inches, at nine in-
the public, the inventor is of opinion, that the expence ches diſtance; and, if neceſſary, may have them ſo
of the two wheels and the iron axle (which is conſi near as ſix inches.
derable) may be ſaved, by joining ſtrongly to the frame After old graſs-ground is cut acroſs with the fward-
at S. N° 3. a piece of wood with a little curve at the cutter and ploughed, it has a very uncommon and
extremity of it, reſembling the foot of a fledge, for- worklike appearance, from each ſquare turned over by
merly much uſed in Scotland to carry in the corn from the plough being raiſed up an inch or two at the ſide
the field; the part of it reſting on the ground being laſt moved by the earth-board ; ſo that the field, when
kept 18 inches (the half diameter of the wheels) from finiſhed, is all prettily waved, and reſembles a piece
the frame, by a ſtrong ſupport of wood.
of water when blown on by a gentle breeze. By this
As the two outer bulls next the frame are apt to means a very great deal of the land's ſurface is expoſed
get under it, ſo as to prevent the cutting wheels from to the froſt and other influences of the air, which
being taken out of the ground, a thin ſlip of iron fixed cannot fail to have a good effect on it.
to the inſide of the frame, nearly oppoſite to the back Two horſes are ſufficient for the draught of a double-
end of the bulls, of convenient length, will be found horſe ſward-cutter and one horſe for a ſingle-horſeone.
neceflary.
One nian manages the machine and drives the horſes.
The original intention of this machine was to pre. He begins his operation by firſt meaſuring off 20 or 30
pare old graſs-ground for the plough, by cutting it paces from the machine, leſs or more as he inclines,
acroſs the ridges, in the beginning of or during win- and there fixes a pole. He then cuts the field croſs, as
ter, when the ground is foft, in order to anſwer all near at right angles with the ridges as he can. When
the purpoſes that Mr Tull propoſed by his four-coulter the cutting wheels are paſt the laſt furrow about a
plough above deſcribed, and ſo frongly recommended yard or ſo, and the machine is upon the outmoſt ridge
by him for bringing into tilth graſs-ground that has of the field on which it muſt turn, he muſt ſtop the
been long rcſted. This the livard-cutter has been horſes; then take hold of the lever 1. N°, 2. and by
found to do much more effecually and expeditiouſly: pulling it to him he raiſes ulae cutting wheels out of
For Mr Tull's machine cuts the lward in the fame di- the ground, which are kept ſo by the loop of the rope
rection with the plough ; and is liable, from every ab. being put over the pin R. in the lever l. N° 3. till the
Itrudion any of the coulters meet with, to be thrown machine. is turned and brought to its proper place,
out of its work altogether, or the inſtrument broken: which is done by meaſuring off the ſame diſtance for-
merly
M m 2
-
276
AGRICULTURE.
Part II,
Y
}
Practice. merly done on the oppoſite ſide of the field. When graſs, a croſs-breakingis perſerable to a croſs-plough- Practice.
the cutting wheels are exactly overthe outmoſt furrow, ing, and is done at half the expence. When ground
then, on the horſes being ſtopped, the rope is ſlipt off is proughed from the ſtate of nature, and after a con-
the pin R, and the lever returned to its former place, petent time is croſs-ploughed, the brakeis applied with
as repreſented Nº2.which allowsthe weights L.L. &c. great ſucceſs, iinmediately after the croſs-ploughing,
to force the cutting wheels into the ground again. to reduce the whole to proper tilth.
He then goes on till the intervalbetwixt ihe. firit and Let it be obſerved, that a brake with a greater num-
ſecond ſtroke of the machine is all cut. In this manner ber of teeth than abovementioned, is improper for
the field is to be finished, after which you may begin ground that is bound together by the roots of plants,
to plough when you pleaſe. (N. B. There muſt be a which is always the caſe of ground new broken up from
pole at each ſide of the field.
its natural ſtate. The brake is ſoon choked, and can
It is of no conſequence wliether the land to be ſward- do no execution till freed from the earth it helds, A
cut is in crooked ridges or itraight, in flat ridges or in leſs number of teeth would be deficient in pulverizing
very high raiſed ones. Be the ſurface ever ſo uneven, the ſoil.
the cutting wheels, being all independent of one ano-
Ther, are forced by their weights into every furrow
4. The HARROW.
or hollow.
One fward-cutter will cut as much in one day as ſix HARROWS are commonly conſidered as of no uſe
ploughs will plough.
but to cover the feed ;but they have another uſe
Theland
may lie ſeveral months in winter after be- ſcarce leſs eſſential, which is to prepare land for the
ing ſward-cut, when there is no vegetation to make feed.
feed. This is an article of importance for producing
the cuts grow together again before it is ploughed; a good crop. But how imperfe&ly either of theſe pur-
but the fooner it is ploughed after cutting the better, poſes is performed by the common harrow, will
appear
that it may have the benefit of all the winter's froſt, from the following account of it.
98
which makes it harrow better in feed-time.
The harrow commonly uſed is of different forms. Imperfec-
When the ground is harrowed, the harrows ought The firſt we will mention has two bulls, four feet long tion of the
to go with the waves which appear after ploughing, and 18 inches afunder, with four wooden teeth in each common
not againſt them, as by that means they are leſs apt to A ſecond has three bulls and 12 wooden teeth. A
harrow,
tear up the furrows all cut into ſquares. This, how- third has four bulls, and 20 teeth of wood or iron,
ever, need only be attended to the two firſt times of 10, 11, or 12 inches aſunder. Now, in fine mould,
'harrowing, as they are called.
the laſt may be ſufficient for covering the ſeed; but
Any common wright and ſmith may make the in none of them are ſufficient to prepare for the ſeed any
ſtrament. It is very ſtrong, very ſimple, and eaſily ground that requires ſubdning. The only tolerable
managed and moved from place to place; and, if put form is that with iron teeth ; and the bare deſcrip-
under coyer, will laſt many years.
tion of its imperfections will ſhow the neceſſity of a
It was invented ſome time ago by the honourable more perfect form. In the firſt place, this harrow is
Robert Sandilands; and is repreſented in the Plate as by far too light for ground new taken up from the
it has been lately improved by him, the price being ſtate of nature, for clays hardened with ſpring-drought,
at the ſame time reduced from L. 15 or L. 16 to L. 5 or for other ſtubborn foils : it floats on the ſurface ;
or L. 6.
and after frequent returns in the ſame tract, nothing
is done effectually. In the next place, tlie teeth are
3. The BRAKE.
too thick ſet, by which the harrow is apt to be choked,
gó
eſpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which
Brake de The brake is a large and weighty harrow, the pur- is commonly the cafe. At the ſame time, the lightneſs
fcribed,
poſe of which is to reduce a ſtubborn ſoil, where an and number of teeth keep the harrow upon the ſurface,
Plate VI. ordinary harrow makes little impreſſion. It conſiſts and prevent one of its capital purpoſes, that of divi-
fig von
of four ſquare bulls, each lide five inches, and fix feet ding the ſoil. Nor will fewer teeth anſwer for covering
and a half in length. The teeth are 17 inches long, the ſeed properly. In the third place, the teeth are
bending forward like a coulter. Four of them are in 100 ſhort for reducing a coarſe fuil to proper tilth ; and
ferted into each bull, fixed above with a ſcrew-nut, yet it would be in vain to make them longer, becauſe
having 12 inches free below, with a heel cloſe to the the harrow is too light for going deep into the ground.
under part of the bull, to prevent it from being puſhed Further, the common harrows are foill conſtructed, as
back by ſtones. The nut above makes it eaſy to be to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is
taken out for ſharping. This brake requires four horſes loſt in diſengaging them. . Laſtly, it is equally unfit
or four oxen. One of alelſer lize will not fully anſwer for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo
the purpoſe: one of a larger ſize will require fix oxen: bound with couch-graſs, as to make the furrow-ſlice
in which caſe the work may be performed at leſs ex ſtand upright, as when old lea is ploughed: notwith-
& 7 pence with the plough.
ſtanding much labour, the graſs-roots keep the field,
Uſes, This inſtrument may be applied to great advantage and gain the victory..
in the following circumſtances. In the fallowing ſtrong A little reflection, even without experience, will
clay that requires frequent ploughings, a breaking be make it evident, that the ſame harrows, whatever be
tween every ploughing will pulverize the ſoil, and ren the form, can never anſwer all the different purpoſes of
der the ſubſequent ploughings more eaſy. In the harrowing,nor can operate equally in all different ſoils,
month or March or April, when ſtrong ground is rough or ſmooth, firm or loole. I he followiny, there.
ploughed for barley, eſpecially if bound with conch- fore, have been recommended ; which are of three dif-
ferent
$
277
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
6
Practice. ferent forms, adapted for different purpoſes. They cond is intended for covering the ſced: its long teeth Practice.
are all of the ſame weight, drawn each by two horſes. lays the ſeed deeper than the coinmon harrow can do:
99
Birch is the beſt wood for them, becauſe it is cheap, which is no fight advantage. By placing the feed
Improved
harrows.
and not apt to ſplit. The firſt is compoſed of four conſiderably under the ſurface, the young plants are,
Plate VI. bulls, each four feet ten inches long, three and a quar on the one hand, protected from too much heat, and,
ter inches broad, and three and a half deep; the in on the other, have ſufficiency of moiſture. At the
terval between the bulls II and three-fourths inches ; ſame time, the feed is ſo well covered that none of it
ſo that the breadth of the whole harrow is four feet. is loft. Seed ſlightly covered by the conmon harrows
The bulls are connected by four ſheths which go thro' wants moiſture, and is burnit up by the fun; beſide,
each bull, and are fixed by timber-nails;driven through that a proportion of it is left upon the ſurface unco-
both. In each bull five teeth are inſerted, ten incles vered. The third harrow ſupplies whai may be defi-
free under the bull, and ten inches aſunder. They are cient in the ſecond, by ſmoothing the ſurface, and co.
of the ſame forin with thoſe of the brake, and inſerted vering the ſeed more accurately. The three harrows
into the wood in the ſame manner. Each of theſe teeth make the ground finer and finer, as heckles do lint;
is three pounds weight; and where the harrow is made or, to uſe a different compariſon, the firſt harrow makes
of birch, the weight of the whole is ſix ſtone 14 pounds, the bed, the ſecond lays the ſeed in it, the third
Dutch. An erect bridle is fixed at a corner of the ſmooths the cloaths. They have another advantage not
harrow, three inches high, with four notches for draw- inferior to any mentioned: they mix inanure with the
ing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is ſoil inore intimately than can be done by common har-
fixed for two horſes drawing abreaſt, as in a plough. rows; and apon ſuch intimate mixture depends great-
And to ſtrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is ly the effect of manure as has already been explained.
nailed upon the harrow from corner to corner in the To conclude, theſe harrows are contrived to anſwer an
line of the draught.
eſtabliſhed principle in agriculture. That fertility de-
The ſecond harrow conſiſts of two parts, connected pends greatly on pulverizing the ſoil, and on an inti-
together by a crank or hinge in the middle, and two mate mixture of manure with it, whether dung, lime,
chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep marl, or any other.
the two parts always parallel, and at the ſame diſtance The Chain and Screw Harrow. Fig. 8. is the plan Plate VI.
from each other. The crank is ſo contrived, as to al- of a harrow alſo invented by Mr Sandilands, and to
low the two parts to ply to the grouud like two un which he has given the name of the chair and ſcrew
connected harrows; but neither of them to riſe above harrow. Its properties are, that if your ridges be
the other, more than if they were a ſingle harrow high, and you wiſh to harrow them from one end to the
without a joint. "In a word, they may form an angle, other, by lengthening the chain (which the ſcrew coni-
downward, but not upward. Thus they have the ef- nands), the harrow,when drawn along, formsan angle
fect of two harrows in curved ground, and of one downwards, and milles none of the curve of the ridge,
weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is compoſed ſo far as it extends (which may be nine feet, the di-
of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad, ſtance from A to B.
ſtance from A to B. The extent, in the contrary di-
and three and a half deep. The interval between the rection is five feet fix inches). When the crowns of
bulls nine and a half inches; which makes the breadth the ridges have got what is thought ſufficient harrow-
of the whole harrow, including the length of the crank, ing lengthwiſe, you ſhorten the chain by the ſcrew,
to be five feet five inches, Each bull has five teeth, which forms an angle upwards: the barrow is then
nine inches free under the wood, and ten inches aſun- drawn by the horſes, one on each ſide of the furrow;
der. The weight of each tooth is two pounds; the which completely harrows it, and the ſides of the ridge,
reſt as in the former.
if 18 feet broad.
The third conſiſts alſo of two parts, connected to When you want to harrow even ground or high
gether-like that laſt inentioned. It has eight bulls, ridges acroſs with the ſcrew, you can bring the hara
each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and row to be horizontel, ſo as to work as a ſolid harrow
three deep. The interval between the bulls is eight without a joint.
inches; and the breadıh of the whole harrow, inclu. The teeth are forined and fixed in the common man-
ding the length of the crank, is ſix feet four inches. ner, ſquare, not in the faſhion of coulters; and are nine
In each bullare inſerted five teeth, ſeven inches free un or ten inches below the wood, and of ſuch ſtrength as
der the wood, and ten and a half inches afunder, each it is thought the land requires. The teeth cut, or ra-
tooth weighing one pound. The reſt as in the two for- ther tear, the ground at every four inches without va-
mer harrows.
riation, though ſeemingly placed irregularly; and this
Properties Theſe harrows aroa conſiderable improvement. They without any riſk of choaking, except ſometimes at the
of chefe
ply to curved ground like twounconnected harrows; and extreme angles, where the teeth are neceſſarily near
barrows. when drawn in one plain, they are in effcstone harrow each other ; but which may be cleaned with the greateſt
of double weight, which makes the teeth pierce deep eaſe, by raiſing them a little out of the ground. The fi-
into the ground. The imperfection of common har gures 1, 2, &c. point out where the 12 teech on each
rows, mentioned above, will ſuggeſt the advantages of ſide of the harrow are placed.
the ſet of harrows here recommended. The firſt is pro Where a ſtrong brake-harrow is not neceſſary, by
per for harrowing land that has long lain after plough- making the teeth
ſhorter and lighter, you may have 48
ing, as where oais are fown on a winter-furrow, and in teeth, which will tear the ground at every two inches,
general for harrowing ſtiffland: it pierces deep into the cover the feed well, and make a fine mould.
foil by its long teeth, and divides it minutely. The fe It is recommended, that harrosys for every purpoſe,
and
Fim. 5.
IOO
1
1
1
278
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
1
101
102
Pract icrand of any ſize, be made on the above principle ; by rolling keeps in the moiſture, and hinders drought to Practice.
which no torth can ever follow the track of another, penetrate. This effect is of great moment.
. In a dry
and all of them will be kept conſtantly acting. ſeaſon, it may make the difference of a good crop, ur
no crop, eſpecially where the ſoil is light. In the third
5. The ROLLER.
place, the rolling graſs-ſeeds, beſides the foregoing ad-
vantages, facilitates the inowing for hay ; and it is to
The roller. The roller is an inſtrument of capital uſe in huſ- be hoped, that the advantage of this practice will lead
bandry, though ſcarcely known in ordinary practice; farmers to mow their corn alſo, which will increaſe the
and, where introduced, it is commonly ſo flight as to quantity of ſtraw both for food and for the dunghill.
have very little effect.
There is a ſmall roller for breaking clods in land in-
Rollers are of different kinds; ſtone, caſt-iron, wood. tended for barley. The common way is, to break
Each of theſe has its advantages. We would recom clods with a mall: which requires many hands, and is a
mend the laſt, conſtructed in the following nianner. laborious work. This roller performs the work more
Take the body of a tree, fix feet ten inches long, the effectually, and at much leſs expence ; let a harrowing
larger the better, made as near a perfect cylinder as precede, which will break the clods a little; and after
poſſible." Surround this cylinder with three rows of lying a day, or a day and an half, to dry, this roller will
fillies, one row in the middle, and one at cach end. diſſolve them into powder. This however does not ſu-
Line theſe fillies with planks of wood equally long with perſede the uſe of the great rolier after all the other ar-
the roller, and ſo narrow as to ply into a circle. Bind ticles are finiſhed, in order to make the ſoil compact,
them faſt together with iron-rings. Beech-wood is the and to keep out the ſummer-drought. A ſtone roller
beſt, being hard and tough. The roller thus mount four feet long, and fifteen inches diameter, drawn by
ed, ought to have a diameter of three feet ten inches. one horſe, is ſufficient to break clods thai are eaſily dif-
It has a double pair of Mafts for two horſes abreaft. ſolved by preſſure. The uſe of this roller in preparing
Theſe are fufficient in level ground; in ground not le- land for barley is gaining ground daily, even among
vel, four horſes may be neceſſary. The roller without ordinary tenants, who have become ſenlible both of the
the ſhafts ought to weigh 200 ſtone Dutch ; and the expence and toil of uſing wooden malls. But in a clay
large diameter makes this great weight eaſy to be ſoil, the clous are ſometimes too firm, or too tough, to
drawn.
be ſubdued by ſo light a machine. In that caſe, a rol-
Seafon for Rolling wheat in the month of April is an import- ler of the ſame ſize, but of a different conſtruction, is
rolling. ant article in looſe ſoil; as the winter-rains preſſing neceſſary. It ought to be ſurrounded with circles of
down the ſoil leave many roots in the air. Barley iron, fix inches afunder, and ſeven inches deep; which
ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is ſown; will cut even the moſt ſtubborn clods, and reduce them
eſpecially where graſs-feeds are fown with it. The
to powder. Let not this inſtrument be conſidered as
beſt time for rolling a gravelly ſoil, is as foon as the a finical refinement. In a ſtiff clay, it may make the
mould is ſo dry as to bear the roller without clinging to difference of a plentiful or ſcanty crop.
it: A clay ſoil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed,
nor rolleil, till the field be perfectly dry. And as 6. The FALLOW-CLEANSING MACHINE.
rolling a clay foil'is chiefly intended for ſnioothing the
ſurface, a dry ſeaſon may be patiently waited for, even This was invented by Mr Aaron Ogden, a ſmith Thefal-
till the crop be three inches high. There is the great- at Aſhton-under-Line, near Mancheſter in Lancaſhire. low-clean-
er reaſon for this precaution, becauſe much rain im. It is intended for cleanling fallows from weeds, &c. ling ma-
niediately after rolling is apt to cake the ſurface when which exhauſt the riches of the foil. A, A, is thefraine; chine,
Plate VII
drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled B, the firſt roller ; C, the ſecoird ditto; in which laſt are
fig. 5.
immediately after the feed is ſown, unleſs the ground two cranks to niovethearins D, D, which work the rake
bę fo wet as to cling to the roller. In a clay foil, de- up the directors fixed on the plank E. Theunderjſide of
lay rolling till the grain be above ground. The pro- the lower ends or ſhares of theſe directors are ſharp, to cut
per time for ſowing graſs-ſeeds in an oat-field, is when the clods and let :hem come on the upper lide. Each al-
the grain is three inches high ; and rolling ſhould im- ternate heel of the ſhare is longer than the intermediate
inediately ſucceed, whatever the foil be. Flax ought one, that they may not have more than one-half to cut
to be rolled immediately after fowing. This ſhould ne at once. At the back of the plank E are two ſcrews
ver be neglected; for it inakes the feed puſh equally, to let it looſe, that the directors inay be ſet higher or
and prevents after growth; the bad effect of which is lower. The ſhares are to penetrate the ground two or
viſiblein every ſtep of the proceſs for dreſſing ílax. The three inches, to raiſe the quicks till the rake I, I,
firit year's crop of ſown graſſes ought to be rolled as fetches them into the cart H, where a man muſt be
early the next ſpring as the ground will bear the hor- ready with a muck-hookro clcar them backward-when
ſes. It fixes all the roots preciſely as in the caſe of gathered. In the rake I are two teeth for every ſpace
wheat. Rolling the ſecond and third crops in looſe of the directors, that ſtones, &c. may be gathered
ſoil is an uſeful work; though not ſo eſſential as rolling without damage. K, K, are two ſtaples, by which
the machine is drawn:under them at h are two hooks;
Effects of In the firſt place,rolling renders alooſe ſoil more com- placed low to raiſe the machine in turning, by the help
rolling pactand ſolid; which enconrages the growth of plants, of the traces ; and the axle-tree of the cart ſhould be
by making the earth clap cloſe to every part of every fixed upon a pin, that it may turn like a waggon.
Nor need we be afraid of rendering the ſoil too F, F, are the iriggers to throw the rake behind the-
coni pact ; for no roller that can be drawn by two or
The Jong teeth at G, G, are to cleanſe the
four horſes will have that effect. In the next place, roller C. I, 1, is the rake which gathers up the weeds
104
the firſt crop.
103
rooi.
roolS.
into
AGRICULTURE
. 3. first Harrow
Frig
Platevi
Fig.1. Chain Plough
IIHTOTHMAN
1
22
28
Fig. 2. Brake
A
NE
JE
2
Fig
. 9. Chain & Derew Harrow
Fig.4. second Harrow
U
BE
11
Will
ea
A.
B
72
MOVI
BIT
o!
1
Fig.5 third Harrow
-
Fig. 6. Cleaning Harrow
Frig 7 Grafo Feed Harrow
4
30
03
11
dan
OBO
OS
0.
60
sent Thelada
L
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
279
1
Pradice. into the cart H, and is drawn above the trigger F by to the plank on which the directions are fixed, that is Prctice.
the working of the arms D, expreſſed by the dotted to ſay, lix inches long (the directors are alſo to be
lines at d d, zii. The triggers I', of which there is inade lix inches broad above the plank). The rake-
one on each lide, move on the pivots a ; ſo that when head ſhould alſo fall a little before the crank is at its
the points b, of the rake 1, have been drawn up by the extremity, which will cauſe the rake to puſh forward
directors E to the part marked c, the trigger, giving to let the teeth come into the roots. The rake-tech
way permits the rake to paſs; but immediately fall muſt drop in the ſame plane with the roller and wheels,
ing, the rake returns along tlie upper ſurface of the or on the ſurfaceof the earth. No more ſpace ſhould
trigger marked e, e, and of courſe falls on the weeds be given from the roller C to the long teeth at GG
when it comes to the end, a little beyond the pivot a. than that the rake may juſt miſs the ſpikes of the rol-
The reader will obſerve, that the boarding is taken ler C and fall on the places before mentioned. As
away on one lide, in the Plate, in order to give a more the firſt roller B was intended to cleanſe the ſecond C
perfect view of the inner part of the machine; and more than for any other uſe, it may be omitted when
in fact it would perhaps be better if all the boarding, the machine is made in large, as Mr Ogden has lately
marked L, L, L, was taken away, and frame-work found that the long teeth at G Ganſwer the end aloite,
put in its ſtead. The cart H might undoubtedly alſo and this renders the machine about a fixth part shorter.
be made lighter. The wheels M, M, appear in the Now, to ſuit any ſort of earth, there ſhould be to each
Plate to be made of ſolid wood; but there is no ne- machine three planks, with directors at different ſpaces,
ceſſity that it ſhould be ſo. At N is another view of
to uſe occaſionally ; in the firſt, the ſpaces between
the roller C, by which the diſpolition of the ſpikes the directors ſhould be eight inches wide, in the ſe-
may be eaſily comprehended. Suppoſe the circle o, cond fix, and the third four. This will anſwer the
deſcribed by the end of the roller N, to be divided by fame end as having ſo many machines.
four ſtrait lines into eight equal ſegments,as repreſent As there may be ſome objections to the rake not
ed at P. Let the fame be done at the other end of leaving the roots when it has brought them up, Mr
the roller, and parallel lines be drawn fronione corre Ogden has ſeveral methods of cleanſing it ; but as he
fponding point to the other the length of the roller ; would make it as ſimple as poſſible, he chooſes to let
mark the points with figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; it be without them at preſent ; but ſuppoſe it ſhould
afterwards draw oblique lines, as from i, at the end of bring ſome roots back again with it, it will probably
O 10 2, at the other end, and from 2 to 3, &c. on loſe them before it gets back to the extremity; wlience
theſe oblique lines the ſpikes are to be fixed at equal they will lie light, and be of but little detriment to
diſtance in eight circles, deſcribed on the circumfe- the others coming up. Mr Ogden would have the
rence of the roller. The ſpikes of the finall roller B firſt machine made four feet fix inches wide, the teeth
are fixed in the ſame manner, except that the diameter divided into equal ſpaces the outlides into half ſpaces.
being ſmaller, there are only ſix instead of eight rows.
R is another view of the directors, with the plank E 7. The new invented Patent Univerſal SOWING
on which they are fixed ; and S is a ſection of a part-
Machine,
of the plank, with one of the directors as fixed, in
which
ICS
be ſeen the heel 111, from whence to the
may
Thismachine whether made to be worked by liand, Univerſal
point of the ſhare n is a ſharp cutting edge. See the drawn by a horſe, or fixed to a plough, and uſed with fowing
ſame letters in figure R. At T is one of the long it, is extremely ſimple in the conſtruction, and not machine,
teeth to be ſeen at G; it is bent towards the roller C, liable to be put out of order ; as there is but one Plate IX.
which it ſerves to cleanſe. When the end of the rake movement to direct the whole, nor does it require any fig. 1. 2. I L.
b, after riling above c, is puihed, by the motion of the ſkill in working. It will ſow wheat, barley, oats, rye,
arms D, D, along the upper part 2, of the trigger clover, cole-feed, henip, flax, canary, rape, turnip, be-
F, and comes to the end beyond a; as it falls, the fides a great variety of other kinds of grain and ſeeds
part of the arm marked o reſts in the notch p, till it broad caſt, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. It
is again raiſed by the motion of the roller C with the is equally uſeful in the new huſbandry, particularly
rake. The roller C is to be one foot diameter, the when fixed to a plough; it will then drill a more exten-
ſpikes nine inches long, that they may go through the live variety of grain, pulſe, and ſeed (through every
farrow (if the ſoil ſhould be looſe) into the hard earth, gradation, with regard to quantity), and deliver each
the inore effcctually to work the rake, which other kind with greater regularity than any drill-plough
wiſe might be ſo overcharged as to cauſe the roller to whatever. When uſed in this manner, it will likewiſe
drag without turning. In the rake-ends b their thould be found of the utmoſt ſervice to farmers who are par-
be pivots, with rollers or pullers on, to go in the tial to the old husbandry, as, among many other very
groove, to take off the friction; and they would like- valuable and peculiar properties, it will not only fow
wile take the triggers more ſurely as the rake comes in the broad-caſt way with a moſt fingular exactneſs,
back. The rake ſhould alſo be hung fu far backward- but ſave the expence of a ſeedſman ; the feed being
er, that when it is fallen the arms of it may lie in the fown (either over or under furrow at pleaſure), and
fame plane or parallel with the directors, on which it the land ploughed, at the ſame operation.
comes up(which will require the frame to be two inches Perhaps a fair and decilive experiment for aſcertain
longer in the model). This will cauſe the rake to fall ing the ſuperior advantage of broad-caſting or drilling
heavier, and drive the teeth into the roots, and bring any particular crop was never before ſopracticable; as
them up without Mattering. Theſe teeth inuſt be the feed niay now be put in with the utmoſt degree of
Diade of ſteel, very fine, and ſo long as to reach down regularity, in both methods of culture, by the ſame
machine
280
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
even.
o
Practice. machine ; confequently, the feed will be ſown in both by the action of the diagonal ſupporters; fo that no Practice.
caſes with equal accuracy, without which it is impoſ corn or feed can fall from them.
ſible to make a juſt decision.
The machine in this form is particularly uſeful for
The excellence of this machine conſiſts in ſpreading broad-caſting clover upon barley or wheat ; or for fow-
any given quantity of ſeed over any given number of ing any other kind of ſeed, where it is neceſſary that
acres, with a mathematical exactneſs, which cannot be the land ſhould firſt be harrowed exceedingly fine and
done by hand ; by which a great ſaving may be made
in feeding the ground, as well as benefiting the ex Manner of uſing the Machine when drawn by a
pected ciop.
Horfe— Place the machine about two feet from the
There has always been a difficulty in ſowing turnip ends of the furrows where you intend it ſhall begin to
ſeed with any degree of exactneſs, both from the mi- fow. Fill the hoppers with feed, and drivcit forward
nilueneſs of the feed, and the ſmallneſs of the quantity with the outfide wheel in the firſt furrow. When you
required to be ſown on an acre. Here the machine are at the end of the length, at the oppoſite ſide of the
has a manifeſt advantage, as it may be ſet to fow the field, lift the lever E, fig. 2, into the channel H, and
leáſt quantity ever required on an acre ; and with an the niachine will inſtantly ſtop ſowing. Drive it on
accuracy the best ſeedſman can never attain to.
about two feet and then turn. Fill the hoppers again
It will alſo fow clover, cole, flax, and every other ifmeceſſary; then remove the lever back again into the
kind of ſmall ſeed, with the utmoſt degree of regularity. channel G, and in returning, let the outlide wheel of
It will likewiſe broad-caſt beans,peaſe, and tares, or the machine go one furrow within the track which
drill them with the greateſt exactneſs, particularly was made by it, in paffing from the oppoſite end : as
when conſtructed to be uſed with a plough.
for example, if the wheel paſſed down the eighth fur-
Another advantage attending the uſe of this ma row froni the outſide of the field, let it return in the
chine, is that the wind can have no effect on the fall ſeventh; and in every following length let the outſide
ing of the feed.
wheel always run one furrow within the tract niade
Fig. 2 of the Machine when made to be uſed without a by the ſame wheel: becauſe the breadth fowń is about
Plough, and to be drawn by a Horſe. It may in nine inches leſs than the diſtance between the wheels.
this caſe be made of different lengths at the deſire of Let the machine be kept in a perpendicular ſitua-
the purchaſer. The upper part AAAA, contains tuation. If the farmer wiſhes to ſow more or leſs feed
the hoppers from which the grain or ſeed deſcends into on any one part of the field than the other, it is only
the ſpouts. The ſeveral ſpouts all reſt upon a bar, railing the liandles a little higher, or linking them a
which hangs and plays freely by two diagonal ſupport- little lower than uſual, and it will occaſion a fufficient
ers BB; a trigger fixed to this bar bears a catch wheel: alteration ; and ſhould the laſt turn be leſs in breadth
this being fixed on the axle, occafions a regular and than the machine, thoſe ſpouts which are not wanted
continual motion, or jogging of the ſpouts, quicker or may be taken up from the bar, and prevented from
flower in proportion to the pace the perſon ſowing feeding, by turning the knob above them.
with it drives ; and of courſe, if he quickens his pace, Alſo when the land required to be fown has what is
the bar will receive a greater number of ſtrokes from called a vent, that is, when the ſides of the field run in
the catch wheel, and ihe grain or feed will feed the an oblique line to the furrows, which by this means
faſter. If he drives ſlower, by receiving fewer ſtrokes, are uneqnal in length: the ſpouts muſt be taken up or
the contrary nuſt take place. In going along the let down in ſucceſlion by turning the knobs; as that
ſide of a hill, the ſtrength of the ſtroke is corrected by part of the machine, where they are placed, arrives at
a ſpring which acts with more or leſs power, in pro the ends of the furrows. This is done while the ma-
portion as the machine is more or leis from a horizon- chine is going forwards,
tal poſition, and counteracts the difference of gravity in If the land be tolerably level, the machine may be
the bar, ſo that it preſſes, in all ſituations, with a pro fixed by the ſcrew in the front, and the machine may
per force againſt the catch wheel. This ſpring is un then be uſed by any common larrow boy.
neceſſary if the land be pretty level. At the bottom Method of regulating the Machine.--In each ſpout is
of the machine is placed an apron or ſhelf in a ſloping fixed a bridge, (ſee fig. 7.) with an aperture in it, B,
poſition, and the corn or ſeed, by falling thereon from for the grain or ſeed to paſs through. This aperture
the ſpouts above, is ſcattered about in every direction is enlarged or contracted by a ſider, A, which paſſes
under the machine, and covers the ground in a moſt overit; and when properly fixed for the quantity of feed
regular and uniform manner.
deſigned to be ſown on an acre, is faſtened by means
To low the corn or ſeed in drills, there are moveable of two ſtrong ſcrews firmly againſt the bridge. This
ſpouts (ſee fig. 10.) which are fixed on, or taken off is made uſe of in fowing all kinds of ſeed, where it is
at pleaſure, to direct the feed from the upper ſpout to required to ſow from one buſhel upwards on an acre.
the bottom of the furrow.
To ſow one, two, three gallons, or any of the inter-
The machine is regulated for ſowing any particular mediato quantities, as of clover, cole-ſeed, &c. the
quantity of ſeed on an acre by a bràſs ſlider, A, fig. 7. braſs plate, fig. 6. is placed between the bridge and the
fixed by ſcrews againſt a braſs bridge on each of the flider, with the largeſt aperture B downwards, which
ſpouts.' The machine is prevented from feeding white aperture is enlarged or contracled by the ſlider as be-
turning at the ends, by only removing the lever, E, fore. To ſow turnips, the ſame plate is placed be-
fig. 2. out of the channel G, to another at H, on the tween the bridge and the ſlider, with its ſmalleſt aper-
right hand of it, which carries back the bar from the ture A downwards, and the hollow part about the ſame
catch-wheel, and occaſions the motion of the ſpouts to aperture inwards.
ceaſe, and at the ſame time brings them upon a level Fig. 1. is a view of the regulator, by which the
aperture
I
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AGRICULTUREPlate VII.
ICULT
.
Figo 1. Pour Coulterd PLOUGH
liq.2. Drill R KE.
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Fig.
4. Paring PLOUGH.
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Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
281
11 ;
Practice apertures in the ſeveral ſpouts are all ſet exactly alike, to more than the price of the machine) and the feedf- Practice.
with the utmoſt caſe, to make them feed equally. The man's labour will be ſaved. The ſeed may likewiſe
extreme height of the largeſt aperture is equal to the be fown either under or over furrow; or one caſt each
breadth A B, and the breadth at C is equal to the way, as is practiſed by ſome farmers. The feed allo,
height of the ſmalleſt aperture uſed, viz. that for tur being caſt by the machine upon the freſh ploughed
nips. The ſide AC, is divided into 60 cqual parts, land, may be immediately harrowed in, before the
and on it move the ſlider or horſe D ; which being mould has loſt any part of its moiſture ; which in a dry
placed at any particolar degree, according to the quan- ſeaſon will greatly promote the crop. In drilling any
tity of feed required to-be Town on an acre, is fixed kind of graint, pulſe, or feed, it poſſeſſes every property
upon it, by a ſcrew on the ſide of the ſlider or horſe. that can be wiſhed for in the beſt drill-plough, nor will
When this is done, the end of the regulator is put it (as moſt of them do) bruiſe the feed, cr feed irre-
through the aperture in the bridge or plate (whichever gularly. The conſtruction of the machine is the ſame
is intended to be uſed), and the Ilider againſt the as the large ones, except being made with one hopper
bridge in the ſpout, raiſed by it, till it ſtops againſt the and ſpout inſtead of ſeveral, and the apron moveable
horſe on the regulator ; then the ſlider is faſtened inſtead of being fixed, as inay be ſeen by inſpecting
againſt the bridge firmly by the two ſcrews; care be- fig. 4. The only alleration neceffary to make the
ing taken at the ſame time that it ſtands nearly ſquare, machine broad-caſt or drill is, in the former caſe to
By this means the ſpouts (being all fixed in the place the apron B, fig. 1. at the bottom of the ma-
ſame manner) will feed cqually.
chine, upon the hooks FF, ſloping either towards the
It is eaſy to conceive that the ſize of the apertures, furrows or the imploughed land, according as it is in-
and conſequently the quantity of ſeed to be ſown on an tended to fow the feed, either under or over furrow.
acre, may be regulated with a far greater accuracy Whenever the apronis required to be ſhifted, it is done
than is required in common practice.
in leſs than a ſecond of time; as it only requires to be
The ſpouts may be regulated with the utmoſt nicety, moved upor down with the hand, when a catch fixes it.
in five minutes, to fow each particular feed, for the To prepare it for drilling, inſtead of the apron, place
whole ſeaſon. But a little practice will enable any per the long ſpout, fig. 10, upon the brackets, on the front
ſon, who poſſeſſes but a very moderate capacity, to of the inachine, by the ears AA, to receive the feed
nrake the ſpouts feed equally, even without uſing the from the upper fpout, and faſten the lower end of it,
regulator (A).
by a ſmall cord, to that hook upon which the apron is
of the Machine when made to be uſed by Hand.- hang for broad-caſting, which
is next the plough (ſee
The difference of the machine in this caſeis, Lhat it is fig. 3;) the feed will then be directed by the long
inade lighter, with but three ſpouts, without thafts, ſpout, to the centre of the furrow, near the heel of the
and is driven forward by the handles. It hath alſo á plough. The ſpring for correcting the ſtrength of the
bolt in front, which being puſhed in by the thumb, re- ſtroke, is neceſſary only when they are required to go
leaſes the machine ; fo that it can then eaſily be placed along the ſide of a confiderable declivity. The ma-
in a perpendicular poſition. This alteration is neceſ- chine, when fixed to a ploughi, does not require the
ſary to keep the handles of a convenient height, in ſmalleſt degree of fkill in uling, as nothing is neceſſary
ſowing up and down a hill, where the ſlope is conſider. but to keep the hopper filled, which will contain a ful-
able; and is done while the machine is turning at the ficient quantity of ſeed to go upwards of 140 rods, be-
end of the length. The method of regulating and fore it will want re-filling, when three bushels and a
uſing it is the ſame as when made to be drawn by a half are fourn on an acre. The accuracy with which
lıorſe,
it will broad-calk, may in ſome meaſure be conceived,
Of the Machine, when conſtructed to be red with a by conſidering that the feed regularly deſcends upon
Plozegh.This is, without doubt the moſt uſeful ap the apron or ihelf, and is fiom thence ſcattered upon
plication of the machine, and it can be fixed without the ground, in quantity exactly proportioned to the
difficulty to any kind of plough, in the ſame manner as ſpeed of the plougl": alſo that each caſt ſpreads toʻthe
to that reprefented fig. I.
third furrow; and by this means ſhuts upon the laſt,
The advantages ariſing from the uſe of it are great 111 chis manier it is continually filling up till the whole
and numerous ; for, belide the increaſe in the crop, field is conipletely covered ; ſo that it is impoſable to
which will be inſured by the feeds being broad-caſt leave the ſmalleſt ſpace without its proper quantity of
with a mathematical nicely, a large proportion of ſeed feed.
(the value of which alone, in a few
inonths, will amount When the plough is wanted for any other purpoſe,
VOL. I.
the
N 12
(A) Proper directions are given with each machine for uſing it, as alſo for fixing the ſliders to ſow any parti-
cular quantity of corn or feed on an acre, ſo as to enable any perſon to ſet the ſpouts.
The prices of the machine (excluſive of the packing caſes) are as follow. If conſtructed to be uſed with a
ing or drilling turnips, lucerne, lares, wheat, barley, &c. &c. &c. and cvery article neceilary for fixing it in-
cluded; three guineas and a half. If made with a ſpring (for fowing on the line of a hill, where the ſlope is
conſiderable), but which is very rarely neceſſary, five chillings more. If made to be fixed to any double
furrow plongh, four guineas and a half,
The large machine, fig. 2. when made to broad-caſt ſeven furrows at a time, and to be drawn by a horſe,
eight gniueas and a half. If conſtructed to for five furrows at a time, and to be uſed by hand, fix guineas.
There are alſo five ſhillings more if made with a ſpring.
PEN
A G'RI CULTURE.
Part II.
Practice the machine, with the wheel at the heel of the plough upon which the upper ſpout reſts, fufpended by the Practice.
for giving it motion,can be removed or replaced at any diagonal ſupporiers EE, bearing againſt the catch-
lime in five minutes.
wheel by the trigger F, and thereby kept in motion
lig. 11. repreſents the machine fixed to a double while the plough is going. G, the apron in a floping
furow creating plough, and prepared for drilling. As polition, upon which the corn or feed falls from the
this plough may not be generally known, it will not be upper ſpout, and is ſcattered by rebounding upon the
inproperto obſerve, that it is chiefly uſed for creaſing land. It turns upon pivots, and by this means throws
the land with furrows (after it has been once ploughed the ſeed either towards the right hand or leſt at plea-
and harrowed); which method is neceſſary when the ſure.
Tecd is to be fown broad-call upor. land that has been Fig. 5. The upper fponit.
a clover-lay, &c. becauſe, if the feed be ſown upon the Fig. 6. Theplate which is placed between thcbridge
rough furrows, a confiderable part of it will fall be and che llider for fowing ſmall ſeeds. The aperture
tween them, and be unavoidably loſt, by laying to A being downwards for fowing turnips ; the larger
deep buried in the earth. This mode anſwers ex one B downwards for fowing clover, &c.
tremely well, and partakes of both methods of culture; Fig. 7. The bridge, fixed in the upper ſpouts. A,
the ſeed, though ſown broad-caſt, falling chiefly into The ſlider, which contracts or enlarges the different
the furrows.
aperturcs. B, the aperture in the bridge, throngly
The machine is very uſeful for fowing in this man- which the ſeed paffes, when fowing any quantity from
ner; as the feed is broad-caſt, with an inconceivable one buſhel upwards on an acre.
regulariiy, at the time the land is creaſed. The ad-
Fig. 8. The regulator made of braſs. D, The
vantages it likewiſe poſſeſſes for drilling all ſorts of ſlider or horſe which moves upon it, and is fixed at
grain or ſeed with this plough, are too evident to need any particular degree by a ſcrew in its ſide.
inentioning.
Fig. 9. Repreſents the moveinent in the machine
The machine, when conſtructed to be uſed with a fig. 2. AAAA. Cleets, between which the upper
double-furrow plough, is made with two upper and ſpouts reft. BB, The diagonal lapporters by which
two long ſpouts for drilling, two aprons for broad- the bar with the upper ſpouts hang. c, The catch-
caſting, and with a double hopper ; but in other re wheel. DD, the axle. E, The trigger upon the
ſpects the ſame as when intended for a ſingle furrow bar, which bears againſt the catch-wheel. FF, Stays
plougi : it is uſed in all caſes with the greateſt eaſe from the back of the machine, by which the bar plays.
imaginable.
Fig. 1o. The long ſpout. AA, The ears by which
The interval between the points of the two ſhares of it hangs.
a creaſing plough is uſually ten inches; the beam about
nine feet long; and the whole made of a light con-
SECT. II. Preparing Land for Cropping.
Plate IX. Itruction.
A more particular explanation of the figures.-Fig. 1.
OBSTRUCTIONS TO CROPPING.
The machine fixed toa Kentiſh turn wreſt plough. A,
The machine. B, the apron upon which the feed falls In preparing land for cropping, the firſt thing that Obſtruc-
and rebounds upon the land, in broad-caſting. C, Lid occurs, is to conſider the obſtructions to regular plough- tions, viz.
10 cover the hopper. D, 'Wheel at the heel of the ing. The moſt formidable of theſe, are ſi nnes lying a-
plough. E, ſtrap. FF, Hooks upon which the apron bove or below the ſurface, which arean impediment to
Stones,
lurns by a pirol on each ſide. G, Stays, to keep the a plough, as rocks are to a ſhip. Stones above the
machine ſteady. H, Lever to prevent it from ſowing. ſurface may be avoided by the ploughman, though not
Fig. 2. The machine conſtructed to be drawn by a without loſs of ground: but ſtones below the ſurface
horſe. AAAA, The hoppers, BB, The diagonal are commonly not diſcovered till the plough be fhat-
ſupporters. CCCC, The upper ſpouts. D, The apron tered to pieces, and perhaps a day's work loft. The
or ſhelfupon which the ſeed falls from the upper ſpouts. clearing land of ſtones is therefore neceſſary to prevent
E, The lever, which carries back the bar, and prevents miſchief. And to encourage the operation, it is at-
the machine from fowing. FF, Staples upon the han. tended with much actual profit. In the firſt place, the
dles, through which the reins paſs, for the man who ſtones are uſeful for fences : when large they muſt be
conducts the machine, to direct the horſe by. I, blown, and commonly fall into parts proper for build-
Screw to fix the machine occaſionally. N. B. The ing. And as the blowing, when gunpowder is furniſh-
knobs (by turning which each particular ſpout may ed, does not exceed a halfpcnny for each inch that is
be taken from off the bar, and thereby prevented from bored, theſe ſtones come generally cheaper than to dig
feeding) are over each upper {pour; but, to prevent as many out of the quarry. In the next place, as the
confuſion, are not lettered in the Plate.
ſoil round a large ſtone is commonly the beſt in the
Fig. 3. Is the ſame machine with that in fig. 1. The field, it is purchaſed at a low rate by taking out the
dotted lines, expreſſing the fituation of the long ſpout, ſtone. Nor is this a trifle ; for not only is the ground
when the apron is reinoved, and the machine adapted loſt that is occupied by a large ftone, but alſo a con-
for drilling
ſiderable ſpace round it, to which the plough has not
Fig. 4. Alſo the fame machine, with the front laid acceſs without danger. A third advantage is greater
open to ſhow the inſide. A, The catch-wheel fixed than all the reſt; which is, that the ploughing can be
upon the axle. BB, The axle upon which the machine carried on with niuch expedition, when there is no ap-
hangs between the handles of the plough. C, The prehenfion of ſtones: in ftony land, the plough muſt
pulley, by which the ſtrap from the wheel at the heel proceed ſo now as not to perform half of its work.
of the plough turns the catch-wheel. D, The bar, To clear land of ſtones, is in many inſtances an un-
dertaking
I.
---
106
107
Part II
A GRI CU L T U R E.
283
ren.
Practice. dertaking too expenſive for a tenant who has not a in the middle, is to carry it off by ſome cruin fuill low. Practice.
very long Icare. As it is profitable both to him and to
er.
This is commonly the caſe of a moraſs fed with
his landlord, it appears rcalonable that the work ſhould water from higher ground, and kept on the furiace by
be divided, where the leaſe exceeds not nineteen years. à clay bottom.
It falls naturally upon the landlord to be at the expence A clay ſoil of any thickneſs is never peſtered with
of blowing the nones, and upon the tenant to carry ſprings; Lut it is poftered with rain, which ſettles 0.1
108
them off the field.
the ſurface as in a cup. The only remedy is high nar.
Wetneſs, Another obľtruction is wet ground. Water may row ridges, well rounded. And to clear the furrows,
improve gravelly or ſandy ſoils ; but it fours ( A ) a clay the furrow of the foot-ridge onght to be conſiderably
foil, and converts low ground into a moraſs, unfit for lower, in order to carry off the water cleverly. It can-
any purpoſe that can intereſt the hulbandman.
not be made too low, as nothing hurts clay foil more
A great deal has been written- upon different me than the ſtagnation of wateron it; witneſs the hollows
thods of draining land, moſtly fo expenſive as to be at the end of crooked ridges, which are abſolutely bar-
ſcarce fit for the landlord, not to mention the tenant. Some gravelly ſoils have a clay button ; which
One way of draining without expence when land is is a ſubſtantial benefit to a field when in graſs, as it
to be incluſed with hedge and ditch, is to direct the retains moiſture. But when in tillage, ridges are ne-
ditches ſo as to carry off the water. But this method is cetrary to prevent rain from ſettling at the bottom ;
not always practicable, even where the diviſionslie con and this is the only cafe where a gravelly foil ought
venient for it. If the run of water be conſiderable, it to be ridged.
will deſtroy the ditches, and lay open the fences, eſpe Clay ſoils that have little or no level, have ſometimes
cially where the ſoil is looſe or ſandy.
a gravelly bottom. For diſcharging the water, the beſt
It ditches will not anſwer, hollow drains are ſome method is, at the end of every ridge to pierce down to
times made, and ſometimes open drains, which muſt be the gravel, which will abſorb the water. But if the
made ſo deep as to command the water. The former furrow of the foot-ridge be low enough to receive all
is filled up with looſe ſtones, with bruſh-wood, or with the water, it will be more expeditious to make a few
any other porous matter that permits the water to holes in that furrow, In fonie caſes, a field may be
país. The latter is left open, and not filled up. To drained, by filling up the hollows with earth taken from
make the former effectual, the ground muſt have ſuch higher ground. But as this method is expenſive, it
a ſlope as to give the water a brilk courſe. To execute will only be taken where 110 other method anſwers.
them in level ground is a grofs error: the paſſages are Where a field happens to be partly wet, partly dry,
foon Nopped up with fand and ſediment, and the work there ought to be a ſeparation by a middle ridge, if it
is rendered uſeleſs. This inconvenience takes not place can be done conveniently; and the dry part may be
in open drains; but they are ſubject to other inconve- ploughed while the other is drying.
niences : They are always filling up, to make a yearly Tlie low part of Berwickſhire is generallya brick clay,
reparation neceſſary; and they óbitruct both plough- extremely wet and poachy during winter. This in a
ing and paſturing:
good meaſure may be prevented by proper inclofing,
The following is the beſt in all views. It is an open as there is not a field but can be drained into lower
drain made with the plough, cleaving the ſpace in- ground all the way down to the river Tweed. But
tended for the drain over and over, till the furrow be as this would leſſen the quantity of rain in a dry cli-
made of a ſufficient depth for carrying off the water. mate, ſuch as is all the eaſt ſide of Britain, it
may
ad.
The ſlope on either ſide may, by repeated ploughings, mit of fome doubt whether the remedy would not be
be inade ſo genıle as to give no obſtruction either to as bad as the diſeaſe. (See the article DRAINING.)
the plough or to the harrow. There is no occaſion for
a ſpade, unleſs to ſmooth the ſides of the drain, and to 2. Bringing in to CULTURE, LAND from the
remove accidental obſtructions in the bottom. The
STATE OF NATURE.
advantages of this drain are manifold. It is executed
Ісу
at much leſs expence than either of the former; and To improve a nioor, let it be opened in winter when Moorilla
it is perpetual, as it can never be obſtructed. In level it is wet; which has one convenience, that the plough ground.
ground, it is true, graſs may grow at the bottom of cannot be employed at any other work. In ſpring, after
the drain ; but to clear off the graſs once in four or five froſt is over, a ilight harrowing will fill up the ſeams
years, will reſtore it to its original perfection. A hol- with mould, to keep out the air, and ror the fod. 112
low drain may be proper between the ſpring-head and that ſtate let it lie the following ſummer and winter,
the main drain, where the diſtance is not great, buil which will rot the fod niore than if lard open to the air
in every other caſe the drain recommended is the beſt. by ploughing. Next April, let it be croſs-ploughed,
Where a level field is jufcfted pith water from braled, and harrowed, till it be ſufficiently pulveriſed.
higher ground, the water onght to be intercepted by Let the manure laid upon it, whether lime or dung,
a ditch carried along the foot of the high ground, and be intimately mixed with the ſoil by repeated harrow-
terminating in ſome capital drain.
ings. This will make a fine bed for turniy-feed it fown
The only way to clear a field of water that is hollow broad-caſt. But if drills be intended, the method muſt
be
1
Nn 2
1
(A) By this expreſſion it is not meant that the ground really beconies acid, but only that it becomes unfit
for the purpoſes of vegetatio:1. The natural products of ſuch a foil are roles and four graſs : which laſt ap-
pears in the furrows, but felelom in the crown of the lidge ; is dry and laſteleſs like a chip of wood ; and ſecls
rough when ſtroked backwards.
284
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
1
TID
III
of ridges.
Practice. be followed that is directed afterward in treating more narrow ridge, the crown of which is but 18 inches Practice.
directly of the culture of turnip.
higher than the furrow, has a greater ſlope than a very
A ſucceſsful turnip-crop, fed on the ground with broad ridge where the difference is three or four feet.
feep, is a tinc preparation for laying down a field with Next, of forining ridges where the ground hangs
graſs-ſeeds. It is an improvement upon this method, contiderably. Ridges may be too ftecp as well as tvo
to take two or three ſucceſſive crops of turnip, which horizontal ; and if to the ridges be given all the ſteep-
will require no dung for the ſecond and following crops. ncſs of a field, a heavy ſhower may do irreparable miſ-
This will thicken the ſoil, and enrich it greatly. clief. To prevent ſuch miſchief, the ridges ought to
Swampy The beſt way of improving ſwampy ground after be to directed croſs the field, as to have a gentle ſlope
toud, draining, is paring and burning. But where the ground for carrying off water flowly, and no more. "In that
is dry, and the foil fo thin as that the ſurface cannot reſpect, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of
be pared, the beſt way of bringing it into tilth from one that is nearly horizontal į becauf, in the latter,
the ſtate of nature, as mentioned above, is to plough there is no opportunity of a choice in forining the
it with a feathered ſock, laying the graſſy ſurface un- ridges. A hill is of all the beſt adapted for directing
der. After the new ſurface is mellowed with frost, the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be
fill up all the ſeams by harrowing croſs the field, which ploughed round and round, beginning at the bottom
by excluding the air will effectually rot the ſod. In and aſcending gradually to the top in a ſpiral line.
this ſtate let it lie ſummer and winter. In the begin- This method of ploughing a hill, requires no more
ing of May after, a croſs ploughing will reduce all to force than ploughing on a level ; and at the ſame tinic
ſmall ſquare pieces, which muſt be pulverized with the removes the great inconvenience of a gravelly hill, that
brake, and make it ready for a May or June crop. If rains go off too quickly; for the rain is retained in
theſe ſquare pieces be allowed to lie long in the ſap every furrow. If the foil be ſuch as to require ridges,
without breaking, they will become tough and not be they may be directed to any llope that is proper.
eaſily reduced.
In order to form a field into ridges, that has not been
formerly cultivated, the rules mentioned are ealily put
3. Forming RIDGES.
in execution. But what if ridges be already formed,
that are either crooked or too high? After ſeeing the
The firſt thing that occurs on this head, is to con- advantage of forming a field into ridges, people were
ſider what groundsought to be formed into ridges, and naturally led into an error, that the higher the better.
what ought to be tilled with a flat ſurface. Dry ſoils, But what could tempt them to make their ridges crook-
which furter by a lack of moiſture,ought to be tilled flat, ed? Certainly this method did not originate from de
which tends to rctain moiſture. And the inethod for fign; but from the lazineſs of the driver ſuffering the
ſuch tilling, is to go round and round from the cir cattle to turn too haſtily, inſtead of niaking thein finiſh
cumference to the centre,or from the centre to thecir- the ridge without turning. There is nore than one
cumference. This method is advantageous in point of diſadvantage in this Novenly practice. Firſt, the wa-
expedition, as the whole is finiſhed without once turn ter is kept in by the curve at the end of every ridge,
ing the plough. At the ſame time, every inch of the and fours the ground. Next, as a plough has the leaft
foil is moved, inſtead of leaving either the crown or friction poſſible in a ſtraight line, the friction muſt be
the furrow unihoved, as is commonly done in tilling increaſed in a curve, the back part of the mouldboard
ridges. Clay ſoil, which ſuffers by water ſtanding on preſſing hard on the one hand, and the coulter preſſing
it, ought to be laid as dry as poſſible by proper ridges. hard on the other. In the third place, the plough
A loany foil is the middle between the two mentioned. moving in a ſtraight line, has the greateſt command in
It ought to be tilled flat in a dry couniry, eſpecially laying the earth over. But where the ſtraight line of
if it incline to the ſoil firſt mentioned. In à moiſt the plough is applied to the curvature of a ridge in
country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high or order to heighten it by gathering, the earth moved by
low according to the degree of moiſture and tendency the plough is continually falling back, in ſpite of the
to clay.
moſt kilful ploughman.
In grounds that require ridging, an error preyails, The inconveniences of ridges high and crooked arefu
that ridges cannot be raiſed too high. High ridges many, that one would be tempted to apply a remedy at
labour under ſeveral diſadvantages. The ſoil is heap- any riſk. And yet, if the ſoil be clay, it would not be
ed upon the crown, leaving the furrows bare : the adviſeable for a tenant to apply the remedy upon a leaſe
crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet : the crop, ſhorter than two nineteen years. In a dry gravelly
which is always beſt on the crown, is more readily ſha- ſoil, the work is not difficult nor hazardous. When
ken with the wind, than where the whole crop is of an the ridges are cleaved two or three years fuccef-
cqual height : the half of the ridge is always covered fively in the courſe of cropping, the operation ought
from the ſun, a diſadvantage which is far from being to be concluded in one ſummer. The earth, by reite-
ilight in a cold climate. High ridges labour under a rated ploughings, ſhould be accumulated upon the fur-
nother diſadvantage in ground that has no more level rows, ſo as to raiſe them higher than the crowns: they
chan barely ſufficient to carry off water : they ſink the cannot be raiſed too high, for the accumulated earth
Carrows below the level of the ground; and conſe- will ſubſide by its own weight. Croſs-ploughing once
quenily retain water at the end of every ridge. The or twice, will reduce the ground to a flat ſurface, and
Currows ought never to be funk below the level of the give opportunity to form ridges at will. The ſame
ground. Water will more effectually be carried off method brings down ridges in clay foil ; only let care
by leffening the ridges both in height and breadth: a be taken to carry on the work with expedition ; be-
cauſe
ز
Part II.
A G GRICUL TU RE.
285
Vol. I. p.
IT2
common
I14
IIG
Pradice. cauſe a hearty ſhower, before the new ridges are form- chine, is to render the ſurface perfectly finooth and Practice.
ed, would ſoak the ground in water, and niake the far even in every part, at thc time that the operation is
mer ſuſpended his work for the remainder of that performed : busas, in this caſe, the old hollows are
year at leaſt. In a ſtrong clay, we would not venture ſuddenly filled up with looſe mould to a great depth,
to alter the ridges, unleſs it can be done to perfection while the earth below the ſurface upon the heights of
Elayson, in one ſeaſon. On this ſubject Mr Anderſon has the theold ridges remainsfirmand compact,túe ne:v-raiſed
Agriculture. following obſervations*.
earth after a fhort tiine ſubſides very much, while the
146
“ The difficulty of performing this operation pro other parts of the fieid do not link at all, ſo the in
perly with the common implements of huſbandry, and a ſhort time the old furrows come to be again below
Inconveni. Theobvious benefit that accrues to the farmer fron ha the level of the other parts of the field, and the water
ences in the ving his ficlds level, has produced many new inventi-
of courſe is ſuffered in ſome degree to ftagnale uponi
ons of ploughs, harrows, drags, &c. calculated for them ; in ſo much that, in a few years, it becomes nie-
niethods of
levelling
fpeedily reducing the ficlds to that ſtate ; none of cellary once inore to repeat the ſame levelling proceſs,
which have as yet been found fully to anſwer the
pur-
and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains
poſe for which they wercintended, as they all indiſcri- by this pernicious operation.
mínately carry the earth that was on the high places " On theſe accounts, iſ the farmer has not a long Levelling
into thoſe that were lower ; which although it may, leaſe, it will be found in general to be much his intereſt ſometimes
in ſome caſes render the furface of the ground tolera to leave the ridges as he found them, rather than to not to be
bly finooth and level, is uſually attended with incon- alten pt to alter their direction : and, if he attends with attepipted:
veniences far greater, for a conſiderable length of time, due caution to moderace the height of theſe old ridges,
than that which it was intended to remove.
lie may reap very good crops, although perhaps at a
“ For experience fufficiently ſhows, that even the fomewhat greater expence of labour than he would
Vegetable beſt vegetable mould, if buried for any length of time have been put to upon the ſame field, it it had been re-
comes iuert fo far beneath the furface as to be deprived of the be- duced to a properlevei ſurface, and divided into ſtraight
by being nign influences of the atmoſphere, loſes its vis vitæ, if and parallel ridges.
longburied I may be allowed that expreſion ; becomes an inert, « But, where a man is ſecure of poſſeſſing his ground
lifeléſsmaſs, little fitted for nouriſhing vegetables, and for any confiderable length of time, the advalitages
conftitutes a foil very improper for the purpoſes of the that he will reap from having level and well laid-out
farmer. It therefore behoves him, as much as in him fields, are ſo conſiderable as to be worth purchaſing, if
lies, to preſerve, on every part of his fields, an equal it ſhould even be at a confiderable expence. But the
covering of that vegetable mould that has long been loſs that is ſuſtained at the beginning, by this mecha-
uppermoſt, and rendered fertile by the meliorating in- nical mode of levelling ridges, if they are of confider-
fuence of the atmoſphere. But, if he ſuddenly levels able height, is ſo very great, that it is perhaps doubt-
his high ridges by any of theſe mechanical contrivan- ful if any future advantages can ever fully compenſato
ces, he of neceflity buries all the good niould that was it. I would therefore adviſe, that all this levelling
on the top of the ridges in the old furrows; by which apparatus Mould be laid aſide ; and the following more
he greatly impoverithes one part of his field, while he efficacious practice be ſubſtituted in its ſtead : Å prac-
too much inriches another; inſomuch that it is a mat tice that I have long followed with ſucceſs, and can
ter of great dificulty, for many years thereafter, to get fafely recommend as the very beſt that has yet come
the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in dif- to my knowledge.
ferent places, which makes it impoſſible for the far "i' If the ridges have been raiſed to a very great Belt me-
mer to get an equal crop over the whole of his field by height, as a preparation for the enſuing operations, thod of
any management whatever: and he has the mortifica- they may be firſt cloveit, or ſcaled out, as it is called in levelling.
tion frequently, by this means, to ſee the one half of different places; that is, ploughed ſo as to lay the earth
his crop rotted by all over-luxuriance, while other on each ridge from the middle towards the furrows.
parts of it are weak and lickly, or one part ripe and But, if they are only of a moderate degree of height,
ready for reaping, while the other is not properly this operation may be omitted. When you mean to
filled; ſo that it were, on many occaſions, better for proceed to level the ground, let a nuin ber of nien be
him to have his whole field reduced at once to the ſame collected, with ſpades, more or fewer as the nature of
degree of poorneſs as the pooreſt of it, than have it in the ground requires, and then ſet a plough to draw a
this ſtate. An almoſt in practicable degree of attenti. furrow directly acroſs the ridges of the whole field in-
on in ſpreading thie manures may indeed in ſome mea tended to be levelled. Divide this line into as many
ſure get the betrer of this; but it is ſo difficult to per- parts as you have labourers, allotting to each oneridge
form this properly, that I have frequently ſeen fields or two, or more or leſs, according to their number,
that had been thuslevelled, in which, after thirty years height, and other circumſtances. Ler each of the las
of continued culture and repeated dreſſings, the marks bourers have orders, as ſoon as the plough has paſſed
of the old ridges could be diſtinctly traced when the that part afligned him, to begin to dig in the bottom
corn was growing, altho' the ſurface was fo level that of the furrow that the plough has juſt made, about the
no traces of them could be perceived when the corn middle of the ſide of the old ridge, keeping his face
was off the ground.
towards the old farrow, working backwards till he
" But this is a degree of perfection in levelling that comes to the height of the riige, and then turn to-
cannot be uſually attained by following this mode of wards the other furrow, and rcpeat the fame on the
practice; and, therefore, is but ſeldom ſeen. For all other ſide of the ridge, always throwing the earth that
that can be expected to be done by any levelling ma he digs up into the deep old furrow between the rida
ges,
IIS
}
1
S6
Part 11.
i G K ICU L T U R R E.
c
1
Practice.
116
t
1
ges, that is direâly before him ; taking carc nol to dig expences of levelling lvy the plough and by thc ſpade, Pradlice.
deep where lie firſt legiis, ut tu go deeper and deeper in which he finds the latter by far the cheapeſt mc-
as he advances to thc height of the ridye, ſo as to leave 11:00.
the bottom of the trench bc thus makes acroſs the Let it be a rule, to direct the ridges north and Troper di-
ridge entirely level, or as nearly ſo as pofible. And ſouth, if the ground will permit. In this direction the rection of
when he hasfiniſhed that part of the furrow allotted to eaſt and weſt fides of the ridges, dividing the ſun e-
the ridges
him that the plo:igh has made in going, let him then qually between them, will ripen at the ſame time. 117
go and finiſh in the furie inanner his own portion of It is a great advantage in agriculture, to form ridges Narrow
the furrow that the plough makes in returning. In this fo narrow, and to low, as to admit the crowns and fur- ridges an
manner, each man performs his own tak throngh the rots to be changed alternately every crop. The foil advantage,
whole field, gradually railing the old furrows as the neareſt the ſurface is the beſt ; and by ſuch ploughing,
old heights are depreiied. And, if an attentive over- it is always kept near the ſurface, and never buried.
feer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well in high ridges, the ſoil is accumulated at the crown
donc, and that euch furrun is raiſed le a greater hciglit and the ſurrows lcfi bare. Such alterations of crown
than the middle of the old ridges, ſo as to allow for the and furrow, is eaſy where the ridges are no more bat
carth
lirely finiſhed at once, and never again need to be re- anſwers perfely well in ſandy and gravelly foils, and
peated.
even in loan ; but it is not ſafe in clay ſoil. In that
“ In perforining this operation, it will always be ſoil, the ridges ought to be 12 feet wide, and 20 inches
proper to make the ridges, formed for the purpoſe of high ; to be preſerved always in the ſame form by caſt-
levelling, which go acroſs the old ridges, as broad as ing, that is, by ploughing two ridges together, he-
poſſible ; becauſe ihe deep trench that is thus made in ginning at the forrow that ſeparates them, and plough-
each of the furrows is an impediment in the future ing round and round till the two ridges be finiſhed.
operations, as well as the height that is accumulated By this method, the ſeparating furrow is raiſed a little
in the middle of each of theſe ridges ; ſo that the fewer higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges.
there are of theſe, the better it is. The farmer, there. But at the next ploughing, that ineqnality is correc-
fore, will do well to advert to this in time, and begin ted, by beginning at the bounding furrows, and going
by forming a ridge by always turning the flough to round and round till the ploughing of the two ridges
the right hand, till it becomes of ſuch a breadth as be completed at ibe ſeparating furrow.
makes it very inconvenient to turn longer in that man-
ner; and then, at the diſtance of twice the breadth of
4. CLEARING GROUND of WEEDS.
this new-formed ridge from the middle of it, mark off
118
a furrow for the middle of another ridge, turning For this purpoſe a new inſtrument,termed a cleaning Cleaning
round it to the right hand, in the ſame manner as was hari ow, has been introduced by Lord Kames, and is harrow.
done in the former, till it becomes of the ſame breadth ſtrongly recommended (B). It is one entire piece Plate V.
with it; and then, turning to the left hand, plough out like the firſt of thoſe mentioned above, conſiſting of fig. 6.
theinteryal that was left hetween the two new-forined ſeven bulls, four feet long each, two and one-fourth
ridges. By this mode of ploughing, each ridge may inches broad, two and three-fourths deep. The bulls
be made of 40, or 50 or 60 yards in breadth, without are united together by ſheths, ſimilar to what are men-
any great inconvenience; for although ſome time will tioned above. The intervals between the bulls being
be lost in turning at the ends of theſe broad ridges, three and three-fourths inches, the brcadth of the
yet, as this operation is only to be once performed in whole harrow is three feet five inches. In each bull
this manner, the advantage that is repeated by having are inſerted eight teeth, each nine inches free below
few open furrows, is inore than ſufficient to counter the wood, and diſtant from each other ſix inches. The
balance it. And, in order to moderate the height weight of cach tooth is a pound, or near it. The
that would be formed in the middle of each of theſe whole is firinly bound by an iron plate from corner to
great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the corner in the line of the draught. The reſt as in the
ridges, and draw the furrow that is to be the middle of harrows mentioned above. The ſize, however, is not
cach fome days before you collect your labourers to invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger
level the field ; that you may, without any hurry or or leſs according as the ſoil is ſtiff or free.
loſs of labour, clear out a good trench through the To give this inſtrument its full effect, foncs of ſuch
middle of each of the old ridges; as the plough at this a ſize as not to paſs freely between the teeth ought to
time going and returning ucarly in the ſame track, pre. be carried off, and clods of that fize ought to be bro-
vents the labourers from working properly without ken. The ground ought to be dry, which it comnionly
this precaution.
is in the month of May.
“If theſe rules are attended to, your field will be at In preparing for barley, turnip, or other ſummer-
once redu'ed to a proper level, and the rich earth that crop, begin with ploughing and croſs-ploughing. If
formed the ſurface of the old ridges be ſtill kept upon the ground be not fufficiently pulverized, let the great
the ſurface of your field ; ſo that the only loſs that the brake be applied, to be followed ſuccellively with the iſt
poffeffor of ſuch ground can ſuſtain by this operation, and 2d harrrows. In ſtiff foil, rolling may be proper, Plate VI.
is merely the expense of performing it.'
or twice between thc acis. Theſcoperations will looſen fig. 3, 4.
He afterwards makes a calculation of the different every rool, and bring ſome of them to the ſurface.
This
(B) In his Gentleman Farmer; to which performancc the practical part of this article is materially indebied.
1
Part II
AGRICULTURE.
287
1
Pradice, This is the time for the 3d harrow, conducted by a calily it penetrates the clay ; but it abides leſs time in pratico
boy mounted on one of the lorſes, who trots ſmartly it than the larger.
Fig. 5.
along the field, and brings all the roots to the ſurface: The next beſt fand is that wahed down by rains 0:1
there tliey are to lie for a day or two, till perfectly gravelly ſoils. Thoſe which are dry and light are the
dry. If any ſtones or clods remain, they muſt be car worſt. Small gritty gravel has alſo been recommended
ried off iji a cart. And now ſucceeds the operation of by the beſt writers on agriculture for theſe foils; and
the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a ſingle horſe, in many inftauces we have found them to aaſwer the
directed by rtins, which the man at the oppolite cornec
the opporte cornec purpoſe.
puls over his head, in order to have both hands free. Shell-marle, aſhes, and all animal and vegetable ſub-
In this corner is fixeda rope, with which the man from ſtances, are very good manuresior clıy; but they have
time to time raiſes the harrow from the ground, to let been found molt beneficial when fand is mixea with
the weeds drop. For the ſake of expedition, the weeds them. Line has been often uſed, but the writer of
ought to be dropt in a ſtraight line croſs the field, this ſection rould not recomrac.d it, for he never
whether the harrow be full or not; and feldon is a found any advantage from it fingly, when applied to
field ſo dirty but that the harrow may go 30 yards be clays.
fore the teeth are filled. The weeds will be thus laid The crops moſt ſuitable for ſuch lands are, wheat,
in parallel rows, like thoſe of hay raked together for beans, cabbages, and rye-graſs. Clorer ſeldom fuc-
drying. A harrow may be drawn ſwifily along the ceeris, norindeed any plants whoſe roots require depth,
rows, in order to thake out all the duít; and then the and a wide (pread in the earth.
weeds may be carried clean off the field in carts. But 2. Chalk. Chaiky fuils are generally dry and warm,
we are not yer done with theſe weeds: inſtead of burn and iſ there be a tolerable depth of mould, fruitful;
ing, which is the ordinary practice, they may be con producing great crops of barley, rye, peale, verches,
verted into uſeful manure, by laying them in a heap clover, trefoil, burnct, and particularly fain-foin. The
with a mixiure of hot dang to begin fermentation. latter plant flouriſhes in a chalky ſuilíbetter than any
At firſt view, this way of cleaning land will appear other. But if the ſurface of mould be very thin, this
operoſe; but upon trial, neither the labour nor ex fuil requires good manuring with clay, marle, loam, or
pence will be found immoderare. At any rate, the la- dung. As theſe lands are dry, they may be lown ear-
bour and expence onght not to be grudged; for if a lier than others.
field be once thoroughly cleaned, the ſeaſons muſt be When your barley is three inches high, throw it
very croſs, or the farmer very indolent, to make it ne 10 15. of clover, or 15 lb, of trefoil, and roll it well.
ceſſary to renew the operation in leſs than 20 years. In The next ſummer mow the crop for hay ; feed off the
the worſt ſeaſons, a few years paſture is always under aftermath with theep ; and in winter give it a top-dref-
coni mand; which effectually deſtroys triennial plants, fing of dung. This will produce a crop the ſecond
ſuch as thiſtles and couch-graſs.
ſpring, which ſhould be cut for hay. As ſoon as this
crop is carried off, plough up the land, and in the be-
5. On the Nature of different kinds of Soils, and the ginning of September low three bushels of rye per
PLANTS proper to each.
acre, either to feed off the ſheep in the ſpring or to
ſtand for harveſt. If you feed it off, low winter
I. CLAY, which is in general the ſtifieſt of all foils, vetches in Auguſt or September, and make them into
and contains an un&uous quality. But under the hay the following ſummer.
hay the following ſummer. Then get the land into
term clays, earths of different forts and colours are in as fine tilth as poſſible, and ſow it with fain-foin, which,
cluded. One kind is ſo obſtinate, that ſcarcely any with a little manure once in two or three years, will
thing will fubdue it; another is ſo hungry and poor,
remain and produce good crops for 20 years together.
that it abſorbs whatever is applied, and turns it into 3. Light poor land, which ſeldom produces good
its own quality. Some clays are fatter than others, crops of any thing till well manured. Aiter it is well
and the fatteſt are the beſt; ſome are more ſoft and ploughed, fow three buſhels of buck-wheat per acre,
flippery.
But all of them retain water poured on in April or May: When in bloom, let your cattle in
their farfaces, where it ſtagnates, and chills the plants, a few days to eat off the beſt, and tread the other
without ſinking into the ſoil. The cloſeneſs of clay
The cloſeneſs of clay down ; this done, plough in what remains immediate-
prevents the roots and fibres of plants from ſpreading ly. This will ſoon ferinent and rot in the ground
in ſearch of nouriſhment. The blue, the red, and the then lay it fine, and ſow three buſhels of ryc per acre.
white clay, if ſtrong, are unfavonrable to vegetation. If this can be got off early enough, fow turnips ; if
The ſtony and looſer fort are leſs fo; but none of them not, winter vetches to cut for hay. Then
Then get it in
are worth any thing till their texture is ſo looſened by good tilth and low turnip-rooted cabbages, in rows
a mixture of other ſubſtances, and opened, as to ad three feet apart. This plant ſeldoin fails, if it has
Init the influence of the ſun, the air, and froſts. A fufficient room, and the intervals be well horſe-hoed;
mong the manures recommended for clay, ſand is of and you will find it the beſt ſpring-feed for ſheep when
all others to be preferred ; and ſea-fund the beſt of all turnips are over.
where it can be obtained: This moſt effe&tually breaks The horſe-hoeing will clean and prepare the land
the coheſion,
for fain-foin ; for the fowing of which April is
The reaſon for preferring ſea-fand is, that it is not reckoned the beſt ſeaſon. The uſual way is to low
formed wholly (as moſt other lands are of ſmall ſtones; it broad-caſt, four buſhels to an acrc; but the writer
but contains a great deal of calcareous matter in it, prefers ſowing it in drills two feet aſunder ; for chen
ſuch as, ſhells qrated and broken to pieces by the tide; it may be horſe-hocd, and half the feed will be fuffi-
and alſo of falts. The ſmaller the fand is the inore cient.
The
1
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288
Part II.
А GRIC U
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Pradice.
I 20
I 21
1 22
The horſe-hoeing will not only clean the crop, but kind: of the other kind are, pcaſe, beans, clover, cab- Practice.
earth up the plants, and render then more luxuriant bage, and many others.
and laſting
Culmiferous plants, ſays Bonnet, have three ſets of
Culmife-
If you low it broad-caſt, give it a top-dreſſing in roots. The firſt iſſue from the feed, and puſh to the
rous plants.
December or January, of rotten dung, or aſhes, or ſurface an upright ſtem; another ſet iſſue from a knot
which is ſtill better, of both mixed up in compoſt. in that ſtem; and a third from another knot, nearer
From various trials, it is found that taking only one the ſurface. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo
crop in a year, and feeding the after-growth, is better deep in the ground as to afford ſpace for all the fets.
than to mow it twice. Cut it as ſoon as it is in full Leguminous plants form their roots differently. Leguni-
bloom, if the weather will permit. The hay will be Peaſe, beans, cabbage, have ſtore of ſmall roots, all nousplants.
the ſweeter, and the ſtrength of the plants leſs im- iſſuing from the feed, like the undermoſt fee of culmi-
paired, than if it ſtands till the feed is formed. ferous roots; aild they liave no other roots.
A potato
4. Light rich land, being the moſt eaſy to cultivate and a turnip liave bulbous roots. Red clover has a
to advantage, and capable of bearing moſt kinds of ſtrong tap-root. The difference between culmiſerous
grain, pulle, and herbage, little need be ſaid upon it. and leguminous plants with reſpect to the effects they
One thing however is very proper to be obſerved, that produce in the ſoil
, will be inliſted on afterward, in
fuch lands are beſt adapted to the drill huibandry, the feelion concerning the rotation of crops. As the
eſpecially where inachines are uſed, which requircfhal- preſent ſection is confined to the propagation of plants,
low furrows to be made for the reception of the feed. it falls naturally to be divided into three articles: firſt,
This, if not prone to couch-graſs, is the beſt of all Plants cultivated för fruit; ſecond, Plants cultivated
ſoils for lucerne ; which, if fown in two feet drills, for roots; third, Plants cultivated for leaves.
and kept clean, will yield an aſtoniſhing quantity of
the moſt excellent herbage. But lucerne will never
I. Plants Cultivated for Fruit.
be cultivated to advantage where couch-graſs and weeds
I. WHÈAT and Rye.
are very plentiful; nor in the broad-caſt method, even
where they are not ſo ; becauſc horſe-hoeing is eſſen Any time from the niddle of April to the middle of Fallowing
tial to the vigorous growth of this plant.
May, the fallowing for wheat may commence. The fur wheat.
5. Coarſe rough land. Plongh deep in autumn ; moment ſhould be chofen, when the ground, beginning
when it has lain two weeks, croſs-plough it, and let it to dry, has yet ſome remaining foftneſs: in that con-
lie rough through the winter. In March give it ano- dition, the foil divides caſily by the plough, and falls
ther good ploughing , drag, rake, and harrow it well, into ſmall parts. This is an ellential article, deſerving
to get out the rubbiſh, and low four bulliels of black the ſtricteſt attention of the ſarıner, Ground plough-
oats per acre if the foil be wet, and white oats if dry. ed too wet, riſes, as we ſay, whole-fur, as when paflure-
When about four inches high, roll them well after a ground is ploughed: where ploughied too dry, it riſes
ſhower : This will break the clods; and the fine mould in great lumps, which are not reduced by ſubſequent
falling among the roots of the the plants svill promote ploughings; not to mention, that it requires deable
their growth greatly.
force to plough ground too dry, and that the plough is
Some ſow clover and rye graſs among the oats, but often broken to pieces. When the ground is in pro-
this appears to be bad huſbandry. If you deſign it for per order, the farmer can have no excuſe for delaying
clover, fow it ſingle, and let a coat of dung be laid a ſingle minute. This firſt courſe of fallow muſt, it is
on in December. The ſhow and rain will then dilute true, yield to the barley-feed; but as the barley. ſeed
its ſalts and oil, and carry them down among the roots is cominonly over the firſt week of May, or ſooner, the
of the plants. This is far better than mixing the ſeaſon muſt be unfavourable if the fallow cannot be
crops on ſuch land, for the oats will exhauſt the foil fo reached by the middle of May.
much that the clover will be impoveriſhed. The fol As clay ſoil requires high ridges, theſe ought to be
lowing ſummer you will have a good crop of clover, cleaved at the firil ploughing, beginning at the furrow,
which cut once, and ſecd the after-growth. In the and ending at the crown. This ploughing ought to
winter plough it in, and let it lie till February: Then be as deep as the ſoil will adnit: and water-furrowing
plough and harrow it well ; and in March, if the ſoil ought inſtantly to follow; for if rain happen before
be moift, plant beans in drills of three feet, to admit water-furrowing,it ſtagnates in the furrow, ncceflarily
the horſe-hoe freely. When you horſe-hoe them a ſe- delays the fecond ploughing till that part of tne ridge
cond time, ſow a row of turnips in each interval, and bedry, and prevents the furrow frona being mellawed
they will ſucceed very well. But if the land be ſtrong and roaſted by tbe fun. If this firſt ploughing be well
enough for ſowing wheat as ſoon as the beans are off, executed, annual weeds will riſe in plenty.
the turnips may be omitted.
About the firſt week of June, the great brake will
looſen aird reduce the ſoil, encourage a ſecond crop of
annuals, and raiſe to the ſurfacc the roots of weeds
SECT. III. Culture of particular Plants.
noved by the plough. Give the weeds time to ſpring,
which may be in two or threc wecks. The proceed .
The articles hitherto inſiſted on, are all of them to the ſecond ploughing about the beginning of July:
preparatory to the capital object of a farm, that of which muſt be croſs the ridges, in order to reach all
raiſing plants for the nouriſhment of man, and of o the ſlips of the former ploughing. By, crofs-ploughing
ther aninials. Theſe are of two kinds ; culmiferous the ſurrows will be filled up, and water furrowing be
and leguninous ; differing widely from each other. ſtill more neceſſary than before. Employ the brake
Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-graſs, are of the firit again about the roth of Auguſt, to deſtroy the annuals
thar
119
Part II.
A G R I CU U T
L T U RE.
289
126
127
in clay.
Practice. that have fprung ſince the laſt ſtirring. The deſtruc- of the greateſt improvement in huſbandry that has ta. Practice.
- tion of weeds is a capital article in fallowing: yet ſo ken place this century. It ſeems to have been firſt
blind are people to their intereſt, that nothing is more fuggested by planting grains in a garden from mere cu.
common than a fallow field covered with charlock and riolity, by perſons who had no thought or opportunity
wild muſtard, all in flower, and 10 or 12 inches high. of extending it to a lucrative purpoſe. Nor was it
The field having now received two harrowings and two attempted on a larger ſcale, till a little farmer near
breakings, is prepared for manure, whether lime or Norwich began it about 17 years ſince, upon leſs than
dung, which without delay ought to be incorporated an acre of land.
au acre of land. For two or three years only a few Setting of
with thc foil by a repeated harrowing and a gathering followed his example; and thoſe were generally the wheat,
furrow. This ought to be about the beginning of butt of their neignbours merriment for adopting ſo
Scptember, and as ſoon after as you pleaſe the feed may fingular a practice. They had, however, contiderably
be fown.
better corn and larger crops than their neighbours :
As in ploughing a clay foil it is of importance to this, together with the ſaving in ſeed, engaged more
prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought tobe done to follow them : while ſome ingenious perſons, ob-
with two ho fes in a line. If four ploughs be employed ferving its great advantage, recommended and pub-
in the ſame field, to one of them may be allotted the liſhed its utility in the Norwich papers. Theſe re-
commendations had their effect. The curioſity and
123
care of finiſhing the hinting furrows.
Dreſſing
Loam, being a medium between fand and clay, is inquiry of the Norfolk farmers (particularly round
loam for of all ſoils the fitteſt for culture, and the leaſt fubje& Norwich) were excited, and they found ſufficient rea-
wheat.
to chances. It does not hold water like clay; and ſon to make general experiments. Aniong the reſt
when wet, it dries ſooner. Atthe ſame time, itis more was one of the largeſt occupiers of lands in this county,
retentive than fand of that degree of moiſture which who ſet 57 acres in one year. His ſucceſs, from the
promotes vegetation. On the other hand, it is more viſible ſuperiority of his crop, both in quantity and
ſubject to couch-graſs than clay, and to other weeds ; quality, was ſo great, that the following autumn he
to deſtroy which, fallowing is ſtill niore neceſſary than fet 300 acres, and bas continued the practice erer
ſince. This noble experiment eſtabliſlied the practice, A capital
Beginning the fallow about the firſt of May, or as and was the means of introducing it generally among improve-
ſoon as barley-feed is over, take as deep furrow as the intelligent farmers in a very large diſtrict of land; ment in a-
the ſoil will admit. Where the ridges are folow and there being few who now low any wheat, if they can griculture,
narrow as that the crown and furrow can be changed procure hands to ſet it. It has been generally obſerred,
alternately, there is little or no occaſion for water fur that although the ſet crops appear very thin during the
rowing. Where the ridges are ſo high as to make it autumn and winter, the plants tiller and ſpread prodi-
proper to cleave them, water-furrowing is proper. The giouſly in the ſpring. The ears are indiſputably lar-
ſecond ploughing may be at the diſtance of five weeks. ger, without any dwarfiſh or ſmall corn ; the grain is
Two crops of annuals may be got in the interim, the of a larger bulk, and ſpecifically heavier per bulliel
firſt by the brake and the next by the harrow; and by than when ſown.
the ſame means eight crops may be got in the ſeaſon. The lands on which this method is particularly pro- Method.
The ground muſt be cleared of couch-graſs and knot- {perous, are either afier clover ſtubble, or on which
graſs roots, by the cleaning harrow deſcribed above. trefoil and graſs-ſeed were foun the ſpring betore the
The time for this operation is immediately before the laſt. Thele grounds, after the uſual manuring, are
manure is laid on, The ground at that time being in once turned over by the plough in an extended Hag or
its looſeſt ſtate, parts with its graſs roots more freely turf, at ten inches wide ; along which a man, who is
After the manure is ſpread, called a dibbler, with two ſetting-irons, ſomewhat big-
and incorporated with the foil by breaking or harrow- ger than ram-rods, but conſiderably bigger at the
ing, the feed may be fown under furrow, if the ground lower end, and pointed at the extremity, ſteps back-
hang ſo as ealily to carry off the moiſture. To leave wards along the turf and makes the holes about luur
it rough without harrowing has two advantages: it inches afunder every way,and an inch deep. Into theſe
is not apt to cake with moiſture, and the inequalities holes the droppers (women, boys, and girls) drop two
make a ſort of thelter to the young plants againſt froſt. grains, which is quite fufficient. After this, a gate
But if it lie flat, it ought to be ſmoothed with a ſlight bufhed with thorus is drawn by one horſe over the
harrow after the feed is ſown, which will facilitate the land, and clofes up the holes. By this mode, three
courſe of the rain from the crown to the furrow. pecks of grain is ſufficient for an acre ; and being im-
Dreſſing a A fandy ſoil is too looſe for wheat. The only chance mediately buried, it is equally removed from vermin
or
fandy foil, for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind the power of froſt. The regularity of its riſing gives
the foil ; and the inſtructions above given for loam are the beſt opportunity of keeping it clear from weeds, by
arplicable here, Rye is a crop much fitter for ſandy weeding or hand-hoeing.
ſoil than wheat; and, like wheat, is generally lown Wheat-ſetting is a method peculiarly beneficialwhen peculiar
after a fuminer-fallow.
cornis dear ; and, if the ſeaſon be favourable, may be advantages
Laſtly, Sow wheat as ſoon in the month of October as practiſed with great benefit to the farmer. Sir Thomas
rowing the ground is ready. When ſown a month more early, Beevor of Hathel-Hall in Norfolk, found the produce
it is too forward in the ſpring, and apt to be hurt by to be two buſhels per acre more than froin the wheat
froſt; when ſown a month later, it has not time to which is ſown ; but having much leſs finall corn inter-
root before froit comes on, and froſt fpews it out of mixed with it, che ſanıple is better, and always fetch-
the ground.
es a higher price, to the amount generally of two
Setting of wheat,' a method which is reckoned one fillings per quarter.
Vol. I.
This
128
I 24
125
Tine for
Oo
5
290
Part II.
A GRI CU U R E.
U L
TU
T
Practice.
131
L This method, too, lives to the farmer and to the a ſecond been made, Mr Miller thinks the number of Practice.
public lix pecks of lecd-wheat in every acre ; which, if plants would have amounted to 200o inſtead of 500,
nationally adopted, would of itſelf afford bread for and the produce thereby much enlarged.
more than half a million of people.
The ground was a light blackiſh foil, upon a gra-
Add to theſe comiderations, ihe great ſupport given velly bottom; and conſequently, a bad foil for wheat.
tothc poor by this ſecond larveit, as it may be called, One half of the ground was well dunged, the other
which enables them to diſcharge their rents and main- half had no manure. There was, however, not any
tain their families withont having recourſe to the pa- difference diſcoverable in the vigour, or growth, or
riſh - The expence of ſetting by hand is now reduced producc, of the plants.
to about ten Shillings per acre ; which, in good wea It muſt be evident, that the expence and labour of
ther, inay be done by one dibbler, attended by three ſetting in the above manner by the hand, will render
droppers, in tiro days. This is five ſhillings per day; it impracticable upon a large i cale ſo as to be produc-
ui which, if the dibbler gives to the children lixpence tive of any utility. A correſpondent of the Bath So-
each, he will have himſelf three ſhillings and fixpence ciety, therefore (Robert Bogle, Eſq. of Daldowin,
for his day's work, which is inucli niore than he cail near Glaſgow), with a view to extend the practice,
poſſibly earn by any other labour ſo eaſy to himſelf. has propoſed the uſe of the harrow and roller until
But put the caſe, that the man has a wife who dibbles fome better implements be invented. This method Method
with him, and two or three of his own children to occurred to him from attending to the practice uſual propoſed by
Mr Bogle.
drop to him, you ſee his gains will then be prodigious, with farmers on certain occaſions, of harrowing their
and enough to enſure a plenty of candidates for that fields after the grain is ſprung up. Upon inveſtigating
work, even in the leaſt populous parts of the country: the principles upon which theſe practices are founded,
It is, however, to be obſerved with regard to this he found them confined merely to that of pulveriſing
method, that in ſeaſons when ſeed-corn is very cheap, the earth, without any attention to Mr Miller's doc-
or the autumn particularly unfavourable to the practice, trine. They ſaid, “ that after very heavy rains, and
it muſt certainly be lefſened. In light lands, for in- then exceſſive dry weather, the ſurface of their lands
ſtance, a very dry time prevents dibbling; as the holes were apt to be caked, the tender fibres of the young
made with the inſtruments will be filled up again by roots were thereby prevented from puſhing, and of
the mould as faſt as the inſtrument is withdrawn. So, courſe the vegetation was greatly obſtructed, in ſuch
again, in a very wet ſeaſon, on ſtrong and ſtiff clays, the inſtances, they found very great benefit from harrow-
jeeds in the holes cannot be well and properly covered ing and rolling.
by the buſhes drawn over them. But theſe extremes of Theſe principles he acknowledges to be well ſound-
dry and wet do not often happen, nor do they affect ed, ſo far as relates to pulveriling ; but contends, that
lands of a moderately conſiſtent texture, or both light the benefit ariſing from harrowing and rolling is not
and heavy foils at the ſame time, ſo that the general derived from pulveriſing entirely, but alſo from ſub-
practice is in fact never greatly impeded by them. dividing and enabling the plants to tiller (as it is term-
Fropagating of wheat by dividing and tranſplanting ed). "The larrow (he obſerves) certainly breaks
its roots. In the Philoſophical Tranſactions for 1768, the incruſtation on the ſurface, and the roller crumbles
we meet with a very extraordinary experiment, of the clods; but it is alſo obvious, that the harrow re-
which the following is an abſtract. On the 2d of June moves a great inany of the plants from their original
1756, Mr C. Miller fowed ſome grains of the common ſtations; and that if the corn has begun to tiller at the
red whcat; and on the 8th of Auguſt a ſingle plant time it is uſed, the roots will be, in many inſtances,
was taken up and ſeparated into 18 parts, and each ſubdivided, and then the application of my ſyſtem of di-
part planted ſeparately. Theſe plants having puhed viſibility comes into play.The roller then ſerves to plant
out ſeveral lide-floors, by about the middle of Sep- the roots which have been torn up by the harrow.
teinber ſome of them were then taken up and divid. But on this the Society obſerve, that the teeth of a Objectious.
ed, and the reſt of them between that time and the harrow are too large to divide roots ſo ſmall and tena-
iniddle of October. This ſecond diviſion produced 67 cious as are thoſe of grain ; and whenever ſuch roots
plants. Theſe plants remained throagh the winter, (however tillered) ſtand in the line any tooth makes,
and another divilion of them, inade between the middle they will, if ſmall, be only turned on one ſide by the
of March and the 12th of April, produced 500 plants. earth yielding to their lateral preſſure, or, if large, the
They were then divided no further, but permitted to whole root will probably be drawn out of the ground.
remain. The plants were in general ſtronger than any The principal uſes, therefore, derived froin harrowing
of tlie wheat in the fields. Some of them produced and rolling theſe crops are, opening the ſoil between
nipwards of 100 ears from a ſingle root. Many of the the plants, earthing them up, breaking the clods, and
cars méaſured ſeven inches in length, and contained cloting the earth about their roots.
between 60 and 70 grains.
In a ſubſequent letter, Mr Bogle, without conteſt-
The whole number of ears which, by the proceſsing theſe points, further urges the ſcheme of propaga-
abovementioned, were produced from one grain of ting wheat by dividing and tranſplanting its roots.." I
wheat, was 21,109, which yielded three pecks and have converſed (ſays he) much with many practical
three quarters of clear corn, the weight of which was farmers, who all admitthat my plan has the appearance
471b. 7 ounces; and from a calculation nade by not only of being practical, bul advantageous. I have
counting the number of grains in an ounce, the whole alſo ſeen in the ninth number of Mr Young's Annals of
number of grains was about 576,840.
Agriculture, the account of an experiinent which
By this account we find, that there was only one ſtrongly corroborates my theory. It was made by the
general diviſion of the plants made in the ſpring. Had Rey. Mr Pike of Edinonton. From this, and other
experiments
130
Propaga-
ting of
Tihcut by
dividing
the roots,
132
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
291
133
1
134
vations,
Pradice. experiments which have been made under my own eye, farmer may have a nurſery, or ſmall patch of plants, Practice.
I foreſee clearly, that the ſyſtem is practicable, and from which his fields may be ſupplied; he calculates
will certainly be productive of great benefit, ſhould it that one acre will yield plants ſufficient for 100 acres.
Psacticabi.
lity of the become general. Beſides the ſaving of nine-tenths of 4. That a very great increaſe of crops may be ob-
Icheme al- ſeed in the land fown broad-caſt, other very ini portant tained by this method, probably a double crop, nay
ſerted. advantages will attend the ſetting out of wheat from a perhaps a triple quantity of what is reaped either by
feed-bed, ſuch as an early crop; the certainty of good drilling, or by the broad-caſt huſbandry.
crops ; rendering a ſummer fallow unneceſſary; ſaving 5. That a great part of the labour may be perform-
dung; and having yourwheat perfectly free from weedsed by infirm men and women, and alſo by children,
without either hand or horſe-hoeing. Five hundred who are at preſent ſupported by the pariſ charity;
plants in April produced almoſt a buſhel of grain. My and that of courſe the poor's rates may be conſiderably
gardener ſays, he can ſet one thouſand plants in a day, reduced.
which is confirmed by the opinion of two other gar 6. That the expence will not exceed from 20s. to
deners. Mr Miller found no difference in the produce 305. per acre, if the work be performed by able-bodied
of what was planted on lands that had dung, and on men and women; but that it will be much tower, if that
what had none, except where the land was improper proportion of the work which may be done by employ-
for wheat at all."
ing young boys and girls ſhould be allotted to them.
Bath Soci On this letter we have the following note by the ſo 7. That in general he has found the diſtance of nine
ety's obſer- ciety : “Mr Bogle will ſee, by the ſociety's premium- inches every way a very proper diſtance for ſetting out
book this year, that by having offered ſeveral premi- the plants at; but recommends them to be tried at o-
ums for experiments of the kind he ſo earneſtly recom ther ſpaces, ſuch as fix, eight, or even 12 inches.
mends, we wiſh to have his theory brought to the teſt 8. That he conceives an earlier crop may be obtain-
of practice. Our reaſon for this, as well as for print- ed in this manner than can be obtained by any other
ing Mr B’s letter, was rather to excite deciſive trials · inode of cultivation.
by ingenious perſons, than from any expectation of the 9. That a clean crop may alſo be procured in this
practice ever becoming a general one. General, in-
General, in- way, becauſe if the land be ploughed immediately be-
deed, it never can be. A ſufficient number of hands fore the plants are ſet out, the corn will ſpring much
could not be found to do it. Unkindly ſeaſons at the quicker from the plants than the weeds will do from
time of tranſplanting and dividing the roots would fre- their feeds, and the corn will thereby bear down the
quently endanger and injure, if not deſtroy the crops. growth of the weeds.
But admitting the mode generally practicable, we very 10. That ſuch lands as are overflowed in the winter
much doubt whether all the advantageshe has enumera and ſpring, and are of courſe unfit for fowing with
ted would be derived from this mode of culture. Why wheat in the autumn, may be rendered fit for crops of
ſhould dividing and tranſplanting the roots of wheat wheat by planting them in the ſpring, or even in the
cauſe the crop to be early, or afford a certainty of its ſummer.
being a good one? We cannot think that lefs nariure 11. That he has known inſtances of wheat being
is neceſſary in this method, than either in drilling or tranſplanted in September, Oétober, November, Fea
broad-caſt; nor can we by any means admit, that ſuch bruary, March, April, and even as late as the niddle
crops would “ be perfectly free from weeds without of May, which have all anſwered very well.
either hand or horſe-hoeing." We readily agree with 12. That he has known an early kind of wheat ſown
Mr Bogle, that by this mode of culture on a general as late as the middle of May, which has ripened in very
ſcale, an immenfe quantity of ſeed-corn would be an- good time; and from that circumſtance he conceives,
nually ſaved to the nation ; and in this, we believe, the if the plants ſhould be taken from that early kind, the
advantage, were it practicable would principally con ſeaſon of tranſplanting might be prolonged at leaſt till
the firſt of July, perhaps even later.
Further ob- Upon the ſame ſubject, and that of harrowing all 13. That he has reaſon to think wheat, oats, and
ſervations kinds of corn, we are informed, Mr Bogle, afterwards barley, are not annuals, but are perennials, prorided
cominunicated to the Society his thoughts more at they are eaten down by cattle and flieep, or are kept
Hogle.
large, together with authentic accounts which were low by the ſcythe or fickle ; and are prevented from
made at his inſtance, and which were attended with ſpindling or coming to the ear.
very great ſucceſs. Theſe, however, were received 14. That one very prevalent motive with him in
too late for publication in the laſt (3d) volume of their proſecuting this plan, is, that he is of opinion it may
papers. But the Society, conceiving his ſyſtem may enable government to deviſe means of ſupporting the
be attended with conſiderable advantages if brought vagrant poor, both old and young, who are now to be
into general practice, have given, at the end of the vo met with every where, both in towns and in the conne
lume, a few of his leading principles. Mr Bogle ſtates, try, and who are at preſent a burden on the commil-
1. That he has known many inſtances of very great nity : but if ſuch employment could be ſtrock out for
crops having been obtained by harrowing fields of corn them, a comfortable ſubſiſtence might be provided for
after they were ſprouted ; and therefore recommends them by means of their own labour and induſtry; and
the practice very warinly.
not only ſave the public and private charitable contri-
2. That he has alſo received an authentic account of butions, but may alſo render that claſs of people uſeiul
one inſtance where the fame good effects were produ- and profitable ſubjects; inſtead of their remaining ill
ced by ploughing the field.
a uſeleſs, wretched, and perhaps a profligate and vi.
3. On the ſyſtem of tranſplanting, he ſtates, that a cious courſe of life.
Very great proportion of the feed will be ſaved, as a Laſtly, Mr Bogle had hinted at a ſecondary object
OO 2
which
1357 fift."
of Mr
292
A G RI CU L T U R E.
Part If.
t
1
137
Effeât of
Practice. which he has in view, from this inode of cultivation, better to ſummer-fallow and to low, wheat in the au- 'Practice.
V which he apprehends may in time, with a ſmall degree tumn. But the preferable method, eſpecially in clay.
of attention, prove extremely advantageous to agricul- foil, is to turn over the field after harveit, and to lay
ture. It is, that in the firſt place, the real and intrin it open to the influences of froſt and air, which leſſen
fic value of different kinds of grain may be more ac the tenacity of clay, and reduce it to a free mould. The
curately aſcertained by making a compariſon of it with ſurface-foil by this means is finely mellowed for recep.
a few plants of each kind ſet out at the ſame tine, tion of the feed ; and it would be a pity to bury it by
than can be done when ſown in drills or broad-caſt ; a ſecond ploughing before ſowing. In general, th:
and when the moſt valuable kinds of wheat, oats, or bulk of clay-ſoils are rich; and ſkilful ploughing with-
barley, are diſcovered, he ſtates, that in a very ſhort out dung, will probably give a better crop, than un-
time (not exceeding four or five years) a fulficient ſkilful ploughing with dung.
quantity of that valuable kind may be procured to ſup. Hitherto of natural clays. We muſt add a word of
ply the kingdom with ſeed from a ſingle grain of each carſe-clays which are artificial, whether left by tlic
kind; for he calculates, that 47,000 grains of wheat fea, or ſweeped down from higher grounds by rain.
may be produced by diviſibility in two years and three The method commonly uſed of dretling carſe-clay for
136 months.
oals, is, not to ſtir it till the ground be dry in the
Obſerva-
Upon theſe propoſitions the Society obſerves, “That ſpring, ivhich ſeldom happens before the firſt of March,
tions of the although Mr Bogle appears to be too fanguine in his and the feed is ſown as ſoon after as the ground is ſuffi-
Iath Soci- expectations of ſeeing his plan realized in general prac- ciently dry for its reception. Froſt has a ſtronger
ety.
tice, it certainly merits the attention of Gentlemen effect on ſuch clays than on natural clay. And if the
Farmers. We will them to make fair experiments, and field be laid open before Winter, it is rendered ſo looſe
report their ſucceſs. Every grand improvement has by froft as to be foon drenched in water. The particles
been, and ever will be, progreſſive. They muſt neceſ at the ſame time are ſo ſmall as that the firſt drought in
ſarily originate with gentlemen; and thence the circle ſpring makes the furface cake or cruſt. The difficulty
is extended by almoſt imperceptible degrees over pro- of reducing this cruſt into mould for covering the oat-
vinces and countries. At all events, Mr Bogle is jully feed, has led farmers to delay ploughing till the month
intitled to the thanks of the Society, and of the pub- of Niarch. But we are taught by experience, that this
lic, for the great attention he has paid to the ſubject.” foil ploughed before winter, is ſooner dry than when
the ploughing is delayed till ſpring; and as early low-
2. OATS.
ing is a great advantage, the objection of the ſuperfi-
As winter-ploughing enters into the culture of oats, cialcruſting is eaſily removed by the firſt harrow above
we muſt remind the reader of the effect of froſt upon deſcribed, which will produce abundance of mould for
tilled land. tilled land. Providence has neglected no region in« covering the feed. The ploughing before winter not
tended for the habitation of man. If in warm cli- only produces early fowing, but has another advantage :
mates the ſoil be meliorated by the ſun, it is no leſs the ſurface-foil that had been mellowed during winter
meliorated by froſt in cold climates. Froſt acts upon by the fun, froſt, and wind, is kept above.
water, by expanding it into a larger ſpace. Froft has The dreſſing a loamy ſoil for oats differs little froin
no effect upon dry earth ; witneſs ſand, upon which dreſling a clay foil, except in the following particular,
it makes no impreſſion. But upon wet earth it acts that being leſs hurt by rain, it requires not high ridges,
moſt vigorouſly : it cxpands the moiſture, which re and therefore ought to be ploughed crown and furrow
quiring more ſpace puts every particle of the earth out alternately.
of its place, and ſeparates them from each other. In Where there is both clay and loam in a farm, it is
that view, froſt may be conſidered as a plough ſuperior obvious from what is ſaid above, that the ploughing
to any that is made, or canı be made, by the hand of of the clay after harveſt ought firſt to be diſpatched.
man : its action reaches the minuteſt particles; and, by If both cannot be overtaken that ſeaſon, the loan may
dividing and ſeparating them, it renders the foil looſe be delayed till the 1pring with leſs hurt.
and friable. This operation is the moſt remarkable in Next of a gravelly ſoil ; which is the reverſe of clay,
tilled land, which gives free acceſs to froſt. With re as it never ſuffers but from want of moiſture. Such a
fpect to clay-foil in particular, there is no rule in huí foil ought to have no ridges; but be ploughed circularly
bandry imore eſſential than to open it before winter in from the centre to the circumference, or froin the cir-
hopes of froſt. It is even adviſable in a clay-loil to cumference to the centre. It ought to be tilled after
icave the ſtubble rank ; which, when ploaghed in be- harveſt: and the firſt dry weather in ſpring ought to be
fore winter, keeps the clay looſe, and admits che froft laid hold of to low, harrow, and roll , which will pre-
into every cranny;
ſerve it in fap.
To apply this doctrine, it is dangerous to plongh Thc culture of oats is the fimpleſt of all. That grain
clay-foil when wet ; becauſe water is a cement for clay, is probably a native of Britain : it will grow on the
and binds it ſo as to render it unfit for vegetation. It worſt ſoil with very little preparation. For that reaſon,
is, however, lefs dangerous to plough wet clay before before turnip was introduced, it was always the firſt
winter than aſter. A ſucceeding froſt corrects the bad crop upon land broken up from the ſtate of nature.
effects of ſuch plougliing; a ſucceeding drought in Upon ſuch land, may it not be a good method,
creaſes them.
to build upon the crown of every ridge, in the forin
Culture of The common method is, to ſow oats on new-plough- of a wall, all the furface-earth, one lod above ano-
ed land in the month of March, as ſoon as the ground ther, as in a fold for ſheep? After ſtanding in this form
is tolerably dry. If it continues wet all the month of all the ſummicr and winter, let the walls be thrown
March, it is too late to venture thein after. Il is much down, and the ground prepared for oats. This will
fecure
froſt upon
138
3
oats,
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
293
139
140
ment of
141
Practice. ſecure one or two good cropse; after which the land prevents theſe noxious effe&ts. By the two ploughings Practice,
may be dunged for a crop of barlcy and graſs-feeds. the whole foil is opened, admitting frcely air and frost;
This method may anſwer in a farm where manure is and the multitude of furrows lays the ſurface perfectly
fcality.
dry, giving an early opportunity for the barley-feed.
But further, as to the advantage of this method :
3. BARLEY.
When it is proyer to ſow the feed, all is laid fiat with
the brake, which is an eaſy operution upon the ſoil that is
Culture of This is a culmiferous plant that requires a mellow dry and pulverized ; and the feed-furrow which ſuc-
barley, foil. Upon that account, extraordinary care is requi. ceeds, is to ſhallow as to bury little or none of the ſur-
file, where it is to be fowo in clay. The land ought face-earth : whereas the ſtirring for barley is com non-
to be ſtirred immediately after the forcgoing crop is re- ly done with the deepeſt furrow; and conſequently bu-
143
moved, which lays it open to be mellowed with the ries all the ſurface-ſoil that was mellowed by the frost
Manage
Ribling. fruſt and air. In that view, a peculiar ſort of plough- and air. Nor is this method more expenſive; becauſe
ing has been introduced, tcrmed ribbing ; by which the the common ribbing muſt always be followed with a fced in a
greateſt quantity of ſurface poſſible is expoſed to the ſtirring furrow, which is ſaved in the method recom- dry ſeafun,
air and froit. The obvious objection to this method is, mended. Nay, it is leſs expenſive; for after common
that half of the ridge is left unmoved. And to ob- ribbing, which keeps in the rain water, the ground is
viate that objection, the following method is offered, commoniy fo foured, as to make the ſtirring a labo-
which moves the whole ſoil, and at the ſame time ex rious work.
poſes the ſame quantity of ſurface to the froft and air. It is well known that barley is leſs valuable when it
A better As ſoon as the former crop is off the field, let the does not ripen equally ; and that barley which comes
method. ridges be gathered with as deep a furrow as the foil up ſpeedily in a duſky ſoil, moſt gain a greatadtantage
will admit, beginning at the crown and ending at the over ſeed-weeds. Therefore, firſt take out about one-
furrows. This ploughing loofens the whole loil, gi-third of the contents of the facks of ſeed barley or
ving free acceſs to the air and froſt. Soon after begin bear, to allow for the ſwelling of the grain. Lay the
a ſecond ploughing in the following manner. Letthe
Letthe facks with the grain to ſteep in clean water ; let it lie
field be divided by parallel lines acroſs the ridges, with covered with it for at least 24 hours. When the
intervals of 30 feet or ſo. Plough once round an in- ground is fo dry as at preſent, and no likelihood of
terval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth rain for 10 days, it is better to jie 36 hours. Sow the
toward the middle of the interval ; which covers a foot grain wet from ſteeping, without any addition of pow.
or fo of the ground formerly ploughed. Within that dered quick-lime, which, though often recommended
foot plough another round ſimilar to the former ; and in print, can only poiſon the ſeed, fuck up part of its
after that, other rounds, till the whole interval be uſeful moiſture, and burn the hands of the ſuper. The
finiſhed, ending at the middle. Inſtead of beginning at feed will ſcatter well, as clean water has no tenacity:
the edges, and ploughing toward the middle, it will only the fower muſt put in a fourth or a third more
have the ſame effect to begin at the middle and to ſeed in bulk than uſual of dry grain, as the grain is
plough toward the edges. Plough the other intervals ſwelled in that proportion: harrow it in as quickly as
in the ſame manner. As by this operation the furrows poſſible after it is ſown; and though not neceſſary,
of the ridges will be pretty much filled up, let them give it the benefit of freih furrow, if convenient. You
be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By may expect it up in a fortnight at fartheft.
this method, the field will be left waving like a plot The following experiment by a correſpondent of the
in a kitchen-garden, ridged up for winter. In this Bath ſociety being conſidered as a very intereſting
form, the field is kept perfectly dry; for beſide the one, is here ſubjoined.
capital furrows that ſeparate the ridges, every ridge có The laſt ſpring (1783) being remarkably dry, I Important
has a number of croſs furrows that carry the rain in- ſoaked ny feed-barley in the black water taken froin a experi-
ftantly to the capital furrows. In hanging grounds reſervoir which conſtantly receives the draining of my ments on
retentive of moiſture, the parallel lines abovemention- dung-heap and ſtables. As the light corn floated on
feed-barley
ed ought not to be perpendicular to the furrows of the the top, I ſkimmed it off, and let the reſt ſtand 24
ridges, but to be dire&ted a little downward, in order hours. On takingit from the water, I mixed the ſeed
to carry rain-water the more haſtily to thoſe furrows. grain with a ſuficient quantity of lified wood-ahes,
If the ground be clean, it may lie in that ſtate winter to make it ſpread regularly, and ſowed three fields
and ſpring, till the time of feed-furrowing. If weeds with it. I began fowing the 16th, and finiſhed the
happen to riſe, they muſt be deſtroyed by ploughing, 23d of April. The produce was 60 buſhels per acre,
or breaking, or both; for there cannot be worſe huſ- of good clean barley, without any finall or green corn,
bandry, than to put ſeed into dirty ground.
or weeds at harveſt. No perſon in this country had
This method reſembles common ribbing in appear- better grain.
vidvanta.
ges of this ance, but is very different in reality. As the common I fowcd alſo ſeveral other fields with the ſame feed
method. ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow, the dry, and without any preparation ; but the crop, like
half of the field is left untilled, compact as when the thoſe of my neighbours, (vas very poor ; not more than
former crop was removed, impervious in a great mea- twenty buſhels per acre, and much mixed with green
fure to air or froſt. The common ribbing at the fame corn and weeds when harveſted. I alſo lowed foine of
time lodges the rain-water on every ridge, preventing the feed dry on oneridge in each of my former fields,
it from deſcending to the furrows; which is hurtful in but the produce was very poor in conpariſon of the
all ſoils, and poiſonous in a clay foil. The ſtitching other parts of the field."
here deſcribed, or ribbing, if you pleafe to call it fo, Where the land is in good order, and free of weeds,
April
I44
14%
q
>
"
294
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
ous obfer-
Practice. April is the month for ſowing barley. Every day is the moſt ſubject to weeds produce the beſt crops when Practice.
proper, from the firſt to the laſt.
fown late.
145
Time of
The dreſſing loamy ſoil and light foil for barley, is “ The common method is to row the barley-feed
fowing,
the ſame with that deſcribed; only that to plough dry broad-caſt at two ſowings; the firſt harrowed in once.
is not altogether ſo eſſential as in dreſſing clay-foil. the ſecond twice; the uſual allowance from three to
Loam or fand may be ſtirred a little moiſt : better, four buſiels per acre.
But if farmers could be pre-
however, delay a week or two, than to ſtir a loam when vailed on to alter this practice, they would foon find
moiſt. Clay muſt never be ploughed moiſt, even tho' their account in it. Were only half the quantity fown
the ſeaſon ſhould eſcape altogсther. But this will ſel. equally, the produce would be greater, and the corn
dom be neceſſary; for not in one year out of 20 will it leſs liable to lodge : For when corn ſtands very cloſe,
happen, but thai clay is dry enough for ploughing fome the ſtalks are grown up weak; and on that account are
time in May. Froſt may correct clay ploughed wetleſs capable of relifting the force of winds, or ſupport-
after harveſt ; but ploughed wet in the ſpring, it ing themſelves under heavy rains.
unites into a hard maſs, not to be diſſolved but by very " From our great ſucceſs in ſetting and drilling
hard labour.
wheat, ſome of our farniers tried theſe methods with
On the cultivation of this grain we have the follow. barley ; but did not find it anſwer their expectations,
ing obſervations by a Norfolk farmer.
except on very rich land.
146
The beſt ſoil, he obſerves, is that which is dry and “ I have myſelf had 80 ſtalks on one root of barley,
Miſcellane-
healthy, rather light than ſtiff, but yet of ſufficient which all produced good and long ears, and the grain
Yationscon- tenacity and ſtrength to retain the moiſture. On this was better than any other ; but the method is too ex-
cerning the kind of land the grain is always the beſt bodied and penſive for general practice. In poor land, fow thin,
cultivation coloured, the nimbleſt in the land, and has the thin or your crop will be worth little. Farmers who do
of barley. neſt rind. Theſe are qualities which recomniend it not reaſon on the matter, will be of a different opinion ;
moſt to the mâltſter. If the land is poor, it ſhould be but the fact is indiſputable.”
dry and warm ; and when ſo, it will often bear better When the barley is ſowed and harrowed in, he ad-
corn than richer land in a cold and wet ſituation.
viſes that the land be rolled after the firſt ſhower of
In the choice of your feed, it is needful to obſerve, rain to break the clods. This will cloſe the earth a-
that the beſt is of a pale lively colour, and brightiſh bout the roots, which will be a great advantage to it in
caſt, without any deep redneſs, or black tinge at the dry weather.
tail. If the rind be a little ſhrivelled, it is the better; When the barley has been up three weeks or a
for that flight ſhrivelling proves it to have a thin ſkill, month, it is a very good way to roll it again with a
and to have ſweated in the mow. The neceſſity of a heavy roller, which will prevent the fun and air from
change of ſeed by not fowing two years together what penetrating the ground to the injury of the roots.
grew on the fame ſoil, is not in any part of huſbandry This rolling, before it branches out, will alſo cauſe it
more evident than in the culture of this grain, which, to tiller into a great number of ſtalks; ſo that if the
if not frequently changed, will grow coarſer and coar. plants be thin, the ground will be thereby filled, and
ſer every ſucceeding year.
the ſtalks ſtrengthened.
It has generally been thought that feed-barley would If the blade grows too rank, as it ſometimes will in
be benefited by ſteeping; but liming it has, in many a warm wet ſpring, mowing is a much better method
inſtances, been found prejudicial. Sprinkling a little than feeding it down with Theep ; becauſe the ſcythe
foot with the water in which it is ſteeped has been of takes off only the rank tops, but the ſheep being fond
great ſervice, as it will ſecure the ſeed from inſects. of the ſweet end of the ſtalk next the root, will often
In a very dry feed-time, barley that has been wetted bite ſo cloſe as to injure the future growth.
for malting, and begins to ſprout, will come up ſooner,
4. BUCK-WHEAT.
and produce as good a crop as any other.
If you ſow after a fallow, plough three times at leaſt. The uſes of this plant have been mentioned in the Culture of
At the firſt ploughing, lay your land up in ſmall ridges, preceding part, nº 46. It delights in a mellow fan- Buck-
and let it remain ſo during the winter, for the froſt to dy foil; but fucceeds well in any dry looſe liealthy wheat.
mellowit; the ſecond ploughing ſhould be at the begin- land, and moderately ſo in a free loamy ſtone braſ.
ning of February. In March {plit the ridges, and lay A ſtiff clay is its averſion, and it is entirely labour loſt
the land as flat as poſſible, at the ſame time harrowing to low it in a wet poachy ground. The proper ſeaſon
it fine. But in ſtrong wet lands (if you have no other for fowing is from the laſt week of May or the begin-
for barley) lay it round, and make deep furrows to re ning of June. It has been fown, however, ſo early as
ceive the water.
the beginning of April, and ſo late as the 22d of July,
“I have often (continues he), taken the following by way of experiment ; but the latter was rather ex-
method with ſucceſs : On lands tolerably manured, I treme to be choſen, and the former was in danger from
ſowed clover with my barley, which I reaped at har- froſt. In an experiment upon a ſmall piece of ground,
veſt; and fed the clover all the following winter, and the grain of two different crops was brought to matu-
from ſpring to July, when I fallowed it till the fol. rily in the ſummer 1787.–After ſpring fe ,
lowing ſpring, and then fowed it with barley and clo a crop of turnip-rooted cabbage, or vetches, there will
ver as before. Repeating this method every year I be fufficient time to fow the land with húck-wheat.
had very large crops, but would not recommend this Probably, in hot dry ſummers, a crop of vetches
practice on poor light land.
might even be mown for hay early enough to introduce
“ We low on our lighteſt lands in April, on our a crop of this grain after it.
moiſt lands in May ; finding that thoſe lands which are In the year 1780, about ſeven acres of a ſandy foil
147
012
Part II.
A G R 1 CULTUR R E.
295
149
148
on it.
Pradlice. on Brillington Common (A), having been firſt tole a ſummer fallowing is far froni being ſo advantgeous Practice.
rably well cleanſed froni brambles, furze, &c.received a preparation for a ſucceeding crop.
oue ploughing. To reduce the irregularities of the
5. BEANS.
ſurface, it was rolled ; and on the oth of June in that
year, two buſhels and a half of buck-whcat per acre The propereſt foil for beans is a deep and moiſt clay. Culture of
ſown, the ground rolled again without harrowing. There was lately introduced into Scotland a method beans.
Advanta The vegetation appeared in five or fix days, as is of ſowing beans with a drill-plough, and horſe-hoeing
gres of this conſtantly the caſe be the weather wet or dry. The the intervals ; which, beſide affording a good crop, is
cropping. growth was ſo rapid, that the fern, with which this a dreſſing to the ground. But as that method is far
land greatly abounded, was completely kept under. from being general, we keep in the common track.
About the middle of September the crop was mown, As this grain is early fown, the ground intended for
but by reaſon of a great deal of rain about that time, it ſhould be ploughed before winter, to give acceſs to
it was not ſecured until the beginning of October ; the froſt and air; beneficial in all ſoils, and neceſſary
hence a loſs of great part of the grain by thedding, as in a clay ſoil. Take the firſt opportunity after J 2-
well as fome eaten by birds. However, there were. nuary when the ground is dry, to looſen the ſoil with
ſaved about 24 Wincheſter buſhels per acre; and, not the harrow firſt deſcribed, till a mould be brought up-
withſtanding its long expoſure to the weather, recei-
Sow the ſeed, and cover it with the ſecond
ved no ſort of damage, only perhaps that the fineſt larrow. The third will ſmooth the ſurface, and cover
and moſt perfect grain was the firſt to fall from the the feed equally. Theſe harrows make the very beſt
plant. The ground after this had almoſt the appear- figure in lowing beans; which ought to be laid deep
ance of a fallow, and was immediately ploughed. in the ground, not leſs than ſix inches. In clay ſoil,
When it had lain a moderate time to meliorate, and the common harrows are altogether inſufficient. The
to receive the influences of the atmofphere, it was har- ſoil, which has reſted long after ploughing, is render-
rowed, fown with Lammas wheat, and ploughed in ed compact and folid : the common harrows ſkim the
under furrow, in a contrary direction to the firſt ſurface : the ſecd is not covered : and the firſt hearty
ploughing. Thus a piece of land, which in the thower of rain lays it above ground. Where the far-
month of April was altogether in a ſtate of nature, in mer overtakes not the ploughing after harveſt, and is
the following November was ſeen under a promiſing reduced to plough immediately before ſowing, the
crop of what is well ſtyled the king of grain, and this plough anſwers the purpoſe of the firſt harrow; and
without the aid of manure, or of any very great degree the other two will complete the work. But the labour
oftillage. Nor was the harveſt by any means deficient; of the firſt harrow is ill ſaved ; as the ploughing before
for ſeveral perſons converſant in ſuch things eſtimated winter is a fine preparation, not only for beans, but
the produce from 26 to 30 buſhels per acre. As ſoon for grain of every kind. If the ground ploughed be-
as the wheat crop was taken off, the ground had one fore winter happen by ſuperfiuity of naoiſture to cake,
ploughing, and on the firſt
of September following was the firſt harrow going along the ridges, and croſſing
fown with turnip-feed. The turnips were not large, them, will looſen the ſurface, and give acceſs to the
but of an herbage ſo abundant as in the following air for drying. As ſoon as the ground is dry, fow with-
ſpring to ſupport 120 ewes with their lambs, which out delaying a moment. Ifrain happen in the interim,
were fed on it by folding four weeks. After this it there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or two
was manured with a composition of rotten dung and
natural earth, about 20 putt loads per acre, and plant Carſe-clay, ploughed before winter, ſeldom fails to
ed with potatoes. The crop fold for L.138, belides cake. Upon that account, a ſecond ploughing is ne-
a conſiderable number uſed in the family, and a quan- ceſſary before fowing; which ought to be performed
tity reſerved with which ten acres were planted the with an ebb furrow, in order to keep the froſt-mould
following ſeaſon. The enſuing autumn it was again as near the ſurface as poſſible. To cover the feed with
fown with wheat, and produced an excellent crop. In the plough is expreſſed by the phrafe to fow under fur-
the ſpring of 1784, it was manured and planted with The clods raiſed in this ploughing are a fort
potatoes, as in the preceding inſtance; the crop (thor of ſhelter to the young plants in the chilly ſpring-
tolerably good) by no means equal to the former, pro months.
ducing about 100 facks per acre only.
In ſpring
The foregoing melhod will anſwer for loan. And
1785, the land was now for a third time under a crop as for a fandy or gravelly foil, it is altogether impro-
of wheat, it being intended to try how far this mode per for beans.
of alternate cropping, one year with potatoes and an Though we cannot approve the horſe-hoeing of
other with wheat, may be carried.
beans, with the intervals that are commonly allotted
From the ſucceſs of the preceding and other expe- for turnip, yet we would ſtrongly recommend the drill-
riments, by Nehemiah Bartley Erq; of Briſtol, as de- ing them at the diſtance of ten or 12 inches, and keep-
tailed in the Bath Society Papers, it would ſeem, that ing the intervals clean of weeds. This may be done
the culture of this plant ought in many caſes to be a by hand-hoeing, taking opportunity at the ſame time
dopted inſtead of a fummer-fallowing: for the crop to lay freſh foil to the roots of the plants. But as this
produced appears not only to be ſo much clear gain in is an expenſive operation, and hands are not alwaysto be
reſpect to ſuch practice, but alſo affords a conſiderable got, a narrow plough, drawn by a ſingle horſe, "might
quantity of ſtraw for fodder and manure ; belide that be uſed, with a mould-board on each ſide to ſcatter the
4
earth
come.
1'020.
(A) A very rough piece of land, at that time juſt incloſed.
296
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
A pea
Practice. earth upon the roots of the plants. This is a cheap Peaſe and beans mixed are oflen fown together, in Practice.
and expeditious method ; it keeps the ground clean; order to catch different ſeaſons. In a moiſt ſeaſon, the
and nouriſhes the plants with freſh ſoil.
beans make a good crop; in a dry ſeaſon, the peaſe.
As beans delight in a moilt foil, and have no end The growth of plants is commonly checked by
of growing in a noiſt ſeaſon, they cover the ground drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain
totally when fown broad caſt, keep in the dew, and ex- in Auguſt. In July, graſs is parched ; in Auguſt, it
clude the ſun and air : the plants grow to a great recovers verdure. Where peaſe are ſo far advanced in
height; but carry little feed, and that little not well the dry ſeaſon as that the feed begins to form, their
ripened. This diſplays the advantage of drilling; growth is indeed checked, but the feed continues to fill.
which gives free acceſs to the ſun and air, dries the If only in the bloſſom at that ſeaſon, their growth is
ground, and affords plenty of ripe ſeed.
checked a little ; but they become vigorous again in
Auguſt, and continue growing without filling till ſtop-
6. PEASE.
ped by froſt.
Hence it is, that cold ſeed, which is
150
early Town, has the beſt chance to produce corn: hot
Culture of Pease are of two kinds ; the white and the gray. ſeed, which is late fown, has the beſt chance to pro-
peale.
The cultivation of the latter only belongs to this place. duce ſtraw.
There are two ſpecies of the grey kind, diſtinguiſh The following method is practiſed in Norfolk, for
ed by their time of ripening. One ripens ſoon, and for fowing peaſe upon a dry light ſoil, immediately opened
that reaſon is termed hotfeed: theother, which is ſlower from paſture. The ground is pared with a plough ex-
in ripening, is terihed cold feed.
tremely thin, and every fod is laid exactly on its back.
Peaſe, a leguminous crop, is proper to intervene In every ſod a double row of holes is niade.
between two culmiferous crops ; leſs for the profit of a droptin every hole lodges in the flay'd ground imme-
peaſe-crop, than for meliorating the ground. Peaſe, diately below the fod, thruſts its roots horizontally,and
however, in a dry ſeaſon, will produce fix or ſeven has ſufficient moiſture. This method enabled Norfolk
bollseach acre; but, in an ordinary ſeaſon, they ſeldom farmers, in the barren year 1 740, to furniſh white peaſe
reach above two, or two and a half. Hence, in a moiſt at 12s. per boll.
climate, red clover ſeems a more beneficial crop than
peafe; as it makes as good winter-food as peaſe, and II. Plants cultivated for Roots. [See alſo Art. III.]
can be cut green thrice during ſummer.
I. TURNIP.
A field intended for cold feed ought to be ploughed
52
in October or November ; and in February, as ſoon as TURNIP delights in a gravelly ſoil ; and there it can Culture of
the ground is dry, the ſeed ought to be ſown on the be raiſed to the greateſt perfection, and with the leaſt curnip.
winter-furrow. A field intended for hot ſeed ought to hazard of miſcarrying. At the ſame time, there is no
be ploughed in March or April, immediately before foil but will bear turnip when well prepared.
fowing. But if infeſted with weeds, it ought to be al No perſon ever deſerved better of a country, than he
ſo ploughed in October or November.
who firſt cultivated turnip in the field. No plant is bet-
Peaſe laid a foot below the ſurface will vegetate; but ter fitted for the climate of Britain, no plant proſpers
the moſt approved depth is fix inches in light foil, better in the coldeſt part of it, and no plant contributes
and-four inches in clay foil ; for which reaſon, they more to fertility.
more to fertility. In a word, there has not for two
ought to be fown under furrow when ploughing is centuries been introduced into Britain a more valuable
delayed till ſpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, improvement.
they are the leaſt in danger of being buried,
Of all roots, turnip requires the fineſt mould ; and
Peaſe differ from beans, in loving a dry ſoil and a to that end, of all harrows froſt is the beſt. In order
dry ſeaſon. Horſe-hoeing would be a great benefit, to give acceſs to froſt, the land ought to be prepared
could it be performed to any advantage ; but peaſe by ribbing after harveſt, as above directed in preparing
grow expeditioaſy, and ſoon fall over and cover the land for barley. If the field be not ſubject to annuals,
ground, which bars ploughing. Horſe-hocing has it may lie in that ſtate till the end of May ; otherwiſe
little effect when the plants
are new ſprung; and when the weeds muſt be deſtroyed by a breaking about the
they are advanced to be benefited by that culture, their middle of April; and again in May, if weeds riſe.
length prevents it. Faſt growing at the ſame time is The firſt week of June, plough the field with a ſhallow
the cauſe of their carrying ſo little feed: the feed is furrow. Lime it if requiſite, and liarrow the lime into
buried among the leaves; and the ſun cannot penetrate the ſoil. Draw ſingle furrows with intervals of three
to make it grow and ripen. The only practicable re feet, and lay dung in the furrows.Cover the dung luf.
medy to obtain grain, is thin ſowing; but thick ſowing ficiently, by going round it with the plough, and form-
produces more ſtraw, and niellows the ground more. ing the three-feet ſpaces into ridges. The dung comes
Half a boll for an Engliſh acre may be reckoned thin thus to lie below the crown of every ridge.
15%
ſowing; three firlots, thick ſowing.
The ſeaſon of fowing muſt be regulated by llie time Seaſon and
Notwithſtanding what is ſaid above, Mr Hunter, a intended for feeding. Where intended for feeding in method of
noted farmer in Berwickſhire, began ſome time ago to November, December, January, and February,
ſow all his peaſe in drills; and never failed to have great feed ought to be fown from the 1ſt to the 20th of June.
crops of corn as well as of ſtraw. He fowed double Where the feeding is intended to be carried on to
rows at a foot interval, and two feet and an half be. March, April, and May, the feed muſt not be ſown
tween the double rows, which admit horſe-hoeing. By till the end of July. Turnip ſown earlier than above
that method, he had alſo good crops of beans on light directed, flowers that very ſummer, and runs faſt to
land.
feed; which renders it in a good meaſure unfit for
A
food,
"
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
297
IS3
forts oftur-
Practice. food. If fown much later, it does not apple, and there together, the hand is the only inſtrument that can be Practice.
is no food but from the leaves.
applied for weeding.
Though by a drill-plough the ſeed may be fown of In fwampy ground, the ſurface of which is belt re-
any thickneſs, the ſafeſt way is to fow thick. Tbin daced by paring and burning, the feed may be fown
fowing is liable to many accidents, which are far from in rows with intervals of a foot. To ſave time, a drill-
being counterbalanced by the expence that is ſaved in plough may be ufed that fows three or four rows at
thinning. Thick-lowing can bear the ravage of the once. Hand-lroeing is proper for ſuch ground; be.
black fly, and leave a fufficient crop behind. It is a pro- caufe the ſoil under the burnt ftratum is commonly full
tection againſt drought, gives the plants a rapid pro- of roots, which digeft and ror better under ground than
greſs, and eſtabliſhes them in the ground before it is when brought to the furface by the plough. In the
neceſſary to thin them.
mean time,
while theſe are digeſting, the alies will fe-
The fowing turnip broadcaſtis univerſal in England, cure a good crop.
and common in Scotland, though a barbarous practice. Fr cultivating turnips to advantage, great care ſhould Properties
The eminent advantage of turnip is, that belide a pro- be taken to procure good, bright, nimble, and well- of different
fitable
crop, it makes a moſt complete fallow; and the dried feed, and of the beft kinds.
latter cannot be obtained but by horſe-boeing. Upon
uip.
The Norfolk farmers generally raife the oval white,
that account, the ſowing turnip in rows at three feet the large green-topp’d, and the red or purple-topp'd
diſtance is recommended. Wider rows anſwer no pro- kinds, which from lang experience they have found to
fitable end, ftraiter rows afford not room for a horſe be the moſt profitable.
to walk in. When the turnip is about four inches high, The roots of the green-topp'd will grow to a large
annual weeds will appear. Go round every interval fize, and continue good much Fonger than others. The
with the lighteſt furrow poſſible, at the diſtance of red or purple-topp'd will alſo grow large, and continue
two inches froin each row, moving the earth from the good to the beginning of February; but the roots be-
rows toward the middle of the interval. A thin plate come hard and ftringy ſooner than the former.
of iron muſt be fixed on the left ſide of the plough, to The green-ropp'd growing more above ground, isin
prevent the earth from falling back and burying the more danger of ſuſtaining injury from fevere froſts than
turnip. Next, let women be employed to weed the thered or purple, which are more than half covered by
rows with their fingers; which is better, and cheaper the foil; but it is the ſofteſt and fweeteſt, when grown
done, than with the hand-hoe. The hand-hoe, be- farge, of any kind. We have feen them brought tota-
ſide, is apt to diſturb the roots of the turnip that are to ble a foot in diameter, and equally good as garden
ſtand, and to leave them open to drought by removing turnips.
the earth from them. The ſtanding turnip are to be Turnips delight in a light ſoil, conſiſting of fand
at the diſtance of twelve inches from each other : a and loam mixed; for when the foil is rich and heavy,
greater diſtance makes them (well too much ; a leſs di- although the crop may be as great in weight, they
Itance affords them not ſufficient room. A woman will be rank, and run to flower earlier in ſpring.
foon comes to be expert in finger-weeding. The fol Turnip-feed, like that of grain, will not do well Oblerva-
lowing hint may be necellary to a learner. To ſecure without frequent changing. The Norfolk feed is ſent tions with
the turnip that is to ſtand, let her cover it with the left to moſt parts of the kingdom, and even to Ireland, but regard to
hand; and with the right pull up the turnip on both after two years it degenerates; ſo that thoſe who wiſh feed.
fides. After thus freeing the Itanding turnip, ſhe may to have turnips in perfection ſhould procure it freſh e-
ſafely uſe both hands, Let the field reinain in this very year from Norwich, and they will find their ac-
ftate till the appearance of new annuals make a ſecond count in fo doing. For from its known reputation,
ploughing neceſſary; which muſt be in the ſame fur- many of the London ſeedmen ſell, under that cha-
row with the former, but a little deeper. As in this racter, feed raiſed in the vicinity of the metropolis,
ploughing the iron plate is to be removed, part of the which is much inferior in quality.
looſe earth will fall back on the roots of the plants : When the plants have got five leaves, they ſhould be
the reſt will fill the middle of the interval, and bury hoed, and ſet out at leaſt ſix inches apart. A month
every weed. When weeds begin again to appear, then afterward, or earlier if it be a wet ſeaſon, a ſecond hoe-
is the time for a third ploughing in an opposite direc- ing ſhould take place, and the plants be left at leaſt 14
tion, which lays the earth to the roots of the plants. inches diſtant from each other, eſpecially if intended
This ploughing may be about the middle of Auguſt; for feeding cattle ; for where the plants are left thick-
after which, weeds riſe very faintly. If they do riſe, er, they will be proportionably ſmaller, unleſs the land
another ploughing will clear the ground of them.
is very rich indeed.
Weeds that at this tinerife in the row, may be cleared Some of the beſt Norfolk farmers low turnips in Methods of
with a hand-hoe, which can do little miſchief among drills three feet aſunder, and at a ſecond hoeing leave
Norfolk,
plants diſtant twelve inches from each other. It is cer then a foot apart in the rows, By this means the
tain, however, that it may be done cheaper with the trouble and expence of hoeing is much lellened, and
hand (A). And after the leaves of turnipsili a row meet the crop of equal weight as when ſown in the com-
VoI.
154
155
culture in
PP
nion
(A) Children under thirteen may be employed to weed turnip with the fingers. We have ſeen them go on
in that work with alacrity ; and a ſinali premiuni will have a good effect. For boys and girls above thirteen,
a hand-hve adapted to their lize is an excellent inftrument: it ſtrengthens the arms amazing'y. In driving the
plough, the legs only are exerciſed; but as the arms are chiefly employed in huſbandry, they ought to be pre-
pared beforehand by gentle exerciſe.
298
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
Value as
cattle.
moje.
Practice. mon method. The intervals may eaſily be cleared of firſt prejudiced againſt the practice) are now come into Practice
weeds by the horſe-hoe.
it, and find their account in ſo doing.
Great quantities of turnips are raiſed in Norfolk e-
2. POTATOES.
very year for feeding black cattle, which turn to great
158
156
The choice of ſoil is not of greater importance in General
advantage.
It is well known, that an acre of land contains 4840 any other plant than in a potatoe. This plant in clay culture.
food for
ſquare yards, or 43,560 ſquare feet; ſuppoſe then that foil, or in rank black loan lying low without ventila-
every ſquare foot contains one turnip, and that they tion, never makes palatable food in a gravelly or
weigh only two pounds each on an average, here will ſandy foil, expoſed to the ſun and to free air, it thrives
be a maſs of food excellentin kind, of 46 lons per acre,
to perfection, and has a good reliſh. But a rank black
often worth from four to five guineas, and ſometimes loam, though improper to raiſe potatoes for the table,
produces them in great plenty; and the product is, as
Extraordinary corps of barley frequently ſucceed already obſerved, a palatable food for horned cattle,
turnips, eſpecially when fed off the land. In feeding hogs, and poultry. .
them off, the cattle ſhould not be ſuffered to run over The ſpade is a proper inſtrument for raiſing a ſmall
too much of the ground at once, for in that caſe they quantity, or for preparing corners or other places inac-
will tread down and ſpoil twice as many as they eat.
ceſſible to the plough; but for raiſing potatoes in quan-
In Norfolk, they are confined by hurdles to as much tities, the plough is the only inſtrument.
as is ſufficient for them for one day. By this mode As two great advantages of a drilled crop are, to
the crop is eaten clean, the foil equally trodden, which deſtroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the ſame time
if light, is of much ſervice, and equally manured by with the crop, no judicious farmer will think of railing
the cattle.
potatoes in any other way. In September or October,
A notion prevails in many places, that mutton fat as ſoon as that year's crop is removed, let the field have
tened with turnips is thereby rendered rank and ill a rouſing furrow, a croſs-breaking next, and then be
taſted; but this is a vulgar error.
The beſt mutlon cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. Form it into
in Norfolk (and few counties have better) is all fed three-feet ridges, in that ſtate to lie till April, which
with turnips. It is rank paſtures, and marſhy lands, is the proper time for planting potatoes. Croſs-brake
that produce rank mutton.
it, to raiſe the furrows a little. Then lay well-digeſted
If the land be wet and ſpringy, the beſt method is horſe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roots
to draw and carry off your turnips to fome dry paſtures; at eight inches diſtance. Cover up the roots with the
for the treading of the cattle will not only injure the plough, going once round every row.
This makes a
crop, but render the land ſo ſtiff, that you muſt be at warm bed for the potatoes; hot dung below, and a looſe
an additional expence in ploughing.
covering above, that admits every ray of the ſun. As
To preſerve turnips for late ſpring ſeed, the beſt me foon as the plants appear above ground, go round every
Method of
thod, and which has been tried with ſucceſs by ſome row a ſecond time with the plough, which will lay up-
preſerving of the beſt Engliſh farmers, is, To ſtack them up in on the plants an additional inch or two of mould, and
turnips.
dry ſtraw; a load of which is ſufficient to preſerve at the ſame time bury all the annuals; and this will
40 tons of turnips. The method is eaſy, and as fol- complete the ploughing of the ridges. When the po-
lows:
tatoes are ſix inches high, the plough, with the deepeſt
After drawing your turnips in February, cut off the furrow muſt go twice along the middle of each inter-
tops and tap routs, which may be given to ſheep), val in oppoſite directions, laying eartlı firſt to one row,
and let them lay a few days in the field, as no weather and next to the other.
and next to the other. And to perform this work, a
will then hurt them.
plough with a double inould-board will be more expe-
Then, on a layer of ſtraw next the ground, place a ditious. But as the earth cannot be laid cloſe to the
layer of turnips i wo feet thick ; and then another layer roots by the plough, the ſpade muſt ſucceed, with
of ſtraw, and ſo on alternately, till you have brought which four inches of the plants muſt be covered, lea-
the heap to a point. Care muſt be taken to turn up ving little more but the tops above ground; and this
the edges of the layers of ſtraw, to prevent the turnips operation will at the ſame time bury all the weeds that
from rolling out ; cover the top well with long ſtraw, have ſprung lince the former ploughing. Wliat weeds
and it will ſerve as a thatch for the whole.
ariſe after muſt be pulled up with the hand. A hoe
In this method, as the ſtraw imbibes the moiſture is never to be uſed here : it cannot go ſo deep as to
exhaled from the roots, all vegetation will be prevent- deſtroy the weeds without cutting the fibres of the
ed, and the turnips will be nearly as good in May as plants; and if it ſkim the ſurface, it only cuts off the
when firſt drawn from the field. "If ſtraw be ſcarce, heads of the weeds, and does not prevent their pulling
old haulm or ſtubble will anſwer the ſame purpoſe. again.
159
But to prevent this trouble and expence, perhaps In the Bath Society Papers, we have the following particular
methods
farmers in all countries would find it moſt to their in- practical obſervations on the culture and uſe of pota-
iereſt to adopt the method uſed by the Norfolk toes, given as the reſult of various experiments made
farmers, which is, to continue fowing turnips to for five years ſucceſſively on that valuable root, the
the latter end of Auguſt, by which means their late growth of which cannot be too much encouraged.
crops remain good in the field till the latter end of A When the potatoe crop has been the only object in
pril, and often till the middle of May.
view, the following method is the moſt eligible.
The advantages of having turnips good till the ſpring The land being well pulverized by two or three good
ſeed is generally ready, are ſo obvious and ſo great, harrowings and ploughings, is the manured with 15
that many of the moſt intelligent farmers (although at or 20 cart-loads of dung per acre, before it receives its
last
157
1
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
299
M
2
9
O
-
O
o
I
1
O
1
3 IO
-
Practice. laſt earth. Then it is thrown on to what the Suffolk evry cottager's garden is now occupied by this root, Prađice.
farmers call the Trench balk, which is narrow and deep and it forms a principal part of their diet. Potatoes
ridge-work, about 15 inches from the centre of one are cheap and excellent ſubſtitutes for peaſe in foups
ridge to the centre of the other. Women and children and broths, allowing double the quantity.
161
drop the ſets in the bottom of every furrow 15 inches “Although it is nearly a tranſcript of the direc- A cheap
apart; men follow, and cover them with large hoes, a tions given by a very ingenious author, yet I ſhall take preparati-
on for the
foot in width, pulling the mould down ſo as to bury the liberty of inſerting a receipt for making a potato-
poor.
the ſets five inches deep; they muſt receive two or three ſoup, which I have weekly diſtributed amongſt the
hand-hoeings, and be kept free from weeds; always poor to their great relief.
ebſerving to draw the earth as much as poſſible to the
s. d.
ſtems of the young plants. By repeated trials, the firſt An ox's head
or ſecond week in April is found the nioſt advanta Two pecks of potatoes
6
geous time for planting.
Quarter of a peck of onions
3
In the end of September or the beginning of Octo Three quarters of a pound of ſalt
ber, when the haulm becomes withered, they ſhould be An ounce and a half of pepper
3
ploughed up with a ſtrong double breaited-plough.
The
workman muſt be cautioned to ſet his plough very
Total
deep, that he may ſtrike below all the potatoes, to a. Ninety pints of water to be boiled with the above in-
void damaging the crop. The women who pick them gredients on a low fire until reduced to 60, which res
up, if not carefully attended to, will leave many in the quire one peck of coals, value threepence. I have ad-
ground, which will prove detrimental to any ſucceed- ded the expence of every article according to their
ing corn, whether wheat or barley. To avoid which prices with me, that gentlemien may nearly perceive at
inconvenience, let the land be harrowed, and turn the how eaſy a rate they can feed 60 of their poor neigh-
ſwine in to glean the few that may be left by their ne bours. 'I find from experience, a pint of this ſoup,
gligence.
with a ſmall piece of the meat, is ſufficient to ſatisfy a
By this method, the ſets will be 15 ſquare inches hearty working man with a good meal. If vegetables
from each other ; it will take 18 buſhels to plant an are plentiful, ſome of every fort may be added, with
acre; and the produce, if on a good mixed loamy foil, a few ſweet herbs.
will aniount to 300 buſhels.
“ I hope my inſerting the above, will not be eſteem-
If the potatoes are grown as a preparation for wheat, ed improper; though ſomewhat deviating from the
it is preferable to have the rows two feet two in- culture of polatoes, it may poſſibly be a means of ren-
ches from each other; hand-hoeing only the ſpace from dering them more extenſively uſeful.'
plant to plant in each row; then turning a ſmall fur A premiuin having been offered by the abovemen-
row from the inſide of each row by a common light tioned Society for the cultivation of potatoes by far-
plough, and afterwards with a double-breaſted plough mers, &c. whoſe rent does not exceed 40l. per annum,
with one horſe, ſplit the ridge formed by the firſt the following methods were communicated, by which
ploughing thoroughly to clean the intervals. This thoſe who have only a ſmall ſpot of ground may obtain
work ſhould not be done too deep the firſt time, to a plentiful crop.
162
void burying the tender plants; but the laſt earth ſhould Firſt, then, the earth ſhould be dug 12 inches deep, Methods of
be ploughed as deep a poilīble ; and the cloſer the if the ſoil will allow of it; after this, a hole hould be cultivating
mould is thrown to the ſtems of the plants, the more opened about ſix inches deep, horſe-dung, or long lit- potatoes on
advantageous it will prove. Thus 15 buſhels will plant ter ſhould be put therein about three inches thick ; ſmall ſpots.
an acre, and the produce will be about 300 buſhels this hole ſhould not be more than 12 inches in diame-
but the land, by the ſummer ploughings, will be pre ter ; upon this dung or litter, a potato thould be plant-
pared to receive feed-wheat immediately, and almoſt ed whole, upon which a little more dung ſhould be
160 enſure a plentiful crop.
fhook, and then earth muſt be put thereon. In like
To prevent The potato-ſets ſhould be cut a week before plant manner the whole plot of ground muſt be planted, ta-
the grub, ing, with one or two eyes to each, and the pieces not king care that each potato be at leaſt 16 inches apart ;
very
finall; two bulliels of freſh llacked lime ſhould be and when the young ſhoots maketheir appearance, they
ſown over the furface of the land as ſoon as planted, ſhould have freſh mould drawa round them with a hoe;
which will effectually prevent the attacks of the grub. and if the tender ſhoots are covered, it will prevent the
The expence attending an acre of potatoes well cul- froſt from injuring them: they ſhould again be earthed
tivated in the firſt method, ſuppoſing the rent 20 ſhil- when the ſhoots make a ſecond appearance, but not be
lings, title and town charges rather high (as in Suf- covered, as in all probability the ſeaſon will then be leſs
folk), taking up, and every thing included, will be a ſevere. A plentiful ſupply of mould ſhould be given
bout fix pounds. In the laſt metirod, it would be ſome them, and the perſon who performs this buſineſs ſhould
what reduced.
never tread upon the plant, or the hillock that is raiſed
"When predilections for old cuſtoms are ſubdued round it; as the lighter the earth is, the more room
(adds the author), I hope to ſee tlie potato admitted in the potato will have to expand.
From a ſingle
the conſtant courſe of crops by every ſpirited huſband root thus planted, very ncar 40 pounds weight of large
man. The moſt beneficial effects will, I am certain, potatoes were obtained, and from almoſt every other
accrue from ſuch a ſyſtem. The advantages in my root upon the ſame plot of ground from 15 to 20
neighbourhood are apparent; I cultivated and fed my pounds weight ; and except the ſoil be ſtoney or
own children upon thein, and my poorer neighbours gravelly, 10 pounds or half a peck of potatoes may al-
ſenſibly followed the example. A great proportion of moſt always be obtained from each root, by purſuing
Pp 2
the
300
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
rows.
Practice. the foregoing method. But note, cuttings or ſmall ten inches apart. Plants that are cut with two eyes are Practice.
iets will not so for this purpoſe.
beſt for this purpoſe. The reaſon for planting them at for
163
Methods
The ſecond method will ſuit the indolent, or thoſe great a diſtance as every third furrow, is that when the
of culture who have not time to dig their ground, and that is, thouts appear, a fhorſe-hoe may go upon the two va-
adapted to where weeds anuch abound and have not been cleared cant furrows to keep them clean; and after they are
ſmall in the winter a trench may be opened in a ſtraight line thus hoed, they ſhould be moulded up in ridges; and
farıns.
the whole length of the ground, and about fix inches if this crop be iaken up about O&ober or november,
deep; in this trench tlie potatoes ſhould be planted a the land will be in excellent condition to receive acrop
bout 10 inches apart ; cuttings or ſmall potatoes of wheat. Lands that are full of twitch or couch-grafs
will do for this method. When they are laid in the may be made clean by this method, as the horſe-hoeing
trench, the weeds that are on the ſurface may be pared is as good as a funimer-fallow; and if, when the pota-
off on each ſide about ro inches from it, and be turned toes are taken up, women and children were to pick
upon the plants ; another trench fhould then be dug, out ſuch filth, not any traces of it would reinain ; and
and the inould that comes out of it turned carefully on by laying it on heaps and burning it, a quantity of
the weeds. It muſt not be forgot, that each trench aihes would be produced for manure.
ſhould be regularly dug, that the potatoes may be After ploughing,none thould ever dibble in potatoes,
throughout the plot 10 or 12 inches from each other. as the perſons who dibble, plant, or hve them, will all
This îlovenly method will in general raiſe more pota tread the ground; by which means it will become to
toes than can be produced by digging the ground ewice, bound, that the young fibres cannot expand, as has
and dibbling in the plants; and the reaſon is, that the been already obſerved. Good crops have indeed been
weeds lighten the ſoil, and give the roots room to ex obtained by ploughing the land twice, and dropping
pand. They ſhould be twice hoed, and earthed up in the plants in every other furrow, and by hand-hoeing
And lere note, that if cut pocatoes are to be and carthing them up afterwards as the gardeners do
planted, every cutting ſhould have two eyes, for though peaſe; but this method is not equal to the other.
fewer ſets will be obtained, there will be a greater cer Vacant places in hedge-rous might be grubbed and
tainty of a crop, as one eye often fails or is destroyed planted with potatoes, and a good crop might be ex.
by grubs in the earth.
pected, as the leaves of trees, thorns, &c. are a good
Where a crop of potatoes fail in part (as will fome manure, and will ſurpritingly encourage their growth,
times be the caſe in a dry ſeaſon), amends may ſtill be and gratify the wiſhes of the planter; who by cultiva-
made by laying a little dung upon the knots of the ting ſuch places, will then make the moſt of his ground,
ſtraw or haulm of thoſe potatoes that do appear, and and it will be in fine order to receive a crop of corn
covering them with mould; each knot or joint thusor the following year.
dered will, if the weather prove wet afterwards, pro- Account of the culture, expences, and produce of fix acres Method of
duce more potatoes than the original roots.
of potatoes, being a fair part of near 70 acres, raiſed culture, &c.
From the ſmalleſt potatoes planted whole, from four
by John Billingſhey, Eſq; and for which the premium for which a
to ſix pounds at a roor were obtained, and fume of the
was granted him in the year 1784.
premium
lingle potatoes weighed near two pounds. Theſe were
was grant-
dug in as before-mentioned, in trenches where the
EXPENCES.
L. S. d. ed.
ground was covered with weeds, and the ſoil was a Ploughing on oat-Rubble in October 1783, ac
ſtiff loanıy clay.
48. per acre
4
A good crop inay be obtained by laying potatoes Croſs-ploughing in March 1784
4 3
upon turf at about 12 or 14 inches apart, and upon Harrowing, 2s. per acre
O 12
beds of about ſix feet wide ; on each ſide of which a 180 cart-loads of compoſt, 31. per acre
18 0
trench ſhould be opened about three feet wide, and the 42 ſacks of ſeed-potatoes (each fack weigh-
turf that comes from thence ſhould be laid with the ing 240 lb.) of the white fort
graffy fide downwards upon the potatoes ; a ſpit of Cutting the ſets, 6d. per fack
mould ſhould next be taken from the trenches, and be Setting on ridges eight feet wide (leaving
ſpread over the turf; and in like manner the whole plot an interval of two feet for an alley) 6d.
of ground that is deſigned to be planted muſt be treat for every 20 yards.
ed. And remark, that when the young ſhoots appear, Hoeing, at 5s. per acre
another ſpit of monld from the trenches ſhould be Digging up the two feet interval, and
ſtrewed over the beds fo as to cover the ſhoots; this throwing the earth on the plants, at ios.
will prevent the froſt from injuring them, encourage
per acre
them to expand, and totally deſtroy the young weeds; Digging up the crop, at 8d. for every 20
and when the potatoes are taken up in the autumn, a yards in length, the breadth being 8 feet 14 6
careful perſon may turn the earth again into the tren- Labour and expence of ſecuring in pits,
ches, ſo as to make the ſurface level ; and it will be wear and tear of baſkets, ſtraw, reed,
right to remark, that from the faine ground a much ſpikes, &c. ros. per acre
better crop of potatoes may be obtained the following Rent
6
Tithe
year.
For field planting, a good (if not the beſt) method
is to dung the land, which Thould be once ploughed
72 9
previous thereto; and when it is ploughed a ſecond Profit
73 II 0
time, a careful perſon ſhould drop the potato plants be-
fore the plough in every third furrow at about eight or
L. 146 C
PRO
164
I
I
O
Q
0
JO IO
I I
O
10
I2
O
I
IO
3 0
O
0
aw
ооо
OOO
I JO
1
0
Part II.
A GRI CU L T U R E.
301
.
I 20
0
21
O O O
o
Praaiee.
PRODUCE.
L: S. a. up at the ordinary time before froſt. This cargo, ha- Pradlice:
ooo facks of beſt potatoes at 4s,
ving not arrived to full growth, will not be ſo ready to
130 facks middle-lized, 3s. 6d.
puſh as what are ſet in April.
50 of ſmall, 2s.
5 0 If the old crop happen to be exhauſted before the new
N. B. Each fack 240 lb.
crop is ready, the interval niay be ſupplied by the po-
L. 146 0 tatoes of the new crop that lie next the ſurface, to be
The field on which the above experiment was made, picked up with the hand; which, far from harting the
was an oal-ſtubble in the autumn of 1783. In Octo crop, will rather iniprove it.
ber it was ploughed, and left in a rough ſtate during
3. CARROT and PASNIP.
the winter, In April it was croſs-ploughed and har-
167
rowed. On the 8th of May the field was marked out Of all roots, a carrot requires the deepeſt ſoil. It Culture of
into beds or ridges eight feet wide, leaving a ſpace of ought at leaſt to be a foot deep, all equally good from carrot.
two feet wide for an alley between every two ridges. top to botton). If ſuch a foil be not in the farm, it
The manure (a compoſt of ſtable dung, virgin earth, may be made artificially by trench-ploughing, which
and ſcrapings of a turnpike road) was then brought on brings to the ſurface what never had any communica-
the land, and depoſited in ſmall heaps on the centre of tion with the ſun or air. When this new ſoil is fuffi-
each ridge, in the proportion of about 30 cart-loads to ciently improved by a crop or two wiih dung, it is fit
each acre. A trench was then opened with a ſpace for bearing carrots. Beware of dunging the year when
breadth-way of the ridge, about four inches deep; in the carrots are ſown; for with frelh dung they feldoin
this trench the potato-lets were placed, at the diſtance eſcape rotten ſcabs.
of nine inches from each other; the dung was then The only ſoils proper for that root, are a loam and a
ſpread in a trench on the ſets, and a ſpace or plit of ſandy foi).
14 inches in breadth, dug in upon them. When the The ground niuft be prepared by the deepeſt furrow
plants were about fix inches high, they were carefully that can be taken, the ſooner after harveſt the better:
hoed, and ſoon after the two feet intervals between immediately upon the back of which, a-ribbing ought
the ridges were dug, and the contents thrown around to ſucceed, as directed for barley. At the end of March,
the young plants. This refreſhment, added to the or beginning of April, which is the time for ſowing the
ample manuring privouſly beſtowed, produced ſuch a ſeed, the ground muſt be ſmoothed with a brake. Sow
luxuriance and rapidity of growtl, that no weed could the ſeed in drills, with intervals of a foot for hand-
165
ſhow its head.
hoeing; which is no expenſive operation where the
Beſt me-
the ſhorteſt and moſt certain method of taking up crop is confined to an acre or two: but if the quantity
shod of ta. potaloes, is to plough once round every row at the di of ground be greater, the intervals ought to be three
king them ftance of four inches, removing the earth from the feet, in order for horſe-hoeing.
up
plants, and gathering up with the hand all the potatoes In Hat ground without ridges, it may be proper te
that appear. The diſtance is made four inches, to pre make parallel furrows with the plough, ten feet from
vent cutting the roots, which are ſeldom found above each other, in order to carry off any redundant moi-
that diſtance from the row on each ſide. When the fture.
ground is thus cleared by the plough, raiſe the pota At Parlington in Yorkſhire, from the end of Sep-
toes with a fork having three broad toes or claws; tember to the firſt of May, 20 work-horſes, four bul-
which is better than a ſpade, as it does not cut the po- locks, and lix milk-cows, were fed on the carrots that
tatoes, The potatoes thus laid above ground muſt be grew on three acres; and theſe animals never taſted
gathered with the hand. By this method fcarce a po any other food but a little hay. The milk was excel-
166 tato will be left.
lent: and, over and above, zo hogs were fattened upon
Of preſer As potatoes are a comfortable food for the poor peo. what was left by the other beaſts. Wc have this fact
ving them. ple, it is of importance to have them all the year round. from undoubted authority.
For a long time, potatoes in Scotland were confined to The cultare of parſnips is the fame with that of Parſnipsa
the kitchen-garden; and after they were planted in carrots.
the field, it was not imagined at firſt that they could
be uſed after the month of December. Of late years III. Plants cultivated for Leaves, or for both Leaves
they have been found to anſwer even till April; which
and Root.
has proved a great ſupport to many a poor family, as
they are eaſily cooked, and require neither kiln nor THERE are many garden-plants of theſe kinds. The
mill. But there is no cauſe for ſtopping there. It is plants proper for the field are cabbage, red and white,
eaſy to preſerve them till the next crop: When taken colewort plain and curled, turnip-rooted cabbage, and
out of the ground, lay in the corner of a barn a quan- the root of ſcarcity.
tity thật may ſerve till April, covered from froſt with 1. Cabbage is an intereſting article in huſbandry. It
dry ſtraw preſſed down : bury the remainder in a hole is eaſily raiſed, is ſubject to few diſeaſes, reſiſts froſt
dug in dry ground, mixed with the huſks of dried oats, niore than turnip, is palatable to cattle, and ſooner fills
ſand, or the dry leaves of trees, over which build a them than turnip, carrot, or potatoes.
169
ftack of hay or corn. When the pit is opened for The ſeaſon for ſetting cabbage depends on the uſe Culture of
taking out the potatoes, the eyes of what have a ten it is intended for. If intended for feeding in Novem- cabbage.
dency to puſh muſt be cut out ; and this cargo will ber, December, and January, plants procured from
ferve all the month of June. To be ſtill more certain feed fown the end of July the preceding year muſt be
of making the old crop meet the new, the ſetting of a fet in March or April. If intended for feeding in
ſmall quantiry may be delayed till June, to be taken March, April, and May, the plants must be ſet the firſt
week
168
1
302
AGRICULTURE.
Part 11.
171
row.
6d. per
per Wtek
Prastice. weekofthe preceding July,from ſeed ſown in the end of perfection, I divided them by fold hurdles into three Practice.
February or beginning of March the ſame year. The parts of nearly equal dimenſions. Into the firſt part
late ſetting of the plants retards their growth ; by I put 24 ſmall bullocks of about 30 ſtone weight each
which means they have a vigorous growth the follow- (141b. to the ſtone), and 30 middle, lixed fat wethers, Their utili-
ing ſpring. And this crop makes an important link which, at the end of tlie firit week, after they had ty and va-
in the chain that connects winter and ſummer green eaten down the greater part of the leaves, and ſome lue.
food. Where cabbage for ſpring-food happens to be part of the roots, I ſhifted into the ſecond diviſion,
neglected, a few acres ofrye, ſown at Michaelmas, will and then put 70 lean ſheep into what was left of the
ſupply the want. After the rye is conſumed, there is firſt ; theſe fed off the remainder of the turnips
time ſufficient to prepare the ground for turnip. left by the fat ſtock; and ſo they were ſhifted through
And now to prepare a field for cabbage. Where the three divilions, the lean ſtock following the fat
the plants are to be ſet in March, the field muſt be as they wanted food, until the whole was conſumed.
made up after harveſt, in ridges three feet wide. In “ The 24 bullocks and 30 fat weatliers continued
that form let it lie all winter, to be mellowed with air in the turnips until the 21ſt of May, being exactly
and froſt. In March, take the firſt opportunity, be- four weeks ; and the 70 lean ſheep until the 2911,
tween wet and dry, to lay dung in the furrows. Cover which is one day over four wecks: ſo that the two
the dung with a plough, which will convert the furrow acres kept my 24 ſmall bullocks and 110 ſheep four
into a crown, and conſequently the crown into a fur- weeks (not reckoning the overplus day of keeping the
Set the plants upon the dung, diſtant from each lean ſheep); the value, at the rate of keeping at that
other three feet. Plant them ſo as to make a ſtraight ſeaſon, cannot be eſtimated in any common year at leſs
line acroſs the ridges, as well as along the furrows, to that 4d. a-week for each ſheep, and Is.
which a gardener's line ſtretched perpendicularly for each bullock, which would amount together to the
acroſs the furrows will be requiſite. This will ſet each ſum of L. 14:10:8: for the two acres.
plant at the diſtance preciſely of three feet from the sa You will hardly, I conceive, think I have ſet the
plants that ſurround it. The purpoſe of this accuracy price of keeping the ſtock at two high a rate ; it is be-
is to give opportunity for ploughing, not only along neath the price here in almoſt every ſpring, and in this
the ridges, but croſs them. This mode is attended
This mode is attended laſt it would have coſt double, could it have been pro-
with three ſignal advantages : it ſaves hand-hoeing, it cured; which was ſo far from being the caſe, that
is a more complete dreſſing to the ſoil, and it lays hundreds of ſheep and lanıbs here were loſt, and the
earth neatly round every plant.
reſt greatly pinched for want of food.
If the ſoil be deep and compoſed of good earth, a “ You will obſerve, gentlemen, that in the valua-
trench ploughing after the preceding crop will not be tion of the crop abovementioned I have claimed no
amiſs ; in which caſe, the time for dividing the field allowance for the great benefit the farmer receives by
into three-feetridges, as above, ought to be immedi. being enabled to ſuffer his graſs to get into a forward
alely before the dunging for the plants.
growth, nor for the ſuperior quality of theſe turnips
If weeds happen to riſe ſo cloſe to the plants as not in fattening his ſtock; both which circumſtances muſt
to be reached by the plough, it will require very little ſtamp new and a great additional value upon them.
labour to deſtroy them with a hand-hoe.
But as their continuance on the land may ſeem to be
Unleſs the ſoil be much infeſted with annuals, twice injurious to the ſucceeding crop, and indeed will de-
ploughing after the plants are ſet will be a ſufficient prive the farmer totally of either oats or barley; fo to
dreſſing. The firſt removes the earth from the plants; ſupply that loſs I have always ſown buck-wheat on the
the next, at the diſtance of a month or ſo, lays it back. firſt earth upon the land from which the turnips were
Where the plants are to be ſet in July, the field thus fed off ; allowing one buſhel of ſeed per acre, for
muſt be ribbed as directed for barley. It ought to which I commonly receive from five to fix quarters per
have a ſlight ploughing in June before the planting, in acre in return. And that I may not throw that part
order to looſen the ſoil, but not ſo as to bury the íur- of my land out of the ſame courſe of tillage with the
face-earth; after which the three-feet ridges muſt be reft, I low my clover or other graſs-feeds with the
formed, and the other particulars carried on as direct- buck-wheat, in the ſame manner as with the oat or
ed above with reſpect to plants that are to be ſet in barley crops, and have always found as good a layer
March.
(a) of it afterwards.
Cultivation 2. As to the turnip-rooted cabbages, their importance so'Thus you ſee, that in providing a moſt incompa-
of the tur- and value ſeem only to liave been lately aſcertained. rable vegetable food for cattle, in that ſeaſon of the
nip rooted in the Bath Society Papers we have the following ac- year in which the farmer is generally moſt diſtreſſed,
cabbages. count of Sir Thomas Beevor's method of cultivating and his cattle almoſt ſtarved, a conſiderable profit may
them ; which from experience he found to be cheaper likewiſe be obtained, much beyond what is uſually de-
and better than any other.
rived from his former practice, by the great produce
" In the firſt or ſecond week of June, I low the and price of a crop raiſed at ſo eaſy an expence as that
fame quantity of ſeed, hoe the plants at the ſame lize, of buck-wheat, which, with us, ſells cominonly at the
leave them at the ſame diſtance from each other, and ſame price as barley, oftentimes more, and but very
treat them in all reſpects like the conmon turnip. In rarely for leſs.
this niethod I have always obtained a plentiful crop of “The land onwhich I have uſually fown turnip root-
ilem ; to aſcertain the value of which I need only in. ed cabbages is a dry mixed foil, worth 15s. per acre.
form you, that on the 23d day of April laſt, having To the preceding account the Society have ſubjoin-
than two acres left of my crop, found, and in greated the followiug note: “ Whether we regard the ima
portance
170
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
303
172
Recoin-
175
Practice. portance of the ſubject, or the clear and practical in- as it adds much to the quality as well as quantity of Pradice.
forination which the foregoing letter conveys, it may their milk ; but care muſt be taken to proportion the
be conſidered as truly intereſting as any we have ever leaves with other green food, otherwiſe it would abate
been favoured with : and therefore it is recommended the milk, and farten them too much, it being of ſo
mendation in the ſtrongeſt manner to farmersin general, that they exceeding fattening a quality. To put all theſe pro-
by the Bath adopt a mode of practice fo deciſively aſcertained to be perties beyond doubt, however, further experiments
Society. in a high degree judicious and profitable.
are wanting
To raiſe the turnip-rooted cabbage for tranſplanting,
the beſt method yer diſcovered is, to breaſt-plough and
Sect. IV. Culture of Grafs.
burn as much old paſture as may be judged neceffary
for the feed-bed; two perches well ſtocked with plants The latter end of Auguſt, or the beginning of Sep- of laying
will be ſufficient to plant an acre. The land ihould tember, is the beſt ſeaſon for lowing graſs-feeds, as down fields
be dug as ſhallow as poſſible, turning the aſhes in ; and there is time for the roots of the young plants to fix to graſs.
the feed ſhould be fown the beginning of April. themſelves before the ſharp froſts ſet in. It is ſcarce
173
To raiſe The land intended for the plantation to be cultivated neceſſary to ſay, that moiſt weather is beſt for ſowing;
the turnip- and dunged as for the common turnip. About Mid- the earth being then warın, the ſeeds will vegetate im-
rooted cah- fummer or ſooner if the weather will permit) will be mediately; but if this ſeaſon prove unfavourable, they
bage for
a proper time for planting, which is beſt done in the will do very well the middle of March following:
tranſplant- following manner: the land to be thrown into one-bout If you would have fine paſture, never fow on foul
ing
ridges, upon the tops of which the plants are to be ſet, land. On the contrary, plough it well, and clear it
at about 18 inches diſtance from each other. As ſoon from the roots of couch-graſs,reft-harrow, fern,broom,
as the weeds riſe, give a hand-hoeing, afterwards run and all other noxious weeds. If theſe are fuffered to
the ploughs in the intervals, and fetch a furrow from remain, they will ſoon get above, and deſtroy your
each ridge, which, after laying a fortnight or three young graſs. Rake theſe up in heaps, and burn them
weeks, is again thrown back to the ridges; if the weeds on the land, and ſpread tbe aſhes as a nuanure. Theſe
riſe again, it is neceſſary to give them another hand. ploughings and harrowings ſhould be repeated in dry
hocing.
weather. And if the ſoil be clayey and wet, make
If the young plants in the ſeed-bed ſhould be at ſome under-drains to carry off the water, which, if ſut-
tacked by the Ay, low wood aſhes over them when the fered to remain, will not only chill the graſs, but make
dew is on, which will effectually prevent the ravages it four. Before ſowing, lay the land as level and fine
174
they would otherwiſe make.
as poſſible. If your graſs-ſeeds are clean, (which ſhould
Culture of 3. The racine de diſette,or root of ſcarcity, (Beta cicla) always be the caſe) three buſliels will be ſufficient per
the root of delights in a rich loamy land well dunged. It is direct When ſown, harrow it in gently, and roll it in
ſcarcity. ed to be ſown in rows, or broad-caft, and as ſoon as the with a wooden roller. When it comes up, fill
plants are of the ſize of a gooſe-quill, to be tranſplanted bare ſpots by freſh ſeed, which, if rolled to fix it, will
in rows of 18 inches diſtance, and 18 inches a part, one ſoon come up, and overtake the reſt.
plant from the other: care muſt be taken in the low In Norfolk they fow clover with their graſſes, par-
ing, to ſow very thin, and to cover the ſeed, which ticularly with rye graſs; but this ſhould not be done
lays in the ground about a month, an inch only.-In except when the land is deſigned for graſs only three or
tranſplanting, the root is not to be ſhortened, but the four years, becauſe neither of theſe kinds will laſt long
leaves cut at the top; the plant is then to be planted in the land. Where you intend it for a continuance,
with a ſetting ſtick, ſo that the upper part of the root is better to mix only ſmall white Dutch clover, or marle
ſhall appear about half an inch out of the ground; this graſs, with your other graſs feed, and not inore than
laſt precaution is very neceſſary to be attended to. eight pounds to an acre. Theſe are abiding plants,
Theſe plants will ſtrike root in twenty-four hours, and ſpread cloſe on the ſurface, and inake the ſweeteſt feed
a man a little accuſtomed to planting, will plant with of any for cattle. In the following ſpring, root up
eaſe 1800 or 2000 a-day. In the feed-bed, the plants, thiſtles, hemlock, or any large plants that appear.
like all others muſt be kept clear of weeds: when the doing this while the ground is ſoft enough to
they are planted out, after once hocing, they will take permit your drawing them by the roots, and before
care of themſelves, and ſuffocate every kind of weed they ſeed, will ſave you infinite trouble afterwards.
near them.
The common method of proceeding in laying down
The beſt time to ſow the feed is from the begiặning fields to graſs is extremely injudicious. Some ſow
of March to the middle of April: it is, however, ad- barley with their graſſes, which they ſuppoſe to be
viſed to continue fowing every month until the begin- uſeful in flading them, without conſidering how much
ning of July, in order to have a ſucceſſion of plants. the corn draws away the nouriſhment from the land. 176
Both leaves and roots have been extolled as excellent Others take their ſeeds from a foul hay-rick; by Different
both for man and beaſt. This plant is ſaid not to be which means, beſides filling the land with rubbiſh and kinds of
liable, like the turnip, to be deſtroyed by inſects, for weeds, what they intend for dry foils may have come graſs.
no inſect touches it, nor is it affected by exceſſive from inoiſt, where it grew naturally, and vice gerfa.
drought, or the changes of ſeafons. Horned cattle, The conſequence is, that the ground, inſtead of being
horſes, pigs, and poultry, are exceedingly fond of it covered with a good thick ſward, is filled with
when cut finall. The leaves may be gathered every plants unnatural to it. The kinds of graſs moſt
12 or 15 days; they are from 30 to 40 inches long, eligible for paſture-lands are, the annual-meadow,
by 22 10 25 inches broad. This plant is excellent for creeping, and fine bent, the fox-tails, and creſted
milch cows, wlien given to them in proper proporcions, dog's-tail, the poas, the feſcues, the vernal, oat-
grafs
acre.
up all the
-
304
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
eat it.
Practice. graſs, and the ray, or rye-graſs. We do not, how The proper ſeaſon for fowingred-clover, is from the Practice.
ever, approve of fowing all theſe kinds together; for middle of April to the middle of May. It will ſpring
not to mention their ripening at different times, by from the firſt of March to the end of Auguſt; but
which means you can never cut them all in perfection ſuch liberty ought not to be taken except from necef-
and full vigour, no kind of cattle are fond of all a- fity.
like.
Tliere cannot be a greater blunderin huſbandry, than
Horſes will ſcarcely eat hay which oxen and cows to be ſparing of feed Ideal writers talk of fowing an
will thrive upon; ſheep are particularly fond of fome acre with four pounds. That quantity of feed, ſay
kinds, and refuſe others. The Darnel-grafs, if not they, will fill an acre with plants as thick as they ought
cut before ſeveral of the other kinds are ripe, becomes to ſtand. This rule may be admitted where grain is
ſo hard and wiry in the Italks, that few cattle care to the object; but it will not anſwer with reſpect to graſs.
Graſs-feed cannot be ſown too thick: the plants fhel-
Such gentlemen as wiſh a particular account of the ter one another : they retain all the dew: and they
abovementioned graffes, will be amply gratified in con- muſt puſh upwards, having no room laterally. Obſerve
ſulting Mr Stillingfleet on this ſubject. He has treat the place where a fack of peaſe, or of other grain, has
ed it with great judginent and accuracy, and thoſe been ſet down for fowing: the feed dropt there acci-
who follow his directions in the choice of their graſſes dentally grows more quickly than in the reſt of the
will be under no ſmall obligation to him for the valu- field ſown thin out of hand. A young plant of clover,
able information he has given them. The ſubſtance or of fain-foin, according to Tull, may be raiſed to a
of his obſervations are given in the article GRASSES great ſize where it has room ; but the field will not
in this Dictunary.
produce half the quantity. When red clover is ſown
The graſſes commonly fown for paſture, for hay, or for cutting green, there ought not to be leſs than 24
to cut green for cattle, are red clover, white clover, pounds to an acre. A field of clover is ſeldom too
yellow clover, rye-graſs, narrow-leaved plantain com thick: the ſmaller a ften be, the more acceptable it is
monly called ribwort, ſain-foin, and lucerne.
to cattle. It is often too thin ; and when ſo, the ſtems
Red clover is of all the moſt proper to be cut green tend to wood.
for ſummer-food. It is a biennial plant when ſuffered Red clover is commonly fown with grain ; and the of fowing
178
to perfect its feed; but when cut green, it will laſt moſt proper grain has been found by experience to be clover with
three years, and in a dry foil longer. At the ſame fax. The ſoil muſt be highly cultivated for flax as well grain.
time the fafeſt courſe is to let it ſtand but a ſingle year: as for red clover. The proper ſeaſon for ſowing is the
if the ſecond year's crop happen to be ſcanty, it proves, ſame for both; the leaves of flax being very ſmall, ad-
like a bad crop of peaſe, a great encourager of weeds mit of free circulation of air; and fax being an early
by the ſhelter it affords them.
crop, is removed ſo early as to give the clover time for
Here, as in all other crops, the goodneſs of ſeed is growing. In a rich ſoil it has grown ſo faſt, as to af-
of importance. Chooſe planıp ſeed of a purple colour, ford a good cutting that very year. Next to flax,
becauſe it takes on that colour when ripe. It is red barley is the beſt companion to clover. The foil muſt
when hurt in the drying, and of a faint colour when be looſe and free for barley: and ſo it ought to be for
177
unripe.
clover : the ſeaſon of fowing is the ſame; and the clo-
Of red clo Red clover is luxuriant upon a rich foil, whether ver is well eſtabliſhed in the ground, before it is over-
clay, loam, or gravel ; it will grow even upon a moor, topped by the barley. At the ſame time, barley com-
when properly cultivated. A wet ſoil is its only bane; monly is ſooner cut than either oats or wheat. In a
for there it does not thrive.
word, barley is rather a nurſe than a ſtepmother to
To have red clover in perfection, weeds muſt be ex- clover during its infancy. When clover is ſown in
tirpated, and ſtones taken off. The mould ought to ſpring upon wheat, the ſoil, which has lain five or ſix
be made as fine as liarrowing can make it; and the months without being ſtirred, is an improper bed for
ſurface be ſmoothed with a light roller, if not ſuffi- it; and the wheat, being in the vigour of growth,
ciently ſmooth without it. This gives opportunity for overtops it from the beginning. It cannot be rown
diſtributing the ſeed evenly: which muſt be covered by along with oats, becauſe of the hazard of froſt; and
a ſmall harrow with teeth no larger than that of a gar when ſown as uſual among the oats three inches high,
* Plate V. den-rake, three incheslong,and lix inches aſunder.* In it is over-topped, and never enjoys free air till the outs
harrowing, the man ſhould walk behind with a rope in be cut. Add, that where oats are ſown upon the win-
his hand fixed to the back part of the harrow, ready ter furrow, the ſoil is rendered as hard as when under
to diſentangle it from itones, clods, turnip or cabbage- wheat.-Red clover is ſometimes ſown by itſelf with-
roots, which would trail the ſeed, and diſplace it. out other grain : but this method, beſide loſing a crop,
Nature has not determined any preciſe depth for the is not falutary ; becauſe clover in its infant ſtate re-
ſeed of red clover more than for other feed. It will quires ſhelter.
grow vigorouſly from two inches deep, and it will grow As to the quantity of grain proper to be fown with
when barely covered. Half an inch may be reckoned clover: In a rich ſoil wellpulverized, a peck of barley
the most advantageous poſition in clay foil, a whole on an Engliſh acre is all that ought to be ventured. Two
inch in what is light or looſe. It is a vulgar error, Linlithgow firlots make the proper quantity for an
that finall feed ought to be ſparingly covered. Miflcd acre that produces commonly lix bolls of barley; half
by that error, fariners commonly cover their clover a firlot for what produces nine bolls. To thoſe who
ſeed with a buſhy branch of thorn ; whiclı not only are governed by cuſtom, ſo ſmall a quantity will be
covers it unequally, bui leaves part on the ſurface to thought ridiculous. Let them only conſider, that a
wither in the air.
rich ſoil in perfect good order, will from a ſingle feed
ver.
fig. 7
1
of
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
305
ver, rih.
-
Pradiec. of barley perduce 20 of 30 vigorous ſtems. People cious than a hot ſun to make the huſk part with its fra&ice.
may flatter themſelves with the remedy of cutting þar- ſeed; in which view it may be expoſed to the fun by
ley green for food, if it happens to oppreſs the clover. parcels, an hour or two before the fail is applied.
This is an excellent remedy in a field of an acre or two; White clover intended for ſeed, is managed in the
but the cutting an extenſive ficld for food muſt be ſlow; fame manner. No plant ought to be mixed with rye-
and while one part is cutting, the clover is ſmothered graſs that is intended for ſeed. In Scotland, inuch rye-
in other parts.
graſs feed is hurt by tranſgreſſing that rule. The feed
179
White and
The culture of white clover, of yellow clover, of is ripe when it parts eaſily with the huſk. The yellow-
yellow clo- ribwort, of rye-graſs, is the ſame in general with that neſs of the item is another indication of its ripeneſs ;
of red clover. We proceed to their peculiarities. Yel in which particular it reſembles oats, barley, and other
wort, and low clover, ribwort, rye-graſs, are all of them early culmiferous plants. The beſt manner to manage a crop
rye-graſs,
planes, blooming in the end of April or beginning of of rye-graſs for ſeed, is to bind it looſely in ſmall
May. The two latier are evergreens, and therefore ſheaves, widening them at the bottom to make them
excellent for winter paſture. Rye-graſs is leſs hurt by ſtand erect; as is done with oats in moiſt weather. In
froſt than any of the clovers, and will thrive in a moi that ſtate they may ſtand till ſufficiently dry for
Iter ſoil : nor in that ſoil is it much affected by threſhing. By this method they dry more quickly,
drought. In a rich ſoil, it grows four feet high : even and are leſs hurt by rain, than by cloſe binding and
in the dry ſuınıner 1775, it roſe to three feet cight putting the ſheaves in ſhocks like corn. The worſt
inches; butit had gained that height before the drought way of all is to ſpread therye-graſs on the moiſt ground,
came ,on. Theſe graſſes are generally ſown with red for it makes the feed malten. The fheaves, when ſuffi-
clover for producing a plentiful crop. The proportion ciently dry, are carried in cloſe carts to where they
of feed is arbitrary ; and there is little danger of too are to be threſhed on a board, as mentioned above for
much. When rye-graſsis ſown for procuring feed, five clover. Put the ſtraw in a rick when a hundred ſtone
firlots wheat-meaſure may be fown on an acre ; and or ſo are threſhed. Carry the threſhing-board to the
for procuring ſeed of ribwort, 40 pounds may be ſown. place where another rick is intended; and ſo on till the
The roots of rye-graſs ſpread horizontally : they bind whole ſeed be threſhed, and the ſtraw ricked. There is
the ſoil by their number; and tho’ ſmall, are yet ſo vi- neceſſity for cloſe carts to ſave the ſeed, which is apt
gorous as to thrive in hard ſoil. Red clover has a large to drop out in a hot ſun; and, as obſerved above a hot
tap-root, which cannot penetrate any foil but what is ſun ought always to be choſen for threſhing. Carry
open and free; and the largeneſs of the root makes the the feed in ſacks to the granary or barn, there to be
foil ftill more open and free. Rye-graſs, once a great ſeparated from the huſks by a fanner. Spread the ſeed
favourite, appears to be diſcarded in moſt parts of Bri. thin upon a timber-floor, and turn it once or twice a-
tain. The common practice has been, to ſow it with red day till perfectly dry. If ſuffered to take a heat, it is
clover, and to cut them promiſcuouſly the beginning of uſeleſs for ſeed.
180
Junc for green food, and a little later for hay. This in The writers on agriculture reckon ſainfoin prefer- Culture of
deed is the proper ſeaſon for cutting red clover, becauſe able to cloverin many reſpects: They fay, that it pro- fainfoin.
at that time it begins to flower; but as at that time the duces a larger crop ; that it does not hurt cattle when
feed of the rye-graſs is approaching to maturity, its eaten green ; that it makes better hay; that it continues
growth is ſtopped for that year, as much as of oats or four times longer in the ground; and that it will grow
barley cut after the feed is ripe. Oats or barley cut on land that will bear no other crop.
green before the feed forms, will afford two other cut Sainfoin has a very long tap-root, which is able to
tings; which is the caſe of rye-graſs, of yellow clover pierce very hard earth. The roots grow very large; and
and of ribwort. By ſuch management, all the profit the larger they are they penetrate to the greater depth;
will be drawn that theſe plants can afford.
and hence it may be concluded, that this graſs, when
When red clover is intended for ſeed, the ground it thrives well, receives a great part of its nouriſhment
ought to be cleared of weeds, were it for no other pur. from below the faple of the ſoil : of courſe, a deep dry
poſe than that the ſeed cannot otherwiſe be preſerved foil is beſt for the culture of ſainfoin. When plants
pure: what ſeeds eſcape ihe plough ought to be ta draw their nouriſhment from that part of the fuil that
ken out by the hand. In England, when a crop of is near the ſurface, it is not of much conſequence
feed is intended, the clovor is always firſt cut for hay. whether their number be great or ſmall. But the caſe
This appears to be done, as in fruit-trees, to check the is very different when the plants receive their food, not
growth of the wood, in order to encourage the fruit. only near, but alſo deep below, the ſurface. Beſides,
This practice will not anſwer in Scotland, as the ſeed plants that ſhoot their roots decp are often ſupplied
would often be too fare for ripening. It would do bet. with moiſture, when thoſe near the ſurface are parched
ter to cat the clover with ſheep till the middle of May, with drought.
which would allow the ſeed to ripen. The ſeed is ripe Torender the plants of ſainfoin vigorous, it is necero
when, upon rubbing it between the hands, it parts fary that they be fown thin. The beſt method of do-
rcadily from the hulk. Then apply the ſcythe, ſpread ing this is by a drill; becauſo, when ſown in this man.
the crop thin, and turn it carefully. When perfectly ner, not only the weeds, but alſo the fupernumerary
dry, take the firſt opportunity of a hot day for threlli- plants, can eaſily be removed. It is ſeveral years be-
ing it on boards covered with a coarſe ſheet. Another fore fainfoin comes to its fulleſt ſtrength; and the num-
way leſs ſubject to riſk, is to ſtack the dry hay, and ber of plants ſufficient to ſtock a field, while in this im-
to threſh it in the end of April. After the firſt threſh- perfect state, will make but a poor crop for the firſt
ing, expoſe the hulks to the ſun, and threſh them over year or two. It is therefore neceſſary that it be fown
and over till no feed remain. Nothing is more effica- in ſuch a manner as to make it eaſy to take up plants
VOL. I.
Ջ 1
in
306
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
Practice. in ſuch numbers, and in ſuch order, as always to leave conſequence than the richneſs of land for fainfoin; al. Practice.
in the field the proper number in their proper places. though land that is both dry and rich will always pro
This can only be done, with propriety, by lowing the duce the largeſt crops.
plantsin rows by a drill. Supposing a field to be dril It is very commonly fowed broadcaſt; but it is found
led in rows at ten inches diſtance, the partitions may to anſwer beſt in drills, eſpecially if the land be nude
be hand-hoed, and the rows dreſſed in ſuch a manner fine by repeated ploughing, rolling, and harrowing,
as to leave a proper number of plants. In this ſitua Much depends on the depth which this feed is ſown.
tion the field may remain two years; then one fourth Iſ it be buried more than an inch deep, it will celdom
of the rows may be taken out in pairs, in ſuch a man grow; and if left uncovered, it will puili out its roots
neraslonjake ille beds of fifty inches, with fix rowsin above ground, and theſe will be killed by the air.
each, and intervals of thirty inches, which may be March and the beginning of April are the belt leaſons
ploughed. Next year, another fourth of the rows for fowing it, as the ſeverity of winter and the drought
may be taken out in the ſame manner, ſo as to leave of ſummer are equally unfavour.ble to the young
double rois with partitions of ten inches, and plants. A buſhel of ſeed fown brazucaſt, or half that
interv Is of thiity: All of which may be hoed at quantity in drills, if good, is ſufficient for all acre.
once or alternately, as it may be found moſt conve The diills ſhould be 30 inches apart, to admit of horſe-
nient.
hoeing between them. Much, however, depends onz
1 he great quantity of this graſs which the writers on the goodneſs of the feed, which may be beſ judged of
this ſubject ailure us may be raiſed upon an acre, and by the following narks.
the excellency and great value of the hay made of it, The huſk being of a bright colour, the kernel
ſhould induce farmers to niake a complete trial of it, plump, of a grey or bluiſh colour without, anu, it cut
an even to uſe tie ſpade in place of the hoe, or hve- acrois, greeniſh and frelh withinfidc; if it be thin and
plough, if necellary.
furrowed, and of a yellowiſh catt, it will itldom grow.
The plants taken up from up a field of fainfoin may When the plants ſtanu single, and have room to ſpread,
be ſet in another field; and if the tranſplanting of this they produce the greaieſt quantity of herbage, and
grafs ſucceeds as well as the tranſplanting of lucerne the feed ripens beit. But farmers in general, from a
has done with Mr Lunin de Chateauvicux, the trouble miſtaken notion of all that appears to be walte ground
and expence will be ſufficiently recompenſed by the being unprofitable, plant them ſo cloſe, that they choke
largeneſs of the crops. In tranſplanting, it is iiecef- and impoveriſh each other, and often die in a few
ſary to cut off great part of the long tap-root : this years. Single plants run deepeſt and draw moſt 110u-
will prevent it from ſtriking very deep into the foil, riſhment; they are alſo eaſieſt kept free from weeds.
and make it puſh out large roots in a ſloping direction A ſingle plant will often produce half a pound of hay,
from the cut end of the tap-root. Sainfoin managed in whien dry. On rich land this plant will yield two good
this manner, will thrive even on ſhallow land that has crops in a year, with a moderate Thare of culture. A
a wet bottom, provided it be not overſtocked with good crop muſt not be expected the firſt year; but, if
plants.
the plants ſtand not too thick, they will increaſe in
Whoever inclines to try the culture of this graſs lize the fecond year prodigiouſly.
Nould take great pains in preparing the land, and No cattle ſhould be turned on the field the firſt win-
making it as free from weeds as poſſible.
ter after the corn is off with a hich it is fojin, as
In England, as the roots ſtrike dep in that chalky their teer would injure the young plants. Sheep ſhould
Toil, this plant is not liable to be ſo much injured by not come on the following ſummer, becauſe they would
drought as other graſſes are, whoſe fibres lie horizon- bite off the crown of the plants, and prevent their
tally, and lie near the ſurface. The quantity of hay ſhooting agrin. A ſmall quantity of ſoapers aſhes as
produced is greater and beiter in quality than any a top-dreſſing will be of great ſervice, if laid on the
other. But there is one advantage attending this graſs, firſt winter.
which renders it ſuperior to any other; and that ari If the ſainfoin be cut juſt before it comes into
ſes from feeding with it milch cows. The prodigious bloon, it is adınırable food for horned cattle ; and if
increaſe of milk which it makes is aſtoniſhing, being cut thus early, it will yield a ſecond crop the ſame
nearly double that produced by any other green food. ſeaſon.
ſeaſon. but it it proves a wet ſeaſon, it is better to
The milk is alſo berter, and yields more cream than let it ſtand till its bloon be perfected; for great care
any other; and the butter procured from it much bet inuſt be taken, in making it into hay, that the flowers
ter coloured and flavoured.
do not drop off, as cows are very fond of them ; and
The following remarks by an Engliſh fariner are it requires more time than other hay in drying. Sain-
181
made from much experience and obſervation.
foinis fo excellent a fodder for horſes, that they require
Remarks Sainfoin is much cultivated in thoſe parts where no oats while they eat it, although they be worked
on the cul the ſoil is of a chalky kind. It will always ſucceed hard all the time. Sheep will alſo be fattened with it
ture of
well where the roots run deep; the worſt ſoil of all for faſter than with any other food.
ſainfoin in
it is whcre there is a bed of cold wet clay, which the If the whole ſeaſon for cutting proves very rainy,
England,
tender fibres cannot penetrate. This plant will make it is better to let the crop ſtand for ſeed, as that will
a greater increaſe of produce, by at leaſt 30 times, amply repay the loſs of the hay; becauſe it will not only
than common grals or turf upon poor land. Wfiere it felch a good price, but a peck of it will go as far as a
meets with chalk or ſtone, it will extend it routs peck and a half of oats for horſes.
through the cracks and chinks to a very great depth The beſt time of culting the feeded ſainfoin is, when
in ſearch of nouriſhment. The dryneſs is of more the greateſt part of the ſeed is well filled, the firſt
blown
!
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
307
COWS,
crowns.
Practice, blown ripe, and the laſt blown beginning to open. For 'is cut off, and the plant ſlioots out a number of lateral Pradice.
want of this care ſome people liave loſt moſt of their branches from the cut part of the root, which makes
feed. by letting it ſtand too ripe. Seeded fainfoin it ſpread its roots nearer the ſurface, and conſequently
ſhould always be cut in a morning or evening, when renders it more eaſily cultivated: beſides this circuin-
the dews render the ſtalks tender. If cul when the ſtance adapts it to a ſhallow foil, in which, if left in its
fun ſhines het, niuch of the ſeed will fall out and be natural ſtate, it would not grow.
182 loſt.
The tranſplanting of lucerneis attended with many
Its excel-
An acre of very ordinary land, when improved by advantages. The land may be prepared in the ſummer
lence as
this graſs, will maintain four cows very well from the for receiving the plants from the nurſery in autumn;
food for
firſt of April to the end of November, and afford, be- by which means the field muſt be in a much better fi-
ſides, a ſufficient ſtore of hay to make the greater part tuation than if the ſeed had been ſown upon it in the
of their food the four months following,
ſpring. By tranſplanting, the row's can be made more
If the ſoil be tolerably good, a field of ſainfoin will regular, and the intended diſtance more exactly ob-
laſt from 15 to 20 years in prime ; but at the end of ſerved; and conſequently the hoeing can be performed
ſeven or eight years, it will be neceſſary to lay on a more perfectly, and with leſs expence. Mr Chateau-
moderate coat of well rotted dung ; or, if the ſoil be vieux likewiſe tried the lucerne in ſingle beds three
very light and ſandy, of marle. By this means the feet wide, with ſingle rows ; in beds three feet nine
future crops, and the duration of the plants in health inches wide, with double rows; and in beds four feet
and vigour, will be greatly increaſed and prolonged. three inches wide, with triple rows. The plants in
Hence it will appear, that for poor land there is no the ſingle rows were fix inches aſunder, and thoſe in
thing equal to this graſs in point of advantage to the the double and triple rows were about eight or nine
ariner.
inches. In a courſe of three years he found, that
Clover will laſt only two years in perfection ; and a ſingle row produced more than a triple row of
oſteri, if the ſoil be cold and moiſt, near half the plants the ſame length. The plants of lucerne, when cul-
will rot, and bald patches be found in every part of tivated by tranſplantation, ſhould be at leaſt fix in-
the field the ſecond year. Beſides, from our frequent ches aſunder, to allow them room for extending their
rains during the month of September, many crops
left for ſeeding are loft. But from the quantity and He further obferves, that the beds or ridges ought
excellent quality of this grafs (ſainfoin), and its ripen- to be raiſed in tbe middle; that a ſmall trench, two
ing earlier, and continuing in vigour ſo much longer, or three inches deep, ſhould be drawn in the middle;
much riſk and certain expence is avoided, and a large and that the plants ought to be ſet in this trench,
annual profit accrues to the farnier.
covered with earth up to the rieck. He ſays, that if
183
Culture of The writers on agriculture, ancient as well as mo the lucerne be ſown in the ſpring, and in a warm foil,
lucerne. dern, beſtow the higheſt encorniums upon lucerene as it will be ready for tranſplanting in September ; that,
affording excellent liay,and producing very large crops. if the weather be too hot and dry, the tranſplanting
Lucerne remains atleaſt 10 or 12 years in the ground, thould be delayed till October; and that, if the wea-
and produces about eight tons of hay upon the Scots ther be unfavourable during both theſe months, this
àcre, There is but little of it cultivated in Scotland. operation muſt be delayed till ſpring. He further di-
However,it has been tried in ſeveral parts of that coun rects, that the plants ſhould be carefully taken out of
try; and it is found, that, when the feed is good, it the nurſery, ſo as not to damage the roots; that the
comes up very well, and ſtands the winter froſt.
But roots be left only about fix or ſeven inches long : that
the chief thing that prevents this graſs from being , the green crops be cut off within about two inches of
more uſed in Scotland, is the difficulty of keeping the the crown; that they be put into water at foon as taken
foil open and free from weeds. In a few years the ſur up, there to remain till they are planted ; and that
face becomes ſo hard, and the turf ſo ſtrong, that it de- they ſhould be planted with a planting-ſtick, in the
ſtroys the lucerne before the plants have arrived at ſamne manner as cabbages.
their greateſt perfection : ſo that lucerne can ſcarce be He does not give particular directions as to the times
cultivated with ſucceſs there, unleſs ſome method be of horſe-hoeing; but only ſays in general, thar the in-
fallen upon of deſtroying the natural graſs, and pre tervals ſhould be ſtirred once in the month during the
vent the ſurface from becoming hard and impenetrable. whole time that the lucerne is in a growing ſtate. He
This cannot be done effe&tually by any other means likewiſe obſerves, that great care onghit to be taken
than horſe-hoeing. This inethod was firſt propoſed by not to ſuffer any weeds to grow among the plants, at
Mr Tull, and afterwards practiſed ſucceſsfully by M. leaſt for the firſt two or three years; and for this
de Chateauvieux near Geneva. It may be of uſe purpoſe, that the rows, as well as the edges of the 11-
therefore to give a view of that gentleman's method of tervals where the plough cannot go, thould be weeded
cultivating lucerne.
by the hand.
184
He does not mention any thing particular as to the Burnet is peculiarly adapted to poor lird: be. Culture of
manner of preparing the land ; but only obſerves in ge- fides, it proves an excellent winter-paſture, when hard- burlitt.
neral, chat no pains ſhould be ſpared in preparing it. ly any thing elſe vegetares. Other advantages are,
He tried the fowing of lucerne both in rows upon the It makes good butter; it never blows or firells cattle
beds whcre it was intended to Haud, and likeriſe the it is fine paſture for feep; and will flouriſh vell on
fowing it in a nurſery, and afterwards tranſplanting it poor, light, fandy, or ſtony foils, or even on dry chalk
into the beds prepared for it. He prefers tranſplant- hills.
ing; becauſe, when tranſplanted, part of the tap-root The cultivation of it is neither hazardous nor expen-
992
five.
3
308
Part II.
AGRICUL
L T
T U R E.
Practice. five. If the land is prepared as is generally done for moſt of their nouriſhment from ihe air.. Hence it is, Practices,
turnips, there is no danger of its failing. After the that where cut green for food to caitle, a culmiferous
firſt year, it will be attended with very little expence, crop is far from being a robber. A hay-crop accor--
as the filat circular ſpread of its leaves will keep down, dingly,cyen where it conſiſts moſtly of rye-graſs, is not.
or prevent the growth of weeds.
a robber, provided it be cut before the ſced is formed ;
On the failure of turnips, either from the fly or the which at any rate it ought to be, if one would have.
black worin, ſome of our farmers have fown the land hay in perfection. And the foggage, excluding the
with burnet, and in March following hada fine paſture froſt by covering the ground, keeps the roots warm. A
for their ſheep and lambs. It will perfect its feed twice leguminous plant, by its broad leaves, draws much of
in a ſuminer, and this feed is ſaid to be as good as its nouriſhment from the air. A cabbage, which has
oats for horſes ; bụt it is too valuable to be applied to very broad leaves, and a multitude of them, owes its
that uſe.
growth more to the air than to the ſoil. One fact is
It is ſometimes ſown late in the ſpring with oats and certain, that a cabbage cut and hung up in a damp
barley, and ſucceeds very well; but it is beſt to ſow it place, preſerves its verdure longer than other plants.
ſingly in the beginning of July, when there is a pro At the ſame time, a ſeed is that part of a plant which
ſpect of rain, on a ſmall piece of land, and in October requires the moſt nouriſlıment: and for that-nouriſh-
following, tranſplant it in rows two feet apart, and a ment a culmiferous plant muſt be indebted entirely la
bout a foot diſtant in the rows. This is a proper diſ the foil. A leguminous crop, on the contrary, when
tance, and gives opportunity for hoeing the intervals cut green for food, niuſt be very gentle to the ground.
in the ſucceeding ſpring and ſummer.
Peale and beans are leguminous plants; but being cul-
After it is fed down with cattle, it ſhould be har- tivated for ſeed, they ſeem to accupy a middle ſtation :
rowed clean. Some horſes will not eat it freely at firſt their feed makes them more ſevere than other legumi.
but in two or three days they are generally very fond nous crops cut green ; their leaves, which grow till.
of it. It affords rich pleaſant milk, and in great plenty. reapings make them leſs ſevere than a culmiferous.
A gentleman farmer near Maidſtone fome years plant left to ripen.
ſince Towed four acres as foon as the crop of oats was Theſe plants are diſtinguiſlied no leſs, remarkably by
got off, which was the latter end of Auguſt. He the following circumſtance. All theſeeds of a culmife-
threw in 12 pounds of feed per acre, broadcaſt; and rous plant ripen at the fanie time. As ſoon as they be..
no rain falling until the middle of September, the plants gin to form, the plant becomes ſtationary, the leaves
did not appear before the latter end of that month, wither, the roots ceaſe to puſh, and the plant when cut
There was however a good erop, and in the fpring he down is blanched and fapleſs. The ſeeds of a legumi-
fet the plantsout with a turnip-hoe, leaving them about nous plant are formed ſucceſſively : flowers and fruit
& foot diſtant froni each other. But the drill method
appear at the ſame time in different parts of the plant.
is preferable, as it ſaves more than half the ſeed. The This plant accordingly is continually growing, and
land was a poor dry gravel, not worth three ſhillings puſhing its roots. Hence the value of bean or peaſe
an acre for any thing elſe.
ſtraw above that of wheat or oats: the latter is withe.
The ſevereit froſt never injures this plant: and the red and dry when the crop is cut; the former, green
oftener it is fed thethicker are its leaves, which ſpring and fucculent. The difference therefore, with reſpect
conſtantly from its root.
to the ſoil, betweena culmiferous andleguminous crop,
is great. The latter, growing till cut down, keeps the
Sect. V. Rotation of Cropso
ground in conſtant motion, and leaves it to the plough
looſe and mellow. The former gives over growing
185
Rotation of
No branch of huſbandry requires more ſkill and fa- long before reaping; and the ground, by want of no-
crops.
gacity, than a proper rotation of crops, ſo as to keep tion, turns compact and hard. Nor is this all. Dew
the ground always in heart, and yet to draw out of it falling on a culmiferous crop after the ground begins
the greateſt profit poſſible. Some plants rob the ſoil, to harden, reſts on the ſurface, and is fucked up by
others are gentle to it: ſome bind, others looſen. The the next ſun. Dew that. falls on a leguminous crop, is
nice point is, to intermix crops, ſo as to make the ſhaded from the ſun by the broad leaves, and links at
greateſt profit conſiſtently with keeping the ground leiſure into the ground. The ground accordingly, af-
in trim. In that view, the nature of the plants employ- ter a culmiferous crop, is not only, hard, but dry : af.
186
ed in huſbandry muſt be accurately examined. ter a leguminous crop, it is not only looſe, but ſoft
Culmífe-
The difference between culmiferous and leguminous and uncuous.
yousand le- plants, is occaſionally mentioned above*. With re Of all culmiferous plants, wheat is the moſt ſevere,
guminous fpect to the preſent ſubject, a cloſer inſpection is neceſ- by the long time it occupies the ground without ada
plants, fary. Culmiferous plants, having ſmall leaves and few mitting a plough. And as the grain is heavier than
Nº 180 in number, depend moſtly on the foil for nouriſhment, that of barley or oats, it probably requires more nou-
and little on the air. During the ripening of the feed, rilhment than either. It is obſerved above, that as
they draw probably their whole nouriſhment from the peaſe and beans draw part of their nouriſhment from
foil; as the leaves by this time, being dry and wither- the air by their green leaves while allowed to ſtand,
ed, muſt have loſt their power of drawing nouriſhment they draw the leſs from the ground; and by their con-
from the air. Now, as culmiferous plants are chiefly ftant growing they leave it in good condition for ſub-
cultivated for their feed, and are not cut down till the ſequent crops. In both reſpects they are preſerable
feed be fully ripe, they may be pronounced all of them to any culmiferous crop.
to be robbers, fome more, ſome leſs. But ſach plants, Culmiferous crops, as obſerved above, are not rob-
while young, are all leaves ; and in that ſtate draw bers when cut green: the ſoil, far from hardening, is
kepa
141.
Part II.
AGRICU ULTURE.
309
rotation of
crops.
Practice. kept in conſtant motion by the puſhing of the roots, moiſt clay for bcans, loam for barley and peaſe, light Practices
and is left more tender than if it liad been left at reſt foil for turnip, ſandy foil for rye and buckweat; and
187
without any bearing crop.
that oats thrive better in coarſe ſoil than any other
The nature
Bulbous-rooted plants are above all ſucceſsful in di- grain.
grain. Now, in directing a rotation, it is not ſuffi- of foil con-
viding and pulverizing the ſoil. Potato-roots grow cient that a culmiferous crop be always ſucceeded by a fiderered,
that no
x, eight, or ien inches under the ſurface; and, by leguminous: attention muſt alſo be given,
with re-
crop
their fize and number, they divide and pulverize the be introduced that is unfit for the ſoil. Wheat, being gard to the
foil better than can be done by the plough; conſequent a great binder, requires more than any other crop a
ly, whatever be the natural colour of the ſoil, it is leguminous crop to follow. But every ſuch crop is
black when a potatoe-crop is taken up. The potato, not proper : potatoes are the greateſt openers of ſoil ; ,
however, with reſpect to its quality of dividing the but they are.improper in a wheat ſoil. Neither will
foil, muſt yield to a carrot or parſnip; which are large turnip anſwer, becauſe it requires a light ſoil. A very.
roots, and pierce often to the depth of 18 inches. looſe foil, after a crop of rye, requires rye-graſs to bind
The turnip, by its tap-root, divides the ſoil more than it, or the treading of cattle in paſturing: but to bind
can be done by a fibrous-rooted plant; but as its bul. the ſoil, wheat muſt not be ventured; for it ſucceeds
bous root grows moſtly above ground, it divides the ill in looſe ſoil.
foil leſs than the potato, the carrot, or the parſnip,
Another confideration of moment in directing the
Red clover, in that reſpect, may be put in the ſame. retation, is to avoid crops that encourage weeds. Peaſe
claſs with turnip..
is the fitteſt of all crops for ſucceeding to wheat, be-
Whether potatoes or turnip be the more gentle crop, cauſe it renders the ground looſe and mellow, and the
appears a puzzling queſtion. The fornier bears ſeed, ſanie foil agrees with both. But beware of peaſe, un-
and probably draws more: nouriſhment from the ſoil leſs the ſoilbe left byche wheat perfectly free of weeds;
than the latter, when cut green. On the other hand, becauſe peaſe, if not an extraordinary crop, foſter
potatoes divide the ſoil more than furnip, and leave it weeds. Barley may be ventured after wheat, if the
more looſe.and friable. It appears no leſs puzzling, farmer bę unwilling to loſe a crop. It is indeed a rob-
to determine between cabbage and turnip : the former ber; better, however, any crop, than run the hazard
draws more of its nourihment from the air, the latter of poiſoning the ſoil with weeds.
leaves the ſoil more free and open.
neceſſity of barley after wheat, the land ought to be
The reſult of the whole is what follows: Culmi. fallowed before the wheat : it cleans the ground tho-.
ferous plants are robbers; fome more, ſome leſs: they roughly, and makes peaſe a ſecure crop after wheat,
at the ſame time bind the ſoil; fonie more, ſome leſs. And after a good crop of peaſe, barley never fails. A
Leguminous plants in both reſpects are oppoſite; if horſe-hoed crop of turnip is equal to a fallow for root-
any of thom rob the ſoil, it.is in a very flight degree; ing out weeds; but turnip does not ſuit land that is
and all of them without exception looſen the ſoil. A proper for wheat. Cabbage does well in wheat foil :
culmiferous crop, however, is generally the more pro- and, a horſe-hoed crop of cabbage, which eradicates
fiţable: but few ſoils can long bear the burden of ſuch weeds, is a good preparation for wheat to be ſucceed-
crops, unleſs relieved by interjected leguminous crops. ed by peaſe; and a crop of beans diligently hand-
Theſe, on the other hand, without a mixture of cul- hoed, is in that view little inferior. As red clover re-
miferous crops, would ſoon render the ſoil too looſe. quires the ground to be perfectly clean, a good crop
Theſe preliminaries will carry the farmer fome of it enſures wheat, and next peaſe. In loam, a drill -
length in directing a proper rotation of crops. Where ed crop of turnip or potatoes prepares the ground, e-
dung, lime, or other manure, can be procured in plen- qual to a fallow, for the ſame ſucceſſion..
ty to recruit the ſoil after ſevere croppinon10 rotati Another rule is, to avoid a frequent repetition of
on is more proper or profitable in a ſtrong foil, than the ſame ſpecies; for to produce good crops, change
wheat, peaſe or beans, barley, oats, fallow. The of ſpecies is no leſs neceſſary than change of feed.
whole farm may be brought under this rotation, ex The ſame ſpecies returning every ſecond or third year,
cept ſo far as hay is wanted. But as ſuch command
But as ſuch command will infallibly degenerate, and-be a ſcanty crop. This
of manure is.rare, it is of more importance to deter- is remarkably the caſe of red clover. Nor will our
mine what ſhould be the rotation when no manure can fields bear pleaſantly perpetual crops of wheat after
be procured but the dung collected in the farm. Con- fallow, which is the practice of fome Engliſh farmers.
ſidering that culmiferous crops are the more profitable Hitherto of rotation in the fame field. We add one
in rich land, it would be proper to make them more rule concerning rotation in different fields; which is
frequent than the other kind. But as there are few to avoid crowding crops one after another in point of
ſoils that will admit ſuch frequent culmiferous crops tinie; but to chooſe ſuch as admit intervals ſufficient
without ſuffering, it may be laid down as a general · for leſurely dreſſing, which gives opportunity to ma-
rule, that alternate crops, culiniferous and legumi- nage all with the fame hands, and with the ſame cat-
nous, ought to form the rotation. Nor are there tle ; for example, beans in January or February, peaſe
many ſoils that will ſtand good, even with this favour- and oats in March, barley and potatoes in April tur-
able rotation, unleſs relieved from time to timeby pa. nip.in. June or July, wheat and Rye in October.
II8
ſuring a few years. If ſuch extended rotation be art For illuſtrating the foregoing rules, a few inſtances Exception
fully carried on, crops without end may be obtained of exceptionable rotations will not be thought amiſs. able rota-
in a tolerable good foil, without any manure but what The following is an uſual rotation in Norfolk. Firſt, tious.
is produced in the farm.
wheat after red clover. Secondly, barley. Third, tur-
It is fearce neceſſary to be mentioned, being known nir. Fourth, barley with red clover. Fifth, clover
to every farmer that clay anſwers, beſt for wheat, cue for hay. Sixth, a ſecond year's crop of clover
3
commonly
1
310
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
of rota-
Incloſ.
Practice. commonly paſtured. Dung is given to the wheat and ought to be their ſtudy, to improve their foil; by ma. Practice,
turnip.Againſt this rotation ſeveral objections lie. king it free, and alſo retentive of moiſture. If they
Barley alter wheat is improper. The two crops of bar- accompliſh theſe ends, they need not be afraid of ex-
ley are loo near together. The ſecond crop of clover hauſting the ſoil by cropping.
Iyo
muſt be very bad, if paſturing be the beſt way of con Where a fariner has acceſs to no manure but what Examples
ſuming it; and if bad it is a great encourager of is his own production, the caſe under conſideration,
weeds. But the ſtrongeſt objection is, that red clover there are various rotations of crops, all of them good,
tions.
repeated fo frequently
in the ſame field cannot fail to though perhaps not equally fo. We ſhall begin with
degenerate ; and of this the Norfolk farmers begin to two examples, one in clay, and one in free foil, each
be ſenſible.--Sallon in Eaſt Lothian is a clay foil; of the farms 90 acres. Six acres are to be incluſed for
and the rotation there is, Wheat after fallowand dung. a kitchen-garden, in which there muſt be annually a
Second, barley after two ploughings; the one before crop of red clover, for ſummer-food to the working
vinter, the other inmediately before the ſeed is ſown. cattle. As there are annually 12 acres in hay, and 12
Third, oats. Fourth, peaſe. Fifch, barley. Sixth,' in paſture, a ſingle plough with good cattle will be
oats: and then fallow. This rotation conſiſts chiefly ſuficient to command the remaining 60 acres.
of robbing crops.
Peafe are the only leguminous
crop, which even with the fallow is not ſufficient to
Rotation in a clay foil.
Jooſen a ſtiff ſoil. But the ſoil is good, which in ſome
meaſure hides the badneſs of the rotation.--About 1775. |1776. 1777. | 1778. | 1779. | 1780.
Seaton, and all thc way from Preſton to Gosford, the 1. Fallow. Wheat. Peaſe. Barley. Hay.
Oats.
ground is ſtill more fevcrely handled : wheat after fal 2. Wheat. Peaſe. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow,
low and dung, barley, oats, peaſe, wheat, barley, oats, 3. Peaſe. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat.
:11d then another fallow. The ſoil is excellent; and 4. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peaſe.
it ought indeed to be ſo, to ſupport many rounds of ſuch 5. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peaſe. Barley.
cropping
6. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peaſe. Barley. Hay.
In the pariſhes of Tranent, Aberlady, Dirleton, 7. Paſture.Paſture. Paſture. Paſture.Paſture.Paſture.
North-Berwick, and Athelſtonefoord, the following
rotations were formerly univerſal, and to this day are When the rotation is completed, the ſeventh inclo-
in uch more frequent than any other niode.
ſure having been lix years in paſture, is ready to be ta-
1. After fallow with dung, wheat, barley, oats, peaſe ken up for a rotation of crops which begins with oats
and beans, barley, oats, wheat.
in the year 1781, and proceeds as in the fixth inclo-
2. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, peaſe and ſure. In the ſame year 1781, the fifth incloſure is
beans, whcat, barley, oats, peaſe, wheat.
made paſture, for which it is prepared by ſowing pa-
3. After fallow and dung, wheat oats, peaſe, barley, ſturc graſs ſeeds with the barley of the year 1780. And
oats, wheat.
in this manner may the rolation be carried on without
4 After fallowand dung, barley, oats, beans, wheat, end. Here the labour is equally diſtributed; and there
peale, barley, oats.
is no hurry nor confuſion. But the chief property of
In the ſeveral Tours of Young, the itinerant farmer, this rotation is, that two culmiferous or white-corn
are found, in the beſt connties of England, examples crops are never found together : by a due mixture of
without end, of rotations no leſs exceptionable than crops, the foil is preſerved in good heart without any
many of thoſe mentioned.
adventitious manure.
189
At the ſame time, the land is
Fields not
Where a field is laid down for paſture in order to always producing plentiful crops : neither hay nor pa-
to be kept be recruited, it is commonly left in that ſtate for many ſture get tire to degenerate. The whole dung is laid
too long in years; for it is the univerſal opinion, that the longer upon the fallow.
paſture. it lies, the richer it becomes for bearing corn. This Every farm that takes a graſs-crop into the rotation
may be true; but in order to determine the mode of muſt be incloſed, which is peculiarly neceſſary in a clay
cropping, the important point is, what upon the whole foil, as nothing is more hurtful to clay than poaching
is the inoſt profitable rotation; not what may produce
luxuriant crops at a diſtant period. Upon that point,
Rotation in a free foil.
it may be affirmed, ihat the farmer who keeps a field
in paiture beyond a certain time, loſes every year con 1775. 1776. / 1777. | 1778. | 1779. ( 1780.
fidcrably; and that a few luxuriant crops of corn, af 1. Turnip. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat.
ter 20 years of paſture, and ſtill more after 30, will 1100 2. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnip.
inake up the loſs.
3. Hay.
Oats.
Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. Barley.
Paſture-graſs, whileyoung, maintains, many animals; 4. Oats.
4. Oais. Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay.
and the field is greatly recruited by what they drop; 5. Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay.
Oats.
it is even recruited by hay crops, provided the graſs be 6. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow.
cut before ſeeding. But as old graſs yields little pro- 7. Paſture. Paſture. Paſture. Paſture. Paſture. Paſture.
fit, the field ought to be tıken up for corn when the
paſture begins to fail; and after a few crops, it ought For the next rotation, the ſeventh incloſure is taken
to be laid down again with graſs-ſeeds. Seduced by up for corn, beginning with an oat-crop, and proceed-
a chimerical notion, that a field, by frcquent corn-crops, ing in the order of the fourth incloſures in place of
is fatigued and requires reft like a labouring man or which, the third incloſure is laid down for paſture hy
animal, careful farmers give long reſt to their fields by ſowing paſture-graſſes with the laſt crop in that inclo-
paſture, never adverting that it affords litile profit. It ſure, being barley. This rotation has all the advanta-
ges
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
L
311
I.
Inclof.com
2.
193
a ſoil
Practice. ges of the former. Here the dung is employed on the This leads to the hands that are commonly engaged Pradice.
turnip-crop.
to cut down corni. In Scotland, the univerſal prac-
We proceed to conſider what rotation is proper for tice was, to provide a number of hands, in proportion of flapers,
carſe clay. The farm we propoſe conſiſts of 73 acres. to the extent of the crop, without regard to the time
Nine are to be incloſed for a kitchen garden, affording of ripening. By this method, the reapers were oſten
plenty of red clover to be cut green for the farm-cattle. idle for want of work; and what is much worſe, they
The remaining 64 acres are divided into four inclo- bad often more work than they could overtake, and
ſures, 16 acres each, to be cropped as in the follow- ripe fields were laid open to ſhaking w.nds. The Lo-
ing table.
thians have long enjoyed weekly markets for reapers,
where a farmer can provide himſelf with the number
1775. 1776. 1777. 1778.
he wants; and this practice is creepinginto neighbour-
ing ſhires. Where there is no opportunity of ſuch
Beans, Barley. Hay. Oats.
markets, neighbouring farmers ought to agree in bor-
Barley. Hay. Oats.
Beans,
rowing and lending their reapers.
3 Hay. Oats. Beans,
Barley.
One ſhould imagine, that a caution againſt cutting
4. Vats. Beans, Barley. | Hay.. corn when wet is unneceflary; yet from the impatience
of farmers to prevent ſhaking, no caveat is more ſo.
Here the dung ought to be applied to the barley. Why do they ilot conſider, that corn ſtanding dries inz
Many other rotations may be contrived, keeping to half a day, when, in a cloſe theaf, the weather muſt
the rules above laid down. Fallow, for example, wheat, be favourable if it dry in a month ? in moiſt weather it
pcaſe and beans, burley, cabbage, osts, for clay. Here will never dry.
dung inuſt be given bulh tole wheat and cabbage. With reſpect to the manner of ciiiing, we muſt pre
Maaner of
For free foil, drilled turnip, barley, red clover, wheat miſe, chat barley is of all the moſt difficult grain to be cutting.
upon a lingle furrow, drilled potatoes, oats. Boch dried for keeping. Having no huſk, rain his eaſy
the turnip and polatoes inuſt have dung Another for acceſs; and it has a tendency to inalten when wet.
free foil : turnip drilled and dunged, red clover, wheat Where the ground is properly finoothed by rolling, it
on a ſingle furrow with dung, peaſe, barley, potatoes, ſeeins beſt to cut it down with the fuythe. This man-
oats. The following rotation has proved ſucceſsful in ner being more expeditivus than the fickle, removes ic
proper for wheat. 1. Oats with red clover, after ſooner from danger of wind; and gives a third more
fallow, without duag. 2. Hay. The clover-stubble ſtraw, which is a capital articlefor dung, where a farm
dunged, and wheat ſown the end of October with a is at a diſtance from other manure. Weexcept only
ſingle furrow. 3. Wheat. 4. Peaſe. 5. Barley. Fal corn that has lodged; for there the lickle is more con-
low ag. in. Oats are taken the firſt crop, to ſave the venient than the ſcythe. As it ought to be dry when
dung for the wheat. Oats always thrive on a fallow,
Oats always thrive on a fallow, cit, bind it up directly: if allowed to lie any une in
though without dung, which is not the caſe of barley. the fuath, it is apt to be diſcoloured.-Barley fowiz
Bnt barley ſi ldom fails after peale. In ſtrong clay with graſs-feeds, red clover eſpecially, i equires a dif-
ſoil, the following rulation anſwers. 1. Wheat after ferent management. Where the graſs is cut along
fallow and dung. 2. Beans fown under farrow as early with it, the difficulty is great of getting it fo dry as
as pollible. Above the beans, ſow peaſe end of March, to be ventured in a ſtack. The beſt way is, to cut the
half a boll per acre, and harrow them in. The two burley with a lickle above the clover, fo as that no-
grains will ripen at the ſame time. 3. Oats or barley thing bit clean barley is bound up. Cut with a ſcythe
on a winter furrow with graſs-ſeeds. 4. Hay for one the tublle and graſs : they make excelent winter-
year or two; the ſecond growth paſtured. Lay what food. The ſame nethod is applicable 'o oats; withi
dung can be ſpared on the hły ſtubble, and ſow wheat this only difference, that when the field is expoſed to
with a lingle furrow. 5. Wheat. 6. Beans or peale. the ſouth weit wird, it is leſs neceiſary to bind imme-
7. Oats. Fallow again.
diitely aiter mouing. As wheat comn.only grows
higher than any other grain, it is difficult to manage
Sect. VI. Of Reaping Corn and Hay Crops, and ii with the lyric; cor which reaſon the lichle is pre-
Storing them up for ife.
ferred in Eitylaud. Peafe and beans grow ſo irregu-
I91
larly, as io mike the tichle necellary.
Ofripeneſs. CU IMIFEROUS plants are ripe when the ſtem is to The beſt way for dıying peate, is to keep ſeparate Drying of
tally white: they are not fully ripe if any green itreaks the handfuisthaldi e ciil: though in this way they wet peale.
remain. Some farmers are of opinion, that wheat ought calily, they dry as ſoon. In the common way of heap-
to be cut before it is fully ripe. Their reaſons are, ing peaſt together for compoſing a ſheaf, they wet as
firſt, that ripe wheat is apt to thake; and next, that ealily, and iry lot near ſo won. With reſpect to beans,
the Hour is not ſo good. With reſpect to the laſt, it is the top of the banjfullaſt cut, ought to be laid on the
contrary to nature, that any ſeed can be better in an bottom of the turner; which gives realy acceſs to the
unripe itate than when brought to perfection : nor wind. By this method peale and beans are ready for
will it be found ſo upon trial. With reſpect to the the ſtack in half the ordinary time.
firſt, wheat, at the point of perfection, is not more apt A fheaf cornionly is made as Targe as can be con- Size of
to ſhake than for ſome days before : the huik begins tained in two lengths of the corn made into a rope. To fheaves.
not to open till after the feed is fully ripe ; and then fave frequent tyiny, the birder pretlesit down with his
the ſuffering the crop to ſtand becomes tickliſh : after knee, and bills it to hard as totally to exclude the air,
the minute of ripening, it ſhould be cut down in an If there be any moiſture in the crop, which feldom fails,
iuftant, if poiſible,
a proceſs of fermentation and putrefaction commences
in
194
195
a
312
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
1
off the
Practice, in the fleaf; which is perfected in the ſtack, to the the covering ought to be ſo thick as to be proof Practice.
- deſtruction both of corn and ſtraw. How ſtupid is it, againſt rain,
to make the ſize of a ſheaf depend on the height of the Scotland is ſubject not only to floods of rain, but to
plants ! By that rule, a wheat-flieaf is commonly fo high winds. Good covering guards againſt the for
weighty, as to be unmanageable by ordinary arms: it mer, and ropes artfully applied guard againſt the lat-
rcquires an effort to move it, that frequently burits the ter. The following is a good mode. Take a hay
knot, and occaſions loſs of grain, belide the trouble of rope well twiſted, and ſurround the ſtack with it, two
a ſecond tying. Sheaves ought never to be larger than feet or ſo below the top. Surround the ſtack with
can be contained in one length of the plant, cut cloſe another ſuch rope immediately below the eaſing. Con-
to the ground; without admitting any exception, if nect theſe two with ropes in an up-and-down poſition,
the plants be above eighteen inches high. The bind- diſtant from each other at the ealing about five or fix
cr's armsthen can compreſs the ſheaf fufficiently, with feet. Then ſurround the ſtack with other circular
out need of his knee. The additional hands that this Topes, parallel to the two firſt mentioned, giving them
way of binding may require, are not to be regarded, a twiſt round every one of theſe that lie up and down
compared with the advantage of drying ſoon. Corn by which the whole will be connected together in a
thus managed may be ready for the ſtack in a week; ſórt of net-work. What remains is, to finiſh the two
it ſeldom in the ordinary way requires leſs than a fort- feet at the top of the'ſtack. Let it be covered with
night, and frequently longer. Of a ſmall fheaf com- bunches of ſtraw laid regularly up and down ; the un-
preſled by the arm only, the air pervades every part; der part to be put under the circular rope firſt men-
nor is it ſo apt to be looſed as a large fheaf, how- tioned, which will keep it faſt, and the upper part be
ever firmly bound. We omit the gathering of ſheaves bound by a ſmall rope artfully twiſted, commonly call-
into ſhocks, becauſe the common method is good, ed the crown of the ſtack. This method is preferable
which is to place the ſhocks directed to the ſouth-weſt, to the common way of laying long ropes over the top
in order to reſiſt the force of the wind. Five ſheaves of the ſtack,and tying them to the belting-rope; which
on each ſide make a ſufficient ſtay; and a greater num Hattens the top, and makes it take in rain. A ſtack
196
ber cannot be covered with two head ſheaves. covered in the way here deſcribed, will ſtand two years
Carrying Every article is of importance that haſtens the ſecure both againſt wind and rain ; a notable advantage
operation in a country, ſubjected to unequal harveſt in a variable elimate.
victual.
weather ; for which reaſon, the moſt expeditious The great aim in making hay is, to preſerve as much Hay ma-
method fhould be choſen for carrying corn from the of the fap as poſſible. All agree in this; and yet differ king.
field to the ſtaek-yard. Our carriages are generally widely in the means of making that aim effeétual. To
too ſmall or too large. A fledge is a very aukward deſcribe all the different means would be equally tcdi-
- machine: many hands are required, and little progreſs ous and unprofitable. We'fhall confine ourſelves to
made. Waggons and large carts are little leſs dilato- two, which appear preferable to all others. A crop of
ry, as they must ſtand in the yard till unloaded fheaf ryc-graſs and yellow clover ought to be ſpread as cut.
by ſhcaf. The beſt way is, to uſe long carts moveable A day or two after, when the dew is evaporated, rake
upon the axle,ſoas at once to throw the whole load on it into a number of parallel rows along the field, term-
*the ground-; which is forked up to the ſtack by a ed wind-rows, for the convenience of putting it up into
hand appointed for that purpoſe. By this method, ſmall coćks. After turning the rows once and again,
two carts will do the work of four or five.
make Imall cocks'weighing a ſtone or two. At the
197
Stacking.
Building sound-ſtacks in the yard is undoubtedly diſtance of two days or ſo, put two cocks into one,
preferable to houſing corn. There it is ſhut up from obſerving always to mix the tops and bottoms'together,
the air ; and it muſt be exceedingly dry, if it contract and to take a new glace for each cock, that the least
not a muftineſs, which is the firſt ſtep to putrefaction. damage poffible may be done to the graſs. Proceed
Add to this, that in the yard, a ſtack is preſerved from "in putting two cocks into one, till fufficiently dry for
srats and mice, being fet on a pedeſtal ; whereas no tramp-ticks of 10o'ſtone cach. The eaſieſt way of
method has hitherto been invented for preſerving corn erccting tramp-ricks, is to found a rick in the middle
in a houſe from ſuch deſtructivevermin. The proper of the row of cocks that are to compoſe it. The cocks
manner of building, is to make every ſheaf incline "may be carried' to the tick by two perſons joining arms
downward from its top to its bottom. Where the 'together. When all the cocks are thus carried to the
fheaves are laid hotizontally, the ſtack will take in rain rick within the diſtance of 40 yards or ſo, the reſt of
- both above and below. The beſt form of a ſtack is 'the coćks will be more expeditiouſly carried to the
that of a cone placed on a cylinder; and the top of rick, by a rope wound about them and dragged by a
the cone ſhould be formed with three fheaves drawn to horſe. Two ropes are ſufficient to ſecure the ricks
a point. If the upper part of the cylinder be a litile from wind the ſhort time they are to ſtand in the field.
wider than the under, ſo much the better.
In the year 1775, 10,000 ſtone were put into tramp-
198 The delaying to cover a ſtack for two or three ricks the fourth day after cutting. In acountry fo web
Covering weeks, though common, is, however, exceedingly ab- as many parts of Scotland are, expedition is of mighty
she ſtacks. furd; for if much rain fall in the interim, it is beyond conſequence in the drying both of hay and corn. With
the power of wind to dry the ſtack. Vegetation be- reſpect to hay intended for horned cattle, it is by the
gun in the external parts, ſhats out the air from the generality held an improvement, that it be heated a
internal ; and to prevent a total putrefaction, the ſtack litele in the ſtack. But we violently ſuſpect this doc-
muſt be thrown down, and expoſed to the air, every trine to have been invented for excuſing indolent ma-
fheaf. In order to have a ſtack covered the momentit nagement. An ox, it is true, will eat ſuch hay ; but
is finiſhed, ſtraw and ropos ought to be ready; and it will always be found that he prefers ſweet hay; and
it
Part II.
313
L T U R E.
B
200.
20%
OI
* Esays on
Practice. it cannot well be doubted, but that ſuch hay is the fork, lift up one of theſe ſmall cocks between then Practice.
moſt falutary and the moſt nouriſhing.
with the greateſt eaſe, and carry them one after ano-
The
Hay of red
aking hay conſiſting chiefly of red-clover ther to the place where the tramp-cock is to be built
clover. requires more care. The ſeaſon of cutting is the laſt (A): and in this manner they'proceed over the field til
week of June, when it is ir full bloom ; earlier it may the whole is finiſhed.
be cut, but never later. To cut it later would indeed ". The advantages that attend this method of making Advanta-
produce a weightier crop ; but a late firſt cutting hay, are, That it greatly abridges the labour, as it does ges of this
makes the ſecond alſo late, perhaps too late for drying. not require above the one-half of the work that is ne. method,
At the ſame time, the want of weight in an early firit ceſſary in the old method of turning and tedding it :
cutting, is amply compenſated by the weight of the That it allows the hay to continae almoſt as green as
ſecond.
when it is cut, and preſerves its natural juices in tie
When the ſeaſon is too variable for making hay of greateſt perfection ; for, unleſs it be the little that is
the ſecond growth, mix ſtraw with that growth, which expoſed to the fun and air upon the ſurface of the
will be a ſubſtantial food for cattle during winter. cocks, which is no more bleached than every ſtraw of
This is commonly done by laying ſtrata of the ſtraw hay ſaved in the ordinary way, the whole is dried in
and clover alternately in the ſtack. But by this me the moſt ſlow and equal manner that could be deſired:
thod, the ſtrata of clover, if they do not heat, turn and, laſtly, That it is thus in a great meaſure ſecured
mouldy at leaſt, and unpalatable. The better way is, from almoſt the poſſibility of being damaged by rain.
to mix them carefully with thehand before they be put This laſt circumitarce deſerves to be much more at.
into the ſtack. The dry ſtraw imbibes moiſture from tended to by the fariner than it aſually is at preſent; as
the clover and prevents heating.
I have ſeen few who are ſufficiently aware of the loſs
Other me. But the beſt method of hay-making items to be that that the quality of their hay ſuſtains by receiving a
thods.
recommended by Mr Anderſon*. " Inſtead,” ſays flight ſhower after it is cut, and before it is gathered ;
Agriculture,
he, “ of allo sving the hay to lie, as uſual in moſt pla- the generality of farmers ſeeming to be very well ſatis-
vol.1.p.186 ces, for ſome days in the ſwathe after it is cut, and af- fied if they get in their hay without being abſolutely
terwards alternately putting it up into cocks a3d ſpread- rotted; never paying the lealt attention to its having
ing it out, and tedding it in the ſun, which tends great been ſeveral tiines wetted while the hay was making.
ly to bleach the hay, exhales its natural juices, and But, if theſe gentlemen will take the trouble at any
ſubjects it very much to the danger of getting rain, time to compare any parcel of hay that has been made
and thus runs a great riſk of being good for little, I perfectly dry, with another parcel from the ſame field
make it a general rule, if poſſible, never to cut hay that has received a ſhower while in the ſwathe, or even
but when the graſs is quite dry; and then make the a copious dew, they will ſoon be ſenſibleof a very mani-
gatherers follow cloſe upon the cutters,--putting it up feſt difference between them ; nor will their horſes or
immediately inco ſmall cocks about three feet high each cattle ever commit a miſtake in chooſing between the
when new put up, and of as ſmall a diameter as they
can be made to ſtand with ; always giving each of them “Letit be particularly remarked, that in this man- Particular
a fight kind of thatching, by drawing a few hand ner of making hay, great care muſt be taken that it be caution re.
fuls of the hay from the bottom of the cock all around, dry when firſt put into the cocks; for, if it is in the quifite in
and layingit lightly upon the top with one of the ends leaſt degree wet at that time, it will turn inſtantly
thod,
hanging downwards. This is done with the utmoſt nouldy, and fit together ſo as to become totally imper-
eaſe and expedition ; and when it is once in that ſtate, vious to the air, and will never afterwards become dry
I conſider my hay as in a great meaſure out of dan till it is ſpread out to the fun. For this reaſon, if at
ger: for unleſs a violent wind ſhould ariſe immediately any time during a courſe of good feitled weather you
after the cocks are put up, ſo as to overturn them, 110 ſhould begin to cut in the morning before the dew is off
thing elſe can hurt the hay; as I have often experienced the graſs, keep back the gatherers till the dew is eva-
that no rain, however violent, ever penetrates into theſe porated; allowing that which was firſt cut to lie till it
cocks but for a very little way. And, if they are is dry before it is cocked. In this caſe, you will al-
dry put up, they never ſit together ſo cloſely as to moſt always find that the uncut graſs will dry ſooner
heat ; altliough they acquire, in a day or two, ſuch a than that which has been cut when wet; and, there-
degree of firmneſs, as to be in no danger of being o fore, the gatherers may always begin to put up that
verturned by wind after that time, unleſs it blows a which is freſh cut before the other; which will aſually
hurricane.
require twoor three hotirs to dry after thenew-cut hy
« In theſe cocks I allow the hay to remain, until, may be cocked. And if, at any time, .in caſe of ne-
upon inſpection, I judge that it will keep in pretly cctlicy, you ſhould be obliged to cut your liay before it is
large trainp-cocks (which is uſually in one or two dry, the fame rule muſt be obſerved, always to allow
weeks, according as the weatheris more or leſs favour it to remain in the ſwathe vill it is quite dry : but, as
able, when two men, each with a long pronged pitch- there is always a great riſk of being long in getting it
VOL. I.
Up
two.
203
this me-
Rr
(A) If the hay is to be carried to any conſiderable diſtance, this part of the labour may be greatly abridged,
by cauſing the carriers take two long ſticks of a fufficient ftrength, and having laid them down by the ſmall
cocks parallel to one another, at the diſtance of one and a hall, or two fcet aſunder, let them lift three or four
cocks, one after another, and place them carefully above the ſticks, and then carry them altogether, as if you
a hand-barrow, to the place where the large rick is to be builtu
314
AGRICULTURE.
Part II
A
}
1
20$
Pradice. ap, and as it never in this caſe wins (A) ſo kindly as. Aſtack of clover-hay in the ſame circumſtances weighs Practices
if it had been dry cut, the farmer ought to endeavour, ſomewhat leſs.
if poſſible, in all caſes, to cut his hay only when dry ;
even if it ſhould coſt him ſome additional expence to
Sect. VII. Manures.
the cutters, by keeping them employed at any other
work, or even allowing them to remain idle, if the The manures commonly uſed are dung, lime, ſhell.
weather ſhould be variable or rainy.
marl, clay-marl, and ſtone-marl. Many other fubftan-
“ But if there is a great proportion of clover, and ces are uſed ; Mavings of horn, for example, rcfuſe
the weather ſhould chance to be cloſe and calm at the of malt, and even old rags : but as the quantity that
time, it may, on fome occaſions, be neceſſary to open can be procured is inconſiderable, and as their applica-
up theſe cocks a little, to admit ſome freſh air into tion is ſimple, we ſhall conſume no time upon them.
them ; in which caſe, after they have ſtood a day or Dung is the chief of all manures ; becauſe a quan-
two, it may be of great uſe to turn theſe cocks and o- tity of it may be collected in every farm, and becauſe
pen them up a little, which ought to be done in the it makes the quickeſt return. A field ſufficiently dung-
drieſt time of the day; the operator taking that part of ed will produce good crops four or five years.
each cock which was the top, and with it forming the Dung of animals that chew the cud, being more Dung.,
baſe of a new one; ſo that the part which was molt ex- thoroughly putrefied than that of others, is fit to be
poſed to the air becomes excluded from it, and that mixed with the ſoil without needing to be collected in-
which was undermoſt comes to be placed upon the top, to a dunghill. A horſe does not chew the cud; and
ſo as to make it all dry as equally as poſſible.
in horſe-dung may be perceived fraw or rye-graſs bro-
"If the hay has not been damp when it was firſt ken into ſmall parts, but not diſſolved : it is proper.
put up, the cock may be immediately finiſhed out at therefore thattue putrefaction be completed in a dung-
once; but if it is at all wet, it will be of great uſe to hill. It ought to be mixed there with cool materials:
turn over only a little of the top of the cock at firſt, and ſo hot it is, that, in a dunghill by itſelf, it ſinges and
leaving it in that ſtate to dry a little, proceed to ano burns inſtead of putrefying. The difference between
ther, and a third, and fourth, &c. treating each in the dung of a horſe and of a horned animal, is viſible
the ſame way; going on in that manner till you find in a paſture-field: the graſs round the former is wither..
that the inſide of the firſt opened cock is ſufficiently ed; round the latter, it is ranker and more verdant than
dried, when it will be proper to return to it, turning in the reſt of the field. A mixture of dry and moiſt
over a little more of it till you come to what is ſtill ſtuff ought to be ſtudied : the former attracting moi-
damp, when you leave it and proceed to another, and ſture from the latter, they become equally moiſt.
206
fo on round the whole ; always returning afreſh till the To prevent ſap from running out of a dunghill, its of a dung-
cocks are entirely finiſhed. This is the beſt way of fa- ſituation ſhould be a little below the ſurface ; and to hill.
ving your hay, if you have been under the neceſſity of prevent rain fronı running into it, it ſhould be fur-
cutting it while damp; but it is always beſt to guard rounded with a ring of fod. If the ſoil on which the
againſt this inconvenience, if poſſible.”
dunghill ſtands be porous, let it be paved, to prevent
Hayſtacks, In the yard, a ſtack of hay ought to be an oblong the ſap froin ſinking into the ground. If moiſture
ſquare, if the quantity be greater than to be eaſily happen to ſuperabound, it may be led off by a ſmall
ſtowed in a round ſtack ; becauſe a ſmaller ſurface is gutter to impregnate a quantity of rich mould laid
expoſed to the air, than in a number of round ſtacks.. down to receive it, which will make it equal to good
For the ſame reaſon, a ſtack of peaſe ought to have the dung.
fame form, the ſtraw being more valuable than that of Straw ſhould be prepared for the dunghill, by being
oats, wheat, or barley. The moment a ſtack is finiſh- laid under cattle, and ſufficiently moiſtened. When laid
ed, it ought to be covered ; becauſe the furface-hay is dry into a dunghill,it keeps it open,and admits too much.
much damaged by withering in dry weather, and moi- air, and prevents putrefaction.
ftening in wet weather. Let it have a pavilion-roof; Dung from the ſtable ought to be carefully ſpread on
for more of it can be covered with ſtraw in that ſhape, the dunghill, and mixed with the former dung. When
than when built perpendicular at the ends. Let it be left in heaps upon the dunghill, fermentation and putre-
roped as directed above for corn-ſtacks; with this dif- faction go on unequally.
ference only, that in an oblong ſquare the ropes muſt Complete putrefaction is of importance with regard
he thrown over the top, and tied to the belt-rope be to the feed of weeds that are in the dunghill : if they
low. This belt-rope ought to be fixed with pins to remain ſound, they are carried out with the dung, and
the ſtack: the reaſon is, that the ropes thrown overthe infeſt the ground. Complete putrefaction is of ſtill
ſtack will bag by the ſinking of the ftack, and may greater importance by pulverizing the dung; in which
be drawn tight by lowering the belt-rope, and fixing condition it mixes intimately with the foil,and operates
it in its new poſition with the fanie pins.
the moſt powerfully. In land intended for barley, un-
Thę ſtems of hops, being long and tough, make digeſted dung has a very bad effect: it keeps the ground ,
excellent ropes; and it will be a ſaving article, to pro- open, admits drought, and prevents the feed from
pagate a few plants of that kind for that very end. ſpringing. On the other hand, when thoroughlyrotted,
A ſtack of rye.graſs. hay, a year old, and of a mode- it inixes with the ſoil, and enables it to retain noiture.
fate ſize, will weigh, each cubic yard, 11 Dutch ſtone. It follows, that the propereſt time for dunging a field,
is
204
(A) By winning hay, is meant the operation by which it is brought from the ſucculent ſtate of graſs to that
of a dry fodder.
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
315
209
Of collect-
ter.
I22
Pradlice. is in its higheſt pulverization ; at which time the earth and therefore can never be intimately mixed with the Pradlice.
mixes intiinately with the dung. Immediately before foil. Sometimes an opportunity offers to bring home
'Time for ſetting cabbage, fowing turnip, or wheat, is a good hell-lime before the ground is ready for it; and it is
dunging.
time. Dung divides and ſpreads the moſt accurately commonly thrown into a heap without cover, truſting
when inoiſt. - Its intimate mixture with the ſoil is of to rain for ſaking. The proper way is, to lay the
ſuch inportance, that hands ſhould be employed to di- fhell-lime in different heaps on the ground where it is
208 vide and ſpread any lumps that may be in it.
to be ſpread, to reduce theſe heaps into powder by lla-
Manver of
Dung ſhould be ſpread, and ploughed into the king it with water,and to cover the laked line with fod
dunging. ground without delay. When a heaplies two or three in as to defend it from rain. One however ſhould avoid
weeks, ſome of the moiſture is imbibed intothe ground, as much as poſlible the bringing home lime before the
which will produce tufts of corn more vigorous than in ground be ready for it. Where allowed to lie long in
tre rəſt of the field. There cannot be a worſe practice a heap, there are two bad conſequences: firſt, lime
than to lead out dung before winter, leaving it expo- attracts moiſture, even though well covered, and runs
ſed to froſt and ſnow. The whole ſpirit of the dung is into clots, which prevents an intimate mixture; and,
extracted by rain, and carried off with it. The dung next, we know, that burnt limeſtone, whether in ſhells
diveſted of its fap becomes dry in ſpring, and incapable or in powder, returns gradually into its original ſtate
of being mixed with the inould. It is turned over of limeſtone; and upon that account alſo, is leſs capable
whole by the plough, and buried in the furrow. of being mixed with the ſoil. And this is verified by
As dung is an article of the utmoſt importance in a fact, that, after lying long, it is ſo hard bound toge-
ing dung. huſbandry, one ſhould imagine, that the colle&ting it ther as to require a pick to ſeparate the parts.
would be a capital article with an induſtrious farmer. For the ſame reaſon, it is a bad pradice, though
Yet an ingenious writer, obſerving that the Jamaicans conimon, to let ſpread lime lie on the ſurface all wiil-
are in this particular much more induſtrious than the The bad effects abovementioned take place here
Britiſh, aſcribes the difference to the difficulty of pro in part: and there is another; that rain waſhes the
curing dung in Jamaica. “ In England, where the lime down to the furrows, and in a hanging field car-
long winter enables a farmer to raiſe what quantity he ries the whole away.
pleaſes, it is not collected with any degree of induſtry. As the particles of powdered lime are both ſmall and Time of li-
But in Jamaica, where there is no winter, and where heavy, they quickly link to the bottom of the furrow, ming :
the heat of the ſun is a great obſtruction, the farmer if care be not taken to prevent it. In that view, it is
muſt be indefatigable, or he will never raiſe any dung. a rule, that lime be ſpread, and mixed with the ſoil,
Cool intereſt is not alone a ſufficient motive with the immediately before fowing, or along with the feed. In
indolent, to be active. As dung is of great import this manner of application, there being no occaſion to
ance in buſbandry, a farmer cannot be too affiduous in move it till the ground be ſtirred for a new crop, it has
collecting animal and vegetable ſubſtances that will ror, time to incorporate with the ſoil, and does not readily
One article of that kind there is, to collect which there ſeparate from it. Thus, if turnip-feed is to be fowi
is a double motive, and yet is neglected almoſt every broadcaſt, the lime ought to be laid on immediately
where. A farm full of weeds is a nuiſance to the before fowing, and harrowed in with the ſeed. If a
neighbourhood : it poiſons the fields around; and the crop of drilled turnip or cabbage be intended, the lime
poffeffor ought to be diſgraced as a peſt to fociety. ought to be ſpread immediately before forming in
Now the cutting down every weed before the feed is drills. With reſpect to wheat, the lime ouglit to be
formed, anſwers two excellent purpoſes. Firſt, it en- ſpread immediately before feed-furrowing. If ſpread
courages good crops, by keeping the ground clean. more early, before the ground be ſufficiently broken,
Next, theſe weeds mixed with other materials in a it links to the bottoin. If a light ſoil be prepared
dunghill, nay add conſiderably to the quantity of for barley, the lime ought to be ſpread after feed-fur-
rowing, and harrowed in with the ſeed.
In a ſtrong
Next of lime, which is a profitable manure,and great ſoil, it links not ſo readily to the bottom; and there-
ly ſo when it can be got in plenty within a moderate fore, before fowing the barley, the line ought to be
diſtance. The benefit of lime is ſo viſible, that the mixed with the ſoil by a brake. Where moor is ſum-
uſe of it has become general, where the price and car mer-fallowed for a crop of oats next year, the lime
riage are in any degree moderate.
ought to be laid on iminediately before the laſt plough-
However people may differ in other particulars, all ing, and braked in as before. It has ſufficient time
agree, that the operation of lime depends on its inti to incorporate with the ſoil before the land be ſtirred
mate mixture with the ſoil; and therefore that the pro- again.
per time of applying it, is when it is perfectly powder The quantity to be laid on depends on the nature Quantity,
ed and the ſoil at the ſame time in the higheſt degree of the ſoil, Upon a ſtrong foil, 70 or 80 bolls of
of pulverization. Lime of itſelf is abſolutely barren: ſhells are not more than ſufficient, reckoning four ſmall
and yet it enriches a barren ſoil. Neither of the two firlots to the boll, termed wheat-meafilre; nor will it
produces any good effect without the other: and con be an overdoſe to lay on 100 bolls. Between 50 and
fequently, the more intimately they are mixed, the ef- 60 may fuflice upon medium foils; and upon the thin
feét muſt be the greater.
or gravelly, betireen zo and 40. It is not ſafe to lay
Hence it follows, that line ought always to be ſa a much greater quantity on ſuch ſoils.
ked with a proper quantity of water, becauſe by that It is common to linie a paſture-field immediately Lining pa-
means it is reduced the moſt effectually into powder. before ploughing. This is an unſafe practice; it is ſture-fieldsa
Lime left to be ſlaked by a moiſt air, or accidental rain, thrown to the bottom of the furrow, from which it is
is feidom or never thoroughly reduced into powder; never fully gathered up. The proper time for liming
dung.
2 IO
Of lime.
2II
Its opera-
tion.
213
214
R 2
2
316
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
215
Beat lime-
1
216
Or ſhell-
naari.
Practice. a paſture field, intended to be taken up for corn, is a Summer is the proper ſeaſon for marling; Lecauſe Practice.
year at leaſt, or two, before ploughing. It is waſhed in that ſeaſon the marl, being dry, is not only lighter,
in by rain among the roots of plants, and has time to but is eaſily reduced to powder. Froſt however is not
incorporate with the ſoil.
improper for marling, eſpecially as in froſt there is
Limeſtone beat {mall makes an excellent nianure ; little opportunity for
any other work.
Itone. and ſupplies the want of powdered lime where there is Marl is a heavy body, and links to the bottom of
no fuel to burn the limeſtone. Limeſtone beat ſmall the furrow, if indiſcreetly ploughed. Therefore the
has not hitherto been much uſed as a manure; and the firſt crop ſhould always have an ebb furrow. During
proportion between it and powdered line has not been the growing of that crop, the marl has time to incor-
aſcertained. What follows may give ſome light. porate with the ſoil, and to become a part of it; after
Three pounds of raw lime is by burning reduced to which it does not readily ſeparate.
two pounds of ſliell-lime. Yet nothing is expelled by
the fire but the air that was in the limeſtone: the SECT. VIII, Principles and Operations of the New cro
calcareous earth remains entire. Ergo, two pounds
Horſe-hoeing Huſbandry.
of ſhell-lime contain as much calcareous earth as three
pounds of raw limeſtone. Shell-lime of the beſt quali The general properties attributed to the new huſ-
iy, when flaked with water, will meaſure out to thrice bandry may be reduced to two, viz. the promoting the
the quantity. But as limeſtone loſes none of its bulk growth of plants by hoeing, and the ſaving of ſeed;
by being burnt into thells, it follows, that three buſhe both of which are equally profitable to the farmer. 218
els of raw limeſtone contain as inuch calcareous earth
The advantages of tillage before ſowing have al- Advanta-
as ſix buſhels of powdered lime; and conſequently, if ready been pointed out. In this place we muſt con- ges aſcribed
powdered lime poffefs not ſome virtue above raw lime- fine ourſelves to the utility of tillage after ſowing. to horſe-
ſtone, tlıree buſhels of the latter beat ſmall ſhould e This kind of tillage is moſt generally known by the
hoeing.
qual as a manure ſix buſhels of the former.
name of horſe-hoeing.
Shell-marl, as a manure, is managed in every re Land lowed with wheat, however well it may be
ſpect like powdered lime; with this only difference, cultivated in autumn, ſinks in the winter ; the particles
that a fifth or a fourth part more in meaſure ought to get nearer together, and the weeds riſe; ſo that ini
be given. The reaſon is, that ſhell-marl is leſs weigh- ſpring, the land is nearly in the fame ſituation as if it
ty than lime; and that a boll of it contains leſs calca never had been ploughed. This, however, is the ſea-
reous earth, which is the fructifying part of both. ſon when it ſhould branch and grow with moſt vigour;
Clay and ſtone marls, with reſpect to huſbandry, are and conſequently ſtands moſt in need of ploughing or
the ſame, though in appearance different.
hoeing, to deſtroy the weeds, to ſupply the roots with
The goodneſs of marl depends on the quantity of frel earth, and, by dividing anew the particles of the
and itőle. calcareous earth in it: which has been known to a foil, to allow the roots to extend and collect nouriſh-
#laris.
groint to a half or mure. It is too expenſive if the
quantity be leſs than a third or a fourth part. Good It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow with
marl is the moſt ſubſtantial of all manures; becauſe it double vigour after being hoed or iranſplanted. - If
improves the weakeſt ground to equal the beſt bo. plants growing in arable land could be managed with
rough-acres. The low part of Berwickſhire termed eaſe and ſafety in this manner, it is natural to expect,
the Merſe, abounds every where with this marl; and that their growth would be promoted,accordingly. Ex-
is the only county in Scotland where it is plenty. perience ſhows, that this is not only practicable, but
Land ought to be cleared of weeds before marling; attended with many advantages.
alid it ou ylitto be finoothed with the brake and harrow, In the operation of hoeing wheat, though ſome of
in order that the marl may be equally ſpread. Marl the roots be moved or broken, the plants receive no
is a foſlil on which no vegetable will grow; its efficacy injury, for this very circumſtance makes them ſend
slepends, like that of line, on its pulverization, and in- forth a greater nunber of roots than formerly, which
timate mixture with the fuil. Toward the former, al- enlarge their paſture, and conſequently augment their
ternate drougbt and moiſture contribute greatly, as alfo growth.
froſt. Therefore, after being evenly ſpread, it ought Sickly wheat lias often recovered its vigour after a
to lie or the farface all winter. In the month of Oc- good hoeing, eſpecially when performed in weather
tober it may be rouſed with a brake ; which will bring not very hot or dry.
to the firſace, and expoſe to the air and froſt, all the Wheat, and ſuch grain as is ſown before winter,
hari parts, and mix with the ſoil all that is powdered. requires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other grain
In that repců it differs widely from dung and line, fown in the fpring; for, if the land has been well
svhich waght to be ploughed into the ground without ploughed before the fowing of ſpring-corn, it neither
diclay. Cats is a hardy graill, which will anſwer for has time to harden, nor to produce many weeds, not
being thc firii crop after inarling better than any o having been expoſed to the winter's ſnow and rain.
ther; and it will ſucceed though the marl be not tho-
Of SOWING.
roughly mixed with the ſoil. In that caſe, the inarl
Ought to be plougkedin with an ebb furrow iminediate As, in the praftice of the New Huſbandry, plants Method of
ly before fowing, and braked thoroughly. It is tick- grow with greater vigour than by the old niethod, the fowing in
lish to make wheat the firſt crop: if fown before win- land ſhould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of the New
ter, froſt ſwells the marl, and is apt to throw the ſeed the new huſbandry that has been chiefly objected to;
Huſbandry
out of the ground; if ſown in ſpring, it will ſuffer more for, upon obſerving the land occupied by a ſmall nun-
than oals by want of due mixture.
ber of plants, people are apt to look upon all the va-
217
ôf clay
111ent.
210
cant
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
317
273
Practice, cant ſpace as loſt. Butthis prejudice will ſoon be re pares the ground for the next fowing, as the feed is Pradice:
moved, when it is conſidered, that, in the beſt land then to be put in the middle of the ground that form-
cultivated in the cominon method, and fown very thick, ed the intervals,
each ſeed produced but one or two ears ; that, in the The beſt ſeaſon for lioeing is two or three days af-
fame land ſown thinner, every ſeed produced two or ter rain, or ſo ſoon after rain as the ſoil will quit the
three cars ; and that a lingle ſeed ſometiines produces inſtrument in hoeing. Light dry foils may be hoed al-
18 or 21 ears.
moſt any time, but this is far from being the caſe with
In the common method, as there are inany more ſtrong clay foils : the ſeaſon for hoeing ſuch is fre-
plants than can find fufficient nouriſhment, and as it is quently ſhort and precarious ; every opportunity there-
impoſſible to aſſiſt them by hoeing, numbers die before fore ſhould be carefully watched, and eagerly embra-
they atlain maturity, the greateſt part remain fickly ced. The two extrenies of wet and dry, are great ene-
and drooping; and thus part of the feed is loſt. On mics to vegetation in trong clay ſoils. There is a pe-
the contrary, in the new method, all the plants have riod between the time of clay ſoils running together,
as much food as they require ; and as they are, from ſo as to puddle by ſuperfluous wet, and the time of
time to time, aſſiſted by hoeing, they become ſo vigo- their caking by drought, that they are as tractable as
rous as to equal in their production the numerous but need be. This is the juncture for hoeing; and ſo
fickly plants cultivated in the common method. much land as ſhall be thus ſeaſonably hoed, will not
Of HOEING.
cake or cruſt upon the ſurface, as it otherwiſe would
have done, till it has been ſoaked or drenched again
The new huſbandry is abſolutely impracticable in with rain; in which caſe the hoeing is to be repeated
lands that are not eaſily ploughed. Attempting to as ſoon as the ſoil will quit the inſtrument, and as of.
cultivate land according to this huſbandry, without at ten as neceffary; by which time the growing crop will
tending to this circumſtance, that it is practicable in begin to cover the ground, ſo as to act as a ſcreen to
no land except in ſuch as have already been brought the ſurface of the land againſt the intenſe heat of the
into good tilth by the old method, has gone far to ſun, and thereby prevent, in great meaſure, the bad
make it contemptible in inany places.
effects of the ſoil's cahing in dry weather.
When a field is in good tilth, it ſliould be fown ſo By this ſucceſſive tillage, or hoeing, good crops will
The diffe- thin as to leave fufficient room for the plants to extend be obtained, provided the weather is not very unfa-
rent hoe-
ings.
their roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed, vourable.
it muſt be divided into rows, at the diſtance of thirty But as ſtrong, vigorous plants are longer before they
inches from one another. On the ſides of each of theſe arrive at maturity, corn raiſed in the new way is later
rows, two rows of wheat muſt be fowed fix inches di- in ripening than any other, and muſt therefore be ſown
ftant from eaclı other. By this means there will be earlier.
an interval of two feet wide betwixt the rows, and e In order to prepare the intervals for fowing again,
very plant will have room enough to extend its roots, fome well-rotted dung may be laid in the deep furrows
and to ſupply it with food. The intervals will likewiſe made in the middle of the intervals ; and this dung
be ſufficient for allowing the earth to be hoed or til. muſt be covered with the earth that was before thrown
led without injuring the plants in the rows.
towards the rows of wheat. But, if the land does not
The firſt hoeing, which ſhould be given before the require mending, the deep furrow is filled without any
winter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to ait- dung. This operation thould be performed immedi-
poſe the earth to be mellowed by the froſts. Theſe ately after the harveſt,thatthere may be time to give the
two ends will be anſwered by drawing two ſmall fur- land a ſlight ſtirring before the rows are ſowed; which
rows at a little diſtance from the rots, and throwing ſhould occupy the middle of the ſpace which formed
the earth taken from the furrows into the middle of the intervals during the laſt crop. The intervals of the
the intervals. This firſt hoeing hould be given when ſecond year take up the ſpace occupied by the ſtubble
the whear is in leaf.
of the first.
The ſecond hoeing, which is intended to make th Suppoling dung to be neceflary, which is deņied by
plants branch, fhould be given after the hard froſts are many, a very ſmall quantity is ſufficient; a ſingle layer,
over. To do this with advantage, after ſtirring the put in the bottom of each furrow, will be enough.
earth a littlenear the rows,the earth wliich was chrown
in the iniddle of the intervals ſhould be turned back in DESCRIPTION of the INSTRUMENTS commonly uſed
to the furrows. This earth, having been mellowed by
in the New HUSBANDRY.
the winter, ſupplies the plants with excellent food, and
makes the roots extend.
Fig. 1. is a marking plough. The principal uſe of Inſtrument
The third hoeing, which is intended to invigorate this plough is to ſtraight and regulate the ridges. The deſcribed.
the ſtalk, ſhould be given when the ears of the corn firſt line is traced by the eye, by means of three poles, Plate VII.
begin to how themſelves. This hoeing may, however, placed in a ſtraight line. The plough* draws the firſt
be very flight.
furrow in the direclion of this line; and at the ſame
But the laſt hoeing is of the greateſt importance, time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of wood
as it enlarges the grain, and make the cars fiil at their near the end of the croſs-pole or ſlider B B, marks the
extremilies. This hoeing Mould be given when the breadth of the ridge at the diſtance intended. The
wheat is in bloom; 2 furrow muſt be drawn in the ploughman next traces the ſecond line or rutt made by
middle of the interval, and the earth thrown to the the tooth, and draws a ſmall furrow along it ; and
right and left on the root of the plants. This ſupporis iinues in this manner till the whole field is laid out in
the plauts, preycus them froin being laid, and pre- traight and equidiſtant ridges.
Fig.
221
con-
318
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
patent drill
Practice, Fig. 2. is a plough for breaking up lea, or turning and the man who holds it bears upon the flandles, four Praclicu.
up the bottom of land when greatly exhauſted. By its furrows, f, g, h, i, will be formed, al the diſtance de-
conſtrucion, the width and depth of the furrows can termined by the conſtruction of the infrument. Theſe
Plate VIII, be regulated to a greater certainty than by any other diſtances may be accurately preſerved, provided that
hitherto known in this country. Its appearance is the teeth a a return when the ploughman comes back,
heavy ; but two horſes are ſufficient to plough with it aſter having ploughed one turn, in two of the channels
'in ordinary freeland; and only four are neceſſary in formed before, marked bb : thus all the furrows in the
the ſtiffeſt clay-foils. This plough is likewiſe eaſily field will be traced with the faine regularity. Wlien
held and tempered. A, is the ſword fixed in the lizers the ground is thus formed into drills, the peaſe may
B, which runs through a mortoiſe E, at the end of the be ſcattered by a ſingle motion of the hand at a cer-
.beam C, and regulates the depth of the furrow by rai tain diſtance from one another into the channels, and
ling or depreſſing the beam ; it is fixed by putting the then covered with the flat part of a hand-rake, and
pin D thro'the beam and ſword, and is moveable at E. preſſed downı gently. This inſtrument is ſo finiple,
Fig. 3. is a jointed brake-harrow with 24 teeth, fha- that any workman may eaſily make or repair it.
ped like coulters, and ſtanding at about an angle of 80 On Plate IX. is delineated a
degrees. By this inſtrument the land is finely pulve- machine, lately invented by the Reverend Janies
rized, and prepared for receiving the feed from the Cooke of Heaton-Norris near Mancheſter. Ã, the
drill. It requires four horſes in ſtiff, and two in open, upper part of the ſeed-box. B, the lower part of
land. This harrow is likewiſe uſed for levelling the the ſame box. C, a movable partition, with a le-
ridges;which is done by preſſing it down by the handles ver, by which the grain or feed is let fall at pleaſure
where the ridge is high, and railing it up when low. from the upper to the lower part of the feed-box,
Fig. 4. is an angular weeding harrow, which may from whence it is taken up by cups or ladles ap-
follow the brake when neceſſary. The ſeven hindmoſt plied to the cylinder D, and dropped into the funnel
tcech ſhould ſtand at a more acute angle than the reſt, E, and conveyed thereby into the furrow or drill made
in order to collect the weeds, which the holder can in the land by the coulter F, and covered by the rake
drop at pleaſure, by raiſing the hinder part, which is or harrow G. H, a lever, by which the wheel I is
fixed to the body of the harrow by two joints. lifted out of generation with the wheel K, to prevent
Fig. 5. is a pair of harrows with ſhafts. This har the grain or ſeed being ſcattered upon the ground,
row is uſed for covering the feed in the drills, the horſe while the machine is turning round at the end of the
going in the furrow.
land, by which the harrow G is alſo lifted from the
Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, conſtructed in ſuch a man ground at the ſame time, and by the ſame motion, by
ner as to row at once two rows of beans, peaſe, or means of the crank, and the horizontal lever h h. L,
wheat. This machine is eaſily wrought by two horſes. a ſliding lever, with a weight upon it, by means of
A, is the hopper for containing the
ſeed'; B, circular which, the depth of the furrows or drills, and conſe-
boxes for receiving the feed from the hopper ; CC,two quently the depth that the grain or feed will be depofi-
ſquare boxes which receive the feed froin ſmallholesin ted in the land, may be eaſily aſcertained. M, a ſcrew
the circular boxes, as they turn round; and laſt of all, in the coulter beam, by turning of which, the feed-box
the feed is dropped into the drills through holes in the Bis elevated or depreſſed, in order to prevent the grain
{quare boxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E or ſeed being cruſhed or bruiſed by the revolution of
follows, which, together with the wheel F, regulates the cups or ladles. Fig. 13. a rake with iron teeth,
the depth of the coulters, and covers the feed; the har to be applied to the under ſide of the rails of the ma-
row G comes behind all, and covers the ſced more chine, with ſtaples and ſcrew nuts at n n, by which
completely. HH, two ſliders, which, when drawn many uſeful purpoſes are anſwered, viz. in accumula-
out, prevent the feed from falling intothe boxes; and, ting cuitch or hay into rows, and as a ſcarificator for
1, is a catch which holds the rungs, and prevents the young crops of wheat in the ſpring, or to be uſed upon
Boxes from turning, and loſing feed at the ends of the a fallow; in which caſe, the feed-box, the ladle cylin-
ridges.
der, the coulters, the funnels, and harrows, are all
Fig. 7. is a ſingle hve-plough of a very ſimple coli-
ſtruction, by which the earth in the intervals is ſtir This ſide view of the machine is repreſented, for
red and laid up on both ſides to the roots of the plants, the ſake of perſpicuity, with one feed-box only, one
and at the ſame tinie the weeds are deſtroyed. A A coulter, one funnel, one harrow, &c. whereas a com-
the niould-boards, which may be raiſed or depreſſed at plete inachine is furniſhed with five coulters, five
pleaſure, according as the farmer wants to throw the harrows, ſeven funnels, a ſeed-box in eight partiti-
carth higher or lower upon the roots.
onis, &c. with ladles of different ſizes, for different
Plate VII. Fig. 2. is a drill-rake for peaſe. This inſtrument, forts of grain and ſeeds.
which is chiefly calculated for ſmall incloſures of light Theſe machines, (with five coulters fixteen guineas,
grounds, is a fort of ſtrong plough rake, with four with four coulters fifteen guineas) equally excel in fet-
large teeth at a, a, b, b, a little incurvated. The diſtance ting or planting all ſorts of grain and feeds, even carroz
from a 10a, and from btob, is nine inches. The interval fced, to exactneſs, after the rate of from eight to ten
between the twoinner teeth,a and b,is three feet ſix in chain acres per day, with one man, a boy, and two
ches, which allows fufficient room for the hole-plough horſes. They depoſite the grain or feed in any given
to move in. To the piece of timber cc, forming the head quantity from one peck to three buſhels per acre, re-
of the rake, are fixed the handles d, and the beame, gularly and uniformly, and that without grinding or
to which the horſe is faſtened. When this inſtrument, bruiſing the feed, and at any given depth, from half an
is drawn over a piece of land made thoroughly fine, inch to half a dozen inches, in rows at the diſtance of
twelve,
taken away.
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
319
Practice.. twelve, fixteen and twenty-four inches, or any other The perfon who attends the machine ſhould put down Practice,
and diſtance. They are equally uſeful on all lands, are the lever H foon enough at the end of the land, that
durable, eaſy to manage, and by no meanis ſubject to the cups or ladles may have time to fill, before he be-
be put out of repair.
gins to fow; and at the end of the land, he muſt ap-
The ladle cylinder D is furniſhed with cups or la-' ply his right hand to the middle of the rail between the
dles of four different ſizes for different forts of grain handles, by which he will keep the coulters in the
or ſeeds, which may be diſtinguiſhed by the numbers ground, while he is lifting up the lever H with his left
1, 2, 3, 4.-Nº 1. (the ſmalleſt ſize) is calculated for hand, to prevent the grain being ſcattered upon the
turnip-feed, clover-ſeed, cole-ſeed, rape, &c. and will headland, while the machine is turning round; this he
fow fomething more than one pound per ſtatute acre. will do with great eaſe, by continuing his right hand
N° 2. for wheat, rye, hemp, flax, &c. and will fow upon the rail between the handles, and applying his
ſomething more than one buſhel per acre. Nº. 3 for left arm to the left handle, in order to lift the coul-
barley: and will low one buſhel and a half per acre. ters out of the ground while the machine is turning
N4. for beans, oats, peaſe, vetches, &c. and will round.
fow two buſhels per acre.
If there be any difficulty in uſing the machine, it
Notwithſtanding the above ſpecified quantities of conſiſts in driving it ſtraight. As to the perſon who
grain or ſeeds, a greater or leſs quantity of each may attends the machine, he cannot poſlibly commit any er-
be fown at pleaſure, by ſtopping up with a little clay, rors, except fuch as are wilful, particularly as he fees at
or by adding a few ladles to each reſpective box. The one view the whole proceſs of the buſineſs,viz. that the
grain or feeds intended to be fown, muſt be put in thoſe coulters make the drills of a proper depth; that the
boxes, to which the cups or ladles as above deſcribed funnels continue open to convey the grain or feed into
reſpectively belong, an equal quantity into each box, the drills; that the rakes or harrows cover the grain
and all the other boxes empty. The ladle cylinder may ſufficiently; and when ſeed is wanting in the lower
be reverſed, or turned end for end at pleaſure, for dif- boxes B, which he cannot avoid ſeeing, he readily ſup-
ferent ſorts of grain, &c.
plies them froin the upper boxes A, by applying his
For ſowing beans, wats, peaſe, &c. with a five coulter hand, as the machine goes along, to the lever c. The
machine, four large ladles muſt occaſionally be applied lower boxes B, ſhould not be ſuffered to become empty
at equal diſtances round thoſe parts of the cylinder before they are ſupplied with ſeed, but hould be kept
which ſubtend the two end boxes. And for ſowing nearly full, or within an inch or ſo of the edge of the
barley, eight large ones muſt be applied as above; or box.
fourladles, No 2. to each ofthe wheat-boxes. Theſe ad If chalk lines are made acroſs the backs of the coul-
ditional ladles are fixed on the cylinder with nails,or ta ters, at ſuch a diſtance from the ends as the ſeed ſhould
ken off in a few minutes; but for ſowing with a four be depoſited in the ground (viz. about two inches for
coulter machine,the above alterations are not neceſſary. wheat, and from two to three for ſpring corn), the per-
The funnels are applied to their reſpective places by fon that attends the machine will be better able to af-
correſponding numbers. Care ſhould be taken, that certain the depth the ſeed ſhould be depoſited in the
the points of the funnel ſtand directly behind the backs drills, by obſerving, as the machine goes along, whe-
of the coulters, which is done by wedges being applied ther the chalk lines are above or below the ſurface of
to one ſide or other of the coulters, at the time they the land ; if above a proper weight muſt be applied
are fixed in their reſpective places.
to the lever L, which will force the coulters into
Themachine being thus put together, which is rea the ground; if below, the lever L and weight muſt
dily and expeditiouſly done, as no ſeparate part will be reverſed, which will prevent their finking too
coincide with any other but that to which it reſpec deep.
tively belongs, and an equal quantity of grain or feed In different parts of the kingdom, lands or ridges
in eachofthe reſpective boxes, the land alſo being pre are of different ſizes: where the machine is too wide
viouſly ploughed and harrowed once or fo in a place to for the land, one or more funnels may occaſionally be
level the ſurface; but if the land be very rough, a rol. ſtopped with a little looſe paper, and the feed received
ler will beſt anſwer that purpoſe, whenever the land is into ſuch funnel returned at the end of the land, or
dry enough to admit of it; and upon ſtrong clays, a fooner if required, into the upper ſeed-box. But for
ſpiked roller is ſometimes neceſſary to reduce the ſize regularity and expedition, lands conſiſting of ſo many
of large dry clods; which being done, the driver feet wide from outſide to outſide, as the machine con-.
fhould walk down the furrow or enge of the land, and tains caulters, when fixed at twelve inches diſtance, or
having hold of the laſt horſe's head with his hand, he twice or three times the number, &c. are beſt calcula-,
will readily keep him in fach a direction, as will bring ted for the machine. In ver foils or ſtrong clays,
the outſide coulter of the machine within three or four lands or ridges of the width of the machine, and in dry
inches of the edges of the land or ridge, at which foils, of twice the width, are recommeded. For fowy.
uniform extent, he ſhould keep his arm until he comes. ing of narrow bigh-ridged lands, the outſide coulters
to the end of the land ; where having turned round, ſhould be let down, and the middle ones raiſed, ſo that
he muft come to theother ſide of his horſes, and walk-. the points of the conlters may form the ſame curve
ing upon the laſt outſide drill,having hold of the horſe's that the land or ridge forms. And the looſe foil har-
liead with his hand as before, he will readily keep the rowed down into the furrows ſhould be returned to the
machine in ſuch a direction, as will ſtrike the ſucceed-. edges of the lands or ridges from whence it canie, by
ing drill at ſuch a diſtance from the laſt outſide one, or. a double mould-board or other plough, whether the
that he walks upon, as the coulters are diſtant from land be wet or dry,
each other,
Clover or other hays, intended to be ſown by the
machine.
1
3
.
320
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
222
of the opeo
Practice. machine, ſhould be ploughed a deep ſtrong furrow ſtand directly behind the coulters) that the feed with Practices
and well harrowed, in order to level the ſurface, and to the velocity it acquires in falling through the funnels,
get as much looſe ſoil as poſſible for the coulters ſhall not be admitted into the drills.
to work in; and when ſown, if any of the feed appears Fig. 12. is a new conſtructed timple hand-hoe, by Plate IX.
in the drills uncovered by reaſon of the ſtiff texture of whichone man will effectually hoe two chain acres per
the foil, or toughneſs of the roots, a light harrow may day, carthing op the ſoil at the ſame time to the rows
be taken over the land, once in a place, which will ef of corn or pulſe, ſo as to cauſe roots to iſſue from the
fectually cover the ſeed, without diſplacing it at all in firſt joint of the ſtem, above the ſurface of the land,
the drills. For fowing lays, a conſiderable weight must which otherwiſe would never bave exiſted.
be applied to the lever L, to force the coulters into the This hoe is worked much in the ſame manner as a
ground; and a ſet of wrought-iron coulters, well-ſteel. common Dutch hoe, or ſcuffle, is worked in gardens.
ed, and made ſharp at the front edge and bottoni, are The handle is elevated or depreſſed, to ſuit the ſize of
recommended; they will pervade the foil more readily, the perſon that works it, by means of an iron wedge
conſequently requireleſs draught,andexpedite buſineſs being reſpectively applied to the upper or under ſide of
more than adequate to the additional expence.
the handle that goes into the fvcket of the hoe.
For every half acre of land intended to be fown by The wings or moulding plates of the hoe, which are
the machine with the ſeed of that very valuable root, calculated to carth up the ſoil to the rows of corn, ſo as
(carrot) one buſhel of ſaw duſt, and one pound of car: to cauſe roots to iſſue from the firſt joint of the ſtem
rot feed, ſhould be provided; the faw-duſt ſhould be above the ſurface, which otherwiſe would not have
made dry, and ſifted to take out all the lamps and exilied, ſhould never be uſed for the firſt hoeing, but
chips, and divided into eight equal parts or heaps ; the ſhould always be uſed for the laſt hoeing, and uſed or
carrot-ſeed ſhould likewiſe be dried, and well rubbed not uſed, at the option of the farmer, when any inter-
between the lands, to take off the beards, ſo that it mediate boeing is performed.
will ſeparate readily, and being divided into eight e-
qual parts or heaps, one part of the carrot-feed inuſt SUMMARY of the OPERATIONS neceſſary in executing
be well mixed with one part of the ſaw-duſt, and ſo on, the NEW HUSBANDRY with the PLOUGH.
till all the parts of the carrot-feed and ſaw-duſt are well
mixed and incorporated together; in which itate it may I. It is indiſpenſably neceſſary that the farmer be Summary
be ſown very regularly in drills at twelve inches dif- provided with a drill and hoe-plough.
tance, by the cups or ladles N° 2. Carrot-feed refem-
2. The new huſbandry may be begun either with ratiuns.
blig ſaw-duſt very much in its ſize, roughneſs, weight, the winter or ſpring corn.
adhelion, &c. will remain mixed as above during the 3. The land muſt be prepared by four good plough-
ſowing; a ladle full of faw-duſt will, upon an average, ings, given at different times, froin the beginning of
contain three or four carrot-feeds, by which means the April to the middle of September.
carrot-ſeed cannot be otherwiſe than regular in the 4. Theſe ploughings muſt be done in dry weather,
drills. In attempting to depoſit ſmall feeds near the to prevent the earth from kneading.
ſurface, it may ſo happen that ſome of the ſeeds may 5. The land muſt be harrowed in the ſame manner
not be covered with foil ; in which caſe a light roller as if were lowed in the common way.
may be drawn over the land after the feed is ſown, 6. The rows of whieat ſhould be lowed very ſtraight.
which will not only cover the ſeeds, but will alſo, by 7. When the field is not very large, a line muſt be
levelling the ſurface, prepare the land for an earlier ſtrained acroſs it, by which a rill may be traced with
hocing than could otherwiſe have taken place. a hoe for the horſe that draws the drill to go in ; and
It has always been found troubleſome, ſometimes when the rows are fown, 50 inches muſt be left betwixt
impracticable, to ſow any kind of grain or ſeeds (even each rill. But, when the field is large, ſtakes at five
broad-caſt) in a high wind. This inconvenience is en feet diſtance from each other muſt be placed at the two
tirely obviated, by placing a ſcreen of any kind of ends. The workinan muſt then trace a ſmall furrow
cloth, or a ſack, ſupported by two uprights nailed to with a plough that has no inould-board, for the horſe to
the ſides of the machine, behind the funnels, which will go in that draws the drill, directing himſelf with his
prevent the grain or ſeed being blown out of its direc-
eye by the ſtakes.
tion in falling from the ladles into the funnels. Small 8. The ſowing ſhould be finiſhed at the end of Sep-
pipes of tin may alſo be put on to the ends of the fun tember, or the beginning of October.
nels, to convey the grain or ſeed ſo near the ſurface of 9. The furrows inuſt be traced the long way of the
the land, that the higheſt wind ſhall not be able to in- land, that as little ground as poſſible may be lost in the
terruplits deſcent into the drills.
head-lands.
Reſpecting the uſe of the machine, it is frequently 10. The rows, if it can be done, ſhould run down
remarked by ſome people not converſant with the pro the ſlope of the land, that the water niay get the ca-
perties of matter and motion, that the ſoil will cloſe ſier off.
after the coulters, before the feed is admitted into the II. The feed-wheat muſ be plunged into a tub of
drills. Whereas the very contrary is the caſe; for the lime-water, and ſtirred, that the light corn may come
velocity of the coulters in paffing ihrough the ſoil, is to the ſurface and be ſkimmcd off.
ſo much greater than the velocity with which the foil 12. The ſeed muſt be next ſpread on a floor, and
cloſes up the drills by its own ſpontaneous gravity, that frequently ſtirred, till it is dry enough to run through
the inciſions or drills will be conſtantly open for three the valves of the hopper of the drill.
or four inches behind the coulters ; by which means, 13. To prevent ſmut, the feed may be put into a ley
it is morally impoſsible (if the points of the funnels of alhes and limc,
☆
1
4. Good
Plate VIII
AGRICULTURE
Fig 2
DE
critilaruntinitignacióntanunitintialania
B
Aliondant
i
1
Gjing
B
2
-
B
Tig 4
A
Hill
RIETA
Fig
ig 3 3
Julho
WWLHI
TITULLT.DT.
ni
Fig
5
AF
H具
​H
Fing
6?
F
If
lig
D
A
Reboot
benga Ania
AGRICULTURE
Plate IX
C
The Universal Towinge Machine
Fig 1
Fig
@
A
D
C
B
1
B в
D
E
Fig 3
Co
Fig 2
2.
Fig 10
Frigo
2
47
D
Fig. 7
Frigo
594
ya
B
Fig i
1
Til
Figg
B
B
A
Cook Drill Machine
D
D
I
H
n
wand
M
Fig13
Fig 12
1
K
ܢ
huliet vulpa Shitects
Part II.
A G R CU L T U R E.
321
223
S.
pence and
O
O
New Hur.
4 O
O
O
I
O
O
cre
Practico, 14. Goed old feed-wheat ſhould be choſen in prefe- his obſervations. It is neceſſary to remurk, that in the Practice.
rence to new, as it is found by experience not to be ſo
new huſbandry every article is ſtated at its full value,
*ſubject to ſinut.
and the crop of each year is four buſhels Thort of the
15. After the hoppers of the drill ai e filled, the other ; though, in ſeveral years experience, it has e-
horſe muſt go slowly along the furrow that was traced. qualled and generally exceeded thoſe of the neigle-
That a proper quantity of ſeed may be fown, the a bourhood in the old way.
perture of the hopper muſt be ſuited to the ſize of the
grain.
“ An eſtimate of the expence and profit of 10 acres of
16. Asthe drill is ſeldom well managed at firſt, the
land in 20 years.
field ſhould be examined after the corn has come up,
I. In the old way.
Compars-
and thc deficiencies be ſupplied.
tive view
17. Upon wet ſoils or ſtrong clays, wheat ſhould not Firſt year, for wheat, coſts 331. 55.
of the es-
be depoſited more than two inches deep, on any ac-
viz.
L. d. L. s. d.
count whatever ; nor leſs than two inches deep, on dry Firſt ploughing, at 6s. p.acre 3
profits of
the Old and
ſoils. From two to threeinches is a medium depth for Second and third ditto, at 8s.
all ſpring corn. But the exact depth at which grain
per acre
bandry.
ſhould be depoſited in different foils, from the lighteſt Manure, 30s. per acre 15 oo
ſand to the ſtrongeſt clay, is readily aſcertained only
22 o'o
by obſerving at what distance under the ſurface of the Two harrowings, and fowing,
land, the ſecondary or coronal roots are formed in the at 2s.6d. per acre
I 5 0
ſpring
Seed, three buſhels per acre,
18. Stiff lands, that retain the wet, muſt be ſtirred at 4s. per buſhel
6
or hoed in October. This ſhould be done by opening Weeding, at 25. per acre
a furrow in the middle of the intervals, and afterward, Reaping, binding, and carry.
filling it up by a furrow drawn on each ſide, which ing, at bs. per acre
3 0 0
will raiſe the earth in the iniddle of the intervals, and
II 5 0
leave two ſmall furrows next the rows, for draining off Second year, for barley, coſts
the water, which is very hurtful to wheat in winter.
IIl. 6s. 8d. viz.
19. The next ſtirring muſt be given about the end Once ploughing, at 6s. per a-
of NÍarch, with a light plough. In this ſtirring the
3 0 0
furrows made to drain the rows muſt be filled up by Harrowing and fowing, at is.
carth from the iniddle of the intervals.
6d. per acre
OIS
20. Some time in May, the rows muſt be evened; Weeding, at is. per acre
which, though troubleſome at firſt, ſoon becomes eaſy, Seed, four buſhels per acre,
as the vyeeds are foon kept under by tillage.
at 2s. per buſhel
21. In June, juſt before the wheat is in bloom, ano. Cutting, raking, and carry-
ther ſtirring muſt be given with the plough. A deep ing, at 3s. 2d. per acre
8
furrow muſt be made in the middle of the intervals, Graſs-feeds, at 35. per acre
and the earth thrown upon the ſides of the rows.
II 6 8
I
22. When the wheat is ripe, particular care muſt be
taken, in reaping it, to trample as little as poſſible on
44 II 8
The ploughed land.
Third and fourth y cars, lying in graſs,
23. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the coft nothing: fo that the expence of
intervals muſt be turned up with the plough, to prepare ten acres in four years comes to 441.
them for the ſeed. The great furrow in the middle
IIS. 8d. and in twenty years to
222 18 4
muſt not only be filled, but the earth raiſed as much as Firſt years produce is half a
poſſible in the middle of the intervals.
load of wheat per acre, at 71. 35 00
24. In September, the land muſt be again fowed Second years produce is two
with a drill, as above directed.
quarters of barley per acre,
25. In October, the ſtubble muſt be turned in for at il.
forming the new intervals; and the ſame management Third and fourth years graſs
muſt be obſerved as direded in the firſt year.
is valued at il. Ios. per acre 15 o
So that the produce of ten
We pretend not to determine whether the old or acres in four years is 70
new huſbandry be preferable in every country. With And in twenty years it will be
350 0 0
regard to this point, the climate, the ſituation of par- Deduct the expence, and there remains
ticalar land, ſkill and dexterity in managing the ma clear profiton ten acres in twenty years
chinery, the comparative expence in raiſing crops, by the old way.
127 I 8
and many other circumſtances, muſt be accurately at-
tended to before a determination can be given.
The following comparative view of the old and new
II. In the new way.
methods of culture, was furniſhed for the editors of Mr
Tull's Horſe-hoeing Huſbandry, by a gentleman who firſt years extraordinary expence is, for
for ſome years practiſed both in a country where the ploughing and manuring the land, the
foil was lightand chalky, like that from which he drew fame as in the old way L.22
Vol.1,
Sf
Ploughing
oIO
4 0
I II
I IO
20
O
O
O
322
A G R I CULTURE.
Part II.
S.
$.
per acre
2
o
0
1
225
Practice.
L. d. L. d. accidents attending wheat crops, are owing to their Pradice.
Ploughing once more, at 45.
being late ſown, which is neceſſary to the farmer in
the old way ; but in the horſe-hoeing method the far-
Seed, nine gallons per acre,
mer may plough two furrows whereon the next crop
at 45. per buſhel
2 5 0
is to ſtand immediately after the firſt crop is off. In
Drilling, at 7d. per acre
5 IO
this manner of huſbandry, the land may be ploughed
Hand-hoeing and weeding, at
dry and drilled wet, without any inconvenience ; and
25. 6d. per acre
5 0
the feed is never planted under the furrow, but placed
Horſe-horing ſix times, at
juſt at the depth which is moſt proper, that is, at about
TOS. per acre
5 00
two inches; in which caſe it is eaſy to preſerve it, and
Reaping, binding, and car-
there is no danger of burying it. Thus the feed has
rying, at 6s, per acre
3 0 0
all the advantage of early fowing, and none of the diſ-
The ſtanding annual charge-
advantages that may attend it in the other way, and
on ten acres is
13 15 10
the
crop
is much more certain than by any other means
that can be uſed.
Therefore the expence on ten acres in
The condition in which the land is left after the
twenty years is
275.16 8
crop, is no leſs in favour of the horſe-hoeing huſbandry
Add the extraordinaries of the firſt year,
than all the other articles. The number of plants is
and the ſun is
297 16 8 the great principle of the exhauſting of land. In the
The yearly produce is at leaſt two quar-
common huſbandry, the number is vaſtly greater than
ters of wheat per acre, at il. 8s. per
in the drilling way, and three plants in four often
quarter; which,on ten acres in twen-
come to nothing, after having exhauſted the ground as
ty years amounts to
560 00 much as profitable plants; and the weeds which live
Therefore,allthings paid, there remains
to the time of harveſt in the common way, exhauſt the
clear profit on ten acres in 20 years
land no leſs than ſo many plants of corn, often much
by the new way
262 3 4 more. The horſe-hoeing inethod deſtroys all the weeds
in the far greater part of the land, and leaves that part
unexhauſted and perfectly freſh for another crop. The
« So that the profit on ten acres of land in twenty wheat plants being alſo but a third part of the number
Arguments
in the new way, exceeds that in the old by
years,
at the utmoſt of thoſe in the ſowing way, the land is
in favour of
L. 135 : 1:8, and conſequently is conſiderably more
the New
ſo much the leſs exhauſted by them; and it is very e-
Methode than double thereof; an ample encouragement to prac. vident from the whole, that it muſt be, as experience
tiſe a ſcheme, whereby fo great advantage will ariſe proves that it is, left in a much better condition after
from ſo ſmall a quantity of land, in the compaſs of a this than after the common huſbandry.
225
twenty-one years lcaſe; one year being allowed, both The farmers who are againſt this method object, that Objections
in the old and new way, for preparing the ground. it makes the plants too ſtrong, and that they are more
“ It ought withal tobe obſerved, that Mr Tull's huſ- liable to the blacks or blights of inſects for that rea-
Swers.
bandry requires no inanure at all, though we have here, fon; but as this allows that the hoeing can, without
to prevent objections, allowed the charge thereof for the uſe of dung, give too much nouriſhment, it is very
the firſt year, and moreover, that though the crop of plain that it can give enough ; and it is the farmer's
wheat from the drill-plough is here put only at two fault if he do not proportion his pains ſo as to have the
quarters on an acre, yet Mr Tull himſelf, by actual ex. advantage of the nouriſhnient without the diſadvanta-
periment and meaſure, found the produce of his drill. ges. It is alſo objected, that as hoeing can make poor
ed wheat-crop amounted to almoſt four quarters on an land rich enough to bear good crops of wheat, it may
make good land too rich for it. But if this ſhould
It appears alſo from a comparative calculation of ex. happen, the fowing of wheat on it may be let alone a
pence and profit between the drill and common huſ- while, and in the place of it the farmer may have a
bandry, taken from Mr Baker's report to the Dublin crop of turnips, carrots, cabbages, and the like, whịch
Society of his experiments in agriculture for the year are excellent food for cattle, and cannot be over-nou-
1 765, that there is a clear profit ariſing upon an Irilh riſhed: or, if this is not choſen, the land, when thus
acre of land in 15 years in the drill huſbandry of made too rich, may ſoon be ſufficiently impoveriſhed
L. 52 : 3:11,
and in the common huſbandry of by fowing corn upon it in the common old way.
L. 27: 19:2; and therefore a greater profit in the The method of horſe-hoeing huſbandry, ſo ſtrongly
drilled acre in this time of L.24:4:9, which amounts recommended by Mr Tull, is objected to by many on
to L. 1:12:33 per annuin. From hence he infers, account of the largeneſs of the intervals which are to
that in every 15 years the fee-ſimple of all the tillage- be left behind the rows of corn. Theſe are required
lands of the kingdom is loſt to the community by the to be about five feet wide; and it is thought that ſuch
common courſe of tillage. In ſtating the accounts, wide ſpaces are ſo much loft earth, and that the crop
from which their reſult is obtained, no notice is taken is to be ſo much the leſs for it. But it is to be obſery-
of fences, water-cutting the land, weeding and reap- ed, that the rows of corn ſoparated by theſe intervals
ing, becauſe theſe articles depend on a variety of cir- need not be ſingle ; they may be double, triple, or
cumſtances, and will, in general, exceed in the com- quadruple, at the pleaſure of the farmer ; and four
mon huſbandry thoſe incurred by the other.
rows thus ſtanding as one will have the five foot inter-
Beſides, the certainty of a crop is greater in this new val but one-fourthof its bigneſs as to the whole quan-
way than in the old way of lowing; for moſt of the tity, and it will be but as fifteen inch intervals to plants
and an-
acre."
in
Part II.
A G R I CU L T U R E.
323
224
Practice. in ſingle rows. Corn that is ſown irregularly in the that not in reſpect of the ſoil, but of the huſbandry of PraAice.
common way, ſeems indeed to cover the ground bet the owners, whoare uſually in the old way, and change
ter than that in rows: but this is a mere deceptia viſus; the ſpecies of corn, and nake it necellary to fallow
for the ſtalks of corn are never ſo thick as when they every ſecond, third or fourth year. Nevertheleſs ir
come out of one plant, or as when they ſtand in a row; has been found by later experiments, that the intervals
and a horie-hoed plant of corn will have 20 or 30 betwixt the rows of plants, as recommended by Mr
ſtalks in a piece of ground of the ſame quantity, where Tull, were too great, perhaps double of what they
an unhoed plant will have only two or three ſtalks. If ſhould be in the moſt profitable method of culture ; by
theſe ſtalks of the hoed plant were ſeparated and which means much leſs crops are obtained than might
planted over the intervals, the whole land would be be produced at nearly tlie fame expence. This has
better covered than it is in the common way; and the Tendered the profits of the drill method much leſs than
truth is, that though theſe hoed fields ſeem to con they would have been in a more judicious practice, and,
tain a much leſs crop than the common ſown fields, yet conſequently, has proved a great diſadvantage to it in
they in reality do contain a much greater. It is only compariſon with the broad-caſt. Mr Tull was led into
the different placing that makes the ſown crop ſeem this, partly from the want of more perfect inſtruinents
the larger, and even this is only while both crops are for hoeing, and of ploughs proper for drilling.
young
To the preceding ſtatements, the following obſerva-
The intervals are not loſt ground, as is uſually ſup- tions by Sir John Anſtruther, publiſhed among the Se-
poſed, but when well horſe-hoed they are all employ. lect Papers of the Bath Society, may not be improper-
ed in the nouriſhment of the crop; the roots of the ly ſubjoined.
plants in the adjoining rows ſpreading themſelves thro' The now progreſs which the drill-huſbandry has Obſerva-
the whole interval, and drawing ſuch nouriſhment from made in many parts of Great Britain ſince Mr Tull's tions by Sir
it, that they increaſe accordingly. When the plants time, he obſerves, has been principally owing to the John An-
ſtand in the ſcattered way, as in common ſowing, they want of proper drill-ploughs. Before drilling can be. Itruther.
are too cloſe to one another; each robs its neighbours come general, theſe ploughs muſt be ſimple, ſuch as a
of partoftheir nouriſhment, and conſequently the earth common ploughman accuſtomed to uſe ſtrong inſtru-
iş ſoon exhauſted, and all the plants half ſtarved. The ments can uſe without breaking, and ſuch alſo as com.
clofe ſtanding of them alſo prevents the benefit of after mon workmen can eaſily niake or repair. Mathema-
tilling, as the hoe cannot be brought in, nor the tical accuracy he conſiders as not required for deliver-
ground by any means ſtirred between them to give it ing the ſeed: for it-matters very little whether there
a new breaking, and conſequently afford them new food. be a quarter of a peck more or leſs fown, if it be deli.
Experiments have abundantly proved, that in large vered with tolerable regularity. He therefore had a
grounds of wheat where the different methods have plough made, according to his own directions, by a
been tried, thoſe parts where the intervals were largeſt comnion plough-wright, of ſufficient ſtrength for any
have produced the greateſt crops, and thoſe where hoe land made fit for turnips or wheat. It was tried on
ing was uſed without dung have þeen much richer.
very rough ground unfit for fowing, in order to aſcer.
than thoſe where dung was uſed without hoeing. Ifit lain its ſtrength ; and it had been uſed for eight years
were poſſible that plants could ſtand as thick, and thrive without its needing any repair. It is a double drill-
as well over the whole ſurface of the ground, as they plough, which ſows two ridges at a time, the horſe
do in the rows ſeparated by theſe large intervals, the going in the furrow bet veen them, and of courſe does
crops of corn ſo produced would be vaſtly greater than not tread upon the ground intended to be ſown ; which
any that have been heard of; but the truth is, that with a ſingle drill muſt be the caſe, and does much
plants receive their growth not according to the ground harm by the horſes feet ſinking and making holes in
they ſtand on, but to the ground they can extend their the fine ground, which retain the water, and hurt
roots into ; and therefore a ſingle row may contain the wheat when young.
more plants than a large interval can nourih, and He proceeds to obſerve, “That having read Mr
therefore the ſame number that ſtand in that row, and Forbes upon the extenſive practice of the new huſban-
Ho more than theſe, could be nouriſhed, if ſcattered dry, and ſome other authors, who gave a more clear
over tlre whole interval ; and they would be much worſe and diſtinct account of the different operations in dril.
nouriſhed in that way; becauſe while the interval is ling than had heretofore been given, I wiſhed to try
void, the earth may be ſtirred about them, and new them, and to adapt my plough to low the quantities
roots will be formed in great numbers from every one therein directed. It was, however, adjuſted to low
broken by the inſtruments and new nouriſhment laid a ſmaller quantity, and the feed was not ſteeped.
before theſe roots by the breaking the particles of « Not having ground fo proper as I wiſhed, it was
earth, by which the plants will have ſupplies that they drilled on the ſide of a field, the ſoil of which was light
cannot have when ſcattered over the whole ſurface, and fandy, and in fuch bad order, that the preceding
becauſe the ground is then all occupied, and cannot be crop was a very indifferent one. It was therefore ma-
226 moved between the plants.
nured with a compoſt dung-hill.
All foils and all ſituations are not equally proper for “ After croſs-ploughing and manuring, it was laid
this method of planting in rows with large intervals into four and a half feet ridges, then harrowed and
itance the and hoeing between.. The lighteſt foils ſeem to be drilled with one peck and a half of wheat on an acre
thod is leſs
beſt for it, and the tough and wet clays the worſt. and a quarter, which is nearly one peck and a fifth
per
Such grounds as lie on the ſides of hills are alſo leſs Engliſ acre. It was drilled the 27th of October, and
proper.
proper than others for this work.
rolled after drilling. The crop was late in its appear-
This method is not fo proper in common fields, but ance, and very backward in the ſpring.
6 March
In what
circum-
new me.
SE3
324
Part 11.
A GRĪ Ū V L TURE.
Practice,
TO VS.
« March 311t, it was horſe-hoed one ſurrow from « One acre is no chains long, of 660 feet, or 220 Practice.
the rows.
yards long, and one yard broad, containing 48 40 ſquare
“ April 8th, it was liand-loed and weeded in the yards. Then if the ridge is four feet lix inches, this
makes 14 ridges, and three feet to ſpare. This length
“6 25tlı, horſe-hoed again, laying a furrow back to of 220 yards, multiplied by 14 (the number of ridges)
the rolvs.
gives a length of yards 3080, to which add 146 for the
« May 15th, hand-hoed the ſecond time.
ſpare three feet, and it will be 3226 yards. Aná as
“ June 2d, horſe-hoed from the rows.
two rows are drilled on a ridge, the number of rows
“ June 12th, hand-hocd the third time.
will be in length 6452 yards; but as a dedu&ion of
July 14th, horſe-hoed to the rows.
172 yards muſt be made for the head ridges, fuppoſe
" At this laſt hoeing, as many of the ears were three yards each, &c. the whole length to be ſown will
beaten down into the intervals by wind and rain, a man be 6280 yards clear. Nowa gallon (Wincheſter) holds
went before the horie-hoc, and turned the ears back about 80,coo grains.
about 80,coo grains. The quantity recommended to
into their proper place.
be drilled by Mr Forbes and others, being fix gallons,
“ Thecrop, when reaped and threſhed, yielded me or two-thirds of a buſheis per acre, is nearly 78 grains
36 buſhels on one acre and a quarter, which is 28 to a yard, or 26 to a foot. But in my experinrent, by
Buſhels and three pecks per acre ; and the produce this calculation, it was only about ii grains to a foot';
fron one peck and an half 96 for one.
which is quite ſufficient, if the ſced be good, and it be
“ As the produce appeared fo great, from land in not deſtroyed by vermin.
ſuch bad order, it was carefully meaſured again, and “ Now with regard to the quantity of land this
found to be right. But this increaſe, though great, drill-plough may low; if a horſe walks at the rate of
was not ſo large as Mr Crake of Glaſgow had without two miles per hour, he goes 16 miles in eight hours,
dung
or 28,460 yards. As he ſows two ridges at once, this
ci Mr Randal ſays It is an experimented fact, that is ſeven lengths and two-thirds per acre, or 1686 yards. .
on a fine loam exquiſitely prepared, 144 buſhels have to ſow an acre, being nearly 17 acres in a day.
been produced from one acre. And, I believe, it is “ Four horſe-hoeings are calculated equal to two
not known what the increaſe may be brought to in rich ploughings. In plain ploughing they ſuppoſe the ridge
land by high cultivation.'
is plouglied with four furrows, or eight for twice
“Some years ſince, I had beans dropt alternately ploughing. The four horſe-hoeings are eight fur-
with potatoes, at two feet diſtance in the rows, which rows, equal to two ploughings.
were three feet apart, and ploughed in the intervals, “ Mr Tall directs four hocings, and Mr Forbes
The land adjoining was ſown with beans and peaſe, five. Firſt, In November, when the plant lias four
which were a good crop; but thoſe fown among the blades. 2dly, In March, deep, and nearer the rows
potatoes a better one. I pulled one ſtem of the beans than the fornier ; both theſe lioeings ſhould le front
planted with the potatoes, which had three branches the rows. 3dly, Hand-hoed when it begins to ſpindle,
riſing from the bottom, and it produced 225 beans. In if the earth be crumbly, to the rows. 4thly, When
all the trials of drilled beans, moſt of the ſtems h it begins to bloſſom, from the rows, but as near to
branches, with many pods upon each. Froi theſe them as in the ſecond hoeing, 5thly, When dons .
and other inſtances, I believe it is not yet known to bloſſoming, to ripen and fill the grain, to the rows,
what increaſe grain may be brought by drilling, good " The lan hoeing Mr Tull does not direct, but Mr
cultivation, and manure.
Forbes adviſes it, as being of effential ſervice in filling
“ Horſe-hoeing is certainly preferable to cloſe dril- the grain, and ſaving trouble in making the next feed-
ling or hand-hoeing; but the latter is ſuperior to furrows. They adviſe the patent or ſowing-plough
broadcaſt.
for horſe-hoeing; and the expence is calculated by Mr
“ Horſe-hoeing the full depth increaſes the crop, Crake at one guinea per acre, reaping included.
by making it tiller or branch more than it otherwiſe “ But let us ſuppoſe the following, which are the
would do, and the advamage is diâinctly obſervable prices in the county I live in (Fife.).
every hoeing, by the colour of the grain. It prepares
L. S. d.
the ground for the next crop, at the ſame time that Ploughing to form the ridges,
4
it increaſes the crop growing, which hand-loeing does Harrowing,
4.
not, although it may deſtroy the weeds. Thus drill Four hoeings, equal to two ploughings, 8
ed ground is kept in a looſe open ſtate to receive the Sowing,
benefit of the influence of the air and weather, which Hand-hoeing twice,
8
broadcaſt has not; and it is evident, fron certain ex Seed, one peck and a half, at ss. a buſhel, o I
perience, that crops may be drilled many years to good
advantage without manure.
Whole expence per acre,
LI 6" 228
« Suppoſe the crops only 20 bufaels per acre, what Drill huſbandry is, as a good writer has juſtly defi- The drill
courſe of broadcaſt crops will give sl. an acre for the ned it, “the practice of a garden brought into the
field.” and the
courſe? But ſuppoſe they are dunged the ſame as any Every man of the leaft reflection must be ſenſible, that broad.caft
methods
ground in the moſt approved conrſe, there is the great- the practice of the garden is much better than that of
more par-
est reaſon to expect as much as in the above experi- the field, only a little more expenſive; but if (as is the ticularly
inent, which is 28 and three-quarters, and at 5s. per cafe) this extra expence be generally much more than compared,
buſhel amounts to 71. 35. 9d.
repaid by the ſuperior goodneſs and value of drilled
« Calculations may be of ſervice to thoſe who will crops, it ought to have no weight in comparing the
to try drilling, and baye few books to direct them. two modes of huſbandry.
wo
0
O
IO
2
3
in
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
325
Practice. In the broadcaſt method the land is often ſown in The plough prepares the land for a crop, but goes Pralice
- bad tilth, and always ſcattered at random, ſometimes no further; for in the broadcaſt huſbandry it cannot
by very unſkilful hands. In drilling, tlie land muſt be uſed : but the crop receives greater benefit from the
bé in fine order; the feed is ſet in trenches drawn re- . tillage of the land by the horſe-hoe, while it is grov-
gularly, all of nearly an equal depth, and that depth ing, than it could in the preparation. No care in uil-
ſuited to the nature of each kind of feed. Theſe feeds ling the land previous to forving can prevent weeds ri-
arc alſo diſtributed at proper diſtances, and by being ſing with thc crop; and if theſe weeds be not deſtroy-
equally and ſpeedily covered, are protected from ver ed while the crop is growing, they vill greatly injure
min and other injuries; ſo that the practice of the gar. it. In the broadcaſt huſbandry this cannot be coule;
den is here exactly introduced into the field.
but in drilling, the horſe-hoe will effect it eaſily.
In the broadcaſt method the ſeed falls in ſome pla And that adds to the farmer's misfortune is, that
ces too thick, in others too thin; and being imper- the moſt pernicious weeds have ſeeds winged with
fectly covered, a partof it is devoured by vermin which down, which are carried by the wind to great diſtan-
follow the lower; another part is leſt expoſed to rain ces; ſuch are thiſtles, fow-thiftles, colts-foot, and iome
or froſt, or to heats, which greatly injure it. When others.
harrowed, a great part of it (ſmall ſeeds eſpecially) If the expence of horſe-hoeing be objected, there
is buried ſo deep, that if the ſoil be wet, it perilies are two anſwers which may very properly be made :
before it can vegetate.
The firſt is, that this expence is much leſs than that
Again : When thus ſown there is no meddling with of liand-boeing were it practicable, or of hand-weed-
The crop afterwards, becauſe its growth is irregular. ing. The ſecond is, that it is more than repaid by the
The foil cannot be broken to give it more nouriſhment, quantity of ſeed ſaved by drilling; to ſay nothing of
nor can even the weeds be deſtroyed without much in the extra quantity and goodneſs of the crops, which
convenience and injury.
are generally ſelf-evident.
But in the drill-huſbandry the intervals between
the rows, whether double or ſingle, may be horſe Upon the whole : If the particular modes of cul-
hoed;and thereby nouriſhment may repeatedly begiven tivating land by the new huſbandry ſhould, after all,
to the plants, and the weeds almoſt totally deſtroyed. be conſidered as perhaps too limited to be univer-
The very fame effects which digging has upon young fally adopted; yet it has been of great uſe in rai- .
ſhrubs and trees in a garden, will reſult from horſe- ſing fufpicions concerning the old method, and in turn-
hoeing in a field, whether the crop be corn or pulſe : ing the views of philoſophers and farmers towards im-
For the reaſon of the thing is the ſame in both caſes, proving in general. Many real improvements in agri-
and being founded in nature and fact,cannot ever fail. culture have been the conſequences of theſe ſuſpicions;
In drilling, no more plants are raiſed on the ſoil than and as this ſpirit of inquiry remains in full vigour, a
it can well ſupport ; and by dividing and breaking the ſolid foundation is laid for expecting ſtill further im-
ground they have the full advantage of all its fertility. prurements in this uſeful art,
tum.
tum.
À G R
A A GR
Agrifolium AGRIFOLIUM, or AQUIFOLIUM. See ILEX. common fate of tyrants, and after his death ihe A. Agrigen-:
Agrigen AGRIGENTUM, (anc. geog.), a city of Sicily, grigentines enjoyed their liberty for 150 years ; at
part of the fire of which is now ocenpied by a town the expiration of which term Thero ufurped the fo-
called Girgenti from the old name. See GIRCENTI. vereign authority. The moderation, juſtice, and va-
According to ancient authors, Dedalus, the moſt fa- lour of this prince preſerved him froin oppolition
mous mechanician of fabulous antiqnity, fled to this while living, and have reſcued his menory from the
ſpot for proteſtion againſt Minos, and built many won- obloquy of poſterity. He joined his ſon-in-law Gelo,
derful edifices for Cocalus king of the iſland. Long king of Syracuſe, in a war againſt the Carthaginians;
after his flight, the people of Gela fent a colony hi- in the courſe of which victory atiended all his ſteps,
ther 600
years before the birth of Chriſt; and from and Sicily ſaw herſelf for a time delivered froin her
the name of a neighbouring ſtream called the new city African oppreſſions. Soon after his deccaſe, his ſon
Acragas, whence the Romans forined their word Agra- Thrafydeus tras deſpoiled of the diadeni, and Agrigen-
gentum. Theſe Greeks converted the ancient abode tum reſtored to her old democratical government. Du-
of the Siculi into a citadel to guard the magnificent cetius next diſturbed the general tranquillity. He was
gity, which they erected on the hillocks below. a chief of the mountaineers, deſcendants of the Siculi :
An advantageons ſituation, a free goverment with and wasan overmatch for the Agrigentines while they
all its happy effects, and an adive commercial ſpi. were unſupported by alliances, but fank under the
rit, exalted their commonwealth to a degree of riches weight of their union with the Syracufans. Some tri-
and power unknown to the other Greek ſettlements, fing altercations diſſolved this union, and produced a
Syracuſe alone excepted. But the proſperity of Agri-. war, in which the Agrigentines were worſted, and
gentum appears to have been but of Ihort duration, and compelled to ſubmit to humiliating terms of peace. Re-
tyranny foon deſtroyed its liberties.
fentment led them to embrace with joy the propoſals of
Phalaris was the firſt that reduced it to ſlavery. His the Athenians, then meditating an attack upon Syra.
name is familiar to moſt readers on account of his cuſe. Their new friends foon made them feel that the
crueliy, and the brazen bull in which he tortured his facrifice of lil.erty and fortune would be the price of
enemies : (See PHALARIS.)-Phalaris met with the their protection; and this confideration brought them
ſpeedily,
A GR
( 326 ]
A G R
tum.
tum.
; the
Agrigen- ſpeedily back to their old connections. But as if it ſelves up for ſafety among the bleak and inacceſſible Agrigen-
had been decreed that ali ſriend thip ſhould be fatal to rocks of the preſent city.
their repoſe, the reconciliation and its effects drew up At the north-east an le of the ancient limits, upon
on them the anger of the Carthaginians. by this ene ſome foundations of large regular ſtones, a church has
my their armies were routed, their city taken, their been erected; a road appears hewn in the folid rock
race almoſt extirpated, and ſcarce a veftige of magnifi-
for the convenience of the votaries that vilited this
cence was left. Agrigentuin lay 50 years buried under temple in ancient days. It was then dedicated to Ce-
its own ruins; when ſimoleon, after triumphingover res and her daughter Proſerpine, the peculiar patron-
the Carthaginians, and restoring liberty to Sicily, col elles of Sicily. Biſhop blaiſe has ſucceeded to their
lected the deſcendants of the Agrigentines, and lent
honours.
them to re-eſtabliſh the dwellings of their ſore athers. At the ſouth-eaſt corner, where the ground, riſing
Their exertions were rewarded with aſtoniſhing ſuc grajually, ends in a bold eminence, which is crowned
ceſs; for Agrigentum roſe from its alhes with ſuch a with majeitic columns, are the ruins of a temple ſaid
renewal of vigour, that in a very ſhort time we find it to have been conſecrated to Juno. To the weſt of
engaged in the bold ſcheme of ſeizing a lucky moment, this, ſtands the building commonly called the Temple
when Agathocles and Carthage had reduced Syracuſe of Concord; the ſtone of which, and the other buildings,
to the loweſt ebb, and arrogating to itſelf ſupremacy is the ſame as that of the neighbouring mountains and
over all the Sicilian republics. Xenodicus was
appoint- cliffs, a conglutination of fea-land and ſhells, full of
ed the leader of this arduous enterpriſe ; and had his perforations, of a hard and durable texture, and a deep
latter operations been as fortunate as his firſt campaign, reddith brown colour. This Doric temple has all its
Agrigentumn would have acquired ſuch a preponderance columns, entablature, pediments, and wall entire; only
of reputation and power, that the rival ſtates would part of the roof is wanting. Itowes ils preſervation to
not even have dared to attack it. But a few brilliant the piety of ſome Chriſtians, who have covered half the
exploits were ſucceeded by a ſevere overthrow nave, and converted it into a church confecrated under
Agrigentines loſt courage, diſagreed in council, and the invocation of St Gregory, biſhop of Girgenti.
humbly fized for peace to Agathocles. This common Proceeding in the ſame direction, you walk between
wealth afterwards took a ſtrong part with Pyrrhus ; rows of ſepulchres cut in the rock wherever it admit-
and when he left Sicily to the mercy of her enemies, ted of being excavated by the hand of man, or was ſo
threw itſelf into the arms of Carthage. During the already by that of nature. Some maſſes of it are hewn
firſt Punic war Agrigentum was the head-quarters of into the fliape of coffins; others drilled full of ſmall
the Carthaginians, and was beſieged by the Roman ſquare holes employed in a different mode of interment,
confuls, who after eight months blockade took it by and ſerving as receptacles of urns. One ponderous
ſtorm. It nevertheleſs changed maſters ſeveral times piece of the rock lies in an extraordinary polition ; by
during the conteſt between thoſe rival ſtates, and in the failure of its foundation, or the ſhock of an earth-
every inſtance ſuffered moſt cruel outrages. After this quake, it has been looſened from the general quarry,
period very little mention of it occurs in hiſtory, nor and rolled down the declivity, where it now remains
do we know the preciſe time of the deſtruction of the fupine with the cavities turned upwards. Only a
old city and the building of the new one. See ſingle column marks the confuſed heaps of moſs-grown
GIRGENTI.
ruins belonging to the temple of Hercules. It ſtood on
The principal part of the ancient city lay in the a projecting rock above a chaſm in the ridge, which
vale; the preſent town, called Girgenti, occupies the was cut through for a paſſage to the emporium.
mountain on which the citadel of Cocalus ſtood.
In the ſame track, over ſome hills, is ſituated the
It was difficult to be more judicious and fortunate building uſually called the tomb of Thero. It is fur-
in the choice of ſituation for a large city. The rounded by aged olive-trees, which caft a wild irregular
inhabitants were here provided with every requiſite ſhade over the ruin. The edifice inclines to the pyra.
for defence, pleaſure, and comfort of life ; à na midical ſhape, and confifts at preſent of a triple plinth
tural wal), formed by abrupt rocks, preſented a ſtrong and a baſe ſupporting a ſquare pedeſtal : upon this plain
barrier againſt aſſailants ; pleaſant hills ſheliered them ſolid foundation is raiſed a ſecondorder, having a win-
on three ſides without impeding the circulation of air ; dow in each front, and at each angle two lonic pila-
before them a broad plain watered by the Acragas,
ſters crowned with an entablature of the Doric order.
gave adınittance to the ſea-breeze, and to a noble
pro-
Its inſide is divided into a vault, a ground room,
and
ſpect of that awful element ; the port or emporium lay one in the lonic ſtory, communicating with each other
in view at the mouth of the river, and probably the by means of a ſmall internal ſtaircaſe.
road acroſs the flat was lined with gay and populous In the plain are ſeen the fragments of the temple of
ſuburbs.
Eſculapius; part of two columns and two pilaſters,
The hoſpitality and parade for which the Agrigen- with an intermediate wall, fupport the end of a farm-
tines are celebrated in hiſtory were ſupported by an ex houſe, and were probably the front of the cella. Pur-
tenſive commerce ; by means of which, the common ſuing the track of the walls towards the weſt, you ar-
wealth was able to reſiſt many ſhocks of adverſity, and rive at a ſpot which is covered with the gigantic re-
always to riſe again with freſh fplendour. It was, mains of the temple of Jupiter the Olympian, minu
however,cruſhed by the general fallofGrecian liberty; tely deſcribed by Diodorus Siculus. It may literally
the feeble remnants of its population, which had ſur be ſaid that it has not one ſtone left upon another; and
vived ſo many calamities, were at length driven out of it is barely poſſible, with the help of inuch conjecture,
its walls by the Saracens, and obliged to lock then to diſcover the traces of its plan and dimenſions. Di.
odorus
1
AG
A GR
A GR
( 327 )
cuin,
in agues.
water
Agrigen- odorus calls it the largeſt temple in the whole iſland : cal writers; but none of them have any remarkable Agrimonia
but adds, that the calamities of war cauſed the work to properties except the two following.
1
Agrimonia be abandoned before the roof could be put on; and Species and properties. 1. 1 he eupatoria, or coin-
Agrippa.
that the Agrigentines were ever after reduced to ſuch mon agrimony, grows naturally in ſeveral parts of Bri-
a ſtate of poverty and dependence, that tliey never had tain by the lides of hedges and of woods. It
it in their power to finiſh this ſuperb monument of the is eat by ſheep and goats, but refuſed by horfes
taſte and opulence of their anceſtors. The length of and ſwine. The Canadians are ſaid to uſe an infuſion
this temple was 370 Greek feet, its breadth 60, and of the root in burning fevers with great ſucceſs. An
its height 220, exclufive of the foundations or baſement infuſion of ſix ounces of the crown of the root in a
ſtory ; the extent and ſolidity of its vaults and under- quartof boiling water, ſweetened with honey, and half
works were wonderful ; its ſpacious porticoes and ex a pint of it drank three times a-day, is an effectual cure
quiſite ſculpture were ſuited to the grandeur of the for the jaundice, according to Dr Hill. He adviſes
whole. It was not built in the uſual ſtyle of Sicilian to begin with a vomit, afterwards to keep the belly
temples with a cella of inaſſive walls and a peryſtile, ſoluble,, and to continue the medicine as long as any
but was deligned in a mixt taite with half columns let ſymptoms of the diſeaſe remain. It is ſaid to be an
into the walls on the outlide, the inſide exhibiting a aperient, detergent, and ſtrengthener of the viſcera.
plain ſurface.
Hence it is recommended in ſcorbutic diſorders, in de-
The next ruin belongs to the temple of Caſtor and bility and laxity of the inteſtines, &c. Digefted in
Pollux ; vegetation has covered the lower parts of the whey, it affords an uſeful diet-drink for the ſpringa
building, and only a few fragments of columns appear ſeaſon, not ungrateful to the palate or ſtomach. Doc-
between the vines. This was the point of the hill 'tor Alſton ſays, that the beſt mode of adminiſtering
where the wall ſtopt on the brink of a large fiſh pond this herb is in powder, when the intention is to cor-
ſpoken of by Diodorus : it was cut in the ſolid rock roborate ; and that if thus taken in a large quantity,
30 feet deep, and water was conveyed to it from the we may expect many of the effects of the bark from it
hills. In it was bred a great quantity of tiſh for the
uſe of public entertainments ; ſwans and various other 2. The odorata, or ſweet-ſcented agrimony. This
kinds of wild fowl ſwam along its ſurface, for the a grows near four ſeet high; the leaves have more pinnä
muſement of the citizens, and the great depth of than the former ; the ferratures of the leaves are alſo
preventing an enemy from furpriting the town on that ſharper, and, when handled they emit an agreeable
ſide. It is now dry and uſed as a garden. On the odour. The leaves of this ſpecies make an agreeable
oppoſite bank are two tapering columns without their cooling tea, which is ſometimes preſcribed by phyli-
capitals, moſt happily placed in a tuft of carob trees. cians as a drink for people in fevers.
Monte Toro, where Hanno encanped with the Car Culture. Both theſe ſpecies may be propagated ei-
thaginian army, before the Roman conſuls drew him ther by ſeed, or by parting the roots in autumn when
into an engagement that ruined his defenſive plan, is a the leaves begin to decay. The ſeeds ought alſo to be
noble back ground to this pictureſque group of objects. fown in this ſeaſon; for if kept out of the ground till
-The whole ſpace comprehended within the walls of ſpring, they feldom come up that year.-Agrimony is
the ancient city abounds with traces of antiquity, foun a hardy perennial plant, and will thrive in almoſt a-
dations, brick-arches, and little channels for the con ny foil or ſituation ; but the plants ſhould not be pla-
veyance of water ; but in no part are any ruins that ced nearer one another than two feet, that the roots
can be preſumed to have belongeu to places of public may have room to ſpread.
entertainment. This is the more extraordinary, as the Hemp AGRIMO1r. See EUPATORIUM.
Agrigentines were a ſenſual people, fond of thews and Water Hemp Agrimony. See BIDENS.
dramatic performances, and the Romans never dwelt AGRIONIA, in Grecian antiquity, feſtivals an-
in any place long without introducing their ſavage nually celebrated, by the Boeotians, in hononr of
Theatres and amphitheatres ſeen better cal. Bacchus. At theſe feſtivals, the wonien pretended to
culated than moſt buildings to relilt the outrages of ſearch after Bacchus as a fugitive ; and, after ſomie
time, and it is ſurpriſing that not even the vettiges of time, gave over their inquiry, ſaying, that he was
their form ſhould remain on the ground.
fled to the Muſes, and was concealed among them.
AGRIMONIA, AGRIMONY : a genus of the di AGRIOPHAGI, in antiquity, a name given to
ginia order, belonging to the dodecandria claſs of thoſe who fed on wild beaſts. The word is Greek,
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the compounded of appios, “ wild,” “ ſavage," and paqw,
35th order, Senticofa. The characters are theſe: The ( I eat." The name is given, by ancient writers, to
calyx is a nonophyllous peranthium, divided into five certain people, xeal or fabulous, ſaid to have fed alto-
acute ſegments, perſiſtent, and fenced with another gether on lions and panthers. Pliny and Solinus ſpeak
calyx : The corolla conſiſts of five perals, flat, and cre of Agriophagi in Ethiopia, and Prolemy of others in
nated at the ends : The ſtamina have ien capillary fila India on this ſide the Ganges.
ments, ſhorter than the corolla, and inſerted into the AGRIPPA, in midwifery, a term applied to chil-
calyx; the anthere are ſmall, didymous, and compreff- dren, brought forth with their feet foremoſt.
ed; the piſtillum has a germen beneath ; the ſtyli are AGRIPPA (Herod), the ſon of Ariftobulus and
two, ſimple, and the length of the ſtamina : There is Mariamne, and grandſon to Herod the Great, was
no pericarpium ; the calyx is contracted in the neck, born in the year of the world 3997, three years be-
and indurated : The ſeeds aretwo, and roundith. Of fore the birth of our Saviour, and ſeven years be-
this genus there are five ſpecies enumerated by botani- fore the vulgar æra. After the death of Ariftobi-
lus
games.
1
>
AGR
( 328 )
A G R
}
.
Agrippa. lus his father, Jolcphus niforms us, ib. Ilerod his grandfather. He returned to Judca, and governed it Agrippa,
grundfather took care of his cducation, and for him to the great fatisfaction of the Jews. But the defire
10 Rome to make his court to Tiberius. The ein- of pleating them, and a miſtakon zeal for their religion,
peror coccived a great atfe&tion for Agrippa, and induced him to commit an unjuſt aclion, the memory of
placed him near his lou Bruſus. Agrippa very ſoonl which is preſerved in Scripture, Acts xii. 1, 2, &c. for
won the graces of Druſus, and of the empreis An- aboutthefealtofthe pallover, in the year of Jerus Chriſt
tunia. But Drufiis dying fuddenly, all thoſe who 44, St James major, the ſon of Zebedee and brother to
liad been much about him were commanded by Tibe St John the Evangeliſt, was ſeized by his order and
rius to withdraw trom Rome, left the fight and pre- put to death. Ho proceeded alſo to lay hands on St
fence of thein ſhould renew his affliction. Agrippa, Peter; and impriſoned him, waiting till the feſtival ivas
who had indulged his inclinat:on to liberaliiy, was ob- over, that he might then lave himn exccuted. But
liged to leave Rome overwhelmed with debis, and in a God having miraculoully delivered St Peter from the
very poor condition. He did not think it fit to go to place of his confinement, the deligns of Agrippa were
Jeruſilein, becauſe he was not able to make a figure fruſtrated. After the paſſover, this prince went from
there faitable to his birth. He retired therefore to Jeruſalem to Cæfarea, and there had games performed
the caſtle of Mallada, where he lived rather like a pri. in honour of Claudius. Here the indiabitants of Tyre
vate perſon than a prince. Herod the Tetrarch, his and Sid on waited on him to ſue for peace, Agrippa
uncle, who had married Herodias his liſter,aſſiſted him being come early in the morning to the theatre, with
for ſome time with great generoſity. He made hin a design to give them audience, ſeated himſelf on his
principal magiſtrate of Tiberias, and preſented him throne, drelled in a robe.of ſilver tiſſue, worked in the
with a large tum of money : but all this was not ſuffi- moſt admirable manner. 1 he riſing fun darted onit
cient to anfirer the exceflive expences and profuſion with its rays, and gave it ſuch a luſtre as the eyes of
of Agrippa ; ſo that Herod growing weary of aſliſting the ſpectators could not endure. When therefore the
liim,
and reproaching hip with his bad economy, A- king ſpoke to the Tyrians and Sidonians, the paraſites
grippa took a reſolution to quit Judea and return to around him began to lay, that it was the voice of
Rome. Upon his arrival, he was received into the god, and not that of a man. Inſtead of rejecting theſe
good grace of Tiberius, and commanded to attend impious flatteries, Agrippa received them with an
Tiberius Nero che ſon of Druſus. Agrippa, however, air of complacency; but at the ſame time obſerved an
having more inclination for Caius the ſon of Germini- owl above him on a cord. He had ſeen the ſame bird
cus, and grandſon of Antonia, choſe rather to attach before when he was in bonds by order of Tiberius;
himſelf to him: as if he had ſuine prophetic views of and it was then told him, that he ſhould be ſoon ſet
the future elevation of Caius, who at that time was be at liberty : but that whenever he ſaw the ſame thing a
loved by all the world. The great aſſiduity and agree. ſecond time, he ſhould not live above five days after-
able behaviour of Agrippa ſo far engaged this prince, wards. He was therefore extremely terrified; and he
that he kept him continually about hiin.
died at the end of five days, racked with tormenting
Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a pains in his bowels, and devoured with worms. Such
llave whom he had made free, to expreſs his wiſhes for was the death of Herod Agrippa, after a reign of ſeven
Tiberius's death and the advancement of Caius, the years, in the year of Chriſt 44.
flave betrayed him to the Emperor ; whereupon A ACRIPPA II. ſon of the preceding Herod, was made
grippa was loaded with fetters, and comunitted to the king of Chalcide ; but three or four years after, he
cuſtody of an officer. Tiberiuis ſoon after dying, and was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave
Caius Caligula ſucceeding him, the new emperor him in the place of it other provinces. In the war Vef-
heaped many favours and inuch wealth upon Agrippa; paſian carried on againſt the Jews. Herod ſent him a
changing his iron fetters into a chain of gold; ſet a Succour of 2000 inen; by which it appears, that tho'a
royal diadem upon his head ; and gave him the tetrar. Jew by religion, yet he was entirely devoted to the Ro.
chy which Philip, the ſon of Herod the Great, had mans, whoſe aſſiſtance he indeed wanted, to ſecure the
been poſſeſſed of, that is, Batanæa and Trachonitis. peace of his own kingdoin. He lived to the third year
To this he added that of Lyfanias; and Agrippa re of Trajan, and died at Rome A. C. 100. He was the
turned very ſoon into Jadea to take poſſeſlion of his leventh and laſt king of the family of Herod the Great.
new kingdom.
It was before him and Berenice his ſiſter, that St Paul
Caius being foon after killed, Agrippa who was pleaded his cauſe at Cæfarea.
then at Rome, contributed much by his advice to AGRIPPA (Marcus Veſpanius) ſon-in-law to Augu-
maiatain Claudius iil poffeſſion of the imperial dignity, ſtus, of mean birth, but one of the moſt conliderable
to which he had been advanced by the army. But in generals among the Romans. Auguftus's victory over
this affair Agrippa acted a part wherein he ſhowed Pompey and Mark Anthony was owing to his counſel:
inore cunning and addreſs than fincerity and honeſtyi he adorned the city with the pantheon, baths, aque-
for while he made a ſhow of being in the intereſt of ducts, &c.
the ſenate, he ſecretely adviſed Claudius to be reſolute, AGRIPPA (Cornelius), born at Cologne in 1486, a
and not lo abandon his good fortune. The Emperor,
The Emperor, man of confiderable learning, and by conimon report
as an acknowledgment for bis kind offices, gave him a great magician ; for the monks at that timefufpeated
all Judea and the kingdon of Chalcis, which had been every thing of hereſy or ſorcery which they did not un-
polleiſed by Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa be- derſtand. He compoſed his Treatiſe on the Excellence
came of a ſudden one of the greateſt princes of the of Women, to infinuate himſelf into the favour of Mar-
Eaſt; and was poſſeſſed of as much, if not inore, ter garet of Auſtria, governeſs of the Low-Countries. He
zitories than had been held by Herod the Great his accepted of the charge of hiſtoriographer to the empe-
ror,
A GR
[329]
A GR
neuf.
Agrippina ror, which that princeſs gave him. The treatiſe of the firſt is found naturally in corn-fields, it is very fellom Agroſtis
1 Vanity of the Sciences, which he publiſhed in 1530, en cultivated in gardens; the third fort ſhould have a 1
Agroſtema. raged his enemies extremely ; as did that of Occuit fhi- ſhady fituation, and thrives beſt in a ſtrong foil. The Aguilla-
lofophy, which he printed ſoon after at Antwerp. He ſecolid ſpecies is perennial, but only thoſe varieties
was impriſoned in France for ſomething he had written which liaye lingle flowers produce any feeds; the dou-
againſt Francis I.'s mother; but was enlarged, and went ble kind, therefore, as it produces no feeds, muſt be
to Grenoble, where he died in 1534. His works are propagated by pariing the roots in autumn, after the
printed in two volumes octavo.
flowers are paſi. In doing this, every head which can
AGRIPPINA, daughter of Germanicus, fiſter of be flipped off with roots thould be parted: theſe ſhould
Caligula, and mother of Nero ; a woman of wit, but be planted in a border of freih undanced earth, at the
exceſſively lewd. She was thrice married, the laſt time diſtance of ::x inches one from the other, obſerving to
to Claudius her own uncle, whom ſhe poiloned to make water thcin gently until they have taken root ; after
way for Nero her for Nero afterward cauſed her which they will require no more; for much wet is ve-
to be murdered in her chamber, when ile bid the ex ry injurious to them, as is alſo dung. In this border
ecutioner itab her firſt in the belly that had brought they may remain till ſpring, wlien they ſhould be plant-
forth ſuch a monſter.
ed in the borders of the Hower-garden, where they
AGRIPPINA COLONIA UBIORUM (anc.geot.), now will be very crnamental during the time of their flow-
Cologne : ſo called from Agrippina, the daughter of ering, which is in July and Auguit.--This plant is
Germanicus, and mother of Nero, who had a colony eat by horſes, goals, and sheep.
ſent thither at her requeſt by the emperor Claudius, AGROSTIS, BENT GRADS, in botany: A genus of
to honour the place of her birch. See COLOGNE. the triandria order, belonging to the digynia claſs of
AGRIPPINIANS, in church-hiſtory, the followers plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
of Agrippinus bihop of Carthage, in the third centu. 4h order, Gruniid. The charaéters are : The calyx
ry, who first introduced and defended the practice of is a one-Howered, two-valved, pointed gluma, rather
re-baptization.
leſs than the corolla. The corolla is lwo-yalved and
AGROM, a diſeaſe frequent in Bengal and other pointed. The famina have three capillary filaments,
parts of the Indies, wherein the tongue chaps and which are larger than the curolla. The unthuræ are
cleaves in ſeveral places, being extremely rongh withal, forked. The pitillum has a roundith gernen ; the ſty.
and ſometimes covered with white ſpots. The Indians li are two, reflected, and villoris ; the ſtigmata hiſped
are very fearful of this diſeaſe, which they attribute longitudinally. The pericarp17.712 is the corolid grow-
to extreme heat of the ſtomach. Their remedy is, to ing to the feed, not gaping: The feed is one, gleba-
drink ſome chalybeate liquor, or the juice of mint. lar, and pointed at both ends. There are 15 fpecies;
AGROSTEMA, WILD LYCHNIS, or CAJPION : eight of thein natives of Britain,
A genus of the pentagynia urdur, belonging to the de. AGROSTOGRAPHIA, ſignifies the hiſtory or
candria claſs of plants; and in the natural method defcription of graſſes. Sce GRASS,
ranking under the 22d order, Garyophiliei. The cha AGROUND, the lituation of a ſhip whoſe bottom,
racters are : The causx is a ſingle-lcavcd perianthium, or any part of it, hangs, or rells upon the ground, fo
leathery, tubular, quinquedenrated, and perfiftent: as to render hier immoveable, till a greater quantity of
The crolla conſiſts of five ungulated petals : Thelta water floats her off, or till Me is drawn out into the
mina have ten ſubulated filanients; the antheræ are ftrcain by the application of mechanical powers.
fimple : The piſtillum has an egg-ſhaped germen; the AGRYPNIA, among phylicians, implies an inapti-
ftyli arc-five, filiform, erect, and the length of the tude to sleep; a troublelome ſymptom of feverith and
ſtamina ; the ſtigmata are ſimple : The pericarſi:192 is other diſorders.
an oblong covered capfale, having two calls and nive AGRYPNIA, in the Greek church, implies the vigil
valves : The ſeeds are numerous and kidney ſhaped; of any of the greater feſtivals.
the receptacnla are as many as the ſeeds, the interior AGUE, a general name for all periodical ferers,
ones gradually longer.
which, according to the different times of the returns
Species. The molt remarkable are, i, The githago, of the fererith paroxyſm, are denominated tertian,
hairy wild lychnis, or com:non campion, which grow's quartian, and quotidian. See MEDICINE (Indes.)
naturally in corn-fields in moſt parts of Britain. The Agus-Gurke, the popular name for a hard tumour oil
flowers appear in June, are generally purple, fome. the left ſide of the belly, lower than the falſe ribs, ſaid
times whiie, and by cultivation yellow.
to be the erect or intermitting ſevers.
2. Thc coronaria, or ſingle-roſe campion. Of this AGUE-Tree, a name given to the fallafras, on ac-
ſpecies there are four varieties; one with deep red, count of it: febrifuge qualities.
another with fleih-coloured, a third with white flowers; AGUEPERSE, a town of France, ſituated on the
and a fort with donble flowers, which has turned moſt Lyonnois, abont 15 miles north of Clermont.
of the others out of the gardens.
AGUILLANEUF, or AUGUILIANEUF, a form of
3. The Hos jovis,orumbelliferous mountain-campion, rejoicing uſed among the ancient Franks on the firſt
grows naturally lupon the Helvetian mountains. It is day of the year.
It is day of the year. The word is coinpounded of the
a low plant with woolly leaves: the flower-item riſes French A's to,"gui “mileto,"ind l'anz neuf as the
near a foor high ; the flowers grow in umbols on the
new year.
Its origin is traced from a drail-ceremo-
top of the ſtalk, and are of a bright red colour. They ny : the prieſts uſed to go yearly in December, which
appear in July, and the ſeeds ripen in September. with them was reputed a facred month,to gather mi le to
Gutur. The firſt and third ſpecies are annual of the oak in great folemnity. The prophets marched
planis, ſo muſt be propagated by feeds; but as the in the front, ſinging hymns in honour of their dcities;
VOL, I.
TI
after
A GU
[ 330 ]
A HA
Aguillar after thein caine a herald with a caduceus in his hand; AGURAH, in Jewiſh antiquity, the name of a Aguralı
0 theſe were followed by three druids a-breaſt, bearing silver coit, otherwiſe called gerah and kefhita.
11
Agur.
the things neceſſary for facrifice; laſt of all camc the AGURIUM, or AGYRIUM (anc, geog:), a towni
Aliab.
chief or arch druid, accompanied with the train of of Sicily in the Val di Demona, ncar the river Seme-
people. The chief druid climbing the oak, cut off the tus.
tus. The people were callcd Populus Agyrinenfis by
inilleto with a golden fickle, and the other druids re Cicero ; Agyrinus by Pliny. It was the birth-place of
ceived it in a white cloth ; on the firſt day of the year Diodorus Siculus, as he himſelfteſtifies; but he calls it
it was diſtributed among the people, after having blef- Argyrium, as it is now called S. Philippo d'Argirone,
fed and conſecrated it by crying A gui l’en leuf, to
which modern name ſeems to confirm that Argyriun is
proclaim the new year. This cry is ſtill continucd in the true reading.
Picardy, with the addition of Plantez, Flantez, to AGUSADURA, in ancient cuſtoms, a fee due
with a plentiful year. In Burgundy and ſome other
In Burgundy and ſome other from vaſſals to their lord for the ſharpening their
pirts, the children uſe the ſame word to beg a new ploughing tackle. Anciently the tenants in Come ma-
year's gift. Of later tinies the name Aguillaneuf was nors were not allowed to have their rural implenients
alſo given to a ſort of begging, practiſed in ſome dio harpened by any but whom the lord appointed; for
ceſes, for church-tapers, on new-year's day, by a troop which an acknowledgement was to be paid, called Agu-
of
young people of both ſexes, having a chief, &c. ſadura, in ſome places Agufage : which ſome take to
It was altended with various ridiculous ceremonies, as be the ſame with what was otherwiſe called Reillage,
dancing in the church,&c. which occaſioned the ſynods from the ancient French reills, a ploughſhare.
to ſuppreſs it.
AGUTI, in zoology, the trivial naine of a ſpecies
AGUILLAR, a town of Spain, in the province of of the mouſe, belonging to the mammalia glires of
Navarre, about 24 miles weſt of Enella.
Linnæus. See Mus.
AGUILLAR Del Campo, a town of Old Caſtile, with AGYEI, in antiquity, a kind of obeliſks, ſacred
the title of marquiſate, about 15 leagues north of the to Apollo, erected in the veſtibles of houſes, by way
city of Burgos.
of ſecurity.
AGUILLONIUS (Francis), a Jeſuit, born at Bruf AGYNIANI, in church-hiſtory, a fect who con-
ſels: he was rector of the Jeſuits college at Antwerp, demned all uſe of fleſh, and marriage, as not inſtituted
and eminent for his ſkill in mathematics. He was by God, but introduced at the inſtigation of the devil.
the firſt who introduced that fcience among the Jeſuits The word is compounded of the privative a and your
in the low countries : he wrote a book of Optics, and woman. They are ſometimes alſo called Agynnenſes,and
was employed in finiſhing his Catopirics and Dioptrics, Agynii ; and are ſaid to have appeared about the
year
when death prevented him in 1617.
694. It was no wonder theywereof no long continuance.
AGUIRRA (Joſeph Sænz de), a Benedictine, and Their tenets coincide in a great meaſure with thoſe of
one of the moſt learned men in the 17th century, was the Abelians, Gnoſtics, Cerdonians, and other preach-
born March 24. 1630. He was cenfor and ſecretaryers of chaſtity and abſtinence.
of the ſupreme council of the inquiſition in Spain, and AGYRTÆ, in antiquity, a kind of ſtrolling im-
interpreter of the ſcriptures in the univerſity of Sala- poſtors running about the country, to pick up money
He printed three volumes in folio upon Phi- by telling fortunes at rich mens doors, pretending to
Joſophy, a commentary upon Ariſtotle's ten books of cure diſeaſes by charms, facrifices, and other religious
Ethics, and other pieces. He died at Rome Auguſt myſteries ; alſo to expiate the crimes of their deceaſed
19. 1699.
anceſtors, by virtue of certain odours and fumigations ;
AGUL, in botany, a fynonime of the hedyfarum. to torment their enemies, by the uſe of magical verſes
See HEDYSARUM.
and the like. The word is Greek Aguprus, formed of
AGUR. The xxxth chapter of the Proverbs be- the verb agupw, I congregate; alluding to the practice
gins with this title: “The words of Agur, the ſon of Charletans, who gather a crowd about them.
of Jakeh;" which, according to the ſignification of Agyrtå, among the Greeks, amount to the ſame
the original terms, may be tranſlated, as the Vulgate with Erufcatores among the Latins, and differ not
has it, Verba congregantis, filii vomentis; which tranf- much from Gypſies in Britain.
lation Le Clerc condemns, ſuppoſing theſe to be pro AHAB, ſon of Omri king of Ifrael, ſucceeded his
per names, which ought not to be tranſlated. Theſe father A. M. 3086, and ſurpaſſed all his predeceſſors
words are rendered by Lewis de Dieu : “ The words in impiety and wickedneſs. He married Jezebel the
of him who has recollected himſelf, the ſon of obedi- daughter of Ethbaal king of the Zidonians, who in-
ence." The generality of the fathers and commen troduced the idols of Baal and Aſtarte among lhe Ifu
tators will have it, that Solomon deſcribes himſelf un- raelites, and engaged Ahab in the worſhip of theſe
der the name of Agur the ſon of Jakeh ; others con falſe deities. God, being provoked by the ſins of
jecture that Agur, as well as Lemuel (in chap. xxxi.1.) Ahab, fent the prophet Elijah to him (1 Kings xvii.
were wiſe men who lived in the time of Solomon, and 1, ſeg.) who declared to him, that there would be a
were his interlocutors in the book of Proverbs; an opi- famine of three years continuance. The dearth having
nion which F. Calinet thinks is without the leaſt ſhew laſted three years, the propher deſired Ahab to gather
of probability, this book being nothing like a dia- all the people to mount Carmel, and with them the
logue. This laſt expoſitor thinks it probable, that prophets of Baal: when thcy were thus affembled, Eli-
Agur was an inſpired author different from Solomon, jah cauſed fire to deſcend from heaven upon his facri-
whoſe ſentences it was thought fit to join with thoſe of fice, after which he obtained of God that it lliould rain;
this prince, becauſe of the conformity of their mat and then the earth recovered its former fertility.
Six years after this, Ben-hadad king of Syria (chap.
manca.
ter,
(xx.
AH A
[331]
A H A
Ahaz.
Abab. xx.) laid ſiege to Jeruſalem. But God, provoked at being alſo conſulted, at Jehoſhapliat's ſuggeſtion, pro Ahab
Com this proud Syrian, fent a prophet to Ahab, not only pheſied the ruin of Ahab. Upon this, Ahab gave orders 1
to aſſure him a victory, but to inſtruct him likewiſe to his people to fieze Micaiah, and to carry him to Amon
in what manner he was to obtain it. Ahab was order, the governor of the city, and to Joaſh the king's ſon ;
ed to review the princes of the provinces, which he telling them in his name, “ Put this fellow in priſon,
found to be a choice company conſiſting of 232 young and feed him with the bread of affliction, and with the
men, who were to command the people in Samaria, water of aflliction, until I come in peace. " But Mi.,
amounting to about 7000 men : with this ſmall army caiah faid, If thou return at all in peace, the Lord
Ahab was directed to fall upon the great hoſt of the hath not fpoken by me.” Ahab therefore and Jehoſha-
Syrians, and that at noon-day, while Ben-hadad and phat marched up to Ramoth-gilead; and the king of
the 32 kings that accompanied him were drinking and Iſrael ſaid untoJehoſhaphat, I will diſguiſe myſelf, and
making merry. Ben-hadad having notice that they enter into the battle, but put thou on thy robes :" for
were marching out of the city, ordered them to be he knew that the king of Syria had commanded two and
brought before him alive, whatevertheir deligns were: thirty captains that had rule over his chariots, faying,
but the young men, followed by this finall army, ad Fight neither with ſmall nor with great, ſave only
vanced, and killed all that oppoſed them, ſuch a pa- with the king of Ifrael.” Theſe officers therefore ha-
nic ſeized the Syrian troops, that they began to fly; ving obſerved that Jehoſhaphat was dreſſed in royal
andeven Ben-hadad hiinſelf mounted his horſe and died robes, took him for the king of Iſrael, and fell upon
with his cavalry; which Ahab-perceiving, purſued him with greatimpetuolity: butthis prince ſeeing him-
them, killed great numbers of them, and took a con ſelf preſſed ſo cloſely, cried out; and the miſtake be-
ſiderable booty. After this the prophet came to Ahab, ing diſcovered, the captains of the king of Syria gave
to animate him with frefli courage, and to caution him over purſuing him. But one of the Syrian army ſhot a
to keep upon his guard; aſſuring him, that Ben-hadad random arrow which pierced the lieart of Ahab. The
would return againſt him the year following. Ac- battle laſted the whole day, and Ahab continued in his
cording to this prediction, at the end of the year he chariot with his face turned towards the Syrians. In
returned and encamped at Aphek, with a reſolution the mean time, his blood was ſtill iſſuing from his
to give the Iſraelites battle. Both armies being ranged wound, and falling in his chariot ; and towards the
in order of battle for ſeven days ſucceſſively, at length, evening he died: whereupon proclamation was made
upon the ſeventh day, a battle enſued, wherein the If- by found of trumpet, that every man ſhould return to
raelites killed 100,000 of the Syrians, and the reſt filed his own city and country. The king of Iſrael being
to Apliek; but as they were preſſing to get into the dead was carried to Samaria and buried: but his cha-
city, the walls of Aphek fell upon them and killed riot and the reins of his horſes were waſhed in the fiſh-
27,300 more, Ben-hadad throwing himſelf upon the pool of Samaria, and the dogs licked his blood, ac-
mercy of Ahab, this prince received him into his own cording to the word of the prophet. Such being the
chariot, and made an alliance with him. The year end of Ahab; his ſon Ahaziah ſucceeded him, in the
following, Alabdefiring to make a kitchen-garden near year of the world 3107:
his palace (chap. xxi.), requeſted of one Naboth, a AHÆTULA, the trivial name of a ſpecies of the
citizen of Jezreel, that he would fell him his vineyard, coluber. See COLUBER.
becauſe it lay convenient for him. But being refuſed, AHASUERUS, or ARTAXERXES, the huſband of
he returned in- great diſcontentment to his houſe, Eſther ; and according to archbiſhop U her and F. Cal-
threw himſelf upon the bed, turned towards the wall, met, the ſcripture name for Darius, the ſon of Hyſtal-
and would eat nothing. Jezebel his wife coming in, pes, king of Perſia; though Scaliger will have Xerxes
aſked the reaſon of his great concern ; of which being to be the huſband of Eſther, or the Alaſuerus of ſcrip-
informed, the procured the death of Naboth, and Ahab ture; and Dr Prideaux believes him to be Artaxerxes
took poſſeſſion of his vineyard. As he returned from Longimanus. See Hiſtory of Persia.
Jezreel to Samaria, the prophet Elijah niet him, and AHAZ, king of Judah, the ſon of Jotham, re-
laid, “ Haſt thou killed and alſo taken poſſeſſion ? Now inarkable for his vices and in pieties. One of his ſons.
faith the Lord, in the place where dogs licked up the he conſecrated, by making him paſs through and peo
blood of Naboth, ſhall dogs lick thy blood, even thine. riſ hy the fire, in honour of the falſe god Moloch ;
As for Jezebel, of her the Lord ſpake, ſaying, “The and he offered facrifices and incenſe tipon
dogs fliall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel." Ahab, places, upon hills, and in groves. Rezin king of Sy-
hearing theſe and other denunciations,rent his clothes, ria and Pekal king of Ifrael invaded Judea in the be-
put fackcloth upon his flefli, and gave other indications ginning of the reign of Ahaz; and having defeated
of his ſorrowand repentance. . But his repentance was his army and pillaged the country, they laid ſiege to
neither ſincere nor perſevering. Two years after theſe Jeruſalem. When they found that they could not
things, Jeholhaphat king of Judah came to Sainaria make themſelves maſters of that city, they divided their
to viſit Åhab (chap. xxii.) at a time when he was army, plundered the country, and made the inhabitants
preparing to attack Ramoth-gilead, which Ben-hadad priſoners of war. Rezin and his part of the confede-
king of Syria unjuſtly with-held from him. The rate army marched with all their ſpoil to Damaſcus;
king of Ifael invited Jehohaphat to accompany him
but Pekah with his diviſion of the army laving at-
in his expedition; which that prince agreed to do, tacked Ahaz, killed 120,000 men of his army in one
but deſired that ſome prophet might firſt be conſulted. battle, and carried away men, women; and children,
Ahab therefore aſſembled the prophets of Baal, in num without diftinction, to the number of 200,000. But
berabout 400; who all concurred in exhoiting theking as they were carrying thoſe captives to Samaria, the
to march reſolutely againſt Ramoth-gilead. But Micaiah prophet Oded, with the principal inhabitants of the
T : 2
city,
the high
a
A H A
( 332 )
A HI
1
Ahaz
6
cils, (alle out to Nitet tlıcm, and ly thiir rcnon AHICCYATLI, in zoology, the Indian name of Ahiccyatli
fraces prevailed with them to ſet their priſoners at a ferpent reſembling the rattle-fake, only it wants the
Ahead. liberty. At the ſame time, the Philiſtines and Edo. ratlles. It is as fatal in the effect of the poiſon as any
Ahitophel.
mites invaded other parts of hisland, Lilled multitudes known fpecies of ferpent.
or the people, and carried off much booly. In this AHIJAI!, the prophet of Shilo. He is thought
diít'cilid condition, Ahaz finding no cther remedy for lo be the perſon who ſpoke twice to Solomon from
his affairs, ſent ambaſſadors to Tiglath-pileſer king of God, once while he was building the temple (1 Kings
the Allyrians; and to engage him to his intereſ, he vi. 11.), and which time he proniiſed hin his protec-
ítripped the temple and city of all the gold which he tion; and at another time (id. xi. 6.) after his falling
could meet with, and ſent it as a preſent. Accor into all his irregularities, when God expreſſed his ill-
dingly Tiglath-pileſcr marched to the aſiſtance of A. dignation with great threatnings and rcproaches. A-
liaz, attacked Rezin and killed him, took his capital hijah was one of thoſe who w role the annals or hiſtory
Damaſcus, deſtroyed it, and removed the inhabitants of this prince (2 Chr. ix. 29.). The ſame prophet
thereof to Cyrene.
declared to ſeroboam that he would uſurp llie king-
The misfortunes of this prince had no influence to dom (1 Kings ix. 29, &c.), and that tiyo hiifcrs ſhould
make him better: on the contrary, in the times of alienate him from the Lord, ineaning the golden calves
his greateſt affliclion, he ſacrificed to the Syrian erected by Jeroboam, one al Dan, the other at Bethel.
deities, whom he looked upon as the authors of About the end of Jeroboam's reign, towards the ycar
his calamities, and endeavoured to render propitious of the world 3048, Abijah the ſon of that prince fell
to him, by honouring them in this manner. He broke fick; upon which Jeroboam ſent his wife to this pro-
in pieces the veſſels of the houſe of God, ſhut up the phet toinquire what would become of the child. The
gates of the temple, and erected altars in all parts of queen therefore went to Ahijah's houſe in Shilo, diſgui-
Jeruſalem. He fet up altars likewiſe in all the cities fed: But the prophet, upon hearing the found of her feet,
of Judah, with a deſign to offer incenſe on them. bt ſaid, “Come in, thou wife of croboam, why feigneſt
length he died, and was buried in Jeruſalem, but not ihou thyſelf to be another? for I am ſent to thee with
in the ſepulchres of the kings of Judah his predecef- heavy tidings." Then he con manded her to go and
fors; wliich honour he was deprived of, on account tell Jeroboam all the evil that the Lord had declared he
of his iniquitous courſe of life. Hezekiah his ſon fuc- would bring upon his houſe for his impieties; that ſo
ceeded him in the year of the world 3278, before Je ſoon as ſhe would enter into the city her lon Abijah
fus Chriſt 726.
ſhould die, and ſhould be the only one of Jeroboami's
AHAZIAH, the ſon and ſucceſſor of Ahab king of houſe that ſhould come to the grave or receive the ho-
Iſrael, reigned two years, part alone and part with his nours of a burial. Ahijah in all probability did not long
father Ahab, who ordained him his aſſociate in the ſurvive the time of this laſt prophecy; but with the
kingdom a year before his death. Ahaziah imitated time and manner of his death we are not acquainted.
his father's impieties (1 Kings xxii. 52, ſeq.), and AHITOPHEL, a native of Gillo, was for ſome
paid his adoration to Baal and Aſtarte, the worlhip of time the counſellor of king David, whom he at length
who had been introduced in Iſrael by Jezebel his deſerted, by joining in the rebellion of Abſaiom. This
mother. The Moabites, who had been always obedi- prince, upon his being preferred to the crown by the
ent to the kings of the ten tribes ever ſince their ſe- greateſt part of the Iſraelites, ſent for Ahitophel from
paration from the kingdom of Judah, revolted after Gillo (2 Sam. XV. 12.) to aſſiſt him with his advice in
the death of Ahab, and refuſed to pay the ordinary the preſent ſtate of his affairs : for at that time Abi-
tribute. Ahaziah had not leiſure or power to reduce tophel's counſels were received as the oracles of God
then (2 Kings i. 1, 2, &c.): for about the ſame time, himſelf (chap. xvi. ult.). Nothing gave David more
having fallen through a lattice from the top of his uneaſineſs than this event; and when Huſhai his friend
lıouſe, he hurt himſelf conſiderably, and ſent meſſen came to wait on him and attend him in his flight, he
gers to Ekron, in order to conſult Baalzebub, the intreated him to return rather to Jeruſalem, make a
god of that place, whether he thould recover of the ſhow of offering his ſervices to Abſalom, and endea-
indiſpoſition occaſioned by this accident. But the vour to fruſtrate the prudent meaſures which ſhould
prophet Eljah went to Ahaziah, and declared that he be propoſed by Ahitophel. When Abſalom was come
ſhould not recover from his illneſs; and accordingly to Jeruſalem, he deſired Ahitophel to'deliberate with
he died in the year of the world 3138, and Jehoram his other counſellors upoì the mcaſures which were
his brother ſucceeded to the crown.
proper for him to take. Ahitophel adviſed him in the
A HAZIAH, king of Judah, the ſon of Jehorain and firſt place to abuſe his father's concubines; fothat when
Athaliah, ſucceeded his father in the kingdom of Ju- his party ſhould underſtand that he had diſhonoured
dah in the year of the world 3119. Ile walked in the his father in this manner, they might conclude that
ways of Ahab's houſe, to which he was allied, his there were no hopes of a reconciliation, and therefore
mother being of that family. He reigned only one eſpouſe his intereſt more reſolately. Atent, therefore,
year, being llain by Jehu the ſon of Nim ſhi. being prepared for this purpoſé upon the terraſs of
AHEAD, a ſea-term, ſignifying further onward the kings palace, Abſalum, in the fight of all Iſrael,
than the ſhip, or at any diſtance before her, lying in- lay with his father's concubines. The next thing A-
mediately on that point of the compaſs to which her hitophel propoſed was in the terms following: « Let
ftem is directed. It is ufrd in oppoſition to aftern, me now chooſe out 12,000 men, and I will ariſe and
which expreſſes the ſituation of any object behind the purſue after David this night, and I will come upon him
hip. See ASTERN.
while he is weary and weak-handed, and I will make
1
hin
A H U
( 333 ]
AJA
-
Ahmella him afr.id, and all the pcople that are with him ſhall (chap. viii.) 10 march with the whole army of the 11 Ai
Ace, and I will ſmite the king only; and I will bring raclites againſt Ai, and treat this city and the kingdom It
Ai.
back all the people unto thee; the man wiom thou thcreoi as he had trested Jericho, with this differenee, Ajalou.
ſockiſt is as it all returned ; ſo all the people ſhall be that he gave the plunder of the town to the people.
in peace.” Thisadvice was very agreeable to Abſalom hua fent loy night 30,000 men to lie in ambuſh be-
and all the elders of Ifracl. However, Abſalom deſired hind Ai ; having firit wcll inſtructed thoſe who had
Iuliai to be called to have his opinion, Hufhai bcing the command of them in what they were to do; and
come, and hearing what advice Ahitophel had given, the next day, early in the morning, le marched againſt
ſaid, The counſel which Alitophel has given is 1100 the city with the remainder of his army.
The king
good at this time ; v hat, for the preſent, in my opin- of Ai perceiving them, ſallied haſily out of the towni
ion, may do better, is this : let all lſrael be gathered with all his people, and fell upon the forces of the Il-
u. tuthéc, form Dan even to Berſheba, as the land that raclites; who upon the firſt onſet fied, as if they had
is by the ſea for multitude, and put thyſelf in the midſt been under ſome great terror.
of them, and wherever David is, we may fall upon As ſoon as Joſhua ſaw the enemy all out of the gates,
him, and overwhelin him with our numbers, as the he raiſed his ſhield upon the top of a pike, which was
dew falleth upon the ground. This laſt advice being the ſignal given to the ambuſcade ; whereupon they
more agreeableto Abſalom and all the elders of Iſrael, immediately entered the place, which they found
was preferred ; upon which Alitophel ſaddled his aſs, without defence, and ſet fire to it. The people of Ai
went to his houſe at Gillo, hanged himſelf, and was perceiving the ſmoke aſcending, were willing to rc-
buried in the ſepulchre of his fathers. He foreſaw, turn, but diſcovered thoſe who had ſet fire to the city
without doubt, all that would happen in conſequence in their rear, while Joſhua and thoſe who were with
of Huſhai's advice, and was determined to prevent the him turning about, fell upon them, and cut them in
death which he had deſerved, and which David would pieces. The king was taken alive, and afterwards
probably have inflicted on him, as ſoon as he ſhould be put to death,
refeulled on his throne.
The chevalier Folard obſerves, that Joſhua's enter-
AHMELLA, in botany. See BIDENS.
priſe on Ai, excepting in ſome particulars of military
AHOLIBAH and AHOLAH, are two feigned names arı, is very like that of Gibeah, which is ſcarce any
made uſe of by Ezekiel (xxiii. 4.) to denote the two thing more than a copy of it. It would appear, ſays
kingdoms of Judah and Samaria. Aholah and Aho that writer, by the ſcripture account, that Joſhua was
libah are repreſented as two ſiſters of Egyptian extrac- not the author of the ſtratagem made uſe of by him:
tion. Alolah ſtands for Samaria, and Abolibah for for when God directs himſelf to Joſhua, he'ſays, “Go
Jeruſalem. The firſt ſignifies a tent; and the ſecond, up againſt Ai; lay an ambuſcade behind the town; I
imy tent is in her. They both proſtituted themſelves (have delivered the king and the people of it into thine
to the Egyptians and Aſſyrians, in imitating their hands :' yet notwithſtanding this, God might leave
abovrinations and idolatries : for which reaſon they the whole glory of the invention and execution of it to
were abandoned to thoſe very people for whom they him, as to a great general. • Joſhua aroſe,' ſays the
had ſhown ſo paſſionate and ſo impure an affection ; ſacred author, "and all the people of war, to go up a
they were carried into captivity, and reduced to the gainſt Ai (verſe 3.); and Joſhua choſe out 30,000
fevereſt ſervitude.
mighty nien of valour, and ſent them away by night."
AHOUAI, in botany, a fynonime and alſo the folard remarks, that there is a manifeſt contradičtion
trivial name of the ſpecies of CERBERA.
between this verſe and the 12th, wherein it is ſaid,
A-HULL, in the ſea-language, the ſituation of a that Joſhua choſe out 500 men, whom he ſent to lie in
ſhip when all her fails are furled on acount of the vio- ambulhi, berween Bethel and Ai. How is this to be
lence of the ſtorm, and when having laſhed her helm reconciled ? Calmet ſays, that Maſius allows but 5000
on the lee-lide, ſhe lies nearly with her ſide to the wind men for the ambuſcade, and 25,000 for the attack of
and ſea, her head being ſomewhat inclined to the di the city, being perſuaded that an army of 600,000
reclion of the wind.
men could only create confuſion on this occaſion, with
AHUN, a town in France, in the Upper Marche out aily neceſſity for, or advantage in, ſuch numbers :
and generality of Moulins, and is a royal juriſdiction, but the generality of interpreters, continues Calmet,
It is feated on the river Creuſe, near a Benedictine ab. acknowledge two bodies to be placed in ambufcade,
bey of the ſame name, eight miles ſouth-east of Gue- both between Bethel and Ai; one of 25,000, and the
ret, 30 north-eaſt of Lomages, and 55 ſouth-eaſt of other of 5000 inen.
Moulins. E. Long. 2.8. N. Lat. 49. 5.
With regard to the ſignal Joſhua made to that part
AHUYS, a town of Sweeden. It is ſmall, but very of his army which lay in ambuſcade, the learned Fo.
ſtrong by its ſituation, and has a good port. It is in lard en braces the opinion of the Rabbins, who believe
the principality of Gothland, in the territory of Blec- what is called the ſhield to be too ſmall to ſerve for a
kingy, near the Baltic ſea, about 18 miles from Chriſ- ſignal : hence they make it to be the ſtaff of one of
tianſtadt. E. Long, 14. 10. N. Lat. 56. 20.
their colours : from this, our author concludes, thal
AI, (anc. geog.) a town in Judea, to the north of the whole colours were uſed on the occaſion ; for in
Jericho, called Arve by Joſephus, and the inhabitants the Aſiatic ſtyle, which is very near the poetic, the
Aiuata. Joſhua having fent a detachment of 3000 part is oftentimes to be taken for the whole.
men againſt Ai, God pernitred them to be repulſed on AJALON, (anc. geog.) a town of the tribe of
account of Achan's fin, who had violated the anathema Dan, one of the Levitical. Another in the tribe
pronounced againſt the city of Jericho. But after the of Benjamin, in whoſe valley Joſhua commanded the
expiation of this offence, God commanded Joſhua moon to ſtand Nill, being then in her decreaſe, and
}
2
CON-
A IC [
334 )
A IG
1
Ajan confequently to be ſeen at the ſame time with the of Newburgħ, and 37 S. of Nuremberg. E. Lon. 11. Aicurous
11 fun.
10. N. Lat. 49. 0. The bifhopric is 45 miles in length 9
Aichitat.
AJAN, a coaſt and country of Africa, has the ri- and 17. in breadth ; and the biſhop is chancellor of the Aiguillon
ver Quilmanci on the ſouth; the mountains from which church of Mayence or Mentz.
that river ſprings, on the weſt ; Abyſſinia, or Ethio AICUROUS, a ſpecies of parrot. See PSITTACUR..
pia, and the ſtraight of Babelmandel, on the north ; AID, in a general ſenſe, denotes any kind of aſliſt-
and the eaſtern, or Indian oceail, on the eaſt. The ance given by one perſon to another.
coaſt abounds with all neceſſaries of life, and has plenty AID, in law, denotes a petition made in court to
of very good horſes. The kings of Ajan are often at call in help from another perſon who has intereſt in
war with the emperor of the Abyſſines; and all the pri- land, or any other thing conteſted.
ſoners they take they fell to the inerchants of Cambaya, Aid-de-camp, in military affairs, an officer employ.
thoſe of Aden, and other Arabs, who come to trade ed to receive and carry the orders of a general.
in their harbours, and give them in exchange, colour AID, Auxilium, in ancient cuſtoms, a ſubſidy paid.
ed cloths, glaſs-beads, raiſins, and dates ; for which by vaſſals to their lord on certain occaſions. Such were
they alſo take back, beſides ſlaves, gold and ivory, the aid of relief, paid upon the death of the Lord
The whole ſea-coaſt, from Zanguebar to the ſtraight Meſne to his heir ; the aid cheval, or capital aid, due
of Babelmandel, is called the coaſ of Ajan ; and a con to the chief lord on ſeveral occafons, as, to make his
fiderable part of it is ſtyled the Deſert-coaſt.
eldeſt ſon a knight, to make up a portion for marry.
AJAX, the ſon of Oileus, was one of the principal ing his daughter, &c.
generals that went to the liege of Troy: he raviſhed AIDS, in the French cuſtoms, certain duties paid
Caſſandra the daughter of Priam, even in the temple on all goods exported or imported into that kingdom.
of Minerva, where ſhe thought to have taken fanc Court of Aids, in France, a tovereign court eſta-
tuary. It is ſaid, he made a ſerpent of fifteen feet bliſhed in ſeveral cities, which has cognizance of all
long fo familiar with him, that it eat at his table, and cauſes relating to the taxes, gabelles, and aids, impo-
followed him like a dog. The Locrians had a ſingu- ſed on ſeveral ſorts of commodities, eſpecially wine.
lar veneration for his memory.
Aids, in the manege are the ſame with what ſome
AJAX, the ſon of Telamon, was, next to Achilles, writers call cheriſhings, and uſed to avoid the neceſſity
the moſt valiant generalamong the Greeks at the fiege of corrections. The inner heel, innerleg, inner rein,
of Troy: he commanded the troops of Salamis, and &c. are called inner aids; as the outer.heel, outer lege,
performed many great actions, of which we have an outer rein, &c. are called outer aids.
account in the Iliad, in Diltys Cretenſis, and in the 23d AIDAN, a famous Scottish biſhop of Lindisfarne,
book of Ovid's Metamorphoſes. He was ſo enraged or Holy Iſland, in the 7th century, was employed by
that the arms of Achilles were adjudged to Ulyfies, Oſwald king of Northumberland in the converſion of
that he inimediately became inad. The Greeks paid the Engliſh, in which lie was very ſucceſsful. He died.
great honours to hiin after his death, and erected a
in 651.
magnificent monument to his memory upon the pro- AIGHENEDALE, the name of a liquid meaſure-
montory of Rhetium.
uſed in Lancaſhire, containing ſeven quarts.
AJAX, in antiquity, a furious kind of dance, in uſe AIGLE, a bailwick in the territory of Romand
among the Grecians; intended to repreſent the mad- in Swifferland, conſiſts of mountains and valleys, the
neſs of that hero after his defeat by Ulyſſes, to whom principal of which are the Aigle and Bex. Through
the Greeks had given the preference in his conteſt for theſe is the great road from Vallais into Italy. When
Achilles's arms. Lucian, in his treatiſe of Dancing, you paſs by Villeneuve, which is at the head of the
ſpeaks of dancing the Ajax.-There was alſoan annual lake of Geneva, you enter into a deep valley three miles
feaſt called Ajantia, Aravteret, conſecrated to that prince, wide, bordered on one ſide with The Alps of Swiller-
and obſerved with great ſolemnity in the illand of Sa- land, and on the other with thoſe of Savoy, and croſſed
lamis, as well as in Attica ; where, in memory of the by the river Rhone. Six miles from thence you meet
valour of Ajax, a bier was expoſed, ſet out with a with Aigle, a large town, ſeated on a wide part of the
complete ſet of armour.
valley, where there are vineyards,fields, and meadows.
AJAZZO, a ſea-port town of the iſland of Corfi- The governor's caſtle is on an eninence that overlooks
ca, in the Mediterranean, with a biſhop's ſee. Long, the town, and has a lofty marble tower. This govern-
26. 35. Lat. 41. 40.
ment has nine large pariſhes; and is divided into four
AJEZZO, a ſea-port town of Natolia, in the pro- parts, Aigle, Bex, Olon, and Ormont. This laſt is
vince of Caramania, anciently Sileſia, ſeated on the aniong the mountains, and joins to Rouegment. It
coaſt of the Mediterranean, 30 miles north of Antioch is a double valley, abounding in paſture-land. Ivor-
and 50 weſt of Aleppo, where the city of Iſſus anci- na, in the diſtrict of Aigle, was in part buried by the
ently ſtood, and near which Alexander fought his ſe- fall of a mountain occaſioned by an earthquake in 1584.
cond battle with Darius. Long. 33. 10. Lat. 37.0. AICLE, a ſmall town, in France,in Upper Norman-
AICHSTAT, a town of Germany, in Franconia, dy, twenty-three miles from D’Evereux, and thirty-
and capital of a biſhopric of the ſame name. It is eight from Rouen. It is ſurrounded with walls and
remarkable for a curious piece of workmanſhip, called ditches, has ſix gates, three fuburbs, and three pariſhes.
the ſun of the Holy Sacrament, which is in the church: Ittrades in corn, toys,and more particularly in needles
it is of maſſy gold, of great weight, and is enriched and pins, E. Long. 1.5. N. Lat. 48. 35.
with 350 diamonds, 1400 pearls, 250 rubies, and o AIGUILLON, a ſmall town in France in the pro-
ther precious ſtones. This place is moderately large, vince of Guienne, ſituated at the conflux of the rivers
and ſeated in a valley on the river Altmul, 10 miles N. Garonne and Lut.
Ai.
content
Aiguiſce
il
Ailred.
Alla
I
Air,
A I L
[ 335 ]
AIR
AIGUISCE, in heraldry, denotes a croſs with its of them may be alſo found in the Bibliotheca Ciſtertein-
fuur ends ſharpened, but ſo as to terminate in obtuſe ſis and Bibliotheca Patruin. His principal work is the
angles.-It differs froin the croſs fitchee, in as much Speculum charitatis. Leland, Bale, and Pits, mention
as the latter lapers by degrees to a point, and the for ſeveral manuſcrips which were never publiſhed.
mer only at the ends.
AILSA, an inſulated rock on the weſtern coaſt of
AILANA, AILATH, or AHELOTH, anciently a Scotland, between the ſhores of Airſhire and Cantire.
town of Arabia Perræa, ſituated near the Sinus Ela It is two miles in circumference at the baſe, is acceſ-
niles of the Red Sea. It was alſo called Elath, and ſible only at one place, and riſes to a great height in a
Eloth, (Stephanus, Strabo, Mofes.) The ſame with pyramidical forn. A few goats and rabits pick up
Elana.
a ſubſiſtence among the ſhort graſs and furze ; but the
AILE, in law, a writ which lies where a perſon's importance of the rock conſiſts in the great variety and
grandfather, or great grand-father, being ſeized of boundleſs numbers of birds, by which it is frequented,
lands, &c. in fee fimple, the day that he died, and a particularly the gannets or fólan-geeſe, whoſe young
ſtranger abates and enters the ſame day,and diſpoſſeſſes are uſed at the beſt tables, and bring a good price.
the heir of his inheritance.
Other birds are caught for their feathers. The rock
AILESBURY, AYLESBURY, or ALESBURY, a bo is rented from the Earl of Caſſilis at L.33 per annuil.
rough town in Buckinghamſhire, conſiſting of about The depth of the water around the baſe is from 7 to 48
400 houſes. It conſiſts of ſeveral ſtreets, though the fathoms. It is ſurrounded with excellent banks, well
houſes are not very contiguous : theſe lie round about ſtocked with cod and other white filh.
the market-place, in the middle of which is a conve AINSWORTH (Dr Henry), an eminent noncon-
nient hall, where the ſeſſions are held, and ſometimes formiſt divine, who, about the year 1590, diſtinguiſh-
the aſlīzes for the county. It ſends two members to ed himſelf among the Browniſts; which drew upon
Parliamnent : has a market on Saturdays : and three him ſuch troubles that he was obliged to retire to
fairs for cattle, viz, on the Saturday before Palm- Holland, and became miniſter of a church at Amſter-
ſunday, June 14th, and September 25th. It is fixty dam. His fkill in the Hebrew language, and his ex-
miles ſouth-eaſt of Buckingham, and forty-four north-cellent Annotations on the Holy Scriptures, which are
weſt of London. W. Long. 0. 40. N. lat. 51.40. ſtill highly eſteemed, gained him great reputation. He
AILMER, or ÆTHELMARE, Earl of Cornwall, and alſo wrote ſeveral pieces in defence of the Browniſts,
Devonſhire, in the reign of king Edgar.
It is not
and ſeveral other works.
known of what family he was. His authority and AINSWORTH (Robert), born at Woody ale in Lan-
riches were great, and ſo alſo in appearance was his caſhire in 1660, was maſter of a boarding-ſchool at
piety. He founded the abbey of Cerne, in Dorſet- Bethnal-green, from whence he removed to Hackney,
fhire; and had ſo great a veneration for Eadwald, the and to other places in the neighbourhood of London.
brother of St Edniund the martyr, who had lived a After acquiring a moderate fortune, he retired, and
hermit in that country, near the silver well, as they lived privately till the time of his death, which happen-
called it, that, with the aſſiſtance of Archbiſhop Dun ed in 1743. We are indebted to him for the belt La-
ſtan, he tranſlated his relics to the old church of tin and Engliſh Dictionary extant, he publiſhed it in
Cernel. In 1016, when Canute, the ſon of Suane, in- quarto 1736 ; and in 1752, the fourth edition, under
vaded England, and found himſelf ſtoutly oppoſed by the care of Doctor Ward of Greſham, College, and the
that valiant Saxon prince Edmund Ironſide, the fon Rev. William Younge, was enlarged to two vols folio.
of Æthelred, the Earl Ailmer, with that arch traitor AIR, in natural philoſophy, a thin fluid, elaſtic,
Eadric Streone, Earl of Mercia, and Earl Algar, join- tranſparent, ponderous, compreſſible, and dilatable bo-
ed the Dane againſt their natural prince, which was dy, ſurrounding the terraqueous globe to a conſiderable
one great cauſe of the Saxons ruin. He did not long height. See AEROLOGY, ATMOSPHERE, and PNEU-
ſurvive this; and we find mentioned in hiſtory only one
ſon of his, whoſe name was Æthelward, Earl of Corn Impregnation of Water with Fixed Air, and with
well, who followed his father's maxims, and was pro. Sulphureous AIR.. See MINERAL IVaters.
perly rewarded for it. For in 1018, Canute reaping AIR, in Medicine, &c, makes one of the ſix non-
the benefit of their treaſons, and perceiving that the naturals.-From obſervations on bleeding in rheuma-
traitors were no longer uſeful, he cauſed the infamous tiſms, and after taking cold, it is evident, the air can
Eadric Streone, and this Earl Æthelward, to be both enter with all its qualities, and vitiate the whole tex-
put to death
ture of the blood, and other juices. From the palfies,
AILRED, or EALRED, abbot of Reveſby in Lin- vertigoes,and other nervous affections cauſed by damps,
colnſhire, in the reigns of Stephen and Henry I). Ffemines, &c. it is evident, that air thus qualified can re-
was born in 1109, of a noble family, and educated in lax and obſtruct the whole nervous lyſtem. And from
Scotland with Henry the ſon of king David. On his the colics, fluxes, coughs, and conſumptions produced
return to England, lie became a monk of the Ciſtertian by damp, moiſt and nitrous air, it is evident it call
order, in the monaſtery of Reveſby, of which he after- corrupc and ſpoil the noble organs, &c.
wards was made Abbot. He died on the 12th of Ja Circulat107 of Arrii Rooms. To render the circul.
nuary 1166, aged 57, and was buried in his inona lation of air fengble, let the air of a room be heated by
ſtery. “ He was (ſays Leland) in great eſteem du- a ſtrong fire, whilſt the air of a contiguous room is cold';
ring his life; celebrated for the miracles wrought after then let the door between the two rooms be opened,
his death; and admitted into the catalogue of ſaints.' in which caſe the hot air of one room being lighter,
He was author of ſeveral works ; moſt of which were will paſs through the upper part of the opening of the
publiſhed by Gilbo the Jeſuit at Doniay, 1631 ; part door into the cold room; and, on the contrary, the
3
cold
MATICS.
AIR
AIR
[
336 ]
dir,
Air
cold air of ilicother roon being licavier, will paſs into 66 For the fire would 110 ſooner have warmed any
the furnier room through the lower part of the open- particles of air within the room, than theſe would be
ing; accorủingly, it will be found, that applying a greatly expanded, and riſc immediatcly upwards, fu as
lighted candle at the top, in the middle, and at the to fill the higher parts of the room with raretied air ;
lower part of the opening between the two rooms, a and as other particles would be ſucceſſively heated and
(trong current of air will appear to paſs from the hut rarefied in their turii, by their expanſive force they
into the cold roon near the top; a contrary current would preſs upon the ſides of the apartment in every
of air will appear to paſs from the latter into the for. place, ſo as to force the lighteit particles through the
mcr room near the lower part of the ſaid opening; opening left for that purpoſe in the top of the room ;
whilſt in the iriddle there is lillle or no motion at all, by which means the foulult air would be gradually
as may be clearly perceived by the direction of the drawn off, without deſcending again into the lower
Hame of the candle.
regions to the annoyance of the company,”
It is for the ſame reaſon that when the fire is lighted But in crder to admit freſh air into the room,“ Let's
in a chimney, a ſtrong current of air is occaſioned to ſays he," another opening be made in the ceiling of
enter the room, which may be felt by applying the the room, having a communication with a ſmall pipe
hand near the key hole, or other ſuch ſmall openings, that ſhould lead from thence either to the puttide of
if the doors and windows are thui; for the air over the wall, or to any other part of the building that might
the fire being heated, becomes lighter, and afcends in- be judged more convenient, where it fhould be bent,
to the chimney, confequently other colder air muſt and conducted downwards, till it reached the ground;
fupply its place, which forces its way through all the where it ſhould be left open, to communicate with the
ſmall openings it can find. Were a room with a fire external air.-In this ſituation the cool external air
in it to be perfectly cloſed; excepting the chimney, the would be forced in at the lower opening of ihe tube,
air in it would ſoon become unwholeſome for reſpira. and made to aſcend into the apartment in proportion
tion, and the fire would be ſoon extinguiſhed, beſides to the quantity that eſcaped towardsthe higher regions
other inconveniences. Hence it appears, that thoſe by means of the ventilator. And as that weighty air
perſons miſtake who expect to keep the air of a room would no ſooner enter the room, that it would tend
ſweet and wholeſome, eſpecially for convaleſcents, by towards the floor by its own natural gravity, it would
accurately ſtopping all the ſmalleſt openings that ad- gradually mix with the heated air in its deſcent-be-
mit freſh air. When the current of air that enters in come, in ſome meaſure, warmed by that means, and
to a roon is on ſoine ſide of it where it falls imme- equally diſperſed through the room, ſo as ſlowly and
diately upon the perſons who ſit in the room, then it imperceptibly to reach the candles and the company
may be offenfive, eſpecially to delicate conſtitutions. the room, and ſupply them with a ſufficient quantity
In that caſe, ſuch opening ſhould be cloſed: but at the offrch and wholeſome air, without the inconveniences
ſame time another opening ſhould be made for admit ta which the company are ſubjected by the uſual way
ting freſh air, in another more convenient part; for a of admitting freſh air (A). For if it entcrs near the
circulation of air, eſpecially in rooms where a fire is floor of the apartment, it is hurried along in a rapid un-
kept, is 11ot only falutary and uſeful, but is abſolutely divided ſtream towards the fire-placc,and ſtriking upon
neceſſary.
the legs and inſerior parts of the body, affects them
In an ingenious publication, intitled, A Practical with a ſtrong ſenſation of cold. To overcome the ef-
Treatiſe on Chimneys, there are the following remarks fests of this, large fires muſt be kept; by which other
relating to the propereſt method of admitting air into parts of the body are warmed to an extraordinary de-
a room, and of expelling the contaminated air. The gree, which is productive of moſt of thoſe diſorders
author, directing to make a vent-hole near thc top of that are pernicious to the young, and often prove fa-
the room, in order to expel the heated and contami tal to the old, during the winter-ſeaſon, in theſe cold
nated air, “this,” ſays he “ might be done by means regions.
of a ſmall tube opening into the rooni, either in or 56 Thus might our apartments be kept conftantly,
near the ceiling ; which might either be carıied to the and moderately, and equally warm, at a moderate ex-
top of the building, or be made to communicate with pence, without endangering our health on the one
thie external air by a ſmall perforation through the hand, by refpiring a confined, ſtagnant, and putrid air,
wall at the roof of the room ; by means of either of Gr, on the other hand, by ſubjecting ourſelves to ſuch
which, a proper circulation would be eſtabliſhed, and danger of catching colds, conſumptions, and rheumatic
the foul air be carried off.
complaints, by being expoſed to ſuch exceedingly un-
equal
i
(A) Such readers as liave been little accuſtomed to ſpeculations of this fort, will be at a loſs to comprehend
in what manner two holes, both of them in the roof the room, and communicating with the air, without any
valve, or other contrivance, for opening or cloſing of themſelves, ſhould yet anſwer the two very oppolite pur-
poſes; one, of conſtantly bringing cool air into the room without emitting any warm air--and the other, of as
conſtantly emitting warm and admitting no cool air. They will pleaſe to advert, that the one of theſe tubes
communicates with the atmoſphere at the bottom of the houſe, and thc other towards the top: the opening af
the one is beneath the level of the room, that of the other above it. Now, as the air is more denſe at the ſur-
face of the ground than at any height above it, the warm rarefying air will naturally iſſue at that opening where
it meets with leaſt reſiſtance, which muſt invariably be through that which opens to the external air at the great-
eft height; and as the cool air will naturally be preſſed into the room by that opening where the air is moſt
weighty, this muſt invariably be by that which is neareſt the ſurface of the earth.
A IR
[ 337 ]
A I R
Air
<
equal degrees of heat and cold, as are unavoidable air is injected into the cavity between the two barrels Air-gun.
I where our apartments are ſo open as to admit a ready through the valve EP. The ball K is put down into
Air-gun. paſſage to the external air during the winter-ſeaſon. its place in the ſmall barrel, with the rammer, as in any
66 The reader will eaſily perceive, that all that has other gun. At S L is another valve, which, being
been here ſaid has a reference only to thoſe apartments opened by the trigger O, permits the air to come be-
in cold climates, and rigorous weather, where fire to hind the bullet, ſo as to drive it out with great force.
warn then becomes neceſſary. In warmer regions, or
If this valve be opened and ſhut ſuddenly, one charge
during the ſumıner-ſeaſon, there can be ilo objection to of condenſed air may be ſufficient for ſeveral diſchar-
the wheel-ventilator in the window.--It is a ſimple ges of bullets; but if the whole air be diſcharged on
contrivance, and a ſafe and effectual mean of preſerving one ſingle bullet, it will drive it out with a great force.
the air in our apartments ſweet and wholeſome at that This diſcharge if effected by means of a lock, fig. 9.
ſeaſon.
placed here as uſual in other guns ; for the trigger be-
It is a vulgar error anong many people, to believe ing pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever
that fire purifies the contaminated air, by deſtroying 0, fig. 8. which will open the valve, and let in the air
the noxious particles mixed with it ; and for this rea upon the bullet K.
fon they think, that the fire kept in a room where the Air-guns of late years have received very great im-
air is tainted, purifies the room, by rendering the air provements in their conſtruction. Fig. 10. is a repre-
in it again fit for refpiration. Indeed, a fire kept in a ſentation of one made by the late Mr B. Martin of
room or apartment where the air is tainted, as is the London, and now by ſeveral of the mathematical in-
caſe with hoſpitals, goals, and the like, does certainly ſtrument and gun-makers of that metropolis. For lim-
purify the apartinent, and the practice is very uſeful; plicity and perfection it exceeds any other heretofore
but this effect is only becauſe the fire promotes the contrived. A is the gun-barrel, with the lock, ſtock,
circulation of the air, and dries the dampneſs of rooms, ram-rod, and of the ſize and weight of a common fow-
furniture, &c. ſo that it is not the infected air that is ling-piece.
ling-piece. Under the lock, at b, is a round ſteel
purified, but is new, freſh, and wholeſome air, that by tube, having a ſmall moveable pin in the inſide, which
the action of the fire has taken the place of the infected is puſhed out when the trigger a is pulled, by the ſpring
air ; which infected air, being rarefied by the heat, work within the lock; to this tube b, a hollow copper-
has been expelled from the apartment. Fire and com ball c ſcrews, perfectly air-tight. This copper-ball is
buſtion in general is ſo far from purifying contami- fully charged with condenſed air by the fyringe B
nated air, that it actually contaminates a prodigious (fig. 7.) previous to its being applied to the tube 6 of
quantity of it in a ſhort time ; fo that not only a com fig. 10. It is then evident, that if a bullet be rammed
nion fire, but even a lighted candle, when kept in a down in the barrel, the copper ball ſcrewed faſt at b,
well-cloſed room, wherein the external air has not a and the trigger a be pulled, that the pin in b will, by
free acceſs, inſtead of purifying, renders the air of that the action of the ſpring-work within the lock, forcibly
room noxious.
ſtrike out into the copper ball ; and thereby puſhing il
Inſtrument for aſcertaining the Purity or Whelefome- ſuddenly a valve within the copper ball, let out a por-
nefs of refperable Air. See EUDIOMETER.
tion of the condenſed air ; which air will ruih up thro'
AIR BALLOONS, a general name given to bags of the aperture of the lock, and forcibly act againſt the
any light ſubſtance filled with inflammable air, or other bullet, driving it to the diſtance of 60 or 70 yards or
permanently elaſtic fluid, whoſe ſpecific gravity is con- further. If the air is ſtrongly condenſed at every
fiderably leſs than that ofcommon atmoſpheric air. The diſcharge, only a portion of the air eſcapes from the
conſequence of their being filled in this manneris, that if ball; therefore, by re-cocking the piece, another dil-
they are of any conſiderable magnitude, they aſcendin charge may be made ; and this repeated to the amount
the air to an amazing height; and will not only aſcend of 15 or 16 times. An additional barrel is ſometimes
in this manner by themſelves, but carry up along with made, and applied for the diſcharge of ihot, inſtead of
them great weights, and continue to riſe till they at the one above deſcribed.
tain an height in which the circumambient air is of the The air in the copper ball is condenſed by means of
ſame ſpecific gravity with themſelves. In this ſitua- thefyringe B (fig. 7.), in the following manner : The
tion they will either float or be driven in the direction ball cis ſcrewed quite cloſe on the top of the ſyringe at
of the wind or current of air in which they are expo- b, at the end of the steel pointed rod : a is a ſtout ring
ſed, remaining in theſe elevated regions till the fluid througb which paffes the rod k: upon this rod the feet
cſcapes by the burſting of the bags from the ſuperior ſhould be firmly ſet; then the hands are to be ap-
elaſticity of the fluid, or by its gradual evaporation plied to the two handles i i, fixed on the fide of the
through the pores of the envelope. The hiſtory, prin- barrel of the fyringe. Now, by moving the barrel B
ciples, &c. of thoſe machines are detailed under the ar- ſteadily up and down on the rod a, the ball c will be-
ticle AEROSTATION.
come charged with condenſed air ; and it may be ca-
Air-Bladder, in fiſhes. See COMPARATIVE ANA- fily known when the ball is as full as poſſible, by the
TOMY, chap. iii. and ICHTHYOLOGY.
irreliſtible action that the air makes againſt the piſton
Plate X.
Air-Gun, a pneumatic machine for exploding bul- when you are working the ſyringe. At the end of the
lets, &c. with great violence.
rod k is uſually a four-ſquare hole, which with the rod
The common air-gun iş made of braſs, and has two ſerves as a key to faſten the ball c faft on the ſcrew b
barrels; the inſide barrel A, fig. 8. which is of a ſmall of the gun and fyringe cloſe to the orifice in the ball c.
bore, from whencethebullets are exploded; and a large in the inſide is fixed a valve and ſpring, which gives
barrel ECDR on the outſide of it. There is a ſyringe way for thc admiſſion of air ; but upon
its emillion
SMNP fixed in the ſtock of the gun, by which the comes cloſe up to the orifice, ſhutting up the internal
VOL.I.
Uu
air
AIR
A IR
[ 338
338 ]
Air-gun. air. The piſton-rod works air-light, by a collar of the cock, which before nade part of the barrel K K, Air-gun
leather on ii, in the barrel B ; it is thicrefore plain, into thc ſituation i k, ſo that the pari i niay be at K; il
when the barrel is drawn up, the air will ruſh in at the and hold the gun upon your ſhoulder, with the bar- Air-pipes.
holc h. When the barrel is puſhed down, the air tliere- rel downwards and the magazine upwards, by which
in contained will have no other way to paſs from the means that bullet next the cock will fall into it out of
preliure of the piiton b'it into the ball c al top. the magazine, bat go no farther into this cylindric
barrel being drawn up, the operation is repeated, until cavity than the two little ſprings s s, which detain it.
the condentation is fo ttrong as to relift the action of The twocircles repreſent the cock-barrel, wherein the
the piſton.
key abovementioned turns upon an axis not repreſent-
Sometimes the ſyringe is applied to the end of the cd'here, but vilible in fig. 13. This axis is a ſquare
barrel C (fee tig. 11.); the lock and trigger ſhut up in piece of ſteel, on which comes the ſquare hole of the
a braſs caled; and the trigger pulled,or diſchargc made, hammer H, fig. 14. by which the cylindric cavity meil-
by pulling the chain b. In this contrivance there is a tioned is opened to the magazine. Then opening the
round chamber for the condenſed air at the end of the hummer, as in that figure, the bullet is brought into its
fyringe ate, and it has a valve acting in a timilar man- proper place near the diſcharge-valve,and the cylindric
ner to that of the copper ball. When this inflrument cavity of the key of the cock again makes part of the
is tot in uſe, the braſs caſe d is made to ſlide off, and in ward barrel K K.
the inſtrument then becomes a walking-ſtick; from It evidently appears how expeditious a method this
which circumſtance, and the barrel being made of cane, is of charging and diſcharging a gun ; and were the
braſs, &c. it has received the appeilation of the A!rn force of condenſed air equal to that of gun-powder,
cane. The head of the cane unſcrews and takes off at ſuch an air-gun would anſwer the end of ſeveral
guns.
a, where the extremity of the piſton rod in the barrel In the air-gun, and all other caſes where the air is
is ſhown: an iron rod is placed in a ring at the end of required to be condenſed to a very great degree, it will
this, and the air condenſed in the barrel in a ſimilar be requiſite to have the fyringe of a ſmall bore, viz.
manner to that of the gun as above; but its force of not exceeding half an inch in diameter ; becauſe the
action is not near ſo ſtrong and permanent as that of preſſure againſt every ſquare inch is about 15 pounds,
the latter.
and therefore againſt every circular inch about 12
The Magazine Air-gun was invented by that inge- pounds. If therefore the fýringe be one inch in di-
nious artiſt L. Colbe. By this contrivance ten bullets ameter, when one atmoſphere is injected, there will be
are ſo lodged in a cavity, near the place of diſcharge, a reſiſtance of 12 pounds againſt the piſton ; and when
that they may be drawn into the ſhooting-barrel, and Io are injeced, there will be a force of 120 pounds to
fuccellively diſcharged ſo faſt as to be ncarly of the be overcome ; whereas to atmoſpheres act againſt the
fame uſe as ſo many different guns.
circular half-inch piſton (whoſe area is only one-fourth
Fig.12.repreſents the preſent form of this machine, part fo big) with only a force equal to 30 pounds;
where part of the ſtock is cut off, to the end of the iná or 40 atmoſpheres inay be injected with ſuch a fyringe,
jecting fyringe. It has its valve opening into the ca as well as to with the other. In ſhort, the facility of
vity between the barrels, as before. K K is the ſmall working will be inverſely as the ſquares of the diame-
fhooting-barrel, which receives the bullets from the ter of the fyringe.
magazine E D, which is of a ſerpentine form, and Air-Jacket, a ſort of jacket made of leather, in
cloſed at the end D when the bullets are lodged in it. which are ſeveral bags, or bladders, compoſed of the
The circular part a bc, is the key of a cock, having fame materals, communicating with each other. Theſe
a cylindric hole through it, i, k, which is equal to the are filled with airthrough a leather tube, having a braſs
bore of the fame barrel, and makes a part of it in the ſtop-cock accurately ground at the extremity, by which
preſent ſituation. When the lock is taken off, the ſe means the air blown in through the tube is confined in
veral parts Q, R, T, W.&c.come into view, by which the bladders. Thejacket muſt be wet, before the air
means the diſcharge is made by puſhing up the pin P p, be blown into the bags, as otherwiſe it will immediate-
which raiſes and opens a valve V,tolet in the air againſt ly eſcape through the pores of the leather. By the
the bullet I, from the cavity FF'; which valve is im- lielp oftheſe bladders, which are placed near the breaſt,
mediately ſhut down again by means of a long ſpring the perſon is fupported in the water, without making
of braſs NN. This valve V being a conical piece of the efforts uſed in ſwimming.
braſs, ground very true in the part which receives it, Air-Pipes, an invention for drawing foul air out of
will of itſelf be ſufficient to confine the air.
ſhips, or any other cloſe places, by means of fire.
To make a diſcharge, you will pull the trigger ZZ, Theſe pipes were firſt found out by one Mr Sutton, a
which throws up the ſeer y a, and diſengages it from brewer in London ; and from hiin have got the name
the norch a, upon which the ſtrong ſpring WW moves of Sutton's Air-pipes. The principle on which their
the tumbler T, to which the cock is fixed. This, by operation depends is known to every body, being in-
its end u, bears down the end v of the tumbling lever deed no other than that air is neceſſary for the ſup-
R, which, by the other end m, raiſes at the ſame time
raiſes at the ſame time port of fire ; and, if it has not acceſs from the pla-
the flat end of the horizontal lever Q; and by this ces moſt adjacent, will not fail to come from thoſe
means, of courſe, the pin P p, which ſtands upon it, is that are more remote. Thus, in a common furnace,
puſhed up, and thus opens the valve V, and diſcharges the air enters through tlre afh-hole ; but if this is clo-
the bullet. This is all evident from a bare view of the ſed up, and a hole made in the ſide of the furnace, the
figure.
air will ruſh in with great violence through that hole.
To bring another bullet to ſucceed that marked I, If a tube of any length whatever is inſerted in this hole,
inſtantaneouſly, turn the cylindric cavity of the key of the air will ruh through the tube into the fire, and of
COIL.
Plate X
M
4
2 Fig?
AEROLOGY
Trig
Frig
Sigz
2
i
F
M
G
Fig 4
ligus
M
Fig 6
UB в
E
D
b
I
B В
IE
Tig
>
Fig8 Air Gun
C
1
Ortugan
WITT
TOO
S
L
D
B
1
Fig 1ojimprovede. tir Gun
B
b
Frig 9
C
k
Tigile tirline
С
80
d
Fig 12 Magazinee lir Gun
1
DI Hinn HIITTI
R111
mmm! THEIT
Trig 13
Antoninint montannanimirum TUITIM KHE PUMA IT in
R
With
T
RO
tig
tig 14
772
Z
IL
Ul11111
Rekin bule Philad!
AIR
[
339 ]
AIR
Air-pipes, conſequence there will be a continual circulation of who uſed all his intereſt for that purpoſe, was fanc-1-pes. .
air in ihat place where the extremity of the tube is laid. fully neglected.
Mr Sulton's contrivance then, as communicated to the A machine capable of anſwering the ſame purpoſe
Royal Society by Doctor Mead, amounts to no inore was invented by Mr Defaguliers, which he called ihe
than this.- As, in every ſhip of any bulk, there is ſhip'slungs. li conſiſted of a cylindrical box ſet up oil
already provided a copper or boiling-place proportion- its edge, and fixed to a wooden pedeſtal. From the
able to the ſize of tlie vellel ; it is propoſed to clear the upper edge of the box iſſued a ſquare trunk open at:he
bad air, by means of the fire already uſed under the end, and communicating with the cavity of the box.
faid.coppers or boiling places for the neceſſary uſes of Within this box was placed a cylindrical wheel turnirg
the ſhip
on an axis. It was divided into 12 parts, by means oí
" It is well known, that, under every ſuch copper partitions placed like the radii of a 'circle. Theſe
par-
or boiler, there are placed two holes, ſeparated by a titions did not extend quite to the centre, but left all
grate, the firſt of which is for the fire, and the other open ſpace of about 18 inches diameter in the middle ;
for the aſhes falling from the faine ; and that there is towards the circumference, they extended as far as por-
alſo a flue from the fire-place upward, by which the fible without interfering with the caſe, ſo that the
finoke of the fire is diſcharged at ſome convenient wheel might always be allowed to turn freely.Things
place of the ſhip.
being thus circumſtanced, it is plain, that if the wheel
66 It is alſo well known, that the fire once lighted in was turned towards that ſide of the box on which the
theſe fire-places, is only preſerved by the conſtant trunk was, every diviſion would puſh the air before it,
draught of air through the forementioned two holes and drive it out through the trunk, at the ſame time
and Aue; and that if the ſaid two holes are cloſely ſtop- that freſh air would come in through the open ſpace at
ed up, the fire, though burning ever ſo briſkly before, the centre, to ſupply that which was thrown oit thro'
is inimediately pat out.
the trunk. By turning the wheel ſwiftly, a ſtrong blaſt
“ But-if, after ſhutting the abovementioned holes, of air would be continually forced out thro’the ſquare
another hole be opened, communicating with any o trunk, on the ſame principles on which a common fan-
ther room or airy place, and with the fire: itis clear, ner winnows corn. If the wheel is turned the oppoſite
the ſaid fire muſt again be raiſed and burn as before, way, a draught of air may be produced from the trunk
there being a like draught of air through the ſame as
to the centre. If this machine, then, is placed in a
there was before the ſtopping up of the firſt holes ; room where a circulation of air is wanted, and the trunk
this caſe differing only from the former in this, that made to paſs through one of the walls; by turning the
the air feeding the fire will now be ſupplied from ano wheel ſwiftly round, the air will be forced with great
ther place.
velocity out of that room, at the ſame time that freſh
«« It is therefore propoſed, that, in order to clear the air will enter through any chinks by which it can have
holds of ſhips of the bad air therein contained, the two acceſs to ſupply that which has been forced out.
holes abovenientioned, the fire-place and all-place, be It is evident, that the circulation which is promoted
both cloſed up with ſubſtantial and tiglit iron-doors; by this machine, is entirely of the ſame kind with that
and tliat a copper or leadei pipe, of ſufficient ſize, be produced by Mr Sutton's : the turning of the wheel in
laid from the hold into the all-place, for the draught Mr Deſagulier's machine being equivalent to the rare-
of air to come in that way to feed the fire. And thus faction of the air by fire in Mr Sutton's: but that the
it ſeems plain, from what has been already faid, that latter is vaftly fuperior, as acting ofitſelf, and without
there will be, from the liold, a conſtant diſcharge of intermiſſion, requires no argument to prove. Mr Sut-
the air therein contained ; and conſequently, that that ton's machine has yet another conveniency, of which
air, fo diſcharged, muſt be as conſtantly ſupplied by freſh no other convenience for the ſame purpoſe can boaſt;
air down the hatches or fuch other communications as namely, that it not only draws out putrid air, but de-
are opened into the hold; whereby the ſame muſt ſtroys it by cauſing it paſsthrough fire: and experience
be continually freſhened, and its air rendered more has abundantly ſhown, that though putrid air is thrown
wholeſome and fit for reſpiration.
into a great quantity of freſh air, it is ſo far from lo-
« And if into this principal pipe, ſo laid into the fing its pernicious properties, that it often produces
hold, other pipes are let in, communicating reſpective- noxious diſeaſes. We do not ſay, indeed, that putrid
ly either with the well or lower decks: it muſt follow, air becomes falutary by this means; but it is undoubt-
that part of the air,conſumed in feeding the fire, mult edly rendered leſs noxious than before ; tho' whether
be reſpectively drawn out of all the places to which it is equally innocent with the ſmoke of a fire fed in
the communication ſhall be ſo made."
the common way, we cannot pretend to determine.
This account is ſo plain, that no doubt can remain Beſides this machine by Mr Deſaguliers, the venti-
concerning the efficacy of the contrivance; it is evi- lators of Dr Hales, already mentioned, and thoſe
dent, that, by means of pipes of this kind, a conſtant called wind-fails,are likewiſe uſed forthe ſame purpoſe.
circulation of freſh air would be occaſioned thro' thoſe The former of which is an improvement of the Heflian-
places where it would otherwiſe be moſt apt to ſtagi bellows*:the other is a contrivance for throwing freſh- *See Vene
and pntrefy. Several other contrivances have been ufed air into thoſe places where putrid air is apt to lodge ; tilator.
for the ſame purpoſe ; and Doctor Hale's ventilators, but this has the laſt-mentioned inconvenience in a
by ſome unaccountable prejudice, have been reckoned much greater degree than any of the others, as the
ſuperior in efficacy and even ſimplicity to Mr. Sutton's blaſt of freſh air throws out that which was rendered
machine, which at its firſt invention met with great putrid loy itaynation, in ſuch a manner as to contami-
*See Sur- oppoſition, and even when introduced by Dr Mead, nate all around it. See Wind-Sails.
AIR-
*
fon.
U 12
AIR
[ 340 ]
A I R
Air-tiunk
Air-flafts.
Air.
Air-Tryk, is alſo a contrivance by Doctor Hales they come at the ore; and for the ſupply of air lave Air-threads
to prevent the ſtagnation of putrid effluvia in jails, boxes ot elm exactly cloſed, of about 11x inches in the I
and other places where a great number of people are clear, by which they carry it down about 20 fa-
crowded together in a ſmall ſpace. It'confifts only of thoms. They cut a trench a little diſtance from
a long ſquare trunk open al both ends; one of which is
the top of the groove, covering it with turf and rods
inſerted into the ceiling of the room, the air of which diſpoſed to receive the pipe, whiclı they contrive to
is required to be kept pure; and the other extends a
come in fideways to their groove, four feet from the
good way beyond the roof. Through this trunk a top; which carries down the air to a great depth.
continued circulation is carried on; and the reaſon is, When they come at ore, and need an air-ſhaft, they
that the patrid effiuvia which do ſo much miſchief when ſink it four or five fathoms diſtant, according- to the
collected, being much lighter than the pure atmoſ convenience of the breadth, and of the ſame faſhion
phere, ariſe to the top of the room ; and, if they there with the groove, to draw as well ore as air.
find a vent, will continually go out through it. Theſe Air-Threads, in naturals hiſtory, a nanie given to
effluvia ariſe in very conſiderable quantity, being cal the long filaments, ſo frequently ſeen in autumn float-
culated by the late Dr Keil at no leſs than 39 ounces ing about in the air.
froin one man in 24 hours.
Theſe threads are the work of ſpiders, eſpecially of
Theſe trunks were firſt made trial of by Mr Yeom211, that ſpecies called the long-legged field ſpider ; which
over the Honſe of Commons, where they were nine having mounted to the ſummit of a buſh or tree, darts
inches wide within ; and over the CourtofKing;'s-bench from its tail ſeveral of theſe threads, tillone is produced
in Weſtminſter-hall, where they were ſix inches wide. capable of ſupporting the creature in the air: on this
They are ſometimes made wider, and ſometimes nar it mounts in queſt of prey, and frequently riſes to a
rower : but the wider they are the longer they ought very confiderable height. See ARANEA.
to be, more effeétually to promote the aſcent of the va AIR-VESSELS, are ſpiral ducts in the leaves, &c. of
pour. The reaſon why vapours of this kind aſcend plants, fuppoſed to be analogous to the lungs of ani-
more ſwiftly through a long trunk than a fhort one, is, mals, in ſupplying the different parts of a plant with
that the preffure of fluids is always according to their air. See the article PLANTS.
different depth, without regard to the diameter of their AIR, in mythology, was adored by the Heathensun-
baſis, or of the veſlel which contains them ; and, upon der the names of Jupiter and Juno ; the former repre-
This principle, a gallon of water may be made to ſplit ſenting the ſuperior and finer part of the atmoſpere,
a ſtrong caſk. See HYDROSTATICS. When the co and the latter the inferior and groffer part. The augurs
lumn of putrid eſiluvia is long and narrow, the differ alſo drew preſages from the clouds, thunder, light-
ence between the column of atmoſphere preſſing on the ning, &c.
upper end of the trunk, and that which preffes on the AIR, in painting, &c. denotes the manner and very
lower end, is much greater than if the column of pu life of action: or it is that which expreſſes the diſpoſi-
trid effluvia was ſhort and wide ; and conſequently the tion of the agent. It is ſometimes alſo uſed in a ſyno.
aſcent is much ſwifter.One pan of a ſingle pair of nymous ſenſe with geſture or attitude.
fcales, which was two inches in diameter, being held Air, in muſic, is taken in different ſenſes. It is
within one of theſe trunks over the Houſe of Commons, ſometimes contraſted with harmony; and, in this ſenſe
the force of the aſcending air made it riſe ſo as to re it is ſynonymous with melody in general. Its proper
quire four grains to reſtore the equilibrium, and this meaning is, A tune which is ſet to words, or to ſhort
when there was no perſon in the houſe ; but when it pieces of poetry that are called fongs.
was full, no leſs than 12 grains were requiſite to re In operas, we give the name of air to ſuch pieces of
ſtore the equilibrium ; which clearly ſhows that theſe muſic as are formed with meaſures and cadences, to di-
trunks muſt be of real and very great efficacy. ſtinguiſh it from the recitative ; and, in general, every
Air-Pump, a machine by which the air contained in piece of muſic is called an air, which is formed for the
a proper veſſel may be exhauſted or drawn out. See voice, or even for inſtruments, and adapted to ſtanzas,
the article PNEUMATICS.
whether it forins a whole in itſelf, or whether it can
Air-Sacks, in birds. See COMPARATIVE ANATO be detached from any whole of which it forms a part,
MY, chap. ii.
and be executed alone.
Air-Shafts, among miners, denote holes or ſhafts If the ſubject admits of harmony, and is ſet in parts,
let down from the open air to meet the adits and fur the air is, according their number, denominated a
mith freſh air. The damps, want, and impurity of air duett, a trio, a quartetto, &c. We need not follow
which occur, when adits are wrought 30 or 40 fathoms Rouſſeau,and the other philologiſts,in their endeavours
long, make it neceſſary to let down air-ſhafts, in order to inveſtigate the etymon of the word air. Its deriva-
to give the air liberty to play through the whole work, tion, though found and aſcertained, would contribute
and thus diſcharge bad vapours, and furniſh good air little to illuſtrate its meaning in that remote ſenſe, to
for reſpiration : the expence of which ſhafts, in regard which, through a long continuance of time, and the
of their vaſt depths, hardneſs of the rock, drawing of various viciſſitudes of language, it has now paſſed. The
water,&c. ſometimes equals, nay exceeds, the ordinary curious may conſult the ſame article in the Dictionnaire
charge of the whole adit.
de Muſiqué by M. Rouſſeau.
Sir Robert Murray deſcribes a method, uſed in the In modern muſic, there are ſeveral different kinds of
coal-mines at Liege, of working mines without air- airs, each of which agrees to a certain kind of dancing,
Hhafts.
and from theſe dances the airs themſelves take their
When the miners at Mendip have funk a groove, ſpecific names.
they will not be at the charge of an air-haft till The airs of our operas, are, if we may be permitted
the
A I R
( 341 )
AIR
Air.
6
t
“
the expreſſion, the canvaſs or ſubſtratum upon which of its antiquity are corroborated by an elegant build Aira
are painted all the pictures of imitative muſic; melodying called the Grofs, which has eſcaped the deſtruc-
is the delign, and harmony the colouring; every pictu- tive rage of the laſt and preceding century. The date Airing-
reſque object ſelected from the moſt beautiful parts of on this fragment of antiquity is 1055, conſequently it
nature, every reflected ſentiment of the human heart, hath ſtood in its place above 736 years; and it is to
are the models which the artist imitates ; whatever be wiſhed, that the majority of the inhabitants may
gains attention, whatever intereſts the foul, whatever unite in preſerving it from being deſtroyed by perſons
charms the ear, or cauſes emotion in the heart, theſe who have expreſſed a ſtrong delire to that purpoſe. In
are the objects of his imitation. See IMITATION. 1557, the tax levied upon Air was L.236 Scots; upon
An air which delights the ear, and diſcovers the learn- Glaſgow only L.202. In 1771, Air was aſſeſſed at
ing of the compoſer; an air invented by genius, and 155. Sterl. and Glaſgow at L. 18, 1os. In 1751, the
compoſed with taſte; is the nobleſt effort of niulic: it pickled herrings exported from Air were 6624 barrels;
is this which explores the compaſs, and diſplays the fince the year 1777, none.
Theſe revolutions appear
delicacy, of a beautiful yoice; it is in this where the the niore extraordinary, when we conſider the very
charms of a well-conducted fymphony ſhine ; it is by advantageous ſituation of Air both by land and by wa-
this, that the paſſions, excitedundinflamed by nice gra ter; the fertility of the country; the riches of the ſea;
dations, reach and agitate the ſoul through the avenues its contiguity to the weſtern fisheries on one ſide, and
of external ſenſe. After hearing a beautiful air, the to Glaſgow on the other; the large returns for cattle,
mind is acquieſcent and ſerene: the car is ſatisfied, not grain, and coal; the imple revenues of the town ; and
diſguſted : it remains impreſſed on the fancy, it be. particularly the conveniency of its harbour for fiſhing-
comes a part of our eſſence, we carry it with us, we are yelſels of every conſtruction.--About a mile north from
able to repeat it at pleaſure: without the ability acqui- the town there is a lazar-honſe, commonly called The
red by habit to breathe a ſingle note of it, we execute King's Chapel, which King Robert de Bruce ſet apart
it in our imagination in the ſame manner as we heard for the maintenance of lepers.
it upon the theatre : one fees the ſcene, the actor, the AIRA, in botany: A genus of the triandria digy-
theatre; one hears the accompaniments and the ap- nia claſs; and in the natural method ranking under the
plauſes. The real enthuſiaſt in muſic never forgets 4th order, Gramina. The characters are: The calyx
the beautiful airs which he has heard; when he chooſa is a two-flowered double-valved glume: The corolla is
and no rudiinent
The words to which airs are adapted, are not always florets: The flamina conſiſt of three capillary filaments
rehearſed in regular ſucceſſion, nor ſpoken in the ſame the length of the flower; the antheræ are oblong, and
manner with thoſe of the recitative; and though, for forked at both ends: The piſtillum is an egg-lhaped
ordinary, they are very ſhort, yet they are interrupted, germen ; the ftyli are two, brilly, and expanding; the
repeated, tranſpoſed, at the pleaſure of the artiſt. They ftigmata are pubefcent: There is no pericarpium; the
do not conſtitute a narrative, which once told is over: including corolla grows to the ſeed: The feed is egg-
they either delineate a picture, which it is neceſſary to ſhaped and covered.
ſhaped and covered. There are 14 fpecies of the aira,
contemplate in Jifferent points of view; or inſpire a fen- nine of which are natives of Britain. The
English
timentin which the heart acquieſces with pleaſure, and name is Hair-graſs. See the general article GRASS.
from which it is neither able nor willing to be diſen AIRANI, in church-hiſtory, an obſcure ſect of A-
gaged ; and the different phıaſes of the air, are nothing rians, in the fourth century, who denied the conſub-
elle but different mannersof beholding the fameimage. ſtantiality of the Holy Ghoſt with the Father and the
This is the reaſon why the ſubjeå of an air ſhould be Son. They are otherwiſe called Airaniſtæ ; and are
It is by theſe repetitions properly placed, it is ſaid to have taken their name from one Xiras, who di-
by theſe redoubled efforts, that an impreſſion, which at ſtinguiſhed himſelf at the head of this party, in the
firſt was not able to nove you, at length ſhakes your reigns of Valentinian and Gratian.
ſoul, agitates you, tranſports you out of yourſelf; and AIRE, a town of France, in Proper Gaſcony, of
it is likewiſe upon the ſame principle, that the runnings, which it is the capital, with a biſhop's ſee. It is feat-
as they are called, or thoſe long, mazy, and inarticu- ed on the river Adour, on the declivity of a mountain.
lated inflections of the voice, which, in pathetic airs, E. Long. 0. 3. N. Lat. 43. 47.
frequently ſeen, though they are not always ſo, im AIRE, a ſtrong town in the Netherlands, in the
properly placed ; whilſt the heart is affected with a ſen county of Artois, with a caſtle. It was taken by the
timent exquiſitely moving, it often expreſſes its emo French in 1710, and was confirmed to them by the
tions by inarticulate ſounds, more ſtrongly and ſenſibly treaty of Utrecht. It is ſeated on the River Lis, 22
than it could do by words themſelves.
miles ſouth of Dunkirk, and communicates with St
The form of airs is of two kinds. The ſmall airs Omer's by a canal cut from the river Aa.
E. Long
are often compoſed of two ſtrains, which ought each 2. 31. N. Lat. 50. 38.
of them to be iung twice; but the important airs in o AIRING, a term peculiarly uſed for the exerciſing
peras are frequently in the form of rondeaus.
horſes in the open air. It purifies the blood; purges the
AIR,or Ayr,in geography, a town of Scotland, capital body from groſs humours; and, as the jockies expreſs
of an extenſive county of the ſame name. It ſtands on it, teaches ihe horſe how to make his wind rake equally,
the river Air, and was formerly a place of good trade, and keep time with the other motions of his body. It
and ſeat of fiſheries; allof which have vaniſhed, and the alſo ſharpens the ſtomach, and keeps the creature hun-
people now live by one another. Air appears, from hi gry; which is a thing of great conſequence, as hunters
tory and other documents, to have been a conſiderable and racers are very apt to have their ſtomach fall off,
place at the time of the Norman conqueſt. Theyouchers either from want of exerciſe, or from the too violent
one.
exet.
A
AJU
[ 342 ]
A I X
Airs
juga.
Aix.
exerciſe which they are often expoſed to. If the horſe when it muſt be removed under a frame, and protected Alius
be over fat, it is beſt to air him before ſun-riſe and from the froſts. In the ſpring, after the plants are come Locutius
after ſun-ſetting; and in general, it is allowed by all, up, let them be tranlated cach into a ſeparate pot, and 1)
that nothing is niore beneficial to thoſe creatures than in ſummer placed under a ſhady filuation. The other
carly and late airings. Some of our modern managers, forts are eaſily propagated by their ſide-ſhoots, and
however, diſpute this: they ſay, that the cold of theſe ſucceed beſt in a moiſt thady licuacion.
times is too great for the creaiure; and that if, in par AIUS LOCUTIUS, the name of a deity to whom
ucular, he is ſubject to catarrhs, rheums, or che like the Romans erected an altar.-The words are Latin,
complaints, the dews and cold fogs, in theſe early and and ſignify “ a ſpeaking voice.”—The following ac-
late airings, will be apt to increaſe all thoſe diſorders. cident
gave occaſion to the Romans erecting an altar to
Nature, we fee, alſo points out the fun-beams as of the Aius Locutius, One M. Seditius, a plebeian, ac-
great uſe to theſe animals; thoſe which are kept hardy quainted the tribunes, that, in walking the ſtreets by
and lie out all night, always running to thoſe places night, he had heard a voice uver the temple of Verta,
where the ſunſhine comes, as ſoon as it appears in a giving the Romans notice that the Gauls were coming
morning. This ſhould ſeemn to recommend thoſe air- againſt them. This intiination was however neglected;
ings that are to be made before fun-fet, and a little tine but after the truth was confirmed by the event, Camil-
after ſun-riſe. As to the caution, ſo earneſtly incul- lus acknowledged this voice to be a new deity, and erec-
cated by Markham, of uſing theſe early and late air ted an altar to it under the name of the Aius Locutius.
ings for fat horſes, it is found unneceffary by many: . AJUTAGE, or ADJUTAGE, a kind of tube fitted
for they ſay, that the fame effect may be produced by to the mouth of the veſſel through which the water of
airings at warmer times, provided only that they are a fountain is to be played. To the different form and
made longer; and that, in general, it is from long air- ſtructure of ajutages, 'is owing to the great variety of
ings that we are to expect to bring a horſe to a perfect fountains. See FOUNTAIN and HYDROSTATICS,
wind and found courage.
AIX, a ſmall but ancient town in the duchy of Sa-
AIRS, in the manege, are the artificial motions of voy, with the title of a marquiſate. It is ſeated on the
taught horſes; as the demivolt, curvet, capriole, &c. lake Bourget, at the foot of a mountain, between
AIRY, or AERY, among ſportſmen, a terni expref- Chamberry, Annecy, and Rumilley. There is here a
ſing the neſt of a hawk or eagle.
triumphal arch of the ancient Romans, but it is almoſt
A1RI 7'riplicity aniong aſtrologers, denotes the three entirely ruined. The mineral waters bring a great
ſigns, gemini, libra, and aquarius.
number of ſtrangers to this place. The place was 0-
AISNE, a river of France, which riſes in Cham- riginally called Aqua Gratianæ, from the hot baths
paign, and runs W. by Soiſons in the Iſle of France, built there by the Einperor Gratian. E. Long. 7. 10.
falling into the river Oiſe, a little above Campeigne.
N. Lat. 45. 40.
AITOCZU, a conſiderable river of Leſſer Aſia, Aix, an ancient city, the capital of Provence, in
which, ariſing in the mountain Taurus, falls into the France. It is an archbiſhopric; and has a parliament,
ſouth part of the Euxine ſea.
a court of aids, a chamber of accounts, a feneſchal's
AJUGA, BUGLE: A genus of the gymnoſpermia juriſdiction, a generality, and an univerſity. It has
order, belonging to the didynamia claſs of plants; and that air of ſilence and gloom ſo commonly characteriſtic
in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, of places deſtitute of commerce or induſtry: It is,
Aſperifolia. The characters are: The calyx is a ſhort however, a well-built city ; and moſt like Paris of any
perianthium, monophyllous and perſiſtent: The corolla place in the kingdom, as well for the largeneſs of the
is monopetalous and grinning: The ſiamina conſiſt of buildings, as in reſpect of the politeneſs of the inhabi-
four erect ſubulared filaments; theantheræ are dimi tants. It is einbelliſhed with abundance of fine foun-
diated: The piſtillum has a four-cleft germen, a fili- tains, and ſeveral beautiful ſquares. The preachers
form ſtylus, and two ſlender ſtigmata. There is no pe- ſquare is on the ſide of a hill; it is about 160 yards in
ricarpium ; the calyx converging, and containing the length, and is ſurrounded with trees, and houſes built
ſeeds in its bofomn: The ſeeds are four, and oblong. The with ſtone three ſtories high. The town-hall is at one
Species enumerated by Linnæus are, 1. The orienta- end of the city, and is diſtributed into ſeveral fine a-
lis, with inverted flowers, which is a native of the caſt. partments: the two loweſt are taken up by the board
2. The geneyenſis, with woolly leaves and hairy cups, of accounts, and by the ſeneſchal ; that above is deſign-
is a native of Swiſſerland and of the ſouthern parts of ed for the ſeſſions of parliament. The hall of audience
Europe. 3. The pyramidalis, or mountain-bugie, with is adorned with the pictures of the kings of France on
a ſquare pyramidal ſpike and blue flowers, is a native horſeback.
horſeback. The hotel of the city is a handſome build-
of Sweden, Germany, Swiſſerland, and the hilly parts ing, but hid by the houſes of the narrow ſtreet in which
of Britain. Sheep and goats eat it; cows are not fond it is placed. The cathedral church is a Gothic ſtruc-
of it ; horſes and ſwine refuſe it. 4. The reptans, com ture, with tombs of ſeveral carls of Provence, and ſome
mon or paſture bugle, with creeping fuckers, and blue, good pictures by French maſters. The Corſe, or Orbi-
red, or white bloſſoms, in long leafy ſpikes, is a native telle, is a magnificent walk, above 300 yards long,
of the ſouthern parts of Europe, and is met with in formed by a triple avenue of elms, and two rows of re-
woods and moiſt places in many parts of Britain. The gular and ſtately houſes. The church of the fathers of
roots are aſtringent, and ſtrike a black colour with vi the oratory is a handſome building ; and not far from
triol of ironi.
thence is the chapel of the blue penitents, which is full
Culture. The firſt ſpecies is propagated by ſowing of paintings. The convent of preacher is very fine;
the feeds ſoon after they are ripe, in a pot filled with in their church is a ſilver ſtatue of the Virgin Mary al-
Joamy earth, and placed in a ſhady fituation till autumn; inoſt as big as the life. There are other churches and
buildings
AIX
[ 343 ]
AI X
Aiz.
Aix.
-
buildings which contain a great number of rarities. elector palatine, in the quality of the duke of ju-
The baths without the city, which were diſcovered not liers, as protector of the city. This place is famous
long lince, have good buildings, raiſed at a vaſt ex for ſeveral councils and treaties of peace concluded
pence, for the accommodation of thoſe who drink the here ; particularly thoſe becween France and Spain ini
waters. Although Aix was the firſt Roman ſettlement 1668, and between Great Britain and France in 1748.
in Gaul, it is not remarkable for ancient remains. The The hot fulphurcous waters for which this place has
warm ſprings from which it is now known and fre ſo long been celebraicd, ariſe from ſeveral ſources,
quented, induced Sextus Calvinus to found a colony which
ſupply eight baths conſtructed in different parts
here, to which he gave the name of Aqua Sextiæ.
of the town. Theſe waters near the ſources are clear
They were ſuppoſed to poſſeſs particular virtues in ca and pellucid; and have a ſtrong ſulphureousſmell reſem-
fes of debility, and ſeveral altars have been dug up bling the waſhings of a foul gun ; but they looſe ihis
facred to Priapus, the inſcriptions on which indicate ſmell by expoſure to air. Their taſte is ſaline, bitter,
their gratitude to that deity for his ſuppoſed ſuccour and urinous. They do not contain iron. They are al-
and aſſiſtance. E. Long. 5. 32. N. Lat. 43. 32. ſo neutral near the fountain, but afterwards are mani.
Aix, a ſinall illand on the coaſt of France, between feſtly and pretty ſtrongly alkaline, inſomuch that
the iſle of Oleron and the continent. It is twelve clothes are waſhed with them without ſoap.-On the
miles.north-weſt of Rochfort, and twelve fouth-ſouth vaults above the ſprings and aqueducts of theſe waters
weſt of Rochelle. W. Long 1. 4. N. Lat. 46. 5. is found, every year, when they are opened, a quanti-
AIX LA CHAPELLE, a fine city of Germany, in the ty of fine white-coloured flowers of ſulphur, which
circle of Weſtphalia and duchy of Juliers.
has been ſublimed from the waters,
All authors are agreed about its antiquity, it being The heat of the water of the hotteſt ſpring, by Dr
mentioned in Cæſar's Commenraries and the Annals Lucas's account, raiſes the quickſilver of Fahrenheit's
of Tacitus. The Romans had colonies and fortreſſes thermometer to 136-—by Monſ. Munet's account, to
there, when they were at war with the Germans ; but 146—and the heat of the fountain, where they com-
the mineral waters and the hot bath ſo increaſed its mionly drink, by Dr Lucas's account to 112.
fame, that, in proceſs of time, it was advanced to the Dr Simmons has given the following account of their
privileges of a city, by the name of Aquægranii, that ſeveral temperatures, as repeatedly obſerved by hiin-
is, the waters of Granius ; that which it has now, of ſelf with a thermometer conſtructed by Nairne.
Aix la Chapelle, was given it by the French, to di The ſpring which ſupplies the Emperor's bath
ftinguiſh it from the other Aix. It is ſo called, on ac (Bain de l'Empereur), the New Bath (Bain
count of a chapel built in honour of the Holy Virgin Neuf), and the Queen of Hungary's bath (Bain
by Charlemagne; who having repaired, beautified, and de la Reine de Hongrie),
1270
enlarged the city, which was deſtroyed by the Huns St Quirin's bath (Bain de St Quirin),
II20
in the reign of Attila, in 451, made it the uſual The Roſe bath (Bain de la Roſ), and the Poor's
place of his reſidence. The town is ſeated in a bath (Bain des Pauvres), both which are ſup-
valley ſurrounded with mountains and woods, and yet plied by the ſame ſpring,
II20
the air is very wholeſome. It may be divided into the Charles's bath (Bain de Charles), and St Cor-
inward and outward city. The inward is incompaſſed neille's bath (Bain de St Corneille),
II
with a wall about three quarters of a league in circum- The ſpring uſed for drinking is in the High ſtreet,
ference, having ten gates; and the outward wall, in oppolite to Charles's bath; the heat of it at the,
which there are eleven gates, is about a league and a
pump is
1060
half in circumference. There are rivulets which run Dr Lucas evaporated the water of the hotteſt ſpring
through the town and keep it very clean, turning ſe. (of the Emperor's Bath), and obtained 268 grains of
veral mills ; beſides twenty public fountains, and many folid matter from a gallon, compoſed of 15 grains of
private ones. They have ſtone-quarries in the neigh- calcareous earth, 10 grains of ſelenites, and 243 grains
bourhood, which furniſh the inhabitants with proper of a faline matter made up of natron and ſea ſalt. They
materials for their magnificent buildings, of whiclı are at firſt nauſeous and harſh, but by. habit become
the ſtadt-houſe and the cathedral are the chief. There familiar and agreeable. At firſt drinking, alſo, they
are likewiſe thirty parochial or collegiate churches. generally affect the head. Their general operation
The market-place is very ſpacious, and the houſes is by ſtool and urine, without griping or diminution
round it are ſtately. In the middle, before the ſtadt- of ſtrength; and they alſo promote perſpiration.
houſe, is a fountain of blue ſtones, which throws out The quantity to be drank as an alterative is to be
water, from ſix pipes, into a marble baſon placed be. varied according to the conſtitution and other circum-
lleath, thirty feet in circumference. On the top of ſtances of the patient. In general, it is beſt to begini
this fountain, is placed the ſtatue of Charlemagne, of with a quarter or half a pint in the morning, and in-
braſs, gilt, holding a fceptre in his right-hand, and a crcaſe the doſe afterwards to pines, as may be found
globe in his left. The ſtadt-houſe is adorned with the convenient. The water is beſt drank at the fountain.
ftatues of all the enrperors.lince Charlemagie. This When it is required to purge, it ſliould be drank in
fabric has three ſtories, the upper of which is one en- large and often repeated draughts,
tire room of 162 feet in length and 60 in breadth. In In regard to bathing, this alſo must be determined
this the new-elected emperor formerly entertained all by the age, ſex, ſtrength, &c. of the patient, and by
the electors of the empire
the ſeaſon. The degree of heat of the bath ſhould like-
Aix la chapelle is a free imperial city, and chan- wiſe be conſidered. The tepid ones are in general the
ges its magiſtracy every year on the eve of St John beft, though there are ſome caſes in which the hotter
Baptiſt. The mayor is in the nomination of the ones are moſt proper. But eyen in theſe, it is beſt to
3
begin
AKE
( 344 ]
A KE
Aizouil, begin with ihe temperate baths, and increaſe the heat That Dr Akonfide was able to acquire no other kind Akenſide.
Akenlide. gradually.
of celebrity than that of a ſcholar and a poet, is to be
Theſe waters are efficacious in diſeaſes proceeding accounted for by the following particulars in his life
from indigeſtion and from foulneſs of the ſtomach and and conduct, related by Sir John Hawkins.-Mr Dy.
bowels. in rheumatiſms; in the ſcurvy, ſcrophula, ſon and he were fellow-ſtudents, the one of law and the
and diſeaſes of the ſkin;in hyſteric and hypochondriacal other of phyſic, at Leyden ; where, being of conge-
diſorders ; in nervous complaints and melancholy; in nial tempers, a friendihip commenced between them
the ſtone and gravel; in paralytic complaints; in thoſe that laſted through their lives. They left the univer-
evils which follow an injudicious uſe of mercury; and ſity at the ſaine time, and both ſettled in London : Mr
in many other caſes. They ought not, however, to Dyſon took to the bar, and being poffefſed of a hand-
be given in hectic caſes where there is heat and fever, foine fortune, ſupported his friend while he was endea-
in putrid diſorders, or where the blood is diffolved, or vouring to make himſelf known as a phyſician; but in
the conſtitution much broken down,
a ſhort time, having purchaſed of Mr Hardinge his
The time of drinking, in the firſt ſeaſon, is from the place of clerk of the houſe of commons, he quitted
beginning of May till the middle of June; and, in the Weſtminſter-hall; and for the purpoſe of introducing
latter ſeaſon, froin the middle of Auguſt to the latter Aken ſide to acquaintance in an opulent neighbourhood
end of September.
near the town, bought a houſe at North-End, Hamp-
There are galleries or piazzas under which the com Itead; where they dwelt together during the ſummer-
pany walk during the time of drinking, in order to ſeaſon, frequenting the long-room, and all clubs and
promote the operation of the waters.--The poor's aſſemblies of the inhabitants.
bath is free for every body, and is frequented by At theſe meezings, which, as they were not ſelect,
crowds of poor people.
niuſt be ſuppoſed to have conſiſted of ſuch perſons as
It is ſcarcely neceſſary to add, that there are all uſually meet for the purpoſe of goſſiping, men of
kinds of amuſements common to other places of public wealth, but of ordinary endowments, and able to talk
refort; but the ſharpers appear more ſplendid here than of little elſe than news, and the occurrences of the day.
elſewhere, aſſuming titles, with an equipage ſuitable to Akenfide was for diſplaying thoſe talents which had
them.-Aix la Chapelle is 21 miles from Spa, 36 from acquired him the reputation he enjoyed in other com-
Liege, and 30 from Cologne. E. Long. 5. 48. N. panies : but here they were of little uſe to him ; on the
Lat. 51. 55.
contrary, they tended to engage him in diſputes that
AIZOON, called by Mr Miller ſempervive; though betrayed him into a contempt of thoſe that differed in
the name Aizoon has been by ſome writers applied to opinion from him. It was found out that he was a
the houſe-leek, and alſo to the aloes: A genus of the man of low birth, and a dependent on Mr Dyſon ; cir-
pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria claſs of cumſtances that furniſhed thoſe whom he offended with
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the a ground of reproach, that reduced him to the neceſ-
13th order, Succulenta. The characters are : The ſity of aſſerting in terins that he was a gentleman.
lyx is a ſingle-leaved perianthium,divided into fiveſeg Little could be done at Hampſtead after matters had
ments, and perſiſtent: There is no corolla: Theſia- proceeded to this extremity : Mr Dyſon parted with
nina conſist of very numerous capillary filaments: the his villa at North-End, and ſettled his friend in a ſmall
antheræ are ſimple : The piſtilluin has a five-cornered houſe in Bloomſbury-ſquare ; aſſigning for his ſupport
germen above, with five ſimple ſtyli; and the ftigmata ſuch a part of his incoine as enabled him to keep a
are ſimple. The pericarpium is a bellied, retuſe five chariut. In this new ſituation Akenſide uſed every
cornered capſule, having five cells and five valves: The endeavour to become popular, but defeated them all,
feeds are many and globular.–Linnæus mentions three by the high opinion he every where manifeſted of him-
Species; the canarienſe, hiſpanicum, and paniculatuni. ſelf, and the little conäefcenſion he ſhowed to men of
The firſt is a native of the Canary iſlands, the ſecond inferior endowments ; by his love of political contro-
of Spain, and the third of the Cape of Cood Hope. verſy, his authoritative cenſure of the public councils,
They may all be raiſed in Britain on hot-beds ; and his bigotted notions reſpecting government ; fub-
but as they are not remarkable either for beauty or any jects foreign to his profeſſion, and with which ſome of
other property, it appears unneceſſary to take further the wiſeſt of it have though it prudent not to concern
notice of them.
themſelves. In the winter evenings he frequented
AKENSIDE (Mark), a phyſician, who publiſhed Tom's coffee-houſe in Devereux-court, then the reſort
in Latin “ A Treatiſe upon the Dyſentery,” in 1764, of ſome of the moſt eminent men for learning and in-
and a few pieces in the firſt volume of the “ Medical genuity of the time ; with ſome of whom he became
Tranſactions” of the college of phyſicians, printed in intangled in diſputes and altercations, chiefly on fub-
1 768 : but far better known, and to be diſtinguiſhed jects of literature and politics, that fixed on his cha-
chiefly liereafter,as a poet. He was born at Newcaſtle racter the ſtamp of haughtineſs and ſelf-conceit, and
upon-Tyne, November 9.1721 ; and after being edu drew him into diſagreeable ſituations. Hence many,
cated at the grammar-ſchool in Newcaſtle, was ſent to who adınired him for his genius and parts, were ſhy of
the univerſities of Edinburgh and Leyden ; at which becoming his intimates.
laft lie took his degree of Doctor in Phyfic. He was af The value of that precept which exhorts us to live
terwards admitted by mandamus to the ſame degree at peaceably with all meil, or, in other words, to avoid
Cambridge; clected a fellow of the college of phyſi- creating enemies, can only be eſtimated by the reflec-
cians, and one of the phyſicians at St Thomas's Ho- tion on thoſe many amiable qualities againſt which the
ſpital; and, upon the eſtabliſhmentof the queen's houſe- neglect of it will preponderate. Akenfide was a man
hold, appointed one of the phyſicians to her majeſty. of religion and ſtrict virtue ; a philoſopher, a ſcholar,
ca-
ز
2
and
Α Κ Ο
[ 345 ]
A L A
;
Akenſide and a fine poet. His converſation was of the moſt de-
Al
the ſchool of law, and gives lectures to all the fubaltern
lightſul kind; lcarncd, inflructive, and without any officers; he has his deputies in all the courts of the
Alabaſter,
Akünd. affectation of wii, chcerful and entertaining.
kingdon, who, with the ſecond ſadra, make all con-
Dr Akenſide died of a putrid fever, June 23. 1770; tracts.
and is buried in the pariſh-church of St James's Weſt AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and fig.
minſter.
nifying much the ſame with the Engliſh particle the:
His poems, publiſhed ſoon after his death in 4to and Thus they ſay, alkermes, alkoran, &c. i. e. the ker-
8vo, conſiſt of " The pleaſures of Imagination," two nies, the koran, &c.
books of “ Odes,” a “Hymn to the riads,” and Al, or ALD, a Saxon term, frequently prefixed to
fome “ Inſcriptions,” The pleaſures of Imagina-
The pleaſures of Imagina- the names of places, denoting their antiquity; as
tion,” his capital work, was firſt publiihed in 1744; Alborough, Aldgate, &c.
and a very extraordinary production it was from a man ALA, a Latin term properly ſignifying a wing;
who had not reached his 23d year. He was afterwards from a reſemblance to which ſeveral other things are
ſenſible, however, that it wanted reviſion and correc called by the ſame naine : Thus,
tion; and he went on reviſing and correcting it for ALA, is a term uſed by botaniſts for the hollow of a
ſeveral years : but finding this talk to grow upon his ſtalk, which either the leaf, or the pedicle of the leaf,
hands, and deſpairing of ever executing it to his own makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, or ſinus,
ſatisfaction, he abandoned the purpoſe of correcting, placed between the ſtalk or branch of a plant and the
and reſolved to write the poem over anew upon a fome- leaf, whence a new offspring uſually iſſues. Sometimes
what different and enlarged plan. He finiſhed two itis uſed for thoſe parts or leaves otherwiſe called lobes
books of his new poem, a few copies of which were or wings.
printed for the uſe of the author and certain friends ALÆ (the plural number) is uſed to ſignify thoſe
of the firſt book in 1757, of the ſecond in 1765. He petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers, placed be-
finiſhed alſo a good part of a third book, and an in tween thoſe others which are called the vexillum and
troduction to a fourth ; but his moſt munificent and ex carina, and which make the top and bottom of the
cellent friend, conceiving all that is executed of the flowers. Inſtances of flowers of this ſtructure are ſeen
new work, too inconſiderable to ſupply the place, and in thoſe of peaſe and beans, in which the top leaf or
ſuperſede the republication of the original poem, and petal is the vexillum, the bottom the carina, and the
yet too valuable to be with-held from the public, hath ſide ones the alæ.
cauſed them both to be inſerted in the collection of his Ale is alſo uſed for thoſe extremely ſlender and
poems.
membranaceous parts of ſome feeds, which appear as
AKIBA, a famous rabin, flouriſhed a little after wings placed on them ; it likewiſe ſignifies thoſe mem-
the deſtruction of Jeruſalem by Titus. He kept the branaceous expanſions running along the ſtems of
flocks of a rich citizen of Jeruſalem till the 40th year ſome plants, which are therefore called alated lialks.
of his age, and then applied himſelf to ſtudy in the ALE, in anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the
academies for 24 years; and was afterwards one of the liver, the cartilages of the rifril, &c.
greateſt maſters in Ifrael, he having 24,000 ſcholars. ALE, in the Ronian art of war, were the two wings
He declared for the impoſtor Barcochebas, whom he or extreme parts of the army drawn up in the order
owned for the Meſſiah ; and not only anointed him king, of battle.
but took upon himſelf the office of his maſter of the ALABA, one of the three ſmalleſt diſtricts of Bir.
horſe. The troops which the emperor Hadrian ſent cay in Spain, but pretty fertile in rye, barley, and
againſt the Jews, who under the conduct of this falſe fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and
Meſſiah had committed horrid maſſacres, exterminated it had formerly the title of a kingdom.
this faction. Akiba was taken and put to death with ALABANDA (anc. geog.), a town in Caria, near
great cruelty. He lived 120 years; and was buried the Meander, ſituate beneath eminences reſembling af-
with his wife in a cave upon a mountain not far from fes with pack-faddles, which give riſe to the jeft; and
Tiberias, and his 24,000 ſcholars were buried round between Amyzo to the weſt and Stratonice to the
about him upon the ſaine mountain. It is imagined he eaſt. Under the Romans they enjoyed aſſiſes, or a
invented a ſuppoſititious work under the name of the convention of juriſdiction,by Pliny reckoned the fourth
patriarch Abraham.
in order ; hence the proverb in Stephanus, expreſſing
AKISSAT, the ancient Thyatira, a city in Nato their happineſs. It was built by Alabandus, whom
lia, in Aſia, ſituated in a plain 18 miles broad, which therefore they deemed a god, The people were called
produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants, Alabandi, Alabandenfis, Cicero ; and Àlabarteis, after
who are reckoned to be about 5000, are ſaid to be all the Greek manner, in coins of Aguſtus and Claudius;
Mahonietais. The houſes are built of nothing but they were alſo called Alabendeni (Livy).
earth or turf dried in the ſun, and are very low and ill ALABARCHA, in antiquity, a kind of magi.
contrived: but there are fix or ſeven moſques, which ſtrates among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the en-
are all of marble. There are remarkable inſcriptions perors allowed thein to elect, for the fuperintendency
on marble in ſeveral parts of the town, which are part of their policy, and to decide differences and diſputes
of the ruins of ancient Thyatira. It is feated on the which aroſe among them.
river Herinus, so miles from Pergamos. E. Long. 28. ALABASTER (William) an Engliſh divine, was
30. N. Lat. 38. 50.
born at Hadley in the county of Suffolk. He was one
AKOND, an officer of juſtice in Perfia, who takes of the doctors of Trinity college in Cambridge ; and
cognizance of the cauſes of orphans and widows; of he attended the earl of Élex as his chaplain in the ex-
contracts, and other civil concerns. He is the head of pedition to Cadiz in the reign of queen Elizabeth. It -
VOL. I.
is
XX
A L A
( 346 )
A LA
Alabaſter. is ſaid, that his firſt reſolutions of changing his religion gites of Pliny, is found in Greece; and is of a fofc Alabaſter.
were occaſioned by his ſeeing the pomp of the churches looſe open texture, pretty heavy, and nearly of the co-
of the Roman communion, and the reſpect with which lour of honey. This ſpecies has likewiſe been found
the pricits ſeemed to be treated amongſt them; and in Germany, France, and in Derbyſhire in England.
appearing thus to waver in his mind, he foon found 3. Variegated, yellow,and reddiſh alabaſter. This fpe-
perſons who took advantages of this diſpoſition of his, cies is the common alabaſter of the ancients, and is ſo
and of the complaints which he made of not being ad- 'ſoft that it may be cut with a knife: It is remarkably
vanced according to his deſerts in England, in fuch a bright, and almoſt tranſparent; admits of a fine poliſh,
manner that he did not ſcruple to go over to the Po- and conſiſts of large angular ſparry concretions. It is
piſhi religion, as ſoon as he he found that there was no not proof againſt water; it ferments violently with
ground to hope for greater encouragement in his own aqua-fortis, and burns to a pale yellow. The colour
country. However that matter is, he joined himſelf of this ſpecies is a clear pale yellow reſembling amber,
to thc Romiſh communion, but was diſappointed in and variegated with undulated veins ; ſome of which
his expectations. He was ſoon diſpleaſed at this; he are pale red, others whitiſh, and others of a pale browli.
could not reconcile himſelf to the diſcipline of that It was formerly brought froni Egypt, but is now to be
church, which made no conſideration of the degrees met with in ſeveral parts of England. The alabaſters
which he had taken before. It is probable too that are frequently uſed by ſtatuaries for ſmall ſtatues, vales,
he could not approve of the worſhip of creatures, which and columns. After being calcined and mixed with
proteſtants are uſed to look upon with horror. Upon water, they may be caſt in any mould like plaſter of
this he returned to England, in order to reſume his Paris. See GYPSUM.
former religioni. He obtained a prebend in the cathe Alabaſter, Mr Boyle obferves, being finely powder-
dral of St Paul, and after that the rectory of Therfield ed, and thus ſet in a baſon over the fire, will, when
in Hertfordſhire. He was well ſkilled in the Hebrew hot, aſſume the appearance of a fluid, by rolling in
tongue ; but he gave a wrong turn to his genius by waves, yielding to the ſmalleſt touch, and emitting
ſtudying the Cabala, with which he was ſtrangely in- vapour; all which properties it loſes again on the de-
fatuated.
He gave a proof of this in a ſermon which parture of the heat, and diſcovers itſelf a mere inco-
he preached upon taking his degree of doctor of herent powder. The fineneſs and clearneſs of this
divinity at Cambridge. He took for his text the be- ſtone renders it in ſome meaſure tranſparent; whence
ginning of the firſt book of Chronicles, Adam, Seth, it has been ſometimes alſo employed for windows.
Enos; and having touched upon the literal ſenſe, he There is a church at Florence ſtill illuminated by ala-
turned immediately to the myſtical, afferting, that baſter-windows; inſtead of panes of glaſs, there are
Adam fignifyed nisfortune and miſery, and ſo of the ſlabs of alabaſter near 15 feet high, each of which
reft. His verſes were greatly eſteemed. He wrote a La- forms a ſingle window, through which the light is con-
tin tragedy, intitled Roxand; which, when it was acted veyed. The countries in Europe which abound moſt
in a college at Cambridge, was attended with a very re- in alabaſter are Germany, toward Coblentz; the pro-
markable accident. There was a lady who was ſoter vince of Maconnois, in the neighbourhood of Cluni
rified at the laſt word of the tragedy, Sequar, Sequar, in France; Italy, toward Rome; where that of Mon-
which was pronounced with a very ſhocking tone, that taiour is particularly remarkable not only for its white-
the loſt her ſenſes all her lifetime after. Alabaſter was neſs, but alſo for the bigneſs of its blocks, fome
living in 1630. His Apparatus in Revelationen Jeſu of which are fo large, that ftatues as big as the
Ghrifti was printed at Antwerp, in 1607. As for his life may eaſily be cut out of them. F. Labat, in his
Spiraculum tubarum feu fons Spiritualium Expoſitionum journey to Italy, obſerves, that there are quarries of
ex æquivocis Pentaglotti ſignificationibus, and his Ecce alabaſter in the neighbourhood of the village called de
Sponfus venit, ſeu tuba pulchritudinis, hoc eft demonftra- la Toffa, near Civita Vecchia : there is alſo alabaſter
tio quod non fit illicit iim nec impoſibile computare du to be found in ſome places of Lorrain ; but it is not
rationem mundi & tempus ſecundi adventus Chriſti, they much eſteemed. A new manufacture of baſſo relieyos,
were printed at London. We may judge from theſe from a ſingular ſpecies of factitious alabaſter, has been
titles what the taſte and genius of the author was. ſome time ago eſtabliſhed by M. Letapie, at the baths
ALABASTER, in natural hiſtory, a ſpecies of that of St Philip in Tuſcany. The ſtream at theſe baths
genus of ſtones whoſe baſe is calcareous earth. It depoſites a peculiar kind of ſand, which, when col-
differs from the marble in being combined, not with the lected and condenſed in the cavitics of any body em-
aerial, but with vitriolic acid; therefore, when mixed ployed to oppoſe its current, acquires the nature, hard-
with any acid; no efferveſcence appears. It is folableneſs, and colour of alabaſter, and aſſumes the forms of
in about 500 times its weight of water at the tempera- thoſe cavities in which it is thus lodged.
ture of 60. It is fuſible alone in a long-continued ALABASTER, in antiquity, a term uſed for a vaſe
porcelain heat, or by the blow-pipe. ' Specific gravity wherein odoriferous liquors were anciently put. The
1.87. Texture granular, with ſhining particles. In reaſon of the denomination is, that veſſels for this pur-
compoſition, and conſequently in its chemical proper- poſe were frequently made of alabaſter-ſtone, which
ties, it does not differ from gypſum, ſelenite, and pla- Pliny and other ancients repreſent as peculiarly pro-
ſter of Paris,
per for this purpoſe. Several critics will have the box
There are three fpecies of alabaſter. 1. The ſnow- mentioned in the Goſpels as made of alabaſter to have
white ſhining alabaſter, or lygdinum of the ancients, been of glaſs : And though the text ſays that the wo-
is found in Taurus, in pieces large enough to make man broke it, yet the pieces ſeem miraculouſly to have
diſhes, or the like. It cuts very freely, and is capable been united, ſince we are told the entire bex was pur.
of a fine poliſh. 2. The yellowiſh alabaſter, or phen- chaſed by the emperor Conſtantine, and preſerved as
a
A L A
[ 347 ]
A L A
Alaba a relic of great price. Others will have it, that the
Others will have it, that the the greateſt men of the fifteenth century. The cardi- Alanıanni
Itrum
naine alabaſter denotes the form rather than the matter nal preſided in the council of Balil, which depoſed Eu ll
ol
of this box : In this view they define alabaſter by a genius IV. and elected the antipope Felix V. He is Alamode
Alamandus box without a handle, deriving the word from the pri. much commended by Æneas Sylvius, as a man extreme-
vative a, and na6n, anſa, handle.
ly well formed for preſiding in ſuch aſſemblies, firm and
Alabaſter is alſo fiid to have been uſed for an an vigorous, illuſtrious by his virtue, learned, and of an
cieni liquid mcafure, containing ten ounces of wine, admirable memory in recapitulatiug all that the ora-
or nine of oil. In this ſenſe, the alabaſter was equal tors and diſputants had ſaid. One day, when he ha-
to half the ſextary.
rangued againſt the ſuperiority of the pope over the
ALABASTRUM DENDROIDE, a kind of lamina- council, he diſtinguiſhed himſelf in ſuch an eminent
ted alabaſter, beautifully variegated with the figures of nianner, that ſeveral perſons went to kiſs him, while
ſhrubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the pro- others preſſed even to kiſs his robe. They extolled to
vince of Hohenſtein.
the ſkies his abilities and genius, which had raiſed
ALADINISTS, a ſect among the Mahometans, him, though a Frenchman, to a ſuperiority over the
anſwering to free-thinkers among us.
Italians, notwithſtanding all their natural ſubtlety and
ALADULIA, a conſiderable province of Turkey, finetle. There is no need of aſking, whether pope
in Alia, in that part called Natolia, between the moun. Eugenius thundered againſt the preſident of a council
tains of Antitaurus, which ſeparate it from Amaſia, which depoſed him. He deprived him of all his dig-
on the north, and from Carimania on the weſt. It has nities, and treated him as a ſon of iniquity. However,
the Mediterranean ſea on the ſouth; and the Euphrates, notwithſtanding this, Lewis Alamandus died in the
or Frat, on the eaſt, which divides it from Diarbeker. odour of fan&ity, and performed ſo many miracles af-
It comprehends the leſſer Armenia of the ancients, ter his death, that at the requeſt of the canons and
and the caſt part of Cilicia. Formerly it had kings of Celeſtine monks of Avignon, and the ſolicitation of the
its own; but the head of the laſt king was cut off by cardinal of Clermont legate e latere of Clement VII.
Selim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the he was beatified by that pope in the year 1527.
country. It is now divided into two parts: the north, ALAMANNI (Lewis) was born at Florence, of
comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the a noble family, on the 28th of October 1495. He
Euphrates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the name of was obliged to fly his country for a conſpiracy againſt
Maraſh, the capital town ; and the ſouth, ſeated be. Julius de Medici, who was ſoon after choſen pope un-
tween mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united der the name of Clement VII. During this voluntary
to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough, baniſhment, he went into France; where Francis 1.
ragged, and mountainous ; yet there are good paſtures, froin a love to his genius and merit, became his patron.
and plenty of horſes and camels. The people are har. This prince employed him in ſeveral important affairs,
dy and thievilh. The capital is Malatigah.
and honoured him with the collar of the order of St
ALAIN (Chartier), ſecretary to Charles VII.king Michael. About the year 1540, he was admitted a
of France, born in the year 1386. He was the author member of the Inflammati, an academy newly erected
of ſeveral works in proſe and verſe ; but his moſt fa at Padua, chiefly by Daniel Barbaro and Ugolin Mar-
mous performance was his Chronicle of king Charles telli. After the death of Francis, Henry duke of Or-
VII. Bernard de Girard, in his preface to the Hi- leans, who ſucceeded him in 1547, ſhewed no leſs fa-
ſtory of France, ſtyles him an excellent hiſtorian,
vour to Alamanni ; and in the year 1551, ſent him as
who has given an account of all the affairs, particulars, his ambaſſador to Genoa : this was his laſt journey to
ceremonies, ſpeeches, anſwers, and circumſtances, at Italy ; and being returned to France, he died at Am-
which he was preſent himſelf, or had information of." boiſe on the 18th of April 1556, being in the 61ſt
Giles Coroxet tells us, that Margaret daughter to the year of his age. He left many beautiful poems, and
king of Scotland, and wife to the dauphin, paſſing other valuable performances, in the Italian language.
once through a hall where Alain lay aſleep, ſhe ſtop- We have alſo ſome notes of his upon Homer's Iliad
ped and killed him before all the company who at and Odyſſey ; thoſe upon the liiad were printed in the
tended : fome of them telling her, that it was ſtrange Cambridge edition of Homer in 1689, and Joſhua
the ſhould kiſs a man who had ſo few charnis in his Barnes has alſo inſerted them in his fine edition of
perſon, ſlie replied, “ I did not kiſs the man, but the Homer in 1711.
mouth from whence proceed ſo many excellent ſayings, ALAMODALITY, in a general ſenſe, is the ac-
fo niany wiſe diſcourſes, and ſo many elegant expref- commodating a perſon's behaviour, dreſs, and actions,
fions."
Mr Fontenelle, among his Dialogues of the to the prevailing taſte of the country or times in which
Dead, has one upon this incident, between the prin- he lives.
ceſs Margaret and Plato. Mr. Paſquier compares Alain ALAMODALITY of writing, is defined the accommo-
10 Seneca, on account of the great number of beauti. dation of mental productions, both as to the choice of
ful ſentences interſperſed throughout his writings. ſubject and the manner of treating it, to the genius or
ALAIS, a conſiderable town of France, in the pro- taſte of the times, in order to render them more ac-
vince of Languedoc, ſituated on the river Gardon, at ceptable to the readers.
the foot of the Cevennes. The Jeſuits had a college ALAMODE, a phraſe originally French, import-
in this place; and a fort was built here in 1689. It is ing a thing to be in the faſhion or niode. The phraſe
34 miles north of Montpellier, and 340 from Paris. has been adopted not only into ſeveral of the living
E. Lon. 4. 20. N. Lat. 44. 8.
languages, as the Engliſh and High-Dutch, but fime
ALAMANDUS (Lewis), in French Aleman, arch. have even taken it into the Latin. Hence we meet
biſhop of Arles, and cardinal of St Cecilia, was one of with Alamodicus and Alamodalitas.
X X 2
ALAMUDE,
A LA
[ 348 )
A LA
Alumouc
land.
A1 S NOLE, in commerce, a thin gloſſy black ſilk, Sweden and Finland, ſubject to the former. It lics Alaraſ
chiefly uſed for womens hoods and mens mourning beiween 17 and 19 degrees of E. long. and betwcen 1
icarſs.
59 and 61 degrees of Lat. at the entrance of the gulph Alaſcaui, ,
ALAMOS (Balthaſar), a Spaniſh writer, born at of Bothnia.
Medina del Campo in Caltile. After having fiudicd ALARAF, in the Mahometan theology, the parti-
bie laxv al Salamanca, he entered into the ſervice of tion wall that ſeparates heaven from hell. The lord
Anthony Perez, ſecretary of Itate under Philip II. He is plural, and properly written al araf ; in the fingular
was in high eſteem and confidence with his maſter, up it is written al arf. It is derived from the Arabic
on which account he was impriſoned after the diſgrace verb arafa, to diſtinguiſh. Al araf gives the denomi-
of this miniſer. He was kept in confillenient II years nation to the ſeventh chapter of the alcoran, wherein
when Philip Ill. coming to the throne, ſet him at li mention is inade of this wall. Mahomet ſcems to have
berty, according to the orders given by his father in copied his al araf, either from the great gulf of fepa-
his will. Alamos continued in a private capacity, till ration mentioned in the New Teſtament, or from the
the duke of Olivarez, the favourite of Philip IV. cal. Jewiſh writers, wlio alſo ſpeak of a thin wall dividing
led him to public employments. He was a man of wit heaven from hell. Mahometan writers differ extremely
as well as judgment, but his pen was ſuperior to his as to the perſons who are to be found on al araf. Sonic
tongue. He died in the 88th year of his age. His take it for a ſort of limbus for the patriarchs, pro-
Spaniſh tranſlation of Tacitus,aud the aphoriſms which phets, &c. others place here ſuch whoſe good and evil
be added in the inargin, gained him grcat reputation. works ſo exactly balance each other, that they deſerve
This work was publithed at Madrid in 1614; and was neither reward nor punishment. Others imagine this
to have been followed, as mentioned in the king's pri- intermediate ſpace to be poflefled by thoſe who, going
vilege, with a commentary, which howeyer has never to war without their parents leave, and ſuffering niar-
yet appeared. The author compoſed the whole du- tyrdom iliere, are excluded paradiſe for their diſobe-
ring his impriſonment.
dience, yet eſcape hell becauſe they are martyrs.
ALAN (Cardinal 11 iliam), was born at Roffal in ALAR BES, a van.e given to thoſe Arabians wlio
Lancaſhire, in the ycar 1532. He went to Oxford live in tcrits, and diſtinguiſh themſelves by their dreſs
at the age of 15, and in 1550 was elected fellow ef from the
from the others who live in towns.
Oriel college. In 1556, being then only 24 years old, ALARES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given
he was choſen principal of St Mary's hall, and one of to the cavalry, on account of their being placed in the
the proctors of the univerlity. In 1558 he was made two wings of the army.
canon of York ; but, upon queen Elizabeth's accef ALARIL, a famous general of the Goths. He
ſion to the throne, he left England, and ſetiled at Lou entered Thrace at the head of 200,000 men, and laid
vain in an Engliſh college, of which he became the waſte all the country through which he palled. He
chief ſupport. In 1565 he viſited his native country; marched next to Macedonia and Theſſaly: the Theſ-
but, on account of his extrcine activity in the propa- ſalians met him near the mouth of the river Peneas,
gation of the Roman Catholic religion, he was obli- and killed about 3000 of his army; nevertheleſs he ad-
ged to fly the kingdoni in 1568. He went firſt to vanced into Gruice, and after having ravaged the whole
Mechlin, and thich to Doway, where he was made doc-
country, returned to Epirus, loaded with immenſe
tor of divinity. Soon after, he was appointed canon of ſpoils: aſter ſtaying here five years, he reſolved to turn
Cambray, and then canon of Rheims. He was crea his arms to the weſt. He marched through Pannonia ;
ted cardinal on the 28th of July 1587, by the title of and, finding little reſiſtance, entered Italy, under the
St Martın in Montibus; and obtained from the king of conſulſhij of Stilicho and Aurelianus, A.D.400. After
Spain a rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and af- various battles and treaties, he at laſt 100k Romc by
terwards the biſhopric of Mechlin. It is ſuppoſed to treachery, and permitted his ſoldiers to plunder it; this
have been by the advice and inſtigation of this prieſt, happened A. D. 409. Alaric, having laid waſte a great
that Philip II. attempted to invade England. He died part of Italy, intended to paſs into Sicily; but a ſtorm
on the 20th of October 1594, aged 63; and was bu- obliging him to land again, he beſieged the city of
ried in the Engliſh college at Ronie. He was a nian Coſenza; and having takeuit, he died there in 411,
of confiderable learning, and an elegant writer. He eleven years after he firſt entered Italy.
wrote many books in defence of the Romilh religion. ALARM, in the military art, denotes cither the
The moſt remarkable are, 1. A defence of the 12 mar- apprehenſion of being ſuddenly atíacked; or the netice
tyrs in one year. Tho. Aſfield was hanged for bring- thereof, fignified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the
ing, and publiſhing, this and other of Alan's works, like. Falſe alarms are frequently made ufc of to har-
into England, in the year 1584. 2. A declaration of raſs the enemy, by keeping them conſtantly under
the ſentence of Sextus V. &c. A work intended to ex arms. Sometimes alſo this method is taken to try the
plain the pope's bull for the excommunication of queen vigilance of the piquel-guard, and what night be ex-
Elizabeth, and to exhort the people of England to pected from them in caſc of real danger.
lake up arms in favour of the Spaniards. Many thou ALARM-Bell, that rung upon any ſudden emergen-
fand copies of this book, printed at Antwerp, were cy, as a fire, mutiny, or the like.
put on board the armada; but the enterpriſe failing, ALARM-Foft, or . Larm-ploce, the ground for draw-
They were afterwards deſtroyed. 3. Of the worſhip ing up each regiment in caſe of an alarm. This is
due to faints and their reli&ts, 1583. This treatiſe was otherwiſe called the rendezvous.
anſwered by lord Buricigh, and is esteemed the moſt ALARM, in fencing, is the ſame with what is other-
elegant of the cardinal's writings.
wiſe called an appeal, or challenge.
ALAND, an iſland of thc Baltic ſea, between ALASCANI, in church-hiſtory, a ſect of Antilu-
therans,
a
A LA
[ 349 ]
A LA
Alauda.
Alaſco thcrans, whoſe diſtinguiſhingtenei, betides their deny. From his watch-tow'r in thic ſkies,
ing baptiſm, is ſaid to have been this, that the words,
Till the dappled dawn dotlı riſe.
Alauda. This is my body, in the inſtitution of the euchariſt, are It continues its harmony ſeveral months, beginning
not to be underſtood of the bread, but of the whole early in the ſpring, on pairing. In the winter they
action, or celebration of the ſupper. They are ſaid to aſſemble in valt flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in
have taken the name from one Joannes a Laſco, a Po great numbers for the tables. They build their neſt
liſh baron, ſuperintendant of the church of that coun on the ground, beneath ſome clod, forming il of lay,
try, in England. See the next article. .
dry fibres, &c. and lay four or five eggs.-Thefe birds
ALASCO (John), a Polifh nobleman of the 16th arc taken in great quantities in the neighbourhood of
centary, who, imbibing the reformed opinions, was ex- Duntable in England: the ſeaſon begins about the
pelled his country, and became preacher to a Proteſtant 14ih of September, and ends the 25th of February;
congregation at Embden ; but foreſeeing perſecution and during that ſpace, about 40co dozen are are caught,
there, came to England about the year 1551, while the which ſupply the markets of the metropolis of chat
reformation was carrying on under Edward the VI.The kingdom. See BiRD-Gatching. Vaſtly greater num-
publication of theInterim driving the Proteftants to ſuch bers than the above, however, are at times caught
places as afforded them toleration, 380 were natural in different parts of Germany, where there is an
ized in England, and obtained a charter of incorpora- exciſe upon them. Keyfler ſays, that the exciſe
tion, by which they were ereced into an eccleſiaſtical alone produces 6000 dollars every year to the city
eſtabliſhment, independent on the church of England. of Leiplic; whoſe larks are famous all over Germa-
The Auguſtine friars church was granted them, with ny as having the moſt delicate flavour.
But it is not
the revenues, for the maintenance of Aliſco as ſuper at Leipíic only that they are taken in ſuch numbers,
intendant, with four aſliſtant miniſters, who were to be but alſo in the country about Naumburg, Merle-
approved by the king: and this congregation lived burg, Halle, and other parts.--2. The pratenſis, or
undiſturbed until the acceſſion of Queen Mary, when tit-lark, has the two outward fcathers of the wing
they were all fent away. They were kindly received edged with white, and frequents the mcadows. It is
and permitted to ſettle at Embden ; and Alaſco at laſt, found frequently in low marſhy grounds : like other
after an abſence of 20 years, by the favour of Sigiſ. larks, it builds its neſt among the graſs, and lays five
mund, returned to his own country, where he died in or ſix eggs. Like the wood-lark, it fits on trees; and
1560. Alaſco was much eſteemed by Eraſınus, and has a moſt remarkable fine note, ſinging in all ſitua-
the hiſtorians of his time ſpeak greatly in his praiſe : tions, on trees, on the ground, while it is ſporting in
we have of his writing, De Cæna Domini liber; Epiſtola the air, and particularly in its deſcent. This bird,
continens fummam Controverfia de Gæna Domini, &c. with many others, ſuch as the thiruſh, black-bird, wil
He had fome particular tenets; and his followers are low-wren, &c. become filent about midſummer, and
called Alaſcani in church-hiſtory.
reſume their notes in September : hence the interval
ALATAMAHA, a large river of North America, is the moſt mute of the year's three rocal ſeaſons,
which, riſing in the Apalachian mountains, runs ſouth- ſpring, ſummer, and autumn.
ſpring, fammer, and autumn. Perhaps the birds are
eaſt through the ſtate of Georgia, and falls into the induced to ſing again as the autumnal temperament re-
Atlantic ocean, below the town of Frederica.
ſembles the vernal.-3. The arborea, or wood-lark,is
ALATERNUS, in botany, the trivial name of a a native of Europe, and is diſtinguiſhed by an annular
fpecies of the rhamnus. See RHAMNUS.
white fillet about the head. It is inferior in ſize to
ALAVA, a diſtrict of Spain, about 20 miles in the ſky-lark, and is of a ſhorter thicker form ; the co-
length, and 17 in breadth, containing very good iron lours are paler, and its note is leſs fonorous and leſs
mines. Victoria is the capital town.
varicd, though not leſs ſweet. It perclies on trees,
ALAUDA, or LARK, in ornithology, a genus of and whiſtles like the black-bird. It will ling in the
birds of the order of paſſeres ; the characters of which night; and, like the common lark, will fing as it fiies.
are theſe : The beak is cylindrical, ſubulated, ſtraight; It builds on the ground, and makes its neſt on the out-
and the two mandibles or chaps are of equal ſize. The ſide with moſs, within of dried bents, lined with a few
tongue is bifid, and the hinder claw is ſtraight, and hairs. It lays five eggs, duſky and blotched with deep
longer than the toe. There are 28 fpecies of the brown marks, darkeſt at the thicker end. The inales
alauda, of which the following are the moſt remark- of this and the laſt are known from the females by their
able. 1. The arvenſis, or common ſky-lark. This and ſuperior ſize. But this ſpecies is not near fo numerous
the wood-lark are the only birds that ſing as they fiy ; as that of the common kind.--4. The campeſtris, has
this raiſing its note as it ſoars, and lowering it till it one half of its chief feathers of the wings brown, ex-
quite dies away as it deſcends. It will often foar to cept two in the middle which are white, and the throat
ſuch a height, that we are charmed with the muſic and breaſt are yellowi.--5. The trivialis, whoſe chief
when we loſe ſight of the ſongſter; it alſo begins its feathers on the tail are brown, only half of the outer-
fong hefore the earlieſt dawn. Milton, in his Allegro, moſt is white, and the ſecond is white at the end, in the
moſt beautifully expreffes theſe circumſtances; and bi- hape of a wedge; there is likewiſe a double whitiſh
ſhop Newton obferves, that the beautiful ſcene that line on the wings. It is a native of Sweden, and per-
Milton exhibits of rural cheerfulneſs, at the ſame time ches on the top of trees.-6. The criſtata : the chief
gives us a fine picture of the regularity of his life, and tail-feathers are black, but the two outermoſt are edged
the innocency of his own mind: thus he deſcribes him- with white, and the head is creſted. It is a native of
ſelf as in a ſituation
Europe. It fings well, like the ſky-lark ; lays four
To hear the lark begin his flight,
or five eggs; and is ſaid to hatch twice in a year.
And ſinging ſtartlc thc dull night,
7. The ſpinoletta : the chicf tail-feathers are black,
only
A LA
[ 350 ]
A L B
All,
Alha..
Alauta only the outermoſt two are obliquely half white. other eyes, profaned. In ſhort, it is encompaſed by
It is a native of Italy.--8. The alpeſtris: the chief the moſt barbarous fanaticiſm.
Alay wing-feathers are half white, the throat yellow, andit “ A long peace had unfortunately cauſed the ridicite
has a black ſtreak under the eyes and on the breaſt. It louſneſs, and eſpecially the danger of this ceremony
inhabits North America, where it is migratory. It to be forgotten.' The Chriſtians imprudently crowd-
viſits the neighbourhood of Albany the beginning of ed to ſee it; and the Turks, who, by the ſituation of
May, but goes farther north to breed. In winter their houſes, could make money of their windows,
it comes in vaſt flocks into Virginia and Carolina, re- began to profit by the advantage ; when an emir, who
turning North in ſpring. It feeds,during its ſtay in the preceded the banner, proclaimed with a loud voice,
more ſouthern parts, on oals and other grain ; and Let no infidel dare to profane with his preſence the
while at Albany, on the graſs and the buds of ſprig- holy ſtandard of the prophet; and let every Muſſul-
birch. It runs into holes; whence the natives of theſe man who perceives an unbeliever make it known un-
laſt parts have given it the name of chi-chup-pi.ſue. The der pain of reprobation.'
Engliſh call it the ortalon,and reckonit delicious eating. " From that moment no afylum was to be found ;
By ſome it is called f10w-bird, as being very plenty even thoſe became informiers, who, by letting out their
in that ſeaſon. It is frequently-caught in great num- houſes, had rendered themſelves accomplices in the
bers by means of horſe-hair ſprings placed in ſome crime.
crime. A religious fury ſeized on every mind, and
bare place, the ſnow being ſcraped away, and a lit- put arms in every hand; the more atrocious the cruelty,
-tle chaif ſtrewed about. It is always ſeen on the the more was it meritorious. No regard was paid to
ground, and has little or no ſong. This bird is not ſex or age; pregnant women, dragged by the hair,
peculiar to North America: we here of it in Ger- and trodden under feet by the multitude, periſhed in
many alſo; and is in plenty throughout Ruſſia and the moſt deplorable manner. Nothing was reſpected
Siberia, going north ward in ſpring.-9. The magna, by theſe monſters ; and under ſuch auſpices the Turks
is yellow on the belly, with a crooked black ſtreak on commenced the war.
the breaſt, and thethree fide-feathers of the tail white. ALB, or ALBE, in the Romiſh church, a veſtment
It is a native of Africa and America.--10. The New of white linen hanging down to the feet, and anſwering
Zealand lark (Plate XVIII.) is ſeven and a half inches to the ſurplice of the Engliſh clergy. In the ancient
in length: the bill is half an inch, of a pale aſh-colour, church, it was uſual, with thoſe newly baptized, to
*with the upper part black : the upper parts of the bo wear an alb, or white veſtinent; and hence the Sunday
dy are duſky, edged with pale aſh-colour : the breaſt after Eaſter was called dominica in albis, on account of
and belly are white: the legs reddiſlı alh-colour, and the albs worn by thoſe baptized on eaſter-day.
the claws black. It inhabits Charlotte Sound, and is ALB is alſo a name of a Turkiſh coin, otherwiſe
called kogoo aroúre.
called aſper. See Asper,
ALAUTA, a conſiderable river of Turkey in Ex ALBA (anc. geog.), a town of the Marſi in Italy,
l'ope, whi:h, after watering the north-eaſt part of ſituated on the north-ſide of the Lacus Fucinus, ſtill
Tranſylvania and part of Wallachia, falls into the retaining in its name. It ſtands upon an eminence,
Danube almoſt oppoſite to Nicopolis.
and is noted in Ronian hiſtory for being the ſtate pri-
ALAY, ſignifying in the Turkiſh language " The fon where captive princes were ſhut up, after being
Triumph," a ceremony which accompanies the aſſem- barbarouſly dragged through the freets of Rome at
bling together the forces of that vaſt empire upon the the chariot wheels of a triumphant conſul. Perſes
breaking out of a war. It conſiſts of the moſt inſipid king of Macedon terminated his wretched career in this
buffoonery, and is attended with acts of the moſt confinement, with his ſon, the laſt hope of an illuſtri-
ſhocking barbarity. That which look place upon oc ous line of kings. Syphax the Numidian, and Bitui-
caſion of the late war between the Porte and Ruſſia is nus king of the Ayerni, were alſo condemned to this
deſcribed by Baron Tott in his Menoirs as follows. gaol by the particular clemency of the ſenate, which
«« It conſiſts in a kind of Maſquerade, in which each ſometimes indulged its favage diſpoſition by putting its
trade ſucceſſively preſents to the ſpectators the mecha- captives to death.
nical excerciſe of its reſpective art. The labourer Alba being ſituated in the centre of Italy, amidſt
draws his plough, the weaver handles his ſhuttle, the difficult mountainous paſſes, and far from all means of
joiner his plain; and theſe different characters, ſeated eſcape, was eſteemed a moſt proper place for the pur-
in cars richly ornamented, commence the proceſſion, poſe of guarding priſoners of importance. Artificial
and precede the ſtandar of Mahonet, when it is brought Irengil was added to its natural ſecurity by fortifica-
out of the ſeraglio to be carried to the arny, in order tions, which remain to this day in a ſtate that proves
to inſure victory to the Ottoman troops.
their ancient ſolidity. For the entertainment of the
" This banner of the Turks, which they name garriſon, which was required in a place of ſuch conſe-
Sandjak-Cherif, or the Standard of the Prophet, is quence, an amphitheatre was erected, of which the
ſo revered among them, that, notwithſtanding its re- ruins are ſtill viſible, as well as the foundations of a
puration has been ſo often tarniſhed, it ſtiil retains temple, and other buildings of Roman times.
their implicit confidence, and is the ſacred ſignal unto Lucius Vitellius, brothertothe emperor of that name,
which they rally. Every thing proclainis its ſanctity. had a villa nearthis place,famous for the variety and ex-
None but the einirs are allowed to touch it ; they are cellence of its fruit-trees, which he had brought from
its guards, and it is carried by their chief. The Muf- Syria. His gardens were the nurſeries where ſeveral
ſulmen alone are permitted to look upon it. If touch- of the moſt delicious ſtone-fruits, that are now ſo com-
ed by other hands, it would be defiled ; if ſeen by mon in Europe, were firſt cultivated and multiplied.
It
A L B
[ 351 ]
A L B
Albanenſes
Alba It muſt have been neceſſary at Alba to ſhelter trees became convert to the Chriſtian religion. It is ge-
It is ge- Alban
11 tranſplanted from Aſia, and to treat them with great nerally agreed, that Alban ſuffered martyrdom during I
Alban. tenderneſs and care, in order to rear them to perfec- the great perſecution under the reign of Diocletian;
tion : for the climate of this high region is extremely but authors differ as to the year when it happened:
rigorous in winter ; the cold ſeafon laſts long, and is Bede and others fix it in 286; fonie refer it to the year
accompanied with violent ſtorms of wind and falls of 296; but Uſſerius reckons it amongſt the events of 303.
ſnow. The lake has been often frozen entirely over. The ſtory and circumſtances relating to his martyr-
ALBA Firma, or Album, in old cuſtoms, denoted dom, according to Bede, are as follows. Being yet a
rent paid in ſilver, and not in corn, which was cal- pagan (or at leaſt it not being known that he was a
led black-mail.
Chriſtian), he entertained Amphibalus in his houſe.
ALBA Terra, one of the numerous names for the The Roman governor being informed thereof, fent a
philoſopher's ſtone.
party of ſoidiers to apprehend Amphibalus; but Alban,
ALBA Regalis. See STULL WEISSENBURGH. putting on the habit of his gueſt, preſented himſelf in
ALBA Helviorum, or Albauguſta, (anc. geog.), af- his ſtead, and was carried before that niagiſtrate. The
terwards called Vivarium, now Viviers, in the ſouth- governor having aſked him of what family he was:
eaſt of Languedoc, on the Rhone. In the lower age Alban replied, " To what purpoſe do you inquire of
the inhabitants were called' Albenſes, and their city my family, if you would know my. religion, I am a
Civitas Albenfium, in the Notitia Galliæ. E. Long. Chriſtian.” Then being aſked his name, he anſwer-
4. 45. Lat. 44. 50.
ed, “ My name is Alban; and I worſhip the only true
ALBA Julia (anc. geog:) now Weiſſenburg, a town and living God, who created all things." The magi-
of Tranſylvania, on the river Marilius, or Meriſch, to ſtrate replied, “If you would enjoy the happineſs of e.
the weſt of Hermanſtat, ſuppoſed to be called Alba ternal life, delay not to ſacrifice to the great gods."
Julia, after Julia Domna the mother of Caracalla. Alban anſwered, "the facrifices you offer are made lo
There are, however, ſeveral inſcriptions found at or devils; neither can they help the needy, or grant the
near Weiſſenburg, which bear COL. Arul. that is petitions of their votaries. His behaviour fo enraged
Golonia Apulenfis, without the leaſt inention of Alba the governor, that he ordered him immediately to be
Julia, though inſcribed after Caracalla’s time. Add, beheaded. In his way to execution, he was ſtopped by
that Ulpian, reciting the colonies of Dacia, calls this a river, over which was a bridge ſo thronged with
colony Apulenſis, and neither Alba nor Julia. Whence ſpectators that it was impoſſible to croſs it; the faint, as
there is a fufpicion, that Alba Julia is a corruption of we are told, lifted up his eyes to heaven, and the ſtream
Apulum. It was alſo called Apulum Auguftum. E. was miraculouſly divided, and afforded a paſſage for
Long. 25. o. Lat. 46. 46.
himſelf and a thouſand more perſons. Bede does not
· ALBA Longa (anc. geog:), a colony from Layi- indeed give us the name of this river ; but, notwith-
nium, in Latium, eſtabliſhed by Aſcanius the ſon of ſtanding this omiſſion, the miracle, we ſuppoſe, will
Æneas, at the foot of the Mons Albanus : called Alba, not be the leſs believed. This wonderful event con-
from a white ſow found by Æneas, which farrowed verted the executioner upon the ſpot, who threw away
30 white pigs on that ſpot; which circumſtance was in- his drawn ſword, and, falling at St Alban's feet, deli
terpreted to portend the building of a city there in red he might have the honour to die with him. This
30 years after (Proportius). The epithet Longa was ſudden converſion of the headſman occafioning a delay
added on account of its length. It was the royal reli- in the execution till another perſon could be got 10
dence till the building of Rome, as was foretold by perform the office, St Alban walked up to a neigh-
Anchiſes (Virgil) ; was deſtroyed by Tullius Hoſtilius, bouring hill, where he prayed for water to quench his
all but the fane or temple ; and the inhabitants were thirſt, and a fountain of water ſprung up under his
tranſplanted to Rome (Strabo).-
feet : here he was beheaded, on the 23d of June. The
ALBA Pompeia (anc. geog.), on the river Ceba, now executioner is ſaid to have been a ſignal example of di-
Geva, in Liguria, the birth-place of the emperor Per- vine vengeances for as ſoon as he gave the fatal ſtroke,
tinax ; a colony either eſtabliſhed at firſt by Pompey, his eyes dropt out of his head. We may fee the opini.
orre-eſtablihed by him after having been before ſettled on of Mr Milton in regard to this narrative, in his Hi-
by Scipio. The inhabitants were called Alpenfes Pon- ſtory of England. His words are theſe, ſpeaking of
peiani. At this day the town is ſimply called Alba, St Alban, « The ſtory of whoſe martyrdom, foiled
without any epithet.
and worſe martyred with the fabling zeal of ſome idle
ALBAHURIM, figura ſexdecim laterum, a figure fancies, more fond of miracles than apprehenſive of
of great importance according to aſtrological phylici. the truth, deſerves no longer digreſſion.” Between
ans, who build their prognoſtics on it.
4 or 500 years after St Alban's death, Offa, king of
ALBAN (St) is faid to have been the firſt perſon the Mercians, built a very large and ſtately monaſtery
who ſuffered martyrdom for Chriſtianity in Britain ; to his memory; and the town of St Albans in Hert- .
he is therefore uſually ſtyled the profomartyr of that fordſhire takes its naine from that protomartyr.
iſland. He was born at Verulam, and flouriſhed to ALBANA (anc. geog.), a ſea port town of Alba-
wards the end of the third century. In his youth he nia, on the Caſpian ſea, between the rivers Caſius and
took a journey to Rome, in company with Amphiba- Albanus ; now called Bachu or Bachy, giving nanie to
lus a monk of Caerleon, and ſerved ſeven years as a the Caſpian ſea, viz. Mar de Babu. E. Long. 49. O.
ſoldier under the emperor Diocleſian. At his return
Lat. 40. O.
home, he ſettled in Verulam ; and, through the exam ALBANENSES, in church-hiſtory, the ſame with
ple and inſtructions of Amphibalus, renounced the er Albigenſes, according to ſome: according to others,
rors of paganiſm, in which he had been educated, and different. Theſe, however, who are for diſtinguiſhing
then
A LA
( 352 )
A LA
7
Albani. them, attribute the ſame opinions to both ; only ma- through the moſt agreeable gardens 10 Paphos and Ci- Albania.
king the Albinenſes to have been prior in reſpect of theria : thoſe delightful ſcenes brought him over the
time, as having been found towards the cloſe of the lofty Parnaſliis to the delicious abodes of Apollo and
eighth century; whereas the Albigenſes appeared not the Muſes ; whence what Du Freſnoy ſays of the fa-
till the twelfth. See ALBIGENSES.
mous Giulio Romano may be juſly applied to Albani:
ALBANI, in Roman antiquity, a college of the
ſalii, or prieſts of Mars; ſo called from mount Albanus,
Taught from a child in the bright Muſes' grots,
tle place of their relidence. See Salir.
He open'd all the treaſures of Parnaſſus,
And in the lovely poetry of painting
ALBANI (Francis), a celebrated painter, born in
Bologna, March 17, 1578. His father was a ſilk
The myſt'ries of Apollo has reveal'd.
merchant, and intended to bring up his ſon to that He died the 4th of October 1660, to the grcat grief
butineſs; but Albani having a ſtrong inclination to of all his friends and the whole city of Bologna. Mal-
painting, when his father died, devoted himſelf entire- vaſia has preſerved ſome verſes of Franciſco de Lemene,
ly to that art, though then but tsvelve years of age. intended for his monument; the ſenſe whereof is,
He firſt ſtudied under Denys Calvert ; Guido Rheni " That the mortal remains of the illuſtrious Albani,
being at the ſame time under this maſter, with whom he who gave life to ſhade, lie interred in this tomb :
Albani contracted a very great friendſhip. Calvert the earth never produced ſo wonderful an artiſt, or a
drew butone profile for Albani, and afterwards left him hand equal to his immortal one; which gave co-
entirely to the care of Guido ; under whom he made lours to the ſoul, and a ſoul to colours. Prometheus
great improvement, his fellow-diſcipleinſtructing him animated clay, and gave life by means of the ſun; but
with the utmoſt humanity and good humour. He fol- Albani aniniated merely by the aſſiſtance of ſhade.”
lowed Guido to the ſchool of the Caraches : but a little He was very famous in his lifetime, and had been vi-
after their friendſhip for each other began to cool; filed by the greateſt painters. Several princes honour-
which was owing perhaps to the pride of Albani, who ed him with letters ; and amongſt the reſt King
could not bear to ſee Guido furpaſs him, or to the jea. Charles I. who invited him to England by a letter
lonſy of Guido at finding Albani make ſo ſwift a pro- figned with his own hand.
greſs. They certainly endeavoured to eclipſe oneano ALBANIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, on
Ther; for when Guido had ſet up a beautiful altar-piece; the Gulph of Venice, bounded by Livadia on the fouth,
Albani would oppoſe to it ſome fine picture of his : by Theſſaly and Macedonia on the eaſt, and on the
this did they behave for ſome time, and yet ſpake of north by Boſnia and Dalmatia. The people are ſtrong,
cach other with the higheſt eſteem. Albani, after ha- large, courageous, and good horſemen ; but are ſaid
ving greatly improved himſelf under the Caraches, to be of a thievilh difpofition: the grand feignior pro-
went to Rome, where he continued many years, and cures excellent ſoldiers from hence, particularly caval-
married in that city ; but his wiſe dying in childbed, ry, known by the name of Arnauts. There are ſeve-
at thc carneſt requeſt of his relations he returned to ral large towns in this province ; and the inbabitants
Bologna, where he entered again into the ſtate of ma are almoſt all Chriſtians of the Greek church, and de-
trimony. His ſecond wife (Doralice) was well def- ſcended from the ancient Scythians. Formerly it was
cended, but had very little fortune; which he perfect- part of thc kingdom of Macedonia. Their chief ma-
ly diſregarded, ſo ſtrongly was he captivated with her nufacturcis carpets. The principal places are Durazzo,
beauty and good ſenſe. Albani, beſides the fatisfaction Velona, Antivari, Scutari, Croya, Aleſſo, Dibra, Dol-
of poflefling an accompliſhed wife, reaped likewiſe the ciguo, and Albanápoli. Long. from 28° to 312 E.
advantage of laying a moſt beautiful model; ſo that he Lat. from 39° to 43° N.
had now no occaſion to make uſe of any other woman ALBANIA, a country of Aſia, bounded on the weſt
to paint a Venus, the Graces, Nymphs, and other de- by Iberia; on the eaſt by the Caſpian ſea ; on the north
itics, whom he took a particular delight in repreſent- by mount Caucuſus ; on the ſouth by Armenia, and the
ing. His wife anſwered this purpoſe admirably well; river Cyrus, now Kur ; which, ſpringing from the
for beſides her blooni of youth, and the beauty of her Moſchian mountains that ſeparate Colchis from Arme-
perſon, he diſcovered in her ſo much modefty, ſo ma- nia, and watering the country of Mokan, receives the
ny graces and perfections, ſo well adapted to painting, Aragus and Araxes, and falls into the Caſpian ſea
that it was impoſſible for him to meet with a more fi within a ſmall diſtance from the ſouthern borders of
niſhed woman. She afterwards brought him ſeveral this country. The whole country formerly called Al-
boys, all extremely beautiful and finely proportioned; bania, now goes under the names of Shirwan and Eaſt-
ſo that ſhe and her children were the originals of his Georgia, and is extremely fruitful and pleaſant. The
moſt agreeable and graceful compoſitions. Doralice ancient hiſtorians take notice of the Albanian men
was ſo conformable to his intentions, that ſhe took a being tall, ſtrong-bodied, and, generally ſpeaking, of
pleaſure in ſetting the children in different attitudes, a very graceful appearance ; far excelling all other na-
holding them naked, and ſometiines ſuſpended by tions in comelineſs as well as ſtature: Modern travel-
ſtrings, when Albani would draw them in a thouſand lers take no notice of the appearance of the men;
but
different ways. It was from them, too, that the fa- extol the beauty of the women, which ſeems to be un-
mous ſculptors Flainand and Argaldi modelled their noticed by the ancients. The Albanians were ancient-
little Cupids.
ly an independent and pretty powerful people ; but
Albani was of a happy temper and diſpoſition ; his we find no mention made of their kings till the reign
paintings, ſays Malvaſia, breathing nothing but con of Alexander the Great, to whom the king of Alba-
tent and joy. Happy in a force of mind that con nia is ſaid to have preſented a dog of an extraordinary
quered every uneasineſs,his poctical pencil carried him fierceneſs and ſize. It does not appear that the Alba-
3
niaus
A L B
[ 353 ]
A L B
a rich and extenſive back country, and the ſtore-houſe
Albano, nians were ever conquered by the Romans, even when many years ſince, a tomb was diſcovered in this church, Allar us
St Albans. their power was at iis greateſt height; though, when ſaid to be that of Humphrey Duke of Glouceſter: when 11
Albemarle,
they ventured to engage in war with that powerful the leaden coffin was opened, the body was pretty en
empire, they were always defeated, as might natural tire, being preſerved in a ſort of pickle. There was
ly be expected.
ſtately croſs in the middle of the town, as there were
ALBANO, a town of Italy, on a lake of the ſame in many other places where queen Eleanor's body
name, in the Campagnio of Rome. It was called by reſted when it was brought out of the north for in-
the ancients Albanun Ponpeii, and built out of the terment at Weſninſter ; but it has been demoliſhed,
ruins of the ancient Alba Longa, which was deſtroyed as ſome ſay, by the inhabitanis. The market-days are
hy Tullus Hoſtilius. It ſtands within twelve miles Wedneſdays and Saturdays. W.L.O 12. N.L.51.44.
ſouth-eaſt of Rome, and for the pleaſantneſs of its fi ALBANUS MONS (anc. geog.), now called Mort
tuation is the ſummer rctirement of a great inany Ro Albano, 16 miles from Rone, near where Alba Longa
man princes. It is likewiſe che fee of a bilhop, who is ftood.
one of the ſix ſenior cardinals. The town is famous ALBANUS MONS (anc. geog.), to the north of Il-
for its excellent wine, and the ruins of a mauſoleum, tria, called Albius by Strabo ; the extremity of the
which, according to the tradition of the inhabitants, Alps, which, together with the inountains to the eaſt,
was made for Aſcanius. The proſpect froni the garden - joining it, called Montes Bebii, ſeparates the farther
of the Capuchins is extremely pleaſant, taking in the · Liburnia and Dalmatia from Pannonia.
Campania of Rome, and terminating in a full view of ALBANY, a city of North America, in the ſtate of
the Tuſcan ſea. Cloſe by the town lies the Alban lake, New-York, ſituated upon the weſt ſide of Hudſon's
of an oval figure, and about ſeven miles in circumfe- river, 160 miles north of the city of New-York. It
rence,which, by reaſon of the high mountains round it, contains about 4000 inhabitants, collected from almoſt
looks like the area of a great amphitheatre. It abounds all parts of the northern world. The houſes are built
with excellent filh, and over againſt the hermitage it in the old Dutch Gothic ſtile, with the gable end to
is ſaid to be unfathomable. The mountain of Albano is the ſtreet, and are ſeldom more than one ſtory and an
-called Monte Gavo, on the top of which was a celebrated half high ; they are by no means elegant, but are kept
teniple dedicated to Jupiter and Juno. Near the Capu- very clean. Albany, from its being ſeated on a fine
chins there is another convent of Franciſcans; and not river, at the head of floop navigation, ſurrounded with
far from thence the palace of Cardinal Barberini, re.
markable for very pleaſant gardens, with the ruins of of the trade to and from Canada, is in a fouriſhing
ancient baths, and ſeveral old fragments of Moſaic condition. It has of late, however, had a formida-
work. E. Long. 13. 10. N. Lat. 41. 43.
ble rival in the new city of Hudſon. W. Long. 44.
There is likewiſe another town of the ſame name 29. N. Lat. 42. 36.
in the Baſilicate of the kingdom of Naples, remarka ALBARAZIN, a ſtrong town, and one of the most
ble for the fertility of the ſurrounding territory, and ancient of the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is
for the nobility of the inhabitants.
ſeated upon an eminence, near the river Guadalquivir,
ALBANS (St.), a market town of Hertfordſhire, little below its ſource, and on the frontiers of Valen-
is a very great thoroughfare, accommodated with good cia and New Caſtile. It is the ſeat of a biſhop ; and
inns, on the north-weſt road from London, at the di produces the beſt wool in all Arragon. It is about
ſtance of 21 miles. This town ſends two members to 100 miles eaſt of Madrid. E. Long. 2. 10.
N. Lat.
parliainent, gives the title of duke to the noble family 40. 32.
of Beauclerc, and has one of the beſt markets for ALBARII, in antiquity, properly denoted thoſe
wheat in England. St Albans
St Albans is ſeated near the ru who gave the whitening to earthen veſſels, &c. In
ins of an ancient Roman city, by Tacitus called Ve. which ſenſe they ſtood contradiſtinguiſhed from Deal.
rolan; and by the Saxons Watlingceſter, becauſe it is batores, who whitened walls.
feated on the road called Watlingſtreet. Nothing now ALBARIUM OPUS, in the ancient building, the in-
remains of Verolam but the ruins of old walls; in the cruſtation or covering of the roofs of houſes with white
fields adjacent to which they continue to find Roman plaſter, made of mere lime. This is otherwiſe called
coins, as they fornierly found teffellated pavements. opus album. It differs from Teftorium, which is a com-
In memory of St Alban, Offa, king of the Mercians. mon name given to all roofing or ceiling, including
anno 795, erected an abbey, calling it St Albans ; even that formed of lime and find, or line and mar-
and near it the town of the faine name was afterwards ble; whereas Albariuin was reſtrained to that made
built. The church of the abbey is reinaining to this of lime alone.
day: time and the weather have made it look like ALBATROSS, in ornithology, a ſpecies of the
fone on the out ſide ; but if you break a bit off, the diomedea. See DIOMEDEA.
redneſs of the brick immediately appears. When the ALBAZIN, a town of Greater Tartary, with a
monaſteries were diſſolved, the townſmen paid L.400 ſtrong caſtle. It is ſituated upon the river Amur, or
to prevent its being levelled with the ground, and have Yamour, and belongs to the Muſcovites. E. Long.103.
ſince converted it into a pariſh church, which, for its 30. N. Lat. 54.0.
largeneſs, beauty, and antiquity, claims a particular re ALBE, a ſmall piece of money, current in Germa-
gard. It had a very noble font of ſolid braſs, in which ny, worth only a French ſol and ſeven deniers.
the children of the kings of Scotland were uſed to be ALBEMARLE, or AUMARLE, a town of France,
baptized ; and was brought from Edinburgh, by fir in Upper Normandy, and in the territory of Caux,
Philip Lea, when that city was in flames; but in the from whence the noble family of Keppel takes the title
times of the late civil wars, it was taken away. Not of Earl. The ſerges of this town are in high eſteem.
VOL.I.
YY
À L B
[ 354 )
A L B
A
Albemarle It is feated on the declivity of a hill, on the confines of gave great offence, and raiſed a clamour againſt the Albertus
ll Picardy, 35 miles N. E. of Rouen, and 70 N. W. of ſuppoſed author. It muſt be acknowledged, however, 11
Albertus. Paris.' E. Long. 2. 21. N. Lat. 49. 50.
that there are, in his Comment upon the Maſter of Sen Albi.
ALBENARLE, the moſt northern part of the ſtate tences, ſome queſtions concerning the practice of con-
of North Carolina.
jugal duty, in which he has uſed ſome words rather
ALBENGUA, a town of Italy, in the territory of too groſs for chaſte and delicate ears : but they allege
Genoa. It is the fee of a biſhop ; and is a very ancient what he himſelf uſed to ſay in his own vindication,
handſome town, but not well peopled on account of the that he came to the knowledge of ſo many monſtrous
inſalubrity of the air. However, it is feated in a very things at conſeſſion, that it was impoſſible to avoid
beautiful plain, which is well cultivated; and the outſide touching upon ſuch queſtions. Albert was certainly
of the town is ſurrounded with olive-trees. It is a ſea a nian of a moſt curious and inquiſitive turn of mind,
port, about 38 miles S. W.of Genoa. E. Long. 8. 13. which gave riſe to other accuſations brought againſt
N. Lat. 44. 4.
him. They ſay, that he laboured to find out the phi-
ALBERNUO, a kind of camblet brought from the lofopher's ſone, that he was a magician ; and that he
Levant by the way of Marſeilles.
made a machine in the ſhape of a man, which was an
ALBERONI (Julius) the ſon of a poor gardener in oracle to him, and explained all the difficulties hq
the ſuburbs of Placentia, born in 1664; who, by his propoſed. He had great knowledge in the mathema-
great abilities and good fortune, roſe from this low tics, and by his ſkill in that ſcience might probably
original, to the employment of firſt miniſter of ſtate at have formed a head with ſprings capable of articulating
the court of Spain, and to the dignity of cardinal. He founds ; like to the machines of Boetius, of which
rouſed that kingdom out of the lethargy it had ſunk Caſſiodorus has ſaid, “ Metals lowe; the birds of Dio-
into for a century paſt; awakened the attention, and medes trumpet in braſs ; the brazen ſerpent hiſſes ;
raiſed the aſtoniſhment, of all Europe, by his projects; counterfeited ſwallows chatter, and ſuch as have no pro-
one of which was,to ſet the Pretender on the throne of per note, from braſs fend forth harmonious muſic.'
Great Britain. He was al length deprived of his en John Matthæus de Luna, in his treatiſe De Rerum In-
ployment, and baniſhed to Rome. He died in 1752, ventoribus, has attributed the invention of fire-arms to
at the great age of 89. His Teſtament Politique, col- Albert; but in this he is confuted by Nande, in his A-
lected from his meinoirs and letters, was publiſhed pologie des Grands Hommes. We are told, that Albert
at Lauſanne in 1753.
was naturally very dull, and ſo incapable of inſtruction
ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg, and the laſt as to be upon the point of quitting the cloiſter, from
grand maſter of the
Teutonic Order, laid aſide the ha- deſpair of learning what his habit required: but that
bit of his order, enıbraced Lutheraniſm, and conclu. the Holy Virgin appeared to him, and aſked him in
ded a peace at Cracow in 1525, by which he was ac which he choſe to excel, philoſophy or divinity ? that
knowledged Duke of the eaſt part of Pruſſia (formerly laving choſen the former, me allured hiin he would
called for that reaſon Ducal Pruſia), but to be held become incomparable therein ; but that, as a puniſh-
as a fief of Poland, and to deſcend to his male heirs. ment for not preferring divinity, he ſhould link, be-
See PRUSSIA.
fore he died, into his former ſtupidity. It is added,
ALBERTI (Leone Battiſta), was deſcended from a that after this apparition he had an infinite deal of wit';
noble family in Florence; and was perfectly acquaint, and that he advanced in all the ſciences with ſo quick
ed with painting, ſculpture, and architecture. He a progreſs, as utterly aſtoniſhed his maſters: but that
wrote of all three in Latin; but his ſtudies did not per three years before his death, he ſtopped ſhort when
mit him to leave any thing conſiderable behind him'in reading a divinity-lecture at Cologn; and having in
painting. He was employed by pope Nicholas V. in vain endeavoured to recal his ideas, he found that the
his buildings, which he executed in a beautiful man- Virgin’s prediction was accompliſhed. “It would be
ner; and his work on architecture, which conſiſts of very unneceſſary (ſays Bayle, after relating theſe par-
ten books, is greatly eſteemed. He alſo wrote ſome ticulars) to obſerve that they are fables. Thoſe who
treatiſes of morality, and a piece on-arithmetic. He would believe me need not be told this, ſince they
died
would judge in the ſame manner of their own accord;
ALBERTISTS, a fect of ſcholaſtics, ſo named from and as for ſuch as think otherwiſe, they would not
a
their leader Albertus Magnus.
alter their opinion by reading here, that I am of a dif-
ALBERTUS (Magnus), a Dominican friar, and ferent way of thinking.” Albert died at Cologn, No-
afterwards bilhop of Ratiſbon, was one of the moſt vember 15, 1280. His works were printed at Lyons,
learned men and moſt famous doctors of the 13th cen in 1651, in 21 volumes in folio.
tury. He is ſaid to have acted as a man-midwife; and ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about 14 French
fome have been highly offended that one of his pro- livres: it was coined during the adminiſtration of Al-
fefſion ſhould follow_ſuch an employnient. A book bertus archduke of Auſtria.
intitled De Natura Rerum, of which he was reputed ALBEŞIA, in antiquity, a kind of fields other-
the author, gave riſe to this report. In this treatiſe wiſe called Decumana. See DECUMANA.
there are ſeveralinſtructions for midwives, and ſo much ALBI, a city of France, the capital of the Albi-
ſkill ſhown in their art, that one would think the au geois, in Languedoc, and the fee of an archbiſhop.
thor could not have arrived at it without having him. The cathedral is dedicated to St. Cecilia, and has one
felf practiſed: but the advocates for Albert ſay he of the fineſt choirs in the kingdom. Here is a very va-
was not the writer thereof, nor of that other piece De luable ſilver ſhrine, of exquilite workmanſhip, of the
Secretis Mulierum; in which there are many phraſes Moſaic kind: it contains the religies of St Clair, the
and expreſſions unavoidable on ſuch a ſubject, which firſt bifhop of this cily. The chapel of this pretended
4
faint
(ALB
[ 355 ]
AL B
Albi, ſaint is magnificent, and adorned with paintings. The
uſeleſs; held thc eucharift in abhorrence; excluded the Albigenſes.
Albigenſės. Lice is a fine large walk without the city : what diſtin uſe of confeſſions and penance ; maintained marriage
guiſhes this from all others, is a terras above a deep unlawful ; laughed at purgatory, prayers for the dead,
mall which ſerves inſtead of a foſſe ; it is bordered with images,crucifixes, &c.—There were likewiſe ſaid to be
two rows of very fine trees, which are kept in excellent two claſſes of them; the Perfect, and the Believers. The
order. There are four gates, through which you may perfect boaſted of their living in continence, of eating
view all the beauties of a delightful plain. At one end neither fleih, eggs, nor cheeſe. Thebelieverslived like
of this is the convent of the Dominicans. The arch other men, and were even looſe in their morals ; but
biſhop's palace is very beautiful. The river waſhes its they were perſuaded they ſhould be ſaved by the faith
walls, and ſerves both for an ornament and defence. of the perfect, and that none were damned who recei.
This city it feated on the river Tarn, 35 miles north ved impoſition of hands from them. But from theſe
by-weſt of Toulouſe, and 250 fouth of Paris. E. Long. charges alſo they are generally acquitted by Prote-
0. 52. N. Lat. 43. 56.
ftants; who conſider them as the pious inventions of
The Albigeois is a ſmall territory about 27 miles in the Romiſh church, whoſe members deem it merito-
length, and 20 in breadth, abounding in corn, woad, rious by any means to blacken heretics.
grapes, faffron, plums, and ſheep: and the inhabitants However this be, the Albigenſes grew ſo formidable,
drive a great trade in dried prunes, grapes, a coarſe ſort that the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or croi-
of cloth, and wines of Gaillac. Theſe wines are the ſade againſt them. They were at firſt ſupported by
only fort hereabouts that are fit for exportation: they Raimond, count of Toulouſe. Pope Innocent III. de-
are carried down to Bourdeaux, and generally ſold to ſirous to put a ſtop to their progreſs, ſent a legate in-
the Britiſh. They liave likewiſe ſeveral coal-mines. to their country; which failing, he ſtirred up Philip
ALBIGENSES, in church-hiſtory, a fect or party Auguſtus, king of France, and the other princes and
of reformers, about Toulouſe and the Albigeois in Lan. great men of the kingdom, to make war upon them.
guedoc, who ſprung up in the 12th century, and diſ Upon this the count of Toulouſe, who had lided with
tinguiſhed themſelves by their oppoſition to the diſci- them, made his ſubmiſſion to the pope, and went over
pline and ceremonies of the Roniſh church.
to the Catholics : but ſoon after, finding himſelf plun-
This feet had their name, it is ſuppoſed, either by dered by the croiſaders, he declared war againſt theni,
reaſon there were great numbers of them in the dioceſe and was joined by the king of Arragon. His army
of Albi, or becauſe they were condemned by a coun was defeated at the ſiege of Muret, where he himſelf
cil held in that city. In effect, it does not appear that was killed, and the defcat followed by the ſurrender of
they were known by this name before the holding of the city of Toulouſe, and the conqueſt of the greateſt
that council. The Albigenſes were alſo called Albiani, part of Languedoc and Provence. His fon Raimond
Albigeſei, Albii, and Albanenſes, though ſome diſtin. ſucceeded him ; who agreed with the king and the pope
guih theſe laſt from them. Other names given to them to ſet up the inquiſition in his eftates, and to extirpate
are, Henricians, Abelardifts, Bulgarians,
&c. fome on the Albigenſes. In an aſſembly held at Milan, the
account of the qualities they aſſumed; others on that archbiſhop of Toulouſe drew up articles ; agreeable to
of the country from whence it is pretended they were which the court made a moſt ample declaration againſt
derived ; and others on account of perſons of note who them, which he publiſhed at Toulouſe in 1 253. From
adopted their cauſe, as Peter de Brius, Arnold de this time the Albigenſes dwindled by little and lit-
Breſſe, Abelard, Henry, &c. Berengarius, if not Wick- tle, till the times of the reformation : when ſuch
liff himſelf, is by ſome ranked in the number. The of them as were left fell in with the Vaudois, and
Albigenſes, are frequently confounded with the Wal became conformable to the doctrine of Zuinglius
denſes; from whom, however, they differ in many re and the diſciples of Geneva.
ſpects, both as being prior to them in point of time, as ALBIGĒNSES is alſo a name ſometimes given to the
having their origin in a different country, and as be followers of Peter Vand, or Waldo; and hence fyno-
ing charged with divers hereſies, particularly Mani- nymous with what we more properly call Waldenfes, or
cheiſm, from which the Waldenſes are exeinpt.
But Poor Men of Lyons. In this ſenſe the word is applied
ſeveral Proteſtant writers have vindicated them from by Camerarius, Thuanus, and ſeveral other writers.
that imputation. Dr Allix ſhows, that a great num-
The reaſon feenis to be, that the two parties agreed in
ber of Manichees did ſpread over the weſtern countries their oppoſition to the papal innovations and incroach-
from Bulgaria ; and ſettled in Italy, Languedoc, and ments, though in divers other reſpects ſaid to be dif-
other places, where there were alſo Albigenfes; by ferent enough. The biſhop of Meaux labours hard to
which means, being both under the imputation of hea ſupport a diſtinction between the two fects, alleging
rely, they came, either by ignorance or malice, to be thatthe Albigenfes werehereticsand Manichees; where-
confounded, and called by the ſame common name, as the Waldenſes were only ſchiſmatics, not heretics;
though in reality entirely different.
being ſound as to articles of faith, and only ſeparating
Other errors imputed to them by their opponents, from the church of Rome on account of forms and
the monks of thoſe days, were, That they admitted diſcipline. Dr Allix endeavours to ſet aſide the diſ-
two Chriſts ; one evil, who appeared on earth; theo tinction; and ſhows, that both of thein hold the ſame o-
ther good, who has not yet appeared: That they de- pinions, and were equally condemned and held for he-
nied the reſurrection of the body; and maintained hu- retics : and this not for points of faith, but for declaim-
man ſouls to be dæmons impriſoned in their bodies, by ing againſt the papal tyranny and idolatry, and hold-
way of puniſhment for their ſins: That they condemn- ing the pope to be the Antichriſt; which laſt, accor-
ed all the ſacraments of the church ; rejected baptiſm as ding to M. de Meaux, conſtitutes nothing leſs than
Manicheiſm.
Y y 2
+
A L B
[ 356 )
ALB
.ت) ،Mich
و
.
# linte. Niani, ili. In this fonce the Loilards and Wick “ I am therefore or opinion, that we may conſider Albinoss
melium
liftes in England were not only Albigenſes but Ma- theſe two lads as true albinos: for if they have not the
.
thick lips and flat noſes of the white negroes, it is be-
Albinos.
ALBINTENELIUM, ALBINTIMILIUM, (Taci- cauſe they are albinos of Europe, not of Africa. This
1418 ;) or at full length, ALBIUM IN TEMELIUM, (Pli- infirmity affects the eyes, the complexion, and the co-
ny, Su abo) ; now l'intimiglia, ſituated in the ſouth- lour of the hair ; it even diminiſhes the ſtrength, but
veſt of the itriitory of Genoa, near the borders of the does not alter the conformation of the features, Be.
county of Nice, with a port on the Mediterranean, at ſides, there are certainly in this malady various de-
the mouth of the rivulet Rotta, almoſt about half-way grees : ſome may have leſs ſtrength, and be leſs able
between Monaco and S. Remo. E. Long. 7. 40. Lal. to endure the light: but theſe circumſtances in thoſe
43. 17.
of Chamouni are marked with characters ſufficiently
ALBIOECE, or ALEBECE, (Pliny, Strabo) ; 0 ſtrong to intitle them to the unhappy advantage of be-
therwiſe called Reii Apollinares, from their superſtitious ing claſſed with that variery of the human ſpecies de
worſhip of Apollo; alſo Civitas Rerenſium ; now Rrez, nominated albinos.
in Provence, about 18 leagues to the north-east of Tou: " When nature preſents the ſame appearance often,
lon, on the north ſide of the rivulet Verdon ; was ori and with circumſtances varied, we may at laſt diſcover
ginally a Roman colony, (Inſcription). It is ſometimes foine general law, or ſome relation which that appear-
written Reginm. The people were called Albici, (Cæ- ance has with known cauſes : but when a fact is ſo fin-
far.) E. Long. 1.0. Lat. 43. 20.
gular and ſo rare, as that of thoſe albinos, it gives but
ALBINI, in antiquity, the workmen employed in little ſcope io conjectures, and it is very difficult to veo
what was called Opus Albarium. They make a dif- rify thoſe by which we attempt to explain it.
ferent profeſſion from the dealbatures or whiteners. "I at firſt imagined that this diſeaſe might be refer-
ALBINOS, the name by which the Portugueſe call red to a particular ſort of organic debility; that a relax-
the white Moors, who are looked upon by the negroesation of the lymphatic veffels within the eye might ſuf-
as monſters. They at a diſtance might be taken for fer the globules of the blood to enter too abundantly
Europeans ; but, when you come near them, their into the iris, the uvea, and even into the retina which
white colour appears like that of perſons affected with might occaſion the redneſs of the iris and of the pupil.
a leproſy.
The ſame debility ſeemed alſo to account for the into-
In SAUSSURE's Voyages dans les Alpes, is the fol. lerance of the light, and for the whiteneſs of the hair.
lowing account of two boys, at Chamouni, who have “But a learned phyſiologiſt, M. Blumenbach,profef-
been called Albinos. “The elder, who was at the end for in the univerſity at Gottingen, who has made many
of the year 1785 about twenty,orone-and-twenty years profound obſervations on the organs of ſight, and has
of age, had a dull look, with lips ſomewhat thick, but conſidered with great attention the albinos of Chamou-
nothing elſe in his features to diſtinguith him from o- ni, attributes their infirmity to a different cauſe.
ther people. The other, who is two years younger, " The ſtudy of comparative anatomy has furniſhed
is rather a more agreeable figure : heis gay and ſpright- him with frequent opportunities of obſerving this phe-
ly, and ſeems not to want wit. But their eyes are not nomenon; he lias found it in brutes, in white dogs,
blue ; the iris is of a very diſtinct roſe-colour : the pu- and in owls; he ſays, it is generally to be ſeen in the
pil too, when viewed in the light, ſeems decidedly red; warmeſt blooded animals; but that he has never met
which ſeems to demonſtrate, that the interior niem with it in thoſe with cold blood.
branes are deprived of the uvea, and of that black mu “ From his obfervations, he is of opinion, that the
cous matter that ſhould line them. Their hair, their redneſs of the iris, and of the other internal parts of the
eye-brows, and eye-laſhes, the down upon their ſkin, eye, as well as the extreme ſenſibility that accompanies
were all, in their infancy, of the moſt perfect milk- this redneſs, is owing to the total privation of that
white colour, and very fine; but their haiş is now of brown or blackiſh mucus, that, about the fifth week
a reddiſh caſt, and has grown pretty ſtrong. Their after conception, covers all the interior parts of the eye
ſight too is ſomewhat ſtrengthened ; though they ex- in its found ſtate. He obſerves, that Simon Pontius,
aggerate to ſtrangers their averſion for the light, and in his treatiſe de Coloribus Oculorum, long ago remark-
half-ſhut the eye-lids, to give themſelves a more extra- ed, that in blue eyes the interior membranes were
ordinary appearance. But thoſe who, like me, have leſs abundantly provided with this black mucus, and
ſeen them in their infancy, before they were tutored to were therefore inore ſenſible to the action of light.
this deceit, and when too few people came to Cha- This fenfibility of blue eyes agrees very well, ſays M.
mouni to make this affectation profitable to them, can Blumenbach, with northern people, during their long
atteſt that then they were not very much offended with twilight; while, on the contrary, the deep black in
the light of day. At that time, they were ſo little de- the eyes of negroes enables them to ſupport the fplen-
ſirous of exciting the curioſity of ſtrangers, that they dor of the fun's beam in the torrid zone.
hid themſelves to avoid ſuch ; and it was neceſſary to " As to the connection between this red colour of
do a ſort of violence to them before they could be pre- the eyes and whiteneſs of the fkin and hair, the fame
vailed on to allow themſelves to be inſpected. It is al- learned phyſiologiſt ſays, that it is owing to a ſimila-
ſo well known at Chamouni, that when they were of a rity of ſtructure, confenfus ex fimilitudine fabricæ. He
proper age they were unable to tend the cattle like the aſſerts, that this black mucus is formed only in the de-
other children at the ſame age ; and that one of their licate cellular ſubſtance, which has numerous blood-
uncles maintained them out of charity, at the time of veſſels contiguous to it, but contains no fat; like the
life when others were capable of gaining a ſubſiſtence inſide of the eye, the ſkin of negroes, the ſpotted pa-
by their labour.
late of ſeveral domeſtic animals, &c. And, laſtly, he
ſays,
AL B
[ 357 )
A L B
nus,
Albino8. fays, that the colour of the hair generally correſponds parents with dark ſkins and black eyes. They have Albinova-
with that of the iris. Gazette litt, de Gotingue, Oct. three ſiſters by the ſame father and mother, who are
1784.
alſo brunettes. One of them that I ſaw had the eyes
Albinus.
“At the very time that L.Blumenbach was reading of a dark brown, and the hair almoſt black.
They
this memoir to the Royal Society of Gottingen, M. are ſaid, however, to be all afflicted with a weakneſs of
Buzzi, furgeon to the hoſpital at Milan, an eleve of light. When the lads are married, it will be curious
the celeb:ated anatoiniſt Moſcati, publiſhed, in the O to obſerve how the eyes of their children will be for-
puſcoli Scelti de Milou, 1784, iom. vii. p. ll"a very med. The experiment would be particularly deciſive
intereſting memoir, in which he demonſtrates by dif- if they were married to women like themſelves. B
ſection what Blumenbach had only ſuppoſed.
this faulty conformation ſeems to be more rare among
“A peaſant of About 30 years of age died at the hoſ women than among men ; for the four of Milan, che
piral of Milan of a pulmonary diſorder. His body be two of Chamouni, the one deſcribed by Maupertuis,
ing expoſed to view, was exceedingly remarkable by the one by Helvetius, and alnioſt all the inſtances of
the uncommon whiteneſs of the ſkin, of the hair, of theſe ſingular productions, have been of our ſex. It is
the beard, and of all the other covered parts of the known, however, that there are races of men and wo-
body. M. Buzzi, who had long deſired an oportunity men affected with this diſeaſe, and that theſe races per-
of diffecting, ſuch a ſubject, inmediately ſeized upon petuate themſelves, in Guinea, in Java, at Panama, &c.
this. He found the iris of the eyes perfectly white, " Upon the whole, this degeneration does not ſeem
and the pupil of a roſe-colour. The eyeswere diffected to be owing to the air of the mountains; for though I
with the greateſt poſible care, and were found entirely have traverſed the greateſt part of the Alps, and the
deſtitute of that black membrane which anatomiſts other mountains in Europe, theſe are the only indisi.
call the uvea ; it was not to be ſeen either behind the duals of the kind that ever I met withi.”
iris, or under the reetina: within the eye there was ALBINOVANUS, a Latin poet, whom Ovid ſur-
only found the choroid coat extremely thin and tinged, named the Divine. There is now nothing of his extant,
of a pale red colour, by veſſels filled with diſcoloured except an Elegy on Druſus, and another on the Death
błood. What was more extraordinary, the ſkin, when of Mecænas.
detach ed from different parts of the body, ſeemed alſo ALBINUS (Bernhard Siegfred), a celebrated phy-
entirely diveſted of thc rete mucoſunu maceration did fician and anatomiſt, was born, of an illuſtrious fami-
not diſcover the leaſt veftige of this, nor even in the ly, at Francfort on the Oder in 1697. His father was
wrinkles of the abdomen, where it is moſt abundant then profeſſor of the practice of medicine in the univer-
and moſt viſible.
fity of Francfort ; but in the year 1702 he repaired to
« M. Buzzi likewiſe accounts for the whiteneſs of Leyden, being nominated profeſſor of anatomy and
the ſkin and of the hair, from the abſence of the rete ſurgery in that univerſity. Here his ſon had an oppor-
mucofum, which, according to him, gives the colour to tunity of ſtudying under the moſt eminent maſters in
the cuticle, and to the hairs that are ſcattered over it. Europe, who, from the ſingular abilities which he then
Anong other proofs of this opinion, he alleges a well- diſplayed, had no difficulty in prognoſticating his fu-
known fact, that if the ſkin of the blackest horſe be ture eminence. But while he was diſtinguiſhed in every
accidently deſtroyed in any part of the body, the hairs branch of literature, his attention was particularly-
that afterwards grow on that part are always white, turned to anatomy and furgery. His peculiar attach-
becauſe the rete mucoſum which tinges thoſe hairs is nient to theſe branches of knowledge gained him the
never regenerated with the ſkin.
intimate friendſhip of Ruyſch and Rau, who at that
« The proximate cauſe of the whiteneſs of albinos, time flouriſhed in Leyden ; and the latter, fojuſtly ce-
and the colour of their eyes, ſeems therefore pretty lebrated as a lithotomiſt, is ſaid to have ſeldom per-
evidently to depend on the abſence of the rete mucofum: formed a capital operation without inviting him to be
But what is the remote cauſe ?
preſent. Having finiſhed his ſtudies at Leyden, he
“In the firſt place, it ſeems probable that men affec went to Paris, where he attended the lectures of Du-
ted with this infirmity form no diſtin& fpecies, for they Verney, Vaillant, and other celebrated profeſſors. But
are produced from parents that have dark ſkins and he had ſcarce ſpent a year there, when he was invited
black eyes. What is it then that deſtroys the rete mu by the curators of the univerſity of Leyden, to be a
cafum in ſuch perſons ! M. Buzzi relates a fingular : lecturer in anatomy and ſurgery in that place. Though
fact, which ſeems to throw fonie light on this ſubject. contrary to kisown inclination, he complied with their
“A woman of Milan, named Calcagni, had ſeven requeſt, and upon that occaſion was created Dr of
fons. The two eldeſt had brown hair, and black eyes; phyſic without any examination. Soon after, upon the
the three next had white ſkins, white hair, and red death of his father, he was appointed to fucceed him
eyes; the two laſt refembled the two eldeſt. It was as profeffor of anatomy; and upon being admitted in-
ſaid thatthis woman, during the three pregnancies that to that office on the oth
to that office on the oth of November 1721, he deli- -
produced the albinos, had a continual and immoderate vered an oration, De vera via ad fabricæ humani cor-
appetite for milk, which ſhe took in great quantities: poris cognitionem ducente ; which was heard with uni-
but that when ſhe was with-child of the other four verfal approbation. In the capacity of a profeſſor, he
children, ſhe had no ſuch deſire. It is not however not only beſtowed the greateſt attention upon the in-
aſcertained, that this preternatural appitite was not ſtruction of the youth entruſted to his care, but in the
itſelf the effect of a certain heat, or internal diſeaſe, improvement of the medical art. With this view, he .
which deſtroyed the rete mucofum in the children be- publiſhed many important diſcoveries of his own ; and
fore they were born.
by elegant editions, turned the attention of phyſicians
“The albinos of Chamouni are alſo the offspring of to works of merit, which might otherwiſe have been
negle&ed.
+
AL B
A L B
[ 358
358 ]
2.
Albion neglected. By theſe means his fame was ſoon extend- change for merchants, and a ſafe and deep harbour. Albricius
T ed over Europe ; and the ſocieties of London, Peterſ. They have a conſiderable trade in herrings and corn;
Albourg. burgh, and Harlem, cheerfully received him as an aſ and amanufactory of guns, piſtols,ſaddles, and gloves.
Albugo.
fociate. In 1745, he was appointed profeſſor of the E. Long. 29. 16. N. Lat. 56. 35.
prastice of medicine at Leyden, and was ſucceeded in ALBRICIUS, born at London, was a great phi-
The anatonical chair by his brother Frid. Bern. Al- loſopner, a learned and able phyſician, and well ver-
binus. He was ttrice recior of the univerſity,
and as
ſed in all the branches of polite literature. He lived
often he refuſed that high honour when it was volun. in the 11th century, and wrote ſeveral works in La-
tarily offered him. At length, worn out by long ſer- tin, particularly, 1. Of the origin of the gods.
vice and intenſe study, he died on the oth of Seplem. The virtues of the ancients. 3. The nature of poi-
ber 1770, in the 74th year of his age.
fon, ốc.
ALBION, the ancient name of BRITAIN.
ALBUCA, BASTARD STAR-OF-BETHLEHEM: A
New ALBION, a name given by Sir Francis Drake genus of the monogyniu order, belonging to the hex-
- to California,
andria claſs of plants ; and in the natural method
ALBIREO, (in Aftronomy) a ſtar of the third or ranking under the roth order, Goronaria. The cha-
fourth magnitude, in the conitellation CYGNUS. racters are: The calyx is wanting: The corolla confifts
ALBIS, (in anc. geog.) now the Elbe, which die of fix oval oblong petals, which are perliſtent: The
vided ancient Germally in the middle, and was the stamina conſiſt of fix three-ſided filaments the length
boundary of the ancient geography of Germany, ſo far of the corolla : Of theſe, three are fertile, with verſa-
as that country was known to the Romans : all beyond tile antheræ; three are barren, without antheræ: The
they owned to be uncertain, no Roman except Druſus piſtillum has an oblong three-ſided germen; the ſtylus
and Tiberius having penetrated ſo far as the Elbe. In is three-ſided : The pericarpium is an oblong obtufe
the year of the building of the city 744, or about fix triangular capſule,having three cells and three valves.
years before Chriſt, Domitius Ahenobarbus, croſling The ſeeds are numerous, fiat, and incumbent. Of this
The river with a few, merited the ornaments of a genus Linnæus reckons only two.
triumph; ſo glorious was it reckoned at Rome to have
Species. 1. The inajor, or ſtar-flower, with ſpear-
attempted the paſſage. In the following age, how ſhaped-leaves. This is a native of Canada, and ſome
ever, the river that
before occupied the middle of an other parts of North America : the root is bulbous;
cient Germany, became its boundary to the horth, from whence ſhoot up eight or ten long, narrow, ſpear-
from the irruptions of the Sarmatz, who poffeffed ſhaped leaves. In the centre of theſe ariſes a flower-
themſelves of the Tranſalbin Germany. The Elbe ſteni, a foot or more in height, garnilied with a looſe
riſes in the borders of Silelia, out of the Riſenberg, fpike of greeniſh yellow flowers. After the flowers are
runs through Bohemia, Miſnia, Upper Saxony, An- paſt, the germen ſwells to a three-cornered capſule,
halt, Magdeburg, Bandenburg, Danneberg, Lauen- having three cells filled with with flat ſeeds. 2. The
burg, Holſtein, and after being ſwelled by many other minor, or African ſtar-flower, is a native of the Cape
rivers, and paſſing by Hamburg and Gluckſtadt, falls of Good Hope. This hath alſo a pretty large bulbous
into the German, or North ſea, to both which places root, from which ariſe four or five narrow awl-ſhaped
the river is navigable by large veſſels.
lcaves, of a deep green colour; the flowor-ſtem, which
ALBISOLA, a ſmall town belonging to the repu conies from the center of the root, is naked, and rarely
blic of Genoa: here is a porcelain manufacture, and fe- riſes more than eight or nine inches high, having
veral country-houſes of the Genoefe nobility. It was five or fix greeniſh-yellow flowers, growing almoſt in
bombarded in 1745 by the Engliſh. E. Long. 8. 20. the form ofan unibel at top: theſe are rarely ſucceeded
N. Lat. 44. 15.
by ſeeds in Britain.
ALBOGALERUS, in Roman antiquity, a white Culture. The Canada albuca is hardy ; fo the roots
cap worn by the fiamen dialis, on the top of which was may be planted about four inches deep in a border of
an ornament of olive branches.
light earth, where they will thrive and produce their
ALBORAK, amongſt the Mahometan writers, the flowers late in the ſummer : but as the ſeeds do not of-
beaſt on which Mahomet rode in his journeys to hea ten ripen in Britain, and the bulbs put out few off-
ven. The Arab comnientalors give many fables con ſets, the plants are not common in that country. The
cerning this extraordinary vehicle. It is repreſented African fort generally flowers twice a-year; firſt in
as of an intermediate Mape and ſize between an aſs and March or April, and again in July or Auguſt ; and if
a mule. A place, it ſeems, was ſecured for it in pa its roots are kept in pots filled with light earth; fhel-
radiſe at the interceſſion of Mahomet; which, how- tered under a hot-bed frame, they will flower even in
ever, was in ſome meaſure extorted from the prophet, winter ; but the beſt method is lo have a border in the
by Alborak's refuſing to let him mount him when the front of a green-houſe, or ſtove, where the roots of
angel Gabriel was come to conduct him to heaven. moſt of the bulbous flowers may be planted in the full
ALBORO, in zoology, a name by which the eryth- ground, and ſcreened in winter from froſt: in ſuch fi-
rinus, a ſmall red fiſh, caught in the Mediterranean, is tuations they thrive much better, and flower ſtronger,
commonly known in the markets of Rome and Venice.
than when kept in pots.
ALBOURG, a town of Denmark, in North Jut ALBUGINEA TUNICA, in anatomy, the third or
land, capital of the dioceſe of the ſame name, and a innermoſt coat or covering of the teſtes ; it is likewiſe
biſhop's fee. It has this name, which ſignifies eel-town, the name given to one of the coats of the eye.
on account of the great number of cels taken here. It ALBUĞINEUS, in anatomy, a term fometimes
is ſeated on a canal, 10 miles from the ſea, 30 north of applied to the aqueous humour of the eye.
Wiburgh, and so north of Arhuys. It has an ex ALBUGO, or LEUCOMA, in medicine, a diftemper
occafioned
1
.
ALB
[ 359 1
1
AL C
apt to
Album occaſioned by a white opaque fpot growing on the cor. good a medium in ſimilar circumſtances, and not a Albu-
1 nea of the eye, and obſtructing viſion. See MEDE- Offend the tendereſt ſtomach.-_Whites of eggs are alſo querque
Albumen. CINE (Index).
uſeful for clarifying liquors; to wbich purpoſe, being
Alca.
ALBUM, in antiquity, a kind of white table, or mixed and incorporated with the liquors to bé clari-
regiſter, wherein the names of certain magiſtrates, pu. tied, and the whole afterwards boiled, the whites of
blic tranſactions, &c. were entered. Of theſe there eggs are by this means brought together and harden-
were various ſorts; as the album decurionum, album fe- ed, and thus carry off the groſs parts of the liquor a-
natorum, album judicum, album prætoris, 6c.
long with theni.
ALBUM Decurionem, was the regiſter wherein the ALBUQUERQUE, a ſmall city in Spain, in the
names of the decuriones were entered. This is other province of Eſtremadura,is ſeated on an eminence, nine
wife called matriculatio decurionum.
miles from the frontiers of Portugal. It is comniand-
AIBUM Senatorun, the liſt of ſenators names which ed by an almoſt impregnable fortreſs, built on a high
was firft introduced by Auguſtus, and renewed yearly. mountain, and ſerving to defend the town. It carrics
ALBUM Judicum, that wherein the names of the on a great trade in a wool and woollen manufactures. It
perſons of thoſe decuria who judged at certain times, was taken by the allies of Charles king of Spain, in
were entered.
1 705. W. Long. 7. 0. N. Lat. 38. 52.
ALBUM Prætoris, that wherein the formula of all ALBURN, the Engliſh name of a compound co-
actions, and the names of ſuch judges as the prætor lour, being a mixture of white and red, or reddiſh
had choſen to decide cauſes, were written.
brown, Skinner derives the word, in this ſenſe, from
The high-prieſt entered the chief tranſactions of the Latin albus, and the Italian burno, from bruno,
cach year into an albuni, or table, which was hung brown.
up in his houſe for the public uſe.
ALBURNUM, the ſoft white ſubſtance which in
ALBUM is alſo uſed, in later times to denote a trees is found between the liber or inner bark and the
kind of table, or pocket-book, wherein the men of wood, and in progreſs of time acquiring folidity, be-
letters with whom a perſon has converſed, inſcribe their comes itſelf the wood. From its colour and compara-
names with ſonie fentence or motto.—The famous Al. tive ſoftneſs, it has been ſtyled by ſome writers the fat
gernon Sydney being in Denniark, was by the univer- of trees adeps arborum.
fity of Copenhagen preſented with their album, where The alburnum is found in largeſt quantities in trees
upon he wrote theſe words :
that are vigorous ; though in ſuch as languilh, or are
Manus hæc inimica tyrannis
fickly, there is a great number of beds. In an oak
Enfe petit placidam fub libertate quietem.
fix inches in diameter, this ſubſtance is nearly equal in
ALBUM Græcum, among phyſicians, the white dung bulk to the wood. In a trunk of one foot diameter,
of dogs, formerly preſcribed for inflammations of the it is as one to three and a half; of two and a half feet
throat, &c. but now juſty deſpiſed.
diameter, as one to four and a half, &c. but theſe pro-
ALBUMAZAR, a learned Arabian aſtronomer in portions vary according to the health and conſtitution
the tenth century, who wrote a treatiſe, of the Revo- of the trees. The alburnum is frequently gnawed in
lution of the Years.
pieces by inſects which lodge in the ſubſtance, and are
ALBUMEN, the white of an egg. For its nature, nouriſhed from it.
origin, and office, fee EGG.
ALBURNUS, in zoology, a ſpecies of the cyprinus
The white of an egg, according to Boerhaave,makes of Linnæus. See CYPRINUS.
an extraordinary menſtruum. Being boiled hard in the ALCA, or AUK, in ornithology, a genus of the
ſhell, and afterwards ſuſpended in the air by a thread, order of anſeres. The beak of this genus is without
it reſolves and drops down into an infipid, ſcentleſs, li- teeth, ſhort, convex, compreſſed, and frequently fur-
quor, which appears to be that ananiolous unaccount rowed tranſverſely; the inferior mandible is gibbous
able menſtruuin ſo much uſed by Paracelſus ; and will, near the baſe; the feet have generally three toes. The
though it contain nothing ſharp, oleaginous, or fapoſpecies of the alca are 12 ; of which the moſt remark-
naceous, make a thorough ſolution of myrrh ; which able are,
is more than either water, oil, fpirits, or even fire 1. The impennis, northern penguina, or great auk,
itſelf, can effect.
with a compreſſed bill furrowed on each ſide, and an
A little putrid white of egg taken into the ſtomach, oyal ſpot on each ſide of the eyes. According to Mr
occaſions a nauſea,horror,fainting, vomiting, diarrhoea. Martin, this bird breeds on the iſle of St Kilda; ap-
and gripes; it inflames the bile, excites heat, thirſt, fe- pearing there the beginning of May, and retiring the
ver; and diſſolves the humours like the plague. On middle of June. It lays one egg, which is fix inches
the contrary, the white of freſh-laid eggs, if taken long, of a white colour; ſome are irregularly marked
while warm from the hen, is extremely nouriſhing to with purpliſh lines crolling each other, others blotched
the infirm: it may be taken in luke warm milk: but if with black, and ferruginous about the thicker end: if
any other heat is applied to it, the nutritious quality the egg is taken away, it will not lay another that fea-
will be deſtroyed. The freſh white of egg prevents ſon. Mr Macaulay informs us that it does not viſit
burns from riſing in bliſters, if it is uſed immediately that iſland annually, but ſometimes keeps away for fe-
after the accident: it mitigates inflammations of the veral years together; and adds, that it lays its egg
eyes,and preſerves the face from ſun-burning. In phar. cloſe to the ſea-mark, being incapable, by reaſon of the
macy, it is uſed as a medium to render balſams and tur ſhortneſs of its wings, to mount higher. The length
pentines, &c. miſcible with aqueous fluids ; but as it of this bird, to the end of its coes, is three feet; but
diſagrees with many ſtomachs when thus taken, a mu its wings are ſo ſmall, as to be uſeleſs for flight; the
cilage of gum arabic may ſupply its place, it being as length, from the tip of the longeſt quill-feathers to
the
+
A LC
( 360 )
AI, C
Alca.
It is not very
water.
Alca, the firſt joint, being only four inches and a quarter. reach ; and the moment it is looſed, will never offer to
This bird is obſerved by ſeamen never to wander bem eſcape, but inſtantly reſort to its unflegded young :
yond foundings; and according to its appearance they this affection ceaſes at the ſtated time of migration,
direct their meaſures, being thenaired that land is not which is moſt punctually about the 11th of Auguſt,
very remote. It ſometimes frequents the coaſts of Nor- when they leave ſuch young as cannot Hy to the mercy
way, the Ferroe illis, Iceland, Greenland, and New- of the peregrine falcon, who watches the mouths of
foundland; and feeds much on the lumip-filh, father- the houſe for the appearance of the little deſerted puf-
laflier, and other fiſh of that ſize. The young birds eat fins, which, forced by hunger, are compelled to leave
roſe-root, and other plants. The old ones are very their burrows. They lay only one egg. The eggs
differ
rarely ſeen on ſhore, tho' the young ones are not 1111-
much in form: fonie have one end very acute ; others
frequently met with. It is a very ſhy bird. It walks have both extremely obtuſe ; all are white. Their.fleh
ill; but dives well, and is taken in the manner uſed is exceſſively rank, as they feed on ſea-weeds and fiſh,
for the razor-bill and pufin. The ſkin between the eſpecially ſprats : but when pickled and preſerved with
jaws is blown into a bladder, and uſed for the darts of ſpices, are admired by thoſe who love high-eating. Dr
the Greenlanders, as is alſo that of ſome other birds. Caius tells, that, in his days, the church allowed them
The ſkin of the body is ſuppoſed to be uſed by the in lent, inſtead of filh: he alſo acquaints us, that they
Eſquimaux Indians for garments.
-were taken by means of ferrets, as we take rabits : at
2. The alle, little auk, or black and white diver, preſent, they are either dug out, or drawn from their
with a ſmooth conical bill, a white ſtreak on the belly burrows by a hooked ſtick: they bite extremely hard,
and wings, and black feet. The bulk of this ſpecies and keep ſuch faſt hold on whatever they faſten, as not
exceeds not that of a black-bird.
to be ea lily diſengaged. Their noiſe when taken, is
common in Britain, being only met with now and then. very diſagreeable ; being like the efforts of a dumb per-
It ſeeins to be moſt plentiful towards the north, being ſon to ſpeak. Theſe birds are alſo common in Ire-
met with in various parts as far as Spitzbergen. It is land; on the iſland Sherries, three leagues N. N. W.
common in Greenland, in company with the black- of Holyhead ; and in the S. Stack, ncar Holyhead,
billed ſpecies ; feeds on the fame food! ; and lays two they breed in plenty. They inhabit Iceland and Green-
blueiſh white eggs, larger than thoſe of a pigeon. It land; and breed in the extreme parts of the iſlands. It
flies quick, and dives well; and is always dipping its is alſo found in the Ferroe iſles, where it is called
bill into the water while ſwimming er at reſt on the Lunda; and in the Farn illes, where it is called Coulter.
It
grows fat in the ſtormy ſeaſon, from the rieb, from the ſhape of the bill. It goes alſo by vari-
waves bringing plenty of crabs and finallfiſh within its ous other names; Tuch as Gulden-head, Bottle-noſe, and
reach; but from its fize it is leſs fought after than the Helegug, in Wales; at Scarborough, Mullet; and in
others. In Greenland it is called the Ice-bird, being Cornwall, Pope. In America they are ſaid to frequent
the harbinger of Ice. This ſpecies is ſometimes ſeen Carolina in winter; and have been met within Sand-
of a pure white.
wich Sound by late voyagers: the natives ornament
3. The arctica, or paffin, with a compreſſed bill the fore parts and collar of their feal-ſkin jackets with
and four furrows; the orbit of the eyes and temples the beaks of them ; and thoſe of Aoonalaſhka wear
.are white. The legs of this ſpecies are very ſmall; gowns of their ſkins, along with thoſe of other birds.
and placed ſo far behind as to diſqualify it from ſtand. On the coast of Kamtſchatka and the Kurulſchi illands
ing, except quite erect, reſting not only on the foot, they are common, even on the Penſchinſki bay, almoſt
*It attends but the whole length of the leg. This circumſtance * as far as Ochotka: the nations of the two firſt wear the
every one makes the riſe of the puffin from the ground very dif- bills about their necks faſtened to ſtraps ; and accor-
of the ge- ficult, and it meets with many falls before it gets on ding to the ſuperſtition of theſe people, their ſhaman
wing.; :but when that is effected, few birds fly longer or prieſt muſt put them on with a proper ceremony, in
or ſtronger. Theſe birds frequent the coaſts of ſeveral order to procure good fortune.
parts of Great Britain and Ireland; but no place in 4. The torda, orrazor-bill, with four furrows on the
greater numbers than Prieſtholm ille, where their flocks bill and a white kineon each ſide running from the bill to
may be compared to ſwarms of bees for multitude. the eyes. Theſe birds, in company with the guillemot,
Theſe are birds of paſſage; they reſort there annually appear in the Britiſh ſeas the beginning of Febru-
about the fifth or tenth of April, quit the place (almoſt ary; but do not ſettle on their breeding places till they
to a bird), and return twice or thrice before they ſettle begin to lay, about the beginning of May. They in-
to burrow and prepare forovation and incubation. They habit the ledges of the higheſt rocks that impend over
begin to burrow the firſt week in May ; but ſome few the ſea, where they form a groteſque appearance; fit-
fave themſelves that trouble, and diſlodge the rabbits ting cloſe together, and in rows one above another.
from their holes, taking poſſeſſion of them till their They propeily lay but one egg a-piece, of an extra-
departure from the ille. Thoſe which form their own ordinary ſize for the bulk of the bird, being three inches
burrows, are at that time ſo intent on the work as to long: it is either white, or of a pale ſea-green, irre-
ſuffer themſelves to be taken by the hand. This taſk gularly ſpotted with black : if this egg is deſtroyed,
falls chiefly to the ſhare of the males; who alſo affiſt both the auk and the guillemot will lay another; if
in incubation. The firſt young are hatched the begin. that is taken, then a third ; they make no neſt, depo-
ning of July. The old ones ſhow vaſt affection to fiting their egg on the bare rock ; and though ſuch
wards them; and ſeem totally inſenſible of danger in multitudes lay contiguous, by a wonderful inſtinct each
the breeding ſeaſon. If a parent is taken at that time, diſtinguiſhes its own. What is alſo matter of great
and ſuſpended by the wings, it will in a fort of deſpair amazement, they fixtheir eggon the ſmooth rock, with
treat itſelf moſt cruelly, by biting cvery part it can fo exact a balance, as to ſecure it froni rolling off; yet
3
fhould
BUS,
A LC
[ 361 ]
ALC
Alca. Bould it be removed, and then attempted to be repla-' with, by placing a ſimilar ſtrip of the white ſkin of Alca,
ced by the human hand, it is extremely difficult, if not the glatton behind each ear, hanging down behind by Alcæus.
impollible, to find its former equilibrium. According way of ornament; and is a well-received preſent from
to Mr Latham, it is by means of a cement that the a lover to his miſtreſs. The bills both of this and the
bird fixes its egg. The eggs are food to the inhabitants common puffin were formerly held by the natives as a
of the coaſts they frequent; which they get with great charm, and worn by the prieſts as amulets; indeed at
hazard; being lowered from the top by ropes, truiting the preſent theſe have been ſeen fixed round their head
to the ſtrength of their companions, whoſe footing dreſſes, but ſuppoſed now to be only eſteemed as mere
is often ſo unſtable that they are forced down the ornaments: the ſkins are however made uſe of for
precipice, and periſh together. Theſe birds are found clothing, being fewed together. It is called in Kamt-
in the north of Europe, allo in Iceland, Greenland, ſchatka, Muechagatka ; and in Oſchotka, Igilma.
and on the coaſt of Labrador. In Europe they.ex.
7. The pſittacula, or perroquet auk, of Dr Pallas,
tend along the White Sea intothe Arctic Aſiatic ſhores, is about the lize of the little auk. The bill is much
and from thence to Kamtſchatka and the gulph of O- compreſſed on the ſides, in ſhape convex both above
ſchotka: It is the only one that reaches the inland and below, and of a bright red colour : from the re-
Baltic; being found there on the Carls-Ozariſles, near mote corner of each eye is a very ſlender tuft of fine
Gothland, and the illand of Bondon off Angermania. white feathers, hanging down the neck: the head and
5. The pica, or black-billed auk, has the bill of the upper part of the body are duſky; the lower whitiſh,
fanie form with the torda, but is entirely black. The varied with black edges: the legs are of a dirty yel-
cheeks, chin, and throat, are white : in all other re low; and the webs duſky. This ſpecies is found at
ſpects it agrees with the former ſpecies. Mr Latham Kanıtſchatka, in the iſles towards Japan, and on the
is of opinion that it is no other than the young of that' weſtern ſhores of America. They are ſometimes ſeen
fpecies. Mr Pennant obſerves, that it is ſometimes in flocks, but ſeldom far from land, except driven by
found on our coaſts; bat, according to Mr Latham, forms. Of nights they harbour in the crevices of
it is in the winter ſeaſon only, when the common ſort rocks. They lay an egg almoſt the ſize of a hen's, of
has quitted them. They are ſaid to be met with on a dirty white or yellowiſh colour ſpotted with brown ;
the coaſt of Candia and other parts of the Mediterra- which they do about the middle of June, upon the
nean ; “where, no doubt (Mr Latham obſerves) the bare rock or ſand, for they make no neſt. Like moſt
complete old bird is likewiſe found, as I have been in- of the tribe, they are ſtupid birds, as may be evinced
formed that they are common in the bay of Gibraltar, by the ridiculous method of catching then :-One of
where it is curious to ſee their activity under water the natives places himſelf under a looſe garment of fur,
when purſuing the filh; for, as the water in the bay of a particular make, with large open ſleeves, among
is ſometimes clear for a great depth from the ſurface, the rocks, at evening; when the birds, returning to
theſe birds may be often ſeen as it were flying after their lodging places at duſk, run under the ſkirts, and
their prey, with all the agility of a bird in the air, up the arm-holes, for ſhelter during the night ; and
turning in every dire&tion after the fiſh, with ſuch thus become an eafy prey. Their ſtupidity likewiſe
wonderful addreſs and dexterity as ſeldom to miſs their occaſions them to fly aboard a ſhip at ſuch times, miſ-
aim."
taking it for a rooſting-place; whereby navigators
6. The cirhata of Dr Pallas, or tufted auk, fome- have been taught to avoid the danger of falling in too
what bigger than the common puffin, and the colours near with land, either of evenings, or on approaching
much the fame: the bill is an inch and three-quarters ſtorms. The eggs are eſteemed good,
in length, the fame in depth at the baſe, and croſſed ALCÆUS, a famous ancient lyric poet, born at
with three furrows : over each eye ariſes a tuft of Mitylene, in the iſland of Leſbos. Horace ſeems to
feathers four inches in length, which falls elegantly think him the inventor of this kind of poeſy :
on each ſide of the neck, reaching alnioſt to the back;
Now the Roman muſe inſpire,
and are white as far as they are attached to the head,
And warm the ſong with Grecian fire. Francis.
but afterwards of a fine buff yellow : the legs are of
a bright red; the claws black. The female is princi- He flouriſhed in the 44th Olympiad, at the ſame time
pally diſtinguished by having the bill croſſed only with with Sappho, who was likewiſe of Mitylene. Alcæus
two furrows inſtead of three. This ſpecies inhabits was a great enemy to tyrants, but not a very braye fol-
the ſhores of Kaintſchatka, the Kurile illands, and dier. He was preſent at an engagement, wherein the
thoſe intervening between Kamtſchatka and America. Athenians gained a victory over the Leſbians; and
In manners it greatly reſenibles the puffin ; living all here, as he himſelf is ſaid to have confeſſed in one of
day at ſea, but at no great diſtance froin the rocks; his pieces, he threw down his arms, and ſaved himſelf
it comes on ſhore at night; burrows a yard deep under by flight. Horace, who, of all the Latin poets, most
ground, and makes a neſt, with feathers and ſea-plants; reſembled Alcæus, has made the like confeſſion :
is monogamous, and lodges there the whole night with
With thee I ſaw Philippi's plain,
its mate. It lays one white egg, the end of May or
beginning of June, which alone is thought fit to be
Its fatal rout, a fearful ſcene!
eaten, the fleſh of the bird itſelf being inſipid and
And dropp'd, alas ! th' inglorious field,
hard. It feeds on crabs, ſhrimps, and thell-filh, which
Where valour's ſelf was forc'd to yield ;
Where foil'd in dust the vanquilh'd lay,
laſt it forces from the rocks with its frong bill. Pal-
las remarks, that the Kamtſchatkan girls imitate the
And breath'd th’ indignant foul away. Francis. .
tufts of theſe birds, which nature has ſupplied them The poetical abilities of Alcæus are indiſputed; and
VOL. I.
thougla
Zz
1
ALC
L 362 1
A LC
Alceus, though his writings were chiefly in the lyric ſtrain, yet ALCAIC Ode, a kind of manly ode compoſed of ſe Alcaic
Alcaics. his muſe was capable of treating the ſublimeſt ſubjects veral ſtrophes, each conſiſting of four verſes ; the two
With a ſuitable dignity. Hence Horace ſays,
firſt of which are always Alcaïcs of the firſt kiud; the Alcanna.
Alcæus ſtrikes the golden ſtrings,
third verſe is a diameter hypercatalectic, or confift-
And ſeas, and war, and exile ſings.
ing of four feet and a long ſyllable; and the fourth
Thus while they ſtrike the various lyre,
verſe is an Alcaïc of the ſecond kind. The following
The glioſts the ſacred ſounds admire :
ſtrophe is of this ſpecies, which Horace calls minaces.
Alcai camend.
But when Alcxus lifts the ſtrain
To deeds of war and tyrants flain,
Non poflidentem multa vocaveris
In thicker crowds the ſhadowy throng
Rečte beatum : re&tius occupat
Drink deeper down the martial ſong. Francis.
Nomen beati, quideorum
Muneribus fapienter uti, &c.
ALCÆUS, an Athenian tragic poet, and, as ſome
think, the firſt compoſer of tragedies. He renoun-
ced his native country Mitylene, and paſſed for an A- of the Moors, Spaniards, and Portugueſe, a magifirate,
ALCAID, ALCAYDE, or ALCALDE, in the polity
thenian. He left ten pieces, one of which was Pa-
or officer of juſtice, anſwering nearly to the French
fiphaë, that which he produced when he diſputed with provoft, and the Britiſh juſtice-of-peace.-The alcaid
Ariſtophanes, in the fourth year of the 97th Olympiad among the Moors is vefled with ſupreme juriſdi&tion,
There is another Alcæus mentioned in Plutarch, both in civil and criminal caſes.
perhaps the ſame whom Porphyrius mentions as a com-
ALCALA DE GUADEIRA, a ſmall town of Spain,
poſer of ſatirical tambics and epigrams, and who in Andaluſia, upon the river Guadeira. Here are a-
wrote a poem concerning the plagiariſm of Euphorus bundance of ſprings, from whence they convey water
the hiſtorian. He lived in the 145th Olympiad.
to Seville by an aqueduct. w. long. 6. 16. N. lat.
We are told likewiſe of one ALCÆUS, a Meſſenian,
37. 15.
who lived in the reign of Veſpalian and Titus. We
know not which of theſe it was who ſuffered for his Spain, in New Caſtle, ſeated upon the river Henares,
ALCALA de Henares, a beautiful and large city of
lewdneſs a very ſingular kind of death, which gave which waſhes its walls. It is built in a very agreeable
occaſion to the following epitaph :
plain, and is of an oyal figure. The ſtreets are hand-
'Annaiou TOP05 8T Qu, &c.
ſome and pretty ſtraight; one of them is very long, run-
This is Alcæus's lomb; who died by a radiſh,
ning from one end of the city to the other. The houſes
The daughter of the earth, and puniſher of Adulterers. are well built; and there are
ſeveral ſquares, the largeſt
;
This puniſhment inflicted on adulterers, was thruſting all ſides with piazzas, where tradeſmen have their ſhops
one of the largeſtradiſhes up the anus of the adulterer :
to expofe ſeveral ſorts of commodies to fale, of which
or, for want of radiſhes, they made uſe of a fiſh with there is a great plenty and variety as in moſt towns of
a very large head, which Juvenal alludes to :
Spain. Theuniverſity was founded by cardinal Xime-
Quofdam nie chos et mugilis intrat.
nes, archbiſhop of Toledo, about the beginning of the
The mullet enters fome behind.
16th century. The land about Alcala is watered by
the Henares, well cultivated, and very fruitful, while
Hence we nay underſtand the menace of Catullus.
that at a diſtance is dry and ſterile : it yields grain in
Ah ! tum te miſerum, malique
fati,
plenty, very good muſcat wine, and melons of a deli-
Quem attractis pedibus, patente porta,
cious kind. Without the walls is a ſpring, the water
Percurrent raphanique magilefque. Epig. xv. of which is ſo pure and fo well taſted, that it is inclo-
Ah! wretched thou, and born ro lucklefs fate, ſed and ſhut up for the king of Spain's own uſe, from
Who art diſcover'd by the unſhut gate !
whence it is carried to Madrid.-This city is 10 miles
If once, alas ! the jealous huſband come,
ſouth-weſt of Guadalaxara, and 13 miles eaſt of Ma-
The radiſh or the ſea-fiſh is thy doon.
drid. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 40. 30.
ALCALA-Real, a ſmall city of Spain, in Andaluſia,
ALCAICS, in ancient.poetry, a denomination gi- with a fine abbey. It is built on the top of a high
ven to ſeveral kinds of verſe, from Alcæus, their in- mountain, in a mountainous country; and the road to
ventor.
it is incomniodious, rough, and unequal; but to make
The firſt kind conſiſts of five feet, viz.a ſpondee, or amends for this, here are ſeveral kinds of exquiſite fruit
iambic ; an iambic ; a long ſyllable ; a dactyle ; ano and wine. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 37. 18.
ther dactyle : fuch is the following verſe of Horace, ALCALY, or ALCALI, OF ALKALI. See CHE-
Omnes eodem cogimur, omnium
MISTRY, Index.
Verfultur ur|na| ferius locyust
ALCANIS, a town of Arragon in Spain, feated
Sors exitura,
on the river Gaudaloup, twelve miles from Caſpe. It
The ſecond kind conſiſts of two dactyles and two was formerly the capital of the kingdom of the Moors;
trochees: as,
but being taken from them, it was made a commendary
Exilium impoſtura cymbæ.
of the order of Calatrava. Here is a very remarkable
Beſides theſe two, which are called daltylic Alcaïcs, fountain, which throws up water through 42 pipes.
there is another ſtyled ſimply Alcaic ; conſiſting of an It is ſurrounded with gardens and fruit-trees, and de-
epitrite ; a choriambus ; another choriambus ; anda fended with a good fortreſs. W. Long. 0. 5. N. Lat.
bacchius : the following is of this ſpecies,
Cur timet fialvum Tiberim tàn gere, cur|olivum." ALCANNA, in commerce, a powder prepared from
a
the
Sat, X.
I
41. O.
AL C
[ 363 )
AL C
Alcantara the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which the people madura, which has a caſtle ſaid to be impregnable. It Alcaſſar,
of Cairo drive a conſiderable trade. It is much uſed by is indeed very ſtrong, both by art and nature, being Alcavaila.
Alcaffar the Turkiſh women to give a golden colour to their built on the top of a rock which is exceedingly ſteep on
nails and hair. In dyeing, it gives a yellow colour all ſides. Here is a falt-work which produces very fine
when ſteeped with common water, and a red one when white ſalt, from whence the town takes its name. The
infuſed in vinegar. There is alſo an oil extracted from fields produce large quantities of a ſort of rulles, of
the berries of alcanna, and uſed in medicine as a which they make mats, which are tranſported out of
calmer.
the kingdom. W. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 38. 18.
ALCANTARA, a ſmall, but very ſtrong city of ALCASSAR, a city of Barbary, ſeated about two
Eſtremadura, in Spain. Il gives name to one of the leagues from Larache, in Afga, a province of the king-
three others of knighthood. It is ſeated on the banks dom of Fez. It was of great note, and the ſeat of the
of the Tajo, or Tagus, 21 miles from Coria, in a governor of this part of the kingdom. It was built
very fruitful foil, and is celebrated for its bridge over by Jacob Almanzor, king of Fez, about the year 1180,
that river. This was built in the time of the emperor ane deſigned for a magizine and place of rendezvous
Trajan, as appears by an inſcription over one of the for the great preparations he was making to enter
arches, by the people of Luſitania, who were aſſeſſed Granada in Spain, and to make good the footing Jo-
to ſupply the expence. It is raiſed 200 feet above the feph Almanzor had got ſome time before. It is laid
level of the water ; and though it conſiſts but of fix his father firſt invaded Spain with 300,000 men, moſt
arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At of whom he was obliged to bring back to Africa to
the entrance of the bridge, there is a ſmall antique quiet a rebellion that had broke out in Morocco. This
chapel hewn in a rock by che ancient Pagans, who de- done, he returned to Spain again with an arny, as is
dicated it to Trajan, as the Chriſtians did to St Julian. faid, of 200,000 horſe and 300,000 foot. The city
This city was built by the Moors, on account of the is now fallen greatly to decay, ſo that of fifteen moſques
convenience of this bridge ; which is at a place where there are only two that they make uſeof. The reafon,
the Tajo is very deep, running between two high ſteep probably, is the bad ſituation of the town; for it ſtands
rocks : for this reaſon, they called it Al-Ğantara, ſo low, that it is exceſſively hot in ſummer, and almoſt
which, in their language, ſignifies the Bridge. It was overflowed with water in the winter. This they affirnı
- taken from them in 1214, and given to the knights of to be owing to a curſe of one of their ſaints. Here
Calatrava, who afterwards aſſumed the name of Al are a great number of ſtorks, who live very faniiliarly
cantara. It was taken by the Earl of Galloway, in with the people, walking about the town, pofleffing
April, 1 706, and retaken by the French in November the tops of the houſes and moſques without moleſta-
following. It is 45 miles from Madrid, and 125 from tion ; for they eſteem them ſacred birds, and account it
Seville. W. Long. 7. 12. N. Lat. 39. 30.
ſinful to diſturb them. At preſent, the baſhaw of Te.
Knights of ALCANTARA, a military order of Spain, tuan appoints a governor to this town, which is the
which took its name from the abovementioned city. laſt of his dominions towards Mequinez. Near this city
They make a very conſiderable figure in the hiſtory of there is a high ridge of mountains, running towards
the expeditions againſt the Moors. The knights of Tetuan, whoſeinhabitants wcre never brought entirely
Alcantara make the ſame vows as thoſe of Calatrava, under ſubjection ; and whenever it was attempted, they
and are only diſtinguiſhed from them by this, that the revenged themſelves by infeſting the roads, and rob-
croſs fleur de lys, which they bear over a large white bing and deſtroying the travellers. When they were
cloak, is of a green colour. They poſſeſs 37 com purſued, they retired intotheir woody mountains, where
manderies. By the terins of the ſurrender of Alcan none could ſafely follow them. Not far from hence is
tara to this order, it was ſtipulated, that there ſhould the river Elmahaſſen, famous for the battle fought be-
be a confraternity between the two orders, with the tween Don Sebaſtian king of Portugal and the Moors;
fame practices and obſervances in both ; and that the in which the Portugueſe were defeated and their king
order of Alcantara ſhould be ſubject to be vilited by blain. W. Long. 12. 35. N. Lat. 35. 15.
the grand-maſter of Calatrava. But the former foon ALCAVALLA, in the Spaniſh finances, was at
releaſed themſelves from this engagement,on-pretence firſt a tax of ten per cent. afterwards of fourteen per
that their grand-maſter had not been called to the e cent, and is at preſent of only ſix per cent. upon the
lection of that of Calatrava, as had been likewiſe ſti ſale of every ſort of property, whether moveable or im-
pulated in the articles. After the expulſion of the moveable; and it is repeated every time the property
Moors, and the taking of Granada, the fovereignty is fold. The levying of this tax requires a multitude
of the order of Alcantara and that of Calatrava was of revenue-officers ſufficient to guard the tranſportation
ſettled in the crown of Caſtile by Ferdinand and Iſa of goods, not only from one province to another, but
bella.--In 1540, the knights of Alcantara ſued for from one ihop to another. It ſubjects not only the
leave to marry, wliich was granted them.
dealers in ſome fort of goods, but thoſe in all ſorts,
ALCAREZ, a ſmall city of La Mancha, in Spain, every farmer, every manufacturer, every merchant
defended by a pretty ſtrong caſtle, and remarkable for and ſhopkeeper, to the continual viſits and examina-
an ancient aqueduct. It ſtands near the river Guarda tion of the tax-gatherers. Through the greater part
mana, and the ſoil about it is very fruitful. They of a country in which a tax of this kind is eſtabliſhed,
have a breed of little running-horſes, which are very nothing can be produced for diſtantſale. The produce
fleet and ſtrong. It is 25 miles north of the confines of every part of the country muſt be proportioned to
of Andaluſia, 1 o8 ſouth of Cuenza, and 130 ſouth-by- the conſumption of the neighbourhood. It is to the
eaſt of Madrid. W. Long. I. 50. N. Lat. 38. 28. Alcayala, accordingly, that Uſtaritz imputes the ruin
ALCASSAR DO SAL, a town of Portugal, in Eſtre of the manufactures of Spain. He might have impu-
Z z 2
ted
-
A LC
[ 364 ]
AL C
Alcazar ted to it likewiſe the declenfion of agriculture, it be- which ſhould be carefully ſaved from thoſe plants whoſe Alcedo,
ing impoſed not only upon manufactures, but upon flowers are double and of the beſt colours: for though
Alcea.
the rude produce of the land.
the duplicity of the flowers, as well as their colour, are
ALCAZAR LEGUER, a town of Africa, in the only accidental properties, yet the young plants will
kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Ilabat. It produce nearly the ſame kind of flowers with thoſe
was taken by Alphonſo, king of Portugal, in 1468 ; from which the ſeeds are taken, provided no plants with
but ſoon after that, it was abandoned to the Moors. ſingle or bad-coloured flowers are permitted to grow
Il is ſeated on the coaſt of the ſtraits of Gibraltar, near them; and as fuon as fuch appear they ought to
W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 38. O.
be removed from the good ones, that their farina inay
ALCAZER, a town of Spain, in New Caſtile, ſeat not ſpread into the others, which would cauſe them to
ed on the river Guardamana, which has a fortreſs on degenerate. The ſeeds ought to be gathered very dry,
a ligh hill for its defence, and lies in a very fruitful and remain in their capſules until ſpring; but care mult
country. It is 100 miles north-weſt of Carthagena. be taken that no wet comes to thein in winter, other-
W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 38. 15.
wiſe the covers would turn mouldy, and ſpoil their con-
ALCE, ALCES, or Elk, in zoology, the trivial ténts.—They ſhould be ſown in drills, about the middle
name of a ſpecies of the cervus, belonging to the order of April, on a bed of light earth, and covered with
of mammalia pecora.
See CERVUS.
earth of the ſame kind about half an inch deep. When
ALCEA, the HOLLY-HOCK: A genus of the poly- the plants have put out fix or eight leaves, they ſhould
andria order, belonging to the monodelphia claſs of be tranſplanted into nurſery-beds, obſerving to water
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the then until they liave taken good root; after which
37th order, Columnnifere. The characters are: The they will require no farther care, but to keep then
calyx is a double perianthium, monophyllous and per- clean from weeds till October, when they lould be
fiftent; the exterior onelii-cleft, the interior halffive- tranſplanted where they are to remain.
clefl: The corolla conſiſts of five petals, coaleſced at ALCEDO, or KINGSFISHER, in ornithology, a
the baſe, heart-ſhaped inverſely, and expanding : Tlie genus of the order of picæ. The alcedo has a long,
ftamina conliſt of numerous filaments, coaleſced below itrait, thick, triangular bill; with a fleſhy, plain,
into a five-cornered cylinder, looſe above, and inſerted ſhort, flat tongue.
into the corolla ; the antheræ are hidney-ſhaped: The Of this genus there are a great many ſpecies, with
piſtillum has a roundiſh germen ; a ſhort cylindric ſty one or other of which almoſt every part of the world
lus: and numerous briſtly ftigmata the length of the is furniſhed. Moſt of them frequent rivers, and live on
fylus: The pericarpium conſilts of many arilli, jointed fiſh, the fingularity of catching which is admirable :
into a verticillum about a columnar depreſſed recepta- ſometimes hovering over the water, where a ſhoal of
cle: The ſeeds are folitary, reniform, and depreſſed. ſmall fiſhes is ſeen playing near the ſurface; at other
Species. Although Linnæus mentions two diſtinct times waiting with attention, on ſome low branch
ſpecies of this genus, viz. the roſea and ficifolia, he hanging over the water, for the approach of a ſinglo
thinks, that the latter may perhaps be only a varie one who is ſo unlucky as to ſwim that way; in either
ty of the former ; but Mr Miller affirms them to be cale dropping like a ſtone, or rather darting with ra-
diſtinct ſpecies, whoſe difference in the form of their pidity on his prey; when, ſeizing it croſſwiſe in his bill,
leaves always continues. The leaves of the firſt fort it retires to a reſting place to feaſt on it, which it does
are roundih, and cut at their extremities into angles; piecemeal, bones and all, without reſerve, afterwards
thoſe of the ſecond are deeply cut into ſix or ſeven ſeg- bringing up the indigeſtible parts in pellets, like birds
ments, ſo as to reſemble a hand. Cultivation produces of prey. The wings of moſt of the genus are very ſhort;
almoſt an infinite variety of this plant, ſuch as double- yet the birds fly rapidly, and with great ſtrength. It
flowered, ſingle-flowered, deep red, pale red, blackiſh may be remarked, that throughout this genus, blue, in
red, white, purple, yellow, and Hefh-colour. The firſt different ſhades, is the moſt predominant colour. The
fpecies is a native of China, the ſecond grows alſo in fpecies found in the South Sea Iſands are held in a
Iſtria. Tho'natives of warm countries, they are hardy kind of ſuperſtitious veneration by the natives of the.
enough to thrive in the open air in Britain, and have places they ſeverally inhabit, perhaps on account of
for many years been ſome of the greateſt ornaments in their being frequently ſeen flying about the morais or
gardens, towards the end of ſummer; but they have the burial-places. That which inhabits Otaheite, where
inconvenience of growing too large for ſmall gardens, it is called Erooro, is accounted particularly facred,
and requiring talĩ ſtakes to ſecure them from being and not allowed to be taken or killedo
broken by ſtrong winds. In large gardens, however, 1. The iſpida, or common kings-fiſher, is not much
when properly diſpoſed, they make a fine appearance; larger than a ſwallow; its ſiape is.clumſy; the bill diſ-
for as their ſpikes of flowers grow very tall, there will proportionably long; it is two inches from the baſe to
be a ſucceſſion of them on the ſameſtems more than two the tip; the upper chap black, and the lower yellow.
months: the flowers on the lower part of the ſpike ap. But the colours of this bird atone for its inelegant form:
pear in July ; and as their ſtalks advance, new flowers the crown of the head and the coverts of the
wings are
are produced tilt near the end of September. When of a deep blackiſh green, ſpotted with bright azure: the
planted in good ground, the ſtalks will often riſe to back and tail are of the moſt reſplendent azure; the
the height of eight or nine feet ; ſo that near fix feet of whole under-ſide of the body is orange-coloured ; a
each will be garniſhed with flowers, which,when double broad mark of the fame paſſes from the bill beyond
and of good colours, make a very beautiful appearance. the eyes ; beyond that is a large white ſpot; the tail .
Culture. The holly-hock is propagated by ſeeds, is ſhort, and conſiſts of twelve feathers of a rich deep
1
N
blues
A LC
( 365 )
A LC
Alcedo. blue ; the feet are of a reddiſh yellow, and the three It was therefore neceſſary to place it in a tranquil fca, Alcedo.
joints of the outmoſt toe adhere to the middle toe, and to fupply the bird with charms to allay the fury
while the inner toe adheres only by one.
of a turbulent element during the time of its incubation;
From the diminutive lize, the ſlender ſhort legs, and for it had, at that ſeaſon, power over the ſeas and the
the beautiful colours of this bird, no perſon would be winds.
led to ſuppoſe it one of the moſt rapacious little ani-
x’ αλκινος σορη σευν τι τα κυματα, την τέ θαλασσαν,
mals that ſkims the deep. Yet it is forever on the
Τον τε νοτον, τον σ' ευρον, ος εσχατα φυκια κινει
wing, and feeds on fiſh, which it takes in ſurpriſing
Αλκυονης, γλαυκάις Νηρηισι ται σε μαλισα
quantities, when we conſiderits ſize and figure. It takes
Ορνιθων εφιλαθεν. . THEOCRIT. Idyl. vii. l. 57.
its prey after the manner of the ofprey, balancing itſelf
at a certain diſtance above the water for a conſiderable May Halcyons ſmooth the waves, and calm the ſeas,
fpace, then darting into the deep, and ſeizing the fiſh And the rough ſouth-eaſt ſink into a breeze;
with incyitable certainty. While it remains ſuſpended Halcyons, of all the birds that haunt the main,
in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a beau Moſt loy'd and honour'd by the Nereid train.
tiful variety of the inoſt dazzling and brilliant colours.
FAWKES.
This ſtriking attitude did not eſcape the notice of the Theſe birds were equally favourites with Thetis as
ancients; for Ibycus, as quoted by Athenæus, ſtyles with the Nereids;
thefe birds αλκυονες τανυσιπτεροι, the halcyons with ex-
Dilectæ Thetidi Halcyones. VIRG. Georg. I. 399.
panded wings. It makes its neſt in holes in the ſides
of the cliffs, which it ſcoops to the depth of three feet; as if to their influence theſe deities owed a repoſe in
and lays from five to nine eggs, of a inof beautiful ſe- the midſt of the ſtorms of winter, and by their means
mitranſparent white. The female begins to lay ear were ſecured from thoſe winds that diſturb their ſuba
ly in the ſeaſon, and excludes her firſt brood about the marine retreats, and agitated even the plants at the bot-
beginning of April. The male, whoſe fidelity exceeds tom of the ocean.
oven that of the turtle, brings her large proviſions of Such are the accounts given by the Roman and Si-
fiſh while ſhe is thus employed; and fhe, contrary to cilian poets. Ariſtotle and Pliny tell us, that this
moſt other birds, is found plump and fat at that ſea bird is moſt comnion in the ſeas of Sicily: that it ſat
fon. The male, that uſed to twitter before this, now only a few days, and thoſe in the depth of winter; and
enters the neſt ás quietly and as privately as poſſible. during that period the mariner might fail in full ſecu-
The young ones are hatched at the expiration of 20 rity; for which reaſon they were ityled Halcyon days.
days; but are ſeen to differ as well in their lize as in
Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore feptem
their beauty.
Incubat Halcyone pendentibus æquore nidis :
This fpecies is the adxuard® wv Qu, or mute halcyonof
Tum yia tuta maris : ventos cuſtodit, et arcet
Ariſtotle, which he deſcribes with more preciſion than
Æolus egrellu.
OVID. Met. lib. si.
is uſual with that great philoſopher. After his deſcrip-
tion of the bird follows that of its neſt ; than which
Alcyone, compreſs’d,
the moſt inventive of the ancients have delivered no Seven days ſits brooding on her watery neſt,
thing that appears at firſt light more fabulous and ex A wintry queen; her fire at length is kind,
travagant. He relates, that it reſembled thoſe con Calms every ſtorm, and huhes every wind.
cretions that are formed by the ſea-water ; that it re-
DRYDEN.
ſembled the long-necked gourd ; that it was hollow In after-times, theſe words expreſſed any ſeaſon of
within ; that the entrance was very narrow, ſo that, proſperity: theſe were the Halycon days of the poets ;
firould it overſet, the water could not enter ; that it re. the brief tranquillity, the ſeptem placide dies, of human
fifted any violence from iron, but could be broke with
life,
a blow from the hand; and that it was compoſed of the The poets alſo made it a bird of ſong. Virgil feems
bones of the Bsrovn, or ſea-needle. Thenelt had medi-
to place it in the ſame rank with the linnet;
cal virtues aſcribed to it; and froin the bird was called
Halcyoneum. In a fabulous age, every odd ſubſtance
Litoraque Halyconem reſonant, et Acanthida dumi.
GEORG, IJI. 338.
that was flung aſhore received that name ; a fpecies of
tubular coral, a ſponge, a zoophite, and a miſcellane And Silius Italicus celebrates its muſic, and its float-
ous concrete, having by the ancients been dignified ing neſt :
* Plin. lib. with that title from their imaginary origin*. Yet much
Cum ſonat Halcyone cantu, nidofque natantes
xxxii. c. 8. of this ſeems to be founded on truth. The form of the
Immota geftat ſopitis fluctibus unda. Lib. xiv. 275,
Diofc. lib. neſt is juſtly deſcribed ; and the materials which Ari-
V, C, 94. ſtotle ſays it was compoſed of, are not entirely of his But theſe writers ſeem to have transferred to our ſpe-
own invention. Whoever has ſeen the neſt of the cies, the harmony that belongs to the vocal alcedo*
kings-fiſher, will obſerve it ſtrewed with the bones and one of the loft birds of the ancients.
8920
fcales of fiſh; the fragments of the food of the owner As the ancients have had their fables concerning
and its young. On the foundation laid by the philo- this bird, ſo have the modern vulgar. It is an opi-
fopher, fucceeding writers formed other tales extreme nion generally received among them, that the fleſh of
ly abſurd; and the poets, indulging the powers of i the kings-fiſher will not corrupt, and that it will even
magination, dreffed the ſtory in all the robes of ro banidhi all vermin. This has no better foundation than
inance.
This neſt was a floating one :
that which is ſaid of its always pointing, when hung
Incubat halcyone pendentibus æquore nidis.
up dead, with its breaſt to the north. The only truth
OVID. Met. lib. xia which can be affirmed of this bird when dead is, that.
its,
* Arift.
Hift. an.,
A LC
[ 366 ]
ALC
V
Alcedo. its fleih is utterly unfit to be eaten ; while its beautiful and the claws blackiſh. It inhabits Martinico and Alcedon,
plumage preſerves its luſtre longer than that of any o Mexico ; at which laſt it is called Achalalaftli, This Alchemilla
ther bird we know.
bird migrates into the northern parts of Mexico at cer-
This bird is found not only in Britain, but through- tain ſeaſons only, and is ſuppoſed to come there from
out Europe, Aſia, and Africa ; as ſpecimens have been ſome hotter parts.
received from both China, Bengal, and Egypt. Be [The jacamars are much allied to this genus, and
lon alſo remarks his having met with it in Romania have been ranked under il by Linnæus: Their toes
and Greece; and Scopoli notices it as a bird of Car- are, however, differently placed ; their food alſo is
niola, where he ſays it remains the whole year as in different, being inſects alone, and not fiſh; and their
England. Indeed it "bears the rigours of the colder haunts are different, being moiſt woods, and not ſhores
climates ſo well, that among the Germans it has gain- or the banks or rivers.]
ed the name of Eifzvogel or Ice Bird: Olina ſpeaks 5. The galbula, or green jacamar, is about the ſize
alſo of its not regarding the ice and cold ; and Gmelin of a lark. The bill is black, of a ſquare form, a little
alſures us, that it is found even in Tartary and Sibe- incurvated and ſharp at the point: the plumage in ge-
ria. But, however this may be, there are few winters neral, in the upper part of the body, is of a moſt bril.
in which many of theſe birds do not periſh, apparently liant green, gloſed with copper and gold in different
from cold alone ; as ſeveral have been found frozen lights: the belly, throat, and vent, are rufous: the
ftiff by the ſides of even running water, without the tail is compoſed of ten feathers, and ſhaped like a
leaſt mark of violence about them. M. D'Aubenton wedge: the legs are of a greeniſh yellow, very ſhort
has kept theſe birds for ſeveral months, by means of and weak; the claws are black. This ſpecies is found
ſmall fiſh put into baſons of water, on which they have both in Guiana and Braſil, in the moiſt woods which
fed; for on experiment they have refuſed all other it prefers to the more dry ſpots, for the ſake of inſects,
kinds of nouriſhment.
on which it feeds. It is ſeldom ſeen except ſingle, as
2. The rudis, or Egyptian kings-fiſher, as deſcribed it is a very ſolitary bird, keeping for the moſt part in
by Haſſelquiſt, is the ſize of the Royſton crow. The the thickeſt parts ; its flight quick, but ſhort ; perches
bill is blackiſh, more than half an inch broad at the on branches of a middling height, where it fits all
baſe, and two inches in length : the head, ſhoulders, night, and frequently part of the day, without ſtirring.
and back, are brown, marked with oblong ferruginous Though theſe birds are folitary, yet they are far from
ſpots : the throat is of a ferruginous white : the belly ſcarce, as many may be met with. They are ſaid to
and thighs are whitiſh,marked with longitudinal broad- have a ſhort and agreeable note. The natives of Gui-
ith cinereous ípots : upper tail coverts are quite white : ana call this bird Venetore and the Creoles, Colibri des
the quills ſpotted with white on the inner webs, chiefly grands bois. At Brazil their fleſh is eaten by ſome.
at the tips : the tail is afh-coloured : the legs are of a 6. The paradiſea, or paradiſe jacamar, is of the
pale green ; and the claws blackiſh. It inhabits lower fame ſize with the foriner, and has a ſimilar bill: the
Egypt, about Cairo; builds in ſycamore and date trees; throat, fore part of the neck, and under wing coverts.
and feeds on frogs, inſects, and ſmall fiſh, which laſt are white: the reſt of the plumage is of a deep dull
it meets with in the fields when they are overflowed. green, in ſome lights appearing almoſt black, in other
Its
cry
is not unlike that of the common crow. with a ſlight gloſs of violet and copper bronze: the
3. 'Le taparara of Buffon is about the ſize of a tail is compoſed of twelve feathers of unequal lengths:
ſtarling. The upper mandible of the bill is black; the the two middle ones longeſt: the legs are black ; the
Jower red: the hind part of the neck, the back, and toes are placed two before and two behind, and pret-
'ſcapulars, are of an elegant blue; the ramp and upper ty much united. It inhabits Surinam ; and like the
tail coverts bright beryl-blue : the under parts of the others, it feeds on inſects; and ſometimes, contrary
body are white; the wing coverts blue; and the legs to them, frequents open places. It flies farther at a
red. Inhabits Cayenne and Guiana, at which laſt time, and perches on the tops of trees: It is frequent-
place the natives call all the kings-fiſher tribe by the ly found with a companion, not being quite ſo folitary.
name T aparara. In this part of South America, which á bird as the other. It alſo differs in the note, having
contains many rivers full of fiſh,kings-fiſhers,as might a kind of ſoft whiſtle often repeated, but not heard a
be expected, abound in vaſt numbers : but what is re-
great way off.
markable, they never herd together, always being Above 30 other ſpecies have been deſcribed by orni-
found ſingle, except in breeding-time, which is about thologiſts.
the month of September. They lay their eggs in the ALCHEMILLA, or LADIES-MANTLE: A genus
holes of banks, like the kings-fiſher of Europe. The of the monogynia order, belonging co the tetrandria
cry of this bird imitates the word Carac.
claſs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un-
4. The torqueta, or cinereous kings-fiflier, is about der the 35th order Senticoſa. The calyx is a ſingle-
the fize of a magpie, and fifteen inches and a half in leay'd perianthium, tubular, and perliftent; the mouth
length. The bill is three inches and a half long, and flat, and eight-parted: There is no corolla. The ſta-
brown ; the baſe of the lower mandible reddilh : the mina conſiſt of four ſmall erect ſubulated filaments pla-
head is creſted: the upper parts of the head and body ced in the mouth of the calyx; the antheræ are round-
are blueiſh aſh ; the upper parts cheſnut: the throat iſh: The piſtiftum has an egg-ſhaped germen: The ſty.
is whitiſh, deſcending down the neck, and paſſing be lus is filiform, the length of the ſtamina, and inſerted
hind like a collar, ending towards the back in a point ; at the baſe of the germ : The ſtigma is globular. There
the under tail coverts are of a pale fulvous, tranſverſe. is no pericarpium,
but the neck of the calyx cloſed. The
ly ſtriated with black: leſler wing coverts varied with feed folitary, elliptical, and compreſſed. Of this genus
blueiſh, aſh, black, and yellowiſh: the legs are red; there are three
Species.
.
A LC
[367]
A L C
!
4
Alchemit, Species. 1. Tlie vulgaris, or common ladies-mantle, Richard Carter in the year 1476 Ryn. Fed. tom, xii. Alciat
Alchemy. with leaves plaited like a fan, and yellowiſh-green Nevertheleſs, we havejhad ſeverelaws againſt alchemy '
bloſſoms. It grows naturally in paſture-lands in and multiplying of metals, as much ſo as againſt coin- Alcmaer.
moſt countries in Europe. The leaves diſcovering itſelf.
to the taſte a moderate aſtringency; and were ALCIAT (Andrew), I great lawyer, who fionriſh-
formerly much eſteemed in ſome female weakneſr- ed in the 16th century, born at Milan. He mixed
es, and in fluxes of the belly. They are now rarely much of polite learning in the explication of the laws,
made uſe of, tho' both the leaves and roots might doubt and happily drove out the barbarity of language which
lefs be of ſervice in caſes where mild aſtringents are till then had reigned in the lectures and writings of
required. In the province of Smolandia in Goth- lawyers; for which Thuanus highly praiſes him. He
land, they make a tinature of the leaves, and give it in publiſhed a great many law-books, and fonie notes
ſpaſniodic or convulſive diſeaſes. Horſes, ſheep, and upon Tacitus. His Emblems have been much admired,
goats, eat it ; cows are not fond of it ; ſwine refuſe it. and tranſlated into French, Italian, and Spaniſh ; and
2. The alpina, or cinque-foil ladies-mantle, with ſeveral learned men have written commentaries on
finger-ſhaped fawed leaves, and greeniſh bloſſoms. It them.
is a native of the mountainous parts of Europe. Goats ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general. It was-
and cows eat it ; horſes, ſheep, and ſwine, refuſe it.- the fate of this great man to live at a time when his
3. The minor, or leaſt ladies mantle, with five ſmooth country was a ſcene of confuſion. The Greeks, grown
leaves growing at a joint and cut into many ſegments. infolent froin their conqueſts in Perſia, turned their
It grows naturally in Sweden, Lapland, and other arms againſt each other, and bandied together under
cold countries. Eaten by cows and goats ; refuſed by the conduct of the two moſt oppulent ſtates Athens and
horſes, ſheep, and ſwine.
Lacedæmon. Alcibiades, in the midſt of an expedition
Culture. Theſe plants have perennial roots, and an he had planned againſt the enemy of his country, was
nual ſtalks. They are eaſily propagated by parting of recalled home to anſwer fome charge of a private na-
their roots, or ſowing their ſeeds in autumn. They ture ; but fearing the violence of his enemy, inſtead.
ſhould have a moiſt ſoil and ſhady ſituation, and be of going to Athens, he offered his ſervices at Sparta,
kept clean from weeds; which is all the culture they where they were readily accepted. By his advice the
require.
Lacedæmonians made a league with Perſia, which gave
ALCHEMIST, a practitioner in alchemy. a very favourable turn to their affairs. But his credit
ALCHEMY, that branch of chemiſtry which had in the republic raiſing jealouſies againſt him, he pri-
for its principal objects the tranſmutation of metals vately reconciled himſelf to his country, and took a
into gold; the.panacea, or univerſal remedy; an alka- gain the command of an Athenian army. Here victory
heſt, or univerſal menſtruum ; an univerſal ferment; waiting as it were at his command, attended all his
and many other things equally ridiculous.
motions. The loſs of ſeven battles obliged the Spar-
Kircher, inſtructed in all the ſecrets of chemiſtry, tans to ſue for peace. He enjoyed his triumphs, how.
has fully expoſed the artifices and impoſtures of alche- eyer, only a ſhort time at Athens. One unſucceſsful.
miſts. An alchemiſt pots into a crucible the inatter event made him again obnoxious to the malice of his .
which is to be converted into gold ; this he ſets on the citizens ; and he found it expedient to retire from A-
fire, blows it, ſtirs it with rods; and, after divers ope-. thens. In his abfence the Spartans again took the lead,
rations, gold is found at the bottom of the crucible, and at the fatal battle of Ægos entirely ſubdued the
inſtead of the matter firſt put in : this there are a Athenian power. Alcibiades, though an exile, endea-
thouſand ways of effe&ting, without any tranſmuta- voured to reſtore the power of his country ; of which
tion. Sometimes it is done by dexterouſly dropping in the Spartans having intelligence, procured him to be
a piece of gold concealed between the fingers, fome. aſſaſſinated.
aſſaſſinated. He was a man of admirable accompliſh-
times by cafting in a little of the duſt of gold or ſilver ments, but indifferently principled : of great parts ;
diſguiſed under the appearance of ſome elixir, or other and of an amazing verſatility of genius.
indifferent matter; ſometimes a crucibleis uſed which, ALCINOUS, kingof the Phænicians, in the iſland
has a double botton, and gold put between the two ; now called Corfu, was ſon of Nauſthous, and grand-
ſometimes the rod uſed to ſtir the matter is hollow, ſon of Neptune and Peribea. It is by his gardens this.
and filled with the duſt of the metal deſired; at other king has chiefy immortalized his memory. He re-
tiines there is metal mixed with the charcoal, the aſhes ceived Ulyſſes with much civility, when a ſtorm had
of the furnace, or the like. Mr Harris very properly caſt him on his coaſt. The people here loved pleaſure
diſtinguiſhes between alchemy and chemiſtry; and de- and good cheer, yet were ſkilful ſeamen; and Alcinous
fines the former to be ars jine arte, cujus principunzeſt was a good Prince.
mentiri, medium laborare, et finis mendicare ; and the ALCMAER, a city of the United Provinces, feat.-
Italians have a proverb, non ti fidiare al alchemiſt a pro- ed in North Holland, about four miles from the ſea,
vero o medico anialato. The ruin which has attended 15 from Haerlem, and 18 from Amſterdam.
It is a
this deluſion has occaſioned ſeveral ſtates to make ſe- handſome city, and one of the cleaneſt in Holland.
vere laws againſt pretences to alchemy. The Romans The ſtreets and houſes are extremely ncat and regular,
formerly baniſhed all ſuch as profeſſed it; and the f&- and the public bụildings very beautiful. It had for-
ered canons likewiſe directed the thunder of their cen- merly two pariſh-churches, dedicated to St Matthew -
fure againſt them. Diocleſian and Cæſar directed all and St Lawrence. The latter had ſo high a tower, .
books which treated of this ſubject to be burnt. Ry- that it ſerved for a ſea-mark to the veſſels that were in
mer furniſhes us with a licence for practiſing alchemy, the open ſea ; but, in 1464, it tumbled down, and
with all kinds of metals and minerals, granted to one damaged the other church ſo much, that they were
boch
ALC
[ 368 )
A LC
em-
52. 28.
Alman both demoliſhed in 1470, and one church was built in Bale acoordingly calls this nunnery Spiritualiui mere Alcohol
their itead,dedicated to the fame ſaints. The Spaniards, tricum cænobaum, "a community of ſpiritual harlots.' 1
Alcock, under the command of Frederic of Toledo, ſon of the Biſhop Alcock wrote ſeveral pieces; amongſt which are
Alcoran.
duke d’Alva, came to beliege it, after they had taken the following ; 1. Mons Perfectionis. 2. In Pfalmos
Haerlem in 1573; but were forced to raiſe the fiege, Penitentiales. 3. Homiliæ Vulgares. 4. Meditationes
after three monthslying before it, as well on account Pia. He died October 1. 1500; and was buried in
of the infection of the air as the ſtout reliſtance of the the chapel he had built at Kingſton upon Hull.
inhabitants and ſoldiers ; even the women ſignalizing ALCOHOL, or ALKOOL, in chemiſtry, ſpirit of
themſelves bravely in its defence. It is recorded in wine highly rectified t. It is alſo uſed for any highly + See Ches
the regiſter of this city, that, in the year 1637, 120 rectified fpirit.-Alcohol is extremely light and in- miſtry (In.
tulips, with the off-fets, fold for 90,000 florins. The flammable : It is a ſtrong antiſeptic, and therefore
dex), and
town has a very good trade in butter and cheeſe, of ployed to preſerve animal ſubſtances.
Pharmacy.
which a vaſt quantity is ſold every year, and is efteen ALCOHOL is alſo uſed for any fine impalpable
ed the beſt in Holland, E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. powder.
ALCOHOLIZATION, the proceſs of rectifying
ALCMAN, a lyric poet, who flouriſhed in the 27th any ſpirit. It is alſo uſed for pulverization.
Olympiad. He was born at Sparta ; and compoſed ALCOR, in aſtronomy, a ſmall ſtar adjoining to
ſeveral poems, of which only ſome fragments are re the large bright one in the middle of the tail of urfa
maining, quoted by Athenæus and ſome other ancient major.-The word is Arabic. It is a proverb among
writers. He was very amorous : accounted the father the Arabians, applied to one who pretends to ſee ſmall
of gallant poeſy; and is ſaid to have been the firſt that things, but overlooks much greater : Thou canſt ſee Ale
introduced the cuſtom of ſinging love-fongs in com cor and not yet ſee the full moon.
pany. He is reported to have been one of the great ALCORAN, or AL-KORAN, the ſcripture, or bible,
eft eaters of his age ; upon which Mr Bayle remarks of the Mahometans. The word is compounded of the
that ſuch a quality would have been extremely incon- Arabic particle al, and coran or koren, derived from
venient, if poetry had been at that time upon ſuch a the verb caraa or karaa, to read. The word therefore
footing as it has been often fince, not able to pro properly ſignifies, the reading; or rather, that which
cure the poet bread. He died of a ſtrange diſeaſe; ought to be read. By this name the Mahometaris de-
for he was eat up with lice.
note not only the entire book or volume of the Koran,
ALCMANIAN, in ancient lyric poetry, a kind of but alſo any particular chapter or ſection of it: juſt as
verſeconfiſting of two dactyles and two trochees; as, the Jews call either the whole ſcripture, or any part of
Virgine bus pueriſque canto
it, by the name of Karah, or Mikra, words of the
The word is formed froni Alcman, the name of an an fame origin and import.
-cient Greek poet, in great eſteem for his erotics or Beſides this peculiar name, the Koran is alſo honour-
amorous compoſition.
ed with ſeveral appellations common to other books of
ALCMENA, the daughter of Electryo king of My- fcripture: as, al Farkan, from the verb foraka, to
cenæ, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter putting on the divide or diſtinguiſh ; not, as the Mahometan doctors
ſhape of her huſband while he was abroad in the wars, ſay, becauſe thoſe books are divided into chapters or
begot Hercules upon her: he made that night as long ſections, or diſtinguiſh between good and evil; but in
as three ordinary ones.
the ſame notion that the Jews uſe the word Perek, or
ALCOCK (John), doctor of laws and biſhop of Pirka, from the ſame root, to denote a ſection or por-
Ely in the reign of king Henry VII. was born at Be tion of ſcripture. It is alſo called al Moſhaf, the vo-
verly in Yorkūire, and educated at Cambridge. He was lume, and al Kitah, the book, by way of eminence,
firſt made dean of Weſtminſter, and afterwards ap which anſwers to the Biblia of the Greeks ; and al
pointed maſter of the rolls. In 1471, he was conſe- Dhikr, the admonition, which name is alſo given to the
crated biſhop of Rocheſter, in 1476, he was tranſlated Pentateuch and Goſpel.
to the ſee of Worcheſter; and in 1486, to that of Ely, The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very
in the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to the ſee unequal length, which we call chapters; but the Ara-
of Canterbury. He was a prelate of great learning bians fowar, in the fingular ſura ; a word rarely uſed
and piety; and ſo highly eſteemed by king Henry, on any other occaſion, and properly fignifying a row,
that he appointed him lord preſident of Wales, and order, or a regular ſeries ; as a courſe of bricks in
afterwards lord chancellor of England. Alcock found- building, or a rank of ſoldiers in an army; and is the
ed a ſchool at Kingſton apon Hull, and built the ſpa- fame in uſe and import with the Sura, or Tora, of the
cious hall belonging to the epiſcopal palace at Ely. Jews, who alſo call the fifty-three ſections of the Pen-
He was alſo the founder of Jeſus-college in Cambridge fateuch Sedarim, a word of the fame fignification.
for a maſter, fix fellaws, and as many ſcholars. This Theſe chapters are not, in the manuſcript copies, di-
houſe was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radi- ftinguiſhed by their numerical order, but by particular
gund : and, as Godwin tells us, the building being titles, which are taken fometimes from a particular
greatly decayed, and the revenues reduced almoſt to matter treated of, or perſon mentioned therein ; but
nothing, the nuns had all forſaken it except two; uſually from the firſt word of note, exactly in the ſame
whereupon biſhop Alcock procured a grant from the manner as the Jews have named their Sedarim ; though
crown, and converted it into a college. But Cambden the word from which ſome chapters are denominated
and others tell us, that the nuus of that houſe were be very far diſtant, towards the middle, or perhaps the
fo notorious for their incontinence, that king Henry end, of the chapter : which ſeems ridiculous. But the
VII. and pope Julis II. conſented to its diiloluiion : occaſion of this appears to have been, that the verſe of
3
paſſage
5
A LC
{ 369 )
ALC
Alcorar, paſlige wherein ſuch word occurs, was, in point of ral profound myſteries ; ihe certain underſtanding of Alcoran.
time, revealed and committed to writing before the on which, the more intelligent confeſs, has not been com-
ther verſes of the ſame chapter which precede it in or municated to any mortal, their prophet only excepted.
der; and the title being given to the chapter before it No withſtanding which, foune will take the liberty of
was completed, or the pallages reduced to their preſent gueliing at their meaning by that ſpecies of Cabala call-
order, the verſe from whence ſuch title was taken dided by the Jews Notarikon, and ſuppoſe the letiers to
not always happen to begin the chapter. Some chap- ſtand for as many words, expreſſing the names and ar-
ters have two or more tiiles, occafioned by the differ- tributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees ;
ence of the copies.
and therefore theſe myſteriy's letters, as well as the
Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mec- verſes themſelves, ſeem ic the Koran to be called jigns.
ca, and others at Medina, the noting this difference Others explain the intent of theſe letters from their
makes a part of the litle : but the reader will obſerve, nature or origin, or elſe from their value in nuinbers,
that feveral of the chapters are ſaid to have been re- according to another ſpecies of the Jewish Cabala call-
vealed partly at Mecca and partly at Medina ; and, as ed Gematria: theuncertainty of which conjecturcs fuf-
to others, it is yet a diſpute among the commentators ficiently appears from their diſagreement. Thus, for
to which of the two places they belong.
example, five chapters, one of which is the ſecond, be.
Every chapter is ſubdivided into ſmaller portions, of gins with theſe letters A. L. M. which ſome imagine
very unequal length alſo, which we customarily call to ſtand for Allah latiff magid, “God is gracious and
verſes: but the Arabic word is ayat, the ſame with the to be glorified;” or, Ana li minni, i.e. to me and from
Hebrew ototh, and fignifies figiis or wonders: ſuch as ine, viz. belongs all perfection, and proceeds all good;
are the ſecrets of God, his attributes, works, judge or elſe for Ana Allah alam, “ I am the moſt wife GOD,
ments, and ordinances, delivered in thoſe verſes; many taking the firſt letter to mark the beginning of the
of which have their particular titles alſo, impoſed in firſt word, the ſecond the middle of the ſecond word,
the ſame manner as thoſe of the chapters.
and the third the laſt of the third word; or for Al-
Beſides theſe unequal diviſions of chapter and verſe, lah, Gabriel, Mohammed, the author, revealer, and
the Mahometans have alſo divided their Koran into fix- preacher of the Koran. Others ſay, that as the letter
ty equal portions, which they call Ahzab, in the fin- A belongs to the lower part of the throat, the firſt of
gular Hizb, each ſubdivided into four equal parts; the organs of ſpeech ; L to the palate, the middle or-
which is alſo an imitation of the Jews, who have an an gan; and M to the lips, which are the laſt organ; ſo
cient diviſion of their Miſhna into fixty portions call theſe letters lignify that God is the beginning, middle,
ed Mafittoth. But the Koran is inore uſually divided and end, or ought to be praiſed in the beginning, mid-
into thirty ſections only, named Ajza, from the fingu- dle, and end, of all our words and actions: or, as the to-
lar Joz, each of twice the length of the former, and in tal value of thoſe three letters, in numbers, is ſeventy-
the like manner ſubdivided into four parts. Theſe di- one, they fignify, that, in the ſpace of ſo many years,
viſions are for tlie uſe of the readers of the Koran in the the religion preached in the Koran ſhould be fully ef-
royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the tabliſhed. The conjecture of a learned Chriſtian is at
emperors and great men are interred. There are thir- leaſt as certain as any of the former, who ſuppoſes thoſe
ty of theſe readers belonging to every chapel, and each letters were ſet there by the amanuenſis, for Amar li
reads his ſection every day; ſo that the whole Koranis Mohammed, i. e. at the command of Mohammed, as the
read over once a-day.
five letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter ſeem to
Next after the title, at the head of every chapter, be there written by a Jewiſh ſcribe, for Coh yans, i.e.
except only the ninth, is prefixed the following folemn Thus he commanded.
form, by the Mahometanis called the Biſmallah, IN The Koran is univerſally allowed to be written with
THE NAME OF THE MOST MERCIFUL GOD; which form the utmoſt elegance and purity of language, in the di-
they conſtantly place at the beginning of all their books lect of the tribe of Koreilh, the moſt noble and polite
and writings in general, as a peculiar mark or diſlin- of all the Arabians, but with ſome mixture, tho' very
gniſhing characteriſticof their religion, it being count- rarely, of other dialects. It is confeſſedly the ſtandard
ed a ſort of impiety to omit it. The Jews, for the fame of the Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox be-
purpoſe, make uſe of the form, In the name of the LORD, lieve, and are taught by the book itſelf, inimitable by
or, In the name of the great God; and the eaſtern any human pen (though fome ſectaries have been of
Chriſtians that of, In the name of the Father, and of another opinion), and therefore inſiſted on as a per-
the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft. But Mahomet proba- manent miracle, greater than that of raiſing the dead,
bly took this form, as he did many other things, from and alone fufficient to convince the world of its divine
the Perſian Magi, who uſed to begin their books in original.
theſe words, Bonam Yezdan bakſnaiſhgher dadar; that And to this miracle did Mahomet himſeif chiefly
is, Inthe name of the moſt merciful juf God.
appeal for the confirmation of his miſſion, publicly
There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which challenging the moſt eloquent nen in Arabia, which
have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain let was at that time ſtocked with thouſands whoſe ſole ftu-
ters of the alphabet, fome with a ſingle one, others dy and ambition it was to excel in elegance of ſtyle
with more. Theſe letters the Mahometans believe to and compofition, to produce even a ſingle chapter that
bethe peculiar marks of the Koran, and to conceal ſeven might be compared with it (A).
VOL.I.
Το
(A) As the compoſition and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, it can never be ab-
folutely ſaid that any one is the beſt poſſible. In fact, Hamzah Benahmad wrote a book againſt the Alcoran
with at leaſt equal elegance; and Moſelema another, which even ſurpaſſed it, and occafioned a defection of a
great part of the Muſlulmans. Journ. de Sgav, iom. xiii. p. 280. Ouvr.de Scav. Nov. 1708, p. 404.
9
3 A
+
A LC
í
3701
A LC
Alcoran.
To the pomp and harmony of exprellion fome afcribe neceflary laws and directions, frequent admonitions to Alcoran.
all the force and effect of the Alcoran ; which they noraland divine virtues, the worīhip and reverence of
conſider as a fort of notic, equally fitted with other ſpe- the Supreme Being, and reſignation to his will. One
cies of that art to raviih and amaze. In this Mahomet of their moſt learned commentators diſtinguiſhes the
fucceeded ſo well, and ſo ftrangely captivated the minds coulents or the Alcoran into allegorical and literal;
of his andience, that ſeveral of his opponents thought under the former are comprehended all the obſcure,
it the effect of witchcraft and enchantment, as he him- parabolical, and enigmatical paſſages, with ſuch as are
felt complains. Others have attributed the effect of the repealed, or abrogated; the latter, ſuch as are clear,
Alcoran to the frequent mention of rewards and puniſh- and in full force.
menis; heaven and hell occurring alinoſt in every page. The moſt excellent moral in the whole Alcoran, in-
Some ſuppoſe, that the ſenſual pleaſures of paradiſe, ſo terpreters ſay, is that in the chapter Al Alraf, viz.
frequently ſet before the imaginations of the readers of Shew mercy, do good to all, and diſpute not with the
the Alcoran, were whatchiefy bewitched them. Tho' ignorant ; or, as Mr Sale renders it, Uſe indulgence,
with regard to theſe, there is a great diſpute whether command that which is juſt, and withdraw far from the
they are to be underſtood literally or ſpiritually. Se. ignorant. Mahomet, according to the authors of the
veral have even allegorized the whole book.
Keſchaf, having begged of the angel Gabriel a more
The general delign of the Koran was to unite the ample explication of this paffage, received it in the fol-
profeſſors of the three different religions, then follow- lowing terms : “ Seck him who turns thee out, give to
ed in the populous country of Arabia (who for the niort " hini who takes from thee, pardon hini who injures
part lived promiſcuoully, and wandered without guides, “ thee; for God will have you plant in your ſouls the
the far greater nunber being idolators, and the reitJews " routs of his chief perfections.” It is caſy to ſee
and Chriſtians moſtly of erroneous and heterodox be. that this cominentary is copied from the goſpel.-In
lief), in the knowledge and worſhip of one God, under reality, the neceſſity of forgiving enemies, though fre-
the ſanction of certain laws, and the outward ligns of quently inculcated in the Alcoran, is of a later date
ceremonies partly of ancient and partly of novel inſti- among the Mahometans than among the Chriſtians :
tution, enforced by the confideration of rewards and among thoſe latter, than among the heathens; and to
puniſhments both temporal and eternal ; and to bring be traced originally among the Jews. (See EXODUS
them all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet xxxiii. 4, 5.) But it matiers 110l ſo much who had it
and ambaſſador of God, who, after the repeated ad- firſt, as who obſerves it beſt. The Caliph Haſſan, ſon
monitions, promiſes, and threats, of former ages, was of Hali, being at table, a ſave unfortunately let fall a
at laſt to eſtabliſh and propagate God's religion on diſh of meat reeking hot, which ſcalded him ſeverely.
eartlı, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff in ſpiritual The llave fell on his knees, rehearſing theſe words of
matters, as well as ſupreme prince in temporal. the Alcoran, “ Paradiſe is for thoſe who reſtrain their
The great doctrine then of the Koran, is the unity anger. I am not angry with thee, anſwered the
of God; to reſtore which point Mahomet pretended caliph.--. And for thoſe who forgive offences againſt
was the chief end of his miſſion ; it being laid down them,"continues the ilave. I forgive thee chine, re-
by him as a fundamental truth, That there never was, plies the caliph—“But above all, for thoſe who return
nor ever can be, more than one true orthodox religion. good for evil,” adds the flave. I ſet thee at liberty,
For, though the particular laws or ceremonies are only rejoined the caliph; and I give thee ten dinars.
temporary, and ſubject to alteration, according to the There are alſo a great nuniber of occaſional paſſages
divine direction ; yet the ſubſtance of it being eternal in thc Alcoran,relating only to particular emergencies.
truth, is not liable to change, but continues immutably For this advantage Mahomet had in the piecemeal me-
the ſame. And he taught, that, whenever this religion. thod of receiving his revelation, that whenever he hap-
became neglected, or corrupted in effentials, God had pened to be perplexed and gravelled with any thing, he
the goodneſs to re-inforin and re-adınoniſh mankind had a certain reſource in ſome new morſelof revelation.
thereof, by ſeveral prophets, of whom Moſes and Je. It was an admirable contrivance of his, to bring down
fus were the moſt diſtinguiſhed, till the appearance of the whole Alcoran at once, only to the loweſt heaven,
Mahomet, who is their ſeal, and no other to be expec not to earth ; ſince, had the whole been publiſhed at:
ted after him, The more effectually to engage pec once, innumerable objections would have been made,
ple to hearken to him, great part of the Koran is em which it would have been impoſſible for hiin to ſolve :
ployed in relating examples of dreadful puniſhments but as he received it by parcels, as God ſaw.fit they
formerly inflicted by God on thoſe who rejected and ſhould be publiſhed for the converfion and inſtruction
abuſed his meſſengers; ſeveral of which ſtories, or of the people, he had a ſure way to anſwer all emer-
ſome circumſtances of them, are taken from the Old gencies, and to extricate himſelf with honour froin
and New Teſtaments, but many more from the apocry. any difficulty which might occur.
phal books and traditions of the Jews and Chriſtians of It is the general and orthodox belief among the Ma--
thoſe ages, ſet up in the Koran as truths in oppoſition hometans, that the Koran is of divine original: that it
to the ſcriptures, which the Jews and Chriſtians are is eternaland uncreated, remaining, as ſome expreſsit,
charged with having altered : and indeed, few or none in the very eſſence of God : that the firſt tranſcript has
of the relations or circumſtances in the Koran were in-. been from everlaſting by God's throne, written on a ta-
vented by Mahomet, as is generally fuppoſed, it being ble of vaſt bigneſs, called the preferved table, in which
eaſy to trace the greateſt part of them much higher, as are alſo recorded the divine decrees paſt and future :
the reſt might be, were more of thoſe books extant, that a copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was
and was it worth while to make the inquiry.
by the miniſtry of the angel Gabriel ſent down to the
The reſt of the Alcoran is taken up in preſcribing loweſt heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night
of
A C
[3713]
A LC
Alcoran. of power; from whence Gabriel revealed it to Maho- eſteem and reverence among the Muſſelmans. They Alcoran.
met by parcels, ſome at Mecca, and ſome at Medina, dare not lo much as touch the Alcoran without being
at different times, during the ſpace of 23 years, as the firſt waſhed, or legally purified; to prevent which, an
exigency of affairs required; giving hini, however, infcription is put on the cover or label, Let none tuilch
the conſolation to ſhow him the whole (which they tell but they who are clean. It is read with great care and
us was bound in lilk, and adorned with gold and pre- reſpect; being never held below the girdle. They
cious ſtones of paradiſe) once a-year; but in the laſt ſwear by it ; take omens froin it on all weighty occa-
year of his life he had the favour to ſee it twice. They lions; carry it with them to war; write ſentences of it
ſay, that few chapters were delivered entire, the moſt in their banners ; adorn it with gold and precious
part being revealed piecemeal, and written down from ſtones; and knowingly ſuffer it not to be in the poſſeſſion
time to time by the prophet's amanuenſis in ſuch a part of any of a different religion.
any of a different religion. Some ſay that it is pu-
of ſuch and ſuch a chapter, till they were completed, niſhable even with death, in a Chriſtian, to touch it ;
according to thc directions of the angel. The firſt others, that the veneration of the Mulīulinans leads
parcel that was revealed is generally agreed to have them to condenin the tranſlating it into any other lan-
i een the firſt five verſes of the 96th chapter. guage as a profanation : but theſe ſeem to be aggra-
After the new-revealed pallages had been from the vations. The Mahonetans have taken care to have
prophet's mouth taken down in writing by his fcribe, their ſcripture tranſlated into the Perſian, the Javan,
They were publiſhed to his followers; ſeveral of whom the Malayan, and other languages; tho' out of reſpect
took copies for their private uſe, but the far greater to the original, theſe verſions are generally, if not al-
number got them by heart. The originals, when re ways, interlineated.
turned, were put promiſcuouſly into a cheft, obſerv By the advocates of Mahometaniſm, the Koran, as View of
ing no order of time ; for which reaſon it is uncer already obſerved, has always been held forth as the Chrifianity
tain when many paſſages were revealed.
greateſt of miracles, and equally ſtupendous with the and Maho-
metaniſm,
When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the act of raiſing the dead. The miracles of Moſes and
p. 257.
Yame diforder, and not digeſted into the method, ſuch Jeſus, they ſay were tranſient and temporary; but that
as it is, in which we now find them. This was the of the Koran is permanent and perpetual ; and there-
work of his ſucceſſor Abu Becr; who, conſidering that fore far fupaſſes all the miraculous events of preceding
a great number of paſſages were committed to the me ages. We will not detract from the real merit of the
mory of Mahomet's followers, many of whom were Koran : we allow it to be generally elegant, and often
flain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected, ſublime : but at the ſame time we reject with diſdain
not only from the palm-leaves and ſkins on which they its arrogant pretence to any thing ſupernatural; all
had been written, and which were kept between two the real excellence of the work being eaſily referable
boards or covers, but alſo from the niouths of ſuch as to natural and viſible cauſes.
had gotten them by heart. And this tranſcript, when In the language of Arabia, a language extremely
completed, he committed to the cuſtody of Haſſa the loved and diligently cultivated by the people to whom
daughter of Omar, one of the prophet's widows. it was vernacular, Mahomet found advantages which
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu were never enjoyed by any former or ſucceeding im-
Becr was really the compiler of the Koran ; though, poſtor. It requires not the eye of a philoſopher 10
for aught appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the difcover in every ſoiland country a principle of national
chapters complete as we now have them,excepting ſuch pride: and if we look back for many ages to the hi-
paffages as his fucceffor might add or correct from ſtory of the Arabians, we ſhall eaſily perceive that
thoſe who had gotten them by heart ; what Abu Beer pride among theni invariably to have conſiſted in the
did elſe, being perhaps no more than to range the knowledge and improvement of their native language.
chapters in their preſent order, which he ſeems to have The Arabic, which has been juſtly eſteemed the moſt
done without any regard to time, having generally copious of the eaſtern tongues; which had exiſted
placed the longeſt firſt.
from the remoteſt antiquity; which had been eſtabliſh-
However, in the 30th year of the Hegira, Othman ed by numberleſs poets, and refined by the conſtant-ex-
being then caliph, and obſerving the great diſagree- erciſe of the natives : was the moſt ſucceſsful inſtru-
ment in the cnpies of the Koran in the ſeveral pro ment which Mahomet einployed in planting his new
vinces of the empire; thoſe of Irak, for example, fol- religion anong them. Admirably adapted by its un-
lowing the reading of Abu Muſa al Alhari, and the rivalled harmony, and by its endleſs variety to add
Syrians that of Macdad Ebn Aſwad; he, by the advice painting to expreſſion, and to purſue the imagination
of the companions, ordered a great number of copies to in its unbounded flight ; it became in the hands of
be tranſcribed from that of Abu Becr, in Haſſa's care, Mahomet an irreliſtible charm to blind the judgment,
under the inſpection of Zeid Ebn Thabet, Abd'allah and to captivate the fancy of his followers.
Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn al As, and Ad'alrahman Ebn “Of that deſcription of men who firſt compoſed the
al Hareth the Makhzumite; whom he directed, that, adherents of Mahomet, and to whom the Koran was
wherever they diſagreed about any word, they ſhould addreſſed, few, probably, were able to paſs a very ac-
write it in the dialect of the Koreilli, in which it was at curate judgment on the propriety of the ſentiments, or
firſt delivered. Theſe copies, when made, were diſ on the beauties of the diction : but all could judge of
perſed in the ſeveral provinces of the empire, and the the military abilities of their leader ; and in the midft
old ones burnt and ſuppreſſed. Though many things of their admiration it is not difficult to conceive, that
in Haſſa's copy were corrected by the abovementioned they would aſcribe to his compoſitions every imagina-
reviſers, yet ſome few various readings ſtill occur. ry beauty of inſpired language.
· In fine,the book of the Alcoran is held in the higheſt “The ſhepherd and the ſoldier, though awake to the
3 A 2
charms
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ALC'
>
Alcoran, charnis of thoſe wild but beautiſni compoſitions, in apocryphal goſpels then current in the Eaſt, and from Alcoran.
wow which vere celebrated their favourite occupations of the traditions and fables which abounded in Arabia.
luve or war, were yet little able to criticiſe any other The materials collected from theſe ſeveral ſources are
works than thoſe which were addreſſed to their ima- here heaped together, with perpetual and needleſs re-
gination or the heart. To abſtract reaſonings on the petitions, without any ſettled principle or viſible con-
attributes and the diſpenſations of the Deity, to the nection.
comparative excellencies of rival religions, to the con « When a great part of the life of Mahonet liad
ſiſtency of anyone religious ſyſtem in all its parts, and to been ſpent in preparatory meditation on the ſyſtem
the force of its various proofs, they were quite inatten he was about to eſtabliſh, its chapters were dealt
tive. luſuch a lituation, the appearance of a work which out ſlowly and ſeparately during the long period of
poiſeſſed ſomething like wiſdom and conſiſtence; which 23 years. Yet thus dcfeclive in its ſtructure, and
preſcribed the rules, and illuſtrated the duties of life; not leſs exceptionable in its doctrines, was the work
and which contained the principles of a new and com- which Mahomet delivered to his followers as the
paratively-fublime theology, independently of its real oracles of God.
and permanent merit, was likely to excite their aſto ". The moſt prominent feature of the Koran, that
nilliinent, and to become the ſtandard of future con point of excellence in which the partiality of its admi.
pofition.
rers has ever delighted to vicw it, is the ſublime noti-
"In the firſt periods of the literature of every coun on it generally inipreſſes of the nature and attributes
try, ſomething of this kind has happened. The father of God. If its author had really derived theſe juſt con-
of Grecian poetry very obvioully influenced the taſte ceptions from the inſpiration of that Being won they
and imitation of his countrymen. The modern nations attempt to deſcribe, they would not have been furroun-
of Europe all poffefs fome original author, who, riling ded, as they now are on every fide, with error and
from the darkneſs of former ages, has begun the ca- aburdity. But it might eaſily be proved, that whatever
reer of compoſition, and tinctured with the character it juilly defines of the divine attributes, was borrowed
of his own inagination ihe firean which has flowed from our holy ſcripture ; which even from its firſt pro-
through his posterity.
mulgation, but eſpecially from the completion of the
“ But the prophet of Arabia had in this reſpect ad- New Teſtament, has extended the views and enlight-
vantages peculiar to himſelf. His compoſitions were ened the underttandings of mankind; and thus furniſh-,
not to his followers the works of man, but the genuine ed them with arms, which have too often been ineffec-
language of Heaven, which had ſent him. They were tually turned againſt itſelf by its ungencrous enemies.
110t confined therefore to that admiration which is 'fo “ In this inſtance particularly, the copy is far below
liberally beſtowed on the earlieſt productions of genius, the great original, both in the propriety of its images,
or to that fond attachment with which men every and the force of its deſcriptions. Our holy fcriptures
where regard the original compulitions of their coun are the only compofitions that can enable the dim fight
try: but with their admiration they blended their piety. of mortality to penetrate into the inviſible world, and
To know and to feel the beau ies of the Koran, was to behold a glimpſe of the Divine perfections. Accor--
in ſome reſpect to ſhare in the temper of Heaven ; and dingly, when they would repreſent to us the happinels
he who was moſt affected with admiration in the peru of Heaven, they dcſcribe it, not by any thing minute
ſal of its beauties, ſeemed moſt fitly the object of that and particular, but by fonething general and great ;
mercy which had given it to ignorant man. The Ko ſomewhat, that without deſcending to any determinate
ran, therefore, became naurally and neceſſarily the object, may at once by its beauty and immenſity ex-.
ſtandard of taſte. With a language thus hallowed in cite our wiſhes and elevate our affections. Though in
their imaginations, they were too well ſatisfied, either the prophetical and evangelical writings the joys that
to diſpute its elegance or improve its ſtructure. In ſhall attend us in a future ſtate are often mentioned
fucceeding ages, the additional fanction of antiquity, with ardent admiration, they are expreſſed rather by
or preſcription, was given to theſe compoſitions which alluſion than fimilitude, rather by indefinite and figura-
their father's had admired : and while the belief of its tive terms, than by any thing fixed and determinate.
divine original continues, that admiration, which has "Eye hath not feen, nor ear heard, neither have en-
thus become the teſt and the duty of the faithful, tered into the heart of man, the things which God
neither be altered nor diminiſhed.
hath prepared for them that love him.
« When therefore we conſider theſe peculiar ad. What a reverence and aſtoniſhment does this paſſage
vantages of the Koran, we have no reaſon to be ſurpris excite in every hearer of taſte and piety? What ener-
ſed at the admiration in which it is held. Bat if, de- gy, and at the ſame time what fimplicity, in the ex-
ſcending to a more ininute inveſtigation of it, we con preſſion ? How ſublime, and at the ſame time how ob.
ſider its perpetual inconſiſtence and abſurdity, we ſhall ſcurc, is the imagery.
indeed have cauſe for aſtoniſhment at that weaknefs of " Different was the conduct of Mahomet in his de-
humanity which could ever have received ſuch compo- fcriptions of heaven and of paradiſe. Unaffifted by the
ſitions as the work of thc Deity.
neceſſary influence ofvirtuous intentions and Divine in-
" The firſt praiſe of all the productions of genius, is fpiration, he was neither deſirous,nor indeed able to ex-
invention ; that quality of the mind, which, by the ex- alt the minds of men to ſublime conceptions,or to ration-
tent and quickneſs of its views, is capable of the lar al expectations. By attempting to explain what is in-
geſt conceptions, and of forming new combinations of conceivable, to deſcribe what is eneffable, and to mate-
objects the moſt diſtant and unuſual. But the Koran rialize what in itſelf is fpiritual ; he abſurdly and im-
bears little impreſſion of this tranſcendant character. piouſly aimed to ſenſualize the purity of the Divine
Its materials are wholly borrowed from the Jewiſh and eſſence. Thus he fabricated a ſyſtem of incoherence,
Chriſtian ſcriptures, from the Talmudical legends andere a religion of depravity, totally repugnant indeed to the
can
I Cor.ii.gom
!
natu
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Alcoran, nature of that Being, who, as he pretended, was its The Perſians are generally Alcoraniſts, as admitting Alcove,
Alcoraniſts object; but therefore more likely to accord with the the Alcoran alone for their rule of faith: The Turks, Alcuinus.
appetites and conceptions of a corrupt and ſenſual Tartars, Arabs, &c. beſides the Alcoran, admit a mul-
age.
titude of traditions. The Alcoraniſts, among Maho-
“That we may not appear to exalt our Scriptures metans, amount to much the ſaine with the textuaries
thus far above the Koran by an unreaſonable preference among the Jews. The Alcoraniſts can find nothing
we thall produce a part of the ſecond chapter of the excellent out of the Alcoran; are encmics of philoſo-
latter,which is deſervedly admired by the Mahometans, phers, metaphyſicians, and ſcholaſtic writers. With
who wear it engraved on their ornanients, and recite it them the Alcoran is every thing.
in their
prayers.
"God! there is no God but he; the ALCOVE, among builders, a receſs, or part of a
living, the ſelf-ſubliſting: neither ſlanıber nor ileep chamber ſeparated by an eſtrade, or partition of co-
feizeth him : to him belongeth whatſoever is in hea lumns, and other correſponding ornaments, in which
ven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with is placed a bed of ſtate, and ſoinetimes ſeats to enter-
hinı but ſhrough his good pleaſure ? He knoweth that tain company. Theſe alcoves are frequent in Spain ;
which is paſt, and that which is to come. His throne and the bed is raiſed two or three aſcents, with a rail
is extended over heaven and earth, and the preſerva at the fool,
tion of both is to him no burden. He is the high, the ALCUINUS (Flaccus), an eccleſiaſtic of the
mighty.' Sale's k'or. ii. p. 30. 4to edit.
cighth century. Where he was born, is a matter of
" To this deſcription who can refuſe the praiſe of diſpute ; but, according to the moſt probable opinion,
magnificence ? Part of that magnificence, however, is it was in Yorkihire. It is pretty certain, however, that
to be referred to that verſe of the Praliniſt, whence it he was educated at York, under the direction of arch-
was borrowed, He that keepeth Iſrael, ſhall neither biſhop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in
flumber nor ſleep.' Pſal. cxxi. 4.
which he frequently calls that great prelate his beloved
“ But if we compare it with that other paſſage of maſter, and the clergy of York the companions of his
the ſame inſpired Pfalmiſt, all its boaſted grandeur is youthful ſtudies. As he ſurvived venerable Bede about
at once obſcured, and loſt in the blaze of a greater 70 years, it is hardly poſſible that he could have re-
light.
ceived any part of his education under him, as ſome
«O my God, take me not away in the midſt of my writers of literary hiſtory have affirmed; and it is wor-
days; thy years are throughout all generations. Of thy of obſervation, that he never calls that great man
old haft thou laid the foundations of the earth; and his maſter, though he ſpeaks of him with the higheſt
the heavens are the work of thy hands. They ſhall veneration. It is not well known to what preferments
periſh, but thoa ſalt endure : yea all of them hall wax he had attained in the church before he left England,
old, as doth a garment ; as a veſture ſhalt thou change though fonie ſay he was abbot of Canterbury. The
them, and they ſhall be changed ; but thou art the occalion of his leaving his native country, was his be-
ſame, and thy years ſhall not fail.'
ing ſent on an embally by Offa king of Mercia to the
« The Koran, therefore, upon a retrofpective view emperor Charlemagne ; who contracted fo great an
of theſe ſeveral circumſtances, far from ſupporting its efteen and friendſhip for bin, that he earneſtly ſolici-
arrogant claim to a ſupernatural work, links below the ted, and at length prevailed upon him, to ſettle in his
level of many compoſitions confeſſedly of human origi- conrt, and became his preceptor in the ſciences. Al-
nal; and ſtill lowerdoes it fall in our eſtimation, when
cuinas accordingly inſtructed that great prince in rhe-
compared with that pure and perfect pattern which we toric, logic, mathematics, and divinity ; which ren-
juſtly admire in the ſcriptures of truth.
dered him one of his greateſt favourites.
"It is therefore abundantly apparent,that no.miracle treated with ſo much kindneſs and familiarity (fays a
either was externally perfornied for the fapport, or is cotemporary writer) by the Emperor, that the other
internally involved in the composition, of the Maho courtiers called him, by way of eininence, the emperor's
metan revelation."
delight." Charlemagne employed his tearned favourite
ALCORAN, is alſo figuratively applied to certain o to write ſeveral books againſt the heretical opinions
ther books fall of impieties and impoſtures.-In this of Felix Biſhop of Urgel in Catalonia, and to defend
ſenſe we meet with the Alcoran of the Cordeliers, the orthodox faith againſt the herefiarch, in the coun-
which has made a great noiſe; wherein St Francis is cil of Francfort, A. D. 894; which he performed to
extravagantly magnified, and put on a level with Jeſus the entire ſatisfaction of the Emperor and council, and
Chriſt. The Alcoran of the Cordeliers is properly an even to the conviction of Felix and his followers, who .
extract of a very ſcarce book, intitled, The conformity abandoned their errors. The Emperor conſulted
of the life of the ſeraphic father St Francis with the life chiefly with Alcuinus on all things relating to religion
of Chriſt, publiſhed in 1500, 410 ; fince, at Bologna, and learning; and, by his advice, did many great
in folio. Eraſmus Albertus, being by the elector of things for the advancement of both.. An academy
Brandenburg appointed to viſit a monaſtery of Fran was eſtabliſhed in the imperial palace, over which Al..
ciſcans, found this book; and being ſtruck with the cninus preſided, and in which the princes and prime
extreme folly and abſurdity of it, collected a number nobility were educated ; and other academies were
of curioſities out of it, and publiſhed them under the eſtabliſhed in the chief towns of Italy and France, at
title of the Alcoran of the Franciſcans, with a preface his inſtigation, and under his infpe&ioni. “France
by Martin Luther.
(ſays, one of our beſt writers of literary hiſtory) is in-
ALCORANISTS, among Mahometans, thoſe who debted to Alcuinus for all the polite learning it boaſt-
adhere ſtrictly to the letter or text of the alcoran, from ed of in that and the following ages. The univerſities,
an opinion of its ultimate fufficiency and perfection.. of Paris, Tours, Fulden, Soifons, and many others,
6 He was
@wes
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ALD
ز
ture.
Aleyon owe to them their origin and increaſe; thoſe of whom was entruſted with the library, had bafely ſtole it. Aldbo.
ill he was not the fuperior and founder, being at leaſt en- And truly, in his treatiſe Of Baniſhment, ſome things rough
Alcyonius lightened by bis doctrine and example, and enriched are found interſperſed here and there, which ſeem not
by the benefits he procured for them from Charle to ſavour of Alcyonius, but of ſome higher author.”
Alderman.
magne.” After Alcuinus had ſpent many years in the The two orations lie made after the taking of Rome,
molt intimate íamiliarity with the greateſt prince of wherein he repreſented very ſtrongly the injuſtice of
his age, he at length, with great difficulty, obtained Charles V. and the barbarity of his foldiers, were ex-
leave to retire from court to his abbey of St Martin's cellent pieces. There is alſo an oration aſcribed to him
at Tours, Here he kept up a conſtant correſpondence on the
knights who died at the liege of Rhodes.
by letters with Charlemagne; from which it appears ALDBOROUGH, a ſea-port town in Suffolk,
that both the emperor and his learned friend were ani- with a market on Saturdays. It is pleaſantly ſituated,
mated with the moſt ardent love to learning and reli- in a dale, between a high hill to the westward, on
gion, and conſtantly employed in contriving and exe- which its large old-built church ſtands; the fea to the
cuting the nobleſ deſigns for their advancement. He eaſt, and its river running fouth-weſt. It is a large,
compoſed many treatiſes on a great variety of ſubjects, long, ordinary town, made up of two or three ſtreets
in a ſtyle mach fuperior in purity and elegance to that of low houſes, running parallel to each other. A quar-
of the generality of wriiers in the age in which he flou ter of a mile to the ſouth lies Slaughden, where they
riſhed. Charlemagne often ſolicited him, with all the have a commodious key, with warehouſes for fiſh: more
warmth of a moſt affectionate friend, to return to court, ſoutherly ſtill, they have conveniences for drying their
and favour him with his company and advice ; but he north-ſea fiſh. Their employment in the fiſhery is their
fill excuſed himſelf; and nothing could draw him chief buſineſs, which is conliderable in the ſeaſons for
from his retirement in his abbey of St Martin in Tours, catching herrings and ſprats; and it is the only place
where he died A. D. 904.
His works were collected in England for curing red ſprats. It is a town corpo-
and publiſhed by Andrew du Cheſne
in one volume fo- rate, and ſends two members to parliament. Towards
lio, Paris, 1617. They conſiſt of, 1. Tracts upon ſcrip- the ſea, it has ſome pieces of cannon planted for its de-
2. Tracts upon do&trine, diſcipline, and mora fence. It is 88 miles north-eaſt from Londoni. E. Long,
Jity. 3. Hiſtorical treatiſes, letters, and poems. Since 1. 32. N. Lat. 52. 50.
that edition, there has been publishedan incrediblenum ALDBOROUGH, a market-town in the weſt riding
ber of tracts, poems, &c. aſcribed to this author, moſt of Yorkſhire, ſeated on the river Ouſe, 15 miles north-
of which, in all probability, were not his.
weſt of York, and 200 miles north of London. It
ALCYON, the trivial name of a ſpecies of alcedo. ſends two members to parliament. W. Long. 0. 20.
See ALCEDO.
N. Lat. 54. 15. It was anciently a Roman city, call-
ALCYONIUM, an obſolete name of a ſubmarine ed Iſurium Brigantium ; and ſeveral coins and monu-
plant. It is alſo uſed for a kind of coral, or aſtroites, inents of the Saxons and Romans have been diſcover-
frequently found foſſile in England.
ed ihere.
ALCYONIUM Stagnum (anc. geog.), a lake in the ALDEBARAN, in aſtronomy, a ſtar of the firſt
territory of Corinth, whoſe depth was unfathomable, magnitude, called in Engliſh the bull's eye, as making
and in vain attempted to be diſcovered by Nero. Thro' the eye of the conſtellation Taurus. Its longitude is
this lake Bacchus is ſaid to have deſcended to hell, to 6 deg. 32 min. 9 ſec. of Gemini, and its latitude 5 deg.
bring back Semele ; (Pauſanias).
29 min. 40 ſec. ſouth.
ALCYONIUS (Peter), a learned Italian, who flou ALDER-TREE, in Botany. See BETULA.
rihed in the 16th century. He was well verſed in the ALDER HOLM, a pleaſant iſland of Sweden, for-
Greek and Latin tongues, and wrote ſome pieces of nied by the three arms of a river running thro'Gentle,
eloquence which met with great approbation. He a town of Nordland, in Sweden. Here is a wharf, a
was corrector of the preſs a conſiderable time for Al- repoſitory for planks and deals, two packing houſes, a
dus Manutius, and is entitled to a ſhare in the praiſes large cuſtomhouſe for taking toll of the ſhips, an arſe-
given to the editions of that learned printer. He pu- nal for cannon, and a granary:
bliſhed a treatiſe concerning baniſhment, which con-
ALDERMAN, in the Britiſh policy, a magiſtrate
tained ſo many fine paſſages intermixed with others ſubordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town-cor-
quite the reverſe, that it was thought he had tacked porate. The number of theſe magiſtrates is not limit-
to fomewhat of his own, ſeveral fragments of a treatiſe ed, but is more or leſs according to the magnitude of
of Cicero de gloria; and that afterwards, in order to the place. In London they are 26; each having one
ſave himſelf from being detected in this theft, he burnt of the wards of the city committed to his care. This
the manuſcript of Cicero, the only one extant. Pau office is for life; ſo that when one of them dies, or re-
lus Manutius, in his conimentary upon theſe words of figns, a ward-mote is called, who return two perſons,
Cicero, Librum tibi celeriter mittam de gloria, “I will one of whom the lord-mayor and alderinen chooſe to
ſpeedily ſend you my treatiſe on glory;" has the fol- fupply the vacancy. All the aldermen are juſtices of the
lowing paſſage relating to this affair : “ He means,
" He means, peace, by a charter of 15 Geo. II. The aldermien of
(ſays he his two books on Glory, which were handed London, &c. are exempted from ſerving inferior offi-
down to the age of our fathers ; for Bernard Juſtinian, ces ; nor hall they be put upon aſſizes, or ſerve on ju-
in the index of his books, mentions Cicero de Gloria. ries, ſo long as they continue to be aldermen.
This treatiſe,however, when Bernard hadleft his whole ALDERMAN, among the ancient Saxons, was a de-
library to a nunnery, could not be found, though gree of nobility anſwering to earl or count at preſent.
ſough: after with great care : nobody doubted but Pe ALDERMAN was alſo uſed, in the time of king
ter Alcyonius, who, being phyſician to the nunnery, Edgar, for a judge or juſtice. Thus we meet with
the
A
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+
govern-
Alderney, the titles of Aidermannus totius Angliæ, aldermannus ſurrounded, and the great difficulty of acquiring know. Aldheim
Aidhelm regis, comutatus, civitatis, burgi, cafiulli, hundredi ledge without proper inſtruction, Aldheim was a very l
Jive wapentachii, et novemdecimorum. According to extraordinary man. From one of his letters to Hedda Aldred.
Spelman, the aldermannus totius Angliæ ſeems to have biſhop of Wincheſter, concerning the nature of his ſtu-
been the ſame officer who was afterwards ſtyled capita- dies whilſt at Cancerbury, he appears to have been
les juſtitiarius Anglia, or chief-juſtice of England; the indefatigably determine i to acquire every ſpecies of
aldermannus regis ſeems to have been an occaſional learning in his power. For a copy of this curious
magiſtrate, anſwering to our juſtice of aſlize ; and the cpiftle, Tee Henry's Hiſtory, vol.ii. p. 320. King Al-
alddermannus comutatus, a magiſtrate who held a middle fred the Great declared, that Aldheim was the beſt of
rank between what was afterward called earl and all the Saxon poets ; and that a favourite ſong, which
the ſerif ; he fat at the trial of cauſes with the biſhop: was univerſally ſung in his time, hear 200 years after
the latter proceeding according 10 eccleſiaſtical law, its author's death, was of his compoſition. When he
and the former declaring and expounding the common was abbot of Malmſbury, having a fine voice, and great
law of the land.
ſkill in muſic as well as poetry, and obſerving the
ALDERNEY, an iſland in the Britiſ channel, fub- backwardneſs of his barbarous countrymen to liſten to
ject to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight grave inſtructions, he compoſed a number of little
iniles in compaſs, and is ſeparated from Cape la Hogue, poems, which he ſung to them after maſs in the ſweet-
in Normandy, by a narrow ſtreight, called the Race of eſt manner ; by which they were gradually inſtructed
Alderney, which is a very dangerous paſſage in ſtormy and civilized. After tliis excellent perſon had
weather when the two curreuts meet; otherwiſe it is ed the nionaſtery of Malmſbury, of which he was the
ſafe, and has depth of water for the largeſt ſhips. Thro' founder, about 30 years, he was made bilhop of Shere- -
this freight the French fleet made their eſcape afterburn, where he died A. D. 709.--He wrote, 1. De
their defeat at La Hogue, in 1692. It is a healthy o&tu vitiis principalıbus. This treatiſe is extant in Bi-
iſland, has but one church, is fruitful both in corn and bliotheca Patrum of Caniſius. 2. Ænigmalic:um verfus
paſture, and is remarkable for a fine breed of cows. The mille. This, with ſeveral other of his poems, was
inhabitants, for their greater ſafety, live together in a publiſhed by Martin Delrio at Mentz, &vo, 160r.
town of the ſame name. The number of houſes are 3. A book addreſſed to a certain king of Northumber-
ſaid to be 200, and the inhabitants 1000. It has but land, named Alfrid, on various ſubjects. 4. De vita
one harbour, called Grabby, which is at a good diſtance monachorum.-5. De laude functoruin. 6. De arithme-
from the town; and is only fit for ſmall veſſels. Totho tica. 7. De aſtrologia. 8. A book againſt the mi-
weſt lie the range of rocks called the Caſkets, fo dan ſtake of the Britons concerning the celebration of Ea-
gerous to mariners. W. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 50. ſter; printed by Sonius, 1576. 9. De laude virgi-
ALDHELM (SI), biſhop of Shereburn in the time nitatis. Manuſcript, in Bennet-college, Cambridge.
of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is ſaid to have been the Publiſhed among Bede's Opuſcula. Belides
many
fon.
ſon of Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the Weſt- - nets, epiſtles, and liomilies in the Saxon language.
Saxons; but, in the opinion of William of Malmſbury, ALDPORT, an ancient name for Mancheſter.
his father was 110 more than a diſtant relation to the See MANCHESTER.
king. Having received the firſt part of his education ALDRED, abbot of Taviſtock, was promoted to
in the ſchool which one Macdulf, a learned Scot, had the biſhopric of Worceſter in the year 1046. He was
ſet up in the place where Malmſbury now ſtands, he ſo much in favour with King Edward the Confeflor,
travelled into France and Italy for his improvement. and had ſo much power over his mind, that he obliged
Athis return home, he ſtudied ſome time under Adrian him to be reconciled with the worſt of his enemies,
abbot of St Auguſtine's in Canterbury, the moſt learn- particularly with Swane ſon of the earl Goodwin, who
ed profeſſor of the ſciences who had ever been in Eng. had revolted againſt him, and came with an army to
land. In theſe different ſeminaries he acquired a very invade the kingdom. Aldred alſo reſtored the union
uncommon ſtock of knowledge ; and became famous and friendſhip between king Edward and Griffin king
for his learning, not only in England, but in foreign of Wales. He took afterwards a journey to Rome,
countries: whence ſeveral learned men ſent him their and being returned into England, in the year 1954,
writings for his peruſal and correction ; particularly he was ſent en baſſador to the emperor Henry II.; he
Prince Arcivil, a ſon of the king of Scotland, who ſtaid a whole year in Germany, and was very honour-
wrote many pieces which he ſent to Aldhelm, "in-ably entertained by Herman archbiſhop of Cologn,
treating him to give them the laſt poliſh, by rubbing from whom he learned many things relating to eccleli-
off their Scots ruſt.' He was the firſt Engliſhman aſtical diſcipline, which on his return he eitabliſhed in
who wrote in the Latin language both in proſe and his own dioceſe, In the year 1058 he went to Jeru-
verſe, and compoſed a book for the inſtruction of his falem, which no archbiſhop or biſhop of England had
countrymen in the proſody of that language. Beſides ever done before him. Two years after he returned to
this, he wrote ſeveralother treatiſes on various ſubjects; England; and Kinfius archbiſhop of York dying the
ſome of which are loſt, and others publiſhed by Martin 22d of December 1060, Aldred was elected in his ſtead
Delrio and Caniſius. Venerable Bede, who flouriſhed on Chriſtmas day following, and thought fit to keep
in the end of this and the begining of the next cen his biſhopric of Worceſter with the archbishopric of
tury, gives the following character of Allheim: "He Canterbury, as ſome of his predeceſſors had done, Al-
was a man ofuniverſalerudition,having an elegant ſtyle, dred went ſoon after to Rome, in order to receivethe
and being wonderfully well acquainted with books, Pallium from the Pope: He was attended by Toſtoni
both on philoſophical and religious ſubjects.” In fact, earl of Northumberland, Giſo biſhop of Wells, and
conſidering the cloud of ignorance by which he was Walter biſhop of Hereford. The pope received Tof-
tos
1
A L D
AL D
( 376 }
Alfred.
ton very honourably, and made him fit by him in the o madeſt to me before St Peter's altar.” The king, Aldred,
fynod which he heldagainſt the Simonills. He grant- terrified at this diſcourſe, fell upon his knees, and Aldrich.
ed to Giſo and Walter their requeſt, becauſe they were humbly begged the prelate to tell him, by what crime
tolerably will learned, and not accuſed of limony. But he had deſerved ſo ſevere a ſentence. The noblemen,
Aldred being by his anſwers found ignorant, and guil- who were preſent, were enraged againſt the arch-
ty of limony, the pope deprived him very ſeverely of bilhop, and loudly cried out he deſerved death, or at
all honours and diynities; fo that he was obliged to leaſt baniſhment, for having offered ſuch an injury to
return wichout the Pallium. On his way homeheand his ſovereign, and they prefed him with threatenings
his three fellow-travellers were attacked by ſome rob to raiſe the king from the ground. But the prelate, un-
bers, who took from them all that they had, though moved at all this, anſwered calmly, “Good men, let
they did not offer to kill them. This obliged them to “ himn lie there, for he is not at Aldred's but at St
return to Rome ; and the pope, either out of com " Peter's feet; he muſt feel St Peter's power, ſince he
paſſion, or by the threatenings of the carl of Northun “ dared to injure his vicegerent.” Having thus re-
berland, gave Aldied the Pallium ; but he was obli- proved the nobles by his epiſcopal authority, he vouch-
ged to reſign his bilhopric of Worceſter. However, as fafed to take the king by the hand, and to tell him the
the archbiſhopric of York had been almoſt entirely ground of his complaint. The king humbly excuſed
ruined by the many invalions of foreigners, king Ed- himſelt, by ſaying he had been ignorant of the whole
ward gave the new archbiſhop leave to keep twelve vil inatter ; and begged of the noblemen to intreat the
lages or manors which belonged to the biſhopric of prelate, that he might take off the curſe he had pro-
Worceſter. Edward the Confeſſor dying in 1066, nounced, and to change it into a bleſſing. Aldred
Aldred crowned Harold his ſucceflor. He alſo crown. was at laſt prevailed upon to favour the king thus far;
ed William the Conqueror, after he had made him but not without the proniiſe of ſeveral preſents and fa-
take the following oath, viz. that he would protect the vours, and only after the king had granted him to
holy church of God and their leaders, that he would take ſuch a revenge on the governor as he thought fit.
eſtabliſh and obſerve righteous laws; that he would en Since that time (adds the hiſtorian) none of the no-
'tirely prohibit and ſuppreſs all rapines and unjuſt blemen ever dared to offer the leaſt injury. It may
be
judginents. He was ſo much in favour with the con queſtioned, which was more ſurpriſing here, whether
queror, that this prince looked upon him as a father ; the archbiſhop's haughtineſs, who dared to treat his ſo-
and, though imperious in regard to every body elſe, he vereign after ſo unbecoming a manner ; or the king's
yet ſubmitted to obey this archbiſhop : John Bromtou ſtupidity, who ſuffered ſuch infolence and audaciouſneſs
gives us an inſtance of the king's ſubmiſſion, which at fron a prieſt?- The Danes having made an invaſion in
the ſame time ſhows the prelare's haughtinefs. It hap- the north of England in the year 1068, under the con-
pened one day, as the archbiſhop was at York, that duct of Harold and Canuté the ſons of king Swane,
the deputy-governor or lord-lieutenant going out of the Aldred was ſo much afflicted at it, that he died of grief
city with a grcat number of people, met the arch- the 11th of September in that ſame year, having be-
biſhop's ſervants, who cane to town with ſeveral carts fought God that he inight not ſee the deſolation of his
and horſes loaded witlr provisions. The governor alk- church and country.
cd them to whom they belonged; and they having an ALDRICH (Robert), biſhop of Carliſle, was born
fwered tliey were Aldred's ſervants, the governor or at Burnham in Buckinghamſhire about the year 1493,
dered that all theſe proviſions ſhould be carried to the and educated at Eaton-ſchool; from whence, in 1507,
king's ſtore-houſe. The archbiſhop fent immediately he was elected ſcholar of King's College, Cambridge,
fome of his clergy to the governor, commanding him where he took his degree in arts, and was afterwards
to deliver the proviſions, and to make ſatisfaction to St proctor of the univerſity. In 1525, he was appointed
Peter, and to him the ſaint's vicar, for the injary he maſter of Eaton ſchool, then became fellow of that
had done them; adding, that if he refuſed to comply, college, and finally provoſt. In 1529, he went to
the archbiſhop would make uſe of his apoſtolic autho- Oxford, where, being firſt incorporated bachelor of
rity againſt him, (intimating thereby that he would ex- divinity, in the following year he proceeded doctor
communicate him). The governor, offended at this in that faculty : in 1531, he was made arch-deacon of
prond meſlage, uſed the perſons whom the archbiſhop Colcheſter; in 1534, canon of Windſor ; and the ſame
had ſent him very ill, and returned an anſwer as haugh- year, regiſtrary of the order of the garter. He was
ty as the meſſage was. Aldred thereupon went to conſecrated bithop of Carliſle in the year 1537, and
London to make his complaint to the king ; but in died at Horncaſtle in Lincolnſhire in 1556. He wrote,
this very complaint he acted with his wonted infolence; 1. Epiftola ad Gul. Hormanum, in Latin verſe ; printed
for meeting the king in the church of St Peter at in Horman's Antiboſſican, Lond. 1521, of which book
Weſtminſter, he ſpoke to him in theſe words: “ Hear- Pitts erroneouſly makes Aldrich the author. 2. Epi.
rken, William: when thou waſt but a foreigner, and granimata varia. 3. Latin verſes, and another epiſtle
“God, to puniſh the ſins of this nation, permitted thee to Hormian, prefixed to the Vulgaria puerurum of that
" to become maſter of it, after having ſhed a great deal author, Lond. 1519, 410. 4. Anſwers to certain que-
or of blood, I conſecrated thee, and put the crown ries concerning the abuſes of the maſs; alſo about recei.
upon thy head with bleſſings ; but now, becauſe ving the facrament.
" thou haſt deſerved it, I pronounce a curſe over thee, ALDRICH (Dr Henry), an eminent Engliſh divine
si inſtead of a blefling, ſince thou art become the and philoſopher, born at London in 1647, was edu-
sc perſecutor of God's church, and of his miniſters, and cated at Weſtininſter ſchool under the fainous Dr Buſ-
“ haft broken the promiſes and the oaths which thou by, and admitted of Chriſt-church college, Oxford.
3
He
A L D
( 377 )
A L D
dus.
Aldrich. He had a grcat ſhare in the controverſy with the Pa and the other on the death of the Duke oi Glouceller. Aldricii,
piſts in the reign of James II. and Biſhop Burnct ranks Sir John Hawkins hath preſerved a humorous tran- Aldrovan-
him among thoſe who examined all the points of po- Nation by hiin of the well-known Engliſh ballad,
pery with a ſolidity of judgment, clearneſs of argu-
6 A ſoldier and a failor,
ment, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far
" A tinker and a taylor,” &c.
beyond any who had before that time written in our
language. He rendered himſelf ſo conſpicuous, that The following epigram, intitled “ Cauſa Bibendi,"
at the revolution, when Mafley the popiſh dean of is likewiſe aſcribed to Dr Aldrich :
Chriſt-church fled, his deariery was conferred on him.
“Si bene quid memini, Cauſæ ſunt quinque bibendi,
In this ſtation he belayed in an exemplary manner,and
“ Hofpitis Adventis ; præſens Sitis, atque futura;
that fabric owes much of its beauty to his ingenuity :
“ Aut Vini Bonitas ; quæ libet altera Gauſa."
it was Aldrich whu deſigned the beautiful ſquare call-
ed Peckwater-Quadrangle, which is eſteemed an excel- The epigram has been thus tranſlated :
lent piece of architecture. In imitation of his pre-
“lf on my theme I rightly think,
deceſor Dr Fell, he publiſhed yearly, a piece of ſome
" There are five reaſons why men drink :
ancient Greek author, as a preſent to the ſtudents of
"Good yine, a friend, becauſe I'm dry,
his houſe : he publiſhed A Syſtem of Logic, with ſome
" Or leſt I ſhould be by and by,
other pieces; and the reviſing Claredon's Hiſtory of
" Or any other reaſon why."
the Rebellion was intruſted to him and biſhop Spratt;
but it doth not appear that they made aliy additions, The tranſlation is not equal to the original. It is c-
or conſiderable alterations in it, as has been aſſerted by vident, from the verſes cited and referred to, that Dr
Mr-Oldnixon. Belides his preferments abovemen- Aldrich was of a very cheerful and pleaſant turn of
tioned, Dr Aldrich was alſo rector of Wem in Shrop- mind. Indeed, he is always ſpoken of as having been
fhire. He was choſen prolocutor of the convocation a man of wil ; and as one who, to his great talents and
in 1702. This worthy perſon died at Chriſt-church virtues, joined thoſe amiable qualities, which rendered
on the 14th of December 1710. As to his character him the object of general affeciion, as well as of general
he was a moſt univerſal ſcholar, and had a taſte for all eſteem and reſpect. Having never been married, he
forts of learning, eſpecially architecture. Sir John 2ppropriated his income to works of hoſpitality and
Hawkins has favoured the public with ſeveral particu- benificence, and in encouraging learning to theutmoſt
lars relative to Dr Aldrich's ſkill in muſic; and on ac of his power, of which he was a moſt inunificent pa-
count of the Doctor's eminence in this reſpect, Sir tron, as well as one of the greateſt men in England,
John hath given his life, with his head perfixed. His if conſidered as a chriſtian or a gentleman. He had
abilities as a muſician rank him, we are told, among always the intereſt of his college at heart, whereof lae
thc greateſt maſters of the ſcience. He compoſed many was an excellent governor. And, as he was remark-
ſervices for the church, which are well known; as are able for modeſty and humility, concealing his name to
alſo his anthems, nearly to the number of twenty. He thoſe ſeverallearned tracts he publiſhed, fo at his death
adapted, with great ſkill and judgment, English words he appointed to be buried without any memorialin the
to many of the notes of Paleſtrina, Cariffimi, Victoria, cathedral ; which his thrifty, nephew complied with,
and other Italian compoſers for the church, ſome of depoſiting him on the ſouth lide of biſhop Fell's grave,
which are frequently ſung in-thecathedrals asanthems, December 22, eight days after his deceaſe ; which
By the happy talent which Dr Aldrich poſſeſſed, of na- happened in the 63d or 64th year of his age.
turalizing the compoſitions of the old Italian inafters, ALDROVANDUS (Ulyſſes), profeflor of philo-
and accoinmodating them to an Engliſh ear, he in- fophy and phyſic at Bologna, the place of his nativity,
creaſed the ſtores of his own church. Though thé He was a moſt curious inquirer into natural hiſtory,
Doétor chiefly applied himſelf to the cultivation of fa- and travelled into the moſt diſtant countries on purpoſe
cred muſic, yet, being a man of humour, he could di- toinform himſelfoftheir natural produâions. Minerals,
vert himſelf by producing pieces of a lighter kind. metals, plants, and animals, were the objects of his
There are two catches of his; the one. Hark the curious reſearches; but he applied hiinſelf chietly to
bonny Chriſt-church Bells," the other intitled, “a birds, and was at great expence to have figures of
Smoking Catch,” to be ſung by four men finoking them drawn from the life. Aubert le Mire ſays, that
their pipes, which is not more citficult to ſing than di- he gave a certain painter, famous in that art, a yearly
verting to hear. His love of Smoking was, it ſeems, falary of 200 crowns, for 30 years and upwards; and
fo excellive as to be an entrrtaining topic of diſcourſe that he employed at bisown expence Lorenzo Bennini
in the univerſity. Such was Dr Aldrich's regard for and Cornelius Swintus, as well as the famous engraver
the advancement of mulic, and the honour of its pro- Chriſtopher Coriolanus. Theſe expences ruined his
feffors, that he had formed a deſign of writing a hiſto- fortune, and at length reduced liim to the utmoſt ne-
ry of the ſcience ; and the materials from which he ceflity ; and it is ſaid that he died hlind in air lioſpital
propoſed to compile it are yet extant in the library of at Bologna, at a great age, in 1605. Mr Bayle ub-
his own college. It appears from theſe materials, that ſerves, that antiquity does not furniih us with an in-
he had marked down every thing which he had met ſtance of a deſign ſo extenſive and ſo laborious as that
with concerning muſic and inuficians; but that he had of Aldrovandus, with regard to natural hiſtory; that
wronght 110 part of them into any kind of form. Pliny has treated of more kinds of ſubjects, but only
Dr Aldrich is of fome note as a Latin poet. In the touches lightly on them, ſaying but a little upon any
Mnfæ Anglicani, we find two elegant copies of verſes thing, whereas Aldrovandus has collected all he could
by him ; one on the acceſſion of King Willian Ill.
meet with
His compilation, or that compiled upoil
VOL.I.
3 B
his
A L E
[ 378 1
A L E
Ale.
da
Aldrovan- his plan, conſiſts of 13 volumesin folio, ſeveralof which water and made to germinate, by which its ſpirits are
were printed after his death. He himſelf publiſhed excited and ſet at liberty ; it is then dried and grind-
f
his Ornithology, or Hiſtory of Birds, in three folio vo ed ; after which it is infuſed in a certain quantity of
Ale,
lumnes, in 1599 ; and his ſeven books Cf Inſects, which water; which being fermented, becomes a pleaſant,
make another volume of the ſame ſize. The volume warming, ſtrengthening, and intoxicating liquor.'
Of Serpents, three of Quadrupeds, one of Fiſhes, This ale was molt commonly made of barley; but ſome-
that of exanguious Animals, the Hiſtory of Monfters, times of wheat, oats, and millet.
with the Supplement to that of Animals, the treatiſe Anciently the Welch and Scots had alſo two kinds
Of Metals, and the Dendrology or Hiſtory of Trees, of ale, called common ale and Spiced ale; and their va-
were publiſhed at ſeveral times after the death of Al lue was thus aſcertained by law : " If a farmer hath
drovandus, by the care of ſeveral perſons; and Aldro no mead, he ſliall pay two caſks of ſpiced alc, or four
randus is the ſole author only of the first fix volumes of caſks of comnion ale, for one caſk of mead.” By
this work, the reſt having been finiſhed and compiled this law, a caſk of ſpiced ale, nine palms in height,
by others, upon the plan of Aldrovandus : a moſt ex and 18 palms in diameter, was valued at a ſum of mo-
tenſive plan, wherein he not only relates what he has ney equal in efficacy to L. 7. Tos. of our preſent mo-
read in naturaliſts, but remarks alſo what hiſtorians ney; and a caſk of common ale, of the fanie dimen-
have written, legiſlators ordained, and poets feigned: fions, at a ſum equal to L. 3. 155. This is a ſufficient
he explains alſo the different uſes which may be made proof, thai even common ale in this period was an ar-
of the things he treats of, in common life, in medicine, ticle of luxury among the Welch, which could only
architecture, and other aris ; in ſhort, he ſpeaks of be obtained by the great and opulent. Wine ſeems
morality, proverbs, devices, riddles, hieroglyphics, to have been quite unknown even to the kings of Wales
and many other things which relate to his ſubject. in this period, as it is not ſo much as once mentioned
ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of the pen. in their laws; though Giraldus Cambrenſis, who flou-
tandria order, belonging to the pentagynia claſs of riſhed about a century after the conqueft,acquaints us,
plants ; of which there is but one ſpecies. The calyx that there was a vineyard in his time at Maenarper,
is divided into five parts; the petals are five ; and the near Pembroke, in South Wales.
capſule has five valves, with ten feeds. It is a native Ale was the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons
of Italy and the Indies; and has no Engliſh name. and Danes, as it had been of their anceſtors the an-
ALDU ABIS (anc. geog.), a river of Celtic Gaul, cient Germans. Before their converſion to Chriſtiani.
which riling froni Mount Jura, ſeparating the Sequani ty, they believed that drinking large and frequent
from the Helvetii, and running through the county of draughts of ale was one of the chief felicities which
Burgundy, or the Franche Comté, environs almoſt on thoſe heroes enjoyed who were admitted into the hall
every lide the city of Beſançon ; and running by Dole, of Odin.
falls into the Saone near Chalone. In Cæfar it is call There are various forts of ale known in Britain,
ed Alduaſdubis ; in Ptolemy, Dubis: now le Doux. particularly pale and brown: the former is brewed from
ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infuſion malt llightly dried ; and is eſteemed more viſcid than
of inalt, and differing froin beer chicfly in having a leſs the latter, which is made from malt more highly dried
proportion of hops. (See BREWING.). This liquor, or roaſted.
the natural ſubſtitute of wine in ſuch countries as could Pale ale brewed with hard waters, as thoſe of ſprings
not produce the grape, was originally made in Egypt, and wells, is judged the moſt wholeſomne, in regard the
the firſt planted kingdom, on the diſperſion from the mineral particles tend to prevent the coheſions of thoſe
eaſt, that was ſuppoſed unable to produce grapes. And, drawn from the grain, and enable them to paſs the pro-
as the Noachian colonies pierced further intothe weſt, per ſecretions the better; ſofter waters, as thoſe of ri-
they found, or thought they found, the ſame defect, vers, and rain, feem better ſuited to draw out the fub-
and ſupplied it in the ſame manner. Thus the natives ſtance of high-dried malts which retain many igneous
of Spain, the inhabitants of France, and the aborigines particles, beſt abſorbed in a ſnooth vehicle.
of Britain, alluſed an infuſion of barley for their ordi In Staffordſhire, they have a ſecret of fining ale in
nary liquor : and it was called by the various names a very Mort time. Plot conjectures it to be done by
of Celia and Guria in the firſt country, Gereviſia in the adding alum, or vinegar, in the working.
ſecond, and Gurmi in the laſt; all literally importing Ale is prepared various ways, and of various ingre-
only the ſtrong water.
dients, as of wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, the ber-
66 All the ſeveral nations (fays Pliny) who inhabit ries of the quick-bean, &c.
the weſt of Europe, have a liquor with which they in Some have found that the juice which bleeds from
toxicate themſelves, made of corn and water. The the birch or fycanıore is of great uſe on this occaſion,
manner of making this liquor is ſomewhat different in applied inſtead of water. It makes one buſhel of mali
Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and is called by go as far as four in the common way.
many various names; but its nature and properties are Some have a method of preparing ale, fo that it will
every where the ſame. The people of Spain, in parti- keep, carried to the Eaſt or Weſt Indies. The ſecret
calar, brew this liquor fo well, that it will keep good is, by maſhing twice with freſh malt ; boiling twice;
a long time. So exquisite is the cunning of mankind, and after ſhippingit, putting to every five gallons two
in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have new-laid eggs whole, to remain therein. It is ſaid,
thus invented a metliod to make water itſelf intoxi- that, in a fortnight's time, the fjells will be diffolved;
cate.” The method in which the ancient Britons, and and the eggs become like wind-eggs; and that after-
other Celtic nations made their ale, is tlus deſcribed wards the white will diſappear and the yolk remain
by Ilidorus and Orolius. “ The grain is ſteeped in untoucheda
Ale
A L E
[ 379 ]
A L E
Ale.
mantia,
Ale is generally lield to be more diuretic than beer, Perſons in Scotland convicted of keeping unlicenſed Ale
in regard it is ſmoother, nore ſoftening, and relaxing: ale-houſes ſhall forfeit for the firſt offence 5s. for the 31
Alectoro-
ſo that when urine is to be promoted by facilitating ſecond ios, for the third 2os. and to be diſqualified ;
the paſſage, ale is most likely to effect it.
and for every ſubſequent offence 40s. to be levied by
Ale is flatulent; and hence ſometimes produces co diſtreſs and ſale, one moiety to the informer, the other
lics, and the cholera inorbus : it is aceſcent ; but it does to the poor of the pariſh. Conviction to be intimated
not produce calcareous diſeaſes, as has been aſſerted: to the offender, and certified to the clerk of the peace,
If malt-liquor, of any degree of ſtrength, is be and recorded: but perſons aggrieved may appeal to
come flat and tartilh, as it is uſed, it ſhould be drawn the quarter ſeſſions. Ibid.
out of the caſk into a jug, in which as many drams of Licenſes for houſes on the military roads in Scot-
powdered chalk is put as there are to be pints of liquor; land ſhall be iſſued on payment of is. only to the clerk
thus a new fcrment will be raiſed, a ſprightly taſte will of the peace : making out licenſes before the fame be
be reſtored to the liquor, and its acidity will be de- ſtamped, is a penalty of rol. and making them con-
ſtroyed. Tart liquors of this kind are apt to produce trary to the intention of this act, 5l. and the ſame
a dýfury, ſtrangury, or a gonorrhoea ; in which caſes, ſhall be vacated, unleſs the duty and fine be paid, and
a ſinall quantity of brandy may be taken.
the receipt produced, and licenſe ſtamped. Ibid.
The conſumption of ale in Great Britain is incre Ale-Silver, a tax paid annually to the lord-mayor of
dible. It was computed twenty years ago at the va. London, by all who ſell ale within the city.
lue of four millions yearly, including Great Britain and ALEA, in Roman antiquity, denotes in general alt
Ireland.
manner of games of chance ; but, in a more reſtricted
The duties on ale and beer make a principal branch ſenſe, was uſed for a particular game played with dice
of the revenue in Britain. They were firſt impoſed and tables, not unlike our backgammon.
by the 12th of Car. II. and have been continued by ALEANDER (Jerome), cardinal and archbiſhop
ſeveral ſubſequent acts of parlianient to firſt Geo. III. of Brindiſi, was born in 1480; and diſtinguiſhed himſelf
which lays an additional duty of 3d. per barrel. In at the beginning of the reformation, by the oppoſition
the whole, the brewer of ale and beer for ſale ſhall pay he made to Luther: for being ſent into Gerinany as
8s. for every barrel of either, above 6s. a barrel ; and the pope's nuncioin 1519, he acted, as occaſion ſerved,
for every barrel of 6s. or under, the ſum of is. 4d. in the character both of ambaſſador and doctor, and
Medicated Ales, thoſe wherein medicinal berbs have declaimed three hours together againſt Luther's doc-
been infuſed, or added during the fermentation. See trine before the diet of Worms, but could not prevent
PHARMACY, (Index.)
that celebrated reformer from being heard in that diet.
Gill- Ale, is that in which the dried leaves of gill or He publiſhed ſeveral works, and died at Roine in 1542.
ground-ivy have been infuſed. It is eſteemed abfter ALEANDER (Jerome), a learned man of the ſeven-
live and vulnerary, and conſequently good in diſorders teenth century, born in the priuicipality of Friuli,of the
of the breaſt and obſtruslions of the viſcera.
fame family with the preceding. When he went to
ALE-Conner, an officer in London, who inſpects the Rome, he was employed as ſecretary under cardi-
meaſures uſed in public houſes. There are four ale- nal Otavius Bandini, and diſcharged this office with
conners, who are all choſen by liverymen in com great honour for almoſt twenty years. He afterwards,
mon hall on midſummer-day.
by the perſualion of Urban VIII. who had a great e-
ALE-Houfes muſt be licenſed by juſtices of the peace, ſteem for him, become ſecretary to Cardinal Barberini,
who take recognizances of the perſons licenſed, and of whom he accompanied to Rome when he went there
their fureties, viz. rol. each, that they will not ſuffer in the character of legate à latere, and in whoſe fer-
unlawful gaming,nor other diſorderly practices in their vice he died in 1631. He was one of the firſt mem-
houſes. Every perſon, excepting thoſe who ſell ale bers of the academy of Huinoriſts,wrote a learned trea-
in fairs, neglecting to procure a licenſe, is liable to a tiſe in Italian on the device of the ſociety, and diſplay-
penalty of 40s. for the firſt offence, 41. for the ſecond, ed his genius on many different ſubjects. Barberini
and 61. for the third, with all coſts. The licence is gave him a magnificent funeral at the academy of Hu-
granted on the firſt of September, or within twenty moriſts; the academifts carried his corps to the grave;
days after, at a general meeting of the juſtices for the and Gaſper Simeonibus, one of the members, made his
diviſion to which he belongs, upon his producing a
funeral oration.
certificate to his character, unleſs by living in a city ALECTO, one of the FURIES, daughter of Ache-
or town-corporate, this laſt circumſtance is diſpenſed ron and Night, or, as others would have it, of Pluto
with, and continues in force for one year only. Ale- and Proſerpine.
houſe keepers, ſelling ale in ſhort meaſure, are liable ALECTORIA, a ſtone ſaid to be formed in the
to a penalty not exceeding 4os.and not leſs than ros.and gall bladders of old cocks, to which the ancients a-
likewiſe to a fine of ros. for permitting tipling, &c. ſcribed many fabulous virries. This is otherwiſe call.
By 29th Geo. II. c. 12. perſons keeping ale-houſes ed Alectoria's Lapis, ſometimes Aleftorolithos, in Engliſh
in Scotland ſhall be licenſed as in England, and th the cock-fione. The more moder: naturaliſts hold the
jufices there ſhall meet annually to licenſe ale-houſes; akétorius lapis to be originally ſwallowed down, not
on each of which licenſes a fee of is. is payable to the generated in, the ſtomach or gizard of cocks and ca-
clerk of the peace. Magiſtrates of Royal boroughs pons. It is known that many of the fowl-kind make
Mall meet yearly for the like purpoſe; but where there a practice of ſwallowing pebbles, as it is ſuppoſed to be
thall not be a fufficient number of magiſtrates to act in of ſervice in the buſineſs of trituration and digeſtion.
any royal borough, juſtices may grant licenſes, tobein ALECTOROMANTIA, in antiquity, a ſpecies
force for one year only. Ibid.
of divination performed by ineans of a cock. This is
3 B 2
Orlier-
À L E
[ 380
A L E
A-lec
othewiſe rcalled AleEtryoinancy; of which there appear a foundling. His father, informed of this circuni. Alembert.
to have been diſcrent ſpecies. But that moſt ipoken ſtance, liſtened to the voice of nature and duty, took
Alembert
, of by authors was in the following manner : A circle nieaſures for the proper education of his child, and for
being deſcribed on the ground, and divided into twen his future ſubſiſtence in a state of cafe and indepen-
ly-four equal portions, in each of theſe ſpaces was dence.
written one of the letters of the alphabet, and on each He received his firſt education in the College of the
of the letters was laid a grain of wheat ; after which, Four Nations, among the Janſeniſts, where he gave
a cock being tarned looſe in the circle, particular no- early marks of capacity and genius. In the first year
rice was taken of the grains picked up by the cock, of his philoſophical studies, he compoſed a Coinmen-
becauſe the letters under them, being formed into a tary on the epiſtle of St Paul to the Romans. The
word, made the anſwer deſired. It was thus, accor Janſeniſts conlidered this production as an omen that
ding to Zonarus, that Libanius and" Jamblicus louglīt' portended to the party of Port-Royal a reſtoration to
who ſhould ſucceed the emperor Valcns; and the cock fome part of their ancient ſplendor, and hoped to
caling the grains anſwering to the ſpaces GOA, fc ſind one day in Al. d'Aleinbert a ſecond Paſcal. Tu
veral whoſe names began with thoſe letters, as Thco render ihis reſemblance more complele, they engaged
dotus, Theodiſtes, Theodulqus, &c. were put to death, their riſing pupil in the ftudy of the inathematics; but
which did not hinder, but promote, Theodolius to the they foon perceived that his growing attachment to
fucceifion. · But the ſtory, however current, is bui ill this ſcience was likely to diſappoint the hopes they
fupported : It lias been called in queſtion by ſome, had formed with reſpect to his future deſtination ;
and reſuced by others, from the filence of Marcellinus they, thercore, endeavoured to divert him from this
Socrates, and other hiſtorians of that time.
line ; but their endeavours were fruitleſs.
A-LEE, in the ſea-language, a term only uſed when At his leaving collcge, he found himſelf alone and
the wind, croſſing or flanking the line of a ſhip's unconnected in the world ; and ſought an aſylum iiz
conrſe, preſſes upon the maſts and fails ſo as to make the houſe of his nurfe. He comforted himſelf with the
hier incline to one ſide, which is called the lee-ſide: hope, that his fortuue, thongli not ample, would bet-
hence, when the lielni is moved over to this ſide, it is ter the condition and ſubliſtence of that family, which
ſaid to be a lee, or baid e-lec.
was the only one that he could conſider as his own :
ALEGAMBE (Philip), a celebrated Jeſuit, born Here, therefore, hc took up his reſidence, reſolving to
at Bruiſcis in 1592, diłtinguiſhed himſelf by publiſh- apply himſelf entirely to the ſtudy of geometry : And
iny a Bibliotheque of the writers of his order, and died here he lived, during the ſpace of forty years, with the
at Rone in 1652.
greateſt fimplicity, diſcovering the augmentation of his
ALEGRETTE, a ſmall town of Portugal, in A means only by encreaſing diſplays of his beneficence,
lentejo, on the confines of Port Alegre, on the river concealing his growing reputation aird celebrity fron
Caja, which falls into the Guadiana, a little below Ba theſe honeſt people, and making their plain and uncouth
jadoz, near the frontiers of Spaniſh Eſtremadura. It manners the ſubject of good-natured pleaſantry and
is a very pretty town, and fincly ſituated; ſeven miles philofophical obfervation. His good nurſe perceived
fouth-eaſt of Port Alegre, and thirty miles north of his ardent activity; heard him mentioned as the writer
Elvas. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 39. 6.
of many books; but never took it into her head that
ALEIUS CAMPUS (anc, geog.), a plain in Cili- he was a great man, and rather beheld hiin with a kind
cia, on this fide the river Pyramus, near the inountain of compaſſion. " You will never," ſaid the to him one
Chimera, famous for Bellerophon's wandering and pe- day," be any thing, but a philosopher and what is a
riſing there, after being thrown off Pegaſus ; which philosopher ?--a fool, who toils and plagues himſelf during
is the reaſon of the appellation.
his life, that people may talk of him when he is NO MORE.
ALEMANIA, or ALLEMANIA,(anc. geog.) a name As M. d'Alembert's fortune did not far exceed the
of Germany, but not known before the time of the demands of neceſſity, his friends adviſed him to think
Antonines, and then uſed only for a part. After the of a profeſſion that might enable him to augment it.
Marcomanni and their allies had removed from the He accordingly turned his views to the law, and took
Rhine, a rabble, or collection of people from all parts his degrees in that line ; but foon abandoned this
of Gual, as the term Alemanni denotes, prompted ci- plan, and applied to the ſtudy of medicine.
ther by levity or poverty, occupied the Agri, called try, however, was always drawing him back 10 his
Decumates by Tacitus, becauſe they held them on a foriner purſuits, and after inany ineffectual efforts to
tithe ; now ſuppoſed to be the dutchy of Wirtemburgh. relift its attractions, he renounced all views of a lucra-
Circh appear to be the ſmall beginnings of Alemania, tive profeſſion, and gave himſelf over entirely to ma-
which was in after-times greatly enlarged : but ſtill thematics and poverty.
it was conſidered as a diſtinct part ; for Caracalla, In the year 1741 he was admitted member of the
who conquered the Alemanni, aſſuined the ſurname Academy of Sciences; for which diſtinguiſheá literary
both of Aleinannicus and Germanicus.
promotion, at ſuch an early age, he had prepared the
ALEMBDAR, and officer in the court of the Grand way by correcting the errors of a celebrated work*, *The Ana-
Signior, who bears the green ſtandard of Mahomet, which was deemed claſical in France in the line of Lyſe demona
when the ſultan appears in public on any folemn occa ometry. He afterwards ſet himſelf to examine, with free of F.
13einau,
fion.
deep attention and aſſiduity, what inuſt be the motion
ALEMBERT (John le Rond d'), an eminent of a body which paſſes from one fluid into another
French philoſopher, was born at Paris in 1717. He more denfe, in a direction not perpendicular to the
derived the name of John le Rond from that of the furface ſeparating the two fluids. Every one knows
eiuurch ncar which, after his birth, he was expoſed as the phenomenon which happens in this caſe, and which
amuſes
ge-
A
t
ALE
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A LE
Alembert, amures children under the denomination of Ducks and vernment, which he owed to the friendſhip of Count Alembert.
Lowca Drakes ; but M. d'Alembert was the firſt who explain-. d'Argenſon.
ed it in a ſatisfactory and philoſophical manner. The tranquillity of M. d'Alembert was abated when
Two years after his election to a place in the acade- his fame grew more extenſive, and when it was kuown
my, he publiſhed his Treatiſe on Dynamics. The new beyond the circle of his friends, that a fine and enlight-
principle developed in this treatiſe confifted in cfta- cncd taſte for literature and philoſophy accompanied
blill.ing equality, at each inſtant, between the changes líš mathematical genius. Our author's culogiſt afcribes
that the inotion of a body has undergone, and the for 10 envy, detraction, and to other motives ncarly as 41-
ces or powers which have been employed to produce generous, all the diſapprobation, oppofition, and cen-
them; or to expreſs the thing otherwiſe, in ſeparazina fure that M. d'AlĘmbert met with on account of the
into two parts the action of the moving powers, and publication of the famous Encyclopedical Dictionary of
conſidering the one as producing alone the motion of Arts and Sciences, in conjunction with Diderot. None
the body, in the ſecond inſtant, and the other as eni ſurely will refuſe the well-deſerved tribute of applauſe
ployed io deſtroy that which it had in the firſt. to the eminent diſplays of genius, judgment, and true
Su early as llie year 1744, M. d'Alembert had ap- literary taſte, with which M. d'Alembert las cnriched
plied this principle to the theory of the eqniiibrium, the great work now mentioned. Among others, the
and the motion of fluids; and all the problems before Preliminary Diſcourſe he has affixed to it, concerning
folved by geometricians became, in ſome meaſure, its the rife, progreſs, connections, and afinities of all the
corollaries. The diſcovery of this new principle was branches of human knowledge, is perhaps one of the
followed by that of a new calculus, the firſt trials of moſt capital produtions of which the philoſophy of the
which were publiſhed in a Diſcourſ: 01 the general Theo- preſent age can boat. Nor trill it be diſputed, that Monthly
ty of the Winds, to which the prize-medal was adjudg- the maſter-builders of this new and ftupendous temple Reviezu for
ed by the academy of Berlin in the year 1746, and of ſcience, for the worſhip of NATURE, had alſo really M.28.1787-
which was a new and brilliant addition to the fanie of in view the advancement of human knowledge, and
M. d'Alembert. This new calculas of partial differ- the improrement or the arts and ſciences. This, no
ences he applied, the year following, to the problems of true, no.candid päiloſopher, will call in queſtion. But
vibrating chords, whoſe ſolution, as well as the theory that in the ii.ner clart of this temple there was a colla
of the ofcillations of the air and the propagation of federacy forned againſt all thoſe who looked higher
found, had been given but incompletely by the geome- ihan nature, for the principal objcct of their venera-
tricians who preceded him, and thieſe vere his inafters tion and confidence, is a fact too palpable, nay too bold-
or his rivals,
ly avowed, to ſtand in need of any proof.
In the year 1749 he furnished a method of applying Suine time after this, d'Alembert publiſhed his Phi-
his principle to the motion of any body of a given fi- lofophical, Hiſtorical, and Philological Miſcellanies.
gure; and he ſolved the problem of the precellion of Theſe were followed by the Memoirs of Chriſtina
the equinoxes, determined itsgilantity, and explained Queen of Sweden; in which M. d'Alembert ſhowed that
the phenomenon of the nutation of the terreſtrial axis he tras acquainted with the natural rights of mankind, ,
diſcovered by Dr Bradley.
and was bold enough to aſſert them. His El ay 07f the
In 1752, M. d'Alembert publiſhed a treatiſe on the Intercom fe of Mer of Letters with perfous high in Rank
Reſiſtance of Fluids, to which lie gave the modeſt title and Office, wounded the former to the quick, as it ex-
of an Eſſay ; but which contains a multitude of origi- poſed to the eyes of the public the ignominy of thoſe
nal ideas and new obſervations. About the ſame time lervile chains, which they feared to take off, or were
he publifhed, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Ber- proud to wear. A lady of the court hearing one day
lin, Reſearches concerning the Int.gral Calculus, which the author accuſed of having exaggerated the defpo-
is greatly indebted to hiin for the rapid progreſs it las tiſm of the great, and the fubiniffion they require, an-
made in the preſent century,
ſwered fyly, if he had confulted me, I would have tolt
While the ſtudies of M. d'Alembert were confined him ftill more of the matter.
to geometry, he was litile known or celebrated in his M. d'Alembert gave very elegant ſpecimens of his
native country. His connections were limited to a literary abilities in his tranſlation of ſome ſelect pieces
ſmall ſociety of ſelect friends : he had never ſeen any of Tacitus. But theſe occupations did not divert him
man in high office except M, d'Argenſon. Satisii- from his mathematical ſtudies : for about the ſame time
ed with an income which furniſhed him with the ne he enriched the Encyclopédie with a multitude of ex-
ceſſaries of life, he did not aſpire after opulence or ho cellent articles in that line, and compoſed his Ref:arch.
nours; nor had thcy been hitherto beſtowed upon him, es oil foveral important Points of the Syſtem of the World,
as it is eaſier to confer them on thoſe who folicit them, in which he carried to a higher degree of perfection
ihan to look out for men who deſerve them. His
His the ſolution of the problem of the perturbation of the
cheerful converſation, his ſmart and lively fallics, ahap- planets, that had ſeveral years before been preſented
py knack at telling a ſtory, a ſingular mixture of ma to the Academy.
lice of ſpeech with goodneſs of heart, and of delicacy In 1759 he publiſhed his Elements of Philofophy: a
of wit with ſimplicity of manners, rendered him a pica- work extolled as remarkable for its preciſion and per-
fing and intereſting companion, and his company con- fpicuity; in which, however, are ſome tenets relative
fequently was much ſought after in the faſhionable cir- both to metaphyſics and moral ſcience, that are far
clos. His reputation, at length, made its way to the from being admiſſible.
throule, and rendered him the object of royal attention The reſentment that was kindled (and the diſputes
and beneficence. He received alſo a penſion from go- that follo:sed it) by the article Geneva, inſerted in the
Encyclopédie,
A L E
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A L E
ر
Alembert Encyclopédie, are well known. M. d'Alcnibert did a word uſed for a ſort of fixed alkaline ſalt, which had Alenio
not leave this field of controverſy with flying colours. the power of the famous aikaheft, in disolving bodies, U
Alenbroth
Voltaire was an auxiliary in the content: but as, in opening the pores of moſt or all known ſubſtances, and Aleppo,
point of candour and decency, he had no reputation thence, as well as by deltroying ſulphurs, promoting
to loſe; and as he weakened the blows of his enemies, the ſeparation of metals from their ores.-It is alſo
by throwing both them and the ſpectators into firs of uſed for a compound of corrotive mercury and ſal am-
laughter, the illise of the war gave him little unealin moniac. See CHEMISTRY,
nefs. It fell more lieavily on d'Alembert; and expo ALENIO (Julius), a Jeſuit, born at Breſcia in the
led him, even at home, to much contradigion and op- republic of Venice. He travelled into the eaſtern
poſition.
countries ; and arrived at Macao in 16so, where he
It was on this occaſion that the late king of Pruſſia tanght mathematics. From thence he went to the
offered him an honourable aſylum at his court, and the empire of China, where he continued to propagate the
place of preſident of his academy; and was not offend. Christian religion for thirty fix years. He was the
ed at his refuſal of theſe diſtinctions, but cultivated an firſt who planted the faith in the province of Xanſi,
intimate friendlıip with him during the reſt of his and he buili ſeveral churches in the province of Fokien.
life. He had refuſed, ſome time before this, a pro- He died in Auguſt 1649, leaving behind him ſeveral
poſal made by the empreſs of Ruſſia to intruſt him with works in the Chineſe language.
the education of the Grand Duke;-a propoſal accom ALENTEJO, a province of Portugal, between the
panied with all the flattering offers that could tempt rivers of Tajo and Guadiana : the ſoil is very fertile,
a man, ambitious of titles, or deſirous of making an and the inhabitants laborious and induſtrious. The
aniple fortune: but the objects of his ainbition were principal town is Ebora.
tranquillity and ſtudy.
ALENZON, a large handſome town of France, in
In the year 1765, he publiſhed his Diſſertation on lower Normandy, with the title of a duchy. It is
the Deſtruction of the Jeſuits. This piece drew upon ſurrounded with good walls, and flanked with towers.
him a ſvvarm of adverſaries, who confirmed the me The caſtle was formerly a place of great conſequence,
rit and credit of his work by thcir manner of attack- and has held out long lieges. It has but one pariſh-
ing it.
church, which lias a bold and noble front. Ainong the
Beſide the works already mentioned, he publiſlied nunneries, that of St Clair is moſt remarkable. It is
nine volumes of memoirs and treatiſes, under the title ſeated on the river Sarte, in a vaſt open plain, which
of Opufcules; in which he has ſolved a multitude of produces all ſorts of corn and fruit. Near it there are
problems relative to aſtronomiy, mathematics, and na quarries of ſtone fit for building, wherein are found
Tural philofophy; of which our panegyriſ gives a par- a fort like Briſtol ſtones.
a fort like Briſtol ſtones. The linen made at Alenzon
ticular account, more eſpecially of thoſe which exhibit is very good, and ſells at Paris. It is 20 miles north
new ſubjects, or new methods of inveſtigation. of Mans, 63 ſouth-by-weſt of Rouen, and 88 ſouth-
He publiſhed allo Elements of Mufic; and rendered, weſt of Paris. W. Long. 0. 10. N. Lat. 48.25.
at length, the ſyſtem of Rameau intelligible ; but he ALEPPO, or HALAB, the capital of the Pachalic,
did not think the mathematical theory of the ſonorous and of all Syria, and the ordinary reſidence of the pa-
body fufficient to account for the rules of that art. cha, is ſituated in the vaſt plain which extends from
He was always fond of muſic; which, on the one the Orontes to the Euphrates, and which towards the
band, is connected with the moſ ſubile and learned fouth terminates in the defart. It is built on eight
reſearches of rational mechanics ; while, on the other, hills or eminences, on the higheſt of which the caſtle
its power over the ſenſes and the foul exhibits to phi- is erected, and is ſuppoſed to be the ancient Beræa.
loſophers phenomena no leſs fingular and ſtill more in This mount is of a conic form, and ſeems in a great
explicable.
meaſure to be raiſed with the earth thrown up out of
In the year 1972 he was choſen ſecretary to the a deep broad ditch which ſurrounds it. The ſuburbs
French academy. He formed, foon after this prefer to the north-north-eaſt are next in height to this, and
ment, the deſign of writing the lives of all the decea thoſe to the weſt-ſouth-weſt are much lower than the
ſed academicians, from 1700 to 1772 ; and in the ſpace parts adjacent, and than any other part of the city.
of three years he executed this delign, hy composing The houſes are large and commodious, having terraces
70 eulogies.
on their tops, and generally ſky-lights in form of a
M. d'Alembert died on the 29th of October 1783. Joie 10 let ihe light into the rooms, which froin their
There were many amiable lines of candour, modeſty, loſtineſs, the gilding on the window-ſhutters, cup.
diſintereſtedneſs, and beneficence, in his moral charac- board-doors, &c. have at firſt entrance a very grand
ter; which are deſcribed, with a diffuſive detail, in his and agreeable effect. They are all fo equal in lieight,
eulogium, by M. Condorcet, Hiff. de l'Aud. Royale des that there are ſeldoin any ſteps to aſcend or deſcend in
Sciences, 1783.
going from one houſe to another ; while ſeveral large
ALEMBIC, a chemical veſſel uſually made of glaſs vaulied ſtreets increaſe the facility of communication,
or copper, formerly uſed for diſtillation.
The bottom by affording a paffage to every part of the city free
part, which contained the ſubject for diftillation, is from the embarrallment of the open ſtreets. They are
called, fron: its ſhape, the cucurbit; the upper part, rarefallv paved , have gutters and a foot-pavement ou
which receives and condenſes the ſtcar), is ciiled this rach ſide; and the middle of the ſtreet is laid with
head, the beak of u bich is fitted into the neck up aten bijek, the finall end upwards, for the convenience of
ceiver. Retorts, and the cominon wo1 112-/'111. ire 110\/ -Pin horſes. There is alſo a clcanlineſs obſerved here
more generally employed.
in i'wn to the other cities of Turkey, and which is
ALEMBROTH, in the writings of livinila 110% attended with the trouble of ſcavengers, there
being
A L E
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AL E
Aleppo. being aſs-drivers who go about the city and take up not fit for ſervice, not excepting a culverine nine Aleppo.
the rubbiſh and duſt, which each inhabitant is obliged feet long, taken froin the Perſians at the fiege of
to ſweep together; and though the heat of the climate Baiſora. Three hundred and fifty Janifaries, who
renders this labour more eaſy, the fame heat obliges ſhould form the garriſon, are buſy in their iliops, and
them to greater cleanlineſs, in order to preſerve the the aga ſcarcely finds room in it to lodge his retinue.
ſalubrity of the air.
It is remarkable that this aga is named immediately
The moſques in Aleppo are numerous, and ſome few by the Porte, which, ever lufpicious, divides as much
of them magnificent. Before each of them is an area, as poſſible the different offices. Within the walls of
with a fountain in the middle, deſigned for ablutions the caſtle is a well, which, by means of a ſubterrane-
before prayers ; and behind ſome of the larger there ous communication, derives its water from a ſpring a
are little gardens. Tliere are many large khans, or league and a quarter diſtant. In the environs of the
caravanſeras, conſiſting of a capacious ſquare, on all city, we find a number of large ſquare ſtones, on the
ſides of which are a number of rooms, built on a ground- top of which is a turban of ſtone, which are ſo many
floor, uſed occaſionally for chainbers, ware-houſes, or toinbs. There are many riſing grounds round it,
ftables. Above ſtairs there is a colonade or gallery on which, in caſe of a liege, would greatly facilitate the
every ſide, in which are the doors of a number of ſinall approaches of the affa'ilanis. Sucli, aliong others, is
roonis, wherein the merchants, as well ſtrangers as nd that on which the houſe of the Derviches itands, and
tives, tranfact moſt of their buſineſs.
which commands the canal and the rivulet: Aleppo,
The bazars or market-places are long covered nar. therefore, cannot be eſteemed a place of importance
row ſtreets, on each ſide of which are a great number in war, though it be the key of Syria to the north ;
of finall ſhops, juſt ſufficient to hold the tradeſman and but, conſidered as a commercial city, it has a different
his goods, the buyer being obliged to ſtand without. appearance. It is the emporium of Armenia and the
Each ſeparate branch of buſineſs has a particular bazar, Diarbekar; ſends caravans to Bagdad and into Pertia;
which is locked up, as well as the ſtreets, an hour and and communicates with the Perlian gulph and India,
a half afier fun-ſet : but the locks are of wood, though by Baflora, with Egypt and Mecca by Damaſcus, and
the doors are caſed with iron. The ſlaughter-houſes with Europe by Skandaroon (Alexandretta) and La-
are in the ſuburbs, open to the fields. The tanners takia.
takia. Commerce is there principally carried on by
have a khan to work in near the river. To the ſouth- barter. The chief commodities are raw or ſpun cor-
ward in the fuburbs they burn lime ; and a little be- tons, clumſy liuens fabricated in the villages ; filk
yond that there is a village where they make ropes and ſtuffs manufactured in the city, copper, bourers (coarſe
catgut. On the oppoſite ſide of the river, to the weſt- cloths) like thoſe of Rouen, goats hair brought from
ward, there is a glaſs-houſe, where they make a coarſe Natolia ; the gall nuts of the Kourdeſtan, the mer-
white glaſs, in the winter only; for the greateſt part chandiſe of India, ſuch as ſhawls and muilins, and
of this manufacture is brought from a village 35 miles piſtachio nuts of the growth of the neighbourhood.
weſtward.
The articles ſupplied by Europe are the Languedoc
The ſituation of Aleppo, beſide the advantage of a cloths, cochineal, indigo, ſugar, and ſome other gro-
rich and fruitful foil, polleſes alſo that of a ſtream of ceries. The coffee of America, though prohibited,
freſh water, which never becomes dry. This rivulet, is introduced, and ſerves to mix with that of Moka.
which is about as large as that of the Gobelins at Pa- The French have at Aleppo a conſul and ſeven count-
ris, or the New River near London, riſes in the moun- ing-houſes ; the Engliſh and the Venetians two, and
tains of Aentab, and terminates ſix leagues below A. the merchants of Leghorn and Holland one.
The
leppo, in a moraſs full of wild boars and pelicans. Near emperor appointed a conful there in 1784, in the per-
Aleppo, its banks, inſtead of the naked rocks which ſon of a rich Jew merchant, who ſhaved his beard to
line them in the upper part of its courſe, are covered aſſume the uniform and the ſword. Ruſſia has alſo ſent
with a fertile earth, and laid out in gardens, or ra one very lately. Aleppo is not exceeded in extent
ther orchards, which, in a liot country, and eſpecially by any city in Turkey, except Conſtantinople and
in Turkey, cannot but be delightful. The city is in Cairo, and perhaps Smyrna. The niimber of inha-
itſelf one of the moſt agreeable in Syria, and is per- bitants has been computed at 200,000 ; but in theſe
haps the cleaneſt and beſt built of any in Turkey. On calculations certainty is impoſſible. However, if we
whatever fide it is approached, its numerous minarets obſerve that this city is not larger than Nantes or
and domes preſent an agreeable proſpect to the eye, Marſeilles, and that the houſes conſist only of one ſto-
fatigued with the continued ſameneſs of the brown ry, we mall perhaps not think it probable they ex-
and parched plains. In the centre is an artificial moun ceed 100,000. The people of this city, both Turks
tain ſurrounded by a dry ditch, on which is a ruinous and Chriſtians, are with reaſon citeemed the moſt ci-
fortreſs. From hence we have a fine proſpect of the vilized in all Turkey; and the European merchants
whole city, and to the north diſcover the ſnowy tops no where enjoy ſo much liberty, or are treated with
of the mountains of Bailan ; and on the weſt, thoſe ſo much reſpeit.
which ſeparate the Orontes from the ſea ; while to the The air of Aleppo is very dry and piercing, but at
ſouth and eaſt, the eye can diſcern as far as the Eu the ſame time very ſalubrious for all who are not trou-
phrates. In the time of Omar, this caſtle ſtopped the bled with aſthmatic complaints. The city, however,
progreſs of the Arabs for ſeveral months, and was at and the environs, are ſubject to a fingular endemnial
laſt taken by treachery, but at preſent would not be diſorder, which is called the ringworm or pimple of
able to retilt the feebleit atlant. Its ſlight wall, low, Aleppo; it is in fact a pimple which is at firſt inflam-
and without a buttreſs, is in ruins; its little old tow matory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the fize of
ers are in no better condition, and it has not four can the nail. The uſual duration of this ulceris one year;
it
A L E
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A L E
384 ]
Aleppo.
Aleppo. ii commonly fiscs on the face, and leaves a ſcar u bich foil of this government is fat and loamy. The lofty
even disfigures almoſt all the inhabitants. It is alleged that and vigorous plants which ih8ot up every where after
every llranger who relides there thee months is at tie winter rains prove its fertility, but its actual fruit-
tackel with it; experience has taught that the beſt fulneſs is but little. The greateſt part of the lands lie
mode of treatment is to make uſe of 10 remedy. No
No waſte ; ſcarcely can we trace any marks of cultivation
reaſon is aligned for this malady: but M. Volney fu- in the environs of the towns and villages. Its princi-
fpeés it proceeds from the quality of the water, as it palproduce conſiſs in wheat, barley, and corton, which
is ukewifc frequent in the neighbouring villages, in are found eſpecially in the flat country. In the moun-
foire parts of the Diartekar, and even in certain di. tains, they rather chooſe to cultivate the vine, mulber-
flicts ricar Damaſcus, where the ſoil and the water ry, olive, and fig trees. The ſides of the hills towards
hare the ſame appcarances. Of the Chiiftian inhabi- the ſea-coaſt are appropriated to tobacco, and the ter-
faits the greater number are Grceks, next to them ritory of Aleppo to piſtachios. The paſturage is not
the Armenians, then the Syrians, and laſly the Ma to be reckoned, becauſe that is abandoned to the wan-
ronites; cach of wliom have a church in the city called dering hordes of the Turkmen and Curds.
Judida ; in which quarter, and the parts adjacent, moſt In the greater part of the pachalics the pacha is, as
of them relide. The common language is the vulgar his title imports, at once the viceroy and farmer ge-
Arabic, but the Turks of condition uſe the Turkiſh. neral of the country; but in that of Aleppo he does not
Moſt of the Armenians can ſpeak the Armenian, fome poſſeſs the latter office. This the Porte has beſtowed
few Syrians underſtand Syriac, and many of the Jews on a nehaffel or collector, who is immediately account-
Hebrew; but ſcarce one of the Greeks underſtand a able for what he receives. His leaſe is only for a
word of Greek. The people in general are of a mid year. The preſent rent of his farm is 800 purſes
dle ſtature, and tolerably well proportioned; but they (above L.40,000); but to this muſt be added the price
ſeem neither vigorous noractive. Both ſexes are hand- of the babouchet (Turkiſh ſlippers), or a preſent of
ſome when young : but the beard ſoon disfigures the three or four thouſand pounds, to purchaſe the favour
men: and the women, as they come early to maturity, of the viſir and men in office. For theſe two fuins the
alſo fade very ſoon ; females are generally married from farmer receives all the duties of the government ;
14 to 18 years of age, and many under 14. The peo- which are, firſt, The produce of import and export du-
ple of rank here are polite and affable, inaking allow- ties on merchandiſe coming from Europe, India, and
ances for that fuperiority which the Mahometan reli- Conftantinople, and on that exported in exchange.
gion inſtructs its votaries to aſſume over all who hold Secondly, The taxes paid by the herds of cattle
a different faith. Their bread is generally of wheat brought every year by the Turkinen and Curds from
flour made into thin cakes, but very ill prepared, and Armenia and the Diarbekar, to be ſold in Syria.
is generally eaten as ſoon as it conies out of the oven. Thirdly, The fifth of the ſalt-works of Djeboul. And
The principal people have ſome loaves of a finer flour, laſtly, the miri, or land-tax.
laſtly, the miri, or land-tax. Theſe united may pro-
which are well fermented and baked. Beſides theſe, duce about L.60,000.
there are a varicty of biſcuits, nioſt of which are ſtrew The pacha, deprived of this lucrative branch of the
ed on the top with ſome kind of feeds. The Euro-
The Euro- adminiſtration, receives a fixed allowance of about
peans have very good bread, baked and prepared in the L.8300. This revenue has always been inadequate
French manner. All the inhabitants of both ſexes to the expences; for, beſides the troops he is obliged
ſnioke tobacco to great exceſs; even the very ſervants to maintain, and the reparation of the highways and
- have almoſt conſtantly a pipe in their mouths. Coaches fortreſſes, the expences of which he is obliged to de-
or carriages are not uſed bere; therefore perſons of qua- fray, he is under the neceſſity of making large pre-
lity ride on horſeback in the city, with a number of ſents to the miniſters, in order to keep his place ; but
fervants walking before them, according to their rank:
the Porte adds to the account the contributions he may
ladies of the firſt diſinction are even compelled to walk levy on the Curds and Turkmen, and his.extortions
on foot in the city, or to any place at a nioderate di froin the villages and individuals ; nor do the pachas
ſtance; in longer journeys they are carried by inules, come ſhort of this calculation. Abdi Pach
Abdi Pacha, who go-
in a kind of a conch clofe covered up. There are a verned 13 or 14 years ago, carried off, at the end of
11umber of public bagnios in this city, which are uſed 15 months, upwards of L.160,000, by laying under
by peopleofail ranks,except thoſe of the higheſt diſtinc- contribution every trade, even the very cleaners of
lion, who commonly have buths and every other con tobacco pipes; and very lately another of the ſame
rcnience in their own honſes. Alcppo is 70 miles caſt name has been obliged to fly ſor ſimilar oppreſſions.
of Scandaroon, on the ſea-coaſt, and 175 north-by-eaſt The former was rewarded by the divan with the com-
of Damaſcus. E. Long. 37. 40. N. Lat. 36. 12. mand of an army againit the Ruſſians; but if the latter
ALF PPO (the Pachalic of), one of the five govern- has not enriched liimſelf, he will be ſtrangled as an
ments into which Syria is divided. It comprehends extortioner. Such is the ordinary progreſs of affairs
the country extending from thc Euphrates to the Ne in Turkcy!
diterrancai, beireen two lines, one drawn from Scan. In conscquence of ſuch wretched government, the
daroon to Beer, along the mountains; the other from greater part of the pachalics in the empire are impo-
Beles to the ſea, by Mara and the bridge of Sloger. veriſhed and laid waſte. This is the caſe in particular
This ſpace principally conſiſts of two plains ; that of with that of Aleppo. In the ancient deftars, or regiſ-
Antioch ro ihe weſt, and that of Aleppo to the eaſt : tors of impofs, upwards of 3200 villages were rec-
the north and the ſea coaſt are occnpied by contidera- koned ; but at preſent the collccior can ſcarcely find
bly high mountains, known to the ancients by the 400. Such of our merchants as have relided there 20
names of Amanus and of Rhofus. In general, the years, have themſelves ſeen the greater part of the
environs
I
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[ 385 )
A L E
i
Aleria environs of Aleppo became depopulated. The travel- The town was of fuch antiquity, that Diodorus Sicu All
ler meets with lothing but houſes in ruins, ciſterns las relates it was built by Hercules. It is ſuppoſed to
Alelia. rendered uſeleſs, and fields abandoned. Thofe who be the city of Alife, in the duchy of Burgundy, not Alexander.
cultivated them are Aed into the towns, where the po- far from Dijon.
pulation is abſorbcd, but where at leaſt the individual ALET, a town of France, in Lower Languedoc,
conceals himſelf among the crowd from the rapacious with a bishop's ſee. It is reinarkable for its baths, and
hand of deſpotiſm.
for the grains of gold and ſilver found in the ſtream
ALERIA, ALALIA, or ALARIA, (anc. geog.), a which runs from the Pyrenean mountains, at the foot
town of Corſica, ſituated near the middle of the eaſt of which it ſtands. It is ſeated on the river Aude,
ſide of the iſland, on an entinence, near the inouth of 15 miles S. of Carcaſſone, and 37 N. W. of Narbonne.
the river Rotanus mentioned by Ptolemy; built by the E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 42. 59.
Phocæans (Diodorus Siculus). Afterwards Sylla led ALETRIS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
a colony thither. It is now in ruins, and called Aleria order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of plants, and
Diſtrutta.
in the natural method ranking under the roth order,
ALES (Alexander), a celebrated divine of the con Coronariæ. The characters are: The corolla is mono.
feſſion of Augſbourg, born at Edinburgh the 23d of petalous, funnel ſhaped, hexangular,muclicorrugated,
April 1500. He ſoon made a conſiderable progreſs in ſemiquinquefid, and perſiſtent: The /lamina conſiſt of
ſchool-divinity, and entered the liſts very early againſt fix ſubulated filaments, the length of the corolld, and
Luther, this being then the great controverſy in fa- inſerted into the baſe of the diviſions of the corolla ;
fhion, and the grand field wherein all authors young the antheræ are oblong and erect: The piſtillum has
and old uſed to diſplay their abilities. Soon after, he an ovate germen; the ſtylus ſubulated, and ihe length
had a ſhare in the diſpute which Patrick Hamilton of the ſtamina; the ſtigma is trifid : The pericarpiun
maintained againſt the ecclefiaftics, in favour of the is an ovated capſule, triquetrous, pointed, and triocu-
new faith he had inıbibed at Marpurgh. He endea- lar: The ſeeds are numerous, Of this genus botanical
voured to bring them back to the Catholic religion ; writers enumerate five.
but this he could not effect, and even began himſelf to Species. 1. The farinoſa, a native of Virginia, and
doubt about his own religion, being much affected by other parts of North America. 2. The capenſis, a na-
the diſcourſe of this gentleman, and ſtill more by the tive of the Cape of Good-Hope. 3. The hyacinthoi-
conſtancy he ſhowed at the ſtake, when David Beton des, or Guinea aloe. 4. The zeylanica, or Ceylon
archbihop of St. Andrew's cauſed him to be burnt. aloe. 5. The fragrans, or tree-aloe, a native of Africa.
Beginning thus to waver, he was himſelf perfecuted Of theſe only the firſt is ſo hardy as to outlive the win-
with ſo much violence, that he was obliged to retire ter in Britain, unleſs placed in a ſtove ; and even this
into Germany, where he became at length a perfect requires to be ſheltered under a frame. The flowers
convert to the Proteſtant religion. The change of re- appear in Juneor July, of a whitilli green colour. The
ligion which happened in England after the marriage third and fifth produce fine ſpikes of white flowers ;
of Henry VIII. with Anna Bullen, induced Ales to thoſe of the third kind appearing in July, of the fifth
go to London in 1535. He was highly eſteemed by in March or April. By proper management the 'laſt
Cranmer archbiſhop of Canterbury, Latimer, and Tho- kind becomes a ſtately plant, riſing to the height of 12
mas Cromwel, who were at that time in high favour or 14 feet; the flowers open wide in the evening, and
with the king. Upon the fall of theſe favourites, he perfume the air of the ſtove,
perfume the air of the ſtove. Theſe ſend out one or
was obliged to return to Germany; where the elector two heads, or tufts, towards their tops, which may be
of Brandenburg appointed him profeſſor of divinity cut off; and after they have lain a week in the ſtove to
at Francfort upon the Oder, in 1540. But leaving heal the wounded parts, they may be planted for in-
this place upon ſome diſguſt, he returned to Leiplic, creaſe.
creaſe. The other ſpecies ſeldom or never flower in
where he was choſen profeſſor of divinity, and died Britain, nor does their appearance otherwiſe merit no-
in March 1565. He wrote a Commentary on St. John, tice.
on the epiſtles to Timothy, and on the Pſalms, &c. ALETUM, or ALETA, (anc. geog.), a town of
ALESA, AL ÆSA, or HALESA, (anc. geog.), a town Celtic Gaul, now extinct. From its ruins aroſe Şt
of Sicily, on the Tuſcan fea, built, according to Dio. Malo, in Brittany, at the diſtance of a mile. Its ruins
dorus Siculus, by Achronides of Herbita, in the ſea are called Guich Aleth in the Britiſh.
cond year of the 94th Olympiad, or 403 years before ALEUROMANCY, the ſame with what was o-
Chriß ; ſituated on an eminence about a inile from the therwiſe called alphitomantia, and crethomanthia, and
fea : now in ruins. It enjoyed immunity from taxes, means an ancient kind of divination performed by
under the Romans (Diodorus, Cicero). The inhabi ineans of meal or flour.
tants were called Halefini (Cicero, Pliny); alſo Aleſini, ALEXANDER THE GREAT, king of Macedonia.
and Alafini.
His father Philip laid the plan of that extenſive en-
ALESHAM, a ſmall neat town in Norfolk. It is pire, which his ſon afterwards executed.-Philip, ha-
15 miles N. of Norwich, and 121 N. E. by N. of Lon- ving made himſelf maſter of Greece, began to caſt his
don. E. Long. 0. 30. N. Lat. 52. 53. The town eyes upon Perſia, with a view to retaliate upon that
conſiſts of about 400 pretty good houſes; but the ſtreets haughty empire the injuries of former times. It was
are narrow, though well paved.
the popular topic of the day. But this prince was cut off
ALESIA, (anc. geog.) called Alexia by Livy and in the midſt of his enterpriſe. Such, however, wasthe
others; a town of the Mandubii, a people of Celtic influence of Alexander in the affembly of the Grecian
Gaul ; ſituated, according to Cæfar, on a very high ſtates, that he was created general of their combined
hill, whoſe foot was waſhed on two ſides by two rivers. forces in the room of his father. Having made every
VOL. I.
needful
3 C
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1
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Alexander needful preparation, at the head of a veteran army he 66 expoſe niyíclf for the ſake of being celebrated by. Alexander,
- invaded Aſia. The lieutenants of Darius, who was you?” But Bayle afirms, that this was quite con-
then king of Perſia, oppoſed him at the river Grani-liſtent with the valt unbounded extent of his ambition,
cus, where Alexander obtained a complete vi&tory, af as he wanted to make all future time his own, and be
ter which he purſued his march through Aſia. At an object of admiration to the latest poſterity ; yet did
Illus, near Scanderoon, he was inet by Darius in per not expect this from the conqueſt of worlds, but from
fon, at the head of a prodigious ariny. Here he ob- books. He was perfectly in the right, ſays Bayle ;
tained a ſecond victory; and took the camp of Dari “ for if Greece had not furniſhed him with good wri.
ils, together with his family, whom he treated with lers, he would long ago have been as much forgot-
the atınoſt humanity. Contrary to all the maxims of "ren as the kings who reigned in Macedon before
war, inſtead of purſuing Darius, he made an excurſion 66 Amphitryon.”
into Egypt; and, as far as appears, through no better Alexander has been praiſed upon the ſcore of con-
motives than thoſe of vanity. Here he was acknow- tinency, yet his life could not ſurely be quite regular
ledged to be the ſon of Jupiter Ammon. In the mean in that reſpect. Indeed the fire of his early youth ap-
lime Darius recruited his ſtrength, and got together peared fo cold towards women, that his mother ful-
an army fuperior to what he brought into the plain of pected him to be impotent; and, to ſatisfy herſell in
Ilſus. Alexander having finiſhed his Egyptian expedi- this point, did, with the conſent of Philip, procure a
tion, travcrfcd Alia, and paſſed the Euphrates. At Are very handſome courtezan to lie with hiin, whoſe car-
bella, 2 town in Allyria, lie met Darius. Here a deci- refies, however, were all to no purpoſe. His behaviour
five battle was fought, which put all Perſia into the afterwards to the Ferſian captives ſhows him to have had
hands of Alcxander. His ambition not being ſatisfied a great command over himſelf in this particular, The
with the conqueſt of that vaſt country, he projected an wife of Darius was a finiſhed beauty ; her daughters
expedition into India. Here he met with great oppo- likewiſe were all beauties; yet this young prince, who
tition from Porus, a gallant prince, whom in the end had them in his power, not only befowed on them all
he reduced. Beyond the Ganges lay a country ſtill un- the honours due to their high rank, but managed their
fubdued. He notified it to his army, that he propoſed reputation with the utmoſt delicacy. They were kept.
to paſs the river. But theſe veterans, haraſſed with the as in a cloyſter concealed from the world, and ſecured
fatigues, and ſeeing no end of their labour, mutinied, from the reach of every diſhonourable (not only at-
and refuſed to march further. The diſappointed chief tack, but imputation. He did not give the leaſt han-
was therefore obliged to return. At Babylon he pro- dle to ſcandal, either by his vilits, his looks, or his
poſed to receive ambaſſadors, appoint governors, and words : and for other Pertian dames his priſoners, e-
fettle his vaſt inonarchy ; but his excelles put an end qually beautiful in face and ſhape, he contented him-
to his life in the midſt of his delign, and in the flower felf
. with ſaying gaily, that they gave indeed much
pain to his eyes. The amazon Thaleſtris could not
The character of this hero is ſo familiar to every bo- obtain from him à compliance with her gallant requeſt
dly, that it is almoſt needleſs labour to draw it. All the till after a delay of thirteen days. In the mean time,
world knows, ſays Mr. Bayle, that it was equally com what are we to conclude from his cauſing his favour-
poſed of very great virtues and very great vices. He ite miftreſs Pancaſte to be drawn naked by Apelles, tho'
had no mediocrity in any thing but his ſtature: in his it is true he gave her to the painter, who fell in love
other properties, whether good or bad, he was allex- with her ? What of that immoderate love of boys,
His ambition roſe even to madneſs. His fa« which Athenæus relates of him? What of that prodi-
ther was not at all miſtaken in ſuppoſing the bounds of gious number of wives and concubines which he kept?
Macedon too ſmall for his ſon: for how could Macedon His exceſſes with regard to wine were notorious,
bound the ambition of a man, who reckoned the whole and beyond all imagination ; and he committed, when
world too ſmall a dominion ? He wept at hearing the drunk, a thouſand extravagancies. It was owing to
philoſopher Anaxarchus fay, that there was an infinite wine, that he killed Clytųs who ſaved his life, and
number of worlds : his tears were owing to his ùe- burnt Perſepolis, one of the moſt beautiful cities of
fpair of conquering them all, ſince he had not yet the East: he did this laſt indeed at the inſtigation of
been able to conquer one. Livy, in a ſhort digreſſion, the courtezan Thais ; but this circumſtance made it
has atiempted to enquire into the events which might only the more heinous. It is generally believed, that
have happened, if Alexander, after the conqueſt of he died by drinking immoderately: and even Plutarch,
Alia, had brought his arms into Italy? Doubtleſs who affects to contradict it, owns that he did nothing
things might have taken a very different turn with but drink the whole day he was taken ill.
him; and all the grand projects, which ſucceeded ſo In ſhort, to ſum up the character of this prince, we
well againſt an effeminate Perſian monarch, might ea- cannot be of opinion, that his good qualities did in a-
fily have miſcarried if he had had to do with rough har- ny wiſe compenſate for his bad ones. Heroes make
dy Roman armics. And yet the vaſt aims ofthis mighty a noiſe : their actions glare, and ſtrike the ſenſes for-
conqueror, if feen under another point of view, may cibly; while the infinite deſtruction and miſery they
appear to have been confined in a very narrow com occaſion lies more in the ſhade, and out of ſight. One
paſs; ſince, as we are told, the utmoſt wiſh of that great good legiſlator is worth all the heroes that ever did or
heart, for which the whole earth was not big enough, will exiſt. See MACEDON.
was, after all, to be praiſed by the Athenians: for it ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO, a Neapolitan
is related, that the difficulties which he encountered in lawyer, of great learning, who flouriſhed toward the
order to paſs the Hydafpes, forced him to cry out, end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century.
“ Athenians, could you believe to what dangers I He followed the profeſſion of the law firſt at Naples,
afterwards
of his age.
tremes.
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Alexander, afterwards at Rome: but he devoted all the time he
an encourager of learning and leariied men, aiid 12: A: 19":4,
could ſpare to the ſtudy of polite literature; and at vourable to the Chriſtians. He made i ſucceſsful ex-
length he entirely left the bar, that he might lead a pedition againſt the Perſians; but endeavouring to re-
more eaſy andagreeable life with the muſes. The par form his troops, which liad grown very licentious an-
-ticulars of his life are to be gathered from his work in der the late bad government, they inardered him at the
titled Genialium Dierum: We are there informed that inſtigation of Maximinus in the 20th year of his age,
he lodged at Rome, in a houſe that was liaunted ; and together with his mother, A. D.235.
he relates many farpriſing particulars about the ghoſt: ALEXANDER VI. (Pope), had four baſtards when
he ſays alſo, that when he was very young, he went to he was cardiñal, for one of which he had fo great af-
- the lectures of Philelphus, who explained at Rome the fection, that he ſtuck at nothing to raiſe him. De-
Tuſculan queſtions of Cicero; he was there alſo when figning to poiſon ſome cardinals, he was poiſoned him-
Nicholas Perot and Domitius Calderinus read their ſelf, A. D. 1503.
ſelf, A. D. 1503. See BURGIA.
lectures upon Martial. The particular time when he ALEXANDER VII. (Pope). See Chigi.
died is not known.; but he was buried in the monaſtery ALEXANDER Biſhop of Lincoln in the reigns of
of the Olivets. Tiraquea wrote a learned commentary Henry I. and Stephen, was a Norman by birth, and
upon his work; which was printed at Lyons in 1587, nephew of the famous Roger, biſhop of Saliſbury, who
and reprinted at Leyden in 1673, with the notes of firſt made him archdeacon of Saliſbury,and afterwards,
Dennis Godfrey, Chriſtopher Colerus, ard Nicholas by his intereſt with the king, raiſed him to the mitre.
Mercerus.
Alexander was conſecrated at Canterbury, July 22.
ALEXANDER (Neckham), an eminent Engliſh 1123. Having received his education under his uncle,
writer in the 12th and 13th centuries, born at St Al- the biſhop of Saliſbury, and been accuſtomed to a ſplen-
bans in Hertfordſhire. In 1215 he was made abbot of did way of living, be affected ſhow and ſtate more
Exeter, and died in 1227. He wrote ſeveral works,
He wrote ſeveral works, than was ſuitable to his character, or confiltent with
which were never publiſhed; but they are to be found his fortunes. This failing excepted, he was a man of
in manuſcript in the libraries of England and other worth and honour, and every way qualified for his ſta-
countries.
tion. The year after his conſecration, his cathedral
ALEXANDER (Noel), an indefatigable writer of church at Lincoln having been accidentallyburnt down,
the 17th century, born at Roan in Normandy, 1639. he rebuilt it, and ſecured it againſt the like accident
After finiſhing his ſtudies at Roan, he entered into the for the future by a ſtone roof. This prelate increaſed
order of Dominican friars, and was profeſſed there in the number of prebends in his church, and augmented
1655. Soon after he went to Paris, to go through a its revenues with ſeveral manors and eſtates. In imi-
courſe of philoſophy and divinity in the great convent, tation of the barons and ſome of the biſhops, parti-
where he diſtinguiſhed himſelf ſo that he was appoint- cularly his uncle the biſhop of Saliſbury, he built three
ed to teach philoſophy tliere, which he did for 12 caſtles; one at Banbury, another at Sleaford, and a
years. Mr Colbert-ſhowed him many marks of his e third at Newark. He likewiſe founded two mona-
Iteem: and being determined to omit nothing to per- ſteries; one at Haverholm, for regular canons and nuns
fect the education of his fon, afterwards archbiſhop of together, the other at Tame for white-friars. He went
Roan, he formed an aſſembly of the moſt lcarned per twice to Rome in the years I 142 and 1144. The firſt
fons, whoſe conferences upon eccleſiaſtical hiſtory time, he came back in quality of the pope's legate,
might be of advantage to him. Father Alexander was for the calling a ſynod, in which he publiſhed ſeveral
invited to this aſſembly, where he cxerted laimſelf with wholeſome and neceſſary canons. In Auguſt 1147,
ſo much genius and ability, that he gained the parti- he took a third journey to the pope, who was then in
cular friendſhip of young Colbert, who ſhowed him the France; where he fell fick through the exceſſive heat
utmoſt regard as long as he lived. Theſe conferences of the weather, and returning with great difficulty to
gave riſe to Alexander's deſign of writing an eccle- England, he died in the 24 year of his prelacy.
ſiaſtical hiſtory: for, being delired to reduce what was ALEXANDER (William), earl of Stirling an eminent
material in theſe conferences to writing, he did it with Scots ſtateſman and poet in the reigns of James VI. and
ſo much accuracy, that the learned men who compo- Charles I. who, after travelling with the duke of Ar-
ſed this aſſembly, adviſed him to undertake a complete gyle as his tutor or companion, wrote a poetical com-
body of church-hiſtory. This he executed with great plaint of his unſucceſsful love of ſome beauty, under
aſſiduity, collecting and digeſting the materials him- the title of Aurora. He then removed to the court of
ſelf, and writing even the tables with his own hand. James VI. where he applied to the more folid parts of
He at laſt completed his work in 1686. Towards the poetry, forming himſelf upon the plan of the Greek
latter part of his life, he was afflicted with the loſs of and Roman tragedians. In 1607, he publihed fome dra.
his fight; a moſt inexpreſſible misfortune to one whoſe matic performances, intitled Th: Monarchic Tragödies,
whole pleaſure was in ſtudy, yet he bore it with great dedicated to king James; who was ſo well pleaſed with
patience and reſignation. He died merely of a decay them, as to call him his philoſophical poet. After this,
of nature, 1724, in the 86th year of his age.
he is ſaid to have written Afupplement to complete the
ALEXANDER SEVERUS, emperor of Rome, ſucceed- third part of Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia ; and in 1613,
ed Heliogabalus about A. D. 222, when but 16 years he produced a poem called Doomday', or the Great Day
of age. His mother's name was Mammæa, and by her of Judgment. He was made gentleman-ather to prince
advice he in a great meaſure regulated his conduct. He Charles,and maſter of the requeſts; was knighted; and
applied himicií 10 the reformation of abuſes, the ſtate obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, where le projected
having been greatly diſordered by the vicious conduct the ſettlenient of a colony, but afterward fold it to the
of his predeceffor; he was a moſt ſtrict lover of juſtice, French. In-T626, he was made ſecretary of ftate for
SC 2
Scotland;
I
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Alexan-
dretta.
Alexander Scotland; was created firſt viſcount, and then carl, of themſelves into it: hence their waters, forced to ſpread Alexar:
Stirling; and died in 1640.
themſelves, form lakes in the plain. On the approach dretta,
ALEXANDER I. (St), whom St Ireneus reckons the of the ſummer, the waters becoming corrupted by the
Alexandria
fifth biſhop of Rome, ſucceeded St Evariſtus in the heat, exhale vapours equally corrupt, and which can-
year 109, and died in the year 119. There is no ac not diſperſe, being confined by the mountains that en-
count of his life ; and the epiſtles which are atıributed circle the gulph. The entrance of the bay beſides lies
to him are ſuppoſititious.
to the welt, which in thoſe countries is the moſt un-
ALEXANDER II. king of Scotland, ſucceeded his fa- healthy expoſure when it correſponds with the ſea.
ther Williain in 1213, at 16 years of age. He made the labour neceſſary to remedy this would be immenſe,
an expedition into England, to oppoſe the tyranny of and after all inſufficient; and, indeed, ſuch an under-
king John; who returned the viſit, and was offered bat- taking would be abſolutely impoſſible under a govern-
tle by Alexander, but refuſed it. He took the city of ment like that of the Turks. A few years ago, Mr
Carliſle from Henry III. which was afterwards exchan- Volney informs us, the merchants of Aleppo, diſguſt-
ged for Berwick. Alexander died in 1249, in the siſted with the numerous inconveniences of Alexandretta,
year of his age, and 35th of his reign; and left for his wiſhed to abandon that port and carry the trade to La-
fucceffor, his fon-
takia. They propoſed to the Pacha of Tripoli to re-
ALEXANDER III. who was crowned king of Scoiland pair the harbour at their own expence, provided he
in 1249. The Cummings, lords of Scotland, tookarms would grant them an exemption from all duties for ten
against him; and taking him priſoner, confined him at years. To induce him to comply with their requeſt,
Siriveling: but he was afterwards releaſed by his fub- the agent they employed talked much of the advantage
jects. He married the daughter of Henry III. king which would, in time, reſult to the whole country:
of England; and was at length killed by a fall from " But wliat ſignifies it to me what may happen in time,
his horſe, on the roth of April 1290, after having replied the Pacha? I was yeſterday at Marach ; to-
reigned 42, or according to others 37, years.
morrow, perhaps I ſhall be at Djedda : Why ſhould I de-
ALEXANDERS, in botany. See SMYRNIUM. prive myſelf of preſent advantages, which are certain,
ALEXANDREA, (anc. geog.) a niountain of for future benefits I cannot hope to partake?” The
Mylia, on the ſea-coaſt, forming a part of mount Ida, European factors were obliged therefore to remain at
where Paris gave judgment on the three goddeſſes. Scandaroon. There are three of theſe factors, two for
ALEXANDRETTA, by the Turks called Scan the French, and one for the Engliſh and Venetians.
der001 ; a town in Syria, at the extremity of the Me. The only curioſity which they have to amuſe ſtrangers
diterranean ſea. It is the port of Aleppo, from which with conſiſts in lix or ſeven marble monuments, ſent
it is diſtant 28 or 30 lcagues. It is now, properly from England, on which you read: Here lies ſuch a one
ſpeaking, nothing elſe but a village, without walls, in carried off in the flower of his age, by the fatal effects of
which the tombs are more numerous than the bouſes, a contagious air. The ſight of theſe is the more di-
and which entirely owes its exiſtence to the road which ſtreſſing, as the languid air, yellow complection, livid
it commands. This is the only road, in all Syria, where eyes, and dropficaľ bellies of thoſe who ſhow them,
veſſels' anchor on a ſolid bottom, without their cables make it but too probable they cannot long eſcape the
being liable to chafe : but in other reſpects it has many fame fate. It is true, they have ſome reſource in the
inconveniences. It is infeſted, during winter, by a pecu- village of Bailan, the pure air and excellent waters of
liar wind, called by the French ſailors le Raguier, which which ſurpriſingly reſtore the ſick. The aga, for
ruſhing from the fuowy.ſummits of the inountains, fre-fome years paſt, has applied the duties of the cuſtom-
quently forces ſhips to drag their anchors ſeveral houſe of Alexandretta to his own uſe, and rendered
leagues: And when the ſnow begins to cover the himſelf almoſt independent of the Pacha of Aleppo.
mountains which ſurround the Gulph, tempeſtuous The Turkiſh empire is full of ſuch rebels, who fre-
winds ariſe which preventyeſſclsfrom entering forthree quently die in peaceable poſſeſſion of their uſurpations.
or four months together. The road alſo to Aleppo ALEXANDRIA, now Scanderia, by Athenæus
by the plain is infeſted by Curd robbers, who conceal called xpuan; a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long
themſelves in the ncighbouring rocks, and frequently time its capital. This city was built by Alexander the
attack and plunder the ſtrongeſt caravans. But the Great, ſoon after the overthrow of Tyre, about 333
worſt circumſtance is the extreme unwholeſomeneſs of years before Chriſt. It is ſituated on the Mediterra-
the air,occalioned here by ſtagnant waters and mephi- nean, twelve miles weſt of that mouth of the Nile an-
tic exhalations. It may be affirmed, that this every ciently called Canopicum; and lies in E. Long. 30. 19.
ycar carries off one-third of the crews of the veſſels N. Lat. 31. 10.
which remain here during the ſummer; nay, lips fre Alexander is ſaid to have been induced to build this
quently loſe all their men in two months. The ſeaſon city, on account of its being conveniently ſituated for
for this epidemic diſorder is principally from May to a fine port ; and ſo ſudden was his reſolution, that af-
the end of September : it is an intermitting fever of ter he
had directed where every public ſtructure was
the moſt malignant kind; and is accompalied with ob to be placed, fixed the number of temples, and the dei-
ſtructions of the liver, which terminate in a dropſy. ties to whom they ſhould be dedicated, &c. There were
To this baneful epidemic, Alexandretta, from its litu no inſtruments at hand proper for marking out the
ation, ſeems to be irremediably condemned : for the walls, according to the cuſtom of thoſe times. Upon
plain on which the town is built is ſo low and flat, that this, a workman adviſed the king to collect what meal
theriyulets, finding no declivity,can never reach the ſea. was among the ſoldiers, and to fift it in lines upon the
When they are ſwelled by the winter rains, the fea, ground, whereby the circnit of the walls would be
twelled likewiſe by tempeits,hinders their difelrakgiag ſufficiently marked out. This advice was followed ;
an
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rence,
Alexandria and the new method of marking out the walls was, by The architect employed by Alexander in this in- Alexandris
Ariſtander, the king's foothſayer,interpreted as a pre- dertaking was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had
fage of the city's abounding with all the neceſſaries of acquired
ſo much reputation by rebuilding the temple
life. Nor was he declived in his prediction ; for A of Diana at Epheſus. The city was firſt rendered
lexandria foon became the ſtaple not only for merchan. populous by Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander's cap-
diſe, but alſo for all the arts and ſciences of the Greeks. tains, who, after the death of the Macedonian mo.
Alexandria was a league and a half long, by one- narch, being appointed governor of Egypt, loon aſſu-
third in breadth, which made the circumference of med the title of king, and took up his relidence at A.
its walls about four leagues. Lake Marcotis bached lexandria, about 304 years before Chriſt.
its walls on the ſouth, and the Mediterranean on the In the 30th year of Ptolemy Sorer's reign, he took
north. It was interſected lengthwiſe by ſtraight pa- bis fon Ptolemy Philadelphus partner with him in the
rallel ſtreets. This direction left a free paſſage to the empire ; and by this prince the city of Alexandria avas
northerly wind, which alone conveys coolneſs and fa. much embelliſhed. In the firſt year of his reign the
lubrity into Egypt. A ſtreet of 2000 feet wide be fanions watch-tower of Pharos was finiſhed. It had
gan at the gate of the ſea, and terminated at the gate been begun ſeveral years before by Ptolemy Soter;
of Canopus. It was decorated by magnificent houſes, and, when finiſhed, was looked upon as one of the
by temples, and by public buildings. In this extenſive wonders of the world. The ſame year, the iſland of
range,the eye was nevertired with admiringthe marble Pharos itſelf, originally ſeven furlongs diſtant from the
the porphyry, and the obeliſks, which were deſtined at continent, was joined to it by a cauſeway. This wasthe
fonie future day to embelliſh Rome and Conſtantinople. work of Dexiphanes, who completed it at the ſame
This ſtreet, the handſomeſtin the univerſe, was inter- tiine that his ſon put the laſt hand to the tower. The
fected by another of the ſame breadth, which formed tower was a large ſquare ſtructure of white marble; 01
a ſquare at their junction of half a league in circunfe- the top of which fires were kept conſtantly burning,
From the middle of this great place, the two for the direction of ſailors. The building coſt 800
gates were to be ſeen at once, and veſſels arriving talents; which, if Autic, amounted to L. 165,000 fteri.
under full fail from the north and from the ſouth. if Alexandrian, to twice that fum.
A mole of a mile in length ſtretched from the con The architect employed in this famous ſtructure
tinent to the iſle of Pharos, and divided the great har fell upon the following contrivance to uſurp the whole
bour into two. That which is to the northward pre- glory to himſelf.--Being ordered to engrave upon it
ſerved its name. A dyke drawn from the iſland to the the following inſcription, “ King PTOLEMY to the
rock whereon was built the Pharos, ſecured it from the Gods the Saviours, for the benefit of Sailors;" inſtead
weſterly winds. The other was called Eunoſtus,or the of the king's name he ſubſtituted his own, and then
Safe return. The former is called at preſent the new, filling up the hollow of the marble with mortar, wrote
the latter the old barbour : a bridge that joins the upon it the abovementioned infcription. In proceſs
mole to the city, ſerved for a communication between of time, the mortar being wore off, the following in-
them. It was raiſed on lofty pillars ſunk into the ſea, fcription appeared : « SO STRATUS the CNIDIAN, the
and left a free paſſage for ſhips. The palace, which fon of DEXIPHANES, to the Gods the Saviours, for
advanced beyond the promontory of Lochias, extended the benefit of Sailors.'
as far as the dyke, and occupied more than a quarter This
year alſo was remarkable for the bringing of
Each of the Ptolemies added to its mag- the image of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria, It
nificence. It contained within its incloſure, the inu was ſet up in one of the ſuburbs of the city called
feum, an aſylum for learned men, groves and buildings Rhacotis, where atemple was afterwards erected to his
worthy of royal majeſty, and a temple where the body honour, fuitable to the greatneſs of that ſtately me.
of Alexander was depoſited in a golden cofin. The tropolis, and called, from the god worſhipped there,
infanious Seleucus Cibyofactes violated this monument, Serapeum. This ftru&ure, according to Ammianus
carried off the golden coffin, and put a glaſs one in its Marcelliņus, ſurpaſſed in beauty and magnificence al!
place. In the great harbour was the little iſland of others in the world, except the capitol at Rome.--
Anti-Rhodes, where ſtood a theatre, and a royal place within the verge of this temple was the famous Alexa
of reſidence. Within the harbour of Eunoſtos was a andrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for
ſmaller one, called Kibotos, dug by the hand of man, the uſe of an academy heinſtituted in this city; and, by
which communicated with Lake Mareotis by a canal. continual additions by his ſucceſſors, became at laſt the
Between this canal and the palace was the admirable fineſt library in the world, containing no fewer than
temple of Serapis, and that of Neptune near the great 700,000 volumes. The method followed in collecting
place where the market was held. Alexandria extend- books for this library, was, to ſeize all thoſe which were
ed likewiſe along the ſouthern banks of the lake. Its brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners.
eaſtern part prefented to view the gymnaſium, with its The books were tranſcribed in the muſcum by perſons
porticoes of more than 600 feet long, ſupported by fe- appointed for that parpoſe; the copies were then deli-
veral rows of marble pillars. Without the gate of Ca- vered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in
nopus was a ſpacious circus for the chariot races. Be- the library, Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed
yond that, the ſuburb of Nicopolis ran along the ſea- from the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euri-
fhore, and ſeemed a ſecond Alexandria. Å fuperb pides, and Aſchylus, returned then only the copies,
amphitheatre was built there with a race-ground, for which he cauſed to be tranſcribed in as beautifal a
the celebration of the quinquennalia.
manner as poſſible ; preſenting the Athenians at the
Such is the deſcription left us of Alexandria by the ſame time with fifteen talents (upwards of L. 3000
ancients, and above all by Strabo,
Sterling) for the exchange.
$
1
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A'I E
nues,
Alexandria As the muſeum was at firſt in that quarter of the The new inhabitants were not treated with much Alexandra
city called Bruchron, near the royal palace, the library more kindneſs by Phyſcon than the old ones had been; -
vas placed there likewiſe ; but when it came to con ſor, on their complaining of his tyrannical behaviour,
trin 400,000 volumes, another library, within the le reſolved on a general malſae!e of the young men..
Serapean, was erected by way of ſupplement to it, Accordingly, when they were one day affembled in the
and on that arcount called the danĝhter of the former. gymnaſium, or place of their public exerciſes, he or.
In this ſecond library 300,000 volumes, in proceſs of dered it to be ſet on fire ; ſo that they all periſh-
time, were depoſited ; and the two together contained ed, either in the flames, or by the ſwords of his mier--
the 700,000 volumes already inentioned. In the war cenarics, whom the tyrant had placed at all the ave-
carried on by Julius Cæſar again't the inhabitants of
this city, the library in the Bruchion, with the 400,000 Though Julis Cæſar was obliged to carry on a
volumes it contained, was reduced to aſhes. Theli war for ſome time againſt the city, it ſeems not to
brary in the Serapeuni, however, itill remained : and have ſuffered much damage, except the burning of
here Cleopatra depoſited 200,000 volumes of the Per the library already mentioned. Before Cæſar left
gamean library, which Marc Antony preſented her Alexandria, in acknowledgment of the aſſiſtance he
with. There, and others added from time to time, had received from the Jews, he confirmed all their
rendered the new library at Alexandria more nume- privileges tliere,and even engraved his decreeon a pil-
lous and conſiderable than the former ; and though it lar of břaſs. This, however, did not prevent the mar-
was often plundered during the revolutionsand troubles facre of 50,000 of them in this city about the year of
of the Roman empire, yet it was again and again re Chriſt 67.
-paired, and filled with the ſame number of books. The city of Alexandria ſeems to have fallen into de.
For 292 years Alexandria was held in ſubjection cay ſoon after this, and to have forfeited many of its
by the Piolemies. Here is a liſt of theſe princes, with ancieut privileges, tho' for what offence is not known;
ahe dates of their reſpective reigns.
but when Adrian viſited Egypt, about the year 141,
Ptolemy the ſon of Lagus, ſurnamed Soter, reigned it was almoſt totally ruined. He repaired both the
39 years, and died in thc year of the world 3720. public and private buildings, not only reſtoring the
Prolemy Philadelphus reigned 39 years, and died in inhabitantsto their ancient privileges, but heaping new
3758. Ptolemy Euergetes reigned 25 years, and died favours upon them; for which they returned him their
in 3783. Ptolemy Philopater reigned 17 years, and folemm thanks, and conferred upon him what honours
died in 3800. Ptolemy Epiphanes reigned 24 years, they could while he was preſent; but as ſoon as he was
and died in 3824. Ptolemy Philometer reigned 37 gone, they pabliſhed the moſt bitter and virulent lam-
years, and died in 3861. Ptolemy Euergetes, or Phyſ- poons againſt him.
con, reigned 53 years, part with his brother Philome The fickle and ſatirical humourof the Alexandrians
ter and part alone. He died in 3888. Ptolemy La was highly diſliked by Adrian, though he inflicted no
thyrus reigned 36 years ſix months. He died in 3923, puniſhment upon them for it ; but when they lampoon-
Cleopatra, the daughter of Lathyrus and wife of A. ed Caracalla, he did not let them eſcape fo eaſily.. .
lexander I. reigned ſix months. Alexander I. the ne That tyrant, in the year 215, when he viſited their
phew of Lathyrus, was eſtabliſhed in 3924 and died city, having become the ſubject of their fooliſh ſatires,
in 3943. Alexander 11. the ſon of Alexander I. was ordered a general inaſſacre by his numerous troops, who
diſpofſeffed by the Alexandrians in 3939. Ptolemy were difperfed all over the city. The inhuman orders
Nothus, or Auletes, the ſon of Lathyrus, reigned 13 being given, alſ were murdered, without diſtinction of
years, and died in 3953. Ptolemy, ſurnamed Diony age or ſex ; ſo that in one night's time the whole city
fiusor Bacchus, reigned three years eight months, and floated in blood, and every houſe was filled with car-
died in 3957. Cleopatra reigned from 3957, and kill: caſes. The monſter who occaſioned-this had retired
ed herſelf in 3974.
during the night to the temple of Serapis, to implore
This city, as we have already obſerved, foon became the protection of that deity ; and, not yet faliated with
€xtremely populous, and was embelliſhed both by its flaughter, commanded the maſſacre to be continued all
own princes and the Romans; but, like moſt other thenext day;fo that very few of the inhabitantsreniain
lloted cities of antiquity, hath been the ſeat of terrible ed. As if even this had not been ſufficient, he ſtripped
maſſacres. About i 41 years before Chriſt, it was al the city of all its ancient privileges; ſuppreſſed the
aca-,
moſt totally depopulated by Ptolemy Phyſcon. That demy; ordered all ſtrangers who lived there to depart;
barbarous monſter, without the leaft provocation, gave and that the few who remained might not have the ſa-
free liberty to his guards to plander his metropolis and tisfaction of ſeeing one another, he cut off all commu-
inurder the inhabitants at their pleaſure. The cruel. nication of one ſtreet with another, by walls built for
ties practiſed on this accaſion cannot be expreſſed ; and that purpoſe, and guarded by troops left there.
the few who eſcaped were ſo terrified that they fled Notwithſtanding this terrible diſaſter, Alexandria
into other countries. Upon tliis, Phyſcon, that he foon recovered its former fplendor, as Caracalla was
might not reign over empty, houſes, invited thither murdered a ſhort time after. It was long eſteemed the
ſtrangers from the neighbouring countries ; by whom firſt city in the world, next to Rome; and we may judge
the city was repeopled, and ſoon recovered its former of its magnificence, and the multitude of people con-
fplendor. On this occaſion many learned men having tained in it, from the account of Diodorus Siculus,
been obliged to Ay, proved the means of reviving learn who relates, that in his time ( 44 years before Chriſt)
ing in Greece, Alia Minor, the iſlands of the Archi- Alexandria had on its rolls 300,000 freement. To-g
pelago, and other places, where it was almoſt totally wards the middle of the fixth century, Amrou Ebn el
lort.
Aas, Omar's general, took it by ſtorm, after a liege
of
A LE.
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A L E.
Alexandria of 14 months, and with the loſs of 23,0cc men. He that he had nothing farther to fear from them.--A few Alexandeia.
raclius, the emperor of Conſtantinople, did not ſend years after, however, Amrou being deprived of his
a ſingle ſhip to its affiſtance. This prince affords an government by the khalif Othman, the Egyptians were
example very rare in hiſtory; he had diſplayed ſome fomuch diſpleaſed with his diſmiſſion that they inclined
vigour in the firſt year of his reign, and then ſuffered to a revolt; and Conſtantine the Greek emperor, having
himſelf to be lulled into idleneſs and effeminacy. A- received intelligence of their diſaffection, began to ine-
wakened ſuddenly froin his lethargy by the noiſè of ditate the reduction of Alexandria.
For this purpole,
the conqueſts of Cofroes, that ſcourge of the eaſt, he he ſentone Manuel, an eunuch, and his general, with
put himſelf at the head of his armies, diſtinguiſhed a powerful army, to retake that place; which, by the
himſelf as a great captain from his very firſt campaign, aſſiſtance of the Greeks in this city, who kept a ſecret
laid waſte Perſia for ſeven years, and returned to his correſpondence with the imperial forces while at ſea,
capital covered with laurels: he then became a theo- and joined them as ſoon as they had made a deſcent,
logian on the throne, loſt all his energy, and amuſed he effected, without any confidcrable effuſion of Chri-
himſelf the reſt of his life with diſputing upon Mono- ftian blood. The khalif, tiow perceiving his miſtake,
theiſn, whilſt the Arabs were robbing him of the fineſt immediately reſtored Anirou to his former dignity.
provinces of his empire. Deaf to the cries of their.. This ſtep was very agreeable to the natives; who ha-
fortunate inhabitants of Alexandria, as he had been to ving had experience of the military ſkill and bravery of
thoſe of the people of Jeruſalem, who defended them this renowned general, and apprehending that they
felyes for two years, he left them a ſacrifice to the for ſhould be called to an account by the Greeks for their
tunate aſcendancy of the indefatigable Amrou. All former perfidious conduct, had petitioned Othman to
their intrepid youth periſhed with their arms in their fend him again into Egypt.-Upon Amrou's arrival,
hands.
therefore, at Alexandria, the Copts or natives, with
The victor, aſtoniſhed at his conqueſt, wrote to the the traitor Al-Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed
caliph, “I have taken the city of the weſt. It is of
the weſt. It is of to-Amrou the fortreſs of Meſr) at their head, not only
an immenſe extent: I cannot deſcribe to you how joined him, but ſupplied him with all kinds of provi-
many wonders it contains. There are 4000 palaces, fions, exciting him to attack the Greeks without de-
4000 baths, 12,000 dealers in freſh oil, 12,000 gar- lay. This he did; and, after a moſt obftinate diſpute
deners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 come which laſted ſeveral days, drove them into the town,
dians, &c.
where, for ſome time, they defended themſelves witi
At this time according to the Arabian hiſtorians, great bravery, and repelled the utmoſt efforts of the
Alexandria confilled of three cities, viz. Menna, orthe beſiegers. This foexaſperated Amrou, that he ſwore,
port, which included Pharos, and the neighbouring “If God enabled him to conquer the Greeks, he would
parts; Alexandria, properly ſo called, where the mo. throw-down the walls of the city, and make it as eaſy
dern Scanderia now ſtands; and Nekita, probably the of acceſs as a bawdy-houſe, which lies open to every
Necropolis of Joſephus and Strabo,
body." Nor did he fail to execute this menace; for
At that time John, ſurnamed the grammarian, a having taken the town by ſtorm, he quite diſmantled
famous Peripatetic philoſopher, being in the city, and it entirelydemoliſhing the walls and fortifications. The
in high favour with Amrou Ebn al Aas the Saracen lives of the citizens, however, were ſpared, at leaſt as
general begged of him the royal library. Anirou re. far as lay in the general's power; but many of them
plied, that it was not in his power to grant ſuch a re were put to the ſword by the ſoldiers on their firſt en-
queſt; but that he would write to the khalif on that
In one quarter particularly, Amrou found
head; ſince without knowing his pleaſure, he dared them butchering the Alexandrians with unrelenting
not to diſpoſe of a ſingle book. He accordingly wrote barbarity; to which, however, by his ſeaſonable in-
to Omar, who was then khalif, acquainting him with terpoſition, he put a ſtop, and on that ſpot erected a
the requeſt of his friend : To which the ignorant ty- moſque, which he called the moſque of mercy.
rant replied, That if thoſe books contained the ſame From this time Alexandria never recovered its for.
doctrine with the koran, they could be of no uſe, ſince mer fplendor. It continued under the dominion of the
the koran contained all neceſſary truths; but if they khalifs till the year 924, when it was taken by ihe Ma-
contained any thing contrary to that book, they ought grebians, two years after its grear church had been
not to be ſuffered and therefore, whatever their con- deſtroyed by fire. This church was called by the
tents were, he ordered them to be deſtroyed. Purſuant Arabs Al Kaiſaria, or G.farza; and lrad formerly been
to this order, they were diſtributed among the public a pagan temple, erected in honour of Saturn by the
baths; where, for the ſpace of ſix months, they ſerved famous queen Cleopatra.
to ſupply the fires of thoſe places of which there was The city was ſoon after abandoned by the Magre-
an incredible number in Alexandria.
bians; but in 928 they again made themſelves maſters
After the city was taken, Amrou thought proper to of it: their fleet being afterwards defeated by that be-
purſue the Greeks who had fled farther up the coun- longing to the khalif, Abul Kaſem the Magrebian gc-
try; and therefore marched out of Alexandria, leaving neralretired from Alexandria, leaving there only a gar-
but a very llender garriſon in the place. The Greeks, riſon of 300 men; of which Thmall, the khalif's ad-
who had before fled on board their ſhips, being appri- miral, being appriſed, he in a few days appeared before
fed of this, returned on a ſudden, ſurpriſed the town, the town, and carried off the remainder of the inhabi-
aud put all the Arabs they found therein to the ſword: tants to an iſland in the Nile called Abukair. This
but Ainrou, receiving advice of what had happened, was done, to prevent Abul Kâſem from mecting with
ſuddenly returned, and drove them out of it with great any entertainment at Alexandria, in caſe he Thould
flaughter; after which the Greeks were fointimidated, think proper to return. According to Eutychius, above
200,000
trance,
A L E
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Alexandria. 200,000 of the miſerable inhabitants periſhed this year, the only harbour for the Europeans, is clogged up with Alexandria
What contributed to raiſe Alexandria to ſuch a pro- ſand, inſomuch that in ſtormy weather ſhips are liable
digious height of 1plendor as it enjoyed for a long time, to bilge ; and the bottom being alſo rocky, the cables
wașils being the centre of commerce between the eaſt- foon chafe and part ; fo that one veſlel driving againſt
ern and weſtern parts of the world. It was with the a ſecond, and that aguinſt a third, they are perhaps all
view of becoming maſter of this lucrative trade, that loft. Of this there was a fatal inſtance 16 or 18 years
Alexander built this city, after having extirpared the ago, when 42 veſſels were dallied to pieces on the mole
Tyrians, who formerly engrolled all the Eaſt-India in a gale of wind from the north-weſt, and numbers
traffic. Of theimmenfe riches which that trade afford have been ſince lost there at different times. If it be
ed, we may form an idea, from conſidering that the aſked, Why do they not repair the New Port ? the
Romans accounted it a point of policy to oppreſs the anſwer is, That in Turkey they deſtroy every thing
Egyptians, eſpecially the Alexandrians; and after the and repair nothing. The old harbour will be defroy-
defeatof Zenobia, there was a lingle merchant of Alex ed likewiſe, as the ballaft of veſſels has been continu-
andria who undertook to raiſe and pay an arniy out of ally thrown into it for the laſt 200 years. The ſpirit
the profits of his trade. The Greek emperom drew of the Turkiſh government is to ruin the labours of
prodigious tributes from Egypt, and yet the khalifs paſt ages, and deſtroy the hopes of future times, be-
found their ſubjc&sin ſo good circumſtances as to ſcrew cauſe the barbarity of ignorant deſpotiſm never const-
up their revenues to three hundred millions of crowas. ders to-morrow.
Though the revolutions which happened in the gos
In time of war, Alexandria is of no importance :
vernment of Egypt, after it fell into the hands of the no fortification is to be ſeen ; even the Farillon, with
Mahometans,frequentlyaffected this cityto a very great its lofty towers, cannot be defended. It has not four
degree; yet ſtill the excellence of its port, and the in cannon fit for ſervice, nor a gunner who knows how
numerable conveniences reſulting from the Eaſt-India to point them. The 500 janiſſaries, who ſhould form
trade,to whomſoever were
maſters of Egypt, preſerved -the garriſon, reduced to half the number, know noe
Alexandria from total deſtruction, even when in the thing but how to finoke a pipe.
thing but how to ſmoke a pipe. But Alexandria is a
hands of the moſt barbarous nations. Thus, in the
Thus, in the place of which the conqueſt would be of no value. A
13th century, when the barbariſm introduced by the foreign power could not maintain itſelf there, as the
Goths, &c. began to wear off from the European na country is without water. This muſt be brought from
tions, and they acquired a taſte for the elegancies of the Nile by the kalidj, or canal of 1 2 leagues, which
life, the old mart of Alexandria began to revive; and conveys it thither every year at the time of the inun-
the port, though far from recovering its former mag-dation. It fills the vaults or reſervoirs dag ander the
nificence, grew once niore fainous by becoming the ancient city, and this proviſion must ſerve till the next
centre of commerce: but having fallen under the do- year. It is evident, therefore, that were a foreign
minion of the Turks, and the paſſage round the Cape power to take poſſeſſion, the canal would be ſhiut, and
of Good Hope being diſcovered by the Portugueſe in all ſupplies of water cut off. It is this canal alone
1499, a fatal blow was given to the Alexandrian com which connects Alexandria with Egypt ; for from its
merce, and the city has ſince fallen into decay. lituation without the Delta, and the nature of the ſoil,
At preſent the city of Alexandria is reckoned to have it really belongs to the defarts of Africa. Its environs
about 14,000 or 15,000 inhabitants ; a ſtrange collu are fandy, flat, and ſterile, without trees and withour
vies of different nations, as well as from various parts houſes ; where we meet with nothing but the plant
of the Turkiſh empire. They are in general given to which yields the kali, and a row of palm-trees which
thieving and cheating; and (like their predeceſſors) 'follows the courſe of the kalidj cr canal.
feditious above all others, were they not kept in awe The city is governed like others in the fame king-
by the ſeverity of their government. The Britiſh and. dom. (See Egypt.) It hath a ſmall garriſon of fol-
French carry on a conſiderable commerce with them, diers, part of which are Janiſſaries and Affaffs ; who are
and have each a conſul reſiding here. Some Venetian very haughty and infolent, not only to ſtrangers, but to
Thips alſo ſail thither yearly, but with French colours, the mercantile and induſtrious part of the people, tho'
and under the protection of France. The ſubjects of ever ſo conſiderable and uſeful. The government is ſo
thoſe kingdoms which keep no conſulhere, are ſubject- remiſsin favour of theſe wretches, that Mr Norden in-
ed to a tax by the Grand Signior: but the Jews have forms us, one of them did not heſitate to kill a farmer
found out the method of indemnifying themſelves for of the cuſtoms, for refuſing to take leſs of him than
this diſadvantage; namely, by ſelling their commodities the duty impoſed, and went off unpuniſhed; it being a
cheaper than other foreigners can afford. They are common ſalyo among them, that what is done cannot
alſo favoured by the farmers of the revenue ; who be undone.
know, that if they do not pay ſome private regard to The preſent condition of Alexandria is very defpi-
then, the Jews have it their power to cauſe fewer cable, being now ſo far ruined, that the rubbiſh in many
merchandizes come into their port during the two places overtops the houſes. The famous tower of Pha-
years that their farm laſts.
ros has long ſince been demoliſhed, and a caflle, called
The preſent city is a kind of peninſula ſituated be- Furillon, built in its place. The cauſeway whichjoin-
tween the two ports. That of the weſtward was called ed the iſland to the continent is broken down, and its
by the ancients the Portus Eunoſtus, now the Old Port, place ſupplied by a ſtone bridge of ſeveral arches.
and is by far the beſt; Turkiſh veſſels only are allowed Some parts of the old walls of the city are yet ſtand-
to anchor there: the other, called the New Port, is ing, and preſent us with a maſter-piece of ancient ma-
for the Chriſtians; at the extremity of one of the arms fonry. They are flanked with large towers, about 200
of which ſtood the famous Pharos. The New Port, paces diſtant from each other, with ſmall ones in the
4
middle,
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A L E
Alexandria. middle. Below are magnificent caſements, which may geſted the means of performing it. A man was diſ- Alexandria.
ferve for galleries to walk in. In the lower part of the patched to the city for a paper kite. The inliabitants
towers is a large ſquare hall, whoſe roof is ſupported were by this time appriſed of what was going forward,
by thick cotunins of Thebaic ſtone. Above this are and flocked in crowds to be witneſles of the addreſs
ſeveral rooms, over which there are platforms more and boldneſs of the Engliſh. The governor of Alex-
than 20 paces ſquare. The ancient reſervoirs, vaulted andria was told that theſe ſeamen were about to pull
with ſo much art, which extend under the wliole town, down Pompey's pillar. But whether he gave them
are almoſt entire at the end of 2000 years.
credit for their reſpect to the Roman warrior, or e
Of Cæſar's palace there remain only a few porphyry the Turkiſh government, he left them to themſelves ;
pillars, and the front, which is almoſt entire, and looks and politely anſwered, that the Engliſh were too great
very beautiful. The palace of Cleopatra was built parriots to injure the remains of Pompey. He knew
upon the walls facing the port, having a gallery on the little, however, of the diſpoſition of the people who
outſide, ſupported by ſeveral fine columns. Not far were engaged in this undertaking. Had the Turkiſh
from this palace are two obeliſks vulgarly called Gleo- empire roſe in oppoſition, it would not perhaps at that
patra's Needles. They are of Thebaic itone, and co moment have deterred them. The kite was brought,
vered with hyeroglyphics. One is overturned, broken, and flown fu directly over the pillar, that when it fell
and lying under the ſand; the other is on its pedeſtal. on the other ſide, the ſtring lodged upon tbe capital.
Theſe two obeliſks, each of them of a ſingle ſtone, are The chief obſtacle was now overcone. A two-inch
about 60 feet high, by ſeven feet ſquare at the baſe. rope was tied to one end of the ſtring, and drawn over
Towards the gate of Roſetta, are five columns of the pillar by the end to which the kite was affixed.
marble on the place formerly occupied by the porticoes By this rope one of the feamen aſcended to the top;
of the Gymnafium. The reſt of the colonuade, the and in leſs than an hour, a kind of ſhroud was con-
deſign of which was diſcoverable 100 years ago by ftructed, by which the whole company went ar, and
Maillet, liąs ſince been deſtroyed by the barbariſm of drank their punch amid the ſhours of the aſtoniſhed
the Turks.
multitude. To the eye below, the capital of the pil-
But what moſt engages the attention of travellers is lar does not appear capable of holding more than onc
the Pillar of Pompey, as it is commonly called, ſitua man upon it; bat our ſeamen found it could contain
ted at a quarter of a league from the ſouthern gate. no leſs than eight perſons very conveniently. It is
It is compoſed of red granite. The capital is Corin- aſtoniſhing that no accident befel theſe madcaps, in 2
thian, with palm leaves, and not indented. It is nine ſituation ſo elevated, that would have turned a land-
feet high. The ſhaft and the upper member of the man giddy in his fober ſenſes. The only detriment
baſe are of one piece of 90 feet long, and 9 in diame. which the pillar received, was the loſs of the volute
ter. The baſe is a ſquare of about 15 féet on each beforementioned; which came down with a thundering
ſide. This block of marble, 60 feet in circumference, found, and was carried to England by one of the cap-
reſts on two layers of ſtone bound together with leadí tains, as a preſent 10 a lady who cominiffioned him for
which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from a piece of the pillar. The diſcovery which they made
forcing our ſeveral of them, to ſearch for an imaginary amply compenſated for this miſchief; as without their
treafure. The whole column is 144 feet high. It is evidence, the world would not have kuown at this
perfe&ly well poliſhed, andonly a little ſhiveredon the hour, that there was originally a ſtatue on this pillar,
eaſtern ſide. Nothing can equal the majeſty of this one foot and ancle of which are ſtill remaining. The
monument; ſeen from a diſtance, it overtops the town, ftatue muſt have been of gigantic ſize, to have appear-
and ſerves as a ſignal for veſſels. Approaching it ed of a nian's proportion at ſo great an height.
nearer, it produces an aſtoniſhment mixed with awe. There are circumſtances in this ſtory which might
One can never be tired with admiring the l auty of give it an air of fiction, were it 1100 demonſtrated be-
the capital, the length of the ſhaft, nor the extraordi- yond all doubt. Beſides the teſtimonies of many eye-
nary «implicity of the pedeſtal. This laſt has been witneſſes, the adventurers themſelves have left us a to-
ſomewhat damaged by the inſtruments of travellers, ken of the fact, by the initials of their names, which
who are curious to poſſeſs a relict of this antiquity; are very legible in black paint juſt beneath the capital.
and one of the volutes of the column was inijaturely Learned men and travellers have made many fruit-
brought down about twelve years ago, by a prank of leſs attempts to diſcover in honour of what prince it
fonie Engliſh captains, which is thus related by Mr was crected. The beſt informed have concluded, that
Irwin.
it could not be in honour of Pompey, ſince neither
Theſe jolly fons of Neptune had been puſhing about Strabo nor Diodorus Siculus have ſpoken of it. The
the can on board one of the ſhips in the barbour, until Arabian Abulfeda, in his deſcription of Egypt, calls
a ſtrange freak entered into one of their brains. The it the Pillar of Severus. And hiſtory informs us t, that + Vide Spar-
eccentricity of the thought occafioned it immediately this emperor « vilited the city of Alexandria : That tian's Life
to be adopted ; and its apparent impoffibility was but he granted a ſenate to its inhabitants, who until that of Severus,
a ſpur for the putting it into execution. The boat time, under the ſubjection of a ſingle Roman magi- chap. 17.
Route,
was ordered ; ard with proper implements for the at ſtrate, had lived without any national council, as under
P. 370.
tempt, theſe enterpriſing heroes pathed alhorc,to drink the reign of the Ptolemies, when the will of the prince
a bowl of punch on the top of Pompey's pillar! At was their only law: That he did not confine his be-
the ſpot they arrived ; and many contrivances were nefactions there ; he changed ſeveral laws in their fa-
propoſed to accompliſh the deſired point. But their vour.” This column, therefore, Mr Savary concludes
labour was vain ; and they began to deſpair of ſucceſs, to have been erected by the inhabitants as a mark of
when the genius who ſtruck out the frolic happily ſug. their gratitude to Severus. And in a Greek inſcrip-
VOL,
tion,
Voyage and
0
A L E
[ 394 ]
A L E
an.
Alexandria. tion, now falf effaced, but viſible on the weſt ſide water of the ſea, as pure and tranſparent as cryſtal. Alexandria
when the ſun ſhines upon it, and which probably was Seated on the ſtone bench, the water riſes a little above Alexandri-
legible in the time of Abulſeda, he ſuppoſes the name the waiſt; while the feet ſoftly repoſe on a fine ſand.
of Severus to have been preſerved. He further ob- The waves of the ſea are heard roaring againſt the rock,
ſerves, that this was not the only monument erected 10 and foaming in the canal. The ſwell enters, raiſes you
him by the gratitude of the Alexandrians: for there is up, and leaves you ; and thus alternately entering and
ſtill feen in the midſt of the ruins of Antinoe, built by retiring, brings a continual freſh ſupply of water, and
Adrian, a magnificent pillar, the inſcription on which a coolneſs which is truly delicious under a burning
is ſtill remaining dedicated to Alexander Severus. fy. This place is vulgarly called the Bath of Cleopa-
On the ſouth-weſt ſide of the city, at a mile's di. tra, Sonie ruins announce that it was formerly orna-
ſtance, are ſituated the catacombs, the ancient burial- mented.
place of Alexandria ; and although they cannot be Alexandria is about fifty leauges north of Cairo.
coinpared to thoſe of the ancient Memphis, which the E. Long. 31 15. N. Lat. 31. 12.
Arabs will not permit to be viſited, in order to make ALEXANDRIA, a ſtrong and conſiderable city of I.
the better market of their mummies, it is probable taly, belonging to the dutchy of Milan, with a good
that, the method of embalming being the ſame, the caſtle, built in 1178 in honour of Pope Alexander III,
form of theſe catacombs can only differ in their pro- This pope made it a biſhopric, with ſeveral privileges
portions. The Baron de Tott, in deſcribing theſe, and exemptions. Prince Eugene of Savoy took this city
obſerves, “that Nature not having furniſhed this part in 1 706; after three days ſiege. The French took it in
of Egypt with a ridge of rocks, like that which runs 1 745 ; but the king of Sardinia, to whom it belongs
parallel with the Nile above Delta, the ancient inhabi- by the treaty of Utrecht, retook it in 1746. The for-
tants of Alexandria could only have an imitation by dig- tifications of the town are trifling, but the citadel is
ging into a bed of ſolid rock; and thus they formed conſiderable. It is 15 miles fouth-eaſt of Caſſal, 35
Necropolis,or the City of the Dead.' The excavation north-by-weſt of Genoa, and 40 fouth-by-weſt of Mi-
is from 30 to 40 feet wide, and 200 long and 25 deep, lan. E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 44. 53. The country
and is terminated by gentle declivities at each end. about this town is called the Alexandrin.
The two ſides, cut perpendicularly, contain ſeveral ALEXANDRIA (anc. geog.), a city of Arachoſia,call-
openings, about to or 12 feet in width and height, ed alſo Alexandropolis, on the river Arachotus (Ste-
hollowed horizontally; and which form, by their dif- phanus, Ifidorus Characenus).--Another Alexandria
ferent branches, fubterranean ſtreets. One of theſe,
One of theſe, in Gedroſia, built by Leonatus, by order of Alex-
which curioſity has diſencumbered from the ruins and ander (Pliny).A third Alexandria in Aria, ſituated
fands that render ihe entrance of others difficult or im at the lake Arias (Ptolemy); but, according to Pli-
poflible, contains no mummies, but only the places ny, built by Alexander on the river-Arius.-A fourth
they occupied. The order in which they were ranged in the Bactriana (Pliny).-A fifth Alexandria, an
is ſtill to be fcen. Niches, 20 inches ſquarc, funk fix inland town of Carmania (Pliny, Ptolemy, Ammian).
feet horizontally, narrowed at thc bortom, and fepa- -A ſixth Alexandria, or Alexandropolis, in the Sog-
rated from each other by partitions in the rock, feven diana (Ilidorus Characenus).--A feventh in India,
or eight inches thick, divide into chechers the lio at the confluence of the Aceſines and Indus (Arrian).
walls of this fubterranean vault. It is natural to ſup -An eighth called alſo Alexandretta, near the ſinus
roſe, froin this difpofition, that each mummy was in. Illicus, on the confines of Syria and Cilicia, now Scan-
Iroduced with the feet foremoſt into the cell intended deroon (ſee ALEXANDRETTA),the port-town to Aleppo.
sor its reception ; and that new ſtreets were opened, --A ninth Alexandria of Margiana, which being de-
in proportion as theſe dead inhabitants of Necropolis moliſhed by the barbarians, was rebuilt by Antiochus
increaſed.” This obſervation, he adds, which throws the ſon of Seleucus, and called Antiochia of Syria, (Pli-
a light on the catacombs of Memphis, may perhaps ny); watered by the river Margus, which is divided
likewiſe cxplain the vaſt ſize and inltitude, as well as into ſeveral channels, for the purpoſes of watering the
the different elevations, of the pyramids in the Higli- country, which was called Zotale. The city was ſe-
cr and Lower Egypt.
venty Itadia in circuit, according to Pliny ; who adds,
About 70 paces from Pompey's pillar is the klialis, that, after the defeat of Craſſus, the captives were con-
or the canal of the Nile, which was dug by the ancient veyed to this place by Orodes the king of the Parthians.
Egyptians, to convey the water of the Nile to Alex -A tenth, of the Oxiana, built on the Oxus by Alex-
andria, and fill the ciferns under the city. On the ander on the confines of Bactria (Pliny) -An ele-
lide of the khalis are gardens full of orange and lemon veuth, built by Alexander at the foot of mount Paro-
trees, and the fields are full of caper and palm trees. pamiſus, which was called Cancafus (Pliny, Arrian).
On the top of a hill is a lower, on which a centinel -Atwelfth Alexandria in Troas, called alſo Troas and
is a ways pliced, to give notice, by means of a filag, Antigonia (Pliny).--A thirteenth on the laxartes, the
of the ſhip, that are coming into the port. From this boundary of Alexander's vielories towards Scythia,
Bill may be ſeen the ſea, the whole extent of the city, and the laſt that he built on that lide.
and the parts round it.
ALEXANDRIAN, in a particular fenfe, is ap-
In going along the ſea-coaſt, there is a large baſon plied to all thoſe who profeſſed or laught the ſciences
cut out of the rock that lines the ſhore. On the ſides
On the ſides in the ſchool of Alexandria. In this ſenſe, Clemcis
of this baron, two beautiful falcons are liewn out by is denominated Alexandrinus, though lori at Athens.
the chiſel, with benches that run acroſs them. A The ſame may be ſaid of Apion, who was born at
canal made zig-zag, for the purpoſe of flopping the Oaſis; and Aroſtarchas, liy birih a Sanothracian. The
ſand by its different windings, conveys into thcin the chief Alexandrian philoſophers were, Amonius, Plo-
rius,
A L E
[ 395 ]
ALF
an
Alexandri- tinus, Origeni, Porphyry, Jainblicus, Sopater, Maxi. family; that he had from his moft early years applied Alexiteriat
mus, and Dexippus.
himſelf to ſtudy ; that he had learned th: Greek, the
1 ALEXANDRIAN is more particularly underſtood of a Latin, the Hebrew, the Chaldean, the Arabian, and Alford-
Alexis. college of prieſts, conſecrated to the ſervice of Alex- ſeveral other languages; that having an extreme cu-
ander Severus after his deification. Lanıpridius relates, rioſity to be acquainted with the ſecrets of nature, he
that, notwithſtanding Scverus was killed by Maximin, had collected as much as he could during his travels
the fenate proſecuted his apotheofis ; and, for regala- for 57 years; that he piqued himſelf upon not com-
rity of worſhip, founded an order of prieſts, or ſodalis, municating his ſecrets to any perſon ; but that when
under the denomination of Alexandrini.
he was 82 years of age, having ſeen a poor man who
ALEXANDRIAN Library. See p. 389, ſupra. had died of a ſickneſs which might have been cured
ALEXANDRIAN Manuſcript, a famous copy of the had he communicated his ſecret to the ſurgeon who
Scriptures, conſiſting of four volumes, in a large quar- took care of him, he was touched with ſuch a remorſe
to ſize ; which contains the whole Biblein Greek, in- of conſcience, that he lived alınoſt like a herinit: and
cluding the Old and New Teſtament, with the Apo- it was in this folitade that he ranged his ſecrets in ſuch
crypha, and ſome ſmaller pieces, but not quite com an order as to make them fit to be publiſhed. The
plete. This manuſcript is now preſerved in the Britiſh hawkers generally carry them, with other books to the
Muſeum. It was ſent as a preſent to King Charles I. country fairs. Theſe, however, contain only the ſelect
from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Conſtantinople, by remedies of Seignor Alexis of Piedniont; the entire
Sir Thomas Rowe, ambaſlador from England to the collection would make too large a volume for them.
Grand Signior, about the year 1628. Cyrillus brought ALEXITERIAL, among phyſicians, a term of
it with him from Alexandria, where probably it was much the ſame import with alexipharmic; though ſome
- written. In a ſchedule annexed to it, he gives this times uted in a ſynonymous ſenfe with amulet.
account : That it was written, as tradition informed ALEYN (Charles), an Engliſh poet in the reigů of
them, by Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about 1300 Charles I. In 1631, he publiſed two poems on the
years ago, not long after the council of Nice. But famous victories of Creſſy and Poictiers. He ſucceeded
this high antiquity, and the authority of the tradition his father as clerk of the ordnance,and was commiſſary
to which the patriarch refers, have been diſputed ; general of the artillery to the king at the battle of
nor are the moſt accurate biblical writers agreed about Edgehill. The next piece he wrote was a poem ili
its age. Grabe thinks that it might have been written honour of Henry VII. and the victory that gained him
before the end of the fourt la century; others are of opi. the crown of England. In 1636, the year before lie
nion, that it was not writ till near the end of the fifth died, he tranſlated the hiſtory of Eurialius and Lucre-
century, or ſomewhat later.
tia, from the Latin epiſtles of Æneas Sylvius.
ALEXANDRIAN, or Alexandrine, in poetry, a kind of ALFANDIGA, the name of the cuſtomhouſe at
verſe conſiſting of twelve, or of twelve and thirteen Liſbon.
ſyllables alternately : fo called from a poem on the life ALFAQUES, among the Moors, the name ge-
of Alexander, written in this kind of verſe by ſome nerally uſed for their clergy, or thoſe who teach the
French poet. . Alexandrines are peculiar to modern Mahometan religion; in oppoſition to the Morabites,
poetry, and ſeem well adåpted to epic poems. They who anſwer to monks anong Chriſtians.
are ſometimes uſed
by moſt nations of Europe ; but ALFATERNA (anc.geoc.), the laſt town of Cam-
chiefly by the French, whoſe tragedies are generally pania, beyond Veſuvius (Diodorus); the fame with
compoſed of Alexandrines.
Nocera, which ſee. The inhabitants Alfaterni (Pli-
ALEXICACUS, ſomething that preſerves the bo- ny).
dy from harm or miſchief. The word amounts to ALFDOUCH, a name given by the Moors to a
, a
niuch the ſame as alexiterial.
fort of vermicelli, which they makc of flour and water
ALEXICACUS, in antiquity, was an attribute of Nep and are very fond of in their entertainments.
tune, whom the tunny-fiſhers uſed to invoke under this ALFET, in old cuſtoins, denotes a caldron full
appellation, that their nets might be preſerved from the of boiling water, wherein an acuſed perſon, by way of
- 310145, or ſword-fiſh, which uſed to tear them; and that trial or purgation, plunged his arm up to his 'elbour,
he might prevent the affiftance which it was pretended ALFROD, a town in Lincolnſhire, with a market
the dolphins uſed to give the tunnics on this occaſion. on Tueſdays for proviſions and corn ; and twof.irs,
ALEXIPHARMICS, in medicine, are properly on Whit-Tueſday, and November 8. for cattle and
remedies for expclling or preventing the ill effects of theep. It is feated on a ſmall brook that runs through
poiſon: but ſome of the moderns having imagined, that the town, and is a compact place. A falt {pring was
the animal fpirits, in acute diſtempers, were affected diſcovered here in 1670, from the pigeons which flew
by a malignant poiſon, the term has been underſtood thither in great numbers to drink the water ; thoſe
io mean medicines adapted to expel this poiſon by the birds being known to be fond of ſalt. It contains a
cutaneos pores, in the form of ſweat. In this ſenſe, purging fali, together with a portion of fea-falt. It
alexipharmics are the ſame as ſudorifics.
is ſtrongly purgative. It is recommended as cooling,
ALEXIS, a Piedmonteſe. There is a book of cleanſing, and attenuating. As a good remedy in the
" Secrets,” which for a long time has gone under his ſcurvy, jaundice, and other glandular obſtructions. It
uane. It was printed at Balil 1536. in 8vo, and alſo promotes urine and ſweat, and therefore is good
iranſlated from Italian into Latin by Wecher; it has in gravelly and other diſorders ofthe kidneys and blad-
alſo been tranllated into French, and printed ſeveral der; and in complaints ariſing from obſtructed peripi-
times with additions. There is a preface to the piece, ration. Alford is fix miles from the ſea, and 20 W
wherein Alexis informs us, that he was born of a noble of Boſton, E. Long: 0.15. N. I it. 53. 30.
Ô D) 2
ALFRED,
1
ALF
AL F
396
Alfred
ر
ALFRED, or ÆLIKED, the Great, king of Eng- Alfred granted them better terms than they could ex Alfred.'
land, was the fifth and youngeſt lon of Athclwolf pect. He agreed to give up the whole kingdom of the
kiny of the Weſt Saxons, and was born at Wantage Eaſt-Angles co luch as would embrace the Chriſtian re-
in Berkihire in 849. Ile diſtinguiſhed himſelf, du- ligion, un condition they would oblige the reſt of their
ring llc reign of his brother Ethelred, in ſeveral en countrymen to quit the iſland, and, as much as it was
gagements againit the Danes; and upon his death fuc, in their power, prevent the landing of any more form
ceeded to the crown, in the year 871, and the 22d of reigners. For the performance thereof he took hoſta-
his age. At his aſcending the throne he found him ges; and when, in puriuance of the treaty, Guthrumi
felt in volved in a dangerous war with the Danes, and the Daniſh captain came, with chiity of his chief offi-
placed in ſuch circumſtances of diſtrcfs as called for cers, to be baptized, Alfred anſuered for him at the
the greateſt valour, reſolution, and all the other vir font, and gave him the name of retthelftane; and cer-
tues with which he was adorned. The Danes had tain laws were drawn up between clie king and Gula
already penetrated into the heart of his kingdom ; and thrum for the regulation and governinent of the Danes
before he had been a month on the throne, he was ſettled in Crgland. In 884, a freſh number of Danes
obliged to take the field againſt thoſe formidable ene landed in Kent, and laid liege to Rocheſter ; but the
mies. After many battles gained on both ſides, he was at king coming to the relief of that city, they were ob-
length reduced tothe grcateſt diſtreſs and was entirely liged to abandon their delign. Altred had now great
abandoned by his ſubjects. In this ſituation, Alfred, fuccefs; which was chiefly owing to his ficet, an ad-
conceiving himſelf no longer a king,laid aſide all marks vantage of his own creating. Having ſecured the ſea-
of royality, and took ſhelter in the houſe of one who coaſts, he fortified the reſt of the kingdom, with calles
kept his cattle. He retired afterwards to the ille of and walled towns; and hie beſieged and recovered from
Æthelingey in Somerſetſhire, where he built a fort for the Danes the city of London, which he reſolved to re-
the ſecurity of himſelf, his family, and a few faithful pair, and keep as a frontier (B
B).
fervants who repaired thither to him. When he had After ſome years reſpite, Alfred was again called
been about a year in this retreat, having been inform- into the field : for a body of Danes, being worſted in
ed that ſome of his fubjects had routed a great army of the weſt of France, came with a fleet of 250 ſail on the
the Danes, killed their chieſs, and taken their magical coaſt of Kent; and having landed, fixed themſelves ac
ſtandard (A),he iſſued his letters, giving notice where Apple-trec : fhortly after, another, fleet of 80 veſſels
he was, and inviting his nobility to come and conſult coming up the Thames, the men landed, and built a
with him. Before they came to a final determination, fort at Middleton. Before Alfred marched againſt the
Alfred, putting on the habit of a harper, went into enemy, he obliged the Danes, ſettled in Norihumber-
the enemy's camp, where without ſuſpicion, he was land and Effex, to give liim hoſtages for their good
every where admitted,and had the honour to play be- behaviour. He then moved towards the invaders, and
fore their princes. Having thereby acquired an exact pitched his camp between their armies, to prevent their
knowledge of their ſituation, he returned in great ſe- junction. A great body, however, moved off to El-
crecy to his nobility, whom he ordered to their reſpe- ſex; and croſſing the river, came to Farnham in Surry,
tive homes, there to draw together each man as great where they were defeated by the king's forces. Mean
a force as he could ; and upon a day appointed there while the Danes ſettled in Northumberland, in breach
was to be a general rendezvous ai the great wood, of treaty, and notwithſtanding the hoſtages given, e-
called Selwood, in Wiliſhire. This affair was tranſac- quipped two fleets; and, after plundering the northern
fed fo ſecretly and expeditiouſly, that,in a little time, and ſouthern coaſts, failed to Exeler, and beſieged it.
the king, at the head of an army, approached the The king, as ſoon as he received intelligence, marched
Danes, before they had the leaſt intelligence of his de- againſt them ; but before he reached Exeter, they had
tign. Alfred, taking advantage of the ſurpriſe and got poſſeſſion of it. He kept, them, however, blocked up
terror they were in, fellupon them and totally defeat- on all fides; and reduced them at laſt to ſuch extremi-
ed them at Echendune, now Eddington. Thoſe who ties, that they were obliged to eat their horſes and were
eſcaped fled to a neighbouring caſtle, where they were even ready to devour each other. Being at length ren- ,
foon beſieged, and obliged to ſurrender at difcretion. dered deſperate, they made a general fally on the be- .
ſiegers ;
(A) “ This (ſays Sir John Spelman) was a banner with the imageof a raven magically wrought by the three ,
fiſters of Hinguar and Hobba, on purpoſe for their expedition, in revenge of their father Lodebroch's murder,
made, they fay, almoſt in an inſtant, being by them at once begun and finiſhed in a noontide, and believed by the
Danes to have carried great fatality with it, for which it was highly eſteemed by them. It is pretended, that
being carried in battle, towards good ſucceſs it would always ſeem to clap its wings, and make as if it would
fly; but towards the approach of miſhap, it would hang down and not move." Life of Alfred, p. 61.
(B) The Danes had poſſeſſed themſelves of 'London in the time of his father; and had held it till now as a
convenient place for them to land at, and fortify themſelves in ; neither was it taken from them but by a cloſe
fiege. However, when it came into the king's hands, it was in a miſerable condition, ſcarce habitable, and all
its fortifications ruined. The king, inoved by the importance of the place, and the deſiro of ſtrengthening his
frontier againſt the Danes, reſtored it to its ancient fplendor. And obſerving, that, through the confuſion of
the times, many,both Saxons and Danes, lived in a looſe diſorderly manner, without owning any government,
he offered then now a comfortable eſtabliſhment, if they would ſubmit and become his ſubjects. This propoſi-
tion was better received than he expected; for inultitudes growing weary of a wagabond kind of life,joyfully
accepted ſuch an offer. Chron. Sax. p. 88.
A L F
[ 397 ]
A i F
Alfred. ficgers; but were defeated, though with great loſs on parts of Lincolnfire. Each trything was divided into Alfred.
the king's ſide. The remainder of this body of Danes hundreds or wapentakes; and theſe again into tythings
fled into Eflex, to the fort they had built there, and to or dwellings of ten houſeholders : each of theſe houſe-
their fhips. Before Alfred liad time to recruit him. holders ſtood engaged to the king, as a pledge for the
ſelf, another Daniih leader, whoſe name was Laf, came good behaviour of his family, and all the ten were mu-
with a great ariny out of Northumberland, and de- tually pledges for each other; ſo that if any one of the
ſtroyed all before lim, marching on to the city of tything was ſuſpected of an offence, if the head bo-
Werheal in the weſt, which is ſuppoſed lo be Cheſter, roughs or chiefs of the tything would not be ſecurity
where they remained the reſt of that year. The year for him he was impriſvied; and if he made his elcape,
following they invaded North-Wales; and after having the tything and hundred were fined to the king. Eich
plundered and deſtroyed every thing, they divided, one ſhire was underthe government of an earl, under whom
body returning to Northumberland, another into the was the reive, his deputy ; ſince, from his office, cal-
territories of the Eaſt-Angles ; from whence they pro- led ſhire-reive, or ſherif And ſo eifectual were theſe
ceded to Eſſex, and took poſſeſſion of a ſmall iſland regulations, that it is ſaid he cauſed bracelets of gold
called Mercſig. Here they did not long remain : for to be hung up in the highways, as a challenge to rob-
having parted, fome failed up the river Thames, and bers and they renained untouched.
others up the Lea-road ; where drawing up their thips, In private life, Alfred was the nioſt amiable man in
they built a fort not far from London, which proved a his dominions ; of ſo equal a temper, that he never
great check upon the citizens, who went in a body and ſuffered either ſadneſs or unbecoming gaiety to enter
attacked it, but were repulſed with great loſs : at har his mind; but appeared always of a calm, yet cheerful
veſt-time the king himſelf was obliged to encamp with diſpoſition, familiar to his friends, juſt even to his ene-
a body of troops in the neighbourhood of the city, in mies, kind and tender to all. He was a remarkable
order to cover the reapers from the excurſions of the ceconomiſt of his time, and Aſſerius has given us an
Danes, As he was one day riding by the fide of the account of the method he took for dividing and keep-
river Lea, after fomne obſervations, he began to think ing an account of it: he cauſed ſix wax-candles to be
that the Daniſh ſhips might be laid quite dry; this inade, cach 12-inches long, and of as many ounces
he attempted, and ſucceeded; ſo that the Danes de- weight; on the candles the inchies were regularlymark-
ferted their fort and ſhips, and marched away to the ed, and having found that one of them burnt juſt four
banks of the Severn, where they built a fort, and win- lours, he committed them to the care of the keepers of
tered at a place called Quatbrig (c). Such of the Da- his chapel, who from time to time gave himn notice
niſlı fhips as could be got off, the Londoners carried how the hours went: but as in windy weather the
into their own road; the reſt they burnt and deſtroyed. candles were waſted by the impreſſion of the air on the
Alfred enjoyed a profonnd peace during the three flame, to remedy this inconvenience, he invented lan-
laſt years of his reign, which he chiefly employed in thorns, there being then no glaſs in his dominions.
eſtabliſhing and regulating his government, for the ſe This prince, we are told, was 12 years of age be-
curity of himſelf and his fucceflors, as well as the caſe fore a maſter could be procured in the weſtern kingdom
and benefit of his ſubjects in general. After a trou io teach him the alphabet; ſuch was the ſtate of learn-
bleſome reign of 28 years, he died on the 28th of Octo- ing when Alfred began to reign. He had felt the mi-
ber A. D. 900 ; and was buried at Wincheſter, in fery of ignorance; and deterininedeven to rival his co-
Hyde-abbey, under a monument of porphyry. temporary Charlemagne in the encouragement of lite-
All the hiſtorians agree in diſtinguiſhing him as one rature. He is ſuppoſed to have appointed perſons to
of the moſt valiant, wiſeſt, and beſt of kings that ever read lectures at Oxford, and is thence conſidered as the
reigned in England ; and it is alſo generally allowed, founder of that univerſity. By other proper eſtablish-
that he not only digeſted ſeveral particular laws ſtill in ments, and by a general encouragement to inen of abi .
being, but that he laid the firſt foundation of their pre- lities, he did every thing in his power to diffuſe know-
ſent happy conſtitution. There is great reaſon to be- ledge throughout his dominions. Nor was this end
tieve that they are indebted to this prince for trials by promoted more by his countenance and encouragement
juries ; and the doomſday book, which is preſerved in than by his own example and his writings. For non-
the exchequer, is thought to be no more than ano withſtanding the lateneſs of his initiation, he liad ac-
ther edition of Alfred's book of Wincheſter, which quired extraordinary erudition: and, had he not been
contained a ſurvey of the kingdom. It is ſaid alſo, that illuſtrious as a king, he would have been famous as an
he was the firſt who divided the kingdom into fhires, author. His works are, I. Breviarum quoddamn collec-
what is aſcribed to him is not a bare diviſion of the tum ex Legibus Trojanorum, &c. lib. I. A Breviary col-
country, but the ſettling a new form of judicature ; for lected out of the Laws of the Trojans, Greeks, Britons,
after having divided his dominions into thires, he ſub- Saxons,and Danes, in one Book. Leland ſaw this book
divided each fhire into three parts, called trythings. in the Saxon tongue, at Chriſt-church in Hampſhire,
There are ſome remains of this ancient diviſion in the 2. Viſi-Saxonum Leges, lib. I. The laws of the Weſ-
ridings of Yorkſhire, the laths of Kent, and the three Saxons, in one look. Pirts tells us, that it is in Belts
neiz'
(c) The king's contrivance is thought to have produced the meadow between Hertford and Bow; for 21
Hertford was the Daniſh fort, and from thence they made frequent excurſions on the inhabitants of London.
Authors are not agreed as to the method the king purſued in laying dry the Danish Mips: Duguale ſuppoſes
that he did it by ſtraitening the channel ; but Henry of Hantingdon alledges, that he cut ſeveral canals, which
exhausted its water,
AL G
[ 398 ]
ALG
one book.
warm water.
Alfred net-College library, at Cambridge: 3 Inſtituta quædan, allone. Underthis deſcription are comprehended all the Algagiola
lib. I. Certain Inititutes, in one book. This is men- fea-weeds, and ſome otheraquatic plants. In the ſexual li
Algebra. tioned by Pitts, and ſeems to be the ſecond capitulati- ſyſtem, they conſtitute the 3d order of the 24th claſs Algebra.
on with Guthrum. 4. Contra judices iniquos,, lib. I. Cryptogamia ; in Tournefort, the second genus of the
An Invective againſt Unjuft Judges, in one book. 5. ſecond ſection, Marinæ, aut fluviatiles, of the 17th claſs
Acta Magiſtratuum fuorum, lib. 1. Acts of his Ma- Aſperma vulgo habite ; and the 57th order in Linnæ-
giftrates, in one book. This is ſuppoſed to be the us's Fragments of a Natural Method. The diſcove-
book of judgments mentioned by Horne; and was, in ries made in this part of the vegetable kingdoni are
all probability, a kind of reports, intended for the uſe uncertain and imperfect; and the atteinpts, in parti-
of fucceeding ages. 6. Regum fortuna variæ, lib. I. cular, to arrange flags by the parts of the fructifica-
The various Fortunes of Kings, in one book. 7. Dic- tion, have not been attended with great ſucceſs. Dil-
ta fapientum, lib. I. The Sayings of Wiſe Men, in lenius lias arranged this order of plants from their ge-
8. Parobolæ et ſales, lib. I. Parables and neral habit and ſtructure ; Michelius from the parts of
pleaſant ſayings, in one book. 9. Collectiones chroni. fructification. Each has confiderable merit.
corum. Collections of Chronicles. 10. Epiftola ad Wulf ALGAGIOLA, a ſmall ſea-port town in the illand
figium Epifcopum, lib. I. Epiſtles to Biſhop Wulfsig, of Corlica, fortified with walls and baſtions. It was
in one book.
11. Manuale ineditationui. A Manu- almoſt deſtroyed by the mal-contents in 1731, but has
al of Meditations. Belides theſe original works, he ſince been repaired. E. Long.9. 45. N. lat. 42. 20.
tranſlated many authors from the Latin, &c. into the ALGAROT, in chemiſtry, an Arabic term for an
Saxon language, viz. I. Bede's Hiſtory of England. emetic powder, prepared from regulus of antimony,
2. Paulinus Orolinus's Hiſtory of the Pagans. 3. St diſſolved in acids, and ſeparated by repeated lotions in
Gregory's Paſtoral, 6c. The firſt of theſe, with his
prefaces to the others, together with his laws, were ALGAROTTI (Count) a celebrated Italian, was
printed at Cambridge, 1644. His laws are likewiſe born at Padua ; but the year is not metioned. Led
inſerted in Spelman's Councils. 4. Borthmus de Confola. by curioſity, as well as a deſire of improvement, he tra
tione, lib. V. Boctius's Conſolations of Philoſophy, in velled early into foreign countries; and was very young
five books. Dr Plot tells us, king Alfred tranſlated when he arrived in France in 1736. Here he com-
it at Woodſock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton pored his “Newtonian Philofophy for the Ladies;” as
Library. 5. Æſopi Fabule, Æfops Fables : which he Fontentielle had done his Carteſian Aſtronomy, in the
is faid tahavetranſlated from the Greek both into Latin work entitled, “ The plurality of worlds." He was
and Saxon. 6. Ffalterium Davidicum, lib. I. David's noticed by the king of Pruſſia, who gave him marks of
Pſalter, in one book. This was the laſt work the King the eſteem he had for him.
the eſteen he had for him. He died at Piſa the 230
attempted, death ſurpriſing him before he had finiſhed of May, 1764; and ordered his own mauſoleum, with
it it was however completed by another hand, and this inſcription to be fixed upon it : Hic jacet Alga-
pribliſhed at London in 16040, in quarto, by Sir John "rottus, fed non omnis.” He is allowed to have been
Spelnian. Several others are mentioned by Malmſbu a very great connoiſſeurin painting, ſculpture, and ar-
ry; and ihcold hiſory of Ely aſſerts, that he tranſ chitecture. He contributed much to the reformation
lated tlie Old and New Toſtaments.
of the Italian opera. His works which are nume-
The life of this great king was firſt written by Af- rous, and upon a variety of ſubjects, abound with viva-
ſerius Menevenſis: and firſt publiſhed by Archbiſhop city, elegance, and wit: a collection of them has late-
Parker, in the old Saxon character, at the end of his ly been made, and printed at Leghorn.
edition of Haſlinghani's biſtory, printed in 1674, fol. ALGARVA, a province in the kingdoin of Por-
ALGA, in botany, the trivial name of the li- tugal, 67 miles in length and 20 in breadth: bounded
chen, focus, and ſeveral other plants of the crypto. on the W. and S. by the ſea, on the E. by the river
Guadiana, and on the N. by Alenteja. It is very fer-
ALGÆ, FLAGS; one of the feven families or na tile in figs, almonds, dates, olives, and excellent
tural tribes into which the whole vegetable kingdom is wines ; beſides, the filhcry brings in large ſums.
divided by Linnæus in his Philofophia Botanica. They The capital town is Pharo. It contains four cities,
are defined to be plants, whoſe root, leaf, and ſtem are I 2 towns, 67 pariſhes, and 61,000 inhabitants.
gamia claſs.
A L G E
B. R A,
bread
Definition
GENERAL method of compatation, wherein ſigns every propofition on mathematical ſubjects can be writ-
anil etymo-
and ſymbols, commonly ıhe letters of the alpha- ten down in algebraic characters, greatly ſuperior to the
logy. bet are made uſe of to reprcſent numbers, or any other tedious circumlocutions which would be neceſſary were
quantities.
the reaſoning to be written in words at length.
This ſcience, properly ſpeaking, is no other than a With regard to the etymology of the word algebra,
kind of ſhort-hand, or ready way of writing down a it is much conteſted by the critics. Menage derives
chain of inathematical reaſoning on any ſubject what it from the Arabic algiabarat, which ſignifies the
ever; ſo that it is applicable to arithmetic, geometry, reftitution of any thing broken ; fuppoſing that the
aſtronomy, menſuration of all kinds of ſolids, &c. and principal part of algebrais the conſideration of broken
the great advantages derived from it appear manifefly numbers. Others rather borrow it from the Spaniſh,
to ariſe from the conciſeneſs and perfpicuity with which nigebriſta, a perſon who replaces diſlocated bones ; ad-
ding,
A L G E B R A.
399
ding, that algebra has nothing to do with fraction. nius, Ramus, Schoner, Salignac, Clavius, &c. wło all Hiſtory.
Some, with M. d'Herbelot, are of opinion, that alge- of them took different courſes, but none of them went
bra takes its name from Gebar, a celebrated philofo- beyond quadratics.
pher, cheiniſt, and mathematician, whom the Arabs In 1590, Vieta introduced what he called his Specious
call Giaber, and who is ſuppoſed to have been the in- Arithmetic, which conſiſts in denoting the quantities,
ventor. Others from gefr, a kind of parchment made both known and unknown, by fynbols or letters. He
of the ſkin of a can
mel, whereon Ali and Giafer Sakek alſo introduced an ingenious method of extracting the
wrote, in myſtic characters, the fate of Mahometaniſm, roots of equations, by approximations ; fince greatly
and the grand events that were to happen till the end improved and facilitated by Ralphſon, Halley, Maclau-
of the world. But others, with incre probability, de- rin, Simpſon, and others.
rive it from geber.; a word whence, hy prefixingthear Vieta was followed by Oughtred, who, in his Clavis
ticle al, we have formed algebra ; which is pure Ara- Mathematica, printed in 1631, improved Vieta's me-
bic, and properly ſignifies the reduction of fractions to thod, and invented ſeveral compendious characters, to
a whole number. However, the Arabs, it is to be ob- fhow the ſums, differences,rectangles,fquares,cubes,śc.
ſerved, never uſe the word algebra alone, to expreſs Harriot, another Englih man, cotemporary with
what we mean by it; but always add to it the word Oughtred, left ſeveral treatiſes at his death ; and a-
macabelah, which fignifies oppoſition and compariſon: mong the reſt, an analyſis, or Algebra, which was
thus algebra-almacabelah, is what we properly call al printed in 1631, where Vieta's method is brought in-
gebra.
to a ſtill more commodious form, and is much eſteemed
Some authors define algebra, The art of ſolving ma to this day.
thematical problems; but this is rather the idea of ana In 1657, Des Cartes publiſhed his geometry, where-
lyſis, or the analytic art, The Arabs call it, The art in he made uſe of the literal calculus and the algebraic
of reftitution and compariſon ; or, The art of reſolution rules of Harriot; and as Oughtred in his Clavis, and
and equation. Lucas de Burgo, the firſt European Marin. Ghetaldus in his books of mathematical com-
who wrote of algebra, calls it, Regula rei et cenfus: poſition and reſolution publiſhed in 1630, applied
that is, the rule of the root and its ſquare ; the root Vieta's arithmetic to elementary geometry, and gave
with them being called res, and the ſquare cenſus. 0- the conſtruction of limple and quadratic equations ; ſo
thers call it Specious Arithmetic; and ſone Univerſal Des Cartes applied Harriot's method to the higher
Arithmetic.
geometry, explaining the nature of curves by equations,
and adding the conſtructions of cubic, biquadratic, ,
HISTORY,
It is highly probable that the Indians or Arabians and other higher equations.
firſt invented this noble art: for it may be reaſonably Des Cartes's rule for conſtructing cubic and biqua-
ſuppoſed, that the ancient Greeks were ignorant of dratic equations, was farther improved by Thomas Ba-
it; becauſe Pappus, in his mathemnarical collections, kex, in his Clavis Geometrica Catholica, publiſhed in
where he enumerates their analyſis, makes 110 mention 1684; and the foundation of ſuch conſtructions, sith
of any thing like it ; and, beſides, ſpeaks of a local the application of algebra to the quadratures of curves,
problem, begun by Euclid, and continued by Apol- queſtions de maximis et minimis, the centrobaryo me-
lonius, which none of them could fully reſolve ; which thod of Guldinus, &c. was given by R. Slatius, in
doubtleſs they might eaſily have done, had they known 1668; as alſo by Fermat in his Opera Mathematica,
any thing of algebra.
Roberval in the Men, de Mathem. et de Phuſiqili, and
Diaphantus was the firſt Greek writer of algebra; Barrow in his Lect. Geomet. In 1708, algebra was an
who publiſhed 13 books about the year 800, though plied to the laws of chance and gaming, by R. de Mont-
only ſix of them were tranſlated into Latin, by Xylan- mort; and lince by de Moivre and James Bernouilli.
der, in 1575; and afterırards, viz. anno 1721, in Theelenients of the art were compiled and publithed
Greek and Latin, by M. Buchet and Fermat, with ad. by Kerſey, in 1671 ; wherein the ſpecious arithmetic,
ditions of their own. This algebra of Diaphantus's and the nature of equations, are largely explained, and
only extends to the ſolution of arithmetical indeter- illuſtrated by a variety of examples: the whole fubftance
minate problems.
of Diophantus is here delivered, and many things add-
Before this tranſlation of Diaphantus came out, Lused concerning mathematical compoſition and reſolution
cas Pacciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a Minorite friar, from Ghetaldus. The like has been fince done by
publiſhed at Venice, in the year 1494, an Italian trea Preſtei in 1694, and by Ozanam in 1703 : but theſe
tiſe of algebra. This author makes inention of Leo- authors omit the application of algebra to geometry;
nardus Piſanus, and foine others, of whom he had learn- which defectis ſupplied by Guiſnec in a French treatiſe
ed the art; but we have none of their writings. He expreſsly on the ſubject publiſhed in 1704, and l'Ho-
adds, that algebra came originally from the Arabs, pital in his analytical treatiſe of the conic ſections in
and never nientions Diaphantus; which makes it 1707. The rules of algebra are alſo compendicuily
probable, that that author was not then known in Eu- delivered by Sir Iſaac Newton, in his Arithmeticu Uni-
rope. His algebra goes no farther than fimple and verſulis, firſt publiſhed in 1707, which abounds in fe-
quadratic equations.
lect examples, and contains ſeveral rules and methods
After Pacciolus appeared Stifelius, a good author ; invented by the author.
but neither did lie advance any farther.
Algebra has alſo been applied to the confidcration
After him came Scipio Ferreus, Cardan, Tarta and calculus of infinites; from whence a new and ex-
gilla, and ſome others, who reached as far as the ſo- tenſive branch of knowledge has ariſen, called the Duss
fution of ſome cubic equations. Bombelli followed trine of Fluxions, or Analyſis of Infinites, or the Calcu-
thefe, and went a little Tarther. At laſt came Nuu lus Differentials.
1
I
Pir?
A LG
-
E B R A.
Part I.
Ρ Α
RT
I.
A
j
2
INTRODUCTION.
3. The Egna (minus) denotes, that the quantity be- Definitions.
fore which it is placed is to be ſubtracted.' Thus
Introdu QUANTITY which can be meaſured, and is the amb denotes the exceſs of a above b; 6-2 is the
tior.
object of mathematics, is of two kinds, Number exceſs of 6 above 2, or 4. Note, Theſe characters
and Extenſion. The former is treated of in Arithme + and —, from their extenſive uſe in algebra, are
tic; the latter in Geometry.
called the ſigns; and the one is ſaid to be oppoſite or
Numbers are ranged in a ſcale, by the continued re contrary to the other.
petition of ſomeone number, which is called the Root; 4. Quantities which have the ſign + prefixed to them
and, in conſequence of this order, they are conveni are called poſitive or affirmative; and ſuch as have
ently expreſſed in words, and denoted by characters. the ſign — prefixed to them are called negative.
The operations of arithinetic are eaſily derived from 5. Quantities which have the ſame ſign, either + or
the eſtabliſhed method of notation, and the moſt ſimple are alſo ſaid to have like ſigns, and thoſe which
reaſonings concerning the relations of magnitude. have different ſigns are ſaid to have unlike ſigns. Thus
Inveſtigations by the common arithmetic are greatly +a,+b, have like figas, and +-a, -6, are faid to
limited, from the want of characters to expreſs the have unlike ſigns,
quantities that are unknown, and their different rela 6. The juxtapoſition of letters as in the fame word, ex-
tions to one another, and to ſuch as are known. Hence preſſes the
product of the quantities denored by theſe
letters and other convenient ſymbols have been intro letiers. Thus ab expreſſes the product of a and b;
duced to ſupply this defe&t ; and thus gradually has bod expreſſes the continued product of b, c, and d.
ariſen the ſcience of Algebra, properly called Univer The ſign +- alſo expreſſes the product of any two
ful Arithmetic.
quantities between which it is placed.
In the common arithmetic too, the given numbers 7. A number prefixed to a letter is called a numerable
diſippear in the courſe of the operation, ſo that gene coefficient, and expreſſes the product of the quantity
ral rules can ſeldom be derived from it; but, in alge by that number, or how often the quantity denoted
bra, the known quantities, as well as the unknown, by the letter is to be taken. When no number is
may be expreſſed by letters, which, through the whole prefixed, unit is underſtood.
operation, retain their original form; and hence may 8. The quotient of two quantities is denoted by placing
be deduced, not only general canons for like caſes, but the dividend above a ſmall line and the divifor below
the dependence of the ſeveral quantities concerned, and
it. Thus 18 is the quotient of 18 divided by 3, or
likewiſe the determination of a problem, without ex.
3
hibiting which, it is not completely reſolved. This
general manner of expreſſing quantities alſo, and the 6; q is the quotient of a divided by b. This ex-
general reaſonings concerningtheir connections, which
inay be founded on it, have rendered this ſcience not preſſion of a quotient is alſo called a fraction,
i leſs uſeful in the demonſtration of theorems than in 9. A quantity is ſaid to be ſimple, which conſiſts of one
the reſolution of problems.
part or Term, asta-abc; and a quantity is ſaid
If geometrical quantities be ſuppoſed to be divided to be compound, when it conſiſts of more than one
into equal parts, their relations, in reſpect of magni term connccted by the ſigns + or
tudc, or their proportions, may be expreſſed by num 44b+c, are compound quantities.
If there are
bers; one of theſe equal parts being denoted by the two terms, it is called a binomial; if three, a trino:
unit. Arithmetic, however, is uſed in expreſſing on mial, &c.
ly the concluſions of geometrical propofitions; and it
10. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound
is by algebra that the bounds and application of geo quantities, are ſaid to be like, which conſiſt of the
metry have been of late ſo far extended.
ſame letter or letters, equally repeated. Thus + ab,
The proper objects of mathematical ſcience are num - 5ab, are like quantities; bút tab, and +aab,
her and extenſion; but mathematical inquiries may be
are unlike.
inſtituted alſo concerning any phylical quantities that
11. The equality of two quantities is expreſſed, by
are capable of being 'meaſured or expreſſed by numbers placing the ſign-between them. Thus xta-baby
and extended magnitudes : And, as the application of
means that the ſum of x and a is equal to the exceſs of
algebra may be equally univerfal, it has been called
The ſcience of quantity in general.
When quantities are conſidered abſtractly, then +
and — denote addition and ſubtraction only, according
DEFINITIONS,
to Def. 2. and 3. and the ternis poſitive and negative
1. QUANTITIES which are knownare generally repre- expreſs the ſame ideas. In that caſe, a negative quan-
fented by the firſt letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, tity by itſelf is unintelligible. The ſign + alſo is un.
&c. and ſuch as are unknown by the laſt letters, as neceſſary before ſimple quantities, or before the lead
4, 3, 2, &c.
ing term of a compoand quantity which is not nega-
2. The ſign + (plus) denotes, that the quantity be tive; though, when ſuch a quantity or term is to be
fore which it is placed is to be added. Thus added to another, + nuſt be placed before it, to ex-
a+b denotes the ſum of a and b; 3+5 denotes the preſs that addition ; and hence in Def. 2. it is ſaid,
ſum of 3 and 5, or 8. When no ſign is expreſſed, that to is underſtood when no ſign is expreſſed.
is underſtood,
In geometry, however, and in certain applications
of
Thus a+b,
le above c.
Part 1.
A LG E B R A.
401
}
7aa—2ab
Funda: of geometry and algebra; there may be an oppoſition terms in the quantity to be added may be united, fo Funda-
mental o- or contrariety in the quantities, analogous to that of as to render the expreſſion in the ſum more ſimple. mentál o-
perations. addition and ſubtraction; and the ſigns+and may
perations.
PROB. II. To Subtract Quantities.
very conveniently be uſed to expreſs that contrariety.
In ſuch caſes, negative quantities are underſtood to General Rule. Change the ſigns of the quantity to
exiſt by themſelves; and the ſame rules take place in be ſubtracted into the contrary ligns, and then add
operations into which they enter, as are uſed with re it, ſo changed, to the quantity from which it was
gard-to'the negative terms of abſtract quantities.. to be ſubtracted (by Prob. I.) and the ſum ariſing
by this addition is the remainder.
c H A P. 1.
Examp. From
+5a
7ab-16bc
Sect. I. Fundamental Operations.
Subtract +30
3ab+mb
The fundamental operations in algebra are the ſame
Rem. +-2a
4ab-16bc-mb
as in common arithmetic, Addition, Subtraction, Mul-
From 52–76+90+8
tiplication, and Diviſion; and from the various combi.
Subt. 22-4b+9cmd
nations of theſe four, all the others are derived.
PROB. I. To add quantities.
Rem. 32-36*+8+d
Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quanti When a poſitive quantity is to be ſubtracted, the
ties, to be added together, may be like with like rule is obvious from Def. 3. : In order to ſhow it, when
ſigns, liks with unlike ſigns, or they may be unlike. the negative part of a quantity is to be ſubtracted, let
Gafe 1. To add terms that are like and have like
Crond be ſubtracted from a, the remainder, according
figns.
to the rule, is amctd. For if cis fubtracted from
4, the remainder is a-c (by Def. 3.); but this is too
Rule. Add together the coefficients, to their fum pre- ſmall, becauſe c is fubtračted inſtead of co-d, which is
fix the common ſign, and ſubjoin the common letter leſs than it by d; the remainder therefore is too ſmall
or letters.
by d ; and d being added, it is actd; according to
the rule.
Examp. To Sab 3a0-ab
Add fab
Otherwiſe If the quantity d be added to theſe two
quantities a and cmd, the difference will continue the
402-5ab
Sum gab
ſame; that is, the exceſs of a above cd is equal to
the exceſs of and above c-d+d; that is, to the ex-
1494-8ub.
ceſs of at-d above c, which plainly is atdoc, and is
Cafo 2. To add terms that are like, but have unlike therefore the remainder required
figns.
Prob. III. To multiply Quantities.
Rule, Subtract the leſs coefficient from the greater;
prefix the ſign of the greater to the remainder, anà General Rule for the Signs. When the ſigns of the
ſubjoin the common letter or letters.
two terms to be multiplied are like, the lign of the
product is +; but, when the ſigns are unlike, the
Examp. -4a +7c
- 5ab
ſign of the product is -,
+7a
Cafe 1. To multiply two terms.
+3ab
+3a
Rule. Find the ſign of the product by the general rule;
+5bc
after it place the product of the numeral coefficients,
and then ſet down all the letters one after another,
Cafe 3: To add terms that are unlike,
as in one word.
Rule. Set them all down, one after another, with their
Mult. ta
+56
figns and coeficients prefixed.
-5ak
Ву
t6
-30
- -7ab
Examp. 24+ 36
tab
-15bc
+35aabx
The reaſon of this rule is derived from Def. 6. and
2a+36-5678
froin the nature of multiplication, which is a repeated
Compound quantities are added together, by uniting addition of one of the quantities to be multiplied as
the ſeveral terms of which they conſiſt by the pre- often as there are units in the other. Hence alſo the
ceding rules.
letters in two terms multiplied together may be placed
in any order, and therefore the order of the alphabet
5ab--3xy_12cd
es
Examp. The ſum of 7xy_ab+15
is generally preferred.
9cd_xy-M1
Cuf 2. To multiply compound quantities,
is 4ab-3cd+15-+3xy
Rule. Multiply every term of the multiplicand by all
the terms of the multiplier, one after another, ac-
The rule for caſe 3. may be conſidered as the gene cording to the preceding rule, and then colleat all
ral rule for adding all algebraical quantities whatſoever; the products into one ſum; that ſum is the product
and, by the rules in the two preceding caſes, the like required.
VOL. I.
3 E
+2ab
+
-360
+ bc
O
--5648
Examp.
402
A L G E BRA.
Part I:
m
>
-mx-
Funda- Examp. Mult. 2a+38
mt*
ber of terms of a compound quantity, to denote thoſe Funda-
mental o.
By 30x~4by
perations.
which are underſtood to be affected by the particular mental o-
ſign conne&ed with it,
perations.
baax+9abx
mmt-mx
Thus, in the laſt example, it ſhows that the terms
-Baby--1abby
taand -b, and alſo cand -d are all affected by the
ſign (x) Without the vinculum, the expreſſion
Prod. baax-9abxm8aby-1 2bby M712*-**
abxca.md would mean the exceſs of a above bc and
d; and 2bXcod would raean the exceſs of the pro-
Mult. Ob
duct of amb by c, above d. Thus alſo a 75)• ex-
Ву
preſſes the ſecond power of atb, or the product of
that quantity multiplied by itſelf; whereas atb: would
-adt db
expreſs only the ſum of a and b? ; and fo of others.
By ſome writers a parentheſis () is uſed as a vinculum,
Prod. acm-cb-ad+dó
and (a+b) is the ſame thing as a +5)
ac-cb
G
Of the general Rule for the Sigrs.
Prob. IV. To divide Quantities.
The reaſon of that rule will appear by proving it, as General Rule for the Signs. If the ſigns of the diviſor
applied to the laſt mentioned example of a _b multipli and dividend are like, the ſign of the quotient is
ed by cd, in which every caſe of it occurs.
+; if they are unlike, the ſign of the quotient is
Since multiplication is a repeated addition of the
multiplicand as often as there are units in the multi-
plier, hence, if amb is to be multiplied by c, amb
This rule is eaſily deduced from that given in Prob.
muſt be added to itſelf as often as there are units in
III.; for, from the nature of diviſion, the quotient
and the product therefore muſt be ca-cb (Prob. I.)
muſt be ſuch a quantity as, multiplied by the diviſor,
But this product is too great ; for amb is to be mul-
ſhall produce the dividend with its proper ſign.
tiplied, not by c, but by codonly, which is the ex-
From Def. 8. The quotient of any two quantities
ceſs of caboved; d times ambtherefore, or da-db, has may be expreſſed, by placing the dividend above a line
been taken too much ; hence
this quantity muſt be ſub- and the divifor below
it. But a quotient may often
tracted from the former part of the product, and the
be expreſſed in a more ſimple and convenient form, as
remainder, which (by Prob. II.) is ca-mda+db, will appear from the following diſtinction of the ca.
will be the true product required.
ſes.
Def. 12. When ſeveral quantities are multiplied to Caſe I. When the diviſor is ſimple, and is a factor
gether, any of them is called a factor of the product. of all the terms of the dividend. This is eaſily dif-
13. The products ariſing from the continual multi- covered by inſpection ; for then the coefficient of the
plication of the fame quantity are called the powers of diviſor meaſures that of all the terms of the dividend,
that quantity, which is the root. Thus, ad, aaa, aaaa,
and all the letters of the diviſor are found in every
&c. are powers of the root a,
term of the dividend.
14. Theſe powers are expreſſed, by placing above Rule. The letter or letters in the diviſor are to be ex-
the root, to the right hand, a figure, denoting how of.
punged out of each term in the dividend, and the
ten the root is repeated. This figure is called an in-
coefficients of each term to be divided by the coefe
dex, or exponent, and from it the power is denominated.
ficient of the diviſor: the quantity reſulting is the
Thus,
quotient.
Power of the root ra' or a
Ex. a) ab(b. 2aab) 6abc--4a2 bdm (3ac-2dm.
2d a, and is other-
The reaſon of this is evident from the nature of di-
wife expreſſed as
3d
neaa.
by
&c.
viſion, and from Def. 6. Note. It is obvious from co-
rollary to Prob. III. that powers of the ſame root are
The 2d and 3d powers are generally called the divided by ſubtracting their exponents.
ſquare and cube; and the 4th, 5th and 6th, are alfo
fometimes reſpectively called the biquadrate, ſurfolid,
Thus a')a: (a aj)a' (a*. Alſo a·b) a66 (abs.
and cuboczebe.
Cafe II. When the diviſor is ſimple, but not a fac-
tor of the dividend.
Cor, Powers of the ſame root are multiplied by
adding their exponents, Thus, a: xa' as, or aaax Rule. The quotient is expreſſed by a fraction, accord-
casaaaaa, b2x=64.
ing to Def. 8. viz. by placing the dividend abovea
line and the diviſor below it.
Scholiun.
Thus the quatient of zab? divided by 2inbc is the
Sometimes it is convenient to expreſs the multipli-
3ab.
fraction
cation of quantities, by ſetting them down with the
201bc.
lign (x) between them, without perforining the ope-
Such expreſſions of quotients may often be reduced
tation according to the preceding rules ; thus a: xő is
to a more ſimple form, as ſhall be explained in the fe-
xviitten inſtead of ab; and a=6xced expreſſes the cond part of this chapter.
product of a--b, multiplied by c-d.
Def. 15. A vincu!lım is a line drawn over any nam-
Cafe III. When the diviſor is compound.
It
da
a²
is called
the
aan
4th
qa
Part I.
403
A L G B
G E B R A.
Punda Rule 1. The terms of the dividend are to be ranged is ſtill a remainder from which the operation may be lunda.
Rental o.
according to the powers of ſome one of its letters; continued without end. This expreſſion of a quotient wental 0-
perations.
and thoſe of the diviſor, according to the powers is called an infinite ſeries ; the nature of which ſhall perations.
of the ſame letter.
be conſidered afterwards. By comparing a few of the
Thus, if a*+2ab4b2 is the dividend, and a+b the by which, without any more diviſion, it may be con-
Thus, if a +2ab+.62 is the dividend, and a+b the firſt terms, the law of the feries may be diſcovered,
diviſor, they are ranged according to the powers of a. tinued to any number of terms wanted.
2. The firſt term of the dividend is to be divided by
the firſt term of the diviſor (obſerving the general
of the General Rule.
rule of the ſigns); and this quotient being ſet down
as a part of the quotient wanted, is to be multiplied dent; for, in the courſe of the operation, all the terms
The reaſon of the different parts of this rule is evi-
by the whole diviſor, and the product ſubtracted
from the dividend. If nothing remain, the divi- of the quotient obtained by it are multiplied by all
fion is finiſhed : the remainder, when there is any, lively ſubtracted from the dividend till nothing re-
is a new dividend,
main : that, therefore from the nature of divilion,
Thus, in the preceding example, a' divided by a, muſt be the true quotient.
gives a, which is the firſt part of the quotient want Note. The ſign is ſometimes uſed to expreſs the
ed: and the product of this part by the whole diviſor quotient of two quantities between which it is placed:
atb, viz. a'+ab being fubtracted from the given di- Thus, a'+xa+x, expreſſes the quotient of a: +**
vidend, there remains in this example abt-be. divided by a+x.
3. Divide the firſt term of this new dividend by the
firſt term of the diviſor as before, and join the quo-
§ 2. OF FRACTIONS.
tient to the part already found, with its proper fign:
Définitions.
then multiply the whole diviſor by this part of the
quotient, and ſubtract the product from the new
1. When a quotient is expreſſed by a fraction, the di-
dividend; and thus the operation is to be continued vidend above the line is called the numerator; and
till no remainder is left, or till it appear that there the diviſor below it is called the denominator.
will always be a remainder.
2. If the numerator is leſs than the denominator, it is
Thus, in the preceding example, tab, the firſt
called a proper fraction.
term of the new dividend divided by a, gives b; the 3. If the numerator is not lefs then the denominator,
product of which, mulriplied by a +b, being ſubtract-
it is called an improper fraction.
ed from ab-tbe, nothing remains, and a+b is the true
4. If one part of a quantity is an integer, and the o-
quotient. The entire operation is as follows.
ther a fraction, it is called a mixt quantity.
5. The reciprocal of a fraction, is a fraction whoſe nu-
a+b) a'+2ab+b: (a+b
merator is the denominator of the other; and vihore
denominator is the numerator of the other. The
reciprocal of an integer is the quotient of divided
abuto
by that integer. Thus,
ab+
b
is the reciprocal of
of and
I is the reciprocal
B
a² + ab
i
m
* *
of m.
39-b) 3a:-—124: _:b+10ab_2b• (a: ~42+23
26
120*
I 20"
+10ab
+ 4ab
The diſtinctions in Def. 2, 3, 4, properly belong to
common arithmetic, from which they are borrowed,
and are ſcarcely uſed in algebra.
The operations concerning fractions are founded on
the following propoſition:
If the diviſor and dividend be either both multiplied
or both divided by the ſame quantity, the quotient is
the ſame; or, if both the numerator and denoninator
of the fraction be either multiplied or divided by the
ſame quantity, the value of that fraction is the ſame.
+6ab269
+bab-26
*
I-a) 1 (Itataitas, &c.
nia
c.
ta
I
Thus, let = r, then For, from the nature
mb
of diviſion, if the quotient (=c) be multiplied by
the diviſorb, the product muſt be the dividend d. Hence
CO beza, and likewiſe ma-mbc, and dividing
both by mb, na=Converſely, if m=c, then alſo
ta
ta²-A3
x6=) beza, and likewiſe
tas, &c.
4
It often happens, as in the laſt example, that there 5C
3 E 2
Cor.
404
1
Part. I..
A L G E BR A.
24
Funda Cor. 1. Hence a fraction may be reduced to another 2. The ſimple diviſors of each of the quantities are Funda-
mental wo of the ſame value, but of a more ſimple form, by di to be taken out, the remainders in the ſeveral opera- mental c-
perations, viding Loth numerator and denominator by any com tions are alſo to be divided by their finple diviſors, and perationis.,
nion meaſure.
the quantities are always to be raiiged according to the
Thus, zoax— 5407 _5X-9.
powers of the ſaine letter.
The ſimple diviſors in the given quartities, or in the
I2ab
26
remainders, do not affect a compound diviſor which is
8ab+bac _ 4b+30
wanted; and hence alſo, to make the diviſion ſucceed,
4a?
any of the dividends may be multiplied by a ſimple
quantity. Beſides the fimple diviſors in the remainders
Cor. 2. A fraction is multiplied by any integer, by 110t being found in the diviſors from which they ariſe,
multiplying the numerator, or dividing the denomina can make no part of the common meaſure fouglit; and
tor by that integer: and converſely, a fraction is di• for the ſame reaſon, if in ſuch a remainder there be
vided by any integer, by dividing the nunierator, or any compound diviſor which does not meaſure the di-
multiplying the denominator by that integer. vifor from which it proceeds, it may be taken out.
PROB. I. To find the greatest common Meaſure of two
EXAMP L E s.
Quantities.
a'_bo) a'-2abut ba (1.
1. Of pure numbers.
airba
Rule. Divide the greater by the leſs: and, if there is
no remainder, the leſs is the greateſt common nica-
—2ab+262 Remainder which
ſure required. If there is a remainder, divide the
divided by—26 is 2-b.) amb (3-76
-b?
laſt diviſor by it; and thus proceed, continually di-
viding the laſt diviſor by its remainder, till no re-
inainder is left, and the laſt diviſor is the greateſt
common meaſure required.
If the quantities given are 8a%b2 — Ioab3 +264, and
The greateſt common meaſure of 45 and 63 is 9; ing taken out, viz. 26: out of the firſt, it becomes
9a4b-9a3b2+3a2b3---3ab4. The finiple diviſors be-
the greateſt common meafure of 187 and 391 is 17.
Thus,
4a? ---5ab +obe, and 3ab out of the ſecond, it is
3a3-3a: bebi-63. As the latter is to be, divided
45)6311
187)391(2
by the former, it muſt be multiplied by: 4, to make
45
374
the operation ſuccçed, añd then it is as follows:
18)45(2
17) 187611
4a - 5ab+b) 1223-122*b+4ab-46+ (3a
187
1223-15a²b+3ab2
q?
36
*
O
9)18(2
3ab+ab--463
18
This remainder is to be divided by.b, and the new
dividend multiplied by 3, to make the diviſion prop
ceed. Thus,
From the nature of this operation, it is plain that
it may always be continued till there be no reinainder.
3a’ tab-462 ) 120'--I Sabat 3b (4-
The rule depends on the two following principles :
129° +436~1662
I. A quantity which meaſures both diviſor and re-
mainder muſt nieaſure the dividend.
—19ab7196
2. A quantity which meaſures both diviſor and di- and this remainder, divided by-19b,gives a—b, which
vidend moſt alſo meaſure the remainder.
being made a diviſor, divides za: tabm4b: without a
For a quantity which meaſures two other quantities, remainder,and therefore a--b is the greateſt compound
muſt alſo meaſure both, their ſum and difference; and, diviſor : but there is a ſimple diviſor b, and therefore
from the nature of diviſion, the dividend conſiſts of the obxb is the greateſt common meaſure required.
divifor repeated a certain number of times, together
with the remainder. By the firſt it appears, that the Prob. II. To reduce a Fraction to its loweſt Terms.
number found by this rule is a common meaſure ; and, Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by
by the ſecond, it is plain there can be no greater com-
nion meaſure : for, if there were, it muſt neceſſarily
their greatest common meaſure, which may be found
nieafire the quantity already found leſs than itſelf,
by prob. I.
which is abfurd.
75abc
Thus,
3a
When the greateſt common meaſure of algebraical
25bc being the greateſt common
125bcx5
enantities is required, if either of them be ſimple, any
-54
common ſimple diviſor is eaſily found by inſpection. mcaſure,
alſo,
If they are both compound, any common ſimple divi-
asa-a3b3
for may alſo be found by inſpeáion. But, when the ga*b-9a3b"+ 3a5b33abı – 9a: +3ab"the greateft
greateſt compound divifor is wanted, the preceding Ba-ba--10ab3 +264 8ab-262
rule is to be applied ; only,
common meaſure being amoxb, by Prob. 1.
PROB.
24
a’ +62
.
23
Part I.
A L G E B R A.
405
Funda. PROB. III. To reduce an Integer to the Form of a Cor. 2. A fraction, whoſe numerator is a compound Funda-
mental o-
Fraction.
quantity, may be diſtinguiſhed into parts, by dividing mental -
perations.
Rule. Multiply the given integer by any quantity for the original denominator, and uniting the new frac-
the numerator into ſeveral parts, and ſetting each over perations.
a numerator, and ſet that quantity under the pro-
tions (reduced if neceſſary) by the ſigns of their nu-
duct for a denominator.
a²b²
Thus, a
a+b=
-2ab-tb
2ab ba
ba
Thus,
merators.
ina
?
a?
11
-bt
mi
0_b.
22
20
2a
20
2
28.
.
X
с
a, c, e
2.
Y
Gor. Hence, in the following operations concerning
fractions, an integer may be introduced; for, by this
problem, it may be reduced to the form of a fraction.
PROB. VI. To multiply Fractions.
The denominator of an integer is generally made 1.
Rule. Multiply their numerators into one another, to
PROB. IV. To reduce Fractions with different Denomi obtain the numerator of the product; and the deno-
nators to Fractions of equal Value, that ſhall have the minators, multiplied into one another, mall give the
Same Denominator.
denominator of the product.
Rule
. Multiply cach numerator, ſeparately taken into Ex. x= d.
atb
- b
a-1
cd.
the denominators into one another, and the product For, if is to be multiplied by c, the product is com
ſhall give the common denominator.
but if it is to be multiplied only by the former pro.
Example.. Let the fractions be
to a f
they are
du& muſt be divided by d, and it becomes Cor.
reſpectively equal to
adf, bof, bạe.
bdf bdf bdfan
to the preceding problem.)
The reaſon of the operation appears from the prece Or, let am, and 3. Then azbm, and cædn,
ding propoſition ; for the numerator and denominator
of each fraction are multiplied by the ſame quantities; and ac=bdmn, and (mn=) x2 = bd.
and the value of the fractions therefore is the ſame,
PROB. V. To add and fubtract Fractionsan,
PROB. VII. To divide Fractions..
Rule. Reduce them to a common denominator, then
add or fubtract the numerators ; and the ſum or dif- Rule.
Rule. Multiply the numerator of the dividend by the
ference ſet over the common denominator is the ſum denominator of the diviſor; their product thall give
or remainder required.
the numerator of the quotient. Then multiply the
denominator of the dividend by the numerator of
Ex. Add together any comes the fun is adf+chf+bde
the divifor, and their product thall give the denomi-
6df
adbo
From , ſubt. Ở the difference is
Or, Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the di-
bd.
viſor ; the product will be the quotient wanted,
From the nature of diviſion:iť is evident, that, when
а\c7bc b
Thus,
keveral.quantities are to be divided by the ſame divi-
ad d
for, the ſum of the quotients is the ſame with the quo-.
tient of the ſum of the quantities divided by that con For, if, is to be divided by a, the quotient is
,
mon diviſor.
da
In like manner, the difference of two fractions ha-
ving the ſame denominator, is equal to the difference of but is to be divided, not by a, but by; therefore
, ;
the numerators divided by that common denominator: the former quotient muſt be multiplied by b, and it
bc
Cor. 1., By Cor. Prob. 3. integers may be reduced is
to the form of fractions, and hence integers and frac-
da.
tions may be added and ſubtracted by this rule. Hence
alſo what is called a mixt quantity may be reduced in Or, let =m, anda=n; then asom, and cdn ;
to the formo f a fraction, by bringing the integral part
bdn
bc
a ;
as the fractional part, and adding or ſubtracting the
bdm
mad.
numerators according as the two parts are connected
by the figns + or -
Scholium.
bdc;
2_62
Thu 6+ = and
By theſe problems, the four fundamental operations
may be performed, when any terms of the original
2ą-a' tb_a* +63
quantities, or of thoſe which arife in the courſe of the
operation, are fractional.
Ex-
to a
nator.
sa sex
C
2
C
n
3 and a
20
24
24
Ford
406
Part. I.
ALGE B R A.
Of Propor
tion.
22° tu
1
ta
2
2x2
2x3
1
Q
maxi**
-ax-
273
2* 3
244
a
a²
2*4
+
al
C
Example
Gor. 1. Of four arithmetical proportionals, any of Propor-
Mult.
зах
tion.
three being given, the fourth may be found.
2* 26
ab
By
Thus, let a, b, c, be the iſt, 2d, and 4th terms, and
44
3*
let x be the third which is fought.
Then by def. atb+x, and xza+c-b.
3
бах •
Prod.
6x9
6
Cor. 2. If three quantities be arithmetical propor-
tionals, the ſum of the extremes is double of the mid-
a tax):24+*2 (a-*+
&c.
dle term ; and hence, of three ſuch proportionals, any
a’ tax
two being givery, the third may be found.
2. Of Geometrical Proportion.
Definition. If of four quantities, the quotient of the
firſt and ſecond is equal to the quotient of the third
2X*
and fourth, theſe quantities are ſaid to be in geometri-
2** *2*3
cal proportion. They are alſo called proportionalso
Thus, if a, b, c, d, are the four quantities, then
ca
and their ratio is chas denoted'a :b::C:d.
Cor. Three quantities may be geometrical propor-
tionals, viz. by ſuppoſing the two middle terms of the
four to be equal. If the quantities area, b, c, then
=, and the proportion is expreſſed thus, a : 6:c.
&c.
Prop. I. The product of the extremes of four quan-
tities geometrically proportional is equal to the pro-
This quotient becomes a ſeries, of which the law duct of the means; and converſely.
of continuation is obvious, without any farther opera-
Let a:b::c:d.
tion.
In ſuch caſes, when we arrive at a remainder ofone Then by Def. =
term, it is commonly ſet down with the diviſor below
it, after the other terms of the quotient, which then
and multiplying both by bd, ad=bc.
becomes a mixt quantity.. Thas the laſt quotient is If ad=bc, then dividing by bd, p=that is,
alſo expreſſed by --*+
2x?
4:b::cd.
atx
Gor. I. The product of the extremes of three quan-
CHAP. II.
tities, geometrically proportional, is equal to the ſquare
of the middle term.
Of Proportion.
Cor. 2. Of four quantities geometrically proportion-
By the preceding operations quantities of the ſame al, any three being given, the fourth may be found.
kind may be compared together.
The relation ariſing from this compariſon is called Let it be x, then a : 6::c:x, and by this propoſition,
Ex. Let a, b, c, be the three firſt: to find the 4th.
ratio or proportion, and is of two kinds. If we confi-
ax-bc
der the difference of the two quantities, it is called
bc
arithmetical proportion; and if we conſider their quo- and dividing both by a, x=
tient, it is called geometrical proportion. This last be-
ing moſt generally uſeful, is commonly called ſimply This coincides with the Kule of Three in arithme.
proportion.
tic, and may be conſidered as a demonſtration of it.
I. Of Arithmetical proportion.
In applying the rule to any particular caſe, it is only
to be obſerved, that the quantities muſt be ſo connect-
Definition. When of ſour quantities the difference of ed and ſo arranged, that they be proportional, accord-
the firſt and ſecond is equal to the difference of the ing to the preceding definition.
third and fourth, the quantities are called arithmetical
Cor. 3. Of three geometrical proportionals, any two
proportionals.
being given, the third may be found.
Cor. Three quantities may be arithmetically propor-
Prop. II. If four quantities be geometrically pro-
tional, by ſuppoſing the two middle terms of the four
to be equal.
portional, then if any equimultiples whatever be taken
of the firſt and third, and alſo any equimultiples what-
Prop. In four quantities arithmetically proportion- ever of the ſecond and fourth ; 'if the multiple of the
al, the ſum of tlie extremes is equal to the ſum of firſt be greater than that of the ſecond, the multiple of
the means.
the third will be greater than that of the fourth ; and
Let the four be a, b, c, d. Therefore from Def. if equal, equal; and if lefs, leſs.
-bcd; to theſe add bud and etd-btc
For, let a, b, c, d, be the four proportionals. Of
the
A
t
Part I.
ALGE E B R A.
407
tions.
3x-
+
*3
Df Equa. the firſt and third, ma and mic may repreſent any equi and is expreſſed by placing the ſign = between of Equa-
tions. multiples whatever, and alſo nó, nd, mày repreſent them.
any equimultiples of the ſecond and fourth. Since 2. When a quantity ſtands alone upon one ſide of an
aibi: 0:d, ad=bc; and hence multiply by mn, equation, the quantities on the other ſide are ſaid to
minad=mnbc, and therefore (Conv. Prop. 1.) be a value of it. Thus in the equation x=b+y-d,
ma : nb : : mc: nd; and from the definition of pro x ſtands alone on one ſide, and 6+y-d is a value
portionals, it is plain, that if ma is greater than nb, of it.
mc muſt be greater than nd; and if equal, equal ; and 3. When an unknown quantity is made to ſtand alone
if-lefs, leſs.
on one ſide of an equation, and there are only knowiz
quantities on the other, that equation is ſaid to be
Prop. III. If four quantities are proportionals, they reſolved ; and the value of the unknown quantity is
will alſo be proportionals when taken alternately or in called a root of the equation.
verſely, or by compoſition, or by diviſion, or by con 4. Equations containing only one anknown quantity
verſion. See Def. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. of Book V. of and its powers, are divided into orders, according to
Euclid, Simfon's edition.
the higheſt power of tlie unknown quantity to be
By Prop. II. they will alſo be proportionals accord found in any of its ternis.
ing to Def. 5. Book V. of Euclid ; and therefore this Ifthehigheſt power of iſt, The E-C Simple,
propoſition is demonſtrated by propoſitions 16, B. 18,
the unknownquanti-3d, quation Qiladratic,
17, E, of the ſame book.
ty in any term be the ) 3d,&c. Sis called Gebic, &c.
- Otherwiſe algebraically.
But the exponents of the unknown quantity are fup-
Let : b::cid, and therefore ad=bc.
poſed to be integers, and the equation is ſuppoſed to
Altern. a:0::6:d
be cleared of fractions, in which the unknown quanti-
Invert. 6:a::d:c
ty, or any of its powers, enter the denominators.
Divid. a=b: 6::cod:d
5
Thus, tas
Comp.
=
a+b:6::c+d:d
is a fimple equation ; 3x2=12,
Convert. a:a_b::8:0-d
when cleared of the fraction by multiplying both
For ſince ad=bc, it is obvions, that in each of theſe fides by 2x, beconies 6x? —5=24* a quadratic.
caſes the product of the extremes is equal to the pro 2x4=*'-20 is an equation of the ſixth order, &c.
duct of the means ; the quantities are therefore pro-
As the general relations of quantity which may be
portionals. (Prop. I.)
treated of in algebra, are almoſt univerſally either that
of equality, or ſuch as may be reduced to that of e-
Prop. IV. If four numbers be proportionals, accorde quality, the doctrine of equations becomes one of the
ing to Def. 5. B. V. of Euclid, they will be geome- chief branches of the ſcience.
trically proportional, according to the preceding defi The moſt common and uſeful application of algebra
nition,
is in the inveſtigation of quantities that are unknown,
1ſt, Let the four numbers be integers, and let them from certain given relations to each other, and to ſuch
be a, b, c, d. Then if b times 4 and 6 times c be ta as are known; and hence it has been called the analye
ken, and alſo a times b and a times de fince ba the tical art. The equations employed for expreſling theſe
multiple of the firſt is equal to ab the multiple of the relations muſt therefore contain one or more unknowil
ſecond, bc the multiple of the third, muſt be equal to quantities, and the principal buſineſs of this art will
ad the multiple of the fourth. And ſince bzad, by be, the deducing equations containing only one un-
Prop. 1. a, b, c, and d, muſt be geometrical proporti- known quantity, and reſolving then.
onals.
The ſolution of the different orders of equations will
2dly, If any of the numbers be fractional, all the be ſucceſſively explained. The preliminary roles in the
four being multiplied by the denominators of the frac- following ſection are uſeful in all orders, and are alone
tions, they continue proportionals, according to Def. 5. Sufficient for the ſolution of ſimple equations.
B. V. Euclid (by Prop. 4. of that book); and the
four integer quantities produced being ſuch propor-
§ 1. Of ſimple Equations, and their Refolution.
tionals, they will be geometrical proporcionals, by the Simple equations are reſolved by the four fundamen-
firſt part of this prop. ; and therefore, being reduced tal operations already explained ; and the application
by diviſion to their original form, they manifeſtly will of them to this purpoſe is contained in the following
remain proportionals, according to the algebraicat de rules,
finition,
Rul 1. Aìy quantity may be tranſpoſed from one fide
of an equation to the other, by changing its ſign.
CH A P. III.
Thus, if 3x~1022x+5
Then, 3x-2x=10+5 or x=15
Sect. I. Of Equations in general, and of the Solution Thus alfo, 5x+b=a+2x
of ſimple Equationsa
By tranſp. 3x samb.
Definitions.
This rule is obvious from prob. I. and 2. ; for it is
equivalent to adding equal quantities to botli fides of
I. An Equation may in general be defined to be a the equation, or to ſubtrading equal quantities from
propoſition.afferting the equality of two quantities; both lides.
Gora,
408
AL LG E B R A.
Part I.
Of Equa-
tions.
Of Equa-
tions.
84
R. 2.
Cor. The ſigns of all the terms of an equation may
Or ? 7484
be changed into the contrary figns, and it will continue
to be true.
*==
Rule 2. Any quantity by which the unknown quan:
III.
tity is multiplied may be taken away, by dividing
all the other quantities of the equation by it.
If 5+2416
Thus, if ax=5
b
R. 3. 2+9=64
Alſo, if mxtrb=anı
R. 3. 20+9x=64x
nb
2055*
xta
20
R. I.
20
'R. 2.
m
55 II
X X
ax_beck
ac
For if equal quantities are divided by the ſame
quantity, the quotients are equal.
§ 2. Solution of Queſtions producing ſimple Equations.
Rule 3. If a term of an equation is fractional, its de-
From the reſolution of equations we obtain the re-
nominator may be taken away, by multiplying all
folution of a variety of uſeful problems, both in pure
the other terms by it.
mathematics and phyſics, and alſo in the practical arts
b
founded upon theſe ſciences. In this place, we con-
Thus, if ==b+c
Alſo, if a SC
ſider the application of it to thoſe queſtions where the
x=ab+ac
quantities are expreſſed by numbers, and their magni-
tude alone is to be conſidered.
And by tranſ. ax-x==b
6
When an equation, containing only one unknown
And by div. x=
quantity, is deduced from the queſtion by the follow-
ing rules, it is ſometimes called a final equation. If it
For if all the terms of the equation are multiplied by be limple, it may be reſolved by the preceding rules;
the ſame quantity, it remains a true propoſition. but if it be of a ſuperior order, it muſt be reſolved by
the rules afterwards to be explained. The examples in
Corollary to the three laſt Rules.
this chapter are ſo contrived, that the final equation
If any quantity be found oir both ſides of the equa-
may be ſimple.
tion, with the ſame fign, it may be taken away from The rules given in this ſection for the ſolution of
both. (Rule 1.)
queſtions, though they contain a reference to fimple
Alſo, if all the terms in the equation are multiplied equations only, are to be conligered as general, and as
or divided by the ſame quantity, it may be taken out applicable to queſtions which produce equations of any
of them all. (Rule 2. and 3:)
order.
Ex. If 3x+asatb, then 3x=6.
General Rule. The unknown quantities in the queſtion
If 2ax+3ab=ma+a, then 2x+36-nta.
propoſed muſt be expreſſed by letters, and the rela-
4
If
--
tions of the known and unknown quantities con-
3 30 31
tained in it, or the conditions of it, as they are call-
ed, muſt be expreſſed by equations. Theſe equa-
Any ſimple equation may be reſolved by theſe rules
tions being reſolved by the rules of this ſcience, will
in the following manner. iſt, Any fractions may be
give the anſwer of the queſtion.
taken away by R. 3. 2dly, All the terms including
the unknown quantity, may be brought to one ſide of For example, if the queſtion is concerning two num-
the equation, and the known terms to the other, by bers, they may be called x and y, and the conditions
R. 1. Laſtly, If the unknown quantity is multiplied from which they are to be inveſtigated inuſt be expreſo
by any known quantity, it may be made to ſtand alone ſible by eqviations.
by R. 2.and the equation willthen be reſolved. Def.3. Thus, if it be required that the
Examples of ſimple Equations refolved by thefe Rules. fum of two numbers fought
x+y=60
be 6o, that condition is ex-
I.
preſled thus
If 3x+5=x+9
If their difference muſt be 24, then xy24
R. 1. 2x4
If their product is 1640, then xy=1640
4
R. 2. x=
If their quotient muft be 6, then
6
If their ratio is as 3 to 2, then
II.
2x38
*:y:: 3: 2, and therefore
If 5x–5x+12=+26
Thefe are ſome of the relations which are nioſt edo
fily exprefled. Many others occur which are leſs ob
5* _ 44 =14
R. I. 5*
vious; but as they cannot be deſcribed in particular
3
rules, the algebraical expreſſion of them is beſt explain-
R. 3. 30x15%-8x=84
cd by examples, and muſt be acquired by experience.
А
2
2
go
2
i
Part I.
409
A LG G E E B R
B R A.
ra
2
Z
Z
IZ
212100
}
}
-TOO
felf
4
I00-
162-3700
I00-
162-3700
Of Equa. A diſtinct conception of the nature of the queſtion, added a half, a third part, and a fourth part of it. Of Equa-
tions. and of the relations of the ſeveral quantities to which ſelf, the ſum will be 50.
tions.
it refers, will generally lead to the proper method of
Let it be %: then half of it is a third of it &c.
ſtating it, which in effect may be conſidered only as a
3
tranſlation from common language into that of alge-
Therefore, % +
bra.
of-t50
3 4
Cafe I. When there is only one unknown quantity to
242 +122 +82 +6z=1200
be found.
50Z 1 200
Rule. An equation involving the unknown quantity
2-24
muſt be deduced from the queſtion (by the general
If the opertaion be more complicated, it may be
rule). This equation being reſolved by the rules.of uſeful to regiſter the ſeyeral ſteps of it, as in the fol-
the laſt ſection, will give the anſwer.
lowing
It is obvious, that, when there is only one unknown Examp. 2. A trader allows L.100 per annum for the
quantily, there muſt be only one independent equation expences of his family, and augments yearly that
contained in the queſtion; for any other would be un part of his dock which is not ſo expended by a third
neceſſary, and might be contradictory to the former. of it; at the end of three years his original ſtock
Examp. I. To find a number, to which if there be was doubled. What had he at firit ?
Let his firſt ſtock be
Of which he ſpends the firſt year L.100, and
there remains
This remainder is increaſed by a third of it-
42-400
32-100+
3
3
The ſecond year he ſpends L.100, and there? 42-400
42-700
remains
3
3
He increaſes the remainder by one-third of
162-2800
42-700+42-700
it
S
3
9
9
The third year he ſpends L.100, and there? roz_-2800
τος
reniains,
9
9
He increaſes it by one-third
162-3700 642-14800
9
27
27
But at the end of the third year his ſtock is 642–14800
doubled; therefore
8
27
By R.. 3.
9642–14300=542
By R. I.
10102=14800
By R. 2.
IIZ=1480
Therefore his ſtock was L.1480; which being tried, tion, under two different forms, from which no folus
anſwers the conditions of the queſtion.
tion can be derived.
Caſe II. When there are two unknown quantities. Examp. 3. Two perſons, A and B, were talking of
their ages : ſays A to B, Seven years ago I was juſt
Rule. Two independent equations involving the two
three times as old as you were, and ſeven years
unknown quantities, muſt be derived from the queo hence I ſhall be juſt twice as old as you will be. I
ſtion. A value of one of the unknown quantities demand their preſent ages.
muſt be derived from each of the equations: and
theſe two values being put equal to each other, a Let the ages of A
new equation will ariſe, involving only one unknown
and B be reſpec 1 x and y
quantity, and may therefore be reſolved by the pre-
tively
ceding rule.
Seven years ago?
2 *-7 and y-7
they were
Two equations muſt be deduced from the queſtion :
for, from
one including two unknown quantities, it is Seven years hence
3 +7 and y +7
plaisi, a known value of either of them cannot be ob-
they will be
Therefore by Que. ?
tained, more than two equations would be unneceffa-
I. and 2.
4 *-7=3xy-73-21
ry; and if any third condition were aſſumed at plea-
Alſo by Queſt. 2.
ſure, moſt probably it would be inconſiſtent with the
5x+7=2XY+7=2y-tild
other two, and a queſtion containing three ſuch con-
ditions would be abfurd.
By 4. and tranſp. 6 * =33-14
It is to be obſerved, however, that the two condi-
By 5. and tranſp. 7 x=2y +7
ticams, and hence the two equations expreſſing them,
By 6. and 7. 8139-14=2y +7
9ly21
npuſt be independent ; that is, the one muſt not be de: Tranſp. and 8.
ducible from the other by any algebraical reaſoning :
By 9. and 6. or 7. 10 *=49
for, otherwiſe, there would in effect be only one equa- The ages of A and B then are 49 and 21, which an-
Vol. I,
{wer the conditions.
SF
The
- 22
1
and 3.
410
A L G E B R A.
Part I.
tions.
I
*****
X to y
3ő +
= 34
4
68 リース
​4 V
11
2
IIZ
+
2
2
8 and 9
IO
2
12
I
Of Equa-
The operation might have been a little ſhortened by independent equations may be derived from a queſtion of Equa-
tions.
ſubtracting the 4th from 5th, and thus 14 =-y+35; as there are unknown quantities in it, theſe quantities
and hence y=21. therefore (by 6th) *= (33–14) may be found by the reſolution of equations.
49.
Examp. 6. To find three numbers, ſo that the firſt,
Examp. 4. A gentleman diſtributing money among with half the other two, the ſecond with one third
ſome poor people, found he wanted sos. to be able of tlie other two, and the third with one fourth of
to give 5 s. to cach; therefore he gives each 45. on-
the other two, may each be equal to 34.
ly and finds he has 5 s. left. To find the number
Let the numbers be, x,y,z, and the equations are
of ſhillings and poor people.
itz
X
If any queſtion ſuch as this, in which there are two
= 34
2
quantities fought, can be reſolved by means of one let-
*十多
​ter, the ſolution is in general more ſimple than when
= 34
3
two are employed. There muſt be, however, two inl-
dependent conditions ; one of which is uſed in the no-
tation of one of the unknown quantities, and the other
gives an equation.
From the iſt
Let the number of poor be
From the ad 5 * = 102—37-
The number of Billings will be 252-10
From the 3d
6x=136-42~Y
The number of ſhillings is alſo 3.42 +- 5
68-3-2
By 2. and 3.
452 -10=42+5. From 4th and 5th 7
= 102-3yZ
Tranſp.
5,2 =15.
7th reduced
136_2
The number of poor therefore is 15, and the num-
8 y
5
ber of ſhillings is (42 +5=) 65, which anſwer the
32-34
conditions.
5=6, and reduced
91y =
Examp. 5. A courier fets out from a certain place, and
32-34_136_2
travels at the rate of 7 miles in 5 hours; and 8 hours
5
after, another ſets out from the ſame place, and tra I oth reduced
II 152-170272-22
vels the ſame road,, at the rate of 5 miles in 3 hours:
172 = 442 or £ = 26
I demand how long and how far the firſt muſt travel By 8 and 5
y = 22 and x =10
before he is overtaken by the ſecond ?
Let the number of hours
Examp. 7. To find a number conſiſting of three places,
which the firſt travelled be
whoſe digits are in arithmetical proportion ; if this
Then the ſecond travelled
2 3-8
number be divided by the ſum of its digits, the quo-
The firſt travelled ſeven
tient will be 48 ; and if from the numşer be ſub-
miles in 5 hours, and 31 (5:7::y:) 7ymiles tracted 198, the digits will be inverted,
therefore in y hours
5
Let the 3 digits bel 116, y, z
In like manner the ſecond
travelled in y--8 hours
1|(3:5::7–8:159—40 Then the number
miles
3
is
2100x + 1oy tz
But they both travelled the
73
If the digits be
ſame number of miles ;
5y-40
5
inverted,itis
3110O2 + joy + x
therefore by 3. and 4.
3 5
The digits are
Muli.
6251 - 200 =21 y
4x + 2y
Tranſp.
7
therefore
Divida
8
Ju 50
100x + Toy+%
The firſt then travelled 50 hours, the ſecond By queſtion
= 48
tytz
(3-8=) 42 hours.
By queſtion 6100x + 10j +2-198=10QZ
79
5- 40
The iniles, travelled by each
,
70.
troy fox
5
3
From 6 and tranf. 799x=992+198
Sraz + 2
Cafe III. When there are three or more unknown From 4
9 * = 2y—2
quantities.
102j-Zemer Z + 2
Illy=2+1
Rule. When there are three unknown quantities, there Tranſp.
muſt be three independent equations ariſing from the Mult. 5
12,100x+10y +2=48x+48y + 48z
13
52x = 38y + 472
quefiion ; and from each of theſe a value of one of Tranſp.
8 and 11 ſubſtit.
the unknoryn quantities muſt be obtained. By com-
for x and y
14
522 + 104= .82 +38 +- 472
paring theſe three valics, two cquations will ariſe,
IS
involving only two unknown quantities, which may Tranſp.
therefoie be reſolved by the rule for Caſe 2.
Divid.
16
y = (2+1=) 3
In like inanner may the rule be extended to fuch
x=2+2=) 4
queſtions as contain four or more unknown quantities;
The number then is 432, whicla ſucceeds upon trial,
and hence it may be inferred, That, when juſt as many
EL
in ar. prop.
49 - 200
5
Divid. by 99
8 and 9
332 = 66
7 2
Part I.
A L G E B R A.
411
tion,
tions.
ست زد
Of Equa-
It ſometimes happens, that all the unknown quan. part, the given quantities (being numbers) diſappear of Equa-
tities, when there are more than two, are not in all in the laſt conclulion, ſo that no general rules for like
the equations expreſſing the conditions; and therefore caſes can be deduced from them. But if letters are
ilie preceding rule cannot be literally followed. The uſed to denote the known quantities, as well as the
ſolucion, however, will be obtained by ſuch ſubſtitu- unknown, a general ſolution may be obtained, becauſe,
tions as are uſed in Ex. 7. and 9. or by ſimilar opera- during the whole courſe of the operation, they retain
tions, which need not be particularly deſcribed. their original form. Hence alſo the connection of the
Corollary to the preceding Rules.
quantities will appear in ſuch a manner as to diſcover
the neceſſary limitations of the data, when there are
It appears that, in any queſtion, there muſt be as
any, which is elſential to the perfect folution of a pro-
many independent equations as uukuown quantities; blem. From this method, too, it is eaſy to derive a
if there are not, then the queſtion is called in detei qui- ſynthetical demonſtration of the ſolution.
nate, becauſe it may admit of an infinite number of
When letters, or any other ſuch ſymbols, are em-
anſwers ; ſince the equations wancing may be allumed ployed to expreſs all the quantities; the algebra is ſome-
at pleaſure. There may be other circunſtances, hotin times called Specious or literal.
ever, to limit the anſwers to one, or a preciſe number,
and which, at the famc time, cannot be directly ex Examp. 8. To find two numbers, of which the fum
preſſed by equations. Such are theſe, that the num-
and difference are given.
bers muſt beintcgers, ſquares, cubes, and many others.
The ſolution of ſuch problems, which are alſo called Lets be the given ſun, and d the given difference.
diophantine, ſhall be conſidered afterwards.
Alſo, let x and y be the two numbers ſought.
Scholiuiiz.
*tus
On many occaſions, by particular contrivances, the
25
operations by the preceding rules may be much abrid. Whence
x=1-tay
ged. This however, muſt be left to the ſkill and practice
d sy
of the learner. A few examples are the following.
1. It is often eaſy to employ fewer letters than there
sad
are unknown quantities, by expreſſing ſome of them
ソニー
​from a ſimple relation to others contained in the con-
std
ditions of the queſion. Thus, the ſolution becomes
more eaſy and elegant. (See Ex. 4. 5.)
2. Sometimes it is convenient to expreſs by letters, Thus, let the given ſum be 100, and the difference 24.
not the unknown quantities themſelves, but ſome o-
std 124
.d 76
ther quantities connected with them, as their fum, Then me
62&j=
difference, &c. from which they may be eaſily derived.
(See Ex. I. of chap. 5.)
In the ſame manner may the canon be applied to a-
In the operation alſo, circumſtances will fuggeſt a ny other values of sand d. By reverſing the ſteps in
more eaſy road than that pointed out by the general the operation, it is eaſy to flow, that if x=
rules. Two of the original equations may be added
together, or may be ſubtracted ; ſometiines they muſt sad
be previonly multiplied by ſome quantity, to render =
the ſum of x and y muſt be s, and their dif-
ſuch addition or ſubtraction effectual, in exterminating ference d.
one of the unknown quantities, or otherwiſe promo-
the .
values of quantities, in place of quantities theinſelves, Examp. 9. If A and B together can perform a piece
of work in the time a, A and C together in the
and various other ſuch contrivances inay be uſed, which
time b, and B and C together in the time c, in what
will render the ſolution much leſs complicated. (See
time will each of them perform it aloiie ?
Ex. 3. 7. and o.)
Let A perform the work in the time , B in y, and
SECT. II. General Solution of Problems.
C in z; then as the work is the ſame in all caſes, il
In the ſolutions of the queſtions in the preceding may be repreſented by unity.
3 F2
21-d
2
And x
2
S
=) 38.
2
2
stod and
2
:,
412
Part I.
A LG E BR A.
of Equa-
tions.
d
200
b
Ela
-=-)
---
X
b
to the work performed by
nomen
2
Z
r
X
than psa
1 x
с
C
+
y
א |
B410
+
ас
1
(1)
*:1::a:)
If particular values be inſerted for thoſe letters, a Of Involu-
A in a days
particular ſolution will be obtained for that cafe. Let tion and
them denote the numbers in Example 5.
Evolution,
2 (:1
1::a:
B in a days
Y
Then x
qra 5 X 5 X 8
50.
3(4:1::6:)
A in b days
qr - ps 5X 57 X 3 4
Here it is obvious, that gr muſt be greater than ps,
4(2:1::b:)
C in 6 days elſe the problem is impoflible ; for then the value of
x would either be infinite or negative. This,limita-
5(:1::C:
B in c days
tion appears alſo from the nature of the queſtion, as
By the queſtion
the ſecond courier muſt trarel at a greater rate than
the firſt, in order to overtake him. For the rate of
6|(:1::6:
c:)
G in c days
the firſt courier is to the rate of the ſecond as to
ๆ
rs
tai and ay + ax= xy that is, as pis to qr; and thcrefore qr muſt be greater
6 6
8 + I and bz + bxsxx
Scholiuni.
Sometimes when there are many known quantities
9
í and cz towy Zy in a general ſolution, it may ſimplify the operation to
labc abc
expreſs certain coinbinations of them by new letters,
Mult. 7th by
bc
ſtill to be conſidered as known,
3
*
labc abc
Mult. 8th by aII
CH A P. IV.
X2
ab labc
abc
Mult. 9th by
I 2 +
Eab
Of Involution and Evolution.
ZI Ý
z
Add 1 oth, 2abc 2abc 2abc
In order to reſolve equations of the higher orders,
I
IIth, 12th,
+
Octo act ab
I
Z
it is neceſſary to premiſe the rules of Involution and
From 13th ſubt.
Evolution.
2abc
2abc
twice 10th 14
-ac-tab-b6&z=
actab
bc
LEMMA.
From 13th ſubt.
2abc
2abc
twice IIth 15
=botabac&y=
The reciprocals of the powers of a quantity may be
ya
bet ab- ac
From 13th ſubt.
expreſſed by that quantity, with negative exponents
2abc
twice 12th
=bct acmab&*
of the ſame denonination. That is, the ſeries a, I,
bct aimab
Example in numbers. Let a= 8 days, b = 2 days, a as a man,
,&c. may be expreſſed by a', a°, 4.--",
23
7
and z 23
a-², A3, A &c.
49
41
For the rule for dividing the powers of the ſaine
It appears likewiſe that a, b, c, muſt be ſuch, that the root was to fubtraét the exponents ; if then the index
product of any two of them muſt be leſs than the ſum of the diviſor be greater than that of the dryidend, the
of theſe two multiplied by the thirt. This is necef index of the quotient muſt be negative.
ſary to give poſitive values of x, y, and 2, which alone
a'
can take place in this queſtion. Belides, if x, y, and 4 Thus,
=.
be aſſumed as any known numbers whatever, and if
values of a, b, and c be deduced from ſteps 7th, 8ih,
m cai. And,
I. and ſo on of others.
and 9th, of the preceding operation, it will appear,
that a, b, and c will have the property required in the
Cor. 1. Hence any quantity which multiplies either
limitation here mentioned.
If a, b, and c were fuch. that any of the quantities, the numerator or denominator of a fraction, may be
x,y, and z, became equal to o, it implies that one of tranſpoſed from one to the other, by changing the
the agents did nothing in the work. If the values of ſign of its index.
any of theſe quantities be negative, the only ſuppofi-
* *
Thus,
xy-?, And
&c.
tion which could give them any meaning would be, y?
y 3
that ſome of the agents, inſtead of promoting the
work, either obſtructed it, or undid it to a certain ex-
Cor. 2. From this notation, it is evident that theſe
negative powers, as tliey are called, are niultiplied by
adding, and divided by ſubtracting their exponents.
Examp. 1o. In queſtion 5th, let the firſt courier tra.
Thus. am? x 0.3=AS.
vel p miles in g hours ; the ſecond r miles in s hours;
let the interval between their ſetting out be a,
Or,
Then by working as formerly,
qra
a? Or,
ga
qr-ps
162abc
X
I
I
I
I
39
12
31
a?
T
23
l
2
om
A
A
will appear, q=am_=a•.
am
tent.
I
I
I
Х
a 3
5
& S
a.
I
Hea
Simom 3
663
A
1
1. Of
Part I.
A L G E BRA.
413
in
Of Involu-
tion and
Ivolutio',
x
Of Involu-
I. Of Involution.
tion and
The 7th root of c?modx, is vc?
Evolution.
To find any power of any quantity is the buſineſs
of involution,
General Rule for the Signs.
Cafe 1. When the quantity is ſimple. 1. The root of any poſitive power may be either poſi-
tive or negative, if it is denominated by an even
Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the in-
number; if the root is denominated by an odd num-
dex of the power required, and raiſe the coefficient
ber, it is poſitive only,
to the ſume power.
2. If the power is negative, the root alfu is negative,
Thus, the ad power of a is a' X'za?
when it is denominated by an odd number.
The 3d power of 2a’ is 8a’X3=826
3. If the power is regative, and the denomination of
The 3d powerof zab3 is 272' X263x3=27a3b).
the root even, then no root can be aſſigned.
For the multiplication would be performed by the This rule is eaſily deduced from that given in irvo-
continued addition of the exponents; and this multi- lution, and ſuppoſes the ſame extenſive uſe of the ſigns
plication of them is equivalent. The fame rule holds tand. If it is applied to abſtract quantities in
alſo when the ſigns of the exponents are negative. which a contrariety cannot be ſuppoſed, any roul of
Rule for the figns. If the fign of the given quantity of a negative quantity, like itſelf, is unintelligible.
a poſitive quantity muſt be poſitive only; and any root
is +, all its powers muſt be politive. If the fign
then all its powers whoſe exponents are even
In the laſt caſe, though no root can be affigued, yet
is
numbers are poſitive; and all its powers whoſe ex.
ſometimes it is convenient to ſei the radical ſign before
the negative quantity, and then it is called an impoſible
ponents are odd numbers are negatire.
or imaginary root.
This is obvious from the rule for the ſigns in multi The root of a poſitive power, denominated by an
plication.
even number, has often the ſigns before it,denoting
The laſt part of it implies the moſt extenſive uſe of that it may have either tor-,
the figns + and ---, by ſuppoſing that a negative The radical ſign may be einployed to expreſs any
qnantity may exiſt by itſelf.
loot of any quantity whatever ; but ſometimes the root
Cafe 2. When the quantity is compound.
may be accurately found by the following rules; and
when it cannot, it may often be more conveniently ex-
Rile. The powers muſt be found by a continual mul- preſſed by the methods now to be explained.
tiplication of it by itſelf.
Cafe I. When the quantity is ſimple.
Thus, the ſquare of x+ is found by multiplying Rule. Divide the exponents of the letters by the in-
it into itſelf. The product is x taxt The cube
dex of the root required, and prefix the root of the
numeral coefficient.
4
of *+ is got by multiplying the ſquare already I. The exponents of the letters may be multiples of
the index of the root, and the root of the coefficient
found by the root, &c.
may be extracted.
Fractions are raiſed to any power, by raiſing both
numerator and denominator to that power, as is evi Thus, the ſquare root of a4=0
ai-ta
dent for the rule for multiplying fractions in Chap. I.
§ 2.
1272* = zai = 3a
The involution of compound quantities is rendered
fruch eaſier by the binonrinal theorem ; for which fee
Vazbiaraibeabs.
Clap. VI.
2. The exponents of the letters may not be multi-
Note. The fqcare of a binominal conliſts of the ples of the index of the root, and then they become
{quares of two parts, and twice the product of the fractions; and when the root of the coefficient cannot
be extracted, it may alſo be expreſſed by a fractional
exponent, its original index being underſtood to be 1.
II. Of Evolution.
Evolution is the reverſe of involution, and by it Thus, V16a3b1 = 44*6
powers are reſolved into their roots.
Tax? = y; aix= Pixašx.
Def. The root of any quantity is expreſſed by placing
before it (called a radical ſign) with a ſmall fi-
As evolution is the reverſe of involution, the reaſon
gure above it, denoting the denomination of that of the rule is evident.
The root of any fraction is found by extracting that
root out of both numerator and denominator.
Thus, the ſquare root of a, is vā or pa
Cafe II. When the quantity is compound.
The cube root of be, is j bo
1. To extract the ſquare root.
Rule, 1. The given quantity is to be ranged accord-
The 4th root of a 6-12, is Vab,3
ing to the porvers of the letters, is in diviſion.
Thus,
2
42
2
3
two parts.
3
root.
414
Part I.
A LG
LG E B R A.
Ollnvolua
tion and
Evolution.
대​2
to
20
Ibas'
?
2012
742
Thus, in the example a' +2ab+b, the quantities In evolution it will often happen, that the opera- Of Involu-
are ranged in this inanner.
tion will not términate, and the root will be expreſſed tion and
2. The ſquare root is to be extracted out of the firſt by a ſeries.
Evolution.
term (by preceding rules), u lich gives the first part
of the root ſouglit. Subtract its ſquare froni the Thus, the ſquare root of a' tre becomes a ſeries.
given quantity, and divide the firſt term of the re-
2:ainder by double the part already found, and thic
a tot* (a +
&c.
8a3
quotient is the ſecond terın of the root.
Thus, in this example, the remainder is 2ab4-b2 ;
and 2ab being divided by 22, the double of the part-
found, gives to b for the ſecond part of the root. 22
* * * *
3. Add this ſecond part to double of the firſt, and
multiply their ſum by the ſecond part: Subtract the
produ& from the laſt remainder, and if nothing re-
Hot
main, the ſquarc root is obiained. But, if there is
a remainder, it muſt be divided by the double of the
parts already ſound, and the quotient would give the
2006
third part of the root; and ſo on.
843
In the laſt example, it is obvious, that a+b is the
{quare root fought.
(
8a3
824
The entire operation is as follows.
92 +2ab+b'(
(a+b
*+
&c.
8a4
The extraction of roots by ſeries is inuch facilitated
20+0+2abte
by the binomial theorem (Chap. vi. Sect. 3.) By fi-
2ab4b2
milar rules, founded on the ſame principles, are the
roots of numbers to be extracted.
x
21
4a
44
*
44?
xó
x 8
X
4a?
64020
6
8
a²
6400
20%)+22575
*
*****(-1
a
ge
2
a
1
2
III. Of Surds.
.
Def. Quantities with fractional exponents are calle
ed furds, or imperfeEt powers.
2x?
ax2 +
Such quantities are alſo called irrational; in oppo-
4.
fition to others with integral exponents, which are
called rational.
Х
ax?
4
Surds may be expreſſed either by the fractional ex-
ponents, or by the radical ſign, the denominator of
the fraction being its index; and hence the orders of
The reaſon of this rule appears from the compoſi-
ſurds are denominated from this index.
tion of a ſquare.
In the following operations, however, it is generally
convenient to uſe the notation by the fractional expo-
nents.
2. To extract any other root.
Rule. Range the quantity according to the dimen- aš= Vā. Vqab= = aba?. Vaibazaibi.
fions of its letters, and extract the ſaid root out of
the firſt term, and that ſhall be the firſt member of
The operations.concerning ſurds depend on the fol-
the root required. Then raiſe this root to a dimen- lowing principle: If the numerator and denominator
ſion lower by unity than the number that denomi-
of a fractional exponent be both multiplied or both di-
nates the root required, and multiply the power that vided by the ſame quantity, the value of the power is
ariſes by that number itſelf. Divide the ſecond
the ſame. Thus a" E anc: for let a =b; then
terın of the given quantity by the product, and the amebm, and ame -- buc, and extracting the root nc,
quolient ſhall give the ſecond meinber of the root
required.--In like manner are the other parts to be an engembang = b =
found, by conſidering thoſe already got as making
Leni. Arational quantity may be put into the forni
of a ſurd, by rediicing its index to the form of a frac-
Thus, the fifth root of
tion of the ſame value.
a5+5a4b+-1043b: +10a53 -4-5ab4465 (at)
Thus arai
va
a?b=ašli - Val3
5a* 5016
And a+b raiſed to the 5th power is the given quan. PROB. I. To reduce furds of different denominations to
lily, and therefore it is the root ſonght,
others of the ſame value and of the fame denontination..
Rule.
m
тс
911
m
one ternil.
Sai = sã
25
3
3
Part I.
A L G E B R A.
415
tion and
3
6
6
3
2
Vambo
I
3
my
N
am za
Vaalm
2
Var-62
va_b.
atb
3
3
Of Involu. Rule. Reduce the fractional exponents to others of
OfInyolu.
the ſame value and having the ſame common deno-
PROB. III. To involve or erolve Suliis.
tion and
Evolution.
Evolutior,
minator.
This is performed by the fame rules as in other
quantities, by multiplying or dividing their exponents
Ex. Vā, V or aí, bf
by the index of the power or rcot required.
but atras and bi = 67.
The notation by regative exponents, menioned ili
the lemma at the beginning of this chaper, is appli-
therefore Vā, and Vbo are reſpectively cqual to
cable 10 fractional exponents, in the lalil '
allier 5
to integers.
vas and 764
Scholium.
PROB. II. To multiply and divide furds.
The application of the rules of this chapter to the
1. When they are ſurds of the ſame rational quantity, reſolving of equations, ſhall be explained in the ſuc-
add and ſubtract their exponents.
ceeding chapters, which treat of the ſolution of the dif-
ferent claſſes of them ; but ſome examples of their uſe
Thus, aš xaš=ašti=a}} ="Vats
in preparing equations for a ſolution are the following.
va_b*_**_6114_a_-63;='/a? —6-.
If a member of an equation be a ſurd root, then the
equation may be freed from any furd, by bringing that
a-6
menber firſt to ſtand alone upon one ſide of the equa-
2. If they are ſurds of different rational quantities, let tion, and then taking away the radical figa fron it,
then be brought to others of the ſame denomina and raiſing the other lide to the power denominated by
tion, if already they are not, by prob. I. Then, by the index of that ſurd.
multiplying or dividing theſe rational quantities, Tliis operation becomes a neceſſary ſtep towards the
their product or quotient may be fet under the com-
ſolution of an equation, when any of the unknow'12
mon radical ſign.
quantities are under the radical ſign.
Example. If 3 V**—a: + 2y = a +y
Thus, Vax Vīram,
Then 3V * ----
-6²
and 9xx-a: Fa’—24) +j12
V atb
If the unknown quantity be found only under the
radical fign, and only of the firſt dimension, the equa-
aimsb-s =artoš=
tion will become ſimple, and may be reſolved by the
vab
preceding rules.
az'alt's = Vab?
Thus, if 'V 4x + 16+ 5=9
Then 3V 4x+16= 4
If the furds have any rational coefficients, their
And + +16=6
product or quctient muſt be prefixed. Thus,
4* = 48
a Vinxb Vacab Tn.
It is often convenient,
in the operations of this problem, not to bring the
If "Vaxambox za
ſurds of fimple quantities to the fame denomination,
Then a? Xbia
but to expreſs their product or quotient without the
radical ſign, in the ſame manner as if they were ra-
tional quantities. Thus, the product in Ex. 1. may
be albă, and the quotient in Ex. 3i atibo
If the unknown quantity in a final equation has
fractional exponents, by means of the preceding rules
Cor. If a rational coefficient be prefixed to a radical a new equation may be ſubſtituted, in which the exa
ſign, it may be reduced to the form of a furd by the ponents of the unknown quantity are integers.
lemna, and multiplied by this problem ; and converſe-
ly, if the quantity under the radical lign be diviſible
Thus, if x5 +3.75 510, by reducing the furds to
by a perfc& power of the fame denomination, it may the fame denonination, it becomes to 4 377 =10;
+-
be taken out, and its root prefixed as a coefficient.
and if : 5x7, then 23++ =10; and if this equa-
av = varb; 2x ā= 18a.
tion be refolred from a value of 2, a value of
à value of x may be
Conv. Vabi - ab 5; 4a' -8ab=2avi-26.
got by the rules of the next chapter. Thus alſo, if
Even when the quantity under the radical ſign is not
x + 2x7
3x3 = 100. If xo = 2, this equation be
diviſible by a perfect power, it may be uſeful fome.
comes a 22-324 = 100:
tiines to divide furds into thcir component factors, by In general, if x2 + x
- a, by reducing the furcs
reverſing the operation of this problem.
2
Tlus vub=vaxvā, 3.vutzbox? 3vbambx
to the fame denomination-
119 q
Vautx-bx 311*X3 Va+*
x==%, then the equation is zoa t
a, in which
an
eslie
vazba aib
3
ร
a3 fi
And I2
172
qn
a62
I
I
I
ر
1
I
I
12
172
92".
sa, and if
id
3
I
(2)
416
RA.
A L G E BR
Part I.
Equations, the exponents of z are integers ; and z being found, *
is to be found from the equation x
912
63
63_n
bo
Equations.
X
Am
1
I
I
z.
IN
с
W
а a
*
Am I
M
And * =
2
CH A P. v.
The index of the power may alſo be fractional ; as
EQUATIONS were divided into orders according to in the laſt example 1 may be any number whatever.
the higheſt index of the unknown quantity in any term. Let m=, then as before,
chap. 3.)
bac
Equations are either pure or adfeted.
Front
A- I
Def. 1. A pure equation is that in which only one
b. be
power of the unknown quantity is found.
----2bc toc
2. An adfected equation, is that in which different
Q-11 a 20 tI
powers of the unknown quantity are found in the ſea
Sometimes different powers of the unknown quali-
veral terms.
tity are found in the equation, yet the ſeveral terms
Thus, a' tax? 63, ax?_b2 =mº +xa are pure e may form on one ſide a perfect power, of which the
quations.
root being extracted, the equation will become ſimple.
And.xax=6, 43 * 4? =17, are adfected.
Thus, if *3-1 2*2 + 48x =98, it is eaſy to ob-
ſerve that *3-12x2 + 48*264=34; forming a com-
1. Solution of pure Equations.
plete cube ; of which the root being extracted,
Rule. Make the power of the unknown quantity to *-= 134. And*=4+ V34.
ſtand alone by the rules formerly given, and then ex-
tract the root of the ſame denomination out of both Examp. 1. To find four continued proportionals, of
ſides, which will give the value of the unknown
which the ſuin of the extremes is 56, and the ſum
quantity
of the means 24.
To reſolve the queſtion in general terms, let the ſum
EXAMPLES.
of the extremes be a, the ſum of the means b, and let
If a' taxi =63
axm b= xmc
the difference of the extremes be called z, and the dif-
gamall - b
11 buc
ference of the means y.
Then by Ex. 8. chap. 3.
The proportionals are
2+2 6+3:6): .
Mult. by 2 and ſtill
2la+z: b+y:b-y: a-z
From the three firſt
3 ab-aytb2-zy=b2+2by+y3
Froin the three laſt
3d added to 4th
4ab+ay-bz-2y=6"-2by+y?
52ab-2zy-21° +2y?
4th ſubt. from 3d
6262–2ay=4by
6th reduced
2by+ay
b
7th ſubſt. for zin 5th
8|2ab-2X
b
Tranſp. and divide 8th by
olabi-63 = 3byt-ay®
lab: 63
ab: 63
=y? andy =
3b+a
30t a
9.
32
In numbers
3b+a 3bta
26+a
1212
Xy
exib3
-a²
I
2
2
2
2
9
0
72
2
To
IO
ab: 63
41-
✓
V ม
1212
-240d 128
- 12
Il y =
1
Hence the four proportionals ars 54, 18, 6, 2; and Rule. 1. Tranſpoſe all the terms involving the uti-
ft appears that b muſt be greater than a, otherwiſe known quantity to one ſide, and the known terms
the root becomes in poſſible, and the problem would to the other ; and ſo that the term containing the
alſo be impoſſible ; which limitation might be deduced ſquare of the unknown quantity may be poſitive.
alſo from prop. 25. V. of Euclid.
2. If the ſquare of the unknown quantity is multiplied
by any coefficient, all the terms of the equation are
2. Solution of alfected Quadratic Equations.
to be divided by it, ſo that the coefficient of the
Adfected equations of different orders are reſolved ſquare of the unknown quantity may be I.
by different rules, ſucceſſively to be explained. 3. Add to both ſides the ſquare of half the coefficient
An adfected quadratic equation (coniinonly called a of the unknown quantity itſelf, and the ſide of the
quadratic) involves the unknown quantity itſelf, and equation involving the unknown quantity will be a
alſo its ſquare : It may be reſolved by the following complete ſquare.
4
4. Extract
Part I.
ALGE E B R A.
417
I.
2
a
४ ४ ४
ve
alſo leta
..
✓a
2
X
V-
4
2
а a
ba
8
X
624
1
2
A
4
2
a
624
2
EV
✓
Q?
*
2
Equation. 4. Extract the ſquare rooi from both ſides of the e. for then a negative quantity by itſelf is unintelligible, Equation.
quation, by which it becomes ſimple, and by tranf. and therefore the ſquare root of a poſitive quantity
poſing the abovementioned half coefficient, a value muſt be poſitive only. Hence, in the two firſt caſes,
of the unknown quantity is obtained in known terms, there will be only one root ; but in the third, there
and therefore the equation is reſolved.
will be two. For in this third cafe, *? max obz,
The reaſon of this rule is manifeſt from the compo-
or ax--**=ba, it is obvious that x may be either
lition of the ſquare of a binomial, for it conſiſts of the greater or leſs than 4, and yet ax may be poſitive;
{quares of the two parts, and twice the product of the and hence 2-xXx=ax-x? may alſo be poſitive, and
two parts. (Note, at the end of Chap. IV.)
may be equal to a given politiye quantity bz: therefore
The different forms of quadratic equations, expref- the ſquare root of x-axta may be either %---
xen
ſed in general terms, being reduced by the firſt and fe or amx, and both theſe quantities alſo poſitive.
cond parts of the rule, are theſe;
Let then x ce
ha and x-
+
X? + ax=be
4
2
x?-ax=b
3. x?-axbo
-62, Alco let
d
be; and hence
Caſe I.
** tax=6
4
4
** taxta 62+
:b2+a?
-ba, and theſe are the ſame two politive
4
roots as were obtained by the general rule,
*+== bot
4
The general rule is uſually employed, even in que.
ſtions where negative numbers cannot take place, and
then the negative roots of the two firſt fornis are 110a
4
- glected. Sometimes one only even of ile politive roots
Cafe 2.
* -- ax=b:
of the third caſe can be uſed, and the other may be
x-ax+=68+
excluded by a particular condition in the queſtion.
4
When an impoſſible root ariſes in the folution of a
queſtion, and if it be reſolved in general terms, the
necellary limitation of the data will be diſcovered.
4
When a queſtion can be fo ſtated as to produce a
boot
pare equation, it is generally to be prefer:cd to an ad-
4
fe&ted. Thus the queſtion in the preceding ſection,
x-axニー​・
by the moſt obvious notations would produce an ad-
*Axt
h2
fécted equation,
4
2. Solution of Queſlions producing Quadratic Equations...
4
The expreſſion of the conditions of the queſtion by
equations, or the staring of it, and the reduction like
be
wiſe of theſe equations, till we arrive at a quadratic c-
quation, involving only one unknown quanuity and its
Of theſe caſes it may be obſerved,
1. That if it be ſuppoſed, that the ſquare root of a for the ſolution of ſimple equations in Chap III.
ſquare, are effected by the ſame rules which were given
poſitive quantity may be either poſitive or negative, ac-
cording to the moſt extenſive uſe of the ſigns, every Examp. 2. One lays out a certain ſum of money in
quadratic equation will have two roots, except ſuch of goods, which he ſold again for L.24, and gained as
the third form, whoſo roots become impoffible.
much per cent, as the goods coſt him: I demand
2. It is obvious, that, in the ci'o firſt forms, one of
what they coſt hiin?
the roots inuſt be poſitive, and the other negative.
If the money laid
3. In the third form, if, or the ſquare of half
3
Onze be
4
The gain will be
the coefficientof the unknown quintity, be greater than
24.
But this gain is? 1 3
2400m-Toby
be, the known quantity, the two roots will be poſi-
per celli,
(9:24-: 1100 :)
tive. If a be equal to by, the xwo roots then be-
Therefore by 1413
2400-MICOY
come equal.
queſtion
Ana by mult, and tr. 513*100y = 2400
But if in this third cafea is leſs thau be, the Completing the 6 * +1001 +50=2490+2500
quantity under the radical ſign becomes pegative, and
ſquare
4900
Exer, the roof
the two roots are therefore impoſſible. This may be
737-503V 4900= 70
eaſily ſhown to ariſe from an impoflible ſuppalition, in
Transp.
813= 70—50=20 0120.
the original equation.
The anſwer is 201, which ſucceeds. The other
4. If the equation, however, expreſs the relacion of root, -120, has no place in this example, a neguire
magnitudes abſtractly conſidered, where a contrariety number being here unintelligible.
cannot by ſuppoſed to take place, the negative roots Any quadratic equation may be reſolved alſo by the
cannot be of uſe, or rather there are no Such roots; general canions at the beginning of this ſection. That
VOL. I.
ariſing
Caſe 3.
4
a
2
2
a
VA
2
}
2
I
I'
4
1
}
3 G
41
18
Part I.
B R A.
A L GE
2
TOO
y=(
+1
2
2
1009
3
X 3
2
2
54
2
2
I
121
X
t
15+
IZ
2
I
II
-
7*
1
-3 or
2
-50529
Equations, ariſing from this queſtion, (No. 5.) belongs to Caſe I. By inſerting numbers, **71 or 29 and a--x=29 Equations.
and a=100,62 =2400; therefore,
or 71, ſo that the two numbers fought are 71 and 29.
Here it is to be obſerved, that 6 muſt not be greater
+6?
thana, elſe the roots of the equation would be im-
4
4
poſſible; that is, the given product muſt not be great-
+ 2400 20 or
=
I20 as before,
er than the ſquare of half the given ſum of the nuni-
4
bers fought. This limitation can eaſily be ſhown from
Examp. 3. What two numbers are thoſe, whoſe differ- other principles ; for, the greateſt poſlible product of
-ence is 15, and half of whoſe product is equal to the two parts, into which any number may be divided, is
cube of the leiſer ?
when each of them is a half of it, If b be equal to
Let the leſſer number bej i
there is only one ſolution, and *=, alſo a---
4
The greater is
2 X-IS
*? + 15%
By queſtion
a
Divide by and mult.
Examp. 5. There are three numbers in continual ge-
4 * f-15 =2x2
by 2.
ometrical proportion : The ſum of the firſt and le-
*_15
cond is 10, and the difference of the ſecond and third
4th prepared
is 24. What are the numbers?
Complete ſquare
óla?
Let the firſt be
2 16
16 16
The ſecond will be 210-2
And the third
Ext. d.
334Z
4
Since z:10:1
4
4 Z
% -202-+-100=3477
Tranſp.
8
5
34-2
Tranſp.
52Z2 - 542 -TOO
Divid.
612_272=50
The numbers therefore are 3 and 18, which anſwer
the conditions. This is an example of Caſe 2d, and Compl, the ſquare 72°-272+
the negative root is neglected.
4
4
A folution, indeed, may be repreſented by means of
27
Extract the ✓
529
he negative root ; for then the other number is
4
Tranſp.
27 +23
23=25 or 2.
25
+15=
Ix
But though there are two poſitive roots in this equa-
qual to the cube of-5. Such a ſolution, though uſe- tion, yet one of them only can here be of uſe, the o-
ther being excluded by a condition in the queſtion.
leſs, and even abſurd, it is plain muſt correſpond to the For as the ſum of the firſt and ſecond is 10, 25 can-
conditions, if thoſe rules with regard to the ſigns be not be one of them : 2 therefore is the firſt, and the
uſed in the application of it, by which it was itſelf de- proportionals will be 2, 8, 32.
duced. The ſame obſervation may be extended even This reſtriction will alſo appear from the explana-
to impoſſible roots; which being aſſumed as the anſwer tion given of the third forn, to which this equation
of a queſtion, muſt, by reventing the ſteps of the inve-
ftigation, correſpond to the original cquutions, by belongs. For z may be leſs than 27
, but from tắc
which the conditions of that queſtion were expreſſed. firſt condition of the queſtion it cannot be greater ;
271
Examp. 4.
To find two nunibers whoſe fuin is 100, hence the quantity z'272+
+27 can have only onc
and whoſe product is 2059.
27
Z; and this being put equal to
Let the given ſum 100=a, the product 2059=b, ſquare root, viz.
and let one of the numbers fought be x, the other will
be anx
529
Their product is axma.
JE we have by tranſpoſition z= =1 –23 = 2,
4
Therefore by queſtion 1 faxx=b or *?-ax=b which gives the only juſt ſolution of the queſtion.
From the other root, indeed, a ſolution of the
Complete the ſquare 2.)-ax +
6
que-
ſtion may be repreſented by means of a negative quan-
4 4
tily. If the firſt then be 25, the three proportionals
Ext. V
3*
will be 25,-15, 9.
Theſe alſo inuſt anſwer the con-
ditions, according to the rules given for negative
Tranſp.
4*
quantities, though ſuch a ſolution has no proper
-b
meaning.
Beſides, it is to be obſerved, that if the following
And the other number
VA
-6
queſtion be propoſed, 'To find three numbers in geo-
metrical proportion, ſo that the difference of the 1ſt
+22) = 729—50=
27=
*23
2
2
912
2
2
2
G
2
2
2
2
11
H
2
a
1}
2
4
az
+
22
4
and
I
Part 1.
A E G E B R A.
419
22
2
2
3 abz
2
2
LIL
4
W
>
2
2
4
(2 2
bir
1
2
-> and 3a + 6
2
4
Equations, and 2d may be 10, and the ſum of the 2d and 3d may be tionals, the two roots of the equation are poſſible, but Equations,
24,'the equation in ſtep 6th will be produced; for,it the one of them only can be applied; which is 17.635
Iſt be z, the ſecond is 2--10, and the third 34-2, and nearly; and the three proportionals are 17.635,22.365,
therefore 342--2'ZZ-202+100, the
and 28.365, nearly, the roots of the equation being in-
quation as in ſtep 4th. In this queſtion it is plain that commenſurate.
the root 25 only can be uſeful, and the three propor In like manner may the limitations of the other
tionals are 25, 15, 9.
queſtion abovementioned be aſcertained.
But the neceſſary limitations of ſuch a problem are Chough the preceding quettions have been fo con-
properly to be derived from a general notation. Let trived that the anſwers may be integers, yet in practice
the ſum of the two firſt proportionals be a, and the it will moſt commonly happen that they muſt be ſurds.
difference of the two laſtb. If a is not greater than
If a is not greater than When in any queſtion the root of a number which is
6, the firſt term mult be the leaſt; but if a be greater not a perfect ſquare is to be extracted, it may be con-
than b, the firſt term muſt be either the greateſt or the tinued in decimals, by the common arithmetical rule,
leaſt.
to any degree of accuracy which the nature of the fubá
When the firſt term is the leaſt, the proper nota- ject may require.
tion of the three terms is z, 2-2, at bwZ, and the
Scholiun.
3at6
equation when ordered is 2-
If the
An equation, in the terms of which two powers
firſt term be the greateſt, and then a is greater than b, only of the unknown quantity are found, and ſuch that
the notation of the terms is 2,4-2, abz, and the
the múex of the one is double that of the other, may,
by the preceding rules, be reduced to a pure equation,
correſponding equation is z-
and may therefore be reſolved by ſ 1. of this chapter.
of the firſt of theſe equations it may be obſerved,
Such an equation may generally be repreſented
that whatever be the value of a and 6, the ſquare of thus :
3a + b
Xanaxhub
viz, of half the coefficient of 2, is greater than
Let th=%, thenze=4
and therefore the roots are always poſlible. If the
And xM (=z)=
612
ſquare be completed, and the roots extracted, they be-
Therefore *="/
3a + b
134+6) 8a?
-
come z
4
4
4
V za to
Examp. 15. To find two numbers, of which the proa
-8a..
But in this caſe z is the leaſt of duct is 100, and the difference of their ſquare
4
roots 3.
the three terms, and therefore a is greater than 22, or
Let the leſs be x *,
4 is greater than z; much more then is
great the greater is
er thanz; and therefore the ſecond root only can be By queſtion
Vă=3
V
admitted, and 2-3a+b_V30+ 312-82
is the on.
3110~*=3Vi=3.61
4
ly proper folution.
4**3*5=10
in the ſecond equation, fince a is greater than be
3a-6
51-34742-10-2-49
muſt be always poſitive, and therefore the equa-
4
4 4
3 7
tion is neceſſarily of the third form. But the roots are
olett
2
poffible only when 3am_
is not leſs than that
7*** 4 or x = 25
4
is, when a +ba is not leſs than 6ab, or when a-bis
If x=4, the other number is 25 ; and this is the.
not leſs than 2 Vab. When the roots are poſlīble, z
proper ſolution, for x was ſuppoſed to be the leaſt. In
this caſe, indeed, the nega.ive root of the equation
may be either greater or leſs than 30-6
and hence being applied according to the rules for negative quan-
tities, gives a poſitive anſwer to the queſtion ; and if
each root gives a proper ſolution ; therefore, z= x=25, the other number is 4.
3a-bEV
zu--b-808.
The fame would have been got, by ſubſtituting in
the general theorem m=}, a=3, and bu = 10, or, if
4.
Ex. Let a = 40 and b-6. The firſt term in this
the leſs number had been called xa, the equation would
caſe inay be aſſumed either as the greateſt or the leaſt.
not have had fractional exponents.
And, firſt, if z be the greateſt, the routs of the equa-
C H A P. 11
tion will be poſſible, ſince (a* +b =) 1636 is greater
than (6ab) 1440. The two values of z are 32 and ·
Of Indeterminate Problems.
25, and the proportionals are either 32, 8, 2, or 25,
It was formerly obſerved (Chap III.), that if there
15,9; 2dly, If z be affumed the leaſt of the propor-
are more unknown quantities in a queſtion than equa.
3 G2
TOO
zatb
2
4
IO
2
2
2
3a6
29
4
+
tions
420
Part 1.
A L G E BR
B RA,
I
2
blenis.
2
blems.
2
I ?
21
20x+y = 20;+*
2
2r? А
of
:)
z²t
18x = 399
7² + I
2ra
qua TI,
Incieterni- ciu.ls by which their relations are exprcffed, it is inde-
and
Zmay fudeternii.
natè Pro- termined; or it may admit of an infinite number of 1, or a number dividible by 4 Then
nate Pro-
anſwers. Other circumſtances, however, may limit are the numbers fought.
the number in acertain manncr ; and theſe are various,
according to the nature of the problem. The contri For the product of two odd namber's is odd, and
vances by which ſuch problems are reſolved are ſo very that of two even numbers is divilible by 4. Alſo, if
diferent in different caſes, that they cannot be com-
2+
and v are boel odd or both even, and
prehended in general rules.
Examp. 1. To divide a given ſquare number into two `muſt be integers.
parts, each of which ſhall be a ſquare number. Ex. 1. If a=27, take v=r, then z=27; and the
There are two quantities fought in this queſtion, and ſquares are 196 and 169. Ore may be 9 and v= 3,
there is only one equation exprefling their relation ;
and then the ſquares are 36 and 9.
but it is required alſo that they may be rational, which 2. If a=12, take v = 2, and zeb; and the ſquares
circumſtance cannot be expreiſed by an equation: ano are 16 and 4.
ther condition therefore muſt be aſſumed, in ſuch a
inanner as to obtain a ſolution in rational tuinbers,
Examp. 3. To find a ſum of money in pounds and
Let the given ſquare be a? ; let one of the ſquares
fhillings, whoſe half is juſt its reverſe.
foaght liese, the other is ar
a--x? Let rx alſo Note. The reverſe of a ſum of money, as 81. 128
be a fide of this laſt ſquare, therefore
is 121. Ss.
yo? *? m2rxatama?
Let x be the pounds and y the hillings,
By tranfp.
go ? ? man 21 A The ſum required is,20x+y
Divide by
Pextex2ra
Its reverſe is
20/+*
Therefore
Therefore2014y
gusto
rza-— a
And rx-a
20x+y40y+2x
Let r therefore be affumed at pleaſure, and
**:y:: (39:18::) 13:6
In this cquation there are two unknown quantities;
ga 2 a-a
which muſt always be rational, will be the and, in general, any two numbers of which the pro-
92 +I,
portion is that of 13 to 6 will agree to it.
fides of the two ſquares required.
But, from the nature of this queſtion, 13 and 6 are
Thus, if a' = 100; then if r=3, the ſides of the the only two that can give the proper anſwer, viz.
two ſquares are 6 and 8, for 36+-645100.
131. 6s. for its reverſe 61. 135. is juſt its halk,
The ratio of x and y is expreſſed in the loweſt inte-
Allo let a: =64. Then if r=2, the ſides-of the gral terms by '13 and 6 ; any other expreſion of it, as
{quares are
the next greater 26 and 12, will not ſatisty the pro-
5 ,5
25 2-5
25
blem, as 121. 26s. is not a proper notation of money
The reaſon of the aſſumption af rx-mg as a ſide of
in pounds and ſhillings.
the ſquare a’--xe, is that being ſquared and put equal
-CHAP. VII.
to this laſt, the equation inanifeſtly will be ſimple, and
the root of ſuch an equation is always rational.
Demonſtrations of Theorems by Algebra.
Examp. 2. To find two ſquare numbers whoſe differ-
encc is given.
ALGEBRA may be employed for the demonſtration
Let xa and y: be the ſquare numbers, and a their cerning which it may be uſed as an analyſis ; and from
of theorems, with regard to all thoſe quantities con-
difference.
the general method of notation and reaſoning, it pof-
Put
and :
ſeſſes the ſame advantages in the one as in the other.
The three firſt ſections of this chapter contain fonie of
Z? * 2zv tv?
x?
the moſt ſimple properties of ſeries which are of fre-
4
quent uſe; and the laſt, iniſcellaneous examples of the
- -2 ZV.-400?
properties of algebraical quantities and numbers.
4
1. Of Arithmetical Series.
zv=(x-y)a.
If x and y are required only to be rational, then take create by the ſame common difference, they form an
Def. 'When a number of quantities increaſe or de-
v at pleaſure, and z5, whence x and y are known. arithmetical ſeries.
Thus, a, atb, a42b, +36, &c, x, x-b, X-26,
But if x and y are required fo be whole numbers,
&c.
take for z and v any two factors that produce a, and Alfo, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. and 8, 6, 4, 2, &c.
are both even or both odd numbers. And this is por-
fible only where a is either an odd number greater than Prop. In an arithmetical feries, the fun of the firſt
and
24
32 and
; and 1024+576_1600
64.
240
,
2
Z?
2
Part I.
AL G E B R A.
4.21
y
IL
N
11-I
arh
I
and se
TI
II
2
this part.
Demoli-, and faſt tercis is equal to the ſum of any two interme- from the end ; and the product of auy two fich isesuai Deman.
Itration of
fration of diale terms, equally diſtant from the extremes. to ay, the product of the firft and ball.
'Theorcms.
Theorems
Let the firſt term be a, the last x, and b the com-
Prop. II. The fum cf a geometrical ſeries waaring
mon difference; then atb will be the ſecond, and x-6
the firit term, is equal to the fun of ail but the late
the laſt but one, &c.
term multiplied by the common ratio.
Thus, a, a +b, a + 2b, a+ 36, a + 4b, &c.
For, affuming the preceding nolation of a ſeries, it
%, %-, *-_2b, x-36, *---46, &c.
is plain, that
It is plain, that the terms in the ſame perpendicular
I
artare far}, &C. · ++y=
rank are equally diſant from the extremes ; and that
the fun of any two in it is 24x, the ſum of the firſt
and laſt.
=rxa+ar+arº, &c. •++++
Cor. 1. Hence the ſum of all the terms of an arith-
metical ſeries is equal to the ſum of the firſt and laſt,
Gor. I. Therefore s being the ſum of the ſeries,
taken half as often as there are terms.
۴-d
Therefore if u be the number of terms, and sche 5--xr=sma. And sa
Sum of the ſeries;s 4 to x x 2. If eso, then =
Hences can be found from a, s', and r; and ary
three of the four being given, the fourth may be
found.
2
Cor. 2. The ſame notation being underſtood, fince
Cor. 2. Since the exponent of r in any term is equal
any term in the ſeries conſiſts of a, the firſt term, to-
to the number of terms preceding it; hence in the laſt
gecher with b taken as often as the number of terms
term its exponent will be 14--1; the laſt term,
che there.
preceding it, it follows, that x=a+ 71--1xb, and fore, yar
max
Hence
hence s=2a+7ixbx; or by multiplication, s= of theſe four, -, a, m, n, any three being given, the
fourth may be found by the ſolution of equations. If
2anetan? bnb
Therefore from the firſt term, the
n is not a ſmall number, the caſes of this problem will
be moſt conveniently reſolved by logarithms; and of
common difference, and number of terms being given, ſuch ſolutions there are examples in the appendix to
the fum may be found.
Ex. Required the ſum of 50 terms of the ſeries 2, Cor. 3. If the ſeries decreaſes, and the number of
4, 6, 8, &c.
terms is infinite ; then, according to this notation, a
11
2X2X50+50*X250X2 5100
the leaſt term will be o, and se a finite fum.
=2550.
Cor. 3 Of the firſt term, cominon difference, ſum
Ex. Required the ſum or the ſeries I, 1, 5, 6, &c.
and number of terms, any three being given, the
to infinity.
fourth may be found by reſolving the preceding equa- Here y=1, and r=2. Therefore s=1=2.
tion; a, b, s, and n, being ſucceſſively conſidered as
the unknown quantity. In the three firſt caſes the
What are called in arithmetic repeating and circula.
equation is ſimple, and in the laſt it is quadratic.
ting decimals, are truly geometrical decrealing ſeriefes,
and therefore may be ſummed by this rule.
II. Of Geometrical Series
3
Def. When a number of quantities increaſe by the Thus.333, &c. =
Ion
+, &c. is a geometrical ſe-
ſame multiplier, or decreaſe by the fame diviſor, they
form a geometrical ſeries. This common multiplier ries in which y=
3. and r=10; therefore s-
or divifor is called tbe common ratio.
3XIO
Thus, a, ar, ar?, &c. a, sony
&C.
IOXIO-I
3
8
24
1, 2, 4, 8, &c.
Thus, alſo, .2424, &c. -
and
33
10ο
Prop. I. The product of the extremes in a geome-
24XIOO
8
trical ſeries is equal to the product of any two terms,
y=100; therefore se
IOOX I0O-I 99 33
equally diſtant from the extremes.
Let a be the firſt term, y the laſt, s the common ra-
tio : then the ſeries is,
III. Of Infinite Series.
It was obſerved (Chap. 1. and IV.), that in many
a, ar, ars, ar3, art, &c
&c
cafes, if the diviſion and evolution of compound quan-
V y V
tities be actually perforined, the quotients and roots
73?
can only be expreſſed by a ſeries of terms, which may
It is obvious, that any term in the upper rank is be continued ad infantum. By comparing a few of
equally diſtant from the beginning as that below it the firſt terms, the law of the progredūon of ſuch a fe-
ries
1-1
2
2
IX2
3
Іо
yra
IO
niin
r3
for here y
11
9,
Ø, poper
40e &c.
422
A L G B R A.
Part I.
I
2X1
IXI
+
&c. -
>
2..2X1.2
3
172-I
12
• 2
112-I
772 X
-X
2
2
nI
m2
m
Demon. ries will frequently be diſcovered, by which it may be of a' +x", conſiſts of a, together with a ſeries of frac- Demon.
Atration of continued without any farther operation. When this tions; intie numerators of wlich are the even powers ftration of
Theorinis.
cannot be done, the work is much facilitated by ſeve of x, and in the denominators the odd powers of a..
Theorems.
ral methods; the chief of which is that by the binomi The numeral coefficients of the terms of the whole ſe-
al theoren.
ries, as deduced by the theorem, will.be : 1, +
THEOREM. Any binomial (as a+b) may be raiſed to
IX1.3
IXI 3.5
any powyer (m) by the following rules.
2.2.2 X 1.213? 2.2.2.2X1.2.3.4
"
1. From inſpecting a table of the powers of a bino the point being uſed (as it often is) to expreſs the pro-
mial obtained by multiplication, it appears that the duct of the numbers between which it is placed. The
terms without their coefficients, are a", ahibi law of continuation is obvious; and the ſeries may be
am2b2, am363, &c.
carried on to any number of terms, without uſing the
2. The coefficients of theſe terms will-be found by theorem. Hence alſo the coefficient of the nth term is,
the following rule.
IX1.3.5 &c. . . (12-
(11—2 terms)
and it is for if n is anz
Divide the exponent of a in any terın by the exponent
27
.--SX1.2.3.4 &c. (1)
of b increaſed by I, and the quotient multiplied by even number, and - if 1 is odd.
the coefficient of that terin will give the coefficient Note. If the binonial is a *b, the ſigns of the terms of.
of the next following ierin.
any power art all politive;itilisa--btle alternate terms
This rule is found, upon trial in the table of powers,
are negative, beginning at the ſecond. This theoreny
to hold univerſally. The coefficient of the firſt terins
may be applied to quantities which conſiſ of more than
is always I, and by applying the general rule 110w pro-
two parts,wy ſuppoling them diſtinguithed into two, and
pored, the coefficients of the terms in order will be as
then fupitituting for the powers of theſe compound
parts ticir values, to be obtained allo, it icquired,
follows: 1, 12, 111X-
, &c. They front the theorem. Thus, utb+chizatoti!'
3
may be more conveniently expreſſed thus: 1, Am, Bx
Scholiuni.
Cx-
DX®---3, &c. the capitals denoting
An infinite ſeries may itſelf be multiplied or divided ,
3
4.
Hence a tlm-am +
by another ; it may be involved or cvolved: and va-
the preceding coefficient.
rious other operations may be performed upon it which
Aman-b+ BX
are neceſſary in the higher parts of algebra. The me-
3
thods for finding the ſum depend upon other prin-
&c., This is the celebrated binomial theorem: It is
ciples.
deduced here by induction only; but it may be rigidly
demonftrated, though upon principles which do not
IV. Properties of Numbers.
belong to this place.
THEOR. I. The ſum of two quantities multiplied by
Cor. 1. As in may denote any number, integral or their difference is equal to the difference of their
fractional, potitive or negative; hence the diviſion, in Squares.
volution, and evolution, of.a binomial, may be perform Let the quantitie's be repreſented by a and b, then
ed by this theorem.
atbxaba_61
, as appears by performing the
Ex. I. Let m=1, then a + b =a?
operation.
a +
Gor. If a andik be any two quantities of which the
X--X
-
.
ſum may be denoted by s, the difference by d, and .
their product byp, then the following propoſitions will
fraction of the ſquare root of a' +** (by inſerting a?
for a andx for b), the fame ſeries reſults as formerly 1. a+b== -2
2.0"mbassd
(Chap. IV.)
3. a: +63=33-3ps 4. a3-63=sd-dp
Ex. 2. If is to be turned into an infinite ſe-
5. a*tbo=s-Aps:+2p" 6. a*—b*=s:
d2sdp,&c.
It is unneceſſary to expreſs-theſe propoſitions in
ries, ſince IXI-1, let a=1, b=~r, and words, and the demonſtrations are very eaſy, by. raia
ſing a+b to certain powers, and making proper ſub-
m-I; and the ſame ſeries will ariſe as was obtained
ftitutions.
by diviſion (Chap. I.).
In like manner
=r?x272—207–) may THEOR. II. The ſum of any number of termis (n) of
N2rZ-Z2
the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, &c. beginning with 1, is ea
be expreſſed by an infinite ſeries, by ſuppoſing a2r2, qual to the ſquare of that number (n).
b-2', and mm, and then multiplying that ſeries
In the rule for ſumming an arithmetical ſeries, let
by ra.
azi, b=2, and n-n, and the ſum of this-feries will
Cor. 2. This theorem is uſeful alſo in diſcovering
2012+nab
the law of an infinite ſeries produced by diviſion or
be s
-n'.Q. E, D.
cyolation. Thus, the ſeries expreſſing the ſquare root
THEOR
xa”—••+Cx
363,
2
Y
ta 16+
2
be true.
f
1 -
11
I
1r
goa
в22 2
2
22
Part I.
A LG Е В B R A.
423
to ally
I
2
>
2
.gl
Demon.. Theor. III. The difference of any twa Square numbers
Gor. 3. This theorem, with the corollaries, relates Demoa-
ſtration of
ſcale whatever. It includes therefore the well ſiration of
Theorema.
is equal to the ſum of the two roots, together with
known property of 9 and of 3 its aliquot part, in the Thcarent,
: twice the fun of the numbers in the nutural ſcale ben
decimal ſcale; for, ſince 7510,=9.
tween the two roots.
Let the one nuinber be p, and the other pun, the THEOR. V. In any number, if from the ſum of the co-
interinediate numbers are p+I, P+2, ...&c. p+1l--I. efficients of the odd powers of r the ſum of the co-fic-
The difference of the ſquares of the given nuinbers is ents of the even powers be ſubtracted, and the remain-
2pn+n’; the ſum of thetwo roots is 2p til, and cwice the der added to the number itſelf, the film will be divja
ſum of the ſeries p+I+p+2...&c.ptn-I is (by fible by r+1.
Cor. 1. 'If Sect of this Chap.) 25=2p+12X11-1, viz. In the number a+r+or+d13+er++frs, &c. the
the ſum of the firſt and laſt multiplied by the number ſum of the coefficients of the odd powers of , is bad
of terns, and it is plain that 2P+n+2ptizxi-I= +f, &c. the ſum of the coefficients of the even powers
of r is atate, &c. If the latter fum be ſubtracted
-2pnafn, Therefore, &c.
from the former, and the remainder added to the given
Lem. 1. Let r be any number, and n any inte- number, it makes br+b+cr? —c+dr3 ++214_e+fis
ger, 4—- I is divilible by r-1.
The quotie it will be rn th &c. till the inl. +f, &c. =bxr+1+cxi
+f, &c. =bXr+1+cXr?-1+0x13+1 +6X14-I+
dex of 1 beo, and then the laſt term of it will be s ; fx+I, &c. But (by Lem. 2.) +1,1'~I, 13+I,
for if this ſeries be multiplied by the diviſor r-1,
it &c, are each diviſible by rti, and therefore any mul.
will produce the dividend 1-1. It will appear alſo by tiples of them are alſo diviſible by r+1, hence the
performing the divilion,and inſerting for nany number. whole number is diviſible by r+-I.
Lem. 2. Let y be any nuinber, and n any integer
Cor. 1. If the difference of the ſum of the even die
odd núniber, »"+1 is diviſible by 1+1. Alſo, if n is gits, and the ſum of the odd digits of any number be
any even number, 1-1 is divitible by rti.
diviſible by rat-1, the number itſelf is diviſible by r+I.
The quotient in both cales is r«
+
Let the ſum of the even digits (that is, the coeffi-
you a-3 &c. till the exponent of r be o, and the laſt term cients of the odd powers of r) be D, the ſum of the
goo=1. If this ſeries conſiſt of an odd number of terms, odd digits be d, and let the number be N. Then by
and be inultiplied by rti the diviſor, the product is
the theoren N+D-d is divilible by rt-I, and it is
ghat I the dividend. If the ſeries conſiſt of an even ſuppoſed that Dod is diviſible by rTI; therefore N
number of terms, the product is 14.I ; but it is plain is diviſible by r+1.
that the number of terms will be odd only when n is
Cor. 2. In like manner, if D-d is diviſible by an
odd, and even only when n is even. The concluſion aliquot part of r+I, Nwill be diviſible by that aliquot
will be manifeſt by performing the divifion.
part.
Cor. 3. If a number want all the odd powers of r,
Lem. 3. If r is the root of an arithmetical ſcale,
any number in that ſcale may be repreſented in the fol- its digits be diviſible by r+1, that number is diviſible
or if it want all the even powers of r, and if the ſum of
lowing manner, a, b, c, &c. being the coefficients or
by rti.
digits, atbr+? +13+er+, &c.
Cor.4. In the common ſcale r+ICII, which there.
Theor: Iv; If from any number in the general ſcale fore will havethe properties mentioned in this theorem,
now deferibed, the ſum of its digits be ſubtracted, the
remainder is diviſible by 2-1.
ſum of the even digits is 7, the ſum of the odd digits
is 18, and the difference is 11, a number diviſible by 11,
The number is atbrtcra tod13, &c. and the ſum the given number therefore (Cor. 1.) is diviſible by II.
of the digits is a+b+c+d, &c. Subtracting the lat Thus alſo, the ſum of the digits of 7040303 is diviſible
ter from the former, the remainder is br_ht-craz
by 11, and therefore the number is diviſible by Ils
ctdried, &c. =bxbr-I+cXri-I+d473-I, &c. (Cor. 3.)
But, (by Lem. I.), _I is diviſible by ~1, whatever
Scholinii.
integer number 12 may be, and therefore any multiple
of , _I is alſo diviſible by r-I: Hence each of the
Theſe theorems relate to any ſcale whatever, and
terms, bxT-I, cxr-I, &c. is diviſible by'r~1,
therefore the properties of r---r in Theor. 4. would in
and therefore the whole is diviſible by r_I.
a ſcale of eight belong to ſeven, and thoſe in Theor. 5.
Cor. 1. Any number, the ſum of whoſe digits is di-
to nine. If twelve was the root of the ſcale, the for.
viſible by y-1, is itſelf diviſible by r--1. Let the
mer properties would belong to ekven, and the latter
number be called N, and the fun of the digits D; then
to thirteeni.
by this prop. N-D is diviſible by r-I, and D is fup-
APPENDIX to PART I.
poſed to be diviſible by r-I; therefore it is plain that
Nmuſt alſo be diviſible by 7-I.
ALGEBRA may be employed in expreſſing the re-
Cor. 2. Any number, the ſum of whoſe digits is di- lations of magnitude in general, and in reaſoning
viſible by an aliquot part of 1-1, is alſo diviſible by with regard to them. It may be uſed in dcducing not
that aliquot part. For, let N and D denote as before ; only the relations of number, but alſo thoſe of exten-
and fince N-D (Theor. 4.) is diviſible by r--1, it is fion, and hence thoſe of every ſpecies of quantity ex-
alſo diviſible by an aliquot part of r-I ; but D is di- preſſible by numbers or extended magnitudes. In this
viſible by an aliquot part of r--1, therefore N is alſo appendix are mentioned fome examples of its applica-
diviſible by that aliquot part.
tion to other parts of mathemnatics, to phyſics, and te
the
A L G
42
Part 1
E B R A.
L. K
fics.
4
>
antena.
qe I
Applicati the praâical calculations of bufnefs. . The principles reſolved gives R*=2 and x'=
= 2 and x="2=17.67, + nearly, or to Phy-
Applicati-
na co Ge- and ſuppoſitions peculiar to lhe e ſubjects, which are
ometry neceflary in directing both the algebraical operations, that is, 17 years and 8 months nearly, and the double
and the concluſions to be drawn from thein, are here is 35 years and 4 months; which anſwer the condi-
a fiumed as juſt and proper.
tions.
1. Application of Algebra to Geometry.
Il. Application of Algebra to Phyſics.
Algebra has been ſucceſsfully applied to almoſt eve-
Phyſical quantities which can be divided into parts,
ry branch of mathematics ; and the principles of thefe that have proportions 10 each other, the ſaine as the
branches are often advantageouſly introduced into al- proportions of lines to lines, or of numbers to numa -
gebraical calculations.
bers, may be exprelled by lines and numbers, and
The application of it to geometry has been the ſource therefore by algebraical quantities. Hence theſe ma-
of great iinprovement in both there ſciences : on ac-
thematical notations may be confidered as the meaſures
count of its extent and importance it is here omitted, of ſuch physical quantities; they may be reaſoned up.
and the principles of it are more particularly explain- on according to the principles of algebra, and from
ed in the third part of theſe elements.
ſuch reaſonings, new relations of the quantities which
In this place ihul be given an example of the uſe of they repreſent may be diſcovered.
logarithms in reſolving certain algebraical queſtions, In thoſe branches of natural philofoply, therefore,
Note. When logarithms art uſed, let (1.) de- in which the circumſtances of the phenomena can be
note the logarithu of any quaurity before which it is properly expreiſed by numbers, or geometrical magni.
places.
cudes, algebra may be employed, both in pronoting
Ex. To find the number of ternis of a geometrical ſe. the inveſtigation of phylical laws by experience, and
ries, of which the fum is 511, the first term 1, and alſo in deducing the lieceſſary conſequences of laws
the cominon ratio 2.
inveſtigated and preſumed to be juſt.
It is to be obſerved likewiſe, that if various hypo-
From ſect. 2. chap. 6. it appears iliat som Theſes be allunied concerning phyſical quantities, with-
and in this problem, s,r, and a are given, and n is to
out regard to what takes place in nature, their conſe-
quences may be demonſtratively deduced, and thus a
XII
be found. By reducing the equation mm.X- ſcience may be eſtabliſhed, which may be properly cal-
led mathematical. The uſe of algebra in this ſcience,
and from the known property of logarithms »x1.5 = which is ſometimes called Theoretical Mechanics, is
obvious from the principles already laid down.
losxrIqCiabee, and n=l.sxr-Iga-ha. But
In conducting theſe inquiries, it is to be obſerved,
lor
îhat, for the ſake of brevity, the language of algebrai-
1.512
bere se$71, c. 1, r= 29. and n-
cal operation is often uſed with regard to phyſical
1.2
quantities themſelves; though it is always to be under-
2.7092700
ſtood, that, in ftri&t propriety, it can be applied on-
9.
0.3010300
ly to the mathematical notations of theſe quantities.
Before illuſtrating this application of algebra by ex-
In like manner may any ſuch equation bereſolved,
when the only unknown quantity is an exponent, and amples, it may be proper to explain a method of ſta-
when it is the exponent only of one quantity.
ting the proportion of variable quantities, and reaſon-
Ex. 2. An equation of the following quadratic forming with regard to it, which is of general uſe in na-
tural philofophy.
aan
26ang may be reſolved by logarithms. ift,
by ſcholium of Chap. V. a bathro And, 1. Of the Proportion of variable Quantities.
then x is diſcovered in the ſame manner as in the pre-
Thus, let a =2, b=10, and c=96 when the magnitude of one is varied,
ceding example. Thus, let a =
Mathematical quantities are often fo connected, that
the magnitudes
and the equation 2. *-_-20x245-96. iſt, 2* =10& ...
96. iſt, 2*=10of the others are varied, according ļo a determined
1.8
✓ 4= 32 or 8. "Il 2*=8 then * = 3 and 2' rule. Thus, if two ſtraight lines, given in poſition,
1.22
interfect each other,; and, if a ſtraight line, cutting
20x2 = -96 is a true equation. If 2* = 12, then both, moves parallel to itſelf, the two ſegments of the
6.12_1.0797812
= 3.5849, and this number being given lines between their interſection and the moving
1.2 0.3010360
line, however varied, will always have the ſame pro-
inferred for x in the given equation, by means of loga- . portion. Thus allo, if an ordinate to the diameter of
rithms, will anſwer the conditions.
a parabola move parallel to itfelf, the abſciſs will be
Ex. 3. The ſum of 20001. has been out at intereſt increaſed or diminiſhed in proportion as the ſquare of
for a certain time, and 500l, has been at intereſt dou. the ordinate is increaſed or diminiſhed.
ble of that time, the whole arrear now due reckoning Inlike manner may algebraical quantities be connec-
4 per cent. compound intereſt, is 6oool. What were ted. If x, y, z, &c. repreſent any variable quantities,
the times?
while a, b, c, repreſent ſuch as are conſtant or invari-
By the rules in the third part of this appendix for able, then an equation containing two or more variable
compound intereſt, it is plain that if R=1.04, and the quantities, with any number of conſtant quantities,
tine at which the 2000l. is at intereſt be *, the arrear will exhibit a relation of variable quantities, fimilar
of it will be 2000XR*. The arrear of the 500l. is to thoſe already mentioned. Thus, if ax=by, then
500X ***, hence 500XR*+2000XR*=6000. This x:y::b:a, that is, x has a conſtant proportion to y,
=
11
3
inha
I.
A L G E B B 'R
425
A
1
r
>
a²
42
.
, }
=**.
o, &c.
I
I
r
7!2. I.
Part Of Equa-
Of Equa- in whatever way thcfe two quantities may be varied.
X
X (*
tionis,
tions.
br
I
Likewiſe, if xyz-a'b, thenya :a:::6:x, or yo:
it follows, (Chap. II.) that X:*:: therefore
:, '
that is, ya has a conſtant proportion to the reci-
br by
procal of x, or y? is increaſed in the ſame proportion (Def. 4.) X=
as x is diminiſhed, and converſely. It is neceffary to
Prop. 2. If the two ſides of a proportional equatio:1
premiſe the following definitions.
be both multiplied, or both divided by the ſame quar-
Definitions.
lity, it will continue lo be true.
Lct there be any number of variable quantities, X, iſ, If the quantity be conſtant, it is manifef froci
Y, Z, V, &c. coniieced in ſuch a manner, that when Prop. 1.
X beconies x, Y, Z, V, &c. become reſpectively y, 2,
2d, If the quantity be variable, let X=, and Z a
And let a, b, c, &c. repreſent any constant variable quantity, then Xz=rz. Por, ſince 2=r,
quantities, whether given or unknown. Then (Def. 2.) X: :: 1 :y; multiply the antecedents by Z,
1. If two variable quantities X and Y are ſo con-
and the conſequents by z, then XZ:32:: IZJE )
nected, that whatever be the values of x and y, X: % therefore (Def. 5.) iZZYZ.
10 lile 012117er,
::Y: y, this proportion is exprefied thas, X=r, and is Xur,
faid to be direilly as 7, or ſhortly, X is ſaid to be as r. Z Ž
2. If two variable quantities X and I are ſo connec Cor. Any variable quantity, which is a factor of coc
ted, that X :X::5:1,cr X:*:: thcirrelation is
ſide of a proportional equation, inay be made to ftun
†
Z
z
alone. Thus, if XY =7, then X =īt; alſo, 2 =
thus exprefled, X=; and X is faid to be inverfely,
Z
Z
XY7; and is
and alſo V= IT &
> &c. Hence
or reciprocally as r.
3. If x, r, z, are tliree variable quantities, fo con- alſo, if one ſide of a proportional equation be divided
nected that X:x::YZ:sz,their relation is fo expreſſed, by the other, the quotient is a conſtant quantity,
X=YZ, and X is faid to be directly as Y and Z, joi:tly;
or Xis-faid to be as Y and Z.
Prop. 3. If two proportional equations have a com-
4. If any number of variable quantities as X, non fide, the remaining two ſides will form a propor-
1, 2,v,&c. are fu connected, that XT : xy::1232; tional equation. Alſo, that common fide will be as
the ſun or difference of the other tro.
TZ
Thus, if dr, and Y-Z, then X-Z. For
then YT =7, and XY is faid to be directly as IZ, X:x::T:y, and r:r::Zz,therefore multiplying theſe
and inverſely as V, or more explicitly, X and r joint- ratios, XY: xy:: YZ : yz, and by dividing antecedents
ly, are directly as and Z jointly, and inverſely as V. and conſequents,8:*:: Z :z, therefore(Def
. 2.) X=z.
Likewiſe, if X-Y, and Y-Z, redt. For,
In like manner are other combinations of variable
qualities denoted and expreſſed.
fince X:x..Y:y::Z:z.(Chap. II.) Y:y::X+Z:
It is to be obſerved allo, the fame definitions take **2, therefore (Def. 5.) r=x-Z.
place, when the variable quantities
are multiplied or be as the fum, or as the difference of the two ſides ;
Cor. Hence, one fide of a proportional equation will
divided by any conſtant quantities. Thus, if ax:ax:
bb
b
and the ſum of the two ſides will be as their difference.
then aX=T, &c.
Thus, if Xer+Z, then X=X+1+2 and X-X
---2, and alſo X+Y+Z=X-Y-Z.
5. Let the preceding notation of proportion be Prop. 4. If the two ſides of a proportional equation
called a proportional equation (A), the equation for be reſpectively multiplied or divided by the two fides
merly treated of being in this place, for the fake of of any other proportional equation, the products or
diſtinction, called abſolute.
quotients will form a proportioual equation.
Gor. Every abſolute equation, containing more than Thus, if Xal, and 2-1', then &Z=rV. For
one variable quantity, may be conſidered as a proper- ſince 1:4::8:y,and Z::::1:, by multiplying theſe
tional equation ; and in a proportional equation, if at proportions (Chap. I. II.) XZ :xz:: 11:10, there-
any particular correſponding values of the variable fore (Def. 5.) X2=97. ' In like manner in the caſe
quantities, the equation becomes abfolate, it will be of divitioil.
univerſally abſolute.
Gor. I. The two ſides of a proportional equation
Prop. i. If one ſide of a proportional equation be may be raiſed to any power, or any root may be ex-
either multiplied or divided by any conſtant quantity, tracted out of both, and the equation will continue to
it will continue to be true. Thus, if X=-*
then
be true.
Thus, if X=?, then XP-2; for fince =,
VOL. I.
ti?
ri,
3 II
(A) Theſe terms are uſed only with a view to give more preciſion to the ideas of beginners. In order to
avoid the ambiguity in the meaning of the ſign =, fome writers employ the character a, to denote conſtant
proportion ; but this is ſeldom ncceſſary, as the quantities compared are generally of different kinds, and the
relation expreffed is fufficiently obvious. See Emerſon's Mathematics, vol. 1.
426
Part 1.
A L G L R A.
ticris.
tions.
lami.
of Equa. X:*::7:) and therefore Jo:14: :2*:;""; therefore foanded on experience, are here aſſumed as principles, of Fqua-
andreaſoned upon mathematically. The experiments
Y": 7mAnd, if X=r, alio in-rn.
by which the principles are aſcertained admit of vari-
Cor. 2. If two proportional equations have a com-
ous degrees of accuracy; and on the degree of phyſical
m'un fide, !) al ſide will be as the ſquare root of the
product on the other tho. Thus if Xer, and r=z, accuracy in the principles will depend the phyſical ac-
by this Prop. 7.-=XZ, and (Cor. 1.) 1=. curacy of the conclufions mathematicaily deduced from
Hence alſo, in this caſc, vXZ=NEZ; for (Prop. moft, in like manner, be inaccurate ; and, if the limits
them. If the principlcsarcinaccurate, the concluſions
3.) 7-X.
of inaccuracy in the principles can be aſcertained, the
Cor. 3. If one ſide of a proportional equation be a
faclor of a ſide of another proportional eqration, the correſponding limits, in the corıcluſions derived from
remaining lide of the former may be inſerted in the lor them, may likewiſe be calculated.
ter, in place of that factor. Thus, if X=ZY, and Examp; 1. Let a glaſs tnbe, 30 inches (a) long, be
filled wiili mcrcury, excepting 8 inches (6); and let
z=;, thua X=5, as appears hy multiplying the i: be inverted as in the Toricellian cxperiment, ſo
that the 8 inches of common air may riſe to the
two equations, and dividing by Z.
top: It is required to find at what height the mer-
Piop. 5. Any proportional equation may be made
cury will remain ſuſpended, the mercury in the ba-
abfolate, by multiplying one ſide by a conſtant quan-
rometer being at that time 28 inches (d) high.
tity.
Thus, if X=Y, then let two particular correſpond-
The folation of this problem depends upon the fol-
ing values of theſe variable quantities be affumed as con- lowing principles :
ſtaar, and let them bca and ó, then X :a::r:b, and 1. 1 he preſſure of the atmoſphere is meaſured by
the column of mercury in the barometer ; and the ela-
bar, or X=8x, an abſolute equation.
ſtic force of the air, in its natural ſtate, which reſiſts
this preſſure, is therefore meaſured by the fame co-
Scholium.
1. If there be two variable phyſical quantities, ci-
2 In different ſtates, the elaſtic force of the air is
ther of the ſaine, or of different kinds, which are fo reciprocally as the ſpaces which it occupies.
connected, that when the one is increaſed or diminiſh 3. In this experiment, the mercury which renains
ed, the other is increaſed or dininiſhed in the ſame ſuſpended in the tube, together with the elaſtic force
proportion ; or, if the magnitudes of the one, in any of the air in the top of it, being a counterbalance to
two ſituations, have the ſame ratio to each other, as
the preſſure of the atinoſphere, may therefore be ex-
the magnitudes of the other in the correſponding ſitua- preſſed by the column of mercury in the barometer. .
cions, the relation of riie mathematical in eaſure of theſe
Let the mercury in the tube be x inches, the air in
quantities may be expreiſed by a proportional equa- formerly 6 inches, and its claftic force was d inches of
the top of it accupies now the ſpace ax; it occupied
tion, according to Def. I.
2. If two variable phyſical quantities be ſo connec- mercury: Now,therefore,theforce muſt be(a-x:b::d:)
bd
bd
ted, that the one increaſes in the fume proportion as inches. (2.) Therefore (3.) **
d.
The other is diminiſhed, and converſely; or, if the mag-
nitudes of the one, in any iwo ſituations, be recipro- This reduced, and putting atás2m the equation is
cally proportional to the magnitudes of the other, in *-2mx=bd-ad.
the correſponding ſituations, the relation of their mea This reſolved gives un +6d-ad.
fures may be expreſſed by a proporcional equation, ac In numbers
x 44 or 14
cording to Defia
One of the roots 44 is plainly excluded in this caſe,
3. If three variable phyſical quantities are ſo connec and the other, 14, is the true anſwer. If the column
ted, that one of them is increaſed or diminished, in of mercury x, ſuſpended in the tube, were a counterba-
proportion as both the others are increaſed or diminiſh- lance to the preſſure of the atmoſphere, expreſſed by
ed; or, iſ the magnitudes of one of them, in any two the height of the barometerd, together with the mea-
fications, have a ratio which is compounded of the ra ſure of the elaſtic force of b inches of common air in
tios of the magnitudes of the other two, in the corre-
bd
bd
fponding ſituations; the relation of the meaſures of the ſpace x~a, that is, if x=d+
theſe three may be expretied by a proportional equa- , the equation will be the ſame as before, and the root
lion, according to Def. 3.
44 would be the true anſwer. But the experiment in
4. In like manner may the relations of other com-
this queſtion does not admit of ſuch a ſuppoſition,
binations of plıyſical quantities be expreſſed according
tu Def. 4. And when theſe proportional equations Examp: 2. The diſtance of the earth and moon (d),
are obtained, by reaſoning with regard to them, ac-
and their quantities of matter (t, 1), being given, to
cording to the preceding propofitions, new relations of find the point of equal attraction between them.
the phyſical quantities may be deduced.
Let the diſtance of the paint from the earth be x :
Its diſtance from the moon will be therefore dx. But
2. Examples of Phyſical Problems.
gravitation is as the matter directly, and as the ſquare
The uſe of algebra, in natural philoſophy, may be of the diſtance inverſely; therefore the earth's attraction
properly illuſtrated by ſome examples of phyſical pro, is as
I
; and the moon's attraction is ass
But
blems. The ſolution of ſuch probleins muſt be derived
4
five known phyfical lawys, which, though ulti.nately theſe are here equal ; therefore,
or
7
2
X2
Part I.
427
A LG E BRA,
{
Of Equa-
tions.
2
X
dax
}*
t-
A
214--
VENT
Of Eque-
Notation.
tiouis.
da
and
-xl
In the following theorems let p deninte any princip:1
dal
This equation reduced gives x=
im of which il. is the unit, t the time during which
V7+ VT
it bears intereſt, of which one year ſhall be the unit, r
Or mult. numerator and denominator ? dt-d11l. the raie of intereſt of ii, for one year, and let s be the
by vienī
t-/
amount of the principal fum p with its intereſt for the
timne t at the rate r.
In round numbers, leid=bo ſeinidiameters of the
earth, 140, 1=1, then 52 ſcmidiameters neurly.
I. Of Simple Intereſt.
There is another point beyond the nioon ai which the
s=p+ptr, and of theſe four, s, p, t, f, any three ben
attracions are equal, and it would be found by putting
.
the ſquare root of de to be s-d, which, in this ing given, the fourth may be found by reſolving a tim
ple equation.
dt+d Val The foundation of the cinon is very obvious ; for
caſe, would be a poſitive quantity; and thienx =
the iatereſt of il, in one year is r, for t years it is tr,
= 72 nearly. If the quantities had been multiplied and for p pounds it is per; the whole amount of prin-
before extracting the ſquare roots, the alfecies quadra- cipal and interef mulë therefore be p+pt=s.
lic would have given the fame two roots.
II. Of Compoʻind 11.tereft.
Examp. 3. Let a ſtone be dropt into an empty pit; When tlie ſimple intereſt at the end of every year is
and let the time from the dropping of it to the hear- ſuppoſed to be joined to the principal firm, and both 10
ing the ſound from the botton be given: To find bear intereſt for the following year, money is ſaid to
the depth of the pit.
bear compound intereſt. The fame notation being
Let the given time be a ; let the fall of a heavy body uſed, let it R. Then måt.
in the iſt ſecond of time (16.122 feet) be b; alſo, let
For the limple intereſt of il. in a year is r, and th:
the inotion of ſound in a ſecond (1142 feet) be c. new principal fun therefore which bears intereſt du.
Let the time of the ſtone's fall be IX
ring the ſecond year is (1+1=) R; the intereſt of a
Thetimcin which the fouud of it moves
for a year is rR, and the amouilt of principal and in-
to the top is
tereſt at the end of the ad year, is R+R=RxTtk.
The deſcent of a falling body is as the
In like manner, at the end of the ad year it is Rs, and
ſquare of the time, therefore the
at the end of t years it is Rt, and for the ſum p it is
depth of the pit is (1 * :*::b:) 36x?
pRts.
The depth from the motion of ſound is
Cor, I. Of theſe four P, R, t, s, any three being gi-
alſo
4ca-cx ven the 4th may be found. When t is not very ſmalı,
Therefore 3 and 4
1516x2 =ca--cx the ſolution will be obtained moſt conveniently by lo-
This equation being reſolved, gives the value of x, garithms. When R is known r may le found, and
and from it may be got bx2 or ca—6x, the depth of the converſely.
pit.
Ex, If sool. has been at intereſt for 21 years, the
If the time is 101, then x=8.855 nearly, and the whole arrear due, reckoning 45 per cent. compound
depth is 1273 ſeet.
intereſt, is 1 260.121. or 12601. 25. 5d. In this caſe
There are ſeveral circumſtances in this problem p=500, R=1.045 and t21 and s=1260.12, and
which render the concluſion inaccurate. .
any one of theſe may be derived by the theorem from
1. The values of c and b, on which the ſolution is the others being known. Thus, to find s; I Rt==
X
founded, are derived froin experiments, which are 1.R=2170.0191163 = 0.4014427, therefore Rt-
ſubject to conſiderable inaccuracies.
2.520242 and =(PR=) 500x2.520242=1260.121.
2. The reſiſtance of the air lias a great effect in re Cor. 2. The preſent worth of a ſum (s) in reverſion
tarding the deſcent of heavy bodies, when the velocity that is payable after a certain tinet is found thus. Let
becomes ſo great as is ſuppoſed in this queſtion; and the preſent worth be x, then this money improved by
this circumſtance is not regarded in the ſolution. compound intereſt during t produces xRt, which muſt
3. A ſmall error, in making the experiment to
which this queſtion relates, produces a great error in
be equal to s, and if XR+ =s, t =
Ri.
the concluſion. This circumſtance is particularly to
Cor. 3. The time in which a ſuin is doubled at coru-
be attended to in all phyſical problems; and, in the pound intereſt will be found thus. pRt=2p and Rt=2
fections, an error of half a ſecond, in eſtimating the and t = 2; thus, if the rate is 5 per cent. r=.05 and
LR
time, makes an error of above 100 feet in the expref-
fion of the depth of the pit.
=14.2065, that is 14 years and
III. Of Intereſt and Annuities.
1. 1.05 0.0211893
75 days nearly.
The application of algebra to the calculation of in-
Scholium,
tereſts and annuities, will furniſh proper examples of
its uſe in buſineſs. Algebra cannot determine the pro Many other ſuppoſitions might be made with regard
priety or juſtice of the common ſuppoſitions on which to the improvement of money by compound intereſt.
theſe calculations are founded, but only the neceſſary The intereſt might be ſuppoſed to be joined to the ca.
concluſions reſulting from them.
pital, and along with it to bear intereſt at the end of
3 H 2
every
f
l. 2
0.3010300
À 1 i E B i A,
Part 1.
tions.
kil
ax.
I
܀ ?Rܐ
Ft-Ia
7
rrr
;
Cf 29-3. every monti, 16 the car.111cc'ay, or Cven at the found only by refolving an adfected equation of the or Equu-
tiin,
end of every inſtant, arif stable calculations might be tonder.
formed; but theſe tippolitics, being ſelam ured in Cor. 2. If an annuity has been unpaid for the term
practice, are oinilied.
1, the arrcar, reckoning compound intereſt, will be
III. 04.ities,
An annuity is a payment male annually for a cer-
tain term of years, and the chief problem with regard fion, that is to commence after a certain time (?),
Cor, 3. The preſent worth of an annuity in revere
to it is, to determine its preſent worth. The lup-
and
position on which the folution proceeds is, that the then to continue « years, is found by ſubtracting the
money received by the ſeller, being improved by him preſeni worth for n years from the preſent worth for
in a certain manner during the continuance of the an 12+t years, and then
muity, amounts to the fainc fin as the ſeveral payments
RI
p=ax SAXI-
received by the purchaſer, improved in the faiteman-
1 htt12
ner. The fuppofitions with regard to the iinprove-
inent may be various. What is called the method of
ſinple intereft, in which fimple intereſt only is reckon-
Alſo of R, 1, , 4, P, any four being given, the fifth
ed upon the purchaſe-money, and ſimple intereſt on
may be found.
Cor. 4. If the annuity is to continue for ever, then
each annuity from the time ofpayment, is ſo maniſeſt.
ly unequitable, as to be univerſálly rejected; and the Rt-1 and Rt may be conſidered as the famé; and
fuppofition which is now generally admitted in prac- prax
tice, is the higheſt improvement poſſible on both lides,
sht
viz. by compound intereſt. As the taking compound Cor. 5. A perpctuity in reverſion (by Cor. 3.) fince
intereſt is prohibited by law, thc rcalizing of this fup- Rt-I = Rt, is p=
poſed improvement requires punctual payment of in-
tereft, and therefore the intereſt in ſuch calculations Prob. When 12 years of a leaſe of 21 were expircd,
is uſually inade low. Even with this advantage, it a renewal for the ſame term was granted for icool.
can hardly be reudered effectual in its full extent; it 8 years are now expired, and for what ſum muſt a cor-
is however univerſally acquieſced in, as the inoſt pro- reſponding renewal be made, reckoning 5 per cent.
per foundation of general rules, and when peculiar compound intereſt ?
circumſtances require any different hypothctis, 'a ſuit From the firſt tranſaction the yearly profit rent mult
able calculation may be inade.
be deduced; and from this the proper fine in the ſea
Let then the annuity be called a, and let p be the cond may be computed.
priſent worth of it or purchaſe-money, t the time of In the firſt bargain, an annnity in reverſion for 12
its continuance, and let the other letters denote as for years, to commence 9 years hencc, was ſold for rocol.
nerly.
the annuity will therefore be found by Cor.3. in which
The ſeller, by improving the price received p, at
compound intereſt, at the tiine the annuity ceaſes, has all the quantities are given, but a=p+
pht.
The purchaſer is ſuppoſed to receive the firſt annu-
ity a at the end of the firſt year, which is improved by and by inſerting numbers, viz. p=1000, t=12, 159,
him for t~1 years; it becomes therefore(Th. 2.) 12.05, and R=1.05; and working by logarithms
alltot.
175.029=1751.-70.
He receives the d annuity at the end of the 2d Next, having found a, the ſecond renewal is made
year, and when improved 1-2, it becomes akt_-". by finding the preſent worth of the annuity ajn reyer-
The third annuity becomes a Rt-3, &c.
fion, to commence 13 years hence, and to laſt 8 years.
The laſt annuity is ſimply a, therefore the whole In the canon (Cor. 3.) inſert for a 175.029, and let
amount of the improved annuitics is the geometrical 8, 9513, and r=05 as before, p=599-93=5991.
ſeries at-altaR , &c. . . aRt-'.
aRt-'. The ſum of this 18s. 6 d. The fine required.
- Rt-1
Rt.-I.
As theſe computations often become troubleſome,
fcries, by Chap. VI. Sect. 2. is ax-
and are of frequent uſe, all the common cafes are cal.
culated in tables, froin which the value of any annuity
But, from the nature of the problem,pRt-ax
for any time, at any intereſt, may eaſily be found.
It is to be obſerved alſo, that the preceding rules
Rt-1
and lience pax-
AXI
are computed on the ſuppoſition of the annuities being
sht
paid yearly; and therefore, if they be ſuppoſed to be
paid half yearly, or quarterly, the concluſions will be
The ſame conclufion reſults from calculating the ſomewhat different, but they may be eaſily calculated
on the preceding principles. ·
preſent worth of the ſeveral annuities, conſidered as
The calculations of life annuities, depend partly up-
fums payable in reverſion.
on the principles now explained, and partly on phyli-
Gor. 1. Of the four b, a, R, 1, any three being gi- cal principles, from the probable duration of human
ven, the fourth may be found, by the ſolution of equa- life, as deduced from bills of mortality,
tions; is eaſily by logarithins, R or r can be
P ART
rR
I
I-
.
ax
RI
RII,
79
I
Rt
19
Part II
A L G E P R A.
Р А.
R
T
II.
Of the General Properties and Reſolutions of EQUATIONS of all Orders.
be e-
CH A P. I
ſion, containing as many units as there are ſimple equa-
tions. In like manner, iſ higher eqratio:s are niulii.
Of the Origin and Compoſition of Equations ; and of the plied together, as a cubic and a quadratic, one of ike
Signs and Goefficients of their termis,
fifth order is produced, and ſo on.
Converſely. An equation of any dimenſion is confi-
TN order to reſolve the higher orders of equations, dered as compounded either of limple equations, or of
per firit to conlider their origin from the conibination to the dimenſion of the given one. By the reſolutio.
of inferior equations.
of equations theſe inferior equations are diſcovered,
As it would be impoffible to exhibit particular rules and by inveſtigatirg the component limple equations,
for the ſolution of every order of equations, their num the roots of any higher equation are found.
ber being indefinite; there is a neceſſity of deducing Cor. 1. Any equation admits of as many ſolutions,
rules from their general properties, which may or has as many roots as there are ſimple equations
qually applicable to all.
which compoſe it, that is, as there are units in the di-
In the application of algebra to certain ſubjects, and menſion of it.
eſpecially to geometry, there may be an oppoſition in Cor. 2. And converſely, no equation can have more
the quantities, analogous to that of addition and fub. roots than the units in its dimenſion,
traction, which may therefore be expreſſed by the ligns Cor. 3. Imaginary or impoſſible roots muſt enter an
+ and “. Hence theſe ſigns may be undertoud by equation by pairs; for they ariſe from quadratics, in
abſtraction, to denote contrariety in general; and which both the roots are ſuch.
therefore, in this method of treating of equations, ne Hence alſo, an equation of an even dimenſion may
gative roots are admitted as well as poſitive. In many have all its roots, or any even number of them impol-
caſes the negative will have a proper and determinate lible, but an equation of an odd dimenſion inuſt at leaſt
meaning; and when the equation relates to magnitude have one poffible root.
only, where contrariety cannot be ſuppoſed to exiſt, Cor. 4. The roots are either poſitive or negative,
theſe roots are neglected, as in the caſe of quadratic according as the roots of the ſimple equations, from
equations formerly explained. There is beſides this which they are produced, are pofitive or negative.
advantage in admitting negative roots, that both the Cor. 5. When one root of an equation is diſcovered,
properties of equations from which their reſolution is one of the ſimple equations is found, from which tho
obtained, and alſo thoſe which are uſeful in the many given one is compounded. Thegiven equation, there-
extenſive applications of algebra, become more ſimple fore, being divided by this ſimple equation, will give
and general, and are more eaſily deduced.
an equation of a dimenſion lower by 1. Thus, any
In this general method, all the terms of any equation equation may be depreſed as many degrees as there
are brought to one ſide, and the equation is expreſſed are roots found by any method whatever
by making them equal to o. Therefore, if a root of Prop. II. To explain the general properties of the
the equation be inſerted inſtead of (*) the unknown ſigns and coefficients of the terms of an equation.
quantity, the poſitive terms will be equal to the nega Let -=0, 0, to, todo, &c. be
tire, and the whole inuſt be equal to o.
fimple equations, of which the roots are any poſitive
Def. Wlien any equation is put into this form, the quantities ta, +, 46, t. &c. and let *+m=0,
rerm in which (*) the unknown quantity, is of the x+12=0, &c. be ſimple equations, of which the roots
higheſt power, is called the Firſt; that in which the are any negative quantities ---17,-1, &c. and let any
index of x is leſs by 1, is the Second, and ſo on, till the number of theſe equations be multiplied together, as in
laſt, into which the unknown quantity does not enter, the following table :
and which is called the Abſolute Term.
Prop. I. If any number of equations be multiplied
together, an equation will be produced, of which the
X-NO
dimenſion (A) is equal to the fun of the diinenſions of
the equations multiplied.
If any number of ſimple equations be multiplied to-
-bxtu
-C, a Quadratic.
gether, as x-a=0, x=0, xoco, &c. it is obvi-
ous, that the product will be an equation of a dimen-
ويسمه
12
2X
Xx-
O
(A) The term dimenſion, in this treatiſe, is uſed in ſenſes ſomewhat different, but ſo as not to create any
ambiguity. In this chapter it means either the order of an equation, or the number denoting that order,
which was formerly defined to be the higheſt exponent of the unknown quantity in any team of ihe equa.
tion.
430
A LG E R A.
Part 11.
tuo
tions.
tbc
of
-C1
Xr3
XX2
017!
—5ni
-C712
By in-
0
or
OF S 4u2. ?
-3050 arc -+1, +2, +3, -5, wliereas the roots of Of Equa-
tious.
-
X*' fac > Xabr-0, a Cubic.
the equation 44+*3-19** ~49.7-3050, arem-I,
2, 3, +5.
X 31O
The reaſon of this is derived from the coni poſition
of the coefficients of theſe terms, which conſiſt of
tab)
abc
combinations of odd numbers of the roots, as explain-
fac
tabria
ed in the preceding Chapter.
x.abcingo, a
'C
tbc
tac72
Prop. 2.
(Biquadratic, another that all have its roots greater or leſs than the
An equation may be transformed into
fall
tbcm
roots of the given equation by ſome given difference.
Let x be tie unknown quantity of the equation,
&c.
and e the given difference;let y=x=ke,then x=y=ke;
From this table it is plain,
and if for x and its power in the given equation, yte
1. lat in d complete equation the nunber of terms and its powers be inſerted, a new equation will ariſe,
is always greater by unit than the dimenſion of the in which the unknown quantity is y, and its value wijí
equation.
bexte; that is, its roots will differ from the roots
2. The coeficient of the firſt term) is I.
of the given equation by e.
The coeficient of the ſecond term is the ſum of all Let the equation propoſed be x3-px*+qx-1=0,
the roots (a, b, c, m, &c.) with their ligas changed. of which the roots muſt be diminiſhed by e.
The cocfficient of the third term is the ſum of all ſerting for r and its powers yte and its powers, the
the products that can be made by multiplying any two equation required is,
of the roots together.
3:3 +34 +3eyte3
The coefficient of the fourth term is the ſum of all
-py-2 pey-pe
2
the products which can be in..de by multiplying toge-
+ s + ge
ther any three of the roots with their lignis changed;
and fo of others.
Gor. I. From this transformation, the ſecond, or
The laſt terni is the producī of all the roots, with
their ligns changed.
any other intermediate term, máy be taken away ;
3. From induction it appears, that in any equation granting the reſolution of equations.
Since the coefficients of all the terms of the tranſ-
(the terms being regularly arranged as in the prece- formed equation, except the firſt, involve the powers
ding example) there are as many poſitive roots as there
of e and known quantities only, by putting the coef-
are changes in the ſigns of the terms from + to
and from - to +; and the remaining roots are nega- tion, a value of e may be determined; which being
ficient of any tern equal to o, and reſolving that equa-
tive. The rule alſo may be demonſtrated.
Note. The impoſſible roots in this rule are ſuppoſed fubftituted, will make that terni to vaniſh.
to be either poſitive or negative.
Thus, in this example, to take away the ſecond
In this example of a numeral equation 24-10x3+ term, let its coefficient, ze-p=0, and ={p, which
354*---50x+2430, the roots are, +1, +2, +3, +4, being ſubſtituted for e, the new equation will want
and the preceding obſervations with regard to the ſigns the firſt terin of a cubic equation being 1, and x being
the ſecond term. And univerſally, the coefficient of
and coefficients take place.
Gor. If a term of an equation is wanting, the poli- the unknown quantity, the ſecond term may be taken
tive and negative parts of its coefficient muſt then be away by ſuppoſing x=y=+*p<p being the coeffici.
ent of tliat term.
equal. If there is no abſolute terni, then ſome of the
roots muſt be =0, and the equation may be depreſſed folution of a ſimple equation, the third by the ſolution
Cor. 2. The ſecond term may be taken away by the
by dividing all the terms by the loweſt power of the ſolution of a ſimple equation, the third by the ſolution
of a quadratic, and ſo on.
unknown quantity in any of then. In this caſe alſo,
*~0=0, x=05o, &c. may be conſidered as fo many be taken away, it will become a pure equation, and
Cor. 3. If the ſecond term of a quadratic equation,
of the component ſimple equations, by which the given thus a folution of qudratics will be obtained, which
equation being divided, it will be depreſſed ſo many
coincides with the ſolution already given in Part 1.
degrees.
Cor. 4. The laſt term of the transformed.equation
is the ſame with the given equation, only having e in
place of x.
CH A P. II.
Prop. 3. In like manner may an equation be trans-
formed into another, of which the roots ſhall be equal
of the Transformation of Equations,
to the roots of the given equation, multiplied or di-
vided by a given quantity.
THERE are certain transformations of equations ne-
Let be the unknown letter in the given equation,
ceſſary towards their ſolution; and the moſt uſeful are
contained in the following propoſitions.
and y that of the equation wanted; alſo let e be the
Prop. 1. The affirmative roots of an equation be given quantity.
come negative, and the negative become affirmative, To multiply the roots let xezy and * = .
by changing the figns of the alternate terms, begin-
ning with the ſecond.
To divide the roots let * =y, and x=ye.
Thus the roots of the equation x4-43--19%?+49
Then
3
.
1
Part II.
A L G E BRA.
431
of quz-
or ye and
tions
e
a
a²
at
5
8+2–2. It
a
!
I
Then ſubſtitute for and its powers,
term, and the coefficients of the other zerms being all of Eq!??-
integers, the coefficients of the given equction being titas.
its powers, and the new eqnation of which y is the allo ſuppoſed integers.
unknown quantity will have the property required.
General Corollary to Prop. 1. 2. 3.
Cor. 1. By this propoſition an equation, in which
the coefficient of the firſt term is any known quanti-
If the roots of any of theſe transformed equ.:10:15
ly, as a, may be transformed into another, in which
be found by any mcthod, the roots of the orizinul
the coefficient of the firſt term ſhall be unit. Thus, equation, from which they were derived, will eatiiy
let the equation be ax--+x_r=0. Suppoſe be found from the fimple equations expreiling their re-
j=ax, or x=-, and for x and its powers infert lation. Thus, if 8 is found to be a root of the trans-
formed equation z34237–696=0 (Cor. 2. prop. 3.)
and its powers, and the equation becomes ._?
Since x=2+2, the correſponding root of the given
II
0, or j3 ----+qay-ay=0. Alſo, let the equation 5x3_6x*+78—30=o muſt be
5
is to be obſerved alſo, that the reaſoning in Prop. 2.
equation be 5*3-6**+9x~3050; and if x=' tien and 3. and the corollaries, may be extended to any o..
der of equations, though in them it is applicd chiefly
33_y?+353-75050.
to cubics.
Cor. 2. If the two transformations in Prop. 2. and
3. be both' required, they may be performed either
CHAP. III.
ſeparately or together.
Thus, if it is required to transform the equation
Of the Refolution of Equation.
ax3cmpx+qX--o into one which ſhall want the
fecund term, and in which the coefficient of the firſt
From the preceding principles and operations, rules
term ſhall be 1 ; let x3, and then j~py+qay, may be derived for reſolving equations of all orders.
a’go as before ; then let y=x+p, and the new I. CARDAN's Rule for Gubic Equatici.
equation, of which z is the unknown quantity, will
want the ſecond term, and the coefficient of z3, the The ſecond term.of a cubic equation being taken
higheſt term is r. Or, if x=+*, the fame equa- i, (by Cor. 1. Prop. 2. and Cor. 1. Prop. 3. Chåp. II.)
away, and the coefficient of the firſt terr: being made
tion as the laſt found will ariſe from one operation.
it may be generally repreſented by x3 +39x+2r=0;
Ex. Let the equation be 5x3–6x +7x---3050.
the ſign + in all terms denoting the addition of then,
with their proper ſigns. Let 312+il, and alſo 111
If x=?, then y3-679 +359—75030. And if y= =-9; by the ſubſtitution of theſe values, an equa-
5
tion of the 6th order, but of the quadratic form, is
2+2, 23+232-696=o. Alſo, at once, let *==
deduced, which gives the values of m and 1 ; and
and the equation properly reduced, by bring. hence,
5
ing all the terms to a common denominator, and then (m+n=) *= V-*+/+*+93 + V-772793;
caſting it off, will be 23+232-69650, as before.
9
Cor. 3. If there are fractions in an equation, they or x=-*
q Ņ-turi+q:
may be taken away, by multiplying the equation by
the denominators, and by this propoſition the equa- if ra is leſs than 9, this expreſſion of the root involves
Cor. I. In the given equation, if 39 is negative, and
tion may then be transformed into another, without in poſūble roots; while, at the ſame time, all the roots
fractions, in which the coefficient of the firſt term
is 1. In like manner may a ſurd coefficient be taken this method of folution it is neceſary to ſuppoſe that
of that equation are poſſible. The reaſon is, that in
illvay in certain caſes.
x the root may be divided into two parts, of whicli
Cor. 4. Hence alſo, if the coefficient of the ſecond the product is 4. But it is eafy to how, that in this
,
term of a cubic equation is not diviſible by 3, the
which is called the irreducible caſi, it cannot be done.
fractions thence ariſing in the transfornied equation,
For example, the equation (Ex. 3. Sect. a. of lluis
wanting the ſecond term, may be taken away by the
Chapicr), 434156+56050, belongs to the irredia
preceding corollary. But the ſecond term alſo
may
be
cible caſe, and the three roots are + 4, + 10,
- IS,
taken away, ſo that there ſhall be no ſuch fractions in
and it is plain that none of theſe roots can be diviued
z=
the transformed equation, by ſuppoſing -
into two parts (m and 12), of which the product can
3
156
(= = 52; for the greateſt pro-
3
equation. And if the equation ax: --P**+qx~=0 dact from the diviſion of the greateſt root
be given, in which pis not diviſible by 3, by ſuppoſing
-7X—=49 leſs than 52.
x+p, the transformed equation reduced is 73 If the cube root of the compound furd can be ex-
tracted, the impellible parts balance each other, and
2p'+999.X:--213-99pq-27.11=0; wanting the the true root is obtained.
ſecond term, having one for the coefficient of the firſt The geometrical problem of the triſection of an
arch
a
+2
>
3
3
3
3
P
“If, is
24
432
A LG E B R Å.
Part II.
}
mate.
01 Equu- arci is reſolved algebraically, by a cubic equation of The diviſors of 90 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, of Equa-
tions. this form; and hence the foundation of the rule for 30, 45, 90.
tions.
refolving an cquation belonging to this caſc, by a ta The first of theſe diviſors, which being inſerted for
ule of lines.
*, will make the reſult = 0, is tä; +- 5 is another;
Cor. 2. Biquadratic equations may be reduced to and it is plain the laſt rool muſt be negative, and it is
cubics, and may therefore be reſolved by this rule. -6.
Some other claſſes of equations, roo, may be reiol. When 3 is difcovered to be a root, thc given cqua-
ved by particular rules; but there, and every other or- tion may be divided by *---3=0, and the reſult will
der of equations, are commonly reſolved by the gene- be a quadratic, which being reſolved will give the other
ral rules, which may be equally applied to all.
Iwo roots, +5 and 6.
The reafon of the rale appears from the property
11. Soluiion of Equations, whoſe Roots are commenfu- of the abſolute term formerly defined, viz. that it is
the product of all the ruols.
To avoid the inconvenince of trying many diviſors,
Rule 1. All the terms of the equation being brought this method is ſhortened by the following,
to one ſide, find all the diviſors of thc abſolute term,
and fubftitute them ſucceſſively in the equation fur. Rule 2. Subſtitute in place of the unknown quantity
fuccellively tlurce or more terms of the progrellion,
the unknown quantity. That divifor which, fub-
1, 0, 1, &c. and find all the diviſors of ihe unis
ftituted in this manner, gives the refult -, Iltall
that reſult; then take out all the ai itirmetical pro-
Le a root of the cquation.
grellions that can be found among thefe diviſors whoſe
Ex. I. 3 2ax? + 242 -2a2b
common difference is I, and the values of x will be
-Ox? + 3abx
among thoſe terms of the progkeflow:which are the
The ſimple literal diviſors of -_2a2b are a, b, 24,
divifors of the refult aviſing from the ſubſtitution of
36, any of which may be inſerted for x. Suppoſing
When the ſeries increaſes, the roots will be
poſitive ; and when it decreaſes, the roots will be
xta, the cquation becomes
43-303-42.23.-246
negalive.
bait3ab
which is obviouſly = 0.
Examp. Let it be required to find a root of the equa-
tion x3
LIOXOO.
Ex. 2. *3--2—33x+90=0.
*=
XO,
1
}
2
XI
*3
I
The operation is thus :
Suppofit.
Refult. Diviſors. 1
Ar. pro.
411, 2, 49 4
X?-10x+6= 61, 2, 3, 6, 13
fI41, 2, 7, 14,2
In this example there is only one progreſſion, 4, 3, -2, is an increaſing ſeries, of which is to be
2; and therefore 3 is a root, and it is --3, ſince the tried, and it fucceeds.
ſeries decreaſes.
If, from the ſubſtitution of three terms of the pro-
It is evident by the rules for transforming equa- greſlion, 1, 0,-1, &c. there ariſe a number of arith-
tions (Char. II.), that by inſerting for X, +1(+) metical fericſes. by-ſubſtituting more terms of that
the relult is the abfolute term of an equation of which progreſſion, ſome of the ſeriefes will break off, and,
the roots are leſs than the roots of the given equation of courſe, fewer trials will be neceſſary.
by 1 (=e). Cor. 4. Prop. 2. When *=o the reſult
is the abſolute term of the given cquation. When for 111. Examples of Queſlions producing the higher Equa-
* is inſerted -I(-e) the reſult is the abſolute
tiones.
term of an equation whoſe roots exceed the roots of
Eamp. 1. It is required to divide 161. between two
the given equation by 1 (=e). Hence, if the terms
perſons, ſo that the cube of the one's ſhare may ex-
of the ſeries I, 0, --1, -2, &c. be inſerted ſucceſ-
cced the cube of the other's hy 586.
fively for x, the reſults will be the abſolute terms of
fo inany equations, of which the roots form an increa Let the greater ſhare be x pounds,
fing arithmetical ferics with the difference I.
And the leſs will be 16-ox;.
the commenſurate roots of theſe equations muſt be a-
Byahe queſtion, *3-16_x):=286
inong the diviſors of their abfolute terms, hence they And by Inv. 2x3-48x* + 768x-4096=386
muſt be among the arithmetical progreſſions found by Tranſp. and divide x-24x° +384x~224130.
This rule. The roots of the given cquation therefore
Suppos. Reſults.
Diviſors.
are to be fought for among the terms of theſe progref-
1880
fions which are diviſors of the reſult, upon the ſuppo-
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20.
2241
ſition of x=0, becauſe that reſult is its abſolute term.
I, 3, 9, 27, 83.
*I;
It is plain that the progreſſions muſt always be in-
2650 I, 2, 5, 10, 25, 53.
creaſing, only it is to be obſerved, that a decreaſing Where 8, 9, 10, differ by 1; therefore +9 is to be
ſeries with the fign + beconies increaſing with the tried; and being inſerted for x, the equation is =o.
sign Thus, in the preceding example, -4, The two ſhares then are 9 and 7 which ſucceed.
Since
But as
If x=
I ;
0;
2
Part II.
A L G E B R A.
433
%3
3
U
X
J'?
3
Of Equa- Since x=9; 6m-950, is one of the ſimple equa Lenima. If any two numbers, being inſerted for Of Equa-
tions
tions. tions from wliich' this cubic is produced, therefore the unknown quantity (*) in any equation, give re-
-24474384%~-2241
ſults with oppoſite ſigns, an odd number of roots muſt
x?c 15x+249-0. And the
be between theſe numbers.
X-9
two roots of this quadratic are impoſſible.
This appears fron the proper:y of the abſolute
tcrn, and from this obvious inaxiin, that if a number
Examp. 2.
What two numbers are thoſe whoſe pro- of quantities be multiplied together, and if the ſigns
duct multiplied by the greater will produce 405, and
of an odd number of them be changed, the fign of the
their difference multiplicd by the leſs 20 ?
product is changed. For, when a politive quantity is
Let the greater number be x, and the leſs y. inſerted for x, the reſult is the abſolute te in of an
equation whoſe roots are leſs than the roots of th' gi-
Then by queſt. $(x3**=)*'y=405
2(x-yX)=)xy—y:20
ven equation by that quantity (Prop. 2. Cor. 3. Chap.
II.) If the reſult has the ſame ſign as the given ab-
y? +20
Therefore
ſolute term, then from the property of the abſolute
term (Prop. 2. Chap. I.) either none or an even num-
y 4 +-40y' +-400
And
ber only of the poſitive roots, have had their ſigns
changed by the transformation ; but if the reſult has
405
an oppoſite ſign to that of the given abſolute term, the
Alſo
y
ſigns of an odd number of the poſitive roots muſt have
y4+40y? +400 405
Therefore
been changed. In the firſt caſe, then, the quantity
jo?
ſubſtituted muſt have been either greater than each of
y
Mult. and tranſp. y4+4019_-405y+400=0.
an even number of the poſitive roots of the given equa-
This biquadratic, reſolved by diviſors, gives y=5: tion, or leſs than any of them; in the ſecond caſe, it
muſt have been greater than each of an odd number of
and therefore x=9. Alfo-**+40y'—4058+400_,
the poſitive roots. An odd number of the poſitive
1-5
+54 +654–80=o.
roots, therefore, muſt lie between them when they
This cubic equation has one poſitive incommenſurate give reſults with oppoſite ſigns. The ſame obſervation
is to be extended to the ſubſtitution of negative quan-
root, viz. 1.114, &c. which may be found by the rule
tities and the negative roots.
in the next ſection, and two impoſſible. The incom-
From this lemma, by means of trials, it will not be
menſurate root y=1.114, &c.gives x=19.067, &c. and
theſe two anſwer the conditions very nearly.
difficult to find the neareſt integer to a root of a given
numeral equation. This is the firſt ſtep towards the
Examp. 3. The ſum of the ſquares of two numbers approximation ; and both the manner of continuing it,
208, and the ſum of their cubes 22 40 being given, and the reaſon of the operation, will be evident from
to find them.
the following example.
Let the greater be *ty, and the leſs x-y,
Let the equation be *}-2x–5–0.
Then x+1+x -ylº=2x^ +2y=208
I. Find the neareſt integer to the root.
In this caſe
Hence y? 104-**
a root is between 2 and 3 ; for theſe numbers being
Alſo x+y+*-- = 2x3 +6x y'=2240
inſerted for x, the one gives a poſitive, and the other
Subſtitute for yº its value and 2x3+624x46x3=2240. a negative, reſult. Either the number above the root,
This reduced gives x3_156x+560=0.
or that below it, may be aſſumed as the firſt value ;
The roots of this equation are +10, +14,—14. If only it will be more convenient to take that which ap-
* = 10, then y=2; and the numbers foughtare 12 and pears to be neareſt to the root, as will be manifeſt from
8, which give the only juſt folution. If x= 4, then
the nature of the operation.
ja=38 and y=V88. The numbers fought are there 2. Suppoſe x=2+f, and ſubſtitute this value of
fore 4+v88 and 4–188. The laſt is negative, but in the equation.
.
they anſwer the conditions. Laſtly, if =-14, then
x3 = 8+12f+6ff+f
y = -92, hence j =V-92, is impoſſible ; but ſtill
2x=-4-2f
the two numbers -14+1-92, -I 4
-5-5
ing inſerted, would anſwer the conditions. But it has x3 - 2x-5-I+10/+6f: +f3O.
been frequently obſerved, that ſuch ſolutions are both
As f is leſs than unit, its powers f* and få may be
uſeleſs and without meaning,
neglected in this firſt approximatin, and 10f=1, or
fro.i nearly, therefore x=2.I nearly.
IV. Solution of Equations by Approximation.
3. As f-0. I nearly, let f=.1+g, and inſert this
By the former rules, the roots of equation, when value off in the preceding equation.
they are commenſurate may be obtained. Theſe,
however, inore rarely occur; and when they are in-
= 0.001+ 0.038+0.39 +683
commenſurate, we can find only an approximate value
6f:= 0.06 + 1.25 +6g?
of them, but to any degree of exactneſs required.
rof= 1 +IOS
There are various rules for this purpoſe ; one of the
moſt ſimple is that of Sir Iſaac Newton, which ſhall be fi+of+10/-I= 0.061+11.238+6.33+33=0
now explained.
and neglecting go and g’ is very ſmall 0.61+11.238
VOL. I.
3 I
-92, be-
II
434
ALGE
Part III.
G E B R A.
Applica-
In the ſame manner may the root of a pure equation Applica-
=-.0054, =
=o
tion to Ger
hence f=0.1+g= be found, and this gives an eaſy method of approxi- tion to Ge-
II.23
omeiry
.0946 nearly, and x=2.0946 nearly.
mating to the roots of numbers which are not perfect ometry.
powers.
4. This operation may be continued to any length,
This rule is applicable to numeral equations of every
as by ſuppoung g=-.0054+h, and ſo on, and the order; and, by aſſuming a general equation, general
value of x=2.09455147 nearly.
rules
may be deduced for approximating to the roots
By the firſt operation a nearer value of x may be of any propoſed equation. By a ſimilar method we
found thus; ſince f=.I nearly and -I+10f+6f. + may approximate to the roots of literal equations,
which will be expreſſed by infinite ſeries.
fo=0, fa
that is, fa
-.094
10+6ft?
107.6-4.0
true to the laſt figure, and x 2.09 4.
I
I
P
А.
R
T
III.
Of the Application of ALGEBRA to GEOMETRY.
CH A P. I.
Geometry has been rendered far more extenſive and
uſeful, and algebra itſelf has received conſiderable im-
provements.
General Principles.
G
EOMETRY treats both of the magnitude and I. Of the Algebraical Expreſſion of Geometrical Mag-
poſition of extenſion, and their connections.
nitudes,
Algebra treats only of magnitude ; therefore, of
the relations which ſublift in geometrical figures, thoſe by a ſingle letter: a rectangle is properly exprefl'ed by
A line, whether known or unknown, is repreſented
can be
the product of the two letters repreſenting its fides:
gebra.
The oppoſite poſition of ſtraight lines may indeed and a rectangular parallelopiped by the product of three
be exprefled ſimply by the ſigns + and —But, in letters; two of which repreſent the ſides of any of its
order to expreſs the various other poſitions of geome- rectangular baſes, and the third the altitude.
Theſe are the moſt imple expreſſions of geometrical
trical figures by algebra from the principles of geome-
try, fome relations of magnitude muſt be found, which magnitudes; and any other which has a known pro-
depend upon theſe poſitions, and which can be exhi- portion to theſe, may in like manner be expreſſed al-
bited by equations: And, converſely, by the ſame gebraically; Converſely, the geometrical magnitudes,
principles may the poſitions of figures be inferred from repreſented by fuch algebraical quantities, may bé
che equations denoting ſuch relations of their parts.
found, only the algebraical dimenſions above the third,
Though this application of algebra appears to be
not having any correſponding geometrical dimenſions,
maſt be expreſſed by proportionals (A).
indirect, yet ſich is the ſimplicity of the operations,
and the general nature of its theorems, that inveſtiga: remarked, may be expreſſed by the ſigus+ and —.
The oppoſite poſition of ſtraight lines, it has been
tions, eſpecially in the higher parts of geometry, are
generally eaſier and more expeditious by the alge Thus, let a point A be given in the line
braical method, though leſs elegant than by what is
A M
B
purely geometrical. The connections alſo, and ana-
logies of the two ſciences eſtabliſhed by this appli- AP, any ſegment AP taken to the right hand being
cation, have given riſe to many curious ſpeculations, conſidered as poſitive, a ſegment Ap to the left is pro-
perly
P
(A) All algebraical dimenſions above the third muſt be expreſſed by inferior geometrical dimenſions; and
though any algebraical quantities of two or three dimenſions may be immediately expreſſed by ſurfaces and
folids refpc&tively, yet it is generally neceſſary to expreſs them, and all ſuperior dimenſions, by lines.
If, in any geometrical inveſtigation by algebra, each line is expreſſed by a ſingle letter, and each ſurface or
solid by an algebraical quantity of two or three dimenſions reſpectively, then whatever legitimate operations
are performed with regard to them, the terms in any equation derived will, when properly reduced, be all of
the ſame dinenſion; and any ſuch equation may be calily expreſſed geometrically by means or proportionals,
as in the following example.
Thus, if the algebraical equation a4 +64 = c+ -d4, is to be expreſſed geometrically, a, b, c, d, being ſup-
poſed to repreſent ſtaight lines ; let a : b:e:f:g, in continue proportion, the 24 : 64 :: aig and 44: 94+
64 :: a:atg; then lei a:c:k:k:1, and a4 : :::d; alſo, letiid:9: 11 : P, and c+ : d4
:C:p, or 4 : 64
--4::c:cap. By combining the two former proportions (Chap. 11. Part I.), c* : 94 +6+ :: 1:a+s, and
combining the latter with this lan found, 61-d at +6+ :: C--> Xl : c!-+-; therefore c--PxI=cxa+s, and
.:C-:il: a+g.
:
A
If
Part III.
435
A LG E BR
B & A.
as
ܪ
&c.
Applica- perly repreſented by a negative quantity: If a and 6 cal demonſtrations of the 12th and 13th propoſitions Applica.
tion to Gco repreſent two lines; and if, upon the line AB from of the ad book of Euclid, require only the 47ih of the tion to be
ometry. the point A, AP be taken towards the right equal to I. Łl. The 35th and 36th of the 3d book requirconly ometry.
a, it may be expreſſed by ta; then PM taken to the the 3. III. El, and 47. 1. EI.
left and equal to b, will be properly repreſented by --b, From a few ſimple geometrical principles alone, a
for AM is equal to amb." If azb, then M will fail Ilumber of conclulions, with regard to figures, may be
upon A, and a=0. By the ſame notation, if b deduced by algebra ; and to this in a great meaſure
is greater than M will fall to the left of A; and in is owing the extenſive uſe of this ſcience in geometry.
this caſe, if 20-6, and if Pp be taken equal to b, then If other more remote geometrical principles are occa-
(a-b=) --a will repreſent Ap, which is equal to a, fionally introduced, the algebraical calculations may be
and ſituated to the left of A. *This uſe of the ſigns, much abridged. The fame is to be obſerved in the
however, in particular caſes, may be precluded, or in fulution of problems; but ſuch in general are leſs ob-
ſome meaſure reſtrained.
vious, and more properly belong to thc ftrict geome-
The poſitions of geometrical figures are ſo various, trical method.
that it is impoſſible to give general rules for the alge-
III. Of the Solution of Problemus.
braical expreſſion of them. The following are a few
examples.
Upon the ſame principles are geometrical problems
An angle is expreſſed by the ratio of its fine to the to be reſolved. The problem is ſuppoſed to be con-
radius ; a right angle in a triangle, by putting the ſtructed, and proper algebraical notations of the known
ſquares of the two fides equal to the ſquare of the hy- and unknown magnitudes are to be fought for, by
pothenuſe; the poſition of points is aſcertained by the means of which their connections may be expreſſed by
perpendiculars from them on lines given in poſition; equations. It may firſt be remarked, as was done in
the poſition of lines by the angles which they make the caſe of theorems, that in thoſe problems which re-
with given lines, or by the perpendiculars on them late to the diviſions of a line and the proportions of its
from given points; the ſimilarity of triangles by the parts, the expreſſion of the quantities, and the ſtating
proportionality of their ſides which gives an equation, their relations by equations, are fo eaſy as 200 to re-
quire any particular directions. But when various po-
Pheſe and other geometrical principles muſt be em litions of geometrical figures and their properties are
ployed both in the demonſtration of theorems and in introduced, the ſolution requires more attention and
The ſolution of problems. The geometrical propoſition ſkill. No general rules can be given on this ſubject, but
inuſt firſt be expreſſed in the algebraical manner, and the following obſervations may be of uſe.
the reſult after the operation muſt be expreſſed geo 1. lhe conſtruction of the problem being ſuppoſed,
metrically.
it is often farther neceſſary to produce ſome of the
II. The Demonſtration of Theorems. '
lines tillthey mcet; to draw new lines joining remark-
able points ; to draw lines from ſuch poinis perpendi-
All propofitions in which the proportions of mag- cular or parallel to other lines, and ſuch other opera-
nitudes only are employed, alſo all propofitions expref- tions as ſeeii conducive to the finding of equations :
fing the relations of the reginents of a ſtraight line, of and for this purpoſe, thoſe eſpecially are to be employ-
their ſquares, rectangles, cubes, and parallelopipeds, cd which divide the ſcheme into triangles that arcgi.
are deinonſtrated algebraically with great eaſe. Such ven, right angled or ſimilar.
demonſtrations, indeed, may in general be coniidered 2. It is often convenient to denote by letters, not
as an abridged nolation of what are purely geome- the quantities particularly fought, but ſome others from
trical.
which they can eaſily be deduced. The ſame may be
This is particularly the caſe in thoſe propoſitions obſerved of given quantities.
which may be geometrically deduced without any con 3. The proper notation being made, the neceſſary
ſtruction of the ſquares, rectangles, &c. to which they equations are to be derived by the uſe of the moſt ſim-
refer. From the firſt propoſition of the ſecond book ple geometrical principles; ſuch as the addition and ſub-
of Euclid, the nine following may be eaſily derived in traction of lines or of ſquares, the proportionality of
this manner, as they may be confidered as proper ex- lines, particularly of the lides of ſimilar triangles, &c.
amples of this moſt obvious application of algebra to 4. There muſt be as many independent equations as
geometry.
there are unknown quantities aſſumed in tlie inveſtiga-
If certain poſitions are either ſuppoſed or to be in- tion, and from theſe a final equation may be inferred
ferred in a theorem, we muſt find, according to the by the rules of Part 1.
preceding obſervations, the connection between theſe If the final equation from the problem be reſolved,
pofitions and ſuch relations of magnitude as can be ex the roots may often be exhibited geometrically ; bue
preſſed and reaſoned upon by algebra. The algebrai- the geometrical conſtruction of problems may be ef-
3 1 2
fcctz
>
If any known line is aſſumed as 1, as its powers do not appear, the terms of an equation, including any of
them, may be of very different dinienfions; and before it can be properly expreſſed by geometrical magnitudes,
the deficient dimensions muſt be ſupplied by powers of tlie I. When an equation has been derived from geo-
inetrical relations, the line denoting 1 is known ; and when an aſſumed equation is to be expreſſed by the rel:
tions of geometrical magnitudes, the I is to be affumed,
In this manucr may any ſingle pover be expreſſed by a line. If it is xs, then to 1,4 find four quantities in
continued proportion ; ſo chat lint: iH:i::p :,
: 1,1l1en I:
1
:;IS
åts, or
ret:
; and so oroiners.
436
Part III.
A L G E B
G E B R A.
2
Let
BC=a,
a
4 2
** !!!!"Cam fceed also will it!olving the equation, and even folutions derived from thein coincide with the prece- Applica-
fun to five Witho li deducing a final equation, by the methods af- ding: If the ſolution be confined to a point within tion to Ge-
0.3.1try. terwards to be explained.
the line, then one of theſe poſitive roots muſt be re ometry.
If canal equation is ſimple or quadratic, the roots jected, for one of the roots of the compound ſquare
being obtained by the common rules, may be geome: from which it is derived, x-34, is a negative quantity
trically exhibited by the finding of proportionals, and
the addition or ſubtraction of ſquares.
which in this ſtrict hypothefis is not admitted. In
By inſerting numbers for the unknown quantities, ſuch a problem, however, both conſtructions are gene-
numeral expreſion of the quantities fought will be ob- rally received, and conſidered even as neceſſary to a
tained by refolving the equation. But in order to de- complete ſolution of it.
termine ſome particulars of the problem beſides finding If a folution in numbers be required, let AB=10,
the unknown quantities of the equation it may be far-
thenx=4V 125-5.
ther neceſſary to make a ſimple conſtruction ; or, if it value of AB, the roots of this equation are incommen-
It is plain, whatever be the
is required that every thing be expreſſed in numbers, furate, though they may be found, by approximation,
to ſubſtitute a new calculation in place of that con-
to any degree of exactneſs required. In this caſe, x=
ſtruction.
11.1803–5, nearly; that is AC=6.1803, nearly ;
PROB. I. To divide a given ſtraight line AB into two and AC=16.1803, nearly.
parts, ſo that the rectangle contained by the whole line
and one of the parts may be equal to the ſquare of the Prob. II. In a given Triangle ABC to infcribe a
other part.
Square.
This is prop. Inth II. B. of Eucl.
Suppoſe it to be done, and let it be EFHG. Fron
A Ć
B
A let AD be perpendicular on the baſe BC, meeting
EF in K.
Let C be the point of diviſion, and let AB=a,
AC=x, and then CB=a_x. From the problem and AD=p, both
A
az--ax=x* ; and this equation being reſolved (Chap. of which are gi-
V. P. II.) gives modata?.
ven becauſe the
triangle is given.
The quantity Vata', is the hypothenuſe of a Let AK be aſſu-
K
F
med as the un.
4
right-angled triangle, of which the two ſides are a and known quantity,
becauſe fron it
and is therefore eaſily found ; being taken from the ſquare can
this line, gives x=AC, which is the proper. ſolution. eaſily be conſtruc-
ted; and let it be
But if a line AC be taken on the oppoſite ſide of A,
called *.
G
d
and equal to the abovementioned hypothenuſe, together
( KDEEG=) EF
with“, it will repreſent the negative root — Va* +4 EP-X.
4
On account of the parallels EF, BC, AD: BC ::
and will give another ſolution ; for in this caſe AK · EF; that is, pia::*:px, and p’-px-ax,
p*
allo ABXBC=AC'. But Cis without the line AB; which equation being reſolved, gives x =
and therefore, if it is not conſidered as making a divi-
pta
Therefore x or AK is a third proportional to pta.
fion of AB, this negative root is rejected.
This ſolution coincides with wliat is given by Eu-
and p, and may be found by II. VI. El.
The point
K being found, the conſtruction of the ſquare is ſuf-
clid. For Vaata2 is equal (ſee the fig. of Prop. IIth
ficiently obvious.
4
II: B. Eucl. Simſon's edit.) to EB or EF, and there. PROB. III. In the right-angled Triangle ABC, the
fore
Baſe BC, and the Sum of the Perpendicular and
a = EF-EASAF=AH; and
x=vaita'
Sides BA+AC+AD being given, to find the Trian-
4 2
gle.
the point H correſponds to C in the preceding figure.
Beſides, if on (EF+EA-) CF (inſtead of EF Such parts of
EA_FA) a ſquare be deſcribed on the oppoſite fide this triangleare to
of CF from AG, BA produced will meet a ſide of it be found as are
in a point; which if it be called K, will give KBXBA neceſſary for de-
=KA'. K correſponds to C, and this ſolution will fcribing it: The
correſpond with the algebraical ſolution by means of perpendicularAD
will be ſufficient
the negative.root.
If CB had been called x, and AC=a-X, the equa- for this purpoſe;
tion would be ax=a'2ax+x", which gives -
and let it be call-
ed x: Let AB+
30+ V5a, in which both roots are poſitive, and the
ACCAD-a, BC=b; therefore, BA+AC-a-x.
Ler
ܕ
Then B
c
2
1
22.
Part III.
A L G E B R A.
437
I
on to Ge-
2
-
2
2
AX-
2
2
X
2
rence.
a
*-*-*=)
bain
B
Applicati-
according to particular rules. Any of the properties Applicati-
Let BAAC be denoted by y, then BA=a
+3—
which are ſhown to belong peculiarly to ſuch a line, en to Ge-
ometry
may be aſſunied alſo as the definition of it, from which ometry,
y
and AC=-* Bưt [47. I. El.] BC:=BA:
all the others, and even what upon other occaſions may
haye been conſidered as the primary definition, may be
+AC”, which being expreſſed algebraically, becomes
demonſtrated. Hence lines may be defined in various
ba
to.
a'—24x+x+y2.. Like- methods, of which the moſt convenient is to be deter-
mined by the purpołe in view. The fiinplicity of a
wiſe, from a known property of riglit-angled triangles, definition, and the caſe with which the other proper-
aty-x
BCXAD=BAXAC ; that is, bx=(04
ties can be derived from it, generally give a prefe-
2-y-*
-2axtox?y?
This laſt equation
Definitions. 1. When curve lines are defined by e-
4
being multiplied by 2, and added to the former, gives quations, they are ſuppoſed to be produced by the ex-
$:+2bx=a:--2ax+x", which being reſolved accord- tremity of one ſtraight line, as PM moving in a given
ing to the rules of Part I. Chap. V. gives x=a+b angle along another
ſtraight line AB given in polition,
which is called the baſe.
2ab+267
To conſtruct this: a+b is the fun of the perimeter
14
and perpendicular, and is given; V 2ab +2b2 =
Va+bx2b is a mean proportional between a+b and
26, and may be found; therefore, from the ſuni of the
perinieter and perpendicular ſubtract the mean propor-
tional between the ſaid ſumn and double the baſe, and
the remainder will be the perpendicular required.
M
From the baſe and perpendicular the right-angled
triangle is eaſily conſtructed.
In numbers, let BA+AC+AD=18.8=a; BC=
10=b; then AD=a+
bV2ab+b1 = 28.8-7576
P
= 4.8=x, and BA+AC=14. By either of the firſt
equations y?=262 +2ax-a?-*2=4 and y=BAⓇAC
2; therefore BA-8, and AC=6.
The geometrical expreſſion of the roots of final equa-
tions ariſing from problems may be found without re-
folving them by the interſection of geometrical lines.
2. The ſtraighı line PN1 moving along the other, is
called an Ordinate, and is uſually denoted by j.
Thus, the roots of a quadratic are found by the in-
terſections of the circle and ſtraight line, thoſe of a
3. The ſegment of the baſe AP between a given .
cubic and biquadratic, by the interfections of two co-
point in it A, and an ordinate PM, is called an Abfcifs
nic ſections, &c.
with reſpect to that ordinate, and is denoted by x.
The ſolution of problems may be effected alſo by
The ordinate and abſciſs together are called Co-ordi-
The interſections of the loci of two intermediate equa-
tions without deducing a final equation. But theſe
4. If the relation of the variable abſciſs and ordi-
two laſt methods can only be underſtood by the doc-
nate AP and PM, be expreſſed by an equation, which
trine of the loci of equutions.
beſides x and y contains only known quantities, the
curve MO deſcribed by the extremity of the ordinate,
moving along the baſe, is called the Locus of that e
CH A P. II.
quation.
5. If the equation is finire, the curve is called Ale
Of the Definition of Lines by Equations, gebraical (A). It is this claſs only which is here con-
fidered.
LINEs which can be mathematically treated of muſt 6. The dimenſions of ſuch equations are eftinated
be produced according to an uniformn rule, which de- from the higheſt ſum of the exponents of x and y in
termines the polition of every point of them.
any term.--According to this definition, the rernis
This rule conſtitutes the definition of any line from **, *39, it? ya, xy 3, 9+ are all of the ſame dimenſion.
which all its other properties are to be derived.
7. 'Curve lines are divided into orders from the di..
A ſtraight line has been conſidered as fo fimple as menſions of their equations, when freed from fra&ti.
to be incapable of definition. The curve lines here ons and furds.
treated of are ſuppoſed to be in a plane ; and are de In theſe general definitions, the ſtraight line is ſup-
fined either from the ſection of a lolid by a plane, or poſed to be comprehended, as it is the locus of ſimple
inore univerſally by fome continued motion in a plane, equations. . Tlie loci of quadratic equations are ſhown
12
rates.
10
(A) The terms Geometrical and Algebraical, as applied to curve lines, are uſed in different ſenſes, by dif-
ferent writers; there are ſeveral other claſſes of curves beſides what is here called algebraical, which can be
treated of mathematically, and even by means of algebra. See Scholium at the end.
A L G E
G E B R A.
Part III.
Applicni to be the conic fecions, which arc hence called lines Some more general ſuppoſitions may be of uſe in Applicati-
en to Ge of the ſecond order, &c.
de.ermining the figure ; but theſe can be ſuggeſted on- un to Ge-
ometry It is fufficiently plain from the nature of an cqua ly from the particular form of the equation in view. ometry.
tion, containing two idriable qualitiiies, that it must By ſuppoſing x to have certain relations to the known
determine the poſition of every point of the curve, de quantities, the values of y may become more ſimple,
fined by it in the manner flow deſcribed : for if any and the equation may be reduced to ſuch a form as to
particular known value of one of the variable quanti Thow the direction of the curve, and ſome of its obyi-
ties as x be aflumed, the equation will then have one ous properlies.
unknown quantity only, and being reſolved, will give a The following general obſervations may alſo be laid
preciſe number of correſponding values ofy, which de. down:
termine ſo many points of the curve.
1. If in any caſe a value of y vaniſhes, then the curve
As every point of the locus of an equation has the meets the baſe in a point deterinined by the corre-
fame general property, it muſt be one curve only, and fponding value of x. Hence by putting y=o, the
from this cquation all its properties may be derived. roots of the equation, which in that ſituation are va.
It is plain alſo, that any curve line defined from the lues of x, will give the diſtances on the baſe from the
motion of a point, according to a fixed rule, muſt ci- point affumed as the beginning of x, at which the
ther return into iiſelf, or be extended ad infinitum curve meets it,
with a continusd curvature.
2. If at a particular value of x, y becomes infinite,
The equation, however, is ſuppoſed to be irredu the curve has an infinite arc, and the ordinate at that
cible; becauſe, if it is not, the locus will be a combi point becomes an aſymptote.
nation of inferior lines: but the combination will poſ 3. If when x becomes infinitely great, y vaniſhes, the
ſeſs the general properties of the lines of the order of baſe becomes an aſymptote.
the given equation,
4. If any value of y becomes inipoſſible, then ſo ma-
It is to be obſerved all along that the poſitive va ny interſections of the ordinate and curve vaniſh. If
Ines of the ordinate, as PM, being taken upwards, the al any value of x all the values of y become impoſſible,
negative Pm will be placed downwards, on the oppoſite the ordinate does nor there meet the curve,
ſide of the baſe: and if poſitive values of the abſciſs, 5. If two values of y become equal and have the
as AP, be aſſumed to the right from its beginning, fame fign, the ordinate in that ſituation either touches
the negative values, AP will be upon the left, and the curve, or paſſes through an interſection of two of
from there the points of the curve M, m, on that ſide its branches, which is called a pun&tum duplex, or
are to be determined.
through an oval become infinitely little, called a punc-
In the general definition of curves it is uſual to fup- tum conjngatkn.
poſe the co-ordinates to be at right angles. If the In like manner is a purflum triplex, &c. to be de-
locus of any equation be deſcribed, and if the abſciſs termined.
be aſſuined on another baſe, and the ordinate be placed The following example will illuſtrate this doctrine:
at a different angle, the new equation expreſſing their Let the equation be ay? ---Xy? -43 +6x? :
relation though of different forin, will be of the ſame
Therefore, y2 =
x 3,45x^
and y=+
X34bx
order as the original equation ; and likewiſe will have,
in common with it, thoſe properties which diſinguilh
the equations of that particular curve.
This method of defining curves by equations may
not be the fitteſt for a full inveſtigation of thc proper Let AB be aſſumed as a baſe on which the abfcilics
ties of a particular curve; but as their number is with. are to be taken from A, and the ordinates perpendi-
out limit, ſuch a minute inquiry concerning all, would cular to it.
be not only uſeleſs, but impoſſible. It has this great Since the two values of y are eqnal, but have oppo-
advantage, however, that many of the general affec ſite ſigus; PM, and Pm which repreſent them, mult
tions of all curves, and of the diſtinct orders, and alſo be taken equal to each other on oppoſite ſides of
ſome of the moſt uſeful properties of particular curves, AB; and it is plain that the parts of the curve on
may be eaſily derived from it.
the two ſides of AB, muſt be every way ſimilar and
equal.
1. The Determination of the figure of a Curve from
its Equations.
The general figure of the curve may be found by fore if AC is taken equal to a, the perpendicular CD
which is an algebraical expreſſion for infinity; there-
fabfituting fucceffively particular values of x the ab-
will become an aſyniprote to the curve, which will
fcifs, and finding by the reſolution of theſe equations
have two infiniic arcs (Obf. 2.). It x is greater tlian
the correſponding values of the ordinate, and cf con-
a, the quantity under the radical ſign becomes nega-
fequencc fo many points of the curve. If numeral va-
tive, and the values of y are impoſſible ; that is, no
lues be ſubſtituted for x, and alſo certain numbers for
the known letters, the reſolution of the equation gives part of the curve lies beyond CD. (4.)
Both branches of the curve paſs through A, ſince
11 umeral expreſſions of the ordinates ; and from theſe,
by means of ſcales, a mechanical deſcription of the curve 10, when x=0. (1.) Let x be negative, and ;===
will be obtained, which may often be uſeful, both in =*; the values of y will be poflible, if x is not
pointing out the general diſpoſition of the figurc, and at*
alſo in the practical applications of geometry. greater than b; but if x=-8, then y=0, and if x is great-
A.
X
x+
XX.
at
If x is made equal to a, then y=*/
*+6
o
S
Part II.
A L G E B R A.
439
I
Applica- er than b, the values of y become impoflible; that is, If b is negative, then E is to the riglit of A, which Applica-
tion to Ge- if the abſciſs AP be taken to the left of A, and leſs will now be a punđun conjugatuin. The reſt or the tion to Ge-
ometry. than b, there will be two real equal values of y, viz. curve will be between E and C, and CD becomes an ometry.
PM, Pm on the oppoſite ſides as before; if AE be aſſymptote.
laken equal to b the curve will paſs through E, and no If aso then >xy? *3_bxor y?=bx-*?, which
part of it is beyond E. (1. and 4.)
is an equation to the circle of which budE is the dia-
nieter,
le
.
II. General Properties of Curves from their Equationss
The general properties of eqılations lead to the ge-
neral affections of curve lines. For Example,
TM
A ſtraight line may meet a curve in as many points
as there are units in the dimenſion of its equation ; for
M
ſo many roots may that equation have.
An aſymp-
tote may cut a curve line in as many points, excepting
two, as it has dimenſions, and no more. The ſame
B may be obſerved of the tangent.
Po
Impoſible roots enter an equation by pairs ; there-
fore the interſections of the ordinate and curve muſt
vanith by pairs.
The curves of which the number expreſſing the or-
m
der is odd, muſt have at leaſt two infinite arcs ; for the
abfcifs may be ſo affumed, that, for every value of it,
either poſitive or negative, there muſt be at leaſt one
value of y, &c.
The proporties of the coefficients of the terms of
The portion between A and E is called a Nodus.
equations, mentioned Part 11. Chap. I. furnih a great
If y be put =0, then the values of x are 0, 0, -b. number of the curious and univerſal properties of curre
That is, the curve paſſes twice through A, or A is a
lines. For example, the ſecond term of an equation is
punctuni duplex, and it paſſes alſo through E as be- the ſum of the roots with the ſigns changed, and if the
fore. (1.)
ſecond term is wanting, the politive and negative roots
The mechanical deſcription of curves mentioned in must be equal. From this it is eaſy to demonſtrate,
the beginning of this ſection, may be illuſtrated by the
" That if each of two parallel ſtraight lines meet a
preceding exanıple. For this purpoſe, let any nume-
ral values of a and b be aſſumed ; and if ſucceiiive nu-
curve line in as many points as it has dimenſions, and
ifa a ſtraight line cut theſe two parallels, ſo that the fum
meral values of x be inſerted, correſponding numeral
values of y will be obtained, by which ſo many points fum of the ſegments on the other, this ſtraight line
of the ſegments of each on one ſide be equal to the
in the curve may be conſtructed.
Let AC=10; A E=b=12; and, firſt lerx=1, then
will cut any other line parallel to theſe in the ſame
manner.” Analogous properties, with many other
y=x
+1.2 nearly, which conſequences from them, may be deduced from the
3
compoſition of the coefficients of the other terms.
gives the length of the ordinates when the abſciſs is 1; Many properties of a particular order of curves may
and in the ſame manner are the ordinates to be found be inferred from the properties of equations of that or-
when x is 2, 3, or any other number. Thus, if x=6,
der. Thus, “If a ſtraight line cut a curve of the
Vig
third order in three points, and if another ſtraight line
then y=box = 12.73 nearly, and if AP be be drawn, making a given angle with the former, and
taken from the ſcale of equal.parts (according to which by the ſegments of one of theſe lines between its inter-
cutting the curve alſo in three points, the parallelopiped
A B and A E are ſuppoſed to be laid down) and equal ſection with the other, and the points where it meets
to 6, then PM, Pm, being taken from the lame ſcale,
cach equal to 12.73, will give the points of the curve
the curve, will be to the parallelopiped by the like feg.
mients of the other line in a given ratio." This de
3
M, m. In like manner, if a=-=-=9
pends upon the compofition of the abſolute term, and
inay be extended to curyes of any order.
3.58, nearly ; and if A P=9, then PM, Pın being
taken from the ſame ſcale equal to 3.58, will give the
III. The Subdiviſion of Curves.
points M, m. In the ſame manner may any number As lines are divided into orders from the dimenſions
of points be found, and theſe being joined, will give a of their equations, in like manner, from the varieties of
repreſentation of the curve, which will be more or leſs the equations of any order, may diilerent genera and
juft, according to the number of points found, and the fpecies of that order be diſtinguiſhed, and from the pe-
accuracy of the ſeveral operations employed.
culiar properties of theſe varieties, may the affectius
By the ſame methods che locus of any other equa- of the particular curves be diſcovered,
tion is to be traced : Thus, by varying the former e For this purpoſe a complete general equation is af-
quation, the figure of its locus will be varied. Ifb=0, ſumed of that order, and all the varieties in the terms
then the point A and E coincide, the nodus vanilles, and coefficients which can affe. I the figure of the locus
and A is called a culpis.
are enumerated.
it
xti
*
13
2
19
como
2
440
A L G E B R A.
Part III.
der.
1
Applica It was formerly obſerved, that the equations belong- variety of data different from theſe aſſumed in the po. Applica.
tion to Ge- ing to any one curve, may be of various forms, accord- ftulaté, by demonſtrating the dependence of the for. tion to Ge-
ometry. ing to the poſition of the baſe, and the angle which mer upon the latter.
ometry.
the or.liaate makes with it, though they be all of the As the definitions of a curve may be various, ſo alſo
fame order, and have allo certain properties, which di- may be the poſtulates, and a definition is frequently
ítinguish them from the other cqnations of that or choſen from the inode of deſcription connected with it.
The particular object in view, it was formerly reinark-
The locus of ſimple equations is a ſtraight line. There ed, muſt deterniine the proper choice of a definition ;
are three ſpecies of lines of thic ſecond order, which the ſimplicity of it, the caſe with which the other pro-
are ealily thown to be the cuilc fuff.001, reckoning the perties of the figure may be derived from it, and ſome-
circle and ellipſe to be one. Suz'un!t: -eight fpecies have times even the caſe with which it can be executed me.
been numbered of the third order : And as the ſupe- chanically, may be conſidered as important circum-
rior orders become too numerous to be particularly ſtances.
reckoned, it is uſual only to divide them into certain In the ſtraight line, the circle, the conic ſections,
general clafles.
and a few curves of the higher orders, the moſt conve-
A complete arrangement of the curves of any order nient deſiniiions, and the poſtulates connected with
would furniſh canons, by which the ſpecies of a curve theni, are generally knownand received. An equation
whoſe equation is of that order might be found. to a curve may alſo be aſſumed as a definition of it ;
IV. Of the place of Curves defined from other prin- and the deſcription of it, according to that definition,
ciples in the Algebraucal Syſtem.
,
trical conſtruction of problems is to be inveſtigated by
If a curve linc be defined from the ſection of a ſolid, means of algebra, it is often uſeful to deduce from the
or from any rule different from what has been here ſup. equation to a curve, thoſe data which, from the geo-
- poſed, an equation to it may be derived, by which its nietrical theory of the curve, are known to be neceſ-
order and ſpecies in the algebraical ſyſtem may be ſary to its deſcription in the original poſtulate, or in
found. And, for this purpoſe, any baſe and any angle any problem founded upon it. This is called Conſtruc-
of the co-ordinates may be allunied, from which the ting the locus of an equation, and from this method are
equation may be moſt ealily derived, or may be of the generally derived the moſt elegant conſtructions which
moſt finple form.
can be obtained by the uſe of algebra. In the follow-
The three Conic Sections are of the ſecond order, as ing ſection, there is an example of a problem reſolved
their equations are univerſally quadratic; the Gifford of by ſuch conſtructions.
the ancients is of the third order, and the 42d ſpecies, Sometimes a inechanical deſcription of a curve line
according to Sir Iſaac Newton's enumeration; this is the defined by an equation is uſeful; and as the exhibition
curvedefined by the equation in page 439,col. 1. par.ult. ofit, by ſuch a inotion as is ſuppoſed in that definition,
when bo. The curve delineated above in the ſame is rarely practicable, it generally becomes neceſſary to
page, is the 41ſt ſpecies. When b is negative in that contrive ſome more ſimple motion which may in effect
equation, the locus is the 43d ſpecies. The Conchoid correſpond with the other, and may deſcribe the curve
of Nicomedes is of the fourth order; the Gaflinian with the degree of accuracy which is wanted. Fre-
curve is alſo of the fourth order, &c.
quently, indeed, the only niethod which can be conve-
It is to be obſerved, that not only the firſt definition niently practiſed, is the finding a nìmber of points in
of a curve may be expreſſed by an equation, but like the curve by the reſolution of numeral equations, in
wife
any
of thoſe theorems called loci, in which ſome the manner mentioned in Sect. I. of this Chapter, and
property is demonſtrated to belong to every point of then joining theſe points by the hand; and though this
the curve. The expreſſion of theſe propofitions by e- operation is manifeſtly imperfect, it is on ſome occa-
quations, is ſometimes difficult ; 110 general rules can fions uſeful.
be given, and it muſt be left to the ſkill and experience
II. Solution of Problems.
of the learner.
The folution of geometrical problems by algebra is
Schotium.
much promoted, by deſcribing the loci of the equati-
This method of treating curve lines by equations, ons ariſing from theſe problems.
beſides the uſes already hinted at, has many others, For this purpoſe, equations are to be derived accor-
which do not belong to this place; ſuch are, the find- ding to the methods formerly deſcribed, and then to be
ing the tangents of curves, their curvature, their areas reduced to two, containing each the ſame two unknown
and lengths, &c. The ſolution of theſe problems has quantities. The loci of theſe equations are to be de-
been accompliſhed by means of the eqnations to curves, fcribed, the two unknown quantities being conſidered
though by employing, concerning them, a method of as the co-ordinates, and placed at the ſanie angle in
reaſoning different from what has been here explained. both. The co-ordinates at the interſection of the loci,
will be common to both, and give a ſolution of the
CH A P. III.
problem.
The ſimplicity of a conſtruction obtained by this
1. Confruction of the Loci of Equotions.
method, will depend upon a proper notation, and the
The deſcription of a curve, according to the defini. choice of the equations of which the loci are to be
tion of it, is affumed in geometry as a poſtulat?. deſcribed. Theſe will frequently be different from
If the properties of a particular curve are inveſti- what would be proper in a different method of folu-
gated, it will appear that it inay be deſcribed from a
tion.
3
PROB.
Part III.
A L G E B R A.
4.4.1
Or
tion to Ger
16
yh That is y=
Applica- PROB. IV. To find Point F in the Baſe of the given on KM. This perpendicular is equal to
My Applica
tion to Ge- Triangle ABC, ſo that the sum of the Squares of
pur
oinetry. FE, FD drawn from it perpendicular upon the two
onietry.
Sides, may be equal to a given Space.
a fourth proportional to MK, KL, and LM, and its
ſquare therefore is the leaſt ſum of the ſquares of the
Draw BH, CG perpendicular on the two ſides, and perpendiculars from a point in the baſe on the two.
let FD=x, FE=y,
fides.
BF=2, BC= b,
It may be remarked alſo, that the point which gives
BH=p, CG= r,
А.
the ſum of the ſquares a minimum,is found by dividing
and thegiven ſpace
the baſe, in the proportion of the ſquares of the two
FD: EFE =m.
ſides of the triangle ; and this is eaſily demonſtrated
From ſimilar tri-
from the preceding conſtruction,
angles z:x::b:r,
_bx
and zu
Prob. V. Between two given Lines to find two mean
Proportionals.
Allobz:y :: 6:p.
G
and zob
Let the lines be a and b, and let the two means be
H
pi
and y; therefore a:x:y:b, and hence ay=x?, and
D
bx
bx=y, which are both equations to the parabola, and
therefore '*-b
are eaſily conſtructed. The co-ordinates at the inter-
ſection of theſe two loci will be the means required.
B
If one unknown quantity only is affumed, or if it is
p.
convenient to deduce a final equation containing only
px
one, the conſtruction of the roots is to be obtained by
an equation to a ſtraight line.
the method mentioned in the next fection.
Scholium.
But x?ty?=m2 of which the locus is a circle, ha-
ving m for the radius. By conſtructing theſe loci, The conſtructions of the two preceding problems are
their interſection will give a ſolution of the problem. geometrical ; but it is fonietimes convenient to have a
Let KL-CG (r) be at right angles to LM= practical ſolution, by the mechanical deſcription either
BH (=P), join KM N
of the algebraical lines employed in the geometrical ſo-
to which let LN be
lution, or of other geometrical lines by which it can
parallel; LN is the
be effected. But few of theſe are tolerably accurate;
locus of the equation
ſo that, in general, by means of calculation, the prac-
tical operations are all reduced to what may be per-
ソーサー
​formed by a ruler and a compaſs.
line OPQ be drawn
III. Conſtruction of Equations.
parallel to LM, if KP
The roots of an equation, containing only one un-
=x, then PQ = P.
known quantity, may be found by the interſection of
lines, the product of whoſe dimenſions is equal to the
and 2O=LM=p,
K
L dimenſion of that equation. And hence problems are
therefore Po=y=p-
reſolved without an algebraical folution of the equation
ariſing from them.
Thus cubic and biquadratic equations may be con-
About the centre
ſtructed by the interſections of two conic ſections as
K, with a diſtance c-
the circle and parabola, which are generally affumed as
qual to the line m, let
being moſt eaſily deſcribed.
a circle be deſcribed ;
In order to find theſe conſtructions, a new equation
that circle will be the
is to be aſſumed, containing two variable quantities,
locus of the equation
one of which is the unknown quantity of the given e-
m*-* +42; for it is
NM
quation, and the other by ſubſtitution is to be inſerted
plain that if OP be
alſo in the given equation; the interſection of the loci
any perpendicular from the circumference upon KL, of theſe equations will exhibit the roots required.
KP being x, OP will be y. Either of the points, Canons may be deviſed for the conſtruction of par-
therefore, in which theſe two loci interfect each other, ticular orders, without aſſuming the new equation.
as 0, will give OP an ordinate in both equations, KP The final equation from prob.-5. would be x3ma:b,
being the common abſciſs; therefore KP, OP are the which being conſtructed according to the rules, exhi-
i wo perpendiculars required, froni which the point F bits the common geometrical ſolution of that problem
is calily found.
by the circle and parabola.
The conſtruction might have been made on figure ift, If an equation be aſſumed, as a)=x*, the other by
with fewer lines. If the circle touches LN, there is ſubſtitution becomes x3 =ab; the locus of the former is
only one ſolution which is a minimum; and if the circle a parabola, and of the latter an hyperbola, one of its
does not meet LN, the problem becomes impoſible. alſymptores being the baſe, and the co-ordinates at
When the circle touches LN, the radius 171 muſt be their interſection will repreſent rand y; the first of the
equal to the perpendicular from K on LN, or from L two means is x, and in this caſe y is the other.
VoL, I.
3 K
Equa-
O
px; for let any
r
px
442
À L G E BRA.
Part III.
4pzica Equations alſo might be allumed ſo as to give a ſo- ſeldom uſed, except in finding the firſt ſep of an ap- Applica-
tion 'o Guolution of this problem by other combinations of two of proximation, which is to be carried on by ucher me. tion to Geo
0:11etry, the conic ſeclions, one of them not being the circle.
thods.
(117<try.
As geometrical magnitudes may be repreſented by
Scholii 11?.
algebra, ſo algebraical quantities and numbers may be
repreſented by lines. Hence this confruciion of equa If the relation between the ordinate and abfcifs be
tions has fometiines been uſed as an eaſy method of fixed, but not exprcílille by a tinite equation, the curve
approximation to the roots of numeral equations. For is called Mechanical (A) or Tranſcendental. This claſs
this purpoſe, the neceſſary ſtraight lines muſt be laid is alſo ſometimes detined by equations, by ſuppoſing
down by ineans of a ſcale of equal parts, and the curve either x or y in a finite equation to be a curvc line, of
lines, on whoſe interſection the conſtru&tion depends, which the relation to a ſtraight line cannot be expref .
muſt be actually deſcribed ; the linear roots being inea fed in finite terms.
ſured on the ſcale will give the numbers required. If the variable quantities x or y enter the exponents
Theſe operations inay be performed with ſufficient ac- of any term of an equation, the locus of that equation
curacy for certain purpoſes; but as they depend on is called an Exponntul Curve.
inechanical principles, the approximation obtained by Many properties of theſe two claſſes of curves may
them cannot be continued at pleaſure; and hence it is be diſcovered from their equaiions.
I
A L G
A L L G
Algedo ALGEDO, the running of a gonorrhoea ſtopping ALGIERS, a kingdom of Africa, now one of the Algiers. .
ſuddenly after it appears. When it thus ſtops, a pain ſtates of Barbary.- According to the lateſt and beſt
Algiabarii.
reaclies to the anus, or to the teſticles, without their computations, it extends 460 miles in length from eaſt
being ſwelled ; and ſometimes this pain reaches to the to weſt, and is very unequal in breadth ; ſome places be-
bladder ; in iliich caſe there is an urging to diſcharge ing ſcarce 40 miles broad, and others upward of 100. It
the urine, which is with difficully paſſed, and in very lies between Long. 1. o. and 9. 37. W. and extends
ſmall quan:ities at az.time. The pain is continued to from Lat. 0. 0. to 36. 50. N.-It is bounded on the
the bladder by the urethra ; to the anus, by the acce north, by the Mediterranean ; on the eaſt by the river
leratory muſcles of the penis ; and to the teſticles, by Zaine, the ancient Tuſca, which divides it from Tunis;
the vaſa dcfcrentia, and veliculæ ſeminales. In this on the weſt, by the Mulvya, and the mountains of Tra-
Cale, calomel repeated ſo as to purge, brings back va, which ſeparate it from Morocco ; and on the ſouth
the running, and then all difficulty from this ſymptom by the Sahara, Zaara, or Numidian deſert.
ceaſcs,
The climate of Algiersisin moſt places ſo moderate, Climate
ALGENE B, a ſixed ſtar, of the ſecond magnitude, that they enjoy a conſtant verdure; the leaves of the and foil.
in Perſeus's right ſide ; its longitude is 278 46' 121 trees being neither parched up by heat in ſummer, nor
of Taurus, and its latitude 300 05' 284 north, ac- nipped by the winter's cold. They begin to bud in
cording to Mr Flamſtead's catalogue.
February ; in April the fruit appears in its full bigneſs,
ALG IRA, a town of Andaluſia in Spain, with and is commonly ripe in May. The foil, however, is
a port on the coaſt of the Straits of Gibraltar. By exceſſively various ; ſome places being very hot, dry,
this city the Moors entered Spain in 713; and it was and barren, on which account they are generally ſuf-
taken from them in 1344, after a very long ſiege, re fered to lie uncultivated by the inhabitants, who are
markable for being the firſt in which cannon were made very negligent. Theſe barren places, eſpecially ſuch
uſe of. It was called Old Gibraltar, and is about four as lie on the ſouthern ſide, and are at a great diſtance
leagues from the New. W. Long. 5. 2. N. Lat. from the ſea, harbour vaſt numbers of wild creatures,
36. 0.
as lions, tigers, buffaloes, wild boars, ftags, porcupines,
ALGHIER, or ALGERI, a town in Sardinia, with monkeys, oftríches, &c. On account of their barren-
a biſhop's fee, upon the weſtern coaſt of the iſland, be- neſs, they have but few towns, and thoſe thinly peo-
tween Saſſeri and Bofa. Though it is not large, it is pled ; though ſome of them are ſo advantageouſly fitu-
well peopled, and has a commodious port. The coral ted for trading with Bildulgerid and Negroland, as to
fiſhed for on this coaſt is in the higheſt eſteem of any in drive a conſiderable traffic with them.
the Mediterranean. W. Long. 4. 2. Lat 36. O. The Algerine kingdom made formerly a conſider-
ALGIABARII, a Mahometan feet of predeſtinari- able part of the Mauritania Tingitana (See Mauri-
ans, who attribute all the actions of men, good or evil, TANIA), which was reduced to a Roman province by
to the agency or influence of God. The Algiabarii Julius Cæſar, and from him alſo called Mauritania
ſtand oppoſed to the AL KADARII. They hold abſo. Cæfarienſis.- In the general account of Africa, it has
lute degrees and phyſical premotion. For the juſtice been noticed, that the Romans were driven out of
of God in puniſhing the evil he has cauſed, they re that continent by the Vandals; theſe by Beliſarius,
ſolve it wholly into his abſolute dominion over the the Greek emperor Juſtinian's general; and the Greeks
in their turn by the Saracens. This laſt revolution
happened
creatures.
(A) The term Mechanical, in this place, is uſed merely as the name of a particular claſs of curves, without
implying that they have any more dependence on the principles of Mechanics or Phyſics than the algebraical
coryes which have been treated of.
A L G
[ 443 ]
AL G
2
4
wlio.
S
Algiers. happened about the middle of the ſeventh century; their retreats, caſtles, and fortreſſes, as were till then Algiers.
and the Arabs continued maſters of the country, di- deemed impregnable : and at laſt ſubdued them, to the
vided into a great number of petty kingdoms or ſtates, great grief of the other African nations, who v čre
under chiefs of their own chooſing, till the year 1051. greatly annoyed by the ravages committed by his nu-
Abu Texe- This year, one Abubeker-ben-Omar, or, as the Spa- merous forces.
fien ſubducs niſh authors call him, Abu Texefian, an Arab of the Thus was founded the empire of the Vorabiies :
the Arab Zinhagian tribe, being provoked at the tyranny of wliich, however, was of no long duration ; that race
princes.
thoſe deſpots, gathered, by the help of his marabouts being in the 12th century driven out by Mohavedin,
or faints, a molt powerful army of malcontents, in the a marabout. This race of prieſts was expelled by Ab-
ſouthern provinces of Numidia and Libya. His fol. dulac governor of Fez; and he, in the 13th century,
lowers were nicknamed Marabites or Morabites; by the ſtripped of his new conqueſts by the Sharifs of Hafcen, Sharifs un
Spaniards, Almoravides; probably from their being the deſcendants of thoſe Arabian princes whoni Abu- Haſcens
allembled principally by the faints who were alſo called Texefien had formerly expelled.
Morabites. The khalif of Kayem's forces were at The better to ſecure their new dominions, the Sha-
this time taken up with quelling other revolts in Syria, rifs divided them into ſeveral little kingdoms or pro-
Meſopotamia, &c. and the Arabs in Spain engaged in vinces; and among the reſt the preſent kingdom of
the moſt bloody wars; ſo that Texefien having nothing Algiers was divided into four, namely, Tremecer!, Tc-
to fear from them, had all the ſucceſs he could wiſh nez, Algiers proper, and Bujezah. The four firſt mo-
againſt the Arabian cheyks or petty tyrants, whom he narchs laid ſo good a foundation for a laſting balance
defeated in many battles, and at laſt drove them not of power between their little kingdoms, that they con-
only out of Numidia and Libya, but out of all the tinued for ſome centuries in mutual peace
and amity;
weſtern parts, reducing the wliole province of Tingi. but at length the king of Tremecen having ventured
tania under his dominion.
to violate ſome of their articles, Abul-Farez, king of
Texefien was ſucceeded by his ſon Yufef, or Jofeph, Tenez, declared war againſt him, and obliged him in
a brave and warlike prince. In the beginning of his become his tributary. This king dying ſoon after, and
reign, he laid the foundation of the city of Morocco, having divided his kingdom among his three ſons, net
which he deſigned to make the capital of his empire. diſcords aroſe; which Spain taking advantage of, a
While that city was building, he ſent ſome of his ma- powerful fleet and army was ſent againſt Barbary, un-
rabouts ambaſſadors to Tremecen (now a province of der the Count of Navarre, in 1505. This commander Algerines
Algiers), at that time inhabited by a powerful and ſoon made himſelf maſter of the important cities of in danger
infolent íect of Mahometans called Zeneti
. The de- Oran, Bujeyah, and ſome others; which fo alarned from the
ſign of this embaſſy was to bring them back to what he the Algerines, that they put themſelves under the pro-
Spaniards.
called the true faith; but the Zeneti, deſpiſing his of- tection of Selim Eutemi, a noble and warlike Arabian
fers, aſſembled at Amaf, or Amfa, their, capital, mur- prince. He came to their aiſiſtance with a great nun-
dered the ambaſſadors, and invaded Joſeph's dominions ber of his braveſt ſubjects, bringing with him his wife
with an army of 50,000 men.
Zaphira, and a fon then about 12 years old. This
The king hearing of their infamous proceedings, however was not ſufficient to prevent the Spaniards
Zeneti de-
stroyed.
ſpeedily muſtered his army, and led it by long marches from landing a number of forces near Algiers that ſame
into their country, deſtroying all with fire and ſword; year, and obliging that inetropolis to become tributary
while the Zeneti, inſtead of oppoſing his progreſs, re to Spain. Nor could Prince Seliin hinder them from
tired as faſt as poſſible towards Fez, in hopes of recei- building a ſtrong fort on a ſmall iſland oppoſite to the
ving aſſiſtance from thence. In this they were miſerably city, which tei rifted their corfairs froin failing either
deceived: the Fezzans marched out againſt them in a in or out of the harbour,
hoſtile manner; and coming up with the unhappy Ze To this galling yoke the Algerines were obliged to
ncti, encumbered with their families and baggage,and ſubmit till che year 1516; when, hearing of the death
ready to expire with hunger and wearineſs they cut of Ferdinand king of Spain, they ſent an embaſſy to 6
them all to pieces, except a ſmall number who were Aruch Barbaroffa, who was at this time no leſs dread- Invite Bars
moſtly drowned in attempting to ſwim acroſs a river, ed for his valvur than his ſurpriſing ſucceſs, and was baroffa.
and ſome others who in their flight periſhed by then ſent on a cruize with a ſquadron of galleys and
falling from the high adjacent rocks. In the mean tine barks. The purport of the embally was, that he ſhould
Joſeph reduced their country to a mere deſart : which coine and free thein from the Spaniſlı yohe; for which
was, however, ſoon peopled by a numerous colony of they agreed to pay him a gratuity anſwerable to lo
Fezzans, who ſettled there under the protection ofthe great a ſervice. Upon this Barbaroſſa immediately
reigning kings. In this war it is computed that near diſpatched 18 galleys and 30 barks to the aſſiſtance of
a million of the Zeneti, men, women, and children, the Algerines; while lie himſelf advanced towards the
loſt their lives.
city with 800 Turhs, 2000 Tigelites, and 2000 Moorillı
Thereſleſs and ambitions teniper of Joſeph did 1100 volunteers. Inſtead of taking the neareſt road tu Al-
let him remain long at peace. He quickly declared giers, he directed his courſe iowords Sharjhel, wliere
war againſt the Fezzans, reduced them to become his Hilfen, another famed corſair,hau fetiled himſelf. Him
tributaries, and extended his conqueits all along the he ſurpriſed, and obliged to ſurrender ; 110t wi holt 1
Mediterranean. Henext attacked ſome Arabian cheyks previous promiſe of friendhip: but no founer hud Bar-
who had not yet ſubmitted to his juriſdiction ; and pur- barolla got him in his power, than the cut off his head;
ſued them with ſuch fury, that neither the iibyan de- and obliged all Fili's Turns to follow him in his
ſarts, nor ridges of the moſt craggy rochs, could ſhel new expedition.
ter them from his arms. He attacked them in ſuch of On Barlarvila's approach to Algiers, he vas met by
@ K2
prince
3
A LG
[ 444 ]
ALG
7
His treach
ery and
ز
Algiers, prince Eureni, attended by all the people of that nie capital, which he eaſily made himſelf maſter of ; and, Algiers,
tropolis, great and ſmall; who looked for deliverance having given it up to bc plundered by his Turks, oblim
from this abandoned villaini, whom they accounted in- ged the inhabitants to acknowledge him as thcir ſove-
vincible. He was conducted into the city amidſt the reign. This victory, however, was chiefly owing to
cruelty. acclamations of the people, and lodged in one of the the advantage which his troops had from their fire-
nobleſ apartments of prince Eutemi's place, wliere armis ; the enemy having no other weapons than ar-
he was created with the greateſt marks of diſinction. rows and javelins.
Elated beyond meaſure with this kind reception, Bar Nofooner was Barbaroſſa become maſter of the kinga
barola formed a deſign of becoming king of Algiers; dom of Tenez, than he received an embally from tlie
and fearing ſome oppoſition from the inhabitants, on inhabitants of Treniecen; inviting him to come to their
account of the excelles he ſuffered his ſoldiers to coni aſſiſtance againſt their then reigning prince, with whoni
mit, murdered prince Eutcmi, and cauſed himſelf to be they were dillatisfied on account of his having dethro-
proclaimed king; his Turks and Moors crying out as ned his nephew, and forced him to fly to Oran: offer.
he rode along the ſtreets, “ Long live King Aruch ing him even the ſovereignty, in caſe he accepted or
Barbaroffa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chofen their propoſal. The king of Tremecen, not fufpecting
of God to deliver the people from the oppreffion of the the treachery of his ſubjects, met the tyrant with an
Chrillians; and deſtruction to all that ihall oppoſe, or army of 6000 horſe and 3000 foot : but Barbaroſſa's
refuſe to own him as their lawful ſovereign.” Theſe artillery gave him ſuch an advantage, that the king
laſt threatening words ſo intimidated the inhabicants, was at length forced to retire into the capital; which
already apprehenſive of a general maſſacre, that he was he had no ſooner entered than his head was cut off,and
immediately acknowledged king. The unhappy prin- ſent to Barbaroſſa, with a freſh invitation to come and
ceſs Zaphird, it is ſaid, poiſoned herſelf, to avoid the take poffeffion of the kingdom. On his approach, he
brutality of this new king, whom ſhe unſucceſsfully in- wasmiet by theinhabitants,whom hereceived with great
deavoured to ſtab with a dagger.
complaiſance, and many fair promiſes ; but beginning
Barbaroſſa was no ſooner ſeated on the throne, than to tyrannize as uſual, his new ſubjects foon convinced
he treated his ſubjects with ſuclı cruelty, that tliey uſed him that they were not ſo paſſive as the inhabitants of
to fhut up their houſes and hide themſelves when he ap- Algiers. Apprehending, therefore, that his reign
peared in public. In conſequence of this, a plot was might prove uneaſy and precarious, he entered into an
foon formed againſt him; but being diſcovered, he cau alliance with the king of Fez; after which, he took
ſed twenty of
the principal conſpirators to be behead. care to ſecure the reſt of the cities in his new kingdoin
ed, their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a by garriſoning them with his own troops. Some of
hcavy fine on thoſe who ſurvived. This ſo terrified the thieſe, however, revolted ſoon after ; upon which he
Algerines, that they never afterwards durſt attempt ſent one of his corſairs, named Eſcander, a man no leſs
any thing againſt either Barbaroſſa or his ſucceſſors. cruel than himſelf, to reduce them. The Tremeceni-
In the mean time, the ſon of prince Eutemi having ans now began to repent in good earneſt of their ha-
fled to Oran, and put himſelf under the protection of ving invited ſuch a tyrant to their aſſiſtance; and held
the marquis of Goniarez, laid before that nobleman a conſultations on the moſt proper means of driving hini
plan for putting the city of Algiers into the hands of away, and bringing back their lawful prince Abuchen
the king of Spain. Upon this, young Selim Eutemi Mien; but their cabals being diſcovered, a great num-
was ſent to Spain, to lay his plan before cardinal Xi- ber of the conſpirators were maſſacred in the moſt cruel
menes ; who having approved of it, ſent a fleet with manner. The prince had the good luck to eſcape to
10,000 land forces, underthe command of Don Franciſ. Oran, and was taken under the protection of the mar-
60,-1, as others called him, Don Diego de Vera, to drive quis of Gomarez, who ſent immediate advice of it to
out the Turks, and reſtore the young prince. But the
Charles V. then lately arrived in Spain, with a power-
fleet was no ſooner come within ſight of land, than ſul fleet and army. That monarch immediately order-
it was diſperſed by a ſtorm, and the greateſt part of ed the young king a ſuccour of 10,000 men, under the
the ſhips daſhed againſt the rocks. Moſt of the Spa command of the governor of Oran ; who, under the
niards were drowned; and the few who eſcaped to ſhore guidance of Abuchen Men, began his march towards
were either killed by the Turks or made ſlaves. Treniecen; and in their way they were joined by prince
Though Barbaroſſa had nothing to boaſt on this oc Selim, with a great number of Arabs and Moors. The
caſion, his pride and infolence were now ſwelled to ſuch firſt thing they reſolved upon was, to attack the im-
a degree, that heimagined himſelf invincible, and that portant fortreſs of Galau, ſituated between Tremeceni
the very elements conſpired to make him ſo. The A and Algiers, and commanded by the corſair Efcander
rabians were ſo much alarmed at his ſucceſs, that they at the head of about 300 Turks. They inveſted it
implored the aſſiſtance of Hamidel Abdes king of Té- cloſely on all ſides, in hopes Barbaroſſa would come out
nez, to drive the Turks out of Algiers. That prince of Tremecen to its relief, which would give the Tre-
readily undertook to do what was in his power for this mecenians an opportunity of keeping him out. That
purpoſe, provided they agreed to ſettle the kingdom tyrant, however, kept cloſe in his capital, being em-
on himſelf and his deſcendants. This propoſal being barraſſed by his fears of a revolt,and the politic delays
accepted, he immediately ſet out at the head of 10,000 of the king of Fez, who
of the king of Fez, who had not ſent the auxiliaries
Moors ; and, upon his entering the Algerine domini. he promiſed. The garriſon of Calau, in the mean
olis, was joined by all the Arabians in the country. time, inade a brave defence; and, in a ſally they inade
Barbaroſſa engaged him, only with 1000 Turkil muf at night, cut off near 300 Spaniards. This encouraged
queteers and 500 Granada Moors; totally defeated his them to venture a ſecond time ; but they were nowie-
numerous army ; purſued him to the very gates of his pulſed with great loſs,and Eſcander himſelf wounded:
foon
B
A LG
[ .445 ]
A LG
10
II
Algiers. ſoon after which, they ſurrendered upon honourable was not only capable of keeping the Moors and Arabs Algiers.
terms; but were all maſſacred by the Arabians, except in ſubjection at home, but of annoying the Chriſtians
16, who clung cloſe to the ſtirrups of the king, and of at ſea
at fea: His firſt ſtep was to take the Spaniſh fort He takes
the Spaniſh general.
abovementioned, which was a great nuiſance to his me- the Spanifh
Barbaroſſa being now informed that Abuchen Men, tropolis. The Spaniards held our to the laſt extrenii- fort.
with his Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were ty ; but being all llain or wounded, Hayradin eaſily
in full march to lay ſiege to Tremecen, thought pro became maſter of tlie place,
per to come out, at the head of 1500 Turks and 5000 Hayradin next fet about building a ſtrong mole for
Mooriſh horſc, in order to break his way through the the ſafely of his, ſlips. In this he employed 30,000
enemy ; but he had not proceeded far from the city, Chriſtian llaves, whom he obliged to work without in-
before his council adviſed him to return and fortify termiſſion for threeyears, in rhich time the work was
himſelf in it. This advice was now too late ; thein- completed. He then cauſed the fort he had taken
habitants being reſolved to keep him out,and open their from the Spaniards to be repaired, and placed a ſtrong
gates to their
own lawful prince as ſoon as he appear- garriſon in it, to prevent any foreign veſlels from ch-
ed. In this diſtreſs Barbaroſſa faw no way left but to tering the harbour without giving an account of them-
retire to the citadel, and there defend himſelf till he felves. By theſe two important works, Hayraditi foun
could find an opportunity of ſtealing out with his men became dreaded not only by the Arabs and Moors, but
and all his treaſure. Here he defended himſelf vigo- alſo by the inaritime Chriſtian powers, eſpecially the
roully ; but his proviſions failing him, he took advan Spaniards. The viceroy failed not lo acquaint the
tage of a ſubrarraneous back-way, which he had cauſed Grand Signior with his ſucceſs, and obtained from him
to be digged up for that purpoſe, and, taking his im a freſh ſupply of noney, by which he was enabled to
menſe treaſure with him, ſtole away as ſecretly as he build a ſtronger fort, and to crect batteries on all places
could. His flight, however, was ſoon diſcovered: and that might favour the landing of an enemy. Ali theſe
he was ſo cloſely purſued, that to amuſe, as he hoped, have ſince received greater improvements from tinie to
the eneiny, he cauſed a great deal of his money, plate, time, as often as there was occaſion for them.
jewles, &c, to be ſcattered all the way, thinking In the mean time the Sultan, either out of a ſenſe of Succeeded
they would not fail to ſtop their purſuit to gether it up. the great ſervices Hayradin had done, or perhaps out by Haſſan
This ſtratagem,however, failed, through the vigilance of jealouſy left he ſhould make himſelf independent, Aga.
of the Spaniſh commander,whobcing himſelfarthchead raiſed Hayradin to the dignity of bathaw of the em-
of the purſuers, obligeù them to march on, till he was pire, and appointed Haſſan Aga, a Sardinian rine-
come up cloſe to him on the banks of the Huexda, a. gado, an intrepid warrior, and an experienced officer,
bout eight leagues from Tremecen. Barbaroſſa had to ſucceed him as baſhaw of Algiers. Haſſan had no
juſt croſſed the river with his vanguard, wlien the Spa- fooner taken poſſeſſion of his new government, tllan he
niards came up with his rear on the other ſide, and cut began to purſue his ravages on the Spaniſh coaſt with
them all off; and then croſſing the water, overtook him greater fury than ever; extending them to the eccleſia
at a ſmall diſtance from it. Here a bloody engagement aftical ſtate, and other parts of Italy.
But Pope
enſued, in which the Turks foughtlike as many lions; Paul !II. being alarmed at this, exorted the emperor
8 but, being at length overpowered by numbers, they Charles V. to ſend a powerful fleet to ſuppreſs thoſe
Barbaroſſa were all cut to pieces, and Barbaroſſa among the reſt, frequent and cruel piracies; and, that nothing might
defeated
in the 44th year of his age, and four years after he had be wanting to render the interpriſe ſucceſsful, a bull
and killed raiſed himſelf to the royal title of Jigel of the adja- was publiſhed by his holineſs, wherein a plenary abio-
by the Spa-
niards,
cent country; two years after he had acquired the fo- lution of fins, and the crown of martyrdom, was pro-
vereignty of Algiers, and ſcarce a twelvemonth after mifed to all thoſe who either fell in battle or were
the reduction of Tremecen. His head was carried to made llaves ; the emperor on his part needed no ſpar;
Trenecen, on the point of a ſpear; and Abuchen Men and therefore ſet ſail at the head of a powerful Heet Charles
proclaimed king, to the joy of all the inhabitants. A conſiſting of : 20 ſhips and 20 gallies, having on board
pedition
few days after the fight, the king of Fez made his ap: 30,000 choſeu troops, an immenſe quantity of money, agginft
pearance at the head of 20,000 horſe, near the field of arms, aminunition, &c.
In this expeditionl many Algiers.
battle ; but hearing of Barbaroffa's defeat and death, young nobility and gentry attended as volunteers, and
marched off with all poſſible ſpeed, to avoid being among theſe many knights of Malta, fo remarkable
attacked by the enemy.
for their valour againſt the enemies of Chriſtianity.
Succeeded
The news of Barbaroila's death ſpread the utmoſt Even ladics of birth and character attended Charles in
by Hayra. confternation anong the Turks at Algiers ; however, his expedition, and the wives and daughters of the of-
.
they cauſed his brother Hayradin to be immediately ficers and ſoldiers followed them with a deign to ſettle
proclaimed king. The Spaniſh commander now fent in Barbary after the conqueſt was finished. All there
back the emperor's forces, without making any at- meeting with a favourable wind, foon appeared before
tempt upon Algiers ; by which he loſt the opportunity Algiers; every ſhip diſplaying the Spaniſh colours on
of driving the Turks out of that country; while Hay- the ſtern, and another at the head, with a crucitis to
radin, juſtly dreading the conſequences of the tyranny ſerve them for a pilot.
of his officers, fought the procestion of the Grand Sig By this prodigious armament, the Algerines were Algiers in
nior. This was readily granted, and himſelf appointed thrown into the utmoſt conſternation. The city was great con-
baſhaw or viceroy of Algiers ; by which ineans he re- ſurrounded only by a wall wii ſcarce any oucurks. fternation.
ceived lichi coniiderable reinforcements, that the un The whole garriſon conſiſted of 800 Turks and..oo
hapfy Algerines durſt not make the leaſt complaint; Moors without fire-arms, and poorly diſciplined and
and ſich numbers of Turks incorced to him, that he accoutred; the reſt of their forces being dilverſed i:
I 2
Vth's exs
9
13
t
A LG
[ 446 1
A L G
17
It
from fur-
Algiers. the other provinces of the kingdom, to levy the uſual Soon after this, the prophet Yuſef,who had foretold Algiers,
tribute on the Arabs and Moors. The Spaniards land the deſtruction of the Spaniards, was not only declared
ed without oppoſition, and iminediately built a fort, the deliverer of his country, but had a conſiderable
The mad
under the cannon of which they encamped,and diverted gratuity decreed him, with the liberty of exerciſing prophet
the courſe of a ſpring which ſupplied the city with wa his prophetic function unmoleſted. It was not long, rewarded.
ter. Being now reduced to the utmoſt diſtreſs, Haf however, before the marabouts, and ſome interpreters
fan received a ſummons to ſurrender at diſcretion, on of the law, made a ſtrong oppolition againſt him ; re-
pain of being put to the fitord with all the garriſon. monſtrating to the ballaw, how ridiculous and ſcan-
The herald wasordered to extol the vaſt power of the dalous it was to their nation, to aſcribe the deliverance
emperor both by ſea and land, and to exlort him to
of it to a poor fortune-teller, which had been obtained
return to the Chriſtian religion. But to this Hallan by the ſervent prayers of an eminent faint of their
only replied, that he muſt be a madman who would own profeffion. But though thebaſhawand his douwan
pretend to adviſe an enemy, and that the adviſed muſt ſeemed, out of policy, to give into his laſt notion, yet
itill act more madly who would take counſel of ſuch an the impreſſion which Yuſef's predictions and their late
adviſer. Fe was, however, on the point of ſurrender accompliſhments had made upon the minds of the com-
ing the city, when advice was brought him that the mon people, proved too ſtrong to be eradicated ; and
forces belonging to the weſtern government were in the ſpirit of divination and conjuring has ſince got in-
full inarch towards the place; upon which it was reſol to ſuch credit among them, that not only their great
ved to defend it to the utmoſt. Charles, in the mean ſtateſinen, but their prieſts, marabouts, and fantoons,
time, refolving upon a general aſſault, kept a conſtant have applied themſelves to that ſtudy, and dignified it
firing upon the town; which, from the weak defence with the name Mahomet's Revelations.
18
made by the garriſon, he looked upon as already in his The unhappy Spaniards had ſcarce reached their Freſh cala-
Prevented hands. But while the douwan, or Algerine ſenate, fhips, when they were attacked by a freſh ſtorm, in mities of
by a mad were deliberating on the moſt proper means of obtain- which ſeveral more of them periſhed; one ſhip in
the Span-
par-
prophet
iards.
ing an honorable capitulation, a mad prophet, attend- ticular, containing 700 ſoldiers, beſides failors, ſunk
rendering,
ed by a multitude of people, entered the aſſembly, and in the emperor's light, without a poſſibility of ſaving
foretold the ſpeedy deſtruction of the Spaniards before a ſingle man. At length, with much labour, they
the end of the moon, exorting the inhabitants to hold reached the port of Bujeyah, at that time poffeſſed by
out till that time. This prediction was ſoon accom the Spaniards, whither Haſſan king of Tunis ſoon af-
pliſhed in a very ſurpriſingandunexpected manner:for, ter repaired, with a ſupply of proviſions for the empe-
on the 28th of October 1541, a dreadful ſtorm of wind ror,who received him graciouſly, with freſh aſſurances
rain, and hail, aroſe from the north, accoinpanied with of his favour and protection. Here he diſmiſſed the few
violent ſhocks of earthquakes, and a diſmal and uni- remains of the Malteſe knights and their forces, who
verſal darkneſs both by ſea and land ; ſo that the ſun, embarked in three ſhattered galleys, and with much
moon, and elements,ſeemed to combine together for the difficulty and danger reached their own country.
Spaniſh deſtruction of the Spaniards. In that one night, fone Charles himſelf ſtaid no longer than till the 16th of
fleet de fay in leſs than half an hour, 86 fhips and 15 galleys, November, when he fet fail for Carthagena,and reach-
Itroyed by were deſtroyed,with all their crews and military ſtores; ed it on the 25th of the ſame month. In this unfortu-
by which the army on ſhore were deprived of all means nate expedition upwards of 120 ſhips and galleys were
of fubfiſting in theſe parts. Their camp alſo, which loft, above 300 colonels and other land and Tea officers,
ſpread itſelf along the plain under the fort, was laid 8000 ſoldiers and marines, beſides thoſe deſtroyed by
quite under water by thetorrents which deſcended from the enemy on the reimbarkation, or drowned in the
the ncighbouring hills. Many of the troops, by try- laſt ſtorm. The number of priſoners was ſo great, that
ing to remove into ſome better ſituation, were cut in the Algerines fold ſome of them, by way of contempt,
pieces by the Moors and Arabs, while ſeveral galleys, for an onion per head.
and other veſſels, endeavouring to gain ſome neighbour Haſſan, elated with this vi&ory, in which he had Haſſan re-
ing creeks along the coafls, were immediately plander- very little ſhare, undertook an expedition againſt the duces Tre-
cd, and thcir crows maſſacred by the inhabitants. king of Treniecen,who, being now deprived of the aſ-
The next morning Charles beheld the ſea covered liſtance of the Spaniards, was forced to procure a peace
with the fragments of ſo inany ſhips, and the bodies of by paying a vaſt ſum of money,and becoming tributary
men, horſes, and other creatures, ſwiniming on the to him. The baſhaw returned to Algiers, laden with
waves; at which he was ſo diſheartned, that abandon- riches; and ſoon after died of a fever, in the 66th year
ing his tents, artillery, and all his heavy baggage, lo
the enemy,he inarched at thc head of his army,though From this time the Spaniards were never able to
elgitrs
Bujqyah
in no ſmall diſorder, towards cape Malabux, in order annoy the Algerines in any conſiderable degree. In taken from
failed.
to rciinbark in thoſe few yeficls which had outweath 1555, they loſt the city of Bujeyal, which was taken the Spani-
cred the ſtorm. But Haſſan, who had caufcd his moti- by Salha Rais, Haſſan's ſucceſſor; who next year ſet out ards.
ons to be watched, allowed him juſt time to get to the on a new expedition, which he kept a ſecret, but was
thore, when he ſallied out and attacked the Spaniards ſuſpected to be intended againſt Oran : but he was
in the midſt of their burry and confuſion to get into ſcarcely got fourleagues from Algiers, when the plague
thcir ſhips, killing great numbers, and bringing away which at that time raged violcntly in the city, broke
a itill gieater number of cuplives ; after which he re out in his groin, and carried him off in 24 hours.
HaſſanCor-
turned in triumph to Algiers, where he celebrated Immediately after his death the Algerine ſoldiery fo chofen
with great rejoicings his happy deliverance from choſe a Corſican renegado, Haſſan Corſo, in his rooi, baſhaw by
Cuch ditreſs and danger.
till they ſhould reccive further orders froni the Porte. the Jani-
IS
a Itorm.
IZ
mecen.
16
Siege of
of his age.
RI
He ſaries.
$
A LG
( 447 ]
A L G
25
27
1
22
who puts
him to a
23
Algiers. I'e did not accept of the baſhawſhip without a good deal when Hafun was a third time fent viceroy to Algicis, A'giera
of difficulty ; but immediately profecuted the intended where he was recived with the greateſt demonſtra-
expedition againſt Oran, diſpatching a meſſenger to
tions of joy.
Reinſtated.
acquaint the Porte with what had happened. They The firit enterpriſe in which Haſſan engaged, vis
had hardly begun their hoſtilities againſt the place, the fiege of Marſalquiver, ſituated ncar the city Oran, Siege of
when orders came from the Porte, expreſsly forbidding. which he deſigned to inveſt innediately after. The Maria!cia
Haſſan Corſo to begin the ſiege, or, if he had begun it, army employed in this fiege conſiſted of 26,cco foot ver.
enjoining him to raiſe it immediately. This news was and 10,000 horſe, beſides which he had a dcet conliſt-
received with great grief by the whole fleet and army, ing of 32 galleys and galliots, together with three
as they thought themſelves ſure of ſucceſs, the garri on French velielsladen with biſcuit, oil, and other provi-
being at that time very weak. Nevertheleſs, as they fions. The city was defended by Don Martin de Cor-
dared not diſobey, the ſiege was immediately raiſed. dova, brother of the Count d'Alcandela, who had been
Superſeded Corſo had hardly enjoyed his dignity four months, taken priſoner in the battle where that nobleman was
by Tekelli, before news came, that eight galleys were bringing a hilled, but had obtained his liberty from the Algerines
new balhaw to ſucceed him ; one Tekelli, a principal with immenſe ſuins, and now made a moſt gallant de-
cruel death.
Turk of the Grand Signior's court : upon which the fence againſt the Turks. The city was attacked with
Algerines unanimouſly reſolved not to admit him. By the utmoſt fury by fea and land, foihat ſeveral breaches
the treachery of the Levantine ſoldiers, however, he were inade in the walls. The Turkiſh ſtandards were
was admitted at laſt, and the unfortunate Corſo thrown ſeveral times planted on the walls, and as ofien diſ-
over a wall in which a number of iron hooks were fix- lodged; but the place muſt have in the end fubniitted,
ed; one of which catching the ribs of his right ſide, had not Haſſan been obliged to raiſe the liege in haſte,
he hung three days in the moſt exquiſite torture be on thenews that the famed Genoele admiral Doria ras
fore he expired..
approaching with conſiderable ſuccours from Italy.
Tekelli was no ſooner entered upon his new govern. The fleet accordingly arrived foon after ; but miſſing
ment, than lie behaved with ſuch cruelty and rapaci- the Algerine gallies, bore away for Pennor de Velez,
ouſneſs, that he was aſſaſſinated even under the dome where they were Námcfully repulſed by an handful of
of a faint, by Yuſef Calabres, the favourite renegado Turks who garriſoned that place; which, however, ,
of Haſſan Corſo ; who for this ſervice was unani. ixas taken the following year.
28
mouſly choſen baſhaw, but died of the plague fix days In 1567; Haſſan was again recalled to Conſtanti- Haſſan
after his electione.
nople, where he died three years after. He was ſuc- again re-
Haſſan Yuſef was ſucceeded by Haſſan the ſon of Hayra- ceeded by Mahoniet, who gained the love of the Al- called.
reinſtated. din, who had been formerly recalled from his baſhaw- gerines by ſeveral public-ſpirited actions. He incor-
ſhip, when he was ſucceeded by Selha-Rais ; and now porated the Janiſaries and Levantine Turks together,
had the good fortune to get himſelf reinſtated in his and by that means put an end to their diffenfions, which
employment. Immediately on his arrival, he engaged laid the foundation of the Algerine independency on
in a war with the Arabs, by whom he was defeated the Porte. He likewiſe added fonie conſiderable for-
Spaniards
with great loſs. The next year, the Spaniards under- tifications to the city and caſtle, which he deligned to
29
defeated took an expedition againſt Moſtagan, under the com render impregnable. But while he was thus ſtudying John Gaſ-
with great mand of the count d'Alcandela ; but were utterly de the intereſt of Algiers, one John Gaſcon, a bold Spa- con’s bold
Daughter. feated, the commander himſelf killed, and 12,000 ta niſh adventurer, ſorineda deſign of ſurpriſing the whole attempt to
ken priſoners. This diſaſter was owing to the incon- piratic navy in the bay, and ſetting them on fire in the
fire the Al.
ſiderate rathneſs, or rather madneſs, of the comman- night-time, when they lay defenceleſs, and in their
gerineflect.
der ; which was ſo great, that, after finding it impof- firſt ſleep. For this he had not only the permiſſion of
fible to rally his ſcattered forces, he ruled, ſword in king Philip II. but was ſurniſhed by him withi proper
hand, into the thickeſt of the eneniy's ranks, at the veſſels, mariners, and fireworks, for the execution of
head of a ſmall number of men, crying out, “St Jago! his plot. With theſe he fet fail for Algiers in the moſt
St Jago ! the victory is ours, the enemy is defeated ;' proper ſeaſon, viz. the beginning of October, when
foon after which he was thrown from his horſe, and moſt, if not all the thips lay at anchor there ; and ea-
trampled to death.
fily failed near enough, unfufpected, to view their man-
Haſſan having had the misfortune to diſoblige his ner of riding, in order to catch thein napping, at a
ſubjects by allowing the mountaineers of Cuco to buy time when the greater part of their crew were diſperſed
ammunition at Algiers, was ſent in irons to Conſtan- in their quarters. He came accordingly, unperceived
tinople, while the aga of the Janiſaries, and general by any, to the very mole-gate, and diſperſed his men
Haftan fent of the land ſorces, ſupplied his place.--Haſſan eaſily with their fire-works ; but to their great ſurpriſe, they
in irons to found means to clear himſelf; but a new baſhaw wasap- found them ſo ill mixed, that they could not with all
Conftanti- pointed, called Achmet; who was no ſooner arrived, their art make them take fire. In the mean time, Gaſ-
nople. than he ſent the two deputy-ballaws to Conſtantinople, con took it into his head, by way of bravado, to go to do at the
where their heads were ſtruck off.--Achmet was a man the mole-gate, and give three loud knocks at it with city yate,
of ſuch infatiable avarice, that, upon his arrival at Al- the pommel of his dagger, and to leave it fixed in the
giers, all ranks of people came in ſlioals to make him gate by its point, that the Algerines might have cauſe
preſents; which he the more greedily accepted, as he to remember him. This he had the good fortune to do
had bought his dignity by the money he had amaſſed without meeting with any diſturbance or oppoſition :
while lead gardener to the Sultan. He enjoyed it, but it was not ſo with his men ; for no ſooner did they
however, only four inonths; and after his death, the find theirendeavours unſucceſsful, than they made fuch
tate was governed other four months by his licutenant; a buſtle as quickly alarmed the guard poſted on the ad-
3
jacent
24
25
30
His bravas
A LG
[ 448 ]
ALG
31
douwan.
Alviers. jacent ballion, from which tle uproar quickly ſpread or trouble to the Porte than that of allowing them its Algiers.
itſelf thro' the whole garricon. Garcon, now finding protection. On their part, they engaged always to comment
Is taken
himſelfın the utmoſt danger, failed away with all pol- acknowledge the Grand Signiors as their ſovereigns,
and put to lible haſe: but he iras purſucd, overtaken, and brought and to pay them their uſual allegiance and tribute, to
death. back a priſoner to Mahomet; who no ſooner got him reſpect their baſhaws, and even to lodge and maintain.
into his power, than he immediately cauſed a gibbet them and their retinue, in a manner ſuitable to their
of conſiderable height to be erected on the ſpot where dignity, at their own charge. The baſhaws, however,
Galcon had landed, ordering him to be hoiſted up, and were, for the future, lo be excluded from affifing at
hung by the feet to a hook, that he might die in ex any but general douwans, unleſs invited to it; and
quiſite torture ; and to ſhow his reſencment and con from having the liberty of voting in them, unleſs when
tempt of the king his maſter, he ordered his comn wion their advice was asked, or the intereſt of the Porte was
10 be tied to his toes. He had not, however, hung likely to ſuffer by their ſilence. All other concerns,
long in that ſtate, when the captain who took him, ac which related to the government of Algeries, were to
companied by a number of other corſairs, interceded fo be wholly left under the directon of the dey and his
ſtrongly in his behalf, that he was taken down, and
32
put under the care of fome Chriſtian ſurgeons; but two Theſe propoſals having been accepted by the Porte, Algerines
days after, fome Moors reporting that it was the com the deputies returned highly ſatisfied; and having noti- allowed to
mon talk and belief in Spain, that the Algerines durſt fied their new privileges, the great douwan immediate, chuſe their
not hurt a hair of Gaſcon's head, &c. the unfortu- ly proceeded to the election of a dey from among
own deys.
nate Spaniard was hoiſted up by a pulley to the top themſelves. They compiled a new ſet of laws, and
of the execution-wall, and let down again upon the made ſeveral regulations for the better ſupport and
hook, which in his fall catched him by the belly, and maintenance of this new form of government, to the
gave hiin ſuch a wound, that he expired without a obſervation of which they obliged all their ſubjects to
groan.---Thus ended the expedition of John Gaſcon, ſwear ; and the militia, navy, commerce, &c. were all
which has procured him a place among the Spaniſh ſettled pretty nearly on the footing upon which they
martyrs; while, on the other hand, the Algerines look now are, and which ſhall be afterwards deſcribed';
upon his diſappointment to have been miraculous, and tho' the ſubſequent altercations that frequently hap-
oiving to the efficacious protection of the powerful pened between the baſhaws and deys, the one endea-
faint Sidi Quiededda, whole prayers had before raiſed vouring to recover their former power, and the other
ſuch a terrible ſtorni againſt the Spaniſh feet. to curtail it, cauſed ſuch frequent complaints and diſ-
Mahomet, being ſoon after recalled, was ſucceed contents at the Ottoman court, as made them fre-
ed ly the famous renegado Ochali, who reduced the quently repent their compliance.
kingdoni of Tunis; which, however, remained ſub In the year 1601, the Spaniards, under the com-
ject to the viceroy of Algiers only till the year 1586, mand of Doria the Genoeſe admiral, made another at-
when a baſlaw of Tunis was appointed by the Porte. tempt upon Algiers, in which they were more fortu-
The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed, Hate than uſual, their fleet being only driven back by
ull the beginning of the ſeventeenth century, by vicc contrary winds, ſo that they came off without loſs.
roys or bahaws appointed by the Porte ; concerning In 1609, the Moors being expelled from Spain, flock-
whom we find nothing very remarkable, further than ed in great numbers to Algiers ; and as many of them
that their avarice and tyranny was intolerable both to were very able ſailors, they undoubtedly contributed to
the Algerines and the Turks themſelves. At laſt the' make the Algerine fleet ſo formidable as it became
Turkiſh Janiſaries and militia becoming powerful e-
foon after ; tho' it is probable the frequent attempts
zlough 10 ſuppreſs the tyrannic ſway of theſe baſhaws, made on their city would alſo induce them to increaſe
and the people being almoſt exhauſted by the heavy their flect. In 1616, their fleet conſiſted of 40 fail of
taxes laid upon them, the former reſolved to depoſe ſhips between 200and 400 tons, their admiral 500 tons.
Theſe petty tyrants, and ſet up ſome officers of their It was divided into two ſquadrons, one of 18 fail, be-
own at the head of the realm. The beter to ſucceed fore the port of Malaga ; and the other at the Cape of
in this attempt, the militia fent a deputation of ſome of Santa Maria, between Liſbon and Seville ; both of
their chief members to the Porte, to complain of the which fell foul on all Chriſtian ſhips, both Engliſh and
avarice and oppreſſion of theſe baſhaws, who funk both French, with whom they pretended to be in friend-
the revenue of the ſtate, and the money rcmiited to it fhip, as well as Spaniards and Portugueſe, with whom
from Conſtantinople, into their own coffers, which they were at war.
33
Should have been enịployed in keeping up and paying The Algerines were now become very formidable to They grow
the ſoldiery : by which means they were in continual the European powers. The Spaniards, who were moſt formidable!
danger of being overpowered by the Arabians and in danger, and leaſt able to cope with them, ſolicited to the Eu-
Moors, who, if ever ſo little aſſiſted by any Chriſtian the aſſiſtance of England, the pope, and other flates. ropeans,
power, would hardly fail of driving all the Turks out of The French, however, were the firſt who dared to
thc kingdom. They repreſented to thic Grand Vizir Now their reſentment of the perfidious behaviour of
how inuch more honourable, as well as eaſier and theſe miſcreants; in 1617, M, Beaulieu was ſent
cheapcr, it would be for the grand Signior lo permit againſt them with a fleet of 50 men of war, who de-
then to chooſe their own dey, or governor, from among feated their fleet, took two of their veſſels, while their
themſelves, whoſe intereſt it would then be to ſee that adıniral funk his own ſhip and crew, rather than fall
the revenue of the kingdom was righily applied in into his eneinies hands.
keeping up its forces complete, and in ſupplying all In 1620, a ſquadron of Engliſh men of war was
other exigencies of theſtate, without any ſarıher charge fent againſt Algiers, under the conduct of Sir Robert
Manſel :
2
A LG
[ 449 ]
ALG
grond
34
35
States of
37
admiral
On the
Porte,
Algiers, Manſel : but of this expedilion we have no other ac ſcarce furniſh its equal.-Iliis was 110 leſs than to re Algicie.
count, than that it returned without doing any thing; tort the piracies of the Algerines upon themſelves and
36
An Engliſh
and the Algerincs, becoming more and more infolent, as they indiſcriminately took the thips of all nations, refp_rate
fquadron openly defied all the European powers, the Dutch on ſo were theſe heroes indiſcriminately to take the ſhips anderta-
ſent againſt ly excepted ; to whom, in 1525, they ſent a propoſal, belonging to Algiers ; and this with a ſmall frigate of Angof four
the Alge- directed to the prince of Orange, that in caſe they ten guns !--In this ridiculous undertaking, 100 volun- younger
rines, would fit out 20 {ail of ſhips the following year, upon
,
teers embarked ; a Malteſe cominillion was procured, brothers
any good ſervice againſt the Spaniards, they would join together with an able maſter, and 36 mariners. They
them with 60 ſail of their own.
had the good fortune, on their firſt ſeriing out, to take
The next year, the Coutolies, or Cologlies (the chil. a fhip laden with wine, on the Spanish coast: with
dren of ſuch 'Turks as had been permitted to marry at which they were ſo much elated, that three days after
Algiers), who were enrolled in the militia, having they madlyencountered twolargeAlgerine corſairs,une
ſeized on the citadel, had well nigh made themſelves of 20 and the other of 24 guns, both well manned,
maſters of the city ; but were attacked by the Turks and commanded by able officers. Theſe two large vel-
anå renegadoes, who defeated them with terriblefels having got the ſmall frigate between them, plied
flaugliter. Many ſcores of them were executed ; and her furiouſly with great ilot, which foon took off her
their heads thrown in heaps upon the city-walls, with- main maſt: notwithſtanding which, the trench made fo
out the eaſtern gate. Part of the citadel was blown up; deſperate a reſiſtance, that the pirates were not able
and the reinaining Coulolies were diſmiſſed from the to take them, till the noiſe of their fire brought up five
militia, to which they were not again admitted till long more Algerines; when the French velel, being almoſt
after.
torn to pieces, was boarded and taken. The young
In 1623, the Algerines and other ſtates of Barbary knights-errant were puniſhed for their tenerily by a
Barbary
threw off their dependence on the Porte altogether, and dreadful captivity, from which they redeemed them
throw off ſet up for themſelves. What gave occaſion to this was ſelves in 1642 at the price of 6000 dollars.
their de. the 25 years truce which Sultan Amurath IV. was c The Algerines proſecuted their piracies with im- A Frenci
pendence bliged to make with the emperor Ferdinand II. to pre- punity, to the terror and diſgrace of the Europeans,
vent his being overmatched by carrying on the war a till the year 1652; when a French fleet being acciden- carries of
the Turkish
gainſt him and the fophi of Perſia at the ſame time. As tally driven to Algiers, the admiraltook it into his head
bafnaw,
this put a ſtop to the piratical trade of the Algerines, to demand a releaſe of all the captives of his nation,
they proceeded as abovenientioned; and reſolved, that without exception. This being refuſed, the French-
whoever deſired to be at peace with them, muſt, di man without ceremony carried off the Turkiſh vice-
findly and ſeparately, apply to their government.- roy, and his cadi or judge, who were juſt arrived from
No ſooner was this reſolution taken, than the Alge- the Porte, with all their equipage and retinue. The
rines began to make prizes of ſeveral merchant ſhips Algerines, by way of repriſal, ſurpriſed the Baſtion of
belonging to powers at peace with the Porte. Nay, France already mentioned, and carried off the inlia-
having ſeized a Dutch ſhip and poleacre at Scanderoon, bitants to the number of 600, with all their effects,
they ventured on ſhore ; and finding the town abandon- which ſo provoked the admiral, that he ſent them worl
ed by the Turkiſh aga and inhabitants, they plunder that he would pay them another vilit the next year
ed all the magazines
and warehouſes, and ſet them on with his whole fleet.
fire. About this time Lewis XIII. undertook to build The Algerines, undiſmayed by the threats of the The Alge-
a fort on their coaſts, inſtead of one formerly built by French admiral, fitted out a fleet of 16 galleys and gal-rines fit out
the Marſilians, and which they had demoliſhed. This, liots, excellently manned and equipped, under the com-
a formida..
after ſome difficulty, he accompliſhed ; and it was call. mand of Admiral Hali Pinchinin,-The chief Jelign
ed the Baſtion of France : but the ſituation being after- of this armament was againſt the treaſure of Loretto ;
terwards found inconvenient,the French purchaſed the which, however, they were prevented by contrary
port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade with winds from obtaining. Upon this they made a deſcent
the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in the on Puglia in the kingdom of Naples; where they rava-
mean time, was ſo much embarraſled with the Perſian ged the whole territory of Necotra, carrying off a valt
war, that there was no leiſure to check the Algerine number of captives, and among them fome nuns. From
piracies. This gave an opportunity to the vizir ando- thence ſteering towards Dalmatia, they ſcoured the
ther courtiers to compound matters with theAlgerines, Adriatic ; and loading themſelves with immenſe plun-
and to get a ſhare of their prizes, which were very con der, left thoſe coaſts in the utmoſt confteruation and
ſiderable. However, for form's fake, a ſevere repri- reſentment.
hand, accompanied with threats, was ſent them ; to At laſt the Venetians, alarmed at ſuch terrible de- Which is
which they replied, that theſe depredations deſerved predations, equipped a fleet of 28 fail, under the com- totally
to be indulged to them, ſeeing they were the only bul. mand of admiral Capello, with expreſs orders to burn, by the
wark againſt the Chriſtian powers, eſpecially againſt link, or take, all the Barbary corſairs he inet with, ei-
Venitians,
the Spaniards, the ſworn enemies of the Moſlem name.” ther on the open ſeas, or even in the Grand Signior's
Adding, that “ if they ſhould pay a pun&tilious regard harbours, purſuant to a late treaty of peace with the
to all that would purchaſe peace, or liberty to trade Porte. On the other hand, the captain bahaw, who
with the Ottoman empire, they would have nothing to had been ſent out with thc Turkiſh fleet to chaſe the
do but ſet fire to all their ſhipping, and turn cainel-dri Florentine and Malteſe cruiſers out of the archipe-
vers for a livelihood."
lago, underſtanding that the Algerine ſquadron was fo
In the year 1635, four younger brothers of a good near, fent expreſs orders to the admiral to come to his
family in France, entered into an undertaking ſo de- affillance. Pinchinin readily agreed; but having firſ
(perate, that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can reſolved on a deſcent upon the illand of Lilla, or Lili-
VOL. 1,
11a,
38
bie ileet,
3 L
À L G
L 450 1
A LG
44
nail.
a
Algiers. na, belonging to the Venetians, he was overtaken by Pinchinin equipped four galliots at his own expence; Algiers.
Capello, from whom he retired to Valona, a ſea-port with which, in conjunction with the Chiayah, or ſe-
belonging to the Grand Signior, whither the Venetian cretary of the ballaw of Tripoli, he made a ſecond ex-
admiral purſucd him; bai the Turkiſh governor refu- curlion. This ſmall ſquadron, conſiſting of five gal-
fing to cject the pirates according to the articles of the leys and two brigantines, fell in with an Engliſh ſhip of
peace between the Ottoman court and Venice, Capello 40 guns; which, lowever, Pinchinin's captains réſu-
was obliged to content himſelf with watching theio for fed to engage; but being afterwards reproached by
foine time. Pinchinin was ſoon weary of reſtraint, and him for their cowardice, they ſwore to attack the next
ventured out ; when an engagement immediately en Chriflian ſhip which came in their way. This happened Fiveoftheir
ſued, in which the Algerines were dcfeated, and five to be a Dutch merchantman, oſ 28 guns and 40 men, galleys dle-
of thcir veicis diſabled; with the loſs of 1500 inen, deeply laden, and unable to uſe her fails by reaſon of teated by a
Turks, and Chriſtian llaves; beſides 1600 galley-llaves a calm. Pinchinin immediately ſummoned her to ſur-Dutch
merchant.
who regained their liberty. Pinchinin, after this de- render; but receiving an ironical anſwer, drew up his
feat, returned to Vallona, where he was again watched ſquadron in form of an half-moon, that they might
by Capello; but the latter had not lain long at his old pour their ſhot all at once into their adverſary. This,
anchorage before he received a letter from the ſenate, however, the Dutchman avoided, by means of a breezé
defiring him to make no farther attempt on the pirates of wind which fortunately ſprung up and enabled him
at that time, for fear of a rupture with the Porte. This to turn his ſhip; upon which the gallays ran foul of
was followed by a letter from the governor of Valona, each other.--Upon this, Pinchinin ran his own galley
defiring him to take care left he incurred the Sultan's along lide of the merchantman, the upper deck of
diſpleaſure by ſuch inſults. The brave Venetian was which 70 Algerines ini mediately took poſſeſſion of,.
forced to comply; but, reſolving to take ſuch a leave fome of them cutting the rigging, and others plying
of the Algerines as he thought they deſerved, obſerved the hatches with hand-grenadoes : but the Dutchmen. .
low they had reared their tents, and drawn their booty having ſecured themſelves in their cloſe quarters, be-
and equipage along the ſhore. He then kept firing a gan to fire at the Algerines on board, from two pieces
mong their tents, while fonie well-manned yalliots and of cannon loaded with ſmall thot; by which they were
brigantines were ordered among their hipping, who all ſoon killed, or forced to ſubmit. Pinchinin, in the
attacked them with ſuch bravery, that, without any mean time, made ſeveral unſucceſsful attempts to re-
great loſs, they towed out their 16 galleys, with all lieve his men, as well as to ſurround the Dutchman
their cannon, ftores, &c.—In this laſt engagement, with his other galleys : but that ſhip lay ſo deep in the
ball from one of the Venetian galleys happening to water, that every ſhot did terrible execution among the
ſtrike a Turkiſh moſque, the whole action was confi- pirates ; ſo that they were obliged to remove, farther-
dered as an inſult upon the Grand Signior. To conceal
off. At laſt the Dutch captain, having ordered his
this, Capello was ordered to ſink all the Algerine guns to be loaded with cartouches, gave them ſuch a
fhips he had taken, except the admiral ; which was to parting volley as killed 200 of them, and ſent the reſt
be conducted to Venice, and laid up as a trophy. Ca- back to Algiers in a moſt diſmal plight.
pello came off with a ſevere reprimand; but ihe Vene But though Pinchinin thus returned in diſgrace, the,
tians were obliged to buy, with 500,000 ducats, a peace reſt of the fleet quickly came back with vaſt numbers.
from the Porte. TheGrandSignior offered to repair the of llaves, and an immenſe quantity of rich ſpoils ; inſon
loſs of the Algerines by building ten galleys for them, much that the Engliſh, French, and Dutch, were o-
upon condition that they ſhould continue in his ſervice bliged to cringe to the mighty Algerines, who fome-
till the end of the enſuing ſummer; but Pinchinin, who times vouchſafed to be at peace with them, but ſwore
knew how little the Algerines choſe to lic under obliga- eternal war againſt Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whoni
tions to him, civilly declined the offer.
they looked upon as the greateſt enemies to the Maho-
In the mean time, the news of this defeat and loſs
. At laſt Lewis XIV. provoked by the Prepara..
Algiers in filled Algiers with the utmoſt grieſ and confuſion. The grievous outrages committed by the Algerines on the tions
confufion whole city was on the point of a general inſurrection, coaſts of Provence, and Languedoc, ordered, in 1681,a againſt
when the balaw and douwan iſſued out a proclamation, conſiderable fleet to be fitted out againſt them, under Algiers by
forbidding, not only complaints and outcrics, under the the Marquis du Queſne, vice-admiral of France. His
fevereſt penalties; but all perſons whatever to take their firſt expedition was againſt a number of Tripolitan cor-
thumbs from within their girdles, while they were de- fairs; who had the good fortune to outrow him, and
liberating on this important point. In the mean time, ſhelter themſelves in the iſland of Scio belonging to
they applied to the Porte for an order, that the Vene the Turks. This did not, however, prevent hinn from
tians ſettled in the Levant ſhould make up their loſs. purſuing them thither, and making ſuch terrible fire
But with this the Grand Signior refuſed to comply, upon them as quickly deſtroyed 14 of their veſſels, be-
and left them to repair their loffes, as well as build new ſides battering the walls of the caſtle.
fhips, in the beſt manner they could. It was not long, This ſeverity ſcemed only to be deſigned as a check Algiers
however, before they had the ſatisfaction to ſee one of to the piracies of the Algerines ; but, finding they ſtill bombarded
their corſairs land, with a freſh ſupply of 600 llaves, continued their outrages on the French coaſt, he failed and ſet on
whom he had brought from the coaſt of Iceland, whi to Algiers in Auguſt 1682, cannonading and bombard- fire by the
ther he had been directed by a miſcreant native taken ing it ſo furiouſly, that the whole town was in flanies in
on board a Daniſh ſhip.
a very little time. The great moſque was battered
41
Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and down, and moſt of the houſes laid in ruins, inſomuch
They ſet
defenceleſs ſtate ; being able, at the end of two years,
that the inhabitants were on the point of abandoning
out a nevy
fleet. to appear at ſea with a fleet of 65 fail. The admiral the place; when on a ſudden the wind turned about,
and
43
40
netan nanie.
at the
Lewis XIV
News,
44
A LG
[451]
LG
A
45
comnit
43
France.
50
Algiers. and obliged Da Queſve to return to Toulon. The perated, that he did not leave Alziers till he Lad ut- Algers
pomen Algerines immediately made repriſals, by ſending a terly defroyed all their fortificatio.15, hipp.ug, almoſt
number of galleys and galliots to the coaſts of Provence, all the lower part, and above liyo thirds of the upper
Algerines
where they comunitted the moſt dreadful ravages, and part, of the city ; by which incans it became little ciſe
dreadful brought away a vaſt number of captives : upon which than a heap of ruins.
ravages in a new armainent was ordered to be got ready at Tou The haughty Algerines were row thoroughly con- Algernes
lon and Marſeilles againſt the next year ; and the Al vinced that they were not invincible ; and, therefore, ſue for
gerines, having received timely notice, put themſelves immediately fent an embaſſy into France, begging in peace.
into as good a ſtate of defencc as the tinie would allow. the moſt abject terms for peace ; which Lewis inime-
46
The city a-
In May 1683, Du Queſne with his ſquadron caſt diately granted, to their inexpreſſible joy. They now
gain bom- anchor before Algiers; where, being joined by the began to pay fonie regard to other nations, and to be
barded. Marquis D'Affranville, at the head of five ftout vef a little cautious how they wantonly incurred their diſ-
ſels, it was reſolved to bombard the town next day. pleaſure. The firſt bombardinent by the French had
Accordingly 100 bombs were thrown into it the firſt ſo far humbled the Algerines, that they condeſcended
day, which did terrible execution; while the beſieged to enter into a treaty with England; which was renew-
made fome hundred diſcharges of their cannon againſt ed upon terms very advantageous to the latter,in 1686.
them, without doing any conſiderable damage. The it is 110t to be ſuppoſed, however, that the natural per-
following nights the bombs were again thrown into the fidy of the Algerines would diſappear on a lidden ;
city in ſuch nunbers, that the dey's palace and other notwithſtanding this treaty, therefore, they lot no
great edifices were almoſt destroyed; ſome of their bat- opportunity of making prizes of the Engliſh thips 49
teries were diſmounted, and ſeveral veſſelsſunk in the when they could conveniently come at them. Upon Seren of
port. The dey and Turkiſh baſhaw, as well as the fome infringement of this kind, Captain Beach drove their ſhips
whole ſoldiery, alarmed at this dreadful havock, im- afhore and burnt ſeven of their frigates in 1695; which burut by
anediately ſued for peace. As a preliminary, the im- produced a renewal of the treaiy five years after : Lut capr Beach,
mediate ſurrender was inſiſted on of all Chriſtian cap- it was not till the taking of Gibraltar and Port Ma-
tives who had been taken fighting under the French hon, that Britain could have a ſufficient check upon
flag ; which being granted, 142 of them were imme- them to enforce the obſervation of treaties : and theſe
diately delivered up, with a promiſe of fending him have ſince proved ſuch reſtraints upon Algiers, that
the remainder as ſoon as they could be got from the dif- they ſtill continue to pay a greater deference to the
ferent parts of the country. Accordingly Du Quefne Engliſh than to any European power.
ſent his commiſſary-general and one of his engineers The preſent century furniſhes no very remarkable e- Expuifion
of the
into the town ; but with expreſs orders to inſiſt upon vents with regard to Algiers; except the taking ofthe
Turkiſh
the delivery of all the French captives without excep- famed city of Oran from the Spaniards in 1 708 (whichi
bafhaw.
tion, together with the effects they had taken from however they regained in 1737), and the expulſion of
the French ; and that Mezomorto their then admiral, the Turkiſh baſhaw, and uniting his office to that of
and Hali Rais one of their captains, hould be given dey in 1710.
This introduced the form of govern-
as hoſtages.
ment which ſtill continues in Algiers.
This laſt demand having embarraſſed the dey, he af. The dey is now abſolute monarch ; and pays noo- Revenues,
&c. of the
ſembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it: ther revenue to the Porte, chan that of a certain num-
upon which Mezomorto fell into a violent paſſion, and ber of fine boys or youths, and ſome other preſents
told the aſſembly, that the cowardice of thoſe who ſat which are ſent thither yearly. His own income, pro-
at the helm had occaſioned the ruin of Algiers ; but bably riſes and falls according to the opportunities he
that, for his part, he would never conſent to deliver up hath of fleecing both natives and foreigners; whence it
any thing that had been taken from the French. He is variouſly computed by different authors. Dr Shaw
immediately acquainted the ſoldiery with what had computes the taxes of the whole kingdom to bring into
paſied; which fo exafparated them that they murdered the treaſury no more than 300,000 dollars; but ſuppoſes
the dey that very night, and on the morrow choſe that the eighth part of the prizes, the effects of thoſe
Mezonorto in his place. This was no ſooner done, perions whodie without children, joined to the yearly
than he cancelled all the articles of peace which had contributionsraiſed by the government, preſents from
been made, and hoſtilities were renewed with greater foreigners, fines and opprelions, may bring in about
fury than ever.
as much more. Both the dey, and officers under him,
The French admiral now kept pouring in ſuch vol enrich themſelves by the ſame laudable methods of ra-
and almoſt leys of bonibs, that, in leſs than three days, the great pine and fraud; which it is no wonder to find the com-
deſtroyed. eſt part of the city was reduced to aſhes, and the fire mon people practiſing upon one another, and eſpecially
burnt with ſuch vehemence, that the ſea was enlight- upon ſtrangers, ſeeing they themſelves are impoveriſh-
ened with it for more than twoleagues round. Mezo ed by heavy taxes and the injuſtice of thoſe who are
morto, unmoved at all theſe diſaſters, and the vaſt nun- in authority.
ber of the ſlaing-vhoſe blood ran in rivulets along the We have already hinted, that the firſt deys were e-
ſtreets; or rather, grown furious and deſperate, fought lected by the militia, ivho were then called the douwan
only how to wreak his revenge on the enemy; and, 1100 or common-council.
This elective body was at firſt
content with cauſing all the French in the city to be compoſed of 8oo militia-officers, without whoſe con-
cruelly murdered, ordered their conſul to be tied hand ſent the dey could do nothing: and upon ſome urgent
and foot, and faſtened alive to the mouth of a niortar, occaſions, all the officers reliding in Algiers, amount-
from whence he was ſhot away againſt their navy ing to above 1500, were ſummoned to aſſiít. But
By this piece of inhumanity Du Ouelne was ſo exaf- fince the deys, who may be compared to the Dutch
3
Stadtholders,
51
Dey.
47
Set on fire
9 L 2
À LG
[. 452 ]
A LG
54
52
1
the dou-
wan.
Algiers. Stadtholders, have become more powerful, the dou- afterwards apoſtatize, they are burned or roaſted alive, Algiers.
wan is principally compoſed of 30 chiak-baſliaws, or or elſe thrown down from the top of the city-walls
colonels, with now and then the mufti and cadi upon upon iron hooks, where they are caught by different
ſome emergencies; and on the elcction of a dey, the parts of their body, according as they happen to fall,
whole foldiery are allowed to come and give their votes. and ſometimes expire in the greateſt torments; though
All the regulations of ſtate ought to be determined by by accident they may be put out of pain at once, as we
that afſembly, before they pais into a law, or the dey have already related of the Spaniſh adventurer John
hath power to put them in execution : bát, for many Gaſcon. This terrible puniſhment, however, begins
years back, the douwan is of ſo little account, that it 170w to be difuſed.
is only convened out of formality, and to give aflent The officer next in power to the dey is the aga
of
Aga of the
to what the dey and his chief favourites have concerted the janiſaries, who is one of the oldeſt officers in the janizaries
Strange
beforehand. The method of gathering the votes in this army, and holds his poſt only for two months. He is and other
method of angiſt aſſembly is perfectly agreeable to the character then ſucceeded by the chiah, or next ſenior officer. military
gathering of thoſe who compoſe it. The aga, or general of the During the two months in which the aga enjoys his dig-
officers
the votes of janíſaries, or the preſident pro tempore, firſt propoſes nity, the keys of the metropolis are in his hands; all
the queſtion, which is immediately repeated with a loud military orders are iſſued out in his name ; and the fen-
voice by the chiak-baſhaws, and from them echoed a tence of the dey upon any offending foldier, whether
gain by four officers called bajhaldalas, from theſe capital or not, can only be executed in the court of
the queſtion is repeated from one member of the dou- his palace.-As ſoon as he is gone through this ſhort
wan to another, with ſtrange contortions, and the
moſt office, he is conſidered as mazoul, or ſuperannuated ;
hideous growlings, if it is not to their liking. From receives his pay regularly, like the reſt of the militia
the loudneſs of this growling noiſe, the aga is left to every two moons; is exempt from all other duties, ex-
gueſs as well as he can whether the majority of the af- cept when called by the dey to aſſiſt at the grand coun-
ſembly are pleaſed or diſpleaſed with the queſtion; and cil, to which he hath, however, a right to come at all
from ſuch a prepoſterous method, it is not ſurpriſing times, but hath no longer a vote in it.-Next to the
that theſe aſſemblies ſhould feldon end without ſome aga in dignity, is the ſecretary of ſtate, who regiſters
tunult or diſorder. As the whole body of the militia all the public acts ; and after him are the 30 chiahs
is concerned in the election of a new dey, it is feldom or colonels, who-fitnext to the aga in the douwan,
carried on without blows and bloodſhed: but when and in the ſame gallery with him. Out of this claſs
once the choice is made, the perſon elected is faluted are generally choſen thoſe who go emballadors to fo-
with the words ALLA BARICK, “ God bleſs you, and reign courts, or who diſperſe the dey's orders through-
proſper you ;” and the new dey uſually cauſes all the out the realm. Next to them are 8ooballuck-baſhaws,
officers of the douwan who had oppoſed his election to or eldeſt captains, who are promoted to that of chiah-
be ſtrangled, filling up their places with thoſe who bahaws, according to their ſeniority. The oldack-
had been inoſt zealous in promoting it. From this ac baſhavs, or lieutenants, are next; who amount to 400,
count of the election of the deys, it cannot be expec- and are regularly raiſed to the rank of captains in their
led that their goverment ſhould be at all ſecure; and turn, and to other employments in the ſtate, according
as they arrive at the throne by tumult, diſorder, and to their abilities. Theſe, by way of diſtinction, wear
bloodſhed, they are generally deprived of it by the ſame a leather ſtrap, hanging down to the midle of their
means, ſcarcely one in ten of them having the good back. One rule is ſtrictly obſerved in the rotation of
fortune to die a natural death.
theſe troops from one deputy to a higher; viz. the right
in this country it is not to be expected that juſtice of ſeniority ; one ſingle infringement of which would
will be adminiftcred with any degree of impartiality. cauſe an inſurrection, and probably coſt the dey his
The Mahometan ſoldiery, in particular, are ſo much life. Other military officers of note are the vekelards,
Punuh-
favoured, that they are feldom put to death for any or purveyors of the army ; lhe peys, who are the four
mcnt, &c,
crime, except rebellion; in which caſe they are either oldeſt ſoldiers, and conſequently the neareſt to prefer-
ſtrangled with a bow-ſtring,or hanged to an iron hook. ment; the foulacks, who are the next in ſeniority lo
In letter offences, they are fined, or their pay ſtopped; them, and are part of the dey's body-guard, always
and if officers, they are reduced to the ſtation of com- marching before him when bétakes the field, and dif-
mon foldiers, from whence they may gradually raiſe tinguiſhed by their carbines and gilt ſcymiters, with a
themſelves to their fornier dignity. Women guilty of braſs gun on their caps; the kayts, or Turkiſh ſol-
adultery, have a halter tied about their necks, with the diers, cach band of whom have the government of one
other end faſtened to a pole, by which they are held or more adowars,or itinerant villages, and collect their
linder water till they are ſuffocated. The baſtinado is taxes for the dey ; and the fagiards, or Turkiſh lance-
likewiſe inflicted for ſmall offences; and is given either men, 100 of whom always attend the army, and watch
upon the belly, back, or ſoles of the feet, according to over the water appointed for it. To theſe we may add
ihe pleaſure of the cadi; wlio allo appoints the num the beys, or governors of the three great provinces of
her of ſtrokes. Theſe fonietimes aniout to 200 or 300, the realm. All the abovementioned officers ought to
according to the indulgence the offender can obtain compoſe the great douwan or council abovementioned;
cuilies by bribery or friends ; and hence he oſten dies but only the 30 chiah-ba Maws have a right to fit in the
under thus punithinent, for want of powerful enough gallery next after the dey ; the reſt are obliged to
advocates. But the moſt terrible puniſlınients are theſe ſtand on the floor of the liall, or council-chamber,
infi@cd upen the Jews or Chriſtians who fpeak againſt with their arms acroſs, and, as inuch as poſſible, with-
Plafoet or his religion; in which caſe, they muſt ei out motion ; neither are they permitted to enter with
dicruru Malumetan, cr Le impaled alive.' If they thcir ſwords on, for fear of a tumult. As for thoſe
A
53
1
who
A L G
( 453 )
A L G
55
commerce,
&c.
Algiers. who have any matters to tranſact with the douwan, (8.) The Ladag, or Ludeg, runs down from mount Algiers,
they muſt ſtand without, let the weather be ever ſo Atlas through part of Conſtantina, and falls into the
bad; and there they are commonly prefented with cof ſea a little eaſtward of Bona. (9.) Guadi, or Gaudel
ſee by fome of the inferior officers, till they are diſ Barbar, ſprings from the head of Orbus, or Urbs, in
miſſed.
Tripoli, runs through Bujeyah, and falls into the ſea
Diviſion of The kingdom of Algiers is at preſent divided into near Tabarea.
58
the king- three provinces or diſtricts, viz. the eaſtern, weſtern, Beſides theſe there are many others of leſs note; of Account of
don and fouthern. The eaſtern, or Levantine government, which, however, we do not find that the Algerines a- thecorſairs,
which is by far the moſt conſiderable of the three, and vail themſelves as they might do, their genius leading
is alſo called Beylick,contains the towns of Boano, Con. them too much to the piratical trade to mind any real
ftantina, Gigeri, Bujeyah, Steffa, Teber, Zamoura, advantage that might be derived from their own coun-
Biſcara, and Necanz, in all which the Turks have try. The corſairs, or pirates, form each a ſnall re-
their garriſons : beſides which, it includes the two án. public, of which the rais or captain is the ſupreme
cient kingdoms of Cuco and Labez, though indepen- bahaw; who, with the officers under him, form a kind
dent of the Algerine government, to whoſe forces of douwan, in which every matier relating to the ver-
their country is inacceſſible ; fo that they ſtill live un ſel is decided in an arbitrary way. Theſe corfairs are
der their own cheyks choſen by each of their adowars chiefly inſtrumentalin importing whatever commodi-
or hords. To theſe we may add a French factory at ties are brought into the kingdom either by way of
Callo, under the direction of the company of thc French merchandiſe or prizes. Theſe contiſt chiety of gold
Baſtion. The weſtern government hath the towns of and filver ſtuffs, damaſks, cloths, ſpices, tin, iron, pla-
Oran, Tremecen, Moſtagan, Tenez, and Secrelly ted braſs, lead, quickſilver, cordage, fail-cloth, bullets,
with its caſtle and garriſon.The ſouthern govern cochineal, linen, tartar, alum, rice, ſugar, ſoap, cor-
ment hath neither town, village, nor even a houſe, ton raw and ſpun, copperas, aloes, brazil and log-
all the inhabitants living in tents, which obliges the wood,vermilion,&c. Very few commodities, however,
dey and his forces to be always encamped.
are exported from this part of the world: the oil, wax,
56
The moſt conſiderable rivers of Algiers are the Zha, hides, pulſe, and corn produced, being but barely fuffi-
Rivers,
or Ziz, which runs acroſs the province of Tremecen, cient to ſupply the country ; though, before the loſs of
and the deſert of Anguid, falling into the Mediterra. Oran, the merchants have been known to ſhip off from
nean near the town of Tabecrita, where it has the name one or other of the poris of Barbary ſeveral thouſand
of Sirut. (2.) The Haregol, fuppoſed the Sign of Pto tons of corn. The conſumption of oil, though here in
lemy, comes down from the great Atlas, croſſes the great abundance, is likewiſe to conſiderable in this
defart of Anguid, and falls into the ſea, about five kingdom, that it is ſeldom permitted to be hipped off
leagues from Oran. (3.) The Mina, fuppoſed the Ghy. for Europe. The other exports conſiſt chiefly in oſt-
lematis of Ptolemy, a large river, which runs through riches feathers, copper, ruggs, ſilk falhes, embroide-
the plains of Bathala, and falls into the ſea near the red handkerchiefs, dates, and Chriſtian (lives. Some
town of Arzew. This river hath lately received the manufactures in filk, cotton, wool, leather, &c. are
name of Cena, who rebuilt the town of Bathalah af carried on in this country, but moſtly by the Spaniards
ter it had been deſtroyed. (4.) The Shelif, Z lef, or ſettled here, eſpecially about the metropolis. Carpets
Zilif, deſcending froin the mount Gnanexeris, runs are alſo a manufacture of the country, which, though
through ſome great derarts, the lake Titteri, the fron much inferior to thoſe of Turkey, both in beauty and
tiers of Tremecen and Tenez, falling into the ſea a fineneſs, are preferred by the people to lie opon, on
little above the city of Moſtagan. (5.) The Celef, account of their being both cheaper and ſofter. There
ſuppoſed to be the Carthena of the ancients, falls into were alſo, at Algiers, looms for velvet, taffeties, and
the ſea about three leagues weſt of Algiers, after a other wrought ſilks ; and a coarſe fort of linen is like-
ſhort courſe of 18 or 20 leagues. (6.) The Hued-al- wiſe made in moſt parts of the kingdom. The country
quivir, ſuppoſed to be the Nalabata, or Nafaba, of the furnihes no materials for ſhip-building. They have
ancients, and called by the Europeans Zinganir, runs neither ropes, tar, fails, anchors, nor even iron.
down with a ſwift courſe, through ſome high moun. When they can procure enough of new wood to form
tains of Cuco, and falls into the ſea near Bujeyah. the inain timbers of a ſhip, they ſupply the reſt from
Harbour of Whilſt the city of Bujeyah was in the hands of the the materials of prizes which they have made ; and
Bujeyah Chriſtians, the mouth of this river was ſo chcaked up thus find the ſecret of producing new and firiii fail-
cleared by with ſand, that no veſſel could come up into it: but in ing veſſels from the ruins of the old. Of all the ítates
accident,
1555, very ſoon after it was taken by che Moors, the on the coaſt of Barbary, the Algerines are the ſtrong-
great rains ſwelled it to ſuch a degree, that all the ſand eft at fea,
and mud was carried off ; ſo that galleys, and other The inhabitants along the ſca-coaſts are a mixture
Inkabitants
veſſels, have ever ſince entered it with eaſe, where they of different nations ; but chiefly Noors and Moreſcos
lieſafe froin ſtorms, and all winds, but that which blows driven out of Catalonia, Arragon, and other parts of
from the north. (7.) Suf-Gemar, or Suf-Gimmar al Spain. Here are alſo great numbers of Turks, who
Rumniel, ſuppoſed to be the Ampſaga of Ptolemy, hath come from the Levant to ſeek their fortune ; as well as
its ſource on mount Auras, on the confines of Atlas multitudes of Jews and Chriſtians taken at ſea, who
thence runs through ſome barren plains, and the fruit are brought hither to be fold for ſlaves. The Cere-
ful ones of Conſtantina, where its aream is greatly bers are ſome of the moſt ancient inhabitants of the
increaſed by ſome other riversit receives ; from thence country; and are ſuppoſed to be deſcended fro:n the
running northward, along the ridges of ſome high ancient Sabeans, who came hither from Arabia Felix,
mountains, it falls into the ſea a little eaſt of Gigeri. under the conduct of one of their princes. Others be-
57
58
i
Į
[
454 1
A LG
|
Algicis. lieve them to be ſome of the Canaanites driven out of would take it to be a place where they bleach linen. Afgiets.
Paleſtine by Jomhu2. Theſe are diſperſed all over Dar One houfe riſes above another in ſuch a manner that
bary, and divided into a multitude of tribes under their they do not hinder each other's proſpect. Thc ftrccts
reſpective clicfs: nioſt of them inhabit the mountainous are ſo narrow, that they will ſcarce admit two perſons
parts, ſome range from place lo place, and live in tenis, to walk a-breaſt, and the middle part is lower than
or portable huis; others in ſcattered villages:they have, the ſides. When any loaded beaſts, ſuch as camels,
neverthelcis, kept themſelves for the inoſt part from horſes, inules, or aſſes, paſs along, you are forced to
intermixing with other nations. The Bercbers are ſtand up cloſe to the wall to let them paſs by. There
· reckoned the richeſt of all, go better cloathed, and car is but one broad ſtreet, which runs through the city
ry on a much larger traffic of cattle, hides, wax, ho froni eaſt to weſt, in which are the ſhops of the prin-
ney, iron, and other commodities. They have alſo fonie cipal merchants,and the market for cornandother com-
artificers in iron, and ſome manufacturers in the wea modities. The lower part of the walls of the city are
ving branch.-The name of Bereber is ſuppoſed to of hewn ſtone, and the upper part of brick : they are
have been originally given them on account of their 30 feet high on the land ſide, and 40 towards the ſea ;
being firſt ſettled in ſome deſart place. Upon their in the foſles or ditches are twenty feet broad, and ſeveni
crealing in proceſs of time, they divided themſelves deep. There is no ſweet water in the city ; and tho'
into five tribes, probably on account of religious dif there is a tank or ciſtern in every houſe, yet they often
ferences, called the Zinhagians, Muſamedins, Zeneti, want water, becauſe it rains but ſeldom : the chief fup-
Hoares, and Gonzeres : and theſe having produced 600 ply is from a ſpring on a hill, the water of which is
families, fubdivided themſelves into a great number conveyed by pipes to above a hundred fountains, ar
of petty tribes.-To theſe we may add the Zwowahs, which a bowlis faſtened for the uſe of paſſengers. The
by European authors called Azuagues, or Alfagues, common reſervoir is at the end of the mole, where the
who are likewiſe diſperſed cver moſt parts of Barbary hips take in their water. Every one takes his turn at
and Numidia. Great numbers of theſe inhabit the theſe places, except the Turks, who are firſt, and the
mountainous parts of Cuco, Labez, &c. lcading a wan Jews laſt. There are five gates, which are open from ſun-
dering paſtoral life. But the moſ numerous inhabi- riſing till fun-ſetting; and ſeven forts, or caſtles, with-
tants are the Moors and Arabians. The former are ve. out the walls, the greateſt of which is on themole with-
ry ſtout and warlike, and ſkilful horſemen ; but ſo ad out the gate, all of which are well ſupplied with great
dicted to robbing, that one cannot ſafely travel along guns. There are ten large moſques, and fifty ſmall
the country at a diſtance from the towns without a ones ; three great collegesor public ſchools and a great
guard, or at leaſt a marabout or faint for a ſafeguard. number of petty ones for children. The houſes are
For as they look upon themſelves to be the original ſquare,and built of ſtone and brick, with a ſquare court
proprietors of the country, and not only as diſpoſſeſſed in the middle, and galleries all round. There are ſaid
by the reſt of the inhabitants, but reduced by then to to be about 100,000 inhabitants in the city, compre-
the loweſt ſtate of poverty, they make no ſcruple to hending 5000 Jewiſh families, beſides Chriſtians.
plunder all they meet by way of repriſal. The inhabi. There are four fundics, or public inns, ſuch as are in
tants, in general, liave a preliy fair complexion ; they Turkey; and fix cazernes, or barracks, for the unmar-
are robuſt and well proportioned. People of diſtinction ried Turkiſh ſoldiers, which will hold 600 each. There
wear their beards; they have rich clothes made of ſilk, are no inns for Chriſtians to lodge at; but only a few
embroidered with flowers of gold, and turbans enrichtippling huts kept by Naves, for the accommodation of
ed with jewels. The Turks, wlio compoſe the milita- Greeks and the poorer ſort of travellers, where any
ry force, have great privileges, pay no taxes, are ne thing may be had for money. Here are bagnios, or
ver publicly puniſhed, and rarely in private. The low- public baths, in the ſame manner as in Turkey, at a
eſt ſoldier domineers overthe moſt diſtinguiſhed Moors very moderate rate. The women have baths of their
at pleaſure. If he finds them better mounted than him own, where the men dare not come. Without the city
felf, he exchanges horſes without ceremony. The there are a great number of ſepulchres, as alſo cells or
Turks alone have the privilege of carrying fire-arms. chapels, dedicated to marabouts, or reputed faints,
Many good qualities, however, diſtinguiſh them in which thewomen go to viſit every Friday. The Turkiſh
Spire of this exceſs of deſpotiſm. They never game ſoldiers are great tyrants ; for tliey notonly turn others
for money, not even for trifles; and they never pro out of the way in the ſtreets, but will go to the farm-
fane the name of the Deity. They ſoon forget their houſes in the country for twenty days together, living
private quarrels; and after the firſt paroxyſm of re on free quarters, and making uſe of every thing, not
Sentment is over, it is infamy for a Turk to keep in excepting the women. The Algerines eat, as in Turkey,
remembrance the injuries he has received. In this re- ſitting croſs-legged round atable about four inches high,
fpect certainly they are leſs barbarous than other na and uſe neither knives nor fork; before they begin, e-
tions that boaſt of their civilization. See Moors. very one ſays Be iſme Allah, « In the name of God.''
ALGIERS, a city, the capital of the above king. When they have done, a ſlave pours water on all their
dom, is probably the ancient Icolium : by the Arabians hands as they fts and then they waſh their mouths.
called Algczair, or rather Al-fezier, or Al-Jezerah, Their drink is water, ſherbet, and coffee. Wine is not
i. e. the iſund, becauſe there was an iſland before the allowed, though drankinimoderately by ſome. The pro-
cily, to which it hath been ſince joined by a mole. It ſpect of the country and ſea from Algiers is very beau-
is built on the declivity of a hill by the ſea-ſide, in the tiſul, being built on the declivity of a mountain : but
form of an amphitheatre : at ſea, it looks like the top- the city, though for ſeveral ages it has brayed ſome of
ſail of a ſhip. The tops of the houſes are quite flat and the greateſt powers in Chriſtendomn, it is ſaid, could
white; infomuch, that when it is firſt diſcovered, one make but a faint defence againſt a regular fiege; and
that
ز
A LG
( 455 ]
AL H
Alhambra.
Algol, that three Engliſh fifty-gun ſhips might batter it about one of the three radical ones in North America, being Algor
Algonquins the ears of its inhabitants from the harbour. If ſo, underſtood from the river St Lawrance to the Milita 11
the Spaniards muſt have been very deficient either in ſippi.
courage or conduct. They attacked it in the year ALGOR, with phyſicians, an unuſual coldneſs in
1775, by land and by ſca, but were repulſed with great any part of the body.
loſs; though they had near 20,000 foot and 2000 ALGORITHM, an Arabic word expreſſive of nu-
horſe, and 47 king's ſhips of different rates and 346 merical computation.
tranſports. In the year 1783 and 1784, they alſo re ALGUAZIL, in the Spaniſh polity, an officer
newed their attacks by ſea to deſtroy the city and gal, whoſe buſineſs it is to ſee the decrees of a judge exe-
leys; but, after ſpending a quantity of ammunition, cuted.
bombs, &c. were forced to retire without either its ALHAGI, įn botany, the trivial name of a ſpecies
capture or extinction. The mole of the harbour is of hedyſarum. See HE DY SAR UM.
500 paces in length, extending from the continent to ALHAMA, a very pleaſant town of the kingdom
a ſmall iſland where there is a caſtle and large battery. of Granada, in Spain, lituated in the midſt of Tome
E, Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 36. 40.
craggy mountains, about 25 miles S. W. of Granada,
ALGOL, a fixed ſtar of the third magnitude, call on the banks of the Rio Frio, in W. Long. I. 10.
ed Meduſa's Head, in the conſtellation Perſeus ; its N. Lat. 36. 59. and having the fineſt warm baths in
longitude is 21° 50° 42'l of Taurus, and its latitude all Spain. It was taken from the Moors in 1481.-
238 23' 47" north ; according to Flamſtead's cata The inhabitants, though ſurpriſed, and the town with-
logue. For an account of its changes, period, and o out a garriſon, made a gallant defence: but being at
ther circumſtances, ſee ASTRONOMY (Index.) length forced to ſubmit, the place was abandoned to
ALGONQUINś, a nation in North America, who the pillage of the Chriſtian ſoldiers; who, not ſatisfied
fornierly poſſeſſed great tracts of land along the north with an immenſe quantity of gold and jewels, made
More of the river St Lawrance. For a long time they ſaves of upwards of 3000 of the inhabitants.
had no rivals as hunters and warriors, and were long ALHAMBRA, the ancient fortreſs and reſidence
in alliance with the Iroquois ; whom they agreed to of the Moorilh monarchs of Granada. It derives its
protect from all invaders, and to let them have a ſhare name from the red colour of the materials which it iras
of their veniſon. The Iroquois,on the other hand, were originally built with, Alhambra ſignifying a red houſe.
to pay a tribute to their allies, out of the culture of the It appears to a traveller a huge heap of as ugly build.
earth; and to perform for them all the menial duties, ings as can well be ſeen, all huddled together, ſeem-
ſuch as flaying the game, curing the fleſh, and dreſſing ingly without the leaſt intention of forming one habi-
the ſkins. By degrees, however, the Iroquois aſſociated tation out of them, The walls are entirely unorna-
in the hunting matches and warlike expeditions of the mented, all gravel and pebbles, daubed over with pla-
Algonquins ; ſo that they ſoon began to fancy them- fter by a very courſe hand: yet this is the palace of
ſelves as well qualified, either for war or hunting, as the Mooriſh kings of Granada, indiſputably the moſt
their neighbours. One winter, a large detachment of curious place within that exiſts in Spain, perhaps in
both nations having gone out a-hunting, and ſecured as the world. In many countries may be ſeen excellent
they thought, a vaſt quan'ity of game, fix young Al modern as well as ancient architecture, both entire and
gonquins and as many Iroquois were ſent out to begin in ruins; but nothing to be met with any where elſe
the ſlaughter. The Algonquins, probably became a can convey an idea of this edifice, except the decora-
little jealous of their aſſociates, upon ſeeing a few elks, tions of an opera, or the tales of the genii.
deſired the Iroquois to return on pretence that they Paſſing round the corner of the emperor's palace,
would have ſufficient employment in flaying the game one is admitted at a plain unornamented door in a cor-
they ſhould kill; but after three days hunting, having ner. On my firſt viſit, ſays Mr Swinburne, I confeſs Travels in
killed none, the Iroquois exulted, and in a day or two I was ſtruck with amazement, as I fept over the Spain,
privately ſet out to hunt for themſelves. The Algon- threshold, to find myſelf on a ſudden tranſported into
quins were ſo exaſperated at ſeeing their rivals return a fpecies of fairy land. The firſt place you come to
laden with game, that they murdered all the hunters is the court called the communa or del meſucar, that is
in the night-time. The Iroquois diſſembled their re the common baths , 211 oblong ſquare, with a deep ba-
ſentment; but in order to be revenged, applied then ſon of clear water in the middle; two tlig lits of marble
ſelves to ſtudy the art of war as practiied among thoſe ſteps leading down to the bottom; on e:ch fide a par-
ſavage nations. Being afraid of engaging with the terre of Howers, and a row of orange-trees. Round
Algonquins at firſt, thev tried their proweſs on other The couit runs a periſtyle paved with marble ; the
inferior nations, and, when they thought themſelves arches bear upon very ſlight pillars, in proportions
fufficiently expert, attacked the Algonquins with ſuch and ſtyle diife, ent from all the regular orders of ar-
diabolical fury, as ſhowed they could be ſatistied with chitecture. The cielings and walls are incruſtated with
nothing leſs than the extermination of the whole race; fret-work in ſtucco, fo minute and intricate, that the
which, had it not been for the interpolition of the most patient draughtſman would find it difficult to
French, they would have accompliſed.—The few Al- follut it, unleſs he made himſelf maller of the general
gonquin nations that are now to be ſeen, ſeem entirely plan. This would facilitate the operation exceedingly;
ignorant of agriculture, and ſnbliſt by fiſhing and hunt- for all this work is frequently and regularly repeated
ing. They allow themſelves a plurality of wives. nit at certain diſtances, and has been executed by means
withſtanding which they daily decreaſe in populo fueſs, of ſquare moulds applied fuccellively, and the parts
few or nonc of their nations containing above 6000 joined together with the ut nost nicety. In
every
di-
ſouls, and many of them not 2000. Their language is viſion are Arabic ſentences of different lengths, moſt
of
ز
Λ Ε Η
( 456 )
A LH .
mer.
Alhambra, of them expreſliveof the following mcanings: "There der, a great volume of water was thrown up, that fall- Alhambra,
is no conqueror but God ;” or, - Obedience and 120- ing down into the balons, paſſed through the beaſts,
nour to our Lord Abouabdoula."
The ceilings are
and iſſued out of their mouths into a large reſervoir,
gilt or painted, and time has cauſed no diminution in where il communicated by channels with the jet d'eaus
the freihneſs of their colours, though conſtantly expo- in the apartinenls. This fountain is of white marble,
The lower part of the walls is nuoſaic, embelliſhed with many feſloons and Arabic diſtichs,
diſpoſed in fantaſtic knots and ſeloons. · A work ſo thus tranſlated :
novel, ſo exquiſitely finiſhed, and ſo different from all “Sceſt thou 110t how the water flows copiouſly like
that lie had ever ſeen, muſt afford a ſtranger the moſt the Nile?”
agreeable ſenſations while heireads this magic ground. “ This reſembles a fea waſhing over its ſhores,
The porches at the ends are inore like grotto-work threatening ſhipwreck to the inariner.”
than any thing elſe to which they can be compared. “This water runs abundantly, to give drink to the
That on the right hand opens into an octagon vault, lions."
under the emperor's palace, and forms a perfect whil - Terrible as the lion is our king in the day of
pering gallery, meant to be a communication between battle.
the offices of both houſes.
66 The Nile gives glory to the king, and the lofty
Oppoſite to the door of the communa through which mountains proclain it.
you enter, is another leading into the quarto de los - This garden is fertile in delights : God takes care
Leones, or apartment of the lions; which is an oblong that no noxious animal ſhall approach it.”
court, 100 feet in length and 50 in breadth, environ. 6. The fair princeſs that walks in this garden, co-
ed with a colonnade 7 feet broad on the ſides and so vered with pearls, augments its beauty ſo much, that
at the end. Two porticoes or cabinets about 15 feet thou may'ſt doubt whether it be a fountain that flows,
{quare, project into the court at the two extremities. or the tears of her admirers."
The ſquareis paved with coloured tiles; the colonnade Paſſing along the colonnade, and keeping on the
with white marble. The walls are covered five feet up fouth ſide, you come to a circular room uſed by the
from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, diſpoſed men as a place for drinking coffee and forbets in. A
chequerwiſe. Above and below is a border of ſmall fountain in the middle refreſhes the apartnient in ſum-
eſcutcheons, enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabic The form of this hall, the elegance of its cu.
molto on a bend ; ſignifying, “ No conqueror but pola, the cheerful diſtribution of light from above, and
God.” The columns that ſupport the roof and gal- the exquiſite manner in which the ſtucco is deſigned,
lery are of white marble, very flender, and fantaſtically painted, and finiſhed, exceed all powers of deſcription.
adorned. They are 9 feet high, including baſe and Every thing in it inſpires the moſt pleaſing, voluptu-
capital, and 8 inches diameter. They are very irre ous ideas; yet in this ſweet retreat they pretend that
gularly placed ; ſumetimes ſingly, at others in groups Abouabdoulah aſſembled the Abencerrages, and call-
of three, but more frequently two together. The ſed their heads to be ſtruck off into the fourtain. Con-
width of the horſe-fhoe arches above them is four feet tinuing your walk round, you are next brought to a
iwo inches for the large ones, and three for the ſmaller. couple of rooms at the head of the court, which are
* The cieling of the portico is finiſhed in a much finer ſuppoſed to have been tribunals, or audience-chambers.
and more complicated manner than that of the com Oppoſite to the Sala de los Abencerrages is the en-
muna, and the ſtucco laid on the walls with inimitable trance into the Terra de las dos hermanas, or the tower
delicacy; in the ceiling it is ſo artfully froſted and of the two ſiſters; ſo named from two very beautiful
handled as to exceed belief. The capitals are of va pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement. This
rious deligns, though each deſign is repeated ſeveral gate exceeds all the reſt in profuſion of ornaments,
times in the circumference of the couri, but not the and in beauty of proſpect which it affords through á
leaſt attention has been paid to placing them regularly range of apartinents, where a multitude of arches ter-
or oppoſite to each other. Not the ſmalleſt repreſen- minate in a large window open to the country. In a
tation of animal life can be diſcovered amidſt the va gleam of funſhine, the variety of tints and lights
rieties of foliages, groteſques, and ſtrange ornaments. thrown upon this enfilade are uncommonly rich. The
About each arch is a large ſquare of arabeſques, ſur firſt hall is the concert room, where the women fat;
rounded with a rini of characters, that are generally the muſicians played above in four balconies. In the
quotations from the Koran. Over the pillars is ano middle is a jet d'eau. The marble pavement is equal
iher ſquare of delightful filligree work. Higher up to the fineſt exiſting, for the ſize of the flags and even-
is a wooden rim, or kind of cornice, as much enriched neſs of the colour. The two ſiſters, which give name
with carving as the ſtucco that covers the part under to the room, are nobs that meaſure 15 fcet by 7s,
neath. Over this projects a roof of reit tiles, the without flaw or ſtain. The walls, up to a certain
only thing that disfigures this beautiful ſquare. This height, are moſaic, and above are divided into very
ugly covering is modern, put on by order of Mr Wall, neat compartments of ſtucco, all of one deſign, which
the late prime miniſter, who a few years ago gave the is alſo followed in many of the adjacent halls and gal-
Alhambra a thorough repair. In Mooriſh times, the leries. The ceiling is a fretted cove. To preſerve
building was covered with large painted and glazed this vaulted roof, as well as ſome of the other principal
tiles, of which fome few are ſtill to be ſeen. In the capolas, the outward walls of the towers are raiſed 10
centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions muzzled, feet above the top of the dome, and ſupport another
their fore parts ſinooh, their hind parts rough, which roof over all, by which means no damage can ever be
bear
upon
their backs an enormous bafun, out of which cauſed by wel weather or exceſſive heat and cold.
a leller riſes. While the pipes were kept in good or from this hall you paſs round the little myrtle-garden
I
uf
A LH
(
457 )
A LI
can.
Alambra. of Lindaraxa, into an additional building made to the The deſcription of the Alhambra may be finited
eaſt end by Charles V. The rooms are ſmall and low. by obſerving how adınirably every thing was planned
1
Alicant.
His dear motto, Plus ultra, appears on every beam. and calculated for rendering this palace the moſt vo-
This leads to a little tower, projecting from the line of luptuous of all retirements; what plentiful ſupplies of
the north wall, called El tocador, or the dreſſing room water were brought to refreſh it in the hot inonths of
of the ſultana. It is a ſmall ſquare cabinet, in the ſumnier ; what a free circulation of air was contrived,
middle of an open gallery, from which it receives liglit by the judicious diſposition of doors and windows;
by a door and threc windows. The look-out is charm what flady gardens of aromatic trees; what noble
ing. In one corner is a large marble flag, drilled full views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains ! No
or holcs, through which the finoke of perfumes aſcen wonder the Moors regretted Granada ;
110 wonder
ded from furnaces below; and here it is preſumed, the they ſtill offer up prayers to God every Friday for the
Mooriſh queen was wont to ſit to fumigate and ſweeten recovery of this city, which they eſteem a terreſtrial
lier perſon. The emperor cauſed this pretty room to paradiſe. See GRANADA.
be painted with repreſentations of his wars, and a great ALI, gives denomination to a ſect, or diviſion,
variety of groteſques, which appear to be copies, or among the Mahometans, who adhere to the right of
at lealt imitations, of thoſe in the loggie of the Vati ſucceſſion of Ali the fourth caliph or ſucceſſor of Ma-
From hence you go through a long paſſage homet, and to the reform of Mailulmaniſm introduced
to the h all of amballadors, which is magnificently de- by him. The ſectaries of Ali are more particularly
corated with innumerable varieties of nioſaics, and the called Schiites; and ſtand oppoſed to the Sunnites, or
inottos of all the kings of Granada. This long narrow feet of Onar, who adhere to the law as left by Maho-
antichainber opens into the communa on the left hand, met, Abubeker, and Omar. Ali was couſin of Maho-
and on the right into the great audience-hall in the met, and ſon-in-law of that propliet, having married
tower of Comares ; a noble apartment, 36 feet ſquare, his daughter Fatimah. After Mahoinet's death, great
36 high up to the cornice, and 18 from thence unto the diſputes aroſe about the ſucceſſion. Many ſtood for Ali;
centre of the cupola. The walls on three ſides are 15 but Abubeker was preferred, and elected the firſt kalif.
feer thick, on the other 9; the lower range of win Ali took his turn, after the death of Othman.- The
dows 13 feet high. The whole wall is inlaid with Perſians are thechief adherents to the ſectofali, whom
inoſaic of many colours, diſpoſed in intricate knots, they hold to have been the legitimate ſucceſſor of Maho-
ſtars, and oiher figures. In every part various Arabic niet, and Abubeker, an uſurper. On the contray, the
fentences are repeated.
Turks are of the feet of Omar; and hold Ali in execra-
Having thus completed the tower of the upper a tion, having raiſed a furious civil war among the Muſ-
partments, which are upon a levelwith the offices of the
ſulmans. The diſtinguiſhing badge of the followers of
the new palace, you deſcend to the lower floor, which Ali is a red turban, which is worn by the Perſians, who
conſiſted of bedchambers and ſummer-rooms: the back are lience called in deriſion, by the Turks, Kifilbachi,
ſtairs and paſſages, that facilitated the intercourſe be-
q. d. red-heads. Ali is reputed the author of ſeveral
tween them, are without number. The moſt remark-
works, particularly a Centiloquium, in great eſteem
able room below is the king's bedchamber, which among the Arabs and Perſians, part of which has been
communicated by means of a gallery, with the upper publithed in Englith by Mr Ockley.
ſtory. The beds were placed in two alcoves, upon a ALJAMEIA is a name which the Moriſcoes in
raiſed pavement of blue and white-tiles; but as it was Spain give to the language of the Spaniards. Among
repaired by Philip V. who paſſed ſome time here, ocher articles agreed on by the junto, which was ap-
it cannot be ſaid how it may have been in former pointed by the emperor Charles V. in 1526, in favour
times. A fountain played in the middle, to refreih of the Moriſcoes, this was one, That the Moriſcoes
the apartinent in hot weather. Behind the alcoves
ſhould no longer ſpeak Algavareia, i, e. Mooriſh or
are ſmall doors, that conduct you to the royal baths. Arabic; but ſhould ſpeak Aljameia, i. e. Spaniſli, as
Theſe conſiſt of one ſmall cloſet with inarble cifterns it was called by the Moors, and all their writings and
for waſhing children, two rooms for grown up perſons contracts ſhould be in that language.
and vaults for boilers and furnaces that ſupplied the ALIAS, in law, a ſecond or farther writ iſſued from
baths with water and the ſtoves with vapours. The the courts of Weſtminſter, after a capias, &c. ſued
troughs are formed of large ſlabs of white marble; the out without effect.
walls are beautified with party-coloured earthen ware; ALIBI, in law, denotes the abſence of the accuſed
light is admitted by holes in the coved ceiling. from the place where he is charged with having com-
Hard by is a whiſpering gallery, anda kind of laby- mitted a crime; or his being elſewhers, as the word
rinth, ſaid to have been made for the reception of the imports, at the time ſpecified.
women and children. One of the paſſages of commi ALICANT, a large ſea port town in the province
nication is fenced off with a ſtrong iron grate, and of Valencia and territory of Segura. It is feated be-
calfed the priſon of the ſultuna; but it ſeems more pro tween the mountains and the ſea, and has a caſtle
bable that it was put up to prevent any body from deemed impregnable. The port is defended by three
climbing ap into the women's quarter.
baſtions furnithed with artillery. To prevent the viſits
Under the council-room is a long ſlip, called the of the Algerine pirates, watch-towers were built to
king's ftudy; and adjoining to it are ſeveral vaults, ſaid give notice of the approach of an enemy's fhip. It
to be the place of burial of the royal family. In the was taken from the Moors in 1264. The caſtle was
year 1574, four fepulchres were opened; but as they taken by the Engliſh in 1706; and held out a licge of
contained nothing but bones and athes, were innuedi two years before it was retaken by the french and Spa-
ately cloſed again.
niards, andat laſt ſarrendered upon honourable terins,
VOL. I.
after
3 M
1
ALI
ALI
[ 458 1
Alicita
Alicn.
ز
after part of the rock was blown up on which the merly very nunierons in England, and ſo called from Alienation
caſtlc ſtood, and the governor killed. The houſes are thcir belonging to foreign abbeys.
Aliment,
high, and well built; and a very great trade is carried ALIENATION, in law, denotes the act of making
on here, particularly in wine and fruit. It is ſeated in over a man's property in land, tenements, etc. to all-
the Mediterranean, on a bay of the ſame name, 37 other perſon.
miles north-eaſt of Murcia, and 75 ſuuth of Valencia. ALIENATION in mortmain, is making over lands,
W. Long. o. 36. N. Lat. 38. 24.
tenements, &c. to a body-politic, or to a religious
ALICATA, a mountain of Sicily, near the valleys houſe, for which the king's licenčemuſt firſt be obtain-
Mazara and Noto, upon which was ſituated (as is ge- ed, otherwiſe the lands, &c. alienated will be forfeited.
nerally thought) the famous Dedalion, where the ty ALIENATION in fee, is the ſelling the fee.ſimple of
rant Phalaris kept his brazen bull.
any land, or other incorporeal right. All perſons
ALICATA, a town of Sicily, remarkable for corn and who have a right 10 lands may generally alien them
good wine. It was plundered by the Turks in 1543 ; to others; but ſome alienations are prohibited : ſuch
and is ſeated on a ſort of peninſula near the ſea, twen as alienations by tenants for life, &c. whereby they in-
ty-two miles S. E. of Girgenti. E. Long. 15. 20. cur a forfciture of their eſtate. By the ſtatute of Ed-
N. Lat. 37. II.
ward I. a bar was put to alienations by what we call
ALICAT A Chlamys, was a ſort of veſt with ſleeves, entails, which is an expedient for procuring perpetui.
worn by thc Roman boys till the age of thirteen, at ties in families ; but counter expedients were deviſed
which time they put on the prætexta.
to defeat this intent, and a practice was introduced of
ALIEN, in law, implies a perſon born in a ſtrange cutting off entails by fines, and of barring remainders
country not within the king's allegiance; in contra and reverſions by recoveries. The ſtatute for aliena-
diſtinction to a denizen, or natural ſubject. The word tions in Henry VII's time had a great effect on the
is formed from the Latin alıus, "another;" q.
d. one
conſtitution of England; as, among other regula-
born in another country. An alien is incapable of in tions of that reign, it tended to throw the balance of
heriling lands in Britain till naturalized by an act of power more into the hands of the people. By the
parliament. No alien is intitled to vote at the elec ſtat. 12 Car. II. cap. 246 fines for alienations are ta-
tion of niembers of parliament ; nor can he enjoy any ken away. Crown lands are only alienable under a
office, or be returned on any jary, unleſs where an faculty of perpetual redemption. The council of La-
alien is party in a cauſe, when the inqueſt is compoſed teran, held in 1123, forbids any clerk to alienate his
of an equal number of denizens and aliens. The rea benefice, prebend, or the like. By the laws of the
fons for eſtabliſhing theſe laws were, that every man ancient Jews, lands could only be alienated for the
is preſumed to bear faith and love to that prince and ſpace of 50 years. At each return of the jubilce all
country where he recived protection during his inſan- returned again to the primitive owners, or their de,
cy; and that one prince might not ſettle ſpies in ano ſcendants, to whom the lands were originally allotted
ther's country ; but chiefly that the rents and revenues at the firſt diſtribution of Canaan.
of the country might not be drawn to the ſubjects of ALIENATION Office, is an office to which all writs of
another. Some have thought that the laws againſt a covenants and entry, upon which fines are levied, and
liens were introduced in the reign of Henry Il. when recoveries ſuffered, are carried, to have fines for alie-
a law was made at the parliament of Wallingford, for nation ſet and paid thereon.
the expulſion of ſtrangers, in order to drive away the ALIMENT, (from alo to nouriſh), implies food
Flemings and Picards introduced into the kingdom by both ſolid and liquid: from which, by the proceſs of
the wars of king Stephen. Others have thought that digeſtion, is prepared a very mild, ſweet, and whitih
the origin of this law was more ancient; and that it liquor reſembling milk, and diſtinguiſhed by the name
is an original branch of the feudal law : for by that of chyle; which being abſorbed by the lactcal veins,
law no man çant purchaſe any lands but he muſt beobli- by them conveyed into the circulation, and there aſſi-
ged to do ſealty to the lords of whom the lands are nilated into the nature of blood, affords that ſupply
holden ; ſo that an alien who owed a previous faith to of nutrition which the continual waſte of the body is
another prince, could not take an oath of fidelity in found to require.-Next to air, food is the moſt neceſ-
another ſovereigi's dominions. Among the Romans, fary thing for the preſervation of our bodies: and as
only the Gives Romani were eſteemed freemen; but on the choice thereof our health greatly depends, it is
when their territories increaſed, all the Italians were of great importance to underſtand in general, what
made free, under the name of Latins, tho' they had is the propereſt for our nouriſhment; and in particular
not the privilege of wearing gold rings till the time deviations from health, what is the beſt adapted to re-
of Juſtinian. Afterwards all born within the pale of ſtore us. Our blood and juices naturally incline to be-
the enpire were conſidered as citizens.
come putrid and acrimonious: freſh chyle, duly recei.
Alien-Duly, an impoſt laid on all goods imported ved, prevent this deſtructive tendency, and preſerves
by aliens, over and above the cuſtoms paid for ſuch them in that mild ſtate which alone conſiſts with health.
goods imported by Americans, and on American bottoms. An animal diet affords the moſt of this bland nutritious
ALIENS-Duty in Britian is called petty cuſtoms, and mucilage: watery fluids dilute the too groſs parts, and
navigation-duty.-Fith dried or ſalted, and cod-fiſh carry off what is become unfit for uſe. It is only the
horring not caught in Britiſh veſſels and cured by Bri- ſmall portion of jelly which is ſeparated from the fa-
tilh, pay a double alien's duty. On what footing aliens rinaceous parts of vegetablcs, thai, aſter being much
are permitted to iniport foreign commodities into elaborated, is converted into the animal nature ; yec
Grcat Britain, fee Duty.
the uſe of vegetables prevents both repletion and a
Alien-Prrories, a kind of inferior monaſteries, for- too great tendency to a putreſcent acrimony of the
blood
1
A LI
[ 459 ]
A LI
ry
1
Aliment, blond. In hot climates, as well as againſt the confi- of an animal, or in the jargon of the ſchools) in pro- Alimenta-
tutional heat of particular perſons, vegetables are de- prium quarto modo; there being no animal without it,
manded in the largeſt proportion; animal ſubſtances af- and whatever has it being properly enough ranged un-
Aliſma,
ford the higheſt reliſh while our appetite continues ; der the claſs of animals. Plants receive their nouriſh-
but will ſate the appetite before the Itomach is duly fil nient by the numerous fibres of their roots, but have
ed. Vegetables may be eaten after either fleſh or no common receptacle for digeſting the food received,
fiſh : few herbs or fruits ſatiate ſo much as that the or for carrying off the recrenients. But in all, even
ſtomach may not be filled with them, when it is alrea the loweſt degree of animal life, we may obſerve a
dy ſatisfied with fleſh or fiſh; whence it may be ob- ftomach and inteſtines, even where we cannot perceive
ſerved, that no diet which is very nouriſhig can be the leaſt formation of any organ of the ſenſes, unleſs
eat to fulneſs, becauſe its nutritious parts are oily and that common one of feeling as in oyſters. Phil. Tranſ.
ſatiating.--Health depends alınoſt wholly on a proper N& 269, p. 776, ſeq.
cralis of the blood ; and to preſerve this a mixture of Dr Wallis brings an argument from the ſtructure of
vegetables in ſome degree is always required, for a the alimentary tube in man, to prove that he is not
loathing is ſoon the conſequence of animal food alone: naturally carnivorous; to which Dr Tylon niakes ſome
hot acrid habits, too, receive from milk and vegetables obje&ions. V. Phil. Tranſ. N° 269, p. 777.
wlial is needful for correcting their excelles; but in ALIMENTARY Law, lex alimentaria, was all old law
cold, pituitous, and nervous habits, who want moſt nou among the Romans, whereby childiell were obliged
riſhment from leaſt digellion, and from the ſmalleſt to find ſuſtenance for their parents.
quantity of food, animal diet is to be uſed more ALIMONY, in law, implies that allowrance which
freely.
married woman ſues for, and is intiiled to, upon any
Thus much being offered as general principles with occaſional ſeparation from her huſband.
See LAW,
reſpect to the matter and quality of our alinient, the va-
Part III. No clx. 13.
letudinarían may eaſily regulate his diet with ſome ad ALIPILARIUS, or ALIPILUS, in Roman anti-
vantage to himſelf by an attention to the few enſuing quity, a ſervant belonging to the baths, wboſe buſineſs
particulars. In winter, eatfreely, but drink ſparingly: it was, by means of waxen plaſters, and an inſtrument
roaſt meat is to be preferred, and what is drank ſhould called volfelle, to take off the hairs from thearm-pits,
be ſtronger than al other ſeaſons. In fummer, let thirſt and even arms, legs, &c. this being deemed a point of
determine the quantity to be drunk; cold ftomachs ne cleanlineſs.
ver require much : boiled meats and vegetables, if not ALIPTERIUM, SIT Tupov, in antiquity, a place
otherwiſe contradicted, may now be inore freely uſed in the ancient paluftra, where the athletæ were anoint-
Lax habits require the winter's diet to be continued all eð before their exerciſes.
the year, and rigid ones ſhould be confined to that of ALIQUANT PART, in arithmetic, is that number
lummer. Fat people ſhould faſt at times, but the lean which cannot meaſure any other exactly without ſome
ſhould never do so. Thoſe who are troubled with e remainder Thus 7 is an aliquant part of 16 ; for
ructations occaſioned by their food, ſhould drink but twice 7 wants two of 16, and three times 7 exceeds
little, and uſe ſome unaccuſtonied exerciſe. The thirſty 16 by 5.
fhould drink freely, but eat fparingly. In general, let ALIQUOT PART, is that part of a number or quanti.
moderation be obſerved ; and tho'mo dinner hath been ty which will exactly meaſure it without any remain-
had, a light ſupper is at all times to be preferred. Af- der. Thus 2 is an aliquot part of 4; 3 of 9'; 4 of 16,
ter very high-ſeaſoned meats, a glaſs of water acidula. &c.
ted with the acid elixir of vitriol, or in very weak ALISANDERS, or ALEXANDERS, in bolany. See
ſtomachs the ſweet elixir of vitriol, is far more aſſiſt- SMYRNIUN.
ant to the work of digeſtion than the common method ALISMA, or WATER-PLANTAIN: A genus of the
of taking brandy. See further Food and Drink. polygynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of
Obligation of ALI MENT, in Scots law,the natural obli- plants, and in the natural method ranking under the
gation on parents to provide their children with the ne- 5th order, Tetrapetaloidea. The characters are: The
cellaries of life, &c. See Law, Part III. Nº clxxiii. 4. calyx is a three-leaved perianthium : The corolla con-
ALIMENTARII Pueri,&c. were certain children main- fiſts of three roundith, large, flat, expanding petals :
fained and educated by the munificence of the empe- The ḥamina conſiſt of lix ſubulated filaments ſhorter
rors, in a ſort of public places, not unlike our liofpitals. than the corolla ; the antheræ are roundiſ : Thepif
--Trajan was the firſt that brought up any of theſe a. tillum conſiſts of more than fivegermina ; the ſtyli are
limentary boys. He was imitated by Adrian. Anto- fimple, the ſtigma:a obtufe: The pericarpium conſiſts
ninus Pius did the ſame for a number of maids, at of compreſſed capſulæ : The feeds are ſmall and ſoli-
the ſolicitation of Fauſtina ; and hence, in ſome me tary. Of this genus there are eight
dalsofthat empreis, we read PVELLAE FAVSTINIANAE. Species, viz. The plantago, or great water-plaintain
-Alexander Severus did the like at the requeſt of which grows in all the marſhy parts of Britain
Mamiæa ; and the maids thus educated were called the ranunculoides, or leſſer water-plantain ; the natans
Mammiæana.
or creeping water-plantain; the damafonium, or ſtar-
ALIMENTARY Duct or Canal, is a name given by Dr headed water-plantain ; all which are natives of Bri.
Tyſon and ſome others to that part of the body thro' tain. The others, viz. the flava, cordifolia, ſubu-
which the food paſſes, from its reception into the lata, and parnaſſifolia, are natives of America, where
month to its exit at the anus; including the gula, fto- they are generally found in ſtagnating waters, and o-
mach, and inteſtines. See ANATOMY.
ther ſwampy places ; ſo that it would be difficult to
This duct laas been ſaid to be the true characteriſtic preſerve them in Britain, for they will not live in the
3 M 2
open
;
A L K
[ 460]
A L K
4
ſtic of al-
Aliontia open air, and they require a bog to inake them thrive: very perceptibiy, and its linell is the general criterion Allali.
but as they are plants of no great beauty or uſe, it is by which its ſtreugth may be judged of. Its attrazion
Alkali.
ſcarcely worth while to cultivate them.
for acids, power of changing colours, &c. are alſo con-
ALISONTIA, or' ALISUNTIA, (anc. geog.); a fiderably weaker than thoſe of the fixed alkalis.
river of Belgic Gaul, 110w Afitz ; which riling on the Though iwo ſorts of vol-tile alhali are commonly
borders of Lorrain, and running ihrough the duchy, fold under the names of ſpirits of hartſhorn and of ful
waters the city of Luxemburg, and, ſweiled by other ammoniac, the one differs from the other only in its
rivulets, falls into the Sur.
degree of purity. The former is ſo called from its being
ALITES, in Roman antiquity, a deſignation gi- originally inade froin the horns of deer; but this ma-
ven to ſuch birds as afforded matter of auguries by terial has long been laid alide, and the bones of hor-
their light.
ſes, the flints, as they are called, of the horns of cat-
ALKALARII, a ſect among the Mahometans who tle, the parings of hoofs, &c. have been fubflituted in
deny any eternal, fixed, divine decrees, and are al their ſtead. This kind, however carefully prepared
ſerters of free will. The word is formed from the always contains a portion of animal oil, the ſmell of
Arabic uskudar, which lignities « decree.” The Alka- which is very perceptible; the other, prepared from
darii are a branch of Motazalites, and ſtand oppoſed to pure fal amnoniac, is totally free of any empyreuma-
the Algiabarii. See ALGIABARII.
tic ſmell, and is as pure as it can be obtained by any
ALKAHEST, or ALCAH EST, ir chemiſtry, an nieans whatever.
univerſal menſtraum capable of reſolving all bodies in Efferveſcence with acids was formerly ſuppoſed to Effervef-
to their firſt principles.' Van Helmont pretended he be a diſtinguiſhing property of alkalis, though it was cence with
was poſſeſſed of ſuch a menſtruum ; but, liowever cre always known that by a nixture with quicklime they acids not a
dulous people might be inipoſed on in his days, the no- might be deprived of this property. Dr Black, how-
characteri-
tion is now become as ridiculous as the philoſopher's ever, has ſhown, that the ettervefcing with acids is no
kali,
ftone, the perpetuum mobile, &c.--It is likewiſe uſed property of prire alkali, but is occaſioned only by the
by fome authors for all fixed ſalts volatilized.
eſcape of fixed air from it : of conſequence, when
ALKAL), in chemiſtry, one of the general di- quicklime is added, which attracts the whole or great-
vilions of falts, comprehending that claſs of chemical eſt part of the fixed air, no efferveſcence can be per-
elements which, by their union with acids, formi per. ceived. In the ſtate in which the fixed alkalis are
feet neutrals, in oppoſition to the fal:s formed of acids commonly met with, indeed, efferveſcence with acids
with metals or earths, which are called inperfect. may be ſaid to be an eſſential property ; but this is en-
Alkaline falts are divided into two kinds, the fixed tirely owing to the cauſe juſt mentioned, viz. a quan-
and volatile ; and the former into two ſpecies, vege- tity of fixed air, to which they are united during the
table, and mineral or foſſil. All of theſe poſſeſs fome proceſs by which they were originally formed. The
properties in common, and ſome peculiar to each. quantity of this air, however, is never ſo great as to
Properties Thoſe which they have in common are, I. An acrid ſaturate them entirely ; on the contrary, their alkaline
conrron to and pungent taſte, which, when the ſalts are very pure properties are always very perceptible, and they are
all the al- and ſirong, degenerates into abſolute cauſticity, and commonly ſaid to be in a mild ſtate. But the truth
baline faltă. would entirely deſtroy the organ of ſenſation if long is, that now they are in a kind of intermediate ſtate
applied to it. 2. A tendency to diffolve animal ſubſtan- between what may be called perfectly mild and per-
ces, and reduce them to a gelatinous ſubſtance, which featly cauftic. In their perfectly mild ſtate, they are
all of them will do when very ſtrong. 3. An attrac united with ſuch a large quantity of fixed air as en-
rion for acids, with a power of ſeparating earths and tirely overpowers their alkaline properties; and there-
metals from them, though previouſly combined with fore they are no more entitled to the name of alkalis
the ſame. 4. They change the blue vegetable juices to in this ſtate, than when combined with the marine, ni-
green ; the green to yellow; the yellow to orange; the trons, or any other acid ; in which caſe the compounds
orange to red; and the red to purple. 5. They unite are called neutral falts. But it is a much more labo-
with oils, and deſtroy or cauſe to fade almoſt all kinds rious and tedious proceſs to ſaturate an alkali com-
of colours that can be put upon cloth, whence their pletely with fixed air than with any other acid ; nor
uſe in bleaching, &c.
does it very eaſily retain the aerial acid after it has
once been combined with it.
The properties common to both kinds of fixed alka-
Hence the cauſtic taſte
Properties
lis are, 1. They reſiſt the action of fire to a great de- and properties of the alkalialmoſt always predominate,
gree, ſo that they can eaſily be reduced to a ſolid form and the ſalt contains a portion of pure and cauſtic alka-
fixed al- by evaporating any liquid in which they happen to be li, to which alone its virtues are to be aſcribed,
kalis. diflolved. 2. By an intenſe fire, they flow into a liquid Vegetable alkali is obtained in its greateſt purity by Prepara-
which concretes into an hard and ſolid maſs in the cold. deflagrating nitre with charcoal, provided we make uſe tion of the
3.When mixed in certain proportions with thoſe earths of no more of the latter than is barely ſufficient to de- vegetable
or ſtones called vitrifiable, they melt, in a heat ſtill ſtroy the nitrous acid. It is, however, a very difficult alkali.
more intenſe, into glaſs. 5. Mixed with ammoniacal matter to adjuſt this proportion with lufficient ac-
ſalts, with animal ſubſtances, or with foot, they extri- curary; for if we employ too much charcoal, the ſalt
cate a volatile alkali.
will be conſiderably phlogiſticated ; if too little, ſome
of the vo-
The volatile alkali differs from the other two in be part of the nitre will remain undecompoſed. Burnt
fatile al- ing unable to relilt the fire, and being entirely reſol tartar therefore, purified by ſolution and filtration, may
tali. yable into an inviſible and permanently elaſtic fluid, be looked upon as the beſt alkali we have. The com-
called by Dr Prietley alkaline air. In confequenre of non alkalis, or aſhes as they are called, and ſaid to be
this volatility, it always affects the olfactory nerves obtained from the aſhes of vegetables, are always mix-
cd
1
2
comnion to
the two
5
3
ALK
[ 46 ]
A L K
IO
Alkali. ed with much phlogiſton, and ſometimes wi:h lime, hood of Smyrna, &c. though it has not hitherto teen Akali.
ſalt, or other heterogeneous matters ; for which rea found in any of the weſtern countries of Europe, ex-
ſon they are not to be employed in the nicer chemi- cepting in the neighbourliood of volcanoes, or in mi-
cal experienrents, without being purified by ſolution in neral waters ; and in theſe laft only in very ſmall quan-
water, by filtration, and cryſtallization. The pureſt tity.
of all theſe falts is that called the blue pearl, impor The great ſource of the mineral alkali, however,and Is the baſis
6
ted from Hungary.
from whence it is not improbable that the places al- of commor
Its peculiar The vegetable alkali wlien thus purified, and con- ready mentioned have been ſupplied by fonie unknown falt,
properties, taining near one half its weight of fixed air, is of a natural operation, is the water of the ocean. Fofil
white colour when dry, with a very hot and cauſtic alkali is ihe natural b fis of ſea-ſalt ; and could any
taſte, pofſefling in an eminent degree all thoſe qnalities method of readily procuring it from this falt be fallen
which have been aſcribed to the alkaline ſalts in ge- upon, it would no doubt be a moſt valuable ſecret.
neral. It runs per deliquium when expoſed to the air ; Hitherto, however, all the nethods uſed with any ſuc-
and is uſually incapable of being cryſtallized, though ceſs by the chemiſts may be reduced to two. I. By
it acquires this property after being employed in the mixing the nitrous acid with ſea-faltin a retort, in the
rectification of ardent ſpirit. It adheres more cloſe- proportion, accorJing to Dr Vogel, of four of the
ly to acids than any ſubſtance hitherto diſcovered ; acid to one of the falt, and diſtilling off the muriatic
though, from ſome experinents, Berginan was induced acid, or rather aqua regia, which will be produced in
to believe that pure terra ponderoſa attracted acids ſtill the proceſs. The reſiduum will afford a cubical nitre
more powerfully. But this has been diſcovered to be by cryſtallization, from whence the alkali may be ob-
a miſtake by Dr Withering, wlio, in a paper publiſhed tained pure by deflagrating with charcoal. 2. By ad-
in the 74th volume of the Philoſophical Tranſactions, dition of vitriolic acid the ſpirit of ſea-falt will be ex-
fhows, that unleſs where the earth is united with vi- pelled much more eaſily, and at a cheaper rate, than
triolic acid, not only the vegetable, the foflil, but even by the nitrous acid. The reſiduum affords Glauber's
the volatile alkali in its pure or cauſtic ſtate, will ſepa- falt in great plenty : this being melied in a crucible
rate it from any other with which it may be combined with a ſuficient quantity of charcoal-duit, forms a
Terra ponderoſa, therefore, will always decompoſe vi- hepar ſulphuris ; which being decompoſed by means of
triolated tartar, Glauber's ſalt, or vitriolic ammoniacs the vegetable acid, the latter may be deſtroyed by force
whence the miſtake of this celebrated chemiſt probably of fire, and the alkali obtained in purity. For a fur-
has proceeded. After this alkali has been once united ther explanation of both theſe methods, ſee the arti-
with marine acid, it appears to have undergone fome cle CHEMISTRY, Index.
change ; for the ſalt then produced, by combining it The demand in England for fofiil alkali is ſap-
with the vitriolic acid, reſembles Glauber's falt almoſt plied from the aſhes of kali and other fea plants, from
as much as it does vitriolated tartar. It ſeems there which it is ſeparated in the ſame manner as the vege.
fore to have made ſome approach towards the nature table alkali from the aſhes of other plants. The pureſt
of foſſil alkali ; but chemiſts have not inquired what kind of alhes containing this ſalt is called foda or ba-
would be the conſequence of repeated combinations of rilla, and is imported chiefly from foreign countries;
this kind.
that which is obtained from the ſea-weed growing on
Of the fof The foſſil alkali differs from the vegetable in having their own coaſts, and known by the name of kelp, is
lil aikali.
a ſmaller attraction for acids, in being more eaſily fu- exceſſively impure, and ſcarce admits of being tho-
fible by itſelf, and forming a more foluble compound roughly analyſed according to the rules of chemiſtry.
with the vitriolic acid. It is alſo eaſily cryſtallizable, Both chefé alkalis inay be deprived of their fixed Properties
even without the addition of more fixed air than it air, and thus rendered pure and cauſtic, by the addi- of both fis-
naturally contains : and experience has determined it tion of quicklime. In this ſtate the difference between ed alkalis
to be more proper for glaſs or foap manufactures than them is much leſs perceptible than in any other, though
fic,
the vegetable alkali; for which reaſon the demand for the addition of fixed air, or any other acid, always
8 it is very conſiderable.
ſhows that no eflential change has taken place in either.
This alkali The foffit alkali was anciently called natron or nitre, In this highly cauſtic ſtate they deſtroy the parts of
known to and is ſpoken of by Pliny and Tacitus as an ingredi- animals in a manner timilar to that of fire: whence
ent in glaſs, &c. and the ſcriptures inform us that it they are called potential cauteries, as the former is
cients.
was uſed in baths, The knowledge of this ſalt was called the actual cautery. M. Morveau informs us,
loſt in the general obſcuration of ſcience which took that on digeſting a piece of beef in a ſolution of cau-
place on the decline of the Roman enpire ; nor do we ſtic vegetable alkali, the liquor ſoon became red, and
find it mentioned till the time of the Hon. Robert the fleſh alſiumed the form of a ſemitranſparent jelly,
Boyle ; and, even ſince that time, though M. du Ha- in which, however, one could eaſily perceive thera-
mel gave an accurate account of it in a memoir for mifications of the ſmalleſt fibre ; and, after ſtanding
the year 1736, little farther notice was taken of it till ſome months, it emitted but very little ſmell. The
very lately.
vegetable alkali is commonly made uſe of as the mate-
Found na We are now certainly informed that the foſſil alkali rial for the common cauſtic or lapis infernalis of the
tive in ma- is found native in many parts of the world, which ne. ſhops ; for the preparation of which, ſee CHEMISTRY,
ver is the caſe with the vegetable alkali. The places Index. Both alkalis attract moiſture from the air when
the world, where it abounds moſt are, Egypt, the country of Tri- reduced to a ſolid form in their cauſtic ſtate, though
poli in Barbary, the peak of Teneriffe in one of the neither the foſſil alkali nor its combinations do fo inz
Cinary iſlands, Hungary, ſeveral of the provinces of any other caſe. In their canſtic ſtare alſo they only
Ruffia, fome parts of Alia, particularly the neighbour- unite with oils, or diſſolve in ſpirit of wine; which laſt
they
7
II
when cau.
the an-
9
ay parts of
ALK
[ 462 1
A L K
.!!
I 2
forms
Alkali. they have been ſuppoſed to purify, though it is more
Alkali.
than proba le that they decompoſe and communicate
Volatile alkali combined with
diſagreeable qualities to it.
Volačilè al The volari e alkali, when procured immediately by Acid of tartar
A falt whoſe properties
kali in its the diflillation of any ſubſtance capable of yielding il,
have not been inveſti-
wmld and
is obtained in a ſtate ſimilar to that in which the alka-
gated ; which ſhoots
cauſtic
Itates.
lis are uſually met with, viz. half mild and half cau-
into fine long cryſtals,
ſtic. By expoſing the liquid alkali to a great quantity
and does not deliquate
of fixed air, we may at laſt have it perfectly mild and
in the air.
An anomalous falt.
neutraliſed ; in which ſtate it appears as a white ſalt Acid of borax
extremely volatile, though leſs ſo than the pure cauſtic Acid of phoſphorus Microcoſinic falt, or ef-
alkali. It diſſolves very readily in water ; but unleſs
ſential ſalt of urine.
fome caulic ſpirit, or ſome lime or fixed alkali be add- Saccharine acid, &c. Anomalous falis.
ed, in order to abſtract part of the fixed air, it will Aerial acid
Volatilc falain moniac, or
ſcarccly exhibitthe characteriſticof volatile alkali, viz.
fali of harlſhorn.
a pungent and urinous ſmell. The addition of fixed air,
13
however, makes very little difference with regard to
Beſides their attraction for acids, the alkalis have Attrazione
the chemical combinations of this ſalt; for as fixed alſo an attraction for oils, ſulphur, and ſpirit of wine, of the al-
air has a very ſlender power of acidity, it is expelled in the moiſt way, when the ſalts are deprived of their kalis for
by every other acid with the greateſt eaſe, and the fixed air ; and in this, as well as the dry way, with vinous ſula
ſame combinations formed as though it had not been
ſeveral metals, and yilrifiable earths and ſtones, as has
ſtances,
preſent. The only difference is, that when a niild al been already mentioned.
kali is added to an acid, a ſtrong efferveſcence takes With oil the vegetable fixed alkali forms a ſoap,
place by reaſon of the eſcape of the fixed air through though leſs perfectihan that made with the cauſicmi-
the liquid, while with the cauſtic alkali the mixture is neral alkali. When conibined with fixed air they
made quietly and without diſturbance.
fcarcely unite with oils. Boiled with fulphur,or melt-
The various combinations of the alkaline ſalts with
ed with it in their dry ſtate, they unite into a very fe-
the different acids, and the neutral compounds thence
tid compound called hepar fulphuris, which is folable
reſulting, are exhibited in the following table. in water, but totally and very quickly decompoſed by
the contact of air. Vegetable alkali unites with iron,
tin, and zinc; corrodes copper, and runs with it into
1. Vegetable fixed alkali combined with
a liquor of a deep blue colour, and joins with lead in
Vitriolic acid
Vitriolated tartar.
fuſion. It does not act upon gold in its metallic ſtate ;
Nitrous acid
Nitre.
but if a ſufficient quantity be added to a ſmall ſolution of
Marine acid
Sal digeſtivus.
gold in aqua regia, the calx of the metal will be firſt
Acetous acid
Terra foliata tartari. precipitated and afterwards diſſolved.
Acid of tartar
Soluble tartar.
Vegetable alkalis a principal ingredient in the pow-
Acid of borax,
Anomalous falts, whoſe ders called fluxes, uſed for the fuſion of metalline ores.
Acidof phofphorus
properties have not It promotes the fuſion of earths, and forins glaſs with
Saccharineacid,&c.
been aſcertained, the cryſtalline kind. It is ſoluble in an equal weight
Aerial acid
Mild or aerated alkali. of diſtilled water ; and, when expoſed to the air, it
ſoon attracts moiſture from it and flows into a liquid.
In its cauſtic ſtate it diſſolves in ſpirits of wine, and
2. Foffil or mineral fixed alkali combined with
forms with it a red tincture called Van Helmont's
Vitriolic acid
Glauber's falt.
tincture of ſalt of tartar, formerly uſed both as an in-
Nitrous acid
Cubical nitre.
ternal and external remedy, but now fallen into diſ-
Marine acid
Conimon falt.
repute.
Acetous acid
A falt reſembling terra Foſſil alkali in its cauſtic ſtate unites with oil into
foliata tartari,but which an harder ſoap than that made with vegetable alkali.
does not deliquate. With fulphur it forms a heaper ſulphuris in the ſame
Acid of tartar
Rochelle falt.
manner as the vegetable alkali, and yields a tincture
Acid of borax
Borax.
with ſpirit of wine, which diffolves part of the ſalt
Acidof phoſphorus,
Unknown falts.
whilſt hot, bat lets it fall again in a cryſtalline form
Saccharine acid,&c.
when cold. Gold, ſilver, or quickſilver, are not af-
Aerial acid
Mild foſſil alkali.
fected by a ſolution of this falt; but copper and tin
are diſſolved by it in the open air. It affects tin, lead,
3. Volatile alkali combined with
regulus of antimony, and cobalt, lliglıtly ; but ads
powerfually upon zinc, and forms a kermes mineral
Vitriolic acid
Vitriolic ammoniac, or with crude antimony. Copper, iron, biſmath, zinc,
Glauber's ſecret fal antimony, and regulus of cobalt, fuſed with two parts
ammoniac.
of foſſil alkali, are almoſt entirely diſſolved in a very
Nitrous acid
Nitrous ammoniac, or ſtrong heat; but tin, lead, and regulus of antimiony,
volatile nitre. treated in the ſame manner, only ſuffer a partial folu-
Marine acid
Common fal ammoniac tion.
Acetous acid
Spiritus inindereri. All the alkalis are of conſiderablc uſe in medicine,
though
forms
2
forms
{
forms
ALK
[ 463 ]
ALK
14
falts;
late (A)
Alkali. though the particular virtues of vegetable and foſſil al the diſfolation of the viral fuid ; of which Dr Monro Alkali.
kali have not hitherto been properly aſcertained. It ſays he has ſeen ſeveral inſtances.
is probable, howe:er, that there muſt be a conſider-
Medical
Alkalis promote the ſecretions in general particu.
virtucs of able diverlity in their operations on the human body, larly by the kidneys; but by the help of warm liquors
alkaline as the vegetable alkali ihows itſelf ſo much more acrid and bed-clothes, their operation may be directed to-
and powerful than the follil. As both of them unite wards the ſkin. They liave alſo been émpioyed in caſes
immediately with acids, and cliange them into mild of heartburn, and others wherean acid prevails in the
neutral falls ; hence, it any of the ſtrong mineral acids ſtomach and bowels, or where theſe organs are loaded
ſhould fall upon any part of the human body, and be with viſcid phlegm. They are likewiſe given with a
gin to corrode and give pain, the immediate applica- view to alliſt the operation of the bile when it is too
tion of the lixivium tariari, or of a ſolution of any of weak and inert, eithier by themſelves, or mixed with
thoſe alkaline ſalts in water, or of the ſalts themſelves purgative or other medicines. The foſſil alkali has
in powder, will deſtroy their cauſticity, and prevent been alleged to be a more powerful ſolvent of the hu-
their doing further miſchief: Or if any of theſe acids nian calculus than the vegetable, though perhaps with-
ſhould drop on clothes, linen, or other ſubſtances, and out any juſt foundation. It is given from 5 to 20 grains
alkaline ſalts are inmediately applied, they will neu- three times a-day; and in ſome caſes even to double
tralize the acid, and prevent its further corroſion: Or that quantity. It may be taken in any commun li-
if a perſon ſhould, through miſtake, ſwallow any other quor, or in clear broth made of lean meat, from which
corroding ſalt which an alkali will decompoſe, the the fat has been ſkimmed off; or the powdered ſalts
taking down into the ſtomach folutions of the alkaline may be made up into pills or boluſes mixed with li-
falts, or the ſalts themſelves in proper doſes, are the quorice powder, by ineans of mucilage of gun Arabic
moſt likely means of affording relief, if not given too or conſerve.
16
The vegetable alkali has been long uſed as a diuretic Are ofcon-
Both the vegetable and foffil alkali applied exter- in droplies with great ſucceſs; and Dr Monro informs fiderable
nally in a cauſtic ſtate, firſt irritate and inflame the us, that he has ſeen a nuinber of caſes of anaſarca in uſein drop-
ſkin, and afterwards act as fire in mortifying and de- which the water was carried off by it.
As diuretics, lies.
Itroying it ; and therefore have been much uſed by fur- it may be taken from ten grains to half a drachm, or
geons for opening buboes and other abſceſſes, and for more, two or three times a-day, inised with ſome di-
eating away proud or fungous fleíh that ſprouts out ſtilled water, fyrup, broth, or water-gruel, or with two
from fores. Various formulæ of cauſtic alkalis have ounces of white wine, which partly neutralizes the falta
been employed for theſe purpoſes, of which an account When added to infuſions of juniper berries, broom tops,
is given under CHEMISTRY and PHARMACY. horſe-radiſh, maſard.feed, winter's-bark, &c. in wine
The alkaline ſalts, when much diluted with water, and beer, they prove powerful diuretics; and Dr
have been uſed as waſhes for removing pimples from Monro gives the following formula.
the face ; but if ſuch waſhes are continued long, they “ Take broom-tops, horſe-radiſh, and juniper-ber-
are apt to ſpoil the ſkin. The ancients often uſed to ries, of each an ounce; bruiſe them in a ſtone or marble
diſſolve natron (the foffil alkali) in their baths, and mortar ; put them into a large wide-inouthed bottle,
eſteemed ſuch baths uſeful for removing itchings of and add to them an ounce of ſalt of tartar, and two
the ſkin, the ſcab, the impetigo, leproſy, and almoſt quarts of Rheniſh wine. Infuſe them for four days;
all ſorts of cutaneous eruptions; and they einployed decant off the wine, and filter it through paper for
baths of the ſame kind for promoting ſweat, and for uſe. Two or three ounces may be taken three or four
curing various diſorders. They mixedit likewiſe with times a-day.”
turpentine, with oils, and with ſtuffs of various kinds, Or, “Take an ounce of canella alba, and as much
and rubbed or applied ſuch compoſitions to the ſkin, muſtard-feed and juniper-berries ; bruiſe them wellin
for removing different complaints, to heal fores, to an iron mortar, and add anounce of purified vegetable
ſtrengthen weak or relaxed parts, to deſtroy the poiſon alkali with two quarts of porter; infuſe for four days,
of the bite of a mad dog, and of ferpents; and they and filter the liquor through paper; let the patient
eſteemed it as an antidote againſt many other poiſons. take a wine glaſs-full every four or fix hours..
Do not act It has been proved that alkaline ſalts preſerve animal The diuretic powers of theſe medicines are fome-
as antiſep. ſubſtances from putrefaction ; on which account ſome times increaſed by opium, and they have been ſucceſs-
practitioners have concluded that they act as ſtrong fully joined with effential oils and balfims.
taken into
the human antiſeptic remedies when ſwallowed as medicines, and The moſt remarkable property of theſe falts, low- An excel-
body. are taken up by the lacteal veſſels, and by them car ever, is that of diſſolving the human calculus, for the lent ſolvent
ried to the ſubclavian vein to be mixed with the blood. diſcovery of which, Mrs Stephens, in the year 1740,
of the ſtons
Experience, however, has fhown that they have effects obtained a parliamentary reward of 50001. At that
directly oppoſite, and that by ſtimulating the veſſels time Dr Jarins being afíicted with the flone, tried a
and quickening the circulation, they contribute towards number of experiments on theſe medicines; from which
he concluded, that their efficacy depended entirely on
4
the
IS
tics'wlien
Inn
/
(A) With regard to the mineral acids, an exception ſeems to take place if oil of vitriol in its concentrated
fiate ſhould happen to be ſwallowed; for this contracts ſuch a degree of heat on tlie contact of any aqueous
fluid as would deſtroy the patient, independent of another cauſe. An inſtance we have ſeen where a perſon
unhappily miſtuok a bottle of oil of vitriol for water in the night-time. He recovered by ſwallowing intanily
a great quantity of milk. Another recovered by drinking a bottle of Florence oil.
A L K
[ 464 )
A L K
Alkali. the alkaline ſalts and lime which they contained : and taking any thing which is likely to countcract or do Alkali.
therefore he began to try what effects a ſoap-ley.would ftroy the effects of the ley."
have on himſelf. At firſt lie took only a fe'n drops, With regard to the uſe of the ſoap-ley, our author
but gradually increaſed his doſe till he came to an obſerves, “ that he has ſeen a number of people who
ounce, and ſometimes all ounce and a half, in a proper have taken it, both for gravelliſh complaints and for
vehicle, in 24 hours. This produced the diſcharge of the ſtone ; that many of thoſe who had gravel were
ſome ſmall calculi, and relieved him of the ſymptoms relieved, and ſome of them ſeemed to be cured; that
of the ſtone. Dr Hartley, likewiſe, laboured under foine few of thoſe who had the confirmed itone,received
this complaint : and believing that the efficacy of Mrs conſiderable relief for a time froin its uſe : but the com-
Stephens's medicines depended on the ſoap, lime, and plaints afterwards returned;nor can ho ſay that one coin.
alkaline ſalts which they contained, ordered a paſte to plete cure was made ; though from the accounts given
be prepared for himſelf, made of eight ounces of ſoap, by the late Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, and others, it
one of oyſter-shell lime, a drachm of falt of tartar, and ſhould appear that this had ſometimes happened: that
as much water as formed the whole into a ſoft maſs; of in many caſes of ſtone che ley occaſioned pain and ir-
which he took large quantities, and found himſelf ritation, and increaſed the violence of the ſymptoms fo
greatly relieved, though not cured, as a ſtone was found much, that the patients were obliged to lay it alide ;
in his bladder after his death. Theſe and other in and that this happened moſt frequently where the
ſtances of ſucceſs, ſoon brought the medicines into gea bladder ſeemed already to be diſeaſed from che irrita-
neral uſe: but though many found relief from then, tion of the ſtone : that at all times it is adviſable to lay
others, particularly thoſe who were afflicted with thé aſide this medicine, at leaſt for a time, wheneyer it
ſtone, had all the ſymptoms of their diſtemper aggra- irritates and occaſions pain, or where there are appear-
vated, by the falto rendering the blood, and other li- ances ofits continued uſe having broken down the craſis
quors of the body, particularly the urine, ſharp and a of the blood.
It
crid, ſo as to irritate and inflame the bladder, which Inſtead of the ſoap-ley, the following ſolution of Aerated
was already in too irritable a ſtate, from the conſtant vegetable alkali,fully ſaturated with fixed air, has been vegetable
friction of the calculus lodged within it. The late ex- lately recommended as a powerful ſolvent of the ſtone. alkali re-
periments of Mr Scheele and Sir Torbern Berginan, “ Take two ounces of ſalt of tartar, and diſſolve it in conimen-
ded.
however, have made it evident, that the hunian calcu two quarts of diſtilled water, and then ſaturate it fully
lus is compoſed of a concrete acid joined to a ſmall por with fixed air ; and let the patient take eight ounces
tion of animal earth. Moſt people, therefore, who are of it every eight hours. But though many caſes have
aflicted with the ſtone or gravel, wiſh to try the effi- been related in which this medicine is ſaid to have been
cacy of theſe remedies, rather than ſubmit to the dan- ſerviceable,our author ſays he has ſeen only onė gentle-
gerous operation of lithotomy; we ſhall therefore ſub man who had taken it, and who had found conſider-
join, from Dr Monro, the following directions for ma able relief from it. Soap-ley has likewiſe been recom-
hing and uſing the ſuap-ley.
mended as a ſolvent of bilious calculi, and has ſometimes
Monro's “Take of fält of tartar, eight ounces; of freſh quick- been of ſervice; but this has probably ariſen more from
directions lime, four ounces; of diſtilled water, a quart : mix its property of diſſolving thick and viſcid humours,
for naking them all well together in a large bottlc, and let them and aſſiſting the action of the bile, than by acting on
and uſing ſtand for 24 hours; then pour off the ley and filter it the calculi theinfelves.
the ſoap through paper, keeping it in well-ſtopped vials for uſe. The volatile alkali has many of the virtues of the Medical
ley.
Of this the doſe is from 30 drops to three or four fixed, but affects animal ſubſtances, particularly in its virtues of
drachms, which is to be repeated two or three times in caufic ſtate, leſs powerfully than they do. It gives a the volatile
the day.
briſk and ſtrong ſtimulus to the nerves and fibres of li. alkali.
“One of the beſt methods of taking this ley is, to ving animals ; and is therefore employed in diſeaſes
mix the quantity to be uſed in the day with three pints where the pulſeis low and the circulation too languid;
of plain broth, which has been made with the lean part in low fevers, where the patient is in danger of link-
of veal, with all the fat or oily parts ſeparated from it, ing ; in apoplectic and lethargic diſorders of elderly
by putting it, when made, into a large bowl, and ſkim- people of phlegmatic habits, in paralytic caſes, faint-
ming them off with a {poon when cold, and to drink, ing fils, &c. where a briſk and ſtimulating remedy is
within an hour, a pint of this broth three times in the wanted. It is often uſed as diaphoretic and ſudorific
day-early in the norning-al noon--and in the even- in caſes of rheumatiſmı, in the end of fevers, catarrhs,
ing; and to continue the uſe of this medicine for three and other diſeaſes, where a plentiful diaphoreſis or
four, or more months; and, during this courſe, to live ſweat is required; and, according to our author, it is
on ſuch things as leaſt counteract the operation of the principally owing to this quality that the alkalis have
medicine : to take for breakfaſt ſome plain broth,ſuch obtained their reputation of being efficacious remedies
as has been deſcribed, with dry toaſted bread or biſcut: againſt the bites of ſerpents and other venomous ani-
or a diſh or two of tea or coffee in place of the broth: mals. It is equally efficacious againſt mineral acid
for dinner, to eat the lean part of plain boiled or roaſt- poiſons with the fixed alkali.
ed meat, or a fowl, with their own gravy or juice for It now remains only to give ſome account of the o.
Origin of
{auce ; and to eat only of vegetables which contain but rigin of the alkalis, or that proceſs by which ihey are alkaline
little acid, ſuch as potatoes, &c. and to uſe for drink naturally produced. This ſubject, however, is very ſalts,
toaſt and water, or water with a very ſmall portion of much involved in obſcurity ; nor has the origin of fix-
{pirit in it; and to abſtain from eating fruit and acef- edalkalis at leaſt, been inveſtigated with ſuch diligence
ſcent vegetables, fat meat, butter, or oil ; and from and ſucceſs as that of the acids.
drinking wine, beer, cyder, punch, and in ſhort from divided in their opinions, whether alkaline falis be na-
tural
1%
20
N
21
2
1
A LK
A LK
[ 465 ]
n° 7.
Alkali. tural bodics, or formed by the force of fire, uniting the placed a large retort in a fand furnace, and alapteda Alkali
principles of which they contiſt in the burning or dif- tubulated receiver to it, afterwards heating tlie bola
tilling the ſubſtances from which they are got. It is tom of the retort red-liot, hc put into it, wy incans of All Saints.
generally fuppoſed that they are formed by the force a long tube riſing from the upper part of the neck, a
of fire intimately uniting an earth, an acid, and an in. powder compoſed of equal paris of nitre and charcoal
flammable niatler together; ſo as to form an alkaline on which there came over into the receiver a liquor
ſalt, which is ſuppoled to be compoſed of theſe prin- highly impregnated with volatile alkali. Cartheuler,
ciples. In ſupport of this opinion, it has been alleged, in the firſt volume of his Materia Medica, tells us, that
1. That the fixed vegetable alkali is produced by burn if two parts of ſalt of tartar be mixed with one of ſul.
ing vegetables which contain the principles fit for form- phur, and be afterwards diſtilled, they yield a volatilo
ing theſe falts; though no veftige of an alkali can be alkaline filt and ſpirit. Boerhaave and Macquer have
diſcovered in theſe vegetables in their natural ſtate. both affirmed, that the vegetative proceſs itſelf produ-
2. That the effential falts of vegetables, which contain ces a volatile alkali; ard that the juices got by bruiling
an acid and an earth, on being calcined in a crucible muſtard-feed and other alkaleſcent vegetables, as they
with charcoal, yield an alkaline falt. 3. That by al are called, contain a volatile alkali which efferveſces
ternately allowing the vegetable alkali to run per deli- with acids: but this is denied by Cartheufer and Vo-
quium, and drying it again, it precipitates a quantity gel, who affirm that they could diſcover no traces of
of earth, every timē it is diſſolved; ſo that the whole volatile alkali in their juices by any experiments they
of the ſale is at laſt reduced to this kind of earth, while made.
the acid, phlogiſton, &c. have evaporated, or been de But whatever may be concluded from the experience
ſtroyed by the repeated application of leat for drying of former chemiſts, the late diſcoverics of Dr Prieſtley
the falt. 4. In like manner the volatile alkali is pro and Mr Cavenšiſh have deciſively ſhewn, that the vola-
duced by diſtilling aniinal ſabſtances which contain the tile alkali is by no means a ſimple element or natural
principles fit for producing it, though no marks of a principle, but a compound, and which may be artifi-
volatile alkalicould be diſcovered in theſe ſubſtances cially prepared. Dr Prieſtley informs us, that by the See. Jerolo-
while they were freſli.
union of nitrous air with iron, a volatile alkali is gene- gy, nº 149.
On the other hand, it has been aſſerted that the al rated; and Mr Cavendiſh, that by the action of the
kaline ſalts obtained by burning vegetables, or diſtilling electric fluid, or pure elementary fire, upon phlogiſti-
animal ſubſtances, exiſted origina'ly in the materials cated air, the nitrous acid is produced: the volatile al- See Acid,
from which they are procured; that they were gene. kali, therefore, muſt be ſuppoſed to conſiſt ultiniately
rated in the plants by the proceſs of vegetation, and of phlogiſticated air united to a great qua:tity of elé-
freed by the fire from the other principles which diſ mentary fire. In like manner, if we can ſuppoſe this
guiſed thein. In ſupport of this opinion the following ſubtile element to enter into the ſubſtance of any kind
arguments are made uſe of by Meſſrs W eigleb, Roſen of earth in ſuch a manner as to exert its peculiar action
ſtiel, Morveau, &c. I. That they had not been able to when that ſubſtance is applied to any other, we may
procurean alkaline falt by mixing earths, oil, and acids reaſonably conclude that the fixed alkalis alſo are not
together, and ſubjecting them to the moſt intenſe fire. fimple and permanent principles, but capable of artifi-
2. The cryſtals of iartar, which were formerly believed cial compoſition and decompoſition. It is certain that
to be pure acid ſalts, have been found by late experi- the acti'n of alkaline falts is extremely ſimilar to that
ments to contain avegetable alkali. 3. The vegetable of fire; and as we know that this element is combined
alkaline falt, when purified is always of the ſame na in a latent ſtate with fluids, there can be no abſurdity
ture, from whatever ſubſtance it is procured ; and in ſuppoſing it capable of combining alſo with folids.
therefore muſt have been an original principle or body ALKALI, or Sal Kali, in botany. See SALICOR-
exiſting in the vegetables from which it is procured :
for had it been produced by ari, it would have varied, ALKANET, in botany. See ANCHUSA.
and we ſhould have had different fpecies of it, accor ALKEK ENGI, in botany, tlie trivial name of a
ding to the principles which the plants contained. ſpecies of phyſalis. See PHYSALIS.
And, 4. The neutral falts which have been found mix ALKENNA, in botany. See LAWSONIA.
ed with the aſhes of plants, as vitriolated tartar, nitre, ALKERMES, in pharmacy, a compound cordial
and fea-falt, are likewiſe ſtrong proofs of the original medicine made in the form of a confecton, deriving its
exiſtence of alkali in vegetables.
name from the kermes-berries uſed in its compoſition.
On this ſubject Dr Monro obſerves, that hitherto ALKORAN. See ALCORAN,
we have not fufficient evidence to determine poſitively ALL-HALLOws. See All-Saints,
whether the vegetable alkali be produced by the force ALL-Gogd. See CHENOPODIUM.
offire, or if it exiſted originally in the ſubſtances from ALL-Heal. See HERACLEUM and STACHYS.
which it is prepared, though he is inclined to favour ALL-Sailis, in the kalendar, denotes a ſcítival ce-
the former opinion. With regard to the volatile al 1cbrated on the first of November, in commemoration
kali, however, we have abundant evidence of its being of all the ſaints in general ; which is otherwiſe called
produced from ſubſtances which conld not poſiibly be All-hallows. The number of ſaints being ſo exceſſive-
ſuppoſed to contain it originally. Dr Stahl aſſui es us, 1 y multiplied, it was found too burdenſome to dedicate
that if any dry fixed alkaline ſalt be well rubbed in a a feaft-day to each. In reality, there are not days
mortar with ſuch a quan'ity of oil of turpentine, as is enough, ſcarce hours enougli, in the year, for this
fufficient to make it of the conſiſtence of a pulp, and purpoſe. Hence an expedient was liad recourſe to, by
digeſed for ſome weeks in a cucurbit orretort, we ob conmemorating ſuch in the lump as had not their own
tain a volatile alkali. MrGeoffroy relates, that having days. Boniface IV, in the ninth century, introduced
VOL. I.
3 N
the
NIA.
[ 466 ]
A LL
All-Saints the feaſt of all Saints in Italy, which was ſoon after and leveral pieces of his own compoling. In his con Alley
Bay adopted into the other churches,
pofitions he is thought to how more erudition than #
11 All-SAINTS Bay, a ſpacious harbour near St Sal- judgment: he uſed alſo to make frequent digrellions Allegiance.
Allatius
vador in Brazil, in S. America, on the Atluitic occall. from one ſubject to another. He died at fiomcin 1669,
W. Long. 40°. S. Lat. 12º.
aged 83.
ALL-Souls, in the calendať, denotes a feaſt-day, ALLAY. See ALLOY.
hield on the ſecond of November, in commemoration ALLEGATA, a word anciently ſubſcribed at the
of all the faithful deceaſed.---The feaſt of all-Souls bottom of reſcripts and conſtitutions of the emperors;
was firſt introduced in the eleventh century,by Odilon as Jignata, or teftata, was under other initruments.
abbot of Cluny, who enjoined it on his own order : ALLEGÊ AS, or ALLEGIAS, 1 tuff manufactured
but it was not long before it became adopted by the in the Eaſt-Indies. There are two ſorts of them :
neighbouring churches.
fome are of cotton, and others of ſeveral kinds of herbs,
ALL-SPICE. See MYRTUS and CALYCANTHUS. which are ſpun like tlax and hemp. Their length and
ALLA, or ALLAH, the naine by which the pro. breadth are of eighi ells, by tive, lix, or ſeven-eighths,
feffors of Mahometaniſm call the Supreme Being.
and of twelve ells, by three-fourths, or five-cighths.
The term allais Arabic, derived from the verb alah, ALLEGIANCE, in law,is the tie, or ligamen, which
to adore, It is the ſame with the Hebrew Eloah, binds the lubject to the government, in return for that
which fignifies the Adorable Being.
protection which government affords the fubject. The
ALLAMANDA, in botany; a genus of the mo. thing itſelf, or fubitantial part of it, is founded in rea-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of fon and the nature of government; the name and the
plants. The characters are: The calyx is a five-leav'd form are derived to us froin ancient Gothic ufage. Un-
perianthiun: The corolla conſiſts of one funnel-Ihap'd der the feudal ſyſtem, every owner of land held them in
petal; the tube cylindric; the border ſemiquinquefid ſubjection to ſome fuperior or lord, from whoni or from
and veniricoſe; the diviſions expanding and obtuſe : whoſe anceſtors the tenant or vallal had received them:
The ſiamina have ſcarce any filaments; the antheræ and there was a mutualtruſt or confidence ſubfifing be-
are five, arrow-ſhaped, converging, in the throat of the tween the lord and vaſſal,thaithe lord ſhould protect the
tube: The peftillum has an oval germen, girt at the valſal in the enjoyment of the territory he had granted
baſe with an annular margin ; the itylas is filiforu,the him;andon theother hand, that the vallal ſhould be faith-
length of the tube ; the ſtigma is headed, and contrac ful to the lord, and defend him againſt all his enemies.
ed in the middle: the pericarpium is an orbicular, This obligation on the part of the vallal was called his
compreſſed, briftly capſule, containing one cell with fidelitas or fealty: and an oath of fealty was required by
two valves : The ſeeds are imbricated, orbicular, flat, the feudal law to be taken by all tenants to their land-
with a membranaceous wing on the margin, and are lord, which is couched in almoſt the ſame terms as the
very nunierous. There is but one ſpecies, the cathar- ancienioath of allegiance; except that,in the uſual oath
tica, a native of Surinam.
of fealty, there was frequently a ſaving or exception of
ALLANTOIS, or ALLANTOIDES, a gut-ſhaped the faith due to a ſuperior lord by name, under whom
velicle inveſting the fætus of cows, goats, ſheep, &c. the landlord himſelf was perhaps only a tenant or vaſ-
filled with an urinous liquor conveyed to it from the ſal. But when the acknowledgment was inade to the
urachus.--(See COMPARATIVE Anatomy). Anatomiſts abſolute fuperior himſelf, who was vaſſal to no man, it
are not agreed whether the allantois has any exiſt was no longer called the oath of fealiy, but the oath of
ence in the human ſpecies or not.
allegiance, and therein the tenant ſwore to bear faith
ALLATIUS (Leo), keeper of the Vatican library, to his ſovereign lord, in oppoſition to all men,
without
a native of Scio, and'a celebrated writer of the 17th any ſaving or exception. Land held by this exalted
century. He was of great ſervice to the gentlemen of ſpecies of fealty, was called feudum legium, a licge fee,
Port Royal in the controverſy tỉey had with M.Claude the vallals homines irg-i, or lieg, men ; and the ſovereign
touching the belief of the Greeks with regard to the their dominus ligius, orliege lord. And when ſovereign
euchariſt. No Latin was ever more devoted to the ſee princes did homage to each other for lands held under
of Rome, or more inveterate againſt the Greek ſchif- their reſpective ſovereignties, a diſtinction was always
matics, than Allatius. He never engaged in matri- made between ſimple homage, which was only an ac-
mony, nor was he ever in orders ; and pope Alexan- knowledgment of tenure, and liege homage, which in-
der VII. having aſked him one day, why he did not en cluded the tealty before-mentioned, and the ſervices
ter into orders? he anſwered, “ Becauſe I would be conſequent upon it. In Britain, it becoming a ſettled
free to marry.” The pope rejoined, “ If ſo, who do principle of tenure, that all lands in the kingdom are
you not marry?” « Becauſe," replied Allatius, “ I holden of the king as their ſovereign and lord para-
would be at liberty to take orders.” Thus, as Mr mount, no oath but that of fealty could ever be taken
Bayle obſerves, he paſſed his whole life, wavering be to inferior lords; and the oath of allegiance was ne-
twixt a pariſh and a wiſe; forry, perhaps at his death, ceſſarily confined to the perſon of the king alone. By
for having choſen neitherofthem; when, if he had fix an cafy analogy, the term allegiance was ſoon brought
ed upon one, he might have repented his choice for 30 to fignify all other engagements which are due from
or 40 years. If we believe Tohn Patricius, Allatius ſubjects to their prince, as well as thoſe duties which
had a very extraordinary pen, with which and no o were ſimply and merely territorial. And the oath of
ther, he wrote Greek for 40 years; and we need not allegiance, as adminiſtered in England for upwards of
be ſurpriſed, that, when he loſt it, he was ſo grieved, 600 years, contained a promiſe « to be true and faith-
that he could ſcarce forbear crying. He publiſhed ſeve “ ful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to
ſal manuſcripts, ſeveral tranſlations of Greek authors, «« bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to
66 know
!
A L L
L 467 1
ALL
litical Pbi.
Allegianceknow or hear of any ill or damage intende 3 him, inſtant fuch ſtranger transfers himſelf f10n one ling. Allegory.
" without defending him therefrom.” But, at the re dom to another. Natural ailegiance is therefore per-
volution, the terms of this oath being thought perhaps petual, and local temporary only; and that for this rea-
to favour too much the notion of non-reſiſtance, the ſon, evidently founded upon the nature of governinerit,
preſent form was introduced by the convention parlia- That allegiance is a debt due from the ſulject, upon an
nient, which is more general and indeterminate than implied contract with the prince; that ſo long as the
the former; the ſubject only promiſing “ that he will one affords protection, ſo long the other will demean
Blacktone's " be faithful and bear true allegiance to the king.
himſelf faithfully.
Commert,
without mentioning “ his heirs, or ſpecifying in the The oath of allegiance, or rather the allegiance it-
leaſt wherein that allegiance conſiſts. The oath of ſu- felf, is held to be applicable, not only to the political
premacy is principally calculated as a renunciation of capacity of the king, or regal office, but to his natural
the pope's pretended authority: and the oath of abju- perſon and blood-royal: and for the miſapplication of
ration, introduced in the reign of King William, very their allegiance, viz. to the regal capacity or crown,
amply ſupplies the looſe and general textare of the oath excluſive of the perſon of the king, were the Spencers
of allegiance ; it recognizing the right of his majeſty, baniſhed in the reign of Edward Iſ. And from hence
derived under the act of ſettlement ; engaging to ſup- aroſe that principle of perſonal attachment and affec-
port him to the utmoſt of the juror's power ; promiſing tionate loyalty, which induced Engliſhmen in former
to diſcloſe all traiterous conſpiracies againſt him; and times (and if occaſion required, would doubtleſs in-
expreſsly renouncing any claim of the deſcendants of duce their ſons) to hazard all that was dear to them,
the late pretender, in as clear and explicit terms asthe life, fortune, and family, in defence and ſupport of
Engliſh language can furniſh. This oath muſt be ta their liege lord and ſovereign.
ken by all perſons in any office, truſt, or employment; It is to be obſerved, however, in explanation of this Paley's Mo-
and
may be tendered by two juſtices of the peace to allegiance, That it does not preclude reliſtance to the ral and Po-
any perſon whom they ſhall ſuſpect of diſaffection. And king, when his miſconduct or weakneſs is ſuch as to
lofopby.
the oath of allegiance may be tendered to all perſons make reſiſtance beneficial to the community. It ſeems Philad. Ed.
above the age of twelve years, whether natives, deni. fairly preſumeable, that the convention parliament, p. 142.
zens, or aliens.
which introduced the oath of allegiance in its preſent
But, beſides theſe expreſs engagements, the law alſo form, did not intend to exclude all reſiſtance; ſince
holds that there is an implied, original, and virtual al- the very authority by which the members fat together,
legiance, owing from every ſubjecto his ſovereign, an was itſelf the effect of a ſucceſsful oppoſition to an ac-
tecedently to any expreſs promiſe, and although the knowledged ſovereign.
ſubject never ſwore anỳ faith or allegiance in form. Again: The allegiance above deſcribed can only be
Thus Sir Edward Coke very juſtly obſerves, that “ all underſtood to ſignify obedience to lawful commands.
ſubjects are equally bounden to their allegiance as if If, therefore, the king fhould iſſue a proclaination, le-
they had taken the oath ; becauſe it is written by the vying money or impoſing any ſervice or reſtraint upon
finger of the law in their hearts, and the taking of the the ſubject, beyond what the law authoriſed, there
corporal oath is but an outward declaration of the would exiſt no ſort of obligation to obey ſuch a pro-
fame."
clamation, in confequence of having taken the oath of
Allegiance, both expreſs and implied, is however di- allegiance.
ſtinguiſhed by the law into two forts or ſpecies, the one Neither can allegiance be ſuppoſed to extend to the
natural, the other local ; the former being alſo perpe- king after he is adually and abſolutely depoſed, driven
tual, the latter temporary,
into exile, or otherwiſe rendered incapable of exerciſ-
Natural allegiance is ſuch as is due from all men born ing the regal office. The proiniſe of allegiance implies,
within the king's dominions immediately upon their that the perſon to whom the promiſe is made continues
birth. For imniediately upon their birth, they are un- king: that is, continues to exerciſe the power, and
der the king's protection ; at a time too, when (daring afford the prote&tion, which belong to the office of
their infancy) they are incapable of protecting them- king : for it is the poſſeſſion of theſe which makes
ſelves. Natural allegiance is, therefore, a debt of gra- ſuch a particular perſon the object of the oath.
titude ; which cannot be forfeited, cancelled, or alter ALLEGORY, in compoſition, conſiſts in chooſing
ed, by any change of time, place, or circumſtance, nor a ſecondary ſubject, having all its properties and cir-
by any thing but the united concurrence of the legiſla- cumſtances relenbling thoſe of the principal ſubject,
ture. A Briton who removes to France, or to China, and deſcribing the former in ſuch a manner as to re-
owes the ſame allegiance to the king of Britain there preſent the latter. The principal fubject is thus kept
as at home, and twenty years hence as well as now. For out of view, and we are left to diſcover it by refiection.
it is a principle of univerſal law,That the natural-born In other words, an allegory is, in every reſpect, fi-
fibject of one prince cannot by any act of his own, no, milar to an hieroglyphical painting, excepting only
not by ſwearing allegiance to another, put off or dif that words are uſed inſtead of colours. Their effects
charge his natural allegiance to the former : for this are preciſely the ſame: An hieroglyphic raiſes two
natural allegiance was intrinſic, and primitive, and an- images in the mind; one ſeen, that repreſents one that
tecedent to the other; and cannot be diveſted without is not feen : An allegory does the fame; the reprcfer.
the concurrent act of that prince to whom it was firſt tative ſubject is deſcribed, and the reſemblance leads us
due
to apply the deſcription to the ſubject repreſented.
Local allegiance is ſuch as is due froni an alien, or There cannot be a tineror more correct allegory than
tranger born, for ſo long (ime as he continues within the following, in which a vineyard is made to repreſent
the king's dominion and protection ; and it ceaſes the God's own people the Jews :
3 N2
" Thou
ALL
[468]
ALL
illegri.
65
** Tho baſ biught a ville out of Egypt; thou angel) ſhould finilh his days fo miſerably, in a country Alleg.ii
" fraft caſt out the heathen, and planted it. Thou uidit where his talents were never known !"
" cauſe it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The From want of curiolity or of reſolution, or from
s* hills were covered with its ſhadow, and the boughs want of patronage, Corregio never vilired Rome, but
" thereof were like the goodly cedars. Why halt thou remained his whole life at Parına, where the art of
" then broken down her hedges, ſo that all that paſs painting was little eſteemed, and of conſequence poorly
worlo pluck ler? The boar out of tlie wood doth walte jewarded. I his concurrence of unfavourable circum
61:, and the vild beaſt doth devour it. Return, we Itances occafioned at laſt his premature death at the .
so beſeech thee, O God of hoſts: look down from hea- age of 40. He was employed to paint the cupola of
veil,
and beloid, and viſit this vine and the vineyard the cathedral at Parma, the ſubject of which is an afe.
“thy right hand hath planted, and the branch thou fumption of the Virgin; and having executed it in a
• madeft frong for thyſelf.” Pfal. lxxx.
manner that has long been the admiration of every per-
Nothing gives greater pleaſure than an allegory, fon of good taſte, for the grandeur of deligu, and eipe-
when the repreſentative ſubject bears a ſtrong analogy, cially for the boldneſs of the fore-ſhortenings (an.
in all its circumftances, io chat which is repreſented. art which he firſt and at once brought to tlie utmost
But moſt writers are unlucky in their choice, the and perfection), he went to receive his payment. The
logy being generally ſo faint and obfcure, as rather lo canons of the church, either through ignorance
puzzle then to pleaſe. Allegories, as well as nucta- baſeneſs, found fault with his work; and although the
phors and fimilies, are unnatural in exprelling any ſe price originally agreed upon had been very moderate,
vere pallion which totally occupics the mind. For this they alledged that it was far above the merit of the
reaſon, the following speech of Macbeth is juftly con- artiſt, and forced him to accept of the paultry ſum of
demned by the learned author of the Elements of Cri 200 livres ; which, to add to he indignity, they paid
ticiſi :
him in copper money. To carry home this unworthy
Methought I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more! load to his indigent wife and children, poor Corregio
Macbeth doth murder Sleep; the innocent ſleep; had to travel tix or eight miles from Parina. The
Sleep that knits up the ravell'd lleeve of Care, weight of his burucn, the heal of the weather, and
The birth of each day's life, ſore labour's bath, his chagrin at this villanous treatnient, immeviately
Balm of hurt minds, great Nature's ſecond courſe, threw hun into a pleuriſy, which in three days put an
Chief 110urilher in life's feaſt.
Act ii. Sc. 30 end to his life and his inistortunes.
But ſee this ſubject more fully treated underthe article. For the preſervation of this magnificent work the.
METAPHOR and Allegory.
world is indebted to litian, As he paſſed through
ALLEGRI (Antonio), called Corregio from the Parma, in the ſuite of Charles V. he run inſtantly to
place of his birth, an eminent hiſtorical painter, was ſee the chef d'oeuvre of Corregio.. While he was at-
born in the year 1494. Being deſcended of poor pa- tentively viewing it, one of the principal canons of the
rents, and educated in an obſcure village, he enjoyed church told him that ſuch a groteſque performance did
none of thoſe advantages which cont, ibuted to form not merit his notice,and that they intended foon to have
the other great painters of that illuſtrious age. He the whole defaced. (6 Have a carc of what
you
do
law none of the ſtatues of ancient Greece or Rome; (replied the other), if I were not Titian, I would cer- -
nor any of the works of the eſtabliſhed ſchools of tainly wiſh to be Corregio."
Rome and 'Venice. But. Nature was his guide ; and Corregio's exclamation upon viewing a picture by ·
Corregio was one of her favourite pupils. To expreſs. Raphael is well known. Having long been accuſtom-
the facility with which he painted, he uſed to ſay that ed to hear the moſt unbounded applauſe beſtowed on
he always had his thoughts ready at the end of his the works of that divine painter, he by degrees be-
pencil.
came leſs deſirous than afraid of ſecing any of them.
The agreeable ſmile, and the profuſion of graces One, however, he at laſt had occaſion to fee. He
which he gave to his madonas, ſaints, and children, examined it attentively for ſome minutes in profound
have been taxed with being ſometimes unnatural; but filence; and then with an air.of ſatisfaction exclaim-
ſtill they are amiable and ſeducing: An eafy and flow- ed, I am fill a painter. Julio Romano, on ſeeing
ing pencil, an union and harmony of colours, and a ſome of Corregio's pictures at Parma, declared they
perfect intelligence of light and ſhade, gave an aſtoniſh were ſuperior to any thing in painting he had yet be-
ing relief to all his pictures, and have been the admi- held. One of theſe no doubt would be the famous
ration both of his volemporaries and his ſucceſſors. Virgin and Child, with Mary Magdalene and St Je-
Annibal Caracci, who flourished 50 years after him, rom : But whether our readers are to depend upon his
ftudied and adopted his manneri n preference to that opinion, or upon that of. Lady Millar, who in her
of any other maſter. In a letter to his couſin Louis, Letters from Italy gives a very unfavourable account of
he expreſſes with great warmth the impreffion which it, we shall not preſume to determine. This lady,
was made on him by the firſt ſight of Corregio's paint, however, ſpeaks in a very different ſtyle of the no leſs
ings:“ Everything which I ſee here (ſays he)aſtoniſh- famous Notte or Night of Corregio, of which the faw
es me; particularly the colouring and the beauty of the only a copy in the Duke's palace at Modena, the ori.
children. They live—they breathe-They ſimile with. ginal having been fold for a great ſum of money to
ſo much grace and ſo much reality, that it is impoſſible: the king of Poland. " It ſurpriſes me very much
to refrain from ſmiling and partaking of their enjoy. (ſays he), to ſee how different the characters are in
ment. My heart is ready to break with grief when I this picture from that which I already have deſcribed
think on the unhappy fate of poor Corregio--that ſo to you. The ſubject is a Nativity; and the extraor-
wonderful a man (if he ought not rather to be called an dinary beauty of this picture proceeds from the clair
obfcure?
A LL
í 469 ]
A L L
ز
Allegro obfcure : there are two different lights introduced, by in the Revelations (xix. 1,3,4,6.) ſays, that he heard Allemand
1 means of which the perſonages are viſible; llamely,the a great voice of much people in heaven, who ſaid, Al 11
Alleluiah.
light proceeding from the body of the child, and the leluiah ; and the four and twenty elders, and the four Allen,
moon-light. Theſe two are preſerved diſtinct, and pro- beaſts, full down and worſhipped Gud that ſat on the
duce a moſt wonderful effect. The child's body is ſo lu- throne, ſaying Alleluiah.” This hymn of joy and prai.
minous, that the ſuperficies is nearly tranſparent, and ſes was transferred from the ſynagogue to the church,
the rays of light emitted by it are verified in the effect
St Jerom tells us, that at the funeral of Fabiola fevé.
they produce upon the ſurrounding objects. They are ral pſalms were ſung with loud alleluiahs; and that
not rays diſtint and ſeparate, like thoſe round the the monks of Paleſtine were awakened, at their mid-
face of a fun that indicates an inſurance-office; nor night watchings, with the ſinging of alleluiahs. So
linear, like thole proceeding from the man in the al much energy has been obſerved in this term, that the
manack ; but of a dazzling brightneſs : by their lignt ancient church thought proper to preſerve it, without
you ſee clearly the face, neck, and hands, of the Vir- tranſlating it either into Greek or Latin, for fear of
gin (the reſt of the perſon being in itrong ſhadow), impairing the genius and ſoftneſs of it. The fourth
the faces of the paſtori who crowd round the child, council of Toledo has prohibited the uſe of itin times,
and particularly one woman, who holds her hand be- of Lent, or other days of falting, and in the cerenio-
fore her face, lelt her eyes ſhould be ſo dazzled as to nies of mourning : and, according to the preſent prac-
prevent her from beholding the Infant. This is a tice of the Romiſh church, this word is never repeated
beautiful natural action, and is moſt ingenioully intro- in Leut, nor in the obſequies of the dead; notwith-
duced. The ſtraw on which the child is laid appears ſtandii g which, it is uſed in the maſs for the dead,
gilt, from the light of his body thining on it. The according to the moſarabic ritual, at the introit, wher
moon lights up the back-ground of the picture, which they fing, Tu es portio mea, Domine, Alleluia, in ter-
repreſents a landſcape. Every object is diſtinct, as in raviventium, Alleluia, Alleine. The ſinging alleluia
a bright moon-light night, and there cannot be two was oftentimes an invitatory or call to each other to
lights in nature more different than thoſe which appear praiſe the Lord.
in the ſame picture. The virgin and the child are of ALLEMAND a ſort of grave folemn muſic, with
the molt perfect beauty. There is a great variety of good meaſure, and a flow movement. It is alſo a brií
character in the different perſons preſent, yet that uni- kind of dance, very common in Germany and Suit-
formity cominon to all herdſmen and peaſants. In zerland.
fhort, this copy is ſo admirable, that I was quite ſorry: ALLEMANNIC, in a general ſenſe, denotes any
to be obliged to loſe light of it fo fuon ; but i never thing belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus, we
ſhall forget it. The duke of Modena, for whom Cor meet with Allemannic hiſtury, Allemannic language,
regio did the original piclure, gụve hini only 600 livres Allemannic law, &c.
of France for it ; a great ſuni in thoſe days : but at ALLEN (John) archbishop of Dublin in the reign
preſent, what ought it to coſt ?” This great painter's of king Henry VIII. was educated in the univerlity.
death happened in 1534.
of Oxford ; from, whence reinoving to Cambridge, he
ALLEGRO, in muſic, an Italian word, denoting there took the degree of ba' lielor of laws. He was
that the part is to be played in a ſprightly, briſk, live- ſent by Dr Warham, archbihop of Canterbury, to
ly, and gay manner.
the pope, about certain natters relating to the church.
Piu ALLEGRO, ſignifies, that the part it is joined to He continued at Rome nine years, and was created
ſhould be ſung or played quicker ; as
doctor of law's; either there or in ſome other univer-
Poco piu ALLEGRO intimates, that the part to which lity of Italy. After his return, he was appointed
ir refers ought to be played or ſung only a little more chaplain to Cardinal Wolſey, and was commillary cr
briſkly than allegro alone requires.
judge of his court as legate à lutere, in the execution
ALLEIN (Joſeph), the ſon of Tobias Allein, was of which office he was ſuſpected of great diſhoneſty,
born in the Devizes, in Wiltſhire, in 1633, and edu and even perjury. He affilted the cardinal in vifiting,
cated at Oxford. In 1655, he became alliſtant to Mr and afterwards ſuppreſſing, 40 of the ſmaller monaften
Newton, in Taunton-Magdalen, in Somerſetfhire; but ries, for the erection of his college at Oxford and that
was deprived for non-conformity. He died in 1668, at Ipſwich. The cardinal procured for him the living
aged 35. He was a man of great learning, and greater of Dalby in Leiceſterſhire, though it belonged to the
charity; preſerving, though a non-conformiſt and a fe maſter and brethren of the hoſpital of Burton Lazars.
vere ſufferer on that account, great reſpect for the About the latter end of the year 1525 he was incor-
church, and loyalty to his ſovereign. He wrote feve- porated doctor of laws in the univerfity of Oxford.
ral books of piety, which are highly eſteemed; but On the 13th of March 1528 he was conſecrated arch-
his Alarm to unconverted finners is more famous than biſhop of Dublin, in the room of Dr Hugh Inge de-
the reſt. There have been many editions of this little ceaſed; and about the ſame time was made chancellor
pious work, the ſale of which has been very great; of of Ireland. He wrote, 1. Epiſtola te Pullii ſignifican
the edition 1672, there were 20,000 fold; of that of 1675, tione attiva et paliva; penned by him at the time when
with this title, A ſure guide to heaven, 50,000. There he received the archiepiſcopal pall
. 2. De cui:fuetudi-
was alſo a large impreſlion of it with its firſt title,in 1720. nibus ac ftatutis in tutoriis caufis obfervandis. He
ALLELUIAH, or HALLELUIAH, a word figni- wrote alſo ſeveral other pieces relating to the church,
fying, praiſe the Lord, to be met with either at ihe His death, which happened in Jily 1534, was very
beginning or end of ſome pſalms : ſuch is pſalm cxlv. tragical: for being taken in a tinie of rebellion by
and thoſe that follow, to the end. Alleluiah was ſung Thomas Fitzgerald, eldeſt ſon to the earl of Kildare,
upon ſolemn days of rejoicings, Tobit xiii. 12. St John he was by his command moſt cruelly murdered, being
brained
ALL
[ 470 )
ALL
chigan
at
Allen brained like an ox, at Tartaine in Ireland, in the 58th ALLESTRY (Richard, D. D.) an eminent divine, Alleftry'
! year of his age. The place where the murder was born at Uppington in Shropſhire in March 1619, was
1
Allerion. committed was afterwards hedged in, overgrown, and educated in the grammar School at Coventry, and af-
Alley.
unirequented, in deteſtation of the fact.
terwards at Chriſt-church in Oxford. His parts, which
ALLEN (Thomas), a famous mathematician of the were extraordinary, were improved by a no leſs extra-
16th century, born at Uloxeler in Stafford hire the ordinary induſtry. He took up arms for king Charles I.
21ſt of December 1542. He was adnitted ſcholar and was ſometinies ſeen with his muſket in one hand
of Trinity-college Oxford the 4th of June 1561; and and his book in the other. He was very active in the
in 1567 took his degree of maſter of arts. In 1570 ſervice of king Charles IJ. before his reſtoration, and
he quitted his college and fellowhip and retired to was employed by the royalists in tranſacting buſineſs
Glouceſter-ball ; where he ſtudied very cloſely, and be- with that prince during his exile; but was at laſt ſeized
came famous for his knowledge in antiquity, philofo- at Dover ly a party of ſoldiers, and committed pri-
phy, and mathematics. Having received an invitation foner to Lambeth houſe, where he was confined fix or
from Henry earl of Northumberland, a great friend eight weeks : but ſoon after the reſtoration he was
and patron of the mathematicians, he ſpent ſome time made canon of Chriſt-church, created doctor of divi-
earl's houſe, where he became acquainted with nicy, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to the king,
thoſe celebrated mathematicians Thomas Harriot, John and regins profeffor of divinity. In 1665 he was ap-
Dee, Walter Warner, and Nathaniel Torporley. Ro- pointed provost of Eton college, where he raiſed the
bert earl of Leiceſter had a particular eſteem for Mr ſchool, which he fouvd in a low condition, to an un-
Allen, and would have conferred a biſhopric upon him, common pitch of reputation. The west lide of the
but his love of ſolitude and retirement made him de- outward quadrangle of that college was built from the
cline the offer. His great ſkill in the mathematics ground at his expence. 7 he excellent Dr Hamirond,
inade the ignorant and vulgar look upon him as a ma who was his intimate friend, left him his valuable
gician or conjurer : the author of a book intitled Leie library, which he himſelf afterwards bequeathed to his
ceſter's Commonwealth,has accordingly accuſed him with ſucceſſors in the divinity chair. He was eminent for
uſing the art of figuring, to procure the earl of Lei- his piety, benevolence, and integrity; for the fincerity
ceſter's unlawful deſigns,andendeavouring by the black of his friendſhip, and his ditintereſted temper. He
art to bring about a match betwixt him and Queen wrote ſeveral books ; and a collection of his ſermons
Elizabeth. But without pretending to point out the were printed after his deceaſe by Dr Fell biſhop of
abſurdity of the charge, it is certain that the earl pla- Oxford. He died Auguſt 28. 1680.
ced ſuch confidence in Allen, that nothing material in ALLESTRY (Jacob), an Engliſh poet of the laſt
the ſtate was tranſacted without his knowledge; and the century. He was the ſon of James Alleſtry, a book-
earl had conſtant information, by letter, from Mr Al. feller of London who was ruined by the grear fire in
len, of what pafled in the univerſity. Mr Allen was 1666. Jacob was educated at Weſminiter ſchool,
very curious and indefatigable in collecting ſcattered entered at Chriſt-church Oxford, in the act rerm 1671
manuſcripts relating to hiſtory, antiquity, aſtronomy, at the age of 18. and was elected ſtudent in 1672.
philoſophy, and mathematics: theſe collections have He took the degree in arts; was muſic-reader in 1679,
been quoted by ſeveral learned authors, &c. and men and terræ filios in 1681 ; both which offices he exe.
rioned to have been in the Bibliotheca Alleniana. He cuted with great applauſe, being eſteemed a good phi-
publiſhed in Latin the ſecond and third books of Clau- lologiſt and poet. He had a chief hand in the verſes
dius Ptolemy of Peluſium, Concerning the Judgment and paſtorals ſpoken in the theatre at Oxford May 21.
of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Qua- 1681, by Mr. William Savile ſecond ſon of the Mar.
dripartite Confirućłion, with an expoſition. He wrote quis of Halifax, and George Cholmondeley ſecond
alſo notes on many of Lilly's books, and ſome on John fon of Robert viſcount Kells (both of Chriſt-church),
Bale's work De Scriptoribus M. Britanniæ. Having before James duke of York, his ducheſs, and the lady
lived to a great age, he died at Glouceſter-hall on the Anne; which verſes and paſtorals were afterwards
30th of September 1632.
printed in the “ Examen Poeticum.” He died October
ALLENDORF, a ſmall town in the circle of the 15.1686, and was buried in St Thomas's church-yard.
Upper Rhine, and in the landgravate of Hefle-Caffel, ALLEVEURE, a ſmall braſs Swediſh coin, worth
remarkable for its ialt-works and three ſtone-bridges. about (d. Engliſh money.
Iris ſealed on the river Weſer, 15 miles eaſt of Caflel; ALLEVIATION, denotes the making a thing
E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51. 26.
lighter, and eaſier to bear or endure. It ſtands oppo-
ALLER, a river which runs through the duchy of ſed to aggravation.
Lunenburg, and falls into the Weſer a little below ALLEY (William), biſhop of Exeter in the reign
Verden.
of queen Elizabeth, was born at Great Wycomb in
ALIER, good, in ancient writers. The word Buckinghamſhire. From Eton ſchool, in the year
aller ſerves to make the expreſſion of ſuperlative ſigni- 1528, he removed to king's-college Cambridge, where
fication. So, ailer-good is the greater good. Some. he took the degree of bachelor of arts. He alſo ſtu-
times it is wiitten aier.
died ſome time at Oxford; afterwards he married, was
ALLERION, or ALERION, in heraldry, a ſort of preſented to a living, and became a zealous reformer.
cagle without beak or feet having nothing perfe&t but Upon queen Mary's acceſſion he lefi his cure and reli-
the wings. I hey differ from martlets by having their red into the north of England; where he maintained
wings exp. ndod, whereas thoſe of the martlet are cloſc; his wife and himſelf by teaching a ſchool, and practi .
and denote imperialiſis vanquiſhed and diſarmel; for fing phyfic. Cucen Elizabeth aſcending the throne,
which reaſon they are more common in French than in he went to London, where he acquired great reputa-
German coats of arms,
Lion by reading the divinity-ledure at St Panl's, and
2
in
A LL
(
471 ]
ALL
Alley in July 1560 was confecrated biſhop of Exter. He in the old folio edition of Shakeſpeare; or divided one Aileyn.
l was created doctor of divinity at Oxford in November from the other, ſetting the dramatis perfonæ before
Alleyn. 156r. He died on the 15th of April 1570, and was the plays, and ine catalogue of performers after them,
buried at Exter in the cathedral. He wrote, 1. The as in Johnſon's.
poor man's library, 2 vol. fol. Lond. 1571. Theſe vo It may appear furpriſing how one of Mr Alleyn's
lumes contain twelve lectures on the firſt epiſtle of profeſſion ſhould be enabled to erect ſuch an edifice as
St Peter, read at St Paul's, 2. A Hibrew grammar. Dulwich College, and liberally endow it for the main-
Whether it was ever publihed i uncertain. He tranſ tenance of ſo many perſons. But it muſt be obſerved
lated the Pentateuch, in the verlion of the Bible which that he had ſome paternal fortune, which, though
was undertaken by queen Elizabeth's command, fmall, might lay a foundation for his future affluence ;
Alley, in gardening, a ſtraight parallel walk, and it is to be preſumed, that the profits he received
bounded on both ſides will trees, frubs, &c, and from acting, to one of his provident and managing
uſually covered with gravel or turf.
diſpoſition, and one who by his excellence in playing
ALLEY, among builders, denotes a narrow paſſage drew after him ſuch crowds of ſpectators, muſt have
teading from one place to another.
conſiderably iinproved his fortune: berides, he was not
ALLEY, in perſpective, that which, in order to have only an actor, but maſter of a playhouſe, built at his
a greater appearance of length, is made wider at the own expence, by which he is ſaid to have amaſſed con-
entrance than at the termination,
fiderablc wealth. He was alſo keeper of the king's
ALLEY, in the new huſbandry, implies the vacant wild beafts, or maſter of the royal bear-garden, which
fpace between the outermoſt row of corn on one bed was frequented by vaſt crowds of ſpectators; and the
and the neareſt row to it on the next parallel bed; and profits ariſing from theſe ſports are ſaid to haveamount-
it is uſually about four feet in breadth, excluſive of ed 10.500l. per annun. He was thrice married ; and
the partitions between the rows of corn in the beds. the portions of his two firſt wives, they leaving him
The firſt hoeing of wheat is performed in the begin- no iilue to inherit, might probably contribute to this
ning of winter, and the earth is ploughed away from benefaction. Such kind of donations have been fre-
the rows into the intervals, which forms finall ridges quently thought to proceed more from vanity and of-
in the middle between the double rows. The ſecond tentation than real piety; but this of Mr All yn has
hoeing is in the ſpring, which turns it back to the been aſcribed to a very ſingular cauſe, for the devil has
rows, leaving a furrow in the middle of the alley. The been ſaid to be the firſt promoter of it. Mr Aubrey
third hoeing is from the rows, after the whcat has mentions a tradition, " That Mr Alleyn playing a de-
bloſſomed ; this turns the earth into the intervals, mon with ſix others, in one of Shakeſpeare's plays,
forming ſmall ridges there, as at the firſt hoeing. The was, in the midſt of the play, ſurpriſed by an ap.
fourth hoeing returns the earth to the ridges, which « parition of the devil ; which ſo worked on his fan-
is performed a month or more after the third hoeing. cy, that he made a vow, which he performed by
This commonly finiſhes the horſe-hocings, if the land “building Dulwich College” He began the foun-
is in good heart; ochurwiſe one or two more hoeings dation of this college, under the direction of Inigo
are ncceffary.
Jones, in 1614; and the buildings, gardens, &c. were
ALLEYN (Edward), a celebrated Engliſh actor finiſhed in 1617, in which he is ſaid to have expended
in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and king James, and about 10,000l. After the college was built, he met
founder of the college at Dulwich in Surry, was born with ſome difficulty in obtaining a charter for ſettling
at London, in the pariſh of St Goiolph, Sept. 1. 1565,
1565, his lands in mortmain : for he propoſed to endow it
as appears froin a menorandum of his own writing. with 8000 l. per annum for the inžintenince of one
Dr Fuller ſays, that he was bred a ſtage-player ; and mafter, one warden, and four fellows, three whereof
that nis tather would have given him a liberal educa were to be clergymen, and the fourth a ſkilful orga-
tion but that he was not tirned for a ſerious courſe niit; alſo lix poor men, and as many women, belides
of life. He was, however, a youth of an excellent twelve poor boys to be educated till the age of four-
capacity, a cheerful temper, a tenacious memory, a teen or fixteen, and then put out to ſome trade or call-
ſweet clocution, and in his perſon of a ſtately port and ing. The obſtruction he inet with aroſe from the lord
aſpect; all which advantages might wellindace a young chancellor Bacon, who wilhed king James to ſettle part
man to take to the theatrical profeſſion. By ſeveral of thoſe lands for the ſupport of two academical lec-
authorities we find hem ſthave been on the ſtage ſome tures; and he wrote a letter to the Marquis of Buck-
time before 1592 ; tur at this time he was in high fa- ingham, dated Auguſt 18. 1618, intreating him to
vour with the town, and greatly applauded by the beſt uſe his intereſt wich his Majeſty for that purpoſe. Mr
judges, particularly by Ben Johnſon.
Alleyn's folicitation was however atlaſt complied with,
Haywood, in his prologue to M. loe's Jew of Mal- and he obtained the royal licence, giving him full pow.
ta, calls him Proteus for ſhapes, and Rofrius for a er to lay his foundation, by his Majeſty's letter-paient,
tongue. He uſually played the capital parts, and was bearing date the 2111 of June, 1619; by virtue whereof
one oi the original actors in Shakeſpearc's pluys; in he did, in the chapel of the fail new hoſpital at Dul-
fome of Ben Johnſon's he was alſo a principal nerfor- wich, called “ The College of God's Gift"
mer: but what characters he perſonated in either of 1?th of September following publicly read and pub-
theſe poets, it is difficile now to determine. This is liſhed a quadripartite writing in parchment, whereby
owing to the inaccuracy of their editors, who did not he created and eſtabliſhed the ſaid college ; he then
print the names of the players oppoſite to the charac- ſubſcribed it with his name, and fixed his feal ro fe-
ters they performed, as the nodern cuſtom is, bar gave veral parts thereof, in prelence of ſeveral hononrable
one general liſt of actors to the whole ſet of plays, as perſons, and ordered copies of the writings to four
different
66
on the
ALL
( 472 ]
ALL
c
6
Queyn different pariſhes. He was himſvíſ the firft maſter of tion contracted between two perſons or (tvo families Alliance
his college; ſo that to nake uſe of the words of Mr by marriage.
Aliance. Hlay hood, one of his contemporaries, “ He was ſo ALLIANCE is alſo uſed for a treaty entered inco by Alligation,
sirgled withi humility and chari'y, that he became ſovereign princes and ſtates, for their mutual ſafety and
fu liis aival renlioner, humbly fibimilting himſelf to defence.--In this fenfe, alliances may be diftinguitbed
as that proportion of diet and clothes which he had into ſuch as are oíteniive, whereby the contracting
co bellowed on others." We havc 110 rcalon to think parties oblige themſelves jointly to attack ſome other
he evcr repented of this diſtribution of his ſubſtance; power, and into defenſive ones, whereby they bind
but on the contrary, that he was entirely fatistied, as ihemſelves to ſtand by and defend each other in caſe
appears from the rollowing memorial in his own wri- they are attacked by others. Alliance, with the an-
ting, found amongſt his papers : “ May 26, 1620-
May 26, 1620- cient Romans, though a ſort of fervitude, was much
sc lily wife and I acknowledged the tine at the com coveted. Ariarathès, 'we are told by Polybius, offered
« mon pleas bar, of all our lands to the college : blef a facrifice to the gods by way of thiankſgiving for lia-
6 fed be God that he has given us life to do it.” Ilis ving obtained alliance. The reaſon was, that thence-
wife died in the year 1623; and about two years af- forwards people were ſure not to receive any injuries
terwards he married conſtance Kinchtoe, who ſurvived except from them:--There were different forts of al-
hiin, and received remarkable proofs of ñis affection, lies : fome only united to them by a participation of
iſ at leaſt we may judge of it, by his will, wherein he the privileges of Romans, as the Latini and Hernici;
left her conliderably. He died Nov. 25. 1626, in the others by their very foundation,as the colonies; others
brſt year of his age, and was buried in the chapel of by the benefactions they received from them, as Maf-
his liew collcgc, where there is a tomb-ſtone over his finiſla, Eumenes, and Attalus, who owed their king-
grave, with an inſcription. His original Diary is alſo doms to Rome; others by free treaties, which last by
there preſerved.
a long alliance became ſubjects, as the kings of Bithy-
The ſubjoined anecdote is entertaining in itſelf, and nia, Cappadocia, Egypt, and moſt of the cities of
shows the high eſteem in which Mr Alleyn was held as Greece : laſtly, others by compulſive treaties, and the
an actor : Edward Alleyn, the Garick of Shake law of ſubjection, as Philip and Antiochus. For they
ſpear's tiine, had been on the moſt friendly footing never granted peace to an enemy, without making an
« with our poet, as well as Ben Johnſon. They uſed alliance with him ; that is, they never ſubdued any
frequently to ſpend their evenings together at the people without uſing it as a means of fubduing ochers.
lign of the Globe, fomewhere near Black Friars, The forms or ceremonies of alliances liave been va-
" where the playhouſe then was. The world need not rious in different ages and countries. At preſent, fign-
«be told, that the convivial hours of ſuch a triumvi- ing and ſwearing, ſometimes at the altar, are the chief;
crate muſt be pleaſing as well as profitable, and may anciently eating and drinking together, chiefly offer-
* truly be ſaid to be ſuch pleaſures as might bear the ing ſacrifices together, were the cuſtomary rite of rati-
+ reflections of the morning. In conſequence of one fying an alliance. Among the Jews and Chaldeans,
of theſe meetings,the following letter was written by heifers or calves ; among the Greeks, bulls or goats ;
"G. Peel, a Fellow of Chriſt-church college, Oxford, and among the Romans, hogs were ſacrificed on this
"and a dramatic poet, who belonged to the Club, to occafion. Among the ancient Arabs, alliances were
6one Marle, and intimate of his :
confirmed by drawing blood out of the palms of the
“ Friend Marle,
hands of the two contracting princes with a ſharp
..“! muſt defyr that my fyſter hyr watch, and the ſtone,-dipping herein a piece of their garments, and
“ cookerie book you promyſed, may be ſente bye the therewith ſmearing ſeven ſtories, at the ſame time in-
* man--I never longed for thy company more than voking the gods Vroralt and Alilat, i. e. according to
" laft night : we were all very merrye at the Globe, Herodotus, Bacchus and Urania. Among the people
« when Ned Alleyn did not ſcruple to affyrme plea: of Cholchis, the confirmation of alliances is ſaid to be
“fauntely to thy Friende Will, that he had ſtolen his effected by one of the princes offering his wife's breaſts
« ſpeech about the Quality es of an actor's excellencye to the other to ſuck, which he was obliged to do till
ro in Hamlet hys Tragedye, from converſations many there iſſued blood.
“ fold whych had paſſed between them, and opinyons ALLIANCE, in a figurative ſenſe, is applied to any
“ given by Alleyn touching the ſubjecte.---Shake- kind of union or connection ; thus we ſay, there is an
“ ſpeare did not take this talke in good forte ; but alliance between the church and ſtate.
“ Johnſon put an end to the frife with witiylye re ALLIGATI, in Roman antiquity, the baſeſt kind
" markinge, This affaire nedeth no contention ; you of Naves, who were uſually kept fettered. The Ro-
“fiole it from Ned, no doubte ; do not marvel: Have mans had three degrees, or orders, of ſlaves or ſer-
you not ſeen himn act tymes out of 11umber 1-Bclieye vants ; the firſt eniployed in the nanagement of their
sme moſt ſyncerilie, yours, G. Peel.”
eſtates; the ſecond in the medial or lower functions
ALLIA, a river of Italy, which running down a of the family ; the third called alligati, abovemen-
very ſteep channel from the mountains of Cruflumi- tioned.
nuni, mixes with the Tiber at 40 miles from Romc; ALLIGATION, the name of a method of ſolving
famous for the great ſlaughter of the Romans by the allqueſtions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient
Gauls, under Brennus ; licnce iilienfis dies, an un with another. Though writers on arithmetic general-
Jucky day, (Virgil, Ovid, Lucan.) Our anceſtors, Jy make alligation a branch of that ſcience; yet, as it
ſays Cicero, deemed tlic day of the fight of Allia more is plainly nothing more than an application of the
fatal than that of taking the city,
'common properties of numbers, in order to ſolve a few
ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, therela- queſtions that occur in particular branches of buſineſs,
<6
3
we
A L L
(473)
A L L
ni ate.
L. s.
4 d.
S.
2 TO
Total 400
1
10, at 6
I : 4
4 1 2 를
​Ihne,
1
S.
Aligation we chooſe rather to keep it diſtinct from the ſcience of and almonds at 6d. how inany pounds of almonds were Alligation
arithmctic.
in the mixture ?
Alligation is generally divided into medial or alter-
tb. Rates.
400
6 d.
ALLIGATION Medial, from the rates and quantities
LLIGA
d.
4
of the limples given, diſcovers the rate of the mixture. 7 IOI 800
Rule. As the total quantity of the ſimples,
1600
Ibood.
2 d.
To their price or value ;
L.
So any quantity of the mixture,
2)200(100lb. of alkionds at 6 d, is
To the rate.
And 300lb. of raiſins at 4 d. is
S 0
Examp. A grocer mixeth 30 lb. of currants, at
4d. per lb. with 10 lb« of other currants, at 6d. per
Proof 7 10
1b. : What is the value of 1 lb, of the mixture ? Ans. ALLIGATION Alternate, being the converſe of alliga-
d.
tion medial, from the rates of the ſimples, and rale or
16. d.
d.
the mixture given, finds the quantities of the ſimples.
30, at 4 amounts to 120
Rules. 1. Place the rate of the niixture on the
60
left ſide of a brace, as the roots and on the right ſide
of the brace ſet the rates of the ſeveral ſimples, under
40
180
one another, as the branches. JI. Link or alligate the
16, d. 16. do
branches, ſo as one greater and another leſs than the
If 40 : 180 ::
root may be linked or yoked together. III. Set the
Note i. When the quantity of each ſimple is the difference betwixt the root and the ſeveral branches
fame, the rate of the mixture is readily found by adding right againſt their reſpective yoke-fellows. Theſe al-
the rates of ine ſimples, and dividing their ſum by the ternate differences are the quantities required. Note .
number of ſimples
If any branch happen to have two or more yoke-fil-
Suppoſe a grocer mixes ſeveral ſorts of fagar, and of lows, the difference between the root and theſe yoke-
each an equal quantity, viz. at 50 s. at 545. and at fellows muſt be placed right againſt the faid branch, ,
60 s: per cwt. the rate of the mixture will be 545. 8d. one after another, and added into one fum. 2. In fome
per cwt.; for
queſtions, the branches may be alligated more ways
. d.
than one; and a queſtion will always admit of ſo many
50+54+605164, and 3)164) 54 8 anſwers as there are different ways of linking the
Note 2. Ifit be required to increaſe or diminiſh the branches
quantity of the mixture, fuy, As the fun of the given Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, viz.
quantities of the ſimples, to the ſeveral quantities given; 1. The queſtion may be unlimited, with reſpect both
ſo the quantity of the mixture propoſed, to the quan to the quarrtity of the ſimples and that of the mix-
tities of the ſimples ſought.
2. The queſtion inay be limited to a certain
Note 3. If it be required to know how much of quantity of one or more of the ſimples. 3. The que-
cach ſimple is an aſſigned portion of the mixture, ſay, ſtion may be limited to a certain quantity of the mix .
As the quantity of the mixture, to the ſeveral quan-
tities of the ſimples given ; ſo the quantity of the af Variety 1. When the queſtion is unlimited, with
ſigned portion, to the quantities of the ſimples fought. reſpect both to the quantity of the ſimples and that of
the mixture, this is called Ailigation Simple.
Suppoſe a grocer mixes to lb. of raiſins with 30 lb. Examp. A grocer would mix ſugars, at 5 d. 7 d.
of almonds and 40 lb. of currants, and it be demanded, and rod. per lb. ſo as to ſell the mixture or compound
how many ounces of each ſortare found in every pound at 8d. per lb.: What quantity of each muſt he take?
or in every 16 ounces of the mixture, ſay,
16.
Oz.
So: 10 : : 16 : 2 raiſins.
80 : 30 : : 16 : 6 almonds.
3,114
80 : 40 : : 16
16 : 8 currants.
Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left
ſide of the brace, as the root; and on the right ſide of
Proof 16
the ſame brace are ſet the rates of the ſeveral ſinples,
Note 4. If the rates of two ſimples, with the total viz. 5, 7, 10, under one another, as the branches; ac-
value and total quantity of the mixture, be given, the cording to Rule I.
quantity of each ſimple may be found as follows, viz. The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alli-
Multiply the leſer rate into the total quantity, ſub. gated or linked with 7 and 5, both theſe being leſs
trast the product from the total value, and the remain- than the root ; as directed in Rule II.
der will be equal to the product of the exceſs of the The difference between the root 8 and the branch 5,
higher rate above the lower, multiplied into the quan- viz. 3, is ſetright againſt this branch's yoke-fellow ro.
tity of the higher-priced ſimple; and conſequently the The difference between 8 and 7 is likewiſe ſet right a-
faid remainder, divided by the difference of the rates, gainſt the yoke-fellow 10. And the difference betwist
will quore the ſaid quantity. Thus,
8 and 10, viz. 2, is fet right againſt the two yoke-fel-
Suppoſe a grocer lias a mixture of 400 lb. weight, lows 7 and 5; as preſcribed by Rule III.
that coft him 71. nos. conſiſting of railins at 4d. per lb. As the branch io has two differences on the riglit,
Vol, la
3:0
viz.
ture.
ture.
Thus,
2
2
2,3)
2
2
IO
ALL
[ 474 A LL
474
]
30x30
)
}
Alligator
1:
Allitera.
tion.
O
1
Alligation. viz. 3 and 1, they are added ; and the anſwer to the
Gal.
queſtion is, that alb. at 5d. alb. at 7d. and 41b. at iod.
36, 30 | 120 of wine.
will make the niixture required.
6
24 of water.
Anſw.
The truth and reaſon of the rules will appear by con-
fidering, that whatever is loſt upon any one branch is
36 | 144 total.
gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above ex-
120X36=4320
ample, by ſelling 41b. of rod. ſugar at 8d. per lb.
24-7 os
there is 8d. loft. but the like ſum is gained upon its
two yoke-fellows; for by ſelling 2lb. of 5d. ſugar at
Proof 144)4320(30
8d. per lb. there is 6d. gained ; and by felling 2lb. of
As 36 : 30 :: 144 : 120
7d. ſugar at 8d. there is 2d. gained; and 6d. and 2d.
As 36: 6 :: 144 : 24.
make 8d.
There being here only two ſimples, and the total of
Hence it follows, that the rate of the mixture muſt the mixture limited, the queſtion admits but of one an-
always be mean or middle with reſpect to the rates of ſwer.
the ſimples; that is, it muſt be leſs than the greateſt, ALLIGATOR, in zoology, a ſynonyme of the la-
and greater than the leaſt; otherwiſe a ſolution would certa crocodilus. See LACERTA ,
be impoſſible. And the price of the total quantity ALLIGATOR Pear.
See LAURUS.
mixed, computed at the rate of the mixture, will al ALLIONIA, in botany, a genus of the monogy..
ways be equal to the ſum of the prices of the ſeveral nia order, belonging to the tetrandria claſs of plants ;
quantities caſt up at the reſpective rates of the ſimples. and in the natural method ranking under the 48th or-
der, Aggregata. The characters are: The commoil
Variety II. When the queſtion is limited to a cer- calyx is oblong, fimple, three-flowered, five-parted, and
tain quantity of one or niore of the ſimples, this is call- perſiltent; the proper one, obſcure, above: The proper
ed Alligation Partial.
corolla is monopetalous and funnel-thaped ; the mouth
If the quantity of one of the ſimples may be limited, quinquefid and erect: The ſtamina conſiſt of four
alligate the branches, and take their differences, as if briſtly filaments, longer than the corolla, and bending
there had been no ſuch limitation; and then work by to one ſide ; the antheræ are roundith : The piſtilluin
the following proportion :
hasan oblong gernien beneath; the Jylus is briftly, and
As the difference right againſt the rate of the ſimple longer than the ſtamina; the ſtigmata are multisid and
whoſe quantity is given,
linear: There is no pericarpium : The feed. are foli-
To the other differences reſpectively ;
tary, oblong, and naked : Thereceptaculum is naked.
So the quantity given,
There are two ſpecies, the violeacea and incarnata,
To the ſeveral quantities fought.
both natives of America.
ALLIOTH, a ſtar in the tail of the greater bear,
Examp. A diſtiller would, with 40 gallons of brandy much uſe for finding the latitude at ſea.
at 12s. per gallon, mix rum at 75. per gallon, and gin ALLITERATION, an ornament of language
at 45. per galloy : How much of the rum and gin muſt chiefly uſed in poetry, and contiſting in the repetition
he take, to ſell the mixture at 8s. per gallon?
of the ſame letter at certain intervals. We do not re-
Gal.
member to have ever ſeen any ſatisfactory account of
1,4 5 | 40 of brandy.
alliteration in the writings of the critics. They ſeem
8
4
4 | 32 of rum.
Anf:
to have paſſed it over in conteniptuous ſilence ; either
4
41 32 of gin.
as a falſe refinement or as a mere trifle. It perhaps
deſerves a better fate. Many chapters have been com-
The operation gives for anſwer, 5 gallons of brandy, poſed on quantity, on the expreſſion reſulting from
4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the queſtion limits the different arrangements of long and ſhort fyllables, and
quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore ſay,
on the powers of pauſes as they are variouſly placed,
If 5:4:: 40 : 32.
without a word of alliteration. This is the more ex-
The quantity of gin, by the operation, being alſo 4, traordinary, as one ſhould think it impoſſible for any
the proportion needs not to be repeated.
man to examine minutely, and, as it were, diſſect a
number of verſes, without perceiving the vaſt abund-
Variety III. When the queſtion is limited to a
ance of this ornament. It is as if an anatomiſt ſhould
certain quantity of the mixture, this is called Alligan publiſh a complete table of the arteries in the human
tion Total
After linking the branches, and taking the differ. body, and affect never to have ſeen a vein nor a nerve:
for it may be affirmed, with ſmall danger of iniſtake,
ences, work by the proportion following:
that if you examine any number of verſes, remarkable
As the ſuin of the differences,
either for ſweetneſs or for energy, they will be found
To each particular difference;
in ſome degree alliterative. We do not pretend to
So the given total of the mixture,
ſay, that the ſweetneſs and energy of verſification de-
To the reſpective quantities required.
pends chiefly on this circumſtance, yet we cannot help
believing that it may claim ſome ſhare: for it is a con-
Examp. A vintner bath wine at 35. per gallon, and ſtant appearance, as far as we have ever obſervell, that
would mix it with water, ſo as to make a compoſition of the poets whoſe fame is higheſt for verſification, are
144 gallons, worth 2s. 61. per gallon: How much moſt extenſive dealers in this article.
svine, and how much water muſt he take?
The trifling poor appearance of the ornament itſelf,
upon
Site
} AN
A
A L L
A LI
475
tion
Allitera.
tion,
Allinn,
و
33
9
Allitera- upon a ſuperficial view, and the frequent abuſe of it “Regardleſs of the ſweeping whirlwind's ſway"
are circumftancesindeed which give no encouragement " That huſh'd in grim repoie, exitais his ev'ning
to a ſerious inquiry into its nature and operation. How
prey.'.
common is it for writers, who affect to be comic, when
It muſt be obſerved hcre, that we hold a verſe alli-
ini want of other means for railing a ſinile, to uſe af-
terative which has a letter repeated on its accented
fccted alliteration with ſucceſs. But, in the fine arts,
no beauty nor grace is beyond the power of ridicule. parts, although thoſe parts do not begin words; the
The nobleſt attitudes in painting have been rendered repeated letter bearing a ſtrong analogy to the bars in
laughable by caricatura. St Paul preaching at Athens, lar liking to theſe fort of balanced verſes, which divide
a muſical phraſe. Gray ſeems to have had a particu-
in the deſign of Raphael, appears elegant, noble, and equally, and of which the oppoſite ſides have an alli-
in fome degree awful. The ſame apoſtle, repreſented terative reſemblance.
by Hogarth in nearly the fame attitude, pleading be-
fore the governor Felix, ſeems altogether ridiculous. "Eyes that glow, and fangs that grin,
So the language and verſification of Milton in the Pa. “ Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn."
radiſe Loſt appear only proper for the moſt elevated
« Hauberk craſh, and helniet ring."
ſubjects. In the Splendid Shilling of Philips, they All theſe lines appear to us to have a force and
appcar equally proper for the lowelt. So fares it allo energy, ariſing from alliteration, which renders then
with alliteration. Nor ought we to be mortified at the eaſy to be recited; or, if the reader pleaſes, inoilthed.
diſcovery, that much of the deliglit afforded by verſi. For the ſame reaſon the following paſſage appears ſad
fication ariſes from a cauſe ſo pitiful as the repetition and folemn, by the repetition of the labial liquid.
of the ſame letter twice, or oftner, on the accented
parts of a verſe ; for there are many other cauſes of « Mountains, ye mourn in vain."
pleaſure, which, when thus detected and taken to “ Modred whoſe magic,"_&c.
pieces, ſeem equally contempible,
If alliteration thus contributes to enforce the ex-
We apprehend the principal operation of this orna-
preſſion of a poetical ſentiment, its advantagesin poetry
ment to be quite mechanical. It is eaſier for the or muſt be conſiderable. It is not, therefore, unworthy
gans of ſpeech to reſume, at ſhort intervals, one cer-
a poet's regard in the act of compoſition. If two
tain conformation, than to throw themſelves into a
words offer of equal propriety, the one alliterative the
number of different ones, unconnected and diſcordant. other not, we think the firſt ought to be choſen. We
For example, a ſucceſſion of labials, interſperſed at would compare this to the pračice of fuguing in mu-
regular diſtances with dentals and gutturals, will be fic. A compoſer who aims at expreſſion will not hunt
more eaſily pronounced than the ſucceſſion of all the after fugues ; but if they offer, if they ſeem to ariſe
three at random. Sounds of which the articulation is fpontaneouſly from the ſubject, he will not reject them.
calieſt,are moſt completely in the power of the ſpeaker. So a good poet ought not to ſelect an epithet merely
He can pronounce them lowly or rapidly, ſoftly or for beginning with a certain letter, unleſs it ſuit his
with force, at pleaſure. In this we imagine the purpoſe well in every other reſpect for the beauty of
power and advantage of alliteration is founded : for alliteration, when happy, is not greater than its de-
we would not lay any ſtreſs on the pleaſure which formity when affected. A couplet from Pope will ex-
can reſult to the ear from the repetition of the ſame emplify both; the firſt line being bad, and the ſecond
letter. It has been compared to the frequent returns good:
of the key-note in a muſical ſtrain ; but that analogy
is extremely faint. The ear, we preſume, can be
“ Eternal beauties grace the shining ſcene,
pleaſed with alliteration only in ſo far as it contributes
“ Fields ever freſh, and groves for ever green.'
to the ſupperior eaſineſs of recitation ; for what is reci-
ALLIUM (from exto, “ to avoid or Mun,” becauſe
ted with eaſe muſt be heard with pleaſure.
inany fhun the ſmell of it), GARLIC: A genus of the
Theſe remarks might be confirmed and illuſtrated monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of
by numberlefs paſſages from the beſt poets. Somie, few plants; and in the natural method ranking in the 9th
lines will ſuffice, taken from Gray,who ſeems to have order, Spathacea. The characters are : The calyx is
paid particular attention to this grace. He profeſied a common ſpatha, roundiſh, withering, and multi-
to have learned his verſification froin Dryden, as Dry florous: The corolla conſiſts of fix oblong petals: The
den did from Spencer; and theſe three abound in ftamina have fix fubulated filaments, often the length
alliteration above all the Engliſh poets. We chooſe of the corolla ; the antheræ are oblong and erect: The
Gray for another reaſon, in proof of what we men- piftillum has a germen above, florter, nearly three-
tioned before, that alliteration contributes not only to
cornered, with angles engraied with a line; the ſtyli
the ſweetneſs, but alſo to the energy, of verſification ;
are ſimple, the ftigmata acute : The pericarpirim is a
for he uſes it chiefly when he aims at ſtrength and very ſhort, broad, three-lobed capſule,
with three cells
boldneſs. In the Siſter Odes (as Dr Johnſon ſtyles and three valves : The feeds are many and roundith.
them), almoſt every ſtrophe con mences and concludes Of this genus no fewer than 40 different ſpecies are
with an alliterative line. The poet, we ſuppoſe, wiſh-
enumerated by Linnæus, among which he includes the
ed to begin with force, and end with dignity.
cepa ani porrum, or onions and leeks.
« Ruin ſeize thee, ruthleſs king.
1. The fativum, or garlic, has a bulbous root, of
" To high-born Hoel's harp, or ſoft Llewellyn's lay," an irregular roundith ſhape, with ſeveral fibres at the
« Weave the warp, and weave the woof."
bottom ; each root is compoſed of a number of lciſer
“ Stamp weour vengeance deep, and rarify his doom." bulls, called cloves of garlic, incloſed in one common
3 0 2
meinbranous
( 476 )
A L L
Alliun.
menbranous coat and eaſily ſeparable from one another. them flower ſtrong the following ſumıncr. If they are Allium,
All the parts of this plant, but more eſpecielly the propagated by feeds, they may be ſuwn on a border of
roots, have an acrimonious, and almoſt cauſtic taſte, comnion earth, either in autunın ſoon after the ſeeds
with a ſtrong offenſive ſmell, which laſ has induced are ripe, or in the spring tollowing; and will require
thoſe who preſerved fome of the ſpecies in gardenson no farther care than to keep them clear from weeds.
account of their yellow flowers, to eradicatc thcn. In the following autumnl), thcy inay be tranſplanted
This pungent root warms and fiimulates the ſolids, into the borders where they are to remain.
and atienuates tenacious juices; for which it is well 2. The aſcalonicum, or eſchalot, was found wild in
adapted, on account of its being very penetrating ; in- Palelline by Dr Hailelquiſt. The cout is conglobate,
fomuch that, when applied to the feet, its ſcent is confiling of many oblong roots bound together by thin
ſoon diſcovered in the breath ; and, when taken inter- membranes. Each of these finall roris iends" forth
nally, its ſmell is communicated to the urinle, or the two or three fiſtulous, long, awl ſhaped leaves, i fiuing
matter of an iſſue, and perſpires through the pores of from a llıcath, and are nearly like thoſe on the coninon
the ſkin. Hence, in cold leucophlegmatic habits, it onion. The flower-jem lhoots from a niembranaceous
proves a powerful expectorant, diuretic, and emmena. fheath ; is round, almofi naked, and terminated by a
gogue ; and, if the patient is kept warm, fudorific. globular umbelof flowers, which have erect, purpliſh,
It is alſo of great ſervice in humoral aſthmas and ca lance-ſhaped petals, of the length of the ſtamina. The
tarrhous,diſorders of the breall, and in other diſorders root of this ficcics is very pungent, has a ſtrong but
proceeding from a laxity of the ſolids, and cold bluggiſh not unpleasant ſmell, and therefore is generalıy pre-
indiſpoſitions of the fluids. It is alſo frequently oi ier ferred to the onion for making high-flavoured loups
vice in the dropſy ; in the beginning of which it is par- and gravies. It is alto put into pickles, and in the Eaſt
ticularly recommended by Sydenham, as a warm Indies they uſe an abundance of it for this purpoſe.
ſtrengthening medicine: we have even many examples 3. The ſcorodopraſuin, or rokambole, grows natu-
where it acls 10 pou erfully as a diuretic, as to carry off ally in Denmark and Sweden. It hath a lieat-ſhaped
all the water of droplies. It may be taken the lenigih folid root, which flands ſide wiſe of the ſtalk. The
of a dram or two in ſubſtance for a doſe. There is a leaves are broad, and are a little crenated on their
fyrup and oxymel made with it, which may be em- edges. The flowers are of a pale purple colour, and
ployed for the ſame purpoſes as the garlic in fub- collected into a glubular head. The roots are uſed
Itance; but they are nionly uſed in pulmonic diſorders. for the ſame purpoſe as the former.
- Externally applied, it inflames and ulcerates the 4. The ſchoenopraſum, or cives, is an inhabitant of
ſkin, and is ſometimes employed for this uſe in fina- Siberia, and is a very ſmall plant compared with the
piſms. It has alſo been recommended by Sydenham former, the leaves and ſtems felcom excecding fix in-
as a moſt powerful revellent; for which purpoſe he was ches in length, and the roots never producing any
led to make uſe of it in the confluent ſmall-pox. His bulbs. The leaves are awl-Shaped, hollow,and the ſten
method was to cut the root in pieces, and apply it, naked. It was formerly in great requeſt for mixing
ried in a linen cloth, to the ſoles of the feet, about the with ſalads in the ſpring, but has been little regarded
eighth day of the diſeaſe, after the face began to ſwell; lately. Its taſte, ſmell, and virtues, are much the ſame
renewing it once a day till the danger was over. as thoſe of the common onion. It is propagated by.
When made into an unguent with oils, and applied parting the roots.
externally, garlic is ſaid to reſolve and diſcuſs cold 5. The cepa, or common onion, differs from the
tuinours, and has been by fome greatly celebrated in garlic only in the ſwelling pipy ſtalk, which is much
cutaneous diſorders.
larger in the midle ihan at either end.--From whence
The acrimonious qualities of this root, however, ren- this was firſt brought into Europe is not known ; but
der it manifeſtly improper on many occaſions. Its li- that it is natural lo Africa is beyond a doubt, it
beral uſe is apt to occafion head-achs,flatulencies,thirſt, being evident that onious were eaten by the Egyptians
febrile heats, inflammatory diſtempers, and ſometimes above 2000 years before Chriſt; and they make a
diſcharges of blood from the hemorrhoidal veſſels. In great part of their conſtant food to this day in Egypt.
hot bilions conſtitutions, where there is already a degree Dr Haſſelquiſt ſays it is not to be wondered at that
of irritation, where the juices are too thin and acrimo the Ifraelites ſhould long for them after they had left
nions, or the viſcera unſound, it never fails to aggra- this place ; for whoever had taſted onions in Egypt
vate the diſtemper.
muſt allow, that none can be had better in any part of
In Kamtſchatka, the allium urſinum, or wild garlic, the univerſe. Here, he obſerves, they are ſweet, in
is very common and uſeſul in medicine as well as food. other countries they are nauſeous and ſtrong. Here
Both Ruſſians and natives gather it in great quantities they are ſoft; whereas in the north and other parts
for winter ſervice. They ſteep it in water, then mix they are hard, and their coats ſo compact that they are
it with cabbage, onions, and other ingredients, and difficult to digeſt. They eat them roaſted, cut into
form out of them a ragout which they eat cold. It is four pieces, with ſome bits of roaſted meat, wliich
alſo the principal remedy for the ſcurvy. As ſoon as the Turks call kebab ; and with this diſh they are ſo
this plant appears above the ſnow, they ſeem to put delighted that they wiſh to enjoy itin paradiſe. They
this dreadful diſorder at defiance, and find a cure likewiſe make a ſoup of them in Egypt, which Haf-
almoſt in its worſt ſtages.
ſelquiſt ſays is one of the beſt diſhes he ever ear. The
Garlic is very hardy, and will thrive in almoſt any many ways of dreſſing onions in Britain are known to
foil or ſituation. It is eaſily propagated either by the every family : but in regard to wholeſomeneſs, there
roots or ſeeds. If from the roots, they ought to be is certainly no inethod equal to boiling; as thus they
planted in autumn, that they may take good root in the are rendered mild, of eaſy digeſtion, and go off with-
ground before the ſpring, which is neceſſary to make out leaving thoſe heats in the ſtomach and bowels
which
A L L
( 477 A L L
477
]
Allix.
2
Allium. which they are apt to do any other way. Their na the bed, into which you ſhould place the onions with Allium,
ture is to attenuate thick, viſcid juices; conſequently their roots downward, at about nine inches diſtance
a plentiful uſe of them in cold phlegmatic conſtitutions from each other; and with a rake draw the earth into
muſt prove beneficial. Many people fhun them on ac the opening again to cover the bulbs : then proceed
count of the ſtrong, diſagreeable ſmell they communi to remove the line again about a foot farther back,
care to the breath. This may be remedied by eating where you muſt make an opening as before, and ſo
a lew raw parſley leaves immediately after, which will again, till the whole is finiſhed, by which
you
will
effectually overconie the ſcent of the onions, and cauſe have four rows in each bed; between each bed you
chem to lii more eaſy on the ſtomach.
muſt allow the ſpace of two feet for an alley to go
The varieties are, the Siraſburgh, the Spaniſh, and among them. In a nionth's time the leaves will ap-
the Egyptian onion. They are propagated by feeds, pear above ground, and many of the roots will pro-
which should be ſown the latter end of February, or auce three or four ſtalks each About the beginning
the beginning of March, on good, light, rich ground, of June, when the flowers begin to appear, the ſtalks
well dug and levelled, and cleared from weeds. They muſt be tied to ſtakes to prevent them from being
Thou:d alſo be ſown at a time when the ſurface of the broke by their own weight. About the end of Au-
ground is noi moiſt; and where they are intended for gult the feeds will be ripe; which inay be known by
a winter crop, they muſt not be fown too thick. The the opening of the cells which contain it, and its
common allowance is lix pounds oí ſted to an acre ; changing to a brown colour. When the heads are
though ſome allow more, in order to have a crop 10 cut off, they ſhould be ſpread abroad upon coarſe
draw out, which they call cullings. In about fix cloths in the
fun,.obſerving to keep it under ſhelter in
weeks after, the onions will be up and forward enough the night; as alſo in wet weather. When the heads
10 hoe ; at which iime the weeds fhould be ligh ly cut are quite dry, the ſeeds ſhould be beat out from them
up with a ſmall hoe about two inches and a hair broad, and after being cleared from the huſks, and expoſed
as alſo the onions themſelves where they grow too cloſe one day to the lun to dry, they may be put up in bags
in bunches, leaving them at this firſt tiine at leaſt two
for ule.
or three inches apart. i his, if properly performed, Belides the above mentioned ſorts of onions, the
and in a dry ſeaſon, will preſerve the ground clear of ſcallions or eſcallions, and Welſh onions, were for-
weeds at leaſt a month, when they muſt be hoed over merly in great repute. The former is a ſort which
again, leaving them at this time about four or five never forms any bulbs at the roots, and was chiefly
inches aſunder. In ſix weeks after they muſt be hoed uſed in the ſpring for green onions; bit is now be-
a third time. The weeds are now to be carefully cut come ſo ſcarce as hardly to be known. Some gar-
up, and the onions ſingled out ſo as to leave them deners, inſtead of the ſcallion, ſubſtitute ſuch onions as
about fix inches ſquare; by which means they will decay and fi rout in the houſe. Theſe they plant i.
grow much larger than if left too cloſe. This, if well a bed early in the ſpring, and in a ſhort time they be-
performed, in caſe the weather proves dry, will keep come large enough for uſe. The true ſcallion is eaſily
the onions till they are fit to pull: but if the weather propagated by patting the roots either in the ſpringo:
fhould prove moiſt, and any of the weeds take root autumn; butithe latter is preferable. The roots thould
again, the weeds muſt be pulled out with the hand; be planted three or four in a hole, and about fix illa
for the onions having now begun to bulb, muſt not be ches diſtance every way.--The Welſh onions are pro-
diſurbed with a hoe. Towards the middle of Augult pagated only for ſpring uſe; they never make any bulbs,
the onions will have arrived at their full growth, which and are therefore fit only to be uſed green for ſalads.
may be known by their blades falling to the ground They are ſown in the end of July, in beds about three
and ſhrinking. At this time, therefore, before their fect and a half wide. In a fortnight's time they ap-
necks or blades are withered off, they fhould be drawn pear above ground; but in October their blades die,
out of the ground, the extreme part of the blade cut and the ground becomes quite naked. In January,
off, and the onions laid upon a dry ſpot of ground, however, they will again appear very ſtrong, and in
obſerving to turn them every other day at leaſt, to March will be fit to draw for young onions. -
prevent them from taking root again ; which in moiſt 6. The porrum, or leek, has been ſo long cultiva.
weather they would be apt to do. At any rate, they ted, that its native place of growth cannot be traced.
are very apt to grow in the lofts where they are kept all It is undoubtedly the ſame as that mentioned in the
winter; the moſt effectual method of preventing which eleventh Chap, of Numbers, where it is ſaid the Ifo
is, with a hot iron, slightly to touch their beards or raelites longed for leeks in conjunction with onions,
roots, which will effectually prevent their ſprouting; The leaves are much of the ſame nature as thoſe of the
but in doing this, great caution muft be uſed not to latter, and they are yet a conſtant dilh at the tables of
ſcorch the pulp, for that will cauſe them to perilh ſoon the Egyptians, who chop then ſmall and then eat
after. In order to fave ſeeds, you must in the ſpring them with their meat. They are in great eſteem, too,
make choice of ſome of the largeft, firmeſt and belt with the Well, and their general uſe as a pol herb is
haped onions (in quantity proportionable to the feed well known. The culture is the fame with that of
you intend to ſave), and having prepared a piece of the onion.
good ground, which ſhould be well dug, and laid out ALLIX (Dr Peter), a learned French Proteſtant
in beds about three feet wide, the onions muſt be divine, born ai Alençon in 1641. He became mini.
planted in the beginning of March, in the following ſter of the reformed church at Rouen, where he pub.
nanner : Having ſtrained a line of about four inches liſhed many learned and curious pieces; the credit of
within the fide of the bed, you muſt with a ſpade which induced the reformed to call him to Charenton,
throw out an opening fix inches deep, the length of about a league from Paris, being the principal church
they
1
[ 478
478 )
Λ L T.
Alloa. they had in France. On the revocation of the edia of to dclift from wearing the arms of England in the firſt Allobroges
Nantz, he retired to England; where he Nudied the quarter : the child's-chair of James VI. her ſon ; and II
language with ſo much ſucceſs, as to publiſh a work, the feſtive-chair of Tliomas Lord Erſkine the ſecond Alloy.
intitled Reflections on the Books in the Holy Scriptures, Earl of Mar of the naine, with the faſhionable grace
io eſtabliſh the Truth of the Chriſtian religin, 2 vols ; carved on it, Soli Deo Honor et Gloria.
which he dedicated to James II. acknowledging his ALLOBROGES (Inſcriptions, Livy, Velleius,
obligation to that prince, and his kind behaviour to Florus); from Allobrox (Horace): a people of Gallia
the diſtreſſed refugees in general. He wrote ſeveral
He wrote ſeveral Narbonenſis, ſituated between the rivers Iſara and Rho-
other treatiſes relating to ecclefiaftical hiſtory; which danus, and the Lacus Lemanus ; commended by Ci-
rendered him as fanious in England as in France, for cero for their fidelity, diſcommended by Horace on
his ingenious and fulid defences of the reformed reli account of their fondneſs for novelty.
gion, He was complimented with the degree of ALDOCATION denotes the admitting or allow-
D. D. and in 1690 was made treaſurer of the church ing of an article of an account, eſpecially in the ex-
of Saliſbury. He died in 1717.
chequer. Hence,
ALLOA, or ALLOWAY, a ſea-port town in Scot ALLOCATIONE Facienda, is a writ directed to the lord
land, feated on the Forth, about 20 miles higher up treaſurer, or barons of the exchequer, commanding
the river than Leith, and five miles eaſt of Stirling them to allow an accountant ſuch füms as he has law-
It is a populous place ; has two market days in the fully expended in the execution of his office.
week ; and is remarkable for its fine caſtle the ſeat of ALLOCUTIO, an oration or fpecch of a general
the earl of Mar, and for the coal-mines near it. The addreſſed to his ſoldiers, to animate then to fight, to
harbour is extremely commodious, with great depth appeaſe fedition, or lo keep them to their duty. A
of water; and veſſels are expeditiouſly loaded with mount of earth was raiſed upon the occalion, as it
coals from the pits by an uncommon waggon-way, on
were a kind of tribunal of turf. From this the gene .
which one horſe draws with caſe three waggons at ral pronounced his harangue to the army, which was
once, each waggon containing a tun and a half. An ranged in ſeveral ſquadrons round hiin, with their cap-
excellent dry dock has alſo been lately erected here, tains at their head. When the time and circumſtances
capable of receiving thips of the greateſt burden. would not admit of a formal harangue, the general
There is likewiſe a large glaſs-houſe for blowing went through the ranks, and called eacli by his name,
bottles, of which veſſels are ſupplied with any quan- putting them in mind of their courage upon former
tity upon the ſhorteſt notice.
occaſions, mentioning the victories they had won, and
The tower and lands of Alloa were exchanged by making promiſes of plunder,
.
David Il. king of Scots, anno 1365, with Thomas ALLODIUM, or ALLEUD, denotes lands which
Lord Erſkine, for the lands and eſtate of Strathgart. are the abſolute property of their owner, without being
ney in Perthſhire; and fince that time the caſtle of obliged to pay any ſervice or acknowledgment what-
Alloa has been the favourite reſidence of the family of ever to a ſuperior lord. See F'ee and FEUDAL Synem.
Mar. Thc ſituation is uncommonly beautiful. The ALLOPHYLLUS, in botany : a genus of the
gardens liere were the firſt that were laid out on a monogynia order, belonging to the octandria claſs of
great ſcale in Scotland ; and, with the advice of Le plants. The characters of which are : the calyx is a
Nautre, were indebted to the taſte of John the late four-leaved perianthium, with orbicular leaflets, the
Earl of Mar, who began to plant them in the year oppoſite ones leſs : The corolla conſiſts of four or-
1706, They contain about 40 acres ; and would have bicular equal petals, leſs than the calyx; the claws
exhibited lo Dr Johnſon, had he travelled that way, broader, the length of the ſmaller leaves of the calyx :
as fine liinber of fourſcore ycars growth as his favou The ſtamina conſiſt of eight ſender filaments, the
rite England can produce.
length of the corolla ; the antheræ are roundiſh : The
The tower of Alloa is 89 feet in height, with walls piſtillum has a round didymous germen above ; the
of 11 feet in thickneſs; and was built in the end of ſtylus is filiform, and longer than the ſtamina ; and
the 13th century. In this reſidence of the family of the ſtigma is bifid, with revolute diviſions. There
Erſkine, many of the Scottiſh princes received their is bat one ſpecies, the zeylanicus, a native of Cey-
education, having been for more than two centuries lon.
the wards of the Lords Erſkine and Earls of Mar; ALLOTTING, or ALLOTMENT of Goods, in mat-
who beld generally the caſtle of Stirling, and frequent ters of commerce, is when a ſhip's cargo is divided in-
ly the three principal fortreſſes in that kingdom, Edin- to ſeveral parts, bought by divers perſons, whoſe names
burgh, Stirling, and Dunbarton. The laſt heir of are written on as many pieces of paper, which are ap-
the Scottiſh monarchy who was nurured there was plied by an indifferent perſon to the ſeveral lots or par-
Henry Prince of Wales ; whoſe cradle, golf-clubs, and cels; by which means the goods are divided without
other infantine and youthful remains, are preſerved by partiality, every man having the parcel which the lot
the heirs of the earls of Mar, in remembrance of that with his name on is appropriated.
fpirited and promiſing prince; of whom Dr Birch has ALLOY, or ALLAY, properly ſignifies a propor-
preſerved ſeveral anecdotes connectedwith the Erſkines jion of a baſer metal mixed with a fincr one. The al-
and his reſidence al Alloa. -Among other remains of loy of gold is eſtimated by carats, that of ſilver by
antiquity preſerved at Alloa, in remerabrance of the penny-weights. (See GOLD, &c.) In different nations,
confidence and affection which ſubſified always betwixt different proportions of alloy are uſed; whence their
the Stuarts and the Erſkines, is the private fignet of moneys are ſaid to be of different degrees of fineneſs or
the unfortunate Mary, which ſhe gave to the regent baſeneſs, and are valued accordingly in foreign ex-
Mar, after ſhe was obliged by the treaty of Edinburgh changes. The clief reaſons alleged for the alloying
in2
A L M
[ 479 A L M
479
]
Allum of coin are: 1. The mixture of the metals, which, and fix or ſeven in breadth. They are exceedingly Almageſt
4 when ſmelted from the mine, are not perfectly pure. ſwift, and are otherwiſe called cathuri.
!
Almadic.
2. The ſaving the expence it muſt otherwiſe coft if ALMAGEST, in matters of literature, is particu. Almanack.
they were to be refined. 3. The neceſity of render- larly uſed for a collection or book compoſed by Ptole-
ing them harder, by mixing ſome parts of other me. ny, containing various problems of the ancients both
tals with them, to prevent the diminution of weight in geometry and aſtronomy.
by wearing in pafling from hand to hand. 4. The ALMAGEST is alſo the title of other collections of
melting of foreign gold or coin which is alloyed. 5. this kind. Thus Riccioli has publiſhed a book of a-
The charges of coinage, which muſt be made good by ſtronomy, which he calls the New Almageſt; and Pluc-
the profit ariſing from the money coined. 6. and lait- kenet, a book which he calls Almageftrum Botanicum.
ly, The duty belonging to the ſovereign, on account ALMAGRA, a fine deep red ochre, with fonie ad-
of the power he has to cauſe money to be coined in his mixture of purple, very heavy, and of a denſe yet fri-
dominions.
able ſtructure, and rough duſty ſurface. It adheres
In a more general ſenſe, the word is employed in very firmly to the tongue, melts eaſily and freely in the
chemiſtry to lignify theunion of different metallic mat- mouth, is of an auſtere and ſtrongly aſtringent taſte,
ters.--As an infinity of different combinations may be and ſtains the ſkin in touching. It is the Sil Atticum of
made according to the nature, the number, and the the ancients : it ferments very violently with acid
proportions of the metallic matters capable of being al- menftruums; by wbich ſingle quality, it is ſufficient-
loyed, we ſhall not here enter into the detail of the ly diſtinguished from the Sil Syricum, to which it has
particular alloys, all which are not yet nearly known. in many reſpects a great affinity. It is found in im-
Thoſe which are uſed, as Bronze, Tombac, Braſs, menſe quantities in many parts of Spain ; and in An-
White Copper, &c. may be found under their particular daluſia there are in a manner whole mountains of it.
names; and what is known concerning other alloys It is uſed in painting, and in medicine as an aſtringent.
may be found under the names of the different metals ALMAGRO, a fortreſs of Spain, the capital of
and ſemimetals.
one of the diſtricts of La Mancha. It was built by
ALLUM. See ALUM.
the archbiſhop Roderic of Toledo, who finiſhed it in
ALLUMINOR, from the French alumer, " to 1214, and put a conſiderable garriſon into it to reſtrain
lighten," is uſed for one who coloureth or painteth the incurſions of the Moors. This was hardly done,
upon paper or parchment; and the reaſon is, becauſe when the fortreſs was beſieged by an army of 5000
he gives light and ornament by his colours to the let- horſe and foot, under the conimand of a Mooriſh ofii-
ters or other figures. Such ornaments are ilyled illu- cer of great reputation; but the prelate, its founder,
#ninations. The word is uſed in ſtat. I. R. III. cap. took care to ſupply thoſe within with ſuch plenty of ne-
9. But now ſuch a perſon is called a linner.
ceſſaries, that at length the enemy found themſelves
ALLUSH, (anc. geog.) The Ifraelites being in obliged to raiſe the liege and retire with great loſs.
the wilderneſs of Shur, departed from Dophkah, and ALMANACK, a book, or table, containing a ca-
went to Alluſh, from whence they proceeded to Rephi- lendar of days and mouths, the riſing and ſetting of
dim Num, xxxiii. 13, 14. Euſebius and St Jerom the ſun, the age of the moon, the eclipſes of both lu-
fix Alluſh in Idumiza, about Gabala or Petra, the capi- minaries, &c.—Authors are divided with regard to the
(al of Arabia Petræa. In the accounts of the empire, etymology of the word; ſome deriving it from the A-
it is ſituated in the third Paleſtine ; and by Ptolemy, rabic particle al, and manach, to count ; ſome from ala
aniong the cities of Iduniæa.
manah, new year's gifts, becauſe the Arabian aſtrolo-
ACLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which fome- gers uſed at the beginning of the year to make preſents
thing is applied to, or underſtood of, another, on ac of their ephemerides; and others, from the Teutonic
count of ſome ſimilitude between them.
alma.n-achte, obſervations on all the months. Mr John-
ALLUVION, in law, denotes the gradual increaſe fon derives it from the Arabic particle al, and the
of land along the ſea-Iliore, or on banks of rivers. Greek unt, a month. But the moſt ſimple etymology
ALLY, in matters of polity, a fuvereign prince or appears from the common ſpelling; the word being
ſtate that has entered into alliance with others. See
See compoſed of two Arabic ones, Al Manack, which
ALLIANCE.
fignify the Diary All the claſſes of Arabs are com-
ALMACANTARS. See ALMUCANTARS. monly much given to the ſtudy of aſtronomy and aſtro-
ALMACARRON, a fea-port town of Spain, ia the logy ; to both which a paſtoral life, and a ſort of huf.
province of Murcia, at the mouth of the river Guada- bandry, not only incline them, but give theni ime and
lantin. It is about twenty miles weſt of Carthagena, leiſure to apply themſelves to them. They never ſow,
and is remarkable for the prodigious quantity of alun reap, plant, travel, bıyor ſell or undertake any expe-
found in its territory. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. 37. dition or matter, without previou.ly conſuliing the itars,
40.
or in other jords, their almanacks, or ſome of the ma-
ALMADE, a town of Spain, in the province of La kers of them. From theſe people, by their vicinity to
Mancha, in the kingdom of Caſtile, lituated upon the Europe, this art, no leſs uſeful in one ſenſe than ſtupid
top of a mountain, where are the moſt ancient as well and ridiculous in another, hath paiſed over thither: and
as the richeſt ſilver mines in Europe.
thoſe aitronomical compositions have ſtill every where
ALMADIE, a kind of canoe, or ſmall veſſel, about not only retained their old Arabic name; but were,
four fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and uſed like theirs, for a long while, and ſtill are among many
by the negroes of Africa.
European nations, interſperſed with a great number of
ALMADIE is alſo the name of a kind of long-boats, aſtrological rules for planting, ſowing, bleeding, pur-
filted out at Calicut, which are eighty feet in length, ging, &c. down to the cutting of the hair and paring
of
;
[480]
A L M
و
Aling nack of the nails.--Regiomontanus appears iohave been the Staffordſhire, under the title of The perpetual Staford. Alınanza,
firit in Europe, liowever, who reduced almanacks into finire Almanack. The external figure and inatter of Ilerefy of
their preſent forin and meth d, gave the characters of iheſe calendars appear to have been various.
Some- Almaric.
cach year and month, foretold the eclipſes and other. times they were cut on one or more wooden leaves,
phaſcs, calculated the motions of the planets, &c. His bound together after the manner of books ; ſometimes
firſt almanack was firſt publiſhed in 1974.
on the ſcabbards of ſwords, or even on daggers; ſome-
Almanacks differ from one another, chiefly, in con times on tools and implements, as portable ſteelyards,
taining ſome more, others fewer, particulars.
hammers, the helves of hatchers, flails, &c. Some-
The eſſential part is the calendar of months and days, times they were made of braſs or horn , ſometimes of
with the rilings and ſettings of the ſun, age of the the ſkins of eels, which, being drawn over a ſtick pro-
moon, &c. To theſe are added various parerga, aſtro- perly inſcribed, retained the impreſſions of it. Buc
nomical, meteorological, chronological, political, ru the moſt uſual form was that of walking ſtaves, or
ral, &c. as calculations and accounts of eclipſes, folar ſticks, which they carried about with them to church,
ingreſſes, prognoſtics of the weather, tables of the market, &c. Each of theſe ſtaves is divided into three
tides, terins, &c. liſts of poſts, offices, dignities, pub- regions; whereof the firſt indicates the ſigns, the fe-
lic inſtitutions, with many other articles political as cond the days of the week and year, and the third the
well as local, and differing in different countries.- golden number. The characters engraven on them are,
A great variety are annually publiſlied in Britain ; fome in fome, the ancient Runic: in others, the later Gothic
for binding, which may be denominated book-alma- characters of Ulfilus. The faints days are expreſſed
nacks ; others in looſe papers, called ſheet-almanacks. in hieroglyphics, fignificative either of ſome endow-
The modern almanack anſwers to the Fafii of the ment of the ſaint, the manner of his martyrdom, or
ancient Roinans, See FASTI.
the like. Thus, againſt the notch for the firſt of
Conſtruction of ALMANACKS. The firſt thing to be March, or St David's day, is repreſented a harp ; a-
done is, to compute the ſun's and moon's place for gainſt the 25th of October, or Criſpin's day, a pair of
each day of the year, or it may be taken from ſome hoes ; againſt the roth of Auguſt, or St Lawrence's
ephemerides and entered into the almanack; next, find day, a gridiron ; and, laſtly, againſt New-year's day,
the dominical letter, and, by means thereof, diſtribute a horn, the mark of good drinking, which they gave
the calendar into weeks ; then, having computed the a looſe to at that ſeaſon,
time of eaſter, by it fix the other moveable feaſts ; ad ALMANZA, a little town of New-Caſtile, on the
ding their moveable ones, with the names of the mar frontiers of the kingdom of Valencia in Spain, ſituated
tyrs, the riſing and ſetting of each luminary,the length in W. Long. 1. 19. N. Lat. 38. 54. It is remarkable
of day and night, the aſpects of the planets, the pha- for the defeat of the allies in 1707, under the Marquis
fes of the moon, and the ſun's entrance into the car de las Minas and the Earl of Galway. In the begin.
dinal points of the ecliptic, i.e. the two equinoxes and ning of this action, the Engliſh troops penetrated thro '
ſolſtices. (See ASTRONOMY, paſim.). By the help the center of the Spaniſlı arnıy; but the Portugueſe
of good aſtronomical tables or ephemerides, the con- cavalry being broken by the Spaniſh, and the French in-
ſtruction of almanacks is extremely eaſy.
fantry making a dreadful fire on their flanks, the allied
In Britain ålmanacks for one year printed on one army was at laſt broken, and began their retreat when
ſide of the paper, pay of tlie duty 2d. ; thoſe for more it was almoſt dark. Colonel Hill carried off the re-
years pay for three years id. ; but perpetual almanacks mains of thirteen battalions towards the river Xucar,
are to pay only for three years at 3d. Out of the du- which, if they could have paſſed, they might have
ties by this act there ſhall be paid to each univerſity been ſafe : bui being very much fatigued, they werc
L. 500 per ann. half yearly, at Midſummer and Chriſt- obliged to halt ; by which means they were ſurround-
mas, and the ſurplus ſhall be paid into the exchequered, and forced to ſurrender priſoners of war. In this
to go to the ſinking fund. Selling inſtamped almanacks battle, tlte allies loſt 120 ſtandards, together with all
incurs the ſame penalty as for ſelling unitamped newſ- their artillery and baggage ; a great number were kil-
papers. Almanacksin bibles and conmon prayer books led, and ſeveral thouſands taken priſoners. The Mar-
are exempted.
quis de las Minas was dangeroully wounded ; and his
ALMANACK, among antiquaries, is alſo the name miſtreſs, in the garb of an amazon, killed by his ſide.
given to a kind of inſtrument, uſually of wood, in. The earl of Galway had two cuts croſs the face,
fcribed with various figures and Runie characters, and which, though not dangerous, had prevented him
repreſenting the order of the feaſts, dominical letters, from feeing, or giving orders properly.
days of the week, and golden ii'umber, with other mat HERESY OF ALMARIC, a tener broached in
ters neceſſary to be known throughout the year ; uſed France by one Almaric, in the year 1209. It confift-
by the ancielit northern nations, in their computations ed in affirming, that every Chriſtian was actually a
of time, both civil and eccleſiaſtical. Almanacks of member of Chriſt ; and that without this faith no one
ihis kind are known by varions names, among the dif- could be ſaved. His followers went farther, and af-
ferent nations wherein they have becn uſed; as rim- firmed, that the power of the Father laſted only during
ſtocks, primſtaries, runſtocks, runſtaffs, Scipiones Rize the courtindance of the Mofaic law; that the coming
nic', Bocculi Annales, clogs, &c. They appear to of Chriſt introduced a new law; that at the end of this
have been uſed only by ilie Swedcs, Danes, and Nor- began the reign of the Holy Ghoſt; and that now
wegians. From the ſecond of theſe people, their uſc conſeſſion and the ſacraments were at an end, and that
was introduced into England, whence divers remains every one is to be ſaved by the internal operations ofthe
of them in the counties. Dr Plot has given the de. Holy Spirit alone, without any external act of reli-
ſcription and figure of one of theſe clogs, found in gion.---Their morals wereasinfanious as their doctrine
3
was
A L M
[ 481 ]
A L M
Alme.
was abfurd. Their tenets were condemned by a public procellion, ſinging forrowfulairs. They break forth Artmedia
decree of the council of Scns, in the year 1209. into groans and lamentations, and give every lign of 11
ALME, or Alma, ſinging and dancing girls in grief and deſpair. Theſe women are paid very high, Almeria.
Egypt, who, like the Italian Improviſatori, can occa and ſeldom appear but amongſt the grandees and rich
ſionally pour fourth “ unpremeditated verſe." They men.
are called Almé, from having received a better cdu The common people have alſo their Almé. They
cation than other women. They form a celebrated are girls of the ſecond claſs, who try to imitate the
fociety in this country. To be received into it, ac- former ; but they have neither their elegance, their
cording to Mr Savary, it is neceſſary to have a good graces, nor their knowledge. They are every where
voice, to underſtand the language well, to know to be niet with. The public places and the walks about
the rules of poetry, and be able to compoſe and ſing Grand Cairo are full of them.
As the populace re-
couplets on the ſpot, adapted to the circumſtances. quire alluſions ſtill more ſtrongly marked, decency will
The Almé know by heart all the new ſongs. Their not permit the relation to what a pitch they carry the
memory is furniſhed with the moſt beautiful talese licentiouſneſs of their geſtures and attitudes.
There is no feſtival without them ; no entertainment ALMEDIA, a frontier-town of Portugal, in the
of which they do not conſtitute the ornament. They province of Tralos Montes, on the confines of Leon,
are placed in a roſtrum, from whence they fing during wherethere was a very briſk action between the French
the repaſt. They then deſcend into the ſaloon, and and Portugueſe in 1663 ; 17 miles N. W. of Cividad
form dances which have no reſemblance to ours. They Rodrigo. W. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 40. 41.
are pantomime ballets, in which they repreſent the ALMEHRAB, in the Mahometan cuftoms, a nich
nſual occurrences of life. The myſteries of love too, in their inoſques, pointing towards the kebla or temple
generally furniſh them with ſcenes. The ſuppleneſs of of Mecca, to which they are obliged to bow in pray-
their bodies is inconceiveable. One is aſtoniſhed at the ing. See KEBLA.
mobility of their features, to which they give at plea ALMEISAR, a celebrated game among the anci-
ſure the impreilion fuited to the charaders they play. ent Arabs, performed by a kind of caſting of lots
Theindecency of their attitudes is often carried to ex with arrows, ſtrictly forbid by the law of Mahomet, on
ceſs. Their looks, their geſtures, every thing ſpeaks, account of the frcquent quarrels occafioned by it.
but in fo expreſſive a manner, that it is impoffible to The manner of the game was thus: A young camel
miſtake them. At the beginning of the dance, they being brought and killed, was divided into a number
lay aſide with their veils the modeſty of their ſex. Å of parts. The adventurers, to the number of ſeven,
long robe of very thin ſilk goes down to their heels, being met, 11 arrows were provided without heads or
which is ſlightly faſtened with a rich girdle. Long feathers; feven of which were marked, the firſt with
black hair, plaited and perfumed, is flowing on their one notch, the ſecond with two, the third with three,
fhoulders. A ſhift, tranſparent as guaze, ſcarcely hides &c. the other four had no marks. Theſe arrows were
their bolam. As they put themſelves in motion, the put promiſcuoully into a bag, and thus drawn by an
hapes, the contours of their bodies, ſeem to develope indifferent perſon. Thoſe to whom the marked ar.
themſelves facceſſively. Their ſteps are regulated by rows fell, won ſhares in proportion to their lot ; the
the found of the flute, of caſtanets, the tambour de reſt to whom the blanks fell, were entitled to no part
baſquc, and cymbals, which accelerates or retards the of the camel, but obliged to pay the whole price of it.
meaſure. They are ſtill further animated by words Even the winners taited not of the fleſh themſelves
adapted to fach ſcenes. They appear in a ſtate of in more than the looſers, but the whole was diſtributed
toxication. They are the Bacchants in a delirium.
It is when they are at this point, that throwing off all ALMENE, in commerce, a weight of two pounds
reſerve, they abandon themſelves totally to the difor uſed to weigh ſaffron in ſeveral parts of the continent
der of their ſenſes; it is then that a people far from of the E. Indies.
delicate, and who like nothing hidden, redouble their ALMERIA, a ſea-port town in the kingdom of
applauſes. Theſe Almé are ſent for into all the ha Granada in Spain, pleaſantly ſituated in a fine bay at
rams. They teach the women the new airs; they a the mouth of the river Almeria, on the Mediterranean:
mufe them with amorous tales, and recite in their pre. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 36. 51. This town is by
fence
poems, which are ſo much the more intereſting, ſome thought to have riſen upon the ruins of the an-
as they furniſh a lively pi&ture of their manners. They cient Abdera, and was formerly a place of great con-
initiate them into the myſteries of their art, and teach fequence. It was taken from the Moors in 1147, by
them to contrive laſcivious dances. Theſe girls, who the emperor Conrad III. in conjundion with the
have a cultivated underſtanding, are very agreeable in French, Genoeſe, and Pifans. It was at that time the
converſation. They ſpeak their language with puri- ſtrongeſt place in Spain, held by the infidels ; from
ty. The habit of dedicating themſelves to poetry ren which their privateers, which were exceedingly nume-
ders the ſofteſt and moſt ſonorous expreſſions familiar rous, not only troubled the ſea-coaſts inhabited by the
to them. They repeat with a great deal of grace. In Chriſtians, but gave equal diſturbance to the maritime
ſinging, nature is their only guide. Sometimes two provinces of France, Italy, and the adjacent illands.
of them ſing together, but always with the ſame voice. The city being well fortified, having a ſtrong caſtle,
It is the ſame with an orcheſtra, where all the inſtru a numerous garriſon, and being excellently provided
ments playing in uniſon execute the ſame part. with every thing neceffary, made a vigorous reliſtance;
The Almě aſliſt at the marriage ceremonies, and but was at laſt taken by ſtorm, when the victor put to
march before the bride, playing on inſtruments. They the ſword all the inhabitants who were found in arms,
make a figure likewife at funerals, and accompany the diſtributing the beſt part of the plunder among his al-
VOL. I.
lies,
to the poor
3 P
A L M
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A L M
-
43. 56.
Aimida lies, whom he ſent away thoroughly ſatisfied. The the higheſt ecclefiaftical dignity in that kingdom. To Almoner
9 Genoeſe, particularly, acquired here that emerald vef. bim belongs the ſuperintendency of all hoſpitals and 11
Almuner. fel which ſtill remains in their treaſury, and is deemed houſes of lepers. The king receives the facrament
Alniucium
in valaable.
from his hand; and he ſays maſs before the king in
Upon its reduction by the Chriſtians Almeria be. all grand ceremonies and ſolemnities.
came a bihopric ; but is at preſent very little better ALMONER is alſo a more faſhionable title given by
than a village, indifferently inhabited, and has nothing fome writers to chaplains. In this ſenſe we meet with
to teſtify ſo much as the probability of its former great- almoner of a regiment.
neſs, except certain circumſtances which cannot be ALMONRY, or AUMBRY, the office or lodgings
effaced even by the indolence of the Spaniards thein- of the almoner ; alſo the place where alms are given.
ſelves. What theſe are, Udal ap Rhys, a Welſhman, See AUMBRY.
thus deſcribes, in his tourthrough Spain and Portugal. ALMS, a general term for what is given out of cha-
" Its climate (ſays he) is ſo peculiarly bleſſed, that rity to the poor.
one really wants words to expreſs its charms and excel In the early ages of Chriſtianity, the alms of the
lence. Its fields and meads are covered with flowers charitable were divided into four parts; one of which
all the year ronnd; they are adorned alſo with palms, was allotted to the biſhop, another to the prieſts, and
myrtles plane-trees,oranges,andolives; and the moun a third to the deacons and ſubdeacons, which made
tains and proniontories near it are as noted for their their whole ſubſiſtence; the fourth part was employed
producing a great variety of precious ſtones, inſomuch in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches.
that the next promontory to is is called the Cape of No religious ſyſtem is more frequent or warm in its
Gates, which is a corruption from the word agates, the exhortations to alms-giving than the Mahometan. The
hills thereabouts abounding in that ſort of precious Alcoran repreſents alms as a neceſſary means to make
ſtones, as well as in emeralds and amethyſts, granites prayer be heard. Hence that ſaying of one of their
or coarſe rubies, and extreme curious alabaſter in the khalifs : “Prayer carries us half-way to God, faſting
mountains of Filaures."
brings us to the door of his palace, and alms introduces
ALMISSA, a ſmall but ſtrong town at the mouth us into the preſence-chamber." Hence many illuſtri,
of the Cetina, in Dalınatia, famous for its piracies ; ous examples of this virtue among the Mahometans.
ten miles eaſt of Spalatro. E. Long. 39. 33. N. Lat. Haſan, the foul of Ali, and grandſon of Mohammed,
in particular, is related co have thırice in his life divided
ALMOND, the fruit of the almond-tree. See his ſubſtance equally between himſelf and the poor, and
AMYGDALUS.
twice to have given away all he had. And the gene-
ALMOND, in commerce, a meaſure by which the Por- rality are ſo addicted to the doing of good, that they
tugueſe ſell their oil; 26 almonds make a pipe. extend their charity eveni to brutes.
ALMONDS, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to ALMS, alſo denotes lands or other effects left to
two glands, generally called the ton
fils,
churches or religious liouſes, on condition of praying
ALMONDS, among lapidaries, fignify pieces of rock- for the ſoul of the donor. Hence,
cryſtal, uſed in adorning branch-candleſticks, &c. on Free AlMs was that which is liable to no rent or
account of the reſemblance they bear to the fruit of that ſervice.
nanie.
Reaſonable Alms was a certain portion of the eſtates
ALMOND- Furnace, among refiners, that in which the of inteftate perſons, allotted to the poor.
flags of litharge, left in refining ſilver, are reduced to ALMs-Box, or Cheft, a ſmall cheſt, or coffer, called
lead again by the help of charcoal.
bytheGreeks K. Batrov,wherein anciently the alms were
ALMONDBURY, a village in England, in the collected, both at church and at private houſes.
west-riding of Yorkſhire, ſix miles from Halifax. Thealms-cheſt in Engliſh churches, is a ſtrong box,
ALMONER, in its primitive ſenſe, denotes an of- with a hole in the upper part, having three keys, one
ficer in religious houſes, to whom belonged the manage to be kept by the parſon or curate, the other two by
ment and diſtribution of the alms of the houſe. By the the church-wardens. The creding of ſuch alms-cheſt
ancient canons, all monafteries were to ſpend at leaſt a in every church is enjoined by the book of canons, as
tenth part of their income in alms to the poor. The alſo the manner of diſtributing what is thus collected
almoner of St. Paul's is to diſpoſe of the monies left for
anong
the
poor
r of the pariſh.
e harity, according to the appointment of the donors, ALMs-Houſe, a petty kind of hoſpital, for the main.
to bury the poor who die in the neighbourhood, and tenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or diſabled
to breed up eight boys to ſinging, for the uſe of the people.
choir. By an ancient canon, all biſhops are required ALMUCANTARS, in aftronomy, an Arabic word
to keep almoners.
denoting circles of the ſphere paſſing through the cen-
Lord Almoner, or Lord High ALMONER, of Eng. tre of the ſun, or a ſtar, parallel to the horizon, being
land, is an eccleſiaſtical officer, generally a biſhop, who the ſame as PARALLELS of Altitude.
has the forfeiture of all deodands, and the goods of ALMUCANTARS-Staff, is an inſtrument uſually made
felos de fe, which he is to diſtribute among the poor. of pear-tree or box, having an arch of 15 degrees; uſed
He has alſo, by virtue of an ancient cuſtom, the power to take obfervations of the ſun, about the time of its
of giving the firſt dith from the king's table to what- riſing and ſetting; in order to find the amplitude, and
ever poor perſon he pleaſes, or, inftead of it, an alms conſequently the variation of the compaſs.
in money
ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind of cover for the head,
.
Greet ALMONER, Grand AUMONIER, in France, is worn chiefly by monks and cccleliaftics: It was of a
[quare
I
"
ilin its
A L M
[ 483 )
A LO
Aloe.
-
Almugim ſquare form, and ſeems to have given riſe to the bonparliament elected. It has a ſpacious ſquare, in which Alnwick
nels of the ſame ſhape ſtill retained in univerſities and a market is held every Saturday. Alnwick appears
Alnwick. cathedrals.
to have been formerly fortified, by the veſtiges of a
ALMUGIM, or ALMUG-TREE, a certain kind of wall ſtill viſible in many parts, and three gates which
wood mentioned in the firſt book of Kings, (x, 11.) remain almoſt entire. It is governed by four chamber-
which the vulgate tranſlates figna thyina, and the Sep- lains, who are choſen once in two years out of a com-
tuagent wrought wood. The Rabbins generally render mon council, conſiſting of 24 members. It is orna-
it coral; others, ebony, brazil, or pine. But it is ob mented by a ſtately old Gothic caſtle, which has been
ſerved, that the almug-tree can by no means be coral, the ſeat of the noble family of Piercy, earls of North-
becauſe that wood is not fit for the purpoſes that the
umberland. As the audits for receipt of rents have
Scripture tells us the almug-tree was uſed, ſuch as mu eyer been in this caſtle, it has always been kept in to-
lical inſtruments, ſtair-cafes, &c. The word thyinum is lerable repair ; and not many years ago, it was repaired
a name for the citron-tree, known to the ancients, and and beautified by the duke of Northumberland, who
very much eſteemed for its ſweet odour and great made very conſiderable alterations, upon a moſt elegant
beauty. It came from Mauritania. The almug-tree, plan, with a view to reſide in it ſome part of the fum-
or almugim, algumim, or ſimply gummim, taking al mer-ſeaſon. The manner of making freemen is pecu-
for a kind of article, is therefore by the beſt commen liar to this place, and indeed is as ridiculous as lingu-
tators underſtood to be an oily and gupimy ſort of lar. The perſons who are to be made free, or, as the
wood ; and particularly that ſort of tree which pro- phraſe is, leap the well, aſſemble in the market-place,
duces the gum ammoniac, which is alſo thought to very early in the morning, on the 25th of April, being
be the ſame with the fhictim-wood, whereof there is St Mark's day. They appear on horſe-back, with e-
ſuch frequent mention made by Moſes.
very man his fword by his fide, dreſſed in white, and
ALMUNECAR, a ſea-port town in the kingdom with white night-caps, attended by the four chamber-
of Granada, ſeated on the Mediterranean, with a good lains and the caſtle-bailiff, mounted and armed in the
harbour, defended by a ſtrong caſtle, 20 miles fouth fame manner ; from hence they proceed, with muſic
of Alhama. W. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 36. 50. playing before them, to a large dirty pool; called Free-
ALNAGE, or AULNAGE, the meaſuring of wool- man's-well, where they diſmount, and draw up in a
len manufactures with an ell. It was at firſt intended body, at ſome diſtance from the water; and then ruſh
as a proof of the goodneſs of that commodity, and ac into it all at once, and ſcramble through the mud as
cordingly a ſeal was invented as a mark that the com faſt as they can. As the water is generally very foul,
modity was made according to the ſtatute ; but, it be- they come out in a dirty condition ; but taking a dram,
ing now poſſible to purchaſe theſe ſeals, they are affix- they put on dry clothes, remount their horſes, and
ed, whenever the vender pleaſes, to all cloaths indiſcri ride full gallop round the confines of the diſtrict ;
minately, to the great prejudice of the Britiſh wool then re-enter the town, ſword in hand, and are met
len manufa&ures.
by women dreſſed in ribbons with bells and-garlands,
ALNAGER, ALNEGER, or AULNEGBR, Q. d. mea- dancing and ſinging. Theſe are called timber-wafts.
furer by the ells ſignifies a ſworn public officer, who by The houſes of the new freemen are on this day diſtin-
himſelf, or deputy, is to look to the aflize of woollen guiſhed by a great holly-buſh, as a ſignal for their friends
cloth made throughout the land, i.e. the length,width, to aſſemble and make merry with them after their re-
and work thereof;, and 10 the ſeals for that purpoſe turn. This ceremony was owing to king John,who was
ordained. The office of king's alnager ſeems to liave mired in this well ; and who, as a puniſhment for not
been derived from the ſtatute of Richard I. A. D. mending the road, made this a part of their charter.
1197, which ordained, that there ſhould be only one Alnwick is 310 miles north by weſt from London, 33
weight and one meaſure throughout the kingdom ; and north of Newcaſtle, and 29 ſouth of Berwick. W
that the cuſtody of the aflize, or ſtandard of weights Long. 1. 10. Lat. 55. 24.
and meaſures, ſhould be committed to certain perſons ALOA, in Grecian antiquity, a felival kept in ho-
in every city and borough. His buſineſs was, for a nour of Ceres by the huſbandmen, and ſuppoſed to re-
certain fee, to meaſure all cloth made for ſale, till ſemble our liarveſt-home.
the office was aboliſhed by the ſtatute 11 and 12 W. ALOE, in botany, a genus of the mosogynia or-
III. cap. 20.
der, belonging to the hexandria claſs of plants; and, in
ALNUS, the ALDER-TREE, a ſpecies of betula. the natural method, ranking under the roth order,
See BETULA.
Coronaria. The characters are: There is no calyx :
ALNUS, in the ancient theatres, that part which The corolla is monopetalous, erect, fis-clcft, and oba
was moſt diftant from the ſtage.
long; the tube gibbous ; the border ſpreading, and
ALNWICK, a thoroughfare town in Northumber- ſmall; with a nectary-bearing bottom : The ſiamına
land, on the road to Scotland. Here Malcolm, king conſiſt of fixfabulated filaments, rather ſurpaſſing the
of Scotland, making an inroad into Northumberland, corolla in length, and inſerted into the receptacles; the
was killed, with Edward his ſon, and his army defeated antheræ are oblong and incumbent: The piftillum has
by Robert Mowbray, earl of this county, anno 1092. an ovate germen ; the ſtylus is ſimple, the length of
Likewiſe William, king of Scotland, in 1174, inva- the ſtamina ; the ſtigma is obtuſe and trifid: The pe-
ding England with an army of 80,000 men, was here ricarpium is an oblong capſule, three-furrowed, three-
encountered, his army routed, and himſelf made pri- celled, three-valved: The ſeeds are many and angular.
foner. The town is populous, and in general well Of this genus, botanical writers enumerate ten {pe-
built ; it has a large town-houſe, where the quarter- cies; of which the moſt remarkable are,
ſeſſions and county-courts are held, and members of 1. The diſticha, by ſome called the roap aloe, by
others
3 P 2
A L O
( 484 ]
A LO
Aloc.
Aloe.
others caballine aloe. This ſeldom riſes above two in an airy glaſs-cafe, in which there is a ſtove, to make
feet high. The leaves are very broad at the baſe, a little fire in very bad weather. The tendereſt kinds
where they cloſely embrace the ſtalk, and gradual- require a greater ſhare of heatto preſerve them in win-
ly decreaſe to a point. The edges are ſet with ter, and hould be kept in a goud ſtove, in a degrec of
ſharp ſpines, and the under leaves ſpread open horizon- heat ten degrees above temperate. Many other kinds
tally every way. Theſe are of a dark green colour may alſo be kept in this heat; but the greater the
ſpotted with white, ſomewhat reſembling the colour heat, the more water they always require. About the
of foft ſoap, from whence the plant got the name of beginning of June, it is uſual in England to ſet tho
foap-aloe. The flowers grow in umbels on the tops of pots of aloes out of the houſe : but they ſhould be fet
the ſtalks, are of a beautiful red colour, and appear under the ſhelter of hedges or trees, to kecp them from
in Auguſt and September. 2. The variegate, or the violence of the ſun ; the rains alſo, which uſually
partridge-breaſt aloe, is a low plant, ſeldom riſing fall in this and the following month, are apt to rot
above eight inches high. The leaves of this are trian- them. It is therefore beſt to keep them under cover
gular, and curiouſly veined and ſpotted, ſomewhat like the greateſt part of the year. The beſt cime to hife
the feathers of a partridge's breaſt. The flowers grow theſe plants is the middle of July. They are, on this
in
very looſe ſpikes, and are of a fine red colour tip- occafion, to be taken out of the pots, the looſe earth
ped with green. 3. The viſcoſa, with funnel-Ihaped to be picked from about their roots, and the decayed
flowers, grows near a foot high, with triangular or mouldy parts of them cut off ; then a few ſtones
leaves of a dark green colour. The flowers grow are to be put at the bottom of the pot, and it is to be
thinly upon very lender footſtalks, are of an herba- filled with the compoſition already deſcribed, and the
ceous colour, and their upper part turns backward. plants carefully put in, the roots being ſo diſpoſed as
4. The ſpiralis, with oval crenated flowers,grows ſome not to interfere with one another. They are to be
what like the former: only the flowers grow upon tal- carefully watered after this, at times, for three weeks,
ler ſtalks, which branch out and grow in very long and ſet in a ſhady place. The common kind will bear
cloſe ſpikes. 5. The linguisformæ, or tongue-aloe, the open air from May till October, and hould be lif-
has its leaves about fix inches in length, and Mhaped like ted every year. All the aloes are propagated by off-
a tongue. The flowers grow in fender looſe ſpikes, fets, or by planting the leaves. The off-ſets ſhould be
each hanging downward, of a red colour below, and taken from the mother plant, at the time when it is
green at the top. 6. The margaritifera, or pearl lifted : they are to be planted in very ſmall pots of
aloe, is a very beautiful plant. It is ſmaller than moſt the proper mixed earth; and if that part of them
of the aloe kind. The leaves are ſhort, very thick, which joined to the mother-plant be obſerved to be
Tharp pointed, and turning down, with a large thick moiſt when taken off, it ſhould lie on the ground in a
end, appear there triangular. The colour of the leaves fady place two or three days before it is planted, o-
is a fine green, ſtripped in an elegant manner with therwiſe it will rot. After planting theſe, they fhould
white, and frequently tipped with red at the point., remain in a ſhady place a fortnight ; and then be re-
The flower-ſtalk,which riſes in the midſt of the leaves, moved to a very moderate hot bed, plunging the pots
is round, ſmooth, of a purple colour, and generally therein, which will help their ſtriking new roots. To-
about eight inches high. When the plant has been wards the end of Auguſt they must be, by degrees,
properly cultivated, the flowers are ſtriped with green hardened to the open air, by taking off the glaſſes of
and white ; and ſometimes they are entirely white. the hot-bed ; and in September they may be removed
This aloe is fingular in not having the bitter reſinous into the green-houſe.
juices with which the leaves of moſt others abound Properties, &c. The aloe is a kind of ſymbolic
when a leaf of this ſpecies is cut, what runs from it is plant to the Mahometants, eſpecially in Egypt, and
watery, colourleſs, and perfectly inſipid. 7. The in ſome meaſure dedicated to the offices of religion ;
perfoliata, or ſocotorine aloe, hath long, narrow,fuccu- for whoever returns from a pilgrimage to Mecca,
lent leaves, which come out without any order, and hangs it over his ftreet-door, as a token of his ha-
form large heads. The ſtalk grows three or four feet ving performed that holy journey. The ſuperſtitious
high; and has two, three, and ſometimes four,of theſe Egyptians believe that this plant hinders,evil ſpirits
heads branching out from it. The flowers grow in and apparitions from entering the houſe ; and on this
long ſpikes, each ſtanding on a pretty long footfalk; account, whoever walks the ſtreets in Cairo, will find
they are of a bright red colour tipped with green, it over the doors both of Chriſtians and Jews. From
and generally appear in the winter ſeaſon. 8. The the ſame plant the Egyptians diſtil a water, which is
Petufa, or cuſhion aloe, hath very ſhort, thick, fucculent fold in the apothecaries ſhops at Cairo, and recommen-
leaves, compreſſed on the upper ſide like a cuſhion. ded in coughs, hyſterics, and aſthmas. An unexpe-
This grows very cloſe to the ground; the flowers grow rienced French ſurgeon, ſays Haſſelquiſt, gave a Cop-
on ſlender falks, and are of an herbaceous colour, tite, 40 years old, afflicted with the jaundice, four tea-
Culture. The proper earth for planting theſe vege- cups full of the diſtilled water of this ſpecies of aloe,
tables in, is, one half freſh light earth from a com and cured him in four days. This remedy, unknown
mon, and the reſt an equal mixture of white ſea-fand to our apothecaries, is not difficult to be obtained, as
and ſifted lime-rubbiſh. This mixture ſhould be al- the plant might eaſily be raiſed in the warm ſouthern
ways made ſix or eight months before the plants are to parts of Europe. The Arabians call in fabbara.
be ſet in it. The common aloe will live in a dry green Of the leaves of the Guinea aloe, inentioned by Mr
houſe in winter ; and may be placed in the open air in Adanſon in his voyage to Senegal, the negroes niake
fum mer, in a ſheltered ſituation, but niuit have very lit- very good ropes, not apt to rot in the water.
Ile water, Moſt of the other aloes are beſt preſerved Dr Sloane mentions two ſorts of aloe ; one of which.
2
j
is
A LO
[ 485 ]
A LO
Aloe.
Aloe. is uſed for fiſhing-lines, bow-ſtrings, ſtockings, and hallow barren ſpots, or laid round the field as a dry
hammocks; the other has leaves which, like thoſe of wall. The land is then lightly ploughed, and very
the wild-pine and banana, hold rain-water, and there- carefully cleared of all noxious weeds, lined at one foot
by afford a very neceſſary refreſhment to travellers i diſtance from row to row, and the young plants fet,
hot countries, where there is generally a ſcarcity of like cabbages,at about five or ſix inches diſtance from
wells and water.
each other. This regular mode of lining and ſetting the
In Mexico, the maguei, a ſpecies of aloe, yields plants is practiſed only by the moſt exact planters, in
almoſt every thing neceſſary to the life of the poor. order to facilitate the weeding of them, by hand, very
Beſides making excellent hedges for their fields, its frequently ; becauſe, if they are not kept perfecily
trunk ſerved in place of beams for the roofs of their clean and free from weeds, the produce will be but
houſes, and its leaves inſtead of tiles. From thoſe very ſmall. They will bear being planted in any ſea-
leaves they obtained paper, thread, needles, clothing ſon of the year, even in the drieſt, as they will live on
ſhoes, and ſtockings, and cordage; and from its co the ſurface of the earth many weeks without a drop
pious juice they made wine, honey, ſugar, and vine- of rain. The moſt general time, however, of planting
gar. Of the trunk, and thickeſt part of the leaves, them, is from April to June.
when well baked, they made a very tolerable diſh of • In the March following, the labourers carry a
food. Laſtly,it was a very powerful medicine in ſeveral parcel of tubs and jars into the field, and each takes a
diſorders, and particularly in thoſe of the urine. It is llip or breadth of it, and begins by laping hold of a
alſo at preſent one of the plants the moſt valued and bunch of the blades, as much as he can conveniently
moſt profitable to the Spaniards.
graſp in one hand, while with the other he cuts it
The medical ſubſtance known by the name of aloes juſt above the ſurface of the earth, as quickly as poſſi-
is the infpiſated juice of ſome of the abovementioned ble (that the juice may not be waſted), and then pla-
ſpecies. The ancients diſtinguiſhed two ſorts of aloes: ces ihe blades in the tub, bunch by bunch, or handful
the one was pure and of a yellowiſh colour, inclining to by handful. When the firſt tub is thus packed quite
red, reſembling the colour of a liver, and thence na- full, a ſecond is begun (each labourer having two);
ined hepatic; the other was full of impurities, and and by the time the ſecond is filled, all the juice is
hence ſuppoſed to be only the droſs of the better kind. generally drained out of the blades in the firſt tub.
At preſent, various forts are met with in the ſhops; The blades are then lightly taken out, and thrown o-
which are diſtinguiſhed either from the places, from ver the land by way of nianure ; and the juice is pour-
the ſpecies of the plants, or from ſome difference in the ed out into a jar. The tub is then filled again with
juices themſelves. Theſe may be all ranged in three blades, and ſo alternately till the labourer has produ-
claſſes
ced his jar full, or about four gallons and an half of
I Aloe Perfoliata, ſocotorine aloo, brought from juice, which is often done in ſix or ſeven hours, and he
the iſland Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapt in ſkins ; has then the remainder of the day to himſelf, it being
it is obtained from the sth ſpecies abovementioned- his employer's intereſt to get each day's operation as
This ſort is the pureſt of the three : it is of a gloſſy quickly done as poſſible. It may be obſerved, that al-
ſurface, clear, and in fome degree pellucid : in the though aloes are often cut in nine, ten, or twelve
lump, of a yellowih red colour, with a purple caſt; months after being planted, they are not in perfection
when reduced to powder, of a bright golden colour. It till the ſecond and third year; and that they will be
is hard and friable in the winter, ſomewhat pliable in productive for a length of time, ſay 10 or 12 years,
ſummer, and grows foft betwixt the fingers. Its taſte or even for a much longer time, if good dung, or ma-
is hitter, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but nure of any kind, is ſtrewed over the field once in
inſufficient to prevent its being diſagreeable : the ſmell three or four years, or oftner if convenient.
is not very unpleaſant, and ſomewliat reſembles that of " The aloe juice will keep for ſeveral weeks without
myrrh.
injury. It is therefore not boiled till a ſufficient
quan-
2. Aloe Hepatica, hepatic, Barbadoes, or common tity is procured to make it an object for the boiling-
aloes(the juice of a variety of the former),is not ſo clear houſe. In the large way, three boilers, either of iron
and bright as the foregoing fort ; it is alſo of a darker or of copper, are placed to one fire, though ſome have
colour, more compact texture, and for the moſt part but two, and the ſmall planters only one. The boilers
drier. Its ſmell is much ſtronger and more diſagree are filled with the juice ; and, as it ripens or becomes
able ; the taſte intenſely bitter and naſeous, with lit more infpiflated, by a conſtant but regular fire, it is
tle or nothing of the fine aromatic flavourof the foco- ladled forward from boiler to boiler, and freſh juice is
torine.-- The beſt hepatic aloes come from Barbadoes added to that fartheſt from the fire, till the juice in
in large gourd-fells; an inferior ſort of it (which is ge- that neareſt to the fire (by much the ſmallert of the
nerally ſoft and clammy) is brought over in caſks. three, and commonly called by the name of tatch, as
Of the cultivation and preparation of hepatic aloes in the manufactory of ſugar) becomes of a proper con-
in the idland of Bardadoes, we have the following ac filency to be ſkipped or ladled out into gourds, or o-
*Vol. viii. count in the London Medical Journal*. “The lands in ther ſınall vellels, uſed for its final reception. The
atrt. 8.
the vicinity of the ſea, that is, from two to three proper time to ſkip or ladle it out of the tatch, is when
miles which are rather ſubject to drought than other it is arrived at what is termed a reſin height, or when
wiſe, and are ſo ftony and ſhallow as not to admit of it cuts freely or in thin flakes, from the edges of a ſmall
the planting of ſugar canes with any proſpect of fuc- wooden ſice, that is dipped from time to time into the
ceſs, are generally found to anſwer beſt for the aloe tatch for that purpoſe. A little lime-water is uſed by
plant. The ſtones, at leaſt the larger ones, are firſt fome aloe-boilers, during the proceſs, then the ebulli-
picked up, and either packed in heaps, upon the moſt tion is too great.
;
1
1
St AS
I
V
1
A LO
L 486 1
A LO
!
Aloe.
es
1
" As to the fun-dried aloes (which is moſt appro- though formerly ituſed to be preſcribed in doſes of two Aloc
ved for medicinal purpoſes), very littleis made in Bar or three times that quantity ; but theſe large doſes
badoes. The proceſs is, however, very ſimple, though ſomerimes brought on troubleſome ſymptoms. As it
Aloof.
extremely tedious. The raw juice is either put into is a flow working purge, it is generally taken at bed-
bladders, left quite open at top, and ſuſpended in the time, and it operates next day.
fun, or in broad ſhallow trays of wood, pewter, or tin, With regard to this, as well as to all other reſinous
expoſed alſo to the fun, every dry day, until all the purges, it ought to be obſerved, that when they are
fliud parts are exhaled, and a perfect relin formed, given in ſubſtance without any mixture, they are apt
which is then packed up for uſe, or for exportation.“ to adhere to the coats of the inteſtines, and to occaſion
The Barbadoes aloes is ſaid to be common alſo in griping and unealineſs; for theſe reaſons aloes are gene-
the other Weſt India iſlands; and the following ac- rally mixed with ſome faponaceous or reſolvent body,
count of the manner of preparing it in Jamaica is gi to deſtroy its viſcid tenacity, before it is given in ſub-
ven by Dr Wright in the ſame yolume of the Medical ſtance. The ſubſtances which are moſt uſed for this
Journal, art. 1. “ The plant is pulled up by the roots, purpoſe are, a ſmall quantity of the fixed alkaline ſalts ;
and carefully cleanſed from the earth or other impuri. Toap : the yolk of an egg; and gummous vegetable-ex-
ties. It is then ſiced and cut in pieces into ſmall (racts. Mr Barton alleges*, that by triturating alo
hand-baſkets or nets. Theſe nets or baſkets are put with a ſmall quantity of alkaline ſalts, its tenacily was
*Treatiſe
into Jarge iron boilers with water, and boiled for ten more effe&tually dettroyed than by any other thing he of the Mar
nufuElure of
minutes, when they are taken out, and freſh parcels tried : that Caſtile ſoap and the yolk of an egg an. Drugs,
ſupplied till the liquor is ſtrong and black. At this ſwered beſt, next to it: that manna, ſugar, and honey, 1747.
period the liquor is thrown through a ſtrainer into a were far inferior to them ; and that gummous, or mu-
deep vať, narrow at bottom, to cool, and to depoſite cous vegetable extracts, ſuch as the extracts of gen-
its fæculent parts. Next day the clear liquor is drawn tian, or of liquorice root, triturated with the alocs, in
off by a cock, and again committed to the large iron the proportion of one part of the extract to two of the
veſſel. At firſt it is boiled briſkly: but towards the aloes, and then made up into pills with a ſufficient
end of the evaporation is flow, and requires conſtantly quantity of ſyrup, deſtroyed the viſcidity of the aloes,
ſtirring to prevent burning. When it becomes of the and rendered its operation mild.
conſiſtance of honey, it is poured into gourds or cala Socotorine aloes contains more gummy matter than
baſhes for ſale. This hardens by age.
the hepatic; and hence it is likewiſe found to purge
3. ALOE-Gaballina fetid, caballine, or horſe-aloe, is more and with greater irritation. The firſt ſort there.
ſuppoſed to be a coarſer ſort obtained front the ſame fore is moſt proper where a ſtimulus is required, as for
ſpecies with the foregoing ; according to others, it is promoting or exciting the menſtrual flux ; whilſt the
the produce of the diſticha. It is chiefly diſtinguiſh- latter is better calculated to act as a common purge.
ed by its ſtrong rank ſmell.
For the aloetic preparations, fee PHARMACY- Index.
All the different kinds are gum-reſins, which contain ALOES-Wood. See XrLo- Aloes.
more gummous than reſinous parts. Water, when of American Aloe. See AGAVE.
a boiling heat, diffolves all the foluble parts of aloes ; LOGIANS, in church-hiſtory, a ſect of ancient
but if let ſtand till it grows cold, it lets drop moſt heretics, who denied that Jeſus Chriſt was the Logos,
ofits reſin. A ſtrong fpirit diffolves and keeps ſuſpend- and conſequently rejected the goſpel of St John--The
ed almoſt the whole of aloes, though it contains ſuch a word is compounded to the primitives and agos, 9. d.
large portion of gummous parts ; hence it is evident, without Logos or Word. Some aſcribe the origin of
that aloes contains ſome principle, faline or other, the name, as well as of the ſect of Alogians, to Theo-
which renders water capable of diſſolving relin, and dore of Byzantium, by trade a currier ; who having
fpirit capable of diffolving gum.
apoftatized under the preſecution of the emperor Seve-
Aloe is a ſtimulating ſtomachic purge, which given rus, to defend himſelf againſt thoſe who reproached
in ſmall quantity, operates mildly by ſtool; but in large him therewith, ſaid, that it was not God he denied,
doſes acts roughly, and often occalions an irritation a but only man.
Whence his followers were called in
bout the anus, and ſometimes a diſcharge of blood. It Greek anogou, becauſe they rejected the Word. But
is a good opening medicine to people of a lax habit, or others, with more probability, ſuppoſe the name to
who live a ſedentary life; and to thoſe whoſe ſtomachave been firſt given them by Epiphanius in the way
and bowels are loaded with phlegm or mucus, or who of reproach. They made their appearance toward the
are troubled with worms, or are debilitated ; becauſe at cloſe of the ſecond century.
the ſame time that it carries off thoſe viſcid humours ALOGOTROPHIA, among phyſicians, a term
which pall the appetite, and overload the inteſives, ſignifying the unequal growth or nouriſhment of any
it ſerves as a ſtrengthener and bracer. In Small doſes, part of the body, as in the rickets.
repeated from time to time, it not only cleanſes the ALOOF, has frequently been mentioned as a ſea-
prima vice, but likewiſetenús ropromote, the menſrual term ; but wlicther juſtly or not, we ſhall not preſume
diſcharge in women; and therefore it is frequently to determine. It is known in common diſcourſe to im-
employed in chlorofis, or where the menſtrua are ob- ply at a diſtance; and the reſemblance of the phraſe kee
ſtructed. It is a good ſtomachic purge, and is given a loof, and keep a luff or keep the luf, in all probability
in all caſes where ſuch a one is wanted ; but it is look- gave riſe tothis conjecture. If it was really a ſea-phraſe
ed upon as a heating medicine, and not proper in bilious originally, it ſeems to have referred to the dangers of
habits, or where there is much heat or fever; and its a lec-lhore, in which ſituation the pilot might naturally
continued uſe is apt to bring on the piles.
apply it in the ſenſe conimonly underſtood, viz. keep
It is given in fubſtance from five grains to a ſcruple, all of, or quite off: it is, however, never expreſſed in
that
A LO
[ 487 ]
ALP
le lof.
PE
$
Alopece char manner by ſeamen now. See LUFF. It may not a dean, and twelve canons. Here is a coil vent of Car. Alpha,
g be improper to obſerve, that beſides uſing this phraſe melites, another of capuchins, another of bare-footed Alphabet.
Aloit.
in the ſame ſenſe with us, the French alſo call the Carinelites, three nunneries, an hoſpital, and a conyent
weather-lide of a ſhip, and the weather-clue of a courſe, of Guillemins, in which is the tomb of Theodore Mar-
tin, who brought the art of printing out of Germany
ALOPECE, ALOPECIA (anic. geog.), an iſland into the Low Countries. He was a friend of Eraſmus,
placed by-Ptolemy at the mouth of the Tanais, and who wrote his epitaph. E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lai. 49.
called the iſland Tanais : now l’Iſe des Renards (Bau. 55.
drand). Alſo an iſland of the Boſphorus Cimmerius ALPHA, the name of the firſt letter of the Greek
(Pliny); and another in the Egean ſea, over againſt alphabet, anſwering toour d, -Asa numeral, it ſtands
Smyrna.
for one, or the firk of any thing. It is particularly
ALOPECIA, a term uſed among phyſicians to de- uſed, among ancient writers, to denote the chief or firit
flote a total falling off of the hair from certain parts, man of his claſs or rank. In this ſenſe, the word ſtands
occaſioned either by the defect of nutritious juice, or contradiſtinguihed from beta, which denotes the fe-
by its vicious quality corroding the roots of it, and lca- cond perſon. Plato was called the Alpha of the wits:
ving the ſkin rough and colourleſs.
Eratoſthenes, keeper of the Alexandrian library,whom
The word is formed from anwang, vulpes, “a fox;" ſome called a Second Plato, is frequently nained Beta.
whoſe urine, it is ſaid, will occaſion baldneſs; or be ALPHA is alſo uſed to denote the beginning of any
cauſe it is a diſeaſe which is common to that creature. thing. In which ſenſe it ſtands oppoſed to omega
It is directed to waſh the head every nigbt at going to
which denotes the end. And theſe tivo letters were
bed with a ley prepared by boiling the aſhes of vine made the ſymbol of Chriſtianity; and accordingly were
branches in red wine. A powder made by reducing engraven on the tombs of the ancient Chriſtians, to di-
hermodactyls to fine flour, is alſo recommended for the ſtinguiſh them from thoſe of idolaters. Moralez, a Spa-
ſame purpoſe.
niſh writer, imagined that this cuſlom only commen-
In caſes where the baldneſs is total, a quantity of ced ſince the riſe of Arianiſm; and that it was peculiar
the fineſt burdock roots are to be bruiſed in a marble to the orthodox, who hereby irade confeſſion of the
mortar, and then boiled in white wine until there re eternity of Chriſt: but there are tombs prior to the age
mains only as much as will cover them. This liquor, of Conſtantine whereon the two letters were found, bea
carefully ſtrained off, is ſaid to cure baldneſs, by wafh- fides that the emperor juſt mentioned bore them on his
ing the head every night with ſome of it warm. Alabarum before Arius appeared.
ley made by boiling alhes of vine branches in common ALPHABET, the natural or cuſtomary ſeries of
water, is alſo recommended with this intention. A che, ſeveral letters of a language (ſee LANGUAGE and
freſh cut onion, rubbed on the part until it be red and WRITING). The word is formed from alpha and beta,
itch, is likewiſe ſaid to cure baldneſs.
the firſt and ſecond letters of the Greek alphabet. The
A multitude of ſuch remedies are every where to be number of letters is different in the alphabets of differ-
found in the works of Valeſcus de Taranta, Rondele ent languages. The Engliſh alphabet contains 24 let-
tius, Hollerius, Trinca vellius, Celfus, Senertay, and ters; to which if we add ; and o confonant, the ſum
other practical phyſicians. See alſo Buxus.
will be 26: the French contains 23 ; the Hebrew,
ALOPECURUS, or Fox-TAIL GRASS, in botany: Chaldce, Syriac, and Samaritan, 22 each; the Arabic
A genus of the triandria digynia claſs; and in the na 28; the Perſian 31 ; the Turkiſh 33; the Georgian
tural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramina. 36; the Coptic 32 ; the Muſcovite 43 ; the Greek 24 3
The characters are : The calyx is a ſingle flowered bi the Latin 22; the Scalvonic 27; the Dutch 26; the
valve glume : The corolla is one-valved: The ſtamina Spanih 27; the Italian 20; the Ethiopic and Taria-
conſiſt of three capillary filaments; the antheræ bifur- rian, each 202 ; the Indians of Bengal 21 ; the Bara-
cated at both ends : The piſtillum is a roundiſh gerinen: meſe 19. The Chineſe have, properly ſpeaking, no
there are two ftyli ; and the ſtigmata are ſimple : The alphabet, except we call their whole language by that
pericarpium is a corolla cloathing the feed; and the name; their letters are words, or rather hieroglyphics,
feed is ſingle and roundiſh. There are eight {pecies, amounting to about 80,000.
viz, the pratenſis, or meadow fox-tail graſs ; the bula It has been a matter of confiderable difpute whether
bofus, or bulbous fox-tail graſs; the geniculatus, or the method of expreſling our ideas by vilible fymbols,
flote fox-tail grafs; and the myoſuroides, or field fox- called letrers, be really a human invention; or whether
tail graſs; theſe four grow wild in Britain: the agreſtis, we ought to attribute an art ſo exceedingly uſeful, 10
the monfpelienſis, the paniceus, and the hordeiformis, an immediate revelation from the Deity-in favour of
are all natives of France and the ſouthern parts of Eu the latter opinion it has been urged,
rope, except the laſt, which is a native of India. See 1. The five books of Moſes are univerſally acknow- Arguments
GRASS.
ledged to be the moſt ancient compoſitions as well as for writing
ALOPEX, in zoology, a ſpecies of the canis, with the moſt early ſpecimens of alphabetical writing we
being a dia
vine rete
a ſtrait tall and black tip. It is commonly called the have. If, therefore, we ſuppoſe writing to be the relation,
field fox.
fult of human ingenuity, it muſt be different from all
ALOSA, the fad, or mother of herrings, a ſpecies other arts, having been brought to perfection at once;
of the clupea. See CLUPEA.
as it ſeems impoffible to make any real improvement on
ALOST, a town in Flanders, belonging to the the Hebrew alphabet. It may indeed be replied, that
houſe of Auſtria, feated on the river Dender, in the alphabetical characters perhaps have exiſted many ages
midway between Bruſſels and Ghent. It has but one before the writings of Moſes, though the more ancient
pariſh ; but the church is collegiate, and has a propost, ſpecimens baye periſhed. This, however, being a
I
nere
A LP
( 488 ]
A LP
Alphabet. mere unſupported aſſertion, without any hiſtorical te ſhould not one nation, it may be urged, adopt from Alphabet.
ſtimony to corroborate it, cannot be admitted as a the other the inode of exprefſing the art as well as the
proof. Again, ſetting alide the evidence to be deri. art itſelf? To what purpoſe did they take the trouble
ved from Scripture on this ſubject, the ſimplicity of of inventing other characters! To this objection it
manners predominant in the early ages, the ſmall ex may be replied, 1. From the inſtance of our own lan-
tent of the intellectual powers of mankind, and the guage we know what diverſities may be introduced in
little intercourſe which nations had with one another, this reſpect merely by length of time and an inter-
which would ſeem more particularly to render writing courſe with neighbouring nations. And ſuch an effect
neceſſary, car ſcarce allow us to ſuppoſe that ſuch a would be more likely to take place before the art of
complex and curious contrivance as alphabetical writing printing had contributed to eſtabliſh an uniformity of
could be invented by a race of men whoſe wants were character: For when every work was tranſcribed by
ſo few, their advantages ſo circumſcribed, and their the hand, we may eaſily imagine how many variations
ideas ſo limited.
would ariſe from the fancy of the ſcribe, and the mode
2. If alphabetical writing were a mere human in of writing ſo conſtantly different in individuals. 2. This
vention, it might be expected that different nations diverſity might ſometimes ariſe from vanity. When
would have fallen upon the ſameexpedient independent an individual of another community had become ac-
of each other during the compaſs of ſo many ages. quainted with this wonderful art, he might endeavour
But no ſuch thing has taken place; and the writing of to recommend himſelf as the inventor; and, to avoid
every people on earth may be referred to one common detection, might invent other chara&ers. 3. The cha-
original. If this can be proved, the argument from racters of the alphabet might fometimes be accommo-
ſucceſſive derivation, without a ſingle initance of in dated as much as poſſible to the ſymbulical marks al-
dependent diſcovery, muſt be allowed to amount to the ready in uſe amongſt a particular people. Theſe ha-
- very higheſt degree of probability in favour of our hy- ving acquired a high degree of fancity by the uſe of
potheſis, which will now reſt on the evidence for or many generations, would not be eaſily ſuperſededwith-
againſt this fact; and which may be ſummed up in the out the aid of ſome ſuch contrivance. 4. This is ſup.
following manner.
ported by the teſtimony of Herodotus; who informs
Among the European nations we find none who us, that thoſe Phænicians who came with Cadmus
can pretend any right to the diſcovery of letters. All introduced many improvements among the Greeks,
of them derived the art from the Romalis, excepting and alphabetical writing too, not known among them
only the Turks, who had it from the Arabians. The before that period. At firſt they uſed the Phænician
Romans never laid claim to the diſcovery ; but con character; but in proceſs of time, as the pronunciation
felfed that they derived their knowledge from the altered, the ſtandard of the letters was alſo changed.
Greeks, and the latter owned that they had it from The Ionian Greeks inhabited at that time the parts
the Phænicians ; who, as well as their coloniſts the adjacent to Phænicia: who having received the art of
Carthaginians, ſpoke a dialect of the Hebrew ſcarcely alphabetical writing from the Phoenicians, uſed it, with
varying from the original. The Coptic, or Egyptian, an alteration of ſome few characters, and confeſſed
reſembles the Greek in incſt of its characters, and is ingenuouſly, that it was called Phænician from the in-
therefore to be referred to the ſame original. The iroducers of it.” He tells us that he had himſelf feen
Chaldee, Syriac, and latter Samaritan, are dialects of the characters of Cadmas in a temple of Ilmenian
the Hebrew, without any conſiderable deviation, or Apollo at Thebes in Baotia, engraven upon tripods,
many additional words. The Ethiopic differs more and very much reſembling the Ionian characters. 5. The
from the Hebreiv, but leſs than the Arabic ; yet old Samaritan is preciſely the ſame as the Hebrew lan-
theſe languages have all iſſued from the ſame ſtock, as guage ; and the Samaritan Pentateuch does not vary
the fimiliarity of their formation, and the numberleſs by a ſingle letter in twenty words from the Hebrew:
words common to them, all ſufficiently evince; and the but the characters are widely different : for the Jews
Perlic is very nearly allied to the Arabic. Alterations adopted the Chaldaic letters during their captivity at
indeed would naturally be produced, in proportion to Babylon, inſtead of the characters of their forefa-
the civilization of the ſeveral nations, and their inter thers.
courſe with others; which will account for the ſuperior 3. What we know of thoſe nations who have con-
copiouſneſs of fome' above the reſt. It appears then, tinued for many centuries unconnected with the reſt of
that all the languages in uſe amongſt men that have the world, ſtrongly militates againſt the hypotheſis of
been conveyed in alphabetical characters, have been the human, invention of alphabetical writing. The
the languages of people connected ultimately or im experiment has been fairly made upon the ingenuity of
mediately with the Hebrews, who have handed down mankind for a longer period than that which is ſup-
the earlieſt ſpecimens of writing to poſterity, and we poſed to have produced alphabetical writing by regu-
have therefore the greateſt reaſon to believe, that their lar gradations; and this experiment determines pe-
method of writing, as well as their language, was de remptorily in their favour. The Chineſe, a people
rived from the ſaine ſource.
famous for their diſcoveries and mechanical turn of
This propoſition will be farther confirmed from con genius, have made fome advances towards the deline-
fidering the ſameneſs of the artificial denominations ation of their ideas by arbitrary figns; but have never-
of the letters in the Oriental, Greck, and Latin lan theleſs been unable to accompliſh this exquiſite device;
guages, accompanied alſo by a ſimilar arrangement, and after ſo long a trial to no purpoſe, we may rea-
as alpha, beta, &c. It may ſtill be objeeted, how. fonably infer, that their mode of writing, which is
ever, that the characters einployed by the ancients to growing more intricate and voluminous every day,
diſcriminate their letters are entirely diſlimilar. Why would never terminate in ſo clear, fo comparatively
ſimple,
LP
1
( 489 )
tion of
there are the
ine..19
Alphabet. fimple, an expedient as thrat of alphabetical characters. feâion by the Chineſe. The vocabulary of the latter Alphabet.
The Mexicans, too, had made ſome rude attempts of is therefore infinire, or at leaſt cap.be of being ex-
the fime kind; but with leſs facceſs than the Chineſe. tended to any imaginable length. But if we congue
We know alſo, that hicroglyphics were in uſe among this tedious and aukward contrivance with the aftenith-
the Egyptians poiterior to the practice of alphabetical ing brevity and perfpicuity of alphabetical willing,
writing by the Jews; but whether the cpiftolography, we muſt be perſuaded that no two things can be more
as it is called, of the former people, which was in diſſimilar; and that che tranſition from a ſcheinc cor-
vogue during the continuance of the hieroglyphics, ſtantly enlarging itſelf, and growi g daily more intri-
iniglit nou poffibly be another name for alphabetical cate, to the expreſſion of every poliple idea by the
writing, cannot be decided.
modified arrangement of four-and-twenty naris, is
4. We ſhall conſider the argument on which the not ſo very cafy and perceptible as ſome have imagined:
commonly received ſuppoſition entirely depends: that Indeed this ſeems ſtill to be rather an exprellion of
is, the natural gradation through the ſeveral ſpecies of things in a manner ſimilar to the ſecond ſtage of lym-
ſymbols acknowledged to have beenin uſe with various bol-wriiing than the notification of ideas by arbitrary
people, terminating at laſt by an eaſy tranſition, in ſigns."
ihe-detection of alphabetical characters. Thelirength To all this we ſhall ſubjoin the following remarks, Additional
of this argament will be beſt underſtood from the fol- which ſeem to give additional force to the foregoing remarks in
confirnia.
reaſoning.
lowing repreſentation.
“1. The firſt method of cmbodying ideas would “1. Pliny aſſerts the uſe of letters to have been eter.
be by drawing a repreſentation of the objects them- nal; which ſhows the antiquity of the practice to ex-
felves. The imperfection of this method is very ob- tend beyond the æra of authentic biſtory.
vious, both on account of its tediouſneſs and its ina “2. The cabaliſtical doctors of the Jervs maintain,
bility of going beyond external appearances to the that alphabetical writing was one of the ten things
abſtract ideas of the mind.
which God created on the evening of the Sabbath.
662. The next inethod would be ſomewhat more '3. Molt of the profane authors of antiquity aſcribe
general, and wonid ſubſtitute two or three principal the firſt uſe of alphabetical characters to the Egyp-
circumſtances for the whole tranſaction. Sorwo kings, tians; who, according to ſome, received them trom
for example, engaging each other with military wea- Mercury; and, according to others, from their god
pons, inight ſerve to convey the idea of a war between Teuth.
the tivo nations. This abbreviated method would be « 4. There is very little reaſon to ſuppoſe that even
nore'expeditious than the former ; but what it gained language itſelf is the effect of human ingenuity and
in conciſeneſs would be loſt in perſpicuity. It is a invention.'
deſcription more compendious indeed, but ſtill a de Thus we have ſtated the arguments in favour of the Anſwers to
ſcription of outward objects alone, by drawing their revelation of alphabetical writing; which are anſwer- the above
reſemblance. To this head may be referred the pic- ed, by thoſe who take the contrary lide, in the fol. argumente.
ture-writing of the Mexicans.
lowing manner.
" 3. The next advance would be to the uſe of ſym I. Moſes no where ſays that the alphabet was a
bols: the incorporarion, as it were, of abſtract and new thing in his time; nor does hie give the leaſt hint
complex ideas-in figures more or leſs generalized, in of his being the inventor of it. The firſt mention we
proportion to the improvement of it. Thus, in the find of writing is in the 17th chapter of Exodus ;
earlier ſtages of this device, a circle night ſerve to ex where Moſes is commanded to write in a bcok; and
preſs the ſun, a femicircle the moon; which is only a rvhich took place before the arrival of the Iſraelites
contraction of the foregoing inethod. This ſymbol- at Sinai. This ſhows that writing did not com-
writing in its advanced ſtate would become more re mence with the delivery of the tito tables of the
fined, but enigmatical and myfterious in proportion to law, as ſome have ſuppoſed. Neither are we to
its refinement. Hence it would become leſs fit fur conclude that the invention had taken place only a
common uſe, and therefore more particularly appro. ſhort tiine before ; for the writirg in a book, is com
priated to the myſteries of philoſophy and religion. manded as a thing commonly underſtood, and with
Thus, tvo feet ſtanding upon water ſerved to expreſs which Mofes was well acquainted. It is plain, from
an ini poffibility; a ſerpent denoted the oblique trajec- the cominand to engrave the names of the twelve tribes
[cries of the heavenly bodies; and the beetle, on ac of Ifrael upon ſtones like the engravings of u ſigutí,
count of ſome ſuppoſed properties of that infect, ſery. that apri ing had been known and practiſed among
ed to repreſent the fun.The Egyptian hieroglyphics them, as well as other nativns, long before. We mult
were of this kind.
allo remember, that the people were commanded 10
“4. This method being ſtill too ſubtile and com write the law on their door.poits, &c. ſo that the art
plicated for common uſe, the only plan to be purſued ſeems not only to have been known, but univerſally
was a reduction of the firſt ſtage of the preceding practiſed among them. But had writing beer a new
inethod. Thus a dot, inſtead of a circle, might diſcovery 1.2 the time of Mofes, he would probably
Mtand for the fun ; and a ſimilar abbreviation might be have conmemorated it as trell as the other inventions
extended to all the ſymbols. On this ſcheme every of mutic, &c. : Nor is there any reaſon to fuppofe
object and idea rould have its appropriated mark : that God was the immediate revcalcr of the art ; for
theſe marks therefore would have a multiplicity pro- Moſes would never have omitted to record a circum
portionable to the works of nature and the operations ftance of fuch in portance, as the inemury of it would
of the mind. This method was likewiſe practiſed by have been one of the firongeſt barriers againſt idola-
the Egyptians; but has been carried to greater per latry,
Vol. I.
3
Again
1
housand
[ 490 ]
ALP
Alphabet. Again, though ſeveral profane wiilers attribute the The former was called the curiologic, the latter the 110. Alphabet.
origin of letters to the gods, or to ſome divine perſon, pical hieroglyphic ; which laſt was a gradual improve-
yet this is 110 proof of its being actually revcaled ; but ment on the former. Theſe alterations in the manner
only that the original inventor was unknown. The of delinearing hieroglyphic figures produced and per-
learned billiop of Glouceſter obſerves, that the ancients fected another character, called the running-hand of
gave nothing to the gods of whoſe original they had the hieroglyphics,reſenıbling the hineſe writing ;Which
any records; bul wliere the memory of the invention having been firſt formed by the outlines of each figure,
was loſt, as of feed-corn, wine, writing, civil ſociety, became at length a kind of marks; the natural effects
&c. the gods ſeized the properly, by tlidt kind of right of which were, that the constant uſe of them would
which gives ſtrays to the lord of the manor,
take off the attemion from the ſymbol and fix it on
As neither the ſacred nor profane hiſtorians, therc- the thing fignified. Thus the Itudy of ſymbolic wri-
fore, have determined any thing concerning the in- ting would be much abbreviated; becauſe the writer
vention of letters, we are at liberty to form what con or decypherer would then have little to do but to re-
jectures we think moſt plauſible concerning the origini member the power of the ſymbolic mark; whereas be-
of them; and this, it is thought, might have taken fore, the properties of the thing or animal delineated
place in the following manner.
were to be learned. This, together with the other
“ 1. Men in their rude uncultivated ſtate, would marks by inſtitution, to denote mental conceptions,
have neither leiſure, inclination, nor inducement, to would reduce the characters to a fimilar flate with the
cultivate the powers of the mind to a degree ſufficient preſent Chineſe ; and theſe were properly what the
for the formation of an alphabet: but when a people ancients called hierogiyphical. We are informed by Dr
arrived at ſuch a pitch of civilization as required them Robert Huntingdon, in his account oi the Porphyry
to repreſent the conceptions of the mind which have pillars, that there are ſome ancient monuments of this
no corporeal forms, neceſſity would occaſion further kind yet remaining in Egypt.
exertions, and urge them to find out a more expedi The ſacred book or ritual of the Egyptians, ac-
tious manner of tranfating their buſineſs than by pic- cording to Apuleius, was written partly in ſymbolic
ture writing
and partly in theſe hieroglyphic characters, in the fol-
62. Theſe exertions would takс place whenever a lowing inanner : “ He (che hierophant) drew out cer-
nation began to improve in arts, manufactures, and tain books from the ſecret repoſitories of the ſanctu-
commerce ; and the greater genius ſuch a nation had, ary, written in unknown charaćiers, which contained
lhe inore improvements would be made in the notation the words of the ſacred formula compendiouſly ex-
of their language ; whilſ thoſe people who had made preſſed, partly by figures of animals, and partly by
leſs progreſs in civilization and ſcience, would have a certain marks or notes intricately knotted, revolving
leſs perfect fyftem of elementary characters ; and per- in the manner of a wheel, crowded together, and curled
haps advance no farther for many ages than the marks inward like the tendrils of a vine, ſo as to hide the
or characters of the Chineſe. Hence we may fee, meaning from the curioſity of the piofane.”
that the buſineſs of princes, as well as the inanufac But though letters were of great antiquity in Egypt, Letters nog
ures and commerce of each country, would produce there is reaſon to believe that they were not hirit in- invented in
the neceſity of deviſing fome expeditious manner of vented in that country. Mr Jackſon, in his Chrono- Egypt.
communicating information to one another.”
logical Antiquities, has endeavoured to prove,that they
The art of writing, however, is of ſo great anti were not invented or carried into Egypt by Taaut or
quity, and the early hiſtory of nioſt nations ſo full of Thoth, the firſt Hermes, and ſon of Miſraim, who lived
fable, that it muſt be extremely difficult to determine about 500 years after the deluge; but that they were
what nation or people may juſtly claim the honour of introduced into that country by the ſecond Hermes,
the invention. But as it is probable that letters were who lived about 400 afier the former. This ſecond
the producc of a certain degree of civilization among Hermes, according to Diodorus, was the inventor of
mankind, we muſt therefore have recourſe to the hiſ grainmar and muſic, and added many words to the E.
tory of thoſe nations who ſeem to have been firſt civi- gyprian language. According 10 the ſame author alſo,
lized
he invented letters, rythm, and the harmony of ſounds.
The Egyptians have an undoubted title to a very This was the Hermes ſo much celebrated by the
the Egyp- early civilization; and many learned men have attribu- Greeks, who knew no other than himſelf. On the
tians to the ted the invention of letters to them. The late biſhop of other hand, Mr Wiſe aſerts that Moſes and Cadmus
invention Glouceſter contends, that Egypt was the parent of all could not learn the alphabet in Egypt; and that the
(of letters. the learning of Greece, and was reſorted to by all the Egyptians had no alphabet in their time. He adduces
Grecian legillators, naturaliſts, and philoſophers; and ſeveral reaſons to prove that they had none till they
endeavours to prove that it was one of the firſt civilized received what is called the Coptic, which was introdu-
Their writing was of four ced either in the time of the Ptolemies or under Pſam-
kinds : 1. Hieroglyphic; 2. Symbolic ; 3. Epiſtolic; mitichus or Amatis ; and the oldeſt alphabetic letters
and, 4. Hierogrammatic. In the moſt early ages thcy which can be produced as Egyptian, appear plaiuly to
wrote like all other infant nations, by pictures ; of have been derived from the Greek. Herodotus con-
which ſome traces yet remain amongit the hierogly- feffes, that all he relates before the reign of Pfaminiti-
phics of Horapollo, who informs us, that they repre- chus is uncertain ; and that he reports the early tranſ-
ſented a fulier by a man's two feet in water ; fire, by actions of that nation on the credit of the Egyptian
ftnoke aſcending, &c. But to render this rude inven- prieſts, on which he did not greatly depend; and Dio-
tion 1cfs incominodious, they ſoon deviſed the method dorus Siculus is ſaid to have been greatly impoſed upon
of putting one thing of ſimilar qualities for another. by them. Manetho, the oldest Egyptian hiſtorian,,
tranlated
Ś
4
Claim of
A LP
[ 491 )
A LP
Alphabet, tranſlated the ſacred regiſters out of Egyptian into The Grecks, as we have already obſerved, knew no sipkader,
Greek, which are ſaid by Syncellus to have been writ- older Hermes than the ſecond, who lived about 400
ten in the ſacred letters, and to have been laid up by years after the Mezrite Taaut or Hermes.
. This fe.
the ſecond Mercury in the Egyptian temples. Heal- cond Hermes is called by Plato Theuth, and counſellor
lows the Egyptian gods to have been mortal men : but or ſacred ſcribe to king Thanius ; but it is not ſaid
his hiſtory was very much corrupted by the Greeks, that he ever reigned in Egypt: but the former Taaut,
and hath been called in queſtion by ſeveral writers from or Athothes, as Manetho calls him, was the immedi-
the account which he himſelf gave of it. After Can ate ſucceſſor of Menes the firſt king of Egypt. This
-byſes had carried a way the Egyptian records, the ſecond Mercury, if we may believe Manetho, com po-
prieſts, to ſupply their loſs, and to keep up their pre- ſed ſeveral books of the Egyptian hiſtory; and having
Tenſions to antiquity, began to write new records; improved both the language and letters of that nation,
wherein they not only unavoidably made great miſ- the Egyptians attributed the arts and inventions of the
takes, but added much of their own invention, eſpe- former to the latter. The Phoenician language is ge-
6 cially as to diſtant'times.
nerally allowed to have been a dialcet of the Hebreiv;
Claim of The Phoenicians have likewiſe been lappoſed the and tho’their alphabet does not entirely agree with the
the Phæni- inventors of letters; and we have the ſtrongeſt proofs Samaritan,yet there is a great ſimilarity between them.
nicians, of the early civilization of this people. Their moſt Aſtronomy and arithmetic were much cultivated among
ancient hiſtorian, Sanchoniaiho, lived in the time of them in the moſt early ages : their fine linen, purple,
Abibalus, father of Hiram king of Tyre. He informs and glaſs, were much ſuperior to thoſe of other na-
us, that leiters were invented by Taaut, who lived in tions; and their extraordinary ſkill in architecture and
Phoenicia in the 12th and 13th generations after the other arts was ſuch, that whatever was great, elegant,
creation, “ Miſor (ſays he was the ſon of Hamyn; or pleaſing, whether in buildings, apparel, or toys,
the ſon of Miſor was Taaut, who invented the firſt was diſtinguiſhed by the epithet of Tyrianor Sidonian; ;
letters for writing.” The Egyptians call him Thoth; theſe being the chief cities of Phoenicia. Their great
the Alexandrians Thoyth; and the Greeks Hermes, proficiency in learning and arts of all kinds, together
or Mercury. In the time of this Taaut or Mercury with their engroſſing all the commerce of the weitern
(the grandſon of Ham the ſon of Noah), Phoenicia world, are likewiſe thought to give them a juſt claim
and the adjacent country was governed by Uranus, to the invention of letters.
and after him by his ſon Saturn or Cronus. He in The Chaldeans alſo have laid claim to the invention of the
vented letters either in the reign of Uranus or Cronus; of letters; and with regard to this, there is a tradition Chaldeans
and ſtaid in Phoenicia with Cronus till the 32d year of among the Jews, Indians, and Arabians, that the E-
his reign. Cronus, after the death of his father Ura- gyprians derived their knowledge from Abraham, who
nus, made ſeveral ſettlements of his family, and tra was a Chaldean. This tradition is in ſome degree
verſed into other parts; and when he came to the ſouth confirmed by moſt of the weſtern writers, who aſcribe
country, he gave all Egypt to the god Tarutus, that the inventions of arith inetic and aſtronomy to the
it ſhould be his kingdom. Sanchoniatho began his Chaldeans. Joſephus poſitively afferis, that the Egyp-
hiſtory with the creation, and ended ft with placing tians were ignorant of the ſciences of arithmetic and
Taautus on the throne of Egypt. He does not men aſtronomy before they were inſtructed by Abraham ;
tion the deluge, but makes two more generations in and Sir Ifaac Newton admits, that letters were known
Cain's line from Protagonus to Agrovenus (or from in the line of that patriarch for many centuries before
Adam to Noah) than Moſes. As Sanchoniatho has Moſes. The Chaldaic letters appear to have been de-
not told us wliether Taaut invented letters either in rived from the Hebrew or Samaritan ; which are the
the reign of Uranus or Cronus, “ we cannot err inuch fame, or nearly ſo, with the old Phoenician. Ezra is
(ſays Mr Jackſon) if we place his invention of them ſuppoſed to have exchanged the old Hebrew characters
550 years after the flood, or 20 years after the diſper- for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldee, which
fion, and 2019 years before the Chriſtian ära, and fix, are ſtill in uſe. Beroſus, the moſt ancient Chaldean
or perhaps ten years, before he went into Egypt.” hiſtorian, who was born in the minority of Alexander
This prince and his poſterity reigned at Thebes in the Great, does not ſay that he believed his country-
Upper Egypt for 15 generations.
inen to have been the inventors of letters.
Several Roman authors attribute the invention of The Syrians have alſo laid claim to the invention of Of the Syo
letters to the Phoenicians. Pliny ſays (A), the Phoeni- letters. It is certain, indeed, that they yielded to rians, ,
cians were famed for the invention of letters, as trell no nation in knowledge and ſkill in the fine arts.
as for aſtronomical obſervations and novel and martial Their language is ſaid to hare been the vernacular of
Curlius infernis iis, that the Tyriau nation are all the oriental tongues, and ras divided into three
related to be the firſ who cither taught or learned let- dialects. 1. The Aranıcan,
dialects. 1. The Arancan, alédia Niefopotamii, and
ters ; and Lucan fays, that they were the firſt who at by the inhabitants of Rola und Elefa of Harram, and
tempted to expreſs ſounds or words by letters. Eu the Outer Syria. 2. The dialect of Paleſtine; ſpoken
febius alſo tells us from Porphyry, that « Sanchonia- by the inhabitants of Damaſcus, Mount Libanus, and
tho ſtudied with great application the writings of the Inner Syria. 3. Tlie Chaldee or Nabachean dia-
Taaut, knowing thut he was the firſt who invented lect, the niort u polished of the three ; and ſpoken in
deliers."
the mountainous parts of Allyria, and the villages of
3 Q2
Trac
8
arts.
(1) See above, nº 2. where he ſays that the knowledge of letters was eternal. What dependence can we
put in the tellimony of ſuch a writer ?
À LH
( 492 )
ALP
1
Alphabet. Irac o: Bałylonia. It has been geile rally bclieved, words; the fundamental part being being divided into Alphabet.
that no ntion of equal antiquily had a nioj e conſiderable three claſſes, viz. I. haut, or roots of verbs; 2. Shubit,
trade than the Syrians i they are ſuppoſed to have or original nouns; 3. Eziya, or particles. Their al-
firf. brought the commodities of Perſia and India into pbabet contains 50 letiers ; viz. 34 conſonants and 16
the weſt of Alia; and they ſeen to have carried on an vowels. They aſſert that they were in poſſeſſion of
inland trade by engroſſing the navigation of the wu letters before any other nation in the world : and Mr
22.631 ites, whiiit the Phoenicians traded to the most di. Halhed conjectures, that the long-boaſted original ci-
vient countries. Notwithſtanding theſe circumſtances, vilization of the Egyptians may ſtill be a matter of diſ-
bitsrever, which might ſeem to favour the claim ofile pute. The Rajah of Kihinagur affirms, that he has
Syrians, the oldeſt characters they have are but about in his poffeffion Shanſcrit books, where the Egyptians
reecenturies before Chriſt. Thcir letters are of two are conſtantly defcribed as diſciples, not as inſtructors;
furis. 1. The Eſtrangelo, which is the more ancient ; and as ieeking in Hindoftan that liberal education, and
and, 2. The Fſhito, the ſimple or common character, thoſe ſciences, which none of their own countrymeni
which is the inore expeditious and beautiful.
had ſufficient knowledge to impart. Mr Halhed hints
Of the In We muſt next examine the claims of the Indians, alſo, that the learning of Hindoſtan might have been
diulis,
u hoſe pretentions to antiquity yield to no other nation tranſplanted into Egypt, and thus have become fami-
on earth. lir Halhed, who has written a grammar of liar to Moſes. Several authors, however, are of opi-
the Shaiſcrit language, informs us, that it is not only nion, that the ancient Egyptians polleſſed themſelves
the grand fource of Indian literature, but the parent of the trade of the Eaſt by the Red Sea, and that they
of almoſt every dialect froin the Persian gulpli to the carried on a conſiderable traffic with the Indian na-
Chinese feas, and which is ſaid to be a language of the tions before the time of Sefoftris ; whom they ſuppoſe
mioft vcnerable aniliquiiy. At preſent it is appropri. to have been cotemporary with Abraham, though Sir
aied to the relizious records of thc Bramins, and there Iſaac Newton conjectures him to have been the Shiſhak
fore fhut in their libraries ; but fornierly it appears who took Jeruſalem in the time of Rehoboam.
to have lieen current over the greateſt part of the In the year 1769, one of the ſacred books of the
eaſtern world, as traces of its extent may be found in Gentoos called Bagavadain, tranilated by Meridas
almoſt every difrict of Aſia.
Poule, a lcarned man of Indian origin, and chief in-
Mr Halhed inforins us, that "there is a great fini- terpreter to the ſupreme council of Pondicherry, was
larity between the Shanſcrit words and thoſe of the ſent by him to M. Bertin in France. In his preface
Perlian and Arabic, and even of Latin and Greek; he ſays, that it was compoſed by Viaſſer the ſon of
and theſe not in technical or metaphorical terms, but Bralıma, and is of ſucred authority among the worſhip-
in the main ground-works of language ; in monoſylla- pers of Viſchnow. This book claims an antiquity of
bles, the names of nunibers, and the appellations of 5000 years ; but M. de Guines has ſhown, that its pre-
ſuch things as would be firſt diſcriminated on the im tentions to ſuch extravagant antiquity are entirely in-
mediate dawn of civilization. The reſemblance which concluſive and unſatisfactory: whence we may con-
may be ſeen of the characters on the medals and ſigners clude, ſays Mr Aſtle, that though a farther inquiry in-
of diffcrent parts of Alia, the light they reciprocally to ihe literature of the Indian nations may be laudable,
throsy o pononcanother, and the generalanalogy wh yet we muſt by no means give too caſy credit to their
they all bear to the grand prototype, affords ano:her relations concerning the high antiquity of their ma-
ample field for curiolity. The coins of Aſlam, Na- nuſcripts and early civilization.
paul, Cahiniria, and many other kingdoms, are all It is not pretended that ihe Perſians had any great Letters not
Naniped with Shanfcrit letters, and moſtly contain al- learning anong them till the time of Hyſtafpes the invented in
lalions to the old Shanſcrit mythology. The ſame con father of Darius. The former, we are told, travelled Perſia ;
forinity may be obſervedin the imprellions of ſeals froin into India, and was inſtructed by the Bramins in the
Bootan and Thibet."
ſciences for which they were famed at that time. The
The country between the Indus and Ganges ſtill ancient Perſians deſpiſed riches and commerce,nor had
preſerves the Shanſcrit language in its original purity, they any money among them till after the conqueſt of
and offers a grcat number of buohs to the peruſal of Lydia. It appears by ſeveral infcriptions taken from
îlc curious; niany of which have been handed down the ruins of the palace of Perſepolis, which was built
from the earlieſt periods of human tradition.
near 700 years before the Chriſian æra, that the Per-
There are ſeven different ſorts of Indian hand-wri. fjans ſometimes wrote in perpendicular columns like ·
tings,all compriſed under the general term of Naagoree, the Chineſe. This mode of writing was firſt made uſe
wl.ich may be interpreted writing. The Bramins fay of on the ſtems of trees, pillars, or obeliſks. As for
that letters were of divine original ; and the elegant thoſe simple characters found on the weſt ſide of the
Shauſerit is ſtyled Daeb-naaguree, or the writings of ſtair-caſe of Perſepolis, ſome have fuppoſed them to be
the Immortals, which might not improbably be a re alphabetic, fome bieroglyphic,and others antediluvian,
ſinement from the more ſimple Naagoree of former Dr Hyde pronounces them to have been mere whim-
ages. The Bengal letters are another branch of the ſical ornainents, though the author of Conjectural Ob-
ſame ſtock. The Bramins of Bengal have all their ſervations on Alphabetic Writing ſuppoſes them to be
Sbanſcrit books copied in their national alphabet, and fragments of Egyptian antiquity brought by Cambyſos
they tranſcribe into them all the Daeb-naagoree manu- from the ſpoils of Thebes. Thelearned are generally
Scripts for their own peruſal. The Mooriſh dialect is agreed, that the Pertians were later in civilization than
that ſpecies of Hindoftanic which we owe to the con many of their neighbours ; and they are not ſuppoſed
queſts of the Mahometans.
to have any pretenſions to the invention of letters.
The Shanícrit language contains about 700 radical As the Arabians have been in poſſeſion of the coun-
try
IO
-
A LP
[493]
LP
À
BI
Alphabet, iry they now inhabit for upwards of 3700 years, with their calculations; and we have ſhown, that there were Alphabet.
out being intermixed with foreign nations, or ſubjuga- the parents of letters. This circumfance greatly fa-
ted by any other power, their language niuft be very vours their claim to the inventionı; becauſe Chaldea,
Nor by the
Arabians. ancient.
ancient. The two principal dialects of it were that and the countries adjacent, are allowed by all authors
ſpoken by the Hamyarites and other genuine Arabs; both ſacred and profane, to have been peopled before
and that of the Koreiſh, in which Mahomet wrote the Egypt; and it is certain that many nations ſaid to
Alcoran. The former is named by oriental writers be deſcer.ded from Shem and Japhet, had their leta
the Arabic of Hamyar ; the latter, the pure,or defecated ters from the Phoenicians, who were defcended from
Arabic. Mr Richardſon obſerves, as a proof of the Ham.
richneſs of this language, that it conſiſts of 2000 radi. "luis obſervable, that the Chaldeans, the Syrians,
cal words.
Phoenicians and Egyptians, all bordered upon each
The old Arabic characters are ſaid to have been of other; and as the Phoenicians, were thegreateſt as well
very high antiquity ; for Ebn Halhem relates, that an the moſt ancient commercial nation, it is very probable
inscription in it was found in Yaman as old as the days that they comdiunicated letters to the Egyptians, the
of Joſeph. Hence ſome have ſuppoſed that the Ara ports of Tyre and Sidon being not far diſtant from
bians were the inventors of letters; and Sir Iſaac New each other.
ion is of opinion, that Moſes learned the alphabet from * Mr Jackſon is evidently miſtaken when he ſays,
the Midianites, who were Arabians.
that letters were invented 2619 years before the birth
The alphabet of the Arabs conſiſts of 28 letters fi of Chriſt. The deluge recorded by Moſes was 2349
milar to the ancient Cufic, in which the firſt copies of years before that event: and ifletters were not invent-
the Alcoran were written. The preſeni Arabic cha ed till 550 years after, as he aſſerts, we muſt.date
racters were formed by Ebn Moklah, a learned Ara their diicovery only 1799 years before the Chriſtian
bian, who lived about 300 years after Mahomet. The æra, which is 410 years after the reign of Menes the
Arabian writers themſelves inform us, that their alpha- firſt king of Egypt, who, according to Synccllus and
bet is not very ancient, and that they receive it only others, is ſaid to have been the ſame perſon with the
a ſhort time before the introduction of Illamiſi. Miſor of Sanchoniatho, the Mizraim of the Scriptures
On this account of the pretenſions of different na and the Ofiris of the Egyptians : but whether this be
tions to the invention of letters, Mr Aſtle makes true or not, Egypt is frequently called in Scripture th:
the following reflections. " The vanity of each na land of Mizrain.
tion induces them to pretend to the moſt early civili " This Mizraim, thc ſecond ſon of Anyn or Hali
zation ; but ſuch is the uncertainty of ancient hiſtory, feated himſelf near the entrance of Egypt at Zoan, in
that it is difficult to determine to whom the honour is they ar before Christ 2183, and 100 years after the
due. It ſhould ſeem, however, that the conteſt inay flood. He afterwards built Thebes, and ſome fuy,
be confined to the Egyptians, the Phænicians, and the Memphis. Before the time that he went into Egypt,
Chaldeans. The Greek writers, and moſt of thoſe his fon Taant had invented letters in Planicia; and
who have copied them, decide in favour of Egypt, be. if this invention took place ten years before the inigte
cauſe their information is derived from the égyptians tion of his father into Egypt, as Mr Jackſon ſuppoſes,
Letters
themſelves. The poſitive claim of the Phoenicians does ve pay trace letters as far back as the year 2172 be-
mot pro. not depend entirely ur on the teſtimony of Sanchonia fore Christ, or 150 years after the deluge recorded by
bably in. tho; the eredit of his hiſtory is ſo well ſupported by Moſes : and beyond this period, the written annals of
vented in Philo of Byblas his tranſlator, Porphyry, Pliny, Cur manhind, n hich haveteen hitherto tranſmitted to us,
Phænicia,
tius, Lucan, and other ancient writers, who might wil noi enalle us to trace the knon ledge of them ;
have fee n his works entire, and whoſe relations deierve though this want of materials is no prout that letters
at leait as much credil as thoſe of the Egyptian aid were not known untila ceniuy and an halí after the
Greek writers. It muſt be allowed, that Sanchonia deluge. As for the pretenſions of the Indian nations
tho's hiſtory contains many fabulous accounts ; but we muſt be better acquainted with tlicirrecorris before
does not the ancient hiſtory of the Egyptians, the He can admit of their claim to the firſt uſe of letters ;
Greeks, and moſt other nations, abound with them to eſpecially as none of their manofcripts of any great
a much greater degree? The fragments which we artiquity bave us yet appeared in Europe. That the
have of this moſt ancient hiſtorian are chietly furnimed Arabians were not the inventors oíletters, has appeared
by Eufebius, who took all poſible advantages to re by their ownl'ccrfeífion. Plato fomen here mentions
preſent the Pagan writers in the worſt light, and to ltyperboican letters very different from the Greek ;
render their theology abſurd and ridiculous.
theſe might have been the characters uſed by the Tar-
« The Phoenician and Egyptian languages are very tars or ancient Scythians.
Ofantedio
ſimilar ; but the latter is ſaid to be more large and full, "It may be expeced that ſomething thould be ſaid luvian wris
which is an indication of its being of a later date. The concerning thoſe bucks mentioned by fome authors to
ting,
opinion of Mr Wiſe, however, that the ancient Egyp- have been written before the deluge. Amongſt oihers,
tians had not the knowledge of letters ſeems to be Dr l'arſons, in his Remains of aplict, P 146.359.
erronçous ; as they had commercial intercourſe wish fuppoſes letters to have been kilown to Adam ; and
iheir neighbours the Phænicians, they probally had the Sabeans produce a bouto which they pretend was
the knowledge of letters, if their policy, like that of written by Adam But concerning theicne have 110
the Chineſe at this day, did not prohibit the uſe of guide to direct us any more than concerning the up-
thein.
poſed books of Enoch ; ſome of which, Origin tells
“ The Chaldeans, who cultivated aſtronomy in the is, were found in Arabia Felis, in the dominion of
mof remote ages, uſed ſymbols or arbitrary marks in the queen of Suba. Tertullian affirms, that be faw
2.0
I
I 3
A L P
[ 494 ]
A L. P
1
15
14
sial.
Alphabet, and red ſeveral pages of them ; and in his treatiſe De Mr Aſtle next proceeds to conſider what alphabets are Alphabet.
Habit: Mulierum he places thoſe books among the derived froin the Phænician. Theſe he ſuppoſes to have
canonical: but St Jerom and St Auſtin look upon been immediately the ancient Hebrew or Samaritan ;
them to be apocryphal. Williain Poftellus pretended the Chaldaic; the Baftulian (A) or Spaniſh Phæni- derived
Alphabets
to compile his book De Originibus from the book of cian ; the Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian ; and the from the
Enoch : and Thomas Bangius publiſhed at Copenha- Pelaſgian. From the ancient Hebrew proceeded the Phoenician,
gen, in 1656, a work which conrains many fingular Chaldaic or ſquare Hebrew ; the round Hebrew ; and
relations concerning the manner, of writing among the what is called the runing hard of the Rabbins. The
antediluvians, which contain ſeveral pleaſant ſtories Pelaſgian gave birth to the Etruſcan,' Eugubian, or
concerning the books of Enoch.
Umbrian; Oſcan, Sannite, and Ionic Greek, written
“With regard to this patriarch, indeed, St Jude fron the left. From the Chaldaic or ſquare Hebrew
inforins us, that he prophefred, but he does not ſay that are derived the Syrisc, and the ancient and modern
he wiote. The writings, therefore, attributed to the Arabic. The Syriac is divided into the Eſtrangelo
antediluvians, in uſt appear quite unceriain ; thoughit and Mendæan, and the modern Arabic has given riſe
might be improper to aſſert that letters were unknown to the Perſian and Turkih. From the ancient Arabic
before the deluge recorded by Moſes.”
are derived the Kufic or Oriental, the Mauritanic or
All the al Our anchor proceeds to flow, that all the alpha- Occidental ; the African or Saracen, and the Mooriſh.
phabets in bets in the world cannot be derived from one origi. The lonic Greek gave riſe to the Arcadian, Latin,
the world nal; becauſe there are a variety of alphabets uſed in ancient Gauliſh, ancient Spaniſh, ancient Gothic, Cop-
cannot be different parts of Aſia, which vary in name, number, tic, Ethiopic, Ruſſian, Illyrian or Sclavonic, Bulga.
proved to
figure, order, and power, from the Phænician, ancient rian and Armenian From the Roman are'dérived
ariſe from
one origi-
Hebrew, or Samaritan. In ſeveral of theſe alphabets the Lombardic, Viſigothic, Saxon, Gallican, Franco-
alſo, there are inarks for ſounds peculiar to the lan- Gallic or Merovingian, German, Caroline, Capetian,
guage of the eaſt, which are not neceſſary to be em and modern Gothic.
ployed in the notation of the languages of Europe. The Punic letters are alſo called Tyrian, and were
None of the alphabets of the eaſt of Perſia have any much the ſame with the Carthaginian or Sicilian. The
connection with the Phænician or its derivatives, ex Punic language was at firſt the ſame with the Phæni-
cept where the Arabicletters have been introduced by cian ; it is nearly allied to the Hebrew, and has an
the conqueſts of the Mahometans. The foundation of affinity with the Chaldee and Syriac, Some remains of
all the Indian characters are thoſe called ſhanſcrit, or it are to be met with in the Malteſe. To make a com-
fungſkrit. This ſignifies ſomething brought to perfec- plete Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian alphabet, we
tion, in contradiſtinction to prakrit which ſignifies muſt admit ſeveral pure Phænician letters,
vulyar or unpoliſhed. Hence the refined and religious The Pelaſgi were likewiſe of Phoenician original ;
language and characters of India are called Sungſkrit, and, according to Sanconiatho, the Dioſcuri and Ca-
and the more vulgar mode of writing and expreſſion biri wrote the firſt annals of the Phænician hiſtory, by
Prakrit. Proin this Shanſcrit are derived the ſacred order of Taaut the inventor of letters. They made
characters of Thibet, The Caſhmirian, Bengaleſe, Ma- ſhips of burthen, and being caſt upon the coaſt near
labric, and Tamoul; the Singaleſe, Sianeſe, Maharat- mount Caſius, about 40 miles from Pelufium, where
tan, Concanec, &c. From the ſame ſource we may they built a temple in the ſecond generation after the
derive the Tangutic, or Tartar characters, which are deluge related by Moſes, they were called Pelaſgi
ſimilar in their great outlines, to the Shanſcrit; though from their paſſing by ſea, and wandering fromone coun-
it is not ealily determined which is derived from the try to another. Herodotus informs us, that the Pe-
other. The common Tartar is generally read, like the laſgi were deſcendants of the Phænician Cabiti, and
Chineſe, from lop bottom.
that the Samothracians, received and practiſed the Ca-
There are, however, ſeveral alphabets uſed in diffe- biric myſteries from them. The Pelafgic alpliabet pre-
rent parts of Alia, entirely diferent not only from the vailed in Greece till the time of Deucalion, when the
Shaufcrit and all thoſe derived from it, but alſo from Pelaſgi were driven out of Theſſaly or Oenotria by the
the Phænician and thoſe which proceed from it. Sonie Hellenes; after which ſome of ihem ſettled at the
of iheſe are the alphabct of Pego, the Bitta characters mouth of the Po, and others at Croton, now Cartona
uſed in ihe Illand of Sumatra, and ihe Ba' inail or Bo- in Tuſcany. Ilcir alphabet conſiſted of 16 letters,
man characters uſed in ſome parts of Pegu. The and the Tyrrhenian alphabet,brought into Italy before
names and powers of the letters of which theſe alpha- the reign of that prince, conſiſted of no more than 13.
bets are compoſed, diſfer entirely from the Phænician, Deucalion is ſaid to have reigned about 820 years af-
or thoſe derived from them. It is impoſſible to aſſimi ter the delnga, and 1529 before the Chriſtian æra.
late their forms, and indeed it is by no means eaſy to That the Tyrrheni, Tyrſeni, or Hetrufci, fettled in
conceive how the 50 letters of the Schanfcrii language Italy long before this period, appears from the teſti-
could be derived from the Phoenician alphabet, which mony of Herodorus, who informis us, that a colony
confifted originally only of 13; though it is certain, went by ſea from Lydia into Italy under Tyrrhenus;
that by far the greater number of alphabets now in and Dionyfius of Halicarnalius proves that many au-
ufe are derived from the ancient Hebrew, Phænician, thors called them Pelargi. He then cites Hellanicus
or Samaritan.
Leſbicuis, an author ſomewhat more ancient than He-
rodotus,
(A) The Baſluli are ſaid to have been a Canaantiſh or Phænician people who fled from Joſhua, and ſettled
aficrwards in Spain.
I
A LP
[ 495 )
A LP
Alphabet. rodotus, to prove, that they were firſt called Pelaſgi dian colony which came with Evander from Palantium. Alphabet ,
Tyrrheni; and when they paſſed into Italy, they ſettled 4. Thoſe who came from Peloponneſus with Hercules ;
in that part of it called Etruria. Their emigration and, 5. Thoſe who came with Æneas from Troy. It is
took place about the year of the world 2011, or 1993 not eaſy to diſcover when the lonic way of writing froin
years before the Chriſtian æra, which is 350 years be left to right was introduced into Italy ; but it is cer-
fore the Pelalgi left Greece. Bilhop Cumberland ad- tain, that it did not üniverſally prevail even in Greece
duces many proofs to ſhow that the Tyrrhenians origi- till ſeveral ages after it was found out. The Athenians
nally came out of Lydia into Italy. Several Roman did not comply with it till the year of Rome 350 ; nor
authors alſo ſpeak of this Lydian colony; and Horace was it practiſed by the Samnites even in the och century
complimients his patron Mæcenas upon his Lydian of that city, or 230 y cars before Chriſt: for M. Ge
deſcent :
beiin, Vol. VI. pl. 2. gives us the Samnite alphabet of
Lydorum quiciquid Etruſcos
that century, wherein the letters are placed from riglit
Incoluit fines, nemo generofior eft te.
to left, althoagh the Ionic way of writing prevailed
The Etruſcan letters are Pelaſgic, and ſeveral of the in ſome parts of Italy in the third century of Rome.
Etruſcan inſcriptions are written in the Pelargic lan “In time (ſays Pliny), the tacit conſent of all nations
guage. The Roman letters are lonic. The Oſcan agreed to uſe the Ionic letters, The Romans conſent-
language was a dialect of the Etruſcan ; their charac ed to this mode about the time of Tarquinius Priſcus
ters are nearer the lonic or Ronian than the Etraſcan. their fifth king.” The letters brought by Damaratus
There is alſo very little difference between the Pelar. the Corinthian,the father of Tarquin, Mi \Viſe thinks,
gian, Etruſcan, and moſt ancient Greek letters, which muſt have been the new or lonic alphabet, and not the
are placed from right to left. The Arcadians were an fame with that brought by Evander 500 years before.
cient Greeks, and uſed the Ionic letters; but at what After the Romans had eſtabliſhed the uſe of the Ionic
time they began to write from left to right is not leiters, they ſeein not to have acknowledged the Pea
known, as their chronology is very uncertain. The E- laſgian and Etruſcan to have been Greek alphabets :
truſcan, Oſcan,and Sanınite alphabets,are derived from the moſt learned of them knew none older than the I-
the Pelafgic ; they differ from each other more in name onic, as appears from the Greek Farneſe inſcriptions
than in form, but a far greater number are derived from of Herodes Atticus. This learned man, out of a re.
the Ionic Greek; namely, the Arcadian, the Latin or gard to antiquity, cauſed the oldeſt orthography to
Roman, and the others already enumerated. The Ru- be obſerved in the writing, and the letters to be deli-
nic is immediately derived from the Gothic.
neated after the moſt antique forms that could be
According to Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus, the firſt found; and they are plainly no other than the Ionic
Greek colony which came into Italy conliſted of Ar or right-handed characters.
cadians under the conduct of Oenotrus the ſon of Ly The ancient Gauliſh letters are derived from the See Plates
caon, and fifth in deſcent from Phoroneus the firſt Greek, and their writing approaches more nearly to
Xland XII.
king of Argos, who reigned about 566 years before the Gothic than that of the Romans: this appears by
for ſpeci.
the taking of Troy, and 1750 years before the Chri the monumental inſcription of Gordian, meſſenger of ancient
ſtian æra. Theſe Oenotrians were called Aborigines; the Gauls, who ſuffered martyrdum in the third cen-
alphabets
and after they had been engaged for many years in a tury with all his family. Theſe ancient Gaulith clia- here enu.
war with the Siculi, entered into an allianee with a raciers were generally uſed by that people before the merated-
colony of the Pelafgi, who came out of Theſſaly into conqueit of Gaul by Cæſar; but after that time the
Italy, after having been driven froni the fomer coun Roman letters were gradually introduced. The anci-
try. About 1476 B.C.another colony of the Pclafgi, ent Spaniards uſed letters nearly Greek before their
who had been driven out of Theſſaly by the Curetes intercourſe with the Romans. The ancient Gothic
and Leleges, arrived in Italy, where they affifted the alphabet was very ſimilar to the Greek, and is attribu-
Aborigines to drive out the Siculi; polleſſing thein ted to Ulphilas, biſhop of the Goths, who lived in Mæ.
Lolves of the greateſt part of the country between the fia about 3 70 years after Chriſt. He tranſlated the Bi-
Tiber and the Liris, and building ſeveral cities. So ble into the Gothic tougue. This circumſtance might
linus and Pliny tell us, that the Pelaſgi firſt carried have occalioned the tradition of his having invented
letters into Italy ; and the latter diſtinguiſhes between theſe letters; but it is probable that theſe characters
the Pelaſgi and the Arcades : ſo the letters firſt car were in uſe long before this time. The Runic alpha-
ried into Italy were not the lonic Greek, but thoſe bet is derived from the ancient Gothic.
more ancient Pelafgic characters which the Pelafgicar The Coptic letters are derived inuncdiately from the
ried with them before Deucalion and Cadmus are ſaid Greek. Some have confounded them with the ancient
to have come into Bæotia and Theſaly. The ſtory
The ſtory Egyprian; but there is a very material difference be-
of Cadmus is much involved in fable ; bat it is
tween them. The Ethiopic alphabet is derived from
by moſt of the ancients, that the children of Agenor, the Copric.
viz. Cadinus, Europa, Phænix, and Cilix, carried The alphabet proceeding from that of the Scythians
with them a colony compoſed of Phænicians and Sy- eftabliſhed in Europe, is the ſame with what St Cyril
rians, into-Aſia Minor, Crete, Greece, and Lybia, calls the Servien. The Ruſſian, Illyrian or Sclavonic,
where they introduced letters, mulic, poetry, and and the Bulgarian, are all derived from the Greek.
other arts, ſciences, and cuſtoms of the Phænicians. The Armenian letters differ very much from the Greek,
Dionyfius enumerates the following Greek colonies from which they are derived, as well as from the
which came into Italy : 1. The Aborigines under Oe Latin.
notrus from Arcadia. 2. The Pelaſgic colo.y which With regard to the alphabets derived from the La-
Alphabetst
came fronı Hæmonia or Theſſaly.- 3. Another Arca- tin, the Lombardic relates to the manuſcripts of Italy; from the
derived
mers of the
agreed
che Imatin.
A LP
[ 496 )
ALP
to it.
it niay
1
I 7
Alphabet. the Viligothic to thoſe of Spain ; the Saxon to thoſe indeed nothing elſe than Latin writing degenerated. Alphabét,
of Ellyland; the Ga'lion and Franco-Gallic or Mc. It began in the rath century, and was in general uſe,
lovingian to the manuſcripts of trance ; the German eſpecially among monks and (choolmen, in all parts of
to thule of that country; and the Caroline Caperian, Europe, till the reſtoration of arts in the 15th century,
and Modern Gothic, to all the countries of Europe and continued longer in Gerinany and the northeriz
who read Latin, The firit fix of thcſe alphabets are nations. The ſtatute books are Itill printed in Gothic
before the age of Charlemagric, the laſt three poſterior letters. The moſt barbaroiis writing of the ſeventh,
They are more diltinguiſhed by their names eighth, and ninth centuries, was preferable to the mo.
than the forms of their characters, and the former dern Gothic. It is divertified in ſuch a manner as can
indicate all of them to have been of Roman extraction, ſcarce admit of deſcription; and the abbreviations uſed
Each nation, in adopting the letrers of the Romans, by the writers were lo numerous, that it became very
added thereto a taſte and manner peculiar to itſelf, difficult to read it; which was one of the great cauſes
which obviouſly diſtinguiſhed it from the writings of of the ignorance of thoſe times. Along with this,
all other people; whence aroſe the differences between however, the Lombardic, Gothic, Roman, Caroline,
the writings of the Lombards, Spaniards, French,Sax- and Capetian inodes of writing, were occaſionally uſed
ons, Germans, and Goths, and all the ſtrange terms by individuals.
obſerveable in the writings of the Francic Gauls or Me The idea that all the alphabets above mentioned are
rsvingiuns; and thoſe of the Cailovingians thcir fuc derived from the Roman, tends to prove the diſtinction
ceflors may be traced from the ſame fource. From of national writing, and is of great uſe in diſcovering
thieſe diflin&tions the name of national writing was de- the age of manuſcripts : for though we may not be
rived.
able exactly to determine the time when a manuſcript
The writing of Italy was uniform till the irruption was written, we may be able nearly to aſcertain its age.
of the Goths, who disfigured it by their barbarous For example, if a writing is Merovingian, it may be
taſte. In 569, the Lombards, having poſſeſſed chen- declared not to be poſterior to the ninth, nor prior to
ielves of all Iíaly, excepting Rome and Ravenna, in- the fifth, century. If another be Lombardic,
troduced that form of writing which goes under their be affirmed to be poſterior to the middle of the 6th,
name; and as the Popes uſed the Lombardic manner and prior to the 13th. Should it be Saxon, it cannot
in their bulls, the name of Roman was ſometimes gi- be of an earlier date than the 7th, nor later than a-
ven to it in the nith century; and though the domini. bout the middle of the 12th.
on of the Lombards continued no longer than 206 Having confidered wlience the alphabets now in ufe Letters
years, the name of their writing continued in Italy throughout the various nations of the world are derived,
could not
from the 7th to the 13th century, and then ceaſed; it reniains to ſay ſomething concerning them as the ele- take place
but froni a
when learning, having declined in that as well as in ments of words, or how far they are capable of ex-
decompofi.
other countries, the manner of writing degenerated preſſing thoſe ſounds, which, by proper combination tion of lan-
into the modern Gothic.
and arrangement, conſtitute articulate language. The
guage,
The Vitigoths introduced their form of writinginto number of ſimple ſounds in any language cannot be
Spain, after having over-run that country ; but it was very numerous; and it is plainly theſe ſimple ſounds a-
aboliſhed in a provincial fyriod held at Leon in 1091, lone that we have occalion to repreſent by alphabetical
when the Latin characters were eſtablished for all pub- characters. Hence the perſon who firſt invented let-
lic juſtrunients, though the Viligothic were uſed in ters, muſt have been capable of analyſing language in
private writings for three centuries afterwards. a manner which ſeems by no means eaſy to do, and
The Gauls, on being ſubjected by the Romans, a. concerning which even the learned among ourſelves .
dopted their manner of writing ; but, by ſubſequent are not yet agreed. It is this difficulty which has pro-
additions of their own, their characters were changed duced the great diverſity in the number of alphabetical
into what is called the Gallican or Roman Gallıc mode. characters uſed by different nations; and where we ſee
This was changed by the Franks into the Franco-Gal a vaſt number of them uſed, we may account the wri-
lic or Merovingion mode of writing, being practiſed ting not the better, but much the worſe for it; and
under the kings of the Merovingian race. It took whoever the pretended inventor was, it is more rea-
place tovards the cloſe of the ſixth century, and con fonable to ſuppoſe that he disfigured an alphabet al-
tinued till the beginning of the ninth.
ready invented, by unneceſſary additions, than been
The German inole of writing was improved by the author of one himſelf.
18
Charlemagne, and this improvement occafioned ano When we conſider alphabetical characters as thus re- Probably
ther diſtinction in writing by introducing the alpliabet fulting from an analyſis of language, it will by no means not the re-
nained Caroline, which declined in the 12th century, appear probable that it was derived from a gradual and fult of a
and was ſucceeded in the 13th by the modern Gothic. progreſſive operation of the human mind through many
progreſſive
evolution
In France it had degenerated by the middle of the ages. There is not the leaſt affinity betwixt repreſent of the hu-
Toth century, but was reſtored in 287 by Hugh Ca. ing any object by a picture and finding out the founds man pow.
pet, whence it obtained the name of Capetian. I was which compoſe the word by which iti, expreſſed; nor, ers.
uſed in England as well as Germany and France. though a nation had been in uſe to repreſent things ei-
The modern Gothic, which ſpread itſelf all over ther in this method, or by any kind of arbitrary marks,
Europe in the 12th and rath centuries, is improperly for thouſands of years, could the one ever have led to
named, as not deriving its origin from the writiugan- the other Arbitrary marks muſt always be the ſame
ciently uſed by the Goths. It is, however, the worſt with pictures in this reſpec, that they muſt always be
and moſt barbarous way of writing, and originated a fixed to particular objects, and thus be increaſed ad inti-
mong the ſchoolmen in the decline of the arts; being nitum. Letters, on ihe other hand, are indifferent to
3
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11
n.
Alphabet. allojeđs; and therefore, by their combinations, which lincation of a teparacë mark or leiter tors;rint.ch ipdie:
are more numerols than as many arbitrary marks as found; which marks, though ſew ir nilaber, unuldar
we could remember, inay expreſs all the objects in na admit of ſuch a variety of arrangements aid comb!.12.
turc. This miglit furniſhi an argument of ſome ſtrength tions, as might be capable of producing that infinity of
for the divine revclation of writing, were it not that arciculate ſounds which conipoſe language. The ingco
other arts ſeemingly as uſeful, and as difficult to be in- nious Wachter, in his Nature et Scriptura Concorilla,
vented, hve been cxpreſsly aſcribed to particular p. 64, endeavours to ſhow, that ten marks or charac.
perſons whom we cannot ſuppoſe to have been divinely ters are ſuficient for this purpofe. His ſcheme is as
inſpired. Thus metallurgy, muſic, tle keeping of follows:
cattle, and uſe of tents, are all aſcribed to a ſingle fa-
mily; and though writing be not expreſsly mentioned
Geilus Figura. Potefias.
as an invention in Scripture, there is no reaſon to have
recourſe to a revelation for it as long as the human fa-
Vocal.
2. e. i. 0. u.
culties are known to have been ſufficient for the inven.
k. c. ch.
tion of it. Nevertheleſs, if we take a review of the
Guttural.
different arts which mankind have invented, we ſhall
find, that few of them reſulted from any gradual pro-
Lingual. L
1.
greſs or evolution of the powers of the human inind,
but rather by ſome ſudden and almoſt unaccountable
Lingual.
d. t.
turn of thought in an individual. Thus, the art of
printing, little inſeriorin its utility to that of writing,
Lingual.
Jay hid for ages, and was at laſt invented we ſcarce
Denral. n
f.
know how; ſo that if one inclined to ſuppoſe this a
divine revelation, he could be at little loſs for argu-
ments to ſupport his liypotheſis. This was wliat all
Labial. 3
the inventions and evolutions of human powers ſince
the creation had never been able to accompliſh ; yet
Labial. m
nobody believes that it required ſupernatural abilities
to be the author of this art, becauſe we fee plainly
Labial.
s. ph. v. w.
that it might have occurred to the human mind from
various ſources, and are ſurpriſed that it did not occur
Nalal.
A
long before. In like manner, the method of account-
ing for the celeſtial motions by the united forces of If this is the caſe, then the moſt ſimple alphabet,
projection and gravitation, was no reſult of the pro- which conſiſted only of 13 letters, muſt have been a-
grels that mankind had made in ſcience, but luckily bundantly fufficient to anſwer all ihe purpoſes of man-
occurred to Mr Horrox, without any thing that we kind, and inuch of our twenty-four letter alphaber may
know to direct him, or perhaps from cauſes almoſt un appear ſuperfinous. That able mathematician Tacques
known to himſelf. Thus alſo, the ſteam-engine, aero. has calculated the various coinbinations of the 24 leta
station, &c. were ſuddenly invented only by a ſlight re- ters, even without any repetition, to amount 10 10
view of principles well known before, and which had fewer than 620,443,401,733,239,439,360,000; while
been a thouſand times overlooked by thoſe who might Clavius makes them only 5,852,616,738,497,664,000.
have invented both. Alphabetic writing, therefore, Either of theſe numbers, however, are isifi1111e to
inight have been no deduction from hieroglyphic or the human conceptions, and much more than fufä-
picture writing, from which iris effentially different; cient to expreſs all the ſounds that ever were articula-
and it ſeems to be ſome confirmation of this, that all ted by man. As there are more ſounds in fome lan-
Number of
nations whoeyer pretended to the invention of letters, guages than in others, it follows of courſe, that the letters in
have aſcribed it to the labours of one particular per- number of elementary characters, orletters, muſt very different
lon, without taking notice of the progreſs made so in the alphabets of different languages. The Hebreir, alphabets,
wards it in preceding ages.
Samaritan, and Syriac alphabets, have 22 letters; the
19
of the ele. The learned author of Hermes informs us, that to Arabic 23, the Pcrfun and Egyptian, or Copiic, 32;
mentary about 20 plain elementary founds, we owe that variety the prefent Relian 41 ; the Shanícrit 50; while the
Counds of of articulate voices which have been fufficient to ex Caſhinirian and Malabaric are ſtill more numerous. The
language. plain the ſentiments of ſuch an inuumerable multitude following is the ſcheme of the Engih alphabet as yi-
as all the paſt and preſent generations of men. Mr ven by Mr Sheridan in his Rhetorical Grammar, p.9.
Sheridan ſays, that the number of ſimple ſounds in our Number of ſimplc ſounds in our tongue 28.
tongue are 28 ; while Dr Kenrick ſays, that we have
only 11 diftini fpecies of articulate founds, which e.
e
ven by contraction, prolongation, and compofition, are
hali hat liate beer note nooie bet fit but
increaſed only to the number of 16; every ſyllable or
у
articulate found in our language being one of the num-
fourt oo
ber. Silhop Wilkins and Dr Williain Holder ſpeak
of 33 diſtinct founds.
After the analylis or de compoſition of language in. 19 Costfonants, ebed ef eg ck c! en en ep er es
er ev ez tih eth eih ezh ing.
to the elementary ſounds, the next towards the nota 2 Suprifillo 145, C, which has the power of choren
tion of it by aphabetical characters, wcald be the de-
9, tht of ek befoie ::
Volt
:)
Iroda
3
2
I
9 Vowels, à
2
2
3
0
с
I
11
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forlee
A L P
[ 498 )
A L P
et.
ek ep
et.
eb ed eg.
9 Vocal,
23
21
22
Of the
forms of
letters.
Alphaber. Compound, j, which ſtands for eduh:
Nine more may be made by adding a point to each, Alphæniz,
%, for ks or gz.
kl !|m
Alphery.
I No letter, h, merely a mark of aſpiration.
and as many more as ! 1:1p may be ſufficient
Gonfonants divided into Mutes and Semivowels.
91:15
6 Mutes, eb ed eg ek op
for the notation of any language, by adding two or more
3 Pure Mutes,
points to each character. Though theſe ſquare cha-
3 Impure,
recters are not calculated for diſpatch ; yet they may
13 Semivowels, ? ef el em en er efs ev ez eth eth be made as expe itioully, or more io, than the Tartar,
or liquids; } eli ezh ing
.
the Bramin, the Caſhmirian,or many others. Writing
el em en er ev ez eth ezh ing.
compoſed of theſe characters, is at firſt light ſomewhat
4 Aſpirated, ef eſs eth eſh.
like the Hebrew.-Mr Dow, author of the History of New lan-
Indoſtan, lately formed a new language and alphabet. guage in-
Divided again into
This language, and the characters formed for its nota-vented by
4 Labial, eb ep ev ef.
tion, were fo tafy, that a female of his acquaintance ac- Mr Dow.
8 Dental, ed et eth ez eſs eth ezh eſh.
quired a knowledge of them in three weeks, and cor-
4 Palatine, eg ek el er.
reſponded with him therein during their intimacy.
3 Naſal, em en ing.
ALPHÆNIX, white barley-ſugar, to which is gi-
Mr Sheridan obferves, that our alphabet is ill calcu-
ven an extraordinary nane,to render it more valuable.
Iniperfec-
tion in the lated for the noration of the Engliſh tongue, as there
This fugar, which is thought good for colds, is made
of common ſugar, which is boiled until it becomes eaſy
Engliſh al- are many ſounds for which we have noletters or marks:
phabet, and there ought to be nine more characters or letters fed with oil of ſweet almonds, and mould it into va-
to crack, when they, pour it upon a marble table, greà-
to make a complete alphabet, in which every ſimple rious figures with a braſs crotchet. It is eaſily falli-
found ought to have a mark peculiar to itſelf. The
fied with ſtarch.
reaſon of the deficiency is, that the Roman alphabet
was formerly adopted for the notation of the Engliſh the Imperial line.
ALPHERY (Mikipher), born in. Ruſſia, and of
the Imperial line. When that country was torn to
language, though by no means ſuited to the purpoſe.
It now remains only to tåke fome notice of the forms pieces by inteſtine quarrels, in the latter end of the 16th
of the different letters; ſome knowledge of which is century, and the royal houſe particularly was ſo fe-
abſolutely neceſſary, for aſcertaining the age and au-
verely perfecuted by impoſtors, this gentleman and his
thenticity of infcriptions, manufcripts, charters, and two brothers were ſent over to England, and recom-
ancient records. Many authors are of opinion that mended to the care of Mr Joſeph Bidell, a Ruſſia mer
chant. Mr Bidell, when they were of age fit for the
letters derive their fornis from the poſitions of the or-
gans of ſpeech in their pronunciation. Van Helmont univerſity, fent them all three to Oxford, where the
has taken great pains to prove, that the Chaldaic cha- ſmall-pox unhappily prevailing, two of them died of it.
We know not whether this ſurviving brother took
racters are the genuine alphabet of Nature ; becauſe,
according to him, no letter can be rightly foundeà degrees or not, but it is very probable he did, ſince he
without diſpoſing the organs of ſpeech into an uniform entered into holy orders, and in the year 1618, had
poſition with the figure of cach letter ; and in ſupport the rectory of Wooley in Huntingtonſhire, a living of
v zbis ſyſtem, he has anatomiſed the organs of arti- in the king's books. Here he did his duty with great
no very conſiderable value, being rated at under L.10-
culation,
Mr Nelme las endeavoured to ſhow, tbatall elemen- cheerfulneſs and alacrity; and although he was
twice invited back to his native county by ſome who
tiny characters or letters derive their forms from the
ime and the circle. His alphabet consiſts of 13 radical would have ventured their utmoſt to have ſet him on
letters, four diminiſhed, and four augmented. The the throne of his anceſtors, he choſe rather to re-
radicals are D, 0, S, A, B, C, D, N, 0, 1, E, M, main with his flock, and to ſerve God in the humble
R.-H, according to hini, is derived from 'A ;' P from ſtation of a pariſh prieſt. Yet in 1643, he underwent
the fevereſt trials from the rage of the fanatics; who,
B; I from D; and F from Ur: theſe are all called di-
miniſhed letters. The augmented ones are Z from S;
not ſatisfied with depriving him of his living, inſulted
him in the moſt barbarous manner; for having procu-
G from C; W from U: and Y from 1. He proves red a file of moſqueteers to pull him out of his pulpit,
ibat his characters are very ſimilar to thoſe of the an-
as he was preaching on a Sunday, they, turned his wife
ciellt Etruſcans: but all characters are compoſed either
and finall children into the ſtreet, into which alſo they
of lines and circles of the former, and of parts of the
latter. -Mr Gebelin deduces them from hieroglyphic him a tentunder ſome trees in the church yard, over
threw his goods. The poor man in this diſtreſs raiſed
repreſentations, and has given ſeveral delineations of
human figures, trees, &c. in confirmation of this hypu. againſt his houſe, where he and his family lived for a
week. One day having gotten a few 'eggs, he picked
theſis.
up fome rotten wood and dry ſticks, and with theſe
One of the moſt ſimple alphabets has been formed, made a fire in the church-porch in order to boil them;
by making two perpendicular and two horizontal lines: but ſome of his adverſaries, to ſhow how far they could
albc
thus, det from which may be de- carry their rage againſt the church, for this poor man
was ſo harmleſs they could have none againſt him, came
glhi
and kicked about his fire, threw down his ſkillet, and
duced nine different characters or letters ; thus
broke his eggs. After this, h ving ſtill little money,
able allelFeñlli.
he made a ſmall purchaſe in that nighbourhood, built
hiun
ALP
( 499 ]
A L P
Thc re-
Alpheus him a houſe, and lived there ſome years. He was en charged with impiety on that ſcore ; but mjaflys lu Aphi,
1 couraged to this by a Irellyterian miniſter who came he only found fault with the involved fyllcın or ſume Alonia.
Alphonfus in his room, who honeſtly paid him the fifth part of aſtronomers. He was dethroned by his ſon Sancho;
the annual income of the living, which was the allow and died of grief, A, D. 1284.
ance made by parliament to ejeded minifters, treated ALPINI (Profpero), a famous phyſician and bo-
him with great humanity, and did him all the ſervices taniſt, born in the Venetian territory, 1553. He
in his power. It is a great misfortune that this gentle- travelled in Egypt to acquire a knowledge of exotic
man's name is not preſerved, his conduct in this respect plants, and was the firſt who explained the fructifica-
being the more laudable, becaute it was not a little fin. tion and generation of plants by the ſexual ſyſlem.
gular. Atterwards, probally on the death or removal Upon his return to Venice, in 1 586, Andrea Doria,
of this gentleman, Mr Alphéry lett Huntingdon ihire, prince of Melfi, appointed him his phyſician: and be
and came and reſided at Hammerſmith till the Reſto diſtinguiſhed himſelf ſo much in this capacity, that be
ration put him in poſſeſſion of his living again. He was eiteemed the firſt phyſician of his age.
returned on this occaſion to Huirtingto.hire, where public of Venice began to be unealy, that a ſubject of
he did not ſay long; for being upwatds of 80, and theirs, of ſo great merit as Alpini, ſhould continue ar
withal very infirm, he coulo not perform the duties Genoa, when ke might be of ſo much ſervice and how
of his function. Having, therefore, ſettled a curate, he nour to their ſtate : they therefore recalled him in
retired to his eldeſt ſon's honſe at Hammerinith, where 1593, to fill the profetiorſhip of botany at Padua ;
Shortly after he died, full of years and of honour. and he had a ſalary of 200 florins, which was after.
ALPHEUS, (Strabo); ALPHEUS, (Ptolemy); a wards raiſed to 750. He diſcharged this office with
noted and large river of the Peleponneſus, which, ri- great reputation ; but his health became very precari-
fingin, and after ſeveral windings running through, ous having been much broke by the voyages he had
Arcadia, and by Olympia in Elis, with a fouth-weſt made. According to the regiſter of the univerſity of
courſe, pours into the Sinus Cheloites, a-out len miles Padua, he died the 5th of February 1617, in the 64th
to the ſouth of Olympia. It has a common ſpring with year of his age ; and was buried the day after, without
the Eurotas, at the foot of mount Parthenius, near the any funeral pomp, in the church of St Anthony.-Al-
village Aſea, (Strabo.) The Alpheus and Eurotas pini wrote the following works in Latin : 1. Of the
mix and run together for 20 ſtadia ; after which, they phyſic of the Egyptians, in four books. Printed at Ve.
enter a ſubterraneous paſſage at Mantinea ; then again nice, 1591, in 4t0. 2. A treatiſe concerning the plants
emerge,the Eurotas in Laconica, and the Alpheus in the of Egypt. Printed at Venice, 1592, in 4to. 3. A
territory of Megalopolis,(Panſanias.) The poets fable dialogue concerning balſams. Printed at Venice, 1592,
ſtrange things of this river ; particularly, that, out of in 410. 4. Seven books concerning the method of form-
love to the nymph Arethuſa, it runs under the ſea to ing a judgment of the life or death of patients. Print
Sicily, and burſts out at the fountain of that name in ed at Venice, 1691, in 410. 5. Thirteen Books con-
Syracuſe, (Virgil). Its waters are reckoned good in cerning methodical Phylic. Padua, 1611, folio ; Ley.
the leproſy, which is called Alpos by the Greeks; and den, 1719, in 4t0. 6. A Diſputation held in the ſchool
hence the name Alpheus.--Pauſanias adds, that the at Padua, concerning the Raphonticum. Padua, 1612,
Eleans had a law, which condemned any woman to and 1629, 410, 7. Of exotic plants, in two books. Ves
death that ſhould either appear at the Olympic games, nice, 1699, in 4to. Heleft ſeveral other works,which
or even croſs this river during that folennity: and the have never been printed ; particularly,8. The fifth book
Eleans add, that the only woman who tranfgrelled it, concerning the phyficof the Egyptians. 9. Five books
had diſguiſed herſelf in the habit of a matter or keeper concerning the natural hiſtory of things obſerved in E-
of theſe games, and conducted her ſon thither; bụt gypt, adorned with a variety of draughts of plants
when ſhe ſaw him come off victorious, her joy made ſtones, and animals.
her forget her diſguiſe, ſo that her ſex was diſcovered. ALPINIA, in botany: A genus of the monogy
She was pardoned, but from that time a law was made nia order, belonging to the monandria claſs of plants ;
that the keepers ſhould appear there naked.
and in the natural method ranking under the 8th or-
ALPHONSIN, in ſurgery, an inſtrument for ex der, Scitaminea. The characters are : The caí; x is a
tracting bullets out of gun-ſhot wounds. This inftru- perianthium above, ſmall, and triſd: The corolla is
ment derives its name from the inventor Alphonſus Fer- monopetalous, unequal, and as if doubled : The fami-
rier, a phyſician of Naples. It conſiſts of three branch na conſiſt of one filament, with linear anthcræjoining
es, which are cloſed by a ring. When cloſed and in to the margin: The piſtillum has a soundiſh germen,
troduced into the wound, the operator draws back the beneath ; the ftylus ſimple, and the figma obtuſely tri-
ring towards the handle, upon which the branches o gonous: The pericarpium is a flethy ovale trilocular
pening take hold of the ball: and then the ring is puſh- capſule, with three valves : The feeds are ovate, and
ed from the haſt, by which means the branches graſp very numerous; the receptaculum is pulpy and very
the ball ſo firmly, as to extract it from the wound. large. Of this genus there is but one ſpecies which
ALPHONSUS X. king of Leon and Caftile, ſur- is a native of the Weſt Indies, where it grows naturally
naned the Wiſe, was author of the aſtronomical tables in moſt places. The leaves decay every winter, and
called Alphonfine. Reading of Quintas Curtius gave are pulled out froin the roots in the ſpring, like the
him ſuch delight, that it recovered him out of a danger- ginger and maranta ; fo muſt be managed in the ſame
ous illneſs. He read the Bible fourteen times, with fe manner as directed for theſe two planis, and may be
veral comments on it. He is ſaid to have found fault propagated by parting the roots when the leaves de
with the ſtructure of the mundane ſyſtem, and has been cay,
312
ALPISTE,
LP
[800]
A LP
Alfite,
Alps.
Alps.
iTPiST, l riLPIA, 2 ſort of ſtod uſed to feed The prospect from many parts of this ciiormous
birds vith, cipecially when they are to be nouriſhed range of mountains is cxcremely romantic, cfpecially
for breesing. The ali iſte feed is of an oval figure, of towards the north-weſt. One of the off celebrated
a pale yello, in lining to an iſabel colour, bright and is the Grande Charircuſe, where is a ni0nastery found-
glolly. It is an article of the cor:i-chandleisand ſecdſ- ed by St Bruno about the year 1084. From Écliclles,
es trade.
a little village in the mountains of Savoy, to the top
L: LPS (anc. geos-), a range of high mountains, ſes of the Chartreuſe, the cittance is fix miles. Along this
p rating liaiyfrom Gauland Germany, in the form of courſe the road l'uns uiuding up, for the moſt part
a creſcent. They take their riie from the Vada Saba not fix feel broad.
On onc hand is the rock, with
tia, or Sarona , and reach to the Sinus Flauaticus (now woods of pine trees hanging over head; on the other
Golio di Carnaro of the Adriatic), and the ſprings of a prodigious precipice almoſt perpendicular ; at the
the river Colapis (now the Kulpc); extending, accord bottom of which rolls a torrent, that, fonietimes tuli
ing to Livy, 2coo ſtadia in length, or 250 miles: they bring among the fragments of ſtone which have fallen
are divided into ſeveral parts, and accordingly have from on high, and fonctimes precipitating itſelf down
different names. Froin Savona to the ſprings of the Va vaft defcents with a noiſe like thunder, rendered yet
rus, where the Alps lie againſt the ſea of Genoa, they more tremendous by the cchio from the mountains on
are called Maritima , now le Montagne di Tenda. Theſe each ſide, concurs to form one of the moſt folemn, the
exted from ſouth to worth, between Gaul to the weſt, moſt roinantic, and moſt aſtoniſhing ſcenes in nature.
ard Genoa to the elft, beginning at Monaco on the Me To this deſcription may be added the ſtrange views
diterranean ; then running out thro' the eaſt of the made by the craggs and cliffs, and the numerous caſ-
county of Nice, and between that and the marquiſate cades which throw themſelves from the very fummit
of Saluzzo, terminate atlength at mount Viſo, between down into the vaie. On the top of the moutain is
Dauphine and Piedmont. Hence to Suſa run the Alpes the convent of St Bruno, which is the ſuperior of the
Corti(Sueton ); Cottance (Tacitus); nouiitai.is ex whole order. The inhabitants conſiſt of 100 fathers,
tremely high,feparating Dauphine from Piedmont, and with 300 ſervants, who grind their corn, preſs their
extending from mount Viſo lo Mount Cenis, between wine, and perform every domeſtic office, even to the
the Alpes Maritime to the ſouth, and the Graive to making of their clothes. In the Album of the fathers
the north. The Alpes Graice (Pliny), ſo called froni is admired an alcaic ode, written by the late ingenious
the pallage of Hercules,begin from mount Cenis, 1 here Mr Gray when he viſited the Chartreuſe, and which
the Collia terminate ; and run out between Savoy and has ſince been publiſhed among his works.
the Tarentelecoche weſt, and Piedinont and the Duche The glaciers of Savoy are alſo juſtly reckoned among
d'Aouſe to the eali., quite to the Great St Bernard, the moſt ſtupendous works of nature. Theſe are iin-
where the Alpes Pennina begin. They are alſo called menſe mafiesotice, ledged upon the gentler declivities
by fome Graiæ Alpes, and Graius Mons (Tacitus); amidſt the Alps, and exhibiting repreſentations be-
which extend from weſt to eaſt, between St Bernard yond conception fantaſtic and pictureſque. In the
and the Adula, or St Godart; and thus they run out extraordinary narrative of Mr Bourrit's journey hither,
between the Valeſe to the north, and the Milaneſe to we ineet with the following account of the Prieuré, in
the ſouth. With theſe are continued the Alpes Rha- the valley of Chamouni. We had, ſays he, the mag-
tica, to the head of the river Piave; part of which niticent proſpect of a cliain of mountains, equally in.
are the Alpes Tridentine, to the north of Trent. To acceſlible, and covered with ice; and above the reſt
theſe join the Alpes Jorice, reaching to Doblach in that of Mount Blanc, whoſe top ſeemed to reach, and
Tyrol, to the north of the river Tajamento: thenice even pierce, the higheſt region of the clouds. The
begin the Alpes Carnicæ, or of Carniola, extending to chain upon which this nonntain looks down like a
the ſprings of the Save: and the laft, called, Alpes lan giant, is compoſed of maſſes of rocks, which terminate
nonicæ , aud Juliæ, extend to the ſprings of the Kulpe. in pikes or ſpires, called the Needles, and which are
Some, however, extend the Alps to the north of Dal- ranged like tunisin a camp. Their fides appear lighter
matia ; others, again, to Thrace and the Euxine. But and more airy, from the ornament of ſeveral hollow
their termination at the Kulpe, as above, is more ge- breaks and furrows fretted in the rock itſelf, as well
nerally received. They were formerly called Alpia,and as fron the different ſtreaks and panes of ice and ſnow,
Alpionia (Strabo). Throagh theſe mountains Hannibal which, without changing the general character of their
forced his paſſage into Italy, by pouring vinegar on form, or the majeſty of their appearance, give them a
the rock, heated by burning large piles of wood on pi&tureſque variery. Lower down, the eye furveys
them, by which micans they become crumbled (Livy). with raviſhment the hills of ice, and the ſeveral gla-
They are covered with perpctual ſnow.
ciers, extending almoſt into the plain, whilſt this ap-
The Alps are the higheſt mountains in Europe ; pears like an artificial garden, embelliſhed with the
being, according 10 ſome geometricians, about two mixture of a variety of colours. We have a pictureſque
miles in perpendicular height. They begin at the Me- oppoſition to this chain, which is formed by innumer -
diterranean; and ſtretching northward, ſeparate Pied- able mountains at the diſtance of near so leagues, be-
inont and Sayoy from the adjacent countries ; whence tween whoſe tops we have a glimpſe of thoſe ſeveral
directing their courſe to the eaſt, they form the boun- plains which they environ.
dary berween Switzerland and Italy, and terminate M. de Sauſſure, who had viſited thoſe mountains
near the extremity of the Adriatic Sea, north-caſt of about two months before M. Bourrit, felt himſelf na-
Venice. It was over the weſtern part of thoſe moun. turally electrified in this place. This extraordinary
tains, towards Piedmont, that Hannibal forced his phenomenon ſeems not to have been experienced by
paſſage into Italy.
the latter or his company; but they heard a long-con-
pued
A L P
( 501 )
A L P
Y
Alps.
7
tinuci rumliing noiſe, like that of thunder, which Ord, the great mountains recede irland, and leave a Gipo.
was rendered wore awful by the ſilence of the place valt flat between their baſes and the ſea, fronting the
where llicy fivod. This hoile proceeded from the ſub waves with a ſeries of loſty rocky precipices, as íar as
(cquent cauſes, viz.theavalanches of ſnow, which fe- the little creek of Staxigo; the whole a bold, but
parated from the tops of the mountain, and rolled moſt inhoſpitable ſhore for ſhipping, Wick and Stax-
down to the bottom ; conſiderable fragments of thc igo have indeed their creeks, or rather chafins, which
rocks which followed them.overturning others in their open between the cliffs, and may accidentally prove
Call ; and inaliy blocks of ice, which precipiraled from a retrcat, unleſs in an eaſtern gale.
llie (u! 21:11.9.
The Aſiatic Alpsare deſcribe wider the articlesi"
The villey of Montanvert appears to be peculiarly TAIC Chain and TERTURIAX 1+20117.1 22ns.
romantic. Here, ſays M. Lourrit, we beheld a ſpaci. The American Alps are, The Andes or Cordilleras,
ons icy plaia entirely levci. Upon this there roſe a in South opcrica; and the APALACHIAS or Allega!
mount in all of ice, with ſteps aſcending to the top, mountains, in North America.
which ſeemed the thione of fome divinity. It likewiſe The highest ground in North âmerica is placed by
took the form of a grand caſcade, whoſe figure was be- Captain Carver in lat. 570 welt long. from Lond 999
yond conception beautiful ; and the ſun, which thone between a lake from which the Crezon flows, and a
a pon it, gave a ſparkling brilliance to the whole. The mother called IV hitzobzar Lake, fiom which ariſes the
valley on our right hand was ornamented with proti- Millifippi.
gious glaciers, that, 1200ting up to an immeaſurable This cxalted ſituation is part of the Shining Mouil-
height between the mountains, blind their colours tains, which are branches of the vaſt chain which per.
with the ſkies, which they appear to reach.
vades the whole continent of America. It may be
ALPs, beſides its proper ſignification, by which it fairly take: from the ſouthern extremity,where Staten
denoles a certain chain of mountains which ſeparate Land and Terra del Fuego riſe out of the ſea os inſum
Italy from France and Germany, is frequently uſed as lated links to an immenſe height, black, ruchy, and
an appellative to denote any mountains of extraordi- marked with rugged ſpiry tops, frequently covered
pary heighi or extenſive range. In this ſenſe, Anfo- with ſnow. New Georgia may be added as another
nius and others call the Pyrenean mountains, Alps; horribly congenial, riling detached farther to the east.
and Gellius the Spanish Alps, Alpini Hifpani.. The niountains about the Straits of Magellan ſoar to
Hence alſo we ſay, the Britiſh Aips, thc Afiatic an amazing height, and infinitely ſuperior to thoſe ct
Alps, the Alps of America,
the northein hemiſphere undechefanie degree of il-
The Scottish Alps terminate in a moſt ſublime and titude. From the north lide of the Straits of Iva-
abrupt manner, at the great promintary the Alta Ripa gellan, they form a continued chain through llie king-
of Ptolemy, the Ordor 4rdi.e.the Height, of Gaithnejs. doms of Chili and Peru, preſerving a coarſe not re-
The upper part is covered with glooiny heath; the low mote from the Pacific Ocean. The ſunimits, ir many
crisa (tupendous precipice,excavated into vaſt caverns places, are the highest in the world. There are not
the haunt of ſeals and different ſea fowl. On the eaſtern leſs than 12, which are from 2400 toiſes high to above
fide of the kingdom, this is the triking termination of 3000. Pichincha, wich impends over Quito, is about
the valt mountains of Scoland which from its High- 35leagues from the ſea; and its ſummit is 2430 teiſes
lands, the habitation of the original inhabitans, driven above the ſurface of the water.
from their ancient ſeats by the anceſtors of Lowland ately under the equator, is above 2000 ; and Chimbo-
Scots, deſcendants of Saxons, French, and Normans ; razo higher than the laſt by 200. Moſt of them have
congenerous with the Engliſh, yet abſurdly and invi- been volcanic, and in different ages marked with erup-
dioully diſtinguiſhed from thein. Language, as well tions far niore liorrible than have been known in orlier
as ſtriking natural boundaries, mark their place. Their quarters of the globe. They ex.end from the equator
mountains face on the weſt the Atlantic ocean ; wind 2 through Chili; in which kingdoin is a range of volca-
long the weſt of Caithneſs, among which Morvern and noes, from lat. 26. fouth, to 45.50. and polšībly from
Scaraben, Ben-Hop and Ben-Lugal, ariſe pre-eminent. thence into Terra del Fuegoitſelf: which, forniing the
Sutherland is entirely Alpine,as are Roſsthire and in Straits of Magellan, may have been rent from the con-
verneſs/hire. Their Silmm& Alpes are, Meal Fonryou tinent by ſome great convullion, occaſioned by their
nich, the Coryarich, Benewith,and Beneviih near Fort- labourings; and New Georgia forced upfrom the famo
William; the laſt of which is reported to be 1450 yards cauſe. An unparalleled extent of plain appears on
in height. Great part of Aberdeenſhire lies in this their eaſtern fide. The river of Amazons runs along
tract. It boaſts of another Morvern, foaring far be a level cloached with foreſ s, after it burlts froin its
yond the others. This is the centre of the Grampian confinement at the Pongo of Borjas, tillit reaches its
hills, and perhaps the higheſt from the ſea of any in ſea-like diſcharge into the Ailantic Ocean.
Great Britain. They again comprehend the eaſtern Inthenorthern hemiſphere, the dudes paſs through
part of Perththire, and finiſh on the magnificient ſhores the narrow Iſthmus of Darien into the kingdom of
of Lochlomond, on the eaſtern ſide of which Beri Mexico, and preſerve a majeric height and their vol-
lomond riſes, diſtinguiſhed among its fellows. From canic diſposition. The mountain Popocatepec made
hence the reſt of north Britain forms a chain of hum a violent eruption during the expedition of Cortez,
bler hills ; but in Cumberland, part of Weſtmoreland, which is moſt beautifully deſcribed by his hiitoriin Ana
Yorkſhire, Lancaſhire, and Derbyſhire, the Alps re conio de Solis. This, poſſibly, is the ſame with the
fume their former majcfty. A long and tame interval volcano obſerved by the Abbé d'Auteroche, in his way
ſucceeds. The long ſublime track of Wales ariſes, the from Vera Cruz to Mexico ; which, from the naked-
ancient pofleflion of the ancient Britiſh race. From the neſs of the layas, he conjectured to have been but later -
ly
$
A LP
A LP
[
502 ]
1
Alps, ly extinguiſed. From the kingdom of Mexico, this though mucis corrupted. Here is a rivulet between Alquior
A_lpuxarras chain is continued northward, and to the caſt of Cali. Pitros and Portugos, which dyes linen that is dipped in
fornia ; then verges ſo greacly towards the weſt, as to
it black in an instant, Near this rivuletis a cavern, froin Alface.
leave a very inconſiderable ſpace between it and the which proceeds fo malignant a ſtain, that it deſtroys
Pacific O can, and frequently detached branches jut ſuch animals as conie near it. The Moriſcos culti-
into the ica, and form promontories; which, with vate the ſoil catremely well,and plant fruit-trees; ſome
paits of the chain itſelf, were often ſeen by our nayi of which grow to a prodigious height and thickneſs,
garors in the courſe of their voyage. Some branches, and give the mountains a very agreeable aſpect.
as we have before obſerved, extend towards the eait, ALQUIER, a liquid niealure, uſed in Portugal to
but not to any great diſtance. A plain, rich in woods meaſure oil, two of which make an almond. See
and ſavannas, ſwarming with biſons or buffaloes, ſtags, ALMOND.
and Virginian deer, with bears, and great variety of
ALQUIFOU, or ARQUIF OU, is a fort of lead-ore,
game occupies an amazing tract, from the great lakes which, when broken, looks like antimony. It is uſed
of Canada, as low as the vulph of Mexico, anu ealt- by the potters to give a green varniſh to their works,
ward to the other great chain of mountains, the Apa and thence is called potter's ore. It is met with in
lachian, which are the Alps of that ſide of northern Cornwall,&c. The poſters mix a ſmall portion of man-
America. Its commencement is ſuppoſed to be about ganeſe with the alquifou, and then the varniſh of gla-
Lake Champlain and Lake George, with branches zing on their ware is of a blackiſh hue.
pointing obliquely to the river St Laurance eaſtward, ALREDUS, ALURED, or ALUREDUS, of Bever-
and riling on its oppolite coaſts ; others extending ley, one of the moſt ancient and beſt Engliſh hiſtorians,
with lowering progreſs, even into Nova Scotia. The He wrote in the reign of Henry I. There are no cir-
main chain pafles through theſtate of New York, cumſtances of his lite known with any degree of cer-
where it is diſtinguiſhed by the name of the Highlands, tainty. It is generally believed that he was educated
and lies within 40 miles of the Atlantic. From at Cambridge, and that he afterwards became one of
thence it recedes from the ſea, in proportion as it the canons and treaſurer of St John's at Beverley. And
advances, foutlı ward; and near its extreinity in ſouth we learnin a note of biſhop Tanner's, that, for the ſake
Carolina is 300 miles diſtant from the water.
It coll of improvemen, he travelled through France and Italy;
fiſts of ſeveral parallel ridges, divided by moſt in and that at Rome lie became domeſtic chaplain to car-
chanting vallies and generally cloathed with a vari dinal Othoboni. He died in the year 11 28 or 1129;
ety
of woods. Theſe ridges rife gradually from the leaving behind him the following works: 1. The An-
eaſt, one above the oiher, to the central ; from which nals of Alured of Beverley. Oxford, 1726. Publiſhed
they gradually fall to the weſt, into the vaſt plains by Mr Hearne, from a manuſcript belonigng to Tho-
of the Miſſiſſippi. The middle ridge is of an enor mas Rawlinſon, Eſq. It contains an abridgment of the
mous bulk and height. The whole extends in breadth hiſtory from Brutus to Henry I, written in good La-
about 70 miles; and in many places leaves great tin; and with great accuracy.
2. Libertates ecclefiæ
chaſms for the diſcharges of the vaſtand numerous St Johannis de Beverlac, &c. a manuſcript in the Cot-
rivers which riſe in the boſoms of the mountains, ton library. It is a collection of records relative to
and empty themſelves into the Atlantic Ocean, af the church at Beverley, tranſlated by our author from
ter yielding a matchleſs navigation to the provinces the Saxon language. The Biographia Britannica evi-
1hey water.
dently proves theſe to be all that were written by Alre-
Beyond the branch of the Apalachian mountains dus.
called The Endleſs, is another of ainazing extent, ALRESFORD, a town of Hampſhire, feated on the
ncarly as high as the mountains themſelves. This road from London to Southampton, cloſe by the river
plain (called the Upper Plains) is exceedingly rich Itching, which feeds a great pond to the left of the
land; begins at the Mohock's River ; reaches to town. Part of a Roman highway runs from thence to
within a ſmall diſtance of Lake Ontario ; and to Alton. It is a rectory, with the mediety of Old Alres-
the weſtward forms part of the extenſive plains of ford, of L.49:12: 8 in the king's books. It conſiſts of
the Ohio, and reaches to an unknown diſtance be about 200 houſes; has one church, two principal freets,
yond the Milliſippi. Vaſt rivers take their riſe, and which are large and broad; and a ſmall manufacture
fall to every point of the.compaſs; into Lake Ontario, of linſeys.
into Hudſon's River, and into the Delaware and Suſ ALSA a river of Carniola (Pliny), now the Aufa; run.
quehanna. The tide of the Hudſon's River flows thro' ning by Aquileia with a ſhort courſe from north to ſouth,
its deep-worn bed far up, even to within a ſmall di into the Adriatic ; where Conſtantine, the ſon of Con.
ſtance of the head of the Delaware; which, after a ſu ſtanitine the Great, fighting againſt Conſtans his bro-
rious courſe down a long deſcent, interrupted with ra. ther, loſt his life.
pids, meets the tide not very remote from its diſcharge ALSACE, a province of France, bounded on the eaſt
into the ocean.
by the Rhine, on the ſouth by Swiſſerland, on the weſt
ALPUXARRAS, or ALPAX ARES, mountains of by Lorrain, and on the north by the palatinate of the
Spain, in the Province of Granada, on the Coaſt of the Rline. It was formerly a part of Germany, but was
Mediterranean ſea. They are about 17 leagues in given to France by the treaty of Munſter. It is one of
length, and 11 in breadth, reaching from the city of the moſt fraitful and plentiful provinces of Europe,
Velez to Almeria. They are inhabited by Moors, who abounding in corn, wine, wood, flax, tobacco, pulfe,
are the remains of the diſperſion and ruin of their em fruiis, &c. Thumountains which divide it from Lor-
pire. They embraced the Chriſtian religion ; but per rain are very high, and generally covered with firbeech,
Terve theirfown manner of living, and their language, oak, and horn beam. Thoſe on the lide of Swiſſerland
aie
(
A LS
( 303 )
ALS
Alfen
Alfine.
are leſs higlı ; and furniſhed with all forts of wood, as of them poffefs any remarkable properties, except this Alirat.
wellfor fuel as building. The country itſelfis diverlified media, or common chickweed, with white blolioms,
with riling hills and fertile vales, beſides large foreſts; which is ſo well known as to need no particular de- Allops
but that between the rivers Ill, Hart, and the Rhine, as fcription. This fpecies affords a notable inſtance of
far as Straſburgh,is inferior to the reſt on account of the what is called the deep of plants: for, every night,
frequent over Howing of the Rhine. In High Alſace the leaves approach in pairs, ſo as to include within
there are mines of ſilver, copper, and lead. They how their upper ſurfaces the tender rudiments of ihe new
ever work none but thoſe of Giromany,from which are Indots; and the uppermoſt pair but one at the end of
annually drawn 1600 marks of ſilver, each mark being the ſtalk are furniſhed with longer leaf-ſtalks than the
eight ounces; and 24, co pounds of copper: but the ex others; ſo that they can cloſe upon the terminating
pence of working them is almoſt equal to the profit. pair, and protect the end of the branch. The young
There are iron-works in ſeveral parrs of Allace, and Ihoots and leaves, when boiled, can hardly be diftin-
particularly at Betford. There is a mineral ſpring at guiſhed from ſpring ſpinach. They are deemed refri-
Sultſbach, near Munſter, in High Alface ; which is in gerating and nutritive, and an.excellent food for per-
great reputation for the pally, weakneſs of the nerves, ſous of a conſumptive habit of body.-Swine are ex-
and the gravel.-The original inhabitants of Alſace-are tremely fond of chickweed; cows and horſes eat it ;
honeſt and good-natured, but wedded to their own mani ſheep are indifferent to it; and goats refuſe it.
ners and cattoms, The, fruitfulneſs of their country ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, denotes
renders them indolent and ina tiye ; fortleSwiſs make a bridge laid over the middle of hell, finer than a hair,
their hay and reap their corn, as well as manage the and fharper than the edge of a ſword, over which peo-
vintage of High Aliace, which ſends a great deal of ple are to paſs, after their trial, on the day of judgeo-
money out of the province. The common language is ment, To add to the difficulty of the pailage, Ma-
the German: however, the better fort of people fpeak homet afſures, that the allirat, narrow as it is, is be-
French in the towns; and even in the country, they ſet with briars and thorns; none of which, however,
ſpeak French well enough to be underſtood.
will be any impediment to the good, who ſhall fly over
ALSEN, an iſland of Denmark in the leffer Belt, it like the wind, Mahomet and his inu/fulnen lead.
or entrance into the Baltic fea, between Sleſwick and the way; whereas the wicked, by the narrowneſs of
Funen. It is remarkable for nothing exceptiwo caſtles, the path, the entangling of the thorns, and extinction
and producing large crops of aniſeeds, a carminative of the light which direced the former to paradiſe,
much uſed in ſeaſoning the food and niixing with the will fuun miſs their footing, and tumble headlong into
bread all over the Daniſh Dominions. E. Long: 10. 12. hell, which is gaping beneath to receive them.
N. Lat. 55. 12.
ALSIUM, a city of ancient Etruria, occupying
ALSFIELD, a town of Germany, in the landgra- (according to Culverius) the ſpot on which fela now
viate of Helle Caſtle, ten miles north-weſt of Marpurg, lands. We are told by Dionyfius Halicarnaiſenfis,
and: 35 ſouth of Helle Caſtle. It is an ancient town, that Allium was built by the Aborigines, long before
and well built; and the inhabitants were the firſt of the Tyrſenians invaded Italy. in this caſe it muſt have
this country who embraced the Reformation. E. Long. been founded not long after the diſperſion in the days
9. 5. N. Lat. 50. 40.
of Peleg. Its founder is ſaid to have been one Alafits,
ALSHASH, a very beautiful city in Bucharia,. Alefus, or Aliſa; whom fome conjecture to have been
fuppoſed to be the ſame with that which is now called Aliſah, or Eliſha, the fon of Javan mentioned in fcrip-
Talbcant, the capital of the eaſtern part of Turkeſtan,
poſſeſſed by the Kaſſats. It is ſituated on the river Si. ALSOP (Anthony), a divine and poet, was edu-
hún, now Sír, and had a well-watered garden for every cated at Weſtminſter-ſchool, and thence elected to
houſe ; but was ruined by Jenghiz Khan, who took Chriſt-church, Oxford, where he took the degree of
ihe city, and cauſed a great number of its inhabitants M. A. in March 1696, and of B. D. in Decem. 1706.
to be maſſacred.
On his coming to the univerſity, he was very ſoon di-
ALSHEDA, a pariſh of Sweden, in the province ftinguiſhed by Dean Aldrich, and publiſhed Fabula-
of Smaland, where a gold mine was diſcovered in rum Efopicarum Delectus, Oxon. 1698, 8vo. with a
1.731..
poctical dedication to lord vifcount.Scui'amore, and a
ALSINA, ir botany, a ſynonime of the theligo- preface in which he took part againſt Dr Bentley in
See THELIGONUM.
The famous diſpute with Mr Boyle. He palled through:
ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial name and the uſual offices in bis college to that of cenfor with
alſo a ſynonime of the clatine. See ELATINE. confiderable reputation ; and for fome years had the
ALSINE, OF CHICK WEED: A genus of the trigynia principal noblemen and gentlemen belonging to the fo-
order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants; and, ciety committed to his care.
ciety committed to his care. In this employment he
in the natural method, ranking under the 22d order, continued till his merit recommended him to Sir Joni-
Caryophyllei. The characters are : The calyx is quin- than Trelawney, biſhop of Wincheſter, who appointed
quephyllous: The corcha conſiſts.of five equal petals, him his chaplain, and ſoon after gave him a prebend in
longer than the calyx : The ſiamina conſiſt of five cas his own cathedral, together with the rectory of Brig!
pillary filaments; the antheræ are roundish: The pi. well in the county of Berks, which afforded him ample:
Jiilluin has an ofalgermen, three filiform ftyli, and ob- proviſion fura learned retirement, from which he could
tufe ftigmata : The pericarpium is an ovate unilocular not be drawn by the repeated folicitations of thoſe who
capſule, with three valves : The ſeeds are roundiſ and thought hint qualified for a inore public character and
Of this genus a great numl:er of ſpecies a higher ſtation In 1717 an action was brough an
kre enumerated by ſome botanical writers; but noue gainſt hin by Mrs Elizabeth Aſtrey of Oxford, for a
breachi
ture.
num.
Nul erous.
1
( 504 ]
A LS
1
Aliep. breach of a marriage-contract'; and a verdict obtained and elegant writings. Of theſe thic moſt remarkable, Alftedius
again liim for 2000l, which probably occationed him belides bis ſerious, are, I. Antifozzo ; in vindication d
to leave the kingdom for ſome time. His death, which of ſome great traths opposed Dr by William Sherlock, Altaic.
happened June 10, 1726, was occalioned by his falling Evo, 1675. 2. Melius Inquirend112 ; in anſwer to Dr
into a ditch that led to his garden-door. A quarto vo-
Goodman's Compatrionate Inquiry,8yo, 16 79. 3. The
lume was pabli ſed in 1752, under the title of Ar-Miſchief of impositions, in anſwer to Dr Stillingtleet's
iourii A.Sopi, Edis Chrifli olin diumui Odarum libri Miſchief of Separation, 1680. 4. A Faithful Rea
t!lo. Four Engliſh poeins of his are in Dodiley's Col. proof to a Falſe Report, with reference to the Diffe-
je&tions, one in Pearch's, ſeveral in the early volumes rences among the United Miniſters in London, 8vo,
of the Genileman's Magazine, and ſome in “ The Stu ALSTEDIUS (John-Henry), a German Prote-
dent,” Mr Alfopis rcipectfully mentioned by the ſa ftant divine, and one of the moſt indefatigable writers
cctious Dr King of the Commons (vol. I, p. 236), as of the 17th century. He was ſome time profeſſor of
having enriched the commonwealth of learning, by philoſophy and divinity at Herborn in the county of
- Tranilations of Fables from Greek, Hebrew, and Naſſa! : from thence he went into Tranſylvania, to be
Arabic;” and not leſs detractingly by Dr Bentley, profeſſor at Alba Julia : wliere he continued till his
under the name of " Tony Alſop, a late editor of the death, which happened in 1638, being then 50 years
Eropean Fables."
of age. His Encyclopedia has been much efteemcdeyen
Aisor (Vincent), an eminent divine, was educated by the Roman Catholics; it was printed at Lyons, and
in St Johu's College in Cambridge, where he took the fóld very well throughout all France. His 1 hefaurus
degree of Maſter of Arts. He received deacon's or Chronologicus is by fome eſteemed one of his beſt works,
ders from a biſhop, after which he went down into Rut and has gone thro' ſeveral editions. He alſo wrote
landihire, and ſettled at Oakhan, where he was an af. Triuniphus Biblicus, fo ſhow that the principles of all
Giſtant to the maſter of the free-ſchool. As he was a arts and ſciences are to be found in the Scriptures; boc
man of a ſprightly turn, he fell there into indifferent he gained very few to his opinion. He was a Millen:-
company; bui was reclaimed by the frequent admoni. rian ; and publiſhed, in 1627, a treatiſe De mille annis,
tions of the reverend Mr Benjamin King. He after in which he aſſerted that the reign of the ſaints on
ards married that gentleman's daughter, and beco. earth was to begin in 1694.
ming a convert to his principles, received ordination ALSTON-MORE, a town in Cumberland, feated
in the Preſbyterian way, not being ſatisfied with that on a hill, at the bottom of which runs the river Tync,
which he had from the biſhop. He was ſettled at with a ſtone bridge over it. Near this place is plenty
Wilbee in the county of Northampton, whence he was of lead-ore. W. Long. 2. 4. N. Lat. 54. 45.
cjecedin 1662, for nonconformity. After this he ven ALSTONIA, in botany ; a genus of the mono-
tured to preach ſometimes at Oakham, and at Welling- gynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of plants,
borongh where he lived, and was once ſix months in The characters are: The calyx is a perianthium be.
priſon for praying by a fick perſon. A book he wrote neach, imbricated : The corolla is monopetalous, and
againſt DrSherlock in a bünorous ſtyle, made him well ſhorter than the calyx ; the border expanding, eight
kilown to the world, and induced Mr Cawton, an emi or ten parted, with alternate diviſions : The Jamina
nent nonconformiſt in Weſtminſter, to recommend him conliſt of numerous ſhort filaments, the exterior ones
to his congregation for his ſucceſſor. On receiving longer; the antheræ áreorbicular and furrowed: The
tais call, he quitted Northamptonſhire and came to piftulum has a ſmallovate germen above; a ſimple ſty-
London, where he preached conſtantly, and wrote ſe- lus the length of the corolla, filiform and erect; the
veral pieces which wereextremely wellreceived by the ftigma inverſe egg-headed. There is but one fpecies,
pallic. His living in the neighbourhood of the court the theaſormis, a native of America.
expoſed him to many inconve::inces; but theſe ended ALSTROEMERIA, in bolany : A genus of the
Yrith the reign of Charles II, or at leaſt in the begin- monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of
ning of the next reign, when Mr Alſop's fon engaging plants; and, in the natural inethod, ranking under the
in treaſonable practices was freely pardoned-by king intl order, Sarmentacea. The characters are: There
James. After this our divine went frequently to court, is no calyx : The corolla is nearly bilabiated ; and c011-
and is generally ſuppoſed to liave been the perſon who fifts of fix petals, the two inferior tubular at the baſe :
drew the prefbyterian's addreſs to that prince for his The ftamine conſiſt of lix ſubulated filaments, declining
general indulgence. After the revolution, Mr Alſop and uncqual ; the antheræ oblong : The piſtilium has
gave very public teftimonies of his affection for the go an hexangular germen bencath; the ſtylus declining,
vernment:yet upon all occaſions he ſpoke very reſpect. filiform, the length of the ſtamina ; and three oblong
fully of king James, and retained a very high ſenie of bifid ſtigmata : i he pericarpium is a roundiſh hexan-
his clemency in ſparing his only fon. The remainder gular capſule, with three cells and ihree valves : The
of his life ie fpent in the exerciſe of his miniſtry, ſeeds are globular and numerous. Thiere are five fpe-
preaching once every Lord's day; beſides which he had : cies, natives of Italy and Peru.
a Thurſday lecture, and was one of the lecturers at Pin ALT, in muſic, a terın applied to the ligi notes
ner's hall. He lived to be a very old man, and pre- in the ſcale.
ferved his ſpirits to the laſt. On grave ſubjects he wrote ALTAIC CHAIN, a range of moulotains which
with a becoming ſerioufreis; but where wit inight pro- bounds Aſia on the ſouth. It begins at the vast molli-
perly be ſhown, he diſplayed his lo great advantage. tain Bogdo, paſſes above the head of the Iriſch, and
His funcral ſermon preached.by Mr Slater, and his thon takes a courſe rugged, precipitous, «lothed with
mcmory will be always preſerved by his own learned ſnow, and rich in niinerals, betweco the Irtiſch and
ܪ
Ob;
2
A LT
| 505 1
A L 'T
1
1
Altar.
Thores..
Altamont Ob; then próceods by the lake Telezkoi, the riſe of different gods to whom they facrificed. According to A'rar
the Ob; after which irretires, in order to comprchend Servius, Thoſe altars fet apart for the honor of ths'-amped
the great rivers which form the Jeneſei, and are locked celeſtial gods, and gods of the higher claſs, were pla-
up in theſe high inountains ; finally, under the name ced on ſome pretty tall pile of building; and for chat
of the Sainnes, is uninterruptedly continued to the reaſon were called altaria, from the words alta and ara,
lake of Baikal. A branch inlinnates itfelf between 6 a bigh elevated altar.' Thoſe appointed for the
- the ſources of the rivers Onon and Ingoda, and thoſe terreſtrial gods were laid on the ſurface of the earth,
of Ichikoi, accompanied with very high mountains, and called ara. And, on the contrary, they dog into
running without interruption to the north-eaſt, and the earth and opened a pit for thoſe of the infernal
dividing the river of Amur, which diſcharges itſelf gods, which they called Bobpor X AXX 01,, « fcrobiculi."
into the eaſt, in the Chineſe dominions, from the river But this diſtinction is not every where obſerved: the
Lena and Lake Baikal. Another branch ſtretches along beſt authors frequenily uſe ara as a general word, un-
the Olecma, croſſes the Lena below Jakoutſk, and is der which are included the altars of the celeſtial and
continued between the two rivers Tongouſka to the infernal, as well as thoſe of the terreſtrial, gods. Wit-
Jeneſei, where it is loſt in wooded and morally plains. nefs Virgil, Ecl. 5.
The principal chain, rugged with ſharp pointed rocks,
approaches and keeps near the ſhores of the ſea of
En quatuor aras.
Ockhozt, and paſſing by the ſources of the rivers Outh, Where aræ plainly includes alteria ; for whatever we
Aldan, and Maia, is diſtributed in ſmall branches, which make of Daphnis, Phæbus was certainly a celeſtial
range between the eaſtern rivers which fall into the god. So Cicero, pro Quint. Aras delubruqae Hecates
Icy Sea: beſides two principal branches, one of which, in Grecia vidimus. The Greeks alſo diſtinguiihed two
turning fouth, runs through all Kamtſchatka, and is forts of altars ; that whereon they ſacrificed to the
broken, from the cape Lopatka, into the numerous gods was called ßwuos, and was a real altar, different
Kurile illes, and to the eaſt forms another marine chain, from the other whereon they facrified to the heroes,
in the iſlands which range from Kamtſchatka to Ame- which was ſmaller, and called çox20%. Pollux makes
rica ; moſt of them, as well as Kamtſchatka itſelf, di. this diſtinction of altars in his Onomaſticon ; he adds,
{tinguiſhed by fierce volcanoes, or the traces of volca- however, that ſome poets uſed the word excepce for the
nic fires. The laſt chain forms chiefly the great cape altar whereon ſacrifice was offered to the gods. The
Tſchutki, with its promontories and rocky broken Septuagint verſion does ſometimes alſo uſe the word
Etxapa
for a ſort of little low altar, which may be ex-
ALTAMONT, a very handſome town in Italy, in preffed in Latin by craticula; being a hearth rather
the kingdom of Naples, and in Calabria Citerior, 15 than an altar.
miles north-weſt of Baligniano. E. Long. 16. 22. N. Before temples werein uſe, altars were erected fome.
ALTAMURA, a town of Naples, in the territory times on the tops of mountains ; and it was a cuſtom
of Bari, with the title of a principality, feated on the to engrave upon them the name, enſign, or character,
foot of the Apennine mountains. E. Long. 16. 54.
E. Long. 16. 54. of the deity to whom they were conſecrated.
N. Lai. 41..0.
In the great temples of ancient Romne there were
ALTAR, a place upon which facrifices were an ordinarily three altars: The firſt was placed in the ſanc-
ciently offered to ſoine deity.
tuary, at the foot of the ſtatue of the divinity, upon
The heathens at firſt made their altars only of turf; which incenſe was burnt and libations offered; thefis
afterwards they were made of ſtone, of marble, of cond was before the gate of the temple, and upon it
wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos. they ſacrificed the victims; and the third was a portable
Altars differed in figure as well as in materials. Some altar, upon which was placed the offering and the fa-
were round, others ſquare, and others triangular. All cred veſels.
of them were turned towards the eaſt, and ſtood lower Beſides theſe uſes of altars, the ancienis ſwore ilpon
than the ſtatues of the gods; and were generally adorn- them, and ſwore by them, in making alliances, con-
ed with ſculpture,repreſenting either the gods to whom firming treaties of peace, and other folemn occaſions.
a hey were erected, or their ſymbols. See the PAGAN Altars alſo ſerved as places of refuge to all thoſe who
ALTARS repreſented on Plate XI. Upon the ſides of fled to cheni, whatever crime they had committed.
-Nº I. a trident and two dolphins are exhibited, which Altars are doubtleſs as ancient as facrifices theni-
denote it to have been dedicated to Neptune. N° 2. ſelves; confequently their origin is not much later than
a four ſquare altar, was dedicated to the nymphs, as that of the world ; Gen.ch. iv. Some attribute their
the inſcription imports. N° 3. exhibits a Bacchanal origin to the Egyptians; others to the Jews ; others
holding a thyrſus in his hand, a mark of the altar's be to the patriarchs before the flood. Some carry them
ing built to Bacchus : it had two other ſides, which as far back as Adam, whoſe altar is much ſpoken of
made it appear triangular. Of Nº 4. which was alſo by Jewiſh, and even Chriſtian writers. Others are con-
Iriangular, each face or ſide exhibited a genius, one of tented to make the patriarch Enoch the firſt who con-
whom (on the ſide repreſented)caries an oar upon his ſecrated a public altar. Be this as it will, the earlieſt
neck, which ſeemed to denote it an altar of Neptune, altars we find any expreſs teſtimony of are thoſe erec-
Nº 5. an altar of a round ſhape; is inſcribed Ara Nepo ed by Abraham.
funi : the god himſelf is there repreſented, all naked, Altars, in the patriarchal times, were very rude.
Saving the palliam upon his ſhoulder; and holding in The altar which Jacob ſet up at Beth-el was nothing
his left hand a trident, and in his right a dolphin. but a ſtone, which ſerved him inſtead of a bolſter ; that
The height of aliars alſo differed according to the of Gideon, a itone before his houſe : and the firft which
Voll.
God
Lat. 30. 40.
3 S
1
A LT
[ 506 ]
AL T
ditar.
God commanded Moſes to ercet was probably of earth, to this purpoſe, we read in church hiſtory, that the Altar-thane
or unpoliſhed ſtones, without any iron; for if any uſe primitive Chriſtians chicfly held their mecting at the 1
was made of that metal, the altar was declared im- tombs of the martyrs, and celebrated the myſteries of Altenburg,
pure,
religion upon them for which reaſon, it is a ſtanding
The principal altars of the Jews were, The altar of rule to this day in the church of Rome, never to build
incenſe; that of burnt-offering; and the altar, or table, an altar, without incloling the relics of ſome faint
for the Mew-bread.
in it.
The altar of incenſe was a finall table of fhittim ALTAR-THANE, or ALTARIST, in old law-books,
wood, covered with plates of gold, of one cubit in an appellation given to the prieſt or parſon of a parilli,
length, another in width, and two in height. At to whom the altarage belonged. See ALTARAGE.
the four corners, were four kinds of horns, and all ALTARAGE, in law, altars erected in virtue of
round a little border or crown o'er it. This was the donations before the Reformation, within a parochial
altar hidden by Jeremiah before the captivity; and church, for the purpoſe of tinging of maſs for de-
upon it the officiating prieſt offered, every morning ceaſed friends.
and evening, incenſe of a particular compofition. See ALTARAGE likewiſe ſignifies the profits ariſing to
Plate XI.
the prieſt on account of the altar.
The altar of burnt-offerings was made of ſhittim AL-TAYEFF, a town of Hajaz, a diſtrict of Ara- .
wood, and carried upon the ſhoulders of the prieſts by bia Felix. It is ſituated about 60 miles eaſt of Mecca,
ſtaves of the ſame wood overlaid with braſs. In the behind niount Gazwan, where the cold is more intenſe
time of Moſes, this altar was five cubits ſquare and than in any other part of the diſtrict, but the air very
three high ; but in Solomon's teinple it was much lar- wholeſome.. Its territory abounds in fountains, and
ger, being 20 cubits ſquare and 10 in height. It was produces excellent raiſins. The town is ſurrounded
covered with braſs; and at each corner was a horn or with a wall but is not very large.
fpire, wrought out of the ſame wood with the altar, to ALTDORF, a large handſome town in Swifferland,
which the facrifices were tied. Within the hollow and the chief of the canton of Uri. It is ſituated below
was a grate of braſs, on which the fire was made; the lake of the four cantons, in a plain, at the foot of
through it fell the aſhes, and were received in a pan a mountain, whoſe paſſages are difficult, and ſerve in
below. At the four corners of the grate were four ſtead of fortifications. It has four churches and two
rings and four chains, which kept it up at the horns. convents ; St Martin's church and that of the Holy
This altar was placed in the open air, that the ſmoke Croſs are the fineſt. The town-houſe, and the arſenal
of the burnt-offerings might not fully the inſide of the are alſo worth ſeeing. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 46.
tabernacle. See Plate XI.
50.
The altar, or table, for the ſhew-bread, was likewiſe ALTEA, a ſea-port town of Valencia, in Spain.
of Mittim-wood, covered with plates-of gold, having a It was taken in 1705, in favour of the archduke
little border round it, adorned with ſculpture. It was Charles; but loſt after the battle of Almanza.W. Long,
two cubits long, one wide, and one and an half in 0. 15. N. Lat 46. 34.
height. Upon this table, which ſtood in the holy of ALTEMBURG, a town of Tranſylvania, 17 miles
holies, were put, every fabbath-day, 12 loaves, with S. W. of Wiſemburg, and 35 S, of Clauſenboùrg. E.
ſalt and incenſe.
Long. 23: 5. N. Lat. 46. 25.
The Jewiſh altars, after their return from the capti ALTENA, a fea-port town of Germany, in the
vity, and the building of the ſecond temple, were in duchy of Holſtein, in Lower Saxony. It is a modern
ſome reſpects different from thoſe deſcribed above. town, built by the king of Denmark, and was burnt
That of burnt-offerings was a large pile, built of un- by the Swedes in 1712's but has ſince been beautifully
hewn ſtone, 32 cubits ſquare at the bottom, and 24 rebuilt. The merchandiſe brought from Alia, by
ſquare at the top. The aſcent was by a gentle riling, the Daniſh Eaſt-India company is told here. E. Long
32 cabits in length, and 16 in breadth.
10. O. N. Lat. 53. 51.
ALTAR, is alſo uſed among Chriſtians for the com ALTENBERG, an ancient town in Germany, fi-
munion-table.
tuated on the river Pleiſs, with a good caſtle placed on..
In the primitive church, the altars were only of a rock, in Miſnia, in the circle of the Upper Saxony, .
wood; as being frequently to be removed from place It was formerly an Imperial city, but a preſent belongs
to place. But the council of Paris, in 509, decreed to the houſe of Saxony. Here is a college which has
that no altar ſhould be built but of ſtone. --At firſt always been in a flouriſhing condition.. In 1705, there
there was but one altar in each church ; but the nuni. was a nunnery founded for wonien of high rank, who
ber foon increaſed; and from the writings of Gregory are Proteſtants.
are Proteſtants. E. Long. 15.8. N. Lak. 50. 59.
the Great, who lived in the ſixth century, we learn, ALTENBURG, a ſmall fortified town of Hun- .
that there were ſometimes in the ſame church 12 or gary, in the territory of Mofon, near the Danube, a-
13. In the cathedral of Magdeburg there are no leſs bout 55 miles from Vienna. E.Long. 35. 30. N. Lat.
than 49 altars.
48. 15.
The altar is ſometimes ſuſtained on a ſingle column, ALTENBURG, or OWAR, a ſmall but ſtrong town of
as in the ſubterraneous chapels of St Cecilia, at Rome, Hungary ſeated in a marſh, with wide ſtreets. It is
&c.; and ſometimes by four columns, as i he altar of near the river Danube, and is ſurrounded with deep,
St Sebaſtian of Crypta Arenaria; but the cuſtomary ditches. It is 15 miles ſouth of Preſburg, 40 ſouth ,
from is, to be a maſſive of ſtone-work, faftaining the caſt of Vienna, and 65 fouth-weſt of Buda. E. Long,
alar-table. Theſe altars bear a reſemblance to toinbs: 17. 56. N. Lat 44. O..
ALTE,
frum_4LTARS
Plate XII.
1
ALTAR f Burnt Offering
ALTAR
of Incente
ases
nmnQA
4
DENIE MIEHELLO
Pagan ALTARS
2
1
YMPHIS
DEVESEB EDHE
STNASARY GEM
VIV-MLA CENTERIA
VIMINE
ADITI DEVOT
EGIVI STATVA
ISIS
ET TABVLATO.
i
LAT:
4
2
गायत
3.
.
ico
kicsit simtp.. whitul?
AL T
[
507 ]
AL T
Alterants
li
Althæa,
4
ALTERANTS, or ALTERATIVE Medicines, ſuch cleft : The corolla conſiſts of five perals, corleſced at Aitiza.
as correct the bad qualities of the blood and other hu the baſe: The famina conſiſt of numerous filameries
mours, without occafioning any ſenſible evacuation. inſerted into the corolla; the antheræ are kidney-ſlia -
ALTERATION, in phyſics, the act of changing ped. The piſtillum has an orbicular germen; a thort
the circumſtances and manner of a thing; its general cylindrical ſtylus ; and numerous briſtly ſtigniata, the
nature and appearance remaining the ſame. Or, it is length of the ſtylus: The pericarpiumi conſiſts of nu-
an accidental and partial change in a body; without merous arillæ : The feeds are folitary, and kidney..
procecding ſo far as to make the ſubject quite unknown, ſhaped. There are three
or to take a new denoinination thereupon.--Or, it inay Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common marſhmallow,
be defined, the acquiſition or loſs of ſuch qualities as is a native of Britain, and hath a perennial root, and
are not eſſential to the form of the body. Thus, a piece an annual ſtalk, which periſhes every autumn. The
of iron, which before was cold, is ſaid to be altered, ſtalks grow erect to the height of four or five feet.
when it is made hot ; ſince it may ſtill be perceived to Theſe are garniſhed with leaves which are hoary, ſoft
be iron, is called by that name, and has all the proper to the touch, and placed alternately on the branches,
ties thereof. By this alteration is diſtinguilied from The flowers come out from under the wings of the
generation and corruption ; theſe terms expreſling an leaves, like the mallow, and are of a purpliſh white. 2.
acquiſition or loſs of the eſſential qualities of thing:- The hirſuta, or hairy marſhmallow, is a native of Spain
The modern philoſophers, after the ancient chemiſts and Portugal. It is a low plant, whoſe branches trail on
and corpuſcularians, hold all alteration to be effected the ground, unleſs they are ſupported by flakes. The
by means of local motion. According to them, it al- leaves and ſtalks are beſet with ſtrong hairs, the flowers
ways conſiſts either in the emiſſion, acceffion, union, come out like thoſe of the common fort, but are ſmall.
ſeparation, or tranſpoſition, of the component par- er, and have purpliſh bottoms. 3. The cannabina, og
ticles.
ſhrubby marſhmallow, is a naiive of Hungary and Il-
ALTERCATION, a debate or conteſt between tria. It has a woody ften, which riſes to the height of
two friends or acquaintance. The word comes from four or five ſeet ; and puts out many lide-branches. The
altercari, which anciently fignified to converſe or hold flowers come out in the ſaine manner as in the others,
diſcourſe together. Thus, we ſay, They never come but are of a deeper red colour. This ſort ſeldom fioll-
to an open quarrel, but there is continually ſome little ers the firſt year, unleſs the ſummer proves warın ; but
altercation or other.
when the plants live through the winter, they will
ALTERN-BASE, in trigonometry, a term uſed in flower early in the following ſummer, and produce good
contradiſtinction to the true baſe. Thus in oblique feeds.
triangles, the true baſe is either the ſum of the ſides, Culture. Though the firſt fort is found naturally in
and then the difference of the ſides is called the altern- falt marſhes, it will thrive when tranſplanted into any
baſe ; or the true baſe is the difference of the ſides, and ſoil, or in any ſituation ; however, it will always grow
then the ſum of the ſides is called the altern-bafe. larger in moiſt than in dry foil. It may be propagated
ALTERNATE, in a general ſenſe, a term applied either by parting the roots in autumn when the Italks
to ſuch perſons or things as ſucceed each other by decay, or by fowing the ſeeds in the ſpring. If the
turns. Thus, two who command each his day, are ſeeds of the ſecond ſpecies are ſown in April, the plants
ſaid to have an alternate command, or to command al- will flower in July, and carry ripe ſeed in September.
ternately.
They ought to be ſown in the places where they are to
ALTERNATE, in heraldry, is ſaid in refpe&t of the remain, as the roots ſhoot deep in the ground; ſo that
ſituation of the quarters. Thus the firſt and fourth unleſs the plantsare removed very young, they ſeldom
quarters, and the ſecond and third, are uſually of the ſurvive it. The ſeeds of the cannabina ought alſo to
ſame nature, and are called alternate quarters. be fown where the plants are to remain, for the reaſon
ALTERNATE, in botany, when the leaves or branch- juſt now given. They ſliould have a ſheltered ſituation
es of plants ariſe higher on oppoſite ſides alternately. and dry Tvil, otherwiſe they will not live through
ALTERNATION, in its primary ſenſe, denotes the winter. Indeed they ſeldom continue in Britain
a ſucceſſion by turns.
above two years, with all the care that can be ta-
ALTERNATION is ſometimes uſed to expreſs the ken of them.
different changes or alterations of orders in any nun Medicinal Ufes. The firſt is the only ſpecies uſed in
ber of things propoſed. This is alſo called permu medicine. The whole plant, eſpecially the root, a-
tation, &c. and is eaſily found by a continual multi- bounds with a mild mucilage. It has the general vir-
plication of all the numbers, beginning at unity. Thus, tues of an emollient medicine; and proves
ſerviceable
if it be required to know how many changes or alter- in a thin acrimonious ſtate of the juices, and where the
nations can be rung on fix bells, multiply the numbers natural mucus of the inteſtines is abraded. It is chief-
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, continually into one another ; and the ly recommended in ſharp defluctions upon the lungs,
laſt product gives the number of changes.
hoarſeneſs, dyfenteries; and likewiſe in nephritic and
ALTERNATIVE, is particularly uſed for the calculous complaints : not, as ſome have ſuppoſed, that
choice of two things propoſed. In this fenſe we ſay, this medicine has any peculiar power of diffolving or
to take the alternative of two propoſitions.
expelling the calculus; but as, by lubricating and re-
ALTHÆA, MARSHMALLOW: A genus of the po- laxing the veſſels, it procures a more frecand eaſy par-
lyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia claſs of fage. The root is ſometimes employed externally for
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the ſoftening and maturating hard tumours ; chewed, it is
37th order, Columniferæ. The characters are: The ſaid to give caſe in difficult dentition of children.
calyx is a double perianthium, the exterior one nine This root gave name to an officinal ſyrup, decoc-
352
tion,
AL T
( 508. ]
A LT
LA
DFTRY.
t
Althaa tion, and ointment; and was likewiſe an ingredient in German. Infer. Antiquæ, fol. Amft. 1679); but they Altitude
the compound powder of gun tragacanth and the oil were publiſhed in 5 vols. folio, with his life, by Mr 1
Alting, and platter of mucilages. But of all theſe formule the Bekker of Amſterdam. They contain various analy-
Aito,
fyrup alone is now retained.
tical, exegetical, practical, problematical, and philofo-
ALTH EA Frutex, See HIBISCUS.
phical tracts, which ſhow his great induſtry and know-
ALTIMETRY, the art of meaſuring altitudes or ledge. Alting was a divine greatly addicted to the text
hcights, whether acceſſible or inacceſſible. See Geo of the ſcripture, to Cocceianiſm, and Rabbiniſm. He
preached well in German, Dutch, and Englilh.
ALTIN, a money of account in Mufcovy, wortli ALTITUDE, acceflible, and inaccellble. See
three copecs ; one hundred of which make a ruble, GEOMETRY.
worth about 45. 6d. ſterling.
The method of taking conſiderable terreſtrial alti.
ALTIN, a lake in Siberia, from whence iſſues the tudes, of which thoſe of mountains are the greateſt, by
river Ob, or Oby, in N. Lat. 52.0. E. Long. 859.55'. means of the burometer, is very eaſy and expeditious. It .
This laké is called by the Ruſſians Telokofero, from is done by obſerving on the top of the mountain, how
the Teleſi, a Tartarian nation, who inhabit the borders much the mercury has fallen below what it was at the
of it, and who give it the name of Altin-Kul. By the foot of the mountain. See BAROMETER.
Calmucks it is called Altinnor. "It is near ninety miles ALTITUDE of the Eye, in perſpective, is a right line
long and 50 broad, with a rocky bottom. The north let fall froni the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical -
part of it is ſometimes frozen ſo hard as to be paſſable plane.
on fooi, but the ſouthern part is never covered with ALTITUDE, in afrononiy, is the diſtance of a ſtar,
ice. The water in the Alun lake, as well as in the ri or other point, in the miwdane ſphere, from the ho.
vers which ran through the adjacent places, only riſes . rizon,
in the middle of ſummer, when the ſnows on the moun This altitude may be either true or apparent.If it
tuins are melted by the heat of the ſun.
be taken from the rational or real horizon, the altitude
ALTINCAR, among mineraliſls, a ſpecies of fac- . is ſaid to be true or real; if from the apparent or ſen-
titious falt uſed in the fuſion and purification of metals. fible horizon, the altitude is apparent.--Or rather, the
The altincar is a ſort of flux powder. Divers ways apparent altitude is ſuch as it appears to our obferva-
of preparing it are given by Libavius.
tion; and the true is that from which the refraction
ALTING (Henry), profeſſor of divinity at Hei has been ſubtracted.
delberg and Groningen, was born at Embden in The true altitudes of the ſun, fixed ſtars, and planets,
1583, of a family which had been long conſpicuous in differ but very little from their apparent altitudes; bea
Friſeland. His father, Menſo Alting, was the firſt, cauſe of their great diſtance from the centre of the
who, with two others, preached the reformation in the earth, and the ſmallneſs of the earth's ſemidiameter,
territory of Groningen, about the year 1566, under when compared thereto.
when compared thereto. But the difference between
the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva ; and the true and apparent altitude of the moon is about ;
the firſt that preached in the great church of Gronin 52., This ſubject is further explained under ASTRO-
gen, after the reduction of that towu by the States Ge-
neral in 1594. Henry was choſen, in 1605, preceptor ALTITUDE Inſtrument, or Equal Altitude Infiru-
to the three young counts of Nallau, Solms, and Izen meirt, is that uſed to obſerve a celeſtial object when it
berg. After various difficulties, he ſettled at Gronin has the ſame altitude on the eaſt and weſt ſides of the
gen, where he continued till his death, Auguſt 25. meridian. See ASTRONOMY, the laſt ſection.
1644. L'e was a ſound proteſtant divine, a pious ALTKIRK, a town of Alface in Germany, ſitua-
Chiiſtian, a uſeful member of fociety in many reſpects, ted on the river ll], in N. Lai. 47. 40. and E. Long.
and one who ſuffered much for the truth. Moſt of his 7. 15.
works were never publiſhed ; thoſe which have been ALTMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
are the following: Notæ in decadem problematum J. Tyrone, and province of Ulſter, ſituated in N. Lat.
Behm, 1618. Loci communes explicatio cateche ſeos Pa. 54. 34, and W. Long 7.-2.
latine, 1646, in 3 vols. Exegeſis Auguflana confef. ALTON, a town in Hampſhire, ſeated on the ri-
1647. Methodus theologiæ, 1650. It appears from the ver Wey; W. Long. 0. 46. N. Lat. 51.5.
catalogue of his works annexed to his life, that the verned by a conſtable ; and conſiſts of about 300 hou-
Medulla hiſt. prophanæ, publiſhed by Dr Pareus, was ſes, indifferently built, chiefly laid out in one pretty
compoſed by Alting. The moſt remarkable piece a broad ſtreet. It has one church, a Preſbyterian, and
mong Alting's MS. is, The ecclefiaftical hiſtory of a Quaker meeting, a fanious free ſchool, a large ma-
the Palatinate, from the reformation to the adminiſtra- nufacture of plain and figured baragons, ribbed druge
tion of John Caſimir.
gets, and ſerges de Niſmes; and round the town is a
ALTING (Janies), ſon of the former, was born at large plantation of hops.
Heidelberg in 1618. He travelled into England in ALTON, Or AVEETON, a village in Stafford hire,
:640, where he was ordained by the learned Dr Pri- five miles north of Utoxeter. There are the ruins of
deaux, biſhop of Worceſter. He afterwards accepted a caſtle here, which ſome would have to be built before
of the profeſſorſhip of Groningen, vacant by the death the Norman conqueft; but Dr Plott is pretty certain
of Gomarus; but his ſituation was rendered very diſ- chat it was erected by Theobald de Verdun, in thebe-
agreeable by the continual diſputes which he had with ginning of the reign of Edward II. , A great part of
bis colleagueSam.des Marets, who favoured the ſchool- the walls are ſtill ſtanding, but they are in a very rui..
divinity. He died in 1697. He recommended the edi nous condition.
tion of his works to Menſo Alting (author of Notitia ALTO et BASSO, or in Alto do in B ASSO, in law,
ſignifies
NOMY.
It is gow
A L V
[ 509 ]
À L, V
res.
Alto signifies the abſolute reference of all differences, ſmall
ed all marks of diftreſs the moment he was remo. Alvares.
11 and great, high and low, to ſome arbitrator or indif ved from his preſence, and now thought and ſpoke of
Alvares, ferent perſon.- Pateat univerſis per præſentes, quid nothing b'it Alvares. He was therefore recalled; and,
- Willielmus Tylar de retton, & Thomas Gower dé'Aime- being inveſted with his uſual authority, revenged him-
Stre, pofuerunt fe in Alto b in Baſſo, in arbitrio quatu- ſelf ſeverely upon his enemies, by perſuading the king
or hominum ; viz. de quadam querela pendente inter eos to baniſh them. Of che 45 years he ſpent at court,
in curia.--Nos & terram noftram alté & baſſé ipfius do he enjoyed for 30 of them ſo entire an aſcendancy o-
nini Regis fuppofuinius voluntati.
ver the king, that nothing could be done without his
ALTO-Relievo. See RELIEVO.
expreſs orders : nay, it is related l.y Mariana, that the
ALTO-Ripieno, in muſic, the tenor of the great king could not change an officer or ſervant, or even
chorus which ſings and plays only now and then in his clothes or diet, without the approbation of Alva-
ſome particular places.
In ſhort, he wanted nothing to complete his
ALTORF, a town of the circle of Franconia, in grandeur but the name of king: he had all the places
Germany. It has a phyſic garden, with 2000 differ in the kingdom at his diſpoſal; he was maſter of the
ent plants ; a theatre for diſſections, which has many treaſury, and by bounties had ſo gained the hearts of
curioſities in the anatoxical way; and a liandſome li. the ſubjects, that the king, though his eyes now were
brary. It is ſubject to the houſe of Brandenburg ; and opened, and his affections ſufficiently turned againſt
is feated on the confines of Bavaria, 15 miles from Nu him, durft not complain.
remberg. E. Long. 9. 35. N. Lat. 47. 46.
But the day of reckoning was approaching, and at
ALT-RANSTADT, a town in Saxony, famous length he was ſeized: yet not direály, openly, and vio.
for the treaty between Charles XII. king of Sweden lently, but with ſome of that management which up-
and Auguſtus elector of Saxony, in 1706, wherein the on a ſimilar occaſion was fornierly employed by Tibe-
latter reſigned the kingdom of Poland.
rius againſt Sejanus. During his confinement, he inade
ALTRINGHAM, a town of Cheſhire in England, ſeveral attempts to ſpeak to the king in perſon ; but
upon the borders of Lancahire, ſeven miles from Man not being able to effect this, he ſent the following let-
cheſter. W. Long. I, 30. N. Lat. 53. 25. -
ter, from which, as well as froin the reſt of Al.
ALTZEG, a town of Germany in the Lower vares's hiſtory, all court favourites may draw abundant
Palatinate, the capital of a territory of the ſame name, miatter for edification and inſtruction. “ Sir, it is five-
with an old-caſtle. W. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat. 49. 44. " and forty years ſince I was admitted into your ſer-
ALVA DE TORMES, a conſiderable town in Spain, « vice. I do not complain of the rewards I have re-
in the kingdom of Leon, and territory of Salamanca, “ceived: they were greater than my merits or expec-
with a very handſome caſtle. It is feated on the north « tation, as I ſhall not deny. There was but one
bank of the river Tormes. W. Long. 6. 1. N. Lat. “ thing wanting to complete my happineſs; and that
41. O, !
" was to bave fixed proper limits in time to this great
ALVAH, the wood wlierewith Mofes, ſweetened 66 fortune of mine. While, inſtead of chooſing retire.
the waters of Marah, Exod. ch. xv. ver. 25.-The ment, after the example of the greateſt men, I ſtill
nanie of this 'wood is not found in Scripture ; but the «6 continued in the employment, which I thought not
Mahometans give it that of alvah, and pretend to trace "only my duty, but neceſſary for your intereſt, I fell
its hiſtory from the patriarchs before the flood. Jo "into this misfortune. It is very hird that I ſhould
ſcphus, on the contrary, ſays, that Moſes uſed the se be deprived of liberty, when I have riſked life and
wood which he found next lying before hini.
6 fortune more than once to reſtore it to you. Grief
ALVARES DE LUNA, or as ſome call him ALVA prevents me froin ſaying nore. I know that the
R0, is a character too edifying to be omitted in this " Deity is provoked againſt me by my lins; but it will -
work. He was the favourite of John II. king of Ca “ be ſuficient for me, if his anger is appeaſed by the
file: was famous for the prodigious aſcendancy ke “ calamities I now fuífer. I can no longer bear that
gained over this prince, and for the puniſhment which "prodigious maſs of riches, which it was wrong in
at length overtook him. He was natural fun of Don me to have heaped together. I ſhould willingly
Alvaro de Luna, lord of Canete in Arragon, and of a o reſign them, but that every thing I have is in your
woman infamous for unbounded luft. He was born in pouver; and I am denied the opportunity of ſhowing
1388 and named, Peter ; but Pope Benedict XIII, who " mankind, that yoq have raiſed a perſon to the height
was charmed with his wit tho’yet a child, changed Pe cs of greatneſs, u ho can contain wealth as well as pro-
ter to Alvares. He was introduced to court in 1408, - cure it, and give it back to him from whom he re-
and made a gentleman of the bedchamber to king “ceived it. But I deſire you in the ſtrongeſt terns,
John, with whom he grew into the higheſt favour. In " that, as I was obliged by the lowneſs of the trei-
1427 lre was obliged to retire : the courtiers exerted “fury to raiſe 10,cou or 12,aco crowns by methods
all their endeavours to ruin him: they complained, 56 l ought not to have taken, you will refore them to
that a man of no military ſkill, of no virtues whatever, " the perſons froin whom tlicy were extorted. If you
fhould, by.mere artifice and diſſimulation, Se advanced “will not grant this on account of the ſervices I have
to the higheſt authority; and they could not bear that, “ done, yet I think it neceilary to be done from the
by the aſſiſtance of a few up art men, whom he had os seafon of the thing."
raiſed and fixed to his interelt, he ſhould reign as ab This letter, however, produced no effect in his fa-
ſolutely as if he were king.
vour:Alvareswas tried and condemned to looſe his head,
They prevailed againſt him,and Alvares was baniſh After condemnation, he was removed to Vallad lid;
ed from court a year and an half: but this was the and, having confeiled himſelf, and received the facra-
greateſt affli&tion imaginable to the king; who flowment, he was carried upon a male to the market-place,
î in
>>
ALU
[ 510 ]
A L U
Aludels
1
Aluni,
in the middle of which a large ſcaffold was erected. portion of vitriolic fal ammoniac, renders it unfit for Alum,
Mounting the ſcaffold, he paid reverence to the croſs, fome purpoſes. The alum, made by adding a portion
and preſently gave his hat and ſignet to his page, ſay, of clay to the liquor at the beginning of the boiling,
ing, “ Theſe are the laſt gifts you will ever receive he contiders as equal, if not ſuperior, to Roman alın.
6 from ine." He then ſubmitted himſelf to the axe He informs us allo, that a kind of alum ſome time ago
with the utmoſt intrepidity. Dr Geddes relates, that began to be manufactured at Brunſwick, which was
he was executed the 4th of June, others the 5th of equal in quality to the Roman alum. On a chemical
July, 1453
analyſis of this alum he found it mixed with cobalt.
ALUDELS, in chemiſtry, are earthen pots with This falt is extremely uſeful in the art of dyeing; as
out bottoms, inſerted into each other, and uſed in ſub- by means of it a great number of colours are fixed and
limations.
rendered permanent upon cloth, which otherwiſe would
ALVEARIUM, in anatomy, the bottom of the either not adhiere in any degrec,or only for a very ſhort
concha, or hollow of ile outer ear.
time. In what manner this is accompliſhed we are
ALVEARIUM alſo lignifies a bee-hive. The word is very much ignorant; the conjectures and theories on
forined of alveus, a " channel or cavity ;” in alluſion this ſubject are related under the article Dyeing. It
to the alveoli, or cells in bee-hives.
conſtitutes the baſis of crayons, which generally conſiſt
Some of the ancients uſe alſo the word alvearium of the earth of alun fiuely powdered and tinged for
for a bee-houſe, more uſually called among us apiary. the purpoſe. In the preparation of Pruſſian blue, it
ALVEARIUM is ſometimes alſo uſed figuratively, to prevents the baſis of martial vitriol, which is ſoluble
denote a coliection. In which ſenſe, alvearium amounts in acids, from being precipitated by the ſuperfluous al-
to much the ſame with what we otherwiſe call the fau- kali employed in the preparation of that pigment; that
fUls, cora.
ralucopia, or the like. Vinc. Bereus has publifh- is, the alkali which is not ſaturated by the colouring.
ed an alvearium of law.
niatrez. As this baſis adheres more ſtrongly than the
ALVEOLUS, in natural hiſtory, the name of the clay to the vitriolic acid, and would form a green by
waxen cells in bee hives. Alſo the name of a ſea-foſlil the mixture of its yellowneſs, the white earth of aluni
of a conic figure, compoſed of a number of cells, like likewiſe, according to its quantity, dilutes the darker
bee-hives, joined into each other, with a pipe of com colours, even black itſelf, and produces an infinite
munication.
number of ſhades. It is alſo of uſe in the making of
ALVEOLUS, in anatomy, the fockets in the jaws candles ; for being mixed with the tallow, it gives it
wherein the teeth are fixed. Some writers ſpeak of an hardıneſs and conſiſtence which it has not naturally.
teeth growing without alveoli. Pliny mentions a per- Wood ſufficiently ſoaked in a folution of alum does not
fon who had a tooth in his palate. Euſtachius relates, eaſily take fire, and the ſame is true of paper impreg-
that he ſaw a man who at 50 liad a tooth growing out
nated with it; which for that reaſon is very properly
of the middle of his fauces. Holler gives an inſtance employed in preſerving gun-powder,as italſo excludes
of a perſon, whoſe teeth were of a piece with his jaws, the moiſture of the air. Paper impregnated with alum
without any inſertion into alveoli.
is uſefuł in-whitening ſilver,and ſilvering braſs without
ALUM, in chemiſtry, a clear and tranſparent fa- heat. Alum is alſo of uſe in tanning, where it affifts
line matter, uſually ſold in large maſſes, of a very in reſtoring the coheſions of the ſkins almoſt entirely
auftere and aftringent taſte, uſeful in medicine and in deſtroyed by the lime. Vintners fine down their
various arts.
-wines, -&c. with alum ; fiſhers uſe it to dry codfiſh
Moſt of the alırım to be met with is artificially pre- with ; and bakers have mixed it with the flour to make
pared by the methods related in their proper place un- their bread compact and white : to this laſt uſe of it
der the article CHEMISTRY, or by others ſimilar to great objections have been made, but unjuſtly, for it
them ; though ſometimes a ſmall quantity is produced is entirely innocent, and now ſeldom uſed.
naturally. This native alum is mixed with heteroge-
In medicine it is of conſiderable uſe as an aſtringent
neous matters, or effloreſces in various forms upon the and tonic. It is reckoned particularly ſerviceable for
ores during calcination. It rarely occurs in a cryſtalliz- reſtraining hemorrhagies, and immoderate ſecretions
ed ſtate, though thus it is ſaid to be met with in Egypt, from the blood ; but leſs proper in inteſtinal fluxes. In
Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, and other places. It is alſo violent hemorrhagies, it may be given in doſes of 15
found in the waters, impregnated with fixed air, but or 20 grains, and repeated every hour or half hour till
very ſeldom in fountains or hot medicated waters. the bleeding abates : in other caſes, ſmaller doſes are
There are ſeveral kinds of alum to be met with ; more adviſable ; large ones being apt to nauſeate the
but theſe differ from one another only in being mixed ſtomach, and occaſion violent conſtipations of the
with ſome ſalts which are not of the aluminous kind. bowels. It is uſed alſo externally, in aſtringent and
That called the Roman alum has been conſidered as repellent lotions and collyria. Burnt alıım taken in-
preferable to any other This is uſually met with in ternally has been highly extolled in caſes of colic. In
ſmall cryſtals, and has a rediſh colour, moſt probably ſuch inſtances, when taken to the extent of a ſcruple
owing to a ſmall quantity of calx of iron, which, how- for a doſe, it has been ſaid gently to move the belly,
ever, does not in the leaſt impair its qualities. The and give very great relief from the ſevere pain. Its
other kinds of alum contain a portion either of vitrio. officinal prepararions are, for internal uſe, pulvis ſtyp-
lated tartar or fal ammoniac, according to the nature ticus, and aqua flyptica for external applications,
of the alkali uſed in its preparation. Mr Bergman in- the aqua aluminis, and coagulum aluminis and alumeus
forms us, that the vegetable alkali, if pure, does not uſtum ; which laſt is no other than the alam dried by
hurt the alum, though it be added in the preparation; fire, or freed from the watery moiſture, which, like o-
but that the volatile alkali, by adulterating it with a ther falts, it always rerains in its cryſtalline form. By
this
AL Y
( 511 )
A M A
MACY.
Alum,
this loſs of its water it becomes ſharper, ſo as to act as ters in the open air.-The halimifolium feldon conti- Alytarcha
Al llum. a ſlight efcharotic; and it is chiefly with this inten nues above two or three years, and muſt therefore be
tion that it is employed in medicine, being very rare often ſown to preſerve it'; or if the feeds are ſuffered
Anacabat.
ly taken internally. For theſe preparations, fee PHAR- to fall, the plants will riſe without any trouble. It
may alſo be propagated by cuttings, which ought to
Alum mines are ſaid to have been firſt found in be planted in April or May, and are very apt to take
Italy in the year 1460 ; and in 1506 king Henry VII. root, if kept ſhaded in the heat of the day, and gently
made a monopolizing grant of this commodity to Au- , refreſhed with water.
guſtine Chigi, a merchant of Sienna. In the year This plant, as already obſerved, was thought to
1608 the manufacture of alum was firſt invented, and cure ſome kinds of madneſs; but the preſent practice
ſucceſsfully practiſed in England, meeting with great has entirely rejected it for this or any other purpoſe.
encouragement in Yorkſhire, where it was firſt made, ALYTARCHA, a prieſt of Antioch in Syria, who,
from Lord Sheffield, and other gentlemen of that in the games inſtituted in honour of the gods, prefided
county. King James I. by advice of his miniſtry, af over the officers who carried rods to clear away the
ſumed the monopoly of it to himſelf, and therefore crowd and keep order.
prohibited the importation of foreign alum ; and in In the Olympic games, the Alytarches had the ſame
1625 the importation of it was further prohibited by command, and oblized every perſon to preſerve order
proclamation of Charles I.
and decency.
ĀLUM-works, places where-alum is prepared, and ALZIRA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
manufactured in quantities for ſale. They differ from Valentia, ſeated on the river Xucar, E. Long. 0.25.
alum-mines, as in the former an artificial alum, and
N. Lat. 39. 10.
in the latter natural alun, is produced.
AMA, in eccleſiaſtical writers, denotes a vcílel
ALUNTIUM, ALONTIUM, (anc. geog.) a town wherein wine, water, or the like, were held, for the
in the north of-Sieily, ſituated on a ſteep eminence, at
ſervice of the eucharift. In this ſenſe the word is alſo
the mouth of the Chydas; ſaid to be as old as the war written aniula ; fonietimes alſo hama, and hamula.
of Troy. Now in ruins; from which aroſe the han Ama is ſometimes alſo uſed for a wine-meaſure, as
let St Filadelfo, in the Val di Demona. The inha a calk, pipe, or the like.
bitants were called Haluntini,
AMABYR, a barbarous cuſtom which formerly
ALVUS, in anatomy, a term uſed for the belly in prevailed in ſeveral parts of England and Wales, being
general, but more frequently applied to the bowels. a ſum of money paid to the lord when a maid was mar-
ALWAIDII a fect of Mahometans who believe ried within his lordſhip. The word is old British, and
all great crimes to be unpardonable.-The Alwadii ſignifies the price of virginity.”
ſtand in oppoſition to the Morgii. They attribute leſs AMADABAT, a corruptioil from AHMED ABAD
efficacy to the true belief in the ſalvation of men than or Abined's city', (ſo called from a king of that name);
the rest of the Muſſelmans.
a large and populous city of Indoſtan, and the capital
ALYSSUM, ALLYSON, or ALLYSOIDES, Madwort; of the province of Guzerat. It is ſituated in E. Long.
(from anvoow, to be mad; becauſe it was believed to 72, 12. N. Lat. 23. O. Amadabat was formerly called
have the property of curing madneſs): A genus of the Guzerat; and by Shah Jehận nicknamed Gherd-abad,
filiculoſa order, belonging to the tetradynania claſs of or “the habitation of duſt,” becauſe it was much in-
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the comnioded therewish. It was the ſeat of the Guzerac
39th order, Siliquoſa. The characters are: The calyx kings, as it is now of the Mogul governor. The city
is an oblong four-leaved perianthium : The corolla con ſtands in a beautiful plain ; and is watered by this litile
{iſts of four cruciform petals; with claws the length river Sabrimetti, which, though not deep, in time of
of the calyx, the petals ſhorter: The ſtamina conſilt of rains overflows the plains prodigiouſly. The walls
fix filaments, the length of the calyx, two.of thein ra are built with ſtone and brick, flanked at certain di-
ther ſhorter and denticulated ; the antheræ are erect ſtances with great round towers and battlements. It
and expanding: The piſtillum has an ovate germen; has twelve gates ; and, including the ſuburbs, is about
the ſtylus is ſimple, and tlie length of the ſtamina; the four miles and an half long. The ſtreets are wide.
ſtigma is obtuſe: The pericarpium is a ſub-globular The meydán {nán, or king's ſquare, is 700 paces
emarginated filicle, furniſhed with a bilocular ſtylus, long and 400 broad, planted round with trees.
having an elliptic partition : the feeds are few, orbin the weſt lide is the caſtle, well walled with free ſtone,
cular, and affixed to filiform receptacles.
and as ſpacious 25. a little city ; but its inward appear.
Species. Ofthis genus, Linnæus enumerates 79 ance is not conformable to its external magnificence.
fpecies ; but none of them are remarkable either for The caravanſera is on the ſouth of the ſquare, and its
beauty, or any other property, except the hakimifo- chief ornament. Near the meydan alſo is the hing's
lium, or madwort with whole ſpear-ſhaped leaves, palace, whoſe apartments are richly ornanented: alid
This ſpreads itſelf upon the ground, and never riſes in the midſt of the city is the Englilh factory, where
to any height. It produees, at the extremity of its they purchaſe fine chintz, callicoes, and other Indian
branches, very pretty. cafts of ſmall white flowers ; of merchandize. The place is ſo full of gardens ſtored
which it is ſeldom deſtitute for fix or ſeveil months with frišt-trees, that from an eminence it looks like it
ſucceſſively ; for which reaſon it well deſerves a place wood, The Hindoos have here an hoſpital for fick
in the gardens of the curious.
beaſts, and another for fick birds, which they take
Gulture. Though theſe plants are natives of the great care of. According to ſome late accounts, this
ſouthern parts of Europe ; yet, if planted on a dry, city is little inferior to the beſt in Europe, and is
Jean, or rubbiſhy ſoil, they will endure the ſevereſt win- thought to yield ten times as much revenue as Surat.
AMADAN,
Oil
A M A
[ 512 ]
AM A
Amadan
Amak,
ers.
AMADAN, or HAMADAN, a town of Perſia, be over which there is a draw-bridge. Amak is about Amal,
tween Taurus, and Iſpahan, E. Long. 47. 4. N. Lai. four miles long and two broad; and is chiefly peopled Anialek
35. 15. It is feared at the foot of a mountain, where by the deſcendants of a colony from Eaſt Frictland, to
there are a great niany ſprings, which water the adja- whom the iſland was conligned by Chriſtian II. at the
cent country. The extent of the city is very large; but requeſt of liis wife Elizabeth, filter of Charles V. for
There are a great niany waſte ſpots within it, as well as the purpoſe of (applying her with vegetables, cheeſe,
cultivated land. The houſes are built of brick harden- and butter. From the intermarriages of theſe colonics
ed in the fun, and have but a very indifferent aſpect., with the Danes, the preſent inhabitants are chielly de-
There is but one tolerable ſtreet; and that is where fcended ; but as they wear their own dreſs, and enjoy
fuffs, garments, and the like, are expoſed to ſale : it peculiar privileges, they appear a diſtinct race from
is ſtraight, long, and wide ; and the Mops are very well the natives. The iſland contains about fix-villages,
furniſhed. The adjacent parts are fruitful in corn and and between 3000 and 4000 ſouls. It has two church-
rice, inſomuch that the neighbouring provinces are ſup- es, in which the miniſters preach occaſionally'in Dutch
plied from hence. It is ſaid to enjoy a very ſalubrious and Daniſh. Theinhabitants have their own inferior
air, but the cold in winteris intenſe. The Armenians tribunals ; but in capital offences are amenable to the
have a church in this town, but it is a very ill-contrivcd hing's court of juſtice at Copenhagen, The old na-
ftructure. The Jews have a ſynagogue near a tomb, tional habit, brought by the original colony when they
where they pretend Eſther and Mordecai lię interred. firſt migrated to the iſland, is ſtill in uſe aniongſt them.
To this place they come in pilgrimage from ſeveral It reſembles the habit of the ancient quakers, as repre-
parts of the Levant.
About a league from Amadan, ſented in the pictures of the Dutch and Flemiſh paint-
there is a inaintain called Nalbano, which abounds with The men wear broad-brimmed hats, black jac-
all ſorts of curious herbs. In the ffring, people flock kets, full glazed breeches of the ſame colour, looſest
to this mountain from all parts to recover their theknee, and tied round the waiſt. The women were
health, by fucking in the falutary efiluvia with their dreſſed chiefly in black jackets and petticoats, with a
breath.
piece of blue glazed cloth bound round their heads. The
Amadau is a very ancient cily. It is ſaid to have iſland is laid out in gardens and paſtures; and ſtill, ac-
been deſtroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and rebuilt by cording to the original deſign, ſupplies Copenhagen
Darius, who brought hither all his riches. The kings with milk, butter, and vegetables. E. Long. 1-2. 10.
of Perſia frequently retired to this place on account of N. Lat. 55.-20.
its delightfnl ſituation ; for which reaſon it obtained AMAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Dar
the name of the Royal city. It was conquered by the land, ſeated on the river Weſer. It has a good har.
khalif Othman, and narrowly eſcaped being deſtroyed bour; and carries on a great trade, eſpecially in timber,
by Jenghiz Khan in 1220. It had then ſtrong walls deals, and tar. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 58. 50.
and a good caſtle, which are now in ruins. Its, preſent AMALEK, the ſon of Eliphaz, by Timna his con-
beauty conſiſts in its gardens and ſprings.
cubine, and the grandſon of Efau. Gen. xxxvi. 12.
AMADANAGER, a town in the hither peninſu- and i Chr. i. 36. Amalek fucceeded Gatam in the go-
la of India, in the province of Decan. E. Long. 74. vernment of Edom. He was the father of the Ania-
15. N. Lat. 18. 10. It was taken by the Moguls in lekites; a powerful people who dwelt in Arabia Pe-
1593, after a ſiege of fix inonths ; being at that time træa, between the Dead Sea and the Red fea, or be-
defended by a ſtrong caſtle, ſituated on an eminence, tween Havila and Shur (1 Sam. xv.7.) ; ſometimes in
and ſurrounded with deep dirches, into which ſevaral one canton, and ſometimes in another. It does not
ſprings diſcharged their waters.
appear that they had cities : for there is no inention
AMADIA, a trading town of Alia, in Curdiſtan, of any but one in the Scriptures (id. ib 5.) ; they li-
belonging to the Turks ; ſeated on a high mountain. ving generally in hamlets, caves, or tents.
E. Long. 43. I N. Lat. 36. 25.
The Iſraelites had ſcarce paſſed the Red Sea on their
AMADOW, a kind of black-matclı, 'tinder, way to the wilderneſs, before the Amalekites cane to
touch-wood, which comes from Germany. It is made attack them in the deſarts of Raphidim (Ex. xvii. 8,
a ſort of large muſhrooms, or ſpungy excreſcences, &c.); and put thoſe cruelly to the ſword who were obu
which commonly grow on old trees, eſpecially oaks, liged, either through fatigue or weakneſs, to remain
aih, and firs. This ſubſtance being boiled in conmon behind. Moſes, by divine command, directed Joſhua
water, and afterwards dried and well beaten, is then pụt to fall upon this people; to record the act of inhumanity
into a ſtrong lye prepared with falt-perre, after which which they had committed in a book, in order to have
it is again put to dry in an oven. The druggifts fell it always before his eyes; and to revenge it in the moſt
this match wholeſale in France,and ſeveral hawkersre. remarkable manner. Joſhua therefore fell upon
the
tail it. Some give to the amadow the name of Pyro- Amalekites, and defeated them while Moſes was 31 pon
kechnical Spunge, becauſe of its aptneſs to take fire. the mountain with Aaron and Hur in company,
Mo.
AMADOWRY, a kind of cotton which comes from fes, during the time of the engagement, held
lis
Alexandria, by the way of Marſeilles.
hands, to which the ſucceſs of the battle was owing:
AM3IN, in the ſea-language, a term importing for as often as he let them down, Amalek prevailed,
to lower ſomething at once. Thus, to frike amain, is But Moſes's hands being tired, Aaron and Hur ſup:
to lower, or let fall, the top-fails ; to wave amain, is to
to wave amain, is to ported his arms, and held them extended, while the
make a ſignal, by waving a drawn ſword, or the like, battlelaſted, which was from morning till the approach
as a demand that the enemy frike their top-fails. of night, when the Anialekites were cut in pieces.
AMĄC, a ſmall iſland in the Baltic ſea, near Co. This happened in the year of the world 2513, before
penhagen, from which it is ſeparated by a canal, Chriſt 1491,
3 -
The
or
пр
AMA
[ 513 1
AM
2
simalli.
و
Anialck. The ground of the enmity of the Amalekites againſt iure were a free people deſcended from Canan, and inales,
the Iſraelites is gencrally ſuppoſed to have been an in devoted to the curſe as well as the other rin:0:11(:, and
nate batred from the remembrance of Jacob's dcpri- very different fro.n the deſcendants of Amalek the
ving their progenitor both of his birthright and Llef- grandſon of Efau.
ſing. Their falling upon them, however, and that Tbe accounts which the Arabians give us of the
withont any provocation, when they ſaw them rcduced Amalekites deflroged by Saal are as follow. Analeh
to ſo low a condition by the fatigue of their march was the father of an ancient trise in drabia, exterille
and the exceſſive drought they laboured under, was an rated in the reiga of Saul. This tribe contailed only
inhuman action, and juſtly deſerved the defeat which the Arabians who are called Pure; the remains where-
Joſhua gave them. Under the Judges (v. 3.), we fce of were mingled with the poſterity of Joktan and Ad-
the Amalekites united with thic Midianites and Moab. nan, and ſo became Moſarabes or Moſtaarabes; that is
ites; in a deſign to oppreſs Iſrael; but Ehud delivered to ſay, Arabians blended with foreign nations. They
the Iſraelites from Eglon king of the Moabiles (Judges farther believe, that Goliah, who was overcome by
iii.), and Gideon (chap. viii.) delivered them from the David, was king of the Amalekites; and that the
Midianites and Amalekites. About the year of the giants who inhabited Paleſtine in Joſhua's time were
world 2930, Saul marched againſt the Amalekites, ad- of the fai
of the ſame race. That at laſt part of the Amalekites
vanced as far as their capital, and put all the people retired into Africa while Jofua was yet living and ſet-
of the country to the ſword; but ſpared the beſt of all tled upon the coaſts of Barbary, along the Mediterra.
the cattle and moveables, contrary to a divine com nean ſea. The ſon of Amalek was Ad, a celebrated
mand; which act of diſobedience was the cauſe of Saul's prince among the Arabians. Soine make him the ſon
future misfortunes.
of Uz, and grandſon of Aram the ſon of Shem. Let
After this war, the Amalekites ſcarce appear any this be as it will, the Mahometans ſay that Ad was
niore in hiſtory. However, about the year of the the father of an Arabian tribe called Adites; who were
world 2949, a troop of Amalekites came and pillaged exterminated, as they tell us, for not learkening to
Ziklag, which belonged to David (1 Sam.xxx.), where the patriarch Eber, who preached the unity of God
he had left his two wives Ahinoam and Abigail; but to them. Ad had two ſons, Schedad and Schedid.
he returning from an expedition which he bad made in AMALFI, an ancient city of Italy, ſituated in E.
the company of Achil into the valley of Jezreel, pur- Long, 15. 20. N. Lat. 40. 35.-It is ſaid to have de-
ſued them, overtook and diſperſed them, and recover rived its origin from a number of Roman families, who,
ed all the booty which they had carried off from Zik- about the middle of the fourth century, either from
lag.
private views of emolument, or in conſequence of com-
The Arabians maintain Amalek to have been the pulſory orders from the emperor, had left Rome and
fon of Ham and grandſon of Noah; that he was the embarked for Conſtantinople: bat meeting with ſtorms
father of Ad and grand father of Sehedad. Calmet on their paſſage, were caſt away on the hores of Sa-
thinks that this opinion is by no means to be rejected ; lerno, and deprived of the means of purſuing their
as it is not very probable that Amalek the ſon of Eli- voyage. In this ſtate of perplexity they long remain-
phaz, and grandſon of Eſau, ſhould be the father of a ed, but at laſt came to the reſolution of fettling on the
people ſo powerful and numerous as the Amalekites preſent ſite of Amalfi, where they expected to enjoy
were when the Iſraelites departed out of Egypt. Moſes ſecurity and ſufficient plenty of the neceſſaries of lite.
in the book of Geneſis (xiv. 7.) relates, that in Abra The earlieſt notice of them in this ſettlement dates no
ham's time, long before the birth of Amalek, the ſon higher than the latter end of the ſixth century. In.
of Eliphaz, the tive confederate kings carried the var pervious mountains and inacceſſible coaſts preſerved
into Amalek's country, about Kadeſh; and into that their infant ſtate from the firſt fury of the Lombards,
of the Amorites, about Hazezontamar. The ſame who ſeldom attempted the conqueſt of a maritime
Moſes (Numb, xxiv. 20.) relates, that the diviner Ba- people.
laam, obſerving at a diſtance the land of Amalek, ſaid, In the year 825, when this little republic had, under
in his prophetic ſtyle, “ Amalek is the firſt, the head, the patronage of the eaſtern emperors, attained a de-
the original of the nations; but his latter end ſhall be gree of wealth and reputation ſufficient to excite the
that he periſh for ever." Our commentator obſerves, ambition of its neighbours, Sico, prince of Salerno,
that this epithet of the firſt of nations cannot certainly marched a body of troops by night; ſurpriſed Amali ;
agree with the Amalekites deſcended from the ſon of and, carrying off the greateſt part of the inhabitants,
Eliphaz, becau£e the generation then living was but compelled them to fix at Salerno, which had lately
the third from Amalek. Beſides, Moſes never re ſuffered a great loſs of people by an epidemical diſor.
proaches the Amalekites with attacking their brethren der. But before the fourth year of their captivity was
the Iſraelites ; an aggravating circumſtance which he expired, the Ainalfians took advantage of ihe abſence
would not have omitted were the Amalekites deſcended of the Salernian chiefs, who were than carrying on a
from Efau ; in which caſe they hrad been the brethren war with the Beneventans; armed themſelves, and,
of the Iſraelites. Laſtly, we ſee the Amalekites almoſt after burning and plundering Salerno, marchedin tri-
always joined in the Scripture with the Canaanites and umph back to their own country.
Philiſtines, and never with the Edomires ; and wlien Here they framed a better ſyſtem of government,
Saul made war upon the Amalekites,and almoſtutterly and reformned many abuſes in their former legiſlation;
deſtroyed them, we do not find that the Edoniles made adopting various meaſures that werelikely to promote
the leaft motion towards their aſſiſtance, nor to revenge internal concord and defeat the evil intention of fo-
them afterwards. Thence it is thought probable, that reign enemies. Their firk plan was to veſt the ſupreme
the Amalekites who are fo often mentioned in Scrip- au.hority in a temporary prefect; but the experience
VOL. I.
3 T
Α Μ Α
[ 514 ]
A M A
odtion,
و
?
|
Bu alti of a few years cauſed them to prefer lodging that heat; nevertheleſs, heat conſiderably facilitates the Amalthea -
porrer in the liands of a duke eledied for the terny of operation.
foglalya- his natural life. Under theſe governors Amalfi at Toamalgamate without heat requires nothing more
Amaina.
tained the ſummit of her military and commercial glon than rubbing the owo metals together in a mortar ;
jy. It extended its territory, which reached eaſtward but the metal to be united with the mercury Mould be
from Vico Vecchio, and weſtward to the promontory previoully divided into very thin plates or grains.
cf Minerva, including likewiſe the iſland of Caprca, When heat is uſed (which is always most effectual,
Eld the two iſlands of the Galli. Towards the north and with fome metals indiſpenſably necellary), the
it comprehended the cities of Lettere, Gragnans,.Pi. mercury Thould be heated till it begins to fioke, and
unontio, and Capule di Franchi ; towards the ſouth, the grains of metal made red-hot before they are
thoſe of Scala, Ravelli, Minori, Majuri, Atrani, Tra thrown into it. If it be goldor ſilver, it is ſufficient to
nionti, Agerula, Citara, Prajano, and Roſilano. ſtir the fluid witli an iron rod for a little while, and
Leo IV. found the Amalfians an uſeful ally in his then throw it into a veſſel filled with water. This
wars with the infidelsand honoured the commonwealth amalgam is uſed for gilding or ſilvering on copper,
with the title of Defender of the Faith. The Neapon which is afterwards expoſed to a degree of heat ſuffici
litans, with wvliom, as Greek vaſſals, they were uni ent to evaporate the mercury.
ted ju ftrict bonds of friendthip,experienced many fig Amalgamation with lead or tin is effected by pour-
nal favours at their hands; and the Muſſulmen then- ing an equal weight of mercury into either of theſe
ſelves found it expedient to court their alliance, and to metals in a ſtate of fuſion, and Nirring with an iron
enter into treaty with them. Their ſituation had from rod. Copper amalgamates with great difficulty, and
the beginning given them a turn to commerce, and iron not at all.
their attention to naval affairs ſo much conſequence in AMALTHÆA, the name of the Comxan Sibyl,
the eyes of their protector, the emperor of Conſtanti. who offered to Tarquinius Superbus nine books, con-
nople, that by his orders a court was eſtabliſhed at taining the Roman deſtinies, and demanded 300 pieces
Amalfi for the deciſion of all controverſies ariſing in of gold for them.
of gold for them. He derided her ; whereupon the
maritime tranſations. Its code and reports became the threw three of them into the fire; and returning, aſked
general rule in thoſe caſes throughout this part of Eu- the ſame price for the other fix ; which being denied;
rope ; its precedents and decrees were allowed to be the burnt three mores and returned, ſtill demanding
good authority to found judgment upon even in foreign the ſame price: Upon which Tarquin conſulting the
tribunals.-To crown the mercantile and naval glory pontiffs, was adviſed to buy them. Theſe books were
of the republic, it was reſerved to the lot of an Amal- in ſuch eſteem, that two magiſtrates were created to
fian to make, or at leaſt to perfect, the moſt import- conſult thein upon extraordinary occaſions.
ant diſcovery ever nade for the improvement of navi AMALTHEA, in pagan mythology, the daughter of
gation. Palitano, a village which ſtands on the ſhore Meliſſus, king of Crete, and the nurſe of Jupiter,
a few miles weſt of Amalfi, boaſts of having given whom ſhe fed with goat's milk and honey. Accord
birth to Flavius Gioia, the inventor of the mariner's ing to others, Amalthea was a goat, which Jupiter
compaſs.
tranſlated into the ſky, with her two kids, and
gave
The nierchants of this town engroſſed the trade of one of her horns to the daughters of Meliſſus, as a re-
the Levant, and tranſacted the commercial buſineſs of ward for the pains they had taken in attending him.
zhe world in a lucrative and excluſive manner. The This horn had the peculiar property of furniſhing them
Piſans, Venetians, and Genoele, roſeupon their rain ; with whatever they wiſhed for; and was thence called
and after monopolizing the emoluments of trade for the cornucopia, or horn of plenty.
fome ages, made way for the more comprehenſive and AMALTHÆUS (Jerome, John Baptiſta, and Core
daring ſpirit of the preſent maritime powers. nielle), three celebrated Latin poets of Italy, who flou-
At preſent Amalfi is ſubject to Naples, and is the riſhed in the 16th century. Their compolitions were
fee of an archbiſhop. It is but a ſhadow of what it printed at Amſterdam in 1685. One of the prettieſt
was in its flouriſhing ſtate, when it extended over the pieces in that collection is an epigram on two children,
ſtupendous rocks that hung on each ſide, ſtill crowned whoſe beauty was very extraordinary, though each of
with battlemented walls and ruined towers. Its build- them was-deprived of an eye :
ings, Mr Swinburne ſays, are not remarkable for ele-
* Lumine Acon dextro, capta eft Leonilla ſiniſtro :
gance or ſize ; and contain at moſt 4000 inhabitants,
* Et poterat forma vincere uterque deos.
who ſeem to be in a poor line of life. The cathedral
• Parve puer, lunien quod habes concede forori ;
is an uncouth building. Under the choir is the cha-
+ Sic tu cæcus Amor, ſic erit illa Venus.'
pel and tomb of the apoſtle St Andrew; to whoſe
honour the edifice was dedicated, when Cardinal AMAMA(Sixtinus),profeſſor of the Hebrew tongue
Capuano in 1208 brought his body from Conſtantie in the univerſity of Franeker, a man of great learning.
nople.
was born in Frieſland, and had ſtudied under Druſius.
AMALGAM, mercury united with ſome metal. He publiſhed a criticiſm upon the tranſlation of the
AMALGAMATION, the operation of making an Pentateuch ; collared the Dutch tranſlation of the Bi-
amalgam, or mixing mercury with any metal. ble with the original and moſt accurate tranſlations ;
For the combination of one metal with another, it and wrote a cenſure of the
Vulgate tranſlation of the
is generally fufficient that one of them be in a ſtate of hiſtorical books of the Old Teſtament, Job, the Pſalms
fuidity, Mercury being always fluid, is therefore and Canticles. It is impoſſible to anſwer the reaſons
capable of amalgamation with other metals without whereby he ſhows the neceſſity of confulting the origi-
nals.
A M A
( 515 ]
A M A
Amaran.
thus,
Amance nals. This he recommended ſo earnefly, that ſome LE, (Strabo); AMANI PORTE, (Pliny): ſtraights or Arancea
ll fynods, being influenced by his reaſons, decreed, that defiles in mount Amanus, through which Darius en-
li
Amanicæ.
none would be admitted into the miniſtry but ſuch as tered Cilicia ; al a greater diſtance from the ſea than
had a competent knowledge of the Hebrew and Greek the Pylæ Ciliciæ or Syriæ, through which Alexander
text of the Scripture. He died in 1629.
paſled.
AMANCE, a town in the duchy of Lorrain, upon AMANTEA, a ſea-port town and Lithop's fee of
a rivulet of the ſame name. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. the kingdoin of Naples, filuated near thc bay of Eu-
18. 45.
phemia in the province of Calabria, in E. Long, 16.
AMAND (Mark-Anthony-Gerard, ſieur de St.), a 20. N. Lat. 39. 15.
French poet, was born at Roan in Normandy in 1594. AMANUS, a mountain of Syria, ſeparating it from
In the epiſtle dedicatory to the third part of his works, Cilicia ; a branch of mount Taurus, (Cicero, Strabo,
he tells us, that his father commanded a ſquadron of Pliny); extending chiefly eaſtward, from the ſea of Ci-
tips in the ſervice of Elizabeth queen of England for licia, to the Euplirates : now called Monte Negro, or
22 years, and that he was for three years priſoner in rather Montagna Neres, by the inhabitants ; that is,
the Black Tower at Conſtantinople. He mentions al- the.watery mountain, as abounding in ſprings and ri-
fo, that two brothers of his had been killed in an en vulets.
gagement againſt the Turks. His own life was ſpent AMAPALLA, a city and port-town of North A-
in a continual ſucceſſion of travels, which was of no ad- merica, in the province of Guatímala, ſeated on the
vantage to his fortune. There are miſcellaneous poems gulph of the ſame name, in the Pacific ocean. W.
of this author, the greateſt part of which are of the Long. 63. 20. N. Lat. 12. 30.
comic or burleſque, and the amorous kind. Though AMARANTE, an order of knighthood, inſtituted
there are many blemiſhes in his poenis, yet he had the in Sweden by queen Chriſtina, in 1635, at the cloſe
talent of reading them in ſo agreeable a manner, that of an annual feaſt, celebrated in that colintry, called
every one was charmed with them. In 1650, he pu- Wirtſchaft. This feaſt was folemnized with entertain-
blished “Stances ſur la groffefſe de la reine de Polognements, balls, maſquerades, and the like diverſions, and
et de Seude."
There are fix ſtanzas of nine verſes continued from evening till the next morning. That
each. In 1653, he printed his “ Moiſe ſauve, idyle princeſs, thinking the name too vulgar, changed it into
heroique." This poem had at firſt many admirers : that of the feast of the gods, in regard each perſon here
Monf. Chapelain calied it a ſpeaking picture, but it has repreſented fome deity as it fell to his lot. The queen
ſince fallen into contempt. Amand wrote alſo a very aſſumed the name of Amarante ; that is, unfading, or
devout piece, intitled “Stances à M. Corneille, ſur ſon immortal. The young nobility, dreſſed in the habit of
imitation de Jeſus Chriſt," which was printed at Paris nymphs and thepherds, ſerved the gods at the table.-
in 1656. Mr Broſſelte ſays that he wrote alſo a poein At the end of the feaſt, the queen threw off her habit,
upon the moon, wherein he paid a compliment to which was covered with diamonds, leaving it to be
Lewis XIV. upon his ſkill in ſwimming, in which he pulled in pieces by the maſques ; and, in memory of ſo
uſed often to exerciſe himſelf when he was young, in gallant a feaſt, founded a military order, called in Swe-
the river Seine; but the king could not bear this poem dith Gefchilſchafft, into which all that had been preſent
to be read to him, which is ſaid to have affected the at the feaſt were admitted, including 16 lords and as
author to ſuch a degree, that he did not ſurvive it long. many ladies, beſides the queen. Their device was the
He died in 1661, being 67 years of age. He was ad- cypher of Amarante, compoſed of two A's, the one e-
initted a member of the French academy, when it was rect, the other inverted, and interwoven together ; the
firſt founded by cardinal Rich lieu, in the year 1633, whole incloſed by a laurel croin, with this motto,
and Mr Peliſſon inforins us, that, in 1637, at his own Dolce nella memoria.
deſire, he was excuſed from the obligation of making a Bulſtrode Whitlock, the Engliſh ambaſſador from
ſpeech in his turn, on condition that he would compile Cromwell to the court of Sweden, was made a knight
the comic. part of the dictionary which the academy of the order of Amarante : on which account ir feeins
had undertaken, and collet the burleſque terms. This to be, that we fometimes find him ſtyled Sir Bulftrode
was a tak well ſuited.to him ; for it appears by his Whitlock.
writings that he was extremely converſant in theſe AMARANTHOIDES, in botany, the trivial name
terms, of which he ſeems to have made a complete col- of a ſpecies of illecebrum. See ILLECE GRUM.
lection from the markets and other places where the AMARANTHUS (of <privative, and
lower people reſort.
wither, becauſe the flower of this plant when cropped
AMAND (St.), a city of France, in Bourbonois, on does not ſoon wither), AMARANTH, or FLOWER-GEN-
the confines of Berry, ſeated upon the river Cher. It TLE : A genus of the pentandria order, belonging to
was built in 1410 on the ruins of Oryal. E. Long. 3. the monccia claſs of plants ; and, in the natural me-
30. N. Lat. 46. 32.
thod, ranking under the 54th order, Miſcellaneze. The
AMAND (St.), a city of the Low Countries, in the characters are : The male calyx is a five or three leav'd
earldom of Flanders, ſeated upon the river Scarpe. It perianthium, erect, coloured, and perliftent: There is
contains about ooo houſes, and 3000 or 4000 inhabi 110 corolla : The ſiamina conſiſt of five or three erect
The abbor of the place is the temporal lord, capillary filaments, the length of the calyx : the an.
and diſpoſes of the magiſtracy. It was given to France there are oblong and verſatile : The female calyx the
by the treaty of Utrecht. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. ſame as the male, and no corolla : The piſtillum has all
50. 27.
ovate germen; the ſtyli are three, ſhort, and fubulated;
AMANICÆPYLE, (Ptolemy); AMANIDES Py- the ſtigmata fimple and perſiſtent: The pericarpium is
3 T2
Mapalva, to
iants.
212
A M A
[ 516 ]
A M A
Amaryllis. larze.
green colour.
Amarau. an ovate capſule, three-beaked, unilocular, and cut monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria claſs of Amaryllis. -
thus, round: The feed is one, globular, compreſſed, and plants; and in the natural inethod ranking under the
9th order, Spathuced. The characters are: The calyx
Species. Of this genus Linnæus enumerates 19 is an oblong obtuſe ſpatha, emarginated, and wither-
species ; the moſt remarkable of which are the follow- ing: The corolla conſiſts of lix petals, lanced: The
ing. 1. The tricolor, or three coloured amaranthus. Jiamina conſiſt of ſix ſubulated filanienis ; the antheræ
This has been long cultivated in gardens, on account oblong, incumbent, and aſcending: The pillillum has
of the beauty of its variegated leaves, which are of a roundiſh ſulcated germen beneath ; a filiform (tylus,
three colours, green, yellow, and red; and very ele nearly the length of the ſtamina, the ſtigma trifid and
gantly mixed. When the plants are in full vigour, lender: The pericarpium is an ovate trilocular capſule,
the leaves are large, and cloſely ſet from the bottom with three valves: The feeds are many.
to the top of the ſtalks, and the branches from a fort Principal Species. I. The lutea, or autumnal narciffus.
of pyramid ; ſo that there is not a more beautiful plant This is uſually ſold by gardeners along with colchicums,
than this when it is in fuli luſtre. 2. The melancho. for autunnal ornaments to gardens. For this purpoſe it
ticus, bicolor, or two-coloured amaranthus. This is very proper, as it will kcep flowering from the begin.
greatly reſembles the former in its manner of growth ; ning of September to the middle of November, provided
but the leaves have only two colours, which are an the froſt is not ſo ſcvere as to deſtroy the flowers. Al-
obſcure purple, and i bưight crimſon. Theſe are ſo though there is but one flower in each cover, yet there
blended as to ſet off each other, and, when the plants are is a ſucceſſion of flowers from the ſame root, eſpecially
vigorous, make a fine appearance. 3. The caudata, when they are ſuffered to remain three or four years
with very long hanging cylindrical ſpikes. This ſpe- unremoved. The flowers feldom riſe above three or
cies is a native of America. It hath an upright ſtem four inches high. They are ſhaped fomewhat like the
three feet high ; the leaves and ſtalks are of a pale flowers of the yellow crocus;
the green leaves come up
The ſpikes of flowers are produced at the ſame time, like the ſaffron ; and, after the flow.
froin the wings of the ſtalks, and alſo at the extre ers are paſt, the leaves increaſe all the winter. The
mities of the branches. They are of a bright purple roots are bulbous, and ſhaped like thoſe of the narcis
colour, and hang downward, ſometimes to the length fus ; fu are proper ornaments for ſuch borders as are
of two feet and an half, ſo that iany of them touch planted with cyclamens, ſaffron, autumnal crocus, col.
the ground. 4. The maximus, ar tree-like amaran chicums, and ſuch low autumnal flowers.
2. The
thus, grows with a ſtrong ftem, to the hcight of formoliſlima, or jacobæa lily, produces its Howers
ſeven or eight feet. Towards the top it fends forth two or three times in a year, without being regu-
many horizontal branches, garniſhed with oblong lar to any feafon. The flowers are of a deep red, the
rough grcen leaves. At the extremity of every ſhoot, under petals very large, and the whole flower ſtands
the cylindrical ſpikes of flowers are produced. They nodding on one lide of the ſtalk, making a beautiful ap-
are of a pnrple colour, and hang downward like the pearance. The ſtems of the flowers are produced froin
laſt ; but are ſeldom half the length, tho' much thick- the ſides of the bulbs ; ſo that when the filowers produ-
er than the fornier. 5. The fanguineus, with com ced on one ſide are decayed, another ſtalk ariſes from
pound ſpikes, and oblong oval Icaves. This is a na the other fide of the bulb; but there is no more than
tive of the Bahamia iſlands. It is an efculent plant, one flower produced on the ſame ſtalk. When the
and bears fine flowers. It grows to the height of three roots are in vigour, flowers will be produced froin
feet, with purple ſtalks and leaves. The ſpikes are ſhort March to the beginning of September. 3. The far-
and cylindrical, of a bright purple at firſt, but after- nientis, or Guernſey lily, is ſuppoſed to have come ors.
wards fade to a darker colour. They are frequently ginally from Japan, but has been many years cultivated
produced from the wings of the ſtalks ; but at the ex- in the gardens of Guernſey and Jerſey ; in both whiclı
tremity of the ſtalks ariſes a large cluſter of ſpikes, places they ſeem to thrive as well as if it was their na-
which are placed croſs-wife, with one upright ſtalk tive country, and from theſe iſlands their roots are
in the middle. 6. The oleraceus, with obtufe indent- fent annually to the curious in moſt parts of Europe.
ed leaves. This has no beauty ; but it is uſed by the
uſed by the The flowers of this ſpecies are admired for the richneſs
Indians as a ſubſtitute to cabbage.
of their colour, which is commonly red, though they
Gulture. Tlie two firſt of theſe ſpecies being ten have no fcent. They appear towards the end of Sep-
der, require ſome art and care to bring them to per. tcmber ; and, if properly managed, will continue a
fection in Britain, by a ſucceſſion of hot-bed, with month in beauty. The roots of theſe plants do not
proper waterings, airings, and ſhadings.
flower again the ſucceeding year, as is the caſe with
where people are curions in having theſe annual many other bulbs: but if their bulbs contain two birds
planis in great perfection, there ſhould be a glaſs-caſe in their centre, which is often the caſe, they frequent-
eređed, with upright and lloping glaſſes on every fide, ly flower twice in three years; after which the famein-
with a pit in the bottom for tan, in which the pots dividual root does not flower again in ſeveral years, but
hould be plunged. If this is raiſed eight or nine feet only the offsets from it. 4. The regina, or belladon-
to the ridge, and the upright glaſſes are five feel, there na lily, is a native of Portugal, where it was formerly
will be room enough to raiſe theſe and other annual cultivated in great plenty ; but of late it has been ſup-
plants to great perfc.fior ; and in ſuch a building, planted by the jacobæa lily, ſo that the roots which
many tender vegetables, which rarely perfect their have been taken from that country for fome time
feeds in a cold climate, may be every year brought for- paſt for the belladonna, have generally proved the ja-
ward ſo as to ripen their feeds.
cobæa lily. This kind, if properly managed, will
AMARYLLIS, LILY-ASPHODEL : A genus of the
genus of the ſometimes put out two or three ſtems, growing near
three
Α Μ Α
[ 517 ]
A Mi
thus.
Amaryllis, three feet high, and produce many flowers in each u.1- annual ſolemnity, at which thoſe of Caryſtus alliitod; Amalia
Amaryn- bel, which make a fine appcarance during the mouth hence the title of the goddeſs was Amarynthis, and ll
of October
Amazonia.
5. The zeylanica, or Ceylon liiy, is a Amaryſia.
native of the Weſt Indies, and ufially flowers in June. AMASIA (anc. geog.), now Marpurg, a city in
Sometimes the ſame root will fower again in autuin 11, the landgraviate of Heile, on the Lahn. According
but thc flowers are of no long duratioil. 6. The ori. to others, it is Embien in Weſtphalia.
entalis,or lily daffodil, with leaves thaped like atongue. A 11 ASIA, an ancient town of Turkey, in Natolia,
This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The bulbs remarkable for the birth of Straba the geographer.
of the root arc lırge and almost round ; the leaves long, It is the reſidence of a bahaw, and gives its name to
broad, and rounded at their extremities ; theſe ſpread the province it ſtanus in, where there are the beſt
two ways on the ſurface of the groand, and do not comc wines and the beſt fruits in Natolia. It is feated near
up till after the flower-ſteni appears, which is gene the river Iris or Caſalmack; and was anciently the
rally in November. After the flowers are paſt, the reſidence of the kings of Cappadocia. E. Long. 36.
leaves increaſe till ſpring, and in May they begin to 10. N. Lat. 29. 33.
decay ; ſo that from the middle of June to October AMASIA, the name of the northern diviſion of Lero
The roots are entirely deſtitute of leaves.
fer Alia, lying on the ſouih ſhore of the Euxine ſea
Guiture, 1 he firſt ſort is very hardy, and will thrive in Natolia. It takes its lame from Amalia the capi-
in alnoſt any ſoil or ftuation ; but will ſucceed beſt in tal, mentioned in the precediig article.
a freth ligh dry foil, and not too near the dripping of AMASONIA, in botany: A genus of the angio-
trees, or too near walls. It increaſes very faſt by off- ſpermia order, belonging to the Didynamia ciais of
fets, by which all the other ſpecies are alſo to be pro- plants; the characters of which are: The calyx is a
pagated. Theſe roots may be tranſplanted any time tripartite monophyllous periaathium, bell-thaped and
from May to the end of July ; after which it will be too perſiſtent: The corolla is nionopetalous and tubolar;
late to remove them.-Thejacobæa ought to be keptina the border quinquefid, expanding, and ſmall : Thella-
moderate ſtove all winter;in which cafe it will ſend forth mina conſiſt of four filaments longer than the corolla ;
plenty of offsets, that will produce vigorous plants.- the antheræ oral and incumbent? The puſtiliuin has
The roots of the Guernſey liiy are generally brought an ovate germen; the ſtylus the length of the ſtami-
over in June and July ; but the ſooner they are taken na; the ſtigmata two, acute: There is no pericarpio
vat of the grouudafter the leaves decay, the better : for um: The feed is an ovate uniloculir nut, the length
altho'che roots which are taken up when their flower-
of the calyx
Items begin to appear, will flower;yet their flowers will AMATHUS, a very ancient town in the ſouth of
not be ſo large, nor will their roots be near ſo good af- Cyprus (Strabo, Piolemy): ſo called from Amathus
cer,as thoſe which were removed before they ſent forth the founder; or, according to others from Amath, a
freſh tibres. When theſe roots come over, they ſhoud be Phænician town ſacred to Venus, with a very ancient
planted in pors filled with freſh, lightſandy earth,mixed temple of Adonis and Vents: and hence Venus is de-
with a little very rottun dung,and placed in a warm litu- nominated Amathuſia (Tacitus). According to Ovid,
ation,obſerving now and then to refreſh the earth with it was a place rich in copper-ore, and where the in-
water: but by no means let them have too much wet, habitants became Ceralia, or horned. Now called
which would routieir roots, eſpecially before they come Limijo.
up. About the middle of September, ſuch of the roots AMATHUS (anc. geog.), a town of the tribe of Gad,
as are ſtrong enough to Hower will begin to ſhow the beyond Jordan; but whether at a greater or leſs diſ-
bud of their flower-Item : therefore theſe pots ought to tance from it, is not ſo eaſy to determine. Euſebius
be removed into a liluation where they may have the places it in the Lower Peräa; Reland, in Ramoth-
benefit of the fun, and be ſheltered from ſtrong winds Gilead. Gabinius, proconful of Syria, eſtabliſhed five
When the flowers begin open, the pots ſhould be juridical conventions in Judea ; two of which were
removed under ſhelter,to prevent injury from too much on the other ſide Jordan; one at Gadara, the other
wet.-After the flowers are decayed, the green leaves at Amathus (Jofephus).
will begin to Ilioot forth in leng: h ; and, if ſhelter- . AMATORII MUSCULIT, in anatomy, a term fome.
ed from ſevere culd, will continue growing all win- times uſed for the obliquus fuperior and obliquus in-
ter: but they matt have as much free air as poſſible fcrior muſcles of the eye, as theſe muſcles alliſt in
in mild weather, and are to be covered only in great ogling or drawing the eye fideways.
rains or froſts. For this parpoſe, a common hoi-bed AMATRICE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in
frame is the moſt proper ſhelter for them ; the glaſſes the farther Abruzzo, upon the confines of the pope's
of which may be taken off every day in dry open wea territories, and the marquiſate of Ancona.
ther, which will encourage the leaves to grow ſtrong AMAUROSIS, in medicine, a dcprivation of light,
and broad. The roots thould be trajiſplanted every the eye remaining fair, and ſeemingl7 unaffected. A
fourth or fifth year, toward the end of June or begin- perfect amauroſis is when the blindneſs is total; when
ning of July ; the offsets also thould be taken off and there is ſtill a power of diſtinguiſhing light from dark-
planted in pots, where in three years time they will neſs, the diſeaſe is called by M. de St Ives an imperfeci
produce flowers. The other ſpecies of the amaryllis amaurojis. There is a periodical fort which comes
inay eaſily be raiſed by taking care to ſhelter then in or inſtantaneouſly, continues for hours, or days, and
a ſtove from the winter's cold.
then diſappears. Mr Hay, furgeon at Leeds, menti-
AMARYNTHUS (anc. geog.), a hamlet of Ere ons ſeveral caſes of patients afflicted with the amauro-
trias, in the iſland of Edbæa, about ſeven ſtadia diſtant fis who were relieved by being ele&irified.
from its walls. Here Diana was vorſhipped by an AMAZONIA, or the country of the Americais
A
A M A
[ 518 1
A M A
Astazonia. A!!4?ONS, is (ituate between so and 70 degrees of of all colours, the facili of which ſerves for food and Amazonis,
Welt longitude; and between the equator and 15 de the feathers for ornament, All che trees here are ever- Aniazong,
gices of fouth latitude ; being bounded on the ſouth greens; and fruits, howers, and herbage, are in per-
by La Plata, on the weſt by Peru, on the north by fection all the year round. The principal fruits are
the province of Terra Firma, and on the caſt by cocoa-nuts, ananas or pine-apples, guavas, bananas,
Brazil.
and ſuch others as are uſually found between the tro.
With reſpect to the Amazons ſaid to have given pics. The foreſt and timber trees are cedar, Brazil
11ame to this territory, they have been repreſented as wood, oak, ebony, logwood, ironi-wood, ſo called from
governed and led to war only by their qacen. Nomen its weight and hardneſs, and ſeveral forts of dyeing
were ſuffered to live among them; though thoſe of wood.
ſonne neighbouring nations were ſuffered to viſit them, The natives are of the common ſtature, with good
at a certaiu ſeaſon, for the ſake of procreation. The features, a copper complexion, black eyes and hair.
females iſſuing from this commerce were bred up with It is computed that there are of them about 150 dif-
care, and inſtructed in what relates to war and govern-
govern- ferent tribes or nations, and the villages are ſo nume-
ment; as to the males, they were ſent away into the rous as to be within call of one another. Among thoſe
country of their fathers. But no ſuch nation is at the Homagues, a people near the hicad of the river,
preſent to be found, any more than the giants and ca are famous for their cotton manufactures; the Jurines,
nibals mentioned by the firſt adventurers thither. who live between five and ten degrees of latitude, for
Amazonia is generally a fiat region, abounding in theirjoiners works; and the Wrofilares for their earth-
woods, lakes, rivers, bogs, and moraſſes. The chief en ware. The Topinambes, whoinhabit a large iſland
river, and one of the largeſt in the world, is that call- in the river, are remarkable for their ſtrength. Some
od the river of Amazons, or the Orellana, which is of theſe nations frequently make war upon each other.
formed by tiro large rivers, the one riling in the pro Tlicir armour conſiſts of darts, javelins, bows and ar-
vince of Quito, a little ſouth of the equator, in 73 rows, and they wear targets of cane, or filh-ſkin. They
degrees of weſt longitude and the other, named Xauxa, make laves of their priſoners, whom they otherwiſe
riling in the lake of Bourbon, near the Andes, in ten uſe very well. Every tribe is governed by its reſpective
degrees of fouth latitude. Thoſe two rivers unicing chief or king, the marks of whoſe dignity are a crown
on the confines of Peru and Amazonia, in three de- of parrots feathers, a chain of lions teeth or claws hung
grecs odd minutes of fouth larilude, aſſume the name round his neck, or girt about his waiſt, and a wooden
of Amazon ; whence running eaſtward upwards of 200 ſword, which he carries in his hand.
miles, and afterwards inclining to the north, they fall Moñ of thoſe nations, except the Homagues, go
into the Atlantic ocean by 84 channels, which in the naked. The men thruſt pieces of cane through their
rainy ſeaſon overflow the adjacent country. Beſides the ears and under lips, as well as through the ſkin of the
two ſtreams mentioned, a multitude of others, both on pudenda. At the griſtle of their noſes they alſo hang
the north and fouth ſide, contribute to the formation of glaſs beads, which wag to and fro when they ſpeak.
This extraordinary river. As it runs almoſt acroſs the They are ſuch ſkilful markſmen, that they will ſhoor
broadeſt part of South America, it is computed to be filh as they ſwim ; and what they catch they eat with-
betwcen four and five thouſand iniles in length, in out either bread or ſalt. They worſhip images, which
cluding all its windings. Its channel from Junta de los they always carry with them on their expeditions ;
Reyos, about 60 degrees from its head, to the river but they neither have temples nor any order of prieſts;
Maranhon, is from one to two leagues broad; it then and permit both polygamy and concubinage.
widens from three to foar, and becomes gradually The country affords neither gold nor ſilver mines;
broader as it approaches the ocean. Between the places only a finall quantity of the former is found in the ri-
laſt mentioned, its depth is from five to ten fathom; vulets which fall into the Amazon near its ſources in
but from Maranhon to Rio Negro it increaſes to 20 Peru. While the Spaniards imagined that it contained
-fathoms ; afier which it is ſometinies 30, and ſome thoſe metals, they made great efforts from Peru to re-
times 50 fathoms, or more, till it comes near to the duce this territory to ſubjection ; till being ať length
end of its courſe. It has no ſand-banks, nor does the undeceived, they abandoned the deſign.
Thore ſhelve ſo as to render it dangerous for veſſels. AMAZONS, in antiquity, a nation of female war-
The maneru and tortoiſe abound both upon the banks riors, who founded an empire in Aſia minor, upon the
of this and the other rivers; and the fiſhermen muſt river Thermodoo17, along the coaſts of the Black Sea.
be upon their guard againſt the crocodiles, alligators, They are ſaid to have formed a ſtate out of which men
and water ſerpents, which alſo ſwarm here.
were excluded. What conimerce they had with that
The air, as in the countries under the ſame parallel, ſex, was only with ſtrangers; they killed all their male
is obſerved to be nearly as cool under the equator as children ; and they cut off the right breaſt of their fe.
about the tropics, on account of the rains continuing males, to make them more fit for the combat, From
longer, and the ſky in that ſeaſon being clouded. Be- which laſt circumſtance it is, that they are ſuppoſed to
lides, an eafterly wind ſets from the Atlantic up thc take their name, -viz, from the primitive
ag
river ſo ſtrong, that veſlels are carried by it againſt mamma, “ breaſt.
“ breaſt.”. But Dr Bryant, in his Analyſis
the frean).
of ancient mythology, explodes this account as fa-
The produce of the country is Indian corn and the bulous ; and obſerves, that they were in general Cu-
caſſaví root, of which they make flour and bread ; to thite colonies from Egypt and Syria, who formed fet-
bacco, cotton, ſugar, farſaparilla, yams, potatoes, and tlements in different countries, and that they derived
other roots. They have alſo plenty of veniſon, fiſh, their name from zon, the “fun," which was the na-
and fowl. Among the latter are vaſt flocks of parrots tional object of worſhip. Vol. iii. p. 463.---It has in-
deed
and μαζος,
A M A
[ 519 ]
AM
Amazons. deed been controverled even ainong ancient writers, ſubjected to the government of women, and in which Amazons.
whether ever there really were ſuch a nation as that the women, like men, managed all the inilitary affairs.
of the Amazons. Strabo, Palæphatus, and others, de- Among theie female warriors, it is ſaid, was one who
ny it. On the contrary, Herodotus, Pauſanius, Dio. cxcelied the reſt in ſtrength and valour. She aſſembled
dorus Siculus, Trogus Pompeius, Juſtin, Pliny, Mela, together an army of women, whom the trained up in
Plotarch, &c. expreſsly affert it.
military diſcipline, and ſubdued ſome of the neighbour-
M. Petit, a French phyſician, publiſhed a Latin dif- ing nations. Afterwards, having by her valour in-
ſertation in 1685, to prove that there was really a 11a creaſed their fame, ſhe led her ariny againſt the reſt;
tion of Amazons; it contains abundance of curious in. and being ſucceſsful, ſhe was ſo puíted up, that ſhe ſty-
quiries, relating to their habit, their arms, the cities led herſelf the daughter of Mars, and ordered the men
built by them, &c. Others of the moderns alſo main to fpin wool, and do the work of the women within
tain, that their exiſtence is ſufficiently proyed by the coors. She alſo made laws, by which the women were
teſtimony of fuch of the hiſtorians of antiquity as are enjoined to go to the wars, and the men to be kept 20
moſt worthy of credit; by the monuments which many home in a ſervile ſtate, and employed in the ineanet
ofthen have mentioned; and by niedals, ſome of which offices. They alſo debilitated the arms and thighs of
are ſtillremaining; and that there is not the leaſt room thoſe male children who were born to them, that they
to believe that what is ſaid of them is fabulous.
might be thereby rendered unfit for war. They ſear-
The Amazons are nientioned by the moſt ancient of ed the right breaſts of their girls, that they might be
the Greek writers. In the third book of the Iliad, , no hindrance to them in fighting : from whence they
Honier repreſents Priam ſpeaking of himſelf as ha-
derived the name of Amazons. Their queen, having
ving been preſent, in the earlier part of his life, in a become extremely eminent for ſkill and knowledge in
battle with the Amazons: and ſome of them aſter- military. affairs, at length built a large city at the
wards came to the aſliſtance of that prince during the mouth of the river Therinodoon, and adorned it with
fiege of Troy.
a magnificent palace. In her enterprizes ille exactly
The Amazons are particularly mentioned by Hero. adhered to military diſcipline and good order ; and alle
dotus. That hiſtorian informs us, that the Grecians added to her empire all the adjoining nations, even to
fought a battle with the Amazons on the river Ther the river Tanais. Having performed theſe exploits,
modoon, and defeated them. After their victory, they ſhe at laſt ended her days like a hero, falling in a bat-
carried off all the Amazons they could take alive, in tle, in which ſhe had fought courageoully. She was
three ſhips.
But whilſt they were out at ſea, theſe ſucceeded in the kingdom by her daughter, who imi-
Amazons conſpired againſt the men, and killed them tated the valour of her clother, and in fòme exploits
all. Having, however, no knowledge of navigation, excelled her. She cauſed the girls froin their very in-
nor any ſkill in the uſe of the rudder, ſails, or oars, fancy to be exerciſed in hunting, and to be daily train-
they were driven by wind and tide till they arrived ed up in military exerciſes. She inſtituted ſolemn fe-
at the precipices of the lake Mæotis, in the territories ſtivals and ſacrifices to Mars and Diana, which were
of the Scythians. Here the Amazons went afhore, named Tauropoli. She afterwards carried her arms
and marching into the country, ſeized and mounted the beyond the river Tanais, and fubdued all the people
firſt horſes they met with, and began to plunder the of thoſe regions even
of thoſe regions even unlo Thrace. Returning then
inbabitants. The Scythians at firſt conceived them with a great quantity of ſpoils into her own kingdom,
to be men; but after they had had ſkirniſhes with the cauled magnificent temples to be erected to the
them, and taken ſome priſoners, they diſcovered them deities before nientioned ; and ſhe gained the love of
to be women. They were then unwilling to carry on her ſubjects by her mild and gentle government. She
hoſtilities againſt them; and by degrees a number of afterwards undertook an expedition againſt thoſe who
the young Scythians formed connections with them and were on the other ſide of the river, and ſubjected to
were deſirous that theſe gentle dames ſhould live with her dominion a great part of Alia, extending her arius
them as wives, and be incorporated with the reſt of as far as Syria.”
the Scythians. The Amazons agreed to continue their Diodorus alſo mentious another race of Amazons
connection with the Scythian huſbands, but refuſed to who dwelt in Africa ; and whom he ſpeaks of as being
aſſociate with the reſt of the inhabitants of the coun, of greater antiquity than thoſe who lived near the ri-
try, and eſpecially with the women of it. They af ver Thermodoon." In the weftern parts of Lybia,"
terwards prevailed upon their huſbands to retire to Sar- ſays he, “ upon the borders of thoſe tracts that are
matia, where they ſettled. “Hence,” ſays Herodo- habitable, there was ancieatly a nation under the go-
tus, "the wives of the Sarmatians ſtill continue their vernment of women, and whoſe manners and mode of
ancient way ofliving. They hunt on horſeback in the living were altogether different from ours. It was the
company of their huſbands,and ſometimes alone. They culton for theſe women to manage all military affairs;
march with their armies, and wear the fame dreſs with and for a certain time, during which they preſerved
the men. The Sarmatians uſe the Scythian language, their virginity, they went out as foldiers in the field.
but corrupted from the beginning, becauſe the Amar After ſome years employed in this manner, when the
zons never learned to ſpeak correctly. Their marriages time appointed for this purpoſe was expired, they alſo-
are attended with this circumſtance: no virgin is per- ciated
themſelves with men, in order to obtain children.
mitted to marry till Me has killed an enemy in the But the magiſtracy, and all public offices, they kept
field ; ſo that ſome always grow old before they can entirely in their own hands. The men, as the women
qualify themſelves as the law requires.'
are with us, were employed in houſehold affairs, ſub-
Diodorus Siculus ſays, " There was formerly a na- mitting themſelves wholly to the authority of their
tion who dwelt near the river Thermodoon, which was wives. They were not permitted to take any part in
3
military
و
MA
A M A
520
1
ma2013. nilitary affairs, or to have any command, or aliy pub- ror was ally thought worthy of giving birth to chil- Amazons.
lic authority, which might have a tendency len-
dren till flic had killed threc mci.
courage them to call of the yoke of their wives. If from this commerce they brought forth girls, they
ſoon as any child was lorn, it was delivered to the fa educated them; but with rcípect to the boys, if we
Ther, to be fed with milk or ſuch other food as sas may believe Juſtin, they ſtrangled them atilie moment
ſuitable to its age. If feniales were born, they feared of their birth : according to Diodorus Siculus, thcy
their breaſts, that thcy might not be burdenſome to twiſted their legs and arnis, fo as lo render them uutio
them when they grew up; for they conſidered them as for military exerciſes ; but Quintus Curlins, Philo-
great hindrances in fighting.'
itratus, and Jordarus, ſay that the loſs ſavage fent there
Juftinian repreſents the Amazonian repablic to have to their fathers. It is probable, that at firſt, when their
taken its riſe in Scythia. The Scythians had a great fury againſt the men was carried to the greateſt height,
part of Aſia under their douiuion upwards of 400 they killed the boys : that when this tury abated, and
yrars, tiil they were conquered by Ninus, the founder moſt of the mothers were filled with horror at deprio
of the Allyrian empire. After his death, which hap. ving the little creatures of the lives they had juſt rc-
pened about 1150'years before the Chriſtian zra, and ceived from them, they fulfilled tbe firſt dulies of o.
chat of Semiramis and their fon Ninias,llinus and Scu mother; but, to prevent their cauſing a revolucion in
lopites, princes of the royal blood of Scythia, were dri the ſtate, maimed then in ſuch a manner as to render
ven froin their comitry by other princes, who like them them incapable of war, and employed them in the mean
aſpired to the crown. They departed with their wives, offices which theſe warlike women thought beneath
children, and friends; and being followed by a great them : in ſhort, that, when their conqueſts had confir-
number of young people of both ſexes, they paſſed in med their power, their ferocity ſubſiding, they enter-
to Afiatic Sarmatia, beyond mount Camaríus, where ed into political engagements with their neighbours;
They formed an eſtablilhment, ſupplying themſelves and the number of the males they had preſerved be-
with the riches they wanted, by making excurfions coming burthenfome, they, at the deſire of thoſe who
into the countries bordering on the Euxine Sea. The rendered them pregnant, ſent them the boys, and
people ofthoſe countries, exaſperated by the incurſions continued ſtill to keep the girls.
of their new neighbours, united, furpriſed, and maſſa As foon as the age of the girls permitted, they look
ered the wen.
away the right breaſt, that they might draw the bow
The women then reſolving to revenge their death, with the greater force. The coinmon opinion is, that
and at the ſanıe time to provide for their own ſecurity, they burnt that breaſt, by applying to it, at eight
reſolved to form a new kind of government, to chooſe years of age, a hot brazen inſtrument, which infenfibly
a queen, enact laws, and maintain themſelves, without dried up the fibres and glands: ſome think that they
mon, even againſt the men themſelves. This deligni did not make uſe of ſo much ceremony, but that when
was not ſo very ſurpriſing as at firſt light appears : for the part was formed they got rid of it by amputation :
the greateſt number of the girls among the Scythians fome, again, with much greater probabilíty, aſſert, hat
had been inured to the ſame exerciſes as the boys; to they employed no violent meaſures ; but, by a continu-
draw the bow, to throw the javelin, to manage other al compreflion of that part from infancy, prevented its
arms; to riding, hunting, and even the painful labours growth, at leaſt ſo far as to hinder its ever being in-
that ſeem reſerved for men, and many of them, as a commodious in war.
mong the Sarmatians, accompanied ihe men in war. Plutarch, treating of the Amazons in his life of The
Hence they had no ſooner formed their reſolution, than feus, conſiders the accounts which had been preſerved
thcy prepared to execute it, and exerciſed themſelves concerning them as partly fabulous and partly true.
in all military operarions. They ſoon ſecured the peace. He gives fome account of a battle which had been
able poffeffion of the country; and not content with fought between the Athenians and the Amazons at A-
thowing their neighbours that all their efforts to drive thens; and he relates ſome particulars of this battle,
them ihence or ſubdue them were ineffectual, they which had been recorded by an ancient writer named
inade war upon them,and extended their own frontiers. Clidemus. He ſays, " That the left wing of the A-
They had hitherto made uſe of the inſtructions and af. mazons moved towards the place which is yet called
fiſtance of a few men that remained in the country; but Amazoniun, and the right to a place called Pryx, near
finding at length that they could ſtand their ground, Chryfa ; upon which the Athenians, idſuing from be-
and aggrandize themſelves, without them, they killed bind the temple of the nuſes, fell upon them ; and
all thoſe whom flight or chance had ſaved from the fury that this is true, the graves of thoſe that were Nain, to
of the Sarmatians, and forever renounced marriage, be ſeen in the ſtreets that lead to the gate Piraica, by
which they now conſideredas an inſurportable flavery. the temple of the hero Chalcodue, are a ſufficient proof, .
But as they could only ſecure the duration of their new And hcre it was that the Athenians were ronted, and
kingdom by propagation, they made a law to go eve ſhamefully turned their backs to women, as far as to
ry year to the frontiers, to invite the men to come the temple of he Furies. But freth ſupplies coring
to them; to deliver themſelves up to their embraces, in fron. Palladiun, Ardettos, and Lyceum, charged
without choice on their part, or the leaſt altachment; their right wing, and beat them back into their very
and to leave them as ſoon as they were pregnant. All tenis ; in which action a great number of the Ama-
thoſe whom agcrendered fit for propagation, and were zons were flain.” In another place he ſays, “It ap-
willing to ſerve the ſtate by breeding girls, did not go pears that the paſſage of the Amazons through Ther-
at the ſame time in ſearch of men : for in order to ob- faly was not without oppoſition ; for there are yet to
tain a right to promcte the multiplication of the ſpe- be ſeen many of their fepulchres near Scouuſæa and Cy-
cies, they muſt firſt have contributed to its defruction; nocephalæ.
nocephalæ. And in his life of Pompey, ſpeaking of
1
2
A MA
[ 521 ]
A M A
Amazons, the Amazons, Plutarch ſays,“ They inhabit thoſe parts upon irrational principles, and that full credit is due to Amazens,
of mount Caucaſus that look towards the Hyrcanian thoſe grave and venerable hiſtorians by whom this
fea (not bordering upon the Albanians, for the terri tranſaction has been recorded.
tories of the Getz and the Leges lie betwixt): and The Amazons are repreſented as being armed with
with thcſc people do they yearly, for two months only, bows and arrows, with javelins, and alſo with an axe
accompany and cohabit, bed and board, near the river of a particular conſtruction, which was denominated
Thermodoon. After that they retire to their own ha the axe of the Amazons. According to the elder
bitations, and live alone all the reſt of the year. Pliny, this axe was invented by Penthiſilca,one of their
Quintus Curtius ſays, “ The nation of the Amazons queens. On many ancient medals are repreſentations
is tituated upon the borders of Hyrcania, inhabiting the of the Amazons, armed with theſe axes. They arc al-
plains of Thermiſcyra, near the river 1 herniodoon. ſo ſaid to have had bucklers in the ſhape of a half-moon.
Their
queen was named Thaleſtris; and ſhe had under The Amazons are mentioned by many other ancient
her ſubjection all the country that lies between mount autlıors belides thoſe which have been enumerated ;
Caucaſus and the river Phalis. This queen came out and if any credit be due to the accounts concerning
of her dominions, in conſequence of an ardent deſire them, they fubfifted through ſeveral ages. They are
ſhe had conceived to ſee Alexander;and being advanced repreſented as having rendered themſelves extremely
11ear the place where he was, he previouſly ſent meſ formidable ; as having founded cities, enlarged the
ſengers to acquaint him, that the queen wis come to boundaries of their dominions, and conquered ſeveral
have the fatista aion of ſeeing and converſing with him. other nations.
Having obtained permiſſion to viſit him, Ilie advanced Thal at any period there hould have been women,
with 300oſher Aniazons, leaving the reſt of her troops who, without the aſiſtance of men, built cities and
behind. As ſoon as he came within fight of the governed them, raiſed arinies and commanded then,
king, the leaped from her horſe, holding twojavelins adminiſtered public affairs, and extended their domi .
in her right hand. The apparel of the Amazons does nion by arms, is undoubtedly ſo contrary to all that
not cover all the body; for their left ſide is naked down we have ſeen and known of human affairs, as to appear
to the ſtomach, nor does the ſkirts of their
garments, in a very great degree incredible; but that women may
which they tie up in a knot, reach below their knees. have exiſted ſufficiently robuſt and fufficiently conra -
They preſerve their left breaſt entire that thcy may be geous to have engaged in warlike enterpriſes, and eveil
able to ſuckle their female offspring ; and they cut off to have been ſucceſsful in them, is certainly not im-
and ſear their right, that they may draw their bows, polible, however contrary to the uſual courſe of things.
and caſt their darts, with the greater eaſe. Thaleſtris In ſupport of this ſide of the queſtion, it may be urged,
looked at the king with an undaunted countenance, that women who have been early trained to warlike
and narrowly examined his perſon; which did not, ac exerciſes, to hunting, and to an hard and laborious
cording to her ideas, come up to the fame of his great mode of living, may be rendered more ſtrong, and ca-
exploits: For the barbarians have a great veneration for pable of more vigorous exertions, than men who have
a inajeſtic perſoni, eſteeming thoſe only to be capable of led indolent, delicate, luxurious lives, and who
performing great actions, on whom nature has confer ve ſeldoin been expoſed even to the inclemencies of
reda dignified appearance. The king havizg aſked her the weather. Theliinbs of women, as well as of men,
whether he had any thing to delire of him, I e replicd, are ſtrengthened and rendered more robuſt by frequent
without ſcruple or heſitation, that ſhe was come svith
and laborious exerciſe. A nation of women, therefore,
a view to have children by hiin, ſhe being worthy to brought up and diſciplined as the ancient Amazons are
bring him heirs to his dominions. Their offspring, if repreſented to have been, would be fuperior to an e-
of the female ſex, Mhe vould retain herſelf; and if of qual number of effeminate men ; though they might
the male ſex, it thould be delivered to Alexander. He be much interior to an equal number of hardy men
then aſked her, whether the would accompany him in trained up and diſciplined in the ſame manner.
his wars? But this the declined, alleging, That ſhe had That much of what is ſaid of the Amazons is fabu-
left nobody to take care of her kingdom. She conti- lous, there can be no reaſonable doubt; but it does
nued to ſolicit Alexander, that he would not ſend her not therefore follow, that the whole is withiout fogu-
back without conforming to her wiſhes; but it was not dation. The ancieni medals and monuments on which
till after a delay of 13 days that he complied. She they are repreſented are very numerous, as are alſo the
then returned to her own kingdom.
teſtimonies of ancient writers. It ſeems 1100 rational
Juſtin alſo repeatedly mentions this vilic of Thaleſtris to ſuppole that all this originated in fiction, though ii
to Alexander ; and in one place he ſays, that ſhe made may be much blended with it. The Abbé Guyo:
& march of 25 days, in order to obtain this meeting ſpeaks of the hiſtory of the Ainazuns as having been
with him. The interview between Alexander and regarded by many perſons as fabulous, “ rather from
Tlialeſtris is likewiſe mentioned by Diodorns Si. prejudice than from any real and ſolid examination;"
culus. The learned Goropius, as he is quoted by Dr and it muſt be acknowledged, that the arguments ill
Petit, laments, in very pathetic terms, the hard fate favour of their exiſtence,from ancient hiſtory,and from
of Thaleſtris, who was obliged to travel ſo many miles, ancient monuments, are extremely powerful. The fact
and to encounter many hardſhips, in order to procure ſeems to be, that truth and fiction have been blended
this interview with the Macedonian prince, and,from in the narrations concerning theſe ancicnt heroines.
the circumſtances, is led to conſider the whole account Inſtances of heroiſm in women have occaſionally oc-
as incredible. But Dr Petit, with equal erudition, with curred in modern times, fomewhat reſembling that of
equal eloquence, and with ſuperior force of reaſoning, the ancient <lmazons. The times and the manners of
et length determines, that herjourney was 1101 founded chivalry in particular, by bringing grcat en les priſes,
VOL. I.
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Azons, bold adventures, and extravagant heroiſm,into falrion, ſcheme to the Duke de Montmorenci, commander in amazons. -
inſpired the women with the ſame taſte. The women, that province. He was taken on his way by fome of
in conſequence of the prevailing paſſion, were now the troops of the League, who were alſo upoit their
leen in the middle of camps and of armies. They march with tlie. Spaniards towards Leucate. They
quitted the ſoft and tender inclinations, and the deli were perſuaded, that by thus having the governor in
cate offices of their own ſex, for the toils and the toil- their hands the gates of that place would be immedi.
ſon c occupation of ours. During the cruſades, ani. ately, opened to them, or at leaſt would not hold out
mated by the double enthuſiaſm of religion and of va- long. But Conftantia de Cecelli, his wife, after ha.
lour, they often performed the moſt romantic exploits; ving aſſembled the garriſon, put herſelf ſo reſolutely ac
obtained indulgences on the field of battle, and died their head, pike in hand, that the inſpired the weakest
with arins in their hands, by the ſide of their lovers or with courage ; and the beliegers were repulſed where
of their huſbands.
ever they prelented themſelves. Shame and their great
In Europe, the women attacked and defended for loſs having rendered them deſperate, they ſent a mef-
tifications, princeſſes conimanded their armies, and fage to this courageous woman, acquainting her, thač
obtained victories. Such was the celebrated Joan de if ſhe continued to defend herſelf they would hang her
Montfort, diſputing for her duchy. of Bretagne, and liuſband. She replied with tears-in her eyes, “ I have
fighting in perfon. Such was that ſtill more celebrated riches in abundance: I have offered them, and I do
Margaret of Anjou, active and intrepid general and ſtill offer them, for his ranſom ; but I would not igno-
foldier, whoſe genius ſupported a long time a feeble minioully purchaſe a life which he would reproach me
huſband ; thich taught him to conquer ; which repla- with, and which he would be aſhamed to enjoy. I
ced him upon the throne; which twice relieved him will not diſhonour him by treafon againſt my king and
from priſon; and, opprefled by fortune and by rebels, country.” The beliegers having made a freſh attack
which did not bend till after ſhe had.decided in perſon without ſucceſs, put her huſband to death, and raiſed
twelve batiles,
the fiege. Henry IV. afterwards ſent to this lady the
The warlike ſpirit among the women, conſiſtent · brevet of governeſs of Leucate, with the reverſion
with ages of barbarifın, when every thing is impetuous for hier ſon,
becauſe nothing is fixed, and when all exceſs is the ex The famous Maid of Orleans, alſo is an example,
ceſs of force, continued in Europe upwards of 400 known to every reader.
years, ſhowing itſelf from time to time, and always in The Abbé Arnaud, in his Memoirs, ſpeaks of a
the niddle of convulſions or on the eve of great revolu Counteſs of St Balmont, who uſed to take the field
tions. But there were æras and countries in which with her huſband and fight by his ſide. She ſent fe-
that ſpirit appeared with particular luſtre, Such were yeral Spaniſh priſoners of her taking to Marſhal Fent-
the diſplays it made in the 15th and 16th centuries in quiers; and what is not a little extraordinary, this A-
Hungary, and in the iſlands of the Archipelago and the inazon at home was all affability and ſweetneſs, and
Mediterranean when they were invaded by the Turks. gave herſelf up to reading and acts of piety:
Among the ſtriking inſtances of Amazonian conduct Dr Johnſon ſeems to have given ſome credit to the
in modern ladies, may be mentioned that of Jane of accounts which have been tranſmitted down to us con-
Belleville, widow of Monſ. de Cliſſon, who was be- cerning the ancient Amazons; and he has endavoured
headed at Paris in the year 1343, on a fufpicion of to ſhow, that we ought not haftily to reject ancient
carrying on a correſpondence with England and the hiſtorical narrations becauſe they contain facts repug-
Count de Montfort. This lady, filled with grief for nant to modern manners, and exhibit ſcenes to which
the death of her late huſband, and exaſperated at the nothing now occuring bears a reſemblance. . " Of
ill treatment which ſlie conſidered him as having recei what we know not (fays he), we can only judge by
ved, ſent off“ her ſon ſccretly to London ; and when what we know. Every novelty appears more wonder-
her apprehenſions were removed with reſpect to him, ful as it is more remote from any thing with which ex-
ſhe fold her jewels, fitted out three ſhips, and put to perience or teſtimony have hitherto acquainted us: and
ſea, to revenge the death of her huſband upon all the if it paſſes farther, beyond the notions that we have
French with whom ſhe ſhould meet. This new cor been accuſtomed to forni, it becomes at laſt incredible.
ſair made ſeveral deſcents upon Normandy, where the We ſeldom contider, that human knowledge is very
ſtormed caſtles; and the inhabitants of that province narrow; that national manners are formed by chance;
were ſpectators more than once, whilſt their villages that unconmon conjunctures of caufes produce rare
were all in a blaze, of one of the fineſt women in &u- effects ; or that what is impoſſible at one time or place
rope, with a ſword in one hand and a torch in the may yet happen in another. It is always eaſier to de-
other, urging the carnage, and eyeing with pleaſure ny than to enquire. To refuſe credit confers for a
all the horrors of war.
momentan appearance of ſuperiority which every little
We read in Mezeray, under the article of the Croi- mind is tempted to affume, when it may be gained fo
fade, preached by St Bernard in the year 1147, “That cheaply as by-withdrawing attention from evidence,
many women did not content themſelves with taking and declining the fatigue of comparing probabilities.
the croſs, but that they alſo took up arms to defend Many relations of travellers have been ſlighted as
it, and compoſed ſquadrons of females, which render- fabulous, till more frequent voyages have confirmed
ed credible all that has been ſaid of the proweſs of the their veracity; and it may reaſonably be imagined, thai
Amazons."
many ancient hiſtorians are unjuſtly ſuſpected of falſe-
In the year 1590, the League party oblained ſome hood, becauſe our own times afford nothing that re-
troops from the king of Spain. Upon the news of ſembles what they tell. Few narratives will either to
their being diſembarked, Barri de St Aunez, Henry men or women appear more incredible than the hiſto-
IV.'s governor at Leucate, ſet out to communicate a ries of the Amazons ; of female nations, of whoſe colle
Atitution
А. М. В
A MB
[
5.23 ]
dor.
-
Amazons (titution it was the eſſential and fundamental law, to form of a caſtle built of free ſtone, and alnioſt illprog. Ambitir
1) exclude men from all participation either of public af- nable. Its fummit is about half a Portugueſe Icazuo
Aniba.
fairs or domeſtic buſineis; where female armies march in breadth, and the circumference at the bottom about Ambafía
ed under female captains, female farmers gathered the half a day's journey. The aſcent at firſt is eaſy ; but
harveſt, female partyers danced together, and female grows afterwards ſo ſteep, that the Abyſſine oxen, which
wits diverted one another. Yet ſeveral ages of anti will otherwiſe clamber like goats, muſt be craned up,
quity have tranſmitted accounts of the Amazons of and let down with ropes. Here the princes of the blood
Caucaſus; and of the Amazons of Ainerica, who have were formerly confined, in low cottages amongſt ſhrubs
given their name to the greateſt river in the world. and wild cedars, with an allowance barely ſufficient to
Condamine lately found ſuch memorials as can be ex keep them alive. There is, according to Kircher, in
pected among erratic and unlettered nations, where this country, a rock ſo curiouſly hollowed by nature,
events are recorded only by tradition, and new ſwarms that at a diſtanceit reſembles a looking-glaſs ; and op-
ſettling in the country from time to time confuſe and poſite to this another, on the top of which nothing
efface all traces of former times."
can be ſo ſofily whiſpered, but it may be heard a great
No author has taken ſo much pains upon this ſub way off. Between many of theſe rocks and mountains
ject as Dr Petit. But in the courſe of his work, he are vaſt abyſſes, which appear very dreadful to the
has given it as his opinion, that there is great difficul eye.
ty in governing the women even at preſent, though AMBACHT, in topography, denotes a kind of
they are unarmed and unpractiſed in the art of war. juriſdicion or territory, the polleffor whereof has the
After all his elaborate inquiries and diſcuſſions, there adminiſtration of juſtice both in alto and baffo ; or of
fore, this learned writer might probably think, that what is called in the Scots law a power of pit and gal-
it is not an evil of the firſt magnitude that the race of lows, i. e. a power of drowning and hanging - In
Amazons now ceaſes to cxiſt.
ſomé ancient writers, ambacht is particularly uied for
Rouſſeau ſays, “ The empire of the woman is an the juriſdiction, government, or chief magiſtracy of a
empire of foftneſs, of addreſs, of complacency. Her city. The word is very ancient, though uſed origi-
commands are careſſes, her menaces are tears." But nally in a ſenſe ſomewhat different. Ennias calls a
the empire of the Amazons was certainly an empire of mercenary, or ſave hired for money ambacłus; and
a very
different kind. Upon the whole, we may con. Cæſar gives the ſame appellation to a kind of depend-
clude with Dr Johnſon : “ The character of the an ents among the Gauls, who, without being ſlaves, were
cient Amazons was rather terrible than lovely. The attached to the ſervice of great lords.
hand could not be very delicate that was only einployed AMBAGES. See CIRCUMLOCUTION,
in drawing the bow and brandiſhing the battle-axe. AMBARVALIA, in antiquity, a ceremony among
Their power was maintained by cruelty, their courage the Ronans, when, in order to procure from the gods
was deformed by ferocity; and their example only an happy harveſt, they conducted the victims thrice
fhows, that men and women live beſt together.' round the corn fields in proceſſion, before ſacrificing
AMAZONS (the river of), in America. See AMA them.-Ambarvalia were either of a private or public
nature: the private were performed by the maſter of a
AM AZONIAN Habit, in antiquity, denotes a dreſs family, and the public by the prieſts who officiated at
formed in imitation of the Amazons. Marcia, the fa the folemnity,called fratres ovales. The prayer preferred
nous concubine of the emperor Commodus, had the on this occaſion, the formula of which we have in Cato
appellation of Amazonian, becauſe ſhe charmed him de Re Ruſtica, cap. cxlii. was called carmen ambervale.
molt in a habit of this kind. Hence alſo that prince At theſe feaſts they facrificed to Ceres a fow, a ſheep,
himſelf engaged in combat in the amphitheatre in an and a bull or heifer, whence they took the name of
Amazonian habit; and of all titles the Amazonius was fuovetaurilia. The method of celebrating them was,
one of thoſe he moſt delighted in.--In honour either to lead a vidim round the fields, while the peaſants
of the gallant or his miſtreſs, the month of December accompanied it, and one of their nuniber, crowned with
was alſo denominated Amazonius—Some alſo apply oak, hymned forth the praiſes of Ceres, in verſes coma
Amazonian habit to the hunting-dreſs worn by many poſed on purpoſe. This feſtival was celebrated twice
ladies among us.
a-year ; at the end of January, according to ſome, or
AMBA, an Abyſſinian or Ethiopic word, ſignify- in April, according to others; and for the ſecond time,
ing a rock. The Abyſſinians give names to each of in the inonth of July.
their rocks, as Amba-Dorho, the rock of a hon, &c. AMBASSADOR, or EMBASSADOR, a public mini-
Some of theſe rocks are ſaid to have the name of Aorni; fter ſent ſent from one ſovereign prince, as a repreſen-
and are of ſuch a ſtupendous height, that the Alps and tative of his perſon to another.
Pyrenees are but low hills in compariſon of them. A Ambaſſadors are either ordinary or extraordinary.
inongſt the mountains, and even frequently in the plains, Ambaſſador in ordinary, is he who conſtantly reſides
of this country, ariſe ſteep and craggy rocks of various in the court of another prince, to maintain a good un-
forms, fome reſembling towers, others pyramids, &c. derſtanding, and look to the intereſt of his maſter.
fo perpendicular and ſmooth on the ſides, that they ſeem Till about two hundred hears ago, ambaſſadors in or-
to be works of art; inſon uch, that men, cattle, &c. are dinary were not heard of: all, till then, were ambaſ-
craned up by the help of ladders and ropes : and yet fadors extraordinary ; That is, ſuch as are ſent on ſome
the tops of theſe rocks are covered with woods, mea extraordinary occaſion, and who retire as foon as the
dows, fountains, fiſhponds, &c. which very copiouſly affair is diſpatched.
ſupply the animals feated thereon with all the conve By the law of nations, none under the quality of a
niences of life. The moſ remarkable of theſe rocks ſovereign prince can ſend or receive an ambaſſador. Al
is called Amba-Geſhen. It is prodigiouſly ſteep, in the Athens, ambaſſadors mounted the pulpit of the public
orators,
ZONIA.
1
3 U 2
A M B
[ 524 ]
A MB
Amhe, orators, and there opened their commiſſion, acquaint- amber and jet, and perhaps agate, till Gilbert publiſhed Amber.
simbur. ing the pecple with iheir errand. At Rome, they were his treatiſe De Magnete, in the year 1600. From
introduced is the ſenate, and delivered their commiffi- »neumpov, the Greek name foramber, is derived the term
ons to the fathers.
Electricity, which is now very extenſively applied not
Ambilfadors ſhould never attend any public folemni. only to the power of attracting light bodies, inherent in
ties, as marriages, funerais, &c. unleſs their maſters anber, but to other ſimilar powers, and their various
have foune intereſt therein:nor muft they gointo mourn. effects, in whatever bodies they refide, or to whate-
ing 091 a:1y occaſions of their own, becauſe they repre ver bodies they inay be communicated.
But the perſon of their prince. By the civil law, the Amber allumes all figures in the ground; that of a
inovcalle goods of an ambaſſador, which are accounted pear, an almond, a pea, &c. In amber there have been
211 acceſion to his perſon, cannot be ſeized on, neither faid to be letters found very well fornied; and even He.
as a pledge, nor for payment of a debt, nor by order brew and Arabic characters.—Within ſome pieces,
ur execution of judgment, nor by the king's or Itate's leaves, inſects, &c. have likewiſe been found included:
leave where he reſides, as ſome conceive; for all actions which ſeems to indicate, either that the amber was ori-
ought to be far from an ambaſſador, as well that which ginally in a fluii ſtate, or that having been expoſed to
coucheth his ncceflaries, as his perſon : if, therefore, he the ſun, it was once ſoftened, and rendered ſuſceptible.
hath contracted any debt, he is to be called upon kind of the leaves, inſects, &c. which came in its way. The
ly; and if he refuſes, then letters of requeſt are to go latter of theſe ſuppoſitions ſeems the more agreeable to
to his malcr. Nor can any of the ambaſlador's dome the phenomenon, becauſe thoſe inſects, &c. are never
itic ſervants that are regiſtered in the ſecretaries of found in the centre of the pieces of amber, but always
itate's office be arreſicd in perſon or goods ; if they are, near the ſurface. It is obſerved by the inhabitants of
the proceſs fall be void, and the parties ſucing out and thoſe places where amber is produced, that all animals,
executing it ſhall ſuffer and be liable to ſuch penalties whether terreſtrial, aerial, or aquatic, are extremely
and corporal puniſhment as the lord chancellor or ei- fond of it, and that pieces of it are frequently found
ther of lhe chief juſtices ſhall think fit to inflict. Yet in their excrements. The bodies of inſects, found bu-
ambaſſadors cannot be defended when they commit any ried in amber, are viewed with admiration by all the
thing againſt that ſtate,or the perſon of theprince, with world ; but of the moſt remarkable of theſe, many are
whoin they relide ; and if they are guilty of treaſon, to be ſuſpected as counterfeit, the great price at which
felony, &c. or any other crime againſt the law of na: beautiful ſpecimens of this kind fell
, having tempted
tions, they loſe the privilege of an ambaſſador, and may ingenious cheats to introduce animal bodies in fuch
be ſubjcct to puniſhment as private aliens.
artful manners into ſeemingly whole pieces of amber,
AMBE, in furgery, the name of an inſtrument for that it is not eaſy to detect the fraud.
reducing diſlocated bones. In anatomy, a term for the Of thoſe inſects which have been originally incloſed
ſuperficial jatting out of a bone.
in amber, ſome are plainly ſeen to have'ſtruggled hard
AMBER ( Succinum), in natural hiſtory, a folid, for their liberty, and even to have left their limbs be-
hard, ſemipellucid, bituminous fubſtance of a parti- hind them in the attempt ; it being no unuſual thing
cular nalure, of uſe in niedicine and in ſeveral of the to ſee, in a maſs of amber that contains a ſtout beetle,
arts. It has been called ambra by the Arabians, and the animal wanting one, or perhaps two of its legs;
elitrun by the Greeks.
and thoſe legs left in different places, nearer that part
Amber has been of great repute in the world from of the maſs from which it has travelled. This alſo
the earlieſt times. Many years before Chriſt it was in may account for the common accident of finding legs,
eſteem as a medicine ; and Plato, Ariſtotle, Hero or wings of flies, without the reſt of their bodies, in
dotus, Æſchylus, and others, have commended its vir- pieces of amber; the infects having, when entangled in
In the times of the Ronians it became in high the yet ſoft and viſcid matter, eſcaped, at the expence
eſteem as a gem ; and in the luxnrious reign of Nero, of leaving thoſe limbs behind them. Drops of clear
immenſe quantities of it were brought to Rome, and water are ſometimes alſo preſerved in amber. Theſe
uſed for ornamenting works of various kinds. have doubtleſs been received into it while foft, and pre-
The moſt remarkable property of this ſubſtance is, ſerved by its hardening round them. Beautiful leaves.
that, when rubbed, it draws or attracts other bodies to of a pinnated ſtructure, reſembling ſome of the ferns,
it : and this, it is obſerved, it does, even to thoſe or maidenhairs, have been found in ſome pieces; but
ſubſtances which the ancients thought it had an anti- theſe are rare, and ſpecimens of great value. Mi.
pachy to ; as cily bodies, drops of water, human ſweat, neral ſubſtances are alſo found at times lodged in mala
Add, that by the friction is is brought to yield fes of aniber. Some of the pompous collections of the
light pretty copiouſly in the dark; whence it is rec German princes boaſt of ſpecimens of native gold and
koned among the native phoſphori.
ſilver in maſſes of amber ; but as there are many ſub-
The property which amber poſſeſſes of attractinglight ſtances of the marcaſite, and other kinds, that have all
bodies, was very anciently obſerved. Thales of Miletas, the glittering appearance of gold and ſilver, it is not
600 years before Chriſt, concluded from hence that it to be too haſily concluded that theſe metals are really
was animated. But the firſt perſon who expreſsly men. lodged in theſe beds of amber. Iron is found in vari-
uons this ſubſtance, is Theophraſtus, about the year 300 ous ſhapes immerſed in amber; and as it is often feen
before Chriſt. The attractive property of amber is troded, and ſometimes in the ſtate of vitriol, it is not
likewiſe occalionally taken notice of by Pliny, and impoſſible but that copper, and the other metals, nay
ocher later naturaliſts, particularly by Gaſſendus, Ke- be alſo ſometimes immerſed in it in the ſanie ſtate':
nelm Digby, and Sir Thomas Brown ; but it was ge- hence the bluiſh and greeniſh colours, frcqucntly found
nerally apprehended that this quality was peculiar to in the recent pieces of amber, may be owing, like the
particles
tuies.
&c.
1
A MB
[ 525 ]
A MB
Amber. particles of the gem colours, to thoſe metals; bat as falt. This accounts for the infects that are ſo cflen Amber.
the gems, by their denſe texture, always retain their found incloſed in it. Among theſe inſects ants are al.
colours, this lighter and more las bitumen uſually lo. ways the moſt prevailing: which tends farther, Mr
fes wbat it gets of this kind, by keeping ſome tiine. Girtanner thinks, to the confirmation of his hypothe-
Small pebbles, grains of ſand, and fragments of other ſis. Amber then, in his opinion, is nothing but a ve-
ſtones, are not unfrequently alſo found immerſed in getable oil rer:dered concrete by the acid of anis, juſt
amber.
as wax is nothing but an oil hardened by he acid of
Naturaliſts have been greally divided as to the ori. bees; a fact inconteſtably proved, we are told, ſince
gin of this ſubſtance, and what claſs of bodies it be Mr Metherie has been able to make artificial wax by
longs to ; ſome referring it to the vegetable, others mixing oil of olives with the nitrous acid, and which
to the mineral, and ſome even to the animal kingdom. wax is not to be diſlinguiihed from the natural.
Pliny deſcribes it as "a reſinous juice, oozing fronı There are ſeveral'indications which diſcover where
66 aged pines and firs (others ſay from poplars, where- amber'is to be found. The ſurface of the earth is there
66 of there are whole forcſts on the coaſts of Sweden), covered with a ſoft ſcaly ſtone; and vitriol in partice-
" and diſcliarged thence into the ſea, where, ondcr- lar always abounds there, which is ſometimes found
« going ſome alteration, it is thrown, in this form, white, ſometimes reduced into a marrer, like melted
“ upon the ſhores of Pruſſia, which lie very low: he glaſs, and ſometimes figured like petrified wood.
" adds, that it was hence the ancients gave it the de Amber of the fineſt kind has been found in Eng.
o nomination ſuccinum; from fuccus, juice.” land. It is frequently thrown on the surcs of York
Some ſuppoſe amber a compound ſubſtance. Pruf- ſhire, and many other places, and found even in the
fia, ſay they, and the other countries which produce clay-pits; ihe pits dug for tile-clay, between Tyburn
aniber, are moiſtened with a bituminous juice, which and Kenſington gravel-pits, and that behind Sc
mixing with the vitriolic falts abounding in thoſe pla- George's Hoſpital at Hyde-park corner, have afford-
ces, the points of thoſe falts fix its fluidity, whence it ed fine ſpecimens.
congeals; and the reſult of that congelation Inakes Poland, Sileſia, and Bohemia, are famous for the
what we call amber ; which is more or leſs pure, tran amber dug up there at this time. Germany affords
fparent, and firm, as thoſe parts of ſalt and bituinen great quantities of amber, as well dug up from the
are more or leſs pure, and are mixed in this or that bowels of the earth, as tofed about on the ſhores of
proportion.
the ſea and rivers there. Saxony,Miſnia, and Sweden,
Mr Brydone, in his tour to Sicily and Malta, ſays, and many other places in this tract of Europe; abound
that the river Gearetta, formerly celebrated by the with it. Denmark has afforded, at different lines, fe-
poets under the name of Simetus, throws up near its veral quantities of foſſile amber; and the ſhores of the
mouth great quantities of amber. He mentions alſo Baltic abound with it. But the countries lying on the
a kind of artificial amber, not uncomnion there, made, Baltic afford it in the greateſt abundance of all; and of
as he was told, from copal, but very different from theſe the moſt plentiful country is Pruſſia, and the next
the natural,
is Pomerania. Pruſſia was, as early as the times of The-
According to Hartman, amber is formed of a bitu- odoric the Goth, famous for ainber; for this fubftance
men, mixed with vitriol and other falts. But though coming into great repute with that prince, fome natives
this were allowed him in regard to the foſſile amber, of Pruſſia, who were about his court, offered their ſera
inany diſpute whether the ſea-amber be ſo produced. vice to go to their own country, where that ſubſtance,
It is, however, apparent, that all amber is of the they ſaid, was produced, and bring back great ſtores of
ſamé origin, and probably that which is found in the it. They accordingly did ſo; and from this time Prufia
ſea has been waſhed thither out of the cliffs; though had the honour to be called the Country of Amber, in-
Hartman thinks it very poſſible, that ſome of it may ſtead of Italy, which had before undeſervedly that ti-
be formed in the earth under the ſea, and be waſhed tie. This article alone brings his Pruſſian Majeſty a re-
up thence. The ſea-amber is uſually finer to the eye venue of 26,000 dollars annually. The amber of Pruſſia
than the foſſile; but the reaſon is, that it is diveſted of is not only found on the ſea-coaſt, but in digging; and
that coarſe coat with which the other is covered though that of Pomerania is generally brought from
while in the earth.
the ſhores, yet people who dig, on different occafions,
Upon the whole, it ſeems generally agreed upon, in the very heart of the country, at times find
amber.
that amber is a true bicumen of foſſile origin. In a Junker defcribes, after Neumann, the Prufiian am-
late volume of the Journal de Phyſique, however, we ber-mines, which are the richeſt known.--Firſt, at the
find it aſſerted by Dr Girtanner to be an animal pro. ſurface of the earth, is found a ſtratum of fand. Immea
duct, a furt of honey or wax formed by a ſpecies of diately under this fand is a bed of clay, filled with ſmall
large ant called by Linnæus formica rufa. Theſe ants, flints of about an inch diameter each. Under this clay
our author informs us, inhabit the old pine foreſts, lies a ſtratum of black earth, or turf, filled with foſſile
where they ſometimes form hills about ſix feet in dia- wood, half decompoſed, and bituminous; this ſtratum
meter; and it is generally in theſe ancient forcits, or is extended upon a bank of minerals, containing little
in places where they have been, that foſile amber is metal, except iron, which are conſequently pyrites.
found. This ſubſtance is not hard as chat which is ta Laſtly, under this bed the amber is found, ſcattered
hen up in the ſea at Pruſſia, and which is well known about in pieces, or ſometimes accumulated in heaps.
10 naturaliſts. It has the conſiſtence of honey or of Amber has a ſubacrid relinous taſte, and fragrant
half melted wax, but it is of a yellow colour like con aromatic ſmell, eſpecially when diſſolved. It differs
mon amber; it gives the ſame product by chemical from the other bituminous ſubſtances in this, that it
analyſis, and it harderis like the other when it is ſnf- yields by diſtillation a volatile acid ſalt, which none of
fered to renain ſome cinc in a ſolution of common the others do; otherwiſe it affords the fame fort of
principles
AMB
[ 526 ]
AM B
ވެ
Anber principles as theni, viz. an acid phlegm; an oil which fatty, inflammable ſubſtance, variegated likc marble, Amber
gradually becomes thicker as the diſtillation is conti- . remarkably light, rugged and uneven in its ſurface,
grifc.
Anber- naed; and when the operation is finiſhed, there re and has a fragrant odour when heated. It does not
griſe. , mains a black caput mortuum in the retort.-When Çfferveſce with acids ;-it melts freely over the fire,
beiled in water, it neither ſoftens, nor undergoes any įnto a kind of yellow rodin ; and is hardly ſolublc in
ſenſible alteration. Expoſed to the fire in an open, ſpirit of wine.
veſſel, it melts into a black maſs very like a bitumen: It is found ſwimming upon the ſea, or the ſea-coaft,
It is partly folable in ſpirit of wine, and likewiſe in or in the ſand near the ſea-coaſt; eſpecially in the Ats
fome eſſential oils; but it is with difficulty that the lantic ocean, on the ſea-coaſt of Bralil, and that of Ma-
expreſſed ones are brought to act upon it; the ſtrong-dagaſcar ; 'on the coaſt of Africa, of the Eaſt Indies,
er ſorts of fixed alkaline lixivia almoſt totally dif- China, Japan, and the Molucca iſlands; but moſt of
folve it.
the ambergriſe which is brought to England comes
This ſubſtance is principally, of two colours, white from the Bahama iſlands, from Providence, &c. where
and yellow. The white is the moſt eſteemed for me it is found on the coaſt. It is alſo ſometimes found in
dicinal purpoſes, as being the moſt odoriferous, and the abdomen of whales by the whale-fillermen,always
containing the greateſt quantity of volatile ſalt ; tho' in lumps of various ſhapes and ſizes, weighing from
the yellow is moſt valued by thoſe who manufacture half an ounce to an hundred and more pounds. The
beads and other toys with it, by reaſon of its tranf- piece which the Dutch Eaſt India Company bought
parency
from the king of Tydor, weighed 182 pounds. An
Ainber is the baſis of all varniſhes, by folution in American filherman from Antigua found ſome years
the ways deſcribed under the article VARNISH. ago, about 52 leagues ſouth-eaſt from the Windward
Amber, when it has once been melted, irrecovera. iſlands, a pieceofambergriſe in a whale, which weigh-
bly loſes its beauty and hardneſs. There have been ed about 130 pounds, and ſold for 500 l. Sterling.
fome, however, who pretend they had an art of melt There have been many different opinions concerns
ing ſome ſınall pieces of amber into a maſs, and con- ing the origin of this ſubſtance.
ftituting large ones of them : but this ſeems ſuch ano It has been ſuppoſed to be a foſſile bitumen or naph-
ther undertaking as the making of gold; all the tri- tha, exuding out of the bowels of the earth in a fluid
als that have yet been made by the moſt curious expe- forn, and diſtilling into the ſea, where it hardens and
rimenters, proving, that the heat which is neceſſary floats on the ſurface. But having been frequently
to melt amber, is ſufficient to deſtroy it. Phil. Tranſ. found in the belly of whales, it has by others been
N° 248. p. 25.
conſidered as entirely an animal production.
Could amber indeed be diffolved without impairing Cluſius aſſerted it to be a phlegmatic recrement, or
its tranſparency, or one large maſs be made of it by indurated indigeſtible part of the food, collected and
uniting ſeveral ſmall ones, it is eaſy to ſee what would found in-the ſtomach of the whale, in the ſame man-
be the advantages of ſuch a proceſs. The art of em ner as the BEZOARS arc found in the ſtomachs of other
balming might poſſibly be alſo carried to a great height animals.
by this, if we could preſerve the human corpſe in a In an account communicated by Paul Dudley, Eſq;
tranſparent caſe of amber, as the bodies of flics, fpi. in the 23d volume of the Philoſophical Tranfa&tions,
ders, grafhoppers, &c. are to a great perfection. the ambergiſe found in whales is repreſented as a kind
Something of a ſubſtitute of this kind we have in fine of animal produ&, like muſk, and caftoreum, &c. fe-
rolin ; which being diffolved by heat,and the bodies creted and colleaed in a peculiar bag or bladder, which
of ſmall animals ſeveral times dipped in it, they are is furniſhed with an excretory ductor canal, the ſpout
thus coated with colopliony, that in ſome degree re of which runs tapering into and through the length of
icinbles amber; but this muſt be kept from duſt. the penis ; and that this bag, which lies juſt over the
Amber in fubſtance has been much recommended teſticles, is almoſt full of a deep orange-coloured liquor,
is a pervous and cordial medicine; and alledged to be not quite ſo thick as oil, of the ſame ſmell as the balls
very eficacions in promoting the menſtrual diſcharge, of ambergrife, which float and ſwim looſe in it: which
and the excluſion of the fætus-and {ecundines in la colour and liquor may alſo be found in the canal of the
bour: but as in its crude ſtater it is quite inſoluble by penis ; and that therefore ambergriſe is never to be
our juices, it certainly can have very little effect on found in any female, but in the male only. But theſe
ile animal ſyſtem, and therefore it is now ſeldom circumſtances are not only deſtitute of truth, but alſo
given in ſubſtance. The forms in which amber is
pre contrary to the laws of the animal economy : For, in
pared are, A tincture, a falt, and an oil; the prepa- the firſt place,ambergriſe is frequently foundin females
tion and uſes of which are deſcribed in the proper as well as males; although that found in females is
place under the article PHARMACY.
never in ſuch large pieces, nor of ſo good a quality, as
AMBER-Tree, the Engliſh name of a ſpecies of what is found in males. Secondly, No perſon who has
ANTHOSPERMUM.
the leaſt knowledge in anatomy or phyſiology, will e-
AMBERG, a city of Germany, the capital of the ver believe that organiſed bodies, ſuch as the beaks of
palatinate of Bavaria, with a good caſtle, ramparts, the Sepia, which are ſo conſtantly found in amber-
baſtions, and deep ditches. It is ſeated near the con- griſe taken out of the whale, can have been abforbed
fines of Franconia, on the river Wils. It drives a great from the inteſtines by the lacteals or lymphatics, and
trade in iron and other metals, found in the neigli- collected with the ambergriſe in the precluded bag a-
bouring mountains. E. Long. 12. 4. N. Lat. 20. 46. bovementioned.
AMBERGRISE, AMBER GREASE, or GREY AM Kæmpfer, who has given us ſo many other faithful
BER, in natural hiſtory, is a folid, opake, aſh-coloured, accounts in natural hiſtory, ſeems to come ncarer the
3
truth
A M B
L 527 1
A M L
1
Amber- truth with regard to the origin of ambergrife, when he in the ſpermaceti whale ; and they are ſo convinced of Anter-
griſe. ſays, that it is the dung of the whale ; and that the this fact, that whenever they hear of a place where griſt.
Japaneſe, for this reaſon, call it k.úfura no fuu, į. e. ambergriſe is found, they always conclude that the ſeas
whale's dung. This account, however, though found in that part are frequented by this ſpecies of whale.
ed on obſervation, has never obtained credit, but has The perſons who are employed in the ſpermaceii
been conſidered rather as a fabulous ſtory, with which whale fithery, confine their views to the Phyſeter ma-
the Japaneſe impoſed upon him, who had himſelf no crocephalus. They look for ambergriſe in all the fper-
direct obſervation to prove the fact.
maceti whales they catch, but it ſeldom happens that
This matter, therefore, remained a ſubject of great they find any. Whenever they hook a ſpermacci
doubt ; and it was generally thought to be more pro- whale they obſerve, that it conſtantly not only vomits
bable, that ambergriſe, after having been ſwallowed up whatever it has in its ſtomach, but alſo generally
and ſomehow or other changed ill the ſtomach and diſcharges its fæces at the time; and if this latter
bowels of the whale, was found among its excrements. circumſtances takes place, they are generally diſappoin-
But the inoſt ſatisfactory accoant of the real origin ted in finding ambergriſe in its belly. But whenever
of .ambergriſe, is that given by Dr Swediar in-the 73d they diſcover aſpermaceri whale, male or female, whiclı
volume of the Philoſophical Tranſactions, art. 15. ſeems torpid and ſickly, they are always pretty ſure to
We are told by all writers on ambergriſe, that ſome- find ambergriſe, as the wliale in this ſtate feldom yoids
times claws and beaks of birds, feathers of birds, parts its fæces upon being hooked. They likewiſe generally
of vegetables, thells, fiſh, and bones.of fiſh, are found meet with it in the dead ſpermaceti whales, which they
in-the middle ofit, or variou dy mixed with it. Ofavery ſometimes find foating on the ſea. It is obſerved alſo,
large quantity of pieces, however, which the Doctor that the whale, in which they find ambergriſe, ofte:
examined, he found none that contained any ſuch has a morbid protuberance; or, as they expreſs it, a
thing; though he allows, that ſuch ſubſtances may kind of gathering in the lower part of its belly, in
ſometimes be found in it ; but in all the pieces of any which, if cut open, ambergriſe is found. It is obſer-
conſiderable ſize, whether found on the ſea or in the ved, that all thoſe whales, in whoſe bowels ambergriſe
wbale, he conſtantly found a conſiderable quantity of is found, ſeem not only torpid and fick, but are alſo
black ſpots, which, after the moſt careful examination conſtantly leaner than others; ſo that, if we may judge
appeared to be the beaks of the SEPIA O&topodia ; and from the conſtant union-of theſe two-circumſtances, it
theſe beaks, he thinks, might be the ſubſtances which would ſeem that a large collection of amberyriſe in the
have bitherto-been-always miſtaken for claws or beaks. belly of the whale is a fource of diſeaſe, and probably
of birds, or for Thells.
ſometimes the cauſe of its death. As ſoon as they
The preſence of theſe beaks in ambergriſe proves e- hook a, whale of this deſcription, torpid, fickly, ema-
vidently, that all ambergriſe containing them is in its ciated, one that does not dung on being hooked,
origin, or muſt have been once, of a very foft or liquid they-immediately either cut up the abovementioned
nature, as otherwiſe thoſe beaks could not ſo conſtantly protuberance, if there be any, or they rip open its
bc intermixed with it throughout its whole-ſubſtance. bowels from the orifice of the anus, and find the ani-
That ambergriſe is found either upon the ſea and bergrife, ſometimesinone ſometimes in different lumps,
ſea-coaſt, or in the bowels of whales, is a matter of fact of generally from three to twelve and more inches in
univerſally credited. But it has never been examined diameter, and from one pound to twenty or thirty
into and determined, whether the ambergriſe found - pounds in weight, at the diſtance of two, but inoi.
upon the ſea and ſea-coaſt is the ſame as that found in frequently of about fix or ſeven feet from the anus, and
the whale, or whether they are different from one ano- never higher up in the inteſtinal canal; which, accord-
ther? Whether that found on the ſea or ſea-coaft has · ing to their deſcription, is, in all probability, the inte.
ſome properties, or conſtituent parts, which that found ſtinum cæcun, hitherto miſtaken for a peculiar bag
in the whale has not ? And laſtly, Whether that found made by nature for the ſecretion and collection of this
in the whale is ſuperior or inferior in its qualities and fingular ſubſtance. That the part they cut open to
value to the former ?
cone at the ambergriſe is no other than the inteſtinal
It is likewiſe a maiter of conſequence to know, When canal is certain, becauſe they conftantly begin their in-
therambergriſe is found in all kinds of whales, or only cition at the anus, and find the cavity every where filled
in a particular ſpecies of them? Whether it is.conſtant with the fæces of the whale, wbich from their colour
ly and always to be met with in thoſe animals ? And, and ſmell it is in poſlible for them to mistake. The
if ſo, in what part of their body it is to be found ? ambergriſe found in the inteſtinal canal is not ſo hard
All theſo queſtions we find very ſatisfactorily diſ- as that which is found on the ſea or ſea-coaſt, but loon
cuſſed by Dr Swediar.
grows hard in the air : when firſt taken out it has
According to the beſt information that he could ob- nearly the ſame colour, and the ſame diſagreeable ſmell,
tain from ſeveral of the moſt intelligent perſons ein- though not ſo ſtrong, as the more liquid dung of the
ployed in the ſperniaceti whale-fiſhery, and in procu- whale has; but, on exposing it to the air, it by degrees
ring and ſelling ambergriſe, it appears, that this ſub- not only grows greyish, and its ſurface is covered with a
ſtance is ſometimes found in the belly of the whale, greyish duſt like old chocolate, but it alſo loſes its dil-
but in that particular, fpecies only which is called.che agreeable ſmell, and, when kept for a certain length of
Spermaceti whale, and which from its deſcription and time, acquires the peculiar odour which is lo agreeable
delineation appears to be the PHÈSETER Macrocephalus to moſt people. -
Linnæi.
Thegentlemen the Doctor converſed with confeffed,
The New England fiſhermen, according to their ac- that if they knew not from experience that ambergrifé
count, have long known that ambergriſe is to be found thus found. will in time acquire the abovementioned
21:24
A M B
[ 528 ]
A B M
Amber- qualities, they would by no means be able to diſtinguiſh naturally retained, forms concretions with them, which Ambcr-
griſe. ambergriſe from hard indurated fæces. This is ſo true, render the animal fick and torpid, and produce an ob grife.
zliat whenevera v hale voidsils fæces upon being hook- ftipation, which ends eitlicr in an abſceſs of the abdo-
ed, they look carefuliy to ſee if they cannot diſcover men, as has been frequently obſerved, or becoines fatal
among the more liquid excrements (of which the whale to the animal ; whence in both the cafes, on the burſt-
diſcharges ſeveral barrels) ſome pieces floating on the ing of its belly, that hardened ſubſtance, known under
ſea, of a more compact ſubſtance than the reſt; theſe the name of ambergriſe, is found ſwimming on the ſea,
they take up and waſh, knowing them to be amber or thrown upon the coaſt.
griſe.
From the preceding account, and his having coui-
In conſidering whether there be any material diffe- ftantly found the abovementioned bcaks of the Sepia
rence between ambergriſe found upon the ſea or ſea in all pieces of ambergriſc of any conſiderable fize, Dr
coaſt, and that found in the bowels or among the dung Swediar concludes with great probability, that all am-
of the whale, the Doctor refutes the opinion, that all bergriſe is generated in the howels of the Phyſeter
ambergriſe fonnd in whales is of an inferior quality, macrocephalus, or ſpermaceri whale; and there mixed
and therefore much leſs in price. Ambergriſe, he ob- with the beaks of ihe Sepia octopodia, which is the
ſerves, is only valued for its purity, lightneſs, compact- principal food of that whale. He therefore defines am-
neſs, colour, and ſinell. There are pieces of amber- bergriſe to be the preternaturally hardened dung or
griſe found on different coaſts, which are of a very in fæces of the Phyſeter macrocephalus, mixed with
ferior quality; whereas there are often found in whales ſome indigeſtible relics of its food.
pieces of it of the firſt value ; nay, ſeveral pieces found The uſe of ambergriſe in Europe is now nearly con-
in the ſame whale, according to the abovementioned fined to perfumery,tho'it has formerly been recommen-
qualities, are more or leſs valuable. All ambergriſe dedin medicine by ſeveral eniinent phyſicians. Hence
found in whales has at firſt when taken out of the inter the Exſentia Ambrze Hoffnanni, Tinctura Regia Cod.
tines very near the ſame ſmell as the liquid excre Pariſini, Trochiſci de Anibra Ph. Wurtemberg, &c.
inents of tliat animal have ; it has then alſo nearly the If we wiſh to ſee any medicinal effects from this ſub-
fame blackiſh culour: they find it in the whale fome- ftance, the Doctor obſerves, we muſt certainly not ex-
times quite hard, ſometimes rather ſoftiſh, but never fo pect them froni two or three grains, but give rather
liquid as the natural fæces of that animal. And it is as many ſcruples of it for a doſe : though even then, het
a matter of fact, that, after being taken out and kept thinks, there would not be reaſon to expect much ef-
in the air, all ambergriſe grows not only harder and feet from it, as he had bimſelf taken of
pure
unadal-
whiter, but alſo loſes by degrees its ſmell, and aſſumes terated ambergriſe in powder 30 grains at once, with-
ſuch an agreeable one, as that in general has which is out obſerving the leaſt ſenſible effect from it. A failor,
found ſwimming upon the ſea; therefore the goodneſs however, who had the curioſity to try the effect of re-
of ambergriſe ſeems rather to depend on its age. By cent ambergriſe upon himſelf, took' half an ounce of
being accumulated after a certain length of time in the it melted upon the fire, and found it a good purgative;
inteſtinal canal, it ſeems even then to become of a which proves that it is not quite an inert ſubſtance.
whiter colour, and leſs ponderous, and acquire its a In Aſia and part of Africa ambergriſe is not only
greeable ſmell. The only reaſon why ambergriſe found uſed as a medicine and as a perfume; but conſidcrable
Hoating on the ſea generally poſſeſſes the abovemention- uſe is alſo made of it in cookery, by adding it to ſeveral
tioned qualities in a fuperior degree, is becauſe it is diſhes as a ſpice. A great quantity of it is alſo con-
commonly older, and has been longer expoſed to the ſtantly bought by the pilgrims who travel to Mecca ;
air. It is more frequently found in males than females; probably to offer it there, and make uſe of it in fumi-
the pieces found in females are in general ſmaller, and gations, in the ſame manner as frankincenſe is uſed in
thoſe found in inales ſeem conſtantly to be largerandofa Catholic countries. The Turks anake uſe of it as an
better quality ; and therefore the high price in pro. aphrodiliac. Our perfumers add it to ſcented pillars,
portion to the ſize is not merely imaginary for the ra- candles, balls or bottles, gloves, and hair powder ;
tity-fake, but in ſome reſpect well founded, becauſe and its eſſence is mixed with pomatums for the face
Tuch large pieces appear to be of a greater age, and pof- and hands, either alone or mixed with muſk, &c. tho'
ſeſs the abovementioned qualities in generalin a high- its ſmell is to ſome perfons extremely offenſive.
er degree of perfection than ſmaller pieces.
Ambergriſe may be known to be genuine by its fra-
It is known, that the Sepia octopodia, or cuttle-fih, grant ſcent when a hot needle or pin is thruſt into it,
is the conſtant and natural food of the ſpermaceti and its melting like fal of an uniform conſiſtence ;
whale, or Phyſeter macrocephalus. Of this the fiſhers whereas the counterfeit will not yield ſuch a ſmell, nor
are ſo well perſuaded, that whenever they diſcover any prove of ſuch a fat texture. One thing, however, 'is
recent relics of it ſwimming on the ſea, they conclude very remarkable, that this drug, which is the moſ
that a whale of this kind is, or has been, in that part. ſweet of all the perfumes, ſhould be capable of being
Another circumſtance which corroborates the fact is, reſembled in ſmell by a preparation of one of the moſt
that the ſpermaceti whale on being hooked generally odious of all ſtinks. Mr Homberg found, that a veſſel
vomits up ſome remains of the Sepia. Hence it is eaſy in which he had made a long digeſtion of the human
to account for the many beaks, or pieces of beaks, of fæces, acquired a very ſtrong and perfect ſmell of am-
the Sepia found in all ambergriſe. The beak of the bergriſe, inſoinuch that any one would have thought
Sepia is a black horny ſubſtance, and therefore paſſes a great quantity of eſſence of ambergriſe had been
undigeſted through the ſtomach into the intelinal ca made in it. The perfume was ſo ſtrong and offenſive,
nal, where it is mixed with the fæces; after which it is
after which it is that the veſſel was forced to be removed out of the
cither evacuated with them, or ifthefe latter be preter- elaboratory.
4
AMBERT
A MB
[ 529 ]
A M B
METER.
Ambert AMBERT, a ſmall town of France, in lower Au AMBIGUITY, a defect of language, whereby Ambiguity
vergne, the chief place of a ſmall territory called Liv- words are rendered ambiguous. See the next article.
Ainbigenal radois. It is remarkable for its paper manufactory and AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word cr ex-
Ambitas.
camblets. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 45. 28.
preſſion which may be taken in different ſenſes.-An
AMBETTUWAY, in botany, a barbarous name anonymous writer has publiſhed a dictionary of ambi-
of a tree, the leaves of which, when boiledin wine,are guous words : Lexicon Fhilofophicum de Ambiguitate
ſaid to create an appetite, and is uſed by the people in Vocabulorum, Francof. 1597. 400.–The reſponſes of
Guinea with that intention.
the ancient oracles were always ambiguous.
AMBIANI,or AMBIANENSIS CIVITAS,NOW Amienis, AMBIT, in geometry, is the ſame with what is
a city of Picardy. It is called Samarabriva by Cæfar otherwiſe called the perimeter of a figure. See Pera-
and Cicero; which, according to Valelius, ſignifies the
bridge of the Samara or Summe. Ambiani is a later AMBIT was particularly uſed, in antiquity, to de
name, taken from that of the people, after the uſual note a ſpace of ground to be left vacant betwixt one
manner of the lower age.
building and another. By the laws of the lirelve ta-
AMBIDEXTER, a perſon who can uſc both hands bles, houſes were not to be built contiguous, but aiz
with the ſame facility, and for the ſame purpoſes, that ambit or ſpace of 2 feet was to be left about eachi
the gencrality of people do their right hands.-As for fear of fire. The ambitus of a toinb or monu-
to the natural ceuſe of this faculty, fome, as Hefer, ment denoted a certain number of feet, in length and
attribute it to an extraordinary ſupply of blood and breadth, around the ſaine, within which the fancity
fpirits from the heart and brain, which furniſin both aſſigned to it was limited. The whole ground wherein
hands with the neceſſary ſtrength and agility : others, a tomb was erected was not to be ſecreted from the
as Nicholas Maſſa, to an erect ſituation of the heart, conimon uſes ; for this reaſon, it was frequent to in-
inclining neither to the right hand nor left; and o ſcribe the ambit on it, that it might be known how far
thers to the right and left fubclavian arteries being of its fanctity extended : thus, in jrerte pedes int, iwa-
the ſame lieight and the ſame diſtance from the heart, grum pedes tot.
by which the blood is propelled with equal force to AMBITION (ambitio), is generally uſed in a bad
both hands.—But theſe are only conjecturers,or rather ſenſe, for an immoderate or illegal purſuit of power.
chimeras. Many think, that, were it not for educa In the ſtrict meaning, however, of the word, it lig.
tion and hab't, ali mankind would be ambidexters; and nifies the ſame with the ambitus of the Romans. See
in fact, we frequently find nurſes obliged to be at a the next article.
good deal of pains before they can bring children to Ambition, in the former and more uſual ſenſe, is
forego the uſe of their left hands. How far it may be one of thoſe paſſions that is never to be ſatisfied. 10
an advantage to be deprived of half our natural dex- ſwells gradually with ſucceſs, and every acquiſition
terity, may be doub'ed. It is certain, there are in- ſerves but as a fpur to further attempts.
finite occaſions in life, where it would be better to have “ If a man (it has been well obſerved), could at once
the cqual uſe of both hands. Surgeons and oculifts accompliſh all his deſires, he would be a miſerable crea-
are of neceſſity obliged to be ambidexters ; bleeding, ture: for the chief pleaſure of this life is to with and
&c. in the left-arm or left-ancle, and operations on deſire. Upon this account, every prince who aſpires
the left-eye, cannot be well performed but with the to be deſpotic aſpires to die of wearineſs. Searching
left-hand. Various inſtances occur in hiltory, where every kingdom for the man who has the leaſt confort
the left hand has been excerciſed preferally to the in life, Where is he to be found ?-In the royal pa-
right. But by the laws of the ancient Scythians, people lace.---What! his majeſty? Yes ; cfpecially if he bc
were enjoined to cxercile both hands alike; and Plato deſpotic.”
enjoins ambidexterity to be obſerved and encouraged AMBITUS, in Roman antiquity, the ſetting up
in his republic.
for ſome magiſtracy or office, and formally going round
AMBIDEXTER, amúng English lawyers, a juror or the city to ſolicit the intereſt and votes of the people.
embracer, who accepts money of both parties, for gi Ambitus different from ambitis, as the former lies
ving his verdict; an offence for which lie is liable to be in the act, the latter in the mind.
impriſoned, for ever excluded from a jury, and to pay Ambitus was of two kinds; one lawful, the other
ten times the ſum he accepted of.
infamous. The firſt, called alſo ambitus popularis,
AMBIENT, a terin uſed for ſuch bodies, eſpecially was when a perſon offered his ſervice to the republic
Auids, as encompaſs others on all lides : thus, the air is frankly, leaving it to every body to judge of his pre-
frequently called an ambient fluid, becauſe it is diffuſed tenſions as they found reaſonable. The means and in-
round the earth.
ſtruments here made uſe of were various. 1. Amici,
AMBIGENÆ Oves, in the heathen ſacrifices, an or friends, under different relations, including cognati,
appellation given to ſuch ewes as, having brought offines, 11cffarii, familiares, vicini, tribules, clientes,
forth twins, were facrificed together with their two mnicipes, ſodales, college. 2. Nomenclatura, or the
lambs, one on each ſide. We find them mentioned calling and faluting every perſon by his name; to which
among other facrifices to Juno.
purpoſe, the candidates were attended with an officer,
AMBIGENAL HYPERBOLA, a name given by Sir under the denomination of intepres, or 11077 2n clitors
Ifaac Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the 3. Blanditia ; or obliging perfons; by ſerving them, or
fecond order,having one of its infinite legs falling with their friends, patrons, or the like, with their vote and
in an ang!e formed by the aflymptotes, and the other intereſt on other occalions. 4. Prenfatis; the Making
without.
every perſon by the hand, ocring him his ſervice,
Vol. I.
friendll.is,
!
AMB
4 MB
( 530 ]
a
niene.
Atable friendſhip, &c.-The ſecond kind was that wherein Tafelburg of the Cape of Good Hope On one side of Amboife
force, cajoling, money, or other extraordinary influ- this ridge the lea exiends into the country for fifteen 1.
Ambohitr-
ence, was made uſe of. This was held in ſanious, and leagues ; on the other is a fiat country abounding in Amboyna.
feverely puniſhed, as a ſource of corruption and other ponds and marihes. Here is alſo a'lake fifteen leagues
miſchiefs.
in length, and the fame in breadth, containing many
Ambitus was-practiſed 1.00 only' at Roine and in the ſmall iſlands. The inhabitants of the mountains are
forum, but in the meetings and allemblies of other called Zaferahongs; and have plenty of gold, iron,
towns in Italy, where numbers of citizens were uſually cattle, ulk, &c.
found, on account of trade and buſineſs --The prac AMBOISE, a town of France, in Touraine, ſeated
tice ceaſed in the city from the rinie of the Emperor's at the confluence of the rivers Loire and Maffee. The
by reaſon poſts were not then to be had by courting town is niean and ill built ; but has been rendered fa-
the people, but by favour from the prince.
mous in hiſory by the conſpiracy of the Proteflants
Perföns who had cauſes depending practiſed the in 1560, which opened the fatal wars of religion in
fame, going about among the judges to inplore their France. The caſtle is ſituated on a craggy rock, ex-
favour and mercy. They who practiſed this were call.d tremely difficult of acceſs, and the ſides of which are
Ambitioli. Hence we alſo meet with ambit10fa decreta, almoſt perpendicular. Arits foot flows the Loire,
and ambitiofa julfo, uſed for ſuch ſentences and de- which is divided into two lireams by a ſmall iſland.
crees as were thus procured froin the judges, contrary To this fortreſs the duke of Guiſe, when he expected
to reaſon and equity, either gratuitoully or for mo an inſurrection anong the Hugonots, removed Fian-
ney.
cis II. as to a place of perfect ſecurity. Only two de-
AMBLE, in horſemanſhip,a peculiar pace by which tached paris of the ancient caſtle now remain, one of
a horſe's two legs of the ſame lide.move at the ſaine which was conſtructed by Charles VIII. and the other
time. See HORSEMANSHIP.
by Frances 1. The former of thoſe princes was born
AMBLESIDE, a town in Weſtmoreland, ſeated and died at Amboiſe. The town is situated E. Long,
at one end of Winandermeer, W. Long. 0.49. N. lat. I. 30. N. Lat 47. 25.
54. 30.
AMBOULE, a province of Madagaſcar, ſomewhat
AMBLETEUSE, a ſea-port town of France, in to the northward of S. Lat 23°. It is a fertile and
Picardy, defended with a battery of cannon. E. long agreeable country, watered by the river Manampani,
I. 30 N. lat. 49. 40.
whoſe mouth lies in S. Lat. 23. 30. The country pro-
AMBLYGON, in geometry, denotes an obtuſe- duces plants and fruits in plenty. Iron mines are alſo
angled triangle, or a triangle one of whoſe angles con- found here. The black cattle are extremely fat, and
liſts of more than 90 degrets.
their fieth excellent. In this province ſtands a large
AMBLYOPY, among phyſicians, ſignifies an ob town of the ſame name; near which is a foutain of
{curation of the ſight, ſo that objccts at a diſtance can hot water, within 20 feet of a ſmall river whoſe ſand
not be clearly diitinguiſhed.
is alaoſt buining. The water of the fountain is ſaid
AMBO, or AMBON, a kind of pulpit or deſk, in to boil an egg hard in two hours; and the inhabitants
the ancient churches, were the prieſts and deacons affirm it to be a ſovereign remedy againſt the gout.
ſtood to read or ſing part of the ſervice, and preach to The people here are employed in different preparations
the people; called alſo Analagiu 11. The term is de of iron and ſteel,which they have from theirown mines,
rived from wabaivery,
66 to niount."--Ihe ambo was and forge ſeveral inſtruments with tolerable ſkill.
mounted upon two sides; whence tome alſo derive the Their governor is honoured with the tile of Rabertau,
appellation from the Latin ambo, co both."
or Gruut Lord He exerciſes ſovereign authority and ab-
The ambo was aſcended by ſteps; which occaſioned folute power ; but is frequently, in times of diſtreſs,
that part of the office performed there to be called ſurpriſed by his ſubjects, who aſſemble in grcat num-
the Gradual. See GRADUAL.
bers,ſeize his jerſon, and threaten him with death un-
Beſides the goſpel, which was read at the top of the leſs they are relicved. To extricate himſelf from this
ambo, and the epiſtle, which was read a ſtep lower, dilemma, he is inſtantly obliged to iſſue orders for di-
they likewiſe publiſhed from this place the acts of the ſtributing proviſions among them; but is uſually repaid
martyrs, the commemoration of departed ſaints, and with intereſt, a quadruple return being made in a plen-
the letters of peaceand communion ſent by one church tiful harveſt. The people of Amboule live in great li-
to another: here, too, converts made a public profef- centiouſneſs with their ſuperiors, and their country is
lion of their faith ; and biſhops, their defence, when generally a retreat for the roguiſh and lazy,
accuſed : treaties alſo were ſometimes concluded, and AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca iſlands, in the
the coronations of emperors and kings performed, in Eaſt Indies. It lies in S. Lat. 3.36. and E. Long. 126.
the fame place.
20. and is remarkable for being thecentre of the com- '
The modern reading-deſks and pulpits have been merce for nutmegs and cloves, which is entirely no-
generally ſubſtituted to the ancient Anibos ; though, nupolized by the Dutch Eaſt-India company. It is
in ſome churches, remains of the ambos are ſill ſeen. about 24 leagues in circumference. Beſides cloves,
In that of St John de Lateran at Rome, there are two it likewiſe abounds in moſt of the tropical fruits and
moveable ambos.
fiſh ; nor is there here any'deficiency of good water ;
AMBOHITSMENE, or VOHITSANG HOMBE, a but fiſh is very ſcarce. This ſcarcity, however pro-
province of the iſland of Madagaſcar, ſo called from ceeds more from the policy of the Dutch than either-
fome red mountains of the ſame name, lying in S. Lat. the intemperature of the climate or the barrenneſs of
200. Theſe mountains are very high, reſembling the the fuil : For, excepting cloves, they have in Amboy-
na,
A
A MB
(531
A MB
و
Amboyna, na, as well as the Moluccas, induſtriouſly diſcouraged had Lcen faſtened, and cauſing them to diſgorge the Amboyna.
the cultivation of every eſculent commodity, with the water; if they did not acknowledge the imputed guilt,
view of with-holding ſubſiſtence from thoſe who might the proceſs of torture was repeated. Others of the
be tempted to invade them.
Englith they conſumed by burning them gradually from
Of the natives, the men wear large whiſkers, but the feet upwards, in order to extort the confeſſion of
leave littlc hair upon their chin ;, and have only a flight a conſpiracy, which was only pretended by the infer-
piece of ſtuff wrapped round their middle.
The wo nal policy of thoſe ſavage tormentors.
Some had the
men tie their hair in kuors: the maids are bought of nails of the fingers and toes torn off ; and in ſome they
their fathers before they are married ; and if the wife made holes in their breaſts, filling the cavities with in-
proves barren, the inarriage is diſſolved. Soine of the flammable materials, to which they afterwards put
natives are Mahometans, and ſome Chriſtians : but fire. Thoſe who did not expire under the agonies of
they are all ſaid to be lazy, deceitful, and treacherous. torture were conſigned to the hands of the execu-
They make war with ſmall ſwift veſſels, in ſhape like tioner.
dragons with regard to the head and tail. Their hou The allegation of this pretended conſpiracy was
ſes are built of bamboo-canes and fago-trees. They equally void of probability and truth. The Durch
ſleep on nats. Their weapons are bows and arrows, had a garriſon of 300 men in the fort, beſides the
javelins, ſcymitars, and targets.
burghers in the lown, and ſeveral other forts and gar-
Amboyna was firſt diſcovered by the Portugueſe, riſons in the iſland, while the numbers of the Engliſh
who built a fort upon it, which was taken from them did not amount to 20 inen ; nor were even thoſe pro-
by the Dutch in 1605. They did not, however, be vided with arms or ammunition to effect ſuch a deſign
come inaſters of the whole iſland at once. The Engliſh as that with which they were charged. There like-
had here five factories, which lived under the pro wiſe was notone Engliſh veſſel in the harbour, where-
tection of the Dutch caſtle ; holding themſelves ſafe, as the Dutch had eight ſhips riding near the town:
in reſpect of the friendſhip between the two nations. neither, when the Dutch broke open the deſks and
Great differences had ariſen between the Dutch and En trunks of the factors, were there found a ſingle paper
gliſh coloniſts in this part of the world ; till at laſt, the or letter which could be conſtrued into the moſt diſtant
Engliſh Eaſt-India company applying to king James, a relation to any conſpiracy. Add to all this, that ſuch
treaty was concluded in 1619, by which the concerns of the unhappy ſufferers as could ſpeak to be heard,
both of the Engliſh and Dutch were regulated, and
declared in the moſt foleinn manner their innocence of
certain ineaſures agreed upon for preventing future diſ the plot with which they were charged.
putes. This was an additional ſecurity to the English ; The whole of the tranſaction affords the moſt irre-
and, by virtue of the treaty, they continued two years fragable teſtimony that it was founded entirely uponi
in Amboyna, trading with the Dutch. During this a political fiction of the Hollanders, who had chem.
tiine, however, ſeveral diſputes happened; which oc ſelves formed the deſign of monopolizing the trade of
cafioning mutual diſcontents, the complaints were ſent the Spice Iſlands ; for the accompliſhment of which
to Jaccatra, in the illand of Java Major, to the coun they perpetrated, about the ſame time, a ſimilar tra-
cil of defence of both nations there residing : but they gedy at Pooleron, where they put to the torture 162
not agreeing, a ſtate of the mater was ſent over to of the natives, whom they likewiſe charged with a
Europe, to be decided by the Eaſt-India companies of pretended conſpiracy. It may juſtly be reckoned fin-
both nations ; or, in caſe they could not agree, by the gular in the fortune of this coinmercial republic, that
King of England and the States of Holland, accord- they have ever ſince been permitted to enjoy in peace
ing to an article in tle treaty of 1619.-Bus before thoſe invaluable illands, which were originally obrain-
theſe diſputes could be decided in a icgal way, the ed by ſuch atrocious infringements of humanity and
Dutch, in order to give the more ſpecious colouring the laws of nations as will ſtain the Dutch annals, to
to the violent ſeizure which they meditated of the the lateſt ages, with indelible infamy.
island of Amboyna, made uſe of the ſtale pretext The more effectually to preſerve this trade,the Dutch
of a conſpiracy being formed by the Engliſh and Ja have had all the clove-trees in the adjacent iſlands grub-
paneſe to diſpoſfets then of onc of their forts in this bed up. Sometimes alſo, when the larveſt is very
place. The plot, it was alleged, had been confeſſed large, part of the produce of Amboyna itſelf is burnt.
by a Japaneſe and Portugueſe in the Engliſh ſervice, - To prevent the rearing of cloves in any of the neigh-
who were moſt inhumanly tortured till they ſhould boaring illands, or the inhabitants from ſelling them to
anſ er in the affirmative fach interrogatories as might ſtrangers, the governor of Amboyna makes the tour of
favour the ſecret delign of thoſe cruel inquiſitors. Upon his government with a fleet of curricurries, couliſting
the injurious evidence of this conſtrained declaration, ſomeumes of 20, and at others of 30, 40, or 50 fail.
they immediately accuſed the English factors of the This expedition is made with all the pompimaginable,
pretended conſpiracy. Some of them they impriſon in order to gratify the pride and folly of the Indian
ed, and others they loaded with irons and ſent on board chiefs. The true reaſon of their taking all this pains
their ſhips ; ſeizing at the ſame time all the Engliſh is, becauſe experience has ſhown, that no contracts,
* merchandize, with their writings and books, however ſolemn, can prevent the inhabitants of thoſe
Theſe acts of violence were followed by a ſcene of illands froin ſelling their ſpice to ſtrangers ; and even
horror uncxempled in the puniſhment of the most acro frauds are ſo fregucnily pracliſed by the Dutch
cious offenders. Some of the factors they tortured, themſelves, thongh the company is inexorable in pu-
by compelling them to ſwallow water till their bodies niſhing thein, that the common people call the cloves
were diftended to the utmoſt pitch ; then taking the galken-kruid, that is, the gallows-ipice.
miſerable victinis down from the boards to which they Belides the cloves, coffee is alſo cultivated here by
3 X 2
clic
7
now,
A
A MB
[ 532 ]
A M B
Amüracia. the Dutch, and a gold mine has been lately found out. by pulling the beams which they were faſtened into Ambracia.
This was diſcovered by the quantities of gold-duſt that the city with hooks contrived for the purpoſe.
were waſhed from ſome niountains by the torrents. While Fulvius was carrying on the liege, Nicander
Here alſo ow ſeveral kinds of valuable wood, of the Ætolian prætor found means to throw 500 men in-
which they made tables, chairs, eſcritoirs, &c. for the to theci'y, under the commandofone Nicodamus, with
principal perſons in the government; and the relt is whom Nicander agreed to attack thc Roman camp in
ſold all over the Indies at a very extravagant rate. thenight-time; not doubting, that, if the garriſon from
Amboyna is divided into two parts, viz. a greater within, and the army from without, fell upon them at
and leſſer peninſula. The former, called Hiton, is 12 the ſame time they would be obliged to raiſe the fiege.
leagues in length, and two and a half broad. In this Nicodamus narrowly watched the time at which he was
the Dutch lave no leſs than five forts, or rather ſtrong ordered to fally; and though Nicander did not appear,
redoubts, mounted with canon. The other is calleŭ marched out at the head of the garriſon, armed with
Leytimor, five leagues in length, and one and a half tire-brands and torches. The Roman centinels, ſur-
broad, which is the ſouthern part of the iſland; on this priſed at this fight, ran to wake the legionaries, and
ſtands the fort of Victoria, which is the reſidence of foon ſpread a general alarm all over the camp. The
the governor, and liis council, compoſed of 15 gentle. legionaries marched in ſmall bodies as they happened
men or merchants. The fortreſs is a ſquare, the ram to meet, to repulſe the enemy, whom they engaged in
parts mounted with 60 pieces of braſs cannon, and the three different places. Two parties of the garriſon
garriſon uſually compoſed of 6oo men. It is ſo ſtrong were driven back: but the third, commanded by two
by nature and art, as to be in a manner impregnable ; Ætolian generals, made a great Naughter of the Ro-
and ſo effectually does it command the harbour, that no mans; and, not finding themfelves ſeconded by Nican-
veſſel could come in or go out without being ſunk by der, retired in good order into tlie city.
the canon, if the governor choſe. The inhabitants of Though the belieged were thus abandoned, and had
Amboy na are computed at 70 or 80,000, of whoin no hopes of aſiſtance, they continued to defend them-
but a ſmall number are Dutch ; and this obliges the ſelves with incredible vigour and reſolution. The Ro-
latter to be continually upon their guard, and to keep mans had no ſooner made a breach in the wall, but it
a competent number of troops in each of their forts, was repaired, and a new one built behind it. The con-
particularly in that of Middleburgh, which ſtands up-ful, therefore, altered his meaſures; and, inſtead of ma-
on the iſthmus that connects theſe peninſulas. There king breaches with the ran, began to undermine the
are alſo redoubts and garriſons in all the illands of this wall, in hopes of throwing down great part of it at
governinent.
once, and entering the city before the belieged could
AMBRACIA; one of the moſt conſiderable cities have time to rebuild a new wall. The miners being co-
of ancient Epirus, fituated on the river Aracthus, at a vered, were not obſerved by the garriſon, till the great
ſmall diſtance from the ſea. At firſt it was a free city; quantities of earth brought out of the mine gave the
but was afterwards reduced by the Æacidæ kings of Epi- alarm. The Ætolians immediately began a counter-
rus, who choſe it for the place of their reſidence. In mine; and having dug a trench of the depth they ſup-
proceſs of time, the Ætolians made themſelves maſters poſed the mine to be, they carried it along the wall
of it, and held it till the year before Chriſt 189, when where they heard the ſtrokes of the pick-axes of the
it fell into the hands of the Romans.
Romans. When the two mines met, a battle enſued,
At this time Ambracia was a place of great ſtrength. firſt with pick-axes and ſpades, and then with ſwords
It was defended on one ſide by the river Arachus, and and ſpears : but this attack did not laſt long, each par-
on the other by ſteep and craggy hills ; and ſurround- ty making themſelves a kind of ran part with the looſe
cd with an high and thick wall, above three miles in earth. The Ætolians, in order to drive their enemies
conipafs. The Roman conſul Fulvius began the fiege quite out of the mine, invented a machine, which they
by forming two camps, ſeparated by the river, but with brought to the place where the two mines met: this
a communication between them ; the Romans were was an hollow veſſel with an iron bottom, bored through
poſted in one, and the Epirots their allies in the other. in many places, and armed with ſpikes at proper di-
He then threw up two lines, one of circunvalation, ſtances to prevent the enemy from approaching it: this
and the other of contravallation ; and built a wooden veſſel they filled with feathers, which thcy ſet on fire,
tower, in form of a caſtle, over againſt the citadel, and with bellows driving the ſmoke on the beliegers,
wliich ſtood on a hill. The Ætolians, however, be- obliged them to leave the mine, lalf-ſuffocated. This
fore the lines were quite finiſhed, found means to throw interval the Ætolians made uſe of in repairing thcfoun-
about 1000 men into the place.
dations of the wall.
The lines being completed, the city was attacked in The vigorous reſiſtance made by the Ambracians,
five different places at once. The battering-rains ſhook however, did not raiſe the courage of the nation in ge-
The walls on all ſides; and the Romans,from their move neral, who were determined on a peace with Rome ad
able towers, pulled down the battlements with a kind all events. Fulvinis, in the mean time, being deſirous
of fcythes which they faſtened to long beams. The be- of getting poffeffion of Ambracia before the conclution
tieged made a vigorous dcfence. They were night and of the peace, einployed Amynander, king of the Atha-
day on the walls, and indefatigable in preventing the manes, to perſuade the inhabitants to ſurrender. As A-
effeas of the rains and ſcythes. The ſtrokes of the for- mynander had grcat intereſt in Ambracia, having long
mer they deadened, byletting down beams,large ſtones, reſided there, he eaſily perfuaded them to capitulate oil
Jumps of lead, &c. by means of pullies, upon thein when the following terms, viz. That the Ætolian garriſon
they were in motion ; the others they rendered uſeleſs, ſhould have leave to march ont of the city; that the
inhabitants
А М Б
[ 533 ]
A M B
Ambreada, inhabitants lliould pay 500 talents, 200 down, and the that city,there being a great conteſt between the Catho. Ambrcſe,
reſt at fix equal payments; and that they ſhould deliver lics and Arians concerning the choice of a new biſhop, ,
Ambroſe
to the conſul all the priſoners and deſerters that were Ainbroſe thought it his duty, as governor, io go to the
in the city. The gates were then opened to Fulvius ; church, in order to compole the tumult. He accord-
and he was preſented with a crown of gold, together ingly addreſſed himſelf to the people in a gentle pathe-
with many fine falues and pictures, of which there tic ſpeech, exhorting them to proceed to their choice
were great numbers in the city, it having been the in a calnı and friendly manner: while he sras ſpeak-
capital of Pyrrhus, who had enriched it with nianying to them, tho whole allembly cried out with one
valuable monunients.
voice, “ Let Ambroſe be biſhop!” Such a ſudden and
From this time the city of Ambracia made no figure unexpected incident ſurpriſed him exiremely; ſo that
in hiſtory. It is ſcarce known al preſent where the he retired immediately, and uſed every method to di-
city ſtood; but that called Arba, in upper Albania, vert them from their reſolution of chooſing him ; but at
ſeems beſt to agree with what is ſaid of the ancient laſt he was obliged to comply; and was baptiſed (being
ſituation of this city. The river Aracthus, on which but a catechumen before), and ordained biſhop, to-
Ambracia was ſituated, is now called, by the natives, wards the latter end of the year 374,0r beginning oí375.
"Spag mag muriji.
About the year 377, the barbarous nations making an
AMBREADA, thus they call the falſe or factitious incurſion into the Roman empire, he fied to Illyricum,
amber, which the Europeans uſe in their trade with and afterwards to Rome. In the year 334, he was
the negroes on the coaſt of Africa, and particularly on ſent to the tyrant Maximus, who had uſurped the em-
the river Senegal. There are ſome large and red pire, and prevailed upon him not to pafs over into
pieces of it, a thouſand of which making twenty ropes Italy. The heathens bring encouraged by theſe inte-
or ſtrings, weigh three pounds. There are others ſmall, ſine commotions in tlie empire, attempted to reſtore
and alſo red, which weigh but two pounds and an half. their religion, and employed Q. Aurelius Symmachus,
AMBREŚBERRY, å market-town in Wiltſhire, prefect of Rome, a man of great eloquence, to plead
about ſix miles north of Saliſbury, and ſituated in W. Their cauſe. This gave riſe to the famous conteſt be-
Long. 1. 40. and N. Lat. 51. 20.
tween St Ambroſe and him, about repairing the altar
AMBRONES, a Gauliſh people who lived near the of Victory. But Symmachus having loſt his cauſe, was
foot of the Alps, between Switzerland and Provence. expelled the city,and commanded not to approach with-
They invaded the Roman territories in conjunction in an hundred miles of it. The petition which he pre-
with the Cimbriand Teutones; but were defealed with ſented to the emperor Valentinian the younger, is till
great flaughter by Marius, about for years before extant; we find in it the ſtrongeſt figures of rhetoric
Chriſt. Their women, who had ſtaid during the en and the greateſt force of eloquence. St Ambroſe wrote
gagement in a kind of fortification made with their a confutation of this petition ; but he has been thougho
carts, on ſeeing their liuſbands flying, and the Romans guilty of many paralogiſms: and yet he proteſts, “that
at their heels, armed themſelves with axes, and gnalle he endeavoured only after the ſolidity of reafoning, lea-
ing with their teeth, fell with fury on the puríuers ving Symmachus all the glory of eloquence and polite-
and the purſued. Their firſt rage being ſpent, they de- neſs; it being (ſays he) the peculiar privilege of the
fired to ſurrender themſelves, upon the ſingle condi- pagan philoſophers to amuſe the mind with colours as
tion, that their chaſtity Iliould not be violated ; but this falle as their idols; and to ſay great things, not being
equitable requeſt being denied, they firſt killed their capable of ſaying true ones." Ambroſe met with a good
children, and then themſelves, not one remaining a- deal of oppofition from the Arians, againſt whom he
liye out of the whole multitude.
acted with great ſpirit and intrepidity. Juſtina the em-
AMBROSE-ISLAND, a ſmall iſland laid down in preſs and mother of Valentinian, who was an Arian,
ſome of the moſt approved charts, and particularly reſolving to reſtore Arianiſm at Milan, began with de-
mentioned in Mr Robertſon's Elements of Navigation, manding of St Ambroſe one of the churches, whicii
as lying in S. Lat. 25. 30. W. Long. 82. 20.
It was
was called the Portian church: but he refuſed it; anů
ſearched for, however, in 1767, by Captain Carteret, the people ſurrounding the palace in a body, ſhe was
with ſuch diligence, that he concludes it to have no obliged to leave him in poſſeſſion of his church, and
exiſtence, as he could not diſcover land any where eveir delire him to pacify the people.
near that place.
Ambroſe was a ſecond time ſent to the tyrant Max-
AMBROSE (St), biſhop of Milan, one of the moſt imus, for Valentinian found no perſon ſo proper to ne-
eminent fathers of the fourth century, born in Gaul gotiate with him. He ſpoke to himn with great cou-
in the year 332, according to Dr Cave, or in 340, as rage and boldneſs, but could obrain nothing for Max-
Mr Du Pin affirms. His father was at this time pre- inus fuon after marched into Italy, and made himſelf
fe&tus prætorio in Gaul; and reſided at Arles, the capi- matter of the weſtern empire: ſo that Valentinian was
tal of Gallia Narbonenſis. The birth of Ambroſe is obliged to retire, with his mother Juſtina and his lif-
ſaid to have been followed with a remarkable prefage ter Galla, to Theſſalonica in Illyricum, in order to de-
of his future eloquence ; for we are told, ihat a ſwarm fire Theodoſius's alliftalice; who defeated Maximus,
of bets came and ſettled upon his mouth as he lay in and reſtored Valentinian to the empire.
his cradle. He foon made himſelf maſter of the feve \Vhile Theodoſius continued in Italy, after the de-
ral parts of ſecular learning; and pleaded cauſes before feat of Maximus, an inſurrection lappened at Theſſa-
Probus with ſo much cloquence, that he was appointed Ionica, in which ſeveral of the magiſtrates were ſtoned,
his aífeffor, and ſoon after governor of the provinces and thcir bodies dragged along thc fireels. Theodori-
of Liguria and Æmilia. He ſettled at Milan; where, is being informed of this,ralhly commanded a certaiız
in the year 374, upon the death of Auxentias biſhop of number of the inhabitants to be put to deati promif-
cuoully
AM B
( 534 )
A M D
1
Amtrofe. cuouſly; by which means the city was filled with dica, et Ultima, or the Firſt, Middle, and laſt Things; Ambrofia
the blood of many innocent perſons, and anong it the War with devils ; Looking unto Jefus ; &c.
11
reſt ſeveral ſtrangers who had but juſt come there : AMBROSE, or St AMBROSE in the Wood, an order of Ambroſinia
no regard was had to any diſtincion of perſons, no religious, who uſe the Ambrolian office, and wear an
forın of trial was obſerved; but they were cut down in age of that ſaint engraven on a litile plate: in other
like corn in the harveſt, as Theodoret cxprefl'es it, to reſpects, they conform to the roles of the Auguſtins.
thc number of 7000. At this time an aſſembly of bi See AMBROSIAN Ofice, and AUGUSTINS.
flops was held at Milan, who all expreſſed an abhor AMBROSIA, in heathcıı antiquity, denotes the
rence of ſuch cruelty in the emperor. Ambroſe wrote a ſolid food of the gods, in contradiftin&tion from the
letter to him, in which he repreſented the enormity of drink, which was called nectar. It had the appellation
his crime, and exhorted him to make fatisfaction by a ambrofia (compounded of thc particles, and Bpor un
fincere ſubmiſſion and repentance. Some time after, innvortal,) as being ſuppoſed to render thoſe immorial
Theodofius coming to Milan, went to receive the ſa who fed on it.
crament at the great church; where Ambroſe meeting AMBROSIA is alſo a fplcndid kind of title, given by
hiin at the door, denied him entrance, and repreſented fonie phyſicians to certain alcxipliarmic compositions,
his guilt in the moſt forcible and pathetic terins. The of extraordinary virtue. The name was particularly
emperor was ſtruck with his words, and with great given to a famous antidote of Philip of Macedon, a-
ulieaſineſs of mind returned to his palace; but about a gainſt all poiſons, bites, and ſtings of venomous crea-
year after, Ambroſc, being convinced of the fincerity as well as many internal diſeaſes.
of his repentance, admitted him into the church.
AMBROSIA; A genus of the pentandria order, be-
( 11 392, Valentinian the enperor being aſſaſſinated longing to the moniccia claſs of plants, and, in the
by the contrivance of Argobaſtes, and Eugenius uſurp- natural inethod, ranking under the 49th order, Gumpo-
ing the empire, Ambroſe was obliged to leave Milan: litu-ilucamentacea. The characters are : -The MALE
but he returned the year following, when Eugenius flowers are compound : The common calyx is a ſingle-
was defeated. He died at Milan the 4th of April leaved perianthium, the length of the florets: The
797; being 57 years of age, according to Mr Du Pin compound corolla is uniform, tubular, flat, and hemi-
and ſome other writers; but Dr Cave and Olearius ſay ſpherical; the proper is monopetalous, funnel-ſhaped,
that he was 64 years old at his death. He was buried and quinquefid: The ſtamina conſiſt of five very ſmall
in the great church at Milan. He wrote ſeveral works, filaments; the antheræ are erect, parallel,and pointed:
the moſt conſiderable of which is that De Oficiis. He The piſtillum has a filiform ſtylus, the length of the
is conciſe and ſententious in his manner of writing, and ſtamina; the ſtigma orbicular and membranous: The
ſull of turns of wit ; his terms are well choſen, and his receptaculun is naked.— FEMALE flowers below the
exprellons noble: he divcrlifies his ſubject by an ad male ones, on the ſame plant,doubled : The calyx is a
mirable copiouſneſs of thought and language; he is fingle leaved perianthium, entire (with the belly quin-
very ingenious in giving an eaſy and natural turn to quedentated), one flowered, and pertīſtent: There is
cvery thing which he treats of, and is not without no corolla: The pulirlluin has an ovate gerinen in the
alrength and pathos when there is occalion for it. This bottom of the calyx; a filiform ſtylus, the length of the
is part of the character which Du Pin gives him as a calyx; and two long briſtly ſtigniata : The pericarpi-
writer ; but Eraſnis obſerves that he has many quaint un is an ovate unilocular nut: The feed is fingular
and affected ſentences, and frequently very obſcure and ronndiſh. Of this genus five ſpecies arc enume-
ones; and it is certain that his writings are intermix meraied; but having no properties worthy of notice,
cd with many ſtrange and peculiar opinions. Paulinus we omit any further account of them.
wrote his life, and dedicated it to St Auguſtin: this AMBROSIAN OFFICE, Or Rite,in church-hiſtory,
liſe is prefixed to St Ambroſe's works; the beſt editi a particular fornula of worſhip in the church of Milan,
on of which is reckoned to be that publiſhed by the which takes its name from St Ambroſe, who inſtituted
Benedilline monks, in two volumes in folio, at Paris, that ofice in the fourth century. Each church originally
in 1686 and 1690.
had its particular office; and when the Pope, in after-
AMBROSE (Iſaac);an eminent preſbyterian miniſter, times, took upon him to impoſe the Roman office up-
was educated at Brázen-noſe college Oxford, where he on all the u ettern churches, that of Milan ſheltered
took the degree of bachclor of arts, and became mini itſelf under the name and authority of St Ambroſe ;
ſter of Prefon, and afterwards of Garſan in Lanca from which tine the Ainbroſian ritual has prevailed.
ſhirc, where he was in 1662 ejeded for non-conformity. AMBROSIN, in middle-aged writers, denotes a
It was uſual with him to retire cvery year for a nionth coin ſruck by the lords or dukes of Milan, whereon
into a little hut in a wood; where he ſhunned all ſo was repreſented St Ambroſe on horſeback with a
ciety, and devoted himſelf to religious contemplation. whip in his right hand. The occaſion of this coin-
Dr Calamy obſerves, that he had a very ſtrong impulſe age is ſaid to have been a viſion of that ſaint, who
on his mind of the approach of death, and took a fur- appeared to the Milaneſe general in 1339, during the
mal leave of his friends at their houſe a little before his time of a battlc.
departure; and thc laſt night of his life he ſent his diſ AMBROSINIA, in botany; a gernis of the poly-
courſe concerving angels to the preſs. The next day andria order, belonging to the gynandria claſs of
he fhut hin ſelf up in his parlour, where, to the great plants; the characters of which are: The calyx is a
furpriſe and regret of all who ſaw him,he was found juſt fingle-leaved fpatha, divided by a partition into two
expiring. He died in 1663-4, in the 724 year of his cells : There is no corolla: The Ji amina conſiſt of a
age. He wrote ſeveral other books; as the Prima, Mc- ſingle filament in the interior cell; the antheræ are
numcrous,
ز
A M B
[ 535 ]
A MB
Ambrofius. numerons, with two roundinh concave nectarics at their Ambroſius ic repairing the churches, enconraging the Amhry
baſe : The piſillum is in theinterior cell; the germen ciergy, and reiloring the honour of religion. The 14
roundiſh; the ftylus cylindrical, and liorter than the Monmouth hiſtorian gives this prince a very high cha- Ambury.
fpatha : the ſtigma obtufe : The percarpium (a cap rader. «He was a man (ſays he) of ſuch bravery and
fale?) roundith and unilocular. I here is but one fpe- courage, that when he was in Gaul no one durft enter
cies, a native of Turkey.
the liris with him ; fui lie was ſure to ml:orſe his an-
AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, or AURELIUS AN1-
or AURELIUS AM- tagoniſt, or to break his ſpear into ſhivers. He was,
BROSIUS, a famous general of the ancient Britons, of moreover, generou, in beltowing, careful in perform-
Roman extraction. He was educated at the court of ing religious duties, moderate in all things, and more
Aldroen of fimorica ; who, at the requeſt of the Bri- especially abhorred a lie. He was ſtrong on foot,
tons, funt him over with ten thouſand men, to aíliſt ſtronger on horſeback, and perfectly qualified to com-
them againſt the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited mand an army."
mand an arny.” The fanie author tells us lie was
into Britain. Ambroſius had ſuch ſucceſs againſt the poiſoned at Wincheſter hy one Eopa a Saxon, diſguiſed
Saxons that the Britons chooſe him for their king, and as a phyſician, and hired for that purpuſo by Paſcen-
compelled Vortigern logive up to him all the weitern tius one of the ſons of Vortigern : but the generally
part of the kingdom divided by the Roman highway received opinion is, that he was killed in a battle which
called Watling-ſireet. Some time after, the Britons he loſt in the ycar 508, againſt Cerdric, one of the
being diſcontented with Vortigern, and having with Saxon generals.
drawn their allegiance from him, he retired to a caſtle ANBR), a place in which are depoſited all the uten.
in Wales, where being beſieged by Ambroſius, and fils neceſſary for houſe-keeping in the ancient ab-
the caſtle taking fire, he periſhed in the flames, and beys and priories, there was an office under this deno-
left his rival fule monarch of Britain ; who now took mination, wherein were laid up all charities for the poor.
upon hiin tlie imperial purple, after the manner of the AMBUBAJÆ, in Roman antiquity, were im mudeft
Roman emperois. Geoffrey of Monmouth tells iis, that women, who came from Syria to Rome, where they
Ambrofius built Stonehenge near Saliſbury in Wilt- lived by proſtitution and by playing on the flute : the
ſhire. Ambrofias, according to this hiſtorian, coming word is derived from the Syriac ubub, which fignifics
to a monaſtery near Caercaradoc, now Saliſbury, where a nute; altho' others make it to come from ain and
three hundred Britiſh lords, maſſacred by Hengeſt, lay Baiz, becauſe theſe proſtitutes often retired to B.iæ.
buried, and reſolving to perpetuate the memory of this According to Cruquius, theſe women uſed likewiſe to
action, he ofered his workmen to prepare a large ſell paint for ornamenting the face, &c.
quantity of ſtones and other materials. But having, AMBULANT, or AMBULATORY. They give in
at the inſtignation og Tremonus archbiſhop of Caer France the name of ambulant commoners to thoſe
leon, conſulted the famous Merlin, this magician ad conmiſſions, or clerks of the king's furins, who bave
viſed him to ſend over to Ireland for certain great no ſettled office; but viſit all the offices within a cer.
ſtones, called chorea gigantum, the giant's dance, placed tain diſtrict, to ſee that nothing be done in then againſt
in a circle on a hill called Killair, having been brought the king's right, and intereſt of the farm.
thither by giants from the fartheſt borders of Afri AMBULANT is alſo uſed to denote thoſe brokers at
A body of forces were accordingly ſent into Ire. Amſterdanı. or exchange agents, who have not been
land, under Pendragon, Ambroſius's brother, to fetch ſworn before the magiſtrates. They tranfact broker-
theſe ſtones; but were oppoſed in their attempt by Gilage buſineſs, but their teftimony is not received in the
liomanus king of the country, who derided the folly courts of juſtice.
of the Britons in undertaking ſo ridiculous an expedi AMBULATORY, a term anciently applied to
tion. Nevertheleſs, the Britons having vanquiſhed this ſuch courts, &c. as were not fixed to any certain place ;
prince in battle, brought away the ſtones; and by the but held ſometimesin one place, and ſometimes in anda
direction and aſſiſtance of Merlin, who had accompa ther. In oppoſition to ſtationary courts. The court
nied thein, theſe wonderful ſtones, by order of An of parliament was anciently ambulatory ; ſo alſo were
brofius, were placed over the graves of the Britiſh the court of king's bench, &c.
lords, and are now what is called Stonehenge. Alex AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, a proceſſion
ander Mechan celebrates this fable in his poem De di- make by the Romans round the city and pomerium,
vina ſapientia laudibu . Polydore Virgil affigns ano- in which they led a victim, and afterwards facrificed
ther origin of Stonehenge: he tells us it was erected by it, in order to avert fome calamity that threatened the
the Britons as a nionument to their general Ambrofius, city.
on the place where he fell in battle, to perpetua:e the AMBURY, cr ANBURY, among farriers, denotes a
memory of his glorious actions and ſervices done to his tumor, wart or ſwelling, which is ſoft to the touch,
country. Both theſe ſtories are rejected by the beſt and full of blood.
antiquaries; who, however, are by no means agreed as This diſorder of horſes is cured by tying a horſe-
to the true origin of this famous piece of antiquity. hair very hard about its root ; and, when it has fallen
See STONEHENGE.
off, which commonly happens in about eight days,
After the Britons had defeated the Saxons, and ob- ftrewing ſome powder of verdigris upon the part, to
liged them to retire northward, Ambrosius is ſaid to prevent the return of the complaint. If the tumor be
have convened the princes and great men at York, fo low that nothing can be tied about it, they cutic
where he gavcorders for repairing the churches deſtroy- out with a knife, or elſe burn it off with a ſharp hot
ed by the Saxolis, and reſoring the exerciſe of religion iron; and, in linewy parts, where a hot iron is impro-
to its former luſtre. This is confirmed by Matthew of per, they eat it away with oil of vitriol, or while ſu-
Weſtminſter ; who highly applauds the great zeal of blimate
Many
ca.
2
Λ Μ Ε
( 536 )
A M E
ܪ
Anbuſcade Many of our farriers boaſt of a ſecret which infallicly were united by Pope Pius V. partly with the Ciſterci. Amelia,
cures all kinds of protuberances of this kind; the pre an order, and partly with that of the Soccolanti, or Amellus.
Amedians,
paration of which is this; Take three ounces of green wooden-ilioe wearers.
vitriol and one ounce of white arſenic ; beat them to AMELIA, an epiſcopal city of Italy, in the ſtate
a coarſe powder, and put them into a crucible ; place of the churclı, ſeated on a mountain, 50 miles N. E.
the crucible in the midſt of a charcoal fire, ſtirring the of Rome, and 25 miles S. W.of Spoletto. E. Long.
subſtance, but carefully avoiding the poiſonous fteams; 13. 20. N. Lat. 42. 33.
when the whole grows reddiſh, take the crucible out AMELLUS, STARWORT: A genus of the polyga-
of the fire, and when cool, break it and take out the mia ſuperflua order, belonging to the ſyngenelia claſs of
matter at the bottom ; beat this to powder in a mortar, plants, and in the natural method ranking under the
and add to four ounces of this powder five ounces of 4.21h order, Compoſite-oppoſitifolia.The characters are:
album rhoſis; make the whole into an ointment, and The cominon calyx is imbricated and roundiſh: The
let it be applied cold 10 warts ; rubbing them with it comp011nd corolla is radiated; the hermaphrodite corol-
every day. They will by this means fall off gently lets numerous in the diſk; the female numerous in the
and eaſily, without leaving any ſwellings. It is beſt ray: Proper corolla of the hermaphrodites are tubular
to keep the horſe quiet, and without working, during and quinquefid; of the females, tongued, looſe, and
the cure. What fores remain on the parts which the two or three toothed: The ſtamina in the hermaphro-
ſwellings fall off from, may be cured with the coin dites couliſt of five ſhort capillary filaments; the anthe-
mon application called the counteſs's ointment.
ræ cylindric and tubular : The piſtillum has an ovate
AMBUSCADE, or AMBUSH, in the military art, germen ; a filiform ſtylus the length of the ſtamina ;
properly denotes a place where ſoldiers may lie con and two filiform ſtigmata: There is no pericarpium,
cealed till they find an opportunity to ſurpriſe the c but the calyx unchanged : The ſeeds are ovate and ſo-
nemy.
litary; the pappusis hairy; the receptaculum chaffy.-
In the language of Scripture, theſe terms are not Of this there are two.
always taken in their proper ſignification, for laying Species. 1. The lynchitis, with one fower on each
anıbuſhes for any one, attacking him in ſecret, laying fuotſtalk. This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
ſnares for him. They ſometimes ſignify no more than It is a perennial plant, riſing about three feet high,
attacking a man who has no diſtruit of ſuch a thing: fending out many branches on each ſide, ſo as to forni
attacking one behind, concealing one's ſelf in ſome a buſhy plant; the branches are garniſhed with obtule
particular place in order to ſurpriſe any one. See the ſpear-ſhaped leaves placed oppoſite, and are terminated
book of Judges, ch. ix. 25. 32. 34, 35. Abimelech, by ſingle naked flower-ſtalks, each ſupporting one vio-
who lay lurking with his people in the heights of Si- let-coloured flower, having a yellow diſk, which is fuc-
chen, ſo, however, as to rob and treat thoſe wlio ceeded by oblong ſeeds. 2. The umbellatus, with
paſſed that way yery ill, came and attacked the city flowers growing in umbels, is a native of Jamaica ; and
of Sichem with his troops divided into three bouics: riſes from two to three feet high, lending out many
Tetendit inſidias juxta Sichimam in quatuor locis. Li- branches cloathed with oppofite leaves, which are ter-
. terally, according to the Hebrew, “ They prepared minated by ſmall flowers in wibels.
ambuſcades againit Sichem in four heads or compa Gielture. The firſt is calily propagated, cither by
nies.” And a little farther, verſe 43. Abimelech cuttings planted in the ſummer-months, or by feeds
being informed that the Sichemites were marched, took fown on a moderate hot-bed in the ſpring, but the
his army and divided it into three bodies, and laid wait plants require a flight thelter in winter. The fecond is
for them in the field.” It ſeems certainl, that in theſe mucli more render, and therefore requires to be pre-
paſſages, ambuſhes, properly ſo called, were not the ſerved in a fove during the winter feafun.
things in queſtion. In the firſt book of Samuel, Saul AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAI (Nicholas), born at Or-
complains that David laid ambuſcades for him : Infinire Jeans in 1634, was much eſteemed at the court of France,
etor ufque hodie permanens. Now nothing could be and appointed ſecretary of an embaſſy which hat court
worſe grounded than this accuſation, if we underſtand ſent to the commonwealth of Venice, as appears by the
the word infidiari in its proper ſignification ; but he title of his tranſlation of Father Paul's Hiſtory of the
miglit ſay, though unjuſtly, that David was his fecret Council of Trent; but he afterwards publiſhed writings
enemy. And in the Chronicles it is ſaid, that God which gave ſuch offence that he was impriſoned in the
nurned the ambuſhes laid by the enemies of Iſrael upon Baſtile. The firſt works he printed were the Hiſtory
themſelves ; that is to ſay, their endeavours, their 112 of the Government of Venice, and that ofte Ufcocks,
lice, their arms, he turned againſt themſelves : for the a people of Croatia. In 1683 hc publiſhed his tranſa-
enemies there inentioned came not in private or by ſtra tions into French of Machiavci's Prince, and Father
tagem ; tbey marched openly in arms againſt Iſrael. Paul's Hiſtory of the Council of Trent, and Political
AMBY, a town of the Auſtrian Netherlands, in the Diſcourſes of his own upon Tacitus. Theſe perform-
province of Limburg, ſituated oppoſite to Maerſtricht, ances were well received by the public. He did not
on the eaſt ſide of the river Maeſe, in E. Long. 5. prefix his own name to the two laſt mentioned works,
45. N. Lat. 50. 57.
but concealed himſelf under that of La Mothe Joſſeval.
AMEDIANS, in church-hiſtory, a congregation His tranſlation of Father Paul was attacked by the
of religious in Italy, ſo called from their profeſling partiſans of the pope's unbounded power and autho-
themſelves amantes Deun., “ lovers of God;” or rather rity. In France, however, it met with grcat fucceſs;
amati Deo, « beloved of God.” They wore a grey all the advocates for the liberty of the Gallican church
habit and wooden ſhoes, had no breeches, and girt promoting the ſucceſs of it to theutmoſt of their power,
themſelves with a cord. They had 28 conyents; and though at the ſame time there were three memoriais
preſented
A ME
[ 537 ]
A ME
Amerce-
ment,
Amelot, preſented to have it ſuppreſſed. When the fecond edi So be it, Numb. y. 22. or an affirmation, Aineil, yes, I Amend
Amen, tjon of this iranſlation was publiſhed, it was violently believe it, I Cor. xiv. 16. The Hebrews end the five
U
attacked by the Abbé St Real, in a letter he wrote to books of Pſalms, according to their way of diſtribu-
Mr Bayle, dated October 17, 1685. Amelor defended ting them, with the words amen, aynen ; which the
himſelf, in a letter to the ſame gentleman. In 1684, Septuagint have tranſlated 78YO TO, JAVOITO ; and the La-
he printed at Paris a French tranſlation of Baltaſar tins fiat, fiat. The Greek and Latin churches have
Gracian's Oraculo manual, with the title of l'Homme de preſerved this wordįži their prayers, as syell as allelời.
Gour. In 1686, bc printed La Morale de Tacite de la ah and hoſanna ; becauſe they obſerved more energy'in
Materie; in which work he collected ſeveral particular them than in any terms which they could uſe in their
facts and maxims, which repreſent in a ſtrong light the own languages. At the concluſion of the pablic pray-
artifices of court-flatterers, and the miſchievous effect ers, the people anſwered with a loud voice, Amen ;
of their poiſonous diſcourſes. Frederick Leonard, a and St Jerom ſays, that at Rome when the people an-
bookſeller at Paris, having propoſed, in the year 1692, ſwered Amen, the ſound of their voices was like a clap
to print a collection of all the treaties of peace between of thunder: In fimilitudinem cæleſtis tonitrui Amen re-
the kings of France and all the other princes of Eu- buat. The Jews aſſert that the gates of Heaven are
rope, ſince the reign of Charles VII. tothe year 1690, opened to him who anſwers Amen with all his might.
Amelot publiſhed a ſmall volume in duodecimo, con AMEND, or AMENDE, in the French cuſtoms, a
taining a preliminary diſcourſe upon theſe treatiſes ; pecuniary puniſhment impoſed by a judge for any crinie,
wherein he endeavours to ſhow, that moſt princes, falſe profecution, or groundleſs appeal.
when they enter into a treaty, think more how to e AMENDE Honourable, an infamous kind of puniſh-
vade than how to perform the terms they ſubſcribe to. ment inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or
He publiſhed alfo an edition of Cardinal d'Offat’s Let- facrilegious perſons, in the following manner: The of-
ters in 1697, with ſeveral obſervations of his own ; fender being delivered into the lands of the hangman,
which, as he tells us in his advertiſement, may ſerve his thirt is ſtripped off, a rope put about his neck, and
as a ſupplement to the hiſtory of the reigns of Henry a taper in his hand; then he is led into court, where he
III. and Henry IV.kings of France. He wrote ſeve- muſt beg pardon of God, the king, the court, and his
ral other works; and died at Paris in 1706, being then country. Sometimes the puniſhment ends here; but
almoſt 73 years of age:
ſometimes it is only a prelude to death, or banilhment
AMELOT (Denis), a celebrated French writer, to the galleys.
was born at Saintonge in 1606. He maintained a cloſe AMENDE Honourable, is a term alſo uſed for making
correſpondence with the fathers of the Oratory, a recantation in open court, or in preſence of the perſon
congregation of prieſts founded by Philip of Neri.' He injured. .
wrote the life of Charles de Gondren, ſecond ſuperior AMENDMENT, in a general ſenſe, denotes ſome
of this congregation, and publiſhed it at Paris in 1643. alteration or change made in a thing for the better.
In this piece he ſaid ſomething of the famous Abbor AMENDMENT,in law,the correction of an error com-
of St Cyran, which greatly diſpleaſed the gentlemen mitted in the proceſs, which maybe amended after judg.
of Port Royal ; who, to be revenged of him, publiſhment, unleſs the error lies in giving judgment ; for in
ed a libel againſt him, intitled Idée generale l'eſprit et that caſe it is not amendable, but the party niuſt bring
de livre de P. Amelote. He was ſo much provoked by a writ of error. A bill may be amended on the file at
this fatire, that he did all in his power to injure them. any time before the plea is pleaded ; but not afterwards,
They had finiſhed a tranſlation of the New Teſtament, without motion and leave of the court.
and were deſirous to have it publiſhed; for which pur AMENDMENT of a Bill, is fame alteration made
poſe they endeavoured to procure an approbation from in the firſt draught of it.
the doctors of the Sorbonne, and a privilege from the AMENTUM, in botany, the name of a ſpecies of
king. But Amelot, by his influence with the Chan- calyx, conſiſting of valves, and hanging down in diffe-
cellor, prevented them from ſucceeding. In this he rent directions from the caulis. Common oats afford
had alſo a view to his own intereſt; for he was about a good example of the amentum.
to publiſh a tranſlation of his own of the New Teſta AMENTUM, in Roman antiquity, a thong tied about
ment. Amelot's tranſlation with annotations, in 4 vols. the middle of a javelin or dart, and faſtened to the fore -
octavo, was printed in the years 1666, 1657, and 1668. finger, in order to recover the weapon as ſoon as it
It is not very exact, according to F. Simon, who tells was diſcharged. The ancients made great uſe of the
us that it contains ſome very groſs blunders. Amelot amentum, thinking it helped to enforce the blow. It
wrote alſo an Abridgement of Divinity, a Catechiſm alſo denotes a latchet that bound their ſandals.
for the Jubilee, and a kind of Chriſtian Manual for AMERADE, a kind of officers among the Sara-
every Day. Towards the end of his life, he entered cens, anſwering to the governors of provinces among
into the congregation of the Oratory in 1650 ; and the Europeans.--The name is originally the ſame with
continued amongſt them till his death, which happened that of emir.
in 1678.
AMERCEMENT, or AMERCIAMENT, in law, a
AMEN, yax, ſignifies true, faithful, certain. It is pecuniary puniſhment impoſed on offenders at the mer.
made uſe of likewiſe to affirnı any thing, and was a cy of the.court. It differs froni a fine in being impo-
ſort of affirmation uſed often by our Saviour : Aunr, fed arbitrarily in proportion to the fault; whereas a
Auny degw upesto i. e. Verily, verily, I ſay unto you. fine is a certain puniſhment ſettled expreſsly by ſome
Laftly, it is underſtood as expresſing a wiſh; as Amen, ſtatute,
VOL. I.
AAIE.
3 Y.
A M E
[ 538
A M E
I
8
3
Airerica. AMERICA ; one of the four quarters of the world, World is extremely great. In the ſouthern provinces, America.
probably the largeſt of the whole, and from its late dil. wliere the moiſture of the climate is aided by the
covery frequently denominated the New World, or warmth of the ſun, the woods are almoſt iin pervious, Itsexcellive
New Heiniſphere.
and the ſurface of the ground is hid from the eye, 11n- luxuriance
Boundaries
This vaſt country extends from the 8oth degree of der a thick covering of Mrubs, of herbs, and weeds. of vegeta.
north, to the 56th degree of fouth, latitude ; and where In the northern provinces although the foreſts are not tion,
its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 1361h de encumbered with the ſame wild luxuriance of vegeta-
gree weſt longitude froin London; ſtretching between tion, the trees of various ſpecies are generally more
8000 and 9000 miles in length, and in its greateſt lofty, and often much larger, than are to be ſeen in
breadth 3690. It ſees both hemiſpheres, has two any other parts of the world.
fummers and a double winter, and enjoys almoſt all the One of the moſt remarkable circumflances, or fea- Remarka-
variety of climates which the earth affords. It is waſhi tures, of the New World, is the general predomi- ble preva-
ed by the tho great oceans. To the eaſtward, it has the nance of cold, throughout the whole extent of this lence of
Atlantic, which divides it from Europe and Africa ; to great continent. Though we cannot, in any country, America.
cold in
theweſ it has the Pacific or Great South-Sea, by which determine the preciſe degree of heat merely by the
it is ſeparated from Aſia. By theſe ſeas it may, and diſtance of the equator, becauſe the elevation above the
does, carry on a direct commerce with the other three ſea, the nature of the ſoil, &c. all affect the climate ;
parts of the world.
yet, in the Ancient Continent, the heat is inuch more
Noith and
America is not of equal breadth throughout its whole in proportion to the vicinity to the equator than in any
South con- extent; but is divided into two great continents, call part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid zone
tinent. ed North, and South, America, by an iſthmus 1500 miles extends over half that which ſhould be temperate by
long, and which, at Darien, about Lat. 9. N. is only its potition. Even in thoſe latitudes where the winter
60 miles over. This iſthmus forms, with the northern is ſcarcely felt in the Old-Continent, it reigns with
and fouthern continents, a vaſt gulph, in which lie a great ſeverity in America, though during a short peri-
great number of iſlands, called the Well-Indies, in od. Nor does this cold, prevalent in the New World,
contradiſtinction to the eaſtern parts of Alia, which confire itſelf to the temperate zones; but extends its
are called the Eaſt - Indics.
influence to the torrid zone alſo, conſiderably mitiga-
“ Next to the extent of the New World, the gran- ting the exceſs of its heat.-Along the eaſtern coaſt,
Grand ob- deur of the objects which it preſents to view, is moſt the climate, tho' more ſimilar to that of the torrid
jects which apt to ſtrike the eye of an obſerver. Nature ſeems zone in other parts of the earth, is nevertheleſs con-
America
here to have carried on her operations upon a larger ſiderably milder than in thoſe countries of Aſia and
preſents to ſcale and with a bolder hand, and to have diſtinguiſhed Africa which lie in the fame latitude. From the ſouth-
the features of this country by a peculiar magnificence. ern tropic to the extremity ofthe American continent,
The mountains of America are much ſuperior in height the cold is ſaid to be much greater than in parallel
to thoſe in the other diviſions of the globe. Even the northern latitudes even of America itſelf.
plain of Quito, which may be conſidered as the baſe of For this foremarkable difference between the climate
the Andes, is elevated farther above the ſea than the of the New-Continent and the old, various cauſes
top of the Pyrenees.” The moſt elevated point of the been aſſigned by different authors. The following is
9
Andes, according to Don Ulloa, is twenty thouſand, the opinion of the celebrated Dr Robertſon on this fub- Dr Robert-
two hundred, and eighty feet, which is, at leaſt, ſeven ject. " Though the utmoſt extent of America to. fon's rea-
thouſand, one hundred, and two feet above the peak of wards the north be not yet diſcovered, we know that fons for this
Teneriffe, which is the higheſt known mountain in the it advances nearer to the pole than either Europe or
ſuperior
ancient continent. (See the article ANDES.)
degree of
Aſia. The latter have large ſeas to the north, which
cold.
Its rivers,
From the lofty and extenſive mountains of America are open during part of the year ; and even when co- Hiſtory of
deſcend rivers with which the ſtreams of Europe, of vered with ice, the wind that blows over them is leſs America,
Aſia, or of Africa, are not to be compared, either for intenſely cold than that which blows over land in the vol. II.p.1o.
length of courſe, or for the vaſt volumes of water which ſame latitudes. But, in America, the land ſtretches II, 12, &
they pour into the oceans. The Danube, the Indus, fron the river St Laurence towards the pole, and 13.
the Ganges, or the Nile, in the ancient Hemiſphere, ſpreads out immenſely to the weſt. A chain of enor-
are not of equal magnitude with the St Laurence, the mous mountains, covered with ſnow and ice, runs thro'
Miſſouri, or the Milliflippi, in North-America; or wich all this dreary region. The wind paſſing over ſuch an
the Maragnon, the Orinoco, or the Plata, in South extent of high and frozen land, becomes ſo impregna-
America. The rivers in the latter of theſe Ainerican ted with cold, that it acquires a piercing keeneſs, which
continents are like vaſt arms of the ſea. (See the ar it retains in its progreſs through warmer climates; and
6
ticles ST LAURENCE, MISSOURI, &c. &c.) ·
is not entirely mitigated until it reach the golph of
Its lakes, " The lakes of the New World are 110 leſs confpi- Mexico. Over all the continent of North-America, a
cuous for grandeur than its mountains and rivers. There north-weſterly wind and exceſſive cold are ſynonymous
is nothing in other parts of the globe which reſembles terms. Even in the moſt ſultry weather, the '
moment
the prodigious chain of lakes in North-America. They that the wind veers to that quarter, its penetrating in-
may be properly termed inland ſeas of freſh water; fluence is felt in a tranſition from heat to cold 110 leſs
and even thoſe of the ſecond or third claſs of inagni- violent than ſudden. To this powerful cauſe we may
tude, are of a larger circuit (the Caſpian ſea cxcepted) aſcribe the extraordinary dominion of cold, and its vi-
than the greateſt lake of the ancient continent.” (See olent inroads into the ſouthern provinces in that part
the articles SUPERIOR, HURON, ERIE, &c.)
of the globe.
Theluxuriance of the vegetable creation in the New « Other cauſes, no leſs remarkable, diminiſh the ac-
4
Its moun-
tains.
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[ 539 ]
A M E
America. tive power of heat in thoſe parts of the American con- from St Antonia ſouthwards, and from the bay of St America.
banyo tinent which lie between the tropics. In all that por- Julian to the ſtraits of Magellan its dimenſions are much
tion of the globe, the wind blows in an invariable din contracted.
contracted. On the eaſt and weſt ſides, it is waſhed
rection from caſt to weſt. As this wind holds its courſe by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. From its ſouth-
acroſs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries ern point, it is probable that a great extent of ſea,
which ſtretch along the weſtern ſhore of Africa, infla- without any conſiderable tract of land, reaches to
med with all the fiery particles which it hath collected the Antarctic pole. In whichever of theſe directions
from the fultry plains of Aſia, and the burning ſands the wind blows, it is cooled before it approaches the
in the African deſarts. The coaſt of Africa is, accord- Magellanic regions, by paſſing over a vaſt body of wa-
ingly, the region of the earth which feels the moſt fer ter; nor is the land there of ſuch extent, that it can
vent heat, and is expoſed to the unmitigated ardour of recover any conſiderable degree of heat in its progreſs
che torrid zone. But this ſame wind, which brings ſuch over it. Theſe circumſtances concur in rendering the
an acceſſion of warmth to the countries lying between temperature of the air in this diſtrict of America, more
the river of Senegal and Cafraria, traverſes the Atlan- ſimilar to that of an inſular, than to that of a continen-
tic Ocean, before it reaches the American ſore. It is tal climate ; and hinder it from acquiring the ſame de-
cooled in its paſſage over this vaſt body of water; and is gree of ſummer-heat, with places in Europe and Aſia,
felt as a refreſhing gale along the coaſts of Bralil and in a correſponding northern latitude. The north wind
Guiana, rendering theſe countries, though among the is the only one that reaches this part of America, after
warmeſt in America, temperate, when compared with blowing over a great continent.
blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten-
thoſe which lie oppoſite to thein in Africa. As this tive ſurvey of its poſition, this will be found to have a
wind advances in its courſe acroſs America, it meets tendency rather to diminih than augment the degree
with immenſe plains, covered with impenetrable fo. of heat. The ſouthern extremity of America is pro-
reits ; or occupied by large rivers, marſhes, and ſtagna- perly the termination of the iminenſe ridge of the An-
ting waters, where it can recover no conſiderable de- des, which ſtretches nearly in a direct line from north
gree of heat. At length it arrives at the Andes, which to ſouth through the whole extent of the continent,
run from north to ſouth through the whole continent. The moſt ſultry regions in South America, Guiana,
In paſſing over their elevated and frozen ſummits it is Braſil, Paraguay, and Tucuman, lie many degrees to
ſothoroughly cooled, that the greater part of the coun the eaſt of the Magellanic regions. The level coan-
tries beyond them hardly feel the ardour to which they try of Peru, which enjoys the tropical heats, is fituated
ſeem expoſed by their 'ituation. In the other provin- conſiderably to the weit of them. The north wind,
ces of America, from Tierra-Fermè weſtward to the then, though it blows over land, does not bring to the
Mexican empire, the heat of the climate is tempered ſouthern exiremity of America an increaſe of heat
in ſome places, by the elevation of the land above the collected in its paſſage over torrid regions ; but be.
fea; in others, by their extraordinary humidity; and fore it arrives there it muſt have ſwept along the ſum-
in all, by the enorinous mountains ſcattered over this mits of the Andes, and comes impregnated with the cold
tract. The illands of America in the Torrid Zone are of that frozen region."
either ſmall or mountainous, and are fanned alternate Another peculiarity in the climate of America is its Extreme
ly by refreſhing ſea and land breezes.
exceſſive moiſture in general. In ſome places, indeed, moiſture of
" The cauſes of the extraordinary cold towards the on the weſtern coaſt, rain is not known ; but, in all the meri-
ſouthern limits of America, and in the ſeas beyond it, other parts, the moiſtneſs of the clinate is as remark, can climate
cannot be aſcertained in a manner equally ſatisfying. It able as the cold. The foreſts wherewith is it is every
was long ſuppoſed, that a vaſt continent, diſtinguilhed where covered, no doubt, partly, occafion the moiſ-
by che name of Terra Auſiralis Incognita, lay between ture of its climate ; but the moſt prevaient and obvia
the ſouthern extremity of America and the Antarctic ous cauſe is the vaſt quantity of water in the Atlantic
pole. The ſame principles which account for the ex- and Pacific Oceans, with which America is environed
traordinary degree of cold in the northern regions of on all ſides. Hence, thoſe places where the continent
America, were employed in order to explain that which is narroweſt are deluged with almoſt perpetual rains,
is felt at Cape-Horn and the adjacent countries. The accompanied with violent thunder and lightning, by
immenſe extent ofthe ſouthern continent,and the large which ſome of them, particularly Porto-bello, are ren-
rivers which it poured into the ocean, were mentioned dered in a manner uninhabitable,
and admitted by philoſophers as cauſes ſufficient to oca From the coldneſs and chę moiſture of America, an Malignity
cafion the unuſual ſenſation of cold, and the ſtill more extremne malignity of climate has been inferred, and af- of chinate
uncommon appearances of frozen ſeas in that region ſerted by M. de Pauw in his Recherches Philofophiques unjutly a-
of the globe. But the imaginary continent to which sur les Americains. Hence, according to the hypothe- fcribed to
ſuch influence was aſcribed having been ſearched for in tis of this author, the ſmallneſs and irregularity of the
vain, and the ſpace which it was ſuppoſed to occupy ha nobler animals, and the ſize and enormous multiplica-
ving been found to be an open ſea; new conje Iures tion of reptiles and inſects.
muſt be formed with reſpect to the cauſes of a tempe But the ſuppoſed ſmallneſs and leſs ferocity of the Hiſtory of
rature of climate, fo extremely different from that American aninials, the Abbé Cluvigero obſerves, in- Mexico,
which we experience in countries renioved at the ſame ſtead of the malignity, demonſtrates the mildners and vol. II.
diſtance froin the oppoſite pole.
bounty of the cline, if we give credit to Buffon, at p. 255..
Ibid.p.424, “ The moſt obvious and probable cauſe of the fu- whoſe fountain M. de Pauw has drank, and of whoſe
425 note VI. perior degrce of cold towards the ſouthern extremity teſtimony he has availed himſelf againſt Don Pernetty.
of America, ſeems to be the form of the continent Buffon, itho in many places of his Natural Hiſtory
there, Its breadth. gradually decreaſes as ir ſtretches produces the ſmallneſs of the American animals as a
3 Y 2
certain
IO
IT
America,
A ME
( 540 )
A M L
countries
Adrerica. cöitain arguinefit of the malignity of the climate of A- uſes, to demonſtrac the malignity of the climate of Eu- 'America.
- merica ; in treating afterwards of ſavage animals, in rope, and the advantages of that of Africa. The cli-
Toim. II. ſpeaks tius : “ As all things, even the moſt mate of Europe he would ſay, is very unfavourable to
free creatures, are ſubject to natural laws, and animals the production of quadrupeds, which are found incom-
as well as men are ſubjected to the influence of cliniate parably ſmaller, and more cotiárdly than ours. Wlial
and foil, it appears that the ſame cauſes which have are thic horſe and the ox, the largeſt of its animals,
civilized and poliſhed the human ſpecies in our climates, compared with our elephants,our rhinocereſes,our ſea-
may have likewiſe produced ſimilar effects upon other horſes, and our camels ? What are its lizards, either in
ſpecies. The wolf, which is perhaps the fierceſt of all lize or in repidity, compared with our crocodiles ? Its
the quadrupeds of the temperate zone, is however in- wolyes, its bears, the moſt dreadful of its wild beaſts,
comparably leſs terrible than the tyger, the lion, and when beſide our lions and tigers? Its eagles, its vul-
the panther of the torrid zone ; and the wlaite bear and tures, and cranes, if compared with our oſtriches, ap.
hyena of the frigid zone. In America, where the air pear only like hens.
8
and the earth are more mild than thoſe of Africa, the As to the enormous ſize and prodigious multiplica- America
tyger, the lion, and the panther, are not terrible but in tion of the inſects and other little noxious aniinals,“The not more
the name. They have degenerated, if fierceneſs, join- ſurface of the earth (ſays M. de Pauw), infected by infeſted
ed to cruelty, made their nature ; or, to ſpeak more putrefalion, was over.run with lizards, ferpents, rep-
than other
properly, they have only ſuffered the influence of the tiles, and inſects monſtrous for ſize, and the activity of
withinſecto
climate ; under a milder ſky their nature alſo has be their poiſon, which they drew from the copious juices and noxious
come more mild. From climes which are immoderate of this uncultivated ſoil, that was corrupted and aban- animals.
in their temperature are obtained drugs, perfumes, poi doned to itſelf, where the nutritive juice became ſharp,
fons, and all thoſe plants whoſe qualities are ſtrong. like the milk in the breaſt of animals which do not
The temperate earth, on the contrary, produces only exerciſe the virtue of propagation. Caterpillars, crabs,
things which are temperate; the mildeſt herbs,the moſt butterflies, beetles, ſpiders, frogs, and toads, were for
wholeſome pulſe, the ſweeteſt fruits, the moſt quiet the moſt part of an enormous corpulence in their ſpe.
animals, and the moſt humane men, are the natives of cies, and multiplied beyond what can be imagined.
this happy clime. As the earth makes the plants, the Panama is infeſted with ſerpents, Carthagena with
earth and plants make animals; the earth, the plants, clouds of enormous bats, Porto-bello with toads, Suri-
and the animals make man. The phyſical qualities of nam with kakerlacas or cucarachas, Gaudaloupe, and
man, and the animals which feed on other animals, de the other colonies of the iſlands, with beetles, Quito
pend, though more remotely, on the ſame cauſes which with niguas or chegoes, and Lima with lice and bugs.
influence their diſpoſitions and cuſtoms. This is the The ancient kings of Mexico, and the emperors of
greateſt proof and demonſtration, that in temperate Peru, found no other means of ridding their ſubjects
climes every things becomes temperate, and that in in- of thoſe inſects which fed upon them, than the impo-
iemperatc climes every thing is exceſſive ; and that ſize fition of an annual tribute of a certain quantity of lice.
and form, which appear affixed and determinate quali. Ferdinand Cortes found bags full of them in the palace
ties, depend notwithſtanding, like the relative quali- of Montezuma.
of Montezuma.” But this argument, exaggerated as
ties, on the influeạce of climate. The ſize of our it is, proves nothing againſt the climate of Ame-
quadruped's cảntot be compared with that of an ele rica in general, much leſs againſt that of Mexico.
phant, the rhinocéros, or ſea-horſe. The largeſt of There being ſome lands in America, in which, on ac-
our birds are but finall if coinpared with the oſtrich, count of their heat, their humidity, or want of inhabi-
the condore, and caſuare." So far M. Buffon, whoſe tants, large inſects are found, and exceſſively 'multi .
steśt we have copied, becauſe it is contrary to what plied, will prove at moſt, that in fone places the fur.
M. de Pauw writes against the climate of America, and face of the earth is infected, as he ſays, with putrefac-
to Buffon hiin felf in many other places.
'but not that the ſoil of Mexico, or that of all
"If the large and fierce animals, ſays Clavigero, are America, is ſtinking, uncultivated, vitiated, and aban-
natives of intemperate climes, and ſmall and tranquil doned to itſelf. If ſuch a deduction were juſt, M. de
animals of temperate climes, as M. Buffon hias here Pauw might alſo ſay, that the ſoil of the old continent
eſtabliſhed ; if ñildneſs of climate influences the dif- is barren and fetid; as in many countries of it there
polition and cuſtoms of animals, M. de Pauw does not are prodigious multitudes of monſtrous infects, noxious
well déduce the malignity of the climate of America Tepliles, and vile animals, as in the Philippine Illes, in
from the ſmaller ſize and leſs fierceneſs of its atrimals; many of thoſe of the Indian archipelago, in ſeveral
he ought rather to have deduced the gentleneſs and countries of the ſouth of Aſia, in many of Africa, and
ſweetneſs of its climate from this antecedent. If, on even in ſome of Europe. The Philippine Ifles are in-
the contrarý, the ſmaller liżeandleſs fierceneſs of the feſted with enormous ants and monſtrous butterflies;
American animals, with reſpect to thoſe of the old Japan with fcorpions ; South of Aſia and Africa with
continent, are a proof of their degeneracy, ariſing from ferpents ; Egypt with afps; Guinea and Ethiopia with
the malignity of the clime, as M. de Pauw would have armies of ants; Holland with field-rats ; Ukrania with
it, we ought in like ınanner to argue the malignity of toads, as M. de Pauw himſelf affirms. In Italy, the
the climate of Europe from the ſmaller ſize and lefs Cainpagna di Roma (although peopled for ſo many a-
fierceneſs of its animals,conpared with thofe of Africa. gos), is infeſted with vipers ; Calabria with tarantulas
If a philoſopher of the country of Guinten ſhould under- 'the ſhores of the Adriatic ſea with clouds of gnats ;
take a work in imitation of M. de Pauw, with this title, and even in France, the population of which is ſo great
Recherches Philofophiques ſur les Europeens, he might and ſo ancient, whoſe lands are ſo well cultivated, and
avail himſelf of the fame argument which M. de Pauw whoſe climate is to celebrated by the French, there ap-
peared,
tion ;
3
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America. pcared, a few years ago, according to M. Buffon, a nandez affirms, that they are fix fingers broad in length America, .
new ſpecies of field-micc, larger ihan the cominon and one in breadth ? Who has ever ſeen in America
kind, called by him Surmulots, which have multiplied butterflies fo large as thoſe of Bourbon, Ternate, the
exceedingly, to the great damage of the fields. M. Philippine-iſles, and all the Indian-archipelago ? The
Bazin, in his Compendium of the Hiſtory of Infees, largeſt bat of America (native to hot ſhady countries),
numbers 77 fpecies of bugs, which are all found in Pa which is that called by Buffon Vampiro, is, according
ris and in its neighbourhood. That large capital, as Mr to him of the ſize of a pigeon, La Rougette, one of the
Bomare ſays, ſwarms with thoſe diſguitful infects. It ſpecies of Aſia, is as large as a raven ; and the Roufitte,
is true that there are places in Anerica, where the another ſpecies of Aſia, is as big as a large hen. Its
multitude of inſects, and filthy vermin, make life irk- wings, when extended, meaſure from tip to tip three
fome; but we do not know that they have arrived to Parilian feet, and according to Gemelli, who meaſured
ſuch exceſs of multiplication as to depopulate any it in the Philippine-illes, lix palms. M. Buffon ac-
place, at leaſt there cannot be ſo many examples pro- knowledges the exceſs in ſize of the Aſiatic bat over
duced of this cauſe of depopulation in the new as in the Anierican ſpecies, but denies it as to number.
the old continent, which are atteſted by Theophraſtus, Gemelli ſays, that thoſe of the iſland of Luzon were fo
Varro, Pliny, and other authors. The frogs depo- numerous that they darkened the air, and that the noiſe
pulated one place in Gaul, and the locuſts another in which they made with their teeth, in eating the fruits
Africa. One of the Cyclades was depopulated by of the woods, was heard at the diſtance of two miles.
mice ; Amiclas, near to Taracina, by ſerpents; ano M. de Pauw ſays, in talking of ſerpents, “it cannot be
ther place, near to Ethiopia, by ſcorpions and poiſon- affirmed that the new world has ſhown any ſerpents
ous ants; and another by ſcolopendras; and not ſo diſ- larger than thoſe which Mr Adanſon ſaw in the deſerts
tant from our own times, the Mauritius was going to of Africa.” The greateſt ſerpent found in Mexico, af-
have been abandoned on account of the extraordinary ter a diligent ſearch made by Hernandez, was 18 feet
multiplication of rats, as we can remember to have read long : but this is not to be compared with that of the
in a Fench author.
Moluccas, which Bomare ſays is 33 feet in length;
With reſpect to the ſize of the inſects, reptiles, and nor with the Anacardaja of Ceylon, which the fame
ſuch animals, M. de Pauw makes uſe of the teſtimony author ſays is more than 33 feet long;nor with others of
of M. Dumont, who, in his Memoirs on Louiſiana, Aſia and Africa, mentioned by the ſame author. Last-
ſays, that the frogs are ſo targe there that they weigh 31 ly, the argument drawn from the multitude and fize
French pounds, and that their horrid croaking imitates of the Ameriean inſects is fully as weighty as the ar-
the bellowing of cows. But M, de Pauw himſelf ſays gument drawn from the ſmallneſs and ſcarcity of
(in his anſwer to Don Pernetty, cap. 17.), that all thoſe quadrupeds, and both detect the ſame ignorance, or
who have written about Louiſiana from Henepin, Le rather the ſame voluntary and ſtudied forgetfulneſs,
Clerc, and Tonti, to Dumont, have contradicted of the things of the old continent.
cach other, ſometimes on one and ſometimes on ano With reſpect to what M. de Pauw, has ſaid of the tri-
ther ſubject. In fact, neither in the old or the new bute of lice in Mexico, in that as well as many other
continent are there frogs of 37 pounds in weight (ſee things he diſcovers his ridiculous credulity. It is true
the article RANA); but there are in Aſia and in Africa that Cortes found bags of lice in the inagazines of the
ferpents, butterflies, ants, and other animals of ſuch palace of king Axajacatl. It is alſo true, that Mon-
monſtrous ſize, that they exceed all thoſe which have tezuma impoſed ſuch a tribute, not on all his ſubjects
been diſcovered in the New World. We know very lowever, but only on thoſe who were beggars; not on
well, that an American hiſtorian ſays, that a certain account of the extraordinary multitude of thoſe in.
gigantic ſpecies of ſerpents is to be found in the woods, fects, as M. de Pauw affirms, but becauſe Montezuma,
which attract men with their breath,and ſwallow them who could not ſuffer idleneſs in his ſubjects, reſolved
up; but we know alſo that ſeveral hiſtorians, both an that that miſerable ſet of people, who could not la-
cient and modern, report the ſame extravagant and in- bour, ſhould at leaſt be occupied in louſing themſelves.
credible thing of the ſerpents of Aſia, and even ſome. This was the true reaſon of ſuch an extraordinary tri-
thing more. Megaſthenes, cited by Pliny, ſaid, that bute,as Torquemada, Betancourt, and other carly hiſto-
there were ferpents found in Afia, fo large, that they rians relate ; and nobody ever before thought of that
(wallowed entire ſtags and bulls. Metrodorus, cited by which M. de Pauw affirms, merely becauſe it ſuited his
the ſame author, affirms, that in Afia there were fer- prepoſterous ſyſtem. Thoſe diſguſting inſeets poſſibly
pents which, by their breath, attracted birds, however abound as much in the liair and cloaths of Anerican
high they were or quick their flight. Among the beggars, as of any poor and uncleanly low people in
inoderns, Gemelli, in Vol.V, of his Giro del Mundo, the world : but there is not a doubt, that if any fove-
when he treats of the animals of the Philipine iſles, reign of Europe was to exact ſuch a tribute from the
ſpeaks thus: “There are ſerpents in theſe iſlands of im- poor in his dominions, not only bags, but great veſſels
moderate ſize; there is one called Ibintin, very long, might be filled with them.
which ſuſpending itſelf by the tail from the trunk of a It is now time to turn our attention to the Aborigines, Generalde-
tree, waits till ſtags, bears,and alſo men paſsby,in or or natives, of the New World. At the time when this ſcription of
der to attract them with its breath, and đeyour them great continent was made more generally known to the the natives,
at once entirely :" from whence it is evident, that this Europeans by the diſcoveries of Chriſtopher Columbus,
very ancient fable has been common to both continents. and of the illuſtrious navigators who inibibed the ſpirit
Further, it my be aſked, In what country of Ame and enthuſiaſm of that great inan, it was found inha-
rica could M. de Pauw find ants to equal thoſe of the bited by various tribes and nations of men, who dif-
Philippine-iſlands called Sulum,refpe&ing which Her- fered, in many reſpects, from moſt of the people in the
three
A
9
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Anerica. three other quarters of the world. In their phyſical hair is always thick and ſleek, and without any ten- America,
hiſtory, however, the greateſt peculiarity in the Aine- dency to curl. Al the firſt afpcct, a South-American
ricans is their complexion, and the little difference appears to be mild and innocent; but, on a more at-
which is obſervcd, in this reſpect, throughout the tentive view, one diſcovers in his countenance ſome-
whole extent of the Amcrican continent. In Europe, thing wild, diſtruſtful, and fullen.”
and-in Aſia, the people whoinhabit the northern coun The following account of the native Americans is DonUlloa's
tries are of a fairer complexion than thoſe who dwell given by Don Antonio Ulloa, in his late work entitled account,
more to the ſouthward. In the torrid zone, both in Memoires philoſophiques, hiſtoriques, et phyſiques, con-
Africa and Aſia, the natives are entirely black, or the cernant la decouverte de l'Amerique,
next thing to it. This, however, inuſt be underſtood The American Indians are naturally of a colour bor-
with fome limitation. The people of Lapland, who dering upon red. Their frequent expoſure to the ſun
inhabit the mof northerly part of Europe, are by no and wind changes it to their ordinary duſky hue. The
means fo fair as the inhabitants of Britain ; nor are the temperature of the air appears to have litile or no in-
Tartars ſo fair as the inhabitantsof Europe, who lie Auence in this reſpect. There is no perceptible diffe-
under the ſame parallels of latitude. Nevertheleſs, a rence in complexion between the inhabitants of the
Laplander is ſair when compared with an Abyſſinian, high and thoſe of the low parts of Peru ; yet the cli-
and a Tartar if compared with a native of the Moluc mates are of an exireme difference. Nay, the Indians
ca iſlands.--In America, this diſtinction of colour was who live as far as 40 degrees and upwards ſouth or
not ſo diſtinctly, and ſo prominently, marked. In the north of the equator, are not to be diſtinguiſhed, in
torrid zone there were no negroes, and in the tempe- point of colour, from thoſe immediately under it.
rate and frigid zones there were no white people. Moſt There is alſo a general conformation of features and
of them were of a kind of red copper-colour, which Mr perſon, which, more or leſs, characterizeth them all.
Forſter obſerved, in the Peſſerais of Tierra del Fuego, Their chief diſtinctions in theſe reſpects are a ſınallfore-
to have ſomething of a gloſs reſembling that metal. It head, partly covered with hair to the eye-brows, little
does not appear, however, that this matter has, hither eyes, the noſe thin, pointed, and bent towards the up-
to been inquired into with ſufficient accuracy. The
per lip; a broad face, large ears, black, thick, and lank
inhabitants of the inland parts of South America, where hair ; the legs well formed, the feet ſnall, the body
that continent is wideſt, and conſequently the in thick and muſcular; little or no beard on the face, and
fluence of the fun moſt powerful, have never been that little never extending beyond a finall part of the
accurately compared with thoſe of Canada, or more chin and upper lip. It may eaſily be ſuppoſed that this
northerly parts, at leaſt as far as we know. Yet this general deſcription cannot apply, in all its parts, to e-
ought to have been done, and that in many inſtances very individual ; but all of them partake ſo much of it,
too, before it could be aſſerted ſo politively as moſt au that they may be eaſily diſtinguished even from the mu-
thors do, that there is not the leaſt difference of complex- lattoes, who come neareſt to them in point of coloar.
ion among the natives of America, Indeed, ſo many fy The reſemblance anong all the American tribes is
ftems liave been formed concerning theſe ſingular peo not leſs remarkable in reſpect to their genius, charac-
ple, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know ter, manners, and particular cuſtoms. The moſt dif-
ledge of the moſt ſimple facts, even from the beſt tant tribes are, in theſe reſpects, as ſimilar as though
and moſt unprejudiced writers.--If we may believe the they formed but one nation.
Abbé Raynał the Californians are ſwarthier than the All the Indian nations have a peculiar pleaſure ini
Mexicans; and ſo poſitive is he in this opinion, that he painting their bodies of a red colour, with a certain ſpe-
gives a reaſon for it. “ This difference of colour,” ſays cies of earth. The mine of Guancavelica was former-
he, “proves, that tlıc civilized life of ſociety ſubverts, ly of no other uſe than to ſupply them with this ma-
or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, ſince terial for dyeing their bodies; and the cinnabar ex-
we find, under the temperate zone, a ſavage people that tracted from it was applied entirely to this purpoſe.
are blacker than the civilized nations of the torrid The tribes in Louiſiana and Canada have the fanie
zone."-On the other hand, Dr Robertſon claſſes all paſſion ; hence minium is the commodity moſt in de-
the inhabitants of Spaniſh America together with re. inand there.
gard to colour, whether they are civilized or uncivili It niay, perhaps, ſeem ſingular that theſe nations,
zed; and when he ſpeaks of California, takes no notice whoſe natural colour is red, ſhould affect the ſame co-
of any peculiarity in their colour more than others.- lour as an artificial ornament. But it may be obſerved,
The general appearance of the indigenous Americans that they do nothing in this reſpect but what correſ-
in various diſtricts is thus deſcribed by the chevalier ponds to the practice of Europeans, who alſo ſtudy to
Pinto: “ They are all of a copper colour, with fome di. heighten and diſplay to advantage the natural red and
verſity of ſhade, not in proportion to their diſtance from white of their complexions. The Indians of Peru have
the Equator, but according to the degree of elevation now indeed abandoned the cuſtom of painting their bo-
of the territory in which they reſide. Thoſe wholive in dies : but it was common aniong them before they were
a high country are fairer than thoſe in the marſhy low conquered by the Spaniards; and it ſtill remains tlie
lands on the coaſt. Their face is round; farther re cuſtom of all thoſe tribes who have preſerved their li-
moved, perhaps, than that of any people, from an oval beriy. The northern nations of America, beſides the
ſhape. Their forc-headis finall; the extremity of their red colour which is predominant, employ alſo black,
Peculiari-
ears far from the face; their lips thick ; their noſe flat; white, blue, and green, in painting their bodies.
ties in re-
iheir eyes black, or of a cheſnut colour, ſmall, but ca The adjuſtment of theſe colours is a matter of as
gard to or.
puble of diſcerning objects at a great diſtance. Their great confideration with the Indians of Louiſiana and
the and dreſs:
nanient
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16
able in
America. the val regions extending to the north, as the orna- gions tic the reſt of their hair behind, ſo exactly in the America:
ments of dreſs among the moſt polished nations. The iame faſhion, that it might be ſuppoſed the effeci of
buſineſs itſelf they call Mactaher, and they do not fail mutualiinitation. This however being in poſſible, from
to apply all thcir talents and afliduity to accompliſh it the vaſt diſtance that ſeparates them, is thought to
in the niort finiſhed manner. No lady of the greateſt countenance the ſuppolition of the whole of America
faſhion ever conſulted her mirror with inore anxiety, being originally planted with one race of people.
than the Indians do while painting their bodics. The This cuſtom docs not take place among the inales.
colours are applied with the utmoſt accuracy and ad. Thoſe of the higher parts of Peru wear long and flow-
dreſs. Upon the eye-lids, preciſely at the root of the ing hair, which they reckon a great ornament. In the
eye-laſhes, they draw two lines as fine as the ſmalleſt lower parts of the fame country they cut it ſhort, on
thread; the fame upon the lips, the openings of the 110 account of the heat of the climale ; a circumſtance in
ſtrils, the eye-brows, and the ears; of which laſt they which they imitate the Spaniaids. The inhabitants of
even follow all the inflexions and limuolities. As to the Louiſiana pluck out their hair by the root, from the
reſt of the face, they diſtribute various figures, in all crown of tlie head forsvards, in order to obtain a large
which the red predominates, and the other colours are forehead, otherwiſe denied them by nature. Thereft
aflorted ſo as to throw it out to the beſt advantage. of their hair they cut as ſhort as poſſible, to prevent
The neck alſo receives its proper ornaments ; a thick their enemies from ſeizing them by it in battle, and
coat of vermilion commonly diſtinguiſhes the cheeks. alſo to prevent them from eaſily getting their ſcalp,
Five or ſix hours are requiſite for accompliſhing all this ſhould they fall into their hands as priſoners.
with the nicety which they affect. As their firſt According to Don Ulloa, the whole race of the Ame- Remark-
attempts do not always ſucceed to their wiſh, they rican Indians is diſtinguiſhed by an uncommon thick-
ſenſibility
efface" them, and begin a-new upon a better plan. neſs of ſkin, and by an hardneſs of their fibres ; cir.
to pain.
No coquette is more faſtidious in her choice of orna. cumſtances theſe, which in the opinion of this learned
ment, none more vain when the important adjuſtment Spaniſlı writer, contribute to that inſenſibility to bodily
is finiſhed. Their delight and ſelf-ſatisfaction are then pain for which theſe ſingular people are ſo remarka-
fo great, that the mirror is hardly ever laid down. ble. Our author adduces an initance in ſupport of this
An Indian, Mactahed, to his mind, is the vaineſt of all inſenſibility, in the Americans, in the caſe of an In.
the human ſpecies. The other parts of the body are dian who was under the neceſſity of ſubmitting to be cut
left in their natural ſtate,and, excepting what is called for the ſtone. This operation, it is well known, ſeldom
a cachecul, they go entirely naked.
laſts above four or five minutes. Unfavourable cir-
Such of them as have made themſelves eminent for cumſtances, in his caſe, prolonged it to the uncommon
bravery,or other qualifications, are diſtinguiſhed by fi- period of 27 minutes. Yet, all this time, the patient
gures painted on their bodies. They introduce the gave no tokens of the extreme pain, commonly attend-
colours by making punctures on their ſkin, and the ex- ing this operation: he complained only as a perſon docs
tent of ſurface which this ornament covers is propor- who feels ſome ſlight uneaſineſs. At laſt the ſtone was
Lioned to the exploits they have performed." some extracted. Two days after he expreſſed a deſire for
paint only their arms, others both their arms and legs; food, and on the eighth day from the operation he
others again their thighs, while thoſe who have attain- quitted his bed, free from pain, although the wound
ed the ſummit of warlike renown, have their bodies was not yet thoroughly cloſed. The ſame wall of
painted from the waiſt upwards. This is the heraldry ſenſibility, he ſays, is obſerved in caſes of fractures,
of the Indians ; the devices of which are probably inore wounds, and other accidents of a ſimilar nature. In all
exactly adjuſted to the merits of the perſons who bear theſe caſes their cure is eaſily effected, and they ſeem
them, than thoſe of more civilized countries.
to ſuffer leſs preſent pain than any other race of men.
Beſides theſe ornaments, the warriors alſo carry The ſkulls which have been taken upin their ancient bu.
plumesof feathers on their heads, their arms,andancles. rying-grounds are of a greater thickneſs than that com-
Theſe likewiſe are tokens of valour, and none but ſuch pages of bones is commmonly found to be ; being from
as have been thus diſtinguiſhed may wear thein. fix to ſeven lines from the outer to the inncr ſuperficies.
The propenſity to indolence is equal among all the It is natural to infer from hence, ſays Ulloa, that And to the
tribes of Indians, civilized or ſavage. The only em their comparative inſenſibility to pain is owing to a inclemen-
cies of wea.
ployment of thoſe who have preſerved their indepen- coarſer and ſtronger organization, than that of other
ther,
dence is hunting and fiſhing. In fome diſtricts the nations. The eaſe with which they endure the ſeve-
women exerciſe a little agriculture, in raiſing Indian rities of climate is, he thinks, another proof of this.
corn and poinpions, of which they form a ſpecies of The inhabitants of the higher parts of Peru live amidſt
aliment, by bruiſing them together : they alſo prepare perpetual froſt and ſnow. Although their clothing is
the ordinary beverage in uſe among them, taking care, very ſlight, they ſupport this inclement temperature,
at the ſame time, ofthe children, of whoin the fathers without the leaſt inconvenience. Habit, it is to be
take no charge
confeſſed, may contribute a good deal to this, but much
The female Indians of all the conquered regions of alſo is to be aſcribed to the compact texture of thcir ſkin,
South America practice what is called the urcu (a word which defendsthem from the inprellion of cold through
which among them ligniſies elevation). It conſiſts in their pores. We muft confeſs, however, notwithſtand-
throwing forward the hair from the crown of the head ing the aſſertions and conjectures of an author lo rc-
upon the brow, and cutting it round from the ears to fpe table as Don Ulloa, that we are not very confident,
above the eye ; ſo that the forehead and eye-brows are that either the ſkins, or the ſkulls of the Americans
entirely covered. Thefame cuſtom takes place in the are thicker chan the ſkirs and ikulls of many other nü-
Northern countries. The female inhabitants of both re lions of mankind. But we do not willi, in this place,
17
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IG
Anerics. to expatiate on this ſubject, which can only be redu- may feel its heat, and be involved in ſmoke. Though Ainetics, .
ced to certainty by the inveſtigations of the anatomiſt, ſcorched and almoſt ſuffocated, he muſt continue to
or naturaliſt.
endure this with the ſame patient inſenſibility. Many
The northern Indians reſemble them in this reſpect. periſh in this esſay of their firmueſs and courage, but
The utmoſt rigours of the winter ſeaſon do not prevent ſuch as go through it with applauſe, receive the enligus
them from following the chace almoſt naked. It is of their new dignity with much folemnity,and are ever
true, they wear a kind of woolen cloak, or ſometimes after regarded as leaders of approved reſolution, whoſe
the ſkin of a wild beaſt, upon their ſhoulders; but be behaviour, in the moſt trying lituations, will do honour
fides that it covers only a ſmall part of their body, it to their country. In North America the previous
would appear that they uſe it rather for ornament than trial of a warrior is neither ſo formal nor fo fevere:
warinth. In fact, they wear it indiſcriminately, in Though, even there, before a youth is permitted to
the ſeverities of winter and in the ſultrielt heats of bear arms, his patience and fortitude are proved by
funimei, w len neither Europeans nor Negrces can ſuf- blows, by fire, and by inſults, more intolerable to a
fer any but the flighteſt cloathing. They even fre- haughty ſpirit than either.
quently throw alide this cloak when they go a-hunt Of the manners and cuſtoms of the North Amcii- Cuſtoms
ing, that it may not embarraſs them in traverſing their cans more particularly, the following is the moſt conle and diſpo-
foreſts, where they ſay the thorns and undergrowth fiftent account that can he collected from the beſt in- fitions of
would take hold of it; while, on the contrary, they formed and moſt impartial writers.
the North-
ſlide ſmoothly over the ſurface of their naked bodies. Wlien the Europeans firſt arrived in America, they Americans,
At all times they go with their heads uncovered, with ſound the Indians quite naked, except
more partis
.
out ſuffering the leaſt inconvenience, either from the which even the moſt uncultivated people uſually con-
cold, or from thoſe coups de ſoleil, which in Louiſiana ceal. Since that time, however, they generally uſe a
are ſo often fatal to the inhabitants of other climates. coarſe blanket, which they buy of the neighbouring
The Indians of South America diſtinguiſh them- planters.
ſelves by modern dreſſes, in which they affect various Their huts or cabbins are made of ſtakes of wood
taſtes. Thoſe of the high country, and of the valleys driven into the ground, and covered with branches of
in Peru, dreſs partly in the Spaniſh faſhion. Inſtead trees or reeds. They lie on the floor either on mats
of hats they wear bonnets of coarſe double cloth, the or the ſkins of wild-beaſts. Their diſhes are of timber,
weight of which neither ſeems to incommode them but their ſpoons are made of the ſkulls of wild oxen;
when they go to warmer climates, nor does the acci and their knives of fint. A kettle and a large plate.
dental want of them ſeem to be felt in ſituations where conftirute almoſt the whole utenſils of the family.
the moſt piercing cold reigns. Their legs and feet are Their diet conſiſts chiefly in what they procure by
always bare, if we except a ſort of ſandals made of the hunting, and fagamite, or pottage, is likewiſe one
fkins of oxen. The inliabitants of South America, of their moſt common kinds of food. The moſt ho-
compared with thoſe of North America, are deſcribed nourable furniture amongſt them is a collection of the
as generally more fceble in their frame ; leſs vigorous ſcalps of their enemies ; with thoſe they ornament
in the efforts of their mind; of gentler diſpoſitions their huts, which are eſteemed in proportion to the
more addicted to pleaſure, and ſunk in indolence. number of this ſort of ſpoils,
This, however, is not univerſally the caſe. Many of The character of the Indians is altogether founded
18 their nations are as intrepid and enterpriſing as any upon their circumſtances and way of life. A people
Terrible others on the whole continent. Among the tribes on wlio are conſtantly employed in procuring the means
trials un, the banks of the Oronooko, it a warrior aſpires to the of a precarious fubfiftence, who live by hunting the
dergone by poſt of captain, his probation begins with a long faft, wild animals, and who are generally engaged in war
their chiefs.
more rigid than any ever obſerved by the moſt abften with their neighbours, cannot be ſuppoſed to enjoy
mious hermit. At the cloſe of this the chiefs afa much gaiety of temper, or a high flow of ſpirits. The
ſemble; and each gives him three laſhes with a large Indians therefore are in general grave even to ſadneſs; Their res
whip, applied fo vigorouſly, that his body is almoſt they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to markable
flayed. If he betrays the leaſt fymptom of impatience, fome nations of Europe, and they deſpiſe it. Their penfivenefs
or even of ſenſibility, he is diſgraced forever, and is re behaviour to thoſe about them is regular, modeſt, and and tasi-
turnity,
jected as unworthy of the honour. After ſome inter- reſpectful. Ignorant of the arts of amuſement, of
val, his conſtancy is proved by a more excruciating which that of ſaying trifles agreeably is one of the most
trial. He is laid in his hammock with his hands bound conſiderable, they ſeldom ſpeak but when they have
faſt; and an innumerable multitude of venomous ants, ſomething important to obſerve ; and all their actions,
whoſe bite occaſions a violent pain and inflammation, words, and even looks, are attended with ſome mean-
are thrown upon him. The judges of his merit ſtanding. This is extremely natural to men who are almoſt
around the hammock; and whilſt theſe cruel inſects continually engaged in purſuits, which to them are of
faſten upon the inoſt ſenſible parts of his body, a ligh, the higheſt importance. Their ſubſiſtence depends en-
a groan, or an involuntary motion expreſſive of what tirely on what they procure with their hands; and
he fuffers, would exclude him from the dignity of their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them,
which he is ambitious. Even after this evidence, his may be loſt by the ſmalleſt inattention to the deſigns
fortitude is not deemed to be ſufficiently aſcertained, of their enemies. As they have no particular object
till he has ſtood another teſt more ſevere, if poſſible, to attach them to one place rather than another, they
than the former. He is again ſuſpended in his hain- go wherever they expect to find the neceſſaries of life
mock,and covered with the leaves of the palmetto. A in greateſt abundance. Cities, which are the effects of
ſire of ſtinking herbs is kindled underneath, ſo as he agriculture and arts, they have none. The different
3
tribcs
20
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I
23
I
24
America. tribes or nations, are, for the ſame reaſon, extremely dances too, though, like thoſe of the Greeks and Ro- America.
ſmall, when compared with civilized ſocieties, in mans, they are chiedy of the military kind; and their
which induſtry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have muſic and dancing accompany every feaſt.
united a vaſt number of individuals, whom a compli. To aſſiſt their memory, they have belts of ſmall Wampum
cated luxury renders uſeful to one another. Theſe ſhells, or beads, of different colours, each repreſenting or belte.
ſmalltribes live at an immenſe diſtance; thcy are ſepa- a particular object, which is marked by their colour
rated by a deſert frontier, and hid in the boſom of and arrangement. At the concluſion of every ſubject
impenetrable and almoft boundleſs foreſts.
on which they diſcourſe, when they treat with a fo-
There is eſtablilied in each ſociety a certain ſpecies reign ſtate, they deliver one of thoſe belts ; for if this
Forni of
of government, which prevails over the whole coutinent ceremony ſhould be omitted, all that they have ſaid
governo
ment a
of America, with exceeding little variation ; becauſe paiſes for nothing. Thoſe belts are carefully depoſit-
mong them over the whole of this continent the manners and way ed in cach town, as the public records of the nation;
of life are nearly ſimilar and uniform. Without arts, and to them they occaſionally have recourſe, when any
riches, or luxury, the great inſtruments of ſubjection public conteit happens with a neighbouring tribe. Of
in poliſhed ſocieties, an American bas no method by late, as the materials of which tlioſe belts are made,
which he can render himſelf conſiderable among his have become ſcarce, they often give ſome ſkinin place
companions, but by ſuperiority in perſonal qualities of of the wampum (the naine of the beads), and receive
body or mind. But, as nature has not been very laviſh in return preſents of a more valuable kind from the
in her perſonal diſtinctions, where all enjoy the ſame commiſſioners ; for they never conſider a treaty as of
education, all are pretty much upon an equality, and any weight, unleſs every article in it be ratined by
will deſire to remain ſo. Liberty,therefore,is the pre- ſuch a gratification,
vailing paſſion of the Americans; and their govern It often happens, that thoſe different tribes or nati-
ment,under theinfloence of this ſentimeni,is, perhaps, ons, ſcattered as thcy are, at animmenſe diſtance from
better ſecured than by the wiſeſt political regulations. one another, meet in their excurſions after prey. If
They are very far, liowever, from deſpiſing all ſort of there ſubſiłts no animolity between them, which ſel-
authority; they are attentive to the voice of wiſdom, dom is the caſe, they behave in the moſt friendly and
which experience has conferred on the aged, and they courteous manner ; but if they happen to be in a ſtate of
enliſt under the banners of the chiefin whoſe valour and war, or if there has been no previous intercourſe be-
military addreſs they have learned to repoſe a juſt and tween them, all who are not friends are deemed ene-
merited confidence. In every ſociety, therefore, there mies, and they fight with the moſt favage fury.
is to be conſidered the power of the chiefs and of the el If we except hunting andfiihing, war is the princi- Their wars
ders. Among theſe tribes which are moſt engaged in pal employment of the Indian men: almoſt every other
war, the power of the chief is, naturally, predominant; concern,buc in particular the little agriculture which
becauſe the idea of having a military leader was the they enjoy, is conſigned to the women. The moſt com-
firſt ſource of his ſuperiority, and the continual exi mon motive of the Americans for entering into war,
gencies of the ſtate requiring ſuch a leader, will con when it does not ariſe from an accidental rencounter,or
tinue to ſupport, and even to enhance it. His power, interference, is either to revenge themſelves for the
however, is rather perſuaſive than coercive; he is re- death of ſome loſt friends, or to acquire priſoners, who
verenced as a father, rather than feared as a monarch. may aſſiſt them in their hunting, and whom they adopt
He has no guards, no priſons, no officers of juſtice, and into their ſociety. Theſe wars are either undertaken by
one act of ill-judged violence would pull him from his fome private adventurers, or at the inſtance of the
humble throne. The elders in the other forni of go- whole community. In the latter caſe, all the young
vernment which may be conſidered as a mild and 107. men who are diſpoſed to go out to battle (for no one is
nal ariſtocracy, have no more power. In moſt compelled contrary to his inclination), give a bit of
countries, therefore, age alone is ſufficient for ac wood to the chief, as a token of their delign to ac-
quiring reſpect, influence, and authority. It is age company him ; for every thing among theſe people is .
which teaches experience, and experience is the only tranſacted with a great deal of ceremony and with many
ſource of knowledge among a barbarous people. A- forms. The chief who is to conduct ihem faſts ſeve- Ceremo-
mong thoſe perſons buſineſs is conducted with the ut ral days, during which he converſes with 110 one, and nies before
moſt ſimplicity, and which may recal to thoſe who are is particularly careful to obſerve his dreams; which the ſetting outa
Their pub-acquainted with antiquity, a pi&ture of the moſt early preſumption natural to favages generally renders as fa-
lic affem- ages. The heads of families meet together in a houſe vourable as he could deſire. A variety of other ſuper-
blics, or cabin appointed for the purpoſe. Here the buſineſs ſtitions and ceremonies are obſerved. One of the inoſt
is diſcuſſed ; and here thoſe of the nation, diſtinguiſh. hideous is ſetting the war-kettle on the fire, as an em-
ed for their eloquence or wiſdom, have an opportuni- blem that they are going out to devour their enemies;
ty of diſplaying thoſe talents. Their orators, like thoſe which, among theſe nations, it is probable, was former-
of Homer, expreſs themſelves in a bold figurative ſtyle, ly the caſe, ſince they still continue to expreſs it in
ſtronger than refined, or rather ſoftened, nations can clear terms, and uſe an emblem fignificant of the an-
well bear, and with geſtures equally violent, but often cient uſage. Then they diſpatch a porcelane, or large
extremely natural and expreſlive. When the buſineſs ſhell, to their allies, inviting them to coine along, and
is over, and they happen to be well provided with drink the blood of their enemies. For with the Anie-
food, they appoint a feaſt upon the occaſion, of which ricans, as with the Greeks of old,
alınoſt the whole nation partakes. The feaſt is accom-
panied with a ſong, in which the real or fabulous ex-
* A generous friendſhip no cold mediam knows;
" But with one love, with one rcfentment, glows.
ploits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have
VOL.I.
3 Z
They
25
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1
America. They think that thoſe in their alliance muſt not only hung with ornaments, and, generally, bear the repre- America.
adopt their enmities, but that they muſt alſo have their ſentation of ſome bird, or beaſt. Their noſes are like-
reſentment wound uptothe ſame pitch with themſelves. wiſe bored and hung with trinkets of beads, and their
And, indeed, no people cairy their friendſhips or their faces painted, with various colours, ſo as to make an
reſentments ſo far as they do ; and this is what ſhould awful appearance. Their breaſts are adorned with a
be expected from their peculiar circumſtances : that gorget, or medal, of braſs, copper, or ſome other me-
principle in human nature which is the ſpring of the tal; and that dreadful weapon the ſcalping-knife hang's
ſocial affections, acts with ſo much the greater force by a ſtring from the neck.
28
the more it is reſtrained. The Americans, who live The great qualities of an Indian war are vigilance Quickneſs
in ſmall ſocieties, who ſee few objects and few perſons, and attention, to give and avoid a ſurpriſe ; and, in- of their
become wonderfully attached to thoſe objects and per deed, in theſe they are ſuperior to all nations in the ſenſes.
fons, and cannot be deprived of them without feeling world. Accuſtomed to continual wandering in the
theniſelves miſerable. Their ideas are too confined foreſts; having their perceptions ſharpened by keen
to enable them to entertain juſt ſentiments of hu- neceility, and living, in every reſpect, according to na-
manity, or univerſal benevolence.
But this very
ture, their external ſenſes have a degree of acutneſs
circumſtance, while it makes them cruel and ſavage which, at firſt view, appears incredible. They can
to an incredible degree, towards thoſe with whom trace out their enenies, at an iinmenſe diſtance, by the
they are at war, adds a new force to their particular ſmoke of their fircs, which they ſmell, and by the
friendſhips, and to the common tie which unites the tracks of their feet upon the ground, imperceptible to
members of the ſame tribe, or of thoſe different tribes an European eye, but which they can count and diſ-
which are in alliance with one another. Without tinguiſh with the utmoſt facility. It is ſaid, they can
attending to this reflection, fome facts we are going even diſtinguiſh the different nations with whom they
to relate would excite our wonder without informing are acquainted, and can determine the preciſe tinie
our reaſon, and we would be bewildered in a nuin when they paſſed, where an European could not, with
ber of particulars, ſeemingly oppoſite to one another, all his glaiſes, diſinguiſh footſteps at all. Theſe cir-
without being ſenſible of the general cauſe from which cumſtances, however, are of leſs importance, becauſe
they proceed.
their favage enemies are equally well acquainted with 29
Having finiſhed all the ceremonies previous to the them. When they go out, therefore, they take care Vigilance
war, and the day appointed for their ſetting out on to avoid making uſe of any thing by which they might and cir-
the expedition being arrrived, they take leave of their run the danger of a diſcovery. They light no fire to cumfpec-
friends, and exchange their clothes, or whatever mo warm themſelves, or to prepare their victuals: they lie
veables they have, in token of mutual friendſhip; after cloſe to the ground all day, and travel only in the night;
which they proceed from the town, their wives and and marching along in files, he that cloſes the rear di-
female relations walking before, and attending them ligently covers with leaves the tracts of his own feet
to ſome diſtance. The warriors march all dreſſed in and of theirs who preceded him. When they halt to
their fineſt apparel and moſt flowy ornaments, without refreſh themſelves, ſcouts are ſent out to reconnoitre
any order. The chief walks ſlowly before them, ſing the country and beat up every place where they ſuſpect
ing the war-ſong, while the reſt obſerve the moſt pro, an enemy to lic concealed. In this manner they enter
found ſilence. When they come up to their women, unawares the villages oftheir foes; and while the flow-
26
they deliver them all their finery, and putting on their er of the nation are engaged in hunting, maſſacre all
Infigns,
worſt clothes, proceed on their expedition.
the children, women, and helpleſs old men, or make
Every nation has its peculiar enſign or ſtandard, priſoners of as many as they can manage, or have
which is generally a repreſentation of ſome beaſt, ftrength enough to be uſeful totheir nation. But when
bird, or fiſh. Thoſe among the Five Nations are the enemy is appriſed of their deſign, and coming on
the bear, otter, wolf, tortoiſe, and eagle ; and by in arms againſt them, they throw themſelves flat on
thoſe names the tribes are uſually diſtinguiſhed. the ground among the withered herbs and leaves,
They have the figures of thoſe animals pricked which their faces are painted to reſemble. They
and painted on ſeveral parts of their bodies; and then allow a part to paſs unmoleſted, when, all at
when they march through the woods, they com once, with a tremendous ſhout, riſing up from their Manner of
monly, at every encampment, cut the repreſenta- ambuſh, they pour a ſtorm of muſket-bullets on their fighting.
tion of their enlign on trees, eſpecially after a ſuc foes. The party attacked returns the ſame cry. Eve-
27
ceſsful campaign: marking at the ſame time the ryone lielters himſelf with a tree, and returns the fire
Military number of fcalps or priſoners they have taken. Their of the adverſe party, as ſoon as they raiſe themſelves
habits,
military dreſs is extremely fingular. They cat off or from the ground to give a ſecond fire. Thus does the
pull out all their hair, except a ſpot about the breadth battle continue until the one party is ſo much weak-
of two Engliſh crown-pieces, near the top of their ened as to be incapable of farther reſiſtance. But if
heads, and entirely deſtroy their eye-brows. The lock the force on each ſide continues nearly equal, thc fierce
Ieft upon their heads is divided into ſeveral parcels, ſpirits of the ſavages, inflamed by the loſs of their
each of which is ſtiffened and adorned with wampum, friends, can no longer be reſtrained. They abandon
beads, and feathers of various kinds, the whole being their diſtant war, they ruſh upon one another, with
twiſted into a form much reſembling the moderii clubs and liatchets in their hands, magnifying their
pompoon. Their heads are painted red down to the own courage, and inſulting their enemies with the bit-
eye-brows, and fprinkled over with white down. The tereſt reproaches. A cruel combat enfues,dcath appears
griſtles of their ears are ſplit almoſt quite round, and in a thouſand hideous different forms, which would
diſtended with wires or ſplinters, ſo as to meet and tie congeal the blood of civilized nation to behold, but
together on the nape of the neck. Theſe are, alſo, which rouſes the fury of ſavages. They trample, they
inſult,
30
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(
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America. inſult, over the dead bodies, and tear the ſcalp from ting, burning, and pinching them, alternately; they America.
the head. The flame rages on till it meets with no pull off his fleſh, thus mangled and roaſted, bit by bit,
reſiſtance; then the priſoners are ſecured, thoſe un devouring it with greedineſs, and ſmearing their faces
happy men, whoſe fate is a thouſand times more dread with the blood, in an enthuſiaſm of horror and fury,
ful than theirs who have died in field. The conquer. When they have thus torn off the fleſh, they twiſt the
ors ſet up a hideous howling, to lament the friends they bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and
have loſt. They approach, in a melancholy and ſevere ſnapping then, whilſt others are employed in pulling
gloom to their own village; a meſſenger is ſent to an and extending his limbs in every way that can in-
nounce their arrival, and the women, with frightful creaſe the torment. This continues, often, five or ſix
thrieks, comeout to mourn their dead brothers, or their hours ; and ſometimes, ſuch is the ſtrength of the fa-
huſbands. When they are arrived, the chief relates, in a vages, days together. Then they frequently unbind
low voice, to the elders, a circunſtantial account of him, to give a breathing to their fury, to think what
every particular of the expedition. The orator pro new torments they ſhall inflict, and to refreſh the
claims aloud this account to the people ; and as he ſtrength of the ſufferer, who, wearied out with ſuch a
mentions the names of thoſe who have fallen, the variety of unheard of torments, often falls into fo pro-
Ihrieks of the women are redoubled. The men, too, found a ſleep, that they are obliged to apply the fire to
join in theſe cries, according as each is moſt connected awake him, and renew his ſufferings. He is again
with the deceaſed by blood or frienthip. The laſt faſtened to the ſtake, and again they renew their cru-
ceremony is the proclamation of the victory; each in- elty ; they ſtick him all over with ſmall niatches of
dividual then forgets his private misfortunes, and joins wood that eaſily takes fire, but burns flowly; they Coil-
in the triumph of his nation ; all tears are wiped from tinually run ſharp reeds into every part of his body ;
their eyes, and, by an unaccountable tranſition, they they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thurſt out his
paſs, in a moment, from the bitterneſs of ſorrow to an eyes; and, laſtly, after having burned his fleſh from
extravagance of joy. But the treatment of the priſon- the bones with low fires ; after having ſo mangled the
ers, whoſe fate remains all this time undecided, is body that it is all but one vround; after having mutila-
what chiefly characteriſes the ſavages.
ted his face in ſuch a manner as to carry nothing hu-
We have already mentioned the ſtrength of their af maninit; after having peeled the ſkin from the head,
fections, or reſentments. United, as they are, in finall and poured a heap of red hot coals or boiling water oil
ſocieties, connected, within themſelves, by the firmeſt the naked ſkull--they once more unbind the wretch;
ties, their friendly affections, which glow with the who, blind, and ſtaggering with pain and weekneſs,
moſt intenſe warmth within the walls of their own vil- aiſaulted and pelted on every ſide with clubs and ſtones,
lage, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing now up, now down, falling into their fires at every
for the enemies of their natio; and their reſentment ſtep, runs hither and thither, until one of the chiefs,
is eaſily extended, from the individual who has injured whether out of compaſſion, or weary of cruelty, puts an
them, to all others of the ſame tribe. The priſoners, end to his life with a club or dagger. Tlie body is then
who have themſelves the ſame feelings, kuow the in- put into a kettle, and this barbarous employment is
tentionsoftheir conquerors,and are prepared for them. ſucceeded by a feaſt as barbarous.
SI
The perſon who has taken the captive attends him to
Treatment
The women, forgetting the human as well as the
of their pri-
the cottage, where, according to the diſtribution made female nature, and transformed into fomething worſe
Coners,
by the elders, he is to be delivered to ſupply the loſs than furies, are ſaid to ſurpaſs even the men in this ſcene
of a citizen. If thoſe who receive him have their fa- of horror ; while the principal perſons of the country
mily weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt fic round the ſtake, ſmoking and looking on, without
the captive into the family, of which he becomes a the leaſt emotion. What is moſt extraordinary, the
member. But if they have no occaſion for him, or ſufferer himſelf, in the little intervals of his torments,
their reſentment for the loſs of their friends be too ſmokes too, appears unconcerned, and converſes with
high to endure the ſight of any connected with thoſe his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during Contancy
who were concerned in it, they ſentence him to death. the whole time of his execution, there ſeenis á conteit of the fu-f
All thoſe who have met with the ſame ſevere ſentence which ſhall exceed, they in inflicting the moſt horrid fcrers.
being colledied, the whole nation is aſſembled at the pains, or he in enduring them with a tirnineſs and con-
execution, as for ſome great folennity. A ſcaffold is ſtancy almoſt above human: not a groan, not a figh,
erected, and the priſoners are tied to the ſtake, where not a diſtortion of countenance, eſcapes himn : he por-
they commence their death-ſong, and prepare for the feſſes his mind entirely in the midſt of his torments :
enſuing ſcene of cruelty with the moſt undaunted con- he recounts his own exploits : he informs then what
rage. Their enemies, on the other ſide, are determi. cruelties he has inflicted upon their countrymen ; and
ned to put it to the proof, by the moſt refined and ex threatens them with the revenge that will attend his
quilite tortures. They begin at the extreinity of his death ; and, though his reproaches exaſperate them to
32 body, and, gradually, approach the more vital parts. a perfect madneſs of rage and fury, he continues his
shocking One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by one ; inſules even of their ignorance of the art of torineni-
kurtures, another takes a finger into his mouth, and tears off the ing, pointing out himſelf niore exquiſite methods, and
fieth with his teeth ; a third thruſts the finger, mangled more ſenſible parts of the body to be afflicted. "The
as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red-hot, which he women have this part of courage as well as the men ;
ſmokes like tobacco; then they pound his toes and fin- and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otherwiſe as
gers to pieces between two ſtones; theycut circles about it would be for any Europoan to ſuffer as an Indian.
his joints, and gathes in the fleſhy parts of his limbs, Such is the wonderful power of an early inſtitution,
which they ſcar immediately with red-hot irons, cut and a ferocious thirſt of glory! “I am brave and in-
3 2 2
trepid
33
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34
tcr.
36
America. trepid (exclaims the ſavage in the face of his tormen. journey which he is ſuppoſed to take. This folemnity, America.
tors); I do not fear death, nor any kind of tortures ; like every other is attended with feaſting. The fune-
thoſe who fear them are cowards; they are leſs than ral being ended, the relations of the deceaſed confine
women ; life is nothing to thoſe that have courage. themſelves to their huts, for a conſiderable time, to in-
May my enemies be confounded with deſpair and rage! dulge their grief. After an interval of ſome weeks,
Oh! that I could devour them, and drink their blood they viſit the grave, repeat their ſorrow, 11ew-cloche
to tlie laſt drop.”
the remains of the body, and act over again all the lo-
Surpriſing But neither the intrcpidity, on one ſide, nor the in- lemnities of the funeral.
concraft in flexibility, on the other, are among themſelves matter Among the various tokens of their regard for their
can charac-
of aſtoniſhment: for vengeance, and fortitude, in the deceaſed friends, the moſt remarkable is the ceremony
inidſt of torment, are duties which they conſider as which they call the feaſt of the dead, or the feaſt of
facred; they are the effects of their earlieſt education, fouls. The day for the ceremony is appointed in the
and depend upon principiesinſtilled into them froni their council of their chiefs, who give orders for every thing
infancy. On all other occaſions they are humane and which may enable them to celebrate it with pomp
and
conipaſſionate. Nothing can exceed the warmth of their magnificence; and the neighbouring nations are invi-
affe&tion towards their friends, who conſiſt of all thoſe ted to partake of the entertainment. At this time, all
who live in the ſame village, or are in alliance with it: who have died ſince the preceding feaſt of the kind
among theſe all things are common; and this, though are taken out of their graves. Even thoſe who have
it may in part, and among ſome of the tribes, ariſe been interred at the greateſt diſtance from the villages,
from their not poſſeſſing very diſtinct notions of ſeparate are diligently fought for, and conducted to this rendez-
properly, is chiefly to be attributed to the ſtrength of vous of the dead, which exhibits a ſcene of horror be-
their attachment: becauſe, in every thing elſe, with yond the power of deſcription. When the feaſt is conclu-
their lives as well as thcir fortunes, they are ready to ded, the hodies are dreſt in the fineſt ſkins which can
ſerve their friends. Their houſes, their proviſion, even be procured, and after being expoſed for ſome time in
their young women, are not enough to oblige a gueſt. this pomp, are again committed to the earth, with
Has any one of theſe ſucceeded ill in his hunting ? Has great folemnity, which is ſucceeded by funeral games.
his harveſt failed! or is his houſe burned ? He feels no Their taſte for war, which forms the chief ingredi. Superſité
other effect of his misfortunes,than that it gives him an ent in their character, gives a ſtrong bias to their re- ons.
opportunity to experience the benevolence and regard ligion. Areſkoui, or the god of battle, is revered as
of his fellow-citizens. On the other hand, to the ene. the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke be-
inies of his country, or to thoſe who have privately of fore they go into the field; and according as his dif-
fended, tlie American is implacable. He conceals his poſition is more or leſs favourable to them, they con-
ſentiments; he appears reconciled until by ſome treach- clude chey will be more or leſs ſucceſsful. Some nations
ery or ſurpriſe he has an opportunity of executing an ſeem to do a kind of homage to the ſun, as a ſymbol, or
horrible revenge. No length of time is ſufficient to miniſter of the beneficence and power of the Great
allay his reſentment; no distance of place great enough Spirit: others pay a ſimilar homage to the moon and
to protect the object; he croſſes the ſteepeſt mountains; planets; among others, there is a number of tradi-
he pierces the moſt impracticable foreſts, and traverſes tions, relative to the creation of the world and the
the moſt hideons bogs and deſarts, for ſeveral hundreds hiſtory of the gods: traditions which reſemble the
of miles; bearing the inclemency of the ſeaſon, the Grecian fables, but which are ſtill more abſurd and in-
fatigue of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and conſiſtent. But religion is not the prevailing character
thirſt, with patience and cheerfulneſs, in hopes of ſur- of the Indians; and except when they have ſome im-
priſing his enemy, on whom he exerciſes the moſt mediate occaſion for the aſſiſtance of their gods, they
dhocking barbarities, even to the eating of his fleſh. pay then no ſort of worſhip. Like all rude nations,
To ſuch extrémes do the Indians puſh their friendſhip however, they are ſtrongly addicted to ſuperſtition.
or their enmity; and ſuch indeed, in general, is the They believe in the exiſtence of a number of good and
character of all ſtrong and uncultivated minds. bad genii, or fpirits, who interfere in the affairs of
Treatment
But what we have ſaid reſpecting the Indians would mortals, and produce all our happineſs, or miſery. It
of their be a faint picture, did we omit obſerving the force of is from the evil genii, in particular, that our diſeaſes,
lead their friendſhip, which principally appears by the treat they imagine,proceed; and it is to the good genii we
friends.
ment of their dead. When any one of the ſociety is are indebted for a cure. The miniſters of the genii
cut off, he is lamented by the whole : on this occalion are the jugglers, who are alſo the chief phyſicians a-
a variety of ceremonies are practiſed,'denoting the moſt mong the favages. Theſe jugglers are fuppoſed to be
lively forrow. No buſineſs is tranſacted, liowever preff- inſpired by the good genii, moſt commonly in their
ing, till all the pious cerenionies due to the dead are dreams, with the knowledge of future events: they
performed. The body is waſhed, anointed, and paint are called in to the aſſiſtance of the ſick, and are ſup-
ed. Then, the women lanient the loſs with hideous poſed to be informed by the genii whether they will
jowlings, intermixed with ſongs which celebrate the get over the diſeaſe, and in what way they muſt be
great actions of the deceaſed and his anceſtors. The treated. But theſe ſpirits are extremely ſimple in their
men mourn alſo, though in a leſs extravagant manner. ſyſtem of phyſic, and, in almoſt every diſeaſe, direct
The whole village is preſent at the interment, and the the juggler to the ſame remedy. The patient is inclo-
corpſe is habited in their moſt ſumptuous ornaments. fed in a narrow cabin, in the nidſt of which is a ſtone
Cloſe to the body of the defunct are placed his bows red-hot; on this they throw water, until he is well
and arrows, with whatever he valued moſt in his life, foaked with the warm vapour and his own ſweat. Then
and a quantity of proviſion for his ſubſiſtence on the they hurry him from this bagnio, and plunge him ſud-
4
denly,
35
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37
of their
woinen.
39
Anaerica, denly into the next river. This coarſe method, which Polygamy is practiſed by ſome nations, but it is not America.
corts inany their lives, often performs very extraordi- general. In moſt
, they content themſelves with one
nary cures, “Some of their reinedies, however, which wife ; but a divorce is adınitted of in caſe of adultery.
are almoſt entirely derived from the vegetable king. No nation of the Americans is withont a regular mar-
dom, are certainly very powerful and efficacious, in riage, in which there are many ceremonies; the prin.
their operation. The principal of theſe are a ſpecies cipal of which is, the bride's preſenting the bride-
of ſtilliagia (perhaps a croton), ſeveral ſpecies of iris, groom with a plate of their corn. The women, though
particularly the verſicolor, and the verna, the bigno- before incontinent, are remarkable for chaſtity after
nia crucigera, &c.”—Theſe are principally employed marriage.
38
by the jugglers, and old wonien; but inost of the fa Liberty, in its full extent, being the darling pafion Their ar-
vages are more or leſs dcxtrous in curing wounds, and of the Indians, their education is directed in ſuch a dent love
diſeaſes. But the power of their remedies is generally manner as to cheriſh this diſpoſition to the utmoſ.
of liberty.
attributed by the favages to the magical ceremonies Hence children are never upon any account chaſiſed
with which they are adminiſtered.
with blows, and they are feldom even reprinanded.
Condition
Although the Indian women generally bear the la- Reaſon, they ſay, will guide their children when they
borious part of the domeſtic economy, their condition, come to the uſe of it, and before that tinie their faults
atleaſt among many of the tribes, is far from being ſo cannot be very great : but blows migit damp their
wretched, fo flaviſh, and depreliéd, as has been repre- free and martial ſpirits, by the habit of a ſlavith inotive
fented, by Dr Roberifon, and by many other writers. to adion. When grown up, they experience nothing
We do not mean, in this place, to engage in an enquiry like command, dependence, or ſubordination ; even
concerning the comparative reſpectability and impor- ſtrong perſuaſion is induſtriouſly withheld by thoſe
tance of the female character in the various ſtages of who have influence among them.--No man is held in
ſociety and improvement: an inquiry this which has great eſteem, uleſs he has increaſed the ſtrerigth of
employed the pens of ſome of the moſt learned and e his country with a captive, or adorned his hut with a
loquent writers of the preſent age, and concerning ſcalp of one of his enemies.
which there are ſtill various and very oppofite opinions. Controverlies among the Indians are few,and quick Crimes and
This, however, we think we may confidently and ſafely ly decided. When any criminal matter is ſo fagrant puniſh-
aſſert, that the condition of the women among many of as to become a national concern, it is brought under ments a
the American tribes is as reſpectable and as important the juriſdition of the great council ; but in ordinary
as it was among the Germans, in the days of Tacitus; caſes, the ciime is either revenged or compromiſed by
or as it is among any other nations, with whom we are the parties concerned. If a murder be committed, the
acquainted, in a ſimilar ſtage of improvement. “Their family which has loſt a relation prepares to retaliate
balineſs, or employment,” ſays the ingenious Mr Wil on that of the offender. They often kill the murderer;
lian Bartram,"is chiefly in their houſes, except at thoſe and when this happens, the kindred of the laſt perſon
ſeaſons when their crops of maize, &c. are growing, at ſlain look upon themſelves to be as much injured, and
which times theygenerallyturn out with their huſbands to have the ſame right to vengeance, as the other pare
and parents; but they are by no means compelled to do ty. In general, however, the offender abſents himſelf;
this, and one ſeldom ſees a third as many females as the friends ſend compliments of condolence to thoſe of
males at work, in their plantations.” “ You may de the perſon who has been murdered. The head of the
Barton. pend on my affertion,” ſays the ſame gentleman, who family, at length, appears with a number of preſents,
had ample opportunities of ſtudying the cuſtoms and the delivery of which he accompanies with a formal
manners of the ſouthern Indians, of whom he is ſpeak ſpeech. The whole ends, as uſual, in mutual feaſtings,
ing, in this place, « that there are no people, any in ſongs, and in dances. If the murder is connitted
where, who love their wonen more than theſe Indians by one of the ſame family, or cabin, that cabin has the
do, or men of better underſtanding in diſtinguiſhing full right of judgment within itſelf, cither to puniſh
the merits of the oppoſite ſex; or men more faithful in the guilty with death, or to pardon him, or to oblige
rendering ſuitable compenſation. They are courteous him to give ſome recompence to the wife or children
and polite to their women,-gentle, tender and fond of the slain. Inſtances of ſuch a crime, however, very
ling, even to an appearance of effeminacy. An Indian ſeldom happen; for their attachment to thoſe of the
man ſeldom attempts to uſe a woman, of any deſcripti- ſame family is remarkably ſtrong, and is ſaid to pro-
on, with indelicacy, either of action, or of language. duce ſuch friendſhips as may vie with the moſt cele.
“In the hunting ſeaſons, that is, in autumn, and in brated in fabulous antiquity
winter, when the men are generally out in the foreſts, Such, in general, are the manters and cuſtoms of the Peculiar
the whole care of the houſe or family devolves on the Indian nations; but almoſt erery tribe has ſomething manners
women: at theſe times they are obliged to undergoea peculiar to itſelf. Among the Hurons, and the Nat of different
great deal of labour and fatigue, ſuch as cutting wood, chez, the dignity of the chief is ſaid to be hereditary,
nations,
&c. But this labour is, in part, alleviated by the allift- and the right of ſucceſſion in the female line. When
ance of the old men, who are paft their hunting days, this happens to be extinct, the moſt reſpectable matron
or who are no longer capable of ſerving in war." of the tribe, we are informied, nakes choice of whom
But nothing more clearly Ihows the importance and the pleaſes to ſucceed.
reſpectability of the women among the Indians than The Cheerake are governed by feveral fachems, or
this circumſtance, that, among ſome of the tribes, they chiefs, cleacd by the different villages ; as are alſo
are permitted to pretide in the councils of their counia the Creeks, and ihe Chactais. The two latter puniſh
try: to this we may add, that ſeveral of the Florida adultery in a woman by cutting off her hair, which
nations have, at different times, been governed by the they will not ſuffer to grow till the corn is ripe, the
wiſdom, and the prudence of female caciques,
next
MS. penes
Dr D, S,
40
A M E
[ 550 ]
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41
44
America. next ſeaſon; but the Illinois, for the ſame crime, cut directed their courſe one way, and that no ſavage was America.
off the women's noſes and ears,
near her, ſhe left her fanctuary, and flying by an op-
The Indians on the Lakes are formed into a ſort of poſite direction, ran into a foreſt without being per.
empire; and the emperor is elected from the eldeſt ceived. The ſecond day after this happened, her foot-
tribe, whish is that of the Ottowawas. This autho- ſteps were diſcovered; and they purſued her with ſuch
rity is very conſiderable. A few years ago, the perſon expedition, that the third day ſhe diſcovered her ene-
who held this rank formed a delign of uniting all the mies at her heels. Upon this, ſhe threw herſelf into a
Indian nations, under his ſovereignty ; but he miſcar- pond of water ; and diving among ſome weeds and
ried in the bold attempt.
bulroſhes, ſhe could juſt breathe above water without
Longevity In general, the American Indiaus live to a great age, being perceived. Her purſuers, after making the moſt
of the In- although it is not eaſy to know from themſelves the ex diligent ſearch, were forced to return. For 35 days
dians.
act number of their years. 'It was aſked of an Indian, this woman held on her courſe through woods and de-
who appeared to be extremely old, what age he was of? ſarts, without any other ſuſtenance than that which
I am above twenty was his reply. Upon putting the roots and wild berries afforded her. When ſhe came
queſtion in a different form, by reminding him of cer to the river St Lawrence, the made, with her own
lain circumſtances, in former times, my machu, ſaid hands, a kind of wicker raft, on which ſhe croſſed
he, ſpoke to me, when I was young, of the Incas; and it. As ſhe went by the French fort Trois-Riviers,
he had ſeen theſe princes. According to this reply, without well knowing where ſhe was, the perceived a
there muſt have elapſed, from the date of his machu's canoe full of fivages; and fearing they might be Iro-
(his grandfather's) remembrance to that tine, a pe- quois, ran again into the woods, where the remained
riod of, at leaſt, 232 years. The man who made this till ſunſet.-Continuing her courſe foon after, ſhe ſaw
reply, appeared to be 120 years of age : for, belides Trois-Riviers; and was then diſcovered by a party
the whiteneſs of his hair and beard, his body was al whom ſhe knew to be Hurons, a nation in alliance
moſt bent to the ground; without, however, ſhowing with the Algonquins. She then ſquatted down, behind
any other marks of debility, or ſuffering. This happen a buſli, calling out to them that ſhe was not in a con-
ed in 1764. This longevity, attended in general with dition to be ſeen, becauſe ſhe was naked. They imme-
uninterrupted health, is thought, by ſome writers, to diately threw her a blanket, and then conducted her
be the conſequence in part of their vacancy from all to a fort, where ſhe recounted her ſory.
ſerious thought and employment, joined alſo with the Perſonal courage has been denied them. In proof of Reproach-
robuſt texture and conformation of their bodily organs. their puſilanimity, the following incidents are quoted ed with pk.
If the Indians did not deſtroy one another, in their al from Charlevoix by lord Kames, in his Sketches of the filanimity,
moſt perpctual wars, and if their habits of intoxication Hiſtory of Man. «« The fort de Verchieres, in Cana-
were not ſo univerſal and incurable, they would be, of da, belonging to the French, was, in the year 1690,
all the races of men who inhabit the globe, the moſt attacked by the Iroquois. They approached filently,
likely to extend, not only the bounds, but the enjoy- preparing to ſcale the palaſade, when ſome muſket-ſhot
ments, of animal life to their utmoſt duration.
made them retire. Advancing a ſecond time,they were
again repulſed, wondering that they could diſcover none
Other pic-
Let us now attend to other pictures which have been but a woman, who was ſeen every where. This was
tures of the given of the aboriginal inhabitants of the New World. Madame de Vercheres, who appeared as refolute as if
Americans. The vices and defects of the American Indians have ſupported by a numerous garriſon. The hopes of ſtorin-
been,byſeveral writers,moſt unaccountably aggravated, ing a place without men to defend it, occafioned rei-
and every virtue and good quality denied them: Their terated attacks. After two days fiege they retired,
cruelties have been already deſcribed, and accounted fearing to be intercepted in their retreat. Two years
for. The following anecdote of an Algonquin woman after a party of the ſame nation appeared before the
we find adduced as a remarkable proof of their innate fort ſo unexpectedly, that a girlof fourtecii, daughter
43 thirſt of blood. That nation being at war with the of the proprietor, had but tiine to ſhut the gate. With
Anecdote Iroquois, ſhe happened to be taken priſoner, and was the young woman there was not a ſoul but one raw
of an Al carried to one of the villages belonging to them. Here foldier. She ſlowed herſelf, with her aſſiſtant, ſome-
gonquin
ſhe was ſtripped naked, and her hands and feet bound, times in one place, and ſomietimes in another; chang-
with ropes, in one of their cabins. In this condition ing her dreſs frequently, in order to give ſome appear-
the remained ten days, the favages ſleeping round herance of a garriſon; and always firing opportunely. The
every night. The eleventh night, while they were ſaint-hearted Iroquois decamped without ſucceſs."
alleep, ſhe found means to diſengage one of her hands, There is no inſtance, it is ſaid, either of a ſingle In-
with which ſhe immediately freed herſelf from the dian facing an individual, of any other nation, in fair
ropes, and went to the door. Though ſhe had now ani and open combat, or of their jointly venturing to try the
opportunity of eſcaping unperceived, her revengeful fate of battle with an equal number of any foes. Even
tempercould not let ſlip ſo favourable an opportunity of with the greateſt ſuperiority of numbers, they dare not
killing one of herencmies. The attempt was manifeſt meet an open attack. Yet, notwithſtanding this want
ly at the hazard of her own life; yet, ſnatching up a of courage, they are ſtill formidable ; nay, it has been
hatchet, ſhe killed the ſavage that lay next her: and, known, that a ſmall party of them has routed a much
ſpringing out of the cabin, concealed herſelf in a hol. fuperior body of regular troops : but this can only hap-
low tree, which ſhe had obſerved the day before. The pen when they have ſurpriſed them in the faſtneſſes
groans of the dying perſon ſoon alarmed the other fa- of their foreſts, where the covert of the wood may
vages, and the young ones immediately ſet out in pur. conceal them until they take their aim with the utmoſt
Luit of her. Perceiving, from her tree, that they all certainty. After one ſuch diſcharge they immediately
retreats
42
woman,
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45
46
feuted as
47
America. retreat, without leaving the ſmalleſt trace oftheir route. Nor can this odious cruelty and treachery, it is ſaid, America.
It may eaſily be ſuppoſed, that an onſet of this kind be juſtly aſcribed to their ſubjection to a foreign
nuſt produce confulion even among the ſteadieſt troops, yoke, ſeeing the ſame cliaracter belongs equally to all
when they can neither know the number of their ene the original inhabitants of this vaſt continent, even to
mies, 1or perceive the place where they lie in ambuſh. thoſe who have preſerved their independence moſt
Accused of
Perfidy combined with cruelty has been alſo made a completely. Certain it is, continues Ulloa, that theſe
perfidy. part of their character. Don Ulloa relates, That thein- people, with the moſt limited capacities for every thing
dians called Natches, in Louiliana, laid a plot of maſ. elſe, diſplay an aſtoniſhing degree of penetration and
facring, in one night, every individual belonging to ſubtlety, with reſpect to every object that inyolyes
the French colony eftabliſhed there. This plot they trcachery, bloodſhed, and rapine. As to theſe, they
actually executed, notwithſtanding the ſeeming good ſeem to have been all educated at one ſchool ; and a fé-
underſtanding that ſubliſted between them and theſe cret, referring to ał.y ſuch plan, no conſideration on
European neighbours. Such was the ſecrecy which earth can extort from them.
they obſerved, that no perſon had the leaſt ſuſpicion of Their underſtandings alſo have been repreſented as Their un-
their deſign unul the blow was ſtruck. One French not leſs contemptible than their manners are groſs and derſtand-
man alone eſcaped, by ſavour of the darkneſs, to re brutal. Many nations, it has been ſaid, are neither ca.
ing repre-
late the diſaſter to his coutrymen. The compaſſion of pable of forming an arrangement for futurity, nor does
weak,
a female Indian contributed alſo, in fome meaſure to their folicitude or foreſight extend ſo far. They ſet no
his exemption from the general maſſacre. The tribe value upon thoſe things of which they are not in ſome
of Natches had invited the Indians of other countries, immediate want. In the evening, ſays father La-
eyen to a conſiderable diſtance, to join in the ſame con bat, when a Carib is going to reſt, no conſideration
ſpiracy. The day, or rather the night, was fixedon will tempt him to ſell his hammoch; but in the morn-
which they were to make an united attack on the French ing he will part with it for the ſlighteſt trifle. At the
coloniſts. It was intimated by ſending a parcel of rods, cloſe of winter, a North-American, mindful of what
more or leſs numerous according to the local diſtance he has ſuffered from the cold, fets himſelf with vigour
of each tribe, with an injunction to abſtract one rod dai to prepare materials for erecting a comfortable hut, to
ly; the day on which the laſt fell to be taken away be protect him againſt the inclemency of the ſucceeding
ing that fixed for the execution of their plan. The ſeaſon ; but as ſoon as the weather becomes mild, he
wonen were partners of the bloody fecret. The par abandons his work, and never thinks of it more till
cels of rods being thus diſtributed, that belonging to the return of the cold compels him to reſume it.-In Alleged in-
the tribe of Natches happened to remain in the cuſtody ſhort, to be free from labour ſeems to be the utmoſt dolenceand
of a female. This woman, either moved by her own with of an American. They will continue, whole days,
ſtupidity
feelings of compaſſion, or by the commiſeration expreí- ſtretched in their hammocks, or ſeated on the earth,
fed by her feinale acquaintances, in the view of the without changing their poſture, raiſing their eyes, or
propoſed ſcene of bloodſhed, abſtracted one day three uttering a ſingle word. They cannot compute the fuc-
or four of the rods, and thus anticipated the term of ceſſion of days, nor of weeks. The different aſpects of
her tribe's proceeding in the execution of the general the moon alone engage their attention, as a meaſure of
conſpiracy. The conſequence of this was, that the time. Of the year they have no other conception than
Natches were the only actors in the carnage ; their di. what is ſuggeſted to them by the alternate heat of fum-
ftant aſſociates having ſtill ſeveral rods remaining at the mer, and by the cold of winter; nor have they the leaſt
time when the former made the attack. An opportii. idea of applying to this period the obvious computation
nity was thereby given tu the coloniſts in thoſe quar- of the months which it contains. When it is aſked of
ters, to take meaſures for their defence, and for pre- any old man, in Peru, even the moſt civilized, what
venting a more extenſive execution of the deſign. age he is of? the only anſwer he can give is the num-
It was by conſpiracies ſimilar to this that the In- ber of caciques he has ſeen. It often happens, too, that
dians of the province of Macas, in the kingdom of they only recollect the moſt diſtant of theſe princes, in
Quito, deſtroyed the opnlent city of Lagrogno, the whoſe time certain circumſtances had happened pecu-
colony of Guam
baya, and its capital Sevilla del Oro; liarly memorable, while of thoſe who lived in a more
and that ſo completely, that it is no longer known in recent period they have loſt all remembrance.
what place theſe ſettlements exiſted, or where that a The ſame groſs ſtupidity is alledged to be obſervable
bundance of gold was found from which the laſt-men in thoſe Indians who have retained their original li-
tioned city took the addition to its name. Similar ra- berry. They are never known to fix the dates of any
vages have been committed upon l'Imperial, in Chili, events in their minds, or to trace the ſucceſſion of cira
the colonies of the Miſſions of Chuncas, thoſe of Da cumſtances that have ariſen from ſuch events. Their
rien, in Tierra Ferme, and inany other places, which imagination takes in only the preſent, and in that
have afforded ſcenes of this barbarous ferocity. Theſe only what intimately concerns themſelves. Nor can
conſpiracies are always carried on in the ſame manner. diſcipline or inſtruction overcome this natural defect
The ſecret is inviolably kept, the actors aſſemble at of apprehenſion. In fact, the ſubjected Indians in Pc-
the preciſe hour appointed, and every individual is ru,who have a continual intercourſe with the Spaniards,
animated with the ſame fanguinary purpoſes. The who are furniſhed with curates perpetually occupied in
males wlio fall into their hands are put to death, with giving thein leſſons of religion and morality, and
every ſhocking circumſtance that can be ſuggeited by who mix with all ranks of the civilized ſociety eſta-
a cool and determined cruelty. The females are car bliſhed among them, are alnoſt as ſtupid and barbarous
ried off and preſerved, as monuments of their vidory, as their countrymen who have had no ſuch advantages,
to be employed as their occaſions require.
The Peruvians, while they lived under the govern-
ment
A M E
[ 552 ]
A M E
'Their va-
SI
America. ment of their Incas, picſerved th records of certain poſſeſs both), their way of life, the fate of ſociety a- America:
remarkable events. They had alſo a kind of regular mong them, with all the circumſtances of their coul-
governnient deſcribed by the hiſtorians of the conqucit dit:0.1, ought to be conſidered in connection, and in
of Peru. This government originated entirely from regard to incir mutual ufluence. Such a view lias
the attention and abilities of their princes, and from been given in the preceding part of this article ; trom
the regularions enacted by them for directing the con which, it is hoped, thcir real character may be calily
dud of their ſubjects. This ancient degree of civili deduced,
zation among them gives ground to preſume that their Many of the diſagreeable traits exhibited in the a-
legillatures ſprung from tome race more enlightened necdotes juſt quoled, are, indeed, extracted from Don
than the other trives of Indians ; a race, of which no Ulloa ; an author of credit and reputation : but a Spa-
28
individual feeins to remain in tlie preſent times. niard, and evidently biaſled, in ſome degree, by a de-
Vanity and conceit are ſaid to be blended with their fireto palliate the enormities of his countrymen in that
nity and
ignorance, and treachery. Notwithſtanding all they quarter of the globe. And, with regard to the worſt
conceit.
ſuffer from Europeans, they ſtill, it is ſaid, conlider and leaſt equivocal parts of the American character,
themſelves as a race of men far ſuperior to their con- cruelty and revenge; it inay be fairly queſtioned, whe-
querors. This proud belief, ariſing from their pervert ther the instances of theſe, either in reſpect of their
ed ideas of excellence is univerſaloverthe whole known cauſe or their atrocity, be'at all comparable to thoſe
continent of America. They do not think it poſſible exhibited in European hiſtory, and ſtaining the an-
that any people can be ſo intelligent as themſelves. nals of Chriſtendom :-lo thoſe, for inſtance, of the
When they are detected in any of their plots, it is their Spaniards themſelves, at their firſt diſcovery of Ame-
common obſervation, that the Spaniards, or Virochocas, rica ; to thoſe indicated by the engines found on board
want to be as knowing as they are. Thoſe of Loui their inighty Armada, in 1588 ; to thoſe which, in cold
ſiana and the countries adjacent, are equally vain of blood, were perpetrated by the Dutch at Amboyna; to
their fuperior underſtanding, confounding that quality the dragoonings of the French; to their religious mafla-
with the cunning which they themſelves conſtantly cres: or,eren, to the tender mercies of the Inquiſition?
practiſe. The whole object of their tranſactions is to Still harſher, liowever, are the deſcriptions given by The phyſi-
over-reach thoſe with whom they deal. Yet though Bufon and de kauw, of the natives of this whole coii- cal deſcrip-
faithleſs themſelves, they never forgive the breach of tinent, in which the moſt mortifying degeneracy of the tions of
promiſe on the part of others. While the Europeans human race, as well as of all the inferior animals, is af- Buffon and
Ceek their amily by preſents, they give themſelves no ſerted to be conſpicuous. Againſt theſe philoſophers, or refuted.
concern to ſecure a reciprocal friendlhip. Hence, pro- rather theoriſts, however, the Americans have found
bab'y, ariſes their idea, that they muit be a fuperior an able advocate in the Abbé Clavigero ; an hiſtorian, Hif. of
race of men, in ability and intelligence, to thoſe who who, not only from his being a native of America, but Mexico.
are at ſuch pains to court their alliance, and avert their alſo from his lituation, and long relidence in Mexico,
eninity.
has been enabled to obtain the beſt ineans of informa-
v.II.p.328.
49
Their elo.
their natural eloquence has alſo been decried. The tion, and who, though himſelf a ſubject of Spain, ap-
quence diſ free tribes of ſavages who enter into conventions with pears ſuperior to prejudice, and diſdains in his de
paraged. the Europeans, it is obſerved, are accuſtomed to make ſcription the glories of policy.
long, pompous, and, according to their own notions, Concerning the ſtature of the Americans, M. de Statare,
ſublinie haragues, but without any method, or connec Pauw ſays, that although, in general, it is not equal ſhape, &
tion. The whole is a collection of disjointed meta to the ſtature of the Caſtilians, there is but little differ-
phors and compariſons. The light, heat, and courſe ence between them. But the Abbé Clavigero evinces,
of the ſun, forni the principal topic of their diſcourſe ; that the Indians who inhabit thoſe countries lying be-
and theſe unintelligible reaſonings are always accom tween 9 and 40 degrees of north latitude, which are
panied with violent and ridiculous geſtures. Nuinber- the limits of the diſcoveries of the Spaniards, are more
Icfs repetitions prolong the oration, which, if not in- than five Pariſian feet in height, and that thoſe who do
terrupted, would laſt whole days : at the ſame time, not reach that ſtature, are as few in number amongſt the
they meditate very accurately, before hand, in order to Indians as they are amongſt the Spaniards. It is be.
avoid mentioning any thing but what they are deſirous (ides certain, that many of the American nations, fuch
to obtain. This pompous faculty of making ſpeeches as the Apaches, the Hiaquef, the Pimeg, and Cochi-
is alſo one of the grounds on which they conceive mnies, are at leaſt as tall as the talleſt Europeans ; and
themſelves to be fuperior to the nations of Europe: that, in all the vaſt extent of the New-World, no race
they iniagine that it is their eloquence that procures of people has been found, except the Eſquimaux, in tho
them the favours they aſk. The ſubjected Indians north, and weſt, and the Yacana-cunnees, and Pelhe-
converſe preciſely in the ſame ſtyle. Prolix and tedi. rais, &c. in the ſouth, fo diminutive in ſtature as the
ous, they never know when to ſtop; ſo that, except Laplanders, the Samojeds, and Tartars, in the north
ing by the difference in language, it would be impof- of the Old-Continent. In this reſpect, therefore, thein-
Gobic, in this reſpect, to diſtinguiſh a civilized Peru- habitants of the two continents are upon an equality.
vian from an inhabitant of the moſt favage diſtricts to Of the ſhape and character of the Mexican Indians,
the northward,
the Abbé gives a moſt advantageous deſcription ; which
All theſe
he aſſerts, noone, who readsit, in America, will contra-
tial,and not
But ſuch partial and detached views, as the above, dict, unleſs he views them with the eye of a prejudiced
free from were they even free from miſrepreſentation,are not the mind. It is true, that Ulloa ſays, in ſpeaking of the
miſrepre- juſt ground upon which to form an eſtimate of their cha- Indians of Quito, he had obſerved that « imperfect
Sentation, racter. Their qualities,good and bad (for they certainly people abounded among them; that they were either
irregularly
52
50
views par
A M E
[ 553 ]
A M E
54
of ſome
America, regularly dimiourive, or monſtrous in ſome other re their faces, they would have ſeen that llature had 110€ America.
Ipeet ; that they became either inſenſible, dumb, or been deficient in that reſpect. Every nation has its
blind ; or wanted ſome limb of their body.” Having, cuſtoms. “I have ſeen an Indian beau, with a look-
therefore,made ſome inquiry reſpecting this ſingularity ing-glaſs in his hand (ſay Mr Jefferſon), examining
of the Quitans, the Abbé found, that ſuch defects his face, for hours together, and plucking out, by the
were neither cauſed by what he calls bad humours, nor roots, every hair he could diſcover, with a kind of
by the climate, but by the miſtaken and blind huma tweezer made of a piece of fine braſs wire, that had
nity of their parents, who, in order to free their chil been twiſted round a ſtick, and which he uſed with
dren from the hardſhips and toils to which the healthy great dexterity.”
Indians are ſubjected by the Spaniards, fix fome defor The very aſpect of an Angolan, a Mandingan, or a Their form
mity or weakneſs upon them, that they may become Congan, would have ſhocked M. dc Pauw, and make and aſpect
uſeleſs: a circumſtance of miſery which does not hap- him recal the cenſure which he paſſes on the colour, contraſted
pen in other countries of America, nor in thoſe places the make, and hair of the Americans. What can be with thoſe
of the ſame kingdom of Quito, where the Indians are imagined more contrary to the idea we have of beauty, other naa
under no ſuch oppreſſion. M. de Pauw, and in agree- and the perfection of the human frame, than a man, tiotis
.
ment with him, Dr Robertſon, ſays, that no deform- whoſe ſkin is black as ink, whoſe head and face are
ed perſons are to be found among the ſavages of Ame. covered with black wool, inſtead of hair, whoſe eyes
rica ; becauſe, like the ancient Lacedæmonians, they are yellow and bloody, whoſe lips are thick and black-
put to death thoſe children which are born hunch- iſh, and whoſe noſe is flat ? Such are the inhabitants of
backed, blind, or defective in any limb; but that in a very large portion of Africa, and of many iſlands of
thoſe countries where they are formed into ſocieties, Aſia. What men can be more imperfect than thoſe
and where the vigilance of their rulers prevents the who meaſure no more than four feet in ſtature, whoſe
murder of ſuch infants, the number of their deformed faces are long and flat, the noſe compreſſed, the irides
individuals is greater than it is in any country of Eu- yellowiſh black, the eye-lids turned back towards the
rope. This would make an exceedingly good ſolution of temples, the cheeks extraordinarily elevated, their
the difficulty if it were true : but if, poſſibly, there has mouths monſtroully large, their lips thick and promi-
been in America a tribe of ſavages who have imitated nent, and the lower part of their viſages extremely
the barbarous example of the celebrated Lacedæmoni narrow? Such, according to Count de Buffon, are the
ans, it is certain that thoſe authors have no groundsto Laplanders, the Zemblans, the Borandines, the Saino-
impute ſuch inhumanity to the reſt of the Americans; jeds, and the Tartars, in the Eaſt. What objects more
and it has not been the practice, at leaſt with the far deformed than men whoſe faces are too long and wrin-
greater part of thoſe nations, as may be demonſtrated kled even in their youth, their noſes thick and com
from the atteſtations of authors who are the beſt ac. preſſed, their eyes ſmall and funk, their cheeks very
quainted with their cuſtoms,
much raiſed, the upper jaw low, their teeth long and
No argument againſt the New World can be drawn diſunited,eye-brows ſo thick that they ſhade their eyes,
from the colour of the Americans ; for their colour is the eye-lids thick, ſome briſtles on their faces inſtead
leſs diſtant from the white of the Europeans than it is of beard, large thighs and ſmall legs? Such is the pic-
from the black of the Africans, and a great part of the ture Count de Buffon gives of the Tartars; that is, of
Aſiatics. The hair of the Mexicans, and of the great- thoſe people who, as he ſays, inhabit a tract of land in
er part of the Indians, is as we have already ſaid, coarſe Aſia 1200 leagues long and upwards, and more than
and thick: on their faces they appear to have little, and 750 broad. Amongſt theſe, the Calmucks are the moſt
in general none on their arms and legs : but it is an er remarkable for their deformity: which is ſo great,
ror to ſay, as M. de Pauw does, that they are entirely that according to Tavernier, they are the moſt brutal
deſtitute of hair in all the other parts of their body. men of all the univerſe. Their faces are ſo broad that
This is one of the many paſſages in the Philofophical there is a ſpace of five or fix inches between their
Errorscone Reſearches, at which the Mexicans, and all the other eyes, as Count de Buffon bimſelf affirms. In Cali-
nations, muſt ſmile, to find an European pliiloſopher ſo cut, in Ceylon, and in other countries of India, there
of beard, eager to diveſt them of the dreſs they had from nature. is, ſay Pyrard, and other writers, on thoſe regions, a
Don Ulloa, indeed, in the deſcription which he gives race of men who haveone, or both of their legs as thick
of the Indians of Quito, ſays, that hair neither grows as the body of a man; and that this deformity among
upon the men nor upon the women when they arrive at them is almoſt hereditary
puberty,as it does on the reſt of mankind; but whatever If we were, in like manner, to go through the na-
ſingularity may attend the Quitans, or occalion thiscir- tions of Aſia and Africa, we ſhould hardly find any ex-
cumſtance, there is no doubt that among the Americans tenſive country where the colour of men is not darker,
in general, the period of puberty is accompanied with where there are not greater irregularities obſerved,
the ſanie ſymptoms as it is among other nations of the and groſſer defects to be found in them, than even the
world. In fact, with the North-Americans, it is diſ- penetrating eye of de Pauw could diſcover in the Ame-
graceful to be hairy on the body. They ſay it likens ricans. The colour of the latter is a good deal clearer
them to hogs. They, therefore, pluck the hair as than that of alınoſt all the Africans and the inhabitants
faſt as it appears. But the traders who marry their of ſouth Aſia. Even their alleged ſcantineſs of beard is
women, and prevail on them to di continue this prac coinmon to the inhabitants of the Philippine-Ilands,
tice, ſay, that nature is the ſame with them as with and of all the Indian-Archipelago, to the famous Chi.
the whites. As to the beards of the men, had Buf- neſe, Japanneſe, Tartars, and many other nations of
fon, or de Pauw, known the pains and trouble it coſts the Old-Continent. Theimperfections of the Ameri-
them to pluck out by the roots the hair that grows on cans, however great they may be repreſented to be,
VOL. I,
53
their want
&c.
4 А
21c
1
A ME
A M E
[ 554 )
SS
and corpo-
3
America. are, certainly, not comparable with the defects of that Americans, are very few in number in the kingdom of America.
immenſe people, whoſe character we have ſketched, New-Spain, are charged with the culture of the ſugar-
and others whom we omit.
cane, and tobacco, and the inaking of ſugar; but the
M. de Pauw repreſents the Americans to be a feeble ſoil deſtined for the cultivation of thoſe plants is not,
Their con- and diſeaſed ſet of nations; and, in order to demon with reſpect to all the cultivated land of that country,
Atitution
ſtrate the weakneſs and diſorder of their phyſical con in the proportion of one to two thouſand. The Ame-
ral abilities. ftitution, adduces ſeveral proofs equally ridiculous and ricans are the people who labour on the ſoil. They
ill-founded, and which it will not be expected we thould are the tillers, the lowers, the weeders, and the reap-
enumerate. He alleges, among other particulars, that ers of the wheat, of the maize, of the rice, of the beans,
they were overcome in wreſtling by all the Europeans, and other kinds of grain or pulſe, of the cocoa, of thé
and that they funk under a moderate burthen ; that by vanilla, of the cotton, of the indigo, and allother plants
a computation made, 200,000 Americans were found to uſeful to the ſuſtenance, the clothing, and commerce
have perished, in one year, from carrying of baggage. of thoſe provinces ; and without them ſo little can be
With reſpect to the firſt point, the Abbé Clavigero ob done, that in the year 1762, the harveſt of wheat was
ſerves, it would be neceſſary that the experiment of abandoned, in many places, on account of a fickneſs
wreitling was made between niany individuals of each which prevailed, and prevented the Indians from reap-
continent, and that the victory ſhould be atteſted by the ing it. But this is not all; the Americans are they who
Americans, as well as by the Europeans. It is not, how cut and tranſport all the neceſſary timber from the
ever, meant to inliſt, that the Americans are ſtronger woods; who cut, tranſport, and work the ſtones: who
than the Europeans. They may be leſs ſtrong, without make lime, plaſter, and tiles: who conſtruct all the
the human ſpecies have degenerated in them. The Swiſs buildings of that kingdom, except a few places where
are ſtronger than the Italians; and ſtill we do not believe none of them inhabit; whoopen and repair all the roads,
the Italians are degenerated nor do we tax the climate who inake the canals and ſuices, and clean the cities.
of Italy. The inſtance of 200,000 Americans having They work in many mines of gold, of ſilver, of copper,
died, in one year, under the weight of baggage, were &c. : they are the thepherds, herdſmen, weavers, pot-
it true, would not convinceus, ſo much of the weakneſs ters, basket-makers, bakers, curriers, day-labourers,
of the Americans, as of the inhumanity of the Euro &c. : in a word, they are the perſons who bear all the
peans. Inthe ſame manner that theſe 200,000 Ame- burden of public labours.
burden of public labours. Theſe, ſays our juſtly in-
ricans periſhed, 200,000 Pruſſians would alſo have pe- dignant author, are the employments of the weak,
rihed, had they been obliged to make a journey of daftardly, and uſeleſs Americans; while the vigorous
between 300 and 400 miles, with 100 pounds of bur. M. de Pauw, and other indefatigable Europeans, are
den upon their backs: if they had collars of iron about occupied in writing invectives againſt them.
their necks, and were obliged to carry that load over Theſe labours,in which the Indians are continually en- Theſe a
rocks and mountains ; if thoſe who became exhauſted ployed,certainly,atteſt their healthineſs and ſtrength ; ſufficient
with fatigue, or wounded their feet ſo as to impede for if they are able to undergo ſuch fatigues, they can proof of
their progreſs, had their heads cut off that they might not be diſeaſed, nor have an exhauſted ſtream of blood their heal-
not retard the pace of the reſt ; and if they were not in thcir veins, as M. de Pauw inſinuates. In order to
allowed but a ſmall morſel of bread to enable them to inake it believed that their conſtitutions are vitiated,
ſtrength.
ſupport ſo ſevere a toil. Las Caſas, from whom M. de he copies whatever he finds written by hiſtorians of A-
Pauw got the account of the 200,000 Americans, who merica, whether true or falſe, refpečting the diſeaſes
died under the fatigue of carrying baggage, relates, which reign in ſome particular countries of that great
alſo, all the abovementioned circumſtances. If that continent. It is not to be denied, that in ſome coun-
author, therefore, is to be credited in the laſt, he is alſo tries in the wide com paſs of America, men are expoſed,
to be credited in the firſt. But, a philoſopher who
But, a philoſopher who more than elſewhere,to the diſtempers which are occa-
vaunts the phyſical and moral qualities of Europeans, fioned by the intenperature of the air, or the perni-
over thoſe of the Americans, would have done better, cious quality of the aliments; but it is certain, accor-
we think, to have ſuppreſſed facts ſo opprobrious to ding to the aſſertion of many reſpectable authors, ac-
the Europeans themſelves.
quainted with the New-World, that the Ainerican
Nothing, in fact, demonſtrates ſo clearly the robuſt countries are, for the moſt part healthy ; and if the
neſs of the Americans as thoſe various, and laſting, fa- Aniericans were dipoſed to retaliate on M. de Panw,
induſtry, tigues in which they were continually engaged. M. de and other European authors, who write as he does, they
Pauw ſays, that when the New World was diſcovered, would have abundant ſubject of materials to throw diſ-
nothing was to be ſeen but thick woods ; that, at pre- credit on the clime of the Old-Continent, and the
ſent, there are ſome lands cultivated, not by the Ame- conſtitution of its inhabitants in the endemic diſtem-
ricans, however, but by the Africans, and Europeans; pers which prevail there.
and that the ſoil in cultivation is to the ſoil which is Laſtly, the ſuppoſed feebleneſs and unfound bodily
uncultivated as 2000 to 2,000,000. Theſe three aſſer- habit of the Americans do not correſpond with the
tions the Abbé Clavigero demonſtrates to be preciſely length of their lives. Among thoſe Anericans whoſe
ſo many errors. Since the conqueſt, the Americans great fatigues and exceſlive toils do not anticipate their
alone have been the people who have fupported all the death, there are not a few who reach the age of 80,
fatigues of agriculture in all the vaſt countrics of the 90, and 100, or more years, as formerly mentioned;
coutinent of South-America, and in the greater part of and, what is inore, without there being obſerved in them
thoſe of North America ſubject to the crown of Spain. that decay which time commonly produces in the hair,
No Furopean is ever to he feen employed in the labours in the teeth, in the ſkin, and in the muſcles of the hn-
of the field. The Moors who, in compariſon of the man body. This phenomenon, ſo much admired by
the
57
thineſs and
56
Their la-
bour aud
1
A M E
[ 555 )
A M E
America. the Spaniards who reſide in Mexico, cannot be aſcri but with more than 200,coo. Cortes himſelf, to whom America.
ed to any other cauſe than the vigour of their conſtitu it was of more importance than to M. de Pauw to make
tions, the temperance of their diet, and the falabrily of his bravery conſpicuous, and his conqueſt appear glo-
their clime. Hiſtorians, and other perſons who have rions, confeſſes the exceliive number of the allies li lio
ſojourned there for many years, report the ſame thing were under his command, at the liege of the capital,
58 of other countries of the New-World.
and combated with more fury againſt the Mexicans
Their men As to the mental qualities of the Americans, M. de than the Spaniards themſelves. According to the ac.-
tal qualities Pauw has not been able to diſcover any other characters count which Cortes gave to the emperor Charles V.the
than a memory fo feeble, that to-day they do not re fiege of Mexico began with 87 horfes, 848 Spaniſh in-
member what they did yeſterday; a capacity fo blunt, fantry, armed with
guns, croſs-bows, ſwords, and lan-
that they are incapable of thinking or putting their ces, and upwards of 75,000 allies, of Claſcala, Huexo-
ideas in order ; a diſpoſition ſo cold, that they feel no tzinco, Cholula, and Chalco, equipped with various
excitement of love ; a daſtardly ſpirit,and a genius that ſorts of arms; with three large pieces of cannon of
is torpid, and indolent. Many other Europeans, in- iron, 15 ſmall of copper, and 13 brigantines. In the
deed, and what is ſtill more wonderful, many of thoſe courſe of the liege were aſſembled the numerous nations
children or deſcendants of Europeans who are born in of the Otomies, the Cohuixcas, and Matlazinkas, and
America, think as M. de Pauw does; ſome from igno- the troops of the populous cities of the lakes; ſo that
rance, ſome from want of reflection, and others from the
army of the beſiegers not only exceeded 200,000,
hereditary prejudice and prepoſſeſſion. But all this, and but amounted to 400,000 according to the letter froni
much more, would not be Tufficient to invalidate the te. Cortes; and beſides theſe, 3000 boats and canoes came
ſtimonies of other Europeans, whoſe authority has a to their aſſiſtance. Did i: betray cowardice to liave
great deal more weight, both becauſe they were men ſuſtained, for full 75 days, the ſiege of an open city,
of great judgment, learning and knowledge, of theſe engaging, daily, with an army ſo large, and in part
countries, and becauſe they give their teſtimony in fa- provided with arms ſo ſuperior, and at the ſame time
vour of ſtrangers, againſt their own countrymen. In having to withſtand the ravages of famine? Can they
particular, Acoſta, whoſe Natural and Moral Hiſtory merit the charge of cowardice, who, after having loſt
even de Pauw commends as an excellent work, employs ſeven of the eight parts of their city, and about 50,000
the whole fixth book in demonſtrating the good ſenſe of citizens, part cut off by the ſword, part by famine and
the Americans, by an explanation of their ancient go ſickneſs, continued to defend theinfelves until they
vernment, their laws, their hiſtories in paintings and were furiouſly aſſaulted in the laſt hold which was left
knots, calenders, &c. M. de Pauw thinks the Ameri. them? See the article MEXICO.
60
cans are beſtial; Acoſta, on the other hand, reputes According to M. de Pauw, “the Americans at firſt Renarka-
thoſe perſons weak and preſumptuous who think them " were not believed to be men, but rather ſatyrs, or ble inſtance
ſo. M. de Pauw ſays, that the moſt acute Americans - large apes, which might be murdered, without re- of calumuy
were inferior in induſtry and ſagacity to the rudeſt na “ morſe, or reproach. At laſt, in order to add inſult in M de
Pauw,
tions of the Old-Continent; Acoſta extols the civil go " to the oppreſſion of thoſe times, a pope made an ori-
vernment of the Mexicans above many repablics of “ ginal bull, in which he declared, that being delirous
Europe. M. de Pauw finds, in the moral and political " of founding biſhoprics in the richeſt countries in A-
conduct of the Americans, nothing but barbarity, ex 6 merica, it pleaſed him and the Holy Spirit, to ac-
travagance, and brutality; and Acolta finds there, laws " knowledge the Americans to be true men: in ſo
which are admirable, and worthy of being preſerved 6 far, that without this deciſion of an Italian, the in-
for ever.
«« habitants of the New World would have appeared,
M, de M. de Pauw denies them courage, and alleges the " even at this day, to the eyes of the faithful, a race
Pauw's conqueſt of Mexico as a proof of their cowardice. “ of equivocal men. There is no example of ſuch a
proofs of
“ Cortes (ſays he), conquered the empire of Mexico " deciſion ſince this globe has been inhabited by men
American with 450 vagabonds, and 15 horſes, badly armed: his ni. " and apes." Upon this paſſage the Abbè Clavigero
cowardice. ſerable artillery conſiſted of ſix falconets, which would animadverts, as being a lingular inſtance of calumny
not at the preſent day be capable of exciting the fears and miſrepreſentation ; and gives the following hiſtory
of a fortreſs defended by invalids. During his abſence, of the deciſion alluded to.
62
the capital was held in awe by the half of his troops. or Some of the firſt Europeans who eſtabliſhed them. Occaſionof
What men ! what events ! It is confirmed by the de ſelves in America, not leſs powerful than avaricious, the famous
poſitions of all hiſtorians, that the Spaniards entered, the deſirous of enriching themſelves to the detriment of the bull of
firſt time, into Mexico without making one ſingle diſ Americans, kept them continually employed, and made Pope Paul
charge of their artillery. If the title of hero is appli- uſe of them as llaves; and, in order to avoid the re-
cable to him who has the diſgrace to occaſion the death proaches, which were made them, by the biſhops and
great number of rational animals, Ferdinand Cor- miſſionaries, who inculcated humanity, and the giving
tes might pretend to it ; otherwiſe I do not ſee what liberty to thoſe people to get themſelves inſtructed in
true glory he has acquired by the overthrow of a totter religion, that they might do their duties towards the
ing monarchy, which might have been deſtroyed in the church,and their families,alleged,that the Indians were
ſame manner, by any other affallin of our continent.' by nature ſlaves and incapable of being inſtructed; and
Refuted.
Thefe paſſages indicate either M. de Pauw's ignorance many other falſehoods of which the Chronicler Herrera
of the hiſtory of the conqueſt of Mexico, or a wilful makes mention againſt them. Theſe zcalous ecclelia-
ſuppreſſion of what would openly contradict his ſyſtem; ftics being unable, either by their authority, or preach-
fince all who have read that hiſtory know well, that ing, to free thoſe unhappy couverts from the tyranny
the conqueſt of Mexico was not made with 450 men, of ſuch miſers, had recourſe to the Catholic kings, and,
4 A 2
arena
59
II.
60
A M E
[ 556 ]
A M E
1
ons con-
America. at laſt, obtained from their juſtice and clemency, thoſe
" We have had intimate commerce with the Ame- America.
laws, as favourable to the Americans as honourable to ricans (continues the Abbé): have lived, for ſome years,
64
the court of Spain, that coinpoſe the Indian code, in a ſeminary deſtined for their inſtruction ; faw the
Concluſi-
which were chiefly due to the indefatigable zeal of the erection and progreſs of the royal college of Guada-
biſhop de las Caſas. On another ſide, Garces, biſhop loupe founded, in Mexico, by a Mexican ſeſuit, for the cerning the
of Tlafcala, knowing that thoſe Spaniards bore, not education of Indian children; had, afterwards, fome In- capacities
withſtanding their perverſity, a great reſpect to the de- dians among our pupils ; had particular knowledge of of the A-
ciſion of the vicar of Jeſus Chriſt, made application, in many American rectors, many nobles, and numerous mericana.
the year 1986, to Pope Paul III. by that famous let- artiſts ; attentively, obſerved their character, their ge-
ter, of which we have made mention; repreſenting to nius, their diſpoſition, and manner of thinking; and
him the evils which the Indians ſuffered from the wick- have examined, beſides, with the utmoſt diligence,their
ed Chriſtians, and praying him to interpoſe his autho- ancient hiſtory, their religion, their government, their
rity in their behalf. The pope, moved by ſuch heavy laws, and their cuſtoms. After ſuch long experience
remonſtrances, diſpatched, the next year, the original and ſtudy of them, from which we imagine ourſelves,
bull, a faithful copy of which we have here fubjoin- enabled to decide, without dangeroferring, we declare
ed (A), which was not made, as is manifeſt, to declare to M. de Pauw, and to all Europe, that the mental qua-
the Americans true men; for ſuch a piece of weakneſs lities of the Americans are not in the leaſt inferior to
was very diſtant from that or any other pope : but thoſe of the Europeans ; that they are capable of all,
ſolely to ſupport the natural rights of the Americans, even the moſt abſtract, ſciences; and that if equal care
againſt the attempts of their oppreſſors, and to condemn was taken of their education, if they were brought up
the injuſtice and inhumanity of thoſe, who, under the fron childhood in ſeminaries, under good maſters were
pretence of ſuppoſing thoſe people idolatrous, or inca- protected and ſtimulated by rewards, we ſhould ſee riſe
pable of being inſtructed, took from them their pro, among the Americans, philoſophers, mathematicians,
perty and their liberty, and treated them as ſlaves and and divines, who would rival the firſt in Europe."
63
beaſts.'
But, although we ſhould ſuppoſe, that, in the torrid
Repreſen.
But if, at firſt, the Americans were eſteemed ſatyrs, climates of the New-World, as well as in thoſe of the
65
nobody can better prove it than Chriſtopher Columbus, Old, eſpecially under the additional depreſſion of la- Their in-
Columbus.
their diſcoverer. Let us hear, therefore, how that ce very, there was an inferiority of the mental powers ; genuity,
lebrated admiral ſpeaks, in his account to Ferdinand the Chileſe,and the North-Americans, have diſcovered &c. allert-
and Ifabella, of the firſt fatyrs he ſaw in the iſland of higher rudiments of human excellence and ingenuity ed.
Haiti, or Hiſpaniola. “I ſwear," he ſays, "to your than have, perhaps, ever been known among tribes in
majefties, that cherc is not a better people in the world a fimilar ſtate of ſociety, in any part of the world.
than theſe, more affectionate, affable, or mild. They M. de Pauw affirms, that the Americans were anac-
love their neighbours as themſelves; their language is quainted with the uſe of money, and quotes the follow-
the ſweeteſt, the ſofteſt, and the moſt cheerful ; for ing well-known paſſage from Monteſquieu: « Imagine
they always ſpeak ſmiling; and although they go na- to yourſelf that, by fome accident, you are placed in
ked, let your niajeſties believe me, their cuſtoms are an unknown country; if you find money there, do not
very becoming; and their king, who is ſerved with doubt that you are arrived among a poliſhed people.”
great majeſty, has ſuch engaging manners, that it gives But, if by money we are to underſtand a piece of metal
great pleaſure to ſee him, and alſo to conſider the great with the ſtanıp of the prince, or of the public, the want
retentive faculty of that people, and their delire of of it in a nation is no token of barbarity. The Athe.
knowledge, which incites them to aſk the cauſes and nians employed oxen for money, as the Romans did
the effects of things.'
ſheep. The Romans had no coined money till the time
of
tation of
(A) Paulus papa III. univerſis Chrifti Fidelibus preſentes Literas infpecturis Salutem & Apoſtolicam Bene-
diétionem "Veritas ipſa, quæ nec falli, nec fallere poteft, cui Prædicatores Fidei ad officium predicationis
deſtinaret, dixiſſe dignoſcitur: Euntes docete omnes gentes: omnes, dixit, abſque omni delectu, cum omnes Fidei
diſciplina capaces exiſtant. Quod videns & invidens ipfius humani generis æmulus, qui bonis operibus, ut pe-
reant, feinper adverſatur, inodum excogitavit hactenus inauditum, quo impediret, ne Verbum Dei Gentibus, ut
falvæ fierent, prædicaretur : ut quofdam fuos fatellites conmovit, qui ſuam cupiditatem adimplere cupientes.
Occidentales & Meridionales Indos, & alias Gentes, quæ temporibus iftis ad noftram notitiam pervenerunt, ſub
prætextu quod Fidei Catholicæ expertes exiſtant, uti bruta animalia, ad noſtra obſequia redigendos eſſe, pallim
allerere præſumart, & eos in ſervitutem redigunt tantis afflictionibus illos urgentes, quantis vix bruta animalia
illis fervientia urgeant. Nos igitur, qui ejuſdem Domini noftri vices, licet indigni, gerimus in terris, & Oves
gregis fui nobis commiſfis, quæ extra ejus Ovile ſunt, ad ipfum Ovile toto nixu exquirimus, attendentes Indos
ipſos, ne poće veros homines, non ſolum Chriſtianæ Fidei capaces exiſtere, ſed, ut nobis innotuit, ad Fidem ip-
lana promptiffime currere, ac volentes fuper his congruis remediis providere, prædictos Indos & omnes alias gen-
les ad notitian Chriſtianorum in poſterum deventuras, licet extra fidem Chriſti exiſtant, ſua libertate &* domi-
nio hujuſniodi uti, & poriri, & gaudere libere, & licete poſſe, nec in ſervitutcni redigi debere, ac quicquid fe-
cus fieri contigerit irrituin & inane, ipfoſque Indos, & alias Gentes Verbi Dei prædicatione, & exemplo bonæ
vitæ ad dictam Fidei Chriſti invitandos fore. Auctoritate Apoſtolica per præfentes literas decernimus, & de-
claramus, non obſtantibus premiſlis, cæteriſque contrariis quibufcunque." Datum Romæ anno 1537. IV. .
Nøn, lun. Pontificatus noftri anno III. Quæſta, è non altra è quella ſanioſa bolla, per la quale s' è fatto un a
grande fchiamazzo.
A M E
[ 557, )
Α A ME
68
67
America. of Servius Tullius, nor had the Perſians until the reign thyſelf in an eaſy attitude, neither playing with thy Anierica,
of Darius Hy ſtafpes. But, if by money is underſtood a feet, nor putting thy mantle to thy mouth, nor ſpitting
fign repreſenting the value of merchandiſe, the Mex- too often, nor looking about you here and there, nor
icans, and other nations of Anhuac, employed money riſing up frequently if thou art fitting ; for ſuch actions
in their commerce. The cacao, of which they made are indications of levity and low-breeding.”-The fa-
conſtant uſe in the market to purchaſe whatever they ther proceeds to mention ſeveral particular vices which
wanted, was employed for this purpoſe, as falt is in A are to be avoided, and concludes "Stealnot, nor give
byffinia.
thyſelf to gaming ; otherwiſe thou wilt be a diſgrace
It has been affirmed that ſtone bridges were unknown to thy parents, whom thou oughteſt rather to honour for
in America, when it was firſt diſcovered ; and that the the education they have given thee. If thou wilt be vir-
natives did not know how to form arches. But, theſe tuous, thy example will put the wicked to ſhame. No
aſſertions are erroneous,
The remains of the ancient niore niy ſon ; enough hath been ſaid in diſcharge of the
palaces of Tezcucco,and, ſtill more, their vapour baths, duties of a father. With theſe counſels I will to fortify
ſhow the ancient uſe of arches and of vaults ainong the thy mind. Refuſe them not, nor act in contradiction
Mexicans. But the ignorance of this art would have to them; for on them thy life, and all thy happineſs
been no proof of barbarity. Neither the Egyptiaus nor deperd.”
Babylonians underſtood the conſtruction of arches. As ranging on the ſame ſide with the Abbé Clavi.
M. de Pauw affirms, that the palace of Montezuma gero, our countryman Mr Jefferſon deſerves particular
was nothing elſe than a hut. But, it is certain, from attention. This gentleman, in his Notes on the State
the affirmation of all the hiſtorians of Mexico, that the of Virginia, &c. has taken occaſion to combat the on
army under Cortes, conſiſting of 6,400 men, were all pinions of Buffon ; and ſeems, in many inſtances, to
lodged in the palace; and there remained ſtill ſuffici have fully refuted them, both by argument and by facts.
ent room for Montezılma and his attendants.
The French philoſopher aſſerts, “Thatliving nature is Notions of
66
The advances which the Mexicans had made in the leſs active, leſs energetic, in the New-World than in M. de Buf-
Tokens of
ſcience,
noble ſcience of aſtronomy, is, perhaps, the moſt fupri- the Old.” He affirms, 1. That the animals common to
ceruing the
ſing proof of their attentiou and ſagacity: for it appears, both continents are ſmaller in America. 2. That thoſe
degeneracy
froin Abbé Clavigero's Hiſtory, that they not only peculiar to the New are on an inferior ſcale. 3. That of animal
counted 365 days to the year, but alſo knew of the ex thoſe which have been domeſticated in both have dege- nature in
ceſs of about fix hours in the ſolar over the civil year, nerated in America, and, 4. Thal it exhibits fewer America,
and remedied the difference, by means of intercalary ſpecies of living creatures. The cauſe of this he af-
days. See ASTRONOMY, n° 5.
cribes to the dininution of heat in America, and to
Specimen
Of American morality, the following exhortation of the prevalence of humidity from the extenſion of its
of their
a Mexican to his ſon may ſerve as a ſpecimen. " My lakes and waters over a prodigious ſurface. In other
Buorality ſon, who art come into the light from the womb of thy words, he affirms that heat is friendly, and moiſture
mother like a chicken from the egg, and, like it, art adverſe, to the production and developement of the
preparing to fly through the world, we know not how larger quadrupeds.
69
long Heaven will. grant to us the enjoyment of that The hypotheſis that moiſtureisunfriendly to animal The hypo.
precious gem which we poſſeſs in thee'; but however growth, Air Jefferſon ſhows to be contradicted by ob- theſis that
hort the period, endeavour to live exa&tly, praying fervation, and by experience. It is by the aſſiſtance of moiſture is
God continually to aſliſt thee. He created thee: thou heat and moiſture that vegetables are elaborated from
art his property. He is thy father, and loves cliee ſtill the elements. Accordingly, we find that the niore liu- growth,
more than I do: repoſe in him thy thoughts, and day mid climates produce plants in greater profuſion than conſidered.
and night direct thy fighs to him. Reverence and fa- the dry. Vegetables are immediately, or remotely, the
Jute thy elders, and hold no one in contempt. To the food of every animal; and, from the uniform opera-
poor and diſtreſſed be not domb, but rather uſe words tion of nature's laws, we diſcern, that, in propor-
of comfort. Honour all perſons, particularly thy pa tion to the quantity of food, animals are not only malii-
rents, to whoin thou oweſt obedience, reſpect and ſer- plied in their numbers, but improved in their lize. Cf
vice. Guard againſt imitating the example of thoſe this laſt opinion is the Count de Baffon himſelf, i.? ano-
wicked ſons, who, like brutes that are deprived of rea- ther part of his work:“ En general, il paroit que les
fon, neither reverence their parents, liſten to their in- pays un peu froids conviennent rnieux á nos beufs
ſtruction, nor ſubmit to their correction ; becauſe who- que les pays chauds, et qu'ils ſont d'autant plus gros
ever follows their ſteps will have an unhappy end, et plus grands que le climat eſt plus humide et plus
will die in a deſperate or ſudden manner, or will be abondans en paturages. Les boeufs de Danemarck,
killed, and devoured by wild beaſts.
de la Podolie, de l'Ukraine, et de la Tartarie qu’habi-
" Mock not, my ſon, the aged or the imperfect. tent les Calmouques, ſont les plus grands de tous.”
70
Scorn, not him whom you ſee fall into ſome folly, or Here, then, a race of animals, and one of the largeſt The' coll.
tranſgreſſion, nor make him reproaches ; but reſtrain too, has been increaſed in its dimenſions by cold and trary main.
thyſelf, and beware left thou fall into the ſame error moiſture, in direct oppoſition to the lıypotheſis, which tained by
which offends thee in another. Gonot where thou art fuppoſes that theſe two circumſtances diminish animal Mr Jeftra
fon,
not called, nor interfere in that which does not concern bulk, and that it is their contraries, heat and dryneſs,
thee. Endeavour to manifeſt thy good breeding, in all which enlarge it. But, to try the queſtion on more
thy words, and actions. In converſation, do not lay general ground, let us take two portions of the earth,
thy hands upon another, nor ſpeak tvo much, nor in Europe and America forinſtance, fufficiently extenſive
terruptor diſturb another's diſcourſe. When any one to give operation to general cauſes : let us conſider the
diſcourſes with thee, hear liim, attentively, and hold circumſtances peculiar to each, and obſerve their ef.
fects
to animal
A M E
[ 558 ]
A M E
America,
3.4. Cabiai
65.4
OZ.
7.5 Pecari
46.3
43.6
:9Paco
America. fects on animal nature. America, running through the TABLE II. Aboriginals of the one only.
corrid, as well as temperate, zone, has more heat col EUROPE.
AMERICA.
lectively taken, than Europe. But Europe, according
to our hypotheſis, is the drieſt. They are equally adapt-
Ib.
ib.
ed, then, to animal productions ; each being endowed Sanglier. Wild boar 280. Tapir
534.
with one of thoſe cauſes which befriend animal growth, Mouflin. Wild Mheep 56. Elk, round horned +450.
and with one which oppoſes it. Let us, then, take a Bouquetin. Wild goat Puma
comparative view of the quadrupeds of Europe and of Lievre. Hare 7.6 Jaguar
218.
America, preſenting them to the eye in three different Lapin. Rabbit
109.
tables; in one of which ſhall be enumerated thoſe Putois. Polecat
3.3 Tamanoir
109.
found in both countries; in a ſecond, thoſe found in
Genette
3.1 Tamandua
one only ; in a third, thoſe which have been domeſti. Deſman. Muſkrat Cougar of N. Amer. 75.
cated in both. To facilitate the compariſon, let thoſe Ecureuil. Squirrel 12. Cougar of S. Amer. 59.4
of each table be arranged in gradation, according to Hermine. Ermin 8.21 Ocelot
their fizes, from the greateſt to the ſmalleſt, ſo far as Rat. Rat
their ſizes can be conjectured. The weights of the Loirs
3.) Jaguaret
large animal ſhall be expreſſed in the Engliſh averdu Lerot. Dormouſe
1.8 Alco
poiſe pound and its decimals; thoſe of the ſmaller in the Taupe. Molo
1.2 Lama
ounce and its decimals. Thoſe which are marked Hamſter
thus*, are actual weights of particular ſubjects, deem- Ziſti
Paca
32.7
ed among the largeſt of their ſpecies. Thoſe marked Leming
Serval
thust, are furniſhed by judicious perſons, well ac Souris. Mouſe
.6 Sloth. Unau
277
quainted with the ſpecies, and ſaying, from conjecture
Saricovienne
vonly, what the largeſt individual they had ſeen would
Kincajou
probably have weighed. The other weights are taken
Tatou Kabaſſou 21.8
from Meſſrs Buffon and D’Aubenton, and are of ſuch
Urſon. Urchin
ſubjects as came caſually to their hands for diſſection.
Racoon. Raton 16.5
Coati
“ A Comparative View of the Quadrupeds of Europe
Coendou
16.3
and of America.
Sloth. Ai
13.
| Europe. America.
Sapajou Ouarini
TABLE I. Aboriginals of both.
Sapajou Coaita
Ib.
it.
Tatou Encubert
Mammouth (B)
Tatou Apar
Buffalo. Biſon
*1800
Tatou Cachica
7.
White-bear. Ours blanc
Little Coendou 6.5
Carribou. Renne
Opoffum. Sarigue
Bear. Ours
15307 *410
Tapeti
Elk. Elan. Original, palmated
Margay
Red-deer. Cerf
288.8
Crabier
Fallow-deer. Daim
167.8
Agouti
4.2
Wolf. Loup
69.8
Sapajou Saï
3.5
Roe. Chevreuil
56.7
Tatou Cirquinçon
Glutton. Glonton. Carcajou
Tatou Tatonate
3.3
Wild-cat. Chat fauvage
130
Mouffette Squaſh
Lynx. Loup cervier
25.
Mouflette Chinche
Beaver. Caſtor
18.5
* 45
Mouffette Conepate-
Badger. Blaireau
13.6
Scunk
Red-fox. Renard
13.5
Mouffette. Zorilla
Grey-fox. Ifatis
W'habus. Hare. Raba
Otter. Loutre
8.9 +12
bit
Monax. Marmotte
Aperea
Viſon. Fouine
2.8
Akouchi
Hedgehog. Heriſſon
Ondatra. Muſkrat
Martin. Marte
+6
Pilori
Great grey-ſquirrel +2.7
Water-rat. Rat d'eau
7.5
Fox ſquirrel, of Vir-
Weſel. Belette
ginia
+2.625
Flying-ſquirril. Polatouche
+4
Surikate
Shrew-nouſe. Muſaraigne
Mink
+2.
Sapajou. Sajou
9.8
*273
6.5
2.2
1.2
1
OZ.
OZ.
2.2
2.2
2.
I.
1.8
(B) The bones of the Mammouth, or, as it has been called, by Dr Hunter, and by other writers, Pfeudo-
Elephant, appear to be nearly of the ſame lize, and weight, whether they are found in Europe, in Afia, or in
America. In theſe three portions of the earth, the animal, to which theſe exuvia belonged, was, no doubt,
Specifically the ſame. See the article MAMMOUTH.
AME
[559]
A M E
IO.
OZ.
OZ.
73
OZ.
*1366
America,
Table 11. continued.
minated from a knowledge derived from daily light of America.
EUROPE.
AMERICA. them, becauſe with that the European appellations and
deſcriptions ſeem irreconcilable. Theſe are the only
it. inſtances in which Mr Jefferſon departs from the au-
Indian pig. Cochon thority of M. de Buffon, in the conſtruction of this ta-
d'Inde
1.6
ble; whom he takes for his ground-work, becauſe he
Sapajou. Saimiri
1.5
thinks him the beſt informed of any naturaliſt who has
Phalanger
ever written. The reſult is, that there are 18 quadru.
Coquallin
peds peculiar to Europe; more than four times as many,
Leſſer grey ſquirrelt1.5 to wit, 74, peculiar to America ; that the firſt of theſe
Black ſquirrel 1.5 74, the tapir, the largeſt of the animals peculiar to
Red ſquirrel
Anierica, weighs more than the whole coluinn of Eu-
Sagoin Saki
ropeans; and confequently this ſecond table diſproves
Sagoin Pinche
the ſecond member of the aſſertion, that the animals
Sagoin Tamarin
peculiar to the New World are on a ſmaller ſcale, ſo
Sagoin Ouiſtiti
4.4 far as that aſſertion relied on European animals for ſup-
Sagoin Marikine
port: and it is in full oppoſition to the theory which
Sagoin Mico
makes the animal volume to depend on the circum-
Cayopollin
ſtances of heat and moiſture.
Fourmillier
The third table comprehends thoſe quadrupeds only of thethird
Marmoſe
which are domeſtic in both countries. That ſome of table,
Sarigue of Cayennc theſe, in ſome parts of America, have become leſs
Tucan
than their original ſtock, is doubtleſs true : and the
Red Mole
reaſon is very obvious. In a thinly.peopled country,
Ground ſquirrel 4.
the ſpontaneous productions of the foreſt and waſte
fields are fufficient to ſupport indifferently the domeſtic
TABLE III. Domeſticated in both.
animals of the farmer,with a very little aid from him
Europe. | America.
in the ſevereſt and ſcarceſt ſeaſon. He, therefore, finds
it more convenient to receive them from the hand of
ib.
i.
nature in that indifferent ſtate, than to keep up their
Cow
763 *2500
ſize by a care and nouriſhment which would coſt him
Horſe
much labour. If, on this low fare, theſe animals
Aſs
dwindle, it is no niore than they do in thoſe parts of
Hog
Europe where the poverty of the foil, or poverty of the
Sheep
*125
owner, reduces them to the fame ſcanty fubſiſtence. It
Goat
is the uniform effect of one and the fame cauſe, whe-
Dog
67.6
ther acting on this or that ſide of the globe. It would
Cat
7.
be erring therefore againſt that principleof philoſophy,
«« The reſult of this view is, that of 26 quadrupeds which teaches us to aſcribe like effects to like cauſes,
Keſult of common to both countries, ſeven are ſaid to be larger ſhould we impute this diminution of ſize in America to
the firſt
in America, ſeven of equal fize, and 12 not fufficient any imbecility or want of unirormity ir the operations
table.
ly examined. So that the firſt table in peaches the firſt of nature. It may be affirmed, with truth, that in thoſe
member of the aſſertion, that of the animals com 111011 countries,and with thoſe individuals of America, where
to both countries the American are ſmalleſt, “ Et neceſſity or curioſity has produced equal attention as in
cela ſans aucune exception.” It ſhows it not juſt, in Europe to the nourilhiment of animals, the horſes,
all the latitude in which its author has advanced it, cattle, ſheep, and hogs of the one continent arc as large
and probably not to ſuch a degree as to found a diſtinc as thoſe of the other. There are particular inſtances,
tion between the two countries.
72
well atteſted, where individuals of America have im-
Explanati « Proceeding to the ſecond table, which arranges the ported good breeders from England, and have improv-
on and re- animals found in one of the two countries only, M. de ed their ſize by care, in the courſe of ſome years.
fult of the Buffon obſerves, that the tapir, the elephant of Ame- And the weights actually known and ſtated in the
table,
rica, is but the ſize of a ſmall cow.” To preſerve the third table, will ſuffice to ihow, that we may conclude,
compariſon, Mr Jefferſon ſtates the wild boar, the ele on probable grounds, that with equal food and care,
phant of Europe, as little more than half that ſize. He the climate of America will preſerve the races of do-
has made an elk, with round or cylindrical horns, an meſtic animals as large as the European ſtock from
animal of America, and peculiar to it; becauſe he has which they are derived; and, conſequently, that the
ſeen many of them himſelf, and more of their horns; domeſtic animals are ſubject to degeneration from the
and becauſe, from the beſt information, it is certain climate of America, is as probably wrong as the firſt
that, in Virginia, this kind of elk has abounded much, and ſecond are certainly fo.
and ſtill exiſts, in ſmaller numbers. He makes the That the laſt part of it is erroneous, which affirms,
American hare,or rabbit, peculiar, becauſe he believes that the ſpecies of American quadrupeds are compara-
it to be different from both the European animals ofthöfe tively few, is evident from the tables taken altogether;
denominations, and calls it, therefore, by its Algoul- to which may be added the proofs adduced by the Abbé
quin name, Whabus, to keep it diſtinct from theſe. Clavigero. According to Buffon's lateſt calculation, in
Kalm is of the fame opinion. The ſquirrels are deno- bis Epoques de la Nature, there are 300 ſpecies of qna-
drupeds
*1200
*80
71
4
À ME
L 560 ]
A ME
74
hended in
America. drapeits ; 2114 Anitrica, though it does not make more owing to a defect in nature, but to manners. The ſoul of America.
thaii a mird part of the globe, contains, according to the Indian is wholly bent upon war. This is what pro-
Clavigero, almost one half of the different fpecies of cures him glory among the men and makes him the ad-
theſe animals,
niration of the women. Tothis he is educated from his
Thehuman Of the human inhabitants of America, to whom the earlieſt youth. When he purſues game with ardour,
inhabitants fame hypotheſis of degeneracy is extended, M. Buffon when he bears the farigues of the chace, when he ſuf-
compre gives the following deſcription : "Though the Ameri- tains and ſuffers patiently hunger and cold; it is not ſo
can ſavage be nearly of the ſame ſtature with men in much for the ſake of the game he purſues, as to con-
the ſame
hypothelis poliſhed ſocieties; yet this is not a ſufficient exception vince his parents and the council of the nation, that he
of degene-
to the general contraction of animated nature through- is fit to be enrolled in the number of the warriors. The
racy.
out the whole continent. In the ſavage, the organs of ſongs of the women, the dance of the warriors, the
generation are ſmall and feeble. He has no hair, no {age counſel of the chiefs, the tales of the old, the tri-
beard, no ardour for the føinale. Though nimbler than umphal entry of the warriors returning, with ſucceſs,
the European, becauſe more accuſtomed to running, from battle, and the reſpect paid to thoſe who diſtin-
his firength is not ſo great. His ſenſations are leſs a- guiſh themſelves in battle, and in ſubduing their ene-
cute ; and yet he is more timid and cowardly. He has mies; in ſhort, every thing he ſees or hears tends to
no vivacity, no activity of mind. The activity of his inſpire the Indian with an ardent deſire for military
body is not fo much an exerciſe or ſpontaneous moti- fame. If a young man
fame. If a young man were to diſcover a fondneſs for
on, as a necellary action produced by want. Deſtroy his women before he has been to war, he would become
appetite for victuals and drink, and you will, at once, the contempt of the men, and the ſcorn and ridicule of
annihilate the active principle of all his movements : the women; or were he to indulge himſelf with a cap-
he remains in ſtupid repoſe, on his limbs, or couch, for tive taken in war, and much more were he to offer vi.
whole days. It is eaſy to diſcover the cauſe of the olence in order to gratify his luſt, he would incur in.
ſcattered life of favages, and of their eſtrangement delible diſgrace. The ſeeming frigidity of the Ame-
from ſociety. They have been refuſed the most pre- rican, therefore, is the effect of manners, and not a
cious ſpark of Nature's fire: they have no ardour for defect of nature. He is neither more defective in ar-
women, and of courſe, no love to mankind. Unac- dour, nor impotent with the female, than a white man
quainted with the moſt lively and the moſt tender of reduced to the ſame diet and exerciſe.
77
allattachments, their other ſenſations of this nature are " They raiſe few children.”—They, indeed, raiſe Why they
cold and languid. Their love to parents and children fewer children than we do ; the cauſes of which are to have few
is extremely weak. The bonds of the moſt intimate be found not in a difference of nature, but of circum-children,
of all ſocieties, that of the ſame family, are feeble ; ſtance. The women very frequently attending the
and one family has 110 attachment to another. Hence men in their parties of war and of hunting, child-bear-
no union, no republic, no ſocial ſtate can take place ing becomes extremely inconvenient to them. It is
among them. The phyſical cauſe of love gives riſe to faid, therefore, that they have learned the practice of
the morality of their manners. Their heart is frozen, procuring abortion by the uſe of certain vegetables; and
their fociety cold, and their empirecruel. They regard that they even tend to prevent conception for a con-
their families as ſervants deſtined tolabour, or as beaſts ſiderable time after. During theſe parties they are
of burden, whom they load unmercifully with the pro- expoſed to numerous hazards, to exceſſive exertions,
duce of their hunting, and oblige, without pity or gra- to the greateſt extremities of hunger. Even at their
titude, to perform labours which often exceed their homes, the nation depends for food, through a certain
ſtrength. They have few children, and pay little at part of every year, on the gleanings of the foreſt; that
tention to them. Every thing muſt be referred to the is, they experience a famine once in every year. With
firſt cauſe; they are indifferent becauſe they are weak; all animals, if the female be badly fed, or not fed at
and this indifference to the ſex is the original ſtain all, her young periſh ; and if both male and female be
which diſgraces Nature; prevents her from expand- reduced to like want, generation becomes leſs active;
ing, and by deſtroying the germs of life, cuts the root leſs productive. To the obſtacles, then, of want and
of ſociety. Hence, man makes no exception to what hazard, which nature has oppoſed to the multiplication
has been advanced. Nature, by denying him the fa. of wild animals, for the purpoſe of reſtraining their
culty of love, has abuſed and contracted him more numbers within certain bounds, thoſe of labour and of
than any other animal.”
voluntary abortion are added with the Indian.
No
Obſervati An humiliating picture, indeed! but than which, Mr wonder, then, if they multiply leſs than we do. Where
ons by Mr Jefferſon aſſures us, never was one more unlike thco food is regularly ſupplied, a ſingle farm will ſhow more
Jefferſon. riginal. M. Buffon grants, that their ſtature is the of catile than a whole country of foreſts can of buffa-
ſame as that of the men of Europe, and he might have loes. The ſame Indian women, when married to
adnitted, that the Iroquois were larger, and the Le white traders, who feed them and their children plen-
nopi, or Delawares, taller, than people in Europe ge- tifully and regularly, who exempt them from exceſſive
nerally are. But, he ſays, their organs of generation drudgery, who keep them ftationary and unexpoſed to
76 are ſmaller and weaker than thoſe of Europeans: which accident, produce, and raiſe, as many children as the
Seeming is 110t known,atleaſt,co be a fact. And as to their want of white women. Inſtances are known, under theſe cir-
coldneſs of beard, this error has been already noticed(n°53.fupra). cumſtances, of their rearing a dozen children.
78
“They have no ardour for their females."--It is true, Neither do they ſeem to be a deficient in natural of their
they do not indulge thoſe excelles, nor diſcover that affection.” On the contrary their ſenſibility is keen, fenfibility
counted for. fondneſs which are cuſtomary in Europe ; but this is not even the warriors weeping moſt bitterly on the loſs of &c.
75
the Americ
cans to the
I
their
A ME
[ 561 1
A M E
80
America, their children, though, in general they endeavour to To form a juſt eſtimate of their genius and men- America.
appear ſuperior to human events.
tal porvers, Mr Jefferſon obſerves, more facts are
Their friendthips are trong, and faithful, to the ut- wanting, and great allowance is to be made for thoſe
termoſt extrenity. Aremarkable inſtance of this ap- circumſtances of their ſituation which call for a dife
peared in the caſe of the late Col. Byrd, of Virginia, play of particular talents only. This done, we ſhall
who was ſent to the Cheerake nation to tranſact ſome probably find that the Americans are formed, in
buſineſs with them. It happened that ſome of our diſ- mind as well as in body, on the ſame model with the
orderly people had just killed one or two of that na- homo ſapiens Europeus. The principles of their ſociety
tion. It was therefore propoſed in the council of the forbidding all compulſion, they are to be led to duty
Cheerake, that Col. Byrd ſhould be put to death in re and to enterpriſe by perſonal influence and perfuafion.
venge for the loſs of their countrymen. Among them Hence eloquence in council, bravery and addreſs in
was a chief called Silouee, who on ſome former occa war, become ihe foundations of all conſequence with
fion, had contracted an acquaintance and friendſhip them. To theſe acquirements all their faculties are
with Col. Byrd. He came to him every night, in his directed. Oftheir bravery and addreſs in war we have
tent, and told him not to be afraid, they ſhould not kill multiplied proofs, becauſe we have been the ſubjects
him. After many days deliberation, however, the de on which they were exerciſed. Of their eminence in
termination was, contrary to Silouee's expectation, oratory we have fewer examples, becauſe it is diſplayed
that Byrd ſhould be put to death, and ſome warriors chiefly in their own councils. Some, however, we
were diſpatched as executioners. Silouee attended have of very ſuperior luſtre. We may challenge the
them; and when they entered the tent, he thirew him- wholeorations of Demoſthenes and Cicero, and of any
ſelf between them and Byrd, and ſaid to the warriors, more eminent orator, if Europe has furniſhed more
" This man is my friend, before you get at him, you eminent, to produce a ſingle paſſage ſuperior to the
muſt kill me." On which they returned; and the ſpeech of Logan,a Minge chief,to Lord Dunmore, when
council reſpected the principle ſo much as to recede governor of Virginia. The ſtory is as follows; of which Story of
from their determination.
and of the ſpeech, the authenticity is unqueſtionable. Logan.
That “they are timorous and cowardly" is a cha- In the ſpring of the year 1774, a robbery and murder
racter with which there is little reaſon to charge then, were committed on an inhabitant of the frontiers of
when we recollect the manner in which the Iroquois Virginia by two Indians, of the Shawanae tribe. The
met Monf. -, who marched into their country; neighbouring whites, according to their cuſtom,under-
in which the old men, who ſcorned to fiy, or to ſurvive took to puniſh this outrage, in a ſummary way. Colo-
the capture of their town, braved death, like the old nel Crelap, a man infamous for the inany murders he
Romans, in the time of the Gauls, and in which they had committed on thoſe much-injured people, collect-
ſoon after revenged themſelves by fackingand deſtroy- ed a party, and proceeded down the Kanhaway, in
79
Of their ing Montreal.
In ſhort, the Indian is brave, when queſt of vengeance. Unfortunately a canoe of women
courage.
an enterpriſe depends on bravery ; education with him and children, with one man only, was ſeen coming
(See alſo making the point of honour to conſiſt in the deſtruction from the oppoſite ſhore, unarmed, and unſuſpecting
nº 59, 60, of an enemy by ſtratagem, and in the preſervation of any hoſtile attack from the whites. Creſap and his
fupra.)
his own perſon free from injury; or,perhaps this is na party concealed themſelves on the bank of the river
ture, while it is education which teaches us to honour and the momelit the canoe reached the Thore, ſingled
force more than fineſſe. He will defend himſelf againſt out their objects, and, at one fire, killed every perſon in
an hoſt of enemies, always chooſing to be killed rather it. This happened to be the family of Logan, who
than to ſurrender, though it be to the whites, who, he had long been diſtinguiſhed as a friend of the whites.
knows, will treat him well. In other ſituations alſo, This unworthy return provoked his vengeance. He
he meets death with inore deliberation; and endures accordingly ſignalized himſelfin the war which enſued.
tortures with a firmneſs unknown almoſt to religious In the autumn of the ſame year, a deciſive battle was
enthuſiaſm among us.
fought at the mouth of the Greal-Kanhaway, between
Much leſs are they to be characterized as a people of the collected forces of the Shawanaes, Mingoes, and
no vivacity, and who are excited to action or motion Delawares, and a detachment of the Virginia militia.
only by the calls of hunger and thirſt. Their dances, The Indians were defeated, and ſued for peace. Logan,
in which they ſo much delight, and which to a Euro- however, diſdained to be ſeen among the ſuppliants;
pean would be the moſt ſevere exerciſe, fully contradict but, left the fincerity of a treaty ſhould be diſtruſted
this ; not to mention their fatiguing marches, and the from which ſo diſtinguiſhed a chief abſented himſelf,
toil they voluntarily and cheerfully undergo in their he ſent, by a meſſenger, the following ſpeech, to be de-
81
military expeditions. It is true, that when at home livered to Lord Dunmore:-"I appeal to any white Specimen
they do not employ themſelves in labour or the culture man to ſay if ever he entered Logan's cabin hungry, of Indian
of the ſoil: but this, again, is the effect of cuſtoms and and he gave him not meat; if ever he came cold and eloquence.
manners which have aſſigned that to the province of naked, and he clothed him not. During the courſe
the women. But it is faid, “they are averſe to ſociety of the laſt long and bloody war, Logan remained idle
and a ſocial life.” Can any thing be more inapplicable in his cabin, an advocate for peace.
than this, to a people who always live in towns, or in love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as
clans? Or can they be ſaid co have no republiquez, who they paſſed, and ſaid, Logan is the friend of white men.
conduct all their affairs in national councils ; who pride I had even thought to have lived with you, but for
themſelves in their national character; who conſider the injuries of one man. Col. Crelap, the laft
an inſult or injury, done to an individual by a ſtranger, ſpring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all
as done to the whole, and reſent it accordingly? the relations of Logan, not ſparing even my women
VOL.I.
and
Such was my
4 B
A ME
[ 562 ]
A M E
>>
ز
America. and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in Their manner of entering one another's villages has America.
tlie veins of any living creature.
This called on me likewiſe its rules. It is reckoned uncivil in travelling
for revenge. I have fought it; I have killed many;
84
ſtrangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving their hof
I have fully glutted ny vengeance. For my country, notice of their approach. Therefore, as ſoon as they pitality.
I rejoice at the beams of peace; but do not harbour a arrive within hearing, they ſtop and hollow, remaining
thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never there till invited to enter. Two old men uſually come
felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to ſave his life. out to them, and lead them in. There is in every vil-
82 Who is there to mourn for Logan ? Not one.
lage a vacant dwelling,called the ſtrangers-houſe. Here
Other a-
To the preceding anecdotes, in favour of the Anie they are placed, while the old men go round from hut
necdotes.
rican character, may be added the following, by Dr to hut, acquainting the inhabitants that ſtrangers are
Benjamin Franklin.-The Indian men, when young, arrived, who are, probably, hungry and weary ; and
are hunters and warriors; when old, counſellors; for every one ſends them what he can ſpare of victuals, and
all their government is by the counſel or advice of the fkins to repoſe on. When the ſtrangers are refreſhed,
ſages. Hence, they generally ſtudy oratory; the beſt pipes and tobacco are brought; and then, but not be-
ſpeakers having the moſt influence. The Indian wo fore, converſation begins, with inquiries who they are,
men till the ground, dreſs the food, nurſe and bring whither bound, what news, &c. and it uſually ends
up the children, and preſerve and hand down to pofte- with offers of ſervice; if the ſtrangers have occaſion
rity the memory of public tranſactions. Theſe em for guides, or any neceſſaries, for continuing their
ployments of men and women are accounted natural journey ; and nothing is exaćted for the entertainment,
and honourable. Having few artificial wants, they The ſame hoſpitality, eſteemed among them as a
have abundance of leiſure for improvement by conver- principal virtue, is practiſed by private perſons; of
ſation. Our laborious manner of life, compared with which Conrad Weiſer, a celebrated interpreter of the
theirs, they eſteem ſlaviſh and baſe; and the learning Indian languages, gave Dr Franklin the following in.
on which we value ourſelves, they regard as frivolous ſtance. He had been naturalized among theSix Nations,
and uſeleſs.
and ſpoke well the Mohock language. In going through
Having frequent occafions to hold public councils, the Indian country, to carry a meſſage from our gover-
they have acquired great order and decency in conducta nor to the council at Onondaga, he called at the habita-
ing them. The old men ſit in the foremoſt rank, the tion of Canalſetego, an old acquaintance, who embraced
warriors in the next, and the women and children in him, ſpread furs for him to ſit on, placed before him
the hindmoſt. The buſineſs of the women is to take fome boiled beans and veniſon, and mixed ſome rum
exact notice of what paſſes; imprint it in their niemo and water for his drink. When he was well refreſh-
ries, for they have no writing, and communicate it to ed, and had lit his pipe, Canafletego began to converſe
their children. They are the records of the council, with him : aſked how he had fared the many years
and they preſerve tradition of the ſtipulations in trea ſince they had ſeen each other, whence he then came,
ties a hundred years back; which, when we compare what had occaſioned the journey, &c. Conrad anſwer.
with our writings, we always find exact. He that ed all his queſtions; and when the diſcourſe began to
would ſpeak, riſes. Thereft obſerve a profound ſilence. fag, the Indian, to continue it ſaid, “ Conrad, you
When he has finiſhed, and ſits down, they leave him have lived long among the white people, and know
five or ſix minutes to recollect, that if he has omitted ſomething of their cuſtoms : I have been ſometimes at
any thing he intended to ſay, or has any thing to add, Albany, and have obſerved that once in ſeven days they
he inay riſe again and deliver it. To interrupt ano ſhut up their ſhops, and aſſemble all in the great houſe;
ther, even in common converſation, is reckoned high- tell me what it is for !-- What do they do there?
83
ly indecent.
" They meet there,” ſays Conrad, “ to hear and
Politcinc fs The politeneſs of theſe ſavages in converſation is, learn good things." "I do not doubt,” ſays the Indi-
and civility indeed, carried to exceſs ; ſince it does not permit an, " that they tell you ſo ; they have told me the
of the 4-
them to contradict, or deny, the truth of what is af ſame: but I doubt the truth of what they ſay, and I
ſerted in their preſence. By theſe means they, indeed will tell you my reaſons. I went lately to Albany to
Indians.
avoid diſputes; but then it becomes difficult to know ſell my ſkins, and buy blankets, knives, powder, rum,
their minds, or what impreſſion you make upon them. &c. You know I uſed generally to deal with Hans
The miſſionaries, who have attempted to convert them Hanſon ; but I was a little inclined, at this time to try
to Chriſtianity, all complain of this, as one of the great ſome other merchants. However, I called firſt upon
difficulties of their miſſion. The Indians,hear, with pa. Hans, and aſked him what he would give for beaver.
tience, the truths of the goſpel explained to thein, and He ſaid he could not give more than 45. a pound; but
give their uſual tokens of aſſent and approbation ; but (ſays he) I cannot talk on buſineſs now; this is the
this by no means implies conviction : it is mere civility. day when we meet together to learn good things, and
When any of them come into our towns, our people I am going to the meeting. So, I thought to myſelf,
are apt to croud round them, gaze upon them, and in ſince I cannot do any buſineſs to-day, I inay as well go
commode them when they deſire to be private ; this to the meeting too ; and I went with him. There
they eftecm great rudeneſs, and the effect of the want ſtood up a man in black, and began to talk to the peo-
of inſtruction in therules of civility and good manners. ple, very angrily. I did not underſtand whar he ſaid ;
“We have," they ſay, “ as mucli. curioſity as you ; but perceiving that he looked much at me and Han-
and when you come into our towns, we wiſh for op- fon, I imagined he was angry at feeing me there; ſo
portunities of looking at you ; but for this purpoſe we I went out, ſat down near thic houſe, ſtruck fire, and
ħide ourſelves behind bushes where you are to a paſs, lit my pipe, waiting tillthc meeting ſhould break up.
and never intrude ourſelves into your company." I thought too, that the man had mentioned ſomething
of
erican
A M E
[ 563 ]
A M E
;
and
America. of beaver, and I ſuſpceed that it might be the ſubject or to other accidental cauſes, all the varieties that are America.
of their mecting. So when they came out, I accoſted found amoig mcn. But is he ſeriouſly of opinion, that
my merchant.--Well, Hans, (fays 1) I hope you have any operation of climate, or of other accidental cauſe,
agreed to give more than 4s. a pound ”? “ No, (ſays he) can account for the copper colour and ſmooth chin uni-
I cannot give ſo much, I cannot give inore than 35.6d.” verſal aniong the Americans; the prominence of the
“ I then ſpoke to ſeveral other dealers, but they all padenda univerſal among the Hottentot women, or the
fung the fame fong, three and fix-pence, three and ſix- black nipple noleſs univerſalamong the female Samoie.
pence. This made it clear to me that my ſuſpicion des ?-It is in vain to aſcribe to the climate, the low
was right: and that whatever they prelended of meet. ftature of the Eſquinaux, the ſmallneſs of their feet,
ing to learn good things, the real purpoſe was, to con- theovergrown fize of their heads. It is equally in vain
ſult how to cheat Indians in the price of beaver. Con to aſcribe to climate the low ſtature of the Laplanders,
ſider but a little, Conrad, and you muſt be of my opi- or their ugly viſage. The black colour of negroes,
nion. If they met ſo often to learn good things, they thick lips, flat noſe, criſped woolly hair,and rank ſmell,
certainly would have learned ſome before this tiine. diſtinguish them from every other race of men. The
But they are ſtill ignorant. You know our practice. Abyſſinians, on the contrary, are tall and well made,
If a white man, in travelling through our country, their complexion a brown olive, features well-propor-
enters one of our cabins, we all treat him as I treat tioned, eyes large and of a ſparkling black, thin lips,
you; we dry him if he is wet, we warm him if he is a noſe rather high than flat. There is no ſuch differ-
cold, and give him meat and drink, that he may allay ence of climate between Abyſſinia and Negro-land as
his thirſt and hunger ; and we ſpread ſoft furs for him to produce theſe ſtriking differences.
to reſt and ſleep on: we demand nothing in return. « Nor ſhall our author's ingenious hypotheſis con-
But if I go into a white-man's houſe at Albany, and aſk cerning the extremities of heat and cold, purchaſe him
for victuals and drink, they ſay, Where is your mo. impunity with reſpect to the fallow complexion of the
ney? And if I have none, they ſay, Get out, you [n- Samoiedes, Laplanders, and Greenlanders. The Fin-
dian dog. You ſee they have not yet learned thoſe lit- landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate
tle good things that we need no meeting to be inſtructed not leſs cold than that of the people mentioned
in; becauſe our mothers taught them to us when we yet are fair beyond other Europeans. I ſay, more,
were children ; and, therefore, it is impoſſible their there are many inſtances of races of people preſerving
meetings ſhould be, as they ſay, for any ſuch purpoſe, their original colour, in climates very different from
or have
any
ſuch effect ; they are only to contrive the their own ; but not a ſingle inſtance of the contrary,
cheating of Indians in the price of beaver."
as far as I can learn. There have been four complete
generations of negroes in Pennſylvania, without any
The next queſtion which offers itſelf to our notice, viſible change of colour ; they continue jet black, as
is, Whether the peculiarities of the aboriginal Ameri- originally. Thoſe who aſcribe all to the ſun : ought to
cans, or the diſparity between them and the inhabi- conſider how little probable it is, that the colour it im-
tants of the Old-World, afford ſufficient grounds for preſſes on the parents ſhould be communicated to their
determining them, as many eminent writers have infant children who never ſaw the fun : I ſhould be as
done, to be a race of men radically different from all ſoon induced to believe, with a German naturaliſt,
others?
whoſe name has eſcaped me, that the negro colour is
In this queſtion, to avoid being tedious, we ſhall owing to an ancient cuſtom in Africa, of dyeing the
confine ourſelves to what has been advanced by Lord ſkin black. Let a European, for years, expoſe him-
Kames; who is of opinion, that there are many dif ſelf to the ſun, in a hot climate, till he be quite brown;
ferent ſpecies of men, as well as of other animals; and the children will, nevertheleſs, have the ſame com-
gives an hypotheſis, whereby he pretends his opinion plexion with thoſe in Europe. From the action of the
85
may be maintained in a conſiſtency with Revelation. fun, is it poſſible to explain, why a negro, like a Eu-
“If (ſays he) the only rule afforded by nature for claf- rupean, is born with a ruddy ſkin, which turns jet
Kames's ſing animals can be depended on, there are different black, the eighth, or ninth, day?”
arguments races of men as well as of dogs : a maſtiff differs not Our author next proceeds to draw ſome arguments
for differ-
more from a ſpaniel, than a white man from a negro, for the exiſtence of different races of men, from the
ent ſpecies,
or a Laplander from a Dane. And, if we have any various tempers and diſpoſitions of different nations
faith in Providence, it ought to be ſo. Plants were which he reckons to be specific differences, as well as
created of different kinds, to fit them for different cli- thoſe of colour, ſtature, &c. and having ſummed up
mates; and ſo were brute animals. Certain it is, that his evidence, he concludes thus : : “Upon ſumming up
all men are not fitted equally for every climate. There the whole particulars, mentioned above, would one he-
is ſcarce a climate but what is natural to ſome men, fitate a moment, to adopt the following opinion, were
where they proſper and flouriſh : and there is not a there no counterbalancing evidence, viz. “That God
climate, but where ſome men degenerate. Doth not created many pairs of the human race, differing
then analogy lead us to conclude, that, as there are from each other, both externally and internally; that
different climates on the face of this globe, ſo there are "lie fitted thoſe pairs for different climates, and placed
different races of men fitted for theſe different climates? each pair in its proper climate ; that the peculi-
« M. Buffon, from the rule, That animals which can (arities of the original pairs were preſerved entire
procreate together; and whoſe progeny can alſo pro in their deſcendants; who, having no aſſiſtance but
create, are of one ſpecies ; concludes, that all men are their natural talents, were left to gather knowledge
of one race or ſpecies; and endeavours to ſupport that * from experience; and, in particular, was left (each
favourite opinion, by aſcribing to the climate, to food, tribe) to form a languge for itſelf; that ſigns were
fufficient
Lord
;
6
4 B 2
A M E
[ 564 )
A M E
88
•
origin of
cies.
America. (fufficient for the original pairs, without any language the difficulty will vaniſh : but if this is his Lordſhip's America.
but what nature ſuggeſts; and that a language was interpretation, it is certainly a very fingular one.
• formed gradually, as a tribe increaſed in numbers, Before entering upon the conſideration of the parti- General
and in different occupations, to make ſpeech necef cular arguments uſed by our author for proving the di-
principles
ſary!" But this opinion, however plauſible, we are verſity of ſpecies in the human race, it will be proper to be kept
not permitted to adopt ; being taught a different leffon to lay down the following general principles, which in view in
by Revelation, viz. That God created but a ſingle may ſerve as axions. (1). When we aſiert a multi- reaſoning
pair of the human ſpecies. Though we cannot doubt plicity of ſpecies in the human race; we bring in a ſu-
on this ſub
the authority of Moſes, yet his account of the crea-
pernatural cauſe to folve a natural phenomenon ; for jects
tion of man is not a little puzzling, as it ſeems to con theſe ſpecies are ſuppoſed to be the immediate work of
tradict
every one of the facts mentioned above. Ac. the Deity. (2). No perſon has a right to call any
cording to that account, different races of men were thing the immediate effect of omnipotence, unleſs by
not formed, nor were men formed originally for diffe- expreſs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain-
rent climates. All men inuſt have ſpoken the ſame lan ty that no natural cauſeis ſufficient to produce the effect.
guage, viz. That of our firſt parents. And what of The reaſon is plain. The Deity is inviſible, and there
all ſeems the moſt contradictory to that account, is the are many natural cauſes : when we ſee an effect, there-
ſavage ſtate: Adam, as Moſes informsus, was endued fore, of which the cauſe does not manifeſt itſelf, we
by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge; cannot know whether the immediate cauſe is the Deity,
and he certainly was an excellent preceptor to his chil or an invilible natural power. An example of this we
dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many have in the phenomena of thunder and earthquakes,
generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men which were often aſcribed immediately to the Deity,
86
unto the ſavage ſtate? To account for that diſmal ca but are now diſcovered to be the effects of electricity.
His hypoc taſtrophe, mankind muſt have ſuffered ſome terrible (3). No perſon can aſſert natural cauſes to be inſuffi-
cerning the conyolſion. That terrible convulſion is revealed to us cient to produce ſuch and ſuch effects, unleſs he per-
in the hiſtory of the tower of Babel, contained in the fectly knows all theſe cauſes, and the limits of their
the diffe- ith chapter of Geneſis, which is, 'That, for many power in all poſſible caſes; and this no man has ever
rent ſpe (centuries after the deluge, the whole earth was of one known, or can know.
• language, and of one ſpeech ; that they united to By keeping in view theſe principles, which we hope
• build a city on the plain in the land of Shinar, with a are ſelf-evident, we will eaſily fee lord Kame's ar-
• tower whoſe top might reach unto heaven; that the guments to conſiſt entirely in a petitio principii.--In
# Lord, beholding the people to be one, and to have ſubſtance, they are all reduced to this ſingle ſentence:
all one language, and that nothing would be re “Natural philoſophers have been, hitherto, unſucceſs-
ſtrained from them which they imagined to do, con ful in their endeavours to account for the differences
founded their language, that they might not under- obſerved among mankind, therefore theſe differences
6 ſand one another, and ſcattered them abroad upon cannot be accounted for from natural cauſes."
89
the face of the earth.' Here, light breaks forth in His Lordſhip, however, tells us in the paſſages al. Inconſiſte
the midſt of all darkneſs. By confounding the language ready quoted, that “ a maſtiff differs not more from a ency in
of men, and ſcattering them abroad upon the face of ſpaniel, than a Laplander from a Dane;" that “it is Lord
all the carth, they were rendered ſavages. And to
Kames's
vain to aſcribe to climate the low ſtature of the Lap-
argumentas
harden them for their new habitations, it was necef- landers, or their ugly viſage.-Yet, in a note on the
ſary that they ſhould be divided into different kinds, word Laplanders, he ſubjoins, that,” by late accounts
fitted for different climates. Without an immediate it appears, that the Laplanders are only degenerated
change of conſtitution, the builders of Babel could not Tartars, and that they and the Hungarians originally
poſſibly have ſubſiſted in the burning region of Guinea, ſprung from the ſame breed of men, and from the fame
nor in the frozen region of Lapland; houſes not being country.”—The Hungarians are generally handſome
prepared, nor any other convenience to protect them and well-made, like Danes, or like other people. The
87
againſt a deſtructive climate.'
Laplanders, he tells us, differ as much from them as a
We may, firft, remark on his lordſhip’s hypothecis, maſtiff from a ſpaniela Natural cauſes, therefore, ac-
plete. that it is evidently incomplete : for, allowing the hu- cording to Lord Kames himſelf, may cauſe two indivi-
man race to have been divided into different ſpecies, at duals of the ſame ſpecies of mankind differ from each
the confuſion of languages, and that each ſpecies was other as much as a maſtiffdoes from a ſpaniel.
adapted to a particular climate : by what means were While we are treating this ſubject of colour, it may Remark-
go
they to get to the climales proper for them, or how not be amiſs to obſerve, that a very remarkable diffe- able diffe-
were they to know that ſuch climates exiſted? How was rence of colour may accidentally happen to individuals rence of can
an American, for inſtance, when languiſhing in an im- of the ſame ſpecies. In the iſthmus of Darien, a fingu- lour from
accidental
proper climate at Bable, to get to the land of the Anie far race of men have been diſcovered. They are of
cauſes.
zons, or, the banks of the Oroonoko, in his own coun low fature, of a feeble make, and incapable of endu-
iry? Or how was he to know that theſe places werc ring fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk white; not
more proper for him thanothers ?-If, indeed, we take reſembling that of fair people among Europeans, but
the fcripture phraſe, « The Lord ſcattered them abroad without any blah or ſanguine conplexion. Their ſkin
upon the face of all the earth," in a certain ſenſe, we is covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ;
inay account for it. If we ſuppoſe that the different the hair of their heads,their eye-brows, and eye-laſhes,
fpecies were immediately carried off by a whirlwind,or are of the ſame hue. Their eyes are of a ſingular
other Inpernatural means, to their proper coun ries, form, and ſo weak, that they can hardly bear the light
of
27
Enconi
A ME
L 565
A M E
]
ſtic ofa dif-
Nor fta-
ture.
America: of the ſun ; but they ſee clearly by moon-light, and are the moſt uncleanly of all animals, are eaten without America.
moſt ađive and gay in the night. Among the negroes fcruple. Nature feems expreſsly to have intended them
of Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian iſlands, for this uſe, by making their offspring ſo very nume-
a ſmall number of thoſe people are produced. They rous, and their increaſe ſo quick, and frequent. It may
are called Albinos by the Portugueſe, and Kackerlakės be objected, that the exalted degree of inſtinct which
91 by the Dutch.
we obſerve in our dogs, inſpires us with great unwil-
Colour no This race of men is not indeed permanent; but it lingneſs to kill and ear them. But it is owing to the
char.cleri- is ſufficient to ſhow, that mere colour is by no means the time we ſpend on the education of dogs, that they ac-
ferent fpe-
characteriſtic of a certain fpecies of mankind. The dif- quire thoſe eminent qualities, which attach them fo
ference of colour in theſe individuals is undoubtedly much to us. The natural qualities of our dogs may
cies
owing to a natural cauſe. To conſtitute, then, a race receive a wonderful improvement ; but education mult
of men of this colour, it would only be neceſſary that give its aſſiſtance, without which the human mind it-
this cauſe, which at preſent is merely accidental, ſhould felf, though capable of an immenſe expanſion, remains
become permanent, and we cannot know but it may be in a very contracted ſtate. In New Zealand, and (ac-
92
ſo in ſome parts of the world.
cording to foriner accounts of voyages) in the tropical
If a difference of colour is no characteriſtic of a dif iſles of the South-Sea, the dogs are the moſt ſtupid, dull
ferent ſpecies of mankind, much leſs can a difference in animals imaginable, and do not ſeem to have the leaſt
ſtature be thought ſo. In the ſouthern parts of Ameri- advantage in point of fagacity over our ſheep, which
ca, there are ſaid to be a race of men exceeding the are coniinonly made the einblems of lillineſs. In the
* See Pata- common fize in height and ſtrength*. This account, former country they are fed upon fiſh, in the latter on
gonia. however, is doubted of by ſome ; but be that as it vegetables, and both theſe diets may have ſerved to al-
will, it is certain that the Eſquimaux are as much un tertheir difpofition. Education may, perhaps, like-
der the common ſize, as the Patagonians are ſaid to be wiſe, graft new inſtincts: the New Zealand dogs are
above it. Nevertheleſs, we are not to imagine, that ei. fed on the remains of their maſters meals ; they eat
ther of theſe are ſpecific differences ; ſeeing the Lap- the bones of other dogs; and the puppies become true
landers and Hungarians are both of the ſame ſpecies, cannibals from their birth. We had a young New-
and yet the former are generally almoſt a foot ſhorter Zealand puppy on board, which had certainly had no
than the latter ; and if a difference of climate, or other opportunity of taſting any thing but the mother's milk
accidental cauſes, can make the people of one country before we purchaſed it; however, it eagerly devour-
a foot ſhorter than the common ſize of mankind, un ed a portion of the fleſh and bones of the dog on whiclı
doubtedly accidental cauſes of a contrary nature may we dined to-day; while ſeveral others of the Europe-
make thoſe of another country a foot taller than other an breed, taken on board at the Cape, turned froin it
men.
without touching it.
Different Though the ſun has, moſt undoubtedly, a ſhare in "On the 4th of Auguſt, a young bitch, of the terrier Ibid. p.243.
cauſes con- the production of the ſwarthy colour of thoſe nations breed, taken on board at the Cape of Good-Hope, and
which are expoſed to its influence ; yet the manner of covered by a ſpaniel, brought ten young ones, one of
wards an
alteration living to which people are accuſtomed; their food, which was dead. The New Zealand dog inentioned a-
iu colour, their employment, and many other circumſtances, muft bove, which devoured the bones of the roaſted dog, now
alſo contribute,not a little to a difference of complexion. fell upon the dead puppy, and eat of it with a ravenous
The more full examination, however, of theſe ſeveral appetite. This is a proof how far education inay go in
circumſtances we reſerve for another article. See producing, and propagating, new inſtincts in animals.
94
the article COMPLEXION.
European dogs are never fed on the meat of their own
It is allowed on all hands, that it is more eaſy to work fpecies, but rather ſeem to abhor it. The New Zea-
ble of alter-
a change upon the body of a man, or any other ani- land dogs, in all likelihood, are trained up from their
ing the in-
mal, than upon his mind. A man who is naturally earlieſt age, to eat the remains of their maſter's meals:
choleric, may, indeed, learn to prevent the bad effects they are, therefore, uſed to feed upon tiſh; their own
of his paſſion by reaſon, but the paſſion itſelf will re- fpecies; and, perhaps, human fleſh; and what was on-
main as immutable as his colour--But, to reaſon in a ly owing to a habit, at firſt, may have become inſtinct,
manner ſimilar to Lord Kames; though a inan ſhould be by length of time. This was remarkable in our canni-
naturally choleric, or ſubject to any other paſſion, why bal dog ; for he came on board ſo young, that he could
fhould bis children be fo?-This way of reaſoning, not have been weaned long enough to have acquired
however plauſible, is by no means concluſive, as will a habit of devouring his own ſpecies, and much leſs of
appear from the following paſſage in Mr Forſter's eating human fleſh; however, one of our ſeamen ha-
Voyage.
ving cut his finger, held it out to the dog, who fell 10
Poyage
June 9th. “The officers who could not yet relilla greedily, licked it, and tiren began to bite it."
their falt proviſions after the refreſhments of New Zea Frorrthis account it appears, chat even the inſtincts.
World, land, had ordered their black dog, mentioned p. 135, of animals are not unchangeable by natural cauſes; and
to be killed : this day, therefore, we dined, for the firſt if theſe cauſes are powerful enough to change the diſ-
P 234.
time, on a leg of it roaſted; which taited fo exactly like poſitions of ſucceeding generations, niuch more may we
mutton, that is was abſolutely undiſtinguiſhable. In ſuppoſe then capable of making any poſlīble alteration
our cold countries, where animal food is ſo niuch uſed in the external appearance.
95
and where to be carnivorous, perhaps, lies in the nature - We are not here neceflirated to confine ourſelves to Confirmed
of men, or is indiſpenſably neceſſary to the preſervation obſervations made on brate animals. The Franks are by an obfer-
of their health and ſtrength, it is ſtrange that there an example of the production of one general character, vation on
Mould. exiſt a Jewiſh averſion to dogs-fleſh, when hogs, formed by ſome natural cauſe from a mixture of many the Franks
difference
93
tribute to-
Habit capa-
Itinet of
animals.
round the
Vol. I,
A ME
[ 566 ]
A M E
Dithe peo.
Anerica. different nations – They were a motley multitude, ward from the river Oby to the ſea of Kamtſchatka America.
conſiſting of various German nations dwelling beyond were unknown,or imperfectly explored, the north-cait
the Rhine; who, uniting in defence of their common extremities of our hemiſphere were ſuppoſed to be lo
liberty, took thence the name of Franks; the word far diſtant from any part of the New-world, that it
frank lignifying in their language, as it itill does in was not eaſy to conceive how any communication ſhould
ours, free. Among them the following nations were have been carried on between them. But the Ruffians,
mentioned, viz. the Actuarii, Chamavi, Bructeri, Salii, having ſubjected the weſtern part of Siberia to their
Friſii, Chaufi, Amſwarii, and Catti. We cannot ſup- empire, gradually extended their knowledge of that
poſe one character to belong to ſo many different na vaſt country, by advancing towards the eaſt into un-
tions; yet is it certain that the Franks were, nation- known provinces. Theſe were diſcovered by hunters in
ally, characterized as treacherous. It is in vain, then, their excurſions after game, or by ſoldiers employed in
to talk of different races of men, either from their co levying the taxes; and the couri of Muſcow eſtimated
lour, ſize, or prevailing diſpoſitions, ſecing we have the importance of thoſe countries only by the ſmall ad-
undeniable proofs that all theſe may be changed, in dition which they made to its revenue. At length, Pe-
the moſt remarkable manner, by natural cauſes, with ter the Great, aſcended the Ruſſian throne : His en-
out any miraculous interpoſition of the Deity. lightened, comprehentive mind, intent upon every cir-
96
cumſtance that could aggrandize his empire, or render
The queſtions which now preſent themſelves to our his reignilluſtrious,difcerned conſequences of thoſe dir-
pling of
notice are, From what part of the Old-World America coveries, which had eſcaped the obſervation of his ig-
America. has, moſt probably, been peopled ?-And how was this norant predeceſſors. He perceived, that, in proportion
peopling accompliſhed !--
as the regions of Alia extended towards the eait, they
Few queſtions in the hiſtory of mankind have been muſt approach nearer to America ; that the communi-
more agitated than theſe.-Philoſophers, and men of cation between the two continents, which had long
learning and ingenuity, have been ſpeculating upon been ſearched for in vain, would probably be found in
them, ever ſince the diſcovery of the American-Iſlands, this quarter ; and that, by opening this intercourſe,
by Chriſtopher Columbus.—But notwithſtanding all ſome part of the wealth and commerce of the weſtern
the labours of Acoſta, of Grotius, and of many other world might be made to flow into his dominions by a
writers of eminence, the ſubject ſtill affords an ample new channel. Such an object ſuited a genius that de-
field for the reſearches of the man of ſcience, and for lighted in grand ſchemes. Peter drew up
inſtructions
the fancies of the theoriſt.
with his own hand for proſecuting this deſign, and gave
Diſcoveries, long ago made, inform us, that an orders for carrying it into execution.
intercourſe between the Old-Continent and America “ His fucceffors adopted his ideas, and purſued his
might be carried on, with facility, from the north-weſt plan. The officers whom the Ruſſian court employed
extremities of Europe and the north-eaſt boundaries of in this ſervice, had to ſtruggle with ſo many difficulties,
Aſia. In the ninth century the Norwegians diſcovered that their progreſs was extremely flow. Encouraged
Greenland, and planted a colony there. The commu. by ſome faint traditions among the people of Siberia
nication with that country, was renewed in the laſt concerning a ſucceſsful voyage in the year 1648 round
century by Moravian miſſionaries, in order to propagate the north-eaſt promontory of Aſia, they attempted to
their doctrine in that bleak and uncultivated region. follow the ſame courſe. Veſſels were fitted out, with
By theni we are inforined that the north-weſt coaſt of this view, at different times, from the rivers Lena and
Greenland is ſeparated from America by a very narrow Kolyma ; but in a frozen ocean, which nature ſeems
ſtrait; that at the bottom of the bay it is highly pro not to have deſtined for navigation, they were expoſed
bable that they are united; that the Eſquimaux of Ameri- to many diſaſters, without being able to accompliſh
ca perfectly reſemble the Greenlanders, in their af- their purpoſe. No veſſel fitted out by the Ruſſian court
97 peet, dreſs, and mode of living; and that a Moravian ever doubled this formidable cape ; we are indebted for
A commu- miſſionary,well acquainted with the language ofGreen. what is known of thoſe extreme regions of Aſia, to the
nication be- land, having viſited the country of the Eſquimaux, diſcoveries made in excurſions by land. In all thoſe
found, to his aſtoniſhment, that they ſpoke the ſame provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great
New-Con- language with the Greenlanders, and were, in every extent and fertility lie at no conſiderable diſtance from
tinents, bs reſpect, the ſame people. The ſame ſpecies of animals, their own coaſts. Theſe the Rufians imagined to be
two ways. too, are found in the contiguous regions. The bear, part of America ; and ſeveral circumſtances occurred
the wolf, the fox, the hare, the deer, the roebuck, the not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per-
elk, frequent the foreſts of North-America, as well ſuading them that ſome portion of that continent could
as thoſe in the north of Europe.
not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknown
Other diſcoveries have proved, that if the two con in thoſe naked regions of Aſia, are driven upon the
tinents of Aſia and America be ſeparated at all, it is coaſt by an eafterly wind. By the ſame wind floating
only by a narrow ſtrait. From this part of the Old- ice is brought ihither in a few days; flights of birds
Continent, alſo, inhabitants may have paſſed into the arrive annually from the fame quarter ; and a tradition
New; and the releinblauce between the Indians of A obtains among the inhabitants, of an intercourſe for-
merica and the eaſtern inliabitants of Aſia, would in- merly carried on with ſonie countries ſituated to the
duce is to conjecture that they have a common origin. caſt.
Hiſtory of
This is the opinion adopted by Dr Robertſon, in his “After weighing all theſe particalars, and compa-
America, Hiſtory of America*, where we find it accompanied ring the poſition of the countries in Aſia which they
Vol. I, with the following narrative.
had diſcovered, with ſuch parts in the north-weſt of A-
p. 273. “While thoſe immenſe regions which ſtretched eaſt- merica as were already known; the Ruſſian court forn-
>
tween th
Old and
I
ed
A M E
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A M É
America. ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any
America.
Vidi egů quod fuerat quondam folidiſima tellus,
nation leſs accuſtomed to engage in arduous underta-
Ele fretum ; vidi fractas ex æquore terras.
kings, and to contend with great difficulties. Orders
were iſſued to build two veſſels at Ochotz, in the At preſent, they plough thoſe lands, over which ſhips
ſea of Kamtſchatka, to ſail on a voyage of diſcovery, formerly ſailed, and now they fail over lands which
Though that dreary uncultivated region furniſhed no. were, formerly, cultivated : earthquakes have ſwallow-
thing that could be of uſe in conſtructing them but ed ſome lands, and ſubterraneous fires have thrown up
ſome larch-trees ; though not only the iron, the cor others: the rivers have formed new foil with their
dage, the fails, and all the numerous articles requiſite mud: the ſea, retreating from the ſhores, has lengthen-
for their equipment, but the proviſions for victualling ed the land in ſome places, and advancing in others has
them, were to be carried through the immenſe deſarts diminiſhed it; it has ſeparated ſome territories which
of Siberia, along rivers of difficult navigation, and roads were formerly united, and formed new ſtraits and
almoſt impaſſable, the mandate of the ſovereign, and gulphs. We have examples of all theſe revolutions in
the perſeverance of the people, at laſt ſurmounted eye-
the paſt century. Sicily was united to the continent
ry obſtacle. Two yeſſels were finiſhed; and, under the of Naples, as Eubea,now the Black-Sea, was to Bæotia.
command of captains Behring and Tſchirikow, ſailed Diodorus, Strabo, and other ancient authors, ſay the
from Kamtſchatka in queſt of the New World, in a ſame thing of Spain, and of Africa, and affirm, that by
quarter where it had never been approached. They a violent eruption of the ocean upon the land between
Maped their courſe towards the eaſt; and though a ſtorm the mountains Abyla and Calpe, that communication
foon ſeparated the veſſels, which never rejoined, and was broken, and the Mediterranean-Sea was formed.
many diſaſters befel them, the expectations from the Among the people of Ceylon there is a tradition that
voyage were not altogether fruſtrated. Each of the a ſimilar eruption of the ſea ſeparated their illand from
commanders diſcovered land, which to them appeared the peninſula of India. The ſame thing is believed by
to be part of the American continent; and, according thoſe of Malabar with reſpect to the illes of Maldivia,
to their obſervations, it ſeems to be ſituated within a and with the Malayans with reſpect to Sumatra. It
few degrees of the north-weſt coaſt of California. Each is certain, ſays the count de Buffon, that in Ceylon
ſet ſome of his people aſhore: but in one place the in the earth has loſt 30 or 40 leagues, which the ſea has
habitants fled as the Ruſſians approached; in another, taken from it; on the contrary, Tongres, a place of
they carried off thoſe who landed, and deſtroyed their the Low-Countries, has gained 30 leagues of land from
boats. The violence of the weather, and the distreſs of the ſea. The northern part of Egypt owes its exiſt-
their crews, obliged both to quit this inhoſpitable coaſt. ence to inundations of the Nile. The earth which
In their return they touched at ſeveral iſlands, which this river has brought from the inland countries of A-
ſtretch in a chain from eaſt to weſt between the country frica, and depoſited in its inundations, has formed a
which they had diſcovered and the coaſt of Alia. They foil of more than 25 cubits of depth. In like manner,
had ſome intercourſe with the natives, who ſeemed to adds the above author, the province of the Yellow-
them to reſemble the North-Americans. They pre. River in China, and that of Louiſiana, have only been
ſented to the Ruſſians the calumet, or pipe of peace, formed of the mud of rivers. Pliny, Seneca, Diodorus,
which is a ſymbol of friendſhip univerſal among the and Strabo, report innumerable examples of ſimilar
people of North-America, and an uſage of arbitrary revolutions, which we omit, that our diſſertation may
98 inſtitution peculiar to them."
not become too prolix; as alſo many niodern revoluz-
Rcaſon for The more recent and accurate diſcoveries of that il. tions, which are related in the theory of the earth of
fuppoſing luſtrious navigator Cooke, and of his ſucceſſor Clerke, the Count de Buitoni and other authors. In South-A-
have brought the matter ſtill nearer to certainty. The merica, all thoſe who have obſerved with philofophic
continents
ſea, from the ſouth of Behring's Straits to the creſcent eyes the peninſula of Yucatan, do not doubt that that
to have
been once
of illes between Aſia and America, is very ſhallow. It country has once been the bed of the fea; and, on the
joined.
deepens from theſe ſtraits (as the Britiſh feas do contrary, in the channel of Bahama, many indications
from thoſe of Dover) till ſoundings are loſt in the Pa ſhory the illand of Cuba to have been once united to
cific-Ocean; but that does not take place but to the the continent of Florida. In the ſtrait which ſeparates ,
ſouth of the iſles. Between them and the ſtraits is America from Aſia many iſlands are found, which pro-
an increaſe from 12 to 54 fathoms, except only off St bably were the mountains belonging to that tract of
Thaddeus-Noſs, where there is a channel of greater land which we ſuppoſe to have been fivallowed up by
depth. From the volcanic diſpoſition, it has been earthquakes ; which is made more probable by the
judged probable, not only that there was a ſeparation multitude of volcanoes which we know of in the penin-
of the continents at the ſtraits of Behring, but that ſula of Kamtſchatka. It is imagined, however, that
the whole ſpace from the illes to that ſmall opening the finking of that land, and the feparation of the two
had once been occupied by land; and that the fury of continents, has been occaſioned by thoſe great and ex-
the watery element, actuated by that of fire, had, in traordinary earthquakes mentioned in the hiſtories of
moſt remote times, ſubverted and overwhelmed the the Americans, which formedan ära almoſt as inemora-
tract, and left the iſlands to ſerve as monumental ble is that of the deluge. The hiſtories of the Toltecas
fragments.
fix ſuch earthquakes in the year I Tecpatl ; but as we
99
Probable Without adopting all the fancies of Buffon, there know not to what century that belonged, we can form
cauſe of can be no doubt, as the Abbe Clavigero obſerves, that no conjeture of the time that great calamity happened.
their ſubſe- our planet has been ſubject to great viciſſitudes lince If a great cartlıquake ſhould overwhelm the iſthms of
quent ſepa- the deluge. Ancient and modern hiſtories confirm the Senz, and there ſhould be at the ſame time as great a
gation,
truth whichOvid has ſung in the name of Pythagoras : ſcarcity of hiſtorians as there were in the firit ages
after
the two
A M E
[ 568 ]
A M E
100
narrow
105
IOI
them.
10%
ricans.
cans,
America. after the deluge, it would be doubted, in 300 or 400 we well know, by horrid experience, is continued America.
years after, whether Aſia had ever been united by that to this day in America. The terocity of the Scylbi-
part to Africa , and many would firmly deny it. ans to their priſoners extended to the remoteſt part of
Separated
W liether that great event, the ſeparation of the Aſia. The Kamtſcliatkans, even at the time of their
only by a continents, took place before or after the population diſcovery by the Ruflians, put their priſoners to death
of America, it is impoſſible for us to determine : but by the inoit lingering and excruciating inventions ;
ſtrait. we are indebted to the abovementioned navigators for a practice in full force to this very day among the abo-
ſettling the long diſpute about the point from which it riginal Americans. A race of the Scythians were ſty-
was effected. Their obſervations prove, that in one led Anthropophagi, from their feeding on human feſh.
place the diſtance between continent and continent is The people of Noorka Sound fill make a repaſt on Proofsfrom
only 39 miles, not (as the author of the Recherches their fellow-creatures; but what is more wonderful, a finilarity
Philofophiques ſur les Americains would have it) 800 the favage allies of the Britiſh army have been known of cuſtome,
Eaſineſs of leagues. This narrow ſtrait has alſo in the middle to throw the mangled limbs of the French priſoners &c.
the paſſage two iſlands, which would greatly facilitate the migra- into the horrible cauldron, and devour them with the
between tion of the Afiatics into the New-World, ſuppoling that ſame reliſh as thoſe of a quadruped.
it took place in canoes after the convulſion which rent « The Scythians were ſaid, for a certain time, an-
the two continents afunder. Belides, it may be ad- nually to transform themſelves into wolves, and again
ded, that theſe ſtraits are, even in the ſummer, often to reſume the human ſhape. The new diſcovered A-
filled with ice; in winter, often frozen. In either mericans about Nootka-Sound, at this time, diſguiſe
caſe, mankind might find an eaſy paſſage ; in the laſt, themſelves in dreſſes made of the ſkins of wolves, and
the way was extremely ready for quadrupeds to croſs other wild beaſts, and wear even the heads fitted to
and ſtock the continent of America. But where, from
their own. Theſe habits they uſe in the chace, to
the vaſt expanſe of lhe north-eaſtern world, to fix on circumvent the animals of the field. But would not
the firſt tribes who contributed to people the New. ignorance or ſuperſtition aſcribe to a fupernatural me-
Continent, nowy inhabited almoſt from end to end, is a tamorphoſis theſe temporary expedients to deceive
matter that baffles human reaſon. The learned may the brute creation :
106
make hold and ingenious conjectures, but plain good " In their marches, the Kamtſchatkans never went Cuſtoms
ſenſe cannot always accede to them.
abreaſt, but followed one another in the ſame track. and dreſſes
As mankind increaſed in numbers, they naturally The ſame cuſtom is exactly obſerved by the Ame- common to
Conjec-
the eaſtern
tures con- protruded one another forward.
Wars might be an.
Alatics &
cerning the other cauſe of migrations. There appears no reaſon 66 The Tunguſi, the moſt numerous nation reſident the Ameri-
firſt migra- why the Aſiatic north might not be an officina virorum, in Siberia, prick their faces with ſmall punctures, with
tions into as well as the European. The overteeming country, a needle, in various ſhapes; then rub into them char-
the New to the eaſt of the Riphæan Mountains, muſt find it nec coal, ſo that the marks become indelible. This cuſtom
Continent.
ceſſary to diſcharge its inhabitants: the firſt great wave is ſtill obſerved in ſeveral parts of America. The In-
of people was forced forward by the next to it, more dians on the back of Hudſon's Bay, to this day, per-
tumid and more powerful than itſelf: ſucceſſive and form the operation exactly in the ſame manner, and
newimpulſes continually arriving, ſhort reſt was given puncture the ſkin into various figures; as the natives
to that which ſpread over a more eaſtern tract ; diſturb- of New-Zealand do at preſent, and as the ancient Bri-
ed again and again, it covered freſh regions; at length, tons did with the herb glaſtum, or woad ; and the
reaching the fartheſt limits of the Old-World, founda Virginians, on the firſt diſcovery of that country by
new one, with a17 ple ſpace to occupy unmoleſted for
the Engliſh.
ages; till Columbus curſed them by a diſcovery, which « The Tunguſi uſe canoes made of birch-bark, di-
brought again new ſins and new deaths to both worlds. ftended over ribs of wood, and nicely lowed together.
« The inhabitants of the New World (Mr Pennant The Canadian, and many other American nations, uſe
nant's opi- obſerves), do not conſiſt of the offspring of a ſingle na-
no other ſort of boars. The paddles of the Tunguſi,
tion: different people, at ſeveral periods, arrived there, are broad at each end; thoſe of the people near Cook's
and it is impoſſible to ſay, that any one is now to be river, and of Oonalaſcha, are of the ſame form.
found on thc original ſpot of its colonization. It is “ In burying of the dead, many of the American
impoſſible, with the lights which we have ſo recently nations place the corpſe ai full length, after preparing
received, to adinit that America could receive its in it according to their cuſtomis; others place it in a fit-
habitants (at leaſt the bulk of them) from any other ting poſture, and lay by it the moſt valuable cloath-
place than Eaſtern-Aſia. A few proofs may be added, ing, wampum, and other matters. The Tartars did
taken from cuſtoms or dreſſes common to the inhabi the fame : and both people agree in covering the
tants of both worlds : ſome have been long extinct in whole with earth, ſo as to form a tumulus, barrow,
the old, others remain in both in full force.
or carnedd.
Thebulk of “The cuſtom of ſcalping was a barbariſm in uſe “ Some of the American nations hang their dead
its inhabi- with theScythians,who carried about them at all times, in trees. Certain of the Tungufi obſerve a ſimilar
tants, pro- this ſavage mark of triumph: they cut a circle round cuſtom.
bably firſt
“We can draw ſome analogy from dreſs; conveni-
the neck, and ſtripped off the ſkin, as they would that
reccived
of an ox.
A little image, found among the Kalmucs, ency in that article muſt have been conſulted on both
eaſtern part of a Tartarian deity, mounted on a horſe, and fitting continents, and originally the materials muſt have been
of Aſia,
on a human ſkin, with ſcalps pendant from the breaſt, the ſame, the ſkins of birds and beaſts. It is ſingular,
fully illuſtrates the cuſtom of the Scythian progenitors, that the conic bonnct of the Chineſe ſhould be found
as deſcribed by the Greek hiſtorian. This uſage, as among the people of Nootka. I cannot give into the
notion,
103
Mr Pen-
nion.
I04
from the
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107
Other rc-
CCS.
A
1
America. notion, that the Chineſe contributed to the population perliont of the animal creation, to all its parts. "We America,
of the New World ; but we can readily admit, that a need not be ſtartled (ſays Mr Pennant) at the vaſt
fhipwreck might furniſh thoſe Aniericans with a pat. journeys many of the quadrupeds took 10 arrive at their
tern for that part of the dreſs.
preſents ſeats. Might not numbers of ſpecics have
"In refpcét to the features and form of the human found a convenient abode in the vaſt alps of Afia, in.
ſemblane body, almoſt every cribe found along the weſtern coaſt ſtead of wandering to the Cordilleras of Chili? or
has ſome {imilitude to the Tartar nations, and, fill, might not others have been contented wiil the bound-
retain the little eyes, ſınall noſes, high checks, and leſs plains of Tartary, inſtead of travelling thouſands
broad faces. They vary in lize, from the luſty Cal of miles to the extenſive flats of Pampas ! ---To endea-
mucs to the little Nogaians. The internal Ameri vourto elucidate common difficulties is certainly a trou-
cans, ſuch as the Five-Indian nations, who are tall of ble worthy of the philoſopher, and of the divine ; noi
body, robuſt in make, and of oblong faces, are deri to attempt it would be a criminal indolence, a ne.
ved from a variety among the Tartars themſelves. The Slect to
fine race of Tſchurſki ſeems to be the ſtock from which
Vindicate the ways of God to man.
thoſe Americans are derived. The Tſchutíki, again,
from that fine race of Tartars the Kabardinſki, or in But there are multitudes of points beyond the human
habitants of Kabarda.
ability to explain, and yet are truths undeniable: the
“But, about Prince William's-Sound begins a race facts are indiſputable, notwithſtanding the cauſes aro
chiefly diſtinguiſhed by their dreſs, their canoes, and concealed. In ſuch caſes, faith muſt be called in to
their inſtruments of the chace, from the tribes to the our relief. It would, certainly, be the height of folly
ſouth of them. Here commences the Eſquimaux peo to deny to that Being who broke open the great foun-
ple, or the race known by that name in the high lati tains of the deep to effect the deluge—and after-
tudes of the eaſtern ſide of the continent. They may wards, to compel the diſperſion of mankind to peo-
be divided into two varieties. At this place, they are ple the globe, directed the confuſion of languages
of the largeſt ſize. As they advance northward, they powers inferior in their nature to theſe. After theſe
decreaſe in height, till they dwindle into the dwarfiſh wondrous proofs of onnipotency, it will be abſurd to
tribes which occupy ſome of the coalls of the Icy-Sea, deny the poſſibility of infuſing inſtinct into the brute
and the maritime parts of Hudſon's-Bay, of Greenland, creation. Deus eft anima brutor u1112 ; " God himſelf is
and Terra de-Labrador. The fainous Japaneſe map the foul of brutes :” his pleaſure muſt have determined
places ſome iſlands ſeeminglywithin the ſtraits of Behr their will, and directed ſeveral ſpecies, and even whole
ing; on which is beſtowed the title of ra-Zue, or the genera, by impulſe irreſiſtible, to move by ſlow pro-
Kingdom of the Dwarfs. Does not this in ſome man greſſion to their deſtined regions. But for that, the ila-
ner authenticate the chart, and give us reaſon to ſup ma and the pacos might ſtill have in labited the heights
poſe that America was not unknown to the Japaneſe ; of Armenia, and ſome more neighbouring Alps, in-
and that they had (as is mentioned by Kæmpfer and ſtead of labouring to gain the diſtant Peruvian-Andes;
Charlevoix) made voyages of diſcovery, and, accord the whole genus of armadillos, flow of foot, would
ing to the laſt, actually wintered on the continent ? never have quitted the torrid-zone of the Old-ll'orld
That they might have met with the Eſquimaux is very for that of the New; and the whole tribe of monkeys
probable ; whom, in compariſon of themſelves, they would have gamboled together in the foreſts of India,
might juſtly diſtinguiſh by the name of dwarfs. The inſtead of dividing their reſidence between the Iliades
reaſon of their low ſtature is very obvious: theſe of Indoftan, and the deep foreſts of the Braſils. Lions
dwell in a moſt ſevere climate, amidſt penury of food and tigers might have infeſted the hot parts of the
the former in one much more favourable, abundant in New-World, as the firſt do the deſarts of Africa, and
proviſions ; circumſtances that tend to prevent the de the laſt the provinces of Aſia; or the pantherine ani-
generacy of the human frame. At the iſland of Oona mals of South-America might have remained addition-
Jaſcha, a dialect of the Eſquimaux is in uſe, which was al ſcourges with the ſavage beaſts of thoſe ancient con-
continued along the whole coaſt from thence north tinents. The Old-World would have becn overſtocked
ward.''
108
- with animals; the Newremained an unanimated waſte!
The brute
The continent which ſtocked America with the hu or both have contained an equal portion of every
beaſt
man race, is ſuppoſed, by Mr Pennant, to have pour. of the earth. Let it not be objected, that animals
migruteu ed in the brute creation, through the ſame paſſage. Ve bred in a ſouthern climate, after the deſcent of their
by the fame ry few quadrupeds continued in the peninſula of Kamt. parents from the ark, would be unable to bear the front
ſchatka ; Mr Pennant enumerates only 25 which are and ſnow of the rigorous north, before they reached
inhabitants of land : all the reft perſiſted in their mi. South-America, the place of their final deſtination. It
gration, and fixed their reſidence in the New-World. muſt be conſidered, that the migration muſt have been
Seventeen of the Kamtſchatkan quadrupeds are found the work of ages; that in the courſe of their progreſs
in America:others are common only to Siberia, or Tar each generation grew hardened to the climate it had
tary, having, for unknown cauſes, entirely evacuted reached; and that, after their arrival in America, they
Kamtſchatka,and divided themſelves between America would again be gradually accuſtomed to farmer and
and the parts of Aſia above cited. Multitudes, again, warmer climates, in their removal from north to ſouth,
have deſerted the Old-World, even to an individual, as they had in the reverſe, or from ſouth to north.
and fixed their ſeats at diſtances moſt remote from the Part of the tigers ſtill inhabit the eternal ſnows of A-
ſpot from which they took their departure; trom mount rarat, and multitudes of the very ſame ſpecies live,
Ararat, the reſting-place of the ark, in a central part but with exalted rage, beneath the line, in the burn-
of the Old-World, and excellently adapted for the dif. ing ſoil of Borneo, or Sumatra ; but neither lions or
Vol. I
tigers
;
creation
route.
4 C
Λ Μ Ε
A M E
[
570 ]
America, tigers ever migrated into the New World. A few of and, he thinks, the larger ones, as that at Grave. Crock America.
the firſt are found isi fudid and Perſia, but they are (a branch of the Ohio); many which are to be ſeen in
tound in numbers only in Africa. The tiger extends Mexico, and in other parts of America, were intend-
as far north as weſtern Tarcary, in lat. 40. 50. buc ed to ſerve as the baſes of temples.
never has reached America.'
The moſt curious part of this little work is the de-
fn fine, the conjectures of the learned reſpecting the scription, together with the plan, of the ſuppoſed for-
vicinity of the Old and New-World are now, by the tification, above alluded to. It is ſituated on the eaſt
diſcoveries of late great navigators, loft in conviction; ſide of the river Muſkingum, about half a mile above its
and, in the place of imaginary hypotheſes, the real junction with the river Ohio, nearly in the latitude of
place of migration is almoſt incontrovertiblypointed out. 39. 21, and about 170 miles below Fort-Pitt, at the
Some (from a paſſage in Plato) have extended over the confluence of the rivers Alleghany and Monangahe-
Atlantic, fron the ſtraits of Gibralter to the coaſt of la. The town, as it has been ſometimes called, is a
North and Soutlı-America, an illand equal in ſize to the large level, encompafled by walls of a tetragon form ;
continents of Aſia and Africa; over which had paſſed, occupying a piece of ground about one quarter of a
as over a bridge, from the latter, men and animals; mile ſquare. Theſe walls are from lix to ten feet in
wool headed negroes, and lions and tigers, none of height, and from twenty to forty feet in thickneſs.
which cyer exiſted in the New World. A mighty fea They are, at preſent, overgrown with vegetables, of
aroſe, and, in one day and night, cngulphed this ſtu- different kinds, and, among others, with trees, ſome of
pendous tract, and with it every being which had not which are of a very conſiderable diameter. Each ſide
completed its inigration into Anerica. The whole ne- of the walls is divided, by three chaſms, or openings, ,
gro race, and almoſt every quadruped, now inhabi- into four, nearly equal, parts: theſe charms are directly
tants of Africa, periſhed in ibis critical day. Five only oppoſite to each other. Within the walls there are
are to be found, at preſent, in America ; and of theſe three elevations ; the largeſt of theſe is of an oblong
only one, the bear, in South-America: Not a ſingle form, 74 yards long, 44 yards broad, and 6 feet in
cuſtom, common to the natives of Africa and America, height: the ſecond is nearly of a ſimilar form, 50
to evince a common origin. Of the quadrupeds, the yards long, and 40 broad: the third is, alſo, an oblong
bear, ſtag, wolf, fox, and weeſel, are the only ani. mount, but much ſmaller. Beſides theſe three eleva-
mals which we can pronounce, with certainty, to be tions, there is a ſmall circular mount, placed nearly in
found on each continent. The ſtag, the fox, and the the centre of four ſmall caves ; and a “ ſemi-circular
weefel, have made, alſo, no farther progreſs in Africa parapet," which, it is not improbable, may have been
than the north ; but on the ſame continent the wolf is deſigned to guard one of the chaſms, or openings: this
ſpread over every part, yet is unknown in South-Ame- parapet has a ſmall mount. The author obſerves, that
rica, as are the fox and weeſel. In Africa and in South the three elevations « conſiderably refemble ſome of
America the bear is very local, being met with only
o the eminences which have been diſcovered near the
in the north of the firſt, and on the Andes in the laſt. “ river Miſſiſſippi," of which he has given an ac-
Some cauſe unknown arreſted its progreſs in Africa, count in his publication.
and impelled the migration of a few into the Chilian The fortifications (for a diſtinction has been made
Alps, and induced them to leave unoccupied the vaſt between them and the town, but we cannot ſee with
tract from North-America to the lofty Cordilleras. what great propriety)are nearly of theſame form as the
109
Alluſions have often been made by travellers and town. The walls have here, alſo, openings : and at
Remains of
antiquity in others, to ſome remains in America which appeared to each of theſe openings there is one, or more of the
America, owe their original to a people more intimately acquaint ſmall circular mounts.
ed with the arts of life than the ſavage tribes which The pyramid is one of the moſt conſpicuous parts of
inhabited this continent on its firſt diſcovery by the theſe fingular remains. It is of a circular form ; 50
Europeans, or than thoſe which are, at prefent, ſcatter- feet in height; 390 feet in circumference ; and is ſur-
ed through various parts of its extent. In a ſmall work, rounded with a ditch, 5 feet deep, and 15 feet wide :'
publiſhed in London, in 1787, entitled Obſervations on externally to the ditch there is a parapet, which is 759
ſome parts of natural hiſtory: to which is prefixed, an feet in circunference. " The pyramid, as well as
account of ſeveral remarkable veſtiges of an ancient “the eminences and walls, is now covered with graſſes,
date, which have been diſcovered in different parts of “and other kinds of vegetables." Beſides there, there
America. Part I. the author has collected the ſcatter. are ſeveral other eminences, of which we do not think
ed hints of Kalm, of Carver, of Filſon, and ſome o. it neceſſary to take any notice, in this place.
ther travellers, and writers; and has added a plan and The author's opinion concerning theſe remains is
deſcription of a regular work, which he fuppoſes to chis; that they owe their original 1o «the Toltecas, or
have been a fortification, that has been diſcovered near ſome other Mexican nation, and that theſe people
the confluence of the rivers Ohio and Muſkingum. were, probably, the deſcendants of the Danes. The
The reniaius deſcribed, or alluded to, in this publica. firſt member of this conje&ture appears not improbable,
rion, are characters, or ſingular marks, which were if we conſider the ſimilarity of the Mexican mounts and
fuppoſed by ſome Jeſuits, who examined them, to be fortifications, deſcribed by Torquemada, by the Abbé
Tartarian; furrows, as if the land had been ploughed; Clavigero, and by other authors, to thoſe of which our
a ſtone wall; mounds of earth, of different forms and author has publiſhed an account; and, alſo, if we conſi-
lizcs; earthen walls, and ditches, &c.
der the tradition of the Mexicans, that they came from
The mounds of earth are ſuppoſed, by the author, to the north-weſt, in which tract great numbers of theſe
have been deſigned for different purpoſes: the ſmaller remains have been diſcovered. As to the ſecond mem-
onesare, evidently, tumuli, or repoſitories of the dead; ber of this conjecture, we think it but feebly ſupported;
although
A ME
A ME
[ 571
]
2
IIO
113
The pro
III
Ancrica, although we are not ignorant that Grotius and other is a probability of its having been touched at by a people America.
writers have endeavoured to prove, that the northern fo verſed in maritime affairs, and ſo adventurous, asthe
nations of Europe had, aci ually, ſome intercourſc with ancient Nortmans were. The proofs are much inora
America, long before the time of Columbus. See no numerous than thoſe produced by the Britilh hiſtorians:
112. infra.
for the diſcovery is inentioned in ſeveral of the Iceland
The anci It is believed, by many, that the ancients had ſome ic manuſcripts. The period was about the year 1002,
ents ſuppo imperfect notion of the New World ; and ſeveral anci. when it was viſited by one Biorn ; and the diſcovery
fed to have
ent authots are quoted in confirmation of this opinion. purſued to greater effect by Leif,the ſon of Eric, the diſ-
had ſome
In a book, aſcribed to the philoſopher Ariſtotle, we are coverer of Greenland. It does not appear that they reach-
inaperfect
notion of a told that the Carthaginians diſcovered an iſlaud, far be ed farther than Labrador; on which coaſt they inet with
new world. yond the pillars of Hercules, large, fertile, and finely Eſquimaux, on whom they beſtowed the name of Skræ-
watered, with navigable rivers, but uninhabited. This lingues, or dwarfiſh people, from their ſmall ſtature.
iſland was diſtant a few days failing from the conti. They were armed with bows and arrows and had leath
nent: its beauty induced the diſcoverers to ſettle there;
ern canoes, ſuch as they have at preſent. All this is
but the policy of Carthage diſlodged the colony,and laid probable ; nor ſhould the tale of the German, called
ſtrict prohibition on all the ſubjects of the ſtate not to Turkil, one of the crew, invalidate the account. He
attempt any future eſtabliſhment. This account is was, one day, miſling ; but ſoon returned, leaping and
alſo confirmed by an hiſtorian of no mean credit, who ſinging, with all the extravagant marks of joy a bon via
relates, that the Tyrians would have ſettled a colony vant could ſhow, on diſcovering the inebriating fruit of
on the newly-diſcovered iſland, but were oppoſed by his country, the grape : Torfæus even ſays, that lie
the Carthaginians, for ſtate reaſons. The following returned in a ſtate of intoxication. To convince his
paſſage has been quoted, likewiſe, from Seneca's Me commander, he brought ſeveral bunches : and the
dea, in confirmation of this notion.
country, from that circunſtance, was named Vinland.
There appears no reaſon to doubt of the diſcovery;
Venient annis
Sæcuta Jeris, quibus oceanus
it is thought probable, however, that theſe people
Vincula rerum laxet, do ingens
reached no farther than the barren country of Labrze
dor. In ſhort, it is from a much later period that he
Pateat tellus, Typhiſque novos
muſt date the unequivocal diſcovery of America.
Delegat orbes: nec fit terris
Towards the cloſe of the 15th century, Venice and
Ultima Thule.
.
Act. iii. ver. 375.
Genoa being rivals in conimerce, in which the former jects of
had greatly theſuperiority, Chriſtopher Colon,or Colum- Chriſto-
Pretenſions
The Welſh, fondly, imagine that their country con- bus, a native of Genoa, conceived a project of failing to pher Co-
tributed, in 11 70, to people the New World, by the the Eaſt-Indies by dire&ting his courſe weſtward. This lumbus.
Welſh to adventure of Madoc, ſon of Owen Gwynedd, who, on deſign was founded upon a miſtake of the geographers,
the diſco- the death of his father, failed there, and colonized part of thoſe days, who placed the eaſtern parts of Alia im-
very of As of the country. It is pretended that Madoc made two menſely too far to the eaſtward ; ſo that had they been
merica, in
the 12th
voyages : that failing weſt, he left Ireland ſo far to in the right, the ſhorteſt way would have been to fail
century.
the north, that he came to a land unknown, where he directly weſtward. Columbus applied, firſt, to his owny
ſaw many ſtrange things; that he returned home, and, countrymen ; but being rejected by them, he applied
making a report of the fertility of the newly-diſcovered to Portugal, where he met with no better ſucceſs.
country, prevailed on numbers of the Welſh, of each Spain was his next reſource : here, after eight years
ſex, to accompany him, or a ſecond voyage, from which attendance, he obtained, in 1492, a fleet of three ſhips.
he never returned. The favourers of this opinion af- The largeſt, a ſhip of no conſiderable burthen, was con-
ſert, that ſeveral Welſh words, ſuch as gwrando, “ to manded by Columbus, as admiral, who gave it the name
hearken, or liſten;" the iſle of Croeſo, or “ welcome;" of Santa Maria, out of reſpect for the bleſſed Virgin,
Cape-Breton, from the name of the Britiſh-iſland; whom he honoured with ſingular devotion. Ofthe fee
gwynndwr, or “the white water ;” and pingwin, or cond, called the Pinta, Martin Pinzon was captain, and
& the bird with a white head;" are to be found in the his brother Francis pilot. The third, named the Nigna,
American language. But likeneſs of ſound, in a few was under the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon.
words, will not be deemed ſufficient to eſtabliſh the fact; Theſe two were light veſſels, hardly ſuperior in bur-
eſpecially if the meaning has been evidently pervert- den, or force, to large boats. This ſquadron,ifit merits
ed: for example, the whole pinguin tribe have, unfor- that name, was victualled for 12 months, and had oil
tunately, not only black heads, but are not inhabitants board 90 men,moſtly failors, together with a few adven-
of the northern hemiſphere ; the name was alſo beſtow- turers, who followed the fortune of Columbus,and ſome
ed on them by the Dutch, a pinguedine, from their ex- gentleman of ILabella's court, whoin fhe appointed to ac-
cellive fatneſs. It may be added, that the Welſh were company him. Though the expence of the undertaking
never a naval people; that the age in which Madoc li- wasone of the circumſtances which chiefly alarmed the
ved was peculiarly ignorant in navigation ; and the court of Spain, and retarded, ſo long, the negociation
moſt which they could have attempted muſt have been with Columbus, the ſum employed in fitting out this
a mere coaſting voyage.
ſquadron did not exceed 4000l. As Columbus was
Thoſe of The Norwegians put in for a ſhare of the glory, on deeply impreſſed with ſentiments of religion, he would
the Norwe- grounds rather better than the Welſh. By their ſettle not ſet out upon an expedition ſo arduous, and of whiclı
gians better ients in Iceland, and in Greenland, they had arrived one great object was to extend the knowledge of the
founded.
within ſo finall a diſtance of the New World, that there Chriſtian faith, without imploring, publicly, the gui-
4 C 2
dance
of the
II2
Å ME
[572]
A M E
)
I15
14
America. dance and protection of Heaven. With this view, They obſerved that the magnetic needle, in their com- America.
he, together with all the perfons under his command, patres, did not point exactly to the polar ſtar, but vari-
marched, in folemn proceflion, to the monaſtery of Ra ed towards the weſt ; and, as they proceeded, this va-
Aftonifh-
bida. After confeſſing their lins, and obtaining ab- riation increaſed. This appcarance, which is now ment occa-
ſolation, they received the holy facrament from the familiar, though it ſtill remains one of the myſteries fioned-by
hands of the guardian, who joined his prayers to of nature, into the cauſe of which the ſagacity of man obſerving
theirs for the ſucceſs of an enterpriſe which he had ſo hath not been able to penetrate, filled the companions the varia-
zealouſly patronized.
of Columbus with terror. They were now in a bound- tion of the
Next morning, being Friday, the third day of Au- leſs, unknown, ocean, far from the uſual courſe of navi-
compaſs.
guſt, in the year 1492, Columbus ſet ſail, a little be- gation ; naturcitſelf ſeemed to be altered, and the only
fore ſun-riſe, in preſence of a vaſt crowd of ſpectators, guide which they had left was about to fail them. Co-
His voyagc who ſent up their ſupplications to Heaven for the pro- lumbus, with no leſs quickneſs than ingenuity, inven-
ſperous iſſue of the voyage, which they wiſhed, rather ted a reaſon for this appearance, which, though it did
than expected. Columbus ſteered, directly, forthe Ca not ſatisfy himſelf, ſeemed ſo plauſible to them, that it
nary-Iſlands, and arrived there without any occurrence diſpelled their fears, or ſilenced their murmurs.
that would have deſerved notice on any other occaſion: He ſtill continued to ſteer due weſt, nearly in the
but, in a voyage of ſuch expectation and importance, fanie latitude with the Canary-Illands. In this courſe,
every circumſtance was the object of attention. The he camc within the ſphere of the trade-wind, which
rudder of the Pinta broke looſe, the day after ſhe left blows,invariably,from eaſt to weſt,between the tropics,
the harbour, and that accident alarmed the crew, no and a few degrees beyond them. He advanced before
leſs ſuperſtitious than unſkilful, as a certain omen of this ſteady gale with ſuch uniform rapidity, that it was
the unfortunate deſtiny of the expedition. Even in ſeldom neceſſary to ſhift a fail. When about 400 leagues
the ſhort run to the Canaries, the thips were found to to the weſt of the Canaries, he found the ſea ſo covered
be ſo crazy, and ill appointed, as to be very improper with weeds, that it reſembled a meadow of yaſt extent;
for a navigation which was expected to be both long and in ſome places they were ſo thick, as to retard the
and dangerous. Colunibus refitted them, however, to motion of tlie veſſels. This ſtrange appearance occa•
the beſt of his power; and having ſupplied himſelf with fioned new alarm and diſquiet. The failors imagined
freſh proviſions, he took his departure from Gomera, that they were now arrived at the utmoſt boundary of
one of the moſt weſterly of the Canary-Iſlands, on the the navigable ocean ; that theſe floating weeds would
fixth day of September.
obſtruct their farther progreſs,andconcealed dangerous
Here the voyage of diſcovery may properly be ſaid rocks, or ſome large tract of land, which had funk,
to begin ; for Columbus, holding his courſe due weſt, they knew not how, in that place. Columbus en-
left, immediately, the uſual track of navigation, and deavoured to perſuade them, that what had alarmed,
ſtretched into unfrequented and unknown ſeas. The ought rather to have encouraged them, and was to be
firſt day, as it was very calnı, he made but little way ; conſidered as a ſign of approaching land. At the ſame
but on the ſecond he loſt ſight of the Canaries; and time, a briſk gale aroſe, and carried them forward.
many of the ſailors, already dejected and diſmayed, Several birds were ſeen hovering about the ſhip, and
'when they contemplated the boldneſs of the underta directed their flight towards the weſt. The defpond-
king, began to beat their breaſts, and to ſhed tears, as ing crew reſumed fome degree of ſpirit, and began to
if they were never more to behold land. Columbus entertain freſh hopes.
comforted then with aſſurances of ſucceſs, and the Upon the firſt of October they were, according to
proſpect of vaſt wealth, in thoſe opulent regions whi the admiral's reckoning, 770 leagues to the weſt of
ther he was conducting them. He regulated every the Canaries : but, left his men ſhould be intimidated
thing by his ſole authority; he ſuperintended the exe by the prodigious length of the navigation, he gave out
cation ofevery order; and, allowing himſelf only a few that they had proceeded only 584 leagues; and, fortu-
hours for ſleep, he was at all other times upon deck. nately for Columbus, neither his own pilot, nor thoſe
As his courſe lay through ſeas which had not, formerly, of the other ſhips, had kill ſufficient to correct this
been viſited, the founding-line, or inſtruments for ob error, and to diſcover the deceit. They had, now, been
ſervation were continually in his hands. After the above three weeks al fea: they had proceeded far be-
example of the Portugueſe diſcoverers, he attended to yond what former navigators hadattempied, or deened
the motion of tides and currents, watched the flight of poſſible : all their prognoſtics of diſcovery, drawn from
birds, the appearance of filles, of ſea-weeds, and of e the flight of birds, and other circumſtances, had prov-
very thing that loated on the waves, and entered eve ed fallacious: the appearances of land, with which their
ry occurence, with a minute exactneſs, in the journal own credulity, or the artifice of their commander, had,
which he kept. As the length of the voyage could not from time to time,flattered and amuſed them, had been
fail of alarming ſailors habituated only to fort excur- altogether illuſive, and their proſpect of ſucceſs ſeemed
ſions, Columbus endeavoured to conceal froin them now to be as diſtant as ever. Theſe reflections occur-
the real progreſs which they made. With this view, red often to men, who had no other object, or occupa.
though they ran 18 leagnes the ſecond day, after tion, than to reaſon and to diſcourſe concerning the in-
they left Goniera, he gave out that they had advanced tention and circumſtances of their expedition. They
only 15, and he, uniformly, employed the ſame artifice made impreſſion, at firſt, upon the ignorant and timid,
of reckoning ſhort, during the whole voyage. By the and extending, by degrees, to ſuch as were better in-
14th of September, the fileet was above 200 leagues to formed, or more reſolute, thecontagion /pread, at length,
the weſt of the Canary-Illes. There they were ſtruck from thip to ſhip. From ſecret whiſpers and murmur.
Hith an appearance, no leſs aſtoniſhing than new. ings, they proreeded to open cabals and public com-
plaints.
?
A M E
[ 573 ]
A M É
America. plaints. Threy taxed their ſovereign with inconſiderate men: they aſſembled, tumultuouſly, on the deck, ex- America.
credulity, in paying ſuch regard to the vain promiſes poſtulated with their cominander, mingled threats with
and ralh conjectures of an indigent foreigner, as to ha- their expoftulations, and required him
inſtantly to tack
zard the lives of ſo many of her own ſubjects, in proſe- about, and to return to Europe. Columbus perceived
cuting a chimerical ſcheme. They affirmed that they that it would be of no avail to have recourſe to any of
had fully performed their duty, by venturing ſo far in his former arts, which having been tried fo often had
an unknown and hopeleſs courſe, and could incur 110 loſt their effect; and that it was impoſſible to re-kindle
blame, for refuſing to follow, any longer, a deſperate any zeal for the ſucceſs of the expedition among men
adventurer to certain deſtruction. They contended, in whoſe breaſts fear had extinguiſhed every generous
that it was neceſſary to think of returning to Spain, ſentiment. He ſaw that it was no leſs vain to think
while their crazy veſſels were ſtill in a condition to keep of employing either gentle or ſevere meaſures, to quell
the ſea, but expreſſed their fears that the attempt would a mutiny ſo general and ſo violent. It was neceſſary,
prove vain, as the wind, which had hitherto been ſo
on all theſe accounts, to ſoothe paſſions which he could
favourable to their courſe, muſt render it ini poſſible to no longer command, and to give way to a torrent too
fail in the oppoſite direction. All agreed that Culum- impetuous to be checked. He promiſed, ſolemnly, to
bus ſhould be compelled by force to adopt a meaſure on his men, that he would comply with their requeſt, pro-
which their common ſafety depended. Some of the vided they would accompany him, and obey his con-
more audacious propoſed, as the moſt expeditious and mands for three days longer, and if, during that time,
certain method for getting rid, at once, of his remon land were not diſcovered, he would then abandon the
ſtrances, to throw him into the ſea ; being perſuaded enterpriſe and direct his courſe towards Spain.
that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an un Enraged as the ſailors were, and impatient to turn
ſucceſsful projector would excite little concern, and their faces again towards their native country, this
be inquired into with no curioſity.
propoſition did not appear to them unreaſonable. Nor
Columbus was fully ſenſible of his perilous ſituation. did Columbus hazard much in confining himſelf to 2
He had obſerved, with great unealineſs, the fatal ope term fo ſhort. The preſages of diſcovering fand were
116
ration of ignorance, and of fear, in producing diſaffec now ſo numerous and promiſing, that he deemed them
Perilous
fituation of tion, among his crew; and ſaw that it was now ready infallible. For ſome days the founding line had reached
Columbus. to burſt out into open mutiny. He retained, however, the bottom, and the ſoil which it brought up indicated
perfect preſence of mind. "He affected to ſeem igno- land to be at no great diſtance. The flocks of birds
fant of their machinations. Notwithſtanding the agi- increaſed; and were compoſed not only of fea fowl,
tation and ſolicitude of his own mind, he appeared but of ſuch land-birds as could not be ſuppoſed to fly
with a chearful countenance; like a man ſatisfied with far from the hore. The crew of the Pinta obſerved a
the progreſs which he had made, and confident of luc cane floating which ſeemed to be newly cut, and like.
ceſs. Sometimes he employed all the arts of infinu- wiſe a piece of timber artificially carved. The ſailors
ation to ſoothe his inen. Sometimes he endeavoured to aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree, with
work upon their ambition, or avarice, by magnificent red berries, perfectly frein. The clouds around the
deſcriptions of the fame and wealth which they were ſetting fun affumed a new appearance; the air was
about to acquire. On other occaſions, he aflumed a more mild and warm; and, during night, the wind
tone of authority, and threatened them with vengeance became unequal and variable. From all theſe ſymp-
from their ſovereign, if, by their daſtardly behaviour, toms, Columbus was fo confident of being near land,
they ſhould defeat this noble effort to promote the glo- that, on the evening of the IIth of October, after pub-
ry of God, and to exalt the Spanish name, above that lic prayers for ſucceſs, he ordered the fails to be fur-
of every other nation. Even with feditinus failors,the led and the ſhips to lie by, keeping ſtrict watch, leſt
words of a man, whom they had been accuſtomed to they ſhould be driven aſhore in the night. During
reverence, were weighty and perſuaſive; and not only this interval of ſuſpence and expectation, no man hut
reſtrained them from thoſe violent exceſſes which they his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards
meditated, but prevailed with them to accompany that quarter where they expected to diſcover the land,
their admiral for ſome time longer.
which had been ſo long the object of their wiſhes.
As they proceeded, the indications of approaching About two hours before midnight, Columbus ſtand-
138
land ſeemed to be more certain, and excited hope in ing on the forecaſtle, abſerved a light at a diſtance, Their joy
proportion. The birds began to appear in flocks mak- and privately pointed it ont to Pedro Guttierez, a on deſcry-
ing towards the ſouth-welt. Columbus, in imitation pageof the queen's wardrobe. Guitrerez perceived it;ing laadi
of the Portugueſe navigators, who had been guided in and calling to Salcedo,comptroller of the fleet, all three
ſeveral of their die coveries by the motion of birds, al ſaw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to
tered his courſe from die weft towards that quarter place, A little after midnight, the joyful found of
whither they pointed their flight. But after holding Land! land! was heard from the Pinta, which kept al-
on for ſeveral days in this new direction without any ways a-head of the other hips. But having been fo
better ſucceſs than formerly, having feen no object often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man
His crew during 30 days but the ſea and the ſky, the hopes of was now becomie llow of benef; and waited, in all tlie
frady to
his companions ſubſided faſter than they had riſen; anguiſh of uncertainty and impatience, for the return
mutiny,
their fears revived with additional force ; impatience, of day. As ſoon as morning dawned, all doubts and
rage, and deſpair, appeared in every countenance. All fears were diſpelled. From each fhip, an illand was
ſenſe of ſubordination was loft. The officers, who had ſeen about two leagues to the north, whoſe flat and
hitlierto concurred with Columbus in opinion, and ſup- verdant fields, well ſtored with wood, and watered witli
ported his authority, now took part with the private bany rivuleis, preſented the aſpeet of a delightful
country,
117
A M E
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I 22
119
America. country. The crew of the Pinta inſtantly began the boundaries of which have never yet been diſcovered. In America.
Te Deum, as a hymn of thankſgiving to God, and ſuch asare in any degree known, dwell the Eſquimaux,
were joined by thoſe of the other ſhips, with tears of the Algonquins, the Hurons, the Iroquois,the Cheerake,
joy and tranſports of congratulation. This office of theChickalaws, and many other tribes of Indians. In
gratitude to Heaven was followed by an act of juſtice the ſouthern continent lie the Spaniſh provinces of Ti-
to their commander. They threw themſelves at the feet erra-Firme, Guiana, Peru, Paraguay, and Chili; coge-
of Columbus, with feelings offelf-condemnation ming-ther with that of Braſil, belonging to the Portugueſe;
led with reverence. They implored him to pardon and the country of Surinam, belonging to the Dutch.
their ignorance, incredulity, and infolence, which had Vaſttracts, however, in theinland parts, are unknown,
created him fonnuch unneceſſary diſquiet, and had ſo being comprehended under the general name of Ama-
often obſtructed the proſecution of his well-concerted zonia. A large diſtrict, alſo, ſaid to be the reſidence of
plan ; and pafling, in the warmth of their admiration, a gigantic race of men, lies on the eaſt ſide of the con-
from one extrenie to another, they now pronounced tinent, between the ſtraits of Magellan and the pro-
the man whom they had ſo lately reviled, and threat. vince of Paraguay. See the article PATAGONIA.
ened, to be a perſon inſpired by Heaven, with fagaci. This vaſt country produces many of the metals, mi-
ty and fortiiude more than human, in order to accom nerals, plants, fruits, trees, and wood, to be met with Its produce
plith a delign ſo far beyond the ideas and conceprion in the oiher parts of the world, and inany of them in tions.
of all foriner ages.
greater quantities, and in high perfection. The gold
As ſoon as the ſun aroſe, all their boats were man and ſilver of America have ſupplied Europe with ſuch
ned and armed. They rowed towards the iſland with immenſe quantities of thoſe valuable metals, that they
their colours diſplayed, with warlike muſic, and other are become vaſtly more common; ſo that the gold and
martial pomp. As they approached the coaſt, they filver of Europe now bear little proportion to the high
ſaw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the price ſet upon them before the diſcovery of America.
They land novelty of the ſpectacle had drawn together, whoſe It alſo produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, ame-
in one of attitudes and geſtures expreſſed wonder and aſtoniſh. thyſts, and other valuable ſtones, which, by being
the iſlands nient,at the ſtrange objects which preſented themſelves brought into Europe, have contributed, likewiſe, to
of the New- to their view. Columbus was the firſt European who lower their value. To theſe, which are chiefly the
World. ſet foot in the New World, which he had diſcovered, productions of Spaniſh America, may be added a great
He landed in a rich dreſs, and with a naked ſword in number of other commodities, which, though of leſs
his hand. His men followed ; and, kneeling down, price, are of much greater uſe. Of theſe are the plen-
they all kiſſed the ground which they had ſo long de- tiful ſupplies of cochineal, indigo, anatto, logwood,bra.
fired to ſee. They, next, erected a crucifix; and, pro- zil, fuſtic, pimento, lignum vitæ, rice, ginger, cocoa,
Itrating themſelves before it, returned thanks to God or the chocolate-nut, ſugar, coiton, tobacco, banillas,
for conducting their voyage to ſuch an happy iſſue. red-wood, the balſams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that
The above was one of the Bahama-Illands; to which valuable article, in medicine, the Jeſuit's bark, mecho-
he gave the name of San Salvador, and took poſſeſſion acan, faſſafras, farſaparilla, calia, lamarinds, hides,
of it, in the name of their Catholic majefties. In this furs, ambergrife, and a great variety of woods, roots,
firſt voyage he diſcovered ſeveral other of the Lucayo, and plants ;-to which, before the diſcovery of America,
or Bahama-Ilands, with thoſe of Cuba and Hiſpaniola. the Europeans were either entire ſtrangers, or which
The natives conſidered the Spaniards as divinities, and they were forced to buy at an extravagant rate from
the diſcharge of the artillery their thunder: they fell Aſia and Africa, through the hands of the Venetians
proſtrate at the ſound. The women, however, offered and Genoeſe, who then engroſſed the trade of the
their favours, and colirted the embraces of their new Eaſtern-World.
gueſts as men. Their huſbands were not jealous of them; On this continent there grows alſo a variety of ex-
and in the arms of thoſe wantons the companions of cellent native fruits ; as pine-apples, citrons, lemons,
Columbus are ſaid, by ſome authors, to have caught that oranges, malicatons, figs, grapes, great numbers of
malady which directs its poiſon to the ſprings of life. culinary, medicinal, and other herbs, roots, and plants,
In a ſecond voyage, many new iſlands were diſcovered with many exotic productions, which are nouriſhed
In a third, he attained the great object of his ambition, in as great perfection as in their native ſoil.
by diſcovering the continent of America, near the Although the Indians ſtill live in the quiet poffeffion
The differa
The conti- mouth of the river Oronooko, on the firſt day of Au- ofmany large tracts,
America, fo far as known, is chief-cnt poffef-
nent after. guſt 1498. His ſucceſs produced a crowd of adventur- ly claimed, and divided into colonies, by three Euro- fors of A-
ers, from all nations; but the year before this, the pean nations, the Spaniards, Engliſh, and Portugueſe, merica.
sovered.
northern continent had been diſcovered by Sebaſtian The Spaniards, as they firſt diſcovered it, have the
Cabot, in the ſervice of Henry VII. of England. largeſt and richeſt portion, extending from New Mexi-
Notwithſtanding the many ſettlements of the Euro co and Louiſiana, in North-America, to the ſtraits of
peans in this continent, great part of America remains Magellan, in the South-Sea, excepting the large pro-
ſtill unknown. The northern continent contains the vince of Braſil, which belongs to Portugal; for though
Britiſh colonies of Hudſon's-Bay, Canada, and Noya the French and Dutch have ſome forts upon Surinam
Diviſion of Scotia ; the New-England ſtates, New-York, New-Jer- and Guiana, they ſcarcely deſerve to be conſidered as
America. fey, Pennſylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North and proprietors of any part of the ſouthern continent.
South, Carolina, and Georgia. It contains, alſo, the Next to Spain, the moſt conſiderable proprietor of
Spaniſl territories of Eaſt, and Weſt, Florida, Louiſiana, America was Great Britain, who derived her claim to
new-Mexico, California, and Mexico. Beſides there, North-America from the firſt diſcovery of that conti,
there are immenſe regions to the weſt, and north, the nent by Sebaſtian Cabot, in the name of Henry VII.
123
I 20
wards dif-
121
a11110
A M E
[ A M E
575575
]
America. anno 1497, about fix years after the the diſcovery of and depredations that had been ſo fiercely carried on America.
South-America by Columbus, in the name of the king by the French, and the native Indians in their alliance.
of Spain. This country was in general called News They abounded with ſpirited and active individuals of
foundland ; a name which is now appropriated ſolely to all denominations. They were fluſhed with the un-
an iſland upon its coaſt. It was a long time before the common proſperity that had attended them in thcir
Engliſh inade any attempt to ſettle in this country. Sir commercial affairs and military tranſactions. . Hence
Walter Raleigh,an uncommon genius and a brave come they were ready for all kind of undertakings, and ſaw
mander, firſt ſhowed the way, by planting a colony in no limits to their hopes and expectations.
the ſouthern part, which he called Virginia, in honour As they entertained the higheſt opinion of their va-
of his virgin miſtreſs Queen Elizabeth.
lue and importance, and of the immenſe benefit that
The French indeed, from this period until the con Britain derived from its connection with them, their
cluſion of the war before laſt, laid a claim 10, and ac notions were adequately high in their own favour.
tually poſſeſſed, Canada and Louiſiana; comprehending They deemed themſelves, not withoutreaſon, entitled
all that extenſive inland country reaching from Hud to every kindneſs and indulgence which the mother-
ſon's Bay, on the north, to Mexico and the gulph of country could beſtow.
the ſame name, on the ſouth. But, in that war, they Although their pretenſions did not amount to a
were not only driven from Canada and its dependen- perfect equality of advantages and privileges in matters
cies, but obliged to relinquiſh all that part of Louiſiana of commerce, yet in thoſe of government they thought
124 lying on the eaſt ſide of the Miſſiſſippi, as related under themſelves fully competent to the taſk of conducting
And thus the Britiſh colonies their domeſtic concerns, with little or no interference
of the Bri- were preſerved, ſecured, and extended ſo far, as to ren- from abroad. Though willing to admit the ſupremacy
tiſh poſſeſ- der it difficult to aſcertain the preciſe bounds of empire of Great Britain, they viewed it with a ſuſpicious eye,
fions before in North America. To the northward they might have and with a marked deſire to reſtrain it within its ſtrict
the late re-
volution.
extended their claims quite to the pole itſelf, nor did conſtitutional boundaries.
any nation ſeem inclined to diſpute the property of this Their improvements in all the neceſſary and uſeful
nothernmoſt country with them. From that extremi arts did honor to their induſtry and ingenuity. Though
ty they had a territory extending, ſouthward, to Cape they did not live in the luxury of Europe, they had all
Florida in the Gulph of Mexico, Ñ. Lat. 25°, and con the ſolid and ſubſtantial enjoyments of life, and were
ſequently near 4000 miles long in a direct line. And not unacquainted with many of its elegancies and re-
to the weſtward, their boundaries reached to nations finements.
unknown even to the Indians of Canada.
A circumſtance much to their praiſe is that notwith-
Of the revolution that has ſince taken place, by Atanding their peculiar addiction to thoſe occupations of
which a great part of thoſe territories has been torn which lucreis the ſole object, they were duly attentive
from the Britiſh empire, the hiſtory follows in the next to cultivate the field of learning; and they have, ever
article.
fince their firſt foundation, been particularly careful to
provide for the education of the riling progeny.
125
Riſe of the AMERICA, (United States of ). Of the riſe and eſta Their vaſt augmentation of internal trade and exter-
American bliſhment of this republic, which has given a new face nal commerce, was not merely owing to their poſition
republic. to the weſtern world, a ſuccinct and impartial narrative and facility of communication with other parts ; it
fhallin this article be attempted; in which,however, we aroſe alſo from their natural turn and temper, full of
cannot hope entirely to avoid errors, as they are per- ſchemes and projects; ever aiming at new diſcoveries,
haps unavoidable. The accounts from which the hiſ. and continually employed in the ſearch of the means
torian muſt derive his information are not yet cleared of improving their condition.
from the miſtakes of prejudice and the fabrications of Their condition carried them into every quarter
party; when they differ, their comparative authentic froin whence profit could be derived. There was
city is with difficulty aſcertained; and they want, a- ſcarcely any port of the Anerican hemiſphere to which
bove all, that ſoftening which they can receive from they had not extended their navigation. They were
time alone.
continually exploring new ſources of trade, and were
The beginnings, even of the moſt celebrated poli- found in every ſpot where buſineſs could be tranſacted.
tịcal inſtitutions of the old world, are generally invol To this extenſive and inceſſant application to com-
ved in fable and obſcurity : The barbarous manners of merce, they added an equal vigilance in the adminiſtra-
ſavage tribes in the early and uncultivated ſtate of ſo- tion of their affairs at home. Whatever could conduce lo
ciety, renders the reſearches of the hiſtorian painful the ameliorationof the ſoil they pofrelied, to the progreſs
and unſatisfactory. Very different were the circum- of agriculture, or to the improvement of their domeſtic
ſtances which gave birth to this new republic, which circumſtances, was attended to with ſo much labour and
at a future period, bids fair to ſurpaſs even the ſplendor care, that it may be ſtrictly ſaid that Nature had given
126
of Rome.
them nothing of which they did not make the moſt.
State and The ſtate of the Bri'iſh colonies at the concluſion of In the inidſt of this ſolicitude and toil in matters of
character the war in 1763, was ſuch as attracted the attention of buſineſs, the affairs of government were conducted
of the iri- all the politicians in Europe. Their flouriſhing condi. with ſteadineſs, prudence, and lenity, ſeldom experia
tiſhcolonies tion at that period was remarkable and ſtriking; their enced, and never exceeded, in the beſt regulated coull-
trade had proſpered in the midſt of all the difficulties. ties of Europe.
1763.
and di ſtreſſes of a war in which they were ſo near Such was the ſituation of the Britiſh colonies in ge.
ly and fo immediately concerned. Their population neral throughout North America, and of the New-
continued on the increaſe, notwithſtanding the rayages England provinces in particular, when the pacification
above-
at the end
of the war
A ME
[ 576 ]
A M E
127
War,
Igo
America. above-mentioned opened one of the inoſt remarkable admiralty, before a ſingle judge (whore ſaláry was the America,
ſcenes that ever coinmanded the atiention of the world, fruit of the forfeitures hc decreed) withont trial by
In treating of the American revolution, it has be- jury, or any of the other benefits of cominon law juris-
Intrigues of
the French conie a faſhion with the Englid writers to aſcribe that prudence.' Theſe acts coming ſo cloſe to each other
129
ſuppoſedly event to the ſucceſsful intrigues of the French go threw the whole continent into the utmoſt ferment. Which ex-
Engliſh vernment. Inſtead of contemplating it,.with the cha Vehement remonſtrances were made to the miniſtry, aſperate
writers to racteriſtic philoſophy of their country, as the reſult and every argument made uſe of that reaſon or inge-
the America
be the ori- of a conteſt between the delire of power, and the ab- nuity conld ſuggeſt, but to no purpoſe. Their rcafon- cans.
gin of the
horrence of oppreſſion, they have fought the origin of ing, however, convinced a great number of people in
American
the evil in any fource rather than their own milcon Britain ; and thus the American cauſe came to be con-
duct; and have endeavoured at once, to huſh the re fidered as the cauſe of liberty.
proaches of their political conſcience, and to gratify The Americans, finding all argumentation vain, at
1he cravings of their national animoſity, in wild con laſt united in an agreement to import no more of the
jectures of a ſcheme formed by their neighbours to di manufactures of Great Britain, but to encourage to
vide the Britih Empire, and in declamatory invectives the utmoſt of their power every thing of that kind a-
againſt the Gallic faith and honour. Thus it has been mong themſelves. Thus the Britiſh manufacturers alſo
repeatedly allerted, that the French having long view became a party againſt the miniſtry, and did not fail
ed, with equal envy and apprehenſion, the fouriſhing to expreſs their reſentment in the ſtrongeſt terms;
ſtate of the colonios which Britain had founded in but the miniſtry were not to be ſo eaſily daunted, and
America, began immediately after the peace of Paris therefore proceeded to the laſt ſtep of their intended
to carry into execution their project for ſeparating plan, which was to lay on ſtamp duties throughout the The damp
thoſe colonies from the mother country. Secret emil continent. Previous to this, indeed, ſeveral regula- act framed.
faries, it is ſaid were employed in fpreading diílatiſ. tions were paſſed in favour of the commerce of the co-
faction among the coloniſts ; and the effects produced lonies; but they had now imbibed fuch unfavourable
by theſe machinating ſpirits are deſcribed to have been ſentiments of the Britiſh miniſtry, that they paid very
a rapid diminution of that peculiar warmıh of attach- little regard to any thing pretended to be done in their
ment, which the inliabitants of North-America had favour ; or if theſe acts made any favourableimpreſſion,
hitherto demonſtrated for the mother country; the ex it was quickly obliterated by the news of the ſtamp-
citement of a jealouſy which led them to view her ra act. The reaſon given for this act, fo exceedingly ob-
ther in the light of a ſovereign than of a parent ; and noxious, was, that a fum might be raiſed fufficient for
the introduction of a hoſtile policy which taught them the defence of the colonies againſt a foreign enemy;
to examine, with a ſcrupulous nicety, the nature of but this pretence was ſo far from giving any fatisfaction
thoſe ties that rendered them parts of her empire. That to the Americans, that it excited their indignation to
Luch emiſſaries were ever employed, is a fact unſup: the utmoſt degree. They not only aſſerted that they
ported by any document which tlie purity of hiſtorical were abundantly able to defend themſelves againſt any
truth can admit ; and although the effects here de- foreign enemy, but denied that the Britillı parliament
ſcribed, have certainly appeared, it muſt be remember- had any right to tax them at all.
ed that their appearance followed, but did not precede, It would be ſuperfluous to enter into any arguments
the atteinpts of Britain upon the rights and liberties of uſed by the contending parties on chis important occa-
America. By mere artifice and addreſs to have aliena- fion. It was evident that the matter was not to be
ted the affećtions of the coloniſts from their mother decided by argument, but by force of arms; and the
country, at the cloſe of a war in which their interests Britiſh miniſtry, too confident of the authority and
and feelings had been interwoven with morethan uſual power of that country, determined to carry on matters
ſrength and energy, was a taſk of infinite difficulty; with an high hand, to terrify the coloniſts into an in-
not ſurely to be accompliſhed in the ſhort period be- plicit ſubjection, or, if that would not do, to compel 131
tween the declaration of peace in 1761, and the pro- them to it by force.
them to it by force. The ſtamp-act, after a violent Receiver
mulgation of the firſt obnoxious acts of the Britiſh par- oppoſition in parliament, was paired, and its reception with uni-
liament in 1764. But, if we tracelleſe effects to an in America was ſuch as might have been expected.
dignation
other cauſe, to a love of liberty, and a quick ſenſe of The news, and the act itſelf, firſt arrived at Boſton, in America,
injury, their appearance will be natural and juſt ; con where the bells were muffled and rung a funeral peal.
ſiſtent with the Americani character, and correſpon- The act was firſt hawked abont the ſtreets with a
ding with the conduct which was diſplayed in all the Death's head, affixed to it, and ſtyled the “ Folly of
viciſſitudes that attended the revolt.
England, and the Ruin of America ;" and afterwards
128
Taxes laid In March, 1764, a bill was paſſed, by which heavy publicly burnt by the enraged populace : The ſtamps
on goods duties were laid on goods imported by the coloniſts themſelves were ſeized and deſtroyed, unleſs brought
imported from ſuch Weſt-India Iſlands as did not belong to Great by men of war, or kept in fortified places ; thoſe who
into the
Britain ; at the ſame time that theſe duties were to be were to receive the ſtamp duties were compelled:o re-
colonies,
paidintothe exchequer in ſpecie:and in the ſame ſeſſion, ſign their offices : and ſuch of the Americans as lided
obnoxious anotheſ bill was framed to reſtrain the currency of pa- with government on this occaſion, had their houſes
acts fram- per-money in the colonies thenſelves. Not only the plundered and deſtroyed.
principle of taxation, but the mode of collection was Though theſe outrages were committed by the mul-
conſidered as an unconſtitutional and oppreſſive innova- titude, they were firſt connived at by thoſe of ſuperior
tion ; for the penalties incurred by an infraction of the rank, and the principles on which they were founded
acts of parliament, might be recovered in the courts of afterwards openly patronized by them; and the doc
vcrſal in-
and other
ed;
trine
A M E
[ 577 ]
A M E
er.
America. ílem ; and the doctrine became general and openly many brave exertions againſt the French in North- Arzeici
ayowed, that Britain had no right whatever to tax the America. It was ſaid that the war of 1755 had been
colonies without their own conſent.
undertaken in defence of the colonies ; but the truth
It was now found abſolutely neceſſary either to yield was, that it originated from a conteſt about the limits
to the Americans, by repcaling the obnoxious ſtatutes, between Canada and Nova Scotia, and in defence of
or to enforce them by arms. The ferment had diffuſed the Engliſh rights to trade on the Ohio. The Anie-
itſelf univerſally throughout the colonies. Virginia ricans, however, would ſtill continue to act with their
firſt, and after that all the reſt of the provinces, declared uſual fidelity; and, were any war to break out in which
againſt the ri ht of Britain to lay on taxes in Ame- they had no concern, they would fhow themſelves as
rica; and that every attempt to veſt others with this ready as ever to aſſiſt the parent ſtate to the utmoſt of
power beſides the king, or the governor of the pro- their power, and would never fail to manifeſt their rea-
vince and his general aſſembly, was illegal, unconſtitue dineſs in contributing to the energencies of govern-
tional, and unjuſt. Non-importation agreements were ment, when called to do ſo in a regular and conſtituti.
every where entered into ; and it was cven reſolved to onal manner."
prevent the ſale of any more Britiſh goods after the The miniſtry were conſcious, that in repealing this
preſent year. American manufactures, though dearer, obnoxious act, they yielded to the Americans; and
as well as inferior in quality to the Britiſh, were uni. therefore, to ſupport, as they thought, the dignity of
134
verſally preferred. An affociation was entered into Great Britain, it was judged proper to publiſh a decla- Declara-
againſt eating of lamb, in order to promote the growth ratory bill, ſetting forth the authority of the mother- tory bill
of wool; and the ladies with chearfulneſs agreed to country over her colonies, and her power to bind them gives of-
renounce the uſe of every ſpecies of ornament manufac- by laws and ſtatutes in all caſes whatever. This much fence in
American
tured in Britain. Such a general and alarming confe- diminiſhed the joy with which the repeal of the ſtamp-
deracy determined the miniſtry to repeal ſome of the act was received in America. It was conſidered as a
moſt obnoxious ſtatutes ; and to this they were the more proper reaſon to enforce any claims equally prejudicial
inclined by a petition from the firſt American congreſs, with the ſtamp-act, which might hereafter be ſet up ;
132
held at New York in the beginning of October 1765. a ſpirit of jealouſy peryaded the whole continent, and
Repealed. The ſtamp-act was therefore repealed, to the uni a ſtrong party was formed, watchful on every occaſion
verfal joy of the Americans, and indeed to the general to guard againſt the encroachments of the Britiſh pow-
ſatisfaction of the Engliſh, whoſe manufactures had
135
begun to ſuffer very feverely in conſequence of the A It was not long before an occaſion offered, in which Aſembly
merican aſſociation againſt them. The diſputes on the the Americans manifeſted a ſpirit of independency ; of New
ſubject without doors, however, were by no means and that, inſtead of being bound by the Britiſh le-York diſo-
filenced, but each party continued to argue the caſe as giſlature in all caſes, they would not be controuled by beys an ad
of parlia-
violently as ever. The celebrated Dr Benjamin Frank- it in the moſt trivial affairs. The Rockingham ni
lin was, on this occaſion examined before the Houſe niſtry had paſſed an act, providing the troops ſtation-
of Commons; and his opinion was in ſubſtance as fol. ed in different parts of the colonies with ſuch ac-
133
lows :
commodations as were neceſſary for them. The aſſem-
Opinion of " That the tax in queſtion was impracticable and bly of New York, however, took upon them to alter
Dr Frank- ruinous. The very attempt had ſo far alienated the the mode of execution preſcribed by the act of parlia-
lin on this affection of the colonies, that they behaved in a leſs ment, and to ſubſtitute one of their own.
(ubject,
friendly manner towards the natives of England than very great offence to the new miniſtry, and rendered
before; conſidering the whole nation as conſpiring them, though compoſed of thoſe who had been active
againſt their liberty, and the parliament as willing ra againſt the ſtamp-bill, leſs favourable to the colonies
ther to oppreſs than to ſupport and aſſiſt them. Ame than in all probability they would otherwiſe have been.
rica, in fact, did not ſtand in any need of Britiſh na An unlucky circumſtance at the ſame time occurred,
nufactures, having already begun to conſtruct ſuch as which threw every thing once more into confuſion.
136
might be deemed abſolutely neceſſary, and that with One of the new miniſtry, Mr Charles Townthend, ha- Mr Town-
ſuch ſucceſs, as left no doubt of their arriving in a ſhort ving declared that he could find a way of taxing the ſhend's
time at perfection. The elegancies of dreſs had al- Americans without givingthem offence, was called up-plan to tas
ready been renounced for manufactures of the Ameri on to propoſe his plan. This was by impoſing a duty up-
America.
can kind, though much inferior ; and the bulk of the on tea, paper, painters colours, and glaſs imported into
people, conſiſting of farmers, were ſuch as could in no America The conduct of the New York aſſembly,
way be affected by the want of Britiſh commodities, as reſpecting the troops, and that of Boſton, which had
having every neceſſary within themſelves. Materi- proceeded in a ſimilar manner, cauſed this bill to meet
als of all kinds were to be had in plenty: the wool was with leſs oppoſition than otherwiſe it might have done.
fine ; fax grew in great abundance; and iron was As a puniſhment to the refractory allemblies, the legir-
every where to be met with."
lative power was taken from that of New York, umil
The Doctor alſo inſiſted, That“ the Americans had it ſhould fully comply with the terms of the act. That
been greatly miſrepreſented ; that they had been ira of Boſton at laſt ſubmitted with reluctance. The bill
duced as void of gratitude and affection for the parent for the new taxes was quickly paſſed, and ſent to Ame 137
ftare; than which nothing could be more contrary to rica in 1768.
Is received
truth. In the war of 1755 they had, at their own ex A ferment much greater than that occafioned by the there with
pence, raiſed an army of 25,000 men; and in that of ſtamp act now took place throughout the continent.
1739, they affifted the Britiſhexpeditions againſt South- The populace renewed their outrages, and thoſe of fu- thansever
indignation
Ainerica with ſeveral thouſand men, and had made perior ſtation entered into regular aſſociations agaiuſt the famp,
VOL. I.
it act.
mento
This gave
ſtill greater
7 D
A ME
[ 578 ]
A ME
138
142
143
144
America. it. Circular letters were ſent from Maſſachuſetts co ſome of the new regulations; and being talci wador america.
lony to all the reſt, ſetting forth the injuſtice and im the protection of a man of war at that time lying 111 the
propriety of the behaviour of the Britiſh legiſlature. harbour, the populace attacked the houſes of the com-
Meetings were held in all the principal towns, in which millioners of exciſe, broke their windows, deſtroyed
it was propoſed to leffen the conſumption of foreign ma the collector's boats, and obliged the cuſtomliouſcor-
nufactures, by giving proper encouragement to their ficers to take refuge in Cattle William, fitúated at the
Quarrel be- own. Continual diſputes enſued betwixt the governors entrance of the harbour.
tween the and general afſemblies of their provinces, which were The governor now took the laſt ſtep in his porrer to The aflem-
people of
much heightened by- a letter from lord Shelburne to put a ſtop to the violent proceedings of his allembly, bly diffol.
Maflachu.
governor Bernard of Mallachuſetts-Bay, containing by difolving it entirely ; but this was oí lillle moment. ved,
{itis-lay
and their
complaints of the people he governed. ? he aſlenibly
1 he affenrbly Their behaviour had been highly approved by the
puternor. exaſperated to the higheſt degree,charged their gover- ocher culunies, who had written letters to them expref-
nor with having miſrepreſented them to the court of five of their approbationi.
live of their approbation. After the diilolution of the
Britain, required him to produce copies of the letters aſſembly, frequent mectings of the people were held
he liad ſent ; and, on his refuſal, wrote letters to the in Boston, which ended in a remontrance to the go-
Engliſh miniſtry, acculing him of miſrepreſentation vernor, to the ſame purpoſe as ſome of the former; bat
and partiality, complaining at the ſame time moſt concluding with a requeſt, that he would take upon
grievouſly of the proceedings of parliament, as utterlyhiin to order the king's thips out of the liarbour.
ſubverſive of the liberties of America, and the rights While the diſpolition of the Boſtonians was thus The diſtur-
of Britiſh ſubjects.
more and more irritated, nevrs arrived that the agent bances ſtill
The governor, at a loſs how to defend himſelf, pro for the colony had not been allowed to deliver their increaſe.
rogued the aſſembly; and, in his ſpeech on the occa- petition to the king; it having been obje&ed, that the
fion, gave a looſe to his reſentment, accuſing the meni allembly without the governor was not ſufficient au-
bers of ambitious deſigns, incompatible with thoſe of thority. This did not contribute to allay the ferment;
dutiful and loyal ſubjects. To counteract the circular and it was further augmented by the news that a num-
Some
letter of the province of Maſſachuſetts-Bay, Lord ber of troops had been ordered to repair to Boſton, to
troops ora
dered to
Hillſborough, ſecretary for the American department, keep the inhabitants in awe.
Boſton.
ſent another to the governors of the different colonies, A dreadful alarm now took place. The people called
reprobating the other as full of miſrepreſentation, and on the governor to convenc a general aſſembly, in or-
tending to excite a rebellion againīt the authority of der to remove their fears of the military; who, they
the parent ſtate.
ſaid, were to be aſſembled to overthrow their liberties,
Matters now haſtened to a criſis. The governor had and force obedience to laws to which they were entirc-
been ordered to proceed with vigour, and by no means- ly averſe. The governor replied, it was no longer in his
to ſhow any diſpoſition to yield to the people as for power to call an aſſembly; having, in his laſt inſtruc-
Herequires merly. In particular, they were required to reſcind tions from England, been required to wait the king's
the affem- that refolution by which they had written the circular orders, the matter being then under conſideration at
145
bly to re letter abovementioned ; and, in caſe of a refuſal, it home. Being thus refuſed, the people took upon them. The people
fcind their
was told them that they would be diſſolved. As this ſelves the formation of an aſſembly, which they called form an af-
circular
letter;
letter had been framed by tlie reſolutions of a former a convention. The proceedings and reſolutions of this ſembly call-
Houſe, they deſired, after a week's conſultation, that body naturally partook of the temper and diſpolition of ed a Con-
a receſs might be granted to conſult with their conſti the late aſſembly; but they went a ſtep farther, and vention ;
Which they tuents ; but this being reſuſed, they came to a deter having voted as that there is apprehenſion in the minds
refuſe.
mination, 92 againſt 17, to adhere to the reſolution of many of an approaching rupture with France,” re-
which produced the circular letter. At the ſame time queſted the inhabitants to put themſelves in a poſture
a letter was fent to Lord Hillſborough, and a meſſage of defence againſt any ſudden attack of an encmy; and
to the governor, in juſtification of their proceedings. circular letters were directed to all the towns in the
In both they expreſſed themſelves with ſuch freedoın as province, acquainting thein with the reſolutions that
was by no means calculated to accord with the fenti had been taken in the capital, and exhorting them to
ments of thoſe in power. They inſiſted that they had a proceed in the ſame manner. Tlie town of Hatfield
right to communicate their ſentiments to their fellow alone refuſed its concurrence. The convention, how-
ſubjects upon matters of ſuch iinportance ; complained ever, thought proper to aſſure the governor of their
of the requiſition to reſcind the circular letter as 1111 - pacific intentions, and renewed their requeſt that an
conſtitutional and unjuſt; and particularly inſiſted, that aſſembly might be called; but being refuled any audi-
they were repreſented as harbouring ſeditious deſigns, ence, and threatened with being treated as rebels, they
146
when they were doing nothing but what was lawful at laſt thought proper to diffolve of themſelves, and which dif-
and right. At the ſame time they condemned the late ſent over to Britain a circumſtantial account of their folves, and
acts of parliament as highly oppreſſive, and ſubverſive proceedings, with the reaſon
proceedings, with the reaſon of their having aſſem- vindicates
its own
of liberty. The whole was concluded by a liſt of ac bled in the manner already mentioned.
conduct.
vernor, and cuſations againſt their governor, repreſenting him as The expected troops arrived on the very day on
petition for unfit to continue in his ſtation, and petitioning the which the convention broke 11p, and had ſome houſesin
king for his removal from it.
the town fitted up for their reception. Their arrival
yal.
Theſe proceedings were followed by a violenttumult had a conſiderable influence on the people, and for ſome
A tumult
at Boston. A veſſel belonging to a capital trader had time ſeemned to put a ſtop to the diſturbances; but the
at liuſton, been ſeized in conſequence of his having neglected ſpirit of the people was now ſo much rouſed, that it
139
I 40
Accuſe
their go-
his remo-
I41
was
A M E
[ 579 ]
A ME
147
IS2
ment ad
>)
Sonic peo-
diers in a
ton,
America, was impoſſible to quench the flame. The late outra. horting the inhabitants to rvuſe themſelves, and exert Azerice.
geous behaviour in Boſton had given the greatelt of- every nerye in oppolition to theiron hand of opprellion,
Both hoafce fence in England ; and, not withitanding all the efforts which was daily tearing the choiceſt fruits from the
of parlia-
of oppulition, an addreſs from both houſes of parlia- fair tree of liberty. The diſtu bances were alſo great-
ment was preſented to the king; in which the beha. ly heightened by an accidental diſcovery that Mr Gov. Hut-
chirſon's
dreſs the viour of the colony of Maſſachusetts-Bay was ſet forth Hutchinſon, governor of Maſſachuſetts-Bay, had writ-
letters to
king a in the moſt ample manner, and the moſt vigorous mea-
ten ſeveral confidential letters to people in power in the British
gainſt A- fures recommended for reducing them to obedience. England, complaining of the behaviour of the pro- minifry
inerica,
The Americans, however, continued ſtedfait in the vince, recommending vigorous meaſures againſt then, diſcoveret. .
ideas they had adopted. Though the troops had for and, among other things, aterting, that's there muſt
ſome time quieted thc diſturbances, yet the calm con be an abridgement of what is called Britiſh liberty.”
tinued no longer than they appeared reſpectable on ac Letters of this kind had fallen into the hands of the
count of their number ; but as ſoon as this was dimi- agent for the colony at London. They were immedi-
nified by the departure of a large detachment, the rc- ately tranſmitted to Boſton, where the aſſembly was
mainder were treated with contempt, and it was even ſitting, by whom they were laid before the governor,
reſolved to expel them altogether. The country peo who was thus reduced to a very mortifying lituation.
ple took up arms for this purpoſe, and were to have Loſing every idea of refpeâ or friendihip for hing as
affifted their friends in Boſton ; but before this deſign their governor, they inſtantly diſpatched a petition to the peti-
could be put in execution, an event happened which the king, requeſting him to remove the governor and tion againſt
put an end to every idea of reconciliation betwixt the deputy. governor from their places, but to this they him refu-
contending parties.
not only received no favourable anſwer, but the peti-led.
148
On the 5th of March 1770, a ſcuflle happened be tion itſelf was declared groundleſs and ſcandalous.
ple killed
tween the ſoldiers and a party of the town's people. Matters were now ripe for the utmoſt extremities on
by the fol- The inhabitants poured in froni all quarters to the af. the part of the Americans; and they were brought on
ſiſtance of their fellow-citizens : a violent tumult en in the following manner. Though the colonies had
mobat bof- ſued, during which the military fired upon the inob, entered into a non-importation agreement againſt tea
killing and wounding ſeveral of them. The whole as well as all other commodities from Britain, it had
province now roſe in arms, and the ſoldiers were nevertheleſs found its way into America, though in
obliged to retire to Caſtle William to prevent their be ſmaller quantities than before. This was ſenſibly felt
ing cut in pieces. Let it be remembered, however, to by the Eaſt-India Company, who had now agreed to
the praiſe of American virtue, that, on the trial, not pay a large ſum annually to government in recompence
withſtanding popular prejudice and apprehenſion, the for which compliance, and to make up their loſſes in
captain and fix of the men were acquitted, two men other refpects, they were empowered to export their
149
only being found guilty of manſlaughter. In other re tea free from any duty payable in Britain ; and in coll-
All the du-
ſpects the
determinations of the Americans continued, ſequence of this premiſſion, ſeveral ſhips freighted with
ting that on if poſſible, more firmn than ever, until at laſt govern- the commodity were ſent to North-America, and pro-
tca taken ment, determining to act with vigour, and at the ſame per agents appointed for diſpoſing of it. The Ameri-
off; time to behave with as much condeſcenſion as poſſible, cans now perceiving that the tax was thus likely to be
without abandoning their principles, repealed all the enforced whether they would or not, determined to
duties lately laid on, that of tea alone excepted. This cake every poſſible method to prevent the tea from be-
was left on purpoſe to maintain the dignity of the ing landed, as well knowing that it would be im poſſi-
crown of Britain ; and it was thought that it could not ble to hinder the ſale, ſhould the commodity once be
be productive of any diſcontent in America, as being brought on ſhore. For this purpoſe the people aſſem-
ali affair of very little moment, the produce of which bled in great numbers, forcing thoſe to whom the tea
was not expected to exceed 1.16,000. The oppo was conſigned to religu their offices, and to promiſe ſo-
filion, however, were ftrenuous in their endeavours lemnly never to refuine them; and committees were
to get this tax likewiſe abrogated; inſiſting that the appointed to examine the accounts of merchants, and
Americans would conſider it only as inlet to others; and make public teſts, declaring ſuch as would not take
that the repeal of all the reſt, without this, would an them enemies to their country. Nor was this behavi-
150 ſwer no good purpoſe. The event fhewed that their our confined to the colony of Maſſachuſetts-Bay; the
Which is as opinion was well founded. The Americans oppoſed reit of the provinces entered into the conteſt with the
violently
the tea-tax with the ſame violence as they had done all fame warmth, and manifeſted the ſame reſolution 10
oppoſed as the reſt:and at laſt, on the news that ſalaries had been oppoſe this invaſion of their rights.
all the reſt. ſettled on the juſtices of the ſuperior court at Boſton, In the midſt of this confuſion, three ſhips laden with
tlıe governor was addreſſed on the ſubject; the inea tea arrived in Boſton; but ſo much were the captains
fure was condemned in the ſtrongeſt terms; and a coni alarıned at the diſpoſition which ſeemed to prevail
151 mittec ſelected out of the ſeveral diſtricts of the colo- among the people, that they offered, providing they
Affembly ny appointed to inquire into it.
could obtain the proper diſcharges from the tea-con-
of Mafla.
Thenewaſſembly proceeded in the moſt forn al man- fignees, cuſton-houſe, and governor, to return to Bri.
chuſetts-
ner to diſavow the ſupremacy of the Britiſh legillature; rain without landing their cargoes. The parties con-
mally de-
and accuſed tlic parliament of Britain of having violated cerned, however, though they durft not order the tea
nies the the natural rights of the Americans in a noinber of to be landed, refuſed to grant the diſcharges required.
Britiſh inſtances. Copies of the tranſactions of this affembly The ſhips; therefore, would have been obliged to re-
right of
were tranſmitted to every town in Maſſachuſetts, ex-
main in the harbour; but the people apprehenſive
taxation.
4 D 2
that'
ties excep-
Bay for-
A M E
[ 580 ]
A M E
Tea dc-
160
I55
tance in
the porta
America, that if thcy remained there, the te&' would be lauded lics were to be admitted; the Roman Catholic clergy America
in ſmall quantities and diſpoſed of in ſpite of every en were ſecured in their poileſſions and the uſual perqui-
deavour to prevent it, reſolved to deſtroy it at once. ſites from thoſe of their own profeſſion. The coun-
154
This reſolution was executed with equal ſpeed and ſe- cil abovementioned were to be appointed by the
crefy. The very evening after the abovementioned crown; to be removeable at its pleaſure ; and to be
froyed at diſcharg.cs had been refuſed, a number of people dreſſ- inveſted with every legillative power, excepting that.
Boſton.
ed like Mohawk Indians boarded the ſhips, and threrk of taxation.
into the ſea their whole cargoes, confiſting of 342 No ſooner were theſe laws made known in America, Theſe acts
cheſts of tea; after which they retired without making than they cemented the union of the colonies almoſt exaſperate
any further diſturbance, or doing any other damage. beyond any poſſibility of diMolving it. The aſſembly the Ameri-
No tea was deſtroyed in other places, though the ſame of Maſſachuſetts- Bay had paſſed a voie againſt the canse
And refur. fpirit was every where manifeſted. At Philadelphia. judges accepting ſalaries from the crown, and put the .
ed admit- the pilots were enjoined not to conduct the veſſels up queſtion, Whether they would accept then as uſual
the river; and at New York, though the governor from the general aſſembly?. Four anſwered in the af-
other
cauſed ſome tea to be landed under the protection of firmative; but Peter Oliver, the chief-juſtice, refuſed.
places
a man of war, he was obliged to deliver it up to the Apetition againſt him, and an accuſation, were brought
cilſtody of the people to prevent its being ſold. before the governor ; but the latter refuſed the accu-
The deſtruction of the tea at Boſton, which hap fation, and declined to interfere in the matter ; but
pened in November 1773, was the immediate prelude as they ſtill infifted for juſtice againſt Mr Oliver, the
to the diſaſters attending civil diſcord. Government governor thought proper to put an end to the inatter.
finding themſelves every where inſulted and deſpiſed, by diffolving the allenibly.
161
reſolved to enforce their authority by all poſſible means; In this ſituation of affairs, a new alarm was occa- Reſent-
and as Boſton had been the principal ſcene of the riots ſioned by the news of the port-bill. This iad been ment oeca-
and outrages, it was determined to puniſh that city in totally unexpected, and was received with the moſt fioned by
an exemplary manner. Parliament was acquainted by extravagant expreſſions of diſpleaſure among the po-bill.
a meſſage from his majeſty with the undutiful behavi. pulace, and while theſe continued, the new governor,
our of the city of Boſton, as well as of all the colo- General Gage, arrived from England. He had been
nies, recommending at the ſame time the moſt vigo- choſen to this office on account of his being well ac-
rous and ſpirited exertions to reduce them to obedi- quainted in America, and generally agreeable lo the
ence. The parliament in its addreſs promiſed a ready people ; but human wiſdojn could not now point out
I56 compliance; and, indeed, the Americans ſeemed now a method by which the flame could be allayed. The
Punith-
to have loſt many of their partiſans. It was propoſed firſt act of his office as governor was to remove the
ment of Bo-
to lay a fine on the town of Boſton equal to the price of aſſembly to Saleni, a town 17 miles diſtant, in conſe-
fton refol.
the tea which had been deſtroyed, and to ſhut up its quence of the late act. When this was intimated to
port by armed veſels until the refractory ſpirit of the the aſſembly, they replied by requeſting hini to ap-
inhabitants ſhould be fubdued; which, it was thought, point a day for public humiliation for deprecating the
162
muſt quickly yield, as a total.ſtop would thas be put to wrath of heaven, but met with a refuſal. When met Proceed-
their trade. The bill was ſtrongly oppoſed on the ſame at Salem, they paſſed a reſolution, declaring the neceſ- ings of the
ments and grounds that the other had been ; and
it was predicted, fity of a general congreſs compoſed of delegates from general af:
that, inſtead of having any tendency to reconcileor ſubé all the provinces, in order to lake the affairs of the ſembly niet
pctitions
sgainſt it. due the Americans, it would infallibly exafperate them colonies at large into conſideration : and five gentle-
beyond any poſſibility of a reconciliation. The petitions men reniarkable for their oppoſition to the Britiſh
againſt it, preſented by the colony's agent, pointed out meafures, were choſen to repreſent that of Maſſachu-
the ſame conſequence in the ſtrongeſt terms, and in ſetts-Bay. They then proceeded with all expedition
the moſt poſitive nianner declared that the Aincricans to draw up a declaration, containing a detail of the
never would ſubmit to it; but ſuch was the infatuation grievances they laboured under, and the neceſſity of
attending every rank and degree of men, that it ne exerting themſelves againſt lawleſs power ; they ſet
ver was imagined the Anericans would dare to reſiſt forth the diſregard ſhown to their petitions, and the
the parent ſtate openly, but would in the end ſubmit attempts of Great Britain to deſtroy their ancient con-
And for the implicitly to her commands. In this confidence, a ftitution ; and concluded with exhorting the inhabi-
impartial third bill was propoſed for the impartial adminiſtra- tants of the colony, to obſtruct, by every method in
adminiſtration of juſtice on ſuch perſons as might be employed their power, ſuch evil deſigns, reconimending at the
tion of ju- in the ſuppreſſion of riots and tumults in the province fame time a total renunciation of every thing imported
.
of Maſſachuſetts-Bay. By this act it was provided, from Great Britain, till a redreſs of grievances could
that ſhould any perſons acting in that capacity be in- be procured.
163
dicted for murder, and not able to obtain a fair trial in Intelligence of this declaration was carried to the Generoſity
the province, they might be ſent by the governor to governor on the very day that it was completed; on
England, or to ſome other colony, if neceſſary, to be which he diſſolved the affembly. This was followed pleofSalem
to thofe of
tried for the ſuppoſed crime.
by an addreſs from the inhabitants of Salem in favour
159
Boſton,
Quebec Theſe three bills having paſſed fo eaſily, the mini- of thoſe of Boſton, and concluding with theſe remark-
ſtry propoſed a fourth, relative to the government of able words : “ By fhuttiirg up the port of Boſton,
Canada; which, it was ſaid, had not yet been fettled ſome imagine that the courſe of trade might be turn-
ou any proper plan. By this bill the extent of that ed hither, and to our benefit; but nature, in the for-
province was greatly enlarged ; its affairs were put un. mation of our harbour, forbids our becoming rivals in
der the direction of a council in which Roman Catho commerce with that convenient Hart; and were it
otherwiſe,
ved.on,
157
at Salcm.
158
of the peo-
bull.
AM E
[ 581]
A ME
tions.
America. otherwiſe, we muſt be dead to every idea of juſtice, nation, threatening with the pains of law ſuch as fub- America.
loſt 10 all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one
ſcribed or countenanced it. But matters were too far
thought to ſeize on wealth, and raiſe our fortunes on gone for his proclamatious to have any effect. The
the ruin of our ſuffering neighbours.”
Americans retorted the charge of illegality on his own
It had been fondly hoped by the miniſterial party proclamation, and inſiſted that the law allowed ſub-
at honie, that the advantages which other towns of jects to meet in order to conſider of their grievances,
the colony might derive from the annihilation of the and aſſociate for relief froin oppreſſion.
trade of Boſton, would make them readily acquieſce in Preparations were now made for holding the gene-
the meaſure of Thutting up that port, and rather re ral congreſs fo often propoſed. Philadelphia, as be-
joice in it than otherwiſe ; but the words of the addreſs ing thc moſt central and conſiderable town, was pitch-
abovementioned ſeemed to preclude all hope of this ed upon for the place of its meeting. The delegates,
kind; and ſubſequent tranſactions ſoon manifeſted it of whom it was to be compoſed, were choſen by the
164 to be totally vain. No ſooner did intelligence arrive repreſentatives of each province, and were in number
The cauſe of the remaining bills paſſed in the ſeſſion of 1774; fron two to ſeven for each colony, though no province
168
of Boſton chan the cauſe of Boſton became the cauſe of all the had more than one yote. The firſt congreſs, which Congreſs
eſpouſed by colonies. The port-bill had already oecaſioned violent met at Philadelphia, in the beginning of September meets at
all the reſt cominotions throughout them all. It liad been repro- 1774, conſiſted of sI delegates.
nies. bated in provincial meetings, and reſiſtance even to the importance of the meeting excited and univerſal átten- phia.
laft had been recommended againſt ſuch oppreſſion. tion; and their tranſa&tions were ſuch as could not
In Virginia, the firſt of June, the day on which the but tend to render them reſpectable.
169
port of Boſton was to be ſhut up, was held as a day.. The firſt act of congreſs was an approbation of the Account of
of humiliation, and a public interceſſion in favour of conduct of Maſſachuſetts-Bay, and an exhortation to its tranſac-
America was enjoined. The ſtyle of the prayer en continue in the fame ſpirit with which they had begun.
joined at this time was, that “God would give the Supplies for the ſuffering inhabitants (whom the ope-
people 'one heart and one mind, firmly to oppoſe every "ration of the port-bill had reduced to great diſtreſs)
invaſion of the American rights.” The Virginians, were ſtrongly recommended; and it was declared, that
however; did not content themſelves with acts of re in caſe of attempts to enforce the obnoxious acts by
ligion. They recommended in the ſtrongeſt manner- arms, all America lhould join to allīſt the town of Bof-
a general congreſs of all the colonies, as fully perſua. ton; and, ſhould the inhabitants be obliged, during the
ded that an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary courſe of hoſtilities, to remove further up the country,
manner was in reality an attack upon them all, and the loſſes they might ſuſtain ſhould be repaired at the
muſt ultimately end in the ruin of them all. :
public expence.
The provinces of New York and Penſylvania, how They next addreſſed General Gage by letter ; in
ever, were leſs ſanguine than the reſt, being ſo cloſe- which, having ſtated the grievances of the people of
ly connected in the way of trade with Great Britain, Maſſachuſetts colony, they informed him of the fixed
that the giving it up entirely appeared a matter of the and unalterable determination of all the other provin-
moſt ſerious magnitude, and not to be thought of but ces to ſupport their brethren and to oppoſe the Britiſh
165 after every other method had failed. Theintelligence acts of parliament; that they themſelves were appoint-
The Ame- of the remaining bills reſpecting Boſton, however, ed to watch over the liberties of America ; and intreat-
ricansfirm-ſpread a freſh alarm throughout the continent, and fix ed him to deſiſt from military operations, leſt ſuch ho-
ly united
ed thoſe who had ſeemed to be the moſt wavering. ſtilities inight be broughton as would fruſtrate all hopes
oppofition
The propoſal of giving up all commercial intercourſe of reconciliation with the parent ſtate.
to Britain. with Britain was again propoſed ; contıibutions for the The next ſtep was to publiſh a declaration of their
inhabitants of Boſton were raiſed in cvery quarter; rights. Theſe they ſummed upin the rights belong-
and they every day received addreſſes commending ing to Engliſhmen; and particularly infifted, that as
them for the heroic courage with which they ſuſtained their diſtance rendered it impoſſible for them to be re-
their calamity.
preſented in the Britiſh parliament, their provincial
The Boſtonians on their part were not wanting in aſſemblies, with the governor appointed by the king,
their endeavours to promote the general cauſe. An
An conſtituted the only legiſlative power within each pro
agreeinent was framed, which in imitation of former vince. They would, however, conſent to ſuch acts of
166
Solemn
times, they called a Solemn League and Covenant, parliament as were evidently calculated merely for the
league and By this the ſubſcribers moſt religiouſly bound them- regulation of coninerce, and ſecuring to the paren
ſelves to break off all communication with Britain af- ſtate the benefits of the American trade ; but would
formed at ter the expiration of the month of Auguſt enſuing, never allow that they could impoſe any tax on the co-
Boſton.
until the obnoxious acts were repealed; at the ſame lonies, for the purpoſe of raiſing a revenue, without
time they engaged neither to purchaſe nor uſe any their conſent. They proceeded to reprobate the in-
goods imported after that time, and to renounce all tention of each of the new acts of parliament; and
connection with thofe who did, or who refuſed to fub- intifted on all the rights they had enumerated as being
ſcribe to this covenant; threatening to publiſh the unalienable, and what none could deprive them of.
names of the refractory ; which at this time was a pu- The Canada act they particularly pointed out as being
vernor at- niſhment by no means to be deſpied. Agreements of extremely inimical to the colonies, by whoſe affiſtance
tempts in
a ſimilar kind were almoſt inſtantaneouſly entered into it had been conquered ; and they cerned it “ An act
counteract
throughout all America. General Gagt indeed at for eſtabliſhing the Roman Catholic religion in Cana-
it by pro- tempted to counteract the covenant by a proclamation, da, aboliſhing the equitable ſyſtem of Engliſh laws,
clathation, wherein it was declared an illegal and craiterous combi- and eſtabliſhing a tyranny there." They further dea
clared
in their
&venant
167
The go-
vain to
A ME
[ 582 1
A ME
ir cina.
172
173
to the pro-
vince.
$
174
clared in favour of a non-importation and non-con were appointed by the ancient uſage and cuſtom of the America,
ſumption of Britiih goods, uncil the acts were repealed province. Every where they manifested the moſt ar-
by which duries were impoſed upon tea, coffee, wine, dent defire of learning the ari of war; and every indi-
fugar, and molaires, imported into America, as well vidual who could bear arms, was molt aſliduous in pro-
as the Boſton port-act, and the three others palled in curing them, and learning their exerciſe.
the preceding Teſſion of parliament. The new regu Matters at laſt proceeded to ſuch an height, that Gen. Gage
lutions againſt the importation and conſumption of General Gage thought proper to fortify the neck of fortifies Bo .
British commodities were then drawn up with great fo- land which joins the tourn of Boſton to the continent. flon Neck,
lemnity; and they concluded with returning the warm This, though undoubtedly a prudent meaſure in his
eſt thanks to thoſe members of parliament who had, fituation, was exclaimed againſt by the Americans in
with ſo much zeal, though without any ſucceſs, op the moſt vehement manner; but the General, inſtead
poſed the obnoxious acts of parliament.
of giviug ear to their remonſtrances, deprived them of
Their next proceedings were, to frame a petition to all power of acting againſt himſelf, by ſeizing the pro- And reizes
the king, an addreſs to the Britiſh nation, and another vincial powder, ammunition, and military ſtores at the milita-
to the colonies; all of which were ſo much in the uſual Cambridge and Charleſtown. This excited ſuch in- fy itores
fpirited ſtrain of American language for ſome time paſt, dignation, that it was with the utmoſt difficulty the belonging
that it is needleſs to enter into any particular account people could be reſtrained from marching to Boſton
ofthem. It is ſufficient to ſay, that they were all drawn and attacking the troops. Even in the town itſelf, the
up in a maſterly manner, and ought to have impreſſed company of cadets that uſed to attend hiin diſbanded
the people of England with a more favourable idea of themſelves, and returned the ſtandard he had as uſual
the Americans than they could at that time be induced preſented them with on his acceſſion to the government.
to entertain.
This was occaſioned by his having deprived the cele-
All this time the diſpoſition of the people had cor- brated patriot John Hancock, afterwards prcfident of
reſponded with the warmeſt wiſhes of congreſs. The the congreſs, of his commiſſion as colonel of the cadets.
firſt of June had been kept as a faſt, not only through- A ſimilar inſtance happened of a provincial colonel
out Virginia, where it was firſt propoſed, but through having accepted a ſeat in the new council ; upon which
the whole continent. Contributions for the diſtreſſes 24 officers of his regiment religned their commiſſions
of Boſton had been raiſed throughout America, and in one day.
people of all ranks ſeemed to be particularly touched In the mean time a meeting was held of the princi- Oppofition
with them. Even thoſe who ſeenied to be moſt likely pal inhabitants of the towns adjacent to Boſton. The to the L.ri-
to derive advantage from thein, took no opportunity, purport of this was publicly to renounce all obedience tifh partia
as has been already inſanced in the caſe of Saleni. to the late acts of parliament, and to form an engage- increaſes
Generolity The inhabitants of Marblehead alſo ſhowed a noble ment to indemnify ſuch as ſhould be proſecuted on that
of the inha- example of magnanimity in the preſent caſe. Though account; the members of the new council were decla-
ſituated in the neighbourhood of Boſton, and moſt red violators of the rights of their country; all ranks
likely to derive benefit from their diſtreſſes, they did and degrees were exhorted to learn the uſe of arms;
head to
not attempt to take any advantage, but generouſly of and the receivers of the public revenue were ordered
fered the uſe of their harbour to the Boſtonians, as not to deliver it into the treaſury, but to retain it in
well as their wharfs and warehouſes, free of all ex their own hands till the conſtitution ſhould be reſtored,
pence. In the mean time the Britiſh forces at Boſton
or a provincial congreſs diſpoſe of it otherwiſe.
were continually increaſing in number, which greatly A remonſtrance againſt the fortifications on Boſton
augmented the general jealouſy and diſſatisfaction ; the Neck was next prepared; in which, however, they ſtill
country were ready to raiſe at a moment's warning; declared their unwillingneſs to proceed to any hoſtile
171
and the experiment was made by giving a falſe alarm meaſures ; aſſerting only as uſual their firm determina-
that the communication between the town and country tion not to ſubmit to the acts of parliament they had
attachment
175
of the coun- was to be cut off, in order to reduce the former by already ſo much complained of. The governor, to A general
try people famine to a compliance with the acts of parliament. reſtore tranquillity, if poſſible, called a general affem. aſſembly
to the Bu- On this intelligence, the country people aliembled in bly; but ſo many of the council had reſigned their called and
Itonians, great numbers, and could not be ſatisfied until they had ſeats, that he was induced to countermand its litting
by procla-
fent meſſengers into the city to enquire into the truth of by proclamation. This meaſure, however, was deem- mation.
the report. Theſe meſſengers were enjoined to informed illegal ; the affenibly met at Salem ; and, after wait-
the town's people, that if they ſhould be ſo pufillani- ing a day for the governor, voted themſelves into a
inous as to make a ſurrender of their liberties, the pro- provincial congreſs, of which Mr Hancock was choſen
vince would not think itſelf bound by ſuch examples; preſident. A committee was inſlanıly appointed, who
and that Britain, by breaking their original charter, waitedon the governor with a remonſtrance concerning
had annulled the contract ſubliſting between them, and the fortifications on Boſon Neck; but nothing of con-
ielt them to act as they thought proper.
ſequence took place, both parties mutually criminating
The people in every other reſpect manifcſted their each other. The winter was now coming on, and the
inflexible determination to adhere to the plan they ha governor, to avoid quartering the ſoldiers upon the in-
178
fi long followed. The new counſellors and judges habitants, propoſed to erect barracks for them; but the Gen. Gage
were obliged to reſign their ofices, in order to preſerve ſelect-med of Boſton compelled the workmen to defift. meets with
their lives and properties from thic fury of the multi- Carpenters were ſent for to New York, but they werc great diffi-
tude. In fonie places they shut up the avennes to the refuſed ; and it was with the utmoſt difficulty that he culties in
court-houſes; and, when required to make way for the could procure winter-lodgings for his troops. Nor was
dating his
judges, replied, that they knew of none but ſuch as the difficulty leſs in procuring clothes as the mer-
troops,'
chants
170
bitants of
Marble-
Lofton.
Extreme
accommo.
A M E
[ 583 ]
A M E
for war.
for war
tants of
Ar.erica. chants of New-York told him, that they would ne eſt aſſiduity to the proſecution of ſuch manufaćenrcs as Americk.
vér ſupply any article for the bencfit of inen ſent as were neceſſary for their defence and ſubliſtence, ſuch
enemics to their country.”
177
as falt, ſalt-petre, gunpowder, ſteel, &c. This was
The Ame This diſpoſition, known to be almoſt univerſal the univerſal voice of the colonics, New-York only
ricans throughout the continent, was in the higheſt degree excepted. The aflembly of that province, as yet igno-
make pre ſatisfactory to congreſs. Every one ſaw that the en rant of the fate of their laſt remonftrance, refuſed to
parations
ſuing ſpring was to be the ſeaſon of commencing ho concur with the other colonies in their determination
ſtilities, and the moſt indefatigable diligence was uſed to throw off the Britiſh yoke: their attachment, how-
by the colonies to be well provided againſt ſuch a for ever, was very faint, and by the event it appeared that
midable enemy. A liſt of all the fenſible men in each a perſeverence in the meaſures which the miniſtry had
colony was made out, and eſpecially of thoſe who had adopted was ſufficient to unite them to the reſt.
ſerved in the former war ; of whom they had the ſatis As the diſturbances had originated in the province
faction to find that two-thirds were ſtill alive and fit of Maſſachuſetts-Bay, and there continued all along
to bear arms. Magazines of arms were collected, and with the greateſt violence, ſo this was the province
n:oney was provided for the payment of troops. The where the firſt hoſtilities were formerly cominenced. 180
governors in vain attempted to put a ſtop to theſe pro- In the beginning of Febrnary the provincial congreſs Maffache-
ceedings by proclainations; the fatal period was now met a: Cambridge; and as from every appearance it fetts affun-
arrived : and the more the ſervants of governmentat became daily more cvident, that arms inult ultiinately bly recom-
tempted to repreſs the ſpirit of the Americans, the decide the conteſt, expertneſs in military diſcipline mend pre-
more determined it appeared.
was recommended in the ſtrongeſt manner, and ſeve-
178
parations
Diſtreſs of
In the mean time the inhabitants of Boſton were re ral military inſtitutions enacted; among which that
the inhabi- duced to great diſtreſs. The Britiſh troops, now dif- of the minute-men was one of the moſt remarka-
tinguified by the name of the enemy, were abſolutely in ble. Theſe were choſen froni the inolt active and ex-
Boſton.
pofleſſion of it; the inhabitants were kept as priſoners, pert among the militia ; and their buſineſs was to keep
and might be made accountable for the conduct of themſelves in conſtant readineſs at the call of their of-
the whole colonies ; and various ineaſures were con ficers; from which perpetual vigilance they derived
trived to relieve the latter from ſuch a diſagreeable their title. It was now eaſily ſeen that a ſlight occa-
ſituation. Sometimes it was thought expedient to fion would bring on hoſtilities, which could not but be
remove the inhabitants altogether ; but this was in attended with the inoſt violent and certain deſtruction
practicable without the governor's conſent. It was to the vanquiſhed party ; for both were ſo much exaſ-
then propoſed to ſet fire to the town at once, after perated by a long courſe of reproaches and literary
valuing the houſes and indemnifying the proprietors; warfare, that they ſeemed to be filled with the utmost
but this being found equally impracticable, it was re- inveteracy again t each other.
folved to wait ſome other opportunity, as the garriſon On the 26th of February General Gage having been
were not very numerous, and, not being ſupplied with informed that a number of field-pieces had been brought
neceſſaries by the inhabitants, might ſoon be obliged to Salem, diſpatched a party to ſeize them. Their
to leave the place. The friends of Britiſh government road was obſtructed by a river, over which was a
indeed attempted to do ſomething in oppoſition to the draw-bridge. This the people had pulled up, and re-
general voice of the people; but after a few ineffectual fuſed to let it down : upon which the foldiers ſeized a
meetings and reſolutions, they were utterly ſilenced, boat to ferry them over ; but the people cut out her
and obliged to yield to the ſuperior number of the bottom. Hoftilities would immediately have comment-
patriots.
ced, had it not been for the interpoſition of a clergy-
Matters had now proceeded ſo far that the proſpect man, who repreſented to the military, on the one hand,
of reconciliation or friendſhip with Britain became the folly of oppoſing ſuch numbers, and to the people,
daily more and more diftant. The Americans, there. on the other, that as the day was far ſpent the military
fore, began to ſeize on the military ſtores and am- · could not execute their delign, lo that they might with
179
inunition belonging to government. This firſt com out any fear leave them the quiet poſſeſſion of the draw-
Military menced at New-port in Rhode-Iland, where the in- bridge. This was complied with; and the ſoldiers, af-
ſtores feiz- habitants carried off 40 pieces of cannon appointed ter having remained for ſome time at the bridge, re-
ed by the
for the protection of the place ; and on being asked turned without executing their orders.
Americans
18 i
the reaſon of this proceeding, they replied, that the The next attempt, however, was attended with more Skirmiſh at
people had ſeized them left they ſhould be made uſe of ſerious conſequences. General Gage having been in- Lexington.
againſt themſelves. After this the aſſembly met, and formed that a large quantity of ammunition and mili-
reſolved that ammunition and warlike ſtores ſhould be tary ſtores had been collected at Concord, about 20
purchaſed with the public money.
miles from Boſton, and where the provincial congreſs
New Hampſhire followed the example of Rhode was fitting, ſent a detachment, under the command of
Inand, and ſeized a ſmall fort for the ſake of the pow- Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to deſtroy the ſtores,
der and military ſtores it contained. In Pennſylvania, and, as was reported, to ſeize Meſſrs. Hancock and
however, a convention was held, which expreſſed an Adams, the leading men of the congrefs. They fet
carneſt deſire of reconciliation with the mother-coun out before day-break, on the 19th of April, marching
try; though, at the ſame time, in the ſtrongeſt manner with the utinoſt ſilence, and ſecuring every one they
declaring, that they were reſolved to take up arms in inct on the road, that they might not be diſcoverca.
defence of their just rights, and defend to the laſt their But notwithſtanding all their care, the continual ring-
oppoſition to the late acts of parliament; and the peo- ing of bells and firing of guns as they went along,
ple were exhorted to apply themſelves with the great foon gave them notice that the country was alarmed.
3
About
A M E
[ 584 1
A M E
Boſton.
Ancrica. About five in the morning they had reached Lexington of foot was then landed at the foot of Bunker's Hill, uķ- A merica.
w 15 iniles from Boſton, where the militia of the place der the coinmand of Generals Howe and Pigot; the for-
werc exerciſing. Major Pitcairn called out to them, mer being appointed to attack the lines and the latter the
difperfi you rebels; throw down your arms and diſperse : redoubt. The Americans, however, having the advan-
but, as they ſtill continued in a body, he advanced, tage of the ground, as well as of their intrenchments,
diſcharged his piſtol, and ordered his ſoldiers to fire; poured down ſuch inceſſant volleys, as threatened the
who initantly obeyed, and killed and wounded ſeveral whole body with deſtruction ; and General Howe was for
of the militia : a diſperſion of the militia was the con a little time left almoſt alone, all his officers being kil-
ſequence. The detachment then proceeded to Concord, led or wounded. The provincials in the mean time
where, liaving deſtroyed the ſtores, they fired upon had taken poſſeſſion of Charleſtown, ſo that General
the Americans; and a ſcuffle enſued, in which ſeveral Pigot was obliged to contend with them in that place
fell on both ſides, The purpoſe of their expedition as well as in the redoubt. The conſequence was,
being thus accompliſhed, it was neceſſary for the king's that he was overmatched; his troops were throwi
troops to retreat, which they did through a continual into diſorder ; and he would in all probability have
fire kept up on them from Concord to Lexington. been defeated, had not General Clinton advanced to his
Here their ammunition was totally expended ; and relief: upon which the attack was renewed with ſuch
they would have been unavoidably cut off, had not a fury, that the provincials were driven beyond the
conſiderable reinforcement commanded by Lord Percy neck that leads to Charleſtown. In the heat of the
met them. The Americans, however, continued engagement the Britiſh troops, in order to deprive the
their attack with grcat ſpirit ; and the Britiſh would ſtill Americans of a cover, ſet fire to Charleſtown, which
have been in the utmoſt danger had it not been for was totally conſumed ; and, eventually, the Americans
two field-pieces which Lord Percy had brought with were obliged to retreat over Charleſtown neck, and
him. By theſe the impetuolity of the Americans was was raked by an inceſſant fire from the Glaſgow man
checked, and the Britiſh made good their retreat to of war, and ſeveral floating batteries. The loſs on
Boſton, with the loſs of 273 killed wounded and made the Britiſh ſide amounted to about 1000, among whom
priſoners : that of the Americans was about 50 killed, were 19 officers killed and 70 wounded ; that of tha,
182
8 wounded and miſſing.
Americans did not exceed 139 killed, and 314 wound-
A great ar From the cominencement of hoſtilities, the diſpute ed.
my
aſſen- between great Britain and the colonies took a new di The Britiſh troops claimed the victory of this en-
bles before re&tion. By this engagement the ſpirits of the Ameri- gagement; but it muſt be allowed that it was dcarly
cans were raiſed; a conſiderable army was aſſembled, bought; and the Americans boaſted that the real ad-
who formed a line of encampment from Roxbury to vantages were on their lide, as they had ſo much weak-
Myſtic, through a ſpace of about 30 miles ; and here ened the enemy that they durſt not afterwards venture
they were ſoon after joined by a large body of Con- out of their entrenchments. Although this was the
necticut troops, under General Putnam, an old officer firſt time the provincials had been in actual ſervice,
of great bravery and experience. By this formidable they behaved ihemſelves with the ſpirit of veterans,
force was the town of Boſton now kept blocked up. and by no means merited the appellation of cowards,
General Gage, however, had ſo ſtrongly fortified it, with which they were ſo often branded in Britain.
i that the army powerful as they were, durſt not make In other places the ſame determined fpirit of relift- The Amc-
an attack ; while on the other hand, his force was by ance appeared on the part of the Americans. Lord ricans be-
far too inſignificant to meet ſuch an army in the field. North's conciliatory ſcheme was utterly rejected by come more
But towards the end of May, a conſiderable reinforce- the aſſemblies of Pennſylvania and New-Jerſey, and
determined
inent having arrived, with Generals Howe, Burgoyne, afterwards in every other culony.
The commence in their
and Clinton, he was ſoon enabled to atienpt ſomething ment of hoſtilities at Lexington determined the colony oppoſition.
of conſequence. Some ſkirmiſhes in the mean time of New York, which had hitherto continued to waver,
happened in the iſlands lying off Boſton harbour, in to unite with the reſt ; and as the ſituation of New-
which the Americans had the advantage, and burnt York renders it unable to reſiſt an attack from the ſea,
an arnied ſchooner, which her people had been obliged it was, reſolved, before the arrival of a Britiſh fleet,
to abandon after ſhe was left aground by the tide. to ſecure the military ſtores, ſend off the wonien and
Nothing deciſive, however, took place, till the 17th children, and ſet fire to the city if it was ſtill found in-
183
In the neighbourhood of Charleſtown, a capable of defence. The exportation of proviſions was
Bunker's place on the northern Ilore of the peninſula on which every where prohibited, particularly to the Britiſh
Boſton ſtands, is an high ground called Bunker's Hill, fiſhery on the Banks of Newfoundland, or to ſuch co-
which overlooks and commands the whole town of lonies of America as ſhould adhere to the Britiſh in-
Boſton. in the night of the 16th the provincials took tereſt. Congreſs reſolved on the eſtabliſhment of an
185
pofleſſion of this place : and worked with ſuch inde- army, and of a large paper currency in order to ſup. Crown-
fatigable diligence, that, to the aſtonillment of their port it. In the inland northern colonies, colonel Point and
enemics, they had before day-light, almoſt completed Eaſton and Ethan Allen, without receiving any orders Ticondera-
a redoubt, with a ſtrong entrenchment reaching from congreſs, or communicating their deligns to any go taken by
half a milé eaſtward, as far as the river Myſtic. Af- body, with a party of only 250 men, ſurpriſed the forts the Ame-
ricans.
ter this they were obliged to ſuſtain a heavy and incef- of Crown-Point, Ticonderago, and the rest that form
ſant fire from the ſhips and floating batteries with a communication betwixt the colonies and Canada.
which Charleſtown neck was ſurrounded, as well as On this occaſion 200 pieces of cannon fell into their
the cannon that could reach the place from Boſton; hands, beſides mortars, and a large quantity of military
in ſpite of which, however, they continued their work, ſtores, together with two armed veſſels, and materials
and finished it before mid-day. A conſiderable body for the conſtruction of others.
After
18A
and merc
Battle at
of June.
Hill,
Å M E
( 585 1
A ME
their courage.
186
ز
Aaicrica. After the battle of Bunker's Hill, the provincials our exiſtence intended a part of the huinan race to hold America,
erected fortifications on the heights which commanded an abſolute property in and unbounded power over
Charleſtown, and ſtrengthened the reſt in ſuch a man others, marked out by His infinite goodneſs and wiſ-
ner that there was no hope of driving them from dom as the objects of a legal domination, never riglil-
thence; at the ſame time that their activity and bold- fully reſiſtible, liowever ſevere and oppreſſive; the in-
neſs aſtoniſhed the Britiſh officers, who had been ac habitants of theſe colonies might at leaſt require from
cuſtomed lo entertain a mean and unjuſt opinion of the parliament of Great-Britain ſome evidence that this
dreadful authority over them had been granted to that
Troops in
The troops, thus fhat up in Boſton, were ſoon re- body: but a reverence for our Great Creator, princi-
Boſton di- duced to diſtreſs. Their neceſſities obliged them to ples of humanity, and the distates of common ſenſe,
Itrolleda attempt the carrying off the American cattle on the muſt convince all thoſe who reflect upon the ſubject,
iſlands before Boſton, which produced frequent ſkir that government was inſicuted to promote the welfare
miſhes; but the provincials, better acquainted with the of mankind, and ought to be adminiſtered for the al-
navigation of theſe ſhores, landed on the iſlands, de- tainment of that end.
ſtroyed or carried off whatever was of any uſe, burned 66 The legiſlature of Great-Britain, however, ſti-
the light-houſe at the entrance of the harbour, and mulated by an inordinate paſſion for power, not only
took priſoners the workmen ſent to repair it, as well unjuſtifiable, but which they know to be peculiarly re-
as a party of marines who guarded them. Thus the probated by the very conftitution of that kingdom;
garriſon were reduced to the neceſſity of ſending out and deſpairing of ſucceſs in any mode of conteſt where
armed veſſels to make prizes indiſcriminately of all regard ſhould be had to law, truth, or right; have, at
that came in their way, and of landing in different length, deſerting thoſe, attempted to effect their cruel
187
places to plunder for ſubſiſtence as well as they could. and impolitic purpoſe of endaving theſe colonies by vi-
Articles of The congreſs in the mean time continued to act with olence, and have thereby rendered it neceſſary for us
union be- all the vigour which its conſtituents had expected. to cloſe with their laſt appeal from reaſon to arms.
tween the Articles of confederation and perpetual union were Yet, however blinded that aſſembly may be, by their
colonies drawn up and folemnly agreed upon ; by which they'intemperate rage for unlimited domination, ſo to fight
bound themſelves and their poſterity for ever. Theſe juſtice in the opinion of mankind, we eftcem ourſelves
were in ſubſtance as follows.
bound by obligations to the reſt of the world to make
1. Each colony was to be independent within itſelf, known the juſtice of our cauſe."
and to retain an abſolute ſovereignty in all domeſtic After taking notice of the manner in which their
affairs.
anceſtors left Britain, the happineſs attending the mu-
2. Delegates to be annually elected to meet in con tual friendly commerce betwixt that country and her
greſs, at ſuch time and place as ſhould be enacted in colonies, and the remarkable ſucceſs of the late war,
the preceding congreſs.
they proceed as follows: "The new miniſtry, finding
3. This aſſembly ſhould have the power of deter- the brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeated,
mining war or peace, making alliances; and in fort yet ſtill contending, took up the unfortunate idea of
all that power which ſovereigus of ſtates uſually claim granting them a haſty peace, and of then ſubduing her
as their own.
faithful friends.
4. The expences of war to be paid out of the com " Theſe devoted colonies were judged to be in ſuch
mon treaſury, and raiſed by a poll-tax on males be a ſtate as to preſent victories without bloodthed, and
tween 16 and 60; the proportions to be determined all the eaſy emoluments of ſtatutable plunder. The
by the laws of the colony.
uninterrupted tenor of their peaceable and relpectful
5. An executive council to be appointed to act in behaviour from the beginning of their colonization;
place of the congreſs during its receſs.
their dutiful, zealous, and uſeful ſervices during the
6. No colony to make war with the Indians with war, though ſo recently and amply acknowledged in
out conſent of congreſs.
the moſt honourable manner by his majeſty, by the
7. The boundaries of all the Indian lands to be ſecu- late king, and by parliament, conld not ſave them
red and aſcertained to them; and no purchaſes of lands from the intended innovations. Parliament was influ.
were to be made by individuals, or even by a colony, enced to adopt the pernicious project; and aſſuming 2
without conſent of congreſs.
new power over them, has in the courſe of eleven
8. Agents appointed by congreſs ſhould reſide a years given ſuch deciſive ſpecimens of the ſpirit and
mong the Indians, to prevent frauds in trading with conſequences attending this power, as to leave no
them, and to relieve, at the public expenſe, their wants doubt of the effects of acquieſcence under it.
and diſtreſſes.
“They have undertaken to give and grant our mo-
9. This confederation to laſt until there Mould be ney without our conſent, though we have cver exer-
a reconciliation with Britain ; or, if that event ſhould ciſed an excluſive right to diſpoſe of our own proper-
not take place, it was to be perpetual.
ty. Statutes have been paſſed for extending the juriſ-
After the action of Bunker's Hill, however, when diction of the courts of admiralty and vice-ddmiralty
the power of Great Britain appeared leſs formidable in beyond their ancient limits; for depriving us of the
the eyes of America than before, congreſs proceeded accuſtomed and ineſtimable rights of trial by jury, in
forinally to juſtify their proceedings in a declaration caſes affecting both life and property ; for fufpending
188 drawn up in terms more expreſſive, and well calcnlated the legiſlature of one of our colonies; for interdidling
Declarati.
to excite attention.
all commerce to the capital of another; and for alter-
“Were it poſſible (faid they) for men who exer- ing fundamentally the form of government eſtabliſhed
ciſe their reaſon, to believe that the divine Author of by charter, and ſecured by acts of its own legiſlature;
VOL. ).
4 E
on on t2.
king up
arpio
and
A M E
( 586 )
A M E
tried.
Qurs.
America, and folemnly confirmed by the crown; for exempting thus: “Weare reduced to the alternative of chooling America.
the murderers of coloniſts from legal trial, and in ef an unconditional ſubmiſſion to tyranny, or reſiſtance by
feet from puniſhment; for erecting in a neighbouring force. The latter is our choice.
The latter is our choice. We have counted
province, acquired by the joint arms of Great Britain the coſt of this conteſt, and find nothing ſo dreadful
and Anierica, a deſpotiſm dangerous to our very exiſt as voluntary Navcry. Honour, juſtice, and humanity,
ence;
and for quartering ſoldiers upon the coloniſts in forbid us tamely to ſurrender that freedom which we
riine of a profound peace. It has alſo been reſolved received from our gallant anceſtors, and which our in-
in parliament, that coloniſts, charged with committing nocent poſterity have a right to receive from us. Our
certain offences, ſhall be tranſported to England to be cauſe is juſt; our union is perfect, our internal re-
ſources are great; and, if neceſſary, foreign aſliſtance
“ But why ſhould we enumerate our injuries in de- is undoubtedly attainable. We tight not for glory or
tail ?-By one ſtatute it was declared, that parliament conqueſt; we exhibit to mankind the remarkable
can of right make laws to bind us in all caſes whate- ſpectacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies.
ver. What is to defend us againſt ſo enormous, ſo They boaſt of their privileges and civilization, and yet
unlimited a power? Not a ſingle perſon who alliimes proffer no milder conditions than ſervitude or death.
it is choſen by us, or is ſubject to our controul or in- In our native land, in defence of the freedom that
fluence; but, on the contrary, they are all of thein ex is our birthright, for the protection of our property
empt from the operation of ſuch laws; and an Ameri- acquired by the honeſt induſtry of our forefathers and
can revenue, if not diverted from the oftenlible
our own, againſt violence actually offered, we have
purpoſes for which it is raiſed, would actually taken up arms; we ſhall lay them down when hoſti-
lighten their own burdens in proportion as it increaſes lities ſhall ceaſe on the part of our aggreſſors, and all
danger of their being renewed ſhall be removed
“We ſaw the miſery to which ſuch deſpotiſm would and not before.”
reduce us.
We for ten years inceſſantly and ineffec. Theſe are ſome of the moſt ſtriking paſſages in the
tually beſieged the throne as ſupplicants; we reaſoned, declaration of congreſs on taking up arms againſt
we remonſtrated with parliament in the moſt mild and Great Britain, and dated July 6th, 1775. The de-
decent language; but adminiſtration, ſenſible that we termined ſpirit which it ſhows, ought to have convin-
ſhould regard theſe meaſures as freemen ought to do, ced the people of Britain, that the conqueſt of Ame-
ſent over fleets and armies to enforce them.
rica was an event ſcarce ever to be expected. In
“We have purſued every temperate, every reſpect- every other reſpect an equal ſpirit was ſhown; and 189
ful meaſure; we have even proceeded to break off all the rulers of the Britiſh nation had the mortification Quebec bill
cominercial intercourſe with our fellow-ſubjects,as our to ſee thoſe whom they ſtyled rebels and traitors, ſuc- diſagreea-
ble to thoſe
laſt peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no ceed in negociations in which they themſelves were
whom it
nation on earth would ſupplant our attachment to li- utterly foiled. In the paſſing of the Quebec-bill, mi-
was intenda
berty; this we flattered ourſelves was the ultimate ſtep niſtry had Aattered themſelves that the Canadians ed to
of the controverſy ; but ſubſequent events have frown would be ſo much attached to them on account plcafe.
how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our of reſtoring the French laws, that they would very
eneinies!
readily join in any atteinpt againſt the coloniſts who
" The Lords and Commons, in their addreſs in the had reprobated that bill in ſuch ſtrong terms: but in
month of February, ſaid, that a rebellion at that time this, as in every thing elſe indeed, they found them-
actually exiſted in the province of Maſſachuſetts-Bay; felves miſtaken. The Canadians having been ſubject
and that thoſe concerned in it had been countenanced to Britain for a period of 15 years, and being thus ren-
and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engage- dered ſenſible of the advantage of Britiſh government,
ments entered into by his majeſty's ſubjects in ſeveral received the bill itſelf with evident marks of diſap-
of the colonies; and therefore they be ſought his ma- probation ; nay, reprobated it as tyrannical and op-
jeſty that he would take the moſt effectual meaſures to preſſive. A ſcheme had been formed for General
enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the Carleton, governor of the province, to raiſe an army
ſupreme legillature. Soon after the commercial inter- of Canadians wherewith to act againſt the Americans;
courſe of whole colonies with foreign countries was cut and ſo fanguine were the hopes of adıniniſtration in
off by an act of parliament; by another, ſeveral of this refpečt, that they had ſent 20,000 ſtand of arms,
them were entirely prohibited from the fiſheries in and a great quantity of military ſtores, to Quebec for
the ſeas near their coaſts, on which they always de- the purpoſe. But the people, though they did not
pended for their ſubſiſtence ; and large reinforcements join the Americans, yet were found immoveable in
of hips and troops were immediately ſent over to Ge- their purpoſe to ſtand neuter. Application was made
neral Gage.
to the biſhop; but he declined to interpoſe his influ-
" Fruitleſs were all the intreaties, arguments, and ence, as contrary to the rules of the Popiſh clergy:
eloquence of an illuſtrious band of the moſt diſtinguiſh- ſo that the utmoſt efforts of government in this pro-
ed peers and commoners, who nobly and ſtrenuouſly vince were found to anſwer little or no purpoſe.
190
aſſerted the juſtice of our cauſe, to ſtay, or even to mi. The Britiſh adminiſtration next tried to engago the Miniſtry
gate, the heedleſs fury with which theſe accumulated Indians in their cauſe. But though agents were dif- attempt in
outrages were hurried on. Equally fruitleſs was the perſed among them with large preſents to the chiefs, vain to arne
interference of the city of London, of Briſtol, and they univerſálly replied, that they did not underſtand the India
of
many other reſpectable towns in our favour,' the nature of the quarrel, nor could they diſtinguish
After having reproached parliament, General Gage, whether thoſe who dwelt in America or on the other
and the Britiſh government in general, they proceed fide of the ocean were in fault : but they were ſur-
priſed
A ME
[ 587 ]
A ME
the com-
America. priſed to ſee Engliſhmen aſk their affiſtance againſt ing the breach. From the preſent ſituation of our af. America,
one another; and adviſed them to be reconciled, and fairs, we judge it expedient to kindle up a ſmall fire at
not to think of ſhedding the blood of their brethren. Albany, where we may hear each other's voice, and
To the repreſentations of congreſs they paid more re diſcloſe our minds fully to one another."
ſpect. Theſe ſet forth, that the Engliſli on the other The other remarkable tranſactions of this congreſs
ſide of the ocean, had taken up arms to enſlave, not were the ultimate refuſal of the conciliatory propoſal
only their countrymen in America, but the Indians made by Lord North, of which fach ſanguine expeta-
alſo; and if the latter ſhould enable them to overcome tions had been formed by the Engliſh ininiſtry; and
the coloniſts, they themſelves would ſoon bereduced to appointing a generaliffimo to command their armies, 192
a ſtate of Navery alſo. By arguments of this kind theſe which were now very numerous. The perſon choſen General
favages were engaged to remain neuter; and thus the for this purpoſe was GEORGE WASHINCTON: a man Wiſhinge
coloniſts were freed from a moſt dangerous enemy. On fo univerſally beloved, that he was raiſed to ſuch a high ton apo
this occaſion the congreſs thought proper to hold a fo- ſtation by the unanimous voice of congreſs ; and his pointed
lemn conference with the different tribes of Indians. ſubſequent conduct ſhowed him every way worthy of der in chieſ.
The ſpeech made by them on the occaſion is curious, it. Horatio Gates and Charles Lee, two Engliſ
but too long to be fully inſerted. The following is a officers of conſiderable reputation, were choſen ; the
ſpecimen of the European mode of addreſſing theſe former an adjutant-general, the ſecond a najor-gene-
people.
ral. Artemus Ward, Philip Schuyler, and Iſrael Put-
IQT " Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors !
nam, were likewiſe nominated major-generals. Seth
Speech of
“We the delegates from the Twelve United Pro- Pomeroy, Richard Montgonery, David Wooſter,
millioners
vinces, now ſitting in general congreſs at Philadelphia, William Heath, Joſeph Spencer, John Thomas, John
from con-
ſend their talk to you our brothers.
Sullivan, and Nathanael Greeni, were choſen briga-
grefs to the “ Brothers and Friends, now attend!
dier generals at the ſame time.
193
Indiaas. When our fathers croſſed the great water, and Congreſs had now alſo the ſatisfaction to receive de- Georgia
came over to this land, the king of England gave them puties from the colony of Georgia, expreſſing a defire accedes to
a talk, afſuring them that they and their children ſhould to join the confederacy. The reaſons they give for re- the confc-
be his children; and that if they would leave their na-
deracy,
nouncing their allegiance to Britain was, that the con-
tive country, and make ſettlements, and live here, and duct of parliament towards the other colonies had been
buy and ſell, and trade with their brethren beyond the oppreſſive; that though the obnoxious acts had not been
water, they ſhould ſtill keep hold of the ſame cove extended to them, they could view his only asan omiſ-
nant-chain, and enjoy peace; and it was covenanted, ſion, becauſe of the ſeeming little conſequence of their
that the fields, houſes, goods, and poſſeſſions, which colony; and therefore looked upon it rather to be a
our fathers ſhould acquire, ſhould remain to them as flight than a favour. At the ſame time they framed a
their own, and be their childrens for ever, and at their perition to the king, ſimilar to that ſent by the other
fole diſpoſal.
colonies, and which met with a ſimilar reception.
“ Brothers and Friends, open an ear!
The ſucceſs which had hitherto attended the Ameri-
“We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the cans in all their meaſures, now emboldened them to
counſellors of King George and the inhabitants and co think not only of defending themſelves, but likewiſe
lonies of America.
of acting offenſively againſt Great-Britain. The con-
194
" Many of his counſellors have perſuaded him to queſt of Canada appeared an object within their reach, The Ame-
break the covenant-chain, and not to ſend us any more and one that would be attended with many advantages; ricans at-
good talks. They have prevailed upon him to enter and as an invaſion of that province was already facili-tempt the
into a covenant againſt us, and have torn aſunder, and tated by the taking of Crown-Point and Ticonderoga, Canada.
caſt behind their backs, the good old covenant which it was reſolved if poſſible to penetrate that way into
their anceſtors and ours entered into, and took ſtrong Canada, and reduce Quebec during the winter, before
hold of. They now tell us they will put their hands the fleets and armies which they were well aſſured
into our pocket without aſking, as though it were their would fail thither from Britain ſhould arrive. By or-
own ; and at their pleaſure they will take from us our der of congreſs, therefore, 3000 men were put under
charters, or written civil conſtitution, which we love the command of Generals Montgomery and Schuyler,
as our lives; alſo our plantations, our houſes, and with orders to proceed to Lake Champlain, fromwhence
our goods, whenever they pleaſe, without aſking our they were to be conveyed in flat-bottomed boats to the
leave. They tell us that out veſſels inay go to that or mouth of the river Sorel, a branch of the great river
this iſland in the ſea, but to this or that particular iſland St. Lawrence, and on which is ſituated a fort of the
we ſhall not trade any more; and in caſe of our non ſame name with the river. On the other hand, they
compliance with theſe new orders, they ſhut up our were oppoſed by General Carleton, governor of Cana-
harbours.
da, a man of great activity and experience in war;
" Brothers, we live on the ſame ground with you; who, with a very few troops, had hitherto been able to
the ſame iſland is our common birth-place. We delire keep in awe the diſaffected people of Canada, notwith-
to ſit down under the ſame tree of peace with you: ſtanding all the repreſentations of the coloniſts. He
let us water its roots, and cheriſh the growth, till the had now augmented his army by a conſiderable number
large leaves and flouriſhing branches ſhall extend to of Indians, and promiſed, even in his preſent ſituati-
the ſetting fun, and reach the ſkies. If any thing diſ on, to make a very formidable reliſtance.
agreeable ſhould ever fall out between us, the Twelve As ſoon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown-
United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound Point, he received information that ſeveral armed yeſ-
our peace, let us immediately ſeck meaſures for heal. fels were ſtationed at St. John's, a ſtrong fort on the
4 E 2
Sorel,
Å M E
[ 5881
A M E
200
America. Sorcl, with a view to prevent his croſſing the lake; on obliged to leave him by the way, for want of proviti- America..
which he took poſſeſſion of an iſland which commands ons; the total want of artillery rendered his preſence
the mouth of the Sorel, and by which he could prevent inſignificant before a place ſtrongly fortified; and the
them from entering the lake. In conjunction with ſmallneſs of his arniy rendered it even-doubtful whe-
General Schuyler, he next proceeded to St John's : ther he could have taken the town by ſurpriſe. The.
but finding that place too ſtrong, it was agreed in a Canadians indeed were amazed at the exploit, and their
councilof war, roretire to Ille aux Noix,where General inclination to revolt from Britain was ſomewhat aug-
Schuyler being taken ill, Montgomery was left to com- mented; but none of them as yet took up arms in be-
mand alone. His firſt ſtep was to gain over the Indians half of America. The confternation into which the
whom Gen. Carleton had employed, and this he in a town of Quebec was thrown proved detrimental rather
great meaſure accompliſhed ; after which, on receiv than orherwiſe to the expedition; as it doubled the
195 ing the full number of troops appointed for his expedi- vigilance and activity of the inhabitants to prevent any
Chamblee tion, he determined to lay liege to St John's. In this ſurpriſe; and the appearance of common danger united
taken.
he was facilitated by the reduction of Chamblee, a all parties, who, before the arrival of Arnold, were
ſmall fort in the neighbourhood, where he found a contending molt violently with one another. He was
large ſupply of powder. An attempt was niade by therefore obliged to content himſelf with blocking up
General Carleton to relieve the place; for which pur theavenues to the town, in order to diſtreſs the garri-
poſe he with great pains collected about 1ooo Canadi. fon for want of proviſions; and even this he was una.
ans, while Colonel Maclean propoſed to raiſe a regi- ble to do effectually, by reaſon of the ſmall number of
mentof the Highlanders who had emigrated from their his men,
.
196
own country to America.
The matter was not much niended by the arrival of -
Gen.Carle. But while Gen. Carleton was on his march with General Montgomery. The force he bad with him,
ton defeat, theſe new levies, he was atracked by the provincials, even when united to that of Arnold, was too inſignifi-
ed.
and utterly defeated; which being made known to an cant to attempt the reduction of a place ſo ſtrongly
other body of Canadians who had joined Colonel Mac- fortified, eſpecially with the aſſiſtance only of a few
Jean, they abandoned him without ſtriking a blow, and mortars and field-pieces. After the fiege had conti-
he was obliged 10 retreat to Quebec.
nued through the month of December, General Mont-
The defeat of General Carleton was a ſufficient re gomery, conſcious that he could accompliſh his end no
compence to the Americans for that of Colonel Ethan other way than by ſurpriſe, reſolved to make an at-
Allen, which had happened fome time before. The tempt on the laſt day of the year 1775. The method
Attempt to
ſucceſs which had attended this gentleman againſt he took at this time was perhaps the beſt that human ſurpriſe
Crown-Point and Ticonderago had emboldened him wiſdoin could deviſe. He advanced by break of day, Quebec.
to make a ſimilar attempt on Montreal ; but being in the midſt of an heavy fall of ſnow, which covered
attacked by the militia of the place, ſupported by a his nien from the ſight of the enemy. Two real at-
detachment of regulars, he was entirely defeated and tacks were made by himſelf and Colonel Arnold, at
taken priſoner.
the ſame time that two feigned attacks were made on
As the defeat of General Carleton and the deſertion two other places, thus to diſtract the garriſon, and
of Maclean's forces left no room for the garriſon of St make then divide their forces. One of the real attacks
John's to hope for any relief, they now conſented to was made by the people of New-York, and the other
197
ſurrender themſelves priſoners of war; but were in by thoſe of New-England under Arnold. Their hopes
St John's other reſpects treated with great humanity. They of ſurpriſing the place, however, were defeated by the
fort taken, were in number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians, ſignal for the attack being through ſome miſtake given
among whom were many of the French nobility, who too ſoon. General Montgomery himſelf had the moſt
had been very active in pronoting the cauſe of Britain dangerous place, being obliged to paſs between the ri-
among their countrymen.
ver and ſome high rocks on which the Upper Town
General Montgomery next took meaſures to prevent ſtands ; ſo that he was forced to make what haſte he
the Britiſh ſhipping from paſſing down the river from could to cloſe with the enemy.
could to cloſe with the enemy. His fate, however,
Montreal to Quebec. This he accompliſhed fo ef. was now decided. Having forced the firſt barrier, à General
fectually, that the whole were taken. The town it violent diſcharge of muſketry and grape-ſhot from the Montgo-
And like- ſelf was obliged to ſurrender at diſcretion; and it was ſecond killed him, his principal officers, and the moſt mery kil-
wife Mont- with the utmoſt difficulty that General Carleton eſca- of the party he commanded ; on which thoſe whore. led, and
the Ames
real.
ped in an open boat by the favour of a dark night. mained immediately retreated. Colonel Arnold, in the
ricans de
No further obſtacle now remained in the way of the mean time, made a deſperate attack on the Lower
feated.
Americans to the capital, except what aroſe from the Town, and carried one of the barriers after an obſti-
nature of the country; and theſe indeed were very nate reſiſtance for an hour ; but in the action he himſelf
conſiderable. Nothing, however, could damp the ar- received a wound, which obliged him to withdraw.
dour of the provincials. Notwithſtanding it was now The attack, however, was continued by the officers
the middle of November, and the depth of winter was whom he had left, and another barrier forced; but the
199
Col. Ar at hand, Colonel Arnold formed a deſign of penetra- garriſon, now perceiving that nothing was to be fear-
nold pene- ting through woods, moraſſes, and the moſt frightful ed except from that quarrer, collected their whole
trates into folitudes from New-England to Canada by a nearer force againſt it ; and, after a deſperate engagement of
Canada.
way than that which Montgomery had choſen ; and three hours, overpowered the provincials, and obliged
this he accompliſhed in ſpite
of every difficulty, to the them to ſurrender.
aſtoniſhment of all who ſaw or heard of the attempt. In this action, it muſt be confeſſed that the valour
A third part of his men under another colonel had been of the provincial troops could not be exceeded. They
had
201
198
A M E
[ 589 ]
A M E
205
206
His
conciliato.
ry plan.
202
203
The go-
his pros
vince of
207
America. had fought under as great diſadvantages as thoſe In this ſtate of confufion the governor thought it America.
"which attended the Britiſh at Bunker's Hill, and had neceſſary to fortify his palace with artillery, and pro-
behaved equally well. Such a terrible diſaſter left no cure a party of marines to guard it. Lord North's
Fortifies his
lioperemaining of the accompliſhment of their purpoſe, conciliatory propoſal arriving alſo about the ſame time, palace .
as General Arnold could now ſcarce number 800 ef- he uſed his uimoſt endeavours to cauſe the people com-
fective men under his command. He did not, how-
He did not, how. ply with it. The arguments he uſed were plautible ; argu-
ever, abandon the province, oreven remove to a greater and, had not matters already gone to ſuch a pitch of ments for
L. North's
diſtance than three miles from Quebec ; and here he diſtraction, it is highly probable that ſome attention
ſtill found means to annoy the garriſon very conſider- would have been paid to them. " The view (he ſaid)
ably by intercepting their proviſions. The Canadians in which the colonies ought to behold this conciliatory
notwithſtanding the bad ſucceſs of the American arms, propoſal, was no more than an earneſt admonition from
ſtill continued friendly ; and thus he was enabled to Great Britain to relieve her wants : that the utmoſt
ſuſtain the hardſhips of a winter-encampment in that condeſcendence had been uſed in the mode of applica-
Arnold
moſt ſevere climate. The congreſs, far from paſſing tion ; no determinate ſum having been fixed, as it was
created a
Irigadier- any cenfure on him for his misfortune, created him a thought moſt worthy of Britiſh generoſity to take what
General. brigadier-general.
they thought could be conveniently ſpared, and like-
While hoſtilities werethus carried on with vigour in wiſe to leave the mode of raiſing it to themſelves,” &c.
the north, the flame of contention was gradually ex But the clamour and diſſatisfaction were now founiver-
Diſputes of tending itſelf in the ſouth. Lord Dunmore, the go- ſal, that nothing elſe could be attended to.
Lord Dun- vernor of Virginia, was involved in diſputes ſimilar to
vernor had called an aſſembly for the purpoſe of laying
more with thoſe which had taken place in other colonies. Theſe this conciliatory propoſal before them; but it had been
had proceeded ſo far that the aſſembly was diſſolved; little attended to. The aſſembly began their ſeſſion by
Virginia. which in this province was attended with a conſequence inquiries into the ſtate of the magazine. It had been
unknown to the reſt. As Virginia contained a great broken into by ſome of the townſmen ; for which rea-
number of ſlaves, it was neceſſary that a militia ſhould ſon ſpring-guns had been placed there by the goyer-
be kept conftantly on foot to keep them in awe. Du- nor, which diſcharged themſelves upon the offenders at
ring the diſſolution of the aſſembly the militia-laws ex their entrance: theſe circumſtances with others of a
pired ; and the people, after complaining of the danger ſimilar kind, raiſed ſuch a violent uproar, that, as ſoon
they were in from the negroes, formed a conventioil, as the preliminary buſineſs of the ſeſſion was over, the
which enacted that each county ſhould raiſe a quota governor retired on board a man of war, informing the The
gover-
for the defence of the province. Dunmore, on this, aſſembly that he durſt no longer truit himſelf on ſhore, nor retires
rempvedthepowderfrom Williamſburg; which created This produced a long courſe of diſputation, which end- on board a
ſuch diſcontents, that an immediate quarrel would pro ed in a poſitive refuſal of thie governor to truſt himſelf man of
bably have enſued, had not the merchants of the town again in Williamſburg, even to give his aſſent to the
undertaken to obtain fatisfaction for the injury ſuppo- bills, which could not be paſſed without it, and though
fed to be done to the community. This tranquillity, the allembly offered to bind themſelves for his perfonal
however, was ſoon interrupted; the people, alarmed ſafety. In his turn he requeſted them to meet him on
by a report that an armed party were on their way board the man of war, where he then was; but his
from the man of war where the powder had been de- propoſal was rejected, and all further correſpondence
poſited, aſſembled in arnis, and determined to oppoſe containing the leaſt appearance of friendſhip was dif-
by force any farther removals. In ſome of the confe- continued.
208
rences which paſſed at this time, the governor let fall Lord Dunmore, having thus abandoned his govern- Attempts
fome unguarded expreſſions, ſuch as threatening them ment, attempted to reduce by force thoſe whom he to reduce
with ſetting up the royal ſtandard, proclaiming liber- could no longer govern. Some of the moſt ftrenuous the colony
by force ;
ty to the negroes, deſtroying the town of Williamſ- adherents to the Britiſh cauſe, whom their zeal liad
burg, &c. which were afterwards made public, and rendered obnoxious at home, now repaired to him. He
contributed greatly to increaſe the public ferment. was alſo joined by nunbers of black llaves. With
The people now held frequent aſſemblies. Some of theſe, and the afliſtance of the Britiſh ſhipping, he was
tliem took up arms with a delign to force the governor for ſome time enabled to carry on a kind of predatory
to reſtore the powder, and to take the public money war ſufficient to hurt and exaſperate, but not to ſubdue.
into their own poſſeſſion : but on their way to Wil-
After ſome inconſiderable attempts on land, proclaim-
liamſburg for this purpoſe, they were met by the re- ing liberty to the faves, and ſetting up the royal itan-
ceiver-general, who became ſecurity for the payment dard, he took up his reſidence at Norfolk, a maritime
of the gun-powder, and the inhabitants promiſed to town of ſome conſequence, where the people were bet-
take care of the magazine and public revenue. ter affected to Britain than in moſt other places. A
By theſe proceedings the governor was ſo much in- conſiderable force, however, was collected againſt
He ſends timidated, that he ſent his family on board a man of him; and the natural impetuoſity of his temper prompt-
his family war. He himſelf, however, iſſued a proclamation, in ing him to act againſt them with more courage than
209
aboard a which he declared the behaviour of the perſon who caucion, he was entirely defeated, and obliged to re-
man of war, promoted the tumult treaſonable, accuſed the people of tire to his ſhipping, which was now crowded by the feated.
tirely de-
diſſatisfaction,&c. On their part they were by no means number of thoſe who had incurred the reſentment of
deficient in recriminating ; and ſome letters of his to the provincials.
Britain being about the ſame time diſcovered, conſe In the mean tine a ſcheme of the utmoſt magnitude
quences enſued extremely ſimilar to thoſe which had and importance was formed by one Mr Conolly, a Penn-
ly's plan
been occafioned by thoſe of Mr Hutchinſons at Boſton. fylvanian, attached to the cauſe of Britain. The firſt cing Virgi-
Step nia.
war.
1
204
but is en-
2IO
Mr Conol-
for redu-
+
A ME
( 590 ]
A ME
2II
foner.
216
212
The town
nors of
America, ſtep of this plan was to enter into a league with the nable, determincd if poſſible to drive the enemy from America,
Ohio Indians. This le communicated to Lord Dun their works. Preparations-were therefore made for a
more, and it received his approbation : Upon which moſt vigorous attack on an hill called Dorcheſter Neck,
Conolly fit out, and actually ſucceeded in his deſign. which the Americans had fortified in ſuch a manner
On his return he was diſpatched to General Gage, as would in all probability have rendered the enter-
from whom he received a colonel's commiſſion, and priſe next to deſperate. No difficulties, however, were
ſet out in order to accompliſh the remainder of his ſufficient to daunt the ſpirit of the general; and
ſcheme. The plan in general was, that he ſhould re every thing was in readineſs, when a ſudden ſtorm pre-
turn to the Ohio, where, by the aſſiſtance of the Bri- vented an exertion which muſt have been productive
riſh and Indians in theſe parts, he was to penetrate of a dreadful waſte of blood. Next day, upon a more
through the back ſettlements into Virginia, and join cloſe inſpection of the works they were to attack, it
Lord Dunmore at Alexandria. But by an accident ve was thought adviſable to deliſt from the enterpriſe al-
He is difco- ry naturally to be expected, he was diſcovered, taken together. The fortifications were very ſtrong, and
vered and priſoner, and confined.
i extremely well provided with artillery ; and, beſides
taken pri-
After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from Norfolk, other implements of deſtruction, upwards of 100 hogf-
that place was taken poſſeſſion of by the provincials, heads of ſtones were provided to roll down upon the
who greatly diſtreſſed thoſe on board Lord Dunmore's enemy as they came up ; which, as the aſcent was ex-
fleet, by refuling to ſupply them with any neceffaries. tremely freep, muſt have done prodigious execu-
This proceeding drew a remonſtrance from his Lord- tion.
fhip; in which he inſiſted that the fleet should be fur Nothing therefore now renained but to think of a The place
niſhed with neceſſaries; but his requeſt being denied, retreat ; and even this was attended with the utmoſt evacuated.
a reſolution was taken to ſet fire to the town. After difficulty and danger. The Americans, however, know-
giving the inhabitants proper warning, a party landed, ing that it was in the power of the Britiſh general to
of Norfolk under cover of a man of war, and ſet fire to that part reduce the town to aſhes, which could not have been
deſtroyed. which lay neareſt the ſhore ;, but the flames were ob- repaired in many years, did not think proper to give
ſerved at the ſame time to break forth in every other the leaſt moleſtation ; and for the ſpace of a fortnight
quarter, and the whole town was reduced to alhes. tlie troops were employed in the evacuation of the
This univerſal deſtruction, occaſioned a loſs of more place, from whence they carried along with them 2000
than L. 300,000.
of the inhabitants, who durſt not ſtay on account of
413
In the ſouthern colonies of Carolina, the governors their attachment to the Britiſh cauſe. From Boſton
The gover- were expelled, and obliged to take refuge on board of they failed to Halifax; but all their vigilance could
men of war, as Lord Dunmore had been ; Mr Martin, not prevent a number of valuable ſhips from falling into
South and
North Cal governor of North Carolina, on a charge of attempting the hands of the Americans. A conſiderable quantity of
to raiſe the back-ſettlers, conſiſting chiefly of Scots
rolina ex-
cannon and ammunition had alſo been left at Bunker's
pelled.
Highlanders, againſt the colony. Having ſecured Hill and Boſton Neck; and in the town, an immenſe
themſelves againſt any attempts from theſe
enemies, variety of goods,principally woollen andlinen, of which
however, they proceeded to regulate their internal the provincials ſtood very much in need. The eſtates
· concerns in the ſame manner as the reſt of the colo- of thoſe who fled to Halifax were confiſcated; as
-nies; and by the end of the year 1775, Britain beheld alſo thoſe wlio were attached to government, and had
the whole of America united againſt her in the moſt remained in the town. As an attack was expected as
determined oppofition. Her vaſt poſſeſſions of that ſoon as the Britiſh forces ſhould arrive, every method
tract of land (lince known by the name of the Thirteen was employed to render the fortifications already very
United States) were now reduced to the ſingle town of ſtrong, impregnable. For this purpoſe fome foreign Its fortifi-
cations
Boſton; in which her forces were beſieged by an engineers were employed, who had before arrived at
army with whom they were apparently not able to Boſton; and ſo eager were people of all ranks to ac- ed.
ſtrengthen-
cope, and by whom they muſt of courſe expect in a ve. compliſh this buſineſs, that every able-bodied man in
ry ſhort time to be expelled. The fituation of the in- the place, without diſtinction of rank, fet apart two
habitants of Boſton, indeed, was peculiarly unhappy. days in the week, to complete it the fooner.
218
Miſerable After having failed in their attempts to leave the town, The Americans exaſperated to the utmoſt by the Congreſs
fituation of General Gage had conſented to allow them to retire proceedings of parliament, which placed them out declare the
Boſton.
with their effects; but afterwards, treacherouſly re of the royal protection, and engaged foreign merce- States of
fuſed to fulfil his promiſe. When he reſigned his naries in the plan for ſubduing them, now formally America
place to General Howe in October 1775, the latter, renounced all connection with Britain, and declared indepen-
apprehenſive that they might give intelligence of the themſelves independent. This celebrated declaration
ſituation of the Britiſh croops, ſtrictly prohibited any was publiſhed on the 4th of July 1776. Previous to
perfon from leaving the place under pain of military this a circular letter had been fent through each colony,
execution. Thus matters continued till the anonth of ſtating the reaſons for it ; and ſuch was the animoſity
March 1776, when the town was evacuated.
nowevery where prevailing againſt Great Britain,that
On the 2d of that month, General Waſhington it met with univerſal approbation, except in the pro-
Poſton fe. opened a battery on the weſt ſide of the town, from vince of Maryland alone. It was not long, however,
verely can- whence it was bombarded, with a heavy fire of cannon before the people of that colony, finding themſelves
nonaded by at the ſame time ; and three days after, it was attacked left in a very dangerous minority, thought proper to
the provin- by another battery from the eaſtern ſhore. This terri- accede to the meaſures of the reſt. The manifeſto it-
cials.
ble attack continued for 14 days without interiniſſion; ſelf was in the uſual nervous ſtyle, ftating a long liſt
when General Howe, finding the place no longer te- ofgrievances, for which redreſs had been often applied
217
- 214
dent.
215
:
in
A M E
[ 591]
A M E
224
and takea
220
America. in vain; and for theſe reaſons they determined on a nold would have made a ſtand; but he had retired to So- America,
final ſeparation ; to hold the people of Britain as the rel, a place 150 miles diſtant from Quebec, where he
reſt of mankind,“ enemies in war, in peace friends. was at laſt met by the reinforcement ordered by co12-
After thus publicly throwing off all allegiance and greſs. Here, though the preceding events were by
hope of reconciliation, the coloniſts ſoon found that an no means calculated to inſpire much military ardour, a
exertion of all their ſtrength was required in order to very daring enterprize was undertaken ; and this was,
ſupport their pretenſions. Their arms, indeed, had to ſurpriſe the Britiſh troops poſted here under Gene-
not, during this ſeaſon, being attended with ſucceſs in rals Fraſer and Neſbit; of whoni the former command-
Canada. Reinforcements had been promiſed to Colonel ed thoſe on land, the latter, ſuch as were on board of
Arnold, who ſtill continued the blockade of Quebec; tranſports and were but a little way diſtant. The en-
but they did not arrive in time to fecond his opera- terpriſe was undoubtedly very hazardous, both on ac-
219
The ſiege tions. Being ſenſible, however, that he muſt either count of the ſtrength of the parties against whom they
of Quebec delift from the enterpriſe, or finiſh it ſucceſsfully, he were to act, and as the main body of the Britiſh for-
ſtill conti- recommenced in form ; attempting to burn the ſhip- ces were advanced within 50 miles
of the place; beſides General
nued.
ping, and even to ſtorm the town itſelf. They were that a number of armed veſſels and tranſports with Thomſon
defeated
unſucceſsful, however, by reaſon of the ſmallneſs of troops lay between them and the Three Rivers. Two
their number, though they ſucceeded ſo far as to burn thouſand choſen men, however, under General Thom-
priſoner by
a number of houſes in the ſuburbs; and the garriſon ſon, engaged in this enterpriſe. Their ſucceſs was by General
were obliged to pull down the remainder, in order to nomeans anſwerable to their ſpirit and valour. Though Fraſer.
prevent the fire from ſpreading.
they paſſed the ſhipping without being obſerved, Ge-
As the provincials, though unable to reduce the neral Fraſer had notice of their landing; and thus be-
town, kept the garriſon in continual alarnis, and in a ing prepared to receive them, they were ſoon thrown
very diſagreeable ſituation, ſome of the nobility col into diſorder, at the ſame time that General Neſbit,
lected themſelves into a body under the command of having landed his forces, prepared to attack them in
Canadians one Mr. Beaujeu, in order to relieve their capital ; but
the rear. On this occaſion ſome field-pieces did pro-
defeated they were met on their march by the provincials, and digious execution, and a retreat was found to be un-
by the
ſo entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards avoidable, General Neſtit, however, had got between
provin-
able to attempt any thing. Their want of artillery at them and their boats, ſo that they were obliged to
cials;
laſt convinced them, that it was impracticable in their take a circuit through a deep ſwamp, while they were
ſituation to reduce a place ſo ſtrongly fortified; the hotly purſued by both parties at the ſame time, who
ſmall-pox, at the ſame time nade its appearance in marched for ſome miles on each ſide the ſwamp, till
their camp, and carried off great numbers ; intimida at laſt the unfortunate provincials were ſheltered from
ting the reſt to ſuch a degree, that they deſerted in further danger by a wood at the end of the ſwamp.
crowds. To add to their misfortunes, the Britiſh re Their general, however, was taken with 200 of his
inforcements unexpectedly appeared, and the ſhips men.
made their way through the ice with ſuch celerity, By this diſaſter the provincials loſt all hopes of ac-
that the one part of their army was ſeparated from compliſhing any thing more in Canada. They de-
Who are in the other; and General Carleton ſallying out as ſoon moliſhed their works, and carried off their artillery
223
as the reinforcement was landed, obliged them to fly with the utmoſt expedition. They were purſued. The pro-
defeated by with the utmoſt precipitation, leaving behind them all however, by General Burgoyne ; who on the 18th of vincials
Carleton,
their cannon and military ſtores; at the ſame time that June arrived at Fort St John's, which he found aban- purſued by
their ſhipping was entirely captured by veſſels fent up doned and burnt. Chamblee had thared the fanie fate, Gen. Bur-
the river for that purpoſe. On this occalion the as well as all the veſſels that were not capable of being
goyne.
provincials fled with ſuch preciptation that they could dragged up againſt the current of the river ; and the
not be overtaken ; ſo that none fell into the hands of provincial troops had retreated acroſs the lake to
the Britiſh, excepting the fick and wounded. Gene Crown-Point, whither they could not be iinmediately
226
Humanity
ral Carleton now gave a fignal inſtance of his hu followed. Thus was the province of Canada entirely But eſcape
of the Eri, manity : Being well appriſed that many of the pro evacuated by the Americans, who had thus ſecured to Crown-
vincials had not been able to accompany the reſt in the frontiers of the adjacent ſtates from invaſion on Point.
ral their retreat, and that they were concealed in woods, the part of the Britiſ ; the object of a campaign in
&c. in a very deplorable ſrtuation, he generouſly iſſued which 13000 men were employed, and near a million
a proclamation, ordering proper perſons to ſeek them of inoney cxpended, was rendered in a great meaſure
out, and give them relief at the public expence ; at abortive. General Sullivan, who conducted this re-
the ſame time lot, through fear of being made priſon treat alter the affair of General Thompſon, had great
ers, they ſhould refuſe theſe offers of humanity, he merit in what he did, and received the thanks of con-
promiſed that, as ſoon as their ſituation enabled them, greſs accordingly.
they ſhould be at liberty to depart to their reſpective This was followed by ſome tranſactions in the
homes.
ſouthern colonies, which farther evinced their reſolu-
He purſues The Britiſh general, now freed from any danger of tion, and raiſed the ſpirits of the Americans-We have
an attack, was ſoon enabled to act offenſively againſt formerly taken notice that Mr Martin, governor of
vincials. the provincials, by the arrival of the forces deſtined for Nortli-Carolina, had been obliged' to leave his pro-
that purpoſe from Britain. By theſe he was put at vince and take refuge on board a man of war. Not-
the head of 12,000 regualar troops, among whom were withſtanding this he did not deſpair of reducing it
thoſe of Brunſwick. With this force he inſtantly ſet again to obedience. For this purpoſe he applied to
out to the Three Rivers, where he expected that Ar- the regulators, a daring ſet of banditti, who lived in a
kind
221
cheir turn
222
tiſh geuco
223
the pro-
A ME
[ 592 ]
AME
227
An inſur-
p. 288,
America. kind of independent ſtate ; and though conſidered by felves in the utmoſt hazard of perithing by famine as America.
government as rebels, yet had never been moleſted, well as diſeaſe, they ſet fire to the leaſt valuable of
on account of their numbers and know11 ſkill in the their veſels, reſerving only about 50 for themſelves,
rection in uſe of fire-arnis. To the chiefs of theſe people coni- in which they bid a final adieu to Virginia, ſome fail-
North-Ca- miſſions were ſent, in order to raiſe fome regiments; ing to Florida, fome to Bernuda, and the reſt to the
rolina in and a Colonel Macdonald was appointed 10 command Weſt-Indies.
favour of them. In the month of February he crected the king's In South-Carolina the Americans had a more for-
Britain.
ſtandard, iſſued proclamations, &c. and collected foine midable enemy to deal with. At Cape-Fear a junc-
forces, expecting to be ſoon joined by a body of regn- tion was formed between Sir Henry Clinton, and
lar troops, who were known to be Mipped from Britain Sir Peter Parker, the latter of whom had failed with
to act againſt the ſouthern colonies. The Americans, his ſquadron dire&tly from Europe. They concluded
ſenſible of their danger, diſpatched immediately what to attempt the reduction of Charleſton as being, of
forces they had to act againſt the royaliſts, at the ſame all places within the line of their inſtructions, the
timethat they diligently exerted themſelves to ſupport objec at which they could ſtrike with the greateſt
theſe with ſuitablereinforcements. Their preſent force proſpect of advantage. They had 2,800 land forces,
was commanded by General Moore, whoſe numbers which they hoped, with the co-operation of their ſhip-
were inferior to Macdonald ; for which reaſon the lat- ping, would be fully fufficient.
230
ter ſúmmoned him to join the king's ſtandard under For ſome months paſt every exertion had been made Britiſh ar.
pain of being treated as a rebel. . But Moore, bcing to put the colony of South-Carolina, and eſpecially its mament
well provided with cannon, and conſcious that nothing capital Charleſton, in a reſpectable poſture of defence, fent againſt
could be attempted againſt him, returned the compli- In ſubſerviency to this view, works had been erected Charleſton.
ment, by acquainting Colonel Macdonald, that if he on Sullivan's iſland, which is ſituated ſo near the chan-
Ramſay's
Hiſtory,
and his party would lay down their arms, and ſubſcribe nel leading up to the town, as to be a convenient poſt vol. 1.
an oath of fidelity to congreſs, they ſhould be treated for annoying veſſels approaching it.
as friends; but if they perfifted in an undertaking for Sir Peter Parker attacked the fort on that iſland with 289.
which it was evident they had not ſufficient ſtrength, two fifty gun fhips, the Briſtol and Experiment, four
they could not but expect the ſeverelt treatment. In frigates, the Active, Acteon, Solebay and Syren, each
a few days General Moore found himſelf at the head of 28 guns. The Sphynx of 20 guns, the Friendſhip
of 8ooo men, by reaſon of the continual ſupplies which armed veſſel of 22 guns, Ranger ſloop, and Thunder
daily arrived from all parts. The royal party amount bomb, each of 8 guns. On the fort were mounted 26
ed only to 2000, and they were deſtitute of artillery, cannon, 26, 18 and 9 pounders. The attack commen-
which prevented them from attacking the enemy while ced between ten and eleven in the forenoon, and was
they had the advantage of numbers. They were now continued for upwards of ten hours. The garriſon
therefore obliged to have recourſe to a deſperate exer- conſiſting of 375 regulars and a few militia, under the
tion of perſonal valour ; by dint of which they effected command of colonel Moultric, made a noft gallant de-
a retreat for near 80 miles to Moore's Creek, within 16 fence. They fired deliberately, for the moſt part took
miles of Wilmington. Could they have gained this aim and ſeldom miſſed their object. The ſhips were torn
place, they expected to have been joined by governor almoſt to pieces, and the killed and wounded on board
Martin and general Clinton, who had lately arrived exceeded 200 men. The loſs of the garriſon was only
with a conſiderable detachment. But general Moore ten men killed and 22 wounded. The fort being built
with his army purſued them ſo cloſe, that they were of palmetto was little damaged. The fhot which ſtruck
obliged to attempt the paſſage of the creek itſelf, tho ' it were ineffectually buried in its ſoft wood. General
a conſiderable body of the Americans, under the com Clinton had ſomie time before the engagement, landed
mand of Colonel Caſwell, with fortifications well plan- with a number of troops on Long-lfland, and it was ex-
ted with cannon, was poſted on the other. On attempt. pected that he would have co-operated with Sir Peter
ing tbe creek, however, it was found not to be forda Parker, by croſſing over the narrow paſſage, which di-
ble. They were obliged therefore to croſs over a vides the two iſands, and attacking the fort in its un-
wooden bridge, which the provincials had not time finiſhed rear; but the extreme danger to which he muſt
to deſtroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling unavoidably have expoſed his men, induced him to de
up part of the planks, and greaſing the remainder in or cline the perilous attempt. Colonel Thomſon with 7
der to render them flippery, made the paſſage ſo diffi. or 800 men was ſtationed at the eaſt end of Sullivan's
228 cult, that the royaliſts could not attempt it. In this ſitu iſland to oppoſe their croſſing. No ſerious attempt was
-The royal- ation they were, on the 27th of February, attacked by made to land either from the fleet or the detachment
its entirely general Moore with his ſuperior army, and totally de commanded by Sir Henry Clinton. The firing ceaſed
defeated.
feated with the loſs of their general and moſt of their in the evening, and ſoon after the ſhips flipped their
leaders, as well as the beſt and braveſt of their men. cables Before morning they had retired about two
Thus was the power of the Americans eſtabliſhed in miles from the iſland. Within a few days more the
North-Carolina. Nor were they leſs ſucceſsful in the troops re-embarked and ſailed from New-York. The
province of Virginia ; where Lord Dunmore having thanks of congreſs were given to General Lea, who.
long continued an uſeleſs prédatory war, was at laſt dri had been ſent on by congreſs to take the cominand in
ven from every creek and road in the province. The Carolina, and alſo to colonels Moultrie and Tliomſon,
229 people he had on board were diſtreſſed to the higheſt for their good conduct on this menorable day. In
Lord Dui- degree by confinement in ſmall vefſels. The heat of compliment to the commanding officer the fort front
more final- the ſeaſon, and the numbers crowded together, pro that time was called Fort Moultrie.
ly driven
duced a peſtilential fever, which made great hovock, This year alſo, the Americans, having ſo frequently
out of Vir-
ginia.
eſpecially among the blacks. At laſt, finding them- made trial of their valour by land, became deſirous of
3
trying
A M E
[ 593 )
A M E
233
America, trying it by ſea alſo, and of forming a navy that might theſe powers conſiſted in any thing elſe than granting America,
in ſome meaſure be able to protect their trade, and do pardons ; and as America had committed no offence,
231 eſſential hurt to the enemy. In the beginning of the aſked no forgiveneſs, and was only defending her
Americans
March, Commodore Hopkins was diſpatched with five unqueſtionable rights.
235
form a
navy.
frigates to the Bahama iſlands, where he made himſelf The deciſion of every thing being now by conſent Hoftilities
maſter of the ordnance and military ſtores ; but the of both parties left to the ſword, no time was loft, commence.
gunpowder which had been the principal object, was but hoſtilities commenced as ſoon as the Britiſh troops
removed. On his return he captured ſeveral veſſels; could be collected. This, however, was not done be-
but was foiled in his attempt on the Glaſgow frigate, fore the month of Auguſt; when they landed without
which found means to eſcape notwithſtanding the ef. any oppoſition on Long-Illand, oppoſite to the ſhore of
forts of his whole ſquadron.
Siaten-Inand. General Putnam, with a large body of
The time, however, was now come when the forti- troops, lay encamped and ſtrongly fortified on a penin-
236
tude and patience of the Americans were to undergo a ſula on the oppoſite ſhore, with a range of hills be- Situation
ſevere trial. Hitherto they had been on the whole luc tween the armies, the principal paſs of which was near the Britiſh
ceſsful in their operations: but now they were doomed a place called Flat-buſh. Here the centre of the Bri. and Ame:
to experience misfortune,miſery, and diſappointment; tiſh army, conſiſting of Heſſians, took poſt; the left rican ar-
mies.
the enemy over-running their country, and their own wing, under General Grant, lying near the ſhore ;
armies not able to face them in the field. The province and the right, conſiſting of the greater part of the Bri-
of New York, as being the moſt central colony, and tiſh forces, lay under Lord Percy, Cornwallis, and
"232
moſt acceſſible by ſea, was pitched upon for the object General Clinton. Putnam had ordered the paſſes to be
Armament of the main attack. The force ſent againſt it conſiſted ſecured by large detachments, which was executed as
ſent againſt of 6 ſhips of the line, 30 frigates, beſides other armed to thoſe at hand; but one of the utmoſt iniportance,
New-York. veſſels, and a vaſt number of tranſports. The fleet was that lay at a diſtance, was entirely neglected. This
commanded by Lord Howe, and the land forces by gave an opportunity to a large body of troops under
his brother General Howe, who was now at Hali- Lord Percy and Clinton to paſs the mountains and at-
fax. The latter, however, a conſiderable time before tack the Americans in the rear, while they were en.
his brother arrived, had ſet ſail from Halifax, and gaged with the Heſſians in front. Through this piece
Jay before New-York, but without attempting to com- of negligence their defeat became inevitable. Thoſe
mence hoſtilities until he ſhould be joined by his bro- who were engaged with the Heſſians first perceived
ther. The Americans had, according to cuſtom, for- their miſtake, and began a retreat towards their
campi
tified New-York and the adjacent iſlands in an extra but the paſſage was intercepted by the Britilh troops,
General
ordinary manner. However, General Howe was ſuf- wlio drove them back into the woods. Here they
Mowe lands fered to land his troops on Staten Iſland, where he was were met by the Heſſians; and thus they were for ma-
on Staten ſoon joined by a number of the inbabitants. About the ny hours ſlaughtered between the two parties, no way
Ifland. middle of July, Lord Howe arrived with the grand ar of eſcape remaining but by breaking through the Bri-
mament; and being one of the commiſſioners appoint- tifh troops, and thus regaining their camp. In this at.
2:7
ed to receive the ſubmiſſion of the coloniſts, he publiſh- tempt many periſhed; and the right wing, engaged The Ame-
ed a circular letter to this purpoſe to the ſeveral gover with General Grant, ſhared the ſame fate. The vic- ricans de-
nors who had lately been expelled from their provinces, tory was complete"; and the Americans loſt on this fa- feated with
deſiring them to make the extent of his coinmiſſion, tal day (Auguſt 27th) conſiderably upwards of 1000 great
,
and the powers he was inveſted with by parliament, as men, and two generals : ſeveral officers of diſtinc laughter.
public as poſſible. Here, however, congreſs ſaved hiin tion were made priſoners, with a number of pri-
trouble, by ordering his letter and declaration to be vates. Among the ſlain, a regiment conſiſting of young
publiſhed in all the newſpapers, “ That every one gentlemen of fortune and family in Maryland, was al-
might ſee the inſidiouſneſs of the Britiſh miniſtry, and moſt entirely cutin pieces, and of the ſurvivers not one
that they had nothing to truſt to beſides the exertion of eſcaped without a wound.
their own valour."
The ardour of the Britiſh troops was now ſo great,
234
Lord Howe next ſent a letter to General Waſhing. that they could ſcarce be reſtrained from attacking the
Waſhing- ton; but as it was directed To George Waſhington, lines of the provincials ; but for this there was now 110
con refuſes Eſq.” the General refuſed to accept of it, as not be- occaſion, as it was certain chey could not be defended.
a letter
ing directed in the ſtyle ſuitable to his ſtation. Toob- Of the Britiſh and Heſſians about 450 were loſt in this
from Lord viate this objection, Adjutant-general Patterſon was
Howe.
engagement.
ſent with another letter, directed « To George Waſhi As none of the American commanders thought it They aban-
238
ington, &c. &c. &c.” But though a very polite recep- proper to riſk allother attack, it was reſolved to aban- don their
tion was given to the bearer, General Waſhington ut don their camp as ſoon as poſſible. Accordingly, on camp in the
terly refuſed the letter ; nor could any explanation of the night of the 29th of Auguſt, the whole of the con- night,
the adjutant induce him to accept of it. The only in. tinental troops were ferried over with the utmoſt ſecre-
tereſting part of the converſation was that relating to cy and ſilence ; ſo that in the morning the Britiſh had
the powers of the commiſſioners, of whom Lord Howe nothing to do but take poſſeſſion of the camp and what
The adjutant told him, that theſe powers artillery they had abandoned.
were very extenſive: that the commiſſioners were de This victory, though complete, was very far from Lord Howe
239
termined to exert themſelves to the utmoſt, in order to being ſo deciſive as the conquerors imagined. Lord ſends a mef-
bring about a reconciliation; and that he hoped the Ge. Howe, ſuppoſing that it would be ſufficient to intimi- fage to con-
neral would conſider this viſit as a ſtep towards it. Ge- date the congreſs into ſome terms, ſent General Sulli- greſs,
neral Waſhington replied, that it did not appear that van, who had been taken priſoner in the late action, to
VOL. I.
congreſs
General
was one.
4 F
A ME
L 594 1
A M E
240
241
America. congreſs, with a meſſage, importing, that though he ington, in order to inure the provincials to actual ſer- America.
could not conſiſtently treat with them as a legal aſſem- vice, and at the ſame time to annoy the enemy as much
bly, yet he would be very glad to confer with any of as poſſible, employed his troops in continual ſkiriniſh-
the members in their private capacity ; ſetting forth at es; by which it was obſcrved that they ſoon recovered
the fame time the nature and extent of his powers as their ſpirits, and bchaved with their uſual boldneſs.
commiſſioner. But the congreſs were not ſo humbled As the fituation of the two arinies was now highly
as to derogate in the leaſt froin the dignity of character inconvenient for the Britiſh generals, it was reſolved to
they had allumed. They replied, that the congreſs of make ſuch movements as might oblige General Waſh-
And is
the free and independent ſtates of America could not ington to relinquiſh his ſtrong lituation. The poſſeſſion
waited on
conſiſtently ſend any of its members in another capaci. of New-York had been leſs beneficial than was ex-
by a com-
244
mittee,
ty than that which they had publicly aſſumed ; but as pected. A few days after it was evacuated by the A- New-York
they were extremely delirous of reſtoring peace to their mericans, a dreadful fire broke out, occafioned, proba- ſet on fire.
country upou equitable conditions, they would appoint bly, by the licentious conduct of ſome of its new mal-
a committee of their body to wait upon him, and learn ters, and had it not been for the active exertions of the
what propoials he had to make.
ſailors and ſoldiery, the whole town might have been
This produced a new conference. The committee conſumed, the wind being high, and the weather re-
appointed by congreſs was compoſed of Dr Franklin, markably dry. About a thouſand houſes were deſtroy-
Mr Adams, and Mr Rutledge. They were very po ed. General Howe having left Lord Percy with ſuſ.
litely received by his Lordſhip; but the conference ficient force to garriſon New-York, he embarked his
proved as fruitleſs as before independency liad beende arıny in flat-bottomed boats by which they were con-
clared ; and the final anſwer of the deputies was, that veyed through the dangerous paſſage called Hell-Gate,
they were extremely willing to enter into any treaty and landed near the town of Weſt-Cheſter, lying on
with Great Britain that might conduce to the good of the continent towards Connecticut. Here having re-
both nations, but that they would not treat in any ceived a ſupply of men and proviſions, they moved to
other character than that of independent ſtates. This New-Rochelle, ſituated on the found which ſeparates
The con- pofitive declaration inſtantly put an end to all hopes of Long-Illand from the continent. After this receiving
ference ter- reconciliation ; and it was reſolved to proſecute the war ſtill freh reinforcements, they made ſuch movements
minates in- with the utmoſt vigour. Lord Howe, after publiſhing as threatened to diſtreſs the provincials very much by
effectually, a manifeſto, in which he declared the refuſal of con cutting off their convoys of provilions from Connecti-
greſs, and that he himſelf was willing to confer with all cut, and thus force them to an engagement. This,
well diſpoſed perſons about the means of reſtoring pub- however, General Waſhington determined at all events
lic tranquillity, ſet about the moſt proper methods for to avoid. He therefore extended his forces into a long
245
reducing the city of New-York. Here the provincial line oppoſite to the way in which the enemy marched, General
troops were poſted, and from a great number of batte- keeping the Brunx, a river of conſiderable magnitude, Waſhing-
ries kept continually annoying the Britiſh ſhipping. between the two armies, with the North-River on his ton obliged
The Eaſt River lay between them, of about 1200 rear. Here again the provincials continued for ſome to move
farther
yards in breadth, which the Britiſh troops were ex time to annoy and ſkirmiſh with the royal army, until
from New
tremely deſirous of paſſing. At laſt, the fhips having, at laſt, by ſome other manoeuvres, the Britiſh general York.
after an inceſſant cannonade of ſeveral days, ſilenced found means to attack them advantageoully at a place 246
the moſt troubleſome batteries, a body of troops was called the White-Plains, and drove them from ſome of Is defeated
ſent up the river to a bay, about three miles diſtant, their poſts. The ſucceſs on this occaſion was much at the
White
where the fortifications were leſs ſtrong than in other leſs complete than the former : however it obliged the
Plains.
New-York places. Here, having driven offthe provincials by the provincials once more to ſhift their ground, and to re-
abandoned cannon of the fleet, they marched directly towards the treat farther up the country. General Howe purſued
by the pro- city ; but the Americans finding that they ſhould now for ſome time; but at laſt finding all his endeavours
vincials.
be attacked on all ſides, abandoned the city, and re vain to bring the Americans to a pitched battle, he de-
tired to the north of the iſland, where their principal termined to give over ſuch an uſeleſs chace, and eni-
force was collected. In their paſſage thither they ſkir- ploy himſelf in reducing the forts which the provincials
miſhed with the Britiſh, but carefully avoided a gene- ſtill retained in the neighbourhood of New York. In
ral engagement ; and it was obſerved that they did not this he met with the moſt complete ſucceſs. The Ame-
behave with that ardour aud impetuous valour which ricans, on the approach of the king's forces, retreated
had hitherto marked their character.
from King's-Bridge into Fort-Waſhington; and this,
Situation of The Britiſh and provincial armies were not now as well as Fort-Lee, which lay in the neighbourliood,
the Britiſh above two miles diſtant from each other. The former was quickly reduced, though the garriſon made their
lay encamped from ſhore to ſhore for an extent of two eſcape. Thus the Jerſeys were laid entirely open to The fer-
rican ar-
miles, being the breadth of the iſland, which, though the incurſions of the Britiſh troops, and ſo fully were feys entire-
nics.
15 miles long, exceeds not two in any part in breadth. theſe provinces taken poſſeſſion of by the royal army, lyʻoves-run
The provincials,wholay directlyoppoſite,had ſtrength- that its winter-quarters extended from New-Brunf- by the iria
tiſh
troopso
ched their camp with many fortifications; at the ſame wick to the river Delaware. Had any number of hoats
zime being maſters of all the paſſes and defiles betwixt been at hand, it was thought Philadelphia would have
the two camps, they were enabled to defend themſelves fallen into their hands. All theſe, however, had
againſt an army much more numerous than their own; been carefully renioved by the Americans. In lieu of
248
and they had alſo ſtrongly fortified a paſs called King'so this enterpriſe, Sir Henry Clinton, undertook an ex- Rhodes
Bridge, whence they could ſecure a paſſage to the con- pedition to Rhode Iſland, and became maſter of it with- and ta-
tinent in caſe of any misfortune. Here General Wain- our loſing a man. His expedition was alſo attended ken.
242
243
and Ame-
247
with
A M E
( 595
A M E
252
America, with this further advantage, that the American fleet of Crown-Point having deſtroyed or carried off every America
under commodore Hopkins was obliged to fail as far as thing of value, retired to Ticonderago. Tbither ge-
poſſible up the river Providence, and thus remained neral Carleton intended to have purſued them ; but
entirely uſeleſs.
the difficulties he had to encounter appeared ſo many
The fame ill ſucceſs continued to attend the Ame and ſo great, that it was thought proper to march back
ricans in other parts. After their expulſion from Ca-
After their expullion from Ca- into Canada, and deſiſt from any furtlier operations
nada, they had croſſed the Lake Champlain, and taken till next ſpring.
251
up their quarters at Crown-Point, as we have already Thus the affairs of the Americans ſeemed every The Ame-
mentioned. Here they remained for ſome time in where going to wreck; even thoſe who had been molt ricans al-
ſafety, as the Britiſh had no veſſels on the lake, and ſanguine in their cauſe began to waver. The time, moft eu-
confequently general Burgoyne could not purſue them. alſo, for which the ſoldiers had enliſted themſelves tirely dir-
To reinedy this deficiency, there was no poſſible me. was now expired; and the bad ſucceſs of the perfid,
pre-
thod, but either to conſtruct veſſels on the ſpot, or take ceding campaign had been ſo very diſcouraging, that
to pieces fome veſſels already conſtructed, and drag no perſon was willing to engage himſelf during the
249
The Britiſh them up the river into the lake. This, however, was continuance of a war of which the event ſeemed
convey vef- effected in no longer a ſpace than three months; and to be ſo doubtful.
In conſequence of this, there-
fels ap the the Britiſh general, after incredible toil and difficulty, fore, General Waſhington found his army daily de-
lake Cham- ſaw himſelf in poſſeflion of a great number of vef. creaſing in ſtrength; lo that, from 30,000, of which
plain, ſels, by which means he was enabled to purſue his it conſiſted when general Howelanded on StatenIlland,
enemies, and invade them in his turn. The labour ſcarce a tenth-part could now be muſtered. To alliit
undergone at this time by the ſea and land forces muſt the chief commander as much as poſſible, general Lee
indeed have been prodigious ; ſince there were con had collected a body of forces in the north ; but on his
veyed over land, and dragged up the rapids of St Law- way fouthward, having imprudently taken up his lody-
rence, no fewer than thirty large long-boats, 400 bat- ing at ſome diſtance from his troops, information was
teaux, beſides a vaſt number of flat-bottomed boats, given to colonel Harcourt, who happened at that time
and a gondola of 30 tons. The intent of the expedi- to be in the neighbourhood, and Lee was made priſoner. General
ion was to puſh forward, before winter, to Albany, The loſs of this general was much regretted, the more Lee taken
where the army would take up its winter-quarters, eſpecially as he was of ſuperior quality to any priſoner priſoner.
and next ſpring effect a jundion with that under Gene. in the poſſeſſion of the coloniſts, and could not there.
ral Howe, when it was not doubted that the united fore be exchanged. Six field-officers were offered in
force and ſkill of theſe two commanders would ſpeedi. exchange for him, and refuſed; and the congreſs was
ly put a termination to the war.
highly irritated at its being reported that he was to
By reaſon of the difficulties with which the equip- be treated as a deſerter, having been a half-pay offi-
ment of this fleet liad been attended, it was the be cer in the Britiſh ſervice at the commencement of the
ginning of October before the expedition could be un war. In conſequence of this they iſſued a proclama-
dertaken. It was now, however, by every judge, al- tion, threatening to retaliate on the priſoners in their
lowed to be completely able to anſwer the purpoſe for poſſeſſion whatever puniſhment would be inflicted on
which it was intended. It conſiſted of one large veſſel any of thoſe taken by the Britiſh, and eſpecially that
with three maſts, carrying 18 twelve, pouuders; two their conduct ſhould be regulated by the treatment of
ſchooners, theore carrying 14, the other 12 fix poun- general Lee.
253
ders ; a large flat bottomed radeau with fix twenty In the mean time they proceeded with the moſt in- Continen-
four and 6 twelve pounders ; and a gondola with 8 nine defatigable diligence to recruit their army, and bound tal army
pounders. Beſides theſe, were 20 veſſels of a ſinaller their foldiers to ſerve for a term of three years, or
lize, called gin-boats, carrying each a piece of braſs during the continuance of the war. The army dc-
ordnance from nine to twenty-four pounders, or how- ſigned for the enſuing campaign, was to conſiſt of 88
itzers. Several long-boats were fitted out in the ſame battalions; of which each province was to contribute
nianner; and beſides all theſe, there was a vaſt num its quola; and 20 dollars were oifered as a bounty to
ber of boats and tenders of various ſizes to be uſed as each ier, beſides an allottment of lands at the end
tranſports for the troops and baggage. It was manned of the war. No lands were promiſed to thoſe who en-
by a number of ſelect ſeamen, and the guns were to be liſted only for three years. All officers or ſoldiers
ſerved by a detachment from the corps of artillery; diſabled through wounds received in the ſervice were
the officers and ſoldiers appointed for this expedition to enjoy half-pay during life. To defray the expence,
were alſo chofen out of the whole army.,
congreſs borrowed five millions of dollars at five per
250
To oppoſe this formidable armament the Americans
cent.; for the payment of which the United States be-
Deſtroy
had only a very inconſiderable force, commanded by came furety. At the ſame time, in order to animats
the paval
force of
general Arnold; who, after engaging part of the Bri- the people to vigorous exertions, a declaration was
tiſh feet for a whole day, took advantage of the dark- publiſhed, in which they ſet forth the necellity there
neſs of the night to ſet ſail without being perceived, was for taking proper methods to inſure ſucceſs in
and the next morning was out of ſight : but he was fo their cauſe: they endeavoured to palliate as much as
hotly purſued by the Britiſh, that on the ſecond day poſſible the misfortunes which had already happened ;
after, he was overtaken, and forced to a ſecond engage and reprelented the true cauſe of the preſent diſtreſs
In this he behaved with great gallantry ; but to be the ſhort term of enliftment,
his force being very inferior to that of the eneniy, he This declaration, together with the imminent dan.
was obliged to run his ships aſhore and ſet them on fire. ger of Philadelphia, determined the Americans to ex-
A few only eſcaped to lake George; and the garriſon ert themſelves to the utmoſt in order to reinforce ge-
4 F 2
neral
for 1777.
the pro-
vincials,
ment.
A M E
[ 596 ]
A M E
ton.
257
254
ton.
America, neral Waſhington's arny, who, even in this time of proved; and, as ſoon as it was dark, the neceſſary mca. America.
depreſſion and diſcouragement, formed the bold deſign ſures were taken for accompliſhing it. A line of fires
of recroſſing the Delaware, and attacking that part was kindled, which ſerved to give light to the Ameri-
of the enemy which was poſted at Trenton. As the cans, while it obſcured them from the obſervation of
Royal army extended in different cantonments for a the enemy : and by a providential interpofition, the
great way, general Waſhington, perceiving the im- weather, which had been for ſome time paſt warni,
minent danger to which Philadelphia was expoſed, moist, and foggy, ſuddenly changed to a hard froſt;
reſolved to make ſome attempt on thoſe diviſions of and, in a moment as it were, rendered the road, which
the enemy which lay neareſt that city. Theſe hap- had been deep and heavy, firm and ſmooth as a pave-
pened to be the Heſſians, who lay in three diviſions, ment. At break of day General Waſhington arriving
the laſt only 20 miles diſtant from Philadelphia. On
near Princeton, was diſcovered by a party of Britiſh Britiſh de-
256
the 25th of December, having collected as confi- troops, conſiſting of three regiments under the com- feated at
derable a force as he could, he ſet out with an intent mand of Col. Mawhood, who were on their march to Princeton;
to ſurpriſe that body of the enemy which lay at Tren- Trenton. With theſe the centre of the Americans en-
His army was divided into three bodies; one gaged, and after killing 60, wounding many, and la-
of which he ordered to croſs the Delaware åt Tren- king 300 priſoners, obliged the reſt to make a precipi-
ton Ferry, a little below the town: the ſecond at a tate eſcape, ſome towards Trenton, and others in a re-
good diſtance below, at a place called Bordentown, trograde rout to Brunſwick. The loſs of the Americans
where the ſecond diviſion of Heſſians was placed; while was inconſiderable in point of numbers ; but the fall of
he himſelf, with the third, directing his courſe to a
the amiable General Mercer rendered it important. And re-
ferry ſome miles above Trenton, intended to have paſ- The Britiſh aſtoniſhed and diſcouraged at the ſucceſs treat to
ſed it at midnight, and attack the Heſſians at break and ſpirit of theſe repeated enterprizes, abandoning Brunſwick.
of day. But by reaſon of various impediments, it was both Trenton and Princeton, retreated to Brunſwick;
cight in the morning before he could reach the place of while the triumphant Americans retired to Morris-
The Heſſi- his deſtination. The enemy, however, did not perceive town. General Waſhington, however, omitted no op-
ans defeat- his approach till they were ſuddenly attacked. Colonel portunity of recovering what had been loft ; and by
at
Ralle, who commanded them, did all that could be dividing his army into ſmall parties, which could be
expected from a brave and experienced officer ; but reunited on a few hours warning, hé in a manner en.
every thing was in ſuch confuſion, that no efforts of tirely covered the country with it, and repollelled
valour or ſkill could now retrieve matters. The Colo- himſelf of all the important places.
nel himſelf was mortally wounded, his troops were Thus ended the campaign of 1776, with ſcarce
entirely broken, their artillery ſeized, and about 1000 any other real advantage than the acquiſition of the
taken priſoners. After this gallant exploit, General city of New York, and of a few fortreſſes in its neigh-
Waſhington again returned into Pennſylvania. bourhood; where the troops were conſtrained to act
This action, though ſeemingly of no very deciſive with as much circumſpection as if they had been be-
nature, was fufficient at that time to turn the fortune ſieged by a victorious army, inſtead of being them-
of war in favour of America. It tended greatly to ſelves the conquerors.
258
lefſen the apprehenſions which the provincials had of The army at New-York began in 1777 to exerciſe
Excurſions
the Heflians, at the ſame time that it equally abated the a kind of predatory war, by ſending out parties to de- of the Bri-
confidence which the Britiſh had till now put in them. ſtroy magazines, make incurſions, and take or deſtroy tiſh from
Reinforcements cane in from ſeveral quarters to Ge- ſuch forts as lay on the banks of rivers, to which their New York.
neral Waſhington, ſo that he was ſoon in a condition great command of ſhipping gave them acceſs. In this
once more to paſs the Delaware, and take up his quar- they were generally ſucceſsful: the provincial maga-
ters at Trenton, where he was emboldened to maintain zines at Peek's Hill, a place about 50 miles diſtant
his ſtation, notwithſtanding the accounts that were re from New-York, were deſtroyed, the town of Dun-
ceived of the enemy's rapid advance towards him, bury in Connecticut burnt, and that of Ridgefield in
Lord Cornwallis, accordingly, made his appearance in the ſame province was taken poſſeſſion of. In returning
full force ; and, on the evening of his arrival, the lit from the laſt expedition, however, the Britiſh were
tle town of Trenton contained the two hoſtile armies, greatly harraſſed by the Americans ander Generals Ar-
ſeparated only by a ſmall creek, which was fordable nold, Wooſter, and Sullivan; but they made good their
many places. This was, indeed the criſis of the A. retreat, though with the loſs of above 200 killed and
merican revolution; and had his Lordſhip made an im- wounded.
wounded. On the American ſide the loſs was con-
mediate attack, in purſuanceof what is reported to have ſiderable ; General Wooſter was killed, and Arnold
been the advice of Sir William Erſkine, General Walli- in the moſt imminent danger. On the other hand,
ington's defeat ſeems to have been inevitable: but a the Americans deſtroyed the ſtores at Stagg-harbour,
night's delay turned the fate of the war, and produced in Long-Iland, and made priſoners of all who defen-
an enterpriſe, the magnitude and glory of which, can
ded the place.
only be equalled by its ſucceſs. General Waſhington As this method of making war, however, could an-
having called a council of war, ſtated the calamitous fi- ſwer but little purpoſe, and ſavoured more of the bar.
tuation to which his army was reduced, and having barous incurſions of fayages than of a war carried on by
heard the various opinions of his officers, finally propo- a civilized people, it was reſolved to make an attempt
Gen. Waſh- ſed a circuitous march to Princeton, as the means of on Philadelphia. At firſt it was thought that this
ington
avoiding, at once, the imputation of a retreat, and the could be done through the Jerſeys; but the cruelties
danger of a battle, with numbers fo inferior, and in a exerciſed by the Britiſh plundering parties had excited
his army to
Princeton. ſituation ſo ineligible. The idea was unanimouſly ap- ſo general an abhorrence, and General Waſhington
had
253
marches
A ME
[ 597 )
A M E
ken pri-
fails for
ia,
had received ſuch large reinforcements, and poſted mericans with the appearance of croſſing the ford, but America.
Anierica.
himſelf ſo ſtrongly,that it was found to be impracticable. did not attempt it until lord Cornwallis having croll-
Many ſtratagems were uſed to draw him from his ſtrong ed above and moved down on the oppolite fide, had
ſituation, but without ſucceſs ; ſo that it was found ne conimenced bis attack. Knyphauſen then croſſed the
ceſſary to make the attempt on Philadelphia by ſea. ford, and attacked the troops poſted for its defence.
While the preparations neceſſary for this expedition Thefe, after a ſevere conflie, were compelled to give 262
were going forward, the Americans found means to way. The retreat of the Ainericans foon becaine Americans
make amends for the capture of General Lee by that general, and was continued to Cheſter, under cover
defeated
of
159
General
of General Preſcot, who was ſeized in his quarters with general Weeden's brigade, which came off in good
Preſcot ta- his aid de camp, in much the ſame manner as General order. The final iſſue of battles often depends on ſmall
Lee had been. This was exceedingly mortifying to circumſtances, which human prudence cannot con-
foner. the General himſelf, as he had not long before ſet a price trol---one of theſe occurred here, and prevented gene-
upon General Arnold, by offering a ſum of money lo ral Waſhington from executing a bold deſign, to effect
any one that apprehended him ; which the latter an which, his troops were actually in motion. This was
Swered by ſetting a lower price upon General Preſcot. to have croſſed the Brandywine, and attacked Knyp-
The month of July was far advanced before the pre- hauſen, while general Sullivan and lord Stirling, fhonld
parations for the expedition againſt Philadelphia were keep earl Cornwallis in check. In the moſt critical
completed ; and it was the 23d before the fleet was moment, general Walhington received intelligence
260 able to fail from Sandy. Hook. The force employed which he was obliged to credit, that the column of lord
The fleet
in this expedition conſiſted of 36 battalions of Britiſh Cornwallis had been only making a feint, and was re-
philadel- and Heſſians, a regiment of light horſe, and a body of turning to join Knyphauſen. This prevented the exe-
loyaliſts raiſed at New York. Theremainder of theſe, cution of a plan, which, if carried into effect, would
with 17 battalions, and another body of light horſe, probably have given a different turn to the events of
were ſtationed at New-York under Sir Henry Clinton. the day. The killed and wounded in the royal army,
Seven battalions were ſtationed at Rhode-Illand. Af. were near ſix hundred. The loſs of the Americans was
ter a week's failing they arrived at the mouth of the twice that number. The celebrated Marquis de la Fay-
Delaware ; but there having received certain intelli ette here firſt bled in the cauſe of liberty, which he had
gence, that the navigation of the river was ſo effectual- eſpouſed with enthuſiaſticardor. His wound was flight,
ly obſtructed, that no poſſibility of forcing a paſſage re- but it endeared him to the Americans.
mained; or more probably that Gen. Waſhington had The loſs of this battle proved alſo the loſs of Phi.
marched within a ſhort diſtance of Philadelphia; it was ladelphia. General Waſhington retired towards Lan-
reſolved to preceed further ſouthward to Cheſapeak Bay caſter, to ſave the ſtores which had been depoſited at
in Maryland, from whence the diſtance to Philadelphia Reading. But though he could not prevent the loſs
was not very great, and where the provincial arniy of Philadelphia, he ſtill adhered to bis original plan of 263
would find leſs advantage fron the nature of the coun diſtreſſing the royal party, by laying ambuſhes and An Ame-
try than in the Jerſeys.
cutting off detached parties; but in this he was leſs fuc- ricau de-
The navigation from Delaware to Cheſapeak took ceſsful than formerly; and one of his one detachments tachment
up the beſt part of the month of Auguſt, and that up which lay in ambuſh in a wood were themſelves ſurpri-
ſurpriſed
261
and defeats
At ſed and entirely defeated, with the loſs of 300 killed
the bay itſelf was extremely difficult and tedious.
ed with
The army laſt, having failed up the river Elk, as far as was prae- and wounded, beſides 70 or 80 taken, and all their
lands at the
grea:
ticable, the troops were landed without oppoſition, and arms and baggage.
flaughter.
head of the
ſet forward on their intended expedition. On the
Elk,
General Howe now perceiving that the Americans
news of their arrival at Cheſapeak, General Waſhing- would not venture another battle even for the ſake of
264
ton left the Jerſeys, and haſtened to the relief of Phi. their capital, took peaceable poſſeſſion of it on the
ladelphia ; and in the beginning of September met the 26th of September. His firſt care was then to cut takes pof-
royal army at Brandy-wine Creek about mid-way, be- off, by means of ſtrong batteries, the commanication feffion of
tween the head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here between the upper and lower parts of the river; which Philadel-
he adhered to his former method of ſkirmiſhing and ha- was executed, noiwithſtanding the oppoſition of ſome phia.
raſſing the royal army on its march; but as this pro- American armed veſſels ; one of which, carrying 36
ved inſufficient to ſtop its progreſs, he retired to that guns, was taken. His next talk was to open a com-
ſide of the creek nexi to Philadelphia, with an intent munication with it by ſea; and this was a work of
to diſpute the paſſage. This brought on a general en no ſmall difficulty. A vaſt number of batteries and
gagement on the unth September. The royal army forts had been erected, and iinmenſe machines formed
advanced at day break in two columns, commanded like chevaux de frize, froin whence they took their
by lieutenant general Knyphauſen, and by lord Corn- name, funk in the river to prevent its navigation. As
wallis. The firſt took the direct road to Chadd's Ford, the fleet was fent round to the niouth of the river in
and made a ſhew of paſſing it, in front of the main bo- order to co-operate with the army, this work, how-
dy of the Americans. At the ſame time the other ever difficult, was accomplihed; nor did the provin-
column moved up on the weſt ſide of the Brandywine cials give much oppoſition, as well knowing that all
to its fork, and croſſed both its branches about 20'clock places of this kind were now untenable. General 265
in the afternoon, and then marched down on the eaſt Waſhington, however, took the advantage of the royal Royal ar-
ſide thereof, with the view of turning the right wing army being divided to attack the camp of the princi- my attack-
of their adverſaries.
pal diviſion ofit that lay at German town, in the neigh- ed at Ger-
This they effected and compelled them to retreat bourhood of Philadelphia,
bourhood of Philadelphia. In this he met with very
with great loſs. General Knyphauſen amuſed the A- little ſucceſs; for though he reached the place of desti-
nation
General
Howc
mantown,
Λ Μ Ε
[ 598 1
Α Μ Ε
This gave
Vol. II.
268
on the
America, nation by three o'clock in the morning, the patroles Through this paſſage, the Vigilant, a large ſhip, cut America.
had time to call the troops to arms.
The Americans, down ſo as to draw but little water, mounted with 24
notwithſtanding made a very reſolute attack: but they pounders, made her way to a polition from which me
were received with ſo much bravery, that they were might enfilade the works on Mud-Iſland.
266
The Amc. compelled to abandon the attempt, and retreat in great the Britiſh ſuch an advantage, that the poſt was 110
ricans re-
diſorder ; with the advantage, however, of carrying off longer tenable. Colonel Smith, who had with great
pulſed. their cannon, though purſued for a conſiderable way, gallantry defended the fort from the latter end of
after having upwards of 200 killed, and about 500 September, to the sth of November, being wound-
wounded, and upwards of 400 taken priſoners, among ed, was removed to the maini. Within five days af-
whom were 54 officers. On the Britiſh ſide, the lois ter his removal, major Thayer, who as a volunteer
amounted to 430 wounded and priſoners,and yo killed had nobly offered to take charge of this dangerous
but ainong the laſt were General Agnew and Colonel poſt, was obliged to evacuate it.
Bird, withſome other excellent officers.
This event did not take place till the works were
Ramſay's The Britiſh were well apprized that without the com entirely bear down---every piece of cannon diſmoun-
Hiftory, inand of the Delaware, their poſſeſſion of Philadelphia ted, and one of the Britiſh ſhips fo near that ſhe threw
would be of no advantage. They therefore ſtrained granadoes into the fort, and killed the men uncover-
P, 17
every nerve, to open the navigation of that river,---10 ed in the platform. The troops who had ſo bravely
this end lord Howe had early taken the moſt effectual defended fort Mifflin, made a ſafe retreat to Red-
meaſures for conducting the feet and tranſports round Bank. Congreſs voted ſwords to be given to lieutea
from the Cheſapeak to the Delaware, and drew them nant colonel Smith and Commodore Hazlewood, for
up on the Pennſylvania ſhore, from Reedy-Iſland to thcir gallant defence of the Delaware. Within three All the
New Caſtle. Early in October, a detachment from the days after Mud-Iſland was evacuated, the garriſon forts near
Britiſh arıny croſſed the Delaware, with a view of dif was alſo wichdrawn from Red-Bank,
approach Philadel
lodging the Americans from Billingſport, On their ap of lord Cornwallis, at the head of a large force phia redu-
pre-
ced.
proach, the place was evacuated. As the ſeaſon ad pared to aſſault it. Some of the American gallies and
vanced, more vigorous meaſures for removing the ob armed veſſels eſcaped by keeping cloſe in with the
ſtructions were concerted between the general and the Jerſey ſhore, to places of ſecurity above Philadelphia,
admiral. Batteries were erected on the Pennſylvania but 17 of them were abandoned by their crews, and
Shore to aſſiſt in diſlodging the Americans from Iud fired. Thus the Britiſh gained a free communica-
Iſland. At the ſame time Count Donop with 2000 men, tion between their army and ſhipping. This event
having crosſed into New Jerſey, oppoſite to Philadel was to them very deſirable. They had been provi-
phia, marched down on the eaſtern ſide of the Dela oully obliged to draw their proviſions from Cheſter,
ware, to attack the redoubt at Red-Bank. This was a diſtance of ſixteen miles, at ſome riſque, and a cer.
defended by about 400 men under the command of tain great expence. The long protracted defence of
colonel Greene. The attack inmediately commenced the Delaware, deranged the plans of the Britiſh, for
by a ſmart cannonade, under cover of which the Count the remainder of tlle campaign, and conſequently
advanced to the redoubt. This place was intended for ſaved the adjacent country.
a much larger garriſon than was then in it. It had Thus the campaign of 1777, in Penſylvania, conclu-
therefore become neceſſary to run a line in the mid- ded, upon the whole, ſucceſsfully on the part of the
dle thereof, and one part of it was evacuated. That Britiſh. In the north, however, matters wore a diffe 269
part was eaſily carried by the aſſailants on which they rent aſpect. The expedition in that quarter had been Expedition
indulged in loud huzzas for their ſuppoſed victory. projected by the Britiſh ininiſtry as the moſt effectual projected
The garriſon kept up a ſevere well direcled fire on the method that could betaken to cruſh the colonies at once.
againſt
aſſailants by which they were compelled to retire. The four provinces of New-England had originally be-
New-jing.
land,
They ſuffered not only in the aſſault, but in the approach gun the confederacy againſt Britain, and were ſtill
to, and retreat from the fort. There whole loſs in conſidered as the moſt active in the continuation of it į
killed and wounded was about 400. Count Donop was and it was thought, that any impreſſion made upon
mortally wounded and taken priſoner. Congreſs re hem, would contribute in an effectual manner to the
ſolved to preſent colonel Greene with a ſword for his reduction of all the reſt. For this purpoſe, an army of
good conduct on this occaſion. An attack made about 4000 choſen Britiſh troops and 3000 Germans were
the ſame time on fort Mifflin by men of war and put under the command of General Burgoyne; Gene-
frigates, was not more ſucceſsful than the aſſault on ral Carleton was directed to uſe his intereſt with the
Red-Bank. The Auguſta man of war of 64 guns, Indians to perſuade them to join in this expedition ;
ſhips of
and the Merlin, two of the veſſels which were enga and the province of Quebec was to furnith large par-
war burnt. ged in it, got a ground. The former was fired and ties to join in the ſame. The officers who command-
The latter was evacuated.
ed under General Burgoyne were, General Philips of
Though the firſt attempts of the Britiſh, for open- the artillery, Generals Fraſer, Powell, and Hamilton,
ing the navigation of the Delaware, were unſucceſs with theGerman officers General Reiseſel and Speccht.
ful, they carried their point in another way that was The ſoldiers, as has already been obſerved, were all
unexpected. The chevaux de friſe, having been funk excellently diſciplined, and had been kept in their win-
ſome conſiderable tinie, the current of the water was ter-quarters with all imaginable care, in order to pre-
diverted by this great bulk into new channels. 111 pare them for the expedition on which they were go-
conſequence thereof the paſſage between the iſlands ing. To aid the principal expedition, another was
and the Pennſylvania ſhore was ſo deepened as to ad- projected on the Mohawk River under Colonel St Le-
mit veſſels of fome conſiderable draught of water. ger, who was to be aſſiſted by Sir John Johnſon, fon to
the
267
Britill
blew up.
A M E
[ 599 ]
Λ Μ Ε
270
water,
274
way
to Fort
Edward
270
General
275
America. the famous Sir William Johnſon who had ſo greatly ward. In all theſe engagements the loſs of killed Americ,
diſtinguiſhed himſelf in the war of 1755.
and wounded in the royal army did notexceed 200 mnen.
Americans
On the 21ſt of June 1777, the arniy encamped on General Burgoyne was now obliged to ſuſpend his
defeated by the weſtern ſide of the Lake Champlain; where, being operations for fone time, and wait at Skeneltorough
land and joined by a conſiderable body of Indians, General Bure for the arrival of his tents, proviſions, &c. but employ-
goyne made a ſpeech, in which it is ſaid he exhorted ed this interval in making roads through the country
theſe new allies, but ineffectually, to lay aſide their fe- about St Anne, and in clearing a paſſage for his troops
rocious and barbarous manner of making war; to kill to proceed againſt the Americans. This was attended General
only ſuch as oppoſed them in arms; and to ſpare prin with incredible toil; but all obſtacles were ſurmounted Iurgoyne
foners, with ſuch women and children as ſhould fall with equal patience and reſolution by the army. In makes his
into their hands. After iſſuing a proclamation, in which ſhort, after undergoing the utnoſt difficulty and ma-
the force of Britain, and that which he commanded, king every exertion, he arrived with his army before
with great
was ſet forth in very oftentatious terms, the campaign Fort Edward about the end of July. Here General dificulty,
opened with the ſiege of Ticonderago. The place was Schuyler had been for ſome time endeavouring to re-
Burgoyne very ſtrong, and garriſoned by 6coo men under Gene crait the ſhattered American forces, and had been join.
joined by al St Clair; nevertheleſs, the works were ſo exten ed by General St Clair with the remains of his arıny ;
the Indians, ſive, that even this number was ſcarce ſufficient to de- the garriſon of Fort George alſo, lituated on the lake of
fend them properly. They had therefore onitted to that name, had evacuated the place and retired to Fort
fortify a rugged eminence called Sugar-Hill, the top Edward.
of which overlooked and effe&ually commanded the But on the approach of the royal army, they re- Americans
whole works ; imagining, perhaps, that the difficulty tired from thence alſo, and formed their head-quar-resire to Sa-
of the aſcent would be ſufficient to prevent the eneny ters at Saratoga. Notwithſtanding the great ſucceſs ratoga.
from taking poſſeſſion of it. On the approach of the of the Britiſh general, they ſhowed not the leaſt diſ-
firſt diviſion of the army, the provincials abandoned poſition to ſubmit, but ſeemed only to conſider how
and ſet fire to their outworks; and ſo expeditious were they might make the moſt effectual reſiſtance. For
the Britiſh troops, that by the 5th of July every poſt this purpoſe, the militia was every where raiſed and
was fecured which was judged neceffary for inveſting draughted to join the arny at Saratoga ; and ſuch
il completely. A road was ſoon after made to the very numbers of volunteers were daily added, that they ſoon
fuinnit of that eminence which the Americans had began to recover froin the alarm into which they had
ſuppoſed could not be aſcended; and ſo much were they been thrown. That they might have a commander
now diſheartened, that they inſtantly abandoned the whoſe abilities could be relied on, General Arnold was
fort entirely, taking the road to Skeneſborough, a place appointed, who repaired to Saratoga with a confidera-
to the ſouth of Lake George ; while their baggage, ble train of artillery ; but receiving intelligence that
with what artillery and military ſtores they could carry Colonel St Leger was proceeding with great rapidity
off, were ſent to the ſame place by water. But the in his expedition on the Mohawk River, he removed to
Britiſh generals were determined not to let them paſs Still water, a place about half-way between Saratoga
ſo eaſily. Both were purſued and both overtaken. Their and the junction of the Mohawk and Hudſon's River.
276
Ticondera- armed veſſels confifted only of five galleys; two of The Colonel, in the mean time, had advanced as far Fort Stan-
go beſieged which were taken, and three blown up; on which as Fort Stanwix; the ſiege of which he preſſed with wis beſieg-
and taken. they ſet fire to their boats and fortifications at Skeneſ- great vigour. On the 6th of August, underſtanding
borough. On this occaſion the provincials loſt 200 that a ſupply of proviſions, eſcorted by 800 or 900 men,
boats, 130 pieces of cannon, with all their provilions was on the way to the fort, he diſpatched Sir John John-
and bagg: ge. Their land-forces under Colonel Fran- fon with a ſtrong detachment to intercept it. This he A detach-
cis made a brave defence againſt General Frafer; and did ſo effe&tnally, that, belides intercepting the pro- ment of Aa
ſuperior in number,had almoſt overpowered him, when vilions, 400 of its guard were Nain, 200 taken, and mericans
General Rcideſel with a large body of Germans came to the reſt eſcaped with great difficnlty. The garriſon, pieces
.
his aſſiſtance. The provincials were now overpowered however, were not to be intimnidated by the threats or
in their tiirn; and their commander being killed, they repreſentations of the Colonel : on the contrary, they
fled on all ſides with great precipitation. In this ac inade ſeveral ſucceſsful fallies under Colonel Willet,
tion 200 Americans were killed, as many taken pri- the ſecond in command; and this gentleman, in com-
foners, and above 600 wounded, many of whom pe- pany with another, even ventured out of the fort, and,
rilled in the woods for want of aſſiſtance.
eluding the vigilance of the enemy, paſſed throuhg
During the engagement General St Clair was at them in order to haſten the march of General Arnold
Caſtleton, about fix miles froni the place; but inſtead to their alliſtance.
278
of going forward to Fort Anne, the next place of Thus the affairs of Colonel St Leger ſeemed to be The Indi-
strength, he repaired to the woods which lie between in no very favourable ſituation notwithſtanding his late ans deſert
that fortreſs and New-England. General Burgoyne, ſucceſs, and they were ſoon totally ruined by the deſer- and force
however, detached Colonel Hill with the ninth regi- tion of the Indians. They had been alarmed by the re-
inent, in order to intercept ſuch as ſhould attempt to port of General Arnold's advancing with 2000 men to raiſe the
fiege.
'They are retreat towards Fort Anne. On his way he met with to the relief of the fort ; and while the Colonel was
again de a body of the Americans more numerous than his own; attempting to give
them encouragement,another report
feated, and
but after an engagement of three hours, they were was ſpread, lhat General Burgoyne had been defeated
Fort Anne. obliged to retire with great loſs. After ſo many dif- with great ſlaughter, and was now flying before the
afters, deſpairing of being able to make any ſtand at provincials. On this he was obliged to do as they
Fort Anne, they ſet fire to it and retired to Fort Ed- thought proper; and the retrcat could not be effected
Without
ز
ed.
277
the colonel
273
abandon
melody
A M E
[ 600 ]
AME
ry Itores.
with great
cial
zines at
ton,
America. without the loſs of the tents, the arrillery and milita General Burgoyne, thus diſappointed in his attempt America.
on Bennington,applied himſelf with indefatigable dili.
General Burgoyne, in the mean time, notwithſland-
279
gence to procure proviſions from Fort George ; and ha.
General
ing all the difficulties he had already ſuſtained, found ving at length amaſſed a ſufficient quantity to laſt for a
Burgogne that he muſt ſtill encounter more. The roads he had month, he threw a bridge of boats over the river Hud-
diftreffed made with ſo much labour and pains were deſtroyed, ſon, which he croſſed about the middle of September, 283
for want of either by the wetneſs of the ſeaſon or by the Americans; encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga. As The Amc-
provilions, ſo that the proviſions he brought from Fort George ſoon as he approached the provincial army, at this ricans at.
could not arrive at his camp without the moſt prodigi- time encamped at Stillwater under General Gates, he tack the
ous coil. On hearing of the ſiege of Fort Stanwix by determined to make an attack; for which purpoſe he
Royal
army,
Colonel St Leger, he determined to move forward, in put himſelf at the head of the central diviſion of his
hopes of incloſing the enemy betwixt his own army army, having General Fraſer and Colonel Breyman on
and that of St Leger, or of obtaining the command of the right, with Generals Reideſel and Philips on the
all the country between Fort Stanwix and Albany; or, left. In this poſition he advanced on the 19th of
at any rate, a junction with Colonel St Leger would be September. But the Anericans did not now wait to
effected, which could not bul be attended with the moſt be attacked: on the contrary they attacked the cen-
happy conſequences. The only difficulty was the want tral diviſion with the utmoſt violence; and it was not 284
of proviſions; and this it was propoſed to remedy by until General Philips with the artillery came up, and And are
280 reducing the provincial magazines at Bennington. at eleven o'clock at night, that they could be induced
to retire to their camp.
Makes an For this purpoſe, Colonel Baum, a German officer of
difficulty
On this occaſion, the Britiſh repulſed.
attempt on
great bravery, was choſen with a body of 500 men. troops loſt about 500 in killed and wounded, and the
the provin The place was about 20 miles from Hudſon's River; Americans about 319. The former were very much
maga.
and to ſupport Colonel Baum's party, the whole army alarmed at the obſtinate reſolution ſhown by the Ame-
Lenning-
marched
up the river's bank, and encamped almoſt ricans, but this did not prevent thein from advancing,
oppoſite to Saratoga, with the river betwixt it and and poſting themſelves the next day within canon-
285
that place. An advanced party was poſted at Batten ſhot of their lines.
But their allies the Indians began The Indi.
Kill, between the camp and Bennington, in order to deſert in great numbers; and at the ſame time the
ans deſert.
ſupport Colonel Baum. In their way the Britiſh ſeiz- general was in the higheſt degree mortified by having
ed a large ſupply of cattle and proviſions, which were no intelligence of any aſſiſtance from Sir Henry Clin-
286
immediately ſent to the camp; but the badneſs of the ton, as had been ſtipulated. He now received a let- A letter
roads retarded their march ſo much, that intelligence ter from him by which he was informed that Sir Hen- from Sir
of their delign was ſent to Bennington. Underſtand. ry intended to make a diverſion on the North River Henry
ing now that the American force was greatly ſupe in his favour. This afforded but little comfort: how. Clinton,
with Genc.
rior to his own, the Colonel acquainted the General, ever, he returned an anſwer by ſeveral truſty perſons
ral lur-
who immediately diſpatched Colonel Breyman with a whom he diſpatched different ways, ſtating his pre- goyne's an-
party to his aſiſtance; but through the ſame cauſes ſent diſtreſſed ſituation, and mentioning that the pro-fwer.
281
that had retarded the march of Colonel Baum, this af- viſions and other neceſſaries he had would only ena.
Colonel ſiſtance could not arrive in time. General Starke who ble him to hold out until the 12th of October.
287
Baum ut- cominanded the American militia at Bennington, en In the mean time the Americans, in order to cut Expedition
terly de-
gaged with them before the junction of the two royal off the retreat of the Britiſh army in the moſt effectual of the pro-
feated and
detachments could be effected. On this occaſion about manner, undertook an expedition againſt Ticonderago; vincials a-
ſoner.
800 undiſciplined militia, without bayonets, or a ſin- but were obliged to abandon the enterpriſe after ha gainſt Ti-
conderago,
gle piece of artillery, attacked and routed 500 regu- ving ſurpriſed all the out-poſts, and taken a great num-
lar troops advantageouſly poſted behind entrenchments ber of boats with ſome armed veſlels, and a number of
-furniſhed with the beſt arms, and defended with priſoners. The army under general Burgoyne, how-
two pieces of artillery. The field pieces were taken ever, continued to labour under the greateſt diſtreſles;
from the party commanded by Col. Bauni, and the ſo that in the beginning of October he had been obli-
greateſt part of his detachment was either killed or ged to diminiſh the ſoldiers allowance. On the 7th of
captured. Colonel Breyman arrived on the ſame ground that month he determined to move towards the enemy.
and on the ſame day, but not till the action was over. For this purpoſe he ſent a body of 1500 men to recon-
Inſtead of meeting his friends, as he expected, he noitre their left wing; intending, if poſſible, to break
288
found himſelf briſkly attacked. This was begun by through it in order to effect a retreat. The detach- They make
colonel Warner, (who with his continental regiment, ment, however, had not proceeded far when a ſpirit- a bold
which having been ſent for from Mancheſter, came ed attack was made upon the left wing of the Britiſh attack on
opportunely at this time) and was well ſupported by army, which was with great difficulty preſerved from the royal
army,
Stark's militia, which had juſt defeated the party being entirely broken by a reinforcement brought up
289
282 commanded by colonel Baum. Breyman's troops, by general Fraſer, who was killed in the attack. Af- Kill Genc.
Colonel
though fatigued with their preceding march, behaved ter the troops had with the moſt deſperate efforts re- ral Frafer,
Breyman
defeated.
with great reſolution, but were at length compelled gained their camp, it was moſt vigorouſly aſſaulted by
to abandon their artillery and retreat. In theſe two general Arnold; who, notwithſtanding all oppoſitio
actions the Americans took four braſs field pieces, would have forced the entrenchments, had he not re-
290
twelve braſs drums, 250 dragoon ſwords, 4 ammuni- ceived a dangerous wound, which obliged him to re- And defeat
tion waggons, and about 700 priſoners. The loſs of tire. Thus the attack failed on the left, but on the the Ger-
the Aniericans, incluſive of their wounded, was about right the camp of the German reſerve was forced, mans with
10o men.
Colonel Breyman killed, and his countrymen defeat-great
flaughter,
ed
taken pri.
A ME
[ 6011
A M E
army in
a retreat
America. ed with great ſlaughter, and the loſs of all their artil- Burgoyne, to march out of their camp with the ho. America.
lery and baggage.
nours of war, and the artillery of the intrenchments
This was by far the heavieſt loſs the Britih army to the verge of the river where the old fort ſtood,
had ſuſtained ſince the action at Bunker's Hill. The where the arms and artillery are to be left.-The arms
liſt of killed and wounded amounted to near 1200, ex to be piled by word of command from their own offi.
The royal cluſive of the Germans; but the greateſt misfortune cers :-2. A free paſſage to be granted to the army
was, that the Americans had now an opening on the under liet. gen. Burgoyne to Great-Britain, upon con-
danger of right and rear of the Britiſh forces, ſo that the army was dition of not ſerving again in North-America during
being fur- threatened with entire deſtruction. This obliged Ge- the preſent conteſt; and the port of Boſton to be af.
rounded. neral Burgoyne once more to ſhift his poſition, that the ſigned for the entry of tranſports, to receive the troops
Americans might alſo be obliged to alter theirs. This whenever gen. Howe ſhall ſo order :-3. Should any
was accompliſhed on the night of the 7th, without any cartel take place, by which the army under lieut. gen.
lofs, and all the next day he continued to offer the Ame- Burgone, or any part of it, may be exchanged, the.
ricans battle; but they were now too well aſſured of foregoing article to be void, as far as ſuch exchange
obtaining a complete victory, by cutting off all ſupplies ſhall be made :-4. The army under lieut. gen. Bur.
from the Britiſh, to riſk a pitched battle. Wherefore goyne to march to Maſſachuſetts-Bay, by the cafieſt,
they advanced on the right ſide, in order to incloſe him and moſt expeditious and convenient route ; and to be
entirely ; which obliged the General to direct a retreat quartered in, near, or as convenient as poſſible to Boſ-
towards Saratoga. But the Americans had now ſtation. ton, that the march of the troops may not be delayed
ed a great force on the ford at Hudſon's river, ſo that when tranſports arrive to receive them:- The troops
the only poſſibility of retreat was by ſecuring a paſſage to be ſupplied on the march, and during their being
292
Attempts
to Lake George; and to effect this, a body of work- in quarters, with proviſions, by major general Gates's
men were detached, with a ſtrong guard, to repair the orders, at the ſame rate of rations as the troops of his
without roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As ſoon own army; and, if poſſible, the officers horſes and
ſucceſs. as they were gone, however, the Americans ſeemned to cattle are to be ſupplied with forage at the uſual
prepare for an attack ; which rendered it neceſſary to rates:46. All the officers to retain their caraiages,
recal the guard, and the workmen being of courſe left bat-horſes and other cattle, and no baggage to be mo-
expoſed, could not proceed.
leſted or ſearched; lieut, gen. Burgoyne giving his
In the mean time, the boats which conveyed provi. honour, that there are no public ſtores contained there.
ſions down Hudſon's river were expoſed to the conti. in. Major gen. Gates will of courſe take the neceſſa-
nual fire of the American narkſmen, who took many ry meaſures for the due performance of this article:
of them; fo that it became neceſſary to convey the ſhould any carriages be wanted during the march, for
proviſions over land. In this extreme danger, it was the tranſportation of officers baggage, they are, if
reſolved to march by night to Fort Edward, forcing poſſible, to be ſupplied by the country at the uſual rates :
the paſſages at the fords either above or below the - 7. Upon the march, and during the time the army
place; and, in order to effect this the more eaſily, it ſhall remain in quarters, in the Maſſachuſetts-Bay,
was reſolved that the ſoldiers ſhould carry their provi- the officers are not, as far as circumſtances will admit,
ſions on their backs, leaving behind their baggage and to be ſeparated from their men.-The officers are to
cvery other incumbrance, But before this could be be quartered according to their rank, and are not to
cxecuted intelligence was received that the Americans be hindered from their aſſembling their men for roll-
had raiſed ſtrong entrenchments oppoſite to theſefords, callings, and other neceſſary purpoſes of regularity :
well provided with cannon, and that they had likewiſe -8. All corps whatever of lieut. gen. Burgoyne's
taken poſſeſſion of the riſing ground between Fort army, whether compoſed of failors, batteau-men,
George and Fort Edward, which in like manner was tificers, drivers, independent companies, and follow-
provided with canon.
ers of the army, of whatever country, ſhall be includ-
293
Diftreffed All this time the American army was increaſing by ed in the fulleſt fenſe and utmoſt extent of the above
ſituation of the continual arrival of militia and volunteers from all articles, and comprehended in every reſpect as Bri-
the royal parts. Their parties extended all along the oppoſite tiſh ſubjects:--9. All Canadians, and perſons belong-
army. bank of Hundſon's River, and ſome had even pailed it ing to the Canadian eſtabliſhment, conſiſting of ſailors,
in order to obſerve the leaſt inovement of the Britiſh batteau-men, artificers, drivers, independent compa-
army. Every part of the Britiſh camp was reached nies, and many other followers of the army, who
by the grape and rifle-ſhot of the Americans, beſides come under no particular deſcription, are to be per-
a diſcharge from their artillery, which was almoſt in- mitted to return there: they are to be conducted im.
ceſſant. In this ſtate of extreme diſtreſs and danger, mediately, by the ſhorteſt route, to the firſt Britiſh
the army continued with the greateſt conſtancy and poſt on Lake George, are to be ſupplied with provi-
perſeverance till the evening of the 13th of October, ſions in the ſame manner as the other troops, and to
when an inventory of proviſions being taken, it was be bound by the ſame condition of not ſerving during
found that no more remained than what were ſuffici. the preſent conteſt in North-America:-10. Paſſports
ent to ſerve for three days; and a council of war be to be immediately granted for three officers, not ex-
It is obliged ing called, it was unanimouſly determined that there ceeding the rank of captains, who ſhall be appointed
to capitu- was no method now remaining but to treat with the by lieut, gen. Burgoyne, to carry diſpatches to Sir
late, Americans. In conſequence of this, a negociation Wm. Howe, Sir Guy Carleton, and to Great-Britain
was opened next day, which ſpecdily terminated in by the way of New-York; and major general Gates
a capitulation of the whole Britih army; the arti- engages the public faith, that theſe diſpatches ſhall
cles of which were 1. The troops under lieut. gen. not be opened. Theſe officers are to ſet out immedi-
VOL. I,
ately
ar-
294
4 G
A M E
[602 1
A M E
Ancia. ately after receiving their diſpatches, and are to tra tion. The latter underſtood him, and was careful Anaerica.
vel by the ſhorteſt route, and in the moſt expeditious not to leſſen the return by ſuppreſling a ſingle man.
manner :--11. During the Itay of the troops in the The continentals, all ranks included, were 9093 ; the
Maſſachuſetts-Bay, the officers are to be admitted on militia 4129, in all 13222; but of the former, the ſick
parole, and are to be permitted to wear their fide arms: and on furlough were 2103; and of the latter, 562.
--12. Should the army under lieut. gen. Burgoyne, The number of the militia was continually varying;
find it neceſſary to ſend for their cloathing and other and many of them were at a conſiderable diſtance
baggage from Canada, they are to be permitted to do from the camp.
295
it in the moſt convenient manner, and neceſſary pail Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had failed 11р
Succeſsful
ports to be granted for that purpoſe:-13. Theſe ar the North River, and deſtroyed the two forts called expedition
ticles are to be mutually figned and exchanged to-mor- Montgomery and Clinton, with Fort Conftitution, and of Sir Her-
ry Clinton.
row morning at ninc o'clock ; and the troops under another place called Continental Village, where were
lieut. gen. Burgoyne, are to march out of their in- barracks for 2000 men.
Seventy large cannon were
trenchments at three o'clock in the afternoon. Camp carried away, belides a number of ſmaller artillery,
at Saratoga, October 16, 1777.
and a great quantity of ſtores and ammunition; a large
HORATIO GATES, Major-General. boom and chain reaching acroſs the river from Fort
To prevent any doubts that might ariſe from lieut. Montgomery to a point of land called St Anthony's
gen. Burgoyne's name not being mentioned in the Noſe, and which coſt not leſs than L. 70,000 Ster-
above treaty, major general Gates hereby declares, ling, were partly deſtroyed and partly carried away,
that he is underſtood to be comprehended in it, as as was alſo another boom of little leſs value ai Fort
fully as if his name had been ſpecifically mentioned. Conſtitution. The loſs of the Britiſh army was but
HORATIO GATES. ſmall in number, though ſome officers of great merit
Such was the impatience of fone of the militia to were killed in the different attacks.
return home before the royal army had been brought Another attack was made by Sir James Wallace with
to ſurrender, and ſo little their concern to be fpečta- ſome frigates, and a body of land-forces under Gene-
tors of the event,that one of the Northampton regiments ral Vaughan. The place which now fuffered was
went off the day before the flag came out from Bur. named Efopus : the fortifications were deſtroyed, and
goyne. Another regiment took itſelf away while the the town itſelf was wantonly reduced to aſhes, as that
treaty was in agitation. But the fate of the army will called Continental Village had been before. Thus
confirm the truth of what its commander wrote to the Britiſh armanent ſpent their time in waſting the
lord George Germain, Auguſt the 2014, “the great adjacent country, when by puſhing forward 136 miles
bulk of the country is undoubtedly with the congreſs in fix days they might have effectually relieved
in principle and zeal.” When after the convention Burgoyne.
296
the officers went into the American camp, they were But theſe fucceffes, of whatever importance they Grcat de-
furpriſed; and ſome of them ſaid, that of all the camps might be, were now difregarded by both parties. They jection on
they had ever ſeen in Germany, or elſewhere, they ſerved only to irritate the Americans, fluſhed with account of
never ſaw any better diſpoſed and ſecured.
their ſucceís; and they were utterly inſufficient to
Burgoyne's
The return ligned by gen. Burgoyne, of the foreign- raiſe the fpirits of the Britiſh, who were now thrown capture.
ers at the time of the convention, amounted to 2412. into the utmoſt diſmay.
The Britiſh conſiſted, according to him, of 10 officers On the 16th of March 1778, Lord North intimated
preſent--145 commiſſioned--the ſtaff 26—ſergeants to the houſe of commons, that a paper had been laid
297
and dramners 297–rank and file 2901-in all 3279: before the king by the French ambaſſador, intimating Treaty be-
this added to the Germans, makes 5791. The Ame- the concluſion of an alliance between the court of tween
rican account, to fhow what was the ſum total of the France and the United States of America. The pre- France and
America.
royal arnıy acting in the northern department againſt liminaries of this treaty had been concluded in the
the country, goes on to reckon, the fick taken 928– end of the year 1977, and a copy of them ſent to con.
the wounded 528—priſoners of war before the con- grefs, in order to counteract any propoſals that might
vention 400-deferters 300_loſt at Bennington 1220 be made in the mean time by the Britiſh miniſtry.
-killed between the 17th of September and the 18th On the oth of February 1778, the articles were for-
of October 600-taken at Tyconderoga 413-killed mally ſigned, to the great fatisfaction of the French
in gen. Herkimer's battle about 300-making in all nation. They were in ſubſtance as follows:
4689. According to this way of reckoning, the royal 1. If Great Britain ſhould, in conſequence of this
force was 10480. It was probably full 10,000 ſtrong, treaty, proceed to hoſtilities againſt France, the two
including Canadians and provincials, and exclufive of nations ſhould mutually aſſiſt one another.
Indians, drivers, futilers, &c. Among the priſoners 2. The main end of the treaty was, in an effectual
taken were ſix members of parlianient.
manner to maintain the independency of America.
The train of braſs artillery was a fine acquiſition ; 3. Should thoſe places of North-America ſtill ſub-
it conſiſted of 2 twenty-four pounders-4 tsvelves, ject to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they ſhould
20 fixes-6 threes-2 eight inch howitzers-5 five be confederated with them, or ſubjected totheir juriſ-
and a half royal ditto—and three five and a half inch diction.
royal mortars—in all, 42 pieces of ordnance. There 4. Should any of the Weſt India iſlands be reduced
were alſo 46 47 muſkets-6000 dozen of cartridges, by France, they ſhould be deemed its property.
belide ſhot, carcalles, caſes, ſhells, &c.
5. No formal treaty with Great Britain ſhould be
Burgoyne was deſirous of a general return of the concluded either by France or America without the
army commanded by Gates at the time of the conven- conſent of each other; and it was mutually engaged
that
A M E
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Α A ME
America. that they ſhould not lay down their arms till the in cauſe to apprehend, that ſiniſter deſigns were har- America.
dependency of the States had been formally acknow- boured on the part of Great Britain to convey theſe
ledged.
troops to join the army at Philadelphia or New York,
6. The contracting parties mutually agreed to invite poſitively refuled to let them embark, until an expli-
thoſe powers that had received injuries from Great cit ratification of the convention ſhould be properly
Britain to join the common cauſe.
notified by the Britiſh court.
7. The United States guaranteed to France all the The ſeaſon for action was now approaching; and
poffefſions in the Weſt Indies which the ſhould con- congreſs was indefatigable in its preparations for a new
quer; and France in her turn guaranteed the abſolute campaign, which it was confidently ſaid would be the
independency of the States, and their ſupreme autho. laſt." Anong olher methods taken for this purpoſe, it
rity over every country they poſſeſſed, or might ac was recommended to all the young gentlemen of the
298 quire during the war.
colonies to form themſelves into bodies of cavalry to
Debates Oce The notification of ſuch a treaty as this could not ſerve at their own expence during the war. General
eaſioned by but be looked upon as a declaration of war. On its Waſhington at the ſame time, to remove all incum-
the treaty. being announced to the houſe, every one agreed in an
brances from his army, lightened the baggage as much
addreſs to his majeſty, promiling to ſtand by him to as poſſible, by ſubſtituting ſacks and portmanteaus in
the utmoſt in the preſentemergency; but it was warm- place of cheſts and boxes, and illing pack-horſes in-
ly contended by the members in oppoſition, that the ſtead of waggons. On the other hand, the Britiſh ar-
preſent miniſtry ought to be removed on account of my,expecting to be reinforced by 20,000 men, thought
their numberleſs blunders and miſcarriages in every of nothing but concluding the war according to their
3cx
inſtance. Many were of opinion, that the only way wiſhes before the end of the campaign. It was with Conciliato-
io extricate the nation from its trouble was to acknow the utmoſt concern, as well as indignation, thercfore, ry bill re-
ledge the independency of America at once; and thus that they received the news of Lord North's concili- ceived with
they might ftill do with a good grace what muſt ine. atory biíl. It was univerſally looked upon as a national indignati-
on by the
vitably be done at laſt, after expending much more diſgrace; and ſome even tore the cockades fron their
army.
blood and treaſure than had yet been layiſhed in this hats, and trampled them ander their feet as a token of
unhappy conteſt. The miniſterial party, however, their indignation. By the coloniſts it was received 302
entertained different ideas. Inſtigated by zeal for the with indifference. The Britiſh commiſſioners endea - Deſpiſed by
the colo
national honour, it was determined al once to reſent the voured to make it as public as poſible; and the con-
nilts.
arrogance of France, and profecute hoſtilities againſt greſs, as formerly, ordered it to be printed in all the
America with more vigour than ever, ſhould the terms newſpapers. On this occaſion Governor Tryon in-
now offered them be rejected.
cloſed ſeveral copies of the bill to General Waſhington
299
Americans The Americans in the mean time aſſiduouſly em in a letter, intreating that he would allow them to be
{end agents ployed their agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna, circulated; to which the General returned for anſwer
to different Prullia, and Tuſcany, in order, if poſſible, to conclude a copy of a newſpaper in which the bill was printed,
alliances with them, or at leaſt to procure an acknow. with the reſolutions of congreſs upon it. Theſe were,
ledgment of their independency. As it had been report. That whoever preſumed to make a ſeparate agree-
ed that Britain intended to apply for aſſiſtance to Ruſ ment with Britain hould be deemed a public enemy;
la, the American commiſſioners were enjoined to uſe that the United States could not with any propriety
their utmoſt influence with the German princes to keep correſpondence with the commiſſioners until
prevent ſuch auxiliaries from marching through their their independence was acknowledged, and the Bri-
territories, and to endeavour to procure the recal of tifh fleets and armies removed from America. At the
the German troops already ſent to America. To ſame time, the colonies were warned not to ſuffer
France they offered a ceſſion of ſuch Weſt India iſlands themſelves to be deceived into ſecurity by any offers
as ſhould be taken by the united ſtrength of France that might be made ; but to uſe their utinoſt endea-
and America ; and thould Britain by their joint en vours to ſend their quotas with all diligence into the
deavours be diſpoſſeſſed of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, field. The individuals with whom the commiſſioners
and Nova Scotia, thoſe territories ſhould be divided converſed on the ſubject of the conciliatory bill, gene-
betwixt the two nations, and Great Britain be totally rally returned for anſwer, that the day of reconcilia-
excluded from the fiſhery. The propoſals to the Spa- tion was paſt; and that the laughtineſs of Britain had
niſh court were, that in caſe they ihould think pro extinguiſhed all filial regard in the breaſts of Ame-
per to eſpouſe their quarrel, the American ſtates
thould aſſiſt in reducing Penſacola under the domini About this time allo Mr Silas Dean arrived from
on of Spain, provided their ſubjects were allowed the France with two copies of the treaty of compiercc
free navigation of the river Miffiſſippi and the uſe of and alliance to be ſigned by congreſs. 'Advices of the
the harbour of Penſacola ; and they further offered, moſt agreeable nature were alſo received from various
that, if agreeable to Spain, they would declare war parts, repreſenting in the moſt favourable light the
againſt Portugal, ſhould that power expel the Ameri- diſpoſitions of the European powers; all of whom, it
300
can fhips from its ports.
was ſaid, wihed to ſee the independence of America
General In the mean time the troops under General Bur fettled upon the moſt permanent balis. Conſidering Fad Faucets
Burgoyne's goyne were preparing to embark for Britain accord the situation of matters with the coloniſts at this time, of the cons-
troops de- ing to the convention at Saratoga ; but congreſs having therefore, it was no wonder the commiſlioners found niſlionem
tained in
received information, that many articles of ammunia ihen ſelves unable to accomptith the errand on which
Anerica.
tion and accoutrements had not been ſurrendered they came. Their propoſals were uteserly rejected,
agreeably to the ſtipulated terms, and finding ſome themſelves treated as ſpies, and, after a rain atteinpe
4 G 2
by
courts,
cans.
;,ܪܢ
30
A M E
[ 604 ]
A M E
304
ated.
America. by governor Johnſtone, one of the commiſſioners, to ſkill, that d'Eſtaing did not think proper to attack America.
bribe ſeveral members of congreſs, all intercourſe him ; particularly, as the pilots informed him that it
with them was interdicted.
was impracticable to carry his large ſhips over the bar
Philadel But before any final anſwer could be obtained from into the hook, and General Waſhington preſſed him
phia evacu- congreſs, Sir Henry Clinton had taken the reſolution to ſail for Newport. He therefore remained at anchor
of evacuating Philadelphia. Accordingly, on the roth four miles off Sandy-hook till the 22d of July, with-
of June, after having made all neceſſary preparations, out effecting any thing more than the capture of ſome
the army inarched out of the city and croſſed the De- vefſels, which, through ignorance of his arrival, fell
laware before noon with all its baggage and other in- into his hands.
306
cumbrances. General Waſhington, appriſed of this The next atteinpt of the French admiral was, in Attempte
deſign, had diſpatched expreſſes into the Jerſeys with conjunction with the Americans, on Rhode-Iſland. It Rhode-
orders to collect all the force that could be aſſembled
was propoſed that d'Eſtaing, with the 6000 troops he iſland
in order to obſtruct the march of the enemy. After had with him, ſhould make a deſcent on the ſouthern without
ſucceſs.
various movements on both ſides, Sir Henry Clinton, part of the iſland, while a body of the Americans ſhould
with the royal army, arrived on the 27th of June at a take poſſeſſion of the north ; at the ſame time the
place called Freehold; where, judging that the ene French ſquadron was to enter the harbour of Newport,
my would attack him, he encamped in a very ſtrong and take and deſtroy all the Britiſh ſhipping. On'the
ſituation. Here Gencral Waſhington determined to 8th of Auguſt the French admiral entered the harbour
make an attack as ſoon as the army had again begun as was propoſed, but found himſelf unable to do any
its march. The night was ſpent in making the ne material damage. Lord Howe, however, inſtantly
ceſſary preparations, and General Lec with his divi- ſet ſail for Rhode Iſland; and d'Eſtaing, confiding in
fion was ordered to be ready by day-break. But Sir his ſuperiority, immediately came out of the harbour
Henry Clinton, apprehending that the chief object to attack him. A violent ſtorm parted the two fleets,
of the Americans was the baggage, committed it to and did ſo much damage that they were rendered to-
the care of General Knyphauſen, whom he ordered to tally unfit for action. The French, however, ſuffered
ſet out early in the morning, while he followed with moſt; and ſeveral of their ſhips being afterwards at-
the reſt of the army. The attack was accordingly tacked ſingly by the Britiſh, very narrowly eſcaped
made ; but the Britiſh general had taken fach care to being taken. On the 20th of Auguſt he returned to
arrange his troops properly, and ſo effectually ſupport- Newport in a very ſhattered condition; and, not think-
ed liis forces when engaged with the Americans, that ing himſelf ſafe there, failed two days after for Bof-
the latter not only made no impreſſion, but were with ton. General Sullivan had landed in the mean time on
difficulty preſerved from a total defeat by the advance the northern part of Rhode Iſland with 10,000 men,
of General Waſhington with the whole army, The On the 17th of Auguſt they began their operations
Britiſh troops effected their retreat in the night with by erecting batteries, and making their approaches to
the loſs of 300 men, of whom many died through the Britiſh lines. But General Pigot, who command-
mere fatigue, without any wound. In this action Ge ed in Newport, had taken ſuch effectual care to ſecure
neral Lee was charged by General Waſhington with himſelf on the land-ſide, that without the affiftance
diſobedience and miſconduct in retreating before the of a marine force it was altogether impoſſible to attack
Britiſh army. He was tried by a court-martial, and him with any probability of ſucceſs. The conduct of
fentenced to a temporary ſuſpenſion from his command. d'Eſtaing, therefore, who had abandoned them when
After they had arrived at Sandy-Hook, a bridge of maſter of the harbour, gave the greateſt diſguſt to the
boats was by Lord Howe's directions thrown from people of New-England, and Sullivan began to think
thence over the channel which ſeparated the iſland of a retreat. On perceiving his intentions, the gar-
from the main land, and the troops were conveyed riſon ſallied out upon him with ſo much vigour, that it
aboard the fleet; after which they failed to New-York. was not without difficulty that he effected his retreat.
After ſending ſome light detachments to watch the He had not been long gone when Sir Henry Clinton
enemy's motions, General Waſhington marched to arrived with a body of 4000 men ; which, had it ar-
wards the North-River, where a great force had been rived ſooner, would have enabled the Britiſh comman-
collected to join him, and where it was now expected der to have gained a deciſive advantage over him, as
that ſome very capital operations would take place. well as to have deſtroyed the town of Providence,
In the mean time France had fet about her prepa- which, by its vicinity to Rhode Iſland, and the enter-
rations for the aſſiſtance of the Americans. On the priſes which were continually projected and carried on
} 4th of April Count d'Eſtaing had failed from Toulon in that place, kept the inhabitants of Rhode Iſland in
with a ſtrong ſquadron of ſhips of the line and frigates, continual alarms.
and arrived on the coaſt of Virginia in the beginning of The firſt Britiſh expedition was to Buzzard's-Bay, The coaſts
July, whilſt the Britiſh fleet was employed in convey. on the coaſt of New-England and neighbourhood of of America
America. ing the forces from Sandy-hook to New-York. It Rhode Iſland. Here they deſtroyed a great number of invaded by
conſiſted of one ſhip of 90 guns, one of 80, ſix of 74, privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with ſtore the Britiſh
and four of 64, beſides ſeveral large frigates ; and, ex- houſes, &c. ; whence proceeding to a fertile and po-
clufive of its complement of failors, had 6000 marines pulous iſland, called Martha's. Vineyard, they carried
and ſoldiers on board. To oppoſe this the Britiſh had off 2000 ſheep and 300 black cattle.
Another expe
only fix ſhips of 64 guns, three of 50, and two of dition took place op the North-River, under Lord
40, with ſome frigates and ſtoops. Notwithſtanding Cornwallis and General Knyphauſen; the principal
this inferiority, however, the Britiſh admiral poſted event of which was, the deſtruction of a regiment of
kimſelf ſo advantageouſly, and ſhowed ſuch ſuperior American cavalry known by the name of Waſhing-
ton's
307
305
French
deet ar.
rives in
A M E
[ 605 ]
A M E
311
America. ron’s Light Horſe. A third expedition was directed to Prevoſt therefore determined to diſlodge the party at America.
Little Egg-Harbour in New-Terſey, a place noted for Briar's Creek : and the latter, truſting to their ſtrong
privateers, the deſtruction of which was its principal ſituation, and being remiſs in their guard, ſuffered
Amcricans
intention. It was conducted by Captains Ferguſon and themſelves to be ſurpriſedon the 30th of March 1779 ; defeated
Collins, and ended in the deſtruction of the American when they were utterly routed with the loſs of more
veſſels, as well as of the place itſelf. At the ſame than 300 killed and taken, beſides a great number
time part of another body of American troops, called drowned in the river or the ſwamps. The whole ar
Pulaſki's legion, was ſurpriſed, and a great number of tillexy, ſtores, baggage, and almoſt all the arms of this
308
then put to the ſword.
unfortunate party were taken, ſo that they could no
Expedition
The Americans had in the beginning of the year
more make
any
ſtand; and thus the province of Geor-
againſt projected the conqueſt of Weſt-Florida ; and one Cap- gia was once more freed from the Americans, and a
Georgia. tain Willing, with a party of reſolute men, liad made communication opened with thoſe places in Carolina
a ſucceſsful incurſion into the country. This awaken- where the royaliſts chiefly reſided.
ed the attention of the Britiſh to the ſouthern colonies, The victory at Briar's Creek proved of conſiderable
and an expedition againſt them was reſolved on. Geor ſervice to the Britiſh cauſe. Great numbers of the
gia was the place of deſtination ; and the more effectu- loyaliſts joined the army, and conſiderably increaſed
ally to enſure ſucceſs, Colonel Cainpbell, with a fuf- its force. Hence he was enabled to ſtretch his poſts
ficient force, under convoy of ſome thips of war, com- further up the river, and to guard all the principal
manded by Commodore Hyde Parker, embarked at paſſes : ſo that General Lincoln was reduced to a ſtate
New-York ; while General Provoſt, wlio commanded of inaction; and at laſt moved off towards Auguſta, in
in Eaſt-Florida, was directed to ſet out with all the order to protect the provincial aſſembly, which was
force he could ſpare. The armament from New York obliged to fit in that place, the capital being now in
arrived off the coaſt of Georgia in the month of De. the hands of the Britiſh.
cember ; and though the Americans were very ſtrong Lincoln had no ſooner quitted his poſt, than it was
ly poſted in an advantageous ſituation on the ſhore, the judged a proper time by the Britih general to put in
Britiſh troops made good their landing, and advanced execution the grand ſcheme which had been meditated
towards Savannah the capital of the province. That againſt Carolina. Many difficulties indeed lay in his
very day they defeated the force of the provincials way. The river Savannah was ſo fwelled by the ex-
which oppoſed them; and took poſſeſſion of the town ceſſive rains of the ſeaſon, that it ſeemed impaſſable ;
with ſuch celerity, that the Americans had not time to the oppoſite fhore, for a great way, was ſo full of ſwamps
309 execute a reſolution they had taken of ſettingit on fire. and marſhes, that no army could march over it without
Take pof- In ten days the whole province of Georgia was reduc the greateſt difficulty ; and, to render the pallage ſtill
feflion of
ed, Sunbury alone excepted; and this was alſo brought more difficult, General Moultrie was left with a confi .
Gcorgia.
under ſubjection by General Prevoſt in his march derable body of troops in order to oppoſe the enemy's
northward. Every proper method was taken to ſecure attempts. But in ſpite of every oppoſition, the con- The Britiſh
the tranquillity of the country; and rewards were of- ftancy and perſeverance of the Britiſh troops at laſt troops ad-
fered for apprehending committee and aſſembly men, prevailed. General Moultrie was obliged to retire to vance to
Charleſton.
or ſuch as they judged moſt inimical to the Britiſh in wards Charleſton ; and the purſuing army, after hav-
tereſts. On the arrival of General Prevoſt, the com ing waded through the marſhes for ſome time, at laſt
mand of the troops naturally devolved on him as the arrived in an open country, through which they pur-
fenior officer ; and the conqueſt of Carolina was next ſued their march with great rapidity, towards the capi-
projected.
tal; while General Lincoln made preparations to
310
Carolina In this attempt there was no ſmall probability of fuc- march to its relief.
313
invaded. cefs. The country contained a great number of friends Certain intelligenceofthe danger to which Charlef. General
to government, who now eagerly embraced the oppor. ton was expoſed, animated the American general A Lincoln
tunity of declaring themſelves; many of the inhabi choſen body of infantry, mounted on horſeback for the advances
tants of Georgia had joined the royal ſtandard ; and
greater expedition, was diſpatched before him ; while to its relief.
there was not in the province any conſiderable body of Lincoln himſelf followed with all the forces he could
provincial forces capable of oppoſing the efforts of collect.
collect. General Moultrie too, with the troops he had
regular and well-diſciplined troops. On the firſt news brought from Savannah, and ſome others he had
of General Prevoſt's approach, the loyaliſts aſſembled collected ſince his retreat from thence, had taken pof-
in a body, imagining themſelves able to ſtand their ſeſſion of all the avenues leading to Charleſton, and
ground until their allies ſhould arrive ; but in this prepared for a vigorous defence. But all oppoſition
they were diſappointed. The Americans attacked proved ineffectual ; and the Britiſh army was allowed
and defeated them with the loſs of half their number. to come within cannon ſhot of Charleſton on the 12th
The remainder retreated into Georgia ; and after un of May.
dergoing many difficulties, at laſt effected a junction Thetown was now fummoned to ſurrender, and the
with the Britiſh forces.
inhabitants would gladly have agreed to obſerve a neil-
In the mean time, General Lincoln, with a conſider trality during the reſt of the war, and would have en-
able body of American troops, had encamped within gaged alſo for the reſt of the province. But theſe
20 miles of the town of Savannah ; and another ſtrong terms not being accepted, they made preparations for
party had poſted themſelves at a place called Briar's a vigorous defence. It was not, however, in the powo
Creek, farther up the river of the ſame name. Thus er of the Britilli commander at this time to make an
JIH
the extent of the Britiſh government was likely to be attack with any proſpect of ſucceſs. His artillery was Theat-
circumſcribed within very narrow bounds. General pot of ſufficient weight ; there were no fhips to ſup- tempt on it
port abandoned,
31%
AM E
L606 ]
A ME
feated.
commall-
der.
America. port his attack by land; and General Lincoln advan as would effectually ſecure then from any futuro at. Americk.
cing rapidly with a ſuperior army, threatened to in- tack. This ſeemed to be an eaſy matter, from the
cloſe him between his own force and the town; ſo that little force with which he knew he should be oppoſed;
ſhould he fail in his firſt attempt, certain deſtruction and the next object in contemplation was no leſs than
would be the conſequence. For theſe reaſons he with- the deſtruction of the Britiſh Heet and army at New,
drew his forces frorn before the town, and took poffef- York, and their total expulſion from the continent of
ſion of two illands, called St James's and St John's, ly- America. Full of theſe hopes, the French coinmando
ing to the ſouthward ; where having waited ſometime, er arıived off the coaſt of Georgia with a fleet of 22
his force was augmented by the arrival of two frigates. fail of the line and to large frigates. His arrival was
With theſe he determined to make himſelf maſter of ſo little expected, that ſeveral veſſels laden with pro-
Port-Royal, another iſland poſſeſſed of an excellent riſions and nilitary ſtores fell into his hands ; the Ex-
harbour, and many other natural advantages, from its periment alſo, a veffel of 50 guns, commanded by Sir
ſituation alſo commanding all the fea-coaſt from Charleſ- James Wallace, was taken after a ſtout reſiſtance.
ton to Savannah River. The American general, On the continent, the Britiſh troops were divided.
however, did not allow this to be accompliſhed with- General Prevoſt, with an inconſiderable part, remained
out oppoſition. Perceiving that his opponent had oc at Savannah ; but the main force was under Colonel
cupied an advantageous poſt on St John's iſland prepa- Maitland at Port Royal. On the firſt appearance of
315 ratory to his enterpriſe againſt Port-Royal, he attempt. the French fleet, an expreſs was diſpatched to Colonel
The Ame- ed, on the 20th of June, to diſlodge them from it ; but, Maitland: but it was intercepted by the Americans ; ſo
ricans de. after an obſtinate attack, the provincials were obliged that before he could ſet out in order to join the com-
to retire with confiderable loſs. On this occaſion the mander in chief, the Americans had ſecured moſt of
ſucceſs of the Britiſh arms was in a great meaſure ow the paſſes by land, while the French fleet effc&tually
ing to an armed float, which galled the right flank blocked up the paſſage by ſea. But, by taking advan-
of the enemy ſo effectually, that they could direct tage of creeks and inlets, and marching over land, he
their efforts only againſt the ſtrongeſt part of the lines, arrived juſt in time to relieve Savannah.
319
which proved impregnable to their attacks. This diſ D'Eſtaing had allowed General Prevoſt 24 hours to Conduct of
appointment was inſtantly followed by the loſs of Porto deliberate whether he ſhould capitulate or not. This the French
Royal, which General Prevoſt took poſſeſſion of, and time the general employed in niaking the beſt prepara-
put his troops into proper ſtations, waiting for the ar tions he could for a defence ; and during this time it
rival of ſuch reinforcements as were neceſſary for the was that Colonel Maitland arrived. D’Eſtaing's fum-
intended attack on Charleſton.
mons was now rejected. The garriſon now conſiſted
The profigate conduct of the refugees, and the of- of 3000 men, all of approved valour and experience,
ficers and ſoldiers of the Britiſhi, in plundering the while the united force of the French and Americans
houſes of individuals, during their incurſion, is incre- did not amount to 10,000. The event was anſwera-
dible. Negroes were ſeduced or forced from their ble to the expectations of the Britiſh general. Having
maſters ; furniture and plate were ſeized without de- the advantage of a ſtrong fortification and excellent
cency or authority ; and the moſt infamous violations engineers, the fire of the allies made fo little impref.
of every law of honour and honeſty were openly per- fion that D’Eſtaing reſolved to bombard the town,
petrated. Individuals thus accumulated wealth, but and a battery of nine mortars was erected for the pur-
the reputation of the Britiſh arms incurred an ever. poſe. This produced a requeſt from General Provoſt, The French
316 laſting ſtigma.
that the women and children might be allowed to re- and the A-
D'Eſtaing's In the mean time Count d'Eſtring, who, as we tire to a place of ſafety. But the allied commanders, merican ge-
proclama- have already obſerved, had put into Boſton harbour to from motives of policy, refuſed compliance; and they nerals refuſe
refit, had uſed his utmoſt efforts to ingratiate himſelf reſolved to give a general affault. This was accor-
to permit
with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous alſo in the dingly attempted on the oth of October : but the af-
to with-
cauſe of his maſter, he had publiſhed a proclamation to ſailants were every where repulſed with ſuch Naugh- draw:
be diſperſed through Canada, inviting the people to ter, that 1200 were killed and wounded; among the
return to their original friendſhip with France, and former were Count Pulaſki, the celebrated confpira- They are
declaring that all who renounced their allegiance to tor againſt the reigning king of Poland, and among
defeated,
Great Britain ſhould certainly find a protector in the the latter was D'Eſtaing himſelf.
king of France. All his endeavours, however, pro This diſaſter entirely overthrew the fanguine hopes
ved inſufficient at this time to produce any revolution, of the Americans and French ; but fo far from re-
or ever to form a party of any conſequence among the proaches or animoſity ariſing between them, their
Canadians.
common misfortune ſeemed to increaſe their confi-
317
As ſoon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, dence and eſteem for each other ; a circunſtance fairly
D'Eſtaing
fails to the he took the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron to be aſcribed to the conciliatory conduct of General
Weft Indics had been ſhattered by a ſtorm, of failing to the Weſt- Lincoln upon every occaſion. After waiting eight
Indies. During his operations there, the Americans days longer, both parties prepared for a retreat; the
D'Ekaing's having repreſented his conduct as totally unferviceable French to their ſhipping, and the Americans into
expedition
to them, he received orders from Europe to alift the Carolina.
againſt
colonies with all poſſible ſpeed.
While the allies were thus unſucceſsfully employed Succeſsful
Georgia. In compliance with theſe orders, he directed his in the ſouthern colonies, their antagoniſts were no leſs expeditions
courſe towards Georgia, with a deſign to recover that affiduous in diſtreffing ihem in the northern parts. Sir againſt the
province out of the hands of the enemy, and to put it, George Collier was ſent with a fleet, carrying on board northern
as well as South Carolina, in ſuch a poſure of defence General Matthews, with a body of land forces, into
provinces
the
tion.
the women
321
322
A M E
[ 607 ]
A M E
323
America. the province of Virginia. Their firſt attempt was on fion the Americans ſhowd a ſpirit and reſolution cx. America.
the town of Portſmouth; where though the Americans ceeding any thing either party had performed during
had deſtroyed ſome lhips of great value, the Britiſh the courſe of the war. Though after the capture of it
troops arrived in time to ſave a great nnmber of others. by the Britiſh the fortifications of this place had been
On this occaſion about 120 veſſels of different ſizes completed, and were very ſtrong, they attacked the
were burnt, and 20 carried off; and an immenſe quan enemy with bayonets, after palling through a heavy
tity of proviſions deſigned for the uſe of General Waſh fire of muſquetry and grape ſhot; and, in ſpite of all
ington's army was either deſtroyed or carried off, toge- oppoſition, obliged the ſurviving part of the garriſon,
ther with a great variety of naval and military ſtores. amounting to 500 men, to ſurrender themſelves pri-
The fleet and army returned with little or no loſs to
foners of war.
New-York.
Though the Americans did not at preſent attempt to
The ſucceſs with which this expedition was attend retain poſſeſſion of Stoney Point, the ſucceſs they had
ed, foon gave encouragement to attempt another. met with in the enterpriſe emboldened them to makea
The Americans had for ſome time been employed in ſimilar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified poſt on the
the crection of two ſtrong forts on the river ; the one Jerſey ſide, oppoſite to New-York; but, although the
at Verplanks Neck on the eaſt, and the other at Stoney heroiſm of the interpriſe and the ſpirit with which it
Point on the weſt ſide. Theſe when completed would was executed deſerves applauſe, after having com-
have been of the utmoſt ſervice to the Americans, as pletely ſurpriſed the poſts, the American commander,
commanding the principal paſs,called the King's Ferry, Major Lee, finding it impoſſible to retain them, made
between the northern and ſouthern colonies. At pre an orderly retreat, with about 161 priſoners, among -
ſent, however, they were not in a condition to make whom were ſeven officers.
any effe&ual defence ; and it was therefore determined Another expedition of greater importance was now Unſucceſs
to attack them before the works ſhould be completed. projected on ihe part of the Americans. This was ſui espedi-
The force employed on this occaſion was divided into againſi a poſt on the river Penobſcot, on the borders of tion of the
Americans
two bodies ; one of which directed its courſe againſt Nova Scotia, of which the Britiſh had lately taken poſ-
againſt Pe.
Verplanks, and the other againſt Stoney Point. The ſeſſion, and where they had begun to erect a fort which nobſcot.
former was commanded by general Vaughan, the lat threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the co-
ter by General Patterſon, while the ſhipping was under loniſts. The armament deſtined againſt it was ſo ſoon
the direction of Sir George Collier. General Vaughan got in readineſs that Colonel Maclane, the commanding
met with no reſiſtance, the Americans abandoning their officer at Penobſcot, found himſelf obliged to drop the
works, and ſetting fire to every thing combuſtible that execution of parrof his ſcheme; and inſtead of a regular
they could not carry ofl. At Stoney Point, however, fort, to content himſelf with putting the works already
a vigorous defence was made, though the garriſon was conſtructed in as good a poſture of defence as poſſible.
at laſt obliged to capitulate upon honourable conditions. The Americans could not effect a landing without a
To ſecure the poſſeſſion of this laſt, which was the great deal of difficulty, and bringing the guns of their
more important of the two, General Clinton remov largeſt veſſels to bear upon the ſhore. As ſoon as this
cd from his former fituation, and encamped in ſuch a was done, however, they erected ſeveral batteries and
manner that General Waſhington could not give any kept up a briſk fire for the ſpace of a fortnight; after
affiſtance. The Americans, however revenged them- which they propoſed to give a general aſſault : but be-
felves by diſtreſſing, with their numerous privateers, fore this could be effected, they perceived Sir George
the trade to New York.
Collier with a Britiſh fleet failing up the river to at-
This occafioned a third expedition to Connecticut, tack them. On this they inſtantly embarked their ar-
where theſe privateers were chiefly built and harbour- tillery and military fores, failing up the riveras far as
ed. The command was given to Governor Tryon and poſſible in order to avoid him. They were ſo cloſely
to General Garth, an officer of known valour and ex- purſued, however, that not a ſingle veſſel could eſcape,
perience. Under convoy of a conſiderable number of ſo that the whole fleet, conſiſted of 19 armed veſſels
armed veſſels they landed at Newhaven, where they and 24 tranſports, was deſtroyed; moſt of them indeed
demoliſhed the batteries that had been erected to op- being blown up by themſelves. The ſoldiers and fail-
poſe them, and deſtroyed the ſhipping and naval ſtores ors were obliged to wander through immenſe deſarts,
but they ſpared the town itſelf, as the inhabitants had where they ſuffered much for want of proviſions; and
abſtained'from firing out of their houſes upon the troops. to add to their calamities, a quarrel broke out between
From Newhaven they marched to Fairneld, where they the ſoldiers and ſeamen concerning the cauſe of their
proceeded as before, reducing the town alſo to aſhes. difafter, which ended in a violent fray, wherein a great
Norwalk was next attacked, which in like manner was number were killed.
reduced to aſhes; as was alſo Greenfield, a ſmall ſea To add to the diſtreſs of the Americans, the Indians, Indiansand
port in the neighbourhood. Such repeated conflagra- accompanied by a number of refugees, attacked the refugees
tions, wantonly and cruelly ſpread, ſerved only to in back ſettlements of Pennſylvania. No effectual mea-
creaſe the diſguſt which was feli by every friend to fures being taken to repreſs the hoſtile ſpirit of the back fet-
the American cauſe.
Indians, numbers joined the tory refugees, and with
Pennſylva-
Theſe ſucceſſes proved very alarming as well as de. theſe commenced their horrid depredations and ho
nia,
trimental to the Americans ; ſo that General Waſhinga ſtilities upon the back ſettlers, being headed by col.
ton determined at all events to drive the enemy from Butler and Brandt, an half blooded Indian, of deſpe-
Stoney Point. For this purpoſe he ſent Gen. Wayne rate courage, ferocious and cruel beyond example.
with a detachment of choſen men, directing hiin to Their expeditions were carried on to great advantage,
attempt the recovery of it by ſurpriſe. On this occa- by the exact knowledge which the refugees pofſeffed
of
324
attack the
tlements of
A M E
[ 608 ]
A M E
na
427
hold a con
ference
America, of every object of their interpriſe, and the immediate tercepted by the Pennſylvania tories. A little before America,
intelligence they received from their friends on the the main attack, ſome ſmall parties made ſudden ir-
ſpot. The weight of their hoftilities fell upon the ruptions, and committed ſeveral robberies and mur-
fine, new and flouriſhing ſettlement of Wyoming, ders; and from ignorance or a contempt of all ties
ſituated on the eaſtern branch of the Suſquehanna, whatever, maſſacred the wife and five children of
in a moſt beautiful country and delightful climate. It one of the perſons ſent for trial to Connecticut in their
was ſettled and cultivated with great ardor by a num-
own cauſe.
326
ber of people from Connecticut, which claimed the ter At length, in the beginning of July, the enemy Col. John
ritory as included in its original grant from Charles ſuddenly appeared in full force on the Suſquehanna, Butler ap-
Il. The ſettlement conſiſted of eight townhips, each headed by col. John Butler, a Connecticut tory, and pears with
five miles ſquare, beautically placed on each ſide of couſin to col. Zeb. Butler, the ſecond in command in all his fore
the river. It had increaſed ſo by a rapid population, the ſettlement. He was aflifted by moſt of thoſe lea- ces on the
that they ſent a thouſand men to ſerve in the conti. ders, who had rendered themſelves terrible in the pre-
nental army. To provide againſt the dangers of their ſent frontier war. Their force was about 1600 men,
remote ſituation. Four forts were conſtructed to co near a fourth Indians, led by their own chiefs ; the
ver them from the irruptions of the Indians.—But it others were ſo diſguiſed and painted as not to be diſtin-
was their unhappineſs, to have a conſiderable mix- guiſhed from the Indians, excepting their officers,
ture of royaliſts among them; and the two parties who being dreſſed in regimentals, carried the appea-
were actuated by ſentiments of the moſt violent ani rance of regulars. One of the ſmaller forts, garriſ-
moſity which was not confined to particular families oned chiefly by tories, was given up or rather betray.
or places : but creeping within the roofs and to the ed. Another was taken by ſtorm, and all but the wo.
hearths and floors where it was leaſt to be expected, men and children maſſacred in the moſt inhuman
ſerved equally to poiſon the ſources of domeſtic ſecuri. manner.
ty and happineſs, and to cancel the laws of nature and Colonel Zeb. Butler, leaving a ſmall number to
humanity
guard fort Wilkeſborough, croſſed the river with
They had frequent and timely warnings of the dan- about 400 men, and marched into Kingſton fort,
ger to which they were expoſed by ſending their beſt whither the women, children and defenceleſs of all
men to ſo great a diſtance. Their quiet had been in- forts crowded for protection. He ſuffered himſelf to Col. Zeb.
terrupted by the Indians, joined by marauding parties be enticed by his couſin to abandon the fortreſs. He Butler en-
of their own countrymen, in the preceding year; and agreed to march out, and hold a conference with the ticed to
it was only by a vigorous oppoſition, in a courſe of enemy in the open field (at ſo great a diſtance from
ſucceſsful ſkirmiſhes, that they had been driven off. the fort, as to ſhut out all poſſibility of protection from with his
Several tories, and others not before ſuſpected, had it) upon their withdrawing according to their own couſin, and
then and ſince abandoned the ſettlement: and belide a propoſal, in order to the holding of a parley for the betrayed.
perfect knowledge of all their particular circumſtan- concluſion of a treaty. He at the ſame time marched
ces, carried along with them ſuch a ſtock of private out about 400 men well armed, being nearly the whole
reſentment, as could not fail of directing the fury, and ſtrength of the garriſon, to guard his perſon to the
even giving an edge to the cruelty of their Indian and place of parley, ſuch was his diſtruct of the enemy's
other inveterate enemies. An unuſual number of deligns. On his arrival he found no body to treat
ſtrangers had come among them under various preten- with him, and yet advanced toward the foot of the
ces, whoſe behaviour became ſo ſuſpicious, that upon mountain, where at a diſtance he ſaw a flag, the hol-
being taken up and examined, ſuch evidence appeared ders of which, ſeemingly afraid of treachery on his
againſt ſeveral of them, of their acting in concert lide, retired as he advanced; whilſt he, endeavouring
with the enemy, on a ſcheme for the deſtruction of to remove this pretended ill-inipreſſion, purſued the
the ſettlements, that about twenty were ſent off to flag, till his party was thoroughly encloſed, when he
Connecticut to be there impriſoned and tried for their was ſuddenly freed from his deluſion, by finding it at-
lives, while the remainder were expelled. Theſe tacked at once on every ſide. He and his men, not-
meaſures excited the rage of the tories in general to withſtanding the ſurpriſe and danger, fought with re-
the moſt extreine degree; and the threats formerly ſolution and bravery, and kept up to continual and hea-
denounced againſt the ſettlers, were now renewed vy a fire for three quarters of an hour, that they ſeem-
with aggravated vengeance.
ed to gain a marked ſuperiority. In this critical mo-
As the time approached for the final cataſtrophe, the ment, a ſoldier, through a ſudden impulſe of fear, or
Treachery Indians practiſed unuſual treachery. For feveral premeditated treachery, cried out aloud, “the colo-
weeks previous to the intended attack, they repeated- nel has ordered a retreat." The fate of the party was
ly ſent ſmall parties to the ſettlement, charged with now at once determined. In the ſtate of confuſion
the ſtrongeſt profeſſions of friendNip. Theſe parties, that enſued, an unrefifted Naughter commenced, while
beſide attempting to lull the people into ſecurity, an the enemy broke in on all ſides without obſtruction.
fwered the purpoſes of communicating with their Col. Zeb. Butler, and about ſeventy of his men eſca-
friends, and of obſerving the preſent ſtate of affairs. ped; the latter got acroſs the river to fort Wilkeſbo-
The ſettlers, however, were not inſenſible to the dan. rough, the colonel made his way to fort Kingſton ; 328
ger. They had taken the alarmn, and col. Zebulon which was inveſted the next day on the land ſide. Fort King-
Butler had ſeveral times written letters to congreſs - The enemy,
-The enemy, to fadden the drooping ſpirits of fton inverte
and gen. Waſhington, acquainting them with the dan- the weak remaining garriſon, ſent in for their con-ed by the
ger the ſettlement was in, and requeſting aſſiſtance; templation the bloody ſcalps of one hundred and nine- chemy.
but the letters were never received, having been in- ty-ſix of their late friends and comrades.--They kept
325
of the
Indians.
I
up
A M E
[ 609 ]
A ME
33%
333
America. up a continual fire upon the fort the whole day. In tion with the people of Honduras, to reduce this fort. America.
the evening the colonel quitted the fort and went down The deſign was to ſurpriſe it ; but the Spaniards ha-
the river with his family. He is thought to be the on- ving diſcovered them, they were obliged to fight. Fort Omoa
ly officer that eſcaped.
Victory quickly declared for the Britiſh ; but the for- taken by
329
Diſtreſſed Colonel Nathan Denniſon, who ſucceeded to the țifications were fo ſtrong, that the artillery they had the Britilh.
ſituation of command, ſeeing the impoſſibility of an effectual de brought along with them were found too light to make
the garri- fence, wentout with a fiag to col. John Builer, to know any impreſſion. It was then determined to try the
fons.
what terms he would grant on a ſurrender ; to which ſucceſs of an eſcalade ; and this was executed with ſo
application Butler anſwered with more than ſavage much ſpirit, that the Spaniards ſtood aſtoniſhed with-
phlegm in two ſhort words--the hatchet.--Denniſon out making any reſiſtance, and, in ſpite of all the ef-
having defended the fort, till moſt of the garriſon forts of the officers, threw down their arms and ſur-
were killed or diſabled was compelled to ſurrender at rendered. The ſpoil was immenſe, being valued at
diſcretion. Some of the unhappy perſons in the fort three millions of dollars. The Spaniards chiefly la.
were carried away alive ; but the barbarous conque- mented the loſs of 250 quintals of quickſilver ; a com-
rors, to ſave the trouble of murder in detail, ſhut up modity indiſpenſably neceſſary in the working of their
the reſt promiſcuouſly in the houſes and barracks; gold and ſilver mines, ſo that they offered to ranſom
which having fet on fire, they enjoyed the ſavage it at any price ; but this was refuſed, as well as the
pleaſure of beholding the whole conſumed in one ge- ranſom of the fort, though the governor offered
neral blaze.
300,000 dollars for it. A ſmall garriſon was left for but are
They then croſſed the river to the only remaining the defence of the place : but it was quickly attacked obliged to
fort, Wilkesborough, which in hopes of mercy furby a ſuperior force, and obliged to evacuate it, though evacuate it.
rendered without demanding any conditions. They not without deſtroying every thing that could be of
found about ſeventy continental foldiers, who had uſe to the eneny ; [piking the guns, and even locking
been engaged merely for the defence of the frontiers, the gates of the fort and carrying off the keys. All
whom they butchered with every circumſtance of hor. this was done in ſight of the beliegers ; after which
rid cruelty. The remainder of the men, with the the garriſon embarked without the loſs of a man.
women and children, were ſhut up as before in the As no operations of any conſequence took place this Americans
houſes, which being ſet on fire, they periſhed altoge- year in the province of New-York, the congreſs made take venge-
ther in the flames.
uſe of the opportunity to diſpatch General Sullivan ance on the
A general ſcene of devaſtation was now ſpread with a conſiderable force, in order to take vengence on
Indians,
through all the townſhips. Fire, ſword, and the other the Indians for their ravages and depredations. Of
different inſtruments of deſtruction alternately trium- this the Indians were appriſed; and collecting all their
phed. The ſettlements of the tories alone generally ſtrength, reſolved to come to a deciſive engage-
eſcaped, and appeared as iſlands in the midſt of the ment. Accordingly they took a ſtrong poſt in the
ſurrounding rain. The mercileſs ravagers having moſt woody and mountanious part of the country;
deſtroyed the main objects of their cruelty, directed erecting a breaſt-work in their front, of large logs of
their animoſity to every part of living nature belong- wood extending half a mile in length,wbile their right
ing to them ; ſhot and deſtroyed ſome of their cattle, fiank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of
and cut out the tongues of others, leaving them ftill difficult acceſs. This advantageous poſition they had
alive to prolong their agonies.
taken by the advice of the refugees who were among
Thus the arms of America and France being almoſt them, and of whom 200 or 300 were preſent in the
every where unſucceſsful, the independency of the battle.
former ſeemed yet to be in danger, notwithſtanding the Thus poſted, the Indians waited the approach of
aſſiſtance of fo powerful an ally, when further encou the American army: but the latter having brought
Spain joins ragement was given by the acceſſion of Spain to the ſome artillery along with them, played it againſt the
the confe. confederacy againſt Britain in the month of June 1779. breaſt-work of the enemy with ſuch ſucceſs, that in
deracy
The firſt effect of this appeared in an invaſion of Weſt two hours it was alınoſt deſtroyed ; and at the ſame
againſt
Britain.
Florida by the Spaniards in September 1779. As the time a party having reached the top of the hill, they
country was in no ſtate of defence, the enemy eaſily became apprehenſive of being ſurrounded, on which
made themſelves maſters of the whole, almoſt without they inſtantly fled with precipitation, leaving a great
oppoſition. Their next enterpriſe, was againſt the number of killed and wounded behind them. The A-
Bay of Honduras, where the Britiſh logwood-cutters mericans after this battle met with no further reſiſt-
were ſettled. Theſe finding themſelves too weak to ance of any conſequence. They were ſuffered to pro-
reſift, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief, ceed without interruption. On entering the country
who ſent them a ſupply of men, ammunition, and mi- of the Indians, it appeared that they had been ac-
litary ſtores, under Captain Dalrymple. Before the quainted with agriculture and the arts of peace far be.
arrival of this detachment, the principal ſettlement in yond what had been ſuppoſed. From General Sulli-
thoſe parts, called St George's Key, had been taken by van's account it was learned, that the Indian houſes
the Spaniards and retaken by the Britiſh. In his way were large, convenient, and even elegant; their
Captain Dalrymple fell in with a ſquadron from Ad- grounds were excellently cultivated, and their
gar-
miral Parker in ſearch of ſome regiſter ſhips richly dens abounded in fruit-trees and vegetables of all
laden ; but which, retreating into the harbour of Omoa, kinds fit for food. The whole of this fine country
were too ſtrongly protected by the fort to be attacked would now have been converted into a deſart, had it
with ſafety. A project was then formed, in conjunc- not been for the humanc forbearance of General Hand
Vol.I.
330
4 H
and
A ME
[ 610 ]
A M E
againſt
ton.
America. and Colonel Durbin. The deſolation, however, was who commanded in Charleſton, returned them an an- Americké
extenſive, and only to be juſtified by the ſavage cha- fwer, declaring it to be his intention to defend the
racter and example of their enemy.
place. The batteries were now opened againſt the
We muſt now take a view of the tranſactions in the town; and from their effect the fire of the Anicrican
ſouthern colonies; to which the war was, in the year advanced works conſiderably abated. It appears that
1780, ſo effectually transferred, that the operations the number of troops under the command of Lincoln
there became at laſt deciſive. The ſucceſs of General were by far too few for defending works of ſuch ex-
Prevoſt in advancing to the very capital of South-Ca tent as thoſe of Charleſton ; and that many of theſe
rolina has been already related, together with the ob were men little accuſtomed to military ſervice, and
334
ſtacles which prevented him from becoming maſter of very ill provided with clothes and other neceſſaries.
Expedition it at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, Lincoln had been for ſome time expecting reinforce-
of Sir Hen- however, Sir Henry Clinton ſet ſail from New-York ments and ſupplies from Virginia and other places :
ry Clinton with
a conſiderable body of troops, intended for the at- but they came in very ſlowly. Earl Cornwallis, and
336
Charleſ-
tack of Charleſton, South-Carolina, in a fleet of ſhips Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton under him, were alſo ex-Several re-
of war and tranſports under the command of Vice-ad. tremely active in intercepting ſuch reinforcements inforce-
miral Arbuthnot. They had a very tedious voyage ; and ſupplies as were ſent to the American general. ments in
the weather was uncommonly bad ; ſeveralofthe tranſ- They totally defeated a conſiderable body of cavalry his relief
ports were loſt, as were alſo the greater part of the and militia which was proceeding to the relief of the intercepted.
horſes which they carried with them, intended for ca town; and alſo made themſelves maſters of ſome poſts
valry or other public uſes ; and an ordnance-lhip like which gave them in a great degree the command of
wiſe foundered at ſea. Having arrived at Savannah, the country, by which means great ſupplies of pro-
where they endeavoured to repair the damages ſuſ- vilions fell into their hands.
tained on their voyage, they proceeded from thence however, defeated in a rencounter, with Lieutenant
on the roth of February, 1780, to North Ediſto, Colonel Waſhington, at the head of a regular corps
the place of debarkation which had been previouſly of horſe.
appointed. They had a favourable and ſpeedy paſſage Such was the ſtate of things, and Fort Sullivan had
thither
her: and though it required time to have the bar alſo been taken by the king's troops, when on the
explored and the channel marked, the tranſports all 18th of May General Clinton again fummoned the
entered the harbour the next day; and the army took town to ſurrender; an offer being made, as had been
poſſeſſion of St John's iſland, about 30 miles from done before, that if they ſurrendered, the lives and
Charleſton, without oppoſition. Preparations were property of the inhabitants ſhould be preſerved to them.
then made for paſſing the ſquadron over Charleſton Articles of capitulation were then propoſed by Gene-
bar, where the high-water ſpring-tides were only 19 ral Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by Ge-
feet deep: but no opportunity offered of going into the neral Clinton. At length, however, the town being
harbour till the 20th of March, when it was effected cloſely inveſted on all ſides, and the preparations to
without any accident, though the American galleys ſtorm it in every part being in great forwardneſs, and
continually attempted to prevent the Engliſh boats the ſhips ready to move to the aſſault, General Lin- The place
from founding the channel. The Britiſh troops had coln, who had been applied to for that purpoſe by the furrenders
previouſly removed from John's to James's illand; and inhabitants, ſurrendered it on ſuch articles of capitu-
on the 29th of the ſame month they effected their land. lation as General Clinton had before agreed to. This
ing on Charleſton neck. On the iſt of April they was on the 4th of May, which was one month and
broke ground within 800 yards of the American works; two days after the town had been firſt ſummoned to
and by the 8th the beſiegers guns were mounted in ſurrender.
battery.
A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammuni-
As ſoon as the army began to erect their batteries tion, was found in Charleſton ; and, according to
againſt the town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the Sir Henry Clinton's account, the number of priſoners
firſt favourable opportunity of paſſing Sullivan's iſland, taken in Charleſton amounted to 5618 men, exclu.
upon which there was a ſtrong fort of batteries, the five of near a thouſand ſailors in arms; but accord-
chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on the ing to General Lincoln's account tranſmitted to the
9th, with the Roebuck, Richmond, and Romulus, congreſs, the whole number of continental troops ta-
Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sandwich aried ſhip, ken priſoners amounted to no more than 197. The
the Renown bringing up the rear; and, paſſing thro' remainder, therefore, included in General Clinton's
a ſevere fire, anchored in about two hours under account, conſiſted of militia and inhabitants of the
James's iſland, with the loſs of 27 ſeamen killed and
Several American frigates were alſo taken
wounded. The Richmond's fore-top-maſt was ſhot or deſtroyed in the harbour of Charleſton.
away, and the ſhips in general ſuſtained damage in The loſs of Charleſton evidently excited a confi-
their maſts and rigging, though not materially in derable alarm in Anierica : and their popular writers,
their hulls. But the Acetus tranſport, having on particularly the author of the celebrated performance
board fonie naval ſtores, grounded within gun-fhot of entitled Common Senſe, in ſome other pieces made uſe
Sullivan's iſand, and received ſo much damage that of it as a powerful argument to lead them to more vi-
he was obliged to be abandoned and burnt.
gorous exertions againſt Great Britain, that they might
The town
On the rotlı, Sir Henry Clinton (having received the more effectually and certainly ſecure their inde-
defended
a reinforcement of 3000 men from New York) and pendence.
by Lincoln. Admiral Arbulnot fummoned the town to ſurrender While Sir Henry Clinton was employed in his voy- Appreher-
to his majeſty's arms: but Major.general Lincoln, age to Charleſton, and in the fiege of that place fons at
337
town.
335
338
the New York.
A ME
[]
A ME
America. thegarriſon at New-York ſecm not to have been whol. cloſe of the day, induced the latter to make ſo preci. America,
ly free from apprehenſions for their own ſafety. An pitate a retreat.
intenſe froſt, accompanied with great falls of ſnow, After Charleſton had ſurrendered to the king's Proclama-
began about the middle of December 1779, and ſhut troops, General Clinton iſſued two proclamations, and tions by
up the navigation of the port of New-York from the alſo circulated a hand-bill among the inhabitants of General
ſea, within a few days after the departure of Admiral South-Carolina, in order to induce them to return to Cliaten.
Arbuthnot and General Clinton. The ſeverity of the their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king's
weather increaſed to ſo great a degree, that towards troops. It was ſaid, that the helping hand of every
the middle of January all communications with New man was wanted to re-eſtabliſh peace and good go-
York by water were entirely cut off, and as many new vernment; and that as the commander in chief wilhed
ones opened by the ice. The inhabitants could ſcarce. not to draw the kings friends into danger, while any
ly be ſaid to be in an inſular ſtate. Horſes with heavy doubt could remain of their ſucceſs ; ſo, now, that this
carriages could go over the ice into the Jerſeys from was certain, he truſted that one and all would heartily
one iſland to another. The paſſage on the North Ri- join, and by a general concurrence give effect to ſuch
ver, even in the wideſt part from New-York to Paulus neceſſary meaſures for that purpoſe as from time to
Hook, which was 2000 yards, was about the 19th of time might be pointedout. Thoſe who had families
January practicable for the heavieſt cannon: an event were to form a militia to remain at home, and occa-
which had been unknown in the memory of man. ſionally to aſſemble in their own diſtricts, when requi-
Proviſions were ſoon after tranſported upon fledges, red, under officers of their own chooſing, for the
and a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice maintenance of peace and good order. Thoſe who
from New York to Staten-Iſland, which was a diſtance had no families, and who could conveniently be fpared
of 11 miles.
for a time, it was preſuined, would cheerfully aſſiſt his
The city of New-York being thus circumſtanced, majeſty's troops in driving their oppreſſors, acting un-
was conſidered as much expoſed to the attacks from der the authority of congreſs, and all the miſeries of
the continental troops : and it was ſtrongly report- war, far from that colony. For this purpoſe it was
ed that General Walhington was meditating a great ſaid to be neceſſary that the young men ſhould be ready
ſtroke upon New-York with his whole force, by to aſſemble when required, and to ſerve with the king's
different attacks. Some time beforc this, Major- troops for any fix months of the enſuing twelve that
general Pattiſon, commandant at New York, having might be found requiſite, under proper regulations.
received an addreſs from many of the inhabitants, They might chooſe officers to each company to com-
offering to put themíelves in military array, he mand them; and were to be allowed, when on ſervice,
thought the preſent a favourable opportunity of trying pay, ammunition, and proviſions, in the ſame manner
the ſincerity of their profeſſions. Accordingly he iſ as the king's troops. When they joined the army,
ſued a proclamation, calling upon all the male inhabi. each man was to be furniſhed «vith a certificate, decla-
Torward- tants from 16 to 60 to take up arms. The requiſition ring that he was only engaged to ſerve as a militia-man
neſs of the was ſo readily complied with, that in a few days 40 for the time ſpecified ; that he was not to be marched
inhabitants
companies from the ſix wards of the city were inrolled, beyond North-Carolina and Georgia ; and that, when
led for its officered, and under arms, to the number of 2600, the time was out, he was freed from all claims what-
defence, many ſubſtantial citizens ſerving in the ranks of each ever of military ſervice, excepting the common and
company.Other volunteer companies were formed; and uſual militia-duty where he lived. He would then,
the city was put into a very ſtrong poſture of defence. it was ſaid, have paid his debt to his country, and be
No attack, however, was made upon New-York, intitled to enjoy undiſturbed that peace, liberty, and
whatever deſign might originally have been medi- property, at home, which he had contributed to fe-
The pro- tated; but an attempt was inade upon Staten-in cure. The proclamations and publications of General
vincials at- and, where there were about 1800 men, under the Clinton appear to have produced ſome effect in South
tack Staten command of Brigadier-general Sterling, who were
Carolina ; though they probably operated chiefly upon
iland;
well intrenched. General Waſhington, whoſe army thoſe who were before not much inclined to the cauſe
was hutted at Morris-Town, ſent a detachment of of American independence. Two hundred and ten of
2700 mien, with ſix pieces of cannon, two mortars, the inhabitants of Charleſton figned an addreſs 10
and ſome horſes, conimanded by Lord Sterling, who General Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot, ſoliciting to
arrived at Staten-Inand carly in the morning of the be readmitted to the character and condition of Bri-
15th of January. The advanced poſts of the Britiſh tih ſubjects, the inhabitants of that city having been
troops retired upon the approach of the Americans, hitherto conſidered as priſoners on parole; declaring
341 who formed the line, and inade ſome movements in their diſapprobation of the doctrine of American in-
But are in- the courſe of the day ; but they withdrew in the night dependence; and expreſſing their regret, that after
duced to
after having burnt one houſe, pillaged ſome others, the repeal of thoſe ſtatutes which gave riſe to the
make a
and carried off with them about 200 head of cattle. troubles in America, the overtures made by his ina-
precipitate
Immediately on the arrival of the Americans on Sta- jeſty's con miſſioners had not been regarded by the
ten-Illand, Lieutenat-general Knyphauſen had em- congreſs. Sir Henry Clinton, in one of the procla-
barked 600 men to attempt a paſſage, and to ſupport mations iſſued at this time, declared, that if any per-
General Sterling : but the floating ice compelled thein fons ſhould thencefortard appear in arms in order to
to return. It is, however, imagined, that the appear- prevent the eſtabliſhment of his majeſty's government
ance of theſe tranſports, with the Britiſh troops oni in that country, or ſhould, under any pretence or au-
board, which the Ainericans could ſee towards the thority whatſoever, attempt to compel any other per-
H
fon
339
to be inrol.
340
retreat,
1
A M E
[ 612 2 ]
A M E
343
545
America. fon or perſons to do ſo, or who ſhould finder or inti merce or exchange, whether foreign or domeſtic, was America.
midate the king's faithful and loyal ſubjects from join- expoſed to numberleſs and increaſing difficulties. The
ing his forces or otherwiſe performing thoſe duties conſequences of the depreciation of the paper-currency
their allegiance required, ſuch perſons hould be treat were alſo felt with peculiar ſeverity by ſuch of the A-
ed with the utmost ſeverity, and their eſtates be im- mericans as were engaged in their military ſervices, and
mediately ſeized in order to be confiſcated.
greatly augmented their other hardſhips. The requiſi-
Mean time the ravages of war did not prevent the tions made by the congreſs to the ſeveral colonies for
Americans from paying fome attention to the arts of fupplies, were alſo far from being always regularly
peace. On the 4th of May an act paſſed by the coun complied with : and their troops were not unfre-
cil and houſe of repreſentatives of Maſſachuſetts-Bay quently in want of the moſt common neceſſaries ;
for incorporating and eſtabliſhing a ſociety for the cul which naturally occaſioned complaints and diſcontent
tivation and promotion of the arts and ſciences. See among then. Such difficulties, reſulted from their
ACADEMY, p. 43. col. 2.
circumſtances and ſituation, as perhaps no wiſdom
Proceed
Some doubts having ariſen in the congreſs, towards could have prevented. The cauſe of the Americans
ings of
the cloſe of the preceding year, about the propriety appears alſo to have ſuffered ſomewhat by their de-
congreſs. of their aſſembling in the city of Philadelphia, it was pending too much on temporary enliſtments. But the
now reſolved that they ſhould continue to meet there : congreſs endeavoured, towards the cloſe of the year
and a committee of three members was appointed, to 1780, to put their army upon a more permanent foot-
report a proper place where buildings might be provi- ing, and to give all the ſatisfaction to their officers
ded for the reception of the congreſs, together with and ſoldiers which their circumſtances would permit.
an eſtimate of the expence of providing ſuch build. They appointed a committee for arranging their fi-
ings, and the neceſſary offices for the ſeveral boards. nances, and made ſome new regulations reſpecting
It was alſo reſolved by the congreſs, that a monument the war-office and treaſury-board, and other public
ſhould be erected to the memory of their late general departments.
Richard Montgomery, who fell at Quebec, in teſti. Notwithſtanding the diſadvantages under which Anniver
mony of his ſignal and important ſervices to the United they laboured, the Americans ſeemed to entertain no ſary of A.
States of America, with an inſcription expreſſive of doubts but that they ſhould be able to maintain their merican in.
his amiable character and heroic atchievements; and independency. The 4th of July was celebrated this dependence
celebrated
that the continental treaſurers fould be directed to year at Philadelphia with fome pomp, as the anni-
at Phila.
advance a ſum not exceeding L.300 to Dr Franklin verſary of American independence. A commence delphia
to defray the expence; that gentleman being deſired ment for conferring degrees in the arts was held the
to cauſe the monument to be executed at Paris, or in ſame day, in the hall of the univerfity there; at
fome other part of France. It was likewiſe reſolved
It was likewiſe reſolved which the preſident and members of the congreſs at-
by the congreſs, that a court ſhould be eſtabliſhed tended, and other perſons in public offices. The
for the trial of all appeals from the court of admi- Chevalier de la Luzerne, miniſter plenipotentiary
Falty of the United States of America, in caſes of from the French king to the United States, was alſo
capture; to conſiſt of three judges, appointed and preſent on the occafion. A charge was publicly ad-
commiſſioned by congreſs, and who were to take an dreſſed by the provost of the univerſity to the ſtu-
oath of office; and that the trials in this court ſhould dents; in which he ſaid, that he could not bụt con-
be determined by the uſage of nations.
gratulate them on that auſpicious day, which, a-
Difficulties The difficulties of the congreſs and of the people of midſt the confuſions and deſolations of war, beheld
ariſing America had been greatly increaſed by the deprecia- learning beginning to revive ; and animated them
from the tion of their paper currency.
At the time when the with the pleaſing proſpect of ſeeing the ſacred lamp
depreciati- colonies engaged in a war with Great Britain, they of ſcience burning with a ſtill brighter Hame, and
on of the had no regular civil governments eſtabliſhed among ſcattering its invigorating rays over the unexplored
paper-cur-
them of fufficient energy to enforce ihe collection of deſarts of this extenſive continent; until the whole
taxes, or to provide funds for the redemption of ſuch world ſhould be involved in the united blaze of know-
bills of credit as their neceſſities obliged them to iſſue. ledge, liberty, and religion. When he ſtretched his
In conſequence of this ſtate of things, their bills in- views forward (he faid), and ſurveyed the riſing
creaſed in quantity far beyond the ſum neceſſary for the glories of America, the enriching conſequences of
purpoſe of a circulating medium : and as they wanted their determined ſtruggle for liberty, the extenſive
at the fame time fpecific funds to reſt on for their re fields of intellectual improvement and uſeful inventi-
demption, they ſaw their paper-currency daily linkin on, in ſcience and arts, in agriculture and commerce,
value. The depreciation continued, by a kind of gra- in religion and government, through which the un-
dual progreſſion, from the year 1777 to 1 780: ſo that, fettered mind would range, with increating delight,
at the latter period, the continental dollars were pafled, in queſt of the undiſcovered treaſure which yet lay
by cominon conſent, in moſt parts of America, at the concealed in the animal, vegetable, and mineral
rate of at leaſt ths below their nominat value. The kingdoms of the new world ; or in the other fertile
impoffibility of keeping up the credit of the currency ſources of knowledge with which it abounded, his
to any fixed ſtandard, occalioned great and almoſt in- heart ſwelled with the pleaſing proſpect, that the ſons
kurmountable embarraſſments in aſcertaining the value of that inſtiturion would diſtinguiſh themſelves, in
of property, or carrying on trade with any fufficient the different walks of life, by their literary contri-
certainty. Thoſe who lold, and thoſe who bought, butions to the embelliſhments and increaſe of human
were left without a rule whereon to form a judginent happineſs.
of their profit or their lofs; and every fpecies of con: - On the ruth of July, M. Ternay, with a fleet con-
fiſting
344
Fency.
A M E
[ 613 )
A M E
346
A
body of
at Rhodc-
349
America. Giſting of ſeven hips of the line, beſides frigates, and darkneſs, that it was difficult 10 ſee the effect of a ve- America,
a large body of French troops, commanded by the ry heavy and well ſupported fire on both ſides. The
Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode-Iſland ; and Britiſh troops either kept up a conſt.nt fire, or made
A large
the following day 6000 men were landed there. uſe of bayonets, as opportunities offered; and after a iz
French
committee from the general aſſembly of Rhode-Iſland obſtinate reſiſtance during three quarters of an hour,
troops land was appointed to congratulate the French general up threw the Americans into total confuſio:i, and forced
on his arrival: whereupon he returned an anſwer, in them to give way in all quarters. The continental
ífland.
which he informed them, that the king his maſter had troops behaved remarkably well, but the militia were
ſent him to the aſſiſtance of his good and faithful al ſoon broken, and left the former to oppoſe the whole
lies the United States of America. At preſent, he force of the Britiſh troops. General Gates did all in
faid, he only brought over the vanguard of a much his power to rally the militia, but without effect: the
greater force deſtined for their aid; and the king had continentals retreated in ſome order;but the rout of the
ordered him to aſſure them, that his whole power militia was ſo great, that the Biitiſh cayalry are ſaid
ſhould be exerted for their ſupport. He added, that to have continued thc purſuit of them to the diſtance
the French troops were under the ſtricteſt diſcipline ; of 22 miles from the place where the action happened, .
and, acting under the orders of General Waſhington, The loſs of the Americans was very conſiderable :
would live with the Americans as their brethren. about rooo priſoners were taken, and more are ſaid to
A ſcheme was ſoon after formed, of making a com have been killed and wounded, but the number is not
bined attack with Engliſh ſhips and troops, under the very accurately aſcertained. Seven pieces of brafs can-
command of Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Arbuth non, a number of colours, and all the ammunition-way-
not, againſt the French fleet and troops at Rhode- gons of the Americans, were alſo taken. Of the Bria
Inand. Accordingly a conſiderable part of the troops tiſh troops, the killed and wounded amounted to 213.
at New-York were embarked for that purpoſe. Ge. Among the priſoners taken was Major-general Baron
neral Waſhington having received information of this, de Kalb, a Pruffian officer in the American ſervice,
paſſed the North River, by a very rapid movement, who was mortally wounded, having exhibited great
and, with an army increaſed to 12,000 men, proceeded gallantry in the courſe of the action, and received 11
with celerity towards King's Bridge, in order to attack wounds. The Britih troops by which this victory was
New-York; but learning that the Britiſh general had atchieved, did not much exceed 2000, while the Ame-
changed his intentions, and diſembarked his troops on rican army is ſaid to have amounted to 6000 ; of which,
the 31ſt of the month, General Wahington recroſſed however, the greateſt part was militia.
the river and returned to his former ſtation. Sir Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who had greatly di- Adivity of
Henry Clinton and the Admiral had agreed to relin- ftinguiſhed himſelf in this action, was detached the Lieut. Co.
quiſh their deſign of attacking the French and Ameri• following day, with ſome cavalry and light infantry, Tarleton,
347
cans at Rhode-Inland as impracticable for the preſent. amounting to about 350 men, to attack a corps of
Unſucceſs An unſucceſsful attempt was alſo made about this Americans under General Sumpter. He executed this
fal expedi- time in the Jerſeys by General Knyphauſen, with ſervice with great activity and military addreſs. He
tion in the 7000 Britiſh troops under his command, to ſurpriſe procured good information of Sumpter's movements ;
Jerſeys. the advanced posts of General Waſhington's army. and by forced and concealed marches came up with
Theyproceeded veryrapidly towards Springfield, meet- and ſurpriſed him in the middle of the day on the
ing little oppoſition till they came to the bridge there, 18th, near the Catawba fords. He totally deſtroyed
which was very gallantly defended by 170 of the con or diſperſed his detachment, which conſiſted of 700
tinental troops, for 15 minutes, againſt the Britiſh ar men, killing 150 on the ſpot, and taking two pieces of
ény: but they were at length obliged to give up ſo braſs cannon, 300 priſoners, and 44 waggons.
unequal a conteſt, with the loſs of 37 men. After re Not long after theſe events, means were found to General
curing this paſs, the Britiſh troops marched into the detach Major-general Arnold, who had engaged fo ar- Arnold de
place, and ſet fire to moſt of the houſes. They alſo dently in the cauſe of America, and who had exhibit-ferts the
committed ſumie other depredations in the Jerſeys; bat ed ſo inuch bravery in the ſupport of it, from the inte-
congrefs.
gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about reſts of the congreſs. Major Andre, adjutant-gene-
the beginning of July without effecting any thing ma ral to the Britiſh army, was a principal agent in this
terial.
tranſaction: or, if the overture of joining the king's
But in South-Carolina the royal arnis were attended troops caine firſt from Arnold, this gentleman was the
with more ſucceſs. Earl Cornwallis, who commanded perſon employed to concert the affair with hin. Moie
the Britiſh troops there, obtained a lignal victory over muſt have been originally comprehended in the ſcheme
General Gates on the 16th of Auguſt. The Action be- than the mere deſertion of the American cauſe by Ar-
gan at break of day, in a ſituation very advantageous nold: The ſurrender of Weſt-Point into the hands of
for the Britiſh troops, but very unfavourable to the A. the royal army, was the probable object; but whate-
mericans. The latter were much more nuinerous; but ver deſigns had been formed for promoting the views
Victory
the ground on which both armies ſtood was narrowed of the Britiſh government, they were fruſtrated by
obtained by by ſwamps on the right and left, ſo that the Americans the apprehending of Major Andre. He was taken in
Lord Corn- could not properly avail themſelves of their fuperior diſguiſe, after having aſſumed a falſe name, on the
wallis over numbers. The attack was made by the Britiſh troops 23d of September, by three American foldiers, to
with great vigour, and in a few minutes the action was whom he offered contiderable rewards if they would
general along the whole line. It was at this time a have ſuffered him to eſcape, but without effect. Sen
dead calm with a little hazineſs in the air, which pre veral papers written by Arnold were found upon him ;
venting the ſmoke from riling, occafioned fo thick a and when Arnold had learnt that Major Andre was
ſeized,
350
ſervice of
348
Gen.
Gates.
A ME
[ 614 ]
A ME
451
354
America. ſeized, he found means to get on board a barge, and there: that after the evacuation of Philadelphia by America.
to eſcape to one of the king's ſhips. General Waſhing- the Britiſh troops, Arnold, being inveſted with the
Unhappy
ton referred the caſe of Major Andre to the exami command in that city, had made the houſe of Mr Penn,
fate of Ma. nation and deciſion of a board of general officers, con which was the beſt in the city, his head-quarters.
jor Andre. fiſting of Major-general Green, Major-general Lord This he had furniſhed in an elegant and expenſive
Sterling, Major-general the Marquis de la Fayette, manner, and lived in a ſtyle far beyond his income. It Different
Major-general the Baron de Steuben, two other major- was manifeft, they ſaid, that he could at firſt have no reaſons al-
generals, and eight brigadier-generals. Major An- great averſion to the French alliance, becauſe that leged by the
dre was examined before them, and the particulars of when M. Gerard, miniſter plenipotentiary from the
Americano
his caſe inquired into ; and they reported to the Ame- court of France, arrived at Philadelphia in July 1778,
rican commander in chief, that Mr Andre came on General Arnold early and earneſtly ſolicited that mi-
ſhore from the Vulture ſloop of war in the night, on niſter, with his whole ſuite, to take apartments and
an interview with General Arnold, in a private and bed and board at his houſe, until a proper houſe could
ſecret manner ; that he changed his dreſs within the be provided by the order of the congreſs. This offer
American lines; and, under a feigned name, and in M. Gerard accepted, and continued with him ſome
a diſguiſed habit, paſſed the American works at Stoney weeks. The French miniſter refided upwards of 14
and Verplank's points, on the evening of the 22d of months in Philadelphia ; during which time General
September ; that he was taken on the morning of the Arnold kept up the moſt friendly and intimate ac-
23d at Tarry-town, he being then on his way for New quaintance with him, and their was a continued inter-
York : and that, when taken, he had in his poffeffion change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts : ſo that
ſeveral papers which contained intelligence for the M. Gerard muſt have believed, that in General Arnold
enemy. They therefore determined, that he ought he had found and left one of the warmeſt friends the
to be conſidered as a ſpy from the enemy; and that, court of France had in America. He was alſo one of
agreeable to the law and uſage of nations, he ought the firſt in congratulating the Chevalier de la Luzerne,
to ſuffer death. Sir Henry Clinton, Lieutenant-ge- the ſecond French miniſter. About this time com-
neral Robertſon, and the late American general Ar- plaints and accuſations were exhibited againſt him by
nold, all wrote preſſing letters to General Waſhington the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-practi-
on the occaſion, in order to prevent the deciſion of the ces; among which charges were, the appropriation of
board of general officers from being put in force : But goods and merchandiſe to his own uſe, which he had
their applications were ineffectual. Major Andre was ſeized as Britiſh property in Philadelphia in July 1778.
hanged at Tappan, in the province of New York, on It was determined by a court-inartial that his conduct
the 2d of October. He met his fate with great firm was highly reprehenſible ; but he was indulgently
neſs; but appeared ſomewhat hurt that he was not al. treated, and was therefore only reprimanded by the
lowed a more military death, for which he had ſoli commander in chief General Waſhington. It was in
His amia- cited. He was a gentleman of very amiable quali- theſe circumſtances, the Americans faid, bankrupted
ble quali. sies, had a taſte for literature and the fine arts, and in reputation and fortune, loaded with debts, and hav-
poſſeſſed many accompliſhments. His death, therefore, ing a growing and expenſive family, that General
was regretted even by his enemies; and the ſeeming Arnold firſt turned his thoughts towards joining the
ſeverity of the determination concerning him was royal arms.
much exclaimed againſt in Great Britain. It was, how After the defeat of General Gates by Earl Cornwal. Actions in
ever, generally acknowledged by impartial perſons, lis, that noblernan exerted himſelf to the utmoſt in South-Ca.
that there was nothing in the execution of this unfor- extending the progreſs of the Britiſh arms, and with rolina.
tunate gentleman but what was perfectly conſonant to conſiderable effect. But one enterpriſe, which was
the rules of war.
conducted by Major Ferguſon, proved unſucceſsful.
Arnold was made a brigadier.general in the king's That officer had taken abundant pains to diſcipline fume
ſervice, and publiſhed an addreſs to the inhabitants of of the Tory militia, as they were termed ; and with
America, dated from New-York, October 7, in which a party of theſe, and ſome Britiſh troops, amounting
he endeavoured to juſtify his deſertion of their cauſe. in the whole to about 1400 men, made incurſions into
Motives af- He ſaid, that when he firſt engaged in it, he concei. the country. But on the 7th of O&tober he was at-
ſigned by ved the rights of his country to be in danger, and that tacked by a ſuperior body of Americans, at a place
Arnold for
duty and honour called him to lier defence. A redreſs called King's-inountain, and totally defeated. One
hisconduct.
of grievances was his only aim and object; and there. hundred and fifty were killed in the action, and 810
fore he acquieſced unwillingly in the declaration of in- inade priſoners, of which 150 were wounded. Fifteen
dependence, becauſe he thought it precipitate. But hundred ſtands of arms alſo fell into the hands of the
what now induced him to deſert their cauſe was the Americans, whoſe loſs was inconſiderable. But the fol-
diſguſt he had conceived at the French alliance, and lowing month Lieutenant-Colonel Tarleton, with a
at the refuſal of Congreſs to comply with the laſt terms party of 170, chiefly cavalry, attacked General Sump-
offered by Great Britain, which he thought equal to ter, who is ſaid to have had 1000 men, at a place
all their expectations and all to their wiſhes.
called Black-Stocks, and obliged him to retire. Sump-
The Americans, however, accounted for the con ter was wounded, and about 120 of the Americans
duct of Arnold in a different and in a more probable killed, wounded, or taken. Of the Britiſh troops
and ſatisfactory manner. They alledged that he had about 50 were killed or wounded.
ſo involved himſelf in debts and difficulties by his ex On the 3d of September, the Mercury, a congreſs Capture of
travagant manner of living in America, that he had packet, was taken by the Veſtal
, Captain Keppel, near Mr Lau-
cuvanu it very inconvenient for him to continue Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr Lau- rens.
rens,
352
ties.
355
353
356
A M E
[ 615 ]
A M E
tents
358
America. rens, late preſident of the congreſs, who was bound tary, upon condition of their laying down their arms, America.
on an embally to Holland. He had thrown his papers and returning to their allegiance. It was alſo recom-
overboard, but great part of them were recovered with mended to them to move beyond the South River; and
out having received much damage. He was brought they were aſſured, that a body of British troops ſhould
to London, and examined before the privy-council ; in be ready to protect them whenever they delired it.
conſequence of which he was committed cloſe priſoner Theſe propofitions were rejected with diſdain ; and
to the Tower on the 6th of October, on a charge of they even delivered up two of Sir Henry Clinton's
high treaſon. His papers were delivered to the mini- meſſengers to the congreſs. Joſeph Reid, Eſq; pre-
ſtry, and contributed to facilitate a rupture with Hol ſident of the ſtate of Pennſylvania, afterwards repair-
land, as among them was found the ſketch of a trea ed to them at Princeton, and an accommodation took
ty of amity and commerce between the Republic of place : ſuch of them as had ſerved out their full terms
Holland and the United States of America.
were permitted to return to their own homes, and
At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair hap- others again joined the American army, upon receiv-
pened in Anierica, from which expectations were ing ſatisfactory aſſurances that their grievances ſhould
357 formed by Sir Henry Clinton, that ſome conſiderable be redreſſed.
Dilcon-
360
advantage might be derived to the royal cauſe. The On the 11th of January Lord Cornwallis advanced Exertions
among the long continuance of the war, and the difficulties under towards North Carolina.
towards North Carolina. He wiſhed to drive Gen. of Lord
American which the congreſs laboured, had prevented their Morgan from his ſtation, and to deter the inhabitants Cornwallis
troops. troops from being properly ſupplied with neceſſaries from joining him The execution of this buſineſs was in North-
and conveniencies. In conſequence of this, on the firſt intruſted to Lieut. Col. Tarleton ; who was detached Carolina,
Revolt of
of January, the American troops that were hutted at with the light and legion infantry, the fuſileers, the
the Penn. Morris-town, and who formed what was called the firſt battalion of the 71ſt regiment, about 350 cavalry,
fylvania Pennſylvania line, turned out, being in number 1300, two field pieces, and an adequate proportion of men
line. and declared, that they would ſerve no longer, unleſs from the royal artillery, upward of 1100 in the whole.
their grievances were redreſſed, as they had not re This detachment, after a progreſs of ſome days, by
ceived their pay or been furniſhed with the neceſſary fatiguing marches, at about ten o'clock on the even-
clothing or proviſions. It is ſaid that they were ſome. ing of the 16th of January, reached the ground which
what inflamed with liquor, in conſequence of rum hav. Morgan had quitted but a few hours before. The
ing been diſtributed to them more liberally than uſual, purſuit recommenced by two o'clock the next morn-
new-year's day being conſidered as a kind of feſtival
. ing, and was rapidly continued through marſhes and
A riot enſued, in which an officer was killed, and four broken grounds till day light, when the Americans
wounded; five or fix of the inſurgents were alſo were diſcovered in front. Two of their videttes were
wounded. They then collected the artillery, ſtores, taken ſoon after, who gave information that Morgan
proviſions, and waggons, and marched out of the had halted and prepared for action, at a place called
camp. They paſſed by the quarters of General Wayne, the Cowpens, near Pacolet river. The Britiſh, be-
who ſent a meſſage to them, requeſting them to defift, fide their field pieces, had the ſuperiority in infantry,
or the conſequences would prove fatal. They refuſed, in the proportion of five to four, and in cavalry of
and proceeded on their march till the evening, when more than three to one. Beſide, nearly two thirds
they took poſt on an advantageous piece of groand, and of the troops under Morgan were militia. Morgan
elected officers from among themſelves. On the ſe. had obtained early intelligence of Tarleton's force
cond day they marched to Middlebrook, and on the and advances; and had drawn up his men in two
third to Princetown, where they fixed their quarters. lines. The whole of the North and South Caroli-
On that day a flag of truce was ſent to them from the na militia preſent was put under the command of
officers of the American camp, with a meſſage, delir. Col. Pickens, and formed the firſt line ; which was
ing to know what were their intentions. Some of advanced a few hundred yards before the ſecond, with
them anſwered, that they had already ſerved longer orders to form on the right of the ſecond when forced
than the time for which they were enliſted, and would to retire. The ſecond line conſiſted of the light in-
ſerve no longer; and others, that they would not re- fantry under Lieut. Col. Howard, and the Virginia
turn, unleſs their grievances were redreſſed. But at riflemen. Lieut. Col. Wathington, with his cavalry,
the ſame time they repeatedly, and in the ſtrongeſt and about forty-five militia men, mounted and equip-
terms, denied being influenced
by the leaſt diſaffection ped with ſwords, under Lieut. Col. M'Call, were
to the American cauſe, or having any intentions of drawn up at ſome diſtance in the rear of the whole,
deferting to the enemy.
The open wood in which they were formed, was nei-
Intelligence of this tranſaction was foon conveyed to ther ſecured in front, flank or rear. Without the de.
New-York. A large body of Britiſh troops were im- lay of a ſingle inoment, and in deſpite of extreme
mediately ordered to hold themſelves in readineſs to fatigue, the light legion infantry and fuſileers were
move on the ſhorteſt notice, it being hoped that the ordered to form in line. Before the order was exe-
American revolters might be induced to join the royal cuted, and while Major Newmarſh, who commanded
army. Meſſengers were alſo ſent to them from General the latter corps, was poſting his officers, the line,
359
Ineffecłual Clinton, acquainting them that they ſhould directly be though far from complete, was led to the attack by
attempts to taken under the protection of the Britiſh
government;
Tarleton himſelf. The Britiſh advanced with a ſhout,
that they ſhould have a free pardon for all former of- and poured in an inceſſant fire of maſquetry. Col.
them to fences; and that the pay due to them from the con Pickens directed the militia not to fire till the Britith
join the
soyalarmy, greſs ſhould be faithfully paid them without any ex-
were within forty or fifty yards. This order, though
pectation of military ſervice, unleſs it ſhould be voluü executed with great firmneſs and ſucceſs, was not
fufficient
induce
A M E
[ 616 )
A M E
;
America. fufficient to repel the enemy. The American militia brightened their hopes, was a ſeverc ſtroke to Lord America,
gave way on all quarters. The Britiſh advanced ra Cornwallis, as the loſs of his light infantry was a great
pidly, and engaged the ſecond line. The continen- diſadvantage to him. The day after the event he em-
tals, after an obſtinate conflict, were compelled to re. ployed in collecting the remains of Tarleton's corps,
treat to the cavalry. Col. Ogilive, with his troop of and in endeavouring to form a junction with General
forty men, had been ordered to charge the right flank Leſlie, who had been ordered to march towards him
of the Americans, and was engaged in cutting down with a body of Britiſh troops from Wynneſborough.
the militia ; but being expoſed to a heavy fire, and Conſiderable exertions were then made by part of the
charged at the ſame time by Waſhington's dragoons, army, without baggage, to retake the priſoners in the
was forced to retreat in confuſion. A great number hands of the Americans, and to intercept General
of the Britiſh infantry officers had already fallen, and Morgan's corps on its retreat to the Catawba. But that
nearly a proportionable number of privates. The re American officer,after his defeat of Tarleton, lad made
mainder being too few and too much fatigued, could forced marches up into the country, and croſſed the
not improve the advantage gained over the continen- Catawba the evening before a great rain, which ſwelled
tals; and Tarleton's legion cavalry ſtanding aloof in the river to ſuch a degree, as to prevent the royal ar-
ſtead of advancing, Lieut. Col. Howard ſeized the far my from croſſing for ſeveral days; during which time
vourable opportunity, rallied the continentals, and the Britiſh priſoners were got over the Yadkin
charged with fixed bayonets, nearly at the famé mo whence they proceeded to Dan River, which they alſo
ment when Waſhington made his ſucceſsful attack. paſſed, and on the 14th of February had reached
The example was inſtantly followed by the militia. Court-houſe, in the province of Virginia.
Nothing could exceed the aſtoniſhment of the Britiſh, Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two days in col.
occaſioned by theſe unexpected charges. Their ad- lecting ſome flour, and in deſtroying fuperfluous bag-
vance fell back, and communicated a panic to others, gage and all his waggons, excepting thoſe laden with
361
which ſoon became general. Two hundred and fifty hoſpital ſtores, ſalt, and ammunition, and four reſerve-
Lord Corn-
horſe which had not been engaged, fled through the ed empty in readineſs for fick or wounded. Being Wallis
woods with the utmoſt precipitation, bearing down thus freed from all unneceſſary incumbrancee, he marches
ſuch officers as oppoſed their fight ; and the cannon marched through North-Carolina with great rapidity, through
were foon ſeized by the Americans, the detachment and penetrated to the remoteſt extremitics of that pro North-Ca.
from the train being either killed or wounded in their vince on the banks of the Dan. His progreſs was
rolina,
defence. The greateſt confuſion now followed among ſometimes impeded by parties of the militia, and fome
the infantry. In the moment of it Lieut. Col. How- fkirmiſhes enſued, but he niet with no very conſidera-
ard called to them to lay down their arms, and promi- ble oppoſition. On the firſt of February the king's
ſed them good quarters. Some hundreds accepted troops croſſed the Catawba at M'Cowan's Ford, where
the offer, and ſurrendered. The firſt battalion of the
The firſt battalion of the General Davidſon, with a party of American militia,
71ft regiment, and two Britiſh light infantry compa was poſted, in order to oppoſe their paſſage ; but he
nies laid down their arms to the American militia. falling by the firſt diſcharge, the royal troops inadc
The only body of infantry that eſcaped, was a detach- good their landing, and the militia retreated. When
incnt left at ſome diſtance to guard the baggage. Early Lord Cornwallis arrived at Hillſborough, he erected
intelligence of their defeat was conveyed to the offi- the king's ſtandard, and invited, by proclamation, all
cer commanding that corps by fome royaliſts. What loyal ſubjects to repair to it, and to ſtand forth and take
part of the baggage could not be carried off he imme an active part in aſlifting his Lordſhip to reſtore order
diately deſtroyed; and with his men mounted on the and government. He had been taught to believe that
waggon and ſpare horſes, he retreated to Lord Corne the king's friends were numerous in that part of the
wallis. The Britiſh had 10 commiſſioned officers, country : but the event did not confirm the truth of
and upward of 100 rank and file killed. Two hundred the repreſentations that had been given. The Roy-
wounded, 29 commiſſioned officers, and above 500 pri. aliſts were but few in number, and ſome of them too
vates priſoners, fell into the hands of the Americans, timid to join the king's ſtandard. There were, in-
beſide two pieces of artillery (firſt taken from the Bri- deed, about 200 who were proceeding to Hillſborough,
tiſh at Saratoga, then retaken by them at Camden, under colonel Pyle, in order to avow their attachment
and now recovered by the Americans) two ſtandards, to the royal cauſe; but they were met accidentally,
8oo muškets, 35 baggage waggons, and upward of 100 and ſurrounded by a detachment from the American
dragoon horſes. Waſhington purſued Tarleton's ca- army, by whom moſt of them were cut in pieces.
valry for ſeveral miles ; but the far greater part of Meanwhile General Greene was inarching with great
them eſcaped. They joined their army in two ſepa- expedition with the troops under his command, in or-
Tate diviſions. One arrived in the neighbourhood of der to form a junction with other corps of American
the Britiſh encampment upon the evening of the ſame troops, that he might thereby be enabled to put ſome
day; the other under Tarlelon appeared the next effectual ſtop to the progreſs of Lord Cornwallis.
morning. Although Tarleton's corps had waged a In other places fome conſiderable advantages were 362
nioſt cruel warfare, and their progreſs had been mark- obtained by the royal arms. On the 4th of January, Large
ed with burnings and devaſtations, not a nian of them fome ſhips of war with a number of tranſports, on quantitics
was killed, wounded, or even inſulted after he had board which was a large body of troops under the com-
ſurrendered. The Americans had only twelve men mand of Brigadier-general Arnold, arrived at Welt- can ſtories
killed and lixty wounded.
over, about 140 miles from the Capes of Virginia, by Arnold.
deſtroyed
This defeat of the troops under Tarleton, while it where the troops immediately landed and marched to
reanimated the defponding friends of America, and Richmond; which they reached without oppoſition,
of Ameri-
4
the
AME
[ 617 1
A ME
America, the militia that was collected having retreated on their army was directed to be made by Lord Cornwallis in Athetien:
approach. Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe niarched from the following order : On the right, the regiment of
hence with a detachment of the Britiſh troops to Weſt Boſe and the 71ſt regiment, led by Major-general
ham, where they deſtroyed one of the fineſt foun- Leſlie, and ſupported by the firſt battalion of guards;
deries for cannon in America, and a large quantity of on the left, the 23d and 33d regiments, led by Lieu-
ſtores and cannon. General Arnold, on his arrival at tenant-colonel Webſter, and ſupported by the grena-
Richmonu, found there large quantities of ſalt, rum, diers and ſecond battalion of guards commanded by Bri-
fail-cloth, and tobacco, the laſt of which he deſtroyed gadier-general O'Hara ; the Yagers and light infant-
to a very great amount. The Britih troops afterwards ry of the guards remained in a wood on the left of
attacked and diſperſed ſome ſmall parties of the Ame: the guns, and the cavalry in the road, ready to act as
ricans, took ſome ſtores and a few picces of cannon, circumſtances might require.
364
and on the 20th of the ſame month marched into Porif About half an hour after one in the afternoon, the Battle at
mouth. On the 25th, Captain Barclay, with ſeveral action commenced by a cannonade, which laſted about Guildford.
fhips of war, and a body of troops under the command twenty minutes ; when the Britiſh troops advanced in
of Major Craig, arrived in Cape-Fear River. The three columns and attacked the North-Carolinian bri-
troops landed about nine miles from Wilmington, and gades with great vigour, and foon obliged part of theſe
on the 28th entered that town. It was underſtood that troops to quit the field : but the Virginia militia gave
their having poſſeſſion of that town, and being maſters them a warm reception, and kept up a heavy fire for
of Cape-Fear River, would be productive of very be- a long time, till, being beaten back, the action became
neficial effects to Lord Cornwallis's army.
general almoſt every where. The American corps
General Greene having effected a junction about the under the lieutenant-colonels Waſhington and Lee
joth of March with a continental regiment of what were alſo warmly engaged, and did conſiderable ex-
were called eighteen months men, and two large bodies ecution. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton had directions
of militia belonging to Virginia and North-Carolina, to keep his cavalry compact, and not to charge with-
formed a reſolution to attack the Britiſh troops under out poſitive orders, excepting to protect any of the
the command of Lord Cornwallis. The American corps from the moſt evident danger of being defeated.
army marched from the High Rock Ford on the 12th The exceſſive thickneſs of the woods rendered the Bri-
of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford. tiſh bayonets of little uſe, and enabled the broken corps
Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received of Americans to make frequent ſtands with an irregu-
of the motions of the American general, concluded lar fire. The ſecond battalion of the guards firſt gain-
363
what were his deſigns. As they approached more ed the clear ground near Guildford court-houſe, and
Different nearly to each other, a few ſkirmihes enſued between found a corps of continental infantry, fuperior in num-
firmifats, ſome advanced parties, in which the advantage was ber, formed in an open field on the left of the road.
ſometimes gained by the Americans and ſometimes by Deſirous of ſignalizing themſelves, they immediately
the Britiſh. On the morning of the 15th, Lord Corn. attacked and foon defeated them, taking two lix poun-
wallis marched with his troops at day-break in order to ders: but as they purſued the Americans into the wood
meet the Americans or to attack them in their encamp- with too much ardour, they were thrown into confuſion
ment. About four miles from Guildford, the advanced by a heavy fire, and inſtantly charged and driven back
guard of the Britiſh army, commanded by Lieutenant- into the field by Lieutenant-colonel Waſhington's dra-
colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of the Ameri- goons, with the loſs of the two ſix pounders they had
cans, conſiſting of Lieutenant-colonel Lee's legion, taken. But the Anierican cavalry were afterwards re-
ſome Back-Mountain men and Virginian militia, with pulſed, and the two fix pounders again fell into the
whom he had a ſevere fkirniſh, and was, at length, hands of the Britiſh troops. The Britiſh troops having
obliged to retreat.
at length broken the ſecond Maryland regiment, and
265
The greater part of the country in which the action tumed the leſt flank of the Americans, got into the The Ame-
happened is a wilderneſs, with a few cleared fields in- rear of the Virginia brigade, and appeared to be gaini- ricans.
terſperſed. The American army was poſted on a ing their right, which would have encircled the whole defeated-
şiſing ground about a mile and a half from Guildford of the continental troops, when Gen. Greene thought
court houſe. It was drawn up in three lines : the front it prudent to order a retreat. Many of the American
line was compoſed of the North-Carolina nilitia, un militia diſperſed in the woods; but the continental
der the command of the generals Buller and Eaton; troops retreated in good order to Reedy. Fork River,
the ſecond line, of Virginian militia, commanded by and croſſed at the ford about three miles from the field
the generals Stephens and Lawſon, forming two bri- of action, and there halted. When they had collect-
gades; the third line, conſiſting of two brigades, one ed their ſtragglers, they retreated to the iron-works,
of Virginia and one of Maryland continental troops, ten miles diſtant from Guildford, where they encamp-
commanded by General Huger and Colonel Williams. ed. They loſt their artillery and two waggons laden
Lieutenant-colonel Waſhington, with the dragoons of with ammunition. It was a hard fought action, and
the firſt and third regiments, a detachment of light in- laſted an hour and a half. Of the Britiſh troops, the
fantry compoſed of continental troops, and a regiment loſs, as ſtated by Lord Cornwallis, was 532 killed,
of riflemen under colonel Lynch, formed a corps of wounded, and miſſing. General Greene in his ac-
obſervation for the ſecurity of their rightfiauk. Lien count of the action tranſinitted to thc Congreſs, ſtated
tenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detachment of the loſs of the continental troops to amount to 329 hill-
light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under Colonel ed, wounded, and miſſing ; bui he made no eſtimate of
Campbell, formed a corps of obſervation for the ſecu- the loſs of the militia, which was fome what more than
rity of their left flank. The altack of the American Lieutenant-colonel Stuart was killed in the ac-
VOL. I.
tion;
IOO.
of I
A M E
[ 618 ]
A M E
rican ſtorek
America, tion; and Lieutenant-colonel Webſter, and the cap events, General Greene laid cloſe liege to Ninety-ſix, America
Vtains Schutz, Maynard, and Goodriche, died of the which was conſidered as the moſt commanding and
wounds that they had received in it. Brigadier-general important of all the poſts in the back conntry; and on
368
Afterwards
O'Hara, Brigadier-gencral Howard, and Lieutenant the 19th of June he attempted to form the garriſon, lays liege to
coloned Tarleton, were alſo wounded. Of the Ame but was repulſed by the gallantry of the Britiſh troops, Ninety-fix ;
ricans the principal officer killed was Major Anderſon with the loſs of about 150 killed, wounded, and miſ- but is re-
of the Maryland line, and the generals Stephens and fing. General Greene then raiſed the fiege, and re- pulled.
Hager were wounded.
tired with his army behind the Salada, to a Itrong litu-
366
Hardſhips
The Britiſh troops underwent great hardſhips in the ation, within 16 iniles of Ninety-fix.
endured by courſe of this campaign; and in a letter of Lord Corn On the 18th of April a large body of Britiſh troops,
the liritiſh wallis's to Lord George Germain, dated March 17th under the command of Major-general Philips and Bri-
troops. he obſerved, that “ the ſoldiers had been two days gadier-general Arnold, embarked at Poriſniouth in
without bread.” His lordſhip quitted Guildford three Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the
days after the battle which was fought in that place; purpoſe of deſtroying ſome of the American ſtores. A
and on the 7th of April, after a retreat marked with party of light-infantry were ſent 10 or 12 iniles up the
proofs of great alarm and precipitation, arrived in the Chickahomany ; where they deſtroyed ſeveral arined 369
neighbourhood of Wilmington. Soon after, General ſhips, ſundry ware-houſes, and the American ſtate ſhip- Deſtructi-
Greene, notwithſtanding his late defeat, endeavoured yards. At Peterſburg, the Englih deſtroyed 4000 on of Ame-
10 make ſome vigorous attempts againſt the king's for- hogſheads of tobacco, one fhip, and a number of ſmall
ces in South-Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been ap veſſels on the ſtocks and in the river. At Cheſterfield
pointed to defend the poſt of Camden, with about 800 court-houſe, they burnt a range of barracks for 2000
Britiſh and provincials; and on the 19th of April Ge nien and 300 barrels of four. At a place called
neral Greene appeared before that place with a large Oſborn's, they made tlieinſelves maſters of ſeveral vef-
body of continentals and militia. He found it, low ſels loaded with cordage and flour, and deſtroyed about
ever, impoſſible to attempt to ſtorm the town with any 2000 hogſheads of tobacco, and fundry veſels were
proſpect of ſucceſs; and therefore endeavoured to take funk and burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a maga-
ſuch a poſition as ſhould induce the Britiſh troops to zine of soo barrels of four, fome fine mills belonging
ſally from their works. He poſted the Americans to Colonel Carey, a large range of public rope-walks
307
about a mile from the town, on an eniinence which and ſtore-houſes, tan and bark houſes full of hides and
General
Greene at- was covered with woods, and flanked on the left by an bark, and great quantities of tobacco. Alike deſtruc-
tacked in impaſſable ſwamp. But on the morning of the 25th,
But on the morning of the 25th, tion of ſtores and goods was made in other parts of
his camp Lord Rawdon marched out of Camden, and attacked Virginia.
by Lord
General Greene in his camp. The Americans 'made a From the account already given of ſome of the prin-
and defeat - vigorous reſiſtance, but were at length compelled to cipal military operations of the preſent year in America.
ed.
give way; and the purſuit is ſaid to have been conti it appears, that though advantages had been gained by
nued three miles. For ſome time after the action com the royal troops, yet no event had taken place from
'menced, General Greene entertained great hopes of de- which it could rationally be expected that the final ter-
feating the Britiſh troops ; in which, as the Americans mination of the war would be favourable to Great-Bri-
were ſuperior in point of numbers, he would probably tain. It was alſo a diſadvantageous circunſtance, tliat 370
have ſucceeded, had not ſome capital military errors
Miſunder-
there was a miſunderſtanding between Admiral Ar-
been committed by one or two of the officers who ſery buthnot and Sir Henry Clinton, and a mutual diſappro- between
ſtanding
ed under him. On the American lide Colonel Waſh bation of each other's conduct. This was manifeſt the Britiſh
ington had behaved extremely well in this action, from their diſpatches to government, and eſpecially admiraland
having made upwards of 200 of the Engliſh priſoners, from thoſe of General Clinton, whoſe expreſſions rel general.
with 10 or 12 officers, before he perceived that the pecting the conduct of the admiral were by no means
Americans were abandoning the field of battle. The equivocal.
loſs of the Engliſh was about 100 killed and wounded. On the 16th of March 1781,a partial action happen. Action be
Upwards of 100 of the Americans were taken priſon- ed off the Capes of Virginia, between the fleet under
ers; and, according to the account publiſhed by Gene Admiral Arbuthnot, conſiſting of ſeven Mhips of the line Britiſh and
ral Greene, they had 126 killed and wounded. After and one fifty-gun ſhip, anda French ſquadron conſiſting French
this action, Greene retreated to Rugeley's mills, 12 of the ſame number of ſhips of the line, and one forty- fiects off
miles from Canden, in order to collect his troops and gun ſhip. Some of the lips in both facets received con-
wait for reinforcements.
of Virginia
ſiderable damage in the action, and the loſs of the En-
Notwithſtanding the advantage which Lord Rawdon gliſh was 30 killed and 73 wounded; but no ſhip was
had obtained over General Greene at Camden, that taken on either ſide. The Britiſh fleet, however,
nobleman ſoon after found it neceſſary, having burned claimed the advantage ; as the French were obliged to
the goal, mills, many private houſes, and a part of his retire, and were ſuppoſed to be prevented by this ac-
own baggage, to quit that poſt; and the Americans tion from carrying troops upon the Cheſapeak, in order
made themſelves maſters of ſeveral other poſts that to attack General Arnold and impede the progreſs of
were occupied by the king's troops, and the garriſons Lord Cornwallis.
Lord Cornwallis. But it was thought an unfortunate
of which were obliged to ſurrender themſelves priſon- circumſtance, that ſome time before this engagement
crs of war. Theſe troops were afterwards exchanged the Romulus, a ſhip of 44 guns, was captured by the
under a cartel which took place between Lord Corn French off the Capes of Virginia.
wallis and General Greene for the releaſe of all pri Lord Cornwallis, after his victory over General
foners of war in the ſouthern diſtrict. After theſe Greene at Guildford, procceded, as we have ſeen, to
371
tween the
the capes
.
1
Wil
A M E
[ 619
A M E
]
372
375
don.
America. Wilmington, where he arrived on the 7th of April. poſt in a piquetted garden, and others thrown them. America.
But before he reached that place, he publiſhed a pro- felves into a brick houſe, the eagerneſs of the Ameri-
clamation, calling upon all loyal ſubjects to ſtand forth can parfuit was conſiderably checked, and gave Colo-
Proclama-
tion by
and take an active part in reſtoring good order and nel Stuart an opportunity on the evening of the next
Lord Corn-government ; and declaring to all perſons who had en day,to abandon the Eutaw, and march towards Charles-
wallis. gaged in the preſent rebellion againſt his majeſty's au ton, taking a number of his wounded, and about one
thority, but who were now convinced of their error, thouſand ſtand of arms.
and deſirous of returning to their duty and allegiance, In the courſe of the ſame month, General Arnold Expedition
that if they would ſurrender themſelves with theirarms was ſent on an expedition againſt New-London, in againſt
New-LA-
and ammunition at head quarters, or to the officer com Connecticut, where he deſtroyed a great part of the
manding in the diſtricts contiguous to their reſpective ſhipping, and an immenſe quantity of naval ſtores, Eu-
places of relidence, on or before the 20th of that ropean manufactures, and Eaſt and Weſt India com-
month, they ſhould be permitted to return to their modities. The town itſelf was alſo burnt, which is
homes upon giving a military parole; they would be ſaid, but untruly, to have been unavoidable, on account
protected, in their perſons and properties, from all of the exploſions of great quantities of gun-powder
forts of violence froin the Britiſh troops ; and would which happened to be in the ſtore-houſes that were ſet
be reſtored, as ſoon as poſſible, to all the privileges of on fire. A fort, of which it was thought neceſſary to
legal and conſtitutional government. But it does not gain poſſeſſion in this expedition, was not taken with-
appear that any conſiderable number of the Americans out conſiderable loſs. This was Fort-Griſwold ; which
were allured by theſe promiſes to give any evidences of was defended by the Americans with great gallantry,
their attachment to the royal cauſe.
and the aſſault was made by the Engliſh with equal
On the 20th of May, his Lordſhip arrived at Peterſ- bravery. The Britiſh troops entered the works with
burg in Virginia, where he joined a body of Britiſh fixed bayonets, and were oppoſed with great vigour by
troops that had been under the command of Major- the garriſon with long ſpears. After a moſt obſtinate
general Philips ; but the command of which, in con defence of near forty minutes, the aſſailants gained
ſequence of the death of that officer, had devolved up poſſeſſion of the fort,in which 85 Americans were found
on Brigadier-general Arnold. Before this junction he dead, and 60 wounded, moſt of them mortally ; but of
had encountered conſiderable inconveniences from the the killed, it is painful to obſerve, that the greater
difficulty of procuring proviſions and forage ; ſo that in number fell after the Britiſh entered the fort, and when
a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him, that reſiſtance had ceaſed. Of the Britiſh troops Major
his cavalry wanted every thing, and his infantry eve Montgomery was killed by a ſpear in entering the
ry thing but ſhoes. He added, that he had experien American works; and 192 men were alſo killed and
ced the diſtreſſes of marching hundreds of miles in a wounded in this expedition.
country chicfly hoſtile, without one active or uſeful
Notwithſtanding the advantages that Lord Cornwal- Critical fi-
friend, without intelligence, and without communica lis had obtained over the Americans, his ſituation in tuation of
tion with any part of the country.
Virginia began by degrees to be very critical; and the Lord Corn-
On the 26th of June, about ſix miles from Willi rather becauſe he did not receive thoſe reinforcements wallis.
amſburg, Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of the and ſupplies from Sir Henry Clinton, of which he had
queen's rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were at formed expectations, and which he conceived to be
tacked by a much fuperior body of the Americans; neceſſary to the ſucceſs of his operations. Indeed, the
Different but whom they repulſed with great gallantry and with commander in chief was prevented from ſending thoſe
actions. equal ſucceſs, making four officers and twenty private reinforcements to Lord Cornwallis which he otherwiſe
men priſoners. The loſs of the Americans in this ac might have done, by his fears reſpecting New-York,
tion is ſaid to have been upwards of 120, and that of againſt which he entertained great apprehenſions that
the Britiſh troops not more than 40.
General Waſhington intended to make a very formi-
On the 6th of July an action happened near the dable attack. In fact, that able American general
Green Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitriny had this object in view ; and while the attack was in
party ofthe Americans under General Wayne, amount- ſerious contemplation, a letter from him detailing the
ing to about 800, and a large part of the Britiſh army particulars of thie intended operations of the campaign,
under Lord Cornwallis ; in which the Americans had being intercepted, fell into the hands of Sir Henry
127 killed and wounded, and the loſs of the royal Clinton. After the plan was changed, the royal com-
troops is ſuppoſed to have been conſiderably greater. mander was ſo much under the impreſſion of the in-
It was an action in which no ſmall degree of military telligence contained in the intercepted letter, that he
ſkill and courage was exhibited by the Americans. In believed every movement towards Virginia to be a
a variety of ſkirmiſhes, the Marquis de la Fayette very feint, calculated to draw off his attention from the de-
much diftinguiſhed himſelf, and diſplayed the utmoſt fence of New York. Under the influence of this
ardour in the American cauſe.
opinion he bent his whole force to ſtrengthed that poſt,
374
General In South-Carolina, an action happened on the oth and ſuffered the French and American armies to paſs
Greene de- of September near the Eutaw Springs, between a large without any moleſtation. When the firſt opportuni-
fcats Col. body of Britiſh troops under the command of Lieute ty of ſtriking at them was elapſed, then for the firſt
Stuart. nant-colonel Stuart and an equal body of Americans, time he was brought to believe that the allies had fix-
under the command of General Greene. It was an ob cd on Virginia, for the theatre of their combined ope-
ſtinate engagementt and laſted near two hours. The rations. As truth may be made to anſwer the pur-
Britiſh, with a conſiderable loſs, were in the firſt partof poſes of deception, ſo no feint of attacking New-York,
the battle routed in all quarters, but ſome having taken could have been more ſucceſsful than the real inten-
tion.
376
373
412
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378
arran
377
America. tion. At the ſame time Gen. Waſhington, by a variety tellux, Du Portail, and Knox, immediately proceeded America..
of judicious military mancuvres, in which he com to viſit the count on board the Ville de Paris. A coun-
pletely out-generalled the Britiſh commander, increaf- cil was held, and the Count de Graſſe detailed his en-
ed his apprehenſions about New-York, and prevent- gagements to be in the Weſt Indies at the latter end
ed him from ſending proper aſſiſtance to Lord Corn- of October or beginning of November. But he finally
wallis. Having for a conſiderable time kept Sir Henry agreed to continue in the Cheſapeak until the opera-
Clinton in perpetual alarm in New-York, though with tion againſt Lord Cornwallis ſhould be decided. After
an army much inferior to the garriſon of that city, Ge- which
the company returned.
neral Waſhington ſuddenly quitted his camp at White-
All the Ainerican and French troops formed a junc. Number of
Plains, croſſed the Delaware, and marched towards tion at Williamſburg. The Marquis de la Fayette had forces
Virginia, apparently with a deſign to attack Lord Corn been joined by 3000 under St Simon ſome days before
wallis. Sir Henry Clinton then received information, the 25th of Septeniber. The whole regular force thus
that the Count de Gralle, with a large French fleet, collected amounted to between 11 and 12,000 men.
was expected every moment in the Cheſapeak, in or The militia of Virginia were alſo called out to ſervice,
der to co-operate with General Wahington. In the and were comnianded by Gov. Nelſon. On the 27th
mean time, Lord Cornwallis had taken poſſeſſion of Gen. Waſhington gave out in general orders" If the
the poſts of York-Town and Glouceſter in Virginia. enemy ſhould be tempted to meet the army on its march,
He applied himſelf with the utmoſt diligence to for- the general particularly enjoins the troops 10 place
tify theſe poſts, and to render them equally reſpecta- their principal reliance on the bayonet, that they may
ble by land and water. His whole force amounted to prove the vanity of the boaſt which the Britiſh make of
about 7000 excellent troops. Before his lordfhip had their peculiar proweſs in deciding battles with that wea-
fixed himſelf and army in theſe poſts, a ſeries of ma- pon. The next morning the army marched, and
nouyres had taken place between him and the Marquis halted about two miles from York Town juſt before
de la Fayette ; in which the Britiſh general diſplayed ſun ſet. The officers and ſoldiers were ordered to lie
the boldneſs of enterpriſe, and the marquis the judg on their arins the whole night. On the 30th, Col.
ment of age, blended with the ardor of youth. Fay- Scammel (being officer of the day) in approaching the
ette, under various pretences, ſent the Pennſylvania enemy's outer works, to ſee if they had really left
troops to the ſouth ſide of James River ; collected a them, was mortally wounded and taken priſoner by a
force in Glouceſter county; and made ſundry excel. party of the enemy's horſe, which lay ſecreted. This
lent ngements, which he early communicated to day Lord Cornwallis was cloſely inveſted in York
Count de Graſſe by an officer.
Town.
The French extended from the river above
Allied ar The French and American armies continued their the town to a moraſs in the centre, where they were
my arrive march from the northward, till they arrived at the met by the Americans, who occupied the oppoſite ſide
at Head of Head of Elk : within an hour after, they received an from the river to that ſpot. The poſt at Glouceſter
Ulk,
expreſs from Count de Graſſe, with the joyful account Point was, at the ſame time, inveſted by the Duke de
of his arrival and ſituation. This circumſtance will Lauzun with his legion, and a number of Virginia
appear the more remarkable, when we conſider the militia under General Weeden.
original diſtance of the parties, as well from the ſcene Before the troops left Williamſburg, Gen. Waſhing.
of action as from each other, and the various accidents, ton received a letter from the Count de Graffe, inform-
difficulties, and delays, to which they were all liable. ing him, that in caſe of the appearance of a Britiſh
The greateſt harmony ſubliſted between Waſhington fleet, the count conceived it to be his duty to go out and
and Rochambeau, which leſſened ſome of the difficul. ineer then at ſea, inſtead of fighting in a confined fitu-
ties attending their joint operations. The former be- ation. This information exceedingly alarmed the gee
ing without a fufficiency of money to ſupply his troops, neral, who inſtantly ſaw the probability of the Britill
applied to the count for a loan, which was inſtantly fleet's maneuvring in ſuch manner, as to reinforce or
granted. In order to haſten the arrival of the allied withdraw LordCornwallis. To preventa ineaſure preg-
troops, de Graſſe ſelected ſeven veſſels, drawing the nant with ſo much evil, his excellency wrote to the
379
leaſt water, to tranſport them down the Cheſapeak counton the 26th: “I am unable to deſcribe the painful Gen, Was
Bay. But the moment they were ready to fail on this anxiety under which I have laboured ſince the recepti- Khington's
letters to
ſervice, the count was obliged to prepare for repelling on of your letter of the 23d inſtant. It obliges mewarn-
the Britiſh fleet. When Mr de Barras arrived, he ly to urge a perſeverence in the plan agreed upon. The Count de
.
ſent up thoſe tranſports he brought with him for the attempt upon York, under the protection of your ſhip-
troops : de Graſſe after that added to thein as many ping is as certain of ſucceſs as a ſuperior force and a ſu.
frigates as he could. By the 25th of September all the periorityof meaſures can render any militaryoperation.
troops were arrived and landed at Williamſburg, and Thecaptureof the Britiſh army is a matter fo important
preparations were made with all poſſible diſpatch for in itſelf and in its conſequences, that it must greatly
putting the army in a lituation to inove down towards tend to bring an end to the war. If your excellency
York Town. General Waſhington and Count de Ro- quits the Bay, an acceſs is open to relieve York, of
chambeau, with their ſuites and other officers, had which the enemy will inſtantly avail themſelves. The
reached Williamſburg by hard travelling, on the 14th, conſequence of this will be, not only the diſgrace,
eleven days ſooner. Here the general found a vef- but the probable diſanding of the whole army; for
fel waiting to convey him to the Capes of Virginia, the preſent ſeat of war being ſuch, as abſolutely pre-
fent by Count de Graſſe, as he could not with propri- cludes the uſe of waggons, from the great number of
cty leave his fleet. The commander in chief and the large rivers which iirterſect the country, there will
Countde Rochambeau, accompanied by Generals Chaf- be a coral want of proviſions. This province has been
so
Α Μ Ε
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America. ſo exhauſted, that ſubſiſtence muſt be drawn from a not a man hurt. In the afternoon of the 9th, the re- America.
diſtance, and that can only be done by a ſuperior fleet doubts and batteries being completed, a general diſ-
in the Bay. I earneſtly beg your excellency to con- charge of 24 and 18 pounders and of 10 inch mortars
ſider, that if by moving your feet from the ſituation commenced by the Americans on the right, and con-
agreed upon, we loſe the preſent opportunity, we tinued all night without intermiſſion. The next
fhall never hereafter have it our power to ſtrike ſo morning, the French opened their batteries on the
deciſive a ſtroke, and the period of an honorable peace left, and a tremendous roar of canon and mortars was
will be further diftant than ever. Suppoſing the force, continued for fix or eight hours without ceaſing, .
ſaid to have arrived under Adm. Digby, to be true, There was an inceſſant fire through the fucceeding
their whole force united cannot be ſuch as to give night. By one of the French ſhells, the Charon of
them any hope of ſucceſs in the attacking your fleet. 44 guns and a tranſport ſhip were ſet on fire and
I am to preſs your excellency to perſevere in the burnt. The following morning, the enemy's other
ſcheme ſo happily concerted between us. Permit me guard ſhip was fired by one of the American fhells
to add, that the abſence of your feet from the Bay and conſumed. At night, the beſiegers opened their
may fruſtrate our deſign upon the garriſon at York. ſecond parallel, 200 yards from the works of the be-
For, in the preſent ſituation, Lord Cornwallis might lieged. The Americans had 3 inen killed and I
evacuate the place with the loſs of his artillery, bag- wounded by a French cannon, which fired too low.
gage, and a few men-ſacrifices, which would be
-facrifices, which would be on the 14th in the evening, an American battalion
highly juſtifiable, from the deſire of ſaving the body was ordered into the ſecond parallel, and to begin a
of the army.-The Marquis de la Fayette carries large battery in advance on the right. A few minutes
this. He is not to paſs the Cape for fear of accident, before they began to break ground, the enemy kept
in caſe you ſhould be at ſea." This letter, with the a conſtant fire upon them: one of their ſhells burſt in
Marquis's perſuaſions, had the deſired effect ; and the centre of the battalion, and killed a captain and one
fame hour when the combined army appeared before private, and wounded a ſecond.
private, and wounded a ſecond. The fire of the be-
York-Town, the French fleet was brought to the mouth fieged was very great through the night; and it was
of York river, and by their poſition effe&tually covered thought that the beſiegers loſt as many men within 24
allſubſequent military operations and prevented either hours at this period, as they had done nearly the
the retreat or ſuccour of Lord Cornwallis's army by wa whole ſiege before.
381
ter. The poſts of York and Glouceſter were the Two redoubts, which were advanced about 200 Britifh re-
moſt favourable of any in the country for beſieging yards on the left of the Britiſh, greatly impeded the doubts ta-
the Britiſh, and preventing their eſcape, when the progreſs of the combined armies. An attack on theſe
ſiege was ſupported by a ſuperior land and naval was therefore propoſed. To excite a ſpirit of emu-
force.
lation the reduction of the one was committed to the
Cornwal Lord Cornwallis was ſufficiently ſtrong for fighting French, of the other to the Americans. The light
lis's fitua- the Marquis de la Fayette, even after he had been infantry of the latter were commanded by the Mar-
tion. joined by St Simon; and is thought to have been miſ- quis de la Fayette; and the ſervice was al'otted to a
taken in not engaging them either ſeparately or toge- ſelect corps. The Marquis ſaid to General Waſhing-
ther. The moment he heard that the allied troops ton- The troops ſhould retaliate on the British, for
were at the Head of Elk, and that de Graſſe was ar the cruelties they have practiſed.” The general an-
rived with ſo powerful a fleet at the Cheſapeak, his ſwered—“ You have full command, and may order as
lordſhip ſhould have puſhed off for Charleſton. There you pleaſe.” The marquis ordered the party to re-
fore it was that Gen. Greene wrote 10 Baron Stenben member New London, and to retaliate, by putting the
on the 17th-" Nothing can ſave Cornwallis but men in the redoubt to the ſword after having carried
rapid retreat ihrough North Carolina to Charleſtown." it. The men inarched to the aflault with unloaded
His lordſhip’s conduct was influenced by an expecta- arms, at dark on the night of the 14th, paſſed the aba-
tion of a reinforcement from Sir Henry Clinton, and tis and paliſades, and attacking on all ſides carried
a full perſuaſion that thoſe exertions would be made the redoubt in, a few minutes, with the lots of 8 kill .
at New-York, and ſuch a naval ſtrength would arrive ed and 28 wounded. Lieut. Col. Laurens perſonally
from thence in time, as would effectually relieve him. took the commanding officer. The colonel's huma-
This may be gathered from his writing on the 16th: nity and that of the Americans ſo overcame their re-
"If I had no hopes of relief, I would rather riſk an ac ſentments, that they ſpared the Britiſh. When bring-
tion than defend my half-finiſhed works. But as you ing them off as priſoners, they ſaid among themſelves
fay, Adin. Digbyis hourly expected, and have promiſed L" Why! how is this? We were ordered to put
exertions to aſſiſt me, I do not think myſelf juſtifiable them to death." Being aſked by others why they
in putting the fate of the war upon fo deſperate an had not done it, they anſwered We could not,
attempt. He muſt have meant that of fighting Fay- when they begged and cried ſo upon their knees for
ette and St Simon, for the troops of Generals Waſh- their lives.” About five of the Britiſh were killed,
ington and Rochambeau did not arrive till afterward. and I major, 1 captain, and I enlign, and 20 privates
Fayeite had taken a ſtrong poſition : but the ato captured. Col. Hamilton, who conducted the enter-
tempt would not have appeared ſo deſperate to his priſe with much addreſs and intrepidity, in his re-
lordſhip, had he known the real number of the enemy. port to the marquis, mentioned, to the honor of his
The trenches were opened by the combined armies detachment_that, incapable of imitating examples
on the 61h of October, at 600 yards diſtance from of barbarity, and forgetting recent provocations, they
Cornwallis's works. The night being dark and rainy ſpared every man that ceaſed to reſiſt.” The French
was well adapted to the ſervice, in which there was were equally ſucceſsful on their ſide. They carried
the
380
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A M E
America, the redoubt committed to them with rapidity, but loſt might be appointed for digeſting the terms of capi. America.
a conſiderable nuinber of men, Theſe two works tulation. An anſwer was given ; and a reply for-
being taken into the ſecond parallel facilitated the warded in the afternoon ; to which Gen. Waſhington
ſubſequent operations.
rejoined the next day, declaring the general balis on
The British were fo weakened by the fire of the which the capitulation might take place. Commiſſi-
combined armies, bul chiefly by fickneſs, that Lord oners were appointed on the ſide of the allies Viſ-
Cornwallis could not venture any conſiderable num count de Noailles, and Lieut. Col. Laurens, whoſe fa-
ber in the making of fallies. The preſent emergency ther was in cloſe confinement at the tower, while the
however was ſuch, that a little before day break of fon was drawing up articles by which an Engliſh no-
the morning of the 16th he ordered a fortic of about bleman and a Britiſh army became priſoners. While
400 men, under Lieut. Col. Abercroniby, to attack ſettling the terms, the viſcount wiſhed his lordſhip to
two batteries which appeared to be in the greateſt for- ſtate, upon his honor, the value of the military cheſt.
wardneſs, and to ſpike the guns. Two detachments His lord ſhip declared it to be about 1800l. ſterling.
were appointed to the ſervice; and both attacks were The viſcount obſerved that the ſum was ſo trifling,
made with ſuch impetuoſity, that the redoubts which that it was not worth bringing into the account, and
covered the batteries, were forced, and eleyen pieces therefore was for leaving it entirely at Cornwallis's
of cannon ſpiked. The French troops, who had the diſpoſal. Laurens interfered, and obſerved to his col-
guard of that part of the intrenchment, ſuffered con- league, that though it was natural for a ſubject of one
liderably. This ſucceſsful action did honor to the of the greateſt monarchs in the world to think 1800l.
officers and troops engaged, but produced no eſſential an inconſiderable fum, yet, for his part, being a ſub-
benefit. The cannon, being haſtily ſpiked, were foon ject of an infant ſtate, ſtruggling with infinite in con-
rendered again ſerviceable; and the combined forces veniences, and where money was very rare, he muſt
were ſo induſtrious, that they finiſhed their batteries, deem it a very conſiderable fum; and therefore he in-
opened them about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and ſiſted that it ſhould be accounted for. This was ac-
fired briſkly. Their ſeveral batteries were now co cordingly done ; and afterward it was paid into the
vered with near 100 picces of heavy ordnance; and hands of Timothy Pickering, Eſq; American quarter
the Britiſh works were ſo deſtroyed, that they could maſter general, to the amount of 21131. 6s. ſterling,
382
ſcarcely ſhow a ſingle gun.
eſtimating the dollar at 45. 8d.—There being a mani-
Britiſh at-
Thus was Lord Cornwallis reduced to the neceſſity feſt impropriety in the Americans ſtipulating for the
tempts an of preparing for a ſurrender, or of attempting an eí return of the negroes, while they themſelves were
eſcape.
cape. He deterinined upon the latter. Boats were avowedly fighting for their own liberties, they co-
prepared under different pretexts, for the reception vered their intention of repofſeffing them, under theſe
of the troops by ten at night, in order to paſs them general terms with which the fourth article cloſed
over to Glouceſter Point. The arrangements were “It is underſtood, that any property obviouſly belong-
made with the utmoſt ſecrecy. The intention was ing to the inhabitants of theſe ſtates, in the poſſeſſion
to abandon the baggage, and to leave a detachment of the garriſon, ſhall be ſubject to be reclaimed.'
384
behind to capitulate for the towns people, and for the The poſts of York and Gloucefter were ſurrendered Surrendor
fick and wounded, his lord ſhip having already prepa on the 19th. The honor of marching out with colours of York
red a letter on the ſubject, to be delivered to Gen. flying, which had been denied Gen. Lincoln, was
cefter.
Wahington after his departure. The firſt embark- now refuſed to Lord Cornwallis ; and Lincoln was ap-
ation had arrived at Glouceſter Point, and the greater pointed to receive the ſubmiſſion of the royal army at
part of the troops were already landed, when the wea. York Town, preciſely in the ſame way his own had
ther, which was before moderate and calm, inſtantly been conducted about 18 months before. The troops
changed to a moſt violent ſtorm of wind and rain. of every kind that ſurrendered priſoners of war, ex.
The boats with the remaining troops were all driven ceeded 7000 men; but ſuch was the number of fick
down the river, and the delign of palling was not only and wounded, that there were only 3800 capable of
entirely fruſtrated, but the abſence of the boats ren- bearing arms. The officers and ſoldiers retained
dered it impoſſible to bring back the troops from their baggage and effeéts. Fifteen hundred ſeamen
Glouceſter. Thus weakened and divided, the arıny partook of the fate of the garriſon. The Guadaloupe
was in the moſt imminent danger. The boats how- frigate of 24 guns, and a number of tranſports were
ever returned: and the troops were brought back ſurrendered to the conquerors : about 20 tranſports
without much loſs in the courſe of the forenoon.
383
had been ſunk or burnt during the fiege. The land
Cornwallis Matters were now haſtening to a criſis, which could forces became priſoners to congreſs; but the ſeamen
capitulates. not be longer averted. The Britiſh works were ſink- and ſhips were aſſigned to the French admiral. The
ing under the weight of the American and French ar Americans obtained a numerous artillery, 75 braſs
tillery. The continuance of the allied fire, only for ordnance and 69 iron cannon, howitzers and mortars.
a few more hours, would reduce them to ſuch a con Lord Cornwallis endeavoured to obtain permiſſion
dition that it would be raſhneſs to attempt their de. for the Britiſh and German troops to return to their
fence.—The time for expecting relief from New York reſpective countries, under engagements not to ſerve
was elapſed. The ſtrength and ſpirits of the royal againſt France or America; and alſo an indemnity
troops were worn down by conſtant watching,andunre. for thoſe who had joined him: but he was obliged to
mitting fatigue. Lord Cornwallis therefore fent out a conſent, that the former ſhould be retained in the go-
fiag at roo'clock in the miorning of the 17th with a let vernments of Virginia, Pennſylvania and Maryland;
ter to General Waſhington, requeſting a ceſſation of and that the latter, whoſe caſe lay with the civil au-
arms for twenty-four hours, and that commiſſioners thority of the ſtates, ſhould be given up to the uncon-
ditional
and Glou.
1
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Α Μ Ε
America. ditional mercy of their countrymen. His lordſhip the omiſſion of ſending a larger force from the Weſt Americs.
however obtained permiſſion for the Bonetta noop of Indies than that which was diſpatched under Sir Sa-
war to paſs unexamined, which gave an opportunity muel Hood. A few more ſhips in the firſt inſtance
of ſcreening thoſe of the royaliſts who were moſt ob- might have prevented that moſt woful diſappointment
noxious to the reſentments of the Americans. He with which both Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Corn.
took care alſo lo have it ſtipulated, that no article of waliis have been painfully exerciſed.
386
the capitulation ſhould be infringed on pretext of re Every argument and perſualion was aſed with the De Graffe
priſal. His lordſhip, with all civil and military offi- Count de Graſſe to induce him to aid the combined ar- fails for the
cers, except thoſe of the latter who were necellarily my in an operation againſt Charleſtown; but the ad- Weft-l22-
dies,
left behind for the protection and government of the vanced ſeaſon, the orders of his court, and his own
foldiers, were at liberty to go upon parole, either to engagenients to be punctual to a certain tine fixed
Great Britain or New York. He acknowledged in
He acknowledged in for his ulterior operations, prevented liis compliance.
his public letter, that the treatment which he and His inſtructions had fixed his departure even to the
the army had received after the ſurrender, was per- 15th of October ; he however early engaged to ſtay
fectly good and proper. His lordſhip (pake in theſe longer. Could he have extended his co-operation
warm terms of the kindneſs and attention ſhown to two months more, there would moſt probably have
them, by the French officers in particular—" Their been a total extirpation of the Britiſh force in the Ca-
deliberate ſenſibility of our fituation, their generous rolinas and Georgia. On the 27th, the troops under
and preſſing offers of money, both public and private, the Marquis St Sinon began to embark for the Weſt
to any annount, has really gone beyond what I can Indies; and about the 5th of November the Count
389 poſſibly deſcribe.'
de Gralle failed from the Cheſapeak.
Thankf On the 20th of October, the American commander The Marquis de la Fayette being about to leave
giving ap- in chief, congratulated in general orders the army on America, ihe following expreſſions made a part of the
pointed by the glorious event of the preceding day; and tender- orders iſſued by him previous to his departure from
the general, ed to the generals, officers and privates, his thanks in York Town- Orders for the firſt brigade of light
the warmeſt language. He with gratitude returned infantry, iſſued by major general the inarquis de la
his fincere acknowledgments to Gov. Nelſon of Vir. Fayette, Oct. 31, 1781. In the moment the major
ginia, for the ſuccours received from him and the mi- general leaves this place, he wilhes once more to ex-
Jitia under him. To ſpread the general joy in all preſs his gratitude to the brave corps of light infan-
hearts, he commanded that thoſe of the army, who try, who for nine months paſt have been the compa-
were under arreſt, ſhould be pardoned and ſet at li- nions of his fortunes. He will never forget, that
berty. The orders cloſed with—Divine ſervice ſhall with them alone of regular troops, he had the good
be performed to-morrow in the different brigades fortune to manoeuvre before an army, which after all
and diviſions. The commander in chief recommends, its reductions, is ſtill fix times fuperior to the regular
that all the troops that are not upon duty, do aſſiſt at force he had at the time.”
it with a ſerious deportment, and that ſenſibility of gade embarked for the Head of Elk'; the invalids of
heart which tlic recollection of the ſurpriſing and the American troops deſtined for the north ward hay-
particular interpoſition of Providence in our favor ing previouſly done it. The New Jerſey and part of
claims."
the New York lines marched by land, and were to
The Britiſh feet and army deſtined for the relief of join the troops which went by water, at the Head of
Lord Cornwallis, arrived off the Cheſapeak on the Elk. Such cavalry as were wanted by General Greene
24th ; but on receiving authentic accounts of his ſur marched feveral days before ; and on the 5th of No-
render, they returned to New York. A few days af- vember a reinforcement marched under Gen. St
ter their firſt return, the fleet was increaſed by four Clair, in order to ſtrengthen him for further offen-
ſhips of the line : but ſuch was the ſuperiority of the five operarations in South Carolina. The ſeaſon of
French byde Barras's junction with theCountde Graſſe, the year was unfavorable for the return of the troops
that nothing ſhort of deſperate circumſtances could juf- to the North river, fo that they ſuffered much in do-
tifyattempting a freſh engagement. Theſe circumſtan- ing it. But they and their comrades had been bleſſed
ces however exiſting, the Britiſh naval commanders with a ſeries of the moſt delightful weather froin the
aſed all poffible expedition in refitting the ſhips, with beginning of their march toward York Town, until
the deſign of extiicating Cornwallis and his army, the reduction of the place.
387
The delay occaſioned by this bulineſs ſeemed to be No fooner had congreſs received and read General Congreſs
compenſated by the arrival of the Prince William and Waſhington's letter, giving information of the reduc- appoint a
Torbay men of war from Jamaica. It was determin- tion of the Britiſh army, than they reſolved, on the day of
ed that every exertion ſhould be uſed both by the fleet 24th of October, that they would at two o'clock go in thankſgir-
and army, to form a junction with the Britiſh force in proceſſion to the Dutch Lutheran Church, and return
ing.
Virginia. Sir Henry Clinton embarked with about thanks to Almighty God, for crowning the allied arms
7000 of his beſt forces. It was nevertheleſs the 19th of of the United States and France, with ſucceſs by the
October before the fleet could fall down to the Hook. ſurrender of the whole Britiſh army under the com-
They amounted to 25 Mhips of the line, 2 fifties, and 8 mand of Earl Cornwallis. This army had ſpread
frigates. When they appeared off the Cheſapeak, the waſte and ruin over the face of Virginia for 400 miles
French made no manner of movement, though they on the ſea-coaſt, and for 200 to the weſtward. Their
had 36 ſhips of the line, being ſatisfied with their numbers enabled them to go where they pleaſed; and
preſent ſucceſs. The main error, which paved the their rage for plunder diſpoſed them to take whate-
way to the capture of the Britiſh army, appears to be ver they esteemed moſt valuable. The reduction of
fych
2
A M E
† 624 )
A ME
America. ſuch an army occaſioned tranſports of joy in the breaſt taken the opinion of congreſs upon that meaſure; and America,
of every American. But that joy was increaſed and by them he
was directed to refuſeany paſſport for ſuch
maintained, by the further conlideration of the influ a purpoſe. However, another letter was ſent to Ge-
ence it would have in procuring ſuch a peace as was neral Waſhington, dated the ad of Auguſt, figned by
deſired. Two days after, the congreſs iſſued a pro- Sir Guy Carleton and Rear-admiral Digby, in which
clamation for religiouſly obſerving throughout the they informed him, that they were acquainted by au-
United States, the 13th of December, as a day of thority that negociations for a general peace had alrea-
thankſgiving and prayer. On the 29th of October dy commenced
at Paris ; that Mr Grenville was inveft-
they relolved, that thanks ſhould be preſented to Gen. ed with full powers to treat with all the parties at war ;
Wahington, Count de Rochambeau, Count de Graſſe, and was then at Paris in the execution of his commif.
and the officers of the different corps, and the nien fion. They farther informed him, that his Britannic ina-
under their command, for their ſervices in the reduc- jeſty, inorder to remove allobſtacles to that peace which
tion af Lord Cornwallis.-They alſo reſolved to erect helo ardently wiſhed to reſtore, had commanded his mi-
in York Town a marble column, adorned with em- niſters to direct Mr Grenville, that the independency
blems of the alliance between the United States and of the thirteen provinces ſhould be propoſed by hini, in
his Moſt Chriſtian Majeſty; and inſcribed with a the firſt inſtance, inſtead of making it the condition of
389
ſuccinct narrative of the ſurrender of the Britifh ar. a general treaty. But ſome jealouſies were entertain- Reſolutions
my. Two ſtands of colours taken from the royal ed by the Americans, that it was the deſign of the of congreſs
troops, under the capitulation, were preſented to Gen. Britiſh court either to diſunite them, or to bring them in conſe-
Waſhington in the name of the United States in Con to treat of a peace ſeparately from their ally the king quence
thereof.
greſs-allembled; and two pieces of field ordnance ſo of France: they therefore reſolved, that any man, or
taken, were by a reſolve of Congreſs, to be preſented body of men, who ſhould prefume to make any ſepa-
by Gen. Waſhington to Count de Rochambeau, with rate or partial convention or agreement with the king
a fort memorandıım engraved thereon, “ that Con- of Great-Britain, or with any commiſſioner or conia
greſs were induced to preſent them from conſidera- miſſioners under the crown of Great-Britain, ought to
tions of the illuſtrious part which he bore in effectu. be conſidered and treated as open and avowed enemies
ating the ſurrender.” It was further reſolved to re of the United States of America ; and alſo that thoſe
queſt the Chevalier de Luzerne, to inform his moſt ſtates could not with propriety hold any conference or
Chriſtian Majeſty, that it was the wiſh of Congreſs, treaty with any commiſſioners on the part of Great
that Count de Graſſe might be permitted to accept a Britain, unleſs they ſhould, as a preliminary thereto,
teſtimony of their approbation, ſimilar to that which either withdraw their fleets and armies, or elſe, in po.
was to be preſented to Count de Rochambeau. Le ſitive or expreſsterms, acknowledge the independence
giſlative bodies, executive councils, city corporations, of the ſaid ſtates. They likewiſe reſolved, that any
and many private ſocieties, preſented congratulatory propofitions which might be made by the court of
addreſſes to Gen. Waſhington, accompanied with the Great Britain, in any manner tending to violate the
warmeſt acknowledgments to Count de Rochambeau, treaty ſubſiſting between them and the king of France,
Count de Graſſe and the other officers in the ſervice ought to be treated with every mark of indignity and
of his Moſt Chriſtian Majeſty. Places of public wor- contempt.
396
fhip reſounded with grateful praiſes to the Lord of In the month of June, the town of Savannah, and Different
Hoſts, the God of battles, before, at, and after the the whole province of Georgia, were evacuated by the places eva:
day of thankſgiving. The ſingularly intereſting event Britiſh troops; as was alſo Charleſton, South-Ca-cuated by
of captivating a ſecond royal army, produced ſuch rolina, about the cloſe of the year. In the mean time,
ſtrong enotions in numbers, both of miniſters and the negociations for peace being continued, proviſional
troops.
people, that they could not wait the arrival of the articles of peace were ſignea at Paris on the 30th of
day.
November by the commiſſioner of his Britannic Ma-
As no rational expectation now remained of a ſubju- jeſty and the American commiſſioners, in which his Indepen-
gation of the colonies, the military operations that ſuc- Majeſty acknowledged the united colonies of New-dency of
ceeded in America were of little confequence. Some Hamphire, Maſſachuſetts-Bay, Rhode Iſland,and Pro-America
inconſiderable actions and ſkirmiſhes did indeed take vidence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New- acknow-
place after that event; in which the refugees chiefly Jerſey, Penſylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
ledged.
diſtinguiſhed themſelves, and diſcovered an inveterate North-Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, to bé
animoſity againſt the Americans. On the 5th of May “free, ſovereign, and independent ſtates." They had
Carleton 1782, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New-York, being conſtituted themſelves ſuch on the 4th of July 1776;
arrives at appointed to the command of the Britiſh troops in A- they had been acknowledged ſuch by the French king
merica in the room of Sir Henry Clinton. Two days on the 30th of January 1978, when he concluded with
York, with after his arrival, he wrote a letter to General Waſhing- them a treaty of amity and conimerce ; Holland had
powers to
ton, acquainting him, that Admiral Digby was joined acknowledged them as ſuch April 19th 1782; Sweden
with himſelf in a commiſſion to treat of peace with acknowledged them as ſuch February 5th 1783 ; Den
the people of America ; tranſmitting to him, at the mark the 25th February, Spain in March, and Ruſſia
392
ſame time, ſome papers tending to manifeſt the pacific in July, the ſame year.
The Ames
diſpoſition of the government and people of Britain The Definitive Treaty was ligned on the 3d of Sep- rican army
towards thoſe of America. He alſo deſired a paſſport teinber 1783; and in Aug. Sir Guy Carleton had re diſbanded,
for Mr Morgan, who was appointed to tranſınit a fi- ceived his finalorders for the evacuation of New-York.
Waſhing-
milar leiter of compliment to the congreſs. General Tueſday, November the 25th, was the day agreed
ton reſigns
Waſhington declined ſigning any paſſport till he had upon for this evacuation. To prevent every dilorder his com
4
which miffion.
the British
391
388
Sir Guy
New-
treat of
peace.
and I gen.
A M E ( 625 )
A M E
Gen.
America. which might otherwiſe enſue from ſuch an event, the God, and thoſe who have the ſuperintendence of them America.
American troops under the command of Gen. Knox to his holy keeping.
inarched from Haerlem to the Bowery-lane in the “ Having now finiſhed the work aſſigned ine, I retire
morning. They remained theretill about one o'clock, from the great theatre of action,jand bidding an affecti-
whien the Britiſh forces left the poſts in the Bowery, onate farewel to this auguſt body, under whoſe orders
and the Americans marched forward and took poſlef- I have ſo long acted, I here offer my commiſſion, and
fion of the city. This being effected, Gen. K110x and a take my leave of all the employinents of public life.”
number of citizens on horſeback rode to the Bowery to The general was fo powerfully imprelied, with the
receive their excellencies Gen. Waſhington and Go- great and intereſting ſcenes that crowded in upon his
vernor Clinton, who, with their ſuites, made their imagination while ſpeaking, that he would have been
public entry into the city on horſeback; followed by ſcarce able to have uttered more than the cloſing pen
the lieut. governor and the members of council, for riod. He advanced and delivered to the preſident
the teniporary government of the ſouthern diſtrict, four his commiſſion, with a copy of his addreſs. Having
abreaſt--Gen. Knox and the officers of the army eight reſumed his place, he received in a ſtanding poſture
abreaſt-citizens on horſeback, eight abreaſt--the the following anſwer of Congreſs; which the preſi-
ſpeaker of the aſſembly and citizens on foot, eight a- dent delivered with elegance; but not without ſuch
breaſt. The proceſſion ceaſed at Cape's tavern. The a ſenſibility as changed, and ſpread a degree of pale-
governor gave a public dinner at Frances's tavern; at neſs over his countenance.
which the commander in chief and other general of. “Sir, The United States in Congreſs aſſembled re-
ficers were preſent. The arrangements for the whole ceive, with enotions too affecting for utterance, the
buſineſs were ſo well made and executed, that the ſolemn reſignation of the authorities under which
moſt admirable tranquillity fucceeded through the day you have led their troops with ſucceſs through a
and night. Soon after this event, the ſoldiers of the perilous and a doubtful war.
Called upon by your
American army, chearfully reſuming the character of country to defend its invaded rights, you accepted
citizens, returned peaceably to their reſpective the ſacred charge, before it had forined alliances, and
homes; while their beloved and ever-honoured com whilſt it was without funds or a government to ſup-
mander, having taken a pathetic leave of his officers, port you. You have conducted the great military
repaired to Annapolis, and, on the 23d of December, conteſt with wiſdom and fortitude, invariably regard-
at an audience with Congreſs (perhaps the moſt ſin- ing the rights of the civil power through all diſaſters
gular and intereſting that ever occurred) riſing with and changes. You have by the love and confidence of
great dignity, he, delivered this addreſs,
your fellow-citizens, enabled them to diſplay their
393
6- Mr. Prelident, The great events on which my martial genias, and tranſmit their fame to posterity.-
Waſhing- reſignation depended having at length taken place, I You have perſevered, till theſe United States, aided
ton reſigns have now the honour of offering my ſincere Congratu- by a magnanimous king and nation, have been enabled
lations to Congreſs, and of preſenting myſelf before under a juſt Providence, to cloſe the war in freedom,
miſſion to
them, to ſurrender into their hands the truſt commit- ſafety, and independence; on which happy event we
congreſs.
ted to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from ſincerely join you in congratulations.
the ſervice of my country.
• Having defended the ſtandard of liberty in this
" Happy in the confirmation of our independence new world : having taught a leſſon uſeful to thoſe who
and ſovereignty, and pleaſed with the opportunity inflict and to thoſe who feel oppreſſion, you retire from
afforded the United States, of becoming a reſpectable the great theatre of action, with the bleſſings of your
nation, I reſign with ſatisfaction the appointment I fellow-citizens--but the glory of your virtues will not
accepted with diffidence~a diffidence in my abili. terminate with your military command, it will conti-
ties to accompliſh fo arduous a talk; which however nue to animate remoreſt ages.
was ſuperſeded by a confidence in the rectitude of our « We feel with you our obligations to the army in
cauſe, the ſupport of the ſupreme power of the union, general, and will particularly charge ourſelves with
and the patronage of Heaven.
the intereſts, of thoſe confidential officers, who have
“ The ſucceſsful termination of the war has veri- attended your perſon to this affecting moment.
fied the moſt ſanguine expectations; and my grati “We join you in commending the intereſts of our
tude for the interpoſition of Providence, and the affi- deareſt country to the protection of Almighty God,
ſtance I have received from any countryinen, increaſes beſeeching him to diſpoſe the hearts and minds of its
with every review of the momentous conteſt.
citizens, to improve the opportunity afforded chem,
" While I repeat my obligations to the army in of becoming a happy and reſpectable nation. And
general, I ſhould do injuſtice to my own feelings not for you we addreſs to biin our earneſt prayers, that
to acknowledge in this place, the peculiar ſervices a life ſo beloved, may be foftered with all his care;
and diſtinguiſhed merits of the gentlemen who have that your days may be happy as they have been illuf.
been attached to my perſon during the war. It was im crious ; and that he will finally give you that reward
poſſible the choice of confidential officers to compoſe which this world cannot give.
my family ſhould have been inore fortunate. Permit Having thus religned his commiſſion into the hands
me, sir, to recommend in particular thoſe who have of the preſident of that honourable body, he retired
continued in the ſervice to the preſent moment, as wor from public life amidſt the acclamations of his grate-
thy of the favorable notice and patronage of Congreſs. ful and admiring countrymen.
“ I conſider it as an indiſpenſable duty to cloſe this According to the report of the committee appoint-
Loſs of
laſt act of my official life by commending the intereſts ed for that purpoſe, the Foreign Debt of the United
of our deareſt country to the protection of Almighty States incurred by the war, amounted to 7,885,085 treaſure by
Vol. I.
4 K
dollars, the war.
his com-
394
men and
A M E
[ 326 2
A M E
America, dollars, and the Domeſtic Debt to 34,115,290, total, which his fame was ſo great, that many came from re- Ameftrataz-
at 45. 6d. each, equal to 9,450,084 1. Sterling, the mote nations to be educated under him. He from Amethyſt.
intereſt of which at 6 per. cent. is 567,005l. But the thence removed to Rotterdam for a change of air, which
coſt to Great Britain is moderately computed at his health demanded; and here he continued during the
115,654,9141. and the additional annual burthen by remainder of his life. His controverſial writings, which
it 4,557,5751. ſince January 1775. As to the loſs of compoſe the greateſt part of his works, are chiefly
men during the war, the States of America, it is ſup- againſt Bellarmine and the Arminians. He alſo wrote,
poſed, loft by the ſword and in priſon near 80,000 1. A freſh Suit againſt the Ceremonies. 2. Leétiones
men ; and by the Britiſh returns at New-York, the in Pſalmos Davidis. 3. Medulla Theologiæ ; and fe .
number of foldiers killed in the ſervice aniounted to veral pieces relative to the ſciences. He died of an
43,633
aſthma, at Rotterdam, in Nov. 1633.
Of the extent of territory, population, commerce, AMESTRATA, a town of Sicily, (Ciccro); Ame-
revenues and wealth of this growing empire ; and, al- fratas, (Stephanus); Amaltra (Silius Italicus) ; Mul-
ſo, of the rife, progreſs, and eſtabliſhment of the pre- tiſtratos, (Polybius) : Now Miſtretta, in the Val di De-
ſent happy form of government, a particular acconnt mona, on the river Haleſus. It was a very ſtrong fort of
flrall be given, under the article UNITED STATES, the Carthaginians, belieged in vain by the Romans for
ſeven months with conſiderable loſs; at length, after
AMERICAN NIGHT-SHADE. See PHYTOLACCA. another fiege taken and razed (Diodor. Siculus).
AMERICAN GROUND-NUT. See ARRACHIS. AMETHYST, a tranſparent gem of a purple co---
AMERICUS VESPUCIUS, a Florentine gentlemall, lour, which ſeems compoſed of a ſtrong blue and a.
from whom America derived its name. The mer deep red, and, according as either of thoſe prevails, af-
chants of Seville having obtained permiſſion to attempt fording different tinges of purple, ſometimes approach-
diſcoveries as private adventurers, fent out four hips in ing to violet, and ſometimes even fading.to a pale-roſe
1499, under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda (who colour. Though the amethyſt is generally of a purple
had accompanied Columnbus in his ſecond voyage), af- colour, it is nevertheleſs ſometimes found naturally co-
fifted by Americus Vefpucius, who was known to be lourleſs, and may at any time be eaſily made fo by put-
deeply ſkilled in the ſcience of navigation. This fleeting it into the fire; in which pellucid or colourleſsftate,
touched on that part of the weſtern continent already it fo reſembles the diamond, that its want of hardneſs.
diſcovered by Columbus, whoſe track Ojeda followed; ſeems the only way of diſtinguiſhing it. Some derive
and Americus, who was a man of much addreſs, as well the name amethyſt from its colour, which reſembles
as poſſeſſed of conſiderable literary talents, by publiſh- wine mixed with water; whilſt others, with more
ing the firſt voyages on the fubject, and other artful probability, think it got its name from its ſuppoſed
means, gave his name tothe New-World, in prejudice virtue of preventing drunkenneſs; an opinion which,
to the illuſtrious Genoeſe. The impoſture, though long however imaginary, prevailed to that degree among
detected, has been ſanctified by time : and the fourth the ancients, that it was uſual for great drinkers to
diviſion of the globe, ſo long unknown to the inhabi wear it about their necks. Be this as it will, the
tants of Europe, Aſia, and Africa, ſtill continues to be amethyſt is ſcarce inferior to any of the gems in the
diſtinguiſhed by the name of AMERICA,
beauty of its colour ; and in its pureſt ſtate is of the
AMERSFOŘT, a city in the Netherlands, in the ſame hardneſs, and at leaſt of equal value, with the
province of Utrecht, ſeated on the river Ems, E. Long. ruby and fapphire. It is found of various ſizes, from
5. 20. N. Lat. 52. 14. The moſt remarkable things the bigneſs of a ſmall vetch, to an inch and an half in
are, the town-houſe; the grand palace, which is crian- diameter, and often to much more than that in length.
galar; the public walk, planted with trees ; and the Its ſhape is extremely various, ſometimes roundiſh,
great church, dedicated to St George. The land to the ſometimes oblong, and at others flatted, at leaſt on
caſt and fouth of this city is very fruitful ; on the north one fide ; but its moſt common appearance is in a
there is nothing but pailare-ground, and on the weſt cryſtalliform figure, conſiſting of a thick column,
it is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain called compoſed of four plants, and terminated by a flat and
Amersfort.berg, on which they have planted a viſta of ſhort pyramid, of the fáme number of fides; or elfe,
trees, which reaches to Utrecht.
of a thinner and longer hexangular column; and
AMERSHAM, or AGMONDESHAM, a market- ſometimes of a long pyramid, without any column. It
town in Buckinghamſhire, conſiſting of about 200 makes the gayeſt figure in the laſt of theſe ſtates, buc.
houſes, with a free-ſchool, and four alms-houſes. It is hardeſt and moſt valuable in the roundiſh and pebble-
ſends two members to parliament, and has a market like form. The amethyſt is found in the Eaſt and
on Tueſday. It is a rectory rated at 481. 165. 8d. in the Weſt-Indies, and in ſeveral parts of Europe ; tho
king's books. The market-loufe is a very handſome oriental ones, at leaſt fonie of the finer ſpecimens, bea
ſtructure. W. Long. 0. 15. N. Lat. 51. 47.
ing ſo hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured
AMES (Willian, D.D.) a learned independent di- gems in value. However, by far the greater number
vine, famous for his controverſial writings, was born in of amethyſts fall infinitely ſhort of theſe; as all the
1576, and educated at Chriſt's college, in Cambridge. the European ones, and not a few of thoſe brought
In the reign of King James 1. he left the univerfity, from the Eaft and Weſt-Indies, are very little liarder
and ſoon after the kingdom, on account of his being than common cryſtał.
unwilling to conform to the rules of the church ; and Counterfeit or faétitious AMETHYST. Spars and
retired to the Hague, where he had not been long be- cryſtals tinged red and yellow, &c. are fold for ame-
fore he was invited to accept of the divinity-chair in glıyſts. The falſe ones come from Germany, are ting-
theuniverſity of Franeker, in Frieſland, which he filled cd by vapours in the mines, and contain ſome lead.
with admirable abilities for above twelve years; during Amethyſts may be counterfeited by glaſs, to which
the
1
A MI
A M E
į 627 ]
parabella
Amethyf the proper colour or ſtain is given. There were fine AMHURST (Nicholas), an Engliſh poet and poli- Amhurſt
9 ones made in France about the year 1690, which may tical writer, was born at Marden in Kent, and entered 0
Amhar.
Amida.
even impoſe on connoiſſeurs, unleſs the ſtone be taken of St John's college Oxford ; froni whence he was ex-
out of the collet.—The method of giving this colour pelled for irregularity of conduct and libertine princi-
to glaſs is directed as follows: Take chryſtal-frit, ples. Retaining great reſentment againſt the univerſity
made with the moſt perfect and fine tarſo: Then pre on this account, he abuſed its learning and diſcipling,
pare a mixture of manganeſe in powder, one pound; and ſome of the moſt reſpectable characters in it, in a
and zaffer prepared, one ounce and a half: Mix theſe poem publihed in 1724, called Oculus Britanniæ, aud
powders well together; and add to every pound of the in a book intitled Terræ Filius. He publiſhed a Miſcel-
frit an ounce of this powder. Let it be put into the lany of Poems, ſacred and profane; and, The C011-
pots with the frit, not into the already made metal. vocation, a poem in five cantos, which was a ſatire on
When the whole has ſtood long enough in fuſion to the Biſhop of Bangor's antagoniſts. But he is beſt
be perfectly pure, work it into veſſels, and then will known for the ſhare he had in the political paper call-
reſemble the colour of the amethyſt.
ed The Graftſman : though, after having been the
AMETHYST in heraldry, a term for the purple co- drudge of his party for near 20 years, he was as much
lour in the coat of a nobleman, in uſe with thoſe who forgot in the fainous compromiſe of 1742 as if he had
blazon with precious ſtones, inſtead of metals and co never been born ; and, when he died in that year of
lours. This, in a gentleman's eſcutchcon, is called a broken heart, was indebted to the charity of his
Purpure; and in thoſe of ſovereign princes, Mercury. bookſeller for a grave.
AMETHYSTEA, AMETHYST : a genus of the AMIANTHUS, or EARTH-FLAX, in natural hir-
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria claſs of tory, a fibrous, flexile, elaſtic, mineral ſubſtance, con-
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under, the fiſting of ſhort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It
42d order, Verticillatæ. The characters are: The ca is found in Germany, in the ſtrata of iron ore, fome-
lyx conſiſts of a ſingle-leaved perianthium, bell-laped, times forming veins of an inch in diameter. Its fibres
angular, ſemiquinquefid, and perſiſtent. The corolla are ſo flexible that cloth has been made of them, and
is monopetalous; the border quinquepartite, the low the ſhorter filaments that ſeparate in the waſhing of the
eſt diviſion more expanding: The ſtamina conſiſt of ſtone may be made into paper in the conimon manner.
two flender filaments approximated; the antheræ are for the method of its preparation for manufacture into
fimple and roundiſh: the piſtillum has a four-cleft ger- cloth, fee ASBESTOS.
men; ſtylus, the ſize of the ſtamina ; ſtigmata, two, a Amianthus is claſſed by Mr Kirwan in the muriatic
cute : no corolla : the feeds, four, gibbous, and ſhorter genus of earths, becauſe it contains about a fifth part
than the calyx :- there is only one known ſpecies. of magneſia, Its other conſtituents, are, flint, mild
This plant is a native of Siberia, from whence the calcareous earth, barytes, clay, and a very ſmall pro-
ſeeds were ſent to the imperial garden at Peterſburgh, portion of iron. It is fuſible per fe in a ſtrong heat,
and thence carried to Britain. It is an annual plant, and alſo with the common fluxus. It differs from af-
with an upright ſtalk, which riſes about a foot high. beſtos in containing ſome ponderous earth.
Towards the top it puts forth two or three ſmall 'late AMICABLE, in a general ſenſe, denotes any thing
ral branches, garniſhed with ſmall trifid leaves, ſawed done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
on their edges, of a very dark green colour. The AVICABLE-Benches, in Roman antiquity, were, ac-
flowers appear in Junc or July, and are produced in cording to Pitiſcus, lower and leſs honourable ſeats al-
ſmall umbels at the extremities of the branches. They lotted for the judices pedanei, or inferior judges, who,
are of a fine blue colour, as are alſo the upper part of upon being admitted of the emperor's council, were
the branches, and the leaves immediately under the dignified by him with the title amici.
umbel, ſo that they make a fine appearance.
AMICABLE-Numbers, ſuch as are mutually equal to
Culture. The ſeeds of the amethyftea ſhould be the fum of one another's aliquot parts. Thusthe num-
fown in autumn, as they are apt to remain a whole bers 284 and 220 are amicable numbers : for the ali-
year in the ground, iſ kept till the ſpring. When the quot parts, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110, of
plants come up, nothing elſe is neceſſary than to keep 220, are together equal to the other number 284; and
them clear of weeds, and to thin them where they are the aliquot parts 1, 2, 4, 71, 142, of 284, are together
too cloſe. They ought to be fown where they are to equal to 220.
remain, as they do not thrive when tranſplanted. AMICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper
AMÉTHYSTINE is applied, in antiquity, to a garment worn over the tunica.
kind of purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyſt. AMICTUS, among eccleſiaſtical writers, the upper-
In this ſenſe amethyſtine differed from Tyrian as well moſt garrnent ancicatly worn by the clergy; the other
as from hyacinthine purple, being a kind of medium five being the alba, ſingulum, ſtola, manipulus, and
between both.
planeta. The amictus was a linen garment, of a ſquare
AMHAR, or AMHARA, a province of Abyſſinia, figure, covering the head, neck, and ſhoulders, and
faid to extend 40 leagues from eaſt to weſt. It is con buckled or claſped before the breaſt. It is ſtill worn
fidered as the moſt noble in the whole empire, both on by the religious abroad.
account of its being the uſual reſidence of the Abyſſi AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman's up-
nian monarchs, and having a particular dialect diffe- per garment, which differed from the pala. It was
rent from all the reſt, which, by reaſon of the empe worn both by matrons and courtezans.
fors being brought up in this province, is become the AMICUS CURIÆ, a lart-tern, to denote byn
language of the court and of the politer people. Here ſtander who informas the court of a matter in law that
is the famed rock Amba-gehen, where the young mo-
is doubtful or miſtaken.
narchs were formerly confined. See AMBA.
AMIDA, a god worſhipped by the Japaneſe, who
4 K 2
دند
A MI
[ 628
A MI
Amida, has many temples erected to him in the iſland of Ja- worth ſeeing are the palace of the bailiwic, the town- Amilcar,
Amiens.
pan, of which the principal is at Jedo. The Japaneſe houſe, the ſquare des Fleurs, and the great market U
have fach a confidence in their idol Amida, that they place.
Amittere,
hope to obtain eternal felicity by the frequent invoca Amiens was taken by the Spaniards, in 1597, by
tion of his name. One of the figures of this idol is the following ſtratagem : Soldiers, diſguiſed like pea-
repreſented at Rone.
ſants, conducted a cart laden with nuts, and let a bag
AMIDA, (anc. geog.), a principal city of Meſopo- of them fall juſt as the gate was opened. While the
tania (Liber Notitiæ) Ammæa (Ptolemy); ſituated guard was buſy in gathering up the nuts, the Spaniards
on a high mountain, on the borders of Aſſyria, on the entered and became inaſters of the town. It was re-
Tigris, where it receives the Nymphius. It was ta- taken by Henry IV. who built á citadel there.
ken from the Romans, in the time of the emperor This town is the ſeat of a biſhop,ſuffragan of Rheims,
Conſtans, by Sapores king of Perſia. The fiege is as alſo of a preſidial, bailiwic, vidam, a chamber of
ſaid to have coſt him 30,000 men; however, he re accounts, and a generality. The bilhop's revenue is
duced it to ſuch ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept 30,000 livres. They have ſome linen and woollen ma-
over it. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the nufactures, and they alſo make a great quantity of
city was razed; the chief officers were crucified; and black and green ſoap. It lies in E. Long. 2. 30,
the reſt, with the foldiers and inhabitants, either put to N. Lat. 49. 50.
the ſword or carried into captivity, except our hiſtori AMILCAR, the name of ſeveral Carthaginian cap-
an himſelf, and two or three more, who, in the dead of tains. The moſt celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas,
the night, eſcaped through a poftern unperceived by the father of Hannibal, who during five years in
the enemy. The inhabitants of Niſibis, however, feſted the coaſt of Italy ; when the Romans, ſending
being obliged to leave their own city by Jovian's trea out their whole naval ſtrength, defeated him near Tra-
ty with the Perſians, foon reſtored Amida to its for- pani, 242 years before Chriſt ; and thus put an end to
mer ſtrength; but it was again taken by Cavades in the firſt Punic war. Amilcar began the ſecond, and
501, but was reſtored to the Romans in 503. On the landed in Spain, where he ſubdued the moſt warlike
declenſion of the Roman power, it fell again into the nations ; but as he was preparing for an expedition
hands of the Perſians; but was taken from them by againſt Italy,he was killed in battle, 228 years before
the Saracens in 899. It is now in the poſſeſſion of the the Chriſtian æra. He left three fons, whom he had
Turks. Here are above 20,000 Chriſtians, who are educated, as he ſaid, like three lions, to tear Rome in
better treated by the Turks than in other places. A pieces ; and made Hannabal, his eldeſt ſon, ſwear ail
great trade is carried on in this city, of red Turkey cternal enmity againſt the Romans.
leather, and cotton cloth of the ſame colour. The AMILICTI, in the Chaldaic theology, denote a
Arabian name of Amida is Diarbeker, and the Turkiſh kind of intellectual powers, or perſons in the divine
one Kara Amed. E. Long. 39. 0. N. Lat. 36. 58. hierarchy. The Amilicti are repreſented as three in
AMIENS, a large handſome city of France, the number, and conſtitute one of the tryads, in the third
capital of Picardy. It is agrecably fituated on the ri- order of hierarchy.
ver Somme, and ſaid to have received its Latin name AMIRANTE, in the Spaniſh polity, a great officer
Ambienum from being every where encompaffed with of ſtate,anſwering to the lord high-admiral in England.
water. It is a place of great antiquity ; being men AMISUS, the chief city of the ancient kingdom of
tioned by Cæſar as a town that had made a vigorous Pontus. It was built by the Mileſians, and peopled
reſiſtance againſt the Romans, and where he convened partly by them, and partly by a colony from Athens.
a general aſſembly of the Gauls after having made him. It was at firſta free city, like the other Greek cities in
ſelf maſter of it. The emperors Antoninus and Mar. Alia ; but afterwards ſubdued by Pharnaces king of
cus Aurelius enlarged it; and Conſtantine, Conſtans, Pontus, who made it his metropolis. It was taken by
Julian, and ſeveral others, reſided here a conſiderable Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, who reſtored it to its
time. The town is encompaſſed with a wall and other ancieni liberty. Cloſe by Amiſus ſtood another city
fortifications; and the ramparts are planted with trees, called Eupatoria, from Mithridates Eupator its foun-
which from a delightful walk. The river Somme en- der. This city was likewiſe taken by Lucullus, who
ters Amiens by three different channels, under as many levelled it with the ground; but it was afterwards re-
bridges; and theſe channels, after waſhing the town in built by Pompey, who united it with Amiſus, giving
ſeveral places, where they are of uſe in its different them the name of Pompeiopolis. It was taken during
manufactures, unite at the other end by the bridge of the war between Cæfar and Pompey, by Pharnaces
S. Michael. Here is a quay for the boats that come king of Pontus, who put moſt of its inhabitants to the
from Abbeville with goods brought by ſea. At the ſword ; but Cæſar, having conquered Pharnaces, made
gate of Noyon there is a ſuburb remarkable for the it again a free city.
abbey of S. Achen, Next to this gate you come to AMITERNUM, a topvn of the Sabines, in Italy,
that of Paris, where they have a long niall between (Livy, Pliny); now extinct: The ruins are to be ſeen
two rows of trees. The houſes are well built ; the on the level ridge of a mountain, near S. Vittorino,
ftreets ſpacious, embelliſhed with handſome ſquares and the Springs of the Aternus ; not far from Aquila,
and good buildings ; and the number of inhabitants which roſe out of the ruins of Amiternum.
between 40 and 50 thouſand. The cathedral, dedica AMITTERE LEGEM TERRÆ, among lawyers, a
red to our Lady, is one of the largeſt and moſt mag- phraſe impoi ting the loſs of liberty of ſwearing in any
nificent churches in France; adorned with handſome court : The puniſhment of a champion overcome or
paintings, fine pillars, chapels, and tonibs; particu- yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a writ of
larly the nave is greatly admired. The other places attaint, and of a perſon outlawed.
AM-KAS
!
A M K
[ 629 ]
A M M
1
Ammi,
Am-kas, AM-KAS, in hiſtory, a name given to a ſpacious ſa which are uſed in their place, are much weaker both Ammianus
11 loon in the palace of the Great-Mogul, where he gives in taſte and ſmell, and without the origanum flavour 11
audience to his ſubjects, and where lie appears on ſo-
of the other,
Aninon.
lemn feſtivals with extraordinary magnificence. His AMMIANUS (Marcellinus), a Grecian and a fol.
throne is ſupported by fix large ſteps of maffy gold, dier as he calls himſelf, was born at Antioch, and flou-
ſet with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, eſtimated at riſhed under Conſtantius and the preceeding emperors
60,000,000l.
as late as Theodofius. He ſerved under Julian in the
AMMA, among ecclefiaftical writers, a term uſed eaſt; and wrote in Latin an intereſting hiſtory, from
to denote an abbeſs, or ſpiritual mother.
the reign of Nerva to the death of Valens, in 31 books
AMMAN, or AMMANT, in the German or Belgic of which only 18 remain. Though a Pagan, he ſpeaks
policy, a judge who has the cogniſance of civil cauſes. with caridour and moderation of the Chriſtian religioni,
-It is alſo uſed among the French for a public notary, and even praiſes it : his hero is the emperor Julian.
or officer who draws up inſtruments and deeds. He died about the year 390. The beſt edition of his
AMMANIA : A genus of the monogynia order, be-
of the monogynia order, be- hiſtory is that of Gronovius, in 1693.
longing to the tetrandria claſs of plants; and in the AMMIRATO (Scipio), an eminent Italian hiſtori-
natural method ranking under the 17th order, Galycan. an, born at Lecca in Naples in 1531. After travel-
theme. The characters are : The calyx is an oblong, ling over great part of Italy, without ſettling to his
erect, bell-ſhaped perianthium, with eight ſtriæ, qua- ſatisfaction, he was engaged by the great duke of
drangulated, octodentated, and perſiſtent: The corolla Tuſcany to write The Hiſtory of Florence ; for which
is either wanting, or it conſiſts of four ovate expanding he was preſented to a canonry in the cathedral there.
petals inſerted in the calyx : The ſtanina conſiſt of He wrote other works while in this ſtation; and died
four briſtly filaments the length of the calyx ; the an in 1600.
theræ are didymous: The peftillum has a large ovate AMMOCHRYSOS, from appes, ſand, and
ſand, and xpuansa
germen, above ; the ſtylus ſimple and very ſhort; the gold, a name given by authors to a ſtone very common
ſtigma headed : The Pericarpium is a roundiſh four in Germany, and ſeeming to be compoſed of a golden
celled capſule, covered by the calyx: the ſeeds are nu- ſand. It is of a yellow gold-like colour, and its par-
merous and ſmall. Of this genus there are three fpe- ticles are very gloſſy, being all fragments of a colour-
cies enumerated; all of them natives of warm climates. ed talc. It is uſually ſo ſoft as to be eaſily rubbed to a
They liave no beauty or other remarkable property. powder in the hand; ſometimes it requires grinding to
AMMI, BISHOP'S WEED: A genus of the digynia powder in a mortar, or otherwiſe. It is uſed only as
order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants; and fand to ſtrewover writing. The Germans callit katzen .
ranking, in the natural method, under the 45th order, gold. There is another kind of it, leſs cominon, but
Umbellatæ. The characters are: Of the calyx the much more beautiful, conſiſting of the ſame fort of
univerſalumbel is manifold ; the partial one ſhort and gloſſy ſpangles, but thoſe not of a gold colour, but of a
crowded; the involucra are pinnatifid, with numerous bright red, like vermilion.
leaflets : The corollæ are radiated, and all hermaphro. AMMODYTES, or SAND-EEL, in ichthyology,
dite : The ſtamina conſiſt of five capillary filaments ; a genus of fiſhes belonging to the order of apodes.
the antheræ roundiſh: The piſtillum has a germen be. This fiſh reſembles an eel, and ſeldom exceeds a foot
neath : the ſtyli are two, and reflected; and the ſtig- in length. The head of the ammodytes is compreſſed
mata are obtuſe : There is no pericarpium; the fruit is and narrower than the body ; the upper jaw is larger
roundiſh, poliſhed, ſtriated, ſmall, and partible : The than the under ; the body is cylindrical, with ſcales
ſeeds are two, plano-convex, and ſtriated. Of this hardly perceptible. There is but one ſpecies of the
there are three
ammodytes, viz. the tobianus, or launce, a native of
Species. 1. The majus, or common biſhop's-weed, Europe. This filh gathers itſelf into a circle, and pier .
the ſeeds of which are uſed in medicine. The glau ces the ſand with its head in the centre. It is found
cifolium, with all its leaves cut in the ſhape of a ſpear. in moſt of the ſandy ſhores during ſome of the ſummer-
3. The copticum, or Egyptian biſhop's-weed. months; it conceals itſelf, on the receſs of the tides,
Gulture, &c. The firſt is an annual plant; and there beneath the ſand, in ſuch places where the water is
fore is to be propagated by ſeeds ſown in the autumn, left, at the depth of about a foot ; and is in ſome places
in the place where the plants are to remain. They dug out, in others drawn up by means of a hook con-
will flowerin June, and the ſeeds will ripen in Auguſt. trived for that purpoſe. They are commonly uſed as
This plant will grow in any open ſituation, but thrives baits for other fiſh, but they are alſo very delicate eat-
beſt in a light ſandy ſoil. The ſecond fort is peren-
The ſecond fort is peren- ing. Theſe fiſh are found in the ſtomach of the Por-
nial, and very hardy. It thrives beſt in a moiſt ſoil,
It thrives beſt in a moiſt ſoil, peſs; an argument that the laſt roots up the ſand with
and may be propagated by feeds in the ſame manner its nofe, as the hogs do the ground.
as the former.
AMMON,anciently a city of Marmarica (Ptolemy).
The third ſpecies is now no otherwiſe known than Arrian calls it a place, not a city, in which ſtood the
by the figure of its feeds, which were formerly uſed in temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there was no-
medicine, but have long ſince given place to thoſe of thing but ſandy waſtes. Pliny ſays, That the oracle
The ſeeds of the ammi-copticum of Ammon was 12 days journey froin Memphis, and
are ſmall, ſtriated, of a reddiſh brown colour, and have among the Nomi of Egypt he reckons the Nomos A1-
a warm pungent taſte, and a pleaſant ſmell approaching moniacus: Diodorus Siculus, That the diſtria where the
to that of origanum. They are recommended as fto- teniple ſtood, though ſurrounded with deſarts, was wa-
machic, carininalive, and diuretic; but have long been tered by dews which fell nowhere elſe in all that coun.
ſtrangers to the ſliops. The ſeeds of the ammi-majus, try. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees and
ſprings
A M M
[ 630 ]
A M M
Ammon. ſprings, and full of villages. In the middle ſtood the ready for your departure. Show letters inviting you Ammoniae
acropolis or citadel, encompaſſed with a triple wall; the elſewhere, with great promiſes.” Ammon was Latin
firſt and inmoſt of which contained the palace; the ſecretary to Henry VIII. but at what time he was
others the apartments of the women, the relations and appointed does not appear. In 1512 he was made
children, as alſo the temple of the god, and the ſacred canon and prebendary of the collegiate chapel of St
fountain for luſtrations. Without the acropolis ſtood, Stephen, in the palace of Weſtminſter. He was like-
at no great diſtance, another temple of Ammon, ſhad- wiſe prebendary of Wells; and in 1514 was preſented
ed by a number of tall trees: near which there was a to the rectory of Dychial in that dioceſe. About the
fountain, called that of the fun, or Solis Fons, becauſe ſame time, by the king's ſpecial recommendation, he
ſubject to extraordinary changes according to the time was alſo made prebendary of Saliſbury. He died in
of the day; morning and evening warnı, at noon cold, the year 1517, and was buried in St Stephen's chapel
at midnight extremely hot. A kind of foſſil falt was in the palace of Weſtminſter. He was eſteemed an
faid to be naturally produced here. It was dug out of elegant Latin writer, and an admirable poet. The
the earth in large oblong pieces, ſometimes three fin- epiſtles of Eraſmus to Ammon abound with encomiums
gers in length, and tranſparent as cryftal. It was on his genius and learning.--His works are, I. Epif-
thought to be a preſent worthy of kings, and uſed by tolæ ad Eraſmum, lib. 1. 2. Scotici confli£tus hiſtoria,
the Egyptians in their ſacrifices. From this our fal. lib. I. 3. Bucolicæ vel ecloga, lib. 1. Braſil 1546. 4.
ammoniac has taken its name.
De rebus nihil, lib. 1. 5. Panegyricus quidam, lib. 1.
AMMON, or HAMMON, in heathen mythology, the 6. Varii generis epigrammata, lib. 1. 7. Poemata die
name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worſhipped under the verfa, lib. I.
AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy reſinous juice,
Bacchus having ſubdued Aſia, and paſſing with his brought from the Eaſt-Indies, uſually in large maſſes,
army through the deſarts of Africa, was in great want compoſed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour,
of water : but Jupiter, his father, aſſuming the ſhape but ſoon changing, upon being expoſed to the air, of a
of a ram, led him to a fountain, where lie refreſhed yellowiſh hue. We have no certain account of the
himſelf and his army; in gratitude for which favour, plant which affords this juices the ſeeds uſually found
Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title among the tears, reſemble thoſe of the ümbelliferous
of Ammon from the Greek appo, which ſignifies claſs. It has been, however, alleged, and not without
Sand, alluding to the ſandy deſart where it was built. fome degree of probability, that it is an exudation
In this temple was an oracle of great note, which from a ſpecies of the FERULA, another ſpecies of which
Alexander the Great conſulted, and which laſted till produces the aſſafoetida. The plant producing it is ſaid
the time of Theodofius.
to grow in Nubia, Abyſſinia, and the interior parts of
Hammon the god of the Egyptians, was the ſame Egypt. It is brought to the weſtern part of Europe
with the Jupiter of the Greeks; for which reaſon from Egypt, and to England from the Red-Sea, by
theſe latter denominate the city which the Egyptians ſome of the ſhips belonging to the Eaſt-India Com-
call No-Hammon, or the habitation of Ammon, Dioj- pany trading to thoſe parts. Such tears as are large,
polis, or the city of Jupiter. He is thought to be the dry, free from little ſtones, ſeeds, or other impurities,
ſame with Ham, who peopled Africa, and was the fa- ſhould be picked out, and preferred for internal uſe :
ther of Mizrain, the founder of the Egyptians. the coarſer kind is purified by folution and colature,
AMMON, or Ben-AMMI, the ſon of Lot, begot by and then carefully inſpillating it; unleſs this be art.
that patriarch upon his youngeſt daughter (Gen. xix. fully managed, the gum will loſe a conſiderable deal of
38.) He was the father of the Ammonites, and dwelt its more volatile parts. There is often vended in the
to the eaſt of the Dead Sea, in the mountains of Gi- ſhops, under the name of ſtrained gum-ammoniacum,
lead. See AMMONITIS and AMMONITES.
a compoſition of ingredients much inferior in virtue.
AMMON (Andrcas), an excellent Latin poet, born Ammoniac has a nauſeous ſweet taſte, followed by a
at Lucca in Italy, was ſent by Pope Leo X. to England, bitter one ; and a peculiar (mell, ſomewhat like that of
in the characters of prothonotary of the Apoſtolic See, galbanum, but more grateful : it ſoftens in the mouth,
and collector-general of the kingdom. Being a man and grows of a whiter colour upon being chewed.
of fingular genius and learning, he ſoon became ac Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in flame: it is
quainted with the principal literatiof thoſe times; par- irl ſome meaſure ſoluble in water and in vinegar, with
ticularly with Eraſmus, Colet, Grocin, and others, which it aſſumes the appearance of milk; but the re-
for thc ſake of whoſe company he reſided ſome time at finous part, amounting to about one half, fubfides on
Oxford. The advice which Éraſmusgives him, in re- ftanding.
gard to puſhing his fortune, has a good deal of humour Ammoniac is an uſeful deobſtruent, and frequently
in it, and was certainly intended as a ſatire on the art. preſcribed for opening obſtructions of the abdominal
ful methods generally practiſed by the ſelfiſh and am viſcera, and in hyſterical diſorders occaſioned by a
bitious part of mankind: “ In the firſt place (ſays he), deficiency of the menſtrual evacuations. It is likewiſe
throw off all fenſe of ſhame; thruſt yourſelf into every ſuppoſed to deterge the punionary veſſels ; and proves
one's buſineſs, and elbow out whomſoever you can; of conſiderable ſervicein ſome kinds of aſthinas, where
neither love nor hate anyone; in eafure every thing by the lungs are oppreſſed by viſcid phlegm: in this inten-
your own advantage; let this be the ſcope and drift tion, a ſolution of gum-amironiac in vinegar of ſquills
of ail your actions. Give nothing but what is to be proves a medicine of great efficacy, though not a little
returned with uſury, and be complaiſant to every body. unpleaſant. In long and obſtinate cholics proceeding
Have always two ſtrings to your bow. Feign that you from viſcid matter lodged in ihcinteſtines, i his gunimy
are ſolicited by many from abroad, and get every thing reſin has produced happy effects, after the purges and
the
A M M
[ 631 1
A M M
Dites,
pites.
ލް
Ammoniac the common carminitives had been uſed in vain. Am Ehud the Son of Gera, who ſlew Eglon king of Moab. Amma-
11
moniac is moſt commodiouſly taken in the form of pills; Some time after this, the Ammonites made war againſt
Ammo- about a ſcruple may be given every night, or oftener. the Iſraelites, and greatly diſtreſſed them. But theſe
Externally, it ſoftens and ripens hard tumours: a ſolu.
were at laſt delivered by the hands of Jephtha ; who ha-
tion of it in vinegar ſtands recommended by ſome for ving attacked the Ammonites, made a very great Naugh.
reſolving even ſchirrous ſwellings, A plaſter made of ter among them (chap. xi.). In the beginning of
it and ſquill-vinegar is recommended by ſome in white Saul's reign (1. Sam. xi.), Naalh king of the Am-
ſwellings. A dilute mixture of the fame is likewiſe monites having ſat down before Jabeth-gilead, reduced
rubbed on the parts, which are alſo fumigated with the
the inhabitants to the extremity of demanding a capia
ſmoke of juniper-berries. In the ſhops is prepared a tulation. Naaſh anſwered, that he would capitulate
ſolution of it in pennyroyal water called from its milky with them upon no other conditions than their ſub-
colour lac-ammoniaci. It is an ingredient alſo in the mitting every one to have his right eye plucked out,
ſquill pills.
that ſo they might be made a reproach to Ifracl : but
Sal- AMMONIAC, a volatile falt, of which there are Saul coming ſeaſonably to the relief of Jabell, deli-
two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient ſort, vered the city and people from the barbarity of the
deſcribed by Pliny and Dioſcorides, was a native ſalt, king of the Ammonites. David had been the king of
generated in thoſe large innsor caravanſeras where the Ammon's friend; and, after the death of this prince,
crowd of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupiter he fent ambaſſadors to make his compliments of con-
Ammon, uſed to lodge ; who, in thoſe parts, travel. dolence to Hanun his ſon and ſucceſſor ; who, ina-
ling upon camels, and thoſe creatures when in Cyrene, gining that David's ambaſſadors were come as ſpies to
a province of Egypt, where that celebrated temple obſerve his ſtrength, and the condition of his king-
ſtood, urining in the ſtables, or (ſay fome) in the parch- dom, treated them in a very injurious manner (2 Sam.
ed fands, out of this urine, which is remarkably ſtrong, X. 4.). David revenged this indignity thrown upon
aroſe a kind of ſalt, denominated ſometimes (from the his ambaſſadors, by fubduing the Ammonites, the
temple) Ammoniac, and ſometimes (from the country) Moabites, and the Syrians, their allies. Ammon and
Cyreniac. Since the ceſſation of theſe pilgriniages, no loab continued under the obedience of the kings
more of this falt is produced there ; and, from this de David and Solomon; and, after the ſeparation of the
ficiency, ſome fufpect there never was any ſuch thing: ten tribes, were ſubject to the kings of Iſrael till the
But this fufpicion is removed, by the large quantities death of Ahab in the year of the world 3107. Two
of a falt, nearly of the ſame nature, thrown out by years after the death of Ahab, Jehoram his ſon, and
mount Áina. The characters of the ancient ſal-am. ſucceſſor of Ahaziah, defeated the Moabites (2 Kings
moniac are, that it cools water, turns aqua-fortis into iii.): but it does not appear that this victory was ſo
aqua-regia, and conſequently diſſolves gold.
complete as to reduce them to bis obedience, Ar the
The modern fal-ammoniac is entirely factitious : for fame time, the Ammonites, Moabites, and other peo-
which, ſee CHEMISTRY-Index.
ple, made an irruption upon the lands belonging to
AMMONIAN PHILOSOPHY. See AMMONIUS. Judalı; but were forced back and routed by Jehotha-
AMMONITÆ, in natural hiſtory. See CORNU phat (2 Chr. XX I, 2.). After the tribes of Reuben, ,
Ammonis.
Gad, and the lialf-tribe of Manaſſeh, were carried in-
AMMONITES, a people deſcended from Ammon to captivity by Tiglath-pileſer in the year 3264, the
the ſon of Lot. The Ammonites deſtroyed thoſe Ammonites and Moabites took poſſeſſion of the cities
giants which they called Zamzummims (Deut. ii. 19 belonging to theſe tribes. Jeremiah(xlix. 1.) reproach-
21.), and ſeized upon their country. God forbad es them for it. The ambaſſadors of the Ammonites
Moſes, and by him the children of Iſrael (id. 19.), were ſome of thoſe to whom this prophet (chap. xxvii,
to attack the Animonites; becauſe he did not intend 2—4.) preſented the cup of the Lord's fury, and di-
to give their lands unto the Hebrews. Before the If- rected to make bonds and yokes for themſelves; ex-
raelites entered the land of Canaan, the Anorites had horting them to ſubmit themſelves to Nebuchadnezzar,
by conqueſt got great part of the countries belonging and threatening them, if they did not, with captivity
to the Ammonites and Moabites. This Moſes retook and flavery. Ezekiel (xxv. 4-10.) denounces their
from the Amorites, and divided between the tribes of entire deſtruction; and tells them that God would
Gad and Reuben. In the time of Jephtha, the Am- give them up to the people of the eaſt, who ſhould ſet
monites declared war againſt the Iſraelites (Judges xi.) their palaces in their country, ſo that there ſhould be
under pretence that they detained a great part of the no more mention of the Ammonites among the nations.
country which had formerly been theirs before the It is believed that theſe misfortunes happened to the
Amorites poſſeſſed it. Jephtha declared, that as this Ammonites in the fifth year after the taking of Jaruſa-
was an acquiſition which the Iſraelites had made in a lem, when Nebuchadnezzar made war againſt all the
juſt war, and what they had taken from the Amorites, people that dwelt upon the confines of Judea, in the
who had long enjoyed it by right of conqueft, he was year of the world 3420.
under no obligation to reſtore it. The Ammonites It is alſo thought probable, that Cyrus gave the
were not ſatisfied with this reaſon ; wherefore Jephtha Amnonites and Moabites the liberty of returning into
gave them battle and defeated them. The Ammonites their own country, from whence they had been remo-
and Moabites generally united whenever there was any ved by Nebuchadnezzar: for we ſee them, in the place
deſign fet a-foot of attacking the Iſraelites. After of their former fettlement, expoſed to thoſe revolu-
the death of Othniel (ids iii.), the Ammonites and tions which were common to the people of Syria and
Amalekites joined with Eglon king of Moab to op- Paleſtine ; ſubjects ſometimes to the kings of Egypt,
preſs the Hebrews; whom they ſubdued and governed, and at other tinies to the kings of Syria. We are
for the ſpace of 18 years, till they were delivered by told by Polybius, that Antiochus the Great took Rab-
boch,
4
A M M
(632 ]
A M M
NISM.
Ammonitio both, or Philadelphia, their capital, demoliſhed the ſouls, the empire of Providence, and the government Ammonius
Ammonius walls, and put a garriſon in it in 3806. During the of the world by dæmons. He alſo eſtabliſhed a ſyſtem ना
perſecutionsof Antiochus Epiphanes, Joſephus informs, of moral diſcipline ; which allowed the people in ge-
Anal.
that the Ammonites ſhowed their hatred to the Jews, nerrl to live according to the laws of their country and
and exerciſed great crueltieši againſt ſuch of them as the dictates of nature; but required the wiſe to exalt
lived about their country. Juſtin Martyr ſays, That their minds by contemplation, and to mortify the body,
in his time there were ſtill many Ammonices remail. ſo that they might be capable of enjoying the preſence
ing; but Origen affures us, that when he was living and aſſiſtanee of the dæmons, and of aſcending after
they were known only under the general name of death to the preſence of the Supreme Parent. `In or-
Arabians. Thus was the prediction of Ezekiel (xxv.10) der to reconcile the popular religions, and particularly
accompliſhed ; who ſaid that the Ammonites îhould be the Chriſtian, with this new ſyſtem, he made the whole
deſtroyed in ſuch a manner as not to be remembered hiſtory of the Heathen gods an allegory; maintaining
aniong the nations.
that they were only celeſtial miniſters, intitled to an
ANMONITIS (anc. geog.), a country of Arabia inferior kind of worſhip. And he acknowledged that
Petræa, occupied by the children of Ammon, whence Jeſus Chriſt was an excellent man, and the friend of
the appellation. Its limits, partly to the weſt, and part: Cod; but alleged that it was not his deſign entirely
ly to the north, where the river Jabbok, whoſe courſe is to aboliſh the worſhip of dæmons, and that his only
no where determined ; though Joſephus fays, that it intention was to purify the ancient religion. This ſy-
runs between Rabbath-Amnion, or Philadelphia, and ſtem, ſo plauſible in its firſt riſe, but fo comprehen-
Gerafa, and falls into the Jordan.
ſive and complying in its progreſs, has been the ſource
AMMONIUS, firnamed SACCAS, was born in of innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chriſtian
Alexandria, and flouriſhed about the beginning of the church. At its firſt eſtabliſhment it is ſaid to have
third century. He was one of the moſt celebrated had the approbation of Athenagoras, Pantænus, and
philoſophers of his age ; and, adopting with altera. Clemens the Alexandrian, and of all who had the care
cions the Ecclectic philoſophy, laid the foundations of the public ſchool belonging to the Chriſtians at A-
of that ſect which was diſtinguiſhed by the name of lexandria. It was afterwards adopted by Longinus
new New Platonics. See ECCLECTICs and PLATO- the celebrated an
the celebrated author of the treatiſe on the Sublime,
Plotinus, Herennius, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblichus
This learned man was born of Chriſtian parents and the diſciple of Porphyry, Sopater, Ediſius, Euſtathius,
educated in their religion ; the outward profeſſion of Maximus of Epheſus, Prifcus, Chryſanthius the maſter
which, it is ſaid, he never entirely deſerted. As his of Julian, Julian the Apoſtate, Hierocles, Proclus,
genius was vaſt and comprehenſive, ſowere his projects and many others, both Pagans and Chriſtians.
bold and ſingular : For he attempted a general coali The above opinions of Ammonius are collected from
tion of all ſects, whether philoſophical or religious, by the writings and diſputations of his diſciples, the nio-
framing a ſyſtem of doctrines which he imagined cal. dern Platonics ; for he himſelf left nothing in writing
culated to unite them all, the Chriſtians not excepted, behind him ; nay, le impoſed a law upon his diſciples
in the moſt perfect harmony. In purſuance of this de. not to divulge his doctrines among the multitude ;
fign, he maintained, that the great principles of all which injunction, however, they made no ſcruple to
philoſophical and religious truth were to be found en neglect and violate.
qually in all ſects; that they differed from each other AMMONIUS, ſurnamed LITHOTOME, a celebrated
only in their method of expreſſing them, and in ſome ſurgeon of Alexandria ; ſo called from his inventing the
opinions of little or no importance; and that, by a operation of extracting the ſtone from the bladder.
proper interpretation of their reſpective ſentiments, AMMUNITION, a general name for all warlike
they might eaſily be united into one body. Accord. proviſions ; but more particularly powder, ball, &c.
ingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the Chriſtian, Ammunition, arms, utenſils of war, gun-powder,
were to be illuſtrated and explained by the principles imported without licence from his Majeſty, are, by the
of this univerſal philoſophy; and the fables of the laws of England, forfeited, and triple the valuc. And
prieſts were to be removed from Paganiſm, and the again, ſuch licence obtained, except for furniſhing his
comments and interpretations of the diſciples of Jeſus Majeſty's public ſtores, is to be void, and the offender
from Chriſtianity. În conformity to this plan, hein to incur a premunire, and to be diſabled to hold any
ſiſted, that all the religious ſyſtems of all nations ſhould office from the crown.
be reſtored to their original purity, and reduced to AMMUNITION Bread, Shoes, &c. ſuch as are ſeryed
their primitive ſtandard, viz. the ancient philoſophy out to the ſoldiers of an army or garriſon.
of the Eaſt, preſerved uncorrupted by Plato : and he AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a pardon
affirmed, that this project was agreeable to the inten- granted by a prince to his rebellious ſubjects, uſually
tions of Jeſus Chriſt; whoſe fole view in defcending with ſome exceptions : ſuch was that granted by
upon earth was to ſet bounds to the reigning ſuperſti- Charles II. at his reſtoration. The word is formed
tion, to remove the errors that had blended them from the Greek apireOTIQ, the name of an edict of tliis
felves with the religion of all nations, but not to abo- kind publiſhed by Thralibulus, on his expulſion of the
liſh the ancient theology from which they were deri tyrants out of Athens.
ved. He therefore adopted the do&rines which were AMNIOS, in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane
received in Egypt concerning the univerſe and the which ſurrounds the foetus in the womb. See Foe-
Deity, conſidered as conſtituting one great whole ;
concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of AMOEBÆUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem
repres
TUS.
2
A MO
[ 633 ]
A M O
Amol, repreſenting a diſpute between two perſons, who are Uſes. The dried roots of the firſt ſpecies are of great Amomum
Amomum. made to anſwer each other alternately ; ſuch are the uſe in the kitchen, as well as in medicine. They fur-
third and ſeventh of Virgil's eclogues.
nilh a conſiderable export from ſome of the American Amorite,
AMOL, a town of Aſia, in the country of the Uſ- iſlands. The green roots, preſerved as a ſweet-meat,
becks, ſeated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30. are preferable to every other kind. The Indians mix
N. Lat. 39. 20.
them with their rice, which is their common food, to
AMOMUM, GINGER: A genus of the monogynia correct its natural infipidiry. This ſpice, mixed with
order, belonging to the monandria claſs of plants. The others, gives the diſhes ſeaſoned with it a ſtrong taſte,
characters are: The calyx is an obſcure three-toothed which is extremely diſagreeable to ſtrangers. The
perianthium, above: The corolla is monopetalous, Europeans, however, who come into Alia without for-
the tubus ſhort, the limbus tripartite: The Stamina tunes, are obliged to conform to it. The others 2-
is an oblong filament, with the antheræ adjoining: dopt it out of complaiſance to their wives, wlio are ge-
The piſtillum has a roundiſh germen, beneath ; the nerally natives of the country.-Ginger is a very uſe-
ſtylus is filiform, the ftigma obtufe : The pericarpi- ful ſpice, in cold flatulent colics, and in laxity and de-
em is leathery, ſubovate, trigonous, trilocular, and bility of the inteſtines; it does not heat ſo much as thoſe
three-valved: The ſeeds are numerous.--Of this of the pepper kind, but its effects are much more dura-
genus there are four
ble. The cardamoms and graius of paradiſe have the
Species. 1. The zingiber, or common ginger, is a ſame medicinal qualities with ginger.-In Jamaica, the
native of the Eaſt, and alſo of ſome parts of the Weſt common people employ it in baths and fomentations
Indies; whereit grows naturally without culture. The with good ſucceſs, in complaints of the viſcera, in
roots are jointed, and ſpread in the ground : they put pleuriſies, and in obſtinate and continued fevers.
out many green reed-like ſtalks in the ſpring, which AMOMUM Verum, or True Amomum, is a round
ariſe to the height of two feet and an half, with nar fruit, about the ſize of a middling grape ; containing,
row leaves. The flower-ſtems ariſe by the lide of tbeſe, under a membranous cover, a number of ſmall rough
immediately from the root; theſe are naked; ending angular ſeeds, of a blackih brown colour on the out-
with an oblong ſcaly ſpike. From each of theſe ſcales ſide, and whitiſh within : the ſeeds are lodged in three
is produced a ſingle blue flower, whoſe petals are but diſtinct cells ; thoſe in each cell are joined cloſely to.
little lower than the ſquamous covering. 2. The ze gether, ſo as that the fruit, upon being opened, ap-
rumbet, or wild ginger, is a native of India. The pears to contain only three feeds. Ten or twelve of
roots are larger than thoſe of the firſt, but are jointed theſe fruits grow together in a cluſter ; and adhere
in the ſame manner. The ſtalks grow from three to without any pedicle, to a woody ſtalk about an inch
near four feet high, with oblong leaves placed alter- long; each ſingle fruit is ſurrounded by lix leaves, in
nately. The flower-(tems ariſe immediately from the form of a cup; and the part of the ſtalk void of fruit is
root: theſe are terminated by oblong, blunt, ſcaly clothed with leafy ſcales.-The huſks, leaves, and
heads; out of each ſcale is produced a ſingle white ſtems, have a light grateful ſmell, and a moderately
flower, whoſe petals extend a conſiderable length be warm aromatic taſte: the ſeeds, freed from the buſks,
yond ihe ſcaly covering. 3. The cardamonium, or car are in both reſpects much ſtronger ; their ſmell is
damom, is likewiſe à native of India ; but is little quick and penetrating, their taſte pungent, approach-
known in Europe except by its ſeeds, which are uſed in ing to that of camphor. Notwithſtanding amomum
medicine. Of this there is a variety, with ſmaller fruit, is an elegant aromatic, it has long been a ſtranger to
which makes the diſtinction into cardamomum majus the ſhops.
and minus. The firſt, when it comes to us, is a dried AMOMUM Vulgare. See Sison.
fruit or pod about an inch long, containing, under a AMONTONS(William), aningenious experimen-
thick ſkin, two rows of ſmall triangular ſeeds of a tal philoſopher, was born at Paris in 1563. While
warm aromatic flavour. The cardamomum minus is a he was at the grammar-ſchool, he by ſickneſs contrac-
fruit ſcarce half the length of the foregoing, but con ted a deafneſs that almoſt excluded him converſation.
ſiderably ſtronger both in ſmell and tafte. 4. The In this ſituation, he applied himſelf to mechanics and
grana paradiſi ſpecies is likewiſe a native of the Eaſt geometry; and, it is ſaid, refuſed to try any remedy for
Indies. The fruit containing the grains of paradiſe is his diſorder, either becauſe he deemed it incurable, or
about the ſize of a fig, divided into
three cells, in each becauſe it increaſed his attention He ſtudied the nature
of which are contained two roots of ſmall ſeeds like of barometers and thermometers with great care ; and
cardamoms. They are ſomewhat more grateful, and wrote Obſervations and Experiments concerning a new
conſiderably more pungent, than cardamoms. Hour-glaſs, and concerning Barometers, Thermomee
Gulture. The firſt two ſpecies are tender, and ters, and Hygroſcopes; which, with ſome pieces in
require a warın ſtove to preſerve them. They are the Journal des sçavans, are all his literary works.
cally propagated by parting the roots in the ſpring. When the Royal academy was new-regulated in 1699
neſe ſhould be planted in pots filled with light rich he was admitted a member : and read his new Theory of
earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's-bark, Friction, in which he happily cleared up an important
where they muſt conſtantly remain. If we may be object in mechanics. He died in 1705.
lieve the Abbé Raynal, cardamoms propagate them AMORÆANS, a feet or order of gemaric doctors,
ſelves, in thoſe countries where they are natives, or commentators on the Jeruſalem Talmud. The A-
without either fowing or planting. Nothing more is noræans ſucceeded the Miſchnic doctors. They ſub-
required than, as ſoon as the rainy ſeaſon is over, to ſiſted 250 years; and were ſucceeded by the Sebu-
ſet fire to the herb which has produced the fruit.
VOL. I.
4 L
AMORGOS,
ræans.
A MO
[ 634 ]
A MO
0
Amorgos AMORGOS, or AMURGUS (anc. geog.), now mina ; the ſtigina ſimple : The pericarpiun is a luna- Amortiza.
1 Morgo, not far from Naxus to the caſt, one of the Eu ted unilocular legumen, reflected, larger than the ca-
tion,
Amorpha
ropean Sporades ; the country of Simonides the lam- lyx, and tuburculated : The feeds are two, and kid. Amos.
bic poet. To this iſland criminals were baniſhed. It ney-ſliaped. By the corolla alone this genus may be
was famous for a fine flax called Enorgis.
diſtinguiſhed from all the known plants in the uni-
AMORITES, a people deſcended from Anorrhæ. verſe: The petals are the banner; the wings and
us, according to the Septuagint and Vulgate; Emoræ- keel are wanting, which is very lingular in a papili-
us, according to other expolitors ; Hæmori, according onaceous corolla.
to the Hebrew ; or Emorite, according to our verſion Of this there is only one known fpecies, a native of
of the Bible ; who was the fourth ſon of Canaan, Carolina, where the inhabitants formerly made from
Gen. X. 16.
it a coarſe kind of indigo, whence the plant took its
The Amorites firſt of all peopled the mountains ly. name. It riſes, with many irregular items, to the
ing to the weſt of the Dead Sea. They had likewiſe height of 12 or 14 feet. The leaves are late in the
eſtabliſhments to the eaſt of the ſame fea, between the ſpring before their foliage is fully diſplayed. The ends
brooks of Jabbock and Arnon, froni whence they for- of their branches are generally deſtroyed by the froſt;
ced the Ammonites and Moabites. Num. xiii. 30. xxi. or, if they recover it, they have the appearance of be-
29. Joſh. V. I. and Judges xi. 19, 20. Moſes made a ing dead; whilſt other plants teſtify the effects of the
conqueſt of this country from their kings Sihon and reviving months. But, notwithſtanding theſe defects,
Og, in the year of the world 2553.
this tree has ſome other good properties that in part
The prophet Amos (ii. 9.), ſpeaking of the gigan- make amends for them. The leaves, when out, are
tic ſtature and valour of thé Amorites, compares their admired by all. They are of a pleaſant green colour ;
height with that of cedars, and their ſtrength with are very large, beautifully pinnated, the folioles being
that of an oak. The namé Amorite is often taken in arranged along the ſtalk by pairs, and terminate by an
Scripture for all Canaanites in general. The lands odd one. The flowers are of a purple colour ; they
which
the Amorites poſſeſſed on this lide Jordan were grow in ſpikes, ſeven or eightinches long, at the ends
given to the tribe of Judah, and thoſe which they had of the branches, and are of a ſingular ſtructure. In
enjoyed beyond this river were diſtributed between order to make this tree have its beſt effect, it ſhould
the tribes of Reuben and Gad.
be planted among others of its own growth, in a well-
AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the ſheltered filuation; by which means the ends will not
river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia. It was be ſo liable to be deſtroyed by the winter's froſts; the
taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but branches will not ſuffer by the violence of the winds ;
foon after retaken by the Romans.-A war break- and, as it is ſubject to put out many branches near the
ing out again between theſe two nations in 837, the roof, theſe indelicacies and imperfections will be con-
Roman emperor Theophylus deſtroyed Sozopetra the cealed; whilſt the tree will ſhow itſelf to the utmoſt
birth-place of the khalif Al Motaſem, notwithſtand- advantage when in blow, by elevating its purple-ſpiked
ing his earneſt intreaties to him to ſpare it. This ſo flowers amongſt the others in a pleaſing view.
enraged the khalif, that he ordered every one to en Gulture. The amorpha is moſt readily propagated
grave upon his ſhield the word Amorium, the birth- by ſeeds. It may alſo be propagated by laying down
place of Theophylus, which he reſolved at all events the young branches, which in one year will make good
to deſtroy. Accordingly he laid ſiege to the place, roots; and may then be taken off, and planted either
but met with a vigorous reſiſtance. At length, after a in the nurſery, or in the places where they are deſign-
liege of 55 days, it was betrayed by one of the inha- ed to remain. If they are put into a nurſery, they
bitants who had abjured the Chriſtian religion. The ſhould not remain there more than one year; for as
khalif, exaſperated at the loſs he had ſuſtained during the plants make large ſhoots, they do not remove well
the liege, put moſt of the men to the ſword, carried when they have remained long in a place.
the women and children into captivity, and levelled AMORTIZATION, in law, the alienation of lands
the city with the ground. His forces being diſtreſſed or tenements to a corporation or fraternity, and their
for want of water on their return home, the Chriftian ſucceſſors. See MorTMAIN,
priſoners roſe upon ſome of theni, and murdered them; AMOS, the fourth of the ſmall prophets, who in
upon which the khalif put 6000 of the priſoners to his youth had been a herdſman in Tekoa, a ſmall town
death.--According to the eaſtern hiſtorians, 30,000 about four leagues fouthward of Jeruſalem, was ſent to
of the inhabitants of Amorium were llain, and as many the kine of Baſhan, that is, to the people of Samaria,
carried into captivity
or the the kingdom of Ifracl, to bring them back to re-
AMORPHA, FALSE INDIGO : A genus of the de- pentance, and an amendment of their lives; whence it
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia claſs of is thought probable that he was born within the terri-
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the tories of Iſrael, and only retired to Tekoa on his being
32d order, Papilionaceæ. The characters are: The driven from Bethel, by Amaziah the prieſt of the gol-
calyx is a ſingle-leaved perianthium, tubular and per- den calves at Bethel.
liſtent: The corolla conſiſts of an ovate, concave, creet The prophet being thus retired to Tekoa, in the
petal, ſcarcely larger than, and placed on the upper kingdom of Judah, continued to propheſy. He com-
fide of the calyx : The ſtamina conſiſt of ten erect plains in many places of the violence offered him, by
unequal filaments, longer than the corolla ; the an- endeavouring to oblige him to filence. He boldly re-
theræ are ſimple: The piſtillum has a roundiſh ger- monſtrates againſt the crying fins that prevailed among
inen ; the ſtylus ſubulated, and the length of the
ſta- the Iſraelites, as idolatry, oppreſſion, wantonneſs, and
obftinacy
[ 635 ]
A MO
A MO
us.
Amoy, obſtinacy. He likewiſe reproves thoſe of Judah, ſuch the former, the native country of theſe birds is Bohe- Ampelites
Ampelis, as their carnal ſecurity, ſenſuality, and injuſtice. He mia : from whence they wander over the reſt of Eu-
11
terrifies them both with frequent threatenings, and rope, and were once ſuperſtitiouſly conſidered as pre. Amphiara-
pronounces that their ſins will at laſt end in the ruin ſages of a peſtilence. They appear annually about E-
of Judah and Ifrael, which he illuſtrates by the viſions dinburgh in February; and feed on the berries of the
of a plumb-line and a baſket of ſummer-fruit. It is mountain-aſh. They alſo appear as far ſouth as North-
obſervable in this prophecy, that as it begins with de- unberland ; and, like the field-fare, make the berries
nunciation of judgnient and deſtruction againſt the Sy- of the white thorn their food. It is but by accident
rians, Philiſtines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the that they ever appear farther ſouth. They are grega-
Jews, ſo it concludes with comfortable promiſes of re rious; feed on grapes, where vineyards are cultivated;
itoring the tabernacle of David, and erecting the king. are eaſily tamed; and are eſteemed delicious food. This
dom of Chriſt. Amos was choſen to the prophetic of ſpecies is about the lize of the black-bird : the bill is
fice in the time of Uzziah king of Judah, and Jero- ſort, thick, and black ; on the head is a ſharp point-
boam the ſon of Joalh, king of Iſrael, iwo years be- ed creſt reclining backwards : the lower part of the
fore the earthquake (Amos i. 1.), which happened in tail is black; the end of a rich yellow ; the quill-fea-
the 24th or 25th year of Uzziah, according to the rab- thers are black, the three firſt tipt with white ; the
bins and moſt of the modern commentators; or the year fix next have half an inch of their exterior margin edg-
of the world 3219, when this prince uſurped the priet's ed with fine yellow, the interior with white. But what
office, and attempted to offer incenſe to the Lord: diſtinguiſhes this from all other birds, are the horny
but it is obſerved, that this cannot be the caſe, be- appendages from the tips of ſeven of the ſecondary
cauſe Jocham, the ſon of Uzziah, who was born in feathers, of the colour and gloſs of the beſt red wax.
3221, was of age to govern, and conſequently was be AMPELITES, CANNEL-COAL, or CANDLE-COAL,
tween 15 and 20 years of age, when his father under a hard, opaque, foſſile, inflammable ſubſtance, of a
cook to offer incenſe, and was ſtruck with a leproſy, black colour. It does not efferveſce with acids. The
The firſt of the prophecies of Amos, in order of time, ampelites, though much inferior 10 jet in many re-
are thoſe of the 7th chapter : the reſt he pronounced fpe&ts, is yet a very beautiful foſſile; and, for a body
in the town of Tekoa, whither he retired. He fore. of fo compact a ſtructure, remarkably light. Examined
told the misfortunes which the kingdom of Iſrael ſhould by the iniſcroſcope, it appears compoſed of innumera-
fall into after the death of Jeroboain II. who was then ble very ſmall and thin plates laid cloſely and firmly
living; he foretold the death of Zechariah, the inva onone another; and full of very ſmall ſpecks of a black-
ſion of the lands belonging to Iſrael by Phul and Tig er and more ſhining matter than the reſt, which is e-
latlı-pileſer kings of Aſſyria ; and he ſpeaks of the cap- vidently a purer bitumen than the general maſs. Theſe
tivity of the ten tribes, and their return.
ſpecks are equally diffuſed over the different parts of
The time and manner of this prophet's death are not the maſſes. There is a large quarry of it near Alen-
known. Some old authors relate that Amaziah, prieſt çon in France. It is dug in many parts of England,
of Bethel, provoked by the diſcourſes of the prophet, but the fineſt is in Lancaſhire and Cheſhire ; it lies
had his teeth broke in order to ſilence him. Others uſually at conſiderable depthis. It makes a very briſk
ſay, that Hoſea or Uzziah, the ſon of Amaziah, ſtruck fire, flaming violently for a ſhort time, and after that
him with a ſtake upon the temples, knocked him down, continuing red and glowing hot a long while ; and fi-
and wounded him much ; in which condition he was nally is reduced into a ſmall proportion of
carried to Tekoa, where he died, and was buried with the greater part of its ſubſtance having flown off in
his fathers ; but it is generally thought that he prophe- the burning. It is capable of a very high and ele-
fied a long time at Tekoa, after the adventure which gant poliſh ; and, in the countries where it is produc-
he had with Amaziah ; and the prophet himſelf taking ed, is turned into a vaſt number of coys, as fuff-boxes
no notice of the ill treatment which he is ſaid to have and the like, which bear all the nicety of turning, and
received, is an argument that he did not ſuffer in the are made to paſs for jet.-Huſbandmen ſmear their
manner they rclate.
vines with it, as it kills che vermin which infeſts
St Jerom obferves, that there is nothing great or ihen. It is likewiſe uſed for the dyeing of hair black.
ſublime in the ſtyle of Amos. He applies the words In medicine it is reputed good in colics, againſt worms,
of St Paul (2 Cor. xi. 6.) to him, rude in ſpeech and of being in general an emollient and diſcutient;
though not in knowledge. And he farther obſerves, but the preſent practice takes no notice of it.
that he borrows his compariſon from the ſtate and pro AMPELUSIA, (anc. geog.) a promontory of Mau.
feflion to which he belonged.
ritania Tingitana, called Gottes by the natives, which
AMOY, an iſland in the province of Fokien, in is of the fame fignification with a town of the ſame
China, Long. 136. 0. Lat. 24. 30. It has a fine port name not far from the River Lixus, near the ſtraits
that will contain many thouſand veſſels. The emperor of Gibraltar : now Cape-Spartel. W. Long. 6. 20.
has a garriſon of here 7000 men.
N. Lat. 36. o.
AMPELIS, the vine, in botany. See Vitis.
AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veſſels where.
AMPELIS, the Chatterer, in zoology, a genus of in the rowers plied two oars at the ſame time, one
birds belonging to the order of paſſeres; the diſtin- with the right hand and the other with the left.
guiſhing characters of which are, that the tongue is AMPHIATHROSIS, in anatomy, a term for ſuch
furniſhed with a rim or margin all round, and the bill junctures of bones as have an evident motion, but dif-
is conical and ſtrait. There are ſeven ſpecies all na- ferent from the diathroſis, &c. See DIATHROSIS.
tives of foreign countries, except the garrulus, which AMPHIARAUS, in pagan mythology, a celebrat-
is a native both of Europe and of West Indies. In ed prophet, who poſſeſſed part of the kingdom of Ar-
gos.
grey alhes,
4 L 2
A MP
[ 636 )
AMP
Amphibia. gos. He was believed to excel in divining by dreams, lation is interrupted, for inſpiration and exſpiration are Anphibie.
and is ſaid to be the firſt who divined by fire. Am now carried to their extent; and in this ſtate the blood
phiaraus knowing, by the ſpirit of prophecy, that he cannot paſs through the lungs either during the total
would loſe his life in the war againſt Thebes, hid him- inſpiration or total exſpiration of the air in breathing :
ſelfin order to avoid engaging in that expedition ; but, for, in the former caſe, the inflation compreſles the re-
his wife Eriphyle, being prevailed upon by a preſent, turning veins; and, in the latter, by the collapſion of
diſcovered the place in which he had concealed him. the lungs, theſe veins are interrupted alſo; ſo that it is
felf; ſo that he was obliged to accompany the other only between theſe two violent actions that the blood
princes who marched againſt Thebes. This proved fa- can paſs : and hence it is, that the lives of animals are
tal to him ; for the earth being 1plit aſunder by a thun- ſhortened and their health impaired, when they are
der-bolt, both he and his chariot were ſwallowed up in ſubjected to frequent violent reſpiration, and thus it is,
the opening.“Amphiaraus, after his death, was rank- that when animals have once breathed, they muſt con-
ed among the gods; temples were dedicated to him ; tinue to reſpire ever after, for life is at an end when
and his oracle, as well as the ſports inſtituted to his ho- that ceaſes.
nour, were very famous.
There are three neceſſary and principal uſes of reſpi-
AMPHIBIA, in zoology, the name of Linnæus's ration in all land-animals, and in thoſe kinds that are
third claſs of animals; including all thoſe which live counted amphibious. The firſt is that of promoting
partly in water and partly on land. This claſs he ſub- the circulation of the blood through the whole body
divides into four orders, viz. The amphibia reptiles; and extremities. In real fiſhes, the force of the heart
the amphibia ſerpentes; the amphibia nantes; and the is alone capable of ſending the blood to every part, as
amphibia meantes. See ZOOLOGY.
they are not furniſhed with limbs or extremities; but
It has been a queſtion whether the animals common in the others mentioned, being all furniſhed with ex-
ly called amphibious, live moſt in the water or on land. tremities, reſpiration is an aſliſtant force to the arte-
If we conſider the words &pe oo (utrinque, both ways), ries in ſending blood to the extremities; which, being
and Boos (vita life), from whence the term amphibious ſo remote from the heart, have need of ſuch aſliſtance,
is derived; we ſhould underſtand, that animals, having otherwiſe the circulation would be very languid in theſe
this title, ſhould be capable of living as well by land, or parts: thus we ſee, that in perſons ſubject to aſthmatic
in the air, as by water; or of dwelling in either con- complaints, the circulation grows languid, the legs
ſtantly at will : but it will be difficult to find any ani- grow cold and eodematous, and other parts ſuffer by the
mal that can fulfil this definition, as being equally qua- defect in reſpiration.—A ſecond uſe of breathing is,
* Dr Par- lified for either. An ingenious naturaliſt,* therefore, that, in inſpiration, the variety of particles, of different
fon's; in a from conſidering their æconomy reſpectively, divides qualities, which float always in the air, might be
paper read them into two orders, viz. 1. Such as enjoy their chief drawn into the lungs, to be inſinuated into the maſs of
before the functions by land, but occaſionally go into the water. blood, being highly neceſſary to contemperate and cool
siety.
2. Such as chiefly inhabit the water, but occaſionally the agitated maſs, and to contribute refined pabulum
go aſhore. What he advances on this ſubject is cu. to the finer parts of it, which, meeting with the daily
rious, and well illuſtrates the nature of this claſs. ſupply of chyle, ſerves to aſſimilate and more intimate-
1. Of the firſt order, he particularly conſiders the ly mix the maſs, and render its conſtitution the fitter
phocæ; and endeavours to how, that none of them for ſupporting the life of the animal. Therefore it is,
can live chiefly in the water, but that their chief en that valetudinarians, by changing foul, or unwholeſome
joyment of the functions of life is on ſhore.
air, for a free, good, open air, often recover from lin-
of See the Theſe animals (he obſerves) are really quadrupedst: gering diſeaſes.-A third principal uſe of reſpiration
article Phe- but as their chief food is fiſh, they are under a neceſ- is, to promote the exhibition of voice in animals
fity of going out to ſea to hunt their prey, and to great which all thoſe that live on the land do according to
diſtances from Iliore; taking care that, however great their ſpecific nature.
the diſtance, rocks or ſmall iſlands are at hand, as From theſe conſiderations it appears, that the phocæ
reſting-places when they are tired, or when their bo- of every kind are under an abſolute neceſſity of mak-
dies become too much macerated in the water; and they ing the land their principal reſidence. But there is
return to the places of their uſual refort to ſleep, copu- another very convincing argument why they reſide on
l'ate, and bring forth their young, for the following fhore the greateſt part of their time; namely, that the
reaſons, viz. It is well known, that the only eſſential flem of theſe creatures is analogous to that of other
difference (as to the general ſtructure of the heart) land animals: and therefore, by over-long maceration,
between amphibious and mere land animals, or ſuch as added to the fatigue of their chaſing their prey, they
never go into tlie water, is, that in the former, the o would ſuffer ſuch a relaxation as would deſtroy them.
val hole remains always open. Now, in ſuch as are It is well known, that animals which have lain long
without this hole, if they were to be imnierſed in water under water, are reduced to a very lax and even pu-
for but a little time, reſpiration would ceaſe, and the trid ſtate ; and the phoca muſt baſk in the air on ſhore :
animal muſt die ; becauſe a great part of the maſs of for while the ſolids are at reſt, they acquire their for-
blood paſſes from the heart by the pulmonary artery mer degree of tenſion, and the vigour of the animal is
through the lungs, and by the pulmonary veins returns reſtored ; and while lie has an uninterupted placid re-
to the heart, while the aorta is carrying the greater {piration, his blood is refreſhed by the new ſupply of
part of the maſs to the head and extremities, &c. air, as explained above, and he is rendered fit for his
Now, the blood paſſes through the lungs in a conti- next cruiſe: for action waſtes the moſt exalted fluids of
nual uninterrupted ſtream, while reſpiration is gentle the body, more or leſs, according to its duration and
and moderate : but when it is violent, then the circu. vivlence ; and the reſtorative reſt muſt continue a long-
3
50.
A MP
( 631 )
A MP
Amphibia. er or ſhorter time, according to the quantity of the ter, yet cannot avoid living on land, for they reſpire ; Amphibia.
previous fatigue.
and if a frog be thrown into a river, he makes to the
Let us now examine by what power theſe animals fhore as faſt as he can.
are capable of remaining longer under water than land The lizard kind, ſuch as may be called water-liz-
animals.
ards (iee LACERTA), are all obliged to come to land,
All theſe have the oval hole open between the right in order to depoſite their eggs, to reſt, and to ſleep.
and left auricles of the heart; and, in many, the ca Even the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, ſleep
nalis arterioſus alſo: and while the phoca remains under and lay their eggs on thore ; and, while in the water,
water, which he may continue an hour or two more or are compelled to riſe to the ſurface to breathe ; yet, from
Jeſs, his reſpiration is ſtopped ; and the blood, not thetexture of his ſcaly covering, he is capable of remain-
finding the paſſage through the pulmonary artery free, ing in the water longer by far than any ſpecies of the
ruſhes through the hole froin the right to the left au phoca, whoſe ſkin is analogous to that of a horſe or cow.
ricle, and partly through the arterial canal, being a The hippopotamus (See HIPPOPOTAMUS), who
ſhort paſſage to the aorta, and thence to every part of wades into the lakes or rivers, is a quadruped, and re-
the body, maintaining the circulation ; but, upon riſing mains under the water a conſiderable time ; yer his
to come alhore, the blood finds its paſſage again thro' chief reſidence is upon land, and he niuſt come on ſhore
the lungs the moment he reſpires.
for reſpiration.
Thus the foetus in utero, during its confinement, The teſtudo, or ſea tortoiſe (ſee TESTUDO), though
having the lungs compreſſed, and conſequently the pul- he goes out to ſea, and is often found far from land;
monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula- yet, being a reſpiring animal, cannot remain long un-
tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and der water. He has indeed a power of rendering him-
the arterial canal. Now, ſo far the phoca in the water, ſelf fpecifically heavier or lighter than the water, and
and the fætus in utero, are analogous; but they differ therefore can let himſelf down to avoid an enenıy or a
inother material circumſtances. One is, that the fætus ſtorm: yet he is under a neceſſity of riſing frequently
having never reſpired, remains ſufficiently nouriſhed to breathe, for reaſons given before; and his moſt uſual
by the maternal blood circulating through him, and ſituation, while at ſea, is upon the ſurface of the water,
continues to grow till the time of his birth, without feeding upon the various ſubſtances that float in great
any want of reſpiration during nine months confine abundance every where about him ; theſe animals ſleep
ment: the phoca, having reſpired the moment of his ſecurely upon the ſurface, but not under water ; and
birth, cannot live very long without it, for the reaſons can remain longer at ſea than any other of this claſs,
given before ; and this hole and canal would be cloſed except the crocodile, becauſe, as it is with the latter,
in them, as it is in land-animals, if the dam did not, his covering is not in danger of being too much mace
ſoon after the birth of the cub, carry him ſo very
fre rated; yet they muſt go on fhore to copulate and lay
quently into the water to teach him ; by which prac-
tice theſe paſſages are kept open during life, otherwiſe 2. The conſideration of theſe is ſufficient to inform
they would not be capable of attaining the food de us of the nature of the firſt order of the claſs of amphi-
figned for them by Providence.
bious animals ; let us now ſee what is to be ſaid of the
Another difference is, that the phoca, as was ſaid be ſecond in our diviſion of them, which are ſuch as chief
fore, would be relaxed by maceration in remaining
too ly inhabit the waters, but occafionally go on ſhore.
long in the water ; whereas the fætus in utero ſuffers Theſe are but of two kinds: the eels, and water ſer-
no injury from continuing its full number of months pents or ſnakes of every kind. It is their form that
in the fluid it ſwims in: the reaſon is, that water is a qualifies them for loco-notion on land, and they know
powerful ſolvent, and penetrates the pores of the ſkins their way back to the water at will; for by their ſtruc-
of land-animals, and in time can diſſolve them ; where ture they have a ſtrong periſtaltic motion, by which
as the liquor amnii is an infipid ſoft fluid, impregnated they can go forward at a pretty good rate : whereas all
with particles more or leſs mucilaginous, and utterly other kinds of fiſh, whether vertical or horizontal, are
incapable of making the leaſt alteration in the cutis of incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on fhore ; and
the fetus.
therefore, as ſoon as ſuch filh are brought out of the
Otters, beavers, and ſome kinds of rats, go occaſion. water, after having flounced a while, they lie motion-
ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain leſs, and foon die.
very long under water. " I have often gone to ſhoot Let us now examine into the reaſon why thefe ver-
etters (ſays our author), and watched all their mo micular filh, the cel and ſerpent kinds, can live a confi-
tions: I have ſeen one of them go ſoftly from a bank derable time on land, and the vertical and horizontal
into the river, and dive down; and in about two mi kinds die almoſt immediately when taken out of the
nutes riſe, at 10 or 15 yards from the place he went water: and, in this reſearch, we ſhall come to know
in, with a middling ſalmon in his mouth, which he what analogy there is between land animals and thoſe
brought on flore. I ſhot him, and ſaved the fiſh of the waters. All land-animals have lungs, and can
whole.” Now, as all fætufes have theſe pafſages open, live no longer than while theſe are inflated by the am-
if a whelp of a true water-ſpaniel was, immediately af bient air, and alternately compreſſed for its expulſion;
ter its birth, ſerved as the phoca does her cubs, and that is, while reſpiration is duly carried on, by a re-
immerſed in water, to ſtop reſpiration for a little time gular inſpiration and exſpiration of air.
every day, it is probable that the hole and canal would In like manner, the filh in general have, inſtead of
be kept open, and the dog be made capable of remain- lungs, gills or branchiæ : and as in land-animals the
ing as long under water as the phoca.
lungs have a large portion of the maſs of blood circu-
Frogs, how capable foever of remaining in the wa- lating through them, which muſt be ſtopped if the air
has
their eggs.
A MP
[638]
A M P
1
Amphibia. lias not a free ingreſs and egreſs into and from them; youth, had ſo accuſtomed himſelf to live in water, that Amphibo-
ſo, in fiſh, there is a great number of blood-veſſels that his nature ſeemed to be quite altered ; ſo that he lived logy
0
paſs through the branchiæ, and a great portion of their rather after the manner of a fiſh than a man.
Amphic-
blood circulates through them, which muſt in like man AMPHIBOLOGY, in grammar and rhetoric, a
tyons,
ner be totally ſtopped, if the branchiæ are not perpe- term uſed to denote a phraſe ſuſceptible of two differ-
tually wet with water. So that, as the air is to the langs ent interpretations. Amphibology ariſes from the or-
in land-animals a conſtant aſſiſtant to the circulation; der of the phraſe, rather than from the ambiguous
fo is the water to the branchiæ of thoſe of the rivers meaning of a word.
and ſeas: for when theſe are out of the water, the bran Of this kind was that anſwer which Pyrrhus received
chiæ very ſoon grow criſp and dry,the blood veſſels are from the oracle: Aio te, Æacida, Romanus vincere pof-
Shrunk, and the blood is obſtructed in its paſſage ; ſo se; where the amphibology conſiſts in this, that the
when the former are inimerſed in water, or otherwiſe words te and Romanos, may either of them precede, or
prevented from having reſpiration, the circulation cea either of them follow, the words poffe vincere, indiffe-
ſes and the animal dies.
rently. See ORACLE.
Again, as land-animals would be deſtroyed by too The Engliſh language uſually ſpeaks in a more na-
much maceration in water ; ſo fiſhes would,on theother tural manner, and is not capable of any amphibologies
hand, be ruined by too much exſiccation ; the latter of this kind : nor is it ſo liable to amphibologies in the
being from their general ſtructure and conſtitution, articles, as the French and moſt other modern tongues.
made fit to bear, and live in, the water ; the former, AMPHIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, the name of
by their conſtitution and form, to breathe and dwell in a foot conſiſting of three ſyllables, whereof that in
the air.
the middle is long, and the other two ſhort; ſuch is the
But it may be aſked, why eels and water-ſnakes are word [ăbire].
capable of living longer in the air than the other kinds AMPHICOME, in natural hiſtory, a kind of figu-
of fiſh? This is anſwered, by conſidering the providen- red ſtone, of a round ſhape, but rugged, and beſet with
tial care of the great Creator for theſe and every one eminences, celebrated on account of its uſe in divina-
of his creatures: for ſince they were capable of loco- tion. The word is originally Greek an Doxonem, q. d.
motion by their form, which they need not be if they utrinque comata, or “ hairy on all ſides.” This ſtone is
were never to goon fhore, it ſeemed neceſſary that they alſo called Erotylos, Epatvaos, Amatoria, probably on
ſhould be rendered capable of living a confiderable time account of its ſuppoſed power of creating love. The
on ſhore, otherwiſe their loco-motion would be in vain. amphicone is mentioned by Democritus and Pliny,
How is this provided for? Why, in a moſt convenient though little known among the moderns. Mercatus
manner; for this order of fiſhes have their branchiæ takes it for the ſame with the lapis lumbricatus, of
well covered from the external drying air ; they are alſo which he gives a figure.
furniſhed with a ſlimy mucus, which hinders their be AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an affem-
coming criſp and dry for many hours ; and their very bly compoſed of deputies from the different ſtates of
ſkins always emit a mucous liquor, which keeps them Greece: and reſembling, in ſome meaſure, the diet of
ſuppleand moiſt for a long time: whereas the branchiæ the German empire. Some ſuppoſe the word A u PIXTI OVES
of other kinds of fiſh are much expoſed to the air, and to be formed of
to be formed of qud", " about," and x Tiery or Xtigen, in
want the flimy matter to keep them moiſt. Now, if regard the inhabitanss of the country around about met
any of theſe, when brought out of the water, were laid here in council: others, with more probability, from
in a veſſel without water, they might be preſerved alive Amphittyon, ſon of Deucalion, whom they ſuppoſe to
a conſiderable time, by only keeping the gills and fur- have been the founder of this aſſembly; though others,
face of the ſkin conſtantly wet, even without any water will have Acriſius, king of the Argives, to have been
to ſwim in.
the firſt who gave a form and laws to it.
It has been advanced, that man may, by art, be ren Authors give different accounts of the number of the
dered amphibious, and able to live under water as well Amphictyons, as well as of the ſtates who were enti-
as frogs. As the fætus lives in utero without air, and tied to have their repreſentatives in this council. Ac-
the circulation is there continued by means of the fora- cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they
men ovale ; by preſerving the paſſage open, and the were twelve from their firſt inſtitution, fent by the
other parts in ſtatu quo, after the birth, the ſame facul- following cities and ſtates; the lonians, Dorians, Per-
ty would ſtill continue. Now, thc foramen, it is al- rhæbians, Bæotians, Magneſians, Achæans,Phthians,
leged, would be preſerved in its open ſtate, were peo. Melians, Dolopians, Ænianians, Delphians, and Pho-
pleaccuſtomed, from their infancy, to hold their breath cians. Æſchines reckons no nore than eleven ; in-
a conſiderable time once a-day, that the blood might ſtead of the Achæans, Ænianians, Delphians, and
be forced to reſume its priſtine paflage, and prevent its Dolopians, he only gives the Theffalians, Oetians,
drying up as it uſually does. This conjecture ſecms, and Loerians. Laſtly, Pauſanias's liſt contains only
in fone meaſure, ſupported by the practice of divers, ten, viz. the Ionians, Dolopians, Theffalians, Ænia-
who are taught from their childhood to hold their nians, Magneſians, Melians, Phthians, Dorians, Phíci-
breath, and keep long under water, by which means the ans, and Locrians.
ancient channel is kept open.- A Calabrian monk at In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians
Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the
an offer to the king of Spain, io continue twice twen- Delphian temple, and the Lacedæmonians were ad-
ty-four hours under water, without ever coming up to mitted in their place; but the Phocians, 60 years af-
take breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian, ter, having behaved gallantly againſt Brennus and his
nanied the fiſh Golas, who, by a long habitude from his Gauls, were reſtored to their ſeat in the Amphictyonic
council.
T
A MP
A M P
639
]
chius
11a.
Amphidro- admitted into the body; and to make room for it, the lower age, (Stephanus). A town alſo of Spain, in Amphilo-
mia Magneſians, Melians, Phthians, and Ænianians, who Gallicia, built by Teucer, and denominated from Am-
14
till then had diſtinct voices, were ordered to be num philochus oneof his companions, (Strabo): now@renfe.
Amphilo- bered with the Theſſalians, and to have only one com W. Long. 8. 20. Lat. 42. 36.
Amphiſbæ
chia.
mon repreſentative. Strabo ſpeaks as if this council AMPHILOCHIUS, bishop of Iconium, in the fourth
were extinct in the times of Auguſtus and Tiberius : century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazianzen, and
but Pauſanias, who lived many years after, under St Balil. He aſliſted at the firſt general council of Con-
Antoninus Pius, aſſures us it remained entire in his ſtantinople in 381 ; preſided at the council of Sidæ; and
time, and that the number of Amphictyons was then was a ſtrenuous oppoſer of the Arians. He died in
30.
394, and his works were publiſhed in Greek and La-
The members were of two kinds. Each city ſent tin at Paris 1644, by Francis Conibelis.
two deputies,under different denominations;one called AMPHILOCHUS, ſon of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle,
'Lepopeynje ov, whoſe buſineſs ſeems to have been more im Was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar erected
mediately to inſpect what related to facrifices and cere to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Cilicia,
monies of religion; the other junayopas, charged with which city was founded by him and Mopſus. The ana.
hearing and deciding of cauſes and differences between ſwers of this oracle were given by dreains ; the party
private perſons. Both had an equal right to deliberate inquiring uſed to paſs a night in the temple, and that
and vote, in all that related to the common intereſts night's dream was the anſwer. Dion Caſſius mentions
of Greece. The hieromnemon was elected by lot; the a picture done by order of Sextus Condianus, repreſent-
pylagoras by plurality, of voices.
ing the anſwer he received of the oracle, in the reign
Though the Amphictyons were firſt inſtituted at of the emperor Commodus.
Thermopylæ, M. de Valois mainlains, that their firſt AMPHÍMACER, in ancient poetry, a foot conſiſte
place of reſidence was at Delphi ; where, for ſome ing of three ſyllables, whereof the firſt and laſt are
ages, the tranquillity of the times found them no other long, and that in the middle ſhort; ſuch is the word
employment than that of being, if we may ſo call it, [Caſtřtās. ]
church-wardens of the temple of Apollo. In after AMPHION, ſon of Jupiter and Antiope; who, ac-
times, the approach of armies frequently drove them cording to the poets, made the rocks follow his muſic;
to Thermopylæ, where they took their ſtation, to be and at his harp the ſtones of Thebes danced into walls
nearer at hand to oppoſe the enemies progreſs and or and a regular city.
der timely ſuccour to the cities in danger. Their or AMPHIPOLÉS, in antiquity, the principal magie
dinary reſidence, however, was at Delphi.
ſtrates of Syracuſe. They were eſtabliſhed by Timo-
Here they decided all public differences and diſputes leon in the 109th Olympiad, after the expulſion of the
between any of the cities of Greece; but before they tyrant Dionyfius. They governed Syracuſe for the
entered on buſineſs, they jointly ſacrificed an ox cut ſpace of 300 years : and Diodorus Siculus aſſures us,
into ſmall pieces, as a ſymbol of their union. Their that they ſubliſted in his tiine.
determinations were received with the greateſt vene AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, an Athenian
ration, and even heid ſacred and inviolable.
colony, on the Strynion, but on which ſide is not ſo
The Amphictyons, at their admiſſion, took a ſolemn certain ; Pliny places it in Macedonia, on this ſide ; but
vath never to diveſt any city of the right of deputa- Scylax, in Thrace, on the other. The name of the
tion ; never to avert its running waters; and if any at town, Amphipolis, however, ſeems to reconcile their
tempts of this kind were made by others, to make mor difference; becauſe, as Thucidydes obſerves, it was
tal war againſt them: more particularly, in caſe of any wahed on two ſides by the Strymon, which dividing
attempt to rob the temple of any of its ornaments, that itſelf into two channels, the city ſtood in the middle,
they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole and on the ſide towards the ſea there was a wall built
power to revenge it.This oath was backed with ter from channel to channel. Its ancient name was Ev1€
rible imprecations againſt ſuch as thoald violate il;e.g. odor, the Nine Ways, (Thucidydes, Herodotus.) The
May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Diana, citizens were called Ainphipolitani, (Livy.) 'It was
Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives aftcrwards called Chriſtopolis; now Chriſopoli, or Chin,
bring forth nothing but monſters, &c.
Sopolt, (Holſtenius.)
The ſtated terms of their meeting was in ſpring and AMPHIPOLIS, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates,
autumn ; the ſpring meeting was called Expovu liunale built by Seleucus, called by the Syrians Turmeda,
that in autumn Metowpern. On extraordinary occaſi. (Stephanus): the ſame with Thapſacus, (Pliny); and
ons, however, they met at any time of the year, or ſuppoſed to have been only renewed and adorned hy
even continued ſitting all the year round.
Seleucus, becauſe long famous before his time, (Xem
Philip of Macedon uſurped the right of preſiding in nophon.)
the aſſembly of the Amphy&ions, and of firſt conſult AMPHIPPII, in Grecian antiquity, foldiers who,
ing the oracle which was called Προμαντεια.
in war, uſed two horſes without ſaddles, and were
AMPHIDROMIA, a feaſt celebrated by the anci. dextrous enough to leap from one to the other.
ents on the fifth day after the birth of a child.
AMPHIPRORÆ, in the naval affairs of the anci-
AMPHIDRYON, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes onts, veſſels with a prow at each end They were
the veil or curtain which was drawn before the door uſed chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels,
of the bema in ancient churches.
where it was not eaſy to tack about.
AMPHILOCHIA (anc. geog-), the territory of the AMPHIPROSTYLE, in the architecture of the an.
city of Argos in Arcanania; Amphilochium, (Thuci- cients, a temple which had four columns in the front,
dydes); called Amphilochi (from the people, in the and as many in the aſpect behind.
council. Under Auguftus, the city of Nicopolis was AMPHIŠBÆNA, in zoology, a genus of ſerpents
belong-
A M P
[ 640 1
AM P
atre.
Amphif- belonging to the order of amphibia.ſerpents, fu called by mountains, (Stephanus.) Hence Amphifæi, the in- Amphitane
bæna, from the falſe notion of its having two heads, becauſe habitants ; who plundered the temple at Delphi, (De- Amphithe-
Amphiſſa. it momes with either end foremoſt.
moſthenes.)-Alſo a town of Magna Græcia, at the
The head of the amphiſbæna is ſmall, ſmooth, and mouth of the Sagra, on the coaſt of the Farther Cala-
blunt; the noſtrils are very ſmall; the eyes are minute bria, ſituated between Locri and Caulona ; now called
and blackiſh ; and the mouth is furniſhed with a great Rocella. Amphiſius the epithet, (Ovid.),
number of ſmall teeth. The body is cylindrical, about AMPHITANE, among ancient naturaliſts, a ſtone
a foot long, and divided into about 200 annular convex ſaid to attract gold as the loadſtone does iron. Pliny
ſegments like thoſe of a worm ; and it has about 40 ſays it was found in that part of the Indies where the
longitudinal ſtreaks, of which 12 on each ſide are in native gold lay ſo near the ſurface of the earth as to
the form of ſmall croſſes like the Roman X; the anus be turned up in ſmall maſſes among the earth of ant-
is a tranſverſe ſlit; and the laſt ring or ſegment of the hills; and deſcribes it to have been of a ſquare figure,
belly has eight ſmall papillæ, forming a tranſverſe line and of the colour and brightneſs of gold. The deſcrip-
before the anus ; the tail, ie, all the ſpace below the tion plainly points out a well-known foſſil, called, by
anus, is ſhort, conſiſting of 30 anivılar ſegments, with Dr Hill, pyricubium: this is common in the mines of
out being marked with the croſs-lines, and is thick moſt parts of the world; but neither this nor any other
and blunt at the point. The colour of the whole ani- ſtone was ever fuppoſed, in our times, to have the
mal is black, variegated with white ; but the black power of attracting gold.
prevails moſt on the back, and the white on the belly. AMPHITHEATRE, in antiquity, a ſpacious edifice,
It has a great reſemblance to a worm, living in the built either round or oval, with a number of riling
earth, and moving equally well with either end fore- feats, upon which the people uſed to behold the coni-
moit.' There are but two ſpecies, viz. 1. The fuligi- bats of gladiators, of wild beaſts, and other ſports.
noſa, which anſwers exactly to the above deſcription, Amphitheatres were at firſt only of wood; and it was
and is found in Libya and in different parts of Ame not till the reign of Auguſtus, that Statilius Taurus
rica. 2. The alba, which is totally white, is a native built one, for the firſt time, of stone. The lower part
of both the Indies, and is generally found in ant-hil was of an oval figure, and called arena, becauſe, for the
locks. The bite of the amphiſbæna is reckoned to be conveniency of the combatants, it was uſually ſtrewed
mortal by many authors; but as it is not furniſhed with fand; and round the arena were vaults ſtyled ca-
with dog-fangs, the uſual inſtruments of conveying the veæ, in which were confined the wild beaſts appoint-
poiſon of ſerpents, later writers eſteem it not to be poi. ed for the ſhews.
ſonous. They feed upon ants and earth-wornis, but Above the cavex was erected a large circular pe-
particularly the latter. See Plate XVIII.
riſtyle, or podium, adorned with columns. This was
AMPHISBÆNA Aquatica, a name given by Bertrutius, the place of the emperors, ſenators, and other perſons
Albertus, and ſeveral other authors, to that long and of diſtinction.
flender infect, called by others the feta aquatica, and The rows of benches were above the podium. Their
vermis ſetarius. It has the name amphiſbæna, from its figure was circular; and they were entered by avenues,
going backwards or forwards with equal eaſe and cele at tlie end of which were gates called vonitoriæ.
rity. The uſual ſize is four or five inches long, and This theatre was built in form of a ſemicircle, only
the thickneſs of a large hair.
exceeding a juſt ſemicircle by one fourth part of the
Dr Liſter accidentally found out the origin of this diameter; and the amphitheatre was nothing elſe but
worin, in his reſearches into the hiſtory of a very dif- a double theatre, or two theatres joined together : ſo
ferent fort of inſect. Diſſecting one of the coni mon that the longeſt diameter of the amphitheatre was to
black beetles dug up in a garden, he found in its belly the ſhorteſt as Iį to 1.
two of theſe hair worms, or amphiſbænæ; and renew There are amphitheatres ſtill ſtanding at Rome, at
ing the experimnenton other beetles of the ſame ſpecies, Pola, at Niſmes, &c. The amphitheatre of Veſpa-
he found that they uſually contained, one, two, or three fian, called the Coliſeum, and that at Verona in Italy,
of theſe wornis.
As ſoon as the body of the beetle is are the moſt celebrated now remaining of all antiquity.
opened, they always crawl out. When put into wa Remains of amphitheatres are ſhown alſo at Arles,
ter they will live a conſiderable time, and ſwim nimbly Bourdeaux, &c. The amphitheatre at Pola, an ancient
about ; but often put up their heads above water, as if republic of Iſtria, is very entire : it conſiſts of two or-
endeavouring to make their eſcape, and ſometimes fa- ders of Tuſcan pillars, one over the other. The lower
ſtening themſelves by the mouth to the ſides of the veſ- have pedeſtals, which is extraordinary; this order
fel, and drawing their whole bodies after them. Theſe having ſcarce ever more than baſes to ſupport them.
creatures are not only found in the waters, but buried The amphitheatre of Veſpaſian is computed to have
in earth, and ſometimes on the leaves of trees, in, been capable of holding 87,000 ſpectators. That of
gardens and hedges. Phil. Tranſ. N° 83.
Verona is the beſt preſerved: for though moſt of the
AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied great and beſt ſtones of the outſide are picked out,
to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am- yet the great vault, on which the rows of the ſeats
phiſcii, as the word imports, have their ſhadows one are laid, is en!ire; the rows alſo (which are 44 in
part of the year towards the north, and the other to number) are entire. Every row is a foot and a half
wards the ſouth, according to the ſun's place in the high, and as much in breadth; ſo that a man ſits con-
ecliptic. They are alſo called Aſcii. See Ascii. veniently in them; and allowing for a ſeat a foot and
AMPHISSA, (anc. geog.), the capital of the Locri a half, the whole will hold 23,000 perſons. Pliny
Oxolæ, 120 ſtadia (or 15 miles) to the weſt of Delphi, mentions an amphitheatre built by Curio, which turn-
(Pauſanias.) So called, becauſe ſurrounded on all hands ed on large iron pivots; ſo that of the fame amphithe-
-
1
2
atro
LIPHITHEATRES.
Plate XVI.
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[ 641 ]
A M P
atre
tion
non, &c.
Amphithe-atre two ſeveral theatres were occaſionally made, from that privilege. In effect, it is generally fuppof- Amplia-
whereon different entertainments were ſometimes ed to have been this prince that made the famous
0 preſented at the ſame time. Mr Brydone (vol. i. 295), conſtitution, whereby all the ſubjects of the empire
H
Amplia- mentions an amphitheatre at Syracuſe, the theatre of were made citizens of Rome,
Ani pulla.
tion.
which is ſo entire, that the gradini for ſeats ſtill re AMPLIATION, in Roman antiquity, was the defer-
main; but it is a ſmall theatre, he ſays, in compariſon ring to paſs ſentence in certain cauſes. This the judge
of the others. Sec Plate XVI.
did, by pronouncing the word amplius; or by writing
AMPHITHEATRE, in gardening, certain diſpoſitions the letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby fignifying,
of trees and ſhrubs on the ſides of hilly places, which, that, as the cauſe was not clear, it would be neceſſary
if the hill or riſing be naturally of a circular figure, to bring further evidence.
always have the beſt effect. They are to be formed of AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric, part of a diſ-
evergreens, ſuch as hollies, phillereys, lauruſtines, courſe or ſpeech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a
bays, and ſuch plants, obſerving to plant the ſhorteſt praiſe or commendation heightened,or a narration en-
growing trees in the front, and thoſe which will be larged, by an enumeration of circumſtances ; ſo as to
the talleſt behind, ſuch as pines, firs, cedars of Leba- excite the proper emotions in the ſouls of the auditors.
Such is the paſſage in Virgil, where, inſtead of fay.
Amphitheatres are alſo ſometimes formed of ſlopes ing merely that Turnus died, he amplifies the cir-
on the lides of hills, covered only with turf; and when cumſtances of his death.
well kept, they are a great ornament to large gardens.
Aft illi folvuntur frigore membra,
AMPHITRITE, (aupotporn, from circumferendo),
in the heathen mythology, the wife of Neptune, and
Vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignata ſub umbras.
goddeſs of the ſea, fonietimes taken for the ſea. The maſters of eloquence made amplification to be the
AMPHITRYON, ſon of Alcæus, leſs known by his foul of diſcourſe. See ORATORY, nº 39.
own exploits than from his wife Alcmena's adventure. AMPLITUDE, in aſtronomy, an arch of the hori.
See ALCMENA.
zon intercepted between the eaſt or weſt point and
AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid meaſure among the centre of the fun, or a planet, at its riſing or fct.
the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con ting; and ſo is either north and ſouth, or ortive and
tained 48 ſextaries, equal to about ſeven gallons one occafive.
pint Engliſh wine-meaſure; and the Grecian or Attic Magnetical AMPLITUDE, the different riſing or ſet-
amphora contained one-third more.
ting of the ſun from the eaſt or weſt points of the com.
AMPHORA was alſo a dry meaſure uſed by the Ro- paſs. It is found by obſerving the fun, at its riſing and
mans, and contained about three buſhels.
ſetting, by an amplitude-compaſs.
AMPHORA, among the Venetians, is the largeſt AMPSAGA, a river of ancient Numidia. See
meaſure uſed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts. ALGIERS, nº 57.
AMPHORARIUM VINUM, in antiquity, denotes AMPSANCTI VALLIS, or AMPSANCTI LACUS, .
that which is drawn or poured into amphoræ or pitch- cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Principato
ers; by way of diſtinction from vinun doliare, or caſk Ultra, near the city Tricento (Cicero, Virgil, Pliny);
wine.The Romans had a method of keeping wine it is now called Moffetta, from Mephitis, the goddeſs
in amphoræ for many years to ripen, by faſtening the of ſtench, who had a temple there. The ancient poets
lids tight down with pitch or gypſum, and placing imagined that this gulph led to hell. The Moffetta is
thein either in a ſituation where
the ſmoke came, or thus deſcribed by Mr Swinburn: “We were led into
under ground.
a narrow valley, extending a conſiderable way to the
AMPHOTIDES, in antiquity, a kind of armour or ſouth-weſt, and preſſed in on both ſides by high ridges
covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles, lo thickly covered with copres of oak. The bottom of
prevent their adverſaries from laying hold of that part. the dell is bare and arid: in the loweſt part, and cloſe
AMPHRYSUS, or AMPHRYSSUS, (anc. geog.) a under one of the hills, is an oval pond of muddy ath-
river of Phthiotis, a diſtrict of Theſſaly, running by coloured water, not above 50 feet in diameter: it boils
the foot of mount Othrys, from ſouth to north, into up in ſeveral places with great force in irregular fits,
the Enipeus at Thebes of Theffaly; where Apollo which are always preceded by a hiſſing ſound. The
fed the herds of king Aumetus (Virgil, Lucan). Ano water was ſeveral times ſpouted up as high as our heads
ther Amphryſuis in Phrygia, rendering women bar in a diagonal direction, a whirlpool being formed round
ren, according to Pliny: Hence the epithet Amphryſia. the tube, like a baſon, to receive it as it fell. A large
cus (Statius). Alſo a town of Phocis, at the foot of body of vapour is continually thrown out with a loud
mount Parnaffus, encompaſſed with a double wall by rumbling noiſe. The ſtones on the riſing ground that
the Thebans in the war with Philip (Pauſanias); hangs over the pool are quite yellow, being ſtained
Amphryſia Vates, in Virgil, cenotes the Sibyl. with the fumes of ſulphur and fal-ammoniac. A moſt
AMPHTHILL, a town in Bedfordſhire, ſeated nauſeous ſinell riſing with the ſteam obliged us to watch
pleaſantly between two hills, but in a barren foil. W. the wind, and to keep clear of it, to avoid ſuffocation.
Long. 0. 29. N. Lat. 52. 2.
The water is quite inſipid both as to taſte and ſmell ;
AMPLIATION, in a general ſenſe, denotes the act the clay at the edges is white, and carried into Pug-
of enlarging or extending the compaſs of a thing. lia to rub upon ſcabby ſheep, on which account the
On a medal of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find lake is farmed out at 100 ducats a-year. On a hill
the title Ampliator civium given him, on account of above this lake ſtood formerly a temple dedicated to the
his having extended the jus civitatis, or right of ciligoddeſs Mephitis; but I perceived no remains of it."
zenſhip, to many ſtates and people before excluded AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round big-bellied vef-
VOL. I.
fel,
4 M
A MR
( 642 )
A M S
1
Ampulla fel which the ancients uſed in their baths, to contain other pieces of antiquity, beſides many other apart. Amfan&i
oil for anointing their bodies.--Allo the name of a ments adorned with pictures of great value. E. Long. 11
Aniras.
Amſter.
cup
for drinking out of at table,
II. 40. N. Lat. 47. O.
dans.
AMSANCTI. See AMPSANCTI.
AMPULLA, among eccleſiaſtical writers, denotes one
of the ſacred veſſels uſed at the altars. Ampullæ were AMSBURY, or AMBERSBURY, a towii in Wilt-
alſo uſed for holding the oil uſed in cliriſmation, con ſhire, lying in W. Long. I. 20. N. Lat. 51. 29. It
fecration, coronation, &c. Among the ornaments of is the l'agus Ambri, famous for a monaſtery built by
churches we find frequent mention made of ampuls or one Ambrus, and afterwards for a nunnery of noble
vials. In the inventory of the cathedral of Lincoln women. There is a nobleman's ſeat here built by
we meet with anıpuls of chryſtal, variouſly enriched Inigo Jones, to which new works were added under the
with ſilver feet and covers; one containing a tooth of direction of Lord Burlington. It is 80 miles weſt of
St Chriſtopher, another a tooth of St Cecily, another London, and ſix miles north of Saliſbury.
a bone of the head of St John Baptiſt.
AMSDORFIANS, in church-hiſtory, a ſect of
Knights of St AMPULLA, belong to an order inſti. Proteſtants in the 16th century, who took their name
tuted by Clóvis I. king of France ; at the coronation from Amſdorf their leader. They maintained, that
they bear up the canopy, under which the ampulla is good works were not only unprofitable, but were ob-
carried in proceſſion,
ſtacles to falvation.
AMPURA, a province of the kingdom of Peru, AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province
before its conqueſt by the Spaniards. Here the inha of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is ſeated
bitants worſhipped two lofty mountains from a princi on the river Amſel and an arm of the ſea called the
ple of gratitude, becauſe of the deſcent of the water Wye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the
from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is marſhes that ſurround it, and render the city almoſt
ſaid to have been conquered by Virachoca, the eighth inacceſſible : but this inconvenience is abundantly re-
Inca.
compenſed by the utility of its commerce, which the
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Am port ſerves greatly to promote ; for it will contain
purdan, in Catalonia, ſeated at the mouth of the river above a thouſand large ihips.
Fluvia, in E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 42. 5. The land In 1204, it was nothing but a ſmall caſtle, called
about it is barren, full of briars and bulruſhes, except Amſtel from the name of the river, which its lords
in ſome places which produce flax.
made a retreat for fiſhermen, who at firſt lived in huts
AMPUTATION, inſurgery, the cutting off a limb, covered with thatch: but it ſoon became conſiderable,
or any part from the body. See SURGERY - Index. and had a bridge and towers built about it, infomuck
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or, Babylonia, that it roſe to a ſmall city; though, till the year 1490,
confederated with Chedorlaomer,king of the Elamites, it was ſurronnded with nothing but a weak palliſado.
and two other kings, to make war againſt the kings The walls were then built with brick, to defend it
of Pentapolis ; that is to ſay, of Sodom, Gomorrah, from the incurſions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, with
and the three neighbouring cities. The kings who whom the Hollanders were often quarrelling; but fome
were in league with Amraphel worſted thoſe of Pen months afterwards it was almoſt reduced to alhes. In
tapolis
, plundered their city, and carried off abundance 1512, it was beſieged by the people of Guelderland;
of captives, among whom was Lot, Abraham's ne who, not being able to take it, ſet fire to the ſhips in
phew: but Abraham purſued them, retook Lot, and the harbuar. In 1525, an Anabaptiſt leader, with 600
recovered all the ſpoil. See ABRAHAM.
of his followers, got into the city in the night-time, at-
AMRAS, a ſtrong caſtle of Germany, ſeated in Ti. tacked the town-houſe, and defeated thoſe that made
rol ; by ſome German writers called Arx Ambrofiana, any reſiſtance. At length they barricaded, with wool
which was the houſe of pleaſure for the archdukes lo and hop-ſacks, the avenues to the market-place, where
retire to in the heat of the ſummer. By others this theſe enthuſiaſts were poſted ; and ſo put a ſtop to their
fort is called Ombraſs; a name derived from the deſign fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell
of it, which was to be a ſhady ſummer-houſe. It
is upon them on all ſides, and forced them to retire into
moſt delightfully ſituated at the foot of a mountain, the town-houſe, where moſtof them were cut to pieces.
but has no great external beauty. All the furniture About ten years after, there was another tunult raiſed
of ordinary uſe has been carried away; yet it is ſtill by a parcel of fanatics, conſiſting of men and women,
remarkable for its galleries, which contain a very large who ran about the ſtreets ſtark naked, and had a de-
colleétion of antiquities, and both natural and artifici- ſign of making themſelves maſters of the town-houſe.
al curioſities. It excels all others in its curious col. Their ſhrieks and cries, which were dreadful enough,
lection of armour and coats of niail, many of which be ſoon alarmed the inhabitants, who ſeized the greateſt
longed to very great men. There is alſo a great col- part of them, and gave them the chaſtiſement they de-
lection of gold medals, which weigh, as they affirm, ſerved.
about 16 pounds; there are alſo 3000 cameos and in Amſterdam was one of the laſt cities that embraced
taglios, but few of them very fine. A great part of the reformed religion. It was beſieged by the Hollan-
theſe antiquities were ſent to this place by Charles V. dersin 1578, and ſubmitted after a ſiege of ten months.
On the walls and cieling there are ſome very good One article of the capitulation was, a free exerciſe
paintings; and, among the reſt, they have an admira- of the Roman-catholic religion : but this was not ob-
ble picture of Noah's ark, done by Baſſano, for which ſerved by the Proteſtants; for they foon drove the ec-
the grand duke of Tuſcany is ſaid to have offered clefiaftics, monks, and nuns, out of the city, broke the
100,000 crowns. They have a library, which is not images, and demoliſhed the altars. From this time it
in very good order; and a gallery full of Luſts and became the general rendezvous of all nations and of
2
every
A M S
[ 643 )
A M S
Azterdam every fe&t, which raiſed it to that degrec of grandeur third part. Here they have a long ſquare of houſes Amſterdam
and opulence it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of. for their beguines (a kind of nuns) to live in ; who are
ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their city, and in not ſhut up in cloyſters as other nuns in Roman-Callio-
1675 it was increaſed to its preſent extent. It was fur. lic countries, but have liberty to walk abroad, and may
Founded with a brick wall, and a large ditch, 80 feet even marry when they are tired of this kind of life.
broad, full of running water. The walls were fortified Theſe chapels of the Roman-Catholics have no bells
with 26 baſtions, on each of which there is now a wind- allowed them, being looked upon as conventicles, and
mill. There are eight gates towards the land, and may be ſhut up and opened according as the govern-
one towards the water.
ment pleaſes. The other third part of the city is
Amſterdam being feated on a marſhy foil, is built on made up of Jews, Lutherans, Arminians, Anabaptiſts,
piles of wood; for which reaſon no coaches are allow- &c. none of whom, as was ſaid of the Roman-Catlio-
ed, except to great men and phyſicians, who pay a tax lics, are allowed to have bells in their churches. Thoſe
for that privilcge; and all kinds of goods are drawn or who marry, and are not of the eſtabliſhed religion, are
Nedges. It ſtands fo low, that they would be expoſed obliged to be joined firſt by the magiſtrates, and then
to inundations, if they did not ſecure themſelves by they may perform the ceremony in their own aſem-
dikes and ſluices. The fineſt ſtreets are, the Keyfar's blies. The Jews, who are very conſiderable in this
Graft, or Emperor's Canal ; the Heer Graft, or Lord's place, have two fynagogues ; one of which, namely,
Canal ;
The Cingel; and the ſtreet of Haerlem. The the Portugueſe, is the largeſt in Europe. Within the
principal canal is remarkable for its houſes, which are court-yard, where their fynagogue ſtands, they have
magnificent ſtructures of an equal height. Here are ſeveral rooms or ſchools, where their children are
three prodigious ſluices, and a great number of canals, taught Hebrew, and very carefully inſtructed in the
which croſs the city in many parts and render the ſtreets Jewiſh religion.
clean and pleaſant. The canals are deep, their ſides are The moſt remarkable of the religious buildings is
lined with hewn ſtone, they have generally rows of the New Church, dedicated to St Catharine. It was
trees planted on each ſide, and many ſtone bridges over begun in the year 1408, others ſay 1414; and was
different parts of them.
100 years a-building. It had the misfortune of being
The fineſt is that called the Ammerack, which is burnt in the year 1645, but was in a ſhort time af-
formed by the waters of the Amſtel, into which the ter built in a more magnificent manner. The foun.
tide comes up, and on the ſides of which are trvo large dation of a ſteeple is laid before this church, which
quays. This canal has ſeveral bridges. The principal was deſigned to be very high. The piles on which it
is that next the ſea, called Pont-Neuf, or the New was to be erected are not above 100 feet ſquare, and
Bridge: it is 6co feet long, and 70 broad, with iron yet they are 6334 in number, and thoſe very large.
baluſtrades on each ſide ; it has 36 arches, of which ir Nevertheleſs it was thought that theſe vaſt piles, or
are very high, and eight are Thut up to incloſe the rather the ground, were not able to ſupport the pro-
yachts. From this bridge there is a moſt charming digious weight they intended to lay upon it ; for which
proſpect of the city, port, and ſea. The port is a reaſon the ſteeple remains unfinified. The polpit is a
mile and a half in length, and about 1000 paces in maſterpiece of the kind, where the four evangeliſts and
breadth. It is always filled with a multitude of vef- many other curious pieces of ſculpture are repreſented.
fels, which look like a foreſt, or rather a floating city. The glaſs-windowsare adorned with paintings, among
The ſtreets in general are well paved, and the houſes which the emperor Maximilian is deſcribed, preſenting
built of brick or ſtone. Towards the ſides of the ha-
an imperial crown to the burgomaſters of Amſterdam
ven, the city is incloſed with great poles driven into for the creſt of the arms of this city. The organ is
the ground, which are joined by large beams placed very large, and reckoned one of the beſt in the world.
horizontally. There are openings to let the ſhips in It has a ſet of pipes that counterfeit a chorus of voices,
and out, which arc ſhut every night at the ringing of a and has 52 whole ftops, beſides half ſtops, with two
bell.
rows of keps for the feet, and three rows of keys for
Amſterdam is computed to be half as big as Lon- the hands. Theſe who hear it play for the firſt time,
don, including the fortifications, and almoſt as popu- imagine they hear a human voice. The grate dividing
lous in proportion. There are people here of almoſt the chancel from the body of the church is all of Co-
every nation and religion in Europe, who are all tole- rinthian brafs. The branches of candleſticks are the
rated in their reſpective perſuaſions ; but none admit- richeſt in the Seven Provinces. There is a very fine
ted to any ſhare in the government except the Calviniſts. marble monument erected to Admiral Ruyter, who
There are eleven churches for the Dutch of the eſta was killed at Meſlina.
blithed or Calviniſtical religion, with two French and The public buildings of a civil nature are very mag-
one High Dutch. The Engliſh have alſo three church- nificent. The ſtadt-houſe was founded in 1648. It is
es in this city ; one for the Preſbyterians, whoſe mini- built upon 14,000 wooden piles ; and its front is 282
fters are paid by the magiftrates ; a ſecond for thoſe of feet long, its ſides 255 feet, and its height to the roof
the church of England,
whoſe miniſter is paid by his 116. There is a marble pediment in the front, whereon
Britannic majelly ; and a third for the Browniſts, who a woman is carved in relievo, holding the arms of the
maintain their own miniſters. None but the Calviniſts city; ſhe is ſeated in a chair, ſupporied by two lions,
are allowed to have bells, and their miniſters are main- with an olive branch in her right hand; on each ſide
tained by the inagiſtrates. All theſe churches or con are four Naiads, who preſent her with a crown of palm
gregations make up only a third part of the inhabi- and laurel, and two other marine goddeſſes preſent her
tanis of the city. The Roman Catholics, who have with different ſorts of fruit ; belides, there is Neptune
27 houſes or chapels, for their worſhip, form another with his trident, accompanied with Tritons, a ſea-uni..
4 M 2
corn,
A M S
A MS
644
Amiterdam corn, and a ſea-horſe. On the top ſtand three ſtatues divided into ſeveral offices or apartinents. In ſome Aniſterdana
in bronze, repreſenting Juſtice, Strength, and Plenty. of thoſe they have great ſtores of packed goods, and
On the top of the ſtructure is a round lower, 50 feet likewiſe a room with all ſorts of drugs, tea, wax,
above the roof, adorned with ſtatues, and an harmoni- ambergriſe, and muſk. Here they have a magazine
ous chime of bells, the biggeſt of which weighs about full of medicaments for ſurgeons cheſts, to furniſh the
7000 pounds, and the next 600o. They are made to company's hips and garriſons in the Indies; as alſo
play different tunes every month. It has not one large magazines of nutmegs, cloves, niace, and cinna-
handſome gate, but only ſeven doors to anſwer to the mon. In the court-yard there is a guard-chamber, where
number of the United Provinces. On the floor of the every night the houſe-keeper has a watch ; and on the
great hall are two globes, the celeſtial and terreſtrial, other ſide of the gate, there is a chemiſt, who with his
which are 22 feet in diameter and 69 in circumference. men prepares medicines for the Indies ; and adjoining
They are made of white and black marble, and are in to this court-yard is their warehouſe and packhouſe for
laid with jaſper and copper. In general all the cham• pepper and groſs goods. In the new part of the city
bers are enriched with paintings, carvings, and gild- they have a magazine
or palace, which may properly
ings. While this ſtadt-houſe was building, the old be called an arſenal. The ground on which the build-
one was ſet on fire, and conſumed with all the archives ing ſtands is 2000 feet, and ſquare every way, reckon-
and regiſters.
ing the moats or burgwall about it. The two rope-
Under the ſtadt-houſe is a prodigious vault, where alleys are 1800 feet long, on the backſide of which is
in is kept the bank of Amſterdam, where there is a a ſtore of 500 large anchors beſides ſmall ones. In
vaſt quantity of ingots both of gold and ſilver, as alſo this arſenal they build the ſhips belonging to the India
bags, which are ſuppoſed to be full of money. The chamber of Amſterdam ; for which reaſon they have
doors are proof againſt petards, and are never opened all ſorts of workhouſes here for the artificers that ſerve
but in the preſence of one of the burgomaſters. The the company.
priſons for debtors and criminals are likewiſe under The academy, called the Illuſtrious School, is like-
The ſtadt-houſe: as alſo the guard-room for the citi. wiſe a very fine building. It was formerly a convent
zens, wherein the keys of the city are locked every belonging to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach
night. At the end of the great hall is the ſchepens Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philoſophy,
or aldermen's chamber, where civil cauſes are tried. hiſtory, &c. The lawyers and phyſicians have like-
Beſides theſe, there are the chambers of the ſenate and wiſe their ſchools.
council, the burgomaſters chamber, the chambers of Beſides there, there are ſeveral hoſpitals, or houſes
accounts, &c. In the ſecond ſtory is a large inaga- for orphans, for poor widows, for fick perſons, and for
zine of arms; and on the top of the building are fix inad people ; all which are regulated with much pru.
large ciſterns of water, which may be conveyed to any dence. The Raſp-houſe, which was formerly a nun-
room in the houſe in caſe of fire; to prevent which nery, is now a ſort of a work-houſe for men that be-
the chimnies are lined with copper.
have ill. They are commonly ſet to ſaw or raſp Braſil
The bourſe, or exchange, where the merchants wood; and if they will not perform their taſk, they are
aſſemble, is all of free-ſtone, and built upon 2000 put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if
wooden piles. Its length is about 250 feet and its they do not almoſt conſtantly ply the pump, they run
breadth 140. The galleries are ſupported by 26 mar- the riſk of being drowned. There is likewiſe a ſpin.
ble colunins, upon each of which are the names of the houſe for debauched women, where they are obliged to
people that are to meet there. They are all numbered; ſpin wool, flax, and hemp, and do other work. All
and there is a place affixed for every merchandize un the hoſpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned
der fome one of theſe numbers. On the right hand with pictures. They are maintained partly by volun-
of the gate is a ſuperb ſtair-cafe which leads to the tary contribucions, which are raiſed by putting money
galleries ; on one ſide of which there are ſeveral ſhops, into the poor's boxes fixed up all over the city ; and
aid on the other a place to ſell clothes. It is not un partly by taxing all public diverſions, as well at fairs
like the royal exchange in London.
as elſewhere. Likewiſe every perſon that paſſes.
The admiralty-office, is in a houſe which belonged through any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny
formerly to the princes of Orange. The arſenal for for the ſame uſes. Theſe charities are taken care of
their men of war is in the harbour. This is a very by certain officers called deacons.
by certain officers called deacons. The governors are
handſome building, 200 feet long and 22 broad. The nominated by the magiſtrates out of the moſt conſider-
ground floor is filled with bullets ; the ſecond floor able men in ihe city.
contains the arms and cordage; the third their fails, The common fort have places of diverſion called
pulleys, flags, &c. This arfenal contains a great many Spile-houſes, where there are muſic and dancing. They
curioſities ; among the reſt an Indian canoe brought are much of the ſame kind as the hops which were to
from the ſtraits of Davies, and a conſervatory of water frequent about London. If ſtrangers go there, they
on the top of the liouſe that holds 1600 tuns of water, muſt take care not to make their addreſſes to a woman
which may be diſtributed in caſe of fire into 16 differ- that is engaged to any other man.
ent parts by leaden pipes. Hard by this edifice you There are two ſuburbs to this city ; one at the gate
ſee the dock or yard where they build their men of of the regulars: and the other goes as far as Overtoon,
var. This dock is 508 feet long, and contiguous to it a village a little way from Amſterdam, where boats
arc houſes for lodging the ſhip-carpenters. The dock which come from Leyden are rolled over land upon
is plentifully ſupplied with every thing neceſſary for wooden rollers. There is likewiſe in this city an hos-
the conſtruction of hips.
pital for thoſe that are infected with the plague ; which
The Eaſt-India company occupy a large building was built in the year 1630, and has 360 windows.
The
!
A MS
[ 645 ]
A M T
Amſterdam The city is governed by a fenate or council, which The longitude of Amſterdam is 4. 30. E. ; the lati. Amſterdam
conſiſts of 36 perſons called a Vroed hap, who enjoy tude, 52. 25. N.
their places for life ; and when any of them dies, the AMSTERDAM, is alſo the name of an iſland in the
remainder chooſe another in his ſtead. This ſenate ſouth-ſea, ſaid to have been diſcovered by Tafman, a
elects deputies to be ſent to the States of Holland, and Dutch navigator. It was viſited by Captain Cook in
appoints the chief magiſtrates of the city,called Burgo- his late voyages. Its greateſt extent from eaſt to weſt
maſters or Echevins, who are like our aldermen. The is about 21 miles, and from north to fouth about 13.
number is twelve ; out of which four are choſen every It is broad at the eaſt end, and runs taper towards the
year lo execute the office, and are called Burgomaſters- weſt, where it turns, and runs to a point due north.
regent. Three of thoſe are diſcharged every year, to It is about ſix leagues to the weſt of Middleburgh.
make room for three others. One of the four is kept The ſhore is ſurrounded by a coral rock, and its inost
in to inform the new ones of the ſtate of affairs, and elevated parts are not above fix or eight yards above
alſo preſides the three firſt months in the year, and the the level of the ſea. S. Lat. 21. 11. W. Long. 175.
others, three months each ; ſo that, when they are in It is wholly laid out in plantations, in which are culti-
this office, they may be compared to the lord-inayor of vated ſome of the richeſt productions of nature.
the city of London. Theſe alterations and appoint Here are bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, plantains, ba-
ments are made by their own body. They diſpoſe of nanas, laddocks, yams, and ſome other roots, ſugar-
all inferior offices which become vacant during their canes, and a fruit like a nectarine, called by the na.
regency. They have likewiſe the direction of all pub- tives fighega. There did not appear an inch of waſte
licworks, which regard the ſafety,tranquillity,and em- ground: the roads occupied no more ſpace than was
belliſhment of the city. The keys of the famous bank abſolutely neceſſary: the fences did not take up above
of this city are in the hands of theſe magiſtrates. fourinches each ; and even theſe were not wholly lor,
The college conſiſts of new burgomaſters or echevins, for in many grew ſome uſeful trees or plants: it was
who are judges in all criminal affairs, without appeal; every where the ſame change of place altered not the
butin civil cauſes they may appeal to the council of the ſcene: nature, aſſiſted by a little art, no where appear.
province. There are two treaſurers, a bailiff, and a ed with more ſplendour than on this iſland. Water is
penſionary. The bailiff continues in his office three not ſo plentiful here as at the Society-ilands; but the
years; and ſearches after criminals, takes care to pro chief pointed out a pool of freſh water unaſked, to ſup-
ſecute them, and fees their ſentence executed. The ply the ſhips with that neceſſary article. Caſuarinas,
penſionary is the miniſter of the magiſtracy, is well pandangs, and wild fago-palms, appear here with their
verſed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is various tints of green, and barringtoniæ as big as
the defender of the intereſts of the city. The city of the loftieft oaks. The bread-fruit does not, however,
Amſterdam contributes to the public income above thrive here with the ſameluxuriance as at the Society-
50,000 livres per day, beſides the exciſe of beer, fleſh, illands; the coral rock, which compoſes the baſis of
and corn; which, in all, amounts to above 1,600,000l. this ſpot, being much more thinly covered with mould.
a-year. This is more than is paid by all the reſt of Both men and women are of the common ſize of
the provinces put together; and yet Amſterdam bears Europeans, and their colour is that of a lightiſh copper ;
but the fifth rank in the aſſembly of the ſtates of Hol. they are well-ſhaped, have regular features, are ac-
land, with this diſtinction, that whereas other cities tive, briſk, and lively. They have fine eyes, and in
ſend two members, this ſends four.
general good teeth, cyen to an advanced age. The
The militia of Amſterdam is very confiderable. They women are the merrieſt creatures imaginable, and in-
have 60 companies, each of which has froin 200 to ceſſant talkers. In general, they appear to be modeſt
zoo men. Jews and Anabaptiſts are excluded from although there was no want of thoſe of a different
this ſervice, not being admitted to bear arns: But they ſtamp. Among the natives, who ſwam about the ſhip
are obliged to contribute to the maintenance of the very vociferouſly, were a conſiderable number of wo-
city-guard, which conſiſts of 1400 ſoldiers; as alſo to men, who wantoned in the water like amphibious
the night-watch, who patrole about the ſtreets and creatures, and were eaſily perſuaded to come on board
proclaim the hour. Beſides theſe, there are trum- perfectly naked; but none of them ventured to ſtay
peters on every church ſteeple, who ſound every half there after ſunſet, but returned to the ſhore to pafs the
Rour; and if there happens a fire, they ring the fire- night, like the greater part of the inhabitants, under
bell, and Mow where it is. The inhabitants bayc ex the ſhade of the wild wood which lined the coaſt.
cellent contrivances to extinguiſh it ſpeedily. There they lighted great fires, and were heard con-
The trade of Amſterdam is prodigious : for almoſt verſing almoſt the whole night. The hair of both
the whole trade of the Eaſt India company centres in ſexes in general is black, but eſpecially that of the
this city, which beſides carries on a commerce with all women; both ſexes wear it fort, except a ſingle lock
the reſt of the world, inſomuch that it may be called on the top of the head, and a ſmall quantity on each
the magazine or ſtore-houſe of Europe. They import ſide. The men cut or ſhave their beards quite cloſe,
a vaſt deal of corn from the Baltic, not ſo niuch for which operation they perform with iwo ſhells. The
preſent conſumption, as to lay up againſt times of ſcar- hair of many was obſerved to be burnt at the ends, and
city. The richeſt ſpices are entirely in the hands of ſtrewed with a white powder, which was found, on
the Eaſt-India company, who furniſh all Europe there. examining it, to be lime made of ſhell or coral, which
with. They have vaſt quantities of military ſtores, had corroded or burnt the hair ; fome made uſe of a
with which they ſupply ſeveral nations ; which is ow blue powder, and others, both men and women, of an
ing to their engroſſing moſt of the iron-works on the orange-coloured powder made of turmeric.
Rhine and other great rivers that run into Holland. The dreſs of both ſexes conſiſts of a piece of cloth
3
or
A MU
( 646 )
A M U
Amulet, or matting wrapped round the waiſt, and hanging All nations have been fond of amulets: the Jews Amulet.
down below the knees. From the waiſt upwards they were extremely ſuperſtitious in the uſe of theni, Amurat.
are generally naked, and it ſeems to be a cuſtom to to drive away diſeaſes ; and the Miſna forbids them,
anoint theſe parts every morning. The practice of unleſs received from an approved man who had cured
tattowing, or puncturing the ſkin, likewiſe prevails. at leaſt three perſons before by the ſame means.
Tlie men are tattowed from the middle of the thigh to Among the Chriſtians of the early times, amulets
above the hips; the women have it only on their arms were made of the wood of the croſs, or ribbands with
and fingers, and on thoſe parts but very ſlightly. Their a text of ſcripture written in thein, as preſervatives a.
ornaments are amulets, necklaces, and bracelets, the gainſt diſeaſes. Notwithſtanding the progreſs of learn-
bone, ſhells, and beads of mother-of-pearl, tortoiſe- ing and refinement, there is not any country in Europe,
fhell, &c. which are worn by men as well as women. even at this day, who do not believe in ſome charm or
The women alſo wear on their fingers neat rings made other. The pope is ſuppoſed to have the virtue of
of tortoiſe-Mell, and pieces in their ears about the making amulets, which he exerciſes in the confecrat-
ſize of a ſmall quill; but here ornaments are not com- ing of Agnus Deis, &c. The ſpunge which has wiped
monly worn, though all have their ears pierced. his table, was formerly in great veneration as a pre-
They have alſo a curious apron, made of the cocoa ſervative from wounds, and from death itſelf: on tbis
nut ſhell, and compoſed of a number of ſmall pieces account it was ſent with great ſolemnity by Gregory II.
ſewed together in ſuch a manner as to form ſtars, to the duke of Aquitain.
half-moons, little ſquares, &c. ; it is ftudded with Amulets are now much fallen from the repute they
beads and ſhells, and covered with red feathers, ſo as were anciently in : yet the great Mr Boyle alleges
to have a pleaſing effect. They make the ſame kind them as an inſtance of the increaſe of external efluvia
of cloth, and of the ſame materials, as at O-Taheitee, into the habit, in order to ſhow the great poroſity of
though they have not ſuch a variety, nor do they the human body. He adds, that he is perſuaded ſoine
make any fo fine ; but, as they have a method of gla- of theſe external medicines do anſwer; for that he
zing it, it is more durable, and will reſiſt rain for fome himſelf, having once been ſubject to bleed at the noſe,
time, which the other cloth would not. Their colours and reduced to uſe ſeveral remedies to check it, found
are black, brown, yellow, purple, and red; all made the moſs of a dead man's ſkull, though only applied
from vegetables. They make various forts of mat ſo as to touch the ſkin till the moſs was warni thereby,
ting, ſome of a very fine texture, which is generally the moſt effectual of any. The ſame Mr Boyle ſhows
uſed for clothing; and the thick and ſtronger ſort how the effluvia, even of cold amulets, may, in tract
ſerves to ſleep upon, and to inake ſails for their canoes, of time, pervade the pores of a living animal ; by
&c. Among other uſeful utenſils, they have various fuppofing an agreement between the pores of the ſkin
forts of buſkets, ſome made of the ſanie materials as and the figure of the corpuſcles. Bellini has demon-
the mats, and others of the twiſted fibres of cocoa ſtrated the poſſibility of the thing in his laſt propoſi-
nuts. Theſe are not only durable, but beautiful, being tions De Febribus ; and the like is done by Dr Wain.
generally compoſed of different colours, and ſtudded right, Dr Keill, &c.
with beads made of ſhells or bones. They have many AMURAT, or AMURATH, 1. the fourth emperor
little nicknacks among them, which ſhow that they of the Turks, and one of the greateſt princes of the
neither want taſte to delign, nor ſkill to execute, what- Ottoman empire, fucceed Solyman in 1360. He took
ever they take in hand. Their fihing implements from the Greeks, Gallipoli, Thrace, and Adrianople,
are inuch the ſame as in other illauds : here was pur which laſt he choſe for the place of his reſidence. He
chaſed a fiſh net made like our caſting-nets, knit of defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Miſnia,
very firm though ſlender threads.
chaſtiſed his rebellious baſhaws, and is ſaid to have
Notwithſtanding their very friendly diſpoſition, gained 36 battles. This prince, in order to form a bo-
theſe people have very formidable weapons ; ſome of dy of devoted troops that might ſerve as the immediate
their ſpears have many barbs, and muſt be very dan- guards of his perſon and dignity, appointed his offi-
gerous weapons when they take effect. A large flat cers to ſeize annually, as the imperial property, the
thell or breaſt-plate was purchaſed, made of a roundiſh fifth part of the Chriſtian youth taken in war. Theſe,
bone, white and poliſhed like ivory, about 18 inches after being inſtructed in the Mahometan religion, in-
in diameter, which appeared to have belonged to an ured to obedience by ſevere diſcipline, and trained to
animal of the whale tribe.
warlike exerciſes, were formed into a body diſtinguiſh-
AMULET, a charm, or preſervative againſt mniſ- ed by the name of Janiſſaries, or Nuw soldiers.
chief, witchcraft, or diſeaſes.
very ſentiment which enthuſiaſm can inſpire, every
Amulets were made of ſtone, metals, ſimples, ani mark of diſtinction that the favour of the prince could
mals, and in a word, of every thing that imagination confer, were employed in order to animate this body
ſuggeſted.
with martial ardour, and with a conſciouſneſs of its
Sometimes they conſiſted of words, characters, and own pre-eminence. The Janiſſaries ſoon became the
ſentences, ranged in a particular order, and engra- chief Arength and pride of the Ortoman armies, and
ved upon wood, &c. and worn about the neck, or were diſtinguiſhed above all the troops whoſe duty it
ſome other part of the body. See ABRACADABRA. was to attend on the perſon of the Sultan.-At length
At other times they were neither written nor en the death of Lazarus, deſpot of Servia, who had en-
graved; but prepared with many ſuperſtitious cere deavoured in vain to ſtop the progreſs of Amurath's
monies, great regard being uſually paid to the influ arms, touched Milo, one of his ſervants, in ſo ſenſi-
ence of the ſtars. The Arabians have given to this ble a manner, that, in revenge, he ſtabbed the fultan
fpecies of amulet the name of TALISMAN.
in the midſt of his troops, and killed him upon the
ſpot,
AM Y
[647]
A M Y
Amyclæ, ſpot, A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 ing under the 36th order, Pomaceæ. The characters Amygdalus
Amygdalus years.
are: The calyx is a ſingle-leaved perianthium beneath, S
Amurat II. the roth emperor of the Turks, was tubular, and quinquefid : The corolla conſiſts of five
the eldeſt ſon of Mahomet I. and fucceeded his father oblong petals, which are inſerted into the calyx: The
in 1421. He beſieged Conſtantinople and Belgrade ftamına conliſt of 30 flender erect filaments, half the
without ſucceſs; but he took Theſſalonica from the length of the corolla, and inſerted into the calyx; the
Venetians, and compelled the prince of Boſnia and antheræ are ſimple: The piſtilium has a round villous
John Caſtriot prince of Albany to pay him tribute. germen above; a ſimple ſtylus, the length of the ſta-
He obliged the latter to ſend his tlıree ſons as hoſta- mina ; and the figma headed : The pericarpium is a
ges; among whom was George, celebrated in history large roundiſh villous drupa, with a longitudinal fur-
by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades dé row : the feed is an ovate compreſſed nut, perforated
feated Amurat’s troops, and obliged him to make in the pores.
peace with the Chriſtian princes, in 1442. Theſe Species. 1. The Communis, or Conimon Almond, a
princes afterwards breaking the peace, Amurat de native of Africa, will grow to near 20 feet high; and
feated them in the famous battle of Varna, November whether planted ſingly in an open place, or mixed
Ioth, 1444, which proved ſo fatal to the Chriſtians, with others in clumps, ſhrubbery-quarters, &c. ſhows
and in which Ladiſlaus king of Hungary was killed. itſelf one of the fineſt flowering trees in nature.
He afterwards defeated Hunniades, and killed above Thoſe who never yet ſaw it,may eaſily conceive what a
20,000 of his men; but George Caſtriot, better known noble appearance this tree muſt make, when covered
by the name of Scanderbeg, being re-eſtabliſhed in the all over
with a bloom of a delicate red, which will be
eſtates of his father, defeated the Turks ſeveral times, in March ; a time when very few trees are ornamell-
and obliged Amurat to raiſe the ſiege of Croia, the ca ted either with leaves or flowers, No ornamental
pital of Albany. Amurat died, chagrined with his - plantation, therefore, of what ſort or kind ſoever,
ill ſucceſs, and infirm with age, February 11th, 1451,
ſhould be without almond trees. Neither are the
at Adrianople. It is obſerved to this prince's honour, beauties of the flowers the only thing deſirable in this
that he always kept his treatieswith the greateſt fidelity. tree : The fruit would render it worthy of planting,
AMYCLÆ, a city of Laconia, diſtant about 18 were there no other motive. It ripens well, and its
miles from the metropolis, founded by Amyclas the goodneſs is well known. The white-flowering al-
ſon of Lacedæmon, and fained afterwards for the birth mond is a variety of this ſpecies, and is cultivated for
of Caſtor and Pollux the ſons of Tydareus, eighth the ſake of the flowers and the fruit, though the flow.
king of Sparta. It was afterwards famed for ſending ers are inferior to the others.
a conſiderable colony of its own inhabitants into Up 2. The Nana, Dwarf Almond, is a native of Aſia
per Calabria, who built there a city which they called Minor. Of this ſhrub there are two forts, the fingle
by the ſame name. This laſt city was ſituated between and the double. Both grow to about four or five feet
Caieta and-Terracina, and gave its name to the neigh- high, and are in the firlt eſteem as flowering ſhrubs.
bouring fea. According to Pliny and Solinus, the The ſingle fort has its beauties; but the double kind is
territory of Amyclæ was ſo infeſted with vipers and matchleſs. In both, the flowers are arranged the whole
other ſerpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to length of the laſt year's fhoots ; their colour is a deli-
abandon their dwellings and ſettle elſewhere.-A cate red ; and they ſhow themſelves early in the
mong the ancient poets, the Amycli, or inhabitants {pring, which ſtill enhances their value.
of this city, obtained the epithet of taciti or filent. 3. The Perſica, or Peach, is ſaid to be a native of
The reaſon of this was, either becauſe it was built by Europe ; but of what place is not known. Cultivation
the Lacedæmonians, who, as they followed the doc- has produced many varieties of this fruit ; of whick
trine of Pythagoras, were always inculcating the pre- the following are the moſt eſteemed.
ccpt of ſilence, and thence called taciti; or becauſe of 1. The White Nutmeg 15. The Bellegarde
a law which obtained in this place, forbidding any 2. The Red Nutmeg 16. The Bourdine
one, under ſevere penalties, to mention the approach 3. The Early Purple 17. The Roffanna
of an enemy. Before this law was made, the city 4. The Small Mignon 18. The Admirable
was daily alarmed by falſe reports, as the enemy had 5. The White Magdalen 19. The Old Newingtor
been already at the gates. From terrors of this kind 6. The Yellow Alberge 20. The Royal
the abovementioned law indeed delivered them: but
7. The Large French 21. The Rambouillet
in the end it proved the ruin of the city : for the Mignon
22. The Portugal
Dorians appearing unexpectedly under the walls, no 8. The Beautiful Chev- 23. The Late Admirable
one ventured to tranſgreſs the law ; fo that the city reuſe
24. The Nivette
was calily taken. They reduced it to an inconſider 9. The Red Magdalen 25. Venus's Nipple
able hamlet ; in which, however, were ſeen ſome of 10. The Chancellor 26. The Late Purple
the remains of its ancient grandeur. One of the fineſt II. Smith's Newington 27. The Periſque
buildings that eſcaped the common ruin, was the 12. The Montauban 28. The Catharine
temple and ſtatue of Alexandra, whom the inhabit.
13. The Malta
29. The Monſtrous Pavy
ants pretend to be the ſame with Caſſandra the daugh- 14. The Vineuſe 30. The Bloody Peach.
ter of Priam.
The White Nutmeg is the firſt peach in ſeaſon, it
AMYGDALUS, the ALMOND and PEACH : Age- being often in perfection by the end of July. The
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the icoſan- leaves are doubled ferrated, the flower large, and of
dria claſs of plants; and, in the natural method rank a pale coloux ; the fruit is white, ſmall, and round;
the
1
A M Y
[ 648 ]
A M Y
mere
-
Amygdalus the fleſh, too, is white, parts from the ſtone, and has the flowers are large and open. The fruit is of a mid- Amygdalus
a ſugary, muſky flavour.
dle ſize, of a fine red on the ſunny ſide ; the fleſh white
The Red Nutmeg hath yellowiſh green leaves, with and firm, but very red at the ſtone, to which it ſticks
ferpentine edges, which are ſlightly ferrated. The cloſely, and the juice has a pretty good flavour. Ri-
flowers are large, open, and of a deep bluiſh colour. pens with the former.
The fruit is larger and rounder than the former, and The Montauban hath ſerrated leaves, and large
is of a bright vermilion next the ſun, but more yellow open flowers. The fruit is about the ſize of the for-
on the other ſide. The fleſh is white, except next mer, of a purpliſh red next the ſun, but of a pale one
the ſtone, from which it ſeparates, and has a rich on the ſady lide. The fleſh is melting, and white
muſky flavour. It ripens juſt after the white nut even to the ſtone, from which it ſeparates. The
meg.
juice is rich, and well flavoured. It ripens a little
The Early Purple hath ſniooth leaves, terminated before the former.
in a ſharp point. The flowers are large, open, and The Malta hath deeply ſerrated leaves, and the flow-
of a lively red. The fruit is large, round, and co ers are large and open. The fruit is almoſt round, of
vered with a fine deep red coloured dotyn. The fleſh a fine red next the ſun, marbled with a decper red, but
is white, red next the ſtone, and full of a rich vinous the ſhady ſide is of a deep green. The fleſh is fine,
juice. Ripe about the middle of Auguſt.
white, except at the ſtone, from which it parts, where
The finall Mignon hath leaves ſlightly ſerrated, and it is of a deep red; the juice is a little muſky, and a
the flowers ſmall and contracted. The peach is round, greeable. It ripens at the end of Auguſt, or begin-
of a middling ſize, tinged with darkiſh red on the ſun- ning of September,
fide, and is of a pale yellowiſh colour on the other. The Vineuſe hath large deep green leaves, and full
The fleſh is white, parts from the ſtone, where it is bright red flowers. The fruit is round, of a middle
red, and contains plenty of a vinous ſugary juice. Ri- ſize; the ſkin is thin, all over red; the feſh fine and
pens rather before the former.
white, except at the ſtone, where it is very red, and
The White Magdalen hath long, ſhining, pale-green the juice is copious and vinous. Ripe in the middle
leaves, deeply ſerrated on the edges, and the wood is of September.
moſtly black at the pith. The flowers are large and The Bellegarde hath ſmooth leaves, and ſmall con-
open, appear early, and are of a pale red. The fruit tracted flowers. The fruit is very large, round, and
is round, rather large, of a yellowiſh-white colour, ex of a deep purple colour next the ſun. The fleſh is
cept on the ſunny lide, where it is ſlightly ſtreaked white, parts from the ſtone, where it is of a deep red,
with red. The fleſh is white to the ſtone, from which and the juice is rich and excellent. It ripens early
it ſeparates, and the juice is pretty well flavoured. in September.
Ripe at the end of Auguſt.
The Bourdine hath large, fine green, plain leaves,
The Yellow Alberge hath deep red, middle-ſized and ſmall fleſh-coloured contracted flowers. The fruit
flowers; the peach is ſmaller than the former, of a is round, of a dark red next the fun; the fleſh white,
yellow colour on the ſhady ſide, and of a deep red on except at the ſtone, where it is of a deep red, and the
the other. The fleſh is yellow, red at the ſtone, and juice is rich and vinous. Ripens with the former.
the juice is ſugary and vinous.
The Roſlana hath plain leaves, and ſmall contract-
The great French Mignon hath large, finely fer ed flowers. The fruit is rather longer than the al-
rated leaves, and beautiful red flowers. The fruit is berge, and ſome count it only a variety of the latter.
large, quite round, covered with a fine fatiny down, The fleſh is yellow, and parts from the ſtone, where
of a browniſh red colour on the fanny ſide, and of a it is red; the juice is rich and yinous. Ripe early in
greeniſh yellow on the other. The fleſh is white, ea September.
fily parts from the ſkin, and is copiouſly ſtored with a The Admirable hath plain leaves, and ſmall con-
ſugary high-flavoured juice. Ripe near the middle of tracted flowers, which are of a pale red. The fruit
Auguſt.
is very large and round; the fleſh is' firin, melting,
The beautiful Chevreuſe hath plain leaves, and ſmall and white, parts from the ſtone, and is there red; and
contracted flowers. The fruit is rather oblong, of a the juice has a ſweet, ſugary, high vinous flavour.
middling ſize, of a fine red colour next the ſun, but Ripe early in September.
yellow on the other ſide. The fleſh is yellowiſh, parts The Old Newington hath ferrated leaves, and large
from the ſtone, and is full of a rich ſugary juice. It open flowers. The fruit is large, of a fine red next
ripens a lilile after the former.
the ſun; the fleſh is white, ſticks cloſe to the ſtone,
The Red Magdalen hath deeply ferrated leaves, where it is of a deep red, and the juice has an excel-
and large open flowers. The fruit is large, round, and lent flavour.
lent flavour. It ripens juſt after the former.
of a fine red next the ſun. The fleſh is firm, white, The Royal hath plain leaves, and ſmall contracted
ſeparates from the ſtone, where it is very red; the flowers. The fruit is about the ſize of the admirable,
juice is ſugary, and of an exquiſite rich flavour. Ripe and reſembles it, except that it has ſometimes a few
at the end of Auguſt.
knobs or warts. The fileth is white, melțing, and full
The Chancellor hath large, ſlightly ferrated leaves. of a rich juice; it parts froin the ſtone, and is there of
The peach is about the ſize of the Beautiful Chev a deep red. Ripe about the iniddle of September.
renſe, but rather rounder. The ſkin is very thin, of The Rambouillet hath leaves and flowers like the
a fine red on the ſunny fide ; the fleſh is white and royal. The fruit is rather round than long, of a mid-
melting, parts from the ſtone, and the juice is very dling ſize, and deeply divided by a furrow. It is of a
rich and ſugary. It ripens with the former.
bright yellow on the ſhady ſide, but of a fine red on
The leaves of Smith's Newington are ferrated, and the other. The fleſh is melting, yellow, parts from
I
thc
A M Y
[ 649 ]
A M Y
Amygdalus the ſtone, where it is of a deep red, and the juice is walls for the ſake of the fruit: “but, (ſays Hanbury), Amygdalus
rich and vinous. Ripe with the former.
as I hardly ever knew a perſon who was not ſtruck
The Portugal hath plain leaves, and large open flow with the beauty of the flowers when in full blow
crs. The fruit is large, (potted, and of a beautiful red againſt a wall, why ſhould it not have a fare in wil-
on the ſunny lide. The felh is firm, whiie, ſticks to derneſs quarters, and hrubberies, amongſt the forts
the ſtone, and is there red. The ſtone is ſmall, deep- of almonds, &c. ? It may be kept down, or perniit-
ly furrowed, and the juice is rich and ſugary. Ripe ted to grow to the height of the owner's fancy : and
towards the end of September.
the flowers are inferior to none of the other forts.
The late Admirable hath ſerrated leaves, and Add to this, they frequently, in well-ſheltered places,
browniſh red finall contracted flowers. The fruit is
The fruit is produce fruit which will be exceeding well-flavour-
rather large and round, of a bright red next the ſun, ed; and thus the owner may enjoy the benefit of a
marbled with a deeper. The feſh is of a greeniſh- double treat.” The above obſervations reſpect the
white, and ſticks to the ſtone, where it hath ſeveral ſingle peach ; with regard to the dødble-flowered, it
red veins; the juice is rich and vinous. Kipe about is generally propagated for ornamental plantations,
the middle of September.
and is univerſally acknowledged to be one of the
The Nivette hath ſerrated leaves and ſmall contract. fineſt fiowering-trees yet known. Againſt a wail,
ed flowers. The fruit is large and roundiſh, of a bright however, theſe trees are always the faireſt ; and if
red colour next the ſun, but of a pale yellow on the they have this advantage, they are ſucceeded by very
ſhady-ſide. The fleſh is of a greeniſh yellow, parts good fruit.
from the ſtone, where it is very red, and is copiouſly The NECTARINE, according to Linnæus, is onlya
ſtored with a rich juice. It ripens about the middle variety of the peach, its having a ſmooth coat being
of September.
only an accident originally. Of this alſo many varie.
Venus's Nipple hath finely ſerrated leaves, and ties are now cultivated ; and the following are ſome
roſe-coloured, finall contracted flowers, edged with of the moſt eſteemed: 1. The Elruge. 2. The New-
carmine. The fruit is of a middling ſize, and has a ington. 3. The Scarlet. 4. The Roman. 5. The
riſing like a breaſt. It is of a faint red on the ſunny Murrey. 6. The Italian. 7. The Golden. 8. The
ſide, and on the ſhady one of a ſtraw-colour. The fleſh Temple's.
is melting, white, ſeparates from the ſtone, where it The Elruge hath large ſerrated leaves, and ſmall
is red, and the juice is rich and ſugary. Ripens flowers. The fruit is of a middling ſize, of a dark
late in September.
purple colour next the fun, and of a greeniſh yellow
The Late Purple hath large, ferrated leaves, which on the ſhady ſide. The fleſh parts from the ſtone, and
are variouſly contorted, and the flowers are ſmall has a ſoft, melting, good flavoured juice. Ripe early
and contracted. The fruit is round, large, of a
in Auguſt
dark red on the ſunny-ſide, and yellowiſh on the The Newington hath ferrated leaves, and large
other. The fleſh is melting, white, parts from the open flowers. The fruit is pretty large, of a beauti-
ſtone, where it is red, and the juice is ſweet and ful red on the ſunny-ſide, but of a bright yellow on
high-flavoured. Ripens with the former.
the other. The fleſh ſticks to the ſtone, is there of a
The Perſique hath large, very longindented leaves, deep red colour, and the juice has an excellent rich
and ſmall contracted flowers. The fruit is large, ob- flavour. Ripe towards the end of Auguſt.
long, of a fine red next the ſun; the fleſh firm, white, The ſcarlet is rather leſs than the former, of a
but red at the ſtone, juicy, and of a high pleaſant fla- fine ſcarlet colour next the ſun, but fades to a pale
The ſtalk has frequently a ſmall knot upon it. red on the ſhady ſide. It ripens near the time of the
Ripe late in September.
former.
The Catharine hath plain leaves, and ſmall flow The Roman, or cluſter red nectarine, hath plain
The fruit is large, round, of a very dark red leaves, and large flowers. The fruit is large, of a
next the ſun. The fleſh white, firm, ſticks cloſe to deep red towards the fun, but yellowiſh on the ſhady
the ſtone, and is there of a deep red. The juice is fide. The fleſh is firm, ſticks to the ſtone, and is
rich and pleaſant. It ripens early in October. there red; the juice is rich, and has an excellent
The Monſtrous Pavy hath large, very ſlightly ſer- flavour. Ripe about the end of Auguſt.
rated leaves, and large, but rather contracted flow The Murrey is a middling-ſized fruit, of a dirty
ers. The fruit is round, and very large, whence its red colour on the funny fide, and yellowih on the
It is of a fine red on the ſunny-ſide, and of a Tady one. The fleſh is firm, and tolerably well fla-
greeniſh-white on the other. The Aeſh is white, voured. It ripens early in September.
melling, ſticks cloſe to the ſtone, and is there of a The Italian Nectarine hath ſmooth leaves and ſmall
deep red. It is pretty full of juice, which in dry ſea, flowers ; the fruit is red next the fun, but yellowiſh on
fins is ſugary, vinous, and agreeable. Ripe towards the other ſide ; fleſh firm, adheres to the ſtone, where
the end of October.
it is red, and when ripe, which is early in Septeni-
The Bloody Peach hath rather large, ſerrated ber, has an excellent flavour.
leaves, which turn red in autumn. The fruit is of The Golden Nectarine has an agreeable red colour
a middling ſize, the ſkin all over of a dull red, and next the ſun, bright yellow on the oppoſite fide ; fieth
the fleſh is red down to the ſtone. The fruit is but very yellow, ſticks to the ſtone, where it is of a pale
dry, and the juice rather ſharp and bitteriſh. It is red, has a rich Havour, and ripens in September.
well worth cultivating notwithſtanding, for the fruit Temple's Nectarine is of a middling fize, of a fair
bake and preſerve extremely well.
red next the ſun, of a yellowiſh green on the other
The peach-tree has hitherto been planted againſt ſide ; fleſh white near the ſtone, from which it fepa-
VOL.I.
rates
vour.
crs.
name.
4 N
A MY
[ 650 ]
A M Y
Amygdalus rates; ripens in September, and has a high poignant the lower part of the tree may be well wooded, which Amygdalus
flavour.
it will not be if the branches are ſuffered to run up-
Propagation, &c. All the above fpecies are propa- right. When the fruit is ſet and grown to the lize of
gated by inoculating them into pluni-ſtocks in Auguſt. a ſmall nut, it ſhould be thinned, and left five or fix
The ſtocks ſhould be firſt planted in the nurſery when inches aſunder: by this inaliagement the fruit will be
of the ſize of a ſtraw; and the firſt or ſecond ſummer larger and better taſted, and the trees in a condition
after they will be ready to receive the bud. The uſual to bear well the ſucceeding year. The quantity of
method of inoculation muſt be obſerved, and there is fruit to be left on large full grown crees ſhould never
no danger of ſucceſs; though it may be proper to ob be greater than five dozen upon each; but on middling
ſerve, that the double-bloſſomed peach ſhould always freds, three or four dozen will be enough. If the ſea-
be worked into the ſtocks of the muſſel-plum. The ſon ſhould prove hot and dry, it will be proper to draw
two ſorts of dwarf-almond may alſo be propagated by up the earth round the ftem of each tree, to form a
layers, or from the ſuckers, which they ſometimes hollow baſon of about fix feet in diameter, and cover
ſend forth in great plenty.
the ſurface of the ground in this baſon with mulch ;
The varieties of the peach are produced like thoſe and once in a week or fortnight, according to the
of the finer Aowers, by Towing the ſeeds; and though drought of the ſeaſon, to pour down eight or ten gal-
many raiſed this way will be of little value, as is alſo lons of water to the root of each tree; or the water
the caſe of flowers, yet probably among a parcel of may be ſprinkled by an engine over the branches of
ftones, ſaved from the finer kinds of peaches, there the trees, which, ſhaking down to the roots, will pro-
would be ſome new kinds produced. The beſt method mote the growth of the fruit and prevent it falling off
of ſaving the ſtones is, to let ſome of the fineſt peaches the trees.
the trees. This, however, ſhould be continued on-
of the beſt kinds hang till they drop of themſelves from ly while the fruit is growing.
the tree, and then the ſtones ſhould be immediately The peach-tree, as well as the roſe-tree,are very ſub.
planted on a bed of light dry earth, planting them ject to be over-run with the aphides ; which may be
about three inches deep in the earth, and at about four deſtroyed by fumigating the houſe in which the plants
inches aſunder. The beds ſhould be covered to pre are kept with tobacco, or, which is ſaid to be the
ſerve them in the winter ; and in ſpring, when the moſt effectual method, by ſteam raiſed from water
plants come up, they muſt be cleared of weeds, and poured over the flues*. --Soap-ſuds are ſaid to deſtroy See Kyla
well watered. The next ſpring they ſhould be care effectually the different ſpecies of inſects that itfeſt on forcing
fully taken up, and planted in the nurſery, in rows fruit-trees growing againſt walls, and parricularly the peaches, &c.
three feet aſunder, and one foot diſtant from each o peach, cherry, and plum. For this purpoſe, a per-
ther; laying a little mulch upon the ſurface of the ſon on a ladder, ſhould pour them from a watering-
ground about their roots, and in a dry ſpring watering pot over both trees and wall, beginning at the top of
them once in a week; and after one or two years ſtand- the wall, and bringing it on in courſes from top to
ing here, they may be removed to the places where bottom. The ſuds contribute likewiſe, it is ſaid, to
they are to remain ; or they may, at that time, when preſerve the wood of the delicate and tender kinds of
the condition of their fruit is known, be grafted on peaches.
other ſtocks.
Uſes. Sweet almonds are reckoned to afford little
There are two general rules given for the pruning nouriſhinent; and, when eaten in ſubſtance, are not
of peach and nectarine trees; viz. 1. Always to have eaſy of digeſtion, unleſs thoroughly comminuted :
enough of bearing wood ; and, 2. Not to lay in the Peeled, and eaten fix or eight at a time, they fome-
branches too cloſe to one another. All peach trees times give preſent relief in the heart-burn. Bit in
produce their fruit from the young wood either of the medicine they are moſtly uſed for making emulſions ;
fame, or at the inoſt of the former year's thoot ; for and they abound not only with an oil, but likewiſe
which reaſon the branches are to be ſo pruned, as to with a mucilage fit for incorporating oil and water
encourage them to throw our new ſhoots in every part together.
of the tree : and this is to be done in May; when by Emulſions are cominonly prepared from almonds, by
pinching, or ſtopping the ſtrong ſhoots, there may be beating an ounce of them, after being blanched, into
new wood forced out in any part of the tree. This is a fine pulp, in a marble or ſtone mortar ; and tritura-
the method of the ſummer pruning: the winter pru- ting them well with half an ounce (more or leſs) of
ning is uſually done in February or March ; but is fine fugar ; and then adding by litèle at a time, a
much better done at Michaelmas, as foun as their quart of water; taking care to continue grinding
leaves begin to fall; and the wounds will then have them while the water is poured on ; after which the
time to heal before the ſevere froſts coine on. white milky liquor is ſtrained through a cloth, and put
In pruning of theſe trees it muſt always be obſer- into a quart bottle. Sonie people add a drachm of
ved alſo, that it is beſt done under a wood bud, not a blanched bitter almonds to an ounce of the ſweet,
bloſſom bud; which may be diſtinguiſhed by the wood which they think make the emulſions more agreeable.
ud's being leſs turgid, and longer and narrower than Such emulſions have been
the bloſſoin bud; for if the ſhoot have not a leading diſeaſes, for diluting and blunting acrimonious juices
bud where it is cut, it will commonly die down to the in the firſt paſſages, and acrid ſaline particles in the
leading bud. In nailing the ſhoots to the wall, they blood ; and for ſoftening and lubricating the fibres and
thould be placed at as equal diſtances as poſſible ; and inembranes.
ſo far apart that the leaves may have room ; and they It has been a common practice to diſſolve from half
muſt always be trained as horizontally as poſſible, that an ounce to an ounce, or more, of gum-arabic in the
waier
AMY
1651 1
A M Y
Amyot
Amylaceous water uſed for making the emulſions; and to make thority of ſome of the books of the New Teſtament,
1 patients drink freely of them, while bliſters are ap and declaring his doubt that ſeveral pieces under the 1)
Amyntor. plied to the body, in order to prevent ſtrangury ; and nanie of Chriſt and his apoſtles, received now by the Amyris.
to order them to be uſed in caſes of gravel, and of wvliole Chriſtian church, were ſuppoſititious.
inflammacion of the bladder or urethra ; and in lear AMYOT (James), biſhop of Auxerre and great al-
of urine from virulent gonorrhoea or other cauſes. moner of France, was born of an obſcure family at
Camphor, refin of jalap, and other reſinous ſub- Melun, the 30th of October 1514, and ſtudied philo-
ſtances, by being triturated with almonds, become mif- fophy at Paris, in the college of cardinal Le Moine.
cible with water, and more mild and pleaſant than He was naturally dull and heavy; but diligence and
they were before ; and therefore they are frequenıly application made amends for theſe natural defects. He
ordered to be rabbed with them, and made up into left Paris at the age of twenty-three ; and went to
pills or boluſes, with the addition of ſome conſerve Bourges with the Sieur Colin, who had the abbey of
or gum-arabic mucilage ; or they are incorporated St Ambroſe in that city. At the recommendation of
with watery liquors into the form of an emulſion. this abbot, a ſecretary of ſtate took Amyot into his
Formerly the feeds of the lettuce, of the cucumber, houſe to be tutor to his children. The great im-
of the white poppy, and of a number of other plants, provements they made under his direction induced the
were employed for making emulſions ; but now the ſecretary to recommend him to the princeſs Margaret
ſweet almonds ſupply the place of all the reſt.
ducheſs of Berry, only ſiſter of Francis I. and by
The bitter almonds are not ſo much uſed as they means of this recommendation Amyot was made pub-
were formerly; becauſe they have been found to de lic profeſſor of Greek and Latin in the Univerſity of
ffroy ſome forts of animals : this effect was related by Bourges. It was during this time he tranſlated into
the ancients, but believed to be fictitious; becauſe French the “ Amoars of Theagines and Chariclea,"
when eaten by men they appear to be innocent, and which Francis I. was ſo pleaſed with, that he confer-
to produce no deleterious effects. However, the facts red upon him the abbey of Bellofane. He alſo tranſ-
related by Wepfer in his Treatiſe de Cicuta Aquatica, lated Plutarch's Lives, which he dedicated to the
having been confirmed by latter experiments ; and it king; and afterwards undertook that of Plutarch's
having been diſcovered that a water drawn from them Morals, which he ended in the reign of Charles IX.
had deleterious effects, and that the diſtilled water and dedicated to that prince. Charles conferred up-
from the lauro-ceraſus leaves, which have a bittter on him the abbey of St Cornelius de Compiegne, and
taſte reſembling that of bitter almonds, was ſtill more made him great almoner of France and bihop of Au-
poiſonous; it raiſed a ſuſpicion of the wholeſomeneſs xerre.
He died in 1593, aged 79.
of thoſe bitter ſubſtances and has made phylicians more AMYRALDISM, a name given by ſome writers
cautious of uſing them, though they have been em to the doctrine of univerſal grace, as explained and aſ-
ployed for making orgeate and other liquors, without ſerted by Amyraldus, or Moſes Amyrault, and others
producing any bad effects.
his followers, among the reformed in France, towards
As to the peach and nectarine, they are ſufficiently the middle of the 17th century.
known as delicious fruits. Peach-flowers have an a. This doctrine principally conſiſted of the following
greeable ſmell, and a bitteriſh taſte: diſtilled, with particulars, viz. that God deſires the happineſs of all
out any addition, by the heat of a water-bath, they men, and none are excluded by a divine decree; that
yield one-ſixth their weight, or more, of a whitiſh li none can obtain ſalvation without faith in Chrift; that
quor, which, as Mr Bolduc obferves, communicates God refuſes to none the power of believing, though he
to a large quantity of other liquids a flavour like that does not grant to all his aſſiſtance, that they may im-
An infuſion in water of half prove this power to ſaving purpoſes; and that many
an ounce of the freſh gathered flowers, or a dram of periſh through their own fault. Thoſe who embraced
them when dried, ſweetened with ſugar, proves for this doctrine were called Univerſalifts; though it is evi-
children an uſeful laxative and anthelmintic: the dent they rendered grace univerſal in words, but par-
leaves of the tree are, with this intention, ſomewhat tial in reality, and are chargeable with greater incon-
more efficacious, though leſs agreeable. The fruit fiſtencies than the Supralapſarians.
has the ſame quality with the other ſweet fruits, that AMYRAULT (Mofes), an eminent French Pro-
of abating heat, quenching thirſt, and gently looſen- teſtant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in 1596.
ing the belly.
He ſtudied at Saumur, where he was choſen profeílor
AMYLACEOUS, from amyluon ſtarch ;” a term of theology; and his learned works gained him the
applied to the fine flour of farinaceous feeds, in which efteem of Catholics as well as Proteſtants, particular-
conſiſts their nutritive part. See BREAD.
ly of Cardinal Richelieu, who conſulted him on a plan
AMYNTA, in literary hiſtory, a beautiful paſtoral of re-uniting their churches, which, however, as inay
comedy, compoſed by Taffo; the model of all drama-
well be ſuppoſed, came to nothing. He publiſhed i
tic pieces wherein ſhepherds are actors. The Paflor piece in which he attempted to explain the myſtery
Fido, and Filli di Sciro, are only copies of this excel- of predeſtination and grace, which occafioned a con-
lent piece.
troverſy between him and ſome other divines. He
AMYNTOR, Apurtap, formed of the verb drw, I alſo wrote, An Apology for the Proteſtants; a Para-
defend, or avenge, properly denotes a perſon who de- phraſe on the New Teſtament; and ſeveral other
fends or vindicates a cauſe. In this ſenſe, Mr Toland books. This eminent divine died in 1664.
intitles his defence of Milton's life, Amyntor, as being AMYRIS: A genus of the monogynia order, belong-
a vindication of that work againſt Mr Blackhall and ing to the decandria claſs of plants. The characters
others, who had charged hini with queſtioning the au are : The calyx is a ſmall ſingle-leaved perianthium,
4 N 2
four.
A MY
[ 652 ]
Α Ν Α
Ana
Anabapo
tifts.
Anyris. four-toothed and perſiſtent: The corolla conſiſts of four variety of complaints ; but now it is generally believed
oblong petals, concave and expanding: The ſtamina that the Canada and copaiva balſams are equally effi-
conlilt of eight erect ſubulated filaments; the antheræ cacious, and will anſwer every purpoſe for which it can
are oblong, erect, and the length of the corolla : The be uled. Dr Alſton ſays, that the fureſt mark of this
piſtillum has an ovate germen, above ; a thickiſh ſtylus, balſam being pure and unadulterated is, its ſpreading
the length of the ſtamina ; and a four-cornered ſtig- quickly on the ſurface of water when dropped into it;
ma: The pericarpium is a round drupaceous berry: and that if a ſingle drop of it is let fall into a large
The feed is a globular gloſly nut. The most remark faucer full of water, it immediately ſpreads all over
FlateXVII. able ſpecies are:1.The elenifera,or ſhrub which bears its ſurface, and as it were diſſolves and diſappears :
the gum-elemi, a native of South-America. It grows but in about half an hour it becomes a tranſparent pel-
to the height of about fix feet, producingi trifoliated licle covering the whole ſurface, and may be taken up
ftiff ſhining leaves, growing oppoſite to one another with a pin, having loft but its fluidity and colour,
on footſtalks two inches long. At the ends of the and become white and ſoft, cohering, and communi.
branches grow four or five ſlender ſtalks ſet with many cating its ſmell and taſte to the water. This teft, he
very ſmall white flowers. 2. The giliadenſis, or opo- ſays, all the balſam he ſaw in Holland bore, though it
ballamum, is an evergreen (hrub, growing ſpontane- is rare to get any from London that anſwers it. The
ouſly in Arabia-Felix, from whence the opobalſam, balſamifera, or roſe-wood, affords an excellenttimber :
or balm of gilead, is procured. 3. Toxifera, or poi: it is alſo replete with a fragrant balſam or oil, and re-
fon-wood, is a finall tree, with a ſmooth light-coloured tains its flavour and ſolidity though expoſed to the wea-
bark. Its leaves are winged; the middle rib is ſeven ther many years. By ſubjecting this wood to diſtilla .
or eight inches long, with pairs of pinnä one againſt tion, Dr Wright thinks, a perfume equal to the oleuni
another on inch-long foolftalks. The fruit hangs in rhodii may probably be obtained.
bunches, is ſhaped like a pear, and is of a purple co ANA, among phyſicians, denotes a quantity equal
lour, covering an oblong hard ſtone. From the trunk
to that of the preceding ingredient. It is abbrevia-
of this tree diſtils a liquid as black as ink. Birds feed ted thus, āā, or ā.
on the fruit : particularly one, called the purple grofs ANA, in matters of literature, a Latin termination,
beak, on the mucilage that covers the ſtone. It grows adopted into the titles of ſeveral books in other lan-
uſually on rocks, in Providence, Ilathera, and others guages.-Anas, or books in ana, are collections of the
of the Bahama iſlands. 4. The balſamifera, or roſe memorable ſayings of perſons of learning and wit;
wood, is found on gravelly hills in Jamaica and others much the ſame with what we otherwiſe call table-talk.
of the Weſt India iſlands. It riſes to a conſiderable Wolfius has given the hiſtory of books in ana, in
height, and the trunks are remarkable for having large the preface to the Caſauboniana. He there obſerves,
protuberances on them. The leaves are laurel-ſhaped ; that though ſuch titles be new, the thing itſelf is ve-
the ſmall blue flowers are on a branched ſpike; and ry old ; that Xenophon's books of the deeds and ſay.
the berries are ſmall and black.
ings of Socrates, as well as the dialogues of Plato, are
Properties. From the firſt ſpecies, which is called Socratiana ; that the apophthegms of the philoſo-
by the natives of the Braſils icicariba, is obtained the phers collected by Diogenes Laertius, the ſentences of
refin improperly called gum-elemi, or gum-lemon. This Pythagoras and thoſe of Epictetus, the works of Athe-
drug is brought to us from the Spaniſh Weſt Indies, næus, Stobeus, and divers others, are ſo many anas.
and
ſometimes from the Eaſt Indies, in long roundiſh Even the Gemara of the Jews, with ſeveral other ori-
cakes, generally wrapped upin flag leaves. The beſt ental writings, according to Wolfius, properly be-
fort is foftiſh, ſomewhat tranſparent, of a pale whitiſh long to the fame claſs. To this head of ana may like-
yellow colour, inclining a little to green, of a ſtrong wife be referred the Orphica, the Pythagoræa, Æfo-
not unpleaſant ſmell. It almoſt totally diſſolves in pure pica, Pyrrhonea, &c.
fpirit, and fends over ſome part of its fragrance along Scaligerana was the firſt piece that appeared with
with his menſtruum in diſtillation : diſtilled with wa a title in ana. It was compoſed by Ifan de Vaſſan, a
ter, it yields a conſiderable quantity of pale-coloured, young Champanois, recommended to Joſ. Scaliger
thin, fragrant, eſſential oil. This relin gives name to by Caſaubon. Being much with Scaliger, who was
one of the officinal unguents, and is at preſent ſcarce daily viſited by the men of learning at Leyden, De
any otherwiſe made uſe of; though it is certainly pre Vaſſan wrote down whatever things of any moment
ferable, for internal purpoſes,to ſome others which are he heard Scaliger ſay. And thus aroſe the Scaliger-
held in greater eſteem. The ſecond fpecies yields the ana, which was not printed till many years after, at
balſam of Mecca, of Syria, or of Gilead, which is Geneva, in 1666. Patin. Let. 431.-Soon after came
the moſt fragrant and pleaſant of any of the balſams. the Perroniana, Thuana, Naudæana,Patineana, Sorbe-
The true balſam tree is found near to Mecca, which is riana, Menagiana, Anti-Menagiana, Furetiana, Chev.
fituated about day's journey from the Red Sea, on ræana, Leibnitziana, Arlequiniana, Poggiana, &c.
the Aſiatic fide. It has a yellowiſh or greeniſh yellow ANABAPTISTON, the ſame with ABAPTISTON.
colour, a warm bitteriſh aromatic taſte, and an acidu ANABAPTISTS, a name which has been indiſ.
lous fragrant ſmell. It has long been held in great criminately applied to Chriſtians of very different
eſteem. The Turks, who are in poſſeſſion of the coin principles and practices; though many of them object
zry in which it grows, value it much as an odoriferous to the denomination, and hold nothing in cominon,
unguent and coſmetic, and ſet ſuch a high price upon beſides the opinion that baptiſm ought always to be
it, that it is adulterated when it comes into the hands performed by immerſion, and not adminiſtered before
of the dealers, ſo that it is very difficult to get genu the age of diſcretion.
ine ſpecimens of it. It has been recoininended in great The word Anabaptiſt is compounded of ava, "new,"
ana
Plate XVII
Amyris elemifera
Inguis maculata
Aphrodita
tranca tarantula
11
1
Whic Philandet
Α Ν Α
( 653 ]
Α Ν Α
tiſts.
ture.
Anabap- and Buntiens, “ a baptiſt;” and in this ſenſe the No This fect was ſoon joined by great numbers, and (as Anabap.
tifts. vatians, the Cataphrygians, and the Donatifts, may uſually happens in ſudden revolutions of this nature) by
be conſidered as a kind of Anabaptiſts in the earlier many perſons whoſe characters and capacities were
ages, though not then denoted by this name; for they very different, though their views ſeemed to turn
contended, that thoſe Chriſtians of the Catholic upon the ſame object. Their progreſs was rapid ; for,
church who joined themſelves to their reſpective par- in a very ſhort ſpace of time, their diſcourſes, vifi-
ties ſhould be rebaptized. But we muſt not claſs un ons, and predictions, excited commotions in a great
der the fame denomination thoſe biſhops of Aſia and part of Europe and drew into their communion a pro-
Africa, who, in the third century, maintained, that digious multitude, whoſe ignorance rendered them
baptiſm adminiſtered by thoſe whom they called here. ealy victims to the illutions of enthuſiaſm. The moſt
tics was not valid, and therefore that ſuch as returned pernicious faction of all thoſe which compoſed this
into their churches ought to be rebaptized. Nor do motley multitude, was that which pretended that the
the Engliſh and Dutch Baptiſts conſider the denomi founders of the new and perfect church, already men.
nation as at all applicable to their ſect : by whom the tioned, were under the direction of a divine impulſe,
baptiſm appointed by Chriſt is held to be « nothing and were armed againſt all oppoſition by the power
ſhort of immerſion, upon a perſonal profeſion of faith :" of working miracles. It was this faction that, in the
of which profeſſion infants being incapable, and ſprink- year 1521, began their fanatical work, under the
ling being no adaquate ſymbol of the thing intended, guidance of Munzer, Stubner, Storck, &c.
the baptizing of profelytes to their communion, who Theſe peiſons were diſciples of Luther : but well
in their infancy had undegone the ceremony of ſprink- knowing that their opinions were ſuch as wouid receive
ling, cannot, it is urged, be interpreted a repetiti. noſanction from him, tliey availed themſelves of his ab.
on of the baptiſmal ordinance.
ſence to diſſeminate them in Wittemburgh, and had
Anabaptiſts, in a ſtrict and proper ſenſe, appear to tlle addreſs to over-reach the piety of Melancthon.
be thoſe who not ouly rebaptize, when they arrive at Their principal purpoſe was to gain over the populace,
an adult age, perſons that were baptized in their in and to form a conſiderable pariy. To effect this, ſays
fancy, but alſo, as often as any perſon comes from Bayle, they were induſtrious and active, each in his
one of their ſects to another, or as often as any one is own way. Storck, wanting knowledge, boaſted of in-
excluded from their communion and again received in- fpiration ; and Stubner, who had both genius and e-
to the bofom of their church, they baptize him. rucition,laboured at commodious explications of Scrip-
And ſuch were many of the German Baptiſts. But Not content with diſcrediting the court of
the ſingle opinion common to all the ſects to which the Rome, and decrying the authority of conſiſtories, they
name of Anabaptiſts has been indiſcriminately applied, taught, That among Chriſtians, who had the precepts
is that of the invalidity of infant baptiſm, in whatever of the goſpel to direct and the Spirit of God to guide
way adminiſtered: And hence the general denoniina- thein, the office of magiſtracy was not only unneceſ.
tion of Antipa dobaptifts; which includes Anabaptifts, fary, but an unlawful encroachment on their ſpiritual
Baptiſts, Mennonites, Waterlandians, &c. as diſtin- liberty ; that the diſtincions occafioned by birth, or
guiſhed by their reſpective peculiarities: though Ana- rank, or wealth, being contrary to the ſpirit of the
baptiſts ſeem to have been adopted by moſt writers as goſpel, which conſiders all men as equal, ſhould be
the general term.
entirely abolished; that all Chriſtians, throwing their
To the above peculiar notion concerning the baptiſ- pofleſſions into one common ſtock, ſhould live together
mal facranient the Anabaptiſts added principles of a in that ſtate of equality which becomes members of
different nature, depending upon certain ideas which the ſame family ; that, as neither the laws of nature
they entertained concerning a perfect church-eſta nor the precepts of the New Teſtament had placed
bliſhment, pure in its members, and free from the any reſtraint upon men with regard to the number of
inſtitutions of human policy.
wives which they might marry, they ſhould uſe that
The Anabaptiſts appear to have made little noiſe, or liberty which God himſelf had granted to the patri-
to have been little noticed before the time of the re archs.
formation in Germany. The moſt prudent and rati They employed at firſt the various arts of perfuafion
onal part of them conſidered it poiſible, by human in order to propagate their doctrine. They preached,
wiſdom, induſtry, and vigilance, to purify the church exhorted, admonithed, and reaſoned in a manner that
from the contagion of the wicked, provided the man ſeemed proper to impreſs the multitude , and related a
ners and ſpirit of the primitive Chriſtians could but great number of viſions and revelations with which
recover their loft dignity and luſtre ; and ſeeing the they pretended to have been favoured from above. But
attempts of Luther, ſeconded by ſeveral perſons of when they ſaw that theſe methods of making proſes
eminent piety, prove ſo ſucceſsful, they hoped that iytes were not attended with fuch a rapid ſucceſs as
the happy period was arrived in which the reſtoration they fondly expected, and that the miniſtry of Lu-
of the church to purity was to be accompliſhed, under ther and other eminent reformers were detrimental
the divine protection, by the labours and counſels of to their cauſe, they then had recouſe to more expedi-
pious and eminent men. Others, far from being fa tious mcaſures, and madly attempted to propagate
iisfied with the plan of reformation propoſed by Lu- their fanatical doctrine by force of arnis. Munzer and
ther, looked upon it as much beneath the fublimity of his affociates, in the year 1525, put themſelves at the
their views; and conſequently undertook a more per- hcad or a nunierous army, compoſed for the moſt part
fect reformation, or, to expreſs more properly their of the peaſants of Suabia, Thuringia, Franconia, and
viſionary enterpriſe, they propoſed to found a new Saxony, and declared war againſt all laws, govern-
cliurch, entirely ſpiritual, and truly divine,
ment, and magiſtrates of every kind, under the chi-
ineiical
Α Ν Α
L 654 ]
Α Ν Α
tifts.
teria,
Anabap- merical pretext that Chriſt was now to take the reins there to ſtop, in order as it were to aſſociate with it Anahafil-
of civil and eccleſiaſtical government into his own the ideas of turbulence and fanaticiſm, with which it II
hands, and to rule alone over the nations. But this certainly has no natural connection. Their coinci. Anacalyp-
[editious crowd was routed and diſperſed, without dence with ſome of thoſe oppreſſed and infatuated
much difficulty, by the Elector of Saxony and other people in denying baptiſm to infants, is acknowledged
princes; and Munzer their ringleader ignoininiouſly by the Baptiſts : but they diſavowthe practice which
put to death, and his factious counſellors ſcattered the appellation of Anabaptiſts implies; and their doc-
abroad in different places.
trines ſeem referable to a more ancient and reſpecta-
Many of his followers, however, ſurvived, and pro- ble origin. They appear ſupported by hiſtory in con-
pagated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland, fidering themſelves as the deſcendants of the Wal-
and Holland. In the year 1533, a party of them ſet- denſes,who were fo grievouſly oppreſſed and perſecuted
tled at Munſter under the direction of two Anabaptiſt by the deſpotic heads of the Romilh hierarchy; and
prophets, John Matthias a baker of Haerlem, and John they profeſs an equal averſion to all principles of re-
Bockholdi a journeyman-taylor of Leyden. Having bellion on one hand, and to all ſuggeſtions of fanati .
made themſelves maſters of the city, they depoſed the ciſm on the other. See BAPTISTS..The denomin-
magiſrates, confiſcated the eſtates of ſuch as had eſca- ation of Mennonites, by which they are diſtinguiſhed
ped, and depoſited the wealth they anaſſed together in Holland, they derive from Menno, the famous man
in a public treaſury for common uſe. They made prepa, who latterly gave conſiſtence and ſtability to their fect.
rations of every kind for the defence of the city ; and See MENNONITES.
ſent out emiſſaries to the Anabaptiſts in the Low Coun ANABASII, in antiquity, were couriers who were
tries, inviting them to aſſemble at Munſter, which was ſent on horſeback, or in chariots, with diſpatches of
now dignified with the name of Mount Sion, that from importance.
hence they might be deputed to reduce all the nations ANABATHRA, in ancient writers, denote a kind
of the earth under their dominion. Matthias, who was of ſteps or ladder whereby to aſcend to ſome eminence.
the firſt in command, was ſoon cut offin an act of phren. In this ſenſe we read of the anabathra of theatres, pul-
fy by the biſhop of Munſter's army; and was ſucceeded pits, &c. Anabathra appears to have been ſometimes
by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed by a ſpecial deligalſo applied to ranges of feats riſing gradually over
nation of Heaven, as he pretended, king of Sion, and each other.
inveſted with legiſlative powers like thoſe of Moſes. ANABATHRA is more particularly applied to a kind
The extravagances of Bockholdt were too numerous to of ſtone blocks raiſed by the high-way ſides, to aſſiſt
be recited : it will be ſufficient to add, that the city of travellers in nonnting or alighting, before the uſe of
Munſter was taken after a long ſiege and an obfti- ſtirrups was invented. The firſt author of this con-
nate reſiſtance ; and Bockholdt, the mock monarch, trivance among the Romans was C. Gracchus brother
was puniſhed with a moſt painful and ignominious of Tiberius.
death.
ANABLEPS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
It muſt, however, be acknowledged that the true ſpecies of cobitis. See COBITIS.
rife of the numerous inſurrections of this period ANABOA, a ſmall iſland ſituated near the coaſt of
ought not to be attributed to religious opinions. The Loango in Africa, in Ep Long.9º. N. Lat. 19. Here
firſt inſurgents groaned under the moſt grievous op are ſeveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of
preſſions ; they took up aris principally in defence bananas, oranges, pine-apples, lemons, citrons, ta-
of their civil liberties ; and of the commotions that marinds, cocoa-nuis, &c. together with vaſt quanti-
took place. The Anabaptiſt leaders abovementioned ties of cotton. In this iſand are two high mountains,
ſeem rather to have availed themſelves, than to have which, being continually covered with clouds, occa-
been the prime movers.
See the article REFORMA. fon frequent rains.
TION.-That a great part of the main body, indeed, ANABOLÆUM, or ANABOLE,in antiquity, a kind
conſiſted of Anabaptiſts ſeenis indiſputable ; and what- of great or upper coat, worn over the tunica.
ever fanaticiſm exiſted among them would naturally ANABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given
be called forth or be inflamed by the ſituations that oc to grooms of the ſtable, or equerries, who aſſiſted
curred, and run riot in its wildeſt ſhapes. At the their maſters in mounting their horſes. As the anci.
ſame time it appears from hiſtory, that a great part ents had no ſtirrups, or inſtruments that are now in
alſo conſiſted of Roman Catholics, and a ſtill greater uſe for mounting a horſe, th:y either jumped upon his
of perſons who had ſcarcely any religious principles back, or were aided in mounting by anabolei.
at all. Indeed, when we read of the vaſt numbers ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, were
that were concerned in thoſe inſurrections, of whom preſents made to the bride by her huſband's relati-
it is reported that 100,000 fell by the ſword, it ap ons and friends when ſhe firſt uncovered her face and
pears reaſonable to conclude that a great majority of ſhowed herſelf to men. Theſe preſents were alſo
them were not Anabaptiſts.
called staviasa: for among the Greeks, virgins be-
Before concluding this article, it muſt be remark. fore marriage were under ſtri& confinement, being
ed, that the Baptiſts or Mennonites in England and rarely permitted to appear in public, or converſe with
Holland are to be conſidered in a very different light the other ſex ; and when allowed that liberty, wore
from the enthuſiaſts we have been deſcribing : and it a veil over their faces termed Karutopov, or Kanuntpa,
appears equally uncandid and invidious, to trace up which was not left off in the preſence of men till the
their diſtinguiſhing ſentiment, as ſome of their adver- third day after marriage ; whence, according to He-
faries have done, to thoſe obnoxious characters, and fychius, this was alſo called anacalypterion.
ANA-
Α Ν Α
[ 655 )
Α Ν Α
feros
um.
Anacampo ANACAMPSEROS, in botany, a ſynonime of the by famine or fuſtain themſelves with this fruit. The Anacephz.
portulaca and ſeveral other plants.
milky juice of this tree will ſtain linen of a good black, læolis
ANACAMPTERIA, in eccleſiaſtical antiquity, a which cannot be waſhed out. See Plate XVIII.
Anacardi-
Anaclaftic,
kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, de Culture. This plant is eaſily raiſed from the nuts,
figned for the entertainment of ſtrangers and poor which thould be planted each in a ſeparate pot filled
perſons.
with light fandy earth, and plunged into a good hot-
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients to bed of tanners bark; they muſt alſo be kept from moi.
that part of optics which treats of reflexion, being the ſture till the plants come up, otherwiſe ihe nuts are
fame with what is now called CATOPTRICS.
apt to rot. If the nuts are freſh, the plants will come
ANACARDIUM, or C'ASHEW-NUT TREE : A ge- up in about a month.
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan ANACEPHALAOSIS, in rhetoric, the ſame with
dria claſs of plants; and in the natural method rank- recapitulation. See RECAPITULATION.
ing under the 12th order, Holoracea. The characters ANACHARSIS, a famous Scythian philoſopher,
are: The calyx is divided into five parts, the diviſie converſed with Solon, and lived an auſtere life. Upon
ons ovate and deciduous: The corolla conſiſts of five his return from his travels through Greece, he ato
reflected petals, twice the length of the calyx: The tempted to change the ancient cuſtoms of Scythia, and
ſtamina conſiſt of ten capillary filaments ſhorter than to eſtabliſh thoſe of Greece; which proved fatal to
the calyx, one of them caſtrated; the antheræ are hin. The king ſhot him dead in the wood with an
ſmall and roundiſh : The piſtillum has a roundih ger- arrow. A great many ſtatues were erected to him af-
men: the ſtylus is fubulated, inflected, and the length ter his death. He is ſaid to have invented tinder, the
of the corolla; the ſtigma oblique: There is no peri. anchor, and the potter's wheel; but the latter is nen-
carpium ; the receptaculum is very large and fleſhy: tioned by Homer, who lived long before him. Ana-
The feed is a large kidney-ſhaped nut, placed above charſis Aourihed'in the time of Croeſus.
the receptaculum.
ANACHORET, in church hiſtory, denots a her.
Of this only cne ſpecies is as yet known to the bo- mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the ſociety of
taniſts, viz. the occidentale. It grows naturally in mankind into ſome defart, with a view to avoid the
the Weſt Indies, and arrives at the height of 20 feet temptations of the world, and to be more at leiſure for
in thoſe places of which it is a native. The fruit of meditation and prayer. Such were Paul, Anthony,
this tree is as large as an orange ; and is full of an and Hilarion, the firſt founders of monaſtic life in
acid juice, which is frequently made uſe of in making Egypt and Paleſtine.
punch. To the apex of this fruit grows a nut, of the Anachorets, among the Greeks, conſiſt principally
ſize and ſhape of a hare's kidney, but niuch larger at of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave
the end which is next the fruit than at the other. of the abbot, and an allowance from the nionaſtery;
The ſhell is very hard; and the kernel, which is or who, weary of the fatigues of the monaſtery, pir-
ſweet and pleaſant, is covered with a thin film. Be- chaſe a ſpot of ground, to which they retreat, never
tween this and the ſhell is lodged a thick, blackiſh, appearing again in the monaſtery, unleſs on folemn
inflammable liquor, of ſuch a canſtic nature in the freſh occaſions.
nuts, that if the lips chance to touch it, bliſters will ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an er-
immediately follow. The kernels are eaten raw, or ror with reſpect to chronology, whereby an event is
pickled. The cauſtic liquor juſt mentioned is esteem- placed earlier than it really happened. The word is
ed an excellent coſmetic with the Weſt India young compounded of «va, " higher," and xporu, "time."
ladies, but they muſt certainly ſuffer a great deal of Such is that of Virgil, who placed Dido in Africa at
pain in its application ; and, fond as our females are the time of Æneas, though in reality ſhe did not conie
of a beautiful face, it is highly probable they would there till 300 years after the taking of Troy.--An
never ſubmit to be flayed alive to obtain one. When error on the other ſide, whereby a fact is placed later
any of the former fancy themſelves too much tanned and lower than it fhould be, is called a parachroniſm.
by the ſcorching rays of the ſun, they gently ſcrape ANACLASTIC GLASSES, a kind of ſonorous phi-
off the thin outlide of the ſtone, and then rub their als or glaſſes, chiefly made in Germany, which have
faces all over with the ſtone. Their faces immedi. the property of being flexible ; and emitting a vehe-
ately ſwell and grow black; and the ſkin being poi- ment noiſe by the human breath.--They are alſo calle
foned by the cauſtic oil abovementioned, will, in the ed vexing glaſſes by the Germans (vexier glaſer), on
ſpace of five or fix days, cone entirely off in large account of the fright and diſturbance they occaſion by
flakes, ſo that they cannot appear in public in leſs their reſilition. The anaclaſtic glaſſes are a low kind
than a fortnight; by which time the new ſkin looks of phials, with flat bellies, reſembling inverted fun-
as fair as that of a new-born child. The negroes in nels, whoſe bottoms are very thin, ſcarce furpaſſing
Brazil cure themſelves effectually of diſorders in the the thickneſs of an onion peel: this bottom is not quite
ftomach by eating of the yellow fruit of this tree; the flat, but a little convex. But upon applying the mouth
juice of which, being acid, cuts the tough humours to the orifice, and gently inſpiring, or as it were ſack-
which obſtructed the free circulation of the blood, ing out the air, the bottom gives way with a prodgi-
and thus removes the complaint. This cure, howe, ous crack, and of convex becomes concave. On the
ver, is not voluntary: for their maſters, the Portus contrary, upon exſpiring or breathing gently into the
gueſe, deny them any other ſuſtenance; and letting orifice of the ſame glaſs, the bottom with no leſs noiſe
them looſe to the woods, where the caſhew nuts grow bounds back to its fornier place, and become gibbous
in great abundance, leave it in their option to perish as before.--The anaclaſtic glaſſes firſt taken notice or
vere
Α Ν Α
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Α Ν Α
tic
Anaclaſtics were in the caſtle of Goldbach ; where one of the aca ry Stephens, and are univerſally admired. The verſes Anacreon-
demiſts Natura Curioforum, having ſeen and made of Anacreon are ſweeter, ſays Scaliger, than Indian
Anacreon, experiments on them, publiſhed a piece expreſsly on ſugar. His beauty and chief excellence, ſays Madam
Anadema.
their hiſtory and phenomena. They are all made of Dacier, lay in imitating nature, and in following rea-
a fine white glaſs. It is to be obſerved of theſe, fon; ſo that he preſented to the mind no images but
1. That if the bottom be concave at the time of inſpi- what were noble and natural. The odes of Anacre.
ration, it will burſt; and the like will happen if it be on ſays Rapin, are flowers, beauties, and perpetual
convex at the time of exſpiration. 2. A ſtrong breath graces; it is familiar to him to write what is natural
will have the ſame effect even under the contrary cir- and to the life, he having an air ſo delicate, ſo eaſy,
cuinſtances.
and graceful, that anong all the ancients there is no-
ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which confi- thing comparable to the method he took, nor to that
ders the refraction of light, and is commonly called kind of writing he followed. He flows ſoft and eae
Dioptrics. See DIOPTRICS.
· ſy, every where diffuſing the joy and indolence of his
ANACLETERIA, in antiquity, a folcmn feſtival mind through his verſe, and tuning his harp to the
celebrated by the ancients when their kings or princes ſmooth and pleaſant temper of his ſoul. But none
came of age, and afumed the reins of government has given a juſter character of his writings than the
It was ſo called, becauſe proclamation being made of God of Love, as taught to ſpeak by Mr Cowley:
this event to the people, they went to ſalute their
prince during the anacleteria, and to congratulate
All thy verſe is ſofter far
Than the downy feathers are,
hiin upon his new dignity.
ANACLETICUM, in the ancient art of war, a
Of my wings, or of my arrows,
Of my mother's doves and ſparrows
particular blaſt of the trumpet, whereby the fearful
Graceful, cleanly, ſmooth, or round,
and flying ſoldiers were rallied and recalled to the
All with Venus' girdle bound.
combat.
ANACLINOPALE, Ayaudvomaan, in antiquity, a ANACREONTIC VERSE, in ancient poetry, a
kind of wreſtling, wherein the champions threw kind of verſe ſo called from its being much uſed by the
themſelves voluntarily on the ground, and continued poet Anacreon. It conſiſts of three feet and an half,
the combat by pinching, biting, ſcratching, and other uſually ſpondees and iambuſes, and ſometimes ana-
methods of offence. The Anaclinopale was contra- peſts : Such is that of Horace,
diſtinguiſhed from the Orthopale, wherein the cham-
Lydia, dic per omnes.
pions ſtood erect. In the Anaclinopale, the weaker
combatants ſometimes gained the victory.
ANACRISIS, among the ancient Greeks, is uſed
ANACLINTERIA, in antiquity, a kind of pillows for a kind of trial or examination, which the archons,
on the dining-bed, whereon the gueſts uſed to lean. or chief magiſtrates of Athens, were to undergo be-
The ancient triciiniary beds had four pillows, one at fore their admiſſion into that office. The Anacriſis
the head, another at the feet, a third at the back, ſtands diſtinguiſhed from the docimafia, which was a
and a fourth at the breaſt. That on which the head ſecond examination, in the forum. The anacryſis
lay, was properly called by the Greeks 110XN1Tmprov, was performed in the ſenate-houſe. The queſtions
or av «xasvipov; by the Romans fulcrum, ſometimes here propoſed to them were concerning their family,
pluteus.
kindred, behaviour, eſtate, &c. Some will have it
ANACOLLEMA, a compoſition of aſtringent pow. that all magiſtrates underwent the anacriſis.
ders, applied by the ancients to the head, lo prevent ANACRISIS, among civilians, an inveſtigation of
defluctions on the eyes.
truth, interrogation of witneſſes, and inquiry made
ANACONDO, in natural hiſtory, is a name given into any fact, eſpecially by torture.
in the iſle of Ceylon to a very large and terrible rat ANACROSIS, in antiquity, denotes a part of the
tleſnake, which often devours the unfortunate travel. Pythian ſong, wherein the combat of Apollo and Py-
ler alive, and is itſelf accounted excellent and deli thon are deſcribed. The anacroſis was the firſt part,
cious fare.
and contained the preparation to the fight.
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city ANACYCLUS, in botany: a genus of the polyga-
of Ionia, flouriſhed about 532 years before the Chril. mia ſuperflua order, belonging to the ſyngeneſia claſs
tian æra. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, invited him of plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under
to his court, and made him ſhare with him in his bu- the 49th order, Compoſite-diſcoides. The characters
ſineſs and his pleaſures. He had a delicate wit, as are: The calyx is hemiſpheric and imbricated: The
may be judged from the inexpreſſible beauties and corolla is radicated : The ſiamina conſiſt of fine very
graces that ſhine in his works : but he was fond of ſhort capillary filaments; the anthera cylindric and tu-
pleaſure, was of an amorous diſpoſition, and addicted bular : The piſtillum has an oval germen: a filiform
to drunkenneſs: yet, notwithſtanding his debauche- ſtylus ; a bifid ftigma in the hermaphrodites, two
ries, he lived to the age of 85; when, we are told, flender reflected ftigmata in the females : There is
he was choaked by a grape-ſtone which ſtuck in his no pericarpium; but the calyx unchanged : The ſeeds
throat as he was regaling on ſome new wine. are ſolitary, with membranous wings; the recepta-
There is but a finall part of Anacreon's works culum is chaffy.
that remain ; for, beſides his odes and epigrams, he ANADAVADÆA, in ornithology, a barbarous
compoſed elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems name of a ſpecies of alauda. See ALAUDA.
which are extant were reſcued from oblivion by Hen ANADEMA, among the ancients, denotes an or-
nament
V
I
1
Plate XVIII
VI!
W
Anacardium occidentale
2
4
ya
wurde
zi
All
Alauda
e rewrRealand Lark
M
W
Imphistarna
.
SSY
---
--
Com
Philada
Α Ν Α
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Α Ν Α
Anadiplofis tranient of the head, wherewith victors at the ſacred merly expected from the firſt two ſpecies; but they Anaguia
games had their temples bound.
are now juſtly diſregarded.
Anagalis. ANADIPLOSIS, in rhetoric and poetry, a repeti ANAGNIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Latium, capi. Anagram.
tion of thc laſt word of a line or clauſe of a ſentence, tal of the Hernici ; which after a faint reſiſtance, ſub-
in the beginning of the next: Thus,
mitting to the Romans, was admitted to the freedom
of the city, yet without the right of ſuffrage, (Livy).
Pierides, vos hæc facietis maxima Gallo:
It was afterwards a colony of Druſus Cæfar, and wall-
Gallo cujus anor, &c.
ed round, and its territory aſſigned to the veterans,
Et matutinis accredula vocibus inftat,
Vacibus inftat, & afiduas jacit ore querelas.
(Frontinus.) Here Antony married Cleopatra, and
divorced Oétavia. Now Anagni, 36 miles to the eaſt
ANADROMOUS, among ichthyologiſts, a name of Rome.
of Rome. E. Long. 13. 45. Lat. 42. 48.
given to ſuch fiſhes as go from the ſea to the freſh wa ANAGNOSTA, or ANAGNOSTES, in antiquity, &
ters at ſtated ſeaſons, and return back again ; ſuch as kind of literary ſervant, retained in the families of per-
the ſalmon, &c. See SALMO.
ſons of diſtinction, whoſe chief buſineſs was to read to
ANADUOMENE Venus, in the Grecian mytho. them during meals, or at any other time when they
logy, anſwered to the Sea-Venus in the Roman, and were at leiſure. Cornelius Nepos relates of Atticus,
was the appellation given to one of the chief deities of that he had always an anagnoſtes at his meals. He ne-
the ſea, The moſt celebrated picture in all antiquity ver ſupped without reading ; ſo that the minds of his
was that of this goddeſs by Apelles; and the famous gueſts were no leſs agreeably entertained than their
Venus of Medici is a Sea-Venus.
appetites. The ſame cuſtom, Eginhard obſerves, was
ANÆDEIA, in antiquity, a denomination given to kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the biſtories
a ſilver ſtool placed in the Areopagus, on which the and acts of ancient kings read to him. This cuſtom
defendant, or perſon accuſed, was ſeated for exami- ſeems to have been a relic of that of the ancient Greeks,
nation. The word is Greek, Avaedtia, which imports who had the praiſes of great men and heroes ſung to
imprudence; but according to Junius's correction, it them while at table. The ancient monks and clergy
fhould rather be Auditia, q. d. innocence. The plain. kept up the like uſage, as we are informed by St Au-
tiff, or accuſer, was placed on an oppoſite ſtool called guſtin.
hybris, or injury; here he propoſed three queſtions to ANAGOGICAL, ſignifies myſterious, tranſporting;
the party accuſed, to which powtive anſwers were to and is uſed to expreſs whatever elevates the mind, not
be given. The firſt., Are you guilty of this fact? The only to the knowledge of divine things, but of divine
fecond, How did you commit the fact? The third, things in the next life. This word is ſeldom uſed,
Who were your accomplices ?
but with regard to the different ſenſes of Scripture.
ANÆSTHESIA, ſignifies a privation of the ſenſes. The anagogical ſenſe is, when the ſacred text is ex.
ANAGALLIS, PIMPERNEL: A genus of the mo- plained with a regard to eternal life, the point which
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of Chriſtians ſhould have in view: for example, the reſt
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the of the fabbath, in the anagogical ſenſe, ſignifies the
20th order, Rotaceæ. The characters are: The calyx repoſe of everlaſting happineſs.
is a quinquepartite perianthium, which is perſiſtent : ANAGOGY, or ANAGOGE, among eccleſiaſtical
The corolla conſiſts of one rotated petal: The ftamina writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeſtial
conſiſt of five erect filaments ſhorter than the corolla; and eternal. It is particularly uſed, where words, in
the antheræ are ſimple: The puftillum has a globular their natural and primary meaning, denote ſomething
germen; the ſtylus flightly declinated, the ftigma ſenſible, but have a further view to ſomething ſpiritual
headed : The pericarpium is a globular capſule, unilo. or inviſible
cular and circumciſed: The ſeeds are numerous and ANAGOGY, in a more particular ſenſe, denotes the
angled; the receptaculum globular and very large. application of the types aud allegories of the Old Te-
Of this there are four
ſtament to ſubjects of the New; thus called, becauſe
Species. 1. The arvenſis, or common pimpernel, the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden, is
with a red flower. 2. The fæmina, with a blue flower. expoſed to open fight.
3. The monelli, or narrow-leaved pimpernel. 4. The ANAGRĀM (from the Greek me backwards, and
latifolia, or Spaniſh pimpernel.-The firſt fort is very 3pepapese letter), in matters of literature, a tranſpoſition
common in corn-fields, and other cultivated places in of the letters of ſome name, whereby a new word is
Britain. The ſecond is ſometimes found wild in the formed, either to the advantage or diſadvantage of the
fields, but is not ſo common as the firſt. The third perſon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus,
is a beautiful finall perennial plant, and produces num the anagram of Galenus is angelus; that of Logica,
bers of fine blue flowers. The fourth is a native of caligo ; that of Alſtedius, ſedulitas ; that of Loraine is
Spain, and likewiſe produces blue flowers.
alerion, on which account it was that the family of Lo-
The plants are very eaſily propagated by ſeeds; raine took alerions for their armoury. Calvin, in the
and if ſuffered to remain till their ſeeds ſcatter, they title of his Inſtitutions, printed at Straſburg in 1539,
become troubleſome weeds.-The arvenſis is not un. calls himſelf Alcuinus, which is the'anagram of Cal-
frequently taken as food; it makes no unpleaſant fa- vinus, and the name of an eminently learned perſon
lad, and in ſome parts of Great Britain is a common in the time of Charlemagne, who contributed greatly
pot-herb. All the ſpecies are eat by cows and goats, to the reſtoration of learning in that age.
but refuſed by ſheep; ſmall birds are greatly delight Thoſe who adhere ſtrictly to the definition of an
ed with the feeds.--Great medicinal virtues were for- anagram, take no other liberty than that of omitting
VOL. I.
ر
40
OT
Α Ν Α
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A N A
Anagram- or retaining the letter h, at pleaſure ; whereas others ANAGYRIS or ANAGYRUS, the name of a place Anak
matilt make no fcruple to uſe & for £, v forw, s for z, and in Attica, of the tribe Erechtheis, where a fetid
U
1
c for K; and vice verſa.
Anagyris.
plant, called Anagyris, probably the ſame with the Analogy.
Belides anagrams formed as above, we meet with foregoing, grew in great plenty, (Diofcorides, Pli-
another kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a ny, Stephanus ;) and the more it was handled, the
ſingle word into ſeveral; thus ſus tinea mus, are for-
are for- ſtronger it ſmelled: hence conimovere anagyrin (or
med out of the word fuftineamus.
anagyrum), is to bring a misfortune on one's ſelf,
Anagrams are ſometimes alſo made out of ſeveral (Ariſtophanes.)
words : ſuch is that on the queſtion put by Pilate to ANAK, the father of the Anakims, was the ſon
our Saviour, Quid eft veritas? whereof we have this of Arba, who gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or He-
admirable anagram, viz. Eft vir qui adeft.
bron, Joſh. xiv. 15. Anak had three ſons, Shelhai,
The Cabaliſts among the Jews are profeſſed ana. Ahiman, and Talmai, (chap. xv. 14. and Numb. xiii.
grammatiſts; the third part of their art, which they 22.) who, as well as their father, were giants, and
call themuru, i. e.“ changing,” being nothing but the who, with their poſterity, all terrible for their
art of making anagrams, or of finding hidden and my fierceneſs and extraordinary ftature, were called the
ſtical meanings in nanies ; which they do by chang- Anakims ; in compariſon of whom the Hebrews,
ing, tranſpoling, and differently combining, the let- who were ſent to view the land of Canaan, reported
ters of thoſe names.-Thus, of ng the letters of Noah's that they were but as graſshoppers. Numb. xiii. ult.
name, they make in grace; of n'wn the Mefiah, they Caleb, aſſiſted by the tribe of Judah, took Kirjath-
make nou he ſhall rejoice.
arba, and deſtroyed the Anakims, (Judges i. 20. and
ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compoſer of Joſh. xv. 14.) in the year of the world 2559.
anagrams. Thomas Billon, a provincial, was a ce ANALECTA, or ANALECTES, in antiquity, a
lebrated anagrammatiſt, and retained by Lewis XIII. ſervant whoſe employment it was to gather up the
with a penſion of 1200 livres, in quality of anagram- off-falls of tables.
inatiſt to the king.
ANALECTA, Analects, in a literary ſenſe, is uſed
ANAGROS, in commerce, a meaſure for grain uſed to denote a collection of finall pieces ; as eſſays, re-
in ſome cities in Spain, particularly at Seville ; 46 ana- marks, &c.
gros make about 10 quarters of London.
ANALEMMA, in geometry, a projection of the
ANAGYRIS, STINKING BEAN-TREFOIL: A ge- ſphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographical-
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan- ly made by ſtraight lines and ellipſes, the eye being
dria claſs of plants; and, in the natural method, rank- ſuppoſed at an infinite diſtance, and in the eaſt, or
ing under the 32d-order, Papilionacea. The charac- weſt, points of the horizon.
ters are: The calyx is a bell-ſhaped perianthium : ANALEMMA, denotes likewiſe an inſtrument of
The corolla is papilionaceous; the vexillum cordated, braſs or wood, upon which this kind of projection is
ſtraight, emarginated, and twice as long as the calyx; drawn with an horizon and curſor fitted to it, where-
the alæ ovate and longer than the vexillum ; the ca in the folftitial colure, and all circles parallel to it,
rina ſtraight and very long: The ftamina conſiſt of 10 will be concentric circles ; all circles oblique to the
filaments ; the antheræ fimple: The piſtillum has an eye, will be ellipſes; and all circles whoſe planes
oblong germen, a ſimple ſtylus, and a villous ſtigma: paſs through the eye, will be right lines. The uſe
The pericarpium is an oblong legumen: The feeds are of this inſtrument is to ſhow the common aſtronomical
fix or more, and kidney-ſhaped,
problems; which it will do, though not very exact-
Of this genus there is but one ſpecies, the fetida, ly, unleſs it be very large.
which grows naturally in the ſouthern parts of Europe. ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an
It is a ſhrub which uſually riſes to the height of cight emaciated body.
or ten feet, and produces its flowers in April or May. ANALEPTICS, reſtorative or nouriſhing medi-
Theſe are of a bright yellow colour, growing in ſpikes, cines.
ſomewhat like the labrunum.
ANALOGY, in philoſophy, a certain relation and
Culture, This plant may be propagated either by agreement between two or more things, which in
ſeeds, or by laying down the tender branches in the other reſpects are entirely different.
ſpring; but the firſt method is preferable. The ſeeds There is likewiſe an analogy between beings that
ħould be fown towards the end of March in pots filled have ſome conformity or reſemblance to one another;
with light earth, and plunged in a gentle hot-bed. for example, between animals and plants; but the
The plants uſually appear in a month, when they analogy is ſtill ſtronger between two different ſpecies
ſhould be gradually inured to the open air, that they of certain animals.
may be hardened before winter. In the autumn and Analogy enters much into all our reaſoning, and
winter, they muſt be ſheltered under a hot-bed ſerves to explain and illuſtrate. A great part of our
frame : the ſpring following, they muſt be tranſ- philoſophy, indeed, has no other foundation than ana-
planted, each into a ſeparate ſmall pot, placed in a logy.
ſheltered ſituation, and again removed into a frame It is natural for mankind 10 judge of things leſs
to ſhelter them during the following winter. The known, by ſome ſimilitude, real or imaginary, between
ſecond ſpring after the plants come up, ſome of them them and things more familiar or better known. And
may be taken out of the pots, and planted in a border where the things compared have really a great fimi.
ncar a ſouth wall, where, if they are protected in litude in their nature, when there is reaſon to think
winter, they may remain.
that they are ſubject to the ſame laws, there may be
AN A
[ 659 )
Α Ν Α
Reid
011
Analogy. a conſiderable degree of probability in concluſions figure, and human organs, not only to angels, but Analogy:
drawn from analogy. Thus we may obſerve a very even to the Deity.
great fimilitude between this earth which we inhabit, To illuſtrate more fully that analogical reaſoning
and the other planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, from a ſuppoſed fimilitude of mind to body, which ap-
and Mercury. They all revolve round the ſun, as pears to be the moſt fruitful ſource oferror with regard
the earth does, although at different diſtances, and to the operations of our minds, the following inſtance
in different periods. They borrow all their light may be given. When a man is urged by contrary
from the ſun, as the earth does. Several of them motives, thoſe on one hand inciling him to do ſome
are known to revolve round their axis like the earth, action, thoſe on the other to forbear it; he deliberates
and, by that means, muſt have a like ſucceſſion of about it, and at laſt reſolves to do it, or not to do it.
day and night. Some of them have inoons, that ſerve The contrary motives are here compared to the
to give them light in the abſence of the ſun, as our weights in the oppoſite ſcales of balance; and there
inoon does to us. They are all, in their motions, is not perhaps any inſtance that can be named of a
ſubject to the ſame law of gravitation, as the earth more ſtriking analogy between body and mind. Henco
is. Froin all this fimilitude, it is not unreaſonable the phraſes of weighing motives, of deliberating upon
to think, that thoſe planets may, like our earth, be actions, are common to all languages.
the habitation of various orders of living creatures. From this analogy ſome philoſophers draw very im-
There is ſome probability in this concluſion from ana portant concluſions. They ſay, that as the balance
logy.
cannot incline to one ſide more than the other, when
But it ought to be obſerved, that, as this kind of the oppoſite weights are equal ; fo a man cannot poſſi-
reaſoning can afford only probable evidence at beſt; bly determine himſelf if the motives on both hands are
fo, unleſs great caution be uſed, we are apt to be led equal; and as the balance muſt neceſſarily turn to that
into error by it. To give an inſtance of this : Ana ſide which has moſt weight, ſo the man muſt neceſſa-
tomiſts in ancient ages, ſeldom diſſected human bo- rily be determined to that hand where the motive is
dies ; but very often the bodies of thoſe quadrupeds ſtrongeſt. And on this foundation ſome of the ſchool-
whoſe internal ſtructure was thought to approach men maintained, that if a hungry aſs were placed be-
the neareſt to that of the human body. Modern anato tween two bundles of hay equally inviting, the beaſt
Intellectual miſts have diſcovered many miſtakes the ancients muſt ſtand ſtill and ſtarve to death, being unable to
Powers, EC-
were led into, by their conceiving a greater ſimili turn to either, becauſe there are equal motives to both.
ſay I. ch.
tude between the ſtructure of men and of ſome beaſts This is an inſtance of that analogical reaſoning, which,
iv. p. 526
than there is in reality.
it is conceived, ought never to be truſted ; for the ana-
Perhaps no author has made a more juſt and a more logy between a balance and a man deliberating, though
happy uſe of his mode of reaſoning, than Biſhop But one of the ſtrongeſt that can be found between matter
ler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Reveal and inind, is too weak to ſupport any argument. A
ed, to the Conſtitution and Courſe of Nature. In that piece of dead inactive matter, and an active intelligent
excellent work, the author does not ground any of being, are things very unlike ; and becauſe the one
the truths of religion upon analogy, as their proper would remain at reſt in a certain caſe, it does not fol-
evidence. He only makes uſe of analogy to anſwer low that the other would be inactive in a caſe ſome-
objections againſt them. When objections are made what ſimilar. The argument is no better than this,
againſt the truths of religion, which may be made that, becauſe a dead animal moves only as it is paſhed,
with equal ſtrength againſt what we know to be true and, if puſhed with equal force in contrary directions,
in the courſe of nature, ſuch objections can have no muſt remain at reft; therefore the ſame thing muſt
weight.
happen to a living animal; for ſurely the fimilitude
Analogical reaſoning, therefore, may be of excel- between a dead animal and a living, is as great as
lent uſe in anſwering objections againſt truths which that between a balance and a man.
have other evidence. It may likewiſe give a greater The derivation of the word Analogy indicates, as
or a leſs degree of probability in caſes where we can profeſſor Caſtillon of Berlin* obſerves, a reſemblance * Haarlena
find no other evidence. But all arguments drawn diſcernible by reaſon. This is confirmed by the ſenſe Memoirs
from analogy are ſtill the weaker, the greater diſpari- in which the term is uſed in geometry, where it ſig- for 1786,
ty there is between the things compared ; and there. nifies an equality of ratios.-]n explaining this fub- or vol. xxii.
fore muſt be weakeſt of all when we compare body ject, it is obſerved, there may be a reſemblance be-
with mind, becauſe there are no two things in nature tween ſenſations and a reſemblance between percep-
more unlike.
tions : the former is called phyſical reſemblance, be-
There is no ſubject in which men have always been cauſe it acts upon the phyſical or ſenſitive faculty ; the
fo prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind, latter moral reſemblance, becauſe it affects the moralor
as in what relates to the mind. We form an early ac rational faculty of man.
quaintance with materialthings by means of our ſenſes, Every reſemblance may be reduced to an equality in
and are bred up in a conſtant familiarity with them. ſenſations or perceptions ; but this ſuppoſes fome equa-
Hence we are apt to meaſure all things by them ; and lity in their cauſes: we ſay ſome equality, becauſe the
to aſcribe to things moſt remote froni matter the qua- diſpoſition of the organs, or of the ſoul, muſt neceſſa-
lities that belong to material things. It is for this rea- rily affect the ſenſations or perceptions; but this can
fon that mankind have, in all ages, been ſo prone to influence only their degree, and not their nature.
conceive the mind itſelf to be foine ſubtle kind of mat The character of one perſon reſembles that of ano-
ter : That they have been diſpoſed to aſcribe huinan ther only when they both ſpeak andact ſo as to excite
cqual
4 0 2
Α Ν Α
[660]
Α Ν Α
-
nalogy, equal preceptions, or, to ſpeak more ſtrictly, the ſame tion of ſomething compounded, into its original and Analysis.
Analyſis. perception : when they both diſplay vivacity or in conſtituent parts. The word is Greek, and derived
difference, anger or meekneſs, on the ſame occaſions, from ayaauw, to reſolve.
and both excite in the ſoul of the obſerver identical ANALYSIS, in mathematics, is properly the method
perceptions, or rather the ſame perception of vivaci- of reſolving problems by means of algebraical equa-
ty or indifference, of anger or meekneſs. Theſe tions; hence we often find that theſe two words, ana-
identical perceptions, the degree of which will de- lyſis and algebra, are uſed as ſynonymous.
pend much on the diſpoſition of the obſerver's mind, Analyſis, under its preſent improvements, muſt be
muſt have identical cauſes, or, in other words, the allowed the Apex or height of all human learning : it
ſame cauſe; which is the vivacity or indifference,thean. is this method which furniſhes us with the moſt per-
ger or meekneſs, diſplayed by each of theſe characters. fect examples of the art of reaſoning; gives the mind
Every phyſical reſemblance may therefore be redu. an uncommon readineſs at deducing and diſcovering,
ced to one or more equalities; and every moral reſem- from a few data, things unknown; and, by uſing
blance to one or more identities. Wherever there is figns for ideas, preſents things to the imagination,
moral reſemblance there is analogy. Analogy may which otherwiſe ſeenied out of its ſphere : by this,
therefore be reduced to identity, and always ſuppoſes geometrical demonſtrations may be greatly abridged,
compariſon.
and a long ſeries of argumentations, wherein the
Two objects are ſaid to have an analogy to each mind cannot without the utmoſt effort and attention
other, or are called analogous, when fome identity is diſcover the connection of ideas, are hereby conver-
diſcovered upon comparing them. An analogical con ted into ſenſible ſigns, and the ſeveral operatinns re-
clufion, is a concluſion deduced from ſome identity. quired therein effected by the combination of thoſe
The principles of analogy are a compariſon of two ſigns. But, what is more extraordinary, by means
objects, and one or more identities reſulting from of this art, a number of truths are frequently expreſo
their being thus compared. The characters of ana ed by a ſingle line, which, in the common way of
logy are--that two objects be compared that there explaining and demonſtrating things, would fill whole
be one or more identities between theſe objects and volumes. Thus, by mere contemplation of one line
that this is diſcernible only by reaſon or intellect. gle line, whole ſciences may be ſometimes learnt in
Phyſical reſemblance is to the ſenſes what analogy a few minutes time, which otherwiſe could ſcarce be
is to the underſtanding.–The former, when perfect, attained in many years.
becomes equality ; but the latter identity.
ANALYYIS is divided, with regard to its object, in-
Reſemblance and analogy are the foundations both to that of finites and infinites.
of probability and of certainty. When we are not fa ANALISIS of Finite Quantities, is what we otherwiſe
tisfied that the reſemblance or the analogy is com call ſpecious arithmetic or algebra. See AI GEBRA.
plete, we ſtop at probability; which becomes certain ANALISIS of Infinites, called alſo the New Analyſis,
ty when we are, or think we are, aſſured that the re. is particularly uſed for the method of fluxions, or the
ſemblance or the analogy is perfect.
differential calculus. See FLUXIONS.
In reaſoning by analogy, we ſhould be careful not ANALYSIS, in logic, ſignifies the method of tracing
to confound it with reſemblance; and alſo not to de- things backward to their ſource, and of reſolving
duce from the identity or identities, on which the knowledge into its original principles. This is alſo
analogy is founded, a concluſion, which has either no called the method of reforution ; and ſtands oppoſed to
relation, or only a partial relation, to theſe identities. the ſynthetic method, or that of compoſition. The
The principal uſe of analogy in the inveſtigation of art of logical analyſis conſiſts principally in combi-
phyſical and moral truth, according to our author, may ning our perceptions, claſſing them together with ad-
be reduced to the four following: 1. By means of our dreſs, and contriving proper expreſſions for convey-
ſenſes to improve, firſt, our own judgment, and after. ing our thoughts, and repreſenting their ſeveral di.
wards that of others, with reſpeě to intellectual fub- viſions, claſſes, and relations.
jects. 2. To deduce a general from a particular truth. ANALYSIS, in rhetoric, is that which examines the
Having diſcovered and proved the truth of a propo- connections, tropes, figures, and the like, inquiring
ſition with reſpect to any particular object, examine into the propoſition, diviſion, paſſions, arguments, and
whether this truth flows from a quality peculiar to other apparatus of rhetoric.
this fingle object, or conmon to ſeveral objects. In the Several authors, as Freigins and others, have given
latrer caſe all theſe objects may be comprehended un- analyſes of Cicero's Orations, wherein they reduce
derone general idea, founded on their common qua- them to their grammatical and logical principles ;
lity. Subſtitute this general idea inſtead of tbe parti- ftrip them of all the ornaments and additions of rlieto-
cular object, and the propoſition will become general, ric which otherwiſe diſguiſe their true form, and con-
without ceaſing to be true ; becauſe whatever evident- ceal the conneciion between one part and another. The
ly and ſolely reſults from the identity, on which ana- deſign of theſe authors is to have thoſe admired ha-
logy is founded, muſt neceſſarily be truc with reſpect rangues jaft ſuch as the judgment diſpoſed them, with-
to all thoſe objects in which the analogy is the ſame. out the help of imagination ; ſo that here we may
3. To prove the truth or falſehood of propoſitions which coolly view the force of each prool, and admire the
cannot be otherwiſe demonftrated. 4. To diſcover ufe Cicero made of rhetorical figures to conceal the
new truths in both natural and moral philoſophy. weak part of a cauſe.
ANALOGY, among granımarians, is the correſpon A collection has been made of the analyſes formed
dence which a word or phraſe bears to the genius and by the moft celebrated authors of the 16th century, in
received forms of any language.
3 vols. folio.
ANALYSIS, in a general ſenſe, in plies the reſolu ANALYSIS is alſo uſed, in chemiſtry, for the de-
compounding
Α Ν Α
[661]
Α Ν Α
cate.
2
Analytic, compounding of a mixed body, or the ſeparation of the matæ ; Apollonius, de Sectione Rationis, and in his Co- Ananiahon
principles and conſtituent parts of a compounded fub- nics; Ariftæus, de Locis Solidis : and Eratofthenes, de H
Itance.
Mediis Proportionalibus. But the ancient analytics Anamim,
To analyze bodies, or reſolve them into their compo were very different from the modern,
nent parts, is indeed the chief object of the art of che Tothe modern analytics principally belong algebra ;
miſry. Chemiſtry furniſhes ſeveral means for the de an hiſtorical account of which, with the ſeveral au.
compoſition of bodies, which are all founded on the thors thereon, fee under the article ALGEBRA.
differences of the properties belonging to the different ANAMABOA, a populous town in the kingdom
principles of which the body to be analyzed is compof- of Fantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great
ed. If, for example, a body be compoſed of ſeveral cheats, and muſt be carefully looked after in dealing
principles, ſome of which have a great, and others a with them, and their gold well examined, for it is
moderate degree of volatility, and, laſtly, others are commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon of
fixed, its moſt volatile parts may be at firſt ſeparated by an Engliſh caſtle. The landing is pretty difficult on
a gradual heat in diſtilling veſſels; and then the parts account of the rocks; and therefore thoſe that come
which are next in volatility will paſs over in diſtilla here to trade are forced to go alhore in canoes. The
tion; and laſtly, thoſe parts which are fixed, and ca earth here is very proper to make bricks; the oyſters,
pable of reſiſting the action of fire, will remain at when burnt, afford good lime ; and there is timber in
the bottom of the veſſel.
great abundance; ſo that here are all the materials for
ANALYSIS is alſo uſed for a kind of fyllabus, or ta- building. The country at Anamaboa is full of hills,
ble of the principal heads or articles of a continued beginning at a good diſtance from the town, and af-
diſcourſe,diſpoſed in their natural order and dependen- fording a very pleaſant proſpect. Indian corn and
cy. Analyſes are more ſcientifical than alphabetical in- palm-wine are in great plenty. They have a green
dexes; but they are leſs uſed, as being more intri. fruit called papas, as big as a ſmall melon, and which
has a taſte like cauliflower. Anlamaboa is much fre-
ANALYSIS is likewiſe uſed for a brief, but metho. quented by the Engliſh ſhips and others for corn and
dical, illuſtration of the principles of a ſcience; in ſlaves, which laſt are ſometimes to be had in great
in which ſenſe it is nearly fynonymous with what we numbers. The Engliſh fort is built on the foundation
otherwiſe call a fynopſis.
of a large old houſe, which ſubliſted entire in 1679.
ANALYTIC, or ANALYTICAL, ſomething that it is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and forti-
belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of analylis.- fied towards the ſea with two baſtions; the whole of
Thus we ſay, an analytical demonſtration, analytical brick and ſtone cemented with lime. It ſtands
upon
proceſs, analytical table or ſcheme, analytical method rock, at the diance of 30 paces from the ſea. It is
of inveſtigation, &c.
mounted with 12 pieces of cannon and 12 patereroes ;
The analytic method ſtands oppoſed to the fynthe- and defended by a garriſon of 12 whites and 18 blacks,
tic. In natural philoſophy, as in mathematics, the in under the command of the chief factor.
veſtigation of difficult things by the analytic method The natives treat the garriſon of this fort with great
ought to precede the method of conipofition. This a- inſolence, infomuch as often to block them up, and fre-
nalyſis conſiſts in making experiments and obſervati. quently, if they diſlike the governor, ſend him off in
ons, and in drawing general concluſions therefrom by à canoe to Cape Coaſt with marks of the utmoſt con-
induction ; and admitting of no objections againſt the tempt. Far from being able to oppoſe them, the Eng.
concluſions, but ſuch as are drawn from experiments, lifh are glad to obtain their favour with preſents. In
and other certain truths : and though the reaſoning 1701, they declared war againſt the Engliflı; and hav-
from experiments and obſervations by induction be 110 ing aſſembled in a tumultuous manner before the fort,
demonſtration of general concluſions, yet it is the beſt they ſet fire to the exterior buildings, and went on with
method of reaſoning which the nature of things admits their outrages, till they were diſperſed by a diſcharge
of ; and may be esteemed ſo much the ſtronger, as the of the cannon from the batteries. The night following
induction is nore general; and, if no exception occur the Engliſh took their revenge, by ſetting fire to the
from phenomena, the concluſion may be pronounced town of Anam aboa ; and thus hoftilities continued
general
. By this way of analyſis, we may proceed for 20 days, till at laſt the natives were obliged to
froin compounds to their ingredients; from motions to fue for peace. This fort was abandoned in 1733 ; but
the forces producing them; and, in general, froin has been reſumed by the Engliſh, who have continued
effects to their cauſes, and from particular cauſes to in it ever ſince.
more general ones, until we arrive at thoſe which are ANAMELECH, an idol of the Sepharvaites, who
the moſt general. This is the analytic method, ac are ſaid in Scripture to have burned their children in
cording to the illuitrious Newton.
honour of Adrammelech and Ananiele h.--Thefe idols
The ſynthetic method conſiſts in aſſuming the cau- probably fignified the fun and moon. Some of the
ſes diſcovered and received as principles: and by them rabbins repreſent Anamelech under the figure of a
explaining the phenomena proceeding from them, mule, others under that of a quail or pheaſant.
and proving the explanations. See SYNTHESIS. ANAMIM, the fecond ſon of Mizraim (Gen.x. 13.)
ANALYTICS, Analytica, the ſcience and uſe of Anamim, if we may credit the paraphraft Jonathan
analyſis. The great advantage of the modern mathe- the fon of Uzziel, peopled the Mareotis ; or the Pena
matics above the ancient is in point of analytics. tapolis of Cyrene, according to the paraphraft of Je-
Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe- rufaleni. Bochart is of opinion that there anamins
matical Collections, enumerates the authors on the an were the people that dwelt in the parts adjacent to the
cient analytics; being Euclid, in his Data and Porif. temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the Nalamonitis,
Calmer
Α Ν Α
[662]
Α Ν Α
1
Anamor. Calmet thinks the Amanians and Garmantes to be cipality. Anarchy is ſuppoſed to have reigned after Aparrhicas
phoſis deſcended from An'amim.
the deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We
11
ANAMORPHOSIS, in perſpective drawings, is a ſtill find it obtain in ſeveral parts, particularly of Afri-
Anarchy. deformed or diſtorted portrait or figure, generally con ca and America.
fuſed and unintelligible to the common unaffifted view; ANARCHY is alſo applied to certain troubleſome and
but when ſeen at a certain diſtance and height, or disorderly periods, even in governments otherwiſe
as reflected from a plain or curved mirror, will appear regular. In England, the period between the death
regular and in right proportion. See Optics (the of Cromwell and King Charles's reſtoration is com-
Index), and PERSPECTIVE.
monly repreſented as an anarchy. Every month pro-
ANANAS, in botany, the trivial name of a ſpecies duced a new ſcheme or form of government. Enthu-
of bromelia. See BROMELIA.
fiafts talked of nothing but annulling the laws, aboliſh-
ANANCITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured ing all writings, records, and regiſters, and bringing
ſtone, otherwiſe called ſynochitis, celebrated for its all men to the primitive level. No niodern nation is
magical virtue of raiſing the ſhadows of the infernal more ſubject to anarchies than Poland; where every
gods.
interval between the death of one king and the electi-
ANANIAS, a Sadducee, high-prieſt of the Jews, on of another is a perfect picture of confuſion, inſo-
who put to death St James the brother of our Lord, much that it is a proverb among that people, Poland
and was depoſed by Agrippa.
is governed by confufion. The Jewiſh hiſtory preſents
ANANISABTA, or ANANISAPTA, a magical numerous inſtances of anarchies in that ſtate, uſually
word frequently found inſcribed on coins and other denoted by this phraſe, that in thoſe days there was no
amulets, ſuppoſed to have a virtue of preſerving the king in Iſrael, but every man did that which was right in
wearer from the plague.
his own eyes; which a juſt picture of an anarchy.
ANAPÆST, in ancient poetry, a foot conſiſting of ANARRHICAS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiſhes
two ſhort ſyllables and one long : Such is the word of the order of apodes. There is but one ſpecies of
ſcopulos. It is juſt the reverſe of the dactyl.
this genus, viz. the anarrhicas lupus, or ſea.wolf;
ANAPÆSTIC VERSES, thoſe conſiſting wholly or which ſeems to be confined to the northern parts of
chiefly of anapeſts.
the globe. We find it in the ſeas of Greenland ; in
ANAPHE (anc. geog.), an iſland ſpontaneouſly thoſe of Iceland and Norway ; on the coaſts of Scotland
emerging out of the Cretan ſea, near Thera (Pliny, and of Yorkſhire ; and laſtly, in that part of the Ger-
Strabo); now called Nanſio. Its name is from the man ocean which waſhes the ſhores of Holland, the
ſudden appearance of the new inoon to the Argo- moſt ſouthern of its haunts that we can with any cer-
nauts in a ftorm (Apollonius), Anaphaus, an epithet tainty mention.
of Apollo, who was worſhipped there. Anapha, the It is a moſt ravenous and fierce fiſh, and, when ta.
people.
ken, faſtens on any thing within its reach ; the fiſher-
ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, the repetition of the men, dreading its bite, endeavour as ſoon as poſſible
ſame word or words in the beginning of a ſentence or to beat out its fore-teeth, and then kill it by ſtriking
verle: Thus Virgil,
it behind the head. Schonevelde relates, that its bite
Panetiam Arcadia mecum ſi judice certet,
is ſo hard, that it will fieze on an anchor, and leave
the marks of its teeth in it ; and the Daniſh and Ger-
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat ſé judice victum.
man names of ſteenbider and ſteinbeiffer, expreſs the
ANAPHORA, among phyſicians, the throwing off ſenſe of its great ſtrength, as if it was capable of
purulent matter by the mouth.
cruſhing even ſtones with it jaws.
ANAPHRODISIA, ſignifies impotence, or want It feeds almoſt entirely on cruſtaceous animals and
of power to procreate.
See IMPOTENCE.
fhell-fiſh, ſuch as crabs,lobſters, prawns,muſcles, ſcol-
ANAPLASIS, ſignifies the replacing or ſetting a lops, large whelks, &c. theſe it grinds to pieces with
fractured bone.
its teeth, and ſwallows with the leſſer ſhells. It does
ANAPLORETICS, medicines that promote the not appear they are diſſolved in the ſtomach, but are
growth or granulation of the fleſh in wounds, ulcers, voided with the fæces; for which purpoſe the aperture
&c.
of the anus is wider than in other fiſh of the ſame fize.
ANARCHI, Avrpxos, in antiquity, a name given It is full of roe in February, March, and April, and
by the Athenians to four ſupernumerary days in their ſpawns in May and June.
year, during which they had no magiſtrates. The At This fifh has ſo diſagreeable and horrid an appear-
tic year was divided into ten parts, according to the ance that nobody at Scarborough, except the fillier-
number of tribes, to whom the precedency of the fe men, will eat it, and they prefer it to holibut. They
nate fell by turns. Each diviſion conſiſted of 35 days; always, before dreſſing, take of the head and ſkin.
what remained after the expiration of theſe, to make The ſca-wolf grows to a large ſize : thoſe on the
the lunar year complete, which according to their com- Yorkſhire coaſt are ſometimes found of the length of
putation conſiſted of 354 days, were employed in the four feet ; according to Dr Gronovius, they have been
creation of magiſtrates, and called evæp xoon peper and taken near Shetland ſeven feet long, and even more.
«PX CEPETYOT.
The head is a little flatted on the top; the noſe blunt;
ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation, the noſtrils are very ſmall; the eyes ſmall, and placed
where no fupreme authority is lodged, either in the near the end of the noſe.
prince or other rulers ; but the people live at large, The teeth are very remarkable, and finely adapted
and all things are in confuſion. The word is derived to its way of life. The fore-teeth are ſtrong, conical,
from the Greek privative «, and 29x4, command prin diverging a little from each other, ſtand far out of the
jaws,
Α Ν Α
( 663 )
Α Ν Α
3
Anaropia, jaws, and are commonly fix above and the ſame below, bous at the baſe and broad at the apex : the tongue is Anas.
Anas. though ſometimes they are only five in each jaw: theſe obtuſe and fleſhy; the feet are webbed and fitted for
are ſupported within-ſide by a row of leiſer teeth, ſwimnining. The ſpecies are,
which makes the number in the upper jaw 1 7 or 18, in 1. The cygnus, ferus & manſuetus.
the lower II or 12. The ſides of the under jaw are The
ferus, with a ſemicylindrical black bill, yel-
convex inwards, which greatly adds to their ſtrength, low wax, and a white body, is the whitling or wild
and at the ſame time allows room for the large muſcles ſwan of Engliſh authors, and is leſs than the tane or
with which the head of this filh is furniſhed. The mute ſpecies, being about five feet in length. Theſe
dentes molares, or grinding-teeth of the under jaw, birds inhabit the northern world as high as Iceland,
are higher on the outer than the inner edges, which and as low as the ſoft climate of Greece or of Lydia,
inclines their ſurfaces inward : they join to the ca the modern Anatolia, in Aſia Minor: it even deſcends
nine teeth in that jaw, but in the upper are ſeparate as low as Egypt. They ſwarm, during ſummer, in
from them. In the centre are two rows of flat ſtrong the great lakes and marſhes of the Tartarian and Si-
teeth fixed on an oblong baſis upon the bones of the berian deſarts; and reſort in great numbers to winter
palate and noſe.
about the Caſpian and Euxine ſeas. Thoſe of the
The teeth of the anarrhicas are often found foſſil ; eaſtern parts of Siberia retire beyond Kamtſchatka,
and in that ſtate called bufonites, or toad-fones: theſe either to the coaſts of America, or to the iſles north
were forinerly much eſteemed for their imaginary of Japan. In Siberia they ſpread far north, but not
virtues, and were ſet in gold, and worn as rings. to the Arctic circle. They arrive in Hudſon's Bay
The two bones that form the under jaw are united about the end of May, where they breed in great
before by a looſe cartilage ; which mechaniſm admit numbers on the ſhores, in the iſlands, and in the inland
ting of a motion from ſide to ſide, moſt evidently con lakes; but all retire to the ſouthern parts of North-
tributes to the deſign of the whole, viz. a facility of America in autumn, even as low as Carolina and Loui-
breaking, grinding, and comminuling, its teſtaceous ſiana. In Carolina they are ſaid to be of two forts;
and cruſtaceous, food. At the entrance of the gullet, the larger, called from its note the Trumpeter, arrive
above and below, are two echinated bones: theſe are in great flocks to the freſh rivers in winter, and in Fe.
very ſmall, being the leſs neceſſary, as the food is in a bruary retire to the great lakes to breed : the leſſer
great meaſure comminuted in the mouth by aid of the are called Hoopers, and frequent moſtly the ſalt water.
grinders.
The Indians of Louiſiana wear the ſkins, with the
The body is long, and a little compreſſed fidewiſe; down attached to them, ſewed together by way of co-
the ſkin ſinooth and ſlippery : it wants the lateral line. vering; and of the larger feathers they make diadenis
The pectoral fins conſiſt of 18 rays. The dorſal fin for their chiefs, as well as weave the ſmaller on
extends from the hind-part of the head almoſt to the threads, as barbers do for their wigs, with which they
tail ; the rays in the freſh fish are not viſible. The anal cover garments, which are worn only by women of
fin extends as far as the dorſal fin. The tail is round the higheſt rank. In Auguſt theſe birds loſe their
at its end, and conſiſts of 13 rays. The ſides, back,
The ſides, back, feathers, and are not able to fly; when the natives
and fins, are of a livid lead colour ; the two firſt mark of Iceland and Kamtſchatka hunt them with dogs,
&d downwards with irregular obſcure duſky lines: tlieſe which catch them by the neck, and eaſily ſecure their
in different fiſh have different appearances. The young prey. In the laſt place they are alſo killed with clubs.
are of a greeniſh caſt,reſembling the ſea-wreck,amongſt the eggs are accounted good food; and the fleſh, ef-
which they refide for ſome time after their birth. pecially that of the young, is much eſteemed by the
ANARROPIA, among phyſicians, a tendency of inhabitants. The uſes of the feathers are manifeſt
the humours to the head or ſuperior parts.
to every one ; and the ſkins of the body are worn by
ANAS (anc. geog.), a river of Spain, riſing in the inbabitants ; beſides which, that of the legs, tak-
the territory of Laminium, of the Hither Spain, and en off whole, is uſed for purſes, and appears not un-
now ſpreading into lakes, again reſtraining its waters, like ſhagreen. Wild ſwans, Linnæus fays, frequent-
or, burrowing itſelf entirely in the earth, is pleaſed ly viſit Sweden after a thaw, and are caught with ap-
often to reappear; it pours into the Atlantic (Pliny); ples in which a hook is concealed. The wild ſwan
now Guadiana, riſing in the ſouth-eaſt of New-Caf- frequents the coaſts of Great Britain, in hard winters,
tile, in a diftri&t commonly called Campo de Montiel, in large flocks, but does not breed there. Martin ac Defoript.
not far from the mountain Conſuegra, from the lakes quaints us, that ſwans come in October in great num- Weft
. Ifles,
called las Lagunas de Guadiana, and then it is called ber to Lingey, one of the Weſtern iſles ; and conti- 71,
Rio Roydera; and, after a courſe of fix leagues, bury nue there till March, when they return northward to
ing itſelf in the earth for a league, it then riſes up breed. A few continue in Mainland, one of the Ork.
again from three lakes, calledºlos Ojos de Guadiana, neys, and breed in the little itles of the freſh-water
near the village Villa Harta, five leagues to the north lochs: but the multitude retires at the approach of
of Calatrava, and directs its courſe weſtward through ſpring. On that account, ſwans are there the coun-
New Caſtilé, by Medelin, Merida, and Badajox, tryman’s almanack: on their quitting the iſle, they
where it begins to bend ils courſe fouthwards, be- preſage good weather ; on their arrival, they an-
tween Portugal and Andaluſia, falling into the bay nounce bad. Theſe, as well as moſt other water-
of Cadiz near Ayamonte.
fowl, prefer, for the purpoſe of incubation, thoſe places
ANAS, in orinthology, a genus of birds belonging that are leaſt frequented by mankind : accordingly
to the order of anſeres. The beak of this genus is a we find that the laies and foreſts of the diſtant Lap-
little obtufe, covered with an epidermis or ſkin, gib. land are filled during ſummer with myriads of water-
fowl;
Α Ν Α
[ 664 I
Α Ν Α
Ants.
Agas. fowl; and there fwans, geeſe, the duck-tribe, goofan B, The manfuetus, or mate ſwan, is the largeſt of
ders, divers, &c. paſs that leaſon ; but in autumn re the Britiſlı birds. It is diſtinguiſhed externally from
turn to other, more hoſpitable, thores.
the wild ſwan ; firſt, by its ſize, being much larger ;
This ſpecies has ſeveral diſtinctions from the ſpecies ſecondly, by its bill, which in this is red, and the tip
which in Britain is called the tame ſwan. In Ruffia and lides black, and the ſkin between the eyes and bill
this ſpecies more fitly claims the name, it being the is of the faine colour. Over the baſe of the upper man-
kind moſt commonly tamed in that empire. The dible, projects a black callous knob; the whole plu-
whiſtling ſwan carries its neck quite erect, the other mage, in old birds,is white ; in young ones, alh-colour-
ſwims with it arched. This is far inferior in fize. ed till the ſecond year : the legs are duſky ; but Dr
This has twelve ribs on a fide, the mute only eleven. Plott mentiuns a variety found on the Trent near Ru-
But the moſt remarkable is the ſtrange figure of the gely, with red legs.
windpipe; which falls into the cheſt, then turns back The ſwan is found wild in Ruſſia and Siberia, moſt
like a truinpet, and afterwards makes a ſecond bend to plentiful in the laſt. It arrives later from the ſouth,
join the lungs. Thus it is enabled to utter a loud and and does not ſpread ſo far north, Thoſe about the
ihrill note. The other ſwan, on the contrary, is the ſouthern part of the Caſpian Sea are very large, and
moſt ſilent of birds: it can do nothing more than hiſs, much eſteemed for the uſe of the table. The ſwan is
which it does on receiving any provocation. The held in higli veneration by the Mahometans. It is a
vocal kind enits its loud notes only when flying or very ſtrong bird, and ſometimes exceeding fierce: has
calling. Its ſound is, whooh, whooh, very loud and not unfrequently been known to throw down and
thrill, but not diſagreeable, when beard far above one's trample under feet youths of fifteen or fixteen years
head and modulated by the winds. The natives of of age, and an old one to break the leg of a man with
Iceland compare it to the notes of a violin. In fact, a ſtroke of the wings. It is ſaid to be very long-lived,
they hear it (ſays Mr Pennant) at the end of their and frequently to arrive at the hundredth year. The
long and gloomy winter ; when the return of the young are not perfect in plumage till the ſecond year.
ſwans announces the return of ſummer; every note The ſwan lays the firſt egg in February, and conti.
muſt be therefore melodious which preſages the ſpeedy nues laying every other day to the amount of ſix, ſe-
thaw, and the releaſe from their tedious confinement. ven, or eight eggs; theſe it places on a bed of graſs
It is from this fpecies alone that the ancients have near the water, and fits ſix weeks. It feeds on both
given the fable of the ſwan being endued with the fiſh and herbage.
powers of melody. Embracing the Pythagorean doc No bird, perhaps, makes ſo inelegant a figure out
trine, they made the body of this bird the manſion of of the water, or has the command of ſuch beautiful
the ſouls of departed poeis ; and after that, attributed attitudes on that element, as the ſwan : almoſt cvery
to the birds the fame faculty of harmony which their poet has taken notice of it; but none with that juſt-
inmates poffefled in a pre-exiſtent ſtate. The vulgar, nefs of deſcription, and in ſo picureſque a manner,
not diſtinguiſhing between ſweetneſs of numbers and as Milcon :
melody of voice, thought that real which was only
The ſwan, with arched neck
intended figuratively. The mute ſwan, Mr Pennant Between her white wings mantling, proudly rows.
han
obſerves, never frequents the Padus, nor is ever ſeen Her ſtate with oary feet. Par, Lof, B, vii.
on the Cayſer in Lydia ; each of them ſtreains cele. In for mer times, it was ſerved upat everygreat feaſt,
brated by the poets for the great reſort of ſwans. when the elegance of the table was meaſured by the
In time, a ſwan became a common trope for a bard. ſize and quantity of the good cheer. Cygnets are to
Horace calls Pindar Dirtæum Cygnum; and in one ode this day fattened at Norwich about Chriſtmas, and are
even ſuppoſes himſelf changed into a fwan. Virgil fold for a guinea a-piece.
ſpeaks of his poetical brethren in the ſame manner : Swans were formerly held in ſuch great eſteein in
Vare, tuum nomen
England, that by an act of Edward IV.c. 6. « no one
Cantantes fublime ferent ad fidera cygni. Eclog.ix. that poſſeſſed a freehold of leſs clear yearly value than
When he ſpeaks of them figuratively, he aſcribes to five marks, was permitted to keep any, other than the
them melody, or the power of muſic; but when he Jon of our ſovereign lord; the king." And by the eleventh
talks of them as birds, he lays aſide fiction, and, like of Henry VII. c. 17. the puniſhment for taking their
a true naturaliſt, gives them their real note:
eggs was impriſonment for a year and a day, and a
Dant fonitum rauci per ſtagna loquacia cygni. fine at the king's will. Though at preſent they are
Æn. Lib. xi. 458. not ſo highly valued as a delicacy, yet great numbers
It was alſo a popular opinion among the ancients, are preſerved for their beauty; multitudes are to be
that the ſwan foretold its own end. To explain this, ſeen on the Thames and Trent, but no where greater
we muſt conſider the twofold character of the poet, numbers than the falt-water inlet of the ſea near Ab-
vates and poeta, which the fable of the tranſmigration botſbury in Dorſetſhire.
continues to the bird, or they might be ſuppoſed to 2. The cygnoides, with a ſemicylindrical bill, gib-
derive that faculty from Apollo their patron deity, the bous wax, and tumid eye-brows. It is the ſwan-gooſe
god of prophecy and divination,
of Ray, from Guinea. There is likewiſe a variety of
As to their being ſuppoſed to ſing more ſweetly at this ſpecies, of a leſs fize, called the goofe of Muſcovy.
the approach of death, the cauſe is beautifully explain. They are found wild about the Lake Baikal in the.
ed by Plato, who attributes that unuſual melody to eaſt of Siberia, and in Kamtſchatka. They are alſo
the fanie fort of ecſtaſy that good men are ſometimes kept tame in moſt parts of the Ruſſian empire. Theſe
faid to enjoy at that awful hour, foreſeeing the joys birds likewiſe inhabit China, and are common at the
that are preparing for them on patting off mortality. Cape of Good Hope. This is no doubt the ſpecies
inentioned
22
Α Ν Α
[ 665 )
Α Ν Α
Anas.
mentioned by Kolben, called crop-gooſe; who ſays, that the baſe, a black feathery carina, and a hoary head. Anas.
the ſailors inake tobacco-pouches and purſes of the It is the grey-headed duck of Edwards, and the king-
nieinbrane which hangs beneath the throat, as it is duck of Pennant. This beautiful ſpecies is found aç
ſufficiently tough for ſuch purpoſes, and will hold two Hudſon's
Bay, at Churchill River, and (though ſcarce)
pounds of tobacco.
at York Fort ; in winter it is met with as far fouth as
They are fufficiently common in Britain, and rea New-York. It is pretty frequent in the north of Si-
dily mix with the common gooſe ; the breeds uniting beria and Kamtſchatka ; it is found alſo on the coaſt
as freely, and continuing to produce as certainly, as if of Norway, and has been killed in the Orkneys. It is
no ſuch mixture had taken place. They are much common in Greenland ; where the fleſh is accounted
more noiſy than the common tame geeſe, taking alarm excellent, and the crude gibbous part of the billa great
at the leaſt noiſe; and even without diſturbance will delicacy. It produces a down equally valuable as the
emit their harſh and diſagreeable ſcream the whole day eider. The ſkins are fewed together, and make warm
through. They walk very erect, with the neck much garments. The natives kill them with darts, and uſe
elevated ; and as they bear a middle line between that the following method to ſucceed ;-A number of menz
of the ſwan and gooſe, they have not improperly been in canoes falling in with a flock while ſwiming, on a
called fwan-geefe.
ſudden ſet up a ſhouting, making as much noiſe as they
3. The tadorna, or ſhelldrake, has a flat bill, a com can ; on which, the birds being too much frightened
preſſed forehead, a greeniſh black head, and the body to fly away, dive under the water ; but as the place at
is variegated with white. This ſpecies is found as far which they are to riſe again is known by the bubbling
as Iceland to the north. It viſits Sweden and the Ork of the water above, the hunters follow them up as cloſe
neys in the winter, and returns in ſpring. It is found in as may be ; and after acting this three or four times
Alia about the Caſpian Sea, and all the ſalt lakes of over, the birds become ſo fatigued as to be eaſily kill-
the Tartarian and Siberian deſarts, as well as in Kant- ed.--Tlis ſpecies builds on the ſides of ponds and ri.
ſchatka. Late voyagers, if right in the ſpecies, have vers, making its neſt of ſticks and moſs, and lining it
alſo met with it at Falkland Iles and Van Diemen’s with feathers from the breaſt. It lays four or five
Land. It breeds in deſerted rabbit holes, or occupies whitiſh eggs, as large as thoſe of the gooſe. The
them in the abſence of the owners, who, rather than young fly in July. The food conſiſts chiefly of worms
make an attempt at diſlodging the intruders, form and graſs.
others; though, in defect of ready-made quarters, 5. The fufca, or velvet duck; is of a blackih colour,
theſe birds will frequently dig holes for themſelves. has a white ſpot behind the eyes, and a white line on
They lay fifteen or ſixteen roundiſh white eggs. Theſe the wings. The male of this ſpecies is diſtinguiſhed
are placed at the farther end of the hole, covered with by a gibboſity at the baſe of the bill. It is the black
down ſupplied from the breaſt of the female, who ſits duck of Ray, and is in length about 20 inches. This
about 30 days. She is very careful of her young, and ſpecies frequents Hudſon's Bay in ſummer, where it
will often carry them from place to place in her bill: breeds. The neſt is compoſed of graſs ; in which it
“ This we are certain of (ſays Mr Lacham), from a lays from four to fix white eggs, and hatches in July,
young one having been dropt at the foot of an intelli- It feeds on graſs, and is known by the names of cus
gent friend rt, by the mother flying over his culi qua tum. It retires fouth in winter : when it is
head.” When a perſon attempts to take their young, frequently ſeen as far ſouth as New-York. Late
the old birds ſhow great addreſs in diverting his at- navigators met with it at Aoonalaſhka. It is now and
tention from the brood: they will fly along the ground then ſeen on the coaſts of England, but is not com-
as if wounded, till the former are got into a place of It is more frequent on the continent, inhabit-
ſecurity, and then return and collect them together. ing Denmark and Rullia. In ſome parts of Siberia it
From this inſtinctive cunning, Turner, with good rea very common ; and it enters the liſt of thoſe found
ſon, imagines them to be the chenalopex or fox.gooſe, at Kamtſchatka. In breeding-time, it goes far inland
of the ancients. The natives of the Orkneys to this to lay the eggs; which are eight or ten in number,
day call them the py-goofe, from an attribute of that and white. After the ſeaſon is over, the males are
quadruped.
ſaid to depart; the females ſtaying behind till the young
The young, as ſoon as hatched, take to the water, are able to fly, when the two laſt go
likewiſe off, but
and ſwim ſurpriſingly well; but do not come to their to what part is not certain. It is in great plenty at
full plumage till the ſecond year. This ſpecies, Mr Ochotſka, eſpecially about the equinox. Fifty or
Latham informsus,may be hatched under a tame duck, more of the natives go in boats and ſurround the whole
and the young readily brought up; but are apt, after a flock, driving them into the flood of the river Ochot-
few years, to attempt the maſtery over the reſt of the ſka ; and, as ſoon as it ebbs, the whole company fall
poultry. In a ſtate of nature their food ſeems chiefly on them at once with clubs, and often knock ſo many
to be ſmall filh, marine inſects, and ſhells ; herbage has of them on the head that each man hias 20 or 30 for
likewiſe been found in their ſtomachs. In a tame ſtate his ſhare.
will eat bread, grain, and greens. Their great beauty 6. The nigra, or ſcoter, is totally black, and has a
would tempt us to endeavourat domeſticating the race; gibboſity at the baſe of the bill; the tail reſembles a
but it will not thrive completely, except in the neigh- wedge; the female is browniſh. It is the lefſer black
bourhood of falt water, which ſomehow ſeems effen- diver of Ray, and meaſures in length 22 inches. Theſe
tial to its well-being. The fleſh likewiſe is rank and birds are found on the northern coaſts of England and
unſavoury, though the eggs have at all times been thoſe of Scotland in the winter ſeaſon ; but no where
thought very good.
fo coinmon as on the Fierch coaſts, where they are
4. The ſpectabilis, has a compreſſed bill, gibbous at feen in prodigious numbers from November to March,
VOL. I.
4 P
eſpecially
mon.
Α Ν Α
[ 666 ]
AN A
1
Aans.
Anas.
eſpecially if the wind be to the north or north-weſt. the other, which it keeps poffeffion of during the time
Their chief food is a glaſſy bivalve ſhell, near an inch of ſitting. A perſon called a gozzard, i. e. gooſe-herd,
long, called by the French vaimeaux. Theſe they are attends the flock, and twice a-day drives the whole to
perpetually diving after, frequently to the depth of water ; then brings them back to their habitations,help-
ſome fathoms; and an uſual method of catching them ing thoſe that live in the upper ſtories to their neſts,
is by placing nets under the water in ſuch places as without ever miſplacing a ſingle bird. The geeſe are
the fiells are moſt numerous ; by 'which means 30 or plucked five times in the year: the firſt placking is at
-40 dozen of them have been taken in one tide. The Lady-day, for feathers and quills; the ſame is renew-
day ſeems to be ſpent by theſe birds between diving ed, for feathers only, four times more between that
and flying to ſmall diſtances over the water, which it and Michaelmas. The old geeſe ſubmit quietly to the
does lo low as frequently to dip the legs therein. It operation, but the young ones are very noiſy and un-
ſwallows the food whole, and ſoon digeſts the thells, ruly. If the ſeaſon proves cold, numbers of them die
which are found quite crumbled to powder among the by this barbarous cufloni. Vaſt numbers of geeſe are
excrements, It has been kept tame for ſome time, driven annually to London, to ſupply the markets ;
and will feed on ſoaked bread. The fleſh tartes filhy among them, all the ſuperannuated geeſe and ganders,
to an extreme ; on which account is allowed by the which, by a long courſe of plucking, prove uncoin-
Roman-Catholics to be eaten on faſt days and in lent; monly tough and dry,
and indeed muſt be a ſufficient mortification. Theſe The gooſe in general breeds only once in a year ;
birds abound in allthe northern parts of the continent, but will frequently have two hatches in a ſeaſon, if
Lapland, Sweden, Norway, and Ruſſia; and are found well kept. The time of fitting is about 30 days. They
in great plenty on the great lakes and rivers of the will alſo produce eggs ſufficient for three broods, if
north and eaſt of Siberia, as well as on the ſea ſhores. they are taken away in ſucceſſion. It is ſaid to be ve-
It likewiſe inhabits North-America ; being met with ry long-lived, as we have authority for their arriving
at New-York; and in all probability much more to
at no leſs than 1oo years.
the north on this continent and that of Aſia, Oſbeck 8. The bean-gonfe is two feet ſeven inches in length;
having met with them in 30 and 34 degrees ſouth la in extent four feet eleven. The bill, which is the chief
titude, between the iſland of Java and St Paul, in the diſtinction between this and the former, is ſmall, much
month of June.
compreſſed near the end, whitiſh, and ſomewhat pale
7. The anſer, feres et manfuetus ; or gray lag, and red in the middle, and black at the baſe and nail : the
fame gooſe. The grey lag or wild goofe, is two feet head and neck are cinereous brown, tinged with ferru.
nine inches in length, and five feet in extent. ginous; breaſt and belly dirty white, clouded with ci-
bill is large and elevated ; of a fleſh colour, tinged with nereous; the back of a pale aſh colour ; feet and legs
yellow; the head and neck cinereous ; breaſt and bel of a ſaffron colour : claws black. This ſpecies arrives
ly whitiſh, clouded with grey or afh colour ; back, in Lincolnſhire in autumn ; andis called the bean-gooſe,
grey; the legs of a fleſh colour. This ſpecies reſides from the likeneſs of the nail of the bill to a horſe-bean.
in the fens the whole year ; breeds there, and hatches They always lighton corn-fields, and feed much on the
about eight or nine young, which are often taken, ea green wheat. They never breed in the fens ; but all
fily tamed, and eſteemed moſt excellent meat, fuperior diſappear in May. They retreat to the fequeftered
to the domeſtic gooſe. Towards winter they collect wilds of the north of Europe ; in their migration they
in great flocks, but in all ſeaſons live and feed in the fly a great height, cackling as they go. They preſerve
fens. On the continent they are migratory, changing a great regularity in their motions; ſometimes forming
place in large flocks, often 500 or more : in this caſe, a ſtraight line; atiothers, aſſuming the ſhape ofa wedge,
the fiock is triangular in ſhape, with one point fore which facilitates their progreſs, for they cut the air
moſt; and as the gooſe which is firſt is tired ſooneſt, readier in that form than if they flew pell-mell.
it has been ſeen to drop behind, and another to take 9. The erythropus, or laughing goole of Edwards,
his place. In very finall flocks, however, they are is a native of Europe and America. The length of
ſometimes ſeen to follow one another in a direct line. this ſpecies is about two feet four, the extent four feet
Geeſe ſeein to be general inhabitants of the globe. fix; the billis elevated, of a pale yellow colour, with a
The manfuetus, is the grey lag iri a ſtate of dome white ring at the baſe; the forehead is white; the
ítication, and from which it varies in colour, though breaſt and belly are of a dirty white, marked with great
much leſs ſo than either the mallard or cock, being ſpots of black; and the legs yellow. Theſe viſit the
ever more or leſs verging to grey ; though in all caſes fens and other parts of England during winter, in ſmall
the whiteneſs of the vent, and upper tail coverts,is ma flocks; they keep always in marſhy places, and never
nifeſt. It is frequently found quite white, eſpecially frequent the corn-lands. They diſappear in the ear-
the males ; and doubts have ariſen, which of the two lieft ſpring, and none are ſeen after the middle of
colours ſhould have the preference in point of eating.- March. Linnæus makes this gooſe the female of the
Tame geeſe are kept in great multitudes in the fens of bernacle ; but Mr Pennant thinks his opinion not well
Lincolnſhire, in England ; a ſingle perſon will have founded.
1000 old geeſe, each of which will rear ſeven ; ſo that The bernacle (erythropus mas Lin.) is two feet one
towards the end of the ſeaſon he will become poſſeſſed inch in length, the breadth four feet five inches: the
of 8000. During the breeding-feaſon theſe birds are billis black;the forehead and cheeks are whitc; from
lodged in the fame houſes with the inhabitants, and the bill to the eyes, there is a black line ; the hind
even in their very bed-chambers : in every apartment part of the head, the whole neck, and upper part of the
are three rows of coarſe wicker pens, placed one above breaſt and back, are of a deep black; the tail is black,
another; each bird has its ſeperate lodge divided from the legs are of the ſame colour, and ſmall. Theſe birds
appear
ANA
[ 667 ]
Α Ν Α
Auza
Anas. appear in vaft flocks during winter, on the north-weſt dle of October, when they depart for the ſouth, and
coaſts of Great-Britain ; they are very hy and wild; are obſerved to be attended with their young, in flocks
but on being taken, grow in a few days as familiar as innumerable. At this time many thouſands are killed
the tame geeſe. In February they retire as far as Lap- by the inhabitants; who pluck them, and take out the
land, Greenland, and even Spitzbergen, to breed. entrails, and putting the bodies into holes dug in the
They live to a great age: the Rev. Dr Buckworth of ground cover them with earth, which freezing above
Spalding, had one which was kept in the family above them, keeps them perfectly fweet throughout the ſe-
32 years, but was blind during the two laſt; what its vere ſeaſoni; during which there is no more to do than
age was when firſt taken, was unknown.
occaſionally to open one of thoſe ſtorehouſes, when they
Theſe are the birds that about 200 years ago were
find them ſweet and good. They ſeem to occupy alſo
believed to be generated out of wood, or rather a ſpe- the weſtern ſide of America. In the ſummer months,
cies of lhell that is often found ſticking to the bottoms they are plenty on the arctic coaſt of Siberia, but ne-
of ſhips, or fragments of them; and were called tree ver migrate beyond longitude 130. They are ſuppoſed
* Sec Lepas.geefe*. Theſe were alſo thought by ſome writers to to paſs the winter in more moderate climes, as they
have been the chenalopeces of Pliny ; they ſhould have have been ſeen flying at a great height over Sileſia;
ſaid chenerotes, for thoſe were the birds which that na probably on their paſſage to ſome other country, as it
turaliſt ſaid were found in Britain : but as he has ſcarce does not appear that they continue there. In like mane '
left us any deſcription of them, it is difficult to ſay ner, thoſe of America paſs the winter in Carolina.
which ſpecies he intended. Mr Pennant imagines it Here they arrive in vaſt Hocks; and feed on the roots
to be the following; which is far inferior in ſize to the of fage and graſs, which they tear up like hogs. It
wild-gooſe, and very delicate food, in both reſpects uſed to be a common practice in that country to burn
ſuiting his deſcription of the cheneros.
a piece of a marſ, which enticed the geeſe to come
10. The race-horle or loggerhead gooſe, is in length there, as they could then more readily get at the roots,
32 inches, and weighs from 20 to žo pounds. The which gave the ſportſman opportunity of killing as ma-
bill is three inches long, and of an orange colour: the ny as he pleaſed. This ſpecies is the moſt numerous
irides are orange, ſurrounded with black, and then and the moſt ſtupid of all the gooſe race. They ſeem
with orange: the head, neck, and upper parts of the to want the inſtinct of others, by their arriving at the
body are of a deep afh-colour; the outer edge of the mouths of the Arctic Aſiatic rivers before the ſeaſon
ſecondaries white, forming a band of the ſame on the in which they can poſſibly ſublift. They are annually
wing: the under parts of the body duſky down the guilty of the fame miſtake, and annually compelled to
middle; over the thighs cinereous blue; vent white; make a new migration to the ſouth in queſt of food,
quills and tail black: the wings are very ſhort, not where they paſs their time till the northern eſtuaries
reaching to the rump: on the bend of the wing is a are freed from the bonds of ice. They have ſo little
yellow knob, half an inch in length; the legs are of the ſhyneſs of other geeſe, that they are taken il
browniſh orange, the webs duſky, and the claws black. the moſt ridiculous manner imaginable about Jakut,
Theſe inhabit Falkland Iſlands, Staaten Land,&c. and and the other parts of Siberia, which they frequent.
were moſtly ſeen in pairs, though ſometimes they were The inhabitants firſt place, near the banks of the ri-
obferved in large flocks. From the ſhortneſs of their vers, a great net, in a ſtraight line, or elſe form a ho-
wings they were unable to fly; but they made confi. vel of ſkins fewed together. This done, one of the
derable uſe of them when in the water, on which they company dreſſes himſelf in the ſkins of a white rein .
ſeemed as it were to run, at leaſt they ſwam, with the deer, advances towards the flock of geeſe, and then
aſſiſtance of the wings uſed as oars, at an incredible turns back towards the net or the hovel; and his com-
rate, inſomuch that it was a moſt difficult thing to ſhoot panions go behind the flock, and by making a noiſe
them while on that element: to catch them, the ſai. drive them forward.
drive them forward. The ſimple birds miſtake the
lors uſed to ſurround a flock with boats, and drive them man in white for their leader, and follow him within
on ſhore; where, unable to raiſe themſelves from the reach of the net, which is ſuddenly pulled down and
ground, they ran very faſt, but foon growing tired, captivates the whole. When he chooſes to conduct
and ſquatting down to reſt, were readily overtaken, them to the hovel, they follow in the ſame manner; he
and knocked on the head. Their fleſh was ſometimes creeps in at a holé left for that purpoſe, and out at ano-
eaten by the failors, in defect of that of the buſtard ther on the oppoſite ſide, which he cloſes up. The
gooſe; but it was not much reliſhed, being rank and geeſe follow him through the firſt; and as ſoon as they
fiſhy, and thought more fit for the hogs, which ate it are got in, he paſſes round, and ſecures every one.
greedily, and fatted well upon it, boiled.
12. The great gooſe is of a very large ſize, weigh-
II. The ſnow-gooſe is in length two feet eightinch- ing near 25 or 30 Rutlian pounds. The bill is black;
es, and weighis between five and fix pounds. The bill baſe of it tawny: body duſky; the under parts are
is ſomewhat ſerrated at the edges : the upper mandible white; the legs ſcarlet. It is found on the eaſt of Si-
ſcarlet, the lower whitish : the general colour of the beria, from the river Lena to Kamtſchatka; and is
plumage is ſnow white,exceplthe firſt ten quills, which taken in great numbers.
are black, with white ſhafts : the legs are of a deep The ruficolis, or red-breaſted gooſe, is in length
red. The young are of a blue colour, till they are a 21 inches; weight three pounds troy. The bill is
year old. Theſe are very numerous at Hudſon's-Bay, ſmall and brown; the tail black; the irides are yel-
and called by the natives Way-way and Wapa whe whe. low brown; round the eyes fringed with brown; fore
They viſit Severn River in May, and ſtay a fortnight; part of the head and crown black, paſſing backwards
but
go farther north to breed : they return to Severn- in a narrow ſtripe quite to the back; on the breaſt is
Fort the beginning of September, and ſtay to the mid a narrow band of white feathers with black ends form-
4 P 2
ing
th,
Α Ν Α
( 668 ]
Α Ν Α
Anas.
Anas. ing a band of white and another of black : the ſides They eaſily become tame; and, being fatted, are
are ſtriped with black: back and wings black, the laſt thought to be a delicate food. They breed pretty far
even with the tail: legs black. This moſt elegant of north, returning ſouthward in autumn. They fly in the
geeſe is found to breed from the mouth of the Ob, along lhape of a wedge, like the wild geeſe, with great cla-
the coaſts of the Icy ſea, to that of the Lena. Its mour. They are called in Shetland, Horra geefe, from
winter quarters are not certainly known. Small flocks being found in that found. They are common alſo in
are obſerved in the ſpring flying from the Caſpian ſea America: breeding in the iſlands, and along the coaſt,
along the Volga northward'; and are ſeen about Zari- and feed about high-water mark. Their food conſists
zyn, between the ſixth and tenth of April. They reſt of plants, ſuch as the ſmall biſtort, and black-berried
a little time on the banks of the Sarpa, but ſoon re- heath, ſea-worms, berries, and the like. They are
ſume their arctic courſe. Their winter retreat is pro- apt to have a fiſhy tafte, but are in general thought
bably in Perſia. They are highly eſteemned for the ta good food. The ſame fable has been told of this bird
ble, being quite free from any fiſhy taſte.
as of the bernacle, in reſpect to its being bred from
14. The cafarca, or ruddy-gooſe, is larger than a trees. Called at Hudſon's-Bay, Wetha may pa wew.
mallard, and ſeems even larger than it really is, from 16. The canadenſis is brown; its head and neck are
the length of wing, and ſtanding high on its legs. The black, and the throat is white. It meaſures three and an
billis black: the irides are yellowiſh brown: forehead, half feet in length. It is found during the ſummer in
cheeks, and throat, yellowiſh: fore part of the neck Hudſou’s-Bay, and parts beyond; alſo in Greenland;
ferruginous, encircled with a collar of black, inclining and, in the ſummer months, in various parts of North
to deep rufous on the throat: the breaſt and fide are America, as far as Carolina. Numbers breed at Hud.
pale rufous; the belly is obſcure: the back is pale ; fon's-Bay, and lay fix or ſeven eggs; but the major
the lower part is undulated, hoary, and brown, not ve part retire ſtill farther north. Their firſt appearance
ry diſtinct; the rump and tail are greeniſh black; the in the Bay is from about the middle of April to about
legs long and black. This ſpecies is found in all the the middle of May, when the inhabitants wait for thom
fouthern parts of Ruſſia and Siberia in plenty. In win- with impatience, being one of the chief articles for
ter it migrates into India, and returns northward in food, and many years kill 3000 or 4000, which are
ſpring. It makes the neſt in the craggy banks of the falted and barrelled. Their arrival is the harbinger
Wolga and other rivers, or in the hollows of the de- of ſpring, and the month is named by the Indians the
ſerted hillocks of marmors; making it after the man- gooſe-moon. The Britiſh ſend out their ſervants, as well
ner of the ſhelldrake, and is ſaid to form burrows for as Indians, to ſhoot theſe birds on their paſſage. It is
itſelf in the manner of that bird. It has been known in vain to purſue them ; they therefore form a row of
alſo to lay in a hollow tree, lining the neſt with its own huts made of boughs, at muſket-ſhot diſtance from each
feathers. It is monogamous: the male and female fit other, and place them in a line acroſs the vaſt marſhes
in turns.
The eggs are like thoſe of the common of the country. Each hovel,or, as they are called, ſtand,
duck. When the young come forth, the mother will is occupied by only a lingle perſon. Theſe attend the
often carry them from the place of hatching to the wa- flight of the birds, and on their approach mimic their
ter with her bill. They have been attempted to be do- cackle ſo well, that the geeſe will anſwer, and wheel,
meſticated, by rearing the young under tame ducks; and come nearer the ſtand. The ſportſman keeps mo-
but without fuccefs, as they ever are wild, effecting tionleſs, and on his knees, with his gun cocked, the
their eſcape the firſt opportunity: or, if the old ones whole time; and never fires till he has ſeen the eyes
are taken and confined, they lay the eggs in a diſperſed of the geeſe. He fires as they are going from him,
manner, and never ſit. The voice is not unlike the then picks up another gun that lies by him, and diſa
note of 'a clarinet, while flying; at other times they charges that. The geeſe which he has killed he ſets
cry like a peacock, eſpecially when kept tame; and upon ſticks as if alive, to decoy others; he alſo makes
now and then cluck like a hen. It is very choice of artificial birds for the ſame purpoſe. In a good day
its mate; for if the male is killed, the female will not (for they fly in very uncertain and unequal numbers)
leave the gunner till ſhe has been two or three times à ſingle Indian will kill 200. Notwithſtanding every
Hhot at.
The fleſh is thought very good food. fpecies of gooſe has a different call, yet the Indians are
15. The bernicla is of a brown colour ; with the admirable in their imitation of every one. In this ſport,
head, neck, and breaſt, black; and a white collar. however, they muſt be very careful to ſecrete them
Theſe birds, like the bernacles, frequent the Britiſh [elves; for the birds are very ſhy, and on the leaſt mo-
coaſts in winter; and are particularly plenty, at times, tion fly off directly. On their return ſouth, which is
on thoſe of Holland and Ireland, where they are taken from the middle of Auguſt to the middle of October,
in nets placed acroſs the rivers. In ſome dry ſeaſons much havoc is made among them ; but theſe are pre-
they have reſorted to the coaſts of Picardy, in France, ſerved freſh for winter ſtore, but putting them, fea-
in ſuch prodigious flocks, as to prove a peſt to the inha- thers and all, into a large hole dug in the ground, and
bitants, eſpecially in the winter of the year 1740, covering them with mould; and theſe, during the
when theſe birds deſtroyed all the corn near the ſea whole time of the
froſt's laſting, are found perfectly
coaſts, by tearing it up by the roots. A general war ſweet and good. The Indians at Hudſon's Bay call
for this reafon was declared againſt them, and carried them Apifliſkich. This ſpecies is now pretty common,
on in carneſt, by knocking them on the head with in a tame fate, both on the continent and in England;
clabs; but their numbers were ſo prodigious, that this on the great canal of Verſailles hundreds are ſeen mix-
availed but little : nor were the inhabitants relieved ing with the ſwans with the greateſt cordiality; and
from this ſcourge till the north wind which had the ſame at Chantilly. In England's, likewiſe, they
brought them ceaſed to blow, when they took leaye. are thought a great ornament to the pieces of water
in
Α Ν Α
Α Ν Α
669 1
Anas.
Anas. in many gentlemens ſeats where they are very famili merous narrow tranſverſe bars of black and grey; the
ar, and breed freely. The fleſh of the young birds legs are duſky. Mr Willoughby acquaints us, that
is accounted good ; and the feathers equal to thoſe of theſe birds take their name from feeding on ſcaup, or
other geeſe, in ſo much as to prove an article of com broken ſhell-fiſh; they differ infinitely in colours, ſo
merce much in the favour of thoſe places where they that in a flock of 40 or so there are not two alike.
are in ſufficient numbers.
19. The muſchata, or Muſcovy duck of Ray, has a
17. The molliſlima, or eider-duck, is double the naked papillous face, and is a native of India. It is
ſize of the common duck, has a cylindrical bill, and the bigger than the wild duck, being in length two feet.
wax is divided behind, and wrinklcd. The feathers This ſpecies is pretty common in a domeiticated ſtate
which are very
ſoft and valuable, fall off during incu- in almoſt every nation; and the breed ought to be en.
bation. The male is white above, but black below and couraged, as there is more fleſh on it than on the com-
behind: the female is greeniſh. This ſpecies is found mon duck, and of a very high flavour. The eggs
in the Weſtern Illes of Scotland, particularly on Oran-
are rounder than thoſe of a duck, and in young birds
ſa, Barra, Rona, and Heiſker, and on the Farn Illes ; frequently incline to green. They lay more eggs, and
but in greater nunibersin Norway, Iceland and Green- ſito.tener than other ducks. In an unconfined ſtate,
land; from whence a vaſt quantity of the down, known they make the neſt on the ſtumps of old trees, and
by the name of eider or edder, which theſe birds fur- perch during the heat of the day on the branches of
niſlı, is annually exported. Its remarkably light, ela- ſuch as are well clothed with leaves. When kept tame,
ſtic, and warm qualities, make it highly erteeined as a they are ſufficiently docile; and the male will not un
ſtuffing for coverlets, by ſuch whom age or infirmities frequently asſociate and produce a mongrel breed with
render unable to ſupport the weight of common blan the common ducks. The name of Muſcovy duck was
kets. This down is produced from the breaſt of the birds given to them from their exhaling a muſky odour,
in the breeding ſeaſon. It laysits eggs among the ftones which proceeds from the gland placed on the rump in
or plants near the ſhore ; and prepares a ſoft bed for common with other birds.
them, by plucking the down from its own breaſt: the 20. The clypeata, or ſhovelar of Ray, has the end
natives watch the opportunity, and takeaway both eggs of its bill broad, rounded, and furniſhed with a ſmall
and neſt: the ducks lays again, and repeats the pluck- hook. It is in length 21 inches; the female a trife
ing of its breaſt: if ſhe is robbed after that, the will ſmaller. Both ſexes are apt to vary nuch in colour:
ſtill lay; but the drakes muſt ſupply the down, as her the male likewiſe differs from the female inwardly, ha-
ſtock is now exhauſted: but if her eggs are taken a ving juſt above the divarication of the windpipe where
third time, ſhe wholly deſerts the place. See Down. it pailes into the lungs, an enlargement, or, as it is
Theſe birds are not numerous on the illes, and it is called by ſome, a labyrinth.-This bird is now and
obſerved that the drakes keep on thoſe nioſt reinote then met with in England, though not in great nun-
from the fitting places. The ducks continue on their bers. It is ſaid to come into France in February, and
neſts till you come almoſt cloſe to them; and when they ſome of them to ſtay during the ſummer. It lays 10
riſe, are very low fliers. The number of eggs in each or 12 rufous-coloured eggs, placed on a bed of ruſhes,
neſt are from three to five, warmly bedded in the in the ſame places as the ſuniner-teal, and departs in
down ; of a pale olive colour ; and very large, gloſſy, September, at leaſt the major part of them, for it is
and ſmooth. They now and then, however, lay ſo rare that one is ſeen in winter. The chief food of this
many as eight; for Van Troil informs us that no leſs bird is inſects, for which it is continually muddling in
than 16 have been found in one neſt, with two females, the water with its bill. It is alſo ſaid dexterouſly to
who agreeremarkably well together.-InAmerica,this catch flies which paſs in its way over the water.
bird is found as far fouth as New-York, and breeds on Shrimps, anong other things, have been found in its
the defart iſles of New-England; but moſt common ſtomach on diſſection. This ſpecies is alſo found in
every where to the north. They are ſaid to be con moſt parts of Germany; throughout the Ruſſian do-
ſtant to the ſame breeding places, and that a pair has minions, as far as Kamtſchatka ; and in North-Ame-
been obſerved to occupy the ſame nett for 20 years to. rica, in New-York and Carolina, during the winter
gether. They take their young on their backs in. ſeaſon. It is accounted pretty good food.
ſtantly to ſea; then dive, to ſhake thein off and teach 21. The ſtrepera, or gad-wall, has the wings varie-
them to ſhift for themſelves. It is ſaid, that the males gated with black, white, and red. It inhabits England
are five years old before they come to their full colour ; in the winter months, and is alſo found at the
lanie
that they live to a great age, and will at length grow ſeaſon in various parts of France and Italy. It mi-
quite grey. Their food is ſhells, for which they dive grates as far as Sweden, as ſummer advances, in order
to great depths. They are very numerous in the Er to breed ; and found throughout Ruſſia and Siberia,
quimaux lands, where, and in Greenland, they are cal. except in the eaſtern part of the laſt, and Kamtſchatka.
led mettek. The natives kill them on the water with Being a very quick diver, it is difficult to be ſhot. IC
darts, ſtriking them the moment they appear after di- feeds morning and evening only, being hid among the
ving; and know the place from their being preceded reeds and ruſhes during the day. The noiſe it makes
by the riſing of bubbles. The fleſh is ſaid to be much is not unlike that of a mallard, but louder. The fleth
valued.
is good.
18. The maula, or ſcaup duck, is leſs than the com 22. The clangula, or golden eye of Ray, is varie-
mon duck. The bill is broad, flat, and of a greyifli gated with black and white, and the head is interſper-
blue colour ; the head and neck are black, gloſed with led with blackiſh green feathers; it has a white ſpot
green; the breaſt is black; the back, the coverts of near the mouth; and the eyes are of a ſhining gold co-
the wings, and the ſcapulars, are finely marked with nu- tour. It is not unfrequent on the ſea-coafts in winter,
auch
Α Ν Α
[ 670 )
Α Ν Α
Anas.
Anas.
and appears in ſmall flocks; but paſſes to the north in Sometimes theſe are hatched under hens; in which
ſpring in order to breed. It inhabits Sweden and caſe they are, while young, familiar, though when
Norway during the ſummer. It is an excellent diver, grown up exceedingly quarrelſone with other ducks ;
and feeds on ſmall ſhells. It is moſtly ſeen in the wa- their flemismoſtexcellent eſpecially ſuch asare brought
ter, as it is very awkward in walking. It has been uptame. They appear upon the coaſt of Hudſon's Bay
attempted be domeſticated, but ſeems out of its ele- in May, as ſoon as the thaws come on, chiefly in pairs :
ment on land. With difficulty it can be brought to they lay there only from fix to cight eggs; and feed on
eat any thing but breads and the feet foon grow in- flies and worms in the ſwamps. They depart in flocks
jured, inſomuch as at laſt to hinder it from walking. in autumn. They are known by the name of atherkim.
The fleſh is much eſteemed, and the birds are often aſheep.
ſeen in the market at the proper ſeaſon. This ſpecies 25. The acuta, pin-tail, or ſea pheaſant of Ray, has a
is found in America ; in winter as low as New-York; long acuminated tail, black below, with a white line on
in ſummer, at Hudſon's bay, where it frequents the each ſide of the back part of the head. It is a native of
freſh-water lakes, and makes in bollow trees a round Europe. Mr Hartlib, in the appendix to his Legacy, tells
neſt of graſs lined with feathers from its breaſt; lays us, that theſe birds are found in great abundance in
from ſeven to ten white eggs.
Connaught in Ireland, in the month of February only ;
23. The merſa, or Ural duck of Pallas, is ſomewhat and that they are much eſteemed for their delicacy.
bigger than the common real. The bill is large, broad, 26. The glacialis, or long-tailed duck, is inferior in
very tumid above the noſtrils, and bifid in the adult fize to the former. The bill is ſhort, black at the tip
bird, the end marked with diverging ftriæ; colour and baſe, orange-coloured in the middle; the cheeks
blue: the head, and part of the neck, are white ; on are of a pale brown; the hind part of the head, and
the crown is a large patch of black: the middle of the the neck both before and behind, are white, the breaſt
neck is black: the fore-parts of the body are a yellow- and back are of a deep chocolate colour ; the four mid-
iſh brown, undulated with black: the back is clouded dle feathers of the tail are black, and two of them
with a cinerous and pale yellow, powdered with brown: near four inches longer than the others, which are
the wings are ſmall; the tail longih, wedge-ſliaped, white; the legs duſky. Theſe birds breed in the moſt
and black: the legs are brown, on the fore-part bluish, northern parts of the world, and only viſit the Britiſh
and placed as far back as in the diver genus. This fpe- coaſts in the ſevereſt winters. It breeds in Hudſon's Bay
cies is not unfrequent in the greater lakes of the Ural and Greenland, among the ſtones and graſs, making
mountains, and the rivers Ob and Irtiſch. It is not its neft, like the eider, with the down of its own
ſeen on the ground, for from the ſituation of its legs it breaſt, which is equal in value to that of the eider, if
is rinable to walk ; but it ſwims very well and quick: it could be got in equal quantity ; but the ſpecies is
at which time the tail is immerſed in the water as far ſcarcer. It lays five eggs; ſwims and dives admira-
as the rump, ſerving by way of rudder, contrary to bly; and feeds on ſhell-filh, which it gets in very deep
the common method of a duck's ſwimming. The neſt water.
water. It flies irregularly, ſometimes ſhowing its
is formed of reeds, and floats, ſomething like to that back, ſometimes its belly. It continues in Greenland
of the grebe.
the whole year, in unfrozen places; but there are fea-
24. The American wigeon (le canard jenſen of Buf- fons ſo very ſevere, as at times to force them towards
fon), is rather bigger than the European wigeon. The the ſouth. Thoſe which breed between Lapland and
bill is of a lead colour: the crown and forehead of a yel- the polar circle, are often driven into Sweden and
lowiſh white: the hind-part of the neck and head is the neighbourhood of Peterſburgh: thoſe from the
black and white, ſpeckled; and behind the eye is a coaſt of the Icy ſea, as low as lat. 55; but on the ſet-
black mark, changing in ſome lights to green: the back ting in of froſt, they retire ſtill further ſouth, unleſs
and ſcapulars are of a paleruſt-colour, waved with tranſ- where fume open ſpots remain in the rivers. They vi-
verſe black lines ; in the middle of the wing coveris fit the freſh-water lakes in the Orkneys, in October,
there is a large bed of white : the quills and tail are and continue there till April. At ſun-ſet they are
deep brown: the legs duſky. It inhabits North-Ame- feen, in great flocks, returning to and from the bays,
rica, from Carolina to Hudſon's Bay; but is no where where they frequently paſs the night, and make ſuch
a common bird. It is called at New-York the Pheaſant a noiſe as to be heard ſome miles in froſty weather.
Duck. It is more plenty at St Domingo and Cayenne, 27. The ferina, pochard, or red-headed wigeon of
where it is called vingeon or gingeon. At Martinico Ray, has a lead-coloured bill : the head and neck are
great flocks of them often take ſhort flights froin one of a bright gay colour: the breaſt and part of the
rice plantation to another, where they make much ha- back where it joins the neck are black: the coverts of
voc, particularly during the rainy ſeaſon. They are ſaid the wings, the ſcapulars, back, and ſides under the
to perch on trees. They ſeed in company and have a wings, are of a pale grey, elegantly marked with nar-
centinel on the watch like ſome other birds. They are row lines of black: the tail conſiſts of twelve ſhort fea-
feldom ſeen during the day, lying hid in places ſhaded thers of a deep grey colour : the legs are lead colour-
from the fun: but ſo ſoon as that luminary diſappears, ed; and the irides of a bright yellow, tinged with red.
they come forth from their hiding-places to feed; and, - The head of the feinale is of a pale reddiſh brown.
during this, make a particular kind of noiſe, by which In England theſe birds frequent the fens in the win-
the ſportſman is directed in his ſearch after them : at ter ſcaſon, and are carried to the London markets
other times their note is a kind of ſoft whiſtle, which ſometimes in conſiderable numbers, where they are
is oſten imitated in order to decoy them within reach known by the name of Dun Birds, and are eſteemed
of the gun. They fit in January; and in March the excellent eating. In winter, they paſs pretty far
young are ſeen running about. They lay many eggs. to the ſouth, being found in Egypt, aboul Cairo.
They
Α Ν Α
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Α Ν Α
Anas.
Anas. They come into France the end of October in ſmall 32. The buſchas, common wild-duck of Ray, or
- flocks, from 20 to 40 ; and are found in Carolina in mallard; theintermediate tail-feathers of the drake are
winter. They feed on ſmall fiſh and ſhells. Their turned backward, and the bill is ſtrait. It frequents
flight is rapid and ſtrong; but the flocks form no par- the lakes of different countries, and feeds upon frogs
ticular ſhape in flying.
and ſeveral ſorts of inſects. The wild-ducks pair in
28. The querquedula, garganey, or firſt teal of Al- the ſpring: build their neſts among ruſhes near the
drovandus, has a green ſpot on the wings, and a white water, and lay, from 10 to 16 eggs. The female is a
line above the eyes. It frequents the freſh waters of very artful bird ; and does not always make the neſt
Europe. In many places it is called the ſummer-teal. cloſe to the water, but frequently at a good diſtance
29. The creca, or common teal, has a green ſpot from it ; in which caſe the duck will take the young
on the wings, and a white line both above and below in its beak or between its legs. It is known ſometimes
the eyes. It is of a ſmall ſize, only 14 inches in to lay the eggs in a high tree, in a deſerted magpie's
length. The teal is frequent in the London markets or crow's neſt. Atmonlting-time, when they cannot
along with the wild duck. It is met with in Dud- fly, they are caught in great numbers. They abound
dingſton-loch, a freſh-water lake, within a mile of E- greatly in Lincolnſhire, the great magazine of wild-
dinburgh. In France it ſtays throughout the year, fowl in Great Britain ; where prodigious numbers are
and makes a neſt in April among the ruſhes, on the taken annually in the Decoys. Birds with flat bills,
edges of ponds ; it is compoſed of the tendereſt ſtalks that find their food by groping, have three pair of
of them, with the addition of the pith, and a quantity nerves that extend to the end of their bills : theſe
of feathers. The neſt is of a large ſize, and placed nerves are remarkably conſpicuous in the head and bill
in the water, ſo as to riſe and fall with it. The eggs of the wild-duck, and, are larger than thoſe of a gooſe
are the ſize of thoſe of a pigeon, of a dirty white, mark or any other bird yet known: this is the reaſon they
ed with ſmall hazel ſpots. It is ſaid to feed on the graſs grope for food more than any other bird whatever. -
and weeds which growon the edges of the ponds which The common tame ſpecies of ducks take their origin
it frequents, as well as the ſeeds of the ruſhes; it will from theſe, and may be traced to it by unerring cha-
alſo eat fmall fiſh. The fleſh is accounted excellent. racters. The drakes, howſoever they vary in colours,
It is found to the north as high as Iceland, and is always retain the curled feathers of the tail, and both
mentioned as inhabiting the Caſpian ſea to the ſouth. ſexes the form of the bill, of the wild kind. Nature
30. The hiſtrionica, or duſky ſpotted duck of Ed. ſports in the colours of all domeſtic animals; and for
wards, is of a brown colour, variegated with white and a wiſe and uſeful end, that niankind may the more
blue; it has a double line on the ears and temples ; readily diſtinguiſh and claim their reſpective properly.
the collar is white, and there is a white ſtreak on the In France this ſpecies is not often ſeen, except in
neck. It inhabits from Carolina to Greenland : in the winter; appearing in October, and going north in
laſt it frequents, during ſummer, the rapid rivers, ſpring. They are caught in various manners; among
and the moſt ſhady parts ; neſtling on the banks, a- the reſt, in decoys, as in England; the chief place for
mong the low ſhrubs. It ſwims and dives admirably. which is Picardy, where prodigious numbers are ta-
In winter it ſeeks the open ſea, Aies high and ſwift- ken, particularly on the river Somme. It is alſo cuf-
ly, and is very clamorous. It feeds on ſhell-fiſh, ſpawn, tomary there to wait for the flocks paſſing over certain
and the larvæ of gnats. Is found in Iceland, and as known places, and the ſportſman, having a wicker
low as Sondmor. It is common from the lake Baikal cage, containing a quantity of tame birds, lets out one
to Kamtſchatka ; and breeds there, as well as every at a time, at i convenient ſeaſon, which enticing the
where elſe, about the moſt rocky and rapid torrents. paſſengers within gunſhot, five or ſix are often killed
31. The minuta, or little white and brown duck of at once by an expert markſman. They are now and
Edwards, is of a greyiſh colour, with white ears, and then taken alſo by a hook baited with a bit of ſheep's
the prime feathers of the wings blackiſh. This and the lights, which ſwimming on the water, the bird ſwal-
former, according to Latham, are found both on the lows the bait, and with it the hook. Various other
Old and new continents. On the firſt, it is ſeen as far means of catching ducks and geeſe are peculiar to cer-
ſouth as the lake Baikal, and from thence to Kamt. tain nations ; of which one ſeems worth mentioning
ſchatka, particularly up the river Ochotſka ; alſo in from its fingularity: The perſon withing to take theſe,
Iceland, and as low as Sondmor. In America, it is wades into the water up to the chin, and having his
found from Carolina to Newfoundland, and Hudſon's head covered with an empty calabaſh, approaches the
Bay; alſo in Greenland, where it frequents, during place where the ducks are ; when they, not regard-
ſummer, bays and rivers, eſpecially near their mouths, ing an object of this fort, ſuffer the man freely to mix
and is a very noiſy ſpecies. It is fond of ſhady places, with the flock; after which he has only to pull them
and makes its neſt on the ſhore among the ſhrubs. by the legs under the water, one after another, till
Its food is finall ſhells, eggs of fiſhes, and particularly he is fatisfied ; returning as unſuſpected by the re-
the larvæ of gnats. It ſwims well, even in the moſt mainder as wlien he firit came among them. This
rapid ſtreams; and dives to admiration : it likewiſe method is frequently put into practice on the river
Aies ſwift, and to a great height: from which cir- Ganges, uſing the earthen veſſels of the Genloos in-
cumſtances, it is not caſily taken. Late navigators ſtead of the calabalhes : theſe veſſels are what the Gen-
met with it at Aoonalaſika. It is pretty frequent in toos boil their rice in, and are called Kutcharee pots
the ſmall rivulets of Hudſon's Bay, about 90 miles in- (they likewiſe make a diſh for the tables in them,
land; ſeldom in large rivers. It lays io or more white which goes by the ſame name) : after theſe are once
eggs, like thoſe of the pigeon, on the graſs; and the uſed they look upon them as defiled, and in courſe
young brood (peckled in a very pretty manner. It throw them into the river as uſeleſs and the duck-
migrates ſouth in autumn.
takers find them convenient for their purpoſe, as the
ducks,
Α Ν Α
L 672 ]
Α Ν Α
fius.
j
Anas, ducks, from conſtantly ſeeing the veſſels float down the variegated with blue and white; the breaſt is grey,and Anas
ſtream, look upon them as objects of full as licile re ſpotted with white; and the throat is white. It inz-
gard as a calabash. The above, or ſome ſuch method, habits Mexico, and ſome of the Weſt-India iſles, mi- Anaſta-
is alſo practiſed in China as well as in India. The grating in the ſummer ſeaſon as far north as 40 de-
Chineſe, however, though they make great uſe of grees, or a little beyond. It appears at New-York ear-
ducks, do not prefer the wild fort, being in generally in the ſpring, and breeds there ; making its neſt in
extremely fond of tame ones: and it is laid that the the decayed hollows oftrees, or ſuch as have been made
major part of theſe are hatched by artificial heat ; the by woodpeckers, and often between the forks of the
eggs, being laid in boxes of fand, are placed on a brick branches; and when the young are hatched, the mo-
hearth, to which is given a proper heat during the ther takes them on her back to the water. The fleſta
time required for hatching. The ducklings are fed is much eſteemed. This is the ſpecies, the neck of
with little craw-fiſhes and crabs, boiled and cut finall, which the natives of Louiſiana uſe to ornament their
and afterwards mixed with boiled rice; and in about a pipes or calumets of peace with ; and at the laſt-
fortnight ſhift for themſelves, when the Chineſe pro- named place it is found throughout the year.
vide them an old ſtepmother, who leads them where 35. The aborea, or black-billed whiſtling duck of
they are to find provender for themſelves ; being firſt Edwards, is of a reddiſh brown colour, with a ſort of
put on board a ſampane or boat, which is defined for creſt on the head; the belly is ſpotted with black and
their habitation, and from which the whole flock, oft- white.
white. It is a native of America. Sloane informs us,
ten to the amount of 300 or 400, go out to feed, and that this duck perches on trees; that it is about 20
return at command. This method is uſed nine months inches long from the end of the bill to the point of
out of the twelve (for in the colder months, it does not the tail; and that it makes a kind of whiſtling noiſe,
ſucceed; and is ſo far from a novelty, that it may be from which circumſtance it has received its name.
every where ſeen ; but inore eſpecially about the time 36. The fuligula, or tufted duck of Ray, has a
of cutting the rice and gleaning the crop, when the hanging creſt, a black body, and the wings and belly
maſters of the duck ſampanes row up and down the ri- fpotted with white. This ſpecies is found in Europe
ver according to the opportunity of procuring food, as far as Norway. In the winter months it is not un-
which is found in plenty, at the tide of ebb, on the frequent in England ; being met with in the markets
rice plantations, as they are overflowed at high water. in that ſeaſon, and is much eſteemed. It is common
It is curious to ſee how the ducks obey their maſter alſo throughout the Ruſſian empire, going northward
for ſome thouſands, belonging to different boats, will to breed. Is frequent in Kanıtſchatka. The male dif-
feed at large on the ſame ſpot, and on a ſignal given appears during the incubation of the female.
will follow their leader to their reſpective ſampanes, There are 62 other ſpecies enumerated by orintho.
Obec &
without a ſtranger being found among them*.* This logiſts; the whole number hitherto deſcribed being
Toreen's
Voyage, i.
is ſtill more excraordinary, if we conſider the number 08.
194.11.255.
of inhabited ſampanes on the Tigris, ſuppoſed to beno ANASARCA, a ſpecies of dropſy. See MEDI-
leſs than 40,000, which are moored in rows cloſe to
each other, with a narrow paſſage at intervals for boats ANASSUS, or ANAXUS (anc. geog.), a river in the
to paſs up and down the river. The Tigris, at Canton, territory of Venice, (Pliny); now the Piave, which
is ſomewhat wider than the Thames at London,and the riſing from the mountains of Tyrol, not far from the
whole river is there covered in this manner for the ex borders of Carinthia, runs from north to ſouth, thro'
tent of at leaſt a mile. See Gook's laſt coyage, iii. 443. the territories of Cadorina, Belluno, Feltre, and, af-
33. The galericulata, or Chineſe teal of Edwards, ter running from weſt to caſt, through Trevigi, falls
has a hanging creſt; and on the hinder part of the into the Adriatic, 13 miles to the louth-eaſt of Ve.
Lack, on both ſides, there is a crooked, flat, elevated nice.
feather ; the creſt is grcen and red ; and the back is ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyſicians,
brown, and ſpotted with blue; the erect feathers on for a riſing up to go to ſtool. It alſo ſignifies the pa
the back are red and blunt; one edge of the inmoſt fage of any humour, when expelled from one part,
wing-feather, when the wings are fut, is raiſed over and obliged to remove to another.
the back, and is red, and like a ſickle before. This ANASTASIUS I. emperor of the caſt, ſucceeded
moſt fingular and elegant ſpecies is a native of China Zeno in theyear 491, and was inaugurated that fame
and Japan, where it is kept by the inhabitants for the year on April the 11th. The Manicheans and Arians
ſake of its beauty. It is not near fo conimon in China were greatly in hopes of being ſupported by the new
as many other kinds, or perhaps they are politically emperor; the former becauſe his mother was their
held dear to the European purchaſers; they are free friend, and favoured their ſect; the latter becauſe
quently expoſed to ſale at Canton in cages, and the the emperor's uncle was of their opinion: but if Ana-
common price is from fix to ten dollars per pair: they ſtaſius did not perſecute them as we do not find he
are not unfrequently carried to England alive; but ever did), yet it does not appear that he ſupported ei-
require care, as they feein more tender than our ſpe- ther of theſe ſects. But in order to maintain the peace
cies. Attempts have been made to breed them in of the church, upon which the tranquility of the ſtate
England, but without ſucceſs, though they are familiar very much depended, he declared, that ſuch biſhops
enough. The bird is known in Japan by the name of or other clergymen who ſhould diſturb the public tran-
Kimnodfui. The Engliſh in China give it the name quility, by maintaining with too much heat either ſide
of mandarin duck.
of the queſtion for or againſt the Council of Chalcedon,
34. The ſponſa, or ſummer-duck of Cateſby, is a ſhould be deprived of their benefices. Accordingly
moſt elegant ſpecies. It has a depending green creſt, the diſputes concerning Eutychianiſm running to a
tariegated with blue and white; the back is likewiſe very great height, and Euphemius being deeply con-
cerned
CINE.
I
AN A
[ 673 ]
AN A
Anaſtaſius, cerned in them, the emperor expelled him from his ſee, 869 at the fourth general council, the acts and ca- Analiarira
and choſe Macedonius in his ſtead. The hatred which nons of which he tranſlated from the Greek into La. il
the different parties entertained againſt oneanocheroc tin. He alſo compoſed the lives of ſeveral popes, and Anaſus.
calioned often ſuch tumults and ſcditions at Conſtanti. other works; the beſt edition of which is that of the
nople, as threatened the life of the emperor himſelf; Vatican.
who, to keep the people in awe, ordered that the go ANASTATICA, the ROSE of JERICHO: A genus
vernor of the city ſhould be preſent at all church-af- of the filiculoſa order, belonging to the terradynamia
ſeinblies and pubiic proceſſions. This was ſo much the claſs of plants; and, in the natural method, ranking
more neceflary, becauſe theſe tumults were chiefly oc under the 39th order, Siliq110fe. The characters are :
cafioned by a kind of doxology or ſhort hymn which The calyx is a perianthium coniiſting of four leaves,
uſed to be ſung at divine ſervice. This doxology con and perſiſtent : The corolla conſiſts of four cruciforin
liſted only of the following words, ugros o Otos, agros petals : The ftamina confiſt of fix ſubulated filaments
oxupos, xylos atavaros, that is, “ Holy God, holy the the length of the calyx; the anthera are roundiſh :
powerful, holy the immortal,” for which reaſon it was The piſiullum has a ſmall bifid germen ; the ſtylus mu-
called sporzyros, Trifagius, "three times holy;" be cronated and oblique ; the ſtigma headed : The peri-
cauſe the word holy was therein three times repeated. carpium is a ſhort bilocular ſilicle, retuſe, and crowned
The orthodox uſed to ſing that hymn without any ad on on the margin with valvulæ twice as long as the
dition, or by adding only to it, agree Tpods, Enea Townp.es, partition : The ſeeds are ſolitary and roundiſh,-Of
i. e. 66 Holy Trinity, have mercy upon us :" But Pe- this genus there are two
ter the Fuller, biſhop of Antioch, pretended to add Species. 1. The ſyriaca, a native of Syria, is not
theſe words to it, viz. o sau pwofers de nas, i. e.“ who cultivated or known in Britain. 2. The hierochun-
haſt been crucified for us ;'and as it was ſuppoſed that
and as it was ſuppoſed that tica is a native of the fandy parts of Paleſtine and the
the firſt holy related to the Father, the ſecond to the Red Sea. It is a low annual plant, dividing into niany
Son, the third to the Holy Ghoſt, and adding theſe irregular woody branches near the root, Ateach joint
words, who haſ been crucified for us, ſeemed to infi- is placed a ſingle, oblong, hairy leaf; and at the ſame
ngate that the whole confubftantial Trinity had ſuffer- places come out ſmall ſingle flowers, of a wbitiſh green
ed; for which reaſon the orthodox were reſolved not colour, compoſed of four leaves placed in thc form of
to admit this addition, Anaſtaſius deſiring to have a croſs. Theſe are ſucceeded by ſhort wrinkled pods,
thoſe fatal words added to that hymn whenever it ſhould having four ſmall horns; thefe open into four cells, in
be ſung at Conſtantinople, this occaſioned a terrible each of which is lodged a ſingle brown feed-When
ſedition in the city, as though the very fundamentals the ſeeds of this plant are ripe, the branches will draw
of Chriſtianity had been overthrown. Macedonius and up and contract ; ſo that the whole plant forms a kind
his clergy are ſaid to have raiſed that ſedition, which of ball or globular body, which will expand on laying
came to ſuch a height that the emperor himſelf was it a ſhort time in warm water. This property it retains
obliged to come, without his crown on his head, and for many years, on which account it is preſerved as a
in a very humble manner, to the Circus, where he de curioſity by ſome people. From this property the
clared to the people that he was very williing to quit monks have given it the name of Roſa Mariæ, pre
the imperial throne; but he told them at the ſame tending that the flowers open on the night in which
time, that they could not all enjoy the ſovereign power, our Saviour was born.
which does not admit of a partnerſhip ; and that one Culture. This plant is propagated by feeds, which
perfon ſtill muſt govern them if he reſigned the crown. ſhould be ſown in the beginning of March, in a mode-
This diſcourſe had ſuch a power over the raging mul rate hot-bed in pots, in which the plants are deſigned
titude, that, as if they had been divinely inſpired, to remain. When they come up, the plants ſhould be
they immediately requeſted the emperor to take up his thinned, leaving them about ſix inches afunder, and
crown, promiſing that they would be quiet and obe obſerving to keep them clear of weeds, which is all
dient for the future. Anaftafius is by the Popiſh wri. the care they require. If the ſeaſon proves favourable
ters repreſented as a great perſecutor of the orthodox, they will flower in Auguſt; but unleſs the autumn
becauſe he baniſhed and deprived Euphemius and Ma- proves warm and dry, they will not perfect their feeds
cedonius; but they ſhould prove that theſe two pre. in Britain.
lates had been unjustly baniſhed, which is a very hard ANASTOMOSIS, in anatomy, the opening of the
,
task. As to his civil government, it is confeſſed that mouths of veſſels, in order to diſcharge their contain-
at the beginning of his reign he ſhewed himſelf a very ed fluids. It is likewiſe uſed for the communication of
good prince; he eaſed the people of a very heavy tax two veſſels at their extremities; as the inoſculation
called Chryfargyrum, under which they had groaned of a vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or
for a long time; he prohibited the fighting with wild of an artery with a vein.
beaſts ; he raiſed ſeveral buildings; he avoided being ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppoſed to liave
involved in dangerous wars as much as lay in his power. the power of opening the mouths of the veſſels, and
Anaftafius reigned 27 years three months and three promoting the circulation ; ſuch as deobſtruent, ca-
days, or, according to F. Pagi, wanting three days; thartic, and ſudorific medicines.
and died July the roth, A. C. 518, in the 88th year ANASTROPHE, in rhetoric and granımar,denotes
the inverſion of the natural order of the words : ſuch
ANASTASIUS, furnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman is, faxa per et fcopulos, for per faxa et ſcopulos.
abbot, library-keeper of the Vatican, and one of the ANASUS, or ANISUS (anc. geog.) now the Ens,
moſt learned men of the ninth century, aſlifted in a river of Germany; which, riling on the borders of
VOL. I.
4 l
tlie
of his age.
1
Α Ν Α
( 674 ]
Α Ν Α
Anathema, the territory of Saltzbarg, then ſeparating Upper Sti ANATHEMA, in heatlien antiquity, was an offering Anathoth
ria from Upper Auſtria, and waſhing the town of Ens, or preſent made to ſome deity, and hung up in the U
falls, at the diſtance of a mile below it, into the Da- temple. Whenever a perſon leſt off his employment,
Anatolia.
nube, in a courſe from ſouth to north.
it was uſual to dedicate the tools to the patron-deily of
ANATHEMA, among eccleſiaſtical writers, im- the trade. Perſons, too, who had eſcaped from im-
ports whatever is ſet apart, ſeparated, or divided ; minent danger, as ſhipwreck and the like, or had
but is moſt uſually meant to expreſs the cutting off a met with any other remarkable inſtance of good for-
perſon from the privileges of ſociety and communion tune, ſeldom failed to teſtify their gratitude by ſome
with the faithful.
preſent of this kind.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the ANATHOTH, a hamlet of Paleſtine, very near
circumſtances of being attended with curſes and exe- Jeruſalem (Joſephus), about three miles and a half to
crations. It was practiſed in the primitive church a the north ; the ruins of which are ſtill to be ſeen. It
gainſt notorious offenders; and the form of that pro was the birth-place of the prophet Jeremiah, and one
nounced by Synecius againſt one Andronicus, is as of the Levitical towns in the tribe of Benjamin.
follows: " Let no church of God be open to Andro ANATIFERA CONCHA, the trivial name of a fpe-
nicus, but let every ſanctuary be ſhut againſt him. I cies of the lepas, a teſtaceous animal. See LEPAS.
admoniſh both private inen and magiſtrates, to receive ANATOCISM, ANATOCISMUS, an uſurious con-
him neither under their roof nor to their table; and tract, wherein the intereſts ariſing from the principal
prieſts more eſpecially, that they neither converſe with fum are added to the principal itſelf, and intereſt ex-
him living, nor attend his funeral when dead.” acted upon the whole. The word is originally Greek,
Several councils alſo have pronounced anathema's a. but uſed by Cicero in Latin ; whence it has deſcended
gainſt fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the into moſt other languages. It comes from the prepo-
faith ; and their deciſions have been conceived in the ſition dva, which in compoſition ſignifies repetition or
following form : Si quis dixerit, 6c. anathema fit. duplication, and toxos, ufury. Anatociſm is what we
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judici- properly called intereft upon intereſt, or compound inte-
ary, and the other abjuratory. The former can only reft. This the worſt kind of uſury, and has been ſe-
be denounced by a council, a pope, or a biſhop; the verely condemned by the Roman law, as well as by
latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the the common laws of moſt other countries. See In-
convert being obliged to anathematize the hereſy he
abjures.
ANATOLIA. See NATOLIA.
TEREST.
Α Ν
Α Τ Ο
M
Y
THE
"HE art of diſſecting, or artificially ſeparating and The brute-creation having ſuch an affinity to man
taking to pieces, the different parts of the human in outward form, motions, ſenſes, and ways of life ;
body, in order to an exact diſcovery of their ſituation, the generation of the ſpecies, and the effect of death
ſtructure, and economy.-The word isGreek, evetopia; upon the body, being obſerved to be ſo nearly the
derived from @y&Tepeva, to diffect, or ſeparate by cutting. ſame in both ; the concluſion was not only obvious, but
unavoidable, that their bodies were formed nearly upon
INTRODUCTION.
the fame model. And the opportunities of examining
the bodies of brutes were ſo eaſily procured, indeed ſo
§ 1. Hiſtory of Anatomy.
neceſſarily occurred in the common buſineſs of life, that
This art ſeems to have been very ancient ; though the huntſman in niaking uſe of his prey, the prieſt in
for a long time, known only in an imperfect manner. facrificing, the augur in divination, and, above all, the
-The firſt men who lived muſt have foon acquired butcher, or thoſe who might out of curioſity attend upon.
ſome notions of the ſtructure of their own bodies, par- his operations, muſt have been daily adding to the little
ticularly of the external parts, and of ſome even of ſtock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly we find,
the internal, ſuch as bones, joints, and ſinews, which in fact, that the South-ſea-iſlanders, who have been left
are expoſed to the examination of the ſenſes in living to their own obſervation and reaſoning, without the
bodies.
aſſiſtance of letters, have yet a conſiderable ſhare of
This rude knowledge muſt have been gradually im- rude or wild anatvinical and phyſiological knowledge.
proved, by the accidents to which the body is expoſed, Dr Hunter informs us, that when Omai was in his
by the neceſſities of life, and by the various cuſtoms, muſeun with Mr Banks, though he could not explain
ceremonies, and ſuperſtitions, of different nations. himſelf intelligibly, they plainly ſaw that he knew the
Thus, the obſervance of bodies killed by violence, at- principal parts of the body, and ſomething likewiſe of
tention to wounded men, and to many diſeaſes, the their uſes; and manifeſted a great curiolity or defire
various ways of putting criminals to death, the fune- of having the functions of the internal parts of the bo-
ral ceremonies, and a variety of ſuch things, muſt have dy explained to him ; particularly the relative functions
fhown men every day more and more of themſelves ; of the two ſexes, which with him ſeemed to be the moſt
eſpecially as curioſity and ſelf-love would here urge intereſting object of the human mind.
them powerfully to obſervation and reflection.
We may further imagine, that the philoſophers of
the
Hiſtory.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
675
the moſt early ages, that is, the nien of curioſity, ol) is the centre or knot of the blood veſſels; the ſpring
ſervation, experience and reflection, could not over or fountain of the blood which is carried impetuouſly
look an inſtance of natural organization, which was ſo round; the blood is the pabulum or food of the fleſh;
intereſting, and at the ſame time ſo wonderful, more and, for the purpoſe of nouriſhment, the body is laid
eſpecially ſuch of them as applied to the ſtudy and out into canals, like thoſe which are drawn through
cure of diſeaſes. We know that phyſic was a branch gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a
of philoſophy till the age of Hippocrates.
fountain, to every part of the pervious body."
Thus the art muſt liave been circumſtanced in its Hippocrates was nearly contemporary with the great
beginning. We ſhall next ſee from the teſtimony of philoſophers of whom we have been ſpeaking, about
hiſtorians and other writers, how it actually appeared 400 years before the Chriſtian æra. He is ſaid to
as an art, from the time that writing was introduced have ſeparated the profeſſion of philoſophy and phyſic,
among men; how it was improved and conveyed down and to have been the firſt who applied to phyſic alone
to us through a long ſeries of ages.
as the buſineſs of his life. He is likewiſe generally
Civilization, and improvements of every kind, would ſuppoſed to be the firſt who wrote upon anatomy. We
naturally begin in fertile countries and healthful cli- know of nothing that was written expreſsly upon the
mates, where there would be leiſure for reflection, and ſubject before ; and the firſt anatomical diſſection
an appetite for amuſement. Accordingly, writing, which has been recorded, was made by his friend De-
and many other uſeful and ornamental inventions and mocritus of Abdera.
arts, appear to have been cultivated in the eaſtern parts If, however, we read the works of Hippocrates with
of Aſia long before the earlieſt times that are treated impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to what
of by the Greek or other European writers; and that we now know of the human body, we muſt allow his
the arts and learning of thoſe eaſtern people were in deſcriptions to be imperfect, incorrect, ſometimes ex-
ſubſequent times gradually communicated to adjacent travagant, and often unintelligible, that of the bones
countries, eſpecially by the medium of traffic. The only excepted. He ſeems to have ſtudied theſe with
cuſtoms, ſuperſtitions, and climate of eaſtern coun more ſucceſs than the other parts, and tell us that he
tries, however, appear to have been as unfavourable had an opportunity of ſeeing an human ſkeleton.
te practical anatomy, as they were inviting to the ſtu From Hippocrates to Galen, who flouriſhed towards
dy of aſtronomy, geometry, poetry, and all the ſofter the end of the ſecond century, in the decline of the
arts of peace.
Ronan empire, that is, in the ſpace of 600 years, ana-
Animal bodies there, run ſo quickly into nauſeous tomy was greatly improved; the philoſophers ſtill con-
putrefaction, that the early inhabitants muſt have ſidering it as a moſt curious and intereſting branch of
avoided ſuch offenſive employments, as anatomical in natural knowledge, and the phylicians, as a principal
quiries, like their poſterity at this day. And, in fact, foundation of their art. Both of them, in that inter-
it docs not appear, by the writings of the Grecians, val of time, contributed daily to the common ſtock,
or Jews, or Phænicians, or of other eastern countries, by more accurate and extended obſervations, and by
that anatomy was particularly cultivated by any of thoſe the lights of improving philoſophy.
eaſtern nations. In tracing it backwards to its infan As theſe two great men had applied very particu-
cy, we cannot go farther into antiquity than the times larly to the ſtudy of animal bodies, they not only
of the Grecian philoſophers. As an art in the ſtate made great improvements, eſpecially in phyſiology,
of ſome cultivation, it may be ſaid to have been but raiſed the credit of natural knowledge, and ſpread
brought forth and bred up anong them as a branch of it as wide as Alexander's empire.
natural knowledge.
Few of Ariſtotle's writings were made public in his
The æra of philoſophy, as it was called, began lifetime. He affected to ſay that they would be un-
with Thales the Mileſian being declared by a very intelligible to thoſe who had 17t heard them explained
general conſent of the people, the moſt wiſe of all at his lectures: and, except the uſe which Theophraf-
the Grecians, 480 years before Chriſt. The philo tus made of them, they were loſt to the public for
ſophers of his ſchool, which was called the Ionian, above 130 years after the death of Theophraſtus ; and
cultivated principally natural knowledge. Socrates, at laſt came our defective from bad preſervation, and
the ſeventh in ſucceſlion of their great teachers, in corrupted by men, who, without proper qualificati-
troduced the ſtudy of morals, and was thence ſaid to ons, preſumed to correct and ſupply what was loſt.
bring down philoſophy from heaven, to make men From the time of Theophraſtus, the ſtudy of natu-
truly wiſe and happy.
ral knowledge at Athens was forever on the decline;
In the writings of his ſcholar and ſucceſſor Plato, and the reputation of the Lycæum and Academy was
we ſee that the philoſophers had carefully conſidered almoſt confined to tlie ſtudies which are ſubſervienç
the human body, both in its organization and func to oratory and public ſpeaking.
tions ; and though they had not arrived at the know The other great inſtitution for Grecian education,
ledge of the inore minute and intricate parts, which was at Alexandria in Egypt. The firſt Ptolemies, bochi
required the ſucceſſive labour and attention of many from their love of literature, and to gi! e true and per-
ages, they had inade up very noble and comprehenſive manent dignity to their empire, and co Alexander's
ideas of the ſubject in general. The anatomical de favourite city, ſet up a grand ſchool in the palace itſelf,
ſcriptions of Xenophon and Plato have had the honour with a muſeum and library, which, tre may ſay, has
of being quoted by Longinus (^ xxxii.) as ſpecimens
been the moſt famed in the world. Anatomy, among
of ſublime writing : and the extract from Plato is ſtill other ſciences, was publicly taught; and the curo dil-
more remarkable for its containing the rudiments of tinguiſhed anatomiſts were Erafiilratus the pupil and
the circulation of the blood. “The heart (ſays Plato) friend of Theophraſtus, and Herophilus. Their ro-
4 Q2
luminous
676
Hiſtory..
Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
luminous works are all loſt ; but they are quoted by in which it is ſaid were contained iwo celebrated mo-
Galen almoſt in every page. Theſe profeſſors were pro- dern diſcoveries ; the one, the uſes of the lile, boaſt-
bably tlıe firſt who were authorized to diflect human ed of by Sylvius de la Boe; and the other, the circu-
bodies; a peculiarity which marks ſtrongly the philo- lation of the blood. This laft, however, is proved by
ſophical magnanimity of the firſt Ptolemy, and fixes Dr Friend, in his Hiſtory of Phyſic, p. 229. to be
a great æra in the hiſtory of anatomy. And it was, falſely aſcribed to this author.
no doubt, from this particular advantage which the The Roman empire beginning now to be oppreſſed
Alexandrians had above all others, that ihcir ſchool by the barbarians, and funk in groſs ſuperſtition, learn-
not only gained, but for many centuries preſerved, the ing of all kinds decreaſed; and when the empire was
firſt reputation for medical education. Ammianus Mar- totally overwhelmed by thoſe barbarous nations, every
cellinus, who lived about 650 years after the ſchools appearance of ſcience was almoſt extinguillied in Eu-
were ſet up, ſays, thcy were ſo famous in his time, rope. The only remains of it were among the Ara-
that it was enough to ſecure credit to any phy lician, if bians in Spain and in Alia.--I be Saracens who came
he could ſay he had ſtudied at Alexandria.
into Spain, delroyed at firſt all the Greek books which
Herophilus has been ſaid to have anatomized 700 the Vandals had Ipared: but though their government
bodies. We muſt allow for exaggeration. Nay, it was in a confant ſtruggle and fluctuation during 800
was ſaid, that both he and Erafiliratus made it a com years before they were driven out, they received a
mon practice to open living bodies, that they might iaíte tor learning from their countrymen of the eaſt;
diſcover the more ſecret ſprings of life. But this, no ſeveral of their princes encouraged liberal ſtudies
doubt, was only a vulgar opinion, riling from the pre. public ſchools were ſet up at Cordova, Toledo, and
judices of mankind; and accordingly, without any good other towns, and tranllations of the Greeks into the
reaſon, ſuch tales have been told of modern anato. Arabic were univerſally in the hands of their teachers.
miſts, and have been believed by the vulgar.
Thus was the learning of the Grecians transferred
Among the Romans, though it is probable ihcy had to the Arabians. But though they had ſo good a foun-
phyſicians and ſurgeons from the foundation of he ci dation to build upon, this art was never improved
ly, yet we have no account of any of theſe applying while they were maſiers of the world : for they were
themſelves to anatoiny for a very long time. Archa ſatisfied with commenting upon Galen ; and ſeem to
gathus was the firſt Greek phyſician eſabliſhed in have made no diſſections of human bodies.
Rome, and he was baniſhed the city on account of the Abdollaliph, who was himſelf a teacher of anatomy,
ſeverity of his operations.--Aſclepiades, who flouriſh a man eminent in his time (at and before 1203) for his
ed in Rome 1or years after Archagathus, in the time learning and curioſity; a great traveller, who had been
of Pompey; attained ſuch a high reputation as to be bred at Bagdad, and had ſeen many of the great cities
ranked in the ſame claſs with Hippocrates. He ſeem and principal places for ſtudy in the Saracen empire;
ed to have ſome notion of the air in reſpiration acting who had a favourable opinion of original obſervation,
by its weight; and in accounting for digeſtion, he ſup- in oppolition to book learning; who boldly corrected
poſed the food to be no tarther changed than by a com ſome of Galen's errors, and was perſuaded that many
minution into extremely ſmall parts, which being diſ more might be detected ; this man, we ſay, never
uributed to the ſeveral parts of the body, is aſſimilated made or law, or ſeen,ed to think of a human diſſec-
to the nature of each. One Callius, commonly thought tion. He diſcovered Galen's errors in the ofteology,
to be a diſciple of Aſclepiades, accounted for the right by going to burying-grounds, with his ſtudents and
ſide of the body becoming paralytic on hurting the others, where he examined and demonſtrated the
left ſide of the brain, in the ſame manner as has been bones; he earneſtly recommended that method of ftu-
done by the moderns, viz. froni the croſſing of the dy, in preference even to the reading of Galen, and
nerves from the right to the left lide of the brain. thought that many farther improvements might be
From the time of Aſclepiades to the ſecond century, inade; yet he ſeemed not to have an idea that a freſh
phyſicians ſeem to have been greatly encouraged at fubjeét might be diffected with that view.
Rome; and, in the writings of Celſus, Rufus, Pliny, Perhaps the Jewiſh tenets, which the Mahometans
Cælius, Aurelianus, and Aræteus, we find ſeveral ana- adopted, about uncleanlineſs and pollution, might pre-
toinical obſervations, but moſtly very ſuperficial and vent their handling dead bodies ; or their opinion of
inaccurate. Towards the end of the ſecond century what was ſuppoſed to paſs between an angel and the
lived Claudius Gallenus Pergamus, whoſe name is ſo dead perſon, might niake them think diſturbing the
well known in the medical world. He applied himſelf dead highly ſacrilegious. Such, however, as Arabian
particularly to the ſtudy of anatomy, and did more in learning was, for many ages together there was hard-
that way than all that went before him. He ſeems, ly any o'her in all the weſtern countries of Europe. It
however, to have been at a great loſs for human ſub was introduced by the eſtabliſhment of the Saracensin
jects to operate upon; and therefore his deſcriptions of Spain in 711, and kept its ground till the reſtoration
the parts are moſlly taken from brute animals. His of learning in the end of the 15th century. The ſtate
works contain the fulleſt hiſtory of anatomiſts, and of anatomy in Europe, in the times of Arabian influ-
the moſt complete fyftem of the ſcience, to be met ence, may be ſeen by reading a very ſhort ſyſtem of ana-
with any where before him, or for ſeveral centuries tomy drawn up by Mundinus, in the year 1315. It
aſter; ſo that a number of paſſages in them were reck was extracted principally from what the Arabians had
oned abſolutely unintelligible for many ages, until ex- preſerved of Galen's doctrine ; and, rude as it is, in
plained by tlic diſcoveries of ſucceeding anatomiſts. that age, it was judged to be fomaſterly a performance,
About the end of the fourth century, Nimelius, bi- that it was ordered by a public decree, that it ſhould
llop of Eniſſa, wrote a treatiſe on the nature of man, be read in all the ſchools of Italy; and it actually
con-
tinued
Hiſtory.
Α Ν Α Τ ο Μ Y.
577
tinued to be almoſt the only book which was read up and nerves, and veins; and with ſuch diligence of
on the ſubject for above 200 years. Corteſius gives every thing, &c. &c.”
him the credit of being the great reſtorer of anatomy, Thoſe very drawings and the writings are happily
and the firſt who dillected human bodies among the found to be preſerved in his Britannic Majeſty's great
moderns.
collection of original drawings, where the Doctor was
A general prejudice againſt diſſection, however, pre- permitted to examine them; and his ſentiments upon-
vailed till the 16th century. The emperor Charles V. the occaſion he thus expreſſes : "I expected to ſee lica
ordered a conſultation to be held by the divines of Sa. tle more than ſuch deſigns in anatomy, as might be
lamanca, in order to determine whether or not it was uſeful to a painter in his own profeſſion ; but I ſaw,
lawful in point of conſcience to diſſect a dead body. and indeed with aſtoniſhment, that Leonardo had been
In Muſcovy, till very lately, both anatomy and the a general and a deep ſtudent. When I conſider what
uſe of ſkeletons were forbidden, the firſt as inhuman, pains he has taken upon every part of the body, the
and the latter as {ubfervient to witchcraft.
ſuperiority of his univerſal genius, his particular ex-
In the beginning of the 15th century, learning re. cellence in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attenti-
vided confiderably in Europe, and particularly phyfic, on with which ſuch a man would examine and fee oba.
by means of copies of the Greek authors brought from jects which he was to draw, I am fully perſuaded that
the lack of Conſtantinople; after which the number of Leonardo was the beſt anatomiſt at that time in the
anatoniſts and anatomical books increaſed to a prodi. world.
world. We muſt give the 15th century the credit of
gious degree.- The Europeans becoming thus poffef- Leonardo's anatomical ſtudies, as he was 55 years of
ſed of the antient Greek fathers of niedicine, were for age at the cloſe of that century,'
a long time ſo much occupied in correcting the copies In the beginning of the 16th century, Achillinus and
they could obtain, ſtudying the meaning, and com- Benedictus, but particularly Berengarius and Maila,
menting upon them, that they attempted nothing of followed out the improvement of anatomy in Italy,
their own, eſpecially in anatomy.
wliere they taught it, and publiſhed upon the ſubject.
And here the late Dr Hunter introduces into the Theſe firſt improvers made ſome diſcoveries from
annals of this art, a genius of the firſt rate, Leonardo their own diſſections : but it is not ſurpriſing that they
da Vinci, who had been formerly overlooked, becauſe ſhould have been diffident of themielves, and have
he was of another profeſſion, and becauſe he publiſhed followed Galen alnoſt blindly, when his authority
nothing upon the ſubject. He is conſidered by the had been ſo long eſtabliſhed, and when the enthuſi-
Doctor as by far the beſt anatomiſt and phyſiologiſt of arm for Greek authors was riling to ſuch a pitch.
his time ; and was certainly the firſt man we know of Soon after this, we may ſay about the year 1540,
who introduced the practice of making anatomical the great Veſalius appeared. He was ſtudious, labo-
drawings.
rious, and ambitious. From Bruiſels, the place of his
Vaffare, in his lives of the painters, ſpeaks of Leo- birth, he went to Louvain, and thence to Paris, where
nardo thus, after telling us that he had compoſed a anatomy was not yet making a conliderable figure, and
book of the anatomy of a horſe, for his own ſtudy: then to Louvain to teach ; from which place, very for-
“ He afterwards applied himſelf with more diligence tunately for his reputation, he was called to Italy,
to the human anatomy; in which ſtudy he reciprocally where he met with every opportunity that ſuch a ge-
received and communicated aſſiſtance to Marc. Anto- nius for anatomy could deſire, that is, books, ſubječts,
nio della Torre, an excellent philoſopher, who then and excellent draughiſmen. He was equally laborious
read lectures in Pavia, and wrote upon this ſubject; and in reading the ancients, and in diffecting bodies. And
who was the firſt, as I have heard, who began to illuſ- in making the compariſon, he could not but fee, that
trate medicine from the doctrine of Galen, and to give there was great room for improvement, and that many
true light to anatomy, which till that time had been of Galen's deſcriptions were erroncous. When he was
involved in clouds of darkneſs and ignorance. In this but a young man, he published a noble ſyſtem of ana-
he availed himſelf exceedingly of the genius and labour tomy, illuſtrated with a great number of elegant ii-
of Leonardo, who made a book of ſtudies, drawn with gures. In this work he found ſo many occalionis of
red chalk, and touched with a peni, with great diligence, correcting Galen, that his contemporarics, partial to
of ſuch ſubjec?s as he had himſelf diflected ; where he antiquity, and jealous of his reputation, complained that
made all the bones, and to thoſe he joined, in their or- he carried his turn for improvement anıl criticiſins to
der, all the nerves, and covered them with the muſcles. licentiouſneſs. The ſpirit of oppoſition and emulation
And concerning thoſe, from part to part, he wrote re was preſently rouſed; and Sylvius in France, Colum-
marks in letters of an ugly form, which are written by bus, Fallopius, and Euſtachius in Italy, who were all
the left hand, backwards, and not to be underſtood but in high anatomical reputation about the iniddle of this
by thoſe who know the method of reading them ; for 16th century, endeavoured to defend Galen at ihe ex-
they are not to be read without a looking-glaſs. Of pence of Veſalius. In their diſputes they inade their
theſe
papers of the human anatomy, there is a great appeals to the human body : and lius in a few years
part in the pollellion of M. Franceſco da Melzo, a Mi- the art was greatly improved. And Veſalius being de-
laneſe gentleman, who, in the time of Leonardo, was a teeted in the very fault which he condemnedin Galen,
moſt beautiful boy, and much beloved by him, as he is to wit, deſcribing from the diſſections of brutes, and
now a beautiful and genteel old man, who reads thoſe not of the human body, it expoſed ſo fully that blon-
writings, and carefully preſerves them, as precious re- der of the older anatomiſts, that in ſucceeding times
licts, together with the portrait of Leonardo, of happy there has been little reaſon for ſuch complaint.-Be.
memory. It appears impoflible that that divine fpirit fides the above, he publiſhed ſeveral other anatomical
ſhould reaſon ſo well upon the arteries, and muſcles, treatiſes. He has been particularly ſerviceable by im.
poting
678
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Hiſtory.
ma
every author.
poſing names on the muſcles, moſt of which are retain- ſee, that from Harvey to the preſent time, anatomy
ed to this day. Formerly they were diſtinguiſhed by has been ſo much improved, that we may rcaſonably
numbers, which were differently applied by almoſt queſtion iſ the ancients have been further outdone by
the moderns in any other branch of knowledge. From
In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profeſſor of anatomy one day to another there has been a conſtant ſucceſſion
at Padua, publiſhed a treatiſe of anatomy under the of diſcoveries, relating either to the ſtructure or func-
title of Obſervationes Anatomicæ. This was deſigned as tions of our body ; and new anatomical proceſſes, both
a ſupplement to Veſalius ; many of whoſe deſcriptions of inveſtigation and demonſtration, have been daily in-
he corrects, though he always makes mention of him vented. Many parts of the body, which were not
in an honourable manner. Fallopius made many great known in Harvey's time, have ſince then been brought
diſcoveries, and his book is well worth the peruſal of to light: and of thoſe which were known, the inter-
every anatomift.
nal compoſition and functions remained unexplained;
In 1563, Bartholomæus Euſtachius publiſhed his O. and indeed inuſt have remained unexplicable without
pufcula Anatomica at Venice,which have ever ſince been the knowledge of the circulation.
juſtly admired for the exactneſs of the deſcriptions, and Harvey's doctrine at firſt met with conſiderable op-
the diſcoveries contained in them. He publiſhed after poſition : but in the ſpace of about 20 years it was ſo
wards ſome other picces, in which there is little of ana- generally and ſo warmly embraced, that it was imagi-
tomy; but never publiſhed the great work he had pro- ned every thing in phyfic would be explained: But
miſed, which was to be adorned with copperplates time and experience have taught us, that we ſtill are,
repreſenting all the parts of the human body. Theſe and probably muſt long continue to be, very ignorant;
plates, after lying buried in an old cabinet for upwards and that in the ſtudy of the human body, and of its
of 150 years, were at laſt diſcovered and publiſhed in diſeaſes, there will always be an extenſive field for the
the year 1714, by Lancifi the pope's phyſician ; who exerciſe of fagacity.
added a ſhort explicatory text, becauſe Euſtachius's After the diſcovery and knowledge of the circula-
own writing could not be found.
tion of the blood, the next queſtion would naturally
From this time the ſtudy of anatomy gradually dif have been about the paſſage and route of the nutritious
fuſed itſelf over Europe ; inſomuch that for the laſt part of the food or chyle from the bowels to the blood-
hundred years it has been daily improving by the la. veſſels : And, by good fortune, in a few years after
bour of a number of profeſſed anatomiſts almoſt in Harvey had made his diſcovery, Aſellius, an Italian
every country of Europe.
phyſician found out the lacteals, or veſſels which car.
We may form a judgment about the ſtate of anatomy ry the chyle from the inteſtines; and printed his ac-
even in Italy, in the beginning of the 17th century, count of them, with coloured prints, in the year 1627,
from the information of Cortelius. He had been profeſſor the very year before Harvey's book came out.
of anatomy at Bologna, and was then profeſſor of medi. For a number of years after theſe two publications,
cine at Maſſana ; where, though he had a great deſire the anatomiſts in all parts of Europe were daily open-
to improve himſelf in the art, and to finiſh a treatiſe ing living dogs, either to ſee the lacteals or to obſerve
which he had begun on practical anatomy, in 24 years the phenomena of the circulation. In making an ex-
he could twice only procure an opportunity of diffect periment of this kind, Pecquet in France was fortu-
ing a human body, and then it was with difficulties nate enough to diſcover the thoracic duct, or common
and in hurry; whereas he had expected to have done trunk of all the lacteals, which conveys thechyle into
{o, he ſays, once every year, according to the cuſtom in the ſubclavian vein. He printed his diſcovery in the
the famous academies of Italy.
year 1651. And now the lacteals having been traced
În the very end of the 16th century, the great Har. from the inteſtines to the thoracic duct, and that duct
vey, as was the cuſtom of the times, went to Italy to having been traced to its termination in a blood veſſel,
ftudy medicine ; for Italy was ſtill the favourite ſeat of the paſſage of the chyle was completely made out.
the arts : And in the very beginning of the 17th cen The ſame practice of opening living animals furniſh-
tury, ſoon after Harvey's return to England, his ma ed occaſions of diſcovering the lymphatic veſſels. This
ſter in anatony, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, publiſh- good fortune fell to the lot of Rudbec firſt, a young
ed an account of the valves in the veins, which he had Swediſh anatomiſt; and then to Thomas Bartholine, a
diſcovered many years before, and no doubt taught in Daniſh anatomiſt, who was the firſt who appeared in
his lectures when Harvey attended him.
print upon the lymphatics. His book came out in the
This diſcovery evidently affected the eſtabliſhed doc- year 1653, that is two years after that of Pecquet.
trine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from And then it was very evident that they had been ſeen
the liver to all parts of the body for nouriſhment, It before by Dr Higmore and others, who had miſtaken
ſet Harvey to work upon the uſe of the heart and vaſ- them for lacteals. But none of the anatomiſts of thoſe
cular ſyſteins in animals ; and in the courſe of ſome times could make out the origin of the lymphatics, and
years he was ſo happy as to diſcover, and to prove be none of the phyLiologiſts could give a ſatisfactory ac.
yond all poſſibility of doubt, the circulation of the blood. count of their uſe.
He taught his new doctrine in his lectures about the The circulation of the blood and thc paſſage of the
year 1616, and printed it in 1628.
chyle having been fatisfactorily tracedout infull-grown
It was by far the moſt important ſtep that had been animals, the anatomiſts were naturally led next to con-
made in he knowledge of animal bodies in any age. ſider how theſe animal proceſſes were carried on in the
It not only reflected uſeful lights upon what had been child while in the womb of the mother. Accordingly
already found out in anatomy, but alſo pointed out the the male and female organs, the appearances and con-
means of further inveſtigation. And accordingly we tents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated egg, and
every
Hiſtory.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
679
every phenomenon which could illuſtrate generation, of Mr Cowper's own. To this work Cowper's name
became the favourite ſubject, for about 30 years, with was prefixed, without the leaſt mention of Bidloo, ex-
the principal anatomiſts of Europe.
cept on purpoſe to confute him. Bidloo immediately
Thus it would appear to have been in theory : but publiſhed a very ill-natured pamphlet, called Gulielmus
Dr Hunter believes, that in fact, as Harvey's maſter Cowperus citatus coran tribunali; appealing to the
Fabricius laid the foundation for the diſcovery of the Royal Society, how far Cowper onght to be puniſhed as
circulation of the blood by teaching him the valves of a plagiary of the worſt kind, and endeavouring to prove
the veins, and thereby inviting him to conſider that him an ignorant deceitful fellow. Cowper anſivered
ſubject; fo Fabricius by his lectures, and by his ele- him in his own ſtyle, in a pamphlet called his Vindicia;
gant work De formatofutu, et de formatione ovi et pulli, endeavouring to prove, either that Bidloo did not un
probably made that likewiſe a favourite ſubject with derſtand his own tables, or that they were none of his.
Dr Harvey. But whether he took up the ſubject of It was even alleged that thoſe were the tables promiſ-
generation in conſequence of his diſcovery of the cir- ed by Swammerdam, and which Bidloo had got from
culation, or was led to it by his honoured maſter Fa his widow. This, however, appears to have been only
bricius, he ſpent a great deal of his time in the inquiry; an invidious furmiſe, there being unqueſtionable evi-
and publiſhed his obſervations in a book De generati. dence that they were really the perforinance of Bidloo.
one animalium, in the year 1651, that is fix years be Soon after, Iſbrandus Diembroeck, profeſſor of ana-
fore his death.
tomy at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His
In a few years after this, Swammerdam, Van Horn, work contained very little original ; but he was at great
Steno, and De Graaf, excited great attention to the pains to collect from others whatever was valuable in
ſubject of generation, by their ſuppoſed diſcovery that their writings, and his ſyſtem was the common ſtandard
the females of viviparous animals have ovaria, that is, among anatomical ſtudents for many years.
cluſters of eggs in their loins, like oviparous animals; About the ſame time, Antonius Liewenhoeck of
which, when in pregnated by the male, are conveyed Delft, improved conſiderably on Malpighi's uſe of mi-
into the uterus : fo that a child is produced from an croſcopes. Theſe two authers took up anatomy where
egg as well as a chick ; with this difference, that one others had droptit; and, by this new art, they brought
is hatched within, and the other without, the body of a number of amazing things to light. They diſcover-
the mother.
ed the red globules of the blood ; they were enabled
Malpighi, a great Italian genius, ſome time after, to ſee the actual circulation of the blood in the tranſ-
made conſiderable advances upon the ſubject of gene parent parts of living animals, and could meaſure the
ration. He had the good fortune to be the firſt who velocity of its motion; they diſcovered that the arte-
uſed magnifying glaſſes with addreſs in tracing the firſt ries and veins had no intermediate cells or ſpongy ſub-
appearances in the formation of animals. He likewiſe ſtance, as Harvey and all the preceding anatomiſts
made many other obſervations and improvements in the had fuppoſed, but communicated one with the other
minutia of anatomy by his microſcopical labours, and by a continuation of the ſaine tube,
by cultivating comparative anatomy.
Liewenhoeck was in great famelikewiſe for his diſ-
This diſtinguiſhed anatomiſt gave the firſt public ſpe- covery of the animalcula in the ſemen. Indeed there
cimen of his abilities, by printing a diſſertation on the was ſcarcely a part of the body, ſolid or fluid, which
lungs anno 1661 ; a period fo remarkable for the ſtudy eſcaped his exainination ; and he almoſt every where
of nature, that it would be injuſtice to paſs it without found, that what appeared to the naked eye to be rude
particular notice.
undigeſted matter, was in reality a beautiful and re-
At the ſame time flouriſhed Laurentius Bellinus at gular compound.
Florence, and was the firſt who introduced mathemati After this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of
cal reaſoning in phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli pub- the abſorbent ſyſtem already mentioned, by his injec-
liſhed a treatiſe De albandis offibus. He had long been tions of the lymphatic glands ; Ruyſch, by his deſcrip-
admired for the white ſkeletons he prepared; and at tion of the valves of the lymphatic veſſels ; and Dr
laſt diſcovered his method, which was by expoſing the Neckel, by his accurate account of the whole fyſtem,
bones all winter to the weather,
and by tracing thoſe veſſels in many parts where they
Johannes Swammerdam of Amſterdam alſo publiſhed had not before been deſcribed.
ſome anatomical treatiſes ; but was moſt remarkable Beſides theſe authors, Drs Hunter and Monro have
for his knowledge of preſerving the parts of bodies en called the attention of the public to this part of anato-
tire for many years, by injecting their veſſels. He ale my, in their controverſy concerning the diſcovery of
fo publiſhed a treatiſe on refpiration; wherein he men the office of the lymphatics.
tioned his having figures of all the parts of the body as When the lymphatic veſſels were firſt feen and trac-
big as the life, cut in copper, which he deſigned to pub- ed into the thoracic duct, it was natural for anatomiſts
liſh, with a complete ſyſtem of anatomy. Theſe, low to ſuſpect, that as the lacteals abſorbed from the cavi.
ever, were never made public by Swammerdam ; but ty of the inteſtines, the lymphatics, which are ſimilar
in 1683, Gothrofridus Bidloo, profeſſor of anatomy at in figure and ſtructure, might poſſibly do the fame of-
Leyden, publiſhed a work entitled Anatomia corporis fice with reſpect to other parts of the body: and ac-
humani, where all the parts were delineated in very cordingly, Dr Gliſſon, who wrote in 1654, ſuppoſes
large plates almoſt as big as the life. Mr Cowper, an theſe veſſels aroſe from cavities, and that their uſe was
Engliſh ſurgeon,bought 300 copies of theſe figures; and to abſorb; and Frederic Hoftinan has very explicitly
in 1698, publithed them with an Engliſh text, quite laid down the doctrine of the lymphatic veílels being a
different from Bidloo's Latin one; to which were ad- fyſtem of abſorbents. But anatomiſts in general have
ded letters in Bidloo's figures, and ſome few figures been of a contrary opinio) ; for,from experiments, par-
2
ticularly
A
650
Hiſtory.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
ticularly ſuch it were made by injections, they have ſmaller parts of the body, by Morgagni, Ruyſch, Val-
been perſuaded that the lymphatic veſſels did not ariſe falva, Sanctorini, Huiſter, Vatcr, Cant, Zimmerman,
from cavities, and did 11ot abſorb, bul were merely con Walterus, and others.
tinuations from ſmall arteries. The doctrine, there Thoſe elegant plates of the brain, however, juſt
fore, that the lymphatics, like the lacteals, were ab- publiſhed by M. Vicq. d'Azyr, muit not paſs without
ſorbents, as had been ſuggelted by Gliſſon and by Hoff- notice, eſpecially as they form part of an univerſal fyſ-
man, has been revived by Dr Hunter and Dr Monro, tem of anatomy and phynology, both huinan and coin-
who have controverted the experiments of their pre- parative, proposed to be executed in the ſame ſplendid
deceffors in anatomy, and have endeavoured to prove ſtyle. Upon the brain alone 19 folio plates are eni-
that the lymphatic vellels are not continued from ar- ployed ; oi which leveral are coloured. The figures
teries, but are abſorbents.
are delineated with accuracy and clearneſs; but the co-
To this doctrine, however, ſeveral objections have louring is rather beautiful than correct. Such parts of
been ſtarted, particularly by Haller (Elem. Phyſ. 1. 24. this work as may be publilhed, cannot fail to be equal-
§ 2, 3.); and it has been found, that before the doc- ly acceptable to the anatomiſt and the philoſopher; but
trine of the lymphatics being a ſyſtein of abſorbents the entire delign is apparently too extentive to be ac-
can be eſtabliſhed, it muſt firſt be determined whether compliſhed within the period of a ligle life. In Great
this ſyſtem is to be found in other animals beſides man Britain, alſo, a very great anatomical work is carrying
and quadrupeds. Mr Hewſon claims the merit of ha on by Andrew Bell, F. S. A. $. engraver to his Roy-
ving proved the affirmative of this queſtion, by diſco- al Highneſs the Prince of Wales, with the appro-
vering the lymphatic ſyſtem in birds, filh, and amphi. bation of Dr Monro, and under the inſpection of his
bious animals. See Phil. Tranſ. vol. lviii. and lxix.- very ingenious aſſiſtant My Fyfe. It is to compoſe a
And latterly, Mr Cruikſhank has traced the rainifica- complete illuſtration, both general and particular, of
tions of that ſyſtem in almoſt every part of the body ; the human body, by a ſelection from the beſt plates
and from his diſſections, figures have been made and of all the greateſt anatomiſts, as well foreign as
lately publiſhed to the world. To Mr Sheldon alſo we British, exhibiting the lateit diſcoveries in the
are much indebted for his illuſtration of this fyftem, ſcience, and accompanied with copious explanations.
which promiſes to give great ſatisfaction, but of which The whole number of plates mentioned in the Pro-
only a part has yet been publiſhed.
fpectus is 240, of which 152 are already done ; all in
The gravid uterus is a ſubject likewiſe which has re- royal folio.
ceived conſiderable iimprovements, particularly relat To the foreign treatiſes already mentioned may be
ing to one very important diſcovery : viz. that the added thoſe recently publiſhed by Sabbatier and Plenck
internal membrane of the uterus, which Dr Hunter on anatomy in general. In Great Britain, the writ-
has named decidua, conſtitutes the exterior part of the ings of Keil, Douglas, Cheſelden, the firſt Monro,
ſecundines or after-birth, and ſeparates from the reſt of Winſlow, &c. are too well known tó need deſcription.
the uterus every time that a woman either bears a child The laſt of theſe uſed to be recommended as a Itandard
or ſuffers a miſcarriage. This diſcovery includes ano. for the ſtudents of anatomy : but it has of lace given
ther, to wit, that the placenta is partly made up of place to a more accurate and comprehenſive ſyſtem,
an excreſcence or efloreſcence from the uterus itſelf. in three volumes, publiſhed by Mr Elliot of Edin-
Theſe diſcoveries are of the utinoft conſequence, burgh, upon a plan approved of by Dr Monro, and
both in the phyſiological queſtion about the connection executed by Mr Tyfc. Dr Simmons of London has al-
between the motherandchild, and likewiſein explain. ſo obliged the world with an excellent ſyſtem of ana-
ing the phenomena of births and abortions, as well tomy; and another work, under the title of “ Ele-
as in regulating obſtetrical practice.
ments of Anatomy and the Animal Oeconomy: in
The anatomiſts of this century have improved ana- which the fubje&s are treated with uncommon elegance
tomy, and have made the ſtudy of it much more eaſy, and perſpicuity.
by giving us more correct as well as more numerous fi In the latter part of the laſt century, anatomy made
gures. It is amazing to think of what has been done in two great ſteps, by the invention of injections, and the
that time. We have had four large folio books of fi- method of making what we commonly call preparations.
gures of the bones, viz. Cheſelden's, Albinus's, Sue's Theſe two modern arts have really been of infinite uſe
and Trew's. Of the muſcles, we have had two large to anatomy; and belides live introduced an elegance
folios; one from Cowper, which is elegant; and one into our adminiſtrations, which in former times could
from Albinus, which, from the accuracy and labour of not have been ſuppoſed to be poſſible. They aroſe in
the work, we may ſuppoſe will never be outdone. Of Holland under Swammerdam and Ruyſch, and after-
the blood-veſſels we have a large folio from Dr Haller. wards in England under Cowper, St André, and
We have had one upon the nerves from Dr. Meckel, others, where they have been greatly improved.
and another by Dr Monro junior. We have had Al The anatomiſts of former ages had no other know-
binus's, Roederer's, Jenty's, and Hunter's works ledge of the blood veſſels, than what they were able
upon the pregnant uterus; Weilbrecht and Leber on to collect from laborious diſſections, and from examin-
the joints and frelh bones ; Soemerring on the brain ; ing the ſmaller branches of them, upon ſome lucky oc-
Zin on the eye; Cotunnius, Mekel junior, &c. on cafion,when they were found more than commonly load-
the ear; Walterus on the nerves of the thorax and ed with red blood. But filling the vaſcular ſyſtem with
abdomen ; Dr Monro on the burſæ nucofæ, &c. a bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large
It would be endleſs to mention the anatomical figures vellels with great eaſe, renders the ſmaller much more
that have been publiſhed inthis century,of particular and conſpicuous, and makes thouſands of the very minute
ones
3
!
!
Introd.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
681
ones viſible, which from their delicacy, and the tranſ- riolity of people of taſte, as a branch of philoſophy;
parency of their natural contents, are otherwiſe im- fince, ifitis pleaſing to be acquainted with the ſtructure
perceptible.
of the body, it is certainly more ſo to diſcover all the
The modern art of corroding the fleſhy parts with ſprings which give life and motion to the machine,
a menſtruum, and of Icaving the moulded wax entire, and to obſerve the admirable mechaniſın by which ſo
is ſo exceedingly uſeful, and at the ſame time ſo orna many different functions are executed.
mental, that it does great honour to the ingenious in Aſtronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after Fon-
ventor Dr. Nicholls.
tenelle, obſerves are the ſtudies which preſent us with
The wax-work art of the moderns might deſerve the moſt ſtriking view of the two greateſt attributes of
notice in any hiſtory of anatomy, if the maſters in that the Supreme Being. The firſt of theſe fills the mind
way had not been ſo careleſs in their imitation. Many with the idea of his immenfity, in the largeneſs, diſ-
of the wax-figures are ſo tawdry with a ſhow of unna tances, and number of the heavenly bodies ; the laſt,
tural colours, and ſo very incorrect in the circunſtances aſtoniſhes with his intelligence and art in the variety
of figure, lituation, and the like, that though they and delicacy of animal mechaniſm.
ſtrike a vulgar eye with admiration, they muſt appear The human body has been commonly enough known
ridiculous to an anatomiſt. But thoſe figures which by the name of microcamus, or the little world; as if
are caſt in wax, plaſter or lead, from the real ſubject, it did not differ ſo inuch from the univerſal ſyſtem of
and which of late years have been frequently nade, nature in the ſymmetry and number of its parts as in
are, of courſe, very correct in all the principal parts, their ſize.
and may be conſidered as no inſignificant acquiſition Galen's excellent treatiſe Deufil partiuni, was com-
to modern anatomy. The proper, or principal uſe poſed as a proſe hymn to the Creator ; and abounds
of this art is, to preſerve a very perfect likeneſs of with as irreſiſtible proofs of a ſupreme Cauſe and go.
fuch ſubjects as we but ſeldom can meet with, or can- verning Providence, as we find in modern phyſico-
ilot well preſerve in a natural ſtate ; a ſubject in preg- theology. And Cicero dwells more on the ſtructure
nancy for example.
and ceconomy of animals than on all the productions
The modern improved methods of preſerving animal of nature beſides, when he wants to prove the exiſtence
bodies, or parts of them, has been of the greateſt fer- of the gods from the order and beauty of the univerfc.
vice to anatomy; eſpecially in ſaving the time and la- He there takes a ſurvey of the body of man in a moſt
bour of the anatomiſt in the nicer diſſections of the elegant ſynopſis of anatomy, and concludes thus:
ſmall parts of the body. For now, whatever he has "Quibus rebus expofitus, fatis docuiſſe videor, homi-
prepared with care, he can preſerve; and the object is nis natura, quanto omnes anteiret animantes. Ex quo
ready to be ſeen at any time. And in the ſame man deber intelligi, nec figuram litumque niembrorum, nec
ner he can preſerve anatomical curioſities, or rarities of ingenii inentiſque vim talem effici potuiſſe fortuna.”
every kind; ſuch as, parts that are uncommonly form The ſatisfaction of mind which ariſes from the ſtudy
ed; parts that are diſeaſed; the parts of the pregnant of anatony, and the influence which it muſt naturally
uterus and its contents. Large collections of ſuch cu have upon our minds as philoſophers, cannot be better
riotities, which modern anatomiſts are ſtriving almoſt conveyed than by the following paſſage from the fame
every where to procure, are of infinite ſervice to the author : “ Quæ contuens animus, accepit ab his cog-
art, eſpecially in the hands of teachers. They give nitionem deorem, ex qua oritur pieras: cui conjuncta
ſtudents clear ideas about many things which it is very juſtitia eſt, reliquæque virtutes : ex quibus vita beata
eſſential to know, and yet which it is impoſſible that exſiſtit, par et fimiles deorum, nulla alia re nifiimmor-
a teacher ſhould be able to ſhow otherwile, were he talitate, quæ nihil ad bene vivendum pertinet, cedenis
ever ſo well ſupplied with freſh ſubjects,
cæleftibus."
It would be endleſs to quote the animated paffages
§ 2. View of the Subject in General, and Plan of
of this fort which are to be found in the phyſicians,
the following Treatif.
philoſophers, and theologiſts, who have conſidered the
The etymology of the word anatomy, as above gi. ſtructure and functions of animals with a view towards
ven, implies ſimply diffi&ti0n; but by this term ſome the Creator. It is a view which muſt ſtrike one with
thing more is uſually underſtood.
a moſt awful conviction. Who can know and conſider
It is every day made uſe of to expreſs a knowledge the thouſand evident proofs of the aſtoniſhing art of
of the human body ; and a perſon who is ſaid to un the Creator, in forming and ſuſtaining an animal body
derſtand anatomy, is ſuppoſed to be converſant with ſuch as ours, without feeling the moſt pleaſant enthu-
the ſtructure and arrangement of the different ſolid fiaſm? Can we ſeriouſly reflect upon this awful ſub-
parts of the body.
ject, without being almoſt loſt in adoration ? without
It is cominonly divided into Anatomy, properly ſo longing for another life after this,in which we may be
called ; and Comparative Anatomy: the firſt of theſe is gratified with the higheſt enjoyment, which our facul-
confined ſolely to the human body ; the latterincludes ties and nature ſeem capable of, the feeing and com-
all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their ſtructure prehending the whole plan of the Creator, in forming
may tend to perfet our ideas of the human body. See the univerſe and in directing all its operations ?
COMPARATIVE Anatomy,
But the more immediate purpoſes of anatoniy con-
The term anatomy may alſo have another and more cern thoſe who are to be the guardians of health, as
extenſive ſignification: it may be employed to expreſs this ſtudy is neceſſary to lay a foundation for all the
not only a knowledge of the ſtructure and diſpoſition of branches of medicine. The more we know of our
the parts, but likes iſe of their oeconomy and uſe.Con- fabric, the more reaſon we have to believe, that if our
ſidered in this light, it will ſeldom fail to excite the cu fenfes were more acute, and our judgment more enlar-
Vol.I.
4R
ged,
>>
682
Introd.
A
N A T
Τ Ο Μ
Y.
ged, we ſhould be able to trace many ſprings of life tually find in the hunian body. And if we conſider
which are now hidden from us : by the fame fagacity that, in order to anſwer ſome of the requiſites, human
we ſhould diſcover the true cauſes and nature of dif wit and invention would be very inſufficient : we need
caſes; and thereby be enabled to reſtore the health not be ſurpriſed if we meet with ſome parts of the bo-
of many, who are now, from our more confined know- dy wlioſe uſe we cannot yet perceive, and with ſome
ledge, ſaid to labour under incurable diſorders. By operations and functions which we cannot explain. We
ſuch an intimate acquaintance with the ceconomy of can ſee that the whole bears the moſt ſtriking charac-
our bodies, we ſhould diſcover even the ſeeds of dif-
ters of excelling wiſdom and ingenuity : but the im-
eaſes, and deſtroy thein before they had taken root in perfect ſenſes and capacity of man cannot pretend to
the conſtitution.
reach every part of a machine, which nothing leſs than
That anatomy is the very baſis of ſurgery every body the intelligence and power of the Supreme Being could
allows. It is diſſection alone that can teach us, where contrive and execute.
we may cut the living body with freedom and diſpatch; Firſt, then, the mind, the thinking, immaterial a-
and where we may venture with great circumſpection gent, nuſt be provided with a place of immediate re-
and delicacy; and where we muſt not, upon any ac fidence, which ſhall have all the requiſites for the union
count, attenpt it. This informs the head, gives dex- of ſpirit and body; accordingly ſhe is provided with
terity to the hand, and familiarizes the heart with a the brain, where ſhe dwells as governor and ſuperin-
ſort of neceſſary inhumanity, the uſe of cutting-in- tendant of the whole fabric.
Itruments upon our fellow-creatures.
In the next place, as ſhe is to hold a correſpondence
Beſides the knowledge of our body, through all the with all the material beings around her, ihe muſt be
variety of its firucture and operations in a found ſtate, ſupplied with organs fitted to receive the different
it is by anatomy only that we can arrive at the know- kinds of impreſſions which they will make. In fact,
ledge of the true nature of moſt of the diſeaſes which therefore, we ſee that ſhe is provided with the organs
affict humanity. The ſymptoms of many diſorders of ſenſe, as we call them: the eye is adapted to light;
are often equivocal; and diſeaſes themſelves are thence the ear to found ; the noſe to ſmell ; the mouth to taſte;
frequently miſtaken, even by ſenſible, experienced, and the ſkin to touch.
and attentive phyſicians. But by anatomical examin Further: She muſt be furniſhed with organs of
ation after death, we can with certainty find out the communication between herſelf in the brain and thoſe
miſtake, and learn to avoid it in any ſimilar caſe. organs of ſenſe, to give herinformation of all the im-
This uſe of anatomy has been ſo generally adopted preſſions that are made upon them : and ſhe muſt have
by the moderns, that the caſes already publiſhed are organs between herſelf in the brain and every other
almoſt innumerable: Mangetus, Morgagni, indeed ma part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and in-
ny of the beſt modern writings in phylic, are full of fuence over the whole. For theſe purpoſes the nerves
them. And if we look among the phyſicians of the are actually given. They are chords, which riſe from
beſt character, and obſerve thoſe who have the art it the brain, the imniediate reſidence of the mind, and
ſelf, rather than the craft of the profeſſion at heart; diſperſe themſelves in branches through all parts of the
we ſhall find them conſtantly taking pains to procure body. They convey all the different kinds of ſenſa-
leave to examine the bodies oftheir patients after death, tions to the mind, in the brain ; and likewiſe carry
After having conſidered the riſe and progreſs of ana out from thence all her commands or influence to the
tomy; the various diſcoveries that have been made in other parts of the body. They are intended to be oc-
it, from time to time; the great number of diligent caſional monitors againſt all ſuch impreſſions as might
obſervers who have applied themſelves to this art; endanger the well-being of the whole, or of any par-
and the importance of the ſtudy, not only for the pre ticular part; which vindicates the Creator of all
vention and cure of diſeaſes, but in furniſhing the things, in having actually ſubjected us to thoſe many
livelieſt proofs of divine wiſdom; the following queſ- diſagreeable and painful ſenſations which we are ex-
tions ſecm naturally to ariſe: For what purpoſe is there poſed to from a thouſand accidents in life.
ſuch a variety of parts in the human body? Why ſuch Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal ſyſtem, muſt
a complication of nice and tender machinery? Why be endued with the power of moving from place to
was there not rather a more ſimple, leſs delicate, and place, that ſhe may have intercourſe with a variety of
leſs expenſive frame (A)?
objects ; that ſhe may fly from ſuch as are diſagreeable,
In order to acquire a ſatisfactory general idea of this dangerous or hurtful, and purſue ſuch as are pleaſant
ſubject, and find a ſolution of all ſuch queſtions, let or uſeful to lier. And accordingly the is furniſhed
us, in our imaginations, make a man : in other words with limbs, and with muſcles and tendons, the inſtru-
let us ſuppoſe that the mind, or immaterial part, is to be ments of niotion, which are found in every part of the
placed in a corporeal fabric, in order to hold a corre fabric where motion is neceſſary.
ſpondence with other material beings by the interven But to ſupport, to give firmneſs and ſhape to the
tion of the body ; and then conſider, a priori, what will fabric; to keep the ſofter parts in their proper places;
be wanted for her accommodation. In this inquiry, we to give fixed points for, and the proper direction to
Mall plainly ſee the neceſſity or advantage, and there its motions, as well as to protect ſome of the more
fore the final cauſe, of moſt of the parts which we ac important and tender organs from external injuries ;
there
(A) The following boautifulrepreſentation is taken from the late Dr Hunter's Introductory Lecture in Ana-
toiny.
Introd.
Ν Α Ν Α
683
Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
there muſt be ſome firm prop-work interwoven thro' Even all this proviſion, however, would 2103 be fufh.
the whole. And, in fact, for ſuch purpoſes the bones cient; for that ſtore of blood would ſoon be confumed,
are given.
and the fabric would break down, if there were not a
The prop-work muſt not be made into one rigid fa- proviſion made for freſh ſupplies. Theſe we obſerve,
bric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there in fact, are profuſely ſcattered round her in the ani.
are a number of bones.
mal and vegetable kingdoms; and ſhe is furniſhed with
Theſe picces muſt all be firmly bound together, to hands, the fitteſt inſtruments that could havebeen con-
prevent their diſlocation. And this end is perfe&ly trived, for gathering them, and for preparing them
well anſwered by the ligaments.
in a variety of ways
for the mouth.
The extremities of theſe bony pieces, where they But theſe ſupplies, which we call food, muſt be con-
move and rub upon one another, muſt have ſmooth ſiderably changed; they muſt be converted into blood.
and Nippery ſurfaces for eaſy motion. This is moſt Therefore ſhe is provided with teeth for cutting and
happily provided far, by the cartilages and mucus of bruiſing the food, and with a ſtomach for melting it
the joints.
down: In ſhort, with all the organs ſubſervient to di-
The interſtices of all thoſe parts muſt be filled up geſtion.--The finer parts of the aliments only can be
with ſome ſoft and ductile matter, which ſhall keep uſeful in the conſtitution: theſe muſt be taken up and
them in their places, unite them, and at the ſame time conveyed into the blood, and the dregs muſt be thrown
allow them to move a little upon one another. And off. With this view the inteſtinal canal is actually gi-
theſe purpoſes are anſwered by the cellular membrane ven. It ſeparates the nutritious part, which we call
or adipoſe ſubſtance.
chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the fyſtem of
There muſt be an outward covering over the whole abſorbent veſſels ; and the fæces paſs downwards, to
apparatus, both to give it compactneſs and to defend it be conducted out of the body.
from a thouſand injuries: which, in fact, are the ve Now we have got our animal not only furniſhed with
ry purpoſes of the ſkin and other integuments. what is wanted for its immediate exiſtence, but alſo
Laſtly, the mind being formed for fociety and in with the powers of protracting that exiſtence to an in-
tercourſe with beings of her own kind, ſhe muſt be en finite length of time. But its duration, we may pre-
dued with powers of expreſſing and communicating her ſume, muft neceſſarily be limited: for as it is nouriſh-
thoughts by ſome ſenſible marks or ſigns; which ſhall ed, grows, and is raiſed up to its full ſtrength and ut-
be both eaſy to herſelf, and admit of great variety; and moſt perfection ; ſo it muſt, in time, in common with
accordingly ſhe is provided with the organs and faculty all material beings, begin to decay, and then hurry on
of ſpeech, by which ſhe can throw out ligns with ama to final ruin. Hence we ſee the neceſſity of a ſcheme
zing facility, and vary them without end.
for renovation. Accordingly wiſe Providence, to per.
Thus we have built up an animal body which would petuate, as well as preſerve his work, beſides giving a
ſeem to be pretty complete; but as it is the nature of ſtrong appetite for life and ſelf-preſervation, has made
matter to be altered and worked upon by matter; ſo animals male and female, and given them ſuch organs
in a very little time ſuch a living creature muſt be de- and paſſions as will ſecure the propagation of the Ipe-
ſtroyed, if there is no proviſion for repairing the inju. cies to the end of time.
ries which ſhe muſt commit upon herſelf, and thoſe Thus we ſee, that by the very imperfect ſurvey
which ſhe muſt be expoſed to from without. There which human reaſon is able to take of this ſubject,
fore a treaſure of blood is actually provided in the heart the animal man muſt neceſſarily be complex in his
and vaſcular ſyſtem, full of nutritious and healing par. corporeal ſyſtem, and in its operations.
ticles, fluid enough to penetrate into the minutelt parts Heinuſt have one great and general ſyſtem, the vaſ.
of the animal; impelled by the heart, and conveyed cular, branching through the whole for circulation :
by the arteries, it waſhes every part, builds up what Another, the nervous, with its appendages the organs
was broken down, and ſweeps away the old and uſeleſs of fenfe, for every kind of feeling : And a third, for
materials. Hence we ſee the neceſlity or advantage of the union and connection of all thoſe parts.
the heart and arterial ſyſtem.
Beſides theſe primary and general ſyſtems, he re-
What more there was of this blood than enough to quires others which may be more local or confined :
repair the preſent damages of the machine, muſt not be One for ſtrength, ſupport, and protection; the bony
loſt, but ſhould be returned again to the heart; and for compages : Another for the requiſite motions of the
this purpoſe the venous ſyſtem is actually provided. parts among themſelves, as well as from moving from
Theſe requiſites in the animal explain, a priori, the place to place ; the muſcular part of the body : An-
circulation of the blood.
other to prepare nouriſhment for the daily recruit of
The old materials which were become uſeleſs, and the body ; the digeſtive organs : And one for propa-
are ſwept off by the current of blood, muſt be fepara- gating the ſpecies; the organs of generation.
ted and thrown out of the ſyſtem. Therefore glands, And in taking this general ſurvey of what would
the organs of Secretion, are given for ftraining what- appear, a priori, to be neceſſary for adapting an animal
ever is redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the maſs to the ſituations of life, we obſerve, with great fatisfac-
of blood ; and when ſtrained, they are thrown out by tion, that man is accordingly made of ſuch ſyſtems,
emunétories, called organs or Excretion.
and for ſuch purpoſes. He has them all ; and he has
But now, as the machine muſt be conſtantly wear. nothing more, except the urgans of reſpiration. Brea-
ing, the reparation muſt be carried on without inter- thing it ſeemed difficult to account for a priori : we
million, and the ſtrainers muſt always be employed. (nly knew it to be in fact eſſentially neceſſary to
Therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of life. Notwithſtanding this, when we ſaw all the other
the blood, and the ſecretions are always going on. parts of the body, and their functions, fo vell ace
counted
4 R 2
684
Introd.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
counted for, and ſo wiſely adapted to their ſeveral pur we ſhall next conſider the method to be obſerved in
poſes, there could be no doubt that reſpiration was fo trcating it.
likewiſe: And accordingly, the diſcoveries of Dr The ſtudy of the human body, as already noticed,
Prieſtley have lately thrown light upon this function is commonly divided into two parts. The firſt, which
alſo, as will be ſhown in its proper place.
is called Anatomy, relates to the matter and ſtructure
Of all the different fyſtems in the human body, the of its parts; the ſecond, Phyſiology and Animal aco-
afe and neceſſity are not more apparent, than the wiſ- nomy, relates to the principles and laws of its inter-
dom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting nal operations and functions.
them allinto the moſt compactand convenientform : in As the body is a compound of ſolids and Auids, Ana-
difpofing them ſo, that they ihall mutually receive, and towy is divided into,
give helps to one another; and that all, or many of the 1. The Anatomy of the folids, and
parts, Mall not only anſwer their principal end or pur 2. The Anatomy of the Huids.
pore, but operate ſucceſsfully and uſefully in a variety 1. Tlie SOLIDS, by which we mean all parts of our
of ſecondary ways.
body which are not fluid, are generally divided into
If we conſider the whole animal machine in this
two claſſes, viz.
light, and compare it with any machine in which hu I. The hard folids or bones. This part of anatomy
man art has exerted its utmoſt; ſuppoſe the beſt con is called Oſteology'; which fignifics the doctrine of the
fructed Mhip that ever was builí, we ſhall be convinced bones.
beyond the poſſibility of doub, that there are intelli 2. The fofter ſolids; which part is called Sarcology,
gence and power far ſurpaffing what humanity can viz, the doctrine of fleſh.
boaſt of.
This diviſion of the ſolids, we may obſerve, has pro-
One ſuperiority in the natural machine is peculiarly bably taken its origin from the vulgar obſervation,
ſtriking.--In machines of human contrivance or art, that the body is made of bone and fleſh. And as there
there is no internal power, no principle in the machine are many different kinds of what are called ſoft or
itſelf, by which it can alter and accommodate itſelf to fleſhy parts, Sarcology is ſubdivided into,
any injury which it may fuífer, or make up any injury (1.) Angeiology', or the doctrine of veſſels; by
which admits of repair. But in the natural machine, which is commonly underſtood blood-veffels :
the aniinal body, this is moſt wonderfully provided for (2.) Adenology, of glands :
by internal powers in the machine itſelf; many of (3.) Neurology, of nerves :
which are not more certain and obvious in their ef (4.) Myology, of muſcles : and,
fects, than they are above all human comprehenſion as (5.) Splanchnology, 'of the viſcera or bowels. There
to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a is, beſides, that part which treats of the organs of
wound heals up of itſelf; a broken bone is made firm ſenſe and of the integuments.
again by a callus ; a dead part is ſeparated and thrown This diviſion of the folids has been here mentioned,
off ; noxious juices are driven out by ſome of the rather for the ſakc of explaining ſo many words, which
emunctories; a redundancy is removed by ſome ſpon- are conſtantly uſed by anatomiſts, than for its import-
taneous bleeding; a bleeding naturally ſtops of itſelf ; ance or accuracy. For beſides many other objections
and a great loſs of blood, from any cauſe, is in fome that might be urged, there are in the body three fpe-
meaſure compenſated, by a contracting power in the cics of ſolids, viz. griſtle or cartilage, hair, and nails;
vaſcular ſyſtem, which accommodates the capacity of which are of an intermediate nature between bone and
the vesſels to the quantity contained. The ſtoinach fleſh; and therefore cannot ſo properly be brought into
gives information when the ſupplies have been expend- the oſteology or the ſarcology. The cartilages were
ed; repreſents, with great exactneſs, the quantity and claffed with the bones; becauſe the greateſt number of
the quality of what is wanted in the preſent ſtate of them are appendages 10 bones: and for the like rea-
the machine ; and in proportion as ſhe meets with ne ſon the hair and the nails were claſſed with the inte-
glect, riſes in her demand, urges her petition in a loud- guments.
er tone, and with more forcible arguments. For its 11. The FLUIDS of the human body may be divided
protection, an animal body reſiſts heat and cold in a into three kinds, which Dr Hunter calls the crude, the
very wonderful manner, and preſerves an equal tem- general or perfect, and the local or ſecreted fluid.
perature in a burning and in a freezing atmoſphere. I. By the crude fluid is meant the chyle, and what-
A farther excellence or ſuperiority in the natural ever is abſorbed at the ſurfaces of the body; in other
machine, if poſſible, ſtill more aftoniſhing, more be- words, what is recently taken into the body, and is nor
yond all hunian comprehenſion, than what we have yet mixed with or converted into blood.
been ſpeaking of, is the following. Beſides thoſe in 2. The general or perfect fluid is the blood itſelf;
ternal powers of ſelf-preſervation in each individual, to wit, what is contained in the heart, arteries, and
when two of them co-operate, or act in concert, they veins, and is going on in the round of the circulation,
are endued with powers of making other animals or 3. The local or ſecreted, are thoſe fluids peculiar to
machines like themſelves, which again are poſſeſſed particular parts of the body, which are ſtrained off from
of the ſame powers of producing others, and ſo of the blood, and yet are very different in thcir properties
multiplying the ſpecies without end.
from the blood. They are commonly called ſecretions;
Theſe are powers which mock all liuman invention and ſome are uſeful, others excrenientitious.
or imitation. They are characteriſtics of the divine In treating of the Phyſiology, it is very difficult to ſay
Architect.
what plan fhould be followed; for every method which
Having premiſed this general account of the ſubject, has been yet propoſed, is attended with maniſeft in-
convenience.
I
Introd.
Y.
Α Ν Α Τ.
T. OM
685
convenience. The powers and operations of the ma exiſt, even in idea, without the heart: if we ſet out
chine have ſuch a dependence upon one another, ſuch with the heart and vaſcular ſyſtem, we ſhall preſently
connections and reciprocal influence, that they cannot be ſenſible, that the brain and nerves muſt be ſuppor-
well be underſtood or explained ſeparately. In this ed: or, ſhould we take up the mouth, and follow the
ſenſe our body may be compared to a circular chain of courſe of the aliment, we ſhould ſee that the
very
firft
powers, in which nothing is firſt or laſt, nothing ſoli. organ which preſented itſelf, ſuppoſed the exiitence
tary or independent; ſo that wherever we begin, we of both the heart and brain: Wherefore we ſhall i11-
find that there is ſomething preceding which we ought corporate the Playſiology with the Anatomy, by at-
to have known. If we begin with the brain and the tempting to explain the functions after we have den
nerves, for example, we ſhall find that theſe cannot
monſtrated the organs.
PART I. OSTEOLOGY.
:
1
parts.
E begin with the bones, which may be conſider- hamel, who lias adopted this opinion, fed different
ed as the great ſupport of the body, tending to animals with nadder and their ordinary food alternate-
give it ſhape and firmneſs.But before we enter into ly during a certain time; and he aſſerts, that in diſ-
the detail of cach particular bone, it will be neceſſary ſecting their bones, he conſtantly obſerved diſtinct lay-
to deſcribe their compoſition and connections, and to ers of red and white, which correſponded with the
explain the nature of the different parts which have length of time they had lived on madder or their
an immediate relation to them ; as the cartilages, liga- uſual alinent. But it has ſince been proved by Det-
ments, perioſteum, marrow, and ſynovial glands. leff, that M. Duhamel's experiments were inaccurate,
and that neither the perioſteum nor the cartilages are
Sect. I. Of the Bones in general, with their Appen- tinged by the uſe of the madder, which is known to
dages, &c.
affect the bones only.
We uſually conſider in a bone, its body and its ex-
Of the com-
The bones are of a firm and hard (B) ſubſtance, of tremities. The ancients gave the name of diaphy lis to
poſition of a white colour, and perfectly inſenſible. They are the body or middle part, and divided the extremities
the bones. the moſt compact and folid parts of the body, and into apophyſis and epiplıyfis. An apophyſis, or fro
ſerve for the attachment and ſupport of all the other ceſs, as it is more commonly called, is an eminence
continued from the bodyof the bone,whereas an epiphy-
Three different ſubſtances are uſually diſtinguiſhed ſis is at firſt a ſort of an apendage to the bone, by means
in them ; their exterior or bony part, properly ſo call- of an intermediate cartilage. Many epiphyſes, which
and their reticular ſubſtance. appear as diſtinct bones in the futus, afterwards be-
The firſt of theſe is formed of many laminæ or plates, come apophyſes ; for they are at length fo completely
compoſing a firm hard ſubſtance~The ſpongy or cel. united to the body of the bone as not to be diſtinguiſh-
lular part is ſo called on account of its reſemblance to able from it in the adult ſtate. It is not unuſual, how-
a ſponge, froin the little cells which compoſe it. This ever, at the age of 18 and even 20 years, to find the
ſubſtance forms almoſt the whole of the extremities extremities of bones ſtill in the ſtate of epiphyſis.
of cylindrical bones. The reticular part is compoſed The nanies given to the proceſſes of bones arc ex-
of fibres, which croſs each other in different directi- preſſive of their mape, ſize, or uſe ; thus if a proceſs
ons. This net-work forms the internal ſurface of is large and of a ſpherical form, it is called capilt,
thoſe bones which have cavities.
or heat; if the head is flatted, it is termed condyle.
The flat bones, as thoſe of the head, are compoſed Some proceſſes, from their reſemblance to a ſtiletto,
only of the laminæ and the cellular ſubſtance. This a breaſt, or the beak of a crow, are called fiyliod, mal-
laſt is uſually found in the middle of the bone dividing toid, or coracoid: others are ſtyled ridges or ſpines.
it into two plates, and is there called diplöe.
The two proceſſes of the us femoris derive their name
Gagliardi, who pretended to have diſcovered an in- of trochanters from their uſe.
finite number of claviculi (C), or bony proceſſes, which A bone has its cavities as well as proceſſes. Theſe
he deſcribes as traverſing the laminæ to unite them to cavities either extend quite through its ſubſtance, or
gether, has endeavoured
to ſupport this pretended dif- appear only as depreſſions. The former are called fo-
covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees, ramina or holes, and theſe foramina are ſoinetimesterm
in which certain woody nails have been remarked; ed canals or conduits, according to their form and ex-
but this opinion ſeems to be altogether fanciful.
Of the depreſſions, fome are uſeful in articula-
Some writers have ſuppoſed, that the bones are tion. Theſe are called cotyloid when they are deep,
formed by layers of the perioſteum, which gradually as is the caſe with the os innominatum, where it re-
oſſify, in the ſame manner as the timber is formed in ceives the head of the os femoris; or glenoid when they
trees by the hardening of the white ſubſtance that is are ſuperficial, as in the ſcapula, where it receives the
found between the inner bark and the wood. M. De os humeri. Of the depreſſions that are not deligned
for
tent.
B) Mr Scheele has lately diſcovered that bones contain the phoſphoric acid united with calcareous earth;
and that to this combination they owe their firmneſs.
(c) In his Anat. Oſium 1100. invent. illuftrat. he deſcribes four kinds of theſe claviculi or nails, viz. this
perpendicular, oblique, headed, and crooked
686
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part I.
4
2
um.
5
Oſteology. for articulation, thoſe which have ſmall apertures are courſe there are fewer bones in the old than in the Oſteology,
we called finufes; others that are large, and not equally young ſubject.
ſurrounded by high brims, are ſtyled folje; ſuch as are of the ſecond claſs of cartilages, or thoſe belonging
long and narrow, furrows; or if broad and ſuperficial to the ſoft parts, we have inſtances in the larynx,
without brims, ſinuoſities. Some are called digital im- where we find them uſeful in the formation of the
preſions, from their reſemblance to the traces of a fin- voice, and for the attachment of muſcles.
ger on ſoft bodies.
The perioſteum is a fine membrane of a compact cel- of the Pe.
Connecti We ſhall abridge this article, which is exceeding- lular texture, reflected from onejoint to another, and rioftctm.
on of the ly diffuſe in the generality of anatoinical books, and ſerving as a common covering to the bones. It has
bones, will endeavour to deſcribe it with all the clearneſs it fanguiferous and lymphatic veſſels, and is ſupplied with
will allow.
nerves froni che neighbouring parts. It adheres very
The bones compoſing the ſkeleton are ſo conſtructed, firmly to their ſurface, and by its ſmoothneſs facilitates
that the end of every bone is perfectly adapted to the the motion of inuſcles. It likewiſe ſupports the veſſels
extremity of that with which it is connected, and this that go to be diſtributed through the ſubſtance of the
connection forms what is called their articulation. bones, and may ſerve to ſtrengthen the articulations.
Articulation is divided into diarthroſis, ſynathroſis, and At the extremities of bones, where it is found cover-
amphiarthroſis, or moveable, immoveable, and mixed ing a cartilage, it has by ſome been improperly conti-
articulation. Each of the two firſt has its ſubdiviſions. dered as a diſtinct membrane, and named perichondri-
Thus the Diarthroſis, or moveable articulation, includes This, in its uſe and ſtructure, reſembles the
1. The enarthroſis, as it is called, when a large head perioſteum. Where it covers the bones of the ſkull,
is admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articulation it has gotten the name of pericranium.
of the os femoris with the os innominatum. 2. Arthro The perioſteum is not a production of the dura ma-
dia, when a round head is articulated with a ſuperfi- ter, as the ancients, and after then Havers, imagin-
cial cavity, as in the caſe of the os humeri and ſcapul ed; nor are the bones formed by the oſſification of this
la. 3. Ginglimus, or hinge-like articulation, as in the membrane, at leaſt when it is in a found ftate, as ſome
connection of the thigh bone with the tibia. The late writers have ſuppoſed.
enarthroſis and arthrodia allow of motion to all ſides; The perioſteum is deficient in the tecth above the
the ginglimus only of flexion and extenſion. ſockets, and in thoſe parts of bones to which liga-
The Synarthroſis, or immoveable articulation, in. nients or tendons are attached.
cludes, I. The future, when the two bones are in The marrow is a fat oily ſubſtance, filling the cavi- of the
dented into each other, as is the caſe with the parie- ties of bones. In the great cavities of long bones it Marrow.
.
tal bones. 2. Gomphoſis, when one bone is fixed in- is of a much firmer conſiſtence than in the cells of
to another, in the manner the teeth are placed in their ſpongy. part. In the former it inclines fome-
their fockets.
what to a yellowiſh tinge, and is of the conſiſtence of
The term amphiarthroſis is applied to thoſe articula. fat ; in the latter it is more fluid, and of a red colour.
tions which partake both of the ſynarthroſis and diar. This difference in colour and conſiſtence is owing to
throſis, as is the caſe with the bones of the vertebræ, accidental cauſes: both kinds are of the ſame nature,
which are capable of motion in a certain degree, al- and may both be deſcribed under the common name of
though they are firmly connected together by inter- marrow, though ſome writers give the name only to
mediate cartilages.
the fat-like ſubſtance, and call the other the medulla-
What is called ſymphyfis is the union of two bones ry juice.
into one; as in the lower jaw, for inſtance, which in The marrow is contained in a very fine and tranſpa.
the fætus conſiſts of two diſtinct bones, but becomes rent membrane, which is ſupplied with a great num-
one in a more advanced age, by the oſſification of the ber of blood veſſels, chiefly from the perioſteum. This
uniting cartilage.
meinbrana medullaris adheres to the inner ſurface of
When bones are thus joined by the means of carti- the bones, and furniſhes an infinite number of minute
lages, the union is ſtyled fynchondroſis; when by li- bags or veſicles for incloſing the marrow, which is
gaments, Syneurofis.
likewiſe ſupported in the cavities of the bones by the
Cartilages are white, ſolid, ſmoothi, and elaſtic ſub- long filaments of their reticular ſubſtance.
Hilages. ſtances, between the hardneſs of bones and ligaments, Beſides the veſſels from the perioſteum, the memº
and ſeemingly of a fibrous texture. We are not able brana medullaris is furniſhed with others, which in the
to trace any veſſels into their ſubſtance by injection, long bones may be ſeen paſſing in near the extremi.
nor are they ever found tinged in animals that have tics of the bone, and ſending off numerous branches
been fed with madder.
that ramify through all the veſicles of this membrane.
They may be diſtinguiſhed into, iſt, Thoſe which The bones, and the cells containing the marrow,
are connected with the bones; and, 2dly,Thoſe which are likewiſe furniſhed with lymphatics. By their
belong to other parts of the body. The firſt ſerve ci means the marrow, like the fat, may be taken up in
ther to cover the ends and cavities of bones intended a greater quantity than it is ſecreted; and hence it is
for motion, as in the articulations, where by their that ſo little is found in the bones of thoſe who die
ſmoothneſs they facilitate motions, which the bones of lingering diſeaſes.
alone could not execute with ſo much freedom; or It is ſtill a matter of controverſy, Whether the mar-
they ſerve to unite bones together, as in the ſmphy- row is ſenſible or not? We are certainly not able to
fis pubis, or to lengthen them, as in the ribs.
trace any nerves to it ; and from this circumſtance,
Many of them oflifying as we advance in life, their and its analogy to fat, Haller has ventured to conſider
number is leſs in the adult than in the foetus, and of it as inſenſible. On the other hand, Duverney aſſerts,
that
3
Of the Care
Part I
Α Ν Α" Τ Ο Μ Y.
687
Oſteology. that an injury done to this ſubſtance in a living animal tremities of the body only; that many of then are ofteology.
was attended with great pain. In this diſpute phyfi- placed entirely on the inner ſides of the tendons, be-
ologiſts do not ſeem to have ſufficiently diſcriminated tween theſe and the bones. Many others cover not
between the marrow itſelf and the membranous cells only the inner, but the outer ſides of the tendons, or
in which it is contained. The former, like the fat, areinterpoſed between the tendons and external parts,
being nothing more than a ſecreted, and of courſe an as well as between thoſe and the bones.
inorganized, matter, may with propriety be ranked a Some are ſituated between the tendons and external
mong the inſenſible parts, as much as inſpiſſated mu parts only or chiefly, ſome between contiguous ten-
cus or any other ſecreted matter in the body; where- dons, or between the tendons or the ligaments and the
as the membrana medullaris being vaſcular, though it joints. A few ſuch ſacs are obſerved where the proceſ-
poffefſes but an obſcure degree of feeling in a found fes of boncs play upon the ligaments, or where one bone
Kate, is not perfectly inſenſible.
plays upon another. Where two or more tendons are
The marrow was formerly ſuppoſed to be intended contiguous, and afterwards ſeparate from each other,
for the nouriſhment and renewal of the bones ; but we generally find a common burſa divided into branch-
this doctrine is now pretty generally and deſervedly es, with which it communicates ; and a few burſæ of
exploded. It ſeems probable that the marrow is to contiguous tendons communicate with each other.-
the bones what fat is to the ſoft parts. They both Some, in healthy children communicate with the ca-
ſerve for ſome important purpoſes in the animal eco vities of the joints ; and in many old people he has
nomy; but their particular uſe has never yet been ſeen ſach communications formed by uſe or worn by
clearly aſcertained. The marrow, from the tranſuda. friction, independent of diſeaſe.
tion of the oil through the bones of a ſkeleton, is ſup Their proper membrane is thin and tranſparent, but
poſed to diminiſh their brittleneſs; and Havers, who very denſe, and capable of confining air or any other
has written profeſſedly on the bones, deſcribes the ca- fluid.
fluid. It is joined to the neighbouring parts by the
nals by which the marrow is conveyed through every common cellular ſubſtance. Between the burſa and the
part of their ſubſtance, and divides them into longi- hard ſubſtance of bone, a thin layer of cartilage or of
tudinal and tranſverſe ones. He ſpeaks of the firſt tough membrane is very generally interpofed. To the
as extending through the whole length of the bone; cellular ſubſtance on the outſide of the burſa, the adi-
and of the latter, as the paſſage by which the longi- poſe ſubſtance is connected ; except where the burſa
tudinal ones communicate with each other. The limi covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, much expoſed to
larity of theſe to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and preſſure or friction.
the tranſudation of the oil through the bones of the In ſeveral places a maſs of fat, covered with the con-
ſkeleton, ſeems to prove that fonie ſuch paſſages do tinuation of the membrane of the burſa, projects into
6 actually exiſt.
its cavity. The edges of this are divided into fringes.
Synovial The ſynovial glands are ſmall bodies(D), ſuppoſed The inner ſide of the membrane is ſmooth, and is
to be of a glandular ſtructure, and exceedingly vafcu- extremely ſlippery from the liquor fecreted in it.
lar, ſecreting a fluid of a clear mucilaginous nature, The ſtructure of the burfæ bears a ſtrong reſemblance Their
which ferves to lubricate the joints. They are placed to the capſular ligaments of the joints. I. The inner ſtructure
in ſmall cavities in the articulations, fo as to be ca- layer of the ligament, like that of the burſæ, is thin compared
pable of being gently compreſſed by the notion of and denſe. 2. It is connected to the external ligaments
the joint, which expreſſes their juice in proportion to by the common cellular ſubſtance. 3. Between it and the fular ligas
the degree of fri&ioni. When the ſynovia is wanting, bones, layers of cartilage, or the articular cartilages, ments of
or is of too thick a conſiſtence, the joint becomes ſtiff are interpoſed. 4. At the ſides of the joints, where it is the joints,
and incapable of flexion or extenſion. This is what
This is what not ſubjected to violent preſſure and friction, the adi-
is termed anchylofis.
poſe ſubſtance is connected with the cellular membrane.
Of theliga. Ligaments are white, gliſtening, inelaſtic bands, 5. Within the cavities of the joints we obſerve malles
ments. of a compact ſubſtance, more or leſs broad or thick, of fat projecting,covered with ſimilar blood-veſſels,and
and ſerving to connce the bones together. They are with ſimilar fimbriæ hanging from their edges. 6. In
diſtinguiſhed by different names adapted to their diffe; the knee the upper part of ſuch a maſs of fat forms
rent forms and uſes. Thoſe of the joints are called what has been called the 1731!cilaginous gland of the joint,
either round or burſal. The round ligaments are white, and the under part projects into the burſa behind the
tendinous, and inelaſtic. They are ſtrong and flexible, ligament which ties the patella to the tibia. 7. The
and are found only in the joint of the knee, and in liquor which lubricates the burſæ has the fame colour,
the articulation of the os femoris with the os innomi. conſiſtence, and properties as that of the joints, aná
natum. The barſal, or capfular ligaments, ſurround both are affected in the ſame manner by heat, mineral
the whole joint like a purſe, and are to be found in acids, and ardent ſpirits. 8. In fome places the burſæ
the articulations which allow motion every way, as conſtantly communicate with the cavities of the joints,
in the articulation of the arm with the ſcapula. in others they generally do ſo ; from which we may
Of the Of thoſe facs called Burſe mucofæ, a few were infer a famencſs of ſtructure.
Burſe mu- known to former anatomiſts, but by much the greater When we examine the fimbriæ common to the fatty
cofæ, number have been ſince diſcovered by Dr Monro (E), bodies of the joints and burſæ, and which have been
who obſerves, that they are to be met with in the ex fuppoſed to be the dusts of glands lodged within the
mafres
lands,
with that
t
?
8
(D) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances in the joints, which are uſually called
glands, are any thing more than aſſemblages of fat.
(E) See Deſcription of the Burſa Mucoja, &c.
688
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part I.
I
IO
Ofteology. maſſes of fat, we are not able to diſcover any glandu Theſe bones are all harder at their ſurface than in Oſteology.
-- lar appearance within them. And although we ob- their middle ; and on this account they are divided
ſerve
many veſſels diſperſed upon the membranes of into two tables, and a iniddle ſpongy ſubſtance called
the fatty bodies and fimbriæ 5 and that we cannot doubt diplöe.
that theſe fimbriæ conſiſt of ducts which contain a lu In this, as in all the other bones, we ſhall conſider of the Os
bricating liquor, and can even preſs ſuch a liquor from its figure, ſtructure, proceſſes, depreſſions, and cavi. Frontis.
them ; yet their cavities and orifices are ſo minute, ties; and the manner in which it is articulated with
that they are not diſcoverable even by the aſſiſtance of the other bones.
magnifying-glaſſes. Theſe fimbriæ appear, therefore, Theos frontis has ſome reſemblance in ſhape to the
to be ducts like thoſe of the urethra, which prepare a
thell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its con-
mucilaginous liquor without the aſſiſtance of any knot- cave ſide being turned towards the brain. This bone
ty or glandular organ.
in the places where it is united to the temporal bones,
Upon the whole, the ſynovia ſeems to be furniſhed is very thin, and has there no diploe. It is likewiſe
by invitible exhalent arteries by the ducts of the fim- exceedingly thin in that part of the orbit of the eye
briæ, and by oil exuding from the adipoſe follicles by which is neareſt to the noſe. Hence it is, that a
pallages not yet diſcovered.
wound in the eye, by a ſword or any other pointed
Of the Ske-
The word ſkeleton, which by its etyinology implies inſtrument, is ſometimes productiveofimmediate death.
leton. fimply a dry preparation, is uſually applied to an af. In theſe caſes, the ſword paſſing through the weak
femblage of all the bones of an animal united toge- part of the bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the
ther in their natural order. It is ſaid to be a natural nerves at their origin ; or perhaps opens ſome blood-
ſkeleton, when the bones are connected together by veſſel, the conſequences of which are foon fatal.
theirown proper ligaments; and an artificialone,when We obſerye on the exterior ſurface of this bone five
they are joined by any other ſubſtance, as wire, &c. apophyſes or proceſſes, which are eaſily to be diſtini.
The ſkeleton is generally divided into the head, guilled. One of theſe is placed at the bottom and
trunk and extreinities. The firſt diviſion includes, narroweſt part of the bone, and is called the naſal
the bones of the cranium and face. The bones of the proceſs, from its ſupporting the upper end of the
trunk are the fpine, ribs, ſternum, and bones of the bones of the noſe.
bones of the noſe. The four others are called angu-
pelvis.
lar or orbitar proceſſes. They aſſiſt to form the orbits,
The upper extremity on each ſide conſiſts of the which are the cavities on which the eyes are placed.
two bones of the ſhoulder, viz. the ſcapula and cla- In each of theſe orbits there are two proceſſes, one at
vicle; the bone of the arn, or os humeri ; the bones the interior or great angle, and the other at the exte-
of the fore-arm, and thoſe of the hand.
rior or little angle of the orbit. They are called the
The lower extremity on each ſide of the trunk con- angular proceſſes. Between theſe a ridge is extended
fiſts of the thigh-bone and the bones of the leg and in forni of an arch, and on this the eye-brows are
foot.
placed. It is called the orbitar or ſuperciliary ridge,
and in ſome meaſure covers and defends the globe of
Sect. II. Of the Bones of the Head. the eye. There is a hole in this for the paſſage of the
frontal veſſels and nerves. This arch is interrupted
The head is of a roundiſh figure, and ſomewhat near the noſe by a ſmall pit, in which the tendon of
oval (F). Its greateſt diameter is from the forehead the muſculus obliquus inajor of the eye is fixed. From
10 the occiput; its upper part is called vertex, or the under part of each ſuperciliary ridge a thin plate
crown of the head; its anterior or fore-part the face ; rons a conſiderable way backwards, and has the name
and the upper part of this finciput, or forehead; its of orbitar; the external and fore-part of this plate
ſides the temples; its poſterior, or hind-part, the oc forins a finuoſity for lodging the lacrymal gland. Be-
ciput; and its inferior part the baſis.
tween theorbitar plates there is a large diſcontinuation
The bones of the head may be divided into thoſe of the bone, which is filled up by the cribriform part
of the cranium and face.
* of the os ethmoides.
On examining the inner ſurface of this bone at its
§ 1. Bones of the Cranium and Face. under and middle part, we obſerve an elevation in form
of a ridge, which has been called the ſpinous proceſs;
THERE are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the it aſcends for ſome way, dividing the bone into two
coronal bone, or os frontis; the two parietal bones, conſiderable foſfæ, in which the anterior lobes of the
or oila bregmatis; the os occipitis ; the two temporal brain are placed. To a narrow furrow in this ridge
bones; the ſphenoid bone ; and the os ethmoides, or is attached the extremity of the falx, as the membrane
cribriforme.
is called, which divides the brain into two hemiſpheres.
Of theſe, only the os occipitis and offa bregmalis The furrow becoming gradually wider, is continued to
Of the os
occipitis.
are conſidered as proper to the cranium ; the reſt being the upper and back part of the bone. It has the falx
cominon both to the cranium and face.
fixed
1
II
2
(F) The bones of the foetus being perfectly diſtinct, and the muſcles in young perſons not acting much, the
thape of the head has been ſuppoſed to depend much on the management of children when very young. Ve-
falius, who has remarked the difference in people of different nations, obſerves, for inſtance, that the head of a
Turk is conical, from the early uſe of the turban ; whilft that of an Engliſhman is flattened by the chin-flay.
Some of the lateſt phyſiologiſts ſuppoſe, with good reaſon, that this difference is chiefly owing to certain na-
(ural cauſes with which we are as yet unacquainted.
Part I.
N A TÓ A T
689
Of the
IS
bonch
M Y.
Ofcology. fixed to it, and part of the longitudinal ſinus lodged in end of this in which the falx is fixed, is ho How, for Ofteology.
it. Beſides the two foſſæ, there are many depreſſions, lodging the ſuperior longitudinal finus, and the under
which appear like digital impreſſions,and owe their for- end has the third proceſs of the dura mater fixed to it.
mation to the prominent circumvolutions of the brain. The other ridge, which runs horizontally, is likewiſe
In the fætus, the forehead is compoſed of two dif- hollow for containing the lateral ſinuſes. Four foffee
tinct bones ; ſo that in them the fagittal ſuture reaches are formed by the croſs, two above and two below. In
from the os occipitis to the noſe. This bone is almoſt the former are placed the poſterior lobes of the braili,
every where compoſed of two tables and a diplöe. and in the latter the lobes of the cerebellum.
Theſetwo tables ſeparating from each other under the At the baſis of the cranium, we obſerve the cunei-
eyes, form two cavities, one on each ſide of the face, form proceſs (which is the name given to the great
called the frontal ſinuſes. Theſe ſinuſes are lined apophyſis at the fore part of this bone); it ſerves for
with a ſoft membrane, called membrana pituitaria. In the reception of the medulla oblongata.
theſe ſinuſes a mucus is ſecreted, which is conſtantly The os occipitis is of greater ſtrenth and thickneſs
paſſing through two finall holes into the noſtrils, which than either of the other bones of the head, though ir-
it ſerves to moiſten,
regularly ſo; at its inferior part, where it is thinneft,
The os frontis is joined by future to many of the it is covered by a great number of muſcles.
bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, inaxillary, and This bone, from its ſituation, being more liable to
temporal bones; to the os ethmoides; os ſphenoides; be injured by falls, than any other bone of the head,
os unguis; and ofſa naſi. The future which connects nature has wiſely given it the greateſt ſtrength at its
it with the parietal bones is called the coronal future. upper part, where it is moſt expoſed to danger.
13
The parietal bones are two in number; they are ve It is joined to the parietal bones by the lainbdoidal
parietal ry thin, and even tranſparent in ſome places. The future, and to the oſſa temporum, by the additamen-
konck
particular figure of each of theſe bones is that of an tum of the temporal future.
tuin of the temporal future. It is likewiſe connected
irregular ſquare, bordered with indentations through to the os ſphenoides by the cuneiform proceſs. It is
its whole circumference, except at its lower part. It by means of the os occipitis that the head is united to
will be eaſily conceived, that theſe bones which com- the trunk, the two condyles of this bone being con-
poſe the ſuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and nected to the ſuperior oblique proceſſes of the firſt ver-
cover the greateſt part of the brain, form a kind of tebra of the neck.
vault. On their inner ſurface we obſerve the marks There are two temporal bones, one on each ſide. Ofthe tema
of the veſſels of the dura mater; and at their upper We may diſtinguih in them two parts; one of which poral
edge the groove for the ſuperior longitudinal ſinus. is called the ſquamous or ſcaly part, and the other pars
The olla parietalia are joined to cach other by the petrofa from its hardneſs. This laſt is ſhaped like a
ſagittal future; to the os ſphenoides and offa temporum pyramid.
by the ſquamous future; to the os occipitis by the lamb Each of theſe diviſions affords proceſſes and cavities:
doidal ſuture (G), ſo called from its reſemblance to the externally there are three proceſſes; one anterior,
Greek letter lambda ; and to the os frontis by the co called the zygomatic proceſs; one poſterior, called the
ronal future.
maſtoid or mamillary proceſs, from its reſemblance to a
In the foetus, the parietal bones are ſeparated from nipple; and one inferior, called the ſtyloid proceſs, be-
the middle of the divided os frontis by a portion of the cauſe it is ſhaped like a ſtiletto, or dagger.
cranium then unoſlified.
The cavities are, 1. The meatus auditorius exter-
of the oco The occipital bone forms the poſterior and inferior nus. 2. A large folla which ſerves for the articulation
cipitalbone parts of the ſkull; it approaches nearly to the ſhape of of the lower jaw; it is before the meatus auditorius,
a lozenge, and is indented throughout three parts of and immediately under the zygomatic proceſs. 3. The
its circumference.
ftylo-maſtoid hole, ſo called from its ſituation between
There is a conſiderable hole in the inferior portion the ſtyloid and maſtoid proceſſes ; it is likewiſe ſtyled
of this bone, called the foramen magnum, through the aquæduct of Fallopius, and affords a paſſage to the
which the medulla oblongata palles into the ſpine. portio dura of the auditory, or ſeventh pair of nerves.
The nervi acceſſorii, and vertebral arteries, likewiſe 4. Below, and on the fore-part of the laſt foramen, we
pafs through it. Behind the condyles are two holes obſerve part of the jugular foffa, in which the begin-
for the paſſage of cervical veins into the lateral ſinu- ning of the internal jugular vein is lodged. Anterior
ſes; and above them are two others for the paſſage of and ſuperior to this foſſa is the orifice of a foramen,
the eighth pair and acceſſory nerves out of the head. through which paſſes the carotid artery. This foramen
At the ſides, and a little on the anterior part of the runs firſt upwards and then forwards, forming a kind
foramen magnum, are two proceſſes, called the con of elbow, and terminates at the end of the os petro-
dyles, one on each ſide ; they are of an oval figure, and ſum.“At this part of each temporal bone, we may ob-
are covered with cartilage.
ſerve the opening of the Euſtachian tube, a canal which
The external ſurface of this bone has a large tranſ- paſſes from the ear to the back part of the noſe.
verſe arched ridge, under which the bone is very irre In examining the internal ſurface of theſe bones, WC
gular, where it affords attachment to ſeveral maſcles. may remark the triangular figure of their petrous part
On examining its inner ſurface, we may obſerve two which ſeparates two foiſe ; one ſuperior and anterior,
ridges in form of a croſs ; one aſcending from near the the other inferior and poſterior: the latter of theſe
foramen magnum to the top of the bone; the upper compoſes part of the foiſa, in which the cerebellum is
VOL. I.
4 S
14
placed ;
(G)The lambdoidal ſuture is ſometimes very irregular, being compoſed of many ſmall ſucures, which ſurround
ſo many little bones called offa triquetra, though perhaps improperly, as they are not always triangular,
690
A
Part I.
N A T o M Y.
17
Oftcolegy. placed ; and the former, a portion of the leaſt foſfa for From the great number of holes with which it is pierced, Oſteology:
the baſis of the brain. On the poſterior ſide of the it is ſometimes called as crebriforme or ſieve-like bone.
pars petroſa, we obſerve the meatus auditorus internus, It conſiſts of a middle part and two ſides. The mid- of the os
into which enters tlie double nerve of the ſeventh pair. dle part is formed of a thin bony plate, in which are ethmodies
On the under ſide of this proceſs, part of a hole ap an infinite number of holes that afford a paſſage ro fila- or cribri-
pears, which is common to the temporal and occipital ments of the olfactory nerve. From the middle of this forme.
bones ; through it the lateral ſinus, the eighth pair, plate, both on the outſide and from within, there riſes
and acceſſory nerves, paſs out of the head.
up a proceſs, which may be eaſily diſtinguiſhed. The
The pars petroſa contains ſeveral little bones called inner one is called criſta galli, from its ſuppoſed reſem-
the bones of the ear ; which, as they do not enter into blance to a cock's comb. To this proceſs the falx of
the formation of the craniuni, ſhall be deſcribed when the dara mater is attached. The exterior proceſs,
we are treating of the organs of hearing,
which has the ſame common baſis as the criſta galli, is
The ofla temporum are joined to the offa malarum, a fine lamella which is united to the vomer ; and di-
by the zygomatic ſutures; to the parietal bones, by the vides the cavity of the noſtrils, though unequally, it
ſquamous futures; to the os occipitis, by the lambdoi. being generally a little inclining to one ſide.
dal ſuture ; and to the ſphenoid bone, by the future of The lateral parts of this bone are compoſed of a cel-
that name.
lular ſubſtance; and theſe cells are ſo very intricate,
Of the os
This bone, from its ſituation amidſt the other bones that their figure or number cannot be deſcribed. Ma-
{phenoides.
of the head, has been ſometimes called cuneiforme. It ny writers have on this account called this part of the
is of a very irregular figure, and has been coinpared to bone the labyrinth. Theſe cells are externally covered
a bat with its wings extended.
with a very thin bony lamella. This part of the bone
It is commonly divided into its middle part or body, is called the os planum, and forms part of the oribt.
and its ſides or wings.
The different cells of this bone, which are nume-
The fore part of the body has a ſpine or ridge,which rous, and which are every where lined with the pitui-
makes part of the feptum narium. The upper part of tary membrane, evidently ſerve to enlarge the cavity
each wing forms a ſhare of the temple. The fore part of the noſe, in which the organ of ſmelling reſides.
of this belongs to the orbit; while the under and This bone is joined to the os ſphenoides, os frontis,
back part, termed Spinous proceſs, is lodged in the baſe oſſa maxillaria, oſſa palati, ofſa naſi, oſſa unguis, and vo-
of the ſkull at the point of the pars petroſa. But two mer.
of the nioſt remarkable proceſſes are the pterygoid or The ancients, who conſidered the brain as the ſeat
aliform, one on each ſide of the body of the bone, and at of all the humours, imagined that this viſcus diſcharged
no great diſtance from it. Each of theſe proceſſes is di- its redundant moiſture through the holes of the ethmoid
vided intotwo wings and of theſe the exterior one is the bone. And the vulgar ſtill think, that abſceſſes of
wideſt. The other terminates in a hook-like proceſs. the brain diſcharge themſelves through the mouth and
The internal ſurface of this bone affords three fofſæ. ears, and that ſnuff is liable to get into the head; but
Two of theſe are formed by the wings of the bone, neither ſnuff nor the matter of an abſceſs are more ca-
and make part of the leſſer foſfæ of the baſis of the pable of paſſing through the cribriform bone, than the
cranium. The third, which is ſmaller, is on the top ſeroſity which they ſuppoſed was diſcharged through
of the body of the bone ; and is called cella turcica, it in a common cold. All the holes of the ethmoid bonc
from its reſemblance to a Turkiſh faddle. This foffa, are filled up with the branches of the olfactory nerve.
in which the pituitary gland is placed, has poſteriorly Its inner part is likewiſe covered with the dura ma-
and anteriorly proceſſes called the clinoid proceſſesa ter,andits cells are every where lined with the pituitary
There are twelve holes in this bone, viz. fix on each membrane ; ſo that neicher matter nor any other fluid
ſide. The firſt is the paſſage of the optic nerve and can poſlībly paſs through this bone either externally
ocular artery; the ſecond, or large lit tranſmits the or internally. Matter is indeed ſometimes diſcharged
third, fourth, ſixth, and firſt part of the fifth pair of through the noſtrils : but the ſeat of the diſeaſe is in
nerves with the ocular vein; the third hole gives paf- the finuſes of the noſe, and not in the brain ; and im-
ſage to the ſecond branch of the fifth pair ; and the poſthumations are obſerved to take place in the ear,
fourth hole to the third branch of the fifth pair of which ſuppurate and diſcharge themſelves externally.
The fifth hole is the paſſage of the artery of Before we leave the bones of the head, we wiſh to
the dura mater. The ſixth hole is ſituated above the make ſome general obſervations on its ſtructure and fi-
pterygoid proceſs of the fpbenoid bone; through ita re- gure.—As the cranium might have been compoſed of
Hected branch of the ſecond part of the fifth pair paſſes. a ſingle bune, the articulation of its ſeveral bones be-
Within the ſubſtance of the os fphenoides there are ing abſolutely without motion, it may be aſked per-
two ſinufes ſeparated by a bony plate. They are lined haps, Why ſuch a multiplicity of bones, and ſo great
with the pituitary membrane ; and like the frontal fi- number of futures ? Many advantages may poſſibly
nuſes, fcparate a mucus which paſſes into the noſtrils. arile from this plurality of bones and futures, which
· The os ſphenoides is joined to all the bones of the may not yet have been obſerved. We are ablc, how-
cranium ; and likewiſe to the offa maxillaria, olla ma ever, to point out many uſeful ends, which could only
larum, oſla pałati, and vomer.
be accompliſhed by this peculiarity of ſtructure.-112
This bone makes part of the baſis of the ſkull, af- this, as in all the other works of nature, the great
fills in forming the orbits, and affords attachment to wiſdom of the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail to
ſeveral muſcles.
excite our admiration and gratitude.
The os ethmoides is ſituated at the fore part of the The cranium, by being divided into ſeveral bones,
baſis of the cranium, and is of a very irregular figure. grows much faſter and with greater facility, than if it
nerves.
was
Part I.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
691
Y.
20
rence.
Olteology. was compoſed of one piece only. In the fætus, the verſe future; and the fourth is joined to the zygoma- Ofteology.
bones,as we have before obſerved, are perfectly diſtinct tic proceſs of the temporal bonc, with which it forms
from each other. The oſſification begins in the middle the
zygoma.
of cach bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfe Theſe bones, which are of a very irregular figure, Of the offa
Hence the oſſification, and of courſe the in are ſo called becauſe they form the inolt conſiderable maxillaria
creaſe of the head, is carried on from an infinite num portion of the upper jaw. They are two in nuinber,
ſuperiora.
ber of points at the ſame time, and the bones conſe- and generally remain diſtinet through life.
quently approach each other in the ſame proportion. Of the many proceſſes which are to be ſeen on theſe
To illuſtrate this doctrine more clearly, if it can want bones, and which are connected with the bones of the
further illuſtration, ſuppoſe it neceſſary for the parietal face and ſkull, we ſhall deſcribe only the moſt remark-
bones which compoſe the upper part of the head, to able.
extend their oſſification, and form the fore part of the One of theſe proceſſes is at the upper and fore part
head likewiſe. Is it not evident, that this proceſs would of the bone, making part of the ſide of the noſe, and
be much more tedious than it is now, when the os called the nafal proceſs. Another forms a kind of cir-
frontis and the parietal bones are both growing at the cular ſweep at the inferior part of the bone, in which
ſame time? Hence it happens, that the heads of young are the alveoli or fockets for the teeth: this is called
people, in which the bones begin to touch each other, the alveolar proceſs. A third proceſs is united to the
increaſe flowly; and that the proportionate increaſe os malæ on each ſide.
os malæ on each ſide. Between this and the naſal
of the volume of the head is greater in three months proceſs there is a thin plate, which forms a ſhare of
in the fætus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four months the orbit, and lies over a paſſage for the ſuperior max-
at the age of fourteen or fifteen years.
illary veſſels and nerves.—The alveolar proceſs has
The futures, excluſive of their advantages in ſu. pofteriorly a conſiderable tuberoſity on its internal
ſpending the proceſſes of the dura nater, are evident- ſurface, called the maxillary tuberoſity.
ly of great utility in preventing the too great extent Behind the alveolar proceſs we obſerve two hori-
of fractures of the ſkull. Suppoſe, for inſtance, that zontal lamellæ, which uniting together, forma part of
by a fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium bee the roof of the mouth, and divide it from the noſe.
comes fractured. The fiſſure, which in a head compo. The hollowneſs of the roof of the mouth is owing to
ſed of only one bone, would be liable to extend itſelf this partition's being ſeated foniewhat higher than the
through the whole of it, is checked, and ſometimes alveolar proceſs.-At the fore part of the horizontal
perhaps ſtopped by the firſt future it meets, and the lamellæ there is a hole called foramen inciſivum,through
effects of the injury are confined to the bone on which which finall blood-velſels and nerves go between the
the blow was received. Ruyſch indeed, and ſome mouth and noſe.
others, will not allow the futures to be of any ſuch In viewing theſe bones internally, we obſerve a foffa
uſe ; but caſes have been niet with where they ſeemed in the inferior portion of the naſal proceſs, which,
to have had this effect, and in young ſubjects their uti. with the os unguis and os fpongioſum inferius, forms
lity in this reſpect muſt be ſtill more obvious. a paſſage for the lachrymal duct.
The ſpherical ſhape of the head ſeems likewiſe to Where theſe two bones are united to each other,
render it more capable of reſiſting external violence they project ſomewhat upwards and forwards, leaving
than any other ſhape would do. In a vault, the parts between them a furrow, into which the lower portion
mutually ſupport and ſtrengthen each other, and this of the feptum nafi is admitted.
happens in the cranium.
Each of theſe bones being hollow, a conſiderable
ſinus is formed under its orbitar part. This cavity,
§ 2. Proper Bones of the Face.
which is uſually named after Highmore, though it
Of the The face, which conſiſts of a great number of bones, was deſcribed by Fallopius and others before his time,
bones of
is commonly divided into the upper and lower jaws. is lined with the pituitary membrane. It is intended
the face. The upper jaw conſiſts of thirteen bones, excluſive of for the ſame purpoſes as the other finuſes of the noſe,
the teeth. Of theſe, fix are placed on each ſide of and opens into the noſtrils.
the maxilla ſuperior, and one in the middle.
The offa maxillaria are connected with the greater
The bones, which are in pairs, are the oſſa mala- part of the bones of the face and cranium, and aſſiſt in
Tum, offa maxillaria, ofta naſi, offa unguis, oſa palati, forming not only the cheeks, but likewiſe the palate,
and offa fpongioſa inferiora. The ſingle bone is the noſe, and orbits.
The oſſa nafi form two irregular ſquares. They are of the off
19
of the offa Theſe are the prominent ſquare bones which are thicker and narrower above than below. Externally
nafi.
malarum. placed under the eyes, forming part of the orbits and they are ſomewhat convex, and internally ſlightly
the upper parts of the cheeks. Each of them affords concave. Theſe lones conſtitute the upper part of the
three ſurfaces; one exterior and a little convex; a ſe- noſe. At their fore part they are united to each other,
cond ſuperior and concave, forming the inferior part above to the os frontis, by their ſides to the olla max-
and ſides of the orbit; and a third poſterior, irregular, illaria ſuperiora, poſteriorly and interiorly to the lep-
and hollowed for the lodgement of the lower part of tum narium, and below to the cartilages that compoſe
the temporal muſcle.
the reſt of the noſtrils.
The angles of each bone form four proceſſes, two Theſe little tranſparent bones owe their name to Of the offa
of which may be called orbitar procelles; of theſe the their ſuppoſed reſemblance to a finger-nail. Sonetimes unguis.
upper one is joined by ſuture to the os frontis, and they are called offa lachrymalia, from their concurring
that below to the maxillary bone. The third is con with the naſal proceſs of each maxillary bone in forpl-
nected with the os ſphenoides by means of the tranſ- ind a lodgement for the lachrymnal fac and duct.
4 S 2
The
18
21
Vonier.
22
692
Part I.
A N AT
Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
24
pier.
27
Oftcology, The offa unguis are of an irregular figure. Their the cranium. This joint is furniſhed with a moveable Oſteology.
external ſurface conſiſts of two ſmooth parts, divided cartilage. At the bottom of each coronoid proceſs,
by a middle ridge. One of theſe parts, which is con on its inner part, we obſerve a foramen extending un-
care and neareſt to the noſe, ſerves to ſupport the la der the roots of all the teeth, and terminating at the
chrymal ſac and part of the lachrymal duct. The outer ſurface of the bone near the chin. ach of
other, which is flat, forms a ſinall part of the orbit. theſe canals tranſmits an artery, vein, and nerveg
Each of theſe bones is connected with the os frontis, from which branches are ſent off to the teeth.
os ethmoides, and os maxillare ſuperius.
The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of mo-
of the offa
Theſe bones, which are ſituated at the back part of tion. By ſliding the condyles from the cavity towards
palati. the roof of the mouth, between the os ſphenoides and the eminences on each líde, we bring it horizontally
the oſſa maxillaria fuperiora, are of a very irregular forwards, as in biting; or we may bring the condyles
ſhape, and ſerve to form the naſal and maxillary tolla, only forward, and tilt the reſt of the jaw backward,
and a ſmall portion of the orbit. Where they are uni as in opening the mouth. We are likewiſe able to
ted to each other, they riſe up into a ſpine on their lide the condyles alternately backwards and forwards
internal ſurface. This ſpine appears to be a continua. from the cavity to the eminence, and vice verſa, as in
tion of that of the ſuperior maxillary bones, and helps grinding the teeth. The cartilages, by adapting them-
to form the feptum narium.
ſelves to the different inequalities in theſe ſeveral mo.
Theſe bones are joined to the oſſa maxillaria ſupe tions of the jaw, ſerve to ſecure the articulation, and
riora, os ethmoides, os ſphenoides, and voner. to prevent any injuries froin fri&tion.
Of the vo-
This bone derives its name from its reſemblance to The alveolar proceſſes are compoſed of an outer and
a plough ſhare. It is a long and Aat bonc, fomewhat inner bony plate, united together by thin partitions,
thicker at its back than at its fore part, At its upper which at the fure part of the jaw divide the proceſſes
part we obſerve a furrow extending through its whole into as many fockets as there are teeth. But at the
length. The poſterior and largeſt part of this furrow back part of the jaw, where the teeth have more than
receives a proceſs of the ſphenoid bone. From this one root, we find a diſtinct cell for each root. In
the furrow advances forwards, and becoming narrow both jaws theſe proceſſes begin to be formed with the
er and ſhallower, receives ſome part of the naſal la- teeth; they likewiſe accompany them in their growth,
niella ethmoidea; the reft ſerves to ſupport the inid and gradually diſappear when the teeth are removed.
dle cartilage of the noſe.
The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the
§ 3. Of the Teeth.
naſal ſpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which The teeth are bunes of a particular ſtructure, formi. Of this
we mentioned in our deſcription of the offa palati. ed for the purpoſes of maſtication and the articulation teeth,
Tlie vomer is imited to the os ſphenoides, os eth. of the voice. It will be neceſſary to conſider their
moides, offa maxillaria ſuperiora, and oſſa palati. It compoſition and figure, their number and arrange-
forms part of the ſeptum narium, by dividing the back ment, and the time and order in which they appear.
part of the noſe into two noſtrils.
In each tooth we may diſtinguiſh a body, a reck,
Of the ofľa The parts which are uſually deſcribed by this name, and a root or fangs.
{pongioſa do not ſcein to deferve to be diſtinguiſhed as diſtinct The body of the tooth is that part which appears
inferiora. bones, except in young fubjects. They conſiſt of a above the gums. The root is fixed into the focket,
ſpongy lamella in each noſtril, which is united to the and the neck is the middle part between the two.
ſpongy lamina of the ethmoid bone, of which they are The teeth are compoſed of two ſubſtances, viz. ena-
by ſoine conſidered as a part.
mel and bone. The enamel, or the vitreous or corti-
Each of theſe lamellæ is longeſt from behind for. cal part of the tooth, is a white and very hard and
wards; with its convex ſurface turned towards the compact ſubſtance peculiar to the teeth, and appears
ſeptum narium, and its concave part towards the max. fibrous or ſtriated when broken. This fubitance is
illary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal thickeſt on the grinding ſurface, and becoming gradu.
duct, into the noſe.
ally thinner, terminates inſenſibly at the neck of the
Theſe bones are covered with the pituitary mem. tooth. Ruyſch * affirmed, that he could trace the * Thefaur
brane ; and, beſides their connection with the ethmoid arteries into the hardeſt part of the teeth ; Liewen- Jo, no. 299
bone, are joined to the offa maxillaria ſuperiora, ofla hoeck + fufpected the fibres of the enamel to be fo + Arcar.
palati, and oſſa unguis.
many veſſels; and Monro $ ſays, he has frequently Natur. con-
26
tinuat. Epi-
The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which in its injected the veſſels of the teeth in children, fo as to
the
fol.
Satilla in tape reſembles a horſe-lhoe, confits of two diſtinct make the inſide of the cortex appear perfectly red. Anat. of
{crior.
bones in the forus; but theſe unite together ſoun af. But is certain, that it is not tinged by a madder diet, the Human
ter birth, ſo as to form only one bone. The upper edge and that no injection will ever reach it, ſo that it has Bones.
of this bone, like the os maxillare fuperius, has an al no appearance of being vaſcular g.
§ Hunter
veolar proceſs, furniſhed with ſockets for the tee The bony part, which compoſes the inner ſubſtance on the Teetka
On each ſide the poſterior part of the bone riſes al. of the body, neck, and root of the tooth, reſembles
moſt perpendicularly into two proceſſes. The higheſt other bones in its ſtructurc, but it is much harder than
of theſe, called the coronoid proceſs, is pointed and the moſt compact part of bones in general. As a
thin, and ſerves for the inſertion of the temporal muf- tooth when once formed receives no tinge from a mad-
cle. The other, or condyloid proceſs, as it is called, der diet, and as the minuteſt injections do not pene-
is ſhorter and thicker, and ends in an oblong rounded trate into its 'ſubſtance, this part of a tooth has, like
head, which is received into a foffa of the temporal the enamel, been ſuppoſed not to be vaſcular. But
bone, and is forind for a moveable articulation with when we conſider that the fangs of a tooth are invefted
by
25
Part I.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
693
Olcology. by a perioſteum, and that the ſwellings of theſe fangs The two firſt of the molarcs, or thuíc neareſt to the Okeology.
arc analogous to the ſwellings of other bones, we inay canine teeih on each ſide, differ from the other tlıree,
reafonably conclude, that there is a ſimilarity of ſtruc- and are with great propriety nained bicuſpides by Mr
ture; and that this bony part has a circulation through Hunter. They have ſometimes only one root, and
its ſubſtance, although from its hardneſs we are un ſeem to be of a middle nature between the inciſores
able to demonſtrate its veſſels.
and the larger molares. The two next are much lar-
In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into which ger. The fifth or laſt grinder on each ſide is ſmaller
enteran artery, vein, and nerve. This cavity begins and ſhorter than the reft; and from its 110t cutting the
by a ſmall opening, and becoming larger, terminates gum till after the age of twenty, and ſometimes not till
in the body of the tooth. In advanced life this hole inuch later in life,
inuch later in life, is called dens fapientia.
ſometimes cloſes, and the tooth is of courſe rendered There is in the ſtructure and arrangement of all
inſenſible.
theſe teeth an art which cannot be ſufficiently admiredbe
The perioſteum ſurrounds the teeth from their To underſtand it properly, it will be neceſſary to con-
fangs to a little beyond their bony fockets, where we fider the under jaw as a kind of lever, with its fixed
find it adhering to the gums. This membrane, while points at its articulations with the temporal bones :-it
it incloſes the teeth, ſerves at the ſame time to line will be right to obſerve, too, that its powers ariſe from
the fockets, ſo that it may be conſidered as common its different muſcles, but in clevation chiefly from the
to both.
temporalis and maſſeter; and that the aliment conſti-
The teeth are likewiſe ſecured in their ſockets by tutes the object of reſiſtance. It will appear, then,
means of the gums; a red, vaſcular, firm, and elaſtic that the molares, by being placed neareſt the centre of
ſubſtance, that poffefſes but little fenfibility. In the motion, are calculated to preſs with a much greater
gums of infants we find a hard ridge extending thro' force than the other tecth, independent of their grinde
their whole length, but no ſuch ridge is to be ſeen in ing powers which they poſſeſs by means of the ptery.
old people who have loſt their teeth.
goid muſcles; and that it is for this rcafon we put be-
The number of the teeth in both jaws at full mata tween them any hard body we wiſh to break.
rity, uſually varies from twenty-eight to thirty-two. The canini and inciſores are placed farther from this:
They are commonly divided into three claſſes, viz. in- point, and of courſe cannot exert ſo much force; bue
ciſores, canini, and grinders or molares (H). The in- they are made for cutting and tearing the food, and
cifores arc the four teeth in the fore part of each jaw. this for in ſeems to make amends for their deficiency
They have each of them two ſurfaces; oneanterior and in ſtrength.
convex, the other poſterior and flightly concave, both There are examples of children who have come into
of which terminate in a ſharp edge. They are called the world with two, three, and even four teeth but
incifores from their uſe in dividing the food. They theſe examples are very rare; and it is ſeldom before
are uſually broader and thicker in the upper than in the the ſeventh, eighth, or ninth month after birth, that
under jaw; and, by being placed ſomewhat oblique. the inciſores, which are the firſt formed, begin to paſs
ly, generally fall over the latter.
through the gum. The ſymptoms of dentition, how-
The canini derive their name from their reſemblance ever, in conſequence of irritation from the teeth, fre.
to a dog's tufks, being the longeſt of all the teeth. quently take place in the fourth or fifth month.-A.
We find one on each ſide of the inciſores, ſo that there bout the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, the canini ,
are two canini in each jaw. Their fang reſembles that and two molares make their appearance.
of the inciſores, but is much larger; and in their ſhape The dangerous fymptoms that ſometimes accompany.
they appear like an inciſor with its edge worn off, ſo dentition, are owing to the preflure of the teeth on
as to terminate in a narrow point.
the gum, which they irritate ſo as to excite pain and
Theſe teeth not being calculated for cutting and di- inflammation. This irritation ſeems to occaſion a gra-
viding the food like the inciſores, or for grinding it dual waſting of the gum at the part, till at length the
like the molares, ſeem to be intended for laying hold tooth makes its appearance.
of ſubſtances (1).
The ſymptoms are more or leſs al..ning, in propor-
The molares or grinders, of which there are ten in tion to the reſiſtance which the gum affords to the
each jaw, are ſo called, becauſe from their ſhape and teeth, and according to the number of teeth which
ſize they are fitted for grinding the food. Each of inay chance to ſeek a palage at the ſame time. Were
the inciſores and canini is furnithed only with one they all to appear at once, children would fall victims
fang ; but in the molares of the under jaw we con to the pain and exceſſive irritation; but Nature has ſo
ſtantly find two fangs, and in thoſe of the upper jaw very wiſely diſpoſed theni, that they uſually appear
three fangs. Theſe fangs are ſometimes ſeparated one after the other, with ſome diſtance of time be-
into two points, and each of theſe points has fome (wcen each. The firſt inciſor that appears is generally
times been deſcribed as a diſtinct fang.
in the lower jaw, and is followed by one in the up-
per
j
>
(H) Mr Hunter has thought proper to vary this diviſion. He retains the old name of incifores to the four
fore teeth, but he diſtinguiſhes the canine teeth by the name of the cuſpidatı. The two cecch which are next
to there, and which have been ufually ranked with the molares, he calls the bicuſpides; and he gives the name
of grinders only to the three laft teeth on each ſide.
(1) Mr Hunter remarks of theſe teeth, that we may trace in them a ſimilarity in ſhape, fituation, and uſe,
from the moſt imperfectly carnivorous aninal, which we believe to be the human ſpecies, to the lion, which is
the moſt perfectly carnivorous,
694
Part 1.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
hai
30
.
$
Oncology, perjaw. Sometimes the canini, but more commonly convex, and its inner ſurface is unequally concave. Its Oftcology.
onc of the molares, begins to paſs through the gum cornua, or loriis, which are flat and a little bent, be-
Grit.
ing much longer than the body part, may be deſcribed
Theſe 20 teeth, viz. eight inciſores, four canini, as forming the ſides of the v. The appendices, or lit-
and eight molares, are called temporary or milk teeth, tle horns, as they are called by M. Winſlow, and ſome
becauſe they are all ſhed between the age of ſeven other writers, are two proceſſes which riſe up from
and 14, and are ſucceeded by what are called the pere the articulations of the cornua with the body, and are
manent or adult teeth. The latter are of a firmertex- uſually connected with the ſtyloid proceſs on each ſide
ture, and have larger fangs.
by means of a ligament.
Theſe adult teeth being placed in a diſtinct ſet of The uſes of this bone are to ſupport the tongue,
and
alveoli, the upper fockets gradually diſappear, as the afford attachment to a great number of muſcles ; ſome
under ones increaſe in ſize, till at length the tempora, of which perform the motions of the tongue, while
ry, or upper teeth, having no longer any ſupport, others act on the larynx and fauces.
confequently fall out.
To theſe 20 teeth, which ſucceed the temporary Sect. III. Of the Bones of the Trunk.
ones, 12 others are afterwards added, viz. three mo-
lares on each ſide in both jaws: and in order to make The trunk of the ſkeleton conſiſts of the ſpine, the 29.
room for this addition, we find that the jaws gradually thorax, and the pelvis.
lengthen in proportion to the growth of the teeth ; fo
$1. Of the Spine.
that with 20 teeth, they ſeem to be as completely filled
as they are afterwards with 32. This is the reaſon The ſpine is compoſed of a great number of bones
why the face is rounder and fatter in children than in called vertebræ, forming a long bony column, in figure
adults.
not much unlike the letterſ. This column, which ex-
With regard to the forniation of the teeth, we may tends from the head to the lower part of the body, may
obſerve, that in a foetus of four months, the alveolar be ſaid to conſiſt of two irregular and unequal pyramids,
proceſs appears only as a ſhallow longitudinal groove, united to each other in that part of the loins where thé
divided by minute ridges into a number of interinediate laſt luinbar vertebra joins the os ſacrum.
depreſſions ; in each of which we find a ſmall pulpy The vertebræ of the upper and longeſt pyramid are
ſubſtance, ſurrounded by a vaſcular membrane. This called true vertebra, in contradiſtinction to thoſe of the
pulp gradually oſſifies, and its lower part is lengthened lowermoſt pyramid, which, from their being immove-
out to form the fang. When the bony part of the able in the adult, are ſtyled falſe vertebre. It is upon
tooth is formed, its ſurface begins to be incruſted with the bones of the ſpine that the body turns; and it is to
the enamel. How the latter is formed and depoſited, this circumſtance they owe their name, which is de-
we are not yet able to determine.
rived from the Latin verb vertere, to turn.
The rudiments of ſome of the adult teeth begin to The true vertebræ are divided into three claſſes
be formed at a very early period, for the pulp of one of of cervical, dorſal, and lumbar vertebræ..The falſe
the inciſores may generally be perceived in a fætus of vertebræ conſiſt of the os ſacrum and os coccygis.
eight months, and the oſſification begins in it ſoon af In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be
neceſ-
ter birth. The firſt bicuſpis begins to oflify about the fary to remark the body of the bone, its proceſſes, and
fifth or fixth, and the ſecond about the ſeventh year. cavities.
The firſt adult grinder cuts the gum about the 12th, The body, which is convex before, and concave be-
the ſecond about the 18th, and the third, or dens fa- hind, where it affiſts in forming the cavity of the
pientiæ, uſually between the 20th and 30th year. ſpine, may be compared to part of a cylinder cut off
The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be affected tranſverſely.
by diſeaſe. Their removal is likewiſe the natural Each vertebra affords ſeven proceſſes. The firſt is
confequence of old age; for as we advance in life, at the back part of the vertebra, and from its ſhape and
the alveoli fill up, and the teeth, eſpecially the inci. direction is named the ſpinous proceſs. On each ſide of
ſores, fall out. When this happens, the chin pro- this are two others, which, from their ſituation with
jects forward, and the face is much ſhortened. reſpect to the ſpine, are called tranſverſe proceſſes. The
§ 4. Of the Os -Hyoides. (K.)
four others are ſtyled oblique or articular proceſſes. They
are much ſmaller than the ſpinous or tranſverſe oncs.
8.
THE os hyoides, which is placed at the root of the Two of them are placed on the upper, and two on the
tongue, was ſo called by the ancients on account of its lower part of each vertebra, riſing from near the baſis
ſuppoſed reſemblance to the Greek letter v.
of eachtranſverſe proceſs. They have gotten the name
It will be neceſſary to diſtinguiſh in it, its body, of oblique proceſſes, from their ſituation with reſpect to
horns, and appendices.
the proceſſes with which they are articulated; and they
The body, which is the middle and broadeſt part of are ſometimes ſtyled articular proceſſes, from the mana
the bone, is ſo placed that it may be eaſily felt at the ner in which they are articulated with each other; the
fore part of the throat. Anteriorly it is irregularly two ſuperior procefles of one vertebra being articulated
with
(K) This bone is very feldom preſerved with the ſkeleton, and cannot be included among the bones of the
head, or any other diviſion of the ſkeleton. Thomas Bartholin has perhaps very properly deſcribed it among
parts contained in the mouth ; but the generality of anatomical writers have placed it, as it is here, after
the boules of the face.
1
Part I.
Α Ν Α Τ ο Μ Y.
695
Ofteology, with the two inferior proceſſes of the vertebra above ties which admit the condyles of the occipital tone Oſteology.
it. Each of theſe proceſſes is covered with cartilage with which it is articulated. This vertebra, which is
at its articulation, and their articulations with each called atlas from its ſupporting the head, cannot wel
other are by a ſpecies of ginglimus.
be deſcribed as having either body or ſpinous procels,
In each vertebra, between its body and its proceſſes, being a kind of bony ring. Anteriorly, where it is ar-
we find a hole large enough to admit a finger. Theſe ticulated to the odontoid proceſs of the ſecond verte-
holes or foramina, correſpond with each other through bra, it is very thin. Onits upper ſurface it has two
all the vertebræ, and form the long bony channel in cavities which admit the condyles ofthe occipital bone.
which the ſpinal marrow is placed. We may likewiſe By this connection the head is allowed to inove for-
obſerve four notches in each vertebra. Two of theſe wards and backwards, but has very little motion in any
notches are at the upper, and two at the lower part of other direction.
the bone, between the oblique proceſſes and the body The ſecond vertebra has gotten the name of dentata,
of the vertebra. Each of theſe notches meeting with from its having, at its upper and interior part, a pro-
a ſimilar opening in the vertebra above or below it, ceſs called the odontordor tooth-like proceſs, which is ar-
forms a foramen for the paſſage of blood-veſſels, and ticulated with the atlas, to which this ſecond vertebra
of the nerves out of the ſpine.
may be ſaid to ſerve as an axis. This odontoid proceſs
The bones of the ſpine are united together by means is of a cylindrical ſhape, ſomewhat flattened, however,
of a ſubſtance, which in young ſubjects appears to be anteriorly and poſteriorly. At its fore-part where it is
of a ligamentous, but in adults more of a cartilaginous received by the atlas, we may obſerve a ſmooth, con-
nature. This intervertebral ſubſtance, which forms vex, articulating ſurface. It is by means of this arti--
a kind of partition between the ſeveral vertebræ, is culation that the head performs its rotatory motion,
thicker and more flexible between the lumber verte. the atlas in that caſe moving upon this odontoid pro-
bræ than in the other parts of the ſpine, the moſt con ceſs as upon a pivot. But when this motion is in any
fiderable motions of the trunk being performed on thoſe conſiderable degree, or, in other words, when the head
vertebræ. This ſubſtance being very elaſtic, the ex moves much either to the right or left, all the cervical
tenſion and flexion of the body, and its motion back- vertebræ ſeem to aſſiſt, otherwiſe the ſpinal marrow
wards and forwards, to either ſide, are performed with would be in danger of being divided tranſverſely by the
great facility. This elaſticity ſeems to be the reaſon firſt vertebra.
why people who have been long ſtanding, or have The fpinous proceſs of each of the cervical vertebræ vertebra
carried a conſiderable weight, are found to be ſhorter is ſhorter, and their articular proceſies more oblique, of the back.
than when they have been long in bed. In the two than in the other bones of the ſpine.
firſt inſtances the intervertebral cartilages (as they are Theſe 12 vertebræ are of a middle ſize between thoſe
uſually called) are evidently more expoſed to compref- of the neck and loins. At their ſides we may obſerve
fion than when we are in bed in an horizontal poſture. two depreſſions, one at the upper and the other at the
In advanced life theſe cartilages become ſhrivelled, lower part of the body of each vertebræ; which uniting
and of courſe loſe much of their elaſticity. This may with ſimilar depreſſions in the vertebræ above and be-
ferve to account for the decreaſe in ſtature and the low, form articulating ſurfaces, covered with cartila-
ſtooping forward which are uſually to be obſerved in ges, for receiving the heads of the ribs ; and at the
old people.
forepart of their tranſverſe proceſs (excepting the
Beſides the connection of the ſeveral vertebræ by two laft) we find an articulating ſurface for receiving
means of this intervertebral ſubſtance, there are like the tuberoſity of the ribs.
wiſe many ſtrong ligaments, both external and in Theſe five vertebræ differonly from thoſeof the back Lumbar
ternal, which unite the bones of the ſpine to each in their being larger, and in having their ſpinous pro- vertebrze,
other. Their union is alſo ſtrengthened by a variety ceſſes at a greater diſtance from each other. The inoſt
of ſtrong inuſcles that cover and ſurround the ſpine. conſiderable motions of the truk are made on theſe
The bones of the ſpine are found to diminiſh in den vertebræ ; and theſe motions could not be performed
ſity, and to be leſs firin in their texture in proportion with ſo much eaſe, were the procelles placed nearer to
as they increaſe in bulk; ſo that the lowermoſt verte each other.
bræ, though the largeſt, are not ſo heavy in proportion The os facrum, which is compoſed of five or fix
Os facrum.
as the upper ones. By this means the ſize of theſe pieces in young ſubjects, becomes one bone in more
bones is increaſed without adding to their weight : a
circumſtance of no little importance in a part like the It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior portion
fpine, which, beſides flexibility and fuppleneſs, ſeems being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part has two
to require lightneſs as one of its eſſential properties. oblique proceſſes which are articulated with the laſt or
In very young children, each vertebra conſiſts of the lumbar vertebræ; and it has likewiſe commonly
three bony pieces united by cartilages which after- three ſmall ſpinous proceſſes, which gradually become
wards offify.
ſhorter, ſo that the lowermoſt is not ſo long as the fe-
Vertebrae There are ſeven vertebræ of the neck—they are of a cond, nor the fecond as the uppermoft. Its tranſverſe
ofthe neck, firmer texture than the other bones of the ſpine. Their proceſſes are formed into one oblong proceſs, which be-
tranſverſe proceſſes are forked for the lodgement of comes gradually ſmaller as it deſcends. Its concave or
muſcles, and at the bottom of each we obſerve a fora. anterior ſide is uſually ſmooth, but its poſterior convex
men, through which paſs the cervical artery and vein. fide has many prominences (the moſt remarkable of
The firſt and ſecond of theſe vertebræ muſt be deſcri- which are the fpinous proceſſes juſt now mentioned);
bed more particularly. The firſt approaches almoſt to which are filled up and covered with the muſcular and
an oval ſhapeOn its ſuperior ſurface it has two cavi- tendinous parts behind.
This
34
advanced age.
31
1
4
696
A NA TO OM Y.
Part I.
FOIS.
38
33
Os coccyx. .
37
Oltcologs. This bone has tive pair of holes, wlich afford a paſ- turns itſelf in every direction, as if all its bones were oftcology,
fage to blood-vefſels, and likewiſe to the nerves that are ſeparated from each other.
derived from the Spinal marrow, which is continued In a part of the body, like the ſpine, that is made
even here, being lodged in a triangular cavity, that be up of ſo great a number of bones, and intended for
comes ſmaller as it deſcends, and at length terminates ſuch a variety of motion, there muſt be a greater dan-
obliquely at the lower part of this bone. Below the ger of diſlocation than fracture ; but we ſhall find, that
third diviſion of the os facrun, this canal is not com this is very wiſely guarded againſt in every direction
* pletely bony as in the reſt of the ſpine, being ſecured by the proceſſes belonging to each vetrebra, and by
at its back part only by a very ſtrong membrane, ſo the ligaments, cartilages, &c. by which theſe bones
that a wound at that part muſt be extremely dange- are connected with each other.
$ 2. Of the Bones of the Thorax.
The os ſacrum is united laterally to the offa inno-
minata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx.
The thorax, or cheſt, is compoſed of many bones,
The coccyx, which, like the os facrum, is in young viz. the ſterium which is placed at its anterior part,
people made up of three or four diſtinct parts, uſually twelve ribs on each ſide which makeup its lateral parts,
becomes one bone in the adult ſtate.
and the dorſal vertebræ which conſtitute its poſterior
It ferves to ſupport the inteſtinum rectum ; and, by part. Theſe laſt have been already deſcribed.
its being capable of ſome degree of motion at its arti The ſternum is the long bone which extends itſelf of the fer-
culation with the ſacrum, and being like that bone from the upper to the lower part of the breaſt anteri- num
bent forwards, we are enabled to fit with eaſe. orly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles are arti-
This bone is nearly of a triangular ſhape, being culated.
broadeſt at its upper part, and from thence growing In children it is compoſed of ſeveral bones united by
Tiarrower to its apex, where it is not bigger than the cartilages; but as we advance in life, moſt of theft
little finger.
cartilages oſſify, and the ſternum in the adult ſtate is
It has got its name from its ſuppoſed reſemblance to found to conſiſt only of three pieces, and ſometimes
a cuckow's beak. It differs greatly from the verte becomes one bone. It is however generally deſcribed
bræ, being commonly without any proceſſes, and ha as being compoſed of three paris--one ſuperior, which
ving no cavity for the ſpinal marrow, or foramina for is broad, thick, and ſhort ; and one in the middle,
the tranſmiſſion of nerves.
which is thinner, narrower, and longer than the
The ſpine, of which we have now finiſhed the ana. other.
tomical deſcription, is deſtined for many great and im It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, which
portant uſes. The medulla ſpinalis is lodged in its is called the typhoid, or ſword-like cartilage, from its
bony canal ſecure from external injury. It ſerves as a ſuppoſed reſemblance to the blade of a ſword, and be-
defence to the abdominal and thoracic viſcera, and at cauſe in young ſubjects it is commonly in a cartilagi-
ilie ſame time ſupports the head, and gives a general nous ſtate.
firmneſs to the whole trunk.
We have already obſerved, that this bone is articu-
We have before compared it to the letter /, and its lared with the clavicle on each ſide. It is likewiſejoin-
different turns will be found to render it not very unlike ed to the fourteen true ribs, viz. ſeven on its right
the figure of that letter. In the neck we ſee it projecting and ſeven on its left ſide.
38
ſomewhat forward to ſupport the head, which without The ribs are bones ſhaped like a bow, forming the of the ribs.
this aſſiſtance would require a greater nurnber of muf- ſides of the chef. There are twelve on each ſide.
cles.--Lower down, in the thorax, we find it taking a They are diſtinguiſhed into true and falſe ribs : The
curved direction backwards, and of courſe increaſing ſeven upper ribs which are articulated to the ſternum
the cavity of the cheſt. After this, in the loins, it are called true ribs, and the five lower ones that are
again projects forwards in a direction with the centre not immediately attached to that bone are called falſe
of gravity, by which means we are eaſily enabled to ribs.
keep the body in an erect poſture, for otherwiſe we On the inferior and interior ſurface of each rib, we
Mhould be liable to fall forward. Towards its inferior obſerve a ſinuoſity for the lodgement of an artery, vein,
extremity, lowever, it again recedes backward, and and nerve.
shus afliſts in forming the pelvis, the name given to The ribs are not bony through their whole length,
the cavity in which the urinary bladder, inteſtinum their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar-
rectuin, and other viſcera are placed.
ticulated with the vertebræ and ſternum. Every rib
If this bony column had been formed only of one (or at leaſt the greater numberof them) has at its poft-
piece, it would have been much more eaſily fractured rior part two proceſſes ; one at its extremity called the
than it is now : and by confining the trunk to a ſtiff head of the rib, by means of which it is articulated
ſituation, a variety of motions would have been altoge- with the body of two vertebræ; and another,called its
ther prevented, which are now performed with eaſe by tuberoſity, by which it is articulated with thetranſverſe
the great number of bones of which it is compoſed. proceſs of the loweſt of theſe two vertebræ. The firſt
It is firm, and yet to this firmneſs there is added a rib is not articulated by its extremity to two vertebræ,
perfect flexibility. If it be required to carry a load being ſimply attached to the upper part of the firſt ver-
upon the head, the neck becomes ſtiff with the afliſt- tebra of the back. The ſeven ſuperior or true iibs are
ance of its muſcles, and accommodates itſelf to the articulated anteriorly with the ſternum by their carti-
load, as if it was compoſed only of one bone-In lages; but the falſe ribs are fupported in a different
ftooping likewiſe, or in turning to either ſide, the ſpine manner--the eighth, which is the firſt of theſe ribs,
3
being
Part I.
OM Α Ν Α Τ
Α Τ ο Μ
697
41
to
Y.
Oſteology. being attached by its cartilage to the ſeventh ; the from the os facrum to the ſharp-pointed proceſs of the Oftcology,
ninth to the eighth, &c.
iſchium. This hole afford; a pallage to the great ſci-
The two lowerinoſt ribs differ likewiſe from all the atic nerve, and to the poſterior crural veſſels under
reſt in the following particulars: They are articulated the pyriform muſcle, part of which likewiſe palles out
only with the body of the vertebra, and not with a here.
tranſverſe proceſs, and anteriorly, their cartilage is The os iſchium, or hip-bone, which is of a very ir - Os ifchiun.
looſe, not being attached to the cartilages of the other regular figure, conſtitutes the lower lateral parts of the
ribs; and this ſeems to be, becauſe the moſt conſider. pelvis, and is commonly divided into its body, tubero-
able motions of the trunk are not performed on the lity, and ramus. The body forms the lower and moſt
lumbar vertebræ alone, but likewiſe on the two laſt confiderable portion of the acetabulum, and ſends a
'vertebræ of the back; ſo that if theſe two ribs had harp-pointed proceſs backwards, called the ſpine of
been confined at the fore part like the other ribs, and the iſchium. To this proceſs the ligament adheres,
had been likewiſe articulated with the bodies of two which was juſt now ſpoken of, as forming a foramen for
vertebræ, and with the tranſverſe proceſſes, the moti- the paſſage of the ſciatic nerve. --The tuberoſity which
on of the two lalt vertebræ, and conſequently of the is the loweſt part of the trunk, and ſupports us when
whole trunk, would have been impeded.
we ſit, is large and irregular, affording origin to ſeve-
The ribs help to form the cavity of the thorax; ral muſcles. From this tuberoſity we find the bone
they afford attachment to different muſcles; they are becoming thinner and narrower. This part, which has
uſeful in reſpiration; and they ſerve as a ſecurity to the name of ramus or branch, paſſes forwards and ap-
the heart and lungs.
wards, and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis,
form a large hole called the foramen magnum iſchii, or
39.
§ 3. Of the Bones of the Pelvis.
thyroideum, as it is ſometimes named, from its reſem-
The pelvis is compoſed of the os ſacrum, os coccy- blance to a door or ſhield. This hole, which in the
gis, and two olſa innominata. The two firſt of theſe recent ſubject is cloſed by a ſtrong membrane called
bones were included in the account of the ſpine, to the obturator ligament, affords through its whole cir-
which they more properly belong.
cumference attachment to muſcles. Ac its upper part
In children, each os innominatum is compoſed of where we obſerve a niche in the bone, it gives paſſage
three diſtinct bones; but as we advance in life the in to the obturator veſſels and nerves, which go to the
termediate cartilages gradually oſlify, and the marks inner part of the thigh. Nature ſeems every where to
of the original ſeparation diſappear, ſo that they be avoid an unneceſſary weightof bone, and this foramen,
coine one irregular bone ; ftill however continuing to no doubt, ſerves to lighten the bones of the pelvis.
retain the names of ilium, iſchium, and pubis, by which The os pubis or ſhare-bone, which with its fellow Os pubis.
their diviſions were originally diſtinguiſhed, and to be forms the fore-part of the pelvis, is the ſmalleſt divi-
deſcribed as three different bones by the generality of fion of the os innominatum. It is united to its fellow
anatomiſts. The os ilium fornis the upper and moſt by means of a ſtrong cartilage, which forms what is
conſiderable part of the bone, the os iſchium its lower called the ſymphyſis pubis.
and poſterior portion, and the os pubis its fore part. In each os pubis we may diſtinguiſh the body of
Os iliun.
The os ilium or haunch bone, is articulated poſteri. the bone, its angle, and ramus. The body or outer
orly to the os ſacrum by a firm cartilaginous ſubſtance, part is united to the os ilium. The angie comes for-
and is united to the os pubis before and to the os iſchi ward to form the ſymphyſis, and the ramus is a thin
um below. Its ſuperior portion is thin, and termi. proceſs which unites with the ramus of the iſchium,
nates in a ridge called the criſta or ſpine of the iliun, to form the foramen thyroideum.
and more commonly known by the name of the The three bones we have deſcribed as compoſing
haunch. This criſta riſes up like an arch; being each os innominatum, all aſſiſt in forming the acetabu-
turned ſomewhat outwards, ſo as to reſemble the wings lum, in which the head of the os femoris is received.
of a phaeton.
This cavity is every where lined with a ſmooth car-
Externally this bone isunequally prominent and hol. cilage, excepting at its inner parl, where we may ob-
lowed for the lodgement of muſcles; internally we find ſerve a little folla, in which are lodged the mucilagi-
it ſmooth and concave. At its lower part there is a nous glands of the joint. We may likewiſe notice
conſiderable ridge on its inner ſurface. This ridge the pit or depreſſion made by the round ligament, as
extends from the os facrum, and correſponds with a it is improperly called, which, by adhering to this
fimilar prominence both on that bone and the iſchi- cavity and to the head of the thigh-bone, helps to ſe-
um ; forms with the inner part of the offa pubis what cure the latter in the ſocket.
in midwifery is termed the brim of the pelvis.
Theſe bones, which are united to each other and
The criſta, or ſpine, which at firſt is an epiphyſis, to the ſpine by many very ſtrong ligaments, ferves to
has two conſiderable tuberolities; one anteriorly, and ſupport the trunk, and to connect it with the lower
the other poſteriorly, which is the largelt of the two: extreinities; and at the ſame time to form the pelvis
Theſe, from their projecting more than the parts of or baſon, in which are lodged the inteſtines and uri-
the bones below thein, have gotten the name of fpinal nary bladder, and in women the uterus ; ſo that the
proceſles. From the anterior ſpinous proceſs, the far- ſtudy of this part of oſteology is of the utmoſt import-
torius and tenſor vaginæ femoris muſcles have their ance to midwifery.
origin; and below the poſterior proceſs pre obſerve a It is worthy of obſervation, that in women the os
conſiderable niche in the bone, which, in the recent ſacrum is uſually ſhorter, broader, and niore hollowed,
ſubject, is formed into a large foramen, by means of a the oila ilia more expanded, and the inferior opening
ſtrong ligament that is ſtretched over its lower part of the pelvis larger than in men.
VOL. I.
SECT.
40
4 T
698
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Part 1.
The up
48.
Oftealogy
ter ſide of this coracoid proceſs, a ſtrong ligament paf- Oſteology
SECT. IV. Of the Extremities.
ſes to the proceſſius acromion, which prevents a luxa-
tion of the os humeri upwards. A third proceſs be-
43. THESB parts of the ſkeleton conſiſt of the upper ex. gins by a narrow neck, and ends in a cavity called
tremity and the lower.
glenoid, for the connection of the os liumeri.
The ſcapula is articulated with the clavicle and os
j 1. Of the UPPER EXTREMITY.
humeri, to which laſt it ſerves as a fulcrum; and by
This conſiſts of the ſhoulder, the arm, and the varying its poſition it affords a greater ſcope to the
band.
bones of the arm in their different motions. It like-
wife gives origin to ſeveral muſcles, and poſteriorly
I. Of the Shoulder.
ſerves as a defence to the trunk.
45°
The ſhoulder conſiſts of two bones, the clavicula
2. Bones of the Arm.
and the ſcapula.
46
of the cla-
The former, which is fo named from its reſemblance The arm is commonly divided into two parts, which
vicula. to the key in uſe amongſt the ancients, is a little cur are articulated to each other at the elbow.
ved at both its extremities like an italic ſ: It is like- per part retains the name of arm, properly ſo called,
wiſe callèd jugulum, or collar-bone, from its ſituation. and the lower part is uſually called the fore-arm.
It is about the ſize of the little finger, but longer, and The arm is compoſed of a ſingle bone called os hu-
being of a very ſpongy ſubſtance is very liable to be meri. This bone, which is almoſt of a cylindrical
fractured. In this, as in other long bones, we may ſhape, may be divided into its body and its extremi-
diſtinguiſh a body and two extremities. The body is ties.
rather flattened than rounded. The anterior extre The upper extremity begins by a large, round
mity is formed into a ſlightly convex head, which is ſmooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid ca-
nearly of a triangular ſhape. The inferior ſurface of vity of the ſcapula. On the upper and fore part of the
the head is articulated with the ſternum. The poſte- bone there is a groove for lodging the long head of the
rior extremity, which is flatter and broader than the biceps muſcle of the arm; and on each ſide of the
other, is connected to a proceſs of the ſcapula, called groove, at the upper end of the bone, there is a tu-
acromion. Both theſe articulations are ſecured by li- bercle to which the ſpinata inuſcles are fixed.
ganients, and in that with the ſternum we meet with The lower extremity has ſeveral proceſſes and eavi-
a moveable cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric- ties. The principal proceſſes are its two condyles, one
tion.
exterior and the other interior, and of theſe the laſt is
The clavicle ſerves to regulate the motions of the the largeſt. Between theſe two we obſerve two late-
ſcapula, by preventing it from being brought too niuch ral protuberances, which, together with a middle ca-
forwards, or carried 100 far backwards. It affords ori- vity, form as it were a kind of pully upon which the
gin to ſeveral muſcles, and helps to cover and protect înotions of the fore-arm are chiefly performed.
the ſubclavian veſſels, which derive their name from each ſide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interi-
47
their ſituation under this bone.
orly, there is another eininence which gives origin to
of the ſca The ſcapula, or ſhoulder-blade, which is nearly of ſeveral muſcles of the hand and fingers. Poſteriorly
pula.
a triangular ſhape, is fixed to the poſterior part of the and ſuperiorly, ſpeaking with reſpect to the condyles,
true ribs, ſomewhat in the manner of a buckler. It we obſerve a deep foſſa which receives a conſiderable
is of a very unequal thickneſs, and like all other broad, proceſs of the ulna ; and anteriorly and oppoſite to
flat bones, is ſomewhat cellular. Exteriorly it is con this foſſa, we obſerve another, which is much leſs and
vex, and interiorly concave, to accommodate itſelf to receives another proceſs of the ſame bone.
the convexity of the ribs. We obſerve in this bone The body of the bone has at its upper and anterior
three unequal ſides, which are thicker and ſtronger than part a furrow which begins from behind the head of
the body of the bone, and are therefore termed its the bone, and ſerves to lodge the tendon of a muſcle.
coſta. The largeſt of the three, called alſo the baſis, The body of the os humeri is hollow through its whole
is turned towards the vertebræ. Another, which is length, and, like all other long bones, has its marrow.
leſs than the former, is below this; and the third, This bone is articulated at its upper part to the ſca-
which is the leaſt of the three, is at the upper part of pula. This articulation, which allows motion every
the bone. Externally the bone is elevated into a con way, is ſurrounded by a capſular ligament; that is
liderable ſpine, which riſing ſmall at the baſis of the fømetimes torn in luxation, and becomes an obſtacle to
ſcapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, and the eaſy reduction of the bone. Its lower extremity
divides the outer ſurface of the bone into two follz. is articulated with the bones of the fore-arm.
The ſuperior of theſe, which is the ſmalleſt, ferves to The fore-arm is compoſed of two bones, the ulna of the foto-
lodge the ſupra ſpinatus muſcle ; and the inferior fof- and radius.
fa, which is much larger than the other, gives origin The ulna or elbow-bone is much leſs than the os
51
to the infra ſpinatus. This ſpine terminates in a broad humeri, and becomes gradually ſmaller as it deſcends of the ul-
and flat proceſs at the top of the ſhoulder, called the to the wriſt. At its upper part it has two proceſſes,
proceſſus acromion, to which the clavicle is articulated. and two cavities. Of the two proceſſes, the largeſt,
This proceſs is hollowed at its lower part to allow a which is ſituated poſteriorly, and called the olecranon,
paſſage to the ſupra and infra ſpinati muſcles. The is admitted into the poſterior foſſa of the os humeri.
fcapula has likewiſe another conſiderable proceſs at its The other proceſs is placed anteriorly, and is called
upper part, which, from its reſemblance to the beak the coronoid proceſs. In bending the arm it enters in-
of a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From the on to che anterior folla of the os humeri. This proceſs
AC
arm.
na
being
Part 1.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
699
Oſteology being much ſmaller than the other, permits the fore to each of them a particular name.
Tlic names he olteology.
arın to bend inwards; whereas the olecranon, which adopted are founded on the figure of the bones, and are
is ſhaped like a hook, reaches the bottom of its foſſa now pretty generally received, except the firſt, which
in the os humeri as ſoon as the arm becomes ſtraight, inſtead of Xotuosides (the name given to it by Lyſerus,
and will not permit the forc-arın to be bent backwards. on account of its ſinus, that admits a part of the us mag-
Thc ligaments likewiſe oppoſe this motion.
num), has by later writers been named Scaphoides or
Between the two procelles we have deſcribed, there Naviculare. This, which is the outermoſt of the upper
is a conſiderable cavity called tlie ſygmoid cavity, di row (conſidering the thumb as the outer ſide of the
vided into two foſfæ by a ſmall eminence, which paſſes hand), is articulated with the radius; on its inner ſide
from one proceſs to the other ; it is by means of this it is connected with the os lunare, and below to the tra-
cavity and the two proceſſes, that the ulna is articu- pezium and trapezoides. Next to this is a ſmaller bone
lated with the os humeri by ginglinus.
called the os lunare : becauſe its outer ſide, which is
At the bottom of the coronoid proceſs interiorly, connected with the ſcaphoides, is ſhaped like a creſ-
there is a ſmall ſygmoid cavity, which ſerves for the cent. This is likewiſe articulated with the radius. On
articulation of the ulna with thie radius.
its inner ſide it joins the os cuneiforme,and anteriorly,
The body of the ulna is of a triangular ſhape : Its the os magnum and os unciforme.
lower extremity terminates by a ſmall head and a little The os cuneiforn, which is the third bone in the
ſtyloid proceſs. The ulna is articulated above to the upper row, is compared to a wedge, from its being
os humeri-both above and below to the radius, and broader above, at the back of the hand, than it is be-
to the wriſt at its lower extremity. All theſe articula- low. Poſteriorly it is articulated with the ulna, and
tions are ſecured by means of ligaments. The chief anteriorly with the os unciforme.
uſe of this bone ſeems to be to ſupport and regulate the Theſe three bones form an oblong articulating ſur-
motions of the radius.
face, covered by cartilage, by which the hand is con-
52
Of the ra-
The radius, which is ſo named from its ſuppoſed re- nected with the fore-arm.
dius, ſemblance to the ſpoke of a wheel, is placed at the in The os piſiforme, or pea-like bone, which is ſmaller
ſide of the fore-arm. It is ſomewhat larger than the than the three juſt now deſcribed, though generally
ulna, but not quite ſo long as that bone. Its upper claffed with the bones of the upper row, does not pro-
part is cylindrical, hollowed ſuperiorly to receive the perly belong to either ſeries, being placed on the un-
outer condyle of the os humeri. Laterally it is ad. der ſurface of the os cuneiforme, ſo as to project inte
mitted into the little fygmoid cavity of the ulna, and the palm of the hand. The four bones of the ſecond
the cylindrical part of the bone turns in this cavity in row correſpond with the bones of the thumb and fin-
the motions of pronation and ſupination (I). This gers ; the firſt, ſecond, and fourth, are from their
bone follows the ulna in flexion and extenſion, and may mapes named trapezium, trapezoides, and unciforme;
likewiſe be moved round its axis in any direction. The the third, from its being the largeſt bone of the car-
lower extremity of the radius is much larger and pus, is ſtyled as magnum.
ſtronger than its upper part ; lhe ulna, on the contra All theſe bones are convex towards the back, and
is ſmaller and weaker below than above; ſo that ſlightly concave towards the palm of the hand; their
they ſerve to ſupply each others deficiencies in both articulating ſurfaces are covered with cartilages, and
ſecured by many ſtrong ligaments, particularly by two
On the external ſide of this bone, we obſerve a ſmall ligamentous expanſions, called the external and inter-
cavity which is deſtined to receive the lower part of the nal annular ligaments of the wriſt. The former ex-
and its lower extremity is formed into a large tends in an oblique direction froin the os piſiforme to
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the the ſtyloid proceſs of the radius, and is an inch and an
bones of the wriſt, and on this account it is ſometimes half in breadth ; the latter or internal annular liga-
called manubriun manus. It ſupports the two firſt ment is ſtretched from the os piſiforme and os unci-
bones of the wriſt on the ſide of the thumb, whereas forme, to the os ſcaphoides and trapezium. Theſe an-
the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wriſt nular ligaments likewiſe ſerve to bind down the ten-
which correſponds with the little finger.
dons of the wriſt and fingers.
Through the wholelength both of this bone and the The matacarpus conſiſts of four bones, which ſup- of the me.
ulna, a ridge is obſerved, which affords attachment to port the fingers ; externally they are a little convex, tacarpus.
an interoſſeous ligament. This ligament fills up the and internally ſomewhat concave, where they form
ſpace between the two bones.
the palm of the hand. They are hollow, and of a cy.
lindrical ſhape.
$3.
3. Bones of the Hand.
At each extremity they are a little hollowed for their
Of thc car-
The carpus or wriſt conſiſts of eight ſmall bones of articulation ; ſuperiorly with the bones of the carpus,
pus.
an irregular ſhape, and diſpoſed in two unequal rows. and inferiorly with the firſt phalanx of the fingers,
Thoſe of the upper row are articulated with the bones in the ſame manner as the ſeveral phalanges of the
of the fore-arm, and thoſe of the lower one with the fingers are articulated with each other.
56
metacarpus.
The five fingers of each hand are compoſed of fifteen of the fire
The ancient anatomiſts deſcribed theſe bones nume- bones, diſpoſed in three ranks called phalanges: : The
rically ; Lyſerus ſeems to have been the firſt who gave bones of the first phalanx, which are articulated with
the
(1) The motions of pronation and fupination may be caſily deſcribed If the palm of the hand, for inſtance,
is placed in the ſurface of a table, the hand may be ſaid to be in a ſtate of pronition ; but if the back part of
the hand is turned towards the table, the hand will be then in a ſtate of ſupination,
ry,
thoſe parts.
ulna;
55
54
gers.
4 I 2
700
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part I.
58
Ofteology. the metacarpus, are the largeſt, and thoſe of the laſt At the fide of each condyle externally, there is a Oſteology.
phalanx the ſmalleſt. All theſe bones are larger at tuberoſity, from whence the lateral ligaments origi-
their extremities than in their middle part.
nate, which are extended down the tibia,
We obſerve at the extremities of the bones of the A ligament likewiſe ariſes from each condyle poſte-
carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, ſeveral inequalities riorly. One of theſe ligaments paſſes from the right
that ſerve for their articulation with each other; and to the left, and the other from the left to the right,
theſe articulations are ſtrengthened by means of the ſo that they interfect each other, and for that reaſon
ligaments which ſurround them.
are called the croſs ligaments.
It will be eaſily underſtood that this multiplicity of The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg
bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand) is upon the thigh to the right or left; and the croſs liga-
eſſential to the different motions we wiſh lo perform. ments, which are alſo attached to the tibia, prevent
If each finger was compoſed only of one bone inſtead the latter from being brought forwards.
of three, it would be impoſſible for us to graſp any In new-born children all the proceſſes of this bone
thing.
are cartilaginous.
7.
ſ 2. Of the Lower EXTREMITIES.
2. The Rotula, or Knee-pan.
59
Each lower extremity is divided into four parts, The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is differently Of the re-
vize the os femoris, or thigh bone : the rotula, or called, is a flat bone about four or five inches in circum- tula.
knee-pan ; the legs and the foot.
ference, and is placed at the fore-part of the joint of
I. Of the Thigh.
the knee. In its ſhape it is ſomewhat like the common
figure of the heart, with its point downwards:
Of the os
The thigh is compoſed only of this bone, which is It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part ; at
femoris the largeſt and ſtrongeſt we have. It will be neceſſary its fore-part it is ſmooth and ſomewhat convex; its
to diſtinguiſh its body and extremities : Its body,which poſterior ſurface, which is more unequal, affords an.
is of a cylindrical ſhape, is convex before and con elevation in the middle which is admitted between the
cave behind, where it ſerves to lodge ſeyeral muſcles. two condyles of the os femoris.
Throughout two-thirds of its length we obſerve a This bone is retained in its proper ſituation by a ſtrong
ridge called linea afpera, which originates from the ligament which every where ſurrounds it,and adheres
trochanters, and after running for ſome way down both to the tibia and os femoris ; it is likewiſe firmly
wards, divides into two branches, that terminate in connected with the tibia by means of a ſtrong tendi.
the tuberoſities at the lower extremity of the bone. nous ligament of an inch in breadth, and upwards of
At its upper extremity we muſt deſcribe the neck two inches in length, which adheres to the lower part
and ſmooth head of the bone, and likewiſe two confi- of the patella, and to the tuberoſity at the upper
end
derable proceſſes : Tlehead, which forms the greater of the tibia. On account of this connection, it is very
portion of a ſphere unequally divided, is turned in- properly conſidered as an appendage to the tibia,
wards, and received into the great cotyloid cavity of which it follows in all its motions, ſo as to be to it what
the os innominatum. At this part of the bone there is the olecranon is to the ulna. There is this difference,
a little foſſa to be obſerved, to which the round liga. however, that the olecranon is a fixed proceſs; where-
ment is attached,and which we have already deſcribed as the patella is moveable,being capable of ſliding from
as tending to ſecure the head of this bone in the great above downwards and from below upwards. This mo-
acetabulum. The neck is almoſt horizontal, conſidered bility is eſſential to the rotatory motion of the leg.
with reſpect to its ſituation with the body of the bone.
In very young children this bone is entirely carti.
Of the two proceſſes, the external one, which is the laginous.
largeſt, is called trochanter major; and the other, which The principal uſe of the patella ſeems to be to de-
is placed on the inſide of the bone, trochanter minor. fend the articulation of the knee from external injury; ,
They both afford attachment to muſcles. The articu- it likewiſe tends to increaſe the power of the extenfor
Iation of the os femoris with the trunk is ſtrengthened muſcles of the leg, by removing their direction farther
by means of a capſular ligament, which adheres eve from the centre of motion in the manner of a pulley.
ry where round the edge of the great cotyloid cavity of
3. Of the Leg.
the os innominatun,and ſurrounds the head ofthe bone.
The os femoris moves upon the trunk in every di The leg is compoſed of two bones : Of theſe the in-
rection.
ner one, which is the largeſt, is called tibia; the other
At the lower extremity of the bone are two procef- is much ſmaller, and named fibula.
61
ſes called the condyles, and an intermediate ſmooth The tibia, which is ſo called from its reſemblance to Of the tibia
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the the muſical pipe of the ancients,has three ſurfaces, and
Jeg by ginglimus.
is not very unlike a triangular priſin. Its poſterior ſur-
all round the under end of the bone there is an ir- face is the broadeſt ; anteriorly it has a conſiderable
regular ſurface where the capſular ligamentof the joint ridge called the fin, between which and the ſkin there
has its origin, and where blood-vefleis go into the ſub are no muſcles. At the upper extremity of this bone are
ſtance of the bone.
two ſurfaces, a little concave, and ſeparated from each
Between the condyles there is a cavity poſteriorly, other by an intermediate elevation. The two little ca-
in which the blood veſſels and nerves are placed, fe- vities receive the condyles of the os femoris, and the
cure from the compreſlion to which they would other eminence between them is admitted into the cavity
wiſe be expoſed in the action of bending the leg, and which we ſpoke of as being between the two condyles:
which would not fail to be hurtful.
ſo that this articulation aftords a ſpecimen of the coma
plete
60.
Part I.
701
Α Ν Α Τ
A TO 0 M M Y.
68
ز
Oftcology, plete ginglimus. Under the external edge of the up, it is articulated with the cuneiform bones, and late- Ofteology .
per end of this bone is a circular flat ſurface, which rally it is connected with the os cuboides.
receives the head of the fibula.
The os cuboides forms an irregular cube. Poſteri- Of the os
At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we ob- orly it is articulated with the os calcis ; anteriorly it cuboides,
ſerve a conſiderable proceſs called malleolus internus. ſupports the two laſt bones of the metatarſus, and la-
The basis of the bone terminates in a large tranſverſe terally it joins the third cuneiform bone and the os na-
cavity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoſt viculare.
69
bone of the foot. It has likewiſe another cavity at its Each of the oſſa cuneiformia, which are three in Of the offa.
lower end and outer fide, which is ſomewhat oblong, number, reſembles a wedge, and from this fimilitude cuneifor-
mia,
and receives the lower end of the fibula.
their name is derived. They are placed next to the
62
The tibia is hollow through its whole length. metatarſus by the ſides of each other, and are uſually
Of the fi-
The fibula is a ſmall long bone ſituated on the out- diſtinguiſhed into os cuneiforme externum. medium or
bula,
ſide of the tibia. Its ſuperior extremity does not reach minimum, and internum or maximum. The fuperior
quite fo high as the upper part of the tibia, but its ſurface of theſe bones, from their wedge-like ſhare, is
lower end deſcends ſomewhat lower. Both above and broader than that which is below, where they help to
below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the form the ſole of the foot ; pofteriorly they are united
lateral cavities we noticed in our deſcription of that to the os naviculare, and anteriorly they ſupport the
bonc.
three firſt meratarſal bones.
Its lower extremity is ſtretched out into a coronoid When theſe ſeven bones compoſing the tarſus are
proceſs, which is flattened at its inſide, and its convex viewed together in the ſkeleton, they appear convex
externally, forming what is called the malleolus exter- above, where they help to form the upper part of the
nus, or outer ancle. This is rather lower than the foot; and concave underneath, where they form the
malleolus internus of the tibia.
hollow of the foot, in which the veſſels, tendons, and
The body of this bone, which is irregularly triangu- nerves of the foot are placed ſecure from preſſure.
Jar, is a little hollow at its internal ſurface, which is They are united to each other by very ſtrong liga-
turned towards the tibia, and it affords like that bone, ments, and their articulation with the foot is ſecured
through its whole length, attachment to a ligament, by a capſular and two lateral ligaments; each of the
which from its ſituation is called the interoſſeous liga. latter is covered by an annular ligament of conſiderable
ment,
breadth and thickneſs, which ſerves to bind down the
tendons of the foot, and at the ſame time to ſtrength-
63.
4.
Of the Foot.
en the articulacion.
The foot conſiſts of the tarſus, inetatarſus, and toes. The os cuneiforme externuni is joined laterally to
Of the tar The tarſus is compoſed of ſeven bones, viz. the a the os cuboides.
fus.
ſtragalus, og calcis,os naviculare, os cuboides, and three Theſe bones complete our account of the tarſus.
65
others called cuneiform bones.
Though what we have ſaid of this part of the oſteolo-
Of the a-
The aſtragalus is a large bone with which both the gy has been very ſimple and conciſe, yet many rea-
Aragalus, tibia and fibula are articulated. It is the uppermoſt ders inay not clearly underſtand it: but if they will
bone of the foot; it has ſeveral ſurfaces to be conſider. be pleaſed to view theſe bones in their proper ſituati-
ed ; its upper, and ſomewhat poſterior part, which is on in the ſkeleton, all that we have ſaid of them will
ſmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavity of the be eaſily underſtood.
tibia. Its lateral parts are connected with the malleoli The metatarſus is made up of five bones, whereas Cf the mea
of the two bones of the leg ; below, it is articulated the metacarpus conſiſts only of four. The cauſe of tatarſusa
with the os calcis, and its anterior ſurface is received this difference is, that in the hand the laſt bone of the
by the os naviculare. All theſe articulations are ſecu- thumb is not included among the inetacarpal bones ;
66
red by means of ligaments.
whereas in the foot the great toe has only two bones.
Of the os
The os calcis,or calcaneum, which is of a very irre. The firſt of theſe bones ſupports the great toe and is
calcis. gular figure, is the largeſt bone of the foot. Behind, much larger than the reſt, which nearly reſemble
it is formed into a conſiderable tuberoſi'y called the each other in lize.
heel ; without this tuberoſity, which ſupports us in an Theſe bones are articulated by one extremity with
erect poſture, and when we walk, we Mould be liable the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, and by their
to fall backwards.
other end with the toes.
On the internal ſurface of this bone, we obſerve a Each of the toes, like the fingers, conſiſts of three of the toca,
conſiderable finuofity, which affords a paſſage to the bones, except the great toe, which is formed of two
tendon of a muſcle: and to the poſterior part of the bones. Thoſe of the other four are diſtinguiſhed into
os calcis,a ſtrong tendinous cord called the tendo achillis three phalanges. Although the toes are more con-
(m) is attached, which is formed by the tendons of ſe- fined in their motion than the fingers, yet they appear
veral mucles united together. The articulation of this to be perfectly fitted for the purpoſes they are deſign-
67
with the other bones is ſecured by means of ligaments. ed for. In walking, the loes bring the centre of gra-
of the os
Theos naviculare,or ſcaphoides,(for theſe twoternis vity perpendicular to the advanced foot; and as the
naviculare. have the fame ſignification); is ſo called on account of ſoles of the feet are naturally concave, we can at plea-
its reſemblance to a little bark. At its poſterior part, ſure increaſe this concavity, and form a kind of vault,
which is concave, it receives the aftragalus ; anteriorly which adjuſtsitſelf to the different inequalities that oc-
64
70
91
cur
(M) This tendon is ſometimes ruptured by juinping, dancing, or other violent efforts.
702
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part 1.
726
Oſteology. cur to us in walking; and which, without this mode and in other parts of the body. Their ſize and num. Oftcology.
of arrangement would incommode us exceedingly, ber ſeem conſtantly to be increaſed by age and hard
eſpecially when bare-footed.
labour ; and as they are generally found in ſituations
where tendons and ligaments are moſt expoſed to the
§ 4. Of the Oſa SESAMOIDEA,
action of inuſcles, they are now generally conſidered
BESIDES the bones we have already deſcribed, there as oflified portions of ligaments or tendons.
are ſeveral finall ones that are met with only in the The upper ſurface of theſe bones is uſually convex,
adult ſkeleton, and in perſons who are advanced in and adherent to the tendon that covers it ; the ſide
life ; which, from their ſuppoſed general reſemblance which is next to the joint is ſmooth and flat. Though
to the ſeeds of the ſeſamum, are called offa ſeſamoidea. their formation is accidental, yet they ſeem to be of
They are commonly to be ſeen at the firſt joint of the ſome uſe,
ſome uſe, by raiſing the tendons farther from the cen-
great toe, and ſometimes at the joints of the thumb; tre of motion, and conſequently increaſing the power
they are likewiſe now and then to be found at the of the muſcles. In the great toe and thumb they are
lower extremity of the fibula, upon the condyles of likwiſe uſeful, by forming a groove for the flexor
the thigh-bone, under the os cuboides of the tarſus, tendons.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES OF OSTEOLOGY.
PLATE XIX.
nal condyle. 28, The external condyle. 29, The
rotula. 30, The tibia. 31, Its head. 32, Its tu.
FIG. I.
A Front-view of the MAIE SKELETON. bercle. 33, Its ſpine. 34, The malleolus internus.
A, The os frontis. B, The os parietale. C, The 35, The fibula. 36, Its head. 37, The malleolus
coronal ſuture. D, The ſquamous part of the tempo externus. The tarſus is compoſed of, 38, The aſtraga-
ral bones. E, The ſquamous ſuture. F, The
zygoma. lus; 39, The os calcis; 40, The os naviculare ;
G, The maſtoid proceſs. H, The temporal proceſs of 41, Three olſa cuneiformia, and the os cuboides, which
the ſphenoid bone. I, The orbit. K, The os malæ. L, is not ſeen in this figure.
is not feen in this figure. 42, The five bones of the
The os maxillare ſuperius. M, Its naſal proceſs. Ng metatarſus.
metatarſus. 43, The two bones of the great toe.
The oſſa vali. O, Theos unguis. P, the maxilla in 44, The three bones of each of the ſmall toes.
ferior. Q, The teeth, which are ſixteen in number in
FIG.2. A Front-view of the SKULL.
cach jaw. R, The ſeven cervical vertebræ, with their
intermediate cartilages. S, Their tranſverſe proceſſes. frontis, which gives origin to part of the temporal
A, The os frontis. B, the lateral part of the os
ate cartilages. U, The five lumbar vertebræ. V,
muſcle. C, The ſuperciliary ridge. D, The fuper-
Their tranſverſe proceſſes. W, The upper part of the
ciliary hole through which the frontal veſſels and ner-
os ſacrum. X, Its lateral parts. The holes ſeen on
ves paſs. EE, The orbitar proceſſes. F, The middle
its fore part are the
paffages of the undermoſt ſpinal of the tranſverſe future, G, The upper part of the or-
bit. H, The foramen opticum. I, The foramen
nerves and ſmall veſſels. Oppoſite to the holes, the
marks of the original diviſions of the bone are ſeen.
lacerum. K, The inferior orbitar fiſſure. L, The os
M, The oſſa naſi. N, The os maxillare ſu-
Y, The os ilium. Z, Its creſt or ſpine. a, The an-
terior fpinous proceſſes. b, The brim of the pelvis. perius. O, Its naſal proceſs. É, The external orbi-
tar hole through which the ſuperior maxillary veſſels
c, The iſchiatic niche. d, The os iſchium.
e,
Its
tuberoſity. f, Its ſpinous proceſs. g. Its crus. h, The
and nerves paſs. , Tlie os malæ. R, A paſſage for
foramen thyroideum. i, The os pubis. k, The fym- ſmall veſſels into, or out of, the orbit. s, The under
part of the left noftril. T, The ſeptum narium.
phyſis pubis. 1, The crus pubis. m, Thc acetabulum.
n, The ſeventh or laſt true rib. o, The twelfth or laſt y,
The os ſpongiofum fuperius., V, The os ſpongio.
ſum inferius. W, The edge of the alveoli, or ſpongy
falſe rib. y, The upper end of the ſternum. q. The
middle piece. r, The under end, or cartilage enfi- fockets, for the teeth. X, the maxilla inferior. Y, The
formis. s, The clavicle. t, The internal ſurface of paſſage for the inferior niaxillary veſſels and nerves.
the ſcapula. u, Its acromion.
v, Its coracoid pro-
FIG. 3. A Side-view of the SKULL.
ceſs. w, Its cervix. x, The glenoid cavity. y, The A, The os frontis. B, The coronal ſuture. C, The
os humeri. Z, Its head, which is connected to the os parietale. D, An arched ridge which gives origin
glenoid cavity. I, Its external tubercle. 2, Its in to the temporal muſcle. E, The ſquamous future.
iernal tubercle. 3, The groove for lodging the long F, The ſquamous part of the temporal bone : and
head of the biceps muſcle of the arm. 4, The inter- farther forwards, the temporal proceſs of the ſphenoid
nal condyle. 5, The external condyle." Between 4 bone. G, The zygomatic proceſs of the temporal
and 5, the trochlea. 6, The radius. 7, Its head. bone. H, The zygomatic future. _!, The maſtoid
8, Its tubercle. 9, The ulna. 10, Its coronoid pro proceſs of the temporal bone. L, The meatus audi.
ceſs. II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The carpus ; torius externus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal
compoſed of os naviculare, os lunare, os cuneiforme, bone, under which is ſeen the tranverſe future.
os piſiforme, os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum, M, The pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The os
os unciforme. 19, The five bones of the inetacarpus. unguis. o, The right os naſi. P, The ſuperior max-
20, The two bones of the thumb. 21, The three illary bone. l. Its naſal proceſs. R, The two den-
bones of each of the fingers. 22, The os femoris. tes inciſores. S, The dens caninus. T, The two
23, Its head. 24, Its cervix. 25, The trochanter ſmall molares. U, The three large molares. V, The
major. 26, The trochanter minor. 27, The inter os malæ. W, The lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The,
coronoid
-
ممدد
ܕܠ
ANATOMY
Plate XIX
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Part I.
Α Ν Α Τ O M
Y.
703
RIETALE.
PORUM.
PORUM.
Oftcology, coronoid proceſs. Z, The condyloid proceſs, by which condyle._66, The ſimilunar cartilages. 7. The ti- Ofteology.
the jaw is articulated with the temporal bone. bia. 8, The malleolus internus. 9, The fibula. 10,
The malleolus externus. II, The tarſus. 12, Thc
FIG. 4. The poſterior and right fide of the SKULL.
A, The os frontis. BB, The oſſa parietalia. C,
metatarſus. 13, The toes.
The ſagittal ſuture. D, the parietal hole, through Fig. 2. The External Surface of the Left Os Pa-
which a ſmall vein runs to the ſuperior longitudinal
ſinus. E, The lambdoid ſuture. FF, Offa triquetra. A, The convex ſmooth ſurface. B, The parietal
G, The os occipitis. H, The ſquamous part of the hole. C, An arch made by the beginning of the tem-
temporal bone. I, The maſtoid proceſs. K, The poral muſcle.
zygoina. L, The os malæ. M, The temporal part Fig. 3. The internal ſurface of the fame bone.
of the ſphenoid bone, A, The ſuperior maxillary
A, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other,
bone and teeth.
forms the fagittal future. B, The anterior edge, which
FIG. 5. The external Surface of the Os FRONTIS. aſſiſts in the formation of the coronal ſuture. C, The
A, The convex part.
B, Part of the temporal inferior edge for the ſquamous future. D, The poſtc-
foſfa. C, The external angular proceſs. D, The rior edge for the lambdoid ſuture. E, A depreſlion
internal angular proceſs. E, The naſal proceſs. F, made by the lateral ſinus. FF, The prints of the ar-
The ſuperciliary arch. G, The ſuperciliary hole. teries of the dura mater.
H, The orbitar plate.
FIG. 4. The External Surface of the Left Os Tex-
FIG. 6. The Internal Surface of the Os FRONTIS.
A A, The ſerrated edge which aſſiſts to form the A, The ſquamous part. B, The maſtoid proceſs.
coronal future. B, The external angular proceſs. The zygomatic proceſs. D, The ſtyloid proceſs.
C, The internal angular proceſs. D, The naſal pro. E, The petroſal proceſs. F, The meatus auditorius
ceſs. E, The orbitar plate. F, The cells which cor externus. G, The glenoid cavity for the articulation
refpond
with thoſe of the ethinoid bone. G, The paf- of the lower jaw. H, The foramen ſtylo-maſtoideum
fage from the frontal ſinus. H, The opening which for the portio dura of the ſeventh pair of nerves.
receives the cribriform plate of the ethinoid bone. 1, Paſſages for blood-veſſels into the bone. K, The
I, The cavity which lodges the fore part of the brain. foramen maſtoideum through which a vein goes to the
K, The ſpine to which the falx is fixed. L, The lateral finus.
groove which lodges the ſuperior longitudinal ſinus.
FIG. 5. The Internal ſurface of the Left Os TEM-
PLATE XX.
A, The ſquamous part; the upper edge of which
FIG. I. A back view of the SKELETON affiſts in forming the ſquamous ſuture. B, The ina-
A A, The oſſa parietalia. B, The fagittal ſuture. ſtoid proceſs. C, The ſtyloid proceſs. D, The pars
C, The lambdoid ſuture. D, The occipital bone. petroſa. E, The entry of the ſeventh pair, or audi.
E, The ſquamous ſuture. F, The maſtoid proceſs of tory nerve. F, The foffa, which lodges a part of the
the temporal bone. G, The os malæ. H, The pa- lateral ſinus. G, The foramen maſtoideum.
late plates of the ſuperior maxillary bones. I, The
maxilla inferior. K. The teeth of both jaws. Ľ, The F16.6.The External Surface of the OSSEOUS CIRCLE,
which terminates the meatus auditorius externus.
ſeven cervical vertebræ. M, Their ſpinous proceſſes.
N, Their tranſverſe and oblique proceſſes. o, The
A, The anterior part. B, A ſmall part of the
laſt of the twelve dorſal vertebræ. P, The fifth or laſt groove in which the membrana tympani is fixed.
lumbar vertebra. Q, The tranſverſe proceſſes. R, The
N. B. This, with the ſubſequent bones of the ear,
oblique proceſſes, s, The ſpinous proceſſes. T, The
are here delineated as large as the life.
upper part of the os ſacrum. U, The poſterior holes Fig. 7. The Internal Surface of the OsseoUS CIRCLE.
which tranſmit ſmall blood-veſſels and nerves. V, The A, The anterior part. B, The groove in which
under part of the os ſacrum which is covered by a the membrana tympani is fixed.
membrane. W, The os coccygis. X, The os ilium.
Y, Its ſpine or creſt. Z, The iſchiatic niche. a, The Fig. 8. The Situation and Connection of the Small
Bones of the EAR.
os iſchium. b, Its tuberoſity. c, Its ſpine. d, The
A, The malleus. B, The incus.
B, The incus. C, The os or-
os pubis. e, The foramen hydroideum. f, The ſe-
biculare. D, The ſtapes.
venth or laſtirue rib. 9, The twelfth or laſt falſe rib.
h, The clavicle. i, The ſcapula. k, Its ſpine. 1, Its Fig. 9. The MALLEUS, with its Head, Handle, and
acromion, m, Its cervix. n, Its fuperior cofta. 0, Its
Small Proceſſes.
poſterior coſta. p, Its inferior coſta. 9, The os hu.
meri. r, The radius. s, The ulna. t, Its olecranon.
Fig. 10. The INCUS, with its Body, Superior and
Inferior Branchesa
u, All the bones of the carpus, excepting the os piſi-
fornie, which is ſeen in Plate XIX. fig. 1. V, The FIG II. The Os OBRICULARE.
five bones of the natacarpus. w, The two bones of Fig. 12. The STAPES, with its Head, Baſe, and two
the thumb. X, The three bones of each of the fin-
Crura,
gers. y, The two feſamoid bones at the root of the
left thumb. z, The os femoris, 1, The trochanter FIG. 13. An Internal View of the LABYRINTH of
major. 2, The trochanter minor. 3, The linea af-
the EAR,
pera. 4. The internal condyle. 5. The external A, The hollow part of the cochlea, which forms a
fiare
704
Α Ν Α Τ TO M Y.
Part I.
toe.
Oteology. ſhare of the meatus auditorius internus. B, The veſti-
Oftcology.
PLATE XXI.
bulum. CCC, The ſemicircular canals.
FIG. I. A Side-view of the SKELETON.
Fig. 14. An External View of the LABYRINTH.
A, the ſemicircular canals. B, The feneſtra ovalis c, The os occipitis. D D, The lambdoid ſuture.
A A, The oſſa parietalia. B, the fagittal ſuture.
which leads into the veſtibulum. C, The feneſtra ro-
The
tunda which opens into the cochlea. D, The different E, The ſquamous part of the temporal bone. F,
maſtoid proceſs. G, The meatus auditorius externus,
turns of the cochlea.
H, The os frontis. I, The os malæ. K, The os max-
illare ſuperius. L, The maxilla inferior. M, The
FIG. 15. The Internal Surface of the Os SPHENOIDES.
A A, The temporal proceſſes. BB, The
pterygoid vertebra, o, The ſpinous proceſſes. "P, Their tranf-
teech of both jaws. N, The ſeventh, or laſt cervical
proceſſes. cc, The Ipinous proceſſes. DD, The verſe and oblique procefles.
anterior clinoid proceſſes. E. The poſterior clinoid dorſal vertebra. K, The fifth, or laſt lumbar vertebra.
procefs. F, The anterior proceſs which joins the eth-
noid bone. G, the fella turcica for lodging the vertebræ for the paſſage of the ſpinal nerves. U, The
S. The ſpinous proceſſes. T, Openings between the
glandula pituitaria. H, The foramen opticum. under end of the os facrum. 'V, The os coccygis.
K, The foramen lacerum. L, The foramen rotun-
W, The os ilium. X, The anterior fpinous procelles.
dum. M, The foramen ovale. N, The foramen y, The poſterior ſpinous proceſſes. 2, The iſchiatic
ſpinale.
niche. a, The right os ilium. b, The oſſa pubis.
FIG.16. The External Surface of the Os SPHENOIDES. C, The tuberoſity of the left os iſchium. d, The ſca-
AA, The temporal proceſſes. BB, The ptery- pula. e, Its ſpine. f, The os humeri. g, The ra.
goid proceſſes. cc, The fpinous proceſſes. D, The dius. h, The ulna. i, The carpus. k, The meta-
proceſſus azygos. E, The ſmall triangular proceſſes carpal bone of the thumb. I, The metacarpal bones
which grow from the body of the bone. FF, The of the fingers. in, The two bones of the thumb.
orifices of the ſphenoidal ſinuſes. G, The foramen n, The three bones of each of the fingers. 0, Theos
lacerum. H, The foramen rotundum. I, The fora. femoris. p, Its head. q, The trochanter major. r, The
men ovale. K, The foramen pterygoideum. external condyle. s, The rotula. t, The tibia, u, The
fibula. v, The malleolus externus. w, The aſtraga-
Fig. 17. The External View of the Os ETHMOIDES. lus.
X, The os calcis.
y,
The os naviculare, z, The
A, The naſal lamella. B B, The grooves between
three ofla cuneiforniia. 1, The os cuboides. 2, The
the naſal lamella and olla ſpongioſa ſuperiora. CC, The five metatarſal bones. 3, The two bones of the great
offa ſpongiofa fuperiora. DD, The fphenoidal cor 4, The three bones of each of the finall toes.
See Fig. 16. E.
FIG. 2. A View of the Internal Surface of the Baſe of
Fig. 18. The Internal View of the Os ETHMOIDES.
the SKULL.
A, The criſta galli. B, The cribriforin plate, with AAA, The two tables of the ſkull with the diplöe.
the different paſſages of the olfactory nerves. CC, BB, The orbitar plates of the frontal bone. c, The
Some of the ethmoidal cells. D, The right os planum. criſta galli, with cribriform-plate of the ethmoidal
E E, The ſphenoidal cornua.
bones on each ſide of it, through which the firſt pair
of nerves paſs. D, The cuneiform proceſs of the oc-
FIG. 19. The right SPHENOIDAL CORNU.
cipital bone. E, The cruciform ridge. F, The fo-
FIG. 20. The left SPHENOIDAL CORNU.
ramen magnum for the paſſage of the ſpinal marrow.
G, The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo-
FIG.21. The External Surface of the Os OCCIPITIS.
A, The upper part of the bone. B, The fuperior H, The pars ſquamoſa of the os temporum. I, The
matic proceſſes of the os temporum and os malæ.
arched ridge. c, The inferior arched ridge. Under H, The pars ſquamoſa of the os temporum.
pars mammillaris. K, The pars petroſa. L, The
the arches are prints made by the muſcles of the neck.
DD, The two condyloid proceſſes which articulate the anterior clinoid proceſſes." N, The poſterior clinoid
head with the ſpine. E, The cunciform proceſs, proceſs. 0, The fella turcica. P, The foramen op-
F, The foramen magnum through which the ſpinal ticum, for the paſſage of the optic nerve and ocular
marrow paſſcs. GG, The poſterior condyloid fora-
mina which tranfmit veins into the lateral finuſes. the third, fourth, fixth, and firſt of the fifth pair of
artery of the left ſide. Q, The foramen lacerun, for
HH, The foramina lingualia for the paſſage of the
nerves and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum,
nine pair of nerves.
for the ſecond of the fifth pair. S, The foramen
ovale, for the third of the fifth pair. T, The foramen
FIG. 22. The internal Surface of the Os OCCIPITIS.
A A, The two ſides which alliſt to forin the lamb: ſpinale, for the principal artery of the dura mater.
U, The entry of the auditory nerve. V, The paſſage
doid future. B, The point of the cuneiform proceſs, for the lateral ſinus. w, The paſſage of the eighth
it
made by the poſterior lobes of the brain. 'DD, Prints pair of nerves. X, The paſſage of the ninth pair.
made by the lobes of the cerebellum. E, The cruci FIG. 3. A View of the External Surface of the Baſe
of the SKULL.
form ridge for the attachment of the proceſſes of the
dura marer. F, The courſe of the ſuperior longitudi A, The two dentes inciſores of the right ſide. B,
nal ſinuſes. GG, The courſe of the two lateral ſi The dens caninus. C, The two ſmall molares. D, The
nuſes. H, The foramen magnum. II, The poſterior three large molares. E, The foramen incilivum, which
condyloid foramina.
gives paſſage to ſmall blood veſſels and nerves. F, The
palate-
11ua.
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ANATOMY
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ANATOMY
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Part I.
Α Ν Α Τ OM Y.
703
Oſteology. palate-plates of the offa maxillaria and palati, joined Fig. 9. The internal ſurface of the right Os UNGUIS. Ofcology.
by the longitudinal and tranſverſe palate ſutures. G, This ſide of the bone has a furrow oppoſite to the
The foramen palatinum poſterius, for the palatine vel- external ridge ; all behind this is irregular, wiiere it
ſels and nerves. H, The os maxillare ſuperius of the covers part of the ethmoidal cells.
right ſide. I, The os malæ. K, The zygomatic pro-
ceſs of the temporal bone. L, The poſterior extremi FIG. 10. The external ſurface of the left Os MALA.
ty of the offa fpongioſa. M, The poſterior extremity A, The ſuperior orbitar proceſs. B, The inferior
of the vomer, which forms the back-part of the ſeptum orbitar proceſs. C, The malar proceſs. D, The zy-
nafi. N, The pterygoid proceſs of the right ſide of the gomatic proceſs. E, The orbitar plate. F, A páſ-
ſphenoid bone. 00, The formina ovalia. PP, The ſage for ſmall veſſels into or out of the orbit.
foramina ſpinalia. 0, The paſſages of the internal
carotid arteries. R, A hole between the point of each FIG. II. The internal ſurface of the left Os MALÆ.
pars petroſa and cuneiform proceſs of the occipital A, The ſuperior orbitar proceſs. B, The inferior
bone, which is filled up with a ligamentous ſubſtance orbitar proceſs. C, The malar proceſs. D, The
zy.
in the recent ſubject. S, The paſſage of the left late- gomatic proceſs. E, The internal orbitar plate or pro-
ral finus. T, The poſterior condyloid foramen of the ceſs.
left ſide. U, The foramen maſtoideum. V, The fora-
FIG. 12. The external ſurface of the right Os SPON-
men magnum. W,The inferior orbitar filure. X, The
GIOSUM INFERIUS.
glenoid cavity, for the articulation of the lower jaw.
Y, The ſquainous part of the temporal bone. Z, The for covering part of the antrum maxillare. C, A
A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like proceſs
maſtoid proceſs, at the inner ſide of which is a foſſa
for the poſterior belly of the digaſtric muſcle. a, The the lachrymal groove. D, The inferior edge turned a
ſmall proceſs which covers part of the under end of
ſtyloid proceſs. b, The meatus auditorius externus. c,
liitle outwards.
The left condyle of the occipital bone. d, The per-
pendicular occipital ſpine. e e, The inferior horizon- Fig. 13. The internal ſurface of the Os SPONGOSIUM
tal ridge of the occipital bone. ff, The ſuperior hori-
INFERIUS.
zontal ridge, which is oppoſite to the crucial ridge
A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper edge
where the longitudinal finus divides to form the late which joins the fuperior maxillary and palate bones.
ral ſinuſes. ggg, The lambdoid future. h, The left
ſquamous future. i, The parietal bone.
FIG. 14. The poſterior and external ſurface of the
right Os PALATI.
FIG. 4. The anterior ſurface of the Ossa NASI. A, The orbitar proceſs. B, The naſal lamella. C,
A, The upper part, which joins the os frontis. B, The pterygoid proceſs. D, The palate proceſs.
The under end, which joins the cartilage of the noſe. FIG.15. The interior and external ſurface of the right
C, The inner edge, where they join each other.
Os PALATI.
A, The orbitar proceſs. B, An opening through
Fig. 5. The poſterior ſurface of the Ossa NASI. which the lateral naſal veſſels and nerves paſs. C,
AA, Their cavity, which forms part of the arch of The naſal lamella. D, The pterygoid proceſs. E, The
the noſe. BB, Their ridge or ſpine, which projects poſterior edge of the palate proceſs for the connection
a little to be fixed to the fore-part of the ſeptum na of the velum palati. F, Theinner edge by which the
rium,
two ofſa palati are connected.
Fig.6. The external ſurface of the Os MAXILLAKE
FIG. 16. The right ſide of the VOMER.
SUPERIUS of the left ſide.
A, The naſal proceſs. B, The orbitar plate. C, the ethmoid bone and the middle cartilage of the noſe.
A, The upper edge which joins the naſal lamella of
The unequal ſurface which joins the os malæ. D, The B, The inferior edge, which is connected to the ſupe,
external orbitar hole. E, The opening into the noſtril. rior maxillary and palate bones. C, The ſuperior and
F, The palate-plate. G, The maxillary tuberoſity. poſterior part which receives the proceſſus azygos of
H, part of the os palati. I, The two dentes inciſores.
the ſphenoid bone.
K, The dens caninus. L, The two ſmall dentes mo-
lares. M, The three large dentes molares.
FIG. 17. The MAXILLA INFERIOR.
Fig. 7. The internal ſurface of the Os MAXILLARE angle. D, The coronoid proceſs. E, The condyloid
A, The chin. B, The baſe and left ſide. C, The
SUPERIUS and Os PALATI.
proceſs. F, The beginning of the inferior maxillary
A, The naſal proceſs. BB, Eminences for the con-
nection of the os fpongiofum inferius. D, The under blood veſſels. G, The termination of the left canal.
canal of the right ſide, for the entry of the nerve and
end of the lachrymal groove. E, Theantrum maxillare. H, The two dentes inciſores. I, The dens caninus.
F, The naſal ſpine, between which and B is the cavity K, The two finall molares. L, The three large mo-
of the noftril. 'G, The palate-plate. H, The orbitar
jares.
part of the os palatia I, The natal plate. K, The
ſuture which unites the maxillary and palate hones.
FIG. 18. The different claſſes of the TEETH.
L, The pterygoid proceſs of the palate bone.
1, 2, A fore and back view of the two anterior
dentes inciſores of the lower jaw. 3, 4, Siinilar teeth
Fig. 8. The external ſurface of the right Os UNGUIS. of the upper jaw. 5, 6, A fore and back view of the
A, The orbitar part. B, The lachrymal part. C, dentes canini. 7, 8, The anterior dentes inolares.
The ridge between them.
9, 10, 11, The poſterior dentes molares, 12, 13, 14,
VOL. I.
4U
15:
A Ν Α Τ ο
706
Part I.
M Y.
Osteology. 15, 16, Unuſual appearances in the ſhape and ſize of c, The ſuperior extremity of the fibula. f, The edge Oftcology.
the teeth.
of the internal ſemilunar cartilage. 8, An oblique li-
gament. h, A larger perpendicular liganient." i, A
FIG.
19
The external ſurface of the Os HYOIDES.
A, The body. BB, The cornua. cc, The ap. ligament connecting the femur and fibula.
pendices.
Fig. 8. The Anterior View of the Joint of the RIGHT
PLATE XXII.
KNEE.
b, The internal condyle. c, Its external condyle.
FIG. I. A Poſterior View of the STERNUM and Cla d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
VICLES, with the ligament connecting the clavi. nioves. e, A perpendicular ligament. ff, The two
cles to each other.
parts of the crucial ligaments. gg, The edges of the
a, The poſterior ſurface of the ſternum. bb, The two moveable ſemilunar cartilages. h, The tibia.
broken ends of the clavicles. cccc, The tubercles i, The ſtrong ligament of the patella. k, The back part
near the extremity of each clavicle. d, The ligament of it where the fat has been diſſected away. 1, The
connecting the clavicles.
external depreſſion. m, The internal one. n, The
FIG. 2. A Fore-view of the Left SCAPULA, and of cut tibia.
a half of the CLAVICLE, with their Ligaments. Fig. 9. A View of the inferior part of the Bones of
a, The ſpine of the ſcapula. b, The acromion.
the RIGHT Foor.
c, The inferior angle. d, Inferior coſta. e, Cervix. a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, A promi.
f, Glenvid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm nence on its outſide. c, The hollow for the tendons,
bone. gg, The capſular ligament of the joint. h, nerves, and blood-veſſels. d, The anterior extremity
Coracoid proceſs. i, The broken end of the clavicle. of the os calcis. e, Part of the aſtragalus. f, Its
k, Its extremity joined to the acromion. I, A liga. head covered with cartilage. g, The internal promi-
ment coming out ſingle from the acromion to the co nence of the os naviculare. h, The os cuboides.
racoid proceſs. m, A ligament coming out ſingle from i, The os cuneiforme internum ; k,---Medium; 1,~
the acrominon, and dividing into two, which are fixed Externum. m, The metatarſal bones of the four lef-
to the coracoid proceſs.
ſer toes. n, The firſt-o, The ſecond-p, The third
q, The metatarſal
Fig. 3. The Joint of the elbow of the LEFT ARM, phalanx of the four leſer toes.
with the Ligaments.
bones of the great toe. r, Its firſt-s, Its ſecond
a, The os humeri. b, Its internal condyle. cc, The joint.
two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through FIG. 10. The Inferior Surface of the two large SESA-
the capſular ligament. d, The ulna." e, The radius, MOID BONES, at the firſt joint of the Great Toe.
f, The part of the ligament including the head of the FIG.11. The Superior View of the Bones ofthe Right
radius.
FIG. 4. The Bones of the RIGHT-HAND, with the a, b, as in Fig. 9. c, The ſuperior head of the aſtra-
PALM in view.
galus. d, &c. as in Fig. 9.
a, The radius. b, The ulna. c, The ſcaphoid bone
FIG. 12. The View of the SOLE of the Foot, with
of the carpus. d, The os lunare. e, The os cunei-
its Ligaments.
forme. f, The os piſiforme. g, Trapezium. h, Tra-
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, The hollow
pezoides.’i, Capitatum. k. Unciforme. 1, The four for the tendons, nerves, and blood veſſels. c, The
inetacarpal bones of the fingers. m, The firſt phalanx. lacaths of the Aexores pollicis and digitorum longi
n, The fecond phalanx. 0, The third phalanx. p> The opened. d, The ſtrong cartilaginous ligament ſupport-
metacarpal bone of the thumb. q, The firſt joint. ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h, Two ligaments
r, The ſecond joint.
which unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarſal
FIG. 5. The Poſterior View of the Bones of the LEFT bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob
HAND.
of the os calcis to the metatarſal bone of the little toe,
The explication of Fig. 4. ſerves for this figure; the g, A ſtrong triangular ligament, which ſupports the
fame letters pointing out the fame bones, though in a bones of the tarſus. i, The ligaments of the joints of
different view.
the five nietatarſal bones.
FIG. 6. The Upper Extremity of the TIBIA, with the FIG. 13. a, The head of the thigh bone of a child.
Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of the Knee, and b, The ligamentun rotundum connecting it to the ace-
fome Ligaments.
tabulum. c, The capſular ligament of the joint with
a, The ſtrong ligament which connects the rotula to its arteries injected. d, The numerous veſſels of the
the tubercle of the tibia. bb, The parts of the extre- mucilaginous gland injected.
mity of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear F16. 14. The Back-view of the Cartilages of the
within the ſemilunar cartilages. cc, The ſemilunar
LARYNX, with the Os HYOIDES.
cartilages. d, The two parts of what is called the
croſs ligament.
a, The poſterior part of the baſe of the os hyoides.
bb, Its cornua. c, The appendix of the right ſide.
Fra 7. The Poſterior View of the Joint of the RIGHT d, A ligament ſent out froin the appendix of the left
KNEE.
fide, to the flyloid proceſs of the temporal bone.
a, The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle. e, The union of the baſe with theleft cornu. ff, The
c, its external condyle. d, The back-part of the tibia. pofterior ſides of (g) the thyroid cartilage. hlı, Its
ſuperior
FOOT.
Fig.
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ANATOMY
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Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
707
Ofteology. ſuperior cornua. ii, Its inferior cornua. k, The cri. Fig. 15. The Superior Concave ſurface of the SESA- O fteology,
coid cartilage. 11, The arytenoid cartilages. m, The MOID BONES at the firſt joint of the Great Toe,
entry into the lungs, named glottis. n, The epiglottis,
with their Ligaments.
00, The ſuperior cartilages of the trachea. P, Its li. a, Three ſeſamoid bones. b, The ligamentous ſub-
gamentous back-part.
ſtance in which they are formed.
PART II. OF THE SOFT PARTS IN GENERAL;
OF THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS, WITH THEIR APPENDAGES ;
AND OF THE MUSCLES.
A
NATOMICA Lwriters uſually proceed to a de- where covers the true ſkin. This ſcarf-ſkin, which
ſcription of the muſc after having finiſhed the ſeems to be very ſimple, appears, when examined with
oſteology ; but we ſhall deviate a little from the com a microſcope, to be compoſed of ſeveral laminæ or ſcales
mon method, with a view to deſcribe every thing which are increaſed by preſſure,as we mayobſerve in the
clearly and diſtinctly, and to avoid a tautology which hands and feet, where it is frequently much thickened,
would otherwiſe be unavoidable. All the parts of the bo- and becomes perfectly callous. It ſeems to adhere to
dy are ſo intimately connected with each other, that it the cutis by a number of very ininute filaments, but
ſeems impoſſible to convey a juſt idea of any one of may eaſily be ſeparated from it by heat, or by macera-
them, without being in ſome meaſure obliged to ſay tion in water. Some anatomical writers have ſuppoſed
ſomething of others; and on this account we wiſh to that it is formed by a moiſture exhaled from the whole
mention in this place the names and ſituation of the ſurface of the body, which gradually hardens when it
principal viſcera of the body, that when mention is here comes into contact with the air. They were perhaps in-
after made of any one of them in the courſe of the work, duced to adopt this opinion, by obſerving the ſpeedy re-
the reader may at leaſt know where they are placed. generation of this part of the body when it has been by
After this little digreſſion, the common integuments, any means deſtroyed, it appearing to be renewed on all
and after them the muſcles will be deſcribed; we then parts of the ſurface at the ſame time; whereas other
propoſe to enter into an examination of the ſeveral viſ. parts which have been injured, are found to direct their
cera and their different functions. In deſcribing the growth from their circunference only towards their
brain, occaſion will be taken to ſpeak of the nerves and centre. But a demonſtrative proof that the epidermis
animal fpirits. The circulation of the blood will fol- is not a fluid hardened by means of the external air, is
low the anatomy of the heart, and the ſecretions and that the foetus in utero is found to have this covering,
other matter will be introduced in their proper places. Lieuwenhoeck ſuppoſed its formation to be owing to
The body is divided into three great cavities. Of the expanſion of the extremities of the excretory vel-
theſe the uppermoſt is formed by the bones of the cra ſels which are found every where upon the ſurface of
nium, and incloſes the brain and cerebellum.
the true fkin. Ruyſch attributed its origin to the
The ſecond is compoſed of the vertebræ of the back, nervous papillæ of the ſkin ; and Heiſter thinks it
the ſternuni, and true ribs, with the additional aſliſtance probable, that it may be owing both to the papillæ and
of muſcles, membranes, and common integuments, and the excretory veſſels. The celebrated Morgagni, on
is called the thorax-It contains the heart and lungs.
the other hand, contends*, that it is nothing more. Adverſar.
The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdomen. It than the ſurface of the cutis, hardened and rendered Anat. 11.
is ſeparated from the thorax by means of the diaphragm, inſenſible by the liquor amnii in utero, and by the Animad-
and is formed by the lumbar vertebræ, the os ſacrum, preſſure of the air. This is a ſubject, however, on
the offa innominata, and the falſe ribs, to which we which we can advance nothing with certainty.
may add the peritonium, and a variety of muſcles. The cuticle is pierced with an infinite number of
This cavity incloſes the ſtomach, inteſtines, omentum pores or little holes, which afford a paſſage to the hairs,
or cawl, liver, pancreas, ſpleen, kidneys, urinary ſweat, and inſenſible perſpiration, and likewiſe to
bladder, and parts of generation.
warm water, mercury, and whatever elſe is capable of
Under the diviſion of common integuments are uſu. being taken in by the abſorbents of the ſkin. The lines
ally included the epidermis, or ſcarf. ſkin, the reticu- which
we obſerve on the epidermis belong to the true
lum mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis, or true ſkin, and ſkin. The cuticle adjuſts itſelf to them, but does not
the membrana adipoſa-The hair and nails, as well as form them.
the ſebaceous glands may be conſidered as appendages
§ 2. Of the Rete NIucoſum.
to the skin.
Between the epidermis and cutis we meet with
Sect. I. Of the SKIN.
appearance to which Malpighi, who first deſcribed coliun.
it, gave the name of rete mucoſum, ſuppoſing it to be
§ I. Of the SCARF-ſkin.
of a membranous ſtructure, and pierced with an infinite
number of pores; but the fact is, that it ſeems to be
The epidermis, cuticula, or ſcarf-ſkin, is a fine, nothing more than a nucous ſubítance which may be
tranſparent, and inſenſible pellicle, deſtitute of nerves diſſolved by macerating in water, while the cuticle
and blood-vefſels, which inveſts the body, and every and cutis preſerve their texture.
Thic
ver. 2
75
an
Retemu
74
Cuticula,
4 U 2
708
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part II.
tion.
Of the In The colour of the body is found to depend on the pighi, Ruyſch, Verheyen, Winſlow, and others, who of the Ine
teguments, colour of this rete mucoſum: for in negrnes it is ob have adopted his opinions on this ſubject, ſpeak of them teguments,
&c,
ſerved to be perfectly black, whilſt the true ſkin is of as having excretory ducts, that open on the ſurface of &c.
the ordinary colour.
the cuticle, and diſtil the ſweat and matter of inſenſi-
The bliſters which raiſe the ſkin when burnt or ble perſpiration ; and yet, notwithſtanding the poſitive
ſcalded, have been ſuppoſed by ſome to be owing to a manner in which theſe pretended glands have been
rarefaction of this mucus ; but they are more proba- fpoken of, we are now ſufficiently convinced that
bly occafioned by an increaſed action of the veſſels of their exiſtence is altogether imaginary.
the part, together with an aſllux and effuſion of the
5. Of the INSENSIBLE Perfpiraton and SWEAT.
thinner parts of the blood.
78
The matter of inſenſible perſpiration, or in other Inſendible
76
§ 3. Of the Cutis, or True Skin.
words, the ſubtile vapour that is continually exhaling perfpira-
Cutis. The cutis is compoſed of fibres cloſely compacted from the ſurface of the body, is not ſecreted by any
together, as we may obſerve in leather, which is the particular glands, but ſeems to be derived wholly from
prepared ſkin of animals. Theſe fibres form a thick net the extremities of the minute arteries that are every
work,which every where admits the filaments of nerves. where diſperſed through the ſkin. Theſe exhaling
and an infinite number of blood-veſlels and lymphatics. veſſels are eaſily demonſtrated in the dead ſubject, by
The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off, is found throwing water into the arteries; for then ſmall drops
to bave, throughout its whole ſurface, innumerable exude from all parts of the ſkin, and raiſe up the cu-
papillæ, which
appear like very minute granulations, ticle, the pores of which are cloſed by death; and in
and ſeem to be calculated to receive the impreſſions of the living ſubject, a looking-glaſs placed againſt the
the touch, being the moſt eaſily obſerved where the ſkin, is fuon obſcured by the vapour. Bidloo fancied
ſenſe of felling is the moſt delicate, as in the palms of he had diſcovered ducts leading from the cutis to the
the hands and on the fingers.
cuticle, and tranſmitting this fluid; but in this he was
Theſe papillæ are ſuppoſed by many antomical wri miſtaken.
ters to be continuations of the pulpy ſubſtance of nerves, When the perſpiration is by any means increaſed,
whoſe coats have terminated in the cellular texture and ſeveral drops that were inſenſible when ſeparate,
of the ſkin. The great ſenſibility of theſe papillæ evi are united together and condenſed by the external air,
dently proves them to be 'exceedingly nervous ; but they form upon the ſkin ſmall, but viſible, drops called
ſurely the nervous fibrillæ of the ſkin are of themſelves sweat (N). This particularly happens after much ex-
ſcarcely equal to the formation of theſe papillæ, and it erciſe, or whatever occaſions an increaſed determina-
ſeems to be more probable that they are formed like
tion of fluids to the ſurface of the body; a greater quan-
the reſt of the cutis.
tity of perſpirable matter being in ſuch caſes carried
Theſe papillæ being deſcribed, the uſes of the epi- through the paſſages that are deſtined to convey it off.
79
dermis and the reticulum mucoſum will be more eaſily It has been diſputed, indeed, whether the inſenſible Whether
underſtood; the latter ſerving to keep them conſtant perſpiration and ſweat are to be conſidered as one and theſe are
ly moiſt, while the former protects them from the ex the ſame excretion,differing only in degree; or whether one and the
ternal air, and modifies their too great ſenſibility. they are two diſtinct excretions derived from different ferent ex-
ſources.
In ſupport of the latter opinion, it has been cretions.
§ 4. Of the GLANDS of the Skin.
alleged, that the inſenſible perſpiration is agreeable to
The fea In different parts of the body we meet, within the nature, and eſſential to health, whereas ſweat may be
baceous ſubſtance of the ſkin, with certain glands or follicles, conſidered as a ſpecies of diſeaſe. But this argument
glands.
which diſcharge a fat and oily humour that ſerves to proves nothing; and it ſeems probable, that both the
lubricate and ſoften the ſkin. When the fluid they ſe inſenſible vapour and the ſweat are exhaled in a ſimi-
crete has acquired a certain degree of thickneſs, it ap lar manner, though they differ in quantity, and proba-
proaches to the colour and conſiſtence of ſuet ; and bly in their qualities; the former being more limpid,
from this appearance they have derived their name of and ſeemingly leſs impregnated with ſalts than the lat-
80
febaceous glands. They are found in the greateſt num ter; at any rate we may conſider the ſkin as an emunc- Their uſes,
ber in the noſe, car, nipple, axilla, groin, ſcrotum, tory through which theredundant water, and ſometimes
vagina, and prepuce.
the other more ſaline parts of the blood, are carried off.
Beſides theſe ſebaceous glands, we read, in anatomi But the inſenſible perſpiration is not confined to the
cal books, of others that are deſcribed as ſmall ſpheri- ſkin only—a great part of what we are conſtantly
cal bodies placed in all parts of the ſkin, in much great- throwing off in this way is from the lungs. The quan-
er abundance than thoſe juſt now mentioned, and nam tity of fluid exhaled from the human body by this in-
ed miliary, from their ſuppoſed reſemblance to millet ſenſible perſpiration is very conſiderable. Sanctorius(o)
ſeed. Steno, who firſt deſcribed theſe glands, and Mal an Italian phylician, who indefatigably paſſed a great
many
77
(N) Lieuwenhoek aſſerts that one drop of ſweat is formed by the coniux of fifteen drops of perſpirable
vapour.
(0) The inſenſible perſpiration is ſometimes diſtinguiſhed by the name of this phyſician, who was born in
the territories of Venice, and was afterwards a profeſſor in the univerſity of Padua. After eſtiinating the ali-
ment he took in, and the ſenſible fecretions and diſcharges, he was enabled to aſcertain with great accuracy the
weight or quantity of inſenſible perſpiration by means of a ſtatical chair which he contrived for this purpoſe ;
and
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Τ Ο Μ Y.
709
&c.
&c.
Of the In-many years in a ſeries of ſtatical experiments, demon- ſtrongly to this part; the body of the nail is broader, of the In.
reguments, ſtrated long ago what has been confirmed by later ob- redder, and thicker, and the extremity is of ſtill great-teguments,
ſervations, that the quantity of vapour exhaled from er firmneſs.
the ſkin and from the ſurface of the lungs, amounts The nails increaſe from their roots, and not from
nearly to 5-8ths of the aliment we take in. So that if their upper extremity.
in the warm climate of Italy a perſon eats and drinks Their principal uſe is to cover and defend the ends
the quantity of eight pounds in the courſe of a day, of tae fingers and toes from external injury.
five pounds of it will paſs off by inſenſible perſpira-
7. Of the HAIR
tion, while three pounds only will be evacuated by
82
ſtool, urine, ſaliva, &c. But in countries where the de The hairs, which from their being generally known The hair,
gree of cold is greater than in Italy, the quantity of do not ſeem to require any definition, ariſe from di-
perfpired matter is leſs ; in ſome of the more northern ſtinct capſulcs or bulbs ſeated in the cellular membrane
climates, it being found not to equal the diſcharge by under the ſkin (e). Some of theſe bulbs incloſe ſeve-
urine. It is likewiſe obſerved to vary according to ral hairs. They may be obſerved at the roots of the
the ſeaſon of the year, and according to the conſtitu. hairs which form the beard or whiſkers of a cat.
tion, age, ſex, diſeaſes, diet, exerciſe, paffions, &c. The hairs, like the nails, grow only from below by
of different people.
a regular propulſion from their root, where they re-
From what has been ſaid on this ſubject, it will be ceive their nouriſhment. Their bulbs, when viewed
eaſily conceived, that this evacuation cannot be either with a microſcope, are found to be of various ſhapes.
much increaſed or diminiſhed in quantity without af- In the head and ſcrotum they are roundiſh ; in the eye-
fecting the health.
brows they are oval; and in other parts of the body
The perfpirable matter and the ſweat are in fome they are nearly of a cylindrical ſhape. Each bulbſeems
meaſure analogous to the urine, as appears from their to conſift of two membranes, between which there is a
taſte and ſaline nature (r). And it is worthy of ob-
And it is worthy of ob- certain quantity of moiſture. Within the bulb the
ſervation, that when either of the ſecretions is in- hair ſeparates into three or four fibrillæ; the bodies of
creaſed in quantity, the other is diminiſhed ; ſo that the hairs, which are the parts without the ſkin, vary in
they who perſpire the leaſt, uſually paſs the greateſt ſoftneſs and colour according to the difference of cli-
quantity of urine, and vice verſa.
mate, age, or temperament of body (R).
Their general uſe in the body does not ſeem to be
§ 6. Of the NAILS.
abſolutely determined; but hairs on particular parts,
81
The nails.
THE nails are of a compact texture, hard and tran as on the eye-brows and eye-lids, are deſtined for par-
fparent like horn. Their origin is ſtill a ſubject of dif- ticular uſes, which will be mentioned when thoſe
pute. Malpighi ſuppoſed them to be formed by a con parts are deſcribed.
tinuation of the papillæ of the ſkin: Ludwig, on the
other hand, maintained, that they were compoſed of
ſ of the CELLULAR MEMBRANE and Fat.
the extremities of blood veſſels and nerves; both The cellular membrane is found to inveſt the moſt Cellular
theſe opinions are now deſervedly rejected.
minute fibres we are able to trace; ſo that by modern membrane,
They ſeem to poſſeſs many properties in common phyſiologiſts, it is very properly conſidered as the uni-
with the cuticle; like it they are neither vaſcular nor verſal connecting mediuin of every part of the body.
ſenſible, and when the cuticle is ſeparated from the It is compoſed of an infinite number of minute cells
true ſkin by maceration or other means, the nails come united together, and communicating with each other,
The two diſeaſes peculiar to this membrane are proofs
They appear to be compoſed of different layers, of of ſuch a communication ; for in the emphyſema all its
unequal fize, applied one over the other. Each layer cells are filled with air, and in the anaſarca they are
ſeems to be formed of longitudinal fibres.
univerſally diſtended with water. Beſides theſe proofs
In cach nail we may diftinguiſh three parts, viz. of cominunication from diſeaſe, a familiar inſtance of
the root, the body or middle, and the extremity. The it may be obſerved among butchers, who uſually punc-
root is a ſoft, thin, and white ſubſtance, terminating in ture this membrane, and by inflating it with air add
the forin of a creſcent; the epidermis adheres very to the good appearance of their meat.
The
away with it.
and from his experiments, which were conducted with great induſtry and patience, he was led to determine
what kinds of ſolid or liquid aliment increaſed or diminiſhed it. From theſe experiments he formed a ſyſtein,
which he publiſhed at Venice in 1614, in the form of aphoriſms, under the title of “ Ars de Medicina Statica."
(P) Minute chryſtals have been obſerved to ſhoot upon the cloaths of men who work in glaſs-houſes. Hale
ler Elem. Phys.
(e) Malpighi, and after him the celebrated Ruyſch, ſuppoſed the hairs to be continuations of nerves, being
of opinion that they originated from the papillæ of the ſkin, which they conſidered as nervous ; and as a corro.
borating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain we feel in plucking them out; but later anato-
miſts ſeem to have rejected this doctrine, and conſider the hairs as particular bodies, not ariſing from the pa-
pillæ for in the parts where the papillæ abound moſt there are no hairs), but from bulbs or capſules, which
are peculiar to them.
() The hairs likewiſe differ from each other, and may not improperly be divided into two claſſes; one
of which
may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillæ ; and the other, the ſofter hairs, which
are to be obſerved almoſt every where on the ſurface of the body.
710
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Part II.
1
84
Of the In The cells of this membrane ſerve as reſervoirs to the The end of a muſcle which adheres to the moſt fix- Of the In-
teguments, oily part of the blood or Fat, which ſeems to be depo- ed part is uſually called the origin, and that which ad- teguments,
ſited in them, either by tranſudation through the coats heres to the more moveable part, the infertion, of the &c.
of the arteries, that ramify through theſe cells, or by muſcle.
Tat.
particular veſſels, continued from the end of arteries. In every muſcle we may diſtinguiſh two kinds of
Theſe cells are not of a glandular ſtructure, as Malpi- fibres; the one ſoft, of a red colour, ſenſible, and irri-
ghi and others after him have fuppofed. The fat is table, called fleſhy fibres; the other of a firmer tex-
abſorbed and carried back into the ſyſtem by the lym- ture, of a white gliſtening colour, inſenſible, without
phatics. The great waſte of it in many diſeaſes, par- irritability or the power of contracting, and named ten-
ticularly in the conſumption, is a ſufficient proof that dinous fibres. They are occaſionally intermixed; but
ſuch an abſorption takes place.
the fleſhy fibres generally prevail in the belly or inid-
The fulneſs and lize of the body are in a great mea dle part of a muſcle, and the tendinous ones in the
fure proportioned to the quantity of fat contained in extremities. If theſe tendinous fibres are formed in-
the cells of this membrane.
to a round ſlender chord, they form what is called the
In the living body it ſeems to be a fluid oil, which tendon of the muſcle; on the other hand, if they are
concretes after death. In graminivorous animals, it is ſpread into a broad flat ſurface, the extreinity of the
found to be of a firmer conſiſtence than in man. muſcle is ſtyled aponeuroſis.
The fat is not confined to the ſkin alone, being met The tendons of many muſcles, eſpecially when they
with every where in the interſtices of muſcles, in the are long and expoſed to preflure or friction in the
omentum, about the kidneys, at the baſis of the heart, grooves formed for them in the bones, are ſurrounded
in the orbits, &c.
by a tendinous ſheath or faſcia, in which we ſometimes
The chief uſes of the fat ſeems to be to afford moi find a ſmall mucous fac or bur ſa mucofa, which obviates
{ture to all the parts with which it is connected ; to any inconvenience from friction. Sometimes we find
facilitate the action of the muſcles; and to add to the whole muſcles, and even ſeveral muſcles, covered by a
beauty of the body, by making it every where ſmooth faſcia of the fame kind, that affords origin to many of
and equal.
their fibres, dipping down between them, adhering to
85.
SECT. II. Of the Muscles.
the ridges of bones, and thus preventing them from
ſwelling too much when in action. The moſt remark-
The muſcles are the organs of motion. The parts able inſtance of ſuch a covering is the faſcia lata of the
that are uſually included under this name conſiſt of di- thigh.
ftinct portions of fleſh, ſuſceptible of contraction and Each muſcle is incloſed by a thin covering of cellu-
relaxation ; the motions of which, in a natural and lar membrane, which has been ſometimes improperly
healthy ſtate, are ſubject to the will, and for this rea conſidered as peculiar to the muſcles, and deſcribed
ſon they are called voluntary muſcles. But beſides under the name of propria niembrana mufculofa. This
theſe, there are other parts of the body thatowe their cellular covering dips down into the ſubſtance of the
power of contraction to their muſcular fibres; thus the muſcle, connecting and ſurrounding the moſt minute
heart is of a muſcular texture, forming what is called fibres we are able to demonſtrate, and affording a ſup-
a hollow muſcle; and the urinary bladder, ſtomach, port to their veſſels and nerves.
inteſtines, &c. are enabled to act upon their contents, Lieuwenhoeck fancied he had diſcovered, by means
merely becauſe they are provided with muſcular fibres. of his microſcope, the ultimate diviſion of a muſcle,
Theſe are called involuntary muſcles, becauſe their and that he could point out the ſimple fibre, which ap-
motions are not dependent on the will. The muſcles peared to him to be an hundred times leſs than a liair;
of reſpiracion, being in ſome meaſure influenced by but he was afterwards convinced how much he was
the will, are faid to have a mixed motion.
miſtaken on this ſubject, and candidly acknowledged,
The names by which the voluntary muſcles are di that what he had taken for a ſimple fibre was in fact
ſtinguiſhed, are founded on their ſize, figure, ſituation, a bundle of fibres.
uſe, or the arrangement of their fibres, or their origin It is eaſy to obſerve ſeveral of theſe faſculi or bun-
and inſertion. But beſides theſe particular diſtinctions, dles in a piece of beef, in which, from the coarſeneſs
there are certain general ones that require to be noti of its texture, they are very evident.
fied. Thus, if the fibres of a muſcle are placed paral The red colour which ſo particularly diſtinguiſhes
lel to each other in a ſtraight direction, they forin the muſcular or fleſhy parts of animals, is owing to an
what is ſtyled a rectilinear muſcle; if the fibres croſs infinite number of blood-veſſels that are diſperſed
and interſect cach other, they conſtitute a compound through their ſubſtance. When we macerate the fi-
muſcle; a radiated one, if the fibres are diſpoſed in bres of a muſcle in water, it becomes of a white co-
the manner of rays; or a penniform muſcle, if, like lour like all other parts of the body diveſted of their
the plume of a pen, they are placed obliquely with blood. The blood-veſſels are accompanied by nerves,
reſpect to the tendon.
and they are both diſtributed in ſuch abundance to
Muſcles that act in oppoſition to each other, are theſe parts, that in endeavouring to trace the courſe
called antagoniſtæ ; thus every extenſor or muſcle lias of the blood veſſels in a muſcle, it would appear to be
a flexor for its antagoniſt, and vice verſa. Muſcles that formed altogether by their ramifications; and in an at-
concur in the ſame action are ſtyled congeneres. tempt to follow the branches of its nerves, they would
The muſcles being attached to the bones, the latter be found to be equal in proportion.
may be conſidered as levers that are moyed in differ. If a muſcle is pricked or irritated, it immediately
ent directions by the contraction of thoſe organs. contracts. This is called its irritable principle; and
this
Part II.
0 Α Ν Α Τ Ο
711
1.
87
nervea.
M Y.
Of the this irritability is to be conſidered as the characteriſtic
When I poured a ſolution of opium in water Of the
Muſcles, of muſcular fibres, and may ſerve to prove their exiſt under the ſkin of the leg of a frog, the muſcles, to the Muſcles.
ence in parts that are too minute to be examined by the ſurface of which it was applied, were very ſoon depri-
eye. This power, which diſpoſes the muſcles to con ved of the power of contraction. In like manner,
86 tract when ſtimulated, independent of the will, is ſup- when I poured this ſolution into the cavity of the
Of the vis poſed to be inherent in them; and is therefore named heart, by opening the vena cava, the heart was al-
iafita. vis inſita. This property is not to be confounded with moſt inſtantly deprived of its power of motion, whe-
elaſticity, which the membranes and other parts of the ther the experiment was performed on it fixed in its
body poſſeſs in a greater or leſs degree in common with place, or cut out of the body.
the muſcles; nor with ſenſibility, for the heart, though “ 2. I opened the thorax of a living frog; and then
the moſt irritable, ſeems to be the leaſt ſenſible of any tied or cut its aorta, ſo as to put a ſop to the circulati-
of the muſcular parts of the body.
on of its blood.
After a muſcular fibre has contracted, it ſoon returns “ I then opened the vena cava, and poured the ſolu-
to a ſtate of relaxation, till it is excited afreſh, and tion of opium into the heart; and found, not only that
then it contracts and relaxes again. We may likewiſe this organ was inſtantly deprived of its powers of ac-
produce ſuch a contraction, by irritating the nerve tion, but that in a few minutes the moſt diſtant muf-
leading to a muſcle, although the nerve itſelf is not cles of the limbs were extremely weakened. Yet this
affected.
weakneſs was not owing to the want of circulation,
This principle is found to be greater in ſmall than in for the frog could jump about for more than an hour
large, and in young than in old, animals.
after the heart was cut out.
In the voluntary muſcles theſe effects of contraction « In the firſt of theſe two experiments, we obſerv-
and relaxation of the fleſhy fibres are produced in obe ed the ſuppoſed vis inſita deſtroyed by the opium ; in
dience to the will, by what may be called the vis ner the latter, the vis neryea ; for it is evident that the
vofa, a property that is not to be confounded with the limbs were affected by the ſympathy of the brain,
vis inſita. As the exiſtence of a vis inſita different from and of the nervous ſyſtem in general, with the nerves
a vis nervea, was the doctrine taught by Doctor Hal of the heart.
ler in his Elem. Phyſ, but is at preſent called in que 3. When the nerve of any muſcle is firſt divid-
ſtion by ſeveral, particularly Dr Monro, we think ed by a tranſverſe ſection, and then burnt with a
it neceſſary to give a few objections, as ſtated in his hot iron, or punctured with a needle, the muſcle in
Obſervations on the Nervous Syſtem :
which it terminates contracts violently, exactly in the
The vis “ The chief experiment (fays the Doctor), which fame manner as when the irritation is applied to the
ſeems to have led Dr Haller to this opinion, is the well fibres of the muſcle. But when the hot iron, or
known one, that the heart and other muſcles, after be- needle, is confined to the nerve, Dr Haller himſelf
ing detached from the brain, continue to act ſponta- muſt have admitted, that the vis nervea, and not the
neouſly, or by ſtimuli may be rouſed into action for a vis inſita, was excited. But here I would aſk two que-
conſiderable length of time; and when it cannot be al ſtions.
ledged, ſays Dr Haller, that the nervous fluid is by “ Firſt, Whether we do not as well underſtand how
the mind, or otherwiſe, impelled into the muſcle. this vis nervea is excited when irration is applied to
“ That in this inſtance, we cannot comprehend by the muſcle as when it is applied to the trunk of the
what power the nervous fluid or energy can be put in nerve, the impelling power of the mind ſeeming to be
motion, muſt perhaps be granted : But has Dr Haller equally wanting in both caſes ?
given a better explanation of the manner in which his “ Secondly, If it appears that irritation applied to
ſuppoſed vis inſita becomes active?
the trunk of a nerve excites the vis nervea, why ſhould
« If it be as difficult to point out the cauſe of the we doubt that it can equally well excite it when ap-
action of the vis inſita as tliat of the action of the vis plied to the ſmall and very ſenſible branches and ter.
nervea, the admiſſion of that new power, inſtead of minations of the nerve in the muſcle !
relieving, would add to our perplexity.
" As, therefore, it appears that the ſuppoſed vis
"We ſhould then have admitted, that two cauſes of inſita is deſtroyed or excited by the ſame means as the
a different nature were capable of producing exactly vis nervea; nay, that when, by the application of o.
the ſame effect; which is not in general agreeable to pium to the heart of a frog, after the aorta is cut and
the laws of nature.
the circulation interrupted, we have deſtroyed the vis
« We ſhould find other conſequences ariſe from ſuch infita, the vis nervca is ſo much extinguiſhed, that the
an hypotheſis, which tend to weaken the credibility of animal cannot act with the diſtant muſcles of the
it. For inſtance, if in a ſound animal the vis nervea limb; and that theſe afterwards grow very torpid, or
alone produces the contraction of the muſcles, we will loſe muclı of their ſuppoſed vis inſita ; it ſeems clearly
aſk what purpoſe the visinſita ſerves? If both operate, to follow, that there is no juſt ground for ſuppoſing
are we to ſuppoſe that the vis nervea, impelled by the that any other principle produces the contraction of a
mind or living principle, gives the order, which the muſcle.”
vis inſita executes, and that the nerves are the inter The vis nervoſa, or operation of the mind, if we
nuntii; and ſo admit two wife agents employed in may ſo call it, by which a muſcle is brought into con-
every the moſt ſimple action ? But inſtead of fpecula- traction, is not inherent in the muſcle like the vis in-
ting farther, let us learn the effect of experiments, and fita; neither is it perpetual, like this latter property.
endeavour from theſe to draw plain concluſions. After long continued or violent exerciſe, for example,
the
4
S
712
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Part II.
&c.
Of the In- the voluntary muſcles become painful, and at length muſcular action, and that a communication of phlogi- Of the In-
teguments, incapable of further action ; whereas the heart and o fton to the blood is a neceſſary effect of ſuch action. teguments,
ther involuntary mufcles, the notions of which depend We know that the muſcular fibre is ſhortened, and &.
ſolely on the vis inſita, continue through life in a con-, that the muſcle itſelf ſwells when in action ; but how
ftant ſtate of action, without any inconvenience or waſte theſe phenoinena are produced, we are unable to de-
of this inherent principle.
termine. We likewiſe know that the nerves are eſſen-
The action of the vis nervoſa on the voluntary mufu tial to muſcular motion ; for upon dividing or making
cles, conſtitutes what is called muſcular motion ; a ſub a ligature round the nerve leading to a muſcle, the lat-
ject that has given riſe to a variety of hypotheſis, ma ter becomes incapable of motion. A ligature made on
ny of them ingenious, but none of them ſatisfactory, the artery of a muſcle produces a ſimilar effect; a proof
Borelli and ſome others have undertaken to explain this, that a regular ſupply of blood is alſo equally ne-
che cauſe of contraction, by ſuppoſing that every muf- ceſſary to muſcular motion. The cauſe of palſy is
cular fibre fornis as it were a chain of very minute uſually not to be fought for in the muſcle affected, but
bladders, while the nerves which are diſtributed in the nerve leading to that muſcle, or in that part of
through the muſcles, bring with them a ſupply of ani. the brain or ſpinal marrow from which the nerve de-
mal ſpirits, which at our will fill theſe bladders, and by rives its origin.
increaſing their diameter in width, ſhorten them, and
of courſe the whole fibre.
Of the particular Muſcles.
Borelli ſuppoſes theſe bladders to be of a rhomboi-
dal ſhape ; Bernouillion the other hand contends that As the enumeration and diſcription of the particlar
they are oval. Our countryman, Cowper, fancied he muſcles muſt be dry and unentertaining to the genera-
had filled them with mercury ; the cauſe of this miſ- lity of readers, yet cannot be altogether omited in a
take was probably owing to the mercury's inſinuating work of this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this
itſelf into ſome of the lymphatic veſſels. The late in- part of the ſubject into the form of a table; in which
genious Mr Elliot undertook to account for the phe- the name, origin, infertion, and principal uſe of each
nomena of muſcular motion on principles very diffe- muſcle, will be found deſcribed in few words, and oc-
rent from thoſe juſt now mentioned. He fuppoſed that caſionally its etymology when it is of Greek derivation
a dephlogiſticated ſtate of the blood is requiſite for or difficult to be underſtood.
A TABLE of the MUSCLES arranged according to their SITUATION.
(N. I. This table does not include all the muſcles of the body; thoſe belonging to the eyes, internal ear, inteftinum rectum,
and the male and female organs of generation, being deſcribed in other parts of the work. The reader will be pleaſed to
obſerve likewiſe, that although all the muſcles (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mention is here made only of the muſcles
of one ſide.]
+
MUSCLES ſituated
Name,
Origin.
Infertion
Ufe.
under the integu-
ments of the cra-
nium
1. Occipito frontalis. From the tranſverſe Into the ſkin of the To pull the ſkin of
ridge of the os oc eye-brows.
the head back-
cipitis.
wards, and to raiſe
the eye-brows and
ſkin of the fore-
head.
2. Corrugator ſuper. From above the join- Into the inner part To draw the eye.
cilii.
ing of the os fron. of the occipito brows towards each
tis, os naſi, and os frontalis.
othes, and to wrin-
maxillare.
kle the forehead.
of the
eye-lids
1. Orbicularis palpe. From around the edge Into the naſal pro- To ſhut the eye.
brarum.
of the orbit.
of the
maxillare.
2. Levator palpebræ From the bottom of Into the cartilage of To open the eye.
fuperioris.
the orbit, near the the upper eye-lid.
optic foramen.
-of the
external ear 1. Attolens auri. From the tendon of Into the upper part To raiſe the car.
culam.
the occipito fron of the ear.
talis near the os
temporis.
2. Anterior auriculæ. From near the back Into an eminence be- To raiſe this emi-
part of the zygoma. hind the helix.
nence, and to pull
it forward's.
ces
OS
3
3. RE-
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
713
of the tragus.
Of the
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Ure.
Of the
Muſclea.
3.Retrahentes (s) au. From the outer and Into the convex part To ſtretch the con. Muſcles.
riculæ.
back part of the of the concha. cha, and pull the
root of the maſtoid
ear backwards.
proceſs.
Muscles of the car.
tilages of the car
1. Tragicus. From the outer and Into the upper part To depreſs the con-
middle
part
of the
cha, and pull the
concha, near the
point of the tragus
tragus.
a little outwards.
2. Anti-tragicus. From lhe root of the Into the upper part To dilate the mouth
inner part of the
of the anti-tragus.
of the concha.
helix.
3, Tranſverſus-auri. From the upper part Into the inner part To ſtretch the concha
culæ.
of the concha. of the helix.
and ſcapha, and
likewiſe to pull the
parts it is connect.
ed with towards
each other.
4. Helicis major. From the upper, ante. Into the cartilage of To depreſs the upper
rior, and acute part the helix, a little part of the helix.
of the helix.
above the tragus.
s. Helicis minor. From the lower and Into the helix, near To contract the fifa
fore part of the he the fiſſure in its ſure.
lix.
cartilage.
of the noſe, 1. Compreſſor (T) From the outer part Into the naſal pro- Toftraighten the nof-
naris.
of the root of the ceſs of the os max trils, and likewiſe
ala naſi.
illare, and anterior to corrugate the
extremity of the os ſkin of the noſe.
naſi.
of the
mouth and lips, 1. Levator labii ſupe. From the outer part Into the upper lip and Todraw the upper lip
rioris, alæque naſi.
of the orbitar pro-
ala of the noſe. and kin of the noſe
ceſs of the os max-
upwards and outa
illare, and from the
wards,
naſal proceſs of
that hone, where
itjoins the os fron-
tis.
2.Levator anguli oris. From the os maxil. Into the orbicularis To raiſethe corner of
lare ſuperius, be oris at the angle of the mouth.
tween the orbitar the mouth.
foramen and the
firſt dens molares.
3. Zygomaticus ma- From the os malæ Into the angle of the To raiſe the angle of
jor.
near the zygoma-
mouth,
the mouth, and
tic future.
make the cheek
prominent, as in
laughing.
4. Zygomaticus mi. Immediately above Into the angle of the To raiſe the angle of
the origin of the niouth.
the mouth oblique-
zyg. major.
ly outwards.
5. Buccinator. From the alveoli of Into the angle of the To contract the mouth
the dentes molares mouth.
and draw the angle
in the upper and
of it outwards and
lower jaws.
backwards.
6. Depreſſor labii ſu. From the os maxill. Into the root of the To draw the ala naſi
perioris, alæque ſuper. immediately
ala naſi and upper
and upper lip down-
naſi.
above the gums of lip.
wards.
the dentesinciſores.
VOL.I.
7. Depreſſor
}
nor.
4 X
(s) Theſe are three ſmall ſlender muſcles. The inferior one is ſometimes wanting,
(T) The noſe is affected by fibres of the occipico frontalis, and by ſeveral muſcles of the face ; but this pair,
the compreſſores, is the only one that is proper to it.
;
BRO
[ 714 ]
BRO
Hiriya
11
Droaca.
caſt.
of the liege of Damaſcus and a frequenter performer at notes an 'awl or bodkin; alſo a large packing-needle. Broadcaſt
Britton's concerts) wrote the following line:
A ſpit, in ſome parts of England, is called a broach;
1
Tho' mean thy rank, yet in thy humble cell
and from this word comes to pierce or broach a barrel. Irocade.
Did gentle peace and arts unpurchas'd dwell;
In Scotland, broach, broche, or brotche, is the name of
Well pleas'd, Apollo thither led his train,
an intenſil which the Highlanders uſe, like the fibula
And muſic warbled in her ſweeteſt ſtrain.
of the Romans, to faſten their veſt. They are uſually
Cyllenius ſo, as fables tell, and Jove,
made of filver ; of a round figure, with a tongue croſſ-
Came willing gueſts to poor Philemon's grove.
ing its diameter, to faſten the folds of the garment ;
Let uſeleſs pomp behold, and bluſh to find
ſometimes with two tongues, one on each ſide of a
So low a ſtation, ſuch a lib'ral mind.
croſs-bar in the middle. There are preſerved in ſeve-
ral families, ancient brotches of very elegant workman-
BRIVA-ISAR Æ (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia Bel- ſhip, and richly ornamented. Some of them are infcri-
gica on the river Ilara or Oyle; now Pontoyſe. hed with names, to which particular virtues uſed to be
BRIVATES, (anc. geog.), a port of Gallia Cel. attributed; others are furniſhed with receptacles for
tica ; now Breſt in Brittany.
relics, ſuppoſed to preſerve from larm. So that theſe
BRIVES-LA-GALLARD, town of France, in lower brorches ſeem to have been wore not only for uſe but
Limoſin. It ſtands in a fruitful plain, oppoſite to an iſland as amulets. One or two of this ſort are figured and
formed by the river Coreze, over which there are two deſcribed by Mr Pennant, Tour in Scotl. i.90, iii. 14.
handſome bridges. E. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 45. 15. edit. 3d.
BRIXELLUM, (anc. geog), a town of Gallia BROADCAST, as oppoſed to the drill huſbandry,
Ciſpadana; remarkable for being the place where O- denotes the method of cultivating corn, turnips, pulſe,
cho killed himſelf after the battle of Bedriacum: now clover, the foreign graſſes, and moſt other field-plants,
Berfello, or Brefello, in the territory of Rhegio. that are not tranſplanted by fowing them with the
BRIXEN, (the biſhopric of), is ſeated in Tirol, in hand; in which method they are ſcattered over the
Germany, near the frontiers of Friuli and Carinthia, ground at large, and thence faid to be ſown in broad-
towards the eaſt. The biſhop has a vote and feat in This is called the old huſbandry, to diſtin.
the diet of the empire, and furniſhes his contingent guiſh it from the drill, horſe-hoeing, or new huſband-
when any tax is laid on Tirol. The principal places ry. See AGRICULTURE.
are Brixen, Sertzingen, Breuneck, and Lientz. BROAD-piece, a denomination given to certain gold
BRIXEN, the capital of the biſhopric of the ſame pieces broader than a guinea ; particularly Caroluſes
name, and where the biſhop commonly refides, is feat- and Jacobuſes.
ed on the river Eiſache, at ſome diſtance from the BROAD-ſide, in the ſea-language, a diſcharge of all
mountain Brenner. It is ſurrounded with niountains, the guns on one-ſide of a ſhip at the ſame time. A
where there are plenty of vineyards, which yield good broad-ſide is a kind of volley of cannonade, and ought
red wine. It is a populous town; and the houſes are never to be given at a diſtance from the enemy above
well built with piazzas, and are painted on the outſide. muſket-ſhot at point-blank.
The public buildings are very handſome, and there are BROCADE, or BROCADO, a ſtuff of gold, ſilver,
ſeveral ſpacious ſquares. It is much frequented, on or ſilk, raiſed and enriched with flowers, foliages, and
account of the mineral waters that are near it. E. other ornaments, according to the fancy of the mer-
Long. 11. 50. N. Lat. 46. 35.
chants or manufacturers.
BRIXIA (anc. geog), a town of the Cenomani in Formerly the word ſignified only a ſtuff, wove all of
the Regio Tranſpadana : now Breſcia, capital of the gold, both in the warp and in the woof, or all of filver,
Breſciano.
or of both mixed together; thence it paſſed to thoſe of
BRIZA, QUAKING-GRASS, in botany: a genus ſtuffs in which there was ſilk mixed, to raiſe and termi-
of the digynia order; belonging to the triandria claſs nate the gold or ſilver flowers : but at preſent all ſtuffs,
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under even thoſe of filk alone, whether they be grograms of
the 4th order, Gramina. The calyx is two-valved, Tours, or of Naples, fattins, and even taffeties or luf.
and multiflorous; the ſpicula bifarious, or ſpread to trings, if they be but adorned and worked with ſome
the two ſides; with the finall valves heart-Thaped and flowers or other figures, are called brocades.
blunt, and the inner one ſmall in proportion to the In inanufacturing brocades, the flatted gilt wire is
reſt. There are five ſpecies of briza; two of which ſpun on threads of yellow ſilk approaching 3s near as
are natives of Britain, viz. the media, or middle qua- may be to the colour of gold itſelf. The wire, wind-
king-graſs, and the minor, or ſmall quaking-graſs. ing off from a bobbin, twiſts about the thread as it
They grow in paſture grounds.
ſpins round ; and, by means of curious machinery, too
BRIZE, in huſbandry, denotes ground that has lain complex to be deſcribed here, a number of threads are
long untilled.
thus twiſted at once by the turning of one wheel. The
Brize-Vents, thelters uſed by gardeners who have principal art conſiſts in ſo regulating the motion, that
not walls on the north-ſide, to keep cold winds from the ſeveral circumvolutions of the fatted wire on each
damaging their beds of melons. They are incloſures fide may just rouch one another, and form, as it were,
about ſix or ſeven feet high, and an inch or more thick; one continued covering. It is ſaid, that at Milan there
made of ſtraw, fupported by ſtakes fixed into the is made a ſort of flatted wire gilt only on one ſide,
ground, and props acroſs on both inſide and outſide; which is wound upon the thread ſo that only the gilé
and faſtened together with willow-twigs, or iron-wire. fide appears; and that the preparation of this wire is
BROACH, BROCHA (from the French broche, de kept a ſecret, and has been atempted in other places
with
BRO
[ 715 ]
BRO
Arts.
Brocade. with little ſucceſs. There is alſo a gilt copper wire,
alſo a gilt copper wire, preſſure was diſcovered. The wooden roll, being com- Brocade.
made in the ſame manner as the gilt ſilver: Savary ob. preſſible, had its diameter ſenſibly diminiſhed: it like-
ſerves, that this kind of wire, called falſe gold, is pre- wiſe loſt its roundneſs, fo that the preſſure varied in
pared chicfly at Nuremberg ; and that the ordinances different points of its revolution. On trying different
of France, require it to be ſpun, for its diſtinction from kinds both of European and Indian woods, all the hard
the gilt filver, on flaxen or hempen threads. A Bri ones ſplit, the ſoft ones warped wiihout ſplitting, and,
tiſh writer takes notice, that the Chineſe, inſtead of of more than 20 rolls, there was not one which conti-
flatted gilt wire, uſe ſlips of gilt paper, which they both nued round for 24 hours even without being worked in
interweave in their ſtuffs and twiſt upon ſilk threads : the machine,
this practice he inconſiderately propoſes as a hint to the Theſe failures put liim upon contriving another me-
Britiſh weaver. But, whatever be the pretended beauty thod of preſſing the rolls together, ſo that the force
of ſtuffs of this kind of manufacture, it is obvious that ſhould always accommodate itſelf to whatever inequa-
they muſt want durability. The Chineſe tlieinfelves, lities might happen. The axis of the copper roll be-
according to Du Halde's account, ſenſible of this im. ing made to turn between friction-wheels as before, that
perfection, ſcarcely uſe them any otherwiſe than in of the wooden one is preſſed upwards by a lever at each
tapeſtries, and ſuch other ornaments as are not intend. end furnished with a half collar for receiving the end
ed to be much worn, or expoſed to moiſture.
of the axis. Each lever has the end of its thort armi
Lewis's The Venetians have carried on a large trade to the ſupported on the frame of the machine, and the long
Commerce of Levant, in a kind of brocade called damaſquete, which, arm is drawn upwards by an iron rod communicating
though it has only about half the quantity of gold or with the end of the ſhort arm of another lever placed
ſilver as that made in England, looks far more beautiful. horizontally : to the long arm of this lever is hung a
The flaited wire is neither wound cloſe together on the weight, and the levers are so proportioned, that a
ſilk threads, nor the threads ſtruck cloſe in the wea- weight of 30 pounds preſſes' the rolls together with a
ving; yet, by paſſing the ſtuff betwixt rolls, the difpo- force equivalent to 17,536 pounds, which was found
ſition and management of whicla is kept a ſecret, the to be the proper force for the fufficient extenſion of the
tiſſue or flower is made to appear one entire brilliant gilding. By tbis contrivance four men can turn the
plate of gold or ſilver. The French miniſtry, ever vi- rolls with inore eaſe than ten can turn thoſe which are
gilant for the advancement of arts and commerce, jud. kept together by ſcrews; and the ſame weight acting
ged this manufacture important enough to deſerve their uniformly in every part, the preſſure continues always
attention; and accordingly, for contriving the machi- equal, though the wooden roll ſhould even become oval,
nery, they engaged the ingenious M. Vaucanſon, and though the ſtuff be of unequal thickneſs.
known throughout Europe for his curious picces of me A piece of cloth, of about two ells, is ſewed to the
chaniſın, who, in the meinoirs of the academy for the beginning and end of the ſtuff, to keep it out to its
year 1757, lately printed, gives an account of his fuc- width when it enters and parts from the rolls, which
ceſs, and of the eſtabliſhment of ſuch a manufacture at could not be done by the hands for fear of burning or
Lyons.
bruiſing them ; as it would take too much time to ſew
The lower roll is inade of wood, 32 inches in length theſe cloths to every ſuall piece of an ell or to, a
and 14 in diameter ; the upper one of copper, 36 inches number of theſe is fewed together. The ſtuff is roll-
long and 8 in diameter : this laſt is hollow, and open ed upon a cylinder, which is placed benind the ma-
at one end, for introducing iron heaters. For making chine, and its axis preſled down by ſprings to keep the
the rolls cylindrical, he has a particular kind of lathe, ſtuff tight as it comes off. Four iron bars, made red
wherein the cutting tool, which the moſt dexterous hand hot, are introduced into the copper roll, which in half
could not guide in a ſtraight line through ſuch a length an hour acquires the proper degree of heat, or nearly
as 36 inches, is made to ſlide, by means of a ſcrew, on ſuch a one as is uſed for the ironing of linen : the
two large ſteel rulers, perfectly ſtraight, and capable of wooden roll is then laid in its place, and the machine
being moved at pleaſure, nearer, and always exactly ſet to work. If more than 20 ells are to be paſſed at
parallel, to the axis of the roll.
once, the wooden roll muſt be changed for another, for
He firſt diſpuſed the rolls nearly as in the cominon it will not bear a long continuance of the heat without
flatting mill. In this diſpoſition, ten men were ſcarcely danger of ſplitting; and therefore the manufacturer
ſufficient for turning them with force enough to duly ſhould be provided with ſeveral of theſe rolls, that when
extend the gilding, and the collars, in which the axes one is removed, another may be ready to fupply its
of the rolls turned at each end, wore or gulled ſo faſt, room ; as ſoon as taken off from the machine, it ſhould
that the preſſure continually diminiſhed, infomach that be wrapt in a cloth and laid in a moiſt place.
a piece of ſtuff of ten ells had the gilding ſenſibly leſs The principal inconvenience attending the uſe of this
extended on the laſt part than on the firſt. He endea.
He endea. machine, is, that the heat neceſſary for extending the
voured to obviate this inconvenience by ſcrewing the rolls gilding, thongh it improves the brightneſs of white and
cloſer and cloſer in proportion as the ſuff paſſed thro', yellow ſilks, is injurious to ſome colours, as crimſon and
or as the wearing of the collars occaſioned more play green. A double preſſure will not ſupply the place of
between them; but this method produced an imperfec- heat ; and the only method of preventing this injury,
tion in the ſtuff, every turn of the ſcrew making a ſenſible or rendering it as light as poſſible, appeared to be, to
bar acroſs it. To leſſen the attrition, each end of the paſs the ſtuff through with great celerity.
axis, inſtead of a collar, was made to turn between three Mlethod of Cleaning BROCADE when filllied. For this
iron cylinders called friction wheels : but even this did purpoſe neither alkalies nor ſoap muſt be uſed; becauſe
not anſwer fully, for now another ſource of unequal the foriner, while they clean the gold, corrode the filk,
4 X 2
2120
716
Part II.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Y.
Of the
Muſclesa
or up
us.
the tongue.
Name.
Origin.
Inſertion,
Ure.
Of the
3. Mylo-hyoideus(D) From the inſide of Into the baſis of the To move the os hyoi. Muſcles.
the lower jaw, be os hyoides.
des to either ſide,
tween the laſt dens
forwards
molaris and the
wards.
chin.
4. (E) Genio-hyoide. From the inſide of the Into the baſe of the To move the os hy-
chin,
os hyoides.
oides forwards or
upwards.
5. Genio-gloſſus. From the inſide ofthe Into the tongue and To move the tongue
chin.
baſis of the os hy.
in various direc-
oides.
tions.
6. Hyo-gloſſus (F) From the horn, baſis, Into the tongue late. To draw the tongue
and appendix of the rally.
downwards and ina
os hyoides.
wards.
7. Lingualis. Laterally from the Into the extremity of To ſhorten the ton-
root of the tongue.
gue and draw it
backwards.
8. Stylo-gloſſusa Froin the ſtyloid pro- Into the ſide of the To move the tongue
ceſs and ſometimes
tongue from the
backwards and to
alſo from a liga root to near its tip.
one lide.
ment that extends
from thence to the
angle of the lower
jaw.
9. Stylo-pharyngæ. From the baſis of the Into the ſide of the To raiſe the thyroid
ſtyloid proceſs. pharynx and poſter cartilage and pha-
rior part of the thy. rynx, and likewiſe
roid cartilage.
to dilate the latter.
10. Circumflexus From near the bony Into the ſemilunar To dilate and draw
palati..
part of the Eufta. edge of the os palati the velum obliquely
chian tube, and and the velum pen- downwards.
from the fpinous dulum palati (G).
proceſs of the os
{phenoidesa
11. Levator palati. From the membra- Into the velum pen- To pull the yelum
nous part of the
dulum palati.
backwards.
Euſtachian tube,
and the extremity
of the os petroſum.
MUSCLES ſituated 2.
bout the fauces, I Palato-pharyn From the lower and Into the upper and To raiſe the pharynx
gæus.
anterior part of the poſterior part of the and thyroid carti-
cartilaginous extre. thyroid cartilage. lage, or to pull the
mity of the Euſta-
velum, and uyula
chian tube (H); the
backwards and
tendinous
expan-
downwards.
lion of the circum-
flexus palati; and
the velum pendu-
lum palati near the
baſis and black part
of the uyula,
2. Conſtrictos
us.
(D) So named from its ariſing near the dentes molares (resnos), and its being inferted into the os hyoides.
E) From Jeverov, mentum, the “ chin.'
F) From xmpats, cornu, and garra, lingua, “ the tongue.
This muſcle in its courſe forms a round tendon, which, after paſſing over a kind of hook formed by the
inner plate of the pterygoid proceſs of the ſphenoid bone, expands into a tendinous membrane.
(H) The few fibres that ariſe from the Euſtachian tube are deſcribed as a diſtinct muſcle by Albinus, un-
der the name of Salpingo pharyngeus. They ſerve to dilate the mouth of the tube
S
Part II.
717
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
Of the
Muſcles.
Name.
Origin.
Inſertion.
Uſe.
Of the
2. Conſtrictor iſthmi From near the baſis Into the velum pen- To raiſe the tongue Muſcles.
faucium.
of the tongue late dulum palati, near
and draw the ve-
rally.
the baſis and fore lum towards it(1).
part of the uvula.
3. Azygos uyulæ.
From the end of the Into the extremity of To ſhorten the uvula,
future that unites the uyula,
and bring it for-
the oſſa palati.
wards and upwards.
MUSCLES at the back
part of the pharynx 1.Conſtrictor pharyn. From the cuneiform Into the middle of Tomove the pharynx
gis ſuperior. proceſs of the oc the pharynx. upwards and for-
cipital bone; the
wards, and to com-
pterygoid proceſs
prefsits upper parts
of the os ſphenoi-
des, and from each
jaw near the laſt
dens molares (K):
2.Conſtrictor pharyn- From the horn and Into the middle of To draw tħe os hyoi-
gis medius (L). appendix of the os the proceſſus cunei.
des and pharynx
hyoides, and from forinis of the occi upwards, and to
the ligament that pital bone, about compreſs the latter.
unites it with the its middle and be.
thyroid cartilage.
fore the great fo-
ramen.
glottis
1.
1
3.Conſtrictor pharyn. From the cricoid and Into the middle of To compreſs part of
gis inferior (M) thyroid cartilages. the pharynx. the pharynx.
about the
Crico-arytænoide- From the ſide of the Into the baſis of the To open the glottis.
us lateralis.
cricoid cartilage.
arytænoid carti-
lage laterally.
2. Crico-arytænoide- From the cricoid car. Into the baſis of the To open the glottis.
us poſticus.
tilage poſteriorly. arytænoid carti.
lage poſteriorly.
3. Arytænoideus ob- From the baſis of one Nearthe extremity of To draw the parts it
liquis.
of the arytænoid
the other arytæ-
is connected with
cartilages.
noid cartilage. towards each other.
4. Arytænoideus
From one of the ary. Into the otherarytæ- To ſhut the glottis.
tranſverſus.
tænoid cartilages
noid cartilage late-
laterally.
rally.
5. Thyreo-arytænoi- From the poſterior Into the arytænoid To draw the arytæ-
deus.
and under part of cartilage.
noid cartilage for-
the thyroid carti.
wards.
lage.
6. Arytæno-epiglota From the upper part Into the ſide of the To move the epiglota
tideus.
of the arytænoid epiglottis.
tis outwards.
cartilage laterally,
7. Thyreo-epiglotti. From the thyroid car. Into the ſide of the To pull the epiglot-
deus.
tilage.
epiglottis.
tis obliquely down-
wards (N).
Muſcles
(1) This muſcle, and the palato-pharyngæus, likewiſe ſerve to cloſe the paſſage into the fauces, and ca
carry the food into the pharynx.
(K) The three orders of fibres here mentioned, with a few others derived from the tongue, have given occa-
fion to Douglas to deſcribe them as four diſtinct muſcles, under the names of cephalo-pharyngeus, mylo-pharyn-
gaus, ptery-pharyngeus, and glofjo-pharyngaus.
(1) Douglas inakes two muſcles of this, the hyo-pharyngeus and fyndefino-pharyngeus.
(M) The crico-pharyngæus and thyro-pharingæus of Douglas.
N) When either this or the preceding muſcle acts with its fellow, the epiglottis is drawn directly dayyn-
warde upon the glottis.
718
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ ο Μ
Y.
Of the
Muſcles,
1
one ſide.
men.
MUSCLES at the fore
Of the
Muſcles.
part of the neck,
cloſe to the verte.
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Ufe.
bræ
1. Rectus capitis in- From the anterior ex. Into the fore part of To bend the head
ternus major.
tremities of the the cuneiform pro-
forwards.
tranſverſe proceſſes ceſs of the os occi.
of the five lower-
pitis.
moſt cervical ver-
tebræ.
2. Rectus capitis in. From the anterior Near the baſis of the To aſſiſt the laſt de.
ternus minor. and upper part of condyloid proceſs fcribed muſcle.
the firſt cervical of the os occipitis.
vertebræ.
3. Rcctus capitis la. From the anterior Into the os occipi. To move the head to
teralis.
and upper part of
tis, oppoſite to the
the tranſverſe pro-
ſtylo-maſtoid fora-
ceſs of the firſt cer-
vical vertebra.
4. Longus colli.
Within the thorax, Into the ſecond cer- To pull the neck to
laterally from the vical vertebra an one ſide (0).
bodies of the three teriorly.
uppermoſt dorſal
vertebræ; from the
baſis and fore part
of the tranſverſe
proceſſes of the firſt
and ſecond dorſal
vertebræ, and of
thelaſt cervicalver-
tebra ; and, laſtly,
from the anterior
extremities of the
tranſverſe proceſſes
of the 6th,
5th, 4th,
and 3d cervical
at the forc
vertebræ.
part of the abdo.
1. Obliquus externus. From the lower edges Into the linea alba To compreſs and fup-
of the eight infe (P), oſſa pubis (e), port the viſcera, aſ.
rior ribs,near their and ſpine of the
fift in evacuating
cartilages.
ilium(R).
thefæcesandurine,
draw down the ribs,
and bend the trunk
forwards, or ob-
liquely to one ſide.
2. Obliquus internus. From the fpinous pro- Into the cartilages of To aſlift the obliquus
ceſs of the three all the falfe ribs, externus.
lowermoſt lumbar linea alba (s), and
Ben
(0) When both muſcles act, the neck is drawn directly forwards.
| The linea alba is that tendinous expanſion which reaches from the cartilago enſiformis to the os pubis.
It is formed by the interlacement of the tendinous fibres of the oblique and tranſverſe muſcles, and on this ac-
count ſome anatomiſts have conſidered theſe as three digaſtric muſcles.
le) A little above the pubis the tendinous fibres of this muſcle ſeparate from each other, ſo as to form an
opening called the ring of the obliquus externus, and commonly, though improperly, the
ring of the abdomi-
nal muſcles, there being no ſuch aperture either in the tranſverſalis or obliquus externus. This ring in the male
ſubject affords a paſſage to the ſpermatic veſſels, and in the female to the round ligament of the uterus.
(R) From the anterior and upper ſpinous proceſs of the ilium, this muſcle is ſtretched tendinous to the os
bis, and thus forms what is called by ſome Fallopius's, and by others Poupart's ligament. The blood-veſ
fels paſs under it to the thigh.
(s) The tendon formed by the upper part of this muſcle in its way to the linca alba is divided into two lay-
The poſterior layer runs under, and the anterior one over, the rectus muſcle.
CTS.
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Τ Ο M Y.
Ufe.
719
of the
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Of the
Muſcles.
vertebræ, the back
fore part of the
Muſcles,
part of the os fa pubis.
crum, thc fpine of
the ilium, and back
part of Fallopias's
ligament (T).
3. Tranſverſalis. From the cartilages Into the linea alba To compreſs the ab-
of the ſeven inferi. and cartilago enfi dominal viſcera.
or ribs ; the tranſ formis.
verſe proceſſes of
the laſt dorſal, and
four upper lumbar
vertebræ; the in-
ner part of Fallo-
pius'sligament and
the ſpine of the i-
lium.
4. Rcctus abdominis. From the upper edge Into the cartilages of To compreſs the fore
of the pubis and the 5th, 6th, and part of the abdo-
the ſymphyſis pu-
7th ribs, and the men, and to bend
bis.
edge of the carti the trunk forwards.
lago enſiformis(u).
5. Pyramidalis (v). From theanterior and Into the linea alba To aſſiſt the lower
upper part of the
and inner edge of portion of the rect.
pubis.
the rectus, com-
monly about two
inches above the
pubis.
MUSCLES at the fore
part of the thorax. 1. Pectoralis Major. From the cartilagi. Into the upper and To draw the arm for-
nous ends of the inner part of the wards or oblique-
5th and 6th ribs ; os humeri (w).
ly forwards.
the ſternum, and
anterior part of the
clavicle.
2. Subclavius. From the cartilage of Into the under fur. To move the clavicle
the firſt rib.
face of the cla forwards and down.
vicle.
wards and to aſſiſtin
raiſing the firſt rib.
us.
-
3. Pectoralis minor From the upper edges Into the coracoid pro- To move the fcapula
(x).
of the 3d 4th and ceſs of the ſca forwardsand down.
5th ribs.
pula.
wards or to elevate
the ribs.
4. Serratus Magnus. From the eight fupe. Into the baſis of the To bring the ſcapula
rior ribs.
fcapula.
forwards.
4
MUSCLES
(1) From this part it detaches ſome fibres which extend downwards upon the ſpermatic chord, and from
what is deſcribed as the cremaſter muſcle.
(u) The fibres of the recus are generally divided by three tendinous interfections. The two upper thirds
of this muſcle paſſing between the tendinous layers of the obliquus internus, are incloſed as it were in a ſheath;
but at its lower part we find it immediately contiguous to the peritonæum, the inferior portion of tendon of
the tranſverſalis paſſing over the rectus, and adhering to the anterior layer of the obliquus internus.
(v) This muſcle is fometimes wanting.
(w) The fibres of this maſcle paſs towards the axilla in a folding manner, and with thoſe of the latiſſimus
darfi from the armpit.
(x) This and ſome other muſcles derive their name of ferratus, from their ariſing from a number of tendinous
of fleſhy digitations, reſembling the teeth of a faw (ferra),
a ,
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Part II.
Y,
1
720
Of the MUSCLES that con. Name.
Origin.
Infertions.
Uje.
of the
Muſoles.
Muſcles.
cur in forming the
thorax,
1. Diaphragma (v).
2. Levalores coftá. From the tranſverſe Into the upper ſide of To move the ribs up,
proceſſes of the laſt each rib, near its wards and outwards.
cervical and the tuberoſity.
eleven upper dor-
}
fal' vertebræ.
3. Intercoſtales exter. From the lower edge Into the ſuperior edge To elevate the ribs.
ni.
of each upper rib. of each lower rib.
rum.
4. Intercoſtales in-
terni (A).
5.Sterno-coſtales(B). Fromthe cartilagoen. Into the cartilages of To depreſs the carti-
ſiformis,and lower the 2d, 3d, 4th, lages of the ribs.
and middle part of
5th, and 6th ribs.
the ſternum.
at the back
part of the neck
and trunk. 1. Trapezius (c), or From the middle of Into the poſterior To move the ſcapula.
cucullaris.
the os occipitis, half of the clavicle,
and the ſpinous pro-
part of the acro-
ceſſes of the two mion, and the ſpine
inferior cervical, of the ſcapula.
and of all the dor-
fal, vertebræ (D).
2. Rhomboideus (E). From the ſpinous pro- Into the baſis of the To move the ſcapula.
ceſſes of the three ſcapula.
upwards and back-
lowermoſtcervical,
wards.
and of all the dor.
ſal vertebræ.
3. Latiffimus dorſi. From part of the Into the os humeri, To draw the os hu-
ſpine of the os i. at the inner edge of meri dowiiwards
lium, the ſpinous the groove for lod-
and backwards and
proceſſes of the os ging the long head
to roll it upon its
ſacrum and lumbar oſthe biceps muſcle. axis.
vertebræ,and of fix
or eight of the dor-
1
fal
(Y) For a deſcription of the diaphragm, fee Part IV. Sect.IV.
A) The origin, inſertion, and uſe of the internal intercoſtals, are ſimilar to thoſe of the external. The
reader, however, will be pleaſed to obſerve, that the intercoſtales externi occupy the ſpaces between the ribs
only from their ſpine to their cartilages; from thence to the ſternum, there being only a thin membrane, which
is fpread over the intercoſtales interni ; and that the latter, on the contrary, extend only from the ſternum to
the angles of each rib.
The fibres of the external muſcles run obliquely forwards; thoſe of the internal c bliquely backwards. This
difference in the direction of their fibres induced Galen to ſuppoſe that they were intended for different uſes;
that the external intercoſtals, for inſtance, ſerve to elevate, and the internal ones to depreſs the ribs. Fallopius
ſeems to have been the firſt who ventured to diſpute the truth of this doctrines, which has ſince been revived by
Boyle, and more lately ſtill by Hamberger, whoſe theoretical arguments on this ſubject have been clearly refu.
ted by the experiments of Haller.
( B) Theſe conſiſt of four, and ſometimes five diſtinct muſcles on each ſide. Veſalius, and after him Dou.
glas and Albinus, conſider them as forming a ſingle muſcle, which, on account of its ſhape, they name triangu-
laris. Verheyen, Winſlow, and Haller, more properly deſcribe them as ſo many ſeparate muſcles, which, on
account of their origin and inſertion they name jerno-coſt ales.
(c) So named by Riolanus, from opetetu, on account of its quadrilateral ſhape. Columbus and others gave it
the name of cucullares, from its reſemblance to a monk's hood.
(D) The tendinous fibres of this muſcle, united with thoſe of its fellow in the nape of the neck, from what is
called the ligamentum colli.
(e) This muſcle conſiſts of two diſtinct portions, which are deſcribed as ſeparate muſcles by Albinus, under
the names of rhomboideus minor and rhomboideus major.
Part IL
72 1
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
Of the
Muſcles,
)
rax.
Name,
Origin.
Infertione
Uſe.
Of the
ſal vertebræ; alſo
Muſcles
from the four infe.
rior falſe ribs near
their cartilages.
4. Serratus inferior From the ſpinous pro- Into the lower edges To draw the ribs oul.
poſticus.
ceſſes of the two of the three or four wards, downwards,
lowermoſt dorſal, lowermoſt ribs near and backwards.
and of three of the their cartilages.
lumbar vertebræ,
5i Levator ſcapulæ. From the tranſverſe Into the upper angle To move the ſcapula
proceſſes of the four
of the ſcapula. forwards, and up-
uppermoſt verte-
wards.
bræ colli.
6. Serratus ſuperior. From the lower part Into the 2d, 3d, and to expand the tho-
pofticus.
of the ligamentum
4th ribs.
colli, the ſpinous
proceſs of the low.
ermoſt cervicalver-
tebra, and of the
two ſuperior dorſal
vertebræ.
7. Splenius (F). From the ſpinous pro- Into the tranſverſe To move the head
ceſſes of the four
proceſſes of the two backwards.
or five uppermoſt firſt cervical verte-
vertebræ of the
bræ, the upper and
back, and of the
back part of the
lowermoſt cervical maſtoid proceſs and
vertebra,
a ridge on the os
occipitis.
8. Complexus (G). From the tranſverſe Into the os occipitis. To draw the head
proceſſes of the four
backwards.
or five uppermoſt
dorſal, and of the
ſix lowermoſt cer-
vical vertebræ.
deus (H)
Trachelo-matoi. From the tranſverſe Into the maſtoid pro- To draw the head
proceſſes of the firſt
ceſs.
backwards.
dorſalvertebra,and
four or five of the
lowermot, cervi.
cal vertebræ.
Io. Rectus capitis po. From the ſpinous pro- Into the os occipitis. To extend the head
fticus major.
ceſs of the ſecond
and draw it back.
cervical vertebra.
wards.
II. Rectus capitis po- From the firſt verte- Into the os occipitis. To alliſt the reatus
ſticus minor.
bra of the neck.
major.
12. Obliquus ſuperior From the tranſverſe Into the os occipitis. To draw the head
capitis.
proceſs of the firſt
backwards.
cervical vertebra.
13. Obliquus inferior From the ſpinous pro- Into the tranſverſe To draw the face to-
capitis.
ceſs of the ſecond
proceſs of the firſt wards the houlder,
cervical vertebra. cervical vertebra. and to movethefirſt
vertebra upon the
ſecond.
VOL.I.
Y
14. Sa
F) According to ſome writers, this hiuſcle has gotten its name from its reſemblance to the ſpleen ; others
derive it from Splenium ſplint.
(G) So named on account of its complicated ſtructure.
(H) So named from its origin from the neck (perqn2015) and its inſertion into the maſtoid proceſs.
722
Part II.
Α Ν Α
N A T 0 M Y.
Of the
Muſcles.
Name.
Origin.
Inſertion.
Ule.
Of the
14. Sacro-lumbalis From the back part Into the lower edge To draw the ribs Muſcles.
(1)
of the os facrum, of each rib.
downwards, move
ſpine of the ilium,
the body upon its
ſpinous proceſſes
axis, aſſiſt in erecta
and roots of the
ing the trunk, and
tranſverſe proceſſes
turn the neck back-
of the vertebræ of
wards, or to one
the loins.
ſide.
15. Longiffimus dor. The ſame as that of Into the tranſverſe To ſtretch the verte-
the ſacro-lumbalis. proceſſes of the dor bræ of the back,
ſal vertebræ.
and keep the trunk
erect.
16. Spinalis dorſi. From the ſpinous pro- Into the ſpinous pro- To extend the vertc.
ceſſes of the upper:
ceſſes of the nine bræ.
moſt lumbar and ſuperior dorſal ver-
lowermoſt dorſal tebræ
vertebræ.
17.Semi-ſpinalis dor. From the tranſverſe Into the ſpinous pro. To extend the ſpind
fi.
proceſſes of the 7th, ceſſes of the four obliquely back-
8th, 9th, and 10th uppermoſt dorſal, wards.
vertebræ of the and lowermoſt of
back.
the cervical vertc.
ſi (K).
A
>
bræ.
18. Multifidus Spi- From the os facrum, Into the ſpinous pro- To extend the back
næ (1).
ilium, oblique and cefles of the lum and draw it back-
tranſverſe proceſſes bar, dorſal, and fix wards, or to one
of the lumbar ver-
of the cervical yer ſide.
tebræ, tranſverſe tebræ.
proceſſes of the dor-
ſal, and four of the
cervical vertebræ.
19. Semi-ſpinalis col. From the tranſverſe Into the ſpinous pro. To ſtretch the neck
li.
proceſſes of the five celles of the 2d, obliquely back-
or fix uppermoſt 3d, 4th, 5th, and wards,
dorſal vertebræ. 6th cervical ver-
tebræ.
20. Scalenus (M). From the tranſverſe Into the upper and To move the neck
proceſſes of the five
outer part of the
forwards, or to one
inferior cervical firſt and ſecond ribs. ſide.
vertebræ.
21. Intera
(1) Several thin fafculi of fleſhy fibres ariſe from the lower ribs, and terminate in the inner ſide of this
muſcle. Steno names them muſculi ad ſacro lumbalem accefforii. The facro-lumbalis likewiſe ſends off a fleſhy
Nip from its upper part, which by Douglas and Albinus is deſcribed as a diſtinct muſcle, under the name cer-
vicalis defcendens. Morgagni has very properly conſidered it as a part of the ſacro-lumbalis.
(K) At the upper part of this muſcle a broad thin layer of fleſhy fibres is found croſſing, and intimately ad-
hering to it This portion, which is deſcribed by Albinus, under the name of tranſverſalis cervicis, may ve-
ry properly be conſidered as an appendage to the longiffimus dorſi. It ariſes from the tranſverſe proceſſes of
the five or ſix fuperior dorſal vertebrze, and is inſerted into the tranſverſe proceſſes of the fix inferior cervi.
cal vertebræ. By means of this apppendage the longiffimus dorſi may ſerve to move the neck to one ſide, or
obliquely backwards.
(1) Anatomifts in general have unneceſſarily multiplied the muſcles of the ſpine. Albinus has the merit of
having introduced greater ſimplicity into this part of myology. Under the name of multifidus ſpine, he has
very properly included thoſe portions of muſcular fleſh intermixed with tendinous fibres, ſituated cloſe to the
back part of the ſpine, and which are defcribed by Douglas under the name of tranſverſales colli, dorſi,
Jumborum.
(m) The ancients gave it this name from its reſemblance to an irregular triangle (FX QXuros). It conſiſts of
three fleſhy portions. The anterior one affords a paſſage to the axillary artery, and between this and the mid-
dle portion we find the nerves going to the upper extremities. The middle is in part covered by the poſterior
portion, which is the longeſt and thinneſt of the three
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
723
)
Of the
Name.
Origin.
Inſertion.
U/c.
Ofthe
Muſcles.
#1. Inter-fpinalis(N). From the upper part Into the under part of To draw the fpinous Muſcles.
of each of the fpi each of the ſpinous proceſſes towards
nous proceſſes of proceſſes of the ver cach other,
thefix inferior cer tebræ above.
vical vertebræ,
22. Inter-tranſverſa- From the upper part Into the under part of To draw the tranſ-
les (o).
of each of the tranſ each of the tranſ verſe proceſſes to-
verle proceffes of verſe proceſſes of wards each other.
the vertebra
the vertebræabove.
MUSCLES within the
cavity of the abdo.
men, on the ante.
rior and lateral
parts of the ſpine, 1. Pſoas paryas (p). From the ſides and Into the brim of the To bend the loins for-
tranſverſe proceſſes pelvis, at thejunc wards,
of the uppermoſt tion of the os pubis
lumbar vertebra, with the ilium.
and ſometimes of
the lowermoft dor.
ſal vertebra.
2. Pſoas magnus.
From the bodies and Into the os femoris, a To bend the thigh
tranſverſe proceſſes little below the tro. forwards,
of the laſt dorſal, chanter minor.
and all the lumbar
vertebræ,
3. Ilacus internus, From the inner lip, In common with the To alliſt the pſoas
hollow part, and pſoas magnus magnus.
edge of the os
ilium.
4. Quadratus lumbo. From the poſterior Into the tranſverſe To ſupport the ſpine,
rum (e)
part of the ſpine proceſſes of the four or to draw it to one
of the ilium, uppermoſt lumbar fide.
vertebræ, the infe-
rior edge of the laſt
rib, and the ſide of
the lowermoft dor-
ſal vertebra.
5. Coccygaus.
From the poſterior Into the lower part To draw the os coc
and inner edge of of the os ſacrum,
cygis forwards and
the ſpine of the and almoſt the inwards (R)
iſchium.
whole length of the
os coccygis late-
rally.
on the ſcapu.
la and upper part
of the os humeri, 1. Deltoides (s). From the clavicle, Into the anterior and To raiſe the arm.
proceſſus acromion, middle part of the
and ſpine of the os humeri.
fcapula.
2. Supra-spinatus. From the baſis, ſpine, Into a large tuberofi- To raiſe the arm.
and upper coſta of ty at the head of
the ſcapula.
the os humeri.
4 Y 2
3. Infra.
(N) In the generality of anatomical books we find theſe muſcles divided into inter-ſpinalis cervicis, dorſi,
and lumborum, but we do not find any ſuch muſcles either in the loins or back:
(0) Theſe muſcles are to be found only in the neck and loins; what have been deſcribed, as the inter-
tranſverſales dorſi being rather ſmall tendons than muſcles.
() This and the following pair of muſcles derive their name of pſoas from fou, lumbus, on account of their
ſituation at the anterior part of the loins.
le) So called from its ſhape, which is that of an irregular ſquare.
Some of the fibres of this muſcle are united with thoſe of the levator ani, so that it aſſiſts in cloſing the
lower part of the pelvis.
(s) So named from its ſuppoſed reſemblance to the Greek A rcverſed.
BY
1724
Part IT
A N A T
M Y.
Of the
Muſcles,
natus.
arm.
lis (u)
1
Name.
Origin.
Inſertion.
Ufe.
of the
3. Infra-ſpinatus. From the baſe and Into the upper and Toroll the os humeri Muſcles.
ſpine of the ſcapu middle part of the outwards,
la.
tuberoſity.
4. Teres minor (T). From the inferior co- Into the lower part of To aſſiſt the infra ſpi-
Ita of the ſcapula. the tuberoſity:
5. Teres major. From the inferior Into the ridge at the To aſſiſt in the rota.
angle, and inferior inner ſide of the tory motion of the
coſta of the ſcapu-
groove formed for
la.
the long head of
the biceps.
6. Subſcapularis. From the baſis, ſupe- Into the upper part of To roll the arm in-
rior and inferior co a ſmall tuberoſity wards.
Ita of the ſcapula. at the head of the
os humeri.
7. Coraco-brachia. From the coracoid Into the middle and To roll the arm for.
proceſs of the ſca inner ſide of the os wards and upwards.
pula.
humeri.
MUSCLES on the os
humeri,
I. Biceps flexor cubi- By two heads, one Into the tuberoſity at To bend the fores
ti.
from the coracoid the upper end of arm.
proceſs, and theo the radius.
ther, or long head,
· from the upper and
outer-edge of the
glenoid cavity of
thie fcapula.
2.Brachialis internus From the os humeri, Into a ſmall tuberoſity To aſlift in bending
below, and at each
at the fore part of
the fore-arm.
ſide of the tendon
the coronoid pro•
of the deltoides. ceſs of the ulna.
3. Triceps extenſor By three heads: the Into the upper and to extend the fore.
cubiti.
firſt, from the infe outer part of the
rior coſta of the olecranon.
fcapula; the ſecond
from the upper and
outer part of the os
humeri; and the
third, "from the
back part of that
bone.
on the fore .
arm,
•1. Supinator longus. From the outer ridge Into the radius near To aſſiſt in turning
and anterior ſurface its ſtyloid proceſs. the palm of the
of the os humeri, a
hand upwards.
little above its out-
er condyle.
2. Extenſor carpi ra- Immediately below Into the upper part To extend the wriſt.
dialis longas.
the origin of the
of the metacarpal
ſupinator longus. bone of the fore-
finger.
3. Extenfor capri ra. From the outer and Into the upper part To aſſiſt the extenfor
dialis brevis. lower part of the of the metacarpal longus,
outer condyle of bone of the middle
the os humeri, and finger.
the upper part of
the radius,
4. Extenſor digito. From the outer con- Into the back part of To extend the fingers
rum communis. dyle of the os hu all the bones of the
meri.
fore finger.
5. Extenſor
arm.
2
7
(T) This and the following pair are called teres, from their being of a long and round ſhape.
lu) This muſcle affords a paſſage to the muſculo-cutaneous nerve.
Part IT.
725
AN N A TO M Y.
Ure.
Of the
Mufctos.
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Of the
15. Extenſor minimi From the outer con- Into the bones of the To extend the little Muſcles.
digiti.
dyle of the os hu-
little finger. finger.
nieri.
6. Extenſor carpi ul. From the outer con- Into the metacarpal To affift in extending
ratis.
dyle of the os hu bone of the little the wriſt.
nieri.
finger.
7. Anconæus (v). From the outer con- Into the outer edge To extend the fore-
dyle of the os hu of the ulna.
meri.
8. Flexor carpi ulna. From the inner con- Into the os piſiforme. To aſſiſt in bending
ris.
dyle of the os hu-
the hand,
meri, and interior
edge of the olecra-
non (w).
9. Palmaris longus. From the inner con- Into the internal an- To bend the hand.
dyle of the os hu nular ligament,and
meri.
aponeuroſis palma-
arm.
1
ris (x).
II.
near
10. Flexor carpi ra- From the inner con- Into the metacarpal To bend the hand.
dialis.
dyle of the os hu bone of the fore
meri.
finger.
Pronator radii From the outer con- Into the anterior and To roll the hand in-
teres.
dyle of the os hu convex edge of the wards,
meri, and coronoid radius
its
proceſs of the ulna. middle.
12. Flexor ſublimis.From the inner con- Into the ſecond bone To bend the ſecond
perforatus (Y). dyle of the os hu-
of each finger. joint of the fingers.
meri, inner edge of
the coronoid -pro-
cefs of the ulna,
and upper and an.
terior part of the
radius.
-13. Supinator radii From the outer con- Into the anterior, in- To roll the radius
brevis,
dyle of the os hu ner, and upper part outwards.
meri, and poſterior of the radius.
ſurface and outer
edge of the alna.
14. Abductor polli- From the middle and By two tendons into To ſtretch the firſt
cis longus.
back part of the the os trapezium, bone of the thuinb
ulna, interoſſeous and firſt bone of outwards.
ligament, and ra the thumb.
dius.
15. Extenſor minor From the back part Into the convex part To extend the ſecond
pollicis.
of the ulna, and in of the ſecond bone bone of the thuinb
teroffeous ligament of the thumb. obliquelyoutwards,
and radius.
16. Extenſor major From the back of the Into the third and To ſtretch the thumb
pollicis.
ulna and interoſſe. laſt bone of the obliquely
back-
ous ligament.
thumb.
lyards.
17. Indicator. From the middle of Into the metacarpal To extend the fore-
the ulna.
bone of the fore finger.
finger.
18 Flexor
(v) So called from a Sxwv, cubitus.
w) Between the two origins of this muſcle we find the ulnor-nerve going to the fore-arm.
x) The aponeuroſis palmaris is a tendinous membrane that extends over the palm of the hand. Somie ana-
tomiſts have ſuppoſed it to be a production of the tendon of this muſcle, but without ſufficient grounds; for
in ſome ſubjects we find the palmaris longus inſerted wholly into the annular ligament, ſo as to be perfectly
diftinct from this aponeurofis; and it now and then lappens, that no palmaris longus is to be found, whereas
this expanſion is never deficient.
(Y) This muſcle is named perforatus, on account of the four tendons in which it terminates, being perfo-
rated by thoſe of another muſcle, the perforans.
1
726
Part II:
Α Ν Α Τ Τ' Ο
0 M M Y.
o the
Muſcles.
20.
)
Nanie.
Origin.
Infertion.
Use.
òf the
18. Flexor profundas From the upper and Into the fore part of To bend the laſt joint Muſcles.
perforans.
fore part of the the laſt bone of
of the fingers.
ulna, and interoſ-
each of the fingers.
ſeous ligament.
19. Flexor longus From the upper and Into the laſt joint of To bend the laſt joint
pollicis.
fore part of the the thumb.
of the thumb.
radius.
Pronator radii From the inner and Into the radius, op- To roll the radius in-
quadratus.
lower part of the poſite to its origin. wards and of courſe
ulna.
to aſſist in the pro-
nation of the hand.
Musclesonthehand, 1. Lumbricales (2). From the tendons of Into the tendons of To bend the firſt, and
the perforans. the extenſor digi to extend the two
torum communis. laſt joints of the
fingers (A).
2. Abductor brevis From the fore part Into the outer ſide of To move the thumb
pollicis.
of the internal an the 2d bone of the from the fingers.
nular ligament, os thunib, near its
ſcaphoides, andone root.
of the tendons of
thc abductor lon-
gus pollicis.
3. Opponens pollicis. From the inner and Into the firſt bone of To move the thumb
anterior part of the the thumb.
inwards and to turn
internal annular li.
it upon its axis.
gament, and from
the os ſcaphoides.
4. Flexor brevis pol. From theos trapezoi. Into the offa ſeſamoi. To bend the ſecond
licis.
des, internal annu dea and ſecond
ſecond joint of the thumb.
lar ligament, os bone of the thumb.
magnum, and os
unciforme.
5. Abductor pollicis. From the metacarpal Into the baſis of the To move the thumb
bone of the middle ſecond bone of the towards the fingers
finger.
thumb.
6. Abductor indices. From the inner ſide Into the firſt bone of Tomove the fore fin-
of the firſt bone of
the fore finger po-
ger towards the
the thumb, and ſteriorly
thumb.
from the os trape-
zium.
7. Palmaris brevis. From theinternal an- Into the os piſiforme, To contra& the palm
nular ligament,and and the ſkin cover of the hand.
aponeuroſis palma. ing the abductor
ris.
minimi digiti.
8. Abductor minimi From the internalan- Into the ſide of the To draw the little
digiti.
nular ligament and firſt bone of the finger from thereft.
os piſiforme.
little finger.
9. Flexor parvus mi. From the os uncifor- Into the firſt bone of To bend the little fin.
meand internalan-
the little finger.
ger.
nular ligament.
10. Abductor meta. From the os uncifor- Into the metacarpal To move that bono
carpi minimi digiti. me and internal an bone of the little towards the reſt.
nular ligament. finger.
1. Interoſſei interni. Situated between the Into the roots of the To extend the fingers
metacarpal bones. fingers.
and move them to.
wards the thumb
(B).
12. Interoffci
/
nimi digiti.
(2) So named from their being ſhaped ſomewhat like the lumbricus or earth-worm.
(A) Fallopius was the firſt who remarked the two oppoſite uſes of this muſcle. Their extending power
is owing to their connection with the extenſor communis.
(B) The third interoſſeus internus (for there are four of the externi and three of the interni) differs from
the reſt in drawing the middle finger from the thumb.
Part II.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
727
the thigh,
Of the
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Uſe.
of the
Muſcles.
12. Interoffci externi. Situated between the Into the roots of the To extend the fin. Muſcles.
matacarpal bones
fingers.
gers; but the firſt
on the back of the
draws the middle
hand.
finger inwards, the
ſecond draws itout-
wards,and the third
draws the ring fin-
ger inwards.
Muscles at the back
part of the pelvis,
and upper part of
1. Glutæus (c) max. From the ſpine of the Into the upper part To extend the thigh
imus.
illium, poſterior ſa-
of the linea aſpera and draw it out-
cro iſchiatic liga-
of the os femoris. wards,
ments, os ſacrum,
and os coccygis.
2. Glutæus medius. From the ſpine and Into the outer and To draw the thigh
ſuperior ſurface of back part of the outwards and a lit.
the ilium.
great trochanter of
tle backwards, and
the os femoris.
when it is bended,
to roll it.
3. Glutæus minimus. From the outer ſur. Into the upper and To aſſiſt the former.
face of the ilium anterior part of the
and the border of
great trochanter.
its great niche.
4. Pyriformis (D). From the anterior Into a cavity at the To roll the thigh out-
part of the os fa root of the trochan. wards.
ter major.
5. Gemini (E).
By two portions, one Into the ſame cavity To roll the thigh out-
from the outer ſur as the pyriformis. wards and likewiſe
face of the ſpine
to confine the ten-
of the iſchium ;
don of the obtura-
the other from the
tor internus, when
tuberoſity of the
the latter is in ac-
iſchium and poſte-
tion.
rior facro-iſchiatic
ligament.
6. Obturator internus. From the ſuperior Into the ſame cavity To roll the thigh out-
half of the inner with the former. wards.
border of the fo-
ramen thyroideum.
7. Quadratus (F) fe. From the tuberoſity Into a ridge between To move the thigh
moris.
of the iſchium. the trochanter ma outwards.
jor and trochanter
ininor.
on the thigh
(G),
1. Biceps flexor cru- By two heads; one Into the upper and To bend tbe leg.
ris.
from the tuberoſity back part of the fi-
of the iſchium,
?
crum.
bula (H)
(c) From 728tos, nates
(D) So named from its pear-like fhape.
(B) The two portions of this muſcles having been deſcribed as two diſtinct muſcles by fome anatomiſts,
have occaſioned it to be named gemini. The tendon of the obturator internus runs between theſe two por-
tions
(F) This muſcle is not of the ſquare ſhape its name would ſeem to indicate.
(G) The muſcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called faſcia lata, that
ſurrounds them in the manner of a ſheath. It is ſent off from the tendons of the glutæi and other muſcles, and
dipping down between the muſcles it covers, whereas to the linea afpera, and ſpreading over the joint of the
knee, gradually diſappears on the leg. It is thickeſt on the inſide of the thigh.
(H) The tendon of this muſcle forms the outer ham-ſtring
728
Part II
AN N A T
TO M Y.
1
Of the
Muſcles.
Ofe.
fus (1)
;
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Opthor"
the other from the
Muſcles:
linea aſpera near
the inſertion of the
glutæus maximus.
2. Semi-tendinoſus. From the tuberoſity Into the upper and Tobend and draw the
of the iſchium. inner part of the leg inwards.
tibia.
3. Semi-membrano. From the tuberoſity Into the upper and To bend the leg.
of the ifchium. back part of the
head of the tibia.
4. Tenſor vaginæ fe. From the ſuperiorand Into the inner ſide of To ſtretch the faſcia.
moris.
anterior ſpinouspro the faſcia lata,
ceſs of the ilium. which covers the
outſide of the
thigh.
5. Sartorius.
From the ſuperior Into the upper and in- To bend the leg in
and anterior ſpinous
ner part of the ti-
wards (K).
proceſs of the ili bia.
um.
Rectus:
By two tendons; onc Into the upper and To extend the leg.
from the anterior fore-par of the pa-
and inferior fpi tella,
nous proceſs of the
ilium the other
from the poſterior
edge of the coty.
loid cavity.
7. Gracilis.
Froin the fore-part Into the upper and To bend the leg.
of the iſchium and inner part of the
pubis.
tibia.
8.Vaſtusexternus(1) From the anteriorand To the upper and To extend the leg.
lower part of the outer part of the
great trochanter, patella.
and the outer edge
of the linea al-
pera.
9. Vaſtus intcrnus. From the inner edge Into the upper and To extend the leg.
of the linea aſpera, inner part of the
beginningbetween patella.
the fore-partof the
os femoris and the
root of the leſſer
trochanter.
id. Cruræus (M). From the outer and Into the upper part of To extend thc leg.
anterior part of thie patella.
the lefſer trochan-
ter.
IJ. Pectinalis. From the anterior Into the upper and To draw the thigh
edge of the os pu fore part of the li inwards, upwards,
bis, or pecinis, as nea aſpera.
and to roll it a little
it is ſometimes call-
outwards.
ed.
12. Abductor
}
>
1
the legs.
(1) So named on account of its origin, which is by a broad flat tendon three inches long.
K) Spigelius was the firſt who gave this the name of Sartorius, or the taylor's muſcle, from its uſe in croſſing
(L) The vaſtus externus, vaſtus internus, and cruræus, are ſo intimately connected with each other, that
fone anatomiſts have been induced to conſider them as a triceps, or ſingle muſcle with three heads.
(m) Under the cruræus we ſometimes meet with two finall mufales, to which Albinus has given the name
of ſub-cruræi. They terininate on each ſide of the patella, and prevent the capſular ligament from being
pinched. When they are wanting, which is very often the caſe, ſome of the fibres of the cruræus are
Cound adhering to the capſula.
4
Part II.
A Ν Α Τ Ο. M Y.
729
Of the
Muſcles.
nus.
externus.
to
Of the
Name.
Origins.
Inſertion.
Uſe.
Muſcles,
12. Abduétor longus From the upper and Near the middle
femoris (N). fore part of the os and back part of
pubis.
the linea aſpera.
13. Abductor brevis From the fore part of Into the inner and I To draw tho thigh
femoris.
the ramus of the os
upper part of the
inwards, upwards,
pubis.
linea aſpera.
and to roll it a little
. 14. Abductor mag. From the lower and Into the
whole
outwards.
nus femoris.
fore part of thora length of the li.
mus of the os pu nca aſpera.
bis.
15. Obturator exter. From part of the ob- Into the os femoris To move the thigh
turator ligament, near the root of outwards in an ob-
and the inner half the great trochan lique direction,and
of the circumfe. ter.
likewiſe to bend
rence of the fora.
and draw it in.
men thyroideum.
wards.
MUSCLES on the leg, 1. Gaſtrocnemius (o) By two heads ; one By a great round ten- To extend the foot.
.
from theinner con don, common
dyle,the other from this and the follow-
the outer condyle ing niuſcle.
of the os femoris.
2. Gaſtrocnemius(P) By two heads; one By a large tendon To extend the foot.
internus.
from the back part
(the tendo achillis)
of the head of the common to this and
fibula, the other the former muſcle,
from the uppor and into the lower and
back part of the back part of the os
tibia.
calcis.
3. Plantaris (e) From the upper and Into the inſide of the To affiſt in extending
poſterior part of the back part of the os the foot.
outer condyle of calcis.
the os femoris.
4. Popliteus (R) From the outer con- Into the upper and To aſſiſt in bending
dyle of the thigh. inner part of the the leg and rolling
tibia.
it inwards.
5. Flexor longus digi. From the upper and By four tendons, To bend the laſt joint
torum pedis (5) inner part of the which after paſſing of the toc,
tibia.
through the perfo-
rations in thoſe of
the flexor digito-
rum brevis, are in-
ſerted into the laſt
bone of all the toes
except the great
6. Flexor longus pol. From the back part,
licis pedis.
and a little below Into the laſt bone of To bend the great
the head of the fi the great toe.
bula.
VOL. I.
4 Z
7. Tibiali
toe.
toe.
(N) This and the two following muſcles have been uſually, but improperly, conſidered as forming a ſingle
muſcle with three heads, and on that account named triceps femoris,
(0) Tasporvausa, ſura, “ the calf of the leg."
(P) This muſcle is by fome anatomiſts named foleus, on account of its being ſhaped like the fole-fiſh.
e) This muſcle has gotten the name of plantaris, from its being ſuppoſed to furniſh the aponeurolis that
covers the ſole of the foot ; but it does not in the least contribute to the formation of that tendinous ex-
panſion.
R) So called on account of its ſituation at the ham (poples).
This muſcle, about the middle of the foot, unites with a fleſhy mais, which, from its having firſt been
deſcribed by Sylvius, is uſualy called mala carnea JACOBI SYLVII.
8]
DRO
[ 730 ]
BRO
Browd. ly, having out the jngular vein with a razor ; and this while no more notion of what he ſaid than a parrot ; Brown.
he had done ſo effe&tually, that death ſpeedily enſued. that it was therefore profane in him to pray, and in-
Such was the unhappy end of this ingenious writer; congruous to be preſent at the prayers of others :"
but the manner of it, when ſome previous circum- and, very conſiſtently with this, he conſidered himſelf
ſtances of his life are underſtood, will caſt no ſtain on no longer as a moral agent, or ſubject of either reward
his character. He had a tendency to inſanity in his or puniſhment. In this way of thinking and talking
conſtitution ; and, from his early life, had been ſubject he unalterably and obſtinately perfifted to the end of
at times to ſome diſorder in his brain, at leaſt to me his life ; though he afterwards ſuffered, and even re-
lancholy in its excefs. Mrs Gilpin of Carliſle, foon queſted, prayers to be made for him. Some time after
after Dr Brown's deceaſe, wrote in the following terms his feceſtion from the Old Jewry, he retired to Shepton
in a letter to a friend. "" His diſtemper was a frenzy, Mallet, his native place; and though in this retirement
10 which he had by fits been long ſubject ; to my own he was perpetually contending that his powers of rea-
knowledge, above 30 years. Had it not been for Mr ſon and imagination were gone, yet he was as conſtant-
Fariſh frequently, and once for myſelf, the ſame event ly exerting both with much activity and vigour. He
would have happened to him long ago. It was no amuſed himſelf ſometimes with tranſlating parts of the
premeditated purpoſe in him ; for he abhorred the ancient Greek and Latin poets into Engliſh verſe:
thought of ſelf-murder ; and in bitterneſs of foul ex he compoſed little pieces for the uſe of children: An
preſſed his fears to me, that one time or another ſome Engliſh Grammar and Spelling Book ; An Abſtract
ready miſchief might preſent itſelf to him, at a time of the Scripture-Hiſtory, and a collection of Fables,
when he was wholly deprived of his reaſon.”
both in metre; and with much learning he brought to-
BROWN (Sinion), a diſſenting miniſter, whoſe gether into a ſhort compaſs all the Themata of the
uncoinmon talents and ſingular misfortunes intitle him Greek and Latin tongues, and alſo compiled a Dic-
juſtly to a place in this work, was born at Shepton tionary to each of thoſe works, in order to render the
Mallet in Somerſetſhire, 1680. Grounded and excel learning of both theſe languages more eaſy and com-
ling in grammatical learning, he early became qualified pendious. Of theſe performances none have been made
for the miniſtry, and actually began to preach before public. But what ſhowed the ſtrength and vigour of
he was twenty.' He was first called to be a paſtor at his underſtanding, while he was daily bemoaning the
Portſmouth, and afterwards removed to the Old Jewry, loſs of it, were two works compoſed during the two
where he was admired and efteenied for a number of laſt years of his life, in defence of Chriſtianity, againſt
years.
But the death of his wife and only ſon, which Woolſton and Tindal. He wrote an anſwer to Woola
happened in 1723, affected him ſo as to deprive him of ſton's fifth Diſcourſe on the Miracles of our Saviour,
his reaſon; and he became from that time loft to him- entitled, A fit rebuke for a ludicrous infidel, with a
ſelf, to his family, and to the world : his congregation preface concerning the proſecution of ſuch writers by
at the Old Jewry, in expectation of his recovery, de. the civil power. The preface contains a vigorous plea
layed for foine time to fill his poft ; yet at lengih all for liberty, and is ſtrongly againſt proſecutions in mat-
hopes were over, and Mr Samuel Chandler was appoint- ters of religion; and in the anſwer, Woolſton is as
ed to ſucceed him in 1725. This double inisfortune well managed as he was by any of his refuters, and
affected hiin at firſt in a manner little different from more in his own way too. His book againſt Tindal
diſtraction, but afterwards funk him into a ſettled me was called, A Defence of the Religion of Nature and
Jancholy. He quitted the duties of his function, and the Chriſtian Revelation, againſt the defective account
would not be perfuaded to join in any act of worſhip, of the one and the exceptions againſt the other, in a
public or private. Being urged by his friends for a book entitled, Chriſtianity as old as the Creation ;
realon of this extraordinary change, at which they ex and it is allowed to be as good a one as that contro-
preſſed the utmoſt grief and aſtonilhment, he told them, verfy produced. He intended to dedicate it to queen
after much importunity, that “he had fallen under the Caroline ; but as the unhappy ſtate of his mind ap-
ſenſible diſpleaſure of God, who had cauſed his rational peared in the dedication, ſome of his friends very wiſe.
ſoul gradually to periſh, and left him only an animal ly ſuppreſſed it, as ſure to defeat the uſe and intent of
life in common with brutes : that, though he retained his work. The copy, however, was preſerved, and is
the human ſhape, and the faculty of ſpeaking in a fubjoined in the note (A), as much too great a curi-
manner that appeared to others rational, he had all the olity to be ſuppreſſed. The above pieces were publiſh-
ed
1
(A) Madam, Of all the extraordinary things that have been rendered to your royal hands ſince your firſt
happy arrival in Britain, it may be boldly ſaid, what now beſpeaks your majeſty's acceptance is the chief. Not
in itſelf indeed : it is a trifle unworthy your exalted rank, and what will hardly prove an entertaining amuſe-
ment to one of your majeſty's deep penetration, exact judgment, and fine taſte ; but on account of the all-
thor, who is the firſt being of the kind, and yet without a nane. He was once a man, and of ſome little
name ; but of no worth, as his preſent unparalleled caſe makes but too manifeſt : for, by the immediate hand
of an avenging God, his very thinking ſubſtance has for more than ſeven years been continually waſting away,
till it is wholly periſhed out of him, if it be not utterly come to nothing. None, no, not the leaſt remen-
brance of its very ruins remains ; not the ſhadow of an idea is left ; nor any ſenſe, ſo much as one ſingle one,
perfect or imperfect, whole or diminiſhed, ever did appear to a mind within him, or was perceived by it. Such
a preſent from ſuch a thing, however worthleſs in itſelf, may not be wholly unacceptable to your majeſty, the
author being ſuch as hiſtory cannot parallel ; and if the fact, which is real, and no fiction or wrong conceit,
obtains
credit,
BRO
[ 731 ]
BRO
Brown
In 17545
Brown. ed by Mr afterwards by Dr W. Harris, who, in an ad He was choſen twice to ſerve in parliament, firſt in
vertiſement to the reader, recommends the aſílicted caſe 1744, and afterwards in 1748 ; boih times for the bo-
of the author, under a deep and peculiar melancholy, rough of Wenlock in Shropthire, near which place ho
to the compaſſion and prayers of all his friends, and poſſeſſed a conſiderable eſtate, which came froin his ma-
every ſerious Chriſtian. Mr Brown ſurvived the pub. ternal grandfather, Iſaac Hawkins, Elq.
lication of this laſt work a very ſhort time. A compli- he publihed what has been deemed lis capital work,
cation of diſtempers, contracted by his fedentary life De Animi Immortalitate, in two books ; in which, be
(for he could not be prevailed on to refreſh bimſelf ſides a moſt judicious choice of matter and arrange-
with air and exerciſe), brought on a mortification, ment, he is thought to have ſhown himſelf not a ſervilo
which put a period to his labours and ſorrows about but happy imitator of Lucretius and Virgil. The uni.
the latter end of 1732. He was unqueſtionably a man verſal applauſe and popularity of this poem produced
of uncommon abilities and learning : his management ſeveral Engliſh tranſlations of it in a very ſhort time ;
of Woolſton ſhowed him to have alſo vivacity and wit : the beſt of which is that by Soame Jenyns, Eſq; print.
and, notwithſtanding that ſtrauge conceit which pos- ed in his Miſcellanies. Mr Brown intended to have
ſeſſed him, it is remarkable that he never appeared added a third part, but went no farrlier than to leave a
feeble or abſurd, except when the object of his frenzy fragment. This excellent perſon died, after a linger-
was before him. Belides the two pieces abovemen- ing illneſs, in 1760, aged 55. In 1768, the preſent
tioned, and before he was ill, he had publiſhed ſome Hawkins Brown, Eſq; obliged the public with an ele.
ſingle Sermons, together with a Collection of Hymns gant edition of his father's poems, in large octavo ; to
and Spiritual Songs. He left ſeveral daughters. which is prefixed a print of the author, from a painting
BROWN (Iſaac Hawkins), an ingenious Engliſh of Mr Highmore, engraved by Ravenet.
poet, was born at Burton upon Trent, Staffordſhire, BROWN (Sir William), a noted phyſician and mul.
Jan. 21. 1705-6; of which place bis father was the tifarious writer, was ſettled originally at Lynn in Nor-
miniſter. He received his grammatical inſtitution firſt folk, where he publiſhed a tranſlation of Dr Gregory's
at Litchfield, then at Weſtminſter; whence, at ſixteen Elements of Catoptrics and Dioptrics; to which he
years of age, he was removed to Trinity college, Cain- added, 1. A Method for finding the Foci of all Spe-
bridge, of which his father had been fellow. He re cula, as well as Leus's univerſally; as alſo magnifying
mained there till he had taken a maſter of arts degree; or leſſening a given Object by a given Speculum or
and about 1727, ſetiled himſelf in Lincoln's Inn, where Leps, in any aſſigned Proportion. 2. A Solution of
he ſeems to have devoted more of his time to the thoſe Problems which Dr Gregory has left undemon-
Muſes than to the law. Soon after his arrival there, ſtrated. 3. A particular Account of Microſcopes and
he wrote a poem on Deſign and Beauty, which he ad. Teleſcopes, from Mr Huygens ; with the Diſcoveries
dreſſed to Mr Highmore the painter, for whom he had made by Catoptrics and Dioptrics. Having acquired
a great friendſhip. Several other poetical pieces were a competence by his profeſſion, he removed to Queen's
written here, and particularly his Pipe of Tobacco. Square, Ormond Street, London, where he refided till
This is in imitation of Cibber, Ambroſe, Phillips, his death. By his lady, who died 1 763, he had onc
Thomſon, Young, Pope, and Swift, who were then all daughter, grandmother to the preſent Sir Martin-
living ; and is reckoned one of the moſt pleaſing and Brown Folkes, bart. A great number of lively eſſays,
popular of his performances. In 1743-4, he married both in proſe and verſe, the production of his pen, were
the daughter of Dr Trimnell, archdeacon of Leicciter. printed and circulated among his friends. The active
4 2 2
part
credit, it muſt be recorded as the moſt memorable, and indeed aſtoniſhing, event in the reign of George II. that
a tract, compoſed by ſuch a thing, was preſented to the illuſtrious Caroline : his royal confort needs not be ad-
ded: fame, if I am not miſinformed, will tell that with pleaſure to all ſucceeding times. He has been inform-
ed, that your majeſty's piety is as genuine and eminent as your excellent qualities are great and conſpicuous.
This can indeed be truly known to the great Searcher of hearts only. He alone, who can look into them, can
diſcern if they are ſincere, and the main intention correſponds with the appearance ; and your majeſty cannot
take it amiſs if ſuch an author hints, that his ſecret approbation is of infinitely greater value than the commenda-
tion of men, who may be eaſily miſtaken, and are too apt to flatter their ſuperiors. But, if he has been told the
truth, ſuch a caſe as his will certainly ſtrike your majelty with aſtoniſhment; and may raiſe that commiſeration
in your royal breaſt, which he has in vain endeavoured to excite in thoſe of his friends: who, by the moſt un-
reaſonable and ill-founded conceit in the world, have imagined, that a thinking being could for ſeven years to-
gether live a ſtranger to its own powers, exerciſes, operations, and ſtate ; and to what the great God has been
doing in it and to it. If your majeſty, in your moſt retired addreſs to the King of kings, ſhould think of fo fin-
gular a caſe, you may perhaps make it your devout requeſt, that the reign of your beloved ſevereign and confort
may be renowned to all poſterity by the recovery of a foul now in the utmoſt ruin, the reſtoration of one utterly
loſt, at preſent amongſt men. And ſhould this caſe affect your royal breaſt, you will recommend it to the piety
and prayers of all the truly devout, who have the honour to be known to your majeſty : many ſuch doubtleſs
there are, though courts are not uſually the places where the devout reſort, or where devotion reigns. And it
is not improbable, that multitudes of the pious throughout the land may take a caſe to heart, that under your
majeſty's patronage comes thus recommended. Could ſuch a favour as this reſtoration be obtained from heaven
by the prayers of your majeſty, with what tranſport of gratitude would the recovered being throw himſelf
at
your majeſty's feet, and, adoring the divine power and grace, profeſs himſelf, Madam, your majeſty's moſt
obliged and dutiful ſeryant,
SIMON BROWN,
732
A Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
Part II.
Of the
Of the * Sartorius muſcle. ** Pleſhy origin of the tenſorticus major. S, Part of the obliquus internus abdo-
Muſcles. vaginæ fæmoris or membranoſus. Its tendinous apo- minis.
Muſcles,
neuroſis covers(1) the vaſtus externus on the right ſide. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.-Right ſide. T,Deltoides
m11, Patella. n 11, Ligament or tendon from it to the U, Triceps extenſor cubiti. V, Supinator longus.
tibia. 0, Rectus cruris. P, Cruræus. 9 9, The WW, Extenſores carpi radialis longior and brevior.
tibia. r, Part of the Gemellus or gaſtrocnemius ex. X X, Extenſor carpi ulnaris. Y Y, Extenſor digito-
ternus. ŠSS, Part of the ſoleus or gaſtrocnemius rum communis. Z, Abductor indicis. I 2 3, Exten-
internus, t, Tibialis anticus. u, Tibialis poſticus. fores pollicis.
vv, Peronæi muſcles. w w, Extenfor longus digi SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.-Left ſide. a, Supra fpi-
torum pedis. * *, Extenfor longus pollicis pedis. natus. b, Infra-ſpinatus. c, Teres minor. 'd, Te-
y, Abductor pollicis pedis.
res major. e, Triceps extenſor cubiti. ff, Exten-
Fic.2. The Muscles, GLANDS, &c. of the Left Side fores carpi radiales. ġ, Supinator brevis. h, Indica.
of the face and neck, after the common Tegunients
ter. I 23, Extenſores pollicis. i, Abductor minimi
and Platyſma myoides have been taken off.
digiti. k, Interoſſei.
a, The frontal muſcle. b, Temporalis and tempor maximus. m, Part of the Glutæus medius. n, Ten-
INFERIOR EXTREMITY.-Right ſide. 1, Glutæus
ral artery. c, Orbicularis palpebrarum. d, Levator for vaginæ femoris. 0, Gracilis. P p, Abductor fe-
labii ſuperioris alæqui nafi. e, Levator anguli oris.
f, Zygomaticus. g, depreffor labii inferioris. h, De-
moris magnus. q, Part of the vaſtus internus, r, Se-
nimembranoſus.
preſſor anguli oris. i, Buccinator. k, Maſſeter.
s, Semitendinoſus. t, Long head
11, Parotid gland. m, Its duct. n, Sierno-cleido: of the biceps flexor cruris.
of the biceps flexor cruris, uu, Gaſtrocnemius ex-
maſtoidæus.
Soleus
ternus ſeu geniellus. V, Tendo Achillis. w,
0, Part of the trapezius. P, Sterno.
liyoidæus. 4, Sierno-thyroidæus. r, Omo-hyoidæus. brevis. y, Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum
ſeu gaſtrocnemius internus, xx, Peronæus longus and
1, Levator fcapulæ. 1 t, Scaleni, u, Part of the ſple- pedis ;—and under them * flexor brevis digitorum pe.
nius,
dis. z, Abductor minimi digiti pedis.
FIG. 3, The MUSCLES of the Face and Neck in view
INFERIOR EXTREMITY.-Left ſide. m, n, o, PP, ļ,
after the exterior ones are taken away.
9 ", s, t, v, w w, x x, y, z, Point the ſame parts as in
a a, Corrugator ſupercilii
. b. Temporalis. c, Ten- the right ſide. a, Pyriformis. bb, Gemini. cc, Obtu-
don of the levator palpebræ ſuperioris. d, Tendon
rator internus. d, Quadratus femoris. e, Coccygæus.
of the orbicularis palpebrarum. é, Maſſeter. f, Buc- f, The hort head of the biceps flexor cruris. 8 g, Plan-
cinator. g, Levator anguli oris.' h, Depreffór labii taris. h, Poplitæus. i, Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
ſuperioris alæque nafi. i, Orbicularis oris, k, Depreſ- F1G. 2. The Palm of the Left Hand after the com-
for anguli oris. 1, Muſcles of the os hyoides. m, Ster mon Teguments are removed, to ſhow the MUSCLES
no-cleido-maſtoidæus.
of the Fingers.
a, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon
FIG. 4. Some of the MUSCLES of the Os Hyoides of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor
and Submaxillary Gland.
ſublimis perforatus, profundus perforans and lumbri-
a, Part of the maſſeter muſcle. b, Poſterior head cales. d, Abductor policis. e c, Flexor policis lon-
of the digaſtric. c, Its anterior lead. dd, Sterno- gus, f, Flexor policis brevis. g, Palmaris brevis.
hyoidæus. e. Omo-hyoidæus. f, Stylo-hyoidæus. h, Abductor minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum carpian.
g, Submaxillary gland in fitu.
nulare. k, A probe put under the tendons of the flexor
digitorum fublimis; which are performed by l, the
Fig. 5. The Submaxillary Gland and Duct. flexor digitorum profundus. m m m m, Lumbricales.
a, Muſculus mylo-hyoidæus. b, Hyo-gloſſus. C, Sub- n, Abductor pollicis.
maxillary gland extra fitu. d, Its duct.
FIG. 3. A fore-view of the foot and Tendons of the
Flexores Digitorum.
PLATE XXIV.
a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, Upper
Fig. 1. The MUSCLES immediately under the com part of the aſtragalus. c, Os calcis. d, Tendon of
mon teguments on the poſterior part of the body, are the tibialis anticus. e, Tendon of the extenſor polli-
repreſented in the right ſide; and on the left ſide the cis longus. f, Tendon of the peronæus brevis. g,
Muscles are ſeen which come in view when the ex Tendons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the no-
terior ones are taken away.
nus Vefalii. hh, The whole of the flexor digitorum
HEAD.-A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attollens brevis.
C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum.
D, Maffeter. E, Pterygoidæus internus.
FIG. 4. MUSCLES of the Anus.
a a, An out line of the buttocks, and upper part of
TRUNK.-Right ſide. FFF, Trapezius ſeu cucul-
laris. GGGG, Latiflimus dorſi. H, Part of the
the thighs. b, The teſtes contained in the ſcrotum.
cc, Sphincter ani. d, Anus. e, Lévator ani. ff,
obliquus externus abdominis.
TRUNK.-Left ſide. I, Splenius, K, Part of the Erector penis. gg, Accelerator urinæ. h, Corpus
complexus. L, Levator ſcapulæ. M, Rhonboides. cavernofum urethæ.
NN, Seratus pofticus inferior. O, Part of the lon-
FIG. 5. MUSCLES of the Penis.
giltimos dorſi, P, Part of the ſacro-lumbalis. Q, Part a a, b, d, e e, ff, h, point the ſame as in fig. 4.
of the lemi-fpinalis dorſi. R, Part of the ſerratus an c, Sphincter ani. gg, Tranſverſalis penis.
PART
aurem.
}
ANATOMY.
Plate XXII
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Reliet a culp. Phitast.“
Part III.
733
AN A TO MY.
Of thc
Abdomen.
Of the
Abdomena
PART III. OF THE ABDOMEN
OR
LOWER BELL Y.
88.
HE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from the covering from the ſame niembrane, which ſeems to be
lower extremity of the ſternum, or the hollow, a part of the cellular membrane we have already de-
uſually called the pit of the ſtomach, and more pro- ſcribed.
perly Scrobiculus cordis, to the lower part of the The peritoneum, by its productions and reduplica-
trunk.
tions, envelopes the greateſt part of the abdominal
It is diſtinguiſhed into three diviſions called regions ; viſcera. It is ſoft, and capable of conſiderable exten-
of theſe the upper one, which is called the epigaſtric fion; and is kept ſmooth and moiſt by a vapour,
region, begins immediately under the ſternum, and ex which is conſtantly exhaling from its inner ſurface,
tends to within two fingers breadth of the navel, where and is returned again into the circulation by the ab-
the middle or umbilical region begins, and reaches to forbents.
the ſame diſtance below the navel. The third, which This moiſture not only contributes to the ſoftneſs
is called the hypogaftric, includes the reſt of the abdo of the peritonæum, but prevents the attrition, and
men, as far as the os pubis.
other ill effects which would otherwiſe probably be
Each of theſeregions is ſubdivided into three others; occafioned, by the motion of the viſcera upon each
cwo of which compoſe the ſides, and the other the other.
middle part of each region.
When this fluid is ſupplied in too great a quantity,
The middle part of the upper region is called epi or the abſorbents become incapable of carrying it off,
gaſtrium, and its two ſides hypochondria. The middle it accumulates, and conſtitutes an aſcites or dropſy of
part of the next region is the umbilical region, proper. the belly; and when by any means the exhalation is
Iy ſo called, and its two ſides are the flanks, or iliac diſcontinued, the peritonæum thickens, becomes diſ-
regions. Laſtly, the middle part of the lower region eaſed, and the viſcera are ſometimes found adhering to
retains the name of hypogaſtrium, and its ſides are each other.
called inguina or groins. The back part of the abdo The peritonæum is not a very vaſcular membrane.
inen bears the name of lumbar region.
In a ſound ſtate it ſeems to be endued with little or no
Theſe are the diviſions of the lower belly, which feeling, and the nerves that paſs through it appear to
are neceſſary to be held in remembrance, as they fre- belong to the abdominal muſcles.
quently occur in ſurgical and anatomical writing. We
will now proceed to examine the contents of the abdo-
SECT. II. Of the Omentum
men ; and after having pointed out the names and ar-
rangement of the ſeveral viſcera contained in it, de-
THE omentum, epiploon, or cawl, is a double mem-
ſcribe each of them ſeparately.
brane, produced from the peritonæum. It is inter-
After having removed the ſkin, adipoſe membrane, larded with fat, and adheres to the ſtomach, ſpleen,
and abdominal muſcles, we diſcover the peritoneum or duodenum, and colon; from thence hanging down
membrane that envelopes all the viſcera of the lower looſe and floating on the ſurface of the inteſtines. Its
belly. This being opened, the firſt part that preſents ſize is different in different fubjects. In ſome it de-
itſelf is the omentum or cawl, floating on the ſurface ſcends as low as the pelvis, and it is commonly longer
of the inteſtines, which are likewiſe ſeen every where at the left ſide than the right.
looſe and moiſt, and making a great number of cir This part, the ſituation of which we have juſt now
cumvolutions through the whole cavity of the abdo, deſcribed, was the only one known to the ancients un-
men. The ſtomach is placed in the epigaſtrium, and der the name of epiploon; but at preſent we diſtinguiſh
under the ſtomach is the pancreas. The liver fills the three omenta, viz. omentuin magnum colico gaſtricum,
right hypochondrium, and the ſpleen is ſituated in the omentum parvum hepatico gaſtricum, and omentum co-
left. They kidneys are ſeen about the middle of the licum. They all agree in being formed of two very
lumbar region, and the urinary bladder and parts of delicate laminæ, ſeparated by a thin layer of cellular
generation are ſeated in the lower diviſion of the menibrane.
belly.
The omentum magnum colico gaſtricum, of which
we have already ſpoken, derives its arteries from the
SECT. I. Of the Peritoneum.
fplenic and hepatic. Its veins terininate in the vena
portæ. Its nerves, which are very few, come from
The peritonæum is a ſtrong ſimple membrane, by the ſplenic and hepatic plexus.
which all the viſcera of the abdomen are ſurrounded, Theomentum parvum hepatico gaſtricum, abounds
and in ſome meaſure ſupported. Many anatomical leſs with fat than the great epiploon. It begins at the
writers, particularly Winſlow, have deſcribed it as be- upper part of the duodenum, extends along the leſſer
ing compoſed of two diſtinct membranous laminæ curvature of the ſtomach as far as the cefophagus, and
but their deſcription ſeems to be erroneous. What terminates about the neck of the gall-bladder, and be-
perhaps appeared to be a ſecond lamina, being found hind the left ligament of the liver, ſo that it covers
to be fimply a cellular coat, which ſends off produc- the lefſer lobe; near the beginning of which we may
tions to the blood-veſſels paſſing out of the abdominal obſerve a ſmall opening, firſt deſcribed by Window,
mavity. The aorta and vena cava likewiſe derive a through which the whole pouch may calily be diſtend-
ed
89.
j
734
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part III.
91
Of the ed with air (x). The veſſels of the onentuni parvnm
The arteries of the ſtomach called the gaſtric arte Of the
Abdomen. are derived chiefly from the coronary ſtomachicarteries rics are principally derived from the coeliac; ſome Abdomon.
and veins.
of its veins paſs to the ſplenic, and others to the ve-
The omentum colicun begins at the fore part of the na portæ ; and its nerves are chiefly from the eighth
cæcum and right ſide of the colon. It appears as a pair or par vagum.
hollow conical appendage to theſe inteſtines, and uſu The account given of the tunics of the ſtomach may
ally terminates at the back of the omentuni inagnum. be applied to the whole alimentary canal ; for both
It ſeems to be nothing more than a membranous coat the oefophagus and inteſtines are, like this viſcus,
of the cæcum and colon, aſſuming a conical ſhape compoſed of four coats.
when diſtended with air.
Before we deſcribe the courſe of the aliment and
The uſes of the omentum are not yet fatisfactorily the uſes of the ſtomach, it will be neceſſary to ſpeak
determined. Perhaps by its ſoftneſs and looſeneſs it of other parts which aſſiſt in the proceſs of digeſtion.
may ſerve to prevent thoſe adheſions of the abdominal
viſcera, which have been found to take place when the
Sect. IV. Of the oefophagus.
fat uf the omentum has been niuch waſted. Some au.
thors have ſuppoſed, that it aſſiſts in the preparation The oeſophagus or gullot is a membranous and
92
of bile ; but this idea is founded merely on conjecture. muſcular canal, extending from the bottom of the
mouth to the upper orifice of the ſtomach.Its upper
Sect. IIL Of the Stomach.
part where the alinient is receivedis ſhaped ſomewhat
like a funnel, and is called the pharynx,
The ſtomach is a membranous and inuſcular bag, From hence it runs down cloſe to the bodies of the
in ſhape not unlike a bagpipe, lying acroſs the upper vertebræ as far as the diaphragm, in which there is
part of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to the an opening through which it paſſes, and then termi-
left than the right ſide.
nates in the ſtomaclı about the eleventh or twelfth
It has two orifices, one of which receives the end vertebra of the back.
of the cſophagus, and is called the cardia, and ſome The oefophagus is plentifully ſupplied with arteries
times the left and upper orifice of the ſtomach ; though from the external carotid, bronchial, and ſuperior in-
its ſituation is not much higher than the other, which tercoſtal arteries ; its veins empty themſelves into
is ſtyled the right and inferior orifice, and more com the vena azygos, internal jugular, and mammary
monly the pylorus; both theſe openings are more ele- veins, &c.
pated than the body of the ſtomach.
Its nerves are derived chiefly from the eighth pair.
The aliment paſſes down the oefophagus into the We likewiſe meet with a mucus in the æfophagus,
ftomach through the cardia, and after having under which every where lubricates its inner ſurface, and
gone the neceſſary digeſtion, paſſes out at the pylorus tends to aſſiſt in deglutition.--This mucus ſeems to be
where the inteſtinal canal commences,
ſecreted by very minute glands,like the mucus in other
The ſtomach is compoſed of four tunics or coats, parts of the alimentary canal.
which are ſo intimately connected together that it re-
quires no little dexterity in the anatomiſt to demon-
SECT. V. Of the Inteftines.
ftrate them. The exterior one is membranous, being
derived from the peritonæum.--The ſecond is a mul The inteſtines form a canal, which is uſnally fix
93
cular tunic, coin poſed of fiefhy fibres which are in the times longer than the body to which it belongs. This
greateſt number about the two orifices. The third is canal extends froin the pylorus, or inferior orifice of
called the nervous coat, and within this is the villous the ſtomach, to the anus.
or velvet-like coat which compoſes the inſide of the It will be eaſily underſtood, that a part of ſuch great
ſtomach.
length muſt neceſſarily make many circumvolutions,
The two laſt coats being more extenſive than the to be confined with ſo many other viſcera within the
two firſt, forn the folds, which are obſerved every cavity of the lower belly.
where in the cavity of this vifcus, and more particu Although the inteſtines are in fact, as we have ob-
larly about the pylorus ; where they ſeem to impede ferved, only one long and extenſive canal, yet differ-
the too haſty exclufrou of the aliment, making a con ent parts have been diſtinguified by different names.
fiderable plait, called valvula pylori.
The inteſtines are firſt diſtinguiſhed into two parts,
The inner coat is conſtantly moiſtened by a mucus, one of which begins at the ſtomach, and is called the
which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and is thin, or ſmall inteſtines, from the ſmall ſize of the canal
called the gaſtric juice; this liquor has been ſuppoſed when compared with the other part, which is called
to be ſecreted by certain 'minute glands (Y) ſeated in the large inteſtines, and includes the lower portion of
the nervous tunic, whoſe excretory ducts open on the the canal down to the anus.
ſurface of the villous coat.
Each of theſe parts has its ſubdiviſions. The finall
3
in-
(x) This inembranous bag, though excedingly thin and tranſparent, is found capable of ſupporting mercu-
ry, thrown into it by the ſame channel.
(Y) Heiſter, ſpeaking of theſe glands, very properly ſays, “ in porcis facile, in homine raro obſervantur ;"
for although many anatomical writers have deſcribed their appearance and figure, yet they do not ſeem to have
been hitherto ſatisfactorily demonſtrated in the human ftomach ; and the gaſtric juice is now more generally
believed to be derived from the exhalant arteries of the ſtomach.
Part III.
A N A T 0 M
Y.
735
Of the inteſtines being diſtinguished into duodenum, jeju Some authors have conſidered theſe plaits as tending of the
Abdomen. nuin, and ilium, and tlie larger portion into coecun, to retard the motion of ihe fæces, in order to afford Abdomen.
colon, and rectum,
more tiine for the ſeparation of the chyle ; but there
The ſmall inteſtines fill the middle and fore parts of are others who attribute to them a different uſe: they
the belly, while the large inteſtines fill the ſides and contend, that theſe valves, by being naturally inclined
both the upper and the lower parts of the cavity. dowllwards, cannot impede the deſcent of the fæces,
The duodenum, which is the firſt of the ſnall in- but that they are intended to prevent their return up-
teſtines, is ſo called, becauſe it is about 12 inches long. wards.
It begins at the pylorus and terininates in the jejunium, They are probably deſtined for both theſe uſes; for
which is a part of the canal obſerved to be uſually more although theſe folds incline to their lower fide, yet the
empty than the other inteſtines.-This appearance inequalities they occaſion in the canal are ſufficient to
gives it its name, and likewiſe ſerves to point out where retard, in ſome meaſure, the progreſive motion of the
it begins.
fæces, and to afford a greater ſurface for the abſorp-
The next diviſion is the ilium, which of itſelf ex tion of chyle, and their natural poſition ſeems to op-
ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum, poſe itſelf to the return of the aliment.
and has received its name from its numerous circumvo. Beſides theſe valvulæ conniventes, there is one more
lutions. The large circumvolution of the ilium co conſiderable than the reſt, called the valve of the colon;
vers the firſt of the large inteſtines called the cacum(x), which is found at that part of the canal where the in-
which ſeems properly to belong to the colon, being a teftinum ilium is joined to the colon. This valve per-
kind of pouch of about four fingers in width, and near mits the alimentary pulp to paſs downwards, but ſerves
ly of the ſame length, having. exteriorly a little ap to prevent its return upwards; and it is by this valve,
pendix, called appendix cæci.
that glyſters are prevented from paſſing into the ſmall
The cæcum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium inteſtines (x).
on the right ſide, and terminates in the colon, which Of the little vermiform appendix of the cæcum, it
is the largeſt of all the inteſtines.
will be ſufficient to ſay, that its uſes have never yet
This inteſtine aſcends by the right kidney to which been aſcertained. In birds we meet with iwo of theſe
it is attached, paſſes under the hollow part of the liver, appendices.
and the bottom of the ſtomach, to the ſpleen, to which The inteſtines are lubricated by a conſtant ſupply of
it is likewiſe ſecured, as it is alſo to the left kidney; mucus, which is probably ſecreted by very minute fol-
and from thence paſſes down towards the os facruin, licles (2). This mucus promotes the deſcent of the ali-
where, from its ſtraight courſe, the canal begins to mentary pulp, and in ſome meaſure defends the inner
take the name of rectum.
ſurface of the inteſtines from the irritation to which it
There are three ligamentous bands extending thro' would, perhaps, otherwiſe be continually expoſed from
the whole length of the colon, which, by being ſhorter the aliment; and which, when in a certain degree,
than its two inner coats, ſerve to increaſe the plaits on excites a painful diſorder called colie, a name given to
the inner ſurface of this gut.
the diſeaſe, becauſe its moſt uſual feat is in the inteſtia
The anus which terininates the inteliuum rectum, num colon.
is furniſhed with threc muſcles; one of theſe is coin The inteſtines are likewiſe frequently diſtended
poſed of circular fibres, and from its uſe in putting the with air, and this diſtention ſometimes occaſions pain,
paſſage of the anus is called ſphincter ani.
and conſtitutes the flatulent colic.
The other two are the levatores ani, fo called, be The arteries of the inteſtines are continuations of
cauſe they elevate the anus after dejeciion. When the meſenteric arteries, which are derived in two con.
theſe by pally, or ülly other diſeaſe, loſe ihe power of fiderable branches from the sorta. The redundunt
contracting, the anus prolapſes; and when the ſphinc- blood is carried back into the vena portarum.,
ter is affected by ſimilar cauſes, the fæces are voided In the rectuni the veins are called hemorrhoidal, and
involuntarily.
are there diſtinguiſhed into internal and external: the
It has been already obſerved, that the inteſtinai ca- firſt are branches of the inferior meſenterie vein, but
nalis conipoſed of four tanics; but it remains to be re the latter país into other veins. Sometimes tlieſe veins
marked, that here, as in the ſtomach, tieiwo inner to are diftended with blood from ubitructions, from weak..
nics being inore extenlivethan the other two, from the neſs of their coats, or from other cauſes, and what we.
plaits which are to be ſeen in the inner ſurface of the call the hannorrhoids takes place. In this diſeaſe they
inteſtines, and are called valvulus counidentes. are ſometimes ruptured ; and the diſcharge of blood
which,
1
(x) Anatomiſts have differed with reſpect to this diviſion of the inteſtines. The method lere followed is
now generally adopted ; but there are authors who allow the name of cæcum only to the little appendix, which
has likewiſe been called the vermiforin appendix, from its reſemblance to a worm in fize.and length.
(Y) This is not invariably the cafe, for the contents of a glyfter have been found not only to reach the ſmall.
inteſtines, but to be voided at the mouth. Such inſtances, however, are not common.
(z) Some writers have diftinguiihed theſe glands into miliary, lenticular, &c.—Brunner and Peyer were the
firit anatomiſts who deſcribed the glands of the inteſtines, and their deſcriptions were chiefly taken from ani-
mals, theſe glandular appearances not ſeeming to have been hitherto ſatisfactorily pointed out in the human ſub-
jeét.--It is now pretty generally believed, that the mucus which every where lubricates the alimentary canal,
is exhaled from the ininute ends of arteries; and that theſe extremities firſt open into a hollow vehicle, from
whence the depofitcd juice of ſeveral branches flows out through one common orifice.
736
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part IIf.
Of the
Of the which conſequently follows, has probably occafioned To convey an idea of tlie manner in which ſuch a
Abdomen. them to be called hæmorrhoidal voins.
defcenttakes place, it will be neceſſary to obſerve, that Abdomen.
The nerves of the inteſtines are derived from the the lower edge of the tendon of the muſculus obliquus
eighth pair.
externus, is ſtretched from the fore-part of the os ilium
or haunch bone of the os pubis, and conſtitutes what is
SECT. VI. Of the Meſentery.
called Poupart's or Fallopius's ligament, formning ail
opening, through which paſs the great crural artery
94. The name of the meſentery implies its ſituation and vein. Near the os pubis the ſame tendinous fibres
amidſt the inteſtines. It is in fact a part of the perilo- are ſeparated from cach other, and form an opening on
næum, being a reduplication (A) of that membrane each lide, called the abdominal ring, through which
from each ſide of the lumbar vertebræ, to which it is the ſpermatic veſſels paſs in men, and the ligamenta
firmly attached, ſo that it is formed of two laminæ, uteri in women. In conſequence of violent efforts, or
connected to each other hy cellular membrane. perhaps of natural cauſes, the inteſtines are found ſome-
The inteſtines, in their different circumvolutions, times to paſs through theſe openings; but the perico-
form a great number of arches, and the meſentery ac næum which incloſes then when in their natural ca-
companies them through all theſe turns ; but by being viry, ſtill continues to ſurround them even' in their
altached only to the hollow part of each arch, it is deſcent.
deſcent. This membrane does not become torn or
found to have only a third of the extent of the inteſ- lacerated by the violence, as might be eaſily imagin
tines,
ed; but its dilatability enables it to paſs out with
the
That part of this membrane which accompanies the viſcus, which it incloſes as it were in a bag, and thus
ſmall inteſtines is the meſentery, properly ſo called; but forms what is called the hernial fac.
thoſe parts of it which are attached to the colon and If the hernia be under Poupart's ligament, il is call-
rectum are diſtinguiſhed by the names of mefo-colon and ed femoral; if in the groin, inguinal (B); and ſcro-
mefo-rectum.
tai, if in the ſcrotum. Different names are likewiſe
There are many conglobate glands diſperſed thro" given to the hernia as the contents of the fac differ,
this double membrane, through which the lacteals and whether of omentum only or inteſtine, or both:-but
lymphatics paſs in their way to the thoracic duct. The theſe definitions niore properly belong to the province
blood-veſſels of the meſentery were deſcribed in ſpeak- of ſurgery.
ing of the inteſtines.
This meinbrane, by its attachment to the vertebræ,
Sect. VII. Of the Pancreas.
ſerves to keep the inteſtines in their natural ſituation.
The idea uſually formed of the colic called miſerere, is The pancreas is a conglomerate gland placed be 15.
perfectly erroneous; it being impoſſible that the in-hind the bottom of the ſtomach, towards the firſt ver-
teſtines can be twiſted, as many ſuppoſe they are, in tebra of the loins; ſhaped like a dog's tongue, with
that diſeaſe, their attachment to the meſentery effec- ils point ſtretched out towards the ſpleen, and its other
tually preventing ſuch an accident-but a diſarrange- end extending towards the duodenum. It is about
ment ſometimes takes place in the inteſtinal canal itſelf, eight fingers breadth in length, two or three in width,
which is productive of diſagreeable and ſometimes fatal and one in thickneſs.
conſequences. This is by an introfufception of the in This viſcus, which is of a yellowiſh colour, fome-
teſtine, an idea of which may be eaſily formed, by what inclined to red, is covered with a membrane
taking the finger of a glove, and involving one part of which it derives from the peritonæurn. Its arteries,
it within the other.
which are rather nunierous than large, are derived
If inflammation takes place, the ſtricture in this caſe chiefly from the ſplenic and hepatic, and its veins paſs
is increaſed, and the periſtaltic motion of the inteſtines into the veins of the ſame name.--Its nerves are de-
(by which is meant the progreſſive motion ofthe fæces rived from the intercoſtal.
downwards) is inverted, and what is called the iliac
The many little glands of which it has been obſerved
paſion takes place. The ſame effets may be occaſioned the pancreas is compoſed, all ſerve to ſecrete a liquor
by a deſcent of the inteſtine, or of the omentum either called the pancreatic juice, which in its colour, contiſt-
with it or by itſelf, and thus-conſtituting what is called ence, and other properties, does not ſeem to differ from
an hernia or rupture; a term by which in general is the ſaliva. Each of theſe glands ſends out a little ex-
meant the falling down or protruſion of any part of the cretory duct, which, uniting with others, help to form
inteſtine or omentum, which ought naturally to be larger ducts; and all theſe at laſt terminate in one
contained within the cavity of the belly.
common excretory duct (firſt diſcovered by Virtſungus
in
T
2
(A) He who only reads of the reduplication of membranes, will perhaps not eaſily underſtand how the peri-
tonæum and pleura are reficeed over ihe viſcera in their ſeveral cavities; for one of theſe ſerves the ſame pur-
poſes in the thorax that the other does in the abdomen. This diſpoſition, for the diſcovery of which we are
indebted to modern anatomiſts, conſtitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge: but the ſtudent, unaided
by experience, and aſſiſted only by what the limits of this work would permit us to ſay on the occaſion, would
probably imbibe only confuſed ideas of the matter ; and it will perfectly anſwer the preſent purpoſe, if he con-
liders the meſentery as a membrane attached by one of its fides to the lumbar vertebræ, and by the other to
the inteſtines.
(B) The hernia congenita will be confidered with the male organs of generation, with which it is intimately
connected.
)
Part IIS.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
737
Of the
Of the
in 1642), which runs through the middle of the gland, from the maſs of blood, in a manner of which mention
Abdomen, and is now uſually called ductus pancreaticus Virtjungi
. will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this Abdomell
.
This canal opens into the inteſtinum duodenum, ſome organ by very minute excretory ducts, called poribi-
tines by the ſame orifice with the biliary duct, and liarii ; theſe uniting together like the excretory ducts
fümetimes by a diſtinct opening. The liquor it diſ in the pancreas, gradually form larger ones, which at
charges being of a mild and inſipid nature, ſerves to length terminate in a conſiderable canal called ductus
dilute the alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more hepaticus.
eaſily with the bile.
SECT. IX. Of the Gall-Bladder.
Sect. VIII. Of the Liver.
The gall-bladder is a little membranous bag, ſhaped 97.,
06.
The liver is a viſcus of conſiderable ſize, and of a like a pear, and attached to the poſterior and almoſt
reddiſh colour; convex ſuperiorly and anteriorly where inferior part of the great lobe of the liver.
it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and of an It has two tunics,
of which the exterior one is a pro-
unequal ſurface poſteriorly. It is chiefly ſituated in duction of the peritonæum. The interior, or villous
the right hypochondrium, and under the falſe ribs ; coat, is ſupplied with a mucus that defends it from the
but it likewiſe extends into the epigaſtric region, where acrimony of the bile. Theſe two coverings are inti-
-it borders upon the ſtomach. It is covered by a pro- mately connected by means of cellular membrane,
duction of the peritonæum, which ſerves to attach it which from its firm
gliſtening appearance has gene-
by three of its reduplications to the falſe ribs. Theſe rally been ſpoken of as a muſcular tunic.
reduplications are called ligaments, though very differ The gall-bladder is ſupplied with blood-veſſels from
cnt in their texture from what are called by the ſame the hepatic arteries. Theſe branches are called the
name in other parts of the body. The umbilical cord, cyſtic arteries, and the cyſtic veins carry back the
too, which in the fætas is previous, gradually becomes blood.
a ſimple ligament after birth ; and, by paſſing to the Its nerves are derived from the ſame origin as thoſe
liver, ſerves likewiſe to ſecure it in its fituation. of the liver,
At the poſterior part of this organ where the umbi The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in the
lical veſſels enter, it is found divided into two lobes. form of a canal called
duétus cyſticus, which foon unites
Of theſe, the largeſt is placed in the right hypochon with the ductus hepaticus we deſcribed as the excre-
drium ; the other, which covers part of the ſtomach, tory duct of the liver ; and forming one common canal,
is called the little lobe. All the veſſels which go to takes the name of duftus coledochus communis, through
che liver paſs in at the fillure we have mentioned ; and which both the cyſtic and hepatic bile are diſcharged
the production of the peritonæum, which inveſts the into the duodenum. This canal opens into the inte-
liver, was deſcribed by Gliffon, an Engliſh anatomiſt, ftine in an oblique direction, firſt paſſing through the
as accompanying them in their paſſage, and ſurround exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats after
ing them like a glove; hence this production has been running between each of them à
running between each of them a very little way. This
commonly known by the name of capſula of Gliffon : æconomy ſerves two uſeful purpoſes ;--[o promote the
but it appears to be chiefly a continuation of the cellu- diſcharge of bile and to prevent its return.
98
lar membrane which covers the vena porta ventralis. The bilc may be defined to be a natural liquid ſoap, of the bile.
The liver was conſidered by the ancients as an organ ſomewhat unctuous and bitter, and of a yellowiſh co-
defined to prepare and perfect the blood ; but later lour, which eaſily mixes with water, oil, and vinous
diſcoveries have proved, that this opinion was wrong, ſpirits, and is capable of diffolving relinous ſubſtances.
and that the liver is a glandular ſubſtance formed for From fome late experiments made by M. Cadet*, it Memide
the ſecretion of the bile.
appears to be formed of an animal oil, combined with l'Acad. des
The blood-is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic the alkaline baſe of ſea-ſalt, a falt of the nature of Scienees.
artery and the vena porta. This is contrary to the milk, and a calcareous earth which is ſlightly ferra 5767
mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only ginous.
ſerve to carry off the redundant blood : but in this vil Its definition ſeems ſufficiently to point out the uſos
cus the hepatic artery, which is derived from the cæ for which it is intended (c). It blends the alimenta-
liac, is principally deſtined for its nouriſhment; and ry maſs, by dividing and attenuating it ; corrects the
the vena porta, which is formed by the union of the too great diſpoſition to aceſcency, which the aliment
veins from most of the abdominal viſcera, furniſhes the acquires in the ſtomach ; and, finally, by its acrimo-
blood from which the bile is chiefly to be ſeparated ; ny, tends to excite the periſtaltic motion of the in-
ſo that theſe two ſeries of veſſels ſerve very diſtinct teſtines.
purpoſes. The vena porta, as it is ramified through the After what has been ſaid, it will be conceived that
liver, performs the office both of a vein and an artery; there are two ſorts of bile; one of which is derived
for like the former it returns the blood from the ex. immediately from the liver through the hepatic duct,
tremities of arteries, while as the latter it prepares it and the other from the gall-bladder. Theſe two bilesh
for ſecretion.
however, do not effentially differ from each other.
The nerves of the liver are branches of the interco. The hepatic bile indeed is milder,and more liquid than
Atal and par vagum. The bile, after being ſeparated the cyſtic, which is conſtantly thicker and yellower ;
VOL. I.
5 A
and
(c) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the real uſe of the liver, conſidered the bile as an excre-
mentitious and uſeleſs fluid.
738
Part III.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
aorta.
of the and by being bitterer, ſeems to poſſeſs greater activi atra bilis. Havers, who wrote profeſſedly on the bones, Of the
Abdomen. ty than the other,
deteririned its uſe to be that of fecreting the ſynovia; Abdomen.
Every body knows the fource of the hepatic bile, and the late Mr Hewſon imagined, that it concurred
that it is ſecreted from the maſs of blood by the liver; with the thymus and lymphatic glands of the body in
but the origin of the cyſtic bile has occaſioned no little forming the red globules of the blood. All theſe opi-
controverſy amongſt anatomical writers. There are nions ſeem to be equally ſanciful. The want of an
ſome who contend, that it is ſeparated in the ſubſtance excretory duct has occaſioned thereal uſe of this viſcus
of the liver, from whenceit palles into the gall-bladder to be ſtill doubtful. Perhaps the blood undergoes
through particular veſſels. In deer, and in ſome other ſome change in it, which may aſſiſt in the preparation
quadrupeds, as well as in ſeveral birds and fiſhes, there of the bile. This is the opinion of the generality of
is an evident communication, by means of particular modern phyſiologiſts; and the great quantity of blood
veſſels, between the liver and the gall-bladder, Bian- with which it is ſupplied, together with the courſe of
chi, Winſlow, and others, have aſſerted the exiſtence its veins into the vena portæ, ſeem to render this no-
of ſuch veſſels in the human ſubject, and named them tion probable.
hepaticyſtic ducts; but it is certain that no ſuch ducts
exiſt. In obſtructions of the cyſtic duct, the gall. SECT. XI. Of the Glandula Renales, Kidneys, and
bladder has been found ſhrivelled and empty : ſo that
Ureters.
we may conſider the gall-bladder as a reſervoir of he-
patic bile ; and that it is an oſtabliſhed fact, that the THE glandulæ renales, which were by the ancients
whole of the bile contained in the gall-bladder is de- ſuppoſed to ſecrete the atra bilis, and by them named
rived from the liver ; that it paſſes from the hepatic to caffula atrabilares, are two fiat bodies of an irregular
the cyſtic duct, and from that to the gall-bladder. figure, one on each ſide between the kidney and the
The difference in the colour, conſiſtence, and talte of
the bile, is merely the conſequence of ſtagnation and In the fætus they are as large as the kidneys : but
abſorption. When the ſtomach is diftended with ali- they do not increaſe afterwards in proportion to thoſe
ment, this reſervoir undergoes a certain degree of parts; and in adults and old people they are generally
compreſſion, and the bile paſſes out into the inteſtinal found thrivelled, and much waſted. They have their
canal ; and in the efforts to vomit, the gall-bladder arteries and veins. Their arteries uſually ariſe from
ſeems to be conſtantly affected, and at ſuch times diſ. the ſplenic or the emulgent, and ſometimes from the
charges itſelf of its contents.
aorta; and their veins go to the neighbouring veins,
Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall-bladder, ſo or to the vena cava. Their nerves are branches of
as to form what are called gall.fones (D). When the intercoſtal.
theſe concretions paſs into the cyſtic duè, they ſome The uſe of theſe parts is not yet perfectly known.
times occaſion exquiſite pain, by diſtending the canal in the fætus the ſecretion of urine muſt be in a very
in their way to the duodenum ; and by lodging in the fmall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps
ductus choledochus communis, and obſtructing the then paſs through theſe channels, which in the adult
coorſe of the bile, this fluid will be abforbed, and by is carried to the kidneys to ſupply the matter of urine.
Being carried back into the circulation occaſion a teni The kidneys are two in number, ſituated one on the
porary jaundice.
right and the other on the left ſide in the lumbar re. Kidneje.
gion, between the laſt falſe rib and the os iliun, by
Sect. X. Of the Spleen.
the ſides of the vertebræ. Each kidney in its figure
reſembles a ſort of bean, which from its ſhape is called
996 The fpleen is a ſoft and ſpongy vifcus, of a bluiſh kidney-bean. The concave part of each kidney is
colour, and about five or fix fingers breadth in length, turned towards the aorta and vena cava aſcendens.
and three in width, ſituated in the left hypochondrium, They are ſurrounded by a good dealof fat, and receive
between the ſtomach and the falſe ribs. That ſide of a coatfrom the peritonæum ; and when this is renioved,
it which is placed on the ſide of the ribs is convex; and a very fine membrane is found inveſting their ſubſtance
the other, which is turned toward the ſtomach, is and the veſſels which ramify through them.
Each kidney has a conſiderable artery and vein,
The ſplenic artery, which is a branch from the cæ- which are called the emulgent. The artery is a branch
liac, fupplies this viſcus with blood, and a vein of the from the aorta, and the vein paſſes into the vena cava.
fame name carries it back into the vena porta. Their nerves, which every where accompany the
Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus called blood-veſſels, ariſe from a conſiderable plexus, which
the ſplenic, which is formed by branches of the inter- is derived from the intercoſtal.
coſtal nerve, and by the eighth pair, or par vagum. In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty
Theancients, who ſuppoſed two ſorts of bile, confi- firm texture, there are chree ſubſtances to be diſtin.
dered the ſpleen as the receptacle of what they called guiſhed (E). The outer part is glandular or cortical,
heyond
lor
concave,
(D) Theſe concretions fometimes remain in the gall-bladder without cauſing any uneaſineſs. Dr Heberden
relates, that a gall-ſtone weighing two drams was found in the gall-bladder of the late Lord Bath, though he
had never complained of the jaundice, nor of any diſorder which he could attribute to that cauſe. Med.
Trans. Vol.ii.
(E) The kidneys in the fætus arc diftin&tly lobulated; but in the adult they become perfectly firm, finooth
and regular.
}
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ Τ ο Μ Y.
739
Of the
102
of the beyond this is the vaſcular or tubular ſubſtance, and is diſtended in a certain degree, it excites in us a cer-
Abdomen. the inner part is papillary or membranous.
tain ſenſation, which brings on as it were a voluntary
Abdomen,
It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fe contraction of the bladder to promote its diſcharge.
cretion is carried on; the urine being here received But this contraction is not effected by the muſcular
from the minute extremities of the capillary arteries, fibres of the bladder alone: for all the abdominal muſcles
is conveyed out of this cortical ſubſtance by an infinite contract inobedience to our will, and preſs downwards
number of very ſmall cylindrical canals or excretory all the viſcera of the lower belly; and theſe powers
veſſels, which conſtitute the tubular part. Theſe being united, at length overcome the reſiſtance of the
tubes, as they approach the inner ſubſtance of the kid- fibres ſurrounding the neck of the bladder, which di-
neys, gradually unite together; and thus forming lar- lates and affords a paſſage to the urine through the
ger canals, at length terminate in ten or twelve little urethra.
protuberances called papilla, the orifices of which may The frequency of this evacuation depends on the
be ſeen without the aſſiſtance of glaſſes. Theſe pan quantity of urine ſecreted ; on the degree of acrimony
pillæ open into a ſmall cavity or reſerveir called the it poſleſſes; on the ſize of the bladder, and on its de-
pelvis of the kidney, and formed by a diſtinct membra- grce of ſenſibility.
nous bag which embraces the papillæ. From this pel-
The urinc varies much in its colour and contents.
is the urine is conveyed through a membranous canal Theſe varieties depend, on age, ſex, climate, diet, and
which paſſes out from the hollow ſide of the kidney, a other circumſtances. In infants it is generally a clear ,
little below che blood veſſels, and is called ureter. watery fluid, without ſmell or taſte. As we advance ir
Ureters, The ureters are each about as large as a common life, it acquires more colour and ſmell, and becomes.
writing-pen. They are ſomewhat curved in their more impregnated with ſalts. In old people it becomes
courſe from the kidneys, like theletterſ, and at length ſtill more acrid and fetid.
terminate in the poſterior and almoſt inferior part of In a healthy ſtate it is nearly of a ſtraw colour
the bladder, at fome diſtance from each other. They After being kept for fome time, it depoſites a tarta-
paſs into the bladder in the ſame manner as the ductus rous matter, which is found to be compoſed chicfly of
choledochus communis paſſes into the inteſtinum duo- earth and ſalt, and foon incruſts the ſides of the veſſel
denum, not by a direct paſſage, but by an oblique in which it is contained. While this ſeparation is ta-
courſe between the two coats ; ſo that the diſcharge king place, appearances like minute fibres or threads
of urine into the bladder is promoted, whilſt its return of a whitiſh colour may be ſeen in the middle of the
is prevented. Nor does this mode of ſtructure prevent urine, and an oily ſcum obſerved floating on its furface
the paſſage of fuids only from the bladder into the So that the nioſt common appearances of the urine
ureters, but likewiſe air :—for air thrown into the are ſufficient to aſcertain that it is a watery ſub-
bladder inflates it, and it continues to be diſtended if ſtance, impregnated with earthy, ſaline, and oily par-
a ligature is paſſed round its neck; which ſeems to ticles.
prove ſufficiently that it cannot paſs into the ureters. The urine is not always voided of the ſame colour
and conſiſtence; for theſe are found to depend on the
SECT. XII Of the Urinary Bladder. proportion of its watery part to that of its other con-
ſtituent principles.-Ils colour and degree of fluidity
103.
The urinary bladder is a membranous and muſcular ſeem to depend on the quantity of faline and inflani-
bag of an oblong roundill Mape, ſituated in the pelvis, mable particles contained in it: ſo that an increa-
between the os pubis and inteſtinum rectum in men, fed proportion of thoſe parts will conſtantly give the
and between ihe os pubis and uterus in women. Its urine a higher colour, and add to the quantity of le-
upper and wideſt part is uſually called the bottom, its diment.
narrow part the neck of the bladder ; the former only The variety in the appearance of the urine, depende
is covered by the peritoneum.
on the nature and quantity of ſolid and fluid alinient
The bladder is formed of three coats, connected to we takc in; and it is likewiſe occaſioned by the diffe-
gether by means of cellular membrane. The exter rent ſtate of the urinary veſſels, by which we mean the
nal or peritonæal, is only a partial one, covering the channels through which it is ſeparated from the blood,
upper and back part of the bladder. The middle, or and conveyed through the pelvis into the ureters. The
muſcular coat, is compoſed of irritable, and of courſe cauſes of calculòus concretions in the urinary paſſages,
muſcular fibres, which are moſt collected around the are to be looked for in the natural conſtitution of thc
ncck of the bladder, but not ſo as to form a diſtin& body, mode of life, &c.
muſcle, or ſphincter, as the generality of anatomiſts It having been obſerved, that after drinking any
have liitherto ſuppoſed.
light wine or Spa water, it very foon paſſed off by
The inner coat, though much ſmoother, has been urine, it has been ſuppoſed by ſome, that the urine is
ſaid to reſemble the villous tunic of the inteſtines, and not altogether conveyed to the bladder by the ordinary
like that is provided with a mucus which defends it courſe of circulation, but that there muſt certainly ex-
againſt the acrimony of the urine.
iſt ſome other ſhorter means of communication, per-
Of the
It will be eaſily conceived from what has been ſaid, haps by certain veſſels between the ſtomach and the
uripe. that the kidneys are two glandular bodies, thro'which bladder, or by a retrograde motion in the lymphatics,
a faline and excrementitious fluid called urine is con But it is certain, that if we open the belly of a dog,
Atantly filtering from the maſs of blood.
preſs out the urine from the bladder, paſs a ligature
While only a ſmall quantity of urine is collected in round the emulgent arteries, and then ſew up the ab-
the bladder, it excites no kind of uneaſineſs; but when domen, and give him even the moſt diuretic liquor to
a greater quantity is accumulated, ſo that the bladder drink, the ſtomach and other channels will be diftend-
SA 2
cd
IO4
740
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ ο Μ
M Y.
1
105.
Of the ed with it, but not a drop of urine will be found to fide of the mouth, and which makes at its inferior of the
Abdomen. have paſſed into the bladder; or the ſame thing hap- part towards its baſis a reduplication called franuni. Abdomen.
pens when a ligature is thrown round the two ureters. Poſteriorly, under the velum palati, and at the baſis
This experiment then ſeems to be a ſufficient proof, of the tongue, is the pharyx: which is the beginning
that all the urine we evacuale, is conveyed to the kid- of the oeſophagus, ſtretched out every way, ſo as to re-
neys through the emulgent arteries, in the manner we ſemble the top of a funnel, through which the aliment
have deſcribed. It is true, that wine and other liquors paſſes into the ſtomach.
promote a ſpeedy evacuation of urine : but the dif The mouth has a communication with the noſtrils at
charge ſeems to be merely the effect of the ſtimulus its poſterior and upper part ; with the cars, by the Eu-
they occaſion ; by which the bladder and urinary parts ſtachian tubes; with the lungs, by means of the la-
are ſolicited to a more copious diſcharge of the urine, rynx; and with the ſtomach, by means of the ſo-
which was before in the body, and not immediately phagus.
of tbat which was laſt drank ; and this increaſed dil The pharynx is conſtantly moiſtened by a fluid, ſe-
charge, if the ſupply is kept up, will continue : nor creted by two conſiderable glands called the tonfils, one
will this appear wonderful, if we conſider the great on each ſide of the velum palati. Theſe glands, from
capacity of the veſſels that go to the kidueys; the con their ſuppoſed reſemblance to almonds, have likewiſe
ſtant ſupply of freſh blood that is eſſential to health ; been called amygdalus.
and the rapidity with which it is inceſſantly circula The mouth is moiſtened by a conſiderable quantity
ted through the heart to all parts of the body. of ſaliva. This fluid is derived from the parotid glands;
a name which by its etymology points out their litua-
SECT. XIII. Of Digeſtion.
tion to be near the ears. They are two in number, onc
on each lide under the os malæ : and they are of the con-
We are now proceeding to ſpeak of digeftion, which glomerate kind; being forıncd of many ſmaller glands,
ſeems to be introduced in this place with propriety, each of which ſends out a very ſmall excretory duct,
after a deſcription of the abdominal vifcera, the greater which unites with the reſt, to form one common chan-
part of which contribute to this function. By dige- nel, that runs over the cheek, and piercing the bucci-
Nion is to be underſtood, the changes the aliment un nator muſcle, opens into the mouth on each ſide, by
dergoes for the formation of chyle:-theſe changes an orificeinto which a briſtle may be eaſily introduced.
are effected in the mouth, ſtomach, and ſmall in. -Beſides theſe, the maxillary glands, which are placed
teſtines.
ncar the inner ſurface of the angle of the lower jaw
The mouth, of which every body has a general on each ſide; the fublingual glands, which are ſitua-
knowledge, is the cavity between the twojaws, forned ted at the root of the tongue; the glands of the pa-
anteriorly and laterally by the lips, teeth, and cheeks, late, which are feated in the velum palati ; and thoſe
and terminating poſteriorly in the throat.
of the cheeks, lips, &c. together with many other leſs
The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and muſcles, conſiderable ones,pour the faliva into the mouth
covered by the cuticle, which is continued over the through their ſeveral excretory ducts.
whole inner ſurface of the mouth, like a fine and deli. The faliva, like all the other humours of the body,
cate membrane.-Beſide this membrane, the inſide of is found to be different in different people: but in ge-
the mouth is furniſhed with a ſpongy and very vaſcular neral, it is a limpid and inſipid fluid, without ſmell in
ſubſtance called the gums, by means of which the healthy ſubjects ; and theſe properties would ſeem to
teeth are ſecured in their ſockets. A ſímilar ſubſtance prove that it contains very few ſaline or infanınable
covers the roof of the month, and forms what is called particles.
the velum pendulum palati, which is fixed to the ex The uſes of the ſaliva ſeem to be to moiſten and
tremity of the arch formed by the oſſa maxillaria and lubricate lhe mouth, and to alliſt in reducing the ali-
oſſa palati, and terminates in a ſoft, ſmall, and coni. ment into a ſoft pulp before it is conveyed into the ſto-
cal body, named uvula; which appears, as it were, mach.
1.6
ſuſpended from the middle of the arch over the baſis The variety of functions which are conſtantly per- of hunger
of the tongue.
formed by the living body, muſt neceſſarily occalion a and thirſt.
The veluin pendulum palati performs the office of a continual waſte and diſſipation of its ſeveral paris. A
valve between the cavity of the mouth and the pha. great quantity is every day thrown off by the infen-
rynx, being moved by ſeveral muſcles (F).
fible perfpiration and other diſcharges; and were not
The tongue is compoſed of ſeveral muſcles (G) which theſe loffes conſtantly recruited by a freſh fupply of
enable it to perform a variety of motions for the arti. chyle, the body would ſoon effect its own diſſolution.
culation of the voice ; for the purpoſes of maſtication; But nature has very wiſely favoured us with organs fit-
and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx. Its ted to produce ſuch a fupply: and has at the ſame time
upper part is covered with papillæ, which conſtitute endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirſt, that
the organ of taſte, and are eaſily to be diſtinguiſhed; pur attention may not be diverted from the neceſſary
it is covered by the ſame membrane that lines the in. buſineſs of nutrition. The ſenſation of hunger is uni-
verſally
(F) Theſe are the circumflexus palati, levator palati mollis, palato-pharyngæus conſtrictor iſthmi faucium,
and azygos uvulæ. See page 714.
(6) Theſe are, the genio-gloſſus, hyo-gloſſus, lingualis, and ſty.lo-gloſſus. See pago 7141
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
741
tion und
of the verſally known; but it would perhaps be difficult to ſmall and very elaſtic cartilage, called epiglottis, which of the
Abdomen, deſcribe it perfectly in words. It may, however, be is attached only to the fore-part of the larynx; ſo that Abdomen.
defined to be a certain uneaſy ſenſation in the ſtomach, the food in its paſſage to the cſophagus preſſes down
which induces us to wiſh for ſolid food ; and which this cartilage, which then covers the glottis or opening
likewiſe ſeryes to point out the proper quantity, and of the larynx; and at the ſame time the velum palati
time for taking it. In deſcribing the ſtomach, men being capable of ſome degree of motion, is drawn
tion was made of the gaſtric juice, as every where lu backwards by its muſcles, and cloſes the openings in-
bricating its inner coat. This humour mixes itſelf - to the noſe and the Euſtachian tubes.—This, however,
with the aliment in the ſtomach, and helps to prepare is not all. The larynx, which being compoſed of car-
it for its paſſage into the inteſtines; but when the ſto. tilaginous rings, cannot fail in its ordinary ſtate të
mach is perfectly empty, this ſamc fluid irritates the compreſs the nembranous canal of the ceſophagus, is
coats of the ſtomach itſelf, and produces the ſenſation in the act of deglutition carried forwards and upwards
of hunger.
by muſcles deſtined for that purpoſe ; and conſequent-
A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required ly drawing the fore-part of the pharynx with it, that
to aſſiſt in the progreſs of digeſtion, and to afford that opening is fully dilated. When the aliment has reach-
moiſture to the body, of which there is ſuch a conſtant ed the pharyx, its deſcent is promoted by its own
diſſipation.-Thirſt induces us to take this neceſſary proper weight, and by the muſcular fibres of the cero-
ſupply of drink; and the ſeat of this ſenſation is in the phagus, which continue to contract from above down-
tongue, fauces, and oeſophagus, which from their wards until the aliment has reached the ſtomach. That
great ſenſibility are required to be kept moiſt : for theſe fibres have noinconſiderable ſhare in deglutition,
though the fauces are naturally moiſtened by the mu any perſon may experience, by ſwallowing with his
cus and ſalival juices ; yet the blood, when deprived of head downwards, when the deſcent of the aliment can.
its watery part or rendered acrimonious by any natural not poſſibly be effected by its weight.
cauſes, never fails particularly to affect theſe parts, and It is neceflary that the noſtrils and the lungs ſhould
the whole alimentary canal, and to occaſion thirſt.. communicate with the mouth, for the purpoſes of ſpeech
This is the common effect of fevers and of hard labour, and reſpiration : but if the moſt minute part of our:
by both which too much of the watery part of the blood food happens to be introduced into the trachea, it ne.
is diſſipated.
ver fails to produce a violent cough, and ſometimes the
107
Of maſtica.
It has been obſerved, that the aliment undergoes moſt alarming ſymptoms.
moſt alarming, fymptoms. This is liable to happen
ſome preparation in the mouth before it paſſes into the when we laugh or ſpeak in the act of deglutition ;
deglutition, ſtomach ; and this preparation is the effect of maſtica the food is then ſaid to have paſſed the wrong way.
tion. In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men And indeed this is not improperly expreſſed : for
tion was made of the number and arrangement of the death would ſoon follow, if the quantity of aliment
teeth. The upper jaw was deſcribed as being immove. introduced into the trachea ſhould be fufficient to ob-
able ; but the lower jaw was ſpoken of as being ca ſtruct the reſpiration only during a very ſhort time ; or
pable of elevation and depreſſion, and of a grinding if the irritating particles of food ſhould not foon be
motion. The aliment, when firſt carried into the thrown up again by means of a cough, which in theſe
mouth, is preſled between the teeth of the two jaws caſes very ſeaſonably increaſes in proportion to the de-
by a very ſtrong and freqnent motion of the lower
grce of irritation.
law; and the congue and the cheeks aſſiſting in this If the velum palati did not cloſe the paſſage to the
proceſs, continue to replace the food becween the noſtrils,deglutition would be performed with difficulty,
teeth till it is perfectly divided, and reduced to the and perhaps not at all ; for the aliment would return
conſiſtence of pulp. The inciſores and canini divide through the noſe, as is ſometimes the caſe in drinking.
it firſt into ſmaller pieces, but it is between the ſur- Children, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have
faces of the dentes molares by the grinding motion of been ſeen to die a few hours after birth ; and they who
the jaw that the maſtication is completed.
from diſeaſe or any other cauſes have not this part per-
During this proceſs, the falival glands being gently fect, ſwallow with difficulty.
compreſſed by the contraction of the muſcles that
The aliment, after having been ſufficiently divided
move the lower jaw, pour out their ſaliva: this helps by the action of the teeth, and attenuated by the ſali..
to divide and break down the food, which at length va, is received into the ſtoniach, where it is deſtined
becomes a kind of pulp, and is then carried over the to undergo a more conſiderable change,
baſis of the tongue into the fauces. But to effect this The properties of the aliment not being much alter-
paffage into the crophagus,it is neceſſary that the other ed at its firſt entrance into the ftomach, and before it
openings which were mentioned as having a coinmu. is thoroughly blended with the gaſtricjuice, is capable
nication with the mouth as well as the pharynx, ſhould of irritating the inner coat of the ſtomach to a certain
be cloſed; that none of the aliment, whether folid or degree, and occaſions a contraction of its two orifices,
liquid, may paſs into them, whilſt the pharynx alone is In this membranous bag, ſurrounded by the abdo-
dilated to receive it :- And ſuch a diſpoſition actually minal viſcera, and with a certain degree of natural.
takes place in a manner we will endeavour to deſcribe. heat, the aliment undergoes a conſtant agitation by
The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through which means of the abdominal muſcles and of the diaphragm,,
the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed before the and likewile by a certain contraction or expanſion of
oeſophagus in the act of ſwallowing; therefore, if the muſcular fibres of the ſtomach itſelf. By this mo-
the larynx (for fo the upper part of the trachea is call tion, every part of the food is expoſed to the action of
ed) is not cloſed, the aliment will paſs into it in its the gaſtric juice, which gradually divides and attenuates ,
way to the æſophagus. But this is prevented by a it, and prepares it for its paffage into the inteſtines.
Some
و
742
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part III.
Of the
Of the
1
Some obſervations lately publiſhed by Mr Hun- ticles remain in the ſtomach, till they acquire a ſuffi-
Abdomen. ter in the Philoſophical Tranſactions, tend to throw cient fluidity to paſs into the inteſtines, where the na- Abdomen,
conſiderable light on the principles of digeſtion. There ture of the chymusis perfectly changed. The bile and
are few dead bodies in which the ſtomach, at its great pancreatic juice which flow into the duodenum, and
end, is not found to be in ſome degree digeſted (H). the mucus, which is every where diſtilled from the ſur-
Animals, or parts of animals, poſſeſſed of the living face of the inteſtines, mix themſelves with the alimen.
principle, when taken into the stomach, are not in the lary pulp,which they ſtill farther attenuate and diſſolve,
leaſt affected by the action of that viſcus; but the mo and into which they ſeem to infuſe new properties.
ment they loſe the living principle, they become ſub Two matters very different from each other in their
ject to its digeſtive powers. This ſeems to be the caſe nature and deſtination, are the reſult of this combina-
with the ſtomach, which is enabled to reſiſtthe action tion. One of theſe, which is compoſed of the liquid
of its juices in the living body : but when deprived of parts of the aliment, and of ſome of its more ſolid par.
the living principle, it is then no longer able to reſiſt ticles, extremely divided and mixed with the juices we
the powers of that menftruum, which it had itſelf for have deſcribed, conſtitutes a very mild, ſweet, and
med for the digeſtion of its contents; the proceſs of whitiſh fluid, reſembling milk, and diſtinguiſhed by the
digeſtion appearing to be continued after death. This name of chyle. This Auid is abſorbed by the lacteal
is confirmed by what happens in the ſtomachs of fiſhes: veins, which convey it into the circulation, where, by
They frequently ſwallow, without maſtication, fiſh being aſſimilated into the nature of blood, it affords that
which are larger than the digeſting parts of their ſto ſupply of nutrition, which the continual waſte of the
inach can contain ; and in ſuch caſes, that part which body is found to require. The other, is the remains
is taken into the ſtomach is moreor leſs diſſolved, while of the alimentary maſs deprived of all its nutritious
that part which remains in the cefophagus is perfectly particles, and containing only ſuch parts as were rejec-
found ; and here, as well as in the human body, the ted by the abſorbing mouths of the lacteals. This
digeſting part of the ſtomach is often reduced to the groſſer part, called the fæces, paſſes on through the
ſame ſtate as the digeſted part of the food. Theſe ap- courſe of the inteſtines, to be voided at the anus, as
pearences tend to prove, that digeſtion is not effected will be explained hereafter; for this proceſs in the ce-
by a mechanical power, by contractions of the ſto- conomy cannot be well underſtood till the motion of
mach, or by heat; but by a fluid fecreted in the coats reſpiration has been explained. But the ſtructure of
of the ſtomach, which is poured into its cavity, and the inteſtines is a ſubject which may be properly de-
there animalizes the food, or aſſimilates it to the na ſcribed in this place, and deſerves to be attended to.
ture of blood.
It has been already obſerved, that the inteſtinal ca-
From fome late experiments by M. Sage,* it ap- nal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that it
P® Academie pears,that inflammable air has the property of deſtroy- forms many circumvolutions in the cavity of the abdo-
ing and diſolving the animal texture : And as we ſwal- men, which it traverſes from the right to the left, and
Sciences &c. low with the ſubſtances which ſerve us for food a great again from the left to the right; in one place deſcend-
pour 1784. quantity of atmoſpherical air, M. Sage thinks it pof- ing, and in another extending itſelf upwards. It was
niem. 15. lble, that dephlogiſticated, which is its principle, may noticed likewiſe, that the inner coat of the inteſtines,
be converted in the ſtomach into inflammable air, or by being more capacious than their exterior tunics,
may modify into inflamınablc air a portion of the oily formed a multitude of plaits placed at a certain dira
ſubſtance which is the principle of aliments. In tance from each other, and called valvulæ conniventes.
this caſe, would not the inflammable air (he aſks), Now this diſpoſition will be found to afford a farther
by diſſolving our food, facilitate its coverſion into proof of that divine wiſdom, which the anatomiſt and
chyle?
phyſiologiſt cannot fail to diſcover in all their purſuits.
Be this as it may,the food, after having remained one, -For if the inteſtinal canal was much ſhorter than it
two, or three hours in the ſtomach, is converted into a naturally is; if inſtead of the preſent circumvolutions
greyiſh pulp, which is uſually called chymus, a wordof it paſſed in a direct courſe from the ſtomach ; and if
Greeketyniology,lignifying juice and ſomefew milkyor its inner ſurface was ſmooth and deſtitute of valves;
chylous particles begin to appear. But the term ofits the aliment would conſequently paſs with great rapidity
reſidence in this bag is proportioned to the nature ofthe to the anus, and ſufficient time would be wanting to
aliment, and to the ſtate of the ſtomach and its juices. aſſimilate the chyle, and for the neceſſary abſorption
The thinner and more perfectly digeſted parts of the of it into the lacteals : ſo that the body would be de-
food paſs by a little at a time into the duodenum, prived of the ſupply of nutrition, which is ſo effential
through the pylorus, the fibres of which relax to af- to life and health ; but the length and circumvolutions
ford it a paſſage ; and the groffer and leſs digeſted par. of the inteſtines, the inequality of their internal fur-
3
Hif. de
royal des
face,
(H) The Abbe Spallanzani, who has lately written upon digeſtion, finds, from a variety of experiments,
made upon quadrupeds, birds, and fiſhes, that digeſtion goes on for ſome time after death, though far leſs con-
ſiderable than in living animals; but heat is neceſſary in many animals, or at leaſt promotes it in a much great-
er degree. He found alſo, that when the ſtomach was cut out of the body, it had ſomewhat of the power of
digeſtion, though this was trilling when compared with that which took place when the ſtomach was left in the
body. In not one of the animals was the great curvature of the ſtomach diſſolved, or much eroded after death.
There was often a little erofion, eſpecially in different fitnes; in which, when he had cleared the ſtomach of
its contents, the internal coat was wanting. In other animals there was only a ſlight excoriation; and the in-
jury
1
Part III.
743
Α Ν Α Τ
Τ Ο Μ Y.
Of the
Of the face, and the courſe of the aliment through them, all uſually is in the human ſubject, where it is not com-
Abdomen. concur to perfect the ſeparation of the chyle from the monly found large enough to merit the name of re. Abdomen.
fæces, and to afford the neceſſary nouriſhment to the ceptaculum.
body.
Opportunities of obſerving the ladeals in the human
ſubject do not often occur ; but they may be eaſily de-
SECT. XIV. Of the Courſe of the Chyle, and of monſtrated in a dog or any other quadruped that is
the Lymphatic Syſtem.
killed two or three hours after feeding upon milk,
for then they appear filled with white chyle.
808.
An infinite number of very minute veſſels, called the But theſe lacteals which we have deſcribed, as paſo
lacteal veins, ariſe like net-work from the inner ſurface ſing from the inteſtines through the meſentery to the
of the inteſtines,(but principally from the jejunum and thoracic duct, compoſe only a part of a ſyſtem of vef-
ilium), which are deſtined to imbibe the nutritious fels which perform the office of abſorption, and which
fluid or chyle. Theſe veſſels, which were diſcovered conſtitute, with their common trunk the thoracic duct,
by Aſellius in 1622 (1), paſs obliquely through the and the conglobate glands that are diſperſed througlı
coats of the inteſtine, and running along the meſente- the body, what may be ſtyled the lymphatic ſyſtem. So
ry, unite as they advance, and form larger branches, that what is ſaid of the ſtructure of one of theſe ſeries
all of which paſs through the meſenteric or conglobate of veſſels may very properly be applied to that of the
glands, which are very numerous in the human ſubject. other.
109
As they run between the inteſtines and theſe glands, The lymphatic veins (K) are minute pellucid tubes, Lymphatis
they are ſtyled vena lactea primis generis : but after which, like the lacteals, direct their courſe towards veſelor
leaving theſe glands, they are found to be leſs nume the centre of the body, where they pour a colourleſs
rous, and being increaſed in ſize, are then called venæ fluid into the thoracic duct. The lymphatics fron
lactea ſecrån di generis, which go to depoſite their con all the lower parts of the body gradually unite as they
tents in the thoracic duct, through which the chyle is approach this dust, into which they enter by three or
conveyed into the blood.
four very large trunks, that ſeem to form the lower
This thoracic du&t begins about the lower part of the extremity of this canal, or receptaculum chyli, which
firſt vertebra lumborum, from whence it paſſes up by may be conſidered as the great trunk of the lymphatic
the ſide of the aorta, between that and the vena azy- ſyſtem. The lacteals open into it near the ſame place ;
gos, cloſe to the vertebræ, being covered by the pleura. and the lymphatics, from a large ſhare of the upper
Sometimes it is found divided into two branches; but parts of the body, pour their lymph into different parts.
they uſually unite again into one canal, which opens of this duct as it runs upwards, to terminate in the
into the left ſubclavian vein, after having run a little left ſubclavian vein. The lymphatics from the right
way in an oblique courſe between its coats. The ſub- fide of the neck, thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate
clavian vein communicates with the vena caya, which in the right ſubclavian vein.
pales to the right auricle of the heart.
As the lymphatics commonly lie cloſe to the large
The lower part of this du&t being uſually larger than blood veſſels, a ligature paſſed round the crural artery
any other part of it, has been named receptaculum chy- in a living animal, by including the lymphatics, will
li, or Pecquet's receptacle, in honour of the anatomiſt occaſion a diſtenſion of theſe veſſels below the ligature,
who firſt diſcovered it in 1651. In ſome quadrapeds, ſo as to demonſtrate them with eaſe ; and a ligature
* Hewſon', in turtle and in fith, this enlargement * is more confi- paffed round the thoracic duct, inſtantly after killing
Exp. Ing. derable in proportion to the ſize of the duct, than it an animal, will, by ſtopping the courſe of its contents
Part IL,
into
jury in all of them was at the inferior part, or great curvature. The coats of the ſtomach fuffer leſs after death
than fleſh, or part of the ſtomach of ſimilar animals put into it: The author aſſigns as a reaſon for this, that theſe
bodies are inveſted on all ſides by the gaſtric fluid, whereas it only acts on the internal ſurface of the ſtomach.
(1) We are informed by Galen, that the lacteals had been ſeen in kids by Eraliſtratus, who conſidered them
as arteries carrying a milky fluid :. but from the remote time in which he lived, they do not ſeem to have been
noticed till they were diſcovered in a living dog by A fellius, who denominated them lacteals, and conſidered
them as ſerving to convey the chyle froin the inteitines to the liver ; for before the diſcovery of the thoracic
duct, the uſe of the liver was univerſally ſuppoſed to be that of converting the chyle into blood. But the diſ-
covery of the thoracic duct by Pecquet, not long after, corrected this error. Pecquet very candidly confefles,
that this diſcovery accidentally aroſe from his obſerving a white fluid, mixed with the blood, flowing out of the
vena cava, after he had cut off the heart of a living dog ; which he ſuſpected to be chyle, and afterwards traced
to its ſource from the thoracic duct: This duct had been ſeen near an liundred years before in a horſe by
Euſtachius, who ſpeaks of it as a vein of a particular ſtructure, but without knowing any thing of its termi-
pation or uſe.
(K) The arteries in their courſe through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules
of the blood, have then been ſtyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. The veſſels which are here deſcribed as
conſtituting the lymphatic ſyſtem, were at firſt ſuppoſed to be continued from thoſe arteries, and to convey
back the lymph, either into the red veins or the thoracic duct; the office of abſorption having been attributed
to the red veins. But we know that the lymphatic veins are not continuations of the lymphatic arteries, but
that they conſtitute the abſorbent ſyſtem. There are ſtill, however, ſome very reſpectable names among the
anatomiſts of the preſent age, who contend, that the red veins act likewiſe as abſorbents; but it ſeems to have
been clearly proved, that the red veins do abſorb no where but in the cavernous cells of the penis, the eroca-
tion of which is occaſioned by a diſtenſion of thoſe cells with arterial blood.
744
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο 0 M
M Y.
* Sur le
of the into tbc fubclavian vcin, diftend not only the lacteals, the firſt diſcoverers of theſe veſſels ſtiled them ductus Of the
Abdomen, but alſo the lymphatics in the abdomen and lower ex aquofi : but experiments prove, that the lymph of an Abdonien,
tremities, with their natural fluids (L).
healthy animal coagulates by being expoſed to the air,
The coats of theſe veſſels are too ihin to be ſepara. or a certain degree of heat, and likewiſe by being ſuf-
ted from each other ; but the mercury they are capable fered to reſt; ſeeming to agree in this property with
of ſuſtaining, proves them to be very ſtrong; and their that part of the blood called the coagulable lymph.-
great power of contraction, after undergoing conlider. This property of the lymph leads to determine its uſe,
able diſtenſion, together with the irritability with in moiſtening and labricating the ſeveral cavities of the
which Baron Haller found then to be endued, * feenis body in which it is found; and for which, by its ge-
movement du to render it probable, that, like the blood-veſſels, latinous principle, it ſeems to be much better calculated
ſang. Ex: they have a muſcular coat.
than a pure and watery fluid would be, for ſuch it has
295, 298,
The lymphatics are nouriſhed after the fame nian been ſuppoſed to be by ſome anatomiſts.
ner as all the other parts of the body. For even the The moutlis of the lymphatics and lasteals, by acting
moſt minute of theſe veſſels are probably ſupplied with as capillary tubes, ſeem to abſorb the lymph and chyle
ſtill more minute arteries and veins. This ſeems to
This ſeems to ſomewhat in the ſame manner as a capillary tube of
be proved by the infiammation of which they are ſuf- glaſs, when put into a baſon of water, is enabled to
ceptible; and the painful ſwellings which ſometimes attract the water into it to a certain height; but it is
take place in lymphatic veffels, prove that they have probable that they likewiſe poſſeſs a living power,
nerves as well as blood veſſels.
which aſſiſts in performing this office. In the human
Both the lacteals, lymphatics, and thoracic duct, body the lymph, or the chyle, is probably conveyed up-
are furniſhed with valves, which are much more com on this principle as far as the firſt pair of valves,
mon in theſe veſſels than in the red veins. Theſe which ſeem to be placed not far from the orifice of the
valves are uſually in pairs, and ſerve to promote the abſorbing veſſel, whether lymphatic or lacteal; and the
courſe of the chyle and lymph towards the thoracic fluid will then be propelled forwards, by a continuation
duct, and to prevent its return.
Mention has been of the abſorption at the orifice. But this does not
made of the glands, through which the lacteals paſs ſeem to be the only inducement to its progreſs towards
in their courſe through the meſentery; and it is to be the thoracic duct; theſe veſſels have probably a muf-
obſerved, that the lymphatics paſs through ſimilar cular coat, which may ſerve to preſs the fluid forwards
glands in their way to the thoracic duct. Theſe glands from one pair of valves to another; and as the large
are all of a conglobate kind, but the changes which lymphatic veſſels and the thoracic duct are placed cloſe
the chyle and lymph undergo in their paſſage through to the large arteries, which have a conſiderable pulfa-
them, have not yet been aſcertained.
tion, it is reaſonable to ſuppoſe, that they derive fome
The lymphatic veſſels begin from ſurfaces and cavities advantages from this ſituation.
in all parts of the body as abſorbents. This is a fact
Sɛcs. XV. Of the Generative Organs; of Con-
now univerſally allowed; but how the fluids they ab.
forb are poured into thoſe cavities, is a ſubject of con-
ception, &c.
troverſy. The contents of the abdomen, for inſtance,
$1. The Male Organs.
were deſcribed as being conſtantly moiſtened by a very THE male organs of generation have been uſually
thin watery fluid. The ſame thing takes place in the divided into the parts which ſerve to prepare the ſe-
pericardium, pleura, and all the other cavities of the men from the blood, and thoſe which are diſtended to
body, and this watery fluid is the lymph. But whe- convey it into the womb.
convey it into the womb. But it ſeems to be more
therit is exhaled into thoſe cavities through the minute proper to diſtinguiſh them into the preparing, the con-
ends of arteries, or tranſuded through their coats, are taining, and the expelling parts, which are the differ-
the points in diſpute. We cannot here be permitted ent offices of the teſtes, the veſiculæ feminales, and the
to relate the many ingenious arguments that have been penis; and this is the order in which we propoſe to
advanced in favour of each of theſe opinions; nor is it deſcribe them.
perhaps of conſequence to our preſent purpoſe to enter · The teſtes are two glandular bodies, ſerving to fe-
into the diſpute.' It will be ſufficient if the reader can cretc the ſemen from the blood. They are originally
form an idea of what the lymph is, and of the manner formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen ;
in which it is abſorbed.
and it is not till after the child is born, or very near
The lymph, from its tranſparency and want of co that time, that they begin to paſs into the groin, and
lour, would ſeem to be nothing but water; and hence from thence into the ſcrotum (M). By this diſpolition
3
they
Ito
(1) In the dead body they may be eaſily demonſtrated by opening the artery ramifying through any viſcus,
as in the ſpleen, for inſtance, and then throwing in air; by which the lymphatics will be diftended. One of
them may then be punctured, and mercury introduced into it through a blow-pipe.
(M) It ſometimes happens in diffecting ruptures, that the inteſtine is found in the ſame fac, and in contact
with the teſtis. This appearance was at firſt attributed to a ſuppoſed laceration of the peritonæum ; but later
obſervations, by pointing out the ſituation of the teſticles in the foetus, have led to prove, that the teſtis, as it
deſcends into the ſcrotum, carries with it a portion or elongation of the peritonæun, which becomes its tunica
vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the teſticle is lodged, as will be explained in the courſe of this ſection.
The communication between this ſac and the cavity of the abdomen, is uſually foon cut off; but in ſome fub-
jects
Part IIT.
745
Α Ν Α Τ
Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
Of the
Of the they are very wiſely protected from the injuries to The ſcrotum, which is the external or common co-
Abdomen. which they would be liable to be expoſed, from the dif- vering of both teſticles, is a kind of fac formed by the Abdomen.
ferent poſitions of the child at the time of parturition. common integuments, and externally divided into two
The teſticles in this ſtate are looſely attached to the equal parts by a prominent line called raphe.
pfoæ muſcles, by means of the peritonæum by which In the inner part of the ſcrotum we meet with a cel.
they are covered ; and they are at this time of life lular coat called dartos (N), which by its duplicature
connected in a very particular manner to the parietes divides the ſcrotum into two equal parts, and forms
of the abdomen, and likewiſe to the ſcrotum, by means what is called feptum fcroti, which correſponds with
of a ſubſtance which Mr Hunter calls the ligament or the raphe. The collapſion which is ſo often obſerved
gubernáculum teftis, becauſe it connects the teitis with to take place in the ſcrotum of the healthy ſubject,
the ſcrotum, and directs its courſe in its deſcent. This when excited by cold or by the ſtimulus of venery,
gubernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with its bulbous ſeems to be very properly attributed to the contractile
head fixed to the lower end of the teſtis and epididy- motion of the ſkin, and not to any muſcular fibres, as
mis, and loſes its lower and ſlender extremity in the is the caſe in dogs and ſome other quadrupeds.
cellular membrane of the ſcrotum. It is difficult to The ſcrotum, then, by means of its ſeptum, is
aſcertain what the ſtructure and compoſition of this found to make two diſtinct bags, in which the teſti-
gubernaculum is, but it is certainly vaſcular and fi- cles, inveſted by their proper tunics, are ſecurely
brous ; and, from certain circumſtances, it would ſeem lodged and ſeparated from each other. Theſe coats
to be in part compoſed of the cremaſter muſcle, run. are the cremaſter, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica
ning upwards to join the lower end of the teſtis. albuginea. The firſt of theſe is conipoſed of muſcular
We are not to ſuppoſe that the teſticle, when de. fibres, and is to be conſidered only as a partial cover-
ſcended into the ſcrotum, is to be ſeen looſe as a piece ing of the teſtis; for it ſurrounds only the fpermatic
of gut or omentum would be in a common herniai fac. chord, and terminates upon the upper and external
We have already obſerved, that during its reſidence in parts of the tunica vaginalis teſtis, ſerving to draw up
the cavity of the abdomen it is attached to the perito- and ſuſpend the teſticle (o). The tunica vaginalis te-
neum, which deſcends with it; fo that when the fac ſtis has already been deſcribed as being a thin produc-
is completed in the ſcrotum, the teſticle is at firſt at tion of the peritonæum, looſely adhering every where
tached only to the poſterior part of it, while the fore to the teſticle, which it includes as it were in a bag.
part of it lies looſe, and for ſome time affords a com The lunica albuginea is a firm, white, and very com-
munication with the abdomen. The ſpermatic chord, pact membrane of a gliſtening appearance, which im-
which is made up of the ſpermatic artery and vein, mediately inveſts the body of the teſtis and the epidi-
and of the vas deferens or excretory duct of the teſtis, dymus; ſerving in ſome meaſure to connect them to
is cloſely attached behind to the poſterior part of this each other, but without extending itſelf at all to the
elongation of the peritonäum. But the fore part of fpermatic chord. This tunica albuginea ſerves to con-
the peritoneal ſac, which is at firſt looſe and not at- fine the growth of the teſtis and epididymus within
tached to the teſticle, cloſes after a certain time, and certain limits, and by giving them a due degree of
becomes united to the poſterior part, and thus perfe&tly firmneſs, enables them to perform their proper func-
ſurrounds the teſticle as it were in a purſe.
tions,
The teſticles of the foetus differ only in their ſize Having removed this laſt tunic, we diſcover the ſub-
and ſituation from thoſe of the adult. In their paſſage ſtance of the teſticle itſelf, which appears to be made
from the abdomen they deſcend through the abdominal up of an infinite number of very elaſtic filaments,
rings into the ſcrotum, where they are ſupported and which may be beſt diſtinguiſhed after macerating the
defended by various integuments.
teſticle in water. Each teſticle is made op of the ſper-
What the immediate cauſe of this deſcent is, has matic artery and vein, and the excretory veſſels or tu-
not yet been ſatisfactorily determined. It has been buli feminiferi. There are likewiſe a great number of
aſcribed to the effect of reſpiration, but the teſticles abſorbent veſſels, and ſome branches of nerves to be
have ſometimes been found in the ſcrotum before the met with in the teſticles.
child has breathed; and it does not ſeem to be occaſi The ſperinatic arteries ariſe one on each ſide from
oned by the action of the cremaſter muſcle, becauſe the aorta, generally about an inch below the emul-
the fanie effect would be liable to happen to the hedge- gents. The right fperinatic vein commonly paſſes into
hog, and ſome other quadrupeds, whoſe teſticles remain the vena cava; but the left ſpermatic vein uſually
in the abdomen during life.
empties itſelf into the emulgent on that ſide; and it is
Vol. I.
ſuppoſed
5 B
jects it continues open during life; and when an hernia or deſcent of the inteſtine takes place in ſuch a ſubject'
it does not puſh down a portion of the peritonæum before it, as it muſt otherwiſe neceffarily do, but paffes at
once through this opening, and comes in contact with the naked teſticle, conſtituting that particular fpecies
of rupture called hernia congenita.
(N) The dartos has uſually been conſidered as a muſcle, and is deſcribed as ſuch both by Douglas and
Window. But there being no part of the ſcrotum of the human ſubject which can be ſaid to conſiſt of muſcular
fibres, Albinus and Haller have very properly omitted to deſcribe the dartos as a muſcle, and conſider it merely
as a cellular coat.
(0) The cremaſter muſcle is compoſed of a few fibres from the obliquus internus abdominis, which uniting
with a few from the tranſverſalis, deſcend upon the fpermatic chord, and are inſenſibly loft upon the tunica
vaginalis of the teſticle. It ſerves to ſuſpend and draw up the teſticle.
746
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
of the poſed to take this courſe into the emulgent, that it which is ſituated at the neck of the bladder, and is Of the
Abdomen,
may avoid paſſing over the aorta, which it would be deſcribed as being of a glandular ſtructure. It is Abdomen.
obliged to do in its way to the vena cava.
ſhaped fomewhat like a heart with its finall end fore-
The blood is circulated very ſlowly through the moſt, and inveſts the origin of the urethra. Internally
fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite number of it appears to be of a firm ſubſtance, and compoſed of
circumvolutions in the ſubſtance of the teſticle, where ſeveral follicles, ſecreting a whitiſh viſcid fluid, that is
it depoſites the femen, which paſſes through the tubu- diſcharged by ten or twelve excretory ducts into the
li ſeminiferi. Theſe tubuli feminiferi are ſeen running urethra, on each ſide of the openings of the veſiculæ
in ſhort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis of ſeminales at the ſame time, and from the fanie cauſes
the teſticle; and are divided into diſtinct portions by that the ſemen is expelled. As this latter fluid is
certain thin membranous productions, which originate found to be exceedingly limpid in the veliculæ ſemi-
from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and nales of the dead ſubject, it probably owes its white-
by an infinite number of convolutions form a ſort of neſs and viſcidity to this liquor of the proſtate.
appendix to the teſtis called epididymis (P), which is The penis, which is to be conſidered as the vehicle
a vaſcular body of an oblong ſhape, ſituate upon the or active organ of procreation, is compoſed of two co-
ſuperior part of each teſticle. Theſe tubuli of the lumns, the corpora cavernoſa, and corpus fpongioſum.
epididymis at length form an excretory duct called vas The corpora cavernoſa, which conſtitute the greateſt
deferens, which aſcends towards the abdominal rings, part of the penis, may be deſcribed as two cylindrical
with the other parts that make up the ſpermatic chord, ligamentous tubes, each of which is compoſed of an
and then a ſeparation takes place ; the lierves and infinite number of minute cells of a ſpongy texture,
blood veſſels paffing on to their ſeveral terminations, which cominunicate with each other. Theſe two bo-
and the vas deferens going to depoſit its ſemen in the dies are of a very pliant texture, and capable of confi-
veſiculæ ſeminales, which are two ſoft bodies of a white derable diſtention ; and being united laterally to each
and convoluted appearance externally, ſituated ob- other, occaſion by this union a ſpace above and ano-
liquely between the rectum and the lower part of the ther below. The uppermoſt of theſe ſpaces is filled
bladder, and uniting together at the lower extremity. by the blood veſſels, and the lower one,which is larger
From theſe reſervoirs (e), which are plentifully ſup- than the other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongio-
plied with blood-veſſels and nerves, the ſemen is occa fum. Theſe two cavernous bodies are at firſt only ſe-
ſionally diſcharged through two ſhort paſſages, which parated by a partition of tendinous fibres, which allow
open into the urethra cloſe to a little eminence called them to communicate with each other ; but they after-
verumont anulin.
wards devaricate from cach other like the branches of
Near this eminence we meet with the proſtate, the letter Y, and diminiſhing gradually in ſize, are at-
tached,
(P) The teſticles were named didymi by the ancients, and the name of this part was given to it on account
of its ſituation upon the teſticle.
(e) That the bags called veficula ſeminales are reſervoirs of femen, is a circumſtance which has been by
anatomiſts univerſally believed. Mr J. Hunter, however, from ſeveral circumſtances, has been induced to
think this opinion erroneous.
He has examined theſe veliculæ in people who have died ſuddenly, and he found their contents to be diffe-
rent in their properties from the ſemen. In thoſe who had loſt one of the teſticles, or the uſe of one of them,
by diſeaſe, both the veſiculæ were full, and their contents fimilar. And in a luſus nature, where there was
no communication between the vaſa deferentia and veſiculæ, nor between the veſiculæ and penis, the ſame
thing took place.
From theſe obſervations, he thinks we have a preſumptive proof, That the ſemen can be abſorbed in the
body of the teſticle and in the epididymis, and that the veſiculæ ſecrete a mucus which they are capable of
abſorbing when it cannot be made uſe of: That the ſemen is not retained in reſervoirs after it is ſecreted,
and kept there till it is uſed; but that it is ſecreted at the time, in conſequence of certain affections of the
mind ſtimulating the teſticles to this action.
He corroborates his obſervations by the appearance on diſſection in other animals; and here he finds, That
the ſhape and contents of the veficulä vary much in different animals, while the ſemen in moſt of then he has
examined is nearly the ſame: That the vaſa deferentia in many animals do not communicate with the veſiculæ:
That the contents of the veſiculæ of caſtrated and perfect animals are ſimilar, and nearly equal in quantity,
in no way reſembling the ſemen as emitted from the animal in coitu, or what is found in the vas deferens
after death. He obſerves likewiſe, that the bulb of the urethra of perfect males is conſiderably larger than in
caſtrated animals.
From the whole, he thinks the following inferences may be fairly drawn: That the bags called veſiculæ
feminales are not ſeminal reſervoirs, but glands ſecreting a peculiar mucus; and that the bulb of the urethra
is properly ſpeaking the receptacle of the femen, in which it is accumulated previous to ejection.
But although he has endeavoured to prove that the veſiculæ do not contain the ſemen, he has not been
able to aſcertain their particular uſe. He thinks, however, we may be allowed upon the whole to conclude,
that ihey are, together with other parts, ſubſervient to the purpoſes of generation.
Although the author has created this fiibject very ably, and made many ingenious obſervations, ſome things
may be objected to what he had advanced; of which the following are a few: That thoſe animals who have
which
Part III.
747
Α Ν Α Τ
0
M Y.
Of the
Of the tached, oneon cach ſide, by means of the ligamentum iſchiuin, and terminate in the corpora carernoſa.
Abdomen. ſuſpenſorium penis to the ramus iſchii, and to the in- The acceleratores ariſe from the ſphincter, and by Abdomen.
ferior portion of the os pubis.
their inſertion ſerve to compreſs the bulbous pait of
The corpus fpongioſum penis, or corpus ſpongiofam the urethra ; and the tranſverſales are deſtined to af-
urethræ, as it is ſtyled by ſome authors, begins as ſoon ford a paſſage to the ſemen, by dilating the canal of
as the, urethra has paſſed the proſtate, with a thick the urethra.
origin almoſt like a heart, firſt under the urethra, and The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived from
afterwards above it, becoming gradually thinner, and the internal iliacs. Some of them are ſuppoſed to ter-
ſurrounding the whole canal of the urethra, till it ter minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora caver-
minates in a conſiderable expanſion, and conſtitutes noſa and corpus ſpongioſum ; and others terminate in
what is called the glans penis, which is exceedingly veins, which at laſt make up the vena magna dorſi pe-
vaſcular, and covered with papillæ like the tongue. nis, and other ſmaller veins, which are in general di-
The cuticle which lines the inner ſurface of the ure ſtributed in like order with the arteries.
thra, is continued over the glans in the ſame inanner Its nerves are large and numerous. They ariſe from
as it is ſpread over the lips.
the great ſciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in
The penis is inveſted by the common integuments, their courſe through the penis.
but the cutis is reflected back every where from the
We have now deſcribed the anatomy of this organ;
glans as it is in the eye-lids ; ſo that it covers this part, and there only remains to be explained, how it is ena-
when the penis is in a relaxed ſtate, as it were with a bled to attain that degree of firmneſs and diſtenſion
hood, and from this uſe is called prepuce.
which is eſſential to the great work of generation.
The prepuce is tied down to the under part of the The greateſt part of the penis has been ſpoken of
glans by a ſmall ligament called franum, which is in as being of a ſpongy and cellular texture, plentifully
fact only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis. ſupplied with blood-veſſels and nerves, and as having
There are many ſimple ſebaceous follicles called glan. muſcles to move it in different directions. Now, the
dulæ odoriferæ, placed round the baſis of the glans; blood is conſtantly paſſing into its cells through the
and the fluid they ſecrete ſerves to preſerve the exqui- ſmall branches of the arteries which open into them,
ſite ſenſibility of this part of the penis, and to prevent and is from thence as conſtantly returned by the veins,
the ill effects of attrition from the prepuce.
ſo long as the corpora cavernoſa and corpus ſpongio-
The urethra may be defined to be a membranous ſum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant ſtate. But
canal, paſſing from the bladder through the whole ex- when, from any nervous influence, or other meanis,
tent of the penis. Several very ſmall openings, called which it is not neceſſary here to define or explain, the
lacune, communicate with this canal, through which erectores penis, ejaculatores feminis, levatores ani, &c.
a mucus is diſcharged into it; and beſides theſe, there are induced to contract, the veins undergo a certain
are two glands, firſt deſcribed by Cowper, as ſecreting degree of compreſſion, and the paſſage of the blood
a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and called Cowper's through them is ſo much impeded, that it collects in
* glands (R); and Littre* ſpeaks of a gland ſituated them in a greater proportion than they are enabled to
Memoires
de l'Acad.
near the proſtate, as being deſtined for the ſame uſe. carry off, ſo that the penis gradually enlarges; and
The urethra being continued from the neck of the being more and more forcibly drawn up againſt the os
Sciences,
bladder, is to be conſidered as making part of the uri. pubis, the vena magna itſelf is at length compreſſed,
1700. nary paſſage ; and it likewiſe affords a conveyance to and the penis becomes fully diſtended. But as the
the ſemen, which we have obſerved is occaſionally dif. cauſes which firſt occaſioned this diſtention ſubſide,
charged into it from the veſiculæ ſeminales. The di- the penis gradually returns to its ſtate of relaxation.
rection of this canal being firſt under and then before
the pubis, occaſions a winding in its courſe from the
2. Female Organs of Generation.
bladder to the penis not unlike the turns of the let ANATOMICAL writers uſually divide the female or-
ler S.
gans of generation into external and internal. In the
The penis has three pair of muſcles, the erectores, firſt diviſion they include the monis veneris,labia puden-
acceleratores, and tranſverſales. They puſh the blood di, perinæum,clitoris,nympha, and caruncula myrtifor-
from the crura to the fore part of the corpora caver mes; and in the latter, the vagina with the uterns and
noſa. The firſt originate from the tuberoſity of the its appendages.
The
Royale des
III.
5 B 2
3
bags called veſiculæ ſeminales perform copulation quickly; whereas others that want them, as in the dog kind,
are tedious in copulation : That in the human body, at leaſt, there is a free communication between the vaſa
deferentia and veſiculæ ; and in animals where the author has obſerved no communication between the vala
deferentia and veſiculæ, there inay be a communication by veſſels not yet diſcovered, and which may
be com-
pared to the hepato-cyſtic ducts in fowls and fiſhes : That the fluid in the end of the vaſa deferentia and the
veſiculæ feminales are ſimilar, according to the author's own obſervation : That the veſiculæ in fome animals
increaſe and decreaſe with the teſticle at particular ſeaſons : That in birds and certain fiſhes, there is a dila-
tation of the ends of the vaſa deferentis, which the author himſelf allows to be a reſervoir for the ſemen.
With reſpect to the circumſtance of the bulb of the urethra anſwering the purpoſe of a reſervoir, the au-
thor has mentioned no facts which tend to eſtabliſh this opinion. See obfervations on certain Parts of the A-
ninal Oeconomy.
(r) Both Heiſter and Morgagni obſerve, that they have ſometimes not been able to find theſe glands ; ſo
chat they do not ſeem to exiſt in all ſubjects.
748
Part III.
Α Τ
Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Y.
Of the
The monis veneris, which is placed on the upper part been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is tliere- of the
Abdomen. of the ſymphylis pubis, is internally compoſed of adi- fore called os tincæ.
Abdonien.
poſe membranes, which makes it ſoft and prominent : The ſubſtance of the uterus, which is of a conſider.
it divides into two parts called labia pudendi, which de- able thicknes, appears to be compoſed of muſcular and
ſcending towards the rectum, from which they are ſmall ligamentous fibres, ſmall branches of nerves, ſome
divided by the perinæumn, form what is called the lymphatics, and with arteries and veins innumerable.
fourchette. The perinæum is that fleſhy ſpace which Its nerves are chiefly derived from the intercoſtal, and
extends about an inch and an half from the fourchet- its arteries and veins from the hypogaſtric and ſperma-
te to the anus, and from thence about two inches to tic. The membrane which lines its cervix, is a conti-
the coccyx.
nuation of the inner membrane of the vagina; but the
The labia pudendi being ſeparated, we obſerve a ful- outer ſurface of the body of the uterus is covered with
cus called folla magna; in the upper part of which is the peritoneum, which is reflected over it, and defcends
placed the clitoris, a ſmall round ſpongy body, in ſome from thence to the inteſtinum rectum. This duplica-
meaſure reſembling the male penis, but impervious, ture of the peritonæum, by paſſing off from the ſides of
compoſed of two corpora cavernoſa, ariſing from the the uterus to the ſides of the pelvis, is there firmly con-
tuberofities of the offa iſchij; furniſhed with two pair nected, and forms what are called ligamenta uteri la-
of muſcles, the erectores clitoridis, and the ſphincter ta; which not only ſerve to ſupport the uterus, but to
or conſtrictor oſtii vaginæ; and terminating in a glans, convey nerves and blood-veſſels to it.
which is covered with its prepuce. From the lower The ligamenta uteri roggenda ariſe from the ſides of
part, on each ſide of the folla, paſs the nymphæ, two the fundusuteri, and pafling along within the fore-part
membranous and ſpongy folds which ſeem deſtined for of the ligamenta lata, deſcend through the abdominal
uſeful purpoſes in parturition, by tending to enlarge rings, and terminate in the ſubſtance of the mons ve-
the volume of the vagina as the child's head paſſes neris. The ſubſtance of theſe ligaments is vaſcular,
through it. Between theſe, about the middle of the and although both they and the ligamenta lata admit
foſſa magna, we perceive the orifice of the vagina or os the uterus in the virgin ſtate, to move only about an
externum, cloſed by folds and wrinkles; and about inch up and down, yet in the courſe of pregnancy they
half an inch above this, and about an inch below the admit of conſiderable diſtenſion, and after parturition
clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or orifice of the return nearly to their original ſtate with ſurpriſing
urethra, much ſhorter, though ſomewhat larger, than quickneſs.
in men, with a little prominence at its lower edge, On each ſide of the inner ſurface of the uterus, in
which facilitates the introduction of the catheter. the angle near the fundus, a ſmall orifice is to be diſ-
The os externum is ſurrounded internally by ſeveral covered, which is the beginning of one of the tubæ fal-
membranous folds called carunculæ myrtiformes, which lopianæ. Each of theſe tubes, which are two in num-
are partly the remains of a thin membrane called hymen, ber, paſſing through the ſubſtance of the uterus, is ex-
that covers the vagina in children. In general the hy- tended along the broad liganients, till it reaches the
men is ſufficiently open to admit the paſſage of the edge of the pelvis, from whence it reflects back; and
menſes, if it exiſts at the time of their appearance; turning over behind the ligaments about an inch of its
fometimes, however, it has been found perfectly clo- extremity is ſeen hanging looſe in the pelvis, near the
fed.
ovarium. Theſe extremities, having a jagged appear-
The vagina, ſituated between the urethra and the ance, are called fimbriæ, or morjus diaboli. Each tuba
rectum, is a membranous cavity, ſurrounded eſpecially Fallopiana is uſually about three or four inches long.
at its external extremity with a ſpongy and vaſcular Their cavities are at firſt very ſmall, but become gra-
ſubſtance, which is covered by the ſphin&or oſtii va- dually larger, like a trumpet, as they approach the
ginæ. It terminates in the uterus, about half an inch fimbriæ.
above the os tincæ, and is wider and ſhorter in women Near the fimbriæ of each tuba Fallopiana, about
who have had children than in virgins.
an inch from the uterus, is ſituated an oval body
All theſe parts are plentifully ſupplied with blood- called ovarium, of about half the ſize of the male ter-
veſſels and nerves. Around the nymphæ there are ticle. Each of theſe ovaria is covered by a production
ſebaceous follicles, which pour out a fluid to lubricate of the peritonæum, and hangs looſe in the pelvis. They
the inner ſurface of the vagina ; and the meatus urina are of a flat and angular form, and appear to be com-
rins, like the urethra in the male ſubject, is conſtantly poſed of a white and cellular ſubſtance, in which we
moiſtened by a mucus, which defends it againſt the are able to diſcover ſeveral minute veſicles filled with a
acrimony of the uriné.
coagulable lymph, of an uncertain number, commonly
The uterus is a hollow viſcus, ſituated in the hy- exceeding 12 in cach ovary.In the female of riper years,
pograftric region, between the rectum and bladder. It theſe veſicles become exceedingly turgid, and a kind of
is deſtined to receive the firſt rudiments of the foetus, yellow coagulum is gradually formed within one of
and to aſſiſt in the developement of all its parts, till it them, which increaſes for a certain time. In concep-
arrives at a ſtate of perfection, and is fitted to enter tion, one of theſe mature ova is ſuppoſed to be impreg-
into the world, at the time appointed by the wife Au- nated with the male femen, and to be ſqueezed out of
thor of nature.
its nidus into the Fallopian tube ; after which the rup-
The uterus, in its unimpregnated ſtate, reſembles a tured part forms a ſubſtance which in ſome animals is
pear in ſhape, ſomewhat flattened, with its fundus or of a yellow colour, and is therefore called corpus lu-
bottom part turned towards the abdomen, and its cer teum ; and it is obſerveable, that the number of theſe
vix or neck ſurrounded by the vagina. The entrance ſcars or fiſſures in the ovarium, conſtantly correſponds
into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has with the number of fætuſes excluded by the mother.
MAN
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ 0 M Y.
749
Of the
1 12.
1130
Of the
§ 3. Of Conception.
lo the uterus, where it is nouriſhed till it arrives at a
Abdomen.
ſtate of perfection. In this ſyſtem there is much inge- Abdomen.
Man, being ever curious and inquiſitive, has natu- nuity ; buc there are certain circumſtances ſuppoſed to
rally been led to enquire after the origin of his exiſt- take place, which have been hitherto inexplicable. A
ence; and the ſubject of generation has employed the celebrated modern writer, M. Buffon, endeavours to
philoſophical world in all ages: but in following na- reſtore, in ſome meaſure, the moſt ancient opinion, by
ture up to her minute receſſes, the philoſopher ſoon allowing the female ſemen a ſhare in this office ; aſſert-
finds himſelf bewildered, and his imagination often ing, that animalcula or organic particles are to be diſ-
ſupplies that which he ſo eagerly wiſhes to diſcover, covered in the ſeminal liquor of both ſexes: he derives
but which is deſtined perhaps never to be revealed to the female ſemen from the ovaria, and he contends that
hin. Of the many theories which have been formed no ovim exiſts in thoſe parts. But in this idea he is
on this ſubject, that of the ancient philoſophers ſeems evidently miſtaken; and the opinion now moſt gene-
to have been the moſt ſimple: they conſidered the male rally adopted is, that an impregnation of the ovum, by
ſemen as alone capable of forming the foetus, and be- the influence of the male ſemen, is eſſential to concep-
lieved that the female only afforded it a lodging in the tion (s). That the ovum is to be impregnated, there
womb, and ſupplied it with nouriſhinent after it was can be no doubt; but as the manner in which ſuch an
perfectly formed. This opinion, however, foon gave impregnation is ſuppoſed to take place, and the means
place to another, in which the female was allowed a by which the ovum afterwards gets into the Fallopi-
more conſiderable ſhare in conception.
an tube,and from thenceinto the uterus, are ſtill found-
This ſecond ſyſtem conſidered the foetus as being ed chiefly on hypotheſis, we will not attempt to ex-
formed by the mixture of the ſeminal liquor of both tend farther the inveſtigation of a ſubject concerning
ſexes, by a certain arrangement of its ſeveral particles which fo little can be advanced with certainty.
in the uterus. But in the 16th century, veſicles or
eggs were diſcovered in the ovaria or female teſticles;
§ 4. Of the Fetus in Utero.
the fætus had been found ſometimes in the abdomen, OPPORTUNITIES of diſſecting the human gravid
and ſometimes in the Fallopian tubes; and the two uterus occurring but ſeldom, the ſtate of the embryo
former opinions were exploded in favour of a new doc- (T) immediately after conception cannot be perfectly
trine. The ovaria were compared to a bunch of grapes, known.
being ſuppoſed to conſiſt of veſicles, each of which had When the ovum deſcends into the uterus, it is ſup-
a ſtalk; ſo that it might be diſengaged without hurting poſed to be very minute ; and it is not till a conſider-
the reſt, or ſpilling the liquor it contained. Each ve able time after conception that the rudiments of the
ficle was ſaid to include a little animal, almoſt com embryo begin to be aſcertained.
plete in all its parts; and the vapour of the male femen About the third or fourth week the eye may diſco-
being conveyed to the ovarium, was ſuppoſed to pro ver the firſt lineaments of the fætus ; but theſe linea-
duce a fermentation in the veſicle, which approached ments are as yet very imperfect, it being only about
the neareſt to maturity; and thus inducing it to diſen- the lize of a houſe-fly. Two little veſicles appear in
gage itſelf from the ovarium, it paſſed into the tuba an almoſt tranſparent jelly; the largeſt of which is de-
Fallopiana, thro' which it was conveyed to the uterus. ſtined to become the head of the fætus, and the other
Here it was ſuppoſed to take root like a vegetable ſmaller one is reſerved for the trunk. But at this pe-
feed, and to form, with the veſſels originating from riod no extremities are to be ſeen; the umbilical cord
the uterus, what is called the placenta; by means of appears only as a very minute thread, and the placenta
which the circulatiom is carried on between the mo does not as yet abſorb the red particles of the blood.
ther and the fetus.
At fix weeks, not only the head but the features of the
This opinion, with all its abſurdities, continued to face begin to be developed. The noſe appears like a
be almoſt univerſally adopted till the cloſe of the fame a ſmall prominent line and we are able to diſcover ano-
century, when Liewenhoeck, by means of his glaſſes ther line under it, which is deſtined for the ſeparation
diſcovered certain opake particles, which he deſcrib: of the lips. Two black points appear in the place of
ed as ſo many animalcula, floating in the ſeminal Auid eyes, and two minute holes mark the ears. At the
of the male.
fides of the trunk, both above and below, we fee four
This diſcovery introduced a new ſchiſm among the minute protuberances, which are the rudiments of the
philoſophers of that time, and gave riſe to a ſyſtem arms and legs. At the end of eight weeks the body
which is not yet entirely exploded. According to of the fetus is upwards of an inch in length, and both
this theory the male femen paſſing into the tubæ Fal the hands and feet are to be diſtinguiſhed. The up-
lopianæ, one of the animalcula penetrates into the ſub- per extremities are found to increaſe faſter than the
ſtance of the ovarium, and enters into one of its veſicles lower ones, and the ſeparation of the fingers is accom-
or ova. This impregnatedovun is then ſqueezed from pliſhed ſooner than that of the toes.
its huſk, through the coats of the ovarium, and being At this period the human form may be deciſively
ſeized by the fimbriæ, is conducted through the tube aſcertained; all the parts of tlie face may be diftin-
guiſhed
(s) The learned Abbė Spallanzani has thrown much light on this curious ſubject, and has proved by a variety
of experiments that the animalcule exiſts entire in the female ovuin, and that the male feed is only neceſſary to
vivify and put it in motion. His experiments and obſervations are worthy the attentive perufal of every phyſio-
logiſt.
(1) The rudiments of the child are uſually diſtinguiſhed by this name till the human figure can be diftinét
ly aſcertained, and then it has the appellation of fætus.
750
Α Ν Λ Τ Ο Μ Y.
Part III.
of the guiſhed, the flape of the body is clearly marked out, tranſparent, having no blood veſſels enteringinto their Of the
Abdomen, the haunches and the abdomen are elevated, the fingers compoſition. The ſpongy chorion is opake and vaſcular. Abdomen.
and toes are ſeparated from each other, and the inteſ In the firſt months of pregnancy,the involucra bear a
tines appear like minute threads.
large proportion to their contents; but this proportion
At the end of the third month, the fætus meaſures is afterwards reverſed, as the fætus increaſes in bulk.
about three inches ; at the end of the fourtlı month, The placenta, which is the medium through which
five inches; in the fifth month, fix or ſeven inches; in the blood is conveyeıl from the mother to the fætus,
the ſixth month, eight or nine inches ; in the ſeventh and the manner in which this conveyance takes place,
month, eleven or twelve inches; in the eighth month, deſerve next to be conſidered.
fourteen or fifteen inches; and at the end of the ninth The placenta is a broad, flat, and ſpongy ſubſtance,
month, or full time, from eighteen to twenty-two like a cake, cloſely adhering to the inner ſurface of
inches. But as we have not an opportunity of exa the womb, uſually near the fundus, and appearing to
mining the ſame fetus at different periods of pregnan- be chiefly made up of the ramifications of the umbili '
cy, and as their ſize and length may be influenced by cal arteries and vein, and partly of the extremities of
the conſtitution and mode of life of the mother, calcu- the uterine veſſels. The arteries of the uterus diſcharge
lations of this kind inuſt be very uncertain.
their contents into the ſubſtance of this cake; and the
The fætus during all this time aſſumes an oval fi- veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either by a
gure, which correſponds with the ſhape of the uterus. direct communication of vefſels, or by abſorption, at
Its.chin is found reclining on its breaſt with its knees length form the umbilical vein, which paſſes on to the
drawn up towards its chin, and its arins folded over ſinus of the vena porta, and from thence to the vena
them. But it ſeems likely, that the poſture of ſome cava, by means of the canalis venoſus, a communica-
of theſe parts is varied in the latter months of preg tion that is cloſed in the adult. But the circulation of
nancy, ſo as to cauſe thoſe painful twitches which its the blood through the heart is not conducted in the
mother uſually feels from time to time. In natural
In natural fætus as in the adult: in the latter, the blood is carried
cafes, its head is probably placed towards the os tincæ from the right auricle of the neart through the pulmo-
froin the time of conception to that of its birch ; nary artery, and is returned to the left auricle by the
though formerly it was conſidered as being placed pulmonary vein; but a dilatation of the lungs is eſſen-
towards the fundis uteri till about the eighth or ninth tial to the paſſage of the blood through the pulmonary
month, when the head, by becoming ſpecifically hea- veſſels, and this dilatation cannot take place till after
vier than the other parts of the body, was ſuppoſed the child is born and has reſpired. This deficiency,
to be turned downwards.
however, is ſupplied in the fetus by the immediate
The capacity of the uterus increaſes in proportion communication between the right and left auricle,
to the growth of the fætus, but without becoming through an oval opening, in the ſeptum which divides
thinner
in its ſubſtance, as might naturally be expected. the two auricles, called
foramen ovale. The blood is
The nouriſhıment of the fætus, during all this time, likewiſe tranſmitted from the pulmonary artery to the
ſeems to be derived from the placenta, which appears aorta, by means of a duct called canalis arterioſus,
to be originally formed by that part of the ovum which which, like the canalis venoſus, and foramen ovalæ,
is next the fundus uteri. The remaining part of the gradually cloſes after birth.
oyum is covered by a membrane called ſpongy chori. The blood is returned again from the fætus through
on (U); within which is another called true chorion, two arteries called the umbilical arteries, which ariſe
which includes a third ternied amnios (v): this con from the iliacs. Theſe two veſſels taking a winding
tains a watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii (w), in courſe with the vein, form with that, and the mem-
which the fætus floats till the time of its birth. branes by which they are ſurrounded, what is called
the fide next the fætus, the placenta is covered by the the umbilical chord. Theſe arteries, after ramifying
amnios and true chorion ; on the ſide next the mother through the ſubſtance of the placenta, diſcharge their
it has a production continued from the ſpongy chori, blood into the veins of the uterus ; in the ſame manner
on. The amnios and chorion are remarkably thin and as the uterine arteries diſcharged their blood into the
branches
On
(U) Dr Hunter has deſcribed this as a lamella from the inner ſurface of the uterus. In the latter inonths
of pregnancy it becomes gradually thinner and more conne@ed with the chorion : he has named it membrana
caduca, or dicedua, as it is caſt off with the placenta. Signior Scarpa, with more probability, conſiders it as
being compoſed of an inſpiflated coagulable lymph.
(v) In ſome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus,
to the allantois, which is a reſervoir, reſembling a long and blind gut, ſituated beiween the chorion and am
nios. The human fætus ſeems to have no ſuch reſervoir, though ſome writers lave ſuppoſed that it does ex-
iſt. From the top of the bladder a few longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical chord ; and theſe fi-
bres have been conſidered as the arachus, though without having been ever found pervious.
(w) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been ſuppoſed to paſs into the æſophagus, and to
afford nouriſhment to the fæius ; but this does not ſeem probable. Children have come into the world with-
out an ocſophagus, or any communication betwecn the ftomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well at
teſted inſtance of a child's having been born without a placenta ; and it dees not ſeem likely, that any of the
fluid can be abſorbed through the pores of the ſkin, the ſkin in the foetus being every where covered with a
great quantity of muciis.
Part III.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y.
751
Of the branches of the umbilical vein. So that the blood is gets through the placenta is a point not yet deter Of the
Abdomen. conſtantly paſling in at one ſide of the placenta and mined.
Abdomen.
out at the other ; but in what particular manner it
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXV. XXVI. AND XXVII.
va inferior paſſing through g, A portion of the dia-
PLAT E XXV.
phragm.
Fig. I. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and Ab- FIG. 5. Shows the Heart and Large Veſſels of a Foe-
domen in fitu.
tus at the full time.
1. Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 22, The in a, The left ventricle. b, The right ventricle. C, A
ternal jugular veins. 33, The ſubclavian veins. 4, The part of the right auricle.d, Left auricle.ee, The
vena cava deſcendens. 5, The right auricle of the right branch of the pulmonary artery. f, Arteria
heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Part of the left pulmonalis. gg, The left branch of the pulmonary
ventricle. 8, The aorta deſcendens. 9, The pulmo. artery, with a number of its largeſt branches diſſect-
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is ed from the lungs. h, The canalis arterioſus. i, The
cut off to ſhow tlie great blood veſſels. II, Tbe leſt arch of the aorta. k k, The aorta deſcendens. I, The
lung entire. 12 12, The anterior edge of the dia- left ſubclavian artery. m, The left carioid artery.
phragm. 13 13, The two great lobes of the liver. n, The right carotid artery. o, The right ſubclavian
14, The ligainentum rotundum. 15, The gall-bladder. artery. P, The origin of the right carotid and right
16, The ſtomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium. ſubclavian arteries in one common trunk. q, The ve-
18, The ſpleen.
na cava ſuperior or deſcendens. r, The right coin-
FIG. 2.
Shows the Organs ſubſervient to the Chy-
mon ſubclavian vein. s, The left common ſubclavian
vein.
lopoietic Viſcera,—with thoſe of Urine and Gé.
N. B. All the parts deſcribed in this figure are to
neration.
II, The under ſide of the two grcat lobes of the be found in the adult, except the canalis arterioſus.
liver. a, Lobulus Spigelii. 2, The ligamentum ro.
PLATE XXVI.
tundum. 3, The gall-bladder.
4. The pancreas.
5, The ſpleen. 66, The kidneys. 7, The aorta FIG. I. Exhibits the more ſuperficial Lymphatic Vef-
deſcendens. 8, Vena cava aſcendens. 99, The renal
ſels of the Lower Extremity.
veins covering the arteries. IO, A probe under the A, The ſpine of the os ilium, B, The os pubis.
ſpermatic veſſels and a bit of the inferior meſente. C, The iliac artery. D, The knee. E, E, F, Branches
ric artery, and over the ureters. IIII, The ureters. of the crural artery. G, The inuſculus gaſtrocnemius.
12 12, The iliac arteries and veins. 13, The rectum H, The tibia. I, The tendon of the muſculus tibia-
inteſtinum. I 4, The bladder of urine.
lis anticus. On the outlines, a, A lymphatic veſſel
Fig. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Viſcera, and Or- belonging to the top of the foot. b, Its firſt diviſion
gans ſubſervient to them, taken out of the Body en- lymphatic veſſel. d, a ſmall lymphatic gland. e, The
into branches. c, c, c, Other diviſions of the fanie
A A, The under ſide of the two great lobes of the lymphatic veſſels which lie between the ſkin and the
muſcles of the thigh. ff, Two lymphatic glands at
liver. B, Ligamentuin rotundum.
C, The gall- the the upper part of the thigh below the groin. . .,
bladder. "D, Ďnctus cyſticus. E, Ductus hepaticus. Other glands. h, A lymphatic veſſel which paſſes by
F, Ductus communis choledochus., G, Vena porta- the ſide of thoſe glands without communicating with
H, Arteria hepatica. II, The ſtoniach.
KK, Venæ & arteriæ gaſtro-epiploicæ, dextræ &
thein; and, bending towards the inſide of the groin at
finiſtræ. LL, Venæ & arteriæ coronariæ ventriculi. (i), opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 11, Lym-
M, The ſpleen. N N, Meſocolon, with its vellels. phatic glands in the groin, which are common to the
0 0 0, Inteſtinum colon. P, One of the ligaments lymphatic veſſels of the genitals and thoſe of the low-
of the colon, which is a bundle of longitudinal muſcu-
er extremity. m, n, A plexus of lymphatic veſſels
Jar fibres. QQQQ, Jejunun and ilium. RR, Sig- paſſing on the inſide of the iliac artery.
moid flexure of the colon with the ligament continued, FIG. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Extremity,
and over S, The rectum inteftinum. TT, Levators diſſected ſo as to ſhow the deeper-feated Lymphatic
ani. U, Sphincter ani. V, The place to which the Veſſels which accompany the Arteries,
proſtate gland is connected. W, The anus.
A, the os pubis. B. The tuberoſity of the iſ.
FIG. 4. Shows the Heart of a Fætus at the full chium. C, That part of the os ilium which was ar.
cime, with the Right Auricle cut open to ſhow ticulated with the os facrum. D, The extremity of
the Foramen Ovale, or pallage between both Au the iliac artery appearing above the groin. E, The
ricles.
knee. FF, The two cut ſurfaces of the triceps
a, The right ventricle. b, The left ventricle. muſcle, which was divided to ſhow the lymphatic veſ.
cc, The outer ſide of the right auricle ſtretched out. ſels that paſs through its perforation along with the
dd, The poſterior lide, which forms the anterior fide crural artery, G, The edge of the muſculus gracilis.
of the ſeptum. e, The foramen ovale, with the mem- H, The gaſtrocnemius and ſoleus, much fhrunk by
brane or valve which covers the left ſide. f, Venacabeing dried, and by the foleus being ſeparated from
the
tire.
.
rum.
I
752
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
Part III.
{niall part
Of the the tibia to expoſe the veſſels. I, The heel. K, The and under the right emulgent artery. O, The thora Of the
Abdomen. fole of the foot. L, The ſuperficial lymphatic veſſels cic duct penetrating the thorax. , Some lymphatic Abdomen.
paſſing over the knee, to get to the thigh. On the veſſels joining that duct in the thorax. 9, The tho-
out-lines; M, The poſterior tibial artery, a, A lym racic duct paſſing under the curvature of the aorta to
phatic veſſel accompanying the poſterior tibial artery. get to the left ſubclavian vein. The aorta being drawn
b, The faine veſſel croſſing the artery. C, A ſmall lym- aſide to ſhow the duct. 1, A plexus of lymphatic vef-
phatic gland, thro' which this deep-ſeated lymphatic fels paſſing upon the trachea from the thyroid gland to
veſſel paſſes. d, The lymphatic veffel paſſing under a the thoracic duct.
of the ſoleus, which is left attached to the
bone, the reſt being removed. e, The lymphatic veſ.
Plate XXVII.
fel croſſing the popliteal artery. f, g, h, Lymphatic
glands inthe ham, through which the lymphatic ver-
Fig 1. Repreſents the Under and Poſterior Side of
the Bladder of Urine, &c.
fel paffes. i, The lymphatic veſſel palling with the
a, The bladder, bb, The inſertion of the ureters.
crural artery, through the perforation of the triceps
muſcle. k, The lymphatic veffel, after it has paſſed the teſticles tod d, The veſiculæ ſeminales,--and paſs
cc, The vafa deferentia, which convey the ſemen from
the perforation of the triceps, dividing into branches through e, The proſtrate gland, to diſcharge them-
which embrace the artery (1). m, A lymphatic gland ſelves into f, The beginning of the urethra.
belonging to the deep-ſeated lymphatic veffel. At this
place thoſe veſſels paſs to the fore part of the groin, FIG. 2. A tranſverſe Section of the Penis.
where they communicate with the ſuperficial lympha gg, Corpora cavernoſa penis. h, Corpus caverno-
tic veſſels. n. A part of the ſuperficial lymphatic ver ſum urethræ. i, Urethra. k, Sepium penis. 11, The
fel appearing on the brim of the pelvis.
ſeptum between the corpus cavernoſum urethræ and
that of the penis.
FIG. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human Subject,
FIG. 3. A Longitudinal Section of the Penis.
prepared to ſhow the Lymphatic Veſſels and the
mm, The corpora cavernoſa penis, divided by o,
Ductus Thoracicus.
The ſeptum penis. n, The corpus cavernoſum glan-
A, The neck. BB, The two jugular veins.
dis, which is the continuation of that of the urethra.
C, The vena cava ſuperior. DDDD, The ſub-
clavian veins. E, The beginning of the aorta, pulled Fig. 4. Repreſents the Female Organs of Genera-
to the left ſide by means of a ligature, in order to
tion.
fhow the thoracic duct behind it. F, The branches a, That ſide of the uterus which is next the os fa-
ariſing from the curvature of the aorta. GG, The
crum.
I, Its fundus 2, Its cervix. bb, The Fal-
two carotid arteries. HH, The firſt ribs, II, The lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of
trachea. KK, The ſpine. L L, the vena azygos the uterus ;--but the other end is open within the pel-
MM, The deſcending aorta. N, The coeliac artery, vis, and ſurrounded by cc, The fimbriæ. dd, The
dividing into three branches. O, The ſuperior meſen- ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the
teric artery.
P, The right crus diaphragmatis. womb. ff, The ligamenta rotunda, which paſſes
QQ, The two kidneys. R, The right emulgent ar without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi.
tery. SS, The external iliac arteries. gd, The gg, The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con-
muſculi proæ. T, The internal iliac artery. U, The nects the uterus to the pelvis. h, The inſide of the
cavity of the pelvis. XX, The ſpine of the os ilium. vagina. i, The orifice of the urethra. k, The cli-
Y Y, The groins. a, A lymphatic gland in the toris ſurrounded by (1.) The præputium. mm, The
groin, into which lymphatic veſſels from the lower ex labia pudendi. nn, The nymphæ.
tremity are ſeen to enter. bb, The lynıphatic veſſels
of the lower extremities paffing under Poupart's liga-
Fig. 5. Shows the Spermatic Ducts of the Teſticle
filled with Mercury.
ment. CC, A plexus of the lymphatic veſſels lying on
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which
each ſide of the pelvis. d, The pſoas muſcle with
forms the poſterior part of the epididymis. C, The
lymphatic veſſels lying upon its inſide. e, A plexus middle of the epididymis, compoſed of ferpentine
of lymphatics, which having paſſed over the brim of ducts. D, The head or anterior part of the epididy-
the pelvis at (c), having entered the cavity of the pel-
mis unravelled. eeee, The whole ducts which com-
vis, and received the lymphatic vefſels belonging to the
viſcera contained in that cavity, next aſcends, and
paf- poſe the head of the epididy.mis unravelled. ff, The
fes behind the iliac artery to (8). f, Some lymphatic neal ducts which fend off the vaſa deferentia. ii, The
vaſa deferentia. gg, Rete teſtis. hh, Soine rectili-
veſſels of the left ſide paſſing over the upper part of
the os facrum, to meet thoſe of the right fide. The ſubſtance of the teſticle.
right pſoas, with a large plexus of lymphatics lying on FIG. 6. The right Teſticle entire, and the Epidi-
its inſide hh, The plexus lying on each ſide of the
dymis filled with Mercury.
ſpine. iii, Spaces occupied by the lymphatic glands. A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas
k, The trunk of the lacteals, lying on the under ſide of deferens aſcending towards the abdomen. C, The po-
the fuperior meſenteric artery. 7, The ſame dividing fterior part of the epididymis, named globus minor.
into two branches, one of which paſſes on each ſide of D, The spermatic veftels incloſed in cellular ſubſtance.
the aorta ; that of the right ſide being ſeen to enter E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named
the thoracic duct at (m). m, The thoracic duet be- globus major. G, Its beginning from the teſticle.
ginning from the large lymphatics. n, The duct paſs- H, The body of the teſticle, incloſed in the tunica al-
ing under the lower part of the crus diaphragmatis, buginea.
PART
ANATOMY
.
Pratici
PlateXXV,
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Plate XXVI
ANATOMY
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J'cor Philida
Part IV.
753
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Of the
Thorax
Of the
Thorax,
PART IV. OF THE THORAX.
114
Of the
thefti
out.
IIS.
-
I
THEunk which extends from the clavicles, or the fuckles her child.
HE THORAX, or CHEST, is that cavity of the for many months in very large quantities, if the wonian
lower part of the neck, to the diaphragm, and includes The operation of ſuction depends on the principles
the vital organs, which are the heart and lungs; and of the air-pump, and the flow of milk through the
likewiſe the trachea and cſophagus.--This cavity is lactiferous tubes is facilitated by their being ſtretched
formed by the ribs and vertebræ of the back, covered
by a great number of muſcles, and by the common in The milk, examined chemically, appears to be com-
teguments, and anteriorly by two glandular bodies poſed of oil, mucilage, and water, and of a confider-
called the breaſts. The ſpaces between the ribs are able quantity of ſugar. The generality of phyſiolo-
filled up by muſcular fibres, which from their ſituation giſts have ſuppoſed that, like the chyle, it frequently
are called intercoſtal niufcles.
retains the properties of the aliment and medicines ta-
ken into the ſtomach ; but from ſome late experiments*, * Fourn. de
SECT. I. Of the Breaſts.
this ſuppoſition appears to be iH-founded.
Med. 1781.
The breaſts may be defined to be two large conglo-
Sect. II. Of the Pleura.
merate glands, mixed with a good dealof adipoſe mem-
116:
brane. The glandular part is compoſed of an infinite The cavity of the thorax is every where lined by a
number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves. membrane of a firm texture called pleura. It is com-
The arteries are derived from two different trunks ; poſed of two diſtinct portions or bags, which, by being
one of which is called the internal, and the other the applied to each other laterally, forni a ſeptum called
external mammary artery. The firſt of theſe ariſes from mediaſtinum ; which divides the cavity into two parts,
the ſubclavian, and the latter from the axillary, and is attached pofteriorly to the vertebræ of the back,
The veins every where accompany the arteries, and and anteriorly to the ſternum. But the two laminæ of
are diſtinguiſhed by the ſame name. The nerves are which this feptum is formed, do not every where ad-
chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other con here to each other ; for at the lower part of the thorax
glomerate glands, the breaſts are made up of a great they are ſeparated, to afford a lodgement to the lieart ;
many ſmall diſtinct glands, in which the milk is fe- and at the upper part of the cavity, they receive be-
creted from the ultinate branches of arteries. The tween them the thynus.
excretory ducts of theſe ſeveral glands gradually unit The pleura is plentifully ſupplied with arteries and
ing as they approach the nipple, from the tubuli lacti- veins from the internal mammary and the intercoſtals.
feri, which are uſually more than a dozen in number, Its nerves, which are very inconſiderable, are derived
and open at its apex, but have little or no communica- chiefly from the dorſal and intercoſtal nerves.
tion, as has been ſuppoſed, at the root of the nipple. The ſurface of the pleura, like that of the perito-
Tlieſe ducts, in their courſe from the glands, are ſur neum and other membranes lining cavities, is con,
rounded by a ligamentary elaſtic ſubſtance, which ter- ſtantly bedewed with a ſerous inoiſture (w) which pre-
minates with them in the nipple. Both this ſubſtance,
Both this ſubſtance, vents adheſion of the viſcera.
and the ducts which it contains, are capable of conſi The mediaſtinum, by dividing the breaſt into two
derable extenſion and contraction ; but in their natu- cavities, obviates many inconveniences, to which we
ral ſtate are moderately corrugated, ſo as to prevent ſhould otherwiſe be liable. It prevents the two lobes of
an involuntary flow of milk, unleſs the diſtending force the lungs from compreſſing each other when we lie on
be very great from the accunulation of too great a one ſide; and conſequently contributes to the freedom
quantity.
of reſpiration, whch is diſturbed by the leaſt preſſure
The whole fubftance of the nipple is very ſpongy on the lungs. If the point of a ſword penetrates be-
and elaſtic : its external ſurface is uneven, and full of tween the ribs into the cavity of the thorax, the lungs
ſmall tubercles. The nipple is ſurrounded with a diſk on that ſide ceaſe to perform their office; becauſe the
or circle of a different colour, called the areola ; and on air being admitted through the wound, prevents the di-
the inſide of the ſkin, under the areola, are many fe- latation of that lobe ; while the other lobe, which is
baceous glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the ſeparated from it by the mediaſtinum, remains unhurt,
areola and nipple : for the ſkin upon theſe parts is very and continues to perform its function as uſual.
thin; and the neryous papillæ lying very bare, are
much expoſed to irritation.
Sect. III. Of the Thymus.
The breaſts are formed for the ſecretion of milk,
which is deſtined for the nouriſhinent of the child for THE thymus is a glandular ſubſtance, the uſe of
ſome time after its birth. This ſecretion begins to which is not perfectly aſcertained, its excretory duct
take place foon after the delivery, and continues to flow not having yet been diſcovered. It is of an oblong
Vol.I.
5C
(w) When this fluid is exhaled in too great a quantity, or is not properly carried off, it accumulates and con-
stitutes the hydrops pectoris.
7
754
Part IV.
А T
M Y.
of the figure, and is larger in the fætus and in young chil-
Of the
Thorax. dren than in adults, being ſometimes nearly effaced iz
Sect. V. Of the Trachea.
Thorax.
very old ſubjects. It is placed in the upper part of the
thorax, between the two laminæ of the mediaſtinum ; The trachea or windpipe, is a cartilaginous and
II9.
but at firſt is not altogether contained within the cavity membranous canal, through which the air paſſes into
of the cheſt, being found to border upon the upper ex the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx,
treinity of the ſternum.
is compoſed of five cartilages. The uppermoſt of theſe
cartilages is placed over the glottis or mouth of the
Sect. IV. Of the Diaphragm.
larynx, and is called epiglottis, which lias been beforc
ſpoken of, as cloſing the paſſage to the lungs in the
118. The cavity of the thorax is ſeparated from that of act of ſwallowing. At the ſides of the glottis are pla-
the abdomen, by a fleſhy and membranous ſeptum ced the two arytenoide cartilages, which are of a very
called the diaphragm or midriff. The greateſt part of complex figure, not eaſy to be deſcribed. The ante-
is compoſed of muſcular fibres; and on this account rior and larger part of the larynx is made up of two
ſyſtematic writers uſually place it very properly among cartilages : one of which is called thyroides or ſcutifor-
the muſcles. Its middle part is very tendinous, andit is mis, from its being ſhaped like a buckler; and the
covered by the pleura above, and by the peritoneum other cricoides or annularis, from its reſembling a ring.
below. It ſeems to have been improperly named Both theſe cartilages inay be felt immediately under
Septum tranfverfum, as it does not make a plain tranf- the ſkin, at the fore part of the throat, and the thy-
verſe diviſion of the two cavities, but forms a kind of roides, by its convexity, forms an eminence called po-
vault, the fore part of which is attached to the ſter mum adami, which is uſually more conſiderable in the
num. Laterally it is fixed to the laſt of the true ribs, male than in the female ſubject.
and to all the falſe ribs; and its lower and poſterior All theſe cartilages are united to each other by means
part is attached to the vertebræ lumborum, where it of very elaſtic, ligamentous fibres; and are enabled,
may be ſaid to be divided into two portions or crura by the aſſiſtance of their ſeveral inuſcles, to dilate or
(x).
contract the paſſage of the larynx, and to perform that
The principal arteries of the diaphragm are derived variety of motion which ſeems to point out the larynx
from the aorta, and its veins paſs into the vena cava. as the principal organ of the voice ; for when the air
Its nerves are chiefly derived from the cervical pairs. paſſes out through a wound in the trachea, it produces
It affords a paſſage to the vena cava through its tendi-
nous part, and to the æſophagus through its fleſhy Theſe cartilages are moiſtened by a mucus, which
portion. The aorta paſſes down behind it between its ſeems to be ſecreted by minute glands ſituated near
them. The upper part of the trachea is covered ante-
The diaphragm not only ſerves to divide the thorax riorly and laterally by a conſiderable body, which is
from the abdomen, but by its muſcular ſtructure is ren- ſuppoſed to be of a glandular ſtructure, and from its
dered one of the chief agents in reſpiration. When ſituation near the thyroid cartilage is called the thyroid
its fibres contract, its convex fide, which is turned to- gland; though its excretory duct has not yet been diſ-
wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and by in- covered, or its real uſe aſcertained.
creaſing the cavity of the breaſt, affords room for a The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine mem-
complete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air brane, which is moiſtened by a conſtant ſupply of a
which is then drawn into them by the act of inſpira- watery fluid. From the larynx the canal begins to
tion. The fibres of the diaphragm then relax; and as take thename of trachea or aſpera arteria, and extends
it reſumes its former ſtate, the cavity of the thorax be- from thence as far down as the third or fourth verte-
comes gradually diminiſhed, and the air is driven ont bra of the back, where it divides into two branches,
again from the lungs by a motion contrary to the for which are the right and left bronchial tube. Each of
mer one, called expiration.
theſe bronchi (y) ramifies through the ſubſtance of
It is in ſome meaſure by means of the diaphragm, that lobe of the lungs to which it is diſtributed, by
that we void the fæces at the anus, and empty the uri an infinite number of branches, which are formed of
nary bladder. Beſides theſe offices, the acts of cough- cartilages ſeparated from each other like thoſe of the
ing, ſneezing, ſpeaking, laughing, gaping, and figh- trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligamen-
ing, could not take place without its aſſiſtance; and tary ſubſtance.
tary ſubſtance. Each of theſe cartilages is of an angu-
the gentle preſſure which all the abdominal viſcera re lar figure; and as they become gradually leſs and leſs
ceive from its conſtant and regular motion, cannot fail in their diameter, the lower ones in ſome meafure
to aſſiſt in the performance of the ſeveral functions received into thoſe above them, when the lungs, after
which were aſcribed to thoſe viſcera.
being inflated, gradually collapſe by the air being puſh-
ed
no found.
crura.
(x) Anatomical writers have uſually dcfcribed the diaphragm as being made up of two muſcles united by
a middle tendon ; and theſe two portions or crura form what they ſpeak of as the inferior muſcle, ariſing from
the ſides and fore part of the vertebræ.
(v) The right bronchial tube is uſually found to be ſomewhat ſhorter and thicker than the left ; and M.
Portal, who has publiſhed a memoir on the action of the lungs on the aorta in reſpiration, obſerves, that the
left bronchial tube is cloſely connected by the aorta; and froin fome experiments he is induced to conclude,
that in the firſt reſpirations, the air only enters into the right lobe of the lungs. Memoires de l'Academie
Royale des Sciences, 1769.
Part IV,
755
Α Ν Α Τ
Α Τ Ο
OM Y.
Of the
ed out froni them in exſpiration. As the branches of es; one of which commonly ariſes from the right in Of the
Thorax. the bronchi become more minute, their cartilages be- tercoſtal, and the other from the trunk of tlic aorta : Thorax.
come inbre and more angular and membranous, till at but ſoinetimes there are three of theſe arteries, and in
length they are found to be perfectly membranous, and ſome ſubjects only one. The uſe of theſe arteries is
at laſt become inviſiblc.
to ſerve for the nouriſhinent of the lungs, and their ra-
The trachea is furniſhed with fleſhy or muſcular mifications are ſeen creeping every where on the branche
fibres; ſome of which paſs through its whole extent es of the bronchi. The blood is brought back froin
longitudinally, while the others are carried round it in them by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos.
a circular direction ; ſo that by the contraction or re The pulmonary artery and vein are not intended for
laxation of theſe fibres, it is enabled to ſhorten or the nouriſhment of the lungs ; but the blood in its
lengthen itſelf, and likewiſe to dilate or contract the paſſage through them is deſtined to undergo ſome
diameter of its paſſage.
changes, or to acquire certain eſſential properties (from
The trachea and its branches, in all their ramifica the action of the air), which it has loit in its circula-
tions, are furniſhed with a great number of ſmall glands tion through the other parts of the body. The pul-
which are lodged in their cellular ſubſtance, and dif- monary artery receives the blood from the right ven-
charge a mucous fluid on the inner ſurface of theſe tubes. tricle of the heart, and dividing into two branches, ac-
The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it con- companies the bronchi every where, by its ramifications
ſtantly open, afford a free paſſage to the air, which we through the lungs; and the blood is afterwards con-
are obliged to be inceſſantly reſpiring; and its mem veyed back by the pulmonary vein, which gradually
branous part, by being capable of contraction and di- forming a conſiderable trunk, goes to empty itſelf into
latation, enables us to receive and expel the air in a the left ventricle of the heart; ſo that the quantity of
greater or leſs quantity, and with more or leſs veloci- blood which enters into the lungs, is perhaps greater
ty, as may be required in ſinging or in declamation. than that which is ſent in the ſame proportion of time
This membranous ſtructure of the trachca poſteriorly, through all the other parts of the body.
ſeems likewiſe to aſſiſt in the deſcent of the food, by
preventing that impediment to its paſſage down the
SECT. VII. Of Reſpiration.
æſophagus, wliich might be expected if the cartilages
were complete rings.
RESPIRATION conſtitutes one of thoſe functions II.
The trachea receives its arteries from the carotid which are properly termed vital, as being eſſential to
and ſubclavian arteries, and its veins paſs into the ju- life ; for to live and to breathe are in fact ſynonymous
gulars. Its nerves ariſe from the recurrent branch of terms. It conſiſts in an alternate contraction and dilata-
the eighth pair, and from the cervical plexus.
tion of the thorax, by firſt infpiring air into the lungs,
and then expelling it from them in exſpiration.
SECT. VI. Of the Lungs.
It will perhaps be eaſy to diſtinguiſh and point out
the ſeveral phenomena of reſpiration ; but to explain
The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of the their phyſical cauſe will be attended with difficulty :
117:
breaſt. Thcy are of a ſoft and ſpungy texture, and for it will naturally be enquired, how the lungs, when
are divided into two lobes, which are ſeparated from emptied of the air, and contracted by exſpiration, be-
each other by the mediaſtinum, and are externally co come again inflated, they themſelves being perfectly
vered by a production of the pleura. Each of theſe is paſſive ? How the ribs are elevated in oppoſition to
divided into two or three leiler lobes; and we com their own natural ſituation ? and why the diaphragin is
monly find three in the right ſide of the cavity, and contracted downwards towards the abdomen ? Were we
two in the left.
to aſſert that the air, by forcing its way into the cavity
To diſcover the ſtructure of the lungs, it is required of the lungs, dilated them, and conſequently elevated
to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which were the ribs, and preſſed down the diaphragm, we ſhould
deſcribed in the laſt ſection. Theſe becoming gradu ſpeak erroneouſly. What induces the firſt inſpiration,
ally more and more minute, at length terminate in the it is not eaſy to aſcertain ; but after an animal has once
cellular ſpaces or veſicles, which make up the greateſt reſpired, it would ſeem likely that the blood, after ex-
part of the ſubſtance of the lungs, and readily commu fpiration, finding its paſſage through the lungs obſtruc-
nicate with each other.
ted, becomes a ſtimulus, which induces the intercoſtal
The lungs feem to poſſeſs but little ſenſibility. muſcles and the diaphragin to contract, and enlarge the
Their nerves, which are ſmall, and few in number, cavity of the thorax, in conſequence perhaps of a cer-
are derived from the intercoſtal and eighth pair. This tain nervous influence, which we will not here attempt
laſt pair having reached the thorax, ſends off a branch to explain. The air then ruſhes into the lungs ; every
on each ſide of the trachea, called the recurrent, which branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular ſpa-
reafcends at the back of the trachea, to which it fur ces into which they open, become fully dilated; and
niſhes branches in its aſcent, as well as to the æſoplia- the pulmonary veſſels being equally diſtended, the blood
gus, but it is chiefly diſtributed to the larynx and its flows through them with eaſe. But as the ſtimulus
muſcles. By dividing the recurrent and ſuperior la which firſt occaſioned this dilatation ceaſes to operate,
ryngeal nerves at their origin, an animal is deprived the muſcles gradually contract, the diaphragm rifes up-
of its voice.
wards again, and diminiſhes the cavity of the cheft; the
There are two ſeries of arteries which carry blood ribs return to their former ſtate ; and as the air paſſes
to the lungs : theſe are the arteriæ bronchiales, and out in exſpiration, the lungs gradually collapſe, and a
the pulmonary artery,
reſiſtance to the paſſage of the blood again takes place.
The arteriæ branchiales begin uſually by two branch. But the heart continuing to receive and expel the
5 C 2
blood
756
Part IV.
AN N AT O M Y.
Of the
Oftie blood, the pulmonary artery begins again to be diſtend- uſe ofreſpiration is to dephlogiſticate the blood, it ſeems
l'horax. ed, the ſtimulus is renewed, and the ſame progreſs is probable, that a like double elective attraction takes Thorax.
repeated, and continues to be repeated, in a regular place in this proceſs; the phlogiſton of the blood be-
ſucceſſion, during life : for though the muſcles ofrefpi- ing transferred to the air, and the fire contained in the
ration, having a mixed motion, are (unlike the heart) air to the blood; but with this difference, that the ca-
in ſome meaſure dependent on the will, yet no human pacities being equal, the whole of the extricated fire is
being, after having once reſpired, can live many mo abſorbed by the latter. The blood in this ſtate circu-
ments without it. In an attempt to hold one's breath, lating through the body, imbibes phlogiſton, and of
the blood foon begins lo diſtend the veins, which are courſe gives out its fire; part only of which is abſorb-
unable to empty their contents into the heart; and we ed by the parts furniſhing the phlogiſton, the remain-
are able only, during a very little time, to reſiſt the ſti- der, as in combuſtion, becoming ſenſible; and is there-
mulus to inſpiration. In drowning, the circulation fore the cauſe of the heat of the body, or what is call-
ſeems to be ſtopped upon this principle ; and in hang- ed animal heat.
ing, the preſſure made on the jugular veins, may co In confirmation of this doctrine it may be obſerved,
operate with the ſtoppage of reſpiration in bringing on that the venous blood contains leſs fire than the arte
death.
rial; combuſtible bodies leſs than incombuſtible ones;
Till within theſe few years phyſiologiſts were entire- and that air contains leſs of this principle, according
ly ignorant of the uſe of reſpiration.
It was at length as it is rendered, by combination with phlogiſton, leſs
diſcovered in part by the illuſtrious Dr Prieſtley. He fit for reſpiration (2).
found that the air exſpired by animals was phlogiſtica In aſcending very high mountains, reſpiration is
ted; and that the air was fitter for reſpiration, or for found to become ſort and frequent, and ſometimes to
ſupporting animal life, in proportion as it was freer be attended with a ſpitting of blood. Theſe ſymptoms
from the phlogiſtic principle. It had long been obſer- ſeem to be occaſioned by the air being too rare and
ved, that the blood in paſſing through the lungs ac thin to dilate the lungs ſufficiently; and the blood
quired a more florid colour. He therefore ſuſpected, gradually accumulating in the pulmonary veſſels, fome-
that it was owing to its having imparted phlogiſton to limes burſts through their coats, and is brought up by
the air: and he ſatisfied himſelf of the truth of this coughing. This has likewiſe been accounted for in a
idea by experiments, which ſhowed, that the craſſemen. different way, by ſuppoſing that the air contained in
tum of extravaſſated blood, phlogiſticated air in pro- the blood, not receiving an equal preſſure from that of
portion as it loſt its dark colour. He farther found, the atmoſphere, expands, and at length ruptures the
that blood thus reddened had a ſtrong attraction for very minute branches of the pulmonary veſſels ; upon
phlogiſton ; infomuch that it was capable of laking it the ſame principle that fruits and animals put under
from phlogiſticated air, thereby becoming of a darker the receiver of an air-pump, are ſeen to ſwell as the
colour. From hence it appeared that the blood, in its outer air becomes exhauſted. But Dr Darwin of
circulation through the arterial ſyſtem, imbibes a con- Litclifield has lately publiſhed ſome experiments, whiclı
fiderable quantity of phlogiſton, which is diſcharged ſeem to prove, that no air or elaſtic vapour does exiſt
from it to the air in the lungs.
in the blood-veſſels, as has been generally ſuppoſed ;
This diſcovery has ſince been proſecuted by two very and he is induced to impute the ſpitting of blood, which
ingenious plıyſiologiſts, Dr Crawford and Mr Elliot. has ſometimes taken place in aſcending high moun-
It has been ſhown by profeſſors Black and Irvine, tllat tains, to accident, or to violent exertions; as it never
different bodies have different capacities for containing happens to animals that are put into the exhauſted re-
fire. For example, that oil and water, when equally ceiver of an air-pump, where the diininution of preſſure
hot to the ſenſe and the thermometer, contain diffe- is many times greater than on the ſummit of the high-
rent proportions of that principle ; and that unequal eſt mountains.
quantities of it are required, in order to raiſe thoſe
ſubſtances to like temperatures. The enquiries of Dr
Sect. VIII. Of the Voice.
Crawford and Mr Elliot tend to prove, that the capa-
cities of bodies for containing fire are diminiſhed by RESPIRATION has already been deſcribed as afford-
the addition of phlogiſton, and increaſed by its ſepara- ing us many advantages; and next to that of life, its
tion: the capacity of calx of antimony, for example, moſt important uſe ſeeins to be that of forming the voice
being greater than that of the antimony itſelf. Com- and ſpeech. The ancients, and almoſt all the moderns,
inon air contains a great quantity of fire ; combu&ible have conſidered the organ of ſpecch as a kind of muſi-
bodies very little. In combuſtion, a double elective cal inſtrument, which may be compared to a flute, to
attraction takes place; the phlogiſton of the body be- an hautboy, to an organ, &c. and they argue after the
ing transferred to the air, the fire contained in the air following manner.
to the combuſtible body. But as the capacity of the The trachea, which begins at the root of the tongue,
latter is not increaſed ſo much as that of the former is and goes to terminate in the lungs, may be
compared
diminiſhed, only part of the extricated fire will be ab- to the pipe of an organ, the lungs dilating like bellows
forbed by the body. The remainder therefore will raiſe during the time of inſpiration ; and as tlie air is driven
the temperature of the compound ; and hence we may out from them in exſpiration, it finds its paſſage ſtrait-
account for the heat attending combuſtion. As the ened by the cartilages of the larynx, againſt which it
ſtrikes
6
(2) See Crawford's Experiments and Obſervations on Animal Heat, and Elliot’s Philoſophical obſerva-
tions.
Part IV.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Y.
757
of the
Of the
I 24
out.
ſtrikes. As theſe cartilages are more or leſs elaſtic, means of its sphincter is again contracted; but it ſome-
Thorax. they occaſion in their turn more or leſs vibration in the times happens, as in dyſenteries for inſtance, that the Thoras.
air, and thus produce the ſound of the voice; the va fæces are very liquid, and have conſiderable acrimony;
riation in the ſound and tone of which depends on the and then the irritation they occaſion is more frequent,
ſtate of the gloltis, which, when ſtraitened, produces ſo as to promote their diſcharge without any preſſure
an aciite tone, and a grave one when dilated.
from the diaphragm or abdominal muſcles; and ſome-
The late M. Ferein communicated to the French times involuntarily, as is the caſe when the ſphincter
Academy of Sciences a very ingenious theory on the becomes paralytic.
forination of the voice. He conſidered the
the voice as a ſtring, as well as a wind, inſtrument; ſo
that what art has hitherto been unable to conſtruct, Sect. X. Of the Pericardium, and of the Heart and
its Auricles.
and what both the fathers Merſenne and Kircher, ſo
much wiſhed to ſee, M. Ferein imagined he had at
length diſcovered in the human body: He obſerves, were deſcribed as forming the mediaſtinum, recede dium.
The two membraneous bags of the pleura, which Pericare
that there are at the edges of the glottis certain tendi-
one fron the other, ſo as to afford a lodgement to a firm
nous chords, placed liorizontally acroſs it, which are
capable of conſiderable vibration, ſo as to produce this fac, which is the pericardium, appears to be com-
membranousſac, in which the heart is ſecurely lodged ;
found, in the ſame manner as it is produced by the poſed of two tunics, united to each other by cellular
ſtrings of a violin or a harpſichord; and he ſuppoſes membrane.-The outer coat, which is thick, and in
that the air, as it paſſes out from the lungs, acts as a
fome places of a tendinous complexion, is a production
bow on theſe ſtrings, while the efforts of the breaſt
of the mediaſtinunn ; the inner coat, which is extreme-
and lungs regulate its motion, and produce the variety ly thin, is reflected over the auricles and ventricles
of
of tones. So that according to this ſyſtem the varia-
tion in the voice is not occaſioned by the dilatation or
the heart, in the ſame manner as the tunica conjuncti-
va, after lining the eye lids, is reflected over the eye.
contraction of the glottis, but by the diſtenſion or re-
laxation of theſe ſtrings, the found being more or leſs
This bag adheres to the tendiilous part of the dia-
acute in proportion as they are more
or leſs ſtretched phragm, and contains a coagulable lymph, the liquor
Another writer on this ſubject ſuppoſes, that the pericardii, which ſerves to lubricate the heart and fa-
organ of voice is a double inſtrument, which produces forbed in the ſame manner as it is in the other cavities
cilitate its motions; and ſeems to be ſecreted and ab-
in uniſon two founds of a different nature; one by of the body.
means of the air, and the other by means of the chords
The arteries of the pericardium are derived from the
of the glottis. Neither of theſe ſyſtems, however, are
univerſally adopted. They are both liable to infupe phrenic, and its veins paſs into veins of the ſame name;
.
rable difficulties; ſo that the manner in which the voice
is formed has never yet been ſatisfactorily aſcertained: the heart, being uſually large enough to contain it
The ſize of the pericardium is adapted to that of
we may obſerve, however, that
the found produced by looſely. As its cavity does
not extend to the ſternum,
the glottis is not articulated. To effect this, it is re-
quired to paſs through the mouth, where it is differ- inveſts the heart, it effe&tually ſecures it from being in-
the lungs cover it in inſpiration ; and as it every where
ently modificd by the action of the tongue, which is
either puſhed againſt the teeth, or upwards towards the jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, extravalated
into the cavities of the thorax.
palate ; detaining it in its paſſage, or permitting it to
The heart is a hollow muſcle of a conical ſhape, fi- Heart, and
125
flow frecly, by contracting or dilating the mouth.
tuated tranſverſely between the two laminæ of the me- its auriclese
diaſtinum, at the lower part of the thorax; having its
SECT. IX. Of Dejeftion.
baſis turned towards the right ſide, and its point or
apex towards the left.-Its lower ſurface is ſomewhat
By dejection we mean the act of voiding the fæces flattened towards the diaphragm. Its balis, from
at the anus; and an account of the manner in which which the great veſſels originate, is covered with fat,
this is conducted was reſerved for this part of the work, and it has two hollow and fleſhy appendages, called
becauſe it ſeemed to require a knowledge of reſpiration auricles.-Round theſe ſeveral openings, the heart
to be perfectly underſtood.
ſeenis to be of a firın ligamentous texture, from which
The inteſtines were deſcribed as having a periſtaltic all its fibres ſeem to originate ; and as they advanice
motion, by which the fæces were gradually advancing from thence towards the apex, the fubſtance of the
towards the anus. Now, whenever the fæces are accu heart ſeems to become thinner.
mulated in the inteſtinun rectum in a fufficient quan The heart includes two cavities or ventricles, which
tity to become troubleſome, either by their weight or ar efeparated froin each other by a fleſhy ſeptum ; one
acrimony, they excite a certain unealineſs which in- of theſe is called the right, and the other the left, ven-
duces us to go to ſtool.--To effect this, we begin by tricle ; though perhaps, with reſpect to their ſituation,
making a conſiderable inſpiration ; in conſequence of it would be more proper to diſtinguiſh them into the
which the diaphragm is carried downwards towards the anterior and poſterior ventricles.
lower belly ; the abdominal muſcles are at the ſame The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine mem-
Lime contracted in obedience to the vill ; and the in- brane ; and its ſtructure is perfectly nuuſcular or fleſhy,
teſtines being compreſſed on all ſides, the reſiſtance of being compoſed of fibres which are deſcribed as pal-
the ſphincter is overcome, and the fæces paſs out at the fing in different directions ; fome as being extended
anus; which is afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal longitudinally from the baſis to the apex; others, as
fibres, which are called levatoris ani, and then by taking an oblique or ſpiral courie ; and a third fort as
123
being
258
Part IV.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ M Y.
Of the being placed in a tranverſe direction (A).-Within the blood to the moſt diſtant parts of the body, where- Of the
Thorax. the two ventricles we obſerve ſeveral furrows; and there as the right ventricle diſtributes it only to thie lungs.
Thorax.
are likewiſe tendinous ſtrings, which ariſe from fleſhy
The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum
columna in the two cavities, and are attached to the and the intercoſtals. The arteries which ferve for its
valves of the auricles : That the uſe of theſe and the nouriſhment are two in number, and ariſe from the
other valves of the heart may be underſtood, it muſt aorta. They ſurround in ſome meaſure the baſis of
be obſerved, that four large veſſels paſs out from the the heart, and from this courſe are called the coronary
baſis of the heart, viz. two arteries and two veins ; arteries. From theſe arteries the blood is returned by
and that each of theſe veſſels is furniſhed with a thin veins of the ſame naine into the auricles, and even iii-
membranous prodnction, which is attached all round to the ventricles.
to the borders of their ſeveral orifices, from whence The muſcular bags called the auricles are ſituated at
hanging looſely down they appear to be divided into the baſis of the heart, at the ſides of each other ;
two or three diſtinct portions. But as their uſes in the and correſponding with the two ventricles, are like
arteries and veins are different, fo are they differently thoſe two cavities diſtinguiſhed into right and left.
diſpoſed. Thoſe of the arteries are intended to give Theſe ſacs, which are interiorly uneqnal, have exter-
way to the paſſage of the blood into them from the nally a jagged appendix ; which, from its having been
ventricles, but to oppoſe its return: and, on the con- compared to the extremity of an ear, has given them
trary, the valves of the veins are conſtructed ſo as to their name of auricles.
allow the blood only to paſs into the heart. In conſe-
quence of theſe different uſes, we find the valves of Sect. XI. Angiology, or a Deſcription of the
the pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the
Blood-veſſels.
orifices of thoſe veſſels, ſo as to have their concave
ſurfaces turned towards the artery: and their convex The heart has been deſcribed as contracting itſelf,
126.
ſurfaces, which mutually meet together, being placed and throwing the blood from its two ventricles into
towards the ventricle, only permit the blood to paſs the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and then as re-
one way, which is into the arteries. There are uſual. laxing itſelf andreceiving a freſh ſupply from two large
ly three of theſe valves belonging to the pulmonary ar veins, which are the pulmonary vein and the vena ca-
tery, and as many to the aorta ; and from their figure va. We will now point out the principal diſtributions
they are called valvula ſemilunares. The communica- of theſe veſſels.
tion between the two great veins and the ventricles is The pulmonary artery ariſes from theright ventricle
by means of the iwo appendages or auricles into which by a large trunk, which foon divides into two confi-
the blood is diſcharged; ſo that the other valves which derable branches, which paſs to the right and left lobes
may be ſaid to belong to the veins, are placed in each of the lungs : each of theſe branches is afterwards
ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves divided and ſubdivided into an infinite number of
in the right ventricle are uſually three in number, and branches and ramifications, which extend through the
are named valvulæ tricuſpides ; but in theleft ventricle whole ſubſtance of the lungs; and from theſe branches
we commonly obſerve only two, and theſe are the the blood is returned by the veins, which, contrary to
valvula mitrales. The membranes which form theſe the courſe of the arteries, begin by very minute ca,
valves in each cavity are attached ſo as to project ſome- nals, and gradually become larger, forming at length
what forward; and both the tricuſpides and the mitrales fou large trunks called pulmonary veins, which ternu-
are connected with the tendinous ſtrings, which were nate in the left auricle by one common opening, from
deſcribed as ariſing from the fleſhy columnæ. By the whence the blood paſſes into the left ventricle. Froin
contraction of either ventricle, the blood is driven into this ſame ventricle raiſes the aorta or great artery,
the artery which communicates with thatventricle; and which at its beginning is nearly an inch in diameter :
theſe tendinous ſtrings being gradually relaxed as the it ſoon ſends off two branches, the coronaries, which
ſides of the cavity are brought nearer to each other, go to be diſtributed to the heart and its auricles. After
the valves naturally cloſe the opening into the auricle, this, at or about the third or fourth vertebra of the
and the blood neceſſarily directs its courſe into the back, it makes a conſiderable curvature ; from this
then only open paſſage, which is into the artery; but curvature (B) ariſe three arteries ; one or which foon
after this contraction, the heart becomes relaxed, the divides into iwo branches. The firſt two are the left
tendinous ſtrings are again ſtretched out, and, drawing ſubclavian and the left carotid, and the third is a com-
the valves of the auricle downwards, the blood is pour mon trunk to the right fubclavian and right carotid
ed by the veins into the ventricle, from whence, by though fometimes both the carotids ariſe diſtinctly
another contraction, it is again thrown into the artery,
from the aorta.
as will be deſcribed hereafter. The right ventricle is Thetwo carotids afcend within the ſubclavians, along
not quite ſo long, though ſomewhat larger, than the the fides of the trachea ; and when they have reached
left; but the latter has more ſubſtance than the other : the larynx, divide into two principal branches, the in-
and this ſeems to be, becauſe it is intended to tranſmit ternal and external carotid. The firſt of theſe runs a
little
3
(A) Authors differ about the courſe and diſtinctions of theſe fibres; and it ſeems right to obſerve, that the
Itructure of the heart being more coinpact than that of other muſcles, its fibres are not eaſily ſeparated.
(B) Anatomiſts uſually call the upper part of this curvature aorta afcendens; and the other part of the artery
to its diviſion at the iliacs, aorta deſcendens : but they differ about the place where this diſtinction is to be intro-
duced ; and it ſeems fufficiently to anſwer every purpoſe, to ſpeak only of the aorta and its curvature.
Part IV.
A Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
759
Of the little way backwards in a bending direction; and hav- ber. They ariſe from the fore-part of the aorta, and
Of the
Thorax. ing reached the under part of the ear, paſſes through are diſtributed chiefly to the cefophagus. 3. The in- Thorax.
the canal into the os petroſum, and entering into the ferior intercoſtal arteries, which are diſtributed be-
cavity of the cranium, is diſtributed to the brain and tween the ribs in the ſame manner as the arteries of
the membranes which invelope it, and likewiſe to the the three or four ſuperior ribs are, which are derived
eye. The external carotid divides into ſeveral branches, from the ſubclavian. Theſe arteries ſend off branches
which are diſtributed to the larynx, pharynx, and
to the medulla ſpinalis. 4. The diaphragmatic or in-
other parts of the neck; and to the jaws, lips, tongue, ferior phrenic arteries, which go to the diaphragm,
eyes, temples, and all the external parts of the head. ſtomach, omentum, duodenum, pancreas, ſpleen, li-
Each ſubclavian is likewiſe divided into a great num ver, and gall-bladder. 5. The cæliac, which ſends
ber of branches. It ſends off the vertebral artery, off the coronary-ſtomachic, the ſplenic, and the hepa-
which paſſes through the openings we ſee at the bot tic artery. 6. The ſuperior meſenteric artery, which
tom of the tranſverſe proceſſes of the vertebræ of the is diſtributed to the meſentery and ſmall inteſtines.
neck, and in its courſe ſends off many ramifications 7. The emulgents, which go to the kidneys. 8. The
to the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are arteries, which are diſtributed to the glanduíæ renales.
diſtributed to the ſpinal marrow, and after a conſider 9. The ſpermatic. 10. The inferior meſenteric arte-
able infection it enters into the cranium, and is dif- ry, which ramifies through the lower portion of the
tributed to the brain. The ſubclavian likewiſe ſends meſentery and the large inteſtines. A branch of this
off branches to the muſcles of the neck and ſcapula ; artery which goes to the rectum is called the internal
and the mediaſtinum, thymus, pericardium, diaphragin, hæmorrhoidal. 11. The lumbar arteries, and a very
the breaſts, and the muſcles of the thorax, and even ſmall branch called the ſacra, which are diſtributed to
of the abdomen, derive branches from the ſubclavian, the muſcles of the loins and abdomen, and to the os fa-
which are diſtinguiſhed by different namco, alluding crum and medulla ſpinalis.
to the parts to which they are diſtributed; as the main The truk of the aorta, when it has reached the
mary, the phrenic, the intercoſtal, &c. But notwith- laſt vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the
ſtanding the great number of branches which have name of aorta, and ſeparates into two forked branches
been deſcribed as ariſing from the ſubclavian, it is ſtill called the liacs. Each of theſe foon divides into two
a conſiderable artery when it reaches the axilla, where branches; one of which is called the internal iliac, or
it drops its former name, which alludes to its paſſage hypogaftric artery, and is diſtributed upon the contents
under the clavicle, and is called the axıllary artery; of the pelvis and upon the inuſcles on its outer ſide.
from which a variety of branches are diſtributed to the One branch, called pudenda communis, ſends ſınall ra-
muſcles of the breaſt, ſcapula, and arm.But its main mifications to the end of the rectum under the name of
trunk taking the name of brachialis,runs alongon thein- hæmorrhoidales externa, and is afterwards diſtributed
ſide of the arın near the os humeri, tillitreaches the joint upon the penis. The other branch, the external iliac,
or the fore-arm, and then it divides into two branches. after having given off the circumflex artery of the os
This diviſion however is different in different ſubjects; ilium and the epigaſtric, which is diſtributed to the
for in ſome it takes place higher up and in others low- recti-muſcles, patles viitof the abdomen under Poupart's
er down. When it happens to divide above the joint, ligament, and takes the name of crural artery. It de-
it may be conſidered as a happy diſpoſition in caſe of ſcends on the inner part of the thigh cloſe to the os fe-
an accident by bleeding; for ſuppoſing the artery to moris, ſending off branches to the muſcles, and then
be unfortunately punctured by the lancet, and that the ſinking deeper in the hind part of the thigh, reaches
hæmorrhage could only be ſtopped by making a liga- the ham, where it takes the name of popliteal: after
ture on the veſſel, one branch would remain unhurt, this it ſeparates into two conſiderable branches; one of
through which the blood would paſs uninterrupted to which is called the anterior tibial artery ; the other di-
the fore-arm and liand. One of the two branches of vides into tiro branches, and theſe arteries all
go
to be
the brachialis plunges down under the flexor muſcles, diſtributed to the leg and foot.
and rims along the edge of the ulna; while the other The blood, which is thus diſtributed by the aorta to
is carried along the outer ſurface of the radius, and is all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins,
eaſily felt at the wriſt, where it is only covered by the which are ſuppoſed to be continued from the ultimate
common integuments. Both theſe branches commonly branches of arteries ; and uniting together as they ap-
unite in the palm of the hand, and form an arterial proach the heart, at length form the large triunks, the
arch from whence branches are detached to the fin vena cava aſcendens, and vena cava deſcendens.
gers.
All the veins which bring back the blood from the
The aorta, after having given off at its curvature the upper extremities, and from
the head and breaſt, paſs
carotids and ſubclavians which convey blood to all the into the vena cava deſcendens; and thoſe which return
upper parts of the body, deſcends upon the bodies of it from the lower parts of the body terminate in the
the vertebræ a little to the left, as far as the os facrum, vena cava aſcendens; and theſe two cavas uniting to-
where it drops the name of aorta, and divides into gether as they approach the lieart, open by one com-
two conſiderable branches. In this courſe, from its mon orifice into the left auricle.
curvature to its bifurcation, it ſends off ſeveral arteries It does not here ſeem to be neceſſary to follow the
in the following order : 1. One or two little arteries, different diviſions of the veins as we did thoſe of the
firſt demonſtrated by Ruyſch as going to the bronchi, arteries ; and it will be ſufficient to remark, that in
and called arteriæ bronchiales Ruyfchii. 2. The arteriæe general every artery is accompanied by its vein, and
æfophageæ. Theſe are commonly three or four in num that both are diſtinguiſhed by the ſame name. But,
like
I
760
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Part IV.
1
Of the
i
like many other general rules, this too has its excep- contains leſs blood than the ramifications do into which Of the
Thorax. tions (c). The veins, for inſtance, which accompany it is ſubdivided : and it is the ſame with the veins; the Thorax.
the external and internal carorid, are not called the volume of their ſeveral rainifications, when conſidered
carotid veins, but the external and internal jugular, together, being found to exceed that of the great trunk
In the thorax, there is a vein diſtinguiſhed by a proper which they form by their union.
name, and this is the azygos, or vena ſine pari. Thuis The return of the blood through the veins to the
vcin, which is a pretty conſiderable one, runs along heart, is promoted by the action of the muſcles, and
by the right ſide of the vertebræ of the back, and is the pulſation of the arteries. And this return is like-
chiefly deſtined to receive the blood from the inter- wife greatly aſſiſted by the valves which are to be met
coſtals on that fide, and from the lower half of thoſe with in the veins, and which conſtitute one of the
on the left ſide, and to convey it into the vena cava great diſtinctions between them and the arteries.
defcendens, In the abdomen we meet with a vein, Theſe valves, which are ſuppoſed to be formed by the
wlich is ſtill a more remarkable one, and this is the inner coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from
tena porte, which performs the office both of an ar the extremities towards the heart, but oppoſe its return.
tery and a vein. It is formed by a re-union of all They are moſt frequent in thc ſmaller veins. As the
the veins which come from the ſtomach, inteſtines, 0 column of blood increaſes, they ſeem to become leſs
mentvin, pancreas, and ſpleen, fo as to compoſe one neceſſary; and therefore in the vena cava afcendens, wc
great trunk, which goes to ramify through the liver; meet with only one valve, which is near its origin.
and after having depoſited the bile, its ramifications The arteries are coinpoſed of ſeveral tunics. Some
unite and bring back into the vena cava, not only the writers enumerate five of theſe tunics; but perhaps wc
blood which the vena portæ had carried into the liver, may more properly reckon only three, viz. the nervous,
but likewiſe the blood from the hepatic artery. Every muſcular, and cuticular coats. The veins are by ſome
artery has a vein which correſponds with it; but the anatoniſts deſcribed as having the ſame number of
trunks and branches of the veins are inore numerous coats as the arteries; but as they do not ſeem to be
than thoſe of the arteries. The reaſons for this dif- irritable, we cannot with propriety ſuppoſe them to
poſition are perhaps more difficult to be explained; the have a muſcular tunic. We are aware of Dr Verf-
blood in its courſe through the veins is much farther chuir’s * experiments to prove that the jugular and ſome * De Are
removed from the ſource and cauſe of its motion, which other veins poſſeſs a certain degree of irritability ; but teriarum et
are in the lieart, than it was when in the arteries ; ſo it is certain, that his experiments, repeated by others, Venarum vi
that its courſe is conſequently leſs rapid, and enough have produced a different reſult ; and even he himſelf irritabili
,
of it could not poſſibly be brought back to the heart allows, that ſometimes he was unable to diſtinguiſha 4to.
in the moment of its dilatation, to equal the quantity any ſuch property in the veins. Both theſe ſeries of
which is driven into the arteries from the two yen veſſels are nouriſhed by ſtill more minute arteries and
tricles, at the time they contract; and the equilibri- veins, which are ſeen creeping over their coats, and
um which is fo eſſential to the continuance of life and ramifying through their whole lubſtance, and are call-
health would conſequently be deſtroyed, ifthe capacity ed vaſa vaſorum; they have likewiſe many minute
of the veins did not exceed that of the arteries, in the branches of nerves.
ſame proportion that the rapidity of the blood's motion The arteries are much ſtronger than the veins, and
through the arteries exceeds that of its return through they ſeem to require this force to be enabled to reſiſt
the veins.
the impetus with which the blood circulates through
A large artery ramifying through the body, and them, and to impel it on towards the veins.
continued to the minute branches of veins, which gra When the heart contracts, it impels the blood into
dually unite together to form a large trunk, may be the arteries, and ſenſibly diftends them; and theſe vef-
compared to two trees united to each other at their ſels again contract, as the hcart becomes relaxed to re-
tops ; or rather as having their raiìifications ſo dif- ceive more blood from the auricles; ſo that the cauſe
poſed that the two trunks terminate in one common of the contraction and dilatation of the arteries ſeems
point; and if we farther ſuppoſe, that both theſe to be eaſy to be underſtood, being owing in part to
trunks and their branches are hollow, and that a fluid their own contractile power, and in part to the action
is inceſſantly circulated through them, by enter- of the heart ; but in the veins, the effects of this im-
ing into one of the trunks and returning through pulſe not being fo fenſibly felt, and the veſſels them-
the other, we ſhall be enabled to conceive how the Telves having little or no contractile power, the blood
blood is circulated through the veſſels of the human ſeeins to flow in a conſtant and equal Itream: and this,
body.
together with its paſſing gradually from a ſmall chan-
Évery trunk of an artery, before it divides, is nel into a larger one, ſeems to be the reaſon why the
nearly cylindrical, or of equal diameter through its veins have no pulſatory motion, except the large ones
whole length, and ſo are all its branches when exa near the hcart; and in theſe it ſeems to be occaſioned
mined ſeparately. But every truk ſeems to contain by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgi-
leſs blood than the many branches do into which that tation of the blood in the cavas.
trunk feparates ; and each of theſe branches probably
SECT,
2
(c) In the extremities, ſome of the deep-ſeated veins, and all the fuperficial ones, take a courſe different
from that of the arteries.
Part IV.
1
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
761
Of the
Thorax.
of the Sect. XII. Of the Aktion of the Heart, Auricles, arteries and veins, there ſeem to be but very few argu-
'Thorax.
and Arteries,
ments required to demonſtrate the circulation of the
blood, which has long lince been eſtabliſhed as a medi-
127. The heart, at the time it contracts, drives the blood cal truth. This circulation may be defined to be a
from its ventricles into the arteries ; and thc arteries perpetual motion of the blood, in conſequence of the
being thus filled and diſtended, are naturally inclined action of the heart and arteries, which impelit through
to contract the moment the heart begins to dilate, and all the parts of the body, from whence it is brought
ceaſes to ſupply them with blood. Theſe alternate no back by the veins to the licart.
tions of contraction and dilatation of the heart and ar A very ſatisfactory proof of this circulation, and a
teries, are diſtinguiſhed by the names of ſyſtole and dia- proof eaſy to be underſtood, may be deduced from the
jole. When the heart is in a ſtate of contraction or different effects of preſſure on an artcry and a vein. If
lyſtole, the arteries are at that inſtant diftended with a ligature, for inſtance, is paſſed round an artery, thiė
blood, and in their diaſtole ; and it is in this ſtate we veílel ſwells conſiderably between the ligature and the
feel their pulſatory motion, which we call the pulſe. heart; whereas if we tie up a vein, it only becomes
When the heart dilates, and the arteries contract, the filled between the extremity and the ligature, and this
blood isimpelled onwards into the veins, through which is what we every day obſerve in bleeding. The liga-
it is returned back to the heart. While the heart, ture we paſs round the arin on theſe occalions, coin-
however, is in its fyftole, the blood cannot paſs from preſſes the Superficial veins; and the return of the blood
the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in the au through them being inipeded, they become diſtended.
ricles, which are two reſervoirs fornied for this uſe, When the ligature is too looſe, the veins are not ſuf-
till the diaſtole, or dilatation of thcheart, takes place; ficiently compreſſed, and the blood continues its pro-
and then the diſtended auricles contract, and drive the greſs towards the heart; and, on the contrary, when
blood into the ventricles : ſo that the auricles have an it is made too tight, the arteries themſelves become
alternate ſyſtole and diaſtole as well as the heart. compreſſed ; and the flow of the blood through them
Although both the ventricles of the heart contract being impeded, the veins cannot be diſtended.
at the ſame time, yet the blood paſſes from one to the Another phænomenon, which effectually proves the
other. In the ſame moment, for inſtance, that tlie circulation, is the loſs of blood that every living ani-
left ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, the right mal ſuſtains by opening only a ſingle artery of a mode-
Ventricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which rate ſize ; for it continues to flow from the wounded
is diſtributed through all the ſubſtance of the lungs. veſſcl till the equilibrium is deſtroyed which is eiſential
The bloodis afterwards brought back into the left ven to life. This truth was not unknown to the ancients;
tricle by the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that and it ſeems ſtrange that it did not lead them to a
the blood is returned by the cavas, into the right ven- knowledge of the circulation, as it ſufficiently proves,
tricle, from all the other parts of the body.
that all the other veſſels muſt communicate with that
This ſeems to be the mode of action of the heart which is opened. Galen, who lived more than 1500
and its veſſels : but the cauſe of this action has, like years ago, drew this concluſion from it ; and if we fara
all other intricate and intereſting ſubjects, been differ- ther obſerve, that he deſcribes (after Eraſiſtratus, who
ently explained. It ſeems to depend on the ſtimulus flourished about 450 years before him) the ſeveral valves
made on the different parts of the heart by the blood of the heart, and determines their diſpoſition and uſes,
itſelf, which by its quantity and heat, or other proper- it will appear wonderful, that a period of near 2000
ties (D), is perhaps capable of firſt exciting that mo- ycars ſhould afterwards elapfe before the true courſe
tion, which is afterwards continued through life, inde- of the blood was aſcertained. This diſcovery, for
pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood to which we are indebted to the immortal Harvey, las
the auriclcs, in a quantity proportioned to that which tlirown new lights on phyſiology and the doctrine of
is thrown into the arteries.
diſeaſes, and conſtitutes one of the moſt important pe-
The heart poffefſes the vis in ſita, or principle of ir- riods of anatomical hiſtory.
ritability, in a much greater degree than any other
muſcle of the body. The pulſe is quicker in young SECT: XIV. Of the Nature of the Bloods
than in old ſubjects, becauſe the fornici are cæt. par.
more irritable than the latter. Upon the ſame prin BLOOD, recently drawn from a vein into a baſori,
ciple we may explain, why the pulſe is conſtantly would ſeem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co-
quicker in weak than in robuſt perſons.
lour (e); but when ſuffered to reſt, it foon coagulates,
and divides into two parts, which are diſtinguiſhed by
Sect. XIII. Of the Circulation.
the names of cralfamentum and ferum. The craſſamen-
tum is the red coagulum, and the ſerum is the water
148. AFTER what has been obſerved of the ſtructure and in which it floats. Each of theſe may be again ſepa.
action of the 'heart and its auricles, and likewiſe of the rated into two others; for the craſſamentun, by being
Vol. I.
repeatedly
1
129.
5 D
(D) Dr Harvey long ago ſuggeſted, that the blood is poſſeſſed of a living principle ; and Mr J. Hunter has
lately endeavoured to revive this doctrine ; in ſupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments.
The ſubject is a curious one, and deſerves to be proſecuted as an inquiry which cannot but be intereſting to
phyſiologiſts.
(e) Thc blood, as it flows through the arteries, is obſerved to be more florid than it is in the veins; and
this redneſs is acquired in its paſage through the lungs. Vid. ſect. vii,
762
Part IV.
A N
A
*T 0 M Y.
Of the
130.
Of the repeatedly waflıcd in warm water, gives out all its red at a more advanced age ; and theſe fame parts which
Thorax. globules, and what remains appears to be compoſed of conſiſt of bones, cartilages, ligaments, inuſcles, &c. Thorax.
the coagulable lymph (F), which is a gelatinous fub- are fumetimes reduced again by diſeaſe to a gelatinous
ſtance, capable of being hardened by fire tillit becomes ſtate; we may, with ſome degree of probability, con-
perfecily horny : and if we expoſe the ſerum to a cer ſider the coagulable lymph as the ſource of nutrition.
tain degree of heat, part of it will be found to coagu. If the ſupply of nouriſhment exceeds the degree of
late like the white of an egg, and there will remain a waſte, the body increaſes; and this happens in infancy
clear and limpid water, reſembling nrine both in its and in youth : for at thoſe periods, but more particu-
appearance and ſmell.
larly the former one, the fluids bear a large proportion
The ſerum and craſſamentum differ in their propor to the folids; and the fibres being ſoft and yielding,
tion in different conſtitutions ; in a ſtrong perſon, the are proportionably more capable of extenſion and in-
craffamentum is in a greater proportion to the ſerum creaſe. But when the ſupply of nutrition only equals
Hervſon's than in a weakone ;* and the ſame difference is found the waſte, we neither increaſe nor decreaſe ; and we
Ea perim.
to take place in diſeaſes (G).
Lind this to be the caſe when the body has attained its
Eng. Part I,
full growth or acme: for the ſolids having then acqui-
SECT. XV. Of Nutrition,
red a certain degree of firmneſs and rigidity, do not
permit a farther increaſe of the body. But as we ap-
The variety of functions which we have deſcribed proach to old age, rigidity begins to be in exceſs, and
as being inceſantly performed by the living body, and the fluids (h) bear a inuch leſs proportion to the ſolids
the continual circulation of the blood through it, muſt than before. The diſſipation of the body is greater
neceſſarily occafion a conſtant diſſipation of the ſeveral than the ſupply of nouriſhment; many of the ſmaller
parts which enter into its compoſition. In ſpeaking veſſels become gradually impervious (1); and the fibres
of the inſenſible perſpiration, we obſerved how much loſing their moiſture and their elaſticity, appear flaccid
was inceſſantly pafling off from the lungs and the ſur- and wrinkled. The lilies and the roſes diſappear, be-
face of the ſkin. The diſcharge by urine is likewiſe cauſe the fluids by which they were produced can no
cvery day conſiderable ; and great part of the bile, fa- longer reach the extremities of the capillary veſſels of
liva, &c. are excluded by ſtool. But the folid, as well the
ſkin. As theſe changes take place, the nervous
as the fluid parts of the body, require a conſtant re- power being proportionably weakened, the irritability
newal of nutritious particles. They are expoſed to the and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly to
attrition of the fluids which are circulated through remarkable, are greatly diminiſhed; and in advanced
them; and the contraction and relaxation they repeat life, the hearing, the eye-fight, and all the other
ſo many thouſand times in every day, would neceffa- fenſes, become gradually impaired.
rily occaſion a diſſolurion of the machine, if the re-
newal was not proportioned to the waſte.
SECT. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions.
It is eaſy to conceive how the chyle formed from
the aliment is alſimilated into thc nature of blood, and The glands are commonly underſtood to be ſmall,
repairs the loſs of the fluid parts of our body; but roundiſh, or oval bodies fornied by the convolution of
how the folids are renewed, has never yet been fatis. a great number of veſſels, and deſtined to ſeparate par-
factorily explained. The nutritious parts of the blood ticular humonrs from the maſs of blood.
are probably depoſited by the arteries by exſudation They are uſually divided into two claſſes; but it
through their pores into the tela celluloſa ; and as the ſeems more proper to diſtinguiſh three kinds of glands,
folid parts of the body are in the embryo only a kind viz. the mucus, conglobate, and conglomerate.
of jelly, which gradually acquires the degree of con The mucous glands, or follicles, as they are moſt
fiftence they are found to have when the body arrives commonly called, are finall cylindrical tubes continued
from
(F) It ir ay not be improper to obſerve, that till of late the coagulable lymph has been confounded with the
ferum of the blood, which contains a ſubſtance that is likewiſe coagulable, though only when expoſed to heat,
or combined with certain chemical ſubſtances; whereas the other coagulates ſpontaneouſly when expoſed to
the air or to reſt.
(G) When the blood ſeparates into ferum and crafamentum, if the latter be covered with a cruſt of a whi.
tiſh or buff colour, it has been uſually conſidered as a certain proof of the blood's being in a ſtatc of too great
viſcidity. This appearance comiwonly taking place in inflammatory diſeaſes, has long ſerved to confirm the
theory which aſcribes the cauſe of inflammation to lentor and obſtructions. But from the late Mr Hewſons'
experiments it appears, that when the action of the arteries is increaſed, the blood, inſtead of being more
viſcid, is, on the contrary, more fluid than in the ordinary ſtate, previous to infiammation : and that in
conſequence of this, the coagulable lymph ſuffers the red globules, which are the heavieſt part of the blood,
to fall down to the bottom before it coagulates : ſo that the craſſamentum is divided into two parts; one of
which is found to conliſt of the coagulable lymph alone (in this caſe terined the buf); and the other, partly
of this and partly of the red globules.
(1) As the Anids become leſs in proportion to the folids, their acrimony is found to increaſe ; and this may
perhaps compenſate for the want of Auidity in the blood by diminiſhing its cohelion.
(1) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in reſpect to the veins, and the lymphatic glands are
larger than at any other time of life; whereas, in old age, the capacity of the venous ſyſtem exceeds that of
the arteries, and the lymphatic ſyſtem almoſt diſappears.
Part IV.
Α Ν Α Τ 0 M Y.
763
Of the
L'horari
of the from the ends of arteries. In ſome parts of the body, juices, are generated from a ſimilar caure. Bur it ſeems
as in the tonſils, for example, ſeveral of theſe follicles to be impollible for any liquor to be confined in a Thorax.
may be ſeen folded together in one common covering, place expoſed to the circulation, without being car
and opening into one common ſinus. Theſe follicles ried away by the torrent of blood, every part of which
are the veſels that ſecrete and pour out mucus in the would be equally affected ; and this ſyſtem of fermen-
outh, eſophagus, ſtomach, inteſtines, and other tation has long been rejected as vague and chimerical.
parts of the body.
But as the cauſe of secretion continued to be looked
The conglobate glands are peculiar to the lymphalic for in the fluids, the former ſyſtem was ſucceeded by
fyftem. Every lymphatic vein paſſes through a gland another, in which recourſe was had to the analogy of
of this kind in its way to the thoracic duct. They are the humours. It was obſerved, that if paper is moiſt-
met with in different parts of the body, particularly ened with water, and oil and water art afterwards
in the axilla, groin, and meſentery, and are either fo- poured upon it, that the water only will be permitted
litary or in diſtinct cluſters.
to paſs through it; but that, on the other hand, if the
The conglomerate glands are of much greater bulk paper has been previously ſoakedin oil inſtead of water,
than the conglobate, and ſeem to be an allemblage of the oil only, and not the water,will be filtered through
many ſmaller glands. Of this kind are the liver, kid- it. Theſe obſervations led to a fuppofition, that every
neys, &c. Some of them, as the pancreas, parotids, ſecretory organ is originally furnithed with a humour
&c. have a granulated appearance. All theſe conglo- analagous to that which it is afterwards deſtined to
merate glands are plentifully fapplied with blood- ſeparate from the blood; and that in conſequence of
veffels ; but their nerves are in general very minute, this diſpoſition, the ſecretory veſſels of the liver, for
and few in number. Each little granulated portion inſtance, will only admit the bilious particles of the
furniſhes a ſmall tube, which unites with other ſimi- blood, while all the other humours will be excluded.
iar ducts, to form the common excretory duct of the This ſyſtem is an ingenious one, but the difficulties
gland.
with which it abounds are unanſwerable; for oil and
The principal glands, and the humours they ſecrete, water are immiſcible; whereas the blood, as it is cir-
have been already deſcribed in different parts of this culated through the body, appears to be an homoge.
work; and there only remains for us to examine the nous fluid. Every oil will paſs through a paper
general ſtructure of the glands, and to explain the me moiſtened only with one kind of oil; and wine, or
Chaniſm of ſecretion. On the firſt of theſe ſubjects ſpirits mixed with water, will eaſily be filtered through
two different ſyſtems have been formed; each of which a paper previouſly ſoaked in water. Upon the ſaine
has had, and ſtill continue to have, its adherents. principle, all our humours, though differing in their
One of theſe fyftems was advanced by Malpighi, who other properties, yet agreeing in that of being perfect-
ſuppoſed that an artery entering into a gland ramifies ly miſcible with each other, will all eaſily paſs through
very minutely through its whole ſubſtance; and that the ſame filtre. But theſe are not all the objections
its branches últimately terminate in a veficular cavity to this ſyſtem. The humours which are ſuppoſed to
or follicle, from whence the ſecreted fluid paſſes out be placed in the ſecretory veſſels for the determina-
through the excretory duct. This doctrine at firſt tion of limilar particles of the biood, muſt be originally
met with few opponents; but the celebrated Ruyſch, ſeparated without any analogous fluid; and that which
who firſt attempted minute injections with wax, after- happens once, may as ealily happen always. Again,
wards diſputed the exiſtence of theſe follicles, and af- it ſometimes happens from a vicious diſpolition, that
ſerted, that every gland appears to be a continued ſe- humours are filtered through glands which are natu-
ries of veſſels, which after being repeatedly convolu- rally not intended to afford them a paſſage ; and when
ted in their courſe through its ſubſtance, at length ter- this once has happened, it ought, according to this
minate in the excretory duct. Anatomiſts are ſtill ſyſtem, to be expected always to do ſo: whereas this
divided between theſe two ſyſtems: that of Malpighi, is not the caſe; and we are, after all, naturally led to
however, ſeems to be the beſt founded.
ſeek for the cauſe of ſecretion in the ſolids. It does
The mode of ſecretion has been explained in a va not ſeem right to aſcribe it to any particular figure of
riety of ways, and they are all perfectly hypothetical. the ſecretory vefſels; becauſe the ſoft texture of thoſe
In ſuch an inquiry it is natural to aſk, how one gland parts does not permit them to preſerve any conſtant
conſtantly ſeparates a particular humour, while another thape, and our fluids ſeem to be capable of accommo-
gland ſecretes one of a very different nature from the dating themſelves to every kind of figure. Some have
blood? The bile, for inſtance, is ſeparated by the imputed it to the difference of diameter in the orifices
liver, and the urine by the kidneys. Are theſe ſecre. of the different ſecretory veſſels. To this doctrinė
tions to be imputed to any particular diſpoſitions in the objections have likewiſe been raiſed; and it has been
fluids, or is their cauſe to be looked for in the ſolids ? argued, that the veſſels of the liver, for inſtance,
It has been ſuppoſed, that every gland contains would, upon this principle, afford a pallage not only to
within itſelf a fermenting principle, by which it is the bile, but to all the other humours of leſs confift-
enabled to change the nature of the blood it receives, ence with it. In reply to this objection, it has been
and to endue it with a particular property. So that, fuppoſed, that ſecondary vellels exiſt, which originate
according to this ſyſtem, the blood, as it circulates from the firſt, and permit all the humours thinner than
through the kidneys, becomes mixed with the ferment- the bile to paſs through them.
ing principle of thoſe glands, and a part of it is con Each of theſe hypotheſes is probably very remote
verted into urine; and again, in the liver, in the fa- from the truth.
lival and other glands, the bile, the ſaliva, and other
EXPLANA.
SD 2
2
764
Part V.
A
Y.
>
Ν' Α Τ Ο ο
Μ
Of the
Thorax.
of the
Thorax.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVIII.
This plare repreſents the Heart in ſitu, all the large right carotid arteries. G, The carotis externa. H, Ar-
Arteries and Veins, with ſome of the Muſcles, &c. teria facialis, which fends off the coronary arteries of
MUSCLES, &C. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.-a, Maf- the lips. I, Arteria temporalis profunda. K, Aor-
feter. b, Complexus. C, Digaſtricus. d, Os hyoides. ta deſcendens. LL, Tliciliac arteries,—which ſends
e, Thyroid gland. f, Levator fcapulæ. g, Cuculla- off MM, Thc femoral or crural arteries. N. B. The
ris. hh, The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid muſcle. Other arteries in this figure have the ſame diſtribution as
k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachialis. the veins of the ſame name : And generally, in the
m, Triceps extenſor cubiti. n, The heads of the pro- anatomical plates, the deſcription to be found on the
nator teres, flexor carpi radiales, and flexor digitorum one ſide, points out the ſame parts in the other.
fublimis, cut. 0, The flexor carpi-ulnaris, cut at its I, The frontal vein. 2, .The facial vein. 3, Vena
extremity. P, Flexor digitorum profundus. q, Supi- temporalis profunda. 4. Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena
ulator radii longus, cut at its extremity. r, Ligamen- jugularis externa. 6, Venajugularis interna, covering
tum carpi tranſverſale. S, Extenſores carpi radiales. the arteria carotis communis. 7, The vaſcular arch on
t, Latiſſimus dorſi. 1, Anterior edge of the ſerratus the palm of the hand, which is formed by,8, The radial
anticus major. vv, The inferior part of the dia- artery and vein, and, 9, The ulnar artery and vein.
phragm. ww, Its anterior edge cut. xx, The kid 10 10, Cephalic vein. II, Baſilic vein, that on the
neys. y, Tranſverſus abdominis. z, Os iliuni.
right ſide cut. 12, Median vein.
13, The humeral
INFERIOR EXTREMITY.-a, Pſoas magnus. b, Ili- vein, which, with the median, covers the humeral ar-
acus internus. 6, The fleſliy origin of the tenfor va tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mammary ar-
gina femoris. dd, The offa pubis cut from each other. teries and veins. 15. The axillary vein, covering the
e, Muſculus pectineus cut from its origin. f, Short artery. 16 16, The ſubclavian veins, which, with
head of the triceps abductor femoris cut. 8, The great (66) the jugulars, forn, 17, The vena cava fupe-
head of the triceps. h, The long head cut. i, Vaſtus rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore part
internus. k, Vaſtus cxternus. 1, Crureus. m, Gemel- of the foot. 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering
las 11, Soleus. 0, Tibia. p, Peronæus longus. 9, Pe- the artery. 20, The vena profunda femoris, covering
ronæus brevis. r, Fibula.
the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena ſaphena
HEART and BLOOD-VESSELS.-A, The Heart, with major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac
the coronary artery and veins. B, The right auricle veins. 24 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal
of the heart. C, The aorta aſcendens. D, The left veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragma-
ſubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The tic veinş.
common trunk which ſends off the right ſubclavian and
PART V. OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
133
In tegu.
SECT. I. Of the Brain and its Integuments.
and the pericranium. The dura mater (M) is perfeita
ly ſmooth and inelaſtic, and its inner ſurface is conſtant-
1320
HE bones of the cranium were deſcribed in the ly bedewed with a fine pellucid Auid, which every where
oſteological part of this work,asincloſing the brain, feparates it from the pia mater. The dura mater ſends
and defending it from external injury: but they are not off ſeveral conſiderable proceſſes which divide the brain
its only protection ; for when we make an horizontal into ſeparate portions, and prevent them from compref-
.
ments of ſection through theſe bones, we find this maſs every- fing each other. Of theſe proceſſes there is one fupe.
the brain. where ſurrounded by twomembranes (K), the dura and rior, and longitudinal, called the falx, or falcifor192 pro-
pia mater.---The firſt of theſe lines the interior ſurface cofs, from its reſemblance to a ſcythe. It ariſes front
of the cranium, to which it everywhere adheres ſtrong- the ſpine oftheos frontis,near the chriſta galli, and ex-
ly (1), but more particularly at the futures, and at the tending along in the direction of the fagittal ſuture, to
many foramina through which veſſels paſs between it beyond the lambdoidal future divides the brain into two
hemif-
(K) The Greeks called theſe membranes meninges; but the Arabians, fuppoſing thein to be the ſource of all
the other membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the names of dura and pia mater; by which they are
now uſually diſtinguiſhed.
(1) In young fubjects this adheſion is greater than in adults ; but even then, in the healthy ſubject, it is no
where calily ſeparable, without breaking through ſome of the minute veſſels by means of which it is attached
to the bone.
(M) This membrane is commonly deſcribed as conſiſting of two laminæ ; of which the external one is ſuppo-
fed lo perform the office of perioſteum internum to the cranium, while the internal one forms the folds and
proceſſes of the dura mater. In the natural ſtate, however, no ſuch feparation is apparent ; like other mem-
branes, we may indeed divide it, nou into two only, but many laminæ ; but this diviſion is artificial, and depends.
on the dexterity of thc anatomist..
Plate XXVII
ANATOMY
:
S
9
ch
a
:
प
V.
GE
10
OT
Et
IL
TT.
13
Ill
m
t
Pa
WC
Z
IZ
29
can
1
-
다
​q
Vk
k
i
d
m
72
1
in
18
se
be
Soot Philada
u
Part V
765
Α Ν Α Τ Τ Ο Μ ¥.
Of the
I 34
Of the hemiſpheres. A little below the lambdoidal ſuture, it brain are diſtributed through it in their way to thator-
Prain and divides into two broad wings or expanſions called the gan,
and are therefore divided into very minute rami- Brain and
Nerves. tranſverſe or lateral proceſſes, which prevents the lobcs fications, before they penetrate the ſubſtance of the Nerves.
of the cerebrum froin preſſing on the cerebellum. Be brain
ſides theſe there is a fourth, which is ſituated under There are ſeveral parts included under the general The brain.
the tranſverſe proceſſes, and being continued to the denomination of brain. One of theſe, which is of the
ſpine of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two ſofteſt conſiſtence, and fills the greateſt part of the ca-
lobes.
vity of the cranium, is the cerebrum, or brain, properly
The blood, after being diſtributed through the ca ſo called. Another portion, which is ſeated in the in-
vity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is return ferior and poſterior part of the head, is the cerebellunı ;
ed, as in the other parts of the body, by veins which and a third, which derives its origin from both theſe,
ali paſs on to certain channels, ſituated behind theſe
is the medulla oblongata,
135
ſeveral proceſſes.
The cerebrum is a medullary maſs of a moderate con- Cerebrum,
Theſe canals or ſinuſes cominunicate with each other, ſiſtence, filling up exactly all the upper part of the ca-
and empty themſelves into the internal jugular veins, vity of the cranium, and divided into two hemiſpheres
which convey the blood into the vena cava. They are by the falx of the dura mater. Each of theſe hemif-
in fact triangular veins, running through the ſubſtance pheres is uſually diſtinguiſhed into an interior, a middle,
of the dura mater, and, like the proceſſes, are diſtin and e poſterior lobe. The firſt of theſe is lodged on the
guiſhed into longitudinal and lateral ; and where theſe orbital proceſſes of the us frontis; the middle lobes lie
three meet, and where the fourth proceſs paſſes off, we on the middle foſfæ of the baſis of the cranium, and the
obſerve a fourth ſinus, which is called torcular ; Hero- poſterior lobes are placed on the tranſverſe ſeptum of
philus, who firſt deſcribed it, having ſuppoſed that the the os occipitis, immediately over the cerebellum, from
blood at the union of theſe two veins, is as it were, in which they are ſeparated by the lateral proceſſes of the
a preſs.
dura mater. Theſe two portions afford no diſtinguiſh-
Beſides theſe four canals, which were known to the ing mark of ſeparation ; and on this account Haller,
ancients, modern anatomiſts enumerate inany others, and many other modern anatomiſts, omit the diſtinc-
by giving the appellation of finufesto other veins of the tion of middle lobe, and ſpeak only of the anterior and
dura mater, which for the moſt part empty theinſelves poſterior lobes of the brain.
into ſome of thoſe we have juſt now deſcribed. There The cerebrum appears to be compoſed of two diſ-
are the inferior longitudinal ſinus, the ſuperior and in- tinct ſubſtances. Of theſe, the exterior one, which is
ferior petrous ſinuſes, the cavernous ſinules, the circu-
of a greyiſh or aſh-colour, is called the cortex, and is
lar finus, and the anterior and poſterior occipital fi. fomewhat ſofter than the other, which is very white,
nuſes.
and is called medulla or fubftantia alba.
Theſe ſinuſes or veins, by being conveyed through a After having reinoved the falx, and ſeparated the
thick denſe membrane, firmly ſuſpended, as the dura two hemiſpheres from each other, we perceive a white
mater is, within the cranium, are leſs liable to rupture; convex body, the corpus calloſum, which is a portion
at the ſame time they are well ſupported, and by run- of the medullaryſubtance, uniting the two hemiſpheres
ning every where along the inner ſurface of the bones,
to each other, and not inveſted by the cortex. Ву
they are prevented from preſſing on the ſubſtance of the making an horizontal inciſion in the brain, on a level
brain. To prevent too great a dilatation of them, we with this corpus calloſum, we diſcover two oblong ca-
find filaments (called chorda Willifi, from their having vities, named the anterior or later al ventricles, one in
been firſt noticed by Willis) ſtretched acroſs their ca each hemiſphere. Theſe two ventricles, which com-
vities; and the oblique manner in which the veins from municate with each other by a hole immediately under
the brain run through the ſubſtance of the brain into the plexus choroides, are ſeparated laterally by a very
theſe channels, ſerves the purpoſe of a valve, which fine medullary partition, called
ſeptum lucidum, from its
prevents the blood from turning back into the ſmaller thinneſs and tranſparency. The lower edge of this
and weaker veſſels of the brain.
ſeptum is fixed to the fornix, which is a kind of me-
The pia mater is a much ſofter and finer membrane dullary arch (as its name implies) ſituated under the
than the dura mater ; being exceedingly delicate, tran-
corpus calloſum, and nearly of a triangular ſhape. A1-
ſparent, and vaſcular. It inveſts every part of the brain teriorly the fornix ſends off two medullary chords, cal-
and ſends offan infinite number of elongations, which led its anterior crura; which ſeem to be united to each
inſinuate themſelves between the convolutions, and other by a portion of medullary ſubſtance, named 00112 -
even into the ſubſtance of the brain. This membrane miffura anterior cerebri. Theſe crura diverging from
is compoſed of two laminæ ; of which the exterior one
one another, are loſt at the outer ſide of the lower and
is named tunica arachnoidea, from its thinneſs, which is fore-part of the third ventricle. Poſteriorly the fornix
equal to that of a ſpider's web. Theſe two laminæ are
is formed into two other crura, which unite with two
intimately adlierent to each other at the upper part of medullary protuberances called pedes hippocampi, and
the brain, but are eaſily ſeparable at the baſis of the
ſometimes cornua ammonis, that extend along the back-
brain, and through the whole length of the medulla
part of the lateral ventricles. The coucave edge of the
ſpinalis. The external layer, or tunica arachnoidea, pedes hippocampi is covered by a medullary lamina,
appears to be ſpread uniformly over the ſurface of the
called corpus fimbriatum.
brain, but without entering into its furrows as the in-
Neither the edges of the fornix, nor its poſterior
ner layer does; the latter being found to infinuate it-
crura, can be well diſtinguiſhed, till we have removed
ſelf between the convolutions, and even into tlie inte-
the plexus choroides. This is a production of the pia
rior cavities of the brain. The blood-veſſels of the
mater, which is ſpread over the lateral ventricles. Its
loafo
1
766
Part V.
A Ν Α Τ Ο
Τ Ο Μ
Y.
Nerves.
Nerves.
Of the looſe edges are collected, ſo as to appear like a vaſcu- terminates, was by the ancients ſuppoſed to be of a Of thc
Brain and lar band on cach ſide.
glandular ſtructure, and deſtined to filter the ſeroſity of Brain and
When we have removed this plexus, we diſcover the brain. Spigelius pretended to have diſcovered its
ſeveral other protuberances included in the lateral excretory duct, but it ſeems certain that no ſuch duct
ventricles. Theſe are the corpora ftriatas
, the thala- exiſts. It is of an oblong ſhape, compoſed, as it were
mi nervorum opticorum, the tubercula quadruge- of two lobes.
of two lobes. In ruminant animals it is much larger
mina, and the pineal gland.
than in man.
The corpora ftriata are two curved oblong eminen From the poſterior part of the third ventricle, we fee
ces, that extend along the anterior part of the lateral a ſmall groove or cliannel, deſcending obliquely back-
ventricles. They derive their name fronı their ſtriated wards. This channel, which is called the aqueduct of
appearance, which is owing to an intermixture of the Sylvius, though it was known to the ancients, opens
cortical and medullary fubitances of the brain. The into another cavity of the brain, placed between the
thalami nervorum opticorum, are ſo called, becauſe the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and called the
136
optic nerves ariſe chiefly from them, and they are like- fourth ventricle.
Cerebellum
wiſe compoſed both of the cortex and medulla. They The cerebellum, which is divided into two lobes, is
are ſeparated from the corpora ſtriata only by a kind commonly ſuppoſed to be of a firmer texture than the
of medullary chord, the geminum centrun ſemi-circu- cerebrum ; but the truth is, that in the greater number
lare. The thalami are nearly of an oval ſhape, and of ſubjects, there appears to be no ſenſible difference in
are ſituated at the bottom of the upper cavity of the la the confiſtance of theſe two parts. It has more of the
teral ventricles. They are cloſely united, and at their cortical than of the medullary ſubſtance in its compo-
convex part ſeem to become one body.
ſition.
Anteriorly, in the ſpace between the thalami, we
The furrow that divides the two lobcs of the cere-
obſerve an orifice by which the lateral ventricles con bellum leads anteriorly to a proceſs, compoſed of nie-
municate, and another leads down from this, under the dullary and cortical ſubſtances, covered by the pia ma.
different appellations of foramen commune anterius, ter; and which, from its being divided into numerous
yulva iter ad infundibulum, but more properly iter ad furrows, reſembling the rings of the earth-worm, is
tertium ventriculum; and the ſcparation of the thala named proceffus vermiformis. This proceſs forms a
mi from each other poſteriorly, fornis another open kind of ring in its courſe between the lobes.
ing or interſtice called anus. This bas been ſuppoſed
The ſurface of the cerebellum docs not afford thoſe
to communicate with the third ventricle; but it does circumvolutions which appear in the cerebrum ; but
not, the bottom of it being ſhut up by the pia mater. inſtead of theſe, we obſerve a great number of minute
The back part of the anus is formed by a kind of me- furrows, running parallel to each other, and nearly
dallary band, which connects the thalami to each in a tranſverſe direction. The pia mater inſinuates it-
other, and is called commiffura poſterior cerebri. fell into theſe furrows.
Behind the thalami and conimiſſura poſterior, we When we cut into the ſubſtance of the cerebellum,
obſerve a ſmall, foft, greyiſh, and oval body, about the from above downwards, we find the modullary part
fize of a pea. This is the glandula pinealis; it is de running in a kind of ramifying courſe, and exhibiting
ſcribed by Galen under the
name of conarion, and has an appearance that has got the name of arbor vită.
been rendered famous by Deſcartes, who ſuppoſed it Thieſe ramifications unite to form a medullary trunk;
to be the ſeat of the ſoul. Galen ſeems formerly to the middle, anterior, and moſt conſiderable part of
have entertained the ſame opinion. Some moderni
Some inodern which forms two proceſſes, the crura cerebelli; which
writers have, with as little reaſon, imagined that the unite with the crura cerebri, to forin the medula ob-
ſoul is placed in the corpus calloſum.
longata. The laſt furniſhes two other proceſſes, which
The pineal gland reſts upon four remarkable eni- loſe themſelves under the nates, and thus unite the
nences, diſpoſed in pairs, and ſeated immediately below lobes of the cerebellum to the poſterior part of the ce-
it. Theſe tubercles, which by the ancients were called rebrum. Under the nates we obſerve a tranſverſe me-
teftes and nates, have, fince the time of Winilow, been dullary line, or linea alba, running from one of theſe
more commonly named tubercula quadrugemina. proceſſes to the other ; and between then we find a
Under the thalami we obſerve another cavity, the very thin medullary lamina, covered with the pia ma-
third ventricle, which terminates anteriorly in a ſmall ter, which the generality of anatomiſts have though
medullary canal, the infundibulum, that leads to the ſeemingly without reaſon) confidered as a valve formed
glandula pituitaria. It has been doubted, whether the for cloſing the cominunication between the fourth ven-
infundibulum is really hollow ; but ſome late experi. tricle and the aquæductus Sylvii. Vieuſſens named it
* Difp. de ments on this parts of the brain* by Profeſſor Murray valvula major cerebri.
Infundibulo of Upſal, clearly prove it to be a medullary canal, fur. The medulla oblongata is ſituated in the middle, Medulla
rounded by both laminæ of the pia mater. 'After ſree. lower, and poſterior part of the cranium, and may be oblongata,
zing the brain, this channel was found filled with ice; conſidered as a production or continuation of the
+ Ratio and de Haen tells t us, he found it dilated, and filled whole medullary ſubſtance of the cerebrum and cere-
with a calcareous inatter (N).
bellum, being fornied by the union of two conſiderable
tom. vi.
The ſoft ſpongy body in which the infundibulum inedullary proceſſes of the cerebrum,called crura cere.
P. 271.
bri,
137
Cerebri.
Med.
(N) The under part of it, however appears to be impervious ; at leaſt no injection that can be depended on
has been made to paſs from it into the glandula pituitaria without laceration of parts.
Part V.
Α Ν Α Τ ο Μ Y.
767
of the
Nerves,
Nerves.
Of the bri, with two other ſmaller ones from the cerebellum, wo in number, and are ſeen running on each ſide of
Brain and which were juſt now ſpoken of under the name of cru the medullary column, from the foramen magnuin of l'rain and
ra cerebelli.
the os occipitis to the lower part of the os ſacrum.
The crura cerebri ariſe from the middle and lower They communicate together by ramifying branches at
part of each hemiſphere. They are ſeparated from each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebral, inter-
each other at their origin, but are united below, where coſtal, and ſacral veins.
they terminate in a middle protuberance, the pons Va The pia inater is connected with the dura mater by
roli, ſo called, becauſe Varolius conipared it to a mcans of a thin tranſparent ſubſtance, which irom its
bridge. This name, however, can convey no idea of indentations between the ſpinalnerves hasobtained the
its real appearance. It is, in fact, nothing more than name of ligament u 112 denticulatum. It is ſomewhat
a medullary protuberance, nearly of a ſemi-ſpherical firmer than the tunica arochnoidea, but in other re-
ſhape, which unites the crura cerebri to thoſe of the ſpects reſembles that inembrane. Its uſe is to ſupport
cerebellum.
the ſpinal marrow, that it may not affect the medulla
Between the crura cerebri, and near the anterior oblongata hy its weight.
edge of the pons Varolii, are two tubercles, compoſed The ſpinal marrow itſelf is externally of a white co-
externally of inedullary, and internally of cineritious, lour ; but upon cutting into it we find its middle-part
ſubſtance, to which Euftachius firſt gave the name of compoſed of a darker coloured maſs, reſembling the
eminentiæ manillares.
cortex of the brain. When the marrow has reached
Along the middle of the poſterior ſurface of the me the firſt lumbar vertebra, it becomes extremely narow,
dulla oblongata, where it forms the anterior part of and at length terminates, in an oblong protuberance;
the fourth ventricle, we obſerve a kind of furrow from the extremity of which the pia mater ſends off a
which runs downwards and terminates in a point. A- prolongation or ligament, reſembling a nerve, that
bout an inch above the lower extremity of this fiſſure, perforates the dura mater, and is fixed to the os coc-
ſeveral medullary filaments are to be ſeen running to- cygis.
wards it on each ſide in an oblique direction, ſo as to The medulla ſpinalis gives riſe to 30 or 31 pair of
give it the appearance of a writing-pen; hence it is nerves, but they are not all of the ſame lize, nor do
called calamus fcriptorius.
they all run in the ſame direction. The upper ones
From the poſterior part of the pons Varolii, the me are thinner than the reſt, and are placed almoſt tranſ-
dulla oblongata deſcends obliquely backwards: at its verſely: as we deſcend we find them running more
fore-part, immediately behind the pons Varolii, we and morely obliquely downwards, till at length their
obferve two pair of eminences, which were deſcribed courſe is almoſt perpendicular, ſo that the lowermoſt
by Euftachius, but received no particular appellation nerves exhibit an appearance that is called cauda eqii-
till the time of Vieuſſens, who gave them the names na, from its reſemblance to a horſe's tail.
of corpora olivaria and corpora pyramidalia. The for The arteries that ramify through the different parts
mer are the outermoſt, being placed one on each ſide. of the brain, are derived from the internal carotid and
They are nearly of an oval ſhape, and are compoſed from the vertebral arteries. The medulla ſpinalis is
of medulla, with ſtreaks of cortical ſubſtance. Be- ſupplied by the anterior and poſterior ſpinal arteries,
tween theſe are the corpora pyrannidalia, each of and likewiſe receives branches, from the cervical, the
which terminates in a point. In the human ſubject inferior and ſuperior intercoſtal, the lumbar, and the
theſe four eminences are ſometimes not eaſily diſtin- facral arteries.
guiſhed.
The medulla ſpinalis, or Spinal marrow, which is
SECT. II. Of the Nerves.
Medulla the name given to the medullary chord that is extend-
fpinalis. ed down the vertebral canal, froin the great foramen The nerves are medullary chords, differing from 139.
of the occipital bone to the bottom of the laſt lumbar each other in ſize colour and contiſtence and de-
vertebra, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata. riving their origin from the medulla oblongata and me-
Like the other parts of the brain, it is inveſted by the dulla ſpinalis. There are 39, and ſometimes 40, pair
dura and pia matcr. The firſt of theſe, in its paſſage of theſe nerves ; nine (o) of which originate from the
ont of the cranium, adheres to the foramen of the os medulla oblongata, and 30 or 31 from the medulla fpi-
occipitis. Its connection with the ligamentary ſub- nalis. They appear to be perfectly inelaſtic, and like-
ſtance that lines the cavity of the ſpine, is only by wiſe to poſſeſs no irritability. If we irritate muſcular
ineans of cellular membrane ; but between the ſeveral fibres, they immediately contract ; but nothing of this
vertebræ, where the nerves paſs out of the ſpine, it fort happens if we irritate a nerve. They carry with
ſends off prolongations, which adhere ſtrongly to the them a covering from the pia mater ; but derive no tu-
vertebral ligaments. Here, as in the cranium, the nic from the dura mater, as hath been generally, though
dura mater has its ſinuſes or large veins. There are crroneoufly, ſuppoſed, ever ſince the time of Galen (P),
138
the
(0) It has been uſual to deſcribe the ten pair of nerves as ariſing froin the medulla oblongata ; but as the tenth
pair ariſe in the fame manner as the other ſpinal nerves, Santorini, Heifter, Haller, and others, ſeem very
properly to have claffed them among the nerves of the ſpine.
(r). Baron Haller and Profeſſor Zinn ſeem to have been the firſt who demonſtrated, that the dura mater is re-
flected
upon and adheres to the perioſteum at the edges of the foramina that afford a paſſage to the nerves out of
the cranium, and vertebral canal, or is foon loft in the cellular ſubſtance.
768
Part V.
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Y
Of the
Brain and
Nerves,
the outer covering of the nerves being in fact nothing fix; the number of the latter depending on the number Of the
more than the cellular inembrane. This covering is of holes in the os facrum. Each ſpinal nerve at its ori- Brain and
very thick where the nerve is expoſed to the action of gin is compoſed of two faſciculi of medullary fibres. Nerves.
muſcles ; but where it runs through a bony canal, or One of theſe faſciculi ariſes from the anterior, and the
is ſecure from preſſure, the cellular tunic is extremely other from the poſterior, ſurface of the medulla. Theſe
thin, or altogether wanting. We have inſtances of faſciculi are ſeparated by the ligamentum denticulatun,
this in the portio mollis of the auditory nerve, and in after which we find them contiguous to one another.
the nerves of the heart.
They then perforate the dura mater, and unite to forin
By elevating, carefully and gently, the brain from a conſiderable knot or ganglion. Each of theſe gan-
the balis of the cranium, we find the firſt nine pair a glions ſends off two branches; one anterior, and the
riſing in the following order : 1. The nervi olfactorii, other poſterior. The anterior branches communicate
diftributed through the pituitary membrane, which with each other at their coming out of the ſpine, and
conſtitutes the organ of ſmell. . 2. The optici, which likewiſe ſend off one, and ſometimes more branches,
go to the eyes, where they receive the impreilions of to alliſt in the formation of tlie intercoſtal nerve.
viſible objects. 3. The oculorun motores, ſo called The knots or ganglions of the nervcs juſt now fpo-
becauſe they are diſtributed to the muſcles of the eye. ken of, are not only to be met with at their exit from
4. The pathetici, diſtributed to the ſuperior oblique the ſpine, but likewiſe in various parts of the body.
inuſcles of the eyes, the motion of which is exprelive They occur in the nerves of the medulla oblongata, as
of certain paſſions of the ſoul. 5. The nerves of this well as in thoſe of the ſpine. They are not che effects
pair foon divide into three principal branches, and each of diſeaſe, but are to be met with in the ſame parts of
of theſe has a different name. Its upper diviſion is the the fame nerves, both in tlic fætus and adult. They
ophthalamicus, which is diftributed to various parts of are commonly of an oblong ſhape, and of a greyiſh co-
the eyes, eye-lids, forehead, noſe, and integuments lour, ſomewhat inclined to red, which is perhaps ow-
of the face. The ſecond is called the maxillaris fu- ing to their being extremely vaſcular. Internally we
perior, and the third maxillaris inferior; both which are able to diſtinguiſh ſomething like an intermixture
names allude to their diſtribution. 6. The abductores; of the nervous filaments.
each of theſe nerves is diſtributed to the abductor muſ Some writers have conſidered them'as fo many little
cle of the eye, ſo called, becaufe it helps to draw the brains ; Lanciſi fancied he had diſcovered muſcular
globe of the eye from the noſe. 7. The auditorii (e), fibres in them, but they are certainly not of an irrita-
which are diſtributed through the organs of hearing. blc nature. A late writer, Dr Johnſtone*, imagines * Efays os
8. The pár vagum, which derives its name froin the they are intended to deprive us of the power of the will the Uſe of
great number of parts to which it gives branches both over certain parts, as the heart, for inſtance : but if the Gangli
in the thorax and abdomen. 2. The linguales, or hy. this hypothelis were well founded, we ſhould meet with ons of the
po-gloſſi, which are diſtributed to the tongue, and ap- them only in the nerves leading to involuntary mur.
pear to contribute both to the organ of taſte and to the cles ;, whereas it is certain, that the voluztary muſcles
motions of the tongue (R R).
receive their nerves through ganglions. Doctor Mon-
It has already been obſerved, that the ſpinal mar ro, from obſerving the accurate intermixture of the
row ſends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves; theſe are chiefly minute nerves which compoſe them, conſiders them as
diſtributed to the exterior parts of the trunk and to the new ſources of nervous energyt.
+ Obfervaa
extremities. They are commonly diſtinguiſhed into The nerves, like the blood-veſſels, in their courſe tions on the
the cervical dorſal, lümbar, and ſacral nerves. The through the body, communicate with each other ; -and Nervous
cervical, which paſs out from between the ſeveral yer each of theſe communications conſtitutes what is call.
tebræ of the neck, are eight (s) in number ; the dor- ed a plexus, from whence branches are again detached
(al, twelve ; the lumbar, five; and the facral, five or to different parts of the body. Some of theſe are con-
4
Itant
Norves.
(e) This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus auditorius internus, ſeparates into two branches. One
of theſe is of a very ſoft and pulpy conſiſtence, is called the portio mollis of the ſeventh pall, and is ſpread
over thc inner part of the ear. The other paſſes out through the aqueduct of Fallopius in a firm chord, which
is diſtinguiſhed as the portio dura, and is diſtributed to the external ear and other parts of the neck and face.
(r) Heiſter has ſummed up the oſes of theſe nine pair of nerves in the following Latin-verſes :
" Olfaciens, cernens, oculos que movens, patien)que,
“Gaftans, abducens, audienfque, vaganſque, loquenſque.''
(s) Beſides theſe, there is another pair called aceſſorii, which ariſes from the medulla ſpinalis at its begin-
ning ; and aſcending through the great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, paſſes out again cloſe to
the cighth pair, with which, liowever, it does not unite ; and it is afterwards diſtributed chiefly to the muſcles
of the neck, back, and ſcapula. In this courſe it ſends off filaments to different parts, and likewiſe cominunicates
with ſeveral other nerves. Phyſiologiſts are at a loſs how to account for the fingular origin and courſe of theſe
nervi acceſorii. The ancients conlidered them as branches of the eighth pair, diſtributed to muſcles of the
ſcapula : Willis likewiſe conlidered them as appendages to that pair, and on that account named them accefforii.
They are ſometimes called the ſpinal pair : but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of the ſpine
indiſcriminately, it ſeems better to adopt that given by Willis.
Part V.
769
Α Ν Α Τ
M Y.
Of the
Of the
Nerves.
Nerves
ſtant and conſiderable enough to be diſtinguiſhed by Some phyſiologiſts have conſidered a trunkof nerves
Drain and particular names, as the ſemilunar plexus; the pulmó- as a ſolid chord, capable of being divided into an infi- Brain and
nary plexus ; the hepatic, the cardiac, &c.
nite number of filanients, by means of which the im-
It would be foreign to the purpoſe of this work, to preſſions of feeling are conveyed to the ſenſorium com
follow the nerves through all their diſtributious; but mune, Others have ſuppoſed it to be a canal, which af-
it may be remembered, that in deſcribing the different terwards ſeparates into more minute channels; or,per
viſcera, mention was made of the nerves diſtributed to haps, as being an aſſemblage of many very ſmall and
them. There is one pair, however, called the inter- diſtinct tubes, connected to each other, and thus form-
coſtal, or grect ſympathetic nerve, which ſeems to re- ing a cylindrical chord. They who contend for their
quire particular notice, becauſe it has an almoſt univer- being ſolid bodies, are of opinion, that feeling is occa-
fal connection and correſpondence with all the other fioned by vibration; ſo that, for inſtance, according to
nerves of the body. Authors are not perfectly agreed this ſyſtem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would
about the origin of the intercoſtal ; but it may perhaps be occaſioned in the
nerve, diſtributed through its ſub-
not improperly be deſcribed, as beginning from fila- ſtance; and the effects of this vibration, when ex-
ments of the fifth and ſixth pair ; it then paſſes out of tended to the ſenſorium, would be an excital of pain.
the cranium, through the bony canal of the carotid, But the inelaſticity, the ſoftneſs, the connection, and
from whence it deſcends laterally cloſe to the bodies of the ſituation of the nerves, are ſo many proofs that
the vertebræ,and receives branches from almoſt all the vibration has no ſhare in the cauſe of feeling.
vertebral nerves; forming almoſt as many ganglions in Others have ſuppoſed, that in the brain and ſpinal
its courſe through the thorax and abdomen. It ſends off marrow, a very ſubtile fluid is ſecreted, and from
an infinite number of branches to the viſcera in thoſe thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes,
cavities, and forms ſeveral plexuſes with the branch which they conſider as exiſting in the nerves. They
es of the eighth pair or par vagum.
have farther ſuppoſed, that this very ſubtile fluid, to
That the nerves are deſtined to convey the principles which they have given the name of animal ſpirits, is
of motion and ſenſibility to the brain from all parts of the ſecreted in the cortical ſubſtance of the brain and ſpi-
ſyſtem, there can be no doubt ; but how theſe effects nal marrow, from whence it paſſes through the me-
are produced, no one has ever yet been able to de- dullary ſubſtance. This, like the other ſyſtem, is
termine. The inquiry has been a conſtant ſource of founded altogether on hypotheſis ; but it ſeems to be
hypotheſis in all ages, and has produced ſome ingeni- an hypotheſis derived from much more probable prin-
ous ideas, and many erroneous poſitions, but with- ciples, and there are many ingenious arguments to be
out having hitherto afforded much fatisfactory infor- brought in its ſupport.
mation.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX.
FIG. 1. Repreſents the Inferior part of the Brain; the teeth of the upper jaw, and ſome of the muſcles of
-the Anterior part of the whole Spine, including the the lips.-The third named inferior maxillary,is ſpent
Medulla Spinalis ;-with the origin and large portions upon the muſcles and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue,
of all the Nerves.
and muſcles of the lips. 66, The ſixth pair, which,
A A, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. BB, The after ſending off the beginning of the intercoſtal or
lateral lobes of the cerebrum. CC, The two lobes of great ſympathetic, is ſpent upon the abductor oculi.
the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paſ. 77, The ſeventh pair, named auditory, divides into
fage froin the third ventricle to the infundibuluni. two branches. The largeſt, named portio mollis, is
F, The medulla oblongata, which fends off the me- ſpent upon the internal ear. The ſmalleſt, portio dura,
dulla ſpinalis through the ſpine. GG, That part of joins to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a res
the os occipitis which is placed above (HH) the flected branch from the ſecond of the fifth ; and with
tranſverſe proceſſes of the firſt cervical vercebra. in the tympanum, by a branch from the third of the fifth
I I, &c. The ſeven cervical vertebræ, with their in- named chorda tympani.-Vid. fig. 3. ncar B. 88, &C.
termediate cartilages. KK, &c. The twelve dorſal The eighth pair, named par vagum-which accompa-
vertebræ, with their intermediate cartilages. L L,&c. nies the intercoſtal, and is ſpent upon the tongue, la-
The five lumbar vertebræ, with their intermediate rynx, pharynx, lungs,and abdominal viſcera. 99, The
cartilages. M, The os facrum. Ny The os coc ninth pair, which are ſpent upon the tongue.
cygis.
&c. The intercoſtal, or great ſympathetic, which is
Nerves.--II, The firſt pair of nerves, named ole ſeen from the ſixth pair to the bottom of the pelvis on
factory, which go to the noſe. 22, The ſecond pair, each ſide of the ſpinc, andjoining with all the nerves of
named optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of the ſpine ;-in its progreſs ſupplying the heart, and,
the cye. 33, The third pair, named motor occuli ; it with the par vagun, the contents of the abdomen and
ſupplies moſt of the muſcles of the eye-ball. 44, The pelvis. IIII, The acceſſorius, which is ſpent upon
fourth pair, named pathetic,--which is wholly ſpent the ſternocleido-maſtoidæus and trapezius inuſcles.
upon the muſculus trochlearis of the eye. 55, The 12 12, The firſt cervical nerves;1313, The ſecond
fifth pair divides into three branches. The firſt, na cervical nerves ;both ſpent upon the muſcles that lic
med opthalmic, goes to the orbit, ſupplies the lachry on the neck, and teguments of the neck and head.
mal gland, and fends branches out to the forehead and 1414, The third cervical nerves, which, after ſending
nofe.--The ſecond named fuperior maxillary, fupplies off (1515, &c.) the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm,
VOL. I.
ſupply
IO 10,
5 E
770
Α Ν Α Τ Ο M Y.
Part V.
1
Of the ſupply the muſcles and teguments that lie on the ſide which ſupply the chylopoietic viſcera, with part of Of the
Brain and of the neck and top of the Thoulder. 16 16, The bra- the organs of urine and generation.
Nerves. chial plexus, formed by the fourth, fifth, fixth, ſe- which accompany the ſpermatic cord. 2424, The hy- Nerves.
venth cervicals, and firſt dorſal nerves; which ſupply pogaſtric plexus, which ſupplies the organs of urine
the muſcles and teguments of the ſuperior extremity. and generation within the pelvis.
1717, The twelve dorſal, or proper intercoſtal nerves,
which are ſpent upon the intercoſtal muſcles and ſome FIG. 2, 3, 4, 5. Show different Views of the Infe.
of the large muſcles which lie upon the thorax. 18 18, rior part of the Brain, cut perpendiculary through
The five lumbar pairs of nerves, which ſupply the the Middle, with the Origin and large Portions
lumbar and abdominal muſcles, and ſome of the tegu of all the Nerves which paſs out through the Bones
ments and muſcles of the inferior extremity. 1919, of the Cranium, and the three firſt Cervicals,
The ſacro-ſciatic, or poſterior crural nerve, formed A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the
by the two inferior lumbar, and three ſuperior of the cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum.
os facrum. This large nerve ſupplies the greateſt part D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyrannidale, in the
of the muſcles and teguments of the inferior extremi. middle of the medulla oblongata. F, The corpus oli-
ty. 20, The ſtomachic plexus, formed by the eighth vare, in the ſide of the medulla oblongata. G, The
pair. 2121, Branches of the ſolar or cæliac plexus, niedulla oblongata. H, The medulla ſpinalis.
formed by the eighth pair and intercoſtals, which NERVESI 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 and 9, Paris of nerves.
ſupply the ſtomach and chylopoietic viſcera. 2222, 1010, Neryus acceſſorius, which comes from-11,12,
Branches of the ſuperior and inferior meſenteric plex- and 13, The three firſt cervical nerves.
ufes, formed by the eighth pair and intercoſtals,
PART VI. OF THE SENSES, AND THEIR ORGANS.
$40.
N treating of the ſenſes, we mean to confine our- lidity, moiſture, inequality, ſmoothneſs, dryneſs, or
ſelves to the external ones of touch, taſte, ſmelling, fluidity, and likewiſe their degree of heat, féem all to
hearing, and viſion. The word ſenfe, when applied to be capable of making different inipreſſions on the pa-
theſe tive, ſeenis to imply not only the ſenſation ex- pillæ, and conſequently of exciting different ideas in
cited in the mind by certain impreſſions made on the the ſenſorium commune. But the organ of touch, liko
body, but likewiſe the organ deſtined to receive and all the other ſenſes, is not equally delicate in every
tranſmit theſe impreſſions to the ſenſorium. Each of part of the body, or in every ſubject; being in ſome
theſe organs being of a peculiar ſtructure, is ſuſcep- much more exquiſite than it is in others.
tible only of particular impreſſions, which will be
pointed out as we proceed to deſcribe each of them fe-
SECT. II. Of the T afte.
parately.
The ſenſe of taſte is ſeated chiefly in the tongue ;
SECT. I. Of Touch.
the ſituation and figure of which are ſufficiently known.
On the upper ſurface of this organ we may obſerve
The ſenſe of touch may be defined to be the facul. a great number of papillæ, which, on account of their
ty diſtinguiſhing certain properties of bodies by the difference in ſize and ſhape, are commonly divide into
feel. In a general acceptation, this definition might three claſſes. The largeſt are ſituated towards che ba-
perhaps not improperly be extended to every part of fis of the tongue. Their number commonly varies
the body poſſeſſed of ſenſibility (T), but it is common from ſeven to nine, and they ſeem to be mucous folli.
ly confined to the nervous papillæ of the cutis, or true cles. Thoſe of the ſecond claſs are ſomewhat ſmaller,
ikin, which, with its appendages, and their ſeveral and of a cylindrical ſhape. They are moſt numerous
uſes, have been already deſcribed.
about the middle of the tongue. Thoſe of the third
The exterior properties of bodies, ſuch as their fo. claſs are very minute, and of a conical ſhape. They
141.
are
(T) In the courſe of this article, mention has often been made of the ſenſibility or inſenſibility of differenc
parts of the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be amiſs to obſerve in this place, that many parts which were
formerly ſuppoſed to poſſeſs the moſt exquiſite ſenſe, are now known to have but little or no feeling, at leaſt in
a found ſtate ; for in an inflamed ſtate, even the bones, the moſt inſenſible parts of any, becoine ſuſceptible of
the moſt painful ſenſations. This curious diſcovery is due to the late Baron Haller. His experiments prove,
that the bones, cartilages, ligaments tendons, epidermis, and membranes (as the pleura, pericardium, dura
and pia mater, perioſteum, &c.), may in a healthy ſtate be conſidered as inſenſible. As fenfibility depends on
the brain and nerves, of courſe diferent parts will poſſeſs a greater or leſs degree of feeling, in proportion as
they are ſupplied with a greater or ſmaller number of nerves. Upon this principle it is, that the ſkin, muſcles,
ſtomach, inteſtines, urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, vagina, penis, tongue, and retina, are extremely ſenſin
ble, while the lungs and glands have only an obſcure degree of feeling.
Ing.
1
ANATOMY
A
Plate XXIX
.
B
B
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Wikipedia
12
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Fig
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127
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19
114
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10
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.
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17
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19
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151
Fig. 4
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Fig. 3
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21
214
A
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10
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.
23
23
condenados
kolada
Part VI.
AN N A T 0 M Y.
771
Senſes.
* De Gaa
the congue.
Of the are very numerous on the apex and edges of the tongue, ſes, are lined by a thick and very vaſcular membrane, of the
Senſes. and have been ſuppoſed to be formed by the extremi- which, though not unknown to the ancients, was firſt
ties of its nerves.
well deſcribed by Schneider*, and is therefore now
We obſerve a line, the linea linguce mediana, run commonly named membrana pituitaria Schneideri. This tarrho, lib.
ning along the middle of the tongue, and dividing it as membrane is truly the organ of ſmelling; but its rcal iii.
it were into two portions. Towards the baſis of the
Towards the baſis of the ſtruciure does not yet ſcem to be perfectly underſtood.
tongue, we incet with a little cavity, nained by Mor. It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle, which
gagni foranen cacum, which ſeems to be nothing more lines ihe inner ſurface of the mouth. In ſome parts
than a common termination of ſome of the excretory of the noſe it is ſmooth and firm, and in others it is
ducts of mucous glands ſituated within the ſubſtance of looſe and ſpongy. It is conſtantly moiſtened by a mu-
cous ſecretion; the finer parts of which are carried off
We have already obſerved, that this organ is every by the air we breathe, and the remainder, by being re-
where covered by the cuticle, which, by forming a re tained in the ſinuſes, acquires conſiderable conſiſtence.
duplication, called the frænumi, at its under part,
The manner in which this mucus is ſecreted has not
ſerves to prevent the too great motion of the tongue, yet been ſatisfactorily aſcertained; but it ſeems to be
and to fix it in its ſituation. But, belides this at- by means of mucous follicles.
tachment, the tongue is connected by means of its Its arteries are branches of the internal maxillary and
muſcles and membranous ligaments, to the lower jaw, internal carotid. Its vcins empty themſelves into the
the os hyoides, and the ſtyloid proceſſes.
internal jugulars. The firſt pair of nerves, the olfac-
The principal arteries of the tongue are the linguales, tory, are ſpread over every part of it, and it likewiſe
which ariſe from the externalcarotid. Its veins empty receives branches from the fifth pair.
themſelves into the external jugulars. Its nerves ariſe
After wliat has been ſaid of the pituitary membrane,
from the fifth, eighth, and ninih, pair.
it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we dravý
The variety of taſtes ſeem to be occaſioned by the
occaſioned by the in at the noſtrils, being impregnated with the efluvia
different impreſſions made on the papillæ by the food. of bodies, excites in us that kind of ſenſation we call
The different ſtate of the papillæ with reſpect to their ſmelling. As theſe effluvia, from their being exceed-
moiſture, their figure, or their covering, ſeems to ingly light and volatile, cannot be capable in a ſmall
produce a confiderable difference in the taſte, not only quantity of making any great impreſſion on the extre-
in different people, but in the ſame ſubject, in ſickneſs mities of the olfactory nerves, it was neceſſary to give
and in health. The great uſe of the taſte ſeems to be conſiderable extent to the pituitary membrane, that by
to enable us to diſtinguiſh wholeſome and ſalutary food this means a greater number of odoriferous particles
from that which is unhealthy; and we obſerve that might be admitted at the ſame time. When we willz
many quadrupeds, by having their papillæ (u) very to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we natu-
large and long, have the faculty of diſtinguilhing fla- rally cloſe the mouth, that all the air we inſpire may
yours wich infinite accuracy.
paſs through the noſtrils; and at the ſame time, by
means of the muſcles of the noſe, the noſtrils are dila-
Sect. III. Of Smelling.
ted, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into them.
In many quadrupeds, the ſenſe of ſmelling is much
43
more extenſive and delicate than it is in the hiinan
The ſenſe of ſinelling, like the ſenſe of taſte, ſeents
intended to direct us to a proper choice of aliment, ſubject; and in the human ſubject it ſeems to be inore
and is chiefly ſeated in the noſe, which is diſtinguiſhed perfect the leſs it is vitiated by a variety of ſmells. It
into its external and internal parts. The ſituation and
is not always in the fame ſtate of perfeétion, being na-
figure of the former of theſe do not ſeem to require a turally affected by every change of the pituitary mem-
definition. It is compoſed of bones and cartilages, co brane, and of the lymph with which that membrane
vered by muſcular fibres and by the common integu- is moiſtened.
ments. The bones make up the upper portion, and
the cartilages the lower one. The ſeptum narium, like
Sect. IV. Of Hearing.
the noſe, is likewiſe in part bony, and in part cartila-
ginous. Theſe bones and their connections were de BEFORE Weundertake to explain the manner in which
fcribed in the oſteology.
we are enabled to receive the impreſſions of ſound, it
The internal part of the noſe, beſides the offa ſpon- will be neceſſary to deſcribe the ear, which is the organ
giofa, has fix cavities or ſinuſes, the maxillary, the of hearing. It is commonly diſtinguiſhed into external
frontal, and the ſphenoid, which were all deſcribed with and internal. The foriner of theſe diviſions includes
the bones of the liead. They all open into the no all that we are able to diſcover without diſſection, and
ſtrils; and the noſe likewiſe communicates with the the meatus auditorius, as far as the tympanum ; and
mouth, larynx, and pharynx, poſteriorly behind the the latter, all the other parts of the ear.
velum palati.
The external car is a cartilaginous funnel, covered
All theſe ſeveral parts, which are included in the in- by the common integunents, and attached, by means
ternal diviſion of the noſe, viz. the inner ſurface of the of its ligaments and muſcles, to the temporal bone.
noſtrils, thc lamellæ of the oíſa fpongiofa, and the finu. Although capable only of a very obſcure motion, it is
5 E2
found
14,
(u) Malpigli's deſcription of the papillæ, which has been copied by many anatomical writers, ſcems to have
been taken chiefly from the tongues of sheep.
BUL
[ 772 )
BUL
1
hull.
chulos, coine to divert the bull's attention, and to pro- Itens his robuft fides ; and when the people, tired of füll.
voke hiin, by flaking before him different pieces of one object, demand another vi&im ; the preſident of
cloth of various colours. It is, however, at their own the entertainment gives the ſignal of death, which is
riſk that they thus fave the diſimounted horſeman ; for announced by the found of trumpets. The matador
the ball fometimes purſues them, and they have then then advances, and all the reſt quit the arena; with
need for all their agility. They often eſcape from him one hand he holds a long dagger, and with the other
by letting fall in his way the piece of ſtuff which was a kind of flag, which he waves backwards and for-
ilieir only arins, and againſt which the deceived ani- wards before his adverſary. They both ſtop and gaze
inal expends all his fury, Sometimes he does not accept at one another; and while the agility of the matador
this ſubſtitute, and the combatant has no other reſource deceives the impetuoſity of the bull, the pleaſure of
bat to throw himſelf ſpeedily over a barrier, lix feet the ſpectators, which was for ſome time fufpended, is
high, which incloſes the interior part of the arena. again awakened into life.
again awakened into life. Sometimes the bull remain's
In ſome places this barrier is double, and the interme- motionleſs, throws np the earth with his foot, and ap-
diate ſpace forms a kind of circular gallery, behind pears as if meditating revenge.
which the purſued torreadore is in ſafety. But when The bull in this condition, and the matador who
the barrier is ſimgle, the bull attempts to jump over it, calculates his motions and divines his projects, forma
The reader may eaſily imagine group which an able pencil might not diſdain to deli-
in what conſternation the neareſt of the ſpectators neate. The aſſembly in ſilence behold this dumb ſcene.
then are; their haſte to get out of the way, and to The matador at length gives the mortal blow ; and if
crowd to the upper benches, become often more fatal the animal immediately falls, a thouſand voices pro-
to them than even the fury of the bull, who, itunbling claim with lond fhours the triumph of the conqueror;
at every ſtep, on account of the narrowneſs of thie but iſ the blow is not deciſive, if the bull ſurvives and
place and the inequality of the ground, thinks rather ſeeks ſtill to brave the fatal ſteel, murmurs ſucceed to
of his own ſafety than of revenge, and beſides ſoon applauſe, and the matadore, whoſe glory was about to
falls under the blows which are given to him from all be raiſed to che ſkies, is conſidered only as an unſkil.
quarters.
ful butcher. He endeavours to be foon revenged,
Except in ſuch caſes, which are very rare, he im- and to diſarm his judges of their ſeverity. His zeal
mediately returns. His adverſary recovered, has had ſometimes degenerates into blind fury, and his parti-
time to get up; he immediately remounts his horſe, zans treinble for the conſequences of his imprudence.
provided the latter is not killed or rendered unfit for He at length directs his blow belter. The animal vo-
ſervice, and the attack commences; but he is often mits
mits up blood; he ſtaggers and falls, while his con-
obliged to change his horſe ſeveral times. Expreſſions queror is intoxicated with the applauſes of the people.
cannot then be found to celebrate theſe acts of prow. Three mules, ornamented with bells and ſtreamers,
eſs, which for ſeveral days become the favourite topic come to terminate the tragedy. A rope is tied around
of converſation. The horſes, very affecting models of pa the bull's horns, which have betrayed his valour, and
tience, courage, and docility, may be ſeen treading under the animal, which a little before was furious and
their feet their own bloody entrails, which drop from proud is dragged ignominiouſly from the arena which
their ſides half torn open, and yet obeying, for ſome he has honoured, and leaves only the traces of his
time after, the hand which conducts them to new tor blood and the remembrance of his exploits, which are
Spectators of delicacy are then filled with dif- foon effaced on the appearance of bis ſucceſſor. On
guſt, which converts their pleaſure into pain. A new each of the days fet apart for theſe entertainments,
act is lowever preparing, which reconciles them to fix are thus ſacrificed in the morning, and iwelve in
the entertaininent. As ſoon as it is concluded that the afternoon, at leaſt in Madrid. The three laſt are
the bull has been ſufficiently tormented by the comba- given excluſively to the matador, who, without the
tants on horſeback, they retire and leave him to be aſiſtance of the picadores, exerts his ingenuity to va-
irritated by thoſe on foot. The latter, who are called ry the pleaſure of the ſpectators.
ry the pleaſure of the ſpectators. Sometimes he cauſés
banderilleros go before the animal ; and the moment thein to be combated by ſome intrepid ſtranger, who
he darts upon them they plunge into his neck, two by attacks them mounted on the back of another bull,
two, a kind of darts called banderillas, the points of and ſometimes he matches them with a bear : this laſt
which are hooked, and which are ornamented with method is generally deſtined for the pleaſure of the
ſmall ſtreamers niade of coloured paper. The fury of populace. The points of the bull's horns are concealed
the bull is now redoubled; he roars, toſſes his head, .by ſomething wrapped round them, which breaks their
and the vajn efforts which he makes ſerve only to in force. The animal, when in this ſtate is called Em-
creaſe the pain of his wounds: this laſt ſcene calls forth bolado, has power neither to pierce nor to tear his an-
all the agility of his adverſaries. The ſpectators at tagoniſt. The amateurs then deſcend in great num-
firſt trcmble for then, when they behold them braving bers to lorment him, each after his own manner, and
fo near the horns of this formidable animal ; but their often expiate this cruel pleaſure by violent contufions;
hauds, well exerciſed, aim their blows ſo ſkilfully, and but the bull always falls at length under the ſtroke of
they avoid the danger fu nimbly, that after having the matador. The few ſpectators who are not in-
ſeen them a few times, one neither pities nor admires feeted by the general madneſs for this ſport, regret that
them, and their addreſs and dexterity feem only to thoſe wretched animals do not, at leaſt, parchaſe their
be a ſmall epiſode of the tragedy, which concludes in lives at the expence of ſo many torments and ſo many
the following manner: When the vigour of the ball efforts of courage; they would willingly afſift them to
appears to be almoſt exhauſted; when his blood, iſſuing eſcape from their perſecutors. In the minds of ſuch
from twenty wounds, ſtreams along his neck and moi spectators dilgut fucceeds compaſſion, and ſatiety fuc-
tures,
ceeds
BUL
[773]
BUL
full.
teeds dñiguft. Such a ſeries of uniform ſcenes makes bull, the lead is hung by a hempen chord ; if the lat-
that intereſt become languid, which this ſpectacle, on ter, by a filken thread. It is this pendent lead, or
its commencement, ſeemed to promiſe. But to con- ſeal, which is, properly ſpeaking, the bull, and which
noiſſeurs, who have thoroughly ſtudied all the ſtrata. is impreſſed on one ſide with the heads of St Perer
gems of the bull, the reſources of his addreſs and fury, and St Paul, and on the other with the name of the
and the ditferent methods of irritating, tormenting, Pope and the year of his pontificate. The ball is writ-
and deceiving him, none of theſe ſcenes reſembles ten in an old, round, Gothic letter, and is divided in-
another, and they pity thoſe frivolous obſervers who to five parts, the narrative of the fact, the conception,
cannot remark all their varieties.
the clauſe, the date, and the falutation, in which the
The Spanish government are very ſenſible of the Pope ſtyles himſelf ſervus fervorum, i.e. the ſervant
moral and political inconveniences ariſing from this of ſervants. Theſe inſtruments beſides the lead hang-
ſpecies of phrenſy. They have long ſince perceived, ing to them, have a croſs, with fonie text of ſcriptore,
that among a people whom they wiſh to encourage to or religious moito, about it. Bulls are granted for the
labour, it is the cauſe of much diſorder and diſſipation; conſecration of biſhops, the promotion to benefices, and
and that it hurts agriculture, by deſtroying a great the celebration of jubilees, &c.
number of robuft animals, which might be uſefully BULL ii cena Domini, a particular bull read every
employed: but they are obliged to manage with cau year, on the day of the Lord's ſupper, or Maundy
tion a taſte which it might be dangerous to attempt Thurſday, in the Pope's preſence, containing excom
to abolith precipitately. They are, however, far from manications and anathemas againſt heretics, and all u ho
encouraging it. The court itſelf formerly reckoned diſturb or oppoſe the juriſdiction of the holy fee. Af-
bull-fighis among the number of its feſtivals, which ter the reading of the bull, the Pope throws a burning
were given at certain periods. The Plaza Mayor was torch in the public place, to denote the thunder of this
the theatre of them, and the king and the royal fa- anathema.
mily honoured them with their prefence. His guards Golden Bull, an edict or imperial conſtitution, made
preſided there in good order. His halberdiers formed by the emperor Charles IV. reputed to be the magna
the interior circle of the ſcene; and their long wea charta, or the fundamental law of the German empirc.
pons held out in a defenſive poſture, were the only It is called golden, becauſe it has a golden ſeal, in
barrier which they oppoſed againſt the dangerous ca the form of a pope's bull, tied with yellow and red
prices of the bull. Theſe entertainments, which, by cords of liik: upon one lide is the emperor repreſented
way of excellence, were called Fieſtas Reales, are be- fitting on his throne, and on the other the capital of
come very rare, Charles III. who endeavoured to polith Rome. It is alſo called Caroline, on Charles IV's ac-
the nation, and to direct their attention to uſeful objects, count. Till the publication of the golden bull, the forni
was very deſirous of deſtroying a taſte in which he ſaw and ceremony of the election of an emperor were du-
nothing but inconveniences; but he was too wiſe to bious and indetermined, and the nuinber of the elec-
employ violent means for that purpoſe. He, however, tors not fixed. This folemn edict regulated the func-
confined the number of bull-fights to thoſe, the pro- tions, rights, privileges, and pre-eininences, of the e-
fits of which were applied to the ſupport of ſome cha- lectors. The original, which is in Latin, on vellum, is
ritable inſtitution, with an intention of ſubſtituting for preſerved at Francfort : ihis ordonnance, containing 30
theſe other funds afterwards. Bull-fights, by theſe articles or chapters, was approved of by all the princes
means being rendered leſs frequent, will, perhaps, gra- of the empire, and remain ſtill in force.
dually loſe their attractions, until more favourable cir. Silver Bulls were not in ſo frequent uſe ; tho' we
cumſtances permit the entire abolition of them.
do not want inſtances of them.
Bull-Running, denotes a feudal cuſtom obtaining Leaden Bulls were ſent by the emperors of Conian-
in the honour of Tutbury in Stafford thire; where an- tinople to deſpots, patriarchs, and princes; and the
ciently, on the day of the allumption of our Lady, a like were alſo uſed by the grandees of the Imperial
bull is turned looſe by the lord to the minſtrels; who, court, as well as by the king's of France, Sicily, &c.
if they can catch him before he paſſes the river Dove, and by biſhops, patriarchs, and popes. It is to be ob-
are to have him for their own, or, in lien thereof, to ſerved, that the leaden bulls of iheſe laſt had, on ene
receive each 40 pence; in conſideration of which cuſ- ſide, the name of the pope or biſhop inſcribed. Poly.
tom they pay 20 pence yearly to the fais lord.
dore Virgil makes Pope Stephen III. the firſt who uſed
Bull and Boar. By the cuſtom of ſome places, leaden buils, about the year 772. But others find
the parſon is obliged to keep a bull and boar for the inſtances of them as early as Silveſter, Leo. I. and
uſe of his parishioners, in conſideration of his having Gregory the Great. The latter popes, belide their
tities of calves and pigs, &c.
own names, ſtrike the figures of St Peter and St Paul
Bull-Frog, in zoology. See RANA.
on their bulls ; a practice firſt introduced by Pope Paſ-
Bull-Head, or Miller's Thumb, in ichthyology. chal II. But why, in theſe bulls, the figure of St Paul
See Cottus.
is on the right, and that of St Peter on the left ſide,
BULL, among eccleſiaſtics, a written letter, dif- is a queſtion which has occaſioned many conjectures
patched, by order of the Pope, from the Roman chau- and diſputes.
cery, and ſealed with lead, being written on parch Waxen Bulls are ſaid to have been firſt brought
ment, by which it is partly diſtinguished from a brief: into England by the Noumans. They were in fre-
fee tlie article BRIEF.-It is a kind of apoſtolical re quent uſe among the Greek emperors, who thus ſealed
fcript or edict; and is chiefly in uſe in matters of jor- letters to their wives, mothers, and ſons. Of theſe
tice or grace. If the former be the intention of the there were two forts, one red, and the other green.
BULLA,
1
774
Α Ν Α Τ Ο Μ Υ.
Part VI.
Of the
Of the The globe of the eye is immediately covered by two points of which anſwer to the puneta. This reduplica-
Senfes. eye-lids or palpebræ, which are compoſed of muſcular tion is named membrana, or vaivuia ſemilunaris. Each Senſes.
fibres covered by the common integuments, and li of cheſe pun&ta is the beginning of a ſmall excretory
ned by a very fine and ſmooth membrane, which is tube, through which the tears paſs into a little pouch
from thence extended over part of the globe of the or reſervoir, the facculus lachrymalis, which lies in
eye, and is called tunica conjunctiva. Each eye-lid is an excavation formed partly by the naſal proceſs of
cartilaginous at its edge ; and this border which is cal the os maxillare ſuperius, and partly by the os unguis.
led tarſus, is furniſhed with a row of hairs named cilia The lower part of this fac forins a duct called the duce
or eye-laſhers.
tus ad nares, which is continued through a bony chan-
The cilia ſerve to protect the eye from inſects and nel, and opens into the noſe, through which the tears
minute bodies floating in the air, and likewiſe to mo are occaſionally diſcharged (B).
derate the action of the rays of light in their paſſage The motions of the eye are performed by ſix muſ-
to the retina. At the roots of theſe hairs there are cles; four of which are ſtraight and two oblique. The
ſebaceous follicles, firſt noticed by Meibomius, which ſtraight muſcles are diſtinguiſhed by the name of ele-
diſcharge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes the fluid
vator, depreffor, adductor, and abductor, from their ſe-
they ſecrete has too much viſcidity, and the eye-lids veral uſes in elevating and depreſſing the eye, drawing
become glued to each other.
it towards the noſe, or carrying it from the noſe to-
The upper border of the orbit is covered by the wards the temple. All theſe four muſcles ariſe from
eye-brows or ſupercilia, which by means of their two the bottom of the orbit, and are inſerted by flat ten-
muſcles are capable of being brought towards each dons into the globe of the eye. The oblique muſcles
other, or of being carried upwards. They have been are intended for the more compound motions of the
conſidered as ſerving to protect the eyes, but they are eye. The firſt of theſe muſcles, the obliquus ſuperior,
probably intended more for ornament than utility (Z). does not,like the other four muſcles we have deſcribed,
The orbits, in which the eyes are placed, are fur ariſe from the bottoni of the orbit, but from the edge
niſhed with a good deal of fat, which affords a ſoft of the foramen that tranſmits the optic nerve, which
bed on which the eye performs its ſeveral inotions. ſeparates the origin of this muſcle from that of the
The inner angle of each orbit, or that part of it others. From this beginning it paſſes in a ſtraight
which is near the noſe, is called canthus major, or the line towards a very ſınall cartilaginous ring, the ſitua-
great angle; and the outer angle, which is on the op tion of which is marked in the ſkeleton by a little hol-
poſite ſide of the eye, is the canthus ninor, or little low in the internal orbitar proceſs of the-os frontis.
angle.
The tendon of the muſcle, after paſſing through this
The little reddiſh body which we obſerve in the ring, is inſerted into the upper part of the globe of
great angle of the eye-lids, and which is called carun the eye, which it ſerves to draw forwards, at the ſame
cula lachrymalis, is ſuppoſed to be of a glandular ſtruc- time turning the pupil downwards.
ture, and, like the follicles of the eye-lids, to ſecrete The obliquus inferior ariſes from the edge of the or-
an oily humour. But its ſtructure and uſe do not bit, under the opening of the ductus lachrymalis; and
ſeem to have been hitherto accurately determined. is inſerted ſomewhat poſteriorly into the outer ſide of
The ſurface of the eyeis conſtantly moiſtened by a very the globe, ſerving to draw the eye forwards and turn
fine limpid fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and the pupil upwards. When either of theſe two muſcles
perhaps wholly, derived from a large gland of the con acts ſeparately, the eye is moved on its axis ; but when
glomerate kind, ſituated in a ſmall depreſſion of the they act together, it is compreſſed both above and be-
os frontis near the outer angle of the eye. Its excre low. The eye itſelf, which is now to be deſcribed,
tory ducts pierce the tunica conjunctiva juſt above the with its tunics, humours, and component parts, is
cartilaginous borders of the upper eye-lids. When nearly of a ſpherical figure. Of its tunics, the con-
the tears were ſuppoſed to be ſecreted by the carun- junctiva has been already deſcribed as a partial cover-
cule, this gland was called glandula innominata; but ing, reflected from the inner ſurface of the eye-lids
now that its ſtruclure and uſes are aſcertained, it very over the anterior portion of the eye. What has been
properly has the name of glandula lachrymalis. The named albuginea cannot properly be conſidered as a
tears poured out by the ducts of this gland are,in a natu coat of the eye, being in fact nothing more than the
ral and healty ſtate, inceſſantly ſpread over the ſurface tendons of the ſtraight muſcles ſpread over ſome parts
of the eye, to keep it clear and tranſparent, by means of the ſclerotica.
of the eye-lids, and as conſtantly paſs out at the oppo The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to be
ſite corner of the eye or inner angle, through two mi demonſtrated when its partial coverings, and all the
nute orifices, the puncta lachrymalia(A); being deter- other parts with which it is ſurrounded, are removed,
mined into theſe little openings by a reduplication of are the ſclecrotica, cornea, choroides, and retina.
the tunica conjunctiva, ſhaped like a creſcent, the two The ſclerotica, which is the exterior coat, is every
where
(z) It is obſervable, that the eye-brows are peculiar to the human ſpecies.
(A) It ſometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid, which moiſtens the eye, being poured out through
the excretory ducts of the lachrymal gland faſter than it can be carried off through the puneta, trickles down
the cheek, and is then ſtrictly and properly called tears.
(B) When the ductus ad nares becomes obſtructed in conſequence of diſeaſe, the tears are no longer able 1
paſs into the noſtrils; the facculus lachrymalis becomes diſtended; and inflammation, and fumetimes ulcera-
tion taking place, conſtitute the diſeaſe called fiftula lachrymalis,
-
Part VI.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
H.
775
Sinics
and
L
Of the 'where white and opaque, and is joined at its anterior a very thin vaſcular membrane. This membrana pu- Dithe
Senſes. edge to another, which has more convexity than any pillaris commo. ly diſappears alsout the ſeventh month.
other part of the globe, and being exceedingly trani On the under inue of the iris we obſerve many mi-
parent is called cornea (c). Theſe two parts are per nute fibres, called ciliary p 90 l's, which jafs un rocii
fe&ly different in their ſtructure ; ſo that ſome anato or parallel lines from the circunference to the centre.
miſts ſuppoſe them to be as diſtinct from each other as The contraction and dilatation of the pupil are fuppof:d
the glaſs of a watch is from the caſe into which it is to depend on the action of theſe procefſcs. Some save
fixed. The ſclerotica is of a compact fibrous ſtructure ; conſidered them as muſcular, but they are not of an ir-
the cornea, on the other hand, is compoſed of a great ritable nature: others have ſuppoſed them to be fila-
number of laminæ united by cellular membrane. By nents of nerves: but their real ſtructure has never
macerating them in boiling water, they do not ſeparate yet been clearly aſcertained.
from each other, as ſome writers have aſſerted; but Beſides theſe ciliary proceſſes, anatomiſts uſually
the cornea ſoon ſoftens, and becomes of a glutinous ſpeak of the circular fibres of the iris, but n10 ſuch
conſiſtence.
ſeem to exiſt.
The ancients ſuppoſed the ſclerotica to be a conti The poſterior ſurface of the iris, the ciliary pro-
nuation of the dura mater. Morgagni and ſome other ceſſes, and part of the tunica choroides, are covered
modern writers are of the fameopinion ; but this point by a black mucus for the purpoſes of accurate and diſ-
is diſputed by Winllow, Haller, Zin, and others. tinct viſion; but the manner in which it is ſecreted
The truth ſeems to be, that the ſclerotica, though not has not been determined.
a production of the dura mater, adheres intimately to Immediately under the tunica choroides we find the
that membrane.
third and inner coat, called the retina, which ſeems
The choroides is ſo called becauſe it is furniſhed with to be merely an expanſion of the pulpy ſubſtance of
a great number of veſſels. It has likewiſe been named the optic nerve, extending to the border of the cry
uvea, on account of its reſemblance to a grape. Many ſtalline humour.
modern anatomical writers have conſidered it as a pro The greateſt part of the globe of the eye, within
duction of the pia mater. This was likewiſe the opi. theſe ſeveral tunics, is filled by a very tranſparent and
nion of the ancients; but the ſtrength and thickneſs of gelatinous humour of conſiderable conſiſtence, which,
the choroides, when compared with the delicate ſtruc- from its ſuppoſed reſemblance to fuſed glaſs, is called
ture of the pia mater, are ſufficient proofs of their be- the vitreous humour. It is inveſted by a very fine and
ing two diſtinct membranes.
delicale membrane, called tunica vitrea, and ſometimes
The choroides has of late generally been deſcribed arachnoides. It is ſuppoſed to be compoſed of two la-
as conſiſting of two laminæ ; the innermoſt of which minæ ; one of which dips into its ſubſtance, and by
lias been named after Ruyſch, who firſt deſcribed it. dividing the humourinto cells adds to its firmneſs. The
It is certain, however, that Ruyſch's diſtinction is ill fore-part of the vitreous humour is a little hollowed,
founded, at leaſt with reſpect to the hunan eye, in to receive a very white and tranſparent ſubſtance of a
which we are unable to deinonſtrate any ſuch ſtructure, firm texture, and of a lenticular and ſomewhat convex
although the tunica choroides of ſheep and ſome other ſhape, named the cryſtalline humour. It is included in
quadrupeds may eaſily be ſeparated into two layers. a capſula. which ſeems to be formed by a ſeparation
The choroides adheres intimately to the ſclerotica of the tiro laminæ of the tunica vitrea.
round the edge of the cornea ; and at the place of this The fore-part of the eye is filled by a very thin and
union, we may obſerve a little whitiſh areola, named tranſparent fluid, named the aqueous humour, which
ligamentum ciliare, though it is not of a ligamentous occupies all the ſpace between the cryſtalline and the
prominent cornea-That part of the choroides which
They who ſuppoſe the choroides to be compoſed of is called the iris, and which comes forward to form the
two laminæ, deſcribe the external one as terminating pupil, appears to be ſuſpended as it were in this hu-
in the ligamentun ciliare, and the internalone as ex mour, and has occaſioned this portion of the eye to be
tending farther to form the iris, which is the circle diſtinguiſhed into two parts. One of theſe, which is
we are able to diſtinguiſt through the cornea ; but this the little ſpace between the anterior ſurface of the
part is of a very different ſtructure from the choroides; cryſtalline and the iris, called the poſterior chamber;
fo chat ſome late writers have perhaps not improperly and the other, which is the ſpace between the iris and
conſidered the iris as a diſtinct membrane. It derives the cornea, is called the anterior chamber of the eye
its name from the variety of its colours, and is perfo- (D). Both theſe ſpaces are completely filled with the
rated in its middle. This perforation, which is called aqueous humour. (E).
the pupil or ſight of the eye, is cloſed in the fætus by The eye receives its arteries from the internal caro-
lid
nature.
(c) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and
moſt commonly called ſclerotica, coriuea opaca ; and its anterior and tranſparent portion, cornea lucida.
(D) We are aware that ſome anatomiſts, particularly Lieutaud, are of opinion, that the iris is every where
in cloſe contact with che cryſtalline, and that it is of courſe right to ſpeak only of one chamber of the eye ;
but as this does not appear to be the caſe, the ſituation of the iris and the two chambers of the eye are here
deſcribed in the uſual way.
(2) When the cryſtalline becomes opaque, ſo as to prevent the paſſage of the rays of light to the retina, it
conſtitutes what is called a cataract; and the operation of couchiog conſiſts in reinoying the diſeaſed cryſtalline
froin
776
"
Part VI.
Α Ν Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Y.
Of the tid through the foramina optica ; and its veins paſs a young gentleman who was born blind, and who was Of the
Senfes. through the foramina lacera, and empty themſelves couched by Mr Chefelden, every object (as he ex- Senſes.
into the lateral ſinuſes. Some of the ramifications of preſſed himſelf) ſeemed to touch his eyes as what he
theſe veſſels appear on the inner ſurface of the iris, felt did his ſkin ; and he thought no objects ſo agree-
where they are
ſeen to make very minute convolutions, able as thoſe which were ſmooth and regular, although
which are fufficiently remarkable to be diſtinguiſhed for ſome time he could form no judgmentof their ſhape,
by the name of circulus arterioſus, though perhaps im or gueſs what it was in any of them that was pleaſing
properly, as they are chiefly branches of veins. to him.
The optic nerve paſſes in at the poſterior part of the In order to paint objects diſtinctly on the retina,
eye, in a conſiderable trunk, to be expanded for the the cornea is required to have ſuch a degree of con-
purpoſes of viſion, of which it is now univerſally ſup- vexity, that the rays oflight may be collected at a cer-
poſed to be the immediate ſeat. But Meſſrs Mariotte tain point, ſo as to terminate exactly on the retina.
and Mery contended, that the choroides is the ſeat of If the cornea is too prominent, the rays, by diverging
this fenfé; and the ancients ſuppoſed the cryſtalline too ſoon, will be united before they reach the retina,
to be ſo. Beſides the optic, the eye receives branches
as is the caſe with near-lighted people or niyopes; and
from the third, fourth, fifth, and ſixth pair of nerves. on the contrary, ifit is not ſufficiently convex, the rays
The humours of the eye, together with the cornea, will not be perfectly united when they reach the back
are calculated to refract and converge the rays of light part of the eye; and this happens to long-lighted peo-
in ſuch a manner as to form at the bottom of the eye ple or preſbi, being found conſtantly to take place as
a diſtinct image of the object we look at ; and the point we approach to old age, when the eye gradually flat-
where theſe rays meet is called the focus of the eye. tens (F). Theſe defects are to be ſupplied by means of
On the retina, as in the camera obſcura, the object glaſſes. He who has too prominent an eye, will find
is painted in an inverted poſition ; and it is only by his viſion improved by means of a concave glaſs; and
habit that we are enabled to judge of its true ſitua upon the ſame principles, a convex glaſs will be found
tion, and likewiſe of its diſtance and magnitude. To uſeful to a perſon whoſe eye is naturally too far.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX.
tor.
FIGURE I. Shows the Lachrymal Canals, after the ſuperior maxillary bone to which it is fixed. k, The
Common Teguients and Bones have been cut away. eye-ball.
a; The lachrymal gland. b, The two puncta la-
FIG. 5. Repreſents the Nerves and Muſcles of the
chrymalia, from which the two lachrymal canals pro. Right Eye, after part of the Bones of the orbit have
ceed to c, The lachrymal fac. d, The large lachrymal been cut away.
duct. e, Its opening into the noſe. f, The caruncu.
A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland. C, Muf-
la lachrymalis. g, The eye-ball.
culus abductor ocali. D, Attolens. E, Leyator
FIG. 2. An interior View of the Coats and Humours palpebræ fuperioris. F, Depreſſor oculi. Ġ, Adduc-
of the Eye.
H, Obliquus ſuperior, with its pully.. I, Its
a a a a, The tunica ſclerotica cut in four angles, and inſertion into the ſclerotic coat. K, Part of the obli.
turned back. bbbb, The tunica choroides:idhering quus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os frontis
to the inſide of the ſclerotica, and the ciliary veſſels cut. M, The criſta galli of the ethmoid bone. N,
are ſeen paſſing over-cc, The retina which covers the The poſterior part of the ſphenoid bone. O, Tranſ-
vitreous humour. dd, The ciliary proceſſes, which verſe ſpinous proceſs of the ſphenoid bone. P, The
were continged from the choroid coat. ee, The iris. carotid artery, denuded where it paſſes through the
f, The pupil.
bones. l, The carotid artery within the cranium.
FIG. 3. Shows the Optic Nerves, and Muſcles of R, the occular artery.
the Eye.
NERVES.-aa, The optic nerve. b, The third
a, a, The'two optic nerves before they meet. b, The pair.--c,
Its joining with a branch of the firſt branch
two optic nerves conjoined. c, The right optic nerve, of the fifth pair, to form 1,—The lenticular ganglion,
d, Muſculus attollens palpebræ fuperioris. e, Attol- which ſends off the ciliary nerves, d.
lens oculi. f, Abductor. gg, Obliquus fuperior, or fourth pair. f, The trunk of the fifth pair. g, The
trochlearis. h, Adductor. i, The eye-ball.
firſt branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic..
FIG. 4. Shows the Eye-ball with its Muſcles. h, The frontal branch of it. i, Its ciliary branches,
a, The opticnerve. b, Muſculus trochlearis. c, Part along with which the naſal twig is ſent to the noſe.
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pully is fix. k, Its branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticu-
ed, through which,-d, The tendons of the trochlearislar ganglion. m, The ſecond branch of the fifth pair,
paffes. e, Attollens oculi. f, Adductor oculi. g, Ab- named luperior maxillary. n, The third branch of the
ductor oculi. h, Obliquus inferior. i, Part of the fifth pair, named inferior maxillary. O, The fixth pair
4
of
ee, The
from its bed in the vitreous humour. In this operation the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour eſcapes
out of the eye, but it is conſtantly renewed again in a very ſhort time. The manner, however, in which it is
ſecreted, has not yet been determined.
(F) Upon this principle, they who in their youth are near-ſighted may expect to ſee better as they advance
in life, as their eyes gradually become more flat.
ANATOMY
Plate XXX
1
Trig
.
Tig
Fig
6
.
1
3.
а a
hi
B
d
-
.
Fig
b
b
a
a.
Trig : 1
Tig
D
a
la
bo
ha
1
Fig.
G
b
d
019
м
h
H.
mon
, hoek,
Within
a
P
R
I
1
b
A
B
N
)
ni
ор
+
Frig
10
Fig. 9
а.
Fig
c
6
a
Th
d
d d
d
af
en
:
1
Pilada
Part VI.
A Ν Α Τ Ο Μ
Y.
777
Of the
Scnſes,
Of the
Senſes.
of nerves,--which fends off p, The beginning of the ear,meatus auditorius,tympanum, with its ſmall bones,
great ſympathetic. 9, The remainder of the ſixth and Euſtachian tube of the right ſide.
pair, ſpent on c, The abductor oculi.
a, The back part of the meatus, with the ſmall ce-
Fig. 6. Repreſents the head of a youth, where the ruminous glands. b, The incus. c, Malleus. d, The
chorda tympani e, Membrana tympani. f, The
upper part of the cranium is ſawed off, -to ſhow the up. Euſtachian tube.
g, Its mouth frou the fauces.
per part of the brain, covered by the pia mater, the
veſſels of which are minutely filled with wax.
Fig. 9. Repreſents the anterior part of the right
AA, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra external ear, the cavity of the tympanum-mits ſmall
nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diploë. bones, cochlea, and ſemicircular canals.
BB, The two hemiſpheres of the cerebrum.cc, The a, The malleus. b, Incus with its long leg, reſting
inciſure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium upon the ſtapes. C, Membrana tympani. d, e, The
cerebello fuper expanſum. E, part of the falx, which Euftachian tube, covered by part of-ff, Thé muf-
is fixed to the criſta galli.
culus circumflexus palati. 1, 2, 3, The three fumi-
circular canals.
FIG. 7. Repreſents the parts of the External Ear, 6, The portio mollis of the ſeventh pair of nerves.
4, The veſtible. 5, The cochlea.
with the Parotid Gland and its Duct.
a a, The helix. b, The antihelix. c, The anti FIG. 10. Shows the muſcles which compoſe the
tragūs. d, The tragus. e, The lobe of the ear. f,
fleſhy ſubſtance of the Tongue.
The cavitas innominata. g, The ſcapha, h, The a a, The tip of the tongue, with ſome of the papil-
concha. ii, The parotid gland. k, A lymphatic læ minimæ. b, The root of the tongue. c, Part of
gland, which is often found before the tragus. 1, The the membrane of the tongue, which covered the
duct of the parotic gland. m, Its opening into the epiglottis. dd, Part of the muſculus hyo-gloſſus.
mouth.
e, The lingualis. f, Genio-gloſſus. gg, Part of the
FIG.8. A view of the poſterior part of the external ſtylo-gloſlus.
chus
ras.
Anaxime
NE6.
Α Ν Α
Α Ν Α
A
Anaxago ANATOMY of Plants. See PLANTS.
ſcended. The rocks of the earth, being drawn up by Anasar-
ANATOMY of Brutes. See COMPARATIVE Anatomy. the force of the air, took fire, and became ſtars, be-
ANAXAGORAS, one of the moſt celebrated philo- neath which the ſun and moon took their ſtations.
ſophers of antiquity, was born at Clazomene in Ionia, Thus he did not look upon the ſtars as divinities.
about the 70th Olympiad. He was diſciple of Anaxi ANAXARCHUS, a philoſopher of Abdera, high-
menes; and gave up his patrimony, to be more at lei- ly eſteemed by Alexsider the Great. His end was
ſure for the ſtudy of philoſophy. He went firſt to peculiarly tragical : having the misfortune to fall into
Athens, and there taught eloquence; after which, the hands of the enemy, they pounded him alive in a
having put himſelf under the tuition of Anaximenes, mortar.
he gave leſſons in philoſophy in the ſame city. Theſe ANAXIMANDER, a famous Greek philoſopher,
he only gave to ſome particular friends and diſciples, born at Miletus in the 420 Olympiad, in the time of Po-
and with extreme caution. This, however, did not lycrates tyrant of Samos. He was the firſt who pub-
prevent, but rather was the cauſe of, his being accuſed licly taught philoſophy, and wrote upon philoſophical
of impiety, and thrown into priſon, notwithſtanding ſubjects. He carried his reſearches into nature very
the credit and influence of Pericles, who was his dif- far for the time in which he lived. It is ſaid, that he
ciple and intimate. Having been condemned to exile, diſcovered the obliquity of the Zodiac, was the firſt
he calmly yielded to the efforts of envy, and opened who publiſhed a geographical table, invented the gno-
ſchool at Lampſacım, where he was extremely honour-mon, and ſet up the firſt ſun-dial in an open place at
ed during the remainder of his life, and ſtill more af- Lacedæmon. He taught, that infinity of things was
ter his death, having had ſtatues erected to his memo the principal and univerſal element ; that this infinite
ry. He is ſaid to have made ſome predictions relative always preferved its unity, but that its parts underwent
to the phenomena of nature, upon which he wrote ſome changes; that all things came from it; and that all
treatiſes. His principal tenets may be reduced to the were about to return into it. According to all appear-
following:-All things were in the beginning confu- ance, he meant by this obſcure and indeterminate prin-
fedly placed together, without order and without mo- ciple the chaos of the other philoſophers. He aſſerted,
tion. The principle of things is at the ſame time one that there are an infinity of worlds; that the ſtars are
and multiplex, whichobtained the name of homemeries, compoſed of air and fire, which are carried in tlieir
or ſimilar particles, deprived of life. But there is be- ſpheres, and that theſe ſpheres are gods; and that the
fides this, from all eternity, another principle, namely, earth is placed in the midſt of the univerſe, as in a com-
an infinite and incorporeal ſpirit, who gave theſe parti- mon centre. He added, that infinite worlds were the
cles a motion ; in virtue of which, ſuch as are homo- product of infinity, and that corruption proceeded from
geneal united, and ſuch as were heterogeneal ſeparated, ſeparation.
according to their different kinds. In this inanner all ANAXIMENES, born at Miletus, an eminent
things being put into motion by the ſpirit, and ſimilar Greek philoſopher, friend, ſcholar, and fuccellor of
things being united to ſuch as were ſimilar, ſuch as Anaximander. He diffuſed ſome degree of light upon
had a circular motion produced heavenly bodies, the the obfcurity of his maſter's ſyſtem. He made the firſt
lightcr particles aſcended, thoſe which were heavy de- principle of things to conſiſt in the air, which he con-
VOL. I.
fidered
ST
A NC
[ 778 ]
Α Ν C
Des
Anaxine- fidered as immenſe or infinite, and to which he aſcribed wherein oblátions were made by the kindred of the Anectors.
a perpetual motion. He aflerted, that all things which deceaſed.
M
proceeded from it were definite and circumſcribed; and The Ruſſians have ſtill their anniverſary feaſts in me-
Anceſtors.
that this air, therefore, was God, ſince the divine mory of their anceſtors, which they call roditoli fabct,
pouver reſigned in it and agitated it. Coldneſs and moi. q.d. kinsfolk’s fabbath, wherein they make formal viſits
Iture, heat and motion, rendered it viſible, and dreſſed to the dead in their graves, and carry them proviſions,
it in different forms, according to the different degrees eatables, and preſents of divers other kinds. They
of its condenſation. All the elements thus proceed interrogate them, with loud lamentable cries, What
from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion, they are doing? How they ſpend their time? What
one continued flat ſurface.
it is they want ? and the like.
ANAXIMEnes, the ſon of Ariſtocles of Lampſacus The Quojas, a people of Africa, offer ſacrifices of
an orator, the diſciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and of rice and wine to their anceſtors before ever they un-
Zoilus the railer againſt Homer. He was preceptor dertake any conſiderable action. The anniverſaries of
to Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the their deaths are always kept by their families with
wars. Alexander being inſenſed againſt the people of great folemnity. The king invokes the ſoul of his fa-
Lampſacus, they ſent this philoſopher to intercede for ther and mother to make trade flouriſh and the chace
them. Alexander knowing the cauſe of his coming, fucceed.
ſwore that he would do the very reverſe of whatever he The Chineſe ſeem to have diſtinguiſhed themſelves
deſired of him. Anaximenes begged of him to destroy above all other nations in the veneration they bear
Lampſacus. Alexander, unwilling to break his oath, their anceſtors. By the laws of Confucius, part of
and not able to elude this ſtratagem, pardoned Lamp- the duty which children owe their parents contiſts in
facus much againſt his will.
worſhipping them when dead. This ſervice, which
ANAXIMANDRIANS, in the hiſtory of philoſo- makes a conſiderable part of the natural religion af
ply, the followers of Anaximander ; the moſt ancient the Chineſe, is ſaid to have been inſtituted by the em-
of the philoſophical atheiſts, who admitted of no other peror Kun, the fifth in order from the foundation of
ſubſtance in nature than matter.
that ancient empire. Bibl. Un. tom. vii. The Chineſe
ANAZARBUS (Pliny), ANAZARBA (Stephanus); have both a folemn and ordinary worſhip which they
a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, the birth pay their anceſtors. The former is held regularly twice
place of Dioſcorides, and of the poet Oppian. It a-year, viz. in fpring and autumn, with much pomp.
was ſometimes called Cæfarea, in honour either of A perſon who was preſent at it gives the following ac-
Auguſtus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants are called count of the ceremonies on that occaſion : The facri-
Anazarbeni (Pliny), and on coins Anazarbies, after fices were made in a chapel well adorned, where there
the Greek idiom. It was destroyed by a dreadtul 'were ſix altars furniſhed with cenſers, tapers, and flow-
earthquake in the year 5251 along with ſeveral other ers. There were three miniſters, and behind them two
important cities : but they were all repaired at a vaſt young acolites. The three former went with a pro-
expence by the emperor Juſtin ; who was ſo much af- found ſilence, and frequent genuflexions, towards tho
fected with their niisfortune, that, putting off the dia. five altars, pouring out wine : afterwards they drew
dem and purple, he appeared for ſeveral days in ſack- near to the fixth, and when they came to the foot of
cloth.
the altar, half bowed down, they ſaid their prayers
ANBERTKEND, in the eaſtern language, a cele- with a low voice. That being finiſhed, the three mie
brated book of the Brachmans, wherein the Indian niſters went to the altar, the officiating prieſt took up
philofophy and religion are contained. The word in a veſſel full of wine, and drank ; then he lifted up
the
its literal ſenſe denotes the ciſtern wherein is the wa head of a deer or goat ; after which, taking fire from
ter of life. The anbertkend is divided into 50 beths, the altar, they all lighted a bit of paper ; and the mia.
or diſcourſes, each of which conſiſts of ten chapters. niſter of the ceremonies turning towards the people,
It has been tranſlated from the original Indian into ſaid with a high voice, that he gave them thanks in
Arabic, under the title of Morat al Maani, q. d. the the name of their anceſtors for having ſo well honour-
marrow of intelligence.
ed them; and in recompence he promiſed them, on
ANCARANO, a town of Italy, in the march of An- their part, a plentiful harveſt, a fruitful iflue, good
cona, ſituated in E. Long. 14. 54. N. Lat. 42. 48. health, and long life, and all thoſe advantages that
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnſhire, ſituated in are moſt pleaſing to men.
W. Long. 30'. N. Lat. 52. 30. It gives title of duke The Chineſe give their anceſtors another ſimpler
to the noble family of Bertie.
and more private worſhip. To this end they have in
ANCENIS, a town of France, in the province of their houſes a niche or hollow place, where they put
Britany. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 47. 20.
the names of their deceaſed fathers, and make prayers
ANCESTORS, thoſe from whom a perſon is de- and offerings of perfumes and ſpices to thein at certain
fcended in a ſtraight line. The word is derived from times, with bowing, &c. They do the like at their
the Latin anceffor, contracted from anteceffor, q. d. tombs.
goer before.
The Jews ſettled in China are ſaid to worſhip their
Moſt nations have paid honours to their anceſtors. anceſtors like the lieathens, and with the fame cere-
It was properly the departed ſouls of their forefathers monies, except that they offer not ſwine's fleſh. Near
that the Ronians worſhipped under the denominations their fynnagogue they have a hrall, or court of anceſtors,
of rales, lemures, and houſehold gods. Hence the an wherein are niches for Abraham, Iſaac, &c. The Je-
cienț tombs were a kind of temples, or rather altars, ſuits alſo conformed, and were perunitted by their géa
neral
ANĆ
[
779 )
A NC
Anchor.
Plate
sachilops neral to conform to this and many other ſuperſtitious was never uſed but in extreme danger ; whente
fácran Anchor,
cuſtoms of the Chineſe.
anchoram folvere, is proverbially applied to ſuch as are
There is one peculiarity of another kind, wherein forced to their laſt refuge.
the Chineſe ſhow their regard for their anceſtors : in The anchors now made are contrived ſo as to ſink
proportion as any of their deſcendants are preferred to into the ground as ſoon as they reach it, and to hold
a higher degree or dignity, their dead anceſtors are at a great ſtrain before they can be looſened or diſlodged
the fame time preferred and ennobled with them. The from their ſtation. They are compoíed of ſhank, a
kings Ven, Van, Veu, Van, and Cheu, Cum, who were ſtock, a ring, and two arins with their flukes. The
deſcended from vaſſal kings, when they mounted the ſtock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acroſs the
imperial throne, raiſed their anceſtors from the valſal tank, ſerves to guide the flukes in a direction perpen-
or depending ſtate wherein theſe had lived, to the dig- dicular to the ſurface of the ground ; ſo that one of
nity of emperors ; ſo that the ſame lionours were for them ſinks into it by its own weight as ſoon as it falls,
the future rendered them as if they had been emperors and is ſtill preſerved ſteadily in that poſition by the
of China. The ſame example was followed by the ſtock, which together with the ſhank, lies flat on the
fubſequent kings, and now obtains among the grandees bottoni. In this ſituation it muſt neceſſarily ſuſtain a
and literati ; all now worſhip their anceſtors, accord- great effort before it can be dragged through the earth
ing to the rank which they themfelves hold in the horizontally. Indeed this can only be effected by the
world. If the ſon be a mandarin and the father only violence of the wind or tide, or both of them, fome-
a doctor, the latter is buried as a doctor, but facrificed times increaſed by the turbulence of the ſea, and acta
to as a mandarin, The like holds in degradations, ing upon the ſhip ſo as to ſtretch the cable to its utmoſt
where the condition of their fathers is that of their tenhon, which accordingly, may diſlodge the anchor
fons.
from its bed, eſpecially if the ground be
ſoft and oozy,
ANCHILOPS, Ayxva, contraction, and *, eye; or rocky. When the anchor is thus diſplaced, it is
in medicine, denotes an abſceſs, or collection or mat. ſaid, in the ſea phraſe, to come home.
ter, between the great angle of the eye and the noſe. That the figure of this uſeful inſtrument may be
If ſuffered to remain too long, or unſkilfully managed, more clearly underſtood, let us fuppoſe a long inafly xxxl
.
it degenerates, the ſtagnating humours corrupt, and beam of iron erected perpendicularly, b, at the lower
fig. 1. nºso
an ulcer is produced. When the tumor is broke, and end of which are two arms, de, of equal thickneſs
the tears flow involuntarily, whilſt the os lachrymale is with the beam(uſually called the ſhank),only that they
not carious, it is an ægylops; but when the ulcer is of taper towards the points, which are elevated above the
a long ſtanding, deep, fetid, and the os lachrymale be- horizontal plane at an angle of 30 degrees, or in-
Gomes carious, it is a fiftula. The cure is by reſtric- clined to the Thank at an angle of 60 degrees ; on the
tion and excifion, tying it at the root on the glandula, upper part of each arm, (in this poſition) is a fluke or
lachrymalis, and, when ready, cutting it off. See thick plate of iren, g h, commonly ſhaped like an
SURGERY-Index.
ifoſcles triangle whole baſe reaches inwards to the
ANCHISES, in fabulous hiftory, a Trojan prince, middle of the arm. On the upper end of the ſhank is
deſcended from Dardanus, and the ſon of Capys. Ve- fixed the ſtock tranſverſely with the flukes; the ſtock
nus.madelove to him in the form of a beautiful nymph; is a long beam of oak, f, in two parts, ſtrongly bolted,
and bore him Æneas, the hero of Virgil's Æneid. and hooped together with iron rings. See alſo N° 2
ANCHOR (anchora, Lat. from «yxupa, Greek), a Cloſe above the ſtock is the ring a, to which the cable
heavy, ſtrong, crooked inſtrument of iron, dropped is faſtened, or bent : the ring is curiouſly covered with
from a fhip into the bottom of the water, to retain her a number of pieces of fhort rope, which are twiſted
in a convenient {tation in a harbour, road, or river. about it ſo as to form a very thick texture or covering
The moſt ancient anchors are ſaid to have been of called the puddening, and uſed to preſerve the cable
ſtone ; and ſometimes of wood, to which a great quan- from being freted or chafed by the iron.
tity of lead was uſually fixed. In ſome places, baſkets Every ſhip has, or ought to have, three principal
full of ſtones, and ſacks filled with fand, were einploy- ancliors, with a cable to each, viz. the ſheet, maitre le-
cd for the fame uſe. All theſe were let down by cords ancre, (which is the anchora facra of the ancients);
into the ſea, and by their weight ſtayed the courſe of the beſt bower, ſecond anore; and ſmall bower, anore
the ſhip. Afterwards they were compoſed of iron, d'affourche, ſo called from their uſual ſituation on the
and furniſhed with teeth, which, being faſtened to the thip's bows. There are beſides ſmaller anchors, for
bottom of the ſea, preſerved the veſel immoveable; removing a ſhip from place to place in a harbour or
whence odortus and dentes are frequently taken for an- river, where there may not be room or wind for ſailing;
chors in the Greek and Latin poets. At firſt there was theſe are the ſtream-anchor, ancre de toue ; the kedge
only one tooth, whence anchors were called
#Tepesador: and grappling, grapine : chis laſt, however, is chiefly
but in a ſhort time the ſecond was added by Eupala deſigned for boats.
mus, or Anacharſis, the Scythian philoſopher. Thean Method of Making ANCHORS. The goodneſs of that
chors with two teeth were called αμφιβολοι,Or αμφισομοι; anchor is a point of great importance. Great care is
And from ancient monuments appear to have been much therefore to be takeni, that the metal it is made of be
the ſame with thoſe uſed in our days, only the tranſ- neither too ſoft nor too brittle; the latter rendering it
yerle piece of wood upon their handles (the ſtock) is liable to break and the former to ſtraiten.
wanting in all of them. Every ſhip had ſeveral án The fhank, arms, and flukes, are firſt forged fep-
chors, one of which, ſurpaſſing all the reſt in bigneſs rately; then the hole is made at one end of the ſlank
and ftrength, was pec liarly termed sepeor ſacra, and for the ring, which being alſo previouſly forged, is
5 F2
Pirt
A NC
[ 780 ]
A NC
Anchor,
j
22
681
IO
I 000
1124
IO!
continuous
II
II
Breadth of the Veſſel.
Length of the Anchor.
121
13'
WAA Aww NN NA
ulw at wla vÝ N
Weight.
36
15
38
39
16
4096
4426
42
16
5088
Anchor. put into the hole of the ſhank, and the two ends ſhut
Feet, Feet. Pounds,
together. After which the arms arc ſhut to the ſhank
one after the other, and the anchor is finiſhed.
8:
Proof is made of anchors, by riſing them to a
9
778
great height, and then letting then fall again on a
24
9
884
kind of iron block placed acroſs for the purpoſe. To
25
try whether the flukes will turn to thc boltoin and
26
IO
take hold of the ground, they place the anchor on an
27
1259
even ſurface, with the end of one of the flukes, and
28
I 405
one of the ends of the ſtock reſting on the ſurface; in
29
1562
caſe the anchor turns, and the point of the fluke riſes
30
I 728
upwards, the anchor is good.
31
1906
In England, France, and Holland, anchors are made
32
2097
of forged iron ; but in Spain they are ſometimes made
33
2300
of copper, and likewiſe in ſeveral parts of the South-
34
13
2515
Sea.
35
14
2742
For the proportions of anchors, according to Man-
14
2986
waring, the ſhank is to be thrice the length of one of
37
3242
the flukes, and half the length of the beam. Accord-
3512
ing to Aubin, the length of the anchor is to be four
15
3796
tenths of the greateſt breadth of the ſhip ; ſo that the
40
16
Thank, e. gr. of an anchor in a veſſel 30 feet wide, is
41
to be 12 feet long. When the ſhank is, for inſtance
4742
eight feet long, the two arms are to be ſeven feet long,
43
17
meaſuring them according to their curvity. As to the
44
17}
5451
degree of curvity given the arms, there is no rule for
| 45
18
5832
it ; the workmen are here left to their own diſcretion.
The latter writer obſeryes, that the anchor of a large
M. Bouguer, in his Traite de Navire, directs to
heavy veſſel is ſmaller, in proportion, than that of a take the length of the ſhank in inches, and
to divide
leſſer and lighter one.
The reaſon lie gives is, that the cube of it by 1160 for the weight. The reaſon
though the ſea employes an equal force againſt a ſmall is obvious; becauſe the quotient of the cube of
201
veſſei as againſt a great one, ſuppoſing the extent of inches, which is the length of an anchor weighing
wood upon which the water acts to be equal in both, 7000 it. divided by the weight, is 1160; and there
yet the little veſſel, by reaſon of its fuperior lightneſs, fore, by the rule of three, this will be a comman di-
does not make ſo much reſiſtance as the greater ; the viſor for the cube of any length, and a ſingle opera-
defect whereof muſt be ſupplied by the weight of the tion will ſuffice.
anchor.
The ſame author gives the following dimenſions of
From theſe, and other hydroſtatic principles, the the ſeveral parts of an anchor. The two arms gene-
following table has been formed; wherein is ſhown, rally form the arch of a circle, wheſe centre is three-
by means of the ſhip’s breadth within, how many feet eighths of the ſhank from the vertex, or point where
the beam or fhank ought to be long, giving it four- it is fixed to the ſhank; and each arun is equal to the
tenths or two fifths of the ſhip’s breadth within: by ſame length, or the radius ; ſo that the two arms to-
which proportion might be regulated the length of the gether make an arch of 120 degrees: the fukes are
other parts of the anchor. In this table is repreſented half the length of the arms, and their breadth two-
likewiſe the weight an anchor ought to be for a ſhip fifths of the ſaid length. With reſpect to the thick-
from eight feet broad to 45, increaling by one foot's neſs, the circumference at the throat, or vertex of the
breadth"; fuppoſing that all anchors are ſimilar, or that ſhank, is generally made about the fifth part of its
their weights are as the cubes of the lengths of the length, and the ſmall end two-thirds of the throat ;
thanks.
the ſmall end of the arms of the flukes, three-fourths
Feet.
Feet. Pounds.
of the circumference of the ſhank at the throat. Theſe
dimenſions ſhould be bigger, when the iron is of a bad
3}
33
quality, eſpecially if caſt iron is uſed inſtead of forged
9
3}
47
iron.
4
At Anchor, the ſituation of a ſhip which rides by
4
her anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXXI. fig. 1.
4
N° 3. repreſents the fore part of a ſhip as riding in
13
55
this ſituation. See alſo BUOY-ROPE.
5
175
To fiſh the ANCHOR, to draw up the flukes upon the
6
216
fhip's ſide after it is catted. See the articles DAVIT
16
262
and FISH.
314
To steer the Ship to her ANCHOR, is to ſteer tlie ſhip's
18
7
373
head towards the place where the anchor lies when they
19
7
439
are heaving the cable into the ſhip; that the cable may
8
512
thereby enter the hauſe with leſs reſiſtance, and the
8.
592
hip adyance towards the anchor with greatcr facility a
ANCHOR
ވެ
8
IO
64
II
84
I 2
II
I 40
Breadth of the Veſſel.
Length of the Anchor.
/w of
O Ovvaaa ww
www/wala na
14
I 5
Weight.
61
17
20
21
A NC
T 781 ]
Α Ν C
It is a peren-
Anchor ANCHOR-Ground is a bottom which is neither too ſome woods where it abounds, the ground ſeems en- Anchuſa
8 deep, too ſhallow, „nor rocky; as in the firſt the cable tirely covered with its yellow flowers.
9
Anchufa, bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to nial plant, which ſeldom
riſes a foot high in good Ancient.
jerk the anchor out of the ground; in the ſecond, the ground, but not above half that height where the ſoil
ſhip's bottom is apt to ſtrike at low water, or when is poor. The flowers grow in looſe ſpikes upon ſmooth
the ſea runs high, by which ſhe is expoſed to the dan- ftalks. 6. The ſempervirens, or ever-green horage,
ger of linking; and in the third, the anchor is liable is a very hardy perennial plant, with weak trailing
to hook the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and branches. It grows naturally in ſome parts of Britain
tear away its flukes, whilſt the cable, from the ſame and Spain. The flowers are blue, and come out be-
cauſe, is conſtantly in danger of being cut through as tween the leaves on the ſpike, like the fourth fort.
it rubs on their edges.
They appear during a great part of the year. 7. The
Anchor, in architecture, is a ſort of carving, ſome- cretica, or warted buglofs of Crete, is a low trailing
what reſembling an anchor. It is commonly placed annual plant, whoſe branches feldon extend more
as part of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals than ſix inches. The flowers are ſmall, of a bright
of the Tuſcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alſo of blue colour, and are collected into ſmall bunches at
the boultins of bed-mouldings of the Doric, Ionic, tlie extremity of the branches. The plants periſh foun
and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being car-
after their feeds are ripe. 8. The tinctoria, or true
ved alternately through the whole building.
alkanet, grows naturally in the Levant, but is equally
Anchors, in heraldry, are emblems of hope, and hardy with the firſt ſpecies. The flowers grow in long
are taken for ſuch in a ſpiritual as well as a temporal ſpikes, coming out imbricatim, like tlie tiles of a houſe.
ſenſe.
Culture. All the ſpecies of anchuſa may be propa-
ANCHORAGE, in law, is a duty upon ſhips for the gated by feeds; which ſhould be foun, cither in the
uſe of the port or harbour where they caſt anclior. ſpring or autumn, upon a bed of light ſandy earth ; and
ANCHOVY, in ichthyology, the Engliſh name of when the plants are ſtrong enough to be reinoved, they
the clupea encrafacolus. See CLUPEA.
muſt be planted on beds at two feet diſtance from one
ANCHOVY-PEAR. See GRIAS.
another, and watered, if the ſeaſon requires it, till they
ANCHUSA, ALKANET or BuGloss: A genus of have taken root; after which they willrequire no other
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria claſs care than to keep them free from weeds.
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under Medicinal Uſes, &c. The flowers of the firſt ſpecies
the 41ſt order, aſperifolia. The calyx is a quinque. have obtained the name of cordial flowers ; to which
partite perianthium, oblong and perſiſtent: The corolla they have no other title than that they moderately cool
is monopetalous and funnel-ſhaped, the throar cloſed and foften, without offending, the palate or ſtomach;
with ſcales: Theftamina conſiſt of five ſhort filaments; and thus, in warm cliinates, or in hot diſeaſes, may in
the antheræ oblong and covered: The piftillum has four fome meaſure refreſh the patient. The root of the tinc-
germina, a filiform ſtylus, and obtuſe ſtigma : There toria is likewiſe uſed, not as poſſeſſed of any medici-
is no pericarpiuin, the calyx containing the ſeeds in its nal virtue, but on account of its imparting an elegant
bofom : The ſeeds are four, oblong, gibbous, and en- red colour to oily ſubſtances; fo is frequently direc-
graven at the baſe.
ted as a colouring ingredient for ointments, plaſters, &c.
Species. 1. The officinalis, or greater garden-buglofs, As the colour is confined to the cortical part, the finall
is a native of France and of the warıner parts of Europe, roots are to be preferred, as having proportionably
but will thrive well enough in the climate of Britain inore bark than the large ones. The alkanetroot which
though the roots ſeldom continue longer than two years grows in England is greatly inferior to what comes
there, unleſs they happen to grow in rubbiſh, or out of from France, and ſome other parts of Europe.
an old wall, where they will live three or four years.
ANCHYLOBLEPHARON. See ANCYLOBLE-
2. The anguſtifolia, or perenialwild borage, grows to
the height of two feet wlien cultivated in gardens; but ANCHYLOPS. See ANCHILOPS.
in thoſe places where it grows wild is ſeldom more than ANCHYLOSIS. See ANCYLOSIS.
a foot and an half high. The leaves of this fort are ANCIENT, or ANTIENT, a term applied to things
narrow ; the ſpikes of flowers come out double, and which exiſted long ago; thus we ſay, ancient nations,
have no leaves about them; the flowers are finall, and ancient cuſtoms, &c. See ANTIQUITIES.
of a red colour. The roots will continue two years in ANCIENT, fonetimes denotes elderly, or of long
a poor foil. 3. The undulata, or Portugal buglofs, ſtanding, in oppoſition to young, or nerv; thus we ſay,
is à biennial plant, which grows to the height of two an ancient barriſter, ancient buildings.
feet, and ſends out many lateral branches. The flow ANCIENT, in a military ſenſe, denotes either the
ers are of a bright blue colour, and grow in an imbri. enſign or colours.
cated ſpike. 4. Tlie orientalis, or eaſtern bugloſs, is ANCIENI, in lips of war, the ſtreamer or flag
a native of the Levant. It is a perennial plant, with borne in the ſtern.
long trailing branches which lie on the ground. The ANCIENT DEMESNE, în Engliſh law, is a tenure,
flowers are yellow, and about the ſize of the common whereby all manors belonging to the crown in William
buglofs, and there is a ſucceſſion of theſe on the fame the Conqueror's and St Edward's time were held.
plants great part of the year. 5. The virginiana, or The numbers, names, &c. hereof were entered by the
puccoon, grows naturally in the woods of Nortli-Ame- Conqueror, in a book called Domeſday Book, yet re-
rica; and being an early plant, generally flowers be- maining in the Exchequer; ſo that ſuch lands as by
fore the new leaves come out on the trees; ſo that in that book appeared to have belonged to the crown at
that
3
PHARON.
ÀN C
[ 78%
AN C
1
Ancienty, that time, are called ancient demeſne. The tenants in the elector, and was made miniſter of the city. Here Anciam
Ancillon. ancient demeſne are of two forts; one who hold their he had the pleaſure of ſeeing his eldeſt ſon made judge
lands frankly by charter ; the other by copy of court and director of the French in the ſame city, and his or Ancona.
roll, or by the verge, at the will of the lord, according ther ſon rewarded with a penſion and entertained at the
to the cuſtom of the manor.The advantages of this univerſity of Francfort upon the Oder. He had like-
tenure are, 1. That tenants holding by charter cannot wiſe the ſatisfaction of ſeeing his brother made judge
berightfully mpleaded out of their manor ; and, when of all the French in the ſtates of Brandenburgh; and Mr
they are, they may abate the writ, by pleading the te Cayart, his ſon-in-law, engineer to his electoral high-
nure. 2. They are free from toll for all things relating neſs. He enjoyed theſe agreeable circumſtances, and
to their livelihood and huſbandry; nor can be impan- fcveral others, till his death, which happened at Berlin
nelled on any inqueſt. Theſe tenants held originally the 3d of Septeinper, 1692, when he was 75 years of
by plowing the king's land, plaſhing his hedges, and age.--Mr Ancillon having got a conſiderable fortune by
the like ſervice, for the maintenance of his houſehold; marriage, was enabled thereby to gratify his paffioit
and it was on this account that ſuch liberties were gi- for books ; his library was accordingly very curious
ven them, for which they may have writs of monfira- and large, and he increaſed it every day with all that
verunt tó ſuch as take the duties of toll, &c.- No appeared new and important in the republic of letters,
lands are to be accounted ancient demeſne, but ſuch as ſo that at laſt it was one of the nobleſt collections in the
are held in focage. Whether land be ancient demeſne hands of any private perſon in the kingdom. He pub-
or not, ſhall be tried by the Book of DOMESDAY, liſhed a book, in quarto, in which the whole diſpute
ANCIENTY, in ſome ancient ſtatutes, is uſed for concerning Traditions is fully examined: he alſo wrote
clderſhip or ſeniority. The elder ſiſter can demand no an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Beza,
more than her other ſiſters, beſide the chief meſne, by and ſeveral other pieces.
reaſon of lier ancienty. This word is uſed in the ſta ANCLAM, a ſtrong town of Germany, in the cir-
tute of Ireland, 14 Hen. III.
cle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, re-
ANCILLON (David), a miniſter of the reformed markable for its excellent paſtures. It is ſeated on the
church at Metz, where he was born the 17th of March river Pene. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 54. 10.
1617. He ſtudied from the ninth or tenth year of his ANCLE, or ANKLE. See ANKLE.
age in the Jeſuits college, where he gave ſuch proofs ANCONA (anarquiſateof), a province in the pope's
of his genius, that the heads of the ſociety tried every territories in Italy. It lies between the gulph of Ve-
means to draw him over to their religion and party ; nice and mount Appenine, which bound it on the
but he continued firm againſt their attacks. He went north; Abruzzo on the eaſt; the duchy of Spoletto,
to Geneva in 1623; and ſtudied divinity under Span- and that of Urbino, on the weſt. The air is indiffe-
heim, Diodati, and Tronchin, who conceived a very rent; but the foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and
great eſteem for him. He left Geneva in April 1641, flax; and there is great plenty of wax and honey. It
and offered himſelf to the fynod of Charenton in order contains ſeveral large towns, as Fermo, Loretto, Re-
to take upon him the office of a miniſter : his abilities canati, Macerata, Jeli
, Tolentino, Aſcoli, Ofimo, St
were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole Severino, Monte Alto, Camerino, and Ripatranſone,
affembly were ſo highly pleaſed with him, that they which are all archiepiſcopal or epiſcopal fees.
gave lim the church of Meaux, the moſt conſiderable
ANCONA, a ſea-port town of Italy, the capital of the
then unprovided for. Here heacquired avaſtreputation marquiſate of that name, and the fee of a biſhop. IE
for his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and was even was formerly the fineſt port in all Italy, being built by
highly reſpected by thoſe of the Roman-catholic coin-
the emperor Trajan, about the year 115; but was al-
munion. He returned to his own country in the year moftruined, and its trade loft: however, it has again
1653, where he remained till the revocation of the e- begun to revive. Its harbour is the beſt in all the
dict of Nantes in 1685. He retired to Francfort after pope's dominions. The town lies round it on two hills;
this fatal blow; and having preached in the French one of which is at the point of Cape St Syriaco, from
church at Hanan, the whole congregation were ſo edi- whence there is a delightful proſpect. On the other
fied by it, thar they immediately called together the ſtands the citadel, which commands the town and har
heads of the families, in order to propoſe that he might bour. The ſtreets of this city are narrow and uneven ;
be invited to accept being minifter there. The pro- and the
public and private buildings inferior to thoſe of
poſition was agreed to ; and he began the exerciſe of his the orher great towns in Italy. The cathedral'is a low
miniſtry in that church about the end of the year 1685. dark ſtructure ; and though the front is covered with
His preaching made ſo great a noiſe at Hanau, that fine inarble, the architecture has neither beauty nor re-
the profeſſors of divinity, and the German and Durch gularity. The church of St Dominic, and that of the
miniſters, attended his ſermons frequently: the countof Franciſcans, have each an excellent picture of Titian.
Hanau himſelf, who had never before been ſeen in the The exchange, where the merchants meet, is a hand-
French church, came thither to hear Mr Ancillon : ſome ſquare portico, in which is an equeſtrian ſtatus
they came from theneighbouring parts, and even from of Trajan, who firſt built the port.
At the four cor-
Francfort; people who underſtood nothing of French ners are four other ſtatues. The triumplial arch of Tra-
flocked together with great eagerneſs, and ſaid they jan remains almoſt entire, with its inſcription. The
loved to ſee him ſpeak. This occafioned a great jea. common people in this town are a little particular and
louſy in the two other ininiſters; which tended to make fantaſtical in their dreſs, but the better Tort follow the
his ſituation uneaſy. He therefore went to Berlin ; French mode. It is a grcat thoroughfare fron the
where he met with a kind reception from his highneſs north of Italy to Loretto; which renders proviſions very
dear.
A NC
[ 783)
A N C
Ancones dear. The tide does not riſe here above a foot, and ly to devotion, and compoſed a tranſlation of David's Aacre
8 near the Mediterranean it is ſcarce viſible. E. Long. Pſalms in verſe, and a ſacred tragedy, which were ne-
Ancourt. 15. 5. N. Lat. 43. 36.
ver printed. He died the 6th of December, 1726, be- Ancylo.
ANCONES, in architecture, the corners or quoins ing 65 years of age. The plays which he wrote are gloffum.
of walls, croſs-beams, or rafters.-Vitruvius calls the 52 in all; moſt of which were printed ſeparately at the
conſoles by the ſame name.
time when they were firſt repreſented; they were after-
ANCONY, in the iron-works, a piece of half wards collected into five volumes, then into ſeven, and
wrought iron, of about three quarters of 100 weight, at laſt into nine. This laſt edition is the moſt complete.
and of the ſhape of a bar in the middle, but rude and ANCRE, a ſmall town of France, in Picardy, with
unwrought at the ends. The proceſs for bringing the the title of a marquiſate, ſeated on a little river of the
iron to this ſtate is this: They firſt melt off a piece ſame name. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 49. 59.
from a low of caſt iron, of the proper lize ; this they ANCUS MARTIUS, the fourth king of the Ro.
hammer at the forge into a maſs of two feet long, and mans, fucceeded by Tullius Hoſtilius, 639 years before
of a ſquare ſhape, which they call a bloonz ; when this Chriſt. He defeated the Latins, fubdued the Fide-
is done, they ſend it to the finery; where, after two or nates, conquered the Sabines, Volicii, and Veientines,
three heats and workings, they bring it to this figure, enlarged Rome by joining to it mount Janicula, and
and call it an ancony. The middle part beat out at the made the harbour of Oftia. He died about 615 years
finery, is about three feet long, and of the ſhape and before the Chriſtian æra.
thickneſs the whole is to be ; this is then ſent to the ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of ſhield that fell,
chafery, and there the ends are wrought to the ſhape as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa
of the middle, and the whole made into a bar. See Pompilius; at which time, likewiſe, a voice was heard
BAR.
declaring that Rome ſhould be miſtreſs of the world as
ANCORARUM URBS, Auxupov stones, a city in long as the thould preſerve this holy buckler.
It was
the Nomos Aphroditopolites, towards the Red Sea ; kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the
fo called becauſe there was in the neighbourhood a ſtone direction of twelve prieſts; andleaſt any ſhould attempt
quarry, in which they, hewed ſtone anchors (Pto- to ſteal it, elcven others were made ſo like, as not to
lemy), before iron anchors came to be uſed. The gen be diſtinguiſhed from the ſacred one.
Theſe ancylia
tilitious name is Ancyropolites, (Stephanus).
were carried in proceſſion every year round the city of
ANCOURT(Florent-Carton'd),an cminent French Rome.
actor and dramatic writer, born at Fontainbleau, Oc ANCYLE, in ſurgery. Sce ANCYLOSIS. ,
tober 1661. He ſtudied in the Jeſuit's college at Paris, ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from yxvne bent
under father de la Rue; who, diſcovering in him a re and Bread por an eye-lid); a diſeaſe of the eye, which
markable vivacity and capacity for learning, was ex cloſes the eye-lids. Sometimes the eye-lids grow to-
tremely deſirous of engaging him in their order ; but gether, and alſo to the tunica albuginea of the eye,
Ancourt's averſion to a religious life rendered all his from careleſſneſs wlien there is an ulcer in theſe
parts.
efforts ineffectual. After he had gone through a courſe Both theſe caſes are called ancy/oblepharon by the
of philoſophy, he applied himſelf to the civil law, and Greeks. This diſorder muſt be diſtinguiſhed from that
was admitted advocate at 17 years of age. But falling coalition of the eye-lids which happens from viſcid mat-
in love with an actreſs, he was induced to go upon the ter gluing them together. If the coheſion is on the
ſtage, and he married her. As he had all the qualifi- cornea, the fight is inevitably loſt. This hath ſome-
eations neceſſary for the theatre, he foon greatly diſtin- times happened in the ſmall-pox. If there is only a
guified himſelf: and not being ſatisfied with the ap- growing together of the eye-lids, they may be ſepara-
plauſe only of an actor, he began to write pieces for ted with the ſpecillun, and pledgets kept between them
the ſtage; many of which had ſuch prodigious ſucceſs, to prevent their re-union. If the eye-lids adhere to the
that moſt of the players grew rich from the profits of eye, they are to be ſeparated by a fine-edged knife;
them. His nierit in this way procured him a very fa- and their re-union is to be prevented by a proper uſe of
vourable reception at court; and Lewis XIV. ſhowed injections, and lint placed between them, after dipping
him many marks of his favour. His ſprightly conver it in ſome proper liniment.
fation and polite behaviour made his company agreeable ANCYLOGLOSSUM, (from cgXudos crooked and
to all the men of figure both at court and in the city gawrou the tongue); a contraction of the ligaments of
and the moſt conſiderable perſons were extremely plea- the tongue. Some have this imperfection from their
ſed to have him at their houſes. Having taken a jour- birth, others from ſome diſeaſe. In the firſt caſe, the
ney to Dunkirk, to ſee his eldeſt daughter who lived inembrane which ſupports the tongue is too ſhort or
there, he took the opportunity of paying his compli- too hard; in tlie latter, an ulcer under the tongue, heal-
ments to the elector of Bavaria, who was then at Bruf- ing and forming a cicatrix, is foinetines the cauſe :
ſels : this prince received him with the utmoſt civility; Theſe ſpeak with ſome difficulty. The ancylogloíli by
and having detained him a conſiderable time, diſmiſſed nature are late before they ſpeak: but when they be-
him with a preſent of a diamond valued at 1000 pi- gin, they foon ſpeak properly. Theſe we call tongue-
ſtoles ; he likewiſe rewarded him in a very generous tid. Mauriceau ſays, that in this caſe it is a ſmall mem-
manner, when, upon his coming to Paris, Ancourt coin branous production, which extends from the frænulum
poſed an entertainment for his diverſion. Ancourt be to the tip of the tongue, that hinders the child froin
gan at length to grow weary of the theatre, which he fucking, &c. He juſtly condemns the cruel practice
quitted in Leñt 1718, and retired to his eſtate of Cour among nurſes, of tearing this membrane with their
éelles le Roy, in Berry, where he applied himſelf whol- Dails, for thus ulcers are ſometimes formed, which are
Α Ν D
[ 784 ]
A N D
20.
Ancyloſis of difficult cure : he adviſes to ſnif it with ſciſſars in ferim on the coaſt of Siam. They are but little known; Andante
11 two or three places, taking care not to extend the only the Eaſt India ſhips ſometimes touch at them, and M
Andanan.
points of the ſciſſars ſo far as the frænulum. The in are ſupplied by the natives with rice, hierbs, and fruits: Anderſon.
ſtances rarely occur which require any kind of allift- the inliabitants are by fome repreſented as an harmleſs
ance ; for if the child can thruſt the tip of its tongue inoffenſive race of men, and by others as cannibals.
to the outer edge of its lip, this diſeaſe does not exiſt; E. Long. 92. O. N. Lat. from 10°. to 15º.
and if the tongue is not greatly reſtrained, the frænu ANDANTE, in muſic, ſignifies a movement mode-
lum will ſtretch by the child's ſucking and crying. rately ſlow, between largo and allegro.
ANCYLOSIS, in ſurgery, implies a diſtortion or ANDECAVI, (Tacitus); ANDEGAVI, (Pliny).
ſtiffneſs of the joints, cauſed by a ſettlement of the hu- ANDES, (Cæſar) ; Andi, (Lucan) : A people of Gal-
mours, or a diſtenſion of the nerves, and therefore re lia Celticà, having the Turones to the Eaſt, the Namne-
medics of a mollifying and relaxing nature are requi- tes to the weſt, the Pictones to the ſouth, and the Au-
red.
lerci Cænomani to the north : now Anjou.
ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny, ANDEGAVI, or ANDEGAVUS, a town of Gallia
Ptolemy); at no great diſtance from the river Halys, Celtica (Pliny, Ptolemy); now Angieres. Called Ar-
(Livy)? ſaid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia, decavi, (Tacitus). W. Long. 30. Lat. 47. 30.
and to take its name from an anchor found there, (Pau ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted
ſanias). It was greatly improved by Auguſtus, deem- in two by a paved cauſeway. Here is a fountain to
ed the ſecond founder of it, as appears from the Mara which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of
mor Ancyranum. It is now called Angura, or Angoura. their diſorders, on the feaſt-day of the ſaint to which
E. Long. 35º. Lat. 41. 20.
it is dedicated. It is 20 miles S. E. of Rouen, and
ANCYSTRUM, in botany : A genus of the digy- five N. W. of Paris. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 49.
nia order, belonging to the diandria claſs of plants; the
eſſential characters of which are: The calyx is a ſingle ANDENA, in old writers, denotes the ſwath mado
leaved, four-toothed perianthium, four-awned, the in mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man can
awns terminated with croſs-barbs : The corolla is four- ſtride over at once.
cleft; the ſtigma' penciled.
ANDEOL (St), a town of France, in the Viyarez,
ANDARATÆ, in antiquity, a ſort of gladiators, five miles S. of St Viviers, whoſe biſhop formerly re-
who, mounted on horſeback or in chariots, fought fided there. E, Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 44. 24.
hoodwinked, having a helmet that covered their eyes. ANDERAB, the moſt ſouthern city of the pro-
ANDALUSIA, is the moſt weſtern province of vince of Balkh, poſſeſſed by the Uſbeck Tartars. It
Spain, having Eftramadura and La Mancha on the is very rich and populous, but a place of no great
north; the kingdom of Granada, the ſtraights of Gibral ſtrength. The neighbouring mountains yield excel-
tar, and the Ocean, on the eaſt and ſouth; and, on the lent quarries of lapis lazulli, in which the Buckhars
weſt, the kingdom of Algarva in Portugal, from which drive a great trade with Perſia and India.---This city
it is ſeparated by the river Guadiana. It is about 182 is ſituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do-
miles long, and 150 broad. The chief citics and towns minions of the Great Mogul and Perſia from Great
are Seville, the capital, Baeza, Gibraltar, Corduba, Ca Buckharia. As there is no other way of croſſing theſe
diz, Medina, Sidonia, Jaen, Port St Mary, &c. It is mountains but by the road through this city, all tra-
the beſt, moſt fruitful, and the richeſt part of all Spain. vellers with goods muſt pay 4 per cent.
On this ac
There is a good air, a ſerene ſky, a fertile ſoil, and a count the Klan of Balklı maintains a good number of
great extent on the ſea-coaſt fit for commerce.
ſoldiers in the place.
New ANDALUSIA, a diviſion of the province of Ter ANDERNACAT, a city of Cologne, in the circle
ra Firma in South-Aincrica, whoſe boundaries cannot of the Lower Rhine. It is ſituated in a plain on the
be well aſcertained, as the Spaniards pretend a riglit to river Rhine ; and is fortified with a wall, caſtle, and
countries in which they have'never eſtabliſhed any ſet- bulwarks. It has a trade in ſtonc jugs and pitchers,
tlements. According to the moſt reaſonable limits, it which are ſent to the mineral waters at Dunchſtein.
extends in length 500 miles from north to ſouth, and There are three monaſteries here and ſeveral churches.
about 270 in breadth from eaſt to weſt. The interior E. Long. 7. 4. N. Lat 50. 27.
country is woody and mountainous, variegated with fine ANDERO (St), a ſea-port town in the bay of Bif-
valleys that yield corn and paſturage. The produceof cay, in Old Całtile, ſeated on a ſmall peninſula. It is
the country conſiſts chiefly in dying-drugs, gums, me a trading town, and contains about 700 houſes: two
dicinal roots, brazil wood, ſugar, tobacco, and ſome pariſh-churches, and four monaſteries. Here the Spa-
valuable timber. To this province alſo belonged five niards build and lay up ſome of their men of war. W.
valuable pearl-fiſheries. The capital of New Andalu-
The capital of New Andalu- Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ſia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, ſituated in ANDERSON (Sir Edward), a younger ſon of an
N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north ſea. ancient Scorch fainily ſettled in Lincolnſhire. He
Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in was ſome time a ſtudent of Lincoln college, Oxford ;
the year 1520. The place is ſtrolîg by nature, and and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where
fortified by a caſtle capable of making a vigorous de he applied himſelf diligently to the ſtudy of the law,
fence ; as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af and became a barriſter. In the 9th of
In the oth of queen Eliza-
ſaulted by the buccanneers, who were repulſed with beth he was both lent and ſumıncr reader, and in the
Very great flaughter.
16th double reader He was appointed her majeſty's
ANDAMAN or ANDEMAN Iſlands, in the Eaſt ſergeant at law in the 19th year of her reign; and ſome
Indies, ſituated about 80 leagues diſtance from Tanaf- time after, one of the juſtices of aflize. In 1582 hc
I
WAS
A N D
[ 785 )
A N D
in being
Andreſon, was made lord chief juſtice of the common pleas, and clouds that hovered on the mountain's fides. The Andes.
Andes. in the year following was knighted. He held his of- mountains juſt mentioned, which have been frequently as
fice to the end of his life, died in the year 1605, and aſcended, are much inferior in height to many others
was buried at Eyworth in Bedfordſhire.
He was an in this enormous chain. The following is the account
able, but punđílious lawyer ; a ſcourge to the Puri- given of the mountain called Pichincha, by the mathe-
tans; and a ſtrenuous ſupporter of the eſtabliſhed maticians ſent by the kings of France and Spain to
church. His works are, 1. Reports of many princi- make obſervations in relation to the figure of the earth.
pal caſes argued and adjudged in the time of queen Soon after our artiſts arrived at Quito, they deter-
Elizabeth, in the common bench. Lond. 1644, fol. mined to continue the ſeries of the triangles for mea.
2. Reſolutions and judgments on the caſes and matters ſuring an arch of the meridian to the S. of that city;
agitated in all the courts of Weſtminſter, in the latter the company accordingly divided themſelves into two
end of the reign of queen Elizabeth. Publiſhed by bodies, conſiſting of French and Spaniards, and each
John Goldſborough, Ēfq; Lond. 1653, 410. Beſides
Beſides retired to the part aligned them. Don George Juan
theſe, there is a manuſcript copy of his Readings ſtill and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party,
went to the mountain of Panibamarca; while M.
ANDERSON (Adam), a native of Scotland, was Bougeur, de la Condamine, and Don Ulloa, together
brother to the reverend James Anderſon, D.D. editor with their aſſiſtants, climbed up to the higheſt ſummit
of the Diplomata Scotia and Royal Genealogies, many of Pichincha. Both parties ſuffered extremely, as
years ſince miniſter of the Scots preſbyterian church well from the ſeverity of the cold as from the impe-
in Swallow-ſtreet, Piccadilly, and well known in thoſe tuolity of the winds, which on theſe heights blow
days among the people of that perſuaſion relident in with inceſſant violence; difficulties the more painful,
London, by the name of Biſhop Anderſon, a learned as they had been little uſed to ſuch ſenſations. Thus,
but imprudent man, who loſt a conſiderable part of his in the torrid zone, nearly under the equinoctial, where
property in the fatal year 1720. He married, and had it is natural to ſuppoſe they had moſt to fear from the
iſſue a ſon, and a daughter, who was the wife of an heat, their greateſt pain was cauſed by the exceſſive.
officer in the army.
neſs of the cold.
Adain Anderſon was for 40 years a clerk in the Their firſt ſcheme for ſhelter and lodging in theſe
South Sea Houſe; and at length arrived to his acme uncomfortable regions, was to pitch a field-tent for
there, being appointed chief clerk of the Stock and each company; but on Pichincha this could not be
New Annuities, which office he retained till his death. done from the narrowneſs of the ſummit: they were
He was appointed one of the truſtees for eſtablithing therefore obliged to be contented with a hut fo imall
the colony of Georgia, in America ; and was alſo one that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this
of the court of aſſiſtants of the Scots corporation in appear ſtrange, if the reader conſiders the bad diſpo-
London.
The time of the publication of his “ Hiſ- ſition and ſmallneſs of the place, it being one of the
torical and Chronological Deduction of Trade and loftieſt crags of a rocky mountain, 100 fathoms above
Commerce,” a work replete with uſeful information, the higheſt part of the defart of Pichincha. Such
was about the year 1762. He was twice married ; was the ſituation of their manſion, which, like all the
by the firſt wife he had iſſue a daughter, married to other adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and
one Mr Hardy, an apothecary in the Strand, who are ſnow. The aſcent up this ftupendous rock from the
both dead without illue; he afterwards became the baſe, or the place where the mules could come, to
third huſband of the widow of Mr Coulter, formerly their habitation, was ſo craggy as only to be climbed
a wholeſale linen-draper in Cornhill, by whom he on foot ; and to perform it coſt them four hours contin
had no iſſue. She was, like him, tall and graceful; nual labour and pain, from the violent efforts of the
and her face has been thought to have ſome reſem- body, and the ſubtility of the air ; the latter being fuch
blance to that of the ever-living counteſs of Deſmond, as to render reſpiration difficult.
given in Mr Pennant's firſt Tour in Scotland. Mr An. The ſtrange manner of living to which our artiſts
derſon died at his houſe in Red Lion-ſtreet, Clerken were reduced during the tiine they were employed in
well, January 10, 1775. He had a good library of a geometrical inenfuration of fome degrees of the me-
books, which were ſold by his widow, who ſurvived ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the
him ſeveral years, and died in 1781.
reader; and therefore the following account is giveni
ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South Ame as a ſpecimen of it. The deſart of Pichincha, both
rica, which, running from the inoſt northern part of with regard to the operations performed there and its
Peru to the ſtraits of Magellan, between 3 and 4000 inconveniences, differing very little from uthers, an
miles, are the longeſt and moſt remarkable in the idea may be very ealily formed of the fatigues, liard .
world. The Spaniards call them the Cordillera de los fhips, and dangers, to which they were continually
Andes; they form two ridges, the lowermoſt of which expoſed during the time they were proſecuting the en-
is overſpread with woods and groves, and the upper- terpriſe, with the conduct of which they had been ho-
moſt covered with everlaſting ſnow. Thoſe who have noured. The principal difference between the feve.
been at the top, affirm, that the ſky is always ſerene ral deſarts conſiſted in their greater or leſſer diſtance
and bright; the air cold and piercing; and yet ſo thin, from places where they could procure proviſions; and
that they were ſcarce able to breathe and the reſpiration in the inclemency of the weather, which was propor-
was much thicker than ordinary; and this is attended tionate to the height of the mountains, and the ſeaſon
with reaching and vomiting ; which, however, has of the year.
been conſidered by ſome as merely accidental. Wlien They generally kept within their hut. Indeed they
they looked downwards, the country was hid by the were obliged to do this, both on account of the in-
VOL. I.
tenleners
A
A N D
[ 786 ]
Α Ν D
great difli
Andes. tenſeneſs of the cold, the violence of the wind, and been able to ſupport the weight. They were not inl- Andes.
their being continually involved in fo thick a fog, that deed without fervants and Indians; but theſe were ſo
an object at fix or eight paces was hardly diſcernible. benumbed with the cold, that it was with
When the fog cleared up, the clouds by their gravity culty they could get them out of a ſmall tent, where
moved nearer to the ſurface of the earth, and on all they kept a continual fire. So that all our artiſts could
ſides ſurrounded the mountains to a vaſt diſtance, rc obtain from then was to take their turns in this la-
preſenting the ſea, with their rock like an iſland in the bour ; and even then they went very unwillingly about
centre of it. When this happened they heard the it, and conſequently performed it very ſlowly.
horrid noiſes of the tempeſts, which then difcharged It inay eaſily be conceived what this coni pany ſuf-
themſelves on Quito and the neighbouring country. fered from the afperities of ſuch a climate. Their feet
They ſaw the lighınings iſſue from the clouds, and were ſwelled; and ſo tender, that they could not even
heard the thunders roll far beneath them; and whilſt bear the heat: and walking was attended with ex-
the lower parts were inyolved in tempeſts of thunder treme pain. Their hands were covered with chil.
and rain, they enjoyed a delightful ferenity; the wind blains; their lips ſwelled and chopped ; fo that every
was abated, the ſky clear, and the enlivening rays of motion in ſpeaking, or the like, drew the blood; con-
the fun moderated the ſeverity of the cold. But their fequently they were obliged to ftri&t taciturnity, and
circumſtances were very different when the clouds little diſpoſed to laugh, as, by cauſing a diſtenſion of
roſe: their thickneſs rendered reſpiration difficult; the the lips, it produced ſuch fiſſures as were very painful
ſnow and hail fell continually; and the wind returned for two or three days after.
with all its violence; ſo that it was in poſſible entire Their con mon food in this inhoſpitable region was a
ly to overcome the fears of being, together with their little rice boiled with ſome fleſh or fowl, procured from
hut, blown down the precipice, on whoſe edge it was Quito; and, inſtead of fiuid water, their pot was fill-
built, or of being buried under it by the daily accu ed with ice; they had the ſame reſource with regard
Inulations of ice and ſnow.
to what they drank; and while theywere eating, eve-
The wind was often ſo violent in theſe regions, that ry one was obliged to keep his plate over a chafing.
its velocity dazzled the light, whilſt their fears were diſh of coals, to prevent his proviſions from freezing.
increaſed from the dreadful concuſſions of the preci. The ſame was done with regard to the water. At firſt
pice, cauſed by the fall of enormous fragments of they imagined the drinking
ſtrong liquors would dif-
rocks. Theſe craſhes were the more alarming, as no fuſe a heat through the body, and conſequently ren-
other noiſes are heard in theſe deſarts: and during the der it leſs ſenſible of the painful ſharpneſs of the cold;
night, their reſt, which they ſo greatly wanted, was but, to their ſurpriſe, they felt no manner of ſtrength
frequently diſturbed by ſuch ſudden founds. When in ſuch liquors, nor were they any greater preſerva-
the weather was any thing fair with them, and the tive againſt the cold than the common water.
clouds gathered about ſome of the other mountains At the ſame time they found it impoſſible to keep
which had a connection with their obſervations, fo that the Indians together. On their firſt feeling of the cli-
they could not make all the uſe they defired of this in mate, their thoughts were immediately turned on de-
terval of good weather, they left their hut to exerciſe ferting their maſters. The firſt inſtance they had of
themſelves. Sometimes they deſcended to ſome fmall this kind was ſo unexpected, that, had not one, of a
diſtance; and at others amuſed themſelves with roll- better diſpoſition than the reſt, ſtaid and acquainted
ing large fragments of rocks down the precipice; and them of their deſign, it might have proved of very bad
theſe frequently required the joint ſtrength of them conſequence. The affair was this: There being on the
all, though they often ſaw the ſame effected by the top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for the In-
mere force of the wind. But they always took care in dians, they uſed every evening to retire to a cave at the
their excurſions not to go ſo farout, but that on the leaſt foot of the mountain; where, beſide a natural diminu-
appearance of the clouds gathering about their cottage, tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire; and,
which often happened very ſuddenly, they could re- conſequently enjoyed more comfortable quarters than
gain their ſhelter. The door of their hut was faſtened their maſters. Before they withdrew at night, they
with thongs of leather, and on the inſide not the ſmal. faſtened, on the outſide, the door of the hut, which
left crevice was left unſtopped; beſide which, it was was fo low that it was impoſſible to go in or out without
very compactly covered with ſtraw: but, notwith- ſtooping; and as every night the hail and ſnow which
Itanding all their care, the wind penetrated through. had fallen formed a wall againſt the door, it was the
The days were often little better than the nights; and buſineſs of one or two of the Indians to come early and
all the light they enjoyed was that of a lamp or two, remove this obftruction. For though the negroſervants
which they kept continually burning.
were lodged in a little tent,their hands and feet were ſo
Though their hul was ſmall, and crowded with in covered with chilblains, that they would rather have
habitants, beſide the heat of the lamps; yet the in- ſuffered themſelves to have been killed than move. The
tenſeneſs of the cold was ſuch, that every one of them Indians therefore came conſtantly up to diſpatch this
was obliged to have a chafing diſh of coals. Theſe pre- work betwixt nine and ten in the morning: but they
cautions would have rendered the rigour of the climate had not been there above four or five days, when they
fupportable, had not the imminent danger of periſhing were not a little alarmed to ſee ten, eleven, and twelve
by being blown down the precipice rouſed ther, every o'clock come without any news of their labourers;when
time it ſnowed, to encounter the ſeverity of the out they were relieved by the honeſt ſervant mentioned a-
ward air,and to ſally out with lovels to free the roof of bove, who had withſtood the ſeduction of his country-
their hut from the maſſes of ſnow which were gather- men, and informed his maſters of the deſertion of the
ing on it. Nor would it, without this precaution, have four others. As ſoon as the ſnow was cleared away
front
A N D
[ 787 ។
A N D
Andes. the door, they diſpatched the Indian to the corregidor NA. No leſs remarkable are the differences concerning Andes
of Quito, who with equal diſpatch ſent other Indians, the height of the peak of Teneriffe ; which, according
threatening to chaſtiſe them ſeverely if they were to the calculations of Varenius, is three miles and three Andrada.
wanting in their duty.
quarters, or 10,800 feet; according to thoſe of Dr He-
But the fear of puniſhment was not ſufficient to in- berden, it is only 15,396 feet; and according to thoſe
duce them to ſupport the rigour of this ſituation ; for of M. Feuille, is no more than 13,128 feet. From
within two days they deſerted. The corregidor there. theſe ſpecimens, we can ſcarce avoid concluding, that
fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fent four In- all the inethods hitherto invented for calculating the
dians under the care of an alcalde, and gave orders for exact height of mountains are inſufficient.
their being relieved every fourth day.
As all or moſt rivers liave their ſource in mountains,
Twenty-three tedious days our artiſts ſpent on this it is no wonder a great number run down the ſides of
rock, viz. to the 6th of September, and even without the Andes. Some hurry along with a prodigious rapi.
any poſſibility of finiſhing their obſervations of the dity ; while others form beautiful caſcades, or run
angles: for when it was fair and clear weather with through holes in rocks, which look like bridges of a
them, the others, on whoſe ſummits the ſignals which ſtupendous height. There is a public road through
formed the triangles for meaſuring the degrees of the the mountains 1000 miles in length, part of which
meridian, were hid in the clouds; and when thoſe were runs from Quito to Cuſco.
clear, Pichincha was involved in clouds. It was there ANDES, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birth-
fore neceſſary to erect their ſignals in a lower ſituation, place of Virgil. Hence the epithet Andinus (Silius
and in a more favourable region. This, however, did Italicus). Now called Pictola, two miles to the weſt
not produce any change in their habitation till the be- of Mantua.
ginning of December; when, having finiſhed the ob ANDETRIUM; ANDRETIUM (Strabo); ANDE-
lervations which particularly concerned Pichincha, CRIUM, or ANDRECIUM (Ptolemy): An inland to wiz
they proceeded to others; but with no abatement ei. of Dalmatia. The genuine name is Andetrium (Inſcrip-
ther of inconveniences, cold, or fatigue; for the pla- tion.) It is deſcribed as ſituated near Salonæ, on a
ces where they made their obſervations being neceffa- naturally ſtrong and inacceſſible rock, ſurrounded with
rily on the higheſt parts of the deſarts, the only reſpite deep valleys, with rapid torrents; from which it apa
in which they enjoyed ſome little eaſe was during the pears to be the citadel now called Cliffa. E. Long. 17.
fort interval of paſſing from one to the other. 46. N. Lat. 43. 20.
In all their ſtations ſubſequent to that on Pichincha, ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, ſitua-
during their fatiguing menſuration of the degrees of ted in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 45.
che meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent, ANDOMADUNUM; ANDOMATUNUM (Ptole-
which, though ſmall, they found leſs inconvenient than my); and ANTEMATUNUM (Antonine); CIVITAS
the hut on Pichincha; though at the ſame time they LINGONUM (Tacitus): A city of Gallia Belgica ;
had niore trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it now Langres in Champagne, ſituated on an eminence
from the ſnow, as the weight of it would otherwiſe (which ſeems to juſtify the termination dunum), on
have denioliſhed the tent. At firſt, indeed, they pitch- the borders of Burgundy, at the ſprings of the Marne.
ed it in the moſt ſheltered places; but on taking a reſo. Tacitus calls an inhabitant Lingon. E. Long. 5. 22.
lution that the tents themſelves ſhould ſerve for ſignals, N. Lat. 48. O.
to prevent theinconvenience of having others of wood, ANDOVER, a large market town in Hampſhire,
they removed them to a more expoſed
ſituation, where on the London road. It is feated on a branch of tlic
the impetuoſity of the winds ſometimes tore up the pio river Teft, and ſends two niembers to parliament. It
quets, and blew them down.
has ſeveral inns, which afford good accommodations for
Though this mountain is famous for its great height, travellers; and has a market on Saturday, well ſtocked
it is confiderably lower than the mountain of Cotopaxi: with proviſions. It is governed by a bailiff, a ſteward,
but it is impoſſible to conceive the coldneſs of the ſum a recorder, ten approved men, and twenty-two capital
mit of the laſt-mentioned mountain from that felt on burgeſſes, who yearly chooſe the bailiff, and he elects
this ; ſince it muſt exceed every idea that can be form two ſerjeants at mace to attend him. The living is a
ed by the human mind, tho' they are both feated in the vicarage, valued at 1711. 45. 4d. in the king's books
midſt of the torrid zone. In all this range of mountains, W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 51. 20.
there is ſaid to be a conſtant inferior boundary, beyond ANDŘADA (Diego de Payva d') or ANDRASIUS,
which the ſnow never melts: this boundary, in the a learned Portugueſe, born at Conimbria, who diſtin-
midſt of the torrid zone, is ſaid by ſome to be 2434 fa- guiſhed himſelf at the council of Trent, where king
thoms above the level of the ſea; by others, only 2400 Sebaſtian ſent him as one of his divinés. There is
feet. The ſnow indeed falls much lower, but then it ſcarce any Catholic author who has been niore quo-
is ſubject to be melted the very ſame day. It is affirn- ted by the Proteſtants than he, becauſe he maintained
ed, that there are in the Andes 16 volcanoes or burn- fome opinions a little extravagant concerning the fala
ing mountains, which throw out fire and ſinuke with a vation of the Heathens. Andrada was eſteemed all
terrible noiſe. The height of Chimborazo, faid to be excellent preacher. His ſermons were publiſhed in
the higheſt peak of the Andes, has been determined by three parts, the ſecond of which was tranſlated into
geometrical calculations to be 20,282 feet. But the Spaniſh by Benedict de Alcoran. Many encomiuns
great differences between the calculations of the height have been beſtowed upon Andrada. Oſorius, in his
of mountains in other parts of the world, muſt very preface tothe "Orthodox Explanations of Andradius,"
much diminiſh the credit of ſucha calculations. Inſtan- gives him the character of a man of wit, vaſt applica-
ces of this we have already given under the article Ær. tion, great knowledge in the languages, with all the
s G3
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Andrachne zeal and eloquence neceſſary to a good preacher; and St Andrew, and ſerved by the prieſts of St Thomas - Andrea,
M Roſweidus ſays, that he brought to the council of Trent On the ſhore of St Andrea, about half a league out in Andreas.
Andrea., the underſtanding of a moſt profound divine, and the the ſea, lies Mud-bay, a place which few in the world
eloquence of a conſummate orator.
can parallel. It is open to the wide ocean, and has nei-
ANDRACHNE, BASTARD ORPINE : A genus of ther iſland nor bank to break the force of the billows,
the gynandria order, belonging to the monoecia claſs which come rolling with great violence from all parts,
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under in the ſouth-weſt monſoons: but on this bank of mud
the 38th order, Tricoccæ. The characters are ; The they loſe themſelves in a moment; and ſhips lie on it
malc calyx conſiſts of five leaves; the corolla has five as ſecure as in the beſt harbour, without motion or di.
petals; and the ſtamina, which are alſo five in num ſturbance. It reaches about a mile along ſhore, and
ber, are inſerted into the ſtylus: The female calyx is has been obſerved to ſhift its place from the northward
divided into five leaves; there is no corolla ; the ſtyli about three miles in 30 years.
about three miles in 30 years. From St Andrea to
are three; and the capſule is trilocular, containing Kranganôr, about 12 leagues to the ſouth, the water
three feeds.
has the bad property of cauſing ſwellings in the legs of
Species. 1. The telephoides, or herbaceous trailing thoſe who drink it conſtantly. Some it affects in one
andrachne, is a low plant, whoſe branches trail upon leg, and ſome in both. It cauſes no pain, but itch-
the ground. The leaves are ſmall, of an oval ſhape, ing; nor does the ſwelled leg feem heavier to the
ſmooth, and of a ſea-green colour. It is found wild in owner than the ſmall one, though ſome have been ſeen
ſome parts of Italy and the Archipelago ; but is a plant a yard in circumference at the ancle. The Romiſh
of no great beauty, and therefore feldom cultivated. legends impute the cauſe of this diſtemper (for which
2. The fruticoſa, or ſhrubby baſtard orpine, is a native no preventative or cure hath been hitherto found) to
of China and ſome places of America, where it riſes 12 a curſe laid by St Thomas upon his murderers and
or 14 feet high. The leaves are ſpear-ſhaped, pointed, their poſterity ; though, according to the Romans
and ſmooth; and under them are produced the foot- themſelves, St Thomas was killed by the Tillinga
ſtalks of the flowers, which are ſmall, and of a herba- prieſts at Meliaphûr, on the coaſt of Coromandel, about
ceous white colour. 3. The arborea, with a tree-like 400 miles diſtant, and where the natives have not
ſtalk. This ſpecies was diſcovered by the late Dr this diſtemper.
William Houſton, growing naturally at Campeachy. ANDREAS (John), a celebrated canoniſt in the
It has a ſtrong woody ſtem, which riſes more than 20 I 4th century, was born at Mugello, near Florence;
feet high, and ſends out many branches on every ſide. and was profeſſor of canon-law at Padua, Piſa, and af.
A fourth fort is alſo mentioned by Mr Miller as raiſed terwards at Bologna. It is ſaid that he macerated his
by him from ſeeds fent from Jamaica. It agrees in body with faſting; and lay upon the bare ground every
general with the third fort; but the leaves are ſome- night for 20 years together, covered only with the ſkin
what like the laurel, only much larger.
of a bear. This is atteſted by very good authors; but
Culture. The firſt ſpecies may be raiſed, by fowing if the ſtory which Poggius tells of him in his Jeſts be
the ſeeds in March, on a moderate hot-bed. The plants true, he muft afterwards have relaxed much of this
may be removed into ſmall pots, and plunged into ano continency : “ Joannem Andream, (ſays he), docto-
ther very moderate hot-bed, to bring them forward ; rem Bonnonienfem, cujus fama admodum vulgata eft,
but in mild weather they ſhould have plenty of air ad- ſubagitantem ancillam domefticam uxor deprehendit:
initted to them, and be frequently refreſhed with wa re inſueta ſtupefacta mulier in virum verſa, Ubi nunc,
ter. In June they will produce Howers, and the feeds ait, Joannes, eſt fapientia veftra ? ille nil amplius locu-
will ripen in Auguſt and September.——The other ſpe- tus, In vulva iſtius, refpondit, loca admodum ſapien-
cies are very tender, and therefore muſt be kept con tiæ accommodato. The French tranſlation of this
ftantly in the bark-ſtove. It is very difficult to procure perhaps will not be diſpleaſing.
good ſecds of theſe forts; the covers often containing
nothing, though they appear very fair outwardly.
Jean, dit André, fameux Docteur des Loix,
ANDRAPODISMUS, in ancient writers, the ſell-
Fut pris un jour au péché d'amourette :
ing of perſons for llaves. Hence alſo andrapodiſtes, a
Il acolloit une jeune soubrette.
dealer in flaves, more particularly a kidnapper, who
Sa femme vint, fir un ſigne de croix.
Hóho, dit elle, eſt ce vous? non je penſe :
ſteals men or children to ſell them a crime for which
the Theſſalians were noted.
Vous, dont par tout en vante la prudence.
ANDRAPODOCAPELI, in antiquity, a kind of
Qu'eſti dovenu cet eſprit fi fubtil?
Le bon André, pour ſuivant fon négoce,
dealers in flaves. The andrapodocapeli had a particular
proceſs for taking off moles and the like disfigurements
Honteux pourtant, ma foi, repondit-it,
on the faces of the ſlaves they kept for ſale, by rub-
Prudence, eſprit, tout gift dans cette folle.
bing them with bran. At Athens, ſeveral places in Since it is agreed that John Andreas had a baſtard,
ale forum were appointed for the ſale of ſlaves. Up this ſtory is at the bottoin very probable; and it was
on the firſt day of every month, the merchants called perhaps with the mother of Banicontius that his wife
Ardparodoxornaos brought them into the market, and found him. Andreas had a beautiful daughter, named
expoſed thein to fale; the crier ſtanding upon a ſtone Novella, whom he loved extremely: and he is ſaid to
created for that purpoſe, called the people together. haye inſtructed her ſo well in all parts of learning, that
ANDREA (St), a fmall village on the Malabar when he was engaged in any affair which hindered him
coaſt in the Eaſt-Indies, founded originally by the Por from reading lectures to his ſcholars, he ſent his daugh-
tugueſe. It takes its name from a church dedicated to ter in his room i and left her beauty ſhould prevent the
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Andreas. attention of the hearers, ſhe had a little curtain drawn ly in the alcoran, which, as he ſays, was revealed to Andrciai
before her. To perpetuate the memory of this daugh- him in one night by an augel, in the city of Meke;
ter, he intitled his commentary upon the Decretals of though in another place he contradicts himſelf, and af- Andrew.
Gregory IX. the Novellæ. He married her to John firms that he was 20 years in compoling it. Andreas
Calderinus, a learned canoniſt. The firſt work of An tells us, he wrote this work, that not only the learned
dreas was his Gloſs upon the Sixth Book of the De- among Chriſtians, but even the common people might
cretals, which he wrote when he was very young. He know the different beliet and doctrine of the Moors :
wrote alſo Gloſſes upon the Clementines ; and a Com and on the one hand might laugh and ridicule ſuch inl-
mentary in regulas Sexti, which he entitled Mercu- folent and brutal notions, and on the other might la-
riales, becauſe he either engaged in it on Wedneſdays ment their blindneſs and dangerous condition. This
(diebus Mercurii), or becauſe he inſerted his Wedneſ- book, which was publiſhed at firſt in Spaniſh, has been
days diſputes in it. He enlarged the Speculum of tranſlated into ſeveral languages; all thoſe who write
Durant, in the year 1347. This is all which Mr Bayle againſt the Mahometans quote it very much.
mentions of his writings, though he wrote many more. ANDREINI (Iſabella), a native of Padua, was all
Andreas died of the plague at Bologna, in 1348, after excellent poeteſs, and one of the beſt comedians in Ita-
he had been a profeſſor 45 years; and was buried in ly, towards the beginning of the 17th century. The
the church of the Dominicans. Many eulogiams have Intenti of Pavia thought they did their Society an hc-
been beſtowed upon him. He has been called Archio nour by admitting her a member of it; and ſhe, in ac-
doctor decretorum: In his epitaph, Rabbi doctorum; knowledgement ofthis honour, never forgot to mention
lux, cenfor normaque morum; “Rabbi of the doctors, amongſt her titles that of Acadernica infante : her
the light, cenfor, and rule of manners:" And it is titles were theſe, “ Iſabella Andreini, comica geloſa,
ſaid, that Pope Boniface called him lumen mundi, academica infanta, detta l'acceſla.” She was alſo a wo-
“the light of the world.”
man of extraordinary beauty ; which, added to a fine
ANDREAS (John)was born a Mahometan, at Xativa voice, made her charm both the eyes and ears of the
in the kingdom of Valencia, and ſucceeded his father audience. She died of a miſcarriage, at Lyons, the
in the dignity of alfaqui of that city. He was en I oth of June, 1604, in the 42d year of her age. Her
lightened with the knowledgeof the Chriſtian religion death being a matter of general concern and lamenta-
by being preſent at a ſermon in the great church of tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print-
Valencia on the day of Aſſumption of the bleſſed Vir- ed to her memory: ſeveral of theſe pieces were placed
gin, in the year 1487. Upon this he deſired to be before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 1605.
baptized; and, in nemory of the calling of St John Beſides her ſonnets, madrigals, ſongs, and eclogues,
and St Andrew, he received the name John Andreas. there is a paſtoral of hersintitled Myrtilla, and letters,
“ Having received holy orders (ſays he), and, from printed at Venice in 1610. She ſung extremely well,
an alfaqui and a ſlave of Lucifer, become a prieſt and played admirably on ſeveral inſtruments, underſtood
miniſter of Chriſt; I began, like St Paul, to preach the French and Spaniſh languages, and was not unac-
and publiſh the contrary of what I had erroneouſly be- quainted with philoſophy.
lieved and aſſerted; and, with the aſliſtance of Al ANDRELINUS (Publius Fauſtus), born at Forli
mighty God, I converted at firſt a great many ſouls of in Italy, he was a long time profeſſor of poetry and
the Moors, who were in danger of hell, and under the philoſophy in the univerſity of Paris. Lewis XI. of
dominion of Lucifer, and conducted them into the way France made him his poet laureat; and Eraſmus relis
of ſalvation. After this, I was ſent for by the inoſt us he was likewiſe poet to the queen. His pen was 1100
catholic princes king Ferdinand and queen Iſabella, wholly employed in making verſes ; for he wrote alſo
in order to preach in Granada to the Moors of that moral and proverbial letters in proſe, which were print-
kingdom, which their majeſties had conquered: by ed ſeveral times. His poems, which are chiefly in La-
God's bleſſing on my preaching, an infinite number of tin, are inſerted in Vol. I. of the Delicie Poetarum Ita-
Moors were brought to abjure Mahomet, and to turn lorun. Mr De la Monnoie tells us, “lhat-Andrelimus,
to Chriſt. A little after this, I was made a canon by when he was but 22 years old, received the crown of
their grace; and ſent for again by the moſt Chriſtian laurel: That his love-verſes, divided into four books,
queen Iſabella to Arragon, that I might be employed intitled Livia, from the name of his miſtreſs, were
in the converſion of the Moors of thoſe kingdoms, who eſteemed fo fine by the Roman Academy, that they
ſtill perſiſted in their errors, to the great contempt and adjudged the prize of the Latin elegy to the author.
diſhonour of our crucified Saviour, aud the prodigious He died in 1518. This author's manner of life was
loſs and danger of all Chriſtian princes. But this ex not very exemplary; yet he was ſo fortunate, ſays E-
cellent and pious deſign of her Majeſty was rendered raſmus, that though he took the liberty of rallying the
ineffe&ual by her death." At the deſire of Martin divines, he was never brought into trouble about it.
Garcia, biſhop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranſ ANDREW (St), the apoſtle, born at Bethfaida in
late from the Arabic, into the language of Arragon, Galilee, brother tó Simon Peter. He had been a cit-
the whole law of the Moors; and after having finiſhed ciple of John the baptiſt, and followed Jeſus upon the
this undertaking, he compoſed his famous work of The teſtimony given of him by the batpift, (john i. 30, 37,
Confuſion of the Seet of Mahumed: it contains twelve &c.) He followed our Saviour with another of John's
chapters, wherein he has collected the fabulous ſtories, diſciples, and went into the houſe where Jeſus lodged:
impoftures, forgeries, brutalities, follies, obſcenities, here he continued from about four o'clock in the after-
abſurdities, impoflibilities, lies, and contradictions, noon till it was night. This was the firſt diſciple
which Mahomet, in order to deceive the fimple people, whom our Saviour received into his crain. Andrew
pas diſperſed in the writings of that fest, and eſpecial introduced his brother Simon, and they paſſed a day
with
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AND
+
Andrew, with Chriſt, after which they went to the marriage in land of boars: all round was foreſt, and the lands be. Andrewut's
Andrew's Cana (id. ii.), and at laſt returned to their ordinary ſtowed on the Saint were called Byrehid. The boars
occupation. Some months after, Jeſus meeting them equalled in ſize the ancient Erymanthian; as a proof
while they were both fiſhing together, called theni to of which, two tuſks, each lixteen inches long and four
him, and promiſed to make them fiſhers of men. Im- thick, were chained to the altar of St Andrew's. Se
mediately they left their nets, followed him, (Matt. Regulus changed the name to Kilrymont; and eſtabliſh-
iv. 19.) and never afterwards ſeparated from him. ed here the firſt Chriſtian prieſts of the country, called
After our Saviour's aſcenſion, his apoſtles having Guldees. This church was fupreme in the kingdom
determined by lot what parts of the world they ſhould of the Picts; Ungus having granted to God and St An-
ſeverally take, Scythia and the neighbouring countries drew, that it ſhould be the
head and mother of all the
fell to St Andrew, who according to Euſebius, after churches in his dominions. He alſo directed that the
he had planted the goſpel in ſeveral places, came to croſs of St Andrew ſhould become the badge of the
Patræ in Achaia, where, endeavouring to convert the country: In 518, after the conqueſt of the Pi&s, he
proconful Ægeas, he was by that governnor's orders removed the epiſcopal ſee to St Andrew's, and the Bi-
ſcourged and then crucified. The particular time of ſhop was ſtyled maximus Scotorum epifcopus. In 1441,
his ſuffering martyrdom is not known; but all the an- it was erected into an archbiſhopric by Sextus IV.at
cient and modern martyrologies, both of the Greeks the interceſſion of James III. In 1606, the priory was
and Latins, agree in celebrating his feſtival upon the ſuppreſſed ; and, in 1617, the power of election was
goth of November. His body was embalmed, and de. transferred to eight biſhops, the principal of St Leo-
cently interred at Patræ by Maximilla, a lady of great nard's college, the archdeacon, thic vicars of St An.
quality and eſtate. Afterwards it was removed to Con- drew's, Leuchars, and Coupar. This fee contained the
ftantinople by Conſtantine the Great, and buried in the greateſt part of the fire of Fife, with a part of Perth,
great church, which he had built to the honour of the Forfar, and Kincardine fires, and a great number of
apoſtles. There is a croſs to be ſeen at this day in the pariſhes, churches, and chapels in other dioceſes.
church of St Victor at Marſeilles, which is believed The town of St Andrew's was erected into a royal
by the Romaniſts to be the ſame that St Andrew was borough by David I. in the year 1140, and their pri-
faſtened to. It is in the ſhape of the letter X, and is vileges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal-
incloſed in a ſilver ſhrine. Peter Chryſologus ſays, colm II. is preſerved in the tolbooth; and appears writ-
that he was crucified upon a tree ; and the ſpurious ten on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally
Hippolytus aſſures us it was an olive-tree.
valid with what would at this time require whole ſkins.
ANDREW, or Knights of St ANDREW, an order of Here alſo are kept the ſilver keys of the city ; which,
knights, more uſually called the order of the thiſtle. for form's fake, are delivered to the king, if he ſhould
(See THISTLE.)
viſit the place, or to a victorious enemy, in token of
Knights of St Andrew, is alſo an order inſtituted by ſubmiſſion. In this place, likewiſe, is to be ſeen the
Peter the Great of Muſcovy in 1698; the badge of monſtrous ax which, in 1646, took off the heads of Sir
which is a golden medal ; on one ſide whereof is re Robert Spotſwood and other diſtinguiſhed loyaliſts.
preſented St Andrew's croſs, with theſe words, Cazar The town underwent a ſiege in 1337; at which time
Pierre monarque de tout la Ruſie. This medal, being it was poſleſſed by the Engliſh, and other partizans of
faſtened to a blue ribbon, is tuſpended from the right Baliol; but the loyaliſts, under the earls of March and
Nhoulder.
Fife, made themſelves maſters of it in three weeks,
St Andrew's Croſs, one in form of the letter X. by the help of their battering machines.
(See Cross.)
St Andrew's is now greatly reduced in the number
St Andrew's Day, a feſtival of the Chriſtian church, of inhabitants; at preſent ſcarcely exceeding 2000. It
celebrated on the 30th of November in honour of the is impoſſible to aſcertain the ſum when it was the fear
apoſtle St Andrew.
of the primate: All that can be known is, that during
ANDREW's (St), a town of Fifefhire, in Scotland, the period of its ſplendor, there were between 60 and
once the metropolis of the pictiſh kingdon, lying in 70 bakers; but now 9 or 10 are ſufficient for the place.
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If we may credit It is a mile in circuit, and contains three principal
legend, St Andrew's owes its origin to a ſingular ac ſtreets. On entering the weſt port, a well-built ſtreet,
cident. St Regulus (or St Rule, as he is likewiſe cal- ſtraight, and of vaſt length and breadth, appears; but
led), a Greek of Achaia,was warned by a viſion to leave fo graſs-grown, and preſenting ſuch a dreary ſolitude,
his native country, and viſit Albion, an iſle placed in that it forms the perfect idea of having been laid waſte
the remoteſt part of the world; and to take with him by the peftilence.
the arm-bone, three fingers, and three tocs of St An The cathedral of St Andrew's was founded by Bio
drew. He obeyed, and ſet ſail with his companions, ſhop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full imag-
but had a very tempeſtuous paſſage. After being toffed nificence till 1318. Its length from eaſt to weſt was
for ſome time on a formy ſea, he was at laſt ſhipwreck. 370 feet; that of the tranſept, 322. Bur tho' this yaſt
ed on the coaſts of Otholania, in the territories of pile was 157 years in building, John Knox, in Jane
Herguſus king of the picts, in the year 370. On 1559, effected its demolition in a ſingle day; and ſo
hearing of the arrival of the Strangers, with their effcctually has it been deſtroyed, that nothing now re-
precious relies, the king immediately gave orders for mains but part of the eaſt and weſt ends, and of the
their reception, afterwards preſenting the faint with fouth ſide.
his own palace, and building near it the church, Near the eaſt end is the chapel of St Regulus; tlie
which ſtill bears the name of St Regulus.
tower of which is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 20 feet
At this time the place was ſtiled Mycrofs, or the each ſide, and 103 feet high ; the body of the chapel
remains,
Α Ν D
(
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N A D
Andrew's. remains, but the two fide chapels are ruined. The glut his cyes with the cruel martyrdom of George Andrew's:
arches of the windows and doors are round, and ſome Wiſhart, who was burnt on a ſpot beneath.
even more than ſemicircles : an undoubted proof of
In the church of St Salvator is a moſt beautiful lomb
their antiquity.
of biſhop Kennedy, who died, an honour to his fami-
The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1122 ; ly, in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly ele-
and the monks (canons regular of St Auguſtine) were gant. Within the toinb were diſcovered ſix magnifi-
brought from Scone, iu1140, by Robert, biſhop of this cent maces, which had been concealed here in irou-
fee. By an act of parliament, in the tine of James I. fonie tinies. One was given to each of the other three
the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and Scotch univerſities, and three are preſerved here. In
on the days of feſtival wore a mitre and all epiſcopal the top is repreſented our Saviour; around are an-
ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thoſe of gels, with the inſtruments of the paſſion.
Lochleven, Portinoak, Monimuſk, the Iſle of May,and With theſe are ſhown ſome ſilver arrows, with large
Pittenweem, each originally a feat of the Culdees. The filver plates affixed to them, on which are inſcribed
revenues of the houſe were yaſt, viz. In money 22371. the arms and names of the noble youth, victors in the
29. Iod 1-2; 38 chaldrons, i boll, 3 firlots of wheat ; annual competitions in the generous art of archery,
132 ch. 7 bolls of bear; 114 ch. 3 bolls i peck of which were dropt but a few years ago ; and golf is
meal ; 151 ch. 10 bolls i firlot i peck and a half of now the reigning game. That ſport, and foot-ball,
oats; 3 ch. 7 bolls of peas and beans : 480 acres of were formerly prohibited, as uſeleſs and unprofitable
land alſo belonged to it. Nothing remains of the pri- to the public; and at all weapon /chawings, or reviews
ory except the walls of the precinct, which ſhow its of the people, it was ordered, that fute-ball and golfe
vaſt extent. In one part is a moſt artleſs gateway, be utterly cryed down, and that bow-markes be maid ai
formed only of ſeven ſtones. This incloſure begins ilk pariſh kirk, a pair of butts and ſchutting be uſed:
near the cathedral, and extends to the ſhore.
and that ilk man ſchutte fax ſhottis at leaſt, under the
The other religious houſes were, one of Domini- paine to be raiped upon them thar cummis not, at least
cans, founded in 1274, by biſhop Wilhart ; another of twa pennyes, to be given to them that cummis tó th: bow-
Obfervantines, founded by biſhop Kennedy, and finiſh- markes to drinke.
ed by his ſucceſſor Patrick Graham in 1478 ; and, ac The celebrated univerſity of this city was founded in
cording to ſome, the Carmelites had a fourth. 1411, by biſhop Wardlaw; and the nex year he ob-
Immediately above the harbour ſtood the collegiate tained from Benedict III. the bull of confirmation. It
church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Conſtan- conſiſted once of three colleges. I. St Salvator's, found-
tine III. who, retiring from the world, became here ed in 1458, by biſhop Kennedy. This is a handſome
a Culdee. From its having been firſt built on a rock, it building, with a court or quadrangle within : on one
was ſtyled, Præpofitura Šandtæ Mariæ de rupe. fide is the church, on another the library; the third
On the eaſt ſide of the city are the poor remains of contains apartinents for ſtudents : the fourth is un-
the caſtle, on a rock overlooking the ſea. This fortreſs finiſhed. 2. St Leonard's college was founded by pri-
was founded, in 1401, by Biſhop Trail, who was bu or Hepburn, in 1522. This is now united with the
ried near the high altar of the cathedral, with this laſt, and the buildings ſold and converted into private
fingular epitaph :
houſes. 3. The new, or St Mary's college, was eſtabe
liſhed by archbilhop Hamilton in 1553: but the houſe
Hic fuit ecclefia direta columna, feneftra
Lucida thuribulum redolens, compana ſonora.
was built by James and David Bethune, or Beaton,
who did not live to complete it. This is ſaid to have
This caſtle was the reſidence of cardinal Beaton; been the ſite of a Schola illuftris long before the eſtab-
who, after the death of George Wiſhart,apprehending liſhment even of the univerſity; where ſeveral eminent
ſome danger, cauſed it to be fortified ſo ſtrongly as to clergymen taught, gratis, the ſciences and languages.
be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortreſs, But it was called the new college, becauſe of its late
however, he was ſurprized and aſſaſſinated by Norman ere&ion into a divinity college by the archbiſhop.
Lelly with 15 others. They ſeized on the gate of the The univerſity is governed by a chancellor, an of-
caſtle early in the morning of May 29, 1546; it having fice originally deſigned to be perpetually veſted in the
been left open for the workmen who were finiſhing the archbishop of St Andrew's; but ſince the reformation,
fortifications; and having placed centinels at the door he is elected by the two principals, and the profeſſors
of the cardinal's apartment, they awakened his nume- of both the colleges.
rous domeſtics one by one ; and, turning them out of Therector is the next great officer; to whoſe careis
the caſtle, they, without violence, tumult, or offering committed the privileges, diſcipline,and ſtatutes of the
any injury to any other perſon, inflicted on Beaton the univerſity. The colleges have their rectors, and pro-
death he juſtly merited. The conſpirators were in- feſſors of different ſciences, who are indefatigable in
mediately belieged in this caſtle by the regent, earl of their attention to the inſtruction of the ſtudents, and to
Arran; and notwithſtanding they had acquired no that eſſential article, their morals. This place poſſeſſes
greater ſtrength than 150 men, they reſiſted all his ſeveral very great advantages reſpecting the education
efforts for five months. This, however, was owing to of youth. The air is pure and ſalabrious; the place for
the unſkilfulneſs of the beſiegers more than to the exerciſe,dryand extenſive;the exerciſes themſelves are
ſtrength of the place or the valour of the beſieged; healthy and innocent. The univerſity is fixed in a pe.
for in 1547 the caſtle was reduced and demoliſhed. ninſulated country, remote from all commerce with the
The entrance of it is ſtill to be ſeen ; and the window world, the haunt of diſſipation. From the ſmallneſs of
is own, out of which it is ſaid the cardinal leaned to the ſocietyevery ſtudent's character is perfeclyknown.
No
AND
[ 792 1
A N D
nee,
Andrew's. No little irregularity can be committed, but it is in- ſays, the company was pleaſed with this anſwer, but Andria
ftantly diſcovered and checked : vice cannor attain a the wit of it ſeemed to affect the king; for a certailu 1)
head in this place, for the incorrigible are never per. lord coming ſoon after, his majeſty criedout, “O, my
Androgy-
mitted to remain the corrupters of the reſt.
lord, they ſay you lig with my lady." “ No, Sir (ſays
The trade of St Andrew's was once very conſider. his Lordihip, in coufufion), but I like her.company
able. So late as the reign of Charles I. this place had becauſe ſhe has ſo inuch wit.” “Why then (ſays the
30 or 40 trading veſſels, and carried on a conſiderable king) do you not lig with my lord' of Wincheſter
herring and white fiſhery, by means of buſſes, in deep there?”—This great prelate was in no leſs reputation
water, which fiſheries had for ages been the grand andeſteem with king Charles I. than he had been with
ſource of their commerce, wealth, and ſplendour. Af- his predeceſſors. He died at Wincheſter-houſe in
ter the death of the king, this whole coaſt, and St An- Southwark, September 27, 1626, in the 71ſt year of
drew's in particular, became a ſcene of murder, plan. his age ; and was buried in the pariſh-church of St Sa-
der, and rapine: every town ſuffered in proportion to viour's, where his executors erected to him a very fair
its magnitude and opulence. Nor were thoſe bypocri- monumentof marble and alabaſter, on which is an ele-
tical ruffians ſatisfica with the ſhipping, merchandiſe, gant inſcription, in Latin, written by one of his chap-
plate, cattle, and whatever came within their light; lains. Mr Milton alſo, at 17 years of age, wrote a
they alſo laid the whole coaſt under contribution. St beautiful elegy on his death, in the ſame language.
Andrew's was required to pay 1oool. but the inhabi- Biſhop Andrews had, 1. A ſhare in the tranſlation of
tants not being able to raiſe that ſum after being thus the Pentateuch, and the hiſtorical books from Joſhua
plundered, the general compounded for sool. which to the firſt book of Chronicles excluſively. He alſo
was raiſed by a loan at intereſt, and hath remained a wrote, 2. Tortura Torti, in anſwer to a work of Car-
burden upon the corporation, it is believed, ever ſince. dinal Bellarmine, in which that cardinal aſſumes the
The harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a name of Matthew Tortus. 3. A Manual of Private
narrow entrance, to give ſhelter to veſſels from the vio- Devotions: and, 4. A Manual of Directions for the
lence of a very heavy fea, from the encroachments of Viſitation of the Sick; beſides the Sermons and Tracts
which it has ſuffered much. The manufactures this in Engliſh and Latin, publiſhed after his death.
city might in former tinies poſſeſs, are now reduced to ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public entertain-
oné, that of golf-balls ; which, trifling as it may ſeem ments firſt inſtituted by Minos of Crete, and, after
maintains a great number of people. It is, however, his example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which
commonly fatal to the artiſts; for the balls are made a whole city or tribe alifted. They were managed
by ſtuffing a great quantity of feathers into a leathern with the utmoſt frugality, and perſons of all ages were
caſe, by help of an iron rod, with a wooden handle, admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law.
preſſed againſt the breaſt, which feldom fails to bring giver to repair thither as to ſchools of temperance and
on a conſumption.
ſobriety.
ANDREW's (Lancelot), biſhop of Wincheſter, was ANDRIA, is a city and a biſhop's ſee in the territory
born at London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge. of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large,
After ſeveral preferments, he was made biſhop, firſt of well peopled, and feated in a ſpacious plain, four miles
Chicheſter, then of Ely, and, in 1618, was raiſed to from the Adriatic coaſt. E. Long. 17. 4. N. Lat.
the fee of Wincheſter. This very learned prelate, who 41. 15.
was diſtinguiſhed by his piety, charity and integrity, ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who,
may be juſtly ranked with the beſt preachers and con pretending to be the ſon of Perſeus laſt king of Mace-
pleteſt ſcholars of his age; he appeared to much great. donia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which
er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his reaſon he was called Pſeudo-Philippus,the Falſe Philip.
works, which abound with Latin quotations and trivial After a complete victory over Juventus, the Roman
witticiſms. His ſermons, though full of puns, were Prætor fent againſt him, he aſſumed kingly power, but
ſuited to the taſte of the times in which he lived, and exerciſed it with vaſt cruelty. At laſt, the Romans
were conſequently greatly admired. He was a man of obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed
polite manners and lively converſation; and could quote and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic-
Greek and Latin authors, oreven pun with kingJames. tory gained Macedonia once more into the power of
There is a pleaſant ſtory related of him in the life of the Romans, and to Metellus the nameof Macedonicus,
Waller the poet. When that gentleman was young, he but coſt the Ronians 25,000 mien. Andriſcus adorned
had the curiolity to go to court, and ſtood in the circle the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the
to ſeeking James dine; where, among other company, general's chariot.
there ſat at table two biſhops, Neale and Andrews. ANDROAS, or ANDRODAMAS, among ancient 11a-
The king propoſed aloud this queſtion, Whether he turaliſts, a kind of pyritæ, to which they attributed
might not take his ſubjects inoney when he needed it, certain magical virtues.
without allthis formality of parliament? Neale replied, ANDROGEUS, in fabulous hiſtory, the ſon of Mi.
or God forbid you ſliould not, for you are the breath of nos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian
our noſtrils." Whereupon the king turned, and ſaid to youth and thoſe of Megara, who envied his being al-
the biſhop of Wincheſter, “Well, my lord, what ſay ways victor at the Attic games. But Minos having after-
you ?" "Sir, (replied the biſhop), I have no ſkill to wards taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabi-
judge of parliamentary caſes.” The king anſwered, tants to ſend him an annual tribute of ſeven young men
« No puts-off, my lord; anſwer me preſently,” “Then, and as many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur ;
Sir (ſaid he), I think it lawful for you to take iny bro- but Theſeus delivered them from that tribute.
ther Neal's money, for he offers it.” Mr Waller ANDROGYNES, in natural hiſtory, a name gi-
4
ven
A N D
[ 793 )
A N D
gynes,
nous.
ner.
<
Andro- ven to thoſe living creatutures which, by a monſtrous recoil with innate and inextinguiſhable horror. Nor Andre-
gynes.
formation of their generative parts, feem (for it is only are any of theſe invincible averſions implanted in our
ſeeming) to unite in themſelves the two lexes, that of frame without a final cauſe worthy of its Author. We Androgy.
thie male and of the female. This luſus naturæ, this would gladly aſk theſe free-thinking gentlemen, in ca-
defect, or perhaps redundancy, in the animal ſtructure, ſes wherethe ſexes are founnaturally confounded, how
is deſcribed by medical authors in the following man the police can, by its moſt ſevere and rigorous animad-
“There is a depravation in the ſtructure of the verſions, either detector preventthofelicentious abuſes
parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be- againſt which they remonftrate? Since, therefore, an
lides thoſe concealed parts that are found neceſſary evil ſo baneful to human ſociety could no otherwiſe be
• for the diſcharge of prolific functions, the pudenda prevented than by the fanction of Nature againſt ſuch
of the other ſex likewiſe appear. This monſtrous
This monſtrous horrible conjunctions, the inſtinctive antipathy which
production of nature is diversified in four different theyinſpire was highlyworthyofherwiſdom and purity.
ways; of which three appear in males and one in fe. ANDROGYNES, in ancient mythology, creatures of
males. In men, the female pudendum cloathed with whom, according to the fable, each individual poſſeſſed
• hair, ſometimes appears contiguous to the perinæum; the powers and characters of both ſexes, having two
6 at other times in the middle of the ſcrotum ; at other heads, four arms and two feet. The word itſelf is
times, which conſtitutes the third diverſity, through compounded of two Greek radical words; ardup, in ge-
" that part itſelf which in the midſt of the ſcrotum ex nitive adpos, a male; and gurn a female. Many of the
hibits the form of a pudendum, urine is emitted. rabbinical writers pretend, that Adam was created
• Near that part which is the teſt of puberty, and double, one body being male, the other female, which
• above the pudendum, even in females, the maſculine in their origin not being eſſentially joined, God after-
genitals appear in fome, conſpicuous in all their three
Wards did nothing but ſeparate them.
• forms, one reſeinbling the viretramor yard, theother The gods, ſays Plato in his Banquet, had formed
« like the two teſticles: but for the moſt part it hap- the ſtručure of man round, with two bodies and two
pens, that, of the two inſtruments of generation, one ſexes. This fantaſtic being, poſſeſſing in itſelf the
is feeble and inert; and it is extremely rare that both whole hunian ſyſtem, was endowed with a gigantic
are found ſufficiently valid and proper for feats of force, which rendered it inſolent, inſomuch that it
love; nay, even in a great many, both theſe mem reſolved to make war againſt the gods. Jupiter, exaf-
bers are deficient and impotent, ſo that they can per- perated, was going to deſtroy it; but, forry at the
• form the office neither of a male nor of a female.' ſame time to annihilate the human race, he ſatisfied him-
With reſpect to them, it appears, from a collation ſelf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining
of all the circumftances which have been obſerved by the male from the female, and leaving each halfto fub-
naturaliſts worthy of credit, that there is no ſuch thing liſt with its own powers alone. He aſſigned to Apollo
as a perfect androgyne, or real hermaphrodite į that the taſk of repoliſhing theſe two half bodies, and of
is to ſay, a living creature which, by its unnatural, or xtending their ſkins ſo that their whole ſurface mighe
rather preternatural ſtructure, poſſeſſes the genuine be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faſtened it at the unit-
powers of both ſexes, in ſuch a manner as to be qua bilicus: If this half ſhould ſtill rebel, it was once more
lified for performing the functions of either with ſuc to be ſubdivided by another ſection, which would only
ceſs: the irregularity of their fabrication almoſt always leave it one of the parts of which it was then conſtitu-
conſiſts in ſomething ſuperfluous added to one of the ted; and even this fourth of a man was to be annihi-
two ſexes, which gives it the appearance of the other, lated, if it ſhould perſiſt in its obſtinacy and miſchief.
without beſtowing the real and characteriſtical diſtinc The idea of theſe androgynes might well be borrowed
tion; and every hermaphrodite is almoſt always a very from a paſſage in Mofes, where that hiſtoriari of the
Since this monſtrous exhibition of nature is birth and infancy of nature deſcribes Adam as calling
not ſuch as to abrogate the rights or deſtroy the cha Eve bone of his bone and fleſh of his fleſh. However this
racter of humanity amongſt human beings, this inyo may be, the fable of Plato has been uſed with great
luntary inisfortune implies no right to deprive thoſe ingenuity by a French poet, who has been rendered al-
upon whom it is inflicted by nature, of the privileges moſt as conſpicuous by his misfortunes as by his verſes.
natural to every citizen ; and this deficiency is no With the ancient philoſopher, he attributes the pro-
more infe&tio. is chan any other corporeal mutilation, it
corporeal mutilation, it penfity which attracts one of the ſexes towards the
is not eaſy to ſee why marriage ſhould be prohibited to other, to the natural ardor which each half of the
one of theſe unhappy beings, merely on account of its androgynes feel for reunion; and their inconítancy, to
equivocal appearance, which acts in the character of its the difficulty which each of the ſeparated parts encoun-
prevailing ſex. If ſuch a creature, by the defect of its ters in its efforts to recover its proper and original
conſtruction, ſhould be barren ; this does not infer any half. If a woman appears to us amiable, we inſtantly
right of diffolving the marriage which it may have con- imagine her to be that moiety with whom we ſhould
tracted, more than the faine ſterility proceeding from only have conſtituted one whole, liad it not been for the
any cauſe whether known or unknown, if his or her inſolence of our original double-ſexed progenitor:
confort ſhould not on that account require a divorce.
The heart, withi fond credulity impreſs’d,
It is only the licentious abuſe either of one or the other
Tells us the half is found, then hopes for reſt;
ſex which can be ſubjected to the animadverſion of
But 'tis our curſe, that fad experience flows,
the police. See HERMAPHRODITE.
We neither find our lialf nor gain repoſe.
Such are the ſentiments of the authors of the French
Encyclopedie. After all, we cannot forbear to add, ANDROGYNOUS, in zoology, an appellation
that from ſuch heterogenous matches nature ſeems to given to animals which have both the male and female
VOL. I.
5 Н
fer
ext
woman,
A N D
[ 794 )
A N D
Androides ſex in the ſame individual.-In botany, the term is clock-work. It was divided into 15 equal parts, which Androidcs.
applied to ſuch plants as bear both male and female by means of pegs, preſſing upon the ends of 15 differ-
flowers on the ſame root.
ent levers, cauſed the other extremities to aſcend. Se-
ANDROIDES, in mechanics, a human figure, ven of theſe levers directed the fingers, having wires
which, by certain ſprings or other movements, is ca andchains fixed to their aſcending extremities, which
pable of performing ſome of the natural motions of a being attached to the fingers, cauſed them to aſcend in
living man. The motions of the human body are more proportion as the other extremity was preſſed down by
complicated, and conſequently more difficult to be imi. the motion of the cylinder, and vice verſa. Thus the
tated, than thoſe of any other creature; whence the aſcent or deſcent of one end of a lever produced a limi-
conſtruction of an androides, in ſuch a manner as 10 lar aſcent or deſcent in tlie correſponding finger, by
imitate any of theſe actions with tolerable exactneſs, which one of the holes of the Aure was occaſionally
is juſtly ſuppoſed to indicate a greater ſkill in mecha- opened or ſtopped, as by a living performer. Three
nics than any other piece of workmanſhip whatever. of the levers ferved to regulate the ingreſs of the air,
A very reinarkable figure of this kind appeared in being contrived ſo as to open and liut, by means of
Paris, in the year 1738. It repreſented a flute player, valves, the three reſervoirs of air abovementioned, fo
and was capable of performing many different pieces that more or leſs ſtrength might be given, and a higlier
of muſic on the German flute; which, conſidering the or lower note produced as occaſion required. The lips
difficulty of blowing that inſtrument, the different con- were by a ſimilar mechaniſm, directed by four levers,
tractions of the lips neceſſary to produce the diſtinctions one of which opened them, to give the air a freer par-
between the high and low notes, and the complicated ſage; the other contracted them; the third drew theni
motions of the fingers, muſt appear truly wonderful. backward; and the fourth puſhed them forward: The
This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfon, lips were projected upon that part of the flute which
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences; and a par- receives the air ; and, by the different motions alrea-
ticular deſcription of it was publiſhed in the Menoirs dy mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner.
of the Academy for that year.
The remaining lever was employed in the direction
The figure itſelf was about five feet and an half in of the tongue, which it eaſily moved, ſo as to ſhut or
height, ſituated at the end of an artificial rock, and pla- open the mouth of the flute.
ced upon a ſquare pedeſtal four feet and an half high Thus we ſee how all the motions neceffary for a
and three and an half broad. The air entered the body German-flute-player could be performed by this ma-
by three pipes ſeparated one from the other. It was chine ; but a conſiderable difficulty ſtill remains, name.
conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of ly, how to regulate theſe motions properly, and make
which were placed above and ſix below. Theſe were each of them follow in juſt ſucceſſion. This, however,
made to expand and contract regularly in ſucceſſion, by was effected by the following ſimple method. The
means of an axis of ſteel turned round by fome clock extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on
work. On this axis were different protuberances at the right ſide by an endleſs ſcrew, conſiſting of twelve
proper diſtances, to which were fixed cords thrown threads, each placed at the diſtance of a line and an
over pullies, and terminating in the upper boards of half from the other. Above this ſcrew was fixed a
the bellows, ſo that, as the axis turned, theſe boards piece of copper, and in it a ſteel pivot, which, falling
were alternately raiſed and let down. A contrivance in between the threads of the ſcrew, obliged the cy-
was alſo uſed to prevent the diſagreeable hiſſing flutter- linder to follow the threads, and, inſtead of turning
ing noiſe uſually attending the motion of bellows. directly round, it was continually puſhed to one fide.
This was by making the cord, by which the bellows Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the
was moved, preſs in its deſcent, upon one end of a ſmall. cylinder in any one revolution, it could not be moved
er lever, the other end of which aſcending forced open by the ſame peg in the fuccecding revolution, becauſe
the ſmall leathern yalve that admitted the air, and kept the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it
it fo, till, the cord being relaxed by the deſcent of the by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an ar-
apper board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out. tificial diſpoſition of theſe pegs in different parts of
Thus the bellows performed their functions conſtant. the cylinder, the ſtatue was made, by the ſucceſſive
ly without the leaſt hiſſing or other noiſe by which it elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the differ-
could be judged in what manner the air was conveyed ent motions of a fute-player, to the admiration of eve-
to the machine. The upper boards of three of the ry one who ſaw it.
pairs of bellows were preſſed down by a weight of The conſtruction of machines capable of imitating
four pounds, thoſe of three others by a weight of two even the mechanical actions of the human body, ſhow
pounds, and thoſe of the three remaining ones by no. exquiſite ſkill; but what ſhall we ſay of one capable,
thing but their own weight.
not only of imitating actions of this kind, but of acting
The three tubes, by which the air entered, termina as external circumſtances require, as though it were
ted in thrce finall reſervoirs in the trunk of the figure. endowed with life and reaſon? This, nevertheleſs,
There they united, and, aſcending towards the throat, has been done. M. de Kempelon, a gentleman of Pref-
formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in burg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M.
two ſmall lips adapted in ſome meaſure to perform their de Vancanſon, at firſt endeavoured to imitate then,
proper fun&tions. Within this cavity alſo was a ſmall and at laſt far excelled them. This gentleman con-
moveable tongue ; which by its play, at proper periods, ſtructed an Androides capable of playing at cheſs !
admitted the air, or intercepred its paſſage to the flute. Every one who is in the leaſt acquainted with this game
The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro. muſt know, that it is ſo far from being mechanically
per directions by means of a ſteel cylinder turned by performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judg-
nient
A N D
[ 795 ]
AND
Androides, ment and rational faculties than is ſufficient to accom of them equal to the laſt mentioned one. See the ar- Androlepſy
pliſh many matters of greater importance. An attempt ticle AUTOMATON.
1
therefore, to make a wooden cheſs player, muſt appear ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an action Androme.
as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher or coun. allowed by the Athenians againſt ſuch as protected
da.
fellor of ſtate. That this machine really was made, perſons guilty of murder. The relations of the decea-
however, the public have had ocular demonſtration. ſed were empowered to ſeize three men in the city or
The inventor went to Britain in 1783, where he re- houſe whether the malefactor hadfied, till he were ei-
mained above a year with his automaton.
ther ſurrendered, or ſatisfaction made ſome way or
It is a figure as large as life, in a Turkiſh dreſs, ſite other for the murder.
ting behind a table with doors, of three feet and a half ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant Hector,
in length, two in depth, and two and a half in height. the mother of Aftyařax, and daughter of Eton king
The chair on which it fits is fixed to the table, which of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Hector and
runs on four wheels. The automaton leans its right the deſtruction of Troy, ſhe married Pyrrhus; and af-
arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe: terwards Helenus the ſon of Priam, with whom the
with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A reigned over part of Epirus.
cheſs-board of 18 inches is fixed before it. This lable, ANDROMEDA, in aſtronomy, a northern con-
or rather cupboard, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, ſtellation, bebind Pegaſus, Caſſiopeia, and Perſeus. It
and other pieces of mechaniſm ; all which are publicly repreſents the figure of a woman chained ; and is
diſplayed. The veſtments of the automaton are then fabled to have been formed in meinory of Andromeda,
lifted over its head, and the body is ſeen full of ſimilar daughter of Cepheus and Caſſiopeia, and wife of Per-
wheels and levers. There is a little door in its thigh, feus,bywhom ſhe had been delivered from a ſea-monſter,
which is likewiſe opened ; and with this, and the table to which ſhe had been expoſed to be devoured for her
alſo open, and the automaton uncovered, the whole is mother's pride. Minerva tranſlated herinto the heavens.
wheeled about the room. The doors are then ſhut, The ſtars in the conſtellation Andromeda in Ptole.
and the automaton is ready to play ; and it always my's catalogue are 23, in Tycho's 22, in Bayer's 27,
takes the firſt move.
in Mr Flamſtead's no leſs than 84.
At every motion the wheels are heard; the image ANDROMEDA, the name of a celebrated tragedy of
moves its head, and looks over every part of the cheſs. Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the other
board. When it checks the queen, it ihakes its head compoſitions of that poet, but now loft.
twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It It was the repreſentation of this play, in a hot ſum-
likewiſe ſhakes its head when a falſe move is made, re mer day, that occaſioned that epidemic fever, or phren.
places the piece, and makes its own move; by wbich zy, for which the Abelerites are often mentioned,
means the adverſary loſes one.
wherein they walked about the ſtreets, rehearſing
M. de Kempelen remarks, as the moſt ſurpriſing cir- verſes, and acting parts of this piece. See ABDERA.
cumſtance attending his automaton, that it had been ANDROMEDA, or Marſh Cyſtus: A genus of the
exhibited at Preſburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to monogynia order, belonging to the decandria claſs of
thouſands, many of whom were mathematicians and plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
cheſs-players, and yet the ſecret by which he governed 18th order, Bicornes. The characters are: The calyx
the motion of its arm was never diſcovered. He prided is a quinquepartite perianthiuni, ſmall, coloured, and
himſelf ſolely on the conſtruction of the mechanical perſiſtent: The corolla is monopetalous, campanulated,
powers, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve and quinquefid, with reflected diviſions: The Stamina
moves. It then required to be wound up like a watch, conſiſt of ten ſubulated filaments, ſhorter than the co-
after which it was capable of continuing the ſame num- rolla; the anthera two-horned and nudding: The pi-
ber of inotions.
ftillum has a roundiſh germen: a cylindrical 1tylus lar.
The automaton could not play unleſs M. de Kem- ger than the ſtamina, and perſiſtent; and an obtuſe
pelen or his ſubſtitute was near it to direct its moves. Itigma: The pericarpium is a roundiſh five-cornered
A ſmall ſquare box, during the game, was frequently capſule, with five cells and five valves : The seeds
conſulted by the exhibiter; and herein conſiſted the are very numerous, roundiſh, and gloffy.
ſecret, which he ſaid he could in a moment conimu Species. 1. The polifolia is a low plant, growing
nicate. He who could beat M. de Kempelen was, naturally in bogs in the northern countries. It is dif-
of courſe, certain of conquering the automaton. It ficultly preſerved in gardens; and, being a plant of no
was made in 1769. His own account of it was ; great beauty, is ſeldom cultivated. 2. The mariana, a
« C'eſt une bagatelle qui n'eſt pas fans merite du cote native of North America. It is a low ſhrub, ſending
du mechaniſme, mais les effets n'en paroiſſent ſi mer out many woody ſtalks from the root, which are gar-
velleux que par la hardieſſe de Pidee, & par l'heureux niſhed with oval leaves placed alternately; the flowers
choiz dez moyens enployes pour faire illuſion." are collected in ſmall bunches, are of an herbaceous co-
The ſtrongest and beſt-armed loadſtone was allowed lour,and taped like thoſe of the ſtrawberry-tree. They
to be placed on the machine by any of the ſpectators. appear in June and July. 3. The paniculata * is a na- *
As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechaniſın tive of Virginia and Carolina, growing in moiſt places.
XXXI,
hath not yct thought proper to communicate to the The plants uſually arrive at the height of ten feer, with
fig. 2.
public the means by which it is acluated, it is in vain thin leaves ſer alternately, and having their edges fine.
for any, except thoſe who are exquiſitely ſkilled in me- ly ſerrated. The flowers are tubulous, ſmall, and of
chanics, to form conjectures concerning them.-Many a greeniſh white, cloſely ſet horizontally on one ſide of
other curious imitations of the human body, as well as the ſender ſtalks. Theſe flowers are facceeded by ber-
that of other animals, have been exhibited, though none ries, which open when ripe; and divide into five fec-
5 H 2
cions,
Plate
A N D
[ 796 )
A N D
Andromeda tions, incloſing many ſmall feeds. 4. The arborea is rate apartments in places of Worſhip, where they per- Andronicus
1 a native of the ſame countries, where it is called the formed their devotions aſunder; which niethod is ſtill N
Androna. forrel-tree. It grows to the height of 20 feet, with a religiouſly obſerved in the Greek church. The avspav,
Andros.
trunk uſually five or ſix inches thick. The branches or androna, was in the fouthern ſide of the church, and
are ſlender, thick fct with leaves like thoſe of the pear the womens apartment on the northern.
tree. From the ends of the branches proceed many ANDRONICUS I. Emperor of the Eaſt, cauſed
flender ſtalks, on one ſide of which hang many ſmall Alexius II. who had been put under his care, to be
white tuwers like thoſe of the ſtrawberry-tree. 5. The ſtrangled; and then took poſſeſſion of the throne of
calyculata, is a native of Siberia, and likewiſe of North- Conſtantinople in 1183: but the people becoming ex-
America. It grows on moſſy land, and is therefore aſperatedathis cruelties, proclaimed Iſaac Angelus em-
very difficult to keep in gardens. The leaves are ſha- peror, and put Andronicus in iions: they then thruſt
ped like thoſe of the box-tree, and are of the ſame con out his eyes; and, having led him through the city in
fistence, having ſeveral finall punctures on them. The an ignominious manner, hanged him.
flowers grow in ſhort ſpikes from the extremity of the ANDRONICUS of Cyrrhus, built at Athens an o&agon
branches. They are produced ſingle between two tower, with figures carved on each ſide, repreſenting
leaves, are of a white colour, and a cylindrical or the eight principal winds. A braſs triton at the fum-
picher-like ſhape. There are ten other ſpecies. mit, with a rod in its hand, turned round by the wind,
Propagation and Culture. All theſe forts, except pointed to the quarter from whence it blew. From
four, are hardy plants. The fourth ſpecies requires this model is derived the cuſtom of placing weather-
io bé ſheltered from froſt in winter, but in the ſummer cocks on ſteeples.
ſhould be frequently watered.
ANDROPHAGI, in ancient geography, the name
The above plants ſucceed beſt upon boggy and moiſt of a nation whoſe country, according to Herodotus,
grounds. You muſt procure the ſeeds from the places was adjacent to Scythia. Their name, compounded of
where they grow naturally ; a year before which a two Greek words, ſignifies man-eaters. Herodotus
boggy or the moiſteſt part of your garden ſhould be does not inform us whether their manner of ſubſiſting
dug, and the roots of all weeds cleared off. As the weeds correſponded with their name; whether they were lo
begin to riſe, fo conſtantly ſhould the ground be again favage as to eat human fleſh. See the article An-
dug, and ſea or driſt ſand ſhould be plentifully mixed THROPOPHAGI. They are repreſented, however, as
with the natural ſoil. By this management till the the moſt barbarous and fierce of all nations. They
ſeeds arrive, the ground being made tolerably fine, the
were not governed by laws: the care of their cattle
ſeeds ſhould be town very ſhallow in the moiſt or boggy was their chief employment. Their dreſs was like
land; or if the land ſhould be ſo boggy that it cannot that of the Scythians; and they had a language pe-
be eaſily worked ſo as to be proper for the recep culiar to themſelves.
tion of the ſeeds, then let a ſufficient quantity of ſoil ANDROPOGON, or MAN'S-BEARD, in botany :
from a freſh paſture, mixed with drift ſand, be laid A genus of the monecia order, belonging to the po-
over the bog, and let the feeds be ſown therein. The' lygamia claſs; and in the natural method ranking un-
bog will in time abſorb this ſoil, but the ſeeds will der the 4th order, Gramina. The hermaphrodite calyx
come up; and this is the moſt effectual method of is a one-flowered bivalved glame: The corolla is a
procuring plants of this kind from ſeeds. The firſt bivalved glume awn'd at the baſe: The ſtamina conſiſt
year after they come up they ſhould be ſhaded in very of three capillary filaments; the antheræ are oblong
hot weather : and after that they will require little or and bifurcated: The piſtillum has an oval germen ;
no care. Another method of increaſing theſe ſhrubs with two capillary ſtyli coaleſced, and vilious itiginata:
is by layers or fuckers; fo that whoever has not the There is no pericarpium : The feed is one, folitary,
conveniency of procuring the ſeeds from abroad, ſhould and covered. The male calyx, corolla, and famina,
get a plant or two of the forts he moſt likes. Theſe the ſame with the hermaphrodite ; but the corolla
he ſhould plant in a boggy ſituation, and in a very without the awn. There are above 18 ſpecies. Of
little time he will have increaſe enough; for they throw theſe the moſt remarkable is the nardus, which produ-
out ſuckers in prodigious plenty, and, if they like the ces the Indian nard or ſpikenard of the ſhops. The
lituation, to a great diſtance. Theſe may be taken ſpikenard, as brought from the Eaſt Indies, is a con-
off, and planted where they are to remain.
geries of ſmall fibres iſſuing from one head, and mat-
ANDRON, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the a ted cloſe together, ſo as to form a bunch about the lize
partment in houſes deſigned for the uſe of men; in of the finger, with ſome ſmall ſtrings at the opposite
which ſenſe it ſtands oppoſed to Gynæceum.-The end of the head. The matted fibres (which are the
Greeks alſo gave their dining-rooins the title of ail parts choſen for medicinal purpoſes) are ſuppoſed by
dron, becauſe the soinen had no admittance to feaſts ſome to be the head or ſpike of the plant, by oihers
with the nien.
the root : they ſeem rather to be the remains of the
ANDRONA, in ancient writers, denotes a ſtreet, withered ſtalks, or the i:bs of the leaves: ſometimes
or public place, where people met and converſed toge- entire leaves and picces of iialks are found among
In fome writers, androna is more expreſsly them: we likewiſe now and then njeet with a nunber
uſed for the ſpace between two houſes ; in which of theſe bunches iſſuing ſiom one root. Spikenard
ſenſe, the Greeks alſo uſe the term avd pay des, for the has a warm, pungent, bitteriſh taite; aird a ſtrong 1100
way or paſſage betwcen two apartments.
very agreeable imell. It is ſtoniachic and carmina-
ANDRONA is alſo uſed, in ecclefiaftical writers, for tive; and ſaid to be alexipharmac, diuretic, and em-
that part in churches deſtined for the men. Anciently menagogue ; but at preſent it is very little employed.
ir svas the cuſtom for the men and women to have lepa ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be-
ther.
ty cen
A N D
( 797 )
A N D
or
Androse tween Tenedos and Euboa: being one mile diſtant about 6ooo inhabitants, beſidesthoſe of the villages Arni Andros,
from the former, and ton from the latter. The an and Amoldeos, who are about two hundred, have a dif ll
cients gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lyſia, No ferent language and cuſtoms, and are called Albanois. Andrum. .
nagria, Epagris, Antandros, and Hydruſia. The There are 7 monaſteries, a great number of churclies,
name of Andros it received froin one Andreus, ap and a cathedral for the biſhops of the Roman catholic
pointed, according to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhada- perſuaſion ; but moſt of the inhabitants are of the Greek
manthus, one of the generals, to govern the Cyclades, communion. The Jeſuits had a houſe and a chnrch in
after they had of their own accord fubmitted to him. this illand; but they were forced 10 quit them lung
As to the name of Antandros, the ſame author tells ago. Here are ſome delightful valleys; but the air is
us, that Aſcanius the ſon of Æntas, being taken pri. bad, and the water of the city worſe.
The women
foner by the Pelaſgians, gave them this illand for his would be agreeable enough, if it was not for their dreſs,
ranſom, which on that account was called Antandros, which is very unbecoming; for they ſtuif out their
" delivered for one man.” The name of Hydruſia clothes without the leaſt regard to their hape; but the
it obtained in common with other places well ſupplied Albaneſe women make a much better appearance. The
with water, It had forinerly a city of great note, peaſants make wicker-baſkets, wherewith they ſupply
bearing the ſame name, and ſituated very advanta the greateſt part of the Archipelago. They have all
geouſly on the brow of an hill which commanded the forts of game in the woods and mountains, but know
whole coaſt. In this city, according to Strabo and net how to take them for want of guns. Their prin-
Pliny, ſtood a famous temple dedicated to Bacchus. cipal food is goats fleſh; for there is no filh to be met
Near this temple Murianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells with on their coaſts. When they are ſick, they are ob-
us, there was a ſpring called the gift of Jupiter ; the liged to let the diſeaſe take its natural courſe, having
water of which had the taſte of wine in the month of neither plıyſician nor ſurgeon on the iſland. A cadi,
January, during the feaſt of Bacchus, which laſted ſe aſſiſted by a few of the principal perſons of the iſland,
ven days. The ſame author adds, that the waters, if has the management of civil affairs, and his reſidence
carried to a place where the temple could not be ſeen, is in the caſtle: an aga, who prelides over the military
loſt their miraculous taſte. Pauſanius makes no men. force, lives in the tower without the city. About two
tion of this ſpring; but ſays, that, during the feaſt of miles from the preſent town are ſtill to be ſeen the ruins
Bacchus, wine flowed, or was at leaſt by the Andrians of a ſtrong wall with the fragments of many columns,
believed to flow, from the temple of that god. The chapiters, baſes, broken ftatues, and ſeveral inſcript
prieſts, no doubt, found their account in keeping up tions, ſome of which mention the ſenate and people of
this belief, by conveying, through ſecret conduits, a Andros, and the prieſts of Bacchus; from which it is
great quantity of wine into the temple.
probable that this was the ſite of the ancient city. E.
The Andrians were the firſt of all ihe iſlanders who Long 25. 30. N. Lat. 37.50.
joined the Perſians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece; ANDROS (anc. geog.), an iſland in the Iriſh ſea,
and therefore Themiſtocles, after the victory at Sa (Pliny), called Hedros by Ptolemy: Now Bardes,
lamis,.reſolved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige diſtant about a mile froni che coaſt of North-Wales.
the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the inain ANDROSACE: a genus of the monogynia order,
tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the belonging to the pentandria claſs of plants; and in the
iſland, he ſent heralds to the magiftrates, acquainting natural inethod ranking under the '211t order, Preciæ.
them, that the Athenians were coming againſt them The eſſential characters are, The male calyx is five-
with two powerful divinities, perſilaſion and force; and leaved; the corolla is five-petaled; the ſtamina are five,
therefore they muſt part with their money by fair inſerted in the rudiment of the ſtylus: The female ca-
means or foul. The Andrians replied, that they like lyx is five-leaved; the corolla is wanting; the styli are
wiſe had two mighty deities who were very fond of three ; the capſule is trilocular; the ſeeds are two,
their illand, viz. poverty and impoſſibility; and therefore of this genus Dr Linræus reckons fix.
could give no money. Themiſtocles, not ſatisfied with Species. 1. The maxima grows naturally in Auſtria
this anſwer, laid ſiege io the town; which he probably and Bohenia, among the corn. It hath broad leaves,
made himſelf maſter of and deſtroyed, as we are in which ſpread near the ground; from the centre of theſe
formed by Plutarch, that Pericles, a few years after, the foot talks ariſe, which are terminated by an unbel
ſent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was, how. of white flowers like thoſe of the auricula. Theſe ap-
ever, ſoon retaken by the Perſians; and, on the over pear in April and May, and the feeds ripen in June ;
throw of that empire by Alexander the Great, ſubmit ſoon after which the plants periſli. 2. The ſeptentrio-
led to hiin, along with the other iſlands. On his death nalis, villoſa, carnea, and lactea, grow naturally on the
it fided with Antigonus, who was driven out by Ptole Alps and Helvetian mountains, as alſo in Siberia. They
my. The ſucceilors of the laſt mentioned prince held are much ſmaller than the former, ſeldom growing
it to the time of the Romans; when Attalus, king of more than three inches highi. Of the other ſpecies
Pergamus, beſieged the metropolis at the head of a called the elongata, we have no particular deſcription.
Roman arny; and, having taken it, was by them put Gulture. Theſe plants are propagated by feeds,
in poſſeſſion of the whole iſland. Upon the death of which fhould be fown ſoon after they are ripe, other-
Attalus, the republic claimed this iſland, as well as his wiſe they feldom conie up the ſame year. If pera
other dominions, in virtue of his laſt till.
mitted to ſcatter, they will grow better than when
Andros is now ſubject to the Turks; and contains a they are fown.
town of the ſame name, with a great many villages. It ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the peo-
is the inoſt fruitful itland in all the Archipelago, and ple of Malabar are very ſubject. --Its origin is derived
pielts a great quantity of filk. There are ſaid to be froin the yitious quality of the country waters, imprego
nated
A N D
[ 798 )
Α Ν Ε
ter,
Andryala nated with corroſive muriatic falts, the ſource of moſt ANEAU (Bartholomew), a native of Bourges in Ancau
1 other diſeaſes that infect the Malabarians. Its ſigns, France, a man of eminent learning in the 16th cen 5
Anduze.
or ſymptoms, are an eryſipelas of the ſcrotum, return tury,
educated under Melchior Volmar. He was pro-
Anemiome.
ing every new moon, by which the lymphatics, being feflor at Lyons, where he propagated the doctrines of
eroded, pour a ferous ſaline humour into the cavity of the Reformation ſecretly for a long time : but on the
the ſcrotum. The andruin is incurable ; thoſe once feſtival of the Holy Sacrament 1565, as the proceſſion
feized with it have it for life : but it is not dangerous, was paſſing on towards the college, there was a large
nor very troubleſome, to thoſe uſed to it ; tho' fome- ftone thrown from one of the windows, upon the Hoſt
times it'degenerates into an hydroſarcocele. The me- and prieſt who carried it. The people, enraged at this,
thod of prevention is by a heap of ſand fetched from a broke into the college, and affaſlinated Mr Aneau,
river of the province Mangatti, and ſtrewed in the whom they imagined to have been the occaſion, and
wells. This is practiſed by the rich. As to the cure, the college itſelf was ſhut up next day by order of the
they have only a palliative one ; which is by inciſion, city.
or tapping, and drawing off the water from the ſcro ANECDOTE, ANECDOTA, a term uſed by ſome
tum, once in a nonth or two.
authors, for the title of Secret Hiſtories ; but it more
ANDRYALA, DOWNY SOW-THISTLE: a genus of properly denotes a relation of detached and intereſting
the polygamia æqualis order, belonging to the ſynge- particulars. The word is Greek «ex doma, 9. d. things
nelia claſs of plants; and in the natural method rank- not yet known, or hitherto kept ſecret. Procopius gives
ing under the 49th order,Gompoſita-ſemifloſculus. The this title to a book which he publiſhed againſt Jufti-
eſſential characters are : The receptacle is villous; the nian and his wife Theodora ; and he ſeenis to be the
calyx is many parted, ſubequal, and rounded ; and the only perſon among the ancients who has repreſented
pappus is ſimple and ſellile.
princes ſuch as they are in their domeſtic relation.-
Species. 1. The integrifolia is an annual plant,grow- Varillas has publiſhed Anecdotes of the Houſe of
ing naturally in the ſouth of France, Spain, and Italy. Medicis.
It riſes to the height of a foot and an half, with woolly ANECDOTES is alſo an appellation given to ſuch
branching ſtalks. The flowers are produced in ſmall works of the ancients as have not yet been publiſhed.
cluſters at the top of the ſtalks. They are yellow, In which ſenſe, M. Muratori gives the name Anecdota
and like thoſe of the fow-thiſtle; ſo do not make any Græca to ſeveral writings of the Greek fathers, found
great appearance. 2. The raguſina is a native of the in the libraries, and firſt publiſhed by him.-F. Mar-
Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are extremely white, tene has given a Theſaurus Anecdotarum Novus, in
and nuch indented on their edges. The flower-ſtalks folio, 5 vols.
grow about a foot high, having ſmall cluſters of yellow ANEE, in commerce, a ineaſurc for grain, uſed in
Howers, which appear in July. The ſeeds ſometimes ſome provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alſo
ripen in Britain, but not always. 3. The lanara is a a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an aſs
native of Sicily and of the country round Montpelier. can carry at once: which is fixed at 80 Engliſh quarts,
The lower leaves are indented and woolly, but thoſe wine-meaſure.
on the ſtalks are entire. It ſeldom riſes more than a ANEMOMETER,in mechanics,implies a machine
foot high, ſupporting a few yellow flowers at top. 4. for meaſuring the force and velocity of the wind.
The finuata grows in Spain and Portugal: the leaves Various machines of this kind have been invented
are broader, longer, and more downy, than either of at different times, and by different perſons. The fol.
the other forts; the flower-ſtalks riſing more than a lowing has been often experienced, and found to an-
foot high. They branch into ſeveral foot-ſtalks, each aſwer the intention.
fuſtaining one large yellow flower, ſhaped like thoſe An open frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI*, is ſuppor- * Plate
of hawk-weed, which are ſucceeded by oblong black ted by the ſhaft or arbor I. In the two croſs-pieces XXXI.
ſceds covered with down.
HK, L M is moved a horizontal axis QM, by means fig. 3.
Culture. All theſe plants are eaſily propagated by of the four ſails ah, on, Of, gh, expoſed to the wind
ſeeds, which ſhould be ſown in autumn, where they are in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of
to remain, and will require no other culture than to wood, MNO; upon which, as the fails move round,
thin them where they are too cloſe, and to keep them a weight R, or S, is raiſed by a ſtring round its ſuper-
free from weeds. The third fort muſt have a light fices, proceeding from the ſmaller to the larger end
dry foil.
NO. Upon this larger end or baſe of the cone, is
ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andaluſia, fixed a rocket wheel k, in whoſe teeth the click X
in Spain, ſeated on the river Guadalquiver, 25 miles falls, to prevent any retrograde motion from the de-
eaſt of Cordova. Il is pretty large, indifferently rich, pending weight.
and defended by a good caſtle. It is adorned with The ſtructure of this machine fufficiently ſhows that
handſome churches and ſeveral religionis houſes, and it may be accommodated to eſtimate the variable force
inhabited by many fainilies of high rank. The land of the wind; becanſe the force of the weight will con-
about it abounds in corn, wine, oil, honey, and fruit tinually increaſe as the ſtring advances on the conical
of all forts; and the inhabitants carry on a conſider- ſurface, by acting at a greater diſtance from the axis
able trade in ſilk. W. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 37. 45. of motion; confequently, if ſuch a weight be added
ANDUZE, a town of France in Lower Languedoc, on the ſmaller part M, as will juſt keep the machine
feated on the river Gardon. It carries on a conſider in equilibrio in the weakeſt wind, the weight to be
able trade in ſerges and woollen cloth. E. Long. 3.42. raiſed as the wind becomes ſtronger, will he increaſed
M. Lat. 43. 39.
in proportion, and the diameter of the cone N O may
be
Α Ν Ε
[ 799]
Α Ν Ε
&
Anemone. be ſo large in compariſon to that of the ſmaller end at and rot the dung and turf, and to let it have the advan- Anemone.
M, that the ſtrongeſt wind ſhall but juſt raiſe the tages of the free air. In doing this work, be careful
weight at the greater end.
to rake out all the great ſtones, and break the clods;
If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that but by no means ſift or ſcreen the earth,which has been
of the baſe of the cone N O as į to 28; then, if S found very hurtful to many ſorts of roots. This earth
be a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be ſhould be mixed twelve months before it is uſed, if pof-
equivalent to 28 pounds when raiſed to the greater end: fible: but if conſtrained to uſe it ſooner, it muſt be the
if, therefore, when the wind is weakeſt, ir ſupports oftener turned over to mellow and break the clods ;
one pound on the axis, it muſt be 28 times as ſtrong to obſerving to rake out all the parts of the green (ward
raiſe the weight to the baſe of the cone. If therefore that are not quiterotten, before it is uſed, as they would
a line or ſcale of 28 equal parts be drawn on the ſide be prejudicial to the roots if ſuffered to remain. The
of the cone, the ſtrength of the wind will be indica- beginning of September is a proper ſeaſon to prepare
ted by that number on which the ſtring reſts. the beds for planting, which (if in a wet ſoil) ihould
ANEMONE, WIND-FLOWER: A genus of the po be raiſed with this ſort ofearth fix or eight inches above
lyginia order, belonging to the polyandria claſsof plants; the ſurface of the ground, laying at the bottom fome
and, in the natural method, ranking under the 26th or of the rakings of the heap to drain off the moiſture;
der, Multiſilique. It has its name from the Greek but, in a dry ſoil, three inches above the ſurface will be
aver. Que ſignifying the wind; becauſe the flower is ſup- ſufficient ; this compoſt ſhould be laid at leaſt two feet
poſed not to open unleſs the wind blows.—The cha- and a half thick, and in the bottom there ſhould be
racters are: There is no calyx : The corolla conſiſts about four or five inches of rotten neats dung, or the
of petals of two or three orders, three in each ſeries, ruiten dung of an old melon or cucumber bed. The
oblongiſh: The ſtamina conſiſt of numerous capilla- beds muſt be laid (if in a wet ſoil) a little round, to
ry filaments; the antheræ didymous and erect. The ſhoot off the water, but in a dry one, nearer to a le-
piſtillum has numerous germina collected into a head; vel. In wet land, where the beds are raiſed above the
the ſtyli are pointed; the ſtamina obtufe: There is ſurface, it will be proper to fill up the paths between
no pericarpium; the receptaculum is globular : The them, in winter, either with rotten tan or dung, to pre-
reeds are very numerous.
vent the froſt from penetrating into the ſides of the beds,
Of this genus Dr Linnæus enumerates 21 ſpecies; which otherwiſe may deſtroy their roots. The earth
but thoſe valuable on account of the beauty of their ſhould be laid in the beds at leaſt a fortnight or three
flowers, are only the following, 1. The nemoroſa, weeks before the roots are planted, and a longer time
which grows wild in the woods in many parts of Bri- would be yet better, that it may ſettle ; and when thcy
tain, where it flowers in Apriland May. The flowers are planted, ſtir the upper part of the ſoil about fix
are white, purple, or reddiſh parple, ſometimes ſingle, inches deep, with a ſpade; then rake it even and ſmooth,
and ſometimes double, ſo tlaat they make a pretty ap and with a ſtick draw lines each way of the bed at fix
pearance. 2. The appennina is likewiſe a native of Bri- inches diſtance, ſo that the whole may be in ſquares,
tain, growing in woods. The flowers of this ſpecies, that the roots may be planted regularly : theti with
like the laſt are ſometimes ſingle, and ſometimes dou- three fingers make a hole in the centre of each ſquare,
ble; their colours are white, blue, or violet. They about three inches deep, laying therein a root with the
appear in April. 3. The coronaria. 4. The hortenfis. eye uppermoſt; and when the bed is finiſhed, with the
Theſe two are natives of the Levant, particularly of head of the rake draw the earth ſmooth, ſo as to cover
the Archipelago iſlands, where the borders of the the crown of the roots about two inches thick.
fields are covered with them of the moſt beautiful co The beſt feaſon for planting theſe roots, if for for-
lours. When they grow wild the flowers are com ward flowers, is about the latter end of September,
monly ſingle; but by culture they are greatly improve and for thoſe of a middling ſeaſon any time in October :
ed: they become large and double, making ſome of the butobſerve to perform this work, if poſſible, at or near
greateſt ornaments of gardens. Their principal co the time of ſome gentle ſhowers; for if planted when
lours are red, white, purple, and blue ; ſome of them the ground is perfectly dry, and there ſhould no rain
are finely variegated with with red, white, purple, and fall for three weeks or a month after, the roots will be
many intermediate ſhades of theſe colours.
very apt to grow mouldy upon the crown; and if once
Culture. The firſt and ſecond forts may be propa. they get this diſtemper, they ſeldom come to good after.
gated by taking up their roots when the leaves decay, As all the fine varieties of theſe flowers were firſt ob-
and tranſplanting them in wilderneſſes, where they tained from feeds, ſo no good floriſt that hath garden-
will thrive and increaſe greatly, if they are not diſturb room ſhould neglect to fow them ; in order to which,
ed. The two laſt forts require a good deal of care, he ſhould provide himſelf with a quantity of good roots
and ample dire&tions for their culture.-- The ſoil in of the ſingle (or what the gardeners call poppy) ane-
which theſe plants will ihrive extremely, may be com- monies, of the beſt colours and ſuch as have ſtrong
poſed in the following manner : Take a quantity of ſtems and large flowers, but eſpecially ſuch as have more
freſh untried earth (from a common or fome other pa- leaves than common, and alſo other good properties :
ſture land) that is of a light ſandy loam or hazel mould, theſe ſhould be planted early, that they may have
obſerving not to take it above ten inches deep below the ſtrength to produce good feeds, which will be ripe iz
furface ; and if the turf be taken with it, the better, three weeks or a month's time after the flowers are paſt;
provided it hath time to rot thoroughly before it is when the feeds muſt be carefully gathered, otherwiſe
uſed : mix this with a third part of rotten cow-dung, they will be blown away in a ſhort time, as being in-
and lay it in a heap, keeping it turned over at leaſt once cloſed in a downy ſubſtance. You muſt preferve this
a month for eight or ten months, the better to mix it, ſeed till the beginning of Auguſt, when you may eia
ther
Α Ν Ε
[800]
Α Ν Ε
cope,
Anemone, ther ſow it in pols,tubs, or a well-prepared bed of light the wood-ancmone; and, according to Linnæus and Anemone,
earth: in the doing of it you muſt be careful not to Gunner, many obſervations have proved that it cauſes Anemof-
let your feeds be in heaps ; to avoid which, the beſt the bloody flux among them.
method is to mix them with a little fine fand, and, Sea- ANEMONE. See ANIMAL-Flower.
when ſown, gently ſtreak the bed with a frong hair ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that ſhows either the
bruſh.
courſe or velocity of the wind. (See alſo the article
In about two vionths after ſowing, the plants will Wind-GUAGE.)
begin to appear, if the ſeaſon has proved favourable. The machine which ſhows the courſe of the wind,
The firſt winter after their appearing above ground, or from what point of the compaſs it blows, conſiſts
they are ſubject to injuries from hard froſts, or too of an index moving about an upright circular plate,
much wet, againſt both of which you muſt equally de. like the dial of a clock, op which the 32 points of
fend them: for the froſt is very apt to looſen the earth, the compaſs are drawn inſtead of the hours. Thein-
ſo that the young plants are often turned oat of the dex, which points to the diviſions on the dial, is turned
ground, after which a ſmall froſt will deſtroy them; by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its ex-
and too much wet often rots their tender roots, ſo that ternal extremity. This trundle-head is moved by a
all your former trouble may be loſt in a ſhort time for cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis ; on the top of which
want of care in this particular : nor is any thing more a vane is fixed, that moves with the courſe of the wind,
deſtructive to theſe tender plants than the cold black and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole
froſts and winds of February and March, from which contrivance is extremely ſimple; and nothing requi.
you muſt be careful to defend them, by placing a low red in the conſtruction, but that the number of cogs
reed-fence on the north and eaſt ſides of the bed, which in the wheel, and rounds in the trandle head, be equal;
inay be moveable, and only faſtened to a few ſtakes becauſe it is neceſſary, that when the vane moves en-
to ſupport it for the preſent, and may be taken quite tirely round, the index of the dial alſo make a con-
away as the ſeaſon advances, or removed to the ſouth plete revolution.
and weſt ſides of the bed, to ſcreen it from the vio The anemoſcope, calculated for indicating the force
lence of the ſun,which often impairs theſe plants when or velocity of the wind, is the ſame with what moſt
young. As the ſpring advances, if the weather ſhould writers call an anemometer; and we have accordingly
prove dry, you muſt gently refreſh them with water, deſcribed one of thoſe inachines under that article.
which will greatly ſtrengthen the roots; and when the We ſhall here add another, contrived by the late Mr
green leaves are decayed, if your roots are not too Pickering, and publiſhed in the Philosophical Trnal-
thick to remain in the ſame bed another year, you inuſt aftions, Nº 473.
clear off allthe weeds and decayed leaves from the bed, This anemoſcope is a machine four feet and a quarter
and lift a little more of the ſame prepared good earth, high, conſiſting of a broad and weighty pedeſtal, a
about a quarter of an inch thick over the ſurface, and pillar faſtened into it, and an iron axis of about half
obſerve to keep them clear from weeds during the ſuin an inch diameter faſtened into the pillar. Upon this
mer ſeafon, and at Michaelmas repeat the ſame earth axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is pla-
ing; but as theſe roots ſo left in the ground will come ced a vane, of the ſame materials, 21 inches long, con-
up early in the autumn, the beds ſhould be carefully fiſting of a quadrant, graduated, and ſhod with an iron
covered in froſty weather, otherwiſe their leaves will rim, notched to each degree; and a counterpoiſe of
be injured, whereby the roots will be weakened, if not wood, as in the figure, on the other. Through the
deſtroyed. If your roots ſucceed well, many of them centre of the quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which
will flower the ſecond year, when you may ſelect all are faſtened two ſmall round pieces of wood, which
ſuch as you like, by marking them with a ſtick : but ſerve as moveable radii to deſcribe the degrees upon
you ſhould not defroy any of them till after the third the quadrant, and as handles to a velum or fail, whoſe
year, when you have ſeen them blow ſtrong, at which pane is one foot ſquare, made of canvas, ſtretched up-
time you will be capable to judge of thcir goodneſs ; on four battens, and painted. On the upper bat-
for until the roots have acquired ſtrength, the flowers ten, next to the ſhod rim of the quadrant, is a ſmall
will not ſhow themſelves to advantage.
ſpring which catches at every notch correſponding to
The ſingle (or poppy) anemonies will flower moſt each degree, as the wind ſhall, by preſſing againſt the
part of the winter and ſpring when the ſeaſons are fa. fail, raiſe it up; and prevents the falling back of the
vourable, if they are planted in a warm ſituation, at fail, upon the leſſening of the force of the
wind. At the
which time they make a fine appearance; therefore de bottom of the wooden tube, is an iron index, which
ſerve a place in every flower-garden, eſpecially as they moves round a circular piece of wood faſtened to the
require little culture. There are ſome fine blue colours top of the pillar on the pedeſtal, on which are deſcri-
amongſt theſe ſingle anemonies, which, with the ſcar bed the 32 points of the compaſs. The figure of this
lets and reds, make a beautiful mixture ; and as theſe machine is given on Plate XXXI. fig. 4. where a is
begin flowering in January or February, when the the pedeſtal; b, the pillar on which the iron axis is
weather is cold, they will continue a long time in fitted ; C, the circle of wood, on which are deſcribed
beauty, provided the froſt is 11ot too ſevere, or if they the 32 points of the compaſs; , the wooden tabe up-
are covered with mats. The ſeeds of theſe are ripe on its axis ; f, the velam; g, the graduated quadrant;
by the middle or end of May; and muſt be gathered h, the counterpoiſe of the vane. The adjoining figure
daily as they ripen, otherwiſe they will be foon blown repreſents the velum, which takes off: 'a is the plane
away by the winds.
of the velum ; b, the ſpring ; cc, the wooden radii,
Horned cattle, when removed from the higher d, d, the holes through which the pin in the centre
grounds into woods and woody paſtures, frequently eat of the quadrant goes. Its aſes are the following.
22
I. Ha-
Plate XXI.
.
Fig. 8
B
1
பயாயப்பா'
ANEMOMETER
D
V
M
5.
ANGUIS VENTRALIS
al
K
L
T
(
or Glafs Irake
H
E
R
He becally
Fig. 2
We
--
.
S
with the
ANDROMEDA.
Paniculata.
Fig.
4.
ANEMOSCOPE
LIDOTIXTE M
1111
V
O
Frig
.
1.
f
ANCHOR
a
b
d
d
12.
N°
1.
C
f
2
.1.03.
d
е e
I
Α Ν Ε
[ 801 ]
AN G
cope,
Anemol 1. Having a circular niotion round the iron axis, and flat on the other. Their taſte is moderately warin and Anerriime
being furniſhed with a vane at top, and index at the pungent; their ſmell aromatic, but not of the moſt a-
Anethum. bottom, when once you have fixed the artificial car- greeable kind. Several preparations of them are kept Angazya.
dinal points, deſcribed on the round piece of wood, on in the liops. They arerecommended as a carminative,
the pillar, to the ſame quarters of the heavens, it gives in flatulent colics, proceeding from a cold cauſe or a
a faithful account of that quarter from which the viſcidity of the juices.-2. Of fennel both the ſeeds
wind blows. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated by and roots are uſed in medicine. The ſeeds of both the
the wind along the arch of the quadrant to an height fennels have an aromatic ſmell, and a moderately
proportionable to the power of the column of wind warm pungent taſte : thoſe of the ſweet fennel are in
preſling againſt it, the relative force of the wind, and flavour moſt agreeable, and alſo liave a conſiderable
its comparative power, at any two times of examina- degree of ſweetneſs; hence the uſe of theſe only have
tion, may be accurately taken. 3. By having a ſpring been directed. They are ranked among the four
fitted to the notches of the iron with which the qua- greater hot ſeeds, and not undeſervedly looked upon
drant is ſhod, the velum is prevented from returning as good ſtomachics and carminatives. A ſimple water
back upon the fall of the wind; and the machine gives is prepared from them in the ſhops ; they are ingre-
the force of the higheſt blaſt, ſince the laſt time of ex dients alſo in the compound ſpirit of juniper, and ſome
amination, without the trouble of watching it. other officinal compoſitions. The root is far leſs varin,
The ingenious contriver of this machine tells us, but has more of a ſweetiſh taſte, than the ſeeds ; it is
that he carefully examined what dependence may be one of the five roots called openers; and has ſome-
had upon it, during the ſtorms of February 1743-4, times been directed in aperient apozems. Boerhaave
and found that it anſwered exceedingly well; for that, ſays, that this root agrees in taſte, ſmell, and medical
In ſuch winds as the ſailors call violent ſtorms, the ma- qualities, with the celebrated ginſeng of the Chineſe
chine had ſix degrees to fpare for a more violent guſt, from which, however, it appears to be very confider-
before it comes to a horizontal poſition. It is certainly ably different.-The leaves of fennel are weaker than
to be depended upon in ordinary weather, the velum either the roots or feeds, and have very rarely been ein-
being hing fo tenderly as to feel the moſt gentle ployed for any medicinal uſe.
breeze. There is, however, reaſon to fear, that the ANEURISM, in ſurgery, a tlırobbing tumor, diſ-
cxpoſing the anemoſcope to all winds for a continuance, tended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rup-
muſt diſorder it, eſpecially irregular blaſts and ſqualls. ture of an artery. Sce SURGERY-Index.
It may not therefore be amiſs, in violent weather, for ANGARI, or ANGARII, in antiquity, denote pub.
the obſerver to take the tube with its vane and velum lic couriers appointed for the carrying of meſſages.
in his hand, in order to know the force of the wind The ancient Perſians, Budæus obſeryes, had their
and, when he has finiſhed his obſervations, to carry wg geperon dporen pea; which was a ſet of couriers on horſe-
the machine into the houſe, till the violence of the back, poſted at certain ſtages or diſtances, always in
Itorm is abated, when it may be replaced in its former readineſs to receive the diſpatches from one, and for-
ſituation.
ward them to another, with wonderful celerity, an-
ANETHUM, DILL and FENNEL: A genus of the ſwering to what the moderns call poſts, q. d. poſiti, as
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria claſs of being poſted at certain places or ſtages. The angari
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under were alſo called by the Perſians aftande ; by the Greeks
the 45th order, Umbellatæ. The eſſential characters #leepodpoucos, on account of the long journeys they made
are : The fruit is oval, compreſſed, ſtriated; and the in one day, which, according to Suidas, amounted not
petals (five) are involute, entire, and very ſhort. to leſs than 1500 ſtadia.
Species. '1. The graveolens, or dill, is an annual ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of pub-
plant: the root is long, fender, and white; the leaves lic ſervice impoſed on the provincials, which conſiſted
are divided into a multitude of fine, long, narrow ſeg- in providing horſes and carriages for the conveyance of
ments, like thoſe of fennel, but of a bluiſh green co- inilitary ſtores, and other public burdens. It is ſome-
lour, and leſs ſtrong ſmell. The ſtalk is round and times alſo uſed for a guard of ſoldiers, poſted for tho
firm, growing to the height of four feet, with yel- defence of a place. In a more general ſenſe, it is uſed
low flowers in moderately large umbels. 2. Tlie fee for any kind of oppreſſion or ſervices performedtlırough
niculum, or fennel ; of which there are civo varieties, compulſion.
the common and tlie ſweet. The ſweet fennel is finall. ANGAZYA, one of the Comorra illands, lying
,
er in all its parts than the common, except the ſeeds, between the north end of Madagaſcar and the coait
which are confiảerably larger. The ſeeds of the two of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. 10° to 150 S. It
forts differ likewiſe in ſhape and colour ; thoſe of the is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts
of
common are roundiſh, oblong, flattiſh on one ſide, and the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities
protuberant on the other, of a dark almoſt blackiſh co of the iſland ; which they exchange for callicoes and
lour ; thoſe of the ſweet are longer, narrower, not ſo other cotton cloths. The houſes here are built of ſtone,
flat, generally crooked, and of a whitiſh or pale yel- and lime made of calcined oyſter-ſhells; with which
lowiſh colour. Both forts are cultivated in gardens: the walls and roof are plaſtered in a very elegant man-
the common is a perennial plant: the ſweet fennel pe-
ner.
The government of Angazyıl is a pure ariſtocra-
riſhes after it has given ſeed.
cy; the iſland being ſubject to 10 lords, who have all
Medicinal Uſes. 1. Of the firſt ſpecies, dill, only the title of Sultan. The people are very careful of
the ſeeds are uſed. They are of a pale yellowiſh co their women ; never permitting ſtrangers to ſee them,
lour, in ſhape nearly aval, convex on one side, and without permiſton from a fultan, or an order which
VOL. I.
i
A N G
[ 802 ]
A N G
my,
و
Angeicto- the ſtranger brings with him. Many of them read are therein. All the writers that we have teen on this Angel.
and write Arabic with great facility; and fume even fubject, think they were included in the firſt day's
Angel. underſtand Portugueſe, which they learn from their work, when the heavens were framed.
intercourſe with Moſambique, whither they trade in It has veen thought by ſome perſons, that the words
yeſſels of 40 tons burthen.
of Job, “ When the morning ſtars ſang together, and
ANGEIOTOMY, in ſurgery, implies the opening all the ſons of God ſhouted for joy,” nilitate againſt
a vein or artery, as in bleeding: and conſequently the creation of angels within the lix days. About the
includes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy.
meaning of theſe words, however, expoſitors are not
ANGEL, a ſpiritual intelligent ſubſtance, the firſt agreed; but admitting that they refer literally to an-
in rank and dignity among created beings. The word gels, Dr Lightfoot, Caryl, and others, ſee no diffi-
Angel is Greek, and ſignifies a Meſſenger: the Hebiew culty in the paſſage. The Doctor thinks they were
7xhon ſignifies the ſame thing. The angels are in Da created on the firſt day, with the heavens; and that
niel (chap. iv. ver. 13, &c.)
called Sw, or Watchers, they were ſpectators of God's works in the other parts
from their vigilance: for the ſame reaſon they are, in of creation, and praiſed and nagnified the Lord for
the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to E his works all along; finging and ſhouting when God
noch, nained Egregori; which word imports the ſame laid the foundation of the earth, as the Jews did at the
in Greek.
laying the foundation of the temple, Ezra mi.
Angels, therefore, in the proper ſignification of the On a ſubject of this nature it would be imprudent
word, do not import the nature of any being, but only to indulge a ſpirit of conjecture: Scripture is the only
the office to which they are appointed, eſpecially by ſtandard by which truth and error can be tried, and to
way of meſſage, or intercourſe between God and his this we muſt ultimately appeal. It is acknowledged
creatures ; in which ſenſe they are called the miniſters that Mofes has not expreſsly mentioned angels byname;
of God, who do his pleaſure, and miniſtring Spirits ſent yet as we have remarked, their creation is undoubted-
forth to miniſter for them who ſhall be heirs of ſalva ly implied; for the heavens muſt include all that are in
tion, That there are ſuch beings as we call angels, that them; and therefore it is that the divine penman ſays,
is, certain permanent ſubſtances, inviſible, and im in the concluſion of his narrative, “ Thus the heavens
perceptible to our ſenſes, endued with underſtanding and the earth were finiſhed, and all the hoſt of them.”
and power ſuperior to that of human nature, created by Ofthe holis of heaven, the angels muſt form a conlider-
God, and ſubject to him as the ſupreme Being ; mi able part; they are expreſsly called the heavenly hofts
niſtring to his divine providence in the government of and the armies of heaven, Dan.iv, 35. Luke ii. 13. And
the world by his appointment, and more eſpecially at if divine authority be adınitted as deciſive, the reaſons
tending the affairs of mankind; is a truth fo fully at adduced by Jehovah for the ſanctification of a fabbath,
teſted by Scripture, that it cannot be doubted, Nay, demonſtrate that they did not exiſt previous to the cre-
the exiſtence of ſuch inviſible beings was generally ation of the heavens. It is, ſurely, aſſerted with pro-
acknowledged by the ancient heathens, though under priety, that in ſix days the Lord made heaven and earth.
different appellations: the Greeks called them da. the ſea, and all that in then is. Similar to which is a
mons; and the Romans genii, or lares. Epicurus ſeenis declaration of the divine hiſtorian relating to the ſame
to have been the only one among the old philoſophers fact." And God bleſſed the ſeventh day and fancti.
who abſolutely rejected them. Indeed, the belief of fied it; becauſe that in it he had refted from all his
middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the work which God created and made,” Gen. ii. 3. Now
world, and ſerving as miniſters or interpreters be if angels exiſted prior to the ſix days of creation, the
tween God and man, is as extenſive as the belief of a language of Moſes is far from being accurate and in-
God; having never, fo far as we know, been called telligible; and eſpecially when it is contidered that the
in queſtion by thoſe who had any religion at all. obfcurity might have been removed by adding, “ from
When cre-
The creation of angels is not indeed expreſsly men. all the work which God had then created and made.'
ated. tioned by Moſes in the firſt of Genefis, yet is is gene Butifangels were created before the heavens, where
rally conſidered by judicious expoſitors as implied. The could they exiſt? For, as the learned Gill J has remark- & Bod.
reaſon why the ſacred hiſtorian is ſilent on this ſub ed, “ though angels have no bodies, and ſo are not in Divin.
ject, is ſuppoſed by Berrington to be the natural prone place circumſcriptively; yet as they are creatures, they vol.i.p.412.
neſs of the Gentile world, and even of the Jews, to inuſt have an ubi, a ſomewhere, in which they are de-
* On the idolatry *. And it is thought, if they worſhipped finitively; ſo that they are here, and not there, and
Creation, mere material elements, which was the caſe, much much leſs every where: Now where was there anubi,
more might they be inclined to worſhip ſuch ſuperior a fomewhere, for them to exiſt in, before the heavens
See alſo Se- and ſublime beings as angels. But a better reaſon is and the earth were made ? It is moſt reaſonable, there-
the Crea. perhaps given by other writers, viz, that this firſt hil fore to conclude, that as God prepared an habitation
tory was purpoſely and principally for information con for all the living creatures before he made them : as
cerning the viſible world; the inviſible, of which we thie ſea for the fiſhes, the expanſe, or air, for the fowls,
+ Affen- know but in part, being reſerved for a better life t. and the earth for men and beaſts; ſo he made the hea.
bly's An. On wliat day they were created has been matter of vens firſt, and then the angels to dwell in thein.”
conjecure. It is a point on which learned men hive That this was the fact, will appear very evident, if
Gen. i. 30. differed. The Socinians, indeed, hold, ſays biſhop the words of Moſes be impartially conſidered. « In
* Works, Hopkins], that it was long before the account given by tlie beginning (ſays he), God created the heavens and
1.505.
Moſes, but it muſt have been within the ſix days cre the earth;" which words muſt refer to either the be-
ation, becauſe, as we are informed, that within this ginning of creation or of time : if to the foriner, and
{pace God made heaven and earth, and all things that angels previouſly exiſted, the language is neither intel-
p. 81,
tion,
not. on
ligible
ANG
[ 803 ]
A N G
43.
ment, &c.
Angel. ligible nor conformable to truth : if to the latter, the only explain the text, but undeniably prove the pre- Angel.
difficulty remains ; for what is time but the meaſure of exiſtence of Chriſt the ſon of God* It ſhould be re-
* On the
created cxiſtence. “ Time (ſays the judicious Char- membered, that, in the paſſage under confideration, Trinity,
* Works, nock*) began with the foundation of the world ; before the Evangeliſt's argument for the divinity of Jeſus
vol. i. 112. the beginning of the creation and the beginning of Chriſt is grounded on his pre-exiſting the creation of the
time, there could be nothing but eternity ; nothing but world; and it is conſequently aſſerted, that he is the
what was uncreated, that is, nothing but what was with creator of all things : but if angels had a being before
out beginning.” But if angels were in a pre-exiſtent the period to which he alludes, the argument loſes all
ſtate, the hiſtorian's language is unaccountably ſtrange its force, and no more proves the divinity of Chriſt
and inaccurate : for if the phraſe in the beginning, than the divinity of an angel (A).
which is remarkably emphatical, refer to the creation If, therefore, the words of Moſes be impartially
of the heavens and the earth only, they are unhappily viewed in their obvious natural meaning, and compared
expreſſed : ſo exprefied, indeed, as to convey no mean with other paſſages of Scripture that relate to the fame
ing to thoſe who contider words as the vehicle of ſubject, we have no doubt, but every unprejudiced
thought, and as intended to expreſs clearly to others mind will perceive, that as he intended to give a fuin-
the meaning of the writer. For the natural obvious mary hiſtory of the creation of all things both in hea-
ſenſe is as follows-" In the beginning of the creation of ven and in earth, he lias done it in language intelli-
the heavens and the earth, God created the heavens and gible and accurate, and in terms ſufficiently explicit.
the earth ;" which language is not only a departure As to the nature of theſe beings, we are told, that Their na.
from that perſpicuity and preciſion which diſtinguiſh all they are ſpirits : but whether pure ſpirits diveſted of all ture, paw-
his narrations, but entirely irrational and abſurd. matter, or united to ſome thin bodies, or corporeal ve-er, er plocka
That the words in the beginning refer to the firſt hicles, has been a controverſy of long ſtanding. Not
creation, cannot be doubted, if it be remembered that only the ancient philoſophers, but ſome of the Chri-
JEHOVAH himſelf founds a claim to eternity on this very ſtian fathers were of opinion, that angels were cloathed
ground : “ Before the day was, I am he.” “ Before with ethereal, or fiery, bodies, of the ſame nature with
the mountains were brought forth, or ever thou hadſt thoſe which we ſhall one day have when we come to
formed the earth or the world, even from everlaſting be equal to them. But the more general opinion efpe-
to everlaſting, thou art God.” Iſa. xliii. 13. Pf. ix. 2. cially of later times, has been, that they are ſubſtances
See alſo Prov. viii. 22, 23. &c. Now there could be entirely ſpiritual, though they can at any time aſſume
no propriety in this kind of reaſoning, if angels or any bodies, and appear in human or other ſhapes.
other creature exiſted before the creation of the world, That the angelical powers and abilities vaſtly excel
becauſe all claims to eternity from ſuch premiſes would thoſe of man, cannot be denied, if we conſider, that
apply even to Gabriel as well as to JEHOVAH. “Before their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as our's
the world was," is, in Scripture language, a phraſe are, by any of thoſe imperfections which are inſepara-
always expreſſive of eternity; and on this principle the ble from corporeal being; ſo that their underítandings
evangeliſt John aſſerts the pre-exiſtence of Jeſus Chriſt are always in perfect vigour ; the inclinations regu-
in the firſt chapter of his hiſtory. For this purpoſe he lar ; their motions ſtrong and quick ; their actions ir-
alludes to the words of Moſes, and introduces his di- reſiſtable by material bodies, whoſe natural qualities
vine maſter to notice by celebrating the firſt act of they can controul, or manage to their purpoſes, and
his creative power. "In the beginning (ſays he) occaſion either bleſſings or calamilies, public or pri-
Family was the Word;" that is, Dr Doddrige reinarks ļ, be- vate, here below; inſtances of which are too numerous
Expoſitor. fore the foundation of the world, or the firſt produc- to mention.
Script tion of any creature : and Dr Sherlock & is clearly of Beſides their attendance on God, and their waiting
Proof. of opinion, that the words, in their moſt common and and executing of his commands, they are alſo preſumed
uſual acceptation, ſignify the firſt creation of all things, to be employed in taking care of mankind and their
Divin. p. and are a demonſtration of the divinity of Chriſt. concerns : and that every man had ſuch a tutelar ar
Of the ſame mind was Dr Owen. He ſays, that if guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief
alſo White
by on John
the phraſe beginning does not abſolutely and formally and tradition among the Jews; and our Saviour him-
expreſs eternity, yetit doth a pre-exiſtence to the whole ſelf ſeems to have been of the ſame ſentiment. The
creation, which amounts to the ſame thing; for no heathens were alſo of the fame perſuaſion, and thought
thing can pre-exiſt before all creatures but the nature it a crime to nieglect the admonitions of fo divine a
of God, which is eternal, unleſs we ſuppoſe a creature guide. Socrates publicly confeſſed himſelf to be un-
before the creation of any. But what is meant by this der the direction of ſuch an angel, or dæmon, as
expreſſion is fully declared by other paſſages of Scrip- ſeveral others have ſince been. And in this tutelar
ture : “ I was ſet up from everlaſting, before the bee genius of each perſon they believed his happineſs and
ginning, or ever the earth was :” « Glorify thou me fortune depended. Every genius did his best for the
with thine own ſelf, with the glory which I had with intereſt of his client; and if a man came by the worſt,
thee before the world was ;' both which paſſages not
both which paſſages not it was a ſign the ſtrength of his genius was inferior to
5 I 2
that
Chriſt's
I 29. See
i, I.
(A) Of this Socinus and his followers were aware ; and therefore artfully endeavoured to erade the force of
the apoſtle's reaſoning, by interpreting the phraſe in the beginning either in a figurative ſenſe, or as referring to
the beginning of John the Baptiſt's miniſtry. We will only fubjoin, that we do not renicanber to have ſeen any
writer deviate fivm the primary obvious ineaning of the paſſage, who had not ſome hypotheſis to fuprort inimi.
cal to truth.
A N G
( 804 1
ANG
Angel. that of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order ; of angels, each headed by an arch-angel; the firſt or Angel.
and this was governed by chance. There were ſome
There were ſome der being that of Michael, the ſecond of Gabriel, the
genii, whoſe afccndency was ſo great over others, that third of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael : but though
their very preſence entirely diſconcerted them; which the Jews believe them to be four, yet it ſeems there
was the caſe of that of Auguſtus in reſpect to that of were rather ſeven. The Perſians alſo held, there were
Marc Antony: and for the ſame reaſon, perhaps, ſome ſubordinate degrees among the angels.
perſons have wit, and ſpeak well, when others are ab Although the angels were originally created perfect, of the fal-
fent, in whoſe preſence they are confounded, and out good, and obedient to their maſter's will, yet ſome of len angele.
of countenance. The Romans thought the tutelar them finned, and kept not their firſt eſtate, but left
genii of thoſe who attained the empire, to be of an their habitation; and ſo, of the most bleſſed and glorious
eminent order ; on which account they had great ho became the inoſt vile and miſerable of all God's crea-
nours ſhown them. Nations and cities alſo had their fe-
tures. They were expelled the regions of light, and
veral genii. The ancient Perſians fo firinly believed caſt down to hell, to be reſerved in everlaſting chains
the miniſtry of angels, and their ſuperintendance over under darkneſs, until the day of judgement. With
hnman affairs, that they gave their names to their heaven they loſt their heavenly diſpoſition, which de-
months, and the days of their month ; and aſſigned lighted once in doing good and praiſing God; and fell
them diſtinct offices and provinces : and it is from them into a ſettled rancour againſt him, and malice againſt
the Jews confeſs to have received their names of the men : their inward peace was gone; all deſire of doing
months and angels, which they brought with thein good departed from them ; and, inſtead thereof, re-
when they returned from the Babyloniſh captivity. vengeful thoughts and deſpair took poſſeſſion of them,
After which, we find, they alſo aſſigned charges to the and created an eternal hell within them,
angels, and in particular the patronage of empires and When,and for what offence,theſe apoftate fpirits fell
nations; Michael being the prince of the Jews, as from heaven and plunged themſelves into ſuch an
Raphael is ſuppoſed to have been of the Perſians. abyſs of wickedneſs and wo, are queſtions very hard,
The Mahometans have ſo great a reſpect for the if not impoſſible, to be determined by any clear evi-
angels, that they account a inan an infidel who either dence of Scripture. As to the time, we are certain
denies their exiſtence, or loves them not. They believe that it could not be before the ſixth day of creation ;
them to be free from ſin, enjoying the preſence of God, becauſe on that day it is ſaid, “ God ſaw every thing
to whom they are never diſobedient: and they have that he had made, and behold it was very good :" but
ſubtile pure bodies, being created of light; and have that it was not long after is very probable, as it muſt
no diſtinction of ſexes, nor do they need the refreſh have preceded the fall of our firſt parents. Some have
ment of food or ſleep. They ſuppoſe them to have dif- imagined it to have been after ; and that carnality, or
ferent forms and offices : that ſome adore God in ſeve- luſting to converſe with women upon earth, was the fin
fal poſtures; others ſing his praiſes, and intercede for which ruined them : an opinion (B) built on a miſta-
men : fome carry and encompaſs his throne ; others ken interpretation of Scripture, as if angels were
write the actions of men, and are aſſigned guardians of meant by the fons of God who are ſaid to have begotten
them.
the mighty men of old on the daughters of men.
As the number of theſe celeſtial ſpirits is verythers liave suppoſed, that the angels, being informed
great, it is likewiſe reaſonable to believe that there of God's intention to create man after his own image,
are ſeveral orders and degrees among them; which is and to dignify his nature by Chriſt's aſſuming of it,
alſo confirmed by Scripture; whence ſome ſpeculative and thinking their glory to be eclipſed thereby, en-
men have diſtributed them into nine orders, according vied man's happineſs, and ſo revolted: and with this
to the different names by which they are there called; opinion that of the Mahometans has fome affinity ;
and reduced thoſe orders into three hierarchies, as they who are taught, that the devil, who was once one of
call them: to the firſt of which belong ſeraphim, ché- thoſe angels who are neareſt God's preſence, and
rubim, and thrones; to the ſecond, dominions, virtues, named Azazil, forfeited paradiſe for refuſing to pay
and powers; and to the third, principalities, arch-an- homage to Adam at the command of God. But on
gels, and angels. They imagine farther, that there what occaſion ſoever it firſt ſhowed itſelf, pride ſeems.
are fonie who conſtantly reſide in heaven ; others who to have been the leading lin of the angels ; who, ad-
are miniſters, and ſent forth, as there is occaſion, to miring and valuing themſelves too much on the ex
execute the orders they receive froin God by the for cellence of their nature and the height of thcir ſtation,
The Jews reckon but four orders or companies came at length to entertain fo little reſpect for their
Creator
O.
mer.
(B) This opinion ſeems to have been originally occaſioned by ſome copies of the Septuagint, which, in the
days of St Auſtin, had in this place the angels of God. Lactantius ſuppoſes the angels, who were guilty of this
enormity, had been ſent down by God to guard and take care of mankind; and being endued with free-will,
were chiarged by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celeſtial nature, by defiling themſelves with the corrup-
tions of tlie earth; but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themſelves by women.
He adds,
that, being not admitted into heaven by reaſon of the wickedneſs into which they had plunged themſelves,
they fell down to the earth, and became the devil's miniſters ; but that thoſe that were begotten by them, be-
ing neither angels nor men, but of a middle nature, were not received into hell, no more than their parents
were into heaven. Hence aroſe two kinds of dæmons, celeſtial and terreſtial. Theſe are unclean ſpirits, the
authors of whatever evils are committed, and whoſe prince is the devil. From hence very probably proceeded
he notion of Incubi, or dæmons who are ſuppoſed to have carnal knowledge of women,
ANG
[ 805 ]
A. N G
Angel Creator, as to be guilty of downright rebellion and ers very ſmall and greeniſh. 2. The arch-angelica is a Angolica
0 apoſtacy.
native of Hungary and Germany. The leaves are much 0
Angelica. It is certain from Scripture, that the fallen angels larger than thoſe of the former, and the flowers are Angelites,
were in great numbers, and that there were alſo ſome yellow. 3. The fylveſtris grows naturally in moiſt
order and ſubordination preſerved among them ; one meadows, and by the ſides of rivers, in many parts of
eſpecially being conſidered as their prince, and called Britain ; ſo is ſeldom admitted into gardens. 4. The
by ſeveral names, Beelzebub, Satan, or Saminaël by atro-purpurea canadenſis; 5. The lucida canadenſis :
the Jews; Afârimam, by the Perſians; and Eblis, by Theſe are natives of North America, but have neither
the Mahometans. Their conſtant employment is, not beauty nor uſe.
only doing evil themſelves, but endeavouring by all Gulture. The common angelica delights to grow
arts and means to ſeduce and pervert mankind, by a moiſt ſoil : the feeds ſhould be ſown ſoon after they
tempting them to all kind of ſin, and thereby bringing are ripe. When the plants come up about fix inches
them into the ſame deſperate ſtate with themſelves. bigh they ſhould be tranſplanted very wide, as their
ANGEL is likewiſe à title given to biſhops of ſeveral leaves fpread greatly. If they are planted on the ſides
churches. In this ſenſe is St Paul underſtood by ſome of ditches or pools of water, about three feet diſtance,
authors, where he ſays, Women ought to be covered in they will thrive exceedingly.
the church, becauſe of the angels.
The learned Dr Medicinal Uſes. For the purpoſes of medicine,
Prideaux obſerves, that the miniſter of the fynagogue, Bohemia and Spain produces the beſt kinds of angeli-
who officiated in offering up the public prayers, being ca. The London college direct the roots brought from
the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as Spain to be alone made uſe of. Angelica roots are
their repreſentative, mellenger, or angel, to ſpeak to apt to grow mouldy, and to be preyed upon by inſects,
God in prayer for them, was therefore, in the He unleſs thoroughly dried, kept in a dry place, and fre-
brew language, called the angel of the church ; and quently aired. It is probable that the roots which
from thence the biſhops of the ſeven churches of Afia are ſubject to this inconvenience might be preſerved,
are, by a name borrowed from the ſynagogue, called by dipping them in boiling ſpirit, or expoſing them to
the angels of thoſe churches.
its ſteam after they are dried.
ANGEL, in commerce, the name of a gold coin for All the parts of angelica, eſpecially the root, have
merly current in England. It had its name from the a fragrant aromatic ſmell, and a pleaſant bitterih
figure of an angel repreſented upon it, weighed four warm taſte, glowing upon the lips and palate for a long
pennyweights, and was twenty-three and a half carats time after they have been chewed. The flavour of the
fine. It had different values in different reigns; but feeds and leaves is very periſhable, particularly that
is at preſent only an imaginary ſum, or money of ac of the latter, which, on being barely dried, loſe the
count, implying ten ſhillings.
greateſt part of their taſte and ſmell : the roots are
ANGEL-Fiſh, in ichthyology, a ſpecies of ſqualus. more tenacious of their flavour, though even theſe loſe
See SQUALUS.
part of it upon keeping. The freſh root, wounded ear-
ANGELIC, or ANGELICAL, ſomething belonging ly in the ſpring, yields anodorous yellow juice, which
to, or that partakes of the nature of angels. We fay ſlowly exſiccated, proves an elegant gummy reſin,
an angelical life, &c. St Thomas is ſtyled the angelical very rich in the virtues of the angelica. On drying
doctor. The angelical falutation is called by the Ro the root, this juice concretes into diſtinct moleculæ,
maniſts Ave Maria ; fometimes ſimply angelus. which, on cutting it longitudinally, appear diſtributed
ANGELIC Garment ( Angelica veſtis), in ancient in little veins: in this ſtate, they are extracted by
times, was a monkiſh garment, which laymen put on pure ſpirit, but not by watery liquors.
a little before their death, that they might have the Angelica is one of the moſt elegant aromatics of
benefit of the prayers of the monks. It was from them European growth, though little regarded in the pre-
called angelical, becauſe they were called angeli who by ſent practice. The root, which is the moſt efficacious
theſe prayers animæ falutifuccurrebant. Hence, where part, is uſed in the aromatic tincture; and the ſtalks
we read the phraſe monachus ad fuccurrendum in old make an agreeable ſweetmeat.
books, it muſt be underſtood of one who had put on the ANGELICS (ANGELICI), in church hiſtory, an
habit when he was at the point of death.
ancient ſect of heretics, ſuppoſed by ſome to have got
ANGELICA: A genus of the digynia order, be this appellation from their exceſive veneration ofan-
longing to the pentandria claſs of plants; and in the gels; and by others from their maintaining that the
natural method ranking under the 45th order Umbele world was created by angels.
late. The effential characters are: The fruit is round ANGELICs is alſo the name of an order of knights,
ish, angled, ſolid, with reflected ſtyli; the corollæ inſtituted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Cominenus,
are equal, and the petals incurvated.
emperor of Conſtantinople.
Species. I. The ſativa, or common angelica, which ANGELICS is alſo a congregation of nuns, founded
is cultivated in gardens for medicinal ufe, and like at Milan in 1534, by Louiſa Torelli, counteſs of Gua-
wiſe for a ſweetmeat, grows naturally in the northern ſtalla. They obſerve the rule of Si Auguſtine.
countries. The root of this ſpecies is brown, oblong, ANGELITES, in ecclesiaſtical hiſtory, a fect of
and an inch or two thick, fragrant, and acrid. The Chriſtian heretics, in the reign of the emperor Anaſta-
leaves are very large, compoſed of pinnated folia, of fius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the yer
an oblong oval figure, dentated at the edge, and the 494, ſo called from Angelium, a place in the city of
odd leaf at the end of the pinna lobated; the ſtalk is Alexandria, where they held their firſt meetings. They
round, ſtriated, and as thick as a child's arm. The um were called likewiſe Siverites, from one Severus, who
bels are very large, and of a globofe figure; the flow was the head of their ſect; as allo Theodoſians, from
3
ON
ANG
( 806 )
A N G
Angelo, one among them named Theodoſtus, whom they made magnificence. It is ſituated on the river Zacatula, in Angelt:
Angeloş. pope at Alexandria. They held, ihat the perſons of a fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eaſtward of Me- Angers
The Trinity are not the ſame; that none of them ex xico, In the middle is a beautiful and ſpacious ſquare,
iſts of himſelf, and of his own nature; but that there from whence run the principal ſtreets in direct lines,
is a common god or deity exiſting in them all, and which are croſſed by others at right angles. One ſide
ANGELO (Michaci). There were five celebrated the cathedral ; while the other three conſiſt of piaz-
Italian painters of this name,who flouriſhed in the 16th zas, under which are the ſhops of tradeſmen. The
and 17th centuries ; but the two moſt diſtinguiſhed of city is the fee of a biſhop, fuffragan to the archbiſhop
them are theſe. Firſt, Michael Angelo Buonarroti, of Mexico, and we may form a judgment of the wealth
who was a moſt incomparable painter, ſculptor, and of the place by the revenue of the cathedral and chap-
architect, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in ter, which amounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annual-
Tuſcany. He was the diſciple of Dominico Ghirlan- ly. It muſt be remembered, however, that in all popiſh
daio; and erected an academy of painting and ſculpture countries the wealth of the laity by no means bears
in Florence, under the protection of Lorenzo di Me a due proportion to that of the clergy. What contri-
dicis; which, upon the troubles of that houſe, was obli- butes greatly to increaſe the riches of this province
ged to remove to Bologna. About this time he made is, that here is ſituated the city of Vera Cruz, the
an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke natural centre of allthe American treaſures belonging
off one of its arms, and buried the image in a place he to Spain. See VERA CRUZ.
knew would ſoon be dug up, keeping the arın by him. ANGELOT, an ancient Engliſh gold coin, ſtruck
It was accordingly found, and ſold to Cardinal St Gre at Paris, while under ſubjection to the Engliſh. It
gory for an antique ; until Michael, to their confuſion was thus called from the figure of an angel ſupporting
and his own credit, diſcovered his artifice, and con the eſcutcheon of the arnis of England and France,
firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced : it There was another coin of the ſame denomination
is rather unuſual for the manufacturers of antiques to ſtruck under Philip de Valois.
be ſo ingenuous. His reputation was ſo great at Rome, ANGELOT is alſo uſed in commerce to denote a ſmall
that he was employed by pope Sixtus to paint his cha- fat, rich fort of cheeſe, brought from Normandy.
pel ; and by the command of Pope Paul III. executed Skinner ſuppoſes it to have been thus called from the
his moſt celebrated piece The laſt judgment. He has name of the perſon who firſt made up in that form,
the character of being the greateſt deſigner that ever and perhaps ſtamped it with his own name. Menage
lived; and it is univerſally allowed that no painter ever takes it to have been denominated from therefemblance
underſtood anatomny ſo well. He died immenſely rich it bears to the Engliſh coin called angelot. It is made
at Rome, in 1564.—Secondly, Michael Angelo de chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is alſo denomi-
Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1569. nated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats,
He was at firſt no more than a bricklayer's labourer: either ſquare or ſhaped like a heart.
but he was fo charmed with ſeeing ſome painters at ANGER, a violent pallion of the mind, conſiſting
work, that he immediately applied himſelf to the art; in a propenſity to take vengeance on the author of ſome
and made ſucli a progreſs in a few years, that he was real or ſuppoſed injury done to the offended party.
admired as the author of a new ſtyle in painting. It Anger is either deliberative or inſtinctive ; and the
was obſerved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he latter kind is raſh and ungovernable, becauſe it operates
was incomparable in deligning, but knew little of co blindly, without affording time for deliberation or
louring; and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a foreſight. Biſhop Butler very juſtly obſerves, that an-
goût in colouring as he had a bad one in deſigning. ger is far from being a ſelfish paſſion, ſince it is natu-
There is one picture of his in the Dominican church rally excited by injuries offered to others as well as to
at Antwerp, which Reubens uſed to call his maſter. It ourſelves; and was deſigned by the Author of nature
is ſaid of this painter, that he was ſo ſtrangely conten not only to excite us to act vigorouſly in defending
tious, that the pencil was no ſooner out
of his hand ourſelves from evil, but to intereſt us in the defence
but his ſword was in it. He died in 1609.
or reſcue of the injured and helpleſs, and to raiſe us
ANGELO (St) a ſmall but ſtrong town of Italy, above the fear of the proud and mighty oppreffor.
in the Capitanata. There are ſeveral other towns and Neither, therefore, is all anger linful : hence the
caſtles of the ſame name in Italy, and particularly the precept, “ Beye angry and fin not." -It becomes fin-
caſtle of St Angelo at Rome. E. Long. 15. 56. N. ful, however, and contradicts the rule of ſcripture,
when it is conceived upon flight and inadequate pro-
ANGELOS (Los), a province of Mexico, the an- vocations, and when it continues long. It is then con-
cient republic of Tlaſcala, of which a city called Tlaf- trary to the amiable ſpirit of charity, whiclı“ ſuffer-
cala was once the capital. That city is now reduced eth long, and is not caſily provoked.” Hence theſe
to an inconſiderable village, and has given place to
other precepts,
« Let every man be now to anger;
another called Puebla des los Angelos, or the city of and, « Let not the ſun go down upon your wrath.”
Angels. It is ſituated in W. Long. 103. 12. and Theſe precepts, and all reaſoning indeed upon the
N. Lat. 19. 13.
It was formerly an Indian town ; ſubject, ſuppoſe the paſſion of anger to be within our
but in 1530 was entirely abandoned by the natives, on power : and this power conſiſts not ſo much in any fa-
account of the crueltics of the Spaniards. A ſuc- culty we have of appeaſing our wrath at the time (for
ceeding viceroy of Mexico, by a milder treatment, we are paſſive under the ſmart which an injury or af-
recalled them; and the town is now exceedingly rich front occaſions, and all we can then do is to prevent
and populous, ſo as even to vie with Mexico itſelf in its breaking out into action), as in fo mollifying our
Lat. 41. 43
piinds
A N G
A N G
(
807 ]
part ii,
Anger. minds by habits of juſt reflcaion, as to be leſs irritated hardly feign to yourſelf an inſtance of more impíows Anger,
by impreſſions of injury, and to be ſooner pacified. an unnatural arrogance."
As reflections proper for this purpoſe, and which Phyſicians and naturalifis afford inſtances of very
may be called the ſedatives of anger, the following are extraordinary effects of this paſſion. Borrichius cured
ſuggeſted by Archdeacon Paley in his excellent treatiſe a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had baf-
• Book III. of Moral and Political Philoſophy* _“The poſſibility fled the art of phyſic, by putting the patient in a furi-
of miſtaking the motives from which the conduct that ous fit of anger. Valeriola made uſe of the ſame ineans,
chap 7
offends us proceeded; how often our offences have been with the like ſucceſs, in a quartan ague. The ſame
the effect of inadvertency,when they were miſtaken for paſion has been equally falutary to paralytic, gouty,
malice; the inducement which prompted our adverſary and even dumb perſons; to which laſt it has ſometimes
to act as he did, and how powerfully the ſame induce given the uſe of ſpeech. Etmuller gives divers inſtan-
ment has, at one time or other, operated upon our ces of very ſingular cures wrought by anger ; among
felves; that he is ſuffering perhaps under a contrition, others, he mentions a perſon laid up in the gout, who,
which he is aſhamed, or wants opportuuity, to con- being provoked by his phylician, flew upon him, and
feſs; and how ungenerous it is to triamph by coldneſs was cured. It is true, the remedy is ſomewhat dange-
or inſult over a fpirit already huinblcd in ſecret ; that rous in the application, when a patient does not know
the returns of kindneſs are ſweet, and that there is how to uſe it with moderation. We meet with ſeveral
neither honour, nor virtue, nor are, in relitting them inílances of princes to whom it has proved mortal; e.
-for ſome perſons think themſelves bound to cheriſh S. Valentinian the firſt, Wenceſlas, Matthius, Corvinus
and keep alive their indignation, when they find it dy- king of Hungary, and others. There are alſo inſtances
ing away of itſelf. We may remember that others have wherein it has produced the epilepſy, jaundice, cho-
their paſſions, their prejudices, their favorite aims, lera morbus, diarrhea, &c. In fact, this paflion is of
their fears, their cautions, their intereſts, their fud- ſuch a nature, that it quicklythrows the whole nervoas
den impulſes, their varieties of apprehenſion, as well ſyſtem into preternatural commotions, by a violent
as we: we may recolleet what hath ſometimes paffed in ftricture of the nervous and muſcular parts; and ſurpri-
our own minds, when we have got on the wrong fide fingly augments not only the ſyſtole of the heart and of
of a quarrel, and imagine the ſame to be paſſing in our its contiguous veffels, but alſo the tone of the fibroas
adverſary's mind now; when we became ſenlible of parts in the whole body. It is alſo certain, that eltis
our miſbehaviour, what palliations we perceived in it, paffion, by the ſpaſmodic ftri&ture it produces ir tħe
and expected others to perceive ; how we were atteet- parts, exerts its power principally on the ſtomach and
ed by the kindneſs, and felt the fuperiority, of a ge- inteſtines, which are highly nervous and membranous
nerous reception and ready forgiveneſs ; how perſecu- parts; whence the ſymptoms are more dangerous, in
tion revived our ſpirits with our enmity, and ſeemed proportion to the greater conſent of the fiomach and
to juſtify the conduct in ourſelves which we before inteſtines with the other nervous parts, and almoſt
blamed.' Add to this, the indecency of extravagant with the whole body.-The unhappy influence of an-
anger;
how it renders us, whilſt it laſts, the ſcorn and ger likewiſe, on the biliary and hepatic ducts, is very
ſport of all about us, of which it leaves us, when it ſurpriſing ; ſince, by an intenſe conſtriction of theſe,
ceaſes, ſenſible and aſhamed; the inconveniencies and the liver is not only rendered ſcirrhous, but ſtories alfo
irretrievable miſconduct into which our irraſcibility are often generated in the gall-bladder and biliary
has ſometimes betrayed us : the friendſhips it has loit duds: theſe accidents have ſcarce any other origin
us ; the diſtreſſes and embarraſiments in which we than an obſtruction of the free motion and eflux of the
have been involved by it, and the fore repentance bile, by means of this violent ſtricture. From ſuch a
which on one account or other it always coſt us. ſtricture of theſe ducts likewiſe proceeds the jaundice,
6 But the reflection calculated above all others to which in proceſs of tine lays a foundation for calculous
allay that haughtineſs of temper which is ever finding concretions in the gall-bladder. Laſtly, by increaſing
out provocation, and which renders anger ſo impetu- the motion of the fuit, or the ſpaſms of the fibrous
ous, is that which the goſpel propoſes ; namely, that parts, by means of anger, a larger quantity of blood
we ourſelves are, or ſhortly ſhall be, ſuppliants for mer is propelled with an impetus to certain parts ; whence
су and pardon at the judgment-feat of God. Imagine it happens that they are too much diſtended, and the
our ſecret fins all diſcloſed and brought to light; ima- orifices of the veins diſtributed there opened. It is
gine us thus humbled and expoſed; trembling under evident from experience, that anger has a great ten-
the hand of God; caſting ourſelves on his compaſſion; dency to excite enormons hæmorrhagies, either from
crying out for mercy-imagine fuch a creature to talk the noſe, the aperture of the pulmonary artery, the
of ſatisfaction and revenge, refuſing to be intreated, veins of the anus; or in women, from the uterus, eſ-
diſclaining to forgive, extreme to mark and to reſent pecially in thoſe previouſly accuſtomed and diſpoſed to
What is done amiſs: imagine, I ſay, this; and you can ſuch evacuations,
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
JAN; 1918
1
DIRECTIONS TOR PLACING THE PLATES OF VOL. I.
PART I.
(Part II. continued.)
T
Plate.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
Platc.
Page. XVI.
92 XVII.
200 XVIII.
208 | XIX.
228 XX.
272 1 XXI.
278 XXII.
280 XXIII.)
XXIV.
320
XXV.
338 | XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
Page.
640
652
656
702
704
704
706,
73%
}
753
&
PART II.
496 XXX.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
}
}
764
770
776
800
506 XXXI.
$38
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN ||
AUKOS UNU
SI-QUERIS.FERIASWANAMCENAM
3 9015 02396 8046
TS
11837
2
ARTES
SCIENTIA
3
LIBRARY
VERITAS
OF THE
TLEBOR
W
IRCUMSPICE
20W.10.0
V.WOUIWA
INIC
LHRITHI
>
THE GIFT OF
Hon. A.M. Todd
UNIT
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22
3
die
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: